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the White Sox thoughout the season.
The [[Chicago Cubs]] are the [[White Sox-Cubs rivalry|crosstown rivals]] of the White Sox, although the nature of the rivalry is unique; with the exception of the [[1906 World Series]], in which the White Sox upset the heavily favored Cubs, the teams never met in an official game until [[1997 in baseball|1997]], when interleague play was introduced. In the intervening time, the two teams sometimes met for exhibition games. While there are other major league cities and metropolitan areas in which two teams co-exist, all of the others feature at least one team which began playing there in [[1961 in baseball|1961]] or later, whereas the Sox and Cubs have been competing for their city's fans since [[1901 in sports|1901]]. Current popular perception is that the Cubs are, and always have been, the local favorites; however, the teams have actually competed fairly equally for local fans for much of their co-existence. Through 2005, the Cubs have drawn greater attendance 60 times, and the White Sox 45 times – but the difference is primarily a recent effect, as the White Sox have only outdrawn the Cubs twice since 1984 (1991-92, the first two years after the current ballpark opened). The Cubs' attendance advantage in the last two decades can largely be attributed to the fact that their games began being broadcast nationally on [[WGN-TV|WGN]] in 1978, creating a national following for the team and establishing [[Wrigley Field]] as a tourist destination, while the White Sox only returned to WGN in 1990 after a 22-year absence. (The [[Tribune Company]], parent company of WGN, purchased the Cubs in 1981. Additionally, far fewer Sox games were shown on WGN after their return to the station.) As Chicago's south side and suburbs are roughly equal in population to those on the north side, the ''local'' fan bases of the two teams may be similar in size.
Many Sox fans also attribute much of the current Cubs attendance advantage to long-standing animosity between Sox fans and the current team ownership, which has alienated the team's following with a long series of unpopular moves, beginning with the 1981 firing of beloved announcers [[Jimmy Piersall]] and [[Harry Caray]] for being too critical of the team; Caray was immediately hired by the Cubs, who embraced his personality rather than stifling it, and turned him into a national icon. While Cubs attendance in 1981 had fallen below 10,000 per game, in Caray's first season attendance per game almost doubled (even though the Cubs finished 16 games below .500), and in 1983 the team enjoyed the 7th-highest attendance in its history despite falling 20 games under .500; in 1984, the team drew 2 million fans for the first time, a mark it has failed to reach in only one full season since then. On the south side, in contrast, White Sox management's threats to move the team to [[Tampa Bay, Florida|Tampa Bay]] in the late 1980s, banishment of fan favorite [[Andy the Clown]] from the ballpark, and significant role in the [[1994 baseball strike|1994 strike]], all further demoralized the fan base. Roster moves, such as trading [[Harold Baines]] in 1989, the release of [[Carlton Fisk]] during a road trip one day after he broke the record for career games as a catcher, the notorious 1997 "White Flag" trade, and not re-signing [[Robin Ventura]] in 1998, also contributed to fan hostility, as did the introduction of a new ballpark which many observers found cold, unappealing and antiseptic.
==Quick facts==
:'''Founded:''' [[1893 in sports|1893]], as the [[Sioux City, Iowa]] franchise in the minor [[Western League (U.S. baseball)|Western League]]. Moved to [[St. Paul, Minnesota]] in [[1895 in sports|1895]], then to Chicago in [[1900 in sports|1900]] when that league was renamed the [[American League]], and which became a major league in [[1901 in sports|1901]].
:'''Formerly known as:''' Sioux City Cornhuskers, 1894. St. Paul Saints, 1895-1899. "White Sox" is short for "White Stockings".
:'''Home ballpark:''' The previous home field in St. Paul was [[Lexington Park]].
:'''Uniform colors:''' black, silver, and white
:'''Logo design:''' the letters "SOX", interlocked in various ways
:'''Fight Song:''' "[[Let's Go, Go-Go White Sox]]" by [[Captain Stubby and the Buccaneers]]
:'''All-time regular season record (through 2005)''': 8210 wins - 8020 losses - 101 ties - 3 no-decision
:'''Name in Spanish:''' ''Medias Blancas''
==[[Baseball Hall of Fame]]rs==
*[[Luis Aparicio]], SS, 1956-62, 1968-70
*[[Luke Appling]], SS, 1930-43, 1945-50
*[[Chief Bender]], P, 1925
*[[Steve Carlton]], P, 1986
*[[Eddie Collins]], 2B, 1915-26
*[[George Davis (baseball player)|George Davis]], SS 1902, 1904-09
*[[Larry Doby]], OF 1956-57, 1959; Manager, 1978
*[[Johnny Evers]], 2B, 1922
*[[Red Faber]], P, 1914-33
*[[Carlton Fisk]], C, 1981-93
*[[Nellie Fox]], 2B, 1950-63
*[[Clark Griffith]], P-Manager, 1901-02
*[[Harry Hooper]], OF, 1921-25
*[[George Kell]], 3B, 1954-56
*[[Ted Lyons]], P, 1923-42, 1946
*[[Edd Roush]], OF 1913
*[[Red Ruffing]], P 1947
*[[Ray Schalk]], C, 1912-28
*[[Tom Seaver]], P, 1984-86
*[[Al Simmons ]], OF, 1933-35
*[[Ed Walsh]], P, 1904-16
*[[Hoyt Wilhelm]], P, 1963-68
*[[Early Wynn]], P, 1958-62
==Current roster==
{{:Chicago White Sox roster}}
==Minor league affiliations==
* '''AAA:''' [[Charlotte Knights]], [[International League]]
* '''AA:''' [[Birmingham Barons]], [[Southern League]]
* '''Advanced A:''' [[Winston-Salem Warthogs]], [[Carolina League]]
* '''A:''' [[Kannapolis Intimidators]], [[South Atlantic League]]
* '''Rookie:''' [[Bristol White Sox|Bristol Sox]], [[Appalachian League]]
* '''Rookie:''' [[Great Falls White Sox]], [[Pioneer League]]
==See also==
*[[List of Chicago White Sox players and managers]]
*[[List of Chicago White Sox people]]
*[[List of Chicago White Sox award winners and league leaders|White Sox award winners and league leaders]]
*[[List of Chicago White Sox team records|White Sox statistical records and milestone achievements]]
*[[List of Major League Baseball franchise post-season droughts]]
*[[List of Chicago White Sox broadcasters|White Sox broadcasters and media]]
*[[List of Chicago White Sox managers and ownership|White Sox managers and ownership]]
*[[White Sox-Cubs rivalry]]
*[[Disco Demolition Night]] - a notoriously failed 1979 promotion
*[[2005 World Series]]
*[[1959 World Series]]
*[[1919 World Series]]
*[[1917 World Series]]
*[[1906 World Series]]
==External links==
===[[Major League Baseball|MLB]]-affiliated sites===
*[http://www.whitesox.com/ Chicago White Sox] - official site
*[http://whitesoxpride.mlblogs.com/ Inside the White Sox (MLBlogs)] - [[blog]] by Scott Reifert, team Vice President of Communications
*[http://www.baseballhalloffame.org/teams/AL/whitesox.htm National Baseball Hall of Fame: Chicago White Sox]
*[http://chicago.whitesox.mlb.com/NASApp/mlb/fan_forum/index.jsp?c_id=cws White Sox fan forum]
*[http://chicago.whitesox.mlb.com/NASApp/mlb/cws/history/index.jsp White Sox history]
*[http://chicago.whitesox.mlb.com/NASApp/mlb/news/index.jsp?c_id=cws White Sox news]
*[http://chicago.whitesox.mlb.com/NASApp/mlb/schedule/index.jsp?c_id=cws White Sox schedule]
===Independent and [[Fan (aficionado)|fan]] sites===
*[http://www.baseball-reference.com/teams/CHW/ Baseball-reference.com: Chicago White Sox team index] - year-by-year franchise index
*[http://www.all-baseball.com/exile/ Exile in Wrigleyville (all-baseball.com)] - Vince Galloro's blog
*[http://www.futuresox.com FutureSox.com] - White Sox [[minor league baseball|minor league]] news
*[http://whitesox.scout.com/ Scout.com] - fan message forums
*[http://www.southsiders.net SouthSiders.net] - online fan community
*[http://www.southsidesox.com South Side Sox] - The Cheat's blog
*[http://soxmachine.com/blogs/soxmachine/ Sox Machine] - Jim Margalus' blog
*[http://www.soxtalk.com Soxtalk.com] - fan message forums
*[http://www.athomeplate.com/whitesox/ The Sox Therapist] - Dr. Rob's blog
*[http://www.sportsecyclopedia.com/al/chisox/whitesox.html Sports E-Cyclopedia]
*[http://www.whitesoxinteractive.com White Sox Interactive (FlyingSock.com)] - online fan community
*[http://whitesox.mostvaluablenetwork.com/ Winning Ugly (Most Valuable Network)] - Blake Baumgartner and Mario Scalise's blog
{{MLB}}
[[Category:Chicago culture|White Sox]]
[[Category:Chicago White Sox|*]]
[[Category:Major League Baseball teams]]
[[da:Chicago White Sox]]
[[de:Chicago White Sox]]
[[fr:White Sox de Chicago]]
[[ja:シカゴ・ホワイトソックス]]
[[sv:Chicago White Sox]]
[[zh:芝加哥白襪]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Casuistry</title>
<id>5946</id>
<revision>
<id>37214773</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-29T14:31:18Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>83.108.181.174</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Casuistry''' (argument by cases) is an attempt to determine the correct response to a [[moral]] [[problem]], often a [[moral dilemma]], by drawing conclusions based on parallels with agreed responses to pure cases, also called [[paradigm]]s. Casuistry is a method of ethical [[case analysis]]. Used with a negative connotation, ''casuistry'' refers to reasoning that is specious or hair-splitting and seen as intentionally misleading.
Casuistry is a branch of [[applied ethics]].
Casuistry is the basis of [[case law]] in [[common law]].
It is the standard form of reasoning applied in [[common law]].
Casuistry takes a relentlessly practical approach to morality. Rather than applying theories, it examines cases. By drawing parallels between [[paradigm]]s, so called "pure cases," and the case at hand, a casuist tries to determine the correct response (not merely an evaluation) to a particular case. The selection of a paradigm case is justified by [[warrant]]s.
A particular strength of casuistry is its flexibility. When a legal fact (or "legal fiction") does not correspond |
evision>
<id>40640777</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-22T00:25:33Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>84.25.103.13</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Easter Eggs */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{lowercase|title=mIRC}}
{{Infobox_Software |
name = mIRC |
logo = [[Image:MIRC_logo.svg|40px]] |
screenshot = [[Image:MIRC_Screenshot.PNG|250px]] |
caption = Screenshot of mIRC |
developer = [[Khaled Mardam-Bey]] |
latest_release_version = 6.17 |
latest_release_date = [[February 17]], [[2006]] |
operating_system = [[Microsoft Windows]] |
genre = [[IRC client]] |
license = [[Proprietary software|Proprietary]] <br>|
website = [http://www.mirc.com In the US]<br>[http://www.mirc.co.uk/ In the UK]|
}}
'''mIRC''' is a [[shareware]] [[Internet Relay Chat]] [[Client (computing)|client]] for [[Microsoft Windows|Windows]], created in 1995 and developed by [[Khaled Mardam-Bey]]. This was originally its only use, but it has evolved into a highly configurable tool that can be used for many purposes due to its [[mIRC script|integrated scripting language]]. Other uses may include:
* [[IRC bot]] / channel management
* [[MP3]] music player
* [[Direct Client-to-Client|DCC]] (a [[peer-to-peer]] [[Internet Protocol|IP]]-based chat or file send), and IRC server
* Web page parser (usually for retrieving search results or headlines)
* Game platform (these games are called [[mIRC game]]s)
mIRC is highly popular, having been downloaded nearly eight million times from CNET's [http://www.download.com/ download.com] service as of August 2005. [http://www.internetnews.com/stats/article.php/3096631 Nielsen Net Rankings] also rated mIRC as among one of the top 10 most popular internet applications in 2003. Its popularity may explain why many mIRC users mistakenly believe that the name of their client is also the name of the protocol it uses, thinking they are "connecting to a mIRC server" or "joining a mIRC channel".
== Main features ==
* Advanced integrated [[event-driven programming|event-based]] and command-based scripting language
* Ability to connect to multiple servers simultaneously
* [[CTCP]] support
* [[Direct Client-to-Client|DCC]] file transfer and DCC chat support
* Protection against [[malware|malicious file]] downloads
* DCC file server (fserve) that allows a user to browse a specified folder and download files
* [[ANSI escape code|ANSI-style]] and mIRC-style text decoration support
* [[Speech recognition]] and synthesis via 3rd party products
* Support for [[UTF-8]] (For full support, "Multibyte editbox" must be enabled)
== Common criticisms ==
* mIRC scripting allows troublemakers to dupe naïve users into running [[malicious software|malicious code]] merely by typing things in the chat window (for example, entering lines beginning with '''//write $decode()'''). Since version 6.17 this is disabled by default, and various other commands considered dangerous can be locked in mIRC options.
* mIRC-style text decorations and colors are not part of the IRC standard, but because of the program's popularity, competing IRC clients have been forced to include them in their program, although support sometimes ranges only to dumping the formatting entirely.
* mIRC does not support native [[IPv6|IPV6]].
== ''Slap!'' function ==
A famous feature associated with mIRC even though it predates it is the ability to "slap" another user by right-clicking the target's nickname. This results in the line of text "A slaps B around a bit with a large [[trout]]". It serves no other function than to send the message, which is merely an execution of the "/action" ("/me") command in IRC. Such an action can warrant a kick or even a ban in many channels.
The sentence "A slaps B around a bit with a large [[trout]]" is thought to be a reference to [[Monty Python]]'s sketch [[The Fish-Slapping Dance]].
This function can be removed by editing mIRC's built-in script.
== mIRC Scripting ==
For novice users this function may be a bit overwhelming, but it is an ingenious addition to the program.
With [[mIRC script|mIRC Scripting]] (also referred to as "remote") you can make your client do specific tasks on specific events.
For instance: You can make your client answer "I'm here!" when someone writes your nick suffixed with a question mark; "yournick?", in either all, or just some specific channels.
Here's how you can do it for a specific channel:
Say your nick is "wiki"
and the channel you're in is "#wiki" (channels in IRC are prefixed with a hash sign)
<pre><nowiki>
on *:TEXT:*anyone saw wiki*:#wiki:{
msg $chan I'm here!
}
</nowiki></pre>
If you now change your nick without editing the script manually, the script will not work.
Fortunately mIRC provides several functions that makes this no problem at all.
To list some from the examples:
* '''$me''' (your current nick)
* '''$nick''' (the one who triggered your event)
* '''$chan''' (the channel the triggered event occurred in)
* '''$+''' (a function to concatenate two strings; "a $+ b" produces "ab")
* '''$1''' (the first token (word) in a sentence; "a b c d e" a = $1, b = $2, c = $3 etc)
<pre><nowiki>
on *:TEXT:*:#:{
if ($1 == $me $+ ?) {
msg $chan I'm here, $nick $+ !
}
}
</nowiki></pre>
Now mIRC's '''if/else''' operators are being used. These are logical operators that you find in most scripting/programming languages. In addition we use an asterisk instead of a specific string to indicate that the event shall trigger on ALL text.
<nowiki>#wiki</nowiki> has been changed with '#', this has the effect of triggering the event from ANY channel you're in, instead of just '#wikipedia'.
If you use an asterisk '*' instead of a hash sign '#' you'll allow the event to be triggered by queries as well.
To allow the event from triggering only by queries, you can use a question mark '?'.
So for queries:
<pre><nowiki>
on *:TEXT:*:?:{
if ($1 == $me $+ ?) {
msg $nick I'm here, $nick $+ !
}
}
</nowiki></pre>
But what if you want the event only to trigger in specific channels?
Then we'll use the logical AND operator '&&', and the logical OR operator '||'.
<pre><nowiki>
on *:TEXT:*:#:{
if ($1 == $me $+ ?) && ( ($chan == #wiki) || ($chan == #wiki.en) ) {
msg $chan I'm here, $nick $+ !
}
}
</nowiki></pre>
The extra parentheses are necessary to ensure that the logical AND operator "AND" the correct conditions.
The rest is hopefully self-explanatory.
If you want to know more about mIRC Scripting, all you have to do is download mIRC, and type "/help" in any window.
As an example, if you want to know more about '$1' function, type:
''/help $1''
For information regarding the events f.i the TEXT event:
''/help on text''
mIRC scripting is not limited to IRC related events and commands. There is also support for COM objects, calling DLLs, sockets and dialogs (for GUIs), amongst other things.
==Easter Eggs==
mIRC has many [[Easter egg (virtual)|eggs]] hidden inside the program, including:
* Clicking on Khaled's nose in the about dialog will play a squeaking sound, and right-clicking anywhere in the dialog will show a bouncing ball at the top of it.
* Typing "Arnie" in the about dialog will display a green stuffed dinosaur.
* Clicking the mIRC logo in the about dialog will swap it for the old logo, and clicking again will swap back
* Right-clicking the last button in the toolbar makes the button change
* Typing the command "/xyzzy" will echo "Nothing happens." in red.
==See also==
*[[List of IRC clients]]
*[[mIRC script]]
==External links==
*[http://www.mirc.co.uk/ Official website]
*[http://www.mirc.net mirc.net]
*[http://www.beirutscripts.net beirutscripts.net]
*[http://www.mircscripts.org/ mircscripts.org]
*[http://www.hawkee.com hawkee.com]
*[http://www.arune.se/~arune/mirc/ AntiUTF8-script for mIRC] (obsolete since mIRC 6.17)
*[http://www.acko.net/blog/utf-8-mirc UTF-8 conversion support for mIRC] (obsolete since mIRC 6.17)
*[http://www.team-clanx.org team-clanx.org]
*[http://users.skynet.be/jaguar/mircv6.html mircv6loader REAL IPV6 support for mIRC]
[[Category:IRC clients for Microsoft Windows]]
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[[it:MIRC]]
[[he:MIRC]]
[[lt:MIRC]]
[[hu:MIRC]]
[[ms:MIRC]]
[[nl:MIRC]]
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[[pl:MIRC]]
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[[tr:MIRC]]
[[zh:MIRC]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>X-Chat</title>
<id>14718</id>
<revision>
<id>41882967</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T09:44:45Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>217.18.142.154</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Windows Builds (GPL) */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Xchat.png|right|thumb|A typical X-Chat session on the [[Freenode]] [[Internet Relay Chat|IRC]] network showing an active [[conversation]] in the #Wikipedia channel as well as other channels in tabs along the bottom. The tabs for channels with unread conversations are red.]]
[[Image:Xchat-win.png|right|thumb|An X-Chat for Windows session on [[Freenode]] showing the common [[X Window System]]/[[Microsoft Windows]] [[GUI]] interface to X-Chat. The user list is on the right and unread conversation tabs are red.]]
'''X-Chat''', commonly written '''XChat''' or '''xchat''', is one of the most popular [[Internet relay chat|IRC]] [[Client_(computing)|client]]s for [[Unix-like]] systems. It is also available for [[Microsoft Windows]] and [[Mac OS X]] (via an offshoot of the project, called [[X-Chat Aqua]], which keeps in sync with the main development branch and is much more popular than the official version maintained by the [[Fink|Fink project]]). It has a choice |
fective ships being designed by the United Kingdom and Germany.
The threat evolved by [[World War I]] with the perfection of the [[submarine]]. In general, the submarine, or [[U-boat]], of the era was nothing more than a submersible torpedo boat. This change allowed the submarine to hide from the guns of the destroyers and close to firing while underwater. This led to an equally rapid destroyer evolution during the war, which was quickly equipped with [[depth charge]]s and [[sonar]] for countering this new threat.
At the end of the war the state of the art was represented by the British [[V and W class destroyer]].
==Inter-War==
[[Image:Fubuki.jpg|thumb|250px|Japan's ''[[Fubuki class destroyer|Fubuki]]'' destroyer (1928)]]
Destroyer construction continued during the inter-war period, initially with designs evolved from the British V & W Class. A major innovation came with the Japanese [[Fubuki class destroyers]] or special type of 1928, which introduced enclosed turrets capable of anti-aircraft fire and the 24-inch (60cm) oxygen fuelled [[Type 93 torpedo]]. Most other nations replied with similar larger ships, including the US [[Porter-class destroyer]] leader and the British [[Tribal class destroyer (1936)|''Afridi''-class destroyer]] (commonly called "Tribals")
Anti-submarine sensors included [[sonar]] or [[ASDIC]], although training in their use was indifferent. Anti-sub weapons changed little, and ahead-throwing weapons, a need recognized in WWI, had made no progress.
==World War II==
By [[World War II]] the threat had evolved once again. Submarines were more effective, and [[aircraft]] had become important weapons of naval warfare; once again the fleet destroyers were unequipped for combatting these new targets. They were re-equipped with new [[anti-aircraft]] guns, [[radar]], and [[ahead-throwing ASW]] weapons, in addition to their existing light guns, depth charges, and torpedoes. By this time the destroyers had become large multi-purpose vessels, expensive targets in their own right rather than expendable vessels for the protection of others. This led to the introduction of smaller and cheaper specialized anti-submarine warships by the [[Royal Navy]]: [[corvette]]s and later [[frigate]]s, while the US introduced [[destroyer escort]]s.
==Post War==
Some conventional destroyers were completed in the late 1940's and 1950's which built on wartime experience. These vessels were significantly larger than wartime ships and had fully automatic main guns, unit Machinery, radar, sonar, and antisubmarine weapons such as the Squid mortar. Examples include the British [[Daring class destroyer (1949)|''Daring''-class]], US [[Forrest Sherman class destroyer|''Forrest Sherman''-class]], and the Soviet [[kotlin class (project 56)|Kotlin-class]] destroyers.
Some World War II-vintage ships were modernised for anti-submarine warfrare, and to extend their service lives, to avoid having to build (expensive) brand-new ships. Examples include the US [[FRAM I]] programme and the British [[Type 15 frigate]]s converted from fleet destroyers.
==The Missile Age==
The advent of surface-to-air ([[Surface-to-air missile|SAM]]) missiles and surface-to-surface ([[Surface-to-surface_missile|SSM]]) missiles, such as the [[Exocet]], in the early 1960's changed naval warfare. Guided missile destroyers ([[DDG]] in the US Navy) were developed to carry these weapons and protect the fleet from air, submarine and surface threats. Examples include the Soviet [[Kashin class destroyer|Kashin-class]], the British [[County class destroyer|''County''-class]], and the American [[Charles F. Adams class destroyer|Charles F. Adams-class]].
==Modern destroyers==
[[Image:HMCS Algonquin (DDG 283).jpg|thumb|right|225px|[[HMCS Algonquin (DDH 283)|HMCS ''Algonquin'']], a Canadian [[Iroquois class destroyer|''Iroquois''-class]] destroyer]]
[[Image:HMS Manchester (D95) Type 42 destroyer.jpg|thumb|right|225px|HMS ''Manchester'' a [[Type 42]] destroyer of the Royal Navy]]
In the [[US Navy]], destroyers operate in support of [[carrier battle group]]s, surface action groups, amphibious groups and replenishment groups. The destroyers currently in use by the US Navy are the [[Arleigh Burke class destroyer|''Arleigh Burke''-class]]. Destroyers (with a DD [[hull classification symbol]]) primarily perform anti-submarine warfare duty while [[guided missile]] destroyers (DDGs) are multi-mission ([[anti-submarine]], [[anti-aircraft]], and anti-surface warfare) surface combatants. The relatively-recent addition of [[cruise missile]] launchers has greatly expanded the role of the destroyer in strike and land-attack warfare. As the expense of heavier surface combatants has generally removed them from the fleet, destroyer tonnage has grown (a modern [[Arleigh Burke class destroyer|''Arleigh Burke''-class]] destroyer has the same tonnage as a [[World War II]] [[light cruiser]]). ''Arleigh Burke'' is billed by her builders, the [[Bath Iron Works]], as ton-for-ton the most powerful warship in history.
[[Image:Destroyer Class Ships.jpg|left|Modern Destroyers]]
The Royal Navy currently operates 8 ships of the [[Type 42 destroyer|Type 42]] class.
The destroyers (as well as frigates) are, as always, the workhorses of the fleet, the former optimised for air defence and the latter for surface and subsurface warfare. They are equally at home in large task groups or on independent operations which may include sanctions enforcement, humanitarian relief or anti-drug patrols. British destroyers (of recent times) have an average displacement of around 5,000 tonnes, and are armed with a mixture of guns and missiles including 114 mm (4.5 inch) Mk 8 guns, [[Sea Dart]] Missiles, 20 mm Close range guns, Vulcan Phalanx close in weapons system (CIWS), anti submarine torpedo tubes.
The [[Canadian Forces Maritime Command|Canadian Navy]] currently operates the [[Iroquois class destroyer|''Iroquois''-class]] destroyers, a class of four [[helicopter]]-carrying, anti-aircraft, [[guided missile]] destroyers. Launched in the [[1970s]], the ''Iroquois'''s were the first all [[gas turbine]] powered military ships, using two turbines for cruise power, and another two fast starting "boost" turbines for speeds of up to 29 knots (such an arrangement is known as [[Combined gas or gas|COGOG]]). The design was a major inspiration for the US's later [[Spruance class destroyer|''Spruance''-class]] ships. They were originally fitted out for [[anti-submarine warfare]], but the entire class underwent major retrofits as a part of the Tribal Class Update and Modernization Program, or TRUMP, in the 1990s. These refits had the effect of re-purposing the ships for area air-defence, and the ships are now referred to as air-defence destroyers.
==Future destroyers==
The last US Navy [[Spruance class destroyer|''Spruance''-class destroyer]] in service, [[USS Cushing (DD-985)|USS ''Cushing'']], was decommissioned on [[September 21]] [[2005]]. The [[Zumwalt class destroyer|''Zumwalt''-class]] were planned to replace them; on [[November 1]], [[2001]], the US Navy announced the issuance of a revised Request for Proposal (RFP) for the Future Surface Combatant Program. Formerly known as DD 21, the program will now be called [[DD(X)]] to more accurately reflect the program purpose, which is to produce a family of advanced technology surface combatants, not a single ship class. DD(X) is no longer called ''Zumwalt''-class, and is much larger than traditional destroyers, being nearly three thousand tons heavier than a [[Ticonderoga class cruiser|''Ticonderoga''-class]] [[cruiser]]. It will potentially employ advanced weaponry and an all-electric [[Integrated Power System]]. With the retirement of the ''Spruance'' class, the Navy began commissioning an advanced variant of the ''Arleigh Burke'' class with expanded ASW capabilities, the ''Arleigh Burke'' Flight IIA, beginning with [[USS Oscar Austin (DDG-79)|USS ''Oscar Austin'']].
The current Royal Navy Type 42 destroyers are to be replaced by the new [[Type 45 destroyer|Type 45]] ''Daring''-class from 2006 onwards. A class of 8 ships is envisaged, with an entire programme budget of £6 billion. Displacing around 7,200 tons, they will be equipped with the UK variant of the [[PAAMS|Principal Anti-Air Missile System]] (PAAMS) and BAE [[SAMPSON]] radar. Design and construction of the first ships is split between [[BAE Systems]] and [[Vosper Thornycroft]] under the overall project management of BAE systems. The ships are assembled at [[Scotstoun]], by [[BAE Systems Naval Ships]]. HMS Daring, the first of her class, was christened by Sophie, Countess of Wessex, and launched on the Clyde on [[1 February]] [[2006]].
The $5.2 billion CADRE (Command & Control and Air-Defence Capability Replacement) project is meant to replace Canada’s [[Iroquois class destroyer|''Iroquois''-class]] destroyers whose primary role shifted to area air-defence after TRUMP refits in the 1990s. Although the area air-defence capability had not previously existed, the Canadian Navy now regards “wide area air defence” as part of Canada’s core naval capabilities. When the project began, Canadian Navy destroyers were expected to need replacing by 2005, they are now expected to serve until 2010. There was some work on a replacement design, known to Navy-watchers as the [[Province-class destroyer|''Province''-class]] destroyers, but this was confined largely to studies of a much-improved multi-function three dimensional [[phased array]] [[radar]] system being developed in conjunction with the Dutch and German navies, known as [[APAR]]. Current speculation is that the ships themselves would be similar to a "stretched" [[Halifax class frigate|''Halifax''-class]] frigate.
==See also==
* [[List of destroyer classes]]
* [[United States Navy 1975 ship reclassification]]
==Notes==
#{{note|1}} Although there are currently no active battleships in any navy the United States n |
rd Analysis]]'', that the concept of the infinitesimal was made rigorous, thus giving an alternative way of overcoming the difficulties which Berkeley discovered in Newton's original approach.
== See also ==
* ''[[Tlön, Uqbar, Orbis Tertius]]''
* [[List of people on stamps of Ireland]]
== Bibliography ==
Primary:
Ewald, William B., ed., 1996. ''From Kant to Hilbert: A Source Book in the Foundations of Mathematics'', 2 vols. Oxford Uni. Press.
*1707. ''Of Infinites'', 16-19.
*1709. ''Letter to Samuel Molyneaux'', 19-21.
*1721. ''De Motu'', 37-54.
*1734. ''The Analyst'', 60-92.
Secondary:
* {{A Short Biographical Dictionary of English Literature}}
* Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy: [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/berkeley/ George Berkeley] by Lisa Downing.
==External links==
{{Wikisourceauthor}}
* [http://www.georgeberkeley.org.uk A list of the published works by and about Berkeley as well as online links]
*{{gutenberg author|id=George_Berkeley|name=George Berkeley}}
* [http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/b/berkeley.htm Page in the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy]
* [http://www.bbc.co.uk/dna/h2g2/A3472986 Another perspective on how Berkeley framed his immaterialism]
* [http://www.maths.tcd.ie/pub/HistMath/People/Berkeley/Analyst/ Original texts and discussion concerning ''The Analyst'' controversy]
* [http://www-gap.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/Mathematicians/Berkeley.html Biography at the University of St Andrews]
* [http://home.iitk.ac.in/~cat/berkeleybiblio A bibliography on George Berkeley]
* [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/berkeley/ Entry on the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy]
* [http://www.earlymoderntexts.com/ READABLE versions of Principles of Human Knowledge and Three Dialogues]
[[Category:1685 births|Berkeley, George]]
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[[Category:18th century philosophers|Berkeley, George]]
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[[Category:Early modern philosophers|Berkeley, George]]
[[Category:Empiricists|Berkeley, George]]
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[[Category:Irish natural philosophers|Berkeley, George]]
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[[zh:乔治·贝克莱]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>George Edward Moore</title>
<id>11959</id>
<revision>
<id>41056730</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-24T19:55:08Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Oljimmy</username>
<id>930125</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''"G.E. Moore" redirects here. For the cofounder of Intel, see [[Gordon Moore]].''
{{Infobox_Philosopher |
<!-- Scroll down to edit this page -->
<!-- Philosopher Category -->
region = Western Philosophy |
era = [[19th-century philosophy]], |
color = #B0C4DE |
<!-- Image and Caption -->
image_name = GEMoore.jpg|
image_caption = George Edward Moore|
<!-- Information -->
name = George Edward Moore|
birth = [[November 4]], [[1873]] |
death = [[October 24]], [[1958]] |
school_tradition = [[Analytic philosophy]] |
main_interests = [[Ethics]], [[Philosophy of Language]], [[Epistemology]]|
influences = [[Gottlob Frege]], [[F. H. Bradley]], [[John McTaggart]]|
influenced = [[Bertrand Russell]] [[Ludwig Wittgenstein]], [[J. L. Austin]]|
notable_ideas = [[Naturalistic fallacy]], [[Moore's paradox]] |
}}
'''George Edward Moore''', also known as '''G.E. Moore''', ([[November 4]], [[1873]] &ndash; [[October 24]], [[1958]]) was a distinguished and hugely influential English [[philosopher]] who was educated and taught at the [[University of Cambridge]]. He was, with [[Bertrand Russell]], [[Ludwig Wittgenstein]], and (before them) [[Gottlob Frege]], one of the founders of the [[analytic philosophy|Analytic]] tradition in philosophy.
Moore is best known today for his defense of [[ethical non-naturalism]], his emphasis on [[common sense]] in philosophical method, and the [[Moore's paradox|paradox which bears his name]]. He was admired by and influential among other philosophers, but (unlike his friend and colleague Russell) mostly unknown today outside of academic philosophy. Moore's essays are known for his clear, circumspect writing style, and for his methodical and patient approach to philosophical problems. Among his most famous works are his book ''[http://fair-use.org/g-e-moore/principia-ethica Principia Ethica]'', and his essays, "The Refutation of Idealism", "[[A Defence of Common Sense]]", and "A Proof of the External World".
G.E. Moore died on [[October 24]], [[1958]] and was interred in the Burial Ground of Parish of the Ascension, [[Cambridge]], [[England]]. The poet [[Nicholas Moore]] and the composer Timothy Moore were his sons. His life was written by [[Paul Levy]], in ''Moore: G.E. Moore and the Cambridge Apostles'' (1979).
==Ethics==
Moore is also well-known for the so-called "[[open question argument]]," which is contained in his (also greatly influential) ''[http://fair-use.org/principia-ethica Principia Ethica].'' The ''Principia'' is one of the main inspirations of the movement against [[ethical naturalism]] (see [[ethical non-naturalism]]) and is partly responsible for the twentieth-century concern with [[meta-ethics]].
===The Naturalistic Fallacy===
Moore charged that most other philosophers who worked in ethics had made a mistake he called the "[[Naturalistic fallacy]]". The business of ethics, Moore agreed, is to discover the qualities that make things good. So, for example, [[hedonism|hedonists]] about value claim that the quality ''being pleasant'' is what makes things good; other theorists could claim that ''complexity'' is what makes things good. With this project Moore has no quarrel. What he objects to is the idea that, in telling us the qualities that make things good, ethical theorists have thereby given us an analysis of the term 'good' and the property ''goodness''. Moore regards this as a serious confusion. To take an example, a hedonist might be right to claim that something is good just in case it is pleasant. But this does not mean, Moore wants to insist, that we can define value in terms of pleasure. Telling us what qualities make things valuable is one thing; analyzing value is quite another.
===Open Question Argument===
{{main|Open Question Argument}}
Moore's argument for the indefinability of &#8220;good&#8221; (and thus for the fallaciousness of the &#8220;naturalistic fallacy&#8221;) is often called the [[Open Question Argument]]; it is presented in [http://fair-use.org/g-e-moore/principia-ethica/s.13 &sect;13 of ''Principia Ethica'']. The argument hinges on the nature of statements such as "Anything that is pleasant is also good" and the possibility of asking questions such as "Is it ''good'' that x is pleasant?" According to Moore, these questions are ''open'' and these statements are ''significant''; and they will remain so no matter what is substituted for "pleasure". Moore concludes from this that any analysis of value is bound to fail. In other words, if value could be analyzed, then such questions and statements would be trivial and obvious. Since they are anything but trivial and obvious, value must be indefinable. Critics of Moore's arguments sometimes claim that he is appealing to general puzzles concerning analysis (cf. the [[paradox of analysis]]), rather than revealing anything special about value. Other responses appeal to the [[Frege|Fregean]] distinction between [[sense and reference]], allowing that value concepts are special and ''sui generis'', but insisting that value properties are nothing but natural properties (this strategy is similar to that taken by [[physicalism|non-reductive materialists]] in [[philosophy of mind]]).
===Good as indefinable===
Moore contended that goodness cannot be analyzed in terms of any other property. In ''[http://fair-use.org/g-e-moore/principia-ethica Principia Ethica],'' he writes:
: It may be true that all things which are good are also something else, just as it is true that all things which are yellow produce a certain kind of vibration in the light. And it is a fact, that Ethics aims at discovering what are those other properties belonging to all things which are good. But far too many philosophers have thought that when they named those other properties they were actually defining good; that these properties, in fact, were simply not "other," but absolutely and entirely the same with goodness. ([http://fair-use.org/g-e-moore/principia-ethica/s.10#s10p3 &sect; 10 &para; 3])
Therefore, the only definition we can give of "good" is an [[Ostensive definition|ostensive]] one; that is, we can only point to an action or a thing and say "That is good." Similarly, we cannot describe to a blind man exactly what yellow is. We can only show a sighted man a piece of yellow paper or a yellow scrap of cloth and say "That is yellow."
===Good as a non-natural property===
In addition to categorizing "good" as indefinable, Moore |
yle="text-align:left; background:silver;" | [[Enoxacin]]
|-
| || style="text-align:left; background:silver;" | [[Gatifloxacin]]
|-
| || style="text-align:left; background:silver;" | [[Levofloxacin]]
|-
| || style="text-align:left; background:silver;" | [[Lomefloxacin]]
|-
| || style="text-align:left; background:silver;" | [[Moxifloxacin]]
|-
| || style="text-align:left; background:silver;" | [[Norfloxacin]]
|-
| || style="text-align:left; background:silver;" | [[Ofloxacin]]
|-
| || style="text-align:left; background:silver;" | [[Trovafloxacin]]
|-
!colspan="5" style="text-align:left; background:aqua;"| [[Sulfonamides]]
|-
| || style="text-align:left; background:silver;" | [[Mafenide]] || || rowspan="9" style="text-align:left; vertical-align:top; background:silver;" | Urinary tract infections (except sulfacetamide and mafenide); mafenide is used topically for burns|| rowspan="9" style="text-align:left; vertical-align:top;" | Nausea, vomiting, and diarrhoea<br />[[Allergy]] (including skin rashes)<br />Crystals in urine<br />Kidney failure<br />Decrease in [[white blood cell]] count<br />Sensitivity to sunlight
|-
| || style="text-align:left; background:silver;" | [[Prontosil]] (archaic)
|-
| || style="text-align:left; background:silver;" | [[Sulfacetamide]]
|-
| || style="text-align:left; background:silver;" | [[Sulfamethizole]]
|-
| || style="text-align:left; background:silver;" | [[Sulfanilimide]] (archaic)
|-
| || style="text-align:left; background:silver;" | [[Sulfasalazine]]
|-
| || style="text-align:left; background:silver;" | [[Sulfisoxazole]]
|-
| || style="text-align:left; background:silver;" | [[Trimethoprim]]
|-
| || style="text-align:left; background:silver;" | [[Trimethoprim]]-[[Sulfamethoxazole]] ([[Co-trimoxazole]]) ([[TMP-SMX]])
|-
!colspan="5" style="text-align:left; background:aqua;"| [[Tetracyclines]]
|-
| || style="text-align:left; background:silver;" | [[Demeclocycline]] || || rowspan="5" style="text-align:left; vertical-align:top; background:silver;" | [[Syphilis]], [[chlamydial infection]]s, [[Lyme disease]], [[mycoplasmal infection]]s, [[rickettsial infection]]s|| rowspan="5" style="text-align:left; vertical-align:top;" | Gastroitestinal upset<br />Sensitivity to sunlight<br />Staining of teeth<br />Potential toxicity to mother and foetus during pregnancy
|-
| || style="text-align:left; background:silver;" | [[Doxycycline]]
|-
| || style="text-align:left; background:silver;" | [[Minocycline]]
|-
| || style="text-align:left; background:silver;" | [[Oxytetracycline]]
|-
| || style="text-align:left; background:silver;" | [[Tetracycline]]
|-
!colspan="5" style="text-align:left; background:aqua;"| Others
|-
| || style="text-align:left; background:silver;" | [[Chloramphenicol]] || style="text-align:left;"| || style="text-align:left; background:silver;" | || ||
|-
| || style="text-align:left; background:silver;" | [[Clindamycin]] || style="text-align:left;"| || style="text-align:left; background:silver;" | || ||
|-
| || style="text-align:left; background:silver;" | [[Ethambutol]] || style="text-align:left;"| || style="text-align:left; background:silver;" | || ||
|-
| || style="text-align:left; background:silver;" | [[Fosfomycin]] || style="text-align:left;"| || style="text-align:left; background:silver;" | || ||
|-
| || style="text-align:left; background:silver;" | [[Furazolidone]] || style="text-align:left;"| || style="text-align:left; background:silver;" | || ||
|-
| || style="text-align:left; background:silver;" | [[Isoniazid]] || style="text-align:left;"| || style="text-align:left; background:silver;" | || ||
|-
| || style="text-align:left; background:silver;" | [[Linezolid]] || style="text-align:left;"| || style="text-align:left; background:silver;" | || ||
|-
| || style="text-align:left; background:silver;" | [[Metronidazole]] || style="text-align:left;"| || style="text-align:left; background:silver;" | || ||
|-
| || style="text-align:left; background:silver;" | [[Nitrofurantoin]] || style="text-align:left;"| || style="text-align:left; background:silver;" | || ||
|-
| || style="text-align:left; background:silver;" | [[Pyrazinamide]] || style="text-align:left;"| || style="text-align:left; background:silver;" | || ||
|-
| || style="text-align:left; background:silver;" | [[Quinupristin/Dalfopristin]] || style="text-align:left;"| || style="text-align:left; background:silver;" | || ||
|-
| || style="text-align:left; background:silver;" | [[Rifampin]] || style="text-align:left;"| || style="text-align:left; background:silver;" | || ||
|-
| || style="text-align:left; background:silver;" | [[Spectinomycin]] || style="text-align:left;"| || style="text-align:left; background:silver;" | || ||
|-
!style="text-align:left; background:aqua" | Class !!style="background:silver;" | Generic&nbsp;Name !!Brand&nbsp;Names !!style="background:silver" | Common&nbsp;Uses !!style="text-align:left" | Side&nbsp;Effects
|}
== Production ==
:''Main article: [[Production of antibiotics]]''
Since the first pioneering efforts of [[Howard Walter Florey|Florey]] and [[Ernst Boris Chain|Chain]] in 1939, the importance of antibiotics to [[medicine]] has led to much research into discovering and producing them. The process of production usually involves screening of wide ranges of microorganisms, testing and modification. Production is carried out using [[fermentation]].
== Side effects ==
Possible side effects are varied, and range from fever and nausea to major allergic reactions. One of the more common side effects is [[diarrhea|diarrhoea]], which results from the antibiotic disrupting the normal balance of intestinal flora. Other side effects can result from interaction with other drugs, such as elevated risk of [[tendon]] damage from administration of a [[Quinolones|quinolone]] antibiotic with a systemic [[corticosteroid]].
Some antibiotics can interfere with the efficacy of birth control pills. Such effects were found to be unusual, and have been studied only for a limited number of antibiotics.
== Antibiotic misuse ==
Common forms of antibiotic misuse include taking them in inappropriate situations, such as the use of antibacterials for viral infections such as the [[common cold]], and failure to take the entire prescribed course of the antibiotic, usually because the patient feels better before the infecting organism is completely eradicated. In addition to treatment failure, these practices can result in [[antibiotic resistance]] in the bacteria that survive the abbreviated treatment.
In the United States, vast quantities of certain antibiotics are routinely included as low doses in the diet of some kinds of healthy farm animals, where this practice has been proved to make animals grow faster. Opponents of this practice, however, point out the likelihood that it also leads to an environment conductive to the evolution of antibiotic resistance, frequently in bacteria that are known to also infect humans. There has been little or no evidence as yet of the evolution of antibiotic resistance in such bacteria actually occurring. As the majority of bacteria is killed in the pasteurization process applied to the milk, and the cooking of the meat of such animals, any possible resistance may go unnoticed until the bacteria survives it. Theoretically, though, there is a significant possibility that such resistances could be transferred through the bacterial plasmids. Excessive use of [[prophylaxis|prophylactic]] antibiotics in travellers may also be classified as misuse.
== Antibiotic resistance ==
:''Main article: [[Antibiotic resistance]]''
Use or misuse of antibiotics may result in the development of ''antibiotic resistance'' by the infecting organisms, similar to the development of [[pesticide resistance]] in insects. [[Evolutionary theory]] of [[selection|genetic selection]] requires that as close as possible to 100% of the infecting organisms be killed off to avoid selection of resistance; if a small subset of the population survives the treatment and is allowed to multiply, the average susceptibility of this new population to the compound will be much less than that of the original population, since they have descended from those few organisms which survived the original treatment. This survival often results from an inheritable resistance to the compound which was infrequent in the original population but is now much more frequent in the descendants thus selected entirely from those originally infrequent resistant organisms.
Antibiotic resistance has become a serious problem in both the developed and underdeveloped nations. By 1984 half of the people with active [[tuberculosis]] in the [[United States]] had a strain that resisted at least one antibiotic. In certain settings, such as hospitals and some child-care locations, the rate of [[antibiotic resistance]] is so high that the normal, low cost antibiotics are virtually useless for treatment of frequently seen infections. This leads to more frequent use of newer and more expensive compounds, which in |
d air-to-air missile in the West, with more than 110,000 missiles produced for the US and 27 other nations. It has been built under license by some nations (including Sweden, which builds it under the local designation '''Rb24'''). The AIM-9 is one of the oldest, least expensive and most successful air-to-air missiles.
It has been said that the design goals for the original Sidewinder were to produce a reliable and effective missile with the "electronic complexity of a table model radio and the mechanical complexity of a washing machine" -- goals which were well accomplished in the early missiles. The Sidewinder is so successful that the United States Navy hosted a 50th anniversary celebration of its existence in 2002.
== General characteristics (AIM-9L) ==
* '''Length''': 2.85 m (9 ft 4.2 in)
* '''Wingspan''': 630 mm (24.8 in)
* '''Diameter''': 127 mm (5 in)
* '''Launch weight''': 91 kg (190 lb)
* '''Speed''': [[Mach number|Mach 2.5]]
* '''Range''': 1-18 km (0.62-11.3 mi)
* '''Guidance''': [[infrared]] homing
* '''Warhead''': 9.4 kg (20.8 lb) annular blast-fragmentation
* '''Contractor''': [[Raytheon Corporation]]; [[Ford Aerospace]]; [[Loral Corp.]]
* '''Unit cost''': $84,000 US
==See also==
*[[Chaparral (missile)|Chaparral]], a [[surface-to-air missile]] system using the AIM-9
*[[MBDA MICA]]
*[[R550 Magic]]
*[[IRIS-T]]
*[[ASRAAM]]
*[[AGM-122 Sidearm]]
*[[AIM-7 Sparrow]]
*[[AIM-54 Phoenix]]
*[[AIM-120 AMRAAM]]
*[[Vympel K-13]]
*[[List of missiles]]
==References==
* Babcock, Elizabeth (1999). ''Sidewinder &ndash; Invention and Early Years.'' The China Lake Museum Foundation. 26 pp. A concise record of the development of the original Sidewinder version and the central people involved in its design.
==External links==
*[http://www.designation-systems.net/dusrm/m-9.html Designation Systems]
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</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>AIM-7 Sparrow</title>
<id>3146</id>
<revision>
<id>40428101</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-20T13:49:17Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Los688</username>
<id>294540</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* See also */ ｃｈ ja</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:RIM-7 Sea Sparrow.jpg|thumb|300px|A RIM-7 Sea Sparrow being launched from the [[USS Essex (LHD-2)|USS ''Essex'' (LHD-2)]].]]
The '''AIM-7 Sparrow''' is a medium-range [[semi-active radar homing]] [[air-to-air missile]] operated by the [[United States Air Force]], [[US Navy]], and [[USMC]] as well as various allied air forces. Sparrow and its derivatives were the West's principal beyond visual range (BVR) air-to-air missile from the late [[1950s]] until the [[1990s]]. It remains in service, although it is being phased out in favor of the more advanced [[AIM-120 AMRAAM]]. Its primary carrier aircraft is the [[F-14 Tomcat]], which is being phased out and therefore has not been modified to carry the AMRAAM.
The Sparrow was used as the basis for a [[surface-to-air missile]], the '''RIM-7 Sea Sparrow''', which is used by the [[US Navy]] for air defense of its ships.
==Development==
====Sparrow I====
The Sparrow emerged from a late-[[1940s]] [[US Navy]] program to develop a guided rocket weapon for air-to-air use. In [[1947 in aviation|1947]] the Navy contracted [[Sperry]] to build a [[beam-riding]] version of a standard 5-inch (127 mm) [[HVAR]], the standard unguided aerial rocket, under '''Project Hotshot'''. The weapon was initially dubbed '''KAS-1''', then '''AAM-2''', and, from [[1948 in aviation|1948]] on, '''AAM-N-2'''. The airframe was developed by [[Douglas Aircraft]]. The diameter of the HVAR proved to be inadequate for the electronics, leading Douglas to expand the missile's airframe to 8 in (203 mm) diameter. The prototype weapon made its first aerial interception in [[1952 in aviation|1952]].
After a protracted development cycle the initial '''AAM-N-2 ''Sparrow''''' entered service in [[1956 in aviation|1956]], carried by the [[F3H Demon|F3H-2M Demon]] and [[F7U Cutlass]] [[fighter aircraft]]. Compared to the modern versions, the Sparrow I was more [[streamlined]] and featured a bullet-shaped airframe with a long pointed nose.
Sparrow I was a limited and rather primitive weapon. The limitations of beam-riding guidance (which was slaved to an optical sight, requiring visual identification of the target) restricted the missile to visual-range attacks and made it essentially useless against a maneuvering target. Only about 2,000 rounds were produced to this standard.
====Sparrow II====
As early as [[1950]] Douglas examined equipping the Sparrow with an active radar seeker, initially known as '''XAAM-N-2a ''Sparrow II''''', the original retroactively becoming '''''Sparrow I'''''. In 1952 it was given the new code '''AAM-N-3'''.
By 1955 Douglas proposed going ahead with development, intending it to be the primary weapon for the [[F5D Skylancer]] [[interceptor aircraft|interceptor]], and later the [[Avro Arrow]] to be built under license by [[Canadair]]. However the small size of the missile forebody and the K-band AN/APQ-64 radar limited performance, and it was never able to work in testing.
The program was cancelled in 1958, and although there was some discussion of Canadair taking over the work, when the Arrow was cancelled all work ended.
====Sparrow III====
Concurrently, in [[1951 in aviation|1951]], [[Raytheon]] began work on the [[semi-active radar homing]] version of Sparrow family of missiles, the '''AAM-N-6 ''Sparrow III'''''. The first of these weapons entered [[US Navy]] service in [[1958 in aviation|1958]].
The '''AAM-N-6a''' was similar to the -6, but used a new [[Thiokol]] liquid-fuel rocket engine for improved performance. It also included changes to the guidance electronics to make it effective at higher closing speeds. The -6a was also selected to arm the Air Force's '''F-110A ''Spectre''''' ([[F-4 Phantom]]) fighters in 1962, known to them as the '''AIM-101'''. It entered production in 1959, eventually being built to about 7500 examples.
Another upgrade switched back to a Rocketdyne solid-fuel motor for the '''AAM-N-6b''', which started production in 1963. The new motor significantly increased range, which was up to 35 km for head-on attacks.
During this year the Navy and Air Force agreed on a standardized naming for their missiles, the Sparrows becoming the AIM-7 series. The original Sparrow I and aborted Sparrow II became the '''AIM-7A''' and '''AIM-7B''', even though both were long gone from the inventory. The -6, -6a and -6B became the '''AIM-7C''', '''AIM-7D''' and '''AIM-7E''' respectively.
25,000 AIM-7E's were produced, and saw extensive use during the [[Vietnam War]], where its performance was generally considered disappointing. The mixed results were a combination of reliability problems (exacerbated by the tropical climate), limited pilot training in fighter-to-fighter combat, and restrictive rules of engagement that generally prohibited BVR (beyond visual range) engagements. The P<small><sub>k</sub></small> (kill probability) of the AIM-7E was less than 10%.
In 1969 an improved version, the E-2, was introduced with clipped wings and various changes to the fusing. It was intended to be used at shorter ranges where the missile was still travelling at high speeds, making it much more useful in the visual limitations imposed on the engagements. An E-3 included additional changes to the fusing, and an E-4 featured a modified seeker for use with the [[F-14 Tomcat]].
Improved versions of the AIM-7 were developed in the [[1970s]] in an attempt to address the weapon's limitations. The '''AIM-7F''', which entered service in [[1976 in aviation|1976]], had a dual-stage rocket motor for longer range, [[solid-state electronics]] for greatly improved reliability, and a larger warhead. Even this version had room for improvement, leading [[British Aerospace]] and the Italian firm [[Selenia]] to develop advanced versions of Sparrow with better performance and improved electronics as the '''[[Skyflash]]''' and '''Selenia Aspide''', respectively.
The most common version of the Sparrow today, the '''AIM-7M''', featured a new inverse monopulse seeker (matching the capabilities of Skyflash), active radar fuse, digital controls, improved [[ECM]] resistance, and better low-altitude performance, entered service in [[1982 in aviation|1982]]. It was used to good advantage in the [[1991 Gulf War]], where it scored many USAF air-to-air kills.
The '''AIM-7P''' is similar in most ways to the M versions, and was primarily an upgrade program for existing M-series missiles. The main changes were to the software, improving low-level performance. A follow-on Block II upgrade added a new rear receiver allowing the missile to receive mid-course correction from the launching aircraft. Plans initially called for all M versions to be upgraded, but currently P's are being issued as required to replace M's lost or removed from the inventory.
The final version of the missile was to have been the '''AIM-7R''', which added an [[infra-red]] seeker to an otherwise unchanged AIM-7P Block II. A general wind-down of the budget led to it being cancelled in 1997.
Sparrow is now being phased out with the availability of the active-radar [[AIM-120 AMRAAM]], but is likely to remain in service for a number of years.
====Sea Sparrow====
Sea Sparrow was dev |
on corrected these problems. By adding a [[CRTC6845]] to the package, a full hardware solution was created that did not reduce CPU performance and only used 1 kB of memory for the display. A software ROM was still supplied, but this did no more than expand the hardware ROM so that it knew mode 7 now existed and was able to switch into it.
==Technical information==
===Hardware===
*[[central processing unit|CPU]]: [[MOS Technology]] [[MOS Technology 6502|6502A]]
*Clock rate: variable. CPU runs at 2 [[megahertz|MHz]] when accessing ROM and 1 [[megahertz|MHz]] or 0.5897 [[megahertz|MHz]] (depending on graphics mode) when accessing RAM due to sharing memory access with the video display circuits. The Electron is widely misquoted as operating at 1.79 [[megahertz|MHz]] after measurements derived from speed testing against the thoroughly 2 [[megahertz|MHz]] BBC Micro for various pieces of 'common software'
*Coprocessor: Custom ULA
*[[random-access memory|RAM]]: 32 [[kilobyte|kB]]
*[[read-only memory|ROM]]: 32 [[kilobyte|kB]]
*Text modes: 20&times;32, 40&times;25, 40&times;32, 80&times;25, 80&times;32 (all text output produced by software in graphics modes)
*Graphics modes: 160&times;256 (4 or 16 colours), 320&times;256 (2 or 4 colours), 640&times;256 (2 colours), 320&times;200 (2 colours - spaced display with two blank horizontal lines following every 8 pixel lines), 640&times;200(2 colours - spaced display)
*Colours: 8 colours (TTL combinations of RGB primaries) + 8 flashing versions of the same colours
*Sound: 1 channel of sound, 7 octaves; built-in speaker. Software emulation of noise channel supported
*Dimensions: 16&times;34&times;6.5 [[centimetre|cm]]
*I/O ports: Expansion port, tape recorder connector (1200 [[baud]] variation on the [[Kansas City standard]] for data encoding), aerial TV connector ([[RF modulator]]), [[RGB]] video monitor output
*Power supply: External PSU, 18[[volt|V]]
===Quirks===
Like the [[BBC Micro]], the Electron was constrained by its very limited memory resources. The largest display modes used 20 kB for the frame buffer whereas the machine only had 32 kB in total. For this reason it was very common that games would not use the entire display, but would use some of the area to which the display was mapped for storage of other game data. If games were happy to be constrained to the lower 156 scanlines of the display, this could be done invisibly to the user and such use was common. Often though, games would play with visible on screen regions of apparently random colours.
===Tricks===
Two notable hardware 'tricks' have been discovered on the Electron hardware - the first switches between modes with blank lines and modes without part way through the display to produce a smooth vertical scroll as in ''Firetrack''. The basic idea is that the blank lines added in modes 3 and 6 create padding at the top of the display so that if a mode without padding is switched to part way through the display then the display position of graphics stored at specific video addresses is shifted downward in multiples of 2 scanlines.
The second 'trick' turns the one channel output into a digital speaker for [[Pulse-code modulation|PCM]] output as in ''[[Exile (BBC computer game)|Exile]]''. The speaker is attached to a hardware counter and is normally only able to output square tone at a specified frequency, but it can also be disabled completely. By setting the speaker to a frequency outside of the human audible range only the difference between speaker enabled and speaker disabled can be made out, seeming to produce a movement in audio wave terms from a high level to a low level. This gives the effect of a simple toggle speaker similar to that seen in the [[ZX Spectrum]] prior to the addition of a full sound chip in the 128 kB models and can be used to output 1bit audio samples.
However, as the Electron internals bear very little resemblance to the BBC Micro most games use [[firmware]] routines for hardware dependant actions such as selecting a particular graphics mode and as a result full hardware exploitation is substantially less common on the Electron than other popular micros.
==Popular games==
A good range of games were available for the Electron from publishers such as [[Acornsoft]] and [[Superior Software]], notably including:
*[[Elite (computer game)|Elite]]
*[[Chuckie Egg]]
*[[Repton (computer game)|The Repton series]]
*[[Exile (BBC computer game)|Exile]]
*[[Starship Command]]
*[[Thrust (computer game)|Thrust]]
See also the [[List of Acorn Electron games|list of Acorn Electron games]] for a fairly comprehensive list of every game published for the machine and [[:Category:BBC Micro and Acorn Electron games]] for a list of games with information on Wikipedia.
===Screenshots===
{| class="toccolours" border="1" cellpadding="1" style="border-collapse:collapse"
|-
|[[Image:ThrustElectron.png|160px|Screenshot from "Thrust"]]
|[[Image:ElectronChuckieEgg.png|160px|Screenshot from "Chuckie Egg"]]
|[[Image:Repton2Electron.png|160px|Screenshot from "Repton 2"]]
|[[Image:Electron Holed Out.png|160px|Screenshot from "Holed Out"]]
|-bgcolor="#dcdcdc"
|''[[Thrust (computer game)|Thrust]]''
|''[[Chuckie Egg]]''
|''[[Repton (computer game)|Repton 2]]''
|''Holed Out''
|-bgcolor="#ececec"
|[[Superior Software]]
|A&F ([[1984]])
|[[Superior Software]]
|[[4th Dimension (software label)|4th Dimension]]
|-
|[[Image:ElectronCitadel.png|160px|Screenshot from "Citadel"]]
|[[Image:ExileElectron.png|160px|Screenshot from "Exile"]]
|[[Image:ElectronPaperboy.png|160px|Screenshot from "Paperboy"]]
|[[Image:Acorn Electron Elite.png|160px|Screenshot from "Elite"]]
|-bgcolor="#dcdcdc"
|''[[Citadel (computer game)|Citadel]]''
|''[[Exile (BBC computer game)|Exile]]''
|''[[Paperboy]]''
|''[[Elite (computer game)|Elite]]''
|-bgcolor="#ececec"
|[[Superior Software]]
|[[Superior Software]]
|[[Elite Systems|Elite]] ([[1986]])
|[[Acornsoft]]
|-
|[[Image:Acorn Electron Arcadians screenshot.png|160px|Screenshot from "Arcadians"]]
|[[Image:Acorn Electron Impossible Mission screenshot.png|160px|Screenshot from "Impossible Mission"]]
|[[Image:Acorn Electron Inertia screenshot.png|160px|Screenshot from "Inertia"]]
|[[Image:Acorn Electron Joe Blade screenshot.png|160px|Screenshot from "Joe Blade"]]
|-bgcolor="#dcdcdc"
|''[[Acornsoft Arcadians|Arcadians]]''
|''[[Impossible Mission]]''
|''Inertia''
|''Joe Blade''
|-bgcolor="#ececec"
|[[Acornsoft]]
|[[US Gold]]/[[Epyx]]
|[[4th Dimension (software label)|4th Dimension]]
|Players
|}
==Emulation==
Two emulators of the machine exist, [[ElectrEm]] ([http://electrem.emuunlim.com]) for [[Microsoft Windows|Windows]]/[[Linux]]/[[Mac OS X]] and [[Elkulator]] ([http://elkulator.acornelectron.co.uk]) for [[Microsoft Windows|Windows]]/[[DOS]]. Electron software is predominently archived in the [[UEF (file format)|UEF]] [[file format]].
==External links==
*[http://www.stairwaytohell.com Stairway To Hell]
*[http://www.acornpreservation.org/ The Acorn Preservation Project]
*[http://www.acornelectron.co.uk/ Acorn Electron World]
<!-- *[http://www.aqtion.nl/dethmer A scan of the Elektuur article describing a simple speed increasing modification to the Electron hardware]
(removed: doesn't seem to be any such thing (?)) -->
{{Acorn_computers}}
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<page>
<title>Autumn equinox</title>
<id>2079</id>
<revision>
<id>15900523</id>
<timestamp>2002-11-04T17:01:58Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Malcolm Farmer</username>
<id>135</id>
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<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Autumnal equinox]]</text>
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<page>
<title>A Fire Upon the Deep</title>
<id>2080</id>
<revision>
<id>39891254</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-16T16:39:49Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Tamfang</username>
<id>609725</id>
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<minor />
<comment>/* Trivia */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''''A Fire Upon the Deep''''' ([[1992]]) is a [[science fiction]] [[novel]] written by [[Vernor Vinge]]. It combines superhuman intelligences, well-developed and believable [[Extraterrestrial life|aliens]], variable physics, space battles, love, betrayal, genocide, [[Usenet]], and more into an exceptional [[space opera]]. ''A Fire Upon the Deep'' won the [[Hugo Award for Best Novel|Hugo Award]] in [[1993]] (tied with ''Doomsday Book'' by [[Connie Willis]]).
Besides the normal print editions, the novel was included on a [[CD-ROM]] sold by [[ClariNet Communications]] along with the other nominees for the 1993 Hugo awards. The CD-ROM edition included numerous annotations by the author that reveal his thoughts and intentions about different parts of the book.
{{spoiler}}
Vinge has been deeply concerned about the [[technological singularity]] which makes writing comprehensible and realistic high-tech SF novels nearly impossible. To sidestep the issue, he postulates that the galaxy is divided up into "zones of thought," where near the center of the galaxy, only simple machines and animal-like intelligences are possible; ranging out to the outer edges of the galaxy, where superhuman intelligences, [[nanotechnology]], and faster-than-light ([[FTL]]) travel are possible. In other words, the laws of physics vary according to location.
* ''The Unthinking Depths'' is the lowest level, centered about the galactic core. Organic or machine intelligences of even the simplest level can't function well, if at all. Space travel is nearly impossible, basically requ |
, say, monogamy may be normal or preferred in one culture, but polygamy may be normal or preferred in another. The point is that different cultures believe different things or value different things or even mean different things with perhaps identical-looking behaviors or objects.
When you go to another culture, or even just interact with another culture (for example, when you are doing international business), you cannot assume that other people understand things the same way you do. In fact, you should assume that they don't! Anthropology counsels against hasty judgement of a new culture: aspects that a Western visitor may find strange or distasteful can be understood when situated within that culture's history and cosmology (understanding of the world). There will be a rationality for the phenomenon; it may be 'rational', however, according to a cultural logic that conflicts with Western understandings. Malinowski's primacy of seeking to understand "the native point of view" remains fundamental to socio-cultural anthropology today.
The point is that, if we want to understand other people properly, we must see what their behaviors or words or concepts mean to them, not what they would mean to us. Meaning is relative to the culture that creates that meaning. This is not to say that all things are true or even that all things are good - cultural relativism does not necessarily entail moral relativism. Indeed, the American Anthropological Association's qualified support (1948; 1997) for the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, as well as work by Sally Engle Merry, shows the latter is not a common anthropological point of view.
How does anthropology study culture?
One other way that anthropology is unique among the sciences that study humans is by its emphasis on 'fieldwork' You cannot get to know another culture just by reading about it or watching movies about it. At best, you could learn what other people have already discovered, but you could not learn anything new. So anthropology requires actually going to that society and living within their culture as much as possible. This is called [[Participant observation|participant observation]]. This depends crucially on finding (preferrably friendly) informants within the society, who will teach you their culture's rules of social behaviour, and include you in their activities. Then, as much as possible, you will try to eat their food, speak their language, and live their lives, often actually residing with a family in that society. It is not easy work, and it is not always fun, but there is no better way to learn.
==Anthropological fields and subfields==
*[[Biological anthropology]] (also [[Physical anthropology]])
**[[Forensic anthropology]]
**[[Paleoethnobotany]]
*[[Cultural anthropology]] (also [[Social anthropology]])
**[[Anthropology of art]]
**[[Applied anthropology]]
**[[Cross-Cultural Studies]]
**[[Cyber anthropology]]
**[[Development anthropology]]
**[[Dual inheritance theory]]
**[[Environmental anthropology]]
**[[Economic anthropology]]
**[[Ecological anthropology]]
**[[Ethnography]]
**[[Ethnomusicology]]
**[[Feminist anthropology]]
**[[Gender]]
**[[Human behavioral ecology]]
**[[Medical anthropology]]
**[[Psychological anthropology]]
**[[Political anthropology]]
**[[Anthropology of religion]]
**[[Public anthropology]]
**[[Urban anthropology]]
**[[Visual anthropology]]
*[[Anthropological linguistics|Linguistic anthropology]]
**[[Descriptive linguistics|Synchronic linguistics]] (or Descriptive linguistics)
**[[Diachronic linguistics]] (or [[Historical linguistics]])
**[[Ethnolinguistics]]
**[[Sociolinguistics]]
*[[Archaeology]]
==External links==
*[http://www.aaanet.org/ The American Anthropological Association Homepage] - the webpage of the largest professional organization of anthropologists in the world.
*[http://www.worldcatlibraries.org/wcpa/ow/09dbb3346fc1c2a4.html Race] - a book by John Randal Baker discussing the origins of racial classification and oppositions to the concept.
*[http://www.antropologi.info Anthropology.Info]
*[http://www.thenation.com/doc.mhtml?i=20001120&c=2&s=price Anthropologists as Spies] - an article by David Price examining the relationship between American Anthropology and US intelligence services.
*[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/education/4603271.stm Pat Roberts Intelligence Program] - a BBC article on the program
*[http://www.antropologi.info/blog/anthropology Social and Cultural Anthropology in the News] - (nearly) daily updated blog
*[http://www.anthrobase.com Anthrobase.com] - Collection of anthropological texts
*[http://www.cybercultura.it Cybercultura] - Collection of web resources about anthropology of cyberspace (in Italian)
*[http://www.anthropology.net Anthropology.net] - A community orientated anthropology web portal with user run blogs, forums, tags, and a wiki.
*[http://sscl.berkeley.edu/~afaweb/reviews/index.html Association for Feminist Anthropology]
==See also==
* [[List of anthropologists]]
* [[List of publications in biology#Anthropology|Important publications in anthropology]]
<!--What are our priorities for writing in this area? To help develop a list of the most basic topics in Anthropology, please refer to [[Anthropology basic topics]].-->
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<title>Archaeology</title>
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<timestamp>2006-03-02T17:45:33Z</timestamp>
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<comment>Revert to revision 41925705 using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{portal}}'''Archaeology''' or '''archeology''' (from the [[Greek language|Greek]] words ''αρχαίος'' = ancient and ''λόγος'' = word/speech/discourse) is the study of [[Homo (genus)|human]] [[culture]]s through the recovery, documentation and analysis of material remains and environmental data, including [[architecture]], [[Artifact (archaeology)|artifact]]s, [[biofact]]s, human remains, and [[landscape]]s.
The goals of archaeology are to document and explain the origins and development of human [[culture]], understand [[culture history]], chronicle [[cultural evolution]], and study human [[behavior]] and [[ecology]], for both [[prehistory|prehistoric]] and [[history|historic]] societies. It is considered to be one of the four sub-fields of [[anthropology]].
==Usage==
As with words such as [[encyclopedia]] and [[gynaecology]], archaeology traditionally has an ''ae'' combination; however, unlike other words, the ''ae'' is all but universally retained. Contrary to popular belief in other parts of the world, the spelling ''archeology'' is not predominant in [[United States]] [[dictionary|dictionaries]] and would look quite odd to most Americans. Like the claim that ''theater'' refers to a building and ''[[theatre]]'' refers to the [[performing arts]], the belief that ''archeology'' is an [[Americanism]] is little more than an [[urban myth]]. The traditional spelling, ''archaeology'', continues to be used in everyday writing throughout the world, including the U.S., even more so than theatre (the alternate spelling of which, while considered acceptable, is preferred less often than not).
==Ontology and definition==
In the [[Old World]], archaeology has tended to focus on the study of physical remains, the methods used in recovering them and the theoretical and philosophical underpinnings in achieving the subject's goals. The discipline's roots in [[antiquarian]]ism and the study of [[Latin]] and [[Ancient Greek]] provided it with a natural affinity with the field of [[history]]. In the [[New World]], archaeology is more commonly devoted to the study of human [[society|societies]] and is treated as one of the four subfields of [[Anthropology]]. The other subfields of [[anthropology]] supplement the findings of archaeology in a holistic manner. These subfields are [[cultural anthropology]], which studies behavioural, symbolic, and material dimensions of culture; [[linguistics]], which studies language, including the origins of language and language groups; and [[physical anthropology]], which includes the study of human evolution and physical and [[genetics|genetic]] characteristics. Other disciplines also supplement archaeology, such as [[paleontology]], [[paleozoology]], [[paleoethnobotany]], [[paleobotany]], [[geography]], [[geology]], [[art history]], and [[classics]].
Archaeology has been described as a [[craft]] that enlists the [[science|sciences]] to illuminate the [[humanities]]. Writing in 1948, the American archaeologist [[Walter Taylo |
f Ferdinand I's domains. Alfonso was an impressive leader as well, and did much to improve his realm to become one of Christian Europe's foremost monarchies, tolerating Muslims to an extent remarkable for his time. During his reign, [[El Cid]], the [[11th century]] hero of Spain's epic poem was banished and found refuge with the Muslim king of [[Zaragoza]]. With the collapse of the caliphate of Córdoba, Al-Andalus had broken apart into a number of small, warring domains, which contributed to the success of Alfonso's southward expansionist drive of the Christian kingdoms, culminating with the conquest of [[Toledo, Spain|Toledo]] in [[1085]]. After the invasion of the Almoravides, his progress was checked.
On the death of [[Alfonso VII of Castile|Alfonso VII]], León and Castile were again divided, although the division was not permanent: [[Alfonso IX of León|Alfonso IX]]'s son [[Ferdinand III of Castile|Ferdinand]] by [[Berenguela of Castile]], united the two realms on his accession to Leon in [[1230]]. Called the [[Saint]], Ferdinand fought for most of his reign against the Moors in the south. The reconquest of Spain had been declared a [[crusade]] at the turn of the 13th century, but when all lands but Granada had been conquered, most of its energy was spent. Ferdinand's reign was the beginning of Spain's prominence in European affairs, ending the diplomatic isolation brought on by his father's clashes with the [[Pope]] over his marriages. The [[University of Salamanca]] - one of Europe's oldest - was built during his reign and spawned an early Christian school of thought in [[economics]]. Ferdanado's successor, [[Alfonso X of Castile|Alfonso X the Learned]], helped to reintroduce classical thought to Europe from the Moorish libraries and universities. Succeeding monarchs, allied to the Kingdom of [[Aragón]], succeeded in driving the Muslims further south, capturing [[Gibraltar]] in [[1309]]. The despotic and bloody rule of [[Pedro I of Castile|Pedro the Cruel]] caused him to be ousted in [[1366]] briefly. Pedro's wars with Aragon caused Castile's power to weaken briefly.
[[Image:Europe in 1470.PNG|thumb|300px|Europe in 1470.]]
A revived movement for the Christian unification of Spain was capitalized on by the "Catholic monarchs" (''[[Reyes Católicos]]'' in Spanish) [[Isabella of Castile]] and [[Ferdinand II of Aragon]] in order to justify their invasion of Granada, the expulsion of the Jews and the forceful conversion of the Moors. In the [[15th century]], the Kingdom of [[Castile]] and the [[Crown of Aragon]] were temporaly united under Isabella and Ferdinand's marriage. These two able rulers ruled jointly and worked to consolidate the power of the monarchy at the expense of the nobility. During their reign, the [[castle]]s of many nobles (symbols of aristocratic independence from the monarchy) were demolished, and a system of regular [[taxation]] was established.
Ferdinand and Isabella established the basis for the unification of Spain religiously as well as politically and economically.
Under their watch, [[Muslim]] rule on the [[Iberian Peninsula]] came to an end, and the Muslims who did not convert to Christianity (thenceforth called ''moriscos'') were banished from the land. The [[Catalonia|Catalan]]-[[Aragonese empire]] was at that time already an important maritime power in the Mediterranean, and Castile was in competition with [[Portugal]] for domination of the [[Atlantic Ocean]]. After the final conquest of the last Moorish stronghold at [[Granada]] in [[1492]], Spain started financing voyages of exploration. Those of [[Genoa|Genoese]] [[Christopher Columbus]] brought a [[New World]] to Europe's attention, and were followed by the [[Conquistador]]s who brought the native empires of [[Mesoamerica]] and the [[Inca]] under Spanish control. At the same time, the [[Jew|Jews]] of Spain were ordered on [[March 30]], [[1492]] to convert to [[Christianity]] or be exiled from the country.
In [[1499]], about 50,000 Moors in Granada were coerced by [[Francisco Cardinal Jiménez de Cisneros|Cardinal Cisneros]] into mass [[baptism]]s and conversion. During the [[uprising]] that followed (known as the [[First Rebellion of the Alpujarras]]), people who refused the choices of baptism or [[deportation]] to [[Africa]] were systematically eliminated. What followed was a mass flee of Moors, Jews and [[Gitanos]] from Granada city and the villages to the mountain regions (and their hills) and the rural country, however by 1500 Cisneros reported that "There is now no one in the city who is not a Christian, and all the mosques are churches".
Through a policy of alliances with other European nobility and the conquest of most of [[South America]] and the [[West Indies]], Spain began to establish [[Spanish Empire|itself as an empire]]. The [[Treaty of Tordesillas]], negotiated by [[Pope Alexander VI]] between Portugal and Spain, effectively divided up the non-European world between these two budding empires.
Massive amounts of [[gold]] and [[silver]] were imported from the New World into Spain's coffers. However, in the long run this hurt the Spanish economy much more than it helped it. The [[bullion]] caused [[price revolution|high inflation rates]], which undermined the competitivenes of Spanish industry and commerce (its effects being discussed by the ubiquitous [[School of Salamanca]] and the [[arbitrista]]s). Additionally, Spain became dependent on its colonies for income, and when the [[Dutch Republic|United Provinces]] began to capture Spanish vessels on the way to and from the New World, Spain suffered massive economic losses.
These effects, combined with the expulsion of Spain's most economically vital classes in the late [[15th century]] (the Jews and the [[Moors]]), caused Spain's economy to collapse several times in the [[16th century]], bringing the Golden Age of Spain to a close.
==Spain under the Habsburgs (16th-17th centuries) ==
{{main|Habsburg Spain}}
Spain's powerful world empire of the great [[16th century|16th]] and [[17th century|17th centuries]] reached its height and declined under the [[Habsburgs]]. The Spanish Empire reached its maximum extent in Europe under [[Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor|Charles I of Spain]], who was also (as Charles V) emperor of the [[Holy Roman Empire]].
Charles V became king in [[1516]], and the history of Spain became even more firmly enmeshed with the dynastic struggles in Europe. During his reign, the Spanish economy was drastically reoriented by the beginnings of the influx of precious metals from America. The king was not often in Spain, and as he approached the end of his life he made provision for the division of the Habsburg inheritance into two parts: on the one hand Spain, and its possessions in the Mediterranean and overseas, and the [[Holy Roman Empire]] itself on the other. The Habsburg possessions in [[The Netherlands]] also remained with the Spanish crown.
This was to prove a difficulty for his successor [[Philip II of Spain]], who became king on Charles V's abdication in [[1556]]. Spain largely escaped the religious conflicts that were raging throughout the rest of Europe, and remained firmly Roman Catholic. Philip saw himself as a champion of Catholicism, both against the [[Turkic peoples|Turks]] and the [[heresy|heretics]]. In the [[1560s]], plans to consolidate control of the Netherlands led to unrest, which gradually led to the [[Calvinism|Calvinist]] leadership of the revolt and the [[Eighty Years' War]]. This conflict consumed much Spanish expenditure, and led to an attempt to conquer [[England]] &ndash; a cautious supporter of the Dutch &ndash; in the unsuccessful [[Spanish Armada]], an early battle in the [[Anglo-Spanish War (1585)|Anglo-Spanish War]] ([[1585]]-[[1604]]) and war with France ([[1590]]-[[1598]]).
Despite these problems, the large inflow of American gold, the justified military reputation of the Spanish infantry and even the navy quickly recovering from its Armada disaster, made Spain the leading European power, a novel situation of which its citizens were only just becoming aware. The [[Iberian Union]] with [[Portugal]] in [[1580]] not only unified the peninsula, but added that country's worldwide resources to the Spanish crown. However, economic and administrative problems multiplied in [[Castile]], and the weakness of the native economy became evident in the following century: rising inflation, the expulsion of the Jews and Moors from Spain, and the dependency of Spain on the gold and silver imports combined to cause multiple bankruptcies and economic crashes in Spain.
Philip II died in [[1598]], and was succeeded by his son [[Philip III of Spain|Philip III]], in whose reign a ten year truce with the Dutch was overshadowed in [[1618]] by Spain's involvement in the European-wide [[Thirty Years' War]]. Government policy was dominated by favorites, but it was also the reign in which the geniuses of [[Cervantes]] and [[El Greco]] flourished.
Philip III was succeeded in [[1621]] by his son [[Philip IV of Spain]]. Much of the policy was conducted by the minister [[Gaspar de Guzmán, Conde de Olivares]]. In [[1640]], with the war in central Europe having no clear winner except the French, both Portugal and [[Catalonia]] rebelled. Portugal was lost to the crown for good, Catalonia was suppressed. In the reign of Philip's son and successor [[Charles II of Spain|Charles II]], Spain was gradually being reduced to a second-rank power.
The [[Habsburg]] dynasty became extinct in Spain and the [[War of the Spanish Succession]] ensued in which the other European powers tried to assume control of the Spanish monarchy. King [[Louis XIV of France]] eventually "won" the War of Spanish Succession, and control of Spain passed to the [[Bourbon dynasty]].
==The Enlightenment: Spain under the Bourbons (18th century) ==
{{main|Enlightenment Spain}}
[[Philip V of Spain|Philip V]], the first Bourbon king, of F |
gt;.info</code> file. Double-clicking on the project icon then starts the specified tool and loads the project into it. This is different from, for example, Microsoft Windows, where the filename extension of the file defines the tool to use.
Tool files can include "tool types" in the <code>.info</code> file. These are used as configuration options for the program. Each tool type is a single line of text, which can optionally include parameters, written after an <code>=</code> sign. Tool types can be commented out by writing them in [[bracket|parentheses]].
The colours used in the icon are normally only stored as indices to the Amiga Workbench screen's current palette. Because of this, the icons' colour scheme is inherently tied to the chosen hues in the screen's palette, and choosing non-standard colours can give the icons an ugly appearance. This problem was party solved by a third-party system called [[NewIcons]], which adds additional features to the standard <code>.info</code> files. Unlike normal Workbench icons, NewIcons include actual [[RGB]] colour information, and the system tries its best to match the icons' colour hues to those in the screen palette.
=== Graphics ===
Common APIs are:
2D
*[[CyberGraphX]]
*Picasso 96
*EGS (obsolete)
3D
*[[MiniGL]]
*Warp3D (low-level API)
*Storm[[Mesa 3D|Mesa]] (agl.library)
*CyberGL (requires [[CGX]])
===Audio===
* AHI for audio support, widely supported freeware driver system.
* camd.library for MIDI
===Video===
Third party API:
#VHI, by IOSPIRIT GmbH
#tv.library, by Elbox Computer
#tvcard.library, by Guido Mersmann
===ARexx===
:''Main article: [[ARexx]]''
The Amiga OS had support for the Rexx language. It was called ARexx (short for "Amiga Rexx") and was a script language which allowed for full OS scripting, similar to BASH on Linux, intra-application scripting, similar to VBA in Microsoft Office, as well as inter-program communication. Having a single scripting language for any application on the operating system was beneficial to users, instead of having to learn a new language for each application.
Programs could listen on an "ARexx port" for string messages. These messages could then be interpreted by the program in a similar fashion to a user pushing buttons. For example, an ARexx script when run in an email program, could save the currently displayed email and invoke an external program which could extract and process information and then invoke a viewer program. This allowed applications to control other applications, send data back and forth directly with memory handles, instead of saving files to disk then reloading.
===Ram Disk===
The Amiga OS has the only dynamically sized RAM disk, which would resize itself automatically to its contents. Operating System configuration files were loaded into the RAM disk on boot, greatly speeding operating system usage. Other files could be copied to the RAM disk like any standard device for quick modification and retrieval.
The Amiga OS also had support for a fixed-capacity recoverable RAM disk, which functioned as a standard RAM disk, but could maintain its contents on restart.
==AmigaOS versions==
===Kickstart/Workbench 1.0, 1.1, 1.2, 1.3===
[[Image:Amiga Workbench 1 3 large.png|thumb|200px|Workbench 1.3]]
The 1.''x'' versions are the original implementation of AmigaOS. They defaulted to a distinctive blue and orange colour scheme which was designed to give high contrast on even the worst of television screens (it could easily be changed by the user). Versions 1.1 consisted mostly of bug fixes. Versions 1.0 and 1.1 were distributed only on floppy disks for the Amiga 1000.
Version 1.2 was the first to have Kickstart on a [[Read-only memory|ROM]] and Workbench on one or two [[Floppy disks#The Commodore Amiga|floppy disks]]. Workbench was then booted from floppy disk or installed on a hard disk on later machines. The early Kickstarts were still available on floppies for Amiga 1000 owners. These versions were shipped in ROM with the [[A500]], [[A1500]], [[CDTV]] (1.3 only) and [[A2000]]. Version 1.2 of Kickstart fixed many bugs, greatly improving the stability of the system, and added [[AutoConfig]] support which could automatically configure expansion boards. Release 1.3 had few changes to Kickstart (mainly to enable autobooting hard disks) but had many improvements in Workbench, including a much faster file system for hard disks, an improved CLI, and various extra programs.
====AmigaBASIC and ABasiC====
:''Main article: [[AmigaBASIC]]''
Version 1.1 shipped with AmigaBASIC, a [[BASIC programming language|BASIC]] implementation designed by [[Microsoft]] (this was the only software ever written by Microsoft for the Amiga).
AmigaBASIC was discontinued with the launch of Kickstart/Workbench 2.x.
Version 1.0 shipped instead with a different BASIC language, called [[ABasiC]]. Where AmigaBASIC was oriented around creating graphical user interfaces, ABasiC was more similar to the BASIC interpreters shipped with older 8-bit systems, and was geared towards text based applications.
===Kickstart/Workbench 1.4===
Kickstart/Workbench 1.4 was a [[Software testing#Beta testing|beta]] version of the upcoming 2.0 update and never released, but the Kickstart part was shipped in very small quantities with early [[A3000|Amiga 3000]] computers, where it is often referred to as the "[[Superkickstart]] ROM". In these machines it is only used to bootstrap the machine and load the Kickstart that will be used to actually boot the system. The appearance is similar to that of 2.0 and higher, with just minor differences. It is, however, possible to dump out of the OS selection screen by clicking where one would expect to see a close gadget. This will cause the machine to boot Kickstart 1.4 using either the wb_2.x: partition, or from a floppy.
===Kickstart/Workbench 2.0, 2.05, 2.1===
[[Image:Amiga Workbench 2.gif|right|Workbench 2]]
Kickstart/Workbench 2.0 introduced a lot of major advances to the Amiga operating system. Gone was the harsh blue and orange colourscheme, replaced with a much easier on the eye grey and light blue. The Workbench was no longer tied to the 640×256 (PAL) or 640×200 (NTSC) display modes, and much of the system was improved with an eye to making future expansion easier. For the first time, a standardised "look and feel" was added. This was done by creating the Amiga Style Guide, and including libraries and software which assisted developers in making conformant software. Technologies included the GUI element creation library ''gadtools'', the software installation scripting language ''Installer'', and the ''AmigaGuide'' hypertext help system.
Workbench 2.04 introduced ARexx, a system-wide scripting language. Programmers could add so-called "ARexx ports" to their programs, which allowed them to be controlled from ARexx scripts. Using ARexx, you could make two completely different programs from different vendors work together seamlessly. For example, you could batch-convert a directory of files to thumbnail images with an ARexx capable image manipulation program, create and index HTML table of the thumbnails linking to the original images, and display it in a web browser, all from one script. ARexx became very popular, and was widely adopted by programmers.
The AmigaDOS, previously written in [[BCPL]] and very difficult to develop for beyond basic file manipulation, was mostly rewritten in [[C programming language|C]].
Unfortunately, some badly written software &ndash; especially games &ndash; failed to run with 2.x, and so a lot of people were upset with this update. Most often, the failure occurred because programmers had used directly manipulated private structures maintained by the operating system, rather than using official function calls.
2.x shipped with the A500+ (2.04), A600 (2.05), A3000 and A3000T. Workbench 2.1 was the last in this series, and only released as a software update. It included useful features such as [[CrossDOS]], to support working with floppy disks formatted for [[IBM PC compatible|PC]]s. Since 2.1 was a software-only release, there was no Kickstart 2.1 ROM.
2.x also introduced PCMCIA card support, for the slot on the A600.
===Kickstart/Workbench 3.0, 3.1===
[[Image:Amiga Workbench 3.gif|thumb|Amiga Workbench 3]]
3.x was another major update. Updates included:
* A universal data system, known as datatypes, that allowed programs to load pictures, sound and text in formats they didn't understand directly, through the use of standard plugs (''see'' [[object-oriented operating system]])
* A system-standard localization system, allowing the user to make an ordered list of ''preferred languages''; when a locale-aware application runs, it asks the operating system to find the ''catalog'' (a file containing translations of the application's string) best matching the user's preferences
* Colour remapping for low-colour display modes
* Improved visual appearance
* Better support for background images
3.x shipped with the [[Amiga CD32|CD32]], [[A1200]], [[A4000]] and A4000T.
===AmigaOS 3.5, 3.9===
[[Image:AmigaOS 3 9 Workbench.jpg|thumb|Workbench 3.9]]
After the demise of Commodore, the later owners of the Amiga trademark granted a license to a [[Germany|German]] company called [[Haage & Partner]] to update the Amiga's operating system. Along with this update came a change in the way people referred to the Amiga's operating system. Rather than specifying "Kickstart" or "Workbench", the updates were most often referred to as simply "AmigaOS".
Updates included:
* CD filesystem support as standard
* Distribution on CD instead of floppy disk
* Supplied with [[Internet protocol suite|TCP/IP]] stack, web browser, and e-mail client
* Improved GUI, called "ReAction"
* AVI/MPEG movie player (OS3.9)
* Support for hard disks larger than 4Gb |
t;brothers" in Latin.
The brothers lived a [[simple living|simple life]] in the deserted lazar house of [[Rivo Torto]] near Assisi; but they spent much of their time wandering through the mountainous districts of [[Umbria]], always cheerful and full of songs, yet making a deep impression on their hearers by their earnest exhortations.
In 1209 Francis led his first 11 followers to Rome and asked the Pope's permission to found a new religious order and succeeded in gaining the approval of [[Pope Innocent III]]. At first his attempt to speak with the Pope was refused; but the following night, Innocent III saw in a dream the church was crumbling apart and a poor man appearing to hold it up. The next morning, recalling the poor man he had refused the day before, he recognized him as the man he saw in his dream, and decided to change his verdict the following day.
== St.&nbsp;Francis, Nature and the Environment ==
Many of the stories that surround the life of St. Francis deal with his love for animals.
Perhaps the most famous incident that illustrates the Saint’s humility towards nature is recounted in the ''Fioretti'' (The Little Flowers), a collection of legends and folk-lore that sprang up after the saint’s death. It is said that one day while Francis was traveling with some companions they happened upon a place in the road where birds filled the trees on either side. Francis told his companions to “wait for me while I go a preach to my sisters the birds.” The birds surrounded him, drawn by the power of his voice, and not one of them flew away. Francis spoke to them:
[[Image:Saint Francis statue in garden.jpg|right|thumb|250 pix|A garden statue of Francis of Assisi with birds]]
“My sister birds, you owe much to God, and you must always and in everyplace give praise to Him; for He has given you freedom to wing through the sky and He has clothed you…you neither sow nor reap, and God feeds you and gives you rivers and fountains for your thirst, and mountains and valleys for shelter, and tall trees for your nests. And although you neither know how to spin or weave, God dresses you and your children, for the Creator loves you greatly and He blesses you abundantly. Therefore…always seek to praise God.”
Another legend from the ''[[Fioretti]]'' tells us that in the city of Gubbio, where Francis lived for some time, there was a wolf “terrifying and ferocious, who devoured men as well as animals.” Francis had compassion upon the townsfolk, and went up into the hills to find the wolf. Soon fear of the animal had caused all his companions to flee, but the saint pressed on and when he found the wolf he made the sign of the cross and commanded the wolf to come to him and hurt no one. Miraculously the wolf closed his jaws and lay down at the feet of St. Francis. “Brother Wolf, you do much harm in these parts and you have done great evil…” said Francis. “All these people accuse you and curse you…But brother wolf, I would like to make peace between you and the people.”
Then Francis led the wolf into the town, and surrounded by startled citizens he made a pact between them and the wolf. Because the wolf had “done evil out of hunger” the townsfolk were to feed the wolf regularly, and in return, the wolf would no longer prey upon them or their flocks. In this manner Gubbio was freed from the menace of the predator. Francis, ever the lover of animals, even makes a pact on behalf of the town dogs, that they will not bother the wolf again.
This legends exemplifies the Franciscan mode of charity and poverty as well as the saint's love of the natural world.
However, the academic establishment agrees that St.&nbsp;Francis actually had a rather conventional attitude towards his worldly environment. He did believe that the external world was inherently good as a sign and revelation of God's providence and goodness, its purpose being to inspire our respect and love, but this was not an unusual philosophy in the thirteenth century. His belief in the universal ability and duty of all animals to praise God is more unusual; however, it is far from the "sentimental pantheism" ([[G. K. Chesterton|G.&nbsp;K.&nbsp;Chesterton]]) suggested by Lynn White, and certainly bears no relation to current ecological or environmental sentiment.
==Main sources for the life of St. Francis==
*Friar Elias, ''Epistola Encyclica de Transitu Sancti Francisci'', 1226.
*Pope Gregory IX, Bulla "Mira circa nos" for the canonisation of St. Francis, [[19 July]] [[1228]].
*Friar [[Thomas of Celano|Tommaso da Celano]]: ''Vita Prima Sancti Francisci'', 1228; ''Vita Secunda Sancti Francisci'', 1246&ndash;1247; ''Tractatus de Miraculis Sancti Francisci'', 1252&ndash;1253.
*Friar [[Julian of Speyer]], ''Vita Sancti Francisci'', 1232&ndash;1239.
*St. Bonaventure of Bagnoregio, ''Legenda Maior Sancti Francisci'', 1260&ndash;1263.
*Ugolino da Montegiorgio, ''Actus Beati Francisci et sociorum eius'', 1327&ndash;1342.
*''Fioretti di San Francesco'', the "[[Little Flowers of St. Francis|Little Flowers of St.&nbsp;Francis]]", end of the 14th&nbsp;century: an anonymous Italian version of the ''Actus''; the most popular of the sources, but very late and therefore not the best authority by any means.
For an exhaustive list of sources, see [http://198.62.75.1/www1/ofm/fra/FRAmain.html].
==Main writings by St. Francis==
*''Canticum Fratris Solis'', the Canticle to Brother Sun.
*Prayer before the Crucifix, 1205 (extant in the original Umbrian dialect as well as in a contemporary Latin translation).
*''Regula non bullata'', the Earlier Rule, 1221.
*''Regula bullata'', the Later Rule, 1223.
*Testament, 1226.
*Admonitions.
For a complete list, see [http://198.62.75.1/www1/ofm/fra/FRAwr02.html].
==See also==
*''[[Brother Sun, Sister Moon]]'' (1972) by [[Franco Zeffirelli]]
*[[Prayer of Saint Francis]], Prayer once attributed to St.&nbsp;Francis of Assisi, although in fact it first appeared several centuries after his death.
*[[Clare of Assisi]]
*[[Juniper (saint)|Saint Juniper]], one of Francis' original followers.
*[[Saint David]]
*[[University of Saint Francis (Illinois)]], a school founded in the tradition of St. Francis of Assisi.
*[[List of people on stamps of Ireland]]
*[[Saint Margaret of Cortona]]
==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
{{Commons|Category:Francis of Assisi}}
*[http://franciscan-archive.org/ The Franciscan Archive]
*[http://198.62.75.1/www1/ofm/fra/FRAmain.html Franciscan Cyberspot: Sources for the Life of St.&nbsp;Francis]
*[http://www.catholic.org/saints/saint.php?saint_id=50 St Francis of Assisi]
[[Category:Natives of Assisi]]
[[Category:Franciscans|*]]
[[Category:Saints]]
[[Category:Italian saints]]
[[Category:Stigmatics]]
[[Category:Medieval philosophers]]
[[Category:1181 births|Francis]]
[[Category:1182 births|Francis]]
[[Category:1226 deaths|Francis]]
[[be:Францішак з Асізі]]
[[ca:Sant Francesc d'Assís]]
[[da:Frans af Assisi]]
[[de:Franz von Assisi]]
[[es:Francisco de Asís]]
[[eo:Sankta Francisko]]
[[fr:François d'Assise]]
[[hr:Franjo Asiški]]
[[id:Fransiskus Assisi]]
[[it:San Francesco d'Assisi]]
[[he:פרנציסקוס מאסיזי]]
[[la:Sanctus Franciscus Assisiensis]]
[[nl:Franciscus van Assisi]]
[[ja:アッシジのフランチェスコ]]
[[no:Frans av Assisi]]
[[pl:Franciszek z Asyżu]]
[[pt:Francisco de Assis]]
[[ro:Francisc de Assisi]]
[[sk:František z Assisi]]
[[sl:Sveti Frančišek Asiški]]
[[sv:Franciskus av Assisi]]
[[zh:聖方濟各 (亞西西)]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Francois Marie Arouet</title>
<id>11640</id>
<revision>
<id>15909376</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Voltaire]]
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</page>
<page>
<title>Frottage</title>
<id>11641</id>
<revision>
<id>42057698</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T14:40:26Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Mjpieters</username>
<id>86312</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/212.219.63.204|212.219.63.204]] to last version by Haldrik</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">: ''This article is about consensual sexual rubbing, whether naked or clothed.''
: ''See [[frot]] (no longer called frottage) for male-male genital sex.''
: ''See [[frotteurism]] (sometimes called frottage) for the sexual disorder involving rubbing against people in public places without discovery.''
: ''See [[frottage (surrealist technique)]] for the spontaneous graphic art technique.''
'''Frottage''' is normal [[sexual activity]] without [[sexual penetration|penetration]] that can include any form of sexual rubbing, whether naked or clothed, for arousal or orgasm.
Frottage can include mutual genital rubbing, sometimes called ''genito-genital'' or ''GG rubbing'':
* penile-vulval rubbing without penetration for a male and a female
* '''[[frot]]''', penile-penile rubbing for two males
* '''[[tribadism]]''', vulval-vulval rubbing for two females
Also nonmutual genital rubbing:
* '''[[intercrural intercourse]]''', also known as interfemoral intercourse, placing the penis between a partner's thighs, from the front or rear
* '''[[mammary intercourse]]''', putting the penis between the other person's [[breast]]s
* '''[[axillary intercourse]]''', putting the penis in the other person's [[armpit]]
* rubbing genitals against any part of the partner's body, such as clitoris against thigh or penis against abdomen.
Notably frottage can include sexual rubbing while clothed, for arousal or orgasm.
== Terminology ==
=== Etymology ===
The term ''frottage'' derives from the French verb "to rub" ''frotter''.
=== Improper terms ===
Three distinct terms derive from the French verb "to rub" ''frotter'', tha |
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[[sv:Guinea]]
[[tl:Guinea]]
[[th:ประเทศกินี]]
[[tr:Gine]]
[[uk:Гвінея]]
[[zh:几内亚]]
[[zh-min-nan:Guinea]]</text>
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<page>
<title>History of Guinea</title>
<id>12177</id>
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<id>35361051</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-16T05:05:37Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>RickReinckens</username>
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<comment>added link to year</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">==Empires==
The modern state of [[Guinea]] did not come into existence until [[1898]] but the history of the area stretches back much further. [[History of West Africa|West Africa]] saw many empires rise and fall in the period before European intervention and Guinea fell within many of them. The [[Ghana Empire]] is believed to be the earliest of these which grew on trade but contracted and ultimately fell due to the hostile influence of the [[Almoravides]]. It was in this period that [[Islam]] first arrived in the region.
The [[Sosso]] kingdom (12th to 13th centuries) briefly flourished in the void but the Islamic [[Mandinka people|Mandinka]] [[Mali Empire]] came to prominence when [[Sundiata Keita|Soundiata Kéïta]] defeated the Sosso ruler, [[Soumaoro Kanté|Soumangourou Kanté]] at the semi-historical [[Battle of Kirina]] in c. [[1235]]. The Mali Empire was ruled by [[Mansa]] (Emperors), the most famous being [[Mansa Musa|Kankou Moussa]], who made a famous [[hajj]] to Mecca in [[1324]]. Shortly after his reign the Mali Empire began to decline and was ultimately supplanted by its [[vassal]] states in the 15th century.
The most successful of these was the [[Songhai Empire]] which surpassed the Mali Empire in both territory and wealth. It continued to prosper until a civil war over succession followed the death of [[Askia Daoud]] in 1582. The weakened empire fell to invaders from [[Morrocco]] at the [[Battle of Tondibi]] just 3 years later. The Morroccans proved unable to rule the kingdom effectively, however, and it split into many small kingdoms. Fulani Muslims migrated to [[Fouta Djallon]] in Central Guinea and established an Islamic state from [[1735]] to [[1898]] with a written Constitution and alternate rulers.
==Colonial Era==
The [[slave trade]] came to the coastal region of Guinea with European adventurers in the 16th century. Slavery had always been part of every day life but the scale increased as slaves were exported to work elsewhere in the [[triangular trade]]. Some sources suggest that more than half of the population of Sub-Saharan Africa were removed.
Guinea's colonial period began with [[France|French]] military penetration into the area in the mid-19th century. French domination was assured by the defeat in 1898 of the armies of [[Samori|Samory Touré]], Mansa (or Emperor) of the [[Ouassoulou]] state and leader of [[Malinké]] descent, which gave France control of what today is Guinea and adjacent areas.
France negotiated Guinea's present boundaries in the late 19th and early 20th centuries with the [[United Kingdom|British]] for [[Sierra Leone]], the [[Portugal|Portuguese]] for their Guinea colony (now [[Guinea-Bissau]]), and [[Liberia]]. Under the French, the country formed the [[Territory of Guinea]] within [[French West Africa]], administered by a governor general resident in [[Dakar, Senegal|Dakar]]. Lieutenant governors administered the individual colonies, including Guinea.
==Independence==
In [[1958]] the [[French Fourth Republic]] collapsed due to political instability and its failures in dealing with its colonies, especially [[Indochina]] and [[Algeria]]. The founding of a [[French Fifth Republic |Fifth Republic]] was supported by the French people, while France's colonies were given the choice between more [[autonomy]] in a new [[French Community]] and immediate independence. The other colonies chose the former but Guinea — under the leadership of [[Ahmed Sékou Touré]] whose [[Democratic Party of Guinea]] (PDG) had won 56 of 60 seats in [[1957]] territorial elections — voted overwhelmingly for independence. The French withdrew quickly, and on [[October 2]], [[1958]], Guinea proclaimed itself a sovereign and independent republic, with Sékou Touré as president.
De Gaulle withdrew the French administration, with much of the French population following, which took much of the country’s infrastructure and large amounts of capital. Guinea quickly aligned itself with the [[Soviet Union]] and adopted [[Socialism|socialist]] policies. This alliance was shortlived, however, as Guinea moved towards a [[China| Chinese]] model of socialism. Despite this, however, the country continued to receive aid and investment from [[capitalist]] countries such as the [[USA]]. Even the relationship with France improved after the election of [[Valéry Giscard d'Estaing]] as president — trade increased and the two countries exchanged diplomatic visits.
Under Touré, Guinea became a one-party dictatorship, with a closed, socialized economy and no tolerance for human rights, free expression, or political opposition, which was ruthlessly suppressed. Originally credited for his advocacy of cross-ethnic nationalism, Touré gradually came to rely on his own [[Malinké]] ethnic group to fill positions in the party and government. Alleging plots and conspiracies against him at home and abroad, Touré’s regime targeted real and imagined opponents, imprisoning many thousands in Soviet-style prison [[gulag]]s, where hundreds perished. The regime's repression drove more than a million Guineans into exile, and Touré's paranoia ruined relations with foreign nations, including neighboring African states, increasing Guinea's isolation and further devastating its economy.
Sékou Touré died on [[March 26]], [[1984]] after a simple heart operation in the USA, and was replaced in an interim role by [[Heads of Government of Guinea|Prime Minister]] [[Louis Lansana Beavogui]]. Beavogui’s rule was brief, however, and a military junta headed by [[Lansana Conté]] and [[Diarra Traoré]], seized power on [[April 3]], [[1984]] in a bloodless [[coup]]. Conté assumed the role of president with Traoré as his prime minister.
Conté immediately denounced the previous regime’s record on [[human rights]], released 250 political prisoners and encouraged approximately 200,000 more to return from exile. He also turned away from socialism, but this did little to alleviate poverty and the country showed no immediate signs of moving towards [[democracy]].
In 1992 Conté announcd a return to civilian rule, with a presidential poll (which he won) in 1993 followed by elections to parliament in 1995 (in which his party - the [[Party of Unity and Progress]] - won 71 of 114 seats.) Despite this, Conté's grip on power remained tight. In September 2001 the opposition leader [[Alpha Condé]] was imprisoned for endangering state security, though he was pardoned 8 months later. He subsequently spent a period of exile in France. In 2001 Conté organised and won a referendum to lengthen the presidential term and in 2003 begun his third term after elections were boycotted by the opposition. In [[January 2005]] Conté survived a suspected assassination attempt while making a rare public appearance in the capital [[Conakry]]. His opponents claim that he is a "tired dictator" [http://www.guinea-forum.org/Analyses/index.asp?ana=28&Lang=A] whose departure is inevitable whereas his supporters believe he is winning a battle with dissidents. [[As of 2005]] Guinea still faces very real problems and according to the [[International Crisis Group]] is in danger of becoming a [[failed state]]. [http://www.crisisgroup.org/home/index.cfm?id=3509&l=1]
In 2000 Guinea became embroiled in the instability which had long blighted the rest of [[West Africa]] as rebels crossed the borders with [[Liberia]] and [[Sierra Leone]] and it seemed for a time that the country was headed for [[civil war]]. [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/986375.stm] Conté blamed neighbouring leaders coveting Guinea's natural resources, though these claims were strenuously denied. [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/1102574.stm] In 2003 Guinea agreed plans with her neighbours to tackle the insurgents.
==See also==
*[[History of Africa]]
*[[History of West Africa]]
==References==
* Elizabeth Blunt. [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/986375.stm Civil war fears in Guinea]. ''BBC News''. October 23, 2000.
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/1102574.stm Guinea head blames neighbours]. ''BBC News''. January 6, 2001.
* [http://www.crisisgroup.org/home/index.cfm?id=3509&l=1 Stopping Guinea’s slide]. [[International Crisis Group]], Africa Report No. 94. June 14, 2005.
==External links==
* André R. Lewin. [http://www.african-geopolitics.org/show.aspx?ArticleId=3840 Sékou Touré’s “No”]. ''African Geopolitics.'' 2005.
* [http://www.economist.com/displaystory.cfm?story_id=4198911 Bad government, bad neighbour]. ''The Economist''. July 21, 2005.
{{Africa in topic|History of}}
{{Former French colonies}}
[[Category:Guinea]]
[[fr:Histoire de la Guinée]]
[[pt:História da Guiné]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Geography of Guinea</title>
<id>12178</id>
<revision>
<id>40706652</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-22T13:11:30Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Lupo</username>
<id>34978</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Shaded relief map</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Guinea]] is located on the Atlantic Coast of West Africa and is bordered by [[Guinea-Bissau]], [[Senegal]], [[Mali]], [[Côte d'Ivoire]], [[Liberia]], and [[Sierra Leone]]. The country is divided into four geographic regions: A narrow coastal belt ([[Lower Guinea]]); the pastoral [[Fouta Djallon]] highlands ([[Middle Guinea]]); the northern [[savanna]] ([[Upper Guinea]]); and a southeastern rain-forest region ([[Forest Guinea]]). The Niger, Gambia, and Senegal Rivers are |
''24''' + 21
:42 = 21 &times; '''2''' + 0
From this, one can read off that
:<math>\frac{1071}{1029} = \mathbf{1} + \frac{1}{\mathbf{24} + \frac{1}{\mathbf{2}}}</math>.
This method can even be used for [[real number|real]] inputs ''a'' and ''b''; if ''a''/''b'' is [[irrational number|irrational]], then the Euclidean algorithm will not terminate, but the computed sequence of quotients still represents the (now infinite) continued fraction representation of ''a''/''b''.
== Generalisation to Euclidean domains ==
The Euclidean algorithm can be applied to some [[ring (mathematics)|rings]], not just the [[integers]]. The most general context in which the algorithm terminates with the greatest common divisor is the so-called [[Euclidean domain]]. These include the [[Gaussian integers]] and [[polynomial ring]]s over a [[field (mathematics)|field]].
As an example, consider the ring of polynomials with [[rational number|rational]] coefficients. In this ring, division with remainder is carried out using [[polynomial long division|long division]], also known as [[synthetic division]]. The resulting polynomials are then made [[monic polynomial|monic]] by factoring out the leading coefficient.
We calculate the greatest common divisor of
: <math>x^4-4x^3+4x^2-3x+14 = (x^2-5x+7)(x^2+x+2)</math>
and
: <math>x^4+8x^3+12x^2+17x+6 = (x^2+7x+3)(x^2+x+2)</math>
Following the algorithm gives these values:
{|class=wikitable
!a!!b
|-
|<math>x^4-4x^3+4x^2-3x+14</math>||<math>x^4+8x^3+12x^2+17x+6</math>
|-
|<math>x^3+\frac{2}{3}x^2+\frac{5}{3}x-\frac{2}{3}</math>||<math>x^4-4x^3+4x^2-3x+14</math>
|-
|<math>x^2+x+2</math>||<math>x^3+\frac{2}{3}x^2+\frac{5}{3}x-\frac{2}{3}</math>
|-
|<math>0</math>||<math>x^2+x+2</math>
|-
|}
This agrees with the explicit factorization. For general Euclidean domains, the proof of correctness is by induction on some size function. For the integers, this size function is just the identity. For rings of polynomials over a field, it is the degree of the polynomial (note that each step in the above table reduces the degree by one).
==[[C programming language|C]]/[[C plus plus|C++]] implementation==
<pre><nowiki>
int gcd(int a, int b) {
if (b == 0)
return a;
else
return gcd(b, a % b);
}
</nowiki></pre>
This can be rewritten iteratively as:
<pre><nowiki>
int gcd(int a, int b) {
int t;
while (b != 0) {
t = b;
b = a % b;
a = t;
}
return a;
}
</nowiki></pre>
<!--
I commented this out as I translated this implementation into C above to fit with the section name
I believe the C is correct and equivalent to this (which doesn't look all that Pascally to me, or did Pascal get blocks by whitespace like Python and Haskell?) but I'll leave this here just in case.
'''function''' gcd(a, b)
'''while''' b &ne; 0
'''var''' t := b Note: This is in [[Pascal_programming_language|Pascal]].
b := a modulo b
a := t
'''return''' a
-->
==See also==
* [[Least common multiple]]
* [[Extended Euclidean algorithm]]
==References==
* [[Donald Knuth|Donald Knuth]]. ''The Art of Computer Programming'', Volume 2: ''Seminumerical Algorithms'', Third Edition. Addison-Wesley, 1997. ISBN 0-201-89684-2. Sections 4.5.2&ndash;4.5.3, pp.333&ndash;379.
* [[Thomas H. Cormen]], [[Charles E. Leiserson]], [[Ronald L. Rivest]], and [[Clifford Stein]]. ''[[Introduction to Algorithms]]'', Second Edition. MIT Press and McGraw-Hill, 2001. ISBN 0262032937. Section 31.2: Greatest common divisor, pp.856&ndash;862.
==External links==
* [http://www.cut-the-knot.org/blue/Euclid.shtml Euclid's Algorithm] at [[cut-the-knot]]
* [http://www.cut-the-knot.org/blue/binary.shtml Binary Euclid's Algorithm (Java)] at [[cut-the-knot]]
* [http://www.cut-the-knot.org/blue/EuclidAlg.shtml Euclid's Game (Java)] at [[cut-the-knot]]
[[Category:Number theoretic algorithms]]
[[bg:Алгоритъм на Евклид]]
[[ca:Algorisme d'Euclides]]
[[cs:Euklidův algoritmus]]
[[de:Euklidischer Algorithmus]]
[[es:Algoritmo de Euclides]]
[[fr:Algorithme d'Euclide]]
[[ko:유클리드 호제법]]
[[id:Algoritma Euklidean]]
[[it:Algoritmo di Euclide]]
[[lt:Euklido algoritmas]]
[[hu:Euklidészi algoritmus]]
[[nl:Algoritme van Euclides]]
[[ja:ユークリッドの互除法]]
[[pl:Algorytm Euklidesa]]
[[pt:Algoritmo de Euclides]]
[[ru:Алгоритм Евклида]]
[[sl:Evklidov algoritem]]
[[fi:Eukleideen algoritmi]]
[[sv:Euklides algoritm]]
[[vi:Giải thuật Euclid]]
[[zh:輾轉相除法]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts</title>
<id>10378</id>
<revision>
<id>33407462</id>
<timestamp>2005-12-31T20:02:17Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Malepheasant</username>
<id>345020</id>
</contributor>
<comment>+categories</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts''' ('''ECMWF''') is an international intergovernmental organization based at [[Reading, Berkshire|Reading]], [[England]] that was founded in [[1975]].
== Objectives ==
The objectives of the ECMWF are:
*Development of [[Numerical analysis|numerical methods]] for medium-range [[weather forecasting]]
*Preparation of medium-range weather forecasts for distribution to the member states
*Scientific and technical research directed to the improvement of these forecasts
*Collection and storage of appropriate meteorological data.
== Work and Projects ==
The ECMWF has been producing operational medium-range weather forecasts since [[1979-08-01]].
It has run two "re-analysis" projects, the first [[ECMWF re-analysis]] (ERA-15) project generated reanalyses from December [[1978]] to February [[1994]].
The ERA-40 project generated reanalyses from [[1957]].
== Members ==
The ECMWF members are of 18 [[Europe]]an states: [[Austria]], [[Belgium]], [[Denmark]], [[Finland]], [[France]], [[Germany]], [[Greece]], [[Republic of Ireland]], [[Italy]], [[Luxembourg]], [[The Netherlands]], [[Norway]], [[Portugal]], [[Spain]], [[Sweden]], [[Switzerland]], [[Turkey]], [[United Kingdom]]
The ECMWF has co-operation agreements with 7 other states: [[Croatia]], [[Czech Republic]], [[Iceland]], [[Hungary]], [[Romania]], [[Slovenia]], [[Serbia and Montenegro]],
==External links==
*[http://www.ecmwf.int Official Website]
*[http://www.ecmwf.int/research/era/ERA-15/index.html ERA-15 reanalysis]
*[http://www.ecmwf.int/research/era/Project/index.html ERA-40 reanalysis]
{{Org-stub}}
[[Category:Meteorological institutions and stations]]
[[Category:1975 establishments]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>European Broadcasting Union</title>
<id>10380</id>
<revision>
<id>41074132</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-24T22:01:54Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>88.109.8.86</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:EBU UER European Broadcasting Union logo.gif|150px|right]]
The '''European Broadcasting Union''' ('''EBU'''), known in [[French language|French]] as <nowiki>L'</nowiki>'''Union Européenne de Radio-Télévision''' ('''UER'''), and unrelated to the [[European Union]], was formed [[February 12]], [[1950]] by 23 broadcasting organizations from [[Europe]] and the [[Mediterranean]] at a conference in the coastal resort of [[Torquay]] in [[Devon]], [[England]]. In [[1993]], the [[International Radio and Television Organisation]] (''OIRT''), an equivalent organisation of broadcasters from Central and Eastern Europe, was merged with the EBU.
[[As of 2004]], the EBU has active full members from 52 countries, and associate members from a further 29. Members are radio and television companies, most of which are government-owned [[Public broadcasting|public service broadcasters]] or privately owned stations with public missions. Full active Members are based in countries from Algeria to the Vatican State, including almost all European countries. Associate members are not limited to those from European countries and the Mediterranean but include broadcasters from [[Canada]], [[Japan]], [[Mexico]], [[Brazil]], [[India]] and [[Hong Kong]], as well as many others. Associate Members from the [[United States]] include [[American Broadcasting Company|ABC]], [[CBS]], [[NBC]], the [[Corporation for Public Broadcasting]], and [[Time Warner]].
The EBU's most well-known production is probably the [[Eurovision Song Contest]] organised by its [[Eurovision Network]]. The ability of any country from which there are full members of the EBU to enter this contest leads both to the ever growing number of entries, and the counter-intuitive inclusion of countries, such as Morocco, which are generally not considered to be part of Europe. The Eurovision Network also organises the [[Eurovision Young Dancers]] competition, which is modelled along similar lines.
The countries in the EBU have also often worked together to create documentaries and (animated) children's programming. The first such co-production was the animated series [[The Animals of Farthing Wood]] from the year [[1993]] based on the books of the same title by [[Colin Dann]].
The theme music played before EBU broadcasts, is [[Marc-Antoine Charpentier]]'s Prelude to [[Te Deum]]. It is well known to europeans as played before and after the [[Eurovision Song Contest]].
==EBU Technical activities==
The objective of the [http://www.ebu.ch/en/technical/index.php EBU’s technical activities] is simply to assist EBU Members (see below) in this period of unprecedented technological changes. This includes provision of technical information to Members via conferences and workshops, as well as in written form (such as the [http://www.ebu.ch/en/technical/trev/trev_home.html EBU Technical Review]).
The EBU also encourages active collaboration between its Members on the basis that |
rmal population, waged a broad and brutal campaign against the latter.
In the [[1960s]], [[1970s]], and [[1980s]], [[Latin America]] had a number of [[urban guerrilla]] movements whose strategy was to destabilize regimes and provoke a counter-reaction by the military. The theory was that a harsh military regime would oppress the [[middle class]]es who would then support the guerrillas and create a popular uprising.
While these movements did destabilize governments, such as [[Argentina]], [[Uruguay]], [[Guatemala]], and [[Peru]] to the point of military intervention, the military generally proceeded to completely wipe out the guerrilla movements, usually committing several [[atrocities]] among both civilians and armed insurgents in the process.
Several other [[left-wing]] guerrilla movements, often backed by [[Cuba]] and/or the [[Soviet Union]], attempted to overthrow US-backed governments or [[right-wing]] military [[dictatorship]]s. US-backed [[Contra]] guerrillas attempted to overthrow the left-wing elected [[Sandinista]] government of Nicaragua, though most of these groups should be considered mercenary juntas rather than rooted guerrillas.
===South African War===
Guerrilla tactics were used extensivley by the forces of the [[Afrikaner]] republics in the [[Second Boer War]] in [[South Africa]] 1899-1902. After the British defeated the Boer armies in conventional warfare and occupied their capitals of [[Pretoria]] and [[Bloemfontein]], Boer [[commandos]] reverted to mobile warfare. Units led by leaders such as [[Christian de Wet]] harassed slow-moving British columns and attacked railway lines and encampments. The Boers were almost all mounted and possessed long range magazine loaded rifles. This gave them the ability to attack quickly and cause many casualties before retreating rapidly when British reinforcements arrived. In the early period of the guerrilla war, Boer commandoes could be very large, containing several thousand men and even field artillery. However, as their supplies of food and ammunition gave out, the Boers increasingly broke up into smaller units and relied on captured British arms and ammunition.
To counter these tactics, the British under [[Kitchener]] interned Boer civilians into [[concentration camps]] and built hundreds of blockhouses all over the Transvaal and Orange Free State. Eventually, the Boer guerrillas surrendered in 1902, but the British granted them generous terms in order to bring the war to an end. This showed how effective guerrilla tactics could be in extracting concessions from a militarily more powerful enemy.
===Disputed Territory of Kashmir===
Kashmiri guerrillas constantly cause destruction in the Disputed Territory of [[Kashmir]]. The territory has been disputed between both [[India]] and [[Pakistan]], India has accused Pakistan of training and aiding these guerrillas in the past. Guerrillas were known to aid Pakistan during the [[1999 Kargil Conflict]].
The territory has been disputed since the Indo-Pakistani Partition in 1947. Many guerrillas fight for an independent Kashmiri state, something which both governments fight against, other guerrillas wish to annex parts of Kashmir into Pakistani-Administered Kashmir. Known terrorists such as [[David Hicks]] have been accused of participating in guerrilla activities in Kashmir.
===Vietnam War===
Within the [[United States]], the [[Vietnam War]] is commonly thought of as a guerrilla war. However this is a simplification of a much more complex situation which followed the pattern outlined by Maoist theory.
The [[National Front for the Liberation of Vietnam|National Liberation Front]] (NLF), drawing its ranks from the South Vietnamese peasantry and working class, used guerrilla tactics in the early phases of the war. However, by [[1965]] when U.S. involvement escalated, the National Liberation Front was in the process of being supplanted by regular units of the [[North Vietnamese Army]].
The [[North Vietnamese Army|NVA]] regiments organized along traditional military lines, were supplied via the [[Ho Chi Minh trail]] rather than living off the land, and had access to weapons such as [[tank]]s and [[artillery]] which are not normally used by guerrilla forces.
Over time, more of the fighting was conducted by the North Vietnamese Army and the character of the war become increasingly conventional. The final offensive into [[South Vietnam]] in [[1975]] was a mostly conventional military operation in which guerilla warfare played a minor, supporting role.
=== Guerrilla warfare in Kosovo, Afghanistan, and Kurdish Northern [[Iraq]] ===
Guerrilla warfare formed an integral part of the US/NATO military campaigns in Kosovo in the late [[1990s]] and Afghanistan in [[2001]], which created a unique style of warfare combining low-technology guerrilla warfare with high-technology air power. In these campaigns, guerrilla fighters with coordination from [[special force]]s would engage the enemy, forcing them to move out into the open where they could be destroyed using air power supplied by the [[United States]]. In both cases, the guerrillas were able to take advantage of their local knowledge and willingness to take casualties to great effect when supplemented by outside air power. In Kosovo the [[Kosovo Liberation Army]], a separatist paramilitary force, was aided by the [[NATO]] air forces. In [[Afghanistan]] numerous anti-[[Taliban]] militias (consisting of regular soldiers and guerrillas), including the [[Afghan Northern Alliance]], were aided by US air power. This formula was used again, in [[2003 invasion of Iraq|War on Iraq]], against the Iraqi Army by Kurdish [[Peshmerga]] guerrillas with the aid of U.S. special forces and the [[United States Air Force|U.S. Air Force]].
=== Guerrilla in Iraq (2003-today) ===
Many guerrilla tactics are used by the [[Iraqi insurgency]] against the US-led coalition. Such tactics include exploding cars, donkeys and humans. They have injured more than 25,000 coalition troops and killed around 2,000 US soldiers.
== See also ==
* [[Spass guerilla]]
* [[Guerrilla communication]]
* [[List of guerrillas|List of famous guerrillas]]
* [[List of guerrilla movements]]
* [[War]]
* [[Combatant]]
* [[Asymmetric warfare]]
* [[Vietnam War]]
* [[Lord's Resistance Army]]
* [[Gladio]]
* [[Edmund Charaszkiewicz]]
* [[Cavalry in the American Civil War]]
==References==
* {{cite book | last = Mackey | first = Robert R. | title = The UnCivil War: Irregular Warfare in the Upper South, 1861–1865 | location = Norman, Okla. | publisher = University of Oklahoma Press | year = 2004 | id = ISBN 0806136243 }}
== Notes ==
# {{note|refbot.779}} {{Web reference | title= Minimanual of the Urban Guerrilla | url=http://www.baader-meinhof.com/students/resources/print/minimanual/manualtext.html | date=November 19 | year=2005 }}
# {{note|news.bbc.co.uk.780}} {{Web reference | title=BBC ON THIS DAY : 27 : 1979: Soldiers die in Warrenpoint massacre | url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/august/27/newsid_3891000/3891055.stm | date=November 19 | year=2005 }}
# {{note|www.bbc.co.uk.781}} {{Web reference | title=BBC - History - War and Conflict | url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/war/troubles/hungerstrikes/negotiations.shtml | date=November 19 | year=2005 }}
# {{note|www.cnn.com.782}} {{Web reference | title=CNN - Almanac - Nov. 27, 1996 | url=http://www.cnn.com/almanac/9611/27/ | date=November 19 | year=2005 }}
# {{note|www.cnn.com.783}} {{Web reference | title=CNN - IRA splinter gang kills top Protestant guerrilla - December 27, 1997 | url=http://www.cnn.com/WORLD/9712/27/n.ireland.killing/ | date=November 19 | year=2005 }}
# {{note|www.reuters.co.uk.784}} {{Web reference | title=http://www.reuters.co.uk/newsPackageArticle.jhtml?type=topNews&storyID=584330&section=news | url=http://www.reuters.co.uk/newsPackageArticle.jhtml?type=topNews&storyID=584330&section=news | date=November 19 | year=2005 }}
== External links ==
{{commons|Guerrilla warfare}}
* [http://forum.axishistory.com/viewtopic.php?t=68053 Could the Baltic States have resisted to the Soviet Union?]
* [http://www.angelfire.com/de/Cerskus/english/links1.html Crimes of Soviet Communists] &mdash; Wide collection of sources and links about Guerrilla war in the Baltic states against Soviet occupation
* [http://social.chass.ncsu.edu/jouvert/v613/sri.htm News Coverage of Guerrilla Warfare]
* [http://polarmad.galeon.com Los movimientos armados en la Argentina] (Spanish)
[[Category:Warfare]]
[[Category:Irregular military]]
[[Category:Guerrilla wars|Guerrilla wars]]
[[bg:Партизани]]
[[da:Guerilla]]
[[de:Guerilla]]
[[eo:Gerilo]]
[[es:Guerrilla]]
[[eu:Gerrilla]]
[[fi:Sissisota]]
[[fr:Guérilla]]
[[he:גרילה]]
[[id:Gerilya]]
[[ja:ゲリラ]]
[[ms:Gerila]]
[[nl:Guerrilla]]
[[nn:Gerilja]]
[[no:Gerilja]]
[[pl:Partyzantka]]
[[pt:Guerrilha]]
[[ru:Партизанская война]]
[[sv:Gerillakrigföring]]
[[zh:游击战]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Geosynchronous satellite</title>
<id>12721</id>
<revision>
<id>42031245</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T09:15:40Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>67.188.153.204</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">A '''geosynchronous satellite''' is a [[satellite]] whose orbital track on the Earth repeats regularly over points on the Earth over time. If such a satellite's orbit lies over the [[equator]], it is called a '''geostationary satellite'''. The orbits of the satellites are known as the [[geosynchronous orbit]] and [[geostationary orbit]]. Other well-known geosynchronous orbits include the well-known [[Molniya orbit|Molniya]] and [[Tundra elliptical orbits]].
==Definition==
According to [[Kepler's laws of planetary motion|Kepler's Third Law]], the orbital period of a satellite in a circular orbit increases with increasing altitude. Space stations and shuttles in [[Low Earth orbit]] (LEO), typically two or four hundred miles above the Earth's surface make |
obtained from the leaves of the [[coca]] plant. It is a [[stimulant]] of the [[central nervous system]] and an [[appetite suppressant]], creating what has been described as a euphoric sense of happiness and increased energy. Though most often used recreationally for this effect, cocaine is also a topical [[anesthesia|anesthetic]] that was used in [[eye surgery|eye]] and throat [[surgery]] in the 19th and early 20th centuries. Cocaine is highly [[addiction|addictive]], and its possession, cultivation, and distribution is illegal for non-medicinal / non-government sanctioned purposes in virtually all parts of the world.
==History==
===The coca leaf===
For thousands of years and still today, [[South America]]n [[Native American (Americas)|indigenous peoples]] have chewed the [[coca]] leaf (''Erythroxylon coca''), a plant which contains vital nutrients as well as numerous [[alkaloids]], including cocaine. The leaf was and is chewed almost universally by some [[tribe|indigenous communities]], but there is no evidence that its habitual use ever led to any of the negative consequences generally associated with habitual cocaine use today.
[[Image:Coca.jpg|168px|left|thumb|The coca plant, ''Erythroxylon coca''.]]
When the [[Spanish colonization of the Americas|Spaniards conquered South America]], they at first ignored Aboriginal claims that the leaf gave them strength and energy, and declared the practice of chewing it the work of the [[Devil]]. But after discovering that these claims were true, they legalized and taxed the leaf, taking 10% off the value of each crop. These taxes were for a time the main source of support for the [[Roman Catholic Church]] in the region.
In [[1609]] Padre [[Blas Valera]] wrote:
<blockquote>''Coca protects the body from many ailments, and our doctors use it in powdered form to reduce the swelling of wounds, to strengthen broken bones, to expel cold from the body or prevent it from entering, and to cure rotten wounds or sores that are full of maggots. And if it does so much for outward ailments, will not its singular virtue have even greater effect in the entrails of those who eat it?''</blockquote>
===Isolation===
Although the stimulant and hunger-suppressant properties of coca had been known for many centuries, the isolation of the cocaine [[alkaloid]] was not achieved until [[1855]]. Many scientists had attempted to isolate cocaine, but none had been successful for two reasons: the knowledge of chemistry required was insufficient at the time, and coca does not grow in [[Europe]] and is easily ruined during travel.
The cocaine alkaloid was first isolated by the [[Germany|German]] [[chemist]] [[Friedrich Gaedcke]] in [[1855]]. Gaedcke named the alkaloid “erythroxyline”, and published a description in the journal ''[[Archives de Pharmacie]]''.
In [[1856]] [[Friederich Wöhler]] asked Dr. [[Carl Scherzer]], a scientist aboard the ''[[Novara]]'' (an [[Austria]]n frigate sent by Emperor [[Franz Joseph of Austria|Franz Joseph]] to circle the globe), to bring him a large amount of coca leaves from South America. In [[1859]] the ship finished its travels and Wöhler received a trunk full of coca. Wöhler passed on the leaves to [[Albert Niemann]], a [[Doctor of Philosophy|Ph.D.]] student at the [[University of Göttingen]] in [[Germany]], who then developed an improved purification process.
Niemann described every step he took to isolate cocaine in his [[dissertation]] entitled ''[[On a New Organic Base in the Coca Leaves]]'', which was published in [[1860]] &mdash; it also earned him his Ph.D. and is now in the [[British Library]]. He wrote of the alkaloid's “colourless transparent prisms” and said that, “Its solutions have an alkaline reaction, a bitter taste, promote the flow of saliva and leave a peculiar numbness, followed by a sense of cold when applied to the tongue.” Niemann named the alkaloid “cocaine” — as with other [[alkaloid]]s its name carried the “-ine” [[suffix]] (from [[Latin]] ''-ina'').
===Popularization===
In [[1859]] an [[Italy|Italian]] [[physician|doctor]] [[Paolo Mantegazza]] returned from [[Peru]], where he had witnessed first-hand the use of coca by the natives. He proceeded to experiment on himself and upon his return to [[Milan]] he wrote a paper in which he described the effects. In this paper he declared coca and cocaine (at the time they were assumed to be the same) as being useful medicinally, in the treatment of “a furred tongue in the morning, [[flatulence]], [and] whitening of the teeth.”
[[Image:Mariani_pope.jpg|320px|right|thumb|[[Pope Leo XIII]] purportedly carried a hipflask of Vin Mariani with him, and awarded a [[Vatican City|Vatican]] [[gold medal]] to [[Angelo Mariani]].]]
A chemist named [[Angelo Mariani]] who read Mantegaza’s paper became immediately intrigued with coca, and its economic potential. In [[1863]] Mariani started marketing a [[wine]] called [[Vin Mariani]] which had been treated with coca leaves. The [[alcohol|ethanol]] in wine acted as a solvent and extracted the cocaine from the coca leaves, altering the drink’s effect. It contained 6&nbsp;mg cocaine per ounce of wine, but Vin Mariani which was to be exported contained 7.2&nbsp;mg per ounce in order to compete with the higher cocaine content of similar drinks in the United States. A “pinch of coca leaves” was included in John Styth Pemberton's original 1886 recipe for [[Coca-Cola]], though the company began using decocainized leaves in 1906 when the [[Pure Food and Drug Act]] was passed. The only known measure of the amount of cocaine in Coca-Cola was determined in [[1902]] as being as little as 1/400 of a [[grain (measure)|grain]] (0.2&nbsp;mg) per ounce of syrup. (6&nbsp;[[parts per million|ppm]].) The actual amount of cocaine that Coca-Cola contained during the first twenty years of its production is impossible to determine.
In [[1879]] cocaine began to be used to treat [[morphine]] addiction. Cocaine was introduced into clinical use as a [[local anaesthetic]] in Germany in [[1884]], about the same time as [[Sigmund Freud]] published his work ''[[Über Coca]]'', in which he wrote that cocaine causes:
<blockquote>''...exhilaration and lasting euphoria, which in no way differs from the normal euphoria of the healthy person...You perceive an increase of self-control and possess more vitality and capacity for work....In other words, you are simply normal, and it is soon hard to believe you are under the influence of any drug....Long intensive physical work is performed without any fatigue...This result is enjoyed without any of the unpleasant after-effects that follow exhilaration brought about by alcohol....Absolutely no craving for the further use of cocaine appears after the first, or even after repeated taking of the drug...''</blockquote>
[[Image:Cocaine tooth drops.jpg|thumb|320px|left|Cocaine, the fast-acting anesthetic.]]In [[1885]] the U.S. manufacturer [[Parke-Davis]] sold cocaine in various forms, including cigarettes, powder, and even a cocaine mixture that could be injected directly into the user’s veins with the included needle. The company promised that its cocaine products would “supply the place of food, make the coward brave, the silent eloquent and ... render the sufferer insensitive to pain.”
By late [[Victorian era]] cocaine use had appeared as a vice in [[literature]], for example as the ''cucaine'' injected by [[Arthur Conan Doyle]]’s fictional [[Sherlock Holmes]].
In [[1909]] [[Ernest Shackleton]] took “Forced March” brand cocaine tablets to [[Antarctica]], as did [[Captain Scott]] a year later on his ill-fated journey to the [[south pole]].
===Prohibition===
By the turn of the twentieth century, the addictive properties of cocaine had become clear to many, and the problem of cocaine abuse began to capture public attention in the United States. The dangers of cocaine abuse became part of a [[moral panic]] that was tied to the dominant racial and social anxieties of the day. In [[1903]] the ''[[American Journal of Pharmacy]]'' stressed that most cocaine abusers were “bohemians, gamblers, high- and low-class [[prostitutes]], night porters, bell boys, burglars, racketeers, pimps, and casual laborers.” In [[1914]] Dr. Christopher Koch of [[Pennsylvania]]’s State Pharmacy Board made the racial innuendo explicit, testifying that, “Most of the attacks upon the white women of the South are the direct result of a cocaine-crazed Negro brain.” Mass media manufactured an epidemic of cocaine use amongst [[African-Americans]] in the [[Southern United States]] to play upon racial prejudices of the era, although there is little evidence that such an epidemic actually took place. In the same year, the [[Harrison Narcotics Tax Act]] outlawed the use of cocaine in the United States.
===Modern usage===
In most Western countries, cocaine (known colloquially as "coke", "nose candy", "blow", "snow", etc.; see [[List of street names of drugs]]) is a popular [[recreational drug]]. In the [[United States]], the development of "[[Cocaine#Crack_cocaine|crack]]" cocaine introduced the substance to a generally poorer inner-city market. Use of the powder form has stayed relatively constant, experiencing a new height of use during the late [[1990s]] and early [[2000s]] in the [[USA]], and has become much more popular in the last few years in the [[UK]].
Cocaine use is prevalent across all socioeconomic strata, including age, demographics, economic, social, political, religious, and livelihood. Cocaine in its various forms comes in second only to [[cannabis (drug)|cannabis]] as the most popular illegal recreational drug in the [[United States]], and is number one in street value sold each year.
The estimated U.S. cocaine market exceeded [[United States dollar|$]]35 billion in street value for the year [[2003]], exceeding revenues by corporations such as [[AT&T]] and [[Starbucks]]. |
ion]], German is the language with the most native speakers, with more than English, French, Spanish and Italian. As a foreign language, German is the third most taught worldwide.[http://www.auswaertiges-amt.de/www/en/aussenpolitik/kulturpolitik/sprache/deutsch_html] It is also the second most used language on the [[Internet]]. The language has its origin in [[Old High German]]. There are numerous [[dialect]]s of German, many of which are not intelligible to speakers of standard German. Some consider [[Low German]] to be a different language from German; Low German has been given the status of a minority language by the [[European Union]], although it is less used today in the traditionally Low German-speaking areas of northern Germany.
Since about 1970 Germany has once again had a thriving popular culture, now increasingly being led by its new old capital [[Berlin]], and a self-confident music and art culture. Germany is also well known for its many opera houses, the most famous of which being located in [[Bayreuth]].
==Miscellaneous topics==
{{sisterlinks|Germany}}
{{portal}}
* [[Communications in Germany]]
* [[German federal election, 2005]]
* [[German model]]
* [[Historical Eastern Germany]]
* [[List of English exonyms for German toponyms]]
* [[List of Germans|List of famous Germans]]
* [[List of German districts]]
* [[List of German towns]]
* [[List of Germans]] - [[German people]]
* [[List of political parties in Germany]]
* [[List of universities in Germany]]
* [[Nuclear power phase-out]]
* [[Scouting in Germany]]
* [[Taxation in Germany]]
* [[Tourism in Germany]]
* [[Transportation in Germany]]
==External links==
{{cookbook}}
<!-- Wikipedia is not a link list nor a Web directory. If your link points to a site that does not cover many subjects about Germany, it's most likely in the wrong place here and you should go and search for a more specific article. -->
* [http://www.deutschland.de/home.php?lang=2 Deutschland.de] &mdash; Official German portal
* [http://www.germany.info/ German Embassy News Portal for the U.S.]
* [http://www.facts-about-germany.de Facts about Germany] &mdash; by the German Federal Foreign Office
* [http://www.panorama-cities.net CityPanoramas] &mdash; Panoramic views of German cities
* [http://www.handbuch-deutschland.de/book_en.html A manual for Germany] &mdash; by the German Government Representative for Migration, Refugees and Integration
* [http://www.destatis.de/e_home.htm Destatis.de] &mdash; Federal Statistical Office Germany (in English)
* [http://www.worldwide-tax.com/germany/indexgermany.asp Germany economy and business indicators] &mdash; Germany key Data on Taxes and Income Tax.
* [http://www.livingingermany.de LivingInGermany.de] &mdash; Resource site for Ex-Pats about living and working in Germany in English.
== References ==
* [[Jean Edward Smith]], ''Germany Beyond The Wall: People, Politics, and Prosperity'', Boston: Little, Brown, & Company, 1969.
* [[Jean Edward Smith]], ''Lucius D. Clay: An American Life'', New York: Henry, Holt, & Company, 1990.
* [[Jean Edward Smith]], ''The Defense Of Berlin'', Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press, 1963.
* [[Jean Edward Smith]], ''The Papers Of Lucius D. Clay'', 2 Vols., Bloomington, Indiana: Indiana University Press, 1974.
{{States of Germany}}
{{EU countries}}
{{NATO}}
{{Europe}}
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[[Category:Europe]]
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<page>
<title>GeoCaching</title>
<id>11868</id>
<revision>
<id>15909581</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Geocaching]]
</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>GamblersFallacy</title>
<id>11869</id>
<revision>
<id>15909582</id>
<timestamp>2002-10-09T16:32:27Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Magnus Manske</username>
<id>4</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>#REDIRECT [[Gambler's_fallacy]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Gambler's_fallacy]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Gambler</title>
<id>11870</id>
<revision>
<id>15909583</id>
<timestamp>2004-07-31T17:20:56Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Duncharris</username>
<id>47291</id>
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<minor />
<comment>create redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Gambling]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Gamblers Fallacy</title>
<id>11871</id>
<revision>
<id>15909584</id>
<timestamp>2002-10-09T16:32:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Magnus Manske</username>
<id>4</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>#REDIRECT [[Gambler's_fallacy]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Gambler's_fallacy]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>George Melies</title>
<id>11872</id>
<revision>
<id>15909585</id>
<timestamp>2002-04-03T02:18:56Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Eclecticology</username>
<id>372</id>
</contributor>
<comment>*</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Georges Méliès]]
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<page>
<title>Guatemala</title>
<id>11873</id>
<revision>
<id>42029491</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T08:51:16Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>65.96.169.163</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''For the city, see [[Guatemala City]].''
{{Template:Guatemala infobox}}
The '''Republic of Guatemala''' ([[Spanish language|Spanish]]: ''República de Guatemala'', [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]]: {{IPA|[re'puβlika ðe gwate'mala]}}) is a country in [[Central America]], in the south of the continent of [[North America]], situated between the [[Pacific Ocean]] and the [[Caribbean Sea]].
It is bordered by [[Mexico]] to the north, [[Belize]] to the northeast, and [[Honduras]] and [[El Salvador]] to the southeast.
== History ==
''Main article: [[History of Guatemala]]''
From the [[3rd century]] [[Anno Domini|BC]] to the [[11th century]] [[Anno Domini|AD]], the lowlands area of the [[el Petén|Petén]] and [[Izabal]] regions of Guatemala were several indigenous states on the central highlands. [[Alta Verapaz]] is known for the fact that, after failing to conquer it by the sword the Spanish entered by the Church, with missionaries who defended the Indians from the cruel treatments of the Spanish army. Many Pre-Columbian Mayan books were lost due to the policy of the Spaniards during the colonial period of burning them. However, several survive, including: The "[[Popol Vuh]]", "Anales de los Kakchiqueles", and "Chilam Balam", books that were discovered and preserved by Spanish missionary friars. The name "Goathemala" was given by the Spanish conquistadores to this land, which derives from indigenous words that mean "Land of many trees".
During the Spanish colonial period, Guatemala was a [[Captaincy General]] (Capitanía General de Goathemala) of Spain. It extended from the Soconusco region - located in what is now the southern part of Mexico (states of [[Chiapas]], [[Tabasco]], [[Quintana Roo]], and [[Yucatan]]) - to [[Costa Rica]]. From a political point of view, this region was not as rich in mineral resources (gold and silver) as Mexico and Peru were. Therefore, it did not have the same importance as those two Viceroyalties had. Its main products were [[sugarcane]], [[cocoa]], and añil (dye obtained from [[Indigo dye|indigo]] plant to dye textiles).
Tired of being forced to trade exclusively with Spain, the Guatemalan elite declared independence of Spain in [[September 15]], [[1821]]. At that time, the Guatemalan Republic included the [[Soconusco]] region, as well as what are now the countries of [[El Salvador]], [[Honduras]], [[Nicaragua]], and [[Costa Rica]]. Such a big countr |
esort]]. (He reports to [[Jay Rasulo]], the chairman of [[Walt Disney Parks and Resorts]], who in turn reports to [[Bob Iger]], the president and chief executive officer of [[The Walt Disney Company]].) Ouimet, who previously ran Disney's cruise ship operations, is assisted by several experienced theme park managers, including Senior Vice President of Operations [[Greg Emmer]] and Vice President of Theme Park Operations [[Jon Storbeck]].
On a minute-to-minute basis, the parks are run by [[duty managers]], who are identified by their radio call signs. Disneyland's senior on-the-ground manager at any time is called Theme Park One, a position which rotates among a group of managers in the resort's Theme Park Operations department. (DCA's senior manager is called Theme Park Two.) These managers respond to situtations throughout the park and are empowered to open backstage areas for crowd control purposes, close specific locations, or even close the entire park.
Guest service managers from the park's several business units, including Attractions, Custodial, Foods, Merchandise, and Security, report to Theme Park One, and are given call signs such as Attractions One or Merch One. Various assistant managers, in turn, report to their business unit's duty manager, and carry callsigns such as River One (the manager in charge of the Critter Country and New Orleans Square rides).
==References==
* <sup>1</sup>''Disneyland: The First Quarter Century'' (1979). Walt Disney Productions.
* [http://www.yesterland.com Yesterland].
* Daily park brochures from Summer 1981, 1983, 1984, 1987, 1988, 1990, 1994, 1996, 2000, 2002, 2006.
==Notes==
#{{Note|Name}} Although most people refer to the park as simply "Disneyland", the official name is "Disneyland Park". [[United States]] [[trademark]] practice specifies that a trademark such as "Disneyland" is always used as an adjective and never as a noun or verb. Therefore, "[[Xerox]] copier" and "Disneyland Park" are correct usage, while "use a Xerox" or "come to Disneyland" are not technically correct.
==Books==
*{{cite book|title=Disneyland: Inside Story|first=Randy|last=Bright|publisher=Harry N Abrams|year=1987|id=ISBN 0810908115}}
*{{cite book|title=Window on Main Street|first=Van Arsdale|last=France|publisher= Stabur|year=1991|id=ISBN 1613178}}
==External links==
* [http://disneyland.disney.go.com/disneyland/en_US/parks/landing?name=DisneylandParkLandingPage Disneyland park web page]
* [http://users.sisna.com/matkinson/ Disneyland 50 Years of Souvenirs]
=== Aerial photos ===
*[http://maps.google.com/maps?q=disneyland,+anaheim+ca&spn=0.016056,0.030088&t=k&hl=en Aerial photo of Disneyland from Google Maps]
*[http://terraserver.microsoft.com/image.aspx?T=4&S=10&Z=11&X=2074&Y=18708&W=1&qs=%7cAnaheim%7cCA%7c Aerial photo of Disneyland from Microsoft Terraserver]
{{Noteworthy Amusement Parks}}
{{disneyparks}}
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[[Category:Tourism in California]]
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[[zh:迪士尼乐园]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Donald A. Wollheim</title>
<id>8843</id>
<revision>
<id>33575814</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-02T08:17:36Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Mako098765</username>
<id>58453</id>
</contributor>
<comment>style and structure</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Donald Allen Wollheim''' ([[October 1]], [[1914]] - [[November 2]], [[1990]]) was a science fiction [[science fiction writers|writer]], [[science fiction editors|editor]], and publisher. He published his own works under pseudonyms, including '''David Grinnell'''.
A member of the [[Futurians]], he was one of the leading influences on the development of [[science fiction]] and [[science fiction fandom]] in the [[20th century]] USA.
He began editing [[Ace Books]]' science fiction line in the late [[1950s]] and initiated the ''Ace Doubles'' series which consisted of pairs of books, usually by different authors, bound back-to-back with two "front" covers. Because these paired books had to fit a fixed total page-length, one or both were usually heavily abridged to fit, and Wollheim often made many other editorial alterations and title changes — as witness the many differences between [[Poul Anderson]]'s Ace novel ''War of the Wing-Men'' and its definitive revised edition, ''The Man Who Counts''. He seems to have made a number of changes solely to suit his own conservative views. However, it was also during the fifties he bought the book ''[[Junkie (novel)|Junk]]'' by [[William S. Burroughs]], which, in his inimitable fashion, he retitled ''Junkie''.
His penchant for changing titles led his colleague and later competitor [[Terry Carr]] to quip, "If Don Wollheim had published the Bible [as an Ace Double], it would be ''War God of Israel / The Thing with Three Souls''."
It was Wollheim who, in [[1965]], exploited a loophole in international [[copyright]] law to publish an unauthorized Ace edition of ''[[The Lord of the Rings]]'' by [[J. R. R. Tolkien]] in three volumes - the first mass-market paperback edition of Tolkien's epic. Wollheim was probably aware that Ace would face legal action over the issue but gambled that sales of the "pirate" edition would be high enough to offset any legal losses. In any case, the débacle brought Ace into the limelight.
After leaving Ace he founded [[DAW Books]] in [[1971]], named by his initials, which can claim to be the first mass market specialist science fiction and [[fantasy fiction]] publishing house. In later years his conservatism seems to have mellowed; when his distributors, [[New American Library]], threatened to withhold distribution of [[Thomas Burnett Swann]]'s Biblical fantasy ''How are the Mighty Fallen'' ([[1974]]) because of its [[Homosexuality|homosexual]] content, Wollheim fought vigorously against their decision and they relented.
He also published a popular "Best of the Year" anthology that lasted from [[1965]] until his death in [[1990]] (although from [[1965]] to [[1970]], he co-edited it with [[Terry Carr]]; and from [[1971]] to [[1990]], co-edited it with [[Arthur W. Saha]]).
===Selected bibliography===
* Anthology: The Annual World's Best SF, 1965-1990
=== External links ===
* [http://www.dawbooks.com/ DAW Books]
* {{isfdb name|id=Donald_A._Wollheim |name=Donald A. Wollheim}}
* [http://www.gwillick.com/Spacelight/wollheim.html Obituary] at ''Spacelight''
* [http://www.fantasticfiction.co.uk/authors/Donald_A_Wollheim.htm Bibliography] at ''fantasticfiction.co.uk''
* [http://www4.geometry.net/detail/authors/wollheim_donald_a.html Bibliography] at ''geometry.net''
[[Category:1914 births|Wollheim, Donald A.]]
[[Category:1990 deaths|Wollheim, Donald A.]]
[[Category:Science fiction writers|Wollheim, Donald A.]]
[[Category:Science fiction editors|Wollheim, Donald A.]]
[[Category:Science fiction fans|Wollheim, Donald A.]]
[[pl:Donald A. Wollheim]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Digital cinema</title>
<id>8844</id>
<revision>
<id>40345145</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-19T23:23:14Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>207.62.246.1</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Criticism */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{cleanup-date|February 2006}}
{{expert}}
{{Otheruses4|digital presentation|the recording digital images|digital cinematography}}
'''Digital cinema''' refers to the use of [[digital]] technology to distribute and project [[motion picture]]s. The final movie can be distributed electronically and projected using a digital projector instead of a conventional film projector. Note that digital cinema is distinct from [[high definition television]] and in particular, digital film is not completely dependent on using [[television]] or [[High-definition television|HDTV]] standards, [[Aspect ratio (image)|aspect ratios]], or frame rates, though recent developments in HDTV have led to a resurgence of related interest in using the HD format for digital cinema, known as [[HD cinema]].
In this article, "2K" and "4K" refer to images with 2048 and 4096 pixel resolution on their longest side respectively.
==History==
{{cleanup-date|December 2005}}
Recent (late 2005) interest in digital 3D stereo projection has led to a new willingness on the part of theaters to co-operate in installing limited number of 2K installations to show Disney's ''Chicken Little'' in 3D. Seven more digital 3D movies are slated for 2006 or 2007 release. This will likely increase the number of 2K installations to several hundred by the end of 2006. The cost of planned target format, 4K, is much greater, and will likely remain on hold until more results for 3D are evaluated. Other digital applications such as live sports are additional incentives. HD TV and pre-recorded HD Blu-ray disks, will put greater pressure on theaters to offer something better to compete with the improved home HD experience. 2K does not actually improve on the existing film prints, except in eliminating scratches, where 4K will likely look better than 35mm film. 3D, if it proves to be a factor, will look much better in the bigger 4K format.
==Technology==
{{mergeto|Digital cinematogra |
a.com/pet/scorpion/detection-using-uv-leds.html Scorpion detection using UV LEDs]
* [http://www.confocal-microscopy.org/Protocols%20-%20Immunofluorescence.htm Immunofluorescence Protocol]
* [http://www.probes.com/handbook/ Handbook on fluorescent probes used in biology] from the company [[Molecular Probes]]
[[Category:Luminescence]]
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<page>
<title>Fundamental theorem of arithmetic</title>
<id>11556</id>
<revision>
<id>39743707</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-15T15:38:34Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Cikicdragan</username>
<id>843227</id>
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<text xml:space="preserve">In [[mathematics]], and in particular [[number theory]], the '''fundamental theorem of arithmetic''' or '''unique factorization theorem''' is the statement that every [[natural number]] greater than 1 is either a [[prime number]] or can be written as a product of [[prime number]]s. Furthermore this [[factorization]] is unique except for the order. For instance, we can write
:* <math>6936 = 2^3 \cdot 3 \cdot 17^2</math>
:* <math>1200 = 2^4 \cdot 3 \cdot 5^2</math>
and there are no other possible [[factorization]]s of 6936 or 1200 into prime numbers, if we ignore the ordering of the factors.
To make the theorem work even for the number 1, we can think of 1 as being the product of zero prime numbers (see [[empty product]]).
==Applications==
The theorem establishes the importance of prime numbers. The prime numbers are the basic building blocks of the positive integers, in the sense that every positive integer can be constructed from primes, and there is essentially only one such construction.
Knowing the prime number factorization of a number gives complete knowledge about all (prime and non-prime) divisors of that number.
For example, the above factorization of 6936 tells us that any positive divisor of 6936 must have the form 2<sup>a</sup><math>\cdot</math>3<sup>b</sup><math>\cdot</math>17<sup>c</sup>, where ''a'' takes one of the '''4''' values in {0,&nbsp;1,&nbsp;2,&nbsp;3}, where ''b'' takes one of the '''2''' values in {0,&nbsp;1}, and where ''c'' takes one of the '''3''' values in {0,&nbsp;1,&nbsp;2}. Multiplying the numbers of independent options together produces a total of 4<math>\cdot</math>2<math>\cdot</math>3 = 24 positive divisors.
Once the prime factorizations of two numbers are known, their [[greatest common divisor]] and [[least common multiple]] can be found quickly. For instance, from the above we see that the greatest common divisor of 6936 and 1200 is 2<sup>3</sup><math>\cdot</math>
3 = 24. However if the prime factorizations are not known, the use of the [[Euclidean algorithm]] generally requires much less calculation than factoring the two numbers.
The fundamental theorem ensures that [[additive function|additive]] and [[multiplicative function|multiplicative]] [[arithmetic function]]s are completely determined by their values on the powers of prime numbers.
== Proof ==
The theorem was essentially first proved by [[Euclid]], but the first full and correct proof is found in the [[Disquisitiones Arithmeticae]] by [[Carl Friedrich Gauß]].
Although at first sight it seems 'obvious', it does ''not'' hold in more general number systems, including many rings of [[algebraic integers]]. This was first pointed out by [[Ernst Kummer]] in 1843, in his work on [[Fermat's last theorem]]. The recognition of this failure is one of the earliest developments in [[algebraic number theory]].
The proof consists of two parts: first, we have to show that every number can indeed be written as a product of primes; then we have to show that any two such representations are essentially the same.
Suppose there were a positive integer which cannot be written as a product of primes. Then [[well-order|there must be a smallest such number]]: let's call it ''n''. This number ''n'' cannot be 1, because of our convention above. It cannot be a prime number either, since any prime number is a product of a single prime, itself. So it must be a composite number. Thus
:''n'' = ''ab''
where both ''a'' and ''b'' are positive integers smaller than ''n''. Since ''n'' was the smallest number for which the theorem fails, both ''a'' and ''b'' can be written as products of primes. But then
:''n'' = ''ab''
can be written as a product of primes as well, a [[Contradiction#Proof_by_contradiction|contradiction]]. This is a [[minimal counterexample]] argument.
The uniqueness part of the proof hinges on the following fact: if a prime number ''p'' divides a product ''ab'', then it divides ''a'' or it divides ''b'' ([[Euclid's lemma]]). This is a [[lemma (mathematics)|lemma]], to prove first. For that, if ''p'' doesn't divide ''a'', then ''p'' and ''a'' are [[coprime]] and [[Bézout's identity]] yields integers ''x'' and ''y'' such that
:''px'' + ''ay'' = 1.
Multiplying with ''b'' yields
:''pbx'' + ''aby'' = ''b'',
and since both summands on the left-hand side are divisible by ''p'', the right-hand side is also divisible by ''p''. That proves the lemma.
Now take two products of primes which are equal. Take any prime ''p'' from the first product. It divides the first product, and hence also the second. By the above fact, ''p'' must then divide at least one factor in the second product. But the factors are all primes themselves, so ''p'' must actually be equal to one of the factors of the second product. So we can cancel ''p'' from both products. Continuing in this fashion, we eventually see that the prime factors of the two products must match up precisely.
''[[Aliter]]:
Another proof of the uniqueness of the prime factorization of a given integer uses [[infinite descent]]: Assume that a certain integer ''can'' be written as (at least) two different [[product (mathematics)|products]] of prime numbers, then there must exist a smallest integer ''s'' with such a property. Call the two products of ''s'' ''p''<sub>1</sub> ... ''p''<sub>''m''</sub> and ''q''<sub>1</sub> ... ''q''<sub>''n''</sub>. No ''p<sub>i</sub>'' (with 1 &le; ''i'' &le; ''m'') can be equal to any ''q<sub>j</sub>'' (with 1 &le; ''j'' &le; ''n''), as there would otherwise be a smaller integer factorizable in two ways (by removing prime factors common in both products) violating our assumption. We can now assume [[without loss of generality]] that ''p''<sub>1</sub> is a prime factor smaller than any ''q<sub>j</sub>'' (with 1 &le; ''j'' &le; ''n''). Take ''q''<sub>1</sub>. Then there exist integers ''d'' and ''r'' such that
:''q''<sub>1</sub>/''p''<sub>1</sub> = ''d'' + ''r''/''p''<sub>1</sub>
and 0 < ''r'' < ''p''<sub>1</sub> < ''q''<sub>1</sub> (''r'' can't be 0, as that would make ''q''<sub>1</sub> a multiple of ''p''<sub>1</sub> and not prime). We now get
:''p''<sub>2</sub> ... ''p''<sub>''m''</sub> = (''d'' + ''r''/''p''<sub>1</sub>) ''q''<sub>2</sub> ... ''q''<sub>''n''</sub> = ''dq''<sub>2</sub> ... ''q''<sub>''n''</sub> + ''rq''<sub>2</sub> ... ''q''<sub>''n''</sub>/''p''<sub>1</sub>.
The second [[term]] in the last [[Expression (mathematics)|expression]] must be equal to an integer we call ''k'', i.e.
:''k'' = ''rq''<sub>2</sub> ... ''q''<sub>''n''</sub>/''p''<sub>1</sub>.
This gives us
:''p''<sub>1</sub>''k'' = ''rq''<sub>2</sub> ... ''q''<sub>''n''</sub>.
The value of both sides of this equation is obviously smaller than ''s'', but is still large enough to be factorizable. Since ''r'' is smaller than ''p''<sub>1</sub>, the two prime factorizations we get on each side after both ''k'' and ''r'' are written out as their product of primes must be different. This is in [[contradiction]] with ''s'' being the smallest integer factorizable in more than one way. Thus the original assumption must be false.
A third proof proceeds through [[abstract algebra]]. First one proves the existence of a [[composition series]] for the group '''Z'''/(''a'') and shows that all of the its terms have the form '''Z'''/(''p'') for some prime number ''p''. Since the order of '''Z'''/(''a'') is equal to the product of the orders of the factors in the composition series, this gives a factorization of ''a'' into prime numbers. Then one establishes the [[Jordan-Hölder theorem]]. This guarantees the uniqueness of the composition series, and hence the uniqueness of the prime factorization. This is the approach used by [[Nicolas Bourbaki]]'s ''Algebra''.
==References==
==Bibliography==
* Baker, Alan, ''A Concise Introduction to the Theory of Numbers'', Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, 1984). ISBN 0521286549.
==See also==
* [[Fundamental theorem of algebra]]
* [[Integer factorization]]
* [[Prime factorization algorithm]]
* [[Prime signature]]
==External links==
* [http://www.cut-the-knot.org/blue/gcd_fta.shtml GCD and the Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic] at [[cut-the-knot]]
* [http://planetmath.org/encyclopedia/ProofOfFundamentalTheoremOfArithmetic.html PlanetMath: Proof of fundamental theorem of arithmetic]
* [http://fermatslasttheorem.blogspot.com/2005/06/unique-factorization.html Fermat's Last Theorem Blog: Unique Factorization], A blog that covers the history of Fermat's Last Theorem from Diophantus of Alex |
million carats (80,000 kg) of synthetic diamonds are produced annually for industrial use&mdash;nearly four times the mass of natural diamonds mined over the same period.
The dominant industrial use of diamond is in cutting, drilling, grinding, and polishing. Most uses of diamonds in these technologies do not require large diamonds; in fact, most diamonds that are gem-quality except for their small size, can find an industrial use. Diamonds are embedded in drill tips or saw blades, or ground into a powder for use in grinding and polishing applications. Specialized applications include use in laboratories as containment for high pressure experiments (see [[diamond anvil]]), high-performance [[bearing (mechanical)|bearings]], and limited use in specialized [[window]]s.
With the continuing advances being made in the production of synthetic diamond, future applications are beginning to become feasible. Garnering much excitement is the possible use of diamond as a [[semiconductor]] suitable to build [[microchip]]s from, or the use of diamond as a [[heat sink]] in [[electronics]]. Significant research efforts in [[Japan]], [[Europe]], and the [[United States]] are under way to capitalize on the potential offered by diamond's unique material properties, combined with increased quality and quantity of supply starting to become available from synthetic diamond manufacturers.
=== Diamond supply chain ===
''See also: [[List of diamond mines]]''
The diamond supply chain is controlled by a limited number of powerful businesses, and is also highly concentrated in a small number of locations around the world. In fact, the amount of power which De Beers has consolidated historically prevented it from direct trade with the [[United States]], as its trade practices led to an [[indictment]] for violating [[Sherman Antitrust Act|antitrust regulations]] (the case was settled in 2004). The concentration of power only loosens at the retail level, where diamonds are sold by a limited number of distributors, known as [[sightholder]]s, to jewelers around the world.
[[Image:Childrenmining 300.jpg|thumb|Alluvial mining by traditional methods continues, as seen here in [[Sierra Leone]].]]
==== Sources ====
Historically diamonds were known to be found only in alluvial deposits in [[southern India]]; India led the world in diamond production from the time of their discovery in approximately the [[9th century BCE]] to the mid-[[18th century|18th century CE]], but the commercial potential of these sources has been exhausted. The first non-Indian diamond source was found in [[Brazil]] in 1725. Today, most commercially viable diamond deposits are in [[Africa]], notably in [[South Africa]], [[Namibia]], [[Botswana]], the [[Republic of the Congo]], [[Angola]] and [[Sierra Leone]]. There are also commercial deposits being actively mined in the [[Northwest Territories]] of [[Canada]], [[Siberia]] (mostly in [[Sakha|Yakutia territory]], for example [[Mir pipe]] and [[Udachnaya pipe]]), Brazil, and in Northern and Western [[Australia]]. Diamond prospectors continue to search the globe for diamond-bearing kimberlite and lamproite pipes.
In some of the more politically unstable central African and west African countries, revolutionary groups have taken control of diamond mines, using proceeds from diamond sales to finance their operations. Diamonds sold through this process are known as ''[[conflict diamond]]s'' or ''blood diamonds''. In response to public concerns that their diamond purchases were contributing to war and human rights abuses in central Africa and west Africa, the diamond industry and diamond-trading nations introduced the [[Kimberley Process]] in 2002, which is aimed at ensuring that conflict diamonds do not become intermixed with the diamonds not controlled by such rebel groups. The Kimberley Process provides documentation and certification of diamond exports from producing countries to ensure that the proceeds of sale are not being used to fund criminal or revolutionary activities. Although the Kimberly Process has been somewhat successful in limiting the number of conflict diamonds entering the market, conflict diamonds smuggled to market continue to persist to some degree.
Currently, gem production totals nearly 30 million carats (6,000 kg) of cut and polished stones annually, and over 100 million carats (20,000 kg) of diamonds are sold for industrial use each year. In 2003, this constituted total production of nearly US$9 [[billion]] in value.
==== Distribution ====
The [[Diamond Trading Company]], or DTC, is a subsidiary of De Beers and markets rough diamonds produced both by De Beers mines and other mines from which it purchases rough diamond production; in whole, about two thirds of all rough diamonds pass through the company. DTC performs sophisticated sorting of rough diamonds into over 16,000 categories, and then sells bulk lots of rough diamonds to a limited number of sightholders a few times a year.
Once purchased by sightholders, diamonds are cut and polished in preparation for sale as gemstones. The cutting and polishing of rough diamonds is a specialized skill that is concentrated in a limited number of locations worldwide. Traditional diamond cutting centers are [[Antwerp]], [[Amsterdam]], [[Johannesburg]], [[New York, New York|New York]], and [[Tel Aviv]]. Recently, diamond cutting centers have been established in [[China]], [[India]], and [[Thailand]]. Cutting centers with lower [[cost of labor|costs of labor]], notably [[Surat]] in Gujarat, India, handle a larger number of smaller carat diamonds, while smaller quantities of larger or more valuable diamonds are more likely to be handled in [[Europe]] or [[North America]]. Demonstrating this, India produces 90% of all cut and polished diamonds by number, but only 55% by value. The recent expansion of this industry in India, employing low cost labor, has allowed smaller diamonds to be prepared as gems than was previously economically feasible.
Diamonds which have been prepared as gemstones are sold on diamond exchanges called ''bourses''. There are 24 registered diamond bourses. This is the final tightly controlled step in the diamond supply chain; wholesalers and even retailers are able to buy relatively small lots of diamonds at the bourses, after which they are prepared for final sale to the consumer. Diamonds can be sold already set in jewelry, or as is increasingly popular, sold unset ("loose"). According to the Rio Tinto Group, in 2002 the diamonds produced and released to the market were valued at US$9 billion as rough diamonds, US$14 billion after being cut and polished, US$28 billion in wholesale diamond [[jewelry]], and retail sales of US$57 billion. [http://www.riotintodiamonds.com/market/industry.asp]
===Synthetics, simulants, and enhancements===
{{main|Synthetic diamond}}
{{main|Diamond simulants}}
{{main|Diamond enhancement}}
The gemological and industrial uses of diamond have created a large demand for raw stones. A portion of this demand is now being met by [[synthetic diamond]]s, man-made diamonds which have similar properties to natural diamonds. This process has historically produced industrial-grade diamonds, but synthetic diamond producers have recently begun to penetrate the gem diamond market. Diamonds have been manufactured synthetically for over fifty years.
A diamond's gem quality, which is not as dependent on material properties as industrial applications, has invited both imitation and the invention of procedures to enhance the gemological properties of natural diamonds. Materials which have similar gemological characteristics to diamond but are not real mined or synthetic diamond are known as ''diamond simulants''. The most familiar diamond simulant to most consumers is [[cubic zirconia]] (commonly abbreviated as CZ); recently [[moissanite]] has also gained cachet as a popular diamond simulant. Both CZ and moissanite are synthetically produced for use as a diamond simulant. Diamond enhancements are specific treatments, performed on natural diamonds (usually those already cut and polished into a gem), which are designed to better the gemological characteristics of the stone in one or more ways. These include laser drilling to remove inclusions, application of sealants to fill cracks, treatments to improve a white diamond's color grade, and treatments to give fancy color to a white diamond.
Currently, trained gemologists with appropriate equipment are able to distinguish natural diamonds from all synthetic and simulant diamonds, and identify all enhanced natural diamonds. The established natural diamond industry has a vested interest in maintaining the distinction between natural diamonds and other diamonds, and has made significant investments toward that end. However, synthetic diamonds may one day be indistinguishable from natural diamonds, and new techniques for simulants (such as coating them with a very thin diamond-like layer of carbon) are making it harder to easily distinguish between simulants and real diamonds.
==Symbolism==
[[Image:Mary of burgundy.jpg|right|thumb|Mary of Burgundy is the first known recipient of a diamond engagement ring, in 1477.]]
Because of their extraordinary physical properties, diamonds have been used symbolically since near the time of their first discovery. Perhaps the earliest symbolic use of diamonds was as the eyes of [[Hinduism|Hindu]] devotional statues. The diamonds themselves were thought to be endowments from the gods and were therefore cherished. The point at which diamonds began to be associated with divinity is not known, but early texts indicate that it was recognized in [[India]] since at least [[400 BCE]]. It is said the [[Ancient Greece|Greeks]] believed diamonds were tears of the gods; the [[Ancient Rome|Romans]] believed they were splinters of fallen stars. Many long dead cultures have sought to explain diamond's superlative properties through divine or my |
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'''Columbus''' is the [[capital]] of the [[U.S. state]] of [[Ohio]]. It was founded in [[1812]] at the confluence of the [[Scioto River|Scioto]] and [[Olentangy River|Olentangy]] rivers, and was named the state capital in [[1816]].
According to the [[United States 2000 Census|2000 census]], Columbus has a population of 711,470 residents, making it the largest city in Ohio and the 15th largest in the [[United States]]. This number grew to 730,008 in 2004. The greater Columbus [[United States metropolitan area|metropolitan area]] has a population of 1,612,694, ranking it third in Ohio (behind [[Cleveland, Ohio|Cleveland]] and [[Cincinnati, Ohio|Cincinnati]]) and 31st in the United States. With regard to the [[Combined Statistical Area]] (which includes [[Chillicothe, Ohio|Chillicothe]] and [[Marion, Ohio|Marion]]), Columbus ranks 24th in the country with approximately 1.84 million residents.
Located near the geographic center of the state, Columbus is the [[county seat]] of [[Franklin County, Ohio|Franklin County]], though parts of the city also extend into [[Delaware County, Ohio|Delaware]] and [[Fairfield County, Ohio|Fairfield]] counties.
==History==
Evidence of ancient [[Mound Builders|mound-building]] societies abounds in the region near the confluence of the [[Scioto River|Scioto]] and [[Olentangy River|Olentangy]] rivers. Mound Street, located in downtown Columbus, was so named because of its proximity to a large Native American burial mound. Those ancient civilizations had long since faded into history when European explorers began moving into the region south of [[Lake Erie]]. Rather than an empty [[frontier]], however, they encountered people of the [[Miami tribe|Miami]], [[Lenape|Delaware]], [[Wyandot]], [[Shawnee (tribe)|Shawnee]], and [[Mingo (tribe)|Mingo]] nations. These tribes resisted expansion by the fledgling United States, resulting in years of bitter conflict. A decisive battle at [[Battle of Fallen Timbers|Fallen Timbers]] resulted in the [[Treaty of Greenville]], which finally opened the way for new settlements. By [[1797]], a young [[Surveying|surveyor]] from [[Virginia]] named Lucas Sullivant had founded a permanent settlement on the west bank of the forks of the Scioto River. A great admirer of [[Benjamin Franklin]], Sullivant chose to name his new frontier village "Franklinton."
===19th century===
After achieving statehood in [[1803]], political infighting among Ohio's more prominent leaders resulted in the state [[capital]] moving from [[Chillicothe, Ohio|Chillicothe]] to [[Zanesville, Ohio|Zanesville]] and back again. The state legislature eventually decided that a new capital city, located in the center of the state, was a necessary compromise. Several of Ohio's small towns and villages petitioned the legislature for the honor of becoming the state capital, but ultimately a coalition of land speculators, with Sullivant's support, made the most attractive offer to the [[Ohio General Assembly]]. Named in honor of [[Christopher Columbus]], the capital city was founded in February, [[1812]], on the "High Banks opposite Franklinton at the Forks of the Scioto known as Wolf's Ridge."
The [[National Road]] reached Columbus from [[Baltimore]] in [[1831]], which complemented the city's new link to the [[Ohio and Erie Canal]] and facilitated a population boom. A wave of immigrants from Europe resulted in the establishment of two ethnic [[enclaves]] on the outskirts of the city. A significant [[Ireland|Irish]] population settled in the north along Naghten Street (presently Nationwide Boulevard), while the [[Germany|Germans]] took advantage of the cheap land to the south, creating a community that came to be known as [[German Village|''Die Alte Sud Ende'']] (The Old South End). Columbus' German population is responsible for constructing numerous breweries, the Lutheran Theological [[Seminary]], [[Capital University]], and instituting the first [[kindergarten]] in the United States.
On January 7, [[1857]], the [[Ohio Statehouse]] was finally opened to the public after eighteen years of construction. During the [[American Civil War|Civil War]], Columbus was the home of Camp Chase, a major base for the [[Union Army]] that housed 26,000 troops and held up to 9,000 [[Confederate States Army|Confederate]] [[prisoners of war]]. Over 2,000 Confederate soldiers remain buried at the site, making it one of the largest Confederate cemeteries in the North. By virtue of the [[Morrill Land-Grant Colleges Act]], the [[Ohio State University|Ohio Agricultural and Mechanical College]] was founded in [[1870]] on the former estate of William and Hannah Neil.
By the end of the 19th century, Columbus saw the rise of several major [[manufacturing]] businesses. The city became known as the "Buggy Capital of the World," thanks to the presence of some two dozen [[Carriage|buggy]] factories, notably the Columbus Buggy Company, which was founded in [[1875]] by [[Harvey Firestone]]. The Columbus Consolidated Brewing Company also rose to prominence during this time, and it may have achieved even greater success were it not for the influence of the [[Anti-Saloon League]], based in neighboring [[Westerville, Ohio|Westerville]]. In the steel industry, a forward-thinking man named [[Samuel P. Bush]] presided over the Buckeye Steel Castings Company. Columbus also served as a popular location for the organization of labor. In [[1886]] [[Samuel Gompers]] founded the [[American Federation of Labor]] in Druid's Hall on S. Fourth Street, and in [[1890]] the [[United Mine Workers of America]] was founded at old City Hall.
===20th century===
[[Image:AUT 0348.JPG|thumb|250px|right|Street arches returned to the [[Short North]] in late 2002]]
Columbus earned its reputation as "The Arch City" because of the dozens of metal (formerly wooden) arches that spanned High Street at the turn of the 20th Century. The arches illuminated the thoroughfare and eventually became the means by which electric power was provided to the new [[Tram|streetcars]]. Then, on March 25, [[1913]], a catastrophic flood devastated the neighborhood of Franklinton, leaving ninety-six people dead and thousands of West Side residents homeless. To prevent future flooding, the [[United States Army Corps of Engineers|Army Corps of Engineers]] recommended widening the Scioto River through downtown, constructing new bridges, and building a retaining wall along its banks. With the strength of the post-[[World War I|WWI]] economy, a construction boom occurred in the 1920s, resulting in a new Civic Center, the [[Ohio Theatre]], the [[LeVeque Tower|American Insurance Union Citadel]], and to the north, a massive new [[Ohio Stadium]].
The effects of the [[Great Depression]] were somewhat less severe in Columbus, as the city's diversified economy helped it fare marginally better than its [[Rust Belt]] neighbors. [[World War II]] brought a tremendous number of new jobs to the city, and with it another population surge. This time, the majority of new arrivals were migrants from the extremely depressed rural parts of [[Appalachia]], who would soon account for more than a third of Columbus' rising population. In [[1948]], the Town and Country Shopping Center opened in suburban [[Whitehall, Ohio|Whitehall]], and it is now regarded as one of the first modern [[shopping mall|shopping centers]] in the United States. Along with the construction of the [[interstate highway]], it signaled the arrival of rapid [[Suburb|suburban]] development in central Ohio. In order to protect the city's tax base from this [[suburbanization]], Columbus adopted a policy of linking sewer and water hookups to [[annexation]] to the city. By the early 1990s, Columbus had grown to become Ohio's largest city in both land area and in population.
Efforts to revitalize [[Central Business District|downtown]] Columbus have met with mixed results in recent decades. In the 1970's old landmarks such as Union Station and the Neil House Hotel were razed to construct high-rise office and retail spaces, notably [[Columbus City Center]] and the Greater Columbus Convention Center. However, newer suburban developments at Tuttle Crossing, [[Easton Town Center|Easton]], and [[Polaris Fashion Place|Polaris]] have inhibited much of the anticipated downtown growth. Still, with the addition of the [[Nationwide Arena|Nationwide Arena District]] as well as hundreds of downtown residential units, it is clear that Columbus looks to ensure a successful future by bolstering the strength of its core.
[[Image:Columbus Ohio Skyline.jpg|thumb|280px|Skyline of downtown Columbus, Ohio, viewed across the [[Scioto River]].]]
==Geography==
According to the [[United States Census Bureau]], the city has a total area of 550.5 [[square kilometre|km²]] (212.6 [[square mile|mi²]]). 544.6 km² (210.3 mi²) of it is land and 5.9 km² (2.3 mi²) of it is water. The total area is 1.07% water. Unlike many other major US cities in the [[Midwest]], Columbus continues to expand its reach by way of extensions and [[annexation|annexations]], making it one of the fastest growing large cities in the nation, in terms of both geography and population, and probably the fastest in the [[Midwest]]. Unlike [[Cleveland]] and [[Cincinnati]], the central cities in Ohio's two largest metropolitan areas, Columbus is ringed by relatively few suburbs; since the [[1950s]] it has made [[annexation]] a condition for providing water and sewer service, to which it holds regional rights throughout a large portion of Central Ohio. This policy is credited with preserving Columbus' tax base in the face of the U.S.'s suburbanization and has contributed to its b |
Buddy") # 3, UK, 08/1956; # 19 (UK), 01/1957
* "[[See You Later, Alligator]]" – # 6, 02/1956; # 7 UK, 03/1956; # 12 UK, 09/1956 (new entry)
* "Rip it Up" – # 25, 08/1956; # 4 UK, 11/1956
* "Teenager's Mother (Are You Right?)" - (flipside of "Rip it Up") - # 68, 08/1956
* "Rudy's Rock" - # 34; # 30 (UK), 11/1956; re-charts # 26 (UK), 12/1956
* "Don't Knock the Rock" - # 45, 12/1956; # 7, UK, 02/1957
* "Rock the Joint" (1952 recording) - # 20 UK, 02/1957
* "Forty Cups of Coffee"/"Hook, Line and Sinker" - # 70, 04/1957
* "(You Hit the Wrong Note) Billy Goat" - # 60, 06/1957
* "Skinny Minnie" - # 22, 05/1958
* "Lean Jean" - # 67, 08/1958
* "Joey's Song" - # 46, 11/1959
* "[[Skokiaan|Skokiaan (South African Song)]]" - # 70, 1960
* "Haley's Golden Medley" - (posthumous edit of "Rock Around the Clock", "See You Later Alligator", "Shake, Rattle and Roll" and others) # 50, UK, 04/1981
In addition, Haley and the Comets also scored chart hits in Latin America during the period 1961-1966 with recordings such as "Twist Espanol", "Florida Twist" and "Land of 1000 Dances".
==Biographies==
* In 1980, Haley began work on an autobiography entitled ''The Life and Times of Bill Haley'' but died after completing only 100 pages. The work is registered with the [[U.S. Copyright Office]] but has yet to be released to the public.
* In 1982, [[John Swenson]] wrote ''Bill Haley: The Daddy of Rock and Roll'' (published in the [[UK]] under the title, ''Bill Haley''), which is controversial among Haley fans for alleged inaccuracies.
* In 1990, Haley's eldest son, [[John W. Haley]], along with [[John von Hoelle]] wrote ''Sound and Glory'', a biography focusing mostly on Haley's early life and peak career years. This book is long out of print.
* A [[German language|German]]-language biography was published soon after Haley's death, written by [[Peter Cornelsen]] and [[Harald D. Kain]].
* A book on the history of Haley's most famous recording, ''Rock Around the Clock: The Record That Started the Rock Revolution'' by [[Jim Dawson]] was published in June 2005. [http://www.rockabillyhall.com/Extra.html#clockbook]
==Film portrayals==
Unlike his contemporaries, Bill Haley has rarely been portrayed on screen. Following the success of ''[[The Buddy Holly Story]]'' in [[1978]], Haley expressed interest in having his life story committed to film, but this never came to fruition. In the 1980s and early [[1990s]], numerous media reports emerged that plans were underway to do a bio-pic based upon Haley's life, with [[Beau Bridges]], [[Jeff Bridges]] and [[John Ritter]] all at one point being mentioned as actors in line to play Haley (according to ''[[Goldmine Magazine]]'', Ritter attempted to buy the film rights to ''Sound and Glory'').
Bill Haley has also been portrayed - not always in a positive light - in several "period" films:
* [[John Paramor]] in ''[[Shout! The Story of Johnny O'Keefe]]'' (1985)
* [[Michael Daingerfield]] in ''[[Mr. Rock 'n' Roll: The Alan Freed Story]]'' (1999)
* [[Dicky Barrett]] (of [[The Mighty Mighty Bosstones]] in ''[[Shake, Rattle and Roll: An American Love Story]]'' (also 1999)
In March 2005, the [[United Kingdom|British]] network [[Sky TV]] [http://www.sky.com/showbiz/picture_gallery/0,,50004-1175946-2,00.html reported] that [[Tom Hanks]] is planning to produce a biopic on the life of Bill Haley, with production tentatively scheduled to begin in [[2006]]. However this rumor was quickly debunked by Hanks.
==Children==
Married three times, Bill Haley had at least eight children. [[John W. Haley]], his eldest son, wrote ''Sound and Glory'', a biography of Haley, while his youngest daughter, [[Gina Haley]], is an up-and-coming musician based out of [[Los Angeles]]. [[Scott Haley]] is a noted athlete, while Bill's youngest son, [[Pedro Haley]], is also a musician-in-the-making.
==See also==
*[[List of best-selling music artists]]
==External links==
* [http://www.billhaleycentral.com Portal site providing links to all the major Bill Haley-related websites on the Net]
[[Category:1925 births|Haley, Bill]]
[[Category:1981 deaths|Haley, Bill]]
[[Category:American rock musicians|Haley, Bill]]
[[Category:American rock singers|Haley, Bill]]
[[Category:Guitarists|Haley, Bill]]
[[Category:Hollywood Walk of Fame|Haley, Bill]]
[[Category:People from Michigan|Haley, Bill]]
[[Category:Radio DJs|Haley, Bill]]
[[Category:Rock and Roll Hall of Fame inductees|Haley, Bill]]
[[Category:Entertainers who died in their 50s|Haley, Bill]]
[[de:Bill Haley]]
[[es:Bill Haley]]
[[fr:Bill Haley]]
[[nl:Bill Haley]]
[[pl:Bill Haley]]
[[pt:Bill Haley]]
[[sv:Bill Haley]]
{{Persondata
|NAME= Haley, William John Clifton
|ALTERNATIVE NAMES= Haley, Bill; Clifton, Johnny; Gregory, Scott; Haley, Jack
|SHORT DESCRIPTION= Rock and roll music pioneer
|DATE OF BIRTH= 6 July 1925
|PLACE OF BIRTH= [[Highland Park, Michigan]]
|DATE OF DEATH= 9 February 1981
|PLACE OF DEATH= [[Harlingen, Texas]]
}}</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Bobwhite Quail</title>
<id>4529</id>
<revision>
<id>41958271</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T21:58:02Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Jcgarcow</username>
<id>673528</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>rv, reverting</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Taxobox
| color = pink
| name = Bobwhite Quail
| image = Bobwhitequailusda.jpg
| image_width = 250px
| regnum = [[Animal]]ia
| phylum = [[Chordate|Chordata]]
| subphylum = [[Vertebrate|Vertebrata]]
| classis = [[Bird|Aves]]
| ordo = [[Galliformes]]
| familia = [[Odontophoridae]]
| genus = ''[[Colinus]]''
| species = '''''C. virginianus'''''
| binomial = ''Colinus virginianus''
| binomial_authority = ([[Carolus Linnaeus|Linnaeus]], [[1758]])
}}
The '''Bobwhite Quail''' or '''Northern Bobwhite''', ''Colinus virginianus'', is a ground-dwelling [[bird]] native to [[North America]]. The name derives from their characteristic call.
The Bobwhite Quail is a member of the group of species known as [[New World quail]]. It is a popular [[gamebird]], particularly in the [[US Southern States]], forming what are known as "coveys", groups of five to 30 birds, during the non-breeding season (roughly October-April). Quail primarily inhabit areas of early successional growth dominated by various species of [[pine tree|pine]], [[hardwood]], woody, and [[herb|herbaceous]] growth. However, quail [[Habitat (ecology)|habitat]] varies greatly throughout their range which extends from [[Mexico]] east to [[Florida]] and north into the [[Upper Midwest]] and Northeast.
Bobwhites are distinguished by a black cap and black stripe behind the eye along the head. The area in between is white on males and yellow-brown on females. The body is brown, speckled in places with black or white on both sexes, and average weight is five to six ounces (145-200 grams).
During the breeding season, typically beginning in mid-April, bobwhite coveys dissolve. Social pairs are typically formed between individuals of unknown relationship. These social pairings potentially result in the formation of a mate bond and subsequent female fertilization and [[egg (biology)|egg]] formation. Eggs are laid at a rate of approximately 1 per day, and they hatch after 23 days. Eggs are normally white in color with a more pointed end than normal [[chicken]] eggs.
Both males and females can incubate nests, with most nests predominantly incubated by females. If the first clutch of eggs is unsuccessful, a breeding pair (may be the same pair or a different pair as that which led to the previous nesting attempt) will attempt to lay, incubate, and hatch additional clutches. If the clutch is successful, chicks are [[precocial]] and will leave the nest approximately 24 hours following hatching. The breeding season continues until mid-October, and successful nesters (females) can potentially lay, incubate, and hatch up to 3 clutches.
Bobwhites were previously classed with the Old World quails in the pheasant family [[Phasianidae]], but are not particularly closely related. They and the other New World quails are now given their own family, [[Odontophoridae]].
The bobwhite's song is a rising, clear whistle, ''bob-Wight!'' or ''bob-bob-White!'' The call is most often given by males in spring and summertime.
==External links==
*[http://www.itis.usda.gov/servlet/SingleRpt/SingleRpt?search_topic=TSN&search_value=175863 ITIS Standard Report Page: Colinus virginianus taxonomic details (includes subspecies) ]
*[http://www.fcps.k12.va.us/StratfordLandingES/Ecology/mpages/northern_bobwhite.htm Northern Bobwhite] Additional information, pictures, sound and video clips
[[Category:Odontophoridae]]
[[fr:Colin de Virginie]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Bluescreen</title>
<id>4530</id>
<revision>
<id>41907269</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T15:03:24Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>216.174.135.218</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Chroma key */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''For the Windows error message, see [[Blue Screen of Death]].''
[[Image:Bluebox in Heureka 01.jpg|thumb|200px|The bluescreen setup]]
[[Image:Bluebox in Heureka 02.jpg|thumb|200px|The final image]]
'''Bluescreen''' (known in television as '''Chroma Key''') is a term for the filmmaking technique of shooting foreground action against an evenly-lit monochomatic background for the purpose of removing the background from the scene and replacing it with a different image or scene. The term also refers to the visual effect resulting from this technique as well as the colored screen itself (although it is often not blue; for example, with '''greenscreen''').
==Travelling matte==
Prior |
;td> <center>&radic;</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[magpie|magpies]]''' </td><td>A tiding(s) of magpies</td><td> <center>&radic;</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[mallard|mallards]]''' </td><td>A lute of mallards</td><td> Uncertain </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[mallard|mallards]]''' </td><td>A sord of mallards</td><td> <center>&radic;</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[marten|martens]]''' </td><td>A richness of martens</td><td> <center>&radic;</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[mudhen|mudhen]]''' </td><td>A fleet of mudhen</td><td> Uncertain </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[nightingale|nightingales]]''' </td><td>A watch of nightingales</td><td> <center>&radic;</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[owl|owls]]''' </td><td>A parliament of owls</td><td> <center>&radic;</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[owl|owls]]''' </td><td>A stare of owls</td><td> <center>&radic;</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[parrot|parrots]]''' </td><td>A company of parrots</td><td> <center>&radic;</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[parrot|parrots]]''' </td><td>A pandemonium of parrots</td><td> Uncertain </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[partridge|partridges]]''' </td><td>A bew of partridges</td><td> Uncertain </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[partridge|partridges]]''' </td><td>A covey of partridges</td><td> <center>&radic;</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[peacock|peacocks]]''' </td><td>A muster of peacocks</td><td> <center>&radic;</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[peacock|peacocks]]''' </td><td>A pride of peacocks</td><td> <center>&radic;</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[peacock|peacocks]]''' </td><td>An ostentation of peacocks</td><td> <center>&radic;</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[penguin|penguins]]''' </td><td>A colony of penguins</td><td> <center>&radic;</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[penguin|penguins]]''' </td><td>A creche of penguins</td><td> <center>&radic;</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[penguin|penguins]]''' </td><td>A huddle of penguins</td><td> <center>&radic;</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[penguin|penguins]]''' </td><td>A parcel of penguins</td><td> Uncertain </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[penguin|penguins]]''' </td><td>A rookery of penguins</td><td> Spurious </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[pheasant|pheasants]]''' </td><td>A bouquet of pheasants</td><td> <center>&radic;</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[pheasant|pheasants]]''' </td><td>A covey of pheasants</td><td> <center>&radic;</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[pheasant|pheasants]]''' </td><td>A nide of pheasants</td><td> <center>&radic;</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[pheasant|pheasants]]''' </td><td>A nye of pheasants</td><td> <center>&radic;</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[pigeon|pigeons]]''' </td><td>A kit of pigeons</td><td> Uncertain </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[pigeon|pigeons]]''' </td><td>A loft of pigeons</td><td> <center>&radic;</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[plover|plovers]]''' </td><td>A congregation of plovers</td><td> <center>&radic;</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[ptarmigan|ptarmigan]]''' </td><td>A covey of ptarmigans
<tr><td> '''[[quail|quail]]''' </td><td>A bevy of quail</td><td> <center>&radic;</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[quail|quail]]''' </td><td>A covey of quail</td><td> <center>&radic;</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[raven|ravens]]''' </td><td>A conspiracy of ravens</td><td> <center>&radic;</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[raven|ravens]]''' </td><td>A murder of ravens</td><td> <center>&radic;</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[raven|ravens]]''' </td><td>A storytelling of ravens</td><td> <center>Uncertain</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[raven|ravens]]''' </td><td>An unkindness of ravens</td><td> <center>&radic;</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[rook (bird)|rooks]]''' </td><td>A building of rooks</td><td> <center>&radic;</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[rook (bird)|rooks]]''' </td><td>A clamour of rooks</td><td> <center>&radic;</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[rook (bird)|rooks]]''' </td><td>A parliament of rooks</td><td> <center>&radic;</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[ruff|ruffs]]''' </td><td>A hill of ruffs</td><td> <center>&radic;</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[sandpiper|sandpipers]]''' </td><td>A fling of sandpipers</td><td> <center>&radic;</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[sea bird|sea fowl]]''' </td><td>A cloud of sea fowl</td><td> <center>&radic;</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[gull|seagulls]]''' </td><td>A flock of seagulls</td><td> <center>&radic;</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[shelduck|sheldrakes]]''' </td><td>A doading of sheldrakes</td><td> <center>&radic;</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[skylark|skylarks]]''' </td><td>An exultation of skylarks</td><td> <center>&radic;</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[snipe|snipe]]''' </td><td>A walk of snipe</td><td> <center>&radic;</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[snipe|snipe]]''' </td><td>A wisp of snipe</td><td> <center>&radic;</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[sparrow|sparrows]]''' </td><td>A host of sparrows</td><td> <center>&radic;</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[sparrow|sparrows]]''' </td><td>A quarrel of sparrows</td><td> <center>&radic;</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[sparrow|sparrows]]''' </td><td>A ubiquity of sparrows</td><td> <center>&radic;</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[starling|starlings]]''' </td><td>A murmuration of starlings</td><td> <center>&radic;</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[stork|storks]]''' </td><td>A muster of storks</td><td> <center>&radic;</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[stork|storks]]''' </td><td>A phalanx of storks</td><td> Uncertain </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[swallow|swallows]]''' </td><td>A flight of swallows</td><td> <center>&radic;</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[swallow|swallows]]''' </td><td>A gulp of swallows</td><td> Spurious </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[swan|swans]]''' </td><td>A wedge of swans (flying)</td><td> <center>&radic;</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[swan|swans]]''' </td><td>A bank of swans</td><td> <center>&radic;</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[swan|swans]]''' </td><td>A bevy of swans</td><td> <center>&radic;</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[swan|swans]]''' </td><td>A whiteness of swans</td><td> <center>&radic;</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[swan|swans]]''' </td><td>An eyrar of swans</td><td> Uncertain </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[teal|teal]]''' </td><td>A diving of teal</td><td> <center>&radic;</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[teal|teal]]''' </td>< |
s a beneficiary of the U.S.-[[Caribbean Basin Trade Partnership Act]] (CBTPA), Canada's [[CARIBCAN]] program, and the European Union's Lome IV Agreement. Although the Bahamas participates in the political aspects of the [[Caribbean Community]] (CARICOM), it has not entered into joint economic initiatives with other Caribbean states.
The Bahamas has a few notable industrial firms: the Freeport pharmaceutical firm, PFC Bahamas (formerly Syntex), which recently streamlined its production and was purchased by the Swiss pharmaceutical firm Roche; the BORCO oil facility, also in Freeport, which transships oil in the region; the Commonwealth Brewery in Nassau, which produces Heineken, Guinness, and Kalik beers; and Bacardi Corp., which distills rum in Nassau for shipment to the U.S. and European markets. Other industries include sun-dried sea salt in Great Inagua, a wet dock facility in Freeport for repair of cruise ships, and mining of aragonite--a type of limestone with several industrial uses-- from the sea floor at Ocean Cay.
The Hawksbill Creek Agreement established a duty-free zone in Freeport, The Bahamas' second-largest city, with a nearby industrial park to encourage foreign industrial investment. The [[Hong Kong]]-based firm, [[Hutchison Whampoa]], has opened a container port in Freeport. The Bahamian Parliament approved legislation in 1993 that extended most Freeport tax and duty exemptions through 2054.
The Bahamas is largely an [[import]], [[service economy]]. There are about 110 U.S.-affiliated businesses operating in The Bahamas, and most are associated with [[tourism]] and [[banking]]. With few domestic resources and little industry, The Bahamas imports nearly all its food and manufactured goods from the United States. American goods and services tend to be favored by Bahamians due to cultural similarities and heavy exposure to American advertising.
==Business Environment==
The Bahamas offers attractive features to the potential investor: a stable democratic environment, relief from personal and corporate income taxes, timely repatriation of corporate profits, proximity to the U.S. with extensive air and [[telecommunication]]s links, and a good pool of skilled professional workers. The Government of The Bahamas welcomes foreign [[investment]] in tourism and banking and has declared an interest in agricultural and industrial investments to generate local employment, particularly in white-collar or skilled jobs. Despite its interest in foreign investment to diversify the economy, the Bahamian Government responds to local concerns about foreign competition and tends to protect Bahamian business and labor interests. As a result of domestic resistance to foreign investment and high labor costs, growth can stagnate in sectors which the government wishes to diversify.
The country's infrastructure is best developed in the principal cities of Nassau and Freeport, where there are relatively good paved roads and international airports. Electricity is generally reliable, although many businesses have their own backup generators. In Nassau, there are two daily newspapers, three weeklies, and several international newspapers available for sale. There also are five radio stations. Both Nassau and Freeport have a television station. Cable TV also is available locally and provides most American programs with some Canadian and European channels.
==Areas of Opportunity==
The best U.S. export opportunities remain in the traditional areas of foodstuffs and manufactured goods: vehicles and [[automobile parts]]; [[hotel]], [[restaurant]], and [[medical]] supplies; and [[computer]]s and electronics. Bahamian tastes in consumer products roughly parallel those in the U.S. With approximately 85% of the population of primarily [[African]] descent, there is a large and growing market in the Bahamas for "ethnic" personal care products. Merchants in southern [[Florida]] have found it profitable to advertise in Bahamian publications. Most imports in this sector are subject to high but nondiscriminatory tariffs.
==Statistics==
*"GDP"
**purchasing power parity - $5.295 billion (2004 est.)
*"GDP - real growth rate"
**3% (2004 est.)
*"GDP - per capita"
**purchasing power parity - $17,700 (2004 est.)
*"GDP - composition by sector"
**agriculture: 3%
**industry: 7%
**services: 90% (2001 est.)
*"Household income or consumption by percentage share"
**lowest 10%: NA
**highest 10%: 27% (2000)
*"Inflation rate (consumer prices)"
**1.2% (year ending September 2004)
*"Labor force"
**156,000 (1999)
*"Labor force - by occupation"
**agriculture 5%, industry 5%, tourism 50%, other services 40% (1999 est.)
*"Unemployment rate"
**10.2% (2004 est.)
*"Budget"
**revenues: $1 billion
**expenditures: $1 billion, including capital expenditures of $106.7 million (FY03/04)
*"Agriculture - products"
**citrus, vegetables; poultry
*"Industries"
**tourism, banking, cement, oil transshipment, salt, rum, aragonite, pharmaceuticals, spiral-welded steel pipe
*"Electricity - production"
**1,716 GWh (2002)
*"Electricity - consumption"
**1,596 GWh (2002)
*"Oil - consumption"
**23,000 bbl/day (2001 est.)
*"Oil - exports"
**transhipments of 29,000 bbl/day (2003)
*"Exports"
**$636 million (2003 est.)
*"Exports - commodities"
**mineral products and salt, animal products, rum, chemicals; fruit and vegetables
*"Exports - partners"
**US 34.7%, Spain 10.5%, Germany 7.7%, France 7.6%, Poland 5.3%, Switzerland 4.8%, Peru 4.2%, Paraguay 4.2% (2003)
*"Imports"
**$1.63 billion (2003)
*"Imports - commodities"
**machinery and transport equipment, manufactures, chemicals, mineral fuels; food and live animals
*"Imports - partners"
**US 20.8%, South Korea 17.4%, Italy 11.4%, France 9.1%, Brazil 7.5%, Japan 5.6%, Venezuela 5.3% (2003)
*"Debt - external"
**$308.5 million (2002)
*"Economic aid - recipient"
**$9.8 million (1995)
*"Currency"
**Bahamian dollar (BSD)
*"Currency code"
**BSD
*"Exchange rates"
**Bahamian dollars per US dollar - 1 (2004), 1 (2003), 1 (2002), 1 (2001), 1 (2000)
*"Fiscal year"
**[[1 July]] - [[30 June]]
==References==
* ''Some of the material in this article comes from the [[CIA World Factbook]] 2005.''
[[Category:Economies by country|Bahamas]]
[[Category:Economy of the Bahamas|*]]
[[zh:巴哈马]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Bahamas/Communications</title>
<id>3478</id>
<revision>
<id>15901810</id>
<timestamp>2002-08-22T11:56:56Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Koyaanis Qatsi</username>
<id>90</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Communications in the Bahamas]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Bahamas/Transportation</title>
<id>3479</id>
<revision>
<id>36641470</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-25T13:58:44Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>RussBot</username>
<id>279219</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Robot: Fixing [[Special:DoubleRedirects|double-redirect]] -"Transport in the Bahamas" +"Transportation in the Bahamas"</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Transportation in the Bahamas]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Bahamas/Military</title>
<id>3480</id>
<revision>
<id>15901812</id>
<timestamp>2002-08-04T12:09:19Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Ellmist</username>
<id>2214</id>
</contributor>
<comment>move from Bahamas/Military</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Military of the Bahamas]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Bahamas/Transnational issues</title>
<id>3481</id>
<revision>
<id>15901813</id>
<timestamp>2002-08-04T12:10:16Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Ellmist</username>
<id>2214</id>
</contributor>
<comment>move to Foreign relations of the Bahamas</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Foreign relations of the Bahamas]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Foreign relations of the Bahamas</title>
<id>3482</id>
<revision>
<id>35301215</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-15T19:34:48Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Electionworld</username>
<id>201260</id>
</contributor>
<comment>template</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Politics of the Bahamas}}
The Bahamas has strong bilateral relationships with the [[United States]] and the [[United Kingdom]], represented by an ambassador in Washington and High Commissioner in London. The Bahamas also associates closely with other nations of the [[Caribbean Community]] (CARICOM). The Bahamas has diplomatic relations with [[Cuba]], although not with resident ambassadors. A repatriation agreement was signed with Cuba in [[1996]], and there are commercial and cultural contacts between the two countries. The Commonwealth of The Bahamas became a member of the [[United Nations]] (UN) in 1973 and the [[Organization of American States]] (OAS) in 1982.
The Bahamas holds membership in a number of international organizations: the UN and some specialized and related agencies, including Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO), International Labour Organization (ILO), International Monetary Fund (IMF), International Telecommunication Union (ITU), World Bank, World Meteorological Organization (WMO), and World Health Organization (WHO); OAS and related agencies, including Inter-American Development Bank (IDB), [[Caribbean Development Bank]] (CDB), and Pan-American Health Organization (PAHO); the [[Car |
rt on their opponent's one-point. All other rules of the game are the same as regular backgammon.
==Computer Backgammon==
The first strong computer opponent was BKG 9.8. It was programmed by [[Hans Berliner]] in the late 1970s on a [[PDP-10]] as an experiment in evaluating board positions. Early versions of BKG played badly even against poor players, but Berliner noticed that the critical mistakes the program made were always at phase changes. He applied basic principles of [[fuzzy logic]] to smooth out the transition between phase changes, and by July [[1979]], BKG 9.8 was ready to play against then current world champion [[Luigi Villa]]. It won the match, 7-1, becoming the first computer program to defeat a world champion in any game, although this was mostly a matter of luck, as the computer happened to get better die rolls than its opponent in that match.
Beginning in the late 1980s, creators of backgammon-playing software began to have even more success with a [[neural network]] approach. TD-Gammon, developed by Gerald Tesauro of IBM, was the first of these computer programs to play at or near the expert level. This program's neural network was trained using Temporal Difference learning applied to data generated from self-play.
This line of research has resulted in two modern commercial programs, Jellyfish and Snowie, the shareware [http://www.bgblitz.com BGBlitz] (implemented in Java), and the free software [http://www.gnubg.org GNU Backgammon], that play on a par with the best human players in the world. It is worth noting that without their associated "weights" tables which represent hours or even months of tedious neural net training, these programs play no better than a human child.
It is interesting to contrast the development of backgammon software with that of [[Computer chess|chess software]]:
#For backgammon, neural networks work better than any other methods so far. For chess, brute force searching, with sophisticated pruning and other refinements, works better than neural networks.
#Every advance in the power of computer hardware has significantly improved the strength of chess programs. In contrast, additional computing power appears to improve the strength of backgammon software only marginally.
#For both backgammon and chess, it is at present unclear whether the best computer or the best human is best overall. For most other games, one or the other is unambiguously stronger.
[[Real-time]] on-line play began with the [[First Internet Backgammon Server]] on [[July 19]], [[1992]]. This server is active to this day, remains free, and enjoys a strong international community of backgammon players. Several commercial websites also offer on-line real-time backgammon play.
==See also==
*[[List of World Backgammon Champions]]
*[[Tables]]
*[[Hypergammon]]
*[[Tapa (game)|Tapa]]
*[[Nackgammon]]
*[[Acey-Deucey]]
*[[Nard_(game)|Nard]]
*[[Crazy Nard]]
*[[Sugoroku]]
==External links==
<!-- Please do not link to online backgammon gaming sites here. There are too many of them for us to list them all and we cannot discriminate between them by choosing some. In any case viewers can find them through the links site listed below. Thank you. -->
*[http://www.bkgm.com/ Backgammon Galore] is one of the most comprehensive sites about backgammon. It also contains the rules for almost every variant.
*[http://perso.wanadoo.fr/bckg/english The Origin of Backgammon] The history of backgammon.
*[http://www.chicagopoint.com/links.html Gammon Links] large collection of backgammon hyperlinks.
*[http://www.gnubg.org/ GnuBg] open source neural net based backgammon program.
*[http://www.fibs.com F.I.B.S.] First Internet Backgammon Server
[[Category:Tables games]]
{{Link FA|cs}}
{{Link FA|no}}
[[bg:Табла]]
[[ca:Backgammon]]
[[cs:Vrhcáby]]
[[da:Backgammon]]
[[de:Backgammon]]
[[el:Τάβλι]]
[[es:Backgammon]]
[[eo:Triktrako]]
[[fr:Backgammon]]
[[it:Backgammon]]
[[he:שש בש]]
[[la:Nerdiludium]]
[[nl:Backgammon]]
[[ja:バックギャモン]]
[[no:Backgammon]]
[[pl:Tryktrak]]
[[pt:Gamão]]
[[ru:Нарды]]
[[sl:Backgammon]]
[[fi:Backgammon]]
[[sv:Backgammon]]
[[tr:Tavla]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Book of Joshua</title>
<id>4331</id>
<revision>
<id>41198302</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-25T18:54:33Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Eskimbot</username>
<id>477460</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>robot Modifying: nl</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Books of the Old Testament}}
{{Books of Nevi'im}}
The '''Book of Joshua''' is the sixth book in both the Hebrew [[Tanakh]] and the [[Old Testament]] of the Christian [[Bible]]. This book stands as the first in the Former (or First) Prophets covering the history of [[Kingdom of Israel|Israel]] from the possession of the [[Promised Land]] to the [[Babylonian Captivity]].
==Authorship==
Jewish tradition ascribes authorship of the book to Joshua. The [[Talmud]] states that the book was written by Joshua except for the last verses (24:29-33) which were added by [[Phinehas]] the priest.
Certainly, the author writes as an eyewitness to the accounts described, occasionally using first person pronouns (for instance, in Joshua 5:1), although Joshua himself is usually described in the third person. Some sections, however (eg. 5:9, 7:26, 24:29-33) could only have been added after his death (probably by Eleazar the Priest or his son Phinehas).
More recently, the authorship of the book of Joshua has come under dispute. Two possibilities have been suggested for the authorship of the book:
# Conservative scholars argue that the majority of the book of Joshua was written at the time of the Israelite invasion (the fifteenth century or twelfth century BCE), by a contemporary of Joshua and an eyewitness of the events that occurred.
# Modern critical scholars argue that Joshua was probably written in the late monarchic or early post-exilic age, either from the [[documentary hypothesis|JEDP]] sources that they believe were responsible for the [[Pentateuch]], or by one of the prophets of the eighth century BCE.
==Contents and structure==
The book of Joshua contains a history of the [[Israelites]] from the death of [[Moses]] to that of [[Joshua]]. After Moses' death, Joshua, by virtue of his previous appointment as Moses' successor, receives from God the command to cross the Jordan. In execution of this order Joshua issues the requisite instructions to the stewards of the people for the crossing of the Jordan; and he reminds the Reubenites, Gadites, and the half of Manasseh of their pledge given to Moses to help their brethren.
The book essentially consists of three parts:
#The history of the conquest of the land (1-12).
#The allotment of the land to the different tribes, with the appointment of cities of refuge, the provision for the Levites (13-22), and the dismissal of the eastern tribes to their homes. This section has been compared to the [[Domesday Book]] of the [[Norman Conquest]].
#The farewell addresses of Joshua, with an account of his death (23, 24).
;The section concerning the conquest of the land involves:
*'''[[Rahab]]''' (2). Joshua sends out two spies from [[Shittim]] to explore the city of [[Jericho]]. They are saved from falling into the hands of the king by the shrewd tactics of Rahab, in return for promising not to attack her when they later invade.
[[Image:Dore_joshua_crossing.jpg|thumb|left|300px|Joshua and the Israelites crossing the Jordan]]
*The '''[[Crossing of the Jordan]]''' (1, and 3-4). Having re-iterated the duty to follow the [[mitzvah]], Joshua orders the Israelites to set forth, and they leave [[Shittim]]. When they reach the [[Jordan river]], Joshua predicts that [[Ark of the covenant|the Ark]] will miraculously cross the Jordan. As soon as the Ark reaches the river, a [[miracle]] duly occurs, and the river stops flowing and rapidly dries up, so the priests carrying it halt, allowing the rest of the Israelites to cross as well. In commemoration of the event, Joshua orders two monuments to be erected: one in the river-bed itself; the other on the western bank, at [[Gilgal]] (which does not yet have its name), where the Israelites encamp.
*The '''[[Circumcision of the Israelites]]''' (5:1-12). The Israelites are [[circumcision|circumcised]] at [[Gibeath-Haaraloth]] (translating as ''hill of foreskins''). This is then explained as owing to those being born in the desert as not having been circumcised. The people are therefore circumcised and the area is named Gilgal in memory (''Gilgal'' sounds like ''Gallothi'' - ''I have removed'', but is more likely to translate as ''circle of standing stones'').
*The '''[[Captain of the Lord's host]]''' (5:13-15). In a somewhat obscure passage, a ''captain of the host of the LORD'' arrives, with drawn sword, and orders Joshua to remove his sandles (which he does) as the land he stands upon is holy.
*'''The [[Battle of Jericho]] (6)''' - Placing Jericho under siege, the Israelites circle it once a day for six days, and on the seventh make seven circuits, each time loudly blowing horns and shouting. On the final circuit, the walls cave in, and the inhabitants, except Rahab and her family, are slaughtered. A curse is pronounced against rebuilding the city.
*'''The [[First Battle of Ai]]''' (7) - [[Ai]] is surveyed and pronounced weak, so the Israelite army sends only a small group to attack them but they are defeated, causing Joshua and the people to the verge of despair. But God announces that the people have sinned, as someone has stolen some of the spoils from Jericho which are meant to be for the temple. Consequently the Israelites set out to discover the sinner by casting lots (''[[Urim and Thummim]]''), whittling them down first by tribe ([[Judah]]), then clan ([[Zarhites]]), then sept ([[Zabdi]]), then finally detecting it as [[Achan]]. Achan admits having taken a costly Babylonian garment, besides silver and |
This in no way belittles the many important developments, especially within technology, which took place in antiquity and during the [[Middle Ages]] in Europe and elsewhere.
However, the emergence of classical mechanics was a decisive stage in the development of [[science]], in the modern sense of the term. What characterizes it, above all, is its insistence on [[mathematics]] (rather than [[speculation]]), and its reliance on [[experiment]] (rather than [[observation]]). With classical mechanics it was established how to formulate [[quantitative]] predictions in [[theory]], and how to test them by carefully designed [[measurement]]. The emerging globally cooperative endeavor increasingly provided for much closer scrutiny and testing, both of theory and experiment. This was, and remains, a key factor in establishing certain knowledge, and in bringing it to the service of society. History shows how closely the health and wealth of a society depends on nurturing this investigative and critical approach. -->
The initial stage in the development of classical mechanics is often referred to as [[Newtonian mechanics]], and is associated with the mathematical methods invented by [[Isaac Newton|Newton]] himself, in parallel with [[Gottfried Wilhelm von Leibniz|Leibniz]], and others. This is further described in the following sections. More abstract, and general methods include [[Lagrangian mechanics|Lagrangian mechanics]] and [[Hamiltonian mechanics]]. While the terms '''classical mechanics''' and '''Newtonian mechanics''' are usually considered equivalent, the conventional content of classical mechanics was created in the 19th century and differs considerably (particularly in its use of analytical mathematics) from the work of [[Isaac Newton|Newton]].
Classical mechanics produces very accurate results within the domain of everyday experience. It is enhanced by [[special relativity]] for objects moving with high [[velocity]], more than about a third the [[speed of light]]. Classical mechanics is used to describe the motion of macroscopic objects, from [[projectiles]] to parts of [[machinery]], as well as [[astronomical objects]], such as [[spacecraft]], [[planets]], [[stars]], and [[galaxies]], and even microscopic objects such as large [[molecules]]. Besides this, many specialties exist, dealing with [[gases]], [[liquids]], and [[solids]], and so on. It is one of the largest subjects in science and technology.
== Description of the theory ==
The following introduces the basic concepts of classical mechanics. For simplicity, it uses [[point particle]]s, objects with [[negligible]] size. The motion of a point particle is characterized by a small number of [[parameters]]: its [[position]], [[mass]], and the [[force]]s applied to it. Each of these parameters is discussed in turn.
In reality, the kind of objects which classical mechanics can describe always have a non-zero size. True point particles, such as the [[electron]], are normally better described by [[quantum mechanics]]. Objects with non-zero size have more complicated behavior than hypothetical point particles, because of the additional [[degrees of freedom]]&mdash;for example, a [[baseball]] can [[rotation|spin]] while it is moving. However, the results for point particles can be used to study such objects by treating them as [[composite]] objects, made up of a large number of interacting point particles. The [[center of mass]] of a composite object behaves like a point particle.
=== Position and its derivatives ===
The ''position'' of a point particle is defined with respect to an arbitrary fixed point in [[space]], which is sometimes called the ''origin'', '''O'''. It is defined as the [[vector (spatial)|vector]] '''r''' from '''O''' to the particle. In general, the point particle need not be stationary, so '''r''' is a function of ''t'', the [[time]] elapsed since an arbitrary initial time. In pre-Einstein relativity (known as [[Galilean relativity]]), time is considered an absolute in all [[reference frame]]s. In addition to relying on [[absolute time]], classical mechanics uses [[Euclidean geometry]] {{ref|MITlecture}}.
==== Velocity ====
The ''[[velocity]]'', or the [[calculus|rate of change]] of position with time, is defined as the [[derivative]] of the position with respect to time or
: <math>\mathbf{v} = {d\mathbf{r} \over dt}</math>.
In classical mechanics, velocities are directly additive and subtractive. For example, if one car traveling East at 60 km/h passes another car traveling East at 50 km/h, then from the perspective of the slower car, the faster car is traveling East at 60&minus;50 = 10 km/h. Whereas, from the perspective of the faster car, the slower car is moving 10 km/h to the West. What if the car is traveling north? Velocities are directly additive as vector quantities; they must be dealt with using vector analysis.
Mathematically, if the velocity of the first object in the previous discussion is denoted by the vector '''u''' = ''u'''''d''' and the velocity of the second object by the vector '''v''' = ''v'''''e''' where ''u'' is the speed of the first object, ''v'' is the speed of the second object, and '''d''' and '''e''' are [[unit vector]]s in the directions of motion of each particle respectively, then the velocity of the first object as seen by the second object is:
:'''u'''' = '''u''' - '''v'''
Similarly:
:'''v'''' = '''v''' - '''u'''
When both objects are moving in the same direction, this equation can be simplified to:
:'''u'''' = ( ''u'' - ''v'' ) '''d'''
Or, by ignoring direction, the difference can be given in terms of speed only:
:''u''' = ''u'' - ''v''
==== Acceleration ====
The ''[[acceleration]]'', or rate of change of velocity, is the [[derivative]] of the velocity with respect to time or
: <math>\mathbf{a} = {d\mathbf{v} \over dt}</math>.
The acceleration vector can be changed by changing its magnitude, changing its direction, or both. If the magnitude of '''v''' decreases, this is sometimes referred to as ''deceleration'' or ''retardation''; but generally any change in the velocity, including deceleration, is simply referred to as acceleration.
==== Frames of reference ====
The following consequences can be derived about the perspective of an event in two reference frames, ''S'' and ''S''', where ''S''' is traveling at a relative velocity of '''u''' to ''S''.
* '''v'''' = '''v''' - '''u''' (the velocity '''v'''' of a particle from the perspective of ''S''' is slower by '''u''' than its velocity '''v''' from the perspective of ''S'')
* '''a'''' = '''a''' (the acceleration of a particle remains the same regardless of reference frame)
* '''F'''' = '''F''' (since '''F''' = ''m'''''a''') (the force on a particle remains the same regardless of reference frame; see [[Newton's laws of motion|Newton's law]])
* the [[speed of light]] is not a constant in classical mechanics
* the form of [[Maxwells equations|Maxwell's equations]] is not preserved across reference frames
=== Forces; Newton's second law ===
[[Newton's laws of motion|Newton's second law]] relates the [[mass]] and velocity of a particle to a vector quantity known as the [[Force (physics)|force]]. If ''m'' is the mass of a particle and '''F''' is the vector sum of all applied forces (i.e. the ''net'' applied force), Newton's second law states that
: <math>\mathbf{F} = {d(m \mathbf{v}) \over dt}= {d\mathbf{p} \over dt}</math>.
The quantity ''m'''''v''' is called the [[momentum]]. The net force on a particle is, thus, equal to rate change of [[momentum]] of the particle with time. Typically, the mass ''m'' is constant in time, and Newton's law can be written in the simplified form
: <math>\mathbf{F} = m \mathbf{a}</math>
where <math>\mathbf a = \frac {d \mathbf v} {dt}</math> is the acceleration. It is not always the case that ''m'' is independent of ''t''. For example, the mass of a [[rocket]] decreases as its propellant is ejected. Under such circumstances, the above equation is incorrect and the full form of Newton's second law must be used.
Newton's second law is insufficient to describe the motion of a particle. In addition, it requires a value for '''F''', obtained by considering the particular physical entities with which the particle is interacting. For example, a typical [[resistive force]] may be modelled as a function of the velocity of the particle, for example:
: <math>\mathbf{F}_{\rm R} = - \lambda \mathbf{v}</math>
with &lambda; a positive constant. Once independent relations for each force acting on a particle are available, they can be substituted into Newton's second law to obtain an [[differential equation|ordinary differential equation]], which is called the ''equation of motion''. Continuing the example, assume that friction is the only force acting on the particle. Then the equation of motion is
: <math>- \lambda \mathbf{v} = m \mathbf{a} = m {d\mathbf{v} \over dt}</math>.
This can be [[integration|integrated]] to obtain
: <math>\mathbf{v} = \mathbf{v}_0 e^{- \lambda t / m}</math>
where '''v'''<sub>0</sub> is the initial velocity. This means that the velocity of this particle [[exponential decay|decays exponentially]] to zero as time progresses. This expression can be further integrated to obtain the position '''r''' of the particle as a function of time.
Important forces include the [[gravity|gravitational force]] and the [[Lorentz force]] for [[electromagnetism]]. In addition, Newton's third law can sometimes be used to deduce the forces acting on a particle: if it is known that particle A exerts a force '''F''' on another particle B, it follows that B must exert an equal and opposite ''reaction force'', -'''F''', on A. The strong form of Newton's third law requires that '''F''' and -'''F''' act along the line connecting A and B, while the weak form does not. Illustrations of |
eers find this convention offensive, since all steels and most other metals in practical use are also alloys. A typical example of such usage is "alloy wheels" fitted to an automobile.
==See also==
* [[List of alloys]]
* [[Intermetallics]]
{{Wiktionary}}
[[Category:Alloys|*]]
[[uk:Лігатура]]
[[af:Legering]]
[[bg:Сплав]]
[[ca:Aliatge]]
[[cs:Slitina]]
[[da:Legering]]
[[de:Legierung]]
[[es:Aleación]]
[[eo:Alojo]]
[[fr:Alliage]]
[[ko:합금]]
[[io:Aloyo]]
[[id:Aloy]]
[[is:Málmblanda]]
[[it:Lega (metallurgia)]]
[[he:סגסוגת]]
[[mk:Легура]]
[[ms:Aloi]]
[[nl:Legering]]
[[ja:合金]]
[[no:Legering]]
[[nn:Legering]]
[[pl:Stop metali]]
[[pt:Liga metálica]]
[[ru:Сплав]]
[[simple:Alloy]]
[[sl:Zlitina]]
[[sr:Легура]]
[[fi:Lejeerinki]]
[[sv:Legering]]
[[ta:கலப்புலோகம்]]
[[th:โลหะผสม]]
[[vi:Hợp kim]]
[[zh:合金]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Articles of Faith</title>
<id>1189</id>
<revision>
<id>38406727</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-06T03:02:23Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>65.34.202.199</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>Changed to six (vs. seven) articles by combining afterlife and Judgment in order to maintain consistency and clarity.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Articles of faith''' are formal [[creeds]], or lists of beliefs, sometimes numbered, and often beginning with "We believe...", which attempt to more or less define the fundamental [[theology]] of a given [[religion]] and/or [[church]]. Articles of faith are common in both [[Christianity]] and [[Islam]].
== Catholicism ==
The [[Nicene Creed]] and the shorter [[Apostles' Creed]] are articles, or professions of Faith said by members of the [[Roman Catholic Church]]. The Nicene is predominantly recited during the Catholic [[Mass (liturgy)|mass]] while the Apostle's is typically used for other occasions.
== Mormonism ==
{{main|Articles of Faith (Mormonism)}}
The ''Articles of Faith'' of [[Mormonism]] are a [[creed]] composed by [[Joseph Smith, Jr.]] as part of a [[1842]] [[The_Wentworth_Letter|letter]] sent to [[John Wentworth (mayor)|"Long" John Wentworth]], editor of the ''[[Chicago Democrat]]''. It is a concise listing of thirteen fundamental doctrines of [[Mormonism]].
Most [[Latter Day Saint]] denominations view the articles as an authoritative statement of basic theology. Some denominations, such as [[The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]], have adopted the articles as scripture (see ''[[Pearl of Great Price (Mormonism)]]'').
== Protestantism ==
In [[Protestantism]], several denominations have articles of faith. The [[Anglican]] articles of faith are the [[Thirty-Nine Articles]], which were issued by the Convocation of clergy of the [[Church of England]] in [[1571]]. These articles were adapted by [[John Wesley]] as the [[Articles of Religion (Methodist)|Articles of Religion]], which are the defining articles of [[Methodism]].
== Islam ==
Traditionally, there are six basic beliefs of Muslims, of which include a belief in:
# Oneness of God
# Angels
# Prophets
# Scriptures
# [[Last Judgment|The Day of Judgment]] and the [[Akhirah]] or afterlife
# [[Predestination]]
In Sahih [[Al-Muslim]] and [[Al-Bukhari]], [[Muhammad]] explains, "It (Al-Iman/faith) is to affirm your faith in Allah, [[Angels in Islam|His angels]], His Books [[Prophets of Islam|His Messengers]] and the Last Day, and to believe in the Divine Destiny whether it be good or bad."
Retrieved from [[Aqidah]]
[[Category:Christianity]]
[[Category:Christian texts]]
[[Category:Latter Day Saint texts]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Alternative history</title>
<id>1190</id>
<revision>
<id>40323664</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-19T20:43:53Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>KnightRider</username>
<id>430793</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>warnfile Modifying: es</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''For the [[speculative fiction]] subgenre, see [[alternate history (fiction)]]
'''Alternative history''' or '''alternate history''' develops out of historiography to identify historical points of view that have been ignored, overlooked, or unseeable. It usually denotes a [[history]] told from an alternative viewpoint, rather than from the view (actual or ascribed, obvious or inferred) of imperialists, conquerors or explorers. For example ''[[A People's History of the United States]]'' offers a view sympathetic to people [[Native Americans (Americas)|indigenous to the Americas]], while the term ''[[Herstory]]'' was coined to denote history presented from a feminist perspective.
This falls into two major categories:
* [[Historical revisionism]] is the reexamination of the accepted facts and interpretations of history, with an eye towards updating it with newly discovered, more accurate, less biased or differently biased information.
* When revisionism takes on a partisan tone, it is usually called [[Historical revisionism (political)|political historical revisionism]] i.e. a construction of past events which is refuted by well documented, verifiable, and very broadly accepted sources. Such histories may tend to blame their lack of scholarship or documentation on a [[conspiracy theory|conspiracy]] to erase such evidence.
Other alternative histories include:
* The genre of speculative fiction includes the subgenre of [[Alternate history (fiction)|fictitious alternative history]], set in worlds in which history has diverged from history as it actually happened. The term [[uchronia]] refers to a hypothetical time period in such a divergent world.
* [[Failed history]] covers events that have been predicted and had items created in the expectation that they would occur, but then in fact did not occur.
* [[Virtual history]] (also known as ''counterfactual history'') is a form of history which attempts to answer "what if" questions. It is an academic extrapolation of alternate outcomes of historical events.
{{hist-stub}}
[[Category:Alternate history|*]]
[[de:Alternativgeschichte]]
[[es:Historia alterna]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>API</title>
<id>1191</id>
<revision>
<id>34100212</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-06T11:40:35Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Oliver Lineham</username>
<id>83708</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Redirect to most common usage</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Application_programming_interface]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Artistic revolution</title>
<id>1192</id>
<revision>
<id>34326659</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-08T04:29:23Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Sparkit</username>
<id>194762</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>[[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|Popups]]-assisted disambiguation from [[Renoir]] to [[Pierre-Auguste Renoir]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">Throughout history, forms of [[art]] have gone through periodic abrupt changes called '''artistic revolutions'''. Movements have come to an end to be replaced by a new movement markedly different in striking ways. See also [[cultural movement]]s.
== Artistic revolution and cultural/political revolutions ==
The role of fine art has been to simultaneously express values of the current culture while also offering criticism, balance, or alternatives to any such values that are proving no longer useful. So as times change, art changes. If changes were abrupt they were deemed revolutions. The best artists have predated society's changes due not to any prescenience, but because sensitive perceptivity is part of their 'talent' of seeing.
Artists have had to 'see' issues clearly in order to satisfy their current clients, yet not offend potential patrons. For example, paintings glorified aristocracy in the early 1600's when leadership was needed to nationalize small political groupings, but later as leadership became oppressive, satirization increased and subjects were less concerned with leaders and more with more common plights of mankind.
Examples of revoutionary art in conjunction with cultural/political movements:
*[[Trotskyist]] & [[Diego Riveria]]
*[[Black Panther Party]] & Emory Douglas
*Cuban [[Poster Art]]
*[[Social Realism]] & [[Ben Shahn]]
*[[Feminist]] Art & the [[Guerrilla Girls]]
*[[Industrial Workers of the World]] & [[Woody Guthrie]]
== Artistic revolution of style ==
But not all artistic revolutions were political. Revolutions of style have also abruptly changed the art of a culture. For example, when the careful, even tedious, art techniques of French neo-classicism became oppressive to artists living in more exuberant times, a stylistic revolution known as "[[Impressionism]]" vitalized brush strokes and color. [[Degas]], [[Monet]], [[Pierre-Auguste Renoir|Renoir]] burst onto the French culture, effecting a revolution with a style that has become commonplace today.
An artistic revolution can be begun by a single artist, but unless that artist gains some understanding, he becomes an iconoclast. The first [[Abstract Expressionists]] were considered madmen to give up their brushes and rely on the sheer force of energy to leave an image, but then the import of atomic bombs, all atomic energy, became realized, and art found no better way of expressing its power. [[Jackson Pollack]] is the artist best known for starting that revolution.
{{art-stub}}
[[Category:Art history]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Agrarianism</title>
<id>1193</id>
<revision>
<id>40325398</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-19T20:56:20Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>RafaelG</username>
<id>698764</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Agrarianism''' is a [[social philosophy|social ]] and [[political philos |
,000 population (2000 est.) 15 births/1,000 population (2003 est.)
'''Death rate:'''
4.59 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.) 4.46 deaths/1,000 population (2003 est.)
'''Net migration rate:'''
12.08 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.) 10.45 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2003 est.)
'''Sex ratio:'''
<br />''at birth:''
1.05 male(s)/female
<br />''under 15 years:''
1.02 male(s)/female
<br />''15-64 years:''
1.06 male(s)/female
<br />''65 years and over:''
1.15 male(s)/female
<br />''total population:''
1.06 male(s)/female (2003 est.)
'''Infant mortality rate:'''<br />
''total:'' 18.8 deaths/1,000 live births<br />
''female:'' 15.6 deaths/1,000 live births<br />
''male:'' 21.86 deaths/1,000 live births (2003 est.)
'''Life expectancy at birth:''
<br />''total population:''
76.06 years
<br />''male:''
75.07 years
<br />''female:''
77.1 years (2003 est.)
'''Total fertility rate:'''
1.72 children born/woman (2003 est.)
'''HIV/AIDS - adult prevalence rate:'''
<br />''Definition Field Listing Rank Order''
NA%
'''HIV/AIDS - people living with HIV/AIDS:'''
<br />''Definition Field Listing Rank Order''
NA
'''HIV/AIDS - deaths:'''
<br />''Definition Field Listing Rank Order''
NA
'''Nationality:'''
<br />''noun:''
British Virgin Islander(s)
<br />''adjective:''
British Virgin Islander
'''Ethnic groups:'''
black 83%, white, Indian, Asian and mixed
'''Religions:'''
Protestant 86% (Methodist 33%, Anglican 17%, Church of God 9%, Seventh-Day Adventist 6%, Baptist 4%, Jehovah's Witnesses 2%, other 15%), Roman Catholic 10%, none 2%, other 2% (1991)
'''Languages:'''
English (official)
'''Literacy:'''
<br />''definition:''
age 15 and over can read and write
<br />''total population:''
97.8% (1991 est.)
<br />''male:''
NA%
<br />''female:''
NA%
:''See also :'' [[British Virgin Islands]]
[[Category:British Virgin Islands]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Politics of the British Virgin Islands</title>
<id>3651</id>
<revision>
<id>40265313</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-19T09:46:31Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Marknew</username>
<id>10695</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* Executive branch */ fix link</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Politics of the British Virgin Islands}}
'''Politics of the British Virgin Islands''' takes place in a framework of a [[parliamentary system|parliamentary]] [[representative democracy|representative democratic]] [[dependency]], whereby the Chief Minister is the [[head of government]], and of a pluriform multi-party system. The '''British Virgin Islands''' is an internally self-governing [[British overseas territory|overseas territory]] of the [[United Kingdom]]. The [[United Nations]] Committee on Decolonization includes the islands on the [[United Nations list of Non-Self-Governing Territories]]. The Constitution of the Islands was introduced in [[1971]]. [[Executive power]] is exercised by the government. [[Legislative power]] is vested in both the [[government]] and the [[Legislative Council of the British Virgin Islands|Legislative Council]].
The [[Judiciary]] is independent of the executive and the legislature. Military defence is the responsibility of the [[United Kingdom]].
==Executive branch==
{{office-table}}
|Queen
|[[Queen Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom|Elizabeth II]]
|
|[[6 February]] [[1952]]
|-
|[[Governor of the British Virgin Islands|Governor]]
|[[Tom Macan]]
|
|[[2002]]
|-
|[[Chief Minister of the British Virgin Islands|Chief Minister]]
|[[Orlando Smith]]
|[[National Democratic Party (British Virgin Islands)|NDP]]
|[[17 June]] [[2003]]
|}
The governor is appointed by the monarch. The chief minister appointed by the governor from among the members of the Legislative Council
His cabinet, the Executive Council is appointed by the governor from among the elected members of the Legislative Council
==Legislative branch==
The British Virgin Islands elects on territorial level a [[legislature]]. The [[Legislative Council of the British Virgin Islands|Legislative Council]] has 15 members, 13 members elected for a four year term, 9 of them in single-seat [[constituency|constituencies]] and 4 at large, one ex officio member and one speaker chosen from outside the council.
==Political parties and elections==
{{elect|List of political parties in the British Virgin Islands|Elections in the British Virgin Islands|}}
{{BVI legislative election, 2003}}
==Judicial branch==
The [[Eastern Caribbean Supreme Court]], consists of the High Court of Justice and the Court of Appeal (one judge of the Supreme Court is a resident of the islands and presides over the High Court). Furthermore there is a Magistrate's Court; Juvenile Court; and a Court of Summary Jurisdiction.
==International organization participation==
[[Caricom]] (associate), [[Caribbean Development Bank|CDB]], [[Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean|ECLAC]] (associate), [[Interpol]] (subbureau), [[International Olympic Committee|IOC]], [[Organisation of Eastern Caribbean States|OECS]] (associate), [[UNESCO]] (associate)
[[Category:Politics of the British Virgin Islands]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Economy of the British Virgin Islands</title>
<id>3652</id>
<revision>
<id>31823503</id>
<timestamp>2005-12-18T06:59:19Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Snagari</username>
<id>180680</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>disambiguation link repair ([[Wikipedia:Disambiguation pages with links|You can help!]])</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{CIA}}
'''Economy - overview:'''
The [[economic system|economy]] of the [[British Virgin Islands]], one of the most prosperous in the [[Caribbean]], is highly dependent on [[tourism]], which generates an estimated 45% of the national income. An estimated 350,000 tourists, mainly from the [[United States]], visited the islands in [[1997]]. In the mid-1980s, the government began offering offshore registration to companies wishing to incorporate in the islands, and incorporation fees now generate substantial revenues. An estimated 250,000 companies were on the offshore registry by yearend [[1997]]. The adoption of a comprehensive insurance law in late [[1994]], which provides a blanket of confidentiality with regulated statutory gateways for investigation of criminal offenses, is expected to make the British Virgin Islands even more attractive to international business. [[Livestock]] raising is the most important agricultural activity; poor soils limit the islands' ability to meet domestic food requirements. Because of traditionally close links with the [[U.S. Virgin Islands]], the British Virgin Islands has used the dollar as its currency since [[1959]].
'''GDP:'''
purchasing power parity - $287 million (1999 est.)
'''GDP - real growth rate:'''
6.8% (1999 est.)
'''[[gross domestic product|GDP]] - [[per capita]]:'''
[[purchasing power parity]] - $15,000 (1999 est.)
'''GDP - composition by sector:'''
<br>''agriculture:''
1.8%
<br>''industry:''
6.2%
<br>''services:''
92% (1996 est.)
'''Population below [[poverty line]]:'''
NA%
'''Household income or consumption by percentage share:'''
<br>''lowest 10%:''
NA%
<br>''highest 10%:''
NA%
'''[[Inflation]] rate (consumer prices):'''
5.3% (1998)
'''[[Labor force]]:'''
4,911 (1980)
'''Labor force - by occupation:'''
agriculture NA%, industry NA%, services NA%
'''Unemployment rate:'''
3% (1995)
'''Budget:'''
<br>''revenues:''
$121.5 million
<br>''expenditures:''
$115.5 million, including capital expenditures of $NA (1997)
'''Industries:'''
tourism, light industry, construction, [[rum]], [[concrete]] block, offshore financial center
'''Industrial production growth rate:'''
4% (1985)
'''[[Electricity]] - production:'''
42 GWh (1998)
'''Electricity - production by source:'''
<br>''fossil fuel:''
100%
<br>''hydro:''
0%
<br>''nuclear:''
0%
<br>''other:''
0% (1998)
'''Electricity - consumption:'''
39 GWh (1998)
'''Electricity - exports:'''
0 kWh (1998)
'''Electricity - imports:'''
0 kWh (1998)
'''[[Agriculture]] - products:'''
fruits, vegetables; livestock, [[poultry]]; [[fish]]
'''Exports:'''
$6 million (1998)
'''Exports - commodities:'''
rum, fresh fish, fruits, animals; gravel, sand
'''Exports - partners:'''
Virgin Islands (US), Puerto Rico, US
'''Imports:'''
$175 million (1998)
'''Imports - commodities:'''
building materials, automobiles, foodstuffs, machinery
'''Imports - partners:'''
Virgin Islands (US), Puerto Rico, US
'''Debt - external:'''
$36.1 million (1997)
'''Economic aid - recipient:'''
$2.6 million (1995)
'''Currency:'''
1 [[United States dollar]] (US$) = 100 cents
'''[[Exchange rate]]s:'''
US currency is used
'''Fiscal year:'''
[[1 April]]&ndash;[[31 March]]
[[Category:Economy of the British Virgin Islands|*]]
[[Category:Economies by country|British Virgin Islands]]
[[es:Economía de las Islas Vírgenes Británicas]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Communications on the British Virgin Islands</title>
<id>3653</id>
<revision>
<id>24097556</id>
<timestamp>2005-09-26T18:55:02Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>CaribDigita</username>
<id>60840</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Recat Cat:British Virgin Islands -> Cat:Communications in the British Virgin Islands</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{CIA}}
'''[[Telephone]]s - main lines in use:'''
9,000 (1994)
'''Telephones - mobile cellular:'''
NA
'''Telephone system:'''
worldwide telephone service
<br>''domestic:''
NA
<br>''international:''
submarine cable to [[Bermuda]]
'''[[Radio]] [[broadcasting|broadcast]] stations:'''
AM 1, FM 4, shortwave 0 (1998)
'''Radios:'''
9,0 |
tly as chives, as in this photo, served as a garnish for Japanese soup [[misoshiru]].]]
Chives are grown for their leaves, which are used as a [[vegetable]] or a [[herb]]; they have a somewhat milder flavour than [[onion|onions]], [[green onion|green onions]] or [[garlic|garlics]]. Among the latter three ''[[Allium]]'' plants, chives resemble most the ordor of green onions, which may explain one of the two Chinese names of chives, [[:zh:細香蔥|細香蔥]], meaning "thin fragrant green onions".
Chives are chopped raw and typically used for seasoning salads and omelettes, or as a topping for [[baked potato]]es. Unlike the occasional use in [[Japanese cuisine]], they are almost '''not''' used in [[Chinese cuisine]]. It may be confounding that [[green onion|green onions]] or [[Chinese chives]] (also referred as [[garlic chives]]), instead of chives, are actually used in Chinese cuisine as a garnish in a number of [[stir fry]] dishes. Garlic chives are sometimes used as long cuts, and tossed in after cooking is complete, for both color and their not-so-strong flavor.
===Cultivation===
Chives thrive in well drained soil, rich in organic matter, with a pH of 6.0-7.0 and full sun. They tolerate light shade, but 6-8 hours of direct light is best.
[[Image:Chives.web.jpg|thumb|right|close-up of a flower]][[Image:Chives small three-valved capsule with seeds.jpg||thumb|right|capsules with seeds]]
Chives can be grown from seed when mature in summer, or early the following spring. Typically chives need to be germinated at a temperature of 15 °C to 20 °C and kept moist. They can also be planted under a [[cloche]] or germinated indoors in cooler climates then planted out later. After at least four weeks the young shoots should be ready to be planted out.
The easiest way to cultivate chives is to dig up a good sized clump of them pull the mass of little bulbs apart and replant them. It is suggested that this should be done every 2-3 years.
Chives die back to the underground bulbs in winter, with the new leaves appearing in early spring. They can also be cut back if they are looking worse for wear, with a cut to a height of 2-5 cm encouraging new growth.
===History and Folklore===
The ancient Chinese are the first documented to be using chives, as long ago as 3000 years B.C.
The Romans believed chives could relieve the pain from sunburn or a sore throat. They believed that eating chives would increase blood pressure and acted as a diuretic.
Romanian Gypsies have used chives in fortune telling.
It was believed that bunches of dried chives hung around a house would ward off disease and evil.
== External links ==
* [http://www.botanical.com/botanical/mgmh/c/chives65.html Mrs. Grieve's] "A Modern Herbal" @ Botanical.com
* [http://www.selfsufficientish.com/chives.htm Chives, history, clutivation,container growing and a recipe]
{{Commons|Allium schoenoprasum}}
{{cookbookpar|Chive}}
[[Category:Asparagales]]
[[Category:Herbs]]
[[bg:Сибирски лук]]
[[da:Purløg]]
[[de:Schnittlauch]]
[[eo:Sxenoprazo]]
[[he:עירית]]
[[hu:Metélőhagyma]]
[[it:Erba cipollina]]
[[ja:チャイブ]]
[[nl:Bieslook]]
[[sl:Drobnjak]]
[[sv:gräslök]]
[[es:Cebolleta]]
[[fr:Ciboulette]]
[[zh:蝦夷蔥]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>ChrisMorris</title>
<id>5396</id>
<revision>
<id>15903606</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Chris Morris]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Chris Morris (satirist)</title>
<id>5397</id>
<revision>
<id>41941284</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T19:53:04Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Pissant</username>
<id>679766</id>
</contributor>
<comment>image</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Chrismorris.jpg|thumb|Chris Morris in ''[[Brass Eye]]'']]
'''Chris (Christopher) Morris''' (born [[June 15]], [[1962]]) is an [[England|English]] comedy writer, [[satire|satirist]] and radio [[disc jockey|DJ]].
Morris was born in [[Cambridgeshire]]; both his parents were doctors. He was educated at [[Stonyhurst College]], a [[Jesuit]] boys' boarding school in [[Lancashire]], and studied [[zoology]] at [[Bristol University]].
==Early career==
Chris showed his comic talent in the lower sixth form, when he played Charon in a production of [[The Frogs]] by [[Aristophanes]]. Although a minor part, his portrayal of [[Charon]] stole the show.
On graduating, Morris took up a traineeship with [[BBC Radio Cambridgeshire]], where he took advantage of the free access to editing and recording equipment to create elaborate [[Parody|spoof]]s and [[parody|parodies]]. On leaving Radio Cambridgeshire he worked at [[BBC Radio Bristol]] and [[Greater London Radio]] (GLR). He was fired by Radio Bristol, with varying accounts claiming that he had either been excessively abusive to a caller or had talked (and possibly eaten) over a news broadcast. However, the legendary incident in which he supposedly released helium into a news studio was part of a prepared 'sketch' item and never led to a suspension or dismissal. Also, despite rumours to the contrary, he was never fired or suspended from GLR and continued to broadcast with the station sporadically until his television career took off.
In 1991 Morris largely gave up work as a mainstream disc jockey and devoted himself to comedy with his radio project ''[[On the Hour]]''. Working with [[Armando Iannucci]], [[Patrick Marber]], [[Richard Herring]], [[Stewart Lee]], [[Steve Coogan]] and others, he created a highly original spoof news show which was broadcast on [[BBC Radio 4]].
==Move into television==
In 1994 a television series based on ''On the Hour'' was broadcast under the name ''[[The Day Today]]''. ''The Day Today'' made a star of Morris, and also helped to launch the careers of [[Patrick Marber]] and [[Steve Coogan]]. 1994 proved to be Morris's most critically successful year, as he presented a [[BBC Radio 1]] series similar in content to, but sharper than, the [[Greater London Radio]] broadcasts, and teamed up with comedy legend [[Peter Cook]], as [[Sir Arthur Streeb-Greebling]], in a series of improvised conversations for Radio Three, entitled ''Why Bother?''. Morris followed this with ''[[Blue Jam]]'', a late-night [[ambient music]] and sketch show broadcast on Radio 1, which was later reworked for television as [[Channel 4]]'s ''[[Jam (TV series)|Jam]]''.
The "sick comedy" which had bubbled under in ''On the Hour'' and ''The Day Today'' found full release, however, with ''[[Brass Eye]]'', another spoof current affairs television documentary show, shown on Channel 4. The station remit allowed for more shocking material, and Morris took full advantage of this freedom, exploring such [[taboo]]s as infant mortality, [[incest]], [[anal sex]], [[rape]], [[suicide]] and [[sadomasochism]]. In 2001 a reprise of ''Brass Eye'' on the subject of [[pedophilia|paedophilia]] led to record numbers of viewer complaints (now the second highest on UK television after ''[[Jerry Springer - The Opera|Jerry Springer: The Opera]]''), and a great deal of hysterical discussion in the press. Many complainants, some of whom later admitted to not having seen the programme (notably [[Beverley Hughes]], at the time a government minister), felt the satire was directed at the victims of paedophilia, which Morris denies. Most critics, however, felt that the programme's target was actually media coverage of the subject.
==A controversial figure==
Morris has also covered other controversial subjects. He once [[List of premature obituaries|falsely suggested]] on the radio that [[Jimmy Savile]] and [[Conservative Party (UK)|Conservative]] [[Member of Parliament|MP]] [[Michael Heseltine]] had died; had a show faded mid-broadcast when he played a scurrilous [[cut-up]] of the [[Archbishop of Canterbury]]'s funeral oration for [[Diana, Princess of Wales]], although Radio 1 had previously cleared this for broadcast and this was an error on their part as they mistook it for another censored sketch on a similar theme; and performed a song in the style of [[Pulp (band)|Pulp]] lead singer [[Jarvis Cocker]] about notorious child-murderer [[Myra Hindley]] with the following lyrics: "Every time I see your picture, Myra/I have to phone my latest girlfriend up and fire her/And find a prostitute who looks like you and hire her/Oh, me oh Myra."
In 1994 Morris portrayed a fictional rapper, Fur-Q, for a sketch satirising hip hop's glamourising of guns and violence (signature track - "Uzi Lover"). He would visit similar territory in ''[[Brass Eye]]'', with JLB8 (Jailbait), an [[Eminem]] clone who openly worked paedophile themes into his music and thus had a huge following of preteen girls.
In [[2002]] Morris ventured into [[film]] with the [[short film|short]] ''[[My Wrongs 8245 - 8249 and 117]]'', a version of a ''Blue Jam'' sketch about a man looking after a sinister talking dog. It was the first film project of [[Warp Films]], a branch of [[Warp Records]]. In [[2003]] this won the [[BAFTA]] for best short film.
In 2005 Morris worked on a sitcom entitled ''[[Nathan Barley]]'', based on the character created by [[Charlie Brooker]] for his website [[TVGoHome]]. Co-written by Brooker and Morris, the series was broadcast on [[Channel 4]] in early [[2005]].
==Current work==
Morris is a cast member in ''[[The IT Crowd]]'', a [[Channel 4]] [[situation comedy|sitcom]] focusing on the office and home lives of two "[[geek]]s" who work in the [[information technology]] department of the fictional company Reynholm Industries. The series is written and directed by [[Graham Linehan]] (writer of ''[[Father Ted]]'' and ''[[Black Books]]'', with whom Morris collaborated on ''The Day Today'', ''Brass Eye'' and |
text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>List of infectious diseases</title>
<id>14613</id>
<revision>
<id>40665944</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-22T04:04:37Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>AxelBoldt</username>
<id>2</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* [[Fungus|Fungal]] infectious diseases */ +athlete's foot</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Human [[infectious disease]]s''' grouped by causative agent and alphabetically arranged.
== [[virus (biology)|Viral]] infectious diseases ==
[[AIDS]] &ndash; [[AIDS|AIDS Related Complex]] &ndash; [[Chickenpox]] (Varicella) &ndash; [[Common cold]] &ndash; [[Cytomegalovirus|Cytomegalovirus Infection]] &ndash; [[Colorado tick fever]] &ndash; [[Dengue fever]] &ndash; [[Ebola haemorrhagic fever]] &ndash; [[Mumps|Epidemic parotitis]] &ndash; [[Influenza|Flu]] &ndash; [[Hand, foot and mouth disease]] &ndash; [[Hepatitis]] &ndash; [[Herpes simplex]] &ndash; [[Herpes zoster]] &ndash; [[Human papillomavirus|HPV]] &ndash; [[Influenza]] &ndash; [[Lassa fever]] &ndash; [[Measles]] &ndash; [[Marburg haemorrhagic fever]] &ndash; [[Infectious mononucleosis]] &ndash; [[Mumps]] &ndash; [[Poliomyelitis]] &ndash; [[Progressive multifocal leukencephalopathy]] &ndash; [[Rabies]] &ndash; [[Rubella]] &ndash; [[Severe acute respiratory syndrome|SARS]] &ndash; [[Smallpox]] (Variola) &ndash; [[Viral encephalitis]] &ndash; [[Gastroenteritis|Viral gastroenteritis]] &ndash; [[Viral meningitis]] &ndash; [[pneumonia|Viral pneumonia]] &ndash; [[West Nile virus|West Nile disease]] &ndash; [[Yellow fever]]
== [[bacterium|Bacterial]] infectious diseases ==
[[Anthrax disease|Anthrax]] &ndash; [[Bacterial Meningitis]] &ndash; [[Brucellosis]] &ndash; [[Bubonic plague]] &ndash; [[Campylobacteriosis]] &ndash; [[Cat scratch fever|Cat Scratch Disease]] &ndash; [[Cholera]] &ndash; [[Diphtheria]] &ndash; [[Epidemic Typhus]] &ndash; [[Gonorrhea]] &ndash; [[Impetigo]] &ndash; [[Leprosy|Hansen's Disease]] &ndash; [[Legionellosis]] &ndash; [[Leprosy]] &ndash; [[Leptospirosis]] &ndash; [[Listeriosis]] &ndash; [[Lyme Disease]] &ndash; [[Melioidosis]] &ndash; [[Staphylococcus aureus|MRSA infection]] &ndash; [[Nocardiosis]] &ndash; [[Pertussis]] &ndash; [[Pneumonia|Pneumococcal pneumonia]] &ndash; [[Psittacosis]] &ndash; [[Q fever]] &ndash; [[Rocky Mountain Spotted Fever]] or [[RMSF]] &ndash; [[Salmonella|Salmonellosis]] &ndash; [[Group A streptococcal infection|Scarlet Fever]] &ndash; [[Shigellosis]] &ndash; [[Syphilis]] &ndash; [[Tetanus]] &ndash; [[Chlamydia|Trachoma]] &ndash; [[Tuberculosis]] &ndash; [[Tularemia]] &ndash; [[Typhoid Fever]] &ndash; [[Typhus]] &ndash; [[Whooping Cough]]
== [[parasite|Parasitic]] infectious diseases ==
[[African trypanosomiasis]] &ndash; [[Amebiasis]] &ndash; [[Ascariasis]] &ndash; [[Babesiosis]] &ndash; [[Chagas Disease]] &ndash; [[Clonorchiasis]] &ndash; [[Cryptosporidiosis]] &ndash; [[Cysticercosis]] &ndash; [[Diphyllobothriasis]] &ndash; [[Dracunculiasis]] &ndash; [[Echinococcosis]] &ndash; [[Enterobiasis]] &ndash; [[Fascioliasis]] &ndash; [[Fasciolopsiasis]] &ndash; [[Filariasis]] &ndash; [[Free-living amebic infection]] &ndash; [[Giardia lamblia|Giardiasis]] &ndash; [[Gnathostomiasis]] &ndash; [[Hymenolepiasis]] &ndash; [[Isosporiasis]] &ndash; [[Leishmaniasis|Kala-azar]] &ndash; [[Leishmaniasis]] &ndash; [[Malaria]] &ndash; [[Metagonimiasis]] &ndash; [[Myiasis]] &ndash; [[Onchocerciasis]] &ndash; [[Pediculosis]] &ndash; [[Enterobiasis|Pinworm Infection]] &ndash; [[Scabies]] &ndash; [[Schistosomiasis]] &ndash; [[Taeniasis]] &ndash; [[Toxocariasis]] &ndash; [[Toxoplasmosis]] &ndash; [[Trichinellosis]] &ndash; [[Trichinellosis|Trichinosis]] &ndash; [[Trichuriasis]] &ndash; [[Trypanosomiasis]]
== [[Fungus|Fungal]] infectious diseases ==
[[Aspergillosis]] &ndash; [[Blastomycosis]] &ndash; [[Candidiasis]] &ndash; [[Coccidioidomycosis]] &ndash; [[Cryptococcosis]] &ndash; [[Histoplasmosis]] &ndash; [[Tinea pedis]]
== [[Prion]] infectious diseases ==
[[Bovine spongiform encephalopathy]] &ndash; [[Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease]] &ndash; [[Kuru]]
==References==
*[[Control of Communicable Diseases Manual]] edited by James B. Chin, APHA, 2000
== See also ==
* [[List of ICD-9 codes 001-139: Infectious and parasitic diseases]]
* [[ICD-10 Chapters A and B: Certain infectious and parasitic diseases]]
* [[List of notifiable diseases]]
* [[Basic reproductive rate]]
[[Category:Infectious diseases]]
[[de:Infektionskrankheit]]
[[ja:&#24863;&#26579;&#30151;]]
[[nl:Infectieziekte]]
[[pl:Choroba zaka&#378;na]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Infinite Series</title>
<id>14614</id>
<revision>
<id>15912154</id>
<timestamp>2003-10-27T00:03:04Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Michael Hardy</username>
<id>4626</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[series (mathematics)]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Inflected language</title>
<id>14616</id>
<revision>
<id>15912155</id>
<timestamp>2004-12-02T20:20:14Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Ish ishwar</username>
<id>138516</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Inflection]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Intel</title>
<id>14617</id>
<revision>
<id>42076606</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T17:40:24Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>166.109.110.20</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{dablink|The following article is about the multinational [[corporation]]. '''Intel''' is also an abbreviation for intelligence, used in reference to [[Military intelligence|military intelligence]] and [[espionage]].}}
{{Infobox_Company |
company_name = Intel Corporation |
company_logo = [[Image:Intel-logo.svg|150px]] |
company_type = [[Public company|Public]] ({{nasdaq|INTC}}) |
company_slogan = Leap ahead. |
foundation = [[1968]]|
location = [[Santa Clara, California]], [[USA]] (incorporated in [[Delaware]])|
key_people = [[Paul Otellini]], CEO <br>[[Craig Barrett (Intel Chairman)|Craig Barrett]], Chairman|
num_employees = 91,000|
industry = [[Semiconductors]]|
products = [[Microprocessors]]<br>[[Flash memory]]|
revenue = [[Image:green up.png]]$34.2 billion [[United States dollar|USD]] ([[Fiscal year|2004]])|
homepage = [http://www.intel.com/ www.intel.com]
}}
'''Intel Corporation''' ({{nasdaq|INTC}}, {{sehk|4335}}), founded in [[1968]] as '''Int'''egrated '''El'''ectronics Corporation, is a [[United States|U.S.]]-based multinational corporation that is best known for designing and manufacturing [[microprocessor]]s and specialized [[integrated circuits]]. Intel also makes [[network card]]s, [[motherboard]] chipsets, components, and other devices. Intel has advanced research projects in all aspects of [[Fabrication (semiconductor)|semiconductor manufacturing]], including [[MEMS]].
==Overview==
Intel was founded in [[1968]] by [[Gordon E. Moore]] (a [[chemist]] and [[physicist]]) and [[Robert Noyce]] (a physicist and co-inventor of the [[integrated circuit]]) when they left [[Fairchild Semiconductor]]. It is noteworthy that Intel competitor [[AMD]] was also founded by the [[Traitorous Eight]], in [[1969]]. Intel's employee number four was [[Andrew Grove|Andy Grove]] (a [[chemical engineer]]), who ran the company through much of the [[1980s]] and the high-growth [[1990s]]. It is Grove who is now remembered as the company's key leader. By the end of the 1990s, Intel was one of the largest and most successful businesses in the world, though fierce competition within the semiconductor industry has since diminished its position somewhat.
===SRAMS and the microprocessor===
[[Image: L Intel-C4004 (gray traces).jpg|thumb|right|160px|Intel C4004, the world's first single-chip microprocessor. The "gold and white with gray traces" specimen shown belongs to the initial CERDIP type series manufactured in 1971.]]
The company's first products were random-access [[Primary storage|memory]] integrated circuits, and Intel grew to be a leader in the fiercely competitive [[Dynamic random access memory|DRAM]], [[Static random access memory|SRAM]], and [[Read-only memory|ROM]] markets throughout the 1970s. Concurrently, Intel engineers [[Marcian Hoff]], [[Federico Faggin]], [[Stanley Mazor]] and [[Masatoshi Shima]] invented the first [[microprocessor]]. Originally developed for the Japanese company [[Busicom]] to replace a number of [[ASIC]]'s in a calculator already produced by Busicom, the [[Intel 4004]] was introduced to the mass market on [[November 15]], [[1971]], though the microprocessor did not become the core of Intel's business until the mid-1980s. (Note: Intel is usually given credit with [[Texas Instruments]] for the almost-simultaneous invention of the microprocessor.)
===From DRAM to microprocessors===
In 1983 at the dawn of the [[personal computer]] era, Intel's profits came under increased pressure from [[Japan|Japanese]] memory-chip manufacturers, and then-President Andy Grove drove the company into a focus on microprocessors. Grove described this transition in the book ''[[Only the Paranoid Survive]]''. A key element of his plan was the notion, then considered radical, of becoming the single source for successors to the popular [[8086]] microprocessor.
Until then, manufacture of c |
fter Hitler's visit. Bernhard's achievement was to make the elimination of references to Hitler's reception in Vienna emblematic of Austrian attempts to claim their history and culture under questionable criteria. Many politicians from all political factions called Bernhard a ''Nestbeschmutzer'' (so. damaging the reputation of his country) and openly demanded that the play should not be staged in Vienna's [[Burgtheater]]. [[Kurt Waldheim]], who was at that time still Austrian president called the play ''a crude insult to the Austrian people''.{{ref|bernhard}}
===The Historical Commission and outstanding legal issues===
In the context of the postwar [[Federal Republic of Germany]], one encounters a ''[[Vergangenheitsbewältigung]]'' ("struggle to come to terms with the past") that has been partially institutionalised, variably in literary, cultural, political, and educational contexts (its development and difficulties have not been trivial; see, for example, the [[Historikerstreit]]). Austria formed a ''Historikerkommission''{{ref|historikerkommission}} ("Historian's Commission" or "Historical Commission") in 1998 with a mandate to review Austria's role in the Nazi expropriation of Jewish property from a scholarly rather than legal perspective, partly in response to continuing criticism of its handling of property claims. Its membership was based on recommendations from various quarters, including [[Simon Wiesenthal]] and [[Yad Vashem]]. The Commission delivered its report in 2003. {{ref|report}} Noted Holocaust historian [[Raul Hilberg]] refused to participate in the Commission and in an interview stated his strenuous objections in terms both personal and in reference to larger questions about Austrian culpability and liability, comparing what he to be relative inattention to the settlement governing the [[Switzerland|Swiss]] bank holdings of those who died or were displaced by the Holocaust:
<blockquote>
I personally would like to know why the WJC &#91;[[World Jewish Congress]]&#93; has hardly put any pressure on Austria, even as leading Nazis and SS leaders were Austrians, Hitler included... Immediately after the war, the US wanted to make the Russians withdraw from Austria, and the Russians wanted to keep Austria neutral, therefore there was a common interest to grant Austria victim status. And later Austria could cry poor - though its per capita income is as high as Germany's. And, most importantly, the Austrian PR machinery works better. Austria has the opera ball, the imperial castle, Mozartkugeln [a chocolate]. Americans like that. And Austrians invest and export relatively little to the US, therefore they are less vulnerable to blackmail. In the meantime, they set up a commission in Austria to clarify what happened to Jewish property. Victor Klima, the former chancellor, has asked me to join. My father fought for Austria in the First World War and in 1939 he was kicked out of Austria. After the war they offered him ten dollars per month as compensation. For this reason I told Klima, no thank you, this makes me sick. {{ref|Hilberg}}
</blockquote>
The [[Simon Wiesenthal Center]] continues to criticise Austria (as recently as June 2005) for its alleged historical and ongoing unwillingness aggressively to pursue investigations and trials against Nazis for war crimes and crimes against humanity from the seventies onwards. Its 2001 report offered the following characterization:
<blockquote>
Given the extensive participation of numerous Austrians, including at the highest levels, in the implementation of the Final Solution and other Nazi crimes, Austria should have been a leader in the prosecution of Holocaust perpetrators over the course of the past four decades, as has been the case in Germany. Unfortunately relatively little has been achieved by the Austrian authorities in this regard and in fact, with the exception of the case of Dr. Heinrich Gross which was suspended this year under highly suspicious circumstances (he claimed to be medically unfit, but outside the court proved to be healthy) not a single Nazi war crimes prosecution has been conducted in Austria since the mid-seventies.{{ref|Simon}}
</blockquote>
In 2003 the Center launched a worldwide effort named "Operation: Last Chance" in order to collect further information about those Nazis still alive that are potentially subject to prosecution. Although reports issued shortly thereafter credited Austria for initiating large-scale investigations, there has been one case where criticism of Austrian authorities arose recently: The Center has put 92-year old [[Croatia]]n [[Milivoj Asner]] on its 2005 top ten list. Asner fled to Austria in 2004 after Croatia announced it would start investigations in the case of war crimes he may have been involved in. In response to objections about Asner's continued freedom, Austria's federal government has deferred to either extradition requests from Croatia or prosecutorial actions from [[Klagenfurt]], neither of which appears forthcoming (as of June 2005). {{ref|asner}} Extradition is not an option since Asner also holds Austrian [[citizenship]], having lived in the country from 1946 to 1991. {{ref|asner_citizen}}
<!--to be completed-->
==Austrian political and military leaders in Nazi Germany==
*[[Arthur Seyss-Inquart]]
*[[Ernst Kaltenbrunner]]
*[[Odilo Globocnik]]
*[[Amon Göth]]
*[[Lothar Rendulic]]
*[[Alfred Ritter von Hubicki]]
*[[Alexander Löhr]]
*[[Franz Böhme]]
==See also==
*''[[The Sound of Music]]'' (an account of the Anschluss, dramatized but based on actual events)
*''[[The Great Dictator]]'' (a fictitious account of the invasion of "Osterlich" by "Tomania", modeled on the Anschluss)
*[[Third Reich]]
*[[Kurt Schuschnigg]]
*[[History of Austria]]
==Notes==
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#{{Note|spelling}} Until the [[German spelling reform of 1996]], ''Anschluss'' was written ''Anschluß'' in German. (See also the article on [[ß]].) In English-language typography and style conventions, "ß" was often transliterated as "ss," making the spelling currently accepted in German a valid, if not predominant, option before 1996.
#{{Note|encarta_sidebar}} [http://encarta.msn.com/sidebar_761593988/The_Anschluss.html The Anschluss], MSN Encarta. (accessed [[8 July]] [[2005]]),[http://www.britannica.com/ebc/article?tocId=9355453&query=plebiscite&ct= Anschluss], Britannica, (accessed [[8 July]] [[2005]]), some historical sources refer to the Anschluss as an annexation.
#{{Note|encarta}} [http://encarta.msn.com/sidebar_461500064/1938_Austria.html 1938: Austria], MSN Encarta. (accessed [[10 June]] [[2005]]).
#{{Note|wienerzeitung}} "[http://www.wienerzeitung.at/linkmap/personen/miklaspopup.htm Österreichs Weg zum Anschluss im März 1938]," ''Wiener Zeitung'', [[25 May]] [[1998]] (detailed article the on the events of the Anschluss, in German).
#{{note|wienerzeitung_a}} Ibid.
#{{Note|hitlerspeech}} [http://www.spartacus.schoolnet.co.uk/2WWanschluss.htm Anschluss], Spartacus Schoolnet (reactions on the Anschluss).
#{{Note|doew}} "[http://www.doew.at/thema/thema_alt/wuv/maerz38_2/propaganda.html Die propagandistische Vorbereitung der Volksabstimmung]," Austrian Resistance Archive, Vienna, 1988 (accessed [[10 June]] [[2005]]).
#{{note|doew_a}} Ibid.
#{{note|wienerzeitung_b}} See note 2 above.
#{{note|wienerzeitung_c}} See note 2 above.
#{{Note|speech}} Neville Chamberlain, "[http://web.jjay.cuny.edu/~jobrien/reference/ob92.html Statement of the Prime Minister in the House of Commons, [[14 March]] [[1938]]]."
#{{Note|moskauermemo}} [http://www.ibiblio.org/pha/policy/1943/431000a.html Moscow Conference: Joint Four-Nation Declaration], October 1943 (full text of the Moscow Memorandum).
#{{Note|nybooks}} Gerald Stourzh, "[http://www.nybooks.com/articles/4859 Waldheim's Austria]," ''The New York Review of Books'' 34, no. 3 (February 1987).
#{{Note|seyss-inquart}} "[http://www.nizkor.org/hweb/imt/tgmwc/judgment/j-defendants-seyss-inquart.html Judgment, The Defendants: Seyss-Inquart]," The Nizkor Project.
#{{Note|vonpapen}} "[http://www.nizkor.org/hweb/imt/tgmwc/judgment/j-defendants-von-papen.html The Defendants: Von Papen]," The Nizkor Project.
#{{Note|jerusalem}} [http://www.salzburg.com/cgi-bin/sn/printArticle.pl?xm=165129 Short note on Schüssel's interview in the Jerusalem Post (in German)], ''Salzburger Nachrichten'', [[11 November]] [[2000]].
#{{Note|bernhard}} [http://www.kirjasto.sci.fi/bernhard.htm Thomas Bernhard], Books and Writers (article on Bernhard with a short section on Heldenplatz).
#{{Note|historikerkommission}} [http://www.historikerkommission.gv.at/ Austrian Historical Commission].
#{{Note|report}} [http://www.austria.org/press/318.html Press statement on the report of the Austrian Historical Commission] Austrian Press and Information Service, [[28 February]] [[2003]]
#{{Note|Hilberg}} [http://www.normanfinkelstein.com/article.php?pg=3&ar=5 Hilberg interview with the ''Berliner Zeitung,''] as quoted by [[Norman Finkelstein]]'s web site.
#{{Note|Simon}} Efraim Zuroff, "[http://www.dickinson.edu/magazine/fall02/wiesenthal.html |
yet to be terminated. The only titles other than a barony that have yet gone into abeyance are the [[Baron Arlington|earldom of Arlington and the viscountcy of Thetford]], which are united.
Titles in the [[Peerage of Scotland]] cannot go into abeyance. In Scotland, the eldest sister is preferred over younger sisters; sisters are not considered equal coheirs.
It is common, but incorrect, to speak of peerage dignities which are dormant (i.e. unclaimed) as being in abeyance.
==References==
*{{1911}}
*See also George Edward Cokayne, [[The Complete Peerage]].
[[Category:Peerage]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Abiogenesis</title>
<id>2721</id>
<revision>
<id>41537823</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T00:41:29Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>194.106.165.117</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{mergefrom|Biopoesis}}
'''Abiogenesis''' ([[Greek language|Greek]] ''a-bio-genesis'', "non biological origins") is, in its most general sense, the generation of life from non-living matter. Today the term is primarily used to refer to theories about the chemical [[origin of life]], such as from a [[primordial soup]]. Earlier notions of abiogenesis, now more commonly known as '''spontaneous generation''', held that living organisms are generated by decaying organic substances, e.g. that mice spontaneously appear in stored grain or maggots spontaneously appear in meat. (That idea, which has long been known to be incorrect, will be called "Aristotelian abiogenesis" in this article.)
==History of abiogenesis hypotheses==
''Aristotelian abiogenesis'', also known as ''spontaneous generation'', (and, in older texts, ''Generatio aequivoca, Generatio primaria, archegenesis, autogenesis,'' and ''archebiosis''), was the theory according to which fully formed living organisms sometimes arise from not-living matter. [[Aristotle]] explicitly taught this form of abiogenesis, and laid it down as an observed fact that some animals spring from putrid matter, that [[aphid]]s arise from the dew which falls on plants, that [[flea]]s are developed from putrid matter, that mice come from dirty hay, and so forth. Alexander Ross, in commenting on Sir [[Thomas Browne]]'s doubt as to "whether mice may be bred by putrefaction", gives a clear statement of the common opinion on abiogenesis held until about two centuries ago. Ross wrote:
<blockquote>
So may he (Sir Thomas Browne) doubt whether in cheese and timber worms are generated; or if beetles and wasps in cows' dung; or if butterflies, locusts, grasshoppers, shellfish, snails, eels, and such like, be procreated of putrefied matter, which is apt to receive the form of that creature to which it is by formative power disposed. To question this is to question reason, sense and experience. If he doubts of this let him go to [[Egypt]], and there he will find the fields swarming with mice, begot of the mud of Nylus, to the great calamity of the inhabitants.
</blockquote>
The first step in the scientific refutation of the theory of Aristotelian abiogenesis was taken by the [[Italy|Italian]] [[Francesco Redi]], who, in 1668, proved that no maggots were ''bred'' in meat on which flies were prevented by wire screens from laying their eggs. From the seventeenth century onwards it was gradually shown that, at least in the case of all the higher and readily visible organisms, spontaneous generation did not occur, but that [[omne vivum ex ovo]], every living thing came from a pre-existing living thing.
The invention of the [[microscope]] carried the refutation further. In 1683 [[Antoni van Leeuwenhoek]] discovered bacteria, and it was soon found that however carefully organic matter might be protected by screens, or by being placed in stoppered receptacles, putrefaction set in, and was invariably accompanied by the appearance of myriad bacteria and other low organisms. As knowledge of microscopic forms of life increased, so the apparent possibilities of abiogenesis increased, and it became a tempting hypothesis that whilst the higher forms of life arose only by generation from their kind, there was a perpetual abiogenetic fount by which the first steps in the evolution of living organisms continued to arise, under suitable conditions, from inorganic matter. This was mostly disproved by [[Lazzaro Spallanzani]], who, in 1768, proved that [[microbe]]s came from the air, and could be killed by boiling. His work paved the way for Louis Pasteur.
It was due chiefly to [[Louis Pasteur]] that the occurrence of abiogenesis in the microscopic world was disproved as much as its occurrence in the macroscopic world. If organic matter were first sterilized and then prevented from contamination from without, putrefaction did not occur, and the matter remained free from microbes. The nature of sterilization, and the difficulties in securing it, as well as the extreme delicacy of the manipulations necessary, made it possible for a very long time to be doubtful as to the application of the phrase ''omne vivum ex vivo'' to the microscopic world, and there still remain a few belated supporters of abiogenesis. Subjection to the temperature of boiling water for, say, half an hour seemed an efficient mode of sterilization, until it was discovered that the spores of bacteria are so involved in heat-resisting membranes, that only prolonged exposure to dry, baking heat can be recognized as an efficient process of sterilization. Moreover, the presence of bacteria, or their spores, is so universal that only extreme precautions guard against a re-infection of the sterilized material. It was thus concluded definitely that all known living organisms arise only from pre-existing living organisms.
== Chemical evolution ==
''Main article:'' [[Origin of life]]
The experiments of Louis Pasteur disproved Aristotelian abiogenesis, but they say nothing about chemical evolution, which is assumed to happen under totally different conditions and far longer timespans.
Many scientists, such as [[T. H. Huxley]], postulate a "primordial archebiosis", in which the living organisms observed in the present world had originally arisen in a series of stages from non-living matter.
Unlike Aristotelian abiogenisis, chemical evolution does not propose the spontaneous creation of complex lifeforms out of anorganic substances, but a complex process with several stages. The core of any chemical evolution are self-catalytic molecules.
''See also:'' [[Hypercycle]], [[RNA world hypothesis]], [[proteinoid]], [[Miller experiment]].
==Critics==
The modern concept of abiogenesis has been criticised by scientists such as [[Fred Hoyle|Sir Fred Hoyle]] and [[Hubert Yockey]]; who were not, however, biologists. Leading biologists point to fundamental assumptions in their arguments which have little to no bearing on abiogenesis theories or research. Francis Crick should here be mentioned as an exception.
===Yockey===
Information theorist Hubert Yockey argued that chemical evolutionary research raises the question:
<blockquote>
Research on the origin of life seems to be unique in that the conclusion has already been authoritatively accepted &#8230; . What remains to be done is to find the scenarios which describe the detailed mechanisms and processes by which this happened.
One must conclude that, contrary to the established and current wisdom a scenario describing the [[genesis]] of life on earth by chance and natural causes which can be accepted on the basis of fact and not faith has not yet been written. (Yockey, 1977. A calculation of the probability of spontaneous biogenesis by information theory, ''Journal of Theoretical Biology'' '''67:'''377&#8211;398, quotes from pp. 379, 396.)
</blockquote>
In a book he wrote 15 years later, Yockey argued that the idea of abiogenesis from a primordial soup is a failed [[paradigm]]:
<blockquote>
Although at the beginning the paradigm was worth consideration, now the entire effort in the primeval soup paradigm is self-deception on the [[ideology]] of its champions. &#8230;
The history of science shows that a paradigm, once it has achieved the status of acceptance (and is incorporated in textbooks) and regardless of its failures, is declared invalid only when a new paradigm is available to replace it. Nevertheless, in order to make progress in science, it is necessary to clear the decks, so to speak, of failed paradigms. This must be done even if this leaves the decks entirely clear and no paradigms survive. It is a characteristic of the true believer in [[religion]], philosophy and ideology that he must have a set of beliefs, come what may (Hoffer, 1951). Belief in a primeval soup on the grounds that no other paradigm is available is an example of the logical fallacy of the false alternative. In science it is a virtue to acknowledge [[ignorance]]. This has been universally the case in the history of science as Kuhn (1970) has discussed in detail. There is no reason that this should be different in the research on the origin of life. (Yockey, 1992. ''Information Theory and Molecular Biology'', p. 336, [[University of Cambridge|Cambridge University]] Press, UK, ISBN 0-521-80293-8).
</blockquote>
Yockey, in general, possesses a highly critical attitude toward people who give credence toward natural origins of life, often invoking words like "faith" and "ideology". Yockey's publications have become favorites to quote among [[creationist]]s, though he is not a creationist himself (as noted in this 1995 email [http://www.asa3.org/archive/evolution/199602/0125.html]).
===Panspermia advocates===
[[Panspermia]], the idea that life came to Earth from elsewhere in the universe, is viewed by some as a criticism of abiogenesis. However, panspermia hypotheses simply transfer the ''origin problem'' elsewhere without offering a solution, so i |
be characterized by a single [[factor analysis|factor]] (Spearman's [[General intelligence factor|general intelligence)]], multiple factors (as in Sternberg's [[triarchic theory of intelligence]] and Gardner's [[theory of multiple intelligences]]), or whether it can be measured at all. In practice, standardized instruments such as the [[Stanford-Binet IQ test]] are widely used in economically developed countries to identify children in need of individualized educational treatment. Children classified as [[gifted]] are often provided with accelerated or enriched programs. Children identified with specific deficits may be provided with education in specific skills such as [[phonological awareness]].
== Learning and cognition ==
Two fundamental assumptions that underly formal education systems are that students (a) retain knowledge and skills they acquire in school, and (b) can apply them in situations outside the classroom. But are these assumptions accurate? Research has found that, even when students report not using the knowledge acquired in school, a considerable portion is retained for many years and long term retention is strongly dependent on the initial level of mastery (Semb & Ellis, 1994). When tested 10 years later, university students who took a child development course and attained high grades showed average retention scores of about 30%, whereas those who obtained moderate or lower grades showed average retention scores of about 20% (Ellis, Semb, & Cole, 1998). There is much less consensus on the crucial question of how much knowledge acquired in school transfers to tasks encountered outside formal educational settings. Some psychologists claim that research evidence for this type of ''far transfer'' is scarce (Perkins & Grotzer, 1997; Detterman, 1993), while others claim there is abundent evidence of far transfer in specific domains (e.g., Halpern, 1998).
Several perspectives have been established within which the theories of learning used in educational psychology are formed and contested. These include [[Behaviorism]], [[Cognitivism (psychology)|Cognitivism]], [[Social Cognitivism]], and [[Constructivism (pedagogical)|Constructivism]]. This section summarizes how educational psychology has researched and applied theories within each of these perspectives.
===Behavioral perspective===
[[Applied Behavior Analysis|Applied behavior analysis]], a set of techniques based on the behavioral principles of [[operant conditioning]], is effective in a range of educational settings (Alberto & Troutman, 2003). For example, teachers can improve student behavior by systematically rewarding students who follow classroom rules with praise, stars, or tokens exchangable for sundry items (McGoey & DuPaul, 2003; Theodore, Bray, Kehle, & Jensen, 2001). However, the use of rewards in education has been criticized by proponents of [[Self-Determination Theory|self-determination theory]], who claim that rewards undermine [[intrinsic motivation]]. There is evidence that tangible rewards decrease intrinsic motivation in specific situations, such as when the student already has a high level of intrinsic motivation to perform the goal behavior (Lepper, Greene, & Nisbett, 1973). But the results showing detrimental effects are counterbalanced by evidence that, in other situations, such as when rewards are given for attaining a gradually increasing standard of performance, rewards enhance intrinsic motivation (Cameron, Pierce, Banko, & Gear, 2005).
===Cognitive perspective===
Among current educational psychologists, the cognitive perspective is more widely held than the behavioral perspective perhaps because it flexibly admits causally related mental constructs such as [[personality|traits]], [[beliefs]], [[memory|memories]], [[motivation|motivations]] and [[emotions]]. Cognitive theories posit memory structures that are thought to determine how information is [[perception|perceived]], [[information processing|processed]], stored, [[information retrieval|retrieved]] and [[forgetting|forgotten]]. Among the memory structures theorized by cognitive psychologists are separate but linked visual and verbal systems described by Paivio's [[dual coding theory]]. Educational psychologists have used dual coding theory and [[cognitive load]] theory to explain how people learn from [[multimedia]] presentations (Mayer, 2003).
[[Image:KrugDavisGlover1990.png|right|thumb|250px| Three experiments reported by Krug, Davis & Glover (1990) demonstrated the advantage of delaying a 2nd reading of a text passage by one week (distributed) compared with no delay between readings (massed).]]
The spaced learning effect, a cognitive phenomenon strongly supported by psychological research, has broad applicability within education (Dempster, 1989). For example, students have been found to perform better on a test of knowledge about a text passage when a second reading of the passage is delayed rather than immediate (Krug, Davis & Glover, 1990, see figure). Educational psychology research has confirmed the applicability to education of other findings from cognitive psychology, such as the benefits of using [[mnemonics]] for immediate and delayed retention of information (Carney & Levin, 2000).
[[Problem solving]], regarded by many cognitive psychologists as fundamental to learning, is an important research topic in educational psychology. A student is thought to interpret a problem by assigning it to a problem [[Schema (psychology)|schema]] held as prior knowledge. When the problem is assigned to the wrong schema, the student's attention is subsequently directed away from features of the problem that are inconsistent with the assigned schema (Kalyuga, Chandler, Tuovnen & Sweller, 2001). The critical step of finding a mapping between the problem and a pre-existing schema is often cited as supporting the centrality of [[analogy|analogical]] thinking to problem solving.
=== Social cognitive perspective ===
Social cognitive theory is a highly influential fusion of behavioral, cognitive and social elements that was initially developed by educational psychologist [[Albert Bandura]]. In its earlier, neo-behavioral incarnation called ''social learning theory'', Bandura emphasized the process of [[observational learning]] in which a learner's behavior changes as a result of observing others' behavior and its consequences. The theory identified several factors that determine whether observing a model will affect behavioral or cognitive change. These factors include the learner's developmental status, the perceived prestige and competence of the model, the consequences received by the model, the relevance of the model's behaviors and consequences to the learner's goals, and the learner's [[self-efficacy]]. The concept of self-efficacy, which played an important role in later developments of the theory, refers to the learner's belief in his or her ability to perform the modeled behavior.
An [[experiment]] by Schunk and Hanson (1985), studying grade 2 students who had previously experienced difficulty in learning [[subtraction]], illustrates the type of research stimulated by social learning theory. One group of students observed a subtraction demonstration by a teacher and then participated in an instructional program on subtraction. A second group observed other grade 2 students performing the same subtraction procedures and then partipated in the same instructional program. The students who observed peer models scored higher on a subtraction post-test and also reported greater confidence in their subtraction ability. The results were interpreted as supporting the [[hypothesis]] that perceived similarity of the model to the learner increases self-efficacy, leading to more effective learning of modeled behavior. It is supposed that peer modeling is particularly effective for students who have low self-efficacy.
Over the last decade, much research activity in educational psychology has focused on developing theories of [[self-regulated learning]] (SRL) and [[metacognition]]. These theories work from the central premise that effective learners are active agents who construct knowledge by setting goals, analysing tasks, planning strategies and monitoring their understanding. Research has indicated that learners' who are better at goal setting and self-monitoring tend to have greater intrinsic task interest and [[self-efficacy]] (Zimmerman, 1998); and that teaching learning strategies can increase academic achievement (Hattie, Biggs & Purdie, 1996).
===Constructivist perspective===
[[Constructivism (learning theory)|Constructivism]] refers to a category of learning theories in which emphasis is placed on the agency and prior knowledge of the learner, and often on the social and cultural determinants of the learning process. Educational psychologists distinguish individual (or psychological) constructivism, identified with Piaget's learning theory, from social constructivism. A dominant influence on the latter type is [[Lev Vygotsky]]'s work on sociocultural learning, describing how interactions with adults, more capable peers, and cognitive tools are internalized to form mental constructs. Elaborating on Vygotsky's theory, [[Jerome Bruner]] and other educational psychologists developed the important concept of [[instructional scaffolding]], in which the social or information environment offers supports for learning that are gradually withdrawn as they become internalized.
Vygotsky's version of [[Constructivist epistemology|constructivist]] theory has led to the view that behavior, skills, attitudes and beliefs are inherently [[situated cognition|situated]], that is, bound to a specific sociocultural setting. According to this view, the learner is enculturated through social interactions within a [[community of practice]]. The social constructivist view of learning has spawned approaches to teaching and learn |
he court open only to specified United Nations bodies and agencies. On receiving a request, the Court decides which States and organizations might provide useful information and gives them an opportunity to present written or oral statements. Advisory Opinions were intended as a means by which UN agencies could seek the Court's help in deciding complex legal issues that might fall under their respective mandates. In principle the Court's advisory opinions are consultative in character, though they are also influential and widely respected. Whilst certain instruments or regulations can provide in advance that the advisory opinion shall be specifically binding on particular agencies or states, they are inherently non-binding under the Statute of the Court.
Advisory Opinions have often been controversial, either because the questions asked are controversial, or because the case was pursued as a "backdoor" way of bringing what is really a contentious case before the Court.
Examples of cases include:
*Advisory Opinion of the International Court of Justice on the [[Israeli West Bank Barrier]].
*[[Advisory Opinion of the International Court of Justice of 8 July 1996| An advisory opinion on the legality of the use (or threat to use) nuclear weapons]].
*The [[International Court of Justice Advisory Opinion on Western Sahara|opinion]] on [[Western Sahara]], issued in [[1975]].
===The ICJ and the Security Council===
Article 94 establishes the duty of all UN members to comply with decisions of the Court involving them. If parties do not comply, the issue may be taken before the [[Security Council]] for enforcement action. There are obvious problems with such a method of enforcement. If the judgment is against one of the permanent five members of the Security Council or its allies, any resolution on enforcement will be vetoed. This occurred, for example, after the [[Nicaragua v. United States|''Nicaragua'' case]], when [[Nicaragua]] brought the issue of the USA's non-compliance with the Court's decision before the Security Council.{{ref|2}} Furthermore, if the Security Council refuses to enforce a judgment against any other state, there is no method of forcing the state to comply.
The relationship between the ICJ and the [[Security Council]], and the separation of their powers, was considered by the Court in [[1992]], in the [[Pan Am case|''Pan Am'' case]]. The Court had to consider an application from [[Libya]] for the order of provisional measures to protect its rights, which, it alleged, were being infringed by the threat of economic sanctions by the [[UK]] and [[USA]]. The problem was that these sanctions had been authorised by the Security Council, which resulted with a potential conflict between the Chapter VII functions of the Security Council and the judicial function of the Court. The Court decided, by eleven votes to five, that it could not order the requested provisional measures because the rights claimed by Libya, even if legitimate under the [[Montreal Convention]], could no longer be upheld since the action was justified by the Security Council. In accordance with Article 103 of the UN Charter, obligations under the Charter took precedence over other treaty obligations.
There was a marked reluctance on the part of a majority of the Court to become involved in a dispute in such a way as to bring it potentially into conflict with the Council. The Court stated in the ''Nicaragua'' case (Jurisdiction) that there is no necessary inconsistency between action by the Security Council and adjudication by the ICJ. However, where there is room for conflict, the balance appears to be in favour of the Security Council.
Should either party fail "to perform the obligations incumbent upon it under a judgment rendered by the Court", the Security Council may be called upon to "make recommendations or decide upon measures" if the security council deems such actions necessary. In practice, the Court's powers have been limited by the unwillingness of the losing party to abide by the Court's ruling, and by the Security Council's unwillingness to enforce consequences. However, in theory, "so far as the parties to the case are concerned, a judgment of the Court is binding, final and without appeal," and "by signing the Charter, a State Member of the United Nations undertakes to comply with any decision of the International Court of Justice in a case to which it is a party".
For example, in [[Nicaragua v. United States]] the [[United States|United States of America]] had previously accepted the Court's compulsory jurisdiction upon its creation in [[1946]] but withdrew its acceptance following the Court's judgment in [[1984]] that called on the [[United States]] to "cease and to refrain" from the "unlawful use of force" against the government of [[Nicaragua]]. In a split decision, the majority of the Court ruled the [[United States]] was "in breach of its obligation under customary international law not to use force against another state" and ordered the US pay [[reparations]] (see note 2), although it never did.
Examples of cases include:
*A complaint by the [[United States]] in [[1980]] that [[Iran]] was detaining American diplomats in [[Tehran]] in violation of international law.
*A dispute between [[Tunisia]] and [[Libya]] over the delimitation of the continental shelf between them.
*A dispute over the course of the maritime boundary dividing the U.S. and [[Canada]] in the [[Gulf of Maine]] area.
*A complaint by the [[Federal Republic of Yugoslavia]] against the member states of the [[North Atlantic Treaty Organisation]] regarding their actions in the [[Kosovo War]]. This was denied on [[15 December]], [[2004]] due to lack of jurisdiction, because the FRY was not a party to the ICJ statute at the time it made the application.
The last example can be used as evidence of the Court's failure to take on politically controversial cases; as the Court has no means to enforce its rulings, its survival is dependent on its political legitimacy. That would be endangered if it constantly came with rulings which states have no interest of taking into consideration. This is one of the Court's major shortcomings: its rulings must be considered in a political context.
==Law applied==
''See main article: [[Sources of international law]].''
When deciding cases, the Court applies international law as summarised in Article 38. Article 38 of the Statute provides that in arriving at its decisions the Court shall apply international conventions, international custom, the "general principles of law recognized by civilized nations". It may also refer to academic writing and previous judicial decisions to help interpret the law, although the Court is not formally bound by its previous decisions. If the parties agree, the Court may also decide ''[[ex aequo et bono]]'' ("in justice and fairness"), in which the Court makes a decision based on what is fair in the circumstances or a reasonable adjustment of the rights of the parties, rather than a decision based strictly on legal rights and obligations. If exercised, it would allow the Court to operate in some ways similar to a [[mediator]]. However, this provision has never been used in the Court's history.
Article 59 makes clear that the [[common law]] notion of [[precedent]] or ''[[stare decisis]]'' does not apply to the decisions of the ICJ. The Court's decision binds only the parties in the individual case. Under 38(1)(d), however, the Court may have regard to its own previous decisions. In reality, the ICJ rarely departs from its own previous decisions and treats them in a similar way as [[superior court]]s in common law systems treat their own judgments. They are often referred to by the Court as authoritative statements of law. Further, international lawyers commonly operate as though ICJ judgments had precedential value.
==Procedure==
The ICJ is vested with the power to make its own rules. Court procedure is set out in ''Rules of Court of the International Court of Justice 1978'' (as amended on [[29 September]] [[2005]]).{{ref|5}}
Cases before the ICJ will follow a standard pattern. The case is lodged by the applicant who files a written memorial setting out the basis of the Court's jurisdiction and the merits of its claim. The respondent may accept the Court's jurisdiction and file its own memorial on the merits of the case.
===Preliminary Objections===
A respondent who does not wish to submit to the jurisdiction of the Court may raise Preliminary Objections. Any such objections must be ruled upon before the Court can address the merits of the applicant's claim. These objections must be ruled upon by the Court before it can proceed on the merits. Often a separate public hearing is held on the Preliminary Objections and the Court will render a judgment. Respondents normally file Preliminary Objections to the jurisdiction of the Court and/or the [[admissibility]] of the case. Inadmissibility refers to a range of arguments about factors the Court should take into account in deciding jurisdiction; for example, that the issue is not justiciable or not a "legal dispute".
In addition, objections may be made because all necessary parties are not before the Court. If the case necessarily requires the Court to rule on the rights and obligations of a state that has not consented to the Court's jurisdiction, the Court will not proceed to judgment on the merits.
If the Court decides it has jurisdiction and the case is admissible, the respondent will then be required to file a Memorial addressing the merits of the applicant's claim. Once all written arguments are filed, the Court will hold a public hearing on the merits.
Once a case has been filed, any party (but usually the Applicant) may seek an order from the Court to protect the ''status quo'' pending the hearing of the case |
a "console cowboy", a brilliant hacker, who betrays his organized criminal partners. Robbed of his talent through a crippling injury inflicted by the vengeful partners, Case unexpectedly receives a once-in-a-lifetime opportunity to be healed by expert medical care, but only if he participates in another criminal enterprise with a new crew. Like Case, many cyberpunk protagonists are thus manipulated, placed in situations where they have little or no choice, and although they might see things through, they do not necessarily come out any further ahead than they previously were. These [[anti-hero|anti-heroes]] &mdash; "criminals, outcasts, visionaries, dissenters and misfits" {{ref|alt.cyberpunk.faq}} &mdash; do not experience a [[Joseph Campbell|Campbellian]] "[[Monomyth|hero's journey]]", like a protagonist of a Homeric epic or an [[Alexandre Dumas]] novel. Instead, they call to mind the [[private eye]] of [[detective novel]]s, who might solve the trickiest cases but never receive a just reward. This emphasis on the misfits and the malcontents &mdash; what [[Thomas Pynchon]] called the "preterite" and [[Frank Zappa]] the "left behinds of the [[Great Society]]" &mdash; is the "punk" component of cyberpunk. Cyberpunk literature is often used as a metaphor for the present day-worries about the failings of corporations, corruption in governments, alienation and [[surveillance technology]]. Cyberpunk may be intended to disquiet readers and call them to action. It often expresses a sense of rebellion, suggesting that one could describe it as a type of [[counterculture|countercultural]] science fiction. In the words of author and critic [[David Brin]],
:a closer look at [cyberpunk authors] reveals that they nearly always portray future societies in which governments have become wimpy and pathetic ... Popular science fiction tales by Gibson, Williams, Cadigan and others ''do'' depict [[Orwellian]] accumulations of power in the next century, but nearly always clutched in the secretive hands of a wealthy or corporate elite. (''The Transparent Society'', Basic Books 1998)
Sometimes cyberpunk stories have been seen as fictional forecasts of the evolution of the [[Internet]]. The [[Virtual World|virtual world]] of the Internet often appears under various names, including "cyberspace", the ''Wired'', the ''Metaverse'' and ''the Matrix''. In this context it is important to note that the earliest descriptions of a global communications network came long before the [[World Wide Web]] entered popular awareness, though not before traditional science fiction writers such as [[Arthur C. Clarke]] and some social commentators such as [[James Burke (science historian)|James Burke]] began predicting that such networks would eventually form.
==Criticisms==
[[Image:TrinityMatrixCharacter.jpg|right|thumb|250px|[[Trinity (The Matrix)|Trinity]], heroine of the ''Matrix'' trilogy, is an example of the "razorgirl" type.]]
A variety of commentators have taken the "[[canon (fiction)|canonical]]" cyberpunk works to task, pointing out dubious aspects of the genre. For example, many of the genre's heroines take after ''Neuromancer''<nowiki>'</nowiki>s Molly, becoming "razorgirls", who may have [[sex appeal]] for a male [[science fiction]] readership but are said by some [[feminist literary criticism|feminist critics]] not to be [[women's liberation|liberated]] or to be well-developed as characters. Critics writing from this viewpoint tend to find presence of such characters disturbing, particularly when compared to female protagonists in unequivocally [[dystopia]]n science fiction (e.g., [[Margaret Atwood]]'s ''[[The Handmaid's Tale]]''). Some of these critics have claimed that cyberpunk's heroes often establish their [[masculinity]] by dominating a technology described with female [[metaphor]]s &mdash; in essence, through metaphorical [[rape]].
Some critics also view the protagonists of cyberpunk as highly Americanized, "[[cowboy]]s" poised against the collectivist world of Japanese corporations or against European financial dynasties. It has been argued that this repeated use of the cowboy theme meshes well with the images associated with [[Ronald Reagan]], which is odd for a genre so strongly filled with [[punk rock]] and [[recreational drug use|drug]] allusions. Nicola Nixon, assistant editor of the journal ''Postcolonial Studies,'' suggests this "complicity with '80s conservatism" in both economic and social respects implies that despite countercultural pretenses, "cyberpunk fiction is, in the end, not radical at all". {{ref|NicolaNixon}} Others argue that the "lone hero" is a universal archetype, and that American megacorporations and institutions are just as venomously portrayed as those of other countries.
A recurrent criticism of cyberpunk is that it assumes a [[Dualism (philosophy of mind)|dualistic]] picture of the human body and mind, analogous to that of [[Descartes]], and conveying an antipathy to embodied human life. Once again, this is a concern to some feminist critics. However, other critics have seen cyberpunk as projecting a more sophisticated and modern picture of the mind and its relationship to the body, one that should not be confused with [[Cartesian dualism]] and has more to do with [[cognitive science]].
==Literature==
The science fiction editor [[Gardner Dozois]] is generally acknowledged as the person who popularized the use of the term "cyberpunk" as a kind of [[literature]]. Minnesota writer [[Bruce Bethke]] coined the term in 1980 for his [[short story]] "Cyberpunk", although the story was not actually published until November 1983, in ''[[Amazing Stories|Amazing Science Fiction Stories]]'', Volume 57, Number 4 {{ref|BruceBethke}}. The term was quickly appropriated as a label to be applied to the works of [[Bruce Sterling]], [[John Shirley]], [[William Gibson (novelist)|William Gibson]], [[Rudy Rucker]], [[Michael Swanwick]], [[Pat Cadigan]], [[Lewis Shiner]], Richard Kadrey and others. Of these, Sterling became the movement's chief ideologue, thanks to his [[fanzine]] ''[[Cheap Truth]].'' (See also John Shirley's articles on Sterling and Rucker {{ref|JohnShirley}}.)
[[Image:Gibson sprawl.jpg|thumb|200px|left|William Gibson's "''[[The Sprawl trilogy|Sprawl trilogy]]''" novels are the most famous early cyberpunk novels.]]
[[William Gibson (novelist)|William Gibson]] with his novel ''[[Neuromancer]]'' (1984) is likely the most famous writer connected with the term cyberpunk. He emphasized style, character development, and atmosphere over traditional science-fiction [[trope|tropes]], and ''Neuromancer'' was awarded the [[Hugo award|Hugo]], [[Nebula award|Nebula]], and [[Philip K. Dick Memorial Award|Philip K. Dick]] Awards. According to the [[Jargon File]], "Gibson's near-total ignorance of computers and the present-day hacker culture enabled him to speculate about the role of computers and hackers in the future in ways hackers have since found both irritatingly naïve and tremendously stimulating." {{ref|Jargon}}
Early on, cyberpunk was hailed as a radical departure from science-fiction standards and a new manifestation of vitality. Shortly thereafter, however, many critics arose to challenge its status as a revolutionary movement. These critics said that the SF "[[New Wave (science fiction)|New Wave]]" of the 1960s was much more innovative as far as narrative techniques and styles were concerned. Further, while ''Neuromancer''<nowiki>'</nowiki>s narrator may have had an unusual "voice" for science fiction, much older examples can be found: Gibson's narrative voice, for example, resembles that of an updated [[Raymond Chandler]], as in his novel ''[[The Big Sleep]]'' (1939). Others noted that almost all traits claimed to be uniquely cyberpunk could in fact be found in older writers' works — often citing [[J. G. Ballard]], [[Philip K. Dick]], [[Harlan Ellison]], [[Samuel R. Delany]] and even [[William S. Burroughs]]. For example, Philip K. Dick's works contain recurring themes of social decay, artificial intelligence, paranoia, and blurred lines between reality and some kind of virtual reality. Other important predecessors include [[Alfred Bester (author)|Alfred Bester]]'s two most celebrated novels, ''[[The Demolished Man]]'' and ''[[The Stars My Destination]],'' as well as [[Vernor Vinge]]'s novella ''[[True Names]]''.
Arguably, the generation that cyberpunk claimed to represent did not step forward to embrace it: the ''real'' punks of the 1980s apparently read little, and most young science-fiction readers of that era stayed with traditional storytellers like [[Larry Niven]] and [[Anne McCaffrey]], not to mention the "Big Three" [[Isaac Asimov|Asimov]], [[Robert A. Heinlein|Heinlein]] and [[Arthur C. Clarke|Clarke]]. [[Television]] via ''[[Max Headroom]]'' and magazines like ''[[Heavy Metal (magazine)|Heavy Metal]]'' did more to popularize the "cyberpunk vision" than did the original fiction. {{ref|PaulBrians}}
Science-fiction writer [[David Brin]] describes cyberpunk as "...the finest free promotion campaign ever waged on behalf of science fiction." It may not have attracted the "real punks", but it did ensnare many new readers, and it provided the sort of movement which postmodern literary critics found alluring. (One illustration of this is [[Donna Haraway]]'s "Cyborg Manifesto", an attempt to build a "political myth" using [[cyborg]]s as [[metaphor]]s for contemporary "social reality". {{ref|DonnaHaraway}}) Cyberpunk made science fiction more attractive to academics, argues Brin; in addition, it made science fiction more profitable to [[Hollywood, Los Angeles, California|Hollywoo |
ines]] land in [[Namsos]], Norway, occupying key points, preparatory to a larger force arriving two days later.
*[[1941]] - World War II: The [[Ustashe]], a [[Croatian]] [[far-right]] organisation which pursued nazi/fascist policies, was put in charge of the [[Independent State of Croatia]] by the [[Axis Powers]]after the invasion of [[Yugoslavia]] on April 6 during Operation Castigo
*[[1944]] - Huge explosion rocks the [[Bombay]] [[harbour]] killing 300 and causing a loss of 20 million pounds at that time. See: [[Bombay Explosion (1944)]].
*[[1956]] - [[Videotape]] is first demonstrated at the 1956 NARTB (now [[National Association of Broadcasters|NAB]]) convention in [[Chicago, Illinois]]. It was the demonstation of the first practical and commercially successful format called [[2" Quadruplex]].
*[[1962]] - [[Georges Pompidou]] becomes Prime Minister of [[France]].
*[[1964]] - A [[Delta rocket]]'s third-stage motor prematurely ignites in an assembly room at [[Cape Canaveral]], killing 3.
*[[1965]] - ''[[In Cold Blood]]'' killers Richard Hickock and Perry Smith, convicted of murdering four members of the Herbert Clutter family of [[Holcomb, Kansas]], are executed by hanging at the Kansas State Penitentiary For Men in [[Lansing, Kansas]].
*[[1969]] - At the [[Academy Awards]], a tie between [[Katharine Hepburn]] and [[Barbra Streisand]] results in the two sharing the [[Academy Award for Best Actress|Best Actress Oscar]]; Hepburn also becomes the only actress to win three Best Actress Oscars.
*[[1970]] - One of [[Apollo 13]]'s oxygen tanks explodes, causing a cancelled moon mission. The explosion occurred on April 13th in several time zones.
*[[1981]] - The [[Space Shuttle]] [[Space Shuttle Columbia|''Columbia'']] passes its first test flight.
*[[1986]] - In retaliation for the [[April 5]] [[1986 Berlin discotheque bombing|bombing]] of the [[La Belle (discotheque)|La Belle Discotheque]] in [[West Berlin]] in which two U.S. servicemen were killed, [[Ronald Reagan]] ordered [[Operation El Dorado Canyon|major bombing raids]] against [[Tripoli]] and [[Benghazi]], in [[Libya]], which killed 60 people.
*1986 - 2.2 lb (1 kg) [[hailstone]]s fall on the Gopalganj district of [[Bangladesh]], killing 92. These are the heaviest [[hailstone]]s ever recorded.
*[[1988]] - [[USS Samuel B. Roberts (FFG-58)|USS ''Samuel B. Roberts'']] strikes a [[naval mine|mine]] in the [[Persian Gulf]] during [[Operation Earnest Will]]. U.S. retaliates against [[Iran]] on [[April 18]] with [[Operation Praying Mantis]], the world's largest naval battle since World War II.
*[[2003]] - [[Human Genome Project]] successfully completed with 99% of the human [[genome]] sequenced to 99.99% accuracy.
*2003 - [[Jean Charest]]'s [[Parti libéral du Québec]] defeats [[Bernard Landry]] and the [[Parti Québécois]] in [[Quebec]]'s general elections.
==Births==
*[[1336]] - [[Emperor Go-Kogon]] of Japan (d. [[1374]])
*[[1527]] - [[Abraham Ortelius]], Flemish cartographer and geographer (d. [[1598]])
*[[1572]] - [[Adam Tanner]], Austrian mathematician and philosopher (d. [[1632]])
*[[1578]] - King [[Philip III of Spain]] (d. [[1621]])
*[[1629]] - [[Christiaan Huygens]], Dutch mathematician & astronomer (d. [[1695]])
*[[1714]] - [[Adam Gib]], Scottish religious leader (d. [[1788]])
*[[1788]] - [[David G. Burnet]], interim president of the Republic of Texas (d. [[1870]])
*[[1827]] - [[Augustus Pitt-Rivers]], English archaeologist (d. [[1900]])
*[[1868]] - [[Peter Behrens]], German architect and designer (d. [[1940]])
*[[1872]] - [[Abdullah Yusuf Ali]], Islamic scholar and translator (d. [[1953]])
*[[1886]] - [[Ernst Robert Curtius]], Alsatian philologist (d. [[1956]])
*[[1897]] - [[Claire Windsor]], American actress (d. [[1972]])
*[[1902]] - [[Menachem Mendel Schneerson]], Ukrainian rabbi (d. [[1994]])
*[[1904]] - Sir [[John Gielgud]], English actor (d. [[2000]])
*[[1907]] - [[François Duvalier]], Haitian politician (d. [[1971]])
*[[1917]] - [[Marvin Miller]], American labor activist
*[[1921]] - [[Thomas Schelling]], American economist, [[Bank of Sweden Prize in Economic Sciences in Memory of Alfred Nobel|Bank of Sweden Prize]] winner
*[[1925]] - [[Abel Muzorewa]], Prime Minster of Zimbabwe
*1925 - [[Gene Ammons]], American jazz saxophonist (d. [[1974]])
*1925 - [[Rod Steiger]], American actor (d. [[2002]])
*[[1930]] - [[Bradford Dillman]], American actor
*[[1933]] - [[Morton Subotnick]], American composer
*[[1935]] - [[Erich von Däniken]], Swiss writer
*[[1936]] - [[Kenneth Mars]], American actor
*1936 - [[Frank Serpico]], American policeman
*[[1940]] - [[Loretta Lynn]], American singer
*[[1941]] - [[Julie Christie]], British actress
*1941 - [[Pete Rose]], baseball player
*[[1942]] - [[Valeriy Brumel]], Russian athlete (d. [[2003]])
*1942 - [[Valentin Lebedev]], cosmonaut
*[[1945]] - [[Ritchie Blackmore]], English guitarist
*[[1949]] - [[John Shea]], American actor
*[[1951]] - [[Julian Lloyd Webber]], English cellist and composer
*[[1960]] - [[Brad Garrett]], American actor
*[[1961]] - [[Robert Carlyle]], British actor
*[[1964]] - [[Brian Adams (wrestler)]] American Pro Wrestler
*[[1966]] - [[David Justice]], baseball player
*1966 - [[Greg Maddux]], baseball player
*[[1968]] - [[Anthony Michael Hall]], American actor
*[[1973]] - [[Adrien Brody]], American actor
*[[1974]] - [[Da Brat]], American rapper
*[[1975]] - [[Amy Dumas]], American professional wrestler
*[[1977]] - [[Sarah Michelle Gellar]], American actress
*[[1980]] - [[Ben Wells]], American Actor
*[[1983]] - [[James McFadden]], Scottish footballer
==Deaths==
*[[1132]] - Prince [[Mstislav of Kiev]] (b. [[1076]])
*[[1279]] - Duke [[Boleslaus of Greater Poland]]
*[[1322]] - [[Bartholomew de Badlesmere, 1st Lord Badlesmere]], English soldier (b. [[1275]])
*[[1345]] - [[Richard Aungerville]], English bishop and writer (b. [[1287]])
*[[1471]] - [[Richard Neville, 16th Earl of Warwick]], English kingmaker (b. [[1428]])
*[[1574]] - [[Louis of Nassau]], Dutch general (killed in battle) (b. [[1538]])
*[[1578]] - [[James Hepburn, 4th Earl of Bothwell]], consort of [[Mary I of Scotland]]
*[[1599]] - [[Henry Wallop]], English statesman
*[[1662]] - [[William Fiennes, 1st Viscount Saye and Sele]], English statesman (b. [[1582]])
*[[1682]] - [[Avvakum]], Russian priest and writer (b. [[1621]])
*[[1716]] - [[Arthur Herbert, 1st Earl of Torrington]], British admiral
*[[1721]] - [[Michel Chamillart]], French statesman (b. [[1652]])
*[[1759]] - [[George Frideric Handel]], German composer (b. [[1685]])
*[[1785]] - [[William Whitehead]], English writer (b. [[1715]])
*[[1792]] - [[Maximilian Hell]], Slovakian astronomer (b. [[1720]])
*[[1912]] - [[Henri Brisson]], French statesman (b. [[1835]])
*[[1914]] - [[Hubert Bland]], English co-founder of the Fabian Society (b. [[1855]])
*[[1917]] - [[L. L. Zamenhof|Ludovich Lazarus Zamenhof]], Polish creator of Esperanto (b. [[1859]])
*[[1925]] - [[John Singer Sargent]], English artist (b. [[1856]])
*[[1930]] - [[Vladimir Mayakovsky]], Russian writer (b. [[1893]])
*[[1935]] - [[Emmy Noether|Amalie Emmy Noether]], German mathematician (b. [[1882]])
*[[1964]] - [[Rachel Carson]], American writer and environmentalist (b. [[1907]])
*[[1968]] - [[Al Benton]], baseball player (b. [[1911]])
*[[1975]] - [[Fredric March]], American actor (b. [[1897]])
*[[1986]] - [[Simone de Beauvoir]], French feminist writer (b. [[1908]])
*[[1995]] - [[Burl Ives]], American singer and actor (b. [[1909]])
*[[1999]] - [[Ellen Corby]], American actress (b. [[1911]])
*1999 - [[Anthony Newley]], British actor and singer (b. [[1931]])
*[[2000]] - [[Phil Katz]], American computer programmer (b. [[1962]])
*[[2001]] - [[Hiroshi Teshigahara]], Japanese director (b. [[1927]])
==Holidays and observances==
*[[New Year]] Celebrations in parts of India and whole of Sri Lanka
*[[Baisakhi]] - [Celeberations in Punjab, India]
*[[Poila Baisakh]] - [Celeberations in Bengal, India]
*[[Vishu]] - [Harvest festival in Kerala, India]
*[[Black Day]] - informal celebration day for single people in [[South Korea]]
*[[Youth Day]] in [[Angola]]
==External links==
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/april/14 BBC: On This Day]
* [http://www.tnl.net/when/4/14 Today in History: April 14]
----
[[April 13]] - [[April 15]] - [[March 14]] - [[May 14]] -- [[historical anniversaries|listing of all days]]
{{months}}
[[af:14 April]]
[[an:14 d'abril]]
[[ar:14 ابريل]]
[[ast:14 d'abril]]
[[be:14 красавіка]]
[[bg:14 април]]
[[bs:14. april]]
[[ca:14 d'abril]]
[[ceb:Abril 14]]
[[co:14 d'aprile]]
[[cs:14. duben]]
[[csb:14 łżëkwiôta]]
[[cv:Ака, 14]]
[[cy:14 Ebrill]]
[[da:14. april]]
[[de:14. April]]
[[el:14 Απριλίου]]
[[eo:14-a de aprilo]]
[[es:14 de abril]]
[[et:14. aprill]]
[[eu:Apirilaren 14]]
[[fi:14. huhtikuuta]]
[[fo:14. apríl]]
[[fr:14 avril]]
[[fy:14 april]]
[[ga:14 Aibreán]]
[[gl:14 de abril]]
[[he:14 באפריל]]
[[hr:14. travnja]]
[[hu:Április 14]]
[[ia:14 de april]]
[[id:14 April]]
[[ie:14 april]]
[[io:14 di aprilo]]
[[is:14. apríl]]
[[it:14 aprile]]
[[ja:4月14日]]
[[jv:14 April]]
[[ka:14 აპრილი]]
[[kn:ಎಪ್ರಿಲ್ ೧೪]]
[[ko:4월 14일]]
[[ku:14'ê avrêlê]]
[[la:14 Aprilis]]
[[lb:14. Abrëll]]
[[li:14 april]]
[[lt:Balandžio 14]]
[[mk:14 април]]
[[ms:14 April]]
[[nap:14 'e abbrile]]
[[nl:14 april]]
[[nn:14. april]]
[[no:14. april]]
[[oc:14 d'abril]]
[[pam:Abril 14]]
[[pl:14 kwietnia]]
[[pt:14 de Abril]]
[[ro:14 aprilie]]
[[ru:14 апреля]]
[[scn:14 di aprili]]
[[se:Cuoŋománu 14.]]
[[simple:April 14]]
[[sk:14. apríl]]
[[sl:14. april]]
[[sq:14 Prill]]
[[sr:14. април]]
[[sv:14 april]]
[[te:ఏప్రిల్ 14]]
[[th:14 เมษายน]]
[[tl:Abril 14]]
[[tr:14 Nisan]]
[[tt:14. Äpril]]
[[uk:14 квітня]]
[[ur:14 اپریل]]
[[vi:14 tháng 4]]
[[wa:14 d' avri]]
[[war:Abril 14]]
[[zh:4月14日]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Astoria, Oregon</title>
<id>1864</id>
<revision>
<id>41883716</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T09:56:10Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>209.155.145.244</ip>
</contributor>
<comment |
rks include:
* ''[[Longitude (book)|Longitude]] : The True Story of a Lone Genius Who Solved the Greatest Scientific Problem of His Time'' ([[1995]]) - the genius in question was [[John Harrison]], who spent decades trying to convince the [[British Admiralty]] of the accuracy of his naval timepieces and their use in determining one's [[longitude]] at sea in order to win the [[longitude prize]].
* ''[[Galileo Galilei|Galileo's]] Daughter: A Historical Memoir of Science, Faith, and Love'' (2000)
* ''[[Planet|The Planets]] (2005)
''Longitude'' was dramatized for [[television]] by [[A&E Network|A&E]] in [[1999]]. [[Michael Gambon]] played John Harrison, and [[Jeremy Irons]] played [[Rupert Gould]], who restored Harrison's timepieces for posterity in the mid [[20th century]].
<!-- To do: include literary criticism of her works. What is the consensus? Is her scholarship accurate? Does she shed new light on, for example, the Galileo controversy? -->
==External links==
* [http://www.galileosdaughter.com/author.shtml About the Author: Dava Sobel].
* [http://www.sailtexas.com/long.html About the book Longitude].
[[de:Dava Sobel]]
[[es:Dava Sobel]]
[[pt:Dava Sobel]]
{{Scientist-stub}}
{{US-writer-stub}}</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Differential geometry and topology</title>
<id>8625</id>
<revision>
<id>40681622</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-22T06:51:34Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>El C</username>
<id>92203</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/131.215.6.88|131.215.6.88]] ([[User talk:131.215.6.88|talk]]) to last version by Mathbot</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">In [[mathematics]], '''differential topology''' is the field dealing with differentiable [[function (mathematics)|function]]s on differentiable [[manifold]]s. It arises naturally from the study of the theory of [[differential equation]]s. '''Differential geometry''' is the study of [[geometry]] using [[calculus]]. These fields are adjacent, and have many applications in [[physics]], notably in the [[theory of relativity]]. Together they make up the geometric theory of differentiable manifolds - which can also be studied directly from the point of view of [[dynamical system]]s.
==Intrinsic versus extrinsic==
Initially and up to the middle of the [[nineteenth century]], differential geometry was studied from the ''extrinsic'' point of view: [[curve]]s, [[surface]]s were considered as lying in a [[Euclidean space]] of higher dimension (for example a surface in an ambient space of three dimensions). The simplest results are those in the [[differential geometry of curves]]. Starting with the work of [[Bernhard Riemann|Riemann]], the ''intrinsic'' point of view was developed, in which one cannot speak of moving 'outside' the geometric object because it is considered as given in a free-standing way.
The intrinsic point of view is more flexible. For example, it is useful in relativity where space-time cannot naturally be taken as extrinsic (what would be 'outside' it?). With the intrinsic point of view it is harder to define the central concept of [[curvature]] and other structures such as [[Connection (mathematics)|connection]]s, so there is a price to pay.
These two points of view can be reconciled, i.e. the extrinsic geometry can be considered as a structure additional to the intrinsic one (see the [[Nash embedding theorem]]).
==Technical requirements==
The apparatus of differential geometry is that of ''calculus on manifolds'': this includes the study of [[manifold]]s, [[tangent bundle]]s, [[cotangent bundle]]s, [[ differential form]]s, [[exterior derivative]]s,[[Differential form|integrals]] of ''p''-forms over ''p''-dimensional submanifolds and [[Stokes' theorem]], [[wedge product]]s, and [[Lie derivative]]s. These all relate to [[multivariable calculus]]; but for the geometric applications must be developed in a way that makes good sense without a preferred [[coordinate system]]. The distinctive concepts of differential geometry can be said to be those that embody the geometric nature of the ''second derivative'': the many aspects of [[curvature]].
A [[differential manifold]] is a [[topological space]] with a collection of [[homeomorphism]]s from open sets of the space to open subsets in '''R'''<sup>n</sup> such that the open sets cover the space, and if '''f''', '''g''' are homeomorphisms then the function
'''f''' o '''g''' <sup>-1</sup>
from an open subset of the open unit ball to the open unit ball is infinitely differentiable. We say a function from the manifold to '''R''' is infinitely differentiable if its composition with every homeomorphism results in an infinitely differentiable function from the open [[unit ball]] to '''R'''.
At every point of the manifold, there is the [[tangent space]] at that point, which consists of every possible velocity (direction and magnitude) with which it is possible to travel away from this point. For an n-dimensional manifold, the tangent space at any point is an n-dimensional vector space, or in other words a copy of '''R'''<sup>n</sup>. The tangent space has many definitions. One definition of the tangent space is as the dual space to the linear space of all functions which are zero at that point, divided by the space of functions which are zero and have a first derivative of zero at that point. Having a zero derivative can be defined by "composition by every differentiable function to the reals has a zero derivative", so it is defined just by differentiability.
A [[vector field]] is a function from a manifold to the disjoint union of its tangent spaces (this union is itself a manifold known as the [[tangent bundle]]), such that at each point, the value is an element of the tangent space at that point. Such a mapping is called a [[section]] of a [[bundle]]. A vector field is differentiable if for every differentiable function, applying the vector field to the function at each point yields a differentiable function. Vector fields can be thought of as time-independent differential equations. A differentiable function from the reals to the manifold is a curve on the manifold. This defines a function from the reals to the tangent spaces: the velocity of the curve at each point it passes through. A curve will be said to be a solution of the vector field if, at every point, the velocity of the curve is equal to the vector field at that point.
An alternating k-dimensional linear form is an element of the antisymmetric k'th tensor power of the dual V<sup>*</sup> of some vector space V. A differential k-form on a manifold is a choice, at each point of the manifold, of such an alternating k-form -- where V is the tangent space at that point. This will be called differentiable if whenever it operates on k differentiable vector fields, the result is a differentiable function from the manifold to the reals. A space form is a linear form with the dimensionality of the manifold.
==Differential topology==
Differential topology per se considers the properties and structures that require only a smooth structure on a manifold to define (such as those in the previous section). Smooth manifolds are 'softer' than manifolds with extra geometric structures, which can act as obstructions to certain types of equivalences and deformations that exist in differential topology. For instance, volume and Riemannian curvature are invariants that can distinguish different geometric structures on the same smooth manifold&mdash;that is, one can smoothly "flatten out" certain manifolds, but it might require distorting the space and affecting the curvature or volume.
Conversely, smooth manifolds are more rigid than the topological manifolds. Certain topological manifolds have no smooth structures at all (see [[Donaldson's theorem]]) and others have more than one inequivalent smooth structure (such as [[exotic sphere]]s). Some constructions of smooth manifold theory, such as the existence of tangent bundles, can be done in the topological setting with much more work, and others cannot.
==Branches of differential geometry==
===Contact geometry===
[[Contact geometry]] is an analog of [[symplectic manifold|symplectic geometry]] which works for certain manifolds of odd dimension. Roughly, the contact structure on (2''n''+1)-dimensional manifold is a choice of a hyperplane field that is nowhere integrable. This is equivalent to the hyperplane field being defined by a [[Differential form|1-form]] <math>\alpha</math> such that <math>\alpha\wedge (d\alpha)^n</math> does not vanish anywhere.
===Finsler geometry===
[[Finsler geometry]] has the ''Finsler manifold '' as the main object of study &mdash; this is a differential manifold with a [[Finsler metric]], i.e. a [[Banach norm]] defined on each tangent space. A Finsler metric is much more general structure than a Riemannian metric.
===Riemannian geometry===
[[Riemannian geometry]] has [[Riemannian manifold]]s as the main object of study &mdash; [[smooth manifold]]s with additional structure which makes them look ''infinitesimally'' like [[Euclidean space]]. These allow one to generalise the notion from Euclidean geometry and analysis such as [[gradient]] of a function, [[divergence]], [[length]] of [[curve]]s and so on; without assumptions that the space is ''globally'' so symmetric. The Riemannian [[curvature]] [[tensor]] is an important pointwise invariant associated to a Riemannian manifold that measures how close it is to being flat.
===Symplectic topology===
Symplectic topology is the study of ''symplectic manifolds'', which can occur only in even dimensions. A symplectic manifold is a differentiable manifold equipped with a symplectic form (that is, a [[Closed and exact differential forms|closed]] non-degenerate 2 |
lgári jogok nyilatkozata]]
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[[uk:Декларація прав людини і громадянина]]
[[zh:人权和公民权宣言]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Dennis Ritchie</title>
<id>8218</id>
<revision>
<id>38421444</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-06T05:14:21Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>FlaBot</username>
<id>228773</id>
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<comment>robot Adding: fi</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Ken n dennis.jpg|frame|[[Ken Thompson]] (left) with Dennis Ritchie (right)]]
'''Dennis MacAlistair Ritchie''' (born [[September 9]], [[1941]]) is a [[computer science|computer scientist]] notable for his influence on [[ALTRAN]], [[B programming language|B]], [[BCPL]], [[C programming language|C]], [[Multics]], and [[Unix]].
Born in [[Bronxville, New York|Bronxville]], [[New York]], Ritchie graduated from [[Harvard]] with [[academic degree|degree]]s in [[physics]] and [[applied mathematics]]. In [[1967]], he began working at the [[Bell Labs|Bell Labs' Computing Sciences Research Center]]; he is currently the head of [[Lucent Technologies|Lucent Technologies' System Software Research Department]]. In [[1983]], he and [[Ken Thompson]] jointly received the [[Turing award]] "for their development of generic [[operating system]]s theory and specifically for the implementation of the [[Unix|UNIX]] operating system."
==C and Unix==
When asked what influenced him in developing C in the manner he did, Ritchie has been [[quotation | quoted]] to have said that it "looked like a good thing to do", and that anyone else in the same place at the same time would have done the same thing. Many, however, have said that this is part of Ritchie's modest personality. One of his Bell Labs colleagues, [[Bjarne Stroustrup]], who developed and designed the [[C++]] programming language, an object oriented version of C, has been quoted to have said that "If Dennis had decided to spend that decade on esoteric math, Unix would have been stillborn". Indeed, being the inventor of the C programming language, as well as co-inventor of the [[Unix]] operating system alongside [[Ken Thompson]], Ritchie has earned an important position in the history of the computer industry. C is still widely used today in application and [[operating system]] development and its influence can be seen in many more recent programming languages such as [[C++]], [[C Sharp|C#]], [[Objective-C]], [[Java programming language|Java]], and [[JavaScript]]. In the operating system world, [[Unix]] is also quite influential; there are many dialects of it available on the market today, such as [[AIX operating system|AIX]], [[Solaris Operating Environment|Solaris]], [[Mac OS X]], [[Berkeley Software Distribution | BSD]], and similar systems like [[Minix]], as well as the popular [[Linux]] operating system. Indeed, even [[Microsoft]], whose [[Microsoft Windows|Windows]] operating systems compete with Unix, has developed Unix compatibility tools and C compilers for users and developers of their products.
Dennis has also contributed to the two official successors of Unix and C: the [[Plan 9 (operating system)|Plan 9]] operating system and the [[Limbo programming language]], both of which build upon his previous work.
==Nicknames==
Dennis Ritchie is often referred to as "'''DMR'''" in various [[Usenet]] [[newsgroup]]s (such as comp.lang.c); he is the "'''R'''" of the [[The C Programming Language (book)|''K&R'']].
==Writings by Ritchie==
*''[[The C Programming Language (book)|The C Programming Language]]'' ([[1978]] with [[Brian Kernighan]] see [[K&R]])
*''[[Unix Programmer's Manual]]'' ([[1971]])
==Quotes==
''"I am not now, nor have I ever been, a member of the demigodic party."''<br>
==External links==
* [http://www.cs.bell-labs.com/who/dmr/ Dennis Ritchie's home page]
* [http://Unix.se/article/articleview/950/1/24 Unix.se DMR interview published February 7. 2003]
* [http://www.bell-labs.com/news/1999/april/28/1.html Ritchie and Thompson Receive National Medal of Technology from President Clinton]
* [http://www.itworld.com/Comp/3380/lw-12-ritchie/ ''The future according to Dennis Ritchie'' - LinuxWorld.com 12/4/00]
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<page>
<title>December 16</title>
<id>8219</id>
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<id>41668303</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T23:19:02Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>141.44.21.61</ip>
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<comment>/* Births */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''December 16''' is the 350th day of the year (351st in [[leap year]]s) in the [[Gregorian Calendar]]. There are 15 days remaining.
{{DecemberCalendar}}
==Events==
*[[1392]] - [[History of Japan]]: [[Nanboku-cho]] - [[Emperor Go-Kameyama]] abdicates in favor of rival claimant [[Emperor Go-Komatsu|Go-Komatsu]].
*[[1598]] - [[Seven Year War]]: [[Battle of Noryang Point]] - Admiral [[Yi Sun Sin]]'s outnumbered [[Korea]]n navy ambushes and defeats [[Toyotomi Hideyoshi]]'s [[Japan]]ese fleet.
*[[1653]] - [[English Interregnum]]: [[The Protectorate]] - [[Oliver Cromwell]] becomes [[Lord Protector]] of the [[Commonwealth of England]], [[Scotland]] and [[Ireland]].
*[[1689]] - [[Convention Parliament]]: The ''Declaration of Right'' is embodied in the ''[[Bill of Rights 1689|Bill of Rights]]''.
*[[1773]] - [[American Revolution]]: [[Boston Tea Party]] - Members of the [[Sons of Liberty]] disguised as [[Mohawks]] dump crates of tea into [[Boston]] harbor as a protest against the [[Tea Act]].
*[[1811]] - The first two in a series of severe [[earthquakes]] occurs, in the vicinity of [[New Madrid fault zone|New Madrid, Missouri]].
*[[1838]] - [[Battle of Blood River]]: [[Voortrekkers]] led by [[Andries Pretorius]] combat [[Zulu]] [[impi]]s, led by Dambuza (Nzobo) and [[Ndlela kaSompisi]] in what is today [[KwaZulu-Natal]], [[South Africa]].
*[[1850]] - [[History of New Zealand]]: The ''[[Charlotte-Jane]]'' and the ''[[Randolph]]'' bring the first of the [[Canterbury Pilgrims]] to [[Lyttelton, New Zealand|Lyttelton]].
*[[1864]] - [[American Civil War]]: [[Franklin-Nashville Campaign]] - [[Battle of Nashville]] - Major General [[George H. Thomas]]'s [[Union (American Civil War)|Union]] forces defeat Lieutenant General [[John Bell Hood]]'s [[Confederate Army of Tennessee]].
*[[1910]] - During a ground test of his [[Coandă-1910]] plane, [[Henri Coandă]], caught unaware by the power of the engine, finds himself briefly airborne and loses control of the machine which crashes to the ground.
*[[1922]] - [[President of Poland]] [[Gabriel Narutowicz]] is assassinated by [[Eligiusz Niewiadomski]] at the Zachęta Gallery in [[Warsaw]].
*[[1925]] - A regular broadcasting service was instituted in [[Ceylon]].
*[[1941]] - [[World War II]]: Japanese occupies [[Miri]],[[Sarawak]]
*[[1942]] - [[Holocaust]]: [[Porajmos]] - [[Heinrich Himmler]] orders that [[Roma]] candidates for extermination should be deported to [[Auschwitz]].
*[[1944]] - [[World War II]]: [[Battle of the Bulge]] - [[General]] [[Dwight D. Eisenhower]]'s allied forces and [[Field Marshall]] [[Gerd von Rundstedt]]'s [[Nazi Germany|German]] army engage in the Belgian [[Ardennes]].
*[[1946]] - [[Léon Blum]] becomes [[Prime Minister of France]].
*[[1957]] - [[Sir Feroz Khan Noon]] replaces [[Ibrahim Ismail Chundrigar]] as [[Prime Minister of Pakistan]].
*[[1960]] - [[1960 New York air disaster]]: While approaching New York's [[Idlewild Airport]], a [[United Airlines]] [[Douglas DC-8]] collides with a [[TWA]] [[Lockheed Super Constellation]] in a blinding [[snowstorm]] over [[Staten Island]], killing 134.
*[[1971]] - [[Liberation War of Bangladesh]] & [[Indo-Pakistani War of 1971]]: The surrender of the [[Pakistan army]] simultaneously brings an end to both conflicts.
*[[1985]] - [[Mafia]]: In [[New York City]], [[Paul Castellano]] and [[Thomas Bilotti]] are shot dead on the orders of [[John Gotti]], who assumes leadership of the [[Gambino family]].
*[[1989]] - [[Romanian Revolution]]: Protest breaks out in [[Timişoara]] in response to an attempt by the government to evict dissident [[Hungary|Hungarian]] pastor, [[László Tőkés]].
*[[1991]] - [[United Nations General Assembly]]: [[UN General Assembly Resolution 4686]] revokes [[UN General Assembly Resolution 3379]] after Israel makes revocation of resolution 3379 a condition of its participation in the [[Madrid Peace Conference of 1991]].
*[[1997]] - [[Typhoon Paka]] makes landfall on the island of [[Guam]] with 150 [[miles per hour|mph]] winds.
* 1997 - The [[Pokémon]] episode ''[[Electric Soldier Porygon]]'' triggers attacks of [[photosensitive epilepsy]] in hundreds of [[Japan]]ese children.
*[[1998]] - [[Iraq disarmament crisis]]: [[Operation Desert Fox]] - The [[United States]] and [[United Kingdom]] bomb targets in [[Iraq]].
*[[2005]] - The last scheduled edition of US radio program ''[[The Howard Stern Show]]'' is broadcast on terrestrial radio.
*[[2005]] - [[Appalachian State University]] wi |
r picked up by the House of Representatives, many French people considered the quick and highly visible reporting of the name change needlessly spiteful, and a media-driven attempt to direct Americans' attention away from the serious reasons for French opposition. See [[media manipulation]] and [[anti-French sentiment in the United States]].
In June [[2004]], the [[United States Department of Agriculture]], with the advisement of a federal district judge from [[Beaumont, Texas]], classified batter-coated french fries as a [[vegetable]] under the [[Perishable Agricultural Commodities Act]]. Although this move was mostly for trade reasons (french fries do not meet the standard to be listed as a "[[processed food]]"), this received significant media attention partially due to the documentary ''[[Super Size Me]]''.
==Chips in court==
In 1994, the well-known owner of [[Stringfellows]] nightclub in [[London]], [[Peter Stringfellow]], took exception to [[McCain Foods Limited|McCain Foods]]' use of the name "Stringfellows" for a brand of long thin french fries and took them to court. He lost the case (''Stringfellows v McCain Food (GB) Ltd (1984)'') on the basis that there was no connection in the public mind between the two uses of the name, and therefore McCain's product would not have caused the nightclub to lose any sales [http://www.akme.btinternet.co.uk/solomn05.html] [http://www.legalpractitioner.co.uk/ip1.pdf].
==See also==
* [[Freedom fries]]
==External links==
{{cookbookpar|French Fries}}
* [http://www.belgianfries.com The ''Belgian fries'' website.]
* [http://www.straightdope.com/mailbag/mfrenchfry.html Straight Dope Staff Report: What's the origin of French fries?]
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<page>
<title>Field hockey</title>
<id>10886</id>
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<id>41967580</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T23:04:30Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Icairns</username>
<id>64875</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/65.33.222.178|65.33.222.178]] ([[User talk:65.33.222.178|talk]]) to last version by Lvr</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:field hockey 1 550px.jpg|thumb|right|275px|A game of field hockey in progress]]
'''Field hockey''' is a popular sport for [[men]] and [[women]] in many countries around the world. In most countries, especially those in which [[ice hockey]] is not very prominent, it is simply known as '''hockey'''. Field Hockey is the second most played sport worldwide after football/Soccer
Field hockey has several regular and prestigious international tournaments for both men and women such as the [[Summer Olympics|Olympic Games]], the quadrennial [[World Hockey Cup]]s, the annual [[Champions Trophy (field hockey)|Champions Trophies]], and World Cups for juniors.
[[India]]n and [[Pakistan]]i national teams have traditionally dominated men's hockey, but have become less prominent recently, with [[The Netherlands]], [[Germany]] and [[Australia]] gaining importance in the late 1980s. Other strong hockey playing nations include [[Spain]], [[Argentina]] and [[South Korea]] while [[Pakistan]] won the 1994 world cup. The Netherlands was the predominant international women's team before hockey was added to Olympic events. In the early 1990s Australia emerged as the strongest women's country, though retirement of a number of key players has weakened the team. Other important women teams are [[China]], [[Korea]], [[Argentina]] and [[Germany]].
Many countries have extensive club competitions for both junior and senior players. Despite the large numbers of participants, club hockey is not a particularly large spectator sport and few players can afford to play professionally.
In the [[United States]] and [[Canada]] field hockey is widely regarded as a women's sport, but there are some men's leagues as well.
In those countries where winter conditions prevent play on outdoor fields, field hockey is played indoors during the off-season. This indoor variant, known as [[indoor field hockey]] differs from its outdoor parent in a number of respects. For example, the players may not raise the ball outside the shooting circle, nor hit it.
==History==
{{Main|Field hockey history}}
Hockey is the oldest known stick-and-ball game (apart from Irish [[hurling]], which dates back to pre-historic times). Historical records show that games resembling modern field hockey were played in various ancient civilizations, although it is not possible to know exactly when and where the game began. There are 4,000 year old drawings in Egypt of the game being played. While ''modern hockey'' appeared in the mid-18th century in [[England]], primarily in schools, it was not until the first half of the 19th century that hockey became firmly established, the first club being created in [[1849]] at [[Blackheath, London|Blackheath]] in south-east [[London]].
[[Image:Girlsfieldhockey.jpg|thumb|left|275px|Women's field hockey, played on grass. Universal until the 1970's, this is now quite rare for competitive hockey in many countries]]
In the early [[1970s]], [[artificial turf]] fields began to be used in competition. The introduction of synthetic pitches instead of grass ones has completely changed most aspects of hockey. The game, as well as the material used to play, has taken a definitive turn, gaining mainly in speed. In order to take into account the specificities of this surface, new tactics and new techniques have been developed, often followed by the establishment of new rules to take account of these techniques. The switch to synthetic surfaces essentially ended Indian and Pakistani domination of the sport, because artificial turf was far more expensive than grass; too expensive for the two countries to implement widely in comparison to the wealthier European countries.
==The field of play==
[[Image:hockey_field_large.png|thumb|250px|right|Diagram of a hockey field]]
Most hockey field dimensions were originally fixed using whole numbers of imperial measures and are expressed as such in this article. It is, nevertheless, the metric measurements shown in parenthesis which are the current official dimensions of the field of play as laid down by the [[International Hockey Federation]] (FIH) in the "Rules of Hockey 2005".
The game is played between two teams of eleven players on a 91.4 m times 55 m rectangular field. At each end there is a goal 2.14 m high and 12 3.66 m wide, and a semi-circle 14.63 m from the goal known as the "arc", or "shooting circle", with a dotted line 5 m from the semi-circle, as well as lines across the field 22.9 m from each end-line and in the center of the field. A spot, called the penalty spot, is placed 6.4 m from the center of each goal.
==Rules and play ==
Players are permitted to play the ball with any part of the stick other than the rounded side (back). The flat side is always on the "natural" side for a right-handed person &mdash; there are no "left-handed" hockey sticks. If the ball is raised off the ground in a manner that is in the umpires opinion dangerous, the ball is turned over to the other team and they receive a free hit from the point of contact. The definition of a "dangerous ball" is a matter of interpretation by the umpires, but it depends on the speed of the ball, the height at which it is raised, and the number of players near its path. Balls travelling at head height near players are almost always regarded as dangerous, whereas a flick at knee height landing into space would very rarely be so. When shooting at goal any height is permitted as it is a shot on goal; as long as it is not dangerous to a player within 3 yards (about 3 metres) of the striker.
One player from each team is designated the "[[goalkeeper]]". The Goalkeeper is permitted to deflect or stop the ball with any part of his or her body or stick (the same stick rules apply to goalies as to outfield players) whilst within their defensive circle (the arc or "D"). They are also allowed to propel the ball away using their kickers or their leg guards whilst within their defensive circle, but a ball propelled with the hand is considered a foul. The Goalkeeper may also act as a field player outside of the "D" but is only allowed to take part in play within the half of the field their team is defending.
If a player commits one of the many fouls (kicking the ball, obstruction, lifting in a dangerous area, back side of the stick, etc.) inside their defensive shooting circle, or commits a deliberate or particularly serious foul outside the circle but within their defensive quarter of the field, then a complicated and indirect penalty shot is taken, called a "[[penalty corner (field hockey)|penalty corner]]". A deliberate breach by defenders within the circle, or a rule breach that directly prevents a goal being scored, results in the award of a "penalty stroke", approximately equivalent to a [[penalty kick (football)|penalty kick]] in [[football (soccer)]].
The match is officiated by two [[umpire (field hockey)|umpires]]. Traditionally each umpire generally controls half of the field, divided roughly diagonally, although now experiments are being made where either umpire can make any decision anywhere on the field.
The teams' object is to play the ball into their "shooting circle" and, from there, hit, push or flick the ball into the goal. The team with more goals after two 35-minute halves wins the game. If there is a draw in |
shown to the upper right) with white numbers and lettering. By tradition, and unlike most NFL teams, the Cowboys normally wear their white jerseys at home (although they may wear their colored jerseys during special occasions). In the 2003 season, the Cowboys revived their 1962 [[throwback]] uniform (blue jersey with white sleeves) for special occasions such as Thanksgiving and a September 19, 2005 game against the [[Washington Redskins]]. That particular game was the Cowboys' first ever home game against the Redskins in which they opted to dress in their colored jerseys.
:'''Helmet design:''' Silver background with a blue star (throwback helmet is white with a blue star)
==Franchise history==
===1960s===
Originally, the formation of an NFL expansion team in Texas was met with strong opposition by [[Washington Redskins]] owner, [[George Preston Marshall]]. Despite being located in the nation's capital, Marshall's Redskins had enjoyed a monopoly as the only NFL team to represent the Southern States of the US for several decades, so a new team in Texas was unwanted competition. This came as little surprise to would-be team owners, [[Clint Murchison, Jr.]] and [[Bedford Wynne]], so to ensure the birth of their expansion team, the men bought the rights to the Redskins fight song, "[[Hail to the Redskins]]" and threatened to refuse to allow Marshall to play the song at games. Needing the song, which had become a staple for his "professional football team of Dixie", Marshall changed his tune, and the city of [[Dallas, Texas]], was granted an NFL franchise on [[January 28]], [[1960]]. This early confrontation between the two franchises no doubt triggered what would become one of the more [[significant rivalries in the NFL]], which continues even to this day.
The new Dallas owners, Murchison and Wynne, immediately hired [[Tex Schramm]] to be the general manager and [[Tom Landry]] to be the head coach. In the Cowboys' first season, they finished winless with a 0-11-1 record. The following year, the Cowboys made their first NFL draft selection, selecting [[Bob Lilly]] with the 13th pick in the draft. The year 1961 also saw the Cowboys' first victory, a 27-24 win over the [[Pittsburgh Steelers]] on [[September 17]].
During the 1960s, the Cowboys continued to improve their team. [[Quarterback]] [[Don Meredith]] and [[running back]] [[Don Perkins]] joined the team and by 1966, the Cowboys had their first winning season (10-3-1; which began a record-setting streak of 20 straight winning seasons, unmatched by any other NFL team) and their first playoff appearance. Although the playoff game was a 34-27 loss to the [[Green Bay Packers]], it marked the start of a record-setting eight consecutive playoff appearances. (The Cowboys would later match and extend that record, raising the bar to an NFL record 9 straight playoff appearances in 1983.) By the mid-60s, the Cowboys had become a powerful force in the NFL, sending eight players to the [[Pro Bowl]] including Cowboy legends: [[Bob Hayes]], [[Chuck Howley]], "Dandy" Don Meredith, Don Perkins, and future Pro Football Hall of Famers, Bob Lilly and [[Mel Renfro]].
Similarly, the Cowboys were becoming an important part of the people of Dallas. For their first years, the Cowboys were always playing second fiddle to [[Lamar Hunt]]'s [[Kansas City Chiefs|Dallas Texans]] of the [[American Football League|AFL]] because the Texans were the more established team and had the better record. But in 1963 when the Texans moved to [[Kansas City, Missouri|Kansas City]] and became the [[Kansas City Chiefs]], the Cowboys became the only professional football draw in town. By 1969, ground was being broken on a new stadium for the Cowboys to replace the [[Cotton Bowl (stadium)|Cotton Bowl]]. [[Texas Stadium]] in [[Irving, Texas|Irving]], a [[Dallas County, Texas|Dallas County]] suburb, would be completed for the 1971 season. Since they didn't leave Dallas County, there were no moves to change the name of the team.
In 1967, the Cowboys finished with a 9-5 record and had their first playoff victory: a 52-14 affair over the [[Cleveland Browns]]. They went on to face the [[Green Bay Packers]] in the NFL Championship game. The game, which happened on [[December 31]], 1967 at [[Lambeau Field]] in [[Green Bay, Wisconsin|Green Bay]], turned out to be one of the coldest NFL games on record (about -13&deg; [[Fahrenheit|F]] with a -40&deg; [[wind chill]]). The Cowboys lost 21-17 on a one-yard [[quarterback sneak]] by Packers quarterback [[Bart Starr]]. The game would later come to be known as the "[[Ice Bowl (NFL)|Ice Bowl]]."
===1970s===
In the 1970s, the NFL underwent many changes as it absorbed the AFL and became a unified league, but the Cowboys also underwent many changes. Meredith and Perkins retired in 1969 and many new players were joining the organization, like [[Cliff Harris]], [[Lee Roy Jordan]], [[Rayfield Wright]], [[Dan Reeves]], plus Pro Football Hall of Famers [[Mike Ditka]] and [[Roger Staubach]]. Led by quarterback [[Craig Morton]], the Cowboys made it to their first [[Super Bowl]], a mistake-filled [[Super Bowl V]], where they lost 16-13 to the [[Baltimore Colts]] courtesy of a [[field goal]] by Colts' kicker [[Jim O'Brien]] as time expired. However, the disappointing Super Bowl loss was made up for the next year when the Cowboys, led by Staubach, won their first NFL Championship in 1971, [[Super Bowl VI]], a 24-3 victory over the [[Miami Dolphins]].
The Cowboys were now beginning to grow in popularity not just in Dallas, but nationwide. Their televised appearances on [[Thanksgiving|Thanksgiving Day]] games beginning in 1966 helped bring the Cowboys to a nationwide audience. Under Tom Landry, the so-called "Doomsday Defense" became a powerful and dominating force in the NFL and their offense was also exciting to watch.
The Cowboys faltered slightly in 1974, missing the playoffs for the first time in eight years. However, the Cowboys drafted well following the season, adding new legends like [[Randy White (football player)|Randy White]] and [[Hollywood Henderson|Thomas "Hollywood" Henderson]]. The fresh influx of talent helped the Cowboys to [[Super Bowl X]], where they lost to the [[Pittsburgh Steelers]], 21-17. But the Cowboys would again taste Super Bowl victory, defeating the [[Denver Broncos]] 27-10 in [[Super Bowl XII]]. Bob Ryan, an NFL films editor, would dub the Cowboys "America's Team" following this season, a nickname that has earned derision from non-Cowboys fans but has stuck through both good times and bad.
The glory days of the Cowboys in the 1970s were coming to an end. They would reach one final Super Bowl, [[Super Bowl XIII]], losing once again at the hands of the Pittsburgh Steelers, 35-31, despite a last-minute effort by Staubach which failed. Roger Staubach retired following the 1979 season (replaced by punter [[Danny White]], who did double-duty as quarterback and punter for a few years) and the Cowboys' stardom seemed to fade in the NFL.
===1980s===
While the Cowboys would return to the playoffs 5 times and win 2 Division Championships, the team failed to claim a single Conference Championship in the 80's and would not return to the Super Bowl during that decade.
In the 1981 [[NFC Championship|NFC Championship game]], the Cowboys lost to the [[San Francisco 49ers]] on a [[touchdown]] pass from [[Joe Montana]] to [[Dwight Clark]] in the final minute of play. Clark's famous leap in the end zone would come to be known as "The Catch" and represented a changing of the guard in the NFC from the dominant Cowboys teams of the 1970s to the dominant 49ers teams of the 1980s.
In 1984, [[Bum Bright|H.R. "Bum" Bright]] purchased the Dallas Cowboys from Murchison, but following seasons that were getting progressively worse (1985: 10-6; 1986: 7-9; 1987: 7-8; 1988: 3-13), Bright sold the Cowboys to [[Jerry Jones]] on [[February 25]], [[1989]]. Jones promptly fired Tom Landry, the only coach the Cowboys had ever known, and replaced him with [[University of Miami]] head coach, [[Jimmy Johnson (football coach)|Jimmy Johnson]]. This also led to the retirement of quarterback-punter [[Danny White]], who (like Roger Staubach) worked closely with Landry. With the first pick in the draft, the Cowboys selected quarterback [[Troy Aikman]] and traded away veteran running back [[Herschel Walker]] to the [[Minnesota Vikings]] for five veteran players and eight draft choices. The Cowboys finished the 1989 season with a 1-15 record, the worst record since the team's inception, but the foundations for the Cowboys' return to glory had been set.
===1990s===
In 1990, the Cowboys drafted running back [[Emmitt Smith]] and the trifecta of Aikman, Smith and [[wide receiver]] [[Michael Irvin]] was now set. The Cowboys finished 7-9, but Smith was named NFC Offensive Rookie of the Year and [[Jimmy Johnson]] was selected as Coach of the Year. By 1991, the Cowboys finished with an 11-5 record, making the playoffs for the first time in six years.
In 1992, the Cowboys finished 13-3 (second best in the league) and exacted their revenge on the San Francisco 49ers in the NFC Championship Game, 30-20. The Cowboys went on to defeat the [[Buffalo Bills]] in [[Super Bowl XXVII]], 52-17. Jimmy Johnson became the first coach to claim a National Championship in college football and a Super Bowl victory in professional football. The following season, the Cowboys went 12-4, again defeating the 49ers in the NFC Championship and again defeating the Buffalo Bills in [[Super Bowl XXVIII]], this time by a margin of 30-13. The Cowboys sent an NFL record 11 players to the Pro Bowl: Troy Aikman, Emmitt Smith, Michael Irvin, [[Thomas Everett]], [[Daryl Johnston]], [[Russell Maryland]], [[Nate Newton]], [[Ken Norton Jr]], [[Jay Novacek]], [[Mark Stepnoski]] and [[Erik Williams]].
Howe |
refore the news was false. Rastas also have a faith in physical immortality, both for Haile Selassie and for themselves.
==Neurobiological findings==
Neurobiological research {{ref|JacquelineBorg}} coupled with modern [[medical imaging]], especially [[tomography]], suggests that [[serotonin]] is generated in some areas of the brain of people having religious experiences, and may have specific effects. These include the ability of believers to better cope with stressful situations. Viewed from the perspective of evolutionary psychology, this would suggest that in an uncontrolled environment, religious faith would objectively increase fitness for individuals.
==Notes==
# {{note|JacquelineBorg}} Jacqueline Borg et al. Karolinska University, Stockholm, Sweden, ''[http://ajp.psychiatryonline.org/cgi/content/full/160/11/1965 The Serotonin System and Spiritual Experiences]'' - American Journal of Psychiatry 160:1965-1969, November 2003.
==See also==
*[[Apostasy]]
*[[Belief system]]
*[[Faith and rationality]]
*[[Major world religions]]
*[[Religious conversion]]
*[[Rationalism]]
*[[True-believer syndrome]]
*[[Wishful thinking]]
*[[Crisis of faith]]
*[[St. Faith]]
*Sts. [[Faith, Hope, and Charity]]
==Further reading==
* [[Sam Harris (author)|Sam Harris]], ''The End of Faith: Religion, Terror, and the Future of Reason'', W. W. Norton (2004), hardcover, 336 pages, ISBN 0393035158
==External links==
*[http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/religion-epistemology/ Epistemology of the religion, article from Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy by Peter Forrest]
*[http://www.iclnet.org/pub/resources/text/wittenberg/luther/luther-faith.txt Martin Luther's Definition of Faith]
*[http://www.apuritansmind.com/Justification/CalvinJohnJustification.htm John Calvin on Justification by Faith from The Institutes of the Christian Religion]
*[http://www.seegod.org/the_warrant_of_faith.htm Charles Spurgeon on the Warrant of Faith]
*[http://public.csusm.edu/public/guests/rsclark/Warfield.html B.B. Warfield on Justification By Faith]
*[http://www.skepdic.com/faith.html The Skeptic's Dictionary entry on Faith]
*[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/05752c.htm Catholic Encyclopedia entry on Faith]
*[http://www.chabad.org/search/keyword.asp?scope=6198&kid=1247 Faith in Judaism] chabad.org
==Classic reflections on the nature of faith==
*Martin Buber ''I and Thou''
*Paul Tillich ''The Dynamics of Faith''
== The Reformation view of faith ==
*John Calvin, ''The Institutes of the Christian Religion''
*R.C. Sproul, ''Faith Alone''
[[Category:Religious philosophy and doctrine]]
[[Category:Belief]]
[[Category:Spirituality]]
[[Category:Virtues]]
[[ar:إيمان]]
[[cs:Víra]]
[[da:Tro]]
[[de:Glaube]]
[[es:Fe]]
[[et:Usk]]
[[fr:Foi]]
[[hu:Hit]]
[[it:Fede]]
[[ja:信仰]]
[[pl:Wiara]]
[[pt:Fé]]
[[vi:Tín ngưỡng]]
[[zh:信仰]]
[[uk:Віра (релігійна)]]
[[ru:Bepa]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Fricative</title>
<id>11065</id>
<revision>
<id>15908848</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Fricative consonant]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Flavian</title>
<id>11086</id>
<revision>
<id>40735351</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-22T17:45:21Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>JulienD</username>
<id>901877</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Removed irrelevant information</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[http://www.flaviangall.ro]The [[Flavian dynasty]] was a series of three [[Roman Emperors]] - [[Vespasian]], [[Titus]], and [[Domitian]] - who ruled from [[69]], the "[[Year of the Four Emperors]]", to [[96]].
'''Flavian''' was later the name of several [[bishop]]s of [[Constantinople]] and [[Antioch]]:</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Frederick II</title>
<id>11087</id>
<revision>
<id>34989278</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-13T06:07:25Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Nuno Tavares</username>
<id>157549</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>pt:</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">See:
* [[Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor]] (1194&ndash;1250, king 1211/12&ndash;1250, emperor since 1220)
* [[Frederick II of Austria]] (?&ndash;1246, duke of Austria 1230&ndash;1246)
* [[Frederick II of Sicily]] (1272&ndash;1337), who called himself Frederick III
* [[Frederick II, Margrave of Brandenburg]] (1413&ndash;1470, margrave 1440&ndash;1470)
* [[Frederick II of Denmark and Norway]] (1534&ndash;1588, king 1559&ndash;1588)
* [[Frederick II of Prussia]] (1712&ndash;1786, king 1740&ndash;1786), better known as [[Frederick the Great]]
* [[Frederick II, Landgrave of Hesse-Cassel|Frederick II of Hesse-Kassel]] (1720&ndash;1785) Landgrave of Hesse-Kassel
{{disambig}}
[[ja:フリードリヒ2世]]
[[pt:Frederico II]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Forest</title>
<id>11090</id>
<revision>
<id>41615621</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T15:11:12Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>MPF</username>
<id>38759</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>delete commercial ext link</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about forests as communities of trees. For other uses of the word, see [[Forest (disambiguation)]].''
[[image:Conifer_forest.jpg|thumb|right|250px|A dense growth of softwoods (a conifer forest) in the Sierra Nevada Range of Northern California]]
A '''forest''' is an area with a high density of [[tree|trees]] (or, historically, a wooded area set aside for [[hunting]]). These plant communities cover large areas of the globe and function as [[carbon dioxide sink]]s, animal [[habitat (ecology)|habitat]]s, [[hydrologic cycle|hydrologic flow]] [[modulator]]s, and [[soil]] conservers, constituting one of the most important aspects of the [[Earth]]'s [[biosphere]].
Forests can be found in all regions capable of sustaining tree growth, at altitudes up to the [[tree-line]], except where natural fire frequency is too high, or where the environment has been impaired by natural processes or by human activities. As a general rule, forests dominated by [[angiosperms]] ('''broadleaf forests''') are more species-rich than those dominated by [[gymnosperms]] ('''conifer''' or '''needleleaf forests'''), although exceptions exist (for example, species-poor aspen and birch stands in northern latitudes). Forests sometimes contain many tree species within a small area (as in tropical rain and temperate deciduous forests), or relatively few species over large areas (e.g., taiga and arid montane coniferous forests). Forests are often home to many animal and plant species, and [[biomass]] per unit area is high compared to other vegetation communities. Much of this biomass occurs below-ground in the root systems and as partially decomposed plant [[detritus]]. The woody component of a forest contains [[lignin]], which is relatively slow to [[decompose]] compared with other organic materials such as [[cellulose]] or carbohydrate.
Forests are differentiated from [[woodland|woodlands]] by the extent of [[canopy (forest)|canopy]] coverage: in a forest the branches and foliage of separate trees often meet or interlock, although there can be gaps of varying sizes within an area referred to as forest. A woodland has a more continuously open canopy, with trees spaced further apart, which allows more sunlight to penetrate to the ground between them (see also: [[savanna]]).
[[image:Forest1.jpg|thumb|right|250px|A decidous broadleaf (Beech) forest in [[Slovenia]].]]
[[image:Forest-Sea 01 (By DarkFire Taker - Mesbah).jpg|thumb|right|250px|View of the sea from within a forest.]]
Among the major forested biomes are:
* [[rain forest]] (tropical and temperate)
* [[taiga]]
* [[temperate hardwood forest]]
* [[Tropical and subtropical dry broadleaf forests|tropical dry forest]]
==Classification==
Forests can be classified in different ways and to different degrees of specificity. One such way is in terms of the ''biome'' in which they exist combined with leaf longevity of the dominant species (whether they are [[evergreen]] or [[deciduous]]). Another distinction is whether the forests composed predominantly of broadleaf trees, [[conifer]]ous (needle-leaved) trees, or mixed.
* [[Boreal forest]]s occupy the [[subarctic]] zone and are generally evergreen and coniferous.
*[[Temperate]] zones support both broadleaf deciduous forests (''e.g.'', [[Temperate broadleaf and mixed forests|temperate deciduous forest]]) and evergreen coniferous forests (''e.g.'', [[Temperate coniferous forests]] and [[Temperate rainforest]]s). Warm temperate zones support broadleaf evergreen forests, including [[laurel forest]]s.
* [[Tropical]] and [[subtropical]] forests include [[tropical rainforest]]s, [[Tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests|tropical and subtropical moist forests]], [[Tropical and subtropical dry broadleaf forests|tropical and subtropical dry forests]], and [[tropical and subtropical coniferous forests]].
* [[Physiognomy]] classifies forests based on their overall physical structure or developmental stage (e.g. [[old growth]] vs. second growth).
* Forests can also be classified more specifically based on the dominant tree species present, resulting in numerous different [[forest types]] (e.g., ponderosa pine/Douglas-fir forest).
[[Image:Pine tree forest02.jpg|thumb|250px|A coniferous (pine) forest]]
==Forest management==
The scientific study of forests is referred to as [[forest ecology]], while the management of forests is often referred to as [[forestry]], often with the goal of [[sustainable resource extraction]]. Forest ecologists concentrate on forest patterns and processes, usually |
craftsmen. The family became mayors, councillors etc. The poet [[Christian Wernicke]] was born in [[1661]] in Elbing. [[Gottfried Achenwall]] ([[1719]] Elbing - [[1772]] Göttingen) became famous for his teachings in natural law and human rights law.
Imperial Cartographer [[Johann Friedrich Endersch]] of Elbląg completed a map of [[Warmia]] in [[1755]] and also made a [[copper]] [[etching]] of the galliot named ''Die Stadt Elbing'' ([[The City of Elbląg]]).
At the time of the First Partition of Poland in [[1772]], the city lost its privileges as city-state and was annexed to the [[Kingdom of Prussia]], which in [[1871]] became a part of the [[Germany|German Empire]].
===Industrialization===
In [[1828]] the first steamship was built by Ignatz Grunau. In [[1837]] [[Ferdinand Schichau]] started the Schichau-Werke in Elbing and later a large shipyard in nearby Danzig as well. Schichau constructed the ''Borussia'', the first screw-vessel in Germany. Elbings Schichau-Werke built [[hydraulic]] machinery, ships, [[steam engine]]s and torpedoes. After the inauguration of the railway to [[Kaliningrad|Königsberg]] in [[1853]], Elbing's industry began to grow. Schichau worked together with his son-in-law Carl H. Zise, who continued the industrial complex after Schichau's death. Schichau erected large complexes for his many thousands of workers.
Another Prussian engineer Baurat [[Georg Steenke]] from Königsberg, had connected Elbing near the Baltic Sea with the southern part of Prussia, by building the Oberland Kanal.
As Elbing became an industrialized city, the [[Social Democratic Party of Germany]] (SPD) got the majority of votes, in [[1912]] [[Reichstag (institution)|Reichstag]] elections even 51%.
The LDS Mormons started filming church records of people affected. The Elbing church records (''Kirchenbuch'') vital statistics are available since [[1577]].
A large number of the German inhabitants of Elbing fled when the [[Soviet army]] approached the city. Almost all who had returned or remained, were expelled during and after the end of [[World War II]], when the city came under Polish administration by order of the Soviet Union.
During the siege of February [[1945]] the Old Town was burnt down by the approaching Soviet Army. The city was 65% destroyed, including most of the historical city centre. After the war some of it was demolished and the bricks were used to rebuild [[Warsaw]] and [[Gdańsk]]. Most of the ruins were demolished in the course of the [[1960s]] and [[1970s]].
===Elbing Concentration Camps===
Elbing in [[Nazi]] times was a location for the 3 [[Germany|German]] concentration camps ''Elbing'', ''Elbing (Org. Todt)'', and ''Elbing (Schinau)'' that were subcamps of the concentration camp [[Stutthof]].
===History after 1945===
After the German population had been expelled, the city was repopulated and the name changed to Elbląg. Ninety-eight percent of the new inhabitants were Poles expelled from the areas annexed by the [[Soviet Union]] as well as Polish peasants from the overpopulated villages in central Poland.
The communist authorities planned that the Old Town, utterly destroyed in [[1945]], be rebuilt with blocks of flats. However, economic difficulties thwarted this plan. The ruins of the old town were torn down in the [[1960s]] and only two [[church]]es were left for reconstruction.
Elbląg was the scene of one of the riots in the coastal cities in [[1970]] together with [[Tricity]] and [[Szczecin]], see also [[Coastal cities events]].
After [[1989]] restoration of the Old Town began. The local authorities passed the plan of rebuilding it with new houses that fit the same dimensions and size rather than historical buildings reconstructed. On some occasions the private investors have incorporated parts of preserved stonework into new architecture. So far approximately 2/3 of the Old Town has been reconstructed.
Since the beginning of the restoration, an extensive archaeological programme has been carried out. Most of the city's heritage was destroyed in the [[19th century]] during the construction of basements and the [[1945]] bombardment, however the backyards of the houses were not changed and the [[latrine]]s are a source of priceless information on the city's history. Many pieces of art and utilities of everyday use can be seen in the city museum. Among them are the only [[15th century]] [[binoculars]] preserved in [[Europe]].
Since [[1990]] there has been an emergence of an Elbing German minority group, named Elbinger Minderheit; it counts some one hundred persons.
==Tourist attractions==
Until WWII there were many Gothic, renaissance and baroque houses in Elbląg's Old Town; some of them are reconstructed. Other preserved builings are:
*[[St. Nicolas cathedral in Elbląg]] - a monumental [[13th century]] Gothic church (cathedral only from 1992, before it was a parochial church), damaged in fire in late [[18th century]], then destroyed in WWII and reconstructed
*city gate (''Brama Targowa'') - erected in [[1319]]
*[[St. Mary's church in Elbląg]] - former Dominican church, erected in [[13th century]], rebuild in 14th and 16th centuries; damaged in WWII and reconstructed in [[1961]] as an art gallery; remnants of cloister are partially preserved
*Holy Ghost church with hospital, from 14th c.
*Corpus Christi church from 14th c.
*Teutonic Knights' castle
==Education==
* Elbląska Uczelnia Humanistyczno-Ekonomiczna
==Sports==
* [[EB Start Elbląg]] - women's [[Handball in Poland|handball]] team playing in [[Polish Ekstraklasa Women's Handball League]]: 5th place in 2003/2004 season.
==Politics==
===Elbląg constituency===
Members of Parliament ([[Sejm]]) elected from Elbląg constituency
* Jan Antochowski, SLD-UP
* Danuta Ciborowska, SLD-UP
* Witold Gintowt-Dziewałtowski, SLD-UP
* Stanisław Gorczyca, PO
* Jerzy Müller, SLD-UP
* Adam Ołdakowski, Samoobrona
* Andrzej Umiński, SLD-UP
* Stanisław Żelichowski, PSL
<!--
===Municipal politics===
to be written yet-->
==Famous people==
* [[Andrzej Sakson]] (b. 1950) - sociologist, director of [[Western Istitute]]
* [[Ewa Białołęcka]] (b. 1967) - fantasy writer
==See also==
* [[EB (beer)|EB]] - Polish beer produced by the Elbrewery Company
==External links==
* [http://www.elblag.pl Wirtualny Elbląg (in Polish)]
* [http://plan.elblag.com.pl/ The interactive map of Elbląg]
* [http://www.umelblag.pl/ The Elbląg Municipal Authorities] - Polish language site only
* [http://www.gminaelblag.pl Gmina of Elbląg] - Polish language site only
* [http://www.powiat.elblag.pl Powiat of Elbląg] - Polish language site only
* http://www.it.elblag.com.pl/ - tourism information
* http://www.portel.pl/ - Polish language site only
* http://www.elblag24.pl/ - Polish language site only
* http://info.elblag.pl/ - Polish language site only
* http://elblag.wm.pl/ - Polish language site only
* http://www.nocnyelblag.pl/ - Polish language site only
* http://www.nasz.elblag.pl/ - a newspaper (in Polish)
[[Category:Elbląg| ]]
[[Category:Urban counties of Warmia-Masuria|Elbląg]]
[[da:Elbląg]]
[[de:Elbląg]]
[[eo:Elbląg]]
[[fr:Elbląg]]
[[la:Elbinga]]
[[lv:Elblonga]]
[[na:Elblag]]
[[nl:Elbląg]]
[[nds:Elbing]]
[[pl:Elbląg]]
[[ro:Elbląg]]
[[sv:Elbląg]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>ESR</title>
<id>9860</id>
<revision>
<id>28382439</id>
<timestamp>2005-11-15T09:13:59Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>FlaBot</username>
<id>228773</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>robot Adding: ja</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''ESR''' can stand for many things, including:
* [[electron spin resonance]]
* [[equivalent series resistance]]
* [[Eric S. Raymond]], the [[open source]] software advocate
* [[erythrocyte sedimentation rate]]
* [[Earlham School of Religion]] at [[Earlham College]] in [[Indiana]], [[United States]]
* [[Electro Slag Remelting]]
{{TLAdisambig}}
[[ja:ESR]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Europe of Democracies and Diversities</title>
<id>9862</id>
<revision>
<id>40363247</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-20T01:49:07Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
<id>82835</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>External links per MoS.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Europe of Democracies and Diversities''' was a [[Euroscepticism|euro-sceptic]] political group with seats in the [[European Parliament]] between [[1999]] and [[2004]]. Following the elections in 2004, the former MEPs of the group took [[MEPs]] from the new member countries on board and together, they registered the new group [[Independence and Democracy]] (IND/DEM).
==Members==
#[[Junibevaegelsen]] (June Movement) ([[Denmark]])
#[[Chasse, Pêche, Nature, Traditions]] ([[France]])
#[[Combats Souverainistes]] (Fighters for Sovereignty) ([[France]])
#[[ChristenUnie-SGP]] ([[Netherlands]])
#[[United Kingdom Independence Party]] ([[United Kingdom]])
#[[League of Polish Families]] ([[Poland]])
See also [[List of political parties]].
==External links==
*[http://www.europarl.eu.int/groups/accounts_en.htm European Parliament Annual Accounts of Political Groups]
[[Category:Former European Parliament party groups]]
[[Category:Euroscepticism]]
[[fr:Groupe pour l'Europe des démocraties et des différences]]
[[de:Europa der Demokratien und der Unterschiede]]
[[sv:Demokratiernas och mångfaldens Europa]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>European Federation of Green Parties</title>
<id>9863</id>
<revision>
<id>31206736</id>
<timestamp>2005-12-13T16:47:49Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Jeandré</username>
<id>10106</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/*See also*/{{Green Parties}}</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Greens}}
The '''European Federation of Green Parties''' is an [[umbrella organization]] of [[Green Party| |
der audience. While they were able to line up licenses like [[Mortal Kombat]], [[Duke Nukem 3D|Duke Nukem]], and [[Resident Evil]], few of these portable adaptations were developed by their original creators, or even very true to the original games. Most game development, even on licensed games, was done in-house. As such, SDKs were not known to be widely available.
At the time, the platform was almost completely ignored by the enthusiast gaming press. Tiger also used insulting marketing, including ill-considered slogans such as, "It plays more games than you slackers have brain cells."
In an effort to revitalize their ailing system, [[Tiger Electronics|Tiger]] would later release the '''game.com Pocket Pro'''. This was a smaller version of the game.com which had the same specifications as the original except that it had a single cartridge slot and required only two [[Battery (electricity)|AA batteries]]. The initial version of the Pocket Pro featured a backlit screen and is distinguished by its rough-textured black case. A subsequent re-release omitted the backlight and came in four translucent colors (green, blue, pink, and purple).
This re-release enjoyed very limited success, and the console would be cancelled in [[2000]], along with its exclusive ISP. Most of its problems were due to a small lineup (only 20 games), poor distribution, and poor marketing. Notably, its display, like the original Game Boy's, suffered from very slow screen updates (known as "ghosting"), which particularly hurt the fast-paced games Tiger sought licenses for.
When game.com was discontinued, no handheld games console would be made with a touchscreen until the coming of the [[Nintendo DS]].
==Internet features==
[[Image:GameComWebstuff.jpg|right|thumb|game.com modem and internet cartridges]]
Using the game.com with the [[modem]] was cumbersome. The user had to insert the game.com modem into one of the unit's game cartridge slots, connect the game.com to a phone jack, and dial into the game.com-exclusive (and fairly expensive) [[internet service provider|ISP]]. From there, the user could upload saved high scores, or check [[e-mail]] and view the [[World Wide Web|web]] if they had the Internet cartridge (sold separately from the modem). This process would end up being a matter of trial-and-error; both Tiger's now-defunct website and the included manual gave incorrect instructions for setting up a game.com for internet access.
Web access was text-only, and the later, single-cartridge versions of the game.com could not access the web or send e-mail at all. No games had actual online play with other people, only high score uploads. The monthly fee, two extra peripherals, and exceedingly confusing setup required meant that only a small percentage of the admittedly few game.com owners had a subscription to the game.com internet service, which would barely survive until the cancellation of the handheld itself.
==Technical specifications==
<table class="wikitable">
<tr><td>Original System Size</td><td>7.5”L x 4.25”W x .75"D</td></tr>
<tr><td>Processor Chip</td><td>Sharp sm8521 8-Bit CPU</td></tr>
<tr><td>Screen Specs</td><td>3.9 square inches, 13 x 10 grid based touch screen. 200 x 160 resolution</td></tr>
<tr><td>Color System</td><td>Black and White, with 4 gray levels</td></tr>
<tr><td><nowiki>Sound/Music</nowiki> </td><td>Mono, single speaker, located in the upper left corner</td></tr>
<tr><td>Power Source</td><td>4 AA Batteries (2 AA batteries in Pocket and Pocket Pro) or AC Adapter</td></tr>
<tr><td>Ports</td><td>Serial Comm Port for the Compete.com cable, internet cable and weblink cable;
3.5mm Audio In Jack for headphones;
DC9V in (AC Adapter);
2 Cartridge Slots (1 on the Pocket and Pocket Pro)
</td></tr>
<tr><td>Buttons</td><td>Power (<nowiki>On/Off</nowiki>);
Action (A, B, C, D);
3 Function (Menu, Sound, Pause);
1 Eight-way Directional Pad;
Volume;
Contrast;
Reset (On system’s underside)</td></tr>
</table>
==Games==
===Released===
* ''[[Batman and Robin]]''
* ''[[Centipede (video game)|Centipede]]''
* ''[[Duke Nukem 3D]]''
* ''[[Fighters MegaMix]]''
* ''[[Frogger]]''
* ''[[Henry]]''
* ''[[Indy 500]]''
* ''[[Jeopardy!]]''
* ''[[Lights Out (game)|Lights Out]]'' (shipped with new game.com handhelds; never sold separately)
* ''[[The Lost World: Jurassic Park]]''
* ''[[Monopoly (game)|Monopoly]]''
* ''[[Mortal Kombat Trilogy]]''
* ''[[Quiz Whiz: Cyber Trivia]]''
* ''[[Resident Evil 2]]''
* ''[[Scrabble]]''
* ''[[Sonic Jam]]''
* ''[[Tiger Casino]]''
* ''[[Wheel of Fortune]]''
* ''[[Wheel of Fortune 2]]''
* ''[[Williams Arcade Classics]]''
[[Internet]] connection accessories for the game.com were also released, including "game.com Internet" and "Tiger Web Link" carts.
===Canceled titles===
* ''[[A Bug's Life]]''
* ''[[Castlevania: Symphony of the Night]]''
* ''[[Command and Conquer: Red Alert]]''
* ''[[Deer Hunter]]''
* ''[[Furbyland]]''
* ''[[GigaPets Deluxe]]''
* ''[[Godzilla]]''
* ''[[Holyfield Boxing]]''
* ''[[Madden '99|Madden Football '99]]''
* ''[[Metal Gear Solid]]''
* ''[[Mulligan's Golf Challenge]]''
* ''[[Mutoids]]''
* ''[[Name That Tune]]''
* ''[[NASCAR Racing]]''
* ''[[NBA Hangtime]]''
* ''[[NBA Live '99]]''
* ''[[Pocket Fisherman]]''
* ''[[The Price is Right]]''
* ''[[Rugrats]]''
* ''[[Small Soldiers]]''
* ''[[Turok: Dinosaur Hunter]]''
* ''[[WCW Wrestling]]''
* ''[[The X-Files]]''
Additionally, an unnamed (and unannounced) [http://www.coxhomestead.com/slight/compendium/archive/wyvern/index.html RPG title] can be seen in one of the [http://www.coxhomestead.com/slight/compendium/archive/_gamecom/index.html game.com television commercials].
Notably, some of these canceled titles (including ''GigaPets'', ''Madden'', and the NBA titles) were to have a [[battery backup]] built into the cartridge to allow for persistent [[saved game]] states. It was also rumored that the boxing title would have a built-in [[force feedback]] device, similar to the [[Nintendo 64]] [[Rumble Pak]]. However, none of these specially equipped cartridges were ever released to the public.
''Furbyland'' and ''Mutoids'' were widely assumed to be Tiger-developed [[computer role-playing games|role-playing games]] as a response to Nintendo's wildly popular ''[[Pokémon]]'' franchise, but little information beyond their intended release was ever made public.
==Community==
A game.com enthusiast with [[Usenet]] access created the [[newsgroup]] [news://alt.games.video.tiger.game-com alt.games.video.tiger.game-com] (Google Groups link below) shortly after the handheld's release in 1997. This group served as a focus point for game.com owners, with often-heated discussion about the handheld's future and merits relative to other systems; as well as reviews of existing games and speculation about future releases. Tiger representatives sometimes posted using the now-defunct [[America Online]] account "TigerGcom." At one point, a gameplay video of the never-released Metal Gear Solid was distributed among group members. Most of the information about unreleased games herein was gleaned from postings to alt.games.video.tiger.game-com.
==Hacking and Homebrew Development==
In early [[2005]], a group called [http://gamecom.guruwork.de game.commies] was formed with hopes of hacking the game.com hardware and creating new [[homebrew (video games)|homebrew video games]].
==External links==
*[http://www.coxhomestead.com/slight/compendium Slight's Compendium]
*[http://groups-beta.google.com/group/alt.games.video.tiger.game-com?start=2356 Google's archive of alt.games.video.tiger.game-com]
*[http://www.bripro.com/low/gamecom/index.php Some technical information obtained by reverse engineering]
{{dedicated video game handheld consoles}}
[[Category:Handheld game consoles]]
[[Category:Fifth-generation video game consoles]]
[[Category:Computer and video game flops]]
[[Category:Monochrome video game consoles]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>General Packet Radio Service</title>
<id>12920</id>
<revision>
<id>41165522</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-25T13:38:49Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>84.41.133.163</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* GPRS in practice */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Table Mobile phone standards}}
'''General Packet Radio Service (GPRS)''' is a [[GSM services|mobile data service]] available to users of [[GSM]] [[mobile phone]]s. It is often described as "[[2.5G]]", that is, a technology between the second ([[2G]]) and third ([[3G]]) generations of mobile telephony. It provides moderate speed data transfer, by using unused [[TDMA]] channels in the [[GSM]] network. Originally there was some thought to extend GPRS to cover other standards, but instead those networks are being converted to use the GSM standard, so that is the only kind of network where GPRS is in use. GPRS is integrated into GSM standards releases starting with [[Release 97]] and onwards. First it was standardised by [[ETSI]] but now that effort has been handed onto the [[3GPP]].
== GPRS basics ==
GPRS is different from the older [[Circuit Switched Data]] (or CSD) connection included in GSM standards releases before [[Release 97]] (from [[1997]], the year the standard was [[feature freeze|feature frozen]]). In CSD, a data connection establishes a circuit, and reserves the full bandwidth of that circuit during the lifetime of the connection. GPRS is [[packet-switched]] which means that multiple users share the same transmission channel, only transmitting when they have data to send. This means that the total |
cart in India]]
Bullock carts have been traditionally used for transport, especially in rural India. They can still be seen in many of the cities and villages. In the recent years some of the cities have banned the movement of bullock carts and other slow moving vehicles in the main [[Arterial road|arterials]] during daytime.
===[[Palanquin]]===
Palanquin or "Palkee" was one of the luxurious methods used by the rich and nobles for travelling purposes. This was primarily used in the olden days to carry the deity or idol of the god (many temples have sculptures of god being carried in a palki) later on during 15th century we have references that the nobles were also using it for transportation. Girls and ladies from rich families were ferried in palkee and were escorted by males riding on horses.
The Work "Palkee" came from the word 'Palanki'. The [[Portugal|Portuguese]] called it "Palan Queem" and the Britishers "Palan Queen". In Sanskrit it is called as "Palkee". During the fifteenth century (during the rein of [[Mughal]] period) many Muslim families used it. Gradually many land lords and people with royalty also started using it.
===[[Horse and buggy|Horse Carriages]]===
Advent of the Britsh saw drastic improvements in the horse carriages which were used for transport since early days. Till today they are used in smaller towns and are referred as "Tanga" and buggies (Victorias of Bombay) are still used for toursit purposes
===Cycle Rickshaw===
From the early part of the century the bicycle rikshaws also became popular and are still used in rural India. Its more a bigger tri-cycle wherein two people can sit on a elavated seat at the back and a person will paddle (driver) from the front. In urban areas they have been mostly superceded by auto rickshaws.
===[[Bicycles]]===
[[Image:Indian Couple on Bicycle.jpg|thumb|left|Bicycles are still an important mode of travelling for the lower middle class]]
===Manually Pulled Rickshaw===
[[Image:Calcutta rickshaw.jpg|thumb|right|250px|A Manually pulled rickshaw in [[Kolkata]]]]
This type of transport was prevalent until 2005 in [[Kolkata]] wherein a person pulls the rickshaw. The Government of West Bengal banned these rickshaw in 2005 describing them "inhuman". While this was lauded in general but questions about alternative means of livelihood of those who directly or indirectly depend on hand pulled rickshaws were not immediately addressed.
===Trams===
{{main|Trams in India}}
The advent of the British saw trams being introduced in many cities including Mumbai and Calcutta. They are still in use in Calcutta and provide a pollution-free means of transportation. The nationalised Calcutta Tram Company has introduced buses on certain routes in order to generate more revenue and reduce losses.
==Local transport==
Local transportation is predominantly by road, with a small fraction (depending on the city) by trains. Most Indian cities are connected to surrounding towns by buses or trains. The vast national rail network also enables farmers to transport their farm and agriculture produce to larger towns, where they get better prices.
The roads in most cities are poorly maintained and full of potholes, while in villages they are frequently non-existent. Traffic generally moves slowly and erratically, and traffic jams and accidents are very common. A [[Reader's Digest]] study of traffic congestion in Asian cities ranked several Indian cities within the Top Ten for worst traffic.
===Buses===
[[Image:India.Mumbai.02.jpg|right|thumb|250px|A double-decker bus in [[Mumbai]]]]
Buses are very cheap in most cities but also very crowded and have unpredictable timings, frequently necessitating long waits. In the big cities and towns of India, buses are the major mode of transport. Luxury and air-conditioned buses also service some cities. Most means of transportation within cities is run by the government. Buses are categorised, based upon the number of seats, the time it takes to travel from A to B, and general comfort. Express and limited buses are usually more expensive options compared to the normal ones, the latter being increasingly modern whilst cheap and easily accessible.
{{seealso|Brihanmumbai Electric Supply and Transport|Delhi Transport Corporation}}
===Vans===
Vans or Mini-Buses is a more prevalent form of transportation especially in remote areas and common route with consistent yet small transportation needs. Not to mention it's presence in other cities,where it is often a traffice menace.
===Autorickshaws===
[[Image:Autorickshaw.jpg|right|thumbnail|250px|An Auto-rickshaws in [[Delhi]].]]
{{main|Autorickshaw}}
An auto rickshaw (auto or rickshaw or tempo in popular parlance) is a three-wheeler [[vehicle for hire]]. They typically have no doors or seatbelts. They are generally yellow or green in colour and have a black canopy on the top. An auto rickshaw is generally characterized by a tin/iron body resting on three small wheels (one in front, two on the rear), a small cabin for the driver in the front and seating for three in the rear. Their design varies considerably from place to place. In some locations, they have an extra plank on the seat to accommodate a fourth passenger. Hiring an auto often involves bargaining with the driver.
In some cities like New Delhi, there are larger autos called Fat-fat,which is an onomatopoeic derivation of the phut-phut crackle of their exhausts. These run on fixed routes on fixed fares and are very fuel efficient. Only six passengers are allowed legally but they usually take as many as ten adults. These autos are the new incarnation of old Fat-fats, which were Harley-Davidson and similar powerful motorcycles modified by removing the rear wheel and bolting a two-wheeled platform with bench seats onto the rear.
===Two-wheelers===
Two wheelers are the most popular mode of transport in terms of number of vehicles. There are two main types of powered two-wheelers, the [[motor scooter]] and the [[motorcycle]].
The scooter was first built in post-war Italy as a two-wheeler with small wheels (supposedly to utilize war-surplus aircraft tailwheels). It differs from the motorcycle in having the driver seated with his legs together, and is thus favoured by women drivers (as [[sari]], a common Indian dress for women, doesn't permit separation of legs). The Italian Vespa scooter was built in India under licence by Bajaj Auto, and together with the Italian Lambretta scooter dominated the two-wheeler scene. Much later came the hugely successful [[Bajaj Chetak]] scooter, but Bajaj has since lost the market to new entrants like Kinetic Motors. In the past decade, lightweight mini-scooters like the [[TVS, India|TVS]] Scooty and the [[Honda]] Activa have made it much easier for women to travel.
[[Image:DSC00076.JPG|right|thumb|250px|A main road in [[New Delhi]]. In India, driving is on the right side of road.]]
The post-war years saw the predominance of foreign motorcycles, mainly British ones like Norton, BSA, Ariel etc. In the 1960s Indian-made bikes like Royal Enfield Bullet (a 350cc British design), Jawa (a 250cc Czech design) and Rajdoot (a 175cc Polish design) predominated. After the beginning of liberalization Indian versions of popular Japanese bikes such as Suzuki, Honda, Kawasaki and Yamaha hit the roads, leading to motorcycles outstripping scooters in popularity. The overwhelmingly large number of bikes sold have engines 175cc or less.
===Cars===
The demand for [[car]]s in India is one of the highest in the world. In [[2002]], more than 50,000 new cars were brought in Delhi alone. [[Compact car]]s predominate due to low cost. [[Maruti Udyog|Maruti]], [[Hyundai Motor Company|Hyundai]], [[Tata Motors]] and [[Ford Motor Company|Ford]] are the most popular brands in the order of their market share. The clunky [[Ambassador]] once had a monopoly but is now an icon of pre-[[Economic history of India|liberalisation]] India, and is still used by politicians. [[Maruti 800]] launched in [[1984]] created the first revolution in the Indian auto sector because of its low pricing. It had the highest market share until 2004, when it was overtaken by other low cost models of Maruti and those of foreign entrants like Hyundai. Over the 20 year period since its introduction about 2.4 milion units of Maruti 800 have been sold.
===Utility Vehicles===
The first [[utility vehicle]] in India was manufactured by [[Mahindra and Mahindra]]. The vehicle was an instant hit and made Mahindra Corp one of the top companies in India. The [[Indian Army]] and police extensively used Mahindra vehicles for transporting personnel and equipments. [[Tata Motors]], the automobile manufacturing leg of the [[Tata Group]], launched its first utility vehicle, [[Tata Sumo]] in mid-[[1990s]]. Sumo was the first utility vehicle which captured the urban market. Many people used them as avenues of employment and till today they are lent on hire for personal purposes. [http://www.allcarpictures.com/tempo/trax-pictures.htm Tempo trax] of [[Bajaj Auto]] till recently was ruling the rural areas. [[Mahindra and Mahindra]]'s Scorpio is the market leader in the utility vehicle segment. However with the advent of [[Toyota]]'s Qualis and [[General Motors]]' Tavera, Mahindra Corp and Tata Motors are losing their share.
===Metro===
[[Image:Delhi metro.jpg|thumb|right|250px|A [[Delhi Metro]] Train]]
Mass [[rapid transit]] systems are operational in Mumbai, [[Kolkata Metro|Kolkatta]], [[Chennai Metro|Chennai]] and Delhi. The first rapid transit system in India, [[Mumbai Railway]], was established in Mumbai in [[1867]]. The [[Mumbai Suburban Railway]] commutes 6.1 million passengers everyday and boasts to have the highest passenger density in the world. Rapid transit systems are under construction in [[Hyderabad Metro|Hyderabad]] and [[Bangalore Metro|Bangalore]]. To decongest Mumbai's growing traffic, another [[Mum |
''[[Timothy Pickering]]'''||1795&ndash;1797
|-
|[[United States Secretary of the Treasury|Secretary of the Treasury]]||'''[[Alexander Hamilton]]'''||1789&ndash;1795
|-
|&nbsp;||'''[[Oliver Wolcott, Jr.]]'''||1795&ndash;1797
|-
|[[United States Secretary of War|Secretary of War]]||'''[[Henry Knox]]'''||1789&ndash;1794
|-
|&nbsp;||'''[[Timothy Pickering]]'''||1795&ndash;1796
|-
|&nbsp;||'''[[James McHenry]]'''||1796&ndash;1797
|-
|[[Attorney General of the United States|Attorney General]]||'''[[Edmund Randolph]]'''||1789&ndash;1793
|-
|&nbsp;||'''[[William Bradford (1755-1795)|William Bradford]]'''||1794&ndash;1795
|-
|&nbsp;||'''[[Charles Lee (Attorney General)|Charles Lee]]'''||1795&ndash;1797
|-
|[[Postmaster General of the United States|Postmaster General]]||'''[[Samuel Osgood]]'''||1789&ndash;1791
|-
|&nbsp;||'''[[Timothy Pickering]]'''||1791&ndash;1795
|-
|&nbsp;||'''[[Joseph Habersham]]'''||1795&ndash;1797
|}
<br clear="all">
===Supreme Court appointments===
As the first President, Washington appointed the entire Supreme Court, a feat almost repeated by President [[Franklin Delano Roosevelt]] during his four terms in office (1933&ndash;45). Washington appointed the following Justices to the [[Supreme Court of the United States]]:
* [[John Jay]] - [[Chief Justice of the United States|Chief Justice]] - 1789
* [[James Wilson]] - 1789
* [[John Rutledge]] - 1790
* [[William Cushing]] - 1790
* [[John Blair]] - 1790
* [[James Iredell]] - 1790
* [[Thomas Johnson (governor)|Thomas Johnson]] - 1792
* [[William Paterson (jurist)|William Paterson]] - 1793
* [[John Rutledge]] - Chief Justice, 1795 (an associate justice since 1790)
* [[Samuel Chase]] - 1796
* [[Oliver Ellsworth]] - Chief Justice - 1796
===States admitted to the Union===
* [[North Carolina]] (1789)
* [[Rhode Island]] (1790)
* [[Vermont]] (1791)
* [[Kentucky]] (1792)
* [[Tennessee]] (1796)
==Retirement and death==
[[Image:Apotheosis of George Washington.jpg|left|thumb|250px|[[Constantino Brumidi]]'s 1865 [[fresco]] The [[Apotheosis of Washington]] is found in the [[rotunda]] of the [[United States Capitol]]]]
After retiring from the presidency in March 1797, Washington returned to Mount Vernon with a profound sense of relief. He established a [[distillery]] there and became probably the largest distiller of [[whiskey]] in the nation at the time, producing 11,000 gallons of whiskey and a profit of $7,500 in 1798.
During that year, Washington was appointed [[Lieutenant General]] in the [[United States Army]] (then the highest possible rank) by President [[John Adams]]. Washington's appointment was to serve as a warning to [[France]], with which war seemed imminent. While Washington never saw active service, upon his death one year later, the U.S. Army rolls listed him as a retired Lieutenant General, which was then considered the equivalent to his rank as General and Commander in Chief during the Revolutionary War.
Within a year of this 1798 appointment, Washington fell ill from a bad cold with a fever and a sore throat that turned into acute [[laryngitis]] and [[pneumonia]] and died on [[December 14]] [[1799]], at his home. Modern doctors believe that Washington died from either a [[strep throat|streptococcal infection of the throat]] or, since he was bled as part of the treatment, a combination of [[shock]] from the loss of blood, [[asphyxia]], and [[dehydration]]. One of the physicians who administered [[bloodletting]] to him was Dr. [[James Craik]], one of Washington's closest friends, who had been with Washington at Fort Necessity, the Braddock expedition, and throughout the Revolutionary War. Washington's remains were buried at [[Mount Vernon (plantation)|Mount Vernon]].
==After his death==
Congressman Henry [[Light Horse Harry Lee]], a Revolutionary War comrade, famously eulogized Washington as "a citizen, first in war, first in peace, and first in the hearts of his countrymen."
Washington set many precedents that established tranquility in the presidential office in the years to come. His choice to peacefully relinquish the presidency to [[John Adams]], after serving two terms in office, is seen as one of Washington's most important legacies.
He was also lauded posthumously as the "[[Father of His Country]]" and is often considered to be the most important of [[Founding Fathers of the United States]]. He has gained fame around the world as a quintessential example of a benevolent national founder. Americans often refer to men in other nations considered the [[Father of the Nation|Father of their Country]] as "the George Washington of his nation" (for example, [[Mahatma Gandhi]]'s role in [[India]]).
Washington was ranked #26 in [[Michael H. Hart]]'s [[The 100|list of the most influential figures in history]]. He is generally regarded by historians as one of the [[historical rankings of U.S. Presidents|greatest presidents]].
Even though he had been the highest-ranking officer of the Revolutionary War, having in 1798 been appointed a ''Lieutenant General'' (now three stars), it seemed, somewhat incongruously, that all later full (that is, four star) generals in U.S. history (starting with General [[Ulysses S. Grant]]), and also all five-star generals of the Army, were considered to outrank Washington. General [[John J. Pershing]] had attained an even higher rank of six-star general, ''General of the Armies'' (above five star&mdash;though the most stars Pershing actually ever wore were four). This issue was resolved in 1976 when Washington was, by act of [[Congress]], posthumously promoted to the rank of [[General of the Armies]], outranking any past, present, and future general, and declared to permanently be ''the'' top-ranked military officer of the United States.
===Monuments and memorials===
[[Image:United States quarter, obverse, 2004.jpg|thumb|left|175px|Washington is commemorated on the [[Quarter (U.S. coin)|U.S. quarter]].]]
Today Washington's face and image are often used as national symbols of the United States, along with the icons such as the flag and great seal. Perhaps the most pervasive commemoration of his legacy is the use of his image on the [[U.S. one dollar bill|one dollar bill]] and the [[Quarter (U.S. coin)|quarter-dollar coin]]. The image used on the dollar bill is derived from a famous portrait of him painted by [[Gilbert Stuart]], itself one of the most notable works of early American art.
Because of Washington's involvement in Freemasonry, some publicly visible collections of Washington memorabilia are maintained by Masonic lodges, most notably the [[George Washington Masonic Memorial]] in Alexandria, Virginia. The museum at [[Fraunces Tavern Museum]] in New York City includes specimens of Washington's [[false teeth]] (contrary to the widespread myth, they were not wooden - see the [[George Washington#Trivia|trivia]] section below).
[[Image:DSCN3500 georgewashington e.JPG|300px|right|thumb|Tourists pose under the statue of Washington outside the [[Federal Hall]] Memorial in lower [[Manhattan]], site of Washington's first inauguration as President]]
The capital city of the United States, [[Washington, D.C.]], is named for him. The District of Columbia was created by an [[Act of Congress]] in 1790, and Washington was deeply involved in its creation, including choosing the site for the [[White House]]. The [[Washington Monument]], one of the most well-known landmarks in the city, was built in his honor. [[George Washington University|The George Washington University]], also in D.C., was named after him, and it was founded in part with shares Washington bequeathed to an endowment to create a national university in Washington.
The only state named for a president is the state of [[Washington]] in the U.S. [[Pacific Northwest]].
Washington selected [[West Point, New York|West Point]], [[New York]], as the site for the [[United States Military Academy]]. The [[United States Navy]] has [[USS George Washington|named three ships]] after Washington; the [[USS George Washington (CVN-73)|one currently serving]] is a [[Nimitz Class]] nuclear powered [[aircraft carrier]], commissioned on [[July 4]], [[1992]].
Other examples include the [[George Washington Bridge]], which extends between [[New York City]] and [[New Jersey]], and the [[Arecaceae|palm tree]] genus ''[[Washingtonia]]'' is also named after him.
''See also:'' [[List of places named for George Washington]]
===Summary of military career===
* 1753: Commissioned a [[Major]] in the [[Virginia Militia]]
* 1754: Promoted to [[Lieutenant Colonel]] in the Virginia Militia
* 1754: Led abortive expedition to Fort Duquesne, later served as aide to General [[Edward Braddock]]
* 1755: Promoted to [[Colonel]] and named Commander of all Virginia Forces. Commissioned a [[Brigadier General]] later that year
* 1759&ndash;75: Resigned from active military service
* June 1775: Commissioned General and Commander in Chief of the Continental Army
* 1775&ndash;81: Commands the Continental Army in over seven major battles with the British
* December 1783: Resigns commission as Commander in Chief of the Army
* July 1798: Appointed Lieutenant General and Commander of the Provisional Army to be raised in the event of a war with France
* [[14 December]] [[1799]]: Dies and is listed as a Lieutenant General (r) on the U.S. Army rolls
* [[19 January]] [[1976]]: Approved by the [[United States Congress]] for promotion to [[General of the Armies]]
* [[11 October]] [[1976]]: Declared the senior most U.S. military officer for all time by Presidential Order of [[Gerald Ford]]
* [[13 March]] [[1978]]: Promoted by Army Order 31-3 to General of the Armies with effective date of rank [[July 4]] [[1776]].
==Personal qualities==
{{POV-check-section}}
Washington was long considered not just a military and revolutionary hero, but a man of great personal integr |
Gates]]. These distortions occur when the mean is different from the median, and the median is a superior alternative when that happens.
In certain situations, the arithmetic mean is the wrong concept of "average" altogether. For example, if a stock rose 10% in the first year, 30% in the second year and fell 10% in the third year, then it would be incorrect to report its "average" increase per year over this three year period as the arithmetic mean (10% + 30% + (&minus;10%))/3 = 10%; the correct average in this case is the [[geometric mean]] which yields an average increase per year of only 8.8%.
If ''X'' is a [[random variable]], then the [[expected value]] of ''X'' can be seen as the long-term arithmetic mean that occurs on repeated measurements of ''X''. This is the content of the [[law of large numbers]]. As a result, the sample mean is used to estimate unknown expected values.
Note that several other "means" have been defined, including the [[generalized mean]], the [[generalised f-mean|generalized f-mean]], the [[harmonic mean]], the [[arithmetic-geometric mean]], and the [[weighted mean]].
==Alternate notations==
The arithmetic mean may also be expressed using the sum notation:
:<math>\bar{x} = \frac1n\sum_{i=1}^n x_i.</math>
==See also==
[[mean]], [[average]], [[summary statistics]], [[variance]], [[central tendency]], [[standard deviation]], [[inequality of arithmetic and geometric means]], [[Muirhead's inequality]]
==External links==
*[http://www.sengpielaudio.com/calculator-geommean.htm Calculations and comparisons between arithmetic and geometric mean between two numbers]
*[http://www.cut-the-knot.org/Generalization/means.shtml Arithmetic and geometric means] - [[cut-the-knot]]
[[Category:Statistics]]
[[Category:Means]]
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[[ar:متوسط حسابي]]
[[cs:Aritmetick%C3%BD pr%C5%AFm%C4%9Br]]
[[de:Mittelwert]]
[[es:Media aritmética]]
[[fr:Moyenne arithmétique]]
[[hr:Aritmeti%C4%8Dka_sredina]]
[[nl:Rekenkundig gemiddelde]]
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[[zh:算术平均数]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>American Football Conference</title>
<id>615</id>
<revision>
<id>39772694</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-15T19:57:26Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Zzyzx11</username>
<id>182902</id>
</contributor>
<comment>briefly mention the NFC</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:AmericanFootballConference.png|right|American Football Conference]]
The '''American Football Conference''' ('''AFC''') is one of the two conferences of the [[National Football League]] (NFL). The AFC was created after the league [[AFL-NFL Merger|merged]] with the [[American Football League]] (AFL) in early 1970. The NFL's [[Cleveland Browns]], [[Pittsburgh Steelers]], and the then-[[Indianapolis Colts|Baltimore Colts]] agreed to join the new AFC along with the 10 former AFL teams. All of the other NFL teams formed the [[National Football Conference]] (NFC). Initially, this alignment proved to be very unpopular with fans in these cities.
The AFC logo, shown to the right, is a variation of the old AFL logo [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:AmericanFootballLeague.jpg as seen here]. Introduced in 1970 alongside the beginning of the new AFC, the logo has basically remained unchanged since its introduction, though the "A" wasn't as bold when it was first introduced.
The AFC currently consists of 16 teams, organized into four divisions (North, South, East, and West) of four teams each. Each team plays the other teams in their division twice (home and away) during the regular season in addition to 10 other games/teams assigned to their schedule by the NFL the previous May. Two of these games are assigned on the basis of the team's final record in the previous season. The remaining 8 games are split between the roster of two other NFL divisions. This assignment shifts each year. For instance, in the [[2006 NFL season|2006 regular season]], each team in the [[AFC East]] will play a game apiece against each team in both the [[AFC South]] and the [[NFC North]]. In this way division competition consists of common opponents, with the exception of the 2 games assigned on the strength of each team's prior season record. The NFC operates according to the same system.
At the end of each football [[season (sport)|season]], there are [[NFL playoffs|playoff]] games involving the top six teams in the AFC (the four division champions by place standing and the top two remaining non-division-champion teams ("[[Wild card (sports)|wild cards]]") by record). The last two teams remaining play in the [[AFC Championship Game|AFC Championship game]] with the winner receiving the [[Lamar Hunt]] Trophy. The AFC champion plays the [[National Football Conference|NFC]] champion in the [[Super Bowl]].
{{NFL}}
[[Category:National Football League]]
[[da:American Football Conference]]
[[fr:American Football Conference]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Applied Mathematics</title>
<id>616</id>
<revision>
<id>15899145</id>
<timestamp>2002-05-05T14:35:26Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Maveric149</username>
<id>62</id>
</contributor>
<comment>#redirect [[applied mathematics]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[applied mathematics]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Albert Arnold Gore</title>
<id>617</id>
<revision>
<id>35530264</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-17T11:55:38Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Korg</username>
<id>263660</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>{{hndis}}</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">There have been two [[United States]] [[politician]]s named '''Albert Arnold Gore'''.
* The father, [[Albert Gore, Sr.]], was a Senator from Tennessee from 1953 to 1971.
* The son, [[Albert Gore, Jr.]] (often called simply "Al Gore") was both a Representative and a Senator from Tennessee, and was both a U.S. Vice President and a presidential candidate.
{{hndis}}</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>AnEnquiryConcerningHumanUnderstanding</title>
<id>618</id>
<revision>
<id>15899147</id>
<timestamp>2002-08-31T19:45:59Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Bryan Derksen</username>
<id>66</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>removed old article from below the redirect - it's already been moved over</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Al Gore</title>
<id>619</id>
<revision>
<id>42075724</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T17:33:26Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>64.8.10.9</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the former United States Vice President. For his father, see [[Albert Gore, Sr.|Albert Gore, Sr.]]''
{| class="toccolours" style="float: right; margin: 0 0 1em 1em; text-align:left; clear:right"
|+ style="margin-left: inherit; font-size: larger;" | '''Albert Arnold Gore, Jr.'''
|-
| align="center" colspan=2 | [[Image:AlGorerecent.jpg|200px|none|Al Gore]]
|-
! Order:
| 45th Vice President
|-
! Term of Office:
| [[January 20]], [[1993]] to [[January 20]], [[2001]]
|-
! Preceded by:
| [[Dan Quayle]]
|-
! Succeeded by:
| [[Dick Cheney]]
|-
! Date of Birth
| [[March 31]], [[1948]]
|-
! Place of Birth:
| [[Washington, D.C.]]
|-
! [[Wife]]:
| [[Tipper Gore|Mary Elizabeth "Tipper" Gore]]
|-
! [[Profession]]:
| [[Journalist]], [[Businessman]]
|-
! [[Political party|Political Party]]:
| [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democrat]]
|-
! [[President of the United States|President]]:
| [[Bill Clinton]]
|}
'''Albert Arnold Gore, Jr.''' (born [[March 31]], [[1948]]) is an [[United States|American]] [[politician]] and businessman, who served as the 45th [[Vice President of the United States]] from [[1993]] to [[2001]].
He [[U.S. presidential election, 2000|ran for President in 2000]] following [[Bill Clinton]]'s two four-year terms. He was defeated in the [[U.S. Electoral College|Electoral College]] vote by the [[United States Republican Party|Republican]] candidate [[George W. Bush]] on a vote of 271-266 with a Gore committed Elector from [[Washington, DC]] abstaining. However, Gore did receive more individual votes than Bush. The election was bitterly contested, including multiple recounts and a [[Bush v. Gore|5-4 Supreme Court]] decision that effectively secured the election for President [[George W. Bush]].
Gore currently serves as President of the American television channel [[Current TV|Current]] and Chairman of [[Generation Investment Management]], sits on the board of directors of [[Apple Computer]], and serves as an unofficial advisor to [[Google]]'s senior management.
Although speculation about a possible [[U.S. presidential election, 2008|presidential run in 2008]] still continues, he has stated that he does not currently plan to return to politics, but doesn't rule this possibility out in the future.
==Early life==
He attended the [[Sheridan school|Sheridan School]], and later the elite [[St. Albans School]]. In 1965, Gore enrolled at [[Harvard College]], where he majored in government. His roommates (in [[Dunster House]]) were actor [[Tommy Lee Jones]] and former Columbia University women's basketball star Katie Day's father, Bart Day. Gore graduated from Harvard in June 1969 with a Bachelor of Arts degree.
:For more information on Gore's academic records, see [http://www.washingtonpost.com/ac2/wp-dyn?pagename=article&amp;contentId=A37397-2000Mar18] |
5. august]]
[[nn:25. august]]
[[oc:25 d'agost]]
[[pl:25 sierpnia]]
[[pt:25 de Agosto]]
[[ro:25 august]]
[[ru:25 августа]]
[[sco:25 August]]
[[sq:25 Gusht]]
[[scn:25 di austu]]
[[simple:August 25]]
[[sk:25. august]]
[[sl:25. avgust]]
[[sr:25. август]]
[[fi:25. elokuuta]]
[[sv:25 augusti]]
[[tl:Agosto 25]]
[[tt:25. August]]
[[te:ఆగష్టు 25]]
[[th:25 สิงหาคม]]
[[vi:25 tháng 8]]
[[tr:25 Ağustos]]
[[uk:25 серпня]]
[[wa:25 d' awousse]]
[[war:Agosto 25]]
[[zh:8月25日]]
[[pam:Agostu 25]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Aachen</title>
<id>1520</id>
<revision>
<id>41662841</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T22:35:33Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>195.93.21.134</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* External links */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Town DE|
name = Aachen|
name_local = |
image_coa = Stadtwappen_der_kreisfreien_Stadt_Aachen.png|
image_map = Aachen in Germany.png|
state = [[North Rhine-Westphalia]] |
regbzk = [[Cologne (region)|Cologne]]|
district = [[List of German urban districts|urban district]]|
population = 257,089 |
population_as_of = 2005|
population_ref = [http://www.lds.nrw.de/statistik/datenangebot/amtlichebevoelkerungszahlen/rp3_juni05.html source]|
pop_dens = 1,599|
area = 160.83|
elevation = 125-410|
lat_deg = 50|
lat_min = 46|
lat_hem = N|
lon_deg = 6|
lon_min = 6|
lon_hem = E|
postal_code = 52062-52080 |
area_code = 0241|
licence = AC|
mayor = Jürgen Linden ([[SPD]]) |
website = [http://www.aachen.de/ aachen.de]|
}}
'''Aachen''' ([[French language|French]] ''Aix-la-Chapelle'', [[Dutch language|Dutch]] ''Aken'', [[Latin]] ''Aquisgranum'', [[Ripuarian]] ''Oche'') is a spa city in [[North Rhine-Westphalia]], [[Germany]], on the border with [[Belgium]] and the [[Netherlands]], 65 km to the west of [[Cologne]], and the westernmost city in Germany.
[[RWTH Aachen]], established in 1870, is one of the major Institutes of Technology, especially for electrical and mechanical engineering, computer sciences and physics. As a part of it, the [[Klinikum Aachen]] is the biggest single-building hospital in Europe. Over time, a host of software and computer industries have developed around the university.
[[Image:Aachen Cathedral from north.jpg|thumb|left|Aachen Cathedral]]
[[Image:Aachen-ElegantStreet.JPG|thumb|200px|Typical Aachen street with early [[20th century]] [[Gründerzeit]] houses]]
==History==
A quarry on the Lousberg, where flint was obtained in Neolithic times attests to the long occupation of the site of Aachen.
The [[Roman empire|Romans]] named the [[hot spring|hot sulphur springs]] of Aachen ''Aquis-Granum''. For the origin of the ''Granus'' several theories were developed, but it is now widely accepted that it derives from a local Celtic god of healing water, not elsewhere attested. Many other Celtic [[toponym]]s are identifiable in the immediate locale. Since [[Roman empire|Roman]] times, the hot springs have been channeled into baths (which are still in use). ''âh-'' is an [[German language|Old German]] cognate with [[Latin]] ''aqua'', both meaning "water". In French-speaking areas of the former [[Roman Empire|Empire]] the word ''aquas'' was turned into ''aix'', hence Aix-la-Chapelle or [[Aix-en-Provence]], an old Roman spa in [[Provence]], [[France]].
[[Image:Construction d Aix-la-Chapelle.jpg|thumb|left|Construction of Aix-la-Chapelle, by [[Jean Fouquet]]]]
After Roman times the place passed without comment but could not have been totally abandoned, for [[Einhard]] mentioned that in 765-66 [[Pippin the Younger|Pippin]] spent both Christmas and Easter at ''Aquis villa'' (''Et celebravit natalem Domini in Aquis villa et pascha similiter'') [http://www.noctes-gallicanae.org/Charlemagne/Annales/Pepin_le_Bref.htm], which must have been sufficiently equipped to support the royal household for several months. In the year of his coronation [[768]] [[Charlemagne]] came to spend Christmas at Aachen for the first time. He liked the place and twenty years later he began to build a palace. The sole surviving remnant of the palace, its magnificent chapel constructed in 796, later became [[Aachen Cathedral]]. Charlemagne spent most winters between [[800]] and his death in [[814]] in Aachen in order to enjoy the hot springs. Afterwards the king was buried in the chapel, where his tomb can still be found.
In [[936]] [[Otto I, Holy Roman Emperor|Otto I]] was crowned emperor in the cathedral. From then on the emperors of the [[Holy Roman Empire]] were crowned "[[King of the Germans]]" in Aachen, for the next 600 years. The last king to be crowned here was [[Ferdinand I, Holy Roman Emperor|Ferdinand I]] in 1531.
During the [[Middle Ages]] Aachen was one of the largest cities of the Empire. Aachen remained a free city within the [[Holy Roman Empire]]. In the [[Imperial Circle Estates]] of the [[Imperial Reform|Reichsreform]] (Imperial Reform) concluded at [[Worms, Germany|Worms]] in 1495, Aachen was represented in the Lower Rhenish-Westphalian circle.
After the [[Thirty Years War]] Aachen only had regional importance. However, the city became the site of several important congresses and peace treaties: the [[Congress of Aix-la-Chapelle (1668)|first congress of Aachen]] (often referred to as ''congress of Aix-la-Chapelle'' in English) in 1668, leading to the [[Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle (1668)|First Treaty of Aachen]] in the same year which ended the [[War of Devolution]]. The [[Congress of Aix-la-Chapelle (1748)|second congress]] ended with the [[Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle (1748)|second treaty]] in 1748, finishing the [[War of the Austrian Succession]]. The [[Congress of Aix-la-Chapelle (1818)|third congress]] took place in 1818 to decide the fate of occupied France.
By 1880, the population was 80,000. Several important [[railway]]s met in Aachen. The city became a site for the manufacturing of railroad [[iron]], [[pin]]s, [[needle]]s, [[button]]s, [[tobacco]], [[wool]]en goods and [[silk]] goods.
Badly damaged in [[World War II]], on [[October 21]] [[1944]] Aachen was the first German city to be overrun by [[Allies#World War II|Allied]] troops, the [[U.S. 1st Infantry Division]](aka the [[Big Red One]]).
While Charlemagne's palace does not exist anymore, the cathedral is still the main attraction of the city. After its construction it was the largest church north of the [[Alps]] for 400 years. The tombs of Charlemagne and [[Otto III, Holy Roman Emperor|Otto III]] can be found in the church. The cathedral of Aachen is listed in the [[UNESCO]] [[World Heritage Sites|World Heritage]].
[[Image:Aachen-SomeBoulevard.JPG|thumb|200px|Tree-lined boulevard in Aachen]]
==Miscellaneous==
Aachen is an industrial centre and a major railway junction, including the [[Thalys]] high-speed train network. A major industry of the past was needle production, which led to the distinctive mark of the people from Aachen, the ''Klenkes''. The small finger of the right hand is spread from the hand, which was originally the way women sorted the needles.
[[Robert Browning]]'s poem "How they brought the good news from Ghent to Aix" refers to Aachen, but not to any historical fact.
The annual CHIO (short for the French ''Concours Hippique International Officiel'') is the biggest [[equestrianism|equestrian]] meeting of Germany and among horsemen considered to be as prestigious for equitation as the tournament of [[The Championships, Wimbledon|Wimbledon]] for tennis. Aachen will also be host of the 2006 [[World Equestrian Games]].
[[Image:GermanyNetherlansBelgiumBORDER.jpg|thumb|200px|German-Netherland-Belgian border is easily seen from the west edge of town]]
The local football team [[Alemannia Aachen]] plays in Germany's second division. Their stadium is called [[Tivoli, Aachen|Tivoli]].
Since 1950 the city annually awards the [[Karlspreis]] (German for ''Charlemagne Award'') to persons who did extraordinary service for the unification of Europe. In 2003 the medal was awarded to [[Valéry Giscard d'Estaing]]. In 2004, [[Pope]] [[Pope John Paul II|John Paul II]]'s efforts to unite Europe were honored with an ''Extraordinary Charlemagne Medal'', which was awarded for the first time ever.
The local speciality of Aachen are cookies called ''Printen'', a local version of [[gingerbread]]. Unlike [[gingerbread]] (German:''[[Lebkuchen]]''), which is sweetened with honey, ''Printen'' are sweetened with sugar.
In 1372, Aachen became the first coin issuing city in the world to regularly place an [[Anno Domini]] date on a general circulation [[coin]], a [[groschen]]. It is written MCCCLXXII. None with this date are known to be in existence any longer. The earliest date for which an Aachen coin is still extant is dated 1373.
''See also'': [[Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle]], [[Aachen (district)]], [[List of mayors of Aachen]], [[Aachener]]
==[[Town twinning]]==
Aachen has several partner cities:
* {{flagicon|France}} - [[Reims]] ([[France]]) since [[January 28]] [[1967]]
* {{flagicon|United Kingdom}} - [[Halifax, West Yorkshire|Halifax]]/[[Calderdale]] ([[United Kingdom]]) since [[November 14]] [[1979]]
* {{flagicon|Spain}} - [[Toledo, Spain|Toledo]] ([[Spain]]) since [[January 26]] [[1985]]
* {{flagicon|People's Republic of China}} - [[Ningbo|Ningbo (宁波)]] ([[China]]) since [[October 25]] [[1986]]
* {{flagicon|Germany}} - [[Naumburg]] ([[Saxony-Anhalt]], Germany) since [[May 30]] [[1988]]
* {{flagicon|USA}} - [[Arlington County]] ([[Virginia]]), [[United States|USA]]) since [[September 17]] [[1993]]
* {{flagicon|Russia}} - [[Kostroma]] ([[Russia]]) since [[June 9]] [[2005]]
The municipality Walheim had a partnership with the French [[Montebourg]] since 1960, which was continued by Aachen in 1972 when Walheim was incorporated into the town and became the borough Aachen-[[Kornelimünster]]/Walheim.
==Buildings and Constructions==
* [[Water Tower Belvedere]]
* [[Aachen Cathedral]]
==Name in different languages==
Aachen is known in diffe |
nd told him to choose his bride. Pygmalion chose the statue. Aphrodite told him that could not be, and asked him again to pick a bride. Pygmalion put his arms around the statue, and asked Aphrodite to turn him into a statue so he could be with her. Aphrodite took pity on him and brought the statue to life instead.
=== Other Stories ===
In one version of the story of [[Hippolytus (mythology)|Hippolytus]], Aphrodite was the catalyst for his death. He scorned the worship of Aphrodite for [[Artemis]] and, in revenge, Aphrodite caused his step-mother, [[Phaedra]], to fall in love with him, knowing Hippolytus would reject her. In the most popular version of the story, the play "Hippolytus" by [[Euripides]], Phaedra seeks revenge against Hippolytus by killing herself and, in her [[suicide note]], telling [[Theseus]], her husband and Hippolytus' father, that Hippolytus had raped her. Theseus then murdered his own son before Artemis told him the truth.
King [[Glaucus]] of Corinth angered Aphrodite and she made her horses angry during the funeral games of King [[Pelias]]. They tore him apart. His ghost supposedly frightened horses during the [[Isthmian Games]].
Aphrodite was often accompanied by the [[Charites]].
In book III of [[Homer]]'s ''[[Iliad]]'', Aphrodite saves [[Paris]] when he is about to be killed by [[Menelaos]].
Aphrodite was very protective of her son, Aeneas, who fought in the [[Trojan War]]. [[Diomedes]] almost killed Aeneas in battle but Aphrodite saved him. Diomedes wounded Aphrodite and she dropped her son, fleeing to [[Mt. Olympus]]. Aeneas was then enveloped in a cloud by [[Artemis]], who took him to [[Pergamos (Troy)|Pergamos]], a sacred spot in [[Troy]]. [[Apollo]] healed Aeneas there.
She turned [[Abas]] to stone for his pride.
She turned [[Anaxarete]] to stone for reacting so dispassionately to [[Iphis]]' pleas to love him, even after his suicide.
Aphrodite helps [[Hippomenes]] to win a footrace against [[Atalanta]] to win Atalanta's hand in marriage, giving him three golden apples to distract her with. However, when the couple fails to thank Aphrodite, she has them turned into lions (in other accounts they are turned into lions when either [[Zeus]] or [[Cybele]] find them having sex in their temple).
==Aphrodite in Neopaganism==
In many modern [[Neopaganism|Neopagan]] [[sect]]s, particularly [[New Age]] ''Hellenistic'' sects in the [[United States]], Aphrodite takes on the role of the goddess of passion. Not all passion Aphrodite inspires is lustful, much of it is believed to take the form of artistic passion and even passion in argument. Worship of Aphrodite is uncommon and is typically held by individual writers and artists. How she is worshipped often depends on what other gods a sect includes. For example, sects that worship [[Hera]] and/or [[Themis]] may include worship of Aphrodite, but encourage monogamy and stress her role in committed relationships and marriage. Sects that worship [[Dionysus]] and Aphrodite may be entirely hedonistic and include orgiastic rituals (such sects are often considered cults even by Neopagan standards). As such worship of Aphrodite varies between sects.
==Consorts and children==
* Deities
** [[Ares]]
*** [[Anteros]]
*** [[Eros (mythology)|Eros]] (Love)
*** [[Harmonia (Greek_goddess)|Harmonia]] (Harmony)
*** [[Himeros]]
***[[Deimos (mythology)|Deimos]] (Dread)
***[[Phobos (mythology)|Phobos]] (Fright)
** [[Dionysus]]
*** [[Charites]]
**** [[Aglaea]]
**** [[Euphrosyne]]
**** [[Thalia]]
*** [[Hymenaios]]
*** [[Priapus]]
** [[Hephaestus]]
** [[Hermes]]
*** [[Eunomia]]
*** [[Hermaphroditus]]
*** [[Peitho]]
*** [[Rhodos]]
*** [[Tyche]]
* Mortals
** [[Adonis]]
** [[Anchises]]
*** [[Aeneas]]
** [[Butes]]
*** [[Eryx]]
==Other names==
*''Acidalia''
*''Anadyomene'' - the emerging as in ''Aphrodite Anadyomene'', a painting by [[Apelles]]
*''[[Cytherea]]''
*''Despina''
*''Kypris''
==See also==
*[[Venus (mythology)|Venus]]
*[[Aphrodite of Knidos]]
*[[Venus de Milo]]
{{commons|Aphrodite}}
[[Category:Greek goddesses]]
[[Category:Love and lust goddesses]]
[[Category:Characters in the Iliad]]
<!-- interwiki -->
[[ar:أفروديت]]
[[bg:Афродита]]
[[be:Афрадыта]]
[[bs:Afrodita]]
[[ca:Afrodita]]
[[cs:Afrodíté]]
[[da:Afrodite]]
[[de:Aphrodite]]
[[et:Aphrodite]]
[[el:Αφροδίτη (μυθολογία)]]
[[es:Afrodita]]
[[eo:Afrodita]]
[[fr:Aphrodite]]
[[gl:Afrodita]]
[[ko:아프로디테]]
[[hr:Afrodita]]
[[ia:Aphrodite]]
[[is:Afródíta]]
[[it:Afrodite]]
[[he:אפרודיטה]]
[[la:Aphrodite]]
[[lt:Afroditė]]
[[lv:Afrodīte]]
[[lb:Aphrodite]]
[[hu:Aphrodité]]
[[nl:Aphrodite]]
[[ja:アプロディテ]]
[[no:Afrodite]]
[[pl:Afrodyta]]
[[pt:Afrodite]]
[[ro:Afrodita]]
[[ru:Афродита]]
[[simple:Aphrodite]]
[[sk:Afrodita]]
[[sl:Afrodita]]
[[sr:Афродита]]
[[fi:Afrodite]]
[[sv:Afrodite]]
[[tl:Aphrodite]]
[[uk:Афродіта]]
[[zh:阿佛洛狄德]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>April 1</title>
<id>1175</id>
<revision>
<id>41835935</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T01:31:38Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Mikkalai</username>
<id>28438</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Holidays and observances */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve"><!-- Language links at bottom -->
{| style="float:right;"
|-
|{{AprilCalendar}}
|-
|{{ThisDateInRecentYears|Month=April|Day=1}}
|}
'''April 1''' is the [[91 (number)|91st]] day of the year (92nd in [[leap year]]s) in the [[Gregorian calendar]], with 274 days remaining.
==Events==
*[[527]] - [[Byzantine Emperors|Byzantine Emperor]] [[Justin I]] names his nephew [[Justinian I]] as co-ruler and successor to the throne.
*[[1318]] - [[Berwick-upon-Tweed]] is captured by the [[Scotland|Scottish]] from the [[England|English]]
*[[1572]] - The [[Geuzen|Watergeuzen]] succeeded in capturing [[Brielle|Den Briel]], effectively sealing off the [[Meuse River]] from the [[Spanish Empire|Spaniards]].
*[[1789]] - In [[New York City]], the [[United States House of Representatives]] holds its first quorum and elects [[Frederick Muhlenberg]] of [[Pennsylvania]] as its first House Speaker.
*[[1826]] - [[Samuel Morey]] patents the [[internal combustion engine]].
*[[1854]] - ''[[Hard Times]]'' begins serialisation in [[Charles Dickens]] magazine, ''Household Words''.
*[[1857]] - [[Herman Melville]] publishes ''[[The Confidence-Man]]''.
*[[1865]] - [[American Civil War]]: [[Battle of Five Forks]] - In [[Petersburg, Virginia]], Confederate General [[Robert E. Lee]] begins his final offensive.
*[[1867]] - [[Singapore]] becomes a British [[crown colony]].
*[[1868]] - [[Hampton University|Hampton Normal and Agricultural Institute]] is established in [[Hampton, Virginia]]
*[[1873]] - The [[United Kingdom|British]] steamer [[SS Atlantic|SS ''Atlantic'']] sinks off [[Nova Scotia]], killing 547.
*[[1891]] - The [[Wrigley Company]] is founded in [[Chicago, Illinois]].
*[[1918]] - The [[Royal Flying Corps]] is replaced by the [[Royal Air Force]].
*[[1924]] - [[Adolf Hitler]] is sentenced to five years in [[jail]] for his participation in the "[[Beer Hall Putsch]]." However, he spends only nine months in jail, during which he writes the book ''[[Mein Kampf]]''.
*1924 - First revenue flight for [[Belgium]]'s [[Sabena]] Airlines
*[[1933]] - The recently elected [[Nazism|Nazis]] under [[Julius Streicher]] organize a one-day boycott of all Jewish-owned businesses in [[Germany]], ushering in the series of [[anti-Semitism|anti-Semitic]] acts that will be known as the [[Holocaust]].
*[[1934]] - [[Bonnie and Clyde]] kill two young highway patrolmen near [[Grapevine, Texas]].
*[[1937]] - [[Aden]] becomes a British [[crown colony]].
*[[1941]] - The [[Blockade Runner Badge]] for German navy is instituted.
*[[1945]] - [[World War II]]: [[Battle of Okinawa|Operation Iceberg]] - [[United States]] troops land on [[Okinawa]] in the last campaign of the war.
*[[1946]] - [[Aleutian Island earthquake]]: A 7.8 magnitude [[earthquake]] near the [[Aleutian Islands]] creates a [[tsunami]] that strikes the [[Hawaiian Islands]] killing 159 (mostly in [[Hilo, Hawaii]]).
*1946 - Formation of the [[Malayan Union]].
*[[1948]] - [[Cold War]]: [[Berlin Airlift]] - [[Military forces]], under direction of the Soviet-controlled government in [[East Germany]], set-up a land blockade of [[West Berlin]].
*1948 - [[Faroe Islands]] receive [[self-governance|autonomy]] from [[Denmark]]
*[[1949]] - [[Newfoundland]] becomes the tenth Province of [[Canada]]
*1949 - [[Chinese Civil War]]: [[Communist Party of China]] hold unsuccessful peace talks with the [[Kuomintang]] in [[Beijing]], after three years of fighting.
*1949 - The twenty-six counties of the [[Irish Free State]] become the [[Republic of Ireland]].
*1949 - Founding of the [[Tokyo Stock Exchange]]
*[[1954]] - President [[Dwight D. Eisenhower]] authorizes the creation of the [[United States Air Force Academy]] in [[Colorado]].
*[[1955]] - The [[EOKA]] rebellion starts in [[Cyprus]], aiming at the island´s independence from [[Great Britain]].
*[[1967]] - The [[United States Department of Transportation]] begins operation.
*[[1969]] - The [[Hawker-Siddeley Harrier]] enters service with the [[Royal Air Force|RAF]].
*[[1970]] - [[Phil Spector]] finishes the orchestral [[overdub]]s for the upcoming [[Beatles]] album, ''[[Let It Be (album)|Let It Be]]'', including the songs "[[Let It Be (song)|Let It Be]]", "[[Across the Universe]]", and "[[The Long and Winding Road]]". This causes controversy among [[Beatles]] fans who feel that [[Phil Spector]] has overproduced the album.
*1970 - President [[Richard Nixon]] signs the [[Public Health Cigarette Smoking Act]] into law banning [[cigarette]] advertisements in the [[United States]] starting on [[January 1]], [[1971]].
*1970 - [[American Motors]] introduces the [[AMC Gremlin|Gremlin]].
*[[1973]] - [[Project Tiger]], a [[tiger]] conservation project, is launched in the [[Corbett National Park]], [[India]].
* |
e to Aaron in Deuteronomy merely states that he is the brother of Moses (Deuteronomy 32:50).
#'''Aaron as subordinate'''. The first three, simpler, plagues Aaron brings on at Moses' command; thereafter Moses himself is the actor. In the narratives (Numbers 16, 17) it is Moses in each case who vindicates him. Aaron dies at Mount Hor in the fortieth year of the Exodus (Numbers 20:22, 33:38), because of rebellion at [[Meribah]] (cf. Deuteronomy as above).
#'''Aaron as non-priestly'''. In ''[[Leviticus]]'' 17-26, Aaron appears only in redactional passages connecting the [[Law of Holiness]] with its present context. In ''Ezekiel'' 40-48 Zadok, not Aaron, is the eponym of the priestly line (44:15, etc.).
==In the Qur’an==
In the [[Qur'an]] he is known as [[Harun]].
==References==
*''[[Numbers]] Rabbah'' 9
*''[[Leviticus]] Rabbah'' 10
*''Midrash Peṭirat Aharon'' in Jellinek’s ''Bet ha-Midrash'', 1:91-95
*''Yalḳuṭ [[Numbers]]'' 764
*Baring-Gould, ''Legends of Old Testament Characters''
*''Chronicles of Jerahmeel'', ed. M. Gaster, pp. cx1:130-133
*B. Beer, in Wertheimer’s ''Jahrb.'', 1855
*Hamburger, ''Der Geist der Haggada'', pp. 1-8
*the same, ''Realencyklopädie für Bibel und Talmud'', s. v.
*{{JewishEncyclopedia}}
*{{1911}}
==See also==
{{Wikisource1911Enc|Aaron}}
* [[Kohen]]
* [[Y-chromosomal Aaron]]
* [[Documentary Hypothesis]] - theories on the alternate meaning of Aaron's presence in the Torah.
[[Category:1597 BC births]]
[[Category:1474 BC deaths]]
[[Category:Torah people]]
[[ang:Aaron]]
[[ar:Aaaron]]
[[bg:Аарон (библия)]]
[[ca:Aaró]]
[[de:Aaron (biblische Person)]]
[[et:Aaron]]
[[eo:Aaron]]
[[fr:Aaron (personnage biblique)]]
[[gl:Aharón - אהרן]]
[[ia:Aaron]]
[[he:אהרן הכהן]]
[[nl:Aäron]]
[[pl:Aaron (Biblia)]]
[[pt:Aarão]]
[[ru:Аарон Леви]]
[[sv:Aron]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>April 4</title>
<id>1007</id>
<revision>
<id>42016591</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T06:07:05Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>65.148.101.160</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Deaths */ added Faith Domergue</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve"><!-- Language links at bottom -->
{| style="float:right;"
|-
|{{AprilCalendar}}
|-
|{{ThisDateInRecentYears|Month=April|Day=4}}
|}
'''April 4''' is the 94th day of the year in the [[Gregorian calendar]] (95th in [[leap year]]s). There are 271 days remaining.
==Events==
*[[1581]] - [[Francis Drake]] completes a circumnavigation of the world and is knighted by [[Elizabeth I of England|Elizabeth I]].
*[[1721]] - Sir [[Robert Walpole]] enters office as the first [[Prime Minister of the United Kingdom]] under [[George I of Great Britain|King George I]].
*[[1812]] - U.S. President [[James Madison]] enacted a ninety-day [[embargo]] on trade with the [[United Kingdom]].
*[[1814]] - [[Napoleon I of France|Napoleon]] abdicates for the first time.
*[[1818]] - The [[Congress of the United States|U.S. Congress]] adopts the [[flag of the United States]] as having 13 red and white stripes and one star for each state (20 stars) with additional stars to be added whenever a new state is added to the Union.
*[[1841]] - President [[William Henry Harrison]] dies of [[pneumonia]] becoming the first [[President of the United States]] to die in office and at one month, the elected president with the shortest term served.
*[[1850]] - [[Los Angeles, California]] is incorporated as a city.
*[[1859]] - [[Bryant's Minstrels]] debut "[[Dixie (song)|Dixie]]" in [[New York City]] in the finale of a [[blackface]] [[minstrel show]].
*[[1865]] - [[American Civil War]]: A day after [[United States|Union]] forces capture [[Richmond, Virginia]], U.S. President [[Abraham Lincoln]] visits the [[Confederate States of America|Confederate]] capital.
*[[1866]] - [[Alexander II of Russia]] narrowly escapes an assassination attempt in the city of Kiev. A design for a city gate to commemorate his escape was the inspiration for [[Modest Mussorgsky|Mussorgsky's]] ''The Great Gate of Kiev'' from ''[[Pictures at an Exhibition]]''.
*[[1887]] - [[Argonia, Kansas]] elects [[Susanna M. Salter]] as the first female mayor in the [[United States]].
*[[1905]] - In [[India]], an [[earthquake]] near [[Kangra]] kills 370,000.
*[[1918]] - [[World War I]]: [[Second Battle of the Somme]] ends.
*[[1939]] - [[Faisal II of Iraq|Faisal II]] becomes King of [[Iraq]].
*[[1945]] - [[World War II]]: American troops liberate [[Ohrdruf death camp]] in [[Germany]].
*1945 - World War II: Soviet Army liberates [[Hungary]].
*[[1949]] - Twelve nations sign The [[North Atlantic Treaty]] creating the [[NATO|North Atlantic Treaty Organisation]].
*[[1964]] - [[The Beatles]] occupy all of the top five positions on the Billboard singles chart in the United States.
*[[1968]] - [[Martin Luther King Jr.]] assassinated in Memphis.
* 1968 - [[Apollo program]]: [[NASA]] launches [[Apollo 6]].
*[[1969]] - Dr. [[Denton Cooley]] implants the first temporary [[artificial heart]].
* 1969 - The ''[[Smothers Brothers Comedy Hour]]'' is cancelled after the brothers failed to submit an episode before its broadcast date.
*[[1973]] - The [[World Trade Center]] in [[New York, New York|New York]] is officially dedicated.
*[[1974]] - [[Hank Aaron]] of the [[Atlanta Braves]] ties [[Babe Ruth]]'s home run record of 714 in the first inning against the [[Cincinnati Reds]].
*[[1975]] - [[Vietnam War]]: [[Operation Baby Lift]] - A [[United States Air Force]] [[C-5 Galaxy|C-5A Galaxy]] crashes near [[Saigon]], [[South Vietnam]] shortly after takeoff, transporting orphans. 172 people are killed.
*[[1976]] - Prince [[Norodom Sihanouk]] resigns as leader of [[Cambodia]] and is placed under house arrest.
*[[1979]] - President [[Zulfikar Ali Bhutto]] of [[Pakistan]] is executed.
*[[1981]] - In [[Dublin]], [[Ireland]], [[Bucks Fizz (band)|Bucks Fizz]] win the twenty-sixth [[Eurovision Song Contest]] for the [[United Kingdom]] singing "Making Your Mind Up".
*[[1983]] - Space Shuttle ''[[Space Shuttle Challenger|Challenger]]'' makes its maiden voyage into space.
*[[1984]] - President [[Ronald Reagan]] calls for an international ban on [[chemical weapon]]s.
*[[1988]] - [[List of Governors of Arizona|Governor]] [[Evan Mecham]] of [[Arizona]] is convicted in his [[impeachment]] trial and removed from office.
*[[1991]] - Senator [[John Heinz]] of [[Pennsylvania]] and six others are killed when a helicopter collides with their plane over [[Merion, Pennsylvania]].
*[[1994]] - [[Netscape Communications Corporation]] is founded (under the name "Mosaic Communications Corporation") by [[Marc Andreessen]] and [[James H. Clark|Jim Clark]].
*[[2003]] - [[Sammy Sosa]] becomes the 18th member of the [[500 home run club]] with a [[Home run|home run]] at [[Great American Ball Park]] in [[Cincinnati, Ohio]].
*[[2004]] - [[Muqtada al-Sadr]]'s [[Mahdi Army]] stage an uprising in several towns and cities in Iraq after the Coalition's closure of Sadr's [[al-Hawza]] newspaper.
==Births==
*[[186]] - [[Caracalla]], Roman emperor (d. [[217]])
*[[1492]] - [[Ambrosius Blarer]], German reformer (d. [[1564]])
*[[1593]] - [[Edward Nicholas]], English statesman (d. [[1669]])
*[[1646]] - [[Antoine Galland]], French archaeologist (d. [[1715]])
*[[1648]] - [[Grinling Gibbons]] Dutch-born woodcarver (d. [[1721]])
*[[1688]] - [[Joseph-Nicolas Delisle]], French astronomer (d. [[1768]])
*[[1718]] - [[Benjamin Kennicott]], English churchman and Hebrew scholar (d. [[1783]])
*[[1785]] - [[Bettina von Arnim]], German writer (d. [[1859]])
*[[1802]] - [[Dorothea Dix]], American social activist (d. [[1887]])
*[[1819]] - Queen [[Maria II of Portugal]] (d. [[1853]])
*[[1826]] - [[Zénobe Gramme]], Belgian engineer (d. [[1901]])
*[[1846]] - [[Comte de Lautréamont]], French writer (d. [[1870]])
*[[1875]] - [[Pierre Monteux]], French conductor (d. [[1964]])
*[[1876]] - [[Maurice de Vlaminck]], French painter (d. [[1958]])
*[[1884]] - [[Isoroku Yamamoto]], Japanese naval commander (d. [[1943]])
*[[1888]] - [[Tris Speaker]], baseball player (d. [[1958]])
*[[1895]] - [[Arthur Murray]], American dance teacher (d. [[1991]])
*[[1898]] - [[Agnes Ayres]], American actress (d. [[1940]])
*[[1902]] - [[Louise Leveque de Vilmorin]], French actress (d. [[1969]])
*[[1906]] - [[Bea Benaderet]], American actress (d. [[1968]])
*1906 - [[John Cameron Swayze]], American journalist and television host (d. [[1995]])
*[[1911]] - [[Max Dupain]], [[Australian]] photographer (d. 1992)
*[[1913]] - [[Frances Langford]], American actress (d. [[2005]])
*[[1914]] - [[Marguerite Duras]], French writer (d. [[1996]])
*[[1915]] - [[Muddy Waters]], American musician (d. [[1983]])
*[[1920]] - [[Éric Rohmer]], French film director
*[[1922]] - [[Elmer Bernstein]], American composer (d. [[2004]])
*[[1924]] - [[Gil Hodges]], baseball player (d. [[1972]])
*[[1928]] - [[Maya Angelou]], American writer
*[[1931]] - [[Bobby Ray Inman]], American admiral and intelligence director
*[[1932]] - [[Anthony Perkins]], American actor (d. [[1992]])
*1932 - [[Andrei Tarkovsky]], Russian film director (d. [[1986]])
*1932 - [[Richard Lugar]], American politician
*[[1934]] - [[Clive Davis]], American record producer
*[[1938]] - [[A. Bartlett Giamatti]], American university president and baseball commissioner
*[[1939]] - [[Hugh Masekela]], South African musician
*[[1940]] - [[Sharon Sheeley]], American songwriter
*[[1942]] - [[Kitty Kelley]], American writer
*[[1944]] - [[Craig T. Nelson]], American actor
*[[1945]] - [[Daniel Cohn-Bendit]], French political activist
*[[1946]] - [[Dave Hill]], English guitarist ([[Slade]])
*[[1947]] - [[Luke Halpin]], American actor
*1947 - [[Wiranto]], Indonesian general
*[[1948]] - [[Dan Simmons]], American writer
*1948 - [[Abdullah Öcalan]], Kurdish leader
*1948 - [[Derek Thompson]], Northern Irish actor
*[[1950]] - [[Christine Lahti]], American actress
*[[1951]] - [[Hun Sen]], Prime Minister of Cambodia
*[[1952]] - [[Rosema |
] in [[1999]].
Born in [[Durham, North Carolina]], he attended [[Duke University]], graduating in [[1953]], and he received a [[Doctor of Philosophy|Ph.D.]] in Applied Mathematics (Computer Science) from [[Harvard University]] in [[1956]]. [[Howard Aiken]] was his advisor.
Brooks joined [[International Business Machines|IBM]] in 1956, working in [[Poughkeepsie (city), New York|Poughkeepsie]] and [[Yorktown, New York]]. He worked on the architecture of the [[IBM 7030|Stretch]] (a $10m scientific supercomputer for the [[Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory]]) and [[Harvest (computer)|Harvest]] computers and then was manager for the development of the [[System/360]] family of computers and the [[OS/360]] software they ran.
It was in ''The Mythical Man-Month'' that Brooks made the now-famous statement: "Adding people to a late software project makes it later." This has since come to be known as "[[Brooks' law]]."
In addition to ''The Mythical Man-Month'', Brooks is known for ''[[No Silver Bullet]]'', an essay on software engineering.
In 1965, Brooks left IBM to found the Department of Computer Science at the [[University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill]] and chaired it for 20 years. [[As of 2004]] he was still engaged in active research there, primarily in [[virtual reality|virtual world]]s and [[molecular graphics]].
In January 2005 he gave the [[IEE]]/[[British Computer Society|BCS]] annual [[Alan Turing|Turing]] Lecture in [[London]] on the subject of "Collaboration and Telecollaboration in Design".
He is also a confessional Christian who is active with InterVarsity Christian Fellowship and the International Fellowship of Evangelical Students (source: [http://www.cs.unc.edu/People/Faculty/Bios/brooks.html])
==Bibliography==
*{{cite book
| first = Frederick P.
| last = Brooks
| coauthors = [[Kenneth Iverson]]
| year = 1963
| title = [[Automatic Data Processing]]
| publisher =
| id =
}}
*{{cite book
| first = Frederick P.
| last = Brooks
| coauthors = [[Kenneth Iverson]]
| year = 1965
| title = [[Automatic Data Processing, System/360 Edition]]
| publisher =
| id = ISBN 0471106054
}}
*{{cite book
| first = Frederick P.
| last = Brooks
| year = [[1975]], 2nd ed. [[1995]]
| title = [[The Mythical Man-Month]]: Essays on Software Engineering
| publisher =
| id = ISBN 0201835959
}}
*{{cite book
| first = Frederick P.
| last = Brooks
| year = [[1987]]
| title = [[No Silver Bullet]]: Essence and Accidents of Software Engineering
| publisher =
| id =
}} (reprinted in the second edition of ''The Mythical Man-Month'')
*{{cite book
| first = Frederick P.
| last = Brooks
| coauthors = [[G. A. Blaauw]]
| year = [[1997]]
| title = [[Computer Architecture: Concepts and Evolution]]
| publisher =
| id = ISBN 0201105578
}}
==External links==
* [http://www.cs.unc.edu/~brooks/ Fred Brooks' homepage]
[[Category:1931 births|Brooks, Fred]]
[[Category:Living people|Brooks, Fred]]
[[Category:American computer scientists|Brooks, Fred]]<!-- yes, *very* computerishly applied maths -->
[[Category:Computer pioneers|Brooks, Fred]]
[[Category:VR Pioneers|Brooks, Fred]]
[[Category:American mathematicians|Brooks, Fred]]
[[Category:Duke University alumni|Brooks, Fred]]
[[Category:American technology writers|Brooks, Fred]]
[[Category:Turing Award laureates|Brooks, Fred]]
[[Category:People from the Triangle, North Carolina|Brooks, Fred]]
[[Category:IBM employees|Brooks, Fred]]
[[Category:Members and associates of the US National Academy of Sciences|Brooks, Fred]]
[[de:Frederick P. Brooks]]
[[nl:Frederick Brooks]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Frederick P. Brooks</title>
<id>11654</id>
<revision>
<id>15909388</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Stan Shebs</username>
<id>7777</id>
</contributor>
<comment>moved to "Fred_Brooks"</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Fred_Brooks]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Factoid</title>
<id>11655</id>
<revision>
<id>40737796</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-22T18:07:23Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Skeezix1000</username>
<id>455783</id>
</contributor>
<comment>typo</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''''Factoid''''' can refer to a spurious (unverified, incorrect, or invented) "fact" intended to create or prolong public exposure or to manipulate public opinion. The term was [[neologism|coined]] by [[Norman Mailer]] in his [[1973]] biography of [[Marilyn Monroe]]. Mailer himself described a factoid as "facts which have no existence before appearing in a magazine or newspaper". Mailer created the word by combining the word "[[fact]]" and the ending "[[-oid]]" to mean "like a fact".
''Examples:''
*It is commonly believed in the Australian city of [[Mount Isa, Queensland|Mount Isa]] that their city, in terms of its area, is the world's largest or second largest city. In reality [[Mount Isa, Queensland|Mount Isa]] isn't even the largest city in Australia and there are many larger cities around the world. Their own Local council web site incorrectly suggests it is the second largest city on earth.
*The media in [[Canada]] have often reported that the city of [[Toronto]] was named by [[UNESCO]] as the most multicultural city in the world. Although there have been some reports suggesting that Toronto may be ''one of'' the world's most diverse cities (see [[Demographics of Toronto]]), the United Nations agency has never designated any city as being ''the most'' multicultural or diverse. Nonetheless, the belief in this status persisted for years, even finding its way onto UNESCO's own web site ([http://www.unesco.org/most/usa9.htm]) and into international media reports in respect of Toronto's two [[Olympics|Olympic]] bids.
'''''Factoid''''' is sometimes now also used to mean a small piece of true but often valueless or insignificant information. This definition was popularized by the [[CNN Headline News]] TV channel which during the [[1980s]] and [[1990s]] used to frequently include such a fact under the heading of the word "factoid" during newscasts. This version of the definition can also be referred to as a '''''Factlet'''''. In the United Kingdon, [[BBC Radio 2]] presenter [[Steve Wright]] uses factoids extensively on his show.
''Example:''
*If the entire history of the earth lasted a period of only two days, human history would take up only the last two seconds.
==Sources==
* [http://www.mountisa.qld.gov.au/welcome/The_City_Today/the_city_today.html Mount Isa City Council page suggesting their city is the second largest city in the world]
==See also==
*[[Trivia]]
*[[Truthiness]]
==External links==
* [http://samvak.tripod.com/factoidsindex.html Cyclopedia of Factoids]
{{vocab-stub}}
[[Category:Communication]]
[[es:Factoide]]
[[pl:faktoid]]
[[sv:Faktoid]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Figured bass</title>
<id>11656</id>
<revision>
<id>41199139</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-25T19:01:41Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Violncello</username>
<id>916612</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>dab</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Figured bass''', or '''thoroughbass''', is a kind of integer [[musical notation]] used to indicate intervals, [[chord (music)|chord]]s, and [[nonchord tone]]s, in relation to a bass note. Figured bass is closely associated with '''basso continuo''', an [[accompaniment]] used in almost all genres of music in the [[Baroque music|Baroque period]].
==Basso continuo==
Basso continuo parts, almost universal in the [[Baroque music|Baroque]] era (1600-1750), were, as the name implies, played continuously throughout a piece, providing the [[harmony (music)|harmonic]] structure of the music. The word is often shortened to ''continuo'', and the instrumentalists playing the continuo part, if more than one, are called the ''continuo group''.
The makeup of the continuo group is often left to the discretion of the performers, and practice varied enormously within the Baroque period. At least one instrument capable of playing chords must be included, such as a [[harpsichord]], [[organ (music)|organ]], [[lute]], [[theorbo]], [[guitar]], or [[harp]]. In addition, any number of instruments which play in the [[bass (music)|bass]] register may be included, such as [[cello]], [[double bass]], [[viol|bass viol]], [[viola da gamba]], or [[bassoon]]. The most common combination, at least in modern performances, is harpsichord and cello for instrumental works and secular vocal works, such as [[opera]]s, and organ for [[sacred music]].
The keyboard (or other chording instrument) player ''realizes'' a continuo part by playing, in addition to the indicated bass notes, upper notes to complete chords, either determined ahead of time or [[improvisation|improvised]] in performance. The figured bass notation, described below, is a guide, but performers are expected to use their musical judgment and the other instruments or voices as a guide. Modern editions of music usually supply a realized keyboard part, fully written out for the player, eliminating the need for improvisation. With the rise in [[authentic performance|historically informed performance]], however, the number of performers who improvise their parts, as Baroque players would have done, has increased.
Basso continuo, though an essential structural and identifying element of the Baroque period, continued to be used in many works, especially sacred choral works, of the [[Classical music era|classical]] period (up to around 1800). Examples of its use in the [[19th century]] are rarer, but they do exist: [[mass (music)|mass]]es by [[Anton Bruckner]], [[Ludwig van Beethoven|Beethoven]], and [[Franz Schu |
ccesses temporarily hosting the [[New Orleans/Oklahoma City Hornets|New Orleans Hornets]] [[NBA]] team. [http://www.orlandosentinel.com/sports/local/sfl-marokl021606,0,1855623.story?coll=orl-sports-headlines]
According to a March 2, 2006 report by the Miami Herald, the Marlins are focused on relocation to San Antonio. According to the published report, there are ongoing serious discussions 3-4 times per week between San Antonio and Marlins officials, and relocation efforts at this point are focused on San Antonio, Texas. Marlins officials expect to visit San Antonio for a second time in the near future. Marlins President David Samson said the Marlins are ''very encouraged'' about how aggressively San Antonio is pursuing the Marlins and that the city is ''under very serious consideration.'' http://www.miami.com/mld/miamiherald/sports/baseball/13995528.htm
Accoring to a March 3, 2006 San Antonio Express News report, San Antonio officials will present the Marlins with a stadium financing plan in San Antonio, using a combination of public and private funding, similar to what was used to build the AT&T Center for the San Antonio Spurs. http://www.mysanantonio.com/news/metro/stories/MYSA030306.01A.San_Antonio_Marlins.1d1b9942.html
==Quick facts==
:'''Founded''': [[1993]] ([[National League]] expansion)
:'''Current Home Stadium''': [[Dolphins Stadium]]
:'''Uniform colors''': Black, Gray, Teal, and White; some Orange
:'''Logo design''': Circle design with "FLORIDA" and "MARLINS" written around it; a [[marlin]] jumping through the circle and a baseball in the background.
:'''[[Cable television]] Network''': Fox Sports Net Florida (FSN Florida) is the Florida Marlins home television channel. [[PAX]] also shows Marlin games sometimes. The FSN Florida slogan is "Get Hooked" (only for the Marlins).
:'''Playoff appearances''' (2): [[1997]], [[2003]]
:'''World Series appearances''' (2): [[1997]], [[2003]]
:Official Television Stations: [[FSN]](Florida),[[PAX]] In 2006 all Marlins games will be on FSN Florida except for ones on [[Fox Broadcasting Company|FOX]] and [[ESPN]]
:Official Radio Stations: WQAM (560)
Though the Marlins have never won a division title, they have also never lost a playoff series in their history (a perfect 6-0).
On November 22, after not being able to get a stadium deal in the city of Miami, it was announced that the team had the permission of Major League Baseball to explore relocation as an option if a retractable-roof stadium deal is not reached in south Florida.
==[[Baseball Hall of Fame]]rs==
* 24 [[Tony Pérez]], Manager 2001
==Retired Number==
* 5 [[Carl Barger]], team President who died just prior to start of first season
==Current roster==
{{:Florida Marlins roster}}
==Minor league affiliations==
*'''AAA:''' [[Albuquerque Isotopes]], [[Pacific Coast League]]
*'''AA:''' [[Carolina Mudcats]], [[Southern League]]
*'''Advanced A:''' [[Jupiter Hammerheads]], [[Florida State League]]
*'''A:''' [[Greensboro Grasshoppers]], [[South Atlantic League]]
*'''Short A:''' [[Jamestown Jammers]], [[New York-Penn League]]
*'''Rookie:''' [[GCL Marlins]], [[Gulf Coast League]]
*'''Rookie:''' [[VSL Marlins]] Universidad, [[Venezuelan Summer League]]
==See also==
*[[Florida Marlins/Award winners and league leaders|Marlins award winners and league leaders]]
*[[Florida Marlins/Team records|Marlins statistical records and milestone achievements]]
*[[Florida Marlins/Players of note|Marlins players of note]]
*[[Florida Marlins/Broadcasters|Marlins broadcasters and media]]
*[[Florida Marlins/Managers and ownership|Marlins managers and ownership]]
==External links==
* [http://florida.marlins.mlb.com/NASApp/mlb/fla/homepage/fla_homepage.jsp Florida Marlins official web site]
* [http://www.baseball-reference.com Baseball-Reference.com]
{{MLB}}
[[Category:Florida Marlins| ]]
[[Category:Major League Baseball teams]]
[[de:Florida Marlins]]
[[es:Florida Marlins]]
[[fr:Marlins de la Floride]]
[[ko:플로리다 마린즈]]
[[it:Florida Marlins]]
[[ja:フロリダ・マーリンズ]]
[[pt:Florida Marlins]]
[[sv:Florida Marlins]]
[[zh:佛羅里達馬林魚]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Fare</title>
<id>11279</id>
<revision>
<id>41546141</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T01:49:07Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Traal</username>
<id>15785</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">A '''fare''' is the [[fee]] paid by a traveller allowing him or her to make use of a [[public transport]] system: [[Rail transport|rail]], [[bus]], [[Taxicab|taxi]], etc. In the case of [[airline|air]] transport, the term ''airfare'' is often used.
The fare paid is a contribution to the operational costs of the transport system involved, either partial (as is frequently the case with publicly supported systems) or total. Many bus and rail systems in the [[United States]] recover only around one-third of their operational costs from fares (the [[farebox recovery ratio]]).
The rules regarding how and when fares are to be paid and for how long they remain valid are many and varied. Rail and bus systems usually require the payment of fares on or before boarding. In the case of taxis and other [[vehicle for hire|vehicles for hire]], payment is normally made at the end of the ride.
Some systems allow [[fare transfer]]s: that is to say that a single payment permits travel within a particular geographical zone or time period. Such an arrangement is helpful for people who need to transfer from one route to another in order to reach their destination. Sometimes transfers are valid in one direction only, requiring a new fare to be paid for the return trip.
In the [[United Kingdom]] certain [[List of companies operating trains in the United Kingdom|Train Operating Companies]], such as [[South West Trains]] and [[Southern (train operating company)|Southern]], have Revenue Protection Inspectors who can issue penalty fares to passengers who travel without a valid ticket. This is currently a minimum of £20 or twice the single fare for the journey made.
==Sample fares==
[[Minneapolis]]:
6-hour fare (Bus/Light Rail): $3.00
[[New York City]]:
[[MTA New York City Transit|New York City Subways and Buses]]: $2.00, flat fare covers the entire system
==See also==
*[[:Category:Fare collection systems]]
* [[Public transport#Ticket systems]]
* [[Ticket#Admission]]
* [[Toll road]]
* [[Toll bridge]]
[[Category:Transportation]]
[[Category:Public transport]]
[[Category:Pricing]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Fan fiction</title>
<id>11280</id>
<revision>
<id>42039304</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T11:07:23Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>203.164.144.154</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Drabble */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{cleanup-date|January 2006}}
'''Fan fiction''' (also spelled '''fanfiction''' and commonly abbreviated to '''fanfic''' or '''fic''' when used in a singular sense) is [[fiction]] written by people who enjoy a [[film]], [[novel]], [[television programs|television show]] or other media work, using the characters and situations developed in it and developing new plots in which to use these characters. Characters and props from more than one media work may also be incorporated into a single fanfiction (known as [[#Crossover|crossovers]]). It should be noted that in the pre-1965 era, the term '''fan fiction''' was used in [[science fiction fandom]] to designate [[science fiction]] written by members of [[science fiction fandom|fandom]] and published in [[science fiction fanzine|fanzine]]s, as opposed to fiction that was professionally published. This usage is now obsolete.
==History==
There are three theories in the fan fiction community as to when fan fiction first started. These definitions tend to be based on how the individual members of the fan fiction community define fan fiction. One theory holds that fan fiction has always been with us, dating back to the tradition of oral story telling. Another theory holds that fan fiction could not exist until the creation of copyright law as fan fiction is about reinterpreting officially sanctioned texts and reinventing them for the fan's own needs. As such, fan fiction cannot exist until the first copyright law, which went on the books in 1620 in England. The third theory holds that fan fiction did not officially start until the creation of Star Trek fandom and the printing of original stories by fans in their own fanzines. This theory acknowledges that much of the groundwork was laid by the science fiction fandom. Using this last theory of when fan fiction started, pastiche traditions al la Sherlock Holmes and Real Person Fic are not part of the fan fiction community because of vastly differing cultural practices.
Some suggest that written fan fiction dates back to Biblical times. An early example is the [[Infancy Gospel of Thomas]], a series of improbable tales about the Christ Child. While he is shown doing the occasional kindness to others, for the most part he is portrayed as a superpowered brat, whose mother Mary stands up for him with other people, while St. Joseph is a clumsy bumbler.
[[Charlotte Brontë]] and her siblings wrote copious short stories, novellas, poems and plays in a fantasy-adventure genre. The stories are fan fiction about an actual person, the [[Duke of Wellington]], and his sons. Later stories take off wildly into melodramatic romance and the Duke's elder son Arthur becomes a figure of almost supernatural charisma.
Fans of [[Sherlock Holmes]] in the early part of the 20th century called themselves the [[Baker Street Irregulars]]. They write original stories and articles analyzing his life and work, taken from the perspective that Holmes was real. It was the Irregulars who gave the name [[canon (fiction)|canon]] to the officially recognized body of work from which they inspire themselves. At this time, the genre was gener |
r>
SEGA<br>
segfault<br>
seggie<br>
segment<br>
segmentation<br>
segmentation and reassembly<br>
segmentation fault<br>
segmented address space<br>
segv<br>
SEI<br>
Seiko RC-4000<br>
SEL<br>
Selective Dissemination of Information<br>
selector<br>
Self<br>
Self-Extensible Language<br>
Self Extracting Archive<br>
self-reference<br>
selvage<br>
SEM<br>
semantic gap '''DONE'''<br>
semantic network<br>
semantics<br>
semaphore<br>
semi<br>
Semi-Automatic Ground Environment<br>
semicolon<br>
semiconductor<br>
Semidetached Mode<br>
SENDIT<br>
sendmail<br>
sendmail.cf<br>
Sendmail Inc.<br>
Seneca<br>
senior bit<br>
sensor<br>
sentence<br>
SE-OsdasfdffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffDP<br>
SEP<br>
SEPIA<br>
SEPP<br>
Seque<br>
Sequel<br>
Sequenced Packet Exchange<br>
sequencer<br>
[[Sequent Computer Systems|Sequent]] DONE<br>
sequential coding<br>
sequential file matching<br>
Sequential Parlog Machine<br>
sequential processing<br>
SERC<br>
SERCOS<br>
serial communications interface<br>
Serial Interface Adaptor<br>
serial line<br>
Serial Line Internet Protocol<br>
Serial Line IP<br>
serial port<br>
Serial Presence Detect<br>
serial processing<br>
Serial Storage Architecture<br>
serve<br>
servelet<br>
server<br>
serverlet<br>
Server Message Block<br>
server-parsed HTML<br>
server room<br>
servers<br>
server-side include<br>
service<br>
serviceability<br>
Service Access Point<br>
Service Advertising Protocol<br>
service provider<br>
servlet<br>
session<br>
Session Initiation Protocol<br>
session layer<br>
SES/workbench<br>
SET<br>
set<br>
set abstraction<br>
set associative cache<br>
set complement<br>
set comprehension<br>
Setext<br>
SETL<br>
SETL2<br>
SETL/E<br>
Set Priority Level<br>
SETS<br>
set theory<br>
set-top box<br>
SEUS<br>
seven layer model<br>
SEX<br>
sexadecimal<br>
sex changer<br>
SEXI<br>
Seymour Cray<br>
SFA<br>
SFBI<br>
SFD-ALGOL<br>
SFFA<br>
SFL<br>
SFLV<br>
sg<br>
SGCP<br>
SGI<br>
SGML<br>
sgmls<br>
SGML Tagger<br>
SGRAM<br>
sh<br>
SHACO<br>
SHADOW<br>
shadowing<br>
shadow ram<br>
shallow binding<br>
shambolic link<br>
Shape_VC<br>
ShapeTools<br>
shar<br>
sharchive<br>
Share and enjoy!<br>
shared memory<br>
Shared Time Repair of Big Electronic Systems<br>
shareware<br>
shar file<br>
sharp<br>
Sharp APL<br>
S-HDSL<br>
shebang<br>
SHEEP<br>
shelf<br>
shelfware<br>
SHELL<br>
shell<br>
shell out<br>
shell script<br>
shell variable<br>
shielded twisted pair<br>
SHIFT<br>
Shift In<br>
shift left logical<br>
Shift Out<br>
shift right logical<br>
shim<br>
shit hit the fan<br>
shitogram<br>
Shockwave<br>
shockwave<br>
Shockwave Flash<br>
shopbot<br>
short card<br>
Short Code<br>
shortcut<br>
shortest job first<br>
Short Message Service<br>
shotgun debugging<br>
shovelware<br>
Show-And-Tell<br>
showstopper<br>
shriek<br>
sht<br>
SHTF<br>
shtml<br>
Shub-Internet<br>
SHUG<br>
Shugart, Alan F.<br>
Shugart Associates<br>
Shugart Technology<br>
SI<br>
si<br>
SIA<br>
SICL<br>
SICS<br>
SICStus Prolog<br>
sidecar<br>
side-effect<br>
Siemens<br>
Siemens Nixdorf Informationssteme, AG<br>
Sierra<br>
SIFT<br>
SIG<br>
Sig<br>
sig<br>
sig block<br>
SIGBUS<br>
SIGhyper<br>
SIGLA<br>
SIGMA<br>
SIGNAL<br>
signal<br>
signalling rate<br>
Signalling System 7<br>
signal-to-noise ratio<br>
signature<br>
sig quote<br>
sig virus<br>
SIL<br>
Silage<br>
silicon<br>
silicon chip<br>
Silicon Graphics, Inc.<br>
Siliwood<br>
silly walk<br>
silo<br>
Silver Book<br>
silver bullet<br>
SIMAN<br>
SimCity<br>
SimCity 2000<br>
[[SIMD]] '''DONE'''<br>
Similix<br>
SIML/I<br>
SIMM<br>
Simone<br>
Simonyi, Charles<br>
SIMPAC<br>
SIMPAS<br>
SIMPL<br>
SIMPLE<br>
Simple Authentication and Security Layer<br>
Simple Gateway Control Protocol<br>
Simple Mail Transfer Protocol<br>
simple multicast protocol<br>
Simple Network Management Protocol<br>
Simple Network Management Protocol version 2<br>
Simple Network Paging Protocol<br>
Simple Object Access Protocol<br>
simplex<br>
simplex method<br>
simplex printer<br>
SIMPL/I<br>
Simplified Multicast Routing Protocol<br>
SIMPL-T<br>
SIMSCRIPT<br>
SIMSCRIPT I.5<br>
SIMSCRIPT II.5<br>
simship<br>
SIMULA<br>
SIMULA 67<br>
SIMULA I<br>
simulated annealing<br>
Simulating Digital Systems<br>
simulation<br>
SIMulation ANalysis<br>
Simulation Language for Alternative Modeling<br>
Simulation Oriented Language<br>
Simultaneous Engineering Environment<br>
Simultaneous Peripheral Operation On-Line<br>
simultaneous shipment<br>
Simware, Inc.<br>
SINA<br>
since time T equals minus infinity<br>
Sinclair, Clive<br>
Sinclair PC200<br>
Sinclair Radionics<br>
Sinclair Research<br>
sine wave<br>
single assignment<br>
Single ASsignment Language<br>
single-attached<br>
Single Connection Attach<br>
Single Connector Attachment<br>
Single Data Rate Random Access Memory<br>
Single Data Rate Synchronous Dynamic Random Access Memory<br>
Single Document Interface<br>
single-duplex<br>
Single Edge Contact<br>
Single Edge Contact Cartridge<br>
Single Edge Processor Package<br>
single-electron transistor '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial<br>
Single Electron Tunneling '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial<br>
Single Electron Tunneling Technology '''NO IMPORT''' - esoteric<br>
single ended '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial<br>
[[Autostereogram#Random_Dot_autostereogram|Single Image Random Dot Stereogram]] '''DONE'''<br>
single inheritance '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info<br>
Single In-line Memory Module '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info<br>
Single Inline Pin Package '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial<br>
Single Instruction Multiple Data '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info<br>
Single Instruction/Multiple Data '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info<br>
Single-line Digital Subscriber Line '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial<br>
Single-pair High Speed Digital Subscriber Line '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial<br>
single quote '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info<br>
single sourcing '''NO IMPORT''' - jargon<br>
singleton variable '''DONE'''<br>
Single Virtual Storage '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial<br>
siod '''NO IMPORT''' - esoteric<br>
SIP '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial<br>
SIPB '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial<br>
SIPLAN '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial<br>
SIPP '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial<br>
Siprol '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial<br>
SIR '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial<br>
SIRDS '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info<br>
Siri '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial<br>
SIRTS '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial<br>
SISAL - '''DONE'''<br>
sit '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info<br>
SITBOL '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial<br>
sitename - '''DONE'''<br>
sj '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial<br>
sk '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial<br>
Skel-ML<br>
Sketchpad '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info<br>
S/Key '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial<br>
Skill '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial<br>
Skim '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial<br>
SkipJack '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info<br>
SKOL '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial<br>
skolemisation '''NO IMPORT''' - jargon<br>
S-K reduction machine '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial<br>
skrog '''NO IMPORT''' - jargon<br>
SKsh '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial<br>
SKU '''NO IMPORT''' - jargon<br>
skulker '''NO IMPORT''' - jargon<br>
SL '''NO IMPORT''' - esoteric<br>
sl '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial<br>
SL5 '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial<br>
slack '''NO IMPORT''' - jargon<br>
slackware '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info<br>
SLAM '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial<br>
SLANG '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial<br>
S-Lang '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info<br>
slap on the side '''NO IMPORT''' - jargon<br>
slash '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info<br>
slashdot effect '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info<br>
slave tty '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial<br>
SLD resolution '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial<br>
sleep '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial, jargon<br>
SLIB '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial<br>
SLIM '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial<br>
slim '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial<br>
Slingshot '''NO IMPORT''' - esoteric<br>
SLIP '''DONE''' - merged with Serial line IP<br>
SlipKnot '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial< |
non proved is all but possible. These codes can be roughly subdivided into [[data compression]] and [[error-correction]] codes. It took many years to find the good codes whose existence Shannon proved. A third class of codes are cryptographic [[cipher]]s; concepts from coding theory and information theory are much used in [[cryptography]] and [[cryptanalysis]]; see the article on [[deciban]] for an interesting historical application.
Information theory is also used in [[information retrieval]], [[intelligence (information gathering)|intelligence gathering]], [[gambling]], [[statistics]], and even [[musical composition]].
==Mathematical theory of information==
: ''For a more thorough discussion of these basic equations, see [[Information entropy]].''
The abstract idea of what "information" really is must be made more concrete so that mathematicians can analyze it.
===Self-information===
Shannon defined a measure of information content called the [[self-information]] or '''surprisal''' of a message ''m'':
:<math> I(m) = - \log p(m),\,</math>
where <math>p(m) = Pr(M=m)</math> is the probability that message ''m'' is chosen from all possible choices in the message space <math>M</math>.
This equation causes messages with lower probabilities to contribute more to the overall value of ''I(m)''. In other words, infrequently occurring messages are more valuable. (This is a consequence from the property of [[logarithm]]s that <math>-\log p(m)</math> is very large when <math>p(m)</math> is near 0 for unlikely messages and very small when <math>p(m)</math> is near 1 for almost certain messages).
For example, if John says "See you later, honey" to his wife every morning before leaving to office, that information holds little "content" or "value". But, if he shouts "Get lost" at his wife one morning, then that message holds more value or content (because, supposedly, the probability of him choosing that message is very low).
===Entropy===
The [[information entropy|entropy]] of a discrete message space <math>M</math> is a measure of the amount of '''uncertainty''' one has about which message will be chosen. It is defined as the [[expected value|average]] self-information of a message <math>m</math> from that message space:
:<math> H(M) = \mathbb{E} \{I(m)\} = \sum_{m \in M} p(m) I(m) = -\sum_{m \in M} p(m) \log p(m).</math>
The [[logarithm]] in the formula is usually taken to base 2, and entropy is measured in bits. An important property of entropy is that it is maximized when all the messages in the message space are equiprobable. In this case <math>H(M) = \log |M|</math>.
===Joint entropy===
The [[joint entropy]] of two discrete random variables <math>X</math> and <math>Y</math> is defined as the entropy of the [[joint distribution]] of <math>X</math> and <math>Y</math>:
:<math>H(X, Y) = \mathbb{E}_{X,Y} [-\log p(x,y)] = - \sum_{x, y} p(x, y) \log p(x, y) \,</math>
If <math>X</math> and <math>Y</math> are [[Independent (mathematics)|independent]], then the joint entropy is simply the sum of their individual entropies.
(Note: The joint entropy is not to be confused with the [[cross entropy]], despite similar notation.)
===Conditional entropy (equivocation)===
Given a particular value of a random variable <math>Y</math>, the conditional entropy of <math>X</math> given <math>Y=y</math> is defined as:
: <math> H(X|y) = \mathbb{E}_{{X|Y}} [-\log p(x|y)] = -\sum_{x \in X} p(x|y) \log p(x|y)</math>
where <math>p(x|y) = \frac{p(x,y)}{p(y)}</math> is the [[conditional probability]] of <math>x</math> given <math>y</math>.
The [[conditional entropy]] of <math>X</math> given <math>Y</math>, also called the '''equivocation''' of <math>X</math> about <math>Y</math> is then given by:
:<math> H(X|Y) = \mathbb E_Y \{H(X|y)\} = -\sum_{y \in Y} p(y) \sum_{x \in X} p(x|y) \log p(x|y) = \sum_{x,y} p(x,y) \log \frac{p(y)}{p(x,y)}.</math>
A basic property of the conditional entropy is that:
: <math> H(X|Y) = H(X,Y) - H(Y) .\,</math>
===Mutual information (transinformation)===
It turns out that one of the most useful and important measures of information is the [[mutual information]], or '''transinformation'''. This is a measure of how much information can be obtained about one random variable by observing another. The transinformation of <math>X</math> relative to <math>Y</math> (which represents conceptually the amount of information about <math>X</math> that can be [[Kullback-Leibler divergence|gained]] by observing <math>Y</math>) is given by:
:<math>I(X;Y) = \sum_{x,y} p(y)\, p(x|y) \log \frac{p(x|y)}{p(x)} = \sum_{x,y} p(x,y) \log \frac{p(x,y)}{p(x)\, p(y)}.</math>
A basic property of the transinformation is that:
: <math>I(X;Y) = H(X) - H(X|Y)\,</math>
Mutual information is [[symmetric function|symmetric]]:
: <math>I(X;Y) = I(Y;X) = H(X) + H(Y) - H(X,Y),\,</math>
Mutual information is closely related to the [[likelihood-ratio test|log-likelihood ratio test]] in the context of contingency tables and the [[Multinomial distribution|Multinomial distribution]] and to [[Pearson's chi-square test|Pearson's &chi;<sup>2</sup> test]]: mutual information can be considered a statistic for assessing independence between a pair of variables, and has a well-specified asymptotic distribution. Also, mutual information can be expressed through the [[Kullback-Leibler divergence]] by measuring the difference (so to say) of the actual joint distribution to the product of the marginal distributions:
: <math>I(X; Y) = D_{KL}\left(p(X,Y) \| p(X)p(Y)\right)\,</math>
===Continuous equivalents of entropy===
:See main article: ''[[Differential entropy]]''.
Shannon information is appropriate for measuring uncertainty over a [[discrete]] space. Its basic measures have been extended by analogy to [[continuum (mathematics)|continuous]] spaces. The sums can be replaced with integrals and densities are used in place of probability mass functions. By analogy with the discrete case, entropy, joint entropy, conditional entropy, and mutual information can be defined as follows:
: <math> h(X) = -\int_X f(x) \log f(x) \,dx </math>
: <math> h(X,Y) = -\int_Y \int_X f(x,y) \log f(x,y) \,dx \,dy</math>
: <math> h(X|y) = -\int_X f(x|y) \log f(x|y) \,dx </math>
: <math> h(X|Y) = -\int_Y \int_X f(x,y) \log \frac{f(x,y)}{f(y)} \,dx \,dy</math>
: <math> I(X;Y) = -\int_Y \int_X f(x,y) \log \frac{f(x,y)}{f(x)f(y)} \,dx \,dy </math>
where <math>f(x,y)</math> is the joint density function, <math>f(x)</math> and <math>f(y)</math> are the marginal distributions, and <math>f(x|y)</math> is the conditional distribution.
==Channel capacity==
Let us return for the time being to our consideration of the communications process over a discrete channel. At this time it will be helpful to have a simple model of the process:
<pre><nowiki>
o---------o
| Noise |
o---------o
|
V
o-------------o X o---------o Y o----------o
| Transmitter |-------->| Channel |-------->| Receiver |
o-------------o o---------o o----------o
</nowiki></pre>
Here ''X'' represents the space of messages transmitted, and ''Y'' the space of messages received during a unit time over our channel. Let <math>p(y|x)</math> be the conditional probability distribution function of ''Y'' given ''X''. We will consider <math>p(y|x)</math> to be an inherent fixed property of our communications channel (representing the nature of the '''noise''' of our channel). Then the joint distribution of ''X'' and ''Y'' is completely determined by our channel and by our choice of <math>f(x)</math>, the marginal distribution of messages we choose to send over the channel. Under these constraints, we would like to maximize the amount of information, or the '''signal''', we can communicate over the channel. The appropriate measure for this is the transinformation, and this maximum transinformation is called the [[channel capacity]] and is given by:
:<math> C = \max_f I(X;Y).\, </math>
====Source theory====
Any process that generates successive messages can be considered a source of information. Sources can be classified in order of increasing generality as memoryless, [[ergodic theory|ergodic]], [[stationary process|stationary]], and [[stochastic process|stochastic]], (with each class strictly containing the previous one). The term "memoryless" as used here has a slightly different meaning than it normally does in probability theory. Here a memoryless source is defined as one that generates successive messages independently of one another and with a fixed probability distribution. However, the position of the first occurrence of a particular message or symbol in a sequence generated by a memoryless source is actually a [[memorylessness|memoryless random variable]]. The other terms have fairly standard definitions and are actually well studied in their own right outside information theory.
=====Rate=====
The '''rate''' of a source of information is (in the most general case) <math>r=\mathbb E H(M_t|M_{t-1},M_{t-2},M_{t-3}, \cdots)</math>, the expected, or average, conditional entropy per message (i.e. per unit time) given all |
ities.''
<TABLE border="1" >
<TR><TD>&nbsp;</td>
<TD ALIGN="RIGHT">'''Population'''</TD>
<TD ALIGN="RIGHT">'''Per cent of<br>population'''</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>[[Chinese Canadian|Chinese]]</TD>
<TD ALIGN="RIGHT">1,029,395</TD>
<TD ALIGN="RIGHT">3.5%</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>[[South Asian|Indo Canadian]]</TD>
<TD ALIGN="RIGHT">917,075</TD>
<TD ALIGN="RIGHT">3.1%</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>[[Black Canadian|Black]]</TD>
<TD ALIGN="RIGHT">662,210</TD>
<TD ALIGN="RIGHT">2.2%</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>[[Filipino Canadian|Filipino]]</TD>
<TD ALIGN="RIGHT">308,575</TD>
<TD ALIGN="RIGHT">1.0%</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>Latin American</TD>
<TD ALIGN="RIGHT">216,975</TD>
<TD ALIGN="RIGHT">0.7%</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>[[Asian Canadian|Southeast Asian]]</TD>
<TD ALIGN="RIGHT">198,880</TD>
<TD ALIGN="RIGHT">0.7%</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>[[Arab Canadian|Arab]]</TD>
<TD ALIGN="RIGHT">194,680</TD>
<TD ALIGN="RIGHT">0.7%</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>West Asian</TD>
<TD ALIGN="RIGHT">109,285</TD>
<TD ALIGN="RIGHT">0.4%</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>[[Korean Canadian|Korean]]</TD>
<TD ALIGN="RIGHT">100,660</TD>
<TD ALIGN="RIGHT">0.3%</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>[[Japanese Canadian|Japanese]]</TD>
<TD ALIGN="RIGHT">73,315</TD>
<TD ALIGN="RIGHT">0.2%</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>Visible minority, n.i.e.</TD>
<TD ALIGN="RIGHT">98,920</TD>
<TD ALIGN="RIGHT">0.3%</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>Multiple visible minorities</TD>
<TD ALIGN="RIGHT">73,875</TD>
<TD ALIGN="RIGHT">0.2%</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>'''Total visible minority population'''</TD>
<TD ALIGN="RIGHT">'''3,983,845'''</TD>
<TD ALIGN="RIGHT">'''13.4%'''</TD></TR>
<TR><TD COLSPAN="3">''Source: Statistics Canada, 2001 Census, 97F0010XCB2001002''</TD></TR>
</TABLE>
==[[Religion in Canada|Religion]]s==
{|align=left border=1 cellpadding=4 style="text-align:right; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 90%; margin-left: 20px"
|+ <big>'''Top Self-Identified Religious Affiliations in Canada'''</big>
|-
| rowspan=2 |
! align=center colspan=2|<big>1991</big>
! align=center colspan=2|<big>2001</big>
! align=center rowspan=2 style="font-size: 70%"|% change<br>(in numbers)
|-
! Number!! %!!Number!! %
|-
!align=left |Christian || ||81|| ||73
|-
|align=left | - [[Roman Catholic]]||12,203,625||45.2||12,793,125||43.2||+4.8
|-
|align=left | - [[Eastern Orthodoxy|Christian Orthodox]]||387,395||1.4||479,620||1.6||+23.8
|-
|align=left | - Total Other Christian||9,427,675||34.9||8,654,845||29.2||-8.2
|-
|align=left style="text-indent:30px"| - [[United Church of Canada]]||3,093,120||11.3||2,839,125||9.5||-8.2
|-
|align=left style="text-indent:30px"| - [[Anglican Church of Canada]]||2,188,110||8.0||2,035,495||6.8||-7.0
|-
| align=left style="text-indent:30px"|- [[Baptist]]||663,360||2.4||729,475||2.4||+10.0
|-
|align=left style="text-indent:30px"| - [[Lutheranism|Lutheran]]||636,205||2.3||606,590||2.0||-4.7
|-
|align=left style="text-indent:30px"| - [[Presbyterianism|Presbyterian]]||636,295||2.3||409,830||1.4||-35.6
|-
|align=left style="text-indent:30px"| - [[Pentecostal]]||436,435||1.6 ||369,475||1.2 ||-15.3
|-
|align=left style="text-indent:30px"| - [[Mennonite]]||207,970||0.8 ||191,465||0.6 ||-7.9
|-
|align=left style="text-indent:30px"| - [[Jehovah's Witnesses]]||168,375||0.6 ||154,745||0.5 ||-8.1
|-
|align=left style="text-indent:30px"| - [[Mormon]]||100,770||0.4 ||104,750||0.3||+3.9
|-
|align=left style="text-indent:30px"| - [[Salvation Army]]||112,345||0.4 ||87,785||0.3||-21.9
|-
|align=left style="text-indent:30px"| - [[Christian Reformed Church in North America]]||84,685||0.3 ||76,665||0.3||-9.5
|-
|align=left style="text-indent:30px"| - [[Evangelical Missionary Church of Canada]]||44,935||0.2 ||66,705||0.2 ||+48.4
|-
|align=left style="text-indent:30px"| - [[Christian and Missionary Alliance]]||59,365||0.2 ||66,280||0.2 ||+11.9
|-
|align=left style="text-indent:30px"| - [[Adventists]]||52,365||0.2 ||62,875||0.2 ||+20.1
|-
|align=left style="text-indent:30px"| - Christian, not included elsewhere&sup1;||353,040||1.3||780,450||2.6||+121.1
|-
!align=left|No religion||3,333,245||12.3||4,796,325||16.2||+43.9
|-
!align=left|Other
|-
|align=left| - [[Islam|Muslim]]||253,265||0.9||579,640||2.0||+128.9
|-
|align=left| - [[Judaism|Jewish]]||318,185||1.2||329,995||1.1||+3.7
|-
|align=left| - [[Buddhism|Buddhist]]||163,415||0.6||300,345||1.0||+83.8
|-
|align=left| - [[Hinduism|Hindu]]||157,015||0.6||297,200||1.0||+89.3
|-
|align=left| - [[Sikhism|Sikh]]||147,440||0.5||278,415||0.9||+88.8
|-
|align=left colspan=6 style="font-size:75%"|&sup1; Includes persons who report only “Christian”, only "Protestant", and those in denominations less than 60,000<br>* For comparability purposes, 1991 data are presented according to 2001 boundaries.
|}
<br clear=all>
<br>
Source:
*http://www12.statcan.ca/english/census01/Products/Analytic/companion/rel/contents.cfm
Notes:
* [[Catholic]] includes [[Roman Catholic]], [[Eastern Catholic]], [[Polish National Catholic Church]], and [[Old Catholic]]
* Other Religions also includes [[Bahá'í Faith|Bahá'í]], [[Eckankar]], [[Jainism]], [[Shinto]], [[Taoism]], [[Zoroastrianism]], [[Native American mythology|Aboriginal belief systems]], [[Neo-Paganism]], [[Wicca]], Unity - New Thought - Pantheist, [[Scientology]], [[Rastafari movement]], [[New Age]], [[Gnostic]], [[Satanism]], etc.)
* No Religion includes [[Atheism]], [[Agnosticism]], [[Humanism]], [[Darwinism]], et cetera
==Languages==
:''Main article: [[Language in Canada]]''
*[[English language|English]] 59.3% (official),
*[[French language|French]] 23.2% (official),
*[[Italian language|Italian]] 1.6%,
*[[German language|German]] 1.5%,
*[[Cantonese language|Cantonese]] 1.1%
==Literacy==
* ''definition:'' age 15 and over can read and write
* ''total population:'' 97% (1986 est.)
* ''male:'' NA%
* ''female:'' NA%
==See also==
* [[Canada]]
* [[Aboriginal peoples in Canada]]
* [[Demolinguistics of Canada]]
* [[Canada 2001 Census]]
* [[List of Canadian provinces and territories by population]]
* [[Religion in Canada]]
[[Category:Demographics of Canada|*]]
[[bg:Население на Канада]]
[[es:Demografía de Canadá]]
[[fr:Démographie du Canada]]
[[pt:Demografia do Canadá]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Politics of Canada</title>
<id>5194</id>
<revision>
<id>42059052</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T14:52:12Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>192.237.29.254</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* National unity */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Canadian politics}}[[Canada]] is a [[constitutional monarchy]] and a [[Commonwealth Realm]] (see [[Monarchy in Canada]]) with a [[federation|federal system]] of [[Parliament|parliamentary government]], and strong [[Democracy|democratic]] traditions. Many of the country's legislative practices derive from the unwritten practices of and precedents set by the [[United Kingdom]]'s [[Westminster]] parliament; however, Canada has evolved variations. Party discipline in Canada is stronger than in the United Kingdom, and more of the votes are considered confidence votes, which tends to diminish the role of non-cabinet [[Member of Parliament|Members of Parliament]] (MPs), known as [[backbenchers]]. Backbenchers can, however, exert their influence by sitting in parliamentary committees, like the Public Accounts Committee or the National Defence Committee.
The [[political system]] under which Canada operates, known as the [[Westminster system]], was enshrined by the [[British Parliament]] in the [[Constitution Act, 1867]] (also known as the [[British North America Act]]), but the federal model and division of powers were devised by Canadian politicians. Particularly after [[World War I]], citizens of the self-governing "[[dominion]]s" began to develop a strong sense of identity, and in the [[Balfour Declaration, 1926]], the British government expressed its intent to grant full autonomy to these dominions. Thus in [[1931]] the British Parliament passed the [[Statute of Westminster 1931|Statute of Westminster]] giving legal recognition to the autonomy of Canada and other dominions. Canadian [[politicians]] were unable to obtain consensus on a process for amending the constitution until 1982. Therefore, amendments to Canada's constitution required the approval of the British Parliament. Similarly, the [[Judicial Committee of the Privy Council]] in Britain continued to make the final decision on legal issues until 1949, such as whether a woman could be appointed to the Senate. {{see|Persons Case}}
Canada's politics are evolving. The size of the federal public service and its operational powers are felt by some to qualify the Public Service as an Operational Branch of gov |
SLBM - Trident II (D5) was first deployed in 1990 and is planned to be deployed past 2020.
=== Soviet/Russian ===
Specific types of Soviet/Russian ICBMs include:
*[[SS-6]] SAPWOOD / R-7 / 8K71
*[[SS-7]] SADDLER / [[R-16]]
*[[SS-8]] SASIN / R9
*[[SS-9]] SCARP
*[[SS-11]] SEGO
*[[SS-17]] SPANKER
*[[SS-18]] SATAN / R-36M2 / Voivode
*[[SS-19]] STILLETO
*[[SS-24]] SCALPEL / RT-23
*[[SS-25]] SICKLE / Topol
*SS-27 / [[Topol-M]]
=== People's Republic of China ===
Specific types of Chinese ICBMs called Dong Feng ("East Wind").
*[[DF-3]] - cancelled. Program name transferred to a MRBM.
*[[DF-5]] [[CSS-4]] - silo, 12,000km range (replaced now with DF-5A 13,000km)
*[[DF-6]] - cancelled
*[[DF-22]] - cancelled by 1995.
*[[DF-31]] [[CSS-9]] - silo and road mobile, 8,000km range (DF-31A 10,000km)
*[[DF-41]] [[CSS-X-10]] - in development.
== Ballistic missile submarines ==
Specific types of [[ballistic missile]] [[submarine]]s include:
*[[George Washington class submarine|''George Washington'' class]]
*[[Ethan Allen class submarine|''Ethan Allen'' class]]
*[[Lafayette class submarine|''Lafayette'' class]]
*[[Benjamin Franklin class submarine|''Benjamin Franklin'' class]]
*[[Ohio class submarine|''Ohio'' class]]
*[[Resolution class submarine|''Resolution'' class]]
*[[Vanguard class submarine|''Vanguard'' class]]
*[[Typhoon class submarine|''Typhoon'' class]]
*[[Delta IV class submarine|''Delta IV'' class]]
*[[Redoutable class submarine|''Redoutable'' class]]
*[[Triomphant class submarine|''Triomphant'' class]]
*[[Xia class submarine|''Xia'' class]]
*[[List of NATO reporting names for ballistic missile submarines|Additional Soviet/Russian ballistic missile submarines]]
== See also ==
* [[United States and weapons of mass destruction]]
* [[Russia and weapons of mass destruction]]
* [[China and weapons of mass destruction]]
* [[France and weapons of mass destruction]]
* [[SLBM]]
* [[Anti-ballistic missile]]
* [[Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty]]
* [[Atmospheric reentry]]
* [[nuclear disarmament]]
* [[nuclear navy]]
* [[nuclear warfare]]
* ''[[Force de frappe]]''
* [[submarine]]
* [[Fractional Orbital Bombardment System]]
* [[Strategic triad]]
* [[Air Force Space Command]]
* [[ICBM address]]
== External links ==
*[http://es.rice.edu/projects/Poli378/Nuclear/f04.stratg_invent.html Estimated Strategic Nuclear Weapons Inventories (September 2004)]
* [http://www.fas.org/nuke/guide/usa/icbm/index.html Intercontinental Ballistic and Cruise Missiles]
{{Missile types}}
{{airlistbox}}
[[Category:Intercontinental ballistic missiles]]
[[cs:Mezikontinentální balistická raketa]]
[[de:Interkontinentalrakete]]
[[es:Misil balístico intercontinental]]
[[it:Missile balistico intercontinentale]]
[[ms:Peluru berpandu balistik jarak benua]]
[[ja:大陸間弾道ミサイル]]
[[pl:Międzykontynentalny pocisk balistyczny]]
[[ru:Межконтинентальная баллистическая ракета]]
[[sk:Medzikontinentálna balistická raketa]]
[[sl:Medcelinska balistična raketa]]
[[fi:ICBM]]
[[sv:Interkontinental ballistisk missil]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Irish Sessions</title>
<id>14940</id>
<revision>
<id>15912462</id>
<timestamp>2002-08-28T07:00:24Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Andre Engels</username>
<id>300</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Doesn't seem to have had an intention of ever becoming an encyclopedia article; changing into a redirect to the most closely related Wikipedia subject</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Irish traditional music session]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Irish traditional music session</title>
<id>14943</id>
<revision>
<id>35331792</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-16T00:04:01Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Kuchiguchi</username>
<id>64368</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* See also */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{merge|Pub session}}
'''Irish traditional music sessions''' are informal gatherings at which people play [[Irish traditional music]]. The general session scheme is that someone starts a tune, and those who know it join in. Good session etiquette requires not playing if one does not know the tune, and waiting until a tune one knows comes along.
Typically, the first tune is followed by another two or three tunes in a ''set''. The art of putting together a set is hard to put into words, but the tunes must flow from one to another in terms of key and melodic structure, without being so similar as to all sound the same. The tunes of a set will usually all be of the same sort, i.e. all jigs or all reels, although on rare occasions and amongst a more skilled group of players a complementary tune of a different sort will be included, such as a slip jig (9/8) amongst the jigs (6/8). Although bands sometimes arrange sets of reels and jigs together, this is all but unheard of in an Irish session context.
Some sets are specific to a locale, or even to a single session, whilst others, like the "Coleman set" of reels ("The Tarboulton"/"The Longford Collector"/The Sailor's Bonnet"), represent longstanding combinations that have been played together for decades. Sets are sometimes thrown together ''ad hoc'', which sometimes works brilliantly and sometimes fails on the spot.
After the set ends, someone will usually starts another. Most often there are more-or-less recognized session leaders; sometimes there are no leaders. At times a song will be sung or a slow air played by a single musican between sets.
Sessions are often held in [[pub]]s (with the hope that listeners will buy drink for the musicians) and everyone who is able to play Irish music is welcome, within limits; this can be problematic when non-Irish musicians encounter a session and imagine that they may "jam" without knowing a single tune or even having a clear idea of what traditional music is, or when some over-enthusiastic neophyte shows up with a bodhrán, guitar, pair of spoons, or some other instrument chosen because "it's easy to play." A pub owner might have one or two musicians paid to come regularly in order for the session to have a base. Sunday afternoons and weekday nights (especially Tuesday and Wednesday) are common times for sessions to be scheduled, on the theory that these are the least likely times for dances and concerts to be held, and therefore the times that professional musicians will be most able to show.
Sessions can be held in homes or at various public places in addition to pubs; often at a festival sessions will be got together in the beer tent or in the vendor's booth of a music-loving craftsman or dealer. When a particularly large musical event "takes over" an entire village, spontaneous sessions may erupt on the street corners.
The objective in a session is not to provide music for an audience of passive listeners; although the ''punters'' (non-playing attendees) often come for the express purpose of listening, the music is most of all for the musicians themselves. This is why, as a general rule, requesting a particular song or tune of the players is considered rude (quite aside from the fact that most Irish traditional musicians have never learnt "Misty" or "Free Bird"). The session is an experience that's shared, not a performance that's bought and sold.
In his "Field Guide to the Irish Music Session," Barry Foy defines a session as:
<blockquote>
''...a gathering of Irish traditional musicians for the purpose of celebrating their common interest in the music by playing it together in a relaxed, informal setting, while in the process generally beefing up the mystical cultural mantra that hums along uninterruptedly beneath all manifestations of Irishness worldwide.''</blockquote>
The sessions are a key aspect of traditional music; some say it is the main sphere in which the music is formulated and innovated. Further, the sessions enable young musicians to practice in a group.
Socially, sessions (Seisiún in Gaelic) have often been compared to an evening of playing card games, where the conversation and cameraderie are an essential component. In many rural communities in Ireland, sessions are an integral part of community life.
Sessions are an excellent way to witness the real, amorphous identity of Irish traditional tunes.
== See also ==
* [[List of Irish session venues]]
* [[Irish traditional music]]
* [[Pub session]]
{{ireland-stub}}
{{music-stub}}</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Insect</title>
<id>14944</id>
<revision>
<id>41739897</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T11:53:37Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Samsara</username>
<id>19527</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Gallery */ wikify to a blue link</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Taxobox
| color = pink
| name = Insects
| image = Hymenoptere2.jpg
| image_width = 300px
| image_caption = [[Honeybee]] (order [[Hymenoptera]])
| regnum = [[Animal]]ia
| phylum = [[Arthropod]]a
| subphylum = [[Hexapoda]]
| classis = '''Insecta'''
| classis_authority = [[Carolus Linnaeus|Linnaeus]], 1758
| subdivision_ranks = Classes & Orders
| subdivision =
See [[#Taxonomy|taxonomy]]
}}
'''Insects''' are [[invertebrate]] [[animal]]s of the Class '''Insecta''', the largest and (on land) most widely-distributed [[taxon]] within the [[Phylum]] [[Arthropod]]a. Insects comprise the most diverse group of animals on the earth, with around 925,000 [[species]] described&mdash;more than all other animal groups combined: "Indeed, in no one of her works has Nature more fully displayed her exhaustless ingenuity," [[Pliny's Natural History|Pliny the Elder]] exclaimed. Insects may be found in nearly all environments on the planet, although only a small number of species have adapted to life in the [[ocean]]s where [[crustacea]] |
logy]] as a branch of [[physiology]]. He also proposed many now ubiquitous terms including "[[scientific classification|phylum]]" and "[[ecology]]." His chief interests lay in [[evolution]] and life development processes in general, including development of nonrandom form, which culminated in the beautifully illustrated ''Kunstformen der Natur'' (''Art forms of nature'').
Haeckel advanced the "[[recapitulation theory]]" which proposed a link between [[ontogeny]] (development of form) and [[phylogeny]] (evolutionary descent), summed up in the phrase "ontogeny recapitulates phylogeny". He supported the theory with embryo drawings that have since been shown to be inaccurate, and the theory is no longer generally accepted.
Haeckel was also known for his "[[biogenic theory]]", in which he suggested that the development of races paralleled the development of individuals. He advocated the idea that [[Untermensch|"primitive" races]] were in their infancies and needed the "supervision" and "protection" of more "mature" societies.
He extrapolated a new religion or philosophy called [[Monism]] from evolutionary science. In Monism, all [[economics]], [[politics]], and [[ethics]] are reduced to "applied biology." His writings and lectures on Monism provided scientific (or quasi-scientific) justifications for [[racism]], [[nationalism]] and [[Social Darwinism]]. It has even been argued that monism thus became the ''de facto'' religion of [[Nazi Germany]]. Other scholars disagree, arguing that Nazi ideology was not comfortable with evolutionary theory, which argues for a common descent of all human races.
Haeckel was a flamboyant figure whose popularity with the public was substantially greater than it was with his scientific peers. He sometimes took great (and non-scientific) leaps from available evidence. For example, at the time that Darwin first published ''[[On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection]]'', no remains of human ancestors had yet been found. Haeckel postulated that evidence of human evolution would be found in the [[Dutch East Indies]] (now [[Indonesia]]), and described these theoretical remains in great detail. He even named the as-of-yet unfound species, ''Pithecanthropus alalus'', and charged his students to go find it.
[[Image:Haeckel Actiniae.jpg|right|thumb|180px|Sea anemones from [[Ernst Haeckel|Ernst Haeckel's]] ''Kunstformen der Natur'' (Artforms of Nature) of 1904.]]
Remarkably, one of them did so &mdash; a young Dutchman named [[Eugene Dubois]] went to the East Indies and dug up the remains of [[Java Man]], the first human ancestral remains ever found. (These remains originally carried Haeckel's [[Pithecanthropus]] label, though they were later reclassified as [[Homo erectus]].)
Although Haeckel's ideas are important to the history of [[evolutionary theory]], and he was a competent [[invertebrate]] [[anatomist]] most famous for his work on [[radiolaria]], most of the speculative concepts that he championed are now seen as incorrect. For example, Haeckel described and named hypothetical ancestral [[microorganism]]s that have not been found as of date. His concept of recapitulation called "strong recapitulation" has been disputed. Haeckel did not support Darwin's "[[survival of the fittest]]", rather believing in a [[Jean-Baptiste Lamarck|Lamarckian]] [[inheritance of acquired characteristics]].
Richard and [[Oskar Hertwig]] were some of Haeckel´s many important students.
''Mount Haeckel'' is a 4090 m (13,418') summit in the Eastern [[Sierra Nevada]], overlooking the Evolution Basin, named in honor of Ernst Haeckel as is the [[asteroid]] [[12323 Häckel]].
Ernst Haeckel, much like Herbert Spencer, was always quotable, even when wrong. Although best known for the famous statement "ontogeny recapitulates phylogeny", he also coined many words commonly used by biologists today, such as phylum, phylogeny, and ecology. On the other hand, Haeckel also stated that "politics is applied biology", a quote used by Nazi propagandists. The Nazi party, rather unfortunately, used not only Haeckel's quotes, but also Haeckel's justifications for racism, nationalism and social darwinism.
Although trained as a physician, Haeckel abandoned his practice in 1859 after reading Darwin's Origin of Species. Always suspicious of teleological and mystical explanation, Haeckel used the Origin as ammunition both to attack entrenched religious dogma and to build his own world view.
Hackel studied under Carl Gegenbauer in Jena for three years before becoming a professor of comparative anatomy in 1862. Between 1859 and 1866, he worked on many "invertebrate" groups, including radiolarians, poriferans (sponges) and annelids (segmented worms). He named nearly 150 new species of radiolarians during a trip to the Mediterranean. "Invertebrates" provided the fodder for most of his experimental work on development, leading to his "law of recapitulation". Haeckel was also a free-thinker who went beyond biology, dabbling in anthropology, psychology, and cosmology. Haeckel's speculative ideas and possible fudging of data, plus lack of empirical support for many of his ideas, tarnished his scientific credentials. However, he remained an immensely popular figure in Germany and was considered a hero by his countrymen.
==References==
*Richard Milner, ''The Encyclopedia of Evolution: Humanity's Search for Its Origins'', Henry Holt, 1993
==External links==
{{Commons|Ernst Haeckel}}
* [http://www.mblwhoilibrary.org/haeckel/index.html Marine Biological Laboratory Library] - An exhibition of material on Haeckel, including background on many ''Kunsformen der Natur'' plates
* [http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/history/haeckel.html University of California, Berkeley] - Ernst Haeckel biography
* [http://www.slate.com/id/2124625/ Ernst Haeckel – Evolution's controversial artist.] A slide-show essay about Ernst Haeckel.
* [http://caliban.mpiz-koeln.mpg.de/~stueber/haeckel/kunstformen/natur.html ''Kunstformen der natur'', scanned] (from [http://www.biolib.de/] Stuebers Online Library)
* [http://draves.org/pix/kdn/ PNG alpha-transparencies of Haeckel's "Kustformen der natur"]
==Further reading==
* ''Art Forms from the Ocean: The Radiolarian Atlas of 1862'', by Ernst Haeckel, Prestel Verlag, 2005 ISBN 3791333275
* {{gutenberg author| id=Ernst+Heinrich+Philipp+August+Haeckel | name=Ernst Haeckel}}
[[Category:1834 births|Haeckel, Ernst]]
[[Category:1919 deaths|Haeckel, Ernst]]
[[Category:German biologists|Haeckel]]
[[bg:Ернст Хекел]]
[[da:Ernst Haeckel]]
[[de:Ernst Haeckel]]
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[[fr:Ernst Haeckel]]
[[hr:Ernst Haeckel]]
[[gl:Ernst Haeckel]]
[[nl:Ernst Haeckel]]
[[ja:エルンスト・ヘッケル]]
[[no:Ernst Haeckel]]{{Link FA|no}}
[[nn:Ernst Haeckel]]
[[pl:Ernst Haeckel]]
[[pt:Ernst Haeckel]]
[[ro:Ernst Haeckel]]
[[ru:Геккель, Эрнст Генрих]]
[[sk:Ernst Haeckel]]
[[fi:Ernst Haeckel]]
[[sv:Ernst Haeckel]]
[[zh:恩斯特·海克尔]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Evolutionism</title>
<id>9670</id>
<revision>
<id>41750288</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T13:54:25Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>DabMachine</username>
<id>922466</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>disambiguation from [[Myth]] to [[Mythology]] - ([[WP:DPL|You can help!]])</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Evolutionism''', from the [[Latin]] ''evolutio'', unrolling, refers to theories that certain things develop or change as natural (unplanned) outgrowths of those that existed before, in contrast to beliefs that these things are fixed and immutable. An '''Evolutionist''' is a proponent of such a theory. Theories of change have been developed across several fields of study.
In [[anthropology]] and [[biology]], the term ''Evolutionism'' is nowadays used specifically for historical theories or beliefs of early [[sociocultural evolutionism]] developed in the [[18th century|18th]] and [[19th century]] that organisms are intrinsically bound to improve themselves through progressive changes which are [[heredity|heritable]]. This idea was applied to cultures and societies as well as to living organisms. The term ''evolutionist'' is still used more widely and can refer to proponents of the [[theory of evolution]] through [[natural selection]] which has superseded the earlier biological theories, but particularly in the [[U.S.A.]] this term is used by opponents of the theory to bolster their claim that evolution theory is a belief rather than a [[science]], and so this usage is often avoided by the [[scientific community]]. The terms are still used for theories about the development of [[culture]]s and [[civilisation]]s.
==Development of usage==
Anthropologists and Biologists will refer to "Evolutionists" in the 19th century as those who believe that the cultures or life forms being studied are evolving to a ''particular'' form. (see [[Platonic Form]]). Very few scientists today, if any, believe that evolution in culture or biology works that way, and serious discussions generally take caution to distance themselves from that perspective.
Since evolutionary biology explains changes in terms of internal processes and gradual development as natural (unplanned) outgrowths of what existed before, generally such theories have no role for [[divine intervention]], and can include the idea that the first living things arose by random events in an abiotic world. Even before the 19th century, there were a few hypotheses about the evolution of everything material: suns, moons, planets, earth, life, civilization, and society--all without [[divine intervention]]. The number of hypotheses being propounded increased dramatically in the middle of the 19th century.
In modern times, the term ''[[ |
), weight (stone and pounds), liquid (pints and gallons) and height (feet and inches).
In Canada, the government's efforts to implement the metric system were more extensive: pretty much any agency, institution, or thing provided by the government will use SI units exclusively. Imperial units were eliminated from all road signs, although both systems of measurement will still be found on privately-owned signs (such as the height warnings at the entrance of a multi-story parking facility). Temperatures in degrees Fahrenheit will occasionally be heard on English Canadian commercial radio stations, but only those that cater to older listeners. The law requires that measured products (such as fuel and meat) be priced in metric units, although there is leniency in regards to fruits and vegetables. Traditional units persist in ordinary conversation and may be experiencing a resurgence due to the reduction in trade barriers with the United States. Few Canadians would use SI units to describe their weight and height, although driver's licences use SI units. In livestock auction markets, cattle are sold in dollars per hundredweight (short, of course), whereas hogs are sold in dollars per hundred kilograms. Land is surveyed and registered in metric units, but imperial units still dominate in construction, house renovation and gardening talk (although "two-by-fours" don't ''actually'' measure 2&times;4", for example).
One area where Imperial units are still in current use is in firearms and ammunition. For example, Imperial measures are still used in the description of cartridge types, even where the cartridge is of relatively recent invention (e.g., .204 Ruger, .17 HMR, where the caliber is expressed in decimal fractions of an inch). In the manufacture of ammunition, bullet and powder weights are still expressed in terms of Imperial grains.
== See also ==
* [[Conversion of units]]
* [[Cooking weights and measures]]
* [[Metrication]]
* [[Metrified English unit]]
* [[Unit of measurement]]
* [[Systems of measurement]]
* [[History of measurement]]
== References ==
* Appendices B and C of [http://ts.nist.gov/ts/htdocs/230/235/h442003.htm NIST Handbook 44]
* Barry N. Taylor's [http://physics.nist.gov/Pubs/SP811/ NIST Special Publication 811], also available as [http://physics.nist.gov/Document/sp811.pdf a PDF file]
== External links ==
* [http://laws.justice.gc.ca/en/w-6/109089.html Canada - Weights and Measures Act 1970-71-72]
* [http://193.120.124.98/gen531996a.html Ireland - Metrology Act 1996]
* [http://www.hmso.gov.uk/si/si1995/Uksi_19951804_en_2.htm UK - Units of Measurement Regulations 1995]
* [http://www.metric.org.uk/ The UK Metric Association]
* [http://www.bwmaonline.com/ British Weights And Measures Association]
* [http://www.metric4us.com Metric4us.com]
*[http://www.unitconversion.org Unit converters of 99.9% known units in 67 categories]
* Jacques J. Proot's [http://users.aol.com/jackproot/met/spvolas.html Anglo-Saxon weights & measures] page.
[[Category:Imperial units|*]]
[[Category:Systems of units]]
[[bg:Имперска единица]]
[[de:Angloamerikanisches Maßsystem]]
[[fr:Unité de mesure anglo-saxonne]]
[[nl:Imperiale Systeem]]
[[ja:ヤード・ポンド法]]
[[pl:Anglosaski układ jednostek miar]]
[[ru:Английская система мер]]
[[zh:英制]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Incompatible-properties argument</title>
<id>15494</id>
<revision>
<id>19115434</id>
<timestamp>2005-07-18T23:59:04Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Lupin</username>
<id>42385</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* Simplicity vs. omniscience */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''Incompatible-properties argument''' is the idea that no description of [[God]] is consistent with [[reality]]. For example, if one takes the definition of God to be described fully from the [[Bible]], then the claims of what properties God has described therein might be argued to lead to a [[contradiction]].
==Evil vs. good and omnipotence==
The [[problem of evil]] is the argument that the existence of evil is incompatible with the concept of an omnipotent and perfectly good God.
A variation does not depend on the existence of evil. A truly omnipotent God could create all possible worlds. A "good" God can create only "good" worlds. A God that created all possible worlds would have no moral qualities whatsoever, and could be replaced by a random generator. The standard response is to argue a distinction between "could create" and "would create." In other words, God "could" create all possible worlds but that is simply not in God's nature. This has been argued by theologians for centuries. However, the result is that a "good" God is incompatible with some possible worlds, thus incapable of creating them without losing the property of being a totally different God.
==Purpose vs. timelessness==
One argument based on incompatible properties rests on a definition of God that includes a will, plan or purpose and an existence outside of [[time]]. To say that a being possesses a purpose implies an inclination or tendency to steer events toward some state that does not yet exist. This, in turn, implies a privileged direction, which we may call "[[time]]". It may be one direction of [[causality]], the direction of increasing [[entropy]], or some other emergent property of a world. These are not identical, but one must exist in order to progress toward a goal.
In general, God's time would not be related to our time. God might be able to operate within our time without being constrained to do so. However, God could then step outside this game for any purpose. Thus God's time must be aligned with our time if human activities are relevant to God's purpose. (In a relativistic universe, presumably this means -- at any point in spacetime -- time measured from t=0 at the Big Bang or end of inflation.)
A God existing outside of any sort of time could not create anything because creation substitutes one thing for another, or for nothing. Creation requires a creator that existed, by definition, prior to the thing created.
==Omniscience vs. indeterminacy or free will==
Another pair of incompatible properties is omniscience and either indeterminacy or [[free will]]. Omniscience concerning the past and present (properly defined relative to Earth) is not a problem, but omniscience regarding the future implies it has been determined. That is possible only in a deterministic world.
==Simplicity vs. omniscience==
Another pair is simplicity and omniscience. God's memory alone vastly exceeds the terabytes in our computers, and bits (or bytes) are the fundamental mathematical units of information. Information is not "ineffable" and cannot be reduced to something simpler. Furthermore, God must live forever and therefore must have a deterministic processing unit or infinite error correction mechanisms. The simplest implementation is deterministic and quite unconscious, seemingly incompatible with an intelligent being.
== External links ==
*[http://www.secularhumanism.org/library/philo/drange_1_2.htm A description of 10 more incompatibilities]
*[http://www.missouri.edu/~kvanvigj/papers/omniscienceandeternityareplytocraig.htm A response to William Craig] --Technical paper on omniscience and time.
*[http://students.washington.edu/tmetcalf/oamp.htm Omniscience and Omnipotence]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>International Society of Olympic Historians</title>
<id>15495</id>
<revision>
<id>28993977</id>
<timestamp>2005-11-22T17:37:58Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>82.120.131.110</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''International Society of Olympic Historians''' is a [[non-profit organisation]] with the purpose of promoting and studying the Olympic Movement and the Olympic Games. This purpose is achieved primarily through research into their history, through the gathering of historical and statistical data concerning the Olympic Movement and Olympic Games, through the publication of the research via journals and other publications, and through the cooperation of the membership.
The International Society of Olympic Historians (ISOH) was formed as the result of a meeting in London, England in December 1991. The idea of forming an Olympic historical society had been the subject of correspondence &#8211; mainly between Bill Mallon ([[United States]]) and Ture Widlund ([[Sweden]]) &#8211; for many years. On Thursday, [[December 5|5 December]] [[1991]], a group of potential members met at the Duke of Clarence, a small pub in the Kensington section of [[London]]. Those present were Ian Buchanan ([[Great Britain]]), Stan Greenberg ([[Great Britain]]), Ove Karlsson ([[Sweden]]), Bill Mallon ([[United States]]), Peter Matthews ([[Great Britain]]), [[David Wallechinsky]] ([[United States]]), and Ture Widlund ([[Sweden]]). The invited guests who sent regrets were: Anthony Bijkerk ([[Netherlands]]), Peter Diamond ([[United States]]), Pim Huurman ([[Netherlands]]), Erich Kamper ([[Austria]]), Volker Kluge ([[Germany]]), John Lucas ([[United States]]), and Wolf Lyberg ([[Sweden]]).
Currently, the ISOH has about 300 members from 50 nations. The ISOH publishes the ''Journal of Olympic History'' (formerly ''Citius, Altius, Fortius'') three times a year.
From its inception to 2000, Ian Buchanan has been the president of the ISOH. In 2000, this function was taken over by Bill Mallon.
Organization homepage: [http://www.olykamp.org/isoh/ ISOH Homepage]
See also [[Sports history organizations]]
[[Category:Olympics]]
[[Category:History of sports]]
[[Category:Non-profit organizations]]
[[it:Società internazionale degli storici olimpici]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Serie A</title>
< |
ons of [[Tibet]] and [[Xinjiang]], and has encouraged [[Han Chinese]] immigration into those regions, for example, through the [[Xinjiang Production and Construction Corps]]. This has been widely viewed as cultural imperialism by exile and dissident groups abroad and their supporters. The nationwide promotion of a [[Putonghua|standardized Chinese language]] has also sparked debate, both in [[Mainland China]] and [[Taiwan]], about whether this constitutes a form of cultural imperialism over [[Chinese spoken language|regional dialects]].
[[Canada]] is also grappling with the ever-potent influence of the United States. Aside from the fact that American businesses are purchasing Canadian industries and resources, the Canadian population is continuously exposed to the American media. Whether this can be fairly termed "cultural imperialism" or not is open to debate, as most Canadian media outlets broadcast American content voluntarily simply because it attracts higher viewership from Canadian audiences; the most popular music, movies, and television programs in Canada are frequently American. Whatever the label for US influence, various Canadian governments have practiced [[Canadian cultural protectionism]] in response.
Representatives of [[Al-Qaida|al-Qaida]] have stated that their attacks on US interests have been motivated in part by a reaction to perceived US cultural imperialism. The extent to which American cultural imperialism is an important source of hostility in the [[Middle East]], and the corresponding implications for the American-led "[[War on Terror]]" is a matter of great controversy.
== Theory and Debate ==
It should be noted that 'cultural imperialism' can refer to either the forced acculturation of a subject population, or to the voluntary embracing of a foreign culture by individuals who do so of their own free will. Since these are two very different referents, the validity of the term has been called into question. The term cultural imperialism is understood differently in particular discourses. E.g. as "[[media imperialism]]" or as "discourse of nationality" (Tomlinson, 1991).
Cultural influence can be seen by the "receiving" culture as either a threat to or an enrichment of its [[cultural identity]]. It seems therefore useful to distinguish between cultural imperialism as an (active or passive) attitude of superiority, and the position of a culture or group that seeks to complement its own cultural production, considered partly deficient, with imported products or values.
The imported products or services can themselves represent, or be associated with, certain values (such as [[consumerism]]). The "receiving" [[culture]] does not necessarily perceive this link, but instead absorbs the foreign culture passively through the use of the foreign goods and services. Due to its somewhat concealed, but very potent nature, this phenomenon is described by some experts as "''banal imperialism''." The newly globalized economy of the late 20th and early 21st century has facilitated this process through the use of new information technology. However, it is still argued whether this process is something entirely new or just a continuation of imperialism as a whole. This kind of imperialism is derived from what is called, more positively, "[[soft power]]."
=== Cultural Diversity ===
One of the reasons often given for opposing any form of 'cultural imperialism,' voluntary or otherwise, is the preservation of [[cultural diversity]], a goal seen as analogous to the preservation of [[biodiversity|ecological diversity]]. Proponents of this idea argue either that such diversity is valuable in itself, or instrumentally valuable because it makes available more ways of solving problems and responding to catastrophes, natural or otherwise.
Opponents of this idea deny the validity of the analogy to biodiversity, and/or the validity of the arguments for preserving biodiversity itself.
=== Cultural Fascism ===
Some claim that the attempt to preserve the purity of a culture against noncoercive incursions is itself a far worse imposition. Proponents of this view argue that not only ought people to have the right to choose what media and other products they consume, including those of external cultures, but also that this is part of a kind of [[nationalism]] that leads in a dangerous direction. Not only is "Cultural Imperialism" a misnomer and an [[intellectual dishonesty|intellectually invalid concept]], but is by nature a culturally [[fascism|fascist]] accusation or retort against cosmopolitanism, and, ultimately, [[racism|racist]]. This is part of a larger world view known as [[Circular Political Theory]] (the farther you go to the extreme left, the closer you come to the extreme right, and vice versa), which interprets so-called "[[anti-imperialism|anti-imperialist]]" movements and the "[[New Left|new leftism]]" as merely superficial reworkings of classic fascism.
Opponents of this idea respond that it trivializes the idea of fascism, and that nationalism or cultural pride as such is not intrinsically dangerous. Some add that the root of its mistake is to mischaracterize fascism by its surface traits, ignoring the importance of its social base; similar rhetoric in the mouths of the powerful and the powerless has a different meaning. On the other hand, one could retort that the very idea of cultural imperialism itself trivializes imperialism, as revealed by a comparison of Japanese atrocities in China in the late 1930s to the influence of American jazz and film in Paris during that same period.
=== Said and Post-Colonial Studies ===
The writer [[Edward Said]], one of the founders of the field of [[post-colonialism|post-colonial study]], wrote extensively on the subject of cultural imperialism, and his work is considered by many to form an important cornerstone in this area of study. His work attempts to highlight the inaccuracies of many assumptions about cultures and societies and is largely informed by [[Michel Foucault]]'s concepts of discourse and [[Power (sociology)|power]]. The relatively new academic field of post-colonial theory has been the source for most of the in-depth work on the idea of discursive and other non-military mechanisms of imperialism, and its validity is disputed by those who deny that these forms are genuinely imperialistic.
== See also ==
* [[Cultural superiority]]
* [[Transculturation]]
* [[Media and ethnicity]]
{{Culture-stub}}
[[Category:Cultural studies]]
[[Category:Sociology]]
[[Category:Imperialism]]
[[es:Imperialismo cultural]]
[[fi:Kulttuuri-imperialismi]]
[[sv:Kulturimperialism]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Clock wipe</title>
<id>6269</id>
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<id>15904424</id>
<timestamp>2005-04-28T21:02:46Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Grm wnr</username>
<id>72203</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Merged with [[Wipe]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Wipe]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Chemical reaction</title>
<id>6271</id>
<revision>
<id>42044868</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T12:23:22Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Wayward</username>
<id>184087</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/82.198.250.2|82.198.250.2]] ([[User talk:82.198.250.2|talk]]) to last version by Ahoerstemeier</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">A '''chemical reaction''' is a process that results in the interconversion of [[chemical substance]]s <ref>IUPAC [[Gold Book]] [http://www.iupac.org/goldbook/C01033.pdf Definition]</ref>. The substance or substances initially involved in a chemical reaction are called [[reactants]]. Chemical reactions are characterized by a [[chemical change]] and it yields one or more [[Product (chemistry)|product]]s which are different from the reactants. Classically, chemical reactions encompass changes that strictly involve the motion of [[electrons]] in the forming and breaking of [[chemical bond]]s, although the general concept of a chemical reaction, in particular the notion of a [[chemical equation]], is applicable to [[Feynman diagram|transformations of elementary particles]], as well as [[nuclear reaction]]s.
Many different chemical reactions are used in combinations in [[chemical synthesis]] in order to get a desired product. In [[biochemistry]], series of chemical reactions form [[metabolic pathways]], since straight synthesis of a product would be energetically impossible in conditions within a cell. Chemical reactions are also divided into [[organic reaction]]s and [[inorganic chemical reaction|inorganic reaction]]s.
==Reaction types==
There are six major classifications of chemical reactions. Some common and widely used terms are:
*[[Isomerisation]], in which a chemical compound undergoes a structural rearrangement without any change in its net atomic composition; see [[stereoisomerism]]
*[[Combination reaction|Direct combination]] or [[Chemical synthesis|synthesis]], in which two or more chemical elements or compounds unite to form a more complex product:
:: 2H<sub>2</sub> (g) + O<sub>2</sub> (g) → 2H<sub>2</sub>O (l)
*[[Chemical decomposition]] or analysis, in which a compound is decomposed into smaller compounds:
:: 2H<sub>2</sub>O (l) → 2H<sub>2</sub> (g) + O<sub>2</sub>(g)
*[[Single displacement reaction|Single displacement]] or [[substitution]], characterized by an element being displaced out of a compound by a more [[Reactivity series|reactive]] element:
:: 2Na(cr) + 2HCl (aq) → 2NaCl (aq) + H<sub>2</sub> (g)
*[[Double displacement reaction|Double displacement]] or coupling substitution , in which two com |
for example). They appeal as well to other documents of the very early Church, especially the Epistle of St. Clement to the Church at Corinth, written around 96 CE. In it, [[Pope Clement I|Clement]] defends the authority and prerogatives of a group of "[[elders]]" or "[[bishops]]" in the Corinthian Church which had, apparently, been deposed and replaced by the congregation on its own initiative. In this context, Clement explicitly states that the apostles both appointed bishops as successors and had directed that these bishops should in turn appoint their own successors; given this, such leaders of the Church were not to be removed without cause and not in this way. Further, proponents of the necessity of the personal apostolic succession of bishops within the Church point to the universal practice of the undivided early Church (up to 431 CE), from which, as organizations, the Roman Catholic, Eastern Orthodox, Oriental Orthodox, and the Assyrian Churches are all indisputably directly descended.
At the same time, no defender of the personal apostolic succession of bishops would deny the importance of doctrinal continuity in the Church. As stated above, Ireneus explicitly ties the two together.
==Latter-day Saints (Mormons)==
The [[Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]] (LDS) has a similar, but unique position. Latter-day Saints believe that God directs his church at all times through [[Revelation#Latter_Day_Saint_concept_of_Revelation|revelation]] in response to prayer. However, a person is entitled to revelation only for that [[Calling (Mormonism)|calling]] over which they have authority. For example, anyone is entitled to revelation for concerning themselves, a head of household is entitled to revelation for their family, a bishop has the authority to receive revelation concerning the congregation over which they preside (e.g. Rome or Ephesus), though only ordained apostles had the authority from the Lord to receive revelation for doctrine for the entire church. An excellent example of church-wide apostolic revelation is [http://scriptures.lds.org/acts/10 Acts 10:1-48] where Peter had prayed and received revelation from God that the gospel could now go forward to the Gentiles as well as the Jews.
Hence, Latter-day Saints have a different interpretation of the scripture where Christ says "upon this rock I will build my church":
<blockquote>"When Jesus came into the coasts of Caesarea Philippi, he asked his disciples, saying, Whom do men say that I the Son of man am? And they said, Some say that thou art John the Baptist: some, Elias; and others, Jeremias, or one of the prophets. He saith unto them, But whom say ye that I am? And Simon Peter answered and said, Thou art the Christ, the Son of the living God. And Jesus answered and said unto him, Blessed art thou, Simon Bar-jona: for flesh and blood hath not revealed it unto thee, but my Father which is in heaven. And I say also unto thee, That thou art Peter, and upon this rock I will build my church; and the gates of hell shall not prevail against it."<br>[http://scriptures.lds.org/matt/16 Matthew 16:13-18]</blockquote>
When Christ asks his disciples who they think he is, Peter had the right answer because he prayed and received revelation: "Blessed art thou, Simon Bar-jona: for flesh and blood hath not revealed it unto thee, ''but my Father which is in heaven.''" When Christ says upon this rock I will build my church", the rock of which he was speaking was ''revelation''. As long as there were apostles with the authority from the Lord to receive revelation for the entire church, the church would continue to follow Christ. Circumstances change and so must the church: at one time Christ said not to preach to the Gentiles, and later Peter was given revelation when it was time to start.[http://scriptures.lds.org/acts/10] The need for constant ongoing revelation is critical to conduct the affairs of the church.
The LDS Church understands that Christ chose apostles and gave them the authority to receive revelation for the church by the laying on of hands. As necessary, the apostles passed this authority to others by choosing and ordaining new apostles by the laying on of hands (such as Paul and Matthias). Those individuals then had the appropriate authority to receive revelation for and officiate over the church in that office at that time:
<blockquote>"And they prayed, and said, Thou, Lord, which knowest the hearts of all men, shew whether of these two thou hast chosen, That he may take part of this ministry and apostleship, from which Judas by transgression fell, that he might go to his own place. And they gave forth their lots; and the lot fell upon Matthias; and he was numbered with the eleven apostles."<br>[http://scriptures.lds.org/acts/1 Acts 1:24-26]</blockquote>
However, due to distance and persecution, the existing apostles were not able to meet frequently enough to choose and ordain new apostles, and eventually all of the apostles were killed, leaving nobody in the church with apostolic authority.
At this point, for the church to continue properly, apostolic authority would have needed to be dispensed again from God, but this did not happen. Instead, the bishops took over the leadership of the church, assuming authority that they did not possess - breaking the aspostolic succession. An example of the resulting confusion is the [[First Council of Nicaea]] where [[Roman Emperors|Roman Emperor]] [[Constantine I of the Roman Empire|Constantine the Great]], a [[Solar deity|Sun god]] worshipper, presided over a meeting of bishops to determine church doctrine, instead of that doctrine being revealed by God to worthy apostles. The LDS church refers to the resultant loss of revelation and falling away from the teachings of Jesus Christ as the [[Great Apostasy]]. Latter-day Saints believe that this was predicted when Amos said that there would be a "famine of hearing the words of the Lord" in [http://scriptures.lds.org/amos/8 Amos 8:11.]
The LDS Church maintains that the authority from God needed to be restored to the earth, which took place when God the Father and His son, Jesus Christ, [[First Vision|appeared]] to [[Joseph Smith, Jr.]] near [[Palmyra, New York]] in [[1820]] and called Joseph as a prophet to restore Christ's church to the earth with correct doctrines and practices.
Near the time that Joseph formally organized the church in [[1830]], the apostles Peter, James and John appeared to Joseph. They laid hands on Joseph and restored to him the apostolic authority to govern the church.[http://scriptures.lds.org/dc/27/12#12] Joseph was visited by other heavenly messengers at different times, each one conferring upon him the particular authority or keys for which they had stewardship. John the Baptist restored the [[Aaronic Priesthood]], Peter James and John restored the [[Melchizedek priesthood (Mormonism)|Melchizedek Priesthood]], with other heavenly messengers such as Moses and Elijah restoring additional authority. Joseph was given the authority like the apostles of old, to confer to others specific priesthood authority by the laying on of hands. All of the various keys of this authority have been and are passed on to worthy, male members of the LDS Church according to their particular offices. In this way, Latter-day Saints hold that apostolic authority was ''restored'' to the earth through the original twelve apostles and apostolic succession continues today through the ordination of new apostles as the older apostles pass away.
==Jehovah's Witnesses==
[[Jehovah's Witnesses]] teach that apostolic succession is an erroneous doctrine. They base this teaching on the accounts of the replacement of Judas Iscariot and the death of the apostle James. In Acts Chapter 1, in the [[New World Translation of the Holy Scriptures]], Peter says:
<blockquote>"Judas, who became a guide to those who arrested Jesus, because he had been numbered among us and he obtained a share in this ministry... For it is written in the book of Psalms, &#8216;Let his lodging place become desolate, and let there be no dweller in it,&#8217; and, &#8216;His office of oversight let someone else take.&#8217;" ''[[New World Translation of the Holy Scriptures|NWT]]''</blockquote>
They contrast this with the fact that Acts does not mention any successor being named for the ''faithful'' apostle James. (Acts 12:2; ''[[Insight on the Scriptures]]'' pg. 129 Vol. I)
==See also==
*[[Twelve Apostles|Apostle]]
*[[List of Bishops]]
*[[Episcopi vagantes]]
*[[Independent Catholic]]
*[[Independent Catholic Churches]]
*[[Old Catholic]]
==Sources and External links==
{{Catholic}}
*[http://www.revneal.org/Writings/apostoli.htm Methodist Apostolicity] by Gregory Neal
*[http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/anf01.ix.iv.iv.html Irenaeus, Against Heresies, Online-text]
[[Category:Christian group structuring]]
[[Category:Episcopacy in Catholicism]]
[[Category:Christian theology]]
[[cs:Apoštolská posloupnost]]
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[[pl:Sukcesja apostolska]]
[[sv:Apostolisk succession]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Anglican</title>
<id>2258</id>
<revision>
<id>15900689</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Anglicanism]]
</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Alex</title>
<id>2259</id>
<revision>
<id>41613075</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T14:45:1 |
Gini coefficient demonstrates how income has changed for poor and rich. If the Gini coefficient is rising as well as GDP, poverty may not be improving for the vast majority of the population.
* The Gini coefficient can be used to indicate how the distribution of income has changed within a country over a period of time, thus it is possible to see if inequality is increasing or decreasing.
* The Gini coefficient satisfies four important principles:
**''Anonymity'': it doesn’t matter who the high and low earners are.
**''Scale independence'': the Gini coefficient does not consider the size of the economy, the way it is measured, or whether it is a rich or poor country on average.
**''Population independence'': it does not matter how large the population of the country is.
**''Transfer principle'': if income (less than the difference), is transferred from a rich person to a poor person the resulting distribution is more equal.
==Disadvantages of the Gini coefficient as a measure of inequality==
* The Gini coefficient measured for a large geographically diverse country will generally result in a much higher coefficient than each of its regions has individually. For this reason the scores calculated for individual countries within the E.U. are difficult to compare with the score of the entire U.S.
* Comparing income distributions among countries may be difficult because benefits systems may differ. For example, some countries give benefits in the form of money while others use [[food stamps]], which may not be counted as income in the Lorenz curve and therefore not taken into account in the Gini coefficient.
* The measure will give different results when applied to individuals instead of households. When different populations are not measured with consistent definitions, comparison is not meaningful.
* The Lorenz curve may understate the actual amount of inequality if richer households are able to use income more efficiently than lower income households. From another point of view, measured inequality may be the result of more or less efficient use of household incomes.
* As for all statistics, there will be systematic and random errors in the data. The meaning of the Gini coefficient decreases as the data become less accurate. Also, countries may collect data differently, making it difficult to compare statistics between countries.
* Economies with similar incomes and Gini coefficients can still have very different income distributions. This is because the Lorenz curves can have different shapes and yet still yield the same Gini coefficient. As an extreme example, an economy where half the households have no income, and the other half share income equally has a Gini coefficient of &frac12;; but an economy with complete income equality, except for one wealthy household that has half the total income, also has a Gini coefficient of &frac12;.
* It is claimed that the Gini coefficient is more sensitive to the income of the middle classes than to that of the extremes.
* Too often only the Gini coefficient is quoted '''without''' describing the proportions of the quantiles used for measurement. As with other inequality coefficients, the Gini coefficient is influenced by the granularity of the measurements. For example, five 20% quantiles (low granularity) will yield a lower Gini coefficient than twenty 5% quantiles (high granularity) taken from the same distribution.
As one result of this criticism, additionally to or in competition with the Gini coefficient ''entropy measures'' are frequently used (e.g. the Atkinson and [[Theil Index|Theil]] indices). These measures attempt to compare the distribution of resources by intelligent players in the market with a maximum [[information entropy|entropy]] [[random distribution]], which would occur if these players acted like non-intelligent particles in a closed system following the laws of statistical physics.
== Notes ==
*{{note|USAginicalc}} Note that the calculation of the index for the United States was changed in 1992, resulting in an upwards shift of about 0.02 in the coefficient. Comparisons before and after that period may be misleading.
== References ==
Dixon, PM, Weiner J., Mitchell-Olds T, Woodley R.
Boot-strapping the Gini coefficient of inequality. Ecology 1987;68:1548-1551.
Gini C. "Variabilità e mutabilità" (1912)
Reprinted in Memorie di metodologica statistica (Ed. Pizetti E, Salvemini, T).
Rome: Libreria Eredi Virgilio Veschi (1955).
==See also==
* [[List of countries by income equality]]
* [[List of countries by Human Development Index]]
* [[Welfare economics]]
* [[Income inequality metrics]]
* [[ROC analysis]]
* [[Social welfare (political science)]]
* [[Pareto distribution]]
* [[Robin Hood index]]
== External links ==
* [http://www.eldis.org/static/DOC2910.htm Measuring income inequality: a new database], with link to dataset
* [[United Nations Development Programme|UN Human Development]] [http://hdr.undp.org/reports/global/2004/pdf/hdr04_HDI.pdf Report 2004, p50-53]: Gini Index calculated for all countries.
* [http://oregonstate.edu/~crawfose/research_writing/SOC516--Final.doc] Comparison of Urban and Rural Areas' Gini Coefficients Within States
* [http://www.wider.unu.edu/wiid/wiid.htm] World Income Inequality Database
* [http://www.forbes.com/billionaires/free_forbes/2003/0317/098.html], Forbes Article, In praise of inequality
* [http://www.worldpolicy.org/globalrights/econrights/maps-gini.html Gini index map from WorldPolicy.org]
* Software:
** [http://www.wessa.net/co.wasp Free Online Calculator] computes the Gini Coefficient, plots the Lorenz curve, and computes many other measures of concentration for any dataset
** Free Calculator: [http://www.poorcity.richcity.org/calculator.htm Online] and [http://luaforge.net/project/showfiles.php?group_id=49 downloadable scripts] ([[Python programming language|Python]] and [[Lua programming language|Lua]]) for Atkinson, Gini, Hoover and Kullback-Leibler inequalities
** Users of the [http://www.r-project.org/ R] data analysis software can install the "ineq" package which allows for computation of a variety of inequality indices including Gini, Atkinson, Theil.
[[Category:Welfare economics]]
[[Category:Socioeconomics]]
[[Category:Economic indicators]]
[[da:Gini-koefficient]]
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[[fr:Coefficient de Gini]]
[[he:מדד ג'יני]]
[[nl:Gini-coëfficiënt]]
[[pt:Coeficiente de Gini]]
[[ja:ジニ係数]]
[[su:Koefisien Gini]]
[[zh:基尼指数]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Government Communications Headquarters</title>
<id>12884</id>
<revision>
<id>41727912</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T09:16:56Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Matt Crypto</username>
<id>50457</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* GCHQ and the constitution */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''Government Communications Headquarters (GCHQ)''' is a [[United Kingdom|British]] [[intelligence agency]] responsible for providing [[signals intelligence]] (SIGINT) and [[information assurance]]. GCHQ provides the UK government and armed forces with signals intelligence as required under the guidance of the [[Joint Intelligence Committee]] in support of government policies. The '''Communications-Electronics Security Group (CESG)''' is the branch of GCHQ which works to secure the communications and information systems of government and critical parts of UK national infrastructure.
GCHQ was previously known as the '''Government Code and Cipher School (GC&CS)''' before [[1946]].
GCHQ is the responsibility of the UK [[Secretary of State for Foreign and Commonwealth Affairs]].
==Government Code and Cipher School (GC&CS)==
In early 1919, twenty-five officers from the wartime [[signals intelligence]] organisations of the Navy ([[Room 40]]) and the Army ([[MI1b]]) were merged into a single agency, the Government Code and Cipher School (GC&CS) (a cover-name chosen by Victor Forbes of the [[Foreign Office]])<ref>Macksey, 2003, p. 58</ref>. [[Alastair Denniston]] was appointed the operational head with the title of Deputy Director. Initially, GC&CS was under the control of the [[Admiralty]], but later, with its focus on diplomatic traffic, was placed under the control of the [[Foreign Office]] in [[1922]].
In the 1920s, GC&CS was successfully reading Soviet Union diplomatic ciphers. However, the British government made details from the decrypts public prompting the Soviet to change their systems to more secure schemes, including the [[one-time pad]], in [[1927]].
Before [[World War II]], GC&CS was a relatively small department, and staff included [[Alastair Denniston]], [[Oliver Strachey]], [[Dilly Knox]], [[John Tiltman]], [[Edward Travis]], [[Ernst Fetterlein]], [[Josh Cooper]] and [[Hugh Foss]].
During the [[Second World War]], GC&CS was based largely at [[Bletchley Park]], reading German [[Enigma machine]] ciphers amongst a large number of other systems. In [[1940]], GC&CS were working on the diplomatic codes and ciphers of 26 countries, tackling over 150 diplomatic cryptosystems<!--David Alvarez, GC&CS and American Diplomatic Cryptanalysis -->.
GC&CS was renamed the "Government Communications Headquarters" in June 1946<ref>Smith, 1998, p. 176</ref>.
==After World War II==
GCHQ was at first based in [[London]], but in [[1953]]{{fact}} moved to the outskirts of [[Cheltenham]], setting up two sites there - Oakley and Benhall. It was not officially avowed until [[1983]]. The following year GCHQ was the centre of a political row when the [[Conservative Party (UK)|Conservative]] government of [[Margaret Thatcher]] prohibited its employees from joining a [[Trade Union]]. It was claimed that joining such a union would be in conflict with [[national security]]. The ban was eventually lifted by |
are insulated from the inefficiencies of those choices.
Another response is to point out that the "stock control plus law of the minimum" proposal ignores the key difficulty identified by the economic calculation problem: the measurement of costs of production according to a common unit. For efficient allocation, it's necessary to have a common unit of cost for all the many thousands of productive inputs. Such a unit is given by market prices, but is not given by stock control or by the law of the minimum.
The classical economic critique of this theory is to point out that all real-world instances of socialism have involved central planning to a greater or lesser degree, and absent any example of actually funtioning "Decentralized Socialism" it should be assumed to suffer from the economic calculation problem the way all other socialist economies have.
===Reply===
Decentralist socialists argue that while the calculation problem may not in itself rest on the assumption of society-wide or central planning, the attempted resolution of that "problem" in a non-market society will remain obfuscated or hidden from view if one assumes such a society to be a central planned one in this sense, as do most proponents of the calculation argument against socialism. This is because the notion of central planning necessarily precludes the operation of a self regulating system of stock control which is a key component of an effective counter-argument to the economic calculation argument along with [[calculation in kind]] ([[Otto Neurath]]) and the law of the minimum.
== Chinese socialism ==
The method used by China to resolve the economic calculation problem is that of a socialist market economy, in which the goals and the ownership are largely public, but this exists within a market pricing system. Of course, one might question whether China is still a socialist economy as it claims, when the means of production are increasingly privately owned and the [[Gini coefficient]] is higher than many capitalist countries.
==Trotsky==
One of the more surprising entries in the debate was this from [[Trotsky]]:
"If there existed the universal mind, that projected itself into the scientific fancy of Laplace; a mind that would register simultaneously all the processes of nature and of society, that could measure the dynamics of their motion, that could forecast the results of their inter-reactions, such a mind, of course, could a priori draw up a faultless and an exhaustive economic plan, beginning with a number of hectares of wheat and down to the last button for a vest. In truth, the bureaucracy often conceives that just such a mind is at its disposal; that is why it so easily frees itself from the control of the market and of Soviet democracy."
"The innumerable living participants of economy, State as well as private, collective as well as individual, must give notice of their needs and of their relative strength not only through the statistical determinations of plan commissions but by the direct pressure of supply and demand. The plan is checked and to a considerable measure, realized through the market. The regulation of the market itself must depend upon the tendencies that are brought out through its medium. The blueprints produced by the offices must demonstrate their economic expediency through commercial calculation."
...
"Economic accounting is unthinkable without market relations."
Leon Trotsky, "Soviet Economy in Danger", New York, 1933. Quoted in "Real Socialism Wouldn't Work Either".
(It should be noted, however, that this quotation refers to the transition period between the New Economic Program, better known as the [[NEP]], and the [[planned economy]] in the [[USSR]].)
==See also==
For elucidation of the economic calculation problem, see:
*[[anarcho-communism]]
*[[anarchist]]
*[[World Socialist Movement]]
===References===
[[D.R. Steele]], ''[[From Marx to Mises]]'' (Chicago: Open Court, 1992) ISBN 0812690168
===External links===
*[http://www.mises.org/econcalc.asp Economic Calculation in the Socialist Commonwealth by Ludwig von Mises]
*[http://cepa.newschool.edu/het/essays/paretian/social.htm The Socialist Calculation Debate]
*[http://www.libertarian.co.uk/lapubs/econn/econn046.pdf Real Socialism Wouldn't Work Either]
*[http://reality.gn.apc.org/econ/hayek.htm Information and Economics: A Critique of Hayek]
*[http://www.ecn.wfu.edu/~cottrell/socialism_book/calculation_debate.pdf Calculation, Complexity and Planning: The Socialist Calculation Debate Once Again]
[[Category:History of economic thought]]
[[Category:Socialism]]
[[Category:Problems]]
[[he:מחלוקת החישוב הכלכלי]]
[[ja:経済計算論争]]
[[nl:Economisch calculatieprobleem]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Erasmus Darwin</title>
<id>9299</id>
<revision>
<id>41930681</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T18:26:18Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>JackyR</username>
<id>541890</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Rocket engine */ moved "rocket engine" to Talk, pending investigation</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{dablink|This article is about Erasmus Darwin who lived 1731–1802; for his grandson see [[Erasmus Alvey Darwin]].}}
[[image:Portrait_of_Erasmus_Darwin_by_Joseph_Wright_of_Derby_(1792).jpg|thumb|right|Portrait of Erasmus Darwin by [[Joseph Wright of Derby]] ([[1792]]).]]
[[Image:Darwin cutout.gif|thumb|right|171px|Stone-cast bust of Erasmus Darwin, by [[William John Coffee]], c 1795, (Crown Derby Modeller and world renown artist)]]
'''Erasmus Darwin''' ([[December 12]],[[1731]] – [[April 18]],[[1802]]) trained as a [[physician]] and wrote extensively on medicine and botany, as well as composing [[poetry]]. He lived in [[Lichfield]] and [[Derby]], [[England]]. He was one of the founder members of the [[Lunar Society]], a discussion group of pioneering industrialists and [[natural philosopher]]s. He was a member of the [[Darwin — Wedgwood family]], most famously including his grandson, [[Charles Darwin]].
He was born near at [[Elston Hall]] near [[Nottingham]], and educated at [[Chesterfield School]] then later at [[St John's College, Cambridge|St. John's College]], [[University of Cambridge|Cambridge]]. He obtained his degree at [[Edinburgh Medical School]]. He settled in 1756 as a physician at Nottingham, but meeting with little success he moved in the following year to Lichfield. In 1757 he married Mary (Polly) Howard (died 1770). He practiced medicine in [[Lichfield]] in Staffordshire for twenty years; [[George III of the United Kingdom|George III]] invited him to be royal physician but he declined. In [[1781]] he married Elizabeth Pole and moved to her home, Radburn Hall, 4 miles west of [[Derby]]. (The hall and village are these days known as [[Radbourne]].) In [[1782]] they moved to Full Street, [[Derby]]. He died suddenly on the 18th of April 1802, weeks after having moved to Breadsall Priory just north of [[Derby]]. He is buried in All Saints Church, Breadsall. Erasmus Darwin is commemorated on one of the [[Lunar Society Moonstones|Moonstones]], a series of monuments in [[Birmingham]].
==Zoönomia==
His most important scientific work is his ''[[Zoönomia]]'' (1794&ndash;1796), which contains a system of [[pathology]], and a treatise on "[[generation]]," in which he, in the words of his famous grandson, [[Charles Robert Darwin]], anticipated the views of [[Jean-Baptiste Lamarck]], who in turn is regarded to have foreshadowed the [[theory of evolution]]. The essence of his views is contained in the following passage, which he follows up with the conclusion that one and the same kind of living filaments is and has been the cause of all organic life:
<blockquote>Would it be too bold to imagine that, in the great length of time since the earth began to exist, perhaps millions of ages before the commencement of the history of mankind would it be too bold to imagine that all warm-blooded animals have arisen from one living filament, which the great First Cause endued with animality, with the power of acquiring new parts, attended with new propensities, directed by irritations, sensations, volitions and associations, and thus possessing the faculty of continuing to improve by its own inherent activity, and of delivering down these improvements by generation to its posterity, world without end!</blockquote>
''Zoönomia'' is widely considered to foreshadow the pre-Darwinian theories of [[Jean-Baptiste Lamarck]], and maybe even the [[theory of evolution]] formulated by his grandson [[Charles Darwin]]. Another of his grandsons was [[Francis Galton]] (see family tree below).
==Other achievements==
In addition to the [[Lunar Society]], Erasmus Darwin belonged to the influential [[Derby Philosophical Society]], as did his nephew-in-law [[William Darwin Fox|Samuel Fox]] (see family tree below). He experimented with the use of air and gases to alleviate infections and cancers in patients. A Pneumatic Institution was established at [[Clifton]] in [[1799]] for clinically testing these ideas. He conducted research into the formation of [[cloud]]s, on which he published in [[1788]]. He also inspired [[Robert Weldon]]'s [[Somersetshire Coal Canal caisson lock]] (''[[:fr:Ascenseur à caisson du canal à charbon du Somersetshire|article in french]]'').
Darwin's experiments in [[galvanism]] inspired [[Mary Shelley]] to write ''[[Frankenstein]]''. His poetry was admired by [[Coleridge]] and [[Wordsworth]]; and often made reference to his interests in science, for example botany and [[steam engine]]s. His most famous work of poetry was ''The Botanic Garden''.
===Cosmological speculation===
Contemporary literature dated the cosmological theories of the [[Big Bang]] and [[Big Crunch]] to the 19th and 20th centuries. However Erasmus Darwin had speculated on these sort |
ge:Movie_poster_fahrenheit_9-11.jpg|thumb|''Fahrenheit 9/11'' movie poster.]]
[[Box office]] analysts have noted that this film genre has become increasingly successful in theatrical release with films such as ''[[Super Size Me]]'', ''[[Fahrenheit 9/11]]'' and ''[[March of the Penguins]]'' being the most successful examples. Compared to dramatic narrative films, documentaries typically have far lower budgets. This has made them attractive to film companies because even a limited theatrical release can be highly profitable.
The nature of documentary films has changed in the past 20 years from the cinema verité tradition. Landmark films such as ''[[The Thin Blue Line]]'' by [[Errol Morris]], which incorporated stylized re-enactments, and [[Michael Moore]]'s ''[[Roger and Me]]'', which made claims of chronology that were later questioned by critics such as [[Pauline Kael]], placed far more overt interpretive control in the hands of the director. Indeed, the commercial success of the documentaries mentioned above may owe something to this narrative shift in the documentary form, leading some critics to question whether such films can truly be called documentaries; critics usually refer to these works as "[[mondo films]]". However, directorial manipulation of documentary subjects has been noted since the work of Robert Flaherty, and may be endemic to the form.
The recent success of the documentary genre, and the advent of [[DVD]]s, has made documentaries financially viable even without a cinema release. There are now around thirty quality feature-length documentaries on notable photographers, for instance, a situation that would have seemed incredible twenty years ago. Documentaries are also being released only on the internet for those with [[broadband access]], notably ''[[Stolen Honor]]'' (2004) about [[John Kerry]].
Modern documentaries have a substantial overlap with other forms of television, with the development of so-called ''[[reality television]]'' that occasionally verges on the documentary but more often veers to the fictional or staged.
The ''making-of'' documentary shows how a [[Film|movie]] or a [[Computer and video games|computer game]] was produced. Usually made for promotional purposes, it is usually closer to an advertisement than to classical documentary.
Modern lightweight digital video cameras and computer-based editing have greatly aided documentary makers, as has the dramatic drop in equipment prices.
==Lists of directors and producers of documentaries==
See [[Lists of directors and producers of documentaries]]
==See also==
*[[Docu-drama]]
*[[List of movie-related topics|List of motion picture-related topics]]
*[[Mockumentary]]
*[[Mondo film]]
*[[Nature documentary]]
*[[Pseudodocumentary]]
*[[Webumentary]]
===Documentary film festivals===
*[[International Documentary Filmfestival Amsterdam]]
*[[Full Frame Documentary Film Festival]] - North Carolina
*[[Festival International de film documentaires "Cinéma du Réel"]] - France
*[[Dokumentarfilmfestival Leipzig]] - Germany
*[[Yamagata International Documentary Festival]] - Japan
*[http://www.dokfest-muenchen.de DOK.FEST International Documentary Festival Munich] - Germany
*[http://hsdfi.org Hot Springs Documentary Film Festival] - Hot Springs, Arkansas
*[http://www.sidf.co.uk Sheffield International Documentary Festival] - UK
*[http://www.hotdocs.ca Hot Docs Canadian International Documentary Festival] – [[Toronto]], [[Canada]]
*[http://www.docnzfestival.com DOCNZ New Zealand International Documentary Film Festival] - New Zealand
===Significant institutes dealing with documentary===
*[[Documentary Filmmakers Group, UK]]
*[[National Film Board of Canada]]
*[[EMB Film Unit]]
*[[International Documentary Association]]
*[[American Film Foundation]]
*[[Film Arts Foundation]]
*[http://www.docuinter.net Institute of Documentary Film]
==Literature==
*Ian Aitken (ed) ''Encyclopedia of the Documentary Film'', Routledge, 2005
*[http://www.lib.berkeley.edu/MRC/documentarybib.html Documentary Film Bibliography (via UC Berkeley)]
*[[Erik Barnouw]],'' Documentary. A History of the Non-Fiction Film,'' Oxford University Press 1993 - still a useful introduction
* Julianne Burton (ed.), ''The social documentary in Latin America'', Pittsburgh, Pa. : University of Pittsburgh Press 1990
* Jonathan Dawson, "Dziga Vertov"; http://www.sensesofcinema.com/contents/directors/03/vertov.html
*[[Bill Nichols]], ''Representing Reality: Issues and Concepts in Documentary'', Indiana University Press 1991
*[[Paul Rotha]], ''Documentary diary; an informal history of the British documentary film'', 1928-1939, New York, Hill and Wang 1973
*Janet Walker and Diane Waldeman, ''Feminism and Documentary'', Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press 1999.
*Markus Nornes, ''Japanese Documentary Film: The Meiji Era through Hiroshima'',University of Minnesota Press 2003
*Jim Leach (ed.), ''Candid eyes : essays on Canadian documentaries'', University of Toronto Press, 2003
==Documentaries about documentary filmmakers==
*Devotion. A film about [[Ogawa Productions]], Director: [[Barbara Hammer]], 2000
==External links==
*[http://www.americanfilmfoundation.com American Film Foundation: Award-Winning not-for-profit Documentary Production Foundation]
*[http://www.dfglondon.com/ The Documentary Filmmakers Group, UK's largest documentary organisation]
*[http://www.doculink.org/ Doculink - a free online community of over 1000 docmakers]
*[http://www.city.yamagata.yamagata.jp/yidff/docbox/docbox-e.html Documentary Box]
*[http://www.der.org/ Documentary Educational Resources &ndash; Documentary distribution and production since 1968]
*[http://www.docurama.com/ Docurama - the first and only video label devoted entirely to documentary film]
*[http://www.docuseek.com Docuseek - Search site for independent documentary, social issue, and educational videos]
*[http://www.insightnewstv.com Insight News TV (Online Documentary Films)]
*[http://www.docuinter.net Institute of Documentary Film - Prague, Czech Republic]
*[http://www.documentary.org/ International Documentary Association]
*[http://www.mediaed.org/videos/CommercialismPoliticsAndMedia/MickeyMouseMonopoly/studyguide/html ''Mickey Mouse Monopoly'', a documentary on Disney racism]
*[http://www.myprimers.com/my_primers/documentary_film/ My Primers: Making a short documentary film]
*[http://www.realityfilm.com Reality film: An online resource for documentary film and video]
*[http://www.documentary-film.net Upload Videos Free, Watch Movies Online]
*[http://www.greencine.com/static/primers/docs1.jsp GreenCine primer on Documentaries]
*[http://www.ridm.qc.ca/ Rencontres internationales du documentaire de Montréal]
===Distributors of documentary films===
*[http://www.commonflix.org/ CommonFlix] Sell and distribute your documentary online
*[http://www.newsreel.org/ California Newsreel]
*[http://www.frif.com/ First Run Icarus Films]
*[http://www.cactusthree.com/ Cactus Three]
===Documentaries available to watch online===
*[http://www.ansarburney.org/videolinks/video-hbo1.html Sport of Sheikhs] - Emmy and duPont award winning documentary on child slavery in the Middle East
*[http://www.ansarburney.org/videolinks/video-macedonia_killings.html/ War on Terror] - documentary on the staged killing of 7 innocent men in the name of "war on terror"
[[Category:Documentary films|*]]
[[Category:Film]]
[[Category:Documentaries|*]]
[[bg:Документален филм]]
[[Dokumentární film]]
[[da:Dokumentarfilm]]
[[de:Dokumentarfilm]]
[[es:Documental]]
[[fr:Film documentaire]]
[[ja:ドキュメンタリー]]
[[hu:Dokumentumfilm]]
[[nl:Documentaire]]
[[pl:Film dokumentalny]]
[[ro:Film documentar]]
[[ru:Документальное кино]]
[[sv:Dokumentärfilm]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Drama film</title>
<id>8089</id>
<revision>
<id>41709367</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T05:23:40Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Pegship</username>
<id>355698</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>semantics</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">A '''''drama film''''' is a [[film]] that depends mostly on in-depth character development, interaction, and highly emotional themes. In a good drama film, the audience are able to experience what other characters are feeling and identify with someone.
This genre could be especially useful by challenging the ignorance from stereotypes or any other overly simplistic generalisations by bringing it down to a more personal and complex level. As well, such movies could also be theraputic by showing how characters cope with their problems, challenges, or issues, and to the extent the viewer can identify with the characters with his or her own world.
This film genre can be contrasted with an [[action film]] which relies on fast-paced action and develops characters sparsely.
==See also==
* [[List of drama films]]
{{Drama-film-stub}}
[[Category:Film genres|Drama]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Day of the Tentacle</title>
<id>8090</id>
<revision>
<id>42128599</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T00:30:14Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>JiFish</username>
<id>237070</id>
</contributor>
<comment>rv linkspam</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox CVG| title = Maniac Mansion: Day of the Tentacle
| image = [[Image:Day-of-the-tentacle-cover-art.jpg|200px|]]
| developer = [[LucasArts]]
| publisher = [[LucasArts]]
| designer = [[Dave Grossman]], [[Tim Schafer]]
| engine = [[SCUMM]]
| released = [[1993]]
| genre = [[Adventure game]]
| modes = [[Single player]]
| ratings = [[ESRB]]: K-A, [[USK]]: 12+
| platforms = [[Personal computer|PC]]:[[DOS]], [[Apple Macintosh|Macintosh]]
| media = 3 1/2" [[Floppy disk]], [[CD-ROM]]
| requirements =
| input = [[Mouse]]
}}
'''''Maniac Mansion: Day of the Tentacle''''' ('''DoTT''') is a graphical [[adventure game]], or |
activity at conventions. Its first documented deliberate use was by [[Karen Kruse Anderson]] in ''Die Zeitschrift für vollständigen Unsinn'' (''The Journal for Utter Nonsense'') #774 (June 1953), for a song written by her husband [[Poul Anderson]].
At the 1974 World Science Fiction Convention, author [[Robert Asprin|Bob Asprin]] announced publicly the creation of a group of volunteers he dubbed the [http://www.di.org/ Dorsai Irregulars], and a singing session ensued later that night (according to John Hall's essay, "[http://www.di.org/di_f_his.htm Filk Music and the Dorsai Irregulars]" (a reference to a culture in [[Gordon R. Dickson]]'s [[Childe Cycle]] books). In the 1970s and 1980s, filking slowly became established as an acknowledged activity at science fiction conventions. Some convention organizers allotted hotel function space late at night for filkers, or filking occurred in hallways, bars or any other place that the filkers could find. Some convention organizers in the 1980s began inviting guests specifically for their filking. Some specialized conventions focused entirely on filk, beginning with FilkCon in [[Chicago]] in 1979, organized by [http://www.filkontario.ca/1997.htm#middle Margaret Middleton] and Curt Clemmer, later joined by BayFilk in Northern California; the [http://www.ovff.org Ohio Valley Filk Fest] (OVFF) in Columbus, Ohio; ConChord in [[Los Angeles]], California; Musicon in [[Nashville, Tennessee]]; [http://www.filkontario.ca FilkOntario] near [[Toronto]], [[Ontario]]; a rotating British filkcon; and others. These efforts grew to raising funds for traveling filkers. The first was a British Filk Fund modeled on the [http://taff.org.uk/ Trans-Atlantic Fan Fund] and then, in the early 1990s, several active organizers in North America [http://www.interfilk.org/interfilk/back.htm created Interfilk], which is now the most active traveling filker fund. Beginning with British filker Mike Whitaker in 1992, 40 filkers were the beneficiaries of [http://www.interfilk.org/ Interfilk] subsidies in its first decade. OVFF began presenting the [[Pegasus Award]] annually for excellence in filk in 1984, and [http://www.filkontario.ca FilkOntario] started the [http://www.filkontario.ca/HallofFame.htm Filk Hall of Fame] in 1995.
[[Off Centaur Publications]] became the first formal attempt to record and produce filk albums, followed by many others since. As the costs of amateur album production dropped in the 1990s, more filkers created albums and, more recently, audio files available for downloading online.
E-mail and the internet have also fostered the networking of self-identified filkers. In the late 1980s, California filker Kay Shapero created the filk group on the Fidonet hobbyist network of electronic bulletin boards. The later creation of other electronic forums&#151;the Usenet group rec.music.filk, a [http://www.filklore.com/filk_uk.phtml British Isles e-mail list], an [http://www.filknet.org/irc.html IRC channel] devoted to filking, and a growing cluster of filkers blogging on [http://www.livejournal.com Livejournal] (including a Livejournal [http://community.livejournal.com/filk/ community]), to pick a few examples&#151;have mirrored the growing connections among other self-identified social networks (or subcultures). The availability of several hundred albums labeled filk, the proliferation of specialty filk conventions, and the continued growth of electronic means for community connections have led to an intensification of community building. A few years into the 21st century, filking as an identifiable community exists on at least three continents.
æ
==A cultural perspective==
There are several shared values that come from the cultural creation of filk in a social network, even one that spans several continents.
At a deep level, the folk culture of filk validates creative arts in the midst of an explicitly technological culture. When accepting induction into the Filk Hall of Fame in 1993, ethnomusicologist Sally Childs-Helton said, ''We have taken our right to be creative and to literally "play" in the best sense of that word.'' Filk combines folk roots, live music circles, and dominant acoustical instrumentation, on the one hand, with high-tech cultural maintenance, on the other hand&#151;a dense network of filkers' web pages, recordings, sound reinforcement at filk conventions, e-mail lists, and so on. The eclectic content of filk frequently contains that assertion of human creativity, especially in connection with technology. (See for example Leslie Fish's [http://www.ovff.org/pegasus/songs/hope-eyrie.html Hope Eyrie].) While there are significant numbers of memorial songs (e.g., Launius, 2004), pessimistic songs blame carelessness, incompetence, and corruption, only rarely considering the frailties of a society built on technology or hopes for the future. Because these themes cross international boundaries in filk, they are not explainable as a purely American optimism vis-a-vis technology (e.g., Nye, 1996).
Within the community, the folk culture of filk acknowledges the legitimacy of music created by artists with a broad range of skills. Those who actively identify themselves as filkers include professional musicians, musical novices, and all ranges in between. The repeat appearances of professional musicians at filk-specific conventions suggests a certain amount of respect given high levels of musical skill within filking, even while the culture is open to less experienced musicians. Whether the occasion is a '''housefilk''' in someone's home or a convention (festival) over a weekend, filk culture encourages respectful listening regardless of the performers' skill level and manifest opportunities for participation from single songs in a musical circle to scheduled concerts. That openness to participation is a marked norm in filking (e.g., Jenkins, 1992).
The supportiveness of the filk community may be its greatest contribution to a larger society which so often glorifies competition and super-stardom. While the folk music community in general is less competitive and more supportive than the professional classical and pop music communities, filk has distilled this even further. There are many examples of newcomers to the filk scene being unable to sing or play even remotely in time or on pitch, who have been not merely tolerated but encouraged and mentored, who have grown into fully adequate amateur musicians, and in a few cases, even highly regarded performers.
Occasional discussions over the boundaries of filk indicates the extent to which participants in filking are both aware of and keenly interested in the definition of filk as a community. Newsgroup debates over such topics as [http://groups.google.com/group/alt.music.filk/browse_thread/thread/27e133d9408370ba/ca2d4f0a1b157027?lnk=st&q=filk+'weird+al'&rnum=3&hl=en#ca2d4f0a1b157027 whether 'Weird Al' Yankovic is a filker] suggest the deep feelings involved. In practice, most formal recognition of filkers in various awards are to those who regularly attend self-identified filk events, not to professional artists whose work may be considered '''found filk'''.
===Section references===
* [http://www.filkontario.ca/BSCHspeeches.htm Filk Hall of Fame acceptance speeches by Sally and Barry Childs-Helton].
* Solomon H. Davidoff, ''"Filk:" A Study of Shared Musical Traditions and Related Phenomena among Fan Groups'' (M.A. thesis, Bowling Green State University, 1996). Bowling Green State University Thesis 6673. (At BGSU, call no. LD 4191 O6 No 6673.)
* Henry Jenkins, ''Textual Poachers: Television Fans and Participatory Culture'' (New York: Routledge, 1992), Chapter 8: "'Strangers No More We Sing': Filk Music, Folk Culture, and the Fan Community."
* Roger D. Launius, "Got Filk? Lament For Apollo In Modern Science Fiction Folk Music" 5th International Astronautical Congress 2004; Vancouver; Canada; 4-8 October. 2004. pp. 1-11. [http://md1.csa.com/partners/viewrecord.php?requester=gs&collection=TRD&recid=A051240614AH&q=filk+music&uid=787232194&setcookie=yes abstract]
* David E. Nye, ''American Technological Sublime'' (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1996).
==See also==
* [[Science fiction fandom]]
* [[Science fiction conventions]]
* [[Society for Creative Anachronism]]
==External links==
===Filking culture and history===
* [http://www.kayshapero.net/filkfaq.htm rec.music.filk FAQ]
* [http://www.filk.com/filk101.htm Jane Mailander's Filking 101 essay]
* [http://www.filking.net/ Dandelion Report] (Canada)
* [http://www.filk.co.uk/ WiGGle newsletter site] (UK)
* [http://www.filk.info/ Let's Filk About] (Germany)
* [http://filk.de/ Das Sprungtor zum deutschen Filkfandom] (Germany)
* [http://www.filk.com/ DAG Productions] (has some articles about culture)
* [http://www.di.org/di_f_his.htm Filk Music and the Dorsai Irregulars] by John Hall
* [http://www.nightsong.com/filk/twippledop/ Tracking Down the First Deliberate Use of "Filk Song"] by Lee Gold
* [http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=4967052 National Public Radio story on filking], and the [http://www.wired.com/news/digiwood/0,1412,68697,00.html Wired story] by the same journalist (reporting on the 2005 ConChord)
===Filk conventions===
[http://www.filk.info/cons/archiv.php?kategorie=0 Calendar listing] of upcoming conventions
Regular filk conventions sorted by time of year:
* [http://www.gafilk.org/ GAFilk] (Georgia) (early January)
* [http://www.contabile.org.uk/ Contabile] (British&#151;has an annual nickname)(early February)
* [http://www.consonance.org/ Consonance] (San Jose) (early March)
* [http://www.filkontario.ca/ FilKONtario, FKO] (Ontario) (early April)
* [http://www.nefilk.us/ the floating northeastern U.S. filk convention] (summer)
* [http://harmuni.org/ HarmUni III] (UK) (summer 2007)
* [http://www.conchord.org/ ConChord] (Los Angeles) ( |
le a few relied on financial support from a wealthy patron. Early Labour MPs were often provided with a salary by a trade union, but this was declared illegal by a House of Lords judgement of 1910. Consequently a clause was included in the Parliament Act 1911 introducing salaries for MPs. It should be noted that government ministers had always been paid.
==Members and elections==
[[Image:Fullchamber.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Full Chamber in the British House of Commons. Notice that there are not enough seats for all MPs when the Chamber is full, requiring some to stand. There are 646 MP's, but only 427 seats. This is because the Commons was deliberately designed not to house all its members, the rationale being that if every member has their own seat then the majority of debates will be held in a chamber that is half empty. Most debates are fairly empty anyway, but ''all'' MP's (except [[Sinn Fein]] and those on leave of absence) are present for the state opening of parliament.]]
Each Member of Parliament represents a single constituency. Prior to the reforms of the nineteenth century, the constituencies had little basis in population: the counties and the boroughs (whose boundaries were fixed) were, for the most part, equally represented in the Lower House by two Members each. Reforms enacted during the nineteenth century, starting with the [[Reform Act 1832]], led to a more equitable distribution of seats. Moreover, the reforms of 1885 abolished most two-member constituencies; the few that remained were all abolished in 1948. [[University constituency|University constituencies]] (the constituencies that allowed important universities such as [[University of Oxford|Oxford]] and [[University of Cambridge|Cambridge]] to be represented in Parliament) were abolished in the same year. Thus, each constituency now elects only one Member of Parliament. There is still a technical distinction between [[county constituency|county constituencies]] and [[borough constituency|borough constituencies]], but the only effect of this difference involves the amount of money candidates are allowed to spend during campaigns.
The boundaries of the constituencies are determined by four permanent and independent [[Boundary Commission]]s, one each for [[England]], [[Wales]], [[Scotland]], and [[Northern Ireland]]. The number of constituencies assigned to the four parts of the United Kingdom is based roughly on population, but subject to certain statutory regulations. England, Wales, and Scotland must have a total of approximately 613 constituencies, and Northern Ireland must include between sixteen and eighteen constituencies. By law Wales must have at least 35 Members of Parliament. The Commissions conduct general reviews of electoral boundaries once every eight to twelve years, as well as a number of interim reviews. In drawing boundaries, they are required to take into account local government boundaries, but may deviate from this requirement in order to prevent great disparities in the populations of the various constituencies. The proposals of the Boundary Commissions are subject to parliamentary approval, but may not be amended by Parliament. After the next general review of constituencies, the Boundary Commissions will be absorbed into the [[Electoral Commission (UK)|Electoral Commission]], which was established in 2000.Currently the United Kingdom is divided into [[List of Parliamentary constituencies in the United Kingdom|646 constituencies]], with 529 in England, 40 in Wales, 59 in Scotland, and 18 in Northern Ireland.
[[United Kingdom general elections|General elections]] occur whenever [[Dissolution of parliament|Parliament is dissolved]] by the Sovereign (Monarch). The timing of the dissolution is normally chosen by the Prime Minister (see [[#relationship with the Government|relationship with the Government]] below); however, a parliamentary term may not last for more than five years, unless a Bill extending the life of Parliament passes both Houses and receives Royal Assent. (The date of a [[General Election]] is the choice of the [[Prime Minister]], but traditionally, it happens to be a [[Thursday]].) The House of Lords, exceptionally, retains its power of veto over such a Bill. Each candidate must submit nomination papers signed by ten registered voters from the constituency, and pay a deposit of £500, which is refunded only if the candidate wins at least five per cent of the vote. The deposit seeks to discourage frivolous candidates. Each constituency returns one Member; the [[First Past the Post electoral system|First-Past-the-Post]] electoral system, under which the candidate with a [[plurality]] of votes wins, is used. Minors, members of the House of Lords, prisoners, and insane persons are not qualified to become Members. In order to vote, one must be a resident of the United Kingdom as well as a citizen of the [[United Kingdom]], of a [[British overseas territory]], of the [[Republic of Ireland]], or of a member of the [[Commonwealth of Nations]]. Also, British citizens living abroad are allowed to vote for fifteen years after moving from the United Kingdom. No voter may vote in more than one constituency.
Once elected, the Member of Parliament normally continues to serve until the next dissolution of Parliament or until death. If a Member, however, ceases to be qualified (see [[#Qualifications|qualifications]] below), his or her seat falls vacant. It is possible for the House of Commons to expel a Member, but this power is only exercised when the Member has engaged in serious misconduct or criminal activity. In each case, a vacancy may be filled by a [[by-election]] in the appropriate constituency. The same electoral system is used as in general elections.
The term "Member of Parliament" is normally used only to refer to Members of the House of Commons, even though the House of Lords is also a part of Parliament. Members of the House of Commons may use the [[post-nominal letters]] "MP." The annual salary of each Member is £59,095; Members may receive additional salaries in right of other offices they hold (for instance, the Speakership). Most Members also claim between £100,000 and £150,000 for various office expenses (staff costs, postage, travelling, etc) and also for the costs of maintaining a home in London in the case of non-London Members.
==Qualifications==
There are numerous qualifications that apply to Members of Parliament. Most importantly, one must be aged at least twenty-one years (although this is due to change to eighteen), and must be a citizen of the United Kingdom, of a British overseas territory, of the Republic of Ireland, or of a member of the Commonwealth of Nations, in order to be eligible. These restrictions were introduced by the [[British Nationality Act 1981]], but were previously far more stringent: under the [[Act of Settlement 1701]], only natural-born subjects were qualified. Members of the House of Lords may not serve in the House of Commons, or even vote.
A person may not sit in the House of Commons if he or she is the subject of a Bankruptcy Restrictions Order (applicable in England and Wales only), or if he or she is adjudged bankrupt (in Northern Ireland), or if his or her estate is sequestered (in Scotland). Also, lunatics are ineligible to sit in the House of Commons. Under the [[Mental Health Act 1959]], two specialists must report to the Speaker that a Member is suffering from mental illness before a seat can be declared vacant. There also exists a [[common law]] precedent from the eighteenth century that the "deaf and dumb" are ineligible to sit in the Lower House. This precedent, however, has not been tested in recent years, and is highly unlikely to be upheld by the courts - the deaf or mute are nomally quite capable of being MP's - to refuse this would be in breach of the [[Human Rights Act]], and [[Jack Ashley, Baron Ashley of Stoke|Jack Ashley]] continued to serve very ably as an MP for 25 years after becoming profoundly deaf.
Anyone found guilty of [[high treason]] may not sit in Parliament until he or she has either completed the term of imprisonment, or received a full pardon from the Crown. Moreover, anyone serving a prison sentence of one year or more is ineligible. Finally, the [[Representation of the People Act 1983]] disqualifies those found guilty of certain election-related offences for ten years. Several other disqualifications are established by the [[House of Commons Disqualification Act 1975]]. Holders of high judicial offices, [[civil servant]]s, members of the regular [[armed forces]], members of foreign legislatures (excluding members of the legislatures of the Republic of Ireland and Commonwealth countries), and holders of several Crown offices listed in the Act are all disqualified. The provisions of the House of Commons Disqualification Act 1975 largely consolidate the clauses of several previous enactments; in particular, several Crown officers had already been disqualified since the passage of the Act of Settlement 1707. Ministers, even though they are paid officers of the Crown, are not disqualified.
The rule that precludes certain Crown officers from serving in the House of Commons is used to circumvent a resolution adopted by the House of Commons in 1623, under which Members are not permitted to resign their seats (in theory). In practice, however, they always can: Should a Member seek to leave, he or she may request appointment to one of two ceremonial Crown offices: that of Crown Steward and Bailiff of the Chiltern Hundreds, or that of Crown Steward and Bailiff of the Manor of Northstead. These offices are [[sinecure]]s (that is, they involve no actual duties); they exist solely in order to permit the "resignation" of Members of the House of Commons. The [[Chancellor of the Exchequer]] is responsible for making the appointment, and, by convention, never refuses to do so when asked by a Mem |
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<contributor>
<username>NekoDaemon</username>
<id>239574</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Robot: [[Cat#Communication|Nyaa]]! [[Template talk:Categoryredirect|Categoryredirect]]: [[Category:Pardon recipients]] → [[Category:People who were pardoned by the President of the United States]]. Requested change by [[User:Kbdank71|]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{LDSInfobox|
English name=Brigham Young|
image=[[Image:Brigham_Young.jpg|250px]]|
birth_name=Brigham Young|
birth_date=[[June 1]], [[1801]]|
birthplace=[[Whitingham, Vermont]]|
ordained_12= [[February 14]], [[1835]]|
predecessor_12=Original Twelve|
successor_12=[[John Henry Smith]]|
prophet=prophet|
prophet_date=[[December 27]], [[1847]]|
predecessor=[[Joseph Smith, Jr|Joseph Smith]]|
successor=[[John Taylor (1808-1887)|John Taylor]]|
dead=dead|
death_date=[[August 29]], [[1877]]|
deathplace=[[Salt Lake City]], [[Utah]]|}}
'''Brigham Young''' ([[June 1]], [[1801]] &ndash; [[August 29]], [[1877]]) was the second [[prophet]] and [[President of the Church (Mormonism)|president]] of [[Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints|The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]] (LDS Church; see also [[Mormonism]]).
Young had a variety of [[sobriquet|sobriquets]], among the most popular of which is "The American [[Moses]]" [http://www.lds.org/newsroom/showpackage/0%2C15367%2C3899-31--34-2-190%2C00.html], (sometimes "The Modern Moses" or "The Mormon Moses" [http://overlandtrails.byu.edu/mapsessay.html]) because, like the biblical figure, he led his followers in an often arduous "[[exodus]]" through a [[desert]], to what they saw as a "promised land". He was also dubbed "The Lion of the Lord" for his bold personality. He was also called "Brother Brigham".
==Life==
Young was born to a farming family in [[Vermont]] and worked as a traveling [[carpenter]] and [[blacksmith]], among other trades. Young first married in [[1824]].
Though he had converted to the [[Methodist]] faith in [[1823]], Young was drawn to Mormonism after reading the [[Book of Mormon]] shortly after its publication in [[1830]]. He officially joined the new church in [[1832]] and traveled to [[Canada]] as a [[Mormon missionary|missionary]]. After his first wife died in [[1833]], Young joined many Mormons in establishing a community in [[Kirtland, Ohio|Kirtland]], [[Ohio]].{{Template:LDS}}
Young was strongly committed to his new faith. He was ordained an [[Apostle (Mormonism)|apostle]] and joined the [[Quorum of the Twelve Apostles]] as one of the first members on [[February 14]], [[1835]]. During the anti-Mormon persecutions in Missouri in the late 1830's, he suffered the loss of all his property, and other hardships. In [[1840]] and [[1841]], he went to [[England]] as a missionary for his church. Many of those Young converted moved to the [[United States]] to join Mormon communities there. In the 1840s Young was among those who established the city of [[Nauvoo, Illinois|Nauvoo]], [[Illinois]] on the [[Mississippi River]]. It became the headquarters of the church and was comparable in size to the city of [[Chicago, Illinois|Chicago]].
While in jail awaiting trial for treason charges, church president [[Joseph Smith, Jr.|Joseph Smith]] was killed by an armed mob of vigilantes in [[1844]]. Several claimants to his role as [[President of the Church (Mormonism)|church president]] emerged during the [[Succession crisis (Mormonism)|succession crisis]] that ensued. [[Sidney Rigdon]], the only surviving member of the [[First Presidency]] put himself forward as "guardian of the Church," but at a meeting of a congregation in Nauvoo, Young successfully counter-argued that the [[Quorum of the Twelve]] should instead lead the Church. This motion carried and Young, as president of the quorum, became the ''de facto'' president of the church at Nauvoo. Rigdon became the president of a separate [[Rigdonite|church organization]] based in [[Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania]] and other potential successors emerged to lead what became separate denominations of the movement. ''See'' [[Latter-day Saint movement]].
== Actions as Church President ==
After three years under the Quorum of the Twelve, Young reorganized a new [[First Presidency]] and was declared President of the largest remaining schism in 1847. Repeated conflict led Young to relocate his group of Latter-day Saints to a territory in what is now [[Utah]]; then part of [[Mexico]]. Young organized the journey that would take the faithful to [[Winter Quarters]], [[Nebraska]], in [[1846]], then to Utah's Salt Lake Valley on [[July 24]], [[1847]], a date now recognized as a [[Utah]] state [[holiday]] and known as [[Pioneer Day]].
Shortly after the new Mormon colonies were brought into the United States through [[Mexican Cession]], Young petitioned the U.S. Congress to create the [[State of Deseret]]. The [[Compromise of 1850]] instead carved out [[Utah Territory]], and Young was installed as governor. As governor and LDS president, Young directed both religious and economic matters. He encouraged independence and self-sufficiency. Many cities and towns in Utah, and some in neighboring states, were founded under Young's direction. Some have accused Young of being an [[autocrat]] during his leadership in Utah [http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761555412/Young_Brigham.html]. Others disagree with this assessment, recognizing Young as a strong, inspiring leader during a challenging era, and further noting that his reputation and legacy are generally well-regarded.
When federal officials received reports of widespread and systematic obfuscation of federal officials in Utah (most notably judges), [[James Buchanan|President Buchanan]] decided to install a non-mormon governor. When Young received word that federal troops led by [[Albert Sydney Johnston]] were headed to Utah with his replacement, he directed resistance, but insisted that no blood be shed. During this episode, now called the [[Utah War]], Young successfully held the U.S. Army at bay for a winter. He made plans to burn [[Salt Lake City]] and move his followers to Mexico, but at the last minute he relented, and agreed to step down as governor. He later received a [[pardon]] from President Buchanan for his role in the episode. Relations between Young and future governors and U.S. Presidents were mixed. Abraham Lincoln, at the time the transcontinental telegram wire was laid across Utah, worked together with Brigham Young rather than with the federally-appointed governor of the territory.
A recurrent question is the nature or extent of Young's involvement in murders and other illegal activities in early Utah, particularly the [[Mountain Meadows Massacre]], which took place in [[Washington County, Utah|Washington County]] in 1857. Authorities in nearby [[Iron County, Utah|Iron County]] had sent a messenger to Salt Lake City seeking direction from Young, but his response&mdash;directing them to leave the wagon party alone&mdash;arrived too late to avert the massacre. [[John D. Lee]], the only person convicted for participation in the massacre, maintained Young's innocence until his death. This inspite of the fact that Lee was personally bitter toward Young for excommunicating him. The massacre at Mountain Meadows was primarily a reaction to the murders and other atrocities committed by the wagon-train migrants against the local Native American population. The Natives pressured the local Mormons to join them in a counter-attack against the violent invaders.
Young was actually indicted on murder charges in 1872, related to a separate incident. This indictment was based on the testimony of [["Wild Bill" Hickman|William Hickman]], who also felt jilted when 8 of his 9 wives left him, after Young had him excommunicated. Hickman's credibility has always been considered questionable, at best. Young's murder indictment was thrown out, when the U.S. Supreme Court ruled that the process used to select grand juries in Utah was unconstitutional, because it was designed to keep Mormons off juries.
In addition to founding the [[University of Utah]], Young also organized the [[Mormon Tabernacle Choir]]. [[Brigham Young University]] is named after him. In [[1950]], the state of Utah donated a marble statue of Young to the [[U.S. Capitol]]'s [[National Statuary Hall Collection]].
For an overview of Brigham Young's philosophy and teachings, see the book "Brother Brigham Challenges the Saints," by [[Hugh Nibley]].
== Plural Wives ==
Young was perhaps the most famous [[Polygamy#Mormon Polygamy|polygamist]] of the early church. Young married some 50 women and had 57 known children. These marriages were not recognized as legally binding according to U.S. law, and in response to a suit for alimony from one of his "ex-wives", Young successfully argued in court that he owed no alimony because they were never legally married. In [[1856]] he built the [[Lion House]] to accommodate his sizable family. This remains a Salt Lake City landmark, together with [[the Beehive House]], another Brigham Young Family home.
What follows is a listing of Brigham Young's wives. An asterisk indicates "a wife not recognized in traditional histories, even though there is evidence of at least one of the following: the ceremony, sexual cohabitation, or a formal divorce"; names in parenthesis are the surnames of previous husbands; "divorce" indicates a formal dissolution of the marriage through secular or ecclesiastical procedures; "remarried" indicates later marriage of the wife to another husband. See D. Michael Quinn, ''The Mormon Hierarchy: Origins of Power,'' Signature Books, Salt Lake City, 1994, 685 pages, ISBN 1-56085-056-6; Appendix 6, "Biographical Sketches of Officers of the Church of Jesus |
;#8211;[[1930]])
=== H ===
*[[Tunc Hamarat]] (Turkey, Austria, [[1946]]&ndash; )
*[[Wilhelm Hanstein]] (Germany, [[1811]]&ndash;[[1850]])
*[[Pentala Harikrishna]] (India, [[1986]]&ndash; )
*[[Max Harmonist]] (Germany, [[1864]]&#8211;[[1907]])
*[[Daniel Harrwitz]] (Germany, France, [[1823]]&#8211;[[1884]])
*[[William Hartston]] (England, [[1947]]&ndash; )
*[[Jonny Hector]] (Sweden, [[1964]]&ndash; )
*[[Julian Hodgson]] (England, [[1963]]&ndash; )
*[[Vlastimil Hort]] (Czechoslovakia, Germany, [[1944]]&#8211; )
*[[Israel Horowitz]] (US, [[1907]]&#8211;[[1973]])
*[[Bernhard Horwitz]] (Germany, England, [[1807]]&#8211;[[1885]])
*[[Robert Hübner]] (Germany, [[1948]]&#8211; )
=== I ===
*[[Nana Ioseliani]] (Georgia, [[1962]]&#8211; )
*[[Miguel Illescas Cordoba]] (Spain, [[1965]]&ndash; )
*[[Vassily Ivanchuk]] (Ukraine, [[1969]]&#8211; )
*[[Igor Ivanov (chess player)|Igor Ivanov]] (Russia, [[1947]]&#8211;[[2005]])
*[[Sergey Ivanov]] (Russia, [[1960]]&#8211; )
*[[Borislav Ivkov]] (Yugoslavia, [[1933]]&#8211; )
=== J ===
*[[Carl Jaenisch]] (Russia, [[1813]]&ndash;[[1872]])
*[[David Janowski]] (Poland, France [[1868]]&#8211;[[1927]])
*[[Leif Erlend Johannessen]] (Norway, [[1980]]&ndash; )
*[[Darryl Johansen]] (Australia, [[1959]]&ndash; )
*[[Paul Johner]] (Switzerland, [[1887]]&#8211;[[1938]])
=== K ===
*[[Gata Kamsky]] (Russia, USA, [[1974]]&#8211; )
*[[Mona May Karff]] (Palestine, USA, [[1914]]&ndash;[[1998]])
*[[Sergey Karjakin]] (Ukraine, [[1990]]&ndash; )
*[[Anatoly Karpov]] (Russia, [[1951]]&#8211; )
*[[Rustam Kasimdzhanov]] (Uzbekistan, [[1979]]&#8211; )
*[[Garry Kasparov]] (Russia, [[1963]]&#8211; )
*[[Lubomir Kavalek]] (Czechoslovakia, US, [[1943]]&#8211; )
*[[Raymond Keene]] (England, [[1948]]&#8211; )
*[[Paul Keres]] (Estonia, [[1916]]&#8211;[[1975]])
*[[Alexander Khalifman]] (Russia, [[1966]]&#8211; )
*[[Lionel Kieseritzky]] (Poland, Germany, [[1806]]&#8211;[[1853]])
*[[Ernst Klein]] (England, [[1910]]&ndash;[[1990]])
*[[Janis Klovans]] (Latvia, [[1935]]&#8211; )
*[[Georges Koltanowski]] (Belgium, USA, [[1903]]&#8211;[[2000]])
*[[Koneru Humpy]] (India, [[1987]]&ndash; )
*[[Viktor Korchnoi]] (Russia, Switzerland, [[1931]]&#8211; )
*[[Yona Kosashvili]] (Georgia, Israel, [[1970]]&#8211; )
*[[Nadezhda Kosintseva]] (Russia, [[1985]]&#8211; )
*[[Alexandra Kosteniuk]] (Russia, [[1984]]&#8211; )
*[[Borislav Kostić]] (Yugoslavia, [[1887]]&ndash;[[1963]])
*[[Vassilios Kotronias]] (Greece, [[1964]]&#8211; )
*[[Alexander Kotov]] (USSR, [[1913]]&#8211;[[1981]])
*[[Vladimir Kovacevic]] (Croatia, [[1942]]&ndash; )
*[[Vladimir Kramnik]] (Russia, [[1975]]&#8211; )
*[[Michal Krasenkow]] (Poland, [[1963]]&#8211; )
*[[Irina Krush]] (Ukraine, USSR, USA, [[1983]]&#8211; )
*[[Bojan Kurajica]] (Bosnia & Herzegovenia, [[1947]]&ndash; )
=== L ===
*[[Kateryna Lahno]] (Ukraine, [[1989]]&#8211; )
*[[Gary Lane]] (England, Australia [[1964]] &#8211; )
*[[Bent Larsen]] (Denmark, [[1935]]&#8211; )
*[[Baron Tassilo von Heydebrand und der Lasa]] (Prussia, [[1818]]&#8211;[[1899]])
*[[Edward Lasker]] (Germany, USA, [[1885]]&#8211;[[1981]])
*[[Emanuel Lasker]] (Germany, USA, [[1868]]&#8211;[[1941]])
*[[Joel Lautier]] (France, [[1973]]&ndash; )
*[[Legall de Kermeur]] ([[1702]]&#8211;[[1792]])
*[[Péter Lékó]] (Hungary, [[1979]]&#8211; )
*[[Giovanni Leonardo]] (Italy, [[1542]]&#8211;[[1587]])
*[[Alexandre Lesiege]] (Canada, [[1975]]&#8211; )
*[[Grigory Levenfish]] (Poland, Russia, [[1889]]&ndash;[[1961]])
*[[Kjetil Aleksander Lie]] (Norway, [[1980]] &#8211; )
*[[Andor Lilienthal]] (Hungary, Russia, [[1911]]&#8211; )
*[[Samuel Lipschütz]] (Hungary, USA, [[1863]]&ndash;[[1905]])
*[[John Littlewood (chess player)|John Littlewood]] (England, [[1931]]&#8211; )
*[[Ljubomir Ljubojevic]] (Yugoslavia, [[1950]]&#8211; )
*[[William Lombardy]] (USA, [[1937]]&ndash; )
*[[Ruy López de Segura]] (Spain, c.[[1530]] &#8211; c.[[1580]])
*[[Johann Löwenthal]] (Hungary, [[1810]]&#8211;[[1876]])
*[[Luis Ramirez Lucena]] (Spain, c.[[1465]] &#8211; c.[[1530]])
=== M ===
*[[Georg Marco]] (Austria, [[1863]]&ndash;[[1923]])
*[[Geza Maroczy]] (Hungary, [[1870]]&ndash;[[1951]])
*[[Frank Marshall]] (USA, [[1877]]&ndash;[[1944]])
*[[Hermanis Matisons]] (Latvia, [[1894]]&ndash;[[1932]])
*[[Karl Mayet]] (Germany, [[1810]]&ndash;[[1868]])
*[[Alexander McDonnell]] (Ireland, [[1798]]&ndash;[[1835]])
*[[Colin McNab]] (Scotland, [[1961]]&ndash; )
*[[Luke McShane]] (England, [[1984]]&ndash; )
*[[Henrique Mecking]] (Brazil, [[1952]]&ndash; )
*[[Susanto Megaranto]] (Indonesia, [[1987]]&ndash; )
*[[Vera Menchik-Stevenson]] (Czech Republic, England, [[1906]]&ndash;[[1944]])
*[[Jacques Mieses]] (Germany, England [[1865]]&ndash;[[1954]])
*[[Vladas Mikenas]] (Lithuania, [[1910]]&ndash;[[1992]])
*[[Tony Miles]] (England, [[1955]]&ndash;[[2001]])
*[[Augustus Mongredien]] (England, [[1807]]&ndash;[[1888]])
*[[Iván Morovic]] (Chile, [[1963]]&ndash; )
*[[Alexander Morozevich]] (Russia, [[1977]]&ndash; )
*[[Paul Morphy]] (USA, [[1837]]&ndash;[[1884]])
*[[Paul Motwani]] (Scotland, [[1962]]&ndash; )
*[[Alexander Motylev]] (Russia, [[1979]]&ndash;)
*[[Anna Muzychuk]] (Ukraine, Slovenia, [[1990]]&ndash; )
=== N ===
*[[Gia Nadareishvili]] (Georgia;)
*[[Arkadij Naiditsch]] (Germany, [[1985]]&ndash; )
*[[Miguel Najdorf]] (Argentina, [[1910]]&ndash;[[1997]])
*[[Hikaru Nakamura]] (USA, [[1987]]&ndash; )
*[[Rashid Nezhmetdinov]] (Russia, [[1912]]&ndash;[[1974]])
*[[Peter Heine Nielsen]] (Denmark, [[1973]]&ndash; )
*[[Aaron Nimzowitsch]] (Latvia, [[1886]]&ndash;[[1935]])
*[[Liviu-Dieter Nisipeanu]] (Romania, [[1976]]&ndash; )
*[[John Nunn]] (England, [[1955]]&ndash; )
=== O ===
*[[Fridrik Olafsson]] (Iceland, [[1935]]&ndash; )
*[[John Owen (chess player)|John Owen]] (England, [[1827]]&ndash;[[1901]])
*[[Berge Ostenstad]] (Norway, [[1964]]&ndash; )
=== P ===
*[[Ludek Pachman|Luděk Pachman]] (Czechoslovakia, Germany, [[1929]]&ndash;[[2003]] )
*[[Oscar Panno]] (Argentina, [[1935]]&#8211; )
*[[Vasily Panov]] (USSR, [[1906]]&ndash;[[1973]])
*[[Mark Paragua]] (Philippines, [[1984]]&#8211; )
*[[Bruno Parma]] (Slovenia, [[1941]]&#8211; )
*[[Louis Paulsen]] (Germany, [[1833]]&#8211;[[1891]])
*[[Jonathan Penrose]] (England, [[1933]]&ndash; )
*[[Tigran Petrosian]] (Armenia, Georgia, USSR, [[1929]]&#8211;[[1984]])
*[[Alexander Petrov]] (Russia, [[1794]]&ndash;[[1867]])
*[[Helmut Pfleger]] (Germany, [[1943]]&ndash; )
*[[François-André Danican Philidor]] (France, [[1726]]&#8211;[[1795]])
*[[Jeroen Piket]] (Netherlands, [[1969]]&ndash; )
*[[Harry Nelson Pillsbury]] (USA, [[1872]]&#8211;[[1906]])
*[[Hermann Pilnik]] (Germany, Argentina, [[1914]]&ndash;[[1981]])
*[[Vasja Pirc]] (Slovenia, [[1907]]&#8211;[[1980]])
*[[Giulio Polerio]] (Italy, c.[[1550]]&#8211;c.[[1610]])
*[[Judit Polgar]] (Hungary, [[1976]]&#8211; )
*[[Susan Polgar]] (Hungary, USA, [[1969]]&#8211; )
*[[Zsófia Polgár]] (Hungary, Israel, [[1974]]&ndash; )
*[[Lev Polugaevsky]] (USSR, [[1934]]&ndash;[[1995]])
*[[Ruslan Ponomariov]] (Ukraine, [[1983]]&#8211; )
*[[Lajos Portisch]] (Hungary, [[1937]]&#8211; )
*[[Cecil Purdy|C.J.S. Purdy]] (Australia, [[1906]]&#8211;[[1979]])
=== Q ===
*[[Miguel Quinteros]] (Argentina, [[1947]]&ndash; )
=== R ===
*[[Abram Rabinovich]] (Russia, [[1878]]&#8211;[[1943]])
*[[Teimour Radjabov]] (Azerbaijan, [[1987]]&#8211; )
*[[Viacheslav Ragozin]] (Russia, [[1908]]&#8211;[[1962]])
*[[Yuri Razuvayev]] (Russia, [[1945]]&ndash; )
*[[Hans Ree]] (Netherlands, [[1944]]&ndash; )
*[[Fred Reinfeld]] (USA, [[1910]]&#8211;[[1964]])
*[[Samuel Reshevsky]] (Poland, USA, [[1911]]&#8211;[[1992]])
*[[Richard Réti]] (Czechoslovakia, [[1889]]&#8211;[[1929]])
*[[Zoltan Ribli]] (Hungary, [[1951]]&ndash; )
*[[Isaac Rice]] (USA, [[1850]]&#8211; [[1915]])
*[[Jules Arnous de Rivière]] (France, [[1830]]&#8211;[[1905]])
*[[Ian Rogers]] (Australia, [[1960]]&ndash; )
*[[Michael Rohde]] (USA, [[1959]]&#8211; )
*[[Nicolas Rossolimo]] (France, USA, [[1910]]&#8211;[[1975]])
*[[Eugène Rousseau]] (France, c.[[1810]] &#8211; c.[[1870]])
*[[Jonathan Rowson]] (Scotland, [[1977]]&#8211; )
*[[Akiba Rubinstein]] (Poland, [[1882]]&#8211;[[1961]])
*[[Sergei Rublevsky]] (Russia, [[1974]]&#8211; )
*[[Olga Rubtsova]] (Russia, [[1909]]&#8211;[[1994]])
*[[Lyudmila Rudenko]] (Russia, [[1904]]&#8211;[[1986]])
=== S ===
*[[Pierre St. Amant]] (France, [[1800]]&#8211;[[1872]])
*[[Valery Salov]] (Russia, [[1964]]&#8211; )
*[[Freidrich Sämisch|Friedrich (Fritz) Sämisch]] (Germany, [[1896]]&ndash;[[1975]])
*[[Jonathan Sarfati]] (Australia, New Zealand, [[1964]]&#8211; )
*[[Krishnan Sasikiran]] (India, [[1981]]&ndash; )
*[[Gyula Sax]] (Hungary, [[1951]]&ndash; )
*[[Emmanuel Schiffers]] (Russia, [[1850]]&#8211;[[1904]])
*[[Carl Schlechter]] (Austria, [[1874]]&#8211;[[1918]])
*[[Yasser Seirawan]] (Syria, USA, [[1960]]&#8211; )
*[[Alexander Shabalov]] (Latvia, USA, [[1967]]&#8211; )
*[[Jennifer Shahade]] (USA, [[1980]]&ndash; )
*[[Leonid Shamkovich]] (Russian, USA, [[1923]]&ndash;2005)
*[[Alexei Shirov]] (Latvia, Spain, [[1972]]&#8211; )
*[[Nigel Short]] (England, [[1965]]&#8211; )
*[[Jackson Showalter]] (USA, [[1860]]&#8211;[[1935]])
*[[Yury Shulman]] (Belarus, [[1975]]
*[[Almira Skripchenko]] (France, [[1976]]&ndash; )
*[[Jan Smejkal]] (Czechoslovakia, [[1946]] &#8211; )
*[[Vasily Smyslov]] (Russia, [[1921]]&#8211; )
*[[Ivan Sokolov]] (Yugoslavia, Netherlands, [[1968]]&ndash; )
*[[Andrew Soltis]] (USA, [[1947]]&nda |
y skeptics to refute the idea of a curse (the "[[Curse of the Pharaohs]]") plaguing the party that violated Tutankhamun's tomb.
Howard Carter is buried in [[Putney Vale]] Cemetery in West London.
His brother [[William Carter]], (1863-1939) was an artist.
[[Image:Luxor, West Bank, home of Howard Carter, Egypt, Oct 2004.jpg|right|thumb|225px|Carter's house in the Theban Necropolis]]
==Howard Carter in popular culture==
Howard Carter has been represented in a number of films, television programmes, etc.
*Egypt - a 2005 [[BBC]] One Television series which featured the discovery of Tutankhamun's tomb by Carter in the first two 60 minute episodes [http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0483603/].
Also, worth noting is:
*In Search of the Pharoahs - a 30-minute [[cantata]] for narrator, junior choir and piano by composer [[Robert Steadman]], commissioned by the [[City of London Freemen's School]] which uses extracts from Carter's diaries as its text.
*A paraphrased extract from Howard Carter's diary of [[November 26]] [[1922]] is used as the [[plaintext]] for Part 3 of the encrypted [[Kryptos]] sculpture at [[CIA]] Headquarters in [[Langley]], [[Virginia]].
Carter was the loose inspiration for the alter ego of the comic book superhero [[Hawkman]]&mdash;"Carter Hall," an archaeologist digging in Egypt, introduced in ''Flash Comics'' #1 (1940).
==Further reading==
*T.G.H James, ''Howard Carter &ndash; The Path to Tutankhamun'', London: Tauris Parke, 2001.
*Reeves, N. and Taylor, J.H., ''Howard Carter: Before Tutankhamun'', London: British Museum Press, 1992.
*The History Of Howard Carter By Dr. Thomas Schwarz
==External links==
*[http://www.ashmol.ox.ac.uk/gri/4search.html The Search for Tutankhamun] &ndash; from the [[Griffith Institute]] website, Howard Carter's records of the five seasons of excavations, financed by Lord Carnarvon, in the Valley of the Kings 1915&ndash;1922.
*[http://www.ashmol.ox.ac.uk/gri/4tut.html Tutankhamun &ndash; The Anatomy of an Excavation]
*[http://www.findagrave.com/cgi-bin/fg.cgi?page=gr&GRid=3665&pt=%3Cb%3EHoward%3C/b%3E%20Carter Grave of Howard Carter]
*[http://www.ashmol.ox.ac.uk/gri/4sea1not.html Transcripts of Howard Carter's excavation diaries]
{{Ancient Egypt}}
[[Category:1874 births|Carter, Howard]]
[[Category:1939 deaths|Carter, Howard]]
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[[Category:English Egyptologists|Carter, Howard]]
[[bg:Хауърд Картър]]
[[ca:Howard Carter]]
[[de:Howard Carter]]
[[es:Howard Carter]]
[[eo:Howard CARTER]]
[[fr:Howard Carter]]
[[hr:Howard Carter]]
[[it:Howard Carter]]
[[nl:Howard Carter]]
[[ja:ハワード・カーター]]
[[no:Howard Carter]]
[[pl:Howard Carter]]
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[[fi:Howard Carter]]
[[uk:Говард Картер]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>History of Scotland</title>
<id>13617</id>
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<username>DabMachine</username>
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<minor />
<comment>disambiguation from [[Myth]] to [[Mythology]] - ([[WP:DPL|You can help!]])</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{featured article}}
[[Image:Stirlingcastle.jpg|thumb|right|300px|[[Stirling Castle]] has stood for centuries atop a volcanic crag defending the lowest ford of the [[River Forth]]. The fortification underwent numerous [[siege]]s.]]
{{History of Scotland}}
The '''history of Scotland''' begins around 10,000 years before the present day, when [[human|modern humans]] first began to inhabit [[Scotland]] after the end of the [[Devensian glaciation]], the last [[ice age]]. Of the [[Stone Age]], [[Bronze Age]], and [[Iron Age]] [[civilization|civilisations]] that existed in the country, many artefacts remain but few are of writing.
The written history of Scotland largely begins with the arrival of the [[Roman Empire]] in Britain, when the Romans occupied what is now [[England]] and [[Wales]], administering it as a [[Roman province]] called [[Roman Britain|Britannia]]. To the north was territory not governed by the Romans&mdash;'''[[Caledonia]]'''. Its people were the [[Picts]]. From a ''[[classical]]'' historical viewpoint Scotland seemed a peripheral country, slow to gain advances filtering out from the [[Mediterranean]] fount of civilisation, but as knowledge of the past increases it has become apparent that some developments were earlier and more advanced than previously thought, and that the seaways were very important to Scottish history.
The country's lengthy struggle with England, its more powerful neighbour to the south, was the cause of the [[Wars of Scottish Independence]], forcing Scotland to rely on trade, cultural and often strategic ties with a number of European powers. Following the [[Act of Union 1707|Act of Union]] and the subsequent [[Scottish Enlightenment]] and [[Industrial Revolution]], Scotland became one of the commercial, intellectual and industrial powerhouses of Europe. Its industrial decline following the [[World War II|Second World War]] was particularly acute, but in recent decades the country has enjoyed something of a cultural and economic renaissance, fuelled in part by a resurgent [[financial services]] sector, the proceeds of [[North Sea oil]] and gas, and latterly a [[Scottish Parliament|devolved parliament]].
==Prehistoric settlement==
[[Image:Knapp of Howar 2.jpg|thumb|200px|right|The oldest standing house in Northern Europe is at [[Knap of Howar]], dating from [[3500 BC]] (see also [[:Image:Knapp of Howar.jpg|image]]).]]
''For more detail on this period see [[Prehistoric Scotland]].''
People lived in Scotland for at least 8500 years before recorded history dealt with Britain.
At times during the last [[Ice age|interglacial period]] (130,000 &ndash; 70,000 BC) Europe had a climate warmer than today's, and early humans may have made their way to Scotland, though archaeologists have found no traces of this. Glaciers then scoured their way across most of Britain, and only after the ice retreated did Scotland again become habitable, around [[10th millennium BC|9600 BC]].
[[Mesolithic]] hunter-gatherer encampments formed the first known settlements, and archaeologists have dated an example at [[Cramond]] near [[Edinburgh]] to around [[9th millennium BC|8500 BC]]. Numerous other sites found around Scotland build up a picture of highly mobile boat-using people making tools from bone, stone and antlers.
[[Image:Jfb skara brae.jpg|thumb|280px|right|In [[3000 BC]], some [[Neolithic]] [[farming|farmers]] lived in stone houses (such as those at [[Skara Brae]]) set into existing [[midden]]s.]]
[[Neolithic]] farming brought permanent settlements, and the wonderfully well-preserved stone house at [[Knap of Howar]] on [[Papa Westray]] dating from [[3500 BC]] predates by about 500 years the village of similar houses at [[Skara Brae]] on the ''Mainland'' of the [[Orkney Islands]]. The settlers introduced [[chambered cairn]] tombs from around [[3500 BC]] ([[Maeshowe]] offers a prime example), and from about [[3000 BC]] the many standing stones and circles such as the [[Ring of Brodgar]] on Orkney and [[Callanish]] on [[Lewis]]. These form part of the Europe-wide [[Megalithic]] culture which also produced [[Stonehenge]] in [[Wiltshire]], and which pre-historians now interpret as showing sophisticated use of astronomical observations.
The cairns and Megalithic monuments continued into the [[Bronze age]], and [[hill fort]]s started to appear, such as [[Eildon hill]] near Melrose in the [[Scottish Borders]], which goes back to around [[1000 BC]] and which accommodated several hundred houses on a fortified hilltop.
[[Brythonic]] [[Celt]]ic culture and language spread into Scotland at some time after the [[8th century BC]], possibly through cultural contact rather than through mass invasion, and systems of kingdoms developed.
From around [[700 BC]] the [[Iron age]] brought numerous [[hill fort]]s, [[broch]]s and fortified settlements which support the image of quarrelsome tribes and petty kingdoms later recorded by the Romans, though evidence that at times occupants neglected the defences might suggest that symbolic [[power (sociology)| power]] had as much significance as warfare.
==Roman invasion==
[[Image:Hadrian's Wall view near Greenhead.jpg|thumb|right|320px|120 km [[Hadrian's Wall]] marked the border between Scotland to the north and the [[Roman Empire]] to the south with small forts and gates every [[mile|Roman mile]]. Roman sway reached even farther north for a short time.]]
The written history of Scotland largely begins with the coming of the [[Roman empire]] to Britain. Although the pre-Roman inhabitants occasionally used writing for commemorative purpose, these societies favoured a strong [[oral history]]. With the loss of the [[druidry|druidic]] tradition (due to war, famine, and particularly the proscriptions of later [[Christianity|Christian]] [[missionary|missionaries]]), the people forgot much of this lore. The only surviving pre-Roman account of Scotland originated with the [[Ethnic Greek|Greek]] [[Pytheas|Pytheas of Massalia]] who circumnavigated the [[Britain|British]] islands (which he called ''Pretaniké'') in [[325 BC]], but the record of his visit dates from much later.
The [[Roman invasion of Britain]] began in earnest in [[43|AD 43]]. Following a series of [[military]] successes in the south, forces led by [[Gnaeus Julius Agricola]] entered Scotland in [[79]]. The Romans met with fierce resistance from the local population of [[Caledonia|Caledonians]]. In [[82]] or [[83]] Agricola sent a fleet of galleys up round the coast of Scotland, as far as the [[Orkney Islands]]. In [[84]] Agricola defeated the Caledonian tribes at the [[Battle of Mons Graupius]]. His supporters in Rome proclaimed that he had defeated all the tribes of Britain.
The only h |
e, which reinforces their original thought of being "useless". In therapy the latter example could be identified as a [[self-fulfilling prophecy]] or "problem cycle", and the efforts of the therapist and client would be to work together to change this. This is done by addressing the way the client thinks in response to similar situations and by helping them think more flexibly, along with reducing their avoidance of activities. If as a result they escape the negative thought pattern, they will already feel less depressed. They may hopefully also then become more active, succeed more, and further reduce their depression.
==Thoughts as the cause of emotions==
With thoughts stipulated as being the cause of emotions rather than vice-versa, cognitive therapists reverse the causal order more generally used by psychotherapists. The therapy is essentially, therefore, to identify those irrational or maladaptive thoughts that lead to negative emotion and identify what it is about them that is irrational or just not helpful; this is done in an effort to reject the distorted thoughts and replace them with more realistic alternative thoughts.
Cognitive therapy is not an overnight process. Even after a patient has learned to recognise when and where his thought processes are going awry, it can take months of concerted effort to replace an irrational thought with a more reasonable one. With patience and a good therapist, however, cognitive therapy can be a valuable tool in recovery.
==Cognitive behavioral therapy==
While similar views of emotion have existed for millennia, cognitive therapy was developed in its present form by [[Albert Ellis]] and [[Aaron T. Beck]] in the [[1950s]] and [[1960s]]. It rapidly became a favorite intervention to study in psychotherapy research in academic settings. In initial studies it was often contrasted with behavioral treatments to see which was most effective. However, in recent years, cognitive and behavioral techniques have often been combined into cognitive behavioral treatment. This is arguably the primary type of psychological treatment being studied in research today.
Cognitive behavioural group therapy (CBGT) is a similar approach in treating mental illnesses. In this case, clients participate in a group and recognize they are not alone ín suffering from their problems. Based on the protocal by [[Richard Heimberg]].[http://www.stressandanxiety.com/group-therapy.html]
A sub-field of cognitive behavior therapy used to treat [[OCD|Obsessive Compulsive Disorder]] makes use of [[classical conditioning]] through [[extinction (psychology)|extinction]] (a type of conditioning) and [[habituation]]. CBT has also been successfully applied to the treatment of [[general anxiety disorder|Generalized Anxiety Disorder]], [[health anxiety]], [[Social phobia]], and [[Panic Disorder]].
CBT has a good evidence base in terms of its effectiveness in reducing symptoms and preventing relapse, and has been recommended in the UK by the [[National Institute for Clinical Excellence|National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence]] as a treatment of choice for a number of mental health difficulties, including [[post-traumatic stress disorder]], OCD, and depression.
==Depression==
Negative thinking in depression can result from biological sources (i.e., endogenous depression), modeling from parents, peers, or other sources. The depressed person experiences negative thoughts as being beyond their control: the negative thought pattern can become automatic and self-perpetuating.
Negative thinking can be categorized into a number of common patterns called "[[cognitive distortion]]s". The cognitive therapist provides techniques to give the client a greater degree of control over negative thinking by correcting these distortions, or correcting thinking errors that abet the distortions, in a process called [[cognitive restructuring]].
Negative thoughts in depression are generally about one of three areas: negative view of self, negative view of the world, and negative view of the future. These constitute what Beck called the "cognitive triad".
An approach to depression based upon [[attribution theory]] in social psychology is related to the concept of attributional style. First put forth by Lyn Abramson and her colleagues in 1978, this approach argues that depressives have a typical attributional style — they tend to attribute negative events in their lives to stable and global characteristics of themselves (Abramson, Seligman & Teasdale, 1978). There is considerable evidence that depressives do exhibit such an attributional style, but it is important to remember that Abramson et al. do not claim that an attributional style of this nature is necessarily going to cause depression — only that it will lead to clinical depression if combined with a negative event. This theory is sometimes known as a revised version of [[learned helplessness]] theory.
In 1989, this theory was challenged by Hopelessness Theory{{fact}}. This theory emphasised attributions to global and stable factors, rather than, as in the original model, internal attributions. Hopelessness Theory also emphasises that beliefs about the consequences of events and rated importance of events may be at least as important in understanding why some people react to negative events with clinicial depression as are causal attributions.
===The four column technique===
A major technique in cognitive therapy is the four column technique. It consists of a four step process. The first three steps analyze the process by which a person has become depressed or distressed. The first column records the objective situation. In the second column, the client writes down the negative thoughts which occurred to them. The third column is for the negative feelings and dysfunctional behaviors which ensued. The negative thoughts of the second column are seen as a connecting bridge between the situation and the distressing feelings. Finally, the fourth column is used for challenging the negative thoughts on the basis of evidence from the client's experience.
==Treating depression with CBA==
A relatively new version of cognitive behavioral therapy for depression is the cognitive behavioral-analysis system of psychotherapy (CBASP). When combined with appropriate [[antidepressant]]s, it can be extremely effective.
A study published by [[Martin Keller]] MD of [[Brown University]] and others in the [[May 18]], [[2000]] [[New England Journal of Medicine]] compared the antidepressant [[Serzone]] with the talking therapy CBASP. CBASP is largely derivative of other [[talking cure|talking therapies]] such as cognitive, behavioral, and [[interpersonal psychoanalysis|interpersonal therapy]]. Six hundred and eighty-one patients with severe chronic depression (some with other psychiatric illnesses) were enrolled in the trial, and were assigned to either Serzone, CBASP, or combination Serzone-CBASP for 12 weeks. The response rates to either Serzone or CBASP alone were rather underwhelming - 55 percent and 52 percent, respectively, for the 76 percent who completed the study. In other words, a little more than half of the completers in those two arms of the trial reduced their depression by 50 percent or better.
The Serzone findings roughly correspond with many other trial results for antidepressants, and underscore a major weakness in these drugs - that while they are effective, the benefit is often marginal and the treatment outcome problematic. Similarly, the CBASP findings validate other studies finding talking therapy about equal in efficacy to taking antidepressants.
The results for the combination drug-therapy group, however, were surprising, with 85 percent of the completing patients achieving a 50 percent reduction in symptoms or better. 42 percent in the combination group achieved [[remission]] (a virtual elimination of all depressive symptoms) compared to 22 percent in the Serzone group and 24 percent in the CBASP group.
The authors of the study confessed to being caught by surprise by the results, acknowledging that "the rates of response and remission in the combined-treatment group were substantially higher than those that might have been anticipated."
==References==
''(in chronological order)''
*[[Aaron T. Beck|Beck, Aaron T.]] ''Cognitive Therapy and the Emotional Disorders''. International Universities Press Inc., [[1975]]. ISBN 0-82-360990-1
*[[Albert Ellis|Ellis, Albert]]. ''A Guide to Rational Living''. [[Prentice Hall]], [[1975]]. ISBN 0-13-370650-8
*Abramson, L., Seligman, M.E.P. & Teasdale, J. (1978). Learned Helplessness in Humans: Critique and Reformulation. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 87 pp49-74
*Dryden, Windy. "Ten Steps to Positive Living." Sheldon Press, 1994.
*[[David D. Burns|Burns, David D.]] ''Feeling Good: The New Mood Therapy''. Revised Edition. Avon, [[1999]]. ISBN 0-38-081033-6
*Keller, M. et al. [http://content.nejm.org/cgi/content/abstract/342/20/1462 ''A Comparison of Nefazodone, the Cognitive Behavioral-Analysis System of Psychotherapy, and Their Combination for the Treatment of Chronic Depression'']. New England Journal of Medicine Volume 342:1462-1470 May 18, 2000.
*Tanner, Susan and Ball, Jillian. ''Beating the Blues: a Self-help Approach to Overcoming Depression''. [[1989]]/[[2001]]. ISBN 064636622X [http://www.successcentre.com.au/catalogue/titles.cfm?cur_titleID=1867]
*McCullough Jr., James P. ''Treatment for Chronic Depression: Cognitive Behavioral Analysis System of Psychotherapy (CBASP)''. Guilford Press, [[2003]]. ISBN 1-57-230965-2
==External links==
* [http://www.cognitivetherapynyc.com/ American Institute for Cognitive Therapy]
* [http://www.beckinstitute.org/ The Beck Institute for Cognitive Therapy and Research]
* [http://www.academyofct.org/ The Academy of Cognitive Therapy]
* [http://www.rebt.org/ The Albert Ellis Institute]
|
en confirmed by a treaty concluded at [[Kraków]], Albert pledged a personal oath to Sigismund I and was invested with the duchy for himself and his heirs on February 10, 1525.
[[Image:Prussian Homage.JPG|400px|left|thumb|"[[Prussian Tribute|The Prussian Tribute]]", oil on canvas by [[Jan Matejko]], 1882, 388 x 875 cm, National Museum in [[Kraków]]. [[Albrecht Hohenzollern]] and his brothers receive the [[Duchy of Prussia]] as a [[fiefdom]] from the Polish King, [[Sigismundus I the Elder]] in [[1525]].]]
The [[Estates of the realm | Estates]] of the land then met at [[Kaliningrad|Königsberg]] and took the oath of allegiance to the new duke, who used his full powers to promote the doctrines of Luther. This transition did not, however, take place without protest. Summoned before the imperial court of justice, Albert refused to appear and was proscribed, while the Order, having deposed the Grand Master, made a feeble effort to recover Prussia. But as the German princes were experiencing the tumult of the Reformation, the peasants' revolt, and the wars against the conquering Turks, they did not attack the duke, and agitation against him soon died away.
In imperial politics Albert was fairly active. Joining the [[League of Torgau]] in [[1526]], he acted in unison with the Protestants, and was among the princes who banded together to overthrow Charles V after the issue of the [[Augsburg Interim]] in May [[1548]]. For various reasons, however, poverty and personal inclination among others, he did not take a prominent part in the military operations of this period.
The early years of Albert's rule in Prussia were fairly prosperous. Although he had some trouble with the peasantry, the lands and treasures of the church enabled him to propitiate the nobles and for a time to provide for the expenses of the court.
He did something for the furtherance of learning by establishing schools in every town and by freeing serfs who adopted a scholastic life. In 1544, in spite of some opposition, he founded the [[Königsberg University|university at Königsberg]], where he appointed his friend [[Osiander]] to a professorship in [[1549]]. Albert also paid for the printing of the Astronomical Tables ("Prutenische Tafeln") compiled by [[Erasmus Reinhold]].
This step was the beginning of the troubles which clouded the closing years of Albert's reign. Osiander's divergence from Luther's doctrine of justification by faith involved him in a violent quarrel with [[Melanchthon]], who had adherents in Königsberg, and these theological disputes soon created an uproar in the town. The duke strenuously supported Osiander, and the area of the quarrel soon broadened. There were no longer church lands available with which to conciliate the nobles, the burden of taxation was heavy, and Albert's rule became unpopular.
After Osiander's death in [[1552]] he favoured a preacher named [[Johann Funck]], who, with an adventurer named [[Paul Skalic | Paul Scalich]], exercised great influence over him and obtained considerable wealth at public expense. The state of turmoil caused by these religious and political disputes was increased by the possibility of Albert's early death and the need, should that happen, to appoint a [[regent]], as his only son, [[Albert Frederick]] was still a mere youth. The duke was consequently obliged to consent to a condemnation of the teaching of Osiander, and the climax came in 1566 when the [[Estates of the realm | Estates]] appealed to [[Sigismund II]], Albert's cousin, son of Sigismund I and Elisabeth Habsburg, Grand Duke of Lithuania and King of Poland, who sent a commission to Königsberg. Scalich saved his life by flight, but Funck was executed. The question of the regency was settled, and a form of Lutheranism was adopted, and declared binding on all teachers and preachers.
Virtually deprived of power, the Duke lived for two more years, and died at [[Tapiau]] on [[March 20]], [[1568]]. He had married Dorothea, daughter of [[Frederick I of Denmark|Frederick]], King of [[Denmark]] in [[1526]], and following her death in [[1547]], married Anna Maria, daughter of [[Eric I of Brunswick|Eric I]], Duke of [[Brunswick-Lüneburg]].
Albert was a voluminous letterwriter, and corresponded with many of the leading personages of the time.
For switching to Protestantism Albrecht had been excommunicated by the Pope. The [[Habsburg]] rulers of the [[Holy Roman Empire]] continued to claim the office of Grand Master of the [[Teutonic Knights]] as administrators of Prussia.
In [[1891]] a statue was erected to his memory at [[Kaliningrad|Königsberg]].
==References==
*{{1911}}
== External links ==
*[[William Urban]] on the situation in Prussia [http://66.102.7.104/search?q=cache:lqag5cL8YAAJ:department.monm.edu/history/urban/articles/State_of_the_grandmasters.htm+Casimir+IV+deutscher+orden&hl=en]
{{start box}}
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before=[[Friedrich of Saxony (1473-1510)|Friedrich of Saxony]]|
years=[[1510]]-[[1525]]|
after=[[Walter von Cronberg]]|
title=[[Teutonic Knights#Grand Masters (Hochmeister) of the Teutonic Order, 1198-present|Grand Master]] of the [[Teutonic Knights|Teutonic Order]]|
}}
{{end box}}
[[Category:German nobility]]
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[[Category:1568 deaths]]
[[Category:House of Hohenzollern]]
[[cs:Albrecht Braniborský]]
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[[fr:Albert de Brandebourg]]
[[no:Albrecht av Preussen]]
[[pl:Albrecht Hohenzollern]]
[[ru:Гогенцоллерн, Альбрехт]]
[[sv:Albrekt av Preussen]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Albert III, Elector of Saxony</title>
<id>1515</id>
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<comment>redirecting to [[Albert, Duke of Saxony]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Albert, Duke of Saxony]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Albert the Degenerate</title>
<id>1516</id>
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<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Albrecht II, Markgraf of Meißen]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Albert Of Aix</title>
<id>1517</id>
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<timestamp>2002-12-14T11:31:41Z</timestamp>
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<ip>62.30.112.2</ip>
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<comment>Merge these pages.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Albert of Aix]]</text>
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<page>
<title>August 25</title>
<id>1519</id>
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'''August 25''' is the 237th day of the year in the [[Gregorian Calendar]] (238th in leap years), with 128 days remaining.
==Events==
*[[1537]] - The [[Honourable Artillery Company]], the oldest surviving [[regiment]] in the [[British Army]], and the second most senior, is formed.
*[[1580]] - [[Battle of Alcantara]]. [[Spain]] defeats [[Portugal]].
*[[1609]] - [[Galileo Galilei]] demonstrates his first telescope to Venetian lawmakers.
*[[1718]] - [[New Orleans, Louisiana]] is founded.
*[[1758]] - [[Seven Years War]]: [[Frederick II of Prussia]] defeats the [[Russia]]n army at the [[Battle of Zorndorf]].
*[[1768]] - [[James Cook]] begins his first voyage.
*[[1814]] - [[Washington D.C]] and [[White House]] is destroyed by [[British]] forces during the [[War of 1812]]
*[[1825]] - [[Uruguay]] declares its independence from [[Spain]].
*[[1830]] - [[Belgium]] revolts from the [[Netherlands]]
*[[1835]] - The ''[[New York Sun (historical)|New York Sun]]'' perpetrates the [[Great Moon Hoax]].
*[[1875]] - [[Matthew Webb]] becomes the first person to swim the [[English Channel]].
*[[1894]] - [[Shibasaburo Kitasato]] discovers the infectious agent of the [[Bubonic plague|bubonic plague]] and publishes his findings in ''[[The Lancet]]''.
*[[1910]] - [[Yellow Cab]] is founded.
*[[1912]] - The [[Kuomintang]], the Chinese nationalist party, is founded.
*[[1916]] - The [[United States National Park Service]] is created.
*[[1920]] - [[Polish-Soviet War]]: [[Battle of Warsaw (1920)|Battle of Warsaw]], started on [[August 13]], now ends. The [[Red Army]] is defeated.
*[[1942]] - [[World War II]]: [[Battle of Milne Bay]], [[Papua New Guinea]]
*[[1944]] - World War II: [[Liberation of Paris|Paris is liberated]] by the [[Allies of World War II|Allies]].
*[[1946]] - [[Ben Hogan]] wins the [[PGA Championship]].
*[[1950]] - President [[Harry Truman]] orders the US Army to seize control of the nation's railroads to avert a strike.
*[[1960]] - [[1960 Summer Olympics|Games of the XVII Olympiad]] open in [[Rome]].
*[[1967]] - [[American Nazi Party]] leader [[George Lincoln Rockwell]] is [[assassinated]] in [[Arlington, Virginia]].
*[[1975]] - [[Bruce Springsteen]] releases ''[[Born to Run]]'', the album that would launch him to superstardom.
*[[1980]] - [[Microsoft]] announces their version of [[Unix|UNIX]], [[Xenix]].
*1980 - The Broadway musical [[42nd Street (musical)|''42nd Street'']] opens; the show's director, [[Gower Champion]], had died earlier that day.
*[[1988]] - The historical center of [[Lisbon]] is destroyed by a fire.
*[[1989]] - [[Tadeusz Mazowiecki]] chosen as the first non-communist Prime Minister in [[Central Europe|Central]] and [[Eastern Europe]].
*1989 - [[Voyager 2]] spacecraft flies by [[Neptune (planet)|Neptune]], the last major planet it could visit before leavin |
ell}} Cornell University Library website, [http://rmc.library.cornell.edu/gettysburg/good_cause/address_pic_p1_legible.htm Bancroft Copy, page 1], [http://rmc.library.cornell.edu/gettysburg/good_cause/address_pic_p2_legible.htm page 2]
# {{note|www.cornellsun.com.273}} {{cite web
| title = The Cornell Daily Sun - C.U. Holds Gettysburg Address Manuscript
| url = http://www.cornellsun.com/vnews/display.v/ART/2005/04/07/4254ce15e8c77?in_archive=1
| accessdate = 2005-12-18
}}
# {{note|IHPA}} Illinois Historic Preservation Agency website, [http://www.papersofabrahamlincoln.org/images/GABliss1.jpg Bliss Copy, page 1], [http://www.papersofabrahamlincoln.org/images/GABliss2.jpg page 2], [http://www.papersofabrahamlincoln.org/images/GABliss3.jpg page 3]
# {{note|cintas}} {{cite web
| title = Oscar B. Cintas foundation website.
| url = http://www.cintasfoundation.org/about_oscar.htm
| accessdate = 2005-12-23
}}
# {{note|www.bartleby.com.274}} {{cite web
| title = V. The Speech at Gettysburg by Abraham Lincoln. America: II. (1818-1865). Vol. IX. Bryan, William Jennings, ed. 1906. The World's Famous Orations
| url = http://www.bartleby.com/268/9/26.html#txt2
| accessdate = 2005-12-18
}}
# {{note|www.ap.org.275}} {{cite web
| title = History/Archives : The Associated Press
| url = http://www.ap.org/pages/about/history/history_first.html
| accessdate = 2005-12-18
}}
# {{note|showcase.netins.net.276}} {{cite web
| title = Recollections of Abraham Lincoln at Gettysburg
| url = http://showcase.netins.net/web/creative/lincoln/news/recollect.htm
| accessdate = 2005-12-18
}}
# {{note|Foote}} {{cite book
| authorlink = Shelby Foote
| last = Foote
| first = Shelby
| title = The Civil War, A Narrative: Fredericksburg to Meridian
| publisher = Random House
| date = 1958
| id = ISBN 0-394-49517-9
}}
# {{note|showcase.netins.net.277}} {{cite web
| title = Abraham Lincoln at Gettysburg Cemetery (See above)
| url = http://showcase.netins.net/web/creative/lincoln/tours/gettycem2.htm
| accessdate = 2005-12-18
}}
# {{note|Vosmeier}} {{cite web
| last = Vosmeier
| first = Matthew Noah
| title = Lincoln Lore: Gary Wills' ''Lincoln at Gettysburg''
| publisher = The Lincoln Museum, Fort Wayne, Indiana
| url = http://www.thelincolnmuseum.org/new/publications/1835.html
| accessdate = December 16
| accessyear = 2005
}}
# {{note|McPherson}} {{cite journal
| last = McPherson
| first = James
| title = The Art of Abraham Lincoln
| journal = The New York Review of Books
| volume = 39
| issue = 13
| date = July 16, 1992
}}
# {{note|www.constitution.org.278}} {{cite web
| title = Pericles' Funeral Oration from Thucydides: Peloponnesian War
| url = http://www.constitution.org/gr/pericles_funeral_oration.htm
| accessdate = 2005-12-18
}}
# {{note|www.nybooks.com.279}} {{cite web
| title = The New York Review of Books: The Art of Abraham Lincoln
| url = http://www.nybooks.com/articles/2852
| accessdate = 2005-12-18
}}
# {{note|www.acjournal.org.280}} {{cite web
| title = ACJ Special:Smith
| url = http://www.acjournal.org/holdings/vol4/iss1/special/smith.htm
| accessdate = 2005-12-18
}}
# {{note|www.dartmouth.edu.281}} {{cite web
| title = The Second Reply to Hayne (January 26-27, 1830)
| url = http://www.dartmouth.edu/~dwebster/speeches/hayne-speech.html
| accessdate = 2005-12-18
}}
# {{note|refbot.282}} {{cite web
| title = H-Net Review: Daniel J. McInerney
| url = http://www.h-net.org/reviews/showrev.cgi?path=24004970690837
| accessdate = 2005-12-18
}}
# {{note|Guelzo}} {{cite book
| first = Allen C.
| last = Guelzo
| title = Abraham Lincoln: Redeemer President
| location = Grand Rapids, Michigan
| publisher = William B. Eerdmans Publishing
| date = 1999
| id = ISBN 0802838723
}}
# {{note|www.lewrockwell.com.284}} {{cite web
| title = Note on the Gettysburg Address
| url = http://www.lewrockwell.com/orig/mencken2.html
| accessdate = 2005-12-18
}}
# {{note|www.thelincolnmuseum.org.285}} {{cite web
| title = Lincoln urban legends debunked
| url = http://www.thelincolnmuseum.org/new/research/stories.html
| accessdate = 2005-12-18
}}
# {{note|Bachrach}} {{cite web
| title = History of Bachrach photography studio
| url = http://www.bachrachinc.com/news.html
| accessdate = 2005-12-19 }}
# {{note|preservation}} {{cite web
| title = Preservation of the drafts of the Gettysburg Address at the Library of Congress
| url = http://www.loc.gov/exhibits/gadd/gapres.html
| accessdate = 2005-12-18 }}
</div>
==External links==
*Note on the Gettysburg Address [http://www.lewrockwell.com/orig/mencken2.html by H.L. Mencken]
*Gettysburg Address exhibit at the [http://www.loc.gov/exhibits/gadd/gadrft.html Library of Congress, Washington, DC]
*Carl A. Kroch library [http://rmc.library.cornell.edu/gettysburg/good_cause/five_copies.htm Division of Rare & Manuscript Collections, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY]
*Gettysburg National Military Park (GNMP) [http://www.pueblo.gsa.gov/cic_text/misc/gettysburg/g2.htm Gettysburg Historical Handbook]
*The Lincoln Museum website, [http://www.thelincolnmuseum.org/new/research/stories.html urban legends debunked]
* Complete text of Edward Everett's [http://douglassarchives.org/ever_b21.htm "Gettysburg Oration"]
* Abraham Lincoln's [http://members.aol.com/RVSNorton1/Lincoln58.html Invitation to speak at Gettysburg]
* Readings of the Gettysburg Address: [http://www.fiftiesweb.com/usa/gettysburg-address.htm actors Sam Waterston, Jeff Daniels; musician Johnny Cash.]
* Website of [[National Public Radio]] with Waterston [http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=1512410 reading.]
*Contemporary newspaper reactions cited at [http://rmc.library.cornell.edu/gettysburg/ideas_more/reactions_p1.htm#chicago_tribune Cornell University Library exhibit.]
*A humorous [http://www.norvig.com/Gettysburg/index.htm PowerPoint version of the Gettysburg Address]
*[http://www.jr.co.il/humor/yiddish.txt Translated] into [[Yeshivish]]
===Analysis===
*[http://130.18.140.19/stennis/lincolnatgettysburg.html John C. Stennis Institute of Government]
*[http://www.ourdocuments.gov/doc.php?flash=true&doc=36 Our Documents: A National Initiative on American History, Civics, and Service]
*[http://www.learner.org/biographyofamerica/prog12/transcript/page02.html The Annenberg/CPB Channel]
{{Featured article}}
[[Category:American Civil War]]
[[Category:Speeches]]
[[Category:United States historical documents]]
[[Category:1863]]
[[Category:Abraham Lincoln]]
[[de:Gettysburg Address]]
[[es:Discurso de Gettysburg]]
[[ga:Aitheasc Gettysburg]]
[[he:נאום גטיסבורג]]
[[nl:Gettysburg Address]]
[[ja:ゲティスバーグ演説]]
[[ka:გეტისბურგის მიმართვა]]
[[sv:Gettysburg Address]]
[[zh:蓋茨堡演說]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Genetic code</title>
<id>12385</id>
<revision>
<id>41898335</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T13:33:18Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>216.242.114.115</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Table 1: RNA codon table */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:RNA-codon.png|thumb|[[RNA]] codons.]]
The '''genetic code''' is a set of rules that [[mapping|map]]s [[DNA sequence]]s to [[protein]]s in the living [[cell (biology)|cell]], and is employed in the process of [[protein biosynthesis|protein synthesis]]. Nearly all living things use the same genetic code, called the '''standard genetic code''', although a few organisms use minor variations of the standard code.
==Genome expression==
The genetic information carried by an organism - its [[genome]] - is inscribed in one or more [[DNA]] molecules. Each functional portion of a DNA molecule is referred to as a [[gene]]. Each gene is [[transcription (genetics)|transcribed]] into a short template molecule of the related polymer [[RNA]], which is better suited for protein synthesis. This in turn is [[translation (genetics)|translated]] by mediation of a machinery consisting of [[ribosome]]s and a set of [[transfer RNA]]s and associated [[enzyme]]s into an [[amino acid]] chain ([[peptide|polypeptide]]), which will then be folded into a [[protein]].
The gene sequence inscribed in DNA, and in RNA, is composed of tri-nucleotide units called '''codons''', each coding for a single amino acid. Each nucleotide sub-unit consists of a [[phosphate]], [[deoxyribose]] sugar and one of the 4 nitrogenous [[nucleotide]] bases grouped into 2 categories, [[purine]] and [[pyrimidine]]. The [[purine]] bases [[adenine]] ('''A''') and [[guanine]] ('''G''') are larger and consist of two aromatic rings. The [[pyrimidine]] bases [[cytosine]] ('''C''') and [[thymine]] ('''T''') are smaller and consist of only one aromatic ring. In RNA, however, thymine ('''T''') is substituted by [[uracil]] ('''U'''), and the deoxyribose is substituted by [[ribose]].
Overall, there are 4<sup>3</sup> = 64 different codon combinations. For example, the RNA sequence UUUAAACCC contains the codons UUU, AAA and CCC, each of which specifies one amino acid. So, this RNA sequence represents a protein sequence, three amino acids long. ([[DNA]] is also a sequence of nucleotide bases, but there [[thymine]] takes the place of uracil.)
The standard genetic code is shown in the following tables. [[#Table 1: Codon Table|Table 1]] shows what amino acid each of the 64 codons specifies. [[#Table 2: Reverse Codon Table|Table 2]] shows what codons specify each of the 20 standard amino acids involved in translation. These are called forward and reverse codon tables, respectively. For example, the codon AAU represents the amino acid [[asparagine]] (Asn), and [[cysteine]] (Cys) is represented by UGU and by UGC.
==Table 1: RNA codon table==
<table id="Table 1" border="1" cellpadding="3" cellspacing="0">
<caption>
This table shows the 64 codons and the amino acid each codon codes for.
</caption>
<tr>
<td rowspan=2 colspan=2></ |
w.newadvent.org/cathen/04517a.htm Archeology of the Cross and Crucifix] at the [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/ Catholic Encyclopedia]
* [http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761570847/Cross.html#s4 MSN Encarta]
*[http://englishatheist.org/cross/nccross.shtml The Non-Christian Cross] (1896) by [[John Denham Parsons]].
[[Category:Christian symbols]]
[[Category:Cross symbols]]
[[de:Christliches Kreuz]]
[[eo:Kristana kruco]]
[[ja:&#21313;&#23383;&#26550;]]
[[pl:Krzy&#380; &#322;aci&#324;ski]]
[[uk:&#1061;&#1088;&#1077;&#1089;&#1090;]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Coleco Telstar</title>
<id>7309</id>
<revision>
<id>42134243</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T01:19:48Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Nintendude</username>
<id>584148</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* External links */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''Telstar''' is a [[video game console]] produced by [[Coleco]] which first went on sale in [[1976]]. Originally a ''[[PONG]]'' clone based on [[General Instrument]]'s [[AY-3-8500]] chip, the many versions of the Telstar included:
#'''Telstar''' - (model 6040, [[1976]]) Three ''PONG'' variants ([[ice hockey|hockey]], [[handball]], [[tennis]]), two [[paddle (game controller)|paddle]] controllers fixed on console.
#'''Telstar Classic''' - (model 6045, [[1976]]) Same as the Telstar, woodgrain case.
#'''Telstar Deluxe''' - ([[1977]]) aka "Video World Of Sports", same as the Telstar but brown pedestal case with wood panel, made for Canadian market with French and English text.
#'''Telstar Ranger''' - (model 6046, [[1977]]) Four ''PONG'' variants (hockey, handball, tennis, [[jai alai]]) and two gun games(target, [[skeet shooting|skeet]]), black and white plastic case, includes [[revolver]]-style [[light gun]] and separate paddle controllers.
[[Image:Coleco Telstar Alpha.jpg|thumb|right|Telstar Alpha]]
#'''Telstar Alpha''' - (model 6030, [[1977]]) Four ''PONG'' variants, black and white plastic case, fixed paddles.
#'''Telstar Colormatic''' - (model 6130, [[1977]]) Same as the Telstar Alpha but with detached wired paddles as well as color graphics. Uses a [[Texas Instruments]] [[SN76499N]] chip for color.
#'''Telstar Regent''' - (model 6036, [[1977]]) Same as the Telstar Colormatic but no color and black and white case.
#'''Telstar Sportsman''' - ([[1978]]) Similar to Telstar Regent, but with an additional light gun and different setting switches. <!--The sportsman has 4 games built in and no color. (unverified)-->
#'''Telstar Combat''' - (model 6065, [[1977]]) Four variations on [[Kee Games]]' ''[[Tank (arcade game)|Tank]]'', four fixed joysticks (two per player), uses a [[General Instrument]] [[AY-3-8700]] Tank chip.
#'''Telstar Colortron''' - (model 6135, [[1978]]) Four ''PONG'' variants, in color, built in sound, fixed paddles, uses [[AY-3-8510]] chip.
[[Image:Coleco telstar marksman.jpg|thumb|right|Telstar Marksman]]
#'''[[Coleco Telstar Marksman|Telstar Marksman]]''' - (model 6136, [[1978]]) Four ''PONG'' variants and two gun games in color, larger light gun with removable stock, fixed paddles, uses [[AY-3-8512]] chip.
#'''Telstar Galaxy''' - Separate [[joystick]]s and fixed paddles, uses [[AY-3-8700]] chip.
#'''Telstar Gemini''' - ([[1978]]) Four [[pinball]] games and two light-gun games in color, light gun, two flipper buttons on left and right sides of case, pinball launch button and field adjustment sliders on top, light gun, uses a [[MOS Technology]] [[MPS 7600]] chip.
#'''Telstar Arcade''' - Cartridge-based, triangular case includes light gun, steering wheel with gear shift, and paddles, one on each side. Each cartridge includes a customized [[MOS Technology]] [[MPS-7600]] chip and 3-4 game programs stored in [[Read Only Memory|ROM]].
The large product lineup and the impending fading out of the ''PONG'' machines led Coleco to face near-bankruptcy in [[1980]].
==See also==
{{dedicated video game consoles}}
==External links==
*[http://www.pong-story.com/coleco.htm Coleco Telstar systems, with photos]
*[http://www.classicgaming.com/gamingmuseum/museum.html Telstar and other systems]
*[http://www.thedoteaters.com/play3sta4.htm The Dot Eaters entry] on the history of Telstar and Coleco
[[Category:Coleco consoles]]
[[Category:Dedicated consoles]]
[[Category:First-generation video game consoles]]
[[Category:Monochrome video game consoles]]
[[it:Coleco Telstar]]
[[nl:Coleco Telstar]]
[[sv:Coleco Telstar]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Conventional warfare</title>
<id>7310</id>
<revision>
<id>41945550</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T20:24:35Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Uriah923</username>
<id>270261</id>
</contributor>
<comment>reversing HarryPotter's edits. harry, please see the talk page for details.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{history of war}}
'''Conventional warfare''' is a form of [[war|warfare]] conducted by using conventional military weapons and battlefield tactics between two or more states in open confrontation. The forces on each side are well-defined, and fight using weapons that primarily target the opposing army. It is normally fought through means other than with [[weapons of mass destruction]], namely [[chemical warfare|chemical]], [[biological warfare|biological]], or [[nuclear weapon|nuclear]] weapons.
The general purpose of conventional warfare is to destroy the opponent's military force, thereby negating his ability to engage in conventional warfare, and forcing him to capitulate. However, the defender may resort to [[unconventional warfare]] in order to achieve his goals.
==History==
===Formation of the state===
{{details|State#Formation_of_the_state}}
The state was first advocated by [[Plato]], then found more acceptance in the consolidation of power under the [[Roman Catholic Church]]. European monarchs then gained power as the Catholic Church was stripped of temporal power and was replaced by the divine right of kings. In [[1648]], the powers of [[Europe]] signed the [[Treaty of Westphalia]] which ended the religious violence for purely political governance and outlook, signifying the birth of the modern 'state.'
Within this statist paradigm, only the state and its appointed representatives were allowed to bear [[arms]] and enter into war. In fact, war was only understood as a conflict between sovereign states. [[Monarch|King]]s strengthened this idea and gave it the force of [[law]]. Whereas previously any [[nobility|noble]] could start a war, the monarchs of Europe of necessity consolidated military power in response to the [[Napoleonic war]].
===The Clausewitzian paradigm===
{{details|Carl von Clausewitz}}
[[Prussia]] was one country attempting to amass military power. Karl von Clausewitz, one of Prussia's officers, wrote ''[[On War]]'', a work rooted solely in the world of the state. All other forms of intrastate conflict, such as [[rebellion]], are not accounted for because, in theoretical terms, Clausewitz could not account for warfare before the state. Practices such as raiding or blood feuds were then labeled criminal activities and stripped of legitimacy. This war paradigm reflected the view of most of the modernized world at the beginning of the [[21st century]], as verified by examination of the conventional armies of the time: large, high maintenance, technologically advanced armies designed to compete against similarly designed forces.
Clausewitz also forwarded the issue of [[casus belli]]. While previous wars were fought for social, religious, even cultural reasons, Clausewitz taught that was is merely "a continuation of politics by other means." It is a rational calculation where states fight for their interests (whether they are economic, security related, or otherwise) once normal discourse has broken down.
==Prevalence==
The overwhelming majority of modern wars have been conducted using the means of conventional warfare. Biological warfare has not been used since the [[19th century]] (though it is possible that the recent [[Anthrax disease|anthrax]] attacks in the United States were [[bioterrorism]]), and chemical warfare has been used only a few times. [[nuclear weapon|Nuclear warfare]] has only occurred once with the [[United States]] [[Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki|bombing]] the [[Japan|Japanese]] cities of [[Hiroshima]] and [[Nagasaki]] to end [[World War II]].
==Decline==
The state and Clausewitzian principles peaked in the [[World War]]s of the 20th century, but also laid the groundwork for their dilapidation due to [[nuclear proliferation]] and the manifestation of culturally aligned conflict. The nuclear bomb was the result of the state perfecting its quest to overthrow its competitive duplicates. Ironically, this development seems to have pushed conventional conflict waged by the state to the sidelines. Were two conventional armies to fight, the loser would have redress in its nuclear arsenal. Thus, no two [[nuclear powers]] have yet fought a conventional war, albeit in [[1999]] [[India]] and [[Pakistan]] came close to one in the [[Kargil War]]. Though bording on an allout war and an extended battlezone, it almost saw Pakistan deploying its nuclear arsenal in case of loss.
==Replacement==
Conventional warfare, waged by the state, has become something not worthy of a declaration of war. Instead, those capable of fighting underneath the nuclear umbrella (supranational [[terrorism|terrorists]], corporate [[mercenaries]], ethnic [[militia]]s, etc.) have now come to dominate the majority of conflict in the [[post-modern]] era. These conflicts cannot be explained under the statist system.
[[Samuel P. Huntington|Samuel Huntington]] has posited that the world in the early 21st century exists as a system of nine distinct "civilizations," instead of many soverei |
er/female respondent)
|-
|OK!||ठीक है!||<i>{{unicode|ṭhīk hai!}}</i>||
|-
|one minute! ("just a sec"; interj.)||एक मिनट||<i>ek minaṭ</i>||
|-
|I don't understand||मैं नहीं समझा/समझी||<i>mai<sup>n</sup> nahī<sup>n</sup> samjha/samjhī (m/f)</i>||
|-
|I don't know||मैं नहीं जानता/जानती हूँ||<i>mai<sup>n</sup> nahī<sup>n</sup> jāntā/jāntī hu<sup>n</sup> (m/f)</i>||
|-
|English||अंग्रेज़ी||<i>angrezī</i>||
|-
|what is your name?||आप का नाम क्या है?||<i>āp ka nām kya hai?</i>||
|-
|my name is ...||मेरा नाम ... है||<i>mera nām ... hai</i>||
|-
|It was nice to meet you||आप से मिलकर बहुत ख़ुशी हुई||<I>āp se milkar bahut <u>kh</u>uśī huī</i>||
|-
|It was nice to meet you too (lit. to me also)||<i>मुझे भी||<I>mujhe bhī</i>||
|-
|How much does this cost?||इसका दाम क्या है?||<i>iska dām kya hai?</i>||
|-
|Do you speak English?||क्या आप अंग्रेज़ी बोलते है?||<i>kya āp angrezī boltī hai?</i>
|}
*<nowiki>*</nowiki>These are not used nearly as casually in Hindi and Urdu as they are in western languages. कृपया especially is used only in cases of true importance or urgency, and using it otherwise would sound incredibly stilted and formal. Instead, politeness is achieved by proper address and verb forms and body language/tone of voice.
<!-- I didn't add "please sit" because I didn't know how to spell the polite imperative bitaye, which would cover please in the verb form. A problem I came into, is that Hindi and Urdu don't use 'please', 'excuse me', 'thank you', or even 'sorry' in the same casual, polite manner as other languages. As "common" phrases, they really don't belong here at all, nor, even possibly, the formal namaskaar; - but I erred on the cautious side, choosing to conform to the rest of the page. -->
== [[Hungarian language|Hungarian]] ([[Finno-Ugric languages|Finno-Ugric]]) ==
'''Note:''' ''gy'' {{IPA|(ɟ)}} is pronounced like in ''woul'''d y'''ou''; ''ny'' ({{IPA|ɲ)}} like in ''ca'''n y'''ou''; ''ö'' and ''ő'' {{IPA|(ø)}} like in ''f'''ur'''''; ''a'' {{IPA|(ɒ)}} like in ''h'''o'''t''; ''s'' {{IPA|(ʃ)}} like in '''''sh'''ip''; ''sz'' {{IPA|(s)}} like in '''''s'''un''; ''j'' {{IPA|(j)}} like in '''''y'''es''; ''cs'' {{IPA|(ʧ)}} like in '''''ch'''ip''; ''é'' {{IPA|(e)}} like in '''''ei'''ght''. The stress is always on the first syllable of the word, although secondary stressing is possible in compound words
{| border=0 cellpadding=3 cellspacing=0
|- bgcolor=#eeeeee
! align=left | Translation
! align=left | Phrase
! align=left | IPA
! align=left | Pronunciation
! align=left | Remarks
|-
|-
|Hungarian || ''magyar'' || /{{IPA|ˈmɒɟɒr}}/ || ('MA-dyar)
|-
|hello || ''Jó napot kívánok'' || /{{IPA|ˈjoː nɒpot ˈkivaːnok}}/ || ('JOH nup-ot 'KEEH-vaa-nock)
|-
| || '' szia'' || /{{IPA|ˈsiɒ}}/ || ('SEE-ya) ||common amongst friends (not deriving from the English "Seeya")
|-
|good-bye || ''viszontlátásra'' || /{{IPA|ˈvisontˌlaːtaːʃrɒ}}/ || ('VE-sont-LAAH-taash-ro)
|-
|please || ''legyen szíves'' || /{{IPA|ˈlɛɟɛn ˈsivɛʃ}}/ || ('LEH-dyen 'SEE-vesh) ||literally "Be hearty"
|-
|thank you || ''köszönöm'' || /{{IPA|ˈkøsønøm}}/ || ('KEHR-ser-nerm)
|-
|that one || ''az'' || /{{IPA|ɒz}}/ || (OZ)
|-
|how much? || ''mennyi?'' || /{{IPA|ˈmɛɲːi}}/ || ('ME-nyi)
|-
|I'd like... || ''kérek...'' || /{{IPA|ˈkeːrɛk}}/ || (KAY-reck)
|-
|yes || ''igen'' || /{{IPA|ˈigɛn}}/ || ('EE-ghen)
|-
|no || ''nem'' || /{{IPA|nɛm}}/ || (NEM)
|-
|sorry || ''bocsánat'' || /{{IPA|ˈboʧaːnɒt}}/ || ('BOH-chaa-not)
|-
|I don't understand || ''nem értem'' || /{{IPA|ˈnɛm eːr'tɛm}}/ || (NEM ayr-tem)
|-
|I don't remember || ''nem emlékszem''|| || (NEM EM-lake-sem)
|-
|where's the bathroom? || ''Hol van a mosdó?'' || /{{IPA|ˈhol vɒn ɒ 'moʃdoː}}/ || ('HOLE von o MOSH-doh)
|-
|generic toast || ''egészségedre'' || /{{IPA|ˈɛgeːʃːeːgɛdrɛ}}/ || ('EH-gay-shay-ged-re) || literally "to your health"
|-
|Do you speak English? || ''Beszél angolul?'' || /{{IPA|ˈbɛseːl ˈɒŋgolul}}/ || ('BEH-sayl 'ON-goh-lool)
|}
== [[Icelandic language|Icelandic]] ([[Germanic languages|Germanic]]) ==
{| border=0 cellpadding=3 cellspacing=0
|- bgcolor=#eeeeee
! align=left | Translation
! align=left | Phrase
! align=left | IPA
! align=left | Pronunciation
|-
|Icelandic || ''íslenska'' || /{{IPA|'iːslenska}}/ || (EES-len-ska)
|-
|hello || ''gó&eth;an dag'' || /{{IPA|'gouːðan daːγ}}/ || (GOH-than dahg)
|-
|good-bye || ''bless'' || /{{IPA|blɛsː}}/
|-
|please || ''gjör&eth;u svo vel'' || /{{IPA|'gjœr&theta;ʏ sɔ vɛːl}}/ || (GYUHR-thuh so vel)
|-
|thank you || ''takk fyrir'' || /{{IPA|taʰk 'fɪːrɪr}}/ || (tahk FEER-eer)
|-
|that one || ''&thorn;etta'' || /{{IPA|'&theta;eʰtːa}}/ || (thetta)
|-
|how much? || ''hversu mikið'' || /{{IPA|'kversʏ 'mɪːcɪð}}/ || (KVAIR-suh mickith)
|-
|English || ''enska'' ||/{{IPA|'enska/}} || (ENN-skah)
|-
|yes || ''já'' || /{{IPA|jauː}}/ || (yow)
|-
|no || ''nei'' || /{{IPA|nej}}/ || (nay)
|-
|generic toast || ''skál!'' || /{{IPA|skauːl}}/ || (scowl)
|}
== [[Bahasa Indonesia|Indonesian]] ([[Malayo-Polynesian]]) ==
(note: ''N'' is pronounced like ''ng'' in ''king'')
*Indonesian: ''bahasa Indonesia'' /ba-ha-sa in-do-ne-sia/
*hello: ''halo'' /ha-lo/ (casual and on telephone)
*good morning: ''selamat pagi'' /suh-la-mat pa-gi/
*good afternoon: ''selamat siang'' /... si-aN/ (from 12 o'clock in the afternoon)
*good evening: ''selamat sore'' /... so-re/ (from 3 p.m.)
*good night: ''selamat malam'' /... ma-lam/ (from 6 p.m.)
*good-bye:
**''dadah'' /dah-dah/ (usual, informal) from Dutch: dag /dah/
**''selamat tinggal'' /... tiN-gal/ (said by person leaving)
**''selamat jalan'' /... ja-lan/ (said by person staying)
*please: ''tolong'' /toe-loN/
*thank you: ''terima kasih'' /tree-ma ka-sih/
*you're welcome: ''terima kasih kembali''
*this one: ''ini''
*that one: ''itu'' /i-too/
*how much? ''berapa'' /buh-ra-pa/
*English: ''bahasa Inggris'' /ba-ha-sa iN-gris/
*yes: ''ya'' /ya/
*no: ''tidak'' /ti-da'/
*generic toast: ''selamat minum'' /suh-la-mat mi-noom/ (cheers)
*I'm sorry: ''maaf'' /ma-af/
*I don't understand: ''saya tidak mengerti'' /sa-ya ti-da' muh-Nur-ti/
*I don't know: ''saya tidak tahu''
*Do you speak English?: ''bisa bahasa Inggris?'' /bi-sa .../
*I cannot speak Indonesian: ''saya tidak bisa berbicara bahasa Indonesia''
*I want to go to...: ''saya mau pergi ke...''
*Where is the restroom?: ''di mana toilet?'' /di ma-na toy-let/
*Happy birthday: ''selamat ulang tahun'' /suh-la-mat oo-lang tuh-hoon/
== [[Irish language|Irish]] ([[Celtic languages|Celtic]]) ==
{| border=0 cellpadding=3 cellspacing=0
|- bgcolor=#eeeeee
! align=left | Translation
! align=left | Phrase
! align=left | IPA
! align=leftvalign=top | Pronunciation
|- valign=top
|Irish || ''Gaeilge'' || {{IPA|/geləgɛ/}} || (GAY-lih-geh)
|- valign=top
|welcome || ''fáilte'' ||{{IPA|/faːltʲə/}} || (FALL-cha)
|among || ''í measc'' || {i-mask}
|- valign=top
|good-bye || ''slán'' || {{IPA|/slaːn/}} || (slahn)
|- valign=top
|please || ''le do thoil'' || {{IPA|/lɛ dɔ hul/}} || (leh duh hull)
|- valign=top
|thank you || ''go raibh maith agat'' || {{IPA|/gə rɛv mah agət/}} || (guh re MAH a-gut)
|- valign=top
|sorry || ''tá brón orm'' || || (taw brohn urm)
|- valign=top
|that one || ''é sin'' || {{IPA|/eʃin/}} || (Ay shin)
|- valign=top
|how much? || ''cé mhéad'' || {{IPA|/keː veːd/}} || (kay-vade)
|- valign=top
|English || ''Béarla'' || {{IPA|/beːr lə/}} || (BARE-lah)
|- valign=top
|yes || Sea || || (shah)<br>as an answer to 'Is it that?' Otherwise the correct verb form is necessary. Example: "<b>An bhfuil</b> tú ag teach Mháirtín?" (Are you at Martin's house?), would be replied to by "Tá" {{IPA|/ta:w/}} taw. If the conjugation of the verb is unknown, 'Sea' (shah)will be understood.
|- valign=top
|no || Ní hea || || (Nee ha)<br>as an answer to 'Is it that?' . Otherwise the correct verb form is necessary. Example: "<b>An bhfuil</b> tú ag teach Mháirtín?" (Are you at Martin's house?), would be replied to by "Níl" (Am not) {{IPA|/n'i:l/}} (kneel). If the conjugation of the verb is unknown, 'Ní hea ' (Nee ha)will be understood.
|- valign=top
|I don't understand || ''ní thuigim'' || {{IPA|/niː higim/}} ||
|- valign=top
|Where's the bathroom? || ''cá bhfuil an leithreas?'' || || (kaw will un lehras)
|- valign=top
|generic toast || ''sláinte'' || {{IPA|/slaːntʲə/}} || (SLAWN-teh)
|}
== [[Italian language|Italian]] ([[Romance languages|Romance]]) ==
{| border=0 cellpadding=3 cellspacing=0
|- bgcolor=#eeeeee
! align=left | Translation
! align=left | Phrase
! align=left | IPA
! align=left | Pronunciation
! align=left | Audio
|- valign=top
|Italian|| ''italiano'' || {{IPA|/itaˈljano/}} || (ee-tah-lee-AN-oh) || ([[Media:Italian italiano.ogg|listen]])
|- valign=top
|hello|| ''ciao'' || {{IPA|/ˈʧao/}} || (chah-ow) || ([[Media:Italian ciao.ogg|listen]])
|- valign=top
|good-bye|| ''arrivederci'' || {{IPA|/arːiveˈderʧi/}} || (a-ree-veh-DARE-chee) || ([[Media:Italian arrivederci.ogg|listen]])
|- valign=top
|please|| ''per favore'' || {{IPA|/per faˈvore/}} || (per fa-VOAR-ay) || ([[Media:Italian per favore.ogg|listen]])
|- valign=top
|thank you|| ''grazie'' || {{IPA|/ˈgratsje/}}|| (GRATS-yeh)|| ([[Media:Italian grazie.ogg|listen]])
|- valign=top
|that one|| ''quello'' || {{IPA|/ˈkwelːo/}} || (KWEL-law) (masculine) || ([[Media:Italian quello.ogg|listen]])
|- valign=top
||| ''quella'' || {{IPA|/ˈkwelːa/}} || (KWEL-lah) (feminine) || ([[Media:Italian quella.ogg|listen]])
|- valign=top
|how much?|| ''quanto'' || {{IPA|/ˈkwanto/}} || (KWAN-tow) || ([[Media:Italian quanto.ogg|listen]])
|- valign=top
|English|| ''inglese'' || {{IPA|/iŋˈglɛze/}} || (in-GLEH-zeh)|| ([[Media:Italian inglese.ogg|l |
e people he served.
=== New Apostolic Church ===
The [[New Apostolic Church]] (NAC) knows 3 classes of ministries: Diacons, Priests and Apostles. The [[New Apostolic Church#Ministries|Apostle]]s, all conclused in the apostolate with the [[Chief Apostle]] as head, are the highest ministries.
Of the several kinds of priest-ministries, the bishop is the highest one. Nearly all bishops are set in directly from the chief apostle. They support and help their superior apostle.
=== Others ===
In some smaller Protestant denominations and independent churches the term bishop is used in the same way as pastor, to refer to the leader of the local congregation who may be male or female. This usage is especially common in African American churches in the USA. In the [[Church of Scotland]], which has a Presbyterian church structure, the word "bishop" refers to an ordained person, usually a normal parish minister, who has temporary oversight of a trainee minister.
==See also==
* [http://www.umc.org/interior.asp?ptid=1&mid=5881 List of United Methodist Bishops]
* [[Episcopalian church governance]]
* [[List of Bishops and Archbishops]]
* [[Presbyterian church governance]]
* [[Bishops in the Church of Scotland]]
* [[Mitre]]
==Pop culture==
*[[Monty Python's Flying Circus]] featured a fanciful sketch in which an Anglican bishop doubled as a [[Peter Gunn]]-style private detective.
==References & Resources==
===Print===
* [[Ignatius of Antioch]], ''Epistles of to the Ephesians, Magnesians, Trallesians, and Smyrnans'', Lightfoot, trans., Harmer, ed. (Kessinger, 1891/2003). ISBN 0766164985
* Mathews, James, ''Set Apart To Serve: The Role of the Episcopacy in the Wesleyan Tradition'' (Nashville: Abingdon, 1985).
* Moede, Gerald, ''The Office of Bishop in Methodism: Its History and Development'' (Nashville: Abingdon, 1965).
===Online===
* [http://biblestudytools.net/OnlineStudyBible/bible.cgi?word=1+Timothy+3%3A1-7&section=0&version=nrs&new=1&oq=&NavBook=1ti&NavGo=3&NavCurrentChapter=3 1 Timothy 3:1-7] (''[[NRSV]]'')
* [http://biblestudytools.net/OnlineStudyBible/bible.cgi?word=Titus+1%3A7-9&section=0&version=nrs&new=1&oq=&NavBook=tit&NavGo=1&NavCurrentChapter=1 Titus 1:7-9] (''[[NRSV]]'')
* [http://www.revneal.org/Writings/apostoli.htm Methodist/Anglican Thoughts On Apostolic Succession] by Gregory Neal
* [http://www.revneal.org/Writings/methepisc.htm Methodist Episcopacy: In Search of Holy Orders] by Gregory Neal
* [http://www.hbgdiocese.org/bishop/downloadables/What%20a%20Bishop%20Wears.pdf What a bishop wears] (Office of Worship of the Diocese of Harrisburg)
<!-- Tips for referencing:
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{{Web reference | title=Title of page | work=Title of Complete Work | url=http://www.example.com | date=Month Day | year=Year}}
For Books, use:
{{Book reference | Author=Lincoln, Abraham; Grant, U. S.; & Davis, Jefferson | Title=Resolving Family Differences Peacefully | Publisher=Gettysburg: Printing Press | Year=1861 | Editor=Stephen A. Douglas | ID=ISBN 0-12-345678-9}}
For other sources, see: [[WP:CITET]]
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[[Category:Bishops|*]]
[[Category:Christian group structuring]]
[[Category:Roman Catholic Church offices]]
[[Category:Methodism]]
[[Category:Religious work]]
[[Category:Ecclesiastical titles]]
[[bg:Епископ]]
[[cs:Biskup]]
[[da:Biskop]]
[[de:Bischof]]
[[es:Obispo]]
[[eo:Episkopo]]
[[fr:Évêque]]
[[ko:주교]]
[[id:Uskup]]
[[is:Biskup]]
[[it:Vescovo]]
[[he:בישוף]]
[[la:Episcopus]]
[[lb:Bëschof]]
[[li:Biesjop]]
[[hu:Püspök]]
[[nl:Bisschop]]
[[ja:司教]]
[[nn:Biskop]]
[[no:Biskop]]
[[pl:Biskup]]
[[pt:Bispo]]
[[ru:Епископ]]
[[sk:Biskup]]
[[sl:Škof]]
[[fi:Piispa]]
[[sv:Biskop]]
[[vi:Giám mục]]
[[uk:Єпископ]]
[[zh:主教]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Bertrand Andrieu</title>
<id>4093</id>
<revision>
<id>37301362</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-30T02:47:20Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Sparkit</username>
<id>194762</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Category:French engravers</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Bertrand Andrieu''' ([[November 4]],[[1761]]-[[December 10]],[[1822]]), French engraver of medals, was born at [[Bordeaux]]. He is considered as the
restorer of the art in [[France]], which had declined after the time of [[Louis XIV of France|Louis XIV]].; and during the last twenty years of his life he was entrusted by the French government with the execution of every work of importance. Many of his medals are figured in the Medallic History of Napoleon.
==References==
*{{1911}}
[[Category:1761 births|Andrieu, Bertrand]]
[[Category:1822 deaths|Andrieu, Bertrand]]
[[Category:French engravers|Andrieu, Bertrand]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Bordeaux</title>
<id>4097</id>
<revision>
<id>41962981</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T22:32:43Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Naconkantari</username>
<id>676502</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/220.245.178.131|220.245.178.131]] ([[User talk:220.245.178.131|talk]]) to last version by Viridian</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Bordeaux infobox}}
'''Bordeaux''' ({{audio|Fr-Bordeaux.ogg|pronunciation}}; ''Bordèu'' in [[Gascon language|Gascon]]) is a [[Seaport|port]] city in the south-west of [[France]], with 925,253 inhabitants in the [[aire urbaine|metropolitan area]] at the [[1999]] census. It is the [[capital]] of the [[Aquitaine]] ''[[région in France|région]]'', as well as the ''[[préfecture]]'' (administrative capital) of the [[Gironde]] ''[[département in France|département]]''. Its inhabitants are called ''Bordelais''.
Bordeaux is one of Europe's military, space and aeronautics research and construction centres, gathering the R&D activities of such companies as EADS space division and Thales, but also missile engines and Dassault's planes construction plants among others. It is the core of France's strategic nuclear research and physics experiments, hosting the Centre d'Etudes Atomiques and the Megajoule laser project among other high technology wide-scale projects.
With almost 100,000 students, the city's university is renowned for its research units in crop science, new materials and nanotechnologies, along with its [[Institut d'études politiques de Bordeaux|Institut d'études politiques]], its comunication and journalism institute and its law school.
[[Bordeaux wine]] draws its name from the city around which it has been produced since the 8th century. Thus the city is known as the world's wine capital, hosting the wine industry's biggest event: Vinexpo.
==Geography==
The city is built on an arc of the river [[Garonne]], and is thus divided into two parts: the right bank to the East and left bank in the West. Historically, the left bank is the most developed of the two.
==Demographics==
At the [[1999]] census, there were 215,363 inhabitants in the city ([[Commune in France|commune]]) of Bordeaux. There were 925,253 inhabitants in the metropolitan area (''[[aire urbaine]]''). The city contains a diverse range of people. Much of the population is French, but other sizeable White groups are [[Italian people|Italians]], [[Spaniards]], [[Portuguese people|Portuguese]], and [[German people|German]]. However, there are large numbers of North African Muslims.
As of February [[2004]] estimates, the population of the city reached 229,500 inhabitants.
== History ==
Bordeaux was founded around [[300 BC]] by a [[Celtic tribe]], the [[Biturige Vivisci]], who named the town ''Burdigala''. The city fell under Roman rule around [[60 BC]].
The city was plundered by the troops of [[Abdul Rahman Al Ghafiqi|Abd er Rahman]] in [[732]], after he had defeated [[Odo of Aquitaine|Duke Eudes]] and before he was killed during the [[Battle of Tours]] on [[October 10]]. It was later plundered by the Vikings.
From the 12th to the 15th century, Bordeaux was part of the [[Kingdom of England|English]] realm, following the marriage of [[Eleanor of Aquitaine|Duchess Alienor]] (Eleonor in English) d'Aquitaine with the French speaking Count Henri Plantagenet, born in [[Le Mans]], who became, within months of their wedding, King [[Henry II of England]].
The 18th century was its golden age, because of the wine trade with the British Isles and Germany and the trades with the [[West Indies]]. Many downtown buildings (about 5,000), including those on the quays are from this period. [[Victor Hugo]] found the town so beautiful he once said: " take Versailles, add Antwertp, and you have Bordeaux". [[Baron Haussmann]], a long time prefect of Bordeaux, used Bordeaux' 18th century big scale rebuilding as a model when he was asked by Emperor [[Napoleon III of France|Napoleon III]] to transform a then still quasi-medieval Paris into a "modern" capital that would make France proud.
The French government withdrew to the city during the wars of 1870, WWI and WW II.
==Wine==
:Main article : ''[[Bordeaux Wine]]''
The Bordeaux region is home to many of the most prestigious wine producers in the world. Both red and white wines are made in Bordeaux. Red Bordeaux is called [[claret]] in the [[United Kingdom]].
Red Bordeaux is generally made from a blend of grapes and may be made from [[Cabernet Sauvignon]], [[Merlot]], [[Cabernet Franc]], [[Petit Verdot]], [[Malbec]], and, less commonly in recent years, [[Carmenere]]. White Bordeaux is made from [[Sauvignon Blanc]], [[Semillon]], and [[Muscadelle]].
The Bordeaux [[wine region]] is divided into subregions including [[Saint-Émilion]], [[Pomerol]], [[Médoc]], and [[Graves]]. The area's five 'premier cru' ([[first growth]]) red wines (four from Médoc and one, Chateau Haut-Brion, from Graves), established by the [[Bordeaux Wine Official Classi |
e upper Zambezi. During these journeyings Livingstone discovered, November 1855, the famous [[Victoria Falls]], so named after the [[Victoria of the United Kingdom|Queen of the United Kingdom]]. In 1858-1864 the lower Zambezi, the [[Shire River|Shire]] and [[Lake Nyasa]] were explored by Livingstone, Nyasa having been first reached by the confidential slave of [[Antonio da Silva Porto]], a Portuguese trader established at [[Bihe, Angola|Bihe]] in Angola, who crossed Africa during 1853-1856 from [[Benguella, Angola|Benguella]] to the mouth of the [[Rovuma River|Rovuma]].
Also in 1855, Hassa Kailu consolidated his rule in what is known today as Ethiopia.
[[Henry Morton Stanley]], who had in 1871 succeeded in finding and succouring Livingstone, started again for Zanzibar in 1874, and in one of the most memorable of all exploring expeditions in Africa circumnavigated [[Lake Victoria|Victoria Nyanza]] and [[Lake Tanganyika|Tanganyika]], and, striking farther inland to the [[Lualaba River|Lualaba]], followed that river down to the Atlantic Ocean&mdash;reached in August 1877 -- and proved it to be the Congo.
While the great mystery of Central Africa was being solved explorers were also active in other parts of the continent. Southern Morocco, the Sahara and the Sudan were traversed in many directions between 1860 and 1875 by [[Gerhard Rohlfs]], [[Georg Schweinfurth]] and [[Gustav Nachtigal]]. These travellers not only added considerably to geographical knowledge, but obtained invaluable information concerning the people, languages and natural history of the countries in which they sojourned. Among the discoveries of Schweinfurth was one that confirmed the Greek legends of the existence beyond Egypt of a "[[pygmy]] race". But the first discoverer of the dwarf races of Central Africa was [[Paul du Chaillu]], who found them in the [[Ogowe River|Ogowe]] district of the west coast in 1865, five years before Schweinfurth's first meeting with them; du Chaillu having previously, as the result of journeys in the [[Gabon]] region between 1855 and 1859, made popular in Europe the knowledge of the existence of the [[gorilla]], perhaps the gigantic ape seen by [[Hanno the Navigator|Hanno the Carthaginian]], and whose existence, up to the middle of the 19th century, was thought to be as legendary as that of the Pygmies of [[Aristotle]].
=== Partition among European Powers ===
''For details, see the main article [[Scramble for Africa]]''
In the last quarter of the 19th century the map of Africa was transformed. After the discovery of the Congo the story of exploration takes second place; the continent becomes the theatre of European expansion. Lines of partition, drawn often through trackless wildernesses, marked out the possessions of [[Germany]], France, Britain and other powers. [[Railroad|Railways]] penetrated the interior, vast areas were opened up to Western occupation, and from Egypt to the Zambezi the continent was startled into new life.
The causes which led to the partition of Africa can be found in the economic and political state of western Europe at the time. Germany, recently united under Prussian rule as the result of the [[Franco-Prussian War]] of 1870, was seeking new outlets for her energies&mdash;new markets for her growing industries, and with the markets, [[Colony|colonies]].
Germany was the last country to enter into the race to acquire colonies, and when [[Otto von Bismarck|Bismarck]] - the German Chancellor - acted, Africa was the only field left to exploit. [[South America]] was being protected from interference by the [[United States]] based on the [[Monroe Doctrine]], while Britain, France, the Netherlands, Portugal and Spain had already split up most of the other regions of the world between themselves.([[colonization]])
Part of the reason Germany began to expand into the colonial sphere at this time, despite Bismarck's lack of enthusiasm for the idea, was a shift in the world view of the Prussian governing elite. Indeed, European elites as a whole began to view the world as a finite place, one in which only the strong would predominate. The influence of [[Social Darwinism|social-darwinism]] was deep, encouraging a view of the world as essentially characterized by [[zero-sum]] relationships.
For different reasons the war of 1870 was also the starting-point for France in the building up of a new colonial empire. In her endeavour to regain the position lost in that war France had to look beyond Europe. To the two causes mentioned must be added others. Britain and Portugal, when they found their interests threatened, bestirred themselves, while Italy also conceived it necessary to become an African power. Britain awoke to the need for action too late to secure predominance in all the regions where formerly hers was the only European influence. She had to contend not only with the economic forces which urged her rivals to action, but had also to combat the jealous opposition of almost every European nation to the further growth of British power. Italy alone acted throughout in cordial co-operation with Britain.
It was not, however, the action of any of the great powers of Europe which precipitated the struggle. This was brought about by the ambitious projects of [[Léopold II of Belgium|Léopold II]], king of the [[Belgium|Belgians]]. The discoveries of Livingstone, Stanley and others had aroused especial interest among two classes of men in western Europe, one the manufacturing and trading class, which saw in Central Africa possibilities of commercial development, the other the philanthropic and missionary class, which beheld in the newly discovered lands millions of "savages" to Christianize and "[[civilize]]". The possibility of utilizing both these classes in the creation of a vast state, of which he should be the chief, formed itself in the mind of Léopold II even before Stanley had navigated the Congo. The king's action was immediate; it proved successful; but no sooner was the nature of his project understood in Europe than it provoked the rivalry of France and Germany, and thus the international struggle was begun.
=== Conflicting ambitions of the European powers ===
In 1873, [[Zanzibar]], the busiest slave market in Africa, closed.
The part of the continent to which King Léopold directed his energies was the equatorial region. In September 1876 he took what may be described as the first definite step in the modern partition of the continent. He summoned to a conference at [[Brussels]] representatives of Britain, Belgium, France, Germany, [[Austria-Hungary]], Italy and [[Russia]], to deliberate on the best methods to be adopted for the exploration and Westernization of Africa, and the opening up of the interior of the continent to commerce and industry. The conference was entirely unofficial. The delegates who attended neither represented nor pledged their respective governments. Their deliberations lasted three days and resulted in the foundation of "The International African Association," with its headquarters at Brussels. It was further resolved to establish national committees in the various countries represented, which should collect funds and appoint delegates to the International Association. The central idea appears to have been to put the exploration and development of Africa upon an international footing. But it quickly became apparent that this was an unattainable ideal. The national committees were soon working independently of the International Association, and the Association itself passed through a succession of stages until it became purely Belgian in character, and at last developed into the [[Congo Free State]], under the personal sovereignty of King Léopold.
After the [[First Boer War]], a conflict between the [[British Empire]] and the [[Boer]] [[South African Republic]] (Transvaal Republic), the peace treaty on [[March 23]], [[1881]] gave the Boers self-government in the Transvaal under a theoretical British oversight.
For some time before 1884 there had been growing up a general conviction that it would be desirable for the powers who were interesting themselves in Africa to come to some agreement as to "the rules of the game," and to define their respective interests so far as that was practicable. [[Granville George Leveson-Gower|Lord Granville's]] ill-fated treaty brought this sentiment to a head, and it was agreed to hold an international conference on African affairs.
[[Image:Afryka 1890.jpg|right|thumb|250px|Map of Africa 1890]]
===The Berlin Conference of 1884-85===
''Main article: [[Berlin Conference]]''
From 1885 the scramble among the powers went on with renewed vigour, and in the fifteen years that remained of the century the work of partition, so far as international agreements were concerned, was practically completed.
:Relationship to "[[Victorian Era]]" in the UK.
Soldiers of King [[Menelik II]] fended off the [[Italy|Italians]], keeping [[Ethiopia]] independent from European colonialization
No African countires were consulted during the partition for Africa. An "International treaty" was signed that disregarded the ethnic, social and economic composition of the people that lived in that area. This was to resurface years later, as ethnic or "tribal" conflict after the African countries gained their independence.
The countries were taken by force and thus began a long struggle to fight against European subjugation.
==20th Century: 1900-1945==
===Africa at the start of the 20th century===
[[Image:Africa1910sSmall.jpg|frame|right|Map of Africa just before World War I ([[Media:Africa1910s.jpg|larger image (456 kB)]])]]
All of the continent was claimed by European powers, except for [[Ethiopia]] ("Abyssinia") and [[Liberia]].
The European powers set up a variety of different administrations in Africa a |
[Boston, Massachusetts|Boston]]; died [[April 2]], [[1891]] in [[Washington, D.C.]]) was an [[attorney-at-law|attorney]], soldier, writer, and [[freemasonry|Freemason]]. Albert Pike is the only [[Confederate States Army|Confederate military]] officer or figure to be honored with a statue in Washington D.C. The statue sits in Judiciary Square.
[[Image:AlbertPikeYounger.jpeg|thumb|Photograph of Pike]]
==Biography==
Pike was born in [[Boston, Massachusetts|Boston]], son of Benjamin and Sarah (Andrews) Pike, and spent his childhood in [[Byfield, Massachusetts|Byfield]] and [[Newburyport, Massachusetts]]. He attended school in Newburyport and [[Framingham, Massachusetts|Framingham]] until he was 15, at which point, having passed the [[Harvard University|Harvard]] entrance exam but unable to afford tuition, he began a program of self-education, later becoming a schoolteacher in [[Gloucester, Massachusetts|Gloucester]], [[Fairhaven, Massachusetts|Fairhaven]] and Newburyport.
In 1831 Pike left Massachusetts to travel west, first stopping in [[Saint Louis, Missouri|St. Louis]] and later moving on to [[Independence, Missouri|Independence]], [[Missouri]]. In Independence, he joined an expedition to [[Taos, New Mexico|Taos]], [[New Mexico]], hunting and trading. During the excursion his horse broke and ran, forcing Pike to walk the remaining 500 miles to Taos. After this he joined a trapping expedition to the [[Llano Estacado]] in New Mexico and [[Texas]]. Trapping was minimal, and after traveling about 1300 miles (650 on foot), he finally arrived at [[Fort Smith, Arkansas|Fort Smith]], [[Arkansas]].
Settling in Arkansas in 1833, he taught school and wrote a series of articles for [[Little Rock, Arkansas|Little Rock]] ''Arkansas Advocate'' under the [[pen name]] of "Casca." The articles were popular enough that he was asked to join the staff of the newspaper. Later, after marrying Mary Ann Hamilton, he purchased part of the newspaper with the dowry. By 1835 he was the ''Advocate''<nowiki>'</nowiki>s sole owner. Under Pike's administration the ''Advocate'' promoted the viewpoint of the [[United States Whig Party|Whig party]] in a politically volatile and divided Arkansas.
He then began to study law, and was admitted to the bar in 1837, selling the ''Advocate'' the same year. He was the first reporter for the Arkansas supreme court, and also wrote a book (published anonymously), titled ''The Arkansas Form Book'', which was a guidebook for lawyers.
===Military career===
When the [[Mexican-American War]] started, Pike joined the cavalry and was commissioned as a troop commander, serving in the [[Battle of Buena Vista]]. He and his commander, [[John Selden Roane]], had several differences of opinion. This situation led finally to a [[duel]] between Pike and Roane. Although several shots were fired in the duel, nobody was injured, and the two were persuaded by their seconds to discontinue it.
After the war, Pike returned to the practice of law, moving to [[New Orleans, Louisiana|New Orleans]] for a time beginning in 1853. He wrote another book, ''Maxims of the Roman Law and some of the Ancient French Law, as Expounded and Applied in Doctrine and Jurisprudence''. Although unpublished, this book increased his reputation among his associates in law. He returned to Arkansas in 1857, gaining some amount of prominence in the legal field and becoming an advocate of [[slavery]], although retaining his affiliation with the Whig party. When that party dissolved, he became a member of the [[United States Know-Nothing Party|Know-Nothing]] party. Before the [[American Civil War|Civil War]] he was firmly against secession, but when the war started he nevertheless took the side of the [[Confederate States of America|Confederacy]].
He also made several contacts among the [[Native Americans in the United States|Native American]] tribes in the area, at one point negotiating an $800,000 settlement between the [[Creek (people)|Creek]]s and other tribes and the federal government. This relationship was to influence the course of his Civil War service. At the beginning of the war, Pike was appointed as Confederate envoy to the Native Americans. In this capacity he negotiated several treaties, one of the most important being with [[Cherokee]] chief [[John Ross (Cherokee chief)|John Ross]], which was concluded in 1861.
Pike was commissioned as a [[brigadier general]] on [[November 22]], [[1861]], and given a command in the [[Indian Territory]]. With Gen. [[Benjamin McCulloch|Ben McCullough]], Pike trained three Confederate regiments of [[Indian cavalry]], most of whom belonged to the "[[Five Civilized Tribes|civilized tribes]]," whose loyalty to the Confederacy was variable. Although victorious at the [[Battle of Pea Ridge]] (Elkhorn Tavern) in March, Pike's unit was defeated later in a counterattack, after falling into disarray. Also, as in the previous war, Pike came into conflict with his superior officers, at one point drafting a letter to [[Jefferson Davis]] complaining about his direct superior.
After Pea Ridge, Pike was faced with charges that his troops had scalped soldiers in the field. Maj. Gen. [[Thomas C. Hindman]] also charged Pike with mishandling of money and materiel, ordering his arrest. Both these charges were later found to be considerably lacking in evidence; nevertheless Pike, facing arrest, escaped into the hills of Arkansas, sending his resignation from the Confederate Army on July 12. He was at length arrested on November 3 under charges of [[insubordination]] and [[treason]], and held briefly in [[Warren, Texas]], but his resignation was accepted on November 11 and he was allowed to return to Arkansas.
===After the war===
Pike faced the postwar years unable to earn the trust either of his former comrades or of the Union victors, and subsequently relocated to [[New York]] and later to [[Canada]]. He was however at length given a formal pardon by [[Andrew Johnson]] on August 30, 1865, and therefore enabled to continue his career in public life, becoming an associate justice of the Arkansas supreme court, later practicing law in [[Memphis, Tennessee]] from 1867-8 (where he also served as editor of the Memphis ''Appeal''), and finally moving his law office to [[Washington, D.C.]] in 1870, becoming editor of the ''Patriot'' newspaper.
[[Image:AlbertPikeOlder.jpeg|thumb|Pike in Masonic regalia]]
===In Freemasonry===
He had in the interim joined a Masonic lodge and become extremely active in the affairs of the organization, being elected Sovereign Grand Commander of the [[Scottish Rite]]'s Southern Jurisdiction in 1859, also that year having received an honorary Ph.D. from Harvard. He remained Sovereign Grand Commander for the remainder of his life (a total of 32 years), devoting a large amount of his time to perfection of the rituals of the order. Notably, he published a book called ''[[Morals and Dogma of the Ancient and Accepted Scottish Rite of Freemasonry]]'' in 1872, of which there were several subsequent editions.
Additionally, Pike wrote on several legal subjects, and continued producing poetry, a hobby he had begun in his youth in Massachusetts. His poems were highly regarded in his day, but are now mostly forgotten. Several volumes of his works were self-published posthumously by his daughter.
Pike died in Washington, D.C. and was buried at Oak Hill Cemetery (against his wishes&mdash;he had left instructions his body be cremated).
In [[1944]] his remains were moved to the [[House of the Temple]], headquarters of the Southern Jurisdiction of the Scottish Rite.
===Albert Pike and the Ku Klux Klan===
Albert Pike has been accused of being a founder and high ranking member of the [[Ku Klux Klan]]; however, There is no evidence of this and the claim appears to be based on the unsubstantiated writings of Klan appologist Walter Fleming and revivalist Susan Davis.
One of the Klan founders, Captain John C. Lester, wrote a 119 page book in 1884, in which he recalled the founding of the Klan fifteen years before. The only person that Lester mentioned was "Gen. Forrest," undoubtedly referring to [[Nathan Bedford Forrest]]. Lester does not mention Pike.
Dr. Walter L. Fleming republished Lester's memoir in 1905 and added a list of names and pictures of "Klansmen." These included Pike but also Rev. D.L. Wilson who had been Lester's co-author but not a Klansman. Thus if the inclusion of Pike on the list was a mistake, then it was not Fleming's only one.
Susan L. Davis published her "Authentic History" of the Klan in 1924. She disagreed with Lester and regarded Fleming as not knowledgeable about the Klan. She also said that David L. Wilson, was wrong to say that the original Klan was a failure. (This is not surpirsing since Davis was actively supporting a revival of the Klan at the time of her publication.)
Virtually all books or articles that claim Pike was part of the Ku Klux Klan use Fleming, Davis, other authors who cite Fleming or Davis, or else use no sources whatsoever. As one source puts it, "Research into primary source material will reveal that there isn't any primary source material" that proves or disproves Pike's association with the Klan. It is noteworthy that when the Klan was founded in Pulaski, Tennessee around Christmas 1865, Pike was living in in Arkansas, and there is no record of him journeying to or being in Pulaski.
===Conspiracy theories===
Pike's contributions to the Scottish Rite of Freemasonry in the Southern Jurisdiction of the United States, combined with his unique life and written works, has made him a person of note in virtually every conspiracy theory that mentions Freemasons.
== Literature ==
* Albert Pike: ''Morals and Dogma''. [http://www.illuminati-news.com/e-books/morals-dogma/apike.htm Book]
* Albert Pike: ''Meaning of Masonry''. Kessinger Publishing, May 2004. ISBN 1417911 |
. Freestyle music in general is heavily influenced by Latin music, especially with respect to rhythms and brass/horn and keyboard parts. The Latin "[[clave]]" rhythm can be felt in many songs (such as in the defining ''Clave Rocks'' by Amoretto). The tempo of Freestyle music is almost always between 110 and 130 [[beats per minute]] (BPM), typically around 118 BPM. The keyboard parts are often elegant and clever, with many short melodies and countermelodies, again a strong influence from Latin music.
==Early cultural effects==
The new exciting sounds rejuvenated the funk, soul and hip hop club scenes. While most of the neighborhood clubs were closing their doors for good, some [[Manhattan]] clubs were suddenly thriving. Places like the [[Roxy]], the [[Funhouse]], [[Broadway 96]], [[Gothams West]], and [[Roseland]] that played this were packed. Records like "Play At Your Own Risk" by [[Planet Patrol]], "One More Shot" by [[C-Bank]], "Numbers" by [[Kraftwerk]], "Al-Naafiyish (The Soul)" by [[Hashim]] and "I.O.U." by [[Freeez]] became huge hits. Some producers wisely copied the sound and made songs that were more melodic. Records like "I Remember What You Like" by [[Jenny Burton]], "Running" by soon-to-be pop stars [[Information Society]], and "Let The Music Play" and "Give Me Tonight" by [[Shannon (singer)|Shannon]] were all over [[New York]] radio. Many people list ''Let the Music Play'' as the first freestyle track. Indeed, ''Let the Music Play'' became freestyle's biggest record, still getting heavy airplay through radio and other venues. The song was produced by [[Chris Barbosa]], a [[Latino]] from NY. Barbosa changed and refined the electro funk sound, adding Latin American rhythms and a totally [[syncopated]] [[drum]] sound. That was definitely a reason why the style came to be very popular among Latinos as well as [[Italian Americans]]. Furthermore, many DJs who played the music, such as [[John Benitez|Jellybean]], [[Tony Torres]], [[Raul Soto]] and [[Roman Ricardo]] were [[Hispanic]]. However, those on stage performing the songs were not, neither were most of the producers making the music. For example, Information Society's notable hit "Running", was written by Murat Konar, whom is of Indian descent, and produced by the band, which is of Scandinavian descent. This marks a notable merging of underground Hispanic and African-American urban cultures, hence, the names ''Latin Hip Hop'' or ''Latin Freestyle''. Now, the more neutral term ''Freestyle'' is generally preferred.
[[KPWR]] (Power 106) in Los Angeles and [[WQHT-FM (Hot 97)]] in New York began playing hits by artists like [[TKA]], [[Sweet Sensation]], and [[Expose]] on the same playlists as Pop superstars like [[Michael Jackson]] and [[Madonna (entertainer)|Madonna]]. Tracks like TKA's ''One Way Love'' and Sweet Sensation's ''Hooked On You'' received new life and the success of these tracks as well as the just-released ''Show Me'' by the [[Cover Girls]] helped get them added to stations around the country. "(You Are My) All and All." by [[Joyce Simms]] became the first Freestyle record to cross over into the [[R&B]] market. It was also one of the first Freestyle records to crack the European market. Although still in its early stages, Freestyle was now getting national attention, and was fast becoming dance music for the 80s.
==The Miami scene==
Not only electro was very popular in [[Miami]], also freestyle was embraced with the southern Latin capital of the US. [[Pretty Tony]], a.k.a. Tony Butler, actually first made electro, then bass and finally freestyle. He had a one man group called Freestyle and his success would begin in 1983 with the hit single 'Fix it in the Mix' and later that year a strong showing with artist [[Debbie Deb]] singing "When I Hear Music". Joining him in early 1984 New York rapper [[TK Rodriguez]] fronted the group Fastlane and would release the single 'Young Ladies' Hip hop's first southern track. That year TK introduced Pretty Tony to [[Arthur Baker]], [[Kurtis Blow]] and Afrika Bambataa and he worked alongside Butler on Debbie Deb's 'Look Out Weekend'. Rodriguez' introduction of freestyle singer [[Trinere]] would become Butler's most successful artist and production.
[[Company B]], [[Stevie B]], [[Paris By Air (band) | Paris By Air]],[[Linear (band) | Linear]], [[Will To Power (band) | Will To Power]], and [[Exposé]]'s later hits defined Miami Freestyle. Many labels confused New York Freestyle and Miami Freestyle, thinking they had the same audience. They thought their promotional strategy would work for both genres, which resulted in skipping the all too important step of cultivating a record at the street and club level before going to radio. This often led to poor results for the New York-based Freestyle. New York Freestyle, even in its most polished forms, retained a raw edge and underground sound, using minor chords that made the tracks darker and more moody. The lyrics also tended to be about unrequited love or other more somber themes, dealing with the reality of what inner city teens were experiencing emotionally.
Miami records on the other hand, tended to be more optimistic, using major chords similar to those used in early disco giving them a more upbeat sound. This is probably why the Miami records fared better at mainstream Pop radio than New York Freestyle. Some Miami artists like [[Stevie B]], after doing their first shows in the New York market, saw the difference and began using the Miami sound combined with New York Freestyle, often with successful results.
==Freestyle as a pop-crossover genre==
By 1989, [[Freestyle]] was at its peak as an underground genre. Around this time, [[Lisa Lisa and Cult Jam]], one of the first Latino freestyle acts to get behind the microphone, began to make it big on the freestyle scene. Their records were produced by [[Full Force]], who also made [[UTFO]]'s music and even once worked together with [[James Brown (musician)|James Brown]]. The music of [[Lisa Lisa and Cult Jam]] was less electro and more pop, and that was also probably the reason why groups such as [[Lisa Lisa and Cult Jam]], [[TKA]], [[Sweet Sensation]] and especially the [[Cover Girls]] were able to crossover into the pop market at the end of the 1980s.
Soon thereafter, however, freestyle was seemingly swallowed up by the mainstream pop industry: [[MC Hammer]], [[Paula Abdul]], [[Bobby Brown]], [[New Kids On The Block]] and [[Milli Vanilli]] had definite freestyle influences, with their hip hop beats and electro samples, but were undoubtedly a new pop-mainstream form of the underground dance music of the 1980s, repackaged with catchier tunes, slicker production and [[MTV]]-friendly videos. Along with this pop appropriation of the genre and the success of these artists, not only on crossover stations but R&B stations as well, freestyle ceased to be as important as an underground genre, giving way to newer genres, such as [[Gangsta rap]] and new forms of [[Dance music]] coming from Europe and [[Detroit]], such as [[House music|House]], [[Trance music|Trance]] and [[Rave]], which seemed younger, fresher and newer than their freestyle influences.
==Selected freestyle hits==
{| border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="5" align="center" width="90%"
|-
|valign="top"|
'''[[1980s]]'''
* [[Alisha (singer) | Alisha]] - ''Baby Talk''
* [[C-Bank]] - ''One More Shot''
* [[Carmen]] - ''You & Me''
* [[Company B]] - ''Fascinated''
* [[Coro]] - ''Where Are You Tonight''
* [[Cover Girls]] - ''Show Me''
* [[Cynthia (singer)|Cynthia]] - ''Thief Of Heart''
* [[Debbie Deb]] - ''When I Hear Music''
* [[Exposé (band)|Exposé]] - ''Come Go With Me''
* [[Freeez]] - ''I.O.U.''
* [[Freestyle Express|Freestyle]] - ''Don't Stop The Rock''
* [[Hanson and Davis]] - ''Hungry For Your Love''
* [[Information Society]] - ''Running''
* [[Jaya]] - ''If You Leave Me Now''
* [[Joyce Sims]] - ''(You Are My) All And All''
* [[John Benitez|Jellybean]] - ''The Mexican''
* [[Johnny O]] - ''Fantasy Girl''
* [[Judy Torres]] - ''Come Into My Arms''
* [[Leather & Lace]] - ''Let Your Body Go''
* [[Lisa Lisa & Cult Jam]] - ''Can You Feel The Beat''
* [[Nancy Martinez]] - ''For Tonight''
* [[Nayobe]] - ''Please Don't Go''
* [[Nice N Wild]] - ''Diamond Girl''
* [[Nocera]] - ''Summertime, Summertime''
* [[Noel]] - ''Silent Morning'' (First dance song to address the AIDS epidemic)
* [[Nolan Thomas]] - ''Yo, Little Brother''
* [[Pajama Party]] - ''Yo No Sé''
* [[Planet Patrol]] - ''Play At Your Own Risk''
* [[Pretty Poison]] - ''Catch Me (I'm Falling)''
* [[Sa-Fire]] - ''Boy, I've Been Told''
* [[Shannon (singer)|Shannon]] - ''[[Let The Music Play]]'' (released in September 1983)
* [[Stevie B]] - ''In My Eyes''
* [[Sweet Sensation]] - ''Hooked on You''
* [[Trinere]] - ''How can we be wrong''
* [[Timex Social Club]] - ''Rumors''
* [[Tina B]] - ''Honey To A Bee''
* [[TKA]] - ''Scars of Love''
* [[Will To Power]] - ''Dreamin'''
|valign="top"|
'''[[1990s]]'''
* [[Alisha (singer) | Alisha]] - ''Bounce Back''
* [[Angelina (singer)|Angelina]] - ''Release Me''
* [[Angelique]] - ''I Can't Live Without You''
* [[Buffy]] - ''Give Me a Reason''
* [[Collage (singer)|Collage]] - ''I'll Be Loving You''
* [[Corina]] - ''Temptation''
* [[Coro (singer)|Coro]] - ''Fallen Angel''
* [[Clear Touch]] - ''Cherish''
* [[Cynthia (singer)|Cynthia]] - ''If I Had The Chance''
* [[George Lamond]] - ''Distant Heart''
* [[Intonation]] - ''Free My Love''
* [[Jocelyn Enriquez]] - ''I've Been Thinking About You''
* [[Lil' Johanna]] - ''Take Me In Your Arms Again''
* [[Lil' Suzy]] - ''Promise Me''
* [[Lina Santiago]] - ''Feel So Good''
* [[Joei Mae]] - ''He's My Baby''
* [[Lisette Melendez]] - ''Together Forever''
* [[Manuella]] - ''Don't Try To Come Back''
* [[Natalie]] - ''I |
a [[Supreme Court]] was established. In [[1991]], the CMRN was replaced by a mixed military and civilian body, the Transitional Council for National Recovery (CTRN), with [[Lansana Conté|Conté]] as president and a [[mandate]] to manage a 5-year transition to full civilian rule. The CTRN drafted "organic" laws to create republican institutions and to provide for independent [[political parties]], national elections, and [[freedom of the press]]. Political party activity was legalized in [[1992]], when more than 40 political parties were officially recognized.
In December [[1993]], [[Lansana Conté|Conté]] was elected to a 5-year term as president in the country's first [[multi-party]] elections, which were marred by irregularities and lack of [[Transparency (humanities)|transparency]] on the part of the government. In [[1995]], Conté's ruling PUP party won 76 of 114 seats in elections for the National Assembly amid opposition claims of irregularities and government tampering. In [[1996]], President Conté reorganized the government, appointing Sidya Touré to the revived post of [[Prime Minister]] and charging him with special responsibility for leading the government's economic reform program.
== Executive branch: ==
'''chief of state:'''President [[Lansana Conté]] (head of military government since [[5 April]] [[1984]], elected president [[19 December]] [[1993]])
'''head of government:''' Prime Minister [[Cellou Dalein Diallo]]
'''cabinet:''' Council of Ministers appointed by the president
'''elections:''' president elected by popular vote for a five-year term; candidate must receive a majority of the votes cast to be elected president; election last held [[14 December]] [[1998]] (next to be held NA December 2003); the prime minister appointed by the president
'''election results:'''
[[Lansana Conté]] reelected president; percent of vote - [[Lansana Conté]] (PUP) 56.1%, [[Mamadou Boye Bâ]] (UNR-PRP) 24.6%, [[Alpha Condé]] (RPG) 16.6%,
== Legislative branch: ==
unicameral People's National Assembly or Assemblee Nationale Populaire (114 seats; members are elected by direct popular vote to serve five-year terms)
'''elections:'''last held [[11 June]] [[1995]] (next to be held NA 2000)
'''election results:'''percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - PUP 71, RPG 19, PRP 9, UNR 9, UPG 2, PDG 1, UNPG 1, PDG-RDA 1, other 1
== Judicial branch: ==
Court of Appeal or Cour d'Appel
== Political parties and leaders: ==
Democratic Party of Guinea or PDG-AST [Marcel CROS]; Democratic Party of Guinea-African Democratic Rally or PDG-RDA [El Hadj Ismael Mohamed Gassim Gushein]; Party for Unity and Progress or PUP [Lansana CONTÉ] - the governing party; Party for Renewal and Progress or PRP [Siradiou DIALLO]; Rally for the Guinean People or RPG [Alpha CONDE]; Union for Progress of Guinea or UPG [Jean-Marie DORE, secretary-general]; Union for the New Republic or UNR [Mamadou Boye BA]
{{Africa in topic|Politics of}}
[[Category:Guinea]]
[[pt:Política da Guiné]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Economy of Guinea</title>
<id>12181</id>
<revision>
<id>38992913</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-10T00:17:14Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Briaboru</username>
<id>284038</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Guinea]] is richly endowed with minerals, possessing an estimated one-third of the world's proven reserves of [[bauxite]], more than 1.8 billion metric tons of high-grade [[iron]] ore, significant [[diamond]] and [[gold]] deposits, and undetermined quantities of [[uranium]]. Guinea also has considerable potential for growth in the agricultural and fishing sectors. Land, water, and climatic conditions provide opportunities for large-scale irrigated farming and agroindustry.
Bauxite mining and alumina production provide about 80% of Guinea's foreign exchange. Several U.S. companies are active in this sector. Diamonds and gold also are mined and exported on a large scale, providing additional foreign exchange. Concession agreements have been signed for future exploitation of Guinea's extensive iron ore deposits. Remittances from Guineans living and working abroad and coffee exports account for the rest of Guinea's foreign exchange.
Since 1985, the Guinean Government has adopted policies to return commercial activity to the private sector, promote investment, reduce the role of the state in the economy, and improve the administrative and judicial framework. The government has eliminated restrictions on agricultural enterprise and foreign trade, liquidated many parastatals, increased spending on education, and vastly downsized the civil service. The government also has made major strides in restructuring the public finances. The IMF and the World Bank are heavily involved in the development of Guinea's economy, as are many bilateral donor nations, including the United States. Guinea's economic reforms have had recent notable success, improving the rate of economic to 5% and reducing the rate of inflation to about 2%, as well as increasing government revenues while restraining official expenditures. Although Guinea's external debt burden remains high, the country is now current on external debt payments.
The government revised the private investment code in 1998 to stimulate economic activity in the spirit of a free enterprise. The code does not discriminate between foreigners and nationals and provides for repatriation of profits. Foreign investments outside [[Conakry]] are entitled to especially favorable conditions. A national investment commission has been formed to review all investment proposals. The United States and Guinea have signed an investment guarantee agreement that offers political risk insurance to American investors through [[OPIC]]. Guinea plans to inaugurate an arbitration court system to allow for the quick resolution of commercial disputes.
Guinea is richly endowed with minerals, possessing an estimated one-third of the world's proven reserves of bauxite, more than 1.8 billion metric tons (MT) of high-grade iron ore, significant diamond and gold deposits, and undetermined quantities of uranium. Guinea also has considerable potential for growth in the agricultural and fishing sectors. Land, water, and climatic conditions provide opportunities for large-scale irrigated farming and agroindustry. Possibilities for investment and commercial activities exist in all these areas, but Guinea's poorly developed infrastructure continues to present obstacles to investment projects.
Lately, with the increase of alumina demand thanks to booming [[China]], there is a renew interest in Guinea riches. The consortium [[Alcan]] and [[Alcoa]], partener with the Guinean government in the CBG mining in north western Guinea, have announced the feasibility study for the construction of a 1 million tpa [[alumina]] smelter. This come with a similar project from canadian start-up Global Alumina trying to come with 2 billions dollars alumina plant in the same region. As of April 2005, the National Assembly of Guinea has not ratified Global's project.
'''GDP:'''
purchasing power parity - $19.5 billion (2004 est.)
'''GDP - real growth rate:'''
1% (2004 est.)
'''GDP - per capita:'''
purchasing power parity - $2,100 (2004 est.)
'''GDP - composition by sector:'''
<br>''agriculture:''
25%
<br>''industry:''
38.2%
<br>''services:''
36.8% (2004 est.)
'''Population below poverty line:'''
40% (2002 est.)
'''Household income or consumption by percentage share:'''
<br>''lowest 10%:''
2.6% (1994)
<br>''highest 10%:''
32% (1994)
'''Inflation rate (consumer prices):'''
18% (2004 est.)
'''Labor force:'''
3 million (1999)
'''Labor force - by occupation:'''
agriculture 80%, industry and services 20% (2000 est.)
'''Unemployment rate:'''
NA%
'''Budget:'''
<br>''revenues:''
$382.7 million
<br>''expenditures:''
$711.4 million, including capital expenditures of NA (2004 est.)
'''Industries:'''
[[bauxite]], [[gold]], [[diamond]]s; [[alumina]] refining; light manufacturing and agricultural processing industries
'''Industrial production growth rate:'''
3.2% (1994)
'''Electricity - production:'''
855 GWh (2002)
'''Electricity - production by source:'''
<br>''fossil fuel:''
63.55%
<br>''hydro:''
36.45%
<br>''nuclear:''
0%
<br>''other:''
0% (1998)
'''Electricity - consumption:'''
795.2 GWh (1998)
'''Electricity - exports:'''
0 kWh (1998)
'''Electricity - imports:'''
0 kWh (1998)
'''Agriculture - products:'''
[[rice]], [[coffee]], [[pineapple]]s, palm kernels, [[cassava]] ([[tapioca]]), [[banana]]s, [[sweet potato]]es; cattle, [[domestic sheep|sheep]], [[goat]]s; timber
'''Exports:'''
$709.2 million f.o.b. (2004 est.)
'''Exports - commodities:'''
[[bauxite]], [[alumina]], [[gold]], [[diamond]]s, [[coffee]], fish, agricultural products
'''Exports - partners:'''
South Korea 15.6%, [[Russia]] 13.1%, [[Spain]] 12.3%, [[Ireland]] 9.1%, [[United States]] 7.5%, [[Ukraine]] 5.6%, Belgium 5.2% (2004)
'''Imports:'''
$641.5 million f.o.b. (2004 est.)
'''Imports - commodities:'''
[[petroleum]] products, metals, machinery, transport equipment, textiles, grain and other foodstuffs (1997)
'''Imports - partners:'''
[[Côte d'Ivoire]] 15.5%, [[France]] 9%, Belgium 6.1%, China 6%, South Africa (2004)
'''Debt - external:'''
$3.25 billion (2001 est.)
'''Economic aid - recipient:'''
$359.2 million (1998)
'''Currency:'''
1 Guinean franc (GNF) = 100 centimes
'''Exchange rates:'''
Guinean francs per US dollar - 2,550 (2004), 1,984.9 (2003), 1,975.8 (2002), 1,950.6 (2001), 1,746.9 (2000), 1,292.5 (January 1999), 1,236.8 (1998), 1,095.3 (1997), 1,004.0 (1996), 991.4 (1995)
'''Fiscal year:'''
calendar year
{{WTO}}
[[Category:WTO members|Guinea]]
[[Category:Guinea]]
[[Category:Economies by country|Guinea]]
[[Category:African Union member economies|Guinea]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
|
acked by a Nasrid army from Granada. Therefore, the siege ended in a truce, allowing the Marinids to keep Gibraltar (Fourth Siege of Gibraltar)
*1344 March - After a two-year siege, [[Algeciras]] was taken over by the Castilian forces. Therefore, Gibraltar became the main Marinid port in the Iberian Peninsula. During the siege, Gibraltar played a key role as the supply base of the besieged.
*1349 - Gibraltar was unsuccessfully besieged by the Castilian forces led by the king [[Alfonso XI of Castile|Alfonso XI]].
*1350 - The siege was resumed by Alfonso XI. It was again unsuccessful, mainly due to the arrival of the [[Black Death]], which decimated the besiegers, causing the death of the king (Fifth Siege of Gibraltar).
*1369 - Algeciras was taken over by the [[Nasrid dynasty|Nasrids]], destroyed and its harbour made unusable. This fact increased again the importance of Gibraltar in the strait trade.
*1374 - Gibraltar was recovered by the [[Nasrid dynasty|Nasrids]] (Sixth Siege of Gibraltar).
*1436 - [[Enrique de Guzmán]], Count of Niebla, with large estates in South Andalusia assaulted Gibraltar. However, his attack was repelled and Castilian forces suffer heavy losses (Seventh Siege of Gibraltar).
==Castilian / Spanish==
*[[1462]] [[August 20]] - Castilian forces captured Gibraltar (Eighth Siege of Gibraltar). (See [[Reconquista]]). An immediate dispute broke out between the [[House of Medina Sidonia]] (the Guzmán family) and the [[House of Arcos]] (the Ponce de León family) about the possession of the town. Finally, the initiative of Juan Alonso de Guzmán, 1st [[Duke of Medina Sidonia]] succeeded and he took possession of the town as personal property. However, the King of Castile, [[Henry IV of Castile|Henry IV]] declared Gibraltar to be Crown property and not the personal property of the Guzman family. Henry IV restored the charter granted to Gibraltar in 1310 and took two additional measures: the lands previously belonging to [[Algeciras]] (destroyed in 1369) were granted to Gibraltar; and the status of [[collegiate church]] was solicited from the pope [[Pius II]] and granted to the Santa María Church (the old Moorish Mosque). [[St. Bernard]], whose feast falls on the [[20 August]], became the Patron Saint of Gibraltar.
*1463 - In a tour through Andalusia, Henry IV was the first Christian monarch to visit Gibraltar.
*1467 July - In the midst of a nobility revolt against the King, the forces of the Duke of Medina Sidonia, after a 16-month siege, took Gibraltar. [[Alfonso of Castile]], half-brother of Henry IV, and puppet pretender handled by the nobility, granted him the Lordship of Gibraltar (Ninth Siege of Gibraltar).
*[[1469]] [[June 3]] - After the death of Alfonso de Castilla and the 1st Duke of Medina Sidonia, his son and heir [[Enrique de Guzman El Bueno, 2nd Duke of Medina Sidonia|Enrique de Guzman, 2nd Duke of Medina Sidonia]] changed side and in reward, saw the status of Gibraltar, as part of the domains of the Duke, confirmed by the Queen [[Isabella of Castile]].
*[[1470]] [[December 20]] - A new charter was granted to the town of Gibraltar, now a nobiliary town, based in the Antequera charter.
*[[1478]] [[September 30]] - The [[Catholic Monarchs]] granted the title of Marquis of Gibraltar to the Duke of Medina Sidonia.
*1492 - After conquering Granada, the Catholic Monarchs expelled the [[Jew]]s from Spain. Many passed through Gibraltar on their way into exile in North Africa.
*1492 Summer - After the death of the former Duke, his son and heir, [[Juan Alfonso Perez de Guzman El Bueno, 3rd Duke of Medina Sidonia|Juan Alfonso Perez de Guzman, 3rd Duke of Medina Sidonia]] saw his lordship over Gibraltar reluctantly renewed by the Catholic Monarchs.
*1497 - Gibraltar became the main base in the conquest of [[Melilla]] by the troops of the Duke of Medina Sidonia.
*[[1501]] [[December 2]] - Acknowledging the importance of the town, the Catholic Monarchs asked the Duke of Medina Sidonia for the return of Gibraltar to the domains of the crown. The Duke accepted the Royal request and ceded the town to the monarchs.
*[[1502]] [[January 2]] - [[Garcilaso de la Vega]] took possession of the town on behalf of the Queen Isabella of Castile.
[[Image:Gib original crest.jpg|left|thumb|The Coat of Arms of Gibraltar, granted by the Catholic Monarchs]]
*[[1502]] [[July 10]] - By a Royal Warrant passed in Toledo, the Catholic Monarchs granted to Gibraltar its [[Coat of arms of Gibraltar|coat of arms]]: "An escutcheon on which the upper two thirds shall be a white field and on the said field set a red castle, and below the said castle, on the other third of the escutcheon, which must be a red field in which there must be a white line between the castle and the said red field, there shall be a golden key which hangs by a chain from the said castle, as are here figured". The Castle and Key remain the Arms of Gibraltar to this day.
*1506 - Alleging a false donation by the king [[Philip I of Castile]], the Duke of Medina Sidonia attempted to recover Gibraltar by besieging the town. The siege was unsuccessful and the Duke was admonished by the Regency and forced to pay a fee to the town. The town received the title of "Most Loyal City" (Tenth Siege of Gibraltar).
*[[1540]] [[September 8]] - Corsairs from the [[Barbary Coast]] (ruled by [[Khair ad Din|Barbarossa]]) raided Gibraltar and took away many captives.
*1552 - After the requests from the inhabitants of the town, [[Charles I of Spain]] (the Emperor Charles V) sent the Italian engineer [[Giovanni Battista Calvi]] to strengthen the defences of the town. A wall was built (nowadays known as [[Charles V Wall]]); also a ditch by the wall of the town and a drawbridge at the Landport (''Puerta de Tierra'').
[[Image:Battle of Gibraltar 1607.jpg|thumb|right|280px|The Battle of Gibraltar, by Hendrick Cornelisz Vroom. Oil on canvas. Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam]]
*1606 - The [[Morisco]]s (the descendants of the Muslim inhabitants in Spain) were expelled from Spain by King [[Philip III of Spain|Philip III]]. Many many passed through Gibraltar on their way into exile in North Africa.
*[[1607]] [[April 25]] - During the [[Eighty Years' War]] between the [[Dutch Republic|United Provinces]] and the King of Spain, a Dutch fleet surprised and engaged a Spanish fleet anchored at the [[Bay of Gibraltar]] ([[Battle of Gibraltar]]).
*1649 - Typhoid epidemic in the town.
*1656 - In a letter {{ref|radio4}} to [[Edward Montagu, 1st Earl of Sandwich|Councillor General Montagu]] (afterwards Earl of Sandwich), General-at-sea and one of the Protector's personal friends, [[Oliver Cromwell|Cromwell]] mentioned the necessity of securing a permanent base at the entry of the Mediterranean, preferably Gibraltar (the first suggestion for the occupation of Gibraltar as a naval base had been made at an English Council of War held at sea on [[October 20]] [[1625]]).
*[[1700]] [[November 1]] - King Charles II of Spain died leaving no descendents. In the autumn he had made a will bequeathing the whole of the Spanish possessions to Prince [[Philip V of Spain|Philip of Bourbon]], a grandson of Louis XIV backed by France. The other pretender, an Austrian Hapsburg, [[Charles VI, Holy Roman Emperor|Archduke Charles]], supported by Austria, England, Holland and the Holy Roman Empire, did not accept Charles II's testament. The result was the [[War of the Spanish Succession]].
==The War of the Spanish Succession==
*[[1701]] [[September]] - [[England]], the [[Netherlands]] and [[Austria]] signed the [[Treaty of the Hague, 1701|Treaty of the Hague]]. By this treaty, they accepted Philippe of Anjou as King of Spain, but allotted Austria the Spanish territories in Italy and the [[Spanish Netherlands]]. England and the Netherlands, meanwhile, were to retain their commercial rights in Spain. Later (in 1703), [[Portugal]], [[Savoy]] and some German states joined the alliance.
*[[1702]] May - Full-scale war broke out. It was the formal beginning of the [[War of the Spanish Succession]].
*[[1703]] [[February 12]] - The Archduke Charles was proclaimed king of Castile and Aragon in [[Vienna]]. He took the name of Charles III {{ref|charlesiii}}
==Habsburg Gibraltar (under the rule of the Archduke Charles, pretender to the Spanish Throne)==
===The Gibraltar capture===
(''There is usually a discrepancy on the chronology between Spanish and British sources. The reason is that England still used the [[Julian calendar#From Julian to Gregorian|Julian calendar]]. By 1704, the Julian calendar was eleven days behind the Gregorian. Therefore, the siege began on [[21 July]] according to the Julian calendar'')
[[Image:George Rooke.jpg|thumb|left|200px|George Rooke, the commander of the Anglo-Dutch fleet that conquered Gibraltar on behalf of the Archduke Charles]]
*[[1704]] [[August 1]] - During the [[War of the Spanish Succession]], and when returning from a failed expedition to Barcelona, an Anglo-Dutch fleet, under the command of sir [[George Rooke]], chief commander of the Alliance Navy, began a new siege (the eleventh siege of the town). They demanded its unconditional surrender and an oath of loyalty to the [[Habsburg]] pretender to the Spanish throne, the [[Charles VI, Holy Roman Emperor|Archduke Charles]]. The Governor of Gibraltar, [[Diego de Salinas]], refused the ultimatum. A brigade of [[Dutch Royal Marines|Dutch]] and [[Royal Marines|British Marines]], 1,800 strong, under the command of [[Prince George of Hesse-Darmstadt]], chief commander of the Alliance Army in Spain, began to besiege Gibraltar, in the name of the Archduke Charles. A small group of Spaniards, mainly Catalans, was integrated in the troops of the Prince of Hesse.
*1704 night of 3-[[4 August]] - Heavy shelling targeted the castle and the town.
*[[1704]] [[August 4]] - The Governor Diego de Salinas surrendered the town to Prince George of Hesse, who took it in the name of Archduke, as Charles III, king of Castile and Aragon. This was the end o |
r Mediolan]]
[[pt:Football Club Internazionale Milano]]
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</page>
<page>
<title>IgNobel Prize</title>
<id>15117</id>
<revision>
<id>15912623</id>
<timestamp>2003-03-15T03:25:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>DavidLevinson</username>
<id>1689</id>
</contributor>
<comment>consolidate</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Ig Nobel Prize]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Imbolg</title>
<id>15118</id>
<revision>
<id>15912624</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Imbolc]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Interferon</title>
<id>15120</id>
<revision>
<id>40341679</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-19T22:57:47Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Bemoeial</username>
<id>13705</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Interferons''' (IFNs) are natural [[protein]]s produced by the cells of the [[immune system]]s of most [[animal]]s in response to challenges by foreign agents such as [[virus]]es, [[bacterium|bacteria]], [[parasite]]s and [[tumor]] cells. Interferons belong to the large class of [[glycoproteins]] known as [[cytokine]]s.
==Types==
In [[human]]s, there are 3 major classes of interferon (IFN):
# The human type I IFNs consists of 13 different '''alpha''' isoforms (subtypes with slightly different specificities) - IFNA([[IFNA1_(protein)|1]],[[IFNA2_(protein)|2]],[[IFNA4_(protein)|4]],[[IFNA5_(protein)|5]],[[IFNA6_(protein)|6]],[[IFNA7_(protein)|7]],[[IFNA8_(protein)|8]],[[IFNA10_(protein)|10]],[[IFNA13_(protein)|13]],[[IFNA14_(protein)|14]],[[IFNA16_(protein)|16]],[[IFNA17_(protein)|17]],[[IFNA21_(protein)|21]]), and single '''beta''' - [[IFNB1]], '''omega''' - [[IFNW1]], '''epsilon''' - [[IFNE1]] and '''kappa''' - [[IFNK]] isoforms. Homologous molecules are found in many species, including rats and mice (and most mammals) and have been identified in birds, reptiles, amphibians and fish species. In addition to these IFNs, IFN '''zeta''' (limitin) in mice,IFN '''nu''' in cats, IFN '''tau''' in ruminants and IFN '''delta''' in pigs have been identified. All type I IFNs bind to a specific cell surface receptor complex known as IFNAR consisting of [[IFNAR1]] and [[IFNAR2]] chains.
# The type II IFNs consists of IFN '''gamma''' - [[IFNG]], its sole member. The mature IFNG ligand is an anti-parallel homodimer, and it binds to the IFNG receptor (IFNGR) complex, which is made up of two of each [[IFNGR1]] and [[IFNGR2]] subunits.
# The recently discovered 3rd class consists of IFN-'''lambda''' with 3 different isoforms - [[IL29]]. [[IL28A]], [[IL28B]] and signal through a receptor complex consisting of IL10R2 and IFNLR1.
While there are evidence to suggest other signaling mechanisms exist, the [[JAK-STAT pathway|JAK-STAT]] signaling pathway is the best-characterised and commonly accepted IFN signaling pathway.
==Principles==
In a majority of cases, the production of interferons is induced in response to microbes such as viruses and bacteria and their products (viral glycoproteins, viral RNA, bacterial endotoxin, flagella, CpG DNA), as well as mitogens and other cytokines, for example [[IL-1|interleukin-1]], [[IL-2|interleukin-2]], [[IL-12|interleukin-12]], [[TNF|tumor-necrosis factor]] and [[CSF|colony-stimulating factor]], that are synthesised in the response to the appearance of various antigens in the body. Their metabolism and excretion take place mainly in the liver and kidneys. They hardly pass the [[placenta]] and the [[blood-brain barrier]].
Interferon-alpha and -beta are produced by many cell types, including [[T-cell]]s and [[B-cell]]s, macrophages, fibroblasts, endothelial cells, osteoblasts and others, and are an important component of the anti-[[virus (biology)|viral]] response. They stimulate both [[macrophage |macrophages]] and NK cells. Interferons -alpha and -beta are also active against [[tumor]]s.
Interferon-gamma is involved in the regulation of the immune and inflammatory responses; in humans, there is only one type of interferon-gamma. It is produced in activated T-cells. Interferon-gamma has some anti-viral and anti-tumor effects, but these are generally weak; however, interferon-gamma potentiates the effects of interferon-alpha and interferon-beta. However, interferon-gamma must be released at the site of a tumor in very small doses; at this time, interferon-gamma is not very useful for treating cancer.
Interferon-gamma is also released by [[Th1 cell]]s, and recruits [[leukocyte]]s to a site of infection, resulting in increased inflammation. It also stimulates [[macrophage]]s to kill bacteria that have been engulfed. The interferon-gamma released by Th1 cells is also important in regulating the Th2 response. As interferon-gamma is vitally implicated in the regulation of immune response, its production can lead to autoimmune disorders.
Interferon-omega is released by [[leukocyte]]s at the site of viral infection or tumors.
==Pharmacological uses==
[[Image:Vials of Interferon Image 3549-PH.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Three vials filled with human leukocyte interferon. ]]
Interferon was scarce and expensive until [[1980]] when the interferon [[gene]] was inserted into [[bacterium|bacteria]] using [[recombinant DNA technology]], allowing mass [[cultivation]] and purification from bacterial cultures.
[[Interferon-beta-1a]] is produced in mammalian cells.
Several different types of interferon are now approved for use in humans, and interferon therapy is used (in combination with chemotherapy and radiation) as a treatment for many types of systemic cancer. When used in the systemic therapy, IFN-&alpha; and IFN-&gamma; are mostly administered by an intramuscular injection. The injection of interferons in the muscle, in the vein, or under skin is generally well tolerated. The most frequent side-effects are flu-like symptoms: increased body temperature, feeling ill, fatigue, headache, muscle pain, and convulsion. Erythema, pain and hardness on the spot of injection are also frequently observed. Rarely, patients experience their hair falling out, dizziness and depression. All known effects are reversible and disappear a few days after the therapy has been finished.
Interferon-alpha was approved by the United States [[Food and Drug Administration]] (FDA) on [[February 25]] [[1991]] as a treatment for [[hepatitis C]]. Several different forms of interferon alpha, including interferon-alpha-2a, interferon-alpha-2b, and interferon-alfacon-1 are approved for the treatment of viral hepatitis. Interferon-alfa-2b is also used for [[chronic myelogenous leukemia]].
More than half of [[hepatitis C]] patients treated with interferon respond, with better blood tests and better liver biopsies. There is some evidence that giving interferon immediately following infection can prevent hepatitis C; however, people infected by hepatitis C often do not display symptoms until months or years later.
More recently, the FDA approved [[pegylated]] interferon-alpha, in which [[polyethylene glycol]] is added to make the interferon last longer in the body. (Pegylated interferon-alpha-2b was approved in January 2001; pegylated interferon-alpha-2a was approved in October 2002.) The pegylated form is injected once weekly, rather than three times per week for conventional interferon-alpha. Used in combination with the [[antiviral]] drug [[ribavirin]], pegylated interferon produces sustained cure rates of 75% or better in people with genotype 2 or 3 hepatitis C (which is easier to treat) and about 50% in people with genotype 1 (which is most common in the U.S. and Western Europe).
Interferon-beta ([[Interferon-beta-1a]] and [[Interferon-beta-1b]]) is used in the treatment and control of the neurological disorder [[multiple sclerosis]]. By an as-yet-unknown mechanism, interferon-beta inhibits the production of Th1 cytokines and the activation of monocytes.
==See also==
*[[Immunotherapy]]
*[[Immunosuppression]]
*[[Immunosuppressive drug]]
*[[PEGASYS]]
*[[ATC_code_L03#L03AB_Interferons]]
{{Antivirals}}
[[Category:Cytokines]]
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[[zh:干扰素]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Israeli settlement</title>
<id>15123</id>
<revision>
<id>42065406</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T15:54:57Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Palmiro</username>
<id>105180</id>
</contributor>
<comment>rv imprecise addition</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''For Israeli settlements in Israel proper, see [[Settlements in Israel]]''
'''Israeli settlements''' are communities built for [[Israeli]] [[Jew]]ish [[Settler (disambiguation)|settler]]s in areas that it [[Israeli-occupied territories|captured]] during the 1967 [[Six-Day War]]. These areas are the [[West Bank]], [[East Jerusalem]], the [[Golan Heights]] and formerly the [[Sinai Peninsula]] and the [[Gaza Strip]]. The settlements have been declared illegal under [[international law]] by the [[United Nations Security Council]] [http://domino.un.org/UNISPAL.NSF/0/ba123cded3ea84a5852560e50077c2dc?OpenDocument] [http://domino.un.org/UNISPAL.NSF/0/0b7116abb4b7e3e9852560e5007688a0?OpenDocument] and the [[International Court of Justice]] [http://www.icj-cij.org/icjwww/idocket/imwp/imwp_advisory_opinion/imwp_advisory_opinion_20040709.htm], a position shared by a majority of UN member states [http://domino.un.org/UN |
tic stabilization are the two main mechanisms for colloid stabilization. Electrostatic stabilization is based on the mutual repulsion of like electrical charges. Different phases generally have different charge affinities, so that a charge double-layer forms at any interface. Small particle sizes lead to enormous surface areas, and this effect is greatly amplified in colloids. In a stable colloid, mass of a dispersed phase is so low that its [[buoyancy]] or [[kinetic energy]] is too little to overcome the electrostatic repulsion between charged layers of the dispersing phase. The charge on the dispersed particles can be observed by applying an electric field: all particles migrate to the same electrode and therefore must all have the same sign charge.
==Destabilizing a colloidal suspension==
Unstable colloidal suspensions form flocs as the particles aggregate due to interparticle attractions. This can be accomplished by a number of different methods:
*Removal of the electrostatic barrier that prevents aggregation of the particles. This can be accomplished by the addition of salt to a suspension or changing the pH of a suspension to effectively neutralize or "screen" the surface charge of the particles in suspension. This removes the repulsive forces that keep colloidal particles separate and allows for coagulation due to van der Waals forces.
*Addition of a charged polymer flocculant. Polymer flocculants can bridge individual colloidal particles by attractive electrostatic interactions. For example, negatively charged colloidal silica particles can be flocculated by the addition of a positively charged polymer.
*Addition of nonadsorbed polymers called depletants that cause aggregation due to entropic effects.
Unstable colloidal suspensions of low volume fraction form clustered liquid suspensions wherein individual clusters of particles fall to the bottom of the suspension (or float to the top if the particles are less dense than the suspending medium) once the clusters are of sufficient size for the [[Brownian motion|Brownian forces]] that work to keep the particles in suspension to be overcome by gravitational forces. However, colloidal suspensions of higher volume fraction form colloidal gels with viscoelastic properties. Viscoelastic colloidal gels such as [[toothpaste]] flow like liquids under shear but maintain their shape when shear is removed. It is for this reason that toothpaste can be squeezed from a toothpaste tube, but stays on the toothbrush after it is applied.
==Colloids as a model system for atoms==
In [[physics]], colloids are an interesting model system for [[atom]]s. Colloidal particles are large enough to be observed by optical techniques such as [[Confocal microscopy]]. Many of the forces that govern the structure and behavior of matter such as excluded volume interactions or electrostatic forces govern the structure and behavior of colloidal suspensions. For example, the same techniques that can be used to model ideal gases can be used to model the behavior of a hard sphere colloidal suspension. Additionally, phase transitions in colloidal suspensions can be studied in real time using optical techniques and are analogous to phase transitions in liquids.
==Colloids in biology==
In the early-[[20th century]], before enzymology was well understood, colloids were thought to be the key to the operation of [[enzyme]]s; i.e., the addition of small quantities of an enzyme to a quantity of water would, in some fashion yet to be specified, subtly alter the properties of the water so that it would break down the enzyme's specific [[substrate]], such as a solution of [[ATPase]] breaking down [[adenosine triphosphate|ATP]]. Furthermore, [[life]] itself was explainable in terms of the [[aggregate]] properties of all the colloidal substances that make up an [[organism]]. As more detailed knowledge of [[biology]] and [[biochemistry]] developed, of course, the colloidal theory was replaced by the [[macromolecule|macromolecular]] theory, which explains an enzyme as a collection of identical huge [[molecule]]s that act as very tiny [[machine]]s, freely moving about between the water molecules of the solution and individually operating on the substrate, no more mysterious than a [[factory]] full of machinery. The properties of the water in the solution are not altered, other than the simple [[osmosis|osmotic]] changes that would be caused by the presence of any [[solute]].
==See also==
* [[entropic force]]
[[Category:Matter]]
[[Category:Condensed matter physics]]
[[Category:Chemical mixtures]]
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[[Category:Soft matter]]
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[[uk:Колоїди]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Chinese</title>
<id>5347</id>
<revision>
<id>41877020</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T08:16:16Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Babajobu</username>
<id>125012</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>alphabetize interwikis, rmv blank lines, unicodify using [[Wikipedia:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Wiktionarypar|Chinese}}
'''Chinese''' refers to anything pertaining to [[China]].
It may refer to:
*the '''[[Chinese language]]''', a [[Sino-Tibetan]] language
*the '''[[Chinese people]]''', people of Chinese ethnicity
:*[[Han Chinese]], the dominant ethnic group in [[China]]
::*'''[[Overseas Chinese|Ethnic Chinese]]
==See also==
*[[People's Republic of China]]
*[[Republic of China]]
*[[Chinese cuisine]]
*[[Chinese culture]]
*[[Chinese history]]
{{disambig}}
[[Category:China]]
[[de:Chinesisch]]
[[fr:Chinois]]
[[ja:支那人]]
[[ms:Cina]]
[[nn:Kinesisk]]
[[pt:Chinês]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Charlottetown</title>
<id>5348</id>
<revision>
<id>15903560</id>
<timestamp>2003-05-01T02:00:17Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Zoe</username>
<id>2376</id>
</contributor>
<comment>redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Charlottetown, Prince Edward Island]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Continuous game</title>
<id>5349</id>
<revision>
<id>40844850</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-23T10:52:09Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Mikademus</username>
<id>330360</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">A '''continuous game''', or '''[[real-time]] game''', is a [[game]] without pauses, turns, rounds, or other stopping points.
The term is most often used to describe [[Computer and video games|video game]]s, which as of the late [[1990s]] were almost all real-time, the shift being driven by the rapid increase in the power of personal computers. There are however a number of [[board game]]s and [[card game]]s that are continuous, partially in reaction to the format's popularity in video games.
Some video game genres that has brought public attention to the differences between real-time and turn-based games are [[real-time tactics]] and [[real-time strategy]].
Examples of some continuous games are the video games [[Command and Conquer]], [[Red Alert (computer game)|Red Alert]], [[StarCraft]], and [[Age of Empires]], the card game [[Falling (card game)|Falling]], and the board game [[Icehouse (board game)|Icehouse]].
Compare [[turn-based game]] and [[Tick Based Game]].
{{cvg-stub}}
[[Category:Computer and video game genres]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Calling shotgun</title>
<id>5350</id>
<revision>
<id>41652933</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T20:40:50Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>69.72.46.16</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>reads better this way</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The front seat of a passenger vehicle, next to the driver, is called the '''shotgun''' in an apparent, though disputable, reference to men who rode on [[stagecoach|stage coaches]] next to the driver with a [[shotgun]] to protect the stage from [[bandit]]os ([[highwayman|highwaymen]]), literally "riding shotgun." No use of the term is recorded during the actual years during which stage coaches were in use; the first known reference to "riding shotgun" in print occurred on [[27 March]], [[1921]], and the first use of the phrase in print to refer to automobiles occurred in [[1954]] when the TV series [[Gunsmoke]] became extremely popular, and used the terminology of ''riding shotgun'' nearly weekly. [http://www.straightdope.com/mailbag/mrideshotgun.html]
(In the late 19th century, the man who sat next to the stage driver with a shotgun was actually called the [[shotgun messenger]]. He usually sat to the left of the driver, who had the position on the right).
Today, many automobile passengers consider the front passenger seat to be preferable to riding in rear seats due largely to greater control over leg room, an unobstructed view out the [[windshield]], and better access to the vehicle's [[Car audio|stereo]] and [[air conditioning]] system. In the [[United States]] and some other English-speaking regions, there is a longstanding tradition &mdash; especially among teenagers and young adults &mdash; of trying to get to sit in the seat next to the driver of a motor [[vehicle]]. In contemporary tradition, in order to claim that seat, one must "'''call shotgun'''" according to a set of standard rules.
To call shotgun is to, at minimum, yell out "shotgun" while approaching the vehicle. Depending on the situation and group, rules may also require being outside and/or within sight of the vehicle in order for the call to be valid. However, in most cases this is not necessary by |
]]
[[it:Capoeira]]
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[[ka:კაპოეირა]]
[[lt:Capoeira]]
[[hu:Capoeira]]
[[nl:Capoeira]]
[[ja:カポエイラ]]
[[no:Capoeira]]
[[pl:Capoeira]]
[[pt:Capoeira]]
[[ru:Капоэйра]]
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[[zh:卡波耶拉]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Computer cluster</title>
<id>5977</id>
<revision>
<id>41576000</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T06:29:49Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Can't sleep, clown will eat me</username>
<id>603177</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/203.200.130.5|203.200.130.5]] to last version by Buyya</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:PurdueLinuxComputerCluster.jpg|thumb|250px|[[Linux]] Cluster at [[Purdue University]].]]
A '''computer cluster''' is a group of loosely coupled [[computer]]s that work together closely so that in many respects it can be viewed as though it were a single computer. Clusters are commonly, but not always, connected through fast local area networks. Clusters are usually deployed to improve speed and/or reliability over that provided by a single computer, while typically being much more cost-effective than single computers of comparable speed or reliability.
==Cluster categorizations==
===High-availability (HA) clusters===
[[High-availability cluster]]s are implemented primarily for the purpose of improving the availability of services which the cluster provides. They operate by having redundant [[Node (networking)|nodes]], which are then used to provide service when system components fail. The most common size for an HA cluster is two nodes, which is the minimum required to provide redundancy. HA cluster implementations attempt to manage the redundancy inherent in a cluster to eliminate single points of failure. There are many commercial implementations of High-Availability clusters for many operating systems. The [[Linux-HA]] project is one commonly used [[free software]] HA package for the [[Linux]] OS.
===Load balancing clusters===
[[Load balancing]] clusters operate by having all workload come through one or more load-balancing front ends, which then distribute it to a collection of back end servers. Although they are implemented primarily for improved performance, they commonly include high-availability features as well. Such a cluster of computers is sometimes referred to as a [[server farm]]. There are many commercial load balancers available including Platform LSF HPC, [[Moab Cluster Suite]] and [[Maui Cluster Scheduler]]. The [[Linux Virtual Server]] project provides one commonly used free software package for the Linux OS.
===High-performance (HPC) clusters===
[[High-performance cluster]]s are implemented primarily to provide increased performance by splitting a computational task across many different [[Node (networking)|nodes]] in the cluster, and are most commonly used in scientific computing. One of the more popular HPC implementations is a cluster with nodes running [[Linux]] as the [[Operating system|OS]] and free software to implement the parallelism. This configuration is often referred to as a [[Beowulf (computing)|Beowulf]] cluster. Such clusters commonly run custom programs which have been designed to exploit the parallelism available on HPC clusters. Many such programs use libraries such as [[Message Passing Interface|MPI]] which are specially designed for writing scientific applications for HPC computers.
HPC clusters are optimized for workloads which require jobs or processes happening on the separate cluster computer nodes to communicate actively during the computation. These include computations where intermediate results from one node's calculations will affect future calculations on other nodes.
===Grid Computing===
[[Grid computing]] or grid clusters are a technology closely related to cluster computing. The key differences between grids and traditional clusters are that grids connect collections of computers which do not fully trust each other, and hence operate more like a computing utility than like a single computer. In addition, grids typically support more heterogeneous collections than are commonly supported in clusters.
Grid computing is optimized for workloads which consist of many independent jobs or packets of work, which do not have to share data between the jobs during the computation process. Grids serve to manage the allocation of jobs to computers which will perform the work independently of the rest of the grid cluster. Resources such as storage may be shared by all the nodes, but intermediate results of one job do not affect other jobs in progress on other nodes of the grid.
==High-performance cluster implementations==
The TOP500 organization publishes the 500 fastest computers twice a year, usually including many clusters on their list. ''[[TOP500]]'' [http://top500.org] is a collaboration between the [[University of Mannheim]], the [[University of Tennessee]], and the National Energy Research Scientific Computing Center at [[Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory]]. The current top supercomputer is the [[Department of Energy]]'s [[BlueGene/L]] system with performance of 280.6 TFlops. The second place is owned by another [[BlueGene/L]] system with performance of 91.29 TFlops.
Clustering can provide significant performance benefits versus price. The [[System X]] supercomputer at [http://www.tcf.vt.edu/systemX.html Virginia Tech], the twentieth most powerful supercomputer on Earth [[As of 2005|as of November 2005]], is a 12.25 TFlops computer cluster of 1100 [[Apple Computer|Apple]] [[XServe]] [[PowerPC 970|G5]] 2.3 GHz dual processor machines (4 GB RAM, 80 GB SATA HD) running [[Mac OS X]]. The cluster initially consisted of [[Power Macintosh G5|Power Mac G5]]s; the XServe's are smaller, reducing the size of the cluster. The total cost of the previous Power Mac system was $5.2 million, a tenth of the cost of slower [[mainframe]] supercomputers. The Power Mac G5s were sold off.
The central concept of a [[Beowulf (computing)|Beowulf]] cluster is using [[COTS]] computers to produce a cost-effective alternative to a traditional [[supercomputer]]. One project that took this to an extreme was the [[Stone Soupercomputer]].
[[John Koza]] has the largest computer cluster owned by an individual.
==Cluster history==
The first commodity clustering product was [[ARCnet|ARCnet]], developed by [[Datapoint|Datapoint]] in 1977. ARCnet wasn't a commercial success and clustering didn't really take off until [[Digital Equipment Corporation|DEC]] released their VAXcluster product in the [[1980s]] for the [[OpenVMS|VAX/VMS]] operating system. The ARCnet and VAXcluster products not only supported parallel computing, but also shared [[file system]]s and [[peripheral]] devices. They were supposed to give you the advantage of parallel processing, while maintaining data reliability and uniqueness. VAXcluster, now VMScluster, is still available on [[OpenVMS]] systems from [[HP]] running on Alpha and Itanium systems.
The history of cluster computing is intimately tied to the evolution of networking technology. As networking technology has become cheaper and faster, cluster computers have become significantly more attractive.
==Cluster technologies==
[[Message Passing Interface|MPI]] is a widely-available communications library that enables parallel programs to be written in [[C programming language|C]] and [[Fortran]], for example, in the [[climate model]]ing program [[MM5]].
The GNU/Linux world sports various cluster software, such as:
* [[Beowulf (computing)|Beowulf]], [[distcc]], [[MPICH]] and other - mostly specialized application clustering. distcc provides parallel compilation when using [[GNU Compiler Collection|GCC]].
* [[Linux Virtual Server]], [[Linux-HA]] - director-based clusters that allow incoming requests for services to be distributed across multiple cluster nodes.
* [[Mosix]], [[openMosix]], [[Kerrighed]], [[OpenSSI]] - full-blown clusters integrated into the [[kernel (computer science)|kernel]] that provide for automatic process migration among homogeneous nodes. OpenSSI and Kerrighed are [[single-system image]] implementations.
[[DragonFly BSD]], a recent [[fork (software)|fork]] of [[FreeBSD]] 4.8 is being redesigned at its core to enable native clustering capabilities. It also aims to achieve [[single-system image]] capabilities.
[[MSCS]] is [[Microsoft]]'s high-availability cluster service for [[Microsoft Windows|Windows]]. Based on technology developed by [[Digital Equipment Corporation]], the current version supports up to eight nodes in a single cluster, typically connected to a [[SAN]]. A set of [[application programming interface|API]]s support cluster-aware applications, generic templates provide support for non-cluster aware applications.
== Clustering software (open source) ==
* [[Linux-Cluster Project]] [http://sources.redhat.com/cluster/] [[Global File System]] & HA
* [[Maui (software)|Maui Cluster Scheduler]] [http://www.clusterresources.com/products/maui/]
* [[OpenSSI]] High-availability, load-balancing, and high-performance clustering with or without a [[SAN]].
* [[OpenMosix]]
* [[OpenSCE]] [http://www.opensce.org/]
* [[Open Source Cluster Application Resources]] (OSCAR) [http://oscar.openclustergroup.org/]
* [[Rocks Cluster Distribution]] [http://www.rocksclusters.org/]
* [[Sun GridEngine]]
* [[TORQUE]] Resource Manager, [http://www.clusterresources.com/products/torque/]
* [[WareWulf]] [http://warewulf.lbl.gov/pmwiki/]
== Clustering products ==
* [http://www.alchemi.net Alchemi]
* [[BOINC]]
* HP's [[OpenVMS]]
* [[High Availability Cluster Multiprocessing|IBM's HACMP]]
* IBM [[Parallel Sysplex]]
* [[KeyCluster]]
* [[Linux-HA]]
* [[MC Service Guard]] for [[HP-UX]] systems
* [[Microsoft Cluster Server]] (MSCS)
* [[Moab Cluster Suite]] [http://www.clusterresources.com/products/moabclustersuite.sh |
ated place|CDP]] of [[Fairfax County, Virginia|Fairfax County]], [[Virginia]], across the [[Potomac River]] from [[Washington, D.C.]]. The CIA is part of the American [[Intelligence Community]], which is now led by the [[United States Director of National Intelligence|Director of National Intelligence]] (DNI). The current director of the CIA is [[Porter J. Goss]]. The roles and functions of the CIA are roughly equivalent to those of the [[United Kingdom|British]] [[MI6]], the [[Australian Secret Intelligence Service]], or the [[Israel|Israeli]] [[Mossad]].
{{portal}}
==Organization==
===History===
[[Image:2430_E_Street.png|thumb|144px|right|Original sign with seal from the CIA's first building on E Street in Washington, DC]]
The Agency, created in [[1947]] by the [[National Security Act of 1947]] signed by President [[Harry S. Truman]], is a descendant of the [[Office of Strategic Services]] (OSS) of [[World War II]]. The OSS was dissolved in October 1945 but [[William J. Donovan]] (aka Wild Bill to both his friends and enemies), the creator of the OSS, submitted a proposal to President [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] in 1944 calling for a new organization having direct Presidential supervision, "which will procure intelligence both by overt and [[covert]] methods and will at the same time provide intelligence guidance, determine national intelligence objectives, and correlate the intelligence material collected by all government agencies." Despite strong opposition from the military, the [[State Department]], and the [[FBI]], Truman established the Central Intelligence Group in January 1946. Later under the [[National Security Act of 1947]] (which became effective on [[September 18]], [[1947]]) the [[United States National Security Council|National Security Council]] and the Central Intelligence Agency were established.
In 1949, the [[Central Intelligence Agency Act]] (also called "Public Law 110") was passed, permitting the agency to use confidential, fiscal, and administrative procedures and exempting it from many of the usual limitations on the use of federal funds. The act also exempted the CIA from having to disclose its "organization, functions, officials, titles, salaries, or numbers of personnel employed." It also created a program called "PL-110" to handle defectors and other "essential aliens" outside normal immigration procedures, as well as give those persons cover stories and economic support. [http://www.fas.org/sgp/jud/tenetvdoe-petresp.pdf]
During the first years of its existence, other branches of government did not exercise much control over the Agency. This was often justified by a desire to defeat and match the activities of the [[KGB]] across the globe, a task that many believed could only be accomplished through an equally ungentlemanly approach. As a result, few in government inquired too closely into CIA activity. The rapid expansion of the Agency and a developing sense of independence under DCI [[Allen Dulles]] added to this trend.
Things came to a head in the early 1970s, around the time of the [[Watergate]] affair. One dominant feature of political life during this period were the attempts of Congress to assert its power of oversight over the executive branch of government. Revelations about past CIA activities, such as assassination attempts of foreign leaders and illegal domestic spying, provided the opportunity to carry out this process in the sphere of intelligence operations. Hastening the Agency's fall from grace were the involvement of ex-CIA agents in the Watergate break-in and President Nixon's subsequent attempts to use the CIA to stop the FBI investigation of Watergate. In the famous "smoking gun" tape which led to Nixon's resignation, Nixon ordered his chief of staff Haldeman to tell the CIA that further investigation of Watergate would "open the whole can of worms" about the [[Bay of Pigs Invasion|Bay Of Pigs]] operation, and therefore that the CIA should tell the FBI to stop investigating Watergate because of "national security."
DCI [[James R. Schlesinger]] had commissioned a series of reports on past CIA wrongdoing. These reports, known euphemistically as "the Family Jewels", were kept close to the Agency's chest until an article by [[Seymour Hersh]] in the ''New York Times'' broke the news that the CIA had been involved in the assassination of foreign leaders and kept files on some seven thousand American citizens involved in the peace movement ([[Operation CHAOS]]). Congress investigated the CIA in the Senate through the Church committee, named after Chairman Frank Church (D-Idaho) and in the House through the Pike committee, named after Chairman Otis Pike (D-N.Y.); and these investigations led to further embarrassing disclosures. Around the Christmas of 1974/5, another blow was struck by Congress when they blocked covert intervention in [[Angola]].
The CIA was subsequently prohibited from assassinating foreign leaders. Further, the prohibition against domestic spying, which had always been prohibited by the CIA charter, was again to be enforced, with the FBI having sole responsibility for domestic investigation of US citizens .
[[Image:CIA New HQ Entrance.jpg|thumb|300px|The entrance of the new CIA Headquarters.]]
Today, the Central Intelligence Agency reports to U.S. [[Congress of the United States|Congressional]] committees but also answers to the [[President of the United States|President]] directly. The [[United States National Security Advisor|National Security Advisor]] is a permanent [[cabinet]] member responsible for briefing the President on pertinent information collected from all U.S. intelligence agencies including the [[National Security Agency]], the [[Drug Enforcement Agency]], and others. Many of the post-Watergate restrictions on the CIA have been removed after the 9/11 attacks.
Some critics have charged that this violates the requirement in the [[U.S. Constitution]] that the [[U.S. federal budget|federal budget]] be openly published. However, the U.S Congress and President Harry Truman approved arrangements in 1949 that CIA and national intelligence funding could be hidden in the overall U.S federal budget.
In 1988, President [[George H. W. Bush]] became the first former head of the CIA to be elected [[President of the United States]].
On [[January 25]], [[1993]], [[Mir Amir Kansi]] murdered 2 people and injured 3 others in their cars in front of CIA headquarters in Langley. Kansi was later captured and was executed in 2002.
Previously, the Director of Central Intelligence (DCI) oversaw the Intelligence Community and served as the principal intelligence adviser to the president, in addition to serving as head of the Central Intelligence Agency. The DCI's title is now Director of the Central Intelligence Agency (DCIA), and the Director serves as head of the CIA.
Today, all 15 agencies of the [[Intelligence Community]] are under the [[Director of National Intelligence]], who currently is former ambassador to [[Iraq]] [[John Negroponte]].
===CIA seal===
The compass, or star, as some call it, has sixteen points. These points represents the CIA's search for intelligence data all over the world outside the United States and bringing it all back home to headquarters in Virginia for analysis, reporting, and being passed on to policy makers. The compass rests upon a shield which is a symbol for defense. The intelligence gathered is meant to be used in defense of the United States of America.
===Structure===
The current Director of the Central Intelligence Agency is [[Porter J. Goss]].
The Deputy Director of the Central Intelligence Agency is Vice Admiral Albert M. Calland[http://www.navy.mil/navydata/bios/bio.asp?bioID=65]. The DD/CIA assists the Director in his duties as head of the CIA and exercises the powers of the Director when the Director’s position is vacant or in the Director’s absence or disability.
The Executive Director of the Central Intelligence Agency is [[Kyle Foggo|Kyle "Dusty" Foggo]] with responsibility for the day to day management.
The Directorate of Intelligence[http://www.cia.gov/cia/di/index.html], the analytical branch of the CIA, is responsible for the production and dissemination of all-source intelligence analysis on key foreign issues. The current Deputy Director for Intelligence is John A. Kringen[http://www.cia.gov/cia/information/kringen.html].
The [[National Clandestine Service]], a semi-independent service which was formerly the Directorate of Operations, is responsible for the clandestine collection of foreign intelligence and [[covert action]]. The current Director of the NCS is under cover.
The Directorate of Science & Technology[http://www.cia.gov/cia/dst/home.html] creates and applies innovative technology in support of the intelligence collection mission. The current Deputy Director for Science & Technology is Stephanie L. O’Sullivan.
The Directorate of Support provides the mission critical elements of the Agency's support foundation: people, security, information, property, and financial operations. The current Deputy Director for Support is Stephanie Danes Smith[http://www.cia.gov/cia/information/smith.html].
The Center for the Study of Intelligence[http://www.cia.gov/csi/index.html] maintains the Agency's historical materials and promotes the study of intelligence as a legitimate and serious discipline. The current Director is Paul Johnson.
The Office of the General Counsel[http://www.cia.gov/ogc/index.htm]advises the Director of the Central Intelligence Agency on all legal matters relating to his role as CIA director and is the principal source of legal counsel for the CIA. The current Acting General Counsel is John A. Rizzo.
The Office of Inspector General promotes efficiency, effectiveness, and accountability in the administration of Agency activities. OIG also seeks to p |
of the ear in the field." For the filmmaker, the severed ear was the perfect way to draw Jeffrey into a secret world that lies at the heart of ''Blue Velvet''. The third idea that came to Lynch was [[Bobby Vinton]]’s classic rendition of the song "Blue Velvet."
Once these three ideas came to Lynch, he set out to write a screenplay. The director wrote two scripts but both had a weak middle act so he ultimately rejected them. After his experiences with ''Dune'', Lynch returned to ''Blue Velvet'' and then De Laurentiis became involved and everything came together for the filmmaker.
It was the second film Lynch produced for Laurentiis. Because the material was completely different from anything that would be considered mainstream at the time, Laurentiis had to start his own production company to distribute it. The film was also cut down from its original four-hour length to its final 120 minute length. The missing footage was put in storage and apparently lost for good.
''Blue Velvet'' was a huge critical success, earning Lynch his second [[Academy Award]] nomination and introducing several common elements of his work, including abused women, the dark underbelly of small towns and unconventional uses of vintage songs ([[Bobby Vinton]]’s "Blue Velvet" and [[Roy Orbison]]’s "[[In Dreams]]" are both featured in disturbing ways). It was also the first time Lynch worked with composer [[Angelo Badalamenti]], who would contribute to all of his future full-length films.
The title is taken from a [[Bobby Vinton]] song by the same name, which is sung by [[Isabella Rossellini]]'s character in the film.
== Possible influences ==
<div style="clear:right">{{lynch}}</div>
Many elements of ''Blue Velvet'' are reminiscent of [[Charles Laughton]]'s [[1955 in film|1955]] one-shot-wonder, ''[[The Night of the Hunter]]''. The story of a child or naïve young man thrust into an unexpected adult world of crime, sex, and murder is common to both films, and the development of this subject as something of a journey towards the redemption of innocence also seems similar. Both films feature a helpless woman held under the power of a sometimes disarming but ultimately terrifying madman. Both madmen are tied symbolically to a primal, animal or insect world. And in both films the child character loses his father in the first scene, and later seeks the help of a surrogate father figure but is disappointed in this appeal to adult, masculine authority.
If Lynch was indeed influenced by Laughton, the ending of ''Blue Velvet'' deserves special attention. In both ''Blue Velvet'' and ''Night of the Hunter'', the trial of the adult world is ultimately followed by a return to innocence and childhood. However, whereas Laughton's treatment of this ending seems heartfelt and has in fact been criticized as too saccharine or simplistic, Lynch's ending seems tongue in cheek, or even sarcastic. Just as Lynch's opening shots of perfect suburban America quickly prove too good to be true, his ending leaves doubt as to whether normalcy has really been recovered. The appearance of a deliberately stiff and artificial-seeming robin singing merrily to Jeffrey cements the impression of cynicism.
Additionally, [[Kenneth Anger]]'s [[1949 in film|1949]] dialogue-free short ''[[Puce Moment]]'', which features a dark-haired woman slightly past her prime modelling an array of bright clothing for the camera, may be counted as an influence.
==Awards==
David Lynch and Dennis Hopper won a [[Los Angeles Film Critics Association]] award in 1987 for ''Blue Velvet'' in categories Best Director (Lynch) and Best Supporting Actor (Hopper). In 1987 [[National Society of Film Critics]] gave the film Best Film, Best Director (David Lynch), Best Cinematography (Frederick Elmes) and Best Supporting Actor (Dennis Hopper) awards. Also David Lynch was nominated for the 1987 [[Academy Award for Directing|Best Director]] [[Academy Award]].
==Trivia==
*The exterior scenes of 'Lumberton' were filmed in [[Wilmington, North Carolina]].
*A number of musicians have sampled Dennis Hopper's character Frank Booth in this movie, the [[Mr Bungle]] song "Squeeze Me Macaroni" features the sample, "One thing I can't stand is warm beer, it makes me fucking puke!!!!" dialogue at the end, and [[Anthrax]]'s "I'm The Man '91" has him clearly saying "Fuck that shit!" which Frank Booth says in response to what type of beer Kyle MacLachlan's character says he likes. Pigface's unreleased remix "Sickaspfuck", found on their 2001 best of album, begins with Frank's shouting of "Let's fuck! I'll fuck anything that moves!" The Louisiana band Acid Bath also samples Frank Booth in the song "Cassie eats Cockroaches", the final track on "When The Kite String Pops". The song also samples "A Clockwork Orange".
*''Blue Velvet'' is quoted a few times in the Kevin Smith movie ''[[Clerks.]]''
*''Blue Velvet'' was referenced in an episode of ''[[Arrested Development]]''. Wayne Jarvis comments on Gob's puppet Franklin, asking (in an imitation of Kyle Maclachlan), "Why do there have to be puppets like Frank?"
==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
* [http://www.allmovie.com/cg/avg.dll?p=avg&sql=1:6299 ''Blue Velvet''] at [[All Movie Guide]]
* {{imdb title|id=0090756|title=Blue Velvet}}
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</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Binary operation</title>
<id>3948</id>
<revision>
<id>41128856</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-25T05:51:12Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Melchoir</username>
<id>454640</id>
</contributor>
<comment>resort cat</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">In [[mathematics]], a '''binary operation''' is a calculation involving two input quantities. Binary operations can be accomplished using either a '''[[binary function]]''' or '''binary [[operator]]'''. Binary operations are sometimes called '''dyadic operations''' in order to avoid confusion with the [[binary numeral system]]. Examples include the familiar [[arithmetic]] operations of [[addition]], [[subtraction]], [[multiplication]] and [[division (mathematics)|division]].
More precisely, a binary operation on a [[set]] ''S'' is a [[binary function]] from ''S'' and ''S'' to ''S'', in other words a function ''f'' from the [[Cartesian product]] ''S'' &times; ''S'' to ''S''.
Sometimes, especially in [[computer science]], the term is used for any [[binary function]]. That ''f'' takes values in the same set ''S'' that provides its arguments is the property of [[closure (mathematics)|closure]].
Binary operations are the keystone of algebraic structures studied in [[abstract algebra]]: they form part of [[group (mathematics)|groups]], [[monoid]]s, [[semigroup]]s, [[ring (algebra)|ring]]s, and more.
Most generally, a ''[[magma (algebra)|magma]]'' is a set together with any binary operation defined on it.
Many binary operations of interest in both algebra and formal logic are [[commutative]] or [[associative]].
Many also have [[identity element]]s and [[inverse element]]s.
Typical examples of binary operations are the [[addition]] (+) and [[multiplication]] (*) of [[number]]s and [[matrix_(mathematics)|matrices]] as well as [[composition of functions]] on a single set.
Examples of operations that are not [[commutative]] are [[subtraction]] (-), [[division (mathematics)|division]] (/), [[exponentiation]](^), and [[super-exponentiation]](@).
Binary operations are often written using [[infix]] notation such as ''a'' * ''b'', ''a'' + ''b'', or ''a'' · ''b'' rather than by functional notation of the form ''f''(''a'',''b'').
Sometimes they are even written just by [[juxtaposition]]: ''ab''.
They can also be expressed using prefix or postfix notations. A prefix notation, [[Polish notation]], dispenses with parentheses; it is probably more often encountered now in its postfix form, [[reverse Polish notation]].
== External binary operations ==
An '''external binary operation''' is a binary function from ''K'' and ''S'' to ''S''.
This differs from a binary operation in the strict sense in that ''K'' need not be ''S''; its elements come from ''outside''.
An example of an external binary operation is [[scalar multiplication]] in [[linear algebra]].
Here ''K'' is a [[field (algebra)|field]] and ''S'' is a [[vector space]] over that field.
An external binary operation may alternatively be viewed as an [[group action|action]]; ''K'' is acting on ''S''.
[[Category:Binary operations| ]]
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</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Bagpipes</title>
<id>3950</id>
<revision>
<id>42088807</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T19:26:02Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>68.148.60.60</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Bagpipes in rock */</comment>
<text xml:space |
things he did. Skinner's environment and genetics allowed and made him write his book. This is not to say that that means it is not true. The environment and genetics of the advocates of freedom and dignity make them fight the reality of their activity being grounded in determinism.
== Rumors ==
One often-repeated story claims that Skinner ventured into human experiments by raising his daughter Deborah in a [[Skinner box]], which led to her life-long mental illness and a bitter resentment towards her father.
In fact, the Heir Conditioner, a term for Skinner's baby crib, was heated, cooled, had filtered air, allowed plenty of space to walk around in, and was much like a miniature version of a modern home. It was designed to make the baby more confident, more comfortable, less sick, less prone to cry, and so on. Reportedly it had some success in these goals.
Psychologist and author [[Lauren Slater]] published a book, "Opening Skinner's Box," in 2004, which mentioned claims that Deborah unsuccessfully sued her father for abuse and later committed suicide. The book then immediately pointed out that the reality was rather different. However, at least one reviewer misread the book and reported it as making the claims without correcting them. In response, Deborah Skinner herself came forward to publicly denounce the story as nothing more than hearsay and presumably to vouch for her own continued existence. She blasted Lauren Slater's book for repeating this urban legend as being vicious and harmful; she was presumably relying on someone else's inaccurate depiction of the book's contents. See "I was not a lab rat" in the Guardian Unlimited Friday March 12, 2004 for the full text of Deborah's denunciation. [http://books.guardian.co.uk/departments/healthmindandbody/story/0,6000,1168052,00.html]
As much as anything, this episode showed how rumours come into being - even now, journalists still write articles as if the Slater book was in support of, rather than against, the original rumours about Skinner's treatment of his children.
== Political Views ==
Skinner's political writings emphasized his hopes that an effective and humane science of behavioral control - a behavioral technology - could solve human problems which were not solved by earlier approaches or were actively aggravated by advances in physical technology such as the [[atomic bomb]]. One of Skinner's stated goals was to prevent humanity from destroying itself.
Skinner was sometimes accused of being a [[totalitarian]] by his critics, and it is not difficult to see why. In addition to his aspirations to state design, Skinner was a [[determinist]], believing that all of our behavior is profoundly determined and influenced by the environment.
Skinner saw the problems of political control not as a battle of [[domination]] versus [[freedom]], but as choices of what kinds of control were used for what purposes. Skinner opposed the use of [[coercion]], [[punishment]] and [[fear]] and supported the use of [[positive reinforcement]].
Skinner's book [[Walden Two]] presents a vision of a decentralized, localized society which applies a practical, scientific approach and futuristically advanced behavioral expertise to peacefully deal with social problems. Skinner's [[utopia]], like every other utopia or [[dystopia]], is both a thought experiment and a [[rhetoric]]al work.
Skinner answers a problem that exists in many utopian novels "What is the Good Life?" Skinner answers that it is a life of friendship, health, art, a healthy balance between work and leisure, a minimum of unpleasantness, and a feeling that one has made worthwhile contributions to one's society.
Additionally Skinner felt behavioral technology would offer alternatives to coercion, good science applied right would help society, and we would all be better off if we cooperated with each other peacefully. Skinner's novel has been described by Skinner as "my New [[Atlantis]]" referring to Bacon's utopia.
Intellectual opponents, such as [[Noam Chomsky]], in their attempt to show Skinner wrong, have equated Skinner's philosophic determinism with [[political oppression]]. Skinner has often been equated to political and social positions he never espoused and even explicitly objected to.
==Trivia==
According to a photo caption at the site of Los Horcones community (which was inspired by Skinner's ''Walden Two''), in his youth Skinner used to swim in [[Thoreau|Thoreau's]] [[Walden Pond]]. [http://www.loshorcones.org.mx/walden.html]
==Works==
*''The Behavior of Organisms: An Experimental Analysis'', 1938. <small>ISBN 1-58390-007-1, ISBN 0-87411-487-X.</small>
*''[[Walden Two]]'', 1948. <small>ISBN 0-02-411510-X.</small>
*''Science and Human Behavior'', 1953. <small>ISBN 0-02-929040-6.</small>
*''Schedules of Reinforcement'', with C. B. Ferster, 1957. <small>ISBN 0-13-792309-0.</small>
*''[[Verbal Behavior]]'', 1957. <small>ISBN 1-58390-021-7.</small>
*''The Analysis of Behavior: A Program for Self Instruction'', with James G. Holland, 1961. This self-instruction book is no longer in print, but the B.F. Skinner Foundation web site has an interactive version. <small>ISBN 07-029565-4.</small>
*''The Technology of Teaching'', 1968.
*''Contingencies of Reinforcement: A Theoretical Analysis'', 1969. <small>ISBN 390-81280-3.</small>
*''[[Beyond Freedom and Dignity]]'', 1971. <small>ISBN 0-394-42555-3.</small>
*''About Behaviorism'', 1974. <small>ISBN 0-394-49201-3</small>
*''Particulars of My Life: Part One of an Autobiography'', 1976. <small>ISBN 0-394-40071-2.</small>
*''[[Reflections on Behaviorism and Society]]'', 1978. <small>ISBN 0-13-770057-1.</small>
*''The Shaping of a Behaviorist: Part Two of an Autobiography'', 1979. <small>ISBN 0-394-50581-6.</small>
*''Notebooks'', edited by Robert Epstein, 1980. <small>ISBN 0-13-624106-9.</small>
*''Skinner for the Classroom'', edited by R. Epstein, 1982. <small>ISBN 0-87822-261-8.</small>
*''Enjoy Old Age: A Program of Self-Management'', with M. E. Vaughan, 1983.
*''A Matter of Consequences: Part Three of an Autobiography'', 1983. <small>ISBN 0-394-53266-0, ISBN 0-8147-7845-3.</small>
*''Upon Further Reflection'', 1987. <small>ISBN 0-13-938986-5.</small>
*''Recent Issues in the Analysis of Behavior'', 1989. <small>ISBN 0-675-20674-X.</small>
*''Cumulative Record: A Selection of Papers'', 1959, 1961, 1972 and 1999 as ''Cumulative Record: Definitive Edition''. This book includes the authentic account of the much-misrepresented [[daughter in a box|"Baby in a box"]] device. <small>ISBN 1-58390-00505.</small>
==References==
Epstein, R. (1997) Skinner as self-manager. ''Journal of applied behavior analysis''. 30, 545-569. Retrieved from the world wide web on: June 2, 2005 from http://seab.envmed.rochester.edu/jaba/articles/1997/jaba-30-03-0545.pdf
== See also ==
* [[Supernaturalization]]
* [[Project Pigeon]]
* [[Behavior Modification]]
==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
*[http://www.learno.com/ Learno.com - A website setup by academics which allows anyone to create and learn using the Programmed Learning method orginally devised by B F Skinner]
*[http://www.bfskinner.org/instruction/setup.exe ''The Analysis of Behavior'']: ''A Program for Self-Instruction'', in software.
*[http://www.nap.edu/readingroom/books/biomems/bskinner.html National Academy of Sciences biography].
*[http://www.bfskinner.org/ The B. F. Skinner Foundation].
*[http://www.nndb.com/people/297/000022231/ B.F. Skinner profile, NNDB].
*[http://www.loshorcones.org.mx/index-eng.php/ Los Horcones Walden Two Community].
*[http://books.guardian.co.uk/departments/healthmindandbody/story/0,6000,1168052,00.html I was not a lab rat], response by Skinner's daughter about the "baby box".
''Articles by Skinner:''
*[http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Skinner/Twotypes/twotypes.htm Two Types of Conditioned Reflex and a Pseudo Type (1935)]
*[http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Skinner/Pigeon/ "Superstition" in the Pigeon (1947)]
*[http://psychclassics.asu.edu/Skinner/Theories/ Are Theories of Learning Necessary? (1950)]
[[Category:1904 births|Skinner, B. F.]]
[[Category:1990 deaths|Skinner, B. F.]]
[[Category:Psychologists|Skinner, B F]]
[[Category:American psychologists|Skinner, B. F.]]
[[Category:Educational psychologists|Skinner, B. F.]]
[[Category:Ethologists|Skinner, B. F.]]
[[Category:Lambda Chi Alpha brothers|Skiner, B.F.]]
[[Category:National Medal of Science recipients|Skinner, B. F.]]
[[ca:Burrhus Frederic Skinner]]
[[de:Burrhus Frederic Skinner]]
[[es:Burrhus Frederic Skinner]]
[[eo:Burrhus Frederic SKINNER]]
[[fr:Burrhus F. Skinner]]
[[ia:B. F. Skinner]]
[[is:Burrhus Frederic Skinner]]
[[it:Burrhus Frederic Skinner]]
[[he:פרדריק סקינר]]
[[nl:Burrhus Skinner]]
[[ja:バラス・スキナー]]
[[pl:Burrhus Frederic Skinner]]
[[pt:Burrhus Frederic Skinner]]
[[sk:Burrhus Frederic Skinner]]
[[sv:Burrhus Frederic Skinner]]
[[zh:伯尔赫斯·弗雷德里克·斯金纳]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Bill</title>
<id>4869</id>
<revision>
<id>40206033</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-18T23:23:59Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Kevin Ryde</username>
<id>564285</id>
</contributor>
<comment>drop dictionary definition - that'd belong on the wiktionary; back to last by 212.24.91.66</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">A '''bill''' can be one of:
{{Wiktionarypar|bill}}
* [[Banknote]], ie. paper currency, in US usage
* [[Bill (proposed law)]], put before a legislature
* [[Beak]], of a bird
* [[Bill (weapon)]], similar to a [[halberd]]
* [[Bill (payment)]], document requesting payment for goods and services rendered
* [[Peninsula]] of land jutting out into |
nce of 105,000 at its Sunday services. Worldwide its membership is well over 700,000 with large segments of membership in the Democratic Republic of Congo, India, and Brazil.
The denomination currently maintains the following educational institutions: [[Roberts Wesleyan College]], [[Spring Arbor University]], [[Greenville College]], [[Central Christian College]], [[Azusa Pacific University]], and [[Seattle Pacific University]] in the United States. [[Osaka Christian College]] is located and run by the Japanese church, and [[Hope Africa University]] is a recently founded school in [[Bujumbura, Burundi]].
The Free Methodist Church's highest governing body is the World Conference which is composed of representatives, both lay and clergy, from all countries with a Free Methodist presence. The church currently has ministry in 72 countries around the world. These are:
'''Africa'''
*Botswana
*Burundi
*Cameroon
*Democratic Republic of Congo
*Egypt
*Ethiopia
*Gabon
*Ghana
*Kenya
*Liberia
*Malawi
*Middle East
*Mozambique
*Nigeria
*Rwanda
*South Africa
*Tanzania
*Togo
*Uganda
*Zambia
*Zimbabwe
'''Asia'''
*Australia
*Cambodia
*Hong Kong
*India
*Japan
*Malaysia
*Myanmar
*Nepal
*Philippines
*South Korea
*Sri Lanka
*Taiwan
*Thailand
'''Europe'''
*Belgium
*France
*Greece
*Hungary
*Portugal
*Romania
*Spain
*Ukraine
*United Kingdom
'''Latin America'''
*Antigua
*Argentina
*Bahamas
*Bolivia
*Brazil
*Chile
*Colombia
*Costa Rica
*Dominican Republic
*Ecuador
*El Salvador
*French Guiana
*Haiti
*Mexico
*Nicaragua
*Panama
*Paraguay
*Peru
*Puerto Rico
*Uruguay
*Venezuela
'''North America'''
*Canada
*United States
== External links ==
* [http://www.freemethodistworld.org/ Free Methodist World Conference]
* [http://www.freemethodistchurch.org/ Free Methodist Church of North America]
* [http://www.fmc-canada.org/ Free Methodist Church in Canada]
* [http://www.freemethodist.org.uk/ Free Methodist Church - United Kingdom Conference]
* [http://www.fmc-europe.org/ Free Methodist Church in Europe]
[[Category:Christian denominations of North America]]
[[Category:Methodism]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Fixed point</title>
<id>11245</id>
<revision>
<id>33012400</id>
<timestamp>2005-12-28T17:08:18Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Lumidek</username>
<id>66753</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Physics */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''''Fixed point''''' has many meanings in science, most of them mathematical.
==Mathematics==
*[[fixed point (mathematics)|Fixed point]] &mdash; a number ''x'' that makes ''f''(''x'') = ''x''. There exists a number of [[fixed-point theorem]]s.
*[[Fixed point space]]
*[[Fixed-point lemma for normal functions]]
==Computing==
*[[Fixed-point arithmetic]] &mdash; manner of doing arithmetic on computers: a fixed number of decimal (or binary) digits is kept after the decimal point, any remaining digits are rounded.
*[[Fixed point combinator]]
==Physics==
*[[Conformal field theory]] is a different description of a fixed point in the context of the [[renormalization group]], for example see [[infrared fixed point]]
{{disambig}}
[[he:נקודת שבת]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Falstaff</title>
<id>11246</id>
<revision>
<id>41947754</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T20:42:08Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Durova</username>
<id>521374</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Origins */ fuller background</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''This page is about the Shakespearean character. See also [[Falstaff (opera)|Verdi's opera "Falstaff"]].
'''Sir John Falstaff''' is a [[fictional character]] who appears in three plays by [[William Shakespeare]] primarily as a companion to Prince Hal, the future King Henry V. Round and glorious, tradition holds that Shakespeare wrote the part for his second comedian, a fat man, [[John Heminges]], who played a bold, bawdy humor of a [[John Candy]] sort. An alternative theory is that Falstaff was written for [[Will Kemp]], the clown of Shakespeare's company. The original actor was later succeeded by [[John Lowin]], another portly comic actor. Flush with flatulent humor, Falstaff still managed to embody a kind of depth common to Shakespeare's tricky comedy. In Act II, Scene III of ''[[Henry V (play)|Henry V]]'', his death is described by the character "Hostess", possibly the bar-lady [[Mistress Quickly]], who describes his body in terms that echo the death of [[Socrates]].
==Appearances==
He appears in the following plays:
*''[[Henry IV, part 1]]''
*''[[Henry IV, part 2]]''
*''[[The Merry Wives of Windsor]]''
He is mentioned in ''[[Henry V (play)|Henry V]]'' but has no lines, nor is it directed that he appear on stage. However, many stage and film adaptations have seen it necessary to include Falstaff for the insight he provides into [[Henry V of England|King Henry V]]'s character. The most notable examples in cinema are [[Laurence Olivier]]'s [[Henry V (1946 movie)|1946 movie]] and [[Kenneth Branagh]]'s [[Henry V (1989 movie)|1989 movie]], both of which draw additional material from the ''Henry IV'' plays.
[[Orson Welles]]'s ''[[Chimes at Midnight]]'' ([[1966]]) compiles the two ''Henry IV'' plays into a single, condensed storyline, while adding a handful of scenes from ''[[Richard II (play)|Richard II]]'' and ''Henry V''. The movie, also known as ''Falstaff'', features Welles himself in the title role.
'''''[[Falstaff (opera)|Falstaff]]''''' ([[1893]]) is also the title of [[Giuseppe Verdi]]'s last [[opera buffa|opera]], with a [[libretto]] by [[Arrigo Boito]]. It is mostly based upon ''The Merry Wives of Windsor''.
Falstaff is also mentioned in [[The Tragically Hip]] song "Fiddler's Green". Recently, the [[Gus Van Sant]] film, ''[[My Own Private Idaho]]'', offered a version of the two parts of ''Henry IV''; in it Falstaff is Bob, a derelict and petty thief. Novelist [[Robert Nye]] has a novel entitled ''Falstaff''.
==Character==
What makes portly Sir John so entertaining? How is it, when his actions would repulse many in both a modern and medieval context, we find ourselves so attracted to this lying tub of lard? Speculation over the years has produced many possible answers, one no more likely than the next. Whether or not the Queen of England truly requested "Merry Wives" for herself because she was so fond of the "huge hill of flesh" (Henry IV pt I, Hal, Tavern Scene), most do find some sort of affectionate connection. Possibly his openness in his crimes, his lack of loyalty being so apparent — essentially his frankness (not so much honesty) in life, and his grinning self-determination, self observance.
At best, it can be said that [[Shakespeare's]] Falstaff reaches beyond merely making the audience laugh. “He is aware that life is a charade” and is markedly responsible for his situation. He besets our hearts, yea deeper still, to our diaphragms. We are his. He has been too great a humoristic character to forfeit all good impressions within the length of one play.
(MacLeish, Kenneth. Longman guide to Shakespeare’s characters. Harlow: Longman, 1986. 87-88)
Falstaff is a central element in the two parts of “Henry IV,” a natural portion of their structure. Yet he does at times seem to be mainly a fun-maker, a character whom we both laugh with and laugh at, and almost in the same breath. Nothing has helped more to give this impression than the fat knight’s account of the double robbery at Gadshill.
Falstaff's character is necessary to Hal's character development just as Hotspur's temperament is necessary to his. Falstaff's wit, humor and amusing antics are needed to develop Hal. He helps us relate to Hal and his decision. We know people of all types of character and personality in our lives. They influence our thinking and decisions. So it is also necessary for Hal. Whether Falstaff is only a coward and glutton, or a person who has an "amusing" way of expressing his deeply felt personal and political beliefs is a matter of individual interpretation.
==Origins==
Falstaff was originally named 'Oldcastle' in the first performances of the play. The character was apparently based on Sir [[John Oldcastle]], historically known to be Prince Hal's companion. However, Oldcastle was unlike Falstaff in many ways; in particular, he was a [[Lollardy|Lollard]] who was executed for his opinions, and was revered by many Protestants as a [[martyr]]. During the first performances of ''1 Henry IV'', protests from Oldcastle's descendants &mdash; the influential Cobham family &mdash; forced Shakespeare to change the name. The new name 'Falstaff' is derived from Shakespeare's earlier play, ''[[Henry VI, part 1]]'', in which there is a cowardly character based on the medieval knight Sir [[John Fastolf]] (who was also a Lollard). Changing a few letters gave Shakespeare the name by which his invention is known today. Worried, perhaps, that this change would not placate his detractors, Shakespeare made a direct comment on the situation, in the epilogue of ''2 Henry VI'':
::::: If you be not too
:much cloyed with fat meat, our humble author will
:continue the story, with Sir John in it, and make
:you merry with fair Katharine of France: where, for
:any thing I know, Falstaff shall die of a sweat,
:unless already a' be killed with your hard
:opinions; for Oldcastle died a martyr, and this is
:not the man.
The character and deeds of Falstaff have very few similarities with those of his real-life eponym. Shakespeare's apparent desire to burlesque such heroes of early English Protestantism is one reason why some scholars believe he may have been a closet [[Roman Catholic Church|Catholic]].
There was a historical [[Sir John Fastolf]] who fought at the [[Battle of Patay]] against [[Joan of Arc]]. He was among the few English military leaders to |
reate the language of the standard targums. This combination formed the basis of Babylonian Jewish literature for centuries to follow.
[[Image:Targum.jpg|right|thumb|320px|11th century [[Targum]] of the [[Hebrew Bible]].]]
Galilean Targumic is similar to Babylonian Targumic. It is the mixing of literary Hasmonaean with the dialect of [[Galilee]]. The Hasmonaean targum reached Galilee in the second century CE, and were reworked into this Galilean dialect for local use. The Galilean Targum was never considered an authoritative work, and documentary evidence shows that its text was amended wherever and whenever 'improvement' was needed. From the [[11th century|eleventh century CE]] onwards, once the Babylonian Targum had become normative, the Galilean version became heavily influenced by it.
Babylonian Documentary Aramaic is a dialect in use from the third century CE onwards. It is the dialect of Babylonian private documents, and, from the [[12th century|twelfth century]], all Jewish private documents in Aramaic. It is based on Hasmonaean with very few changes. This was perhaps due to the fact that many of the documents in BDA are legal documents, the language in them had to be sensible throughout the Jewish community from the start, and Hasmonaean was the old standard.
[[Nabataean]] Aramaic is the language of the Arab kingdom of [[Petra]]. The kingdom (''c.'' [[200 BC|200 BCE]]–[[106|106 CE]] covered the east bank of the [[Jordan River]], the [[Sinai Peninsula]] and northern Arabia. Perhaps because of the importance of the caravan trade, the Nabataeans began to use Aramaic in preference to [[Old North Arabic]]. The dialect is based on Achaemenid with a little influence from Arabic: 'l' is often turned into 'n', and there are a few Arabic loan words. Some Nabataean Aramaic inscriptions exist from the early days of the kingdom, but most are from the first four centuries CE. The language is written in a [[cursive]] script that is the precursor to the modern [[Arabic alphabet]]. The number of Arabic loan words increases through the centuries, until, in the [[4th century|fourth century]], Nabataean merges seamlessly with [[Arabic language|Arabic]].
Palmyrene Aramaic is the dialect that was in use in the city of [[Palmyra]] in the Syrian Desert from [[44 BC|44 BCE]] to 274 CE. It was written in a rounded script, which later gave way to cursive [[Estrangela]]. Like Nabataean, Palmyrene was influenced by Arabic, but to a lesser degree.
[[Arsacid]] Aramaic was the official language of the [[Parthian Empire]] ([[247 BC|247 BCE]]–224 CE). It, more than any other post-Achaemenid dialect, continues the tradition of [[Darius I]]. Over time, however, it came under the influence of contemporary, spoken Aramaic, [[Georgian language|Georgian]] and [[Persian language|Persian]]. After the conquest of the Parthians by the Persian-speaking [[Sassanids]], Arsacid exerted considerable influence on the new official language.
===Late Old Eastern Aramaic===
[[Image:Mandaic.jpg|left|thumb|320px|[[Mandaic language|Mandaic]] magical 'demon trap']]
The dialects mentioned in the last section were all descended from Achaemenid Imperial Aramaic. However, the diverse regional dialects of Late Ancient Aramaic continued alongside these, often as simple, spoken languages. Early evidence for these spoken dialects is known only through their influence on words and names in a more standard dialect. However, these regional dialects became written languages in the [[2nd century BC|second century BCE]]. These dialects reflect a stream of Aramaic that is not dependent on Imperial Aramaic, and shows a clear division between the regions of Mesopotamia, Babylon and the east, and Judah, Syria, and the west.
In the east, the dialects of Palmyrene and Arsacid Aramaic merged with the regional languages to create languages with a foot in Imperial and a foot in regional Aramaic. Much later, Arsacid became the liturgical language of the [[Mandaean]] religion, [[Mandaic language|Mandaic]].
In the kingdom of [[Osrhoene]], centred on [[Edessa, Mesopotamia|Edessa]] and founded in [[132 BC|132 BCE]], the regional dialect became the official language: Old [[Syriac language|Syriac]]. On the upper reaches of the [[Tigris]], East Mesopotamian Aramaic flourished, with evidence from [[Hatra]], [[Assur]] and the [[Tur Abdin]]. [[Tatian]], the author of the gospel harmony the [[Diatessaron]] came from Assyria, and perhaps wrote his work (172 CE) in East Mesopotamian rather than Syriac or Greek. In Babylonia, the regional dialect was used by the Jewish community, Jewish Old Babylonian (from ''c.'' [[70]] CE). This everyday language increasingly came under the influence of Biblical Aramaic and Babylonian Targumic.
===Late Old Western Aramaic===
The western regional dialects of Aramaic followed a similar course to those of the east. They are quite distinct from the eastern dialects and Imperial Aramaic. Colloquial Hebrew, and kindred Semitic languages in the Canaanite family, gave way to Aramaic during [[4th century BC|fourth century BCE]]; [[Phoenician language|Phoenician]], however, continued into the [[1st century BC|first century BCE]].
The form of Late Old Western Aramaic used by the Jewish community is best attested, and is usually referred to as Jewish Old Palestinian. Its oldest form is Old East Jordanian, which probably comes from the region of [[Caesarea Philippi]]. This is the language of the oldest manuscript of [[Enoch]] (''c.'' [[170 BC|170 BCE]]). The next distinct phase of the language is called Old Judaean (into the second century CE). Old Judaean literature can be found in various inscriptions and personal letters, preserved quotations in the [[Talmud]] and receipts from [[Qumran]]. [[Josephus]]' first, non-extant edition of his ''[[Jewish War]]'' was written in Old Judaean.
The Old East Jordanian dialect continued to be used into the first century CE by pagan communities living to the east of the Jordan. Their dialect is often then called Pagan Old Palestinian, and it was written in a cursive script somewhat similar to that used for Old Syriac. A Christian Old Palestinian dialect may have arisen from the pagan one, and this dialect may be behind some of the Western Aramaic tendencies found in the otherwise eastern Old Syriac gospels (see [[Peshitta]]).
====The spoken dialects of Jesus' time====
: ''See the [[Aramaic of Jesus]] for more information''.
Seven dialects of Western Aramaic were spoken in [[Jesus]]' time. They were probably distinctive yet mutually intelligible. Old Judaean was the prominent dialect of [[Jerusalem]] and Judaea. The region of [[Ein Gedi|Engedi]] had the South-east Judaean dialect. [[Samaria]] had its distinctive Samaritan Aramaic, where the consonants 'he', 'heth' and '`ayin' all became pronounced as 'aleph'. Galilean Aramaic, the language of Jesus' home region, is only known from a few place names, the influences on Galilean Targumic, some rabbinic literature and a few private letters. It seems to have a number of distinctive features: [[diphthong]]s are never simplified into monophthongs. East of the Jordan, the various dialects of East Jordanian were spoken. In the region of [[Damascus]] and the [[Anti-Lebanon]], Damascene Aramaic was spoken (deduced mostly from Modern Western Aramaic). Finally, as far north as [[Aleppo]], the western dialect of Orontes Aramaic was spoken.
Besides these dialects of Aramaic, Greek was used extensively in urban centres. There is little evidence for the use of Hebrew during this period. Some Hebrew words continued as part of Jewish Aramaic vocabulary (mostly technical religious words, but also some everyday words like `ēṣ, ''tree''), and the written language of the [[Tanakh]] was read and understood by the educated classes. However, the Hebrew language had ceased to be the language of everyday life. In addition, the various words in the Greek context of the [[New Testament]] that are untranslated are clearly Aramaic rather than Hebrew. From the little evidence there is, this Aramaic is not Galilean Aramaic but Old Judaean. This suggests that the words of Jesus were transmitted in the dialect of [[Judaea]] and [[Jerusalem]] rather than that of his hometown.
The 2004 film ''[[The Passion of the Christ]]'' is notable for its use of much dialogue in an Aramaic specially reconstructed by a lone scholar, [[William Fulco]]. However, modern Aramaic speakers found the language stilted and unfamiliar.
==Middle Aramaic==
The [[3rd century|third century CE]] is taken as the threshold between Old and Middle Aramaic. During that century, the nature of the various Aramaic languages and dialects begins to change. The descendents of Imperial Aramaic ceased to be living languages, and the eastern and western regional languages began to form vital, new literatures. Unlike many of the dialects of Old Aramaic, much is known about the vocabulary and grammar of Middle Aramaic.
===Eastern Middle Aramaic===
Only two of the Old Eastern Aramaic languages continued into this period. In the north of the region, Old Syriac moved into Middle Syriac. In the south, Jewish Old Babylonian became Jewish Middle Babylonian. The post-Achaemenid, Arsacid dialect became the background of the new [[Mandaic language]].
====Middle Syriac====
[[Image:Estrangela.jpg|right|thumb|320px|9th century [[Syriac language|Syriac]] [[Syriac alphabet|Estrangela]] manuscript of [[John Chrysostom]]'s ''Homily on the [[Gospel of John]]'']]
: ''See [[Syriac language]] for more information''.
Middle Syriac is the classical, literary and liturgical language of [[Syriac Christianity|Syriac Christians]] to this day. Its golden age was the [[4th century|fourth]] to [[6th century|sixth]] centuries. This period began with the translation of the Bible into the language: the [[Peshitta]] and the masterful prose and poetry of [[Ephrem the Syrian]]. Middle Syriac, unlike its forebear, is a thoroughly Christian language, although in time it became the l |
hich stated: ''Graffiti is not art, it's crime. On behalf of my constituents, I will do all I can to rid our community of this problem.''
The city of [[Albuquerque]], [[New Mexico]] has had an aggressive anti-graffiti program since the mid-1990s. The city regarded its heavily-tagged [[arroyo (creek)|arroyo]]s, bridges and sound barrier walls as an eyesore. Reports emerged of taggers suffering injury and death attempting to tag their gang's area or while spray painting graffiti on the bridges. Each park and arroyo now has a sign posted that gives the telephone number to the Albuquerque ''Tagger's Hotline'', and a website exists where citizens can report taggers or graffiti online. Most stores in the metro area will not even sell spray paint without seeing an ID, and some have gone so far as to lock the spray paint away. Punishments include fines, community service and jail.
On January 1st, 2006, it became illegal for a person under the age of 21 to possess spray-paint or permanent markers in New York City for the purpose of creating graffiti.
==See also==
{{commons|Category:Graffiti}}
* [[Stencil]]
* [[Cartoons]]
* [[Censorship]]
* [[Types of graffiti]]
* [[Bristol Urban Culture]]
* [[Guerilla art]]
* [[Airplane graffiti]]
* [[List of notable graffiti posses]]
==Famous artists==
[[Image:Taki183.jpg|thumb|right|250px|New York City's TAKI 183]]
{| cellspacing="5" cellpadding="5" border="0"
|-
|valign="top"|'''Aerosol artists'''
* [[Robert Del Naja|3D]] from [[Massive Attack]]
* [http://www.geocities.com/abeloner Abel Oner]
* [[Asend]]
* [[Atome]]
* [[Alexone]]
* [[Banksy]]
* [[Bates]] Copenhagen, Denmark
* [[Baby 168]] New York , NY
* [[Blade TC5]]; TC5; [[New York, NY]]
* [http://bekenone.freeshell.org/mygraff/ Beken One]
* Borf ([[John Tsombikos]])
* [[Bryer]]
* [http://www.webgallerynyc.com/crash.html Crash]
* [[Claw]]; PMS; [[New York, NY]]
* [[Cool Disco Dan|Cool "Disco" Dan]]
* [[Cope2]]; [[Bronx]]
* [[Cost]]; [[New York, NY]]
* [[Cornbread]]; [[Philadelphia, PA]]
* [[Chase]]; UCA, DTK, Network; [[Atlanta, GA]]
* [[Cha]]
* [[Crz One]];[[Philadelphia, Pa]]
* [[Daim]]
* [[Dan Groover]]
* Daze
* Delta
* [[Dondi]] aka [[Dondi White]]
* [[Doze]]
* [[DR]];New York, NY AA Mobb, CYN
* [[Ease]]; IHS
* [[Espo]]
* [[Earsnot]]
* Ewok
* [[Fantom]]
* [[Futura 2000]]
* [[Obey Giant]] aka [[Shepard Fairey]]
* [[Goldie]]
* [[Great]] Copenhagen, Denmark
* [[IZ (graffiti artist)|IZ]] "The Wiz"
* [[JACK-1-]] (Graffiti Writer) aka [[SEE]]; NCB, TSF, TBS; [[New York, NY]]
* [[Jaz 1]]; UCA, 431; [[Atlanta, GA]]
* [[JERK]] 2006 Copenhagen, Denmark
* [[Kel 1st]]
* [[KR]]
* [[Lady Pink]] aka [[PINK]]; [[New York, NY]]
* Lee aka [[Lee Quinones]]; [[New York, NY]]
* [[Lee 163d]]
* [[Lern 1]]; Network, GH, CTC; [[New York, NY]]
* [[Leon]] aka [[Sr. Leon]]; [[Atlanta, GA]]
* [[Mare 139]]
* [[Moody]];AA Mobb, CYN,
* [[Mutz]];AA Mobb, CYN,
* [[Mr. Fangs]] aka [[Totem2]]; [[Atlanta, GA]]
* [[Muelle]], pioneer of Spanish tagging
* [[Nace]]; [[New York, NY]]
* [[Naf One]]
* [[Novel_Graff|Novel]]
* [[Opal]]
* [[Phase 2|Phase II]]
* [[Priz-1]] aka [[Swan]]; TSF, NCB, TBS, CACITY; [[New York, NY]]
* [[Rammellzee]]
* [[Reas]]; [[New York, NY]]
* [[Revs]]; [[New York, NY]]
* [[Revok]]; AM7
* Redeem'd:1
* [[Remio]]
* Riot
* [[SB 1]] aka [[Cole]]; Network; [[Atlanta, GA]]
* [[Sense]] aka [[SenOne]]; UCA, 431; [[Atlanta, GA]]
* [[Seen|Seen UA]]; UA; [[New York, NY]]
* [http://www.atelier4.org SEAT-RDM] Germany
* Sever
* [[Sketzh]] (also known as Sketch) Copenhagen, Denmark
* [[Smaze]]; CTC, GH, EDK
* [[SnaZ]]
* [[Shy 149]]
* [[Stan-1]]; TSF, NCB, TBS; [[New York, NY]]
* [[Super kool 223]]
* [[Surge]]; MDR, WGS
* [[Suroc]]
* [[Swet]] Copenhagen, Denmark
* [[TAKI 183]]
* [[Teako170]]
* [[Tesk]]
* [[Tox]]
* [[Barry McGee|Twist]]
* [[Unit One]]
* [[Zeke One]]
* [[Zephyr (graffiti artist)|Zephyr]]
|valign="top"|'''[[Street Art]] and [[Post-Graffiti]] artists'''
* [[86]]
* [[Above]]
* [[Banksy]]
* Branded
* [[El Tono]]
* Flying Fortress
* [[Influenza]]
* [[Kaws]]; DF, FC, TC5; [[New York, NY]]
* [[Keep Adding]]
* [[Moody]];AA Mobb, CYN,
* [[Neck face|Neck Face]]
*''[[Pure Evil]]'' ([http://www.pureevilclothing.com/evilbunny.html pureevil])
* [[Seen]]
* [[Shepard Fairey]] aka [[Obey Giant]]
* [[Space Invader]]
* [[Space1]] [[South Side San Jose]]
* [[Swoon]]
* [[Speekerboxx]]
* [[3$Bill]]
* [[ROZZ]]
<br />
'''Avant garde artists'''
* [[Jean-Michel Basquiat]]
* [[Keith Haring]]
* [[Harald Naegeli]]
* [[Mear One]]
* [[Arthur Was Here]]
<br />
'''Political graffiti artists'''
* [[Alexander Brener]]
* [[Asger Jorn]]
* [[Punka Pixies]] aka [[OSI]]
<br />
'''Fictional graffiti artists'''
* '''Brian''', in 1979 film [[Monty Python's Life of Brian]].
* '''Chopper''' in [[Judge Dredd]] comics.
* '''[[Anarky]]''' in [[Batman]] [[Detective Comics]].
* [[Bart Simpson]] ('''El Barto''') in [[The Simpsons]].
* '''Dose aka Mingus Rude''' in the novel "The Fortress of Solitude" by [[Jonathan Lethem]].
* "[[Ghost World]]" in [[Eightball comics # 11-18]] by Daniel Clowes.
|-
|}
== References and additional resources ==
===In film===
*''[[Style Wars]]'' is an early documentary on hip hop culture, made by Tony Silver and Henry Chalfant, made in New York City in the early 1980 for [[PBS]].
*''[[Bomb the System]]'' (Theatrical release [[May 27]] [[2005]] in America / [[3 September]] [[2005]] in Japan): a narrative feature about a crew of graffiti writers in modern day New York City. Shot entirely on the streets of New York starring [[Mark Webber]] as BLEST, a young artist struggling for fame and featuring [[BONZ Malone]], [[SEMZ]], TATS crew, [[LEE Quinones]], [[Tracy 168]], [[GANO]], and artwork from KR, SERF/MINT, PER, T-KID, STEM YNN, KYRO VGL and many many others. [[Bomb the System]] was scored by independent hip hop producer [[El P]] aka [[El Producto]], his first such attempt at composing for film and directed by 23 year old NYU film school grad [[Adam Bhala Lough]]. The film screened at 23 festivals on 3 continents and was nominated for an [[IFP Independent Spirit Award]] for Best First Feature in 2003. Palm Pictures released the film and subsequent DVD in 2005 to mixed reviews by t
*''[[NEXT, a Primer on Urban Painting]]'' - 2005 documentary. ([http://www.nextthemovie.com/ nextthemovie.com], [http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0495164/ imdb])
*''[[GRAFFITITV]]'' - online graffiti TV featuring graffiti clips from around the world updated every day . ([http://www.graffitiTV.net/ graffitiTV.net])
===Online===
*[http://www.vfunk.com/703.html Graffiti Directory] Graffiti resource Including Banksy, Seen, Shepard Fairey.
*[http://www.bombingscience.com Bombing Science] Thousands of graffiti pictures from around the world.
*[http://www.graffiti.org Art Crimes] The first website to feature Graffiti, with many photos and resources.
*[http://www.woostercollective.com Woostercollective] A Street Art webite updated daily with new artwork.
{{hiphop}}
[[Category:Graffiti and unauthorised signage| Graffiti]]
[[Category:Art media]]
[[Category:Painting techniques]]
[[Category:Murals]]
[[bg:Графити]]
[[ca:Graffiti]]
[[de:Graffiti]]
[[es:Graffiti]]
[[fa:ديوارنويسی]]
[[fr:Graffiti]]
[[he:גרפיטי]]
[[nl:Graffiti]]
[[ja:落書き]]
[[pl:Graffiti (malarstwo)]]
[[pt:Grafite (arte)]]
[[ro:Graffiti]]
[[ru:Граффити]]
[[fi:Graffiti]]
[[sv:Graffiti]]
[[zh:塗鴉]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Godzilla</title>
<id>11986</id>
<revision>
<id>42147295</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T03:16:31Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>DMG413</username>
<id>72499</id>
</contributor>
<comment>rv vandalism by [[user:John Pierce]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Godzilla.jpg|225px|right|thumb|Godzilla, as portrayed during the late [[Heisei era (daikaiju eiga)|Heisei era]] (''[[Godzilla vs. SpaceGodzilla]]'', [[1994 in film|1994]])]]
'''Godzilla''' (ゴジラ - ''Gojira'') is a giant Japanese movie monster ([[kaiju]]) first seen in the [[1954 in film|1954]] [[Japan|Japanese]] [[tokusatsu]] [[film]] ''[[Godzilla (1954)|Gojira]]'', produced by [[Toho|Toho Film Company Ltd]]. To date, Toho has produced 28 Godzilla films. In 1998 [[TriStar Pictures]] produced a nominal remake of the original, set in contemporary New York City. A new film is slated to be produced by [[Advanced Audiovisual Productions]]. (For a list of these films, [[Godzilla#Filmography|see below]].)
==Powers==
Godzilla's powers are an Atomic Ray (blue),Finishing beam (red or blue), a Hiper Beam, and a Super Nova (seen only in [Godzilla 2000]).
Godzilla is characterized as amphibious, nearly indestructible and highly regenerative, and breathing a sort of nuclear fire or "heat-ray". The earliest two Godzilla films visually and thematically evoke the US bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki in the aftermath and human damage of Godzilla's attacks. Although much of Godzilla's significance as an [[anti-war]] symbol has been lost in the transition to pop culture, the nuclear breath remains as a visual vestige of the creature's early [[Cold War]] politics.
==History==
===Origins===
The first Godzilla movie always appilies to all Subsequent movies, most of the time the creature is described as prehistoric, often a surviving dinosaur, and its first attacks on Japan are linked to atomic testing in the Pacific Ocean, including but not limited to using nuclear mutation as an explanation for the creature's great size and strange powers.
*His iconic design (a charcoal-colored monster-like figure with small pointed ears, rough bumpy [[scale (zoology)|scales]], powerful [[tail]], and bony colored [[dorsal fin|dorsal fins]] shaped like [[maple leaf|maple leaves]]).
*He is virtually indestructible, impervious to all [[modern weapons|modern weaponry]].
*He can release a powerful atomic energy beam, usually blue but in some films red, from his mouth (which is ominou |
'Highlander; Highlander 2: The Quickening'' and ''Highlander:The Final Dimension''
==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
*{{imdb title|id=0091203|title=Highlander}}
*{{imdb title|id=0102034|title=Highlander II: The Quickening}}
*{{imdb title|id=0110027|title=Highlander III: The Sorcerer}}
*{{imdb title|id=0144964|title=Highlander: Endgame}}
*{{imdb title|id=0103442|title=Highlander: The Series}}
*[http://www.angryalien.com/0905/highlanderbuns.asp Highlander re-enacted by bunnies in 30 seconds]
*[http://www.brucesangels.com/kell.html Jacob Kell fan page]
*[http://www.youtube.com/w/?v=rOFQU3lCU1U Video: Making of "Princes of the Universe"]
[[Category:1986 films]]
[[Category:1990s TV shows in the United States]]
[[Category:Fantasy films]]
[[Category:Film series]]
[[Category:Highlander]]
[[da:Highlander]]
[[de:Highlander – Es kann nur einen geben]]
[[es:Highlander, El Inmortal]]
[[fr:Highlander]]
[[ru:Горец (фильм)]]
[[sv:Highlander]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>HMS Hood</title>
<id>13893</id>
<revision>
<id>34239384</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-07T13:57:25Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Gdrbot</username>
<id>263608</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>gdrbot - replaced {{disambig}} with {{shipindex}} (see discussion at [[Wikipedia talk:WikiProject Ships]])</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">Three ships of the [[Royal Navy]] have been named '''HMS ''Hood''''' after members of the Hood family, which produced several notable Navy officers:
* The first [[HMS Hood (1859)|''HMS Hood'', launched in 1859]] as ''Edgar'', was a [[second-rate]] [[ship of the line]] of 91 guns. In 1860 she was renamed to honor Admiral [[Samuel Hood, 1st Viscount Hood]]. Constructed of wood and sail-powered, she was later fitted with a steam engine. She was decommissioned in [[1888]].
* The second [[HMS Hood (1891)|''HMS Hood'', launched in 1891]], was a modified [[Royal Sovereign class battleship|''Royal Sovereign''-class]] [[battleship]] built at [[Chatham, Kent|Chatham]], [[England]], launched in [[1891]] and sunk as a [[blockship]] in [[1914]]. She was named after the [[First Sea Lord]], Admiral Sir [[Arthur Hood]].
* The last [[HMS Hood (51)|''HMS Hood'', launched in 1918]], was an [[Admiral class battlecruiser|Admiral-class]] [[battlecruiser]] named after Admiral Samuel Hood, built by [[John Brown and Company]], [[Scotland]]. She was sunk in [[1941]] by the German battleship [[German battleship Bismarck|''Bismarck'']] in the [[Battle of the Denmark Strait]], only three crew members out of 1418 surviving.
{{shipindex}}
[[Category:Royal Navy ship names|Hood]]
[[de:HMS Hood]]
[[no:HMS Hood]]
[[pt:HMS Hood]]
[[sv:Hood]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Houston Astros</title>
<id>13894</id>
<revision>
<id>41503404</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-27T20:29:16Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>128.190.62.54</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* 1990s: Building a model franchise */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{MLB infobox Astros}}
The '''Houston Astros''' are a [[Major League Baseball]] team. They are in the Central Division of the [[National League]]. They are the current defending [[National League]] champions, and rose to prominence in [[October 2005]] when they went to the [[World Series]] for the first time in franchise history.
== Franchise history ==
===Beginnings: The 1960s===
Subsequent to the Giants and Dodgers leaving for California, an abortive attempt was made to start a third major league, to be called the [[Continental League]]. Though the league never got off the ground, it nonetheless established the demand for major league baseball in other markets. On [[October 17th]], [[1960]], Judge [[Roy Hofheinz]] and the ownership group from Houston is awarded a [[sport franchising|franchise]] in the ten-team [[National League]], called the '''Houston Colt .45s'''. In addition to the Houston Colt .45s, the [[New York Mets]] would also join the NL in 1962, and the [[Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim|Los Angeles Angels]] and the [[Texas Rangers (baseball)|Washington Senators]] would join the AL in 1961.
The team would begin play on [[April 10]], [[1962]] and for the next three years, the team would play in [[Colt Stadium]].
On Sunday, [[September 29]], [[1963]], the final day of the regular season, Colt 45's outfielder [[John Paciorek]] would have a career day, going 3-for-3 with 3 RBIs, 2 walks and 4 runs scored as the team beat the Mets 13-4. Unfortunately, because of chronic injuries, the game would mark Paciorek's only major league appearance. Through 2005, Paciorek still holds the record of having a perfect 1.000 average with the most at-bats. Sadly, September 29, 1963 would also mark the last major league game for the winning pitcher of that game, Astros pitcher [[Jim Umbricht]]. Stricken with [[cancer]], Umbricht would pass away on [[April 8]], [[1964]]. His number 32 was the first jersey number retired by the Astros.
Despite these tragic events, the franchise's first decade displayed some great hitters (e.g., [[Joe Morgan]], [[Jimmy Wynn]]) and many great pitchers (e.g., [[Bob Bruce]], [[Ken Johnson]], [[Mike Cuellar]], [[Don Wilson (baseball player)|Don Wilson]], [[Larry Dierker]], [[Dave Giusti]], and [[Denny LeMaster]].)
====Houston Astros: New venue, new name====
On [[April 9]], [[1965]], the Houston Colt .45s become the Houston Astros and inaugurate indoor baseball in the [[Astrodome]].
''The Sporting News Official Baseball Guide'' for 1965 had this to say about why the team was renamed: <!-- The following single brackets "[]" are meant as editor's notes and NOT as a wiki link. -->"Late in the year [1964] the [Harris County Domed Stadium] was officially named the Astrodome after the Houston club changed its nickname, December 1, from Colt .45s to Astros. The move resulted from objections by the Colt Firearms Company to the club's sales of novelties bearing the old nickname."
Regardless of trade mark issues, "Astros" was a good fit for the futuristic ambiance of the revolutionary domed stadium and also since Houston was by then the home of [[NASA]]'s [[astronaut]] program. The scoreboard retained subliminal references to the old nickname, as it featured electronically animated cowboys firing pistols, with the "bullets" ricocheting around the scoreboard, when an Astros player would hit a home run. Early on, the groundskeepers also wore astronaut spacesuits to promote that futuristic image.
As a condition of their entry in the National League, the Astros committed to building a new domed stadium, designed as a defense against the oppressive heat and humidity of the Houston summer. The result was the Astrodome.
Loosely based on the old Roman Colosseum, the Astrodome was like no venue that had come before it, and it was dubbed the "Eighth Wonder of the World". As with many stadiums of that era, such as [[RFK Stadium]] and [[Shea Stadium]]. the Astrodome was a multi-purpose stadium, designed for both football and baseball. However, because it was enclosed, it could also be used for events traditionally held in indoor areans, such as basketball, concerts and political convention, allowing outdoor-sized crowds in an indoor venue.
Besides its roof, the Astrodome was revolutionary for a number of other reasons. It was one of the first stadiums to have individual, theatre-type seats for every seat in the venue. Additionally, it was one of the first stadiums to have luxury seats and club seating, at the time a relatively new concept in sports venues. It also had an "exploding scoreboard", which would show various animations after a home run or a win, as well as messages and advertising.
The Astrodome was also one of the first stadiums in the country to use an artificial playing surface. The creation of an artificial surface came across based on necessity. Originally the Astrodome had a grass field and a transparent roof. However, during the 1965 season, players and fans complained about the glare on the field which detracted from the game. As a result, the roof was painted black. This solved the glare problem but killed off the grass. As a solution the Astros deployed a product from [[Monsanto Corporation]] called [[AstroTurf]], a surface that could be used in any condition, and a surface that was, compared to grass, low maintenance.
The surface did prove resilient to routine game play and was relatively safe, resulting in a number of colleges and pro teams switching to artificial surface fields. Additionally, AstroTurf made possible a number of other domed stadiums, such as the [[Superdome]], the [[Carrier Dome]], and the [[Pontiac Silverdome]].
===1970s===
The year [[1975]] would be marked by tragedy with the suicide of former Astros pitcher [[Don Wilson]], who had pitched two no-hitters for the club. Wilson's jersey number 40, was also retired by the Astros.
The Astros in [[1975 in baseball|1975]] would also adopt the orange, yellow and red "Rainbow Guts" uniforms that became a team trademark and would stay with them in some form through [[1993 in baseball|1993]]. These uniforms, originally made by Sand-Knit, were highly popular with fans, increased awareness of the Astros considerably, and kicked off a fashion trend which would spread to many a recreational softball team, and would eventually be worn by many high schools and colleges (notably Seton Hall, Tulane, and Louisiana Tech). At the same time, the Astros also switched from blue caps to orange (although later they would revert to blue caps for road games and, eventually, all games)
In 1972 the Astros would have their best showing to date. Under three different managers - including legendary manager [[Leo Durocher]] (whose last managerial job would be with these Astros]] the Astros fini |
]] [[Battle of Christmas Island|invaded and occupied]] the island in [[1942]], as the [[India]]n garrison mutinied, and interned the residents until the end of [[World War II]] in [[1945]]. At Australia's request, the United Kingdom transferred sovereignty to Australia; in 1957, the Australian government paid the [[government of Singapore]] 2.9 million pounds in compensation, a figure based mainly on an estimated value of the phosphate foregone by Singapore. The first Australian Official Representative arrived in 1958 and was replaced by an Administrator in 1968. Christmas Island and the [[Cocos (Keeling) Islands]] together are called Australia's [[Indian Ocean Territories]] (IOTs) and since 1997 share a single Administrator resident on Christmas Island.
Since the late 1980s or early 1990s Christmas Island periodically received boatloads of refugees, mostly from [[Indonesia]]. These, and the occasional illegal fishing boat, were never a large issue, often welcomed by locals who looked forward to the exploding of the boats once the "boat people"had been processed. During [[2001]], Christmas Island received a large number of [[asylum seekers]] travelling by boat, most of them from the [[Middle East]] and intending to apply for asylum in Australia. The arrival of the Norwegian cargo vessel [[MV Tampa|MV ''Tampa'']], which had rescued people from the sinking Indonesian fishing-boat ''Palapa'' in international waters nearby, precipitated a diplomatic standoff between Australia, [[Norway]], and [[Indonesia]]. The vessel held 420 asylum seekers from [[Afghanistan]], 13 from [[Sri Lanka]], and five from Indonesia. The standoff eventually led to the asylum seekers being transported to [[Nauru]] for processing. Another boatload of asylum seekers was taken from Christmas Island to [[Papua New Guinea]] for processing, after it was claimed that many of the adult asylum seekers [[Children overboard affair|threw their children into the water]], apparently in protest at being turned away. This was later proven to be false.
[[John Howard]], the Australian Prime Minister, later passed legislation through the Australian Parliament which excised Christmas Island from [[Australian migration zone|Australia's migration zone]], meaning that [[asylum seekers]] arriving there could not automatically apply for refugee status, allowing the Australian navy to relocate them to other countries as part of the [[Pacific Solution]]. As of 2005, the Department of Immigration has begun construction of an "Immigration Reception and Processing Centre", due for completion in late 2006. The facility is estimated to cost $210 million, and will contain 800 beds.
==People==
As of [[As of 2005|July 2005]], there are approximately 1600 Christmas Islanders. (The Australian Bureau of Statistics reports a population of 1508 as of the 2001 Census.)
The ethnic composition is 70% [[Overseas Chinese|Chinese]], 20% [[Europe]]an and 10% [[Malay people|Malay]]. Religions practiced are [[Buddhism]] 36%, [[Islam]] 25%, [[Christianity]] 18%, [[Taoism]] 15% other 6%. [[English language|English]] is the official language, but [[Chinese language|Chinese]] and [[Malay language|Malay]] are also spoken.
Please note that the [[The World Factbook|CIA's World Factbook]] has been reporting the population as 361 for some years.
==Government==
[[Image:Flag of Christmas Island.svg|thumb|Flag of Christmas Island<br />(unofficially since 1986, officially since 2003)]]
Christmas Island is a non-self governing territory of Australia, administered by the [[Australian Department of Transport and Regional Services]]. The legal system is under the authority of the Governor General of Australia and Australian law. An Administrator ([[Neil Lucas]], since [[28 January ]] [[2006]]) appointed by the [[Governor-General of Australia]] represents the [[Queen of Australia|monarch]] and Australia. See list of previous office holders [http://www.worldstatesmen.org/Christmas_Island.html]
The Australian Government provides '''Commonwealth-level government services''' through the Christmas Island Administration and DOTARS (CI).
There is '''no State Government'''; instead, state government type services are provided by contractors, including departments of the Western Australian Government, with the costs met by the Australian (Commonwealth) Government.
A unicameral Christmas Island Shire Council with 9 seats provides '''local government services''' and is elected by popular vote to serve four-year terms. Elections are held every two years, with half the members standing for election.
The [[flag of Australia]] is used. In early 1986, the Christmas Island Assembly held a design competition for an island flag; the winning design was adopted as the informal flag of the territory for over a decade, and in 2003 it was made official.
==Economy==
Phosphate mining had been the only significant economic activity, but in December 1987 the [[Australian]] Government closed the mine. In 1991, the mine was reopened by a consortium which included many of the former mine workers as shareholders. With the support of the government, a $34 million [[casino]] opened in 1993. The casino closed in 1998 and has not re-opened. The Australian Government in 2001 agreed to support the creation of a commercial [[spaceport]] on the island, however this has not yet been constructed, and appears that it will not proceed in the future. The Australian Government built a temporary immigration detention centre on the island in 2001 and plans to replace it with a larger, modern facility, in 2006.
Christmas Island has the top-level [[Internet]] [[Domain Name System|DNS]] domain "[[.cx]]".
==Geography==
Located at {{coor dm|10|30|S|105|40|E|}}, the island is a quadrilateral with hollowed sides, about 12 miles (19&nbsp;[[kilometres|km]]) in greatest length and 9 miles (14.5&nbsp;km) in extreme breadth. The total land area is 52.1 [[square mile]]s (135 km&sup2;), with 86.3 miles (138.9 km) of coastline. The island is the flat summit of a submarine mountain more than 15,000 [[foot (unit of length)|feet]] (4,572&nbsp;[[metre|m]]) high, the depth of the platform from which it rises being about 14,000 feet (4267 m) and its height above the sea being upwards of 1,000 feet (305&nbsp;m).
The climate is [[tropical]], with heat and humidity moderated by trade winds. Steep cliffs along much of the coast rise abruptly to a central plateau. Elevation ranges from sea level to 1,184&nbsp;feet (361&nbsp;m) at Murray Hill. The island is mainly tropical [[rainforest]], of which 65% is National Park.
The narrow fringing [[reef]] surrounding the island can be a maritime hazard.
==Flora and fauna==
Christmas Island is of immense scientific value as it was uninhabited until the late [[19th century]], so many unique species of fauna and flora exist which have evolved independently of human interference. Among the best-known is the [[Christmas Island red crab]], which numbered some 100 million on the island as of 2004. Two-thirds of the island has been declared a [[National Park]] which is managed by the [[Australian Department of Environment and Heritage]] through [[Parks Australia]].
The dense [[rainforest]] has evolved in the deep soils of the [[plateau]] and on the terraces. The forests are dominated by 25 tree species. [[Fern]]s, [[orchid]]s & [[vine]]s grow on the branches in the humid atmosphere beneath the [[canopy (forest)|canopy]]. The 135 plant species include 16 which are only found on Christmas Island.
[[Image:Redcrab.JPG|thumb|right|300px|Red Crab]]
The annual [[Christmas Island red crab|red crab]] mass migration (around 100 million animals) to the sea to spawn is one of the wonders of the natural world and takes place each year around [[November]]; after the start of the [[wet season]] and in synchronisation with the cycle of the [[moon]].
The land crabs and sea birds are the most noticeable animals on the island. 20 terrestrial and intertidal crabs (of which 13 are regarded as true land crabs, only dependent on the ocean for larval development) have been described. Robber crabs, known elsewhere as [[coconut crab]]s, also exist in large numbers on the island.
Christmas Island is a focal point for sea birds of various species. Eight species or [[subspecies]] of sea birds nest on the island. The most numerous is the [[Red-footed Booby]] that nests in colonies, in trees, on many parts of the shore terrace. The widespread [[Brown Booby]] nests on the ground near the edge of the seacliff and inland cliffs. [[Abbott's Booby]] (listed as [[endangered]]) nests on tall emergent trees of the western, northern and southern plateau rainforest. The Christmas Island forest is the only nesting habitat of the Abbott's Booby left in the world. The [[endemic (ecology)|endemic]] [[Christmas Island Frigatebird]] (listed as endangered) has nesting areas on the north-eastern shore terraces and the more widespread. [[Greater Frigatebirds]] nest in semi-deciduous trees on the shore terrace with the greatest concentrations being in the North West and South Point areas. The [[Common Noddy]] and two species of bosuns or [[tropicbird]]s with their brilliant gold or silver plumage and distinctive streamer tail feathers also nest on the island. Of the ten native land birds and shorebirds, seven are endemic species or subspecies. Some 76 migrant bird species have been recorded.
==Communications and transportation==
Telephone services are provided by [[Telstra]] and are a part of the Australian network with the same prefix as Western Australia (08). A [[GSM]] mobile telephone system replaced the old analogue network in [[February 2005]]. Four free-to-air television stations from Australia are broadcast (ABC, SBS, GWN and WIN) in the same time-zone as Perth. Radio broadcasts from Australia include ABC Radio National, ABC Regional radio and Red FM. All services are provided by satellit |
on-negative'' (or sometimes ''positive'', even though this terminology conflicts with its use for elements of '''R'''.)
* The set of self-adjoint elements of a C*-algebra ''A'' naturally has the structure of an [[partial order|partially ordered]] [[vector space]]; the ordering is usually denoted &ge;. In this ordering, a self-adjoint element ''x'' of ''A'' satisfies ''x'' &ge; 0 iff ''x'' is non-negative. Two self-adjoint elements ''x'' and ''y'' of ''A'' satisfy ''x'' &ge; ''y'' if ''x'' - ''y'' &ge; 0.
* Any C*-algebra ''A'' has an [[approximate identity]]. In fact, there is a directed family {''e''<sub>&lambda;</sub>}<sub>&lambda; &isin; I</sub> of self-adjoint elements of ''A'' such that
:: <math> x e_\lambda \rightarrow x </math>
:: <math> 0 \leq e_\lambda \leq e_\mu \leq 1\quad \mbox{ whenever } \lambda \leq \mu. </math>
: In case ''A'' is [[separable]], ''A'' has a sequential approximate identity.
== References ==
* [[Alain Connes|A. Connes]], ''Noncommutative geometry'', Academic Press, 1994. This book is widely regarded as a source of new research material, providing much supporting intuition. ISBN 0-121-85860-X
* J. Dixmier, ''Les C*-algèbres et leurs représentations'', Gauthier-Villars, 1969. This is a somewhat dated reference, but is still considered as a high-quality technical exposition. It is available in English from North Holland press.
* G. Emch, ''Algebraic Methods in Statistical Mechanics and Quantum Field Theory'', Wiley-Interscience, 1972. Mathematically rigorous reference which provides extensive physics background.
== See also==
* [[Algebra over a field|algebra]]
* [[associative algebra]]
* [[Star-algebra|* algebra]]
* [[B-star-algebra|B* algebra]]
* [[K-theory]]
[[Category:C*-algebras|*]]
[[Category:Theoretical physics]]
[[de:C*-Algebra]]
[[es:C-estrella-álgebra]]
[[fr:C-étoile-algèbre]]
[[ja:C*-環]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>London Borough of Croydon</title>
<id>7185</id>
<revision>
<id>42109247</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T22:01:49Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Bota47</username>
<id>341052</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>robot Modifying: cs</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">: ''For other places called '''Croydon''' see [[Croydon (disambiguation)]]''
: ''For details of the town of Croydon on which this borough is centered see [[Croydon]]''
{{ Infobox London Borough |
name = London Borough of Croydon |
short_name = Croydon |
imagename = Image:LondonCroydon.png |
status = [[London borough]] |
area_rank = 256th |
area_km2 = 86.52 |
ons_code = 00AH |
population_rank = 9th |
population_year = 2004 |
population_total = 340,200 |
population_density = 3,932 |
ethnicity = 70.2% White<br>13.3% [[British Afro-Caribbean community|Afro-Caribbean]]<br>11.3% [[British Asian|South Asian]]<br>3.1% Mixed<br>2.1% [[British Chinese|Chinese]] |
url = http://www.croydon.gov.uk/ |
leadership = Leader & Cabinet |
mayor = Cllr Maggie Mansell |
executive = [[Labour Party (UK)|Labour]] |
mps = [[Richard Ottaway]]<br>[[Andrew Pelling]]<br>[[Malcolm Wicks]] |
gla_constituency = Croydon and Sutton |
gla_member = [[Andrew Pelling]]
}}
The '''London Borough of Croydon''' is a [[London borough]] in [[South London]] and part of [[Outer London]]. Its area is 34 [[square mile]]s (87 [[km²]]) and it is the largest London borough by population. At its centre is the historic town of [[Croydon]] from which the borough takes its name. Central Croydon is the largest office and retail centre in the south east of England other than central London.
==Status==
The London Borough of Croydon was fomed in [[1965]] from [[Coulsdon and Purley Urban District]] and the [[County Borough of Croydon]]. It is now governed by a [[cabinet-style council]] created in [[2001]].
Croydon unsuccessfully applied for [[City status in the United Kingdom|city status]] in [[2000]] and again in [[2002]]. If successful, it would be the third local authority in [[Greater London]] to hold that status.
==Croydon Council==
The council consists of 70 elected councillors across 24 wards. Since the [[2002]] local elections, the [[Labour Party (UK)|Labour Party]] has controlled the Council with 37 councillors. The [[Conservative Party (UK)|Conservative Party]] has 31 seats and there are two [[Liberal Democrats (UK)|Liberal Democrat]] councillors, one of whom was originally elected as a Conservative. The next elections are to be held in May [[2006]].
Since February 2005, the Leader of Croydon Council has been Labour Councillor [[Tony Newman]], replacing [[Hugh Malyan]]. As a [[cabinet-style council]], the Leader heads a ten person cabinet, responsible for areas such as education or planning. There is a Shadow Cabinet drawn from the Conservative Party, whose leader is Councillor [[Mike Fisher]] since May 2005. A backbench, cross-party scrutiny and overview committee is in place to hold the executive cabinet to account.
[[Image:Arms-croydon-lb.jpg|thumb|200px|Arms of Croydon London Borough Council]]
Some 10,000 people work directly or indirectly for the council, in its main offices in [[Taberner House]] or in its schools, care homes, housing offices or work depots. The council is generally well-regarded, having made important improvements in education and social services. However, there have been concerns over benefits, leisure services and waste collection. Although the council has one of London's lower rates of council tax, there are inevitable claims that it is too high and that resources are wasted.
The London Borough of Croydon is [[town twinning|twinned]] with [[Arnhem]] in the [[Netherlands]]. There is also the [[Guyana]] link supported by the council.
The [[Mayors in the United Kingdom|Mayor of Croydon]] for 2005 to [[2006]] is Councillor [[Maggie Mansell]].
===History===
:''See also [[Croydon local elections]]''
For much of its history, Croydon Council was controlled by the Conservative Party or conservative-leaning independents. The Labour Party became the majority party in [[1994]].
Former Croydon councillors include [[Geraint Davies]] MP, [[London Assembly]] member [[Valerie Shawcross]], [[Peter Spencer Bowness|Lord Peter Bowness]], [[Reg Prentice]] and [[H.T. Muggeridge]], father of [[Malcolm Muggeridge]]. The first Mayor of the newly-created [[London Borough]] was [[Jabez Balfour]], later a disgraced [[Member of Parliament]]. Current Conservative Director of Operations, [[Gavin Barwell]], has been a Croydon councillor since [[1998]].
===Croydon Town Hall===
Croydon Town Hall is found on Katharine Street in central Croydon and houses the committee rooms, the mayor and other councillors' offices, electoral services and the arts and heritage services.
[[Image:CroydonTownHall.jpg|right|thumb|Croydon's Victorian Town Hall|250px]]
The present Town Hall is Croydon's third. The first town hall is thought to have been built in either [[1566]] or [[1609]]. The second was built in [[1808]] to serve the growing town but was demolished after the present town hall was erected in [[1895]].
The present town hall was designed by local architect [[Charles Henman]] and was officially opened by the Prince and [[Queen Alexandra|Princess of Wales]] on [[19 May]] [[1896]]. It was constructed in red brick, sourced from [[Wrotham]] in [[Kent]], with [[Portland Stone]] dressings and green [[Westmoreland]] [[slate]]s for the roof. It also housed the court and most central council employees.
Parts, including the former court rooms, have been converted for museum and exhibition galleries. The original public library is now a cinema, part of the [[Croydon Clocktower]]. The Braithwaite Hall is used for events and performances. The town hall was renovated in the mid-1990s and the imposing central staircase, long closed to the public and kept for councillors only, was re-opened in 1994. The civic complex, meanwhile, was substantially added to, with buildings across Mint Walk and the 19-floor Taberner House to house the rapidly expanding corporation's employees.
===Taberner House===
[[Image:CroydonTabHouse.jpg|right|thumb|Croydon Council's Taberner House offices|200px]]
Taberner House was built between 1964 and 1967, designed by the architect H Thornley, with Allan Holt and Hugh Lea as borough engineers. Although the council had needed extra space since the 1920s, it was only with the imminent creation of the London Borough of Croydon that action was taken. The building is in classic [[1960s]] style, praised at the time but subsequently much derided. It has its elegant upper slab block narrowing towards both ends, a formal device which has been compared to the famous [[Pirelli Building]] of [[Milan]]. It was named after Ernest Taberner OBE, Town Clerk from 1937 to 1963.
Taberner House now houses most of the council's central employees and its 'one-stop shop' is the main location for the public to access information and services, particularly with respect to housing.
=== Leading figures ===
* Leader - Cllr Tony Newman
* Deputy Leader - Cllr Paula Shaw
* Chief Executive - David Wechsler
== Districts ==
The borough includes the following areas:
[[Image:Purley Council Office.jpg|right|200px|thumb|The offices of the now-defunct Coulsdon and Purley Urban District Council]]
*[[Addington, London, England|Addington]]
*[[Addiscombe]]
*[[Broad Green]]
*[[Coombe, Croydon|Coombe]]
*[[Coulsdon]]
*[[Croydon]] - the principal area
*[[Forestdale, Croydon|Forestdale]]
*[[Hamsey Green]]
*[[Kenley]]
*[[New Addington]]
*[[Norbury]]
*[[Purley, London|Purley]]
*[[Sanderstead]]
*[[Selhurst]]
*[[Selsdon]]
*[[Shirley, London, En |
[bear]]s. However, the witnesses include experienced hunters and outdoorsmen, who claim to be familiar with bears, and insist that the creatures they saw were not bears. Biologist [[John Bindernagel]] argues there are marked differences between bears and Sasquatch reports that make confusion unlikely: "In profile, the bear's prominent snout is markedly different from the Sasquatch flat face. In frontal view, the Sasquatch squarish shoulders contrast with the bear's tapered shoulders. The Sasquatch has relatively long legs that allow for a graceful stride, in contrast with the short-legged shuffles of a bear when it walks on its hind legs. A bear's ears are usually visible, while those of the Sasquatch are apparently hidden under long hair" [http://www.rfthomas.clara.net/papers/binder.html]. Krantz made similar arguments (Krantz, 5).
===Problems with eyewitness reports===
As previously mentioned, Bigfoot sightings are near the habitats of bears, including the [[grizzly bear]]. Bears are large and furry and often stand up on their hind legs, leading to speculation that Bigfoot witnesses mistook bears for something more exotic.
It has also been suggested that the number of people reporting Bigfoot sightings could be explained by hoaxes or "confusion" about what they really encountered. Similarly, Napier wrote that however accurate and sincere witnesses might seem, "eyewitness reports must be treated with considerable caution ... Although we don't always know what we see, we tend to see what we know" (Napier, 19). He also adds, "without checking possible (ulterior) motivations, they (eyewitnesses) cannot be acceptable as primary data" (ibid, 198).
Bigfoot researchers claim that there are many sightings that pre-date the worldwide interest in the subject. It has, however, been suggested that such stories were either not reported until afterwards, or have little or no resemblance to typical Bigfoot sightings; researchers may be misinterpreting or selectively citing these accounts to support their own conclusions.
===Native American culture===
There are various Native American artifacts presented as circumstantial evidence for the existence of Sasquatch.
====Stone heads====
Pyle writes, "Certain artifacts suggest that some Amerindians were acquainted with ''something'' having the visage of an [[ape]]," and adds: "several carved stone heads from the [[Columbia River]] basin" (Pyle, 146). Pyle also notes that prominent paleontologist [[Othniel Charles Marsh]] wrote in 1877, "Among the many stone carvings (from the Columbia) were a number of heads, which so strongly resemble those of apes that the likeness at once presents itself" (ibid). Furthermore, the stone carvings are prehistoric (a conclusion supported by B. Robert Butler, who determined the heads as dating from [[Wakemap Middle Period]], 1500 BC to 200 AD (Halpin and Ames, 299), depicting "prognathous, chinless faces with heavy brow ridges and in at least one case a sagittal crest." Pyle adds, "relics do not prove that Bigfoot exists or that they (natives) had contact with apes, but they do raise some uncomfortable questions" (Ibid, 146).
These artifacts are discussed at length by anthropologist [[Roderick Sprague]] in ''Carved Stone Heads of the Columbia and Sasquatch''. Dozens of similar stone heads were recovered and most depict common animals. Sprague examines seven carved heads, which he argues have distinctively monkey- or ape-like features. Like Pyle, Sprague notes that this does not necessarily support Bigfoot's existence, but Sprague sees the question of what inspired the carved stone heads as intriguing and unresolved.
====Face masks====
In ''The Tsimshian Monkey Masks and Sasquatch'', anthropologist and ethnologist Marjorie Halpin describes two wood facemasks that were collected from the [[Tsimshian]] and [[Nisga'a]] tribes (near [[Prince Rupert, British Columbia]]). One was obtained by Lieutenant G.T. Eammons in about 1914, and the other was obtained by C.M. Barbes in 1927.
Eammons described the artifact as "a mythical being found in the [[woodland|woods]], and called today as a [[monkey]]" (Haplin and Ames, 211). Halpin also reports that physical anthropolgist R.D.E. MacPhee examined the Eammons mask and noted that it had both monkey- and ape-like features, but could not match it exactly to any recognized species (ibid, 212). Halpin details the elaborate mask-related folklore and rites pertaining to a creature called "pi'kis," which has both human and animal traits (especially connected to [[otter]]s). He also describes the creature as occupying a "dangerously close intersection between human and animal" in native lore (ibid, 225). As with the carved stone heads, Halpin notes that these monkey-like masks alone do not prove that Sasquatch are real; rather, they are curious artifacts which warrant further investigation.
===Problems with Native American culture as evidence===
Jerome Clark offers a skeptical perspective of Native American legends which are sometimes presented as evidence to support Bigfoot's existence, writing: "...such beliefs are usually taken out of context and selectively cited ... Comparable monsters loom large in a number of North American Indian mythologies; they warn members of violating [[taboo]]s and serve other, more complex functions within tribal societies" (Clark, 28).
In the article, "On the Cultural Track of Sasquatch", Wayne Suttles offers a detailed examination of such legends, cited from various Pacific northwest tribes, including tales from the [[Salish]], [[Lummi]], [[Samish]] and [[Klallam]] peoples. Suttles confirms the often-repeated observation that none of the groups makes "real/mythical or natural/supernatural dichotomy" (Sprague and Krantz, 43). However, Suttles concludes that rather than being inspired by a real creature, "It seems more likely that these beliefs have grown out of several sources and have been maintained in several ways. One of the sources may have been a real man-like animal. But I must reluctantly admit that as I have presented data and organized arguments, I have found its track getting fainter and fainter" (ibid, 71).
===Physical evidence===
Bigfoot researchers make numerous claims that there is physical evidence for the creature's existence. Such evidence has seen, at best, minimal and scattered interest from mainstream experts, and are regarded as far from conclusive.
====Footprints====
<!-- Unsourced image removed: [[Image:Bigfoot footprint.jpg|frame|right|A 40 to 50 cm imprint discovered in [[Mawai]], [[Kota Tinggi]], [[Johor]], which is alleged to be a footprint.]] -->
=====Forensics=====
[[Photograph]]s or plaster casts of presumed Sasquatch footprints are often cited by cryptozoologists as important evidence. Krantz writes that "the push-off mound in midfootprint is one of the most impressive pieces of evidence to me" (Krantz, 36). This is a small mound of soil created "by a horizontal push of the forefoot just before it leaves the ground", present in some alleged Sasquatch tracks (ibid). Krantz argues that neither artificial wood nor rubber Sasquatch feet can create this convincing feature, as he discovered after many attempts.
Krantz notes, "The comfortable walking step for humans is about half the individual's standing height, or a trace more. Sasquatch step measurements correspond, in general, to stature estimates that are reported from sightings" (Krantz, 22). Krantz also reports that reputed Sasquatch steps are "in excess of three feet" (Krantz, 21), arguing that this enormous step would be difficult or impossible for hoaxers to create artificially.
Coleman and Clark write that there are some footprint hoaxes, but argue that they are often clumsy in comparison to presumably genuine prints, which "show distinctive [[Forensics|forensic]] features that to investigators indicate they are not fakes" (Coleman and Clark, 42). Similarly, Krantz notes, "Toe positions can and do vary from one imprint to another of the same foot. We have several clear examples of this. It is my impression that sasquatch toes are more mobile than those on civilized human feet," and that hoaxing this detail would require detailed anatomical knowledge, as well as dozens or hundreds of different casts for each set of Bigfoot tracks, making a hoax unlikely (Krantz, 23).
=====Gaussian curve=====
Researcher Henry Franzoni writes, "A strong piece of evidence which suggests that the footprints are not due to a hoax or hoaxers is from Dr. W. Henner Farenbach. He has studied a database of 550 track cast length measurements and has made some preliminary observations... The [[Gaussian]] distribution of the 550 footprint lengths gives a curve that is very similar to the curve given by living populations of known animals without much [[sexual dimorphism]] in footprint length. The standard error is very low, so additions to the database will not affect the result very much. It is not very likely that coordinated groups of hoaxers conspiring together for 38 years (the time span covered by the database of track measurements) could provide such a 'life-like' distribution in footprint lengths. Groups of hoaxers who did not conspire together would almost certainly result in a non-Gaussian distribution for the database of footprint lengths" [http://www.rfthomas.clara.net/papers/faq.html#q1].
Similarly, in ''Population Clines of the North American Sasquatch as Evidenced by Track Length and Average Status'', anthropologist George Gill writes, "The preliminary results of our study support the hypothesis that Sasquatch actually exists ... not only seem to exist, but conform to ecogeographical rules" (Halpin and Ames, 272).
=====Deformity=====
A series of a |
ems provided by the Nag Hammadi codices need hardly be noted.
Of greatest difficulty was the fact that, prior to the publication of the codices, theological investigators, in order to proceed, could not help but to subscribe at least in part to the view of the heresiologists that gnosticism marked a heretical deviation from a fully-formed orthodox Christianity in the three centuries immediately following Christ's death. The availability of original texts not only allowed an unsullied transmission of gnostic ideas, but also demonstrated the fluidity of early Christian scripture and, by extension, Christianity itself. As Layton notes 'the lack of uniformity in ancient Christian scripture in the early period is very striking, and it points to the substantial diversity within the Christian religion' (Layton, ''The Gnostic Scriptures'', xviii).
Thus, although it is still correct to speak of early Christianity as a single tradition, it is also a complex network of competing sects and individual parties, which express their contrasting natures through differences in their scriptural interests. These differences may have arisen as much from differences in [[culture|cultural]], [[linguistics|linguistic]] and [[social]] milieus, the coexistence of essentially different theological conceptions of [[Jesus Christ|Jesus]], as well as the differences in the philosophical or symbolic systems in which early Christian writers might express themselves. As such, the Nag Hammadi library offers a glimpse of the set of circulating texts that would have been of interest within a 'Gnostic' community (rather than as a gnostic ''[[wiktionary:canon|canon]]'' in and of itself) and thus potentially provides an insight into the gnostic mind itself.
It was with the [[Council of Nicaea]] in [[325]] (convened during the reign of the [[Constantine I (emperor)|Emperor Constantine]]; [[272]]&ndash;[[337]]) and the [[Synods of Carthage|3rd Synod of Carthage]] in [[397]], which progressively cemented Christianity as the officially sanctioned religion of the [[Roman Empire]], that a structurally coherent and crystallized form of orthodox Christianity began to emerge. Central to the formation of orthodoxy was the creation of a binding and coherent scriptural 'canon', which was to be strictly observed by the adherents of that church. The Nag Hammadi library offers an intriguing source of texts whose intended ''exclusion'' as much drove the formation of the orthodox canon as did the desire to include certain other texts, now well-known. 'Orthodox Christian doctrine of the ancient world - and thus of the modern church - was partly conceived of as being what gnostic scripture was ''not''' (Layton, ''The Gnostic Scriptures''; emphasis writer's own). Thus a study of Gnostic scripture might also obliquely increase our knowledge of nascent orthodoxy, the intentions of the orthodox formulators, the effect of social setting on early Christian expression, and the Judaic foundations it rests upon.
==History==
===The development of the Syrian-Egyptian school===
[[Bentley Layton]] has sketched out a relationship between the various gnostic movements in his introduction to ''The Gnostic Scriptures'' (SCM Press, London, [[1987]]). In this model, 'Classical Gnosticism' and 'The School of Thomas' antedated and influenced the development of [[Valentinus]], who was to found his own school of Gnosticism in both [[Alexandria]] and [[Rome]], whom Layton called 'the great [Gnostic] reformer' and 'the focal point' of Gnostic development. While in Alexandria, where he was born, Valentinus probably would have had contact with the Gnostic teacher [[Basilides]], and may have been influenced by him.
Valentinianism flourished throughout the early centuries of the common era: while Valentinus himself lived from ''[[Circa|ca]]''. [[100]]&ndash;[[175]] [[Common Era|CE]], a list of sectarians or heretics, composed in [[388]] [[Common Era|CE]], against whom Emperor Constantine intended legislation includes Valentinus (and, presumably, his inheritors). The school is also known to have been extremely popular: several varieties of their central myth are known, and we know of 'reports from outsiders from which the intellectual liveliness of the group is evident' (Markschies, ''Gnosis: An Introduction'', 94). It is known that Valentinus' students, in further evidence of their intellectual activity, elaborated upon the teachings and materials they received from him (though the exact extent of their changes remains unknown), for example, in the version of the Valentinian myth brought to us through [[Ptolemy]].
Valentinianism might be described as the most elaborate and philosophically 'dense' form of the Syrian-Egyptian schools of Gnosticism, though it should be acknowledged that this in no way debarred other schools from attracting followers: Basilides' own school was popular also, and survived in [[Egypt]] until the 4th century.
Simone Petrement, in ''A Separate God'', in arguing for a Christian origin of Gnosticism, places Valentinus after Basilides, but before the Sethians. It is her assertion that Valentinus represented a moderation of the anti-Judaism of the earlier Hellenized teachers; the demiurge, widely regarded to be a mythological depiction of the Old Testament God of the Hebrews, is depicted as more ignorant than evil. (See below.)
[[Image:Manicheans.jpg|thumb|250px|Manichean priests writing at their desks, with panel inscription in [[Sogdian language|Sogdian]]. Manuscript from Khocho, [[Tarim Basin]].]]
===The development of the Persian school===
An alternate heritage is offered by [[Kurt Rudolph]] in his book ''Gnosis: The Nature & Structure of Gnosticism'' (Koehler and Amelang, [[Leipzig]], [[1977]]), to explain the lineage of Persian Gnostic schools. The decline of [[Manicheism]] that occurred in Persia in the 5th century [[Common Era|CE]] was too late to prevent the spread of the movement into the east and the west. In the west, the teachings of the school moved into [[Syria]], [[Arabia|Northern Arabia]], [[Egypt]] and [[Africa|North Africa]] (where [[Augustine]] was a member of school from [[373]]-[[382]]); from Syria it progressed still farther, into [[Palestine]], [[Asia Minor]] and [[Armenia]]. There is evidence for Manicheans in Rome and [[Dalmatia]] in the 4th century, and also in [[Gaul]] and [[Spain]]. The influence of Manicheanism was attacked by imperial elects and polemical writings, but the religion remained prevalent until the 6th century, and still exerted influence in the emergence of the [[Paulicians]], [[Bogomil]]s and [[Cathars|Cathari]] in the middle ages.
In the east, Rudolph relates, Manicheanism was able to bloom, given that the religious monopoly position previously held by Christianity and [[Zoroastrianism]] had been broken by nascent [[Islam]]. In the early years of the Arab conquest, Manicheanism again found followers in Persia (mostly amongst educated circles), but flourished most in [[Central Asia]], to which it had spread through Iran. Here, in [[762]], Manicheanism became the state religion of the [[Uigar Empire]]. From this point Manichean influence spread even further into Central Asia, and according to Rudolph its influence may be detected in [[Tibet]] and [[China]], where it was strongly opposed by [[Confucianism]], and its followers were subject to a number of bloody repressions. Rudolph reports that despite this suppression Manichean traditions are reputed to have survived until the 17th century (based on the reports of [[Portugal|Portuguese]] sailors).
==Nature and Structure of Gnosticism==
===A typological model: the main features of gnosticism===
Though difficulties have arisen in offering a definitive, categorical definition of Gnosticism (see [[#'Gnosticism' as a potentially flawed category|below]]), various strategies have been employed in overcoming the problem, with varying degrees of success. It is therefore appropriate to offer a typological model of those ancient philosophical movements typically called Gnostic; the model offered is adapted from [[Christoph Markschies]]' version, as described in ''Gnosis: An Introduction''.
Gnostic systems are typically marked by:
#The notion of a remote, supreme and unknowable [[monad|monadic]] divinity - this figure is known under a variety of names, including '[[Pleroma]]' and '[[Bythos]]' (Greek 'deep');
#The introduction by emanation of further divine beings, which are nevertheless identifiable as aspects of the God from which they proceeded; the progressive emanations are often conceived metaphorically as a gradual and progressive distancing from the ultimate source, which brings about an instability in the fabric of the divine nature;
#The subsequent identification of the fall as an occurrence within divinity itself, rather than as occurring entirely through human agency; this stage in the divine emanation is usually enacted through the recurrent Gnostic figure of [[Sophia]] (Greek 'Wisdom'), whose presence in a wide variety of Gnostic texts is indicative of her central importance;
#The introduction of a distinct creator god, who is named as in the Platonist tradition ''demiurgos''.<br>Evidence exists that the conception of the [[demiurge]] has derivation from figures in Plato's ''[[Timaeus]]'' and ''[[Republic]]''. In the former, the demiurge is the benevolent creator of the universe from pre-existent matter, to whose limitations he is enthralled in creating the cosmos; in the latter, the description of the leontomorphic 'desire' in [[Socrates]]' model of the [[psyche]] bears a strong resemblance to descriptions of the demiurge as being in the shape of the lion.<br>Elsewhere this figure is called '[[Demiurge|Ialdabaoth]]', 'Samael' ([[Aramaic]] ''sæmʕa-ʔel'', 'blind god') or 'Saklas' ([[Syriac]] ''sækla'', 'the foolish one'), who is sometimes ignorant of the superior God, and sometimes opposed to it; thus in the latter c |
is overvalued and does not discover any absolute truths (Wittgenstein 1932/1976).
== Cryptanalysis ==
[[Image:Bombe-rebuild.jpg|thumbnail|300px|Replica of a bombe machine]]
During [[World War II]], Turing was a major participant in the efforts at [[Bletchley Park]] to break German ciphers. Turing's codebreaking work was kept secret until the [[1970s]]; not even his close friends knew about it. He contributed several mathematical insights into breaking both the [[Enigma machine]] and the [[Lorenz SZ 40/42]] (a teletype cipher attachment codenamed "Tunny" by the British), and was, for a time, head of Hut 8, the section responsible for reading German Naval signals.
[[Image:Turing_flat.jpg|thumb|240px|left|Two cottages in the stable yard at Bletchley Park. Turing worked here from 1939&ndash;1940 until he moved to Hut 8.]]
Since September 1938, Turing had been recruited to work part-time for the [[Government Code and Cypher School]]. Turing reported to [[Bletchley Park]] when war was declared in September 1939. To break Enigma, Turing devised an electromechanical machine which searched for the correct settings of the Enigma rotors.
The machine was called the [[bombe]], named after the Polish-designed ''[[Bomba (cryptography)|bomba]]''. Using a bombe, it was possible to ignore the effect of the Enigma plugboard and consider the settings of its rotors alone, and eliminate most of them from consideration. For each possible setting, a chain of logical deductions was implemented electrically, and it was possible to detect when a contradiction had occurred and rule out that setting. Turing's bombe was first installed on [[18 March]] [[1940]], and, with an enhancement suggested by mathematician [[Gordon Welchman]], was the primary tool used to read Enigma traffic. Over 200 bombes were in operation by the end of the war.
In December 1940, Turing solved the naval Enigma indicator system, which was more complex than the indicator systems used by the other services. Turing also invented a [[Bayesian]] statistical technique termed "[[Banburismus]]" to assist in breaking Naval Enigma. Banburismus could rule out certain orders of the Enigma rotors, reducing time needed to test settings on the bombes. Against the Lorenz cipher, Turing devised a technique termed ''Turingismus'' or ''Turingery'', although other methods were also used.
In the spring of 1941, Turing proposed marriage to fellow Hut 8 co-worker [[Joan Clarke]], although the engagement was broken off by mutual agreement in the summer.
In late November 1942, Turing visited the US to work on [[secure speech]] devices and Naval Enigma, returning in March 1943. During his absence, [[Conel Hugh O'Donel Alexander|Hugh Alexander]] had assumed the position of head of Hut 8, although Alexander had been ''de facto'' head for some time, Turing having little interest in the day-to-day running of the section. Turing became a general consultant for cryptanalysis at Bletchley Park.
In the latter part of the war, teaching himself electronics at the same time, Turing undertook (assisted by engineer [[Donald Bayley]]) the design of a portable machine codenamed ''[[Delilah (secure speech)|Delilah]]'' to allow [[secure voice]] communications. Intended for different applications, Delilah lacked capability for use with long-distance radio transmissions, and was completed too late to be used in the war. Though Turing demonstrated it to officials by encrypting/decrypting a recording of a [[Winston Churchill]] speech, Delilah was not adopted for use.
In 1945, Turing was awarded the [[Order of the British Empire|OBE]] for his sterling wartime services.
== Early computers and the Turing Test ==
[[Image:Turingrunning.jpeg|frame|left|Turing achieved world-class [[Marathon (sport)|Marathon]] standards. His best time of 2 hours, 46 minutes, 3 seconds, was only 11 minutes slower than the winner in the [[1948 Summer Olympics|1948 Olympic Games]].]]
From 1945 to 1947 he was at the [[National Physical Laboratory]], where he worked on the design of [[ACE (computer)|ACE]] (Automatic Computing Engine). He presented a paper on February 19, 1946, which was the first complete design of a [[Von Neumann architecture|stored-program computer]]. Although he succeeded in designing the ACE, there were delays in starting the project and he became disillusioned. In late 1947 he returned to Cambridge for a 'sabbatical' year. While he was at Cambridge, work on building the ACE stopped before it was ever begun. In 1949 he became deputy director of the computing laboratory at the [[Victoria University of Manchester|University of Manchester]], and worked on software for one of the earliest true computers &mdash; the [[Manchester Mark I]]. During this time he continued to do more abstract work, and in "[[Computing machinery and intelligence]]" (Mind, October 1950), Turing addressed the problem of [[artificial intelligence]], and proposed an experiment now known as the [[Turing test]], an attempt to define a standard for a machine to be called "sentient".
In 1948, Turing, working with his former undergraduate colleague, [[D.G. Champernowne]], began writing a chess program for a computer that did not yet exist. In 1952, lacking a computer powerful enough to execute the program, Turing played a game in which he simulated the computer, taking about half an hour per move. [http://www.chessgames.com/perl/chessgame?gid=1356927 The game] was recorded; the program lost to a colleague of Turing, [[Alick Glennie]], however, it is said that the program won a game against Champernowne's wife.
== Pattern formation and mathematical biology ==
Turing worked from 1952 until his death in 1954 on [[mathematical biology]], specifically [[morphogenesis]]. He published one paper on the subject called "The Chemical Basis of Morphogenesis" in 1952. His central interest in the field was understanding [[Leonardo of Pisa|Fibonacci]] phyllotaxis, the existence of [[Fibonacci number]]s in plant structures. He used reaction-diffusion equations which are now central to the field of [[pattern formation]]. Later papers went unpublished until 1992 when ''Collected Works of A.M. Turing'' was published.
== Prosecution for homosexuality and Turing's death ==
Turing was a homosexual man during a period when homosexuality was illegal. In 1952, his lover, Arnold Murray, helped an accomplice to break into Turing's house, and Turing went to the police to report the crime. As a result of the police investigation, Turing acknowledged a sexual relationship with Murray, and they were charged with gross indecency under [[Criminal_Law_Amendment_Act_of_1885#Section_11|Section 11]] of the Criminal Law Amendment Act of 1885. Turing was unrepentant and was convicted. Although he could have been sent to prison, he was placed on probation, conditional on him undergoing [[hormone|hormonal]] [[chemical castration|treatment]] designed to reduce [[libido]]. He accepted the [[estrogen|oestrogen]] hormone injections, which lasted for a year, with side effects including the [[gynecomastia|development of breasts]]. His conviction led to a removal of his security clearance and prevented him from continuing consultancy for [[GCHQ]] on cryptographic matters.
In 1954, he died of [[cyanide]] [[poisoning]], apparently from a cyanide-laced apple he left half-eaten. The apple itself was never tested for contamination with cyanide, and cyanide poisoning as a cause of death was established by a post-mortem. Most believe that his death was intentional, and the death was ruled a [[suicide]]. It is rumoured that this method of self-poisoning was in tribute to Turing's beloved film ''[[Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs (1937 film)|Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs]]''. His mother, however, strenuously argued that the ingestion was accidental due to his careless storage of laboratory chemicals. Friends of his have said that Turing may have killed himself in this ambiguous way quite deliberately, to give his mother some plausible deniability. The possibility of assassination has also been suggested, owing to Turing's involvement in the secret service and the perception of Turing as a security risk due to his homosexuality.
In the book, ''Zeroes and Ones'', author [[Sadie Plant]] speculates that the [[rainbow]] [[Apple Computer#Logo|Apple logo]] with a bite taken out of it was an homage to Turing. This seems to be an [[urban legend]] as the Apple logo was designed in 1976, two years before Gilbert Baker's [[rainbow flag|rainbow pride flag]].
:''See also'': [[Sodomy law]], [[:Category:LGBT civil rights]]
== Recognition ==
Since 1966, the [[Turing Award]] has been given by the [[Association for Computing Machinery]] to a person for technical contributions to the computing community. It is widely considered to be the equivalent of the [[Nobel Prize]] in the computing world.
In 1994 a stretch of the [[Manchester]] city ring road was named Alan Turing Way.
On [[23 June]] [[1998]], on what would have been Turing's 86th birthday, [[Andrew Hodges]], his biographer, unveiled an official [[English Heritage]] [[Blue Plaque]] on his childhood home in Warrington Crescent, [[London]], now the Colonnade hotel [http://www.turing.org.uk/bio/oration.html], [http://www.blueplaque.com/detail.php?plaque_id=348].
[[Image:Alan Turing Memorial Closer.jpg|left|thumbnail|200px|Alan Turing memorial statue in Sackville Park]]
A [[Alan Turing Memorial|statue of Turing]] was unveiled in [[Manchester]]
<!-- by [[English Heritage]] I am unsure whether this is true or not - the sculptor who made the statute was commissioned by the Alan Turing Memorial Fund
Seek http://www.btinternet.com/~glynhughes/sculpture/turing.htm -->
on [[June 23]] [[2001]]. It is in [[Sackville Park]], between the [[University of Manchester]] building on Whitworth Street and the [[Canal Street, Manchester|Canal Street]] [[gay village]]. To mark the 50th anniversary |
the work was when Carey sang it during a dinner in [[1740]] in honour of [[Admiral]] [[Edward Vernon]] who had captured the [[Spain|Spanish]] harbour of [[Porto Bello]] (then in [[Colombia]], now [[Panama]]) during the [[War of Jenkins' Ear]].
Scholes recommends the attribution; "traditional" or "traditional; earliest known version by John Bull (1562-1628)". The ''[[English Hymnal]]'' (musical editor [[Ralph Vaughan Williams]]) gives no attribution, stating merely "17th or 18th cent.".
Traditionally, the first performance was thought to have been in [[1745]], when it was sung in support of [[George II of Great Britain|George II]] after the defeat of his army at the [[Battle of Prestonpans]] by the [[Jacobitism|Jacobite]] claimant to the British throne, [[Bonnie Prince Charlie]], whose forces were mostly Scottish. To express this support verse 6 was added, but as its call to crush the rebels now suggests an anti-Scottish sentiment it is rarely (if ever) sung nowadays.
[[Joseph Haydn]] was impressed by the use of ''God Save the King'' as a national anthem during his visit to [[London]] in [[1794]], and on his return to [[Austria]] wrote a tune to the national anthem, the ''[[Gott erhalte Franz den Kaiser|God Save Emperor Franz]]'' (''Gott erhalte Franz den Kaiser''), for the birthday of the [[Francis II, Holy Roman Emperor|Emperor Franz of Austria]]. The tune of ''God Save the King'' was later adopted for the Prussian national anthem ''Heil Dir im Siegerkranz''.
==Use in the Commonwealth==
It was formerly used as a national anthem by most of the [[Commonwealth Realm]]s, including [[Australia]], [[Canada]], and [[Jamaica]]. It has since been replaced by ''[[Advance Australia Fair]]'', ''[[O Canada]]'', and ''[[Jamaica, Land We Love]]'' respectively, though it remains those countries' [[royal anthem]] and is played during formal ceremonies involving the Royalty or viceroyalty ([[Governor-General|Governors-General]], [[Governor]]s, and [[Lieutenant-Governor]]s&mdash;see [[Vice Regal Salute]]); in Canada, ''[[God Save the Queen]]'' is sometimes sung together with ''[[O Canada]]'' at public events. It continues to be recognised as the national anthem of [[New Zealand]], together with ''[[God Defend New Zealand]]'', although it is almost never performed as such. It is also the former national anthem of [[Republic of Ireland|Ireland]], replaced in the 1920s by ''[[Amhrán na bhFiann]]'' (in English, ''The Soldier's Song'').
==Use elsewhere==
''God Save the Queen'' was the very first song to be used as a national anthem (although the [[Netherlands]]' national anthem, the ''[[Wilhelmus]]'', is actually older), and its tune was either used as or officially adopted as the national anthem for several other countries, including those of [[Germany]] (unofficial), [[Russia]] (until [[1833]]), [[Sweden]] and [[Switzerland]].
In Australia it is more common to sing "'''God Save our Sausages'''" because of the nation's preoccupation with the backyard barbecue.
It is also the melody to the popular [[United States]] [[patriotic song]] ''[[My Country, 'Tis of Thee]]''. The tune is also used as [[Norway]]'s [[Royal anthem]] entitled ''[[Kongesangen]]''. The rock band [[Queen (band)|Queen]] played ''God Save the Queen'' at the end of all of their concerts.
The tune is still used as the national anthem of [[Liechtenstein]]. This was a source of embarrassment to Winter Olympic officials in 1980 when [[Hanni Wenzel]] won this country's first gold medal ever, and they had no record of her country's national anthem. There was also an amusing incident when [[England national football team|England]] met [[Liechtenstein national football team|Liechtenstein]] in a [[2004 European Football Championship|Euro 2004]] qualifier, which necessitated the same tune being played twice.
The melody of ''God Save the Queen'' is used in Christianity as well. The [[United Methodist Church|United Methodist]]s of the southern United States, Mexico, and Latin America play the same melody as a hymn.
==Other UK anthems==
Frequently, when an anthem is needed for one of the component countries of the UK &mdash; at an international sporting event, for instance &mdash; an alternate song is used:
* [[Wales]] has its own recognised anthem in ''[[Hen Wlad Fy Nhadau]]'' (''Land of My Fathers'');
* [[Scotland]] uses either ''[[Flower of Scotland]]'' or ''[[Scotland the Brave]]'', or traditionally ''[[Scots Wha Hae]]'';
* England generally uses ''God Save the Queen'', but has used ''[[And did those feet in ancient time|Jerusalem]]'' or ''[[Land of Hope and Glory]]''.
* [[Northern Ireland]] generally uses ''God Save the Queen'' at events associated with the British tradition, and the Irish national anthem ''[[Amhrán na bhFiann]]'' at events associated with the Irish tradition. Additionally, ''[[Londonderry Air]]'' is a popular cross-community anthem.
* At international [[football (soccer)|football]] matches, England and Northern Ireland both use ''God Save the Queen'', while Scotland uses ''Flower of Scotland'', and Wales uses ''Hen Wlad Fy Nhadau''. There has been some debate about replacing ''God Save the Queen'' with ''Jerusalem'' for England matches.
* At international [[rugby league]] matches, England uses ''Land of Hope and Glory'' while Scotland uses ''Flower of Scotland'' and Wales uses ''Hen Wlad Fy Nhadau''. At Great Britain matches, ''God Save the Queen'' is played, which recently led to Irish-born [[Brian Carney]] bowing his head and not singing along.
* In international [[rugby union]], England uses ''God Save the Queen'', Scotland ''Flower of Scotland'' and Wales ''Hen Wlad Fy Nhadau''. Ireland (a team representing both [[Northern Ireland]] and the [[Republic of Ireland]]) sing ''[[Ireland's Call]]'', a song which attempts to unite the two traditions on the island.
* Recently the [[British and Irish Lions]] rugby union tour used the song ''[[The Power of Four]]'' but this anthem was especially designed for the tour and will likely not be used again, perhaps because most of the players did not know the anthem. There is actually no collective anthem for Britain and Ireland since the Republic of Ireland has been independent from the United Kingdom since 1920.
* [[The Song of the Western Men]] has popularly been considered to be the Cornish national anthem and is sung at rugby matches and events such as [[Saint Perran]]'s day or at the end of concerts. However some [[Cornish nationalists]] argue that [[Bro Goth Agan Tasow]] which is in [[Cornish language|Cornish]] rather than English should be adopted.
==Performance==
The style of performance most commonly heard in official performances was that proposed as the "proper interpretation" by [[George V of the United Kingdom|King George V]], who considered himself something of an expert, in view of the number of times he had heard it played. An Army Order was duly issued, in 1933, which laid down regulations for tempo, dynamics and orchestration. This included instructions such as that the opening "six bars will be played quietly by the reed band with horns and basses in a single phrase. Cornets and side-drum are to be added at the little scale-passage leading into the second half of the tune, and the full brass enters for the last eight bars". The official tempo for the opening section is a metronome setting of 60, with the second part played in a broader manner, at a metronome setting of 52{{fn|2}}.
This slow and sombre pace can sound dreary to those having more modern tastes than George V, and more recent performances sometimes use a faster and livelier [[tempo]] to reduce the dreary effect. Comedian [[Billy Connolly]] performed a sketch broadcast on TV comparing the UK's slow tune to the lively ones of many other nations and suggested that it should be replaced by the theme tune to ''[[The Archers]]''.
So far, [[Parliament of the United Kingdom|Parliament]] has declined to take action.
At the end of theatre performances the audience was expected to stand to attention while the anthem was played. In cinemas this brought a tendency for audiences to rush out while the credits played at the end of the film to avoid this formality.
The anthem was traditionally played at closedown on the [[BBC]] and with the introduction of commercial television to the UK this practice was adopted by some [[ITV]] regions. [[BBC Two]] never played the anthem at closedown, and ITV dropped the practice in the late 1980s, but it continued on [[BBC One]] until [[8 November]] [[1997]], and is still done on [[BBC Radio 4]].
The rock band [[Queen (band)|Queen]] put a version of ''God Save the Queen'' on their [[1975 in music|1975]] album ''[[A Night at the Opera (album)|A Night at the Opera]]''. During the Queen's [[Golden Jubilee]] [[pop music|pop]] concert at [[Buckingham Palace]] on [[4 June]] [[2002]], [[Brian May]] performed the anthem on electric [[guitar]] from the Palace's roof.
The Broadway musical ''[[West Side Story]]'' ([[1957]]) also features the Jets (a street gang of Polish-Americans) whistling the first six [[bar (music)|bars]] of ''My Country 'Tis of Thee'', which has the same tune as ''God Save the Queen''.
In 1970, the rock band ''Gentle Giant'' put a version of ''God save the Queen'' on their album ''Gentle Giant''.
==Lyrics==
The United Kingdom version is as follows:
"God save our gracious Queen,
Long live our noble Queen:
God save the Queen.
Send her victorious,
happy and glorious,
long to reign over us: God save the Queen.
Another verse follows but in ceremonies i.e. the Proms it is one verse:
Thy choicest gifts in store,
on her be pleased to pour,
Long may she reign,
May she defend our laws,
and ever give us cause,
to sing with heart and voice,
God save the Queen.
Since ''God Save the Queen'' is the Royal Anthem of [[Canada]], the first verse has been translated into [[French language|French]] for use in that country, as |
ferring to those sitting in the House, similar to the way in which the name "House of Lords" indicates that those sitting in the Other Place are elevated to the Peerage. This explanation, however, is ahistorical. Both Houses, the Commons and Lords, meet in the [[Palace of Westminster]]. Both Houses have in the past met elsewhere, and retain the right to do so, provided the [[Ceremonial mace|Mace]] is present.
The information resource of the House is the [[House of Commons Library]].
==History==
Parliament developed from the council that advised the King during mediæval times. This royal council, meeting for short-term periods, included ecclesiastics, noblemen, as well as representatives of the [[county|counties]] (known as "[[knights of the shire]]"). The chief duty of the council was to approve taxes proposed by the Crown. In many cases, however, the council demanded the redress of the people's grievances before proceeding to vote on taxation. Thus, it developed legislative powers.
In the "[[Model Parliament]]" of 1295, representatives of the [[borough]]s (including towns and cities) were also admitted. Thus, it became settled practice that each county send two knights of the shire, and that each borough send two burgesses. At first, the representatives of the boroughs were almost entirely powerless; whilst county representation was fixed, the monarch could enfranchise or disfranchise boroughs at pleasure. Any show of independence by burgesses would have led to the exclusion of their towns from Parliament. The knights of the shire were in a better position, though still less powerful than their aristocratic counterparts in the still unicameral Parliament. The division of Parliament into two houses occurred during the reign of [[Edward III of England|Edward III]]: the knights and burgesses formed the House of Commons, whilst the clergy and nobility formed the House of Lords.
Though they remained subordinate to both the Crown and the Lords, the Commons did act with increasing boldness. During the [[Good Parliament]] (1376), the [[Speaker of the British House of Commons|Speaker of the House of Commons]], [[Peter de la Mare|Sir Peter de la Mare]], complained of heavy taxes, demanded an accounting of the royal expenditures, and criticised the King's management of the military. The Commons even proceeded to [[impeachment|impeach]] some of the King's ministers. The bold Speaker was imprisoned, but was soon released after the death of King Edward III. During the reign of the next monarch, [[Richard II of England|Richard II]], the Commons once again began to impeach errant ministers of the Crown. They insisted that they could not only control taxation, but also public expenditures. Despite such gains in authority, however, the Commons still remained much less powerful than the House of Lords and the Crown.
The influence of the Crown was further increased by the civil wars of the late fifteenth century, which destroyed the power of the great nobles. Both houses of Parliament held little power during the ensuing years, and the absolute supremacy of the Sovereign was restored. The domination of the Crown grew even further during the reigns of the monarchs of the [[Tudor dynasty]] in the sixteenth century. This trend, however, was somewhat reversed when the [[House of Stuart]] came to the English Throne in 1603. The first two Stuart monarchs, [[James I of England|James I]] and [[Charles I of England|Charles I]], provoked conflicts with the Commons over issues such as taxation, religion, and royal powers.
The bitter differences between Charles I and Parliament were great, and were settled only by the [[English Civil War]]. The King was beheaded, and the monarchy and Upper House abolished, in 1649. Although the Commons were in theory supreme, the nation was truly under the control of a military dictator, [[Oliver Cromwell]]. The monarchy and the House of Lords were, however, both restored in 1660, soon after Cromwell's death. The influence of the Crown had been lessened, and was further diminished when [[James II of England|James II]] was deposed in the course of the [[Glorious Revolution]] (1688). The House of Lords, however, soon returned to its dominant position in Parliament, and would continue to occupy such a position until the nineteenth century.
[[Image:House of Commons Microcosm.jpg|thumb|300px|The House of Commons in the early 19th century.]]
The eighteenth century was notable in that it was marked by the development of the office of Prime Minister. The modern notion that the Government may remain in power only as long as it retains the support of Parliament soon became established. The modern notion that only the support of the House of Commons is necessary, however, was of much later development. Similarly, the custom that the Prime Minister is always a Member of the Lower House, rather than the Upper one, did not evolve immediately.
The House of Commons experienced an important period of reform during the nineteenth century. The Crown had made use of its prerogative of enfranchising and disenfranchising boroughs very irregularly, and several anomalies had developed in borough representation. Many towns that were once important but had become inconsiderable by the nineteenth century retained their ancient right of electing two Members each. The most notorious of these "[[rotten borough]]s" was [[Old Sarum]], which had only eleven voters; at the same time, large cities such as [[Manchester]] received no separate representation, although their eligible residents were able to vote in the corresponding county seat - in the case of Manchester, [[Lancashire]]. Also notable were the [[rotten borough|pocket boroughs]]—small constituencies controlled by wealthy landowners and aristocrats, whose "nominees" were invariably elected by the voters.
{{main|Unreformed House of Commons}}
===The Reform Acts and Parliament Acts===
The Commons attempted to address these anomalies by passing a Reform Bill in 1831. At first, the House of Lords proved unwilling to pass the bill, but were forced to relent when the Prime Minister, [[Charles Grey, 2nd Earl Grey]], advised King [[William IV of England|William IV]] to flood the House of Lords with several pro-Reform Members. Before the King could take such an action, the Lords passed the bill in 1832. The "[[Reform Act 1832]]" abolished the rotten boroughs, established uniform voting requirements for the boroughs, and granted representation to populous cities, but also retained many pocket boroughs. In the ensuing years, the Commons grew more assertive, the influence of the House of Lords having been damaged by the Reform Bill Crisis, and the power of the patrons of pocket boroughs having been diminished. The Lords became more reluctant to reject bills that the Commons passed with large majorities, and it became an accepted political principle that the support of the House of Commons alone was necessary for a Prime Minister to remain in office.
Many further reforms were introduced during the latter half of the nineteenth century. The [[Reform Act 1867]] lowered property requirements for voting in the boroughs, reduced the representation of the less populous boroughs, and granted parliamentary seats to several growing industrial towns. The electorate was further expanded by the [[Representation of the People Act 1884]], under which property qualifications in the counties were lowered. The [[Redistribution of Seats Act 1885|Redistribution of Seats Act]] of the following year replaced almost all multi-member constituencies with single-member constituencies.
[[Image:Houseofcommons1851.jpg|left|thumb|400px|The old Chamber of the House of Commons built by Sir Charles Barry was destroyed by German bombs during the Second World War. The essential features of Barry's design were preserved when the Chamber was rebuilt.]]
The next important phase in the history of the House of Commons came during the early twentieth century. In 1908, the [[Liberal Party (UK)|Liberal]] Government under [[Herbert Henry Asquith]] introduced a number of [[social welfare]] programmes, which, together with an expensive [[arms race]] with [[Germany]], had forced the Government to seek more funding in the form of tax increases. In 1909, the [[Chancellor of the Exchequer]], [[David Lloyd George]], introduced the "People's Budget", which proposed a new tax targeting wealthy landowners. The unpopular measure, however, failed in the heavily Conservative House of Lords.
Having made the powers of the House of Lords a primary campaign issue, the Liberals were re-elected in January 1910. Asquith then proposed that the powers of the House of Lords be severely curtailed. Proceedings on the bill were briefly interrupted by the death of [[Edward VII of the United Kingdom|King Edward VII]], but were soon recommenced under the new monarch, [[George V of the United Kingdom|George V]]. After fresh elections in December 1910, the Asquith Government secured the passage of a bill to curtail the powers of the House of Lords. The Prime Minister proposed, and the King agreed, that the House of Lords could be flooded by the creation of five hundred new Liberal peers if it failed to pass the bill. (This was the same device used earlier to force the Upper House to consent to the passage of the Reform Act 1832.) The [[Parliament Act|Parliament Act 1911]] soon came into effect, destroying the legislative equality of the two Houses of Parliament. The House of Lords was only permitted to delay most legislation for a maximum of three parliamentary sessions or two calendar years—reduced to two sessions or one year by the [[Parliament Act 1949]]. Since the passage of these Acts, the House of Commons has remained the dominant branch of Parliament, both in theory and in practice.
Historically MPs were unpaid. Most of the men elected to the Commons had private incomes, whi |
[[1974]] - In the [[United Kingdom]], new [[administrative counties]] come into being.
*[[1976]] - [[Apple Computer]] Company is formed by [[Steve Jobs]] and [[Steve Wozniak]].
*1976 - The [[Central Railroad of New Jersey]] goes bankrupt and [[Conrail]] takes over its operations.
*[[1979]] - [[Iran]]'s government becomes an [[Islamic Republic]] by a 98% vote, overthrowing the [[Shah]] officially.
*[[1980]] - [[New York City]]'s [[Transit Worker Union 100]] goes on [[1980 transit strike|strike]], which continues for 11 days.
*[[1985]] - [[Villanova University]] defeats [[Georgetown University]] 66-64 to win [[NCAA Men's Division I Basketball Championship]].
*[[1996]] - [[University of Kentucky]] team wins [[NCAA Men's Division I Basketball Championship]].
*[[1999]] - [[Nunavut]] is established as a [[Canada|Canadian]] territory carved from the eastern part of the [[Northwest Territories]].
*[[2001]] - An [[EP-3E]] [[United States Navy]] plane collides with a Chinese [[People's Liberation Army]] [[fighter jet]]. The Navy crew makes an emergency landing in [[Hainan]], [[People's Republic of China]] and is detained.
*2001 - Former president of [[Federal Republic of Yugoslavia]] [[Slobodan Milošević]] surrenders to police [[special forces]], to be tried on charges of [[war crime]]s.
*2001 - The first legal [[same-sex marriage in the Netherlands]] is celebrated.
*[[2002]] - The [[Netherlands]] legalizes [[euthanasia]], becoming the only nation in the world to do so.
*[[2004]] - [[George W. Bush]] signs the [[Unborn Victims of Violence Act]], which makes an attack that leads to the death of a mother and her [[unborn child]] two criminal charges.
*2004 - The first legal [[same-sex marriage in Canada|same-sex marriage in the Canadian province]] of [[Quebec]]: [[Michael Hendricks and René Leboeuf]] wed in [[Montreal]].
*2004 - [[Gmail]], an email service from [[Google]] launches.
==Births==
*[[1220]] - [[Emperor Go-Saga]] of Japan (d. [[1272]])
*[[1543]] - [[François de Bonne, duc de Lesdiguières]], Constable of France (d. [[1626]])
*[[1578]] - [[William Harvey]], English physician (d. [[1657]])
*[[1610]] - [[Charles de Saint-Évremond]], French soldier (d. [[1703]])
*[[1640]] - [[Georg Mohr]], Danish mathematician (d. [[1697]])
*[[1647]] - [[John Wilmot, 2nd Earl of Rochester]], English poet (d. [[1680]])
*[[1732]] - [[Franz Josef Haydn]], Austrian composer (d. [[1809]])
*[[1765]] - [[Luigi Schiavonetti]], Italian engraver (d. [[1810]])
*[[1776]] - [[Sophie Germain]], French mathematician (d. [[1831]])
*[[1815]] - [[Otto von Bismarck]], German politician (d. [[1898]])
*1815 - [[Edward Clark]], Governor of Texas (d. [[1880]])
*[[1834]] - [[Big Jim Fisk]], American entrepreneur (d. [[1872]])
*[[1854]] - [[Bill Traylor]], American artist (d. [[1949]])
*[[1856]] - [[Acacio Gabriel Viegas]], Indian physician (d. [[1933]])
*[[1865]] - [[Richard Adolf Zsigmondy]], Austrian-born chemist, [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry|Nobel Prize]] laureate (d. [[1929]])
*[[1866]] - [[Ferruccio Busoni]], Italian pianist and composer (d. [[1924]])
*[[1873]] ([[Gregorian calendar|N.S.]]) - [[Sergei Rachmaninoff]], Russian composer, pianist, and conductor (d. [[1943]])
*[[1875]] - [[Edgar Wallace]], English writer (d. [[1932]])
*[[1883]] - [[Lon Chaney, Sr.]], American actor (d. [[1930]])
*[[1885]] - [[Wallace Beery]], American actor (d. [[1949]])
*[[1895]] - [[Alberta Hunter]], American singer (d. [[1984]])
*[[1897]] - [[Nita Naldi]], American actress (d. [[1961]])
*[[1898]] - [[William James Sidis]], eccentric genius and child prodigy (d. [[1944]])
*[[1899]] - [[Gustavs Celmins]], Latvian politician (d. [[1968]])
*[[1900]] - [[Robert McDowell]], Mayor of [[Maryborough, Queensland]] (d. [[1988]])
*[[1901]] - [[Whittaker Chambers]], American writer, editor, and defector (d. [[1961]])
*[[1906]] - [[Alexander Sergeyevich Yakovlev]], Russian engineer and airplane designer (d. [[1989]])
*[[1908]] - [[Abraham Maslow]], American psychologist (d. [[1970]])
*[[1914]] - [[Jerome L. Walton]], Canadian author
*[[1915]] - [[Otto Wilhelm Fischer]], Austrain actor (d. [[2004]])
*[[1919]] - [[Joseph Murray]], American surgeon, recipient of the [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]]
*[[1920]] - [[Toshiro Mifune]], Japanese actor (d. [[1997]])
*[[1922]] - [[William Manchester]], American writer (d. [[2004]])
*[[1924]] - [[Brendan Byrne]], Governor of New Jersey
*[[1926]] - [[Charles Bressler]], American tenor
*1926 - [[Anne McCaffrey]], American author
*[[1928]] - [[George Grizzard]], American actor
*[[1929]] - [[Milan Kundera]], Czech writer
*1929 - [[Jane Powell]], American dancer, actress, and singer
*1929 - [[Bo Schembechler]], American football coach
*[[1930]] - [[Grace Lee Whitney]], American actress
*[[1931]] - [[Rolf Hochhuth]], German writer
*[[1932]] - [[Gordon Jump]], American television actor (d. [[2003]])
*1932 - [[Debbie Reynolds]], American actress
*[[1933]] - [[Claude Cohen-Tannoudji]], French physicist, [[Nobel Prize in Physics|Nobel Prize]] laureate
*[[1934]] - [[Don Hastings]], American actor
*1934 - [[Rod Kanehl]], baseball player (d. [[2004]])
*[[1935]] - [[Larry McDonald]], American politician (d. [[1983]])
*[[1938]] - [[Ali MacGraw]], American actress
*1938 - [[John Quade]], American actor
*[[1939]] - [[Phil Niekro]], American baseball pitcher
*[[1940]] - [[Wangari Maathai]], Kenyan environmentalist, recipient of the [[Nobel Peace Prize]]
*[[1942]] - [[Samuel R. Delany]], American author
*1942 - [[Annie Nightingale]], British disc jockey
*[[1946]] - [[Ronnie Lane]], British musician ([[The Small Faces]] and [[The Faces]]) (d. [[1997]])
*[[1947]] - [[Alain Connes]], French mathematician
*[[1948]] - [[Jimmy Cliff]], Jamaican musician
*[[1949]] - [[Gérard Mestrallet]], French businessman
*1949 - [[Gil Scott-Heron]], American musician and composer
*1949 - [[Sammy Nelson]], Northern Irish footballer
*[[1950]] - [[Samuel Alito]], Associate Justice of the [[United States Supreme Court]]
*[[1952]] - [[Annette O'Toole]], American actress
*[[1953]] - [[Barry Sonnenfeld]], producer and director
*[[1964]] - [[Erik Breukink]], Dutch cyclist and manager
*1964 - [[Scott Stevens]], Canadian ice hockey player
*[[1965]] - [[Mark Jackson (basketball)|Mark Jackson]], American basketball player
*[[1965]] - [[Robert Steadman]], English composer
*[[1970]] - [[Sung Hi Lee]], Korean-born model
*[[1971]] - [[Method Man]], American musician
*[[1972]] - [[Hughes Brothers|Allen and Albert Hughes]], American film directors
*[[1973]] - [[Stephen Fleming]], New Zealand cricketer
*[[1975]] - [[George Bastl]], Swiss tennis player
*[[1976]] - [[Clarence Seedorf]], Surinamese-Dutch footballer player
*[[1980]] - [[Randy Orton]], American professional wrestler
*1980 - [[Yūko Takeuchi]], Japanese actress
*[[1981]] - [[Hannah Spearritt]], British singer ([[S Club 7]])
*[[1982]] - [[Sam Huntington]], American actor
*[[1983]] - [[Ólafur Ingi Skúlason]], Icelandic footballer
*1983 - [[Sean Taylor]], American football player
==Deaths==
*[[1085]] - [[Emperor Shenzong]] of China (b. [[1048]])
*[[1204]] - [[Eleanor of Aquitaine]], queen of [[Henry II of England]]
*[[1205]] - King [[Amalric II of Jerusalem]] (b. [[1145]])
*[[1528]] - [[Francisco de Peñalosa]], Spanish composer
*[[1580]] - [[Alonso Mudarra]], Spanish composer
*[[1621]] - [[Cristofano Allori]], Italian painter (b. [[1577]])
*[[1637]] - [[Niwa Nagashige]], Japanese warlord (b. [[1571]])
*[[1682]] - [[Franz Egon of Fürstenberg]], Bishop of Strassburg (b. [[1625]])
*[[1684]] - [[Roger Williams (theologian)|Roger Williams]], English theologian and colonist (b. [[1603]])
*[[1787]] - [[Floyer Sydenham]], English classical scholar (b. [[1710]])
*[[1839]] - [[Benjamin Pierce (governor)|Benjamin Pierce]], Governor of New Hampshire (b. [[1757]])
*[[1872]] - [[Frederick Maurice]], English theologian (b. [[1805]])
*[[1878]] - [[John Corry Wilson Daly]], Canadian politician (b. [[1796]])
*[[1914]] - [[Rube Waddell]], baseball player (b. [[1876]])
*[[1917]] - [[Scott Joplin]], American musician and composer (b. [[1868]])
*[[1922]] - Emperor [[Karl I of Austria]] (b. [[1887]])
*[[1946]] - [[Noah Beery]], American actor (b. [[1882]])
*[[1947]] - King [[George II of Greece]] (b. [[1890]])
*[[1950]] - [[Charles R. Drew]], American physician (b. [[1904]])
*[[1966]] - [[Flann O'Brien]], Irish humorist (b. [[1911]])
*[[1968]] - [[Lev Davidovich Landau]], Russian physicist, [[Nobel Prize]] laureate (b. [[1908]])
*[[1976]] - [[Max Ernst]], German artist (b. [[1891]])
*[[1984]] - [[Marvin Gaye]], American singer (b. [[1939]])
*[[1986]] - [[Erik Bruhn]], Danish ballet dancer, choreographer (b. [[1928]])
*[[1988]] - [[Joe Besser]], American actor and comedian (b. [[1907]])
*[[1991]] - [[Martha Graham]], American dancer and choreographer (b. [[1894]])
*[[1993]] - [[Alan Kulwicki]], American race car driver (b. [[1954]])
*[[1998]] - [[Rozz Williams]], American musician ([[Christian Death]]) (b. [[1963]])
*1998 - [[Gene Evans]], American actor (b. [[1922]])
*[[2001]] - [[Olivia Barclay]], British astrologer (b. [[1919]])
*2001 - [[Trinh Cong Son]], Vietnamese composer (b. [[1939]])
*[[2003]] - [[Leslie Cheung]], Hong Kong actor and singer (b. [[1956]])
*[[2004]] - [[Carrie Snodgress]], American actress (b. [[1946]])
*[[2005]] - [[Harald Juhnke]], German entertainer (b. [[1929]])
*2005 - [[Jack Keller (songwriter)|Jack Keller]], songwriter (leukemia) (b. [[1936]])
*2005 - [[Robert Coldwell Wood]], American university president and political appointee (b. [[1923]])
==Holidays and observances==
* April 1 is known as [[April Fool's Day]] or All Fools' Day in many countries.
* [[Feast day]] of [[Hugh of Grenoble|Saint Hugh]] in the [[Roman Catholic Church]] calendar
* [[Roman Empire]] - [[Veneralia]] celebrated to honor [[Venus (mythology)|Venus]]
* [[Japan]] - The official start of school years in most universities and schools. Also, the official First Day of Work at companies and offices for new university graduates hires, marked by welcoming c |
me 4GLs have integrated tools which allow for the easy specification of all the required information:
*James Martin's own ''Information Engineering'' [[systems development methodology]] was automated to allow the input of the results of system analysis and design in the form of [[data flow diagram]]s, [[entity relationship diagram]]s, [[entity life history diagram]]s etc from which hundreds of thousands of lines of [[COBOL]] would be generated overnight.
*More recently [[Oracle Corporation]]'s [[Oracle Designer]] and [[Oracle Developer]] 4GL products could be integrated to produce database definitions and the forms and reports programs.
Fourth-generation languages have often been compared to [[Domain-specific programming language]]s (DSLs). Some researchers state that 4GLs are a sub-set of DSLs. [http://csdl.computer.org/comp/proceedings/hicss/2002/1435/09/14350279.pdf&ei=pgcWQ6CwKsKYYMfF9OAI]
==Some successful fourth-generation languages==
*Database query languages
**[[FOCUS]]
**Oracle PL/SQL
**[[Progress 4GL]]
**[[SQL]]
*Report generators
**[[BuildProfessional]]
**[[GEMBase]]
**IDL-PV/WAVE
**[[LINC 4GL|LINC]]
**[[Metafont]]
**[[Oracle Reports]]
**[[PostScript]]
**[[RPG programming language|RPG-II]]
**[[S programming language|S]]
**Gauss
**[[Mathematica]]
*Data manipulation, analysis, and reporting languages
**[[Clarion Programming Language]]
**[[Ab Initio]]
**[[ABAP]]
**[[Aubit-4GL]]
**[[DSM Application Software Library|DASL]]
**[[FOCUS]]
**[[GraphTalk]]
**[[Informix-4GL]]
**[[Nomad software|Nomad]]
**[[Ramis software|Ramis]]
**[[SAS Institute|SAS]]
**[[Synon]]
*Data-stream languages
**APE
**AVS
**Iris Explorer
*Screen painters and generators
**Oracle Forms
**[[Unify Accell]]
*[[GUI]] creators
**[[4th Dimension (Software)]]
**[[Delphi programming language]]
**[[eDeveloper]]
**[[MATLAB]]'s GUIDE
**[[Revolution programming language]]
**[[Visual Basic]]
**[[OpenROAD]]
==See also==
*[[first-generation programming language]]
*[[second-generation programming language]]
*[[third-generation programming language]]
*[[fifth-generation programming language]]
*[[Domain-specific programming language]]
==External links==
* [http://www.soi.city.ac.uk/~tony/dbms/4ges.html Fourth Generation Environments]
* [http://aubit4gl.sourceforge.net/ 4GL GPL/GNU OpenSource development tools project]
* [http://www.google.com/url?sa=t&ct=res&cd=10&url=http%3A//csdl.computer.org/comp/proceedings/hicss/2002/1435/09/14350279.pdf&ei=pgcWQ6CwKsKYYMfF9OAI Domain-Specific Languages for Software Engineering] (Compares 4GLs to DSLs)
{{FOLDOC}}
[[Category:Programming languages]]
[[de:4GL]]
[[fr:L4G]]
[[nl:4GL]]
[[ja:4GL]]
[[pl:4GL]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Felis catus Domesticus</title>
<id>11368</id>
<revision>
<id>15909118</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Cat]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Frank Capra</title>
<id>11369</id>
<revision>
<id>41037869</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-24T17:28:10Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Stubblyhead</username>
<id>543517</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Capra.jpg|frame|Frank Capra]]
'''Frank Capra''' ([[May 18]], [[1897]] &ndash; [[September 3]], [[1991]]) was an [[Italian-American]] [[film director]] and a major creative force behind a number of highly popular films.
Born '''Francesco Rosario Capra''' in [[Bisacquino]], Sicily, Italy, Capra moved with his family to America in [[1903]], settling in [[Los Angeles, California]], where he graduated from Throop Institute (later renamed the [[California Institute of Technology]]) with a B.S. degree in chemical engineering. On [[October 18]], [[1918]], he joined the [[United States Army]]. While at the [[Presidio]], he got [[Spanish influenza]] and was discharged on [[December 13]]. In [[1920]], he became a [[naturalized citizen]] of the United States.
Like other prominent directors of the thirties and forties, Capra began his career in silent films, notably by directing and writing silent film comedies starring [[Harry Langdon]] and the ''[[Our Gang]]'' kids. In [[1930]] Capra went to work for [[Mack Sennett]] and then moved to [[Columbia Pictures|Columbia]] where he formed a close association with screenwriter Robert Riskin (husband of [[Fay Wray]]) and cameraman [[Joseph Walker]]. However, in [[1940]] [[Sidney Buchman]] replaced Riskin as writer.
After the 1934 [[Academy Award|Oscar]] winning romantic comedy ''[[It Happened One Night]]'', Capra directed a steady stream of films for Columbia intended to be inspirational and humanitarian. The best known are ''[[Mr. Deeds Goes to Town]]'', the original ''[[Lost Horizon (1937)|Lost Horizon]]'', and ''[[Mr. Smith Goes to Washington]]''. His ten year break from screwball comedy ended with the comedy classic ''[[Arsenic and Old Lace (film)|Arsenic and Old Lace]]''.
Between [[1942]] and [[1948]], when he produced ''[[State of the Union (film)|State of the Union]]'', Capra also directed or co-directed eight war documentaries including ''Prelude to War'' (1942), ''The Nazis Strike'' (1942), ''The Battle of Britain'' (1943), ''Divide and Conquer'' (1943), ''Know Your Enemy Japan'' (1945), ''Tunisian Victory'' (1945) and ''Two Down and One to Go'' (1945). His Academy Award-winning documentary series, ''[[Why We Fight]]'', is widely considered a masterpiece of [[propaganda]], surpassed only by [[Leni Riefenstahl]]'s ''[[Triumph of the Will]]''; Capra was faced with the task of convincing an isolationist nation to enter the war, desegregate the troops, and ally with the Russians, among other things.
Capra's [[1946]] ''[[It's a Wonderful Life]]'' (another inspirational and humanitarian themed film) was the first picture for [[Jimmy Stewart]] after his service in [[World War II]]. The film was ignored on its initial release, but it became a favorite for television progamming on [[Christmas]] Day after its [[copyright]] expired.
Capra's final theatrical film was [[1961]]'s ''[[Pocketful of Miracles]]'', with [[Glenn Ford]] and [[Bette Davis]]. He had planned to do a [[science fiction]] film later in the decade but never even got around to pre-production, but he did end up producing several television specials for the Bell Telephone System dealing with science.
In [[1971]], Capra published his autobiography, ''The Name Above the Title''. Though unreliable in its details, it offers a compelling self-portrait.
Capra was also the subject of a [[1991]] biography by Joseph <nowiki>McBride</nowiki> entitled ''Frank Capra: The Catastrophe of Success''. McBride corrects many of the impressions left by Capra's autobiography.
Capra won an [[Academy Award for Directing]] in 1934 for ''It Happened One Night'', in 1936 for ''Mr. Deeds Goes to Town'', and in 1938 for ''You Can't Take It with You''. ''It Happened One Night'' and ''You Can't Take It with You'' also won an [[Academy Award for Best Picture]].
Frank Capra passed away in [[La Quinta, California]] of a [[heart attack]] in his sleep in 1991 at the age of 94 and was interred in the Coachella Valley Cemetery, [[Coachella, California]].
His producer and son, [[Frank Capra, Jr.]], is president of [[Screen Gems]], in [[Wilmington, North Carolina]], one of the three children born to Capra's second wife, [[Lou Capra]]. Frank Capra's grandson is [[Frank Capra III]], and his great-grandson [[Francis Capra]] plays the role of Eli "Weevil" Navarro on the popular series ''[[Veronica Mars]]''.
Quote from Capra: "There are no rules in filmmaking, only sins. And the [[cardinal sin]] is dullness."
==Filmography==
*''[[The Strong Man]]'' (1926)
*''[[For the Love of Mike]]'' (1927)
*''[[Long Pants]]'' (1927)
*''[[The Power of the Press]]'' (1928)
*''[[Say It with Sables]]'' (1928)
*''[[So This Is Love]]'' (1928)
*''[[Submarine (movie)|Submarine]]'' (1928)
*''[[The Way of the Strong]]'' (1928)
*''[[That Certain Thing]]'' (1928)
*''[[The Matinee Idol]]'' (1928)
*''[[Flight (1929 film)|Flight]]'' (1929)
*''[[The Donovan Affair]]'' (1929)
*''[[The Younger Generation]]'' (1929)
*''[[Rain or Shine]]'' (1930)
*''[[Ladies of Leisure]]'' (1930)
*''[[Dirigible (movie)|Dirigible]]'' (1931)
*''[[The Miracle Woman]]'' (1931)
*''[[Platinum Blonde (film)|Platinum Blonde]]'' (1931)
*''[[Forbidden (1932 film)|Forbidden]]'' (1932)
*''[[American Madness]]'' (1932)
*''[[The Bitter Tea of General Yen]]'' (1932)
*''[[Lady for a Day]]'' (1933) - Nominated for best director Oscar.
*''[[It Happened One Night]]'' (1934) - Won best director and best picture Oscars.
*''[[Broadway Bill]]'' (1934)
*''[[Opera Hat]]'' (1935)
*''[[Mr. Deeds Goes to Town]]'' (1936) - Nominated for best picture Oscar and won best director Oscar.
*''[[Lost Horizon (film)|Lost Horizon]]'' (1937) - Nominated for best picture Oscar.
*''[[You Can't Take It with You]]'' (1938) - Won best picture and best director Oscars.
*''[[Mr. Smith Goes to Washington]]'' (1939) - Nominated for best picture and best director Oscars.
*''[[Meet John Doe]]'' (1941)
*''[[Arsenic and Old Lace (film)|Arsenic and Old Lace]]'' (1944)
*''[[It's a Wonderful Life]]'' (1946) - Nominated for best picture and best director Oscars.
*''[[State of the Union (film)|State of the Union]]'' (1948)
*''[[Riding High]]'' (1950)
*''[[Here Comes the Groom]]'' (1951)
*''[[A Hole in the Head]]'' (1959)
*''[[Pocketful of Miracles]]'' (1961)
==Bibliographies==
*[http://www.lib.berkeley.edu/MRC/capra.html Frank Capra Bibliography (via UC Berkeley)]
*[http://eeweems.com/capra/ Frank Capra movie analysis, bio, books, and misc.]
[[Category:1897 births|Capra, Frank]]
[[Category:1991 deaths|Capra, Frank]]
[[Category:Best Director Oscar|Capra, Frank]]
[[Category:Hal |
ts.
<br clear=all>
===Glide Insertion===
Faroese avoids having a [[Hiatus (linguistics)|hiatus]] between two vowels by inserting a [[Semivowel|glide]]. Orthographically, this is shown in three ways:
# vowel + ð + vowel
# vowel + g + vowel
# vowel + vowel
Typically, the first vowel is long and in words with two syllables always stressed, while the second vowel is short and unstressed. In Faroese, short ''and'' unstressed vowels can only be {{IPA|/a/, /i/, /u/}}.
====Ð and G as glides====
{| align=right id=toc style="margin-left: 15px;" width=450 cellpadding=2
|- style="background:#ccccff"
|colspan="6" align="center" bgcolor="#ccccff"| Glide insertion
|-
|bgcolor="#eeeeee" colspan=2 rowspan= 2 align=center width=150| '''First vowel'''
|bgcolor="#eeeeee" colspan=3 align=center width=150| '''Second vowel'''
|bgcolor="#eeeeee" rowspan=3 align=center width=150| '''Examples'''
|-
|bgcolor="#eeeeee" bgcolor="#ffffff" width=50| i [{{IPA|ɪ}}]
|bgcolor="#eeeeee" bgcolor="#ffffff" width=50| u [{{IPA|ʊ}}]
|bgcolor="#eeeeee" bgcolor="#ffffff" width=50| a [{{IPA|a}}]
|-
|bgcolor="#eeeeee" | Grapheme
|bgcolor="#eeeeee" | Phoneme
|bgcolor="#eeeeee" colspan=3 align=center | '''Glide'''
|-
|width=33% colspan="6" bgcolor="#dddddd" align=center| I-surrounding 1 + 2
|-
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| i, y
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| [{{IPA|iː}}]
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| [{{IPA|j}}]
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| [{{IPA|j}}]
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| [{{IPA|j}}]
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| ''sigið, siður, siga''
|-
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| í, ý
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| [{{IPA|ʊiː}}]
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| [{{IPA|j}}]
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| [{{IPA|j}}]
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| [{{IPA|j}}]
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| ''mígi, mígur, míga''
|-
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| ey
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| [{{IPA|ɛiː}}]
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| [{{IPA|j}}]
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| [{{IPA|j}}]
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| [{{IPA|j}}]
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| ''reyði, reyður, reyða''
|-
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| ei
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| [{{IPA|aiː}}]
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| [{{IPA|j}}]
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| [{{IPA|j}}]
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| [{{IPA|j}}]
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| ''reiði, reiður, reiða''
|-
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| oy
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| [{{IPA|ɔiː}}]
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| [{{IPA|j}}]
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| [{{IPA|j}}]
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| [{{IPA|j}}]
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| ''noyði, royður, royða''
|-
|width=33% colspan="6" bgcolor="#dddddd" align=center| U-surrounding 2
|-
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| u
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| [{{IPA|uː}}]
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| [{{IPA|w}}]
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| [{{IPA|w}}]
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| [{{IPA|w}}]
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| ''suði, mugu, suða''
|-
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| ó
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| [{{IPA|ɔuː}}]
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| [{{IPA|w}}]
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| [{{IPA|w}}]
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| [{{IPA|w}}]
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| ''róði, róðu, Nóa''
|-
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| ú
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| [{{IPA|ʉuː}}]
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| [{{IPA|w}}]
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| [{{IPA|w}}]
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| [{{IPA|w}}]
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| ''búði, búðu, túa''
|-
|width=33% colspan="6" bgcolor="#dddddd" align=center| I-surrounding 2, U-surrounding 2, A-surrounding 1 (''regular'')
|-
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| a, æ
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| [{{IPA|ɛaː}}]
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| [{{IPA|j}}]
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| [{{IPA|v}}]
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| -
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| ''ræði, æðu, glaða''
|-
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| á
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| [{{IPA|ɔaː}}]
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| [{{IPA|j}}]
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| [{{IPA|v}}]
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| -
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| ''ráði, fáur, ráða''
|-
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| e
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| [{{IPA|eː}}]
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| [{{IPA|j}}]
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| [{{IPA|v}}]
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| -
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| ''gleði, legu, gleða''
|-
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| o
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| [{{IPA|oː}}]
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| [{{IPA|j}}]
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| [{{IPA|v}}]
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| -
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| ''togið, smogu, roða''
|-
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| ø
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| [{{IPA|øː}}]
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| [{{IPA|j}}]
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| [{{IPA|v}}]
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| -
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| ''løgin, røðu, høgan''
|-
|colspan=6|Source: ''Faroese : An Overview and Reference Grammar'', 2004 (page 38)
|}
<Ð> and <G> are used in Faroese orthography to indicate one of a number of glide rather than any one phoneme. This can be:
#[{{IPA|j}}]
#*"I-surrounding, type 1" - after /i, y, í, ý, ei, ey, oy/: ''bíða'' [{{IPA|ˈbʊija}}] (to wait), ''deyður'' [{{IPA|ˈdɛijʊɹ}}] (dead), ''seyður'' [{{IPA|ˈsɛijʊɹ}}] (sheep)
#*"I-surrounding, type 2" - between any vowel (except "u-vowels" /ó, u, ú/) and /i/: ''kvæði'' [{{IPA|ˈkvɛajɪ}}] (ballad), ''øði'' [{{IPA|ˈøːjɪ}}] (rage).
#[{{IPA|w}}] "U-surrounding, type 1" - after /ó, u, ú/: ''[[Odin|Óðin]]'' [{{IPA|ˈɔuwɪn}}] (Odin), ''góðan morgun!'' [{{IPA|ˌgɔuwan ˈmɔɹgʊn}}] (good morning!), ''suður'' [{{IPA|ˈsuːwʊɹ}}] (south), ''slóða'' [{{IPA|ˈslɔuwa}}] (to make a trace).
#[{{IPA|v}}]
#*"U-surrounding, type 2" - between /a, á, e, æ, ø/ and /u/: ''áður'' [{{IPA|ˈɔavʊɹ}}] (before), ''leður'' [{{IPA|ˈleːvʊɹ}}] (leather), ''í klæðum'' [{{IPA|ɪˈklɛavʊn}}] (in clothes), ''í bløðum'' [{{IPA|ɪˈbløːvʊn}}] (in newspapers).
#*"A-surrounding, type 2"
#**These ar exeptions (''there is also a regular pronunciation''): ''æða'' [{{IPA|ˈɛava}}] (eider-duck), ''røða'' [{{IPA|ˈɹøːva}}] (speech).
#**The [[past participle]]s have always [{{IPA|v}}]: ''elskaðar'' [{{IPA|ˈɛlskavaɹ}}] (beloved, ''nom., acc. fem. pl.'')
#''Silent''
#*"A-surrounding, type 1" - between /a, á, e, o/ and /a/ and in some words between <æ, ø> and <a>: ''ráða'' [{{IPA|ˈɹɔːa}}] (to advise), ''gleða'' [{{IPA|ˈg̊leːa}}] (to gladden, please), ''boða'' [{{IPA|ˈboːa}}] (to forbode), ''kvøða'' [{{IPA|ˈkvøːa}}] (to chant), ''røða'' [{{IPA|ˈɹøːa}}] (to make a speech)
===Skerping===
{| align=right id=toc style="margin-left: 15px;" width=350 cellpadding=2 style="margin-right:10px;"
|-
|colspan="3" align="center" bgcolor="#ccccff"| Skerping
|- style="background:#ccccff"
|bgcolor="#eeeeee"| Written
|bgcolor="#eeeeee"| Pronunciation
|bgcolor="#eeeeee"| instead of
|-
| -ógv-
|[{{IPA|ɛgv}}]
|*[{{IPA|ɔugv}}]
|-
| -úgv-
|[{{IPA|ɪgv}}]
|*[{{IPA|ʉugv}}]
|-
| -eyggj-
|[{{IPA|ɛʤː}}]
|*[{{IPA|ɛiʤː}}]
|-
| -íggj-, -ýggj-
|[{{IPA|ʊʤː}}]
|*[{{IPA|ʊiʤː}}]
|-
| -eiggj-
|[{{IPA|aʤː}}]
|*[{{IPA|aiʤː}}]
|-
| -oyggj-
|[{{IPA|ɔʤː}}]
|*[{{IPA|ɔiʤː}}]
|}
The so-called "skerping" (Thráinsson et al. use the term "Faroese Verschärfung" - in Faroese, ''skerping'' {{IPA|/ʃɛɹpɪŋg/}} means "sharpening") is a typical phenomenon of fronting back vowels before {{IPA|[gv]}} and monophthongizing certain diphthongs before {{IPA|[ʤː]}}. Skerping is not indicated orthographically. These consonants occur often after /ó, ú/ (ógv, úgv) and /ey, í, ý, ei, oy/ when no other consonant is following.
*[{{IPA|ɛgv}}]: ''Jógvan'' [{{IPA|ˈjɛgvan}}] (a form of the name John), ''[[Gjógv]]'' [{{IPA|ʤɛgv}}] (cleft)
*[{{IPA|ɪgv}}]: ''kúgv'' [{{IPA|kɪgv}}] (cow), ''trúgva'' [{{IPA|ˈtɹɪgva}}] (believe), but: ''trúleysur'' [{{IPA|ˈtɹʉuːlɛisʊɹ}}] (faithless)
*[{{IPA|ɛʤː}}]: ''heyggjur'' [{{IPA|ˈhɛʤːʊɹ}}] (high, burial mound), but ''heygnum'' [{{IPA|ˈhɛiːnʊn}}] (''dat. sg. with suffix article'')
*[{{IPA|ʊʤː}}]: ''nýggjur'' [{{IPA|ˈnʊʤːʊɹ}}] (new ''m.''), but ''nýtt'' [{{IPA|nʊiʰtː}}] (''n.'')
*[{{IPA|aʤː}}]: ''beiggi'' [{{IPA|ˈbaʤːɪ}}] (brother)
*[{{IPA|ɔʤː}}]: ''oyggj'' [{{IPA|ɔʤː}}] (island), but ''oynna'' [{{IPA|ˈɔinːa}}] (''acc. sg. with suffix article'')
===Consonants===
{| class="wikitable"
! || Labial || Apical || Postalveolar || Palatal || Velar || Glottal
|-
!Nasal
| {{IPA|m}} || {{IPA|n}} |||| || {{IPA|ŋ}} ||
|-
!Plosive
|{{IPA|p b}}||{{IPA|t d}}|| ||||{{IPA|k g}}||
|-
!Affricate
| || || {{IPA|ʧ ʤ}} || || ||
|-
!Fricative
| {{IPA|f v}} || {{IPA|s}} ||{{IPA|ʃ}} || || || {{IPA|h}}
|-
!Approximant
| || || {{IPA|ɹ l}} || {{IPA|j}} || ||
|-
|}
There are several [[phonology|phonological]] processes involved in Faroese, including:
*Voiced stops are devoiced word-finally and before voiceless consonants
*Liquids are devoiced before voiceless consonants
*Nasals generally assume the place of articulation and laryngeal settings of following consonants.
*Velar stops palatalize to postalveolar affricates before {{IPA|/j/ /e/ /ɪ/ /y/ /ɛi/}} and {{IPA|/ɛi/}}
*/v/ becomes /f/ before voiceless consonants
*/s/ becomes {{IPA|/ʃ/}} after {{IPA|/ɛi, ai, ɔi/}} and before /j/ and may assimilate the retroflexion of a preceding /r/ to become {{IPA|[ʂ]}}.
====Omissions in Consonant clusters====
Faroese tends to omit the first or second consonant in clusters of different consonants:
*''fjalls'' [{{IPA|fjals}}] (mountain's ''gen.'') instead of *[{{IPA|fjadls}}] from [{{IPA|fjadl}}] (''nom.''). Other examples for genitives are: ''barns'' [{{IPA|ˈbans}}] (children's), ''vatns'' [{{IPA|van̥s}}] (lake's, water's).
*''hjálpti'' [{{IPA|jɔl̥tɪ}}] (helped) ''past sg.'' instead of |
ad reached its zenith before his rule. Soldiers and citizens were also given free rein to deface architectural images -- such as faces, flowers and vines -- even on the walls of Mughal palaces. Untold thousands of images were destroyed in this way. Aurangzeb gave up the Hindu-inspired practices of former Mughal emperors, especially the practice of 'darshan', or public appearances to bestow blessings, that had been commonplace since the time of Akbar.
Aurangzeb began to enact and enforce a series of edicts -- with less tolerance for non-Muslims, and with harsh punishments . Most significantly, Aurangzeb initiated laws which specifically interfered with non-Muslim worship. These included the destruction of non-Muslim worship sites, a prohibition of non-Muslim religious gatherings,collection of [[jizya]] tax, the closing of non-Muslim religious schools, and prohibitions of specific Hindu practices such as [[sati]] (self-immolation by widows), and temple dance. Often the punishment for breaking such laws was death.
In such a climate of fierce enforcement, the Mughal infrastructure became arbitrary and corrupt. In consequence, instead of acceptance and tolerance, non-Muslims began to feel persecuted and fearful. These feelings would lead in many instances to open political and military rebellion.
===Expansion of the empire===
From the start of his reign up until his death, Aurangzeb engaged in nearly constant warfare. He built up a massive army, and began a program of military expansion at all the boundaries of his empire.
Aurangzeb pushed into the northwest -- into [[Punjab region|Punjab]], and what is now [[Afghanistan]]. He also drove south, conquering [[Bijapur]] and [[Golconda]], his old enemies. He further attempted to suppress the [[Maratha]] territories, which had recently been liberated from Bijapur by [[Shivaji]].
But the combination of military expansion and political intolerance had far deeper consequences. Though he succeeded in expanding Mughal control, it was at an enormous cost in lives and treasure. And as the empire expanded in size, the chain of command grew weaker.
The [[Sikh]]s of Punjab grew both in strength and numbers in rebellion against Aurangzeb's armies. When the tolerant Muslim kingdoms of Golconda and Bijapur fell beneath Aurangzeb's might, rebellious Hindus flocked to join [[Shivaji]] and the [[Maratha Confederacy]]. For the last 20 years of his life, Aurangzeb engaged in constant battles in the [[Deccan]], at enormous expense.
Even Aurangzeb's own armies grew restive -- particularly the fierce [[Rajput]]s who were his main source of strength. Aurangzeb gave a wide berth to the Rajputs, who were mostly Hindu. While they fought for Aurangzeb during his life, immediately upon his death they revolted against the Empire.
With so much of his attention on military matters, Aurangzeb's political influence waned, and his provincial governors and generals grew in authority.
===Conversion of non-Muslims===
During Aurangzeb's reign many Indians converted to Islam.
"Aurangzeb's ultimate aim was conversion of non-Muslims to Islam. Whenever possible the emperor gave out robes of honor, cash gifts, and promotions to converts. It quickly became known that conversion was a sure way to the emperor's favor." (John F. Richards, p. 177 [http://www.sscnet.ucla.edu/southasia/History/Mughals/Aurang2.html UCLA History of South Asia]).
It has been said that Aurangzeb forcefully converted people, though this may be a matter of interpretation and exaggeration. There can be no question, however, that in economic and political terms, his rule significantly favored Muslims over non-Muslims, or that he specifically attempted to interfere with non-Muslim religious practice through sweeping and often violent methods.
While Aurangzeb clearly created a climate favorable for conversion -- the carrot of the emperor's favor coupled with the stick of harsh policies -- other factors come into play. No other emperor did so much to impose Islam. No other emperor was so firm in his beliefs or so consistent in his actions.
While some conversions were likely based only on practical considerations, clearly others converted out of sincere belief -- at least in part inspired by Aurangzeb.
===Hindu temple desecration===
No aspect of Aurangzeb's reign is more cited -- or more controversial -- than the numerous desecrations and destruction of Hindu temples.
During his reign, many hundreds -- perhaps many thousands -- of temples were desecrated: facades and interiors were defaced and their [[murti]]s (idols) looted. In many cases, temples were destroyed entirely; in numerous instances mosques were built on their foundations, sometimes using the same stones.
His edicts show that he authorized and encouraged these acts. Much controversy remains about his motivation. Scholars primarily take two views, saying that destruction was predicated :
* by political and military events, typically as punishment for rebellion and for the display of Imperial power only, and that once the point had been made, destruction stopped
Or
* by Islamic precepts, and without regard to political consequences
There is evidence to support both views, much of it seemingly contradictory -- for example records showing that Aurangzeb authorized subsidies to some temples at the same time as he was destroying others. (A third view, held by some scholars, is that Aurangzeb was motivated by a desire to root out corruption and crime associated with temples.)
Whatever his motivation, among the temples Aurangzeb destroyed were two most sacred to Hindus, in [[Varanasi]] and [[Mathura]]. In both cases, he had large mosques built on the sites.
The Kesava Deo temple in Mathura, marked the place Hindus believe was the birth place of Shri [[Krishna]]. The temple had large, gilded spires that could be seen from Agra. In [[1661]] Aurangzeb ordered the demolition of the temple, and constructed the Katra Masjid mosque. Traces of the ancient Hindu temple can be seen from the back of the mosque.
Aurangzeb also destroyed what was the most famous temple in Varanasi, [[Vishwanath Temple]], dedicated to Shiva. The temple had changed location over the years, but in [[1585]] [[Akbar]] had authorized its location at [[Gyan Vapi]]. Aurangzeb ordered its demolition in [[1669]] and constructed a mosque on the site, whose minarets stand 71 metres above the [[Ganges]]. Traces of the old temple can be seen behind the mosque.
Aurangzeb was an intolerant tyrant, power thirsty. Precursor of September 11, he was already doing that in India destroying temples and killing his people. To get to power he killed his siblings and emprisioned his father. He was just a bloody tyrant, he had not respect for honor nor moral.
Centuries later, emotional debate about these acts continue.
==Impact of Aurangzeb's reign==
As a reaction to Aurangzeb's political and religious expansionist policies, and to his discriminatory laws, a momentous change occurred in India. India's politics had been previously based on tribal and geographic boundaries, but now peoples began to identify and align according to their religions. This development would inform all subsequent Indian history.
===Hindu rebellion===
Many Hindu subjects rebelled against Aurangzeb's policies.
From the beginning of his reign, Aurangzeb permitted and encouraged the defacement and destruction of Hindu temples. Other edicts added to the impact. In [[1665]] he forbade Hindus to display illuminations at Diwali festivals. Hindu religious fairs were outlawed in [[1668]]. The following year he prohibited construction of Hindu temples as well as the repair of old ones. In [[1671]] Aurangzeb issued an order that only Muslims could be landlords of crown lands. He called upon provincial Viceroys to dismiss all Hindu clerks. In [[1674]] certain lands held by Hindus in Gujarat were confiscated. The customs duties levied on merchants was doubled for non-Muslims. In [[1679]], contrary to the advice of many of his court nobles and theologians, Aurangzeb reimposed the [[Jizya]] or poll tax on non-Muslims.
In [[1668]] the Hindu [[Jat]]s in the Agra district revolted. Though they suffered horrendous loss of life, the revolt continued for years. In [[1681]], the Jats attacked and desecrated [[Akbar]]'s tomb in [[Sikandra]].
In [[1672]] the [[Satnami]]s, a Hindu sect concentrated in an area near Delhi, staged an armed rebellion, plundering villages and defeating Mughal forces in a press toward Delhi. Aurangzeb sent an army of ten thousand, including his Imperial Guard, and put the rebellion down at great cost of life.
Hindu [[Rajputana]], which had been a loyal Mughal vassal state, grew restive. The Jaipur Rajputs led by Jai Singh continued loyal, but other Rajput kingdoms didn't. With its Maharaja [[Jaswant Singh]] died in [[1679]], Aurangzeb seized control of [[Jodhpur]], destroying many temples. He also moved on Udaipur. There was never a clear resolution to this war.
Hindu military leaders and their troops banded together in various alliances throughout Aurangzeb's reign, initiating nearly constant battles and bloodshed. Among the most notable alliances was the [[Maratha Confederacy]]. At the same time [[Sikh]]s were forming the militant [[Khalsa]].
===The Deccan wars and the rise of the Marathas===
In the time of Shah Jahan, the Deccan had been controlled by three Muslim kingdoms: Ahmednagar, Bijapur and Golconda. Following a series of battles, Ahmendnagar was effectively divided, with large portions of the kingdom ceded to the Mughals and the balance to Bijapur. One of Ahmednagar's generals, a Hindu [[Maratha]] named [[Shahaji|Shahji]], retreated to Bijapur. Shahji left in behind in [[Pune]] his wife and young son [[Shivaji]].
In 1657, while Aurangzeb attacked Golconda and Bijapur, Shivaji, using guerrilla tactics, took control of three Bijapuri forts formerly controlled by his father. With these victori |
ovel by [[E. L. Doctorow]], see [[The Book of Daniel (novel)]]. For the [[NBC]] show, see [[The Book of Daniel (television)]].''
{{Books of the Old Testament}}
{{Books of Ketuvim}}
The '''Book of Daniel''', written in [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] and [[Aramaic language|Aramaic]], is a book in both the Hebrew Bible ([[Tanakh]]) and the Christian [[Old Testament]]. The book is set during the [[Babylonian Captivity]], a period when Jews were deported and exiled to [[Babylon]]. The book revolves around the figure of [[Daniel]], an Israelite who becomes an advisor to [[Nebuchadrezzar II|Nebuchadnezzar]], the ruler of Babylon from [[605 BC]] - [[562 BC]].
The book has two distinct parts: a series of narratives and four apocalyptic visions. Three of the narratives involve Daniel, who has the gift of prophecy, interpreting the meaning of dreams and divine omens. Two other narratives feature Israelites who have been condemned for their piety being miraculously saved from execution. In the second part of the book, the author reveals and partially interprets a set of visions which are described in the [[Grammatical person|first person]].
The dating and authorship of Daniel has been a matter of great debate. The traditional view holds that the work was written by a prophet named Daniel who lived during the 6th century BC. In contrast, modern scholarly views generally regard the book as having been written much later, during the mid-2nd century BC. According to this view, the author gave the book the appearance of having been written some 400 years earlier in order to establish credibility by including correct "predictions" of numerous historical events which had occurred during the 5th-2nd centuries BC. A third view argues that while parts of Daniel were written during the 2nd century BC, other parts may have been written by other authors at an earlier date.
== Narratives in Daniel ==
The first part, consisting of the first six chapters, is comprised of a series of lightly connected court tales, connected instructive narratives, or miracle tales. The first story is in Hebrew; then Aramaic is used from ch. 2:4, beginning with the speech of the "[[Chaldea]]ns" through chapter seven. Hebrew is then used from chapter eight through chapter twelve. Three sections are preserved only in the [[Septuagint]], and are considered [[apocrypha|apocryphal]] by Protestant Christians and Jews, and [[deuterocanonical books|deuterocanonical]] by Catholic and Orthodox Christians.
#Daniel refuses to eat meat at court
#Nebuchadnezzar dreams of an [[Nebuchadnezzar's statue vision in Daniel 2|idol of four metals]] with feet of mixed iron and clay, which Daniel interprets as four successive empires (compare [[Fifth Monarchy Men|Fifth Monarchy]])
#The story of the [[fiery furnace]], in which Ananias (Hananiah/Shadrach), Azariah (Abednego), and Mishael (Meshach) refuse to bow to a golden idol and are thrown into a furnace; God preserves them from the flames
#Nebuchadnezzar tells of his dreams of a tall tree, and his losing and regaining his mind
#[[Belshazzar|Belshazzar's Feast]], where Daniel interprets the writing ''[[The writing on the wall|mene mene tekel upharsin]]''
#Daniel in the lions' den
#[[Susanna (Book of Daniel)|Susanna]] and the elders (apocryphal to Protestants)
#[[Bel and the Dragon]] (apocryphal to Protestants)
[[Protestant]] and [[Judaism|Jewish]] editions omit the sections that do not exist in the [[Masoretic text]]: in addition to the two chapters containing accounts of Daniel and Susanna and of Bel and the Dragon, a lengthy passage inserted into the middle of Daniel 3; this addition contains the prayer of Azariah while the three youths were in the fiery furnace, a brief account of the angel who met them in the furnace, and the hymn of praise they sang when they realized they were delivered. [[The Prayer of Azariah and Song of the Three Holy Children]] are retained in the [[Septuagint]] and in the [[Eastern Orthodoxy|Eastern Orthodox]], [[Oriental Orthodox]], and [[Catholic]] [[Biblical canon|canons]]; the "Song of the Three Holy Youths" is part of the [[Matins]] service in Orthodoxy, and of [[Lauds]] on Sundays and feast days in Catholicism.
The narratives are set in the period of the [[Babylonian captivity]], first at the court of [[Nebuchadnezzar II of Babylon|Nebuchadnezzar]] and later at the court of his successors [[Belshazzar]] and a 'King Darius' of unclear identity (see 'Historical Accuracy' and 'Date' below). Daniel is praised in ''Easton's Bible Dictionary'', 1897, as "the historian of the Captivity, the writer who alone furnishes any series of events for that dark and dismal period during which the harp of Israel hung on the trees that grew by the Euphrates. His narrative may be said in general to intervene between Kings and [[Books of Chronicles|Chronicles]] on the one hand and [[Ezra]] on the other, or (more strictly) to fill out the sketch which the author of the Chronicles gives in a single verse in his last chapter: 'And them that had escaped from the sword carried he (i.e., Nebuchadnezzar) away to Babylon; where they were servants to him and his sons until the reign of the kingdom of Persia' (2 Chr. 36:20)."
Daniel appears as an interpreter of dreams and visions in these narratives, though not as a prophet.
==Apocalyptic visions in ''Daniel''==
The second part, the remaining six chapters, are visionary, an early example of [[apocalyptic literature]], in which the author, now speaking in the first person, reveals a vision entrusted to him alone. The historical setting of the first chapters does not appear, except in briefest form, consisting of regnal dates. This section too consists of text from two languages, part (to 7:28) written in Aramaic, the rest (chapters 8-12) in Hebrew. The apocalyptic part of ''Daniel'' consists of three visions and one lengthened prophetic communication, mainly having to do with the destiny of Israel:
# The vision in the first year of [[Belshazzar]] the king of [[Babylon]] (7:1) concerning four great beasts (7:3) representing four future kings (7:17) or kingdoms (7:23), the fourth of which devours the whole earth, treading it down and crushing it (7:23); this fourth kingdom produces ten kings, and then a special, eleventh person arises out of the fourth kingdom that subdues three of the ten kings (7:24), speaks against the Most High and the saints of the Most High, and intends to change the times and the law (7:25); after a time and times and half a time (three and a half years), this person is judged and his dominion is taken away (7:26); then, the kingdom and the dominion and the greatness of the kingdoms under the whole heaven are given to the people of the saints of the Most High (7:27)
# The vision in the third year of Belshazzar concerning a [[Domestic sheep|ram]] and a male [[goat]] (8:1-27); Daniel interprets the goat as the "kingdom of Yawan" that is, the Hellenistic kingdom (8:21)
# The vision in first year of [[Darius I|Darius]] the son of [[Xerxes I of Persia|Ahasuerus]] (9:1) concerning [[Prophecy of Seventy Weeks|seventy weeks]], or seventy "sevens", apportioned for the [[History of ancient Israel and Judah|history of the Israelites]] and of [[Jerusalem]] (9:24)
# A lengthy vision in the third year of [[Cyrus the Great|Cyrus]] king of [[History of Persia|Persia]] (10:1 - 12:13)
The prophetic and [[eschatology|eschatological]] visions of Daniel, with those of Ezekiel and Isaiah, are the scriptural inspiration for much of the apocalyptic ideology and symbolism of the [[Qumran]] community's [[Dead Sea scrolls]] and the early literature of Christianity. "Daniel's clear association with the Maccabean Uprising in Palestine was undoubtedly one of the reasons why the Rabbis, following the uprisings against Rome, downgraded it from its position among the 'Prophets'" (Eisenman 1997, p 19f).
In Daniel are the first references to a "kingdom of God", and the most overt reference to the resurrection of the dead in the Tanakh.
==Historical accuracy==
Certain statements in Daniel are considered to be in conflict with known history. This is one reason why modern historians of Babylonia or [[Achaemenid Dynasty|Achaemenid Persia]] do not adduce the narratives of ''Daniel'' as source materials. Other reasons for reservations are given in ''Dating'' below.
The four objections given below represent, in order of significance, the major instances of error historians generally find in Daniel.
==="Darius the Mede"===
According to H.H. Rowley in ''Darius the Mede and the Four World Empires in the Book of Daniel'', "[t]he references to Darius the Mede in the book of Daniel have long been recognized as providing the most serious historical problems in the book."
Rowley refers to the personage whom Daniel describes as taking control of Babylon after Belshazzar is deposed. Daniel describes this personage as ''Darius the Mede,'' who rules over Babylon in chapters 6 and 9. Daniel reports that Darius was 'about 62 years old' when he was 'made king over Babylon'
Historians have criticized this account for three reasons. First, no secular history speaks of any 'Darius the Mede,' and second, the Persians at that point in history had the upper hand in their ongoing war with the [[Medes]]. Third, the contemporary history given from cuneiform documents of the period, such as the [[Cyrus Cylinder]] and the [[Babylonian Chronicle]] leave no room for any Mede occupation of Babylon before the Persians under Cyrus conquered it.
Historians such as Rowley and Burtchaell tend to posit that Daniel is mistakenly referencing [[Darius the Great]], who ruled [[Iran|Persia]] from 521-486 BC, though the Persian Darius was very young (while Daniel specifically attributes an old age to ''Darius the Mede''), and ruled many years later.
Additionally, an analysis of variant texts, particularly the S |
entral Intelligence]]) Colby himself, read:
:''He did raise it - said State Dept. people felt strongly. But he inclined leave decision to me (DCI) - I confessed some question over need to protect since:''
:#''USSR has it from own sats''
:#''What really does it reveal?''
:#''If exposed, don't we just say classified USAF work is done there?''
The declassified documents do not disclose the outcome of the discussions regarding the Skylab imagery, but they were not placed in the National Archive at [[Sioux Falls, South Dakota]] along with the rest of the Skylab 4 photographs.
== UFO and other conspiracy theories concerning Area 51 ==
Its secretive nature and undoubted connection to classified aircraft research, together with reports of unusual phenomena, have led Area 51 to become a centerpiece of modern [[Unidentified flying object|UFO]] and [[conspiracy theory]] [[folklore]]. Some of the unconventional activities claimed to be underway at Area 51 include:
*the storage, examination, and [[reverse engineering]] of crashed [[Extraterrestrial life|alien]] spacecraft (including material supposedly recovered at [[Roswell UFO incident|Roswell]]), the study of their occupants (living and dead), and the manufacture of aircraft based on alien technology.
*meetings or joint undertakings with extraterrestrials.
*the development of exotic [[energy weapons]] (for [[Strategic Defense Initiative|SDI]] applications or otherwise) or means of [[weather control]].
*activities related to a supposed shadowy [[world government]].
Many of the theories concern underground facilities at Groom or at nearby Papoose Lake, and include claims of a transcontinental underground railroad system, a disappearing airstrip (nicknamed the "Cheshire Airstrip", after [[Lewis Carroll]]'s [[Cheshire cat]]) which briefly appears when water is sprayed onto its [[camouflage]]d [[asphalt]] ([http://www.serve.com/mahood/nellis/area19/cheshire.htm]), and engineering based on alien technology. In 1989 [[Bob Lazar]] claimed that he had worked at a facility at Papoose Lake (which he called S-4) on such a U.S. Government [[flying saucer]].
One major theory is that Area 51 is a place which simulates the environment of the moon. In 2000-2001, [[Fox Television]] broadcasted a show about [[Apollo moon landing hoax accusations]], where it was discussed that the whole moon landing in [[1969]] was a hoax and was filmed in parts of Area 51. Soviet satellite photography indicates that parts of Area 51 resemble the moon surface as shown in the Moon landing video.
Others, however, claim that during the mid 1990s the most secret work previously done at Groom was quietly moved to other facilities, including [[Dugway Proving Ground]] in [[Utah]], and that the continued secrecy around Groom is largely a successful attempt at [[misdirection]].
== Area 51 in popular culture ==
[[Image:Area51.jpg|thumb|Cover of the 2005 ''Area 51'' [[First-person shooter|FPS]] video game]] <!-- ''please'' don't add futher popular-culture images - on is sufficient, and more would weaken our fair-use assertion -->
The base is featured in episodes of the television series ''[[The Simpsons]] (area 51A)'', ''[[Futurama (TV series)|Futurama]]'', ''[[Family Guy]]'', ''[[American Dad]]'', ''[[The X-Files]]'', ''[[Taken]]'', ''[[Seven Days]]'' (Never Never Land), ''[[Star Trek: Deep Space Nine]]'', ''[[Kim Possible]]'', ''[[Megas XLR]]'' (as Area 50), and ''[[Stargate SG-1]]'', the movies ''[[Groom Lake (film)|Groom Lake]],'' ''[[Looney Tunes: Back in Action]]'' (Area 52) and ''[[Independence Day (movie)|Independence Day]]'', and in the computer and video games ''[[Area 51 (video game)|Area 51]]'', ''[[Area 51 (first-person shooter)|Area 51]]'', ''[[Deus Ex]]'', ''[[Duke Nukem 3D]]'', ''[[Tomb Raider|Tomb Raider III]]'', ''[[Perfect Dark]]'', ''[[The Pandora Directive]]'', ''[[Twisted Metal 3]]'', ''[[Grand Theft Auto: San Andreas]]'' (Area 69), ''[[Destroy All Humans!]]'' (Area 42), ''[[SimCity 4]]'' (Area 5.1). ''[[Half-Life (computer game)|Half-Life]]'', which is set mostly in and around the fictional [[Black Mesa Research Facility]], is generally considered to be modeled after Area 51. It is also featured in several [[novel]]s by [[Dale Brown]] and [[Robert Doherty]]'s ([[Bob Mayer]]) [[Area 51 novels|Area 51 series]], which take place after Area 51 scientists make contact with extraterrestrials. The [[alternate history]] roleplaying game [[Deadlands]] also features an 1880s version of the location called "Fort 51".
Area 51 has been used in several role-playing games as a plot element. In the game ''[[Conspiracy X]]'', it is a safe facility and base of operations for the players' counter-extraterrestrial operations. On the flip side, in the ''[[Call of Cthulhu (role playing game)|Call of Cthulhu]]'' modern day conspiracy supplement ''[[Delta Green]]'', the base is the site of a foolish conspiracy's laboratory facilities for studying and intercepting otherworldly beings for study.
Area 51 is the name given to a variety of unrelated products and companies, including a range of computers built by [[Alienware]], the [http://area51.phpbb.com/ development area] for the [[phpBB]] forum software, one of the areas of the [[Geocities]] web hosting service, an [[Aprilia]] [[motor scooter]], and numerous science-fiction bookstores and bulletin boards.
In 1994, Version 2.0 of the [[Read-only memory|ROM]] for the [[Apple Newton]] [[personal digital assistant]] included the latitude and longitude co-ordinates of Area 51 in the Time Zones application as an "[[Easter egg (virtual)|Easter egg]]". This feature was removed (supposedly at the request of the [[Central Intelligence Agency|CIA]]) by applying a software patch, but it remained possible to bypass the patch fairly easily. [http://www.cupertino.de/pages/archiv/EasterEggs/Newton.html]
The world's largest [[model railway]] in [[Hamburg]], [[Germany]] features a fictional Area 51 model in its [[United States|America]] section (with aliens playing [[basketball]] with base personnel).
The tiny town of [[Rachel, Nevada]] (the nearest settlement to the base) enjoys minor celebrity status as being "the official home of Area 51". Located three hours from Las Vegas by car, Rachel receives a modest number of visitors year-round, and several small businesses offer food and lodging to visitors, together with aerospace and "alien" themed merchandising. The visitor numbers are swelled yearly with aviation enthusiasts hoping to catch a glimpse of the [[RED FLAG exercise]]s. A small museum sells maps, photographs, badges, and other Area 51 material, and a local inn, aptly named "The Little A'le'Inn" proudly displays a [[time capsule]] received from the production crew of ''[[Independence Day (movie)|Independence Day]]''.
The [[minor league baseball]] team in [[Las Vegas, Nevada]] is called the [[Las Vegas 51s]]. Their logo includes the image of a "[[Greys|Grey]]" [[extraterrestrial]].
Also, the popular classic Area 51 shooter is the leader in arcade game revenue.
[[Image:Area51arcade.jpg|thumb|250px|''Area 51'' arcade game]]
== See also ==
*[[List of parodies or puns on Area 51]]
== External links ==
{{commons|Category:Area 51}}
*[http://ufo.whipnet.org/area.51/ Area 51 - History, Structures, and Employees]
*[http://fas.org/irp/overhead/groom.htm Federation of American Scientists Area 51 resources]
*[http://www.nellis.af.mil/ Nellis AFB]
*[http://www.topozone.com/map.asp?lat=37.24398783283005&lon=-115.73734486636629&s=500&size=l&symshow=n&u=0&layer=DRG250 Topographic Map of the Emigrant Valley / Groom area]
*[http://www.serve.com/mahood/nellis/groom/groomtl.htm Area 51 timeline]
*[http://www.lasvegasnow.com/area51/Area51-072503-450.jpg Satellite photograph of "Area 51"]
*[http://www.dreamlandresort.com/index_en.html Local Website about activities on and around Area 51]
*[http://us.imdb.com/title/tt0080836/ IMDB Reference: ''Hangar 18'', 1980]
*[http://local.google.com/local?f=q&hl=en&q=+37%C2%B014%2737.59%22N++115%C2%B048%2757.95%22W&ll=37.232789,-115.80431&spn=0.043531,0.10849&t=k Google Maps satellite image] - Recently updated with high detail images (Feb 5, 2006).
*[http://gmaps.tommangan.us/groom_lake.html Aerial Photos] from different decades, overlaid with Google Maps interface
*[http://www.sr-71.org/groomlake/2004/index.php?file=egg-terminal-2004-01.jpg Photographs of McCarran EG&G terminal and JANET aircraft]
*[http://www.abovetopsecret.com/forum/thread61315/pg1 ''AboveTopSecret'' on the theory that Dugway is new "new area51"] <!-- note that this looks like just a forum, but the header article was written by ATS' primary author; he may or may not be a wacko, but he's a fairly notable wacko -->
*[http://rachel.dreamlandresort.com/ethighway.html Photographs of the "Extraterrestrial Highway"]
*[http://www.alienhub.com/media/gallery.asp?categoryid=10 Photographs of at Area 51]
==References==
* Rich, Ben; Janos, Leo. (1996) ''Skunk Works''. Little, Brown & Company, ISBN 0316743003
* Darlington, David. (1998) ''Dreamland Chronicles''. Henry Holt & Company, ISBN 0805060405
* [http://www.reviewjournal.com/webextras/area51/ Area 51 related article archive] from the pages of the ''[[Las Vegas Review-Journal]]''
* [http://www.ufomind.com/area51/articles/1996/60min_960317.htm Transcript] from [[CBS]] ''[[60 Minutes]]'' segment about the environmental lawsuit
* [http://www.thespacereview.com/article/531/1 "Astronauts and Area 51: the Skylab Incident"] article in ''The Space Review''
* [http://www.thespacereview.com/archive/531.pdf 1974 Memo to DCI Colby] ([[PDF]])
[[Category:Lincoln County, Nevada]][[Category:Conspiracy_theories]]
[[Category:UFOs]]
[[Category:United States Air Force facilities]]
[[cs:Area 51]]
[[da:Area 51 (USA)]]
[[de:Area 51]]
[[et:Area 51]]
[[es:Área 51]]
[[fr: |
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