text stringlengths 1.83k 10k |
|---|
l Wikipedia pages}}</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Howard Philips Lovecraft</title>
<id>14044</id>
<revision>
<id>26212484</id>
<timestamp>2005-10-22T20:27:58Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Tregoweth</username>
<id>7402</id>
</contributor>
<comment>#REDIRECT [[H.P. Lovecraft]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[H.P. Lovecraft]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Humphrey Bogart</title>
<id>14045</id>
<revision>
<id>41776057</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T17:45:56Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Imladros</username>
<id>295821</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_Biography
|subject_name=Humphrey Bogart
|image_name=Humphrey Bogart by Karsh (Library and Archives Canada).jpg
|image_caption=Photographed in 1946 by [[Yousuf Karsh]]
|date_of_birth=[[December 25]], [[1899]]
|place_of_birth=[[New York, New York|New York]], [[New York]], [[USA]]
|dead=dead
|date_of_death=[[January 14]], [[1957]]
|place_of_death=[[Los Angeles]], [[California]], [[USA]]
}}
'''Humphrey DeForest Bogart''' ([[December 25]], [[1899]] &ndash; [[January 14]], [[1957]]) was an iconic [[United States|American]] [[actor]] who retains legendary status decades after his death. In [[1999]], the [[American Film Institute]] named Bogart the [[AFI's 100 Years... 100 Stars|Greatest Male Star of All Time]].
==Overview==
Bogart typically played smart, playful, courageous, tough, occasionally reckless characters, living in a corrupt world, yet anchored by an inner moral code. He was also able to play characters with flaws and weaknesses that led to their destruction. His most notable films include ''[[We're No Angels]]'' ([[1955 in film|1955]]) ''[[Angels With Dirty Faces]]'' ([[1938 in film|1938]]), ''[[The Maltese Falcon]]'' ([[1941 in film|1941]]), ''[[Casablanca (film)|Casablanca]]'' ([[1942 in film|1942]]),
''[[To Have and Have Not (film)|To Have and Have Not]]'' ([[1944 in film|1944]]), ''[[The Big Sleep (1946 film)|The Big Sleep]]'' ([[1946 in film|1946]]), ''[[The Treasure of the Sierra Madre]]'' ([[1948 in film|1948]]), ''[[Key Largo (film)|Key Largo]]'' ([[1948 in film|1948]]), ''[[In a Lonely Place]]'' ([[1950 in film|1950]]), ''[[The African Queen]]'' ([[1951 in film|1951]]) (for which he won an [[Academy Award]] for [[Academy Award for Best Actor|Best Actor in a Leading Role]]), and ''[[The Caine Mutiny]]'' ([[1954 in film|1954]]). In all, he appeared in 75 feature motion pictures.
Even outside of America, Bogart is seen as a cult figure. [[France|French]] actors such as [[Jean-Paul Belmondo]] were deeply influenced by his work and image. In ''À bout de souffle'' (known in English as ''[[Breathless]]''), perhaps the best-known work of French director [[Jean-Luc Godard]], the protagonist Michel worships the persona of Humphrey Bogart and mimes some of Bogart&rsquo;s best-known gestures in a way that is both absurd and touching. [[François Truffaut]], another French director of the &ldquo;[[French New Wave|New Wave]],&rdquo; directed ''[[Shoot the Piano Player]]'', another homage to Bogart.
[[India]]&rsquo;s great national [[movie star]] [[Ashok Kumar (actor)|Ashok Kumar]] listed Bogart as a major influence on his &ldquo;natural&rdquo; acting style. When Bogart reached [[Kinshasa|Leopoldville]] to film the movie ''The African Queen'', his plane was met by the [[United States|U.S.]] consul and the [[History of the Democratic Republic of the Congo|Congolese]] press.
Bogart is no less an icon in the country of his birth. One of [[Woody Allen]]&rsquo;s most popular comic movies, ''Play It Again, Sam'', is about a young man in love with Bogart&rsquo;s aura and intimidated by it. The title refers to a frequent misquote from ''Casablanca''; Ilsa ([[Ingrid Bergman]]'s character) actually says &ldquo;Play it, Sam.&rdquo; In [[1997]], the [[United States Postal Service]] featured Bogart in its &ldquo;Legends of Hollywood&rdquo; series. And ''Entertainment Weekly'' magazine has named Bogart the number one movie legend of all time.
Bogart&rsquo;s exalted standing in the [[Hollywood, California|Hollywood]] pantheon would have astonished most of the agents, casting directors and [[movie studio|studio]] bosses who knew him in the [[1920s]] and [[1930s]] as a good but hardly great [[Broadway theatre|Broadway]] [[theater|stage]] actor and [[B-movie]] player in Hollywood.
==Birth and early life==
He was born Humphrey DeForest Bogart in [[New York City]], the oldest child of Belmont DeForest Bogart and Maud Humphrey, both of whom were of [[Dutch people|Dutch]] and [[English people|English]] descent.
It was long believed that his birthday on Christmas Day was a [[Warner Bros.]] fiction created to romanticise his background, and that he was really born on [[January 23]] [[1899]], a date that appears in many references. However, this story is now considered baseless: although no birth certificate has ever been found, his birth notice did appear in a Boston newspaper in early January 1900, which supports the December 1899 date. In addition, the 1900 census for the household of Belmont Bogart lists his son Humphrey as having a birthdate in December of 1899. [[Lauren Bacall]] always maintained this was his true birth date.
===Childhood===
Bogart's father was a successful surgeon. His mother, [[Maud Humphrey]], was a very successful commercial illustrator. Indeed, she used a drawing of baby Humphrey in a well-known ad campaign for [[Mellins Baby Food]]. In her prime, she made over $50,000 a year as an illustrator, then a vast sum. The Bogarts lived in a fashionable [[Upper West Side]] apartment, and had a cottage in upstate New York.
Maud Humphrey was a distant woman and the Bogarts' marriage was troubled. Both parents were [[alcoholic]]s and/or [[morphine]] addicts at various times. Maud also suffered intense [[migraine]] headaches. "I can't say I ever loved my mother," Bogart once said. "I admired her." He was raised mostly by an Irish nurse. "My parents fought," he said another time. "We kids would pull the covers over our ears to keep out the sound of fighting. Our home was kept together for the sake of the children as well as for the sake of propriety."
From his father, Bogart inherited a tendency for needling people, and a love of fishing and especially sailing. Humphrey was the oldest child of three. Both of Bogart's younger sisters were troubled adults; Kay ("Catty") died at 34 of [[peritonitis]] complicated by [[alcoholism]]. Frances "Pat" Bogart Rose was tall, shy and sweet, but mentally unstable. Bogart was gentle with her and paid for her care. Other relatives were few and rarely saw the Bogarts. (When Bogart fell in love with [[Lauren Bacall]] and she introduced him to her large extended family, he said "Christ, you've got more goddamn relatives than I've ever seen.")
As a boy, Bogart was teased for his curls, his tidiness, for the "cute" pictures his mother posed him for, the [[Little Lord Fauntleroy]] clothes she dressed him in&#8212;and for the name "Humphrey." He was also teased for his lisp; although it has been claimed that he obtained this in the [[navy]] when a prisoner hit him in the face with handcuffs, in fact it derived from a childhood accident, in which Bogart got a splinter of wood embedded in his lower lip. "Goddamn doctor," Bogart later told [[David Niven]], "instead of stitching it up, he screwed it up."
===School===
The Bogarts sent their son to the [[Trinity School (New York)|Trinity School]] in New York and then to the prestigious prep school [[Phillips Academy]], in [[Andover, Massachusetts]]. They hoped he would go on to [[Yale University|Yale]], but in [[1918]], Bogart was expelled from Phillips Academy. The details of his expulsion are disputed. One story says that he was expelled for throwing the headmaster into Rabbit Pond, a man-made lake located behind the Andover Inn, while others say that he was expelled for smoking and drinking. His study habits were erratic and his grades low, and he may have hastened his departure by some intemperate comments to those in authority. He had a lifelong dislike of authority figures.
==Early career==
Bogart did menial labor, joined the [[United States Naval Reserve|Naval Reserve]], and eventually drifted into acting. He liked the late hours that actors kept, and enjoyed the attention that an actor got on stage. Most of all, he enjoyed the challenge of putting on a difficult scene, making the audience believe it. He dug deeply into the characters he portrayed, and found them a welcome escape from his own self.
===Early theatre work===
Bogart began his acting career on the [[Brooklyn]] stage in [[1921]], playing a [[Japan|Japanese]] butler. He never took acting lessons, and had no formal training. An early reviewer wrote of Bogart's work: "To be as kind as possible, we will only say that this actor was inadequate." Bogart loathed the trivial roles he had to play early in his career, calling them "White Pants Willie" roles.
Bogart appeared in 21 [[Broadway theatre|Broadway]] productions between [[1922]] and [[1935]]. He played callow juveniles, or the romantic second lead in drawing room comedies. The legend persists that he was the first actor to say "Tennis, anyone?" on stage.
Early in his career, Bogart met his first wife, [[Helen Menken]]. They married in [[1926]], divorced in [[1927]], and remained friends. In [[1928]], he married his second wife, [[Mary Philips]]. Philips, like Menken, had a fiery temper, once biting the finger of a cop who tried to arrest her for drunkenness.
[[Spencer Tracy]] was a serious Broadway actor whom Bogart liked and admired, and they be |
bourhood.
Here, in the [[Battle of Abensberg]] on the 20th of April 1809, [[Napoleon]] gained a signal victory over the Austrians under the Archduke Louis and General Hiller.
Abensberg is the birthplace of [[Johannes Aventinus]].
Abensberg is also a [[seal district]] of the [[Hallertau]] [[hop (plant)|hop-planting]] area.
==References==
{{1911}}
[[Category:Towns in Bavaria]]
[[Category:Spa towns]]
pl:Abensberg]]
[[de:Abensberg]]
[[fr:Abensberg]]
[[gl:Abensberg]]
[[nl:Abensberg]]
[[pl:Abensberg]]
[[ru:Абенсберг]]
[[sv:Abensberg]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Arminianism</title>
<id>1306</id>
<revision>
<id>42141869</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T02:26:45Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>David Schroder</username>
<id>937976</id>
</contributor>
<comment>(1) Changes based on peer review - mostly minor; (2) combination of the two alternative views on election into one uniform view (see talk)</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Arminianism}}
:''For the Armenian nationality, see [[Armenia]] or the [[Armenian language]].''
:''For the theological doctrines of [[Arius]], see [[Arianism]].''
'''Arminianism''' is a school of [[Soteriology|soteriological]] thought in [[Protestant]] [[Christian theology]] founded by the Dutch theologian [[Jacobus Arminius]]. Its acceptence stretches through much of mainstream [[Protestantism]], particularly [[Evangelicalism]]. Due to the influence of [[John Wesley]], it is perhaps most prominent in the [[Methodism|Methodist movement]].
Arminianism is historically viewed as the primary opponent of [[Calvinism]]. Its main tenets hold that:
* All men are naturally unable to make any effort towards salvation
* God's election is conditional on faith in Jesus
* Jesus' atonement was potentially for all people
* God's grace does not act in a deterministic fashion
* Salvation can be lost, as continued salvation is conditional upon continued faith
Within the broad scope of [[History of Christianity | church history]], Arminianism and Calvinism are closely related. Nonetheless, debates from respective followers are often so heated and public that direct references to both doctrines appear frequently in [[Culture of the United States | American culture]].
Arminianism is most accurately used to define those who affirm the original beliefs of Jacobus Arminius himself, but the term can also be understood as an umbrella for a larger grouping of ideas including those of [[Hugo Grotius]], [[John Wesley]], [[Clark Pinnock]], and others. There are two primary perspectives on how the system is applied in detail: Classical Arminianism, which sees Arminius as its figurehead, and Wesleyan Arminianism, which (as the name suggests) sees John Wesley as its figurehead. Wesleyan Arminianism is sometimes synonomous with Methodism. Additionally, Arminianism is understood by its critics to also include [[Pelagianism]], though supporters from both primary perspectives deny this vehemently.
==History==
:''Main artcle: [[History of Calvinist-Arminian Debate]]''
Jacobus Arminius was a Dutch pastor and theologian in the late 16th and early 17th centuries. He was taught by Theodore Beza, Calvin's hand-picked successor, but he rejected his teacher's theology as making God the author of sin. Instead Arminius proposed that the election of God was ''of believers'', thereby making it [[Conditional election | conditional on faith]]. Arminius's views were challenged by the Dutch Calvinists, but Arminius died before a national synod could occur.
Arminius followers, not wanting to adopt their leader's name, called themselves the [[Remonstrants]]. When Arminius died before he could satisfy Holland's State General's request for a 14-page paper outlining his views, the Remonstrants replied in his stead crafting the [[Five articles of Remonstrance]]. After some political manuevering, the Dutch Calvinists were able to convince [[Maurice de Nassau | Prince Maurice of Nassau]] deal with the situation. Maurice systematically removed Arminian magistrates from office and called a national synod at Dordrecht. This [[Synod of Dort]] was open primarily to Dutch Calvinists (Arminians were excluded) with token Calvinist representatives from other countries, and in 1618 published a condemnation of Arminius and his followers as heretics. Part of this publication was the famous [[Five points of Calvinism]] in response to the five articles of Remonstrance.
Arminians across Holland were removed from office, imprisoned, banished, and sworn to silence. Twelve years later Holland officially granted Arminianism protection as a religion, although animosity between Arminians and Calvinists continued.
The debate between Calvin's followers and Arminius' followers is distinctive of post-Reformation church history. The heated discussions between friends and fellow [[Methodist]] ministers [[John Wesley]] and [[George Whitfield]] were characteristic of many similar debates. Wesley was a champion of Arminius' teachings, defending his [[soteriology]] in a periodical titled ''The Arminian'' and writing articles such as ''Predestination Calmly Considered''. He defended Arminius against charges of [[semi-Pelagianism]], holding strongly to beliefs in original sin and total depravity. At the same time, Wesley attacked the [[determinism]] that he claimed characterized unconditional election and maintained a belief in the [[Conditional Preservation of the Saints | ability to lose salvation]]. Wesley also clarified the doctrine of [[prevenient grace]] and preached the ability of Christians to attain to [[Christian perfection | perfection]].
==Current landscape==
Advocates of both Arminianism and Calvinism find a home in many Protestant denominations. Denominations leaning in the Arminian direction include Anglicans, [[Methodism | Methodists]], General Baptists, Pentecostals, and Charismatics. Denominations leaning in the Calvinist direction include Particular Baptists, Reformed Baptists, Presbyterians, and Congregationalists. The majority of [[Southern Baptists]], including [[Billy Graham]], accept Arminianism with an exception allowing for [[Perseverance of the saints | perseverance of the saints]]{{Ref|1-BFM}}, {{Ref|2-Harmon}}, {{Ref|3-Walls}} although many see Calvinism as growing in acceptance.{{Ref|4-Walls}} The majority of [[Lutherans]] hold to a mediating view taught by [[Philip Melanchthon]].
The current scholarly support for Arminianism is wide and varied. One particular thrust is a return to the teachings of Arminius - a system termed ''Classical'' Arminianism by F. Leroy Forlines (author of ''The Quest for Truth: Answering Life's Inescapable Questions''). Stephen Ashby (professor at Ball State University and contributor to ''Four Views on Eternal Security'') and Robert Picirilli (pastor, former academic dean and professor at Free Will Baptist Bible College, and author of ''Grace, Faith, and Free Will'') are two of the more prominent supporters. Through [[Methodism]], Wesley's teachings also inspire a large scholarly following, with vocal proponents including [[J. Kenneth Grider]], [[Stanley Hauerwas]], and [[William Willimon]].
Recent influence of the [[New Perspective on Paul]] movement has also strongly influenced Arminianism - primarily through a view of corporate election. Proponents of this movement include [[James Dunn (theologian) | James Dunn]] and [[Tom Wright (theologian) | N.T. Wright]]. Other Arminian theologians holding similar perspectives but not directly aligned with the New perspectives movement include Robert Shank (author of 'Elect in the Son'), [[David Pawson]] (British teacher/theologian and author of ''Once Saved, Always Saved?''), Paul Marston and Roger Forster (co-authors of ''God's Strategy in Human History''), Jerry Walls and Joseph Dongell (professors at [[Asbury Theological Seminary]] and co-authors of ''Why I Am Not a Calvinist'').
==Theology==
Arminian theology usually falls into one of two groups - Classical Arminianism, drawn from the teaching of Jacobus Arminius - and Wesleyan Arminian, drawing primarily from Wesley. Both groups overlap substantially. In addition,
===Classical Arminianism===
[[Image:Arminius.jpg|thumbnail|300px|right|Portrait of [[Jacobus Arminius]].]]
Classical Arminianism (sometimes titled Reformed Arminianism or Reformation Arminianism) is the theological system that was presented by [[Jacobus Arminius]] and maintained by the [[Remonstrants]]{{ref|5-Ashby}}; its influence serves as the foundation for all Arminian systems. A list of beliefs is given below:
*'''Depravity is [[Total depravity | total]]''': Arminius states "In this [fallen] state, the free will of man towards the true good is not only wounded, infirm, bent, and weakend; but it is also imprisoned, destroyed, and lost. And its powers are not only debilitated and useless unless they be assisted by grace, but it has no powers whatever except such as are excited by Divine grace."{{ref|6-Arminius}}
*'''Atonement is intended [[Unlimited atonement | for all]]''': Jesus' death was for all people, Jesus draws all people to himself, and all people have opportunity for salvation through faith.{{ref|7-Arminius}}
*'''Jesus' death [[Atonement (Satisfaction view) | satisfies]] God's justice''': The penalty for the sins of the elect are paid in full through Jesus' work on the cross. Thus Christ's atonement is intended for all, but requires faith to be effected. Arminius states "Justification, when used for the act of a Judge, is either purely the imputation of righteoussness through mercy...or that man is justified before God...according to the rigour of justice without any forgiveness."{{ref|8-Arminius}} Stephen Ashby clarifies "Arminius allowed for only two possible ways in which the sinner might be justified: (1) by our absolute and perfect adherence to the law, or (2) purely by God's imputation of Christ's righteousness.&qu |
is difference from the civil day often leads to confusion. Events starting at midnight are often announced as occurring the day before. TV-guides tend to list nightly programs at the previous day, although programming a [[Videocassette recorder|VCR]] requires the strict logic of starting the new day at 00:00 (to further confuse the issue, VCRs set to the [[12-hour clock]] notation will label this "12:00 AM"). Expressions like "today", "yesterday" and "tomorrow" become ambiguous during the night.
Validity of [[ticket]]s, passes, etc., for a day or a number of days may end at midnight, or closing time, when that is earlier. However, if a service (e.g. [[public transport]]) operates from e.g. 6:00 to 1:00, the last hour may well count as being part of the previous day (also for the arrangement of the [[timetable]]). For services depending on the day ("closed on Sundays", "does not run on Fridays", etc.) there is a risk of ambiguity. As an example, for the [[Dutch Railways]], a day ticket is valid 28 hours, from 0:00 to 4:00 the next night.
==List of famous days==
* [[Black Monday]]
* [[Black Friday]]
* [[Bloody Sunday]]
* [[D-Day]]
* [[The Day The Music Died]]
* [[Ides of March]]
* [[Judgement Day]]
* [[September 11, 2001]]
See also [[List of commemorative days]]
==People named Day==
Some noted people with the name Day include [[Doris Day]], [[Laraine Day]], [[Stockwell Day]], [[Dennis Day]], [[Dorothy Day]], and [[Howie Day]].
==See also==
* [[1 E4 s|times from 10 kiloseconds to 100 kiloseconds]]
* [[night]]
* [[Calculating the day of the week]]
* [[Daylight saving time]]
* [[season]], for a discussion of daylight and darkness near the poles and the equator and places in-between
* [[Dagr]]
* [[Battle of Day's Gap]]
==External links==
*[http://www.fourmilab.ch/cgi-bin/uncgi/Earth/action?opt=-p&img=learth.evif Show where it is daytime at the moment]
*[http://ptaff.ca/soleil/?lang=en_CA Sunrise and sunset, all year long, anywhere]
[[Category:Units of time]]
[[als:Tag]]
[[bg:Ден]]
[[be:Дзень]]
[[ca:Dia]]
[[cs:Den]]
[[da:Dag]]
[[de:Tag]]
[[et:Ööpäev]]
[[es:Día]]
[[eo:Tago]]
[[eu:Egun]]
[[fr:Jour]]
[[fy:Dei]]
[[ko:일 (시간)]]
[[hr:Dan]]
[[id:Hari]]
[[ilo:Aldaw]]
[[is:Sólarhringur]]
[[it:Giorno]]
[[he:יממה]]
[[ka:დღე]]
[[la:dies]]
[[lt:Diena]]
[[mk:Ден]]
[[nah:Tonalli]]
[[nl:Dag]]
[[nds:Dag]]
[[ja:日]]
[[no:Dag]]
[[nn:Dag]]
[[pl:Doba]]
[[pt:Dia]]
[[ru:День]]
[[sq:Dita]]
[[simple:Day]]
[[sl:Dan]]
[[sr:Дан]]
[[fi:Vuorokausi]]
[[sv:Dag]]
[[tl:Araw (panahon)]]
[[ta:நாள்]]
[[tt:Kön]]
[[th:วัน]]
[[uk:День]]
[[zh:日]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Database</title>
<id>8377</id>
<revision>
<id>41077087</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-24T22:22:49Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>167.79.215.231</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">A '''database''' is an organized collection of data. The term originated within the computer industry, but its meaning has been broadened by popular use, to the extent that the [[EU Database Directive|European Database Directive]] (which creates intellectual property rights for databases) includes non-electronic databases within its definition. This article is confined to a more technical use of the term; though even amongst computing professionals, some attach a much wider meaning to the word than others.
One possible definition is that a database is a collection of [[Database record|records]] stored in a computer in a systematic way, such that a [[computer program]] can consult it to answer questions. For better retrieval and sorting, each record is usually organized as a set of [[data element]]s (facts). The items retrieved in answer to queries become [[information]] that can be used to make decisions. The computer program used to manage and query a database is known as a [[database management system]] (DBMS). The properties and design of database systems are included in the study of [[information science]].
The central concept of a database is that of a collection of records, or pieces of knowledge. Typically, for a given database, there is a structural description of the type of facts held in that database: this description is known as a '''schema'''. The schema describes the objects that are represented in the database, and the relationships among them. There are a number of different ways of organizing a schema, that is, of modeling the database structure: these are known as [[database model]]s (or data models). The model in most common use today is the [[relational model]], which in layman's terms represents all information in the form of multiple related tables each consisting of rows and columns (the true definition uses mathematical terminology). This model represents relationships by the use of values common to more than one table. Other models such as the [[hierarchical model]] and the [[network model]] use a more explicit representation of relationships.
Strictly speaking, the term ''database'' refers to the collection of related records, and the software should be referred to as the ''database management system'' or DBMS. When the context is unambiguous, however, many database administrators and programmers use the term ''database'' to cover both meanings.
Many professionals would consider a collection of data to constitute a database only if it has certain properties: for example, if the data is managed to ensure its integrity and quality, if it allows shared access by a community of users, if it has a schema, or if it supports a [[query language]]. However, there is no agreed definition of these properties.
Database management systems are usually categorized according to the data model that they support: relational, object-relational, network, and so on. The data model will tend to determine the query languages that are available to access the database. A great deal of the internal engineering of a DBMS, however, is independent of the data model, and is concerned with managing factors such as performance, concurrency, integrity, and recovery from hardware failures. In these areas there are large differences between products.
==History==
The earliest known use of the term '''data base''' was in June [[1963]], when the [[System Development Corporation]] sponsored a symposium under the title ''Development and Management of a Computer-centered Data Base''. '''Database''' as a single word became common in [[Europe]] in the early [[1970s]] and by the end of the decade it was being used in major American newspapers. ('''Databank''', a comparable term, had been used in the ''Washington Post'' newspaper as early as [[1966]].)
The first database management systems were developed in the [[1960s]]. A pioneer in the field was [[Charles Bachman]]. Bachman's early papers show that his aim was to make more effective use of the new direct access storage devices becoming available: until then, data processing had been based on [[punch card|punched cards]] and [[magnetic tape]], so that serial processing was the dominant activity. Two key [[data model]]s arose at this time: [[CODASYL]] developed the [[network model]] based on Bachman's ideas, and (apparently independently) the [[hierarchical model]] was used in a system developed by [[North American Rockwell]], later adopted by [[IBM]] as the cornerstone of their [[Information Management System|IMS]] product.
The [[relational model]] was proposed by [[Edgar F. Codd|E. F. Codd]] in [[1970]]. He criticized existing models for confusing the abstract description of information structure with descriptions of physical access mechanisms. For a long while, however, the relational model remained of academic interest only. While [[CODASYL]] systems and [[IMS]] were conceived as practical engineering solutions taking account of the technology as it existed at the time, the relational model took a much more theoretical perspective, arguing (correctly) that hardware and software technology would catch up in time. Among the first implementations were [[Michael Stonebraker]]'s [[Ingres]] at [[University of California, Berkeley|Berkeley]], and the [[System R]] project at [[IBM]]. Both of these were research prototypes, announced during [[1976]]. The first commercial products, [[Oracle database|Oracle]] and [[DB2]], did not appear until around [[1980]]. The first successful database product for microcomputers was [[dBASE]] for the [[CP/M]] and [[PC-DOS]]/[[MS-DOS]] operating systems.
During the [[1980s]], research activity focused on [[distributed database]] systems and [[database machine|database machines]], but these developments had little effect on the market. Another important theoretical idea was the [[Functional Data Model]], but apart from some specialized applications in genetics, molecular biology, and fraud investigation, the world took little notice.
In the [[1990s]], attention shifted to [[OODB|object-oriented databases]]. These had some success in fields where it was necessary to handle more complex data than relational systems could easily cope with, such as spatial databases, engineering data (including software engineering [[repository|repositories]],) and multimedia data. Some of these ideas were adopted by the relational vendors, who integrated new features into their products as a result.
In the [[2000s]], the fashionable area for innovation is the [[XML database]]. As with object databases, this has spawned a new collection of startup companies, but at the same time the key ideas are being integrated into the established relational products. XML databases aim to remove the traditional divide between documents and data, allowing all of an organization's information resources to be held in one place, whether they are highly structured or not.
==Database models==
Various techniques are used to model data structure. Most database systems are built around one particular data model, although it is increasing |
я)]]
[[sk:Andromeda (mytológia)]]
[[sl:Andromeda (mitologija)]]
[[fi:Andromeda (mytologia)]]
[[sv:Andromeda (mytologi)]]
[[uk:Андромеда]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Antlia</title>
<id>1926</id>
<revision>
<id>39502903</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-13T23:28:20Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>RJHall</username>
<id>91076</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* Notable and named stars */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Constellation|
name = Antlia |
abbreviation = Ant |
genitive = Antliae |
symbology = the pump |
RA = 10 |
dec= &minus;30 |
areatotal = 239 |
arearank = 62nd |
numberstars = 0 |
starname = [[Alpha Antliae|&alpha; Ant]] |
starmagnitude = 4.25 |
meteorshowers = None |
bordering =
*[[Hydra (constellation)|Hydra]]
*[[Pyxis]]
*[[Vela (constellation)|Vela]]
*[[Centaurus]] |
latmax = 45 |
latmin = 90 |
month = April |
notes=}}
The [[constellation]] '''Antlia''' ([[Latin]] for ''[[pump]]'') is a relatively new constellation as it was only created in the [[18th century]], being too faint to be acknowledged by the ancient Greeks. The [[International Astronomical Union|IAU]] adopted it as one of the 88 modern constellations. Beginning at the north, Antlia is surrounded by the sea snake [[Hydra (constellation)|Hydra]], the compass [[Pyxis]], the sails ([[Vela (constellation)|Vela]]) of the mythological ship [[Argo]] and finally the centaur [[Centaurus]].
==Notable features==
Antlia is a faint constellation void of bright stars. Its least faint star is:
*[[Alpha Antliae|&alpha; Ant]]: being Antlia's principal star its apparent brightness is still only 4.25 mag. Its spectral class is K4&nbsp;III
==Notable deep sky objects==
*[[NGC 2997]]: [[Spiral galaxy]] of type Sc which is inclined 45° to our line of sight.
*[[NGC 3132]]: This [[planetary nebula]] is also called ''Eight Burst Nebula'' or ''Southern Ring Nebula''. At its heart is a binary system.
*[[PGC 29194]]: This [[dwarf spheroidal galaxy]] with an apparent brightness of only 14.8m belongs to our [[Local Group]] of galaxies. It was only discovered as recently as [[1997]].[http://antwrp.gsfc.nasa.gov/apod/ap970423.html]
==History==
The French astronomer Abbé [[Nicolas Louis de Lacaille]] created 13 constellations for the southern sky to fill some star poor regions, among them Antlia. It was originally denominated ''Antlia pneumatica'' (Latin for the [[air pump]] invented by [[Robert Boyle]]) which is why in English this constellation is also often called Air Pump.
It is interesting to note that no attempt seems to have been made to assign [[Bayer designation|Bayer letters]] according to their apparent brightness.
There is no mythology attached to Antlia as Lacaille discontinued the tradition of giving names from mythology to constellations and instead chose mostly names of instruments used in science.
==Notable and named stars==
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! [[Bayer designation|BD]]
! Names and other designations
! [[apparent magnitude|Mag.]]
! [[Light year|Ly]] away
! Comments
|-
| &alpha; || [[Alpha Antliae]] || 4.28 || 366 ||
|-
| &epsilon; || [[Epsilon Antliae]] || 4.51 || 700 ||
|-
| &iota; || [[Iota Antliae]] || 4.60 || 199 ||
|-
| &theta; || [[Theta Antliae]] || 4.78 || 384 ||
|-
| &eta; || [[Eta Antliae]] || 5.23 || 106 ||
|-
| || [[U Antliae]] || 5.50 || 840 || [[carbon star]]
|-
| &delta; || [[Delta Antliae]] || 5.57 || 481 ||
|-
| &zeta;&sup1; || [[Zeta Antliae|Zeta-1 Antliae]] || 5.75 || 372 || [[binary star]]; component magnitudes: 6.18, 7.00
|-
| &zeta;&sup2; || [[Zeta Antliae|Zeta-2 Antliae]] || 5.91 || 374 ||
|-
| || [[HD 93083]] || 8.33 || 94.2 || has a planet
|}
Source: <cite>The Bright Star Catalogue, 5th Revised Ed.</cite>, <cite>The Hipparcos Catalogue, ESA SP-1200</cite>
The faint star [[DENIS 1048-39]], discovered in [[2000]] and located in the Antilia constellation, may be as close as 13.2 light years from the Sun.[http://www.hawaii.edu/ur/News_Releases/NR_Nov00/lowmass.html]
<!-- Source of values for "nebulae": SEDS' data on NGC -->
==See also==
{{ConstellationsByLacaille}}
{{ConstellationList}}
== External links ==
{{Commons|Antlia}}
[[Category:Antlia constellation|*]]
* [http://www.nightskyinfo.com/constellations/antlia/ NightSkyInfo.com: Constellation Antlia]
[[ca:Màquina Pneumàtica (constel·lació)]]
[[da:Luftpumpen]]
[[de:Luftpumpe (Sternbild)]]
[[es:Antlia]]
[[fr:Machine pneumatique]]
[[ga:An tAerchaidéal]]
[[ko:공기펌프자리]]
[[id:Antlia]]
[[it:Antlia]]
[[la:Antlia (sidus)]]
[[lt:Siurblys (astronomija)]]
[[hu:Légszivattyú (csillagkép)]]
[[nl:Luchtpomp (sterrenbeeld)]]
[[ja:ポンプ座]]
[[nn:Luftpumpa]]
[[pl:Pompa (gwiazdozbiór)]]
[[pt:Antlia]]
[[ru:Насос (созвездие)]]
[[sk:Súhvezdie Výveva]]
[[th:กลุ่มดาวเครื่องสูบลม]]
[[vi:Tức Đồng]]
[[zh:唧筒座]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Ara (constellation)</title>
<id>1927</id>
<revision>
<id>40039033</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-17T18:06:54Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>AstroMalasorte</username>
<id>527461</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* External links */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Constellation|
name = Ara |
abbreviation = Ara |
genitive = Arae |
symbology = the Altar |
RA = 17.39 |
dec= &minus;53.58 |
areatotal = 237 |
arearank = 63rd |
numberstars = 1 |
starname = [[Beta Arae|&beta; Ara]] |
starmagnitude = 2.9 |
meteorshowers = None |
bordering =
*[[Corona Australis]]
*[[Scorpius]]
*[[Norma (constellation)|Norma]]
*[[Triangulum Australe]]
*[[Apus]]
*[[Pavo (constellation)|Pavo]]
*[[Telescopium]] |
latmax = 25 |
latmin = 90 |
month = July |
notes=}}
'''Ara''' ([[Latin]] for ''[[Altar]]'') is a faint southerly [[constellation]] between the constellations [[Telescopium]] and [[Norma (constellation)|Norma]].
== Notable features ==
Ara's brightest star, [[Beta Arae|&beta; Arae]], has an [[apparent magnitude]] of 2.9. Its &gamma; star is a [[double star]] just south of &beta;. [[Mu Arae|&mu; Arae]] is believed to have at least three planets orbiting it, one of which is thought to be rocky in nature.
== Notable deep sky objects ==
The northwest corner of Ara is crossed by the [[Milky Way]] and contains several [[open cluster]]s and [[diffuse nebula]]e. The brightest of the [[globular cluster]]s, [[NGC 6397]], is 8,200 [[light-year]]s from our [[solar system]] and may be the closest cluster of that kind.
== History ==
This constellation was one of [[Ptolemy]]'s original 48 constellations.
== Mythology ==
The altar, usually depicted upside down, but sometimes upright with the smoke drifting into the Milky Way, was identified as that of the [[centaur]] [[Chiron]]; its original Latin name was Ara Centauri. It was also occasionally called the altar of [[Dionysus]]. Since, however, the constellation was identified, and introduced, in the 18th Century, connection to this mythology is likely to have been by design of the constellation's creator, and unconnected to the actual beliefs of the ancient Greeks about this area of sky.
==Notable and named stars==
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! [[Bayer designation|BD]]
! Names and other designations
! [[apparent magnitude|Mag.]]
! [[Light year|Ly]] away
! Comments
|-
| &beta; || [[Beta Arae]] || 2.85 || 603 ||
|-
| &alpha; || [[Alpha Arae]], Choo, Tchou || 2.95 || 242 ||
* < &#26485; (Mandarin ''ch&#468;'') The pestle
* [[Be star]]
|-
| &zeta; || [[Zeta Arae]], Tseen Yin || 3.12 || 574 ||
* < &#22825;&#38512; (Mandarin ''ti&#257;ny&#299;n'') The dark sky [actually in Aries?]
|-
| &gamma; || [[Gamma Arae]] || 3.34 || 1140 ||
|-
| &delta; || [[Delta Arae]], Tseen Yin || 3.62 || 187 ||
* < &#22825;&#38512; (Mandarin ''ti&#257;ny&#299;n'') The dark sky [actually in Aries?]
|-
| &theta; || [[Theta Arae]] || 3.65 || 1010 ||
|-
| &eta; || [[Eta Arae]] || 3.77 || 313 ||
|-
| &epsilon;&sup1; || [[Epsilon Arae|Epsilon-1 Arae]], Tso Kang || 4.06 || 304 ||
* < &#24038;&#26356; (Mandarin ''zu&#335;g&#275;ng'') The left watch [actually in Aries?]
|-
| &sigma; || [[Sigma Arae]] || 4.56 || 386 ||
|-
| &lambda; || [[Lambda Arae]] || 4.76 || 71.3 ||
|-
| &mu; || [[Mu Arae]] || 5.14 || 49.8 ||
* has three planets
|-
| &kappa; || [[Kappa Arae]] || 5.19 || 398 ||
|-
| &iota; || [[Iota Arae]] || 5.21 || 720 ||
* [[Gamma Cassiopeiae variable|Gamma Cassiopeiae type]] [[variable star]]
|-
| &pi; || [[Pi Arae]] || 5.25 || 138 ||
|-
| &epsilon;&sup2; || [[Epsilon Arae|Epsilon-2 Arae]] || 5.27 || 85.9 ||
|-
| &nu;&sup1;, &upsilon;&sup1; || [[Nu Arae|Nu-1 Arae]], Upsilon-1 Arae, V539 Arae || 5.68 || 820 ||
* [[eclipsing binary]]
|-
| &nu;&sup2;, &upsilon;&sup2; || [[Nu Arae|Nu-2 Arae]], Upsilon-2 Arae || 6.09 || 508 ||
|}
Source: <cite>The Bright Star Catalogue, 5th Revised Ed.</cite>, <cite>The Hipparcos Catalogue, ESA SP-1200</cite>
== See also ==
{{ConstellationsListedByPtolemy}}
{{ConstellationList}}
== External links ==
{{Commons|Ara}}
* [http://www.allthesky.com/constellations/norma/ The Deep Photographic Guide to the Constellations: Ara]
* [http://www.nightskyinfo.com/constellations/ara/ NightSkyInfo.com: Constellation Ara]
<!-- The below are interlanguage links. -->
[[Category:Ara constellation| ]]
[[ca:Altar (constel·lació)]]
[[cs:Oltář (souhvězdí)]]
[[da:Alteret]]
[[de:Altar (Sternbild)]]
[[es:Ara]]
[[fr:Autel (constellation)]]
[[ga:An Altóir]]
[[ko:제단자리]]
[[id:Ara]]
[[it:Ara (astronomia)]]
[[la:Ara (sidus)]]
[[lt:Aukuras (astronomija)]]
[[hu:Oltár (csillagkép)]]
[[nl:Altaar (sterrenbeeld)]]
[[ja:さいだん座]]
[[nn:Alteret]]
[[pl:Ołtarz (gwiazdozbiór)]]
[[pt:Ara]]
[[ru:Жертвенник (созвездие)]]
[[sk:Súhvezdie Oltár]]
[[sv:Altaret |
ize an educational system if it seems to place minimal emphasis on academic and intellectual accomplishment or a [[government]]'s tendency to formulate policies without consultation with authoritative and [[scholarly method|scholarly]] study on the issues in question.
== Causes ==
Anti-intellectual beliefs can come from a variety of sources. These include:
=== Religion ===
Although most [[religion]]s have rich intellectual traditions, many often rely on [[argument from authority|arguments from authority]] that are not indepedently verifiable, along with a somewhat common tendency to reject secular critical traditions.
The [[Evangelicalism|Evangelical]] and [[fundamentalism|fundamentalist]] wings of a religion are the most likely to harbor anti-intellectual sentiments, though not all such groups can be described in this way and many pride themselves on their scholarly traditions.
Some religions have [[doctrine]]s that affirm statements about [[natural history|natural]] or human [[history]], the [[provenance]] of [[sacred text]]s, and other matters that may be investigated by outside [[scholarly method|scholarship]]; this can give rise to conflict. However, religious anti-intellectualism is not confined to hostility against science: When [[bohemianism]] and [[romanticism]] become major factors in the fine arts, religious believers may perceive these trends to be subversive of [[morality]] and call for [[censorship]]. This has been a fairly common theme in socio-cultural trends in the Americas and Europe since the time of the [[Protestant Reformation|Reformation]]. Some would argue, however, that this is just moral conservatism, which is distinct from anti-intellectualism, though the two positions are allied in many cases.
=== Authoritarian politics ===
Anti-intellectualism is often used by [[dictators]] or those seeking to establish [[dictatorships]]. The educated class has often been seen by totalitarian elements as a threat because of the tendency of intellectuals to use logic and reason to question situations they see as unjust. Thus, often violent anti-intellectual backlashes are common during the rise and rule of oppressive political movements, such [[fascism]], [[communism]] and [[theocracy]]. Because many intellectuals refuse to identify with [[nationalism]], they are also commonly portrayed as [[patriotism|unpatriotic]].
The most extreme dictatorships, such as that of the [[Khmer Rouge]], simply liquidated intellectuals as a class, while other regimes, like [[Iran]], use a policy of harassment, intimidation and sporadic imprisonment and execution against intellectuals. In addition, intellectuals in countries ruled by authoritarian governments are often subject to popular condemnation and used as scapegoats to divert the anger of the public away from those in power. Anti-intellectualism is not necessarily violent however, and not necessarily oppressive. Anti-intellectual attitudes can be held by any group, including non-violent ones, as well as by individuals who merely disfavor intellectualism and learning in general.
=== Populism ===
[[Populism]] is another major strain of anti-intellectualism. Intellectuals are presented as [[elitism|elitists]] and tricksters whose knowledge and [[rhetoric|rhetorical]] skills are feared, not because they are useless, but because they may be used to hoodwink the ordinary people, who are conceived of as the 'salt of the earth' and the source of virtue.
In a similar vein, the curiosity and objectivity of intellectuals about foreign countries and beliefs is portrayed by populists as a lack of [[patriotism]] or [[moral clarity]], and intellectuals are often held to be suspect of holding dangerously foreign, possibly subversive, opinions. This kind of anti-intellectualism is common in the United States and in an extreme form was embodied by [[Joseph McCarthy]], the fanatically [[anti-Communism|anti-Communist]] [[U.S. senator|senator]] from [[Wisconsin]].
=== Corporate culture ===
[[Corporation|Corporate]] culture in modern times has demonstrated a general preference for '[[pragmatism]]', and this is an occasional source of hostility toward learning. The idea here is that education is a costly and useless distraction from the more important business of making [[money]]. Reading and writing are solitary ventures, and according to this viewpoint these activities do little to make a person more affable or conventional, and does not foster an aptitude for [[marketing]] or acumen for [[investment]] in profitable ventures. It is feared that intellectuals may acquire [[ethics|ethical]] and [[politics|political]] ideas that may impede business or make its practices distasteful. Scientific and [[technology|technological]] learning may be given a grudging respect; but the [[art|arts]], [[literature]], [[philosophy]], and similar [[culture|cultural]] pursuits are all considered a waste of time at best and subversive at worst. Those who pursue them are supposed to inhabit an '[[ivory tower]]' of [[academy|academia]], full of grand plans whose practice is seen as impossibly flawed.
According to this view, education should be a sort of [[apprentice]]ship, rather than being done on the model of [[classical education]] based on [[Greek language|Greek]] and [[Latin]] [[grammar]] and literature. The educational [[philosophy]] of [[John Dewey]], founded on these assumptions, has had some influence on education in the USA, although it must be said that Dewey was also a philosopher and an atheist - two qualities guaranteed to raise suspicions among anti-intellectuals.
==Issues within the educational system==
The educational system may serve as a powerful tool for forming the culture of a nation. In the English speaking world, particularly in the [[United States|USA]] and [[England]], the schools and universities have often been criticized for being overtaken by overtly anti-intellectual trends and hence not preparing the youth properly to be members of society who would be cultured, prepared for challenging jobs, and capable of independent thought.
====In primary and secondary schools====
In schools there is often seen to be a lack of emphasis on mathematics and the sciences, accompanied by the rewriting of [[history]] curricula to de-emphasize facts in favor of political agendas, which may be either left-wing, such as [[political correctness]], or right-wing [[nationalist]] narratives. Such critics would say, for example, that not teaching students [[multiplication table]]s in [[primary school]] and not making sure that they learn [[algebra]] by graduation is a blatant example of anti-intellectualism and malfeasance on the part of many schools. They would similarly criticize allowing students to graduate without learning the key facts about their country's national [[history]], or without having read any [[William Shakespeare|Shakespeare]].
Many critics of anti-intellectualism would also suggest the push to teach [[creationism]] (or [[Intelligent Design]]) over [[evolution]] is an example of anti-intellectualism.
=====The demands of youth culture=====
A major preserve of real, though hardly militant or even self-aware anti-intellectualism in the contemporary world is a youth subculture often associated with those students who are more interested in social life or athletics than in their studies. Such subcultures, often marked by [[cliques]], exist among students of all groups. Commercial [[youth culture]] also generates a dizzying variety of [[fad|fads]]. Keeping up with the trends is difficult, and their content is frequently criticised by cultural critics of many different persuasions for being simple-minded and pandering to unsophisticated appetites. Pursuing [[popularity]] has been likened by [[blog]] writer [[Paul Graham]] to a full time job that leaves little time for intellectual interests.
In the current of anti-intellectualism among [[African American]] youth is the perception that focusing on school studies means "acting white". Authors associated with this view include [[John McWhorter]], whose book ''Losing the Race: Self-Sabotage in Black America'' (Harper, 2001, ISBN 0060935936) collects narratives and criticizes the cultivation of "[[African-American vernacular English|ebonics]]" as an alternative speech norm, specifically labelling this as an instance of anti-intellectualism. Conservative commentator [[Dinesh D'Souza]] is also associated with this view. [[Henry Louis Gates]] cited an informal poll in which African-American students in the [[Washington, DC]] area were asked what constituted "acting white"; according to Gates "the top three things were: making [[Grading in the United States|straight A]]'s, speaking [[standard English]] and going to the [[Smithsonian]]". [http://www.neh.gov/whoweare/gates/lecture.html] Needless to say, there are plenty of anti-intellectual white students also, especially among the rural contingent and the children of the [[The Theory of the Leisure Class|leisure class]].
[[Image:Astevenson.jpg|frame|[[Adlai Stevenson]] was called an "[[egghead]]" by [[Richard Nixon]] during the [[U.S. presidential election, 1952|1952 US presidential race]].]]
====In colleges====
In the realm of [[higher education]] concerns are generally threefold:
=====Political bias=====
One type of criticism is based upon the perception that university professors and other academicians have increasingly inculcated their own political ideologies into pedagogical interactions and professional research at the cost of the quality, objectivity, and appropriateness of each. This claim is more often made by those individuals on the conservative side of the American political spectrum against political [[liberals]], as understood in a contemporary sense of the term. Whether this focus on the proverbial "ivory tower left" is deserved is, rather unsuprisingly, the subject of much |
websites in Interlingua] at Open Directory Project
* [http://www.google.com/intl/ia/ Google in Interlingua]
* [http://www.europa.usenet.eu.org/ The europa.* Usenet hierarchy], which uses Interlingua for the denomination of its newsgroups and as one of the documentation languages
*[http://www.inlv.demon.nl/internodio/ Internodio] A website in Interlingua containing news items, of which some are also in audio (occasionally updated)
*[http://www.omniglot.com/writing/interlingua.htm Omniglot article on Interlingua]
*[http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Basic_Interlingua_English_Dictionary#P wikibooks English-Interlingua dictionary]
*[http://ia.wiktionary.org/wiki/Anglese-Interlingua English - Interlingua Dictionary]
[[Category:International auxiliary languages]]
[[Category:Interlingua|*]]
[[ca:Interlingua]]
[[cy:Interlingua]]
[[de:Interlingua (Plansprache)]]
[[es:Interlingua]]
[[eo:Interlingvao]]
[[fr:Interlingua]]
[[gl:Interlingua]]
[[ko:인테르링구아]]
[[ia:Interlingua]]
[[it:Interlingua]]
[[he:אינטרלינגואה]]
[[la:Interlingua]]
[[lt:Interlingua]]
[[hu:Interlingva nyelv]]
[[nl:Interlingua]]
[[ja:インターリングア]]
[[no:Interlingua]]
[[pl:Interlingua]]
[[pt:Interlíngua]]
[[ro:Interlingua]]
[[ru:Интерлингва]]
[[simple:Interlingua]]
[[sr:Интерлингва]]
[[fi:Interlingua]]
[[sv:Interlingua]]
[[zh:国际语]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Isotactic</title>
<id>15101</id>
<revision>
<id>27216231</id>
<timestamp>2005-11-03T02:52:20Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Nathaniel</username>
<id>435802</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[image:Isotacticpolymer.gif|right|Isotactic polymer chain]]'''Isotactic''' [[polymer]]s refer to those polymers formed by branched [[monomer]]s that have the characteristic of having all the branch groups on the same side of the [[polymeric chain]]. The monomers are all oriented in the same way: If we represent a monomer by AB then an isotactic polymer is AB-AB-AB-AB-AB-etc.
Besides Isotactism, there are other two types of stereoregularity or [[tacticity]] frequently found in the scientific literature:
[[Syndiotactic|Syndiotactism]]- The monomers have alternating orientations within the polymer chain:
AB-BA-AB-BA-AB-BA-etc.
and [[Atactic|Atactism]]- The monomers have random orientations within the chain:
e.g. AB-AB-BA-AB-BA-BA-BA-AB-etc.
[[Category:Polymer chemistry]][[category:stereochemistry]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Isle of Wight</title>
<id>15102</id>
<revision>
<id>41624068</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T16:27:29Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>137.222.216.94</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* External links */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}
{| class="infobox" style="width: 25em;"
|-
!colspan=2 align=center bgcolor="#ff9999"|Isle of Wight
|-
|colspan=2 align=center|[[Image:EnglandIsleWight.png]]
|-
!colspan=2 bgcolor="#ff9999"|Geography
|-
|width="45%"|Status:||[[Ceremonial counties of England|Ceremonial]] & [[Metropolitan and non-metropolitan counties of England|Non-metropolitan]]/[[Unitary authority|Unitary]] county
|-
|Region:||[[South East England]]
|-
|[[Surface area|Area]]:<br>- Total<br>- District||[[List of Ceremonial counties of England by Area|Ranked 46th]]<br>[[1 E8 m²|380]] [[square kilometre|km&sup2;]]<br>[[List of English districts by area|Ranked 122nd]]
|-
|Admin HQ:||[[Newport, Isle of Wight|Newport]]
|-
|[[ISO 3166-2:GB|ISO 3166-2]]:||GB-IOW
|-
|[[ONS coding system|ONS code]]:||00MW
|-
|[[Nomenclature of Territorial Units for Statistics|NUTS]] 3:||UKG11
|-
!colspan=2 bgcolor="#ff9999"|Demographics
|-
|[[Population]]<br />- Total ([[2004]] est.)<br />- [[Density]]<br />- District
|[[List of ceremonial counties of England by population|Ranked 46th]]<br />138,400<br />364 / km&sup2;<br />[[List of English districts by population|Ranked 125th]]
|-
|Ethnicity:||98.7% White
|-
!colspan=2 bgcolor="#ff9999"|Politics
|-
| align=center width=140px | [[Image:IOW_flag.png|150px]] || align=center width=140px | [[Image:IW_Arms.png|120px]]
|-
| align=center width=140px |'''Flag'''<br>[[Flag of the Isle of Wight|''(in detail)'']] || align=center width=140px |'''Arms'''<br>[[Isle of Wight Arms|''(in detail)'']]
|-
| align=center colspan=2 style=border-bottom:3px solid gray; | <font size=-1>''Motto: All this beauty is of God''</font>
|-
|colspan=2 align=center|Isle of Wight Council<br>http://www.iwight.gov.uk/
|-
|Executive:||[[Conservative Party (UK)|Conservative]]
|-
|[[MPs elected in the UK general election, 2005|MP]]:||[[Andrew Turner]]
|}
The '''Isle of Wight''' is an [[England|English]] [[island]], south of [[Southampton, England|Southampton]] off the southern English coast. It is part of the [[United Kingdom]].
Popularized from [[Victorian Era|Victorian times]] as a holiday resort, it is known for its natural beauty and as home to the [[Royal Yacht Squadron]] at [[Cowes]], a town that hosts a world famous annual [[Cowes Week|regatta]]. Colloquially, it is known as "The Island" by its residents. It possesses a rich history including its own brief status as a [[vassal]] kingdom in the [[fifteenth century]], home to poet [[Alfred Lord Tennyson]] and [[Victoria of the United Kingdom|Queen Victoria's]] much loved summer residence and final home [[Osborne House]]. Its maritime history encompasses boat building and sail making through to the manufacture of [[flying boat]]s and the world's first [[hovercraft]]. It is home to the [[Isle of Wight Festival]] which in [[1970]] was one of the largest [[rock music]] events ever held with estimates reaching 600,000 attendees, overtaking the record set at [[Woodstock]] a year earlier. The island is also one of the richest [[fossil]] locations for [[dinosaur]]s in [[Europe]]. In [[686|686AD]], it became the last part of [[Great Britain]] to convert to [[Christianity]] - almost a century after the mainland.
Until the revival of [[Rutland]] in [[1997]] it was the smallest [[county]] in England but it remains, with just one [[Member of Parliament]] and 132,731 permanent residents in the [[2001]] [[census]], the most populated [[List of Parliamentary constituencies in the United Kingdom|Parliamentary constituency]] in the [[United Kingdom]].
==Geography & Wildlife==
The Isle of Wight is approximately diamond in shape and covers an area of [[1 E8 m²|147 square miles (381 square km)]]. Nearly half this area, mainly in the west of the Island, is designated as the [[Isle of Wight AONB|Isle of Wight Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty]]. The landscape of the Island is remarkably diverse, leading to its oft-quoted description of "England in Miniature". The West Wight is predominantly rural, with dramatic coastlines dominated by the famous chalk [[downland]] ridge, running across the whole Island and ending in The Needles stacks - perhaps the most photographed aspect of the Isle of Wight. The highest point on the island is [[St Boniface Down]], at 241m/791ft, which is also a [[Marilyn (hill)|Marilyn]].
[[Image:Isle of Wight coastline.jpg|left|thumb|250px|The famous view at [[The Needles]] and [[Alum Bay]].]]
The rest of the Island landscape also has great diversity, with perhaps the most notable habitats being the soft cliffs and sea ledges, which are spectacular features as well as being very important for wildlife, and are internationally protected. The [[River Medina]] flows north into the [[Solent]], whilst the other main river, the [[Eastern Yar (river), Isle of Wight|River Yar]] flows roughly north-east, emerging at [[Bembridge]] Harbour on the eastern end of the Island. Confusingly, there is another entirely separate river at the western end also called the [[Western Yar (river), Isle of Wight|River Yar]] flowing the short distance from [[Freshwater, Isle of Wight|Freshwater]] Bay to a relatively large estuary at [[Yarmouth, Isle of Wight|Yarmouth]]. Where distinguishing the two becomes necessary, each may be referred to as the ''eastern'' or ''western'' Yar. The south coast of the island adjoins the [[English Channel]].
Island wildlife is remarkable, thought to be the only place in [[England]] where the [[red squirrel]] is flourishing, with a stable population. Unlike the rest of England, no [[grey squirrel]]s are to be found on the Island[http://www.iwight.com/living_here/environment/operation_squirrel.asp], nor are there any wild [[deer]], but instead rare and protected species such as the [[dormouse]], and many rare [[bat]]s can be found. The [[Glanville Fritillary]] butterfly, in the [[United Kingdom]] is largely restricted to the edges of the crumbling cliffs of the Isle of Wight.
[[Image:Wight.png|250px|right|thumb|'''Isle of Wight''' and the Solent]]
By far the main form of access is by [[boat]] from the mainland, regular [[ferry]] services being available from [[Lymington]] to [[Yarmouth, Isle of Wight|Yarmouth]], [[Southampton]] to East [[Cowes]], and [[Portsmouth]] to [[Fishbourne, Isle of Wight|Fishbourne]]. Foot passengers may also use the [[hovercraft]] service between [[Southsea]] and [[Ryde]] esplanade or two hi-speed [[catamaran]] services; from West Cowes to Southampton or Portsmouth Harbour Station to Ryde pier head. The latter provides a direct link between the rail systems of the Island and Mainland. The island is also served by airports for light [[aircraft]] at Bembridge and Sandown.
The island is the home of the smallest Train Operating Company in Britain's [[National Rail]] network, the [[Island Line, IOW | Island Line]], running some 8&frac12; miles from [[Ryde]] Pier Head to [[Shanklin]] down the eastern side of the island. The island also has a steam operated heritage railway, the [[Isle of Wight Steam Railway]], which connects with the Island Line a |
admitted nor denied he was Cooper." And when McCoy was directly asked whether he was Cooper he replied "I don't want to talk to you about it." The agent who killed McCoy is quoted as saying, "When I shot Richard McCoy, I shot D. B. Cooper at the same time." The widow of Richard McCoy, Karen Burns McCoy, sued and won a settlement from both the book's coauthors and its publisher.
===Duane Weber===
[[Image:duane_weber.jpg|left|frame|Duane Weber photograph, taken years after D.B. Cooper's hijacking]]
In August [[2000]], ''[[U.S. News and World Report]]'' ran an article about a widow in [[Pace, Florida]] named Jo Weber and her claim that her late husband, Duane Weber, had told her "I'm Dan Cooper" before his death in [[1995]]. She became suspicious and began checking into her late husband's background. Duane Weber had served in the Army during [[World War II]] and later had served time in a prison near the Portland airport. Mrs. Weber recalled that her husband had once had a nightmare where he talked in his sleep about jumping from a plane and said something about fingerprints on the aft stairs. She had once found an old plane ticket in his papers for Northwest Airlines that said SEA-TAC (Seattle-Tacoma Airport). She also mentioned that just before he died, Duane had revealed the cause of an old knee injury. "I got it jumping out of a plane," Jo recalls him saying.
[[Image:Duane Weber.gif|right|frame|Photograph of Duane Weber next to the FBI composite drawing of D.B. Cooper]]
Mrs. Weber also recounts a 1979 vacation the couple took to Seattle, "a sentimental journey," Duane told Jo Weber, with a visit to the Columbia River. She remembers how Duane oddly walked down to the banks of the Columbia by himself just four months before the portion of Cooper's cash was found in the same area.
One of the most convincing pieces of evidence Mrs. Weber related was the fact she had checked out a book on the Cooper case from the local library and saw notations in it that matched her husband's handwriting. Mrs. Weber began corresponding with FBI Agent Ralph Himmelsbach, the chief investigator of the Cooper case. Himmelsbach has said Weber is one of the best suspects he has come across.
Although the match between the composite drawing and pictures of Duane Weber must be considered inconclusive, recently, facial recognition [[software]] was used on 3,000 photographs (including that of Weber and two other suspects) to identify him as "the best match" of the 3,000.
==Cultural influences==
*The community of [[Ariel, Washington|Ariel]] in [[Cowlitz County, Washington]], commemorates the incident with an annual celebration called "D. B. Cooper Days."
*In 1981 an adventure [[Film|movie]] titled ''[[The Pursuit of D. B. Cooper]]'' was released starring [[Treat Williams]] as Cooper and [[Robert Duvall]] as a police officer pursuing him. It was directed by [[Roger Spottiswoode]].
*The [[television program|television series]] ''[[NewsRadio]]'' featured a [[story arc]] in which the character Jimmy James was arrested in the belief that he was D. B. Cooper. During trial, Cooper was actually found to be [[Adam West]]. Earlier in the series, James had been revealed to be [[Deep Throat (Watergate)|Deep Throat]].
* One [[The Far Side|Far Side]] comic showed a parachuting man holding a briefcase about to land in a [[Rottweiler]] pound. The caption read, "What really happened to D. B. Cooper."
* In the movie ''[[Without a Paddle]]'' the friends go on a trip to find D. B. Cooper's treasure.
* Oregon-native singer/songwriter [[Todd Snider]] wrote and performs a song about the famous mystery titled "D. B. Cooper." [http://launch.yahoo.com/track/1814802] [http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/tg/detail/-/B00004RJ5M/] [http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/tg/detail/-/B0000950X6/qid=1112026596/sr=8-2/]
* Rap/Rock Artist [[Kid Rock]] refers to "D. B. Cooper and the money he took" in his [[1998]] song "Bawitdaba."
* Underground hip-hopper [[MF Doom]] likens himself to D. B. Cooper in the song "Hoe Cakes", off the 'MM..Food' LP ([[2005]]) : "Average MCs is like a T.V. blooper. MF Doom, he's like D.B. Cooper - out with the moolah".
* A character in the [[Fox Broadcasting Company|Fox]] television program ''[[Prison Break]]'' was suspected by his fellow inmates to be D. B. Cooper. After repeatedly denying it throughout the season, the character admitted that he was, in fact, D. B. Cooper. He proved it by showing a dollar bill with the same serial number used for the ransom payment.
* [[Elwood Reid]] published a novel in 2004 titled ''[[D. B.]]'' In Reid's version, D. B. Cooper is a Vietnam vet named Fitch.
* D. B. Cooper's story almost certainly inspired the circumstances that the main protagonist finds himself in at the beginning and end of the [[Chuck Palahniuk]] novel ''[[Survivor (novel)|Survivor]]''.
* David Lynch's [[Twin Peaks]] FBI protagonist, Special Agent [[Dale Cooper]], shares the initials of the skyjacker, his full name being "Dale Bartholomew Cooper."
* [[Roger McGuinn]]'s self-titled 1973 solo album contains the song "Bag Full of Money" refering to Cooper's hijacking: "In the course of Korea I learned how to jump, In the card game of life I was holding a trump, -- Floating I'm floating on down thru the sky, Never had no ambition to learn how to fly, Be glad when it's over be happy to land, With this bag full of money I've got in my hands"
* In the late 1980s an American TV series named [[Unsolved Mysteries]] ran a segment specuating on Dan Cooper and came to the conclusion the drawing the FBI made was wrong and they had the face redrawn. They concluded it was probably McCoy.
==External links==
*[http://www.crimelibrary.com/criminal_mind/scams/DB_Cooper/ Crime Library: D. B. Cooper]
*[http://www.rotten.com/library/crime/unsolved-crimes/d-b-cooper/ Rotten Library: D. B. Cooper]
*[http://www.dbcooper.info DBCooper.Info]
[[Category:Hijackers|Cooper, D. B.]]
[[Category:Disappeared people|Cooper, D. B.]]
[[Category:Unsolved crimes|Cooper, D. B.]]
[[Category:Mysterious people|Cooper, D. B.]]
[[Category:American criminals|Cooper, D. B.]]
[[Category:1971|Cooper, D. B.]]
[[ja:D.B.クーパー事件]]
[[sv:DB Cooper]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Danewerk</title>
<id>8803</id>
<revision>
<id>15906750</id>
<timestamp>2004-12-22T01:26:40Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Grutness</username>
<id>117878</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>dab</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Danevirke]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Distributism</title>
<id>8805</id>
<revision>
<id>41863190</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T05:31:13Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Zerobot</username>
<id>461079</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* War */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Ontario_farm.jpg|right|thumb]]
'''Distributism''', also known as '''distributionism''' and '''distributivism''', is a [[third-way]] [[economics|economic]] philosophy formulated by such [[Catholic]] thinkers as [[G. K. Chesterton]] and [[Hilaire Belloc]] to apply the principles of social justice theoretically articulated by the [[Roman Catholic Church]]. According to distributism, the ownership of the means of production should be spread as widely as possible among the populace, rather than being centralized under the control of a few state bureaucrats (some forms of [[socialism]]) or a minority of resource-commanding individuals ([[capitalism]]). A summary of distributism is found in Chesterton's statement: "Too much capitalism does not mean too many capitalists, but too few capitalists" ("The Uses of Diversity", 1921).
Distributism has often been described as a [[third way]] of economic order besides socialism and capitalism. However, some people see it more as an aspiration, which has been successfully realised in the short term by commitment to the principles of [[subsidiarity]] and [[solidarity]] (these being built into financially independent local [[co-operative]]s). However, the elimination therein of [[usury]] and similar percentage-based [[profiteering]] in [[trade]] is still in the process of being theoretically justified (in terms of the [[laws of circulation]]), and legally generalised (by restatement of business aims in [[corporate law|company]] and [[banking law]]).
==History==
While the papal encyclicals were a starting point, Belloc and Chesterton based much of their suggestions of what to change today by analyzing what worked in medieval times before the development of the capitalist philosophy as first articluated by [[Jean Quidort]] (d. 1306) in the theory of ''[[homo economicus]]'' in ''[[De potestate regia et papali]].''
The articulation of Distributist ideas was based on 19th and 20th century [[Pope|Papal]] teachings, beginning with [[Pope Leo XIII]]'s ''[[Rerum Novarum]]''. In [[1930s]] [[United States|America]], distributism was treated in numerous essays by Chesterton, Belloc and others in ''[[The American Review]]'', published and edited by [[Seward Collins]].
Distributist thought was later adopted by the [[Catholic Worker]] movement, conjoining it with the thought of [[Dorothy Day]] and [[Peter Maurin]] concerning localized and independent communities. It also influenced the thought behind the Antigonish Movement, which implemented co-operatives and other measures to aid the poor in the Canadian Maritimes. Its practical implementation in the form of local co-operatives has recently been documented by [[Race Mathews]] in [[Jobs of Our Own]].
==Economic theory==
===Private property===
Under such a system, most people would be able to earn a living without having to rely on the use of the property of others |
hrax, botulinum, ricin)
=== Plants as sensors ===
Very recently, public research has been approved to set up some genetically modified plants that could, in an immediate future, being made profitable to alert the population and the authorities in the event of chemical or biological attack. These new plants specifically modified would change color in contact with certain chemical elements, or biological agents, likely to be used at the time of possible terrorist attacks. The plants &mdash; opportunely placed in public places &mdash; would lose their [[chlorophyll|green color]] quickly, thus setting off the alarm.
Arguments given to justify this option is that people are used to plants much more than to chemical sensors and the use in public places would not worry the population. Another argument is that these [[GMO]] sentinels could be deployed on vast geographical areas and their system of detection could be introduced into the [[evergreen|evergreen trees]] and the [[algae]] of the watery zones, making it possible for [[satellite]]s to supervise and perceive any change of color due to an hostile agent.
Reaction involves
* setting up local [[emergency medicine|emergency rooms]] and offices to immediately deal with the outcome in case of an attack
* instruction and training for local communities
* protective clothing for military personnel
* tracking down of people buying materials involved in biological warfare
Once the biological agent has been identified, it can be fought through vaccination of people before they are exposed. However, vaccines are not considered to be a perfect solution. A bioterrorist could develop novel, possibly artificial, [[pathogen]]s against which conventional [[vaccine]]s would be useless.
Consequently, some suggest that it would be interesting to look for ways of developing vaccines quickly enough for them to be created, mass-produced and distributed after an attack. This could involve progress in [[DNA sequencing]] so that an unknown pathogen's genes could be known very quickly. The resulting sequences could help in the development of an instant DNA vaccine.
Another major issue with vaccines is that they often have side-effects which are sometimes lethal, and hence a massive [[innoculation]] program may result in deaths and illness which would be unnecessary if no biological attack occurs. This issue has a particular with the smallpox and anthrax vaccines.
Making the vaccine is not the totality of the solution. It is rather easy to order soldiers to take the vaccine, but immunizing the population is not, in particular with a vaccine making people sick, with all the controversies already going around vaccination.
For these reasons, some feel that researchers should concentrate on ways to treat victims of biological weapons. For example, Ebola kills people by inducing a widespread inflammatory reaction (similar to [[toxic shock syndrome]]). This could be fought by a new and very powerful [[anti-inflammatory]] drug.
==Publications==
[http://www.liebertpub.com/bsp Biosecurity and Bioterrorism], published by Mary Ann Liebert, Inc., is a peer-reviewed journal that provides an international forum for debate and exploration of the many key strategic, scientific, and operational issues posed by biological weapons and bioterrorism. The indended audience for <em>Biosecurity and Bioterrorism</em> includes individuals with strategic, management, scientific, or operational responsibilities in fields that have a bearing on bioterrorism issues. These include professional fields such as medicine, public health, law, national security, bioscientific research, agriculture and food safety, drug and vaccine development, the media, and local government.
==See also==
* [[DARPA]]
* [[Biological weapon]]
* [[Biological Weapons Convention]]
== External links ==
*[http://www.biodefenseeducation.com BiodefenseEducation.org]
*[http://www.logicalimages.com/resourcesBTAgents.htm Bioterrorism Category A Agents - Information Resources]
* [http://www.GenomeNewsNetwork.org/categories/index/bioterror.php Bioterrorism News from Genome News Network (GNN)]
[[Category:Terrorism]]
[[Category:Biological warfare]]
[[cs:Bioterorismus]]
[[de:Bioterrorismus]]
[[es:Bioterrorismo]]
[[fr:Bioterrorisme]]
[[sl:Biološki terorizem]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Bitter</title>
<id>4394</id>
<revision>
<id>39857683</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-16T09:31:14Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
<id>82835</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Bitter''' can refer to:
{{Wiktionarypar|bitter}}
* [[Bitter_%28taste%29#Bitterness|Bitter]], one of the five basic tastes;
* [[Bitter (beer)|Bitter]], a kind of [[ale]] particularly popular in [[United Kingdom|Britain]] or
* [[Bitters]], an [[herb]]al preparation now used mostly in [[cocktail]]s.
* [[Bitter Cars|Bitter]], a [[Germany|German]] [[car]] company
* [[Bitterness (emotion)|Bitterness]], an [[emotion]].
* [[Francis Bitter]], American physicist
{{disambig}}
[[de:Bitter (Begriffsklärung)]]
[[nl:Bitter]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>B-2 Spirit</title>
<id>4396</id>
<revision>
<id>42147020</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T03:13:51Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>DarthJesus</username>
<id>1025311</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Combat */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve"><!-- This article is a part of [[Wikipedia:WikiProject Aircraft]]. Please see [[Wikipedia:WikiProject Aircraft/page content]] for recommended layout. -->
[[image:usaf.b2.spirit.750pix.jpg|thumb|300px|The [[United States Air Force]] is the only air force that operates the B-2 Spirit.]]
The '''B-2 Spirit''' is an [[United States|American]] multi-role [[stealth aircraft|stealth]] [[bomber]] capable of delivering both conventional and [[nuclear weapons]]. A dramatic leap forward in technology, the bomber represented a major milestone in the [[United States|U.S.]] bomber modernization program. The B-2 is the most expensive plane ever built. Estimates for the costs per plane range from $2.2 billion [[United States dollar|USD]] [http://www.aerospaceweb.org/aircraft/bomber/b2/] to $1.157 billion [http://www.cdi.org/issues/aviation/B296.html]. Its stealth technology is intended to help it penetrate defenses previously unpenetrable by combat aircraft. The original procurement of 135 aircraft was later reduced to 75 in the late 1980s. Finally, President [[George H. W. Bush]] reduced the final buy quantity to the 21 already bought in his now famous "New World Order" State of the Union speech in January, 1991.
==Features==
[[Image:b2_spirit.jpg|thumb|300px|This B-2 has just disengaged from [[aerial refueling]] over the Pacific Ocean. Inflight refueling capability gives the B-2 virtually unlimited range.]]
Along with the [[B-52 Stratofortress]] and [[B-1 Lancer|B-1B]], the U.S. military contends that the B-2 provides the penetrating flexibility and effectiveness inherent in manned bombers. Its low-observable, or "stealth," characteristics give it the ability to penetrate an enemy's most sophisticated defenses and threaten its most valued, and heavily defended, targets. Its capability to thwart air defenses and threaten effective retaliation should provide a strong, effective deterrent and serious combat force well into the 21st century.
The revolutionary blending of low-observable technologies with high aerodynamic efficiency and large payload gives the B-2 important advantages over pre-existing bombers. Its traveling range is approximately 6,000 [[nautical mile]]s (11,100 km) without refueling. Also its low-observation ability provides the B-2 greater freedom of action at high altitudes, thus increasing its range and a better field of view for the aircraft's sensors. With its GPS Aided Targeting System (GATS) combined with GPS-aided munitions such as [[Joint Direct Attack Munition|JDAM]] it can use its [[APQ-181 B-2 Radar|APQ-181]] radar to correct GPS errors of targets and gain much better than laser-guided weapon accuracy with "dumb" gravity bombs with a GPS-aided "smart" guidance tail kit attached. It can destroy 16 targets in a single pass.
The B-2's stealth characteristics are derived from a combination of reduced infrared, acoustic, electromagnetic, visual, and radar signatures, making it difficult for defensive systems to detect, track and engage. Many aspects of the low-observability process remain classified; however, the B-2's composite materials, special coatings, and [[flying wing]] design all contribute to its "stealthiness."
The B-2 has a crew of two pilots, a pilot in the left seat and mission commander in the right, compared to the B-1B's crew of four and the B-52's crew of five.
==History==
The B-2 started life as a "[[black project|black program]]" known as the High Altitude Penetrating Bomber (HAPB), it then became the Advanced Technology Bomber (ATB) and used the project code word Senior Cejay, it later became the B-2 Spirit. An estimated 23 billion dollars was secretly spent for research and development on the B-2 in the 1980s. An additional cost driver was that the mission was changed in [[1985 in aviation|1985]] from a high altitude bomber to a low altitude penetrating bomber, which required a major redesign. Because the development of the B-2 was one of the best kept secrets of all USAF programs, there was no opportunity for public criticism of its massive cost during the development process. The first B-2 was publicly displayed on [[November 22]], [[1988 in aviation|1988]], when it was rolled out of its hangar at Air Force [[Plant 42]], [[Palmdale, California]], where it was manufactured. Its first flight was on [[July 17]], [[1989 in aviation|1989]]. The B-2 Combined Test Force, Air Force Fl |
e previous nights's downpour had dried out sufficiently to take the weight of the French ordnance. The mud also hindered infantry and cavalry as they trudged into position. When the French artillery eventually opened fire on Wellington's ridge at around 11:35, the expected impact on the Allied troops was diminished by the soft terrain that absorbed the impact of many of the cannon balls. In addition, Wellington had characteristically placed the majority of the Allied army behind the ridgeline - a "[[reverse slope defence]]" - so as to shield the army from the expected barrage.
A crucial element of the French plan of battle was the expectation that Wellington would move his reserve to his right flank in defense of Hougomont. At one point, the French succeeded in breaking into the farm's courtyard before being repulsed, but their attacks on the farm were eventually unsuccessful, and Wellington did not need to use his reserve. Hougomont became a battle within a battle and, throughout that day, its defence continued to draw thousands of valuable French troops, under the command of Jerome Bonaparte, into a fruitless attack while all but a few of Wellington's reserves remained in his centre.
[[Image:Battle of Waterloo map.png|thumb|left|250px|Map of the battle. French units are in blue, Anglo-Dutch units in red, Prussian in black.]]
At about 13:30, after receiving news of the Prussian advance to his right, Napoleon ordered Marshal Ney to send [[Jean-Baptiste Drouet (Napoleonic soldier)|d'Erlon]]'s infantry forward against Wellington's centre left passing to the east of the farm [[La Haye Sainte]]. The attack centred on the Dutch 1st Brigade commanded by Major-General [[Willem Frederik van Bylandt]], which was one of the few units placed on the forward slope of the ridge. After suffering an intense artillery bombardment and exchanging volleys with d'Erlon's leading elements for some nine minutes, van Bylandt's outnumbered soldiers were forced to retreat over the ridge and through the lines of General [[Thomas Picton]]'s division. Picton's division included veteran regiments from the [[Peninsular War|Peninsular campaign]] among which were the Highland regiments, some of the few battle-hardened regiments that remained with Wellington's British contingent at Waterloo. Picton's division moved forward over the ridgeline to engage d'Erlon. The British were likewise mauled by volley-fire and close-quarter attacks, but Picton's soldiers stood firm, eventually breaking up the attack by charging the French columns.
Cavalry formations were ordered to charge in support of the infantry attack; the Household Brigade (1st and 2nd Life Guards and Royal Horse Guards), the Union Brigade (Royals, [[Scots Greys]] and Inniskillings) and Vivian’s Hussar Brigade (10th and 18th Hussars and 1st Hussars, [[King's German Legion]]). The French assault was then driven off by the British heavy cavalry commanded by [[Henry William Paget, 1st Marquess of Anglesey|Uxbridge]] in the famous charge of the Scots Greys. The cavalry charge destroyed d'Erlon's column, but, rather than reform, they galloped on to attack French guns and were in turn counterattacked by French cavalry. Major-General [[William Ponsonby]], commanding the Union Brigade was killed. This spectacular event cost the heavy cavalry so dearly that, collectively, they played little part in the remainder of the battle.
Meanwhile, the Prussians began to appear on the field. Napoleon sent his reserve, Lobau's VI corps and 2 cavalry divisions, some 15,000 troops, to hold them back. With this, Napoleon had committed all of his infantry reserves, except the Guard.
When Napoleon unexpectedly left the field in the early afternoon (an incident disputed among historians), Ney, the epitome of French [[wikt:elan|élan]], mistook an Allied manoeuvre to reposition further back from the ridge as a general retreat. With no consultation, and without any participation by infantry or artillery, he ordered one cavalry regiment to advance, then another, then another until a massed assault of over 5,000 cavalry was thundering - and struggling - up the steep slope. Historian [[David Hamilton-Williams]] contends that as Napoleon had not left the field, and as the positioning of the cavalry before the attack took over an half hour, there was ample time to countermand Ney, leading him to the conclusion that the cavalry charge was ordered by the Emperor himself{{fact}}.
The cavalry attacks were repeatedly repelled by the solid Allied infantry squares (four ranks deep with fixed bayonets - vulnerable to artillery or infantry, but deadly to cavalry), the harrying fire of British artillery as the French cavalry recoiled down the slopes to regroup, and the decisive counter-charges of the Allied Light Cavalry regiments and the Dutch Heavy Cavalry Brigade. After numerous fruitless attacks on the Allied ridge, the French cavalry was exhausted.
The Prussians were already engaging the Imperial Army's right flank when [[La Haye Sainte]] fell to French combined arms (infantry, artillery and cavalry), because the defending [[King's German Legion]] had run out of amunition in the early evening. The Prussians had driven Lobau out of Plancenoit, which was on the extreme (Allied) left of the battle field. Therefore Napoleon sent his 10 battalion strong Young Guard to beat the Prussians back. But after very hard fighting the Young Guard was beaten back. Napoleon sent 2 battalions of Old Guard and after ferocious fighting they beat the Prussians out. But the Prussians had not been forced away far enough. Approximately 30,000 Prussians attacked Plancenoit again. The place was defended by 20,000 Frenchmen in and around the village. The Old Guard and other supporting troops were able to hold on for about one hour before a massive Prussian counter-attack kicked them out after some bloody street fighting lasting more than a half hour. The last to flee was the Old Guard who defended the church and cemetery. The French casualties at the end of the day were horrible; for example the 1er Tirailleurs of the Young Guard had 92% losses.
[[Image:sunken-road-at-waterloo.jpg|thumb|right|350px|The Sunken Road at Waterloo, by Stanley Berkley.]]
With Wellington's centre exposed by the French taking [[La Haye Sainte]], Napoleon committed his last reserve, the undefeated [[Imperial Guard]]. After marching through a blizzard of shell and shrapnel, the already outnumbered 5 battalions of middle guard defeated the allied first line, including British, Brunswick and Nassau troops. Meanwhile elements of General von Ziethen's 1st Prussian Army Corps had finally arrived helping to relieve the pressure on Wellington's left flank, thus allowing Wellington to strengthen his shaken centre. The French guard battalions marched on, and the situation became critical. Chassé's Netherlands division was sent forward. Chassé sent forward his artillery to halt the French advance. Their fire took the victorious grenadiers in the flank. This still couldn't stop the Guard's advance, so Chassé ordered his first brigade to charge the French.
Meanwhile, to the west, 1,500 British Guards under [[Peregrine Maitland|Maitland]] were lying down to protect themselves from the French artillery. They rose as one, and devastated the shocked Imperial Guard with volleys of fire at point-blank range. The French chasseurs deployed to answer the fire. After 10 minutes of exchanging musketry the outnumbered French began wavering. This was the sign for a bayonet charge. But then a fresh French chasseur battalion appeared on the scene. The British guard retired with the French in pursuit - though the French in their turn were attacked by fresh British troops of Adam's brigade.
The Imperial Guard, for the first time in history, fell back in disarray and chaos. A ripple of panic passed through the French lines - "La garde recule. Sauve qui peut!" ("The Guard retreats. Save yourself if you can!"). Wellington, judging that the retreat by the Imperial Guard had unnerved all the French soldiers who saw it, stood up in the stirrups on ''Copenhagen'', his favourite horse, and waved his hat in the air, signalling a general advance. The long-suffering Anglo-Allied infantry rushed forward from the lines where they had been shelled all day, and threw themselves upon the retreating French.
After its unsuccessful attack on the Allied centre, the French Imperial Guard rallied to their reserves of three battalions, (some sources say four) just south of ''La Haye Sainte'' for a [[last stand]] against the British. A charge from General [[Frederick Adam|Adam]]'s Brigade and an element of the 5th Brigade (The Hanoverian Landwehr (Militia) Osnabruck Battalion), both in the second Anglo-allied division under Lieutenant General Sir [[Henry Clinton (Napoleonic Wars)|Henry Clinton]], threw them into a state of confusion; those which were left in semi-coherent units fought and retreated towards ''La Belle Alliance''. It was during this stand that Colonel [[Hugh Halkett]] took the surrender of General [[Cambronne]]. It was probably during the destruction of one of the retreating semi-coherent squares from the area around ''La Haye Sainte'' towards ''[[La Belle Alliance]]'' that the famous retort to a request to surrender was made '''"La Garde meurt, elle ne se rend pas!"''' "''The Guard dies, it does not surrender!''"{{ref|Cambronne}}.
[[Image:Field of Waterloo - Project Gutenberg eBook 11921.jpg|thumbnail|300px|The Field at Waterloo, as depicted in the 1851 Illustrated London Reading Book]]
At about same time as the Imperial Guard was thrown back, the Prussians finally drove the French out of the village of [[Plancenoit]] and Zieten's Corps entered the gap between d'Erlon and Lobau, essentially taking the French position from the rear.
The whole of the French front started to disintegrate under the general advance of the Anglo-allied army and |
d [[Firmin Lebel]]. (There was a persistent story that Palestrina studied under [[Claude Goudimel]]; the story originated in the [[19th century]], but according to recent study Goudimel was never in Rome.) In [[1544]]-[[1551|51]] Palestrina was organist of the principal church of his native city (St. Agapito, Palestrina), and in the latter year became ''maestro di cappella'' at the Julian Chapel ([[Cappella Giulia]]) in Rome. With his first published compositions, a book of [[mass (music)|masses]] which he presented to [[Pope Julius III]] (previously the Bishop of Palestrina), he made so favorable an impression that he was appointed musical director of the Julian Chapel. In addition, this was the first book of masses by a native Italian composer: most composers of sacred music in Italy at that time were from the Netherlands, France or Spain. In fact his book of masses was actually modeled on one by [[Cristóbal de Morales|Morales]], and the woodcut in the front is an almost exact copy of the one from the book by the Spaniard.
Palestrina held positions similar to his Julian Chapel appointment at other chapels and churches in Rome during the next decade (notably St. John Lateran, from [[1555]] to [[1560]], and St. Maria Maggiore, from [[1561]] to [[1566]]). In [[1571]] he returned to the Julian Chapel, and remained at [[St. Peter's Basilica|St. Peter's]] for the rest of his life. The decade of the [[1570s]] was difficult for him personally; he lost his brother, both his sons, and his wife in three separate outbreaks of the plague ([[1572]], [[1575]] and [[1580]] respectively). He seems to have considered becoming a priest at this time, but instead he married again, this time to a wealthy widow; this finally gave him financial independence (he was not well paid as choirmaster) and he was able to compose prolifically until his death.
==Music and reputation==
Palestrina left hundreds of compositions, including 104 [[mass (music)|masses]], 68 [[offertory|offertories]], 250 [[motet|motets]], 45 [[hymn|hymns]], [[psalm|psalms]], 33 [[magnificat|magnificats]], [[litany|litanies]], 4 or 5 sets of [[Lamentations (music)|lamentations]] etc., at least 140 [[Madrigal (music)|madrigals]] and 9 organ ''ricercari'' (however, recent scholarship has classed these ''ricercari'' as of doubtful authorship; Palestrina probably wrote no purely instrumental music). His ''Missa sine nomine'' seems to have been particularly attractive to [[Johann Sebastian Bach]], who studied and performed it while he was writing his own masterpiece, the [[B Minor Mass (Bach)|Mass in B Minor]]. His compositions are typified as very clear, with voice parts well-balanced and beautifully harmonized. Among the works counted as his masterpieces is the ''[[Missa Papae Marcelli]]'' (Pope Marcellus Mass), which according to legend was composed to persuade the [[Council of Trent]] that a draconian ban on [[polyphony|polyphonic]] treatment of text in sacred music was unnecessary. However, more recent scholarship shows that this mass was composed before the cardinals convened to discuss the ban (possibly as much as ten years before). It is probable, however, that Palestrina was quite conscious of the needs of intelligible text in conformity with the doctrine of the [[Counter-Reformation]], and wrote his works towards this end from the 1560s until the end of his life.
The "Palestrina Style"&mdash;the smooth style of 16th century [[polyphony]], derived and codified by [[Johann Fux|Johann Joseph Fux]] from a careful study of his works&mdash;is the style usually taught as "Renaissance polyphony" in college [[counterpoint]] classes, although in a modified form, as Fux made a number of stylistic errors which have been corrected by later authors (notably Jeppesen and Morris). As codified by Fux it follows the rules of what he defined as "species counterpoint." No composer of the 16th century was more consistent in following his own rules, and staying within the stylistic bounds he imposed on himself, than was Palestrina. Also, no composer of the 16th century has had such an edifice of myth and legend built around him. Much of the research on Palestrina was done in the [[19th century]] by [[Giuseppe Baini]], who published a monograph in 1828 which made Palestrina famous again, and reinforced the already existing legend that he was the "Saviour of Church Music" during the reforms of the [[Council of Trent]]. The 19th century attitude of hero-worship is predominant in this monograph, however, and this has remained with the composer to some degree to the present day; [[Hans Pfitzner|Hans Pfitzner's]] opera ''Palestrina'' shows this attitude at its peak. Scholarship of the 20th and 21st centuries tends to retain the view that Palestrina was a strong and refined composer, representing a summit of technical perfection, but emphasizes that there were other composers working at the same time with equally individual voices and slightly different styles, even within the confines of smooth polyphony, such as [[Orlando di Lasso|Lassus]] and [[Tomas Luis de Victoria|Victoria]].
Palestrina was immensely famous in his day, and his reputation, if anything, increased following his death. Conservative music of the Roman School continued to be written in his style (known as the "prima prattica" in the 17th century), for instance by [[Gregorio Allegri]]. Palestrina's music continues to be performed and recorded, and provides models for the study of counterpoint.
==External links==
*{{ChoralWiki}}
*{{IckingArchive|idx=Palestrina|name=Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina}}
==Sources and further reading==
* Article "Palestrina, Giovanni Pierluigi da" in <I>The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians</I>, ed. Stanley Sadie. 20 vol. London, Macmillan Publishers Ltd., 1980. ISBN 1561591742
* Benjamin, Thomas, <I>The Craft of Modal Counterpoint</I>, 2nd ed. Routledge, New York, 2005. ISBN 0-415-97172-1 (direct approach)
* Coates, Henry, <I>Palestrina</I>. J. M. Dent & Sons, London, 1938. (An early entry in the <I>Master Musicians</I> series, and, like other books in that series, combines biographical data with musicological commentary.)
* Fux, Johann Joseph, <I>The Study of Counterpoint (Gradus ad Parnassum)</I>. Tr. Alfred Mann. W.W. Norton & Co., New York, 1965. ISBN 0393002772
* Gauldin, Robert, <I>A Practical Approach to Sixteenth-Century Counterpoint</I>. Waveland Press, Inc., Long Grove, Illinois, 1995. ISBN 0-88133-852-4 (direct approach, no species; contains a large and detailed bibliography)
* Haigh, Andrew C. "Modal Harmony in the Music of Palestrina", in the [[festschrift]] <I>Essays on Music: In Honor of Archibald Thompson Davison</I>'. Harvard University Press, 1957. pp.111-120.
* [[Knud Jeppesen|Jeppesen, Knud]], <I>The Style of Palestrina and the Dissonance</I>. 2nd ed., London, 1946. (An exhaustive study of his contrapuntal technique.)
* Jeppesen, Knud; Haydon, Glen (Translator); Foreword by Mann, Alfred. <I>Counterpoint</I>. New York, 1939. Available through Dover Publications, 1992. ISBN 048627036X
* Morris, R.O., <I>Contrapuntal Technique in the Sixteenth Century</I>. Oxford University Press, 1978. ISBN 0-19-321468-7 (out of print; one of the first attempts at "direct approach", meaning Morris does away with Fux' five species).
* Motte, Diether de la, <I>'Kontrapunkt</I>'. 1981 Bärenreiter-Verlag, Kassel. ISBN 3-423-30146-5 / 3-7618-4371-2 (this text is in German; great, though!)
* Pyne, Zoe Kendrick, <I>Giovanni Pierluigi di Palestrina: His Life and Times</I>, Bodley Head, London, 1922.
* [[Gustave Reese]], <I>Music in the Renaissance</I>. W.W. Norton & Co., New York, 1954. ISBN 0393095304
* Roche, Jerome, <I>Palestrina</I>. Oxford University Press, 1970. ISBN 0-193-14117-5
* Stove, R. J., <I>Prince of Music: Palestrina and His World</I>, Quakers Hill Press, Sydney, 1990. ISBN 0-7316-8792-2 (biographical rather than musicological in nature; is wholly devoid of staff-notation extracts; but corrects some errors found in Z. K. Pyne and elsewhere).
* Swindale, Owen, <I>Polyphonic Composition</I>, Oxford University Press, 1962. (Out of print, no ISBN available.)
[[Category:Renaissance composers|Palestrina, Giovanni da]]
[[Category:Natives of the Lazio|Palestrina, Giovanni da]]
[[Category:1525 births|Palestrina, Giovanni da]]
[[Category:1594 deaths|Palestrina, Giovanni da]]
[[Category:Italian composers|Palestrina, Giovanni da]]
[[Category:Roman school composers|Palestrina, Giovanni da]]
[[cs:Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina]]
[[da:Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina]]
[[de:Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina]]
[[et:Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina]]
[[es:Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina]]
[[eo:Giovanni Pierluigi da PALESTRINA]]
[[fr:Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina]]
[[it:Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina]]
[[he:פלסטרינה]]
[[nl:Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina]]
[[ja:ジョヴァンニ・ダ・パレストリーナ]]
[[no:Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina]]
[[pl:Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina]]
[[fi:Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina]]
[[sv:Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>GNU GPL</title>
<id>12777</id>
<revision>
<id>15910435</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[GNU General Public License]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Group velocity</title>
<id>12778</id>
<revision>
<id>40147715</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-18T14:27:52Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>148.60.21.219</ip>
|
l>&nbsp;''S''), defined as ''S''&nbsp;<small>o</small>&nbsp;''R'' = { (''x'', ''z'') | there exists ''y'' &isin; ''Y'', such that (''x'', ''y'') &isin; ''R'' and (''y'', ''z'') &isin; ''S'' }. The order of ''R'' and ''S'' in the notation ''S''&nbsp;<small>o</small>&nbsp;''R'', used here agrees with the standard notational order for [[composition of functions]].
==Sets versus classes==
Certain mathematical "relations", such as "equal to", "member of", and "subset of", cannot be understood to be binary relations as defined above, because their domains and codomains cannot be taken to be sets in the usual systems of [[axiomatic set theory]].
For example, if we try to model the general concept of "equality" as a binary relation <math>=</math>, we must take the domain and codomain to be the "set of all sets", which is not a set in the usual set theory. The usual work-around to this problem is to select a "large enough" set ''A'', that contains all the objects of interest, and work with the restriction <math>=_A</math> instead of <math>=</math>.
Similarly, the "subset of" relation <math>\subseteq</math> needs to be restricted to have domain and codomain ''P''(''A'') (the power set of a specific set ''A''): the resulting set relation can be denoted <math>\subseteq_A</math>. Also, the "member of" relation needs to be restricted to have domain ''A'' and codomain ''P''(''A'') to obtain a binary relation <math>\in_A</math> which is a set.
Another solution to this problem is to use a set theory with proper classes, such as [[NBG]] or [[Morse-Kelley set theory]], and allow the domain and codomain (and so the graph) to be [[proper class]]es: in such a theory, equality, membership, and subset are binary relations without special comment. (A minor modification needs to be made to the concept of the ordered triple (''X'', ''Y'', ''G''), as normally a proper class cannot be a member of an ordered tuple; or of course one can identify the function with its graph in this context.)
In most mathematical contexts, references to the relations of equality, membership and subset are harmless because they can be understood implicitly to be restricted to some set in the context.
==Examples of common binary relations==
* [[Equality (mathematics) | Equality]]
* [[Greater than]]
* Greater than or equal to
* [[Less than]]
* Less than or equal to
* [[Divides]] (evenly)
==See also==
{{col-begin}}
{{col-break}}
* [[Relation (mathematics)|Relation]]
* [[Relation construction]]
** [[Relation composition]]
** [[Relation reduction]]
* [[Correspondence (mathematics)|Correspondence]]
* [[Equivalence relation]]
* [[Function (mathematics)|Function]]
{{col-break}}
* [[Incidence structure]]
* [[Logic of relatives]]
* [[Partial order]]
* [[Reflexive relation]]
* [[Total order]]
* [[Triadic relation]]
* [[Well-order]]
{{col-end}}
[[Category:Set theory]]
[[cs:Binární relace]]
[[et:Binaarne seos]]
[[es:Relación binaria]]
[[fr:Relation binaire]]
[[he:יחס]]
[[it:Relazione binaria]]
[[ja:二項関係]]
[[pl:Relacja (matematyka)]]
[[ru:Бинарное отношение]]
[[uk:Бінарне відношення]]
[[zh:二元关系]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Braille</title>
<id>3933</id>
<revision>
<id>41519260</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-27T22:26:04Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Antandrus</username>
<id>57658</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/209.232.157.78|209.232.157.78]] ([[User talk:209.232.157.78|talk]]) to last version by 81.129.248.245</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:BrailleAlphabet.jpg|right]]
[[Image:DSC 4050-MR-Braille.jpg|rigth|thumbnail|200px|"PREMIER" - first]]
The '''braille''' system, named after [[Louis Braille]], is a method that is widely used by [[blindness|blind]] people to read and write. Each braille character or "cell" is made up of six dot positions, arranged in a [[rectangle]] containing two columns of three dots each. A dot may be raised at any of the six positions to form sixty-four combinations, counting the space, in which no dots are raised. For reference purposes, a particular combination may be described by naming the positions where dots are raised, the positions being universally numbered 1 through 3 from top to bottom on the left, and 4 through 6 from top to bottom on the right. For example, dots 1-3-4 would describe a cell with three dots raised, at the top and bottom in the left column and on top of the right column.
The braille system was based on a method of communication originally developed by [[Charles Barbier]] in response to [[Napoleon]]'s demand for a [[code]] that soldiers could use to communicate silently and without light at night called [[night writing]]. Barbier's system was too complex for soldiers to learn, and was rejected by the military; in 1821 he visited the National Institute for the Blind in Paris, France, where he met [[Louis Braille]]. Louis identified the major failing of the code, which was that the human finger could not encompass the whole symbol without moving, and so could not move rapidly from one symbol to another. His modification was to use a 6 dot cell &mdash; the braille system &mdash; which revolutionized written communication for the blind.
==The Braille alphabet==
Braille can be seen as the world's first [[Binary numeral system|binary]] character encoding. The system as originally invented by Braille consists of two parts
# A [[character encoding]] for mapping characters of the [[French language]] to [[tuple]]s of six [[bit]]s or "dots".
# A way of representing six-bit characters as raised dots in Braille cell.
Today different [[braille code]]s (or [[code page]]s) are used to map character sets of different languages to the six bit cells. Different braille codes are also used for different uses like mathematics and music.
In addition to simple encoding modern braille transcription uses [[contraction (grammar)|contraction]]s to increase reading speed. (See: Grade 2 Braille)
===The Braille cell===
Braille generally consists of cells of 6 raised dots arranged in a grid of two dots horizontally by three dots vertically. The dots are conventionally numbered 1, 2, 3 from the top of the leftward column and 4, 5, 6 from the top of the rightward column.
[[image:brajlo.gif|thumb|right|Braille cell]]
The presence or absence of dots gives the coding for the symbol.
Dot height is approximately 0.02 inches (0.5 mm); the horizontal and vertical spacing between dot centers within a braille cell is approximately 0.1 inches (2.5 mm); the blank space between dots on adjacent cells is approximately 0.15 inches (3.75 mm) horizontally and 0.2 inches (5.0 mm) vertically. A standard braille page is 11 inches by 11 inches and typically has a maximum of 40 to 42 braille cells per line and 25 lines.
===Encoding===
As originally conceived by [[Louis Braille]], a sequence of characters, using the top 4 dots of the braille cell, represents letters "a" through "j". Dot 3 is added to each of the "a" through "j" symbols to give letters "k" through "t". Both of the bottom dots (dots 3 and 6) are added to the symbols for "a" through "e" to give letters "u", "v", "x", "y", and "z". The letter "w" is an exception to the pattern because [[French language|French]] did not make use of the letter "w" at the time Louis Braille devised his alphabet, and thus he had no need to encode the letter "w".
English braille codes the letters and punctuation, and some double letter signs and word signs directly, but capitalisation and numbers are dealt with by using a [[prefix]] symbol. In practice, braille produced in the United Kingdom does not have capital letters.
There are braille codes for representing [[shorthand]] (produced on a machine which embosses a paper tape) and for representing [[mathematics]] ([[Nemeth Braille]]) and [[musical notation]] ([[braille music]]).
===Writing braille===
Braille may be produced using a "slate" and a "stylus" in which each dot is created from the back of the page, writing in mirror image, by hand, or it may be produced on a braille typewriter or "[[Perkins Brailler]]", or produced by a [[braille embosser]] attached to a computer. It may also be rendered using a [[refreshable braille display]].
Braille has been extended to an 8 dot code, particularly for use with braille embossers and refreshable braille displays. In 8 dot braille the additional dots are added at the bottom of the cell, giving a matrix 4 dots high by 2 dots wide. The additional dots are given the numbers 7 (for the lower-left dot) and 8 (for the lower-right dot). 8-dot braille has the advantages that the case of an individual letter is directly coded in the cell containing the letter and that all the printable [[ASCII]] characters can be represented in a single cell. All 256 possible combinations of 8 dots are encoded by the [[Unicode]] standard. Braille with six dots is frequently stored as [[braille ASCII]].
===Letters and numbers===
<gallery>
Image:Braille A1.svg|[[A]], [[1 (number)|1]]
Image:Braille B2.svg|[[B]], [[2 (number)|2]]
Image:Braille C3.svg|[[C]], [[3 (number)|3]]
Image:Braille D4.svg|[[D]], [[4 (number)|4]]
Image:Braille E5.svg|[[E]], [[5 (number)|5]]
Image:Braille F6.svg|[[F]], [[6 (number)|6]]
Image:Braille G7.svg|[[G]], [[7 (number)|7]]
Image:Braille H8.svg|[[H]], [[8 (number)|8]]
Image:Braille I9.svg|[[I]], [[9 (number)|9]]
Image:Braille J0.svg|[[J]], [[0 (number)|0]]
Image:Braille K.svg|[[K]]
Image:Braille L.svg|[[L]]
Imag |
sed]]
[[nl:Albanezen]]
[[ja:アルバニア人]]
[[pl:Albańczycy]]
[[ru:Албанцы]]
[[sl:Albanci]]
[[sr:Албанци]]
[[sv:Albaner]]
[[tr:Arnavutlar]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Association for Computing Machinery</title>
<id>2928</id>
<revision>
<id>41206041</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-25T19:57:08Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Aaron charles</username>
<id>327726</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Activities */ stud chapt est 1961</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:ACM 4C vector 80.png|right]]
The '''Association for Computing Machinery''', or '''ACM''', was founded in [[1947]] as the world's first scientific and educational [[computing]] society. Its membership is currently around 78,000. Its headquarters are in [[New York City]].
== Activities ==
ACM is organized into over 170 local chapters and 34 [[special interest group]]s ([[SIG]]s), through which it conducts most of its activities. Additionally, there are over 500 college and university [http://www.acm.org/chapters/stu/ chapters]. The first student chapter was founded in 1961 at the [[University of Louisiana at Lafayette]].
Many of the SIGs, like [[ACM SIGGRAPH|SIGGRAPH]], [[SIGPLAN]] and [[SIGCOMM]], sponsor regular conferences which have become famous as the dominant venue for presenting new innovations in certain fields. The SIGs also publish a large number of specialized journals, magazines, and newsletters.
ACM also sponsors other computer science related events such as the worldwide [[ACM International Collegiate Programming Contest]] (ICPC), and has sponsored some other very mentionable events such as the chess match between Garry Kasparov and the [[IBM Deep Blue]] computer.
== Services ==
ACM Press publishes a prestigious academic journal,
<span id="jacm"/>
<!-- when there is a separate JACM article, this anchor can go away -->
''[[Journal of the ACM]]'', and general magazines for computer professionals, ''[[Communications of the ACM]]'' and ''[[ACM Queue|Queue]]''. Additionally, it publishes the most popular student computing journal in the country, [[ACM Crossroads]] as well as the prestigious computer graphics journal ''[[ACM Transactions on Graphics]]''. Many of the great debates in the history of computing have taken place in the pages of ''Communications.'' Examples include the famous "[[GOTO]] considered harmful" letter, the issue of what to call the then-fledgling field of [[computer science]], and the issue of changing ACM's name (since the "machinery" in question is no longer the size of a house and is now measured in micrometres). All three attempts at changing ACM's name have failed.
ACM has made almost all of its publications available online at its [http://portal.acm.org/dl.cfm Digital Library] and also has a [http://portal.acm.org/guide.cfm Guide to Computing Literature]. It also offers insurance and other services to its members.
== Digital Library ==
ACM has created a digital library where it has made all of its publications available. ACM’s digital library is the world’s largest collection of information on computing machinery and contains an archive of journals, magazines, conference proceedings online, and the recent issues of ACM’s publications. Online services include a forum called Ubiquity and Tech News digest, both containing the latest information about the IT world.
== Competition ==
ACM's primary competitor is the [[IEEE Computer Society]]. It is difficult to generalize accurately about the distinction between the two, but ACM focuses on theoretical [[computer science]] and end-user applications while IEEE focuses more on hardware and standardization issues. Another blunt way to state the difference is that ACM is for [[computer science|computer scientists]] and IEEE is for [[electrical engineering|electrical engineers]], although the largest IEEE subgroup is its Computer Society. Of course, there is significant overlap between the two organizations, and they occasionally cooperate on projects like developing computer science curricula.
== Special Interest Groups ==
* [[SIGGRAPH]]
* [[SIGPLAN]]
* [[SIGCOMM]]
* [[SIGKDD]]
== Leadership ==
The President of the ACM for 2004&ndash;2006 is [[David A. Patterson]] of the [[University of California, Berkeley]].
ACM is led by a Council consisting of the President, Vice-President, Treasurer, Past President, SIG Governing Board Chair, Publications Board Chair, three representatives of the SIG Governing Board, and seven Members-At-Large. This institution is often referred to simply as "Council" in ''Communications of the ACM''.
== Infrastructure ==
ACM has four “Boards” that make up various committees and subgroups, to help Headquarters staff maintain quality services and products. These boards are as follows:
# Publications
# SIG Governing Board
# Education
# Membership Services Board
== ACM's Committee on [[Women in Computing]] ==
ACM's committee on women in computing is set up to support, inform, celebrate, and work with women in computing. Dr. [[Anita Borg]] was a great supporter of ACM-W. ACM-W provides various resources for women in computing as well as high school girls interested in the field. ACM-W also reaches out internationally to those women who are involved and interested in computing.
== See also ==
* [[Timeline of computing 750 BC-1949|Timeline of computing (750 BC &ndash; 1949)]]
* [[ACM Classification Scheme]]
* [[Grace Murray Hopper Award]], awarded by the ACM
* [[Turing Award]]
* [[Artificial Intelligence]]
* [[Franz Alt (mathematician)|Dr. Franz Alt]], former president.
* [[ACM Crossroads]], one of its magazines
* [[ACM Transactions on Graphics]], one of the journals its publishes.
== External links ==
* [http://www.acm.org/ ACM official website]
* [http://portal.acm.org/ ACM portal] for publications
[[Category:ACM]]
[[Category:American organizations]]
[[Category:Computer science organizations]]
[[Category:Computer-related organizations]]
[[Category:Fellows of the ACM| ]]
[[Category:International nongovernmental organizations]]
[[Category:Professional associations]]
[[de:Association for Computing Machinery]]
[[es:Association for Computing Machinery]]
[[fr:Association for Computing Machinery]]
[[id:ACM]]
[[it:Association for Computing Machinery]]
[[ja:Association for Computing Machinery]]
[[ko:계산기 학회]]
[[pl:ACM]]
[[tr:ACM]]
[[zh:美国计算机协会]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Armillary</title>
<id>2929</id>
<revision>
<id>15901308</id>
<timestamp>2003-05-04T21:13:59Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Looxix</username>
<id>7495</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>#REDIRECT [[Armillary sphere]]; articles merged</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Armillary sphere]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Anabaptist</title>
<id>2934</id>
<revision>
<id>41827393</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T00:23:52Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>JonHarder</username>
<id>629503</id>
</contributor>
<comment>rv</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Anabaptists''' ([[Greek language|Greek]] ''ana''+''baptizo'' "re-baptizers", [[German language|German]]: '''Wiedertäufer''') were [[Christianity|Christian]]s of the [[Radical Reformation]]. The term was coined by critics, who objected to the Anabaptist practice of rebaptizing adults who had previously been baptized as infants. Anabaptists believed [[infant baptism]] was not valid. Various groups at various times have been called ''Anabaptist'', but this article focuses primarily on the ''Anabaptists'' of [[16th century]] [[Europe]].
[[Image:Thomas Muentzer.jpg|thumb|right|175px|[[Thomas Muentzer]] was one of the founders of the '''Anabaptist''' movement.]]
==Designation and definition==
The present concept and idea of ''Anabaptism'' or ''rebaptism'' has existed at least since the [[2nd century]], and some Anabaptists also point to the [[1st century]] example of the [[Apostle Paul]] in Acts chapter 19. Montanus, the [[Montanist]]s, and [[Tertullian]] (2nd and 3rd centuries) denied [[infant baptism]], practiced [[believers baptism|believer's baptism]], and ''rebaptized'' those baptized by heretics. The [[Donatists]] ([[4th century]]) re-baptized those who had been baptized by bishops who were [[traditors]], or who were from churches stained by fellowship with ''traditors''{{ref|traditor}}. Anabaptists (rebaptizers) were made criminals under the [[code of Justinian]] (A.D. [[529]]). With anti-trinitarianism, it was one of two 'heresies' or schisms, punishable by death because of its political implications.
Their enemies and opposers gave Anabaptists their name; it is a term that means "rebaptizers." Nevertheless, the Anabaptists did not think of believer's baptism as "rebaptism". They did not recognize infant baptism as properly administered the first time. Though the main Anabaptist groups disagreed with few important Protestant doctrines, even the Protestants called them heretics. Zwingli called them Wiedertäufer (Dutch, ''Wederdooper''; Latin, ''Anabaptistae''), ''Täufer'' (Dutch, ''Dooper'' or ''Doopsgezinden''), and ''Catabaptistae'' (drowners{{ref|catab}}). Luther called them ''Schwärmer'' (fanatics, enthusiasts). They have also been known as ''Bolsheveki'' and "''Stepchildren of the Reformation''". The most common names the Anabaptists used for themselves were brethren, believers and Christians.
The word Anabaptism may be used to describe a Protestant group baptizing Christians who were baptized in infancy and/or who come to them from other bodies, any of the 16th century "radical" dissenters, or the denominations descending from the followers of [[Menno Simons]]. The use of the term Anabaptism does not necessarily imply claims to uniformity |
==External links==
*[http://www.ethnologue.com/show_family.asp?subid=90047 Ethnologue report for Celtic languages]
*[http://www.ethnologue.com/show_family.asp?subid=90017 Ethnologue report for Indo-European languages]
==References==
*{{cite book|author=McCone, K.|year=1996|title=Towards a Relative Chronology of Ancient and Medieval Celtic Sound Change|publisher=Maynooth: Department of Old and Middle Irish, St. Patrick's College|id=ISBN 0-901519-40-5}}
*{{cite book | author=Schmidt, K. H. | year=1988 | chapter=On the reconstruction of Proto-Celtic | editor=G. W. MacLennan | title=Proceedings of the First North American Congress of Celtic Studies, Ottawa 1986 | pages=231–48 | publisher=Ottawa: Chair of Celtic Studies | id=ISBN ISBN 0-9693260-0}}
==Notes==
#{{note|Pictish}} The late Kenneth Jackson proposed a non-Indo-European Pictish language existing alongside a ''Pretenic'' one. This is no longer generally accepted. See Katherine Forsyth's ''"Language in Pictland : the case against 'non-Indo-European Pictish'" '' [http://eprints.gla.ac.uk/archive/00002081/01/languagepictland.pdf Etext (pdf file)]. See also the introduction by James & Taylor to the ''"Index of Celtic and Other Elements in W.J.Watson's 'The History of the Celtic Place-names of Scotland'"'' [http://www.st-andrews.ac.uk/institutes/sassi/spns/INDEX2INTRO.pdf Etext (pdf file)]. Compare also the treatment of Pictish in Price's ''The Languages of Britain'' (1984) with his ''Languages in Britain & Ireland'' (2000).
[[Category:Indo-European languages]]
[[Category:Celtic languages| ]]
[[als:Keltische Sprachen]]
[[ast:Llingües céltiques]]
[[az:Kelt qrupu]]
[[bs:Keltski jezici]]
[[ca:Llengües celtes]]
[[cs:Keltské jazyky]]
[[da:Keltiske sprog]]
[[de:Keltische Sprachen]]
[[es:Lenguas celtas]]
[[eo:Kelta lingvaro]]
[[fa:زبان سلتی]]
[[fr:Langue celtique]]
[[he:שפות קלטיות]]
[[kw:Keltek]]
[[lt:Keltų kalbos]]
[[hu:Kelta nyelvek]]
[[nl:Keltische talen]]
[[ja:ケルト語派]]
[[no:Keltiske språk]]
[[oc:Lengas celticas]]
[[pl:Języki celtyckie]]
[[pt:Línguas celtas]]
[[ro:Limbile celtice]]
[[ru:Кельтские языки]]
[[sl:Keltski jeziki]]
[[fi:Kelttiläiset kielet]]
[[se:Kelttalaš gielat]]
[[sv:Keltiska språk]]
[[vi:Nhóm ngôn ngữ gốc Celt]]
[[wa:Gayel]]
[[zh:凯尔特语族]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Color</title>
<id>5921</id>
<revision>
<id>41947472</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T20:39:49Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Booyabazooka</username>
<id>4880</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* Color perception */ links</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve"><!-- Please do not change the spelling of color to colour. Wikipedia policy is to
leave the English variation alone in this case, not to have a war about versions of English. You would also break the links and categories. Changing the spelling will be treated as vandalism, and for this reason will be swiftly reverted. Please see the discussion page if you want to comment. -->{{otheruses}}
[[Image:Colored pencils.jpg|300px|thumb|Color is an important part of the [[visual art]]s.]]
'''Color''' or '''colour''' {{ref|cwe}} is the [[perception]] of the [[frequency]] (or [[wavelength]]) of [[light]], and can be compared to how [[Pitch (music)|pitch]] (or a [[music]]al [[note]]) is the perception of the frequency or wavelength of [[sound]].
It is a perception that, in [[human]]s, derives from the ability of the [[cone cell|fine structures]] of the [[eye]] to provide the brain with differently filtered analyses of a view (usually three). The perception of color is influenced by biology (some people are born seeing colors differently or not at all; see [[color blindness]]), long-term history of the observer, and also by short-term effects such as the colors nearby. (This is the basis of many [[optical illusion]]s.)
The science of color is sometimes called '''chromatics'''. It includes the perception of color by the human [[eye]], the origin of color in materials, [[color theory]] in [[art]], and the [[physics]] of color in the [[electromagnetic spectrum]].
== Physics of color ==
<div class=floatright style="margin-left: 1em;">
The colors of the visible light spectrum.<br>
<table border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="2">
<tr>
<th>color</th>
<th>wavelength interval</th>
<th>frequency interval</th>
</tr>
<tr><td>[[red]]</td>
<td style="background:#DF0000; color:white; text-align:center;">~ 625-740 nm</td>
<td style="background:#DF0000; color:white; text-align:center;">~ 480-405 THz</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>[[orange (color)|orange]]</td>
<td style="background:#FF8000; color:white; text-align:center;">~ 590-625 nm</td>
<td style="background:#FF8000; color:white; text-align:center;">~ 510-480 THz</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>[[yellow]]</td>
<td style="background:#FFFF00; color:black; text-align:center;">~ 565-590 nm</td>
<td style="background:#FFFF00; color:black; text-align:center;">~ 530-510 THz</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>[[green]]</td>
<td style="background:#00FF00; color:black; text-align:center;">~ 500-565 nm</td>
<td style="background:#00FF00; color:black; text-align:center;">~ 600-530 THz</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>[[cyan]]</td>
<td style="background:#00E0E0; color:black; text-align:center;">~ 485-500 nm</td>
<td style="background:#00E0E0; color:black; text-align:center;">~ 620-600 THz</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>[[blue]]</td>
<td style="background:#0000FF; color:white; text-align:center;">~ 440-485 nm</td>
<td style="background:#0000FF; color:white; text-align:center;">~ 680-620 THz</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>[[violet (color)|violet]]</td>
<td style="background:#50007F; color:white; text-align:center;">~ 380-440 nm</td>
<td style="background:#50007F; color:white; text-align:center;">~ 790-680 THz</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="3" style="text-align: center;">
Continuous optical spectrum<br>
[[Image:Spectrum441pxWithnm.png]]<br><small>''Designed for monitors with [[gamma correction|gamma]] 1.5.''</small>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="3" style="text-align: center;">
Computer "spectrum"<br>
[[Image:Computerspectrum.png]]<br><small>''The bars below show the relative intensities of the three<br/>colors mixed to make the color immediately above.''</small>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</div>
<div class=floatright>
Color, wavelength, frequency, and energy of light.<br>
<table border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="2">
<tr>
<th>Color</th>
<th><math>\lambda \,\!</math>/nm</th>
<th><math>\nu \,\!</math>/10<sup>14</sup> Hz</th>
<th><math>\nu_b \,\!</math>/10<sup>4</sup> cm<sup>-1</sup></th>
<th><math>E \,\!</math>/eV</th>
<th><math>E \,\!</math>/kJ mol<sup>-1</sup></th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Infrared</td>
<td text-align:right>>1000</td>
<td style="text-align:right;"><3.00</td>
<td style="text-align:right;"><1.00</td>
<td style="text-align:right;"><1.24</td>
<td style="text-align:right;"><120</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Red</td>
<td style="text-align:right;">700</td>
<td style="text-align:right;">4.28</td>
<td style="text-align:right;">1.43</td>
<td style="text-align:right;">1.77</td>
<td style="text-align:right;">171</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Orange</td>
<td style="text-align:right;">620</td>
<td style="text-align:right;">4.84</td>
<td style="text-align:right;">1.61</td>
<td style="text-align:right;">2.00</td>
<td style="text-align:right;">193</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Yellow</td>
<td style="text-align:right;">580</td>
<td style="text-align:right;">5.17</td>
<td style="text-align:right;">1.72</td>
<td style="text-align:right;">2.14</td>
<td style="text-align:right;">206</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Green</td>
<td style="text-align:right;">530</td>
<td style="text-align:right;">5.66</td>
<td style="text-align:right;">1.89</td>
<td style="text-align:right;">2.34</td>
<td style="text-align:right;">226</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Blue</td>
<td style="text-align:right;">470</td>
<td style="text-align:right;">6.38</td>
<td style="text-align:right;">2.13</td>
<td style="text-align:right;">2.64</td>
<td style="text-align:right;">254</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Violet</td>
<td style="text-align:right;">420</td>
<td style="text-align:right;">7.14</td>
<td style="text-align:right;">2.38</td& |
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/83.24.67.195|83.24.67.195]] to last version by CalJW</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''[[Telephone]]s - main lines in use:'''
20,000 (2000), 36,000 (1995)
'''Telephones - mobile cellular:'''
15,000 (2000), 10,000 (1995)
'''Telephone system:'''
<br>''general assessment:'' poor
<br>''domestic:''
barely adequate wire and microwave radio relay service in and between urban areas; domestic satellite system with 14 earth stations
<br>''international:''
satellite earth station - 1 [[Intelsat]] ([[Atlantic Ocean]])
'''[[Radio]] [[broadcasting|broadcast]] stations:'''
AM 3, FM 11, shortwave 2 (2001), AM 3, FM 12, shortwave 1 (1999)
'''Radios:'''
18.03 million (1997)
'''[[Television]] broadcast stations:'''
4 (2001), 20 (1999)
'''Televisions:'''
6.478 million (1997)
'''[[Internet Service Provider]]s (ISPs):'''
1 (1999)
'''Internet users:''' 6,000 (2002)
'''[[Country code]]:''' CD (formerly ZR)
:''See also :'' [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]]
[[Category:Communications by country|Democratic Republic of the Congo]]
[[Category:Communications in the Democratic Republic of the Congo| ]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Transport in the Democratic Republic of the Congo</title>
<id>8028</id>
<revision>
<id>37832240</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-02T11:49:48Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Warofdreams</username>
<id>20855</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>moved [[Transportation in the Democratic Republic of the Congo]] to [[Transport in the Democratic Republic of the Congo]]: part os a series</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">== [[Railway]]s ==
* Not all rail lines link up. There are separate systems based on
** [[Kinshasa]]
** [[Bumba, Democratic Republic of the Congo|Bumba]]
** [[Ilebo]]
<br>''total:''
4,772 km (2002), 5,138 km (1995);
<br>''narrow gauge:''
* 3,621 km 1.067-m gauge (858 km electrified); (2002)
* 125 km 1.000-m gauge; (2002)
* 1,026 km 0.600-m gauge (2002);
* 3,987 km 1.067-m gauge (858 km electrified); (1996)
=== Railway links to adjacent countries ===
* unknown
== [[Highways]] ==
<br>''total:''
157,000 km
<br>''paved:''
NA km (including 30 km of expressways)
<br>''unpaved:''
NA km (1996 est.)
== [[Waterway]]s ==
15,000 km including the [[Congo River]], its tributaries, and unconnected [[lake]]s
== Pipelines ==
petroleum products 390 km
== Ports and harbors ==
=== Atlantic Ocean ===
* [[Banana, Congo|Banana]]
* [[Matadi]] - [[railhead]] for [[portage railway]]
=== Inland Rivers ===
* [[Boma]], [[Bukavu]],
* [[Bumba]] - [[railhead]] for isolated railway
* [[Goma]]
* [[Ilabo]] - [[railhead]]
* [[Kindu]]
* [[Kinshasa]], [[Kisangani]], [[Mbandaka]]
=== [[Lake Tanganyika]] ===
* [[Kalemie]] - [[railhead]] ?
== Merchant marine ==
none (1999 est.)
== Airports: ==
229 (2002), 232 (1999 est.)
=== Airports - with paved runways ===
<br>''total:''
24
<br>''over 3,047 m:''
4
<br>''2,438 to 3,047 m:''
2
<br>''1,524 to 2,437 m:''
16
<br>''914 to 1,523 m:''
2 (2002 est.)
=== Airports - with unpaved runways ===
<br>''total:''
205
<br>''1,524 to 2,437 m:''
19
<br>''914 to 1,523 m:''
95
<br>''under 914 m:''
91 (2002 est.)
== See also ==
{{CIAfb}}
* [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]]
{{Africa in topic|Transport in}}
[[Category:Transportation in the Democratic Republic of the Congo| ]]
[[fr:Transport en République démocratique du Congo]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Military of the Democratic Republic of the Congo</title>
<id>8029</id>
<revision>
<id>38217510</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-04T23:37:40Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Kelisi</username>
<id>173996</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Copyedit (how peeving)</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve"><table border=1 width=300 cellpadding=2 cellspacing=0 align=right style="margin-left:1em">
<tr><th colspan=2 align=center bgcolor=#8888dd>'''Military of Democratic Republic of Congo'''
<tr><td>Military branches<td>[[Army of Democratic Republic of Congo|Army]], Navy, Air Force
<tr><td colspan=2 align=center>'''Military manpower'''
<tr><td>Availability<td>males ages 18-49: 11,052,696 (2005 est)
<tr><td>Fit for military service<td>males age 18-49: 5,851,292 (2005 est.)
<tr><td>Active troops<td>97,800 ([[List of countries by number of active troops|Ranked 44th]])
<tr><td colspan=2 align=center>'''Military expenditures'''
<tr><td>Dollar figure<td> $93.5 million ([[2004]])
<tr><td>Percent of GDP<td> 1.5% ([[2004]])
</table>
The '''military of the [[Democratic Republic of Congo]]''' is currently in the rebuilding process after the [[Second Congo War]] officially ended in July 2003. [[Rwandan]]- and [[Ugandan]]-created [[militia]]s have hampered the formation of the new national army by their refusal to disband. The military is one of the most unstable in the region after years of war and underfunding. It is prone to defections. The government in [[Kinshasa]] and the [[U.N.]] are attempting to create a viable force with the ability to perform all tasks it is entrusted with, the most important being bringing stability and security to the nation.
There are currently over 16,000 United Nations peacekeepers based in Congo to assist Congolese authorities in maintaining security. In recent events the military has made it clear to [[Rwanda]] and [[Uganda]] they will defend their borders from any future incursions by either nation, which could further strain attempts to rebuild the nation's already battered security structure.
==Organization==
The current organization of the Congo's military establishment is very vague owing to lack of information; it has been made more difficult because of the current reforms being undertaken by the Congo security forces.
It is known to be broken up into the Army, Navy and Air Force; however, no official names seem to be available owing to the reform process.
==Resources==
A key issue for the Congo's military is the lack of resources. The lack of money restricts the capabilities by not allowing the proper training, payment and weapons to be given to the military. It has been an ongoing issue ever since the [[U.S.]] and most of its allies cut support for the government of [[Mobutu]] at the end of [[Cold War]] and the increasing amount of human rights abuses carried out by his security forces. Although the [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] maintains vast natural resources its economy has been torn apart by conflict and corruption. The infrastructure has been widely destroyed, thereby restricting the mobility and logistical ability of any new Congolese national military establishment.
==References and Links==
*{{CIA_WFB_2003}}
*[[Democratic Republic of the Congo]]
[[Category:Military of the Democratic Republic of the Congo| ]]
[[Category:Militaries|Democratic Republic of the Congo]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Democratic Republic of the Congo/Transnational issues</title>
<id>8030</id>
<revision>
<id>15906053</id>
<timestamp>2002-08-27T20:02:23Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>-- April</username>
<id>166</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>fix redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Foreign relations of the Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Denmark/History</title>
<id>8031</id>
<revision>
<id>15906054</id>
<timestamp>2002-05-31T10:00:41Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Christian</username>
<id>899</id>
</contributor>
<comment>#REDIRECT [[History of Denmark]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[History of Denmark]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Geography of Denmark</title>
<id>8032</id>
<revision>
<id>35299893</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-15T19:22:56Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>68.40.99.162</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">This article describes the '''[[geography]] of [[Denmark]]'''.
[[Image:Denmarkmap.gif|thumb|right|400px|Map of Denmark - Click to enlarge]]
; Location: north europe east of the baltic sea
: Northern [[Europe]], islands in the Baltic Sea and the northern part of the [[Jutland]] peninsula bordering the [[Baltic Sea]] and the [[North Sea]]
; [[Geographic coordinates]]:
: {{coor dm|56|00|N|10|00|E|type:country}}
; Map references:
: [[Europe]]
; Area:
:* Total: 43,094 km²
:* Land: 42,394 km²
:* Water: 700 km²
: Note: Includes the island of [[Bornholm]] in the Baltic Sea and the rest of metropolitan Denmark, but excludes the [[Faroe Islands]] and [[Greenland]]
; Area - comparative:
: Slightly less than twice the size of [[Massachusetts]]
; Land boundaries:
:* Total: 68 km
:* Border countries: [[Germany]] 68 km
; Coastline:
: 7,314 km
; Maritime claims:
:* Contiguous zone: 24 nautical miles (44 km)
:* Continental shelf: 200-m depth or to the depth of exploitation
:* Exclusive economic zone: 200 nautical miles (370 km)
:* Territorial sea: 12 nautical miles (22 km)
; Climate:
: Temperate; humid and overcast; mild, windy winters and cool summers
; Terrain:
: Low and flat to gently rolling [[plains]]
; Elevation extremes:
:* Lowest point: [[Lammefjord]] -7 m
:* Highest point: [[Møllehøj]] 171 m
; Natural resources:
: [[Petroleum]], [[natural gas]], [[fish]], [[salt]], [[limestone]], [[Rock (geology)|stone]], [[gravel]] and [[sand]]
; Land use:
:* [[Arable land]]: 60%
:* Permanent crops: 0%
:* Permanent pastures: 5%
:* [[Forest]]s and [[woodland]]: 10%
:* Other: |
r'' portable computer. The base unit featured a 5 inch (127 mm) [[Cathode ray tube|CRT]] and an integral [[Commodore 1541|1541]] floppy disk drive. Although critically acclaimed, due to its significantly higher price over the standard C64, fewer than 10,000 had been sold by the time it was discontinued in 1986.
In 1984, Commodore released the [[Commodore Plus/4]]. While many industry critics viewed this as an attempt to replace the C64, it was in fact a replacement for the [[VIC-20]]. The Plus/4 offered a higher-color display, a better implementation of [[Commodore BASIC|BASIC]] (V3.5), and built-in software. But because it was a replacement for the VIC-20 and not the C64, Commodore committed what was perceived by critics and consumers as a major strategic error by making it incompatible with a majority of the existing C64 software library. To top it all off, the Plus/4 lacked hardware [[sprite (computer graphics)|sprite]] capability and had much poorer sound - even inferior to that of the VIC-20 - thus seriously underperforming in two of the areas that had made the C64 a star. Furthermore, none of the C64's external peripherals save for the monitor and most joysticks were compatible with the port connections on the Plus/4, and the promised floppy drives were not available for the first three months the Plus/4 was in the stores. The misconceived and misperceived new machine flopped, to no one's surprise except Commodore's, while demand for the C64 merely increased as old store stock was being liquidated to make room for the supposedly superior replacements.
On a side note, the Plus/4 was later dumped on TV audiences the next year via phone sales and two-minute "infomercials". Commodore created a dummy company called the [[C.O.M.B. Company]]. While the acronym reportedly stood for "Commodore Overstock Management Bureau", it was more commonly referred to as an acronym for "Crawling Out My Butt", referring to the sheer numbers of Plus/4s that were stuck in warehouses across the country that were eventually returned to Commodore.
Commodore was determined not to repeat the same mistake, and made sure that the eventual successors to the C64—the [[Commodore 128]] and 128D computers (1985)—were as good as, and fully compatible with, the original, as well as offering a host of long-sought improvements (such as a structured BASIC with graphics and sound commands, 80-column display capability, and full CP/M compatibility). The basic design of the 128, in fact, had already been marketed successfully in the Northern European and Scandinavian countries as early as 1983 as the [[Commodore B-128]]. As the Commodore 128 and other manufacturers' more advanced computers came onto the market, Commodore positioned the 64 as an entry-level computer, lowering the price as necessary.
[[Image:C64c_system.jpg|thumb|right|350px|Commodore 64C system with 1541-II floppy drive and 1084S RGB monitor (1986)]]
In 1986, Commodore released the '''Commodore 64C''' ('''C64C''') computer, which was functionally identical to the original, but whose exterior design was remodelled in the spirit of the C128 and other contemporary design trends. In the [[U.S.]], the C64C often came bundled with the third-party [[GEOS (8-bit operating system)|GEOS]] [[graphical user interface|GUI]]-based operating system.
===An active demoscene===
At the time of its introduction, the C64's graphics and sound capabilities were rivaled only by the [[Atari 8-bit family]]. This was at a time when most IBM PCs and compatibles had text-only graphics cards, [[green screen]] monitors, and sound consisting of squeaks and beeps from the built-in tiny, low-quality [[loudspeaker|speaker]].
Due to its advanced graphics and sound, the 64 is often credited with starting the computer subculture known as the [[demoscene]] (see [[Commodore 64 demos]]). As of the turn of the millennium, it is still being actively used as a demo machine, especially for music (its [[sound chip]] even being used in special sound cards for PCs). For all other than die-hard enthusiasts, however, the C64 lost its top position among demo coders when the [[16-bit]] [[Atari ST]] and [[Commodore Amiga]] were released in the mid-80s.
The demoscene is far from being dead even more than 20 years after the C64 was invented. New games are still being developed. A noteworthy one is ''[http://www.newcomer.hu Enhanced Newcomer]'', which took almost 10 years of development.
The differences between [[PAL]] and [[NTSC]] C64s cause compatibility problems between US/Canadian C64s and those from most other countries. Most demos run only on PAL machines.
===1990s and 2000s hardware===
In 1990 the C64 was re-released in the form of a games console, called the [[Commodore C64 Games System|C64 Games System]] ('''C64GS'''). It was basically a C64 motherboard modified to orient the cartridge connector to a vertical position, to allow cartridges to be inserted from above. A modified ROM replaced the BASIC interpreter with a boot screen to inform the user to insert a cartridge. Needless to say, the C64GS was another commercial failure for Commodore, and was never even released outside of Europe. In 1990/91, an advanced intended successor to the C64, the [[Commodore 65]] (also known as the "C64DX"), was prototyped, but never released.
In the summer of 2004, after an absence from the marketplace of more than 10 years, PC manufacturer [[Tulip Computers BV]] (owners of the Commodore brand since 1997) announced the [[C64 Direct-to-TV]] '''(C64DTV)''', a [[joystick]]-based [[TV game]] based on the C64 with 30 games built into ROM. Designed by [[Jeri Ellsworth]], a self-taught computer designer who had earlier designed the modern [[C-One]] C64 implementation, the C64DTV was similar in concept to other mini-consoles based on the [[Atari 2600]] and [[Intellivision]] which had gained modest success earlier in the decade. The product was advertised on [[QVC]] in the United States for the 2004 holiday season. Some users have installed [[Commodore 1541|1541]] floppy disk drives, hard drives, second joysticks and keyboards to these units, which give the DTV devices nearly all of the capabilities of a full Commodore 64. The DTV hardware is also used in the mini-console/game ''[[Hummer (video game)|Hummer]]'', sold at [[Radio Shack]] mid-2005.
[[As of 2005]], C64 enthusiasts still develop new hardware, including [[Ethernet]] cards, specially adapted [[hard disk]]s and [[Flash memory|Flash]] Card interfaces.
==Hardware==
===Graphics and sound===
The C64 used an [[8-bit]] [[MOS Technology 6510]] [[microprocessor]] (a close derivative of the [[MOS Technology 6502|6502]] with an added 6-bit internal I/O port that in the C64 is used for two purposes: to bank-switch the machine's [[Read-only memory|ROM]] in and out of the processor's address space, and to operate the [[datasette]] tape recorder) and had 64 [[kilobyte]]s of [[random access memory|RAM]], of which 38 kB were available to built-in [[Commodore BASIC|Commodore BASIC 2.0]].
The graphics chip, [[MOS Technology VIC-II|VIC-II]], featured 16 colors, eight [[sprite (computer graphics)|sprites]], [[scrolling]] capabilities, and two bitmap graphics modes. The standard text mode featured 40 columns, like most [[Commodore PET]] models. [[Computer game|Computer]]/[[Computer and video games|video game]] and [[demoscene|demo]] programmers quickly learned how to exploit quirks in the VIC-II to gain additional capabilities, like making more than 8 sprites appear, and move, simultaneously.
The sound chip, [[MOS Technology SID|SID]], had three channels with several different [[waveform]]s, [[ring modulation]] and filter capabilities. It, too, was very advanced for its time. It was designed by Bob Yannes, who would later co-found synthesizer company [[Ensoniq]]. Yannes criticized other contemporary computer sound chips as "primitive, obviously (...) designed by people who knew nothing about music." Often the game music became a hit of its own among C64 users. Well-known composers and programmers of game music on the C64 were [[Rob Hubbard]], [[Ben Daglish]] and [[Martin Galway]], among many others.
The SID chip has a distinctive sound which retained a following of devotees. In 1999, Swedish company [[Elektron (company)|Elektron]] produced a [[SidStation]] synth module, built around the SID chip, using remaining stocks of the chip. Several bands use these devices in their music.
===Hardware revisions===
Cost reduction was the driving force for hardware revisions to the C64's motherboard. Reducing manufacturing costs was vitally important to Commodore's survival during the price war and leaner years of the 16-bit era. The C64's original ([[NMOS]] based) motherboard would go through two major redesigns, (and numerous sub-revisions) exchanging positions of the VIC-II, SID and [[programmable logic array|PLA]] chips. Initially, a large proportion of the cost was lowered by reducing the number of discrete components used, such as diodes and resistors.
[[Image:C64motherboard.jpg|thumb|right|350px|An early C64 motherboard. (Rev A [[PAL]] 1982)]]
[[Image:C64Cmotherboard.jpg|thumb|right|350px|A C64C motherboard ("C64E" Rev B PAL 1992)]]
The VIC-II was manufactured with 5 [[micrometer]] [[NMOS]] technology, clocked at 8&nbsp;MHz. At such a high clock rate, it generated a lot of heat, forcing MOS Technology to use a ceramic [[Dual in-line package|DIL package]] (called a "CERDIP"). The ceramic package was more expensive, but it dissipated heat more effectively than plastic.
After a redesign in 1983, the VIC-II was encased in a plastic DIL package, which reduced costs substantially, but it did not eliminate the heat problem. Without a ceramic package, the VIC-II required the use of a [[heatsink]]. To avoid extra cost, the metal [[radio frequency|RF]] [[electromagnetic shielding|shielding]] doubled as the heatsink for the VIC, although n |
word ''Cild'' meaning 'Young Lord'.
Legend has it that Childe was in a party hunting on the moor when they were caught in some changeable weather. Childe became separated from the main party and was lost. In order to save himself from dying of exposure, he killed his horse, disembowelled it and crept inside the warm carcass for shelter. He nevertheless froze to death, but before he died, he wrote a note to the effect that whoever should find him and bury him in their church should inherit his Plymstock estate.
[[William Crossing]] quotes [[Tristram Risdon]] who relates that the original tomb bore the following inscription:
"They fyrste that fyndes and bringes mee to my grave,
The priorie of Plimstoke they shall have"
He was found by the monks of [[Tavistock]], who started to carry his body back to their abbey. However, they got to hear of a plot to ambush them by the people of Plymstock, at a bridge over the [[River Tavy]] which they would have to cross. They took a detour and built a new bridge over Tavy, just outside of Tavistock. They were successful in burying the body in the grounds of Tavistock Abbey and inherited his Plymstock estate.
The first account of this story is to be found in a survey undertaken by Thomas Risden in [[1630]]:
"It is left us by tradition that one Childe of Plimstoke, a man of fair possessions, having no issue, ordained, by his will, that wheresoever he should happen to be buried, to that church his lands should belong. It so fortuned, that he riding to hunt in the forest of Dartmore, being in pursuit of his game, casually lost his company, and his way likewise. The season then being so cold, and he so benumed therewith, as he was enforced to kill his horse, and embowelled him, to creep into his belly to get heat; which not able to preserve him, was there frozen to death; and so found, was carried by Tavistoke men to be buried in the church of that abbey; which was so secretly done but the inhabitants of Plymstoke had knowledge thereof; which to prevent, they resorted to defend the carriage of the corpse over the bridge, where, they conceived, necessity compelled them to pass. But they were deceived by guile; for the Tavistoke men forthwith built a slight bridge, and passed over at another place without resistance, buried the body, and enjoyed the lands; in memory whereof the bridge beareth the name of Guilebridge to this day." (Survey of Devon, pp 198,199. Edit 1811).
[[Category:Dartmoor]]
[[nl:Childe's Tomb]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Cognate</title>
<id>6328</id>
<revision>
<id>41346693</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-26T19:22:09Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Alexander 007</username>
<id>493689</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>removed expansion upon Latin and Romance languages which is out of place unless you go into other languages in the lead as well</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{unreferenced}}
'''Cognates''' are words in two or more languages that have a common origin.
Examples of cognates are the words ''night'' ([[English language|English]]), ''nuit'' ([[French language|French]]), ''Nacht'' ([[German language|German]] and [[Dutch Language|Dutch]]), ''nicht'' ([[Scots language|Scots]]), ''nat'' ([[Danish language|Danish]]) ''noc'' ([[Czech language|Czech]], [[Polish language|Polish]]), ''noch'' ([[Russian language|Russian]]), ''nox'' ([[Latin]]), ''nakti-'' ([[Sanskrit]]), ''natë'' ([[Albanian language|Albanian]]), ''noche'' ([[Spanish language|Spanish]]), ''nos'' ([[Welsh language|Welsh]]), ''noite'' ([[Portuguese language|Portuguese]]), ''noapte'' ([[Romanian language|Romanian]]) and ''naktis'' ([[Lithuanian language|Lithuanian]]), all meaning ''night'' and all deriving from [[Proto-Indo-European language|Proto-Indo-European]] ([[Proto-Indo-European language|PIE]]) ''*nekwt-'', "night." Another Indo-European example is ''star'' (English), ''str'' (Sanskrit), ''étoile'' (French) ''star'' ([[Sinhala]]), ''aster'' ([[Greek language|Greek]]), ''stella'' (Latin, [[Italian language|Italian]]), ''stea'' (Romanian), ''stairno'' ([[Gothic language|Gothic]]), ''Stern'' (German), ''starn'' (Scots), ''stjerne'' ([[Norwegian language|Norwegian]]), ''setare'' ([[Persian language|Persian]]), ''seren'' (Welsh), ''steren'' ([[Cornish language|Cornish]]), ''ster'' (Dutch and [[Afrikaans]]), ''estel'' ([[Catalan]]), ''estrella'' (Spanish), ''estrela'' (Portuguese) and ''estêre'' ([[Kurdish language|Kurdish]]), from PIE ''*ster-'', "star".
[[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] ''shalom'' and [[Arabic language|Arabic]] ''salaam'' are also cognates deriving from a common [[Semitic languages|Semitic]] root.
Cognates can exist within the same language. For example, English ''ward'' and ''guard'' (<PIE ''*wer-'', "to perceive, watch out for") are cognate as are ''shirt'' and ''skirt'' (<PIE ''*sker-'', "to cut"). In some cases, one of the cognate pairs has an ultimate source in another language related to English, while the other one is native, as happened with many loanwords from [[Old Norse language|Old Norse]] (which was mutually intelligible with [[Old English language|Old English]]) borrowed when the [[Viking]]s owned part of England. Sometimes, both cognates come from other languages, often the same one but at different times. For example, the word ''chief'' comes from the Middle French ''chef'', and its modern pronunciation preserves the Middle French consonant sound. The word ''chef'' was borrowed from the same source centuries later, by which time the consonant had changed to a "sh"-sound in French. Such words are said to be [[etymological twins]].
Cognates may often be less easily recognised than the above examples and authorities sometimes differ in their interpretations of the evidence. The English word ''milk'' is clearly a cognate of German ''Milch'' and of [[Russian language|Russian]] ''moloko'' (<PIE ''*melg-'', "to milk"). On the other hand, French ''lait'' and [[Spanish language|Spanish]] ''leche'' (both meaning "milk") are less obviously cognates of [[Greek language|Greek]] ''galaktos'' (genitive form of ''gala'', milk) (<''*g(a)lag-'', ''galakt-'').
Cognates need not have the same meaning: ''dish'' ([[English language|English]]) and ''Tisch'' ("table", [[German language|German]]), or ''starve'' ([[English language|English]]) and ''sterben'' ("die", [[German language|German]]), or ''head'' ([[English language|English]]) and ''chef'' ("chief, head", [[French language|French]]), serve as examples as to how cognate terms may [[semantic drift|diverge in meaning]] as languages develop separately, eventually becoming [[false friends]].
In addition to having separate meanings, cognates through processes of linguistic change may no longer resemble each other phonetically: ''cow'' and ''beef'' both derive from the same Indo-European root ''*g''{{PIE|ʷ}}''ou''-, ''cow'' having developed through the [[Germanic family|Germanic language family]] while ''beef'' has arrived in English from the Italo-Romance family descent.
Cognates may thus also arise through borrowings into languages. So the resemblance between [[English language|English]] ''to pay'' and [[French language|French]] ''payer'' originates through English borrowing ''to pay'' from [[Norman language|Norman]] which, like French, had derived its word from Gallo-Romance.
==False cognates==
{{main|False cognate}}
[[False cognate]]s are words that are commonly thought to be related (have a common origin) whereas linguistic examination reveals they are unrelated. Thus, for example, on the basis of superficial similarities one might suppose that the Latin verb ''habere'' and German ''haben'', both meaning 'to have', are cognates. However, an understanding of the way words in the two languages evolve from [[Proto-Indo-European language|Proto-Indo-European]] (PIE) roots shows that they cannot be cognate (see for example [[Grimm's law]]). German ''haben'' (like English ''have'') in fact comes from PIE *kap, 'to grasp', and its real cognate in Latin is ''capere'', 'to seize, grasp, capture'. Latin ''habere'', on the other hand, is from PIE *ghabh, 'to give, to receive', and hence cognate with English ''give'' and German ''geben''.
The similarity of words between languages is ''not'' enough to demonstrate that the words are related to each other, in much the same way that facial resemblance does not determine whether two people are genetically related. Over the course of hundreds and thousands of years, words may change their sound completely. Thus, for example, English ''five'' and [[Sanskrit]] ''pança'' are cognates, while English ''over'' and [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] ''a'var'' are not, and neither are English ''dog'' and [[Mbabaram language|Mbabaram]] ''dog''.
Contrast this with [[false friend]]s, which frequently ''are'' cognate.
==See also==
*[[Historical-comparative linguistics]]
*[[Paronym]]
[[Category:Historical linguistics]]
[[af:Kognaat]]
[[bg:Когнат]]
[[es:Cognado]]
[[gl:Cognado]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Chromatography</title>
<id>6329</id>
<revision>
<id>41989510</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T01:54:37Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Edgar181</username>
<id>491706</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Revert to revision 41778769 using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Chromatography''' is a family of [[analytical chemistry]] techniques for the [[separation of mixtures]]. It involves passing the sample, a mixture which contains the [[analyte]], in the "mobile phase", often in a stream of [[solvent]], through the "stationary phase." The stationary phase retards the passage of the components of the sample. When co |
nemic, due to mergers involving formerly distinct sounds (/v/ merging with /w/, /k/ merging with /q/, /x/ merging with {{IPA|/&#295;/}}), loss of consonant gemination (which formerly distinguished the stop members of the pairs from the fricatives when intervocalic), and the introduction of syllable-initial /f/ through foreign borrowings.
===Historical sound changes===
Standard (non-Oriental) Israeli Hebrew (SIH) has undergone a number of splits and mergers in its development from [[Biblical Hebrew]] {{ref|Hetzron}}.
* BH /b/ had two [[allophone]]s, [b] and [v]; the [v] allophone has merged with /w/ into SIH /v/
* BH /k/ had two allophones, [k] and [x]; the [k] allophone has merged with /q/ into SIH /k/, while the [x] allophone has merged with {{Unicode|/ḥ/}} into SIH /x/
* BH /t/ and {{IPA|/ṭ/}} have merged into SIH /t/
* BH {{IPA|/ʕ/}} and {{IPA|/ʔ/}} have merged into SIH {{IPA|/ʔ/}}
* BH /p/ had two allophones, [p] and [f]; the incorporation of loanwords into Modern Hebrew has probably resulted in a split, so that /p/ and /f/ are separate phonemes
==Grammar==
''See main article [[Hebrew grammar]]
'''Hebrew grammar''' is mostly [[analytic language|analytical]], expressing such forms as [[dative case|dative]], [[ablative case|ablative]], and [[accusative case|accusative]] using [[preposition]]al particles rather than [[grammatical case]]s. However inflection does play an important role in the formation of the verbs, nouns and the [[genitive case|genitive]] construct, which is called "smikhut". Words in smikhut are often combined with [[hyphen]]s.
==Writing system==
Modern Hebrew is written from right to left using the [[Hebrew alphabet]]. Modern scripts are based on the "square" letter form. A similar system is used in handwriting, but the letters tend to be more circular in their character, and sometimes vary markedly from their printed equivalents. Biblical Hebrew text contains nothing but consonants and spaces, and most modern Hebrew texts contain only consonants, spaces and western-style [[punctuation]]. A pointing system (nikud, from the root word meaning "points" or "dots") developed around the 5th Century C.E. is used to indicate vowels and syllabic stresses in some religious books, and is almost always found in modern poetry, children's literature, and texts for beginning students of Hebrew. The system is also used sparingly to avoid certain ambiguities of meaning &#8212; such as when context is insufficient to distinguish between two identically spelled words &#8212; and in the transliteration of foreign names.
All Hebrew consonant phonemes are represented by a single letter. Although a single letter might represent two phonemes &#8212; the letter "bet," for example, represents both /b/ and /v/ &#8212; the two sounds are always related "hard" ([[plosive]]) and "soft" ([[fricative]]) forms, their pronunciaton being very often determined by context. In fully pointed texts, the hard form normally has a dot, known as a [[dagesh]], in its center.
The letters hei, vav and yud can represent consonantal sounds (/h/, /v/ and /i/, respectively) or serve as a markers for vowels. In the latter case, these letters are called "emot qria" ("[[mater lectionis|matres lectionis]]" in Latin, "mothers of reading" in English). The letter hei at the end of a word usually indicates a final /a/, which in turn is usually indicative of feminine gender. Vav may represent /o/ or /u/, and yod may represent /i/. There is no consonantal marker for /e/. In some modern Israeli texts, the letter alef is used to indicate long /a/ sounds in foreign names, particularly those of Arabic origin.
Terminal syllabic emphasis is most common. Fully pointed texts will note variations with a vertical line placed underneath the first consonant of the emphasized syllable, to the left of the vowel mark if there is one.
===Romanization===
''See also [[Romanization of Hebrew]]''
The Hebrew language is normally written in the [[Hebrew alphabet]]. Due to publishing difficulties, and the unfamiliarity of many readers with the alphabet, there are many ways of transcribing Hebrew into [[Roman alphabet|Roman letters]]. The most accurate method is the [[International Phonetic Alphabet]]. It is used (in a simplified [[ASCII]] form) in the section concerned with [[Hebrew language/Phonology|phonology]], to describe the sounds of the Hebrew language. However, the [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]] is not well known, and is often considered cumbersome for transcribing pronunciations for a general audience. Therefore this article uses a different system to express Hebrew pronunciation, and at least some orthographic peculiarities. The system comes down to the following:
* The letter tzadik (&#1510;) is transcribed by "s," although "ts" or "tz" is usually acceptable.
* The letter &lsquo;ayin (&#1506;) is transcribed ', the same as alef. In word-final position, this phoneme is always preceded by the vowel /a/.
* The letter shin (&#1513;) is transcribed by "sh", and the letter sin as "s".
* Both the letter tav (&#1514;) and the letter tet (&#1496;) are transcribed by "t".
* The letter hey (&#1492;) at the end of a word, in those cases where it marks feminine gender, is transcribed by "ah" (it is read /a/).
* The letter chet (&#1495;) is usually transcribed by "ch". "kh" is usually acceptable but not as common. "h" is occasionally used but often avoided as "h" is also used for hey (&#1492;).
* The letter qof (&#1511;) is transcribed by "q" (it is pronounced /k/ by many speakers).
* Single-letter prepositions and the definite article are separated with a dash (-) from their subject.
* Stresses and schwas are not marked.
* The vowels are always written.
* The letter yod is usually transcribed by "y".
==See also==
*[[List of common phrases in various languages#Hebrew (Semitic)|Common phrases in Hebrew]]
*[[Cantillation]]
*[[Hebrew alphabet]]
*[[Niqqud]] (vowel points)
*[[Samaritan Hebrew]]
*[[The study of Hebrew]]
* [[Hebrew literature]]
==Notes==
#{{note|blasphemy}} [http://www.jewishmag.com/43mag/ben-yehuda/ben-yehuda.htm Eliezer Ben Yehuda and the Resurgence of the Hebrew Language] by Libby Kantorwitz
#{{note|Klatzkin}} [http://www.zionistarchives.org.il/ZA/SiteE/pShowView.aspx?GM=Y&ID=48&Teur=Protest%20against%20the%20suppression%20of%20Hebrew%20in%20the%20Soviet%20Union%20%201930-1931 Protest against the suppression of Hebrew in the Soviet Union 1930-1931] signed by [[Albert Einstein]], among others
#{{note|Hetzron}} [[Robert Hetzron]]. ([[1987]]). Hebrew. In ''The World's Major Languages'', ed. [[Bernard Comrie]], 686–704. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-520521-9.
==Bibliography==
* [http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/tg/detail/-/0814736548 Hoffman, Joel M, ''In the Beginning: A Short History of the Hebrew Language.'' New York: NYU Press.] ISBN 0814736548.
*Izre'el, Shlomo, "The emergence of Spoken Israeli Hebrew", in: Benjamin Hary (ed.), ''The Corpus of Spoken Israeli Hebrew (CoSIH): Working Papers I'' (2001) [http://www.tau.ac.il/humanities/semitic/cosih.html]
*Kuzar, Ron, ''Hebrew and Zionism: A Discourse Analytic Cultural Study''. Berlin & New York: Mouton de Gruyter 2001. ISBN 3-11-016993-2, ISBN 3-11-016992-4.
* [http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/tg/detail/-/0521556341 Sáenz-Badillos, Angel, ''A History of the Hebrew Language'' (trans. John Elwolde). Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.] ISBN 0521556341
==External links==
{{InterWiki|code=he}}
{{wikibookspar||Hebrew}}
*[http://www.ethnologue.org/show_language.asp?code=heb Ethnologue report for Hebrew]
*[http://hebrew-academy.huji.ac.il/english.html Academy of Hebrew Language], the Institute which prescribes standards for modern Hebrew grammar, orthography, transliteration, and punctuation based upon the study of Hebrew's historical development.
*History of the Hebrew Language
**[http://www.adath-shalom.ca/history_of_hebrew.htm History of the Hebrew Language Steinberg]
**[http://www.adath-shalom.ca/rabin_he.htm Short History of the Hebrew Language Rabin]
**[http://www.adath-shalom.ca/israeli_hebrew_tene.htm Israeli Hebrew Tene]
**[http://www.adath-shalom.ca/israel_lang_policy_rosen.htm Israel Language Policy and Linguistics Rosén]
**[http://www.adath-shalom.ca/hebrew_words_history.htm Words and their History Kutscher]
**[http://www.adath-shalom.ca/hebrew_slang_sappan.htm Hebrew Slang and Foreign Loan Words Sappan ]
*Grammars
**[http://foundationstone.com.au/HtmlSupport/FrameSupport/onlineHebrewTutorialFrame.html Online Hebrew Tutorial] (foundationstone)
**[http://perso.wanadoo.fr/babel-site/ Hebrew is easy] (babel-site)
**[http://www.adath-shalom.ca/gk_cont.htm Gesenius' Hebrew Grammar]
**[http://www.hebrew-verbs.co.il Learn Hebrew Verbs]
*Dictionaries
**[http://www.hebrewatmilah.org/maskilon1/index.htm Root-based] (Maskilon)
**[http://milon.morfix.co.il/ Word-search] English-Hebrew and Hebrew-English (Morfix)
**[http://www.hebrewatmilah.org/maskilon3/index.htm Hebrew-English] (Maskilon)
**[http://www.faithofgod.net/davar/ Hebrew-English] (DAVAR freeware, english)
**[http://www.websters-online-dictionary.org/definition/Hebrew-english/ Hebrew-English] (Webster's Rosetta Edition)
**[http://www.hebrewatmilah.org/maskilon4/index.htm English-Hebrew] (Maskilon)
**[http://www.dictionary.co.il English-Hebrew] (My Hebrew Dictionary)
*General
**[http://www.yiwoodmere.org/library/cybrary/hebrew.html Learning Hebrew - Links], Young Israel
**[http://www.yomanim.com Hebrew Writings and Diaries]
**[http://infoshare1.princeton.edu/katmandu/hebrew/atoc.html Hebrew Abbreviations |
cated to produce the "right" set of final [[Good (economics)|goods]]?
# In a [[free market]], where [[price]]s are free to rise and fall without restriction, the [[price]] of a good rises when [[demand]] increases, and falls when [[supply]] increases. If supply is insufficient to meet demand, the price increases, and producers are motivated to make more of that good. If demand is insufficient to purchase the available goods, then prices fall, and less of the good is produced. This is what it means when an economist of the [[Austrian school]] says that [[price]]s are the mechanism that matches [[supply]] with [[demand]].
# Under [[socialism]], prices are not free to rise and fall. Instead, [[price]]s are set by [[central planning|central planners]]. Put differently, because there is no [[private property]] in the [[means of production]], individuals have no power to set prices in response to supply and demand.
# Due to these [[price controls]], there is no reliable source of information about [[demand]], and hence no way to decide how much of a good to produce. This is the '''economic calculation problem'''.
# Since producing too much of one good implies producing too little of another, the result of the '''calculation problem''' is that there will be chronic [[shortage]]s of one good or another. Inherent in the '''calculation problem''' is the conclusion that it is impossible to predict which goods will experience shortage, since if that could be predicted, production could be adjusted to eliminate the shortage, and the '''calculation problem''' would in fact be solvable. The assertion of [[Ludwig von Mises|Mises]] is that the '''calculation problem''' is inherently unsolvable.
Thus the ostensible result is that [[socialism]] produces inefficient [[distributions of production]]. Historical examples include the [[Soviet Union]]'s cyclical [[shortages]] of various goods. Efforts to resolve the '''economic calculation problem''' was one of the main goals of [[Chinese economic reform]] in the [[1980s]]. This argument served as the starting point for [[F. A. Hayek]]'s work on the use of knowledge in society. He contended that the only rational solution to the economic calculation problem is to utilize all the [[dispersed knowledge]] in the market place through the use of [[price signal|price signals]].
Simply put, one aspect of the '''economic calculation problem''' is that demand cannot be known without prices. Or more precisely, it cannot be known ''accurately'' without prices; it would in theory be possible for every citizen to order all of his groceries one year in advance, and to plan a production schedule for the year based on those orders. If one did this, one would know ''roughly'' how much of each good was desired, but this information would be inaccurate, if only because some people may become tired of borscht and eat much less of it than they anticipated when they placed their order; others might become ill or disabled and so have no need of the fuel and clothing they ordered at the start of the year, etc. Add to that the possibility of a natural disaster creating a sudden increase in the need for food and clothing across an entire region, and [[F. A. Hayek|Hayek]] would say that it becomes clear that even if demand could be measured accurately at a particular point in time, the information would quickly become outdated. Prices, on the other hand, provide a continuous source of feedback as demands change.
Another aspect of the '''economic calculation problem''' is that, just as demand can't be known without prices, so costs can't be known without prices. The problem is not one of having a unit of measure, though that is sometimes incorrectly identified as the '''economic calculation problem'''. Rather, the problem is that the cost of a good is roughly the ''demand for the next-most-preferred good''. That is to say that if one uses the last of one's flour to bake a cake instead of a loaf of bread, the [[opportunity cost]] of the cake is equal to the value one places on the bread one does without. So what is the cost of a [[space race]]? To answer the question in a socialist economy requires a knowledge of what people would have done with the time, labor, titanium, land, etc., if it were not instead used to produce a [[space race]], but this is something that fundamentally can't be known. Conversely, in a [[free market]], the fact that someone is willing to pay for a space capsule is regarded as a priori evidence that the [[opportunity cost]] of a space capsule is less than the value of the capsule. (See also [[marginalism]]).
In a sense the '''calculation problem''' is a critique not only of socialist economies, but of any use of [[price controls]]. There is a critical difference, however, in that socialist economies implement [[price controls]] across the entire spectrum of goods. In a nominally [[free market]], [[price controls]] are applied to only a small number of goods, and it is usually clear from circumstances whether the price is being held too high or too low--for example, one speaks of a price '''floor''' (minimum) or '''ceiling''' (maximum), depending whether the price is being held above or below the [[market price]], respectively. In the case of a '''price floor''' it can be predicted that supply will exceed demand, creating a [[surplus]], and in the case of a '''price ceiling''' it can be predicted that demand will exceed supply, creating a [[shortage]]. The '''economic calculation problem''' differs in that, lacking any knowledge of the [[market price]] of goods, one cannot say which goods will be in surplus and which will suffer shortage.
==Example==
A road needs to be built from Place A to Place B. In between, there is a mountain.
Several methods could be used:
*The road could go around the mountain.
*The road could tunnel through the mountain.
*The road could go over the mountain.
Each method has costs and benefits.
How does one calculate the comparative costs of different options, without prices? Vital information about the relative cost of labor, materials, delays, impact on travel time, etc. is automatically aggregated from thousands of factors into prices, in a market economy.
It would be impractical for a central planning authority to gather and compare all this information, changing it in real time.
==Debate==
This conclusion was attacked directly on two fronts. Firstly, by believers in the [[general equilibrium theory]] who maintained that all that matters is the knowledge of the most effective use of materials as long as the price system was in use; effective use of materials could then be calculated by any method, and in essence, other signals would take place of price for intermediate goods.
Secondly, by [[Marxists]], who see prices, e.g. the ratio in which commodities (including money) are exchanged with one another, as just one small part of a process of production which has the primary purpose of profit according to the [[Labor theory of value]]; according to that theory, prices in capitalism do not in fact serve as demand signals. If either of those alternative theories of price is accepted, in place of the [[marginalist]] theory presently most popular among economists, the calculation problem becomes harder to formulate.
A related point sometimes made by socialists (or, for a different purpose, [[Rothbard]]-inspired [[anarcho-capitalists]]) is that in actually existing capitalism, prices are often set by central planners. Large corporations set retail prices by central policies, which must in turn be determined by calculations of the sort that, arguably, ought to be impossible according to proponents of the calculation argument. For example, in response to the road-construction example above, it might be claimed that the costs and benefits of the impact on travel time couldn't be determined ahead of time by judgement-free summing of prices alone in even the most free-market economy.
It could also be argued that the philosophical basis of the calculation problem has a fatal flaw. Proponents argue that optimum economic settings are unknowable but also purport to know that the market can provide them.
==Decentralized Socialism==
Some socialists respond less directly, that this argument rests on the assumption that socialism would be a completely centralised economy based on society wide planning, but that in fact it need not necessarily be so. This counter-argument suggests a decentralized form of socialism with different levels of planning -- local, regional and global. This, they claim, would allow for a self-regulating mechanism of stock control to come into play (which cannot happen in the case of society-wide or central planning).
In this model, distribution points replenish stock as it is removed from the shelves by signaling to producers’ orders for new stock. Producers in turn contact their own suppliers of inputs as and when it is required and so on down the production.
According to the [[law of the minimum]] (after [[Justus von Liebig]]) those factors that are most scarce in relation to demand, that constitute the "limiting factor" which proximately limits the production of any good, are precisely those that need most to be economised. The shortage of such factors as revealed via the self-regulating system of stock control will trigger the search for more abundant substitutes. This, some socialists claim, would overcome the economic calculation problem. An elaborated model of the socialist economisation process as well as a detailed critique of the Economic Calculation Argument appears in issue no.3 of Common Voice
http://www.cvoice.org/current.htm
===Rebuttal===
One response to this criticism is that fundamentally the calculation problem does not in fact rest on an assumption of ''centralization'' of decision making. Indeed, problems very similar can occur in decentralized systems, wherever the persons making choices |
t of his farflung acolytes. A 1952 attempt to haul him before a Senate investigative committee and get to the bottom of his operation ended with the cagey old gentleman leaving the senators outwitted and baffled.
A farm near Racine, Wisconsin is the only remaining university facility, although a tiny handful of churches may yet survive in places such as Wichita, Kansas.
He has been described as the "[[Leonardo da Vinci]] of kooks".
==Quotation==
*"When I look into the vastness of space and see the marvelous workings of its contents... I sometimes think I was born ten or twenty thousand years ahead of time." -- Alfred Lawson
==External links==
*[http://www.rcls.org/lawson/intro.htm Lawson's Progress] an elaborate web tribute
*[http://www.lawsonomy.org/Lawsonomy11.html The three volumes of Lasonomy], written by Lawson
[[Category:1869 births|Lawson, Alfred]]
[[Category:1954 deaths|Lawson, Alfred]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>ALCS</title>
<id>1295</id>
<revision>
<id>35507250</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-17T05:53:49Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>William Allen Simpson</username>
<id>580725</id>
</contributor>
<comment>{4LA} {4LC}</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">;ALCS
* [[American League Championship Series]], in American baseball
* [[ALCS transaction monitor]], a transaction processing monitor for the airline industry
{{4LC}}</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Apocrypha/Tanakh</title>
<id>1297</id>
<revision>
<id>15899786</id>
<timestamp>2004-01-13T01:32:23Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>UtherSRG</username>
<id>33145</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Tanakh]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Ames, Iowa</title>
<id>1298</id>
<revision>
<id>42158089</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T05:06:52Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>12.215.83.96</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Bales of hay.jpg|thumb|right|Bales of hay on a farm near Ames, Iowa]]
'''Ames''' is a city located in [[Story County, Iowa|Story County]], [[Iowa]]. As of the [[United States 2000 Census|2000 Census]], the city had a total population of 50,731. The city was named after [[19th century]] [[United States House of Representatives|U.S. congressman]] [[Oakes Ames]] of [[Massachusetts]], who was influential in the building of the [[First transcontinental railroad (North America)|transcontinental railroad]]. Ames was founded near a location that was deemed favorable for a railroad crossing of the [[Skunk River]]. It is located roughly 30 miles (48 km) north of the state capital [[Des Moines, Iowa|Des Moines]]. Two small rivers run through the town: the Skunk River and [[Squaw Creek (Iowa)|Squaw Creek]].
Ames is home of [[Iowa State University]] of Science & Technology, a [[space grant colleges|space grant college]], at its founding, the state's (Morrill Act) [[land-grant university]], formerly known as the Iowa State College of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts. Ames is the home of the closely allied U.S Department of Agriculture's National Animal Disease Center, and the main offices of the Iowa state Department of Transportation. State and Federal institutions are the largest employers in Ames.
Other area employers include a [[3M]] manufacturing plant; [[Sauer-Danfoss]], a hydraulics manufacturer; [[Barilla]], a pasta manufacturer; [[Pella (company)|Pella]] a window manufacturer; and [[Ball Corporation|Ball]], a manufacturer of canning jars and plastic bottles.
== Geography ==
[[Image:IAMap-doton-Ames.PNG|right|Location of Ames, Iowa]]
Ames is located at 42&deg;1'38" North, 93&deg;37'54" West (42.027335, -93.631586){{GR|1}}.
According to the [[United States Census Bureau]], the city has a total area of 55.9 [[square kilometre|km&sup2;]] (21.6 [[square mile|mi&sup2;]]). 55.9 km&sup2; (21.6 mi&sup2;) of it is land and 0.1 km&sup2; (0.04 mi&sup2;) of it is water. The total area is 0.09% water.
Ames is located on Interstate 35, US Highways 30 & 69, and the cross country line of the the Union Pacific Railroad.
== Demographics ==
As of the [[United States 2000 Census|2000 Census]], there are 50,731 people, 18,085 households, and 8,970 families residing in the city. The [[population density]] is 908.1/km&sup2; (2,352.3/mi&sup2;). There are 18,757 housing units at an average density of 335.7/km&sup2; (869.7/mi&sup2;). The racial makeup of the city is 87.34% White, 7.70% [[Asia|Asian]], 2.65% [[African American]], 1.98% [[Hispanic American]] or [[Latino]] of any race, 0.15% [[Native Americans in the United States|Native American]], 0.04% Pacific Islander, 0.76% from other races, and 1.36% from two or more races.
There are 18,085 households out of which 22.3% have children under the age of 18 living with them, 42.0% are [[Marriage|married couples]] living together, 5.3% have a female householder with no husband present, and 50.4% are non-families. 28.5% of all households are made up of individuals and 5.9% have someone living alone who is 65 years of age or older. The average household size is 2.30 and the average family size is 2.85.
In the city the population is spread out with 14.6% under the age of 18, 40.0% from 18 to 24, 23.7% from 25 to 44, 13.9% from 45 to 64, and 7.7% who are 65 years of age or older. The median age is 24 years. For every 100 females there are 109.3 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there are 109.9 males.
A large number of Ames residents are university students. In 2004, for example, there were 26,390 students enrolled at Iowa State.
The median income for a household in the city is $36,042, and the median income for a family is $56,439. Males have a median income of $37,877 versus $28,198 for females. The [[per capita income]] for the city is $18,881. 20.4% of the population and 7.6% of families are below the [[poverty line]]. Out of the total population, 9.2% of those under the age of 18 and 4.1% of those 65 and older are living below the poverty line.
== Important events ==
Prof. [[John_Vincent_Atanasoff | John V. Atanasoff]] and his graduate student, Clifford Berry, are now credited with the creation of the first true electronic digital computer in the basement of the physics department during the years 1937-1942. The Atanasoff/Berry computer used binary arithmetic circuits, regenerative memory, and logic circuits. These seminal ideas were communicated by Atanasoff to John Mauchly during a visit to Iowa State in the 1940s who then used them in the design of the better-known ENIAC built some years later.
Ames has been selected to host the first National Special Olympics in 2006 (summer). Ames has regularly hosted numerous statewide athletic events such as the Iowa Games and Iowa Shrine Bowl.
Ada Hayden Heritage Park opened in summer of 2004. It lies west of [[US 69]] just north of Ames. It is a large park complex featuring two connected lakes (former quarries) and walking/biking trails.
== Points of interest ==
* [[Reiman Gardens]]
* [[Jack Trice Stadium]]
Farm House Museum, Brunnier Art Museum, Art on Campus Collection, Iowa State University. For more information visit www.museums.iastate.edu
== People ==
* [[Neal Stephenson]], Author, grew up in Ames, Iowa
* [[Peter Schickele]], Musician, was born in Ames, Iowa
* [[George Washington Carver]], Inventor, was an alumni and a professor at ISU.
Billy Sunday, evangelist and major league baseball player, born in Ames
Fred Hoiberg, NBA basketball player, native of Ames and ISU graduate
Carrie Chapman Catt, women's rights activist, ISU graduate
Ted Kooser, U.S. Poet Laureate, was raised in Ames, Iowa and attended Iowa State University.
== External links ==
{{Mapit-US-cityscale|42.027335|-93.631586}}
*[http://ortho.gis.iastate.edu/ Maps from ISU GIS Support and Research Facility]
*[http://urj.net/congs/ia/ia003/ Ames Jewish Congregation] - [[Union for Reform Judaism]]
*[http://www.bridgewayofames.org/ Bridgeway Congregation] - [[Reformed Church in America]]
*[http://chefmoz.org/United_States/IA/Ames/ Ames Dining Guide] on [[Chefmoz]]
*[http://www.mainstreetculturaldistrict.com/ The Main Street Cultural District]
*[http://www.dragonartsames.com/ Dragon Arts Martial Arts and Cultural Center]
[[Category:Cities in Iowa]]
[[Category:Story County, Iowa]]
[[Category:University towns]]
[[es:Ames]]
[[gl:Ames]]
[[io:Ames, Iowa]]
[[nl:Ames]]
[[pl:Ames (Iowa)]]
[[pt:Ames]]
[[zh:艾姆斯]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Abbadides</title>
<id>1299</id>
<revision>
<id>15899788</id>
<timestamp>2002-05-19T16:47:02Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>AxelBoldt</username>
<id>2</id>
</contributor>
<comment>*</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Abbadid]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Abalone</title>
<id>1300</id>
<revision>
<id>41304303</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-26T11:57:35Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Captainbeefart</username>
<id>727376</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Beefart typo. Genus has initial capital</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''For other uses, see [[Abalone (disambiguation)]].''
[[image:abalone.jpg|thumb|right|A piece of abalone shell]]
[[Image:AbaloneOutside.jpg|thumb|right|The outside of an abalone shell]]
[[Image:AbaloneInside.jpg|thumb|right|The inside surface of an abalone shell]]
[[Image:AbaloneMeat.jpg|thumb|right|The raw meat of abalone]]
'''Abalone''' is the [[American English]] variant of the [[Spanish language|Spanish]] name ''Abulón'' used for various species of [[shellfish]] ([[mollusk]]s) from the [[Haliotidae]] family ([[genus]] ''Haliotis''). The abalones belon |
formed expression a<sup>A-B</sup>×ab<sup>B-C</sup>×...×abc..m<sup>M-N</sup>×abc..mn<sup>N</sup>
Transformation before calculation often reduces the count of multiplications
but in some cases it also increases the count (see the last one of the examples below),
so it may be a good idea to check the count of multiplications before using the transformed expression for calculation.
==== Examples ====
For the following expressions the count of multiplications is shown for calculating each power separately,
calculating them simultaneously without transformation and calculating them simultaneously after transformation.
Example: a<sup>7</sup>×b<sup>5</sup>×c<sup>3</sup><br>
separate: [((a)<span style="color:red;"><sup>2</sup>×</span>a)<span style="color:red;"><sup>2</sup>×</span>a] <span style="color:red;">×</span> [((b)<span style="color:red;"><sup>2</sup></span>)<span style="color:red;"><sup>2</sup>×</span>b] <span style="color:red;">×</span> [(c)<span style="color:red;"><sup>2</sup>×</span>c] ( '''11''' multiplications )<br>
simultaneous: ((a<span style="color:red;">×</span>b)<span style="color:red;"><sup>2</sup>×</span>a<span style="color:red;">×</span>c)<span style="color:red;"><sup>2</sup>×</span>a<span style="color:red;">×</span>b<span style="color:red;">×</span>c ( '''8''' multiplications )<br>
transformation: a := 2 &nbsp; ab := a<span style="color:red;">×</span>b &nbsp; abc := ab<span style="color:red;">×</span>c ( 2 multiplications )<br>
calculation after that: (a<span style="color:red;">×</span>ab<span style="color:red;">×</span>abc)<span style="color:red;"><sup>2</sup>×</span>abc ( 4 multiplications ⇒ '''6''' in total )<br>
Example: a<sup>5</sup>×b<sup>5</sup>×c<sup>3</sup><br>
separate: [((a)<span style="color:red;"><sup>2</sup></span>)<span style="color:red;"><sup>2</sup>×</span>a] <span style="color:red;">×</span> [((b)<span style="color:red;"><sup>2</sup></span>)<span style="color:red;"><sup>2</sup>×</span>b] <span style="color:red;">×</span> [(c)<span style="color:red;"><sup>2</sup>×</span>c] ( '''10''' multiplications )<br>
simultaneous: ((a<span style="color:red;">×</span>b)<span style="color:red;"><sup>2</sup>×</span>c)<span style="color:red;"><sup>2</sup>×</span>a<span style="color:red;">×</span>b<span style="color:red;">×</span>c ( '''7''' multiplications )<br>
transformation: a := 2 &nbsp; ab := a<span style="color:red;">×</span>b &nbsp; abc := ab<span style="color:red;">×</span>c ( 2 multiplications )<br>
calculation after that: (ab<span style="color:red;">×</span>abc)<span style="color:red;"><sup>2</sup>×</span>abc ( 3 multiplications ⇒ '''5''' in total )<br>
Example: a<sup>7</sup>×b<sup>4</sup>×c<sup>1</sup><br>
separate: [((a)<span style="color:red;"><sup>2</sup>×</span>a)<span style="color:red;"><sup>2</sup>×</span>a] <span style="color:red;">×</span> [((b)<span style="color:red;"><sup>2</sup></span>)<span style="color:red;"><sup>2</sup></span>] <span style="color:red;">×</span> [c] ( '''8''' multiplications )<br>
simultaneous: ((a<span style="color:red;">×</span>b)<span style="color:red;"><sup>2</sup>×</span>a)<span style="color:red;"><sup>2</sup>×</span>a<span style="color:red;">×</span>c ( '''6''' multiplications )<br>
transformation: a := 2 &nbsp; ab := a<span style="color:red;">×</span>b &nbsp; abc := ab<span style="color:red;">×</span>c ( 2 multiplications )<br>
calculation after that: (a<span style="color:red;">×</span>ab)<span style="color:red;"><sup>2</sup>×</span>a<span style="color:red;">×</span>ab<span style="color:red;">×</span>abc ( 5 multiplications ⇒ '''7''' in total )
==== Implementation ====
// the following javascript function calculates
// Bas [0] ^ Exp [0] x Bas [1] ^ Exp [1] x ...
'''function productOfPowers_simpleVersion ( Bas , Exp )''' {
var str // temporary string
// make binary representations:
var maxLen = 0
var bin = new Array ()
for ( var i = 0 ; i < Exp.length ; i++ ) {
str = Exp [i] . toString ( 2 )
bin [i] = str
if ( maxLen < str.length ) maxLen = str.length
}
// make all binaries the same length:
for ( var i = 0 ; i < bin.length ; i++ ) {
while ( bin [i] . length < maxLen ) bin [i] = '0' + bin [i]
}
// calculate:
var result = 1
// . use first binary digits:
for ( var y = 0 ; y < bin.length ; y++ ) {
str = bin [y]
if ( str.charAt ( 0 ) == '1' ) {
if ( result == 1 ) result = Bas [y] ; else result = result * Bas [y]
}
}
// . use remaining digits:
for ( var x = 1 ; x < maxLen ; x++ ) { // x : all digits except first one
result = result * result
for ( var y = 0 ; y < bin.length ; y++ ) { // y : all factors
str = bin [y]
if ( str.charAt ( x ) == '1' ) result = result * Bas [y]
}
}
// ready:
return result
}
//
// for the following function input has to be sorted:
// Exp [0] >= Exp [1] >= ...
'''function productOfPowers_withTransformation ( Bas , Exp )''' {
// new bases:
var tempBas = new Array ()
tempBas [0] = Bas [0]
for ( var i = 1 ; i < Bas.length ; i++ ) tempBas [i] = Bas [i] * tempBas [i-1]
// new exponents:
var tempExp = new Array ()
for ( var i = 0 ; i < Exp.length - 1 ; i++ ) tempExp [i] = Exp [i] - Exp [i+1]
tempExp [Exp.length-1] = Exp [Exp.length-1]
// now compress:
var basTrans = new Array ()
var expTrans = new Array ()
for ( var i = 0 ; i < tempExp.length ; i++ ) if ( tempExp [i] > 0 ) {
basTrans.push ( tempBas [i] )
expTrans.push ( tempExp [i] )
}
// ready:
return productOfPowers_simpleVersion ( basTrans , expTrans )
}
// '''now let's test it:'''
alert ( 'S1: ' + productOfPowers_simpleVersion ( [ 2 , 3 ] , [ 7 , 5 ] ) ) // should be 31,104
alert ( 'T1: ' + productOfPowers_withTransformation ( [ 2 , 3 ] , [ 7 , 5 ] ) ) // once again: 31,104
alert ( 'T2: ' + productOfPowers_withTransformation ( [ 2 , 5 , 3 ] , [ 4 , 3 , 2 ] ) ) // 18,000
alert ( 'T3: ' + productOfPowers_withTransformation ( [ 2 , 5 , 3 ] , [ 3 , 3 , 2 ] ) ) // 9,000
alert ( 'T4: ' + productOfPowers_withTransformation ( [ 2 , 5 , 3 ] , [ 4 , 3 , 3 ] ) ) // 54,000
alert ( 'T5: ' + productOfPowers_withTransformation ( [ 2 , 5 , 3 ] , [ 3 , 3 , 3 ] ) ) // 27,000
==Alternatives==
[[Addition chain exponentiation]] can in some cases require fewer multiplications by using an efficient [[addition chain]] to provide the multiplication order. However, exponentiating by squaring is simpler to set up and typically requires less memory.
[[Category:Exponentials]] [[Category:Algorithms]]
[[de:Binäre Exponentiation]]
[[es:Exponenciación binaria]]
[[fr:Exponentiation rapide]]
[[pl:Algorytm szybkiego potęgowania]]
[[sv:Binär exponentiering]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Exon</title>
<id>10238</id>
<revision>
<id>39544177</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-14T04:53:46Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>24.196.91.164</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Exons''' are the regions of [[DNA]] within a gene that are not spliced out from the transcribed RNA and are retained in the final [[messenger RNA]] (mRNA) molecule. The term "exon" was coined by [[Walter Gilbert]] in 1978.
== Function ==
In many [[genes]], each exon contains part of the [[open reading frame]] (ORF) that codes for a specific portion of the complete [[protein]], however, the term exon is often misused to refer only to coding sequences for the final protein. This is not true since many noncoding exons are known in human genes ([[Exon#References|Zhang 1998]]).
Below is a diagram of an heterogeneous nuclear RNA (hnRNA), which is an unedited mRNA transcript, or [[pre-mRNA]]s. Exons can include both sequence that code for [[amino acids]] (red) and untranslated sequences (grey). Stretches of unused sequence called introns (blue) are removed, and the exons are joined to together to form the final functional [[messenger RNA|mRNA]]. The notation 5' and 3' refer to the direction of the DNA template in the chromosome and is used to distinguish between the two untranslated regions (grey).
[[Image:Gene structure.gif]]<br>
Some of exons will be wholly or part of the 5' untranslated region ([[5' UTR]]) or the 3' untranslated region ([[3' UTR]]) of each transcript. The untranslated regions are important for efficient translation of |
County]] (in German, ''Nordschleswig'', in Danish, ''Sønderjylland'') of [[Denmark]].
In [[Luxembourg]] (in German, ''Luxemburg''), as well as in the French ''[[régions]]'' of [[Alsace]] (in German, ''Elsass'') and parts of [[Lorraine (région)|Lorraine]] (in German, ''Lothringen''), the native populations speak several German dialects, and some people also master standard German (especially in Luxembourg), although in Alsace and Lorraine [[French language|French]] has for the most part replaced the local German dialects in the last 40 years.
Some German speaking communities still survive in parts of [[Romania]], the [[Czech Republic]], [[Hungary]], and above all [[Russia]], [[Kazakhstan]] and [[Poland]], although massive relocations to Germany in the late [[1940s]] and [[1990s]] have depopulated most of these communities.
Outside of Europe and the former [[Soviet Union]], the largest German speaking communities are to be found in the [[USA]] and in [[Brazil]] where millions of Germans migrated in the last 200 years; but the great majority of their descendants no longer speak German. Additionally, German speaking communities are to be found in the former German colony of [[Namibia]], as well as in the other countries of German emigration such as [[Canada]], [[Argentina]], [[Paraguay]], [[Uruguay]], [[Chile]], [[Peru]], [[Venezuela]] (where [[Alemán Coloneiro]] developed), [[Thailand]], and [[Australia]]. See also [[Plautdietsch]].
In the USA, the largest concentration of German speakers are in [[Pennsylvania]] ([[Amish]], [[Hutterites]] and some [[Mennonites]] speak [[Pennsylvania German]] and [[Hutterite German]]), [[Texas]] ([[Texas German]]), [[Kansas]] ([[Mennonites]] and [[Volga Germans]]), [[North Dakota]], [[South Dakota]], [[Montana]], [[Wisconsin]] and [[Indiana]]. Early twentieth century immigration was often to [[St. Louis]], [[Chicago]], [[New York]], and [[Cincinnati]]. Most of the post [[Second World War]] wave are in the [[New York]], [[Los Angeles]], and [[Chicago]] [[urban area|urban areas]], and in [[Florida]]. In Brazil the largest concentrations of German speakers are in [[Rio Grande do Sul]] (where [[Riograndenser Hunsrückisch]] was developed), [[Santa Catarina (state)|Santa Catarina]], [[Paraná]], and [[Espírito Santo]]. Generally, German immigrant communities in the USA have lost their mother tongue more quickly than those who moved to South America, possibly due to the fact that for German speakers, English is easier to learn than Portuguese or Spanish.
In [[Canada]] there are people of German ancestry throughout the country and especially in the west as well as in [[Ontario]]. There is a large and vibrant community in the city of [[Kitchener]], [[Ontario]].
German is the main language of about 100 million people in Europe (as of [[2004]]), or 13.3% of all Europeans, being the most spoken native language in Europe excluding [[Russia]], above [[French language|French]] (66.5 million speakers in Europe in 2004) and [[English language|English]] (64.2 million speakers in Europe in 2004). German is the third most taught [[foreign language]] worldwide, also in the [[United States|USA]] (after [[Spanish language|Spanish]] and French); it is the second most known foreign language in the [[European Union|EU]] (after English; see [http://europa.eu.int/comm/public_opinion/archives/ebs/ebs_237.en.pdf]) It is one of the official [[languages of the European Union]], and one of the three [[working language]]s of the EU, along with English and French.
==History==
{{main|History of the German language}}
The history of the German language begins with the [[High German consonant shift]] during the [[Migration period]], separating [[South Germanic]] dialects from common [[West Germanic]]. The earliest testimonies of [[Old High German]] are from scattered [[Elder Futhark]] inscriptions, especially in [[Alemannic]], from the [[6th century]], the earliest glosses (''[[Abrogans]]'') date to the [[8th century|8th]] and the oldest coherent texts (the ''[[Hildebrandslied]]'', the ''[[Muspilli]]'' and the [[Merseburg Incantations]]) to the [[9th century]]. [[Old Saxon]] at this time belongs to the [[North Sea Germanic]] cultural sphere, and [[Low German]] should fall under German rather than [[Anglo-Frisian]] influence during the [[Holy Roman Empire]].
As Germany was divided into many different [[state]]s, the only force working for a unification or [[standard language|standardisation]] of German during a period of several hundred years was the general preference of writers trying to write in a way that could be understood in the largest possible area.
When [[Martin Luther]] translated the [[Bible]] (the [[New Testament]] in [[1522]] and the [[Old Testament]], published in parts and completed in [[1534]]) he based his translation mainly on this already developed language, which was the most widely understood language at this time. This language was based on Eastern Upper and Eastern Central German dialects and preserved much of the grammatical system of Middle High German (unlike the spoken German dialects in Central and Upper Germany that already at that time began to lose the genitive case and the preterit tense). In the beginning, copies of the Bible had a long list for each region, which translated words unknown in the region into the regional dialect. [[Roman Catholics]] rejected Luther's translation in the beginning and tried to create their own Catholic standard (''gemeines Deutsch'') — which, however, only differed from 'Protestant German' in some minor details. It took until the middle of the [[18th century]] to create a standard that was widely accepted, thus ending the period of [[Early New High German]].
German used to be the language of commerce and government in the [[Habsburg Empire]], which encompassed a large area of Central and Eastern Europe. Until the mid-[[19th century]] it was essentially the language of townspeople throughout most of the Empire. It indicated that the speaker was a [[merchant]], an urbanite, not their nationality. Some cities, such as [[Prague]] (German: ''Prag'') and [[Budapest]] ([[Buda]], German: ''Ofen''), were gradually [[Germanization|Germanized]] in the years after their incorporation into the Habsburg domain. Others, such as [[Bratislava]] (German: ''Pressburg''), were originally settled during the Habsburg period and were primarily German at that time. A few cities such as [[Milan]] (German: ''Mailand'') remained primarily non-German. However, most cities were primarily German during this time, such as Prague, [[Budapest]], Bratislava, [[Zagreb]] (German: ''Agram''), and [[Ljubljana]] (German: ''Laibach''), though they were surrounded by territory that spoke other languages.
Until about [[1800]], standard German was almost only a written language. In this time, people in urban northern Germany, who spoke dialects very different from Standard German, learnt it almost like a foreign language and tried to pronounce it as close to the spelling as possible. Prescriptive pronunciation guides used to consider that northern German pronunciation to be the standard. However, the actual pronunciation of standard German varies from region to region.
Media and written works are almost all produced in standard German (often called ''Hochdeutsch'' in German), which is understood in all areas of German languages (except by pre-school children in areas which speak only dialect, for example [[Switzerland]] — but in this age of TV, even they now usually learn to understand Standard German before school age).
The first dictionary of the [[Brothers Grimm]], the 16 parts of which were issued between [[1852]] and [[1860]], remains the most comprehensive guide to the words of the German language. In [[1860]], grammatical and orthographic rules first appeared in the ''[[Duden Handbook]]''. In [[1901]], this was declared the standard definition of the German language. Official revisions of some of these rules were not issued until [[1998]], when the [[German spelling reform of 1996]] was officially promulgated by governmental representatives of all German-speaking countries. Since the reform, German spelling has been in an eight-year transitional period where the reformed spelling is taught in most schools, while traditional and reformed spelling co-exist in the media. See [[German spelling reform of 1996]] for an overview of the heated public debate concerning the reform.
==Classification and related languages==
[[Image:FrancLowUpperHigh.PNG|right|thumb|300px|By the [[High German consonant shift]], the Dutch-German [[dialect continuum]] is divided into [[Low Franconian|Franconian / Low Frankish]] (Brown), [[Upper German]] (blue) and [[Central German]] (green), and the [[Low German]] (yellow). The main isoglosses, the Benrath and Speyer lines are marked in red.]]
[[Image:DutchGerman.PNG|right|thumb|300px|The German and [[Dutch language|Dutch]] standard language [[language border]].]]
German is a member of the [[West Germanic language|western branch]] of the [[Germanic languages|Germanic]] family of languages, which in turn is part of the [[Indo-European language family]].
===Neighboring languages===
In these modern days Germany is surrounded by [[language border]]s, in the north by the [[Frisian language|Frisian]] and [[Danish language|Danish]]; in the east [[Polish language|Polish]], [[Sorbian language|Sorbian]], [[Czech language|Czech]], [[Slovak language|Slovak]], and [[Hungarian language|Hungarian]]; in the south [[Slovenian language|Slovenian]], [[Italian language|Italian]], [[Friulian language|Friulian]], [[Ladin language|Ladin]], and [[Romansh language|Romansh]]; in the west [[French language|French]]. Except for Frisian and Dutch, none of these languages are West Germanic, and so they are clearly distinct from German. Frisian, after Scots, the closest related living language to English; and Dutch, the closest related living language to German are generally conside |
Ernst Kaltenbrunner]]
'''Ernst Kaltenbrunner''' ([[October 4]], [[1903]] &ndash; [[October 16]], [[1946]]) was a senior [[Nazi]] official during [[World War II]].
==Early Life==
Born in [[Ried im Innkreis]], [[Austria]], he was the son of a lawyer. Educated at the State Realgymnasium in [[Linz]] and Graz University. He obtained a law degree in [[1926]]. He worked as a lawyer briefly in Linz and [[Salzburg (city)|Salzburg]] and from [[1928]] in Linz. He was a huge man, standing just over 6'6 tall.
Kaltenbrunner joined the [[Nazi Party]] and the [[Schutzstaffel|SS]] in Austria in [[1932]]. He was the ''Gauredner'' (district speaker) and ''Rechtsberater'' (legal consultant) of the SS division VIII. In January 1934 Kaltenbrunner was briefly jailed by the [[Engelbert Dollfuss]] government with other National Socialists at the [[Kaisersteinbruch concentration camp]]. In 1934 he was jailed again on suspicion of High Treason in the assassination of Dollfuss. This accusation was dropped, but he was sentenced to six months for conspiracy.
==Kaltenbrunner rises to a major Nazi figure==
From mid-1935 Kaltenbrunner was the leader of the Austrian SS. He assisted in the ''[[Anschluss]]'' and [[Hitler]] promoted him to SS ''[[Brigadeführer]]'' on the day the ''Anschluss'' was completed. On [[September 11]] [[1938]] he was promoted to the rank of SS ''[[Gruppenführer]]'' (see [http://www.aeiou.at/aeiou.film.data.film/f135a.mpg Video of Kaltenbrunner in Vienna January 1939]). He was also a member of the ''[[Reichstag (institution)|Reichstag]]'' from 1938. In April [[1941]] was promoted to Major General of the Police.
On [[January 30]] [[1943]] Kaltenbrunner was appointed Chief of the [[RSHA]], comprising both the Security Police ([[Sicherheitspolizei]], or Sipo) and the [[Sicherheitsdienst|SD]], replacing [[Reinhard Heydrich]], who had been [[Operation Anthropoid|assassinated]] in June [[1942]]. Kaltenbrunner held this position until the end of the war.
Toward the end of the war, Kaltenbrunner's power increased greatly, especially after the attack on Hitler of [[July 20]] [[1944]]. He gained direct access to Hitler. It was said that even [[Heinrich Himmler]] feared him, and rumoured that he was responsible for [[Adolf Eichmann]]'s failure to attain the rank of SS-Colonel.
On [[December 9]] [[1944]] he was awarded the [[Knight's Cross]]. By then his full title was SS ''[[Obergruppenführer]]'' and General of the Police Dr. Ernst Kaltenbrunner, Chief of the Security Police and the SD. In addition he held the Golden Insignia of Honor and the ''[[Blutorden]]''.
==Nuremberg Trials==
At the [[Nuremberg Trials]] he was charged with conspiracy to commit crimes against peace, war-crimes and crimes against humanity.
His close control over the [[RSHA]] meant that direct knowledge of and responsibility for the following crimes was ascribed to him:
*Mass murders of civilians of occupied countries by ''[[Einsatzgruppen]]''.
*Screening of prisoner of war camps and executing racial and political undesirables.
*The taking of recaptured prisoners of war to concentration camps, where in some cases they were executed.
*Establishing concentration camps and committing racial and political undesirables to concentration and annihilation camps for slave labor and mass murder.
*Deportation of citizens of occupied countries for forced labor and disciplining of forced labor.
*The execution of captured commandos and paratroopers and protection of civilians who lynched Allied fliers.
*The taking of civilians of occupied countries to Germany for [[secret trial]] and punishment.
*Punishment of citizens of occupied territories under special criminal procedure and by summary methods.
*The execution and confinement of persons in concentration camps for crimes allegedly committed by their relatives.
*Seizure and spoliation of public and private property.
*Murder of prisoners in SIPO and SD prisons.
*Persecution of Jews.
*Persecution of the churches.
He was found guilty of war-crimes and crimes against humanity and sentenced to death. He was executed at around 1.40 a.m. on [[October 16]], [[1946]]; his last words were "Germany, good luck."
==Miscellaneous==
In the book "Colonization: Down to Earth" [[Harry Turtledove]] creates an alternative history where Kaltenbrunner is the successor of Himmler as the third Fuhrer and Reichs Chancellor of the Greater German Reich and triggers a war between Nazi Germany and aliens, a war that has as result the destruction of the Reich.
A character in the movie ''[[The Return of the Living Dead]]'' is named "Ernie Kaltenbrunner".
==External links==
{{Commons|Ernst Kaltenbrunner}}
*[http://www.aeiou.at/aeiou.film.data.film/f135a.mpg Video of a Parade with Kaltenbrunner in January 1939]
[[Category:1903 births|Kaltenbrunner, Ernst]]
[[Category:1946 deaths|Kaltenbrunner, Ernst]]
[[Category:Disbarred attorneys|Kaltenbrunner, Ernst]]
[[Category:Nuremberg executions|Kaltenbrunner, Ernst]]
[[Category:German police officers|Kaltenbrunner, Ernst]]
[[Category:SS General Officers|Kaltenbrunner, Ernst]]
[[Category:SS and Police Leaders|Kaltenbrunner, Ernst]]
[[de:Ernst Kaltenbrunner]]
[[es:Ernst Kaltenbrunner]]
[[fr:Ernst Kaltenbrunner]]
[[it:Ernst Kaltenbrunner]]
[[he:ארנסט קלטנברונר]]
[[ka:კალტენბრუნერი, ერნსტ]]
[[nl:Ernst Kaltenbrunner]]
[[no:Ernst Kaltenbrunner]]
[[pl:Ernst Kaltenbrunner]]
[[ru:Кальтенбрюннер, Эрнст]]
[[fi:Ernst Kaltenbrunner]]
[[sv:Ernst Kaltenbrunner]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Englebert Dolfuss</title>
<id>10149</id>
<revision>
<id>15907982</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Engelbert Dollfuss]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Engelbert Dollfuss</title>
<id>10150</id>
<revision>
<id>41940603</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T19:47:57Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Hall Monitor</username>
<id>265063</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/Acumen76|Acumen76]] ([[User talk:Acumen76|talk]]) to last version by 140.247.41.252</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Dollfuß_radio.jpg|300px|thumb|right|Engelbert Dollfuss]]
'''Engelbert Dollfuss''' ([[German alphabet|German]]: '''Dollfuß''') ([[October 4]] [[1892]], [[Texing]]&mdash;[[July 25]] [[1934]], [[Vienna]]) was an [[Austria|Austrian]] [[statesman]], serving as chancellor for two years from 1932 until his assasination in 1934.
Born in [[Texing]], Austria, Dollfuss was a religious youth who was educated at a [[seminary]] before deciding to study [[Law]] at the [[University of Vienna]] and then [[Economics]] at the [[University of Berlin]]. During [[World War I]] he had difficulty being drafted due to his short stature but he was eventually accepted and sent to the [[Alpine]] front, briefly becoming a [[POW]] in [[1918]]. After the war, he worked for the [[Agriculture]] ministry as secretary of the Peasants' Association. He became director of the [[Lower Austria]]n Chamber of Agriculture in [[1927]] and in [[1930]] as a member of the conservative [[Christian Social Party]] he was appointed president of the [[ÖBB|Federal Railway System]]. The following year he was named minister of agriculture and forests.
He became [[Chancellor of Austria|Chancellor]] on [[May 20]] [[1932]], as head of a [[right-wing]] [[coalition government]], designed to tackle the problems caused by the [[Great Depression]]. However, Dollfuss' majority in [[Parliament of Austria|Parliament]] was almost non-existent; [[Deflation (economics)|deflationary]] policies were unpopular and created deep hostility from the Austrian [[Social Democratic Party of Austria|Social Democratic Workers' Party of Austria]] (SDAPÖ), within Parliament and without. Consequently, Dollfuss suspended Parliament indefinitely in March 1933, and governed by decree. Dollfuss arguably also had another reason for the suspension of [[democracy]] in Austria - the [[Nazis]]. With [[Adolf Hitler]] now [[Nazi Germany|German]] Chancellor, it looked increasingly likely that in future elections, the [[Austrian National Socialism|Austrian National Socialists]] (DNSAP) would gain a majority, and Austria would cease to exist as a state. Accordingly, Dollfuss banned the DNSAP in June, and the SDAPÖ in February 1934.
Dollfuss was drawn to Italian fascism and levered support from fascist Italy against Nazi Germany, gaining a guarantee for Austria's independence from Italy in August 1933 in exchange for radical political reforms along Fascist lines.
In September 1933 he formed an umbrella grouping to support the regime, the ''[[Patriotic Front (Austria)|Vaterländische Front]]'' and merged the Christian Social Party with the [[paramilitary]] [[Heimwehr]] (Home Guard), a [[Nationalism|Nationalist]] group. The regime which was installed by him and remained in power until [[1938]] is often called ''[[Austrofascism]]'', while the regime designated itself ''Ständestaat''.
He was assassinated by eight Austrian Nazis, who entered the Chancellery building and shot Dollfuss in an attempted [[coup d'état]], as a prelude to [[Anschluss]]. The Nazis surrendered, were executed, and [[Kurt Schuschnigg]] became the new dictator of Austria.
==External links==
*[http://www.aeiou.at/aeiou.film.data.film/f029a.mpg Video: Dollfuß holds a speech in Burgenland 1933 (mpeg, 6,1 kb)]
{| align="center" cellpadding="2" border="2"
|-
| width="30%" align="center" | Preceded by:<br>'''[[Karl Buresch]]'''
| width="40%" align="center" | '''[[Chancellor of Austria]]'''
| width="30%" align="center" | Succeeded by:<br>'''[[Kurt Schusch |
from [[Ghengis Khan]])
* Conan: "Crom, I have never prayed to you before. I have no tongue for it. No one, not even you will remember, if we were good men, or bad. Why we fought, or how we died. No, all that matters is, that two stood against many. That's what's important. Valour pleases you Crom, so grant me one request, grant me revenge! And if you do not listen, then the hell with you!"
* Conan, to Subotai: "Crom laughs at your four winds."
*King Osric: "There comes a time, thief, when the jewels cease to sparkle, when the gold loses its luster, when the throne room becomes a prison, and all that is left is a father's love for his child."
*Valeria: "To the hell fires with Thulsa Doom. He's evil; a sorcerer who can summon demons. His followers' only purpose is to die in his service. Thousands of them."
*Valeria: "All my life I've been alone. Many times I've faced death with no one to know. I would look into the huts and the tents of others in the coldest dark and I would see figures holding each other in the night. But I always passed by."
*The Wizard: "Between the time when the oceans drank Atlantis, and the rise of the sons of Aryas, there was an age undreamed of. And onto this, Conan, destined to wear the jeweled crown of Aquilonia upon a troubled brow. It is I, his chronicler, who alone can tell thee of his saga. Let me tell you of the days of high adventure!"
*Thulsa Doom: "Infidel defilers. They shall all drown in lakes of blood."
*Thulsa Doom: "My child, you have come to me my son. For who now is your father if it is not me? I am the well spring, from which you flow. When I am gone, you will have never been. What would your world be, without me? My son."
*Conan's Father: "For no one - no one in this world can you trust. Not men, not women, not beasts. This you can trust." [Points to [[sword]]]
*Thulsa Doom: "Yes! You know what it is don't you boy. Shall I tell you? It's the least I can do. Steel isn't strong boy, flesh is stronger! Look around you. There, on the rocks; that beautiful girl. Come to me my child... [Girl leaps to her death] That is strength boy! That is power! What is steel compared to the hand that wields it? Look at the strength in your body, the desire in your heart, I gave you this! Such a waste. Contemplate this on the tree of woe. Crucify him!"
*Valeria: "Do you want to live forever?" (Note that this is actually a quote from [[Frederick the Great]])
*Thulsa Doom: "Now they will know why they are afraid of the dark. Now they learn why they fear the night."
*Thulsa Doom: "I wish to speak to you now. Where is the Eye of the Serpent? Rexor said that you gave it to a girl; probably for a mere night's pleasure. Such a loss. People have no grasp of what they do."
*Subotai: "He is Conan, Cimmerian, he won't cry, so I cry for him."
*Black Lotus Street Peddler: "Two or three years ago it was just another snake cult."
*The Wizard: "I'm a wizard, mind you. This place is kept by powerful gods and spirits of kings. Harm my flesh and you will have to deal with the dead!"
*Valeria: "All the gods, they cannot sever us. If I were dead and you were still fighting for life, I'd come back from the darkness. Back from the pit of hell to fight at your side."
*Conan: "For us, there is no spring. Just the wind that smells fresh before the storm."
==External links==
*[http://home.thezone.net/~jgillard/Biblio.htm#part6/ A Complete Conan Bibliography compiled by Bruce L. Precourt, January 1998]
*[http://www.conan.com/ Conan official website]
*[http://www.amrathelion.com/ Conan the Barbarian at AmratheLion.com]
*[http://www.dodgenet.com/~moonblossom/hyborian.htm Hyborian Age of Conan the Barbarian]
*[http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Author:Robert_E._Howard Stories of Robert Howard on Wikisource]
*[http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_Hour_of_the_Dragon Hour of the Dragon] Robert Howard's full length Conan novel, considered by many to be his best work
*[http://enworld.org/Inzeladun/conan.htm Conan d20 fan site]
*[http://hyboria.xoth.net/maps/ Maps of the Hyborian Age]
* {{imdb title|id=0082198|title=Conan the Barbarian}}
*[http://www.rpgunited.com/product/conan/tsr7014.html TSR Conan Role-Playing Game]
*[http://home.flash.net/~brenfrow/cn/cn.htm Conan Adventure modules from TSR]
*[http://www.mongoosepublishing.com/rpg/series.php?qsSeries=7 Conan RPG by Mongoose Publishing]
*[http://members3.boardhost.com/Villains/ Conan the Barbarian Message Board at the Second-String Sanctuary]
<!-- The below are interlanguage links. -->
[[Category:Characters in written fantasy]]
[[Category:Fantasy comics]]
[[Category:Fantasy film characters]]
[[Category:Fantasy films]]
[[Category:Fantasy novels]]
[[Category:Fantasy series]]
[[Category:Fictional kings]]
[[Category:Fictional mercenaries]]
[[Category:Fictional pirates]]
[[Category:Fictional thieves]]
[[Category:Robert E. Howard]]
[[bg:Конан]]
[[de:Conan der Barbar]]
[[es:Conan]]
[[fi:Conan Barbaari]]
[[fr:Conan le barbare]]
[[it:Conan]]
[[ko:%EC%BD%94%EB%82%9C]]
[[pl:Conan_barbarzy%C5%84ca]]
[[pt:Conan]]
[[se:Conan Barbaren]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Comic books</title>
<id>6714</id>
<revision>
<id>15904835</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Comic book]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Chris Marker</title>
<id>6715</id>
<revision>
<id>39424702</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-13T01:27:19Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>81.158.206.212</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Chris Marker''' (born [[July 29]], [[1921]]) is a [[writer]], [[photographer]], [[film director]] and [[Documentary film|documentary]] maker. He was born '''Christian Bouche-Villeneuve''', in [[Paris]], [[France]]. He is best known for directing ''[[La Jetée]]'' ([[1963]]) and ''[[Sans Soleil]]'' ([[1982]]).
Chris Marker studied [[philosophy]] under [[Jean-Paul Sartre]]. In [[World War II]] he joined the [[Maquis (World War II)|Maquis (FTP)]]. After the war he began to write and make films. He traveled to many [[socialist]] countries and documented what he saw in films and books. ''Les statues meurent aussi'' (1953) which he codirected with [[Alain Resnais]] was one of the first anticolonial films. [[Anatole Dauman]] produced the first films of Chris Marker and later produced two more of his films ''[[Sunday in Peking]]'' and ''[[Letter from Siberia]]''
He became internationally known for the [[short film]] ''[[La Jetée]]''. It tells the story of a [[post-apocalyptic science fiction|post-nuclear war]] experiment in time travel by using a series of filmed photographs developed as a [[photomontage]] of varying pace with limited narration. This film was the inspiration for [[Terry Gilliam]]'s ''[[Twelve Monkeys]]'' (1995).
In [[1982]] he finished ''[[Sans Soleil]]'', stretching the limits of what could be called a [[Documentary film|documentary]]. It is an [[essay]], a [[Film editing|montage]], mixing pieces of documentary with [[fiction]] and philosophical comments, creating an atmosphere of [[dream]] and [[science fiction]]. The main themes are [[Japan]], (the erasing of) [[memory]] and [[travel]]. The title is taken from the song cycle ''Sunless'' by [[Modest Mussorgsky]].
Beginning with ''Sans Soleil'' he developed a deep interest in [[digital]] [[technology]], which led to his film ''Level 5'' ([[1996]]) and ''[[IMMEMORY]]'' ([[1998]]), an interactive multimedia [[CD-ROM]], produced for the [[Centre Pompidou]].
Chris Marker lives in Paris and does not grant interviews.
==Filmography==
Directed:
*''Olympia 52'' (1952)
*''Les Statues meurent aussi'' (1953)
*''Dimanche à Pekin'' (1956)
*''Lettre de Sibérie'' (1957)
*''Les Astronautes'' (1959)
*''Description d'un combat'' (1960)
*''¡Cuba Sí!'' (1961)
*''[[La Jetée]]'' (1962)
*''Le joli mai'' (1963)
*''Le Mystère Koumiko'' (1965)
*''Si j'avais quatre dromadaires'' (1966)
*''Loin du Vietnam'' (1967)
*''Rhodiacéta'' (1967)
*''La Sixième face du pentagone'' (1968)
*''Cinétracts'' (1968)
*''À bientôt, j'espère'' (1968)
*''On vous parle du Brésil'' (1969)
*''Jour de tournage'' (1969)
*''Classe de lutte'' (1969)
*''Les Mots ont un sens'' (1970)
*''Carlos Marighela'' (1970)
*''La Bataille des dix millions'' (1971)
*''Le Train en marche'' (1971)
*''On vous parle de Prague: le deuxième procès d'Artur London'' (1971)
*''Vive la baleine'' (1972)
*''L'Ambassade'' (1973)
*''La Solitude du chanteur de fond'' (1974)
*''Le Fond de l'air est rouge'' (1977)
*''Junkiopa'' (1981)
*''Sans soleil'' (1983)
*''2084'' (1984)
*''From Chris to Christo'' (1985)
*''A.K.'' (1985)
*''Mémoires pour Simone'' (1986)
*''Le Tombeau d'Alexandre'' (1992)
*''Level Five'' (1997)
*''One Day in the Life of Andrei Arsenevich'' (2000)
*''Chats Perchés'' (tv) (2004)
==External links==
*[http://www.sensesofcinema.com/contents/directors/02/marker.html Senses of Cinema: Great Directors Critical Database]
*[http://www.silcom.com/~dlp/Passagen/cm.home2.html s i l v e r t h r e a d e d presents Chris Marker]
* {{imdb name|name=Chris Marker|id=0003408}}
[[Category:1921 births|Marker, Chris]]
[[Category:Living people|Marker, Chris]]
[[Category:French film directors|Marker, Chris]]
[[de:Chris Marker]]
[[es:Chris Marker]]
[[fr:Chris Marker]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Cardinal vowel</title>
<id>6716</id>
<revision>
<id>32527250</id>
<timestamp>2005-12-23T21:55:55Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>83.129.11.85</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>de</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{IPA notice}}
'''Cardinal vowels''' are a set of referenc |
try 21.6%, agriculture 23% (1997)
'''Unemployment rate:'''
Greek Cypriot area: 3.3% (1998 est.); Turkish Cypriot area: 6.4% (1997)
'''Budget:'''
<br>''revenues:''
Greek Cypriot area - $2.9 billion (1998); Turkish Cypriot area - $171 million (1997 est.)
<br>''expenditures:''
Greek Cypriot area - $3.4 billion, including capital expenditures of $345 million (1998); Turkish Cypriot area - $306 million, including capital expenditures of $56.8 million (1997 est.)
'''Industries:'''
food, beverages, textiles, chemicals, metal products, tourism, wood products
'''Industrial production growth rate:'''
Greek Cypriot area: 2.4% (1998); Turkish Cypriot area: 5.1% (1997)
'''Electricity - production:'''
Greek Cypriot area: 2,675 GWh; Turkish Cypriot area: NA kWh (1998)
'''Electricity - production by source:'''
<br>''fossil fuel:''
100%
<br>''hydro:''
0%
<br>''nuclear:''
0%
<br>''other:''
0% (1998)
'''Electricity - consumption:'''
Greek Cypriot area: 2,488 GWh; Turkish Cypriot area: NA kWh (1998)
'''Electricity - exports:'''
0 kWh (1998)
'''Electricity - imports:'''
0 kWh (1998)
'''Agriculture - products:'''
potatoes, citrus, vegetables, barley, grapes, olives, vegetables
'''Exports:'''
Greek Cypriot area: $1.1 billion (f.o.b., 1998 est.); Turkish Cypriot area: $63.9 million (f.o.b., 1998)
'''Exports - commodities:'''
Greek Cypriot area: citrus, [[potatoes]], [[grapes]], [[wine]], [[cement]], clothing and shoes; Turkish Cypriot area: [[citrus]], [[potatoes]], [[textiles]] (1998)
'''Exports - partners:'''
Greek Cypriot area: UK 14.5%, Russia 14.5%, Greece 9.8%, [[Lebanon]] 5.5%, [[UAE]] 4.9%; Turkish Cypriot area: Turkey 47%, UK 26%, other EU 15% (1998)
'''Imports:'''
Greek Cypriot area: $3.5 billion (f.o.b., 1998 est.); Turkish Cypriot area: $374 million (f.o.b., 1997)
'''Imports - commodities:'''
Greek Cypriot area: consumer goods, [[petroleum]] and lubricants, food and feed grains, machinery (1998); Turkish Cypriot area: food, [[minerals]], [[chemicals]], [[machinery]] (1997)
'''Imports - partners:'''
Greek Cypriot area: US 12.5%, UK 11.3%, [[Italy]] 9.4%, [[Germany]] 8.5%, Greece 8.2% (1998); Turkish Cypriot area: Turkey 56.4%, UK 13.5%, other EU 12.2% (1997)
'''Debt - external:'''
Greek Cypriot area: $1.27 billion; Turkish Cypriot area: $NA (1998)
'''Economic aid - recipient:'''
Greek Cypriot area - $17 million (1998); Turkish Cypriot area - $700 million from Turkey in grants and loans (1990-97) that are usually forgiven
'''Currency:'''
Greek Cypriot area: 1 Cypriot pound = 100 cents; Turkish Cypriot area: 1 Turkish lira (TL) = 100 kurus
'''Exchange rates:'''
Cypriot pounds per [[United States dollar|US$]]1 - 0.5688 (January [[2000]]), 0.5423 ([[1999]]), 0.5170 (1998), 0.5135 (1997), 0.4663 (1996), 0.4522 (1995); Turkish liras (TL) per US$1 - 545,584 (January 2000), 418,783 (1999), 260,724 (1998), 151,865 (1997), 81,405 (1996), 45,845.1 (1995)
'''Fiscal year:'''
[[calendar year]]
==See also==
*[[Economy of Europe]]
*[[Cyprus]]
{{EU countries}}
{{Europe_in_topic|Economy of}}
{{Asia in topic|Economy of}}
[[Category:Economy of Cyprus| ]]
[[Category:European Union member economies]]
[[Category:Economies by country]]
[[bg:Стопанство на Кипър]]
[[es:Economía de Chipre]]
[[pt:Economia do Chipre]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Communications in Cyprus</title>
<id>5599</id>
<revision>
<id>30877644</id>
<timestamp>2005-12-11T00:49:29Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>195.14.132.91</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">==Telecommunications==
[[Telecommunications]] and [[Internet]] connections are operated mainly by [[Cyta]].
'''Telephones - main lines in use:'''
Greek Cypriot area: 405,000 (1998); Turkish Cypriot area: 70,845 (1996)
'''Telephones - mobile cellular:'''
Greek Cypriot area: 68,000 (1998); Turkish Cypriot area: 70,000 (1999)
'''Telephone system:'''
excellent in both the Greek Cypriot and Turkish Cypriot areas
<br>''domestic:''
open wire, fiber-optic cable, and microwave radio relay
<br>''international:''
tropospheric scatter; 3 coaxial and 5 fiber-optic submarine cables; satellite earth stations - 3 Intelsat (1 [[Atlantic Ocean]] and 2 [[Indian Ocean]]), 2 Eutelsat, 2 Intersputnik, and 1 Arabsat
==Broadcasting==
The [[Cyprus Broadcasting Corporation]] (CyBC) ( [[Greek language|Greek]] &#929;&#921;&#922;) is the main broadcaster in the Greek Cypriot area, although there are also privately-owned radio and TV stations. A TV channel from [[Greece|Greek]] state broadcaster [[Elliniki Radiophonia Tileorassi|ERT]] is also available. The [[British Forces Broadcasting Service]] also operates radio and TV stations, although the TV signal is now confined to the [[Sovereign Base Area]]s or encrypted for copyright reasons.
In the [[TRNC|Turkish Cypriot area]], [[Bayrak|Bayrak Radio Televizyon]] is the local broadcaster, with radio and TV from [[Turkey|Turkish]] state broadcaster [[Turkish Radio and Television Corporation|TRT]] also available. The [[Republic of Cyprus]] regards Bayrak Radyo Televizyon as an illegal pirate broadcaster.
'''Radio broadcast stations:'''
Greek Cypriot area: AM 7, FM 60, shortwave 1 ([[1998]]); Turkish Cypriot area: AM 3, FM 11, shortwave 1 ([[1998]])
'''Radios:'''
Greek Cypriot area: 310,000 ([[1997]]); Turkish Cypriot area: 56,450 ([[1994]])
'''Television broadcast stations:'''
Greek Cypriot area: 4 plus 225 low-power repeaters; Turkish Cypriot area: 4 plus 5 repeaters (September [[1995]])
'''Televisions:'''
Greek Cypriot area: 248,000 ([[1997]]); Turkish Cypriot area: 52,300 (1994)
==Internet==
'''Internet Service Providers (ISPs):'''
5 (1999)
[[ADSL]] is currently only available in Greek Cypriot area.
==International codes==
'''[[Country codes]]:''' CY (The [[non-recognized nations|de facto state]] of [[Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus]] uses the code NC.TR (TRNC)
'''[[Country calling code]]:''' 357 ''(Northern Cyprus 90 392, via Turkey)''
[[Category:Communications in Cyprus| ]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Transport in Cyprus</title>
<id>5600</id>
<revision>
<id>38851058</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-09T01:17:34Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>71.198.141.17</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Highways */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">This article contains a summary of information on the transport infrastructure in the country of [[Cyprus]].
Cyprus has no working [[railway]] system. The last railway was dismantled in [[1950]].
== Highways ==
''total:''
Greek Cypriot area: 10,663 km (1998 est.); Turkish Cypriot area: 2,350 km (1996 est.)
''paved:''
Greek Cypriot area: 6,249 km (1998 est.); Turkish Cypriot area: 1,370 km (1996 est.)
''unpaved:''
Greek Cypriot area: 4,414 km (1998 est.); Turkish Cypriot area: 980 km (1996 est.)
Driving is on the left.
Intercity motorways:
* A1 (Nicosia-Limassol)
* A2 (A1-Larnaca)-merges with A1 near Pera Chorio
* A3 (Larnaca-Agia Napa-Paralimni)
* A5 (A1-Larnaca)-merges with A1 near Kofinou
* A6 (Pafos-Limassol)
== Ports and harbors ==
[[Famagusta]], [[Kyrenia]] ([[Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus|Northern Cyprus]]), [[Larnaca]], [[Limassol]], [[Paphos]], [[Vasilikos]]
== Merchant marine ==
''total:''
1,414 ships (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 23,497,776 GRT/37,331,506 DWT
''ships by type:''
barge carrier 2, bulk 442, cargo 495, chemical tanker 22, combination bulk 40, combination ore/oil 8, container 144, liquified gas 6, passenger 8, petroleum tanker 142, refrigerated cargo 41, roll-on/roll-off 45, short-sea passenger 13, specialized tanker 4, vehicle carrier 2 ([[1999]] est.)
''note:''
a flag of convenience registry; [[includes ships from 37 countries among which are [[Greece]] 611, [[Germany]] 129, [[Russia]] 49,]] [[Latvia]] 278, [[Netherlands]] 20, [[Japan]] 28, [[Cuba]] 16, [[China]] 15, [[Hong Kong]] 13, and [[Poland]] 15 ([[1998]] est.)
== Airports ==
15 (1999 est.)
'''Airports - with paved runways:'''
<br>''total:''
12
<br>''2,438 to 3,047 m:''
7
<br>''1,524 to 2,437 m:''
1
<br>''914 to 1,523 m:''
3
<br>''under 914 m:''
1 (1999 est.)
'''Airports - with unpaved runways:'''
<br>''total:''
3
<br>''914 to 1,523 m:''
1
<br>''under 914 m:''
2 (1999 est.)
'''Heliports:'''
6 (1999 est.)
{{Europe_in_topic|Transportation in}}
[[Category:Transport in Cyprus| ]]
[[Category:Transportation by country|Cyprus]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Military of Cyprus</title>
<id>5601</id>
<revision>
<id>36859050</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-26T23:01:04Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>KRBN</username>
<id>695292</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve"><table border=1 width=300 cellpadding=2 cellspacing=0 align=right style="margin-left:1em">
<tr><th colspan=2 align=center bgcolor=#8888dd>'''Military of Cyprus'''
<tr><td colspan=2 align=center>'''Military manpower'''
<tr><td>Military age<td>18 years of age
<tr><td>Availability<td>males 15-49:184,352 (2005 est.)
<tr><td>Fit for military service<td>males 15-49: 150,750 (2005 est.)
<tr><td>Reaching military age annually<td>males 6,578 (2005 est.)
<tr><td colspan=2 align=center>'''Military expenditures'''
<tr><td>Dollar figure<td> $384 million (FY02)
<tr><td>Percent of GDP<td> 3.8% (FY02)
</table>
The '''Military of Cyprus''' is comprised of the [[Cypriot National Guard]], a [[combined arms]] force with land, [[navy|naval]] and [[airforce|air]] elements.
[[Greece]] maintains the [[Hellenic Forces Regiment on Cyprus]] (ELDYK) on the island, but this is not part of the Republic of Cyprus military.
This article focuses on the forces loyal to the ''de jure'' government of Cyprus. Fo |
yuzi
|year=2000
|title=Bahá'u'lláh, King of Glory
|edition=Paperback
|publisher=George Ronald
|location=Oxford, UK
|id=ISBN 0853983283
}}
*{{cite book
|first=Shoghi
|last=Effendi
|authorlink=Shoghi Effendi
|year=1974
|title=Bahá'í Administration
|publisher=Bahá'í Publishing Trust
|location=Wilmette, Illinois, USA
|id=ISBN 0877431663
|url=http://reference.bahai.org/en/t/se/BA/
}}
*{{cite book
|first=Shoghi
|last=Effendi
|authorlink=Shoghi Effendi
|year=1944
|title=God Passes By
|publisher=Bahá'í Publishing Trust
|location=Wilmette, Illinois, USA
|id=ISBN 0877430209
|url=http://reference.bahai.org/en/t/se/GPB/
}}
*{{cite book
|first=Shoghi
|last=Effendi
|authorlink= Shoghi Effendi
|year= 1976
|title= Principles of Bahá'í Administration
|edition= 4th ed.
|publisher= Bahá'í Publishing Trust
|location=London, UK
|id= ISBN 0900125136
}}
*{{cite book
|author= Rabbani, Ruhiyyih (Ed.)
|authorlink=Rúhíyyih Khanum
|year= 1992
|title= The Ministry of the Custodians 1957-1963
|publisher= Bahá'í World Centre
|id= ISBN 085398350X
|url= http://bahai-library.com/published.uhj/ministry.custodians.toc.html
}}
*{{cite book
|author= Rabbani, Ruhiyyih
|authorlink=Rúhíyyih Khanum
|year= 1969
|title= The Priceless Pearl
|edition=Hardcover
|publisher= Bahá'í Publishing Trust: 2000
|location=London, UK
|id= ISBN 1870989910
}}
*{{cite book
|author= Taherzadeh, Adib
|year= 1972
|title= The Covenant of Bahá'u'lláh
|publisher= George Ronald
|location=Oxford, UK
|id= ISBN 0853983445
}}
==External links==
* [http://bahai-library.com/?file=momen_encyclopedia_covenant The Covenant and Covenant-breaker] - Article by Moojan Momen on the history, purpose, and power of the Covenant. Includes history of Covenant breakers, the three categories, and references for further study.
[[Category:Bahá'í divisions]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Concord, Michigan</title>
<id>7828</id>
<revision>
<id>40536733</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-21T07:10:10Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>141.213.217.199</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Notable Residents */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Concord''' is a [[village]] in [[Jackson County, Michigan|Jackson County]], [[Michigan]], located at {{coor dms|42|10|40|N|84|38|35|W|}}, west of [[Spring Arbor, Michigan]]. As of the [[2000]] census, the village had a total population of 1,101.
== Government ==
Concord is a general-law village incorporated within the [[Concord Township, Michigan|Township of Concord]].
== Geography ==
[[Image:MIMap-doton-Concord.PNG|right|Location of Concord, Michigan]]
According to the [[United States Census Bureau]], the village has a total area of 4.1 [[square kilometre|km&sup2;]] (1.6 [[square mile|mi&sup2;]]). 3.8 km&sup2; (1.5 mi&sup2;) of it is land and 0.3 km&sup2; (0.1 mi&sup2;) of it is water. The total area is 6.37% water.
The village is located within the T3S R3W [[survey township]].
== Demographics ==
As of the [[census]][[Geographic references#2|<sup>2</sup>]] of [[2000]], there are 1,101 people, 428 households, and 308 families residing in the village. The [[population density]] is 289.2/km&sup2; (748.4/mi&sup2;). There are 499 housing units at an average density of 131.1/km&sup2; (339.2/mi&sup2;). The racial makeup of the village is 97.91% [[White (U.S. Census)|White]], 0.09% [[African American (U.S. Census)|Black]] or [[Race (U.S. Census)|African American]], 0.27% [[Native American (U.S. Census)|Native American]], 0.73% [[Asian (U.S. Census)|Asian]], 0.64% from [[Race (U.S. Census)|other races]], and 0.36% from two or more races. 0.82% of the population are [[Hispanic American|Hispanic]] or [[Latino (U.S. Census)|Latino]] of any race.
There are 428 households out of which 34.3% have children under the age of 18 living with them, 57.9% are [[Marriage|married couples]] living together, 10.7% have a female householder with no husband present, and 28.0% are non-families. 25.0% of all households are made up of individuals and 10.5% have someone living alone who is 65 years of age or older. The average household size is 2.57 and the average family size is 3.09.
In the village the population is spread out with 28.1% under the age of 18, 7.5% from 18 to 24, 28.2% from 25 to 44, 21.7% from 45 to 64, and 14.5% who are 65 years of age or older. The median age is 37 years. For every 100 females there are 92.8 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there are 87.7 males.
The median income for a household in the village is $46,500, and the median income for a family is $54,531. Males have a median income of $39,167 versus $23,594 for females. The [[per capita income]] for the village is $19,348. 5.2% of the population and 4.8% of families are below the [[poverty line]]. Out of the total population, 3.1% of those under the age of 18 and 7.1% of those 65 and older are living below the poverty line.
==Notable Previous Residents==
[[Ted Nugent]]
[[Category:Jackson County, Michigan]]
[[Category:Villages in Michigan]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Chaos Computer Club</title>
<id>7829</id>
<revision>
<id>38925875</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-09T15:39:05Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Myleslong</username>
<id>165491</id>
</contributor>
<comment>rv</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''Chaos Computer Club (CCC)''' is one of the biggest and most influental [[hacker]] organisations. The CCC is based in [[Germany]] and other [[German Language|German]]-speaking countries and currently has about 1,500 members.
The CCC describes itself as "a galactic community of life's beings, independent of age, sex, race or societal orientation, which strives across borders for freedom of information&hellip;." In general, the CCC struggles for more transparency in governments, freedom of information and a [[human rights|human right]] to [[communication]]. Supporting the principles of the [[hacker ethic]], the club also fights for free access to computers and technological infrastructure for everybody.
== History ==
The CCC was founded in [[Berlin]] on [[September 12]], [[1981]] by [[Wau Holland]] and others in anticipation of the prominent role that information technology would play in the way people live and communicate. The Germans' sensitivity to [[Nineteen Eighty-Four]]&ndash;like scenarios (as they had already experienced two of their own&mdash;the [[Nazi]] era and the [[Stasi]] system of the [[GDR]]) might have played a role in the formation of the CCC. Today, Germans in general tend to be much more critical of all kinds of public [[surveillance]] than is common in other countries.
The CCC became world famous when they hacked the German [[Bildschirmtext]] computer network and succeeded in getting a bank in [[Hamburg]] to debit the online account with [[Deutsche Mark|DM]] 134,000 in favour of the club. The money was returned the next day in front of the press.
In [[1989]], the CCC was peripherally involved in the first cyberespionage case to make international headlines. A group of [[West Germany|German]] hackers led by [[Hagbard (Karl Koch)|Karl Koch]] (who was loosely affiliated with the CCC) was arrested for breaking into US government and corporate computers and selling operating-system source code to the Soviet [[KGB]].
The CCC is more widely known for its public demonstrations of security risks. In [[1996]], CCC members demonstrated an attack against [[Microsoft]]'s [[ActiveX]] technology, changing personal data in a [[Quicken]] database from the outside. In April [[1998]], the CCC successfully demonstrated the cloning of [[GSM]] customer card, circumventing the A10 encryption algorithm.
In [[2001]], the CCC celebrated its twentieth birthday with an interactive light installation dubbed [[Project Blinkenlights]] that turned the building [[Haus des Lehrers]] in [[Berlin]] into a giant computer screen. A follow up installation (dubbed "[[Video arcade|Arcade]]") at the [[Bibliothèque nationale de France]] was the world's biggest light installation ever.
== Events ==
[[Image:Ccc2003PirateTent.jpg|right|thumb|200px|''CCC 2003 camp near Berlin'']]
The CCC hosts the annual [[Chaos Communication Congress]], Europe's biggest hacker congress, with up to 3,500 participants. Every four years, the [[Chaos Communication Camp]] is the outdoor alternative for hackers worldwide.
Members of the CCC also participate in various technological and political conferences around the planet.
== Publications ==
The CCC publishes the quarterly magazine [[Datenschleuder]] ("data catapult"), and the CCC in [[Berlin]] also produces a monthly radio show called [[Chaosradio]] which picks up various technical and political topics in a three-hour [[talk radio]] show. The program is aired on a local radio station named [[Fritz (radio)|Fritz]].
== Members ==
Famous members are co-founder [[Wau Holland]] and [[Andy Müller-Maguhn]], who was a member of the [[ICANN]] board of directors for Europe until [[2002]].
== See also ==
* [[2600 The Hacker Quarterly]]
* [[Cult of the Dead Cow|CULT OF THE DEAD COW]]
* [[Phrack]]
* [[L0pht]]
* [[23 (movie)]]
== External links ==
* [http://www.ccc.de/?language=en CCC homepage]
* [http://www.blinkenlights.de/ Project Blinkenlights homepage]
[[Category:Hacker groups]]
[[Category:Computer clubs]]
[[de:Chaos Computer Club]]
[[es:Chaos Computer Club]]
[[fr:Chaos Computer Club]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Convention (norm)</title>
<id>7830</id>
<revision>
<id>40382868</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-20T04:35:19Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Velho</username>
<id>158002</id>
</contributor>
<comment>rvv</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''You might be looking fo |
ell as play a Pandaren Hero in ''Warcraft III: The Frozen Throne''.
* The Giant Panda is the namesake and logo of [[Panda Energy International]].
* The [[Tarepanda]] was one lazy panda popular in Japan.
* In one stage of the game ''[[We Love Katamari]]'', the player can roll up various things in town to raise money to save red pandas (Red versions of the Giant Panda as opposed to the raccoon-like Red Pandas) from turning into reddish brown pandas.
* In the ''[[Fullmetal Alchemist]]'' manga, the side character Mei Chang has a tiny panda named Xiaomei/Shao Mei which copies Mei's actions when they are together. It has a tendency to bite people but considers Mei its master (and Alphonse Elric the ultimate lifeform).
==References==
* Schaller, George B. ''The Last Panda''. Chicago. University of Chicago Press, 1993.
* Wan, Q.-H., H. Wu, and S.-G. Fang. 2005. A new subspecies of Giant Panda (''Ailuropoda melanoleuca'') from Shaanxi, China. ''Journal of Mammalogy'' 86: 397&ndash;402.
* [http://www.wwfchina.org/english/pandacentral/htm/wwf_at_work/panda_survey/q&a.htm Panda Facts At a Glance]
* Associated Press (via [[CNN]]) 2006. [http://www.cnn.com/2006/WORLD/asiapcf/01/06/china.taiwan.ap/index.html Article link]
*Goodman, Brenda (February 12, 2006). [http://www.nytimes.com/2006/02/12/national/12panda.html? Pandas Eat Up Much of Zoos' Budgets]. ''[[The New York Times]]''
==External links==
{{commons|Giant Panda}}
===Zoo websites===
*[http://nationalzoo.si.edu/Animals/GiantPandas/ US National Zoo] - has baby panda cam
*[http://www.sandiegozoo.org/animalbytes/t-giant_panda.html San Diego Zoo] and [http://www.sandiegozoo.org/zoo/ex_panda_station.html its panda cam]
*[http://www.memphiszoo.org/panda_cam.html Memphis Zoo]
*[http://www.zooatlanta.org/animals_giant_panda.htm Zoo Atlanta]
*[http://www.zoovienna.at/grosserpanda.html Tiergarten Schönbrunn] (Vienna, Austria)
*[http://www.zoo-berlin.de/tiere/tier_prom_baobao.html Zoologischer Garten Berlin]
*[http://www.tokyo-zoo.net/zoo/ueno/index.html Ueno Zoo] (Japan)
*[http://www.ojizoo.jp/ Oji Zoo] (Japan)
*[http://www.aws-s.com/panda/index.html Adventure World]
===Other websites===
*[http://www.panda.org/about_wwf/what_we_do/species/our_solutions/endangered_species/giant_panda/index.cfm WWF] - environmental conservation organization
*[http://www.giantpandaonline.org/ Giant Panda Species Survival Plan]
*[http://www.pandasinternational.org/index.html Pandas International] - panda conservation group
*[http://www.aza.org/ConScience/PandaPublicEye/ AZA Panda Conservation Plan]
*[http://nationalzoo.si.edu/Animals/GiantPandas/PandaFacts/default.cfm Information about pandas]
[[Category:Bears]]
[[Category:Endangered species]]
[[Category:Fauna of China]]
[[bg:Голяма панда]]
[[ca:Panda gegant]]
[[cs:Panda velká]]
[[da:Panda]]
[[de:Großer Panda]]
[[es:Panda gigante]]
[[eo:Granda pando]]
[[fr:Panda géant]]
[[fy:Bamboebear]]
[[gl:Panda xigante]]
[[ko:자이언트판다]]
[[id:Panda]]
[[it:Ailuropoda melanoleuca]]
[[he:פאנדה ענק]]
[[la:Panda maior]]
[[lt:Didžioji panda]]
[[jbo:cionmau la barda]]
[[ms:Panda Gergasi]]
[[nl:Reuzenpanda]]
[[ja:ジャイアントパンダ]]
[[pl:Panda wielka]]
[[pt:Panda]]
[[ru:Большая панда]]
[[scn:Panda gianti]]
[[sk:Panda veľká]]
[[sl:Orjaški panda]]
[[su:Panda]]
[[fi:Jättiläispanda]]
[[sv:Jättepanda]]
[[th:แพนด้ายักษ์]]
[[vi:Gấu trúc lớn]]
[[uk:Велика панда]]
[[zh:大熊猫]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Glissando</title>
<id>12716</id>
<revision>
<id>41708553</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T05:14:46Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>68.80.154.52</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>Example of how a fretted stringed instrument player can effect an extremely rapid chromatic scale.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Glissando''' (plural: glissandi) is a [[music]]al term that refers to either a continuous sliding from one pitch to another (a "true" glissando), or an incidental scale played while moving from one [[Melody|melodic]] note to another (an "effective" glissando).
[[Musical instrument]]s with [[:Category:Continuous pitch instruments|continuously variable pitch]] can effect a true glissando over a substantial range.
These include unfretted stringed instruments (such as the [[violin]] and some [[bass guitar]]s), stringed instruments with a way of stretching the strings (such as a [[guitar]]), wind instruments without valves or stops (such as the [[trombone]] or [[slide whistle]]), electronic instruments (such as [[synthesizer]]s and [[theremin]]s), the [[water organ]], and of course the [[human voice]].
True glissandi can be produced to at least a limited extent on most instruments; for example, fretted stringed instruments (such as the [[guitar]] or [[mandolin]]) can effect a glissando by pushing the string across the fingerboard.
Brass and wind instruments such as the [[flute]] or [[trumpet]] can effect a similarly limited glissando by altering the breath pressure.
Tunable percussion instruments such as the [[drum]] or [[conga]] can effect small glissandi by applying or releasing pressure on the head while striking.
On some instruments, a bending of the tone or continuous sliding is not possible (e.g., [[piano]], [[harp]]) As a substitute, the player can play a number of adjacent notes in rapid succession, so that the audible result somewhat resembles a true glissando. For example, on a piano, the player can slide his thumbnail across the white or black keys, producing either a [[C major]] scale or a F# major pentatonic (or their relative natural minor scales). On a harp, the player can slide his finger up or down the strings, quickly playing the separate notes. Wind, brass and fretted stringed instrument players can effect an extremely rapid chromatic scale (ex: sliding up or down a string quickly on a fretted instrument), giving the same effect. These latter techniques are commonly referred to as glissandi in scores and sheet music, although technically they are only "effective" glissandi.
''See also: [[musical terminology]]''
<!-- Categories, from narrowest to most generic -->
[[Category:Articulations]]
<!-- In other languages, alphabetically by language (not code) name -->
<!--magyar-->
[[ca:Glissando]]
[[da:Glissando]]
[[de:Glissando]]
[[es:Glissando]]
[[fr:Glissando]]
[[hu:Glissando]]
[[it:Glissando]]{{Link FA|it}}
[[nl:Glissando]]
[[pl:Glissando]]
[[sr:Глисандо]]
[[sv:Glissando]]
[[he:גליסנדו]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Giraffe</title>
<id>12717</id>
<revision>
<id>42103034</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T21:19:21Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Voyevoda</username>
<id>307664</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Taxobox
| color = pink
| name = Giraffe
| status = {{StatusConcern}}
| image = giraffe_pcb.jpg
| image_width = 250px
| regnum = [[Animal]]ia
| phylum = [[Chordata]]
| classis = [[Mammal]]ia
| ordo = [[Artiodactyla]]
| familia = [[Giraffidae]]
| genus = '''''Giraffa'''''
| species = '''''G. camelopardalis'''''
| binomial = ''Giraffa camelopardalis''
| binomial_authority = [[Carolus Linnaeus|Linnaeus]], [[1758]]
}}
The '''Giraffe''' (''Giraffa camelopardalis'') is an [[even-toed ungulate]] [[mammal]], the tallest of all land living [[animal]] [[species]]. Males can be 4.8 to 5.5 [[metre]]s (16 to 18 feet) tall and weigh up to 900 [[kilogram]]s (2000 pounds). Females are generally slightly shorter and weigh less.
Native to [[Africa]], the Giraffe is related to [[deer]] and [[cattle]], but is placed in a separate family, the [[Giraffidae]], consisting only of the giraffe and its closest relative, the [[Okapi]].
The species name ''camelopardalis'' (camelopard) is derived from its early [[Roman Empire|Roman]] name, where it was described as having characteristics of both a [[camel]] and a [[leopard]] (and perhaps being a hybrid of the two)[http://www.eaudrey.com/myth/camelopard.htm].
==Giraffe Subspecies==
There are nine generally accepted [[subspecies]], differentiated by color and pattern variations and range:
* Reticulated or [[Somali Giraffe]] (''G.c. reticulata'') &mdash; large, polygonal liver-colored spots outlined by a network of bright white lines. The blocks may sometimes appear deep red and may also cover the legs. Range: northeastern Kenya, Ethiopia, Somalia.
* Angolan or Smoky Giraffe (''G.c. angolensis'') &mdash; large spots and some notches around the edges, extending down the entire lower leg. Range: Angola, Zambia.
* Kordofan Giraffe (''G.c. antiquorum'') &mdash; smaller, more irregular spots that do cover the inner legs. Range: western and southwestern Sudan.
* Masai or Kilimanjaro Giraffe (''G.c. tippelskirchi'') &mdash; jagged-edged, vine-leaf shaped spots of dark chocolate on a yellowish background. Range: central and southern Kenya, Tanzania.
* Nubian Giraffe (''G.c. camelopardalis'') &mdash; large, four-sided spots of chestnut brown on an off-white background and no spots on inner sides of the legs or below the hocks. Range: eastern Sudan, northeast Congo.
* Rothschild's or Baringo or Ugandan Giraffe (''G.c. rothschildi'') &mdash; deep brown, blotched or rectangular spots with poorly defined cream lines. Hocks may be spotted. Range: Uganda, north-central Kenya.
* South African Giraffe (''G.c. giraffa'') &mdash; rounded or blotched spots, some with star-like extensions on a light tan background, running down to the hooves. Range: South Africa, Namibia, Botswana, Zimbabwe, Mozambique.
* Thornicroft or Rhodesian Giraffe (''G.c. thornicrofti'') &mdash; star-shaped or leafy spots extend to the lower leg. Range: eastern Zambia.
* West African or Nigerian Giraffe (''G.c. peralta'') &mdash; numerous pale, yellowish red spots. Range: Chad.
Some sources combine Kordofan and West African, Nubian and Rothschild's, and Angolan and Southern African giraffes, respectively, into single subspecie |
idates. Perhaps even more importantly, it sends a signal of superiority to potential competitors of the same gender, who are frequently better informed about what's fashionable than the potential mates are. Conversely, a person who exhibits a fashion style that rejects or deliberately tries to offend the current trend may also have an advantage in finding other like-minded individuals.
"Fashion sense" consists of the ability to tell what [[clothing]] and/or accessories look good and what do not. Since the entire notion of fashion depends on subjectivity, so does the question of who possesses "fashion sense". Some people style themselves as "fashion consultants" and charge clients to help the latter choose what to wear. Designers show the public what is new and in style by using [[Fashion Modeling | fashion models]] to display the clothing. [[Image consultant]]s help people revamp or create fashion sense.
Fashion can operate differently depending on [[gender]], or it can promote homogeneity as in [[unisex]] styles.
== Classification of fashions ==
Ethnically-based fashions:
* [[Chinoiserie]]
* [[Orientalism]]
* [[Primitivism]]
Modern underground fashion:
* [[Cyberpunk fashion]]
* [[Punk fashion]]
* [[Gothic fashion]]
* [[Death rock fashion]]
* [[Black metal fashion]]
* [[Industrial fashion]]
* [[BDSM fashion]]
* [[urban fashion]]
The ultimate world capital of fashion is [[Paris]], which is home to the premier fashion houses of the world including [[Chanel]], [[Yves Saint Laurent]], [[Givenchy]] and [[Louis Vuitton]]. The other major fashion capitals are [[London]], [[New York]] and [[Milan]] which together with Paris each host a bi-annual 'Fashion Week' where both established and new designers showcase their latest collections.
== See also ==
{{wiktionarypar|Wiktionary}}
* [[Aesthetics]]
* [[Art movement]]
* [[Art styles, periods and movements]]
* [[Cyberprep fashion]]
* [[Fad]]
* [[Fashion footwear]]
* [[Fashion police]]
* [[Fashion design]]
* [[Fashion Modeling]]
* [[Haute couture]]
* [[History of Western fashion]]
* [[Innovation]]
* [[i-wear]]
* [[Marketing]]
* [[Planned obsolescence (business)]]
* [[Safari jacket]]
* [[Shoe]]
* [[Ski jacket]]
* [[Steven Cojocaru]]
* [[Streetwear]]
* [[Trench coat]]
* [[Young fashion]]: showing the [[G-string|thong]]s.
* [[1990s fashion]]
* [[St. Tropez Belt]]
=== Further reading ===
*[http://fax.libs.uga.edu/GT850xC4/ ''THE HISTORY OF FASHION IN FRANCE''], by M. Augustin Challamel, (1882 Eng. Trans.) ''(a searchable facsimile at the University of Georgia Libraries; [[DjVu]] & [http://fax.libs.uga.edu/GT850xC4/1f/history_of_fashion_in_france.pdf layered PDF] format)''
*[http://fax.libs.uga.edu/GT513xL32/ ''LACY'S DRAMATIC COSTUMES''], collected & edited by Thomas Hailes Lacy, 1865 & 1868. ''(a searchable facsimile at the University of Georgia Libraries; [[DjVu]] & [http://fax.libs.uga.edu/GT513xL32/1f/ layered PDF] format)''
*The chapter on Fashion in <cite> Georg Simmel, on Individuality & Social Forms, Selected Writings</cite>, Georg Simmel, edited by Donald N. Levine, University of Chicago Press, 1971, hardcover, 393 pages, ISBN 0226757757
===Films about fashion===
*''[[Mode in France]]'' (1984), Directed by [[William Klein]]
*''[[Prêt-à-Porter (film)|Prêt-à-Porter]]'' (1994), Directed by [[Robert Altman]]
*''[[Catwalk (film)|Catwalk]]'' (1996), Directed by [[Robert Leacock]]
*''[[Zoolander]]'' (2001), Directed by [[Ben Stiller]]
*''[[Cities and Clothes]]'' (1989), Directed by [[Wim Wenders]]
===External links===
*[http://dept.kent.edu/museum/costume/ Bissonnette on Costume] - A Visual Dictionary of Fashion from Kent State University browsable by geography, time, and subject
*[http://designers.fmd1.com FMD - fashion designers & brands database]
*[http://www.bridalgems.co.uk Wedding Fashion Jewellery] - Modern Bridal Fashions
*[http://tiger.towson.edu/~apeak1/writtenwork/thoughtpieces/rippedjeans.html A light-hearted article on ripped jeans]
*[http://www.facets.wordpress.com/ Facets of Sri Lanka]
*[http://funkyfashion.oldiblog.com/ Funky Fashion]
*[http://members.aol.com/fashion901 Articles On Fashion Tips of Past, Present & Future]
[[Category:Human appearance]]
[[Category:Social psychology]]
[[Category:Fashion]]
[[da:Mode]]
[[de:Mode]]
[[eo:Modo]]
[[es:Moda]]
[[fr:Mode (habillement)]]
[[ja:??????]]
[[nl:Mode]]
[[pl:Moda]]
[[pt:Moda]]
[[sk:Móda]]
[[sl:Moda]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Fourier Transform Spectroscopy</title>
<id>11658</id>
<revision>
<id>15909392</id>
<timestamp>2002-04-05T08:25:48Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Damian Yerrick</username>
<id>1</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>=&gt; Fourier transform spectroscopy</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Fourier transform spectroscopy]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Fourier transform</title>
<id>11659</id>
<revision>
<id>42080026</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T18:09:59Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Jyossarian</username>
<id>561052</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* External links */ (fixed author name)</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Fourier transforms}}The '''Fourier transform''', named after [[Joseph Fourier]], is an [[integral transform]] that re-expresses a function in terms of [[trigonometric function|sinusoidal]] [[basis function]]s, i.e. as a sum or integral of sinusoidal functions multiplied by some coefficients ("amplitudes"). There are many closely related variations of this transform, summarized below, depending upon the type of function being transformed. See also: [[List of Fourier-related transforms]].
==Applications==
Fourier transforms have many scientific applications &mdash; in [[physics]], [[number theory]], [[combinatorics]], [[signal processing]], [[probability theory]], [[statistics]], [[cryptography]], [[acoustics]], [[oceanography]], [[optics]], [[geometry]], and other areas. (In signal processing and related fields, the Fourier transform is typically thought of as decomposing a signal into its component [[frequency|frequencies]] and their [[amplitude]]s.) This wide applicability stems from several useful properties of the transforms:
* The transforms are [[linear operator]]s and, with proper normalization, are [[unitary operator|unitary]] as well (a property known as [[Parseval's theorem]] or, more generally, as the [[Plancherel theorem]], and most generally via [[Pontryagin duality]]).
* The transforms are invertible, and in fact the inverse transform has almost the same form as the forward transform.
* The sinusoidal basis functions are [[eigenfunctions]] of [[derivative|differentiation]], which means that this representation transforms linear [[differential equation]]s with [[constant coefficients]] into ordinary algebraic ones. (For example, in a linear time-invariant physical system, [[frequency]] is a conserved quantity, so the behavior at each frequency can be solved independently.)
* By the [[convolution theorem]], Fourier transforms turn the complicated [[convolution]] operation into simple multiplication, which means that they provide an efficient way to compute convolution-based operations such as [[polynomial]] multiplication and [[multiplication algorithm|multiplying large numbers]].
* The discrete version of the Fourier transform (see below) can be evaluated quickly on computers using [[fast Fourier transform]] (FFT) algorithms.
==Variants of the Fourier transform==
===Continuous Fourier transform===
Most often, the unqualified term "Fourier transform" refers to the [[continuous Fourier transform]], representing any [[Integrable function#Square-integrable|square-integrable]] function ''f''(''t'') as a sum of [[complex number|complex]] exponentials with angular frequencies &omega; and complex amplitudes ''F''(&omega;):
:<math>
f(t) = \mathcal{F}^{-1}(F)(t)
= \frac{1}{\sqrt{2\pi}} \int\limits_{-\infty}^\infty F(\omega) e^{i\omega t}\,d\omega.
</math><!-- There are a number of different conventions that are used for the FT: different normalizations, different signs in the exponent...this is discussed in the [[continuous Fourier transform]] article. Please do not change this formula to match your favorite convention...we need to keep the different FT articles consistent. -->
This is actually the ''inverse'' continuous Fourier transform, whereas the Fourier transform expresses ''F''(&omega;) in terms of ''f''(''t''); the original function and its transform are sometimes called a ''transform pair''. See [[continuous Fourier transform]] for more information, including a table of transforms, discussion of the transform properties, and the various conventions. A generalization of this transform is the [[fractional Fourier transform]], by which the transform can be raised to any real "power".
When ''f''(''t'') is an [[even and odd functions|even or odd function]], the sine or cosine terms disappear and one is left with the [[cosine transform]] or [[sine transform]], respectively. Another important case is where ''f''(''t'') is purely real, where it follows that ''F''(&minus;&omega;)&nbsp;=&nbsp;''F''(&omega;)<sup>*</sup> (where the <math>*</math> denotes [[complex conjugation]].) Similar special cases appear for all other variants of the Fourier transform as well.
===Fourier series===
The continuous transform is itself actually a generalization of an earlier concept, a [[Fourier series]], which was specific to periodic (or finite-domain) functions ''f''(''x'') (with period 2&pi;), and represents these functions as a [[series (mathematics)|series]] of sinusoids:
:<math>f(x) = \sum_{n=-\infty}^{\infty} F_n \,e^{inx} ,</math>
where <math>F_n< |
r Sadat]] (former president and winner of the Nobel Peace Prize)
For more famous Egyptians check: [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Egyptians]
==See also==
* [[Capital of Egypt]]
* [[Communications in Egypt]]
* [[Coptic Christianity]]
* [[Egyptian mythology]]
* [[Egyptian pyramids]]
* [[History of the Jews in Egypt]]
* [[History of Armenians in Egypt]]
* [[Islam in Egypt]]
* [[List of Egypt-related topics]]
* [[List of Egyptian companies]]
* [[List of famous Egyptian people]]
* [[List of African writers (by country)#Egypt|List of writers from Egypt]]
* [[Military of Egypt]]
* [[Music of Egypt]]
* [[Transportation in Egypt]]
* [[Red Sea Riviera]]
==References==
*{{CIAfb}}{{clr}}
*{{StateDept}}
==External links==
{{sisterlinks|Egypt}}
===Government===
*[http://www.egypt.gov.eg/english/default.asp Egyptian Government Services Portal]
*[http://www.sis.gov.eg/En/Default.htm Egypt State Information Services]
*[http://www.idsc.gov.eg/ Egypt Information Portal] - available in Arabic and English
===News===
*[http://weekly.ahram.org.eg/ Al-Ahram Weekly]
*[http://allafrica.com/egypt/ AllAfrica &ndash; ''Egypt''] news
*[http://www.egypttoday.com/ Egypt Today] magazine
*[http://www.businesstodayegypt.com/ Business Today Egypt] magazine
*[http://story.news.yahoo.com/fc?cid=34&tmpl=fc&in=World&cat=Egypt Yahoo! News Full Coverage &ndash; ''Egypt''] headline links
===Overviews===
*[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/world/middle_east/country_profiles/737642.stm BBC News Country Profile - ''Egypt'']
*[http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/eg.html CIA World Factbook - ''Egypt'']
*[http://web.amnesty.org/report2005/egy-summary-eng Amnesty International's 2005 Report on Egypt.]
*[http://www.state.gov/p/nea/ci/c3729.htm US State Department - ''Egypt''] includes Background Notes, Country Study and major reports
*[http://www.mobileafrica.net/egypt.php Mobile communications in Egypt]
*[http://hrw.org/doc?t=mideast&c=egypt Human Rights Watch -Egypt]
*[http://dmoz.org/Regional/Africa/Egypt Open Directory Project - ''Egypt''] directory category
*[http://www.joinafrica.com/countries1/Egypt/people.htm Joinafrica.com - ''Egypt'']
===Education===
See: ''[[List of Egyptian universities]]''
*[http://www.worldwide.edu/ci/egypt/index.html Study Destinations in Egypt]
*[http://www.scu.eun.eg/eng/scu-eng.htm Supreme Council of Universities]
===Tourism===
''See: [[List of museums in Egypt]]''
*{{wikitravel}}
*[http://www.touregypt.net/ Tour Egypt] (Association of Egyptian Travel Businesses)
*[http://www.egypt-travelguide.com/ Egypt Hotel & Travel Guide]
*[http://www.eternalegypt.org/ Journey through Eternal Egypt]
*[http://ancient-egypt.blogspot.com/ History of Ancient Egypt]
===Others===
*[http://www.fonsvitae.com/archit.html CAIRO - 1001 Years of Islamic Art and Architecture (Video series in four parts)]
*[http://www.lib.utexas.edu/maps/egypt.html Egypt Maps - Perry-Castañeda Map Collection]
*[http://ianandwendy.com/OtherTrips/Egypt Egypt Photo Galleries] Pictures from a visit in December 2004
*[http://st-takla.org/Egypt-1.html Egypt through the ages..]
*[http://www.egyptianculture.net Egyptian Mythology]
*[[Khnumhotep & Niankhkhnum]]
*[http://en.jurispedia.org/index.php/Egypt Egyptian law] from [[Jurispedia]]
*[http://www.globalamity.net/index.php?section=article&articleid=15 Photographs of Egypt] Pictures from a visit in May/June 2005
<!--Navigation box templates-->
<br clear="all" />
{{Middle_East}}
{{Africa}}
{{Mediterranean}}
[[Category:African Union member states]]
[[Category:Arab League]]
[[Category:Bicontinental countries]]
[[Category:Egypt| ]]
[[Category:Middle Eastern countries]]
[[Category:Near Eastern countries]]
[[af:Egipte]]
[[als:Ägypten]]
[[am:ግብፅ]]
[[ar:مصر]]
[[an:Echipto]]
[[ast:Exiptu]]
[[bg:Египет]]
[[zh-min-nan:Ai-ki̍p]]
[[bs:Egipat]]
[[br:Egipt]]
[[ca:Egipte]]
[[cs:Egypt]]
[[cy:Yr Aifft]]
[[da:Ægypten]]
[[de:Ägypten]]
[[et:Egiptus]]
[[el:Αίγυπτος]]
[[es:Egipto]]
[[eo:Egiptio]]
[[eu:Egipto]]
[[fa:مصر]]
[[fr:Égypte]]
[[fy:Egypte]]
[[ga:An Éigipt]]
[[gd:An Eiphit]]
[[gl:Exipto - مصر]]
[[ko:이집트]]
[[ht:Ejip]]
[[hr:Egipat]]
[[io:Egiptia]]
[[id:Mesir]]
[[ia:Egypto]]
[[is:Egyptaland]]
[[it:Egitto]]
[[he:מצרים]]
[[ka:ეგვიპტე]]
[[ku:Misir]]
[[kw:Ejyp]]
[[la:Aegyptus]]
[[lv:Ēģipte]]
[[lt:Egiptas]]
[[lb:Egypten]]
[[li:Egypte]]
[[hu:Egyiptom]]
[[mg:Egypta]]
[[ms:Mesir]]
[[na:Egypt]]
[[nl:Egypte]]
[[nds:Ägypten]]
[[ja:エジプト]]
[[no:Egypt]]
[[nn:Egypt]]
[[os:Мысыр]]
[[pl:Egipt]]
[[pt:Egipto]]
[[ro:Egipt]]
[[ru:Египет]]
[[sm:Aikupito]]
[[sq:Egjipti]]
[[simple:Egypt]]
[[sk:Egypt]]
[[sl:Egipt]]
[[sr:Египат]]
[[fi:Egypti]]
[[sv:Egypten]]
[[tl:Egypt]]
[[th:ประเทศอียิปต์]]
[[tr:Mısır (ülke)]]
[[uk:Єгипет]]
[[ur:مصر]]
[[yi:מצרים]]
[[zh:埃及]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Egypt/History</title>
<id>9347</id>
<revision>
<id>15907243</id>
<timestamp>2003-05-23T10:40:14Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Olivier</username>
<id>3808</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[History of Egypt]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Geography of Egypt</title>
<id>9348</id>
<revision>
<id>41474626</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-27T16:26:09Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Kelvin Case</username>
<id>613429</id>
</contributor>
<comment>loading better map. more detailed information than previous</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Egypt detail.jpg|right|450px]]
[[Image:Nile River and delta from orbit.jpg|right|thumb|320px|The Nile River valley cuts a green swath through the desert of Egypt to the broad Nile delta.]]
[[Image:Egypt_regions_and_boundaries.png|thumb|right|250px|Egypt's regions and boundaries]]
Most of '''[[Egypt]]''' is in [[North Africa]]; the [[Sinai Peninsula]] is in [[Southwest Asia]]. The country has shorelines on the [[Mediterranean Sea]] and the [[Red Sea]]; it borders [[Libya]] to the west, [[Sudan]] to the south, and the [[Gaza Strip]] and [[Israel]] to the east. Egypt, covering 1,001,449 square kilometers of land, is about the same size as [[Texas]] and [[New Mexico]] combined. The country's greatest distance from north to south is 1,024 kilometers, and from east to west, 1,240 kilometers. The country is located in [[North Africa]] and includes the [[Sinai Peninsula]], which is considered part of [[Southwest Asia]]. Egypt's natural boundaries consist of more than 2,900 kilometers of coastline along the [[Mediterranean Sea]], the [[Gulf of Suez]], the [[Gulf of Aqaba]] and the [[Red Sea]].
'''[[Geographic coordinates]]:''' {{coor dm|27|00|N|30|00|E|type:country}})
==Boundaries==
Egypt has land boundaries with Israel, Libya, Sudan, and the Gaza Strip, a Palestinian area formerly administered by Egypt and occupied by Israel since 1967. The land boundaries are generally straight lines that do not conform to geographic features such as rivers. Egypt shares its longest boundary, which extends 1,273 kilometers, with Sudan. In accordance with the Anglo-Egyptian Condominium Agreement of 1899, this boundary runs westward from the Red Sea along the twenty-second parallel, includes the Sudanese Nile salient (Wadi Halfa salient), and continues along the twenty-second parallel until it meets the twenty-fifth meridian. The Sudanese Nile salient, a finger-shape area along the Nile River (Nahr an Nil) north of the twenty-second parallel, is nearly covered by Lake Nasser, which was created when the Aswan High Dam was constructed in the 1960s. An "administrative" boundary, which supplements the main Egyptian-Sudanese boundary permits nomadic tribes to gain access to water holes at the eastern end of Egypt's southern frontier. The administrative boundary departs from the international boundary in two places; Egypt administers the area south of the twenty-second parallel, and Sudan administers the area north of it.
Egypt shares all 1,150 kilometers of the western border with Libya. This border was defined in 1925 under an agreement with Italy, which had colonized Libya. Before and after World War II, the northern border was adjusted, resulting in the return of the village of As Sallum to Egyptian sovereignty. Egypt shares 255 kilometers of its eastern border in Sinai with Israel and 11 kilometers with the Gaza Strip.
==Provinces==
Egypt is divided into twenty-six governorates (sometimes called provinces), which include four city governorates: Alexandria (Al Iskandariyah), Cairo (Al Qahirah), Port Said (Bur Said) and Suez; the nine governorates of Lower Egypt in the Nile Delta region; the eight governorates of Upper Egypt along the Nile River south from Cairo to Aswan; and the five frontier governorates covering Sinai and the deserts that lie west and east of the Nile. All governorates, except the frontier ones, are in the Nile Delta or along the Nile Valley and Suez Canal.
==Natural regions==
Egypt is predominantly desert. An area of only 35,000 square kilometers - 3.5 % of the total land area - is cultivated and permanently settled. Most of the country lies within the wide band of desert that stretches from Africa's Atlantic Coast across the continent and into southwest Asia. Egypt's geological history has produced four major physical regions: the Nile Valley and Delta, the Western Desert (also known as the Libyan Desert), the Eastern Desert (also known as the Arabian Desert), and the Sinai Peninsula. The Nile Valley and Delta is the most important region because it supports 99 % of the population on the country's only cultivable land.
==Nile Valley and Delta==
[[Image:Nile composite NASA.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Nile delta, and the entire course of the Nile]]
The Nile Valley and Delta, the most extensive oasis on earth, was created by the world's second-longest river and its seemingly inexhaustible sources. Without the topographic channel that permits the Nile to flow acros |
et ships from bringing in any more missiles (named a [[quarantine]] rather than a [[blockade]] to avoid issues with [[international law]]). At the same time, Castro was getting a little too fanatic for the liking of Moscow, so, at the last moment, the Soviets decided to call back the ships. In addition, they agreed to remove the missiles that were already placed, in exchange for an agreement that the United States would not invade Cuba. Only after the fall of the Soviet Union it came out that another part of the agreement was the removal of the missiles in Turkey. It also turned out that some submarines that the U.S. Navy blocked were carrying nuclear missiles and that communication with Moscow was scarce, effectively leaving the decision of firing the missiles at the discretion of the captains of those submarines.
The United States have honored this agreement by not openly attacking Cuba anymore, but the CIA continued to support anti-Castro groups by mounting an extensive international campaign and several botched assassination attempts throughout the [[1960s]]. And the agreement was specifically about Cuban territory. But Cuba provided military support to revolutions in Angola, Nigeria and South America. During one such campaign, Ernesto [[Che Guevara]] was captured by U.S. trained commandos in [[Bolivia]] in [[1967]] and then executed. A low quality copy of the photograph that was taken of him after his death became very popular on t-shirts and posters, which, along with his selfless ideology and untimely death, but ignoring his Sierra Maestra blood purges and his role in executions after Castro gained power, has helped 'el Che' become a symbol of revolution in the world.
=== Cuba after the Soviet Union ===
When the Soviet Union broke up in late [[1991]], a major boost to Cuba's economy was lost, leaving it essentially paralyzed because the Cuban economy had a very narrow basis, focused on just a few products with just a few buyers. Also, supplies (including oil) almost dried up. Over 80% of Cuba's trade was lost and living conditions worsened. A [[periodo especial]] (special period) was declared, which included cutbacks on transport and electricity and even food rationing. In response, the United States tightened up the trade embargo even further, thinking this would surely mean the downfall of Castro. But Castro tapped into a pre-revolutionary source of income and opened the country to tourism, and entered into several joint ventures with foreign companies for hotel, agricultural and industrial projects. As a result, the use of U.S. dollars was legalized in [[1994]], with special stores being opened which only sold in dollars. Thus, there were now two separate economies, the dollar-economy and the peso-economy, creating a social split in the island because those in the dollar-economy made much more money (such as in the tourist-industry). However, in October 2004 the Cuban government announced an end to this policy: from November dollars would no longer be legal tender in Cuba, but would instead be exchanged for [[Cuban convertible peso|convertible pesos]], with a 10% commission payable to the state.
Extreme shortages of food and other goods as well as electrical blackouts led to a brief period of unrest, including numerous anti-government protests and widespread increases in crime. In response the Cuban Communist party government formed hundreds of “rapid-action brigades” to confront protesters. According to the Communist Party daily, Granma, "delinquents and anti-social elements who try to create disorder and an atmosphere of mistrust and impunity in our society will receive a crushing reply from the people."
Some non-violent initiatives have been launched by Cubans in the island, aiming at political reform. In [[1997]], a group led by [[Vladimiro Roca]], a decorated veteran of the [[Angola]]n war and the son of the founder of the [[Cuban Communist Party]], sent a petition, entitled ''La Patria es de Todos'' ("the homeland belongs to all") to the Cuban general assembly requesting democratic and human rights reforms. As a result, Roca and his three associates were sentenced to jail, from which they were eventually released.
In 2001, a group backed by the Catholic church collected thousands of signatures for the [[Varela Project]], a petition requesting a referendum on the island's political system. The process was openly supported by former U.S. president [[Jimmy Carter]] during his historic 2002 visit to Cuba. The petition gathered sufficient signatures, but was rejected on an alleged technicality. Instead. a [[plebiscite]] then was held in which it was formally proclaimed that Castro's brand of socialism would be perpetual.
In 2003 seventy-five anti-government activists were arrested and summarily sentenced to heavy jail terms. Cuban officials described it as a response to provocative actions by the head of the U.S. interests section in Cuba, who had been traveling around the country holding publicized meetings and press conferences with the dissidents. Castro's action was widely criticised by mainstream human rights organizations and even by U.S. leftists generally sympathetic to his government.
In an unrelated matter six men were sentenced to death for hijacking a ferry with guns and knives, steering it into international waters where it ran out of fuel, and threatening to kill the passengers. Some accounts confused the two and accused Castro of sentencing dissidents to death, something which did not happen. A second ferry was hijacked, several days later and this time the hijackers were apprehended and executed within a few weeks.
== Culture ==
{{main|Culture of Cuba}}
* [[Music of Cuba]]
* [[Cuban literature]]
* [[Cuban cinema]]
* [[Public holidays in Cuba]]
Cuban culture is much influenced by the fact that it is a [[melting pot]] of cultures, mostly from Spain and Africa. It has produced its fair share of literature, including the output of non-Cuban [[Ernest Hemingway]].
==List of Cuban poetry, and Poets, authors, and literature==
(just a start please add)
:*de Balboa y Troya de Quesada, Silvestre (1563-1649) 1608 Espejo de Paciencia. [http://www.4thcorp.com/camaguey/espejo_de_paciencia.htm]. First known Cuban narrative poem deals with the killing of an attacking pirate by the people of Bayamo
:*Gómez de Avellaneda, Gertrudis (1814-1873) Her large body of excellent work includes the anti-slavery novel "Dos mugeres" (1842) and the play "Baltasar" (1858) [http://www.hope.edu/latinamerican/gomezavellaneda.html]
:*Lazo, Rodrigo 2005 Writing to Cuba Filibustering and Cuban Exiles in the United States. University of North Carolina Press, ISBN 0807855944
:*Lecuona, Ernesto (1895-1962) First major composition, "Malaguena," Roxy Theatre in New York 1927. [http://www.spaceagepop.com/lecuona.htm], [http://ourworld.compuserve.com/homepages/mvbart/].
:*Napoles Fajardo, Juan Cristobal (born 1829; believed killed by Spanish authorities in 1862) Selected work in Cucalambe (Decimas Cubanas): Seleccion De Rumores Del Hormigo. Ediciones Universal. 1999 ISBN 0897298780 An example of [[Siboneyista]] poetry, a 19th Century resistance movement which expressed its, then illegal, wish to be free of Spain couched as Siboney, one of the [[Neo-Taíno nations]] poetry and narrations.
:*Simons, Moisés 1928 El Manisero (the "[[Peanut Vendor]]") An extremely popular song with complex poly-rhythms. The author was a Jewish immigrant to Cuba. In the Cuban vernacular to "cantar el manisero' to sing this song is to die. The "Peanut Vendor" inspired classically trained Joseph Norman Henderson, author of [[Cuban Pete]], to change his name to [[Jose Norman]] [http://www.jabw.demon.co.uk/jose1.htm] and dedicate his work to music from the island [http://www.ualberta.ca/~aminkus/ProgramNotes.htm] [http://www.smithsonianjazz.org/latinjazz/latinjazz_education_tl.asp] [http://sc.millersville.edu/manuscripts/manus/scoreP.htm] [http://www.produccionesdelmar.com/longina/Autores/Moises_Simmons/]
:*Valdes, Zoe 1999I Gave You All I Had. Arcade Publishing; 1st English-language edition. ISBN 1559704772 Book is part of a second wave of literature written by exiles who escaped Cuba in the latter part of the Castro years.
:*Valdéz, Gabriel de la Concepción (Plácido) 1809-1844 (executed) Major, most well known poem and last poem “Plegaria a Dios.” [http://www.juanperez.com/triviaI.html], [http://72.14.203.104/search?q=cache%3AGKjIPeDnc1AJ%3Awww.afrocubaweb.com/eugenegodfried/placidoenglish.htm%2B%26hl%3Den%26ie%3DUTF-8] His poetry, was often considered subversive and anti-slavery by the Spanish authorities.
:*Villaverde, Cirilo 1882 (New translation 2005 by Sibylle Fischer and Helen Lane) Cecilia Valdes or El Angel Hill. Oxford University Press, USA ISBN 0195143957 Deals with sexual mores and the traditions of mistresses during the Spanish colonial period, with many historic details, including the execution of [[Narciso Lopez]]. The author was first condemned to death for conspiring for independence against Spain [http://uncpress.unc.edu/chapters/lazo_writing.html]; after his sentence was commuted to ten years he escaped [http://www.pinarte.cult.cu/gerardo_ortega/html/figuras_pinarenas/villaverde.htm].
==See also==
*[[Cuba]]
*[[Spanish colonization of the Americas]]
==External links==
*[http://www.cubafacts.com/History/hisover.htm CubaFacts.com - History] of Cuba from Hatuey to Castro (Slight anti-Castro bias)
*[http://www.historyofcuba.com/main/hstintro.htm History of Cuba] Timeline (Slight anti-American bias)
[[Category:History of Cuba| ]]
[[de:Geschichte Kubas]]
[[es:Historia de Cuba]]
[[fr:Histoire de Cuba]]
[[gl:Historia de Cuba]]
[[pt:História de Cuba]]
[[sv:Kubas historia]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Cuba/Geography</title>
<id>5585</id>
<revision>
<id>15903787</id>
<timestamp>2002-08-19T |
t;br>
V.91<br>
va<br>
vacuum tube '''DONE'''<br>
vadding '''DONE'''<br>
VAL<br>
Valencia Simple Tasker<br>
valency '''DONE'''<br>
Valid<br>
validation '''DONE'''<br>
value<br>
Value Added Network<br>
value added reseller<br>
value added retailer<br>
valve '''DONE'''<br>
VAN<br>
vanilla<br>
vanity domain<br>
vannevar<br>
Vannevar Bush '''DONE'''<br>
vaporware '''DONE'''<br>
VAR<br>
Variational Graphics eXtended<br>
VAX '''DONE'''<br>
VAX DOCUMENT<br>
VAXectomy<br>
VAXen<br>
vaxherd<br>
vaxism<br>
VAX MIPS<br>
vaxocentrism<br>
VAXset<br>
VAXstation<br>
VAX/VMS<br>
VB<br>
VBA '''DONE'''<br>
vbell<br>
VBScript<br>
vbx<br>
vc<br>
VCC filtering<br>
VCID<br>
VCL<br>
VCODE<br>
[[VCPI]]<br>
VCR '''DONE'''<br>
vdiff<br>
VDL<br>
VDM<br>
VDM++<br>
VDM-SL<br>
VDSL<br>
VDT<br>
VDU '''DONE'''<br>
ve<br>
vector '''DONE'''<br>
Vector C<br>
vector font<br>
vector graphics '''DONE'''<br>
vector processor '''DONE'''<br>
vector space '''DONE''' <br>
VECTRAN<br>
VEE<br>
veeblefeetzer<br>
veeblefester<br>
veeblefetzer<br>
VEL<br>
Vendor Independent Messaging<br>
ventilator card<br>
Ventura Publisher<br>
Venus flytrap<br>
verbage<br>
verbiage<br>
Verdi '''DONE'''<br>
verification<br>
Verilog '''DONE'''<br>
Verilog SA<br>
Veronica<br>
Versa Module Europa<br>
version<br>
Version 7<br>
vertical application<br>
vertical bar<br>
vertical encoding<br>
vertical loop combination<br>
vertical microcode<br>
Vertical Redundancy Check<br>
vertical refresh rate<br>
vertical scan rate<br>
Very high bit-rate Digital Subscriber Line<br>
Very Large Database<br>
Very Large Memory<br>
Very Large Scale Integration '''DONE'''<br>
Very Long Instruction Word<br>
Very Small Aperture Terminal<br>
VESA '''DONE'''<br>
VESA Local Bus '''DONE'''<br>
V.FAST<br>
VFAT '''DONE'''<br>
V.FC<br>
vg<br>
VGA '''DONE'''<br>
VGQF<br>
vgrep<br>
VGX<br>
VHDL '''DONE'''<br>
VHE<br>
VHLL<br>
vhost<br>
VHS '''DONE'''<br>
vi '''DONE'''<br>
VIC-20<br>
video adapter<br>
video card<br>
video compression '''DONE'''<br>
video conference<br>
video conferencing<br>
video dial tone<br>
video display terminal<br>
Video Electronics Standards Association '''DONE'''<br>
Video Graphics Adapter<br>
Video Graphics Adaptor<br>
Video Graphics Array<br>
video memory<br>
Video on Demand<br>
video RAM<br>
video random access memory<br>
video terminal<br>
[[videotex]] '''DONE'''<br>
Vienna Definition Language<br>
Vienna Definition Method<br>
Vienna Development Method<br>
Vienna Development Method Specification Language<br>
Vienna Fortran<br>
Vietnamese '''DONE'''<br>
viewer<br>
ViewPoints<br>
Views<br>
VIF<br>
Vi Improved<br>
VIM '''DONE'''<br>
vines<br>
Vine Technology<br>
Vint Cerf '''DONE'''<br>
Vinton Cerf<br>
Viola<br>
virgin<br>
virgule<br>
Viron<br>
virtual<br>
virtual 86 mode<br>
virtual address<br>
virtual cache<br>
virtual circuit '''DONE'''<br>
Virtual Circuit Identifier<br>
virtual connection<br>
Virtual Control Program Interface<br>
Virtual Device Driver<br>
Virtual Device Location<br>
virtual disk<br>
Virtual Home Environment<br>
virtual host<br>
Virtual LAN<br>
Virtual Loadable Module<br>
Virtual Local Area Network<br>
Virtual Machine <br>
virtual machine '''DONE'''<br>
Virtual Machine/Conversational Monitor System<br>
Virtual Machine Environment<br>
Virtual Machine/ESA<br>
Virtual Machine/System Product<br>
Virtual Machine/XA<br>
virtual memory '''DONE'''<br>
Virtual Memory System '''DONE'''<br>
virtual path<br>
virtual point of presence<br>
virtual PoP<br>
Virtual Private Network<br>
virtual reality '''DONE'''<br>
Virtual Reality Modeling Language<br>
Virtual Sequential Access Method<br>
virtual shredder<br>
Virtual Software Factory<br>
Virtual Storage Extended<br>
Virtual Telecommunications Access Method<br>
virus '''DONE'''<br>
viruses '''DONE'''<br>
visible bell<br>
visionary<br>
Visual BASIC<br>
Visual Basic for Applications<br>
Visual BASIC Script<br>
visual bell<br>
Visual C++<br>
Visual Component Library<br>
Visual dBASE<br>
Visual Display Unit<br>
Visual FoxPro<br>
Visual Interface<br>
visualisation<br>
visual language<br>
visual programming<br>
visual programming environment<br>
visual programming language<br>
VITAL<br>
VIVID<br>
viz<br>
VLAN<br>
VLB '''DONE'''<br>
VLDB<br>
Vlisp<br>
VLIW '''DONE'''<br>
VLM<br>
VLSI '''DONE'''<br>
VLSM '''DONE'''<br>
VM<br>
VM/CMS '''DONE'''<br>
VME '''DONE'''<br>
VMEbus<br>
VME Microsystems International Corporation<br>
VM/ESA<br>
VML<br>
VMS '''DONE'''<br>
VM/SP<br>
VM/XA<br>
vn<br>
vocoder '''DONE'''<br>
vocoding<br>
VoD<br>
voice mail<br>
voice-net<br>
Voice over IP '''DONE'''<br>
voice recognition<br>
VoIP '''DONE'''<br>
volatile<br>
volatile memory<br>
volatile storage<br>
volatile variable<br>
voltage '''DONE'''<br>
Volume Table Of Contents<br>
von Neumann integer<br>
von Neumann, John<br>
von Neumann ordinal '''DONE'''<br>
voodoo programming '''DONE'''<br>
Voronoi diagram<br>
Voronoi polygon<br>
VOS '''DONE'''<br>
Voters Telecommunications Watch<br>
voxel<br>
V.pcm<br>
VPL<br>
VPN<br>
VP-Planner<br>
VR<br>
VRAM<br>
VRC<br>
VRML<br>
VRTX<br>
VSAM<br>
VSAT<br>
VSCM<br>
VSE '''DONE'''<br>
VSF<br>
VSP<br>
VSTa<br>
VSX<br>
VT<br>
vt100 '''DONE'''<br>
vt220<br>
VTAM<br>
VTC<br>
VTOC<br>
VTS<br>
VTW<br>
vu<br>
VUE<br>
VUIT<br>
VULCAN<br>
Vulcan death grip<br>
Vulcan nerve pinch<br>
vulture capitalist<br>
VUP<br>
VxD<br>
VXI<br>
VxWorks<br>
W2K<br>
W3<br>
W3C '''DONE'''<br>
W3 Consortium<br>
WA-12<br>
wabbit<br>
Wabi<br>
WabiServer<br>
wacco<br>
Wafe<br>
WAFL<br>
WAIS '''DONE'''<br>
WAITS<br>
wait state<br>
waldo<br>
walk<br>
walking drives<br>
walk off the end of<br>
wall<br>
wall clock time<br>
wall follower<br>
wallpaper<br>
wall time<br>
WAM<br>
WAN '''DONE'''<br>
Wang Laboratories<br>
wango<br>
wannabee<br>
want list<br>
WAP -- ''''''DONE''''''<br>
WAP Forum<br>
wardialer<br>
-ware<br>
warez '''DONE'''<br>
WarGames<br>
warlording<br>
warm boot<br>
Warm Silence Software<br>
Warp<br>
wart<br>
washing machine<br>
Wasserman<br>
WATBOL<br>
Watcom C/C++<br>
Watcom International<br>
Watcom SQL<br>
Watcom VX*REXX<br>
Waterfall Model ''''''DONE''''''<br>
water MIPS<br>
WATFIV<br>
WATFOR<br>
wav<br>
WAVE<br>
wave a dead chicken '''DONE'''<br>
wave division multiplexing '''DONE'''<br>
Waveform Generation Language<br>
wavelet '''DONE'''<br>
wavetable<br>
wavetable synthesis<br>
WaZOO<br>
WBMP<br>
WBS<br>
WCL '''DONE'''<br>
WD<br>
WDASM<br>
WDM<br>
WE<br>
Weak Head Normal Form<br>
weakly typed<br>
weak typing<br>
weasel<br>
WEB '''DONE'''<br>
Web '''DONE'''<br>
web2c<br>
web browser '''DONE'''<br>
webcam '''DONE'''<br>
webcasting<br>
WebCGM<br>
WebCOMAL<br>
WebCrawler '''DONE'''<br>
webhead<br>
weblint<br>
webmail '''DONE'''<br>
webmagistra<br>
webmaster<br>
webmistress<br>
webmonkey<br>
WebObjects<br>
web page '''DONE'''<br>
Web Request Broker<br>
web server '''DONE'''<br>
web site '''DONE'''<br>
web smith<br>
Webster<br>
Webster's Dictionary<br>
wedged<br>
wedgie<br>
wedgitude<br>
Weeble<br>
weeds<br>
weenie<br>
Weenix<br>
weighted search<br>
well-behaved<br>
well-connected<br>
well-ordered set '''DONE'''<br>
Wesley Clark<br>
Western Digital Corporation<br>
Westmount<br>
wetware<br>
wf<br>
WFL<br>
WfMC<br>
WFW<br>
WFWG<br>
WG<br>
WGL<br>
whack<br>
whacker<br>
whales<br>
whalesong<br>
whatis<br>
What's a spline?<br>
What You Get Is What You Never Thought You Had<br>
What You See Is All You Get<br>
What You See Is What You Get<br>
wheel<br>
wheel bit<br>
wheel wars<br>
When It's '''DONE'''<br>
Whetstone<br>
Which Stands For Nothing<br>
while<br>
White Book<br>
White book CD-ROM<br& |
mp;s=y Elton John at the SoundtrackINFO project]
* [http://www.sing365.com/music/lyric.nsf/singerUnid/E98916284BE40C2F48256876001FCECF Elton John Biography]
* [http://www.eltonchords.com EltonChords.com] Resource for piano chording for Elton John Songs.
* [http://www.eltonscafe.com/ Elton John's Music Cafe]
* [http://ejaf.org/welcome.html Elton John AIDS Foundation (EJAF)]
* [http://www.whizzo.ca/elton/ej.html Cornflakes & Classics - The musical history of Elton John]
* [http://www.eltonjohnfanatic.com Elton John Fanatic]
* [http://www.thelive8concert.com/elton.htm Elton John at Live 8]
* {{imdb name|id=0005056|name=Elton John}}
[[Category:1947 births|John, Elton]]
[[Category:Alumni of the Royal Academy of Music|John, Elton]]
[[Category:Atlantans|John, Elton]]
[[Category:Commanders of the British Empire|John, Elton]]
[[Category:Elton John|John, Elton]]
[[Category:English football chairmen and investors|John, Elton]]
[[Category:English male singers|John, Elton]]
[[Category:English pianists|John, Elton]]
[[Category:English songwriters|John, Elton]]
[[Category:Gay icons|John, Elton]]
[[Category:Gay musicians|John, Elton]]
[[Category:Little Britain actors|John, Elton]]
[[Category:Living people|John, Elton]]
[[Category:Londoners|John, Elton]]
[[Category:Music from London|John, Elton]]
[[Category:Pop pianists|John, Elton]]
[[Category:Rock and Roll Hall of Fame inductees|John, Elton]]
[[bg:Елтън Джон]]
[[be:Элтан Джон]]
[[cs:Elton John]]
[[da:Elton John]]
[[de:Elton John]]
[[eo:Elton JOHN]]
[[es:Elton John]]
[[fi:Elton John]]
[[fr:Elton John]]
[[he:אלטון ג'ון]]
[[it:Elton John]]
[[ja:エルトン・ジョン]]
[[nl:Elton John]]
[[no:Elton John]]
[[pl:Elton John]]
[[pt:Elton John]]
[[simple:Elton John]]
[[sv:Elton John]]
[[zh:艾爾頓強]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Event horizon</title>
<id>10132</id>
<revision>
<id>42135004</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T01:26:10Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>El C</username>
<id>92203</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/213.249.154.123|213.249.154.123]] ([[User talk:213.249.154.123|talk]]) to last version by Hbackman</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{General relativity}}
:''For the science fiction film, see [[Event Horizon]]''
An '''event horizon''' is a boundary in [[spacetime]] for a given observer beyond which no electromagnetic energy, including [[light]], can reach the observer.
Light emitted from inside an event horizon will never reach a stationary observer outside the horizon, hence the name [[black hole]]. Note the dependency on the observer of the concept of event horizon. For example, a free falling observer toward a black hole does not experience an event horizon (see e.g. catastrophic [[gravitational collapse]]).
The event horizon for an outside observer really acts as a [[horizon]]. He sees an object falling toward the horizon approaching it, but (in his own proper time) never reaching it. In his observations the object goes slower and slower toward the horizon and at the same time the [[redshift]] increases beyond bounds to [[infinity]]. Also the intensity of the falling object quickly becomes zero. In a finite time the outside observer will receive the last [[photon]] from the falling object. He will never see the falling object passing through the event horizon.
The '''event horizon''' is distinct from the [[particle horizon]].
==Sticking your hand through an event horizon==
One can ask what happens, when a stationary observer is in [[orbit]] just outside the event horizon and (against all advice) sticks his hand through the horizon? The answer is: he won't succeed in doing so. Free orbits are only possible at a certain distance (for a non-rotating black hole, this figure is at least three times the [[Schwarzschild radius]]). Near the event horizon, an observer can only remain at a constant radius when he uses a [[force]] (e.g. from a [[rocket]]) to keep him there. The force needed grows to infinity when the observer wants to maintain a steady constant orbit approaching the event horizon. When he sticks out his hand, the [[tidal force]] (the difference in gravity between body and hand along his arm) also becomes infinitely high, so his hand will be severed immediately.
The physical consequences of the previous paragraph are drawn by [[Stephen Hawking]]. Everywhere in the [[vacuum]] of space [[virtual particle|virtual particle pairs]] are created and [[annihilation|annihilated]] quickly. Near an event horizon, they can be separated. Effectively, a particle or photon will be emitted from the horizon, the so-called [[Hawking radiation]].
Recently, however, Stephen Hawking has reversed his position regarding black holes, having claimed that an event horizon never actually forms around a black hole.
:''"The [[Euclidean]] path integral over all [[topologically]] trivial metrics can be done by [[time slicing]] and so is unitary when analytically continued to the [[Lorentzian]]. On the other hand, the path integral over all topologically non-trivial metrics is [[asymptote|asymptotically]] independent of the initial state. Thus the total path [[integral]] is unitary and information is not lost in the formation and [[evaporation]] of [[black holes]]. The way the information gets out seems to be that a true event horizon never forms, just an apparent horizon."'' - [http://www.dcu.ie/~nolanb/gr17.htm GR Conference website] summary of Hawking's talk.
==Event horizon in the absence of gravity==
Event horizons also exist in the absence of [[gravity]]. A simple example is a ''uniform accelerated particle'' (whose [[speed]] will thus eventually approach the speed of light but will always be smaller). Light emitted at a certain distance in the direction of that particle will never reach the accelerated particle. It is beyond the event horizon for that particle. Such event horizons occur in [[particle accelerator]]s.
A part of spacetime forms an event horizon as observed from a constantly accelerated observer. The [[world line]] of the observer
is given as the solid [[curve]] in a two dimensional spacetime representation with time ''x''<sup>0</sup> in the vertical direction and a one dimensional space coordinate ''x''<sup>3</sup> to the right. An angle of 45° indicates the speed of light, such as the world line of a photon traveling to the right and starting in ''a''. The world line of the observer is described by a [[hyperbola]]. The parameter along his path is &tau;, his proper time.
In '''0''' his speed is zero and eventually he will reach a speed close to the velocity of light, inclined at an angle of 45 degrees. This asymptotic line is his ''future event horizon''. A photon emitted at any event to the left of it (such as the emission of a photon from event '''a''') will never reach him (as long as the observer maintains a constant acceleration).
If someone at constant zero [[velocity]] (a static observer with a vertical line as worldline) would emit photons to the right, then the accelerated observer would see all photons below the event horizon, but in his proper time it would take longer and longer when these photons are emitted closer to the horizon. Also they are more and more redshifted. The accelerated observer would never see the static observer pass the event horizon.
==Other examples of an event horizon==
Hypothetically, an event horizon can also exist in a [[universe]], for an observer at a given location in [[space-time]], who remains at the same [[comoving coordinates|comoving]] spatial position. When a universe expands quickly enough, for example a [[de Sitter universe]], it can be possible for an event horizon to exist.
== See also ==
* [[Black hole]]
* [[General relativity]]
* [[Gravitational singularity]]
* [[Gravity]]
* [[Naked singularity]]
* [[Particle horizon]]
* [[Quantum physics]]
* [[Schwarzschild metric]]
==External links==
* [http://iapetus.phy.umist.ac.uk/Teaching/Cosmology/Metric.html Metrics: distances in a relativistic Universe]
[[Category:Black holes]]
[[ca:Horitzó d'esdeveniments]]
[[cs:Horizont událostí]]
[[es:Horizonte de sucesos]]
[[he:אופק אירועים]]
[[it:Orizzonte degli eventi]]
[[nl:Waarnemingshorizon]]
[[ja:&#20107;&#35937;&#12398;&#22320;&#24179;&#38754;]]
[[pl:Horyzont zdarze&#324;]]
[[sk:Horizont udalostí]]
[[sl:dogodkovno obzorje]]
[[fi:Tapahtumahorisontti]]
[[fr:Horizon (trou noir)]]
[[ru:Горизонт событий]]
[[zh:事界]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Elias Boudinot</title>
<id>10133</id>
<revision>
<id>40961306</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-24T03:27:03Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>71.97.95.103</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Quotes */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:EliasBoudinot.jpg|thumb|225px|right|Elias Boudinot]]
:''For other people with the same name, see [[Elias Boudinot (disambiguation)]].''
'''Elias Boudinot''' ([[1740]]&ndash;[[1821]]) was an early American lawyer and statesman from [[Elizabeth, New Jersey]] who was a delegate to the [[Continental Congress]] and a [[United States House of Representatives|U.S. Congressman]] for [[New Jersey]]. He served as [[President of the Continental Congress]] in [[1782]]-[[1783]].
==Personal history==
Elias Boudinot was the grandson of Elie (sometimes called Elias) Boudinot. Ellie was the son of Jean Boudinot and Marie Suire of Marans, Aunis, [[France]], a [[Huguenot]] (Protestant) family who fled to New York about 1687 to avoid the religious persecutions of King Louis XIV. His son, also Elias, was a silversmith, and a neighbor and friend of [[Benjamin Franklin]] in Philadelphia. The third generaton and subject, Elias, was born in [[Philadelphia, Pennsylvania|Philadelphia]] on [[May 2]], [[1740]]. After tutoring and study at home, he went to [[Princeton, New Jersey]] to read the law with a |
nion]] are episcopal churches in polity, and some are named "Episcopal." However, some Anglican churches do not belong to the Anglican Communion, and not all episcopally-governed churches are Anglican. The [[Roman Catholic Church]], the [[Old Catholic Church]]es (in full communion with, but not members of, the Anglican Communion), and the [[Eastern Orthodoxy|Eastern Orthodox churches]] are recognized, and also their bishops, by [[Anglicanism|Anglicans]].
==See also==
*[[Episcopal see]]
*[[Anglicanism]]
*[[Church of England]]
==External links==
* [http://www.episcopalchurch.org/index_new.htm Episcopal Church Official Page]
* [http://www.stjohnadulted.org/episcopl.htm Episcopalian Christianity]
[[eo:Episkopanismo]]
[[Category:Anglicanism]]
[[Category:Methodism]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>East Slavic languages</title>
<id>10070</id>
<revision>
<id>35250124</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-15T08:14:05Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>AjaxSmack</username>
<id>353866</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* History of the dialects */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''East Slavic languages''' constitute one of three regional subgroups of [[Slavic languages]], currently spoken in [[Eastern Europe]]. It is the group with the largest numbers of speakers, far out-numbering the [[West Slavic languages|Western]] and [[South Slavic languages|Southern Slavic]] groups. Current East Slavic languages are [[Belarusian language|Belarusian]], [[Russian language|Russian]], [[Ukrainian language|Ukrainian]], and [[Rusyn language|Rusyn]] (a small language spoken in Eastern Slovakia, South Eastern Poland, Eastern Hungary and South Western Ukraine and regarded by many as a Ukrainian dialect).
Classification:
* [[Indo-European languages]]
** [[Satem]]
*** [[Balto-Slavic]]
**** [[Slavic languages]]
***** ''East Slavic languages'' or [[Old East Slavic language]]&nbsp;†
****** [[Old Russian language]]&nbsp;†
******* [[Russian language]]
****** [[Ruthenian language]]&nbsp;†
******* [[Ukrainian language]]
******* [[Belarusian language]]
******* [[Rusyn language]]
== Current status ==
All these languages are nowadays considered to be separate languages in their own right, though in the 19th century it was usual to call Ukrainian ("Little Russian") and Belarusian ("White Russian") dialects of one common "Russian" language (the most prestigious dialect of which was called "Great Russian"). Despite the vast territory occupied by the East Slavs, their languages are astonishingly similar to one another, with transitional dialects in border regions.
All these languages use the [[Cyrillic]] [[alphabet]], but with particular modifications.
== History ==
When the common [[Old East Slavic language]] became separated from the ancient Slavic tongue common to all Slavs is difficult to ascertain ([[6th century|6th]]&ndash;[[11th century]]).
The history of the East Slavic languages is a very 'hot' subject, because it is interpreted from various political perspectives by the East Slavs "like all mortals, wishing to have an origin as ancient as possible" ("sicut ceteri mortalium, originem suam quam vetustissimam ostendere cupientes"), as [[Pope Pius II|Aeneas Sylvius]] observed in his ''Historia Bohemica'' in [[1458]].
Therefore, a crucial differentiation has to be made between the history of the East Slavic ''dialects'' and that of the ''literary languages'' employed by the Eastern Slavs. Although most ancient texts betray the dialect their author(s) and/or scribe(s) spoke, it is also clearly visible that they tried to write in a language different from their dialects and to avoid those mistakes that enable us nowadays to locate them.
In both cases one has to keep in mind that the history of the East Slavic languages is of course a history of written [[text|texts]]. We do not know how the writers of the preserved texts would have spoken in every-day life, let alone how an illiterate East Slavic peasant spoke to his family.
=== History of the literary languages ===
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="0" style="font-size: 85%; border: gray solid 1px; border-collapse: collapse; text-align: center;"
|-
! colspan="14" style="text-align: center;" | '''History of the East Slavic [[literary language|literary languages]]'''
|-
|
! align="center" style="background: #ddddff;" | History of [[Ukrainian language|Ukrainian]]
! align="center" style="background: #ddffdd;" | History of [[Belarusian language|Belarusian]]
! align="center" style="background: #ffdddd;" | History of [[Russian language|Russian]]
|-
| valign="top" align="left" | '''Preliterary''' period<br>(c.&nbsp;until 9th/11th&nbsp;c.)
| style="background: #ececec;" colspan="3" align="center" | [[Eastern Slavs|East Slavic]] dialects of the '''[[Proto-Slavic language]]'''
|-
| valign="top" align="left" | '''Old''' period<br>(c.&nbsp;9th/11th to 14th&nbsp;c.)
| style="background: #ececec;" align="center" colspan="3" | '''[[Old East Slavic language|Old East Slavic]]'''
|-
| valign="top" align="left" | '''Middle''' period<br>(c.&nbsp;15th to 18th&nbsp;c.)
| align="center" valign="top" colspan="2" style="background: #ddeeee;" | '''[[Ruthenian language|Ruthenian]]'''
| align="center" valign="top" style="background: #ffdddd;" | '''[[History of the Russian language#The_Moscovite_period_.2815th-17th_centuries.29|Old Russian]]'''
|-
| valign="top" align="left" | '''Modern''' period<br>(c.&nbsp;from 18th/19th&nbsp;c.)
| align="center" valign="top" style="background: #ddddff;" | (Contemporary)<br>'''[[Ukrainian language|Ukrainian]]'''
| align="center" valign="top" style="background: #ddffdd;" | (Contemporary)<br>'''[[Belarusian language|Belarusian]]'''
| align="center" valign="top" style="background: #ffdddd;" | (Contemporary)<br>'''[[Russian language|Russian]]'''
|}
What follows is a short overview over the Old and Middle periods. For more detail see [[Old East Slavic language]], [[Ruthenian language]], and [[History of the Russian language]].
After the conversion of the East Slavic region to Christianity the people used service books borrowed from [[Bulgaria]], which were written in "Old Bulgarian" or [[Old Church Slavonic]]. They continued to use this language, or rather a variant thereof, usually called (Middle) [[Church Slavonic language|Church Slavonic]], not only in liturgy, but also generally as the language of learning and written communication. This left a large imprint even on the rare secular texts.
Throughout the Middle Ages (and in some way up to the present day) there existed a duality between the Church Slavonic language used as some kind of 'higher' register (not only) in religious texts and the popular tongue used as a 'lower' register for secular texts. It has been suggested to describe this situation as [[diglossia]], although there do exist mixed texts where it is sometimes very hard to determine why a given author used a popular or a Church Slavonic form in a given context.
=== History of the dialects ===
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="0" style="font-size: 85%; border: gray solid 1px; border-collapse: collapse; text-align: center;"
|-
! colspan="12" style="text-align: center;" | '''History of the East Slavic [[dialect]] groups'''
|-
|
! align="center" colspan="3" style="background: #ddddff;" | History of [[Ukrainian language|Ukrainian]]
! align="center" colspan="4" style="background: #ddffdd;" | History of [[Belarusian language|Belarusian]]
! align="center" colspan="4" style="background: #ffdddd;" | History of [[Russian language|Russian]]
|-
| align="left" | '''Preliterary'''
| style="background: #ececec;" align="center" colspan="10" | [[Eastern Slavs|East Slavic]] dialects of the '''[[Proto-Slavic language]]'''
| align="center" rowspan="2" | [[Old Novgorod dialect|Nov-<br>go-<br>rod?]]
|-
| align="left" | '''11th&nbsp;c.'''
| align="center" style="background: #ddddff;" | [[Halych]]/<br>[[Podolia]]
| align="center" colspan="4" style="background: #ddeeee;" | [[Kiev]]/<br>[[Polesia]]
| align="center" colspan="3" style="background: #eeeedd;" | [[Polatsk]]/<br>[[Ryazan]]
| align="center" colspan="2" style="background: #ffdddd;" | [[Novgorod]]/<br>[[Suzdal]]
|-
| rowspan="2" align="left" | '''today'''
| colspan="3" align="center" style="background: #ddddff;" | [[Ukrainian language|Ukrainian]]
| colspan="4" align="center" style="background: #ddffdd;" | [[Belarusian language|Belarusian]]
| colspan="4" align="center" style="background: #ffdddd;" | [[Russian language|Russian]]
|-
| align="center" style="background: #ddddff;" | SW
| align="center" style="background: #ddddff;" | SE
| align="center" style="background: #ddddff;" | N
| align="center" style="background: #ddffdd;" | SW
| colspan="2" align="cente |
ms used as episodes of American television comedy show ''[[Mystery Science Theater 3000]]'', which frequently mocks monster movies. The other one was ''[[Godzilla vs. Megalon]]''. The running gag of the episode was that J&tB arrived in the theater late, and did not catch the movie's [[title card]]; therefore because of that oversight, they lacked knowledge of the title even though the movie blatantly featured Godzilla fighting with a sea monster.
*In [[1991]], ''Godzilla vs. the Sea Monster'' was distributed under the [[Film Ventures International]] name. The company replaced the opening with a generic credit sequence, using footage from ''[[Son of Godzilla]]''.
==See also==
* [[Godzilla]]
* [[List of Mystery Science Theater 3000 episodes]]
== External links ==
*{{imdb title|id=0060464|title=Gojira, Ebirâ, Mosura: Nankai no daiketto}}
{{Template:Godzilla}}
[[Category:1966 films]]
[[Category:Japanese films]]
[[Category:Godzilla films]]
[[Category:MST3K movies]]
[[ja:%E3%82%B4%E3%82%B8%E3%83%A9%E3%83%BB%E3%82%A8%E3%83%93%E3%83%A9%E3%83%BB%E3%83%A2%E3%82%B9%E3%83%A9_%E5%8D%97%E6%B5%B7%E3%81%AE%E5%A4%A7%E6%B1%BA%E9%97%98]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Son of Godzilla</title>
<id>11993</id>
<revision>
<id>39087925</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-10T17:07:05Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Nmdecke</username>
<id>914443</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''''Son of Godzilla''''' (''Kaijûtô no kessen: Gojira No Masuko'') is a [[1967]] [[film]]. The eighth part of the [[Toho]] studio's [[Godzilla]] series, it was directed by [[Jun Fukuda]] with special effects by [[Eiji Tsuburaya]] and [[Sadamasa Arikawa]].
A team of scientists stationed on [[Fictional locations in the Godzilla films#Sogell Island|Sogell Island]] attempts to perfect a weather control system. Their efforts are hampered by the presence of giant praying mantis-like creatures and by the arrival of a nosy reporter. The first test of the weather control system goes awry when the remote control for a radioactive balloon is jammed by an unexplained signal coming from the center of the island. The balloon detonates prematurely, creating a radioactive storm that causes the giant mantises to grow to enormous sizes. Investigating the mantises, now called [[Kamacuras]], the scientists find the creatures digging an egg out from under a pile of earth. The egg hatches, revealing a baby [[Godzilla]]. The scientists realize that the baby's cries for help were the cause of the interference that ruined their experiment. Soon [[Godzilla]] himself arrives on the island, incidentally stomping the scientist's base as he rushes to defend his offspring. Godzilla defeats two of the Kamacuras while the baby makes friends with a native girl named Saeko (Riko in the American version) who has been surviving in underground caves on the island.
The baby quickly grows to about half the size of his father, and Godzilla instructs the child on the important monster skills of roaring and using his radioactive breath. At first, the baby has difficulty producing anything more than smoke rings, but Godzilla discovers that stressful conditions, such as stomping on the baby's tail, produce a true radioactive blast. Dubbed [[Minya]] or Minilla (Miniature Godzilla), the baby comes to the aid of Riko when she is attacked by a Kamacura, but inadvertedly awakens [[Kumonga]], a giant spider. The spider attacks the caves where the scientists are hiding, and Minya stumbles into the fray.
The scientists decide to complete their experiment, thereby freezing the monsters so they can escape. Godzilla comes to the aid of his offspring, and together the two are able to defeat Kumonga, with Minya finally learning to control his radioactive blast. As the scientists escape to a waiting submarine they witness Minya succumbing to the cold. Unable to abandon his offspring, Godzilla shelters his son in his arms, and the two fall unconscious. The scientists realize that the cold has placed the two monsters into a state of hibernation, but they will awaken once the snow melts and live in peace on the island.
==Trivia==
Sogell Island is nicknamed "Monster Island" by the reporter. This has led to speculation that the island may be the same island that the [[Kaiju]] are all confined to in subsequent films.
In the english dub, Minya is referred to only as the "baby Godzilla".
== External links ==
* [http://www.geocities.com/nmdecke/SonofGodzilla.html Son of Godzilla movie review]
*{{imdb title|id=0061856|title=Son of Godzilla}}
{{sf-film-stub}}
{{Template:Godzilla}}
[[Category:1967 films]]
[[Category:Japanese films]]
[[Category:Godzilla films]]
[[ja:%E6%80%AA%E7%8D%A3%E5%B3%B6%E3%81%AE%E6%B1%BA%E6%88%A6_%E3%82%B4%E3%82%B8%E3%83%A9%E3%81%AE%E6%81%AF%E5%AD%90]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Destroy All Monsters</title>
<id>11994</id>
<revision>
<id>41122392</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-25T04:44:33Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>WhisperToMe</username>
<id>15708</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the film. For the 1970's anti-rock band see [[Destroy All Monsters (band)]]''.
'''''Destroy All Monsters''''' (怪獣総進撃 ''Kaijū Sōshingeki'', "All Monsters Charge") is a [[1968 in film|1968]] [[daikaiju]] [[eiga]]. The ninth in [[Toho|Toho Studios]]' [[Godzilla]] series, it was directed by [[Ishiro Honda]] with special effects by [[Eiji Tsuburaya]] and [[Sadamasa Arikawa]]. While the plot resembles that of ''[[Godzilla vs. Monster Zero]]'' (1965), this entry is significant in that it showcases 11 daikaiju, a record for the Godzilla series until ''[[Godzilla: Final Wars]]'' (2004). Several of these ([[Gorosaurus]], [[Baragon]], [[Manda]], [[Varan]]) had only appeared in their debut films at this point; others ([[Anguirus]], [[Rodan]], [[Mothra]], [[Minya]], [[Kumonga]]) returned from previous Godzilla films.
{{spoilers}}
The movie takes place in [[1999]] and features a race of aliens called [[Alien races from the Godzilla films#Kilaaks (&#12461;&#12521;&#12450;&#12463;&#26143;&#20154;)|Kilaaks]], who take control the Earth's monsters and send them to destroy major cities. A group of heroic astronauts foil the Kilaaks' plan and free the monsters, who then (led by Godzilla) turn to fight the Kilaak's own secret ally, [[King Ghidorah]]. This leads to one of the grandest (and most ambitious) climaxes in daikaiju eiga.
==Trivia==
*This was the last Godzilla film in which Tsuburaya had any direct involvement, and was originally intended to be the final Godzilla film, the closing scene a tribute both to the special effects director and to the daikaiju. Toho changed their minds following the success of this film at the Japanese box office.
*The band [[Destroy All Monsters (band)|Destroy All Monsters]] took their name from the title of this film.
== External links ==
* [http://www.geocities.com/nmdecke/DestroyallMonsters.html Destroy All Monsters! movie review]
*{{imdb title|id= 0063172 |title=Kaijû sôshingeki}}
{{Template:Godzilla}}
[[Category:1968 films]]
[[Category:Japanese films]]
[[Category:Godzilla films]]
[[Category:Fictional crossovers]]
[[ja:%E6%80%AA%E7%8D%A3%E7%B7%8F%E9%80%B2%E6%92%83]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Godzilla's Revenge</title>
<id>11995</id>
<revision>
<id>31528597</id>
<timestamp>2005-12-15T22:25:01Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>24.224.138.240</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>Changed to redirect. Absolutely no content on this stub that can't be found on the more fleshed out article about the exact same movie listed under it's alternate name.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[All Monsters Attack]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Godzilla/Godzilla vs Gigan</title>
<id>11996</id>
<revision>
<id>27134724</id>
<timestamp>2005-11-02T04:03:05Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Apostrophe</username>
<id>110322</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Godzilla vs. Gigan]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Godzilla vs The Smog Monster</title>
<id>11997</id>
<revision>
<id>32402609</id>
<timestamp>2005-12-22T21:04:13Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Kappa</username>
<id>105499</id>
</contributor>
<comment>#redirect [[Godzilla vs. Hedorah]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Godzilla vs. Hedorah]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Godzilla vs. Megalon</title>
<id>11998</id>
<revision>
<id>39086948</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-10T17:02:19Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Nmdecke</username>
<id>914443</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''''Godzilla vs. Megalon''''' (&#12468;&#12472;&#12521;&#23550;&#12513;&#12460;&#12525;) (''Gojira tai Megaro'') is a [[1973]] [[tokusatsu]] [[film]], the 13th in the [[Godzilla]] series of Japanese monster movies. It was directed by [[Jun Fukuda]], with special effects by [[Teruyoshi Nakano]].
The monsters featured are [[Godzilla]], [[Megalon]], [[Gigan]] and [[Jet Jaguar]].
==The story==
In the film, the undersea civilization Seatopia has been heavily affected by nuclear testing conducted by the surface nations of the world. Naturally upset by this, they unleash their civilization's protector, Megalon, to the surface to destroy those who would &mdash; unknowingly or not &mdash; destroy them. Agents of Seatopia attempt to steal the newly-constructed super-robot Jet Jaguar, which can apparently be used to guide and direct Megalon. They also capture the robot's inventor, Goro Ibuki, his kid brother |
[[Ford Escort]] introduced in the US.
1985: [[Ford Taurus]] introduced with revolutionary “aero design” styling.
1987: Ford acquires [[Aston Martin]] Lagonda and [[The Hertz Corporation|Hertz Rent-a-Car]].
1989: Ford acquires [[Jaguar (car)|Jaguar]].
1990: [[Mazda Miata|Mazda MX-5 Miata]] unveiled.
1991: [[Ford Explorer]] introduced, making the rural/recreational [[Sport utility vehicle|SUV]] into a popular family vehicle.
1993: Ford introduces standard equipment dual [[airbag]]s.
1996: Ford certifies all plants in 26 countries to [[ISO 14001]] environmental standards.
1999: Ford purchases [[Volvo Cars|Volvo]] (car division). Bill Ford becomes Chairman of the Board.
2000: Ford purchases [[Land Rover]] from the [[BMW]].
2001: Retro-styled [[Ford Thunderbird]] is reintroduced.
2003: Ford Motor Company 100th Anniversary.
==New directions for the twenty first century==
[[Image:William Clay Ford.jpg|frame|right|William Clay Ford Jr, Ford's current CEO.]]
In 2000, under the leadership of the current Ford chairman, William Clay (Bill) Ford, the Company stunned the industry (and pleased environmentalists) with an
[http://www.prnewswire.com/cgi-bin/stories.pl?ACCT=105&STORY=/www/story/07-27-2000/0001276963 announcement] of a planned 25 percent improvement in the average mileage of its light truck fleet &mdash; including its popular [[sport utility vehicle|SUV]]s &mdash; to be completed by the 2005 calendar year. However in 2003, Ford announced that competitive market conditions, and technological and cost challenges, would prevent the company from achieving this goal. Ford did achieve significant progress toward improving fuel efficiency during 2005, with the successful introduction of the [[Ford Escape Hybrid|Hybrid-Electric Escape]]. The Escape's platform mate [[Mercury Mariner]] is also available with the hybrid-electric system in the 2006 model year&mdash;a full year ahead of schedule&mdash;due to high demand. The similar [[Mazda Tribute]] will also receive a hybrid-electric powertrain option, along with many other vehicles in the Ford vehicle line. Ford also continues to study [[Fuel Cell]]-powered electric powertrains, and is currently demonstrating hydrogen-fueled [[internal combustion engine]] technologies, as well as developing the next-generation hybrid-electric systems.
===2005 bond downgrade===
In May 2005, several bond rating agencies downgraded the bonds of Ford Motor Company to below investment grade (so called "[[junk bond]]s"). These downgrades were a recognition of high health care costs for an aging workforce and of the dependence of the company on profits from the sales of [[sport utility vehicle]]s. Due to higher fuel prices, there has been a decrease in the profits on these vehicles owing to "incentives" (in the form of rebates or low interest financing), which were needed due to declining sales. Foreign manufacturers, not having the truck manufacturing capabilities to form a platform base for similar vehicles, have instead introduced so called [[Crossover SUV|"crossover" SUV's]] &mdash; vehicles built on an automobile or minivan platform rather than a truck chassis. These vehicles have proven to be very popular in the market, and Ford has introduced such vehicles as the [[Ford Escape|Escape]] (including a [[Ford Escape Hybrid|Hybrid-Electric]] version), along with the similar [[Mercury Mariner]] and [[Mazda Tribute]], and the [[Ford Freestyle|Freestyle]] and [[Volvo XC70]] and [[Volvo XC90]] crossover SUVs. In the fall of 2006, Ford is scheduled to introduce the 2007 [[Ford Edge]], [[Lincoln MKX]], and [[Mazda CX-7]]. These vehicles were revealed at the 2006 [[North American International Auto Show]] and other car shows.
As far as the other non-truck models, many (with the notable exception of the 2005 [[Ford Mustang|Mustang]]) have been disadvantaged in the marketplace owing to a perception by buyers that foreign manufactures (especially [[Toyota]], [[Honda]], and [[Hyundai]]) deliver better value in terms of fuel economy, reliability, and build quality. These perceptions are reflected in the used car market by higher values for these foreign models. For owners who frequently trade in and for those who lease their vehicles, the resale values are reflected in substantial cost differences with domestic vehicles costing more in overall costs. However, Ford hopes to reverse this trend, with the introduction of the new 2006 [[Ford Fusion (North American)|Ford Fusion]], [[Mercury Milan]], and [[Lincoln Zephyr]] midsize cars, which are expected to compete well in this segment.
==="The Way Forward"===
:''{{mainarticle|[[The Way Forward]]}}''
Ford responded to the circumstances that lead to the bond downgrade by creating a plan to reduce the company's fixed capital costs while maintaining a special focus on cars and car-based crossover vehicles. Over time, it hopes to make more of its product line profitable instead of relying on a limited portion of the products for profit. Making good profits across the product line requires that the company reduce the costs of development and production, while introducing new products that connect with consumers.
In the latter half of 2005, Chairman Bill Ford asked newly-appointed Ford Americas Division President [[Mark Fields (businessman)|Mark Fields]] to develop a plan to return the company to profitability. Fields previewed the Plan, dubbed "The Way Forward", at the [[December 7]], [[2005]] board meeting of the company; and it was unveiled to the public on [[January 23]], [[2006]]. "[http://media.ford.com/article_display.cfm?article_id=22465 The Way Forward]" includes [http://media.ford.com/article_display.cfm?article_id=22464 resizing the company] to match current market realities, dropping some unprofitable and inefficient models, consolidating production lines, and shutting down seven vehicle assembly plants and seven parts factories. Among these are plants in [[St. Louis Assembly]] (near [[St. Louis, Missouri|St. Louis]]), [[Atlanta Assembly]] (near [[Atlanta, Georgia|Atlanta]]), [[Batavia Transmission]] ([[Batavia, Ohio]]), [[Windsor Casting]] ([[Windsor, Ontario]], [[Canada]]), and [[Wixom Assembly]] ([[Wixom, Michigan]]). Up to 30,000 hourly and salaried jobs (28% of the total workforce) in North America over the next six years are expected to be eliminated {{ref|23Jan-washpost}}, which is comparable to similar cutbacks previously announced at [[General Motors]]. These cutbacks are consistent with Ford's roughly 25% decline in U.S. automotive market share since the mid-late 1990s.
Ford's realignment also included the sale of its wholly-owned [[subsidiary]], [[The Hertz Corporation|Hertz Rent-a-Car]] to a [[private equity]] group for $15 billion in cash and debt acquisition. The sale was completed on [[December 22]] [[2005]]. A [[joint venture]] with [[Mahindra and Mahindra Limited]] of [[India]] ended with the sale of Ford's 15 percent stake in 2005.
== Brands and marques ==
[[Image:2000 Ford Taurus.jpg|thumb|250px|A [[Ford Taurus]], one of Ford's most recognizable North American models.]]
Today, Ford Motor Company manufactures automobiles under the [[Lincoln (automobile)|Lincoln]] and [[Mercury (automobile)|Mercury]] [[Brand management|brand]] names. In 1958, Ford introduced a new [[marque]], the [[Edsel]], but [[List of commercial failures|poor sales]] led to its discontinuation in 1960. Later, in 1985, the [[Merkur]] brand was introduced; it met a similar fate in 1989.
Ford has major manufacturing [[List of Ford factories|operations]] in [[Canada]], [[Mexico]], the [[United Kingdom]], [[Germany]], [[Brazil]], [[Argentina]], [[Australia]], [[China]], and several other countries, including [[South Africa]] where, following divestment during [[apartheid]], it once again has a wholly-owned subsidiary. Ford also has a cooperative agreement with Russian automaker [[GAZ]].
Since 1989, Ford has acquired [[List of British car manufacturers#United Kingdom|British nameplates]] [[Aston Martin]], [[Jaguar (car)|Jaguar]], [[Daimler|Daimler (div. of Jaguar)]], and [[Land Rover]], and [[Volvo Cars]] from [[Sweden]], as well as a controlling share (33.4%) of [[Mazda]] of Japan, with which it operates an American [[joint venture]] plant in Flat Rock, Michigan called [[Auto Alliance]]. It has spun off its parts division under the name [[Visteon]]. Its prestige brands, with the exception of Lincoln, are managed through its [[Premier Automotive Group]].
Ford's non-manufacturing operations include organizations such as automotive finance operation [[Ford Motor Credit Company]]. Ford also sponsors numerous events and sports facilities around the nation, most noteably [[Ford Center]] in downtown [[Oklahoma City]] and [[Ford Field]] in downtown [[Detroit]]. It is also noteable that both facilities share design aesthetics in addition to their common name and similar downtown location!
== Global markets ==
Initially, Ford models sold outside the U.S. were essentially versions of those sold on the home market, but later on, models specific to Europe were developed and sold. Attempts to globalize the model line have often failed, with Europe's [[Ford Mondeo]] selling poorly in the United States, while U.S. models such as the [[Ford Taurus]] have fared poorly in [[Japan]] and Australia, even when produced in [[right hand drive]]. The small European model [[Ford Ka|Ka]], a hit in its home market, did not catch on in Japan, as it was not available as an automatic. The Mondeo was dropped by [[Ford Australia]], because the segment of the market in which it competes had been in steady decline, with buyers preferring the larger local model, the [[Ford Falcon|Falcon]]. One recent exception is the [[Ford Focus|Focus]] &mdash; The European model has sold strongly on both sides of the [[Atlantic]].
===Europe===
[[Image:ford.cortina.red.750pix.jpg|th |
1 and following]). This was a prerequisite for integrating the [[European System of Central Banks]].
* The Telecommunication regulation authority ([http://www.art-telecom.fr/ ''Autorité de régulation des télécommunications'']) is an ''independent administrative authority''.
* The Financial markets regulatory authority ([http://www.amf-france.org ''Autorité des Marchés Financiers (AMF)'']) regulates securities markets.
* The Higher council of the audiovisual (''Conseil supérieur de l'audiovisuel'') supervises the granting and withdrawing of emission frequencies for [[radio]] and [[Television|TV]], as well as [[public broadcasting]].
Public media corporations should not be influenced in their news reporting by the executive in power, since they have the duty to supply the public with unbiased information. For instance, the [[Agence France-Presse]] (AFP) is an independent public corporation. Its resources must come solely from its commercial sales. The majority of the seats in its board are held by representatives of the French [[Mass media|press]].
The government also provides for [[watchdog]]s over its own activities; these independent administrative authorities are headed by a commission typically composed of senior lawyers or members of parliament:
* The National Commission for Computing &amp; Freedom (''Commission nationale informatique et libertés'', CNIL); public services must request an authorization from it before establishing a file with personal information, and they must heed its recommendations; private bodies must only declare their files; citizens have recourse before the commission against abuses;
* The National Commission for the Control of Security Interceptions (''Commission nationale de contrôle des interceptions de sécurité'', CNCIS); the executive, in a limited number of circumstances concerning national security, may request an authorization from the commission for wiretaps (in other circumstances, wiretaps may only be authorized within a judicially-administered criminal investigation).
In addition, the duties of public service limit the power that the executive has over the [[French Civil Service]]. For instance, appointments, except for the highest positions, must be made solely on merit or time in office, typically in competitive exams. Certain civil servants have statuses that prohibit executive interference; for instance, [[judge]]s and [[prosecutor]]s may be named or moved only according to specific procedures. Public researchers and university professors enjoy [[academic freedom]]; by law, they enjoy complete freedom of speech within the ordinary constraints of academia.
===Organization of government services===
Each ministry has a central administration (''administration centrale''), generally divided into directions. These directions are usually divided into divisions or sub-directions. Each direction is headed by a director, named by the President in Council. The central administration largely stays the same regardless of the political tendency of the executive in power.
In addition, each minister has a private office, which is composed of members whose nomination is politically determined, called the ''cabinet''.
The state also has distributive services spread throughout French territory, often reflecting divisions into ''[[région in France|région]]s'' or ''[[département in France|département]]s''. The [[prefect]], the representative of the national government in each ''région'' or ''département'', supervises the activities of the distributive services in his jurisdiction. Generally, the services of a certain administration in a ''région'' or ''département'' are managed by a high-level civil servant, often called director, but not always; for instance, the services of the ''[[Trésor public]]'' (Treasury) in each ''département'' are headed by a treasurer-paymaster general, named by the President of the Republic in Council. In the last several decades, the departmental ''conseil général'' (see "Local Government" below) has taken on new responsibilities and plays an important role in administrating government services at the local level.
The government also maintains public establishments. These have a relative administrative and financial autonomy, in order to accomplish a defined mission. They are attached to one or more supervising authorities. These are classified into several categories:
* public establishments of an administrative character, including, for instance:
** universities, and most public establishments of higher education;
** etablishments of a research and technical character, such as [[CNRS]] or [[INRIA]];
* public establishments of an industrial and commercial character, including, for instance, [[Commissariat à l'Énergie Atomique|CEA]] and [[Ifremer]].
One essential difference is that in administrations and public establishments of an administrative character operate under public law, while establishments of an industrial and commercial character operate mostly under private law. A consequence is that in the former, permanent personnel are civil servants, while normally in the latter, they are contract employees.
In addition, the government maintains a number of public corporations.
An originality of the French system is that [[Social security|social security]] organizations, though established by statute, are not operated nor directly controlled by the national government. Instead, they are managed by the "social partners" (''partenaires sociaux'') &ndash; unions of employers such as the [[MEDEF]] and unions of employees. Their budget is separate from the national budget.
==Legislative branch==
The Parliament of France, making up the [[legislative branch]], consists of two houses: the National Assembly and the Senate; the Assembly is the pre-eminent body.
Parliament meets for one 9-month session each year: under special circumstances the president can call an additional session. Although parliamentary powers have diminished from those existing under the [[French Fourth Republic|Fourth Republic]], the National Assembly can still cause a government to fall if an absolute majority of the total Assembly membership votes to censure.
The cabinet has a strong influence in shaping the agenda of Parliament. The government also can link its term to a legislative text which it proposes, and unless a motion of censure is introduced (within 24 hours after the proposal) and passed (within 48 hours of introduction - thus full procedures last at most 72 hours), the text is considered adopted without a vote.
Members of Parliament enjoy [[parliamentary immunity]]. Both assemblies have committees that write reports on a variety of topic. If necessary, they can establish parliamentary enquiry commissions with broad investigative power.
===National Assembly===
[[Image:Paris_Assemblee_Nationale_DSC00074.jpg|thumb|right|The National Assembly sits in the ''Palais Bourbon'', by the [[Seine River|Seine]].]]
:''Main article: the [[French National Assembly]].''
The [[National Assembly]] is the principal legislative body. Its 577 deputies are directly elected for 5-year terms in local majority votes, and all seats are voted on in each election.
The National Assembly may force the resignation of the executive cabinet by voting a motion of censure. For this reason, the [[prime minister]] and his cabinet are necessarily from the dominant party or coalition in the assembly. In the case of a president and assembly from opposing parties, this leads to the situation known as ''[[Cohabitation (government)|cohabitation]]''. While motions of censure are periodically proposed by the opposition following government actions that it deems highly inappropriate, they are purely rhetorical; party discipline ensures that, throughout a parliamentary term, the government is never overthrown by the Assembly.
===Senate===
[[Image:French_Senate_amphitheater_050917_162927.jpg|thumb|right|The Senate's amphitheater]]
:''Main article: the [[French Senate]].''
Senators are chosen by an electoral college of about 145,000 local elected officials for 6-year terms, and one half of the Senate is renewed every 3 years. Before the law of [[30 july]] [[2004]], senators were elected for 9 years, renewed by thirds every 3 years. There are currently 321 senators, but there will be 346 in [[2010]]; 304 represent the metropolitan and overseas ''[[département in France|département]]'', five the other dependencies and 12 the French established abroad.
The Senate's legislative powers are limited; on most matters of legislation, the National Assembly has the last word in the event of a disagreement between the two houses.
Since the beginning of the [[French Fifth Republic|Fifth Republic]], the Senate has always had a right-wing majority. This, the indirect mode of election and the inequality of representation with respect to demographics prompted [[Lionel Jospin]], who was prime minister at the time, to declare the Senate an "anachronism".
===Legislation adoption procedures===
Statute legislation may be proposed by the government (council of ministers), or by members of Parliament. In the first case, it is a ''projet de loi''; in the latter case, a ''proposition de loi''. All ''projets de loi'' must undergo compulsory advisory review by the ''[[Conseil d'État]]'' before being submitted to parliament. ''Propositions de loi'' cannot increase the financial load of the state without providing for funding.
''Projets de loi'' start in the house the government chooses, ''propositions de loi'' start in the house where they originated. After the house has amended and voted on the text, it is sent to the other house, which can also amend it. If the houses do not choose to adopt the text in identical terms, it is sent before a commission made of equal numbers of members of both houses, which tries to harmonize the text. If it does not manage to do so, the National Assembly can vote |
of the goods, are such as have been described above. The importance of appreciating clearly this view of the relations of shipper and shipowner arises from the fact that these fundamental rules apply to all contracts of affreightment, whether by bill of lading, charter-party or otherwise, except in so far as they are modified or negatived by the express terms of the contract.
Bills of Lading. The document signed by the master or agent for the shipowner, by which are acknowledged the shipment of a parcel of goods and the terms upon which it is to be carried, is called a Bill of Lading. Very many different forms of bills of lading are used. For the purpose of illustration the following form (from Mr Scrutton's book on Charter-parties and Bills of Lading) has been selected as a sample:--
:<tt>Shipped, in apparent good order and condition by _________ in and upon the good Vessel called the _________ now lying in the port of ________ and bound for ________, with liberty to call at any ports in any order, to sail without Pilots, and to tow and assist Vessels in distress, and to deviate for the purpose of saving life or property; and to be delivered in the like good order and condition at the aforesaid port of _________ unto _______ or to his or their assigns, freight and all other conditions as per Charter Party. The act of God, perils of the sea, fire, barratry of the Master and Crew, enemies, pirates, and thieves, arrests, and restraints of princes, rulers, and people, collisions, stranding, and other accidents of navigation excepted, even when occasioned by negligence, default, or error in judgment of the Pilot, Master, Mariners, or other servants of the Shipowners.</tt>
:<tt>Ship not answerable for losses through explosion, bursting of boilers, breakage of shafts, or any latent defect in the machinery or hull, not resulting from want of due diligence by the Owners of the Ship, or any of them, or by the Ship's Husband or Manager.</tt>
:<tt>General Average payable according to York-Antwerp Rules.</tt>
:<tt>In Witness whereof, the Master or Agent of the said Ship hath affirmed to three Bills of Lading, all of this tenor and date, drawn as first, second and third, one of which Bills being accomplished, the others to stand void.</tt>
:<tt>Dated in ________ this ________ day of _______ 188_.</tt>
The bill of lading is an acknowledgment of the shipment of goods in a named vessel for carriage to a specified destination on terms set forth in the document. It is usually signed by the master of the vessel, but very commonly by the agents of the shipowner or sometimes of the charterers of the vessel. A vessel may be employed by its owners to earn freight in various ways: (1) It may be placed, as it is said, on the berth as a general ship, to receive cargo from any shippers who may desire to send goods to the port, or one of the ports, to which the vessel is bound. The mate or chief officer usually superintends the loading, and, as goods are shipped, a mate's receipt is given as an acknowledgment of the shipment. The mate's receipt is afterwards exchanged for the bill of lading. In the case of a shipment by a general ship the bill of lading is the evidence and memorandum of the contract between the shipowner and the shipper. (2) A shipper may, however, require the whole cargo space of the vessel to carry, for example, a full cargo of grain. In such a case the vessel will be chartered by the shipowner to the shipper. and the contract will be the charter-party. Even in such a case a bill or bills of lading will usually be given to enable the shipper to deal more conveniently with the goods by way of sale or otherwise. By the ancient custom of merchants recognized and incorporated in the law, the bill of lading is a document of title, representing the goods themselves, by the transfer of which symbolical delivery of the goods may be made. But when a cargo is shipped under a charter party, although bills of lading may be given to the charterer, it is the charter-party, and not the bills of lading, which constitutes the record of the contract between the parties---of charter-parties we shall treat below. (3) There is a third class of case which is a combination of the two with which we have dealt above. A vessel is very commonly chartered by her owner to a charterer who has no intention to ship and does not ship any cargo on his own account, but places the vessel on the berth to receive cargo from shippers who ship under bills of lading. The charterer receives the bill of lading freight and pays the charter-party freight, his object being of course to obtain a total bill of lading freight in excess of the chartered freight, and so make a profit. The master, although he usually remains the servant of the shipowner during the term of the charter-party, acts nevertheless under the directions and on behalf of the charterer in signing bills of lading. The legal effect of this situation is that shippers who ship goods under bills of lading without knowledge of the terms of the charter-party are entitled to look to the shipowner as the person responsible to them for the safe carriage of their goods. This right depends essentially on the fact that the master who signs the bills of lading, although in doing so he is acting for the charterer, remains nevertheless the servant of the shipowner, who is not allowed to deny as against third persons, who do not know the relations between the charterer and the shipowner, that his servant, the master of the ship, has the ordinary authority of a master to bind his owner by signing bills of lading.
The forms of bills of lading vary very much, and their clauses have been the subject of judicial consideration and decision in a vast number of reported cases. The essential particulars, or at all events those common to all bihs of lading, may be stated as follows:
#The name of the shipper.
#The name of the ship.
#The place of loading and destination of the ship.
#A description of the goods shipped.
#The place of delivery.
#The persons to whom delivery is to be made.
#The freight to be paid.
#The excepted perils.
#The shipowner's lien.
The description of (1) the shipper and (2) the ship calls for no remark. The (3) description of the voyage is important, because there is, as we have already explained, an implied undertaking by the shipowner in every contract of carriage not unnecessarily to deviate from the ordinary route of the voyage upon which the goods are received to be carried. The consequences of a deviation are serious, inasmuch as the shipowner is liable, not only for any loss or damage which the shipper suffers in consequence of the deviation, but for any loss of goods which occurs after the deviation, even though such loss is caused by one of the excepted perils. The only exception to this rule is that a deviation may be made to save life, but not to save property. It is, however, very usual to qualify the strictness of this implied undertaking by introducing in the bill of lading certain ''liberties'' to deviate, as, for example, in the form given above, ''liberty to call at any ports in any order, to tow and assist vessels in distress, and to deviate for the purpose of saving life and property.'' The nature and extent of the liberty will depend on the words of the contract. The inclination of English courts has been to construe clauses giving a liberty to deviate somewhat strictly against the shipowner.
The (4) importance of the description of the goods shipped and their condition is obvious, as the contract is to deliver them as described and in the like good condition, subject, of course, to the exceptions. It must, moreover, be noted that, as against the master or person who has himself signed the bill of lading, the statement therein of the goods shipped is absolutely conclusive. But as against the shipowner, unless he has himself signed the bill of lading, the statement of the goods shipped is not conclusive. It is evidence as against him that the goods described were shipped, but he is allowed to rebut this evidence by proving, if he can, that the goods mentioned, or some of them, were not in fact shipped.
As to (5) the place of delivery, very serious questions frequently arise. Primarily, of course, the shipowner is bound to deliver at the place named. Should he be prevented by some obstacle or difficulty which is of a temporary nature, the vessel must wait, and delivery must be made as soon as possible. Where, however, the obstacle is permanent, or at all events such as must cause unreasonable delay, having regard to the nature of the adventure, the shipowner is excused from delivery at the place named in the bill of lading, provided the difficulty arises from an excepted peril, or in consequence of delivery at the place named being forbidden by the law of England, as may happen, for example, in the case of a declaration of war between the [[United Kingdom]] and the state in which the port named in the bill of lading is situate. A party to a contract cannot be held liable for breaking his contract if its performance has become illegal. There may be other cases in which, from the circumstances of the voyage and adventure, it must be inferred that the parties intended the performance of the contract to be conditional on the existence at the time of performance of a certain state of things, the non-existence of which would render performance impossible. For instance, if the port named in the bill of lading became permanently closed and inaccessible to shipping in consequence of an earthquake, it would probably be held that the continued existence of the place named as a port was an implied condition of the contract, and that the shipowner was excused. Where, however, the performance of the contract remains lawful, and is not excused by the express terms of the contract, or by s |
oduced. ''[[Batman: Mask of the Phantasm]]'' a spin-off of the animated television series, was released in 1993. ''[[Batman Begins]]'', a successful restart of the saga (but often mistakenly called a [[prequel]]), was released in 2005. A new 2-disc special edition collection of the first four films were released on Tuesday, October 18, 2005. All movies include commentary by director's [[Tim Burton]] and [[Joel Schumacher]] along with a slew of other special features.
The film aired on the US [[Cartoon Network]] on Saturday, November 19, 2005 during [[Toonami]] as part of the network's "November Month of Movie Premieres" at a rating of TV-14V for violence. This marked the first time Cartoon Network has ever aired anything above the TV-PG rating outside of [[Adult Swim]].
==Plot summary==
{{spoiler}}
[[Image:Jokermovie.jpg|thumb|left|[[The Joker (comics)|The Joker]], played by [[Jack Nicholson]].]]The main story of the movie is that of Jack Napier, an arrogant hitman working for [[Carl Grissom|Boss Carl Grissom]], who years before killed Thomas and Martha Wayne, the wealthy parents of Bruce Wayne. Grissom assigns Napier to break into Axis Chemicals to destroy legally incriminating files, but it turns out to be a set-up. Out of jealousy of Napier's affair with his girlfriend, Grissom hires the corrupt [[Lt. Max Eckhardt]] of the [[Gotham City Police Department]] to kill Napier.
Napier kills Eckhardt, but Batman has learned of the break-in and confronts Jack Napier, on a catwalk above a vat of hazardous chemicals, to make sure he is arrested to testify against Grissom. While trying to kill Batman, Napier's face is disfigured by his own richochet bullet causing him to fall off the catwalk. Batman grabs his hand in an attempt to save him, however, his hand ultimately slips, and he falls into the vat. The chemicals ingrain him with permanently discoloured skin and sugical reconstruction leaves grotesque features, which change his appearance to something resembling a clown. Naming himself [[Joker (comics)#The 1989 film|The Joker]], he tracks down and murders Grissom and takes over the criminal gang. The violent takeover attracts the attention of both Batman and newspaper reporter Alexander Knox and photographer [[Vicki Vale]]. The rest of the film involves Batman trying to stop the Joker, [[Bob the Goon]] and their henchmen from terrorizing the city with shootouts, assassinations, and a deadly chemical which poisons its victims with uncontrollable laughter that eventually leads to death.
==Cast==
*''Batman / Bruce Wayne'': Michael Keaton
*''The Joker / Jack Napier'': Jack Nicholson
*''Vicki Vale'': Kim Basinger
*''Alexander Knox'': [[Robert Wuhl]]
*''[[Alfred Pennyworth]]'': [[Michael Gough]]
*''Bob the Goon'': [[Tracey Walter]]
*''[[James Gordon (comics)|Commissioner Gordon]]'': [[Pat Hingle]]
*''[[Two-Face|Harvey Dent]]'': [[Billy Dee Williams]]
*''Carl Grissom'': [[Jack Palance]]
*''Alicia'': [[Jerry Hall]]
== Response and legacy==
''Batman'' was the most successful movie of 1989, earning $251,188,924 domestically and over $160 million abroad. As a result, the movie spawned all sorts of merchandise: action figures, t-shirts, beach towels, trading cards and even a cereal. The movie received mostly positive reviews, with [[Erik Preminger]] of [[San Francisco, California|San Francisco]]'s [[KGO-TV]] hailing it as ''"the movie of the decade"''. [[Jack Nicholson]] was widely praised as ruthless thug Jack Napier and the even more ruthless Joker, while [[Michael Keaton]], better known as a comedic actor at the time, won over many viewers with his portrayal of a conflicted Bruce Wayne and Batman. [[Danny Elfman]]'s score received positive feedback, leading to nominations in various institutions (although not for an [[Academy Award]]). The film was criticized, though, for its dark, grisly nature in comparison with the campy 1960s TV show, and for a [[Prince (artist)|Prince]]-dominated soundtrack which was seen as an obvious marketing tie-in. While applauded for its efforts to return to the staid nature of the character, the movie was attacked by many comic book purists who claimed that the film took too many elective liberties with the original character's established backstory and ideals, most notably in Batman's lethal tactics in the film.
And while Jack Nicholson's performance was widely praised by even the most ardent comic book fans, there were still dissenting voices that his character was too over-the-top and lacked the psychological depth of the comic book character.
In fact, Burton was accused by several fans of taking the character of Batman and making him a supporting character in his own film and ultimately bending the source material to his style. Several notable fans including cult figure [[Kevin Smith]] were displeased by the film. In an interview, when told that Burton did not read comic books, Smith sardonically replied, "I know, I saw Batman.' This may also be due to the fact that the two of them had a testy relationship during the making of a failed [[Superman Lives|Superman]] film. Film critic [[Roger Ebert]], a fan of the comic books also panned the film for the same reasons and it would be a full decade and a half before a newer adaptation of the comics was filmed when [[Batman Begins]] released in 2005. Fans and critics alike have praised this film and have warmed over to it more than Burton adaptation.
==Trivia==
=== Casting ===
* [[Adam West]], star of the ''[[Batman (TV series)|Batman]]'' TV series, wanted to play Batman, but Michael Keaton was given the role after getting the nod from [[Bob Kane]].
* [[Ricky Addison Reed]] was cast as [[Robin (comics)|Robin]] when the character was part of an earlier story treatment. Robin was eventually dropped, and Reed lost the role.
* [[Robin Williams]] was considered for the role of The Joker; he would later be considered for The Riddler in ''[[Batman_Forever|Batman Forever]]''. Jack Nicholson got the role of The Joker but demanded top-billing and a lucrative deal that gave him royalties on all merchandise.
* [[Billy Dee Williams]] appears as [[Two-Face|Harvey Dent]], who in the comics became Two-Face. Williams took the role with the expectation that he would be brought back to play Two-Face and reportedly had a contract clause added reserving the role for him. During casting for [[Batman_Forever|Batman Forever]] (1995) Warner Bros. decided they would prefer [[Tommy Lee Jones]] and bought out Williams' contract.
* It is claimed that Adam West was offered a cameo as Bruce Wayne's father but turned it down, though West denies being offered the part.
* [[Sean Young]] was originally cast as Vicki Vale, but broke her collarbone while filming a horse-riding scene with Michael Keaton. The scene was subsequently written out of the script.
* [[Alec Baldwin]], [[Charlie Sheen]], [[Bill Murray]], [[Pierce Brosnan]] and [[Tom Selleck]] were rumored to be considered for the role of Bruce Wayne/Batman.
* According to a Playboy interview with Robin Williams, Jack Nicholson was offered the role of Joker first. When Nicholson kept delaying his answer, Williams was offered the role. The producers immediately turned around and informed Nicholson that Williams was considering the offer, and Nicholson accepted. Williams has remained bitter about being "used as bait." See trivia for [[Batman_Forever|Batman Forever]] (1995).
* The Special Edition DVD features a vignette of an unused storyboard where the Joker, being chased by Batman, would drive through a circus presentation featuring the Flying Graysons, where he sets fire to the tightrope and kill them. This would set up Robin for the sequels. The voices used for the vignette are those from ''[[Batman: the Animated Series]].''
=== Production Design ===
* Set designer Anton Furst deliberately mixed clashing architectural styles to make Gotham City the ugliest and bleakest metropolis imaginable.
* The plastic surgeon's weird surgical tools are believed to be originally from another Warner Brothers production, Little Shop of Horrors (1986). They were the dentist tools owned by Orin Scrivello.
* The Batman costume weighed 70 lbs.
* The Batman symbol on the costume in this film is slightly different than the version seen in the comic books. It has two extra "points" on the bottom of the black bat emblem. However, the teaser poster and other such promotional materials for the film depict the logo just as it appears in the comics, for copyright purposes (because that specific look for the logo is what DC comics had copyrighted). The Batman costume was slightly modified for Batman Returns (1992) and sported the comic version of the symbol.
* Heavy security surrounded The Joker's makeup.
* The throne that the Joker sits on when he spreads money over the citizens of Gotham may be a replica of the "Silver Throne", the Royal Throne of Sweden which the King of Sweden used until 1974 at the opening of the [[Swedish Parliament]].
* The painting that the Joker spares during his vandalism spree is [[Francis Bacon]]'s "[[Figure with Meat]]."
* The design of Gotham City is based on the work of architects [[Antonio Gaudi]], [[Otto Wagner]] and [[Shin Takamatsu]].
* Scenes of the Wayne mansion were filmed at two English stately homes: [[Knebworth House]] for exterior scenes, [[Hatfield House]] for the interiors.
=== Other Trivia ===
*[[Tom Mankiewicz]] was first contracted to write a Batman script for Warner Bros. in the early 80s following his work on '[[Superman: The Movie]]' and '[[Superman II]]'.
* [[Michael Keaton]] worked out for two months to prepare for the role, and learned kickboxing from his stunt double, David Lea. Though hard to spot, many of the fights are just about evenly split between Keaton and David Lea in costume. Keaton, however, went on to perform all of the fights himself for the sequel [[Batman Returns]].
* It made an estimated addit |
er, ''Cat. Bodl. Hebr. MSS.,'' Nos. 2182 and 2221); [[Paris]], Bibl. Nat. No. 976; Günzburg Libr., [[St. Petersburg]]; [[Parma]]; [[Ramsgate]] [[Montefiore College]] Library (formerly Halberstam, No. 192); and [[Turin]]. Some of these (Oxford, No. 2221, and Paris, Bibl. Nat.) are mere fragments. The printed edition (Presburg, 1838), prepared by M. L. Bislichis, contains: (1) Preface; (2) a treatise of eighteen chapters on the [[incorporeality]] of [[God]]; (3) correspondence; (4) a treatise, called ''Sefer ha-Yarḥi,'' included also in letter 58; (5) a defense of ''The Guide'' and its author by [[Shem-Tob Palquera]] (Grätz, ''Gesch. d. Juden,'' vii. 173). As the three cardinal doctrines of Judaism, Abba Mari accentuates: (1) That of the recognition of God's existence and of His absolute sovereignty, eternity, unity, and incorporeality, as taught in revelation, especially in the ''[[Decalogue]]''; (2) that of the world's creation by Him out of nothing, as evidenced particularly by the Sabbath; (3) that of the special [[Divine providence|providence]] of God, as manifested in the Biblical [[miracle]]s. In the preface, Abba Mari explains his object in collecting the correspondence; and in the treatise which follows he shows that the study of philosophy, useful in itself as a help toward the acquisition of the knowledge of God, requires great caution, lest we be misled by the Aristotelian philosophy or its false interpretation, as regards the principles of creatiom ''[[ex nihilo]]'' and divine individual providence. The manuscripts include twelve letters which are not included in the printed edition of ''Minḥat Ḳenaot.''
==Contents of the Minḥat Ḳenaot==
The correspondence refers mainly to the proposed restriction of the study of the Aristotelian philosophy. Casually, other theological questions are discussed. For example, letters 1, 5, and 8 contain a discussion on the question, whether the use of a piece of metal with the figure of a lion, as a [[talisman]], is permitted by Jewish law for medicinal purposes, or is prohibited as [[idolatry|idolatrous]]. In letter 131, Abba Mari mourns the death of Ben Adret, and in letter 132 he sends words of sympathy to the congregation of Perpignan, on the death of Don [[Solomon Vidal]] and Rabbi Meshullam. Letter 33 contains the statement of Abba Mari that two letters which he desired to insert could not be discovered by him. MS. Ramsgate, No. 52, has the same statement, but also the two letters missing in the printed copies. In the ''Sefer ha-Yarḥi'', Abba Mari refers to the great caution shown by the rabbis of old as regards the teaching of the mysteries of philosophy, and recommended by men like the [[Hai Gaon]], Maimonides, and [[David Kimhi]]. A responsum of Abba Mari on a ritual question is contained in MS. Ramsgate, No. 136; and Zunz (''Literaturgeschichte der Synagogalen Poesie,'' p. 498), mentions a ''ḳinah'' composed by Abba Mari.
The ''Minḥat Ḳenaot'' is instructive reading for the historian because it throws much light upon the deeper problems which agitated Judaism, the question of the relation of religion to the philosophy of the age, which neither the zeal of the fanatic nor the bold attitude of the liberal-minded could solve in any fixed dogmatic form or by any anathema, as the independent spirit of the congregations refused to accord to the rabbis the power possessed by the [[Church]] of dictating to the people what they should believe or respect. At the close of the work are added several eulogies written by Abba Mari on Ben Adret (who died in 1310), and on Don Vidal, [[Solomon of Perpignan]], and Don [[Bonet Crescas]] of Lunel.
Bibliography: Geiger, ''Zeit. für Jüdische Theologie,'' v. 82; Zunz, ''Z. G.'' p. 477; Renan, ''Les Rabbins Français,'' pp. 647-695; Gross, ''Gallia Judaica,'' pp. 286, 331, 466; ''idem'', in ''Rev. Ét. Juives,'' 1882, pp. 192-207; Perles, ''Salomo ben Abraham ben Adereth und seine Schriften,'' pp. 15-54; Grätz, ''Gesch. der Juden,'' iii. 27-50, Breslau, 1863.
{{Wikisource1911Enc|Abba Mari}}
{{JewishEncyclopedia}}
[[Category:Middle Ages rabbis]]
[[fr:Abba Mari]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Abbas II of Egypt</title>
<id>2609</id>
<revision>
<id>40387871</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-20T05:20:24Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>El C</username>
<id>92203</id>
</contributor>
<comment>[[he:עבאס המצרי השני]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Abbas Helmi.jpg|right]]'''Abbas Hilmi Pasha''' or '''Abbas II''' ([[Arabic language|Arabic]]: عباس حلمي باشا) ([[July 14]], [[1874]] &ndash; [[1944]]) was the last ''[[khedive]]'' of [[Egypt]] ([[January 8]], [[1892]] &ndash; [[1914]]).
Abbas Hilmi Pasha was the great-great-grandson of [[Mehemet Ali (Egypt)|Mehmet Ali]]. He succeeded his father, [[Tewfik Pasha]], as ''khedive'' of Egypt. When a boy he visited [[England]], and he had an English tutor for some time in [[Cairo]]. He then went to school in [[Lausanne]], and from there passed on to the [[Theresianum]] in [[Vienna]]. In addition to [[Turkish language|Turkish]], his [[mother tongue]], he acquired fluency in [[Arabic language|Arabic]], and a good conversational knowledge of [[English language|English]], [[French language|French]] and [[German language|German]].
He was still at college in Vienna when the sudden death of his father raised him to the ''Khedivate''; and he was barely of age according to [[Turkey|Turkish]] law, which fixes majority at eighteen in cases of succession to the throne. For some time he did not cooperate very cordially with [[Great Britain]]. He was young and eager to exercise his new power. His throne and life had not been saved for him by the British, as was the case with his father. He was surrounded by intriguers who were playing a game of their own, and for some time he appeared almost disposed to be as reactionary as his great-uncle [[Abbas I of Egypt|Abbas I]].
But in process of time he learnt to understand the importance of [[United Kingdom|British]] counsels. He paid a second visit to England in 1900, during which he frankly acknowledged the great good the British had done in Egypt, and declared himself ready to follow their advice and to cooperate with the British officials administering Egyptian affairs. The establishment of a sound system of native justice, the great remission of taxation, the reconquest of the [[Sudan]], the inauguration of the substantial irrigation works at [[Aswan]], and the increase of cheap, sound education, each received his approval and all the assistance he could give. He displayed more interest in [[agriculture]] than in statecraft, and his farm of cattle and horses at [[Koubah]], near Cairo, would have done credit to any agricultural show in England; at [[Montaza]], near [[Alexandria]], he created a similar establishment. He married the Princess [[Ikbal Hanem]] and had several children. [[Prince Muhammad Abdul Moneim|Muhammad Abdul Moneim]], the heir-apparent, was born on [[February 20]], [[1899]].
When the [[Ottoman Empire]] joined the [[Central Powers]] in [[World War I]], Britain declared Egypt a British [[protectorate]] and deposed Abbas. He retired to [[Switzerland]], where he died.
{{Wikisource1911Enc|Abbas II}}
{{1911}}
{{start box}}
{{succession box|title=[[Khedive of Egypt]]|before=[[Tawfiq of Egypt]]|after=''[[Rulers and heads of state of Egypt|Sultan]] [[Husayn Kamil]] ''|years=1892&ndash;1914}}
{{end box}}
[[Category:1874 births]]
[[Category:1944 deaths]]
[[Category:Khedives of Egypt]]
[[Category:Knights Grand Cross of the Bath]]
[[Category:Knights Grand Cross of St Michael and St George]]
[[Category:Knights Grand Cross of the Royal Victorian Order]]
[[Category:Recipients of the Royal Victorian Chain]]
[[de:Abbas II. (Ägypten)]]
[[he:עבאס המצרי השני]]
[[id:Abbas II]]
[[it:Abbas Hilmi II]]
[[zh:阿拔斯二世 (埃及)]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Abbas Mirza</title>
<id>2610</id>
<revision>
<id>35393855</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-16T12:26:52Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Databot</username>
<id>748718</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:AbbasMirza.gif|frame|right|80px|'Prince Abbas Mirza']]
'''Abbas Mirza ''' (&#1593;&#1576;&#1575;&#1587; &#1605;&#1740;&#1585;&#1586;&#1575; in [[Persian language|Persian]]) &lrm;([[August 26]], [[1789]]-[[October 25]], [[1833]]), was a [[crown prince]] of [[Iran|Persia]], known because of his wars with [[Russia]] and the [[Ottoman Empire]], and his death before his father, the [[shah]]. Abbas was an intelligent prince, possessed some literary taste, and is noteworthy on account of the comparative simplicity of his life.
He was a younger son of [[Fath Ali Shah]], but on account of his mother's royal birth was destined by his father to succeed him. Entrusted with the government of a part of Persia, he sought to rule it in European fashion, and employed officers to reorganize his army. He was soon at war with Russia, and his aid was eagerly solicited by both [[England]] and [[Napoleon]], anxious to checkmate one another in the East. Preferring the friendship of [[France]], Abbas Mirza continued the war against Russia's [[General Kotlyarevsky]], but his new ally could give him very little assistance, and in October, [[1813]], Persia was compelled to make a disadvantageous peace, ceding some territory in the [[Caucasus]] (present-day [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]], [[Dagestan]], and most of the [[Republic of Azerbaijan]]).
He gained some successes during a war between the Ottoman Empire and Persia which broke out in [[1821]], but a peace treaty was signed in [[1823]] at [[Erzurum]], after failed attacks from both sides. His second war with Russia, which began in [[1826]], succeeded as little as the first one, and Persia was forced to cede nearly all of its [[Armenia]]n territories and [[Nakhchiva |
n affected with cyanide intoxication must be individualized and is based upon their body weight and hemoglobin concentration. The next part of the cyanide antidote kit is [[sodium thiosulfate]], which is administered intravenously. The sodium thiosulfate and cyanmethemoglobin become [[thiocyanate]], releasing the hemoglobin, and the thiocyanate is excreted by the kidneys.
Alternative methods of treating cyanide intoxication are used in other countries. For example, the method in France is to use hydroxycobalamin (a form of [[Vitamin B12|vitamin B<sub>12</sub>]]), which combines with cyanide to form the harmless vitamin B<sub>12a</sub> cyanocobalamin. Cyanocobalamin is eliminated through the urine. Hydroxycobalamin works both within the intravascular space and within the cells to combat cyanide intoxication. This contrasts with methemoglobin, which acts only within the vascular space as an antidote. Administration of [[sodium thiosulfate]] improves the ability of the hydroxycobalamin to detoxify cyanide poisoning. This treatment is considered so effective and innocuous that it is administered routinely in Paris to victims of smoke inhalation to detoxify any associated cyanide intoxication. However it is relatively expensive and not universally available.
4-Dimethylaminophenol (4-DMAP) has been proposed in [[Germany]] as a more rapid antidote than nitrites and with (reportedly) lower toxicity. It is used currently by the German military and by the civilian population. In humans, intravenous injection of 3 mg/kg of 4-DMAP will produce 35 percent methemoglobin levels within 1 minute. There are reports ([[:de:4-Dimethylaminophenol]]), that 4-DMAP '''is''' part of the US Cyanokit, while it '''is not''' part of the GERM Cyanokit due to side effects (e. g. [[hemolysis]]).
[[Cobalt]] [[salt]]s have also been demonstrated as effective in binding cyanide. One current cobalt-based antidote available in Europe is dicobalt-EDTA, sold as Kelocyanor&reg;. This agent chelates cyanide as the cobalticyanide. This drug provides an antidote effect more quickly than formation of methemoglobin, but a clear superiority to methemoglobin formation has not been demonstrated. Cobalt [[Complex (chemistry)|complexes]] are quite toxic, and there have been accidents reported in the [[UK]] where patients have been given dicobalt-EDTA by mistake based on a false diagnoses of cyanide poisoning.
The [[International Programme on Chemical Safety]] issued a survey (IPCS/CEC Evaluation of Antidotes Series) which lists the following antidotal agents and their effects: Oxygen, sodium thiosulfate, amyl nitrite, sodium nitrite, 4-dimethylaminophenol, hydroxocobalamin, and dicobalt edetate ('Kelocyanor'), as well as several others[http://www.inchem.org/documents/antidote/antidote/ant02.htm#PartNumber:6]. Other commonly-recommended antidotes are 'solutions A and B' (a solution of [[ferrous sulphate]] in aqueous [[citric acid]], and aqueous [[sodium carbonate]]) and [[amyl nitrite]].
Britain's [[Health and Safety Executive]] has recommended against the use of solutions A and B because of their limited shelf life, potential to cause iron poisoning, and limited use (effective only in cases of cyanide ingestion, whereas the main modes of poisoning are ingestion and skin contact). The HSE has also questioned the usefulness of amyl nitrate due to storage/availability problems, risk of abuse, and lack of evidence of significant benefits, instead recommending Kelocyanor[http://www.hse.gov.uk/pubns/misc076.htm].
==== Glucose ====
There is evidence from animal experiments that coadministration of [[glucose]] protects against cobalt toxicity associated with the antidote agent dicobalt edetate. For this reason, glucose is often administered alongside this agent (e.g. in the formulation 'Kelocyanor').
It has also been anecdotally suggested that glucose is itself an effective counteragent to cyanide, reacting with it to form less toxic compounds that can be eliminated by the body. One theory on the apparent immunity of [[Grigory Rasputin]] to cyanide was that his killers put the poison in sweet pastries and [[madeira wine]], both of which are rich in sugar; thus, Rasputin would have been administered the poison together with massive quantities of antidote. One study found a reduction in cyanide toxicity in mice when the cyanide was first mixed with glucose[http://www.sertox.com.ar/retel/n07/02.pdf]. However, as yet glucose on its own is not an officially acknowledged antidote to cyanide poisoning.
==Poison use==
The cyanide ion, if used as [[poison]], is generally delivered in the form of gaseous [[hydrogen cyanide]] or in the form of [[potassium cyanide]] (KCN) or [[sodium cyanide]] (NaCN).
===Gas chambers===
[[Zyklon B]], the [[poison gas]] used in [[Nazi Germany|Nazi]] [[gas chamber]]s during [[the Holocaust]], works by delivering hydrogen cyanide gas.
Cyanide is also the compound used in [[United States|U.S.]] gas chambers for [[death penalty|execution]].
===War===
Cyanides were stockpiled in both the [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] and the [[United States]] [[chemical weapon]]s arsenals in the [[1950s]] and [[1960s]]. During the [[Cold War]], the Soviet Union was thought to be planning to use hydrogen cyanide as a "[[blitzkrieg]]" weapon to clear a path through the opposing front line, knowing that the harmful gas itself would dissipate and allow unprotected access to the captured zone. However, as a military agent, cyanide was not considered very effective, since cyanide is lighter than air and requires a significant dose in order to incapacitate or kill.
=== Suicide ===
Cyanide salts are sometimes used as fast-acting suicide devices. Cyanide is reputed to work faster on an empty stomach, possibly because the anion is protonated by [[gastric acid|stomach acids]] to give HCN.
Famous cyanide salt suicides include:
*[[Erwin Rommel]]
*[[Adolf Hitler]] (likely, see article on [[Hitler's death]])
*[[Eva Braun]]
*[[Joseph Goebbels]]
*[[Hermann Göring]]
*[[Heinrich Himmler]]
*[[Alan Turing]]
*[[Odilo Globocnik]]
*[[Martin Bormann]]
*A North-Korean agent identified as Kim Sung Il, who along with a female accomplice in police custody in Bahrain bit into cyanide tablets hidden in cigarettes after having left a bomb onboard [[Korean Air Flight 858]] which subsequently exploded over the Indian Ocean on November 29, 1987. The woman's life was saved by a quick-thinking police officer who knocked the cigarette away at the last minute.
Some [[espionage]] agents also carried [[glasses|spectacles]] with cyanide in the frames. If they were caught by the enemy they could 'casually' chew the frame, releasing the cyanide, and die before having information extracted from them.
==== Jonestown ====
[[Jonestown]], [[Guyana]] was the site of the largest mass sucide of all time, where 913 members of the [[Peoples Temple]] drank a cyanide-laced cup of [[Flavor Aid]] in 1978.
===Murder===
[[Zyklon B]], the [[poison gas]] used in [[Nazi Germany|Nazi]] [[gas chamber]]s during [[the Holocaust]], works by delivering hydrogen cyanide gas.
Other murders:
*[[Goebbels children]]
=== In fiction ===
Poisoning by cyanide figures prominently in [[crime fiction]], for example [[Agatha Christie]]'s ''[[Sparkling Cyanide]]'' (also entitled ''Remembered Death''). Cyanide is also the instrument of murder in ''[[The Big Sleep]]'' by [[Raymond Chandler]] and [[Roald Dahl]]'s [[short story]] "The Landlady".
In [[Gabriel Garcia Marquez]]'s ''[[Love in the Time of Cholera]]'', one of the characters (a photographer) commits suicide using gold cyanide.
==See also==
* [[:Category:Cyanides]]
* [[Victims of poisoning]]
== Sources ==
*Institut national de recherche et de sécurité (1997). "[http://www.inrs.fr/inrs-pub/inrs01.nsf/inrs01_ftox_view/860430FE710FCFD7C1256CE8004F67CB/$File/ft4.pdf Cyanure d'hydrogène et solutions aqueuses]". ''Fiche toxicologique n&deg; 4'', Paris:INRS, 5pp. (PDF file, ''in French'')
*Institut national de recherche et de sécurité (1997). "[http://www.inrs.fr/inrs-pub/inrs01.nsf/inrs01_ftox_view/48145297F4EF18BBC1256CE8005A9FC2/$File/ft111.pdf Cyanure de sodium. Cyanure de potassium]". ''Fiche toxicologique n&deg; 111'', Paris:INRS, 6pp. (PDF file, ''in French'')
== External links ==
* [http://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/MHMI/mmg8.html ATSDR medical management guidelines for cyanide poisoning (US)]
* [http://www.storysmith.net/Terrorism.htm Cyanide intoxication], by Charles Stewart
* [http://www.hse.gov.uk/pubns/misc076.htm HSE recommendations for first aid treatment of cyanide poisoning (UK)]
* [http://www.inchem.org/documents/cicads/cicads/cicad61.htm Hydrogen cyanide and cyanides] ([[CICAD]] 61)
* [http://www.inchem.org/documents/antidote/antidote/ant02.htm#SubSectionNumber:1.13.1 IPCS/CEC Evaluation of antidotes for poisoning by cyanides]
* [http://www.npi.gov.au/database/substance-info/profiles/29.html National Pollutant Inventory - Cyanide compounds fact sheet]
* [http://www.snopes.com/food/warnings/apples.asp#add Eating apple seeds is safe despite the small amount of cyanide]
[[Category:Anions]]
[[Category:Cyanides]]
[[Category:Toxicology]]
[[Category:Chemical weapons]]
[[bg:Цианид]]
[[da:Cyanid]]
[[de:Cyanide]]
[[es:Cianuro]]
[[fa:سیانور]]
[[fr:Cyanure]]
[[he:ציאניד]]
[[lv:Cianīdi]]
[[lt:Cianidas]]
[[nl:Cyanide]]
[[ja:シアン]]
[[pl:Cyjanek]]
[[fi:Syanidi]]
[[sv:Cyanider]]
[[zh:氰化物]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Continuum Hypothesis.</title>
<id>5911</id>
<revision>
<id>15904086</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Continuum hypothesis]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Carbonate</title>
<id>5912</id>
<revision>
<id>41820961 |
cipient of the [[Nobel Peace Prize]] (d. [[1971]])
*[[1925]] - [[M. S. Swaminathan]], Indian scientist
*1925 - [[Felice and Boudleaux Bryant|Felice Bryant]], American country songwriter and singer (d. [[2003]])
*[[1926]] - [[Stan Freberg]], American voice comedian
*[[1928]] - [[James Randi]], Canadian magician
*[[1929]] - [[Don Larsen]], baseball player
*[[1932]] - [[Abebe Bikila]], Ethiopan athlete
*[[1936]] - [[Rahsaan Roland Kirk]], American saxophonist
*[[1940]] - [[Jean-Luc Dehaene]], [[Prime Minister of Belgium]]
*[[1942]] - [[Garrison Keillor]], American writer and radio host
*1942 - [[B.J. Thomas]], American singer
*[[1943]] - [[Dino Valente]], American musician [[Quicksilver Messenger Service]] (d. [[1994]])
*[[1944]] - [[David Rasche]], American actor
*[[1945]] - [[Alan Page]], American football player
*[[1948]] - [[Greg Chappell]], Australian test cricket player, captain and coach
*[[1949]] - [[Walid Jumblatt]], leader of the Lebanese Druze
*[[1952]] - [[Alexei Sayle]], British 'alternate' comedian
*[[1955]] - [[Vladimir Sorokin]], Russian writer
*[[1958]] - [[Bruce Dickinson]], English singer ([[Iron Maiden]])
*[[1960]] - [[David Duchovny]], American actor
*[[1963]] - [[Harold Perrineau Jr.]], American actor
*[[1964]] - [[Michael Weishan]], American TV host, author
*[[1966]] - [[Jimmy Wales]], American founder of Wikipedia
*[[1973]] - [[Danny Graves]], American baseball player
*[[1975]] - [[David Hicks]], Australian alleged terrorist
*1975 - [[Charlize Theron]], South African actress
*[[1978]] - [[Jamey Jasta]], American Singer ([[Hatebreed]])
*[[1982]] - [[Yana Klochkova]], Ukrainian swimmer
*[[1987]] - [[Sidney Crosby]], Canadian hockey player
==Deaths==
*[[461]] - [[Majorian]], [[Roman Emperor]] (assassinated) (b. [[420]])
*[[479]] - [[Emperor Yuryaku|Emperor Yūryaku]] of Japan
*[[1106]] - [[Henry IV, Holy Roman Emperor]] (b. [[1050]])
*[[1485]] - [[Alexander Stewart, 1st Duke of Albany]], English prince
*[[1613]] - [[Thomas Fleming (judge)|Thomas Fleming]], English judge (b. [[1544]])
*[[1616]] - [[Vincenzo Scamozzi]], Italian architect (b. [[1548]])
*[[1635]] - [[Friedrich von Spee]], German writer (b. [[1591]])
*[[1661]] - [[Jin Shengtan]], Chinese editor, writer and critic (b. [[1608]])
*[[1817]] - [[Pierre Samuel du Pont de Nemours]], French industrialist (b. [[1739]])
*[[1834]] - [[Joseph Marie Jacquard]], French weaver and inventor (b. [[1752]])
*[[1848]] - [[Jöns Jakob Berzelius]], Swedish chemist (b. [[1779]])
*[[1855]] - [[Mariano Arista]], [[President of Mexico]] (b. [[1802]])
*[[1912]] - [[François-Alphonse Forel]], Swiss hydrologist (b. [[1841]])
*[[1941]] - [[Rabindranath Tagore]], Indian author, [[Nobel Prize]] laureate (b. [[1861]])
*[[1957]] - [[Oliver Hardy]], American comedian and actor (b. [[1892]])
*[[1974]] - [[Rosario Castellanos]], Mexican poet (b. [[1925]])
*[[1989]] - [[Mickey Leland]], [[U.S. Congress|U.S. Congressman]] (D-[[Texas|TX]]) (b. [[1944]])
*[[1995]] - [[Brigid Brophy]], British author (b. [[1929]])
*[[1999]] - [[Brion James]], American actor (b. [[1945]])
*[[2004]] - [[Red Adair]], American firefighter (b. [[1915]])
*2004 - [[Colin Bibby]], English ornithologist (b. [[1948]])
*[[2005]] - [[Peter Jennings]], Canadian-born news anchor (b. [[1938]])
==External links==
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/august/7 BBC: On This Day]
* [http://www.nytimes.com/learning/general/onthisday/20050807.html ''The New York Times'': On This Day]
----
[[August 6]] - [[August 8]] - [[July 7]] - [[September 7]] -- [[historical anniversaries|listing of all days]]
{{months}}
[[ilo:Agosto 7]]
[[af:7 Augustus]]
[[ar:7 أغسطس]]
[[an:7 d'agosto]]
[[ast:7 d'agostu]]
[[bg:7 август]]
[[be:7 жніўня]]
[[bs:7. avgust]]
[[ca:7 d'agost]]
[[ceb:Agosto 7]]
[[cv:Çурла, 7]]
[[co:7 d'aostu]]
[[cs:7. srpen]]
[[cy:7 Awst]]
[[da:7. august]]
[[de:7. August]]
[[et:7. august]]
[[el:7 Αυγούστου]]
[[es:7 de agosto]]
[[eo:7-a de aŭgusto]]
[[eu:Abuztuaren 7]]
[[fo:7. august]]
[[fr:7 août]]
[[fy:7 augustus]]
[[ga:7 Lúnasa]]
[[gl:7 de agosto]]
[[ko:8월 7일]]
[[hr:7. kolovoza]]
[[io:7 di agosto]]
[[id:7 Agustus]]
[[ia:7 de augusto]]
[[ie:7 august]]
[[is:7. ágúst]]
[[it:7 agosto]]
[[he:7 באוגוסט]]
[[jv:7 Agustus]]
[[ka:7 აგვისტო]]
[[csb:7 zélnika]]
[[ku:7'ê gelawêjê]]
[[lt:Rugpjūčio 7]]
[[lb:7. August]]
[[li:7 augustus]]
[[hu:Augusztus 7]]
[[mk:7 август]]
[[ms:7 Ogos]]
[[nap:7 'e aùsto]]
[[nl:7 augustus]]
[[ja:8月7日]]
[[no:7. august]]
[[nn:7. august]]
[[oc:7 d'agost]]
[[pl:7 sierpnia]]
[[pt:7 de Agosto]]
[[ro:7 august]]
[[ru:7 августа]]
[[sco:7 August]]
[[sq:7 Gusht]]
[[scn:7 di austu]]
[[simple:August 7]]
[[sk:7. august]]
[[sl:7. avgust]]
[[sr:7. август]]
[[fi:7. elokuuta]]
[[sv:7 augusti]]
[[tl:Agosto 7]]
[[tt:7. August]]
[[te:ఆగష్టు 7]]
[[th:7 สิงหาคม]]
[[vi:7 tháng 8]]
[[tr:7 Ağustos]]
[[uk:7 серпня]]
[[wa:7 d' awousse]]
[[war:Agosto 7]]
[[zh:8月7日]]
[[pam:Agostu 7]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>August 8</title>
<id>1333</id>
<revision>
<id>41774686</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T17:34:33Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rklawton</username>
<id>754622</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Deaths */ added birth year</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{| style="float:right;"
|-
|{{AugustCalendar}}
|-
|{{ThisDateInRecentYears|Month=August|Day=8}}
|}
'''August 8''' is the 220th day of the year in the [[Gregorian Calendar]] (221st in [[leap year]]s), with 145 days remaining.
==Events==
*[[1509]] - The Emperor [[Krishnadevaraya|Krishnadeva Raya]] is crowned, marking the beginning of the regeneration of the [[Vijayanagara Empire]].
*[[1585]] - [[John Davis (English explorer)|John Davis]] enters [[Cumberland Sound]] in quest for the [[Northwest Passage]].
*[[1588]] - [[Battle of Gravelines]] ends, marking the end of the [[Spanish Armada]]'s attempt to invade England.
*[[1605]] - The city of [[Oulu]], [[Finland]], is founded by [[Charles IX of Sweden]].
*[[1647]] - [[Battle of Dangan Hill]] - [[Ireland|Irish]] forces are defeated by [[Great Britain|British]] [[Parliament]]ary forces.
*[[1786]] - [[Mont Blanc]] in [[Switzerland]] is climbed for the first time by [[Jacques Balmat]] and Dr [[Michael-Gabriel Paccard]].
*[[1839]] - [[Beta Theta Pi]] is founded in [[Oxford, Ohio]].
*[[1844]] - The [[Quorum of Twelve]], headed by [[Brigham Young]], is created as the leading body of the [[Mormon]] Church.
*[[1863]] - [[American Civil War]]: Following his defeat in the [[Battle of Gettysburg]], General [[Robert E. Lee]] sends a letter of resignation to [[Confederate States of America|Confederate]] President [[Jefferson Davis]] (which is refused upon receipt).
*[[1876]] - [[Thomas Edison]] receives a patent for his [[mimeograph]].
*[[1911]] - [[Public Law 62-5]] sets the number of representatives in the [[United States House of Representatives]] at 435. The law will take effect in [[1913]].
*[[1918]] - [[World War I]]: [[Battle of Amiens]] - [[Canada|Canadian]] troops, backed by [[Australia]]ns, begin a string of almost continuous victories with a push through the [[Germany|German]] front lines.
*[[1929]] - The [[Germany|German]] airship ''[[LZ 127 Graf Zeppelin|Graf Zeppelin]]'' begins a round-the-world flight.
*[[1930]] - [[Betty Boop]] premieres in the animated film ''Dizzy Dishes''.
*[[1938]] - The [[Mauthausen concentration camp]] opens.
*[[1942]] - [[World War II]]: In [[Washington, DC]], six [[Germany|German]] would-be saboteurs are executed.
*1942 - [[Quit India]] resolution was passed by the [[Bombay]] session of the AICC, which leads to the start of a civil disobedience movement across [[India]]
*[[1945]] - World War II - The [[Soviet Union]] declares war on [[Japan]] and invades [[Manchuria]].
*1945 - The [[United Nations Charter]] is ratified by the [[United States]], which becomes the third nation to join.
*[[1949]] - [[Bhutan]] becomes independent
*[[1962]] - Elizabeth Ann Duncan becomes the last woman to be executed in the [[United States]] prior to the reintroduction of [[capital punishment]] in 1977.
*[[1963]] - [[The Great Train Robbery of 1963|Great Train Robbery]]: In [[England]], a gang of 15 [[train robbery|train robbers]] steal 2.6 million pounds in bank notes.
*[[1967]] - The [[Association of Southeast Asian Nations]] (ASEAN) is founded.
*[[1968]] - Jurō Wada successfully performs [[Japan|Japan's]] first [[Organ transplant|heart transplant]].
*[[1969]] - An iconic [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:AbbeyRoad.jpg picture] of [[the Beatles]] is taken to be used on their album [[Abbey Road (album)|Abbey Road]].
*[[1972]] - [[Richard Nixon]] accepts the nomination as candidate for the [[President of the United States|presidency]].
*[[1973]] - U.S. Vice President Spiro Agnew goes on television to denounce accusations he had taken [[kickbacks]] while governor of Maryland.
*1973 - [[Kim Dae-Jung]], a [[South Korea|South Korean]] politician and later president of South Korea, is [[1973 Kidnapping of Kim Dae-Jung|kidnapped]].
*[[1974]] - [[Watergate scandal]]: U.S. President [[Richard Nixon]] announces his resignation, effective the next day.
*[[1976]] - [[Boston_(album)|Boston]], by the rock band [[Boston_(band)|Boston]] is released. It will become the #1 best-selling debut album in history.
*[[1988]] - General [[Ne Win]], ruler of [[Burma]] since [[1962]], suddenly resigns.
*1988 - Chicago's [[Wrigley Field]] installs lights and attempts to play first game at night.
*[[1989]] - [[STS-28]]: The [[Space Shuttle Columbia]] takes off on a secret five-day military mission.
*[[1991]] - Collapse of [[Warsaw radio mast]], the tallest construction ever built
*1991 - [[John McCarthy]], British Journalist held hostage in Lebanon for more than five years by [[Islamic Jihad]], is released.
*[[1999]] - The series finale of ''[[Mystery Science Theater 3000]]'' airs on the [[Sci-Fi Channel]].
*[[2000]] - [[Confederate States of America|Confederate]] submarine ''[[H.L. Hunley]]'' is |
itical literary tastes ran instead to [[Torquato Tasso]] and Rinaldo and Armida, Roger and Angelica. Later, the rise of a more authentic sense of history among literate people brought the Crusades into a new focus for the Romantic generation in the romances of Sir [[Walter Scott]] in the early 19th century. Crusading imagery could be found even in the [[Crimean War]], in which the United Kingdom and France were allied with the Muslim [[Ottoman Empire]], and in the [[World War I|First World War]], especially [[Edmund Henry Hynman Allenby, 1st Viscount Allenby|Allenby]]'s capture of Jerusalem in 1917 (''illustration, below right'').
[[Image:Punch1917-richardIandallenby.jpg|thumb|right|180px|Depiction of Richard I overlooking Jerusalem, in ''[[Punch Magazine]]'', December 1917. The caption read: "At last my dream come true."]]
In Spain, the popular reputation of the Crusades is outshone by the particularly Spanish history of the ''[[Reconquista]]''. [[El Cid]] is the central figure.
===Eastern Orthodoxy===
Like Muslims, [[Eastern Orthodoxy|Eastern Orthodox]] Christians also see the Crusades as attacks by the barbarian West, but centered on the sack of [[Constantinople]] in 1204. Many relics and artifacts taken from Constantinople are still in Roman Catholic hands, in the [[Vatican City|Vatican]] and elsewhere. Disagreement currently exists between modern Turks and Greeks over the claimant rights to the Greek Horses on the facade of [[San Marco di Venezia|St. Mark's]] in [[Venice]]. The Greeks argue that the frieze is inherently part of Greek culture and identity, similar to the "Elgin" Marbles and the Turks counter that the freize originated from what is now modern-day [[Istanbul]]. A picture of Turkish popular history of the Crusades can be assembled by compiling text of official Turkish brochures on Crusader fortifications in the Aegean coast and coastal islands. Countries of Central Europe, despite the fact that formally they also belonged to [[Western Christianity]], were the most skeptical about the idea of Crusades. Many cities in [[Hungary]] were sacked by passing bands of Crusaders; one ruler of [[Poland]] refused to join a Crusade, allegedly because of the lack of [[beer]] in the [[Holy land]]. Later on [[Poland]] and [[Hungary]] were themselves subject to conquest from the [[Crusaders]] (see [[Teutonic Order]]), and therefore invented the idea that [[Paganism|pagans]] have the right to live in peace and have property rights to their lands (see [[Pawel Wlodkowic]]).
== See also ==
{{commons|Category:Crusades}}
* [[Crusade art]]
* [[Crusader States]]
* [[Military orders]]
* [[Religious Wars]]
* [[Shepherds' Crusade]]
* [[Tenth Crusade]]
==References and further reading==
*Alfred J. Andrea, ''Encyclopedia of the Crusades''. Greenwood Press, 2003.
*Carole Hillenbrand, ''The Crusades, Islamic Perspectives''. New York, 2000.
*P.M. Holt, ''The Age of the Crusades: The Near East from the Eleventh Century to 1517''. New York, 1986.
*Thomas F. Madden, ''The New Concise History of the Crusades''. Lanham, 2005.
*Hans E. Mayer, ''The Crusades''. Oxford, 1965.
*Jonathan Riley-Smith, ''The First Crusade and the Idea of Crusading''. Philadelphia, 1986.
*Jonathan Riley-Smith, ''The Oxford History of the Crusades''. Oxford, 1995.
*Jonathan Riley-Smith, ''What were the Crusades?''. San Francisco, 2002.
*[[Steven Runciman]], ''A History of the Crusades'', 3 vols., Cambridge, 1951-1954.
*[[Amin Maalouf]], ''The Crusades Through Arab Eyes''. 1983
==External links==
*Kenneth Setton, ed., ''A History of the Crusades''. Madison, 1969-1989 ([http://libtext.library.wisc.edu/HistCrusades/ e-book online])
*Angeliki E. Laiou, ''The Crusades from the Perspective of Byzantium and the Muslim World'', ([http://www.doaks.org/LACR.html e-book online]), includes chapter on Historiography of the crusades.
*E.L. Skip Knox, [http://crusades.boisestate.edu/ The Crusades], a virtual college course through [[Boise State University]].
[[Category:Crusades|*]]
[[Category:Jerusalem]]
[[Category:Islamic history]]
[[Category:Islam and Other Religions]]
<!-- The below are interlanguage links. -->
{{Link FA|no}}
[[af:Kruistog]]
[[als:Kreuzzug]]
[[ar:حملات صليبية]]
[[bg:Кръстоносен поход]]
[[be:Крыжовыя паходы]]
[[ca:Croades]]
[[cs:Křížová výprava]]
[[da:Korstog]]
[[de:Kreuzzug]]
[[et:Ristisõjad]]
[[el:Σταυροφορίες]]
[[es:Cruzadas]]
[[eo:Krucmilito]]
[[fa:جنگهای صلیبی]]
[[fr:Croisade]]
[[gl:Cruzadas]]
[[ko:십자군]]
[[hr:Križarski ratovi]]
[[io:Kruco-milito]]
[[id:Perang Salib]]
[[it:Crociata]]
[[he:מסעי הצלב]]
[[lv:Krusta kari]]
[[lt:Kryžiaus žygiai]]
[[hu:Keresztes háborúk]]
[[mk:Крстоносни војни]]
[[nl:Kruistocht]]
[[nds:Krüüztog]]
[[ja:十字軍]]
[[no:Korstog]]
[[nn:Krosstog]]
[[pl:Krucjata]]
[[pt:Cruzada]]
[[ro:Cruciadă]]
[[ru:Крестовые походы]]
[[simple:The Crusades]]
[[sk:Križiacke výpravy]]
[[sl:Križarske vojne]]
[[sr:Крсташки ратови]]
[[fi:Ristiretki]]
[[sv:Korståg]]
[[th:สงครามครูเสด]]
[[tr:Haçlı Seferleri]]
[[uk:Хрестовий похід]]
[[zh:十字軍東征]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Connected space</title>
<id>6233</id>
<revision>
<id>40496585</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-21T00:04:34Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Johnfuhrmann</username>
<id>965631</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* Local connectedness */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Connected and disconnected spaces.svg|thumb|250px|Connected and disconnected subspaces of '''R'''². The space ''A'' at top is connected; the shaded space ''B'' at bottom is not.]]
In [[topology]] and related branches of [[mathematics]], a '''connected space''' is a [[topological space]] which cannot be written as the [[disjoint union (topology)|disjoint union]] of two or more nonempty spaces. Connectedness is one of the principal [[topological properties]] that is used to distinguish topological spaces. A stronger notion is that of a '''path-connected space''', which is a space where any two points can be joined by a [[path (topology)|path]].
It is usually easy to think about what is not connected. A simple example would be a space consisting of two rectangles, each of which is a space and not adjoined to the other. The space is not connected since two rectangles are disjoint. Another good example is a space with an annulus removed. The space is not connected since you cannot connect two points, one inside the annulus and the other outside; hence the term "connect".
Also, in a sense, a connected space is a generalization of an interval on the real number line, just as a topological space is, so to speak, an attempt to generalize an interval.
==Formal definition==
A [[topological space]] ''X'' is said to be '''disconnected''' if it is the [[union (set theory)|union]] of two [[disjoint]] [[nonempty]] [[open set]]s. Otherwise, ''X'' is said to be '''connected'''. A [[subset]] of a topological space is said to be connected if it is connected under its [[subspace (topology)|subspace topology]]. Some authors specifically exclude the [[empty set]] with its unique topology as a connected space, but this encyclopedia does not follow that practice.
For a topological space ''X'' the following conditions are equivalent:
#''X'' is connected.
#''X'' cannot be divided into two disjoint nonempty [[closed set]]s (This follows since the [[complement (set theory)|complement]] of an open set is closed).
#The only sets which are both open and closed ([[clopen set]]s) are ''X'' and the empty set.
#The only sets with empty [[boundary (topology)|boundary]] are ''X'' and the empty set.
#''X'' cannot be written as the union of two nonempty [[separated sets]].
The [[maximal element|maximal]] nonempty connected subsets of any topological space are called the '''connected components''' of the space.
The components form a [[partition of a set|partition]] of the space (that is, they are [[disjoint]] and their union is the whole space).
Every component is a [[closed subset]] of the original space.
The components in general need not be open: the components of the [[rational number]]s, for instance, are the one-point sets.
A space in which all components are one-point sets is called '''totally disconnected'''. Related to this property, a space ''X'' is called '''totally separated''' if, for any two elements ''x'' and ''y'' of ''X'', there exist disjoint [[neighborhood (topology)|open neighborhood]]s ''U'' of ''x'' and ''V'' of ''y'' such that ''X'' is the union of ''U'' and ''V''. Clearly any totally separated space is totally disconnected, but the converse does not hold. For example take two copies of the rational numbers '''Q''', and identify them at every point except zero. The resulting space, with the quotient topology, is totally disconnected. However, by considering the two copies of zero, the space is not totally separated, or even [[Hausdorff_space|Hausdorff]].
== Examples ==
* The closed interval [0, 2] is connected; it can, for example, be written as the union of [0, 1) and [1, 2], but the second set is not open in the topology of [0, 2]. On the other hand, the union of [0, 1) and (1, 2] is disconnected; both of these intervals are open in the topological space [0, 1)&cup;(1, 2].
* A [[convex set]] is connected; it is actually [[simply connected set|simply connected]].
* An [[Euclidean space|Euclidean plane]] excluding the origin, (0, 0), is connected, but is not simply connected. The three-dimensional Euclidean space without the origin is connected, and even simply connected. In contrast, the one-dimensional Euclidean space without the origin is not connected.
* The space of [[real number]]s with the usual topology is connected.
* Every [[discrete topological space]] is disconnected, in fact such a space is totally disconnected.
* The [[Cantor set]] is totally dis |
ritish monarch|Sovereign]]. However, there continues to be a [[Vice-Admiral of the United Kingdom]] and a [[Rear-Admiral of the United Kingdom]], both of which are honorary offices.
For information on the administration of the Royal Admiralty, with specific information regarding each of the separate officers and branches see: [[Admiralty administration]].
==History==
[[Image:Admiralty_Flag.gif|thumb|right|Flag of the Lord High Admiral or the Admiralty]]
The office of ''Admiral of England'', or ''Lord Admiral'' and later ''Lord High Admiral'' was created in around [[1400]]. In [[1546]] King [[Henry VIII of England|Henry VIII]] established the ''Council of the Marine'', later to became the ''Navy Board'', to oversee administrative affairs of the naval service. Operational control of the Navy remained the responsibility of the Lord High Admiral, who was one of the nine [[Great Officers of State]].
In [[1628]], [[Charles I of England|Charles I]] put the office of Lord High Admiral into commission and control of the Royal Navy passed to a committee in the form of the ''Board of the Admiralty''. The office of Lord High Admiral passed a number of times in and out of commission until [[1709]], after which the office was almost permanently in commission (the last Lord High Admiral being the future [[William IV of the United Kingdom|King William IV]] in the early [[19th century]]). .
The members of the Board of Admiralty were known as the '''Lords Commissioners of Admiralty'''. The Lords Commissioners were always a mixture of [[admirals]], known as Naval Lords or Sea Lords, and civilian lords, normally politicians. The president of the Board was known as the '''First Lord of the Admiralty''', who was a member of the [[Cabinet of the United Kingdom|Cabinet]].
After [[1806]], the First Lord of the Admiralty was always a civilian, while the professional head of the navy came to be (and is still today) known as the [[First Sea Lord]].
In [[1831]] the Navy Board was abolished as a separate entity and its duties and responsibilities were given over to the Board of Admiralty.
In [[1964]] the Admiralty was subsumed into the Ministry of Defence along with the [[War Office]] and the [[Air Ministry]]. Within the expanded Ministry of Defence are the new ''Admiralty Board'', ''Army Board'' and ''Air Force Board'', each headed by the [[Secretary of State for Defence]]. As mentioned above, there is also a Navy Board in charge of the day-to-day running of the Royal Navy.
==The buildings==
[[Image:The Admiralty (now the Ripley Buidling) by Thomas Hosmer Shepherd, 1830..jpg|thumb|250px|The Old Admiralty or Ripley Building.]]
[[Image:Admiralty 1794 Draughtsman; Chawner, Thomas.jpg|thumb|250px|The Admiralty in 1794. The different colours indicate different departments or residences for the several Lords of the Admiralty. The pale coloured extension behind the small courtyard on the left is Admiralty House.]]
The Admiralty complex lies between [[Whitehall]], [[Horse Guards Parade]] and [[The Mall (London)|The Mall]] and includes five buildings. As the Admiralty no longer exists as a department, these are now used as an "office bank" by the government:
*The oldest building was long known simply as The Admiralty, and is now referred to popularly as the '''Old Admiralty''' and officially as the '''Ripley Building'''. It was designed and built by [[Thomas Ripley (architect)|Thomas Ripley]], a former carpenter and protegé of Sir [[Robert Walpole]], whose creation provoked the scorn of [[Alexander Pope]]:
:''See under Ripley rise a new [[Banqueting House at Whitehall|White-hall]]'',
:''While [[Inigo Jones|Jones']] and [[Richard Boyle, 3rd Earl of Burlington|Boyle's]] united labours fall''.
:::&mdash; ''The Dunciad'' (1743), book III, ii, 327-8
It is a three storey u-shaped brick building, and completed in 1726. As Pope implied the architecture is rather dull, lacking either the vigour of the [[baroque]] style which was fading from fashion at the time, or the austere grandeur of the [[Palladian]] style which was just coming into vogue. It is mainly notable for being perhaps the first purpose built office building in Great Britain. It contained a board room, other state rooms and offices and apartments for the Lords of the Admiralty. [[Robert Adam]] designed the screen which was added to the entrance front in 1788. Nowadays the Ripley Building is allocated to the [[Cabinet Office]] and contains government function rooms.
*'''[[Admiralty House (London)|Admiralty House]]''': This is a moderately proportioned mansion to the south of the Ripley Building, which was built in the late 18th century as the residence of the First Lord of the Admiralty, and served that purpose until 1964. [[Winston Churchill]] was one of its occupants. It lacks its own entrance from Whitehall, and is entered through the Ripley Building. It is a three storey building in yellow brick with [[neo-classical]] interiors. Its rear facade faces directly onto Horse Guards Parade. The architect was [[Samuel Pepys Cockerell]]. There are now three ministerial flats in the building [http://www.parliament.uk/commons/lib/research/notes/snpc-03367.pdf].
[[Image:Old_admiralty.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The Admiralty Extension dates from the turn of the 20th century]]
*The '''Admiralty Extension'''. This is the largest of the Admiralty Buildings. It was begun in the late 19th century and redesigned while the construction was in progress to accommodate the extra offices needed due to the naval arms race with the [[German Empire]]. It is red brick building with white stone detailing in the [[Queen Anne]] style with French influences.
*'''[[Admiralty Arch]]''' is linked to the Admiralty extension by a bridge. In architectural terms it is part of the ceremonial route from Trafalgar Square to [[Buckingham Palace]]. It contains further offices.
*The '''Admiralty Citadel''' is a squat windowless [[World War II]] fortress at the north east corner of Horse Guards Parade. See [[Military citadels under London]] for further details.
==Reference==
*London 6: Westminster (from the Buildings of England series) by [[Nikolaus Pevsner]] and Simon Bradley (2003). [[Yale University Press]] ISBN 0300095953.
==See also==
{{Commonscat}}
* [[List of Lord High Admirals and First Lords of the Admiralty]]
* [[List of Lords Commissioners of the Admiralty]]
* [[First Sea Lord]]
* [[Second Sea Lord]]
* [[Third Sea Lord]]
* [[Lord High Admiral of Scotland]]
* [[Admiralty administration]]
* [[List of British politicians by wealth at death]]
[[Category:Royal Navy]]
[[Category:Royal Navy admirals|*]]
[[Category:Lords of the Admiralty|*]]
[[fr:Amirauté (britannique)]]
[[pl:Admiralicja]]
[[sv:Amiralitet]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Advertising Standards Authority</title>
<id>2989</id>
<revision>
<id>41598564</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T11:49:22Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>82.111.23.153</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Noteworthy rulings */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:ASA (logo).gif|right|Advertising Standards Authority logo]]
The '''Advertising Standards Authority''' (ASA) is an independent [[United Kingdom|British]] regulatory body set up by the [[advertising]] industry to monitor advertisements in print and broadcast media. The central tenets of its [[Advertising Code]] are that adverts must be "legal, decent, honest, and truthful".
As it is not a government body, it has no statutory authority. However, as its rulings are poor publicity for advertisers in breach of the Code, it is usually able to enforce correct observance in Britain. It can also refer some forms of breach - for instance, where breach persists despite warnings, consumer safety is an issue, or there is evidence of [[fraud]] - to the government [[Office of Fair Trading]], which does have legal powers to invoke [[consumer protection]] laws.
== Noteworthy rulings ==
* [[Apple Computer]]'s claims superior performance were judged unacceptable
* [[Microsoft]]'s "[[Get the facts]]" campaign was [[bias]]ed
* [[Intel]]'s [[Centrino]] advertisements were deceptive
1
==See also==
* [[Advertising regulation]]
* [[Ofcom]] - the British telecommunications and broadcasting regulator
* [[Press Complaints Commission]]
==External links==
* [http://www.asa.org.uk ASA official site]
{{UK-org-stub}}
[[Category:Advertising]]
[[Category:Media of the United Kingdom]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Airdrie</title>
<id>2990</id>
<revision>
<id>28210195</id>
<timestamp>2005-11-13T14:24:54Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Punkmorten</username>
<id>114828</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>geodis</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Airdrie''' can refer to:
* [[Airdrie, Scotland]]
* [[Airdrie, Alberta]]
{{geodis}}
[[pt:Airdrie]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Amphibian (disambiguation)</title>
<id>2991</id>
<revision>
<id>34730268</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-11T08:17:42Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>NTBot</username>
<id>274552</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>robot Adding: pt</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Amphibian''' may refer to:
* a [[vertebrate]] [[animal]] of the class '''[[Amphibia]]''';
* the [[superhero]] '''[[Amphibian_(comics)|Amphibian]]'''
* [[Amphibious vehicle|Amphibian vehicles]]
* [[Amphibian aircraft]]
{{disambig}}
[[hr:Amfibija]]
[[pt:Anfíbio (desambiguação)]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Amputation</title>
<id>2992</id>
<revision>
<id>41995330</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T02:44:24Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>DannyBoy7783</username>
<id>436648</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Amputee.jpg|200px| |
;br>''highest 10%:'' NA%
'''Inflation rate (consumer prices):''' -1.6% (2001 est.)
'''Labour force:''' 3.44 million (2001 est.)
<br>'''Labour force - by occupation:''' wholesale and retail trade, restaurants, and hotels 31%, financing, insurance, and real estate 13%, community and social services 11%, manufacturing 7%, transport and communications 6%, construction 2%, other 30% (2001 est.)
<br>'''Unemployment rate:''' 5.2% (2001 est.)
'''Budget:'''
<br>''revenues:'' $22.9 billion
<br>''expenditures:'' $24.6 billion, including capital expenditures of $465 million (FY00/01)
'''Foreign Currency Reserve Assets:''' $972.32 billion (December 2005 est.)
'''Total assets of the Exchange Fund''' including the Foreign Currency Reserve Assets: $1068.9 billion (December 2005)
==Primary industry==
Both [[agriculture]] and [[fisheries]] are the only [[primary industry]] in Hong Kong.
===Agriculture and fisheries===
:''Main articles: [[Agriculture in Hong Kong]] and [[Fisheries in Hong Kong]]''
Hong Kong has little [[arable land]] and virtually no natural resources, including water for agriculture. Agriculturally, it is less than 20% self-sufficient. Hong Kong used to be fishing villages, thus fishing is a key local industry.
'''Main produce:''' fresh vegetables; poultry, fish, pork
==Secondary industry==
[[Secondary industry]] in Hong Kong includes textiles, clothing, electronics, plastics, toys, and watches and clocks
'''Industrial production growth rate:''' -9% (2001 est.)
'''Electricity - production:''' 29,449 GWh (2000)
<br>'''Electricity - production by source:'''
<br>''fossil fuel:'' 99%
<br>''hydro:'' 1%
<br>''nuclear:'' 0%
<br>''other:'' 0% (2000)
<br>'''Electricity - consumption:''' 35,402 GWh (2000)
<br>'''Electricity - exports:''' 1,181 GWh (2000)
<br>'''Electricity - imports:''' 9,195 GWh (2000)
==Tertiary industry==
[[Tertiary industry]] in Hong Kong includes...
===Tourism===
:''See [[Tourism in Hong Kong]]''
==Trade and investment==
'''Exports:''' $191 billion f.o.b., including reexports (2001 est.)
<br>'''Exports - [[commodities]]:''' clothing, textiles, footwear, electrical appliances, watches and clocks, toys, plastics, precious stones
<br>'''Exports - partners:''' Mainland China 43%, Japan 12%, Taiwan 8%, US 7%, South Korea 5%, Singapore 3% (2000)
'''Imports:''' $58.8 billion (2001 est.)
<br>'''Imports - commodities:''' foodstuffs, transport equipment, raw materials, semimanufactures, petroleum; a large share is reexported
<br>'''Imports - partners:''' Mainland China 41%, Japan 13%, US 8%, Taiwan 7%, South Korea 5%, Singapore 4% (1998)
'''Debt - external:''' $48.1 billion (1999)
'''Economic aid - recipient:''' none
==Currency==
:''Main article: [[Hong Kong dollar]]''
1 Hong Kong dollar (HK$) = 100 cents
'''Exchange rates:''' Hong Kong dollars per US dollar - 7.799 (April 2005), 7.798 (January 2002), 7.7994 (2001), 7.7918 (2000), 7.7589 (1999), 7.7462 (1998), 7.7425 (1997); note - the Hong Kong dollar is linked to the US dollar at a rate of about 7.8 Hong Kong dollars per US dollar
'''Fiscal year:''' [[1 April]]&ndash;[[31 March]]
==External links==
*[http://www.gov.hk Hong Kong Government]
==See also==
{{Life in Hong Kong}}
* [[Employment in Hong Kong]]
* [[Agriculture in Hong Kong]]
* [[Fisheries in Hong Kong]]
* [[List of companies in Hong Kong]]
* [[Hong Kong Stock Exchange]]
* [[Hong Kong dollar]]
* [[Hong Kong Monetary Authority]]
* [[Port of Hong Kong]]
* [[Mainland and Hong Kong Closer Economic Partnership Arrangement|Closer Economic Partnership Arrangement]]
* [[Individual Visit Scheme]]
* [[Economy of the People's Republic of China]]
* [[Economy of Asia]]
* [[East Asian Tigers]]
* [[Pearl_River_Delta#Ties_with_Hong_Kong|Ties with Pearl River Delta]]
* [[Four Dragons]]
{{APEC}}
{{WTO}}
[[Category:Economy of Hong Kong| ]]
[[Category:WTO members|Hong Kong]]
[[Category:Economies by country|Hong Kong]]
[[fr:Économie de Hong Kong]]
[[he:כלכלת הונג קונג]]
[[pt:Economia de Hong Kong]]
[[ru:Экономика Гонконга]]
[[zh:香港經濟]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Communications in Hong Kong</title>
<id>13410</id>
<revision>
<id>41031607</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-24T16:41:33Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>203.218.152.164</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* [[Telephone]] */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">==[[Telephone]]==
'''Telephones - main lines in use:'''
3.820 million (2003)
'''Telephones - mobile cellular:'''
8.076 million (Nov 2004)
'''Telephone system:'''
modern facilities provide excellent domestic and international services
<br>''domestic:''
microwave radio relay links and extensive fiber-optic network
<br>''international:''
satellite earth stations - 3 Intelsat (1 Pacific Ocean and 2 Indian Ocean); coaxial cable to Guangzhou, China; access to 5 international submarine cables providing connections to [[ASEAN]] member nations, Japan, Taiwan, Australia, Middle East, and Western Europe
* '''Major fixed-line operators''': [[Pacific Century Cyber Works]]
* '''Major cellular operators''': [[3 (telecommunications)|3]], [[SmarTone-Vodafone]], Sunday, [[Peoples (telephone)|Peoples]], [[New World]], [[CSL (mobile phone)|CSL]]
* '''3G Licensees''': [[3 (telecommunications)|3]] (owned by Hutchison), CSL, SmarTone, Sunday (service provide by PCCW Mobile)
The telecommunication industry was deregulated in 1995. Competition in this sector is fierce. You can get 10 Mbit/s up and down unlimited [[VDSL]], telephone line rental, unlimited local calls, and 100 minutes of international calls for US$25/month. Telephone line rental and unlimited local calls is only US$3/month.
==[[Radio]]==
'''Radio broadcast stations:'''
AM 7, FM 13, shortwave 0 (1998)
'''Radios:'''
4.45 million (1997)
==[[Television]]==
'''Television broadcast stations:'''
4 (plus two repeaters) (1997)
'''Televisions:'''
3.29 million (2000)
*[[Phoenix TV]]
==[[Internet]]==
'''Internet Service Providers (ISPs):'''
188 (Dec 2004)
*Dial-up access accounts: 1.007 million (Nov 2004)
*Broadband Internet access accounts: 1.472 million (Nov 2004)
'''[[Country codes|Country code]] (Top-level domain):''' [[.hk]]
==See also==
* [[Media in Hong Kong]]
* [[Newspapers of Hong Kong]]
* [[Hong Kong]]
* [[Communications in China]]
* [[List of Chinese language television channels]]
[[Category:Communications by country|Hong Kong]]
[[Category:Communications in Hong Kong| ]]
[[ru:Телекоммуникации в Гонконге]]
[[zh:香港通訊]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Transport in Hong Kong</title>
<id>13411</id>
<revision>
<id>41986771</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T01:34:23Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Cmdrjameson</username>
<id>101935</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>sp (3): aircrafts→aircraft, nothern→northern, whcih→which; Compact wikilinks (2)</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:HongKong-Bus&Minibus.png|thumb|300px|[[#Public light buses|Public light buses]] (left) and [[#Buses|double-decker buses]] (right) carry many passengers in Hong Kong everyday.]]
[[Hong Kong]] has a highly developed and sophisticated [[transport]] network, encompassing both [[public transport|public]] and private transport. Over 80% of trips are on public transport.
==Octopus card payment system==
[[Image:OctopusFrontNew.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Obverse side of a standard adult card.]]
:''Main article: [[Octopus card]]''
The [[Octopus card]] is a stored value [[smart card]] which can be used to pay fares on most trains, buses and ferries in Hong Kong. The majority of [[parking meter]]s and carparks will accept payment by Octopus card. The Octopus card can also be used at various convenience stores.
On-loan Octopus cards can be purchased at [[MTR|Mass Transit Railway]] (MTR) and [[KCR|Kowloon Canton Railway]] (KCR) stations. This type of card is anonymous and hence no personal information and identification are required. If an owner loses the card, only the stored value of the card is lost.
Octopus has become one of the world's most successful electronic cash systems today, with over 12 million Octopus cards in circulation (nearly twice that of Hong Kong's population) and over eight million transactions per day, 300 service vendors ([[as of January 2005]]). The operator of the Octopus system, [[Octopus Cards Limited]], is a joint venture between [[MTR Corporation]] and other transport companies in Hong Kong. The company has won a number of contracts to extend Octopus-style systems elsewhere such as the [[Netherlands]] and [[Changsha]], [[China]].
==Escalators and moving sidewalks==
[[image:Esculator.JPG|thumb|200px|[[Central-Mid-Levels escalator]].]]
:''Main article: [[Central-Mid-Levels escalator]]''
[[Hong Kong Island]] is dominated by steep, hilly terrain, which required the development of unusual methods of transport up and down the slopes. In [[Central and Western district]] there is an extensive system of [[escalator|escalators]] and [[moving sidewalk|moving sidewalks]]. The [[Central-Mid-Levels escalator|Mid-levels Escalator]] is the longest outdoor covered escalator system in the world, operating downhill until 10 in the morning for [[commuter]]s going to work, and then operating uphill until midnight.
The Mid-levels Escalator consists of 20 escalators and 3 moving sidewalks. It is 800 meters long, and climbs 135 vertical meters. Total travel time is 20 minutes, but most people walk while the escalator moves to shorten the travel time. Due to its vertical climb, the same distance is equivalent to several miles of zigzagging roads if travelled by car. Daily traffic exceeds 35,000 people. It has been operating since [[1993]] and cost [[Hong Kong dollar|HK$]] 240 million ([[United States dollar|USD]] 30 million) to build.
== Railways ==
[[Image:MTR people Island |
he body begins [[lipolysis]], the metabolism of fat for energy. In this process, fats, obtained from fat cells, are broken down into [[glycerol]] and [[fatty acids]], which can be used to make energy. The primary by-products of metabolism are carbon dioxide and water; carbon dioxide is expelled through the respiratory system.
Fats are also secreted by the [[sebaceous gland|sebaceous glands]] (in the skin), especially concurrently with [[sweat|sweating]] during exercise. (The bladder and bowels, also expel certain metabolic products).
==Psychological aspects of weight-loss dieting==
Diets affect the "energy in" component of the energy balance by limiting or altering the distribution of foods. Techniques that affect the [[appetite]] can limit energy intake by affecting the desire to overeat.
Consumption of low-energy, fiber-rich foods, such as vegetables, is effective in obtaining satiation (the feeling of "fullness"). Exercise is also useful in controlling appetite. (Extreme physical fatigue, such as experienced by soldiers and mountain climbers, can make eating a difficult chore.)
The use of drugs to control appetite is (potentially) dangerous. Stimulants are often taken as a means to ignore (normal, healthy) hunger by people who are not actually overweight.
[[habit|Habitual]] or [[emotion|emotional eating]] is a common problem. Sufferers often turn to [[self-help|self-help books]], [[hypnosis]] and [[group therapy]]. While these and other sources of support are valid, dieters must beware.
Some "diet [[guru|gurus]]" are [[charlatan|charlatans]]. Others are well-meaning but focus on psychology or philosophy at the expense of practical solutions. Diets designed to appeal to people emotionally are often either very difficult to follow (i.e., too strict) or useless (i.e., too lenient).
==Weight loss groups==
There exist both profit-oriented and non-profit weight loss organizations who assist people in their weight loss efforts. Examples of the former include [[Weight Watchers]] and [[Jenny Craig]]; examples of the latter include [[Overeaters Anonymous]], as well as a multitude of non-branded support groups run by local churches, hospitals, and like-minded individuals.
These organizations' customs and practices differ widely. Some groups are modelled on [[twelve-step program|twelve-step programs]], while others
are quite informal. Some groups advocate certain prepared foods or special menus, while others train dieters to make healthy choices from restaurant menus and while grocery-shopping and cooking.
Most groups leverage the power of group meetings to provide counseling, emotional support, problem-solving, and useful information.
==Popular Weight-Loss diets==
Popular diets (sometimes pejoratively called "fad diets") usually derive their popularity from the [[personality|personalities]] of their proponents. These proponents include "diet [[guru|gurus]]" and celebrity converts. "Diet books" are the primary means of communicating the specifics of popular diets.
Most popular diets experience short-lived popularity, partly because new diet books are continuously being published.
Judging the effectiveness (and nutritional merit) of popular diets can be especially difficult. Diet proponents often locate medical professionals to back up their work. And some diets are so [[controversy|controversial]] that they divide the medical community.
Many popular diets advocate the combination a specific technique (such as eliminating a certain food, or eating only certain combinations of foods) with reduced caloric intake, with the goal being to accelerate weight loss. Others ignore traditional science altogether.
===Grapefruit diet===
On the grapefruit diet, the consumption of grapefruit with each meal is said to increase metabolism, whereby burning fat and enabling rapid weight loss. Some people are allergic to this particular fruit.
===Low-fat diets===
Low-fat diets were popular during the 1980s and 1990s, encouraging people to eat foods low in fat (or without fat altogether) and instead eat foods high in carbohydrates.
Unfortunately, the [[general public]] came to believe, partly due to information from low-fat diet proponents, that carbohydrates were "energy food" and that only fat made people fat. This led to excessive consumption of low-fat foods rich in refined carbohydrates (notably [[corn syrup]]), which lead some people to gain more weight.
Some low-fat diets were healthier, focusing on consumption of whole grains, vegetables and lean meats. (See [[Pritikin diet]].) But even these diets did not recognize the importance of essential fatty acids.
===Atkins (low-carbohydrate diet)===
[[Atkins Nutritional Approach|The Atkins Diet]] is a very popular diet.
Dr. Robert Atkins' concept, somewhat exaggerated by the media, that a person can lose weight whilst gorging on meat, has captured the public's imagination. The success of those who tried the diet varied depending on the degree they adhered to the long term stages of the diet structure. The famous Atkins diet was originally designed for diabetes patients who wanted to manage their insulin levels more effectively. The diet was also embraced by those seeking a diet based on increasing meals, although mostly protein in nature, rather than reducing calories.
Atkins discourages carbohydrate intake and encourages protein intake, especially in the form of meat. The diet encourages the consumption of fruits and vegetables for the provision of fiber and nutrients; it takes a somewhat neutral stand on fat intake.
Many people experience rapid initial weight loss on Atkins, some of which is due to depletion of glycogen stores in the liver. (Glycogen in the body is associated with several times its weight in water.)
Low carbohydrate diets have been shown to reduce the fasting levels of [[triglycerides]]. Elevated triglycerides are a demonstrated risk factor for heart disease. (Low-fat diets also reduce fasting levels of triglycerides.)
A low-carbohydrate diet may not be suitable as a weight-maintenance diet (long-term). The by-products of fat metabolism ([[Fatty acid metabolism|lipolysis]]) and protein metabolism ([[gluconeogenesis]]) include [[ketones]] and [[uric acid]]; these can cause [[acidosis]]. Obtaining energy from carbohydrates is easier on the body.
Note: Any successful weight-loss diet will cause some acidosis; symptoms range from mild fatigue to severe joint pain. Acidosis can be controlled by drinking water (in large amounts) and taking [[antacid]] supplements (or eating vegetables grown in alkaline soil).
Note: Human metabolism is enormously complicated. To the extent low-carbohydrate diets are effective, their mechanism is controversial and incompletely understood.
===Natural Diets===
Since the advent of controversial diets such as Atkins, various diets that stress the eating habits of "natural humans" have been developed. The [[Evolution Diet]] explains "what and how we were designed to eat"; the [[Paleolithic diet|Paleolithic Diet]] imitates the way people ate during the [[Stone Age]].
===Vegetarian diet===
There is a growing body of evidence that vegetarian diets can prevent obesity and lower disease risks.
According to the [[American Dietetic Association]], "Vegetarians have been reported to have lower body mass indices than nonvegetarians, as well as lower rates of death from ischemic heart disease; vegetarians also show lower blood cholesterol levels; lower blood pressure; and lower rates of hypertension, type 2 diabetes, and prostate and colon cancer."
Vegans on average weigh 10 percent less than non-vegetarians. And in a year-long study comparing Dean Ornish's vegetarian diet to Weight Watchers, The Zone Diet, and The Atkins Diet, subjects on Dean Ornish's diet achieved the most weight loss (on average).
Note: Human metabolism is enormously complicated. To the extent vegetarian diets are effective, their mechanism is controversial and incompletely understood.
==Very Low Calorie Diet==
The Very Low Calorie Diet (VLCD) is a prescribed diet for obese patients. Daily intake consists of three [[milkshake|milkshake-like]] formula drinks (made with powder concentrate and water), which supply about 2000 kilojoules (500 Calories) and all necessary vitamins and minerals.
There are risks to this diet. A patient who drinks more formula than allowed can get too much iron and selenium. [[Constipation]] is a problem: extra water and (fiber) laxatives may be required. [[immune system|Immune response]] may be compromised.
VLCD should only be used for dieting when a patient's [[body mass index]] exceeds 30. The diet requires regular consultation between patient and doctor.
VLCD can be very successful when used over a 6-12 week period. As with all starvation diets, metabolism will fall. A sensible diet-and-exercise plan must follow cessation of VLCD, or weight will be gained back.
Note: Human metabolism is enormously complicated. To the extent VLCD diets are effective, their mechanism is controversial and incompletely understood.
==Dangers of weight loss dieting==
Strange or extreme diets can be very dangerous, and they are often ineffective. If one seeks the sensible and popular ideal of being lean and athletic, then starvation diets are counterproductive.
===Diet pills===
There are many diet pills for sale, some which are associated with comprehensive dietary programs. Many such pills, including many of those containing [[vitamins]] and [[minerals]], are not effective for losing weight.
Some drugs enable short-term weight loss, usually with unpleasant and potentially dangerous side effects. The drugs include (physiologically active) [[herb|herbal]] products available at [[health food]] stores, as well as over-the-counter (OTC) and prescribed medications provided by doctors and pharmacists.
Typically these drugs fall into two classes: [[diure |
ed calls.
The species takes its name from its discoverer, the [[Switzerland|Swiss]] naturalist [[Emil August Goeldi]].
==External links==
{{Wikispecies|Callimico}}
{{Wikispecies|Callimico goeldii}}
*[http://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2004-06/uow-mb061504.php Press release on recent research] on Goeldi's Monkey by scientists at the [[University of Washington]]
*[http://pin.primate.wisc.edu/factsheets/links/callimico Primate Info Net ''Callimico'' Factsheets]
[[Category:New World monkeys]]
[[de:Springtamarin]]
[[fr:Tamarin de Goeldi]]
[[nl:Springtamarin]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>GNU/GPL</title>
<id>11895</id>
<revision>
<id>15909606</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[GNU_General_Public_License]]
:''See also :'' [[GNU]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>GNU/FDL</title>
<id>11896</id>
<revision>
<id>15909607</id>
<timestamp>2002-07-21T03:06:04Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Magnus Manske</username>
<id>4</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>fixing blank link</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[GNU Free Documentation License]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>GNU/HURD</title>
<id>11897</id>
<revision>
<id>15909608</id>
<timestamp>2004-05-14T00:38:25Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Angela</username>
<id>8551</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>fix redir</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[GNU Hurd]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>GNU/Hurd</title>
<id>11898</id>
<revision>
<id>28215584</id>
<timestamp>2005-11-13T16:00:34Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Gronky</username>
<id>87356</id>
</contributor>
<comment>merged into [[GNU]] (See Talk pages) #redirect [[GNU]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[GNU]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>GNU/Emacs</title>
<id>11899</id>
<revision>
<id>15909610</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Emacs]]
:''See also :'' [[GNU]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>GNU/GCC</title>
<id>11900</id>
<revision>
<id>15909611</id>
<timestamp>2002-12-25T00:55:49Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Patrick</username>
<id>4388</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[GNU Compiler Collection]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>GNU/LGPL</title>
<id>11901</id>
<revision>
<id>15909612</id>
<timestamp>2002-10-05T19:51:52Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>CYD</username>
<id>45</id>
</contributor>
<comment>simply redirect to LGPL</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[GNU Lesser General Public License]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>GNU/Linux</title>
<id>11902</id>
<revision>
<id>35981436</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-20T18:10:37Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Stevenj</username>
<id>7918</id>
</contributor>
<comment>rv copy-and-paste from [[Linux]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Linux]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>GNU/LinuxTalk</title>
<id>11904</id>
<revision>
<id>31997252</id>
<timestamp>2005-12-19T19:14:31Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>RussBot</username>
<id>279219</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Robot: Fixing [[Special:DoubleRedirects|double-redirect]] -"Talk:GNU/Linux naming debate" +"Talk:GNU/Linux naming controversy"</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Talk:GNU/Linux naming controversy]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Grunge Music</title>
<id>11905</id>
<revision>
<id>15909616</id>
<timestamp>2002-05-06T21:59:19Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Maveric149</username>
<id>62</id>
</contributor>
<comment>#redirect [[Grunge music]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Grunge music]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>GrungE</title>
<id>11906</id>
<revision>
<id>15909617</id>
<timestamp>2002-07-16T01:42:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Karen Johnson</username>
<id>1300</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>fix redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Grunge music]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Games/Cards</title>
<id>11907</id>
<revision>
<id>15909618</id>
<timestamp>2002-10-09T16:29:00Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Magnus Manske</username>
<id>4</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>#REDIRECT [[Card game]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Card game]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Games/Board</title>
<id>11908</id>
<revision>
<id>15909619</id>
<timestamp>2002-10-10T10:09:20Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Magnus Manske</username>
<id>4</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>-See also</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Board game]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Games/Letter</title>
<id>11909</id>
<revision>
<id>15909620</id>
<timestamp>2002-10-09T16:29:34Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Magnus Manske</username>
<id>4</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>#REDIRECT [[letter game]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[letter game]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Games/Casino</title>
<id>11910</id>
<revision>
<id>15909621</id>
<timestamp>2002-10-10T10:09:32Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Magnus Manske</username>
<id>4</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>-See also</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Casino game]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Games/RolePlaying</title>
<id>11911</id>
<revision>
<id>15909622</id>
<timestamp>2002-10-10T10:09:44Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Magnus Manske</username>
<id>4</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>-See also</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Role-playing game]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Games/TradingCard</title>
<id>11912</id>
<revision>
<id>15909623</id>
<timestamp>2004-06-16T23:58:43Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Timwi</username>
<id>13051</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>fix double-redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Collectible card game]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Games/TableTop</title>
<id>11913</id>
<revision>
<id>15909624</id>
<timestamp>2004-08-13T19:52:45Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Timwi</username>
<id>13051</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>fix double-redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Tabletop game]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Games/Computer</title>
<id>11914</id>
<revision>
<id>25701686</id>
<timestamp>2005-10-17T01:20:54Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Andrevan</username>
<id>13732</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/Chaosfeary|Chaosfeary]] to last version by Spangineer</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Computer and video games]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Games/Tile based</title>
<id>11915</id>
<revision>
<id>15909626</id>
<timestamp>2002-10-10T10:10:06Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Magnus Manske</username>
<id>4</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>-See also</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Tile-based game]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Games/Die Siedler von Catan</title>
<id>11916</id>
<revision>
<id>15909627</id>
<timestamp>2003-05-25T19:24:16Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Camembert</username>
<id>3113</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>fix double redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Settlers of Catan]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Games/video games</title>
<id>11917</id>
<revision>
<id>25701661</id>
<timestamp>2005-10-17T01:20:33Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Andrevan</username>
<id>13732</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/Chaosfeary|Chaosfeary]] to last version by Spangineer</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Computer and video games]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Games/Hex</title>
<id>11918</id>
<revision>
<id>15909629</id>
<timestamp>2003-09-13T13:26:48Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Evercat</username>
<id>10109</i |
d Union Flag]], a design first used on [[Concorde]].
==World Cargo==
BA is, through its subsidiary British Airways World Cargo, the world's fifth-largest [[cargo airline]]. BA World Cargo has extensive global reach through the British Airways scheduled network. In addition to the main fleet, BA World Cargo [[wet lease]] three [[Boeing 747-400F]] dedicated freighter aircraft from [[Global Supply Systems]] on a long term basis, as well as utilising space on dedicated freighters operated by other carriers on European services. Dedicated freighter services allow the airline to serve airports not currently connected to the scheduled network, such as [[London Stansted Airport|London Stansted]], [[Glasgow Prestwick International Airport|Glasgow Prestwick]], [[Frankfurt-Hahn Airport|Frankfurt-Hahn]], [[Vitoria]] and [[Seoul]].
British Airways opened its £250m World Cargo centre, ''Ascentis'', at Heathrow in 1999. As one of the largest and most advanced automated freight handling centres in the world, it contains a Special Handling Centre for unusual and premium cargo, and a Perishables Handling Centre for fresh produce, of which it handles over 80,000 t per year. BA World Cargo also handles freight at London's Gatwick and Stansted airports, and, through its partner British Airways Regional Cargo, at all of the main regional airports throughout the UK.
==Other facts==
[[image:britaw.b747-400.g-bnlo.arp.jpg|thumb|right|250px|British Airways [[Boeing 747|Boeing 747-400]].]]
*British Airways and [[Air France]] were the only two Concorde operators.
*British Airways was the first airline to implement full-flat beds in [[Business class]], many airlines subsequently followed the practice.
*The airline is the largest operator of the [[Boeing 747|Boeing 747-400]], with 57 aircraft. [[Japan Airlines|JAL]] has the largest fleet of 747s, but only 45 Series 400s.
*British Airways aircraft generally use the [[Airline call sign]] "Speedbird" in [[Air traffic control|ATC]] radio transmissions. On UK Domestic routes from Heathrow and Gatwick the call sign "Shuttle" is used. Christmas charters use the call sign "Santa".
*British Airways has featured prominently in recent [[James Bond]] films, most notably an air-air shot of a BA 747 in ''[[Die Another Day]]''.
*Boeing's airline code for BA is XXX-X36, i.e. 737-236, 747-436, 777-236.
*British Airways' [[Frequent Flyer Program]] is one of the largest in the world, and is known as the [[Executive Club]]
*In recent years, British Airways has transported [[Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom|Queen Elizabeth II]] and the [[Prime Minister of the United Kingdom|British Prime Minister]] on official duties, using a dedicated Boeing 777 aircraft. [[Royal Air Force]] transports were traditionally used in such roles.
*British Airways was, together with Virgin Atlantic, a premier partner of the [[London 2012 Olympic bid]] campaign. One of the airline's Boeing 747-400 aircraft became a "flying petition" for the games, with Prime Minister [[Tony Blair]] being the first to sign the aircraft. The official bid campaign video also featured BA and Virgin flight attendants 'competing' in a race to cross a road.
*The music used on BA advertisements for many years is "Flower Duet" by [[Léo Delibes]].
*British Airways is part of the '''InterCapital and Regional Rail''' alliance, which in 1998 was awarded the contract to manage [[Eurostar (U.K.) Ltd.]] The company, which is the UK arm of [[Eurostar]], the cross-Channel rail operator, makes up 10% of the alliance that also includes [[SNCF]], [[SNCB]] and [[National Express Group]].
*The airline is the principle sponsor of the [[British Airways London Eye]], one of the biggest tourist attractions in the UK. From its inception BA held a 33% stake in the Eye, but sold this to the [[Tussauds Group]], who already held a 33% stake and operated the Eye, in November 2005.
==External links==
{{Commons|British Airways}}
*[http://www.ba.com British Airways' website]
*[http://www.flightinternational.com/Articles/2005/10/27/Navigation/355/202413/Willie+Walsh+fit+for+purpose+at+BA.html British Airways CEO Interview]
{{Airlines of the United Kingdom}}
{{Oneworld}}
{{airlistbox}}
[[Category:Asia Miles]]
[[Category:Airlines of the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:Companies listed on the London Stock Exchange]]
[[Category:British brands]]
[[da:British Airways]]
[[de:British Airways]]
[[es:British Airways]]
[[fr:British Airways]]
[[id:British Airways]]
[[it:British Airways]]
[[hu:British Airways]]
[[ms:British Airways]]
[[nl:British Airways]]
[[no:British Airways]]
[[ja:ブリティッシュエアウェイズ]]
[[pl:British Airways]]
[[pt:British Airways]]
[[sr:Бритиш Ервејз]]
[[fi:British Airways]]
[[sv:British Airways]]
[[zh:英國航空]]
[[he:בריטיש איירוויז]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Baptists</title>
<id>3971</id>
<revision>
<id>28347323</id>
<timestamp>2005-11-15T00:51:41Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rlvaughn</username>
<id>24327</id>
</contributor>
<comment>revert to redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Baptist]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Bicycling</title>
<id>3972</id>
<revision>
<id>15902278</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Cycling]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Bicycle</title>
<id>3973</id>
<revision>
<id>41754827</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T14:37:44Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Optichan</username>
<id>178811</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* References */ migrate {{[[template:web reference|web reference]]}} to {{[[template:cite web|cite web]]}}</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}
[[Image:Kusuma bike large.jpg|thumb|300px|This ''[[Racing bicycle|racing bicycle]]'' is built using lightweight, shaped [[aluminium]] tubing and [[Graphite-reinforced plastic|carbon fiber]] stays and forks. It sports a drop handlebar and thin tires and wheels for efficiency and aerodynamics.]]
[[Image:utility bicycle.jpg|thumb|300px|Dutch utility bicycle featuring rear internal hub brake, chaincase and mudguards, kickstand for parking, permanently attached dynamo-powered lamps and touring handlebars.]]
A '''bicycle''', '''pushbike''', or '''bike''', is a pedal-driven [[land vehicle]] with two [[bicycle wheel|wheel]]s attached to a [[bicycle frame|frame]], one behind the other. First introduced in [[19th century|19th-century]] [[Europe]], bicycles evolved quickly into their familiar, current design. Numbering over 1,000,000,000 in the world today, bicycles provide the principal means of transportation in many regions and a popular form of recreational transport in others.
The bicycle is one of the most notable of human inventions. The basic shape and configuration of the frame, wheels, pedals, saddle and handlebars has hardly changed since the first chain-driven model was developed around 1885, although many important detail improvements have been made since, especially in recent years using modern materials and computer-aided design.
A remarkable aspect of the bicycle is its widespread adoption in many different fields of human activity, e.g. as a child's toy, in adult recreation and fitness, as a means of everyday transport, in cyclo-touring, as a basis of cycle sport (branches: track, off-road or MTB, downhill, cyclo-cross, time trialling, road racing, cycle speedway, cycle polo, BMX), and as a basis for static gymnasium or home fitness versions.
The bicycle has affected history considerably in both the cultural and industrial realms. In its early years, bicycle construction drew on pre-existing technologies; more recently, bicycle technology has contributed, in turn, to other, newer areas. Beyond recreation and transportation, bicycles have been adapted for use in many occupations, including the military, local policing, courier services, and sports. A recurrent theme in bicycling has been the tension between bicyclists and drivers of [[motor vehicle]]s, each group arguing for its fair share of the world's roadways.
==History==
{{main|History of the bicycle}}
No single time or person can be identified with the invention of the bicycle. Its earliest known forebears were called ''[[velocipede]]s'', and included many types of human-powered vehicles. One of these, the scooter-like ''[[dandy horse]]'' of the French Comte de Sivrac, dating to 1790, was long cited as the earliest bicycle. Most bicycle historians now believe that these hobby-horses with no steering mechanism probably never existed, but were made up by [[Louis Baudry de Saunier]], a 19th-century French bicycle historian.
[[Image:bicycle two 1886.jpg|thumb|280px|A smartly dressed couple seated on an 1886 "[[quadracycle]]" for two.]]
The most likely originator of the bicycle is German [[Karl Drais|Baron Karl von Drais]], who rode his 1817 machine while collecting taxes from his tenants. He patented his ''draisine'', a number of which still exist, including one at the ''Paleis het Loo'' museum in [[Apeldoorn]], [[the Netherlands]]. These were ''pushbikes'', powered by the action of the rider's feet pushing against the ground. Scottish blacksmith [[Kirkpatrick MacMillan]] shares creative credit with von Drais for adding a ''treadle'' drive mechanism, in 1840, that enabled the rider to lift his feet off the ground while driving the rear wheel. However, some reports describe MacMillan's vehicle as more of a "quadricycle".
In the 1850s and 1860s, Frenchman Ernest Michaux and his pupil Pierre Lallement took bicycle design in a different direction, placing pedals on an enlarged front wheel. Their crea |
cience]], [[art]], [[history]] and other fields that help children learn their place in the world.
=== All-in-one curricula === <!-- if section is renamed/removed, change reference above -->
"All-in-one" curricula, sometimes called "school in a box", are comprehensive packages covering many subjects, usually an entire year's worth. They contain all needed books and materials, including pencils and writing paper. Most such curricula were developed for isolated families who lack access to public schools, libraries and shops, or are overseas.
These materials typically recreate the school environment in the home, and are typically based on the same subject-area expectations as publicly-run schools, allowing an easy transition into school if desired. They are among the most expensive options for the home-educated, but are easy to use and require minimal preparation. The instructional guides are usually extensive, with step-by-step instructions. These programs may include [[standardized test]]s, and remote examinations to yield an accredited privately-run school diploma.
=== Student-paced learning ===
Similar to All-in-one curricula are learner paced curriculum packages. Often times called paces, these workbooks allow the student to progress at an individualized speed. They allow the student to master concepts before moving on to the next subject, instead of being held back by the speed of the teacher and other students or rushing forward for the same reasons. Prices vary widely depending upon the publisher.
=== Community resources ===
Home educators take advantage of educational programs at [[museum]]s, [[community center]]s, athletic clubs, after-school programs, [[church]]es, science preserves, [[park]]s, and other community resources. Secondary school level students often take classes at [[community college]]s, which typically have open admission policies.
=== Eclectic curricula ===
The majority of today's home-educated use an eclectic mix of materials. For instance, they might use a pre-designed program for language, arts or mathematics, and fill in history with reading and field trips, art with classes at a community center, science through a homeschool science club, [[physical education]] with membership in local sports teams, and so on.
=== Unschooling === <!-- if section is renamed/removed, change reference above -->
[[Unschooling]] is an area within home education in which students are not directly instructed but encouraged to learn through exploring their interests. Also known as interest-led or child-led learning, unschooling attempts to provide opportunities with games and real life problems where a child will learn without coercion. An unschooled child may choose to use texts or classroom instruction, but it is never considered central to education.
Advocates for unschooling claim that children learn best by learning from doing. A child may learn reading and math skills from playing card games, better [[spelling]] and other writing skills because he's inspired to write a [[science fiction]] story for publication, or local history by following a [[zoning]] or historical-status dispute.
== Social development ==
A common concern voiced about home-educated children is they lack the social interaction with [[peer]]s that a school environment provides. Many home-education families address these concerns by joining numerous organizations, including home-education [[cooperative]]s, [[independent study]] programs and specialized enrichment groups for physical education, art, [[Music education|music]], and [[debate]]. Most are also active in community groups. Home-educated children generally socialize with other children the same way that school children do: outside of school, via personal visits and through sports teams, clubs, and religious groups.
Some home education proponents have argued that their alternative actually enhances the student's social development. They argue that the school years are the only time in a person's life that he or she will be artificially segregated into chronologically-determined groups. These advocates assert that home-educated children have a more normal interaction with persons across the age spectrum. This, in turn, results in more influence on the child from adults, and less from other children, leading to more mature young citizens.
=== Social concerns ===
Opponents of home education offer criticisms concerning socialization, pointing out that not all home-education families participate sufficiently in community activities. Some of the concerns offered include:
*Interaction with peers and different social groups is essential to learning to live in society; the main criticism is that home-schoolers' only "interaction" is with other home-schooled children from like-minded families, and not with those from differing backgrounds. {{citeneeded}}
*Schools are a unique environment that provide students with necessary social networking skills that help them succeed in the workplace and in the politics of business. Real life includes school as well.
*Home-educated children tend to live in an insulated world where they aren't exposed to a variety of ideas, which can impede personal growth and independence later in life.
*If children are insulated from unpleasant social situations, then they will be left unprepared when they are inevitably left to make their own way in the world. Children should be allowed to live and learn from their mistakes rather than sheltered from reality.
Some people oppose home education because they fear that children will be exposed to an extremely narrow set of view-points and will lack the broad range of experiences gained through interaction in a larger group setting.
== Cost ==
Home education may have a financial impact on families. In addition to having to purchase school supplies and curriculum materials, parents often cut back or refrain from employment outside the home in order to supervise the child's education. This may have long-term career consequences as well. However, many such parents say that one unique benefit is the additional time they get to spend with their children. Further, in most jurisdictions the family still must pay property taxes to the local district (even if school vouchers are offered they are often not available to homeschooling families).
Conversely, families may see a financial benefit. Families may save unspent money on the costs of tuition outside the home, such as: school fees; levies; uniforms; compulsory books and extra curricula activities, such as school sports teams or clubs.
Of course home education can be expensive if a full curriculum is purchased and many costly activities attended. It can also be very inexpensive by using free resources, taking advantage of free facilities, such as public libraries, art galleries, parks, and gardens, and resources available on the Internet.
== Public opinion ==
Opposition to home education comes from varied sources, including organizations of teachers and school districts. One example is the [[National Education Association]], a teachers' union, which is the largest [[labor union]] in the United States. They are on record as opposing homeschooling outright though, in recent years they have not been as outspoken in this opposition. Opponents state concerns falling into several broad categories, including: academic quality and completeness; reduced government money for the publicly-run schools; socialization of children with peers of different ethnic and religious backgrounds; and fear of religious or social [[extremism]]. [[Gallup poll]]s of American voters have shown a significant change in attitude in the last twenty years, from 73% opposed to home education in 1985 to 54% opposed in 2001 [http://eric.uoregon.edu/trends_issues/choice/home_schooling.html].
Opponents view home-educating parents as sheltering their children and denying them opportunities that are their children's right, reducing the amount of government funds publicly-run schools would receive if more children were attending the publicly-run school, and providing an unfair advantage to home-educated children over students whose parents lack the time or money for home education.
Two recent studies by the [[Home School Legal Defense Association]], a home education advocacy group in the United States, dispute the claim that the academic quality of home education programs is substandard.[http://www.hslda.org/docs/study/comp2001/default.asp][http://www.hslda.org/research/ray2003/]
== Legality ==
Home education exists legally in many parts of the world. Countries with the most prevalent home education movements include the [[United States]], the [[United Kingdom]], and [[Australia]]. Some countries have highly regulated home education programs which are actually an extension of the compulsory school system, while others have outlawed it entirely. In many other countries, while not restricted by law, home education is not socially acceptable and, therefore, virtually non-existent.
In many countries where home education does not exist legally, [[underground]] [[movement]]s flourish where children are kept out of the compulsory school system and educated at, sometimes, considerable risk. Still, in other countries, while the practice is illegal, the governments do not have the resources to police and prosecute offenders and, as such, it takes place largely in the open.
Home education in the [[United States]] is governed by each individual state and therefore regulations vary greatly from one state to another.
{{see also|Legality of homeschooling in the United States}}
== Results ==
=== Academic findings ===
The academic effectiveness of home education is largely a settled issue. Numerous studies have confirmed the academic integrity of home education programs, demonstrating that average home-educated student outperform their publicly-run scho |
the mechanics of writing. An important goal of grammar is to acquire as many words and concepts as possible. Very young students can learn these by rote. Classical education traditionally included study of [[Latin]] and [[Greek language|Greek]], so that students could read the [[Classics]] of [[Western Civilization]] in the words of the authors.
==== Logic ====
[[Logic]] ([[dialectic]]) is the art of correct [[reasoning]]. The traditional text for teaching logic was [[Aristotle]]'s [[Aristotelian logic|Logic]].
==== Rhetoric ====
[[Rhetoric]] debate and composition (which is just written rhetoric) are taught to somewhat older students, who then have the concepts and logic to criticize their own work and persuade others. According to [[Aristotle]] "Rhetoric is the counterpart of dialectic." It is concerned with finding "all the available means of persuasion." Hopefully a student has already learned to reason correctly by studying logic. Students would read and emulate classical poets such as [[Ovid]].
=== Secondary Education ===
Secondary education, classically the ''[[quadrivium]]'' or "four ways," classically taught [[astronomy]], [[arithmetic]], [[music]] and [[geometry]], usually from Aristotle and [[Euclid]]. Sometimes [[architecture]] was taught, often from the works of [[Vitruvius]].
History was always taught to provide a context, and show political and military development. The classic texts were from ancient authors such as [[Cicero]] and [[Tacitus]].
Biographies were often assigned as well; the classic example being [[Plutarch]]'s "Lives." Biographies help show how persons behave in their context, and the wide ranges of professions and options that exist. As more modern texts became available, these were often added to the curriculum.
In the [[middle ages]], these were the best available texts. In modern terms, these fields might be called [[history]], natural [[science]], [[accounting]] and [[business]], [[fine art]]s (at least two, one to amuse companions, and another to decorate one's domicile), [[military strategy]] and [[tactics]], [[engineering]], [[agronomy]], and [[architecture]].
These are taught in a matrix of history, reviewing the natural development of each field for each phase of the trivium. That is, in a perfect classical education, the historical study is reviewed three times: first to learn the grammar (the concepts, terms and skills in the order developed), next time the logic (how these elements could be assembled), and finally the rhetoric, how to produce good, humanly useful and beautiful objects that satisfy the grammar and logic of the field.
History is the unifying conceptual framework, because history is the study of everything that has occurred before the present. A skillful teacher also uses the historical context to show how each stage of development naturally poses questions and then how advances answer them, helping to understand human motives and activity in each field. The question-answer approach is called the "dialectic method," and permits history to be taught Socratically as well.
Classical educators consider the [[Socrates|Socratic]] method to be the best technique for teaching critical thinking. In-class discussion and critiques are essential in order for students to recognize and internalize critical thinking techniques. This method is widely used to teach both [[philosophy]] and [[law]]. It is currently rare in other contexts. Basically, the teacher referees the students' discussions, asks leading questions, and may refer to facts, but never gives a conclusion until at least one student reaches that conclusion. The learning is most effective when the students compete strongly, even viciously in the argument, but always according to well-accepted rules of correct reasoning. That is, [[fallacy|fallacies]] should not be allowed by the teacher.
By completing a project in each major field of human effort, the student can develop a personal preference for further education and professional training.
=== Tertiary Education ===
Tertiary education was usually an [[apprentice|apprenticeship]] to a person with the desired profession. Most often, the understudy was called a "secretary" and had the duty of carrying on all the normal business of the "master." [[Philosophy]] and [[Theology]] were both widely taught as tertiary subjects in Universities however.
The early biographies of nobles show probably the ultimate form of classical education: A tutor. One early, much-emulated classic example was that [[Alexander the Great]] was tutored by [[Aristotle]].
== Modern Interpretations of Classical Education ==
"The Well-Trained Mind: A Guide to Classical Education at Home," by Jessie Wise and Susan Wise Bauer (W.W. Norton, 1999), is a modern reference on classical education. It provides a history of classical education, an overview of the methodology and philosophy of classical education, and annotated lists of books, divided by grade and topic, that list the best books for classical education in each category.
[[Marva Collins]] has successfully taught a rapid-fire classical education to inner-city deprived children, many of them labeled as "retarded."
Also of note is "[http://www.sigmaxi.org/meetings/archive/forum.2001.online.tri.shtml|A New Trivium and Quadrivium]," an article by Dr. George Bugliarello (Bulletin of Science, Technology & Society, Vol. 23, No. 2, 106-113 (2003)). In it, he argues that the scope of the classical liberal education is inadequate for today's society, and that people should also be conversant with the basic facts of science and technology, since they now form a much more important part of our lives than did the tertiary studies of antiquity. He argues for a new synthesis of science, engineering, and the humanities in which there is a balance between what ''can'' be done and what ''ought'' to be done, between human desires and earthly consequences, and between our ever-increasing power to affect our surroundings and the ever-present danger of destroying the ecological and environmental systems which allow us to exist.
No discussion of classical education could be complete without mentioning [[Mortimer Adler]] and [[Robert Hutchins]], both of the [[University of Chicago]], who set forth in the 1930s to restore the "Great Books" of Western civilization to center stage in the curriculum. Although the standard classical works&mdash;such as the [[Harvard Classics]]&mdash;most widely available at the time, were decried by many as out of touch with modern times, Adler and Hutchins sought to expand on the standard "classics" by including more modern works, and by trying to tie them together in the context of what they described as the "Great Ideas," condensed into a "Syntopicon" index and bundled together with a new "five foot shelf" of books as "The [[Great Books of the Western World]]." They were wildly popular during the Fifties, and discussion groups of aficionados were found all over the USA, but their popularity waned during the Sixties and such groups are relatively hard to find today. Extensions to the original set are still being published, encompassing selections from both current and older works which extend the "great ideas" into the present age and other fields, including civil rights, the global environment, and discussions of multiculturalism and assimilation.
== External links ==
* [http://www.sigmaxi.org/meetings/archive/forum.2001.online.tri.shtml A New Trivium and Quadrivium by Dr. George Bugliarello]
*[http://www.lib.uchicago.edu/e/spcl/excat/ideasint.html The University of Chicago and the Ideal of Liberal Education]
*[http://www.gutenberg.edu Gutenberg College, a classical great books college in Eugene, OR]
*[http://www.genevasd.org/ Classical Christian School in San Diego]
*[http://www.greatbooks.org/ The Great Books Foundation]
*[http://www.nsa.edu New Saint Andrews College, a classical Christian college in Moscow, ID]
==See also==
*[[Paideia]]
*[[Education reform]]- a history of alternatives
*[[Western Civilization]]
*[[Mechanical education]] - it's contempary companion
[[Category:Education by subject]]
[[Category:Classical studies]]
[[Category:Ancient Rome]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Colin Kapp</title>
<id>6941</id>
<revision>
<id>38234534</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-05T01:19:40Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>D6</username>
<id>75561</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>adding [[category:Living people]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Colin Kapp''' ([[1928]]&mdash;) is the author of a number of [[science fiction]] [[novel]]s and [[short story|short stories]].
He was a contemporary of [[Brian Aldiss]] and [[James White (author)|James White]]. He is most famous for his stories about the [[Unorthodox Engineers]]. His 1984 short story "Something in the City" was eerily prescient about the current situation faced by the US military in Iraq. In this story, soldiers occupying a Middle Eastern country after overthrowing a dictator are being picked off by booby traps (similar to IED's) controlled by an artificial intelligence left behind by the defeated ruler.
==Published works==
''This is a partial list.''
===Cageworld series ===
#''Search for the sun!'' (1982)
#''The Lost worlds of Cronus'' (1982)
#''The Tyrant of Hades'' (1984)
#''Star Search'' (1984)
===Chaos series ===
* ''[[The Patterns of Chaos]]'' (1972)
* ''[[The Chaos Weapon]]'' (1977)
===Other novels ===
* ''[[The Dark Mind]]''
* ''[[Manalone]]''
* ''[[The Wizard of Anharitte]]''
===Short stories ===
====[[Unorthodox Engineers]] ====
*''The Railways Up on Cannis'' (1959)
*''The Subways of Tazoo'' (1964)
*''The Pen and the Dar |
imestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Avernet</username>
<id>13028</id>
</contributor>
<comment>When doing a search on "css" (all lowercase), I think more people expect to find the CSS page, than user:Css</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[CSS]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Cretinism</title>
<id>6352</id>
<revision>
<id>41940219</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T19:44:40Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Arcadian</username>
<id>104523</id>
</contributor>
<comment>clean up using [[Wikipedia:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{DiseaseDisorder infobox |
Name = Congenital iodine-deficiency syndrome |
ICD10 = E00 |
ICD9 = {{ICD9|243}} |
}}
'''Cretinism''' (most likely from the [[Latin]] ''Christiānum'', "[[Christian]]") is a condition of severely stunted physical and mental growth due to untreated [[congenital disorder|congenital]] deficiency of [[thyroid]] [[hormone]]s ([[hypothyroidism]]). The term ''cretin'' refers to a person so affected.
==Etymolology and usage of the term==
The term ''cretin'' was brought into medical use in the 18th century from an Alpine French dialect where persons with such a condition were especially common (though the cause was unknown). It was used widely as a medical term in the 19th and early 20th centuries, but in recent decades has spread more widely in popular English as a markedly derogatory term for a hopelessly stupid person. Because of its pejorative connotations in popular speech, the term has been largely abandoned by physicians. A cretin of the [[Pyrenees]] was called a ''cagot'' (kag'&#333;).
The etymology of the word ''cretin'' is not known with certainty. Several hypotheses have been proposed. The most common derivation provided in English dictionaries is from the Latin ''Christiānum'' (Christian), via a medieval French dialect (compare modern French ''chretien''). The connecting meaning between "Christian" and "cretin" is not obvious. According to the [[Oxford English Dictionary]], the translation of the Latin term into "human creature" implies that the label "Christian" is a reminder of the humanity of the afflicted, in contrast to brute beasts {{ref label|OED|1|a}}. Other sources have suggested "Christian" refers to the inability to sin of such a person who lacks the capacity to distinguish right from wrong {{ref label|Atlantic|2|a}}.
Other speculative etymologies have been offered:
#From ''creta'', Latin for ''chalk'', because of the pallor of those affected.
#From ''cretira'', Grisson-Romance ''creature'', from Latin ''creatus''.
#From ''cretine'', French for ''alluvium'' (soil deposited by flowing water), an allusion to the suspected origin from inadequate soil.
#:<small><span id="ref_Medvei">Source: VC Medvei. ''The History of Clinical Endocrinology''. Pearl River, New York: Parthenon Publishing Group. 1993.</span></small>
==Cretinism due to congenital hypothyroidism==
[[Congenital hypothyroidism]] can be endemic, genetic, or sporadic. If untreated, it results in mild to severe impairment of both physical and mental [[growth]] and development.
Poor length growth is apparent as early as the first year of life. Adult stature without treatment ranges from 1 to 1.6 meters, depending on severity, sex and other genetic factors. [[Bone maturation]] and [[puberty]] are severely delayed. [[Ovulation]] is impeded and [[infertility]] common.
Neurological impairment may be mild, with reduced muscle tone and coordination, or so severe that the person cannot stand or walk. Cognitive impairment may also range from mild to so severe that the person is nonverbal and dependent on others for basic care. Thought and reflexes are slower.
Other signs may include thickened skin and a protruding abdomen.
Sporadic and genetic cretinism results from abnormal development or function of the fetal thyroid gland. This type of cretinism has been almost completely eliminated in developed countries by early diagnosis by [[newborn screening]] programs followed by lifelong treatment with [[thyroxine]].
Endemic cretinism arises from a diet deficient in [[iodine]] and has affected far more people worldwide and continues to be a major [[public health]] problem in many countries. Iodine is an essential trace element, necessary primarily for the synthesis of thyroid hormones. Although it is found in many foods it is not universally present in all soils in adequate amounts. The soils of many inland areas on all continents are iodine deficient, and plants and animals grown there are correspondingly deficient. Populations living in those areas without outside food sources are most at risk for [[iodine deficiency]] diseases.
Iodine deficiency results in the impairments of varying degrees of physical and mental development. It also causes gradual enlargement of the thyroid gland, referred to as a [[goiter]]. It is being combatted in many countries by public health campaigns of iodine administration.
==History==
Endemic cretinism was especially common in areas of southern Europe around the Alps and was described by Roman writers, and often depicted by medieval artists. Alpine cretinism was described from a medical perspective by several travellers and physicians in the late 18th and early 19th centuries. At that time the cause was not known and it was often attributed to "stagnant air" in mountain valleys or "bad water". The proportion of people affected varied markedly throughout southern Europe and even within very small areas it might be common in one valley and not another. The number of severely affected persons was always a minority and most persons affected by cretinism to the extent of having a goiter and some degree of reduced cognition and growth were still socially functional in their pastoral villages.
More mildly affected areas of Europe and North America in the 19th century were referred to as "goiter belts". The degree of iodine deficiency was milder and manifested primarily as thyroid enlargement rather than severe mental and physical impairment. In Switzerland for example where soil is poor with iodine the cases of cretinism were very abundant and even were considered as genetically caused. As the variety of food sources dramatically increased in Europe and North America and the populations became less completely dependent on locally grown food, the prevalence of endemic goiter diminished.
In the early 20th century the relationships of sporadic cretinism with congenital hypothyroidism, and endemic cretinism with hypothyroidism due to iodine deficiency were discovered and both have been largely eliminated in the developed world.
== Parliamentary cretinism ==
The term '''parliamentary cretinism''' was introduced by [[Marx]]. According to Marx, parliamentary cretinism "confines its victims to an imaginary world and robs them of their senses, their recollection, all knowledge of the rude external world."
==See also==
*[[Congenital hypothyroidism]]
*[[Iodine deficiency]]
==References==
#{{note label|OED|1|a}} {{cite web
| url = http://dictionary.oed.com/cgi/entry/50053852
| title = "cretin"
| work = Oxford English Dictionary
| accessdate = 2005-12-11
}}
#{{note label|Atlantic|2|a}} {{cite web
| last = Brockett
| first = Linus P
| url = http://www.disabilitymuseum.org/lib/docs/1385.htm
| title = Cretins And Idiots
| work = [[The Atlantic Monthly]]
| year = Feb 1858
| accessdate = 2005-12-11
}}
#{{note|Medvei|^}} {{cite book
| first = VC
| last = Medvei
| title = The History of Clinical Endocrinology
| location = Pearl River, New York
| publisher = Parthenon Publishing Group
| date = 1993
}}
==External links==
*[http://www.iodinenetwork.net Network for Sustained Elimination of Iodine Deficiency]
[[Category:Pejorative terms for people]]
[[Category:Congenital disorders]]
[[de:Kretinismus]]
[[es:Cretinismo]]
[[fr:Crétinisme]]
[[pt:Cretinismo]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Cretin</title>
<id>6353</id>
<revision>
<id>39172457</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-11T05:05:01Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Curps</username>
<id>44727</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/72.60.180.104|72.60.180.104]] ([[User talk:72.60.180.104|talk]]) to last version by Conversion script</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Cretinism]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Council of Trent</title>
<id>6354</id>
<revision>
<id>41799111</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T20:54:56Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Charles Matthews</username>
<id>12978</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* Publication of documents */ wfy</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{| class=toccolours align=right width=300 style="margin:0 0 1em 1em"
|-
| colspan="2" bgcolor="orange" style="font-size:120%" align="center"|'''''Council of Trent'''''
|-
|'''Date''' ||[[1545]]-[[1563]]
|-
|'''Accepted by''' ||[[Catholicism]]
|-
|'''Previous Council'''||[[Fifth Council of the Lateran]]
|-
|'''Next Council''' ||[[First Vatican Council]]
|-
|'''Convoked by'''||[[Pope Paul III]]
|-
|'''Presided by'''||[[Pope Paul III]], [[Pope Julius III]], [[Pope Pius IV]]
|-
|'''Attendance'''||about 255 in the last sessions
|-
|'''Topics of discussion'''||[[Protestantism]], [[Catholic Reformation]]
|-
|'''Documents and statements'''||sixteen dogmatic decrees, covering all aspects of Catholic religion
|-
|colspan="2" align="center"|[[Ecumenical council|chronological list of Ecumenical councils]]
|}
The '''Council of T |
olved on [[October 25]], [[1917]], once the Bolsheviks had taken power in the [[October Revolution]].
The Central Committee of the Bolsheviks had been debating whether to call for an [[insurrection]]. Lenin urged the Bolsheviks to overthrow the Provisional government. Zinoviev and Kamenev were the only members of the Central Committee to disagree. They took the unusual step of making their objections public in the pages of [[Pravda]], an act that very nearly got them expelled from the party for breaching party discipline.
When Kerensky moved against the Bolsheviks on [[October 22]] by ordering the arrest of their [[Military Revolutionary Committee]], banning the Bolshevik newspaper and cutting off telephone lines to the Bolshevik headquarters in the [[Smolny Institute]], Trotsky urged that the Bolsheviks' decision on overthrowing the government be put into action. Lenin concurred and on [[October 24]], orders were issued for the Bolsheviks' [[Red Guards (Russia)|Red Guards]] to occupy key locations in the city and surround the [[Winter Palace]] where the Provisional government had its headquarters.
The Bolsheviks raised the slogan ''All power to the soviets'' meaning that the country should be run by the workers and soldiers councils and not the constituent assembly.
On [[October 26]], 1917 the [[All-Russian Congress of Soviets]] met and handed power over to a [[Soviet Council of People's Commissars]] with Lenin as chairman, Trotsky as commissar of the [[Red Army]] and minister of foreign affairs and Bolsheviks taking the other positions of what was the new government of the country.
In March [[1918]], the [[Congress of the CPSU|Seventh Party Congress]] of the Social Democratic and Labor Party (Bolsheviks) met and, at Lenin's urging, changed the name of the party to the All-Russian Communist Party (Bolsheviks). After the name change, however, the party was generally known as the [[Communist Party of the Soviet Union|Communist Party]] with the name Bolshevik referring to the party prior to 1918.
==Derogatory Usage of "Bolshevik"==
During the days of the [[Cold War]] in the [[United Kingdom]], labour union leaders and other leftists were sometimes derisively described as "Bolshie." The usage is roughly equivalent to the term "[[Communist|Red]]" or "[[Pinko]]" in the [[United States]] during the same period.
==Notes==
*See Israel Getzler. ''Martov: A Political Biography of a Russian Social Democrat'', Cambridge University Press, 2003 (first edition 1967), ISBN 0521526027 p.78
==See also==
*[[Marxism]]
*[[List of socialists#Bolsheviks|List of socialists - Bolsheviks]]
*[[Soviet Union]]
*[[History of the Soviet Union]]
*[[Russian Revolution of 1917]], also known as the Bolshevik Revolution.
*[[Communist Party of the Soviet Union]]
*[[History of the Jews in Russia and Soviet Union]]
*[[Yevsektsiya]]
*[[Enemy of the people]]
*[[Old Bolshevik]]
*[[National Bolshevik]]
==External links==
*[http://www.marxists.org/history/archive/bobrovskaya/twenty-years/ Twenty Years in Underground Russia: Memoirs of a Rank-and-File Bolshevik], by [[Cecilia Bobrovskaya]]
*[http://www.marxist.com/bolshevism/ Bolshevism, the Road to Revolution], by [[Alan Woods]]
*[http://libcom.org/library/the-bolsheviks-and-workers-control-solidarity-group The Bolsheviks and Workers Control], by [[Maurice Brinton]]
*[http://www.pathfinderpress.com Pathfinder Books, Communist bookstore online]
[[Category:Communism]]
[[Category:Communist Party of the Soviet Union]]
[[Category:Soviet phraseology]]
[[Category:Political parties of Russian Revolution]]
[[Category:History of Russia]]
[[Category:1903 establishments]]
[[ca:Bolxevisme]]
[[da:Bolsjevik]]
[[de:Bolschewiki]]
[[es:Bolchevique]]
[[eo:Bolŝeviko]]
[[eu:Boltxebike]]
[[fr:Bolchevik]]
[[ko:볼셰비키]]
[[lt:Bolševikas]]
[[nl:Bolsjewiek]]
[[ja:ボリシェヴィキ]]
[[no:Bolsjevik]]
[[nn:Bolsjevik]]
[[pt:Bolchevique]]
[[ro:Bolşevic]]
[[ru:Большевик]]
[[simple:Bolshevik]]
[[sl:Boljševiki]]
[[fi:Bolševikit]]
[[sv:Bolsjevik]]
[[tr:Bolşevik]]
[[zh:布尔什维克]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Battle of Świecino</title>
<id>4928</id>
<revision>
<id>34522596</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-09T19:40:38Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Appleseed</username>
<id>404133</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Campaignbox Thirteen Years' War}}
The '''Battle of Świecino''' (or ''Świecin'') (named for the village of [[Świecino]], near Żarnowiec Lake, northern Poland) also called the '''Battle of [[Żarnowiec]]''' or in German '''Battle of Schwetzin''', took place on [[September 17]] [[1462]] during the [[Thirteen Years' War]]. The [[Poland|Poles]] commanded by [[Piotr Dunin]], consisting of some 2000 mercenaries decisively defeated the [[Teutonic Knights]], having some 2700 mercenaries, commanded by [[Fritz Raweneck]] and [[Kaspar Nostyc]]. Auxiliary forces sent by duke [[Eric II of Pomerania]], ally of the Polish king, did not enter the battle.
== Polish forces ==
The Polish forces consisted of the mercenaries hired by the Polish king, [[Casimir IV of Poland|Casimir IV the Jagiellon]] and the royal city of [[Gdańsk]]. His force consisted of some 1000 cavalry, including 112 heavy cavalry, and another 1000 of infantry. These numbers include 1000 cavalry and 400 infantry were mercenaries hired by Polish king, the rest were units from Gdańsk.
== Teutonic forces ==
Most of the [[Teutonic Knights|Teutonic army]], under the command of Fritz Raweneck and Kaspar Nostyc, were mercenary soldiers gathered from the nearby castles [[Gniew]], [[Starogard Gdański]], [[Nowe]], [[Skarszewy]] and [[Kiszewy]]. This army totalled 1000 cavalry and 400 infantry. Raweneck also had the supply chain (tabors), cannons and up to 1300 auxiliary infantry of Pomeranian peasants, used mainly for fortification works.
== Battle ==
The battle started in the morning. Polish units build a fortified camp consisting, as usual in central European battles, of wagons linked by a chain surrounded by a deep ditch ([[Tabor (formation)|tabor]]). Also, units of Raveneck and his subordinate, Kaspar Nostyc (commander from [[Chojnice]]) created tabor. Piotr Dunin decided not to wait for the enemy and attacked first, setting infantry with crossbows at left, defended by cavalry between the tabor and the coast of the nearby lake of Rogoźnica. Raveneck placed cavalry in front of his tabor, and infantry behind it, without any strategic plan. The first phase of the battle was started by a charge of Polish heavy cavalry under Paweł Jasieński. Fierce fighting continued for three hours and ended without a clear winner. After a short pause at midday, Teuton units were able to push the Poles back; however, they found themselves under very heavy fire from crossbows of the Polish infantry, which caused huge losses and withdrawal. During this fight Raveneck was wounded. Raveneck stopped his soldiers and tried to attack again, but this charge ended with total defeat - Raveneck died and the rest of the cavalry surrendered or escaped. The Teuton infantry tried to defend at tabor, but its resistance was broken by a sudden attack of Polish cavalry.
== Casualties ==
The Teuton army lost around 1000 soldiers, including some 300 cavalryman. Fifty soldiers were captured. The Teutonic commander was also killed in battle and was buried in the Żarnowiec chapter church.
The Poles lost just 100 soldiers, but 150 later died from wounds. Among the dead on the Polish side was [[Maciej Hagen]] from [[Gdańsk]]. Piotr Dunin was twice wounded.
== Aftermath ==
The direct result of the battle of Świecino was that Gdańsk City and Pomerania were freed from Teutonic danger so that the royal and municipal armed forces could be used elsewhere in the war, mainly to protect the Vistula waterway and to capture the Teutonic held strongholds. This way that Teutonic forces in Prussia, on the rights bank of Vistula were cut off from the supplies form Western Europe.
The psychological significance was that this was the first open field battle won by the royal forces, so it increased the morale of the Polish forces, and lowered the morale of the Teutonic Knights. Many military historians say that the battle of Świecino was the turning point of the [[Thirteen Years' War]], leading to the final victory in 1466.
==External links==
* [http://www.pilot.pl/index.php3?Z_CITY_NAME=%B6wiecino Świecino near Żarnowiec Lake]
* [http://66.188.129.72:5980/History/PreModernEurope/pl-8thirteen_years_war.htm The Thirteen Years War (1454-1466) including the battle of Świecino]
* [http://britishbattles.homestead.com/files/russia/poland20020402.htm Military history of Renaissance Poland (1454-1635) including the battle of Świecino]
* [http://www.krokowa.pl/ Krokowa Commune Home Page]
* [http://www.zamek.malbork.com.pl/index.php?m=02&p=11 Malbork Castle - Battle of Świecino]
== References ==
* Janusz Sikorski, ''Zarys historii wojskowości powszechnej do końca wieku XIX. [Universal history of military operations till 1900]'', Wojskowy Instytut Historyczny, Wydawnictwo Ministerstwa Obrony Narodowej, Warszawa 1972. - description of the battle of Świecino: pp. 287-288, map of the battle of Świecino: p. 288
* Janusz Sikorski (ed.), Wiesław Majewski, Tadeusz Marian Nowak, Jerzy Teodorczyk, ''Polskie tradycje wojskowe. Tradycje walk obronnych z najazdami Niemców, Krzyżaków, Szwedów, Turków i Tatarów X-XVII w. [Polish military traditions. Tradition of defence struggles with the invasions of the Germans, Teutonic Knights, Swedes, Turks and Tartars in 10th-17th centuries]''. Wojskowy Instytut Historyczny, Wydawnictwo Ministerstwa Obrony Narodowej, Warszawa 1990. - description of the battle of Świecino: p. 127, map of the battle of Świecino: p. 114
* Stanisław Herbst, ''Wojna Trzynastoletnia - O bitwie pod Świecinem. [The Thirteen Years' War - About the Battle of Świecino]'', Przegląd Historyczno-Wojskowy, vol. 7 |
kers=First language: about 380 million<br>Second language: 150 million-1 billion
|rank=#3 or #4 as a native language (near-tie with [[Spanish language|Spanish]]);<br>#2 in overall speakers
|fam2=[[Germanic languages|Germanic]]
|fam3=[[West Germanic languages|West Germanic]]
|fam4=[[Anglo-Frisian languages|Anglo-Frisian]]
|fam5=[[Anglic languages|Anglic]]
|script=[[Latin alphabet]]
|nation=''De jure'': [[Australia]], [[New Zealand]], [[Liberia]], [[Philippines]], [[Belize]], most [[Commonwealth of Nations|Commonwealth]] countries; <br>''De jure, one of several'': [[Canada]], [[Republic of Ireland|Ireland]], [[South Africa]], [[India]], [[European Union]] <br>''De facto'': [[United Kingdom]], [[United States]]
|iso1=en|iso2=eng|iso3=eng|map=[[Image:Anglospeak.png|center|300px]]<center><small>Countries of the world where English<br />is an official or ''de facto'' official language.</center></small>}}
'''English''' is a [[West Germanic languages|West Germanic language]] which is the dominant language in the [[United Kingdom]], the [[United States]], many [[Commonwealth of Nations|Commonwealth]] nations including [[Australia]] and [[Canada]], and other former [[British overseas territories|British colonies]]. It is also a dominant or official language in many countries formerly [[British Empire|under British rule]].
English is now the fourth (or possibly third depending on the source) most widely spoken [[first language|native language]] worldwide (after [[Chinese language|Chinese]], [[Hindi]] and debatably [[Spanish language|Spanish]]), with some [[List of languages by number of native speakers|380 million speakers]]. English is also the dominant member of the [[Germanic languages]]. It has ''[[lingua franca]]'' status in many parts of the world, due to the military, economic, scientific, political and cultural influence of the [[British Empire]] in the 18th, 19th and early 20th centuries and that of the [[United States]] from the early 20th century to the present.
Through the global influence of native English speakers in [[film|cinema]], [[airline]]s, [[broadcasting]], [[science]], and the [[Internet]] in recent decades, English is now the most widely learned [[second language]] in the world, although other languages such as [[French language|French]] and [[Spanish]] also retain much importance worldwide.
Many students worldwide are required to learn at least some English, and a working knowledge of English is required in many fields and occupations.
==History==
{{main|History of the English language}}
English is an [[Anglo-Frisian languages|Anglo-Frisian language]] brought to [[Britain]] by [[Germanic tribes|Germanic settlers]] from various parts of northwest Germany. The original [[Old English language]] was subsequently influenced by two successive waves of invasion. The first was by speakers of languages in the Scandinavian branch of the Germanic family, who colonised parts of Britain in the 8th and 9th centuries. The second wave was of the [[Normans]] in the 11th century, who spoke [[Norman language|Norman]] (an [[Langues d'oïl|oïl language]] closely related to [[French language|French]]).
According to the ''[[Anglo-Saxon Chronicle]]'', around the year [[449]], [[Vortigern]], King of the [[British Isles]], invited the Angles to help him against the [[Picts]]. In return, the Angles were granted lands in the south-east. Further aid was sought, and in response came Saxons, Angles, and Jutes. The ''Chronicle'' talks of a subsequent influx of settlers who eventually established [[heptarchy|seven kingdoms]]. Modern scholarship considers most of this story to be legendary and politically motivated.
These Germanic invaders dominated the original [[Celtic languages|Celtic-speaking]] inhabitants, whose languages survived largely in [[Scotland]], [[Wales]], [[Cornwall]], and [[Ireland]]. The dialects spoken by the invaders formed what would be called [[Old English language|Old English]], which resembled some coastal dialects in what are now north-west Germany and the Netherlands. Later, it was strongly influenced by the [[North Germanic languages|North Germanic]] language [[Old Norse language|Norse]], spoken by the [[Viking]]s who settled mainly in the north-east (see [[Jórvík]]).
For the 300 years following the [[Norman Conquest of England|Norman Conquest]] in [[1066]], the Norman kings and the high nobility spoke only [[Anglo-Norman language|Anglo-Norman]]. A large number of Norman words were assimilated into Old English. The Norman influence reinforced the continual evolution of the language over the following centuries, resulting in what is now referred to as [[Middle English]].
During the [[15th century]], Middle English was transformed by the [[Great Vowel Shift]], the spread of a standardised London-based dialect in government and administration, and the standardising effect of printing. [[Modern English]] can be traced back to around the time of [[William Shakespeare]].
==Classification and related languages==
The English language belongs to the western subbranch of the [[Germanic languages|Germanic branch]] of the [[Indo-European]] family of languages. Apart from English-lexified [[creole language]]s such as [[Tok Pisin]] and [[Bislama]], the nearest living relative of English is [[Scots language|Scots (Lallans)]], spoken mostly in Scotland and parts of Northern Ireland. Like English, Scots is a direct descendant of Old English, also known as Anglo-Saxon.
After Scots, the next closest relative is [[Frisian language|Frisian]]—spoken in Germany and the Netherlands. Other less closely related living languages include [[German language|German]], [[Low German]], [[Dutch language|Dutch]], [[North Germanic language|Scandinavian languages]] and [[Afrikaans language|Afrikaans]]. Many [[French language|French]] words are also intelligible to an English speaker (pronunciations are not always identical, of course) because English absorbed a tremendous amount of vocabulary from French, via the [[Norman language]] after the [[Norman Conquest of England|Norman conquest]] and directly from French in further centuries; as a result, a substantial share of English vocabulary is quite close to the French, with some minor spelling differences (word endings, use of old French spellings etc.), as well as occasional differences in meaning.
==Geographic distribution==
[[Image:English dialects1997.png|thumb|right|250px|Distribution of native English speakers by country (Crystal 1997)]]
English is the second or third most widely spoken language in the world today. A total of 600&ndash;700 million people use the various dialects of English regularly. About 377 million people use one of the versions of English as their mother tongue, and an equal number of people use them as their second or foreign language. English is used widely in either the public or private sphere in more than 100 countries all over the world. In addition, the language has occupied a primary place in international academic and business communities. The current status of the English language at the start of the new millennium compares with that of [[Latin]] in the past. English is also the most widely used language for young [[Backpacking (travel)|backpackers]] who travel across continents, regardless of whether it is their mother tongue or a secondary language.
English is the primary language in [[Anguilla]], [[Antigua and Barbuda]], [[Australia]] ([[Australian English]]), the [[Bahamas]], [[Barbados]] ([[Caribbean English]]), [[Bermuda]], [[Belize]], the [[British Virgin Islands]], [[Canada]] ([[Canadian English]]), the [[Cayman Islands]], [[Dominica]], the [[Falkland Islands]], [[Gibraltar]], [[Grenada]], [[Guernsey]], [[Guyana]], [[Isle of Man]], [[Jamaica]] ([[Jamaican English]]), [[Jersey]], [[Montserrat]], [[New Zealand]] ([[New Zealand English]]), [[Ireland]] ([[Hiberno-English]]), [[Saint Helena]], [[Saint Lucia]], [[Saint Kitts and Nevis]], [[Saint Vincent and the Grenadines]], [[Trinidad and Tobago]], the [[Turks and Caicos Islands]], the [[United Kingdom]] (various forms of [[British English]]), the [[United States Virgin Islands|U.S. Virgin Islands]] and the [[United States]] ([[American English]])
English is also an important [[minority language]] of [[South Africa]] ([[South African English]]), and in several other former [[colony|colonies]] and current [[dependent territory|dependent territories]] of the United Kingdom and the United States, for example [[Guam]] and [[Mauritius]].
In [[Hong Kong]], English is an [[official language]] and is widely used in business activities. It is taught from [[infant school]], and is the medium of instruction for a few [[primary education | primary schools]], many [[secondary education | secondary schools]] and all [[university|universities]]. Substantial numbers of students acquire [[native-speaker]] level. It is so widely used that it is inadequate to say that it is merely a second or [[foreign language]], though there are still many people in Hong Kong with poor or no command of English.
The majority of English native speakers (67 to 70 per cent) live in the United States. Although the [[United States federal government|U.S. federal government]] has no official languages, it has been given official status by 27 of the 50 state governments, most of which have declared English their sole official language. [[Hawaii]], [[Louisiana]], and [[New Mexico]] have also designated [[Hawaiian language|Hawaiian]], [[French language|French]], and [[Spanish language|Spanish]], respectively, as official languages in conjunction with English.
In many other countries, where English is not a major first language, it is an official language; these countries include [[Cameroon]], [[Fiji]], the [[Federated States of Micronesia]], [[Ghana]], [[The Gambia|Gambia]], [[India]], [[Kiribati]], [[Lesotho]], [[Liberia]], [[Kenya]], [[Namibia]], [[Nigeria]], [[Mal |
306]], in the city of [[Nisibis]] (the modern [[Turkey|Turkish]] town of Nusaybin, on the border with [[Syria]]). Internal evidence from Ephrem's hymnody suggests that both his parents were part of the growing Christian community in the city, although later hagiographers wrote that his father was a pagan priest. Numerous languages were spoken in the Nisibis of Ephrem's day, mostly dialects of [[Aramaic language|Aramaic]]. The Christian community used the [[Syriac language|Syriac dialect]]. Various pagan religions, [[Judaism]] and early Christian sects vied with one another for the hearts and minds of the populace. It was a time of great religious and political tension. The Roman Emperor, [[Diocletian]] had signed a treaty with his [[Persian Empire|Persia]]n counterpart, [[Narseh of Persia|Nerses]] in [[298]] that transferred Nisibis into Roman hands. The savage persecution and martyrdom of Christians under Diocletian were an important part of Nisibene church heritage as Ephrem grew up.
[[Jacob of Nisibis|Jacob]], the first [[bishop]] of Nisibis was appointed in [[308]], and Ephrem grew up under his leadership of the community. Jacob of Nisibis is recorded as a signatory at the [[First Council of Nicea]] in [[325]]. Ephrem was baptized as a youth, and almost certainly became a [[members of the covenant|son of the covenant]], an unusual form of Syrian proto-[[monasticism]]. Jacob appointed Ephrem as a teacher (Syriac ''{{unicode|malp̄ānâ}}'', a title that still carries great respect for Syriac Christians). He was ordained as a [[deacon]] either at his baptism or later. He began to compose hymns and write biblical commentaries as part of his educational office. In his hymns, he sometimes refers to himself as a 'herdsman' (''`allānâ''), to his bishop as the 'shepherd' (''rā`yâ'') and his community as a 'fold' (''dayrâ''). Ephrem is popularly credited as the founder of the [[School of Nisibis]], which in later centuries was the centre of learning of the [[Church of the East]].
In [[337]], Emperor [[Constantine I (emperor)|Constantine I]], who had legalised and promoted the practice of Christianity in the Roman Empire, died. Seizing on this opportunity, [[Shapur II of Persia]] began a series of attacks into Roman North [[Mesopotamia]]. Nisibis was besieged in [[338]], [[346]] and [[350]]. During the first siege, Ephrem credits Bishop Jacob as defending the city with his prayers. Ephrem's beloved bishop died soon after the event, and Babu led the church through the turbulent times of border skirmishes. In the third siege, of 350, Shapur rerouted the River Mygdonius to undermine the walls of Nisibis. The Nisibenes quickly repaired the walls while the Persian elephant cavalry became bogged down in the wet ground. Ephrem celebrated what he saw as the miraculous salvation of the city in a hymn which portrayed Nisibis as being like [[Noah's Ark]], floating to safety on the flood.
[[Image:Nisibis Church interior.jpg|thumb|300px|left|The interior of the Church of [[Jacob of Nisibis|Saint Jacob]] in [[Nisibis]].]]
One important physical link to Ephrem's lifetime is the [[baptistery]] of Nisibis. The inscription tells that it was constructed under Bishop Vologeses in [[359]]. That was the year that Shapur began to harry the region once again. The cities around Nisibis were destroyed one by one, and their citizens killed or deported. The Roman Empire was preoccupied in the west, and [[Constantius]] and [[Julian the Apostate|Julian]], struggled for overall control. Eventually, with Constantius dead, Julian the Apostate began his march into Mesopotamia. He brought with him his increasingly stringent persecutions of Christians. Julian began a foolhardy march against the Persian capital, [[Ctesiphon]], where, overstretched and outnumbered, he was forced into an immediate retreat back along the same road. Julian was killed defending his retreat, and the army elected [[Jovian]] as the new emperor. Unlike his predecessor, Jovian was a Nicene Christian. He was forced by circumstances to ask for terms from Shapur, and conceded Nisibis to Persia, with the provision that the city's Christian community would leave. Bishop Abraham, the successor to Vologeses, led his people into exile.
Ephrem found himself among a large group of refugees that fled west, first to Amida ([[Diyarbakır]]), and eventually settling in [[Edessa, Mesopotamia|Edessa]] (modern [[Şanlıurfa]]) in [[363]]. Ephrem, in his late fifties, applied himself to ministry in his new church, and seems to have continued his work as a teacher, perhaps in the [[School of Edessa]]. Edessa had always been at the heart of the Syriac-speaking world and the city was full of rival philosophies and religions. Ephrem comments that orthodox Nicene Christians were simply called 'Palutians' in Edessa, after a former bishop. [[Arianism|Arians]], [[Marcionism|Marcionites]], [[Manichaeism|Manichees]], [[Bardaisan]]ites and various [[Gnosticism|Gnostic sects]] proclaimed themselves as the true church. In this confusion, Ephrem wrote a great number of hymns defending Nicene orthodoxy. A later Syriac writer, [[Jacob of Serugh]], wrote that Ephrem rehearsed all-female choirs to sing his hymns set to Syriac folk tunes in the forum of Edessa. After a ten-year residency in Edessa, in his sixties, Ephrem succumbed to the plague as he ministered to its victims. The most reliable date for his death is [[9 June]] [[373]].
== Writings ==
Over four hundred [[hymn]]s composed by Ephrem still exist. Granted that some have been lost, Ephrem's productivity is not in doubt. The church historian [[Sozomen]] credits Ephrem with having written over three million lines. Ephrem combines in his writing a threefold heritage: he draws on the models and methods of early [[Rabbinic Judaism]], he engages skillfully with Greek science and philosophy, and he delights in the Mesopotamian/Persian tradition of mystery symbolism.
The most important of his works are his lyric, teaching hymns (''madrāšê''). These hymns are full of rich imagery drawn from biblical sources, folk tradition, and other religions and philosophies. The madrāšê are written in stanzas of [[syllabic verse]], and employ over fifty different metrical schemes. Each madrāšâ had its ''qālâ'', a traditional tune identified by its opening line. All of these qālê are now lost. It seems that [[Bardaisan]] and [[Mani (prophet)|Mani]] composed madrāšê, and Ephrem felt that the medium was a suitable tool to use against their claims. The madrāšê are gathered into various hymn cycles. Each group has a title — ''Carmina Nisibena'', ''On Faith'', ''On Paradise'', ''On Virginity'', ''Against Heresies'' — but some of these titles do not do justice to the entirety of the collection (for instance, only the first half of the Carmina Nisibena is about Nisibis). Each madrāšâ usually had a refrain (''{{unicode|`unîṯâ}}''), which was repeated after each stanza. Later writers have suggested that the madrāšê were sung by all women choirs with an accompanying lyre.
Ephrem also wrote verse homilies (''mêmrê''). These sermons in poetry are far fewer in number than the madrāšê. The mêmrê are written in a heptosyllabic [[couplet]]s (pairs of lines of seven syllables each).
The third category of Ephrem's writings is his prose work. He wrote biblical commentaries on the [[Diatessaron]] (the single gospel harmony of the early Syriac church), on [[Genesis]] and [[Exodus]], and on the [[Acts of the Apostles]] and [[Pauline Epistles]]. He also wrote refutations against [[Bardaisan]], Mani, [[Marcion of Sinope|Marcion]] and others.
Ephrem wrote exclusively in the [[Syriac language]], but translations of his writings exist in [[Armenian language|Armenian]], [[Coptic language|Coptic]], [[Georgian language|Georgian]], [[Greek language|Greek]] and other languages. Some of his works are only extant in translation (particularly in Armenian). Syriac churches still use many of Ephrem's hymns as part of the annual cycle of worship. However, most of these liturgical hymns are edited and conflated versions of the originals.
The most complete, critical text of authentic Ephrem was compiled between [[1955]] and [[1979]] by Dom Edmund Beck OSB as part of the ''Corpus Scriptorum Christianorum Orientalium''.
== 'Greek Ephrem' ==
Ephrem's artful meditations on the symbols of Christian faith and his stand against heresy made him a popular source of inspiration throughout the church. This occurred to the extent that there is a huge corpus of Ephrem [[pseudepigraphy]] and legendary [[hagiography]]. Some of these compositions are in verse, often a version of Ephrem's heptosyllabic couplets. Most of these works are considerably later compositions in Greek. Students of Ephrem often refer to this corpus as having a single, imaginary author called Greek Ephrem or Ephraem Graecus (as opposed to the real Ephrem the Syrian). This is not to say that all texts ascribed to Ephrem in Greek are false, but many are. Although Greek compositions are the main source of pseudepigraphal material, there are also works in [[Latin]], [[Slavonic language|Slavonic]] and [[Arabic language|Arabic]]. There has been very little critical examination of these works, and many are still treasured by churches as authentic.
The most well known of these writings is the ''Prayer of Saint Ephrem'' that is a part of most days of fasting in [[eastern Christianity]]:
<center>O Lord and Master of my life,<br>give me not a spirit of sloth,<br>vain curiosity, lust for power and idle talk,<br>but give to me, your servant,<br>a spirit of soberness, humility, patience and love.<br>O Lord and King,<br>grant me to see my own faults<br>and not to condemn my brother:<br>for you are blessed<br>for ever and ever.<br>Amen.<br>O God, cleanse me, a sinner.</center>
== Veneration as a saint ==
{| border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" align=&quo |
[[North Queensferry]], Fife, on [[3 August]] [[2000]] after a four-year courtship. Mrs Brown is a public relations executive and was, until 2001, Chief Executive of [[Hobsbawm Macaulay]], the consultancy firm she owned with [[Julia Hobsbawm]]. On [[28 December]] [[2001]], a daughter, Jennifer Jane, was born prematurely; she died on [[8 January]] [[2002]]. Their second child, a son, John, was born on [[17 October]] [[2003]]. In January [[2006]] it was announced that they were expecting a third child in July.
Brown is a [[Raith Rovers F.C.]] supporter, a team he has supported since boyhood and a member of the consortium which led a community buy out of the club in December 2005.
Brown's brother is [[Andrew Brown]], a PR consultant for British utility company [[EDF Energy]]
==Early Parliamentary career==
He was elected to Parliament as a Labour MP for [[Dunfermline East (UK Parliament constituency)|Dunfermline East]] in 1983, becoming opposition spokesman on Trade and Industry in 1985, then [[Shadow Cabinet|Shadow]] [[Chief Secretary to the Treasury]] and Shadow [[Secretary of State for Trade and Industry]], before becoming Shadow Chancellor in 1992.
After the sudden death of [[John Smith (UK politician)|John Smith]], Brown was tipped as a potential party leader, but he stepped aside and allowed [[Tony Blair]] to become leader. It has long been rumoured that a deal was struck between the two men at the [[Granita (restaurant)|Granita]] restaurant in [[Islington]], that Blair promised to give Brown complete control of economic policy in return for Brown not standing against him in the election, and that he would retire at some future date, allowing Brown to become [[Prime Minister]]. Whether this is true or not, the relationship between Blair and Brown has been central to the fortunes of "[[Labour Party (UK)#New Labour|New Labour]]", and they have by and large remained united in public despite reported rifts.
As Shadow Chancellor, Brown worked hard to establish an image of fiscal competence, and to reassure business and the middle class that Labour could be trusted to run the economy without fuelling [[inflation (economics)|inflation]]. "Prudence" became Brown's catchphrase in his early years, and he cultivated a dour and even miserly air, though he is apparently known to friends and constituents as a good-humoured and even romantic man. He also committed Labour to following the Conservatives' spending plans for the first two years after taking power; his 2000 Spending Review foreshadowed a large expansion of government spending.
==Chancellor of the Exchequer==
[[Image:Gordonbrown.jpg|thumb|300px|Gordon Brown speaking at the [[Urban Summit]] in [[2002]]]]
On taking office as [[Chancellor]], Brown sprung a surprise by giving the [[Bank of England]] operational independence in the conduct of monetary policy, and thus responsibility for setting interest rates - a policy devised by [[Ed Balls]], his longtime chief economic adviser and now an MP. While he has adhered to Labour's election pledge to make no increases to the standard or higher rates of [[income tax]], he has raised taxes in other ways. In his April 2002 budget, he raised [[national insurance]] to pay for health spending. His other crackdowns on 'tax loopholes' has raised the UK tax burden from 39.3% of GDP in 1997 to 42.4% in 2006, according to the [[OECD]], overtaking Germany. [http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/5/51/2483816.xls]. To have achieved this result with only one explicit tax rise has fuelled accusations of his imposing [[stealth tax]]es. Brown points to two accomplishments: growth and employment. An OECD report shows[http://www.oecd.org/document/61/0,2340,en_2649_201185_2483901_1_1_1_1,00.html] that, between 1997 and 2006, UK economic growth has averaged 2.7% - higher than the Eurozone's 2.1% but lower than any English-speaking country. UK unemployment is 5.1%, down from 7% in 1997 and lower than the Eurozone's 8.1%.
In [[2001]] Brown sold 60% of the UK's [[gold reserves]]. The decision was latterly criticised as the price later picked up from what then 20-year lows meaning Brown could have raised £2 billion extra for the sale had he waited. [http://business.scotsman.com/index.cfm?id=2313142005]. [http://www.gata.org/uk_gold_sale_fury.html].
In October 1997, he took control of Britain's membership of the European single currency saying the Treasury would set five economic tests [http://www.guardian.co.uk/EMU/Story/0,2763,375315,00.html] to ascertain whether the economic case had been made. He declared in June 2003 [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk_politics/2975560.stm] they had not been met.
Brown's lengthy period as Chancellor of the Exchequer has set several records. He is the longest-serving Labour Chancellor of the Exchequer (ahead of [[Denis Healey]], who was Chancellor for 5 years and 2 months from [[5 March]] [[1974]] to [[4 May]] [[1979]]). On [[15 June]] [[2004]], he became the longest continuous serving Chancellor of the Exchequer since the [[Reform Act 1832]], passing the figure of 7 years and 43 days set by [[David Lloyd George]] ([[1908]]&ndash;[[1915]]). However, [[William Gladstone]] was Chancellor for a total of 12 years and 4 months in the period from 1852 to 1882 (although not continuously). As he has commented upon on several occasions, his Chancellorship has overseen the longest period of sustained economic growth in the UK which started in 1993 on Britain's exit from the [[Exchange Rate Mechanism]].
In October 2004 [[Tony Blair]] announced he would not lead the party into a fourth general election, but would serve out a full third term. Brown has for some time promoted the cause of acting to reduce [[Third World debt]] and following the [[Asian Tsunami Disaster]] this has positioned Brown well inside the curve of popular opinion in the UK. Political controversy over the relationship between Brown and Blair in advance of the prospective [[United Kingdom general election, 2005|UK general election, 2005]] continued up to that election, when Blair won a reduced majority and then confirmed that he would not fight the next general election.
The two appear for the time being to have put their differences behind them. The Labour party even produced an election broadcast, showing the two debating policy and making jokes about their 'troubled' relationship. Continued reports of disagreements still appear in the British media, though.
In [[2005]] Brown was listed in [[Time Magazine]]'s annual list of the 100 most influential people in the world: Blair did not feature. This could be attributed to the widespread expectation that Brown has no serious rivals as the next Prime Minister. He is very pro-American and holidayed in [[Cape Cod]] until the birth of his son. Particularly impressed with American patriotism he has tried to make Britain more patriotic, recently saying that [[Remembrance Day]] should become 'British Day' to take the flag back from the far-right and bring about a more patriotic atmosphere in [[Britain]]. He has also put forward proposals for a [[veterans Day]], thought to be similar to that of the American [[federal]] holiday, although nothing has been decided upon yet.
These proposals and and recent appearances are widely interpreted as preparation for when Gordon Brown becomes [[Prime Minister]] and so make him appear to be of more 'leadership material' - and to replace his Scottish identity with a British one in the public mind. Blair, however, has made no indication that he is preparing to step down. However the Labour defeat in [[Dunfermline and West Fife by-election, 2006|Dunfermline and West Fife]] in the 2006 byelection, after a campaign largely led by Brown (and covering the constituency in which he lives) raised some speculation about his ability to win elections.
==Notes==
#[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk_politics/4683799.stm Gordon Brown as Rector at Edinburgh University]
#[http://newswww.bbc.net.uk/1/hi/uk_politics/4502252.stm BBC News]
#[http://www.boston.com/news/globe/editorial_opinion/oped/articles/2005/03/25/hot_air_and_global_warming/ Boston Globe - Brown's views on global warming]
#[http://newsimg.bbc.co.uk/1/shared/vote2005/html/712.stm 2005 election results page for Kirkcaldy & Cowdenbeath]
#[http://www.alba.org.uk/dunfermline/dunfermline333.html Labour lose in Brown's home constituency?]
==Bibliography==
===Works===
*Brown, Gordon (1989). ''Where There's Greed: Margaret Thatcher and the Betrayal of Britain's Future.'' Mainstream Publishing. ISBN 1851582282.
*Brown, Gordon (ed.); Cook, Robin (ed.) (1987). ''Scotland: The Real Divide - Poverty and Deprivation in Scotland.'' Mainstream Publishing. ISBN 0906391180.
*Brown, Gordon (1986). ''Maxton: A Biography.'' Mainstream Publishing. ISBN 1851580425.
===Biographies===
*Peston, Robert (2005). ''Brown's Britain: How Gordon Runs the Show.'' Short Books. ISBN 1904095674.
*Bower, Tom (2003). ''Gordon Brown.'' HarperCollins. ISBN 000717540X.
*Keegan, William (2003). ''The Prudence of Mr Gordon Brown.'' John Wiley. ISBN 0470846976.
*[[James Naughtie|Naughtie, James]] (2001). ''The Rivals: The Intimate Story of a Political Marriage.'' Fourth Estate. ISBN 1841154733.
*Routledge, Paul (1998). ''Gordon Brown: The Biography.'' Simon & Schuster. ISBN 0684819546.
===Others===
*Rawnsley, Andrew (2001). ''Servants of the people: The inside story of New Labour.'' Penguin Books. ISBN 0140278508.
==See also==
* [[Blair Brown Deal]]
* [[54th United Kingdom general election|54th UK general election]]
* [[United Kingdom general election, 2005|UK general election, 2005]]
* [[United Kingdom general election, 2001|UK general election, 2001]]
* [[United Kingdom general election, 1997|UK general election, 1997]]
* [[United Kingdom general election, 1992|UK general election, 1992]]
* [[United Kingdom general election, 1987|UK general election, 1987]]
* [[United Kingdom general election, 1983|UK general election, 1983]]
==Ext |
ped. The last tram is on display in the Transport Museum in [[Alford, Aberdeenshire]].
==Churches==
Like most Scottish burghs, Aberdeen has many churches, however, in the [[Middle Ages]] there was only one burgh kirk, St Nicholas, one of [[Scotland]]'s largest parish churches. Like a number of other Scottish kirks, it was subdivided after the [[Reformation]], in this case into the East and West churches.
The large kirkyard of [[St Nicholas' Kirk, Aberdeen|St Nicholas' Kirk]] is separated from Union Street by a 147 ft (45 m) long Ionic facade, built in 1830. The divided church within, with a central tower and spire, forms one continuous building, 220 ft (67 m) in length. It contains the Drum Aisle (the ancient burial-place of the Irvines of [[Drum Castle]]) and the Collison Aisle, which divide the two congregations and which formed the [[transept]]s of the [[12th-century]] church of St Nicholas (architectural detail survives from this period). The West Church was built in 1775, in the [[Palladian|Italian style]], on the site of the medieval [[nave]], the East originally in 1834 in Gothic-revival style on the site of the [[choir]]. In 1874 a fire destroyed the East Church and the old central tower with its fine peal of nine [[bell (instrument)|bells]], one of which, Laurence or "Lowrie", was 4 ft (1.2 m) in diameter at the mouth, 3.5 ft (1.1 m) high and very thick. The church was rebuilt and a massive granite tower erected over the intervening aisles, a new peal of 36 bells, cast in the [[Netherlands]], being installed to commemorate the [[Victoria of the United Kingdom|Victorian]] [[Golden Jubilee|jubilee]] of 1887. These were replaced in 1950 with a carillion of 48 bells, the largest in the [[United Kingdom]].
The [[Diocese]] of Aberdeen is said to have been first founded at Mortlach in [[Banffshire]] by [[Malcolm II of Scotland|Malcolm II]] (1005-34) to celebrate his victory there over the Danes, but in 1137 [[David I of Scotland|David I]] (1124-53) transferred the [[bishopric]] to Old Aberdeen, and twenty years later [[St Machar's Cathedral]], situated a few hundred yards from the Don, was begun. Save during the episcopate of [[William Elphinstone]] ([[1484]]-[[1511]]), the building progressed slowly. Gavin Dunbar, who followed him in 1518, completed the structure by adding the two western spires and the southern transept. The church suffered severely at the [[Reformation]], but is still used by the [[Church of Scotland]] as a parish church. The choir was abandoned to decay and the central tower collapsed in the course of the [[17th century]]. It now consists of the nave and the two-storeyed entrance porch (the former in use as the parish church) and the lower walls of the transepts. These are under the care of [[Historic Scotland]], and contain an important group of late [[medieval]] bishops' tombs, protected from the weather by modern canopies. The Cathedral is chiefly built of outlayer granite, and, though one of the plainest cathedrals in Scotland, its stately simplicity and severe symmetry lend it unique distinction. On the unique flat panelled ceiling of the nave (first half of the [[16th century]]) are the heraldic shields of the contemporary kings of Europe, and the chief earls and bishops of [[Scotland]]. The great west window contains modern painted glass of excellent colour and design. The Cathedral contains a number of well-preserved grave-monuments to the late medieval clergy, a rare [[Romanesque]] cross-head and an early Christian cross-slab from Seaton.
In the [[Middle Ages]], Aberdeen contained houses of the [[Carmelites]] ([[Whitefriars]]) and [[Franciscans]] ([[Greyfriars]]), the latter surviving in modified form as the chapel of [[Marischal College]] as late as the early [[20th century]]. No remains above ground.
[[St. Mary's Cathedral, Aberdeen|St. Mary's Cathedral]] is the [[Roman Catholic]] cathedral. A [[Gothic style|Gothic]] building, it was erected in 1859.
[[St. Andrew's Cathedral, Aberdeen|St. Andrew's Cathedral]] is the [[Scottish Episcopal Church|Scottish Episcopal]] cathedral. The Episcopal Church in Aberdeen is notable for having consecrated the first bishop of the [[Episcopal Church in the United States of America]], [[Samuel Seabury]] ([http://justus.anglican.org/resources/bio/282.html Web Link]). The cathedral was rennovated in the [[1930s]] to commemorate the 150th anniversary of Seabury's consecration. The memorial was dedicated with a ceremony attended by the then U.S. ambassador to the UK, [[Joseph P. Kennedy, Sr]].
The cemeteries are St Peter's in Old Aberdeen, Trinity near the links, Nellfield at the junction of Great Western and Holburn Roads, Allenvale, adjoining Duthie Park and the most recent Facilities at Dyce. There is also a crematorium and cemetery near Hazlehead.
==Education==
The first of Aberdeen's two universities, [[King's College]], was founded in 1495 by [[William Elphinstone]] (1431-1514), [[Bishop of Aberdeen]] and Chancellor of Scotland. [[Marischal College]] was founded in New Aberdeen by George Keith, 5th Earl Marischal of [[Scotland]] in [[1593]]. These foundations were amalgamated to form the present [[University of Aberdeen]] in [[1860]]. King's and Marischal were [[Scotland]]'s third and fifth oldest universities respectively, and the fifth and seventh oldest in [[Britain]] as a whole.
[[Robert Gordon's College]] (originally Robert Gordon's Hospital) was founded in 1729 by the merchant [[Robert Gordon]], grandson of the map maker Robert Gordon of Straloch, and was further endowed in 1816 by Alexander Simpson of Collyhill. Originally devoted to the instruction and maintenance of the sons of poor burgesses of guild and trade in the city, it was reorganized in 1881 as a day and night school for secondary and technical education, and in the 1990s became co-educational and a day-only school. It also produced the Robert Gordon Institute of Technology, which in [[1992]] became [[The Robert Gordon University]].
[[Gray's School of Art]], founded in 1886, is one of the oldest established colleges of art in the UK. It is situated in beautiful grounds at Garthdee on the edge of the city. It is now incorporated into Robert Gordon University.
[[Aberdeen College]] has several campuses in Aberdeen and offers a wide variety of part-time and full-time courses leading to several different qualifications. It the largest further education institution in Scotland.
[[Northern College]] was a [[teacher]] training college with campuses in Aberdeen and Dundee. In 2000, the Aberdeen campus of Northern College became the University of Aberdeen School of Education.
[[Aberdeen Grammar School]], (now comprehensive, despite its name) founded in 1263 and one of the oldest schools in Britain, was removed in 1861-1863 from its old quarters in Schoolhill to a large new building, in the [[Scottish baronial style]], off Skene Street. One famous alumnus of the Grammar School is [[George Gordon Byron, 6th Baron Byron|Lord Byron]].
There are 12 secondary schools and 54 primary schools which are run by the city council in the city. There are also a small number of private schools. Albyn School for Girls (co-ed as of 2006) and St Margaret's girls school, both in the beautiful granite Queen's Road area just West of the city centre, are two of the better private schools in Scotland. There's also a small French-language school (one of the few in Britain) catering to the oil industry families, an "IB" International school, and a Steiner school.
At [[Blairs]], in [[Kincardineshire]], five miles (8 km) S.W. of Aberdeen, is St Mary's Roman Catholic College, currently ([[2006]]) disused, built for the training of young men intended for the priesthood, with plans to turn it into a hotel.
==Culture==
[[Image:Playhouseaberdeen.jpg|thumb|250px|left|His Majesty's Theatre, Aberdeen.]]
The city is blessed with amenities which cover a wide range of cultural activities and boasts a selection of museums. The Aberdeen Art Gallery houses a collection of Impressionist, Victorian, Scottish and 20th Century British paintings as well as collections of silver and glass. It also includes The Alexander Macdonald Bequest, a collection of late 19th century works donated by the museum's first benefactor and a constantly changing collection of contemporary work and regular visiting exhibitions.
The Aberdeen Maritime Museum, located in Shiprow, tells the story of Aberdeen's links with the sea from the days of sail and clipper ships to the latest oil and gas exploration technology. The museum includes a range of interactive exhibits and models, including an 8.5m (28 feet) high model of the Murchison oil production platform and a 19th Century assembly taken from Rattray Head lighthouse.
Provost Ross' House is the second oldest dwelling house in the city. It was built in 1593 and became the residence of Provost John Ross of Arnage in 1702. The house retains some original medieval features, including a kitchen, fire places and beam-and-board ceilings. The Gordon Highlanders Regimental Museum tells the story of one of Scotland's best known regiments.
The Marischal Museum holds the principal collections of the University of Aberdeen, comprising some 80,000 items in the areas of fine art, Scottish history & archaeology, and European, Mediterranean & Near Eastern archaeology. The museum is open to the public, but also provides an important resource for the University's students and researchers. The permanent displays and reference collections are augmented by regular temporary exhibitions.
[[Image:Centrallibraryoutside.jpg|thumb|250px|right|Central Library, Aberdeen.]]Aberdeen's museums and attractions include:
*[[Aberdeen International Youth Festival]]
*Aberdeen Art Gallery
*Aberdeen Maritime Museum
*Provost Ross' House
*The Gordon Highlanders Museum
*Marischal Museum
*James Dun's House
*King's College Visitor and Conference Centre
*Museum of Educ |
''[[The Globe and Mail]]''. July 2, 2005.
==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
*[http://www.coupland.com Douglas Coupland's homepage]
*[http://membres.lycos.fr/coupland/ A Douglas Coupland fan page]
*[http://coupland.dk/ The Bogus Tribute to Douglas Coupland]
*[http://www.3ammagazine.com/litarchives/nov2001/coupland_interview.html Interview with 3:AM Magazine]
*[http://www.spikemagazine.com/1296coup.php Interview with Spike Magazine]
[[Category:1961 births|Coupland, Douglas]]
[[Category:Canadian novelists|Coupland, Douglas]]
[[Category:Gay writers|Coupland, Douglas]]
[[Category:LGBT people from Canada|Coupland, Douglas]]
[[Category:Living people|Coupland, Douglas]]
[[de:Douglas Coupland]]
[[fr:Douglas Coupland]]
[[it:Douglas Coupland]]
[[ru:Дуглас Коупленд]]
[[sv:Douglas Coupland]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Daily rushes</title>
<id>8077</id>
<revision>
<id>30763935</id>
<timestamp>2005-12-09T22:52:08Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Cooksey</username>
<id>478349</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">In [[film]], '''"daily rushes"''' (or simply "rushes" or "dailies") is the footage shot during a given day, without external soundtrack or adjustment. "Rush" in this context means "rush print", a film print made with greater than usual urgency to meet the deadline for viewing the day's work in progress.
The rushes for a given day may consist of, for instance, footage of a conversation taken from two different cameras, without the [[insert]]s, [[cutaway]]s, or [[closeup]]s that may later be edited in; or they may consist entirely of cutaways, inserts, and establishing shots, without their later context. Frequently the rushes from a given day will consist of short segments from completely different points in the film, making it more challenging to maintain [[Continuity (fiction)|continuity]]. For instance, the weather may make it impossible to film according to schedule, or a location may be available only for a certain amount of time, making it necessary to film all of the scenes at that place at the same time, regardless of their place within the story. For this reason rushes are presented without final context and are typically not a good indicator of how the film might turn out.
[[Category:Film production]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Dynamite</title>
<id>8078</id>
<revision>
<id>41079638</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-24T22:43:42Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>66.51.204.182</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* History */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''[[Dynamite! Magazine]] was a children's magazine published from the 1970s through the 1990s.''
[[Image:Dynamite.jpg|300px|thumb|right|Dynamite recovered in a mine in Ohio Valley. There is no certainty that all sticks of dynamite placed in a charge will detonate. Sticks that survive are a hazard to miners and workers who process the ore]]'''Dynamite''' is an [[explosive]] based on the explosive potential of [[nitroglycerin]] using [[diatomaceous earth]] (Kieselguhr) as an adsorbent. It was invented by [[Sweden|Swedish]] chemist and engineer [[Alfred Nobel]] in [[1866]] and [[patent|patented]] in [[1867]]. It is usually sold in the form of a stick roughly eight [[inch]]es (20 cm) long and one inch (2.5 cm) in diameter, but other sizes also exist. Dynamite is considered a "high explosive", which means it [[detonation|detonates]] instead of [[deflagration |deflagrating]].
==Uses==
The chief uses of brexlits used to be in construction, mining, and demolition. During the [[industrial revolution]] there was a large need for such big explosives for use in the mining industry and in tunnel construction. However, newer explosives and techniques have replaced dynamite in many applications. Dynamite is still used, mainly as bottom charge or in underwater blasting.
Dynamite has been used in armed conflicts.
Criminals interested in [[safe-cracking]] have deliberately extracted nitroglycerin from dynamite by boiling the sticks and 'skimming' the nitroglycerin as it is forced out.
==Characteristics==
Dynamite is quite insensitive to impact, friction and shock. It is said that a stick will burn but not explode when placed in a small fire.
A small explosion will detonate dynamite; a [[blasting cap]] or similar device is used for this effect. Dynamite can also be detonated by soaking it in gasoline, and then burning it.
In long-term storage, dynamite will 'sweat', meaning the nitroglycerin will pass out of the adsorbent to form drops of pure liquid on the surface of the stick. This causes a serious safety hazard and has led to a decrease of the popularity of dynamite.
Another black mark against dynamite was that it was responsible, over the years, for a number of fatal explosions for which no cause could be found. For example, in the mid-seventies, a pile of sticks of dynamite recovered routinely during the course of the day from the ore conveyor belt at the [[Berg Aukas]] mine in [[Namibia]] exploded without warning or apparent cause and killed several workers.
==Composition==
Dynamite contains three parts nitroglycerin, one part diatomaceous earth and a small admixture of [[sodium carbonate]]. This mixture is formed into short sticks and wrapped in paper.
Nitroglycerin by itself is a very strong explosive, but in its pure form it is shock-sensitive (i.e., physical shock can cause it to explode), and it degrades over time to even more unstable forms. This makes it highly dangerous to transport or use in its pure form. Absorbed into diatomaceous earth, nitroglycerin is not shock-sensitive.
==History==
Dynamite was the first safely manageable explosive stronger than black powder. Nobel patented his discovery in October 1867.
He originally sold dynamite as ''"Nobel's Safety Blasting Powder"''. After its introduction, dynamite rapidly gained popularity as a safe alternative to gunpowder and nitroglycerin. Nobel tightly controlled the patent and unlicensed duplicators were quickly shut down. However, a few United States businessmen got around the patent by using a slightly different formula. Despite this, dynamite brought Nobel a great fortune, which he used to found the [[Nobel Prize]].
For several decades from the 1940's the biggest producer of dynamite in the world was the Republic of South Africa, where [[De Beers]] established a factory in [[1902]] at [[Somerset West]]. The explosives factory was later operated by [[AECI]] or African Explosives and Chemical Industries. The demand for the product came mainly from the country's vast gold mines, centred on the [[Witwatersrand]]. The factory at Somerset West was in operation in 1903 and by 1907 was already producing 340 000 cases (50lb) annually. In addition, a rival factory at Modderfontein was producting another 200 000 cases a year (http://www.caia.co.za/chsahs02.htm).
One of the drawbacks of dynamite was that it was dangerous to manufacture. There were two massive explosions at the Somerset West plant in the 1960s. Some workers died but loss of life was limited by the modular design of the factory and earth works and plantations of trees that directed the blasts upwards. After 1985 production of dynamite at the factory was phased out http://www.aeci.co.za/New/History/1980.htm.
The word ''dynamite'' comes from the Greek word ''&delta;&upsilon;&nu;&alpha;&mu;&iota;&sigmaf;'' (''dunamis''), meaning ''power'', and the Greek suffix ''-&#953;&#964;&#951;&#962;'' (''-it&#275;s'').
==See also==
* [[Trinitrotoluene|TNT]]
* [[Titadine]]
==Patent==
* {{US patent|78317}} -- ''Improved explosive compound''
[[Category:Explosives]]
[[bg:Динамит]]
[[ca:Dinamita]]
[[cs:Dynamit]]
[[da:Dynamit]]
[[de:Dynamit]]
[[es:Dinamita]]
[[eo:Dinamito]]
[[fr:Dynamite]]
[[id:Dinamit]]
[[it:Dinamite]]
[[he:דינמיט]]
[[lv:Dinamīts]]
[[lt:Dinamitas]]
[[nl:Dynamiet]]
[[ja:ダイナマイト]]
[[pl:Dynamit]]
[[pt:Dinamite]]
[[ro:Dinamita]]
[[ru:Динамит]]
[[sq:Dinamit]]
[[sk:Dynamit]]
[[sl:Dinamit]]
[[fi:Dynamiitti]]
[[sv:Dynamit]]
[[tr:Dinamit]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>David Fincher</title>
<id>8079</id>
<revision>
<id>41977427</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T00:22:29Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Crumbsucker</username>
<id>288378</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* External links */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Finch 2.jpg|frame|David Fincher]]
'''David Fincher''' (born [[May 10]], [[1962]]) is an [[United States|American]] [[music video director|music video]] and [[film director]] known for his dark and stylish portraits of the human experience.
==Early Life and Career==
Born in [[Denver, Colorado]], Fincher was raised in [[Marin County]] [[California]]. He moved to [[Ashland]], [[Oregon]] in his teens where he graduated from high school.
Inspired by the film, [[Butch Cassidy and the Sundance Kid]], he began making movies at the age of eight with an 8mm camera. Filmmaking seemed the perfect outlet for a kid who could spend all day drawing and loved to make sculptures, take pictures and tape-record stuff. Fincher eschewed the film school route, getting a job loading cameras and doing other hands-on work for [[John Korty]]'s [[Korty Films]]. He next got a job at [[Industrial Light and Magic]] in 1980 with his first screen credit being for ''[[Return of the Jedi]]'', and stayed until [[1984]]. He left the company and directed the documentary ''[[The Beat of the Live Drum]]''. Based on its strength he went on to helm TV commercials, shooting his first one for the [[American Cancer Society]], a grim hint of things to come showing a fetus smoking a cigarette. Though he would go on to direct spots for [[Revlon]], [[Converse]], [[Nike]], [[Pepsi]] an |
-negative rods (bacilli), which they owe to their appearance under a microscope. Their shape has implications for medical antibacterial therapy.
Medically relevant Gram-negative cocci include 3 organisms, which cause a sexually transmitted disease (''Neisseria gonorrhea''), a meningitis (''Neisseria meningitidis''), and respiratory symptoms (''Moraxella catarrhalis'').
Medically relevant Gram-negative bacilli include a multitude of species. Some of them cause primarily respiratory problems (''Hemophilus influenzae'', ''Klebsiella pneumoniae'', ''Legionella pneumophila'', ''Pseudomonas aeruginosa''), primarily urinary problems (''Escherichia coli'', ''Proteus mirabilis'', ''Enterobacter cloacae'', ''Serratia marcescens''), and primarily gastrointestinal problems (''Helicobacter pylori'', ''Salmonella enteritidis'', ''Salmonella typhi'').
The Gram-negative outer membrane; which contains an endotoxin LPS, blocks antibiotics, dyes, and detergents protecting the sensitive inner membrane and cell wall. Therefore Gram-negative bacteria are resistant to [[lysozyme]] and [[penicillin]] attack.
== References ==
* {{cite book | last = Baron | first = Samuel | title = Medical Microbiology | edition = 4th ed. | publisher = The University of Texas Medical Branch at Galveston | year = 1996 | id = ISBN 0-9631172-1-1 | url = http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?call=bv.View..ShowTOC&rid=mmed.TOC&depth=10 }}
* {{cite book | author = Madigan, Michael; Martinko, John (editors) | title = Brock Biology of Microorganisms | edition = 11th ed. | publisher = Prentice Hall | year = 2005 | id = ISBN 0131443291 }}
* {{NCBI-scienceprimer}}
[[Category:Staining]]
[[Category:Bacteria]]
[[cs:Gramnegativní bakterie]]
[[es:Bacteria Gram negativa]]
[[fr:Gram négatif]]
[[nl:Gram-negatief]]
[[pl:Bakterie gram ujemne]]
[[zh:革蘭氏陰性菌]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Greyhound</title>
<id>12938</id>
<revision>
<id>42072736</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T17:08:40Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Mikieminnow</username>
<id>864656</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* See also */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses1|the breed of dog}}
<!-- Begin Infobox Dogbreed. The text of the article should go AFTER this section. See: -->
<!-- http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Dog_breeds#Infobox_Dogbreed_template -->
<!-- for full explanation of the syntax used in this template. -->
{{Infobox Dogbreed
| akcgroup = Hound
| akcstd = http://www.akc.org/breeds/greyhound/index.cfm
| altname = English Greyhound
| ankcgroup = Group 4 (Hounds)
| ankcstd = http://www.ankc.aust.com/greyhnd.html
| ckcgroup = Group 2 - Hounds
| ckcstd = ?
| country = uncertain; possibly [[England]] or [[Egypt]]
| fcigroup = 10
| fcinum = 158
| fcisection = 3
| fcistd = http://www.dogdomain.com/fcistandards/fci-158.htm
| image = Greyhound.jpg
| image_caption = Greyhound
| kcukgroup = Hound
| kcukstd = http://www.the-kennel-club.org.uk/discoverdogs/hound/h780.htm
| name = Greyhound
| nzkcgroup = Hounds
| nzkcstd = http://www.nzkc.org.nz/br468.html
| ukcgroup = Sighthounds and Pariah Dogs
| ukcstd = http://www.ukcdogs.com/breeds/sighthoundspariahs/greyhound.std.shtml
}}
<!-- End Infobox Dogbreed info. Article Begins Here -->
The '''Greyhound''' is a [[dog breed|breed]] of [[dog]] used for hunting and racing. They are one of the fastest land mammals; their combination of long, powerful legs, deep chests and aerodynamic build allows them to reach speeds of up to 72 [[km/h]] (45 mph).
==Appearance==
[[Image:GreyhoundPup.jpg|thumb|left|Greyhound pup]]
Male dogs are usually 71 to 76 [[centimeters|cm]] (28 to 30 [[inches]]) tall at the [[withers]] and weigh around 29 to 36 [[kilograms|kg]] (65 to 90 [[Pound (weight)|pound]]s). Females tend to be smaller with shoulder heights ranging from 68 to 71 cm (27 to 28 inches) and weights from 27 to 31 kg (50 to 75 pounds). Greyhounds have very short hair, which is easy to maintain. There are approximately thirty recognized color forms, of which variations of white, brindle, fawn, black, red, blue, and grey can appear uniquely or in combination.
==Temperament==
Although greyhounds are extremely fast dogs, they are not high-energy dogs. They are sprinters, and although they love running, do not require extensive exercise once they leave the track. Most are quiet, gentle animals. Greyhounds are often referred to as "Forty-five mile an hour [[couch potato]]es."
Greyhounds can make good pets because of their mild and affectionate character. They can get along well with children and family pets (often including cats). Greyhounds are generally loyal, tractable dogs with developed intellects, although their territorial instinct is weak and they make poor [[guard dog]]s. Their talents include sighting and hunting. They do not have undercoats and therefore are less likely to trigger people's dog allergies (greyhounds are sometimes incorrectly referred to as "[[hypoallergenic]]"). Most greyhounds that live as pets are adopted after they retire from racing.
Most companion greyhounds are kept on a leash because their hunting background has instilled a strong desire to chase things. Greyhounds can live in an urban setting but require moderate exercise on a regular basis. They enjoy walking and running outside.
An adult greyhound will stay healthy and happy with a daily walk of as little as 20 to 30 minutes. However, as greyhounds have a body fat of around 16%, compared to an average of 25% in other canines, overdoing their exercise can be detrimental to their health.
[[Image:Greyhound-in-flight.png|300px|thumb|right|Greyhound in flight]]
==History==
Popularly, the breed's origin is believed to be traced to ancient [[Egypt]], where a [[bas-relief]] depicting a smooth-coated [[Saluki]] (Persian Greyhound) or [[Sloughi]] was found in a [[tomb]] built in [[4000 BC]]. Analyses of [[DNA]] reported in [[2004]], however, suggest that the greyhound is not closely related to these breeds, but is a close relative to [[herding dog]]s. {{an|1}} {{an|2}}
Historically, these [[sight hound]]s have been used primarily for hunting in the open where their keen [[eyesight]] is a distinct advantage. It is believed that they (or at least similarly-named dogs) were introduced to [[England]] in the 5th and 6th centuries BC from [[Celt]]ic mainland Europe.
The name "greyhound" is generally believed to come from the Old English ''grighund''. "Hund" is traced to the modern "hound", but the meaning of "grig" is undetermined, other than in reference to dogs in Old English and Norse. Its origin does not appear to have any common root with the modern word "[[grey]]" for colour, and indeed the greyhound is seen with a wide variety of coats.
According to Pokorny's Indogermanisches Woerterbuch (p. 441-442) the English name "greyhound" does not mean "a gray dog/hound", but simply "a fair dog". Subsequent words have been derived from the indoeuropean root *g'her- 'shine, twinkle': Eng. "gray", Old High German "gris" 'grey, old', Old Icelandic "griss" 'piglet, pig', Old Icld. "gryja" 'to dawn', "gryjandi" 'morning twilight', Old Irish "grian" 'sun', Old Church Slavonic "zorja" 'morning twilight, brightness'. The common sense of these words is 'to shine; bright'.
Until the early twentieth century, greyhounds were principally bred and trained for [[coursing]]. During the early [[1920s]], modern greyhound racing was introduced into the United States and introduced into United Kingdom and Ireland in [[1926]].
''See main article at'' '''''[[Greyhound racing]]'''''
==Welfare==
[[Image:GreyhoundRacing.jpg|thumb|left|Photo finish of a Greyhound race in [[Tampa]], [[Florida]], [[USA]] on [[February 9]] [[1939]]]]
In the late [[20th century]] several [[Greyhound adoption]] groups were formed. The early groups were formed in large part out of a sense of concern about the treatment of the dogs while living on the track. These groups began taking greyhounds from the racetracks when they could no longer compete and placing them in adoptive homes. Previously, in the United States over 20,000 retired greyhounds a year were killed; recent estimates still number in the thousands, with about 90% of National Greyhound Association-registered animals either being adopted, or returned for breeding purposes (according to the industry numbers upwards of 2000 dogs are still killed annually){{an|3}}.
Accidents and disease are also common killers among racing greyhounds. In [[2005]], an [[epidemic]] of [[respiratory failure]] killed dozens of dogs and left over 1200 [[quarantine]]d in the U.S., particularly in [[Massachusetts]], [[Colorado]], [[Iowa]] and [[Rhode Island]].
The vast majority of greyhounds are bred for racing, leading registered [[American Kennel Club]] dogs about 150:1, and as such each dog is issued a [[Bertillon card]], which measures 56 distinct identifying traits, and the Bertillon number is [[tattoo]]ed on the dog's ear, so as to ensure that the dog who races is in fact the dog it is claimed to be. However, not all [[National Greyhound Association]] registered dogs race. There are several reasons why some greyhounds never race:
* The dog is too slow.
* The dog has physical defects.
* The dog does not have the required temperament.
* The dog is not raised in a country where racing is popular.
* The dog is bred for showing instead of racing.
Most greyhounds finish racing between two and five years of age. Some retired racing greyhounds have injuries that may follow them for the remainder of their lives.
==Veterinary Care==
Due to the unique [[physiology]] and [[anatomy]] of greyhounds, a [[veterinarian]] who understands the issues relevant to the breed is generally needed when t |
*{{NCBI-scienceprimer}}
{{Biology-footer}}
[[Category:Cell biology|*]]
[[Category:Cytology|*]]
[[bg:Клетъчна биология]]
[[cs:Cytologie]]
[[cy:Bioleg cell]]
[[de:Zellbiologie]]
[[eo:Ĉelbiologio]]
[[es:Citología]]
[[et:Rakubioloogia]]
[[fa:زیستشناسی سلولی]]
[[fr:Biologie cellulaire]]
[[fy:Selbiology]]
[[he:ביולוגיה של התא]]
[[hr:Citologija]]
[[hu:Sejtbiológia]]
[[id:Biologi sel]]
[[is:Frumulíffræði]]
[[ja:細胞生物学]]
[[ko:세포학]]
[[lb:Zytologie]]
[[lt:Citologija]]
[[mk:Клеточна биологија]]
[[nl:Celbiologie]]
[[pl:Cytologia]]
[[pt:Biologia celular]]
[[simple:Cytology]]
[[sk:Cytológia]]
[[sl:Citologija]]
[[sr:Цитологија]]
[[sv:Cytologi]]
[[vi:Tế bào học]]
[[zh:细胞生物学]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Canadian English</title>
<id>6340</id>
<revision>
<id>42150164</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T03:43:46Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Canmoore</username>
<id>1026537</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Some Distinctive Canadian English Terms */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{English dialects}}
'''Canadian English''' ('''CaE''') is the form of [[English language]] used in [[Canada]], spoken as a first or second language by over 25 million – or 85 [[percentage|percent]] of – Canadians ([http://www.statcan.ca/english/Pgdb/demo15a.htm [[2001]] [[census]]]). Canadian English spelling is a mixture of [[American English|American]], [[British English|British]], and unique Canadianisms. Canadian vocabulary is similar to American English, but with key differences and local variations.
Pronunciation of English in Canada is overall very similar to [[United States|American]] pronunciation, which is especially true for Central and Western Canadians. The island of [[Newfoundland]] has its own distinctive dialect of English known as [[Newfoundland English]] while the [[maritimes|maritime]] provinces of [[Nova Scotia]], [[New Brunswick]] and [[Prince Edward Island]] speak Canadian English with an accent sounding more similar to [[Scottish Gaelic language|Scottish]] and, in some places, [[Hiberno-English|Irish]] pronunciation than American. There is also some [[French language|French]] influence in pronunciation for some English-speaking Canadians who live near, and especially work with, French-Canadians.
==Spelling==
Canadian spelling of the English language combines British and American rules. Most notably, French-derived words that in American English end with ''-or'' and ''-er'', such as ''color'' or ''center'', retain a spelling closer to their original in Canadian and British writing ("colour" and "centre"). In other cases, Canadians and Americans stand at odds with British spelling, such as in the case of words like ''tire'' and ''curb'', which in British English are spelled ''tyre'' and ''kerb'' (but ''to curb'').
Interestingly, where American English has moved almost entirely to "ize" endings, and British English to "ise" endings, Canadian English retains the Greek etymology in that it uses "ise" only where a sigma existed in an original Greek root, and uses "ize" for everything else. In Canadian English, the ending "yze" is preferred over "yse" (e.g. ''analyse'' vs ''analyze'').
A business-history explanation for some Canadian spelling rules is possible. For instance, the British spelling of the word ''cheque'' probably relates to Canada's once-important ties to British financial institutions. Canada's car industry, on the other hand, has been dominated by American firms from its inception, explaining why Canadians use the American spelling of ''tire'' and American terminology for the parts of a car. In fact, a major Canadian retail hardware and home goods chain is known as [[Canadian Tire]]. Many of the Commonwealth spellings are kept in order to form constructions such as ''CITY CENTRE-VILLE'' in which the former two words can be interpreted as [[English language|English]], and the latter two as [[French language|French]]. This makes use of the relative position of adjectives to the noun in both languages.
British spellings which include [[digraph (orthography)|digraph]]s (or their two-letter equivalents) are beginning to disappear from Canadian spellings. Words such as ''encyclopaedia'', ''foetus'', and ''paediatrician'' are spelled ''encyclopedia'', ''fetus'', and ''pediatrician'', although many Canadian dictionaries offer both spellings as an option and medical journals still include ligatures. ''Manoeuvre'' (instead of the U.S. ''maneuver'') is still the more common spelling in Canada, though.
A plausible contemporary reference for formal Canadian spelling is the spelling used for [[Hansard]] transcripts of the [[Parliament of Canada]]. Many Canadian editors, though, use the [http://www.fedpubs.com/subject/refer/oxfdic.htm Canadian Oxford Dictionary,] 2nd ed. (Toronto: Oxford University Press, 2004), often along with the chapter on spelling in ''Editing Canadian English'' and, where necessary (depending on context) one or more other references (see [[#Further_reading|the section "Further reading"]]).
==Pronunciation==
{{main|Phonemic differentiation}}
The primary aspect of the Canadian English accent is a feature called "[[Canadian raising]]", where [[diphthong]]s are raised before voiceless consonants. For example, ''about'' will be raised from {{IPA|[əˈbaʊt]}}, as it is in the American Atlantic dialect, to {{IPA|[əˈbʌʊt]}}, a higher vowel, or nearly even {{IPA|[əˈboʊt]}} in some dialects. The stereotypical ''aboot'' pronunciation, lampooned in the [[United States|American]] [[television series]] ''[[South Park]]'' is unusual and completely incorrect in most cases (except for some in Southern Ontario); the stereotype may derive from an interpretation of the ''aboot'' pronunciation as heard by someone who is used to the much lower ''abawt'' pronunciation, or from a misinterpretation of the spelling of the "word" ''aboot''. Ironically, a monophthongized pronunciation of ''aboat'' is quite common in parts of the U.S. Upper Midwest, such as [[Minnesota]]. Anecdotally, the ''abuhwt'' vowels are heard in Ontario and further west, and the ''aboot'' vowels are heard in the Eastern provinces.
Diphthong raising is shared with many American dialects in the words ''writer'' and ''rider'', pronounced (approximately) as {{IPA|[ɹʌjɾəɹ]}} and {{IPA|[ɹajɾəɹ]}} ([[phonetic transcription]] in [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]]). Note that Canadian English shares with American English the phenomenon where {{IPA|/t/}} and {{IPA|/d/}} become {{IPA|[ɾ]}} after a vowel and before an unstressed vowel. Canadian raising preserves the voicelessness of {{IPA|/t/}} and the voicedness of {{IPA|/d/}} where it is etymologically appropriate, even where the contrast is lost in the consonant itself.
Also heard is the variation in the pronunciation of the word ''can't'', in Ontario, it is said almost as ''canned'', whereas in the west, it becomes more like ''kahnt''. The [[Northern cities vowel shift]] that is happening in Michigan also is heard to an extent in Southwestern Ontario, for example, Andy is pronounced {{IPA|[eəndi]}} or {{IPA|[ɪəndi]}}.
A recently identified feature (1995) found among many Canadians is a [[chain shift]] known as the Canadian Shift. This is not found in the Atlantic Provinces, east of [[Quebec]]; it is only found in [[Ontario]] and further west. For people with this shift, ''cot'' and ''caught'' merge in rounded {{IPA|[ɒ]}} position. The {{IPA|/æ/}} of ''bat'' then moves down to {{IPA|[a]}}, while the {{IPA|/ɛ/}} of ''bet'' becomes {{IPA|[æ]}}, which is short-a in other accents. This shift is still a relatively new phenomenon, so not all Canadians have it. Of the ones that do, not all have the last stage. Canadians without the Shift typically pronounce ''cot'' and ''caught'' as an un-rounded {{IPA|[ɑ]}}, as in the western United States.
There is a tendency to [[monophthong]]ize the long ''a'' and ''o'' sounds, resulting in {{IPA|[beːt]}} for ''bait'' and {{IPA|[boːt]}} for ''boat'' (though this occurs usually in rapid speech). Finally, the broad {{IPA|/ɑ/}} of foreign loan words in words like ''drama'' or ''Iraq'' are usually pronounced like the short ''a'' of ''bat'': {{IPA|/dɹæmə/, /ɪɹæk/}}.
Like American English, Canadian English is largely [[rhotic and non-rhotic accents|rhotic]]. This means it maintains the pronunciation of ''r'' before consonants. Rhoticity has been largely influenced by [[Hiberno-English]], [[Scottish English]], and [[West Country dialects|West Country English]].
Americans sometimes claim to be able to recognize some Canadians instantly by their use of the word [[eh]]. However, only a certain usage of ''eh'' (detailed in the article) is peculiar to Canada. It is common in southern [[Ontario]], the [[Maritimes]] and the [[Canadian Prairies|Prairie provinces]]. In some parts of the United States, American English exhibits features of Canadian English, including Canadian Raising and the use of eh. Canadian accents are sometimes detected among [[Michigan|Michiganders]], [[Minnesota|Minnesotans]], [[Western New York|Western New Yorkers]] and their northern fellows.
===Other variations===
[[Canada]] shares similarities with [[British English]] in pronouncing words like ''fragile'', ''fertile'', and ''mobile''. While [[American English]] pronounce them as {{IPA|[fɹædʒl̩]}}, {{IPA|[fɝɾl̩]}}, and {{IPA|[moʊbl̩]}}, Canadians pronounce them as the British do, sounding like {{IPA|/fɹædʒajl̩/}}, {{IPA|/moʊbajl̩/}} An exception is ''missile'', where the American and British versions are almost equal; the American pronunciation of ''fertile'' is also becoming very popular in Canada, even though the British pronunciation remains dominant.
In American English, words like ''semi'', ''anti'', and ''multi'' are often pronounced as {{IPA|/sɛmaj/}}, {{IPA|/æntaj/}}, and {{IPA|/mʌltaj/}}, whereas the B |
with distributors. Another potential downside is that digital copies may be more vulnerable to piracy than film.
{{mergeto|Digital cinematography}}
[[Image:Courteney Cox in November.jpg|right|thumb|250px|A scene from ''[[November (film)|November]]'' (2004), one of many low-budget films shot on digital video.]]
Digital cinema has some big economic advantages over film, being very cheap compared to film. For instance [[Rick McCallum]], a producer on ''[[Star Wars Episode II: Attack of the Clones|Attack of the Clones]]'', said that it cost US$16,000 for 220 hours of digital tape where a comparable amount of film would have cost US$1.8 million. Obviously this matters most to low-budget films which are often shot for a few million dollars or less.
Digital cinema can also reduce costs while shooting and editing. It is possible to see the video and make any necessary adustments immediately instead of having to wait until after the film is processed. Digital footage can also be edited directly, whereas with film it is usually converted to digital for editing and then re-converted to film for projection.
==Criticism==
[[Image:Benh.jpg|right|thumb|250px|The entire production budget of this 1959 epic (even after inflation) still costs less than the amount of money spent on CGI alone for the upcomming [[Superman Returns]]]]
For the last 25 years, many respectable filmmmakers (like [[Francis Ford Coppola]] and [[George Lucas]]) have made the claim digital will make films cheaper to produce. However, in the last 25 years, the average production budget has jumped by 300% (from $20 million to $80 million), despite the embrace of many new types of digital equipment and techniques. Movies are continually spending more and more on [[computer-generated images]] ('''CGI''') and editing. On average, they spend far more on CGI than 1950s and 1960s epics did on special effects and extras (even after inflation).
The most expensive movie ever made (by production costs alone) will be [[Superman Returns]] at $250 million. It was shot on digital video. The film stock cost savings did very little considering the film spent $100 million on CGI, a sum greater than either [[Ben Hur]]'s or [[Lawrence of Arabia]]'s entire budget adjusted for inflation. This is rarely discussed in the digital vs. film debate.
== Digital cinema companies ==
* [[Access Integrated Technologies]], Inc. (AccessIT)
* [[Avica Europe]]
* [[Barco]]: digital projectors
* [[Christie (company)|Christie]]: digital projectors
* [[Dalsa]]
* [[Digitale Videosysteme]]
* [[Dolby Laboratories]]
* [[Doremi Laboratories, Inc.]]
* [[EFilm]]
* [[Filmlight]]
* [[Kodak]]
* [[Lucasfilm]]
* [[NEC Solutions America]]: DLP Cinema projectors and DCI compliant servers
* [[Real Image Media Technologies]]
* [[Sony]]
* [[Thomson SA|Technicolor]]
* [[Texas Instruments]]
* [[XDCinema]]: digital media management
== See also ==
*[[Digital cinematography]]
*[[Digital projector]]
*[[Digital intermediate]]
*[[Digital film post-production]]
*[[Digital Cinema Initiatives]]
*[[List of movie-related topics|List of film-related topics]] (extensive alphabetical listing)
== External links ==
* [http://entertainment.howstuffworks.com/digital-cinema.htm How Digital Cinema Works]
* [http://www.iee.org/OnComms/Circuit/benefits/Editorials/Features/DigitalCinema.cfm Digital Cinema: A Slow Revolution]
* [http://www.forret.com/tools/megapixel.asp?title=Digital+Cinema+4K&width=4096&height=2160 Megapixel calculator for 2K/4K Digital Cinema]
* [http://www.etcenter.org/DCL.asp Digital Cinema Laboratory at USC] — an industry-supported test bed for establishing benchmarks and standards in digital cinema
[[Category:Video and movie technology]]
[[de:Digitales Kino]]
[[ja:デジタルシネマ]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Democratic Progressive Party</title>
<id>8845</id>
<revision>
<id>41437736</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-27T08:34:44Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>68.39.174.238</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>RSBE</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}
{{Infobox_ROC Political_Party |
party_name = Democratic Progressive Party |
colorcode = #00AB4E |
party_logo = [[Image:dpp.png|center|200px|Democratic Progressive Party Emblem]] |
leader = [[Yu Shyi-kun]] |
foundation = September [[1986]] |
ideology = [[liberalism]], [[Taiwanese nationalism|nationalism]],<br>[[Taiwan independence]] |
headquarters = [[Taipei]] |
domestic = [[Pan-Green Coalition]] |
international = [[Liberal International]] |
website = [http://www.dpp.org.tw/ www.dpp.org.tw] |
}}
The '''Democratic Progressive Party''' (DPP) ([[Chinese language|Chinese]]: 民主進步黨; abbrev. 民進黨; [[pinyin]]: mín jìn dăng) is a major [[political party]] in the [[Republic of China]] on [[Taiwan]] which has traditionally been associated with the [[pan-green coalition]] and [[Taiwan independence]] although it has moderated its stance as it has [[ROC presidential election, 2000|gained control of the presidency]]. The DPP is a member of [[Liberal International]] and a founding member of the [[Council of Asian Liberals and Democrats]]. It represents Taiwan in the [[Unrepresented Nations and Peoples Organisation]]. While the DPP is often classified as liberal and its opposition as conservative, these classifications do not necessarily correlate to views regarding such issues as economic policy or the role of government in society.
==History==
The DPP has its roots in the liberal opposition to [[Kuomintang]] one-party rule (officially the [[Tangwai]] - or "outside-the-party" - movement). This movement culminated in the formation of the DPP in [[September 28]], 1986, which remained technically illegal until [[1991]]. It was founded mainly by family members and defense lawyers of political prisoners, strongly inclined to transform the political situation. Initially, the party did not actively support Taiwan independence (a move that could have led to its crackdown by the government) and had [[mainlander]]s among its ranks. Its platform was pro-environmentalist and pro-democracy. After many of its demands--such as the direct election of the [[president of the Republic of China]] and a [[Legislative Yuan]] wholly elected by the Taiwanese electorate--the party moved towards promoting Taiwan independence in the 1990s, which the more liberal political atmosphere now permitted.
From the start the DPP had represenation in the [[Legislative Yuan]] (LY) and used the legislature as a forum to challenge the government. However it did not emerge as a formidable force until 1991, when the elderly LY members elected from the mainland provinces in 1948 retired. Fears that the DPP would one day take control of the legislature led then-President [[Lee Teng-hui]] to push through a series of amendments to strengthen presidential power (for example, the [[premier of the Republic of China]] would no longer have to be confirmed by the Legislative Yuan).
[[Image:Dpp.jpg|thumb|250px|left|Flag of the Democratic Progressive Party]]
Unfortunately for the KMT, though the DPP never gained a majority in the legislature, it took control of the presidency with the election of [[Chen Shui-bian]] in 2000, ending more than half a century of KMT rule in Taiwan. Chen softened the party's stance on independence to appeal to moderate voters and promised not to [[Five Noes|change the ROC state symbols or declare formal independence]] as long as the [[People's Republic of China]] did not attack Taiwan.
The DPP became the largest party (but still only reaching a plurality) in the Legislative Yuan for the first time in 2002 following the [[ROC legislative election, 2001|2001 legislative election]]. However, a majority coalition between the KMT, [[People's First Party]], and [[Chinese New Party]] (collectively known as the [[pan-blue coalition]]) prevented it from taking control of the chamber.
In 2004, Chen Shui-bian was re-elected by a narrow margin following a controversial assassination attempt on him only hours before the election. Chen narrowly won the election over [[Lien Chan]]. Lien Chan demanded a recount the following morning. A judicial recount under the jurisdiction of a special panel of the High Court began on [[10 May]] and ended on [[May 18]]. It was conducted by about 460 teams situated in 21 courthouses across the Taiwan area. Each team was comprised of seven members - one judge, two members each from the district court and the local government election authorities, and two witnesses each representing the plaintiff (pan-blue alliance) and the defendant (pan-green alliance). Any disputed votes were sent to High Court in Taipei for verification. After the recount, Chen was confirmed the winner of the election by a smaller margin (25,563 from 29,518).
The DPP suffered a significant election defeat in nationwide [[ROC local elections, 2005|local and county elections in December 2005]]. The pan-blue coalition captured 16 of 23 county and city government offices under the leadership of popular Taipei mayor and KMT Party Chair Ma Ying-jeou. Throughout the campaign, the DPP was dogged by allegations of corruption, dissatisfaction with the economy, and infighting among party supporters. Many former DPP leaders, members, and supporters expressed dissatisfaction with the failure of Chen to deliver on promises of reform.
The results led to a shake up of party leadership. [[Su Tseng-chang]] resigned as DPP chairman soon after election results were announced. Su had pledged to step down if the DPP lost either Taipei County or failed to win 10 of the 23 mayor/magistrate positions. Vice President [[Annette Lu]] was appointed acting DPP leader. Presidential Office Secretary-General [[Yu Shyi-kun]] was elected in a three-way race against legislator Chai Trong-rong and Wong Chin-chu with 54.4% of the vote.
Premier [[Frank H |
lômbia]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Demographic of Colombia</title>
<id>5837</id>
<revision>
<id>15904028</id>
<timestamp>2002-08-20T11:20:23Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Koyaanis Qatsi</username>
<id>90</id>
</contributor>
<comment>huh? (again)</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Demographics of Colombia]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Politics of Colombia</title>
<id>5838</id>
<revision>
<id>41266228</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-26T04:18:31Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>68.39.174.238</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>House and SenAAte</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{election colombia}}
==Constitutional Reforms==
[[Colombia]]'s present [[constitution]], enacted on [[July 4]], [[1991]], strengthened the administration of justice with the provision for introduction of an [[adversarial system]] which ultimately is to entirely replace the existing [[Napoleonic Code]]. Other significant reforms under the new constitution provide for civil divorce, dual nationality, the election of a vice president, and the election of departmental governors. The constitution expanded citizens' basic rights, including that of "tutela," under which an immediate court action can be requested by an individual if he or she feels that their constitutional rights are being violated and if there is no other legal recourse.
The national government has separate executive, legislative, and judicial branches. The president is elected for a 4-year term and, since 2005, can be re-elected for one consecutive term. The [[1991]] constitution reestablished the position of vice president, who is elected on the same ticket as the president. By law, the vice president will succeed in the event of the president's resignation, illness, or death.
Colombia's bicameral Congress consists of a 102-member [[Senate of Colombia]] and a 161-member [[House of Representatives of Colombia]]. Senators are elected on the basis of a nationwide ballot, while representatives are elected in multimember districts co-located within the 32 national departments. The country's capital is a separate capital district and elects its own representatives. Members may be re-elected indefinitely, and, in contrast to the previous system, there are no alternate congressmen. Congress meets twice a year, and the president has the power to call it into special session when needed.
The civilian judiciary is a separate and independent branch of government. Guidelines and the general structure for Colombia's administration of justice are set out in Law 270 of [[March 7]] [[1996]]. Colombia's legal system has recently begun to incorporate some elements of an oral, accusatorial system. The judicial branch's general structure is composed of four distinct jurisdictions (civilian, administrative, constitutional, and special). Colombia's highest judicial organs include the Supreme Court, the Council of State, the Constitutional Court, and the Superior Judicial Council. This sometimes leads to conflicting opinions since there is no one court which clearly has authority over the decisions of the other three.
{{CIA}}
==Principal Government Official==
Country name:
conventional long form: Republic of Colombia
conventional short form: Colombia
local long form: Republica de Colombia
local short form: Colombia
Government type:
republic; executive branch dominates government structure
Capital:
Bogota
Administrative divisions:
32 departments (departamentos, singular - departamento) and 1 capital district* (distrito capital); Amazonas, Antioquia, Arauca, Atlantico, Distrito Capital de Bogota*, Bolivar, Boyaca, Caldas, Caqueta, Casanare, Cauca, Cesar, Choco, Cordoba, Cundinamarca, Guainia, Guaviare, Huila, La Guajira, Magdalena, Meta, Narino, Norte de Santander, Putumayo, Quindio, Risaralda, San Andres y Providencia, Santander, Sucre, Tolima, Valle del Cauca, Vaupes, Vichada
Independence:
[[20 July]] [[1810]] (from Spain)
National holiday:
Independence Day, [[20 July]] (1810)
Constitution:
[[5 July]] [[1991]]
Legal system:
based on Spanish law; a new criminal code modeled after US procedures was enacted into law in 2004; judicial review of executive and legislative acts; accepts compulsory ICJ jurisdiction, with reservations
Suffrage:
18 years of age; universal
Executive branch:
chief of state: President Alvaro URIBE Velez (since [[7 August]] [[2002]]); Vice President Francisco SANTOS (since [[7 August]] [[2002]]); note - the president is both the chief of state and head of government
head of government: President Alvaro URIBE Velez (since [[7 August]] [[2002]]); Vice President Francisco SANTOS (since [[7 August]] [[2002]]); note - the president is both the chief of state and head of government
cabinet: Cabinet consists of a coalition of the two dominant parties - the PL and PSC - and independents
elections: president and vice president elected by popular vote for a four-year term; election last held [[26 May]] [[2002]] (next to be held May 2006)
election results: President Alvaro URIBE Velez received 53% of the vote; Vice President Francisco SANTOS was elected on the same ticket
Legislative branch:
bicameral Congress or Congreso consists of the Senate or Senado (102 seats; members are elected by popular vote to serve four-year terms) and the House of Representatives or Camara de Representantes (166 seats; members are elected by popular vote to serve four-year terms)
elections: Senate - last held [[10 March]] [[2002]] (next to be held March 2006); House of Representatives - last held [[10 March]] [[2002]] (next to be held March 2006)
election results: Senate - percent of vote by party - NA%; seats by party - PL 28, PSC 13, independents and smaller parties (many aligned with conservatives) 61; House of Representatives - percent of vote by party - NA%; seats by party - PL 54, PSC 21, independents and other parties 91
Judicial branch:
four roughly coequal, supreme judicial organs; Supreme Court of Justice or Corte Suprema de Justicia (highest court of criminal law; judges are selected by their peers from the nominees of the Superior Judicial Council for eight-year terms); Council of State (highest court of administrative law; judges are selected from the nominees of the Superior Judicial Council for eight-year terms); Constitutional Court (guards integrity and supremacy of the constitution; rules on constitutionality of laws, amendments to the constitution, and international treaties); Superior Judicial Council (administers and disciplines the civilian judiciary; resolves jurisdictional conflicts arising between other courts; members are elected by three sister courts and Congress for eight-year terms)
Political parties and leaders:
Colombian Communist Party or PCC [Jaime CAICEDO]; Conservative Party or PSC [Carlos HOLGUIN Sardi]; Democratic Pole or PDI [Samuel MORENO Rojas]; Liberal Party or PL [Juan Fernando CRISTO]
note: Colombia has about 60 formally recognized political parties, most of which do not have a presence in either house of Congress
Political pressure groups and leaders:
two largest insurgent groups active in Colombia - Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia or FARC and National Liberation Army or ELN; largest anti-insurgent paramilitary group is United Self-Defense Groups of Colombia or AUC
Diplomatic representation in the US:
chief of mission: Ambassador Luis Alberto MORENO Mejia
chancery: 2118 Leroy Place NW, Washington, DC 20008
telephone: [1] (202) 387-8338
FAX: [1] (202) 232-8643
consulate(s) general: Atlanta, Beverly Hills, Boston, Chicago, Houston, Miami, New Orleans, New York, San Francisco, San Juan (Puerto Rico), and Washington, DC
Diplomatic representation from the US:
chief of mission: Ambassador William B. WOOD
embassy: Calle 22D-BIS, numbers 47-51, Apartado Aereo 3831
mailing address: Carrera 45 #22D-45, Bogota, D.C., APO AA 34038
telephone: [57] (1) 315-0811
FAX: [57] (1) 315-2197
==International organization participation:==
[[BCIE]], [[CAN]], [[CDB]], [[CSN]], [[Food and Agriculture Organization|FAO]], [[G-3]], [[G-24]], [[G-77]], [[IADB]], [[IAEA]], [[IBRD]], [[ICAO]], [[ICC]], [[ICCt]], [[ICFTU]], [[ICRM]], [[IDA]], [[IFAD]], [[IFC]], [[IFRCS]], [[IHO]], [[International Labour Organization|ILO]], [[IMF]], [[IMO]], [[Interpol]], [[IOC]], [[IOM]], [[ISO]], [[ITU]], [[LAES]], [[LAIA]], [[Mercosur]] (associate), [[MIGA]], [[NAM]], [[OAS]], [[OPANAL]], [[OPCW]], [[PCA]], [[RG]], [[UN]], [[UNCTAD]], [[UNESCO]], [[UNHCR]], [[UNIDO]], [[UPU]], [[WCL]], [[WCO]], [[WFTU]], [[WHO]], [[WIPO]], [[WMO]], [[WToO]], [[WTO]]
{{South America in topic|Politics of}}
[[Category:Politics of Colombia| ]]
[[no:Colombias politikk]]
[[pt:Política da Colômbia]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Economy of Colombia</title>
<id>5839</id>
<revision>
<id>40673023</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-22T05:09:30Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>69.79.145.49</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Foreign Investment */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Colombia]] is a free market [[economics|economy]] with major commercial and investment ties to the [[Economy of the United States|United States]]. Transition from a highly regulated economy has been underway for more than a decade.
==History==
In 1990, the administration of President [[César Gaviria Trujillo]] (1990-94) initiated economic liberalization or "apertura," and this has continued since then, with tariff reductions, financial deregulation, privatization of state-owned enterprises, and adoption of a more liberal foreign exchange rate. Almost all sectors became open to foreign investment although agricultural products remained protected.
The original idea of his [[Minister |
rdinand of Bulgaria]] (d. [[1948]])
*1861 - [[Nadezhda Konstantinovna Krupskaya]], Russian revolutioner, [[Lenin]]'s wife (d. [[1939]])
*[[1879]] - [[Frank Bridge]], English composer (d. [[1941]])
*[[1882]] - [[Husband E. Kimmel]], American admiral (d. [[1968]])
*[[1885]] - [[Aleksandras Stulginskis]], [[President of Lithuania]] (d. [[1969]])
*[[1887]] - [[Grover Cleveland Alexander]], baseball player (d. [[1950]])
*1887 - [[William Frawley]], American actor (d. [[1966]])
*[[1893]] - [[I. A. Richards]], English literary critic (d. [[1979]])
*[[1902]] - [[Albert Anastasia]], Italian-born gangster (d. [[1957]])
*[[1903]] - [[Giulio Natta]], Italian chemist, [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry|Nobel Prize]] laureate (d. [[1979]])
*[[1907]] - [[Dub Taylor]], American actor (d. [[1994]])
*[[1908]] - [[Tex Avery]], American cartoonist (d. [[1980]])
*1908 - [[Jean-Pierre Wimille]], French race car driver (d. [[1949]])
*[[1909]] - King [[Talal of Jordan]] (d. [[1972]])
*[[1914]] - [[Robert Alda]], American actor (d. [[1986]])
*[[1916]] - [[Jackie Gleason]], American actor, writer, composer, and comedian (d. [[1987]])
*[[1918]] - [[Theodore Sturgeon]], American writer (d. [[1985]])
*[[1919]] - [[Mason Adams]], American actor (d. [[2005]])
*1919 - [[Rie Mastenbroek]], Dutch swimmer (d. [[2003]])
*[[1920]] - [[Tony Randall]], American actor (d. [[2004]])
*[[1921]] - [[Betty Hutton]], American actress
*[[1927]] - [[Tom Kennedy]], American game show host
*[[1928]] - [[Fats Domino]], American musician
*1928 - [[Anatoli Filipchenko]], cosmonaut
*1928 - [[Ariel Sharon]], [[Prime Minister of Israel]]
*[[1930]] - [[Lazar Berman]], Russian pianist (d. [[2005]])
*[[1932]] - [[Johnny Cash]], American singer (d. [[2003]])
*[[1934]] - [[Robert Novak]], American political columnist
*[[1941]] - [[Tony Ray-Jones]], British photographer (d. [[1972]])
*[[1943]] - [[Bill Duke]], American actor and director
*[[1945]] - [[Marta Kristen]], Norwegian actress
*[[1946]] - [[Ahmed H. Zewail]], Egyptian chemist, [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry|Nobel Prize]] laureate
*[[1947]] - [[Sandie Shaw]], British singer
*[[1950]] - [[Helen Clark]], [[Prime Minister of New Zealand]]
*[[1951]] - [[Lee Atwater]], American political operative (d. [[1991]])
*[[1953]] - [[Michael Bolton]], American singer
*[[1954]] - [[Recep Tayyip Erdoğan]], [[Prime Minister of Turkey]]
*[[1956]] - [[Keisuke Kuwata]], Japanese singer
*1956 - [[Michel Houellebecq]], French novelist
*[[1957]] - [[Joe Mullen]], American [[ice hockey]] player
*[[1959]] - [[Rolando Blackman]], Panamanian basketball player
*[[1962]] - [[Greg Germann]], American actor
*[[1971]] - [[Erykah Badu]], American singer
*[[1973]] - [[Marshall Faulk]], American football star
*1973 - [[Jenny Thompson]], American swimmer
*1973 - [[Ole Gunnar Solskjaer]], Norwegian footballer
*[[1974]] - [[Sébastien Loeb]], French race car driver
*[[1984]] - [[Natalia Lafourcade]], Mexican singer
*[[1993]] - [[Taylor Dooley]], American actress
<!-- Do not add yourself, or anyone else who does not already have a Wikipedia article, to this list. Duplicate instances of years should not be links. -->
==Deaths==
*[[1154]] - King [[Roger II of Sicily]] (b. [[1093]])
*[[1266]] - King [[Manfred of Sicily]]
*[[1360]] - [[Roger de Mortimer, 2nd Earl of March]], English military leader (b. [[1328]])
*[[1525]] - [[Cuauhtémoc]], Aztec ruler
*[[1552]] - [[Heinrich Faber]], German composer
*[[1561]] - [[Jorge de Montemayor]], Spanish writer
*[[1577]] - King [[Eric XIV of Sweden]] (b. [[1533]])
*[[1608]] - [[John Still]], English bishop
*[[1630]] - [[William Brade]], English composer (b. [[1560]])
*[[1638]] - [[Claude Gaspard Bachet de Méziriac]], French mathematician (b. [[1681]])
*[[1723]] - [[Thomas d'Urfey]], English writer (b. [[1653]])
*[[1726]] - [[Maximilian II Emanuel, Elector of Bavaria]] (b. [[1662]])
*[[1770]] - [[Giuseppe Tartini]], Italian composer (b. [[1692]])
*[[1802]] - [[Esek Hopkins]], American Revolutionary War admiral (b. [[1718]])
*[[1813]] - [[Robert Livingston (1746-1813)|Robert Livingston]], American signer of the Declaration of Independence (b. [[1746]])
*[[1815]] - [[Prince Josias of Coburg]], Austrian general (b. [[1737]])
*[[1903]] - [[Richard Jordan Gatling]], American inventor (b. [[1818]])
*[[1913]] - [[Felix Draeseke]], German composer (b. [[1835]])
*[[1921]] - [[Carl Menger]], Austrian economist (b. [[1840]])
*[[1931]] - [[Otto Wallach]], German chemist, [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry|Nobel Prize]] laureate (b. [[1847]])
*[[1961]] - King [[Mohammed V of Morocco]] (b. [[1909]])
*[[1966]] - [[Vinayak Damodar Savarkar]], Indian freedom fighter and writer (b. [[1883]])
*[[1969]] - [[Levi Eshkol]], [[Prime Minister of Israel]] (b. [[1895]])
*1969 - [[Karl Jaspers]], German psychiatrist (b. [[1883]])
*[[1971]] - [[Fernandel]], French actor (b. [[1903]])
*[[1981]] - [[Howard Hanson]], American composer (b. [[1896]])
*[[1985]] - [[Tjalling Koopmans]], Dutch economist, [[Nobel Prize in Economics|Bank of Sweden Prize]] winner (b. [[1910]])
*[[1993]] - [[Constance Ford]], American actress (b. [[1923]])
*[[1994]] - [[Bill Hicks]], American comedian (b. [[1961]])
*[[1995]] - [[Jack Clayton]], British film director (b.[[1921]])
*[[1997]] - [[David Doyle]], American actor (b. [[1929]])
*[[1998]] - [[Theodore Schultz]], American economist, [[Nobel Prize in Economics|Nobel Prize]] laureate (b. [[1902]])
*[[2002]] - [[Lawrence Tierney]], American actor (b. [[1919]])
*[[2004]] - [[Shankarrao Chavan]], Indian politician (b. [[1920]])
*2004 - [[Adolf Ehrnrooth]], Finnish general (b. [[1905]])
*2004 - [[Boris Trajkovski]], [[President of the Republic of Macedonia]] (b. [[1956]])
*[[2005]] - [[Jef Raskin]], American computer scientist (b. [[1943]])
<!-- Duplicate instances of years should not be links. -->
==Holidays and observances==
*[[Bahá'í Faith]] - [[February 26]], [[Day 1]] of [[Ayyám-i-Há]] ([[Intercalary Days]]) - days in the [[Bahá'í]] calendar devoted to service and gift giving.
*[[Nation of Islam]] - [[Savior's Day]] - commemoration of the birthdate of [[Wallace Fard Muhammad]], believed to be [[Allah]] in human form, the saviour of the [[Black (people)|black race]].
*[[Liberation Day]] in [[Kuwait]] ([[1991]]).
==External links==
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/february/26 BBC: On This Day]
* [http://www.nytimes.com/learning/general/onthisday/20060226.html ''The New York Times'': On This Day]
* [http://www1.sympatico.ca/cgi-bin/on_this_day?mth=Feb&day=26 On This Day in Canada]
----
[[February 25]] - [[February 27]] - [[January 26]] - [[March 26]] -- [[historical anniversaries|listing of all days]]
{{months}}
[[af:26 Februarie]]
[[ar:26 فبراير]]
[[an:26 de frebero]]
[[ast:26 de febreru]]
[[bg:26 февруари]]
[[be:26 лютага]]
[[bs:26. februar]]
[[ca:26 de febrer]]
[[ceb:Pebrero 26]]
[[cv:Нарăс, 26]]
[[co:26 di frivaghju]]
[[cs:26. únor]]
[[cy:26 Chwefror]]
[[da:26. februar]]
[[de:26. Februar]]
[[et:26. veebruar]]
[[el:26 Φεβρουαρίου]]
[[es:26 de febrero]]
[[eo:26-a de februaro]]
[[eu:Otsailaren 26]]
[[fo:26. februar]]
[[fr:26 février]]
[[fy:26 febrewaris]]
[[ga:26 Feabhra]]
[[gl:26 de febreiro]]
[[ko:2월 26일]]
[[hr:26. veljače]]
[[io:26 di februaro]]
[[id:26 Februari]]
[[ia:26 de februario]]
[[is:26. febrúar]]
[[it:26 febbraio]]
[[he:26 בפברואר]]
[[jv:26 Februari]]
[[ka:26 თებერვალი]]
[[csb:26 gromicznika]]
[[ku:26'ê reşemiyê]]
[[lt:Vasario 26]]
[[lb:26. Februar]]
[[hu:Február 26]]
[[mk:26 февруари]]
[[ms:26 Februari]]
[[nap:26 'e frevaro]]
[[nl:26 februari]]
[[ja:2月26日]]
[[no:26. februar]]
[[nn:26. februar]]
[[oc:26 de febrièr]]
[[os:26 февралы]]
[[pl:26 lutego]]
[[pt:26 de Fevereiro]]
[[ro:26 februarie]]
[[ru:26 февраля]]
[[se:Guovvamánu 26.]]
[[sco:26 Februar]]
[[sq:26 Shkurt]]
[[scn:26 di frivaru]]
[[simple:February 26]]
[[sk:26. február]]
[[sl:26. februar]]
[[sr:26. фебруар]]
[[fi:26. helmikuuta]]
[[sv:26 februari]]
[[tl:Pebrero 26]]
[[tt:26. Febräl]]
[[te:ఫిబ్రవరి 26]]
[[th:26 กุมภาพันธ์]]
[[vi:26 tháng 2]]
[[tr:26 Şubat]]
[[uk:26 лютого]]
[[wa:26 di fevrî]]
[[war:Pebrero 26]]
[[zh:2月26日]]
[[pam:Pebreru 26]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>F-5 Freedom Fighter</title>
<id>11142</id>
<revision>
<id>41993662</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T02:29:49Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Gooberliberation</username>
<id>324413</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">{| border="1" width="310" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" align="right"
! colspan="3" bgcolor="skyblue" | F-5 Freedom Fighter
|-----
|-----
| colspan="3" align="center"| [[image:Caf.f5.750pix.jpg|300px]] Canadian Air Force CF-116 Freedom Fighters
|-----
! colspan="3" bgcolor="skyblue" | Technical specifications<br>''(for the F-5 Tiger II)''
|-----
! colspan="3" bgcolor="skyblue" | Description
|-----
|-----
| Role
| colspan="2" | Light tactical fighter
|-----
| Crew || colspan="2" | 1
|-----
! colspan="3" bgcolor="skyblue" | Dimensions
|-----
|-----
| Length || 47 ft 4.75 in || 14.45 m
|-----
| Wingspan<br>(without AAMs) || 26 ft 8 in
| 8.13 m
|-----
| Wingspan<br>(with AAMs) || 28 ft || 8.5 3m
|-----
| Height || 13 ft 4.5 in || 4.08 m
|-----
| Wing area || 186 ft&sup2; || 17.28 m&sup2;
|-----
! colspan="3" bgcolor="skyblue" | Weights
|-----
|-----
| Empty || 9,558 lb || 4,349 kg
|-----
| Loaded || ||
|-----
| Maximum take-off || 24,664 lb || 11,187 kg
|-----
! colspan="3" bgcolor="skyblue" | Fuel
|-----
| Internal || 677 US gal || 2,563 L
|-----
| External<br>(up to 3 drop tanks) || 275 US gal per tank
| 1,040 L per tank
|-----
! colspan="3" bgcolor="skyblue" | Powerplant
|-----
|-----
| Engines
| colspan="2" | 2 &times; [[General Electric J85|General Electric J85-GE-21B]]
|-----
| Thrust |
etection of life===
The late [[Carl Sagan]], pondering the question of whether life on earth could be easily detected from space, devised a set of experiments in the late 1980s using ''Galileo''<nowiki>'</nowiki>s remote sensing instruments to determine if life indeed could be detected during the first earth flyby of the mission in December of 1990. After data acquisition and processing, Sagan et. al. published a paper in ''[[Nature (journal)|Nature]]'' in 1993 detailing the results of the experiment. ''Galileo'' had found what are now referred to as the "Sagan criteria for life"; these were: strong absorption of light at the red end of the visible spectrum (especially over [[continents]]) which was caused by absorption by chlorophyll in photosynthesizing plants, absorption bands of molecular oxygen which is also a result of plant activity, infrared absorption bands caused by the ~1 micromole per [[mole (unit)|mole]] (&micro;mol/mol) of methane in Earth's atmosphere (a gas which must be replenished by either volcanic or biological activity) and modulated narrowband radio wave transmissions uncharacteristic of any known natural source. ''Galileo''<nowiki>'</nowiki>s experiments were thus the first ever controls in the newborn science of astrobiological remote sensing.
===The Galileo optical experiment===
In December of 1992 during ''Galileo''<nowiki>'</nowiki>s second gravity assist flyby of earth, another groundbreaking yet almost entirely unpublicized experiment was done using ''Galileo'' to assess the possibility of optical communication with spacecraft by detecting pulses of light from powerful lasers which were to be directly imaged by ''Galileo''<nowiki>'</nowiki>s [[Charge-coupled device|CCD]]. The experiment, dubbed Galileo OPtical EXperiment or GOPEX [http://lasers.jpl.nasa.gov/PAPERS/GOPEX/gopex_s2.pdf], used two separate sites to beam laser pulses to the spacecraft, one at Table Mountain Observatory in California and the other at the Starfire Optical Range in New Mexico. The Table Mountain site used a [[nonlinear optics|frequency doubled]] [[Neodymium]]-[[Yttrium]]-[[Aluminium]] [[Garnet]] ([[Nd-YAG laser|Nd:YAG]]) laser operating at 532 nm with a repetition rate of ~15 to 30 Hz and a pulse power ([[FWHM]]) in the tens of megawatts range, which was coupled to a 0.6 meter Cassegrain telescope for transmission to ''Galileo'', the Starfire range site used a similar setup with a larger transmitting telescope (1.5 m). Long exposure (~0.1 to 0.8 s) images using ''Galileo's'' 560 nm centered green filter produced images of earth clearly showing the laser pulses even at distances of up to 6,000,000 km. Adverse weather conditions, restrictions placed on laser transmissions by the U.S. Space Defense Operations Center ([[SPADOC]]) and a pointing error caused by the scan platform acceleration on the spacecraft being slower than expected (which prevented laser detection on all frames with less than 400 ms exposure times) all contributed to the reduction of the number of successful detections of the laser transmission to 48 of the total 159 frames taken. Nonetheless, the experiment was considered a resounding success and the data acquired will likely be used in the future to design laser "downlinks" which will send large volumes of data very quickly, from spacecraft to Earth. The scheme is already being studied (as of 2004) for a data link to a future Mars orbiting spacecraft [http://www.space.com/spacenews/businessmonday_041115.html].
===Asteroid encounters===
[[image:951_Gaspra.jpg|thumb|right|150px|NASA image of 951 Gaspra]]
====First asteroid encounter: [[951 Gaspra]]====
On [[October 29]], [[1991]], two months after entering the asteroid belt, Galileo performed the first ever asteroid encounter by passing about 1,600 kilometers (1,000 miles) from 951 Gaspra at a relative speed of about 8 kilometers per second (18,000 mph). Several pictures of Gaspra were taken along with measurements using the NIMS instrument to indicate composition and physical properties. The last (and best) two images were played back to Earth in November 1991 and June 1992. The imagery revealed a cratered and very irregular body about 19 by 12 by 11 kilometers (12 by 7.5 by 7 miles). The remainder of data taken, including low resolution images of more of the surface, were transmitted in late November 1992.
====Second asteroid encounter: [[243 Ida]] and [[Dactyl (asteroid)|Dactyl]]====
[[image:243_ida.jpg|thumb|right|150px|NASA image of 243 Ida. The tiny dot to the right is its moon, Dactyl.]]
Twenty-two months after the Gaspra encounter, on [[August 28]], [[1993]], Galileo flew within 2,400 kilometers (1,500 miles) of asteroid 243 Ida. The probe discovered that Ida had a small moon, dubbed Dactyl, only 1.4 km in diameter which was the first asteroid moon discovered. Measurements using Galileo's solid state imager, magnetometer and NIMS instrument were taken. From subsequent analysis of data, Dactyl appears to be an SII subtype S type asteroid and is spectrally different from 243 Ida. It is hypothesized that Dactyl may have been produced by partial melting within a [[Koronis family|Koronis]] parent body (Ida belongs to the "Koronis" family of asteroids that travels in the main Asteroid Belt between Mars and Jupiter) while the 243 Ida region escaped such igneous processing.
==Spacecraft malfunctions==
===Main antenna failure===
[[Image:Galileo hga ribs.gif|thumb|left|200px|Laboratory tests verified that holding ribs 9, 10, and 11 in the stowed position most nearly modeled the spacecraft telemetry.]]
For reasons which are not currently known, and in all likelihood will never be known with certainty, ''Galileo''<nowiki>'</nowiki>s [[High Gain Antenna]] failed to fully deploy after its first flyby of Earth. Investigators speculate that during the time that ''Galileo'' spent in storage after the ''Challenger'' disaster, the [[lubricant]]s evaporated, or the system was otherwise damaged. Engineers tried thermal cycling the antenna, rotating the spacecraft up to its maximum spin rate of 10.5 rpm, and "hammering" the antenna deployment motors - turning them on and off repeatedly - over 13,000 times; all attempts failed to open the high gain antenna. Fortunately ''Galileo'' had an additional [[Low Gain Antenna]] that was capable of transmitting information back to Earth, though since it transmitted a signal [[isotropic|isotropically]], the Low Gain Antenna's [[bandwidth]] was significantly less than the high gain antenna's would have been; the high gain antenna was to have transmitted at 134 kilobits per second whereas the low gain antenna was only intended to transmit at about 8 to 16 bits per second. ''Galileo''<nowiki>'</nowiki>s low gain antenna transmitted with a power of about 15 to 20 watts, which, by the time it reached earth, and had been collected by one of the large aperture (70 m) DSN antennas, had a total power of about -170 dBm or 10 zeptowatts (10 &times; 10<sup>&minus;21</sup> watts).[http://www2.jpl.nasa.gov/galileo/faqhga.html] Through implementation of sophisticated data compression techniques, arraying of several [[Deep Space Network]] antennas and sensitivity upgrades of receivers used to listen to ''Galileo''<nowiki>'</nowiki>s signal, data throughput was increased to a maximum of 160 bits per second. The data collected on Jupiter and its moons was stored in the on board [[tape recorder]], and transmitted back to Earth during the long [[apogee]] portion of the probe's orbit using the low gain antenna. At the same time, measurements were made of Jupiter's magnetosphere and transmitted back to Earth. The reduction in available bandwidth reduced the total amount of data transmitted throughout the mission to about 30 [[gigabytes]] and reduced the number of pictures that were transmitted significantly; in all, only around 14,000 images were returned.
===Tape recorder anomalies and remote repair===
Since ''Galileo''<nowiki>'</nowiki>s high gain antenna failed to open in 1991 the mission was forced to use the low gain antenna for all communication to earth. This meant that data storage to ''Galileo''<nowiki>'</nowiki>s tape recorder for later compression and playback was absolutely crucial in order to obtain any substantial information from the planned Jupiter and moon flybys. In October of 1995, ''Galileo''<nowiki>'</nowiki>s 114 [[megabyte]] (914,489,344 bits [http://www2.jpl.nasa.gov/galileo/faqtape.html#capacity]), four-track digital tape recorder which was manufactured by Odetics Corporation, remained stuck in rewind mode for 15 hours before engineers learned what happened and sent commands to shut it off, after recording an image of Jupiter. Though the recorder itself was still in working order the malfunction possibly damaged a length of tape at the end of the reel. This section of tape was subsequently declared "off limits" to any future data recording and was covered with 25 more turns of tape to secure the section and reduce any further stresses, which could tear it. Because it happened only weeks before Jupiter Orbit Insertion, the anomaly prompted engineers to sacrifice data acquisition of almost all of the [[Io (moon)|Io]] and [[Europa (moon)|Europa]] observations during Jupiter Orbit Insertion in order to focus solely on recording data sent from the Jupiter probe descent.
In November of 2002, after completion of the mission's only encounter of Jupiter's moon [[Amalthea (moon)|Amalthea]], problems with playback of the tape recorder would again plague the spacecraft. About 10 minutes after closest approach of the flyby ''Galileo'' stopped collecting data, shut down all of its instruments, and went into "safe mode"; apparently as a result of exposure to Jupiter's extremely high radiation environment. Though most |
>Alvin Toffler</title>
<id>930</id>
<revision>
<id>42090219</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T19:37:03Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>81.132.116.185</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Alvin_toffler.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Alvin Toffler]]
'''Alvin Toffler''' (born [[October 3]], [[1928]]) is an [[United States|American]] [[writer]] and [[futures studies|futurist]], known for his works discussing the [[digital revolution]], [[communications revolution]], [[corporate revolution]] and [[technological singularity]]. A former associate editor of ''[[Fortune (magazine)|Fortune]]'' magazine, his early work focused on technology and its impact (through effects like [[information overload]]). Then he moved to examining the reaction of and [[Social change|changes in society]]. His later focus has been on the increasing power of [[21st century]] military hardware, weapons and technology proliferation, and [[capitalism]]. He is married to [[Heidi Toffler]], also a writer and futurist.
== His ideas ==
Toffler explains, "Society needs people who take care of the elderly and who know how to be compassionate and honest. Society needs people who work in hospitals. Society needs all kinds of skill that are not just cognitive; they're emotional, they're affectional. You can't run the society on data and computers alone."
In his book ''The Third Wave'' Toffler describes three types of societies, based on the concept of 'waves' - each wave pushes the older societies and cultures aside.
*First Wave is the society after [[agrarian revolution]] and replaced the first [[hunter-gatherer]] cultures.
*The main components of the Second Wave society are [[nuclear family]], factory-type education system and the [[corporation]]. Toffler writes: "The Second Wave Society is industrial and based on [[mass production]], [[mass distribution]], [[mass consumption]], [[mass education]], [[mass media]], [[mass recreation]], [[mass entertainment]], and [[weapons of mass destruction]]. You combine those things with [[standardization]], [[centralization]], concentration, and synchronization, and you wind up with a style of [[organization]] we call [[bureaucracy]]."
*Third Wave is the [[post-industrial]] society. Toffler would also add that since late 1950s most countries are moving away from a Second Wave Society into what he would call a Third Wave Society. He coined lots of words to describe it and mentions names invented by other people, like the [[Information Age]].
In this post-industrial society, there is a lot of diversity in [[lifestyle]]s ("subcults").
[[Adhocracy|Adhocracies]] (fluid organizations like, say, the [[Wikipedia community]]) adapt quickly to [[change]]s.
[[Information]] can substitute most of the material resources (see [[ersatz]]) and becomes the main material for workers ([[cognitarian]]s instead of [[proletarian]]s), who are loosely affiliated.
[[Mass customization]] offers the possibility of cheap, personalized, production catering to small niches (see [[Just In Time]] production).
The gap between producer and consumer is bridged by technology.
"[[Prosumer]]s" can fill their own needs (see [[open source]], [[assembly kit]], [[freelance]] work).
Since the 1960s, people have been trying to make sense of the impact of new technologies and social change. Toffler's writings have been influential beyond the confines of scientific, economic and public policy discussions. [[Techno music]] pioneer [[Juan Atkins]] cites Toffler's phrase "techno rebels" in ''Future Shock'' as inspiring him to use the word "techno" to describe the [[musical genre|musical style]] he helped to create.
Toffler's works and ideas have been subject to various criticism, usually with the same argumentation used against [[future studies|futurology]], that is that foreseeing the future is nigh impossible. In the 1990s, his ideas were publicly lauded by [[Newt Gingrich]].
== His books ==
A few of his well-known works are:
* ''[[Future Shock]]'' ([[1970]]) Bantam Books ISBN 0553277375
* ''[[The Eco-Spasm Report]]'' ([[1975]]) Bantam Books ISBN 055314474X
* ''[[The Third Wave (book)|The Third Wave]]'' ([[1980]]) Bantam Books ISBN 0553246984
* ''[[Previews & Premises]]'' ([[1983]])
* ''[[Powershift|Powershift: Knowledge, Wealth and Violence at the Edge of the 21st Century]]'' ([[1990]]) Bantam Books ISBN 0553292153
* ''[[War and Anti-War|War and Anti-War]]'' ([[1995]]) Warner Books ISBN 0446602590
''[[The Shockwave Rider]]'' is a science-fiction novel inspired by his ''Future Shock''.
==See also==
*[[Daniel Bell]]
*[[Norman Swan]]
*The [[National Committee For U.S.-China Relations]]
*The [[U.S. Committee for Unifem]]
*The [[United Nations Fund for Women]] (UNIFEM)
*The [[RAND|RAND Corporation]]
*The [[Progress and Freedom Foundation]]
*The [[Institute for Policy Studies]]
*The [[United Nations]]
*The [[World Trade Organization]]
*The [[The Pentagon|Pentagon]]
*[[Techno]]
[[Category:1928 births|Toffler, Alvin]]
[[Category:Living people|Toffler, Alvin]]
[[Category:American writers|Toffler, Alvin]]
[[af:Alvin Toffler]]
[[de:Alvin Toffler]]
[[es:Alvin Toffler]]
[[it:Alvin Toffler]]
[[ro:Alvin Toffler]]
[[ru:Тоффлер, Элвин]]
[[sv:Alvin Toffler]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>The Amazing Spider-Man</title>
<id>931</id>
<revision>
<id>41875373</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T07:52:39Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>85.107.165.6</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">: ''The Amazing Spider-Man is a comics series. For other uses see [[The Amazing Spider-Man (disambiguation)]].''
[[Image:Firstissue.jpg|thumb|Cover to ''The Amazing Spider-Man'' #1 (Volume 1), March 1963, by [[Steve Ditko]].]]
'''''The Amazing Spider-Man''''' is the title of a [[comic book]] published by [[Marvel Comics]], a [[television program]] and a daily [[newspaper]] [[comic strip]]. All three feature the adventures of the [[superhero]] [[Spider-Man]].
==Comic book ==
Spider-Man originally appeared in issue #15 of the comic book ''[[Amazing Fantasy]]'', its final issue. The series was cancelled with that issue, but response to the character was so positive that the new title, ''The Amazing Spider-Man'' was launched, issue #1 appearing in March 1963.
The character was created by writer/editor [[Stan Lee]] and artist/cowriter [[Steve Ditko]], and the pair produced 38 issues of ''Amazing''. A disagreement over a story led to Ditko leaving the title after that point. He was replaced by penciller [[John Romita, Sr.|John Romita]] who illustrated Lee's stories for several years. Although many fans thought that the writing quality almost instantly plummeted, the series became still more popular.
Many writers and artists have taken over the monthly comic over the years chronicling the adventures of Marvel's most identifiable hero. The title was published continuously until 1998 when Marvel Comics decided to begin anew by renumbering the title with a new issue #1 published in January, 1999. In 2003 this new title reverted to using the numbering of the original series, at issue #500.
As of October 2005, ''The Amazing Spider-Man'' is participating in "[[Spider-Man: The Other|The Other]]", a 12-part crossover, which will conclude in January 2006.
[[Image:Blackissue.jpg|thumb|Cover to ''The Black Issue'' which is just a black background.]]
===Black Issue===
An issue of Amazing Spider-Man (Vol. 2) called "The Black Issue" explores how Spider-Man and other heroes would react to the [[September 11, 2001 attacks]] written by [[J. Michael Straczynski]] and penciled by [[John Romita, Jr]]. It starts with a double page spread of the devastation and of Spidey holding his head in pain/anguish/disbelief, his only word "...God..." The issue continues as Spidey swings down to help in the aftermath. Joining with other heroes in the rescue efforts, Spidey explores the wreckage and the broken hearts and his thoughts drive on, thinking through it all. At some point his thoughts become Straczynski's reflections and response. The script journeys from horror, pain and loss to end on strength.
See also [[List of The Amazing Spider-Man comics|List of ''The Amazing Spider-Man'' comics]]
==Television program==
{{main|The Amazing Spider-Man (TV series)}}
Spidey got his shot at live-action TV stardom in April 1977, when he debuted in the "Amazing Spider-Man" TV series. Nicholas Hammond portrayed Peter Parker/Spider-Man in the short-lived series, which had started out as a slew of TV-movies, obviously made to capitalize on the [[The Incredible Hulk]] television series. The show was canceled a year after its debut.
==Newspaper comic strip==
The daily newspaper comic strip began on [[January 3]], [[1977]]. It was first written by Spider-Man co-creator [[Stan Lee]] and illustrated by [[John Romita, Sr.|John Romita]]. The strip was surprisingly successful in an era with few serialized adventure strips. The strip slowly grew in circulation and [[as of 2006]] is still being published. Lee's brother [[Larry Lieber]] illustrated and later wrote the strip for much of its run. While the strip and the comic book feature the same characters, they do not share the same [[Continuity (fiction)|continuity]], and the strip has had a decreased emphasis on [[supervillain]] enemies. A rare exception was the 1987 wedding of [[Peter Parker]] and [[Mary Jane Watson]] which occurred in both the comic book and the comic strip. Guest stars in the newspaper strip include [[Wolverine (comics)|Wolverine]] and [[Dr. Strange]]. Villains include [[Dr. Doom]], [[Kraven the Hunter]], and [[The Rhino]]. Stories from the strip have been reprinted in paperback and in [[Comics Revue]] magazine.
==Video and computer games==
{{see details|Spider-Man (games)}}
Numerous video and computer games have been released |
Category:Issue in the Culture Wars]]
[[Category:Suicide]]
[[be:Эўтаназія]]
[[de:Sterbehilfe]]
[[et:Eutanaasia]]
[[es:Eutanasia]]
[[eo:Eŭtanazio]]
[[fa:قتل ترحمی]]
[[fr:Euthanasie]]
[[gl:Eutanasia]]
[[it:Eutanasia]]
[[he:המתת חסד]]
[[nl:Euthanasie]]
[[ja:安楽死]]
[[no:Eutanasi]]
[[pl:Eutanazja]]
[[pt:Eutanásia]]
[[fi:Eutanasia]]
[[sv:Eutanasi]]
[[tr:Ötanazi]]
[[zh:安乐死]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Extraterrestrial life</title>
<id>9588</id>
<revision>
<id>42122292</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T23:40:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Varenius</username>
<id>290848</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Ancient and Early Modern ideas */ -- corrected Bruno reference</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the scientific study of extraterrestrial life; for treatment in popular culture, see [[Extraterrestrial life in culture]].
[[Image:radiotelescope.jpg|thumb|''The existence of extraterrestrial life remains hypothetical though human beings continue to search'']]
'''Extraterrestrial life''' is [[life]] that may exist and originate outside the planet [[Earth]]. Its existence is currently hypothetical; there is as yet no evidence of extraterrestrial life that has been widely accepted by [[scientist]]s.
Most scientists hold that if extraterrestrial life exists, its [[evolution]] would have occurred independently in different places in the [[universe]]. An alternative hypothesis, held by a minority, is [[panspermia]], which suggests that life in the universe could have stemmed from a single initial point of origin, and then spread across the universe, from habitable planet to habitable planet.
Speculative forms of extraterrestrial life range from [[humanoid]] and monstrous beings seen in works of [[science fiction]] to life at the much smaller scale of [[bacterium|bacteria]] and [[virus]]es.
Extraterrestrial life forms, especially intelligent ones, are often referred to in popular culture as [[Extraterrestrial life in popular culture|aliens]] or ETs. The putative study and theorisation of ET life is known as [[astrobiology]] or xenobiology.
==Possible basis of extraterrestrial life==
=== Biochemistry ===
''Main article: [[Alternative biochemistry]]''
All life on Earth is based on the building block element [[carbon]] with [[water]] as the [[solvent]] in which bio-chemical reactions take place. Given their relative abundance and usefulness in sustaining life it has long been assumed that life forms elsewhere in the universe will also utilize these basic components. However, other elements and solvents might be capable of providing a basis for [[life]]. [[Silicon]] is usually considered the most likely alternative to carbon, though this remains improbable. Life forms based in [[ammonia]] rather than water are also considered, though less frequently. Nor can the possibility be rejected that a completely new substance may be found that may react in a similar way to carbon or that wholly unique, non-chemical life-forms may possibly flourish through exotic physics.
Along with a building block element and a solvent, life also requires an energy source. Energy from a parent [[star]] is the most obvious source for extraterrestrial life but this is not the only possibility, as the example of terrestrial [[extremophiles]] shows. [[Geothermal (geology)|Geothermal]] energy from a planet's interior, for instance, may drive sub-surface or oceanic life, while [[tidal force|tidal flexing]] (e.g., for bodies orbiting a gas giant) provides another possible motor to sustain living things.
The scientific study of the possible biochemical basis for extraterrestrial life is often called [[Astrobiology|xenobiology]].
{{seealso|Back-contamination}}
=== Theoretical evolution and morphology ===
Along with the biochemical basis of extraterrestrial life, there remains a broader consideration of [[evolution]] and [[comparative anatomy|morphology]]. What might an alien look like? Science fiction has long shown a bias towards humanoid or (often in the case of villains) [[reptiles|reptilian]] forms. The [[Greys|classical alien]] is light green or grey skinned, with an enormous head, small body, and the typical four limb and two to five digit structure—i.e., it is fundamentally humanoid with a large [[brain]] to indicate great intelligence. Other subjects from animal [[mythos]] such as [[cats|felines]] and [[insects]] have also featured strongly in fictional representations of aliens. While such bias is predictable, it is also unimaginative and almost certain to be proven wrong should human beings encounter extraterrestrials.
In considering the subject more seriously, a useful division has [[Evolving the Alien|been suggested]] between universal and parochial characteristics. Universals are features which have evolved independently more than once on Earth (and thus presumably are not difficult to develop) and are so intrinsically useful that species will inevitably tend towards them. These include [[flight]], [[sight]], [[photosynthesis]] and [[limbs]], all of which have evolved several times here on Earth with differing materialization. There are a huge variety of eyes, for example, many of which have radically different working schematics as well as different visual foci: the [[visual spectrum]], [[infrared]], [[polarity]] and [[echolocation]]. Parochials, by contrast, are essentially arbitrary evolutionary forms which often serve little utility (or at least have a function which can be equally served by dissimilar morphology) and probably will not be replicated. Parochials include the five digits of [[mammals]], the [[genitalia]] and sexual mechanics of animals, as well as the curious and often fatal conjunction of the feeding and breathing passages found within many animals.
A consideration of which features are ultimately parochial challenges many taken for granted notions about morphological necessity. [[Skeletons]], in some form, are likely to be replicated elsewhere, yet the [[vertebrate]] [[vertebral column|spine]]—while a profound development on Earth—is just as likely to be unique. Similarly, it is reasonable to expect some type of egg laying amongst off-Earth creatures but the [[mammary glands]] which set apart mammals may be a singular case.
The assumption of radical diversity amongst putative extraterrestrials is by no means settled. While many exobiologists do stress that the enormously heterogeneous nature of Earth life foregrounds even greater variety in space, others point out that [[convergent evolution]] dictates substantial similarities between Earth and off-Earth life. These two schools of thought are called "divergionism" and "convergionism", respectively [http://www.daviddarling.info/encyclopedia/E/etlifevar.html].
==Beliefs in extraterrestrial life==
===Ancient and Early Modern ideas===
{{seealso|Cosmic pluralism}}
Belief in extraterrestrial life may have been present in ancient [[Egypt]], [[Babylon]], and [[Sumer]], although in these societies, [[cosmology]] was fundamentally supernatural and the notion of aliens is difficult to distinguish from that of gods, demons, and such. The first important Western thinkers to argue systematically for a universe full of other planets and, therefore, possible extraterrestrial life were the ancient Greek writers [[Thales]] and his student [[Anaximander]] in the 7th and 6th centuries B.C.E. The [[atomists]] of Greece took up the idea, arguing that an infinite universe ought to have an infinity of populated worlds. Ancient Greek cosmology worked against the idea of extraterrestrial life in one critical respect, however: the [[geocentric]] universe, championed by [[Aristotle]] and codified by [[Ptolemy]], privileged the Earth and Earth-life (Aristotle denied there could be a plurality of worlds) and seemingly rendered extraterrestrial life impossible.
[[Image:Giordano_Bruno.jpg|thumb|[[Giordano Bruno]], ''De l'Infinito, Univirso e Mondi, 1584'']]
Ancient [[Jewish]] sources also considered extraterrestrial life. The [[Talmud]] states that there are at least 18,000 other worlds, but provides little elaboration on the nature of the words and on whether they are physical or spiritual. Based on this, however, the medeival exposition "Sefer HaB'rit" posits that extraterrestrial creatures exist but that they have no [[free will]] (and are thus equivalent to animal life). It adds that human beings should not expect creatures from another world to resemble earthly life, any more than sea creatures resemble land animals. [http://ohr.edu/ask_db/ask_main.php/318/Q1/] [http://www.torah.org/features/secondlook/extraterrestrial.html]
When [[Christianity]] spread throughout the West, the Ptolemaic system became dogma and although the Church never issued any formal pronouncement on the question of alien life [http://www.crisismagazine.com/november2002/feature7.htm], at least tacitly the idea was heretical. In 1277 the [[Bishop of Paris]], [[Etienne Tempier]] did overturn Aristotle on one point: God ''could'' have created more than one world (given His omnipotence) yet we know by revelation he only made one. To take a further step and argue that aliens actually existed remained dangerous. The best known early-modern proponent of extra-solar planets and widespread life off Earth was [[Giordano Bruno]], who was burned at the stake for unrelated unorthodox theological ideas in [[1600]].
The Church, however, could not contain the storm that accompanied the invention of the [[telescope]] and the [[Copernican]] assault on geocentric cosmology. Once it became clear that the Earth was merely one planet amongst countless bodies in the universe the extraterrestrial idea moved towards the scientific mainstream. God's omnipotence, it could be argued, not only allowed for other worlds and other life, on some level it necessitated them. In the early 17th century the Czech |
ositions, determine the lineup, deciding how to substitute players, and, most importantly, choosing the course of strategy throughout the game. Managers are also assisted by [[coach (baseball)|coaches]] in helping players to develop their skills. When a team is at-bat, they will position a coach or manager in each coach's box referred to as the first and third base coaches. These coaches must help the players decide whether they should try to run to the next base; also, the coaches will signal plays to the batter and runners. Baseball is unique in that the manager and coaches all wear numbered uniforms similar to those of the players.
Any baseball game involves one or more [[umpire (baseball)|umpire]]s, who make rulings on the outcome of each play. At a minimum, one umpire will stand behind the catcher, to have a good view of the strike zone, and call each pitch a ball or a strike. Additional umpires may be stationed near the bases, thus making it easier to see plays in the field. In [[Major League Baseball]], four umpires are used for each game, one near each base. In the all-star game and playoffs, six umpires are used: one at each base and two in the outfield along either foul line.
Another notable role in baseball is that of the [[official scorer]]. The results of baseball games are summarized in tables called [[box score (baseball)|box scores]]. The scorer is responsible for a number of judgments that go into the boxscore. For example, if a batted ball is misplayed by a fielder, the scorer may choose to charge the fielder with an ''error'' instead of crediting the batter with a hit. Within certain guidelines, the scorer also determines which pitchers are credited with winning and losing the game, and whether a relief pitcher will be awarded a ''[[hold]]'' or ''[[save (sport)|save]]'', specific situations in which a relief pitcher keeps a lead intact for his team.
==Baseball's unique style==
Baseball is unique among American sports in several ways. This uniqueness is a large part of its longstanding appeal and strong association with the American psyche. The philosopher [[Morris Raphael Cohen]] described baseball as a national [[religion]].
Although the following elements all contribute to baseball's uniqueness in American culture, they are all shared by its cousin game [[cricket]]. In many [[Commonwealth of Nations|Commonwealth]] nations, cricket and the culture surrounding it hold a similar place and affection to baseball's role in American culture.
===Time element===
[[American football]], [[basketball]], [[ice hockey]] and [[soccer]] all use a clock, and games often end by a team [[killing the clock]] rather than competing directly against the opposing team. In contrast, baseball has no clock; a team cannot win without getting the last batter out and rallies are not constrained by time.
In recent decades, observers have criticized professional baseball for the length of its games, with some justification as the time required to play a baseball game has increased steadily through the years. One hundred years ago, games typically took an hour and a half to play; in 2004, the average major league baseball game lasted 2 hours and 47 minutes. This is due to longer commercial breaks, increased offense, more pitching changes, and a slower pace of play.
In response, [[Major League Baseball]] has instructed umpires to be more strict in enforcing speed-up rules and the size of the [[strike zone]]. Although the official rules specify that when the bases are empty, the pitcher should deliver the ball within 20 seconds of receiving it (with the penalty of a ball called if he fails to do so), this rule is rarely, if ever, enforced.
===Individual and team===
Baseball is fundamentally a team sport&#8212;even two or three Hall of Fame-caliber players are no guarantee of a [[pennant]]&#8212;yet it places individual players under great pressure and scrutiny. The pitcher must make good pitches or risk losing the game; the hitter has a mere fraction of a second to decide what pitch has been thrown and whether or not to swing at it. While their respective managers and/or coaches can sometimes signal players regarding the strategies the manager wants to employ, no one can help the pitcher while he pitches or the hitter while he bats. If the batter hits a line drive, the outfielder, as the last line of defense, makes the lone decision to try to catch it or play it on the bounce. Baseball history is full of heroes and goats&#8212;men who in the heat of the moment (the "clutch") distinguished themselves with a timely hit or catch, or an untimely strikeout or error.
===The uniqueness of each baseball park===
[[Image:WrigleyFieldScoreBoard081105.jpg|thumbnail|right|300px|The main scoreboard after the [[August 11]], [[2005]] Cubs - Cardinals game at [[Wrigley Field]], [[Chicago, Illinois]].]]
{{main|Baseball parks}}
Unlike the majority of sports, baseball parks do not have to follow a strict set of guidelines. With the exception of the strict rules on the dimensions of the infield, discussed above, the [http://mlb.mlb.com/NASApp/mlb/mlb/official_info/official_rules/foreword.jsp official rules] simply state that fields built after [[June 1]], [[1958]] must have a minimum distance of 325 feet (99 m) from home plate to the fences in left and right field and 400 (121 m) feet to center. This rule (a footnote to official rule 1.04) was passed specifically in response to the fence at the [[Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum]], which was 251 feet (77 m) to the left field pole, 1 foot (0.3 m) over the bare minimum required by the rules. However, major league teams often skirt this rule. For example, [[Minute Maid Park]]'s left field is only 315 feet (96 m), and with a fence much lower than the famous "Green Monster" at [[Fenway Park]]. And there are no rules at all regulating the height of "fences, stands or other obstructions", other than the assumption that they exist. Because of this flexibility, there are all sorts of variations in parks, from different lengths to the fences to uneven playing surfaces to massive or minimal amounts of foul territory. All of these factors, as well as local variations in altitude, climate and game scheduling, can affect the nature of the games played at those ballparks, and a park may be referred to as either a "pitcher's park" or a "hitter's park", depending on which side benefits more from the unique factors present. [[Wrigley Field]], strangely enough, can be ''either'', depending on the wind direction at any given time.
==Statistics==
{{main|Baseball statistics}}
As with many sports, and perhaps even more so, [[statistics]] are very important to baseball. Statistics have been kept for the Major Leagues since their creation, and presumably statistics were around even before that. General managers, [[scout (sport)|baseball scout]]s, managers, and players alike study player statistics to help them choose various strategies to best help their team.
Traditionally, statistics like [[batting average]] for batters—the number of hits divided by the number of at bats—and [[earned run average]]—approximately the number of runs given up by a pitcher per nine innings—have governed the statistical world of baseball. However, the advent of [[sabermetrics]] has brought an onslaught of new statistics that perhaps better gauge a player's performance and contributions to his team from year to year.
Some sabermetrics have entered the mainstream baseball statistic world. [[On-base plus slugging]] (OPS) is a somewhat complicated formula that gauges a hitter's performance better than batting average. It combines the hitter's [[on base percentage]]—hits plus walks plus [[hit by pitch]]es divided by [[plate appearances]]—with their [[slugging percentage]]—[[total bases]] divided by at bats. [[Walks plus hits per inning pitched]] (or ''WHIP'') gives a good representation of a pitcher's abilities; it is calculated exactly as its name suggests.
Also important are more specific statistics for a certain situation. For example, a certain hitter's ability to hit left-handed pitchers might cause his manager to give him more chances to face lefties. Some hitters hit better with runners in scoring position, so an opposing manager, knowing this statistic, might elect to [[intentional base on balls|intentionally walk]] him in order to face a poorer hitter.
==History==
[[Image:Conner-prairie-baseball.jpg|300px|thumb|1886 baseball demonstration at [[Conner Prairie]] living history museum.]]
{{main|History of Baseball}}
Baseball is thought to be a direct descendant of [[cricket]], [[rounders]], and [[town ball]] (which was much like rounders). The first explicit references to baseball appear to come from England. The earliest known mention of the sport is in a 1744 publication, ''A Little Pretty Pocket-Book'' by John Newbery. It contains a wood-cut illustration of boys playing "baseball" (showing a similar set-up to the modern game) and a rhymed description of the sport. Also, a British letter dating from 1748 by Lady Hervey describes how the then Prince of Wales diverted his time playing baseball.
Another early mention of the game can be found in an 1886 edition of ''Sporting Life'' magazine, in a letter from Dr. Adam Ford of [[Denver, Colorado]], formerly of [[St. Marys, Ontario, Canada]], who details a base ball game played in Beachville, Ontario, Canada, on [[June 4]], [[1838]] -- Militia Muster Day.
[[Alexander Cartwright]] had a hand in compiling and publishing an early list of rules in 1845 (the so-called ''[[Knickerbocker Rules]]'') to meet the demands of the already popular sport, and today's [[Baseball rules|rules of baseball]] have evolved from them.
Professional baseball began in the [[United States]] around 1865, and the [[National League]] was founded in 1876 as the first true major league, quickly producing famous p |
ml:space="preserve">'''[[Belgium|Belgian]] [[hip hop music]]''' has a few [[rapper]]s stemming from [[Africa]]. [[Belgium]], like [[France]] controlled [[Africa]]n countries like the [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] (formerly Zaire), [[Rwanda]], and [[Burundi]] until the early [[1960s]]. Like France, [[Immigration|immigrant]]s from these countries started to study and live in Belgium.
The Belgian hip hop scene started in the late [[1980s]] with a U.S.-based [[techno music|techno]]/hip hop group called [[Technotronic]]. In the group was an emcee named [[Ya Kid K]] from the [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] who later led the group into international fame with hits like "Pump up the Jam" and "Shake tTat Body". In [[1990]], she also joined the group Hi-Tek 3 who were heard on the ''[[Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles]]'' movie [[soundtrack]].
However, the first major pop rapper from Belgium was [[Benny B]], who had a very mainstream and commercial sound. According to the [[European Music Office]]'s report on ''Music in Europe'', this was the first of many pop acts that helped inspire a backlash and the creation of an underground hip hop scene [http://www.icce.rug.nl/~soundscapes/DATABASES/MIE/Part2_chapter08.html].
In the early [[1990s]] the [[Brussels]]' rap crew [[De Puta Madre]] started rapping in French and Spanish. They became an [[Underground_culture|underground]] success and are still highly respected in the Belgian hip hop scene.
In the late 1990s, [[Rwanda]]n hip hop pioneer J.C. Matata moved to Belgium and created a hip hop/[[reggae]]/[[zouk]] group called [[ZAMZAM]].
Also in the late [[1990s]] in the [[Wallonia|Walloon south]] of the country, French speaking/rapping [[Starflam]] was the biggest name in hip hop. In the [[Flanders|Flemish]] [[north]] Dutch speaking/rapping groups like [['t Hof van Commerce]], St Andries MC's, and ABN were popular, rapping in their regional [[dialect]]s. One of the most promising bands in 2006 seems to be Last Prophecy.
==List of Belgian hip hop musicians==
Others (DJ's, MC's and crews):
*Afterhours
*Caveman Speak
*CNN199 (Souterrain)
*Dave Krewcial
*DJ Grazzhoppa
*Laco$te
*Rival (Souterrain)
*Pitcho (Souterrain)
*Last Prophecy
{{worldhiphop}}
[[Category:Belgian music|Hip hop]]
[[Category:Hip hop by nationality]]
[[fr:Le hip hop en Belgique]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Dutch hip hop</title>
<id>2917</id>
<revision>
<id>41047480</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-24T18:39:58Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Vclaw</username>
<id>235019</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>fix link (War Child)</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">Like [[France]], the [[Netherlands]] has an African [[hip hop music|hip hop]] scene. [[Rap music|Rap]] groups from [[Cape Verde]], a [[Portugal|Portuguese]]-speaking island off the coast of West Africa have been living there. These rappers were [[E-Life]], [[The Real Vibe]], and [[the Postmen]]. The Postmen rap in English, adding a hip hop and [[reggae]] flavor. Two of the members are from Cape Verde and one of them is from [[Suriname]], a Dutch-speaking country in South America. The Netherlands is also home to the ''[[Rumba-Kali]]'', an African hip hop magazine.
Another important Dutch hip hop crew is the [[Osdorp Posse]]. The [[Urban Dance Squad]], though not strictly a hip hop crew, were the first European band to rap [http://www.icce.rug.nl/~soundscapes/DATABASES/MIE/Part2_chapter08.html].
In 1986, [[Netherlands|Dutch]] rap duo [[MC Miker G & Deejay Sven]] had a top 10 hit across Europe with "Holiday Rap", which sampled [[Madonna (entertainer)|Madonna's]] "Holiday".
One particularly proficient Dutch-language rapper is [[Extince]]. Other notable acts include [[Ali B.]] (who has been featured on other artists' tracks, most significantly with [[Marco Borsato]] on the song "Wat zou je doen?" for the charity [[War Child (charity)|War Child]]) who achieved solo success with "Leipe mocro flavour". Together with his nephew Yes-R he made an international remix of "Ghetto" together with Akon.; the duo [[Lange Frans & Baas B]] with their patriotic but introspective "[[Het land van (song)|Het Land Van]]"; and [[Yes-R]] but these people have got the biggest hits, but not the best rap skills (wordplay, 'flow' which means a rhyme schedule that sounds good together with the beat, originallity). Most notable for rap skills in Holland these days is the rap group "Opgezwolle" (rapper Sticky Steez, rapper Frico Rico and DJ Delic) and most of all Brainpower. Rapper Jawat, won the "Grote prijs van Nederland" 2006, and has a very original and unique style. Holland has got a fast growing 'underground scene' and rapping in Dutch is very popular.
{{music-genre-stub}}
{{worldhiphop}}
[[Category:Dutch styles of music]]
[[Category:Hip hop by nationality]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Argument by lack of imagination</title>
<id>2918</id>
<revision>
<id>15901298</id>
<timestamp>2003-10-23T10:33:28Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>The Anome</username>
<id>76</id>
</contributor>
<comment>#REDIRECT [[Argument from ignorance]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Argument from ignorance]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Anaïs Nin</title>
<id>2919</id>
<revision>
<id>40929154</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-23T23:09:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>24.7.63.2</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Anais.jpg|frame|400px|Anaïs Nin]]
'''Anaïs Nin''' (pronounced "ana-EESE neen" [ana'i:s nin]) ([[February 21]] [[1903]] - [[January 14]] [[1977]]) was a [[France|French]]-born [[author]] of [[Catalonia|Catalan]] and [[Denmark|Danish]] descent who became famous for her published [[diary|diaries]], which span more than sixty years, beginning when she was eleven years old and ending shortly before her death. After the deaths of Anaïs Nin and her first husband, Hugh Guiler, the unexpurgated, or uncensored, versions of her diaries were commissioned by her second husband, Rupert Pole, and published to great interest and acclaim.
Anaïs Nin was born in [[Neuilly]], [[France]]. After her parents separated, her mother moved Anaïs and her two brothers, Thorvald Nin and [[Joaquin Nin-Culmell]] to [[New York City]]. While still a teenager, Nin abandoned formal schooling and began working as a [[model (person)|model]]. In [[1923]], she married Hugh Parker Guiler. The couple moved to [[Paris|Paris, France]] the following year, where Guiler pursued his [[banking]] career and Nin began to pursue her interest in writing, where her first published work was a critical evaluation of [[D. H. Lawrence]] called "D. H. Lawrence: An Unprofessional Study." She also explored the field of [[psychotherapy]], studying under the likes of [[Otto Rank]], a disciple of [[Sigmund Freud]].
Anaïs Nin is hailed by many critics as one of the finest examples of writers of female [[erotica]]. She was the first woman to really explore the realm. Before her, erotica written by women was virtually unheard of, except for a few writers such as [[Kate Chopin]]. Nin, faced with a desperate need for money, wrote the stories in ''[[Delta of Venus]]'' for a dollar a page in the [[1940s]]. She considered the characters in her erotica to be extreme caricature and never intended for the erotica to be published. Her writing was scandalously explicit for the time. In her unexpurgated diaries, she wrote about her incestuous relationship with her father.
Nin was a friend, and in some cases lover, of many leading literary figures, including [[Henry Miller]], [[Edmund Wilson]], [[Gore Vidal]], [[James Agee]], and [[Lawrence Durrell]].
Her passionate love affair and friendship with Miller (and his wife, June, with whom she did not have an affair as described in the [[Philip Kaufman|Kaufman]] film, ''[[Henry & June]]'') strongly influenced both the woman and the author.
In [[1973]] she received an honorary [[doctorate]] from Philadelphia College of Art. She was elected to the [[National Institute of Arts and Letters]] in [[1974]]. Anaïs Nin died of [[cancer]] in [[Los Angeles, California]] on [[January 14]] [[1977]], her body was [[cremation|cremated]], and her ashes were scattered over [[Santa Monica Bay]].
In [[1990]] [[Philip Kaufman]] made the [[Henry & June|film]] based on her novel ''[[Henry and June|Henry & June]]'' from ''The Journal of Love — The Unexpurgated Diary of Anaïs Nin, 1931-1932''. It starred [[Maria de Medeiros]] as Nin, [[Fred Ward]] as Henry Miller, and [[Uma Thurman]] as June.
To date, the combined sales of books by Anaïs Nin, including the erotica, fiction, literary criticism, and diaries, exceed 3 million.
==List of works==
* ''[[D.H. Lawrence: An Unprofessional Study]]''
* ''[[Collages (Anaïs Nin)|Collages]]''
* ''[[Winter of Artifice]]''
* ''[[Under a Glass Bell]]''
* ''[[House of Incest]]''
* ''[[Delta of Venus]]''
* ''[[Little Birds]]''
* ''[[Cities of the Interior]]'', in five volumes:
** ''[[Ladders to Fire]]''
** ''[[Children of the Albatross]]''
** ''[[The Four-Chambered Heart]]''
** ''[[A Spy in the House of Love (book)|A Spy in the House of Love]]''
** ''[[Seduction of the Minotaur]]''
* ''[[The Diary of Anaïs Nin]]'' 7 volumes
* ''[[The Early Diary of Anaïs Nin]]'' 4 volumes
* ''[[The Novel of the Future]]''
* ''[[Henry and June]]''
* ''[[Incest (book)|Incest]]''
* ''[[Fire (book)|Fire]]''
* ''[[Nearer the Moon]]''
==References==
* Bair, Deirdre: [[Anaïs Nin: A Biography]]. New York: Putnam 1995. ISBN 0-399-13988-5
==External links==
* [http://www.anaisnin.net/ Anaïs Nin dot net]
* [http://www.anais-nin.de/ The Anaïs Nin Homepage]
* [http://www.anaisnin.com/ The Official Anais Ni |
cs, which quite typically is heavily customized by its advanced user, vi is intentionally "what you see is what you get (pretty much everywhere)". For instance, advanced Emacs users would not feel they quite have "their Emacs" if their profile or customizations is not available to them in a given environment. This is hardly ever the case with vi which is pretty much standard, and blends naturally with the Unix environment and commands.
*vi works better with [[terminal]]s; while this is not as important as it used to be, sometimes this ability is still a factor, such as when system problems have reached the point where the [[Graphical_user_interface|GUI]] cannot be started, so one has only a severely limited [[Computer console|console]] environment. Also, many people still prefer a console environment for complex tasks.
*Compile and debug code from within vim using :m[a]ke, :cl, and similar commands. (This functionality is not available within vi proper.) Note that debugging code from within the text editor is also a perceived benefit of Emacs over vi. This illustrates the subjective nature of the conflict.
==Confusing the issue==
In ages past, lots of small emacsen, or at least small editors modelled after Emacs, flourished. This was due to the importance of conserving memory with the comparatively miniscule amount available in those days. These days, with a plentitude of memory, many vi-alikes, especially vim, are growing to previously unthinkable proportions.
The old lite Emacsen, as well as the elephantine vis of today, tend to have many of the perceived benefits and drawbacks of the opposing side.
==Reference==
*[[Eric S. Raymond|Raymond, Eric S.]] [http://www.catb.org/~esr/writings/taoup/html/ ''The Art of UNIX Programming''], 2003, ISBN 0-131-42901-9
==External links==
*news:alt.religion.emacs ([http://groups.google.com/group/alt.religion.emacs alt.religion.emacs at Google Groups])
*news:comp.editors ([http://groups.google.com/group/comp.editors comp.editors at Google Groups])
*[http://www.dina.dk/~abraham/religion/ Church of Emacs resources]
*[http://www.gnu.org/fun/jokes/gospel.html ''Rules, Sins, Virtues, Gods and more of The Church of Emacs'']
*[http://stallman.org/saint.html Saint Ignucius] &mdash; as portrayed by Richard Stallman
*[http://www.splange.freeserve.co.uk/misc/vi.html The Cult of vi]
*[http://www.tarunz.org/~vassilii/srom/ $EDITOR sucks-rules-o-meter] measures which editor's activists are more visible on the Web
*[http://www.gnu.org/fun/jokes/ed.msg.html Ed is the standard text editor]
*[http://hackles.org/archives-2001.html Hackles - Strip Archives 2004]
**[http://hackles.org/cgi-bin/archives.pl?request=92 Hackles unwittingly starts a text editor holy war.]
**[http://hackles.org/cgi-bin/archives.pl?request=93 The text editor holy war continues: What does Katrina use?]
**[http://hackles.org/cgi-bin/archives.pl?request=94 The text editor holy war continues: Marcus doesn't get it.]
**[http://hackles.org/cgi-bin/archives.pl?request=284 Geek Airlines: Tension is in the air.]
[[Category:Computer hacking]]
[[Category:Emacs]]
[[Category:Text editors|*]]
[[Category:Software wars]]
[[Category:Software comparison]]
[[fr:Guerre d'éditeurs]]
[[pl:Wojny edytorowe]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Eastern Orthodox Church organization</title>
<id>10270</id>
<revision>
<id>41754771</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T14:37:20Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>85.124.180.125</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>+de</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">This article treats the manner in which the '''Eastern Orthodox Churches''' are organized, rather than the doctrines, traditions, practices, or other aspects of [[Eastern Orthodoxy]].
The '''Eastern Orthodox Church''' is a [[full communion|communion]] comprising the collective body of fourteen or fifteen separate [[autocephaly|autocephalous]] hierarchical churches that recognize each other as "canonical" [[Eastern Orthodoxy|Orthodox Christian]] churches (there is an essentially political disagreement about whether the number is 14 or 15).
The head of the Body of Christ can be only Christ. The Eastern Churches have no one so powerful as the Roman Pope. The highest-ranking bishop of the communion is the [[Patriarch of Constantinople]], who is also [[primate (religion)|primate]] of one of the fourteen or fifteen churches. These organizations are in [[full communion]] with each other, so any priest of any of those churches may lawfully minister to any member of any of them, and no member of any is excluded from any form of worship in any of the others. Despite the fact that, like the [[Roman Catholicism|Roman Catholic]] church, they are "[[closed communion]]" churches, i.e. with rare exceptions excluding non-members from receiving the [[Eucharist]], nonetheless they admit each other's members to that [[sacrament]]. This is completely non-paradoxical as far as the Orthodox are concerned, since, even though there may be many "Churches", there is only one Church, in Orthodox ecclesiology. That is, each "Orthodox Church" is actually a portion of the Orthodox Church as a whole. Friction among them is over matters of church politics rather than doctrine.
Like the Roman Catholic Church, the Eastern Orthodox church claims to be the [[One Holy Catholic and Apostolic Church]].
All the disagreements among persons of differing religious beliefs beget strange nomenclature, and accordingly a church adhering to so-called [[Western Orthodoxy]] is actually a Vicariate within the Antiochian Orthodox Church (it is never called the "Western Orthodox Church" by anyone who actually worships within that Vicariate) and thus a part of the Eastern Orthodox Church as that term is defined here.
Note that [[Oriental Orthodoxy]] separated from the Eastern Orthodox Church in the [[5th century]], well before the [[11th century]] [[East-West Schism|Great Schism]]. It should not be confused with Eastern Orthodoxy.
== Some history ==
At the beginning of the 11th century, the [[One Holy Catholic and Apostolic Church]] was ruled by five patriarchs: those of Rome, Constantinople, Alexandria, Antioch, and Jerusalem. Each had jurisdiction over bishops in a specified geographic region. The patriarch of Rome was "first in place of honor" among the five patriarchs. Did that mean he had authority over the other four patriarchs, or was his primacy merely honorary? Disagreement about the answer to that question was one of the causes of the [[East-West Schism|Great Schism]] in the year 1054, which split the church into the western Roman Catholic Church, headed by the Patriarch of Rome, and the Eastern Orthodox Church, led by the four eastern patriarchs. After the schism, in the Eastern Orthodox churches, the Patriarch of Constantinople has always had ''honorary'' primacy. The importance of the insistence that one patriarch does not have authority over the others is seen in the fact that these separate churches are autocephalous. Since then, the Eastern Orthodox Church has expanded and reorganized, so that today it has fourteen or fifteen autocephalous churches rather than only four.
== Eastern Orthodox Church jurisdictions ==
=== [[autocephaly|Autocephalous]] churches ===
* [[Orthodox Church of Constantinople]]
* [[Orthodox Church of Alexandria]]
* [[Orthodox Church of Antioch]]
* [[Orthodox Church of Jerusalem]]
* [[Russian Orthodox Church]]
* [[Georgian Orthodox and Apostolic Church]]
* [[Serbian Orthodox Church]]
* [[Romanian Orthodox Church]]
* [[Bulgarian Orthodox Church]]
* [[Orthodox Church of Cyprus]]
* [[Church of Greece]]
* [[Polish Orthodox Church]]
* [[Albanian Orthodox Church]]
* [[Czech and Slovak Orthodox Church]]
* [[Orthodox Church in America]] (autocephaly not universally recognized)
=== Autonomous churches ===
* [[Orthodox Church of Mount Sinai]] (under the Patriarch of Jerusalem)
* [[Finnish Orthodox Church]] (under the Patriarch of Constantinople)
* [[Estonian Orthodox Church]] (under the Patriarch of Constantinople, autonomy not universally recognized)
* [[Japanese Orthodox Church]] (under the Patriarch of Moscow, autonomy not universally recognized)
* [[Chinese Orthodox Church]] (under the Patriarch of Moscow, autonomy not universally recognized)
* [[Ukrainian Orthodox Church]] (under the Patriarch of Moscow, autonomy not universally recognized)
* [[Metropolis of Western Europe]] (under the Patriarch of Moscow, autonomy not universally recognized)
* [[Metropolitan Church of Bessarabia]] (comprising 23% of Moldovan affiliates or 2&nbsp;million in 2004; stayed under the Patriarchate of Romania after [[Imperial Russia]] annexed [[Bessarabia]] in 1812)
* [[Moldovan Metropolitan Church]] (comprising 60% of Moldovan affiliates; under the Patriarchate of Moscow)
* [[Orthodox Ohrid Archbishopric]] (under the [[Serb Orthodox|Patriarch of Belgrade]], autonomy not universally recognized)
=== Churches with ambiguous status ===
*[[Russian Orthodox Church Outside Russia]] (In communion with some but not all of the above, especially not the Russian Orthodox Church, though rapprochement is currently underway).
=== Churches in resistance ===
These Churches are resistant to what they perceive as the errors of Modernism and Ecumenism in mainstream Orthodoxy, but they do not consider themselves schismatic; they do refrain from concelebration of the [[Divine Liturgy]] with the mainline Orthodox Churches while they remain fully within the canonical boundaries of the Church, i.e. maintaining Orthodox belief, legitimate [[episcopal succession]], and communities with historical continuity. They will commune the faithful from all the canonical jurisdictions and are recognized by and in communion with the [[Russian Orthodox Church Outside Russia]].
* [http://www.synodinresistance.gr/indexen.htm The Orthodox Church of Greece (Holy Syno |
that whoever proclaims the intent of destroying the Jewish state or the Jewish people, or both, seals his fate." &#8212; [[Menachem Begin]], Israeli politician, prime minister. Letter to Reagan. Quoted in: Observer (London, [[2 January]] [[1983]]).
*"We have always said that in our war with the Arabs we had a secret weapon-no alternative." &#8212; [[Golda Meir]], Israeli politician, prime minister. Life (New York, [[3 October]] [[1969]]).
*"Peace will come when the Arabs will love their children more than they hate us" &#8212; Golda Meir, 1957
*"We, the people of Palestine, stand before you in the fullness of our pain, our pride, and our anticipation for we long harbored a yearning for peace and a dream of justice and freedom. For too long, the Palestinian people have gone unheeded, silenced and denied, our identity negated by political expedience, our right for struggle against injustice maligned, and our present existence subsumed by the past tragedy of another people" Haidar Abd El-Shafi, head of the Palestinian Delegation to the Madrid Peace Conference, Opening Remarks (Madrid, [[30 October]] [[1991]])[http://mondediplo.com/focus/mideast/a2299]
*"Our image has undergone change from David fighting Goliath to being Goliath." &#8212; [[Yitzhak Shamir]], Israeli politician, prime minister. Quoted in: Daily Telegraph (London, [[25 January]] [[1989]]).
*"Palestine is the cement that holds the Arab world together, or it is the explosive that blows it apart." &#8212; [[Yasser Arafat]], Palestinian leader. Quoted in: Time (New York, [[11 November]] [[1974]]).
*"We are not asking for the moon." &#8212; Yasser Arafat, Palestinian leader. Quoted in: Observer (London, [[7 February]] [[1982]]).
*"Should there be maniacs who raise the idea, they will encounter an iron fist which will leave no trace of such attempts." &#8212; Yitzhak Shamir, Israeli politician, prime minister. Quoted in: Times (London, [[11 August]] [[1988]]), on advocates of Palestinian self-government.
*"Whoever thinks of stopping the uprising before it achieves its goals, I will give him ten bullets in the chest." &#8212; Yasser Arafat, Palestinian leader. Quoted in: Daily Telegraph (London, [[19 January]] [[1989]]), on the Intifada.
*"We, the soldiers who have returned from battles stained with blood; we who have seen our relatives and friends killed before our eyes; we who have attended their funerals and cannot look in the eyes of their parents; we who have come from a land where parents bury their children; we who have fought against you, the Palestinians-we say to you today, in a loud and a clear voice: enough of blood and tears. Enough." &#8212; [[Yitzhak Rabin]], Israeli prime minister. Speech at the White House, [[September 13]] [[1993]], after signing the Israeli-Palestinian Declaration of Principles.
*"Not only [are] our states . . . making peace with each other,. . . you and I, your Majesty, are making peace here, our own peace, the peace of soldiers and the peace of friends." &#8212; Yitzhak Rabin, Israeli Prime Minister. New York Times, ([[July 27]] [[1994]]), after signing a peace declaration with Jordan's [[Hussein of Jordan|King Hussein]].
==See also==
*[[Islam and Judaism#Jewish-Arab conflict in the days of Muhammad|Jewish-Arab conflict in the days of Muhammad]]
*[[List of conflicts in the Middle East]]
*[[International law and the Arab-Israeli conflict]]
*[[Arab League and the Arab-Israeli conflict]]
*[[Israeli-Palestinian conflict timeline]]
*[[Israeli-Palestinian conflict]]
*[[Islamist movement]]
*[[Israel]]
*[[Israel Defense Force]]
*[[Occupation of the Gaza Strip by Egypt]]
*[[Occupation of the West Bank and East Jerusalem by Jordan]]
*[[Political status of the West Bank and Gaza Strip]]
*[[Proposals for a Palestinian state]]
*[[War on Terrorism]]
*[[Greater Israel]]
*[[Greater Syria]]
===Abbreviated timeline===
*[[Balfour Declaration 1917]]
*[[Faisal-Weizmann Agreement]]
*[[British Mandate of Palestine]]
*[[Riots in Palestine of 1920]]
*[[Jaffa riots]], 1921
*[[1922 Text: League of Nations Palestine Mandate]]
*[[Riots in Palestine of 1929]]
*[[Great Uprising]], 1936-1939
*[[Peel Commission]]
*[[White Paper of 1939]]
*[[1947 UN Partition Plan]]
*[[Declaration of the Establishment of the State of Israel, May 14, 1948]]
*[[1948 Arab-Israeli War]]
*[[1949 Armistice Agreement]]
*[[Jewish exodus from Arab lands]]
*[[1956 Suez War]]
*[[Kfar Kassem massacre]], 1956
*[[1967 Six Day War]]
*[[Khartoum Resolution]]
*[[1970 War of Attrition]]
*[[1973 Yom Kippur War]]
*[[Peace process]]
*[[1978 Camp David Peace Accords between Egypt and Israel]]
*[[1982 Lebanon War]]
*[[1990/1 Gulf War]]
*[[1993 Oslo Peace Accords between Palestinians and Israel]]
*[[Camp David 2000 Summit between Palestinians and Israel]]
*[[Israel's unilateral disengagement plan of 2004]]
==References==
*Cramer, Richard Ben ''How Israel Lost: The Four Questions'', Simon and Schuster, May, 2004, hardcover, 288 pages, ISBN 0743250281
* [[Dore Gold|Gold, Dore]], ''Tower Of Babble: How The United Nations Has Fueled Global Chaos'', Random House (November, 2004), hardcover, 304 pages, ISBN 1400054753
*Hamidullah, M. (1986), "Relations of Muslims with non-Muslims," ''Journal of Muslim Minority Affairs'', vol. 7, no. 1, January 1986
*{{cite book | author=Khouri, Fred | title=The Arab-Israeli Dilemma (3rd edition) | publisher=Syracuse University Press | year=1985 | id=ISBN 0815623402}}
*Lewis, Bernard. "The Jews of Islam," Princeton University Press, 1984, ISBN 0691008078
*Morris, B. (2001), ''Righteous Victims: A History of the Zionist-Arab Conflict, 1881-2001'', 1st ed. 1999; 2nd ed. Vintage Books, 2001, ISBN 0679744754
==External links==
===General Sources===
*[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/in_depth/middle_east/2001/israel_and_the_palestinians/default.stm Israel and the Palestinians]
*[http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761588322/Arab-Israeli_Conflict.html Encarta Encyclopedia on the Arab-Israeli Conflict]
* [http://historyteacher.net/Arab-Israeli_Conflict.htm Guide to the Arab-Israeli Conflict], includes links to historical sources, as well as sources representing the Arab and Israeli sides of the conflict.
* [http://www.guardian.co.uk/flash/0,5860,720353,00.html The Guardian (UK) A Brief History of Arab-Israeli Conflict] (flash)
* [http://www.cnn.com/SPECIALS/2003/mideast/ Mideast: Land of Conflict] from CNN
*[http://dmoz.org/Society/Issues/Warfare_and_Conflict/Specific_Conflicts/Middle_East/Israel-Palestine/ Open Directory Project - ''Israel-Palestine Conflict'']
* [http://menic.utexas.edu/mes.html University of Texas] Center for Mideast Studies extensive collection of updated links
===Government and Official Sources===
* [http://www.mfa.gov.il/mfa Israel's Ministry of Foreign Affairs]
* [http://www.arableagueonline.org/arableague/index_en.jsp Arab League Online]
* [http://www.mofa.gov.ps/ Palestinian Authority Ministry of Foreign Affairs]
* [http://www.state.gov/p/nea/rt/c2829.htm US State Department] Mideast Peace information
* [http://www.un.org/Depts/dpa/qpal/ United Nations on the Question of Palestine], and *[http://www.israel-un.org/israel_un/default.htm Israel's UN mission's responses]
*[http://www.mfa.gov.il/MFA/Terrorism-+Obstacle+to+Peace/Palestinian+terror+since+2000/Victims+of+Palestinian+Violence+and+Terrorism+sinc.htm Victims of Palestinian Violence and Terrorism since September 2000]
===Regional Media===
====Israeli====
*[http://www.ynetnews.com/ Yedioth Aharonoth] Israel's largest newspaper, centrist (English) [http://www.ynet.co.il/ (Hebrew)]
*[http://web.israelinsider.com/bin/en.jsp?enPage=HomePage IsraelInsider] Israel's Daily Online News Magazine (English)
*[http://www.jpost.com Jerusalem Post], Israel's oldest English newspaper, conservative (English)
*[http://www.haaretz.com/ Ha'aretz] Israeli newspaper, liberal (English)
====Arab====
*[http://www.dailystar.com.lb Lebanon Daily Star], largest English-circulation newspaper in the Arab world (English)
*[http://english.aljazeera.net/HomePage Al Jazeera], pan-Arab news station (English)
*[http://weekly.ahram.org.eg/ Al Ahram], Egypt's largest newspaper (English)
*[http://www.palestinechronicle.com/ Palestine Chronicle], weekly electronic paper (English)
====Arab: Translations into English and other languages====
*[http://www.memri.org/aboutus.html Middle East Media Research Institute], explores the Middle East through the region's media
===Think Tanks and Strategic Analysis===
* [http://www.tau.ac.il/jcss/ Jaffee Center for Strategic Studies at Tel Aviv University], influential centrist Israeli think tank specializing in military and strategic analysis
* [http://www.passia.org/index_pfacts.htm Palestinian Academic Society for the Study of International Affairs (PASSIA)], Palestinian research organization
* [http://www.ipcri.org/ Israel/Palestine Center for Research and Information] Joint Israeli-Palestinian think tank
* [http://www.brook.edu/index/taxonomy.htm?taxonomy=Politics,%20Global*Regional%20and%20country%20studies*Middle%20East Brookings Institute (US)], analyses on the Middle East
*[http://www.washingtoninstitute.org Washington Institute for Near East Policy] Influential American think-tank
*[http://www.memri.org/conflict.html Middle East Media Research Institute] Original analysis of current developments in the peace-process
===Peace Proposals===
''See main article: [[List of Middle East peace proposals]]''
* [http://www.mideastweb.org/peaceplans.htm An historical summary of Middle East Peace Plans and Proposals]
===Views of the Conflict: Pro-Israeli===
* [http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/myths/mftoc.html Myths and Facts of the Arab-Israeli Conflict], extensive collection of questions and answers with maps and documents published by the American-Israeli Cooperative Enterprise
* [http://www.science.co.il/Arab-Israe |
: Kahn and Averill.
==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
* [http://www.bartokmuseum.hu/ Bartók Béla Memorial House, Budapest]
* [http://www.cc.jyu.fi/~tojan/bartok/bbworks.htm A chronological list of Bartók's compositions]
*[http://www.lunanova.org/podcasts/Contrasts1.mp3 Recording] Contrasts: Verbunkos - Helen Kim, violin; Ted Gurch, clarinet; Adam Bowles, piano [http://www.lunanova.org/ Luna Nova New Music Ensemble]
*[http://www.lunanova.org/podcasts/Contrasts2.mp3 Recording] Contrasts: Pinheno - Helen Kim, violin; Ted Gurch, clarinet; Adam Bowles, piano [http://www.lunanova.org/ Luna Nova New Music Ensemble]
*[http://www.lunanova.org/podcasts/Contrasts3.mp3 Recording] Contrasts: Sebes - Helen Kim, violin; Ted Gurch, clarinet; Adam Bowles, piano [http://www.lunanova.org/ Luna Nova New Music Ensemble]
[[Category:Hungarian composers|Bartók, Béla]]
[[Category:20th century classical composers|Bartók, Béla]]
[[Category:Hungarian classical pianists|Bartók, Béla]]
[[Category:Ethnomusicologists|Bartók, Béla]]
[[Category:Folk-song collectors|Bartók, Béla]]
[[Category:Modernism|Bartók]]
[[Category:Modernist composers|Bartók, Béla]]
[[Category:Opera composers|Bartók, Béla]]
[[Category:Song collectors|Bartók, Béla]]
[[Category:1881 births|Bartók, Béla]]
[[Category:1945 deaths|Bartók, Béla]]
[[bg:Бела Барток]]
[[da:Béla Bartók]]
[[de:Béla Bartók]]
[[es:Béla Bartók]]
[[eo:BARTÓK Béla]]
[[fr:Béla Bartók]]
[[ko:벨러 버르토크]]
[[hr:Béla Bartók]]
[[it:Béla Bartók]]
[[he:בלה בארטוק]]
[[kw:Béla Bartók]]
[[lt:Bela Bartokas]]
[[hu:Bartók Béla]]
[[nl:Béla Bartók]]
[[ja:バルトーク・ベーラ]]
[[no:Béla Bartók]]
[[pl:Béla Bartók]]
[[ro:Béla Bartók]]
[[ru:Барток, Бела]]
[[sl:Béla Bartók]]
[[fi:Béla Bartók]]
[[sv:Béla Bartók]]
[[th:เบลา บาร์ต็อก]]
[[tr:Béla Bartók]]
[[zh:巴托克·贝拉]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Bill Haley</title>
<id>4528</id>
<revision>
<id>41943118</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T20:07:12Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>23skidoo</username>
<id>99351</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* Early life and career */ correct song title</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:BillHaley1957.JPG|right|thumb|240px|Bill Haley, with his band, the Comets, was one of the first rock and roll acts to tour the United Kingdom. This magazine cover dates back to that first tour in 1957.]]
'''Bill Haley''' ([[July 6]], [[1925]] – [[February 9]], [[1981]]) was one of the first [[United States|American]] [[rock and roll]] musicians, and is credited by many with first popularizing this form of music in the mid-[[1950s]] with his group [[Bill Haley & His Comets]] and their hit song "[[Rock Around the Clock]]".
==Early life and career==
Haley was born '''William John Clifton Haley''' (some sources append "Junior" to his name, but his eldest son states that this is erroneous) in [[Highland Park, Michigan]] and raised in [[Pennsylvania]]. Many sources (almost universally predating his death in 1981) state that Haley was born in [[1927]], which is due to Haley knocking two years off his age for publicity purposes in the 1950s. A few recent sources erroneously give a birth year of [[1924]].
In [[1946]], Haley joined his first professional group, a Pennsylvania-based [[western swing]] band called The [[Down Homers]] run by [[Shorty Cook]], after which he set out on his own. He made a number of regionally successful country music [[Single (music)|single]]s in the [[1940s]] for several local labels, including [[Cowboy Records]] [[1948]]-[[1949]] while working as a touring musician and later a radio [[DJ]] at [[WPWA]]. (Many of Haley's early recordings would not be released until after his death.) In 1948, he formed his own group, '''The Four Aces of Western Swing''', later followed by '''The Saddlemen''' in either 1949 or 1950 (sources vary as to the exact year). In [[1951]], Haley began to change musical styles, recording [[cover version]]s of "[[Rocket "88"]]" (previously recorded by [[Jackie Brenston and His Delta Cats]]), and in, 1952, "Rock the Joint", previously recorded by several bands including [[Jimmy Preston and His Prestonians]]. The relative success of these recordings (both sold in the 75,000-100,000 copy range in the Pennsylvania-[[New England]] region) convinced Haley that his new and as-yet officially unnamed hybrid of country and [[rhythm and blues]] could be a commercial success.
==Bill Haley & His Comets==
:''Main article: [[Bill Haley & His Comets]]''
During the [[Labor Day]] weekend in 1952, The Saddlemen were renamed '''Bill Haley with Haley's Comets''' (inspired by a popular mispronunciation of [[Halley's Comet]]), and in [[1953]], Haley's recording of "Crazy Man, Crazy" (co-written by Haley and his bass player, [[Marshall Lytle]] although Lytle wouldn't receive credit until 2001) became the first rock and roll song to hit the American charts. Soon after, the band's name was revised to '''Bill Haley & His Comets.'''
In 1953, a song entitled "[[Rock Around the Clock]]" was written for Haley, but he was unable to record it until [[April 12]], [[1954]]. Initially, it was relatively unsuccessful, but Haley soon scored a major worldwide hit with a cover version of [[Big Joe Turner]]'s "[[Shake, Rattle and Roll]]," which went on to sell a million copies and became the first ever rock'n'roll song to enter [[United Kingdom|British]] singles charts in December 1954. Haley and his band were important in launching the music known as "Rock and Roll" to a wider (white) audience after years of it being considered an underground movement. When "Rock Around the Clock" appeared behind the opening credits of the [[1955]] film ''[[The Blackboard Jungle]]'' starring [[Glenn Ford]], it soared to the top of the American ''[[Billboard magazine|Billboard]]'' charts for eight weeks, launching a musical revolution that opened the doors for the likes of [[Elvis Presley]].
"Rock Around the Clock" was the first record ever to sell over one million copies in both Britain and Germany and, in 1957, Haley became the first major American rock singer to tour [[Europe]]. Haley continued to score hits throughout the 1950s such as "[[See You Later, Alligator]]" and he starred in the first rock and roll musical movies ''[[Rock Around the Clock (film)|Rock Around the Clock]]'' and ''[[Don't Knock the Rock]]'', both in [[1956]]. His star was soon surpassed in the USA by the younger, sexier Elvis, but Haley continued to be a major star in [[Latin America]], [[Mexico]], and in Europe throughout the [[1960s]].
A self-admitted [[alcoholism|alcoholic]] (as indicated in a 1974 radio interview for the [[British Broadcasting Corporation]]), Haley fought a battle with liquor well into the 1970s. Nonetheless, he and his band continued to be a popular touring act, enjoying a career resurgence in the late 1960s with the [[Rock and Roll Revival]] movement and the signing of a lucrative record deal with the European [[Sonet Records]] label. After performing for [[Queen Elizabeth II]] at a command performance in 1979, Haley made his final performances in [[South Africa]] in May and June of [[1980]]. Prior to the South African tour, he was diagnosed with a [[brain tumor]], and a planned tour of Germany in the fall of 1980 was cancelled. Despite his ill health, Haley began compiling notes for possible use as a basis for either a biographical film based on his life, or a published autobiography (accounts differ), and there were plans for him to record an album in [[Memphis, Tennessee]], when the brain tumor began affecting his behavior and he retired to his home in [[Harlingen, Texas]] where he died early on the morning February 9, 1981.
The exact cause of his death is controversial. Media reports, supported by Haley's death certificate (reproduced in the book ''Bill Haley: The Daddy of Rock and Roll'' by [[John Swenson]]), suggest he died of "natural causes most likely [[heart attack]]". Members of Haley's family, however, contest that he died from the brain tumor.
Haley was posthumously inducted into the [[Rock and Roll Hall of Fame]] in [[1987]].
Haley's original Comets from 1954 and 1955 still tour the world to packed houses. Despite ranging in age from 72 to 84, the band shows no sign of slowing down, releasing a concert [[DVD]] in 2004 and playing the trendy [[Viper Room]] in [[West Hollywood]] in 2005.
==Asteroid==
:''Main article - [[79896 Billhaley]]''
In [[February]] [[2006]], the [[International Astronomical Union]] announced the naming of [[asteroid]] [[79896 Billhaley]] to mark the 25th anniversary of Bill Haley's death.
==Chart positions (US and UK)==
* Billboard or Cash Box charts:
* "Crazy Man, Crazy" - # 15, late 1953
* "[[Rock Around the Clock|(We're Gonna) Rock Around the Clock]]" – # 1 US, 06/1955; # 1 (8 weeks), UK, 10/1955; UK recharts # 5 09/1956; # 24, 12/1956; #25 01/1957; #20 04/1968; #34 05/1968; #12 UK then #39 US, 04/1974
* "[[Shake, Rattle and Roll]]" – # 7 [04/54]; # 4 UK, 12/1954
* "Dim, Dim the Lights (I Want Some Atmosphere)" - # 11, 01/1955
* "Birth of the Boogie" – #17, 04/1955
* "Mambo Rock" – (flipside of "Birth Of The Boogie") # 17; # 14 UK, 04/1955
* "Two Hound Dogs" – # 9 (09/1955)
* "Razzle-Dazzle" - (A-side of "Two Hound Dogs") # 15, 09/1955; # 13 UK, 09/1956
* "Burn That Candle" - # 9, 11/1955
* "Rock-a-Beatin' Boogie" – (A-side) of "Burn That Candle") #23, # 4 RU, 01/1956
* "The Saints Rock 'n' Roll" - # 18, 04/1956 # 5 UK, 05/56
* "R-O-C-K" - (A-side of "The Saints Rock and Roll") # 29, 04/1956
* "Hot Dog Buddy Buddy" - # 78) - # 60, 06/1956
* "Rockin' Thru the Rye" - (flipside of "Hot Dog Buddy |
Aberdeen]], [[Viscount Formartine]], and Lord Haddo, Methllck, Tarves and Kellie, in the Scottish peerage, being appointed also [[Sheriff Principal]] of Aberdeenshire and Midlothian.
Burnet reflects unfavourably upon him, calls him ''a proud and covetous man,'' and declares:
:''the new chancellor exceeded all that had gone before him.''
He executed the laws enforcing religious conformity with severity, and filled the parish churches, but resisted the excessive measures of tyranny prescribed by the English government; and in consequence of an intrigue of the [[duke of Queensberry]] and Lord Perth, who gained the duchess of Portsmouth with a present of £27,000, he was dismissed in [[1684]].
After his fall he was subjected to various petty prosecutions by his victorious rivals with the view of discovering some act of maladministration on which to found a charge against him, but the investigations only served to strengthen his credit. He took an active part in parliament in [[1685]] and 1686, but remained a non-juror during the whole of [[William III of England|William]]'s reign, being frequently fined for his non-attendance, and took the oaths for the first time after Anne's accession, on the 11th of May [[1703]].
In the great affair of the [[Act of Union, 1707|Union in 1707]], while protesting against the completion of the treaty till the act declaring the Scots aliens should be repealed, he refused to support the opposition to the measure itself and refrained from attending parliament when the treaty was settled.
He is described by John Mackay as
:''very knowing in the laws and constitution of his country and is belleved to be the solidest statesman in Scotland, a fine orator, speaks slow but sure.''
His person was said to be deformed, and his ''want of mine or deportment'' was alleged as a disqualification for the office of Lord Chancellor.
In [[1671]] he married [[Anne Lockhart, Countess of Aberdeen|Anne Lockhart]], daughter and (eventual) sole heiress of [[George Lockhart of Tarbrax]], by whom he had six children, his only surviving son, William, succeeding him as 2nd earl of Aberdeen. He died on [[April 20]] [[1720]], after having amassed a large fortune.
{{Wikisource1911Enc|Aberdeen, George Gordon, 1st Earl of}}
{{1911}}
{{start box}}
{{succession box|title=[[Lord Chancellor of Scotland]]|before=[[John Leslie, 1st Duke of Rothes]]|after=[[James Drummond, 1st Duke of Perth|James Drummond, 4th Earl of Perth]]|years=1682-84}}
{{end box}}
{| border="2" align="center"
|-
|width="30%" align="center"|Preceded by:<br>'''New Creation'''
|width="40%" align="center"|'''[[Marquess of Aberdeen and Temair|Earl of Aberdeen]]'''
|width="30%" align="center"|Succeeded by:<br>'''[[William Gordon, 2nd Earl of Aberdeen|William Gordon]]'''
|}
[[Category:1637 births|Aberdeen, George Gordon, 1st Earl of]]
[[Category:1720 deaths|Aberdeen, George Gordon, 1st Earl of]]
[[Category:Earls in the Peerage of Scotland|Aberdeen, George Gordon, 1st Earl of]]
[[Category:Presidents of the Privy Council of Scotland|Aberdeen, Earl]]
[[Category:Scottish scholars|Aberdeen, Earl]]
[[Category:University of Aberdeen alumni|Aberdeen, Earl]]
[[Category:Natives of Aberdeenshire|Aberdeen, Earl]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>George Hamilton-Gordon, 4th Earl of Aberdeen</title>
<id>12879</id>
<revision>
<id>41227148</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-25T22:42:55Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Mais oui!</username>
<id>394460</id>
</contributor>
<comment>cats</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox BPM
| name=[[The Right Honourable|The Rt. Hon.]] The Earl of Aberdeen
| image=4th Earl of Aberdeen.jpg
| kingdom=the United Kingdom
| term=December, 1852 &ndash; February, 1855
| before=[[Edward Smith-Stanley, 14th Earl of Derby|The Earl of Derby]]
| after=[[Henry John Temple, 3rd Viscount Palmerston|The Viscount Palmerston]]
| date_birth=[[28 January]] [[1784]]
| place_birth=[[Edinburgh]]
| date_death=[[14 December]] [[1860]]
| place_death=[[London]]
| party=[[Peelite]]
}}
'''George Hamilton-Gordon, 4th Earl of Aberdeen''', [[Privy Council of the United Kingdom|PC]] ([[January 28]], 1784&ndash;[[December 14]], [[1860]]) was a [[Scotland|Scottish]] [[Tory]]/[[Peelite]] politician who served as [[Prime Minister of the United Kingdom]] from 1852 until 1855.
==Parentage==
Born in [[Edinburgh]] on the 28th of January 1784, he lost his father in 1791 and his mother in 1795.
He was the eldest son of [[George Gordon]], [[Lord Haddo]].
==Upbringing and education==
He was brought up by [[Henry Dundas, Viscount Melville]]. He was educated at [[Harrow School|Harrow]], and [[St John's College, Cambridge]], where he graduated in 1804.
==Period 1801&ndash;1812==
Before this, however, he had become [[Earl of Aberdeen]] on his grandfather's death in 1801, and had travelled all over [[Europe]]. On his return to [[England]] founded the [[Athenian Society]]. In 1805, he married [[Catherine Elizabeth Hamilton]], daughter of [[John James Hamilton, 1st Marquess of Abercorn|Lord Abercorn]]. In December he took his seat as a [[Tory]] [[Scottish representative peer]] in the [[House of Lords]]. In 1808, he was created a [[Knight of the Thistle]].
==Official and political career==
Following the death of his wife in 1812 he joined the Foreign Service. He was appointed ambassador extraordinary and minister plenipotentiary at [[Vienna]], where he signed the [[Treaty of Toplitz]] between [[United Kingdom|Britain]] and Austria in October 1813. He was one of the British representatives at the [[Congress of Chatillon]] in February 1814, and at the negotiations which led to the [[Treaty of Paris (1815)|Treaty of Paris]] in the following May.
Returning home he was created a peer of the United Kingdom as '''Viscount Gordon''', of Aberdeen in the County of Aberdeen (1814), and made a member of the [[Privy Council of the United Kingdom|Privy Council]]. In July 1815 he married Harriet, daughter of John Douglas, and widow of James, Viscount Hamilton. During the ensuing thirteen years Aberdeen took a less prominent part in public affairs.
He served as Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster (1828) and Foreign Secretary (1829-30) under [[Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington]]. He resigned with Wellington over the Reform Bill of 1832. He was Secretary for the Colonies (1834-35) and then Foreign Secretary (1841-46) under [[Robert Peel]]. It was during his second stint as Foreign Secretary that he settled two disagreements with the US - the Northeast Boundary dispute by the [[Webster-Ashburton Treaty]] (1842), and the [[Oregon boundary dispute|Oregon dispute]] by the [[Oregon Treaty]] of 1846. He also worked successfully to improve relationships with France. He again followed his leader and resigned with Peel over the issue of the Corn Laws.
After Peel's death in 1850 he became the recognized leader of the [[Peelites]]. His dislike of the [[Ecclesiastical Titles Assumption Bill]], the rejection of which he failed to secure in 1851, prevented him from joining the government of [[Lord John Russell]].
In December 1852, however, be became Prime Minister and headed a coalition ministry of Whigs and Peelites. Although united on free trade and on questions of domestic reform, his cabinet which contained Lord Palmerston and Lord John Russell, was certain to differ on questions of foreign policy.
He entered the country into the Crimean War on the side of the [[Ottoman Empire]] following pressure from some of his cabinet. Palmerston, supported by Russell, favoured a more aggressive policy, and Aberdeen, unable to control Palmerston, acquiesed.
However the war proved his downfall. As reports returned detailing the mis-management of the conflict Russell resigned; and on [[29 January]] [[1855]] a motion for the appointment of a select committee to enquire into the conduct of the war, was carried by a large majority. Treating this as a vote of confidence Aberdeen resigned.
==Death, successors to title, and other personal matters==
[[Image:George-Hamilton-Gordon-arms.PNG|thumb|right|150px|Arms of George Hamilton-Gordon]]
He died in London on [[14 December]] [[1860]], and was buried in the family vault at Stanmore.
By his first wife he had one son and three daughters, all of whom predeceased their father. By his second wife, who died in August 1833, he left four sons and one daughter. His eldest son, George John James, succeeded as 5th Earl; his second son was General Sir Alexander Hamilton-Gordon, K.C.B.; his third son was the Reverend Douglas Hamilton-Gordon; and his youngest son Arthur Hamilton, was created Baron Stanmore in 1893.
Aberdeen was a distinguished scholar. His private life is believed to be exemplary by the standards of the day. His manner was lofty and reserved, and as a speaker he was ponderous rather than eloquent. It is said that he lacked strength and his foreign policy was essentially one of peace and non-intervention.
On his death his title passed to his son [[George John James Hamilton-Gordon, 5th Earl of Aberdeen|George John James Hamilton-Gordon]] (1816-1864) whose eldest son [[George Hamilton-Gordon, 6th Earl of Aberdeen|George Hamilton-Gordon]] (1841-1870) became the 6th earl. When he was drowned at sea, he was succeeded by his brother [[John Campbell Hamilton-Gordon, 1st Marquess of Aberdeen and Temair|John Campbell Hamilton-Gordon]] (1847-1934), a prominent Liberal politician, who was [[Lord Lieutenant of Ireland]] in 1886, [[Governor-General of Canada]] (1893-1898), and again the Lord-Lieutenant of Ireland when Sir [[Henry Campbell-Bannerman]] formed his ministry at the close of 1905. He was made [[Marquess of Aberdeen and Temair]] on [[4 January]] [[1916]].
==Lord Aberdeen's Government, December 1852 - February 1855==
*Lord Aberdeen - [[First Lor |
generally used by local residents.
===Historic Marysville===
{{main|History of Marysville}}
One of the communities annexed to Fredericton in 1973, Marysville, has a unique and distinctive history of its own. Marysville is located on the [[Nashwaak River]] - a tributary of the [[Saint John River]] - just North of pre-1973 Fredericton. The community is distinguished by its 19th century Mill and historic buildings which include nineteenth century company houses and buildings which are patterned after that of many British industrial towns.
Marysville can be described as a prime example of a nineteenth century mill town. In the 1830s, a saw mill was built on the site of Marysville by two local entrepreneurs. However, the saw mill frequently changed ownership and never showed a profit. It was [[Alexander Gibson (industrialist)|Alexander Gibson]] (popularly referred to as "Boss Gibson") who turned this situation around and built a prosperous industrial town. In 1883, under the direction of Gibson, construction began of a Cotton Mill which was state of the art for its time. "Boss" Gibson named the company town, that grew up around the Mill, Marysville in honour of his wife.
In 1908, having faced financial problems, Gibson sold the Mill to a Montreal-based company which, in turn, sold it to Canadian Cottons Ltd. After WWII, foreign competition devastated the Mill's business and it ceased operations in 1954. There were numerous attempts to re-open the Mill however, in 1980, it closed its doors permanently.
The Mill was renovated and re-opened in 1985 as provincial government offices. The Mill still remains the dominant feature in the Marysville skyline.
==Neighbourhoods==
The City of Fredericton is bisected by the Saint John River - this creates distinctive regions of the city characterized as "The Northside" and the "Southside."
The Southside is characterized by a downtown core consisting of provincial government departments, historical buildings, and numerous business establishments, banks, and law firms. Downtown also hosts many of the city's cultural attractions such as [[The Playhouse]], the [[York-Sunbury Museum]], and the [[Beaverbrook Art Gallery]], to name a few. Many notable historical buildings are also located in or near downtown, including many grand Victorian-era residences, the Provincial Legislature Building, and Christchurch Cathederal. South of downtown the city's elevation rises along a gently sloping hill (part of the river valley feature of the city where there is another sloping hill on the Northside). This "Hill area" of the city consists of many middle to upper income neighbourhoods, leading some to dub it "sirloin hill" or "mortgage hill", in reference to the higher housing costs.
The "Hill Area" also includes an area known as "College Hill", where the adjoining campuses of the [[University of New Brunswick]] and [[St. Thomas University (New Brunswick)|St. Thomas University]] are located, slightly southeast of the downtown area. South of the universities is the [[Doctor Everett Chalmers Hospital]], the main hospital serving central/western New Brunswick. East of the universities is the Skyline Acres/Southwood Park area - a growing suburban district of the city. Further east - on the eastern city limits - is the Industrial Park consisting of box stores, wholesalers, and warehouses.
Southwest of downtown, in the Hill area, is a large preserved forested area - O'Dell Park. Its trails and wooded areas are a favourite for hiking, jogging and cross country skiing for city residents. West of the park is the Hanwell Road, Golf Club Road, and [[Silverwood, New Brunswick|Silverwood]] nieghbourhoods consisting largely of suburban residences.
South of the "Hill Area" - where it plateaus, is a sizeable shopping district consisting of two Malls - [[The Fredericton Mall]] and [[The Regent Mall]] as well as numerous other retail outlets.
The City's "Northside" consists of several boroughs which were at one time separate communities. These include [[Devon, New Brunswick|Devon]], [[Nashwaaksis, New Brunswick|Nashwaaksis]], [[Marysville, New Brunswick|Marysville]] and [[Barker's Point, New Brunswick|Barker's Point]]. These communities are largely suburban neighbourhoods and retail outlets. Union Street, which runs just north of the [[Saint John River]] includes numerous retail outlets as well as an eclectic array of businesses including IT firms, law firms, and real estate agents, among others. Also located on the Northside is the Brookside Mall - one of Fredericton's major retail outlets.
Also on the northside is Marysville which is Canada's only intact British-style Mill town. Built in the 19th century under the direction of mill owner and businessman Alexander "Boss" Gibson, Marysville grew into a prosperous Mill town with an ideal location along a tributary of the [[Saint John River]]. Marysville still retains many British style dwellings as well as the original Mill which has since been converted to provincial government offices. [http://www.ccge.org/ccge/english/Resources/rivers/tr_rivers_SJRcompanyTown.asp]
The Northside is also home to the [[Saint Mary's First Nation]] [[indian reserve|Aboriginal reserve]], which includes a community centre and a shopping centre along with private residences. During the Christmas season, residences of the Saint Mary's First Nations sport some of the most colourful and creative decorations in the city.
==Climate and Geography==
{| class="toccolours" align="left" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" style="margin:0 0 1em 1em; font-size: 95%;"
|-
! colspan=5 bgcolor="#ccccff" align="center"| Fredericton: Average Temperature and Precipitation <br> Breakdown by month
|-
! align="center"| Month !! align="center"| Precipitation<br>mm !! align="center" | Temperature <br>(Low °C) !! align="center" | Temperature <br> (High °C)!! align="center" |Temperature <br> (Daily <br> Mean °C)
|-
| colspan=5|<hr>
|-
| align="center"| Jan || align="center"| 92.1 || align="center"| -14.8 || align="center"| -3.8|| align="center"| -9.3
|-
| align="center"| Feb || align="center"| 76.2 || align="center"| -13.9 || align="center"| -2.2|| align="center"| -8.0
|-
| align="center"| Mar || align="center"| 79.4 || align="center"| -7.7 || align="center"| 2.7|| align="center"| -2.5
|-
| align="center"| Apr || align="center"| 82.8 || align="center"| -1.1 || align="center"| 9.5|| align="center"| 4.2
|-
| align="center"| May || align="center"| 84.2 || align="center"| 4.4 || align="center"| 17.2|| align="center"| 10.8
|-
| align="center"| Jun || align="center"| 84.2 || align="center"| 9.5 || align="center"| 22.5|| align="center"| 16.0
|-
| align="center"| Jul || align="center"| 85.3 || align="center"| 12.9 || align="center"| 25.6|| align="center"| 19.2
|-
| align="center"| Aug || align="center"| 87.8 || align="center"| 11.8 || align="center"| 24.4|| align="center"| 18.1
|-
| align="center"| Sep || align="center"| 89.5 || align="center"| 6.8 || align="center"| 19.4|| align="center"| 13.1
|-
| align="center"| Oct || align="center"| 94.6 || align="center"| 1.6 || align="center"| 13.0|| align="center"| 7.3
|-
| align="center"| Nov || align="center"| 101.3 || align="center"| -3.1 || align="center"| 5.8|| align="center"| 1.3
|-
| align="center"| Dec || align="center"| 97.1 || align="center"| -11.5 || align="center"| -1.5|| align="center"| -6.5
|-
| align="center"| Year || align="center"| 1060.2 || align="center"| -0.3 || align="center"| 11.1 || align="center"| 5.3
|-source: http://www.worldclimate.com/cgi-bin/grid.pl?gr=N45W066
|}
Fredericton is located in the middle of the Saint John River valley, with most of the city's post-war suburban development occurring on gently sloping hills on either side of the river, although the downtown core is flat and lies low to the river.
At an altitude of approximately 17 metres above sea level, the city of Fredericton is embedded in the [[Pennsylvanian Basin]] and it contrasts markedly from the geologically older parts of the province. Roughly, there are two distinct areas in the region that are divided around Wilsey Road, in the east end of the city. In one area the underlying bedrock is topographically dominant whereas the other is controlled by [[Pleistocene]] and recent deposits leading to the rivers in the area being shallow and wide.
Fredericton and its surroundings are rich in water resources, which, coupled with highly arable soil, make the Fredericton region ideal for agriculture. The [[Saint John River]] and one of its major tributaries, the [[Nashwaak River]], come together in Fredericton. The uninhabited parts of the city are heavily forested.
Fredericton enjoys a mild [[climate]] compared to most of Canada, although its location away from the coastline means it is more prone to extreme temperatures than most other major cities in [[Atlantic Canada]]. The average January low [[temperature]] is -15°C; while the average high in July and August is 26°C. [http://www.climate.weatheroffice.ec.gc.ca/]
The ci |
Jewish people did start to settle into their new environment. From building homes to opening businesses, the Jews seemed to settle into their exile land for the long haul.
This growing comfort in [[Babylon]] helps to explain why so many Jewish people decided not to return to their land. Many people would have been born in exile and would know nothing of their old land, so when the opportunity came for them to reclaim the land that was taken from them, many decided not to leave the Babylonian land they knew. This large group of people who decided to stay are known to be the oldest of the [[Diaspora]] communities along with the Jews of [[Iran|Persia]].
== His mission ==
With the Exile, monarchy and state were annihilated, and a political and national life was no longer possible. In the absence of a worldly foundation it became necessary to build upon a spiritual one. This mission Ezekiel performed by observing the signs of the time and by deducing his doctrines from them. In conformity with the two parts of his book his personality and his preaching are alike twofold. The events of the past must be explained. Although God has permitted His city and Temple to be destroyed and His people to be led into exile, yet God has by this inaction betrayed no sign of impotency or weakness; Ezekiel asserts that God was compelled to do it because of the sins of the people. Nevertheless, there is no reason to despair for God does not desire the death of the sinner, but his reformation. The Lord will remain the God of Israel, and Israel will remain His people. As soon as Israel recognizes the sovereignty of the Lord and acts accordingly, God will restore the people, in order that they may fulfil their eternal mission and that He may truly dwell in the midst of them. This, however, can not be accomplished until every individual reforms and makes the will of the Lord his law.
== Ezekiel's personality ==
Herein lies the [[individualism|individualistic]] tendency which distinguishes him from his predecessors. He conceives it as his prophetic mission to strive to reach his brethren and compatriots individually, to follow them, and to win them back to God; and he considers himself personally responsible for every individual [[soul]]. Those redeemed were to form the congregation of the new Temple, and to exemplify by their lives the truth of the word that Israel was destined to become a "kingdom of priests" ([[Exodus]] 19:6). Law and worship--these are the two focal points of Ezekiel's hope for the future. The people become a congregation; the nation, a religious fraternity. Political aims and tasks no longer exist; and monarchy and state have become absorbed in the pure dominion of God. Thus Ezekiel has stamped upon post-exilic Judaism its peculiar character; and herein lies his unique religio-historical importance.
Yet Another feature of Ezekiel's personality is the pathological. With no other prophet are vision and [[Religious ecstasy|ecstasy]] so prominent; and he repeatedly refers to symptoms of severe maladies, such as paralysis of the limbs and of the tongue (3:25 et seq.), and the cutting off of [[erection|erect]] [[penis]]es (29:7-9), from which infirmities he is relieved only upon the announcement of the downfall of Jerusalem (24:27, 33:22).
Ezekiel also exhibits one of the most down to earth and bawdy attitudes of all the biblical authors, referring to the remembrances of a [[whore]] in a notorious passage (23:20) recounting her past lovers who were as [[penis size|well hung]] ''as donkeys'' and whose [[ejaculate]] was ''like the issue of horses''.
== Ezekiel in Jewish literature ==
Ezekiel, like Jeremiah, is said to have been a descendant of Joshua by his marriage with the proselyte Rahab ([[Talmud]] Meg. 14b; [[Midrash]] Sifre, Num. 78). Some even say that he was Jeremiah or the son of Jeremiah, who was (also) called "Buzi" because he was despised by the Jews. He was already active as a prophet while in Palestine, and he retained this gift when he was exiled with Jehoiachin and the nobles of the country to Babylon ([[Josephus]], ''Ant.'' x. 6, § 3: "while he was still a boy"; comp. Rashi on Sanh. 92b, above).
Although in the beginning of the book he very describes the appearance of the throne of God, this is not due to the fact that he had seen more than Isaiah, but because the latter was more accustomed to such visions; for the relation of the two prophets is that of a courtier to a peasant, the latter of whom would always describe a royal court more floridly than the former, to whom such things would be familiar (&#7716;ag. 13b). Ezekiel, like all the other prophets, has beheld only a blurred reflection of the divine majesty, just as a poor mirror reflects objects only imperfectly (Midrash Lev. Rabbah i. 14, toward the end).
According to midrash ''Canticles Rabbah'', it was Ezekiel whom the three pious men, Hananiah, Mishael, and Azariah, (Shadrach, Miesheck, and Obednigo in Christian Bibles) asked for advice as to whether they should resist Nebuchadnezzar's command and choose death by fire rather than worship his [[idolatry|idol]]. At first God revealed to the prophet that they could not hope for a miraculous rescue; whereupon the prophet was greatly grieved, since these three men constituted the "remnant of Judah". But after they had left the house of the prophet, fully determined to sacrifice their lives to God, Ezekiel received this revelation: "Thou dost believe indeed that I will abandon them. That shall not happen; but do thou let them carry out their intention according to their pious dictates, and tell them nothing" (Midrash Canticles Rabbah vii. 8).
== Resurrection of the dead ==
Ezekiel's greatest miracle consisted in his resuscitation of the dead, which is recounted in chapter 37 of the Book of Ezekiel. There are different traditions as to the fate of these men, both before and after their resurrection, and as to the time at which it happened. Some say that they were godless people, who in their lifetime had denied the resurrection, and committed other sins; others think they were those [[Tribe of Ephraim|Ephraimites]] who tried to escape from [[Egypt]] before Moses and perished in the attempt. There are still others who maintain that after [[Nebuchadnezzar II of Babylon|Nebuchadnezzar]] had carried the beautiful youths of [[Kingdom of Judah|Judah]] to [[Babylon]], he had them executed and their bodies mutilated, because their beauty had entranced the [[Babylon]]ian women, and that it was these youths whom Ezekiel called back to life.
The miracle was performed on the same day on which the three men were cast into the fiery furnace; namely, on the Sabbath and the Day of Atonement (Cant. R. vii. 9). Nebuchadnezzar, who had made a drinking-cup from the skull of a murdered Jew, was greatly astonished when, at the moment that the three men were cast into the furnace, the bodies of the dead boys moved, and, striking him in the face, cried
out: "The companion of these three men revives the dead!" (see a [[Karaite]] record of this episode in Judah Hadasi's "Eshkol ha-Kofer," 45b, at foot; 134a, end of the section). When the boys awakened from death, they rose up and joined in a song of praise to God for the miracle vouchsafed to them; later, they went to Palestine, where they married and reared children.
As early as the second century, however, some authorities declared this resurrection of the dead was a prophetic vision: an opinion regarded by [[Maimonides]] (''Guide for the Perplexed'', II:46) and his followers as the only rational explanation of the Biblical passage.
== Ezekiel the Tragedian ==
There was another ancient Jewish Ezekiel, other than the one discussed above, who according to [[Eusebius]] wrote Greek [[tragedy|tragedies]] on biblical matters, including one called ''Exagoge'', recounting the Exodus, of which fragments have survived.
== Ezekiel and Other Faiths ==
Some [[Islam|Muslims]] believe that Ezekiel may be [[Dhul-Kifl]], a figure who is mentioned in the following Qur'anic verse:
"And (remember) Ismail (Ishmael) and Idris (Enoch) and Dhul-Kifl, all were from among those who observe patience." (Surah 21: 85-86)
Other Muslims believe Dhul-Kifl may be the same person as [[Gautama Buddha]], taking 'Kifl' to be the Arabic pronunciation of Kapilvastu, a place where he spent 30 years of his life, and use this as evidence to describe the Buddha as a prophet.
== See also ==
*[[Book of Ezekiel]], a book in the [[Tanakh|Hebrew (Tanakh)]] and [[bible|Christian]] Bibles.
*[[List of names referring to El]].
[[Category:Christian eschatology]]
[[Category:Christian prophets]]
[[Category:Tanakh prophets]]
[[ca:Ezequiel]]
[[de:Ezechiel]]
[[es:Ezequiel]]
[[fr:Ézéchiel]]
[[he:יחזקאל]]
[[no:Esekiel]]
[[ru:Иезекииль]]
[[sl:Ezekiel]]
[[fi:Hesekiel]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Equator</title>
<id>9912</id>
<revision>
<id>42033819</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T09:50:12Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Ewlyahoocom</username>
<id>241538</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Disambiguate [[Pole]] to [[Geographical pole]] using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:WorldMapLongLat-special-lats-emph-Equator-non.png|450px|thumb|]]
The '''equator''' is an imaginary [[circle]] drawn around a [[planet]] (or other [[astronomical object]]) at a distance halfway between the [[Geographical pole|pole]]s. The equator divides the planet into a [[Northern Hemisphere]] and a [[Southern Hemisphere]]. The [[latitude]] of the equator is, by definition, 0&deg;. The length of [[Earth]]'s equator is about 40,075.0 [[kilometre|km]], or 24,901.5 [[mile|miles]].
The equator is one of the five main [[circles of latitude]] based on the relationship of the Earth's [[rotation]] and plane o |
nment was formed by [[Democrats of the Left]] leader and former communist [[Massimo D'Alema]], but in April [[2000]], following poor performance by his coalition in regional elections, D'Alema resigned.
The succeeding center-left government, including most of the same parties, was headed by [[Giuliano Amato]] (social-democratic), who previously served as Prime Minister in 1992-93, and had back then sworn never to return to active politics.
National elections held on [[May 13]], [[2001]] returned Berlusconi to power at the head of the five-party center-right "Freedom House" coalition, comprising the prime minister's own party, [[Forza Italia]], the [[Alleanza Nazionale|National Alliance]], the [[Lega Nord|Northern League]], the [[Christian Democratic Center]], and the [[Democrats' Centre Union]].
==Administrative division==
: ''Main article: [[Regions of Italy]]''
The Italian State has twenty regions and about a hundred provinces. The [[constitution of Italy]] provides for twenty regions, most of them with limited governing powers. Regions are further divided in provinces. Provinces also have their own local elections. For each of the provinces, a [[prefect]] is appointed by and responds to the central government, which he locally represents. While the number of regions is somewhat stable (the only modification to the original set is the separation of [[Molise]] from [[Abruzzo]]), there has been a tendency in later years to create new provinces, such as [[Crotone]], [[Verbania]], [[Lodi]], [[Biella]], [[Lecco]] and others.
Five regions ([[Sicily]], [[Sardinia]], [[Valle d'Aosta]], [[Trentino-South Tyrol]], [[Friuli Venezia Giulia]]) have special charters granting them varying degrees of autonomy. The ''raisons d'être'' of these charters is in most cases the presence of significant linguistic and cultural minorities, but in the case of Sicily it was historically an early attempt by the mafia to create its own independent state in the [[1950]]s. The other 15 regions were in practice established in [[1970]], even if their ideation had been a much earlier idea. They vote for regional ''councils''.
== See also ==
*[[Foreign relations of Italy]]
*[[List of political parties in Italy]]
[[Category:Politics of Italy|Politics of Italy]]
[[de:Politisches System Italiens]]
[[fr:Politique de l'Italie]]
[[lt:Italijos politinė sistema]]
[[ja:イタリアの政治]]
[[pl:Ustrój polityczny Włoch]]
[[pt:Política da Itália]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Economy of Italy</title>
<id>14702</id>
<revision>
<id>40881992</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-23T17:13:39Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>81.178.83.211</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Agriculture */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The [[Italy|Italian]] [[economic system|economy]] has changed dramatically since the end of [[World War II]]. From an agriculturally based economy, it has developed into an industrial state ranked as the world's fifth-largest economy in [[United States dollar|USD]] [[exchange rate|exchange-rate]] terms and eighth largest in terms of [[purchasing power parity]] (PPP). Italy belongs to the [[Group of Eight]] ([[G-8]]) industrialised nations; it is a member of the [[European Union]] and the [[OECD]].
Italy has few natural resources. With much of the land unsuited for [[farming]], it is a net food importer. There are no substantial deposits of [[iron]], [[coal]], or [[petroleum|oil]]. Proven [[natural gas]] reserves, mainly in the Po Valley and offshore Adriatic, have grown in recent years and constitute the country's most important [[mineral]] resource. Most raw materials needed for manufacturing and more than 80% of the country's energy sources are imported. Italy's economic strength is in the processing and the manufacturing of goods, primarily in small and medium-sized family-owned firms. Its major industries are [[precision machinery]], [[motor vehicle]]s, chemicals, [[pharmaceuticals]], electric goods, and [[fashion]] and [[clothing]].
Italy entered an economic crisis in 2004, with GDP growth at about zero, although GDP has started to grow again as of 2005. Previously, Italy's economy had accelerated from 0.7% growth in 1996 to 1.4% in [[1999]] and continued to rise to about 2.9% in [[2000]], which was closer to the EU projected growth rate of 3.1%. Domestic demand and exports were the dominant factors in GDP growth, but it nevertheless remains one of the lowest among industrialised countries. Since [[2002]], growth has gradually slowed, reaching [[recession]] conditions. [[L'Unione|The opposition]] blamed [[Silvio Berlusconi]]'s government for incompetence, especially the minister of economy [[Giulio Tremonti]]. A report of [[the Economist]], entitled ''Addio, dolce vita'' ("Farewell, dolce vita") paralleles current status of Italian economy to that of the [[Republic of Venice]] in [[1797]], a country with "many attractions" but living "a slow, long decline". The administration of the public finances is defined there as "terrific", and Italy is called "the real sick man of Europe". The government's stance has been to blame the difficulties on the international situation, especially on the [[September 11, 2001 Attacks]].
Import growth continues to outpace export growth, resulting in a trade deficit in 2000 of $1.3 billion, down from $14 billion in 1999 and $60 billion in [[1996]].
With respect to inflation of forms, Italy is now firmly within norms specified for [[Economic and Monetary Union of the European Union|Economic and Monetary Union]] (EMU), a major achievement for this historically inflation-prone country. Consumer inflation fell from 3.9% in 1996 to 1.7% in 1999 but did rise again to 2.5% in 2000. The 1992 agreement on wage adjustments, which has helped keep wage pressures on inflation low, remains in effect. Tight monetary policy by the Bank of Italy also has helped bring inflation expectations down. Since 1999, a combination of the introduction of the [[euro]] and a house price boom are blamed for a rate of inflation estimated by academics as at least 15%, although officially it is around 2.5%[http://www.newstatesman.com/People/200409200022]. Most Italians maintain that with the euro, prices doubled overnight.
Since 1992, economic policy in Italy has focused primarily on reducing government budget deficits and reining in the national debt. Successive Italian governments have adopted annual austerity budgets with cutbacks in spending, as well as new revenue raising measures. Italy has enjoyed a primary budget surplus, net of interest payments, for the last 7 years. The deficit in public administration declined to 1.4% of GDP in 2000, down from 7% in 1995. Italy joined the [[Economic and Monetary Union of the European Union|Economic and Monetary Union]] in May 1998. The national debt, which stood at roughly 124% of GDP in 1995, declined steadily until about 2002, but is raising again because of slow growth. The deficit-to-GDP ratio is likely going to be higher than the EU limit of 3.0% in [[2005]], and estimates of up to 5.1% have appeared.
Italy's closest trade ties are with the other countries of the European Union, with whom it conducts about 59% of its total trade. Italy's largest EU trade partners, in order of market share, are Germany (19%), France (13%), and the Netherlands (6%).
==Labor==
Unemployment has been steadily decreasing but remains high (8.6% in 2003, its lowest level since 1992). It is especially severe in the south, where average unemployment can exceed 20%. Women and youth have significantly higher rates of unemployment than do men. In past years, some claimed the rigid labor market was a disincentive to job creation. After a series of unpopular flexibility measures were passed, employment improved somewhat, but there have been reports of many companies abusing these measures in a series of ways, in order to force employees to work more hours than legal, and providing less secure jobs. There is a significant underground economy, especially in the south where it partially justifies the high official unemployement rate, absorbing substantial numbers of people, working for low wages and without standard social benefits and protections.
Unions claim to represent 40% of the work force. Most Italian unions are grouped in three major confederations: the [[Italian General Confederation of Labor]] (CGIL), the [[Italian Confederation of Labor Unions]] (CISL), and the [[Union of Italian Labor]] (UIL), which together claim 35% of the work force. These confederations formerly were associated with important political parties (respectively the [[Italian Communist Party]], the [[Christian Democracy (Italy)|Christian Democracy]] and the [[Italian Socialist Party]]), but they have formally terminated such ties. Nowadays, the three often coordinate their positions before confronting management or lobbying the government. The three major confederations have an important consultative role on national social and economic issues. Among their major agreements are a 4-year wage moderation agreement signed in 1993, a reform of the pension system in 1995, and an employment pact, introducing steps for labor market flexibility in economically depressed areas, in 1996. The CGIL, CISL, and UIL are affiliates of the [[International Confederation of Free Trade Unions]]. Of the three unions, CGIL is the strongest in numbers. CGIL once single-handedly organized a three-million people rally in [[Rome]].
Italy's employers are represented by [[Confindustria]], the Italian Employers' Federation.
==Industry==
Northern and Northwest Italy have traditionally made up the core of Italian industry. Key benefits include easy trade with the rest of Europe, [[hydroelectricity]] from the [[Alps]], and workable, flat land. The [[Fiat]] factory, for example, is located in [[Turin]].
==Agriculture==
The northern part of Italy pr |
cent years.
The subfamily Homininae can be further subdivided into the [[Tribe (biology)|tribes]] [[Gorillini]] (gorillas) and [[Hominini]] (chimpanzees and humans).
A ''hominin'' is a member of the tribe Hominini, a ''hominine'' is a member of the subfamily Homininae, a ''hominid'' is a member of the family Hominidae, and a ''hominoid'' is a member of the superfamily Hominoidea.
[[image:Homininae.PNG|frame|left|Hominoid family tree]]
{{Wikispecies|Homininae}}
{{Wikibookspar|Dichotomous Key|Homininae}}
[[Category:Apes]]
[[da:Abemennesker]]
[[es:Homininae]]
[[fr:Homininae]]
[[ko:사람아과]]
[[nl:Homininae]]
[[ja:ヒト亜科]]
[[pl:Homininae]]
[[sk:Hominini]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Homo habilis</title>
<id>14348</id>
<revision>
<id>42109709</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T22:05:10Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
<id>82835</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Header - references plural</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Taxobox | color = pink
| name = ''Homo habilis''
| fossil_range = [[Pliocene]]-[[Pleistocene]]
| image = Habilis skull-.jpg
| image_width = 200px
| image_caption = KNM-ER-1813
| regnum = [[Animal]]ia
| phylum = [[Chordata]]
| classis = [[Mammal]]ia
| ordo = [[Primates]]
| familia = [[Hominidae]]
| genus = ''[[Homo (genus)|Homo]]''
| species = '''''H. habilis'''''
| binomial = ''Homo habilis''
| binomial_authority = [[Louis Leakey|Leakey]] et al, [[1964]]
}}
'''''Homo habilis''''' ''«HOH moh HAB uh luhs»'' ("handy man", "skillful person") is a [[species]] of the genus ''[[Homo (genus)|Homo]]'', which lived from approximately 2.5 million to 1.8 million years ago at the beginning of the [[Pleistocene]]. The definition of this species is credited to both Mary and Louis [[Leakey]], who found fossils in [[Tanzania]], [[East Africa]], between [[1962]] and [[1964]]. ''Homo habilis'' is arguably the first species of the ''Homo'' genus to appear. In its appearance and [[morphology]], ''H. habilis'' was the least similar to modern humans of all species to be placed in the genus ''Homo'' (except possibly ''[[Homo rudolfensis]]''). ''Homo habilis'' was very short and had disproportionately long arms compared to modern man. It is thought to have probably descended from a species of [[australopithecine]] hominid. It may have had a more immediate ancestor in the form of the somewhat more massive and ape-like, ''[[Homo rudolfensis]]''. ''Homo habilis'' had a brain slightly less than half of the size of modern man. Despite the mophology of the species, ''H. habilis'' remains are usually found alongside primitive stone tools (ie. [[Olduvai Gorge]], [[Tanzania]] and [[Lake Turkana]], [[Kenya]]).
==Findings==
Anthropologist [[Richard Leakey]]’s son [[Jonathon Leakey]], unearthed an [[ape]]-like skull that shared [[human]]-like traits in 1964. The name itself, ''Homo habilis'', was originally given by [[Raymond Dart]]. One set of fossil remains (OH 62) discovered by [[Donald Johanson]] and [[Tim White (anthropologist)|Tim White]] from Olduvai Gorge in [[1986]], included important features including the upper and lower limbs of an individual. An older ([[1963]]) finding from the Olduvai site found by N. Mbuika had included a lower jaw fragment, teeth and upper mandible possibly from a female dating 1.7 million years old. The remains from 3 skeletons{{ref|skeletons}} demonstrated an australopithecine-like body yet the face was more human-like and with smaller teeth and had a larger brain size. Compared to [[australopithecine]]s, ''H. habilis'' had a 50% larger brain capacity of 590 and 650[[cc]] (considerably smaller than the 1350 to 1450cc range of modern ''[[Homo sapiens]]'' ). These hominins were small, on average standing no more than 1.3 m (4'3") tall. Due to the small size and rather primitive attributes, Richard Leakey himself previously doubted H. habilis as being a member of the genus Homo. The contraversial aspect of H. habilis was by some researchers reduced to "''Australopithecus habilis''" instead.
==Interpretations==
[[Image:habilisview.jpg|thumb|left|120px|Homo habilis reconstruction [[Huntarian Museum]] [[UK]]]]
''Homo habilis'' is thought to have mastered the [[Olduwan]] era (Early Paleolithic) tool case which utilized stone flakes. Though these stone flakes were primitive by modern standards, they were more advanced than any tools that had ever previously existed, and they gave ''H. habilis'' the edge it needed to prosper in hostile environments previously too formidable for [[primate]]s. It remains quite controversial whether ''H. habilis'' was the first hominin to master stone tool technology, the discovery of ''[[Australopithecus garhi]]'' dating 2.6 million years old has been found along with stone tool implements over 100,000 - 200,000 years older than ''H. habilis''.
In terms of social status most experts agree that the intelligence of ''H. habilis'' was more sophisticated than typical australopithecines or [[chimpanzee]]s. Yet despite its tool usage, ''H. habilis'' was not the master hunter that its descendants proved to be, as there is ample fossil evidence that ''H. habilis'' was a major staple in the diet of large predatory animals such as ''[[Dinofelis]]'', a large predatory [[Felidae|cat]] similar to a [[leopard]]. ''H. habilis'' used tools primarily for scavenging, such as cleaving meat off of carrion, rather than defence or hunting. ''Homo habilis'' is thought to be the ancestor of the lankier and more sophisticated, ''[[Homo ergaster]]'', which in turn gave rise to the more human-appearing species, ''[[Homo erectus]]''. There is some debate over whether ''H. habilis'' is a direct human ancestor, and over how many known fossils are properly attributed to the species.
''Homo habilis'' co-existed with many other ''Homo''-like bipedal primates, such as ''[[Paranthropus boisei]]'', which were also highly successful, some prospering for many millennia. However, ''H. habilis'', possibly because of its early tool innovation and a less specialized diet, became the precursor of an entire line of new species, whereas ''Paranthropus boisei'' and its [[robust australopithecine|robust relatives]] disappeared from the later fossil record.
There is large amount of controversy about the classification of ''H. habilis'' into the ''Homo'' genus. Like ''Homo rudolfensis'', ''H. habilis'' lacked many of the things that were unique only to later hominins such as slim hips for walking long distances, a sophisticated sweating system, narrow birth canal and legs longer than arms; other traits such as noticeable whites in the eyes, smaller hairs resulting in exposed skin and a naked appearance remain theoretical. Many scientists think ''H. habilis'' and its close relative ''H. rudolfensis'' to be more ape like despite their larger brains and bipedal locomotion than that of earlier species and is being re-thought on their classification into the ''Homo'' genus.
==External links==
*[http://www.mnh.si.edu/anthro/humanorigins/ha/a_tree.html Early Human Phylogeny (Smithsonian Institution)]
==References==
#{{note|skeletons}}[[BBC]] - ''Dawn of Man'' ([[2000]]) by Robin Mckie| ISBN 0-7894-6262-1
#''Early Humans'' (Roy A. Gallant)/Copyright 2000| ISBN 0-76140960-2
{{Human_Evolution}}
[[Category:early hominids]]
[[Category:Pliocene mammals]]
[[Category:Pleistocene mammals]]
[[Category:Pleistocene extinctions]]
[[ast:Homo habilis]]
[[ca:Homo habilis]]
[[cs:Homo habilis]]
[[da:Homo habilis]]
[[de:Homo habilis]]
[[et:Homo habilis]]
[[es:Homo habilis]]
[[eu:Homo habilis]]
[[fr:Homo habilis]]
[[gl:Homo habilis]]
[[ko:호모 하빌리스]]
[[it:Homo habilis]]
[[nl:Homo habilis]]
[[ja:ホモ・ハビリス]]
[[lb:Homo habilis]]
[[pl:Homo habilis]]
[[pt:Homo habilis]]
[[ru:Человек умелый]]
[[sl:Homo habilis]]
[[fi:Homo habilis]]
[[sv:Homo habilis]]
[[zh:巧人]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Harmonica</title>
<id>14349</id>
<revision>
<id>42094077</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T20:06:53Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Dismas</username>
<id>152983</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>make link direct</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Instrument
|color1=#FFD700
|color2=#FFEC8B
|name=Harmonica
|names=[[English language|en:]]&nbsp;''Harmonica''
|image=16-hole_chrom_&_10-hole_diatonic.JPG
|classification=
*[[Wind instrument|Wind]]
*[[Free reed aerophone]]
*[[Aerophone]]
|range=<small>For 64-reeds (16-holes) chromatic harmonica: C below Middle C (C) to C5; 4 octaves </small>
|related=[[accordion]], [[melodica]], [[harmonium]], [[concertina]], [[sheng]], [[reed organ]], [[Yu (wind instrument)|Yu]]
|articles=[[List of harmonicists]]
}}
{{wikibooks|Harmonica|Harmonica}}
A '''harmonica''' is a [[Free reed instrument|free reed]] musical [[wind instrument]] (also known, among other things, as a '''mouth organ''', '''French harp''', '''tin sandwich''', '''blues harp''', simply '''harp''', or "'''Mississippi saxophone'''"), having multiple, variably-tuned [[brass]] or [[bronze]] [[Reed (music)|reed]]s, each secured at one end over an airway slot of like dimension into which it can freely vibrate, thus repeatedly interrupting an airstream to produce [[sound]].
Unlike most free-reed instruments (such as [[reed organ]]s, [[accordion]]s and [[melodica]]s), the harmonica lacks a keyboard. Instead, the player selects the notes by placement of their mouth over the proper airways, usually made up of discrete holes in the front of the instrument. Each hole communicates with one, two or a few reeds. Because a reed mounted above a slot is made to vibrate more easily by air from above, reeds accessed by a mouthpiece hole often may be selected further by choice of breath direction (blowing, drawing). Some harmonicas (primarily [[#The chromatic harmonica|chromatic harmonicas]]) also |
</contributor>
<comment>/* Births */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve"><!-- Language links at bottom -->
{| style="float:right;"
|-
|{{AprilCalendar}}
|-
|{{ThisDateInRecentYears|Month=April|Day=25}}
|}
'''[[April 25]]''' is the 115th day of the year in the [[Gregorian Calendar]] (116th in [[leap year]]s). There are 250 days remaining.
==Events==
*[[1607]] - [[Eighty Years' War]]: [[Netherlands|Dutch]] fleet destroys the anchored [[Spain|Spanish]] fleet at [[Gibraltar]].
*[[1707]] - An Allied [[Austria]]n army is defeated by [[House of Bourbon|Bourbon]] army at [[Battle of Almansa|Almansa]] ([[Spain]]) in the [[War of the Spanish Succession]].
*[[1719]] - ''[[Robinson Crusoe]]'' by [[Daniel Defoe]] is published.
*[[1792]] - [[Highwayman]] [[Nicolas J. Pelletier]] becomes the first person executed by [[guillotine]].
*1792 - "[[La Marseillaise]]" ([[France|French]] [[national anthem]]) is composed by [[Claude Joseph Rouget de Lisle]].
*[[1846]] - [[Thornton Affair]]: Open conflict begins over the disputed border of [[Texas]], triggering the [[Mexican-American War]].
*[[1847]] - The last survivors of the are out of the wilderness. See [[Donner Party]] for basic story and commentary on cannibalism; see [[Donner Party timeline]] for detailed chronology.
*[[1849]] - The [[Governor General of Canada]], [[Lord Elgin]], signs the [[Rebellion Losses Bill]], outraging [[Montreal]]'s [[English-Canadian|English]] population and triggering the [[Montreal Riots]].
*[[1859]] - Ground is broken for the [[Suez Canal]].
*[[1862]] - [[American Civil War]]: Forces under [[United States|Union]] Admiral [[David Farragut]] capture the [[Confederate States of America|Confederate]] city of [[New Orleans, Louisiana]].
*[[1864]] - American Civil War: [[Battle of Mark's Mills]] &ndash; [[Confederate States of America|Confederate]] forces seize a [[United States|Union]] wagon supply train on its way to [[Camden, Arkansas]] forcing Union General [[Frederick Steele]] to withdraw his troops to [[Little Rock, Arkansas]].
*[[1881]] - [[Caulfield Grammar School]] is founded in [[Melbourne]], [[Australia]].
*[[1898]] - [[Spanish-American War]]: The [[United States]] declares war on [[Spain]].
*[[1901]] - [[New York]] becomes the first U.S. state to require [[automobile]] [[license plate]]s.
*[[1915]] - The [[ANZAC]] tradition begins during [[World War I]] with a landing at [[Gallipoli]] on the [[Turkey|Turkish]] coast.
*[[1916]] - [[Easter Rebellion]]: The [[United Kingdom]] declares [[martial law]] in [[Ireland]].
*1916 - [[ANZAC Day]] commemorated for the first time.
*[[1926]] - Reza Khan is crowned [[Shah of Iran]] under the name [[Reza Pahlavi]].
*[[1938]] - [[U.S. Supreme Court]] delivers opinion in ''[[Erie Railroad Co. v. Tompkins]]'' and overturns a century of federal common law.
*[[1940]] - The Faroese flag [[Merkið]] is made the official flag for the [[Faroe Islands]].
*[[1943]] - The [[Demyansk Shield]] for German troops in commemoration of [[Demyansk Pocket]] was instituted.
*[[1944]] - The [[United Negro College Fund]] is incorporated.
*[[1945]] - [[Elbe Day]]: [[United States]] and [[Russia]]n troops meet in [[Torgau]] along the River [[Elbe]], cutting the ''[[Wehrmacht]]'' of [[Nazi Germany]] in two, a milestone in the approaching [[end of World War II in Europe]].
*1945 - Fifty nations gather in [[San Francisco]], [[California]] to begin the [[United Nations]] Conference on International Organizations.
*[[1953]] - [[Francis Crick]] and [[James D. Watson]] publish ''Molecular structure of nucleic acids: a structure for deoxyribose nucleic acid'' describing the [[double helix]] structure of [[DNA]].
*[[1959]] - The [[St. Lawrence Seaway]], linking the North American [[Great Lakes (North America)|Great Lakes]] and the [[Atlantic Ocean]], officially opens to [[shipping]].
<!-- drop the AIDS patient zero item because the original 1990 report was updated in 1995 to
point out that the virus detected in the patient's tissue from 1959 was a strain from
1990. The whole thing seems too tentative to include.
*1959 - David Carr, a 25-year-old Briton, enters [[Royal Manchester Infirmary]] in England. His death later that year was in 1990 attributed to [[AIDS]] by a director at the infirmary, [[Gerald Corbitt]]; a 1995 by Corbitt cowrote an update noting that the virus was from 1990.
-->
*[[1961]] - [[Robert Noyce]] is granted a [[patent]] for an [[integrated circuit]].
*[[1972]] - [[Vietnam War]]: [[Nguyen Hue Offensive]] &ndash; The [[North Vietnam]]ese 320th Division forces 5,000 [[South Vietnam]]ese troops to retreat and traps about 2,500 others northwest of [[Kontum]].
*[[1974]] - [[Carnation Revolution]]: A [[coup]] in [[Portugal]] restores [[democracy]].
*[[1975]] - As [[North Vietnamese Army|North Vietnamese]] forces close in on the [[South Vietnam]]ese capital [[Saigon]], the [[Australia]]n Embassy is closed and evacuated, almost ten years to the day since the first Australian troop commitment to South Vietnam.
*[[1981]] - More than 100 workers are exposed to radiation during repairs of a [[nuclear power plant]] in [[Tsuruga, Fukui|Tsuruga]], [[Japan]].
*[[1982]] - [[Israel]] completes its withdrawal from the [[Sinai peninsula]] per the [[Camp David Accords]].
*[[1983]] - [[United States|American]] schoolgirl [[Samantha Smith]] is invited to visit the [[Soviet Union]] by its leader [[Yuri Andropov]] after he read her letter in which she expressed fears about [[nuclear war]].
*1983 - [[Pioneer 10]] travels beyond [[Pluto (planet)|Pluto]]'s [[orbit]].
*[[1988]] - In [[Israel]], [[John Demjanuk]] is sentenced to death for [[war crime]]s committed in [[World War II]]. He was accused of being a notorious guard at the [[Treblinka extermination camp]] known as "Ivan the Terrible" by survivors.
*[[1989]] - [[James Richardson]] is freed from a [[Florida]] prison 21 years after being wrongfully convicted of the murder of his seven children.
*[[1993]] - 300,000 [[homosexuality|gay, lesbian, transgender, and allied activists]] march on [[Washington, DC]] demanding freedom from [[discrimination]].
*[[2005]] - The final piece of the [[Obelisk of Axum]] is returned to [[Ethiopia]] after being stolen by the invading [[Italy|Italian]] army in [[1937]].
* 2005 - [[Bulgaria]] and [[Romania]] sign ascession treaties gaining entrance into the [[European Union]].
* [[2005]] - 107 die in [[Amagasaki rail crash]] in [[Japan]].
==Births==
*[[32]] - Marcus Salvius [[Otho]], [[Roman Emperor]] (d. [[69]])
*[[1214]] - King [[Louis IX of France]] (d. [[1270]])
*[[1228]] - [[Conrad IV of Germany]] (d. [[1254]])
*[[1284]] - King [[Edward II of England]] (d. [[1327]])
*[[1287]] - [[Roger de Mortimer, 1st Earl of March]], de factor ruler of England (d. [[1330]])
*[[1502]] - [[Georg Major]], German protestant theologian (d. [[1574]])
*[[1545]] - [[Yi Sun Shin]], Korean admiral (d. [[1598]])
*[[1599]] - [[Oliver Cromwell]], English statesman (d. [[1658]])
*[[1608]] - [[Gaston, Duke of Orléans]], French politician (d. [[1660]])
*[[1621]] - [[Roger Boyle, 1st Earl of Orrery]], British soldier, statesman, and dramatist (d. [[1679]])
*[[1694]] - [[Richard Boyle, 3rd Earl of Burlington]], English architect (d. [[1753]])
*[[1710]] - [[James Ferguson (1710-1776)|James Ferguson]], Scottish astronomer (d. [[1776]])
*[[1725]] - [[Augustus Keppel, 1st Viscount Keppel]], British admiral (d. [[1786]])
*[[1767]] - [[Nicolas Oudinot]], French marshal (d. [[1847]])
*[[1770]] - [[Georg Sverdrup]], Norwegian philologist (d. [[1850]])
*[[1849]] - [[Felix Klein]], German mathematician (d. [[1925]])
*[[1874]] - [[Guglielmo Marconi]], Italian inventor, recipient of the [[Nobel Prize in Physics]] (d. [[1937]])
*[[1900]] - [[Wolfgang Ernst Pauli]], Austrian-born physicist, [[Nobel Prize in Physics|Nobel Prize]] laureate (d. [[1958]])
*[[1902]] - [[Werner Heyde]], German psychiatrist (d. [[1964]])
*[[1903]] - [[Andrey Nikolayevich Kolmogorov]], Russian mathematician (d. [[1987]])
*[[1906]] - [[William J. Brennan]], U.S. Supreme Court Justice (d. [[1997]])
*[[1908]] - [[Edward R. Murrow]], American journalist (d. [[1965]])
*[[1909]] - [[William Pereira]], American architect (d. [[1985]])
*[[1911]] - [[Jack Ruby]], American assassin (d. [[1967]])
*[[1914]] - [[Ross Lockridge, Jr.]], American writer (d. [[1948]])
*[[1917]] - [[Ella Fitzgerald]], American singer (d. [[1996]])
*[[1918]] - [[Gerard Henri de Vaucouleurs]], French astronomer (d. [[1995]])
*[[1921]] - [[Karel Appel]], Dutch painter
*[[1923]] - [[Albert King]], American musician
*[[1925]] - [[Sammy Drechsel]], German journalist, film director, and cabaret performer (d. [[1986]])
* 1925 - [[Kay E. Kuter]], American actor (d. [[2003]])
*[[1927]] - [[Albert Uderzo]], French cartoonist
*[[1930]] - [[Paul Mazursky]], American film director and writer
*[[1932]] - [[Meadlowlark Lemon]], American basketball player
*[[1933]] - [[Jerry Leiber]], American composer
*[[1934]] - [[Peter McParland]], Northern Irish footballer
*[[1940]] - [[Al Pacino]], American actor
*[[1945]] - [[Björn Ulvaeus]], Swedish singer and songwriter ([[ABBA]])
*[[1946]] - [[Talia Shire]], American actress
*1946 - [[Vladimir Zhirinovsky]], Russian politician
*[[1947]] - [[Johann Cruyff]], Dutch footballer
*[[1949]] - [[Vicente Pernía]], Argentine footballer
*[[1950]] - [[Steve Ferrone]], British drummer
*[[1952]] - [[Ketil Bjørnstad]], Norwegian pianist
*[[1952]] - [[Vladislav Tretiak]], Soviet Union Ice Hockey Goalie from 1972-1984
*[[1960]] - [[Bruce Redman]], Australian Film Producer
*[[1964]] - [[Hank Azaria]], American actor
*[[1964]] - [[Andy Bell (singer)|Andy Bell]], British singer and songwriter (band [[Erasure]])
*[[1965]] - [[Eric Avery]], American musician ([[Jane's Addiction]])
*[[1969]] - [[Joe Buck]], baseball and American football broadcaster
*1969 - [[Darren Woodson]], American football player
*1969 - [[Renée Zellweger]], American actress
*[[1970]] |
om/tgbs/K/Knoxville_girl.html] with the setting transposed from Ireland to Tennessee.
==Border ballads==
[[Border ballads]] are a subgenre of folk ballads collected in the area along the [[England|Anglo]]-[[Scotland|Scottish]] border, especially those concerned with [[border reivers]] and [[outlaw]]s, or with historical events in the [[Border country|Borders]].
Notable historical ballads include "[[The Battle of Otterburn]]" and
"The Hunting of Cheviot" or "[[The Ballad of Chevy Chase]]".
Outlaw ballads include "[[Johnnie Armstrong]]", "[[Kinmont Willie]]", and "[[Jock o' the Side]]".
Other types of ballads (including fairy ballads like "[[Thomas the Rhymer]]") are often included in the category of border ballads.
==Literary ballads==
Literary ballads are those composed and written formally. The form, with its connotations of simple folkloric authenticity, became popular with the rise of [[Romanticism]] in the later 18th century. Literary ballads may then be set to music, as [[Franz Schubert|Schubert]]'s ''[[Der Erlkönig]]'', set to a literary ballad by [[Johann Wolfgang von Goethe|Goethe]] (see also ''[[Der Zauberlehrling]]''). In [[Romantic opera]] a ballad set into the musical texture may emphasize or play against the theatrical moment. Atmospheric ballads in operas were initiated in [[Carl Maria von Weber|Weber]]'s ''[[Der Freischutz| Der Freischütz]]'' and include Senta's ballad in [[Richard Wagner|Wagner]]'s ''[[Fliegender Holländer]]'', or the 'old song' 'Salce' [[Desdemona (Othello)|Desdemona]] sings in [[Giuseppe Verdi|Verdi]]'s ''[[Otello]]''. Compare the stanza-like structure and narrative atmosphere of the musical '''[[Ballades]]''' for solo piano of [[Frédéric Chopin|Chopin]] or [[Johannes Brahms|Brahms]].
==Ballad opera==
A particularly English form, the ballad opera, has as its most famous example [[John Gay]]'s ''[[The Beggar's Opera]],'' which inspired the 20th-century cabaret operas of [[Bertolt Brecht]] and [[Kurt Weill]] (''q.v.''). Ballad strophs usually alternate between iambic tetrameter and iambic pentameter, though this is not always the case.
==Jazz ballad==
The jazz ballad is a sentimental narrative [[Tempo|adagio]] akin to a [[blues]] song. The regrets of love gone wrong provide the elements of the ballad called a '[[torch song]].' By extension, any popular song with a slow beat is termed a 'ballad.' In modern music, a song called a ballad is one which tells a story but may not follow any of the other conventions. Many styles of music such as [[Rock and roll|rock]], [[pop music|pop]], and [[country music|country]] label some songs as ballads. See also [[blues ballad]].
==Power ballad==
See also [[Power ballad]]. Not really a ballad at all but a love song performed using rock instruments.
==Famous ballads==
*Traditional
**[[Ballad of Jesse James]]
**[[Ballad of Chevy Chase]]
**[[Barbara Allen]]
**[[The Battle of New Orleans]]
**[[The Battle of Harlaw]]
**[[The Battle of Otterburn]]
**[[Black is the Color of My True Love's Hair]]
**[[The Cruel Brother]]
**[[Golden Vanity]]
**[[The Great Silkie of Sule Skerry]]
**[[The Greensleeves]] ([[Greensleeves]])
**[[Henry Martin]]
**[[John Barleycorn]]
**[[Johnny Has Gone For A Soldier]]
**[[Lady Isabel and the Elf Knight]]
**[[Lord Randall]]
**[[Lovely Joan]]
**[[Lyke-Wake Dirge]]
**[[Mary Tamlin]]
**[[The Mines of Avondale]]
**"[[Molly and Tenbrooks]]" (aka "The Racehorse Song")
**[[Shenandoah (song)|Shenandoah]]
**Many ballads of [[Robin Hood]]
**[[The Scarborough Fair]] ([[Scarborough Fair]])
**[[Sir Patrick Spens]]
**[[Tam Lin]]
**[[The Three Ravens]]
**[[Thomas the Rhymer]]
**[[The Gypsie Laddie]]
**[[Verner Raven]] - oldest Scandinavian ballad with music
*Modern
**[[American Pie (song)|American Pie]]
**[[The Wreck of the Edmund Fitzgerald]]
**[[Frankie and Johnny]]
**[[House of the Rising Sun]]
**[[The Devil Went Down to Georgia]]
**[[Ballad of the Alamo]]
**[[Ballad of the Green Berets]]
**[[Ballad of Davy Crockett]]
**[[Where Were You? (When The World Stopped Turning)]]
**[[The Ballad of Bilbo Baggins]]
**[[Morning Bell (song)|Morning Bell]]
**[[The Ballad of John and Yoko]]
**[[Hotel California (song)|Hotel California]]
**[[Taxi Driver (song)|Taxi Driver]]
**[[Tribute (song)|Tribute]]
**[[Going to California]]
== External Resources ==
*[http://www.bodley.ox.ac.uk/ballads/ballads.htm The Bodleian Library Ballad Collection: view facsimiles of printed ballads]
*[http://www.csufresno.edu/folklore/BalladSearch.html The Traditional Ballad Index]
*[http://www.ericzorn.com/music/murder/ Murder Ballads]
*[http://mysongbook.de/msb/songlist.html English and some German ballads]
*[http://www.contemplator.com/ Folk Music, Child Ballads, Popular Songs In American History, Sea Shanties etc.]
== See also ==
* [[Child ballads]]
* [[Francis James Child]]
* [[Alfred Perceval Graves|Graves, Alfred Perceval]]
[[Category:Ballads| ]]
[[Category:Poetic form]]
[[Category:Song forms]]
[[Category:Folk music]]
<!-- [[Category:Musical forms]] redundant -->
[[cs:Balada]]
[[cy:Baled]]
[[da:Ballade]]
[[de:Ballade]]
[[fr:Ballade]]
[[gl:Balada]]
[[he:בלדה]]
[[nl:Ballade]]
[[ja:バラード]]
[[pl:Ballada]]
[[ps:Ballada]]
[[pt:Balada]]
[[ro:Baladă]]
[[sk:Balada]]
[[sl:Balada]]
[[fi:Balladi]]
[[sv:Ballad]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Bravo Zulu</title>
<id>4578</id>
<revision>
<id>15902840</id>
<timestamp>2005-04-15T05:22:14Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Bobo192</username>
<id>97951</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Piping</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Bravo Zulu''' is a [[Navy|naval]] signal, conveyed by flaghoist or voice radio, meaning "well done"; it has also passed into the spoken and written vocabulary. It can be combined with the "negative" signal, spoken or written NEGAT, to say "NEGAT Bravo Zulu," or "not well done."
There are some myths and legends attached to this signal. The one most frequently heard has Admiral "Bull" [[William Halsey, Jr|Halsey]] sending it to ships of Task Force 38 during [[World War II]]. He could not have done this, since the signal did not exist at that time.
"Bravo Zulu" actually comes from the [[Allied Naval Signal Book]] (ACP 175 series), an international naval signal code adopted after the [[North Atlantic Treaty Organization]] (NATO) was created in [[1949]]. Until then, each navy had used its own signal code and operational manuals. World War II experience had shown that it was difficult, or even impossible, for ships of different navies to operate together unless they could readily communicate, and ACP 175 was designed to remedy this.
In the [[United States Navy|U.S. Navy]] signal code, used before ACP 175, "well done" was signaled as TVG, or "Tare Victor George" in the U.S. phonetic alphabet of that time. ACP 175 was organized in the general manner of other signal books, that is, starting with 1-flag signals, then 2-flag and so on. The 2-flag signals were organized by general subject, starting with AA, AB, AC, ... AZ, BA, BB, BC, ... BZ, and so on. The B- signals were called "Administrative" signals, and dealt with miscellaneous matters of administration and housekeeping. The last signal on the "Administrative" page was BZ, standing for "well done."
At that time BZ was not rendered as "Bravo Zulu," but in each navy's particular phonetic alphabet. In the U.S. Navy, BZ was spoken as "Baker Zebra." In the meanwhile, the [[International Civil Aviation Organization]] (ICAO) had adopted English as the international air traffic control language. They developed a [[Nato phonetic alphabet|phonetic alphabet]] for international aviation use, designed to be as "pronounceable" as possible by flyers and traffic controllers speaking many different languages. This was the "Alpha, Bravo, Charlie, Delta..." alphabet used today. The Navy adopted this ICAO alphabet in March [[1956]]. It was then that "Baker Zebra" finally became "Bravo Zulu."</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Blue Öyster Cult</title>
<id>4579</id>
<revision>
<id>41072887</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-24T21:53:37Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Jimjoe</username>
<id>41511</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_band |
band_name = Blue Öyster Cult |
image = [[Image:Blue_oyster_cult_8x10.jpg|240px]] |
years_active = [[1960s]]&ndash;present |
status = Active |
origin = [[Long Island]], [[New York]] |
country = [[United States]] |
music_genre = [[Psychedelic rock|Psychedelic]]<br />[[Heavy metal music|Heavy metal]] |
record_label = [[Columbia Records]] |
current_members = [[Eric Bloom]]<br/>[[Buck Dharma]]<br/>[[Allen Lanier]]<br/>[[Richie Castellano]]<br />[[Jules Rodino]] | }}
'''Blue Öyster Cult''' is a [[psychedelic rock|psychedelic]]/[[Heavy metal music|heavy metal]] band probably best known for two songs: their [[1976]] single "[[(Don't Fear) The Reaper]]" from the album ''[[Agents of Fortune]]'' (also featured in the cult movie ''[[Halloween (film)|Halloween]]'', and in [[Stephen King]]'s [[novel]] [[The Stand]]), and their [[1981]] single "Burnin' for You" from the album ''[[Fire of Unknown Origin]]''. Their song "Veteran of the Psychic Wars," with lyrics penned by [[Michael Moorcock]], appeared in the soundtrack of the movie ''[[Heavy Metal (film)|Heavy Metal]]''. Two other well-known songs are "Godzilla" ([[1977]]) from ''[[Spectres (album)|Spectres]]'', and "Astronomy" ([[1973]]) from ''[[Secret Treaties]]''; the latter was covered by [[Metallica]] on [[1998]]'s |
good]]s theory.
=== Scarcity ===
''Main article: [[Scarcity]]''
Scarcity is central to economic theory, known more commonly as the [[Economic Problem]], or Basic Economic Problem. Economic analysis is fundamentally about the maximization of something (leisure time, wealth, health, happiness - all commonly reduced to the concept of [[utility]]) subject to constraints. These constraints - or scarcity - inevitably define a trade-off. For example, one can have more money by working harder, but less time (there are only so many hours in a day, so time is scarce). One can have more radishes only at the expense of, for example, fewer carrots (you only have so much land on which to grow food - land is scarce).
Scarcity is defined as: when the price is zero, the quantity demanded exceeds the quantity supplied. Price is a measure of relative scarcity. When the price is rising, the commodity is becoming relatively scarcer. When the price is falling, the commodity is becoming relatively less scarce.
Adam Smith considered, for example, the trade-off between time, or convenience, and money. He discussed how a person could live near town, and pay more for rent of his home, or live farther away and pay less, "paying the difference out of his convenience".
[[Image:NYSE-floor.jpg|thumb|right|140px| [[Trade]]s on the floor of the [[New York Stock Exchange]] always involve a face-to-face interaction. There is one podium/desk on the trading floor for each of the exchange's three thousand or so [[stock]]s.]]
=== Marginalism ===
''Main article: [[marginalism]]''
In [[marginalism|marginalist economic theory]], the price level is determined by the [[marginal cost]] and [[marginal utility]]. The price of all goods will be the cost of making the last one that people will purchase, and the price of all the employees in a company will be the cost of hiring the last one the business needs. Marginalism looks at decisions based on "the margins", what the cost to produce the next unit is, versus how much it is expected to return in profit. When the marginal return of an action reaches zero, the action stops. Marginal utility is how much more happiness or use a person receives from a purchase in contrast with buying less. Marginal rewards are often subject to [[diminishing returns]]: Less reward is obtained from more production or consumption. For example, the 10th bar of chocolate that a person consumes does not taste as good as the first, and so brings less marginal utility.
Marginalism became increasingly important in economic theory in the late 19th century, and is a tool which is used to analyze how economic systems will react. Marginal cost of production divides [[cost]]s into "fixed" costs which must be paid regardless of how many of a commodity are produced, and "variable costs". The marginal cost is the variable cost of the last unit. Marginalism states that when the profit from the next unit will be zero, that unit will not be produced.
The marginalist theory of price level runs counter to the classical theory of price being determined by the amount of labour congealed in a commodity.
=== Value ===
It could be argued that beneath an economic theory is a theory of [[value (economics)|value]]. Value can be defined as the underlying activity which economics describes and measures. It is what is "really" happening.
[[Image:Us-gold-certificate-1922.jpg|thumb|200px|left|[[Representative money]] like this [[1922]] [[United States|US]] $100 gold note could be exchanged by the bearer for its face value in [[gold]].]]
Adam Smith defined "labour" as the underlying source of value, and "the [[labor theory of value]]" underlies the work of [[Karl Marx]], [[David Ricardo]] and many other classical economists. The "labour theory of value" argues that a good or service is worth the labour that it takes to produce. For most, this value determines a commodity's price. This labour theory of price and the closely related [[cost-of-production theory of value]] dominates the work of most classical economists, but those theories are far from the only accepted basis for "value". For example, [[neoclassical economics|neoclassical]] economists and [[Austrian School]] economists prefer the [[marginal theory of value]].
"Market theory" argues that there is no "value" separate from price, that the market incorporates all available information into price, and that so long as markets are open, that price and the value are one and the same. This theory rests on the idea of the "rational economic actor". This was originally asserted by Mill.
Another set of theories rest on the idea that there is a basic external scarcity, and that "value" represents the relationship to that basic scarcity (or lack thereof). These theories include those based on economics being limited by energy or based on a "gold standard".
All of these value theories are used in current economic work.
== Economic language and reasoning ==
Economics relies on rigorous styles of argument. Economic methodology has several interacting parts:
* Collection of economic data. These data consist of measurable values of price and changes in price, for measurable commodities. For example: the cost to hire a worker for a week, or the cost of a particular commodity, and how much is typically used.
* Formulation of [[model (economics)|models]] of economic relationships, for example, the relationship between the general level of prices and the general level of employment. This includes observable forms of economic activity, such as [[money]], consumption, preferences, buying, selling, and prices. Some of the models are simple [[accounting]] models, while others postulate specific kinds of economic behavior, such as utility or profit maximization. An example of a model that illustrates both of these aspects is the classical mathematical formulation of the [[Keynesian]] system involving the [[consumption function]] and the [[national income]] identity. This article will refer to such models as ''formal models'', although they are not formal in the sense of [[formal logic]].
* Production of economic statistics. Taking the data collected, and applying the model being used to produce a representation of economic activity. For example, the "general price level" is a theoretical idea common to macroeconomic models. The specific inflation rate involves taking measurable prices, and a model of how people consume, and calculating what the "general price level" is from the data within the model. For example, suppose that diesel fuel costs 1 euro a litre: To calculate the price level would require a model of how much diesel an average person uses, and what fraction of their income is devoted to this &mdash;but it also requires having a model of how people use diesel, and what other goods they might substitute for it.
* Reasoning within economic models. This process of reasoning (see the articles on [[informal logic]], [[logical argument]], [[fallacy]]) sometimes involves advanced mathematics. For instance, an established (though possibly unexamined) tradition among economists is to reason about economic variables in two-dimensional graphs in which curves representing relations between the axis variables are parameterized by various indices. A good example of this type of reasoning is exhibited by [[Paul Krugman]]'s online essay, ''There's something about macro''. See also the article [[IS/LM model]]. One critical analysis of economic reasoning is studied in [[Paul Samuelson]]'s thesis, ''Foundations of Economic Analysis'': he identifies a class of assertions called ''operationally meaningful theorems'' which are those that can be meaningfully formulated within an economic model. As usual in science, the conclusions obtained by reasoning have a [[predictive power|predictive]] as well as confirmative (or dismissive) value. An example of the predictive value of economic theory is a prediction as to the effect of current deficits on interest rates 10 years into the future. An example of the confirmative value of economic theory would be confirmation (or dismissal) of theories concerning the relation between marginal tax rates and the deficit.
Formal modelling is motivated by general principles of consistency and completeness.
Formal modelling has been adapted to some extent by all branches of economics. It is not identical to what is often referred to as [[mathematical economics]]; this includes, but is not limited to, an attempt to set [[microeconomics]], in particular general equilibrium, on solid [[mathematics|mathematical]] foundations. Some reject mathematical economics: The [[Austrian School]] of economics believes that anything beyond simple logic is often unnecessary and inappropriate for economic analysis. In fact, the entire empirical-deductive framework sketched in this section may be rejected outright by that school. However, the framework sketched here accurately represents the current predominant view of economics.
== Development of economic thought ==
[[image:Adam_Smith.jpg|thumb|Adam Smith]]
''Main article: [[History of economic thought]]''.
The term ''[[economics]]'' was coined around [[1870]] and popularized by influential "neoclassical" economists such as [[Alfred Marshall]] <!--the following is, at the very least, a link to a terribly titled article. Can someone please sort this out?-->([[Welfare definition]]), as a substitute for the earlier term [[political economy]], which referred to "the economy of polities" &ndash; competing [[state]]s. The term ''political economy'' was used through the 18th and 19th centuries, with [[Adam Smith]], [[David Ricardo]] and [[Karl Marx]] as its main thinkers and which today is frequently referred to as the "classical" economic theory. Both &qu |
her city is built.
Should Catan prevail, the player who contribute the most to Catan's defense receives a special ''Defender of Catan'' card, worth an extra victory point. Regardless of the outcome, all knights are immediately deactivated, and the barbarian ship returns to its starting point on the track.
As the likelihood of having the barbarian move closer to Catan is very likely, under ''Cities and Knights'' the robber (and with ''Seafarers'', the pirate) does not move until the first barbarian attack, nor can a knight move the robber before that point.
== Progress cards ==
The other significant function of the event die concerns itself with Progress cards, which replace development cards. Because of the mechanics of progress cards explained below, one of the two white dice used in ''Settlers'' is replaced by a red die.
Progress cards are organized into three categories, corresponding to the three types of improvements. When a castle appears on the event die, progress cards of the corresponding type may be drawn depending on the value of the red die. Higher levels of improvements will allow for a greater likelihood that progress cards will be drawn, with the highest level of improvement allowing progress cards to be drawn regardless of the value on the red die.
Progress cards, unlike the development cards they replace, can be played on the turn that they are drawn, and more than one progress card can be played per turn. With the exception of two types of progress cards, however, they can only be played after the dice are rolled. Progress cards granting victory points are played immediately (without regards to whose turn it is), while the Alchemist progress card, which allows a player to predetermine the roll of the white and red dice, necessitates the card being played before rolling the dice.
Players are allowed to keep a total of four progress cards (five in a five to six player game), and any additional ones must be discarded on the spot or (if it is the player's turn) played.
In the event of a failed barbarian attack and there is a tie among the greatest contributors, none of the tied players earn a ''Defender of Catan'' card, with each of the tied players drawing a progress card of the type of their choosing instead. Similarly, if there are no ''Defender of Catan'' cards remaining, a progress card is drawn instead.
== City walls ==
City walls are a minor addition to ''Cities and Knights'', which serve to increase the number of resource and commodity cards a player is allowed in their hand before having to discard on a roll of 7. Only cities and metropolises may have walls, and each city or metropolis can only have one wall. Should a city be reduced to a settlement, the walls are also removed.
== The Merchant ==
The merchant is another addition to ''Cities and Knights''. Like the robber, the merchant is placed on a single land hex. Unlike the robber, the merchant has a beneficial effect.
The merchant can only be deployed through the use of a Merchant progress card (of which there are six), on a land hex near a city or a settlement. The player with the control of the merchant can trade the resource (not commodity) of that type at a two-to-one rate, as if the player had a control of a corresponding two-to-one harbor. The player with the control of the merchant also earns a victory point. Both the victory point and the trade privilege are lost if another player takes control of the merchant.
The rules are ambiguous as to whether the merchant and the robber can be placed on the same hex, and if so, whether having the robber on the same hex as the merchant disables the trading privilege or the victory point. When played with ''Seafarers'', the rules are also ambiguous as to whether the merchant can be played on a Gold River hex, and if so, whether two resources of different types may be traded.
== See also ==
* [[Settlers of Catan]]
* [[Seafarers of Catan]]
[[Category:Settlers of Catan]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Seafarers of Catan</title>
<id>9086</id>
<revision>
<id>41853435</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T03:58:23Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>That Guy, From That Show!</username>
<id>419920</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>migrate {{web reference}} (deprecated) to {{[[template:cite web|cite web]]}} using [[Wikipedia:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''''The Seafarers of Catan''''' ([[German language|German]]: ''Die Seefahrer von Catan'') is an expansion of the [[board game]] ''[[Settlers of Catan]]'' for three to four players (five to six player play is also possible with both of the respective five to six player expansions). The main feature of this expansion is the addition of ships to the game, allowing play between multiple islands. The expansion also provides numerous scenarios, some of which having custom rules. The ''Seafarers'' rules and scenarios are also, for the most part, compatible with the ''[[Cities and Knights of Catan]]'' expansion.
''Seafarers'' was originally intended for the ''Settlers'' proper.
== Ships ==
''Seafarers'' introduce the concept of ships, which serve as roads over water or along the coast. However, a chain of ships must be anchored at a settlement on the coast. A shipping line that is not anchored at both ends can also move the last ship at the open end, although this can only be done once per turn.
Along with the concept of ships, ''Seafarers'' also introduces the notion of the pirate, which acts as a waterborne robber which steals from nearby ships (similar to how the robber steals from nearby settlements). The pirate can also prevent ships from being built or moved nearby. However, the rules are ambiguous as to whether the pirate disables the usage of harbors.
== Gold Rivers ==
''Seafarers'' also introduces the "Gold River" terrain, which grant nearby users one resource of the player's choosing if a player has a settlement nearby. However, when combined with ''Cities and Knights'', the rules are ambiguous as to whether commodities are collected along with resources if a city is nearby, and whether the player can choose a commodity instead of a resource.
== Exploration ==
Many of the provided scenarios have extra rules encompassing the concept of exploration, with is done by having the hex tiles placed face down. Should a player builds next to unexplored terrain, the terrain tile is turned face up, and the player is rewarded with a resource should the tile revealed be resource-producing. In other scenarios, the board is divided into islands, and if the player builds a settlement on an island other than the ones they begin on, the settlement is worth extra victory points.
''Cities and Knights'' users are recommended in the ''Cities and Knights'' manual to not use the ''Cities and Knights'' rules in scenarios where exploration is a factor.
==See also==
*[[Settlers of Catan]]
*[[Cities and Knights of Catan]]
==References==
{{cite web|title=University Of Catan: Seafarers Of Catan|url=http://www.universityofcatan.com/soc-games/soce.html|accessdate=2006-02-09}}
[[Category:Settlers of Catan]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Dynamical system</title>
<id>9087</id>
<revision>
<id>42091498</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T19:46:44Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Bluemoose</username>
<id>178836</id>
</contributor>
<comment>converting HTML to wiki markup using [[Wikipedia:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">A '''dynamical system''' is a concept in [[mathematics]] where a fixed rule describes the time dependence of a point in a geometrical space. The [[mathematical model]]s used to describe the swinging of a clock pendulum, the flow of water in a pipe, or the number of fish each spring in a lake are examples of dynamical systems.
A dynamical system has a ''state'' determined by a collection of [[real numbers]]. Small changes in the state of the system correspond to small changes in the numbers. The numbers are also the coordinates of a geometrical space&mdash;a [[manifold]]. The ''evolution rule'' of the dynamical system is a [[function (mathematics)|fixed rule]] that describes what future states follow from the current state. The rule is [[deterministic]]: for a given time interval only one future state follows from the current state.
== Overview ==
The concept of dynamical system has its origins in Newtonian [[mechanics]]. There, as in other natural sciences and engineering disciplines, the evolution rule of dynamical systems is given implicitly by a relation that gives the state of the system only a short time into the future. (The relation is either a [[differential equation]] or [[Recurrence relation|difference equation]].) To determine the state for all future times requires iterating the relation many times&mdash;each advancing time a small step. The iteration procedure is referred to as ''solving the system'' or ''integrating the system''. Once the system can be solved, given an initial point it is possible to determine all its future points, a collection known as a ''trajectory'' or ''[[orbit (dynamics)|orbit]]''.
Before the advent of [[computer|fast computing machines]], solving a dynamical system required sophisticated mathematical techniques and could only be accomplished for a small class of dynamical systems. Numerical methods executed on computers have simplified the task of determining the orbits of a dynamical system.
For simple dynamical system, knowing the trajectory is often sufficient, but most dynamical systems are too complicated to be understood in terms of individual trajectories. The difficulties arise because:
* The systems studied may only be known approximately&mdash;the parameters of the system may not be known precisely or terms may be m |
he war progressed. It conducted strategic bombing using [[Tupolev Tu-16]] Badgers. Its fighters included the [[Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-21]], later supplemented by large purchases of [[Sukhoi Su-17|Sukhoi Su-22]]s and French [[Dassault Mirage F1]]s. It also deployed the Anglo-French [[Aérospatiale Gazelle]] attack helicopter and the [[Exocet]] antiship missile.[http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/iraq/airforce.htm]
===U.S.-Iraqi arms transfers in the war===
[[image:Saddam_rumsfeld.jpg|thumb|right|[[Donald Rumsfeld]] meeting Saddām on [[19 December]] – [[20 December]] [[1983]]. Rumsfeld visited again on [[24 March]] [[1984]]; the same day the UN released a report that Iraq had used [[Mustard gas|mustard]] and [[Tabun (nerve gas)|Tabun]] nerve gas against Iranian troops. The ''NY Times'' reported from Baghdad on [[29 March]] [[1984]], that "American diplomats pronounce themselves satisfied with Iraq and the U.S., and suggest that normal diplomatic ties have been established in all but name." [http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB82/ NSA Archive Source] ]]
Western support for Iraq during the Iran-Iraq war has clearly been established. It is no secret that the [[United States]], the [[Soviet Union]], [[West Germany]], [[France]], many western companies, and [[United Kingdom|Britain]] provided military support and even components of Iraq's Weapons of Mass Destruction program. The role the United States played in the war against Iran however, although present to some degree, is not as well known.
After the revolution, with the Ayatollahs in power and levels of enmity between Iran and the U.S. running high, early on during the Iran-Iraq war, [[realpolitik]]ers in Washington came to the conclusion that Saddām was the lesser of the two evils, and hence efforts to support Iraq became the order of the day, both during the long war with Iran and afterward. This led to what later became known as the ''Iraq-gate'' scandals.
Much of what Iraq received from the West, however, were not arms per se, but so-called dual-use technology&mdash; mainframe computers, armored ambulances, helicopters, chemicals, and the like, with potential civilian uses as well as military applications. It is now known that a vast network of companies, based in the West, fed Iraq's warring capabilities right up until August 1990, when Saddam invaded Kuwait [http://www.cjr.org/archives.asp?url=/93/2/iraqgate.asp].
The Iraq-gate scandal revealed that an [[Atlanta, Georgia|Atlanta]] branch of Italy's largest bank, Banca Nazionale del Lavoro, relying partially on U.S. taxpayer-guaranteed loans, funneled $5 billion to Iraq from 1985 to 1989. In August 1989, when [[Federal Bureau of Investigation|FBI]] agents finally raided the Atlanta branch of BNL, the branch manager, Christopher Drogoul, was charged with making unauthorized, clandestine, and illegal loans to Iraq&mdash;some of which, according to his indictment, were used to purchase arms and weapons technology.
Beginning in September, 1989, the ''[[Financial Times]]'' laid out the first charges that BNL, relying heavily on U.S. government-guaranteed loans, was funding Iraqi chemical and nuclear weapons work. For the next two and a half years, the ''Financial Times'' provided the only continuous newspaper reportage (over 300 articles) on the subject. Among the companies shipping militarily useful technology to Iraq under the eye of the U.S. government, according to the ''Financial Times'', were [[Hewlett-Packard]], [[Tektronix]], and [[Matrix Churchill]], through its [[Ohio]] branch [http://www.cjr.org/archives.asp?url=/93/2/iraqgate.asp].
Even before the [[Persian Gulf War]] started in 1990, the ''Intelligencer Journal'' of Pennsylvania in a string of articles reported: "If U.S. and Iraqi troops engage in combat in the Persian Gulf, weapons technology developed in Lancaster and indirectly sold to Iraq will probably be used against U.S. forces ... And aiding in this ... technology transfer was the Iraqi-owned, British-based precision tooling firm Matrix Churchill, whose U.S. operations in Ohio were recently linked to a sophisticated Iraqi weapons procurement network." [http://www.cjr.org/archives.asp?url=/93/2/iraqgate.asp]
Aside from the ''New York Times'', the ''Los Angeles Times'', and ABC's Ted Koppel, the Iraq-gate story never picked up much steam, even though The U.S. Congress became involved with the scandal. [http://www.fas.org/spp/starwars/congress/1992/h920519l.htm FAS report]
In December 2002, Iraq's 1,200 page Weapons Declaration revealed a list of Western corporations and countries&mdash;as well as individuals&mdash;that exported chemical and biological materials to Iraq in the past two decades. Many American names were on the list. Alcolac International, for example, a [[Maryland]] company, transported thiodiglycol, a mustard gas precursor, to Iraq. A [[Tennessee]] manufacturer contributed large amounts of a chemical used to make sarin, a nerve gas implicated in so-called (Persian) Gulf War Syndrome. A [http://www.laweekly.com/ink/03/23/news-crogan.php full list] of those companies and their involvements in Iraq [http://www.laweekly.com/ink/03/18/features-crogan1.php] [http://www.laweekly.com/ink/03/18/features-crogan2.php].
On [[25 May]] [[1994]], The [[U.S. Senate Committee on Banking, Housing, and Urban Affairs|U.S. Senate Banking Committee]] released a report in which it was stated that ''pathogenic (meaning ''disease producing''), toxigenic (meaning ''poisonous'') and other biological research materials were exported to Iraq, pursuant to application and licensing by the U.S. Department of Commerce.'' It added: ''These exported biological materials were not attenuated or weakened and were capable of reproduction.'' [http://www.gulfwarvets.com/arison/banking.htm]
The report then detailed 70 shipments (including anthrax bacillus) from the United States to Iraqi government agencies over three years, concluding ''It was later learned that these microorganisms exported by the United States were identical to those the UN inspectors found and recovered from the Iraqi biological warfare program.'' See another list [http://cns.miis.edu/research/wmdme/flow/iraq/seed.htm here], and [http://groups.msn.com/exposureofthetruth/biologicalssoldtoiraq.msnw another here].
843 companies has been listed as being involved in the arming of Iraq. [http://www.cooperativeresearch.org/context.jsp?item=us_support_of_iraq_wmd_843] Twenty-four U.S. firms exported arms and materials to Baghdad [http://www.iranchamber.com/history/articles/arming_iraq.php].
[[Donald W. Riegle, Jr.|Donald Riegle]], Chairman of the [[U.S. Senate Committee on Banking, Housing, and Urban Affairs|Senate committee]] that made the report, said, "''UN inspectors had identified many United States manufactured items that had been exported from the United States to Iraq under licenses issued by the Department of Commerce, and [established] that these items were used to further Iraq's chemical and nuclear weapons development and its missile delivery system development programs.''" He added, "''the executive branch of our government approved '''771''' different export licenses for sale of dual-use technology to Iraq. I think that is a devastating record.''"
The [[Centers for Disease Control and Prevention|U.S. Centers for Disease Control]] sent Iraq 14 agents "with biological warfare significance," including West Nile virus, according to Riegle's investigators [http://www.sptimes.com/2003/03/16/Perspective/How_Iraq_built_its_we.shtml] [http://www.tallahassee.com/mld/tallahassee/news/politics/4186725.htm].
The [[Simon Wiesenthal Center]], a [[Jewish]] organization dedicated to preserving the memory of [[the Holocaust]], released a list of U.S. companies and their exports to Iraq. See page [http://www.sfbg.com/News/32/21/images/b11.gif 11] of this report: [http://www.sfbg.com/News/32/21/images/b1.gif p1] [http://www.sfbg.com/News/32/21/images/b2.gif p2] [http://www.sfbg.com/News/32/21/images/b3.gif p3] [http://www.sfbg.com/News/32/21/images/b4.gif p4] [http://www.sfbg.com/News/32/21/images/b5.gif p5] [http://www.sfbg.com/News/32/21/images/b6.gif p6] [http://www.sfbg.com/News/32/21/images/b7.gif p7] [http://www.sfbg.com/News/32/21/images/b8.gif p8] [http://www.sfbg.com/News/32/21/images/b9.gif p9] [http://www.sfbg.com/News/32/21/images/b10.gif p10] [http://www.sfbg.com/News/32/21/images/b11.gif p11]
A [http://www.cooperativeresearch.org/timeline.jsp?timeline=us_support_of_iraq_wmd timeline] of U.S. support for Saddām against Iran. Another [http://www.casi.org.uk/info/usdocs/usiraq80s90s.html timeline]. For the Statement of Henry B. Gonzalez, Chairman, House Committee on Banking, Finance, and Urban Affairs on Iraq-gate, see links given on [http://www.sfbg.com/News/32/21/Features/iraq.html this page].
More sources:
* [http://foi.missouri.edu/terrorintelligence/ussentgerms.html University of Missouri School of Journalism database]
* [http://www.iraqwatch.org/perspectives/Sussexreport.htm University of Sussex report]
* [http://www.globalpolicy.org/security/issues/iraq/2001/1022iraq.htm A Global Policy Forum Report]
* [http://www.gulfweb.org/bigdoc/report/riegle1.html Text of the U.S. Senate Riegle Report]
* [http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB82/ NSA Archives]
* [http://www.smh.com.au/articles/2002/08/18/1029114048796.html?oneclick=true Sydney Morning Herald report]
==Weapons of Mass Destruction==
[[Image:Iran-iraq-war-gas-masks.JPG|right|thumb|Iran suffered heavy casualties from Saddām's chemical weapons.]]With more than 100,000 Iranian victims{{ref|1}} of Iraq's chemical and biological weapons during the eight-year war, [[Iran]] is, after Japan, one of the world's top afflicted countries by [[Weapons of Mass Destruction]].
The official estimate does not include the civilian population contaminated in bordering towns or the children and relatives of v |
home dialects ("ciao" is Venetian, "panettone" is Milanese etc.), in fact confirming Manzoni's linguistic views.
Tuscan has thus become one of the twenty official dialects of Italy. Though technically speaking the division between dialect and language is purely conventional, it has been used by scholars (e.g., by Francesco Bruni) to distinguish between the languages that made up the Italian ''[[koine]],'' and those which had very little or no part in it, as [[Albanian language|Albanian]], [[Greek language|Greek]], [[Südtirolean language|Südtirolean]], [[Ladino language|Ladino]], [[Friulian language|Friulian]] and [[Occitan language|Occitan]], which are still spoken by small minorities.
Dialects are generally not used for general communication (e.g., on TV), but are limited to native speakers in informal contexts. Dialect is often deprecated as a sign of poor education. Younger generations, especially those under 35 (though it may vary in different areas), speak almost exclusively standard Italian in all situations, usually with local accents.{{fact}} Different accents can be recognized from various factors: the openness of vowels, the length of the consonants, and influence of the local dialect (for example, ''annà'' for ''andare'' in the area of Rome).
Dialects have their share of enthusiasts, but in most areas of Italy this is a small niche of the population. The promotion of dialects by political forces such as the [[Lega Nord]] has possibly damaged rather than promoted their status. Throughout Italy, some singers and actors use dialects as their language, but the language they use is, in most cases, strongly influenced by Italian.
Dialects and accents are often used in movies to provide comic relief or to produce stereotypes: northern dialects can be connected to self-made entrepreneurs; a Roman accent is associated with arrogant, simple-minded bullies; Neapolitan reminds of dishonest slackers, or of people living from hand to mouth; and, even in Italy, Sicilian is often associated with the [[Mafia]]. However, many screenwriters also explore the more expressive and spontaneous features of a dialect, often to challenge the common cliches and present a richer, less explored reality.
<!--
no content yet on Derived languages
===Derived languages===
Creoles and other languages that are derived from this language.
-->
==Sounds==
Main Page: [[Italian phonology]]
{{IPA notice}}
<!-- Description of the sound set of the language can include phoneme charts and example words for each phoneme like in [[French language]]. If there is significant discussion here, it is probably best to divide the section into vowels and consonants subsections. -->
===Vowels===
Italian has seven vowel phonemes: {{IPA|/a/}}, {{IPA|/e/}}, {{IPA|/ɛ/}}, {{IPA|/i/}}, {{IPA|/o/}}, {{IPA|/ɔ/}}, {{IPA|/u/}}. The pairs {{IPA|/e/}}-{{IPA|/ɛ/}} and {{IPA|/o/}}-{{IPA|/ɔ/}} are seldom distinguished in writing and often confused, even though each variety of Italian employs both phonemes consistently. Compare, for example: {{IPA|/per'kɛ/}} (because) and {{IPA|/'senti/}} (you listen), employed by some northern speakers, with {{IPA|/per'ke/}} and {{IPA|/'sɛnti/}}, as pronounced by most central and southern speakers. As a result, the usage is strongly indicative of a person's origin. The standard (Tuscan) usage of these vowels is listed in vocabularies, and employed outside Tuscany mainly by the more educated people, especially actors and (television) journalists.
These are truly different [[phonemes]], however: compare {{IPA|/'peska/}} (fishing) and {{IPA|/'pɛska/}} (peach), both spelled "pesca" ({{Audio|It-pesca.ogg|listen}}). Similarly {{IPA|/'botte/}} (barrel) and {{IPA|/'bɔtte/}} (beatings), both spelled as "botte", discriminate {{IPA|/o/}} and {{IPA|/ɔ/}} ({{Audio|It-botte-mp.ogg|listen}}).
In general, vowel combinations usually pronounce each vowel separately. [[Diphthong]]s exist,(e.g. "uo", "iu", "ie", "ai"), but are limited to the pattern:
(unstressed "u" or "i", or zero) + (stressed vowel) + (unstressed "u" or "i", or zero)
The unstressed "u" in a diphthong approximates the English semivowel "w", the unstressed "i" approximates the semivowel "y". E.g.: ''buono'', ''ieri''.
As a semivowel, "j" is an alternate spelling of i, currently obsolete but common until early 20th century and preserved in specific words like "Jesi" (a town) or "Jacopo" (a first name).
[[Triphthong]]s are limited to a diphthong plus an unstressed "i". (e.g. ''miei'', ''tuoi''.) Other sequences of three vowels exist (e.g. ''noia'', ''febbraio''), but they are not triphthongs; they consist of a vowel followed by a diphthong.
===Consonants===
Two symbols in a table cell denote the voiceless and voiced consonant, respectively.
{| class="wikitable"
!
![[bilabial consonant|bilabial]]
![[labiodental consonant|labiodental]]
![[dental consonant|dental]]
![[alveolar consonant|alveolar]]
![[postalveolar consonant|postalveolar]]
![[palatal consonant|palatal]]
![[velar consonant|velar]]
|-
![[plosive consonant|plosive]]
|{{IPA|p}}, {{IPA|b}}
|
|{{IPA|t}}, {{IPA|d}}
|
|
|
|{{IPA|k}}, {{IPA|g}}
|-
![[nasal consonant|nasal]]
|{{IPA|m}}
|
|{{IPA|n}}
|
|
|{{IPA|ɲ}}
|
|-
![[trill consonant|trill]]
|
|
|
|{{IPA|r}}
|
|
|
|-
![[flap consonant|flap]]
|
|
|
|{{IPA|ɾ}}
|
|
|
|-
![[fricative consonant|fricative]]
|
|{{IPA|f}}, {{IPA|v}}
|
|{{IPA|s}}, {{IPA|z}}
|{{IPA|ʃ}}
|
|
|-
![[affricate consonant|affricate]]
|
|
|
|{{IPA|ʦ}}, {{IPA|ʣ}}
|{{IPA|ʧ}}, {{IPA|ʤ}}
|
|
|-
![[lateral consonant|lateral]]
|
|
|
|{{IPA|l}}
|
|{{IPA|ʎ}}
|
|}
The phoneme {{IPA|/n/}} undergoes assimilation when followed by a consonant, e.g., when followed by a velar ({{IPA|/k/}} or {{IPA|/g/}}) it's pronounced {{IPA|[ŋ]}}, etc.
Italian plosives are not [[aspirated]] (unlike in English). Italian speakers hear the difference as a foreign accent.
Italian has geminate, or double, consonants, which are distinguished by length. Length is distinctive for all [[consonant]]s except for {{IPA|/ʃ/}}, {{IPA|/ʦ/}}, {{IPA|/ʣ/}}, {{IPA|/ʎ/}} {{IPA|/ɲ/}}, which are always geminate, and {{IPA|/z/}} which is always single.
Geminate plosives and affricates are realized as lengthened closures. Geminate fricatives, nasals, and {{IPA|/l/}} are realized as lengthened [[continuant]]s. Geminate {{IPA|/ɾ/}} is realized as the trill {{IPA|[rr]}}.
===Assimilation===
Italian has few diphthongs, and so most unfamiliar diphthongs heard in foreign words (in particular, those with a first vowel that is not "i" or "u", or a first vowel that is stressed), will be assimilated as the corresponding [[dieresis]] (i.e., the vowel sounds will be pronounced separately). Italian [[phonotactics]] don't usually permit words to end on consonants, so foreign words may receive extra terminal vowel sounds.
<!--
===Historical sound changes===
Description of important sound changes in the history of the language. (Maybe this should go under history?)
-->
==Grammar==
''see [[Italian grammar]].''
<!--
==Vocabulary==
This section should contain a discussion of any special features of the vocabulary (or lexicon) of the language, like if it contains a large number of borrowed words or a different sets of words for different politeness levels, taboo groups, etc.
-->
==Writing system==
[[Image:Jon Hawk.jpg|right|thumb|280px|Example of Italian]]
Italian is written using the [[Latin alphabet]]. The letters ''J'', ''K'', ''W'', ''X'' and'' Y'' are not part of the standard Italian alphabet, but are seen in imported words (such as ''jeans'', ''whiskey'', ''taxi''). ''J'' may also appear in many words from different dialects. Each of these foreign letters had an Italian equivalent spelling: ''gi'', ''ch'', ''u'', ''cs'' or ''s'', and ''i'', but these are now obsolete.
* Italian uses the [[acute accent]] over the letter ''E'' (as in ''perché'', why/because) to indicate a mid-close vowel, and the [[grave accent]] (as in ''tè'', tea) to indicate a mid-open vowel. The [[grave accent]] is also used on letters ''A'', ''I'', ''O'', and ''U'' to mark the stress position when it is on the last letter of a word (for instance ''gioventù'', youth). Typically, the penultimate syllable is stressed. If other syllables are stressed, marking an accent is not mandatory, as is instead done in [[Spanish language|Spanish]], and, in virtually all cases, no accent is marked. In some cases, when the word is ambiguous (as ''principi''), the accent is sometimes marked in order to disambiguate the meaning (in this case, ''príncipi'', princes, or ''princípi'', principles; ''balia'', nurse or ''balìa'', force
* The letter ''H'' is always silent when it begins a word, and is only used to distinguish ''ho'', ''hai'', ''ha'', ''hanno'' (present indicative of ''avere'', to have) from ''o'' (or), ''ai'' (to the), ''a'' (to), ''anno'' (year). ''H'' is otherwise used for some combinations with other letters (see below), but the /h/ sound does not exist in Italian.
* The letter ''Z'' is pronounced {{IPA|/dz/}}, for example: ''Zanzara'' {{IPA|/dzanˈdzara/}} (mosquito), or sometimes {{IPA|/ts/}}, for example: ''Nazione'' {{IPA|/naˈtsione/}} (nation), depending on context, though there are few minimal pairs. The same goes with ''S'', which can be pronounced {{IPA|/s/}} or {{IPA|/z/}}. However, these two phonemes are in complementary distribution everywhere except between two vowels in the same word, and even in such environment there are extremely few minimal pairs, therefore this distinction is being lost in most accents.
* The letters ''C'' and ''G'' are [[affricate]]s: {{IPA|/ʧ/}} as in "chair" and {{IPA|/ʤ/}} as in "gem", respectively, before the [[front vowel]]s ''I'' and ''E''. They are pronounced as [[plos |
[pl:Ceramika]]
[[pt:Cerâmica]]
[[ru:&#1050;&#1077;&#1088;&#1072;&#1084;&#1080;&#1082;&#1072;]]
[[sv:Keramik]]
[[th:เซรามิก]]
[[zh:&#38518;&#29943;]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Five elements (Chinese philosophy)</title>
<id>6459</id>
<revision>
<id>41428151</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-27T06:27:46Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>TAKASUGI Shinji</username>
<id>195496</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Correlations between the five elements and other categories */ rv the wrong fix by 87.202.28.210 (see the Chinese and Japanese versions)</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Classic element}}
In traditional [[Chinese philosophy]], natural phenomena can be classified into the '''Five Elements''' ({{zh-cp|c=&#20116;&#34892;|p=w&#468;x&iacute;ng}}):
[[wood (classical element)|wood]],
[[fire (classical element)|fire]],
[[earth (classical element)|earth]],
[[metal (classical element)|metal]], and
[[water (classical element)|water]]
(&#26408;, &#28779;, &#22303;, &#37329;, &#27700;; m&ugrave;, hu&#466;, t&#468;, j&#299;n, sh&#468;i). These elements were used for describing interactions and relationships between phenomena. '''Five phases''' is another way of translating ''w&#468;xíng'' &#8212; literally, "five goings". Traditional [[Taijiquan]] schools relate them to footwork and refer to them as five "steps".
The doctrine of five phases describes both a generating (&#29983;, ''sh&#275;ng'') cycle and an overcoming or restraining (&#20811;, ''kè'') cycle of interactions between the phases. In the generating cycle, wood generates fire; fire generates earth; earth generates metal; metal generates water; water generates wood. In the overcoming cycle, wood overcomes earth; earth overcomes water; water overcomes fire; fire overcomes metal; metal overcomes wood.<br>
[[Image:Interactions of Five Chinese Elements.png|350px]]
<br>The doctrine of five phases was employed in many fields of early Chinese philosophy, including seemingly disparate fields such as [[music]], [[traditional Chinese medicine]], and [[military strategy]].
== Correlations between the five elements and other categories ==
The ''Yu&egrave;l&igrave;ng'' chapter (&#26376;&#20196;&#31687;) of the ''L&#464;j&igrave;'' (&#31150;&#35352;) and the ''Hu&aacute;in&aacute;nz&#464;'' (&#28142;&#21335;&#23376;) make the following correlations:
{| class="prettytable"
|-
! [[Element]]
! [[cardinal directions|Direction]]
! [[Color]]
! [[Pentatonic scale|Musical Note]]
|-
| '''[[Wood]]'''
| [[east]]
| [[green]] or [[blue]]
| ''jué'' &#35282; (mi)
|-
| '''[[Fire]]'''
| [[south]]
| [[red]]
| ''zh&#464;'' &#24501; (sol)
|-
| '''[[Soil|Earth]]'''
| [[center]]
| [[yellow]]
| ''g&#333;ng'' &#23470; (do)
|-
| '''[[Metal]]'''
| [[west]]
| [[white]]
| ''sh&#257;ng'' &#21830; (re)
|-
| '''[[Water]]'''
| [[north]]
| [[black]]
| ''y&#468;'' &#32701; (la)
|-
|}
(see also [[pentatonic scale]])
(note: The Chinese word &#38738;includes the range in the spectrum from green to blue, with shades down to black.)
Some other correspondences are shown below:
{| class="prettytable"
|-
! [[Element]]
! [[Chinese constellation|Heavenly creature]]
! [[Season]]
! [[cardinal directions|Direction]]
! [[Planet]]
! [[Taste]]s
! [[Sense]]
! [[Viscera]] ([[yin and yang|yin]])
! [[Viscera]] ([[yin and yang|yang]])
! [[Finger]]
|-
| '''[[Wood]]'''
| Q&#299;ng-lóng (&#38738;&#40845;)<br>the Green Dragon
| [[Spring (season)|Spring]]
| [[east]]
| [[Jupiter]]
| [[sour]]
| [[sight]]
| [[liver]]
| [[gall bladder]]
| [[ring finger]]
|-
| '''[[Fire]]'''
| Zh&#363;-què (&#26417;&#38592;)<br>the Red Phoenix
| [[Summer]]
| [[south]]
| [[Mars]]
| [[bitter]]
| [[sound]]
| [[heart]]
| [[small intestine]]
| [[middle finger]]
|-
| '''[[Soil|Earth]]'''
| Huáng-lóng (&#40643;&#40845;)<sup>*</sup><br>the Yellow Dragon
| Change of seasons<br>(four times a year)
| [[center]]
| [[Saturn]]
| [[sweet]]
| [[smell]]
| [[spleen]]/[[pancreas]]
| [[stomach]]
| [[index finger]]
|-
| '''[[Metal]]'''
| Bái-h&#468; (&#30333;&#34382;)<br>the White Tiger
| [[Autumn]]
| [[west]]
| [[Venus]]
| [[hot]]
| [[taste]]
| [[lung]]
| [[large intestine]]
| [[thumb]]
|-
| '''[[Water]]'''
| Xuán-w&#468; (&#29572;&#27494;)<br>the Black Tortoise-Serpent
| [[Winter]]
| [[north]]
| [[Mercury (planet)|Mercury]]
| [[salty]]
| [[touch]]
| [[kidney]]
| [[urinary bladder]]
| [[little finger]]
|-
|}
<sup>*</sup> [[Qilin|Qí-lín]] (麒麟) was also associated later.
The elements have also been correlated to the eight [[Bagua (concept)|trigrams]] of the [[I Ching]]:
{| class="prettytable"
|-
! Element
! I Ching
! Trigrams
|-
| Wood
| Wind, thunder
| <nowiki>:||</nowiki> (&#9780; &#24061; ''xùn'') <nowiki>|::</nowiki> (&#9779; &#38663; ''zhèn'')
|-
| Fire
| Fire
| <nowiki>|:|</nowiki> (&#9778; &#38626; ''lí'')
|-
| Earth
| Earth, mountain
| <nowiki>:::</nowiki> (&#9783; &#22372; ''k&#363;n'') <nowiki>::|</nowiki> (&#9782; &#33390; ''gèn'')
|-
| Metal
| Sky, lake
| <nowiki>|||</nowiki> (&#9776; &#20094; ''qián'') <nowiki>||:</nowiki> (&#9777; &#20812; ''duì'')
|-
| Water
| Water
| <nowiki>:|:</nowiki> (&#9781; &#22350; ''k&#462;n'')
|-
|}
== See also ==
* [[Chinese music]]
* [[Five elements (Japanese)]]
* [[Four elements]]
* [[Xingyiquan]]
* [[Pushing hands]]
* [[Qi]]
* [[Qigong]]
* [[Taijitu]]
* [[Tao]]
* [[Zang Fu theory]]
* [[Feng Shui]]
== References ==
* [[Feng Youlan]] (Yu-lan Fung), ''A History of Chinese Philosophy'', volume 2, p. 13
* [[Joseph Needham]], ''Science and Civilization in China'', volume 2, pp. 262-23
== External links ==
* [http://www.acupuncture.com.au/education/theory/thefiveelements.html Five Element Information] Five Element interrelationships, concordances and causative factors.
* [http://www.char4u.com/chinese-zodiac-sign.php Chinese Zodiac Chart] Find your Chinese Zodiac sign based on your date of birth.
[[Category:Chinese astronomy]]
[[Category:Chinese martial arts terms]]
[[Category:Chinese thought]]
[[Category:Traditional Chinese medicine]]
[[Category:Numerology]]
[[de:Fünf-Elemente-Lehre]]
[[he:חמשת האלמנטים]]
[[ja:五行思想]]
[[vi:Ngũ hành]]
[[zh:五行]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Chinese element</title>
<id>6461</id>
<revision>
<id>26456739</id>
<timestamp>2005-10-25T17:29:51Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>RussBlau</username>
<id>111074</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>[[Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|Popups]]-assisted redirection bypass from [[Five elements (Chinese)]] to [[Five elements (Chinese philosophy)]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Five elements (Chinese philosophy)]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Church of Christ, Scientist</title>
<id>6462</id>
<revision>
<id>41820432</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T23:27:56Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Jonamerica</username>
<id>233557</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">{{disputed}}
{{merge|Christian Science}}
{{mergefrom|First Church of Christ, Scientist}}
'''Church of Christ, Scientist''', often known as '''Christian Science''', is a religious denomination that arose in New England in the late nineteenth century. It considers itself to be a [[Christian denomination]] and is generally classed as such. It has about 2,000 branches (local churches) in over 70 countries, with The First Church of Christ, Scientist in [[Boston, Massachusetts]] being the headquarters of all the denomination's activities.
The church was founded by the [[USA|American]] woman [[Mary Baker Eddy]] in [[1879]] following a personal healing experience, which she believed to be the result of her Christian faith. The [[Bible]] and Eddy's book ''[[Science and Health with Key to the Scriptures]]'' are together the church's key [[doctrine|doctrinal]] sources and have been ordained as the church's pastor.
The First Church of Christ, Scientist is widely known for its publications, especially the [[Christian Science Monitor]], a [[Day|daily]] [[newspaper]] published internationally in print and on the [[Internet]]. The Church is controversial for its encouragement of [[prayer]] for [[healing]] when others might choose [[modern medicine]]. There have also been periodic tensions with those Christian denominations who reject the idea it is a Christian denomination because of unorthodox tenets it holds.
Christian Science has no connection with [[Scientology]], which was founded about 75 years after Christian Science and which is not based on Christianity. It is also not connected to [[Religious Science]], a recent denomination in line with the New Thought tradition.
== Theology and healing ==
=== Origins and early development ===
[[Image:Marybaker.jpg|thumb|right|Mary Baker Eddy]]
In 1866, [[Mary Baker Eddy]] (known at the time as Mary Glover) was healed of an injury "that neither medicine nor surgery could reach..." (Ret 24:12) <!-- Source: http://www.marybakereddylibrary.org/marybakereddy/retrospection.jhtml?reference=ret%2024&marks=false -->. According to her personal accounts, when she appeared to be near death, she called out for her Bible. She turned it to [[Book of Matthew|Matthew]] 9:2, which tells the story of Jesus healing a man who was sick with [[palsy]], and after pondering the meaning of the passage, found herself suddenly |
endant allocuted to a crime that he did not commit, often because this is a requirement to receiving a lesser sentence.
The term "allocution" is generally only in use in jurisdictions in the United States, though there are similar processes in other nations.
== See also ==
* [[Confession]]
[[Category:Law]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Affidavit</title>
<id>795</id>
<revision>
<id>38942603</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-09T17:59:44Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>128.86.150.65</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">An '''affidavit''' is a formal sworn statement of fact, written down, signed, and witnessed (as to the veracity of the signature) by a taker of oaths, such as a [[notary public]]. The name is [[Medieval Latin]] for ''he has declared upon oath''.
One use of affidavits is to allow evidence to be gathered from witnesses or participants that may not be available to testify in person before the court.
In American [[jurisprudence]], it is very unusual to allow an unsupported affidavit to be entered into evidence (as the person sworn in the affidavit is not subject to cross-examination) with regard to material facts which may be dispositive of the matter [[at bar]]. Affidavits from persons who are dead or otherwise incapacitated, or who cannot be located or made to appear may be accepted by the court, but usually only in the presence of [[corroborating evidence]]. A formerly written affidavit, which reflected a better grasp of the facts closer in time to the actual events, may be used to refresh a witness' recollection. Materials used to refresh recollection are admissible as evidence.
Some types of motions will not be accepted by a court unless accompanied by an independent sworn statement or other evidence, in support of the need for the motion. In such a case, the court will accept an affidavit from the filing attorney in support of the motion, as certain assumptions are made, to wit: The affidavit in place of sworn testimony promotes [[judicial economy]]. The lawyer is an [[officer of the court]] and knows that a false swearing by him, if found out, could be grounds for severe penalty up to and including [[disbarment]]. The lawyer if called upon would be able to present independent and more detailed evidence to prove the facts set forth in his affidavit.
== In the United Kingdom ==
Affidavits are made by writing "I (state full name) of (insert address)on this date (date in words) make oath and say as follows...". After this has been written, the facts to be sworn are listed, in pros or in bullet points. The document is then taken to a [[commisssioner for oaths]] (most [[solicitors]] are also commissioners for oaths). They will then ask you to swear on a holy book particular to your faith ([[The New Testament]], [[The Old Testament]], the [[Qur'an]], etc) and ask you to verify what has been stated.
An Affidavit is of equivalent value to sworn testimony.
[[Category:Evidence]]
[[Category:Legal documents]]
[[de:Versicherung an Eides Statt]]
[[he:תצהיר]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Alzheimers Disease</title>
<id>797</id>
<revision>
<id>15899311</id>
<timestamp>2002-04-27T16:46:33Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Maveric149</username>
<id>62</id>
</contributor>
<comment>*link fix</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Alzheimer's disease]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Aries</title>
<id>798</id>
<revision>
<id>41512192</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-27T21:33:40Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>BorgQueen</username>
<id>382591</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/199.216.116.6|199.216.116.6]] ([[User talk:199.216.116.6|talk]]) to last version by That Guy, From That Show!</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''For other uses, see [[Aries (disambiguation)]]''
{{Infobox Constellation|
name = Aries |
abbreviation = Ari |
genitive = Arietis |
symbology = the [[Domestic sheep|Ram]]|
RA = 3 |
dec= +20 |
areatotal = 441 |
arearank = 39th |
numberstars = 2 |
starname = [[Alpha Arietis|&alpha; Ari]] (Hamal) |
starmagnitude = 2.0 |
meteorshowers =
*[[May Arietids]]
*[[Autumn Arietids]]
*[[Delta Arietids]]
*[[Epsilon Arietids]]
*[[Daytime-Arietids]]
*[[Aries-Triangulids]] |
bordering =
*[[Perseus (constellation)|Perseus]]
*[[Triangulum]]
*[[Pisces]]
*[[Cetus]]
*[[Taurus (constellation)|Taurus]] |
latmax = 90 |
latmin = 60 |
month = December |
notes=}}
'''Aries''' ([[Latin]] for ''[[sheep|Ram]]'', symbol [[Image:Aries_symbol.png|20px]], [[Unicode]] ♈) is one of the [[constellation]]s of the [[zodiac]]. It lies between [[Pisces]] to the west and [[Taurus (constellation)|Taurus]] to the east.
== Notable features ==
Aries' stars are rather faint except for [[Alpha Arietis|&alpha; Ari]] (Hamal) and [[Beta Arietis|&beta; Ari]] (Sharatan). Other important stars are [[Gamma Arietis|&gamma; Ari]] (Mesarthim) and [[Delta Arietis|&delta; Ari]] (Botein).
[[Teegarden's star]], in Aries, is one of our sun's closest neighbours.
== Notable deep sky objects ==
The few [[deep sky object]]s in Aries are very dim. They include the [[galaxy|galaxies]] NGC 697 (northwest of &beta;), NGC 772 (southeast of &beta;), NGC 972 (in the constellation's northern corner), and NGC 1156 (northwest of &delta;).
== Mythology ==
When including fainter stars, visible to the naked eye, the area resembles the head of a [[sheep|ram]], having a general herbivore head shape and a spiral horn.
In [[Greek mythology]], this is believed to represent the ram which carried Athamas's son [[Phrixus]] and daughter [[Helle (mythology)|Helle]] to Colchis to escape their stepmother [[Ino]]. Helle fell off into the sea which later became the Hellespont. On reaching safety, Phrixis sacrificed the ram and hung its [[golden fleece|fleece]] in the Grove of Ares, where it turned to gold and later became the quest of [[Jason]] and the [[Argonauts]]. It appears that [[Babylonians]], [[Greeks]], [[Persians]] and [[Ancient Egypt|Egyptians]] all agreed on the name of the Ram for this [[constellation]].
The main area of the sky constituting the sign of Aries, containing part of [[Pisces]], the [[Pleiades]], and the constellation of [[Andromeda (constellation)|Andromeda]], may be the origin of the myth of the girdle of [[Hippolyte]], which forms part of [[The Twelve Labours]] of [[Hercules]].
===Astrology===
The Western [[astrological sign]] Aries of the [[tropical zodiac]] ([[March 21]]&ndash;[[April 19]]) differs from the astronomical constellation and the Hindu astrological sign of the [[Sidereal astrology|sidereal zodiac]] ([[April 19]] - [[May 13]]).
In some cosmologies, Aries is associated with the [[classical element]] [[Fire (classical element)|Fire]], and thus called a fire sign (along with [[Sagittarius]] and [[Leo]]). It is the [[domicile (astrology)|domicile]] of [[Mars (god)|Mars]] and the [[Exaltation (astrology)|exaltation]] of the [[Sun]]. It is also one of the four [[Cardinal sign]]s (along with [[Libra]], [[Capricorn]], and [[Cancer (constellation)|Cancer]]). Its polar opposite is [[Libra]]. Each astrological sign is assigned a part of the body, viewed as the seat of its power. Aries rules the head and face. The symbol for Aries is the [[sheep|ram]].
{{unreferenced}}
==Notable and named stars==
{| style="color:#000000; font-size:smaller;" cellspacing=2 cellpadding=0
|-
! style="background-color:#dddddd;" | [[Bayer designation|BD]]
! style="background-color:#dddddd;" | [[Flamsteed designation|F]]
! style="background-color:#dddddd;" | Names and other designations
! style="background-color:#dddddd;" | [[apparent magnitude|Mag.]]
! style="background-color:#dddddd;" | [[Light year|Ly]] away
! style="background-color:#dddddd;" | Comments
|-
| &alpha; || 13 || [[Alpha Arietis]], Hamal, Hemal, Hamul, Ras Hammel, El Nath, Arietis || 2.01 || 65.9 ||
* < &#1585;&#1571;&#1587; &#1575;&#1604;&#1581;&#1605;&#1604; ''ra's[u] al-&#295;amal'' Head of the ram
* < &#1575;&#1604;&#1606;&#1591;&#1581; ''an-na&#355;&#295;'' The butting (horn)
|- style="background-color:#eeeeee;"
| &beta; || 6 || [[Beta Arietis]], Sheratan, Sharatan, Al Sharatain || 2.64 || 59.6 ||
* < &#1575;&#1604;&#1588;&#1585;&#1575;&#1591;&#1575;&#1606; ''a&#353;-&#353;ar&#257;&#355;&#257;n'' The (two) signs (originally &#946; and &#947; Ari)
|-
| c || 41 || [[41 Arietis]], Bharani || 3.61 || 159 ||
|- style="background-color:#eeeeee;"
| &gamma;&sup1;<sup>,</sup>&sup2; || 5 || [[Gamma Arietis]], Mesarthim, Mesartim || 3.88 || 204 ||
* [[triple star system]]; component magnitudes: 4.75, 4.83, 9.6
* &gamma;&sup2; is an [[Alpha2 Canum Venaticorum variable|Alpha2 Canum Venaticorum type]] [[variable star]]
|-
| &delta; || 56 || [[Delta Arietis]], Botein || 4.35 || 168 ||
* < &#1576;&#1591;&#1610;&#1606; ''al-bu&#355;ayn'' The belly [diminutive]
|- style="background-color:#eeeeee;"
| || 39 || [[39 Arietis]] || 4.52 || ||
|-
| &epsilon; || 48 || [[Epsilon Arietis]] || 4.63 || 293 ||
* [[triple star system]]; component magnitudes: 5.2, 5.5, 12.7
|- style="background-color:#eeeeee;"
| || 35 || [[35 Arietis]] || 4.65 || ||
|-
| &lambda; || 9 || [[Lambda Arietis]] || 4.79 || 133 ||
* [[binary star]]; component magnitudes: 4.9, 7.4
|- style="background-color:#eeeeee;"
| &zeta; || 58 || [[Zeta Arietis]] || 4.87 || 340 ||
|-
| || 14 || [[14 Arietis]] || 4.98 || ||
|- style="background-color:#eeeeee;"
| |
nsecabilibus'') *
* (973a) [[Situations and Names of Winds]] (or ''Ventorum Situs'') *
* (974a) [[On Melissus, Xenophanes and Gorgias]] (or ''MXG'') * The section On Xenophanes starts at 977a13, the section On Gorgias starts at 979a11.
==== Metaphysical writings ====
* (980a) [[Metaphysics (Aristotle)|Metaphysics]] (or ''Metaphysica'')
==== Ethical writings ====
* (1094a) [[Nicomachean Ethics]] (or ''Ethica Nicomachea'', or ''The Ethics'')
* (1181a) [[Great Ethics]] (or ''Magna Moralia'') *
* (1214a) [[Eudemian Ethics]] (or ''Ethica Eudemia'')
* (1249a) [[Virtues and Vices]] (or ''De Virtutibus et Vitiis Libellus'', ''Libellus de virtutibus'') *
* (1252a) [[Politics (Aristotle)|Politics]] (or ''Politica'')
* (1343a) [[Economics (Aristotle)|Economics]] (or ''Oeconomica'')
==== Aesthetic writings ====
* (1354a) [[Rhetoric (Aristotle)|Rhetoric]] (or ''Ars Rhetorica'', or ''The Art of Rhetoric'' or ''Treatise on Rhetoric'')
* [[Rhetoric to Alexander]] (or ''Rhetorica ad Alexandrum'') *
* (1447a) [[Poetics]] (or ''Ars Poetica'')
==== A work outside the ''Corpus Aristotelicum'' ====
* The [[Constitution of the Athenians]] (or ''Athenaion Politeia'', or ''The Athenian Constitution'') *
=== Specific editions===
* [[Princeton University]] Press: ''The Complete Works of Aristotle: The Revised Oxford Translation'' (2 Volume Set; Bollingen Series, Vol. LXXI, No. 2), edited by [[Jonathan Barnes]] ISBN 0-691-09950-2 (The most complete recent translation of Aristotle's extant works)
* [[University of Oxford|Oxford University]] Press: ''Clarendon Aristotle Series''. [http://www.oup.com/us/catalog/general/series/ClarendonAristotleSeries/?view=usa Scholarly edition]
* [[Harvard University]] Press: ''[[Loeb Classical Library#Aristotle|Loeb Classical Library]]'' (hardbound; publishes in Greek, with English translations on facing pages)
* [[Oxford Classical Texts]] (hardbound; Greek only)
==Named for Aristotle==
*[[Aristoteles (crater)|Aristoteles crater]] on the [[Moon]].
*The [[Aristotle University of Thessaloniki]]
*Aristotle's Cockney legacy - The name of Aristotle, like that of [[J. Arthur Rank]], became a common expression in [[Cockney rhyming slang]].
==See also==
*[[Aristotelian view of God]]
*[[Aristotelian theory of gravity]]
*[[Philia]]
*[[Phronesis]]
*[[Potentiality and actuality (Aristotle)|Aristotle's theory of potentialiy and actuality]]
==References==
Needless to say, the secondary literature on Aristotle is vast. The following references are only a small selection.
* {{cite book
| last = Adler | first = Mortimer J.
| authorlink = Mortimer Adler
| title=[[Aristotle for Everybody]]
| publisher=Macmillan
| location = New York
| year=1978
}} A popular exposition for the general reader.
* {{cite book
| last = Bocheński | first = I. M.
| authorlink = I. M. Bocheński
| title=Ancient Formal Logic
| publisher=North-Holland Publishing Company
| location = Amsterdam
| year=1951
}}
* {{cite book
| last = Guthrie | first = W. K. C.
| title=A History of Greek Philosophy, Vol. 6
| publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]
| year=1981
}} A detailed and scholarly work, but very readable.
* {{cite book
| last = Melchert | first = Norman
| authorlink = Norman Melchert
| title=The Great Conversation: A Historical Introduction to Philosophy
| publisher=[[McGraw Hill]]
| year=2002
| id=ISBN 0195175107
}}
* {{cite book
| last = Rose | first = Lynn E.
| authorlink = Lynn E. Rose
| title=Aristotle's Syllogistic
| publisher=Charles C Thomas Publisher
| location = Springfield
| year=1968
}}
* {{cite book
| last = Ross | first = Sir David
| authorlink = Sir David Ross
| title=Aristotle
| publisher=Routledge
| edition = 6<sup>th</sup> ed.
| location = London
| year=1995
}} An classic overview by one of Aristotle's most important English translators, in print since 1923.
* {{cite book
| last = Taylor | first = Henry Osborn
| authorlink = Henry Osborn Taylor
| url = http://www.ancientlibrary.com/medicine/index.html
| title = Greek Biology and Medicine
| year = 1922
| chapter = Chapter 3: Aristotle's Biology
| chapterurl = http://www.ancientlibrary.com/medicine/0051.html
}}
* {{cite book
| last = Turner | first = William
| authorlink = William Turner
| others = Nihil Obstat Remy Lafort, S.T.D.; Censor Imprimatur + John Cardinal Farley, Abp. of New York
| title = The Catholic Encyclopedia, Volume I: "Aristotle"
| publisher = Robert Appleton Company
| edition = 1907
| year = 1907
| location=New York
}}
* {{cite book
| last = Veatch | first = Henry B.
| authorlink = Henry Babcock Veatch
| title=Aristotle: A Contemporary Appreciation
| publisher=Indiana U. Press
| location = Bloomington
| year=1974
}} For the general reader.
==External links==
{{Wikisource author}}
{{wikiquote}}
{{commons|Aristotelēs}}
*{{gutenberg author | id=Aristotle | name=Aristotle}}
*[http://Aristotle.thefreelibrary.com/ A brief biography and e-texts presented one chapter at a time]
*[http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/a/aristotl.htm The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy: Aristotle.], 2004.
*[http://www.non-contradiction.com/ An extensive collection of Aristotle's philosophy and works, including lesser known texts]
*[http://www.virtuescience.com/nicomachean-ethics.html Nicomachean Ethics by Aristotle.]
*[http://uk.arxiv.org/abs/physics/0505172 Aristotle and Indian logic]
*O'Connor, J. John & Robertson, Edmund F., [http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/Mathematicians/Aristotle.html Aristotle], 2004.
*{{PerseusAuthor|Aristotle}}
*{{planetmath|id=5840|title=Aristotle}}
*[http://www.greektexts.com/library/Aristotle/index.html Large collection of Aristotle's texts, presented page by page]
*[http://www.greek-literature-online.com/aristotle/ Read Aristotle's works online]
*[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/01713a.htm Source of most of the Biography and Methodology sections, as well as more overview]
* {{MacTutor Biography|id=Aristotle}}
*[http://www.shvoong.com/books/history/119724-constitution-athens/ a summary of "The Constitution of Athens"]
{{Philosophy navigation}}
[[Category:322 BC deaths|Aristotle]]
[[Category:384 BC births|Aristotle]]
[[Category:Ancient Greek mathematicians]]
[[Category:Ancient Greek philosophers]]
[[Category:Aristotelian philosophers]]
[[Category:Aristotle]]
[[Category:Empiricists]]
[[Category:Greek logicians]]
[[Category:History of philosophy]]
[[Category:History of science]]
[[Category:Meteorologists]]
[[Category:Rhetoric]]
[[Category:Rhetoricians]]
{{Link FA|fi}}
[[ar:أرسطو]]
[[bg:Аристотел]]
[[ba:Аристотель]]
[[bs:Aristotel]]
[[ca:Aristòtil]]
[[cs:Aristotelés]]
[[da:Aristoteles]]
[[de:Aristoteles]]
[[et:Aristoteles]]
[[el:Αριστοτέλης]]
[[es:Aristóteles de Estagira]]
[[eo:Aristotelo]]
[[eu:Aristoteles]]
[[fa:ارسطو]]
[[fr:Aristote]]
[[ga:Arastotail]]
[[gl:Aristóteles]]
[[ko:아리스토텔레스]]
[[hr:Aristotel]]
[[io:Aristoteles]]
[[id:Aristoteles]]
[[is:Aristóteles]]
[[it:Aristotele]]
[[he:אריסטו]]
[[jv:Aristoteles]]
[[la:Aristoteles]]
[[lv:Aristotelis]]
[[lt:Aristotelis]]
[[hu:Arisztotelész]]
[[mk:Аристотел]]
[[ms:Aristotle]]
[[nl:Aristoteles]]
[[nds:Aristoteles]]
[[ja:アリストテレス]]
[[no:Aristoteles]]
[[nn:Aristoteles]]
[[pl:Arystoteles]]
[[pt:Aristóteles]]
[[ro:Aristotel]]
[[ru:Аристотель]]
[[sq:Aristoteli]]
[[simple:Aristotle]]
[[sk:Aristoteles]]
[[sl:Aristotel]]
[[sr:Аристотел]]
[[fi:Aristoteles]]
[[sv:Aristoteles]]
[[tl:Aristoteles]]
[[ta:அரிஸ்டாட்டில்]]
[[th:อริสโตเติล]]
[[vi:Aristotle]]
[[tr:Aristoteles]]
[[uk:Арістотель]]
[[zh:亚里士多德]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>An American in Paris</title>
<id>309</id>
<revision>
<id>37835840</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-02T12:39:22Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Japanese Searobin</username>
<id>153340</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>+ja:</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">: '' ''[[An American in Paris (film)|An American In Paris]]'' is also a 1951 film musical starring [[Gene Kelly]].''
'''''An American in Paris''''' is a [[European-influenced classical music|symphonic]] composition by [[United States|American]] composer [[George Gershwin]] which debuted in [[1928]]. Inspired by Gershwin's time in [[Paris]], it is in the form of an extended [[tone poem]] evoking the sights and energy of the [[France|French]] capital in the [[1920s]]. In addition to the standard instruments of the [[symphony orchestra]], the score features period automobile horns; Gershwin brought back some Parisian taxi-cab horns for the New York premiere of the composition.
* "An American In Paris" is second only to [[Rhapsody In Blue]] as a favorite of Gershwin's classical compositions.
* The score also features instruments rarely seen in the concert hall: [[celesta]] and [[saxophone]]s.
[[Category:Compositions by George Gershwin]]
[[Category:Symphonic poems|American in Paris, An]]
[[ja:パリのアメリカ人]]
[[pl:Amerykanin w Pary&#380;u]]
[[sv:An American in Paris (symfonisk dikt)]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Acresses</title>
<id>310</id>
<revision>
<id>15899047</id>
<timestamp>2002-09-01T17:22:59Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Bryan Derksen</username>
<id>66</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>bypassing double redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Actor]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Academy Awards/Best Picture</title>
<id>311</id>
<revision>
<id>15899048</id>
<timestamp>2002-07-12T20:14:52Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Koyaanis Qatsi</username>
<id>90</id>
</contributor>
<comment>REDIRECt</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Academy Award for Best Picture]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Academy Awards/Best Actor</title>
<id>312</id |
t seen or heard any of this music when he was composing his own piano music in the first decades of the 20th century; the Rossini piano pieces had not yet been published at that time. It is said that [[Diaghilev]] discovered the manuscripts of these Rossini pieces around [[1918]] at [[Naples]], before staging ''[[La Boutique Fantasque]]'' &mdash; this was about the same time that Satie stopped writing humorous comments on his scores.
But the real acceleration in Satie's life didn't come so much from the increasing success of his new piano pieces; in fact it was Ravel who (probably unknowingly) triggered something that was to become a characteristic of Satie's remaining years: being a part of every progressive movement that manifested itself in Paris over the following years. These movements succeeded one another rapidly, while without doubt in these years Paris was the artistic capital of the world (long before London or New York would achieve much significance in this regard), and the beginning of the new century appeared to have set many minds on fire.
In [[1910]] the "Jeunes Ravêlites", a group of young musicians around Ravel, proclaimed their preference for Satie's earlier work (from before the Schola period), reinforcing the idea that Satie had been a precursor of Debussy. At first Satie was pleased that at least some of his works were receiving public attention, but when he realised that this meant that his more recent work was overlooked or dismissed, he looked for other young artists who related better to his more recent ideas, so as to have better mutual support in creative activity. Thus young artists such as [[Roland Manuel]], and later [[Georges Auric]] and [[Jean Cocteau]], started to receive more of his attention than the "Jeunes".
As a result of his contact with Roland-Manuel, he again takes up publicising his thoughts, much more ironical than he had done before (amongst other things, the ''[[Mémoires d'un amnésique]]'' and ''[[Cahiers d'un mammifère]]''){{ref|publications}}.
With Jean Cocteau, whom he had first met in [[1915]], he started work on incidental music for a production of [[William Shakespeare|Shakespeare]]'s ''[[A Midsummer Night's Dream]]'' (resulting in the ''[[Cinq Grimaces]]''). From [[1916]] Satie and Cocteau worked on the ballet ''[[Parade (ballet)|Parade]]'', which was premiered in [[1917]] by [[Sergei Diaghilev]]'s [[Ballets Russes]], with sets and costumes by [[Pablo Picasso]], and [[choreography]] by [[Léonide Massine]]. Through Picasso Satie also became acquainted with other [[cubism|cubists]], such as [[Georges Braque]], with whom he would work on other, aborted, projects.
With Georges Auric, [[Louis Durey]], [[Arthur Honegger]], and [[Germaine Tailleferre]] he formed the [[Les Six|Nouveaux Jeunes]], shortly after writing ''Parade''. Later the group was joined by [[Francis Poulenc]] and [[Darius Milhaud]]. In September [[1918]], Satie &ndash; giving little or no explanation &ndash; withdrew from the Nouveaux Jeunes. Jean Cocteau gathered the six remaining members, forming the [[Groupe des Six]] (to which Satie would later have access, but later again would fall out with most of its members).
From [[1919]] he was in contact with [[Tristan Tzara]], the initiator of the [[Dada]] movement. He got to know the other Dadaists, such as [[Francis Picabia]] (later to become a [[surrealism|Surrealist]]), [[André Derain]], [[Marcel Duchamp]], [[Man Ray]], etc. On the day of his first meeting with Man Ray, they fabricated Man Ray's first [[readymade]]: ''[[The Gift]]'' (1921). Satie contributed to the Dadaist publication ''[[391 (publication)|391]]''. In the first months of 1922 he was surprised to find himself entangled in the argument between Tzara and [[André Breton]] about the true nature of avant-garde art, epitomised by the [[Congrès sur les directives et la défense de l'esprit moderne|Congrès de Paris]] failure. Satie originally sides with Tzara, but manages to maintain friendly relations with most players in both camps. Meanwhile, an "Ecole d'Arcueil" had formed around Satie, with young musicians like [[Henri Sauguet]], [[Maxime Jacob]], [[Roger Désormière]] and [[Henri Cliquet-Pleyel]].
Finally he composed an "instantaneist" ballet (''[[Relâche]]'') in collaboration with Picabia, for the [[Ballets Suédois]] of [[Rolf de Maré]]. In a simultaneous project, Satie added music to the surrealist film ''[[Entr'acte]]'' by [[René Clair]], which was given as an intermezzo for ''Relâche''.
Other work and episodes in this last period of Satie's life:
* Since [[1911]] he had been on friendly terms with [[Igor Stravinsky]], about whom he would later write articles.
* ''[[Le Piège de Méduse]]'' ([[1913]]) had a quite unique position in Satie's [[oeuvre]], as it was a stage work conceived and composed seemingly without any collaboration with other artists.
* ''[[Sports et divertissements]]'' was a kind of multi-media project, in which Satie provided piano music to drawings made by [[Charles Martin]], composed in 1914 (publication and first public performance in the early [[1920]]s).
* He got in trouble over an insulting postcard he had written to one of his critics shortly after the premiere of ''Parade''; he was condemned to a week of imprisonment, but was finally released as a result of the (financial) intercession of [[Winnaretta Singer]], Princess Edmond de Polignac.
* Singer, who had learnt ancient Greek when she was over 50, had commissioned a work on [[Socrates]] in October [[1916]]; this would become his ''[[Vie de Socrate|Socrate]]'', which he presented early in [[1918]] to the Princess.
* From [[1917]] Satie wrote five pieces of ''[[furniture music]]'' ("Musique d'ameublement") for different occasions.
* From 1920, he was on friendly terms with the circles around [[Gertrude Stein]], amongst others, leading to the publication of some of his articles in ''[[Vanity Fair magazine|Vanity Fair]]'' (commissioned by [[Sibyl Harris]]).
* Some works would originate under the patronage of the count [[Etienne de Beaumont]], from [[1922]] onwards:
** ''[[La Statue retrouvée]]'' (or "Divertissement"): another Satie-Cocteau-Picasso-Massine collaboration.
** ''[[Ludions]]'': a setting of [[nonsense verse|nonsense rhyme]] by [[Léon-Paul Fargue]]
** ''[[Mercure]]'': the subtitle of this piece ("Poses plastiques") suggests it might have been intended rather as an emulation of the [[tableau vivant]] genre than as an actual ballet, the "tableaux" being cubist, by Picasso (and Massine).
* During his final years Satie travelled; for example, in [[1924]] to [[Belgium]], invited by [[Paul Collaer]], and to [[Monte Carlo]] for the premiere of a work on which he had collaborated.
===Epilogue: the shrine of Arcueil===
At the time of Satie's death in [[1925]], absolutely nobody except himself had ever entered his room in [[Arcueil]] since he had moved there twenty-seven years earlier. What his friends would discover there, after Satie's burial at the Cimetière d'Arcueil, had the allure of the opening of the grave of [[Tutankhamun]]; apart from the dust and the cobwebs (which among other things made clear that Satie never composed using his piano), they discovered numerous items:
* enormous quantities of [[umbrella]]s, some that had apparently never been used by Satie;
* the portrait of Satie by Valadon, shown above;
* love-letters and drawings from the Valadon period;
* other letters from all periods of his life;
* his collection of drawings of [[medievalism|medieval]] buildings (only now did his friends start to see the link between Satie and certain previously anonymous journal adverts regarding "castles in lead" and the like);
* other drawings and texts of autobiographical value;
* other memorabilia from all periods of his life, amongst which were the seven velvet suits from the [[Velvet gentleman]] period, etc.
But most importantly there were compositions nobody had ever heard of (or which were thought to have been lost) everywhere: behind the piano, in the pockets of the velvet suits, etc. These included the ''[[Vexations]]'', ''[[Geneviève de Brabant]]'' and other unpublished or unfinished stage works, ''[[The Dreamy Fish]]'', many [[Schola Cantorum]] exercises, an unseen set of "canine" piano pieces, several other piano works, often without a title (which would be published later as more ''[[Gnossiennes]]'', ''[[Pièces Froides]]'', ''[[Enfantines]]'', ''[[Furniture music]]'', etc.).
=="Petit dictionnaire d'idées reçues" (short dictionary of preconceived ideas)==
"Idée reçue" is a play on words; in [[French language|French]] it is the normal term for "prejudice", but Satie used it as the non-material equivalent of [[found object]]s (as in ''readymades'') &mdash; for example, when he incorporated odd bits of music by Saint-Saëns and [[Ambroise Thomas]] in his ''furniture music''. This section treats some popular (mis)conceptions regarding Satie and his music:
'''Satie and furniture music''': not all of Satie's music is ''[[furniture music]]''. In the strict sense the term applies only to five of his compositions, which he wrote in [[1917]], [[1920]], and [[1923]]. For the first public performance of ''furniture music'' see [[Entr'acte]].
'''Satie as precursor''': the only "precursor" discussion Satie was involved in during his lifetime was whether or not he was a precursor of [[Claude Debussy]], but many would follow. Over the years Satie would be described as a precursor of movements and styles as varied as [[Impressionism]], [[Neoclassicism (music)|neo-classicism]], [[Dada]], [[Surrealism]], [[Atonal music|atonalism]], [[minimalism (music)|minimalism]], [[conceptual art]], the [[Theatre of the Absurd]], [[muzak]], [[ambient music]], multimedia art, etc., and as taking the first steps towards techniques such as [[prepared piano]] |
ved to debate, often publicly debating with friends such as [[George Bernard Shaw]], [[H. G. Wells]], [[Bertrand Russell]], and [[Clarence Darrow]]. According to his autobiography, he and George Bernard Shaw played cowboys in a silent movie that was never released.
The [[homily]] at Chesterton's [[Requiem|Requiem Mass]] in [[Westminster Cathedral]], [[London]], was delivered by [[Ronald Knox]]. Chesterton is buried in [[Beaconsfield]], [[Buckinghamshire]], in the [[Roman Catholic|Catholic]] Cemetery.
On [[1 October]], [[1936]], Chesterton's estate was [[probate]]d at 28,389 pounds sterling.
==Writing==
Chesterton wrote around 80 books, several hundred poems, some 200 short stories, 4000 [[essay]]s and a stage play. He was a literary and social critic, historian, playwright, novelist, Catholic Christian theologian and [[apologist]], debater, and mystery writer. He was a columnist for the ''Daily News'', ''Illustrated London News'', and his own paper, ''[[G. K.'s Weekly]]''. His best-known character is the priest-detective [[Father Brown]], who appeared only in short stories, while ''[[The Man Who Was Thursday]]'' is arguably his best-known novel. He was a convinced Christian long before he was received into the Catholic church, and Christian themes and symbolism appear in much of his writing. In the United States, his writings on [[distributism]] were popularized through ''[[The American Review]]'', published by [[Seward Collins]] in New York.
Much of his poetry is little known, though well reflecting his beliefs and opinions. The best written is probably ''[[s:Lepanto|Lepanto]]'', with ''[[s:The Rolling English Road|The Rolling English Road]]'' the most familiar, and ''The Secret People'' perhaps the most quoted ("we are the people of England; and we have not spoken yet").
Of his non-fiction, [[Charles Dickens]] (1903) has received some of the broadest-based praise. According to Ian Ker (''The Catholic Revival in English Literature, 1845-1961'', 2003), "In Chesterton's eyes Dickens belongs to Merry, not Puritan, England" (see [[Merry England]]); Ker treats in Chapter 4 of that book Chesterton's thought as largely growing out of his true appreciation of Dickens, a somewhat shop-soiled property in the view of other literary opinions of the time.
Much of Chesterton's work remains in print, including collections of the Father Brown detective stories. [[Ignatius Press]] is presently undertaking a monumental Complete Works. [[Michael Collins (Irish leader)|Michael Collins]] read some of the Father Brown stories from which he reportedly drew some ideas which he would later utilize during the [[Anglo-Irish War]] (1919-1921).
==Chesterton, his views and contemporaries==
Chesterton's writings consistently displayed wit and a sense of humour. He deployed [[paradox]], while making serious comments on the world, government, politics, economics, philosophy, theology and many other topics. The roots of his approach have been taken to be in two earlier strands in English literature, Dickens being one. In the use of paradox, against complacent acceptance of things as they are, he is often categorised with [[Oscar Wilde]], and [[George Bernard Shaw]], whom he knew well, as Victorian satirists and social commentators in a tradition coming also from [[Samuel Butler (1835-1902)|Samuel Butler]].
Chesterton's style and thinking were all his own, however, and his conclusions were often diametrically opposed to those of his predecessors and contemporaries. In his book ''[[Heretics (book)|Heretics]]'', Chesterton has this to say of Oscar Wilde:
:''The same lesson [of the pessimistic pleasure-seeker] was taught by the very powerful and very desolate philosophy of Oscar Wilde. It is the carpe diem religion; but the carpe diem religion is not the religion of happy people, but of very unhappy people. Great joy does not gather the rosebuds while it may; its eyes are fixed on the immortal rose which Dante saw.''
Chesterton and George Bernard Shaw were famous friends and enjoyed their arguments and discussions. Although hardly ever agreeing, they both maintained good-will towards and respect for each other. However, in his writing, Chesterton expressed himself very plainly on where they differed and why. In ''Heretics'' he writes of Shaw that:
:''His weakness of introspection and selfishness in all their glory cannot prevent him fighting; but they will always prevent him winning.''
And:
:''In similar style, I hold that I am dogmatic and right, while Mr. Shaw is dogmatic and wrong. ... It may be true that the thing in Mr. Shaw most interesting to me, is the fact that Mr. Shaw is wrong. But it is equally true that the thing in Mr. Shaw most interesting to himself, is the fact that Mr. Shaw is right. Mr. Shaw may have none with him but himself; but it is not for himself he cares. It is for the vast and universal church, of which he is the only member.''
Shaw represented the new school of thought, [[humanism]], which was rising at the time. Chesterton's views on the other hand, became increasingly more polarised towards the church. In ''[[Orthodoxy (book)|Orthodoxy]]'' he writes:
:''The worship of will is the negation of will. ... If Mr. Bernard Shaw comes up to me and says, "Will something," that is tantamount to saying, "I do not mind what you will," and that is tantamount to saying, "I have no will in the matter." You cannot admire will in general, because the essence of will is that it is particular.''
This style of argumentation is what Chesterton refers to as using 'Uncommon Sense', ie, that the thinkers and popular philosophers of the day, although very clever, were saying things that appeared, to him, to be non-sensical. This is illustrated again in ''Orthodoxy'':
:''Thus when Mr. [[H. G. Wells]] says (as he did somewhere), "All chairs are quite different," he utters not merely a misstatement, but a contradiction in terms. If all chairs were quite different, you could not call them "all chairs."
Or, again from ''Orthodoxy'':
:''The wild worship of lawlessness and the materialist worship of law end in the same void. [[Nietzsche]] scales staggering mountains, but he turns up ultimately in Tibet. He sits down beside [[Tolstoy]] in the land of nothing and [[Nirvana]]. They are both helpless—one because he must not grasp anything, and the other because he must not let go of anything. The Tolstoyan’s will is frozen by a [[Buddhist]] instinct that all special actions are evil. But the Nietzscheite’s will is quite equally frozen by his view that all special actions are good; for if all special actions are good, none of them are special. They stand at the crossroads, and one hates all the roads and the other likes all the roads. The result is—well, some things are not hard to calculate. They stand at the cross-roads.''
Incisive comments and observations occurred almost impulsively in Chesterton's writing. In the middle of his epic poem ''The Ballad of the White Horse'' he famously states:
:''For the great Gaels of Ireland''
:''Are the men that God made mad,''
:''For all their wars are merry,''
:''And all their songs are sad.''
==The ''Chesterbelloc'' and accusations of anti-Semitism==
''See [[G. K.'s Weekly]] for a fuller treatment''
Chesterton is often associated with his close friend, the poet and essayist [[Hilaire Belloc]]. Shaw coined the name ''Chesterbelloc'' for their partnership, and this stuck. Though they were very different men, they shared many beliefs; both eventually became Catholic, and voiced criticisms towards [[capitalism]] and [[socialism]] (see [[distributism]]).
[[Hugh Kenner]] in ''A Sinking Island'' (p.111) asserts that 'He and Belloc had powerful minds, which their contrived personalities hid from the periodical public and also inhibited from real use'. ''[[G. K.'s Weekly]]'', which occupied much of Chesterton's energy in the last 15 years of his life, was the successor to Belloc's ''[[New Witness]]'', taken over from [[Cecil Chesterton]], Gilbert's brother who died in [[World War I]].
Both Chesterton and Belloc have been accused of [[anti-Semitism]], both during their lifetimes and subsequently. In ''[[The New Jerusalem]]'' Chesterton made it clear that he believed that there was a "Jewish Problem" in Europe, in the sense that he did not believe that Jews would fit well into his picture of an ideal Europe. He suggested the formation of a [[Jewish homeland]] as a solution, and was later invited to Palestine by Jewish Zionists who saw him as an ally in their goal to achieve just that. In 1934, after the [[Nazis]] took power in Germany he wrote that:
<blockquote>''In our early days Hilaire Belloc and myself were accused of being uncompromising Anti-Semites. Today, although I still think there is a Jewish problem, I am appalled by the Hitlerite atrocities. They have absolutely no reason or logic behind them. It is quite obviously the expedient of a man who has been driven to seeking a scapegoat, and has found with relief the most famous scapegoat in European history, the Jewish people.''</blockquote>
==Influence==
[[Image:G. K. Chesterton.jpg|thumb|right|G.K. Chesterton, seated]]
* Chesterton's ''The Everlasting Man'' contributed to [[C. S. Lewis]]' conversion to Christianity.
* Chesterton's biography of [[Charles Dickens]] was largely responsible for creating a popular revival for Dickens' work as well as a serious reconsideration of Dickens by scholars. Considered by [[T.S. Eliot]], [[Peter Ackroyd]], and others, to be the best book on Dickens ever written.
* Chesterton's ''[[Orthodoxy (book)|Orthodoxy]]'' has become a religious classic.
* Chesterton's novel ''[[The Napoleon of Notting Hill]]'' was a favorite of [[Michael Collins (Irish leader)|Michael Collins]] who would later go on to lead the movement for [[Ireland|Irish]] independence. It has also been suggested that same book influen |
arctica. In 1998 [[NASA]] satellite data showed that the Antarctic [[ozone hole]] was the largest on record, covering 27&nbsp;million square kilometers. In 2002 significant areas of ice shelves disintegrated in response to regional warming.<ref name="cia" />
[[Image:ALH84001.jpg|thumb|right|220px|Antarctic meteorite, named [[ALH84001]], from [[Mars]].]]
[[Meteorite]]s from Antarctica are a relatively recent resource for study of the material formed early in the [[solar system]]; most are thought to come from [[asteroid]]s, but some may have originated on larger [[planet]]s. The first meteorites in Antarctica were found in 1912. In 1969 the Japanese discovered nine meteorites in Antarctica. Most of these meteorites have fallen onto the [[ice sheet]] in the last one million years. Motion of the ice sheet tends to concentrate the meteorites at blocking locations such as mountain ranges, with wind erosion bringing them to the surface after centuries beneath accumulated snowfall. Compared with meteorites collected in more temperate regions on Earth, the Antarctic meteorites are relatively well preserved.<ref name="meteorite">NASA [http://www-curator.jsc.nasa.gov/antmet/index.cfm Meteorites from Antarctica] Retrieved February 9, 2006.</ref>
This large collection of meteorites allows a better understanding of the abundance of meteorite types in the solar system and how meteorites relate to asteroids and comets. New types of meteorites and rare meteorites have been found. Among these meteorites are pieces blasted off the moon, and probably Mars, by impacts. These specimens, specifically [[ALH84001]] discovered by [[ANSMET]], are at the center of the controversy about possible evidence of microbial life on early Mars. Because meteorites in space absorb and record cosmic radiation, the time elapsed since the meteorite hit the Earth can be determined from laboratory studies. The elapsed time since fall, or terrestrial residence age, of a meteorite represents more information that might be useful in environmental studies of Antarctic ice sheets.<ref name="meteorite" />
==See also==
* [[List of antarctic and sub-antarctic islands]]
* [[Antarctica ecozone]]
* [[Antarctic Stamps]]
* [[Antarctic Treaty System|Antarctic Treaty System]]
* [[Argentine Antarctic Geopolitics]]
* [[Brazil Antarctic Geopolitics]]
* [[Chile Antarctic Geopolitics]]
* [[Communications in Antarctica]]
* [[Extreme points of Antarctica]]
* [[Flags of Antarctica]]
* ''[[Life in the Freezer]]'', a [[BBC]] natural history [[television]] series on life on and around Antarctica
* [[Transportation in Antarctica]]
==Footnotes==
<div style="font-size:90%;"><references /></div>
==External links==
{{sisterlinks|Antarctica}}
* [http://www.ats.aq Antarctic Treaty Secretariat]
* [http://www.anetstation.com ANetStation] - radio station in Antarctica
* [http://www.add.scar.org The Antarctic Digital Database - a source of digital topographic map data for Antarctica]
* [http://www.aad.gov.au/ Australian Antarctic Division]
* [http://www.antarctica.ac.uk British Antarctic Survey]
* [http://www.planetavivo.org/english/ResearchPrograms/Antarctica/SlideShows/ArdleyIsland/ArdleyIsland1.html Biodiversity at Ardley Island, South Shetland archipelago, Antarctica]
* [http://www.comnap.aq/ Council of Managers of National Antarctic Programs (COMNAP)], official homepage.
* [http://www.awi-bremerhaven.de/Polar/index.html German Antarctic Ships and Stations]
* [http://www.loc.gov/rr/international/frd/antarctica/antarctica.html Portals on the World - Antarctica] from the [[Library of Congress]]
* [http://www.polarmuseum.sp.ru/Eng/ The Russian State Museum of Arctic and Antarctic]
* [http://www.scar.org The Scientific Committee for Antarctic Research - coordinating body for Antarctic Science]
* [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/ay.html The World Factbook &ndash; Antarctica] from the U.S. [[Central Intelligence Agency]]
* [http://www.70south.com Latest Antarctic news and information by 70South]
* [http://www.iaato.org International Association of Antarctic Tour Operators (IAATO)]
* [http://www.usap.gov/ The United States Antartic Program]
* [http://apc.mfa.government.bg Antarctic Place-names Commission of Bulgaria]
* [http://www.geocities.com/peyre1347/ One of many journals by a tourist to Antarctica]
{{Continent}}
{{Region}}
[[Category:Antarctica]]
[[Category:Antarctica| ]]
[[Category:Continents]]
[[Category:Lists of coordinates]]
[[Category:Outposts of Antarctica| ]]
[[Category:Special territories]]
{{Link FA|de}}
{{Link FA|ru}}
{{Link FA|sl}}
[[an:Antartida]]
[[ar:أنتارتيكا]]
[[ast:Antártida]]
[[ba:Антарктика]]
[[be:Антарктыда]]
[[bg:Антарктида]]
[[bn:এন্টার্কটিকা]]
[[bs:Antarktik]]
[[ca:Antàrtida]]
[[cs:Antarktida]]
[[cy:Antarctica]]
[[da:Antarktis]]
[[de:Antarktis]]
[[el:Ανταρκτική]]
[[eo:Antarkto]]
[[es:Antártida]]
[[eu:Antartika]]
[[fa:جنوبگان]]
[[fi:Etelämanner]]
[[fo:Antarktis]]
[[fr:Antarctique]]
[[ga:Antartaice]]
[[gl:Antártida]]
[[gu:ઍન્ટાર્કટિકા]]
[[he:אנטארקטיקה]]
[[hr:Antarktika]]
[[hu:Antarktisz]]
[[ia:Antarctica]]
[[id:Antartika]]
[[io:Antarktika]]
[[is:Suðurskautslandið]]
[[it:Antartide]]
[[ja:南極大陸]]
[[ko:남극]]
[[li:Antarctica]]
[[lt:Antarktida]]
[[lv:Antarktīda]]
[[mr:अंटार्क्टिका]]
[[ms:Antartika]]
[[nds:Antarktis]]
[[nl:Antarctica]]
[[nn:Antarktis]]
[[no:Antarktika]]
[[pl:Antarktyda]]
[[pt:Antártica]]
[[ro:Antarctica]]
[[ru:Антарктида]]
[[scn:Antartidi]]
[[se:Antárktis]]
[[simple:Antarctica]]
[[sl:Antarktika]]
[[sr:Антарктик]]
[[sv:Antarktis]]
[[ta:அண்டார்டிக்கா]]
[[th:ทวีปแอนตาร์กติกา]]
[[tl:Antartika]]
[[tr:Antarktika]]
[[uk:Антарктида]]
[[vi:Châu Nam Cực]]
[[wa:Antartike]]
[[yi:אַנטאַרקטיקע]]
[[zh:南极洲]]
[[zh-min-nan:Lâm-ke̍k-tāi-lio̍k]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Algorithms</title>
<id>742</id>
<revision>
<id>15899261</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Algorithm]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Antigua And Barbuda</title>
<id>743</id>
<revision>
<id>15899262</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Antigua and Barbuda]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Argentina</title>
<id>744</id>
<revision>
<id>42158502</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T05:11:09Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>OneEuropeanHeart</username>
<id>633536</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>minor corrections</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Otheruses}}
{{Infobox_Country|
native_name = República Argentina |
common_name = Argentina |
image_flag = Flag of Argentina.svg |
image_coat = Argentina_coa.png |
image_map = LocationArgentina.png |
national_motto = ''En Unión y Libertad''<br>([[English language|English]]: In Union and Liberty)|
national_anthem = ''[[Argentine National Anthem|Himno Nacional Argentino]]'' |
official_languages = [[Spanish language|Spanish]]|
capital = [[Buenos Aires]] |
latd=34|latm=20|latNS=S|longd=58|longm=30|longEW=W|
largest_city = [[Buenos Aires]] |
government_type= [[Democracy|Democratic]] [[Federal Republic]] |
leader_titles = [[President of Argentina|President]]|
leader_names = [[Néstor Kirchner]] |
area_rank = 8th |
area_magnitude = 1_E12 |
area=2,791,810*|
areami² = 1,077,924*| <!-- Do not remove -->
percent_water = 1.1 |
population_estimate = 39,538,000 |
population_estimate_year = 2005 |
population_estimate_rank = 31st |
population_census= 36,260,130|
population_census_year= 2001|
population_density = 13 |
population_densitymi² = 33.7 | <!-- Do not remove -->
population_density_rank= 165th|
GDP_PPP_year=2005|
GDP_PPP = US$ 537.2 billion [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/ar.html#Econ]|
GDP_PPP_rank =22nd |
GDP_PPP_per_capita = US$ 14,087 |
GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 52nd |
HDI_year = 2003 |
HDI = 0.863 |
HDI_rank = 34th |
HDI_category = <font color="#009900">high</font> |
sovereignty_type = [[Independence]]|
established_events = - [[May Revolution]]<br> - Declared<br> - Recognised |
established_dates = from [[Spain]]<br>[[25 May]] [[1810]]<br>[[9 July]] [[1816]]<br>in [[1821]] (by [[Portugal]]) |
currency = [[Argentine Peso|Peso]] |
currency_code = ARS |
time_zone= ART |
utc_offset= -3 |
time_zone_DST= ARST |
utc_offset_DST= -3 |
cctld= [[.ar]] |
calling_code = 54 |
footnotes = <sup>*</sup> Argentina also claims 1,000,000 km² of [[Antarctica]], the [[Falkland Islands]] and [[South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands]]. For a total of 3,761,274 sq.&nbsp;km (1,452,236&nbsp;sq&nbsp;mi).
}}
{{wiktionarypar|Argentina}}
The '''Argentine Republic''' ([[Spanish language|Spanish]]: ''República Argentina'', [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]] {{IPA|[reˈpuβlika aɾxɛnˈtina]}}) is a [[country]] in [[South America]], situated between the [[Andes]] in the west and the southern [[Atlantic Ocean]] in the east and south. It is bordered by [[Paraguay]] and [[Bolivia]] in the north, [[Brazil]] and [[Uruguay]] in the northeast, and [[Chile]] in the west and south. It also claims the [[British overseas territory|British overseas territories]] of the [[Falkland Islands]] ([[Spanish language|Spanish]]: ''Islas Malvinas'') and [[South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands]]. Under the name of [[Argentine Antarctica]], it claims around 1,000,000 [[square kilometre]]s (386,000&nbsp;[[square miles|sq.&nbsp;mi]]) of [[Antarctica]], overlapping other claims by [[Chile]] and the [[United Kingdom]]. |
lution SuperNOVA]]. A version for Europe, '''Dancing Stage SuperNOVA''', was premiered at the [[Amusement Trade Exhibition International]] in [[Birmingham]], [[England]], the previous day. More recently, [[Dance Dance Revolution SuperNOVA]] made an appearance at this year's AOU (All-Nippon Amusement Machine Operators' Union) show in Japan, making the game the first world-wide arcade release in the series.
===Home releases===
[[Image:Stepmania spin-the-disk.jpg|250px|thumb|right|Screenshot of [[StepMania]], an open-source ''DDR'' simulator for personal computers]]
[[Image:FFR R2 A.jpg|250px|thumb|right|Screenshot of [[Flash Flash Revolution]] R2, the online DDR simulator.]]
''DDR'' has been released on a number of [[video game console]]s, including the [[Nintendo 64]], [[Sega Dreamcast]], [[PlayStation]], [[PlayStation 2]], [[Nintendo GameCube|GameCube]] and [[Xbox]]. Home versions are often used with soft plastic [[dance pad]]s, similar in appearance and function to the [[Nintendo]] [[Power Pad]]. More durable dance pads may be constructed out of materials such as wood, hard plastic, and metal. See [[dance pad]] for more information.
''DDR'' has even reached Nintendo's [[Game Boy Color]], with five versions of ''Dance Dance Revolution GB'' released in Japan; these included a series of 3 DDR GB games, a DDR GB Disney Mix, and a DDR GB Oha Sta! mix. The games come with a small thumb pad that fits over the Game Boy's controls to simulate the dance pad.
Konami has also produced their own version of ''DDR'' for the PC in North America. It uses the interface of ''[[Dance Dance Revolution 4thMIX|DDR 4thMIX]]'', and contains about 40 songs from ''[[Dance Dance Revolution (1stMIX)|1stMIX]]'' through ''[[DDRMAX: Dance Dance Revolution 6thMIX|6thMIX]]''. It has not been as well received as the console versions.
Critics of ports for home video game consoles tend to gloss over the inferior quality of home pads, given the availability of third-party hardware (see [[dance pad]]). Their main criticism is that despite the increased capacity of DVD storage media, the home ports have much less musical selection than the arcade machines do, and have an unfortunate tendency to "leave off" fan-favorite songs. This is especially true of releases that reach the American market, due mainly to licensing rights.
====DDR North American Home Releases====
{{main|List of Dance Dance Revolution games by date}}
*[[PlayStation|PlayStation game console]]
**''[[Dance Dance Revolution (North America)|Dance Dance Revolution]]'' ([[2001]])
**''[[Dance Dance Revolution Disney MIX]]'' (2001)
**''[[Dance Dance Revolution KONAMIX]]'' ([[2002]])
*[[IBM compatible|Windows PC]]
**''Dance Dance Revolution'' (2002)
*[[PlayStation2|PlayStation2 computer entertainment system]]
**''[[DDRMAX: Dance Dance Revolution]]'' (2002)
**''[[DDRMAX2: Dance Dance Revolution]]'' ([[2003]])
**''[[Dance Dance Revolution EXTREME (North America)|Dance Dance Revolution EXTREME]]'' ([[2004]])
**''[[Dance Dance Revolution EXTREME 2]]'' ([[2005]])
*[[Xbox|Xbox video game system]]
**''[[Dance Dance Revolution ULTRAMIX]]'' (2003)
**''[[Dance Dance Revolution ULTRAMIX 2]]'' (2004)
**''[[Dance Dance Revolution ULTRAMIX 3]]'' (2005)
*[[Nintendo GameCube]]
**''[[Dance Dance Revolution: Mario Mix]]'' (2005)
====DDR JAPAN Home Releases For Playstation 2 Only====
*[[PlayStation2|PlayStation2 computer entertainment system]]
**''[[DDRMAX: Dance Dance Revolution 6thMIX]]'' (2001)
**''[[DDRMAX2: Dance Dance Revolution 7thMIX]]'' ([[2002]])
**''[[Dance Dance Revolution EXTREME]]'' ([[2002]])
**''[[Dance Dance Revolution Party Collection]]'' (2003)
**''[[DDR FESTIVAL: Dance Dance Revolution]]'' ([[2003]])
**''[[Dance Dance Revolution STR!KE]]'' ([[2006]])
===Simulators and clones===
There are several simulators of ''DDR'' available for [[personal computer]]s. These games use their own music and step files, and a variety of both are widely available. The obvious advantage these programs hold is the ability to create a step pattern for any song in a digital audio format (typically an [[MP3]] file). Such programs include ''[[Dance With Intensity]]'' for [[Microsoft Windows]]; ''[[StepMania]]'' for Windows, [[Linux]], [[Mac OS X]] and [[Xbox]]; the [[Macromedia Flash|Flash]]-based ''[[Flash Flash Revolution]]''; and the cross-platform ''[[pydance]]'', which runs in a [[Python programming language|Python]] environment on Windows, Mac OS X, and Linux among others. A particularly novel ''DDR'' simulator called ''[[Text Text Revolution]]'' can be displayed on [[text user interface|text-only]] terminals.
''[[In The Groove (game)|In The Groove]]'' is an arcade dance game based on the aforementioned ''[[StepMania]]'' engine, developed by the young [[Texas]]-based company, [[Roxor Games|RoXor Games]]. ''ITG'' features a number of gameplay mechanics used in ''Dance Dance Revolution'', expanding upon certain concepts to appeal to a certain subset of ''DDR'' fans. In 2005, Konami filed a lawsuit against the company, regarding the possible trademark infringement caused by the company's conversion kit, which allows ''In The Groove'' to be installed on ''Dance Dance Revolution'' arcade cabinets.
==The DDR phenomenon==
Many players would tell you that playing at home is an excellent way to practice, and it saves money in the long run compared to playing in the arcade. However, many would also say that a large part of ''DDR'' is the experience of dancing in public, and becoming part of a local community. Two players can dance together side-by-side in friendship, the better player offering encouragement to the lesser, or in competition. Crowds may gather while the dance is in progress and become involved. Some players enjoy showing off by looking away from the screen, and dropping to the floor to press arrows with their hands, among other performance techniques.
''DDR'' is a phenomenon around which subcultures of fans and enthusiasts have gathered. Tournaments are held worldwide, with participants usually competing for higher scores or number of Perfects (referred to as "Perfect Attack" tournaments). Less common are "freestyle" tournaments, where players develop actual dance routines to perform while following the steps in the game.
Many news outlets are beginning to report how playing ''DDR'' can be good [[aerobic exercise]]; some regular players have reported [[weight loss]] of 10-50 pounds (5-20 kg). One player reports that including ''DDR'' in her day-to-day life resulted in a loss of 95 pounds. It is argued however that the cases of significant weight loss have all been stories where a significantly overweight player loses a few pounds, and then becomes motivated to take action to lose weight, including [[dieting]], and regular gym attendance. Although reports of weight loss have not been scientifically measured, a handful of schools use ''DDR'' as a physical education activity, and in [[Norway]], ''DDR'' has even been registered as an official sport.
DDR's usefulness for weight loss is helped in that many home versions of the game have a function to estimate calories burned if given a player's weight. Also, players can use "workout mode" to make a diary of calories burned playing DDR and any changes in the players weight (the latter must be self-reported.)
===Internet fandom===
Dozens of fan websites have been created in response to ''DDR''<nowiki>'</nowiki>s popularity. In the United States, one of the most popular is [http://www.ddrfreak.com/ DDR Freak], which was originally formed in 2000 to promote ''DDR'' in the [[San Francisco Bay Area]]. It has since become an international player resource, featuring ''DDR''-related news coverage, codes and "step charts" for the various games, a database of machine locations, [[Internet forum]]s, an [[internet radio]] station and an [[Internet Relay Chat|IRC]] channel. DDR Freak's forums are heavily trafficked, and boast over 55,000 members as of [[July 2005]].
[http://www.aaroninjapan.com Aaron In Japan] is another popular website, and is geared more towards "tech" players. The site's forums tend to discuss specific ''DDR'' issues, such as technique and timing on specific songs or mixes, or [[reverse engineering]] of scoring and grading systems. A large section of the website is dedicated to storing [[photograph]]ic records of "AAA" grades accomplished by ''DDR'' players worldwide. Several sites have also been created where players can track their high scores in an organized fashion. The most popular of these, NNR, is now defunct, but more recent websites such as [http://www.ddrecall.com/ DD:Recall] have filled its place.
An interesting website is the popular [http://www.flashflashrevolution.com Flash Flash Revolution.] Rather than using a dance mat, the player uses the up, down, left and right controls on the keyboard. The game also gives the user the abilty to control how they see the arrows, rather than just the traditional arrows at the top of the screen, they can be viewed from all sides of the field, allowing for an endless array of ways to play.
''DDR'' is also the subject of two [[Webcomics]], [http://10kcommotion.com The 10K Commotion] by Yukon Makoto, and [http://www.event-mode.com Event Mode] by Marcelo Cesar, Matthew Simmons, and Nathan Schaad.
===Use in schools===
At the start of 2006, Konami announced that the ''DDR'' games would be used as part of a fitness program to be phased into [[West Virginia]]'s 756 state schools over the next two years [http://www.mtv.com/news/articles/1521605/20060125/index.jhtml?headlines=true]. The program was conceived by a researcher at [[West Virginia University]]'s Motor Development Center.
== In popular culture==
A Dancing Stage machine (the European counterpart to Dance Dance Revolution) was featured in [[Madonna (entertainer)|Madonna]]'s video [[Hung Up]].
==See also==
* [[List of Dance Dance Revolution games |
]
* the energy that is stored in the coils of an [[electrical generator]] in a [[power station]], and is then transmitted by wires to the consumer; the consumer then pays for each unit of energy he receives
* the energy that is stored in a [[capacitor]], and can be released to drive a current through an [[electrical circuit]]
== Electric power ==
{{main|Electric power}}
Electric power is the rate at which electrical energy is produced or consumed, and is measured in [[watt]]s (symbol: W).
[[Image:Nuclear Power Plant.jpg|thumb|250px|left|A nuclear power station.]]
A [[fossil fuel|fossil-fuel]] or [[nuclear power|nuclear]] [[power station]] converts heat to electrical energy, and the faster the station burns fuel, assuming constant efficiency of conversion, the higher its power output. The output of a power station is usually specified in megawatts (millions of watts). The electrical energy is then sent over [[transmission line]]s to reach the consumers.
Each consumer uses appliances that convert the electrical energy to other forms of energy, such as [[heat]] (in [[electric arc furnace]]s and [[electric heater]]s), [[light]] (in [[light bulb]]s and [[fluorescent lamp]]s), or motion, i.e. [[kinetic energy]] (in [[electric motor]]s). Like the power station, each appliance is also rated in watts, depending on the rate at which it converts electrical energy into another form. The power station must produce electrical energy at the same rate as all the connected appliances consume it.
In electrical engineering, the concepts of [[apparent power]] and [[reactive power]] are also used. Apparent power is the product of RMS voltage and RMS current, and is measured in volt-amperes (VA). [[Reactive power]] is measured in volt-amperes-reactive (VAR).
{{clear}}
== SI electricity units ==
{{SI_electromagnetism_units}}
== See also ==
* [[Electromagnetism]]
* [[Electrical engineering]]
* [[Electrical phenomena]]
* [[Electrostatics]]
===Devices===
* [[Battery (electricity)|Battery]]
* [[Conductor (material)|Conductor]]
* [[Insulator]]
===Engineering===
* [[Green electricity]]
* [[Electrical wiring]]
===Safety===
* [[Electric shock]]
* [[Electrical injuries]]
* [[High voltage|High-voltage hazards]]
=== Electrical phenomena in nature ===
* [[Matter]]: &mdash; since [[atom]]s and [[molecule]]s are held together by electric forces.
* [[Lightning]]: electrical discharges in the atmosphere.
* The [[Earth's magnetic field]] &mdash; created by electric currents circulating in the planet's core.
* Sometimes due to [[solar flare]]s, a phenomenon known as a [[power surge]] can be created.
*[[Piezoelectricity]]: the ability of certain crystals to generate a voltage in response to applied mechanical stress.
*[[triboelectric effect|Triboelectricity]]: electric charge taken on by contact or friction between two different materials.
* [[Bioelectromagnetism]]: electrical phenomena within living organisms.
** [[Bioelectricity]] &mdash; Many animals are sensitive to electric fields, some (e.g., [[shark]]s) more than others (e.g., people). Most also generate their own electric fields.
*** [[Gymnotiformes]], such as the [[electric eel]], deliberately generate strong fields to detect or stun their prey.
*** [[Neuron]]s in the [[nervous system]] transmit information by electrical impulses known as [[action potential]]s.
== External links ==
* [http://amasci.com/miscon/whatis.html What is electricity?]
* [http://www.m-w.com/cgi-bin/dictionary?book=Dictionary&va=electricity Merriam-Webster: Electricity]
* [http://www.bibliomania.com/2/9/72/119/21387/1.html Tyndall: Faraday as Discovery: Identity of Electricities]
* [http://www.eia.doe.gov/fuelelectric.html US Energy Department Statistics]
* [http://www.mouthshut.com/readreview/38842-1.html How to save on your electricity bills]
* [http://users.pandora.be/worldstandards/electricity.htm Electricity around the world]
* [http://www.tufts.edu/as/wright_center/fellows/bob_morse_04/ A Comprehensive Collection of Franklin’s Electrical Works: The Electrical Writings of Benjamin Franklin], Created and Collected by Robert A. Morse (2004)
* [http://www.telesensoryview.com/steverosecom/Articles/UnderstandingBasicElectri.html Understanding Electricity and some Electronics in 10 minutes](Steve Rose, Maui)
* [http://amasci.com/miscon/eleca.html Electricity Misconceptions]
[[Category:Electricity|*]]
[[ar:كهرباء]]
[[bg:Електричество]]
[[be:Электрычнасць]]
[[bn:বিদ্যুত্]]
[[br:Tredan]]
[[ca:Electricitat]]
[[cs:Elektřina]]
[[da:Elektricitet]]
[[de:Elektrizität]]
[[et:Elekter]]
[[es:Electricidad]]
[[eo:Elektro]]
[[fa:الکتریسیته]]
[[fr:Électricité]]
[[gl:Electricidade]]
[[ko:전기]]
[[io:Elektro]]
[[id:Listrik]]
[[he:חשמל]]
[[kw:Tredan]]
[[ku:Elektrîk]]
[[lt:Elektra]]
[[li:Elektriciteit]]
[[nl:Elektriciteit]]
[[ja:電気]]
[[no:Elektrisitet]]
[[pl:Elektryczność]]
[[pt:Electricidade]]
[[ru:Электричество]]
[[simple:Electricity]]
[[sl:Elektrika]]
[[fi:Sähkö]]
[[sv:Elektricitet]]
[[tr:Elektrik]]
[[zh:電]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Emergent philosophy</title>
<id>9551</id>
<revision>
<id>33945909</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-05T07:05:51Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>DavidCary</username>
<id>39203</id>
</contributor>
<comment>+[[Protoscience]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Emergent philosophies''' are those newly formed [[philosophies]] which are at, or are on the cusp of serious recognition as philosophical schools and theories. This implies a temporal criterion; for example, at the point in time which [[Jean-Paul Sartre]] and [[Albert Camus]] were sitting down to formulate and expound their philosophies, French [[existentialism]] could have been conceived of as being an emergent philosophy; it now, of course, is no such thing, it is recognised as a particular branch of existentialism. Since currently the preponderance of the emergent philosophies are or appear to be inspired by or related to developments in technology, we have elected to deal with them within this ambit rather than in the realm of pure philosophy.
Since history will decide whether a school of thought comes to be recognized as a serious field of philosophy, or whether it is forgotten, it is obviously possible to apply this label only retrospectively: we may say of an accepted school of philosophy ''when'' it was merely emergent. For example:
[[German idealism]] was an emergent school of philosophy between [[1781]] (with the publication of [[Kant]]'s [[Critique of Pure Reason]]) and, probably, [[1807]] (with the publication of [[Hegel]]'s [[Phenomenology of Spirit]]).
Existentialism, as mentioned above, was emergent in the [[1930s]].
Only history will be able to tell what today's emergent philosophies are.
Proponents of the following philosophies claim the philosophies are emergent philosophies:
* [[Objectivist philosophy|Objectivism]]
* [[Pancritical rationalism]]
* [[Posthumanism]]
* [[Transhumanism]], and movements within transhumanism:
** [[Democratic transhumanism]]
** [[Extropianism]]
== See also ==
* [[Protoscience]]
[[Category:History of philosophy]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Empedocles</title>
<id>9553</id>
<revision>
<id>41555103</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T03:04:31Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Commodore Sloat</username>
<id>67060</id>
</contributor>
<comment>rv unexplained deletion; this may be poorly worded but I don't believe it is incorrect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Empedokles.jpeg|right|thumb|225px|Empedocles of Agrigentum]]
'''Empedocles''' (circa [[490 BCE|490]] [[Common era|BCE]] &ndash; c. [[430 BCE]]) was a [[Hellenic civilization|Greek]] [[presocratic]] [[philosopher]] and a citizen of [[Agrigentum]], a Greek colony in [[Sicily]]. Empedocles' philosophy is best known for being the origin of the [[cosmogenesis|cosmogenic]] theory of the four [[classical elements]]. Little of the verse that Empedocles wrote survives today, and, as with many of the presocratics, much of what is known about his philosophy comes from commentary upon it by later thinkers. Empedocles' death has been the subject of both legend and a number of literary treatments.
==Philosophy==
Empedocles maintained that all [[matter]] is made up of four Elements (which he called ''roots):'' [[water (classical element)|water]], [[earth (classical element)|earth]], [[air (classical element)|air]] and [[fire (classical element)|fire]]. In addition to these, he postulated something called [[Love]] ''(philia)'' to explain the attraction of different forms of matter, and of something called Strife ''(neikos)'' to account for their separation. He was also one of the first people to state the theory that [[light]] travels at a finite (although very large) speed, a theory that gained acceptance only much later.
Though having much in common with [[Heraclitus]]' [[ontology]], Empedocles is considered to be more tolerant and soft in his outlook. [[Plato]], in the famous "Sophist" [[dialogue]], described Empedocles as a "gentle muse":
:''Then there are Ionian, and in more recent times Sicilian muses, who have arrived at the conclusion that to unite the two principles is safer, and to say that being is one and many, and that these are held together by enmity and friendship, ever parting, ever meeting, as the-severer Muses assert, while the gentler ones do not insist on the perpetual strife and peace, but admit a relaxation and alternation of them; peace and unity sometimes prevailing under the sway of Aphrodite, and then again plurality and war, by reason of a principle of strife.'' ([[Plato]], ''Soph.'').
Empedocles was also a mystic and a poet, and some consider him the inventor of the study of [[rhetoric]]{{fact}}. [[Gorgias]] of Leontini was his student, and it is probably from Empedocles that Gorgias developed |
'''Worst Two-Headed Transplant Movie''': ''[[The Thing with Two Heads]]''
* '''Worst Rodent Movie''': ''[[The Food of the Gods]]''
* '''Worst Performance by a Novelist''': [[Norman Mailer]] in ''[[Wild 90]]''
* '''[[P.T. Barnum]] Award for Worst Cinematic Explotation of a Physical Deformity''': ''[[The Terror of Tiny Town]]'', a [[Western film]] with an all-[[dwarfism|dwarf]] cast.
* '''Worst Musical Extravaganza''': ''[[At Long Last Love]]'' (early 1970s musical starring [[Burt Reynolds]])
* '''Worst Performance as a Clergyman or Nun''': [[Mary Tyler Moore]] in ''[[Change of Habit]]''
* '''Worst Performance as [[Jesus Christ]]''': [[Ted Neeley]] in ''[[Jesus Christ Superstar]]''
* '''Worst [[Blaxpoitation]] Movie''': ''[[Scream, Blacula, Scream]]''
* '''Biggest Rip-off in Hollywood History''': The [[1976]] version of ''[[King Kong (1976 film)|King Kong]]''
* '''Worst Credit Line''': The [[1929]] version of [[William Shakespeare]]'s ''[[The Taming of the Shrew]]'', "with additional dialogue by [[Sam Taylor (director)|Sam Taylor]]".
* '''Most Unerotic Concept in [[Pornography]]''': ''[[Him (film)|Him]]'', a porn film about a priest with a sexual fixation on [[Jesus Christ]]
* '''Worst Performance by an Animal''': Dinky the Chimp in ''[[Tarzan and the Great River]]''. (During filming, Dinky attacked and injured lead actor [[Mike Henry]].)
* '''Worst Vegetable Movie''': ''[[Attack of the Mushroom People]]''
* '''Worst Performance by [[Sonny Tufts]]''': ''[[Government Girl]]''
* '''Most Ludicrous Racial Impersonation]]''': [[Marlon Brando]] as a native of [[Okinawa]] in ''[[Teahouse of the August Moon]]''
* '''Most Obnoxious Child Performer''': [[David Kory]] in ''[[Dondi]]''
* '''Worst Film You Never Saw''' (category for films never completed or only released in a limited fashion): ''[[Billy Jack Goes to Washington]]''
* '''Most Inane Technical Advance''': [[Percepto]], designed by [[William Castle]] for his 1959 film, ''[[The Tingler]]'' starring [[Vincent Price]]. At certain times in the film, small electric shocks were delivered to the audience through their theater seating.
* '''Worst Line of Romantic Dialogue''': an exchange between [[Gary Cooper]] and [[Madeleine Carroll]] in ''[[Northwest Mounted Police (film)|Northwest Mounted Police]]''
* '''Worst Director''': [[Ed Wood, Jr.|Edward D. Wood Jr.]]
* '''Worst Actress''': [[Raquel Welch]]
* '''Worst Actor''': [[Richard Burton]]
In addition, the Golden Turkey Awards had a reader's choice category for Worst Film of All Time, voted upon by readers of ''The Fifty Worst Films of All Time''.
* '''First Runner-Up''': ''[[Exorcist II: The Heretic]]''
* '''Worst Film''': ''[[Plan 9 from Outer Space]]''
==See also==
* [[Golden Raspberry Awards]]
==References==
* Medved, Harry, and Randy Dreyfuss. ''The Fifty Worst Films of All Time (And How They Got That Way)''. 1978, Warner Books. ISBN 0445041390.
* Medved, Michael, and Harry Medved. ''The Golden Turkey Awards''. 1980, Putnam. ISBN 039950463X.
[[Category:Film awards]]
[[Category:1980 books|Golden Turkey Awards, The]]
[[de:Golden Turkey Award]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>George Fox</title>
<id>13156</id>
<restrictions>move=:edit=</restrictions>
<revision>
<id>40713136</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-22T14:21:32Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Solipsist</username>
<id>49943</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>rv - swarthmoorhall.co.uk already linked from the [[Swarthmoor Hall]] page, which is the right place for it</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{featured article}}
[[Image:George Fox.jpg|frame|right|19th-century engraving of George Fox, based on a painting of unknown date.]]
'''George Fox''' (July 1624 &ndash; [[January 13]] [[1691]]) was an [[English Dissenters|English Dissenter]] and a major early figure — often considered the founder — of the [[Religious Society of Friends]], commonly known as the Quakers. Living in a time of great social upheaval, he rebelled against the religious and political consensus by proposing an unusual and uncompromising approach to the [[Christianity|Christian faith]]. His journal is a text popular even among non-Quakers for its vivid account of his personal journey.
== Early life ==
George Fox was born at Drayton-in-the-Clay, [[Leicestershire]], [[England]] (now known as [[Fenny Drayton]]), 24 km (15 miles) southwest of [[Leicester]]. His father, Christopher Fox, was a [[weaving|weaver]], called "righteous Christer" by his neighbours; his mother, Mary Lago, was&mdash;he tells us&mdash;"of the stock of the Martyrs". From childhood, Fox was of a serious, religious disposition. His education was based around the faith and practice of the [[Church of England]], of which his parents were members; he had no formal schooling, but was able to read and write. Even at a young age, he was fascinated by the [[Bible]], which he studied continually. "When I came to eleven years of age," he said, "I knew pureness and righteousness; for, while I was a child, I was taught how to walk to be kept pure. The Lord taught me to be faithful, in all things, and to act faithfully two ways; viz., inwardly to God, and outwardly to man." ([[#References|Jones]] 1908 [http://www.strecorsoc.org/gfox/ch01.html])
[[Image:Fox-George-LOC.jpg|thumb|Facsimile of portrait drawn on stone by Thomas Fairland.]]
As he grew up, his relations "thought to have made him a priest," but he was instead made an apprentice to a [[shoemaking|shoemaker]] and [[wikt:Grazier|grazier]]. This suited his contemplative temperament, and he became well-known for his diligence among the wool traders who had dealings with his master. A constant obsession for Fox was the pursuit of "simplicity" in life, meaning humility and the abandonment of luxury, and the short time he spent as a [[shepherd]] was important to the formation of this view. Toward the end of his life, he wrote a letter for general circulation pointing out that [[Abel]], [[Noah]], [[Abraham]], [[Jacob]], [[Moses]] and [[David]] were all keepers of sheep or cattle, and that a learned education should not therefore be seen as a qualification for ministry. ([[#References|Marsh]] 1847, 364)
Even so, he felt no shame in friendship with educated people. He frequently visited Nathaniel Stephens, the clergyman of his hometown, to engage in long discussions on religious matters. Stephens considered Fox to be a gifted young man, but the two disagreed on so many issues that he later called Fox a madman and spoke against him in his subsequent career. George Fox also had friends who were "professors" (followers of the standard religion), but by the age of nineteen he had begun to look down on their behaviour, in particular their drinking of alcohol. He records that in prayer one night he heard an inner voice saying, "Thou seest how young people go together into vanity, and old people into the earth; and thou must forsake all, both young and old, and keep out of all, and be as a stranger unto all." ([[#References|Jones]] 1908 [http://www.strecorsoc.org/gfox/ch01.html#upfn12])
=== First travels ===
For this reason, he left Drayton-in-the-Clay in September 1643, wandering in a state of mental torment and confusion. While in [[Barnet]], Fox would alternately shut himself in his room for days at a time, or go out alone into the countryside. He thought intensely about [[Jesus]]' [[Satan#In the New Testament|temptation in the desert]], which he compared to his own spiritual condition, but drew strength from his conviction that God would support and preserve him. At times, he attracted the attention of various religious scholars, but he rejected them because he did not feel they lived up to the doctrines they taught. Fox did actively seek out the company of clergy, but "found no comfort from them", as they too seemed unable to help with the matters that were troubling him. One clergyman in [[Worcestershire]] advised him to take [[tobacco]] (which Fox detested) and sing [[psalms]]; another, in [[Coventry]], was helpful at first but lost his temper when Fox accidentally stood on a flower in his garden; a third suggested that [[bloodletting]] would cure the "mind diseased". ([[#References|Jones]] 1908, footnote 19 [http://www.strecorsoc.org/gfox/ch01.html#upfn19])
Disillusioned and dejected, he returned home in June 1644. But there was no help to be found there either: Fox's family and friends offered either [[marriage]] or [[military service]] as a solution to his troubles. He soon decided that he would have to go travelling again, but this time with a more questioning approach towards the religious figures he would encounter. Fox was determined to challenge those he disagreed with, rather than shrink away from them. ([[#References|Marsh]] 1847, 31&ndash;32<nowiki>)</nowiki>
=== Unique beliefs begin to form ===
Over the next few years, George Fox continued to travel around the country as his particular religious beliefs took shape. In prayer and meditation, he came to a greater understanding of the nature of his faith and what it required from him. This process he called "opening", because he experienced it as a series of sudden revelations of ideas that were already complete by the time he became conscious of them. He also came to what he deemed a deep inner understanding of standard Christian beliefs in creation and salvation. Among his ideas were:
*Christians differ in external practice, but all are considered "saved" because of their belief; rituals can therefore be safely ignored, as long as one experiences a true spiritual conversion.
*The qualification for ministry is given by the [[Holy Spirit]], not by ecclesiastical study. This implies that anyone has the right to minister, assuming the Spirit guides them, including w |
for thy sake I will to create paradise, the world, and a great multitude of creatures, whereof I make thee a present, insomuch that whoso bless thee shall be blessed, and whoso shall curse thee shall be accursed. When I shall send thee into the world I shall send thee as my messenger of salvation, and thy word shall be true, insomuch that heaven and earth shall fail, but thy faith shall never fail." Mohammed is his blessed name.' Then the crowd lifted up their voices, saying: `O God, send us thy messenger: O Admirable One, come quickly for the salvation of the world!'" [http://www.barnabas.net/barnabasP97.html Barnabas 97:9-10]. The Italian manuscript replaces "Admirable One" with "Muhammad" [http://www.latrobe.edu.au/arts/barnabas/Barncoloured5.html].
However, while there are many passages where the Gospel of Barnabas sets out alternative readings to parallel [[pericope]]s found in the canonical gospels, none of the references to Muhammad by name occurs in such a [[synoptic]] passage; and in particular, none of the "Muhammad" references in Barnabas corresponds to a "Paraclete" reference in canonical John. There is only one instance where the Gospel of Barnabas might be understood as "correcting" a known canonical pericope, so as to record a prophecy by Jesus of the (unnamed) Messenger of God:
: Then Jesus said: "I am a voice that cries through all Judea, and cries: "Prepare you the way for the messenger of the Lord," even as it is written in Esaias." They said: "If you be not the Messiah nor Elijah, or any prophet, wherefore do you preach new doctrine, and make yourself of more account than the Messiah?" Jesus answered: "The miracles which God works by my hands show that I speak that which God wills; nor indeed do I make myself to be accounted as him of whom you speak. For I am not worthy to unloose the ties of the hosen or the ratchets of the shoes of the Messenger of God whom you call "Messiah," who was made before me, and shall come after me, and shall bring the words of truth, so that his faith shall have no end." (Chapter 43):
This passage corresponds closely with the canonical John 1:19-30, except that in that passage, the words are spoken by John the Baptist (in the Qur'an; Yahya ibn Zakariya) and refer to Jesus.
====Muhammad as the Messiah====
According to one version of the Gospel of Barnabas:
:'Then said the priest: "How shall the Messiah be called?" {Jesus answered} "Muhammed is his blessed name" ' (ch. 97).
and
: Jesus confessed, and said the truth: "I am not the Messiah." (ch. 42:2)
As mentioned above, these pronouncements appear to contradict Islamic belief. However, the well-known Muslim debater [[Ahmed Deedat]] argues that, since "Messiah" merely means "anointed", it can be attributed to any prophet, and Jesus would have meant Muhammad was anointed by God.
However, regarding ''[[messiah]]'' as synonymous with ''anointed'' is inconsistent with the complex connotations of ''messiah'' by the Jews of the first century. See [[Messiah]]. ''Messiah'' referred to an individual; two people could not both be ''the'' Messiah. The Messiah would be a Jewish leader, fighting with the Jews to restore them to a secure nation. Islam does not attribute any of this to Muhammad.
If the author of the Gospel of Barnabas was had experience in a Christian community, he would understand the meaning of ''messiah'' differently. In [[Christendom]], it has taken the connotation of a prophecied ruler who saves believers from damnation. This description fits well with Muslims' view of Muhammad. (Note that Muslims do not believe Muhammad is a savior the way Christians believe Jesus to be; Muhammad reveals the Qur'an which allows Muslims to escape hell.)
====Ishmaelite Messiah====
According to one version of the Gospel of Barnabas, Jesus denied being the Messiah, claiming rather that the Messiah would be Ishmaelite (ie Arab):
: "Whereupon Jesus said: 'Ye deceive yourselves; for David in spirit calleth him lord, saying thus: "God said to my lord, sit thou on my right hand until I make thine enemies thy footstool. God shall send forth thy rod which shall have lordship in the midst of thine enemies." If the messenger of God whom ye call Messiah were son of David, how should David call him lord? Believe me, for verily I say to you, that the promise was made in Ishmael, not in Isaac.'" ([http://www.barnabas.net/barnabasP43.html Barnabas 43]:10)
Hajj Sayed (Senior Member in [http://www.islamic-message.net CIMS]), in his new book in [[Egypt]], compares this to the following statement from the canonical Bible:
: "What do you think about the Christ? Whose son is he?" "The son of David," they replied. He said to them, "How is it then that David, speaking by the Spirit, calls him 'Lord'? For he says, 'The Lord said to my Lord: "Sit at my right hand until I put your enemies under your feet.' If then David calls him 'Lord,' how can he be his son?" ([http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=mat%2022.42-46;&version=31; Matthew 22:42-46])
According to the canonical Gospels, Jesus was the "son" (descendant) of David; thus, Hajj Sayed argues that this statement confirms the Gospel of Barnabas' point.
The idea of the Messiah as an Arab is also found in another chapter of Gospel of Barnabas:
: "If I work iniquity, reprove me, and God will love you, because you shall be doing his will, but if none can reprove me of sin it is a sign that you are not sons of Abraham as you call yourselves, nor are you incorporate with that head wherein Abraham was incorporate. As God lives, so greatly did Abraham love God, that he not only brake in pieces the false idols and forsook his father and mother, but was willing to slay his own son in obedience to God.
: The high priest answered: "This I ask of you, and I do not seek to slay you, wherefore tell us: Who was this son of Abraham?" Jesus answered: "The zeal of your honour, O God, inflames me, and I cannot hold my peace. Truly I say, the son of Abraham was Ishmael, from whom must be descended the Messiah promised to Abraham, that in him should all the tribes of the earth be blessed." Then was the high priest wroth, hearing this, and cried out: "Let us stone this impious fellow, for he is an Ishmaelite, and has spoken blasphemy against Moses and against the Law of God." ([http://www.barnabas.net/barnabasP208.html Barnabas 208]:1-2)
Here, one version of the Gospel of Barnabas also quotes Jesus as saying that the sacrificed son of Abraham was Ishmael not Isaac, conforming to Islamic belief but disagreeing with Jewish and Christian belief. A connection might also be drawn between the last paragraph's statement that "in him should all the tribes of the earth be blessed", and the meaning of the name "Muhammad", the "Praised (or Blessed) One". (Cf.[http://www.geocities.com/islamicmessage/lopm/00cntnts.htm Life of Prophet Muhammad]).
===Jesus not God or Son of God===
According to the Gospel of Barnabas, Jesus foresaw and rejected his own deification:
: And having said this, Jesus smote his face with both his hands, and then smote the ground with his head. And having raised his head, he said: "Cursed be every one who shall insert into my sayings that I am the son of God" ([http://www.barnabas.net/barnabasP53.html 53]:6)
: And having said this Jesus went out of the Temple. And the common people magnified him, for they brought all the sick folk whom they could gather together, and Jesus having made prayer gave to all their health: whereupon on that day in Jerusalem the Roman soldiery, by the working of Satan, began to stir up the common people, saying that Jesus was the God of Israel, who was come to visit his people." ([http://www.barnabas.net/barnabasP69.html 69]:6)
: Jesus answered: "And you; what say you that I am?" Peter answered: "You are Christ, son of God". Then was Jesus angry, and with anger rebuked him, saying: "Begone and depart from me, because you are the devil and seek to cause me offences" ([http://www.barnabas.net/barnabasP70.html 70]:1)
: Jesus said again: "I confess before heaven, and call to witness everything that dwells upon the earth, that I am a stranger to all that men have said of me, to wit, that I am more than man. For I am a man, born of a woman, subject to the judgment of God; that live here like as other men, subject to the common miseries" ([http://www.barnabas.net/barnabasP94.html 94]:1)
: Then answered the priest, with the governor and the king, saying: "Distress not yourself, O Jesus, holy one of God, because in our time shall not this sedition be any more, seeing that we will write to the sacred Roman senate in such wise that by imperial decree none shall any more call you God or son of God." Then Jesus said: "With your words I am not consoled, because where you hope for light darkness shall come; but my consolation is in the coming of the Messenger, who shall destroy every false opinion of me, and his faith shall spread and shall take hold of the whole world, for so has God promised to Abraham our father." ([http://www.barnabas.net/barnabasP97.html 97]:1)
This conforms entirely with Muslim belief, according to which Jesus is a prophet and will come back to earth in the future and declare to the world that he is "a Servant of God". According to Imam Anwar Al-Awlaki in his audio lessons [http://www.al-basheer.com Lives of the Prophets], the first thing that prophet [[Isa|Jesus]] said when he was in the cradle "I am a servant of God", and the first thing that Jesus will say when he will come back to earth will be the same "I am a servant of God". According |
.com/bobfahey/text_adv.htm Bob's Interactive Fiction page]
*[http://www.thedoteaters.com/play4sta1.htm Article at The Dot Eaters], featuring an extensive history of Infocom and its games
===Newsgroups===
*[news://rec.arts.int-fiction <tt>rec.arts.int-fiction</tt>] with discussion of IF design
*[news://rec.games.int-fiction <tt>rec.games.int-fiction</tt>] with discussion of IF reading/playing
[[Category:Defunct computer and video game companies]]
[[Category:Infocom]]
[[Category:Interactive fiction]]
[[de:Infocom]]
[[fr:Infocom]]
[[ru:Infocom]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Interactive fiction</title>
<id>14789</id>
<revision>
<id>42023171</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T07:31:03Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Grue</username>
<id>97993</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* Notable works of interactive fiction */ fix facade link</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Zork_screenshot.png|thumb|300px|Zork, an early work of interactive fiction, running on a modern interpreter]]
'''Interactive fiction,''' often abbreviated '''IF''', describes software containing simulated environments in which players use text commands to control characters. Works in this form can be understood as literary narratives and as [[computer game]]s. In common usage, the word refers to '''text adventures''', a type of [[adventure game]] with text-based input and output. The term is sometimes used to encompass the entirety of the medium, but is also sometimes used to distinguish games produced by the interactive fiction community from those created by games companies. It can also be used to disambiguate the more modern style of such works, focusing on narrative, from the more traditional focus on [[puzzle]]s. More expansive definitions of interactive fiction may refer to all adventure games, including wholly graphical adventures such as ''[[Myst]]''.
Today, interactive fiction no longer appears to be commercially viable, but a constant stream of new works is produced by an online interactive fiction community, using freely available development systems. Most of these games can be downloaded for free from the Interactive Fiction Archive (see [[Interactive fiction#External links|external links]]).
Since [[1995]] there has been an annual [[Interactive Fiction Competition]] for relatively short works. There are also annual [[XYZZY Awards]] given out in various categories, modelled on the [[Academy Awards]]. Another annual competition, the [[Spring Thing]], has been held since [[2001]] to highlight works considered to be too long for the Interactive Fiction Competition.
== The medium of interactive fiction==
Text adventures are one of the oldest types of [[computer and video games|computer games]] and form a subset of the [[adventure game|adventure]] genre. The player uses text input to control the game and the game state is relayed to the player via text output.
Input is usually provided by the player in the form of simple [[Sentence (linguistics)|sentence]]s such as "get key" or "go east" which may be handled by a simple [[parsing|parser]]. Parsers vary in sophistication; the first text adventure parsers could only handle two-word sentences in the form of verb-noun pairs. Later parsers could handle increasing levels of complexity from sentences such as "open the red box with the green key then go north". This level of complexity is the standard for works of interactive fiction today.
Works of interactive fiction function like single-player [[MUD|Multi-User Dungeons]] or 'MUDs', and the original MUD was actually a multi-player generalization of ''[[Zork]]'' (one version of which was called ''Dungeon''). MUDs, which became popular in the mid-[[1980s]], rely on a textual exchange and accept similar commands from players as do works of IF, but the social aspects and the communities of players who participate are often the most important features of MUDs.
Interactive fiction usually relies on [[reading (activity)|reading]] from a screen and on [[typing]] input, although speech synthesis allows blind and visually impaired users to play interactive fiction.
== History ==
===''Adventure''===
Around [[1975]] [http://jerz.setonhill.edu/if/canon/Adventure.htm], [[Will Crowther]] wrote the first text adventure game, ''[[Colossal Cave Adventure|Adventure]]'' (originally called ''ADVENT'' because a filename could only be six characters long in its [[operating system]], and later ''Colossal Cave''). It was programmed in [[Fortran programming language|Fortran]] for the [[PDP-10]]. In [[1976]], [[Don Woods]] discovered ''Adventure'' while working at the Stanford Artificial Intelligence Lab, and obtained Crowther's permission to expand the game. Crowther's original version was more or less realistic; Woods' changes were reminiscent of the writings of [[J.R.R. Tolkien]], and included a troll, elves, and a volcano inspired by [[Mount Doom]].
In [[1976]], the game began spreading on [[ARPANet]], and has survived on the [[Internet]] to this day. The game has since been ported to many other [[operating system]]s.
The popularity of ''Adventure'' led to the wide success of interactive fiction during the late [[1970s]] and the [[1980s]], when home computers had little, if any, graphics capability.
===The commercial era===
====Infocom====
In the [[United States]], the best-known company producing works of interactive fiction was [[Infocom]], which created the ''[[Zork]]'' series and many other titles; among them ''[[Trinity (computer game)|Trinity]]'', ''[[The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy (computer game)|The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy]]'' and ''[[A Mind Forever Voyaging]]''.
In June of [[1977]], [[Marc Blank]], [[Bruce K. Daniels]], [[Tim Anderson (Zork)|Tim Anderson]], and [[Dave Lebling]] began writing the mainframe version of ''[[Zork]]'' (also known as ''Dungeon''), at the [[MIT Laboratory for Computer Science]]. The game was programmed in a computer language called [[MDL programming language|MDL]], a variant of [[LISP programming language|LISP]]. In early [[1979]], the game was completed. Ten members of the [[MIT Dynamics Modelling Group]] went on to join Infocom when it was incorporated later that year.
In order to make its games as portable as possible, Infocom developed the [[Z-Machine]], a custom [[virtual machine]] which could be implemented on a large number of platforms, and which took standardized "story files" as input.
Infocom's games were popular for many years, but the company was bought by [[Activision]] in [[1986]] after the failure of ''[[Cornerstone (software)|Cornerstone]]'', its database software program, and stopped producing text adventures a few years later.
Infocom's games are now considered the classics of the genre, and the period in which it was active is thought of as the first golden age of interactive fiction. In [[1991]] and [[1992]], Activision released volumes one and two of ''[[The Lost Treasures of Infocom]]'', a collection containing most of Infocom's games.
====Adventure International====
[[Adventure International]] was founded by [[Scott Adams (game designer)|Scott Adams]] (not the creator of [[Dilbert]]).
In [[1978]], Adams wrote ''[[Adventureland]]'', which was loosely patterned after the original Advent. He took out a small ad in a computer magazine in order to promote and sell ''Adventureland'', thus creating the first commercial adventure game. In [[1979]] he founded Adventure International, the first commercial publisher of interactive fiction. The company went bankrupt in [[1985]].
====Legend Entertainment====
[[Legend Entertainment]] was founded by [[Bob Bates]] and [[Mike Verdu]] in [[1989]]. It started out from the ashes of Infocom.
Their text adventures used (hi-res) graphics as well as sound, but were still "true" text adventures. In many areas, the parser was better than the one used by Infocom. Among their better-known titles are ''[[Eric the Unready]]'', the ''[[Spellcasting]]'' series and ''[[Gateway (computer game)|Gateway]]'' (based on [[Frederik Pohl]]'s novels).
The last text adventure created by Legend was ''[[Gateway II]]'', while the last game ever was ''[[Unreal 2]]'' (the well-known [[first person shooter]] action game). Legend was shut down in [[2004]] by Atari.
====Other companies====
Probably the first commercial work of interactive fiction produced outside the U.S. was the [[dungeon crawl]] game of ''[[Acheton]]'', produced in Cambridge, England, by [[Topologika]]. Other leading companies in the [[United Kingdom|U.K.]] were [[Magnetic Scrolls]] and [[Level 9 Computing]]. Also worthy of mention are [[Delta 4]], [[Acornsoft]], [[Melbourne House]], and the homebrew company [[Zenobi]].
In Japan, companies such as [[Data West]] developed limited interactive fiction games, such as the seven-volume murder mystery series ''Misty''.[http://retropc.net/fm-7/museum/datawest/330201800.html] Later, interactive fiction became more popular in Japan in the form of [[visual novel]]s.
===The modern era===
After the demise of the commercial interactive fiction market, an online community eventually formed around the medium. In [[1987]], the [[Usenet]] newsgroup <tt>rec.arts.int-fiction</tt> was created (focusing on ''creating'' interactive fiction), and was soon followed by <tt>rec.games.int-fiction</tt> (which focuses on ''playing'' interactive fiction games).
One of the most important early developments was the reverse-engineering of Infocom's [[Z-Code]] format and [[Z-Machine]] [[virtual machine]] by the [[InfoTaskForce]], a group of enthusiasts, in [[1987]], and the subsequent development of an [[interpreter (computing)|interpreter]] for Z-Code story files. As a result, it became possible to play Infocom's work on modern computers.
For years amateurs formed a small community pro |
the game is freely available.
Anyone can judge the games, and anyone can donate a prize. Almost always, there are enough prizes donated that anyone who enters will get one.
Entries are required to be released as [[freeware]] or [[public domain]], reflecting the general non-profit ethos of the IF community.
The following is a list of winners to date:
*'''1995''':
**[[Inform]] category: ''[[A Change in the Weather]]'' by [[Andrew Plotkin]]
**[[TADS]] category: ''[[Uncle Zebulon's Will]]'' by Magnus Olsson
*'''1996:''' ''[[The Meteor, The Stone, And A Long Glass Of Sherbet]]'' by [[Graham Nelson]]
*'''1997:''' ''[[The Edifice]]'' by Lucian P. Smith
*'''1998:''' ''[[Photopia]]'' by [[Adam Cadre]]
*'''1999:''' ''[[Winter Wonderland (game)|Winter Wonderland]]'' by Laura A. Knauth
*'''2000:''' ''[[Kaged]]'' by Ian Finley
*'''2001:''' ''[[All Roads]]'' by Jon Ingold
*'''2002:''' ''[[Another Earth, Another Sky]]'' by [[Paul O'Brian]]
*'''2003:''' ''[[Slouching Towards Bedlam]]'' by Star Foster and Daniel Ravipinto
*'''2004:''' ''[[Luminous Horizon]]'' by Paul O'Brian
*'''2005:''' ''[[Vespers (game)|Vespers]]'' by [[Jason Devlin]]
==See also==
*[[Spring Thing]]
==External links==
* [http://www.ifcomp.org Official website]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Immunity</title>
<id>15267</id>
<revision>
<id>41944917</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T20:19:47Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Natalinasmpf</username>
<id>107009</id>
</contributor>
<comment>formalise</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">* In a medical sense, '''[[immunity (medical)|immunity]]''' is a state of having sufficient biological defenses to avoid infection, disease, or other unwanted biological invasion.
* In a legal sense, '''[[immunity (legal)|immunity]]''' confers a status on a person or body that makes that person or body free from otherwise legal obligations such as, for example, liability for damages or punishment for criminal acts. [[Transactional immunity]] refers to the inability of the prosecutor to prosecute a witness in exchange for the witness's testimony, an action referred to as "turning state's evidence." Under '''[[use immunity]]''', the government may not use a witness's grand jury testimony to prosecute that person. But if the state acquires evidence for a crime independent of the testimony, then the witness can be prosecuted.
==See also==
*[[Immune system]]
{{disambig}}
[[cs:Imunita]]
[[de:Immunität]]
[[es:Inmunidad]]
[[eo:Imuneco]]
[[it:Immunità]]
[[nl:Immuniteit]]
[[ru:Иммунитет]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Inquest</title>
<id>15268</id>
<revision>
<id>33560096</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-02T04:58:35Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Robth</username>
<id>573348</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>disambig corruption link</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''For the gaming magazine, see [[InQuest Gamer]].''
An '''inquest''' is a formal process of state investigation. A common type inquest is a medical examination of any cause of death under suspicious circumstances. Larger inquests can be held into disasters, or into cases of [[political corruption|corruption]].
==Inquests in jurisdictions based on British laws==
In jurisdictions under the [[Westminster system]], the process is the responsibility of a special non-criminal court called the Coroner's Court under the supervision of the [[Coroner]]. In [[Scotland]] the equivalent term is a [[Fatal Accident Inquiry]], and the majority of [[death]]s are investigated and signed off by the area [[Procurator Fiscal]].
Individuals with an interest in the proceedings, such as relatives of the deceased, individuals appearing as witnesses, and organisations or individuals who may face some responsibility in the death of the individual, may be represented by lawyers at the discretion of the coroner. Witnesses may be compelled to testify subject of a protection against self-incrimination.
Some inquests take place before a [[jury]].
At the conclusion of the inquest, the jury (or coroner) considers the facts of the death and gives a verdict representing their opinion of the reasons for the death. This may include recommendations that individuals or organisations are in some way responsible for the death. If so, a finding may recommend that those entities face criminal charges. The finding may state that it is believed that a death was accidental. Often, no conclusion can be reached about the reason for a death, and an '''open finding''' is returned. Findings may also contain recommendations for changes to the practices of governments or organisations on how to avoid such deaths in the future, if the inquest reveals that such changes are desirable.
Coroners record their verdicts; juries return verdicts.
If an open finding is returned, the inquest can be reopened if new evidence is found and presented to the coroner.
The qualifications required of coroners varies from jurisdiction to jurisdiction. Originally, coroners did not always have legal training. This has led to concerns that, particularly in cases where a real suspicion of foul play exists and where coroners must correctly instruct juries as to the relevant law, that incorrect findings were too common. Consequently, some jurisdictions have modified their laws to require coroners to have studied and practised law.
[[Category:English law]]
[[Category:Civil procedure]]
[[Category:Legal terms]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Index</title>
<id>15270</id>
<revision>
<id>41340901</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-26T18:36:16Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>David Shay</username>
<id>17302</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>interwiki he</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{wiktionary}}
'''''Index''''' can be defined as:
* an ordered list, plural ''indexes''
* a number or variable, plural ''indices''.
'''''Index''''' can also have the following meanings:
* The city -- [[Index, Washington]], [[United States]]
* '''Publishing''' purposes; see [[index (publishing)]]
* '''Information technology''' (IT) purposes; see [[index (information technology)]] or [[index (database)]]
* '''The default page''' served by a [[web server]], such as [[index.html]] or [[index.htm]].
* '''Mathematics'''; see [[index (mathematics)]]
* '''Linguistics'''; see [[Indexicality]]
* '''Economics and finance'''; see [[index (economics)]]
* In the '''[[Catholic Church]]''' the term ''Index'' may refer to the now defunct ''[[Index Librorum Prohibitorum]]'' created in 1559, the list of books that obedient Catholics were forbidden to read.
** This meaning has been extended to book [[censorship]] by some political regimes.
* Index also refers to a style of playing the game stepmania by using index fingers on both hands to hit the arrows on the keyboard; see [[StepMania]].
* [[Index finger]]s on human [[hand]]s.
* The former UK catalogue retailer, [[Index (retailer)|Index]], of the [[Littlewoods]] group, later known as ''Littlewoods Index''.
* [[Index Magazine]], based in [[New York City]].
{{disambig}}
[[category:Indexes|Indexes]]
[[zh-min-nan:Ín-tit]]
[[de:Index]]
[[eo:Indekso]]
[[he:אינדקס]]
[[io:Indico]]
[[fr:Indice]]
[[hu:Index]]
[[nl:Index]]
[[ja:索引]]
[[pt:Index]]
[[sv:Index]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Information retrieval</title>
<id>15271</id>
<revision>
<id>42092622</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T19:56:03Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rfrisbie</username>
<id>896545</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* See also */ added one</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Information retrieval (IR)''' is the art and science of searching for [[information]] in documents, searching for documents themselves, searching for [[Metadata (computing)|metadata]] which describe documents, or searching within [[database]]s, whether [[relational database|relational]] stand alone databases or hypertext networked databases such as the Internet or intranets, for text, sound, images or data. There is a common confusion, however, between data retrieval, [[document retrieval]], information retrieval, and [[text retrieval]], and each of these have their own bodies of literature, theory, praxis and technologies.
The term "information retrieval" was coined by [[Calvin Mooers]] in 1948-50.
IR is a broad interdisciplinary field, that draws on many other disciplines. Indeed, because it is so broad, it is normally poorly understood, being approached typically from only one perspective or another. It stands at the junction of many established fields, and draws upon [[cognitive psychology]], information architecture, [[information design]], human information behaviour, [[linguistics]], [[semiotics]], [[information science]], [[computer science]] and [[librarian]]ship.
Automated information retrieval (IR) systems were originally used to manage information explosion in scientific literature in the last few decades. Many universities and public libraries use IR systems to provide access to books, journals, and other documents. IR systems are often related to object and query. Queries are formal statements of information needs that are put to an IR system by the user. An object is an entity which keeps or stores information in a database. User queries are matched to documents stored in a database. A document is, therefore, a data object. Often the documents themselves are not kept or stored directly in the IR system, but are instead represented in the system by document surrogates.
In 1992 the Department of Defense, along with the [[National Institute of Standards and Technology]] (NIST), cosponsored the [[Text Retrieval Conference]] '''(TREC)''' as part of the TIPSTER text program. The aim of this was to lo |
otball with quite different rules:
* [[Canadian Football League]] (CFL) - men's professional league based in [[Canada]], played using different rules known as [[Canadian football]]
* [[Arena Football League]] - mid-level men's professional league. Played in indoor stadiums, hence the name "arena" football. One of the nation's fastest-growing sports.
* [[Nine-man football]], [[Eight-man football]], and [[Six-man football]] - variations of high school football, usually played in sparsely populated areas
* Amateur and youth league football
* [[Flag football]] and [[Touch football (American)|Touch football]] - non-tackle; almost exclusively amateur
The descriptions in this article are based primarily on the current rules of the [[National Football League]] (NFL, 1920-present). Differences with college rules will be noted. Professional, college, high school, and amateur rules are similar.
Professional leagues that no longer exist:
* [[World Football League]] (WFL, 1974-75)
* [[United States Football League]] (USFL, 1983-1985)
* [[XFL]] (XFL, 2001)
* [[All-America Football Conference]] (AAFC, 1946-1949) (2 teams are now in the NFL)
* [[World League of American Football]] (WLAF, 1991-1993 &mdash; now [[NFL Europe]]),
* [[American Football League]]s (AFL), four separate ones: I:1926, II: 1937-38, III: 1940-1941 and IV: 1960-1969). The fourth AFL (1960-1969) merged with the NFL in 1970 and now exists (mostly) as the [[American Football Conference|AFC]] with several new teams. The old NFL appeared as the [[National Football Conference|NFC]].
Fore more information: [[List of leagues of American football]]
==References==
* {{cite web
| url=http://www.nfl.com/fans/
| title=Digest of Rules
| publisher= National Football League
| accessdate=December 28
| accessyear=2005
}}
* {{cite web
| url=http://www.nfl.com/history
| title=History and the basics
| publisher=National Football League
| accessdate=December 28
| accessyear=2005
}}
* {{cite web
| url=http://www.thesportjournal.org/2005Journal/Vol8-No4/starkey.asp
| title=Playing with the Percentages When Trailing by Two Touchdowns
| publisher=Montana State University
| accessdate=December 24
| accessyear=2005
}}
==See also==
*[[American football strategy]]
*[[National Women's Football Association]]
*[[Canadian Football League]]
*[[German Football League]]
*[[Glossary of American football| American football glossary]]
*[[List of American football players]]
*[[Pro Football Hall of Fame]]
*[[List of defunct sports leagues]]
*[[Fantasy Football]]
*[[Gridiron football]]
==External links==
*The [http://www.nfl.com/ National Football League (NFL)] - the top professional league
*[http://www.players.com NFL Players Association]
*NCAA [http://www2.ncaa.org/media_and_events/ncaa_publications/playing_rules/ Playing Rules] (complete college football rules are available as a PDF file)
*[http://www.afca.org American Football Coaches Association]
*[http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/S?ammem/papr:@FILREQ(@field(TITLE+@od1(Chicago-Michigan+football+game++))+@FIELD(COLLID+workleis)) Movie of 1903 football game between the University of Chicago and the University of Michigan]
*[http://www.nfl.com/history/chronology/ Chronology of many events in the NFL]
*[http://www.iwflsports.com The Women's League]
*[http://www.unc.edu/depts/nccsi/SurveyofFootballInjuries.htm Annual Survey of Football Injury Research]
*[http://www.playfootball.com/footballfacts/basics.html Football Basics]
*[http://football.about.com/od/football101/ Football FAQ]
*[http://football-plays-and-drills.com/encyclopedia Football Plays, Drills & Fundamentals] - Resource for coaches & players.
[[Category:American football| ]]
[[Category:Team sports]]
{{Link FA|pt}}
[[bg:Американски футбол]]
[[ca:Futbol americà]]
[[cs:Americký fotbal]]
[[da:Amerikansk fodbold]]
[[de:American Football]]
[[es:Fútbol americano]]
[[eo:Usona piedpilko]]
[[fr:Football américain]]
[[ko:미식축구]]
[[it:Football americano]]
[[he:פוטבול]]
[[lv:Amerikāņu futbols]]
[[nl:American football]]
[[ja:アメリカンフットボール]]
[[no:Amerikansk fotball]]
[[pl:Futbol amerykański]]
[[pt:Futebol americano]]
[[sh:Američki fudbal]]
[[simple:American football]]
[[sk:Americký futbal]]
[[sr:Амерички фудбал]]
[[fi:Amerikkalainen jalkapallo]]
[[sv:Amerikansk fotboll]]
[[th:อเมริกันฟุตบอล]]
[[zh:美式橄欖球]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>American Revolutionary War</title>
<id>771</id>
<revision>
<id>41962067</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T22:26:17Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>TexasAndroid</username>
<id>271376</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/69.196.45.115|69.196.45.115]] ([[User talk:69.196.45.115|talk]]) to last version by Misza13</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Warbox|
conflict=American Revolutionary War
|campaign=
|image=[[Image:Sprit of '76.2.jpeg|200px]]
|caption=
|date=1775–1783
|place=[[North America]]
|result=[[Treaty of Paris (1783)]]
|combatant1=[[Patriot (American Revolution)|American Revolutionaries]], [[France]], [[Netherlands]], [[Spain]], allies
|combatant2=[[British Empire]], allies
|commander1=[[George Washington]]<br>[[Comte de Rochambeau|Comte&nbsp;de&nbsp;Rochambeau]]<br>[[Nathanael Greene]]
|commander2=[[William Howe, 5th Viscount Howe|William Howe]]<br>[[Henry Clinton (American War of Independence)|Henry Clinton]]<br>[[Charles Cornwallis|Charles&nbsp;Cornwallis]]
|}}
The '''American Revolutionary War''' (1775–1783), also known as the '''American War of Independence''', was the military component of the [[American Revolution]]. It was fought primarily between [[Kingdom of Great Britain|Great Britain]] and revolutionaries within [[13 colonies|thirteen British colonies]] in [[North America]], who proclaimed themselves as the [[United States|United States of America]] early in the war. The war began largely as a colonial revolt against the [[mercantilism|economic policies]] of the [[British Empire]], and eventually widened far beyond [[British North America]], with [[France]], [[Spain]], and the [[Netherlands]] entering the war against Great Britain. Additionally, many [[Native Americans in the United States|Native Americans]] fought on both sides of the conflict.
Throughout the war, the British were able to use their naval superiority to capture and occupy coastal cities, but control of the countryside (where most of the population lived) largely eluded them. French involvement proved decisive, with a naval [[Battle of the Chesapeake|victory in the Chesapeake]] leading to the surrender of a British army at the [[Battle of Yorktown (1781)|Battle of Yorktown]] in 1781. The [[Treaty of Paris (1783)|Treaty of Paris]] in 1783 recognized the independence of the [[United States|United States of America]].
The terms ''American Revolutionary War'' and ''American Revolution'' are often used interchangeably, though the American Revolution included political and social developments before and after the war itself. This article refers solely to the military campaign; for a broader perspective, including the origins and aftermath of the war, see the article on the [[American Revolution]].
== Combatants ==
===Choosing sides===
Colonists were divided over which side to support in the war; in some areas, the struggle was a [[civil war]]. The [[Patriot (American Revolution)|Revolutionaries]] (also known as Americans or Patriots) had the support of about 40 to 45 percent of the colonial population. About 15 to 20 percent of the population supported the British Crown during the war, and were known as [[Loyalist (American Revolution)|Loyalists (or Tories)]]. Loyalists fielded perhaps 50,000 men during the war years in support of the British Empire. After the war, some 70,000 Loyalists departed, most going to [[Canada]], Great Britain, or to British colonies in the [[Caribbean]].{{ref|loyalists}}
When the war began, the Americans did not have a professional [[armed force|army]] (also known as a "[[standing army]]"). Each colony had traditionally provided for its own defenses through the use of local [[militia]]. Militiamen served for only a few weeks or months at a time, were generally reluctant to go very far from home, and would often come and go as they saw fit. Militia typically lacked the training and discipline of regular troops, but could be effective when an emergency energized them.
Seeking to coordinate military efforts, the [[Continental Congress]] established (on paper) a regular army—the [[Continental Army]]—in June 1775, and appointed [[George Washington]] as [[commander-in-chief]]. The development of the Continental Army was always a work in progress, and Washington reluctantly augmented the regular troops with militia throughout the war. Although as many as 250,000 men may have served as regulars or as militiamen for the Revolutionary cause in the eight years of the war, there were never more than 90,000 total men under arms for the Americans in any given year. Armies in North America were small by European standards of the era; the greatest number of men that Washington personally commanded in the field at any one time was fewer than 17,000.{{ref|continental}}
===European nations===
[[Image:Us unabhaengigkeitskrieg.jpg|thumb|right|300px|German troops serving with the British in North America. (C Ziegler after Conrad Gessner, 1799)]]
Early in 1775, the British army consisted of about 36,000 men worldwide, but wartime [[recruitment]] steadily increased this number. Additionally, over the course of the war the British hired about 30,000 [[Ethnic German|German]] [[mercenaries]], popularly known in the colonies as "[[Hessians]]" because many of them came from [[Hesse-Kassel]]. Germans would make up about one-third of the British troop strength in North America. By 1779, the number of British and German troops stationed in North Am |
facilitate unauthorized copying of the data on the discs. These laws currently affect only the [[United States]]; most other countries can use de-scrambling software to bypass the DVD restrictions. A [[List of video players (software)|number of software programs]] have since appeared on the Web to view DVDs on a number of different platforms.
The restrictions also prevent people from copying DVDs. In the past few years a large amount of software has been created to make copies such as [[DVD Shrink]], [[DVD Decrypter]], and [http://www.shrinkto5.com/ ShrinkTo5].
== Region codes ==
Each DVD-Video disc contains one or more region codes (sometimes called zones), denoting the area(s) of the world in which distribution and playback are intended. The commercial DVD-Video player specification dictates that a player must only play discs that contain its region code. In theory, this allows the motion picture studios to control the various aspects of a release (including content, date and price) on a region-by-region basis. In practice, many DVD players allow playback of any disc, or can be modified to do so. Entirely independent of encryption, region coding pertains to [[regional lockout]], which originated in the [[Computer and video games|video game]] industry.
[[image:DVD_Region_Codes2.PNG|156px|thumb|right|Typically, a DVD-Video disc's outer packaging bears a symbol indicating its region code.]]
{| class="wikitable"
! Region code !! Area
|-
|align="center" | 0 || Informal term meaning "playable in all regions"
|-
|align="center" | 1 || [[Bermuda]], [[Canada]], [[United States]] and [[U.S. territories]]
|-
|align="center" | 2 || Most of [[Western Europe]], the [[Middle East]], [[Egypt]], [[Greenland]], [[Japan]], [[Lesotho]], [[South Africa]], [[Swaziland]]
|-
|align="center" | 3 || [[Southeast Asia]], [[Hong Kong]], [[Macau]], [[South Korea]], [[Taiwan]]
|-
|align="center" | 4 || [[Central America]], [[Oceania]], [[South America]], [[Mexico]], [[Australia]]
|-
|align="center" | 5 || The rest of [[Africa]], [[Eastern Europe]], [[South Asia]], [[Mongolia]], [[North Korea]], [[Russia]]
|-
|align="center" | 6 || [[Mainland China]]
|-
|align="center" | 7 || Reserved for future use
|-
|align="center" | 8 || International venues such as [[aircraft]], [[cruise ship]]s, etc.
|}
''See a [[:Image:DVD-Regions_with_key.png|world map showing region codes]]''
European Region 2 DVDs may be sub-coded "D1" through "D4." "D1" identifies a [[United Kingdom|UK]]-only release. "D2" and "D3" identify European DVDs that are not sold in the UK and the [[Republic of Ireland]]. "D4" identifies DVDs that are distributed throughout Europe.
Any combination of regions can be applied to a single disc. For example, a DVD designated Region 2/4 is suitable for playback in Western Europe, Oceania and any other Region 2 or Region 4 area. Often labeled "all" or "all regions," a so-called "Region 0" disc (actually coded Region 1/2/3/4/5/6) is meant to be playable worldwide.
The term "Region 0" also describes DVD players that were designed or modified to incorporate Regions 1&ndash;6 simultaneously, thereby providing compatibility with virtually any disc, irrespective of region[s]. This apparent solution was popular in the early days of the DVD format, but studios quickly responded by adjusting discs to refuse to play in such machines. This system is known as "Regional Coding Enhancement" or RCE.
Nowadays, many "multi-region" DVD players defeat regional lockout and RCE by automatically identifying and matching a disc's region code and/or allowing the user to manually select a particular region. Others simply bypass the region code check entirely. Some manufacturers of DVD players now freely supply information on how to disable regional lockout, and on some recent models, it appears to be disabled by default. Dozens of Web sites provide information on how to disable region checking in many players.
Many view region code enforcement as a violation of [[WTO]] free trade agreements or [[competition law]]. The [[Australian Competition and Consumer Commission]] has warned that DVD-Video players that enforce region coding may violate the [[Trade Practices Act]]
[http://www.chiark.greenend.org.uk/pipermail/ukcrypto/2001-May/055467.html]; the government of New Zealand has ruled similarly [http://forum.videohelp.com/viewtopic.php?p=1435483#1435483]. <!-- FIXME: I need better citations! -->
==== User operations ====
DVD-Video allows the disc to specify whether or not the user may perform any operation, such as selecting a menu, skipping chapters, forwarding or rewinding&mdash;essentially any function on the remote control. This is known as User Operation Prohibitions, or UOPs for short. Most DVD players respect these commands (e.g. by preventing fast-forwarding through a copyright message at the beginning of a disc), although some can be configured to ignore them, particularly open source player software. Many [[grey market]] players ignore UOPs.
== DVD-Audio ==
{{main|DVD-Audio}}
'''DVD-Audio''' is a format for delivering high-fidelity audio content on a DVD. It offers many channels (from [[monaural|mono]] to 5.1 [[surround sound]]) at various sampling frequencies and sample rates. Compared to the CD format, the much higher capacity DVD format enables the inclusion of either considerably more music (with respect to total running time and quantity of songs) or far higher audio quality (reflected by higher linear [[sampling rate]]s and higher vertical [[bit]]-rates, and/or additional channels for [[spatial sound]] reproduction).
Despite DVD-Audio's superior technical specifications, there is debate as to whether or not the resulting audio enhancements are distinguishable to typical human ears. DVD-Audio currently forms a niche market, probably due to its dependency upon new and relatively expensive equipment.
===Security===
{{main|CPRM}}
DVD-Audio discs employ a robust [[copy prevention]] mechanism, called [[Content Protection for Prerecorded Media]] (CPRM / CPPM) supported by the DVD+RW Alliance (IBM, Intel, Matsushita, and Toshiba).
CPPM was [[Software cracking|cracked]] in 2005.
== Players and recorders ==
Modern [[DVD recorder]]s often support additional formats, including DVD+/-R/RW, CD-R/RW, [[MP3]], [[Windows Media Audio|WMA]], [[SVCD]], [[JPEG]], [[PNG]], [[Scalable Vector Graphics|SVG]], [[KAR]] and [[MPEG-4]] ([[DivX]]/[[XviD]]). Some also include [[USB]] ports or [[flash memory]] readers. Many players are priced from under [[United States dollar|$]]/[[Euro|&#8364;]] 25 and recorders from $/&#8364; 50.
DVD drives for computers usually come with one of two kinds of Regional Playback Control (RPC), either RPC-1 or RPC-2; This is used to enforce the publisher's restrictions on what regions of the world the DVD can be played. See [[Regional lockout]].
== Competitors and successors ==
There are several possible successors to DVD being developed by different consortiums: Sony/Panasonic's [[Blu-ray Disc]] (BD), Toshiba's [[HD DVD]] and [[Maxell]]'s [[Holographic Versatile Disc]](HVD).
The first generation of holographic media with 300 GB of storage capacity and a 160 Mbit/s transfer rate is scheduled for release in late 2006 by Maxell and its partner, InPhase.
On [[November 18]], [[2003]], the Chinese news agency [[Xinhua News Agency|Xinhua]] reported the final standard of the Chinese government-sponsored [[Enhanced Versatile Disc]] (EVD), and several patents for it. However, since then the format has generally failed to live up to expectations.
On [[November 19]], [[2003]], the DVD Forum decided by a vote of eight to six that HD DVD will be its official [[High-definition television|HDTV]] successor to DVD. This had no effect on the competing Blu-ray Disc Association's (BDA) determination that its format would succeed DVD, especially since most of the voters belonged to both groups.
On [[April 15]], [[2004]], in a co-op project with TOPPAN Printing Co., the electronic giant Sony Corp. successfully developed the [[paper disc]], a storage medium that is made out of 51% paper and offers up to 25 GB of storage, about five times more than the standard 4.7 GB DVD. The disc can be easily cut with scissors and recycled, offering foolproof data security and an environment-friendly storage media.
As reported in a summer, 2005, issue of ''[[Popular Mechanics]]'', it is not yet clear which technology will win the [[format war]] over DVD. HD DVD discs have a lower capacity than Blu-ray discs (15GB vs. 25GB for single layer, 30GB vs. 50GB for dual layer), but Blu-ray requires changes in manufacturing machinery and techniques and is thus more expensive.
In April, [[2000]], Sonic Solutions and Ravisent announced hDVD, an [[HDTV]] extension to DVD that presaged the HD formats that debuted 6 years later. [http://www.cdrinfo.com/Sections/News/Details.aspx?NewsId=4623]
This situation&mdash;multiple new formats fighting as the successor to a format approaching purported obsolescence&mdash;previously appeared as the "war of the speeds" in the record industry of the 1950s; see [[gramophone record]] for details of that situation. It is also, of course, similar to the VHS/Betamax war in consumer video recorders in the late 1970s.
It is possible that neither Blu-ray, HD DVD, nor alternative next-generation optical recording products will succeed. The storage capacities of hard disk drives and solid-state memory have grown faster than those of optical discs (since CD's introduction year, 1983, storage capacity of HDDs grew by a factor of about 100,000, from 5 MB to 500 GB, while the capacity of Blu-ray is only 90 times larger than CD), and all three are much more capable o |
ere the microtubules arise from the nucleus have been considered possible relatives, and it now appears that the actinophryids developed from [[axodine]]s such as ''Pedinella''. These are specialized [[heterokont]] algae, related to [[golden alga]]e, [[diatom]]s, [[brown alga]]e, and the like, which have microtubule-supported tentacles.
[[Category:Heterokonts]][[Category:Amoeboids]]
As far as the diet of the Actinophyrys goes, the protist feeds on small flagellates, diminutive cilates, microscopic algae, etc.</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Abel Tasman</title>
<id>1988</id>
<revision>
<id>40163213</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-18T17:23:27Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Hugh2414</username>
<id>47936</id>
</contributor>
<comment>rv - later version missed out the whole start of the article.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:AbelTasman.jpeg|thumb|250px|Portrait of Tasman]]
'''Abel Janszoon Tasman''' ([[1603]] - [[October 10]], [[1659]]), was a [[Netherlands|Dutch]] [[sea explorer|seafarer]] and [[exploration|explorer]], born in [[Lutjegast]], a village in the province of [[Groningen (province)|Groningen]], best known for his voyages of [[1642]] and [[1644]], in the service of the VOC ([[Dutch East India Company]]). His was the first European [[expedition]] to reach the islands of [[Van Diemen's Land]] (now [[Tasmania]]) and [[New Zealand]] and the first to sight the [[Fiji]] islands, in 1643. He also mapped substantial portions of [[Australia]].
His task was to investigate the country then known as ''[[New Holland (Australia)|New Holland]]'', now known as ''Australia'', of which the Dutch had already discovered the west coast, and to determine whether it was part of [[Terra Australis]]. It was hoped by the VOC that he would thus locate a new unexploited continent for [[trade]]. To do so, on his first voyage (1642 to [[1643]]) he sailed from [[Jakarta]] (then known as [[Batavia, Dutch East Indies|Batavia]]) with two small ships, the ''Heemskerck'' and the ''Zeehaen'', first to [[Mauritius]], and from there sailed east at a higher latitude than the Dutch had done before. This way, he completely missed mainland Australia, but did finally find land at the island of Tasmania on [[November 24]]. He named it ''Van Diemen's Land'', but later [[United Kingdom|British]] [[colonist]]s would rename it after Tasman. After some investigation, he sailed further east, and discovered [[New Zealand]], which he named ''Staten Landt'' on the theory that it was connected to a piece of [[Staten Island, Argentina|land]] south of the tip of [[South America]]. He sailed north along its west coast. At the northern end of the [[South Island]] he anchored the ships in a [[Golden Bay|bay]], where five of his sailors were killed in his first and only encounter with the [[Māori]]. (Schools in New Zealand during the early 1950s taught that Abel Tasman mistook the Maori challenges blown on conch shells as a welcome and instructed his bugler to return the challenges, note for note. Hence the attack that night.) Tasman named it ''Murderers' Bay'' (now known as [[Golden Bay]]) and sailed north, but mistook [[Cook Strait]] for a bight (naming it ''Zeehaen's Bight''), believing ''Staten Landt'' to be a single land, and part of [[Terra Australis]]. En route back to Batavia, he came across the [[Tonga]] archipelago on [[January 21]], [[1643]]. Two names that he bestowed on New Zealand landmarks still endure: [[Cape Maria Van Diemen]] and [[Three Kings Islands]].
[[Image:Tasmanroutes.PNG|thumb|350px|Tasman's routes]]
On his second voyage, in [[1644]], he followed the south coast of [[New Guinea]] eastward. He missed the [[Torres Strait]] between New Guinea and Australia, and continued his voyage along the Australian coast. He mapped the north coast of Australia.
From the point of view of the VOC, Tasman's explorations were a disappointment: He had neither found a promising area for trade nor a useful new shipping route. For over a century (until the era of [[James Cook]]), Tasmania and New Zealand were not again visited by Europeans. Australia was visited, but usually only by accident.
As with many explorers, Tasman's name has been honored in many places. These include:
*the [[island]] of [[Tasmania]], including features such as
**the [[Tasman Peninsula]]
**the [[Tasman Bridge]]
**the [[Tasman Highway]]
**the passenger/vehicle ferry [[Abel Tasman (ship)|Abel Tasman]]
*the [[Tasman Sea]]
*in New Zealand:
**the [[Tasman Glacier]]
**the [[Tasman River]]
**[[Mount Tasman]]
**the [[Abel Tasman National Park]]
**[[Tasman Bay]]
**the [[Tasman, New Zealand | Tasman District]]
==External link==
*[http://web.archive.org/web/20021004115657/http://www.lexicon.net/world/tasman/bhouse.htm A transcript of a paper on the voyages of Tasman, read to the Royal Society of Tasmania in 1895.]
[[Category:1603 births|Tasman, Abel]]
[[Category:1659 deaths|Tasman, Abel]]
[[Category:Dutch explorers|Tasman, Abel]]
[[Category:Explorers of Australia|Tasman, Abel]]
[[Category:Explorers of the Pacific|Tasman, Abel]]
[[ca:Abel Tasman]]
[[da:Abel Tasman]]
[[de:Abel Tasman]]
[[el:Άμπελ Τάσμαν]]
[[es:Abel Tasman]]
[[eo:Abel TASMAN]]
[[fr:Abel Tasman]]
[[hr:Abel Tasman]]
[[is:Abel Tasman]]
[[ja:アベル・タスマン]]
[[nl:Abel Tasman]]
[[pl:Abel Tasman]]
[[pt:Abel Tasman]]
[[ru:Тасман, Абель]]
[[sco:Abel Tasman]]
[[simple:Abel Tasman]]
[[sv:Abel Tasman]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>August 5</title>
<id>1990</id>
<revision>
<id>41909676</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T15:28:55Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rklawton</username>
<id>754622</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* Deaths */ formatting</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{| style="float:right;"
|-
|{{AugustCalendar}}
|-
|{{ThisDateInRecentYears|Month=August|Day=5}}
|}
'''[[August 5]]''' is the 217th day of the year in the [[Gregorian Calendar]] (218th in [[leap year]]s), with 148 days remaining.
==Events==
*[[642]] - [[Battle of Maserfeld]] - [[Penda of Mercia]] defeats and kills [[Oswald of Bernicia]]
*[[1100]] - [[Henry I of England|Henry I]] crowned King of [[England]] in [[Westminster Abbey]]
*[[1305]] - [[William Wallace]], who led [[Scotland|Scottish]] resistance to [[England]], is captured by the English near [[Glasgow]] and transported to [[London]] for trial and execution.
*[[1583]] - Sir [[Humphrey Gilbert]] establishes first English colony in North America, at what is now [[St John's, Newfoundland]].
*[[1689]] - 1,500 [[Iroquois]] attack village of [[Lachine, Quebec|Lachine]], in [[New France]].
*[[1763]] - [[Pontiac's War]] - [[Battle of Bushy Run]] - British forces led by [[Henry Bouquet]] defeat [[Chief Pontiac]]'s Indians at [[Bushy Run]].
*[[1772]] - [[First Partition of Poland]] begins.
*[[1812]] - [[War of 1812]]: [[Tecumseh]]'s [[Native American (U.S.)|Indian]] force ambushes [[Thomas Van Horne]]'s 200 Americans at Brownstone Creek, causing them to flee and retreat.
*[[1858]] - [[Cyrus West Field]] and others complete the first [[transatlantic telegraph cable]] after several unsuccessful attempts. It operated for less than a month.
*[[1860]] - [[Charles XV of Sweden|Carl IV]] of [[Sweden-Norway]] is crowned king of [[Norway]], in [[Trondheim]].
*[[1861]] - [[American Civil War]]: In order to help pay for the war effort, the [[United States government]] issues the first [[income tax]] as part of the [[Revenue Act of 1861]] (3% of all incomes over US $800; rescinded in [[1872]]).
*[[1862]] - American Civil War: [[Battle of Baton Rouge]] - Along the [[Mississippi River]] near [[Baton Rouge, Louisiana]], [[Confederate States of America|Confederate]] troops drive [[United States|Union]] forces back into the city.
*[[1864]] - American Civil War: [[Battle of Mobile Bay]] begins - At [[Mobile Bay]] near [[Mobile, Alabama]], Admiral [[David Farragut]] leads a [[United States|Union]] flotilla through [[Confederate States of America|Confederate]] defenses and seals one of the last major Southern ports.
*[[1874]] - [[Japan]] launches its [[Postal savings systems|postal savings system]], modeled after a similar system in [[England]].
*[[1882]] - [[Standard Oil of New Jersey]] is established.
*1882 - [[Martial law]] is enacted in [[Japan]].
*[[1884]] - The cornerstone for the [[Statue of Liberty]] is laid on [[Bedloe's Island]] in [[New York Harbor]].
*[[1912]] - [[Japan|Japan's]] first [[taxicab]] service begins in [[Ginza]], [[Tokyo]].
*[[1914]] - In [[Cleveland, Ohio]], the first electric [[traffic light]] is installed.
*[[1944]] - [[World War II]]: Possibly the biggest prison breakout in history occurs as 545 Japanese POWs [[Cowra breakout|attempt to escape]] outside the town of [[Cowra]], NSW, [[Australia]]. Most are killed but many escape and later commit suicide. Five Australian guards also die.
*1944 - [[Holocaust]]: [[Poland|Polish]] insurgents liberate a [[Germany|German]] [[labor camp]] in [[Warsaw]], freeing 348 [[Jew]]ish prisoners.
*[[1949]] - In [[Ecuador]] an [[earthquake]] destroys 50 towns and kills more than 6000.
*[[1960]] - [[Burkina Faso]], then known as "[[Upper Volta]]", becomes [[Independence Day|independent]] from [[France]]
*[[1962]] - [[Film]] actress and sex icon, [[Marilyn Monroe]] is found dead in her [[Los Angeles]] home after apparently overdosing on [[sleeping pill]]s.
*[[1963]] - [[United States]], [[United Kingdom]], and [[Soviet Union]] sign a [[Treaty Banning Nuclear Weapon Tests in the Atmosphere, in Outer Space, and Under Water|nuclear test ban treaty]].
*[[1964]] - [[Vietnam War]]: [[Operation Pierce Arrow]] - [[United States|American]] aircraft from carriers [[USS Ticonderoga (CV-14)|USS ''Ticonderoga'']] and [[USS Constellation (CV-64)|USS ''Constellation'']] bomb [[North Vietnam]] in retaliation for strikes attacked US destroyers in the [[Gulf of |
real number|real number system]].
* It allows the reference to "unknown" numbers, the formulation of [[equation]]s and the study of how to solve these (for instance "find a number ''x'' such that <math>3x + 1 = 10</math>).
* It allows the formulation of [[function (mathematics)|function]]al relationships (such as "if you sell ''x'' tickets, then your profit will be <math>3x - 10</math> dollars").
These three are the main strands of elementary algebra, which should be distinguished from [[abstract algebra]], a much more advanced topic generally taught to college seniors.
In algebra, an "[[expression (mathematics)|expression]]" may contain numbers, variables and arithmetical operations; a few examples are:
:<math>x + 3\,</math>
:<math>y^{2} - 3\,</math>
:<math>z^{7} + a(b + x^{3}) + 42/y - \pi.\,</math>
An "[[equation]]" is the claim that two expressions are equal. Some equations are true for all values of the involved variables (such as <math>a + (b + c) = (a + b) + c</math>); these are also known as "[[identity (mathematics)|identities]]". Other equations contain symbols for unknown values and we are then interested in finding those values for which the equation becomes true: <math>x^{2} - 1 = 4.</math> These are the "solutions" of the equation.
==Laws of elementary algebra==
*The [[order of operations]] in a mathematical expression are as follows:
**groupings -> exponents & roots-> multiplication & division -> addition & subtraction
* [[Addition]] is a [[commutative operation]] (two numbers add to the same thing whichever order you add them in).
** [[Subtraction]] is the reverse of addition.
** To subtract is the same as to add a [[negative number]]:
::: <math> a - b = a + (-b). \ </math>
:: Example: if <math>5 + x = 3</math> then <math>x = -2.</math>
* [[Multiplication]] is a commutative operation.
** [[Division (mathematics)|Division]] is the reverse of multiplication.
** To divide is the same as to multiply by a [[reciprocal]]:
::: <math> {a \over b} = a \left( {1 \over b} \right). </math>
* [[Exponentiation]] is not a commutative operation.
** Therefore exponentiation has a pair of reverse operations: [[logarithm]] and exponentiation with fractional exponents (e.g. [[square root]]s).
*** Examples: if <math>3^x = 10</math> then <math>x = \log_3 10 .</math> If <math>x^{2} = 10</math> then <math>x = 10^{1 / 2}.</math>
** The square roots of negative numbers do not exist in the real number system. (See: [[complex number|complex number system]])
* [[Associativity|Associative]] property of addition: <math>(a + b) + c = a + (b + c).</math>
* Associative property of multiplication: <math>(ab)c = a(bc).</math>
* [[Distributivity|Distributive]] property of multiplication with respect to addition: <math>c(a + b) = ca + cb.</math>
* Distributive property of exponentiation with respect to multiplication: <math>(a b)^c = a^c b^c .</math>
* How to combine exponents: <math> a^b a^c = a^{b+c} .</math>
* Power to a power property of exponents: <math> (a^b)^c = a^{bc} .</math>
* If <math>a = b</math> and <math>b = c</math>, then <math>a = c</math> ([[transitive relation|transitivity]] of [[equality (mathematics)|equality]]).
* <math>a = a</math> ([[reflexive relation|reflexivity]] of equality).
* If <math>a = b</math> then <math>b = a</math> ([[symmetric relation|symmetry]] of equality).
* If <math>a = b</math> and <math>c = d</math> then <math>a + c = b + d.</math>
** If <math>a = b</math> then <math>a + c = b + c</math> for any ''c'' (addition property of equality).
* If <math>a = b</math> and <math>c = d</math> then <math>ac</math> = <math>bd.</math>
** If <math>a = b</math> then <math>ac = bc</math> for any ''c'' (multiplication property of equality).
* If two symbols are equal, then one can be substituted for the other at will (substitution principle).
* If <math>a > b</math> and <math>b > c</math> then <math>a > c</math> (transitivity of [[inequality]]).
* If <math>a > b</math> then <math>a + c > b + c</math> for any ''c''.
* If <math>a > b</math> and <math>c > 0</math> then <math>ac > bc.</math>
* If <math>a > b</math> and <math>c < 0</math> then <math>ac < bc.</math>
==Examples==
===Linear equations===
The simplest equations to solve are [[linear equation]]s. They contain only constant numbers and a single variable without an exponent. For example:
:<math>2x + 4 = 12. \,</math>
The central technique is add, subtract, multiply, or divide both sides of the equation by the same thing in such a way to eventually arrive at the value of the unknown variable. If we subtract 4 from both sides in the equation above we get:
:<math>2x = 8 \,</math>
and if we then divide both sides by 2, we get our solution
:<math>x = \frac{8}{2} = 4.</math>
===Quadratic equations===
[[Quadratic equation]]s contain variables raised to the first and second (square) power, and can be solved using [[factorization]] or the [[quadratic formula]]. As an example of factoring:
:<math>x^{2} + 3x = 0. \,</math>
This is the same thing as
:<math>x(x + 3) = 0. \,</math>
Setting x to 0 or -3 will make this true.
All quadratic equations will have two solutions in the [[complex number]] system, but need not have any in the [[real number]] system. For example,
:<math>x^{2} + 1 = 0 \,</math>
has no real number solution since no real number squared equals -1.
Sometimes a quadratic equation has a root of [[multiplicity]] 2, such as:
:<math>(x + 1)^{2} = 0. \,</math>
For this equation, -1 is a root of multiplicity 2
===System of linear equations===
If we have a [[system of linear equations]], for example, two equations in two variables, it is often possible to find two answers that satisfy both.
:<math>4x + 2y = 14 \,</math>
:<math>2x - y = 1. \,</math>
Now, multiply the second equation by 2 on both sides, and you have the following equations:
:<math>4x + 2y = 14 \,</math>
:<math>4x - 2y = 2. \,</math>
Now we add the two equations together to get:
:<math>8x = 16 \,</math>
:<math>x = 2. \,</math>
You can see that since we multiplied the second equation by 2, we can combine the equations and cancel out y, and then we can solve for x. Note that you can multiply by any numbers (positive or negative, but ''not [[zero]]'') to both sides of any to get to a point where a variable cancels out when you combine them.
To find y, choose either one of the equations from the beginning.
:<math>4x + 2y = 14. \,</math>
Substitute in 2 for ''x''.
:<math>4(2) + 2y = 14. \,</math>
Simplify using the rules of algebra.
:<math>8 + 2y = 14 \,</math>
:<math>2y = 6 \,</math>
:<math>y = 3. \,</math>
The full solution to this problem is then
:<math>\begin{cases} x = 2 \\ y = 3. \end{cases}\,</math>
==See also==
*[[binomial]]
*[[polynomial]]
*[[vulgar fraction]]
*[[number line]]
*[[FOIL rule]] <!-- I'm not quite sure exactly where to put this... someone please find a better home ~~~~ -->
==External links==
Charles Smith, ''[http://mathbooks.library.cornell.edu:8085/Dienst/UIMATH/1.0/Display/cul.math/Smit025 A Treatise on Algebra]'',
in [http://historical.library.cornell.edu/math Cornell University Library Historical Math Monographs].
Other example problems can be found at [http://www.exampleproblems.com www.exampleproblems.com].
[[Category:Elementary algebra|*]]
[[Category:School subjects]]
[[ar:جبر ابتدائي]]
[[de:Elementare Algebra]]
[[fr:Algèbre élémentaire]]
[[it:Algebra elementare]]
[[nl:Elementaire algebra]]
[[pt:Álgebra elementar]]
[[sv:Elementär algebra]]
[[ta:அடிப்படை குறுக்கணக்கியல்]]
[[uk:Елементарна математика]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Electromagnetic interaction</title>
<id>9711</id>
<revision>
<id>34804486</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-11T21:22:56Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Hurricane Angel</username>
<id>170139</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>fundamental interaction/force redirect fix</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{electromagnetism}}
'''Electromagnetic interaction''' is a [[fundamental interaction|fundamental force]] of nature and is felt by charged [[lepton|leptons]] and [[quark|quarks]]. Its [[exchange particle]] is the [[photon]] (symbol &gamma;) and the many forms of [[electromagnetic radiation]] are a manifestation of this interaction.
[[Rutherford scattering]] showed that the [[electromagnetic field]] has a greater range than the [[weak interaction|weak]] or [[strong interaction|strong]] fields due to the photons having no [[mass]], and travelling at the [[speed of light]]. The fact that photons have no mass makes them easy to produce, and charged particles usually interact electromagnetically before other fields have a chance to operate.
Electromagnetic interactions are long range attractions or repulsions between any particles or antiparticles that have charge. If the particles are attracted they stay together, because there is a continual exchange of photons.
==See also==
*[[electromagnetism]]
*[[classical electrodynamics]]
*[[quantum electrodynamics]]
*[[particle physics]]
==External links== |
called a ''fully invariant subgroup'') ''H'' of a group ''G'' is a group remaining invariant under every endomorphism of ''G''; in other words, if ''f'' : ''G'' &rarr; ''G'' is any homomorphism, then ''f''(''H'') is a subgroup of ''H''.
Every fully characteristic subgroup is a characteristic subgroup; but a characteristic subgroup need not be fully characteristic. The [[center of a group]] is always a distinguished subgroup, but not always fully characteristic.
Example:
Consider the group Dih<sub>3</sub> &times; Z<sub>2</sub> (the group of order 12 which is the direct product of the [[dihedral group]] of order 6 and a [[cyclic group]] of order 2).
Writing the elements of Dih<sub>3</sub> as permutations, with identity permutation e, we can map:
*the identity, ((123),0), and ((132),0) to the identity
*(e,1), ((123),1), and ((132),1) to ((12),0)
*((12),0), ((13),0), and ((23),0) to (e,1)
*((12),1), ((13),1), and ((23),1) to ((12),1)
This is an endomorphism. However, the center {identity, (e,1)} is mapped to {identity, ((12),0)}, so it is not a fully characteristic subgroup.
The [[derived subgroup]] (or commutator subgroup) of a group is always a fully characteristic subgroup, as is the [[torsion subgroup]] of an [[abelian group]].
The property of being characteristic or fully characteristic is [[transitivity (mathematics)|transitive]]; if ''H'' is a (fully) characteristic subgroup of ''K'', and ''K'' is a (fully) characteristic subgroup of ''G'', then ''H'' is a (fully) characteristic subgroup of ''G''.
Moreover, while it is not true that every normal subgroup of a normal subgroup is normal,
it is true that every characteristic subgroup of a normal subgroup is normal. Similarly,
while it is not true that every distinguished subgroup of a distinguished
subgroup is distinguished, it is true that every fully characteristic subgroup of a distinguished subgroup is distinguished.
The relationship amongst these subgroup properties can be expressed as:
subgroup &larr; normal subgroup &larr; characteristic subgroup &larr; distinguished subgroup &larr; fully characteristic subgroup
See also: [[characteristically simple group]].
[[Category:Group theory]]
[[Category:Subgroup properties]]
[[de:Charakteristische Untergruppe]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>List of cat breeds</title>
<id>7199</id>
<revision>
<id>41774955</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T17:36:57Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Gwernol</username>
<id>266416</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Revert to revision 41133806 using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The following list of [[cat breed]]s uses a wide interpretation of the word "breed". Breeds listed here may be traditional breeds with long histories as registered breeds, rare breeds with their own registries, or new breeds that may still be under development. Please see individual articles for more information. See also [[breed]].
Cats can also be grouped by [[:Category:Cat types|type]] according to appearance or function.
=== Longhair and semi-longhair ===
*[[American Bobtail]]
*[[American Keuda]]
*[[Angora (cat)|Angora]] (British Angora) ''renamed Oriental Longhair in 2002''
*[[Asian Semi-longhair]] (or Tiffanie)
*[[Balinese (cat)|Balinese]]
*[[Birman]]
*[[British Longhair]]
*[[Chantilly/Tiffany cat]]
*[[Cherubim (cat)|Cherubim]] (or Honeybear)
*[[Colourpoint Longhair]]
*[[Exotic cat]]
*[[Himalayan (cat)|Himalayan]]
*[[Javanese (cat)|Javanese]]
*[[Maine Coon]]
*[[Nebelung]]
*[[Neva Masquerade]]
*[[Norwegian Forest Cat]]
*[[Oriental Longhair]]
*[[Persian (cat)|Persian]]
*[[Ragdoll]] (and Ragamuffin)
*[[Siberian (cat)|Siberian]]
*[[Snow Cat]]
*[[Somali (cat)|Somali]]
*[[Sterling (cat)|Sterling]]
*[[Turkish Van]]
*[[Turkish Angora]]
*[[York Chocolate cat]]
=== Shorthair ===
*[[Abyssinian (cat)|Abyssinian]]
*[[American Shorthair]]
*[[Antipodean (cat)|Antipodean]] (New Zealand Shorthair)
*[[Asian Shorthair]]
*[[Australian Mist]] (or Spotted Mist)
*[[Bahraini Dilmun Cat]]
*[[Bombay (cat)|Bombay]]
*[[British Shorthair]]
*[[Brazilian Shorthair]]
*[[Burmese (cat)|Burmese]]
*[[Burmilla]]
*[[Chartreux]]
*[[Colorpoint Shorthair]]
*[[Cornish Rex]]
*[[Egyptian Mau]]
*[[European Shorthair]]
*[[Havana Brown]]
*[[Jungala]]
*[[Khao Manee]]
*[[Korat]]
*[[Kucing Malaysia]]
*[[Malayan (cat)|Malayan]]
*[[Oriental Shorthair]]
*[[Russian Blue]]
*[[Savannah (Cat)|Savannah]]
*[[Seychellois]]
*[[Siamese (cat)|Siamese]] (and Traditional Siamese or Applehead Siamese)
*[[Templecat]]
*[[Tonkinese (cat)|Tonkinese]]
=== Breeds with unusual physical features ===
*[[American Bobtail]]
*[[American Curl]]
*[[American Ringtail]]
*[[American Wirehair]]
*[[Bengal cat]]
*[[California Spangled Cat]]
*[[Chausie]]
*[[Cornish Rex]]
*[[Cymric (cat)|Cymric]]
*[[Desert Lynx]]
*[[Devon Rex]]
*[[Don Sphynx]]
*[[Foldex Cat]]
*[[German Rex]]
*[[Japanese Bobtail (cat)|Japanese Bobtail]]
*[[Kurilian Bobtail Longhair]]
*[[Kurilian Bobtail Shorthair]]
*[[LaPerm]]
*[[Manx (cat)|Manx]]
*[[Mojave Spotted]]
*[[Munchkin (cat)|Munchkin]]
*[[Ocicat]]
*[[Ojos Azules]]
*[[Peterbald]]
*[[Pixie-bob]]
*[[Savannah (cat)|Savannah]]
*[[Selkirk Rex]]
*[[Serengeti cat | Serengeti]]
*[[Singapura (cat)|Singapura]]
*[[Sphynx (cat)|Sphynx]]
*[[Scottish Fold]]
*[[Snowshoe (cat)|Snowshoe]]
*[[Sokoke]]
*[[Toyger]]
*[[Ussuri (cat)|Ussuri]]
==External References==
A worldwide list of all known recognised and unrecognised cat breeds, strains and varieties, including extinct and experimental breeds is stored at [http://www.messybeast.com/breeds.htm Cat Breeds] with recognition/discovery dates at [http://www.messybeast.com/breed-dates.htm Breeds Timeline].
[[Category:Cats]]
[[Category:Cat breeds| ]][[Category:Lists of animals|Cats]]
[[cs:Plemena koček]]
[[de:Liste der Katzenrassen]]
[[he:קטגוריה:גזעי חתולים]]
[[hu:Macskafajták listája]]
[[nl:Lijst van kattenrassen]]
[[sk:Plemená mačiek]]
[[fi:Luettelo kissaroduista]]
[[sv:Lista över kattraser]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Class action</title>
<id>7200</id>
<revision>
<id>41371907</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-26T22:28:53Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Tawker</username>
<id>212671</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/80.95.106.173|80.95.106.173]] ([[User talk:80.95.106.173|Talk]]) to last version by Rich Farmbrough</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">''This article is about the legal term. For names of various art works, see [[Class Action]].''
In [[law]], a '''class action''' is an equitable procedural device used in [[litigation]] for determining the rights of and remedies, if any, for large numbers of people whose cases involve common questions of law and fact. Traditionally class actions have been used to litigate antitrust and securities lawsuits, but more recently have been used for a wide range of legal disputes that involve a large number of injured parties.
Recently, the United States Congress reviewed the use of class actions in the American court system and found that:
<blockquote>Class-action lawsuits are an important and valuable part of the legal system when they permit the fair and efficient resolution of legitimate claims of numerous parties by allowing the claims to be aggregated into a single action against a defendant that has allegedly caused harm. </blockquote>
See, Section 2(a) of the Class Action Fairness Act of 2005.
==Class actions in the United States==
===Federal class actions===
In the United States federal courts, class actions are governed by Rule 23 of the [[Federal Rules of Civil Procedure]].
Class action lawsuits may be brought in [[United States district court|Federal court]] if the case involves issues that affect potential class members in different states or has a nexus with federal law. However, such class action suits must have a commonality of issues across state lines. This may be difficult as the [[Civil law (private law)|civil law]] in the various states has significant differences and thus each state's set of claims may have to be handled separately or through the device of [[multi-district litigation]] (MDL). It is also possible to bring class action lawsuits under state law, and in some cases the court may extend its jurisdiction to all the members of the class both within the state and without (even internationally) as the key element is the jurisdiction that the court has over the defendant. The [[Class Action Fairness Act of 2005]] permits defendants to remove cases to federal court if plaintiffs ask state courts to decide new class actions across state lines. This federal law was passed, in part, to “assure fair and prompt recoveries of legitimate claims.” Section 2(b)(1).
The procedure for filing a class action is to file suit with one or several named plaintiffs on behalf of a putative class. The putative class must consist of a group of individuals or business entities that have suffered a common wrong. Usually, these kinds of cases are connected to some standard action on the part of a business, or some particular product defect or policy that was applied to all potential class members in a uniform manner. After the summons and complaint is filed, the plaintiff usually has to bring a motion (sometimes at the same time as filing the summons and complaint) to have the class certified. In some jurisdictions class certification may require additional [[discovery (law)|discovery]] in order to determine if the proposed class is sufficiently cohesive.
Upon the motion to certify the class, the defendants may object to whether the issues are appropriately handled as class litigation, the named plaintiffs as insufficiently representative of the class, and their relationship with the law firm or firms handling |
of the pot goes to the player with the highest hand who declared high, and the other half to the player with the lowest hand of those who declared low. There is no qualifying hand to win either high or low, and if no one declares in one direction, the full pot is awarded in the other (for example, if all players declare low, the low hand wins the whole pot rather than half). A player who declares for a scoop must win both ends outright, with no ties. For example, if a player declares scoop, has the lowest hand clearly but ties for high, he wins nothing. The other player with the same high hand wins the high half of the pot and the next-lowest hand wins low (assuming he declared low--if no other player declared low, the high hand who declared high wins the whole pot).
This game can be played with [[deuce-to-seven low]] or [[ace-to-six low]] hand values, but in that case it is nearly impossible to scoop (though you can still win the whole pot if everyone declares the same direction).
===Double-draw and Triple-draw===
Any game above can be played with two or three draw phases and therefore three or four betting rounds. Double-draw California lowball is a particularly good game. Triple draw lowball, either [[ace-to-five low|ace-to-five]] or [[deuce-to-seven low|deuce-to-seven]], has gained some popularity among serious players. The 2004 [[World Series of Poker]] included a deuce-to-seven triple-draw lowball event.
===Four-before===
Another variation that can be applied to any game above, but that is especially suited to lowball. On the initial deal, only four cards are dealt to each player. A betting round follows, then each player draws one more card than he discards, completing his hand to five cards. Then the final betting round and showdown. Note that it is impossible to be dealt a "pat" hand, that is, a hand (such as a straight or flush) that is complete before the draw.
===Johnson (and "Jacks back")===
Played with one joker which acts as a [[Bug (poker)|bug]]. Must be played with antes and no blinds. Each player is dealt five cards. The first betting round begins with the player to the dealer's left, who may check or open with anything. If any player opens, the game continues as traditional five-card draw poker. If the first round is passed out (that is, no one opens), then the player to the dealer's left may now open if he chooses, but the game has switched to California lowball. On the rare occasion that the deal is passed out yet again, players re-ante and deal again. This game plays well head-up (that is, with only two players). When the game is played that a pair of jacks or better is required to open on the first high-hand round, the game is called "Jacks back".
Some examples might help clarify: On the first deal, players ante and Alice deals five cards around. Bob sees that he has a '''6'''-high straight, which is a very good hand for both high and low. He also wants to be deceptive about the value of his hand, so he checks. Carol opens for $1, David folds, Alice raises to $2, and Bob (who now realizes that Carol and Alice want to play high hands) reraises to $3, which is called by Carol and Alice. Bob announces that he "stands pat" (draws no cards). Carol draws three cards, and Alice draws two. Bob bets $2, Carol folds, Alice raises, and Bob calls. Bob shows his straight, but Alice has made a full house and wins the pot.
On the second deal, Bob has the same hand: a '''6'''-high straight, and makes the same play, checking. This time, Carol also checks, as does David, and finally Alice. Now it is Bob's turn again, but now they are playing lowball. He opens for $1. Carol folds, and David raises to $2. Alice folds, and Bob reraises to $3 (a '''6'''-high is a very good low hand; much better, in fact, than a '''6'''-high straight would be for high). David calls. Bob stands pat, and David draws one card. Bob bets $2 (he is required to bet under California lowball rules since he has a hand better than '''7'''-high), and David calls. Bob shows his '''6-5-4-3-2''' low, and David shows '''7-5-4-3-A''' low, and Bob wins with his '''6'''-high.
===Q-Ball===
This is a lowball game designed by [[Michael Wiesenberg]] that combines some of the variations mentioned above. It is generally played with three [[Blind (poker)|blinds]]--one unit from the dealer, one unit to his left, and two units for the second player to the dealer's left. The deck contains one joker. Each player is dealt three cards, followed by a round of betting beginning with the player immediately after the big blind who may call the big blind, raise, or fold (there is no checking on the first round). Next, each player is dealt a fourth card, followed by a second round of betting starting with the still-active player to the dealer's left. No checking is allowed on this round either, despite the fact that there is no bet facing the first player; the first player must [[Open (poker)|open]] or fold. Each player is then dealt a fifth card, followed by a third betting round beginning on the dealer's left. At this point, checking is allowed. Finally, each player draws as in normal draw poker, followed by a fourth betting round and showdown. [[Ace-to-five low]] values are used.
Played at [[Betting (poker)|fixed limit]], it is recommended that the betting structure be 1-2-2-4; that is, the second and third betting rounds should allow a bet of twice the amount of the first round, and the final bet should allow four times the amount of the first round.
=="Home" games==
These are somewhat less-serious games that are typically played only in home games at small stakes. This does not necessarily mean that there is less opportunity for skillful play, just that the games are seen as more social than competitive.
To help grow the betting pot in a home game, one can add a variant known as the "kill card" to the rules. Kill cards work best with stud games or shared card games as no one player can control when the "kill card" is played.
One popular "kill card" game is called Chernobyl Cowboy. The "Chernobyl Cowboy" is the King of Hearts. Whenever the King of Hearts appears face up in a [[stud]] or shared card game the game is dead. All bets remain in the pot and the game begins again with a new ante and a new deal. Anyone who has folded is out until the game concludes. For example: In a seven card stud game each player gets two cards down, then four cards up, then one final card down. In a seven card stud game with a "Chernobyl Cowboy", if the King of Hearts comes up during the time the four up cards are dealt, the game is killed and everyone who is still in antes again for a new round.
===Shotgun ("Roll 'em out" and "Skinny Minnie")===
This is a draw game that plays much like a [[Stud poker|stud]] game. First five cards are dealt to each player, followed by a betting round, and a draw. Now, in place of a second round and showdown, there is a [[rollout]] phase, which begins with the players arranging their five cards in any chosen order, placing them face down in front of themselves. Each player's top card is now revealed, followed by a betting round. Then each player reveals his next card, followed by a betting round. Then a third card is revealed, followed by a betting round, a fourth card, a betting round, and finally a showdown. Players may not change the order of their cards at any time during the rollout phase.
This game can be played for high or low, but plays best at [[high-low split]], in which case it is called "Skinny Minnie".
===Spit in the ocean===
This might be classified as a hybrid draw/[[Community card]] game, but it is placed here because it plays mostly as a draw game. On the initial deal, each player is dealt four cards, and then a single card is dealt to the center of the table face up. This card plays as if it were the fifth card in every player's hand. It is also a wild card, and every other card of its rank is also wild. The first betting round is then played, followed by a draw in which each player replaces cards from his hand with an equal number, so that each player still has only four cards in hand. A final betting round is followed by a showdown. High-hand values are used.
Here's a sample deal: Alice deals four cards to each player, then deals the next card face up to the center of the table. it is the '''6''' of diamonds, and this makes all '''6'''-spot cards wild. Bob opens for $1, Carol raises to $2, David folds, Alice and Bob call. Bob discards two cards, and receives two replacements. Carol draws one card, and Alice draws one. Bob checks, Carol bets $2, Alice raises to $4, Bob folds, Carol reraises to $6, and Alice calls. The cards in Carol's hand are '''Q-Q-6-4'''. Because the '''6''' in her hand and the one on the board are wild, her hand is four queens. Alice's hand contains '''K-J-9-7''', all spades. With the shared wild card, this gives her a flush, which loses to Carol's four queens.
===Anaconda ("Pass the trash")===
Seven cards are dealt to each player. Before the first betting round, each player examines his hand, and removes exactly three cards from his hand and places them on the table to his left. After each person has thus discarded, he picks up the cards discarded by his right-hand neighbor and places them in his hand (thus, each player will have given three cards to his left-hand neighbor). It is important that each player discard before looking at the cards he is to receive. After the first pass, there is a betting round. Then a second pass occurs, each player passing two cards to his right. A second betting round is followed by a third pass, each player passing one card to his left. Finally, a fourth betting round and a showdown, in which the player with the best five-card high h |
t;
# Welsh, Lynda. (2001). ''Goddess of the North,'' page 75. York Beach: Weiser Books.
== External links ==
* [http://shadowlight.gydja.com/faces.html The Face of the Goddess] -- Frigg's twelve handmaidens and associated signs of the zodiac
{{NorseMythology}}
[[Category:Norse goddesses]]
[[Category:Germanic deities]]
[[Category:Fertility goddesses]]
[[Category:Fictional queens]]
[[ca:Frigg]]
[[da:Frigg]]
[[de:Frigg]]
[[el:Φρίγκα]]
[[es:Frigg]]
[[eo:Frigg]]
[[fr:Frigg]]
[[hr:Frigg]]
[[is:Frigg Fjörgynsdóttir]]
[[it:Frigg]]
[[nl:Frigg]]
[[ja:フリッグ]]
[[no:Frigg]]
[[nn:Frigg]]
[[pl:Frigg]]
[[pt:Frigga]]
[[ru:Фригг]]
[[sv:Frigg]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Freehold</title>
<id>11355</id>
<revision>
<id>42145835</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T03:02:57Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Gflores</username>
<id>153556</id>
</contributor>
<comment>cleanup</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{wiktionary}}
'''Freehold''' may refer to:
*[[Freehold (real property)]], a term used in real estate, land held in fee simple, as opposed to leasehold, which is land which is leased; see also [[allodial]]
*[[Freehold Borough, New Jersey]], a place in the state of New Jersey; see also, [[Freehold Township, New Jersey]]
*[[Board of Chosen Freeholders]], an elected county official in the state of New Jersey
*''[[Farnham's Freehold]]'', a novel written by Robert A. Heinlein in 1965
*Flying freehold, a term when upper floors of a property hang above land owned by another
*Freehold, a Victorian terraced area in the north east of the city of [[Lancaster]], Lancashire in the United Kingdom
{{disambig}}</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Field effect transistors</title>
<id>11356</id>
<revision>
<id>15909106</id>
<timestamp>2002-08-22T19:25:41Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Enchanter</username>
<id>1104</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Fixing redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[field effect transistor]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Field effect transistor</title>
<id>11357</id>
<revision>
<id>41577909</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T06:51:59Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Ohnoitsjamie</username>
<id>507787</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Revert to revision 40187133 using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:P45N02LD.jpg|120px|thumb|Large power N-channel field effect transistor]]
The '''field-effect transistor''' (FET) is a [[transistor]] that relies on an [[electric field]] to control the shape and hence the [[conductivity]] of a 'channel' in a [[semiconductor]] material. FETs are sometimes used as voltage-controlled [[resistor]]s. The concepts related to the field effect transistor predated those of the [[bipolar junction transistor]] (BJT). Nevertheless, FETs were implemented only ''after'' BJTs due to the simplicity of manufacturing BJTs over FETs at the time.
A FET has three terminals, which are known as the ''gate'', ''drain'' and ''source''. (Compare these to the terms used for BJTs: ''base'', ''collector'' and ''emitter''.) The voltage applied between the gate and source terminals modulates the current between the source and drain terminals. There may also be a fourth terminal on some MOSFETs called the ''body'' (or ''bulk''), which sets the threshold voltage for operation. There are two 'modes' of FET: ''enhancement'', in which a voltage applied to the gate increases the current flow from source to drain; and ''depletion'', in which a voltage applied decreases the current flow from source to drain. Thus enhancement FETs are normally off, whereas depletion FETs are normally on.
Most FETs are made with conventional bulk [[Fabrication (semiconductor)|semiconductor processing techniques]], using the [[single crystal]] [[semiconductor]] wafer as the active region, or channel.
== Types of field-effect transistors ==
The FET is simpler in concept than the bipolar transistor and can be constructed from a wide range of materials. The channel region of any FET is either doped to produce n-type semiconductor, giving an "N-channel" device, or with p-type to give a "P-channel" device. The doping determines the polarity of gate operation. The different types of field-effect transistors can be distinguished by the method of isolation between channel and gate:
* The '''[[MOSFET]]''' (Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor Field-Effect Transistor) utilizes an insulator (typically [[silicon dioxide|SiO<sub>2</sub>]]).
* The '''[[JFET]]''' (Junction Field-Effect Transistor) uses a p-n junction as the gate.
* The '''[[MESFET]]''' (Metal-Semiconductor Field-Effect Transistor) substitutes the p-n-junction of the JFET with a [[Schottky barrier]]; used in GaAs and other III-V semiconductor materials.
* Using [[bandgap]] engineering in a ternary semiconductor like [[AlGaAs]] gives a '''[[HEMT]]''' (High Electron Mobility Transistor), also called an HFET (heterostructure FET). The fully depleted wide-band-gap material forms the isolation.
Among the more unusual body materials are [[amorphous silicon]], [[polycrystalline silicon]] or other amorphous semiconductors in [[thin-film transistor]]s or [[OFET|organic field effect transistors]] that are based on [[organic semiconductor]]s and often apply organic gate insulators and electrodes.
== FET Operation ==
The shape of the conducting channel in a FET is altered when a potential difference is applied to the ''gate'' terminal (potential relative to either ''source'' or ''drain''.) In an '''n-channel "depletion-mode" device''', a ''negative gate voltage'' causes a ''[[Depletion zone|depletion region]]'' to expand in size and encroach on the channel from the side, narrowing the channel. If the depletion region completely closes the channel, the resistance of the channel becomes very large, and the FET is effectively turned off. ''Positive gate voltage'' attracts electrons from the surrounding semiconductor next to the gate, forming a conductive channel. At low source-to-drain voltages, small changes to the gate voltage will alter the channel resistance. In this mode the FET operates like a variable resistor. This mode is not employed when amplification is needed.
If a larger potential difference is applied between the source and drain terminals, this creates a significant current in the channel and produces a gradient of potential from source to drain. This also causes the shape of the depletion region to become asymmetrical–one end of the channel becomes narrow. If the potential difference is large enough, the depletion region begins to close the channel. The FET is said to be in ''saturation''. Rather than entirely blocking the electrons from flowing from source to drain, electrons flow through the depletion region in a controlled manner. Any attempted increase of the drain-to-source voltage will lengthen the depletion region, increasing the channel resistance proportionally with the applied drain-to-source voltage which causes the value of drain current to remain relatively fixed. This mode of operation is called ''pinch-off''. In this mode, the FET behaves as a [[current source|constant-current source]] rather than as a resistor and can be used as a voltage amplifier. The value of gate voltage determines the value of the constant current in the channel.
An '''"enhancement-mode" device''' is of slightly more complex construction. Rather than one being one material, is made of a three-piece sandwich: similar to either an npn or a pnp transistor with no base connection, but still with a gate. In this case, the device is "normally-off" since one of the two junctions will always be reverse biased. The npn device is called a n-channel device and the pnp device is called an p-channel device.
== Uses ==
The most commonly used FET is the [[MOSFET]]. The [[CMOS]] (complementary metal oxide semiconductor) process technology is the basis for modern [[digital]] [[integrated circuit]]s. This [[process technology]] uses an arrangement where the (usually "enhancement-mode") p-channel MOSFET and n-channel MOSFET are connected in series such that when one is on, the other is off. In CMOS logic devices, the p-channel device ''pulls up'' the output and the n-channel device ''pulls down'' the output. The great advantage of CMOS circuits is that they allow no current to flow (ideally), except during the transition from one state to the other, which is very short. The gates are capacitive, and the charging and discharging of the gates each time a transistor switches states is the primary source of power usage in fast CMOS logic circuits.
The fragile insulating layer of the MOSFET between the gate and channel makes it vulnerable to [[electrostatic discharge|electrostatic damage]] during handling. This is not usually a problem after the device has been installed.
FETs can switch signals of either polarity on the source or drain terminals, if their amplitude is significantly less than the gate swing, as the devices are typically symmetrical. This makes FETs suitable for switching analog signals between paths ([[multiplexing]]). With this concept, one can construct a solid-state [[mixing board]], for example.
The power MOSFET has a reverse-biased 'parasitic [[diode]]' shunting the conduction channel that has half the current capacity of the conduction channel. Sometimes this diode is used when driving [[inductive]] circuits, but in other cases it causes problems.
A more recent device for power control is the insulated-gate bipolar transistor, or [[IGBT]]. This has a control structure akin to a MOSFET coupled with a bipolar-like main conduction channel. These have become quite popular.
== External lin |
] (''Picoides borealis'')
* [[Red-vented Cockatoo]] (''Cacatua haematuropygia'')
* [[Ridgway's Hawk]] (''Buteo ridgwayi'')
* [[São Tomé Grosbeak]] (''Neospiza concolor'')
* [[Siberian Crane]] (''Grus leucogeranus'')
* [[Slender-billed Curlew]] (''Numenius tenuirostris'')
* [[Socorro Mockingbird]], (''Mimodes graysoni'')
* [[Sociable Lapwing]] (''Vanellus gregarius'')
* [[Spix's Macaw]] (''Cyanopsitta spixii'')
* [[White-headed Duck]] (''Oxyura leucocephala'')
* [[White-shouldered Ibis]] (''Pseudibis davisoni'')
* [[Whooping Crane]] (''Grus americana'')
* [[Writhed-billed Hornbill]] (''Aceros waldeni'')
* [[Zino's Petrel]] (''Pterodroma madeira'')
==Endangered [[reptile]]s==
<!-- ### PLEASE ADD IN ALPHABETICAL ORDER (Scientific Name) ### -->
* [[St. Croix ground lizard]] (''Ameiva polops'')
* [[Sea turtle|Loggerhead Sea Turtle]] (''Caretta caretta'')
* [[Sea turtle|Green Sea Turtle]] (''Chelonia mydas'')
* [[Cuban Crocodile]] (''Crocodylus rhombifer'')
* [[Mona ground Iguana]] (''Cyclura stejnegeri'')
* [[Mesoamerican River Turtle]] (''Dermatemys mawii'')
* [[Leatherback Sea Turtle]] (''Dermochelys coriacea'')
* [[Hawksbill Turtle|Hawksbill Sea Turtle]] (''Eretmochelys imbricata'')
* [[Blunt-nosed Leopard Lizard]] (''Gambelia silus'')
* [[Burmese Star Tortoise]] (''Geochelone platynota'')
* [[Sea turtle|Kemp's Ridley Turtle]] (''Lepidochelys kempii'')
* [[Olive Ridley]] (''Lepidochelys olivacea'')
* [[Sea turtle|Flat Back Turtle]] (''Natator depressa'')
* [[Grand Skink]] (''Oligosoma grande'')
* [[Otago Skink]] (''Oligosoma otagense'')
* [[Monito Gecko]] (''Sphaerodactylus micropithecus'')
* [[Coachella Valley fringe-toed lizard]] (''Uma inornata'')
* [[Komodo Dragon]] (''Varanus komodoensis'')
* [[Island Night Lizard]] (''Xantusia riversiana'')
* [[Horned Lizard]]
==Endangered [[Amphibia|amphibians]]==
[[Image:croceum.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Santa Cruz Long-toed Salamander (photo courtesy of Don Roberson)]]
* [[Arroyo Southwestern toad]] (''Bufo californicus (=microscaphus)'')
* [[Barton Springs salamander]] (''Eurycea sosorum'')
* [[California tiger salamander]] (''Ambystoma californiense'')
* [[Desert slender salamander]] (''Batrachoseps aridus'')
* [[Fleishman's Glass Frog]]
* [[Houston toad]] (''Bufo houstonensis'')´
* [[Italian spade-footed toad]] (''Pelobates fuscus insubricus'')
* [[Mississippi gopher frog]] ('' Rana capito sevosa'')
* [[Mountain yellow-legged frog]] (''Rana muscosa'')
* [[Palmate newt]] (''Triturus helvetica'')
* [[Santa Cruz Long-toed Salamander]] (''Ambystoma macrodactylum croceum'')
* [[Shenandoah salamander]] (''Plethodon shenandoah'')
* [[Sonoran tiger salamander]] (''Ambystoma tigrinum stebbinsi'')
* [[Texas blind salamander]] (''Eurycea rathbuni'')
* [[Wyoming toad]] ('' Bufo baxteri (=hemiophrys)'')
* [[Telmatobius]] (''Telmatobius Wiegmann'')
== Endangered [[fish]] ==
* ''[[Gambusia eurystoma]]'', native to [[Mexico]], due to very limited habitat
* [[Asian Arowana]] (''Scleropages formosus'')
* [[Chinese paddlefish]] (''Psephurus gladius'')
* [[Dwarf Pygmy Goby]] (''Pandaka pygmae)
* [[Moapa dace]]
* [[Nassau grouper]] (''Epinephelus striatus'')
==Endangered [[crustacean]]s==
*[[Kentucky cave shrimp]] ''(Palaemonias ganteri)''
*[[Alabama cave shrimp]] ''(Palaemonias alabamae)''
== Endangered [[arthropods]] ==
* [[San Bruno elfin butterfly]] (Incisalia mossii bayensis), due to limited range of habitat and development encroachment
* [[Spruce-fir moss spider]] (''Microhexura montivaga'')
* [[Tooth cave spider]] (''Neoleptoneta myopica'')
== Endangered [[mollusk]]s ==
* [[Iowa Pleistocene Snail]] (''Discus macclintocki'')
==Endangered [[plant]]s==
About 6% of the 300,000 identified species are endangered due to overcollection or destruction of habitat, among other causes. [[Pollinator decline]] is also a factor for some species.
* [[African violet]] (''Saintpaulia ionantha''), due to forest clearance
* [[Baishanzu fir]] (''Abies beshanzuensis'') of southeast [[China]], three trees known on an isolated mountain summit
* [[Baker's larkspur]] (''Delphinium bakeri'') of [[California]], due to very limited habitat
* [[Chilean wine palm]] (''Juba chilensis''), due to land clearance
* [[Dawn Redwood]] ("Metasequoia glyptostroboides"), thought to be extinct until 1941, when a small stand was discovered in China
* [[King of the Paphs Orchid]] (''Paphiopedilum rothschildianum'') of [[Asia]], due to overcollection
* [[Lobster claw]] (''Clianthus puniceus'') of [[Australia]], due to overgrazing
* [[Louisiana Quillwort]], (''Isoetes louisianensis'') of [[Louisiana]], due to very limited habitat
* [[Madonna lily]] (''Lilium candidum'') of [[Europe]], due to overcollection
* ''[[Pinus squamata]]'' of southwest [[China]], about 20 trees known
* [[saguaro|Saguaro cactus]] (''Carnegia gigantea'') of [[North America]], due to overcollection, slow maturing, and slow breeding
* [[Saharan Cypress]] (''Cupressus dupreziana'') of [[North Africa]], due to small population and [[desertification]]
* [[Santa Cruz Tarweed]] (Holocarpa macradenia), of [[California]], due to limited range of habitat and encroachment by man
* [[Venus Flytrap]] (''Dionaea muscipula'') of [[North America]], due to land clearance and overcollection.
* [[Wollemi Pine]] (''Wollemia nobilis'') of [[Australia]], also known as the 'Dinosaur Tree' or 'Living Fossil'. Wollemia fossils have been found in Australia, Antarctica and New Zealand. The plant was thought to be extinct until two trees were discovered in 1994. Research into the horticultural development of the Wollemi pine is being conducted at Mount Annan Botanic Garden and, with commercial propagation well under way, plants should be available in 2005.
==Controversy==
Some [[endangered species]] laws are [[Controversy|controversial]]. Typical areas of controversy include: criteria for placing a species on the endangered species list, and criteria for removing a species from the list once its population has recovered; whether restrictions on land development constitute a "taking" of land by the [[government]]; the related question of whether private landowners should be compensated for the loss of use of their land; and obtaining reasonable exceptions to protection laws.
Being listed as an endangered species can backfire, since it could make a species more desirable for collectors and poachers [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/4013719.stm]. This is usually a . spurious argument, however, by those favoring loose laws for protection.
== See also ==
* [[Conservation status]]
* [[Convention on Biological Diversity]]
* [[Convention on the International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Flora and Fauna]] (CITES)
* [[Extinct birds]]
* [[Endangered Species Act]]
* [[International Convention for the Regulation of Whaling]]
* [[List of extinct animals of the British Isles|List of extinct and endangered animals of the British Isles]]
* [[Timeline of environmental events]]
==External links==
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/4013719.stm "Science counts species on brink"]. (Nov 17, 2004). ''BBC News''.
*[http://www.sinapu.org/ Endangered Native Carnivores in the Southern Rockies]
* U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service. [http://ecos.fws.gov/tess_public/TESSWebpage Threatened and Endangered Species System (TESS)].
*[http://www.bagheera.com/index.cfm Bagheera]. A website for our endangered species.
*[http://www.arkive.org ARKive].Images of Life on Earth
[[Category:Conservation]]
[[Category:Endangered species| ]]
[[Category:Environmental threats]]
[[eo:Minacata specio]]
[[fr:Espèce menacée]]
[[ko:멸종위기종]]
[[he:בעלי חיים בסכנת הכחדה]]
[[nl:Bedreigde diersoort]]
[[ja:絶滅危惧種]]
[[pl:Gatunek zagrożony]]
[[pt:Espécies ameaçadas]]
[[zh:瀕危物種]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>East Timor</title>
<id>9557</id>
<revision>
<id>41989130</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T01:51:51Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>202.72.106.20</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* History */ there is evidence (see CAVR report) that it was the Indonesian miliatary that instigated the violence, aided by militias</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">''{{East Timor infobox}}''
The '''[[Democratic Republic]] of Timor-Leste''' or '''East Timor''' is a country in [[Southeast Asia]]. It consists of the eastern half of the [[island]] of [[Timor]], the nearby islands of [[Atauro Island|Atauro]] and [[Jaco (East Timor)|Jaco]], and [[Oecussi-Ambeno]], an [[exclave]] of East Timor situated on the northwestern side of the island, surrounded by [[Indonesia]]n [[West Timor]]. The small country is located about 400 miles northwest of [[Darwin, Australia]].
The name Timor is derived from ''timur'' the [[Malay language|Malay]] word for 'east', which became ''Timor'' in [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]]. The Portuguese name '''Timor-Leste''' and [[Tetum]] name '''Timor Lorosa'e''' are sometimes used in [[English language|English]]. Lorosa'e means 'rising sun' in Tetum.
East Timor has the lowest [[per capita]] [[Gross domestic product|GDP]] (Purchasing Power Parity adjusted) in the world of only $400 (which corresponds to the [[List of countries by GDP (PPP) per capita|192nd]], and last, position). However, regarding [[HDI]], it is in [[List of countries by Human Development Index|140th]] place among the world's nations, which corresponds to medium human development.
Colonized by [[Portugal]] in the 16th century, East Timor was known as [[Portuguese Timor]] for centuries. It was invaded by [[Indonesia]] in [[1975]], which [[military occupation|occupied]] it until [[1999]]. Following the [[UN]]-sponsored act of self-determination that year, [[Indonesia]] relinquished control of the territory, which achieved full independence on [[May 20]], [[2002]]. With the [[Philippines]], East Timor is one of only two majority [[Roman Catholic]] countries in [[Asia]].
== History ==
''Main article: [[History of East Timor] |
ion of Spanish Sahara|Moroccan invasion of Spanish West Africa]], Spain gradually relinquished its remaining [[Africa|African]] colonies. Spanish Guinea was granted independence as [[Equatorial Guinea]] in [[1968]], while the Moroccan enclave of [[Ifni]] had been ceded to Morocco in [[1969]].
The latter years of Franco's rule saw some economic and political liberalization, the so-called [[Spanish Miracle]], including the birth of a tourism industry. Francisco Franco ruled until his death on [[November 20]]th [[1975]] when control was given to [[Juan Carlos I of Spain|King Juan Carlos]].
In the last few months before Franco's death, the Spanish state went into a paralysis. This was capitalized upon by [[Hassan II of Morocco|King Hassan II]] of [[Morocco]], who ordered the '[[Green March]]' into [[Western Sahara]], Spain's last colonial possession.
==The transition to democracy 1975-1978==
{{Seesubarticle|Spanish transition to democracy}}
The Spanish transition to democracy or new Bourbon restoration was the era when Spain moved from the dictatorship of Francisco Franco to a liberal democratic state. The transition is usually said to have begun with Franco’s death on November 20, 1975, while its completion is marked by the electoral victory of the socialist PSOE on October 28, 1982.
==Spain since 1978==
{{Seesubarticle|Modern Spain}}
''Spain 1978-1982'' The ''Unión del Centro Democrático'' governments.
[[1981]] The [[23-F]] coup d'état attempt. On [[February 23]] [[Antonio Tejero]], with members of the [[Guardia Civil (Spain)|Guardia Civil]] entered the Congress of Deputies, and stopped the session, where [[Leopoldo Calvo Sotelo]] was going to be named president of the government. Officially, the [[coup d'état]] failed thanks to King [[Juan Carlos of Spain|Juan Carlos]].
''Spain 1982-1996'' [[Felipe González]]'s ''Socialist'' governments.
Spain joins the [[NATO]].
[[1986]] Spain enters the [[European Union]].
[[1992]] [[Barcelona]] [[Olympic games|Olympics]], [[Expo '92]] in Seville.
''Spain 1996-2004'' The ''Partido Popular'' governments of [[José María Aznar]]. On [[January 1]], [[1999]] Spain exchanged the ''[[peseta]]'' for the new [[euro]] currency. On [[March 11]] [[2004]] a number of [[March 11, 2004 Madrid attacks|terrorist bombs exploded on busy commuter trains in Madrid]] during the morning rush-hour days before the general election. [[José María Aznar]] quickly accused [[ETA]] however soon afterwards it became apparent that the bombing was the work of an extremist [[Islamic]] group linked to [[Al-Qaida]]. Many believed that this suspicious behavior after the attack directly influenced the results of the election. Opinion polls at the time show that the difference between the two main contenders was too close to make an accurate judgement.
''[Spain 2004-]'' [[José Luis Rodríguez Zapatero]]'s ''Socialist'' government.
On April 21, 2005, the country became the first country in the world to give full marriage and adoption rights to homosexual couples. Belgium and the Netherlands allow same-sex marriages, but do not allow homosexuals to adopt.
At present, Spain is a [[constitutional monarchy]], and is comprised of 17 [[autonomous communities of Spain|autonomous communities]] ([[Andalusia|Andalucía]], [[Aragon|Aragón]], [[Asturias]], [[Balearic Islands|Illes Balears]], [[Canary Islands|Islas Canarias]], [[Cantabria]], [[Castilla y León]], [[Castilla-La Mancha]], [[Catalonia|Catalunya]], [[Extremadura]], [[Galicia (Spain)|Galicia]], [[La Rioja]], [[Madrid]], [[Murcia]], [[Basque country|País Vasco]], [[Valencia|Comunitat Valenciana]], [[Navarre|Navarra]], [[Ceuta]] and [[Melilla]]).
==External links==
*[http://www.badley.info/history/Spain.country.year.index.html Spain Chronology World History Database]
*''[http://www.trustedtranslations.com/castilian_spanish.asp Castilian Spanish and the History of Spanish language]''
*[http://libro.uca.edu/payne1/payne15.htm Stanley G. Payne '''The Seventeenth-Century Decline''']
*[http://www.textbookleague.org/121hakm.htm Joy Hakim Should Not Write About the History of Europe]
[[Category:History of Spain|**]]
[[ar:تاريخ إسبانيا]]
[[bg:История на Испания]]
[[cs:Dějiny Španělska]]
[[de:Geschichte Spaniens]]
[[es:Historia de España]]
[[eo:Historio de Hispanio]]
[[fr:Histoire d'Espagne]]
[[gl:Historia de España]]
[[it:Storia della Spagna]]
[[he:היסטוריה של ספרד]]
[[lt:Ispanijos istorija]]
[[nl:Geschiedenis van Spanje]]
[[ja:スペインの歴史]]
[[pl:Historia Hiszpanii]]
[[pt:História de Espanha]]
[[ro:Istoria Spaniei]]
[[ru:История Испании]]
[[simple:History of Spain]]
[[sv:Spaniens historia]]
== See also ==
*[[Black Legend]]
*[[Spain]]
*[[Spanish Empire]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>High-low split poker</title>
<id>13300</id>
<revision>
<id>15910915</id>
<timestamp>2003-05-25T19:30:39Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Camembert</username>
<id>3113</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>fix double redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[High-low split]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>How to start a page</title>
<id>13301</id>
<revision>
<id>15910916</id>
<timestamp>2004-08-12T01:47:35Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Gracefool</username>
<id>49021</id>
</contributor>
<comment>fixed double-redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Help:Starting a new page]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>How to explore Wikipedia</title>
<id>13304</id>
<revision>
<id>15910919</id>
<timestamp>2004-02-22T03:04:52Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Timwi</username>
<id>13051</id>
</contributor>
<comment>#REDIRECT [[Wikipedia:Explore]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Wikipedia:Explore]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>History of Turkey</title>
<id>13305</id>
<restrictions>move=:edit=</restrictions>
<revision>
<id>41137383</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-25T07:25:12Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>161.253.10.244</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Multi-Party Period */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">This article is primarily about the history of the [[Republic of Turkey]]. For other periods in history, see the links to main articles about those subjects under the corresponding history.
{{Template:History_of_Anatolia}}
One of the new states from the Ottoman Empire was [[Turkey|Republic of Turkey]]. This new state delivered the 'coup de grâce' to the Ottoman state, almost mercifully, in [[1922]], with the overthrow of Sultan [[Mehmed VI|Mehmet VI Vahdettin]] by the new Republican assembly of [[Turkey]].
{{History of Republic of Turkey}}
==War of Independence==
{{Details|Turkish War of Independence}}
[[Image:ataturk.jpg|thumb|right|180|Atatürk, modern Turkey's founder and first President]]
'''Short Summary:''' One of the new states was [[Turkey|Republic of Turkey]]. Turkish nationalists established modern [[Turkey]] as an outcome of the [[Turkish War of Independence]], mostly on what was to become Turkish soil, as of the [[Treaty of Lausanne]]. Turkish War of Independence defeated [[Greece]] in western Turkey (see [[Greco-Turkish War (1919-1922)]]), East Armenian state on the west (2 November 1920 [[Treaty of Gümrü|Gümrü Treaty]]).The [[Treaty of Lausanne]], signed on [[July 24]], 1923, and negotiated by [[Ismet Inonu|Ismet Pasha]] (Inönü) on behalf of the Ankara government, established most of the modern boundaries of the country (except the province of [[Hatay_Province|Hatay]] which was given to Turkey by France in 1939).
== Single Party Period ==
{{Details|Single-Party Period of Republic of Turkey}}
Turkey in 1925 was an drained country. During the initial years, voyagers who pass through its lands, remark on the desertedness of it countryside. The results of WWI and its consequances, epidemics and starvation, some 2.5 million Anatolian Muslims had lost their lives, as well as Christians. All in all, the population of Anatolia declined by 20% through mortality - percentage twenty times higher than that of France at the same period. Those times were hard times, beyond imagination. There were 12 provinces, most of them in the west, where more than 30 per cent of adult women were widows. For the first time in its entire history, Anatolia had a Turkish majority more than 80%. (ref: Justin McCarthy, Muslims and minorities. The population of Ottoman Anatolia and the end of the empire, New York: NY University Press, 1983)
'''Short Summary:''' The history of modern [[Turkey]] begins with the foundation of the republic on [[October 29]], [[1923]] (the Republic was declared on [[January 20]], [[1921]]), with [[Kemal Atatürk|Mustafa Kemal]] (Atatürk) as its first president. The government was formed from the [[Ankara]]-based revolutionary group, led by Atatürk. A new constitution was approved on [[April 20]], 1924. For the next 10 years, there was a steady process of secular westernization, guided by Mustafa Kemal. Unification of education, and disband of religious titles, Latin alphabet replaces Arabic script, the dress law (the wearing of a fez, a traditional Muslim hat, is outlawed), law of family names, etc. The educational materials were developed using words from [[Central Asia]] (including countries north of Turkey) are imported and their use is encouraged, with spotty success. The use of [[Persian language|Persian]] and [[Arabic language|Arabic]] words is discouraged. The passage to multi party period, was tried with Liberal Republican Party by Fethi Okyar. However, the liberal party was dissolved on [[November 17]], [[1930]] and no further attempt for a multi-party democracy was made until [[1945]]. Turkey was admitted to the [[League of Nations]] in July [[1932]]. Atatürk's successor after his death on [[Novembe |
Subsets and Splits
No community queries yet
The top public SQL queries from the community will appear here once available.