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d by many philosophers and writers ([[Aldous Huxley]], [[George Orwell]], and [[Hannah Arendt]]).
==See also==
*[[Parkinson's law]]
*[[Peter principle]]
*[[Red tape]]
*''[[Yes, Minister]]''
*''[[Sonatine Bureaucratique]]''
[[Category:Max Weber]]
[[Category:Organizational studies and human resource management]]
[[da:Bureaukrati]]
[[de:Bürokratie]]
[[es:Burocracia]]
[[fr:Bureaucratie]]
[[gl:Burocracia]]
[[he:ביורוקרטיה]]
[[id:Birokrasi]]
[[lt:Biurokratija]]
[[nl:Bureaucratie]]
[[ja:官僚制]]
[[pl:Biurokracja]]
[[pt:Burocracia]]
[[ru:Бюрократия]]
[[fi:Byrokratia]]
[[sv:Byråkrati]]
[[zh:科层制]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Blueshift</title>
<id>4646</id>
<revision>
<id>15902906</id>
<timestamp>2004-07-17T12:03:42Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Deltaecho</username>
<id>85438</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>#REDIRECT [[Blue shift]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Blue shift]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Breton language</title>
<id>4647</id>
<revision>
<id>41733074</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T10:25:01Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Babajobu</username>
<id>125012</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>rmv blank lines, alphabetize interwikis and cats using [[Wikipedia:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Language
|name=Breton
|nativename=Brezhoneg
|pronunciation=/bɾɛˈzõ.nɛk/
|states=[[France]]
|region=[[Brittany]]
|speakers=300,000
|familycolor=Indo-European
|fam2=[[Celtic languages|Celtic]]
|fam3=[[Insular Celtic languages|Insular Celtic]]
|fam4=[[Brythonic languages|Brythonic]]
|iso1=br|iso2=bre|iso3=bre}}
'''Breton''' (Breton: ''Brezhoneg'') is a [[Celtic languages|Celtic language]] spoken by some of the inhabitants of [[Brittany]] (''Breizh'') and [[Loire-Atlantique]] (historically part of Brittany) in [[France]].
== History==
Breton is not thought to be a descendant of any of the [[Continental Celtic languages]] such as [[Gaulish language|Gaulish]] (though it may have borrowed some features from it); rather, it is descended from the [[Brythonic languages|Brythonic]] branch of [[Insular Celtic languages]] brought by [[Romano-British]] settlers to [[Brittany]] after the [[Roman departure from Britain]] in the early [[5th century]]. The modern-day language most closely related to Breton is [[Cornish language|Cornish]], followed by [[Welsh language|Welsh]]. (The other [[regional language]] of Brittany, [[Gallo language|Gallo]], is an [[Langue d'oïl|Oïl language]] derived from [[Latin]]).
Breton is traditionally spoken in Lower Brittany, roughly to the west of a line linking [[Plouha]] and [[Vannes]]. It comes from a language community between [[Britain]] and [[Armorica]] (present-day Brittany). It was the language of the elite until the [[12th century]]. However, afterwards it was only the language of the people of West Brittany (''Breizh Izel''), and the nobility, then successively the bourgeoisie adopted [[French language|French]]. As a written language, the [[Duchy of Brittany]] used [[Latin]], switching to French in the [[15th Century]]. There exists a limited tradition of [[Breton literature]]. Old Breton has left some vocabulary which has served in the present day to produce [[philosophical]] and scientific terms in Modern Breton.
The French Monarchy never really concerned itself with the minority [[languages of France]]. The [[French revolution|revolutionary period]] really started policies favouring French over the "regional" languages, more pejoratively called ''[[patois]]''. It was assumed that [[reactionary]] and [[monarchy|monarchist]] forces preferred regional languages in an attempt to keep the peasant masses under-informed. According to the defenders of the Breton language, humiliating practices geared towards stamping out Breton lingered in schools and churches until the [[1960s]].
Today, despite the political centralization of France and the important influence of the media, Breton is still spoken and understood by about 500,000 people. This is, however, down from 1.3 million in [[1930]]. At the beginning of the [[20th century]], half the population of Lower Brittany knew only Breton, the other half being bilingual. By 1950, there were only 100,000 monolingual Bretons.
In [[1925]], thanks to Professor [[Roparz Hemon]], the first issue appeared of the review ''Gwalarn''. During its 19-year run, ''Gwalarn'' tried to raise the language to the level of other great "international" languages by creating original works covering all genres and by proposing Breton translations of internationally-recognized foreign works.
In [[1946]], ''[[Al Liamm]]'' replaced ''[[Gwalarn]]''. Other periodicals appeared and began to give Breton a fairly large body of literature for a minority language.
[[Image:Breton school sign in Rennes.jpg|thumb|Sign in Rennes outside a school with bilingual classes]]
In [[1977]], [[Diwan schools]] were founded to teach Breton by immersion. They taught thousands of young people from elementary school to high school. Another proposed teaching method was a bilingual approach, ''Div Yezh'' (two languages).
In [[2004]], the [[Asterix]] comic series were translated into Breton and Gallo. This is notable because, according to the comic, the village where Asterix lives is in Brittany.
Some poets, linguists, and writers who wrote in Breton, for example [[Yann-Ber Kalloc'h]], [[Roparz Hemon]], [[Anjela Duval]] and [[Per-Jakez Hélias]], are now known internationally.
Today, Breton is the only living [[Celtic language]] which is not recognized as an official language. The French state has refused to change the second article of the [[French Fifth Republic|Constitution]] (added in [[1994]]), which states that "the language of the Republic is French". The number of protesters demanding the repeal of this article is growing year by year. {{fact}}
The first Breton dictionary, the ''Catholicon'', was also the first French dictionary. Edited by [[Jehan Lagadec]] in [[1464]], it was a trilingual work containing Breton, French and Latin. Today the existence of bilingual dictionaries directly from Breton into languages such as English, German and Spanish demonstrates the determination of a new generation to gain international recognition for Breton. There also exists a monolingual dictionary, defining Breton words in Breton.
==Geographic distribution==
[[Image:Gallo and Breton.gif|right]]
Breton is spoken mainly in Western Brittany, but also in a more dispersed way in Eastern Brittany, and in areas around the world which have received Breton emigrants.
==Official status==
Breton is not an official language of France, despite pleas from autonomists and others for official recognition and for the language to be guaranteed a place in schools, the media, and other aspects of public life.
An attempt by the French government to incorporate the independent Breton-language immersion schools (called ''Diwan'') into the state education system was blocked by the French [[Constitutional Council of France|Constitutional Council]] on the grounds that, as the Constitution of the 5th Republic states that French is the language of the Republic, no other language may be used as a language of instruction in state schools. The [[Toubon Law]] states that French is the language of public education.
[[Image:Breizh-sign.jpg|thumb|Bilingual place names in road signage in Brittany]]
Nevertheless, the regional and departmental authorities do use Breton to a very limited extent insofar as they feel able, for example in signage. Some bilingual signage may also be seen, such as [[street name]] signs in Breton towns, and one station of the [[Rennes Metro|Rennes metro system]] has signs in both French and Breton. On the other hand, few shops or other private entities in Rennes have any Breton-language signs.
==Dialects==
The dialects of Breton as identified by [[ethnologists]] are Leonard, [[Trégorrois Breton|Tregorrois]], Vannetais and Cornouaillais. There are no clear borders between those dialect areas; the language changes slightly from one village to the next.
==Sounds==
<!-- Description of the sound set of the language. Can include phoneme charts and example words for each phoneme like in [[French language]]. If there is significant discussion here, it is probably best to divide the section into vowels and consonants subsections. -->
==Grammar==
<!-- Description of the grammar of the language. -->
===Verbal aspect===
As in [[English language|English]] and [[Irish language|Irish]], there are [[grammatical aspect]]s for verbs in a particular tense, detailing whether or not an action is habitual. As in English, there is a distinction between the habitual form and [[Progressive tense|progressive]] aspect:
* Me '''zo o komz''' gant ma amezeg ("I '''am talking''' with my neighbour") ;
* Me '''a gomz''' gant ma amezeg [bep mintin] ("I talk with my neighbour [every morning]") ;
==="Conjugated" Prepositions===
As in other modern [[Celtic languages]], Breton pronouns are fused into preceding prepositions to produce a sort of "conjugated" preposition. Below are some examples in Breton, [[Welsh language|Welsh]], and [[Irish language|Irish]]. Interestingly, French exhibits a similar construction to indicate possession: ''Le livre, c'est '''à moi''''' ("The book is mine"); ''à moi'', literally, "to me".
{| class="wikitable"
|-
!Breton
!Welsh
!Irish
!Scottish Gaelic
!English
!Literal Translation
|-
|ul levr zo '''ganin'''
|mae '''gen i''' lyfr
|tá leabhar '''agam'''
|tha leabhar '''agam'''
|I have a book
|A book is '''with-me'''
|-
|ur banne zo '''ganit'''
|mae '''gennet ti''' ddiod
|tá deoch '''agat'''
|tha deoch '''agad'''
|you have a drink
|a drink is '''wit |
last [[month]] of the [[year]] in the [[Gregorian Calendar]] and one of seven Gregorian months with the length of 31 [[day]]s.
December begins (astrologically) with the [[sun]] in the sign of [[Sagittarius]] and ends in the sign of [[Capricorn]]. Astronomically speaking, the sun begins in the constellation of [[Ophiuchus]], which is the only zodiacal constellation that is not counted as an astrological sign, and ends in the constellation of [[Sagittarius]].
The name is from the Latin ''decem'' for "[[10 (number)|ten]]". December was the tenth month in the [[Roman calendar]] until a monthless winter period was divided between [[January]] and [[February]].
==Events in December==
* [[Hanukkah]]
* [[World Aids Day]] ([[December 1]])
* [[Saint Lucy]] ([[December 13]])
* [[Pearl Harbor Day]] in the [[United States]] ([[December 7]])
* Día de la Virgen de Guadalupe, or Day of the Virgin of Guadalupe, in Mexico ([[December 12]])
* The solstice called the [[winter]] solstice in the northern hemisphere and the [[summer]] solstice in the southern hemisphere occurs on dates varying from [[20 December]] to [[22 December]] (in UTC). In the pagan wheel of the year the summer solstice is the time of Litha and the winter solstice is that of Yule.
* [[Christmas Eve]] ([[December 24]])
* [[Christmas]] ([[December 25]])
* [[Boxing Day]] ([[December 26]])
* [[Kwanzaa]] ([[December 26]] to [[January 1]])
* [[New Years Eve]] ([[December 31]])
==Trivia==
*December always begins with the same day of the week as September.
*December's [[flower]] is the [[holly]].
*December's [[birthstone]] is [[tanzanite]].
*December in the [[Northern Hemisphere]] is the seasonal equivalent to [[June]] in the [[Southern Hemisphere]] and vise versa.
==Other names==
*In [[Finnish language|Finnish]], December is called ''joulukuu'', meaning "month of Christmas", since about the 18th century. Earlier it was called ''talvikuu'', meaning "month of winter".
*In [[Irish language|Irish]], December is called ''Mí na Nollaig'', meaning "month of Christmas".
*In [[Japanese calendar|the old Japanese calendar]], the month is called ''Shiwasu'' meaning "priests run"; it is named so because priests are busy making end of the year prayers and blessings.
==See also==
* [[Historical Anniversaries]]
==External links==
*[http://www.astro.uu.nl/~strous/AA/en/antwoorden/seizoenen.html Astronomy Answers article on the seasons]
{{months}}
[[Category:Months]]
[[af:Desember]]
[[als:Dezember]]
[[ang:Gēolmōnaþ]]
[[ar:ديسمبر]]
[[an:Abiento]]
[[ast:Avientu]]
[[bg:Декември]]
[[be:Сьнежань]]
[[bs:Decembar]]
[[br:Kerzu]]
[[ca:Desembre]]
[[ceb:Disyembre]]
[[cv:Раштав]]
[[cs:Prosinec]]
[[cy:Rhagfyr]]
[[da:December]]
[[de:Dezember]]
[[et:Detsember]]
[[el:Δεκέμβριος]]
[[es:Diciembre]]
[[eo:Decembro]]
[[eu:Abendu]]
[[fa:دسامبر]]
[[fo:Desember]]
[[fr:Décembre]]
[[fy:Desimber]]
[[fur:Dicembar]]
[[ga:Nollaig]]
[[gl:Decembro]]
[[ko:12월]]
[[hr:Prosinac]]
[[io:Decembro]]
[[ilo:Deciembre]]
[[id:Desember]]
[[ia:Decembre]]
[[ie:Decembre]]
[[is:Desember]]
[[it:Dicembre]]
[[he:דצמבר]]
[[jv:Desember]]
[[kn:ಡಿಸೆಂಬರ್]]
[[ka:დეკემბერი]]
[[csb:Gòdnik]]
[[kw:Mys Kevardhu]]
[[sw:Desemba]]
[[ku:Berfanbar]]
[[la:December]]
[[lv:Decembris]]
[[lt:Gruodis]]
[[lb:Dezember]]
[[li:December]]
[[hu:December]]
[[mi:Hakihea]]
[[mr:डिसेंबर]]
[[ms:Disember]]
[[nap:Dicembre]]
[[nl:December]]
[[ja:12月]]
[[no:Desember]]
[[nn:Desember]]
[[oc:Decembre]]
[[pl:Grudzień]]
[[pt:Dezembro]]
[[ro:Decembrie]]
[[ru:Декабрь]]
[[se:Juovlamánnu]]
[[sco:December]]
[[sq:Dhjetori]]
[[scn:Dicèmmiru]]
[[simple:December]]
[[sk:December]]
[[sl:December]]
[[sr:Децембар]]
[[fi:Joulukuu]]
[[sv:December]]
[[tl:Disyembre]]
[[ta:டிசம்பர்]]
[[tt:Dekäber]]
[[te:డిసెంబర్]]
[[th:ธันวาคม]]
[[vi:Tháng mười hai]]
[[tpi:Disemba]]
[[tr:Aralık]]
[[uk:Грудень]]
[[ur:دسمبر]]
[[vo:Dekul]]
[[wa:Decimbe]]
[[war:Disyembre]]
[[zh:12月]]
[[pam:Disiembri]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>December 7</title>
<id>8144</id>
<revision>
<id>42007645</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T04:38:21Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rklawton</username>
<id>754622</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Deaths */ added date link</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''[[December 7]]''' is the 341st day (342nd in leap years) of the year in the [[Gregorian calendar]]. There are 24 days remaining.
{{DecemberCalendar}}
==Events==
*[[1732]] - The [[Royal Opera House]] opens at [[Covent Garden]], [[London]].
*[[1776]] - [[Marquis de Lafayette]] attempts to enter the American military as a major general.
*[[1787]] - [[Delaware]] becomes the first state to ratify the [[United States Constitution]].
*[[1815]] - [[Michel Ney]], [[Marshal of France|Marshal]] of [[France]], is executed by [[firing squad]], after having been convicted of [[treason]] for his support of [[Napoleon I of France|Napoleon Bonaparte]].
*[[1917]] - [[World War I]]: The [[United States]] declares war on [[Austria-Hungary]].
*[[1941]] - [[World War II]]: [[Canada]] declared war on [[Finland]], [[Hungary]], [[Romania]], and [[Japan]].
*1941 - [[World War II]]: [[Attack on Pearl Harbor|Attack On Pearl Harbor]] - The [[Imperial Japanese Navy]] attacks the [[U.S. Pacific Fleet]] and its defending [[United States Army Air Corps|Army Air Corps]] and Marine air forces at [[Pearl Harbor, Hawaii]].
*[[1946]] - A fire at the [[Winecoff Hotel]] in [[Atlanta, Georgia]] kills 119 people.
*[[1949]] - [[Chinese Civil War]]: The government of the [[Republic of China]] moves from [[Nanking]] to [[Taipei]].
*[[1962]] - Prince [[Rainier III, Prince of Monaco|Rainier III]] of [[Monaco]] revises the [[principality]]'s [[Constitution of Monaco|constitution]], devolving some of his power to advisory and legislative councils.
*[[1965]] - [[Pope Paul VI]] and [[Patriarch Athenagoras]] simultaneously lift mutual [[excommunication]]s that had been in place since [[1054]].
*[[1966]] - A fire at an army barracks in [[Erzurum]], [[Turkey]] kills 68 people.
*[[1970]] - The first ever general election on the basis of direct adult franchise are held in [[Pakistan]] for 313 National Assembly seats.
*[[1971]] - [[Pakistan]] President [[Yahya Khan]] announces formation of a Coalition Government at Centre with Nurul Amin as Prime Minister and [[Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto]] as Vice-Prime Minister.
*1971 - The [[Montreux]] [[Casino]] in [[Switzerland]] is set ablaze by someone wielding a [[flare gun]] during a [[Frank Zappa]] concert; the incident would be immortalized in the [[Deep Purple]] song "[[Smoke on the Water]]".
*[[1972]] - [[Apollo 17]], the last [[Project Apollo|Apollo moon mission]], is launched. The crew take the photograph known as "[[The Blue Marble]]" as they leave the Earth.
*[[1975]] - [[Indonesia]] invades [[East Timor]].
*[[1982]] - In [[Texas]], [[Charles Brooks, Jr.]] becomes the first person to be [[capital punishment|executed]] by [[lethal injection]] in the [[United States]].
*[[1983]] - Two jetliners collide at [[Madrid Barajas International Airport]], [[Madrid]] killing 93 people.
*[[1987]] - [[PSA Flight 1771]] crashes near [[Paso Robles, California]], killing all 43 on board, after a disgruntled passenger shoots his ex-boss on the flight, then shoots both pilots and himself.
*[[1988]] - [[Spitak Earthquake]]: In [[Armenia]] an [[earthquake]] measuring 6.9 on the [[Richter scale]] kills nearly 25,000, injures 15,000 and leaves 400,000 homeless.
*1988 - [[Yasser Arafat]] recognizes the right of [[Israel]] to exist.
*[[1989]] - In their third and final fight, [[Sugar Ray Leonard]] retains the [[World Boxing Council|WBC]] [[Super-Middleweight]] Championship of the World , defeating [[Roberto Duran]].
*[[1993]] - In [[South Africa]], the [[Transitional Executive Council]] is established.
*[[1995]] - The [[Galileo spacecraft]] arrives at [[Jupiter]], a little more than six years after it was launched by [[Space Shuttle Atlantis]] during [[STS-34|Mission STS-34]].
*[[2003]] - The [[Conservative Party of Canada]] is officially recognized after the merger of the [[Canadian Alliance]] and [[Progressive Conservative Party of Canada]].
*[[2004]] - [[Hamid Karzai]] is inaugurated as [[President of Afghanistan]].
*[[2004]] - [[John Kufuor]] is re-elected as [[President of Ghana]].
*[[2005]] - [[Rigoberto Alpizar]], a passenger on [[American Airlines Flight 924]] who allegedly claimed to have a bomb, is shot and killed by a team of U.S. federal [[Federal Air Marshal Service|air marshals]] at [[Miami International Airport]].
==Births==
*[[521]] - [[Saint Columba]], Irish Christian missionary to Scotland (d. [[597]])
*[[1545]] - [[Henry Stuart, Lord Darnley]], consort of [[Mary I of Scotland]] (d. [[1567]])
*[[1561]] - [[Kikkawa Hiroie]], Japanese politician (d. [[1625]])
*[[1598]] - [[Gian Lorenzo Bernini]], Italian artist (d. [[1680]])
*[[1637]] - [[Bernardo Pasquini]], Italian composer (d. [[1710]])
*[[1670]] - [[John Aislabie]], English director of the South Sea Company (d. [[1742]])
*[[1761]] - [[Marie Tussaud]], French-born museum proprietress and waxwork modeller (d. [[1850]])
*[[1764]] - [[Claude Victor-Perrin, duc de Belluno]], French marshal (d. [[1841]])
*[[1784]] - [[Allan Cunningham]], British poet (d. [[1842]])
*[[1801]] - [[Johann Nestroy]], Austrian dramatist and actor (d. [[1862]])
*[[1810]] - [[Theodor Schwann]], German physiologist (d. [[1882]])
*1810 - [[Josef Hyrtl]], Austrian anatomist (d. [[1894]])
*[[1823]] - [[Leopold Kronecker]], German mathematician (d. [[1891]])
*[[1847]] - [[George Grossmith]], British actor and writer (d. [[1912]])
*[[1860]] - [[Sir Joseph Cook]], sixth [[Prime Minister of Australia]] (d. [[1947]])
*[[1863]] - [[Pietro Mascagni]], Italian composer (d. [[1945]])
*1863 - [[Richard Sears]], American department store founder (d. [[1914]])
*[[1873]] - [[Willa Cather]], American novelist (d. [[1947]])
*[[1879]] - [[Rudolf Friml]], American composer (d. [[1972] |
<username>Tawker</username>
<id>212671</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/207.155.16.101|207.155.16.101]] ([[User talk:207.155.16.101|Talk]]) to last version by TigerShark</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Taxobox
| color = pink
| name = Hamsters
| fossil_range = Middle [[Miocene]] - Recent
| image = Dwarf hamster.eruanne.png
| image_caption = A dwarf hamster
| regnum = [[Animal]]ia
| phylum = [[Chordate|Chordata]]
| classis = [[Mammal]]ia
| ordo = [[Rodentia]]
| subordo = [[Sciurognathi]]
| infraordo = [[Myodonta]]
| superfamilia = [[Muroidea]]
| familia = [[Cricetidae]]
| subfamilia = '''Cricetinae'''
| subfamilia_authority = [[Johann Fischer von Waldheim|Fischer de Waldheim]], 1817
| subdivision_ranks = Genera
| subdivision =
*''[[Cricetus]]''
*''[[Mesocricetus]]''
*''[[Cricetulus]]''
*''[[Phodopus]]''
}}
A '''hamster''' is a [[rodent]] belonging to [[subfamily]] '''Cricetinae'''. The name hamster was originally a [[German language|German]] word ("hamstern" meaning to hoard). The subfamily contains about 18 [[species]], classified in six or seven [[genus|genera]]. Most have expandable cheek pouches, which reach from their cheeks to their shoulders. Hamsters are sometimes used in lab experiments (because they can reproduce quickly), along with [[rats]], [[mouse|mice]], and many other rodents.
==Species of hamsters==
The best known species is the Syrian Hamster, also known as the [[Golden Hamster]], ''Mesocricetus auratus'', which is commonly kept as a [[pet]]. Two other varieties of hamster are also growing in popularity as pets, the closely related [[Dwarf Campbell's Russian Hamster]] (''Phodopus campbelli'') and the [[Winter White Russian Hamster]] (''P. sungorus''). Two further species (the [[Chinese Hamster]] ''Cricetulus curtatus'' and the [[Roborovski Hamster]] (''Phodopus roborovskii'') can be found on occasion. Also extremely popular since its discovery around 1985 or 1986 is a mutation of the Syrian Hamster known as the "Black Bear" hamster; more docile than most hamsters, it is black with a white patch of fur at the neck. The reported docility of the Black Bear hamster is not however related to the black color, but rather to the more careful breeding of these animals. A badly bred "Black Bear" hamster can be just as aggressive as a normal golden hamster.
==Hamster Breeding==
Breeding hamsters means a bit of fighting between opposite sexes. Hamsters are mainly solitary animals except in their litters or in breeding as so. The gestation period for hamster babies, called "pups", takes only 2 weeks. Proper breeding is around 2 months.
==Hamsters as pets==
[[Image:MillieMillerton.jpg|thumb|A syrian or [[Golden Hamster]], "Mesocricetus auratus"]]
The hamster kept as pet most often is the [[Syrian Hamster]], also called Golden Hamster. So-called '''Teddybear''' or '''Black bear''' hamsters are just variations in color and coat of the Syrian hamster. Four species of smaller hamsters, known as dwarf hamsters, are also popular pets. These are [[Roborovski hamster]], (''Phodopus roborovskii''), the [[Chinese striped hamster]] (''Cricetulus griseus'') and the two subspecies of ''[[Phodopus sungorus]]'', the winter white Russian dwarf hamster (''Phodopus sungorus sungorus'') and Russian Campbell's dwarf hamster (''Phodopus sungorus campellii''). The care of the dwarf hamsters is similar to that of the syrian hamster, but there are differences in feeding and housing needs and temperament. Winter whites and Campbell's are fairly popular; in the US, the Campbell variety more so than the winter white, while the reverse holds in [[Europe]]. Roborovski and Chinese-striped hamsters are somewhat more difficult to breed and keep, are usually only available from breeders, and therefore limited to serious rodentia fans. Roborovski are especially not suitable for children.
Hamsters are [[nocturnal animal|nocturnal]] by nature. Many people prefer them to [[rat]]s, given rats' unsavory reputation (undeserved as pets). Unlike rats, they are not particularly good at learning tricks but can be entertaining to play with and watch. They are also much smaller than [[guinea pig]]s, although equally as furry and appealing, so are more appropriate for homes with limited space.
===Housing===
[[Image:Hamstercage.jpg|thumb|Hamster house with wheel and water bottle]]
Hamsters can be kept both in cages and in [[terrarium]]s, both of which are available in pet stores. Cages are easier to carry, their bars can be used for climbing, and they usually include a convenient front door. On the other hand, glass boxes keep hamsters from throwing litter out of their cages, provide a better view into the hamster's home, and create a quieter and more sheltered interior. In general, terrariums are more appropriate for dwarf hamsters, which are more sensitive to a disquieting environment and which would otherwise need very narrow-grid bars to keep them from slipping through. Middle-sized hamsters, such as the Syrian Hamster, especially enjoy climbing the cage walls. This, however, is extremely dangerous because the hamster can get its leg caught in the bars and fracture it. On the other hand, bars (the cage should have horizontal and vertical bars) are more open to the outside world; cages might be a better choice for these hamsters.
Despite the hamster's small size, appropriate housings should ''always'' have a floor space of at least one square foot. Glass boxes must not be higher than their width to allow for a sufficient air circulation. Although smaller in size, dwarf hamsters should have bigger housings than their larger relatives, at least 80 cm by 40&nbsp;cm (2 feet by 4 feet). The reason for this is that the dwarfs are very active, running and digging a lot, but they often cannot be taken outside their houses for long, because they are not comfortable there and, due to their smaller size, are more endangered when leaving their domicile. Usually hamsters with a bigger and more interesting home will live longer and provide more visual entertainment.
In addition to buying the common housings sold in stores, you can also build customized dwellings. In this case, use only materials that are not dangerous to the animals. [[Plywood]] and wood from [[conifer]]s is not suitable, because hamsters gnaw at their houses and both [[glue]] and [[resin]] are poisonous for them. Using standard water-soluble white wood glue to join pieces of solid wood, such as [[birch]] or [[beech]] wood, creates a safe environment for the hamster, although you must frequently check that the hamster is not gnawing through the wood. You can also equip a purchased cage with several intermediate levels, connected using stairs. Using wire grid for these platforms instead of solid wood causes serious injuries and is therefore not recommended.
The narrow and smooth plastic toy housings that can be found in some stores are usually not appropriate as the sole habitat for hamsters. The tight tubes are enclosed, preventing sufficient air circulation, and the plastic surfaces, while easily cleanable, cannot absorb the hamster's urine like natural materials. The result is a damp and uncomfortable climate that is a perfect habitat for [[germ]]s and [[fungus|fungi]]. In addition, synthetic materials are unhealthy when used for gnawing, making plastic tubes, "space stations", and houses an improper and unnatural (though often expensive) permanent home for hamsters. Reserve these habitats for supervised play and activity.
The perfect place for the hamster's home is a well-lit room of constant, moderate temperature (18 to 26°C, 64 to 80°F), in a place out of strong sunlight that could cause dangerous heating. Especially when wire cages are used, it is also important to avoid drafts. Though they cannot see very far, hamsters become more relaxed and curious when positioned somewhat above the ground (at least 65&nbsp;cm (2 feet)), from where they can perceive their surroundings.
Cover the inside of the hamster's residence, including all intermediate levels, with a sufficiently thick layer of wooden litter for rodents, available in pet stores. Although alternative materials may work as well, most of these bear additional threats. Cat litter is dangerous, because gnawing and eating the chunks is deadly. Cedar and pine based litter/bedding contain an aromatic oil (phenols) which will irritate a hamster's respiratory system so avoid those as well. Litter made from recycled paper/pulp works well to absorb odours and is safe for hamsters.
Hamsters are nest builders and a steady supply of fresh strips of tissue or newspaper (with soy-based ink) allows them to build a secure and comfortable spot in a corner of their enclosure or in their hiding house. Hay, from shops or even fresh from the garden, is also a valuable building material for cozy hamster nests, which, as an additional bonus, is also perfectly edible.
A sand bath can provide a hamster with entertainment and helps them groom. In the desert (their natural habitat), hamsters will roll around in the sand, which cleans their coat and prevents it from getting too oily. Dwarf hamsters in particularly enjoy this activity. Be sure to use a dish that will not tip over. Heavy ceramic and metal dishes are preferred. You can fill the dish with fine sand. Avoid sand that is powdery or dusty as it will pose a hazard to a hamster's respiratory system as well.
Regular cleaning of a hamster's home is crucial for the hamster's health. The home must be cleaned at least once a week by replacing the soiled bedding where necessary. Hamsters are fairly neat in their bathroom habits; if their enclosure is regularly cleaned, they choose one small location in which to urinate and defecate, making the cleaning simple. Small hamsters may require slightly less-frequent cleaning ( |
1990. The head of the government is the [[Chief Minister of Anguilla|Chief Minister]] who is appointed by the Governor. The legislative branch consists of a [[unicameral parliament]], the House of Assembly, made up of 11 members. Elections are held for 7 seats in the House of Assembly, 2 members being ex-offcio and 2 appointed.
The current Governor is [[Alan Huckle]], appointed in May 2004. The current Chief Minister is [[Osbourne Fleming]] following the victory of the United Front in elections held during February 2005.
==Geography==
{{main|Geography of {{PAGENAME}}}}
Anguilla is a collection of flat and low-lying islands and [[cay]]s of coral and limestone in the Caribbean Sea, east of Puerto Rico.
The islands and cays in the territory of Anguilla(besides the largest, Anguilla itself) include:
* [[Anguillita Island]]
* [[Dog Island]]
* [[Little Scrub Island]]
* [[Prickly Pear Cays]]
* [[Sandy Island, Anguilla|Sandy Island]]
* [[Scrub Island]]
* [[Seal Island]]
* [[Sombrero, Anguilla|Sombrero]]
==Economy==
{{main|Economy of {{PAGENAME}}}}
[[Image:Anguilla map.png|thumb|250px|Map of Anguilla]]
The island's main industries are fishing and tourism, with offshore banking playing an increasing role in the economy.
==Demographics==
{{main|Demographics of {{PAGENAME}}}}
The majority of Anguillans are [[Protestant]] and are of [[Africa]]n descent.
==Culture==
{{main|Culture of {{PAGENAME}}}}
== Miscellaneous topics ==
*[[Communications in {{PAGENAME}}]]
*[[Transportation in {{PAGENAME}}]]
==Reference==
#{{note|national_song}} {{cite web | url = http://www.gov.ai/national_song.htm |
title = National Song of Anguilla |
work = Official Website of the Government of Anguilla |
accessyear = 2005 | accessdate = October 12 }}
#{{note | UN_decolonisation }} {{cite web | url = http://www.un.org/Depts/dpi/decolonization/trust3.htm | title = Non-Self-Governing Territories listed by General Assembly in 2002 |
work = United Nations Special Committee of 24 on Decolonization |
accessyear = 2005 | accessdate = March 10 }}
==External links==
* [http://www.freeanguilla.com/ Free Anguilla - A Network of Anguilla Forums (non partisan discussion)
* [http://www.anguillanews.com/ Anguilla News] (News, People profiles, Talk, Carnival and more)
* [http://www.gov.ai/ Government of Anguilla] (Official web site)
* [http://www.loc.gov/rr/international/hispanic/anguilla/anguilla.html Library of Congress Portals on the World - Anguilla]
* [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/av.html CIA - The World Factbook -- Anguilla] - [[CIA]]'s Factbook on Anguilla
* [http://www.caribbeandiving.com/resources/Anguilla.html Anguilla] Resources
* [http://www.caribbean-on-line.com/islands/ag/agmap.shtml Map of Anguilla]
[[Image:Sandy_Ground_Anguilla.jpg|thumb|465px|left|Overlooking Sandy Ground, Anguilla]]
{{West Indies}}
{{Caricom}}
{{British dependencies}}
[[Category:Anguilla]]
[[Category:Caribbean islands]]
[[Category:Special territories of the European Union]]
[[ca:Anguilla]]
[[de:Anguilla]]
[[el:Ανγκουίλα]]
[[eo:Angvilo]]
[[es:Anguila (dependencia)]]
[[et:Anguilla]]
[[fi:Anguilla]]
[[fr:Anguilla]]
[[gl:Anguila - Anguilla]]
[[he:אנגווילה]]
[[hu:Anguilla]]
[[id:Anguilla]]
[[io:Anguila]]
[[is:Angvilla]]
[[it:Anguilla (isola)]]
[[ja:アンギラ]]
[[ko:앵귈라]]
[[lt:Angilija]]
[[lv:Angiļa]]
[[nds:Anguilla]]
[[nl:Anguilla (eiland)]]
[[no:Anguilla]]
[[pl:Anguilla]]
[[pt:Anguilla]]
[[ro:Anguilla]]
[[simple:Anguilla]]
[[sl:Angvila]]
[[sr:Ангиља]]
[[sv:Anguilla]]
[[tr:Anguilla]]
[[uk:Ангілья]]
[[zh:安圭拉]]
[[zh-min-nan:Anguilla]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Anguilla/History</title>
<id>1218</id>
<revision>
<id>15899714</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>LA2</username>
<id>445</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>*</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[History of Anguilla]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Anguilla/Geography</title>
<id>1219</id>
<revision>
<id>15899715</id>
<timestamp>2002-08-03T16:20:50Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Ellmist</username>
<id>2214</id>
</contributor>
<comment>move to Geography of Anguilla</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Geography of Anguilla]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Anguilla/Transnational issues</title>
<id>1220</id>
<revision>
<id>15899716</id>
<timestamp>2002-10-11T06:49:20Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Jeronimo</username>
<id>108</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Anguilla]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Anguilla/Military</title>
<id>1221</id>
<revision>
<id>25373041</id>
<timestamp>2005-10-12T19:11:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>JesseW</username>
<id>33352</id>
</contributor>
<comment>snap double link</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Anguilla]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Anguilla/Transportation</title>
<id>1222</id>
<revision>
<id>24813234</id>
<timestamp>2005-10-05T14:23:00Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Kbdank71</username>
<id>197953</id>
</contributor>
<comment>fix double redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Transport in Anguilla]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Anguilla/Communications</title>
<id>1223</id>
<revision>
<id>15899719</id>
<timestamp>2002-08-07T17:09:45Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Koyaanis Qatsi</username>
<id>90</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>correct redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Communications in Anguilla]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Anguilla/Economy</title>
<id>1224</id>
<revision>
<id>15899720</id>
<timestamp>2002-08-03T16:22:48Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Ellmist</username>
<id>2214</id>
</contributor>
<comment>move to Economy of Anguilla</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Economy of Anguilla]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Government of Anguilla</title>
<id>1225</id>
<revision>
<id>15899721</id>
<timestamp>2002-08-04T11:29:34Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Ellmist</username>
<id>2214</id>
</contributor>
<comment>move to Politics of Anguilla</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Politics of Anguilla]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Anguilla/People</title>
<id>1226</id>
<revision>
<id>15899722</id>
<timestamp>2002-08-20T15:32:56Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Koyaanis Qatsi</username>
<id>90</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Demographics of Anguilla]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Ashmore and Cartier Islands</title>
<id>1227</id>
<revision>
<id>38450213</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-06T11:19:58Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>JackofOz</username>
<id>33566</id>
</contributor>
<comment>completely separate from the NT generally speaking (it may be deemed part of the NT for particular purposes only); the Dept changed its name at least 7 years ago</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:AshmoreandCartierIslands.png|frame|Ashmore and Cartier Islands]]
The '''Territory of Ashmore and Cartier Islands''' are two groups of small low-lying uninhabited tropical [[island]]s in the [[Indian Ocean]] situated on the edge of the [[continental shelf]] north-west of [[Australia]] and south of the [[Indonesia]]n island of [[Rote Island|Roti]] at {{coor dm|12|14|S|123|5|E|}}.
The territory includes '''Ashmore Reef''' (West, Middle, and East Islets) and '''Cartier Island''' (70 km east) with, a total area of 199.45 km<sup>2</sup> within the reefs and including the [[lagoons]], and 114,400 m<sup>2</sup> of dry land. While they have a total of 74.1 km of shoreline, measured along the outer edge of the reef, there are no ports or harbors, only offshore anchorage. Nearby '''Hibernia Reef''', 42 km Northeast of Ashmore Reef, is not part of the territory. It has no permanently dry land area, although large parts of the reef become exposed during low tide.
*Ashmore Reef 155.40 km<sup>2</sup> area within reef (including lagoon)
**West Islet, 51,200 m&sup2; land area;
**Middle Islet, 21,200 m&sup2; land area;
**East Islet, 25,000 m&sup2; land area;
*Cartier Reef (44.03 km<sup>2</sup> area within reef (including lagoon)
**Cartier Island, 17,000 m&sup2; land area;
There is an automatic weather station on West Islet.
The territory is administered from [[Canberra]] by the Australian Department of the Environment and Heritage. The data code is AT. Defence is the responsibility of Australia, with periodic visits by the [[Royal Australian Navy]] and [[Royal Australian Air Force]]. The islands are visited by seasonal caretakers.
The '''Ashmore Reef Marine National Nature Reserve''' was established in August [[1983]]. It is of significant [[biodiversity]] value as it is in the flow of the [[Indonesian throughflow]] [[ocean current|current]] from the [[Pacific Ocean]] through the [[Malay archipelago|Indonesian Archipelago]] to the [[Indian Ocean]]. It is also in a surface current west from the [[Arafura Sea]] and [[Timor Sea]]. There are 14 distinct species of [[sea snake]] in the area, more than in any other area. There is also an unusually high level of [[species diversity]] of [[coral]], [[mollusk]]s, and [[fish]]. |
he cleanliness and presentation of both the animal and the exhibitor as well as the handler's ability and skill in handling the goat are scored. In a showmanship class, conformation is irrelevant since this is not what is being judged.
<b>The Dairy Goat Scorecard</b> (milking does)- is the system used for judging shows in the U.S. and is as follows:
General Appearance: 30 points
(This includes breed characteristics, head, shoulders, legs and feet, and topline- the back and rump)
Dairy Character: 20 points (the doe should be lean and angular, not meaty, and show evidence of high production).
Body Capacity: 20 points (the doe should be large and strong with a wide, deep barrel).
Mammary System: 30 points (udder should be productive and very well attached so as to be held up high away from possible injury, teats should be of a good size and shape for easy milking).
In all the perfect dairy goat would score all 100 points, and this is the standard the goats are judged by. Young stock and bucks are judged by different scorecards which place more emphasis on the other three categories; general appearance, body capacity, and dairy character.
==Gallery==
<gallery>
Image:Rove goat 800.jpg|A Rove
Image:Brown&black goat.jpg|Oberhasli or Alpine goat
Image:Brown female goat.jpg|This doe is likely of the Spanish type or a Nubian cross. Note the pendulous ears
Image:Goats in mountains.jpg|Domestic Goats high up in the hills
Image:Kid.jpg|A young Nubian kid goat
Image:Gorge_du_Verdon_Goat_0254.jpg|Goat in the mountains above Gorges du Verdon, Provence, South-France
Image:Ziegen_unbekannt.jpg|Goats on [[An Teallach]], [[Scotland]]
</gallery>
==See also==
*[[Livestock]]
==External links==
* [http://www.ansi.okstate.edu/breeds/goats/ Goat breeds]
* [http://www.ansi.okstate.edu/library/Goats.html Goat resources]
* [http://members.aol.com/RVSNorton/Lincoln33.html Abraham Lincoln's sons kept pet goats inside the White House]
[[Category:Goats]]
[[Category:Meat]]
[[cy:Gafr]]
[[de:Hausziege]]
[[es:Cabra]]
[[eo:Kapro]]
[[fr:Chèvre]]
[[ms:Kambing]]
[[nl:Geit]]
[[ja:&#12516;&#12462;]]
[[nds:Teeg]]
[[pl:Koza domowa]]
[[pt:Bode]]
[[hu:H%C3%A1zi_kecske]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Glen or Glenda?</title>
<id>13154</id>
<revision>
<id>41396612</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-27T01:29:59Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>67.81.119.226</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Idiosyncracies */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Film |
name = Glen or Glenda? |
image = Glen or Glenda box.jpg |
director = [[Edward D. Wood, Jr.]] |
producer = [[George Weiss]] |
writer = [[Edward D. Wood, Jr.]] |
starring = [[Edward D. Wood, Jr.]] (as 'Daniel Davis')<br>[[Dolores Fuller]]<br>[[Bela Lugosi]] |
movie_music = [[William Lava]] (uncredited) |
distributor = [[Screen Classics]] |
released = [[1953]] ([[United States|USA]]) |
runtime = 65 min. |
language = [[English language|English]] |
imdb_id = 0045826 |
music = |
awards = |
budget = |
}}
'''''Glen or Glenda?''''' is a [[film|movie]] made in [[1953]], starring its director [[Ed Wood, Jr.|Ed Wood]], [[Bela Lugosi]], and Wood's then-girlfriend [[Dolores Fuller]]. The movie is a [[docudrama]] about [[transvestism]], and is semi-autobiographical in nature; Wood himself was a transvestite, and the movie is a plea for [[tolerance]]. However, it has become a [[cult film]] due to its low-budget production values and idiosyncratic style.
==Origin==
The sex-change operation of [[Christine Jorgensen]] made national headlines in 1952, and this was the inspiration for [[George Weiss (producer)|George Weiss]], a Hollywood producer of low-budget films, to commission a movie to exploit it. Ed Wood persuaded Weiss that his own transvestism made him the perfect director despite his modest resume. Wood was given the job and took the money, but instead made a movie about transvestism. When the finished movie was deemed too short and too divergent from what was requested, Wood tacked on a few extra scenes about sexual reassignment. The film received a release only because it had been pre-sold to a number of theatres before it was made.
==Behind the scenes==
Wood persuaded Bela Lugosi, a former star now aged, impoverished, and drug-addicted, to appear in the movie. Wood himself played the eponymous Glen/Glenda, but under the pseudonym 'Daniel Davis'. His girlfriend, Dolores Fuller, played Glen's girlfriend. Fuller was not aware of Wood's transvestism at the time: the nature of the film was not fully explained to her, and Wood rarely wore women's clothing when she was on set. Only at a screening of the finished product was the truth revealed, and Fuller claims to have been humiliated by the experience. This was the only movie Ed Wood directed but did not also produce.
[[Image:Cap010.jpg|thumb|right|Bela Lugosi shouting "Pull the string!" amid stampeding bison]]
==Idiosyncracies==
[[Leonard Maltin]]'s best-selling ''Movie and Video Guide'' names this film as "possibly the worst movie ever made," a dubious honor previously held by another Wood film, ''[[Plan 9 from Outer Space]]''.
Bela Lugosi is credited as 'The Scientist', a character whose purpose is unclear. He acts as a sort of narrator but gives no narration relevant to the plot; that job is reserved for the film's primary narrator, [[Timothy Farrell]]. The Scientist is surrounded by horror-movie trappings such as skulls and test tubes as he exhorts the audience to "beware of the big green dragon that sits on your doorstep". Stock footage of rampaging [[American Bison|bison]] are superimposed over The Scientist's face at one point for no obvious reason. There are also various unnecessarily long, surreal dream sequences during which Glen is haunted by a devil-like character
[[Image:Glen or Glenda.jpg|thumb|right|Film poster for Glen or Glenda?]]
==Legacy==
The lead character turns lethal in Wood's novel ''Killer in Drag'' and is executed in ''Death of a Transvestite.'' In the book ''Death of a Transvestite,'' Glen struggles for the right to go to the electric chair dressed as Glenda.
[[Tim Burton]]'s movie ''[[Ed Wood (film)|Ed Wood]]'' depicts the making of the film and includes reconstructions of several scenes with [[Johnny Depp]] in the role of Ed Wood.
Co-star Dolores Fuller eventually went on to a songwriting career, authoring hits song for Elvis Presley such as "Rock-A-Hula Baby".
''Glen or Glenda'' was reissued with six minutes of additional footage in 1982. Restored scenes include Glen's rejection of a pass made by a gay man.
The film was remade as pornographic ''Glen & Glenda'' in 1994 -- not spoofed, actually remade from the original script but with sex added.
In the movie ''The Seed of Chucky,'' the gender-confused offspring of the evil puppets goes by two names, Glen and Glenda, after this movie.
==Alternate titles==
*''He or She?''
*''I Changed My Sex''
*''I Led 2 Lives''
*''The Transvestite''
==References==
* ''[[The Haunted World of Edward D. Wood, Jr.]]'' (documentary, dir. [[Brett Thompson]], [[1996]]).
==See also==
* [[Transgender in film and television]]
* [[Cross-dressing in film and television]]
==External links==
* {{imdb title|id=0045826|title=Glen or Glenda}}
* ''Glen or Glenda'' at [http://www.movietome.com/movietome/servlet/MovieMain/movieid-50289/ ''Movie Tome'']
[[Category:1953 films]]
[[Category:Films directed by Ed Wood]]
[[Category:Cult films]]
[[Category:Public domain films]]
[[Category:Transgender]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>The Golden Turkey Awards</title>
<id>13155</id>
<revision>
<id>40370209</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-20T02:45:23Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Dbtfz</username>
<id>762819</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* List of Golden Turkey winners */ typo</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{mergefrom|Golden turkey}}
'''''The Golden Turkey Awards''''' is a [[1980]] book by film critic [[Michael Medved]] and his brother [[Harry Medved]]. This book is credited with giving the movie ''[[Plan 9 from Outer Space]]'' by [[Ed Wood, Jr.]] the reputation of being the "worst movie ever made".
The book awards the fictional "Golden Turkey Awards" to [[film]]s that the Medveds feel are poor in quality, along with [[film director|director]]s and actors judged to have created a chronically inept body of work. Readers will not necessarily agree with all their choices, however the book almost exclusively showcases low-budget obscurities and exploitation films.
The Medveds had previously "celebrated" bad cinema in ''[[The Fifty Worst Films of All Time]]'', many of which were also featured in the various ''Golden Turkey Awards'' categories.
One of the films "nominated" in the book was in fact an invention of the authors and readers were challenged to figure out which film was actually fake. The fake film was ''Dog of Norway'', which was illustrated using a photo of a co-author's dog.
==List of Golden Turkey winners==
* '''Most Embarrassing Movie Debut''': [[Paul Newman]] in ''[[The Silver Chalice]]''
* '''Most Ridiculous Movie Monster''': ''[[Robot Monster]]''
* '''Worst Performance by a Popular Singer''': [[Tony Bennett]] in ''[[The Oscar (film)|The Oscar]]''
* '''Worst Title''': ''[[Rat Pfink a Boo Boo|Rat Fink a Boo Boo]]''
* '''Most Brainless Brain Movie''': ''[[They Saved Hitler's Brain]]''
* '''Most 'Badly Bumbled Bee' Movie''': ''[[The Swarm]]''
* '''Worst Casting''': [[John Wayne]] as [[Genghis Khan]] in ''[[The Conqueror]]''
* '''Worst Performance by a Politician''': [[United States Congress]]man and [[New York City]] Mayor [[John Lindsay]] in ''[[Rosebud (film)|Rosebud]]''
* |
llection of Google Earth locations of National Rail stations] (Requires [http://earth.google.com Google Earth software]) from the Google Earth Community forum.
[[Category:Rail transport in Great Britain| ]]
[[fr:Système ferroviaire britannique]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>British Rail</title>
<id>4385</id>
<revision>
<id>41480181</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-27T17:18:51Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>86.128.172.34</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* British Rail */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:BR-logo.svg|thumb|right|300px|Logo of British Rail]]
'''British Railways (BR)''', later rebranded as '''British Rail''', ran the [[Rail transport in the United Kingdom|British railway system]] from the [[nationalisation]] of the 'Big Four' British [[railway]] companies in 1948 until its [[Privatisation of British Rail|privatisation]] in stages between 1994 and 1997.
This period saw massive changes in the nature of the railway network: steam traction was eliminated in favour of diesel and electric power, passengers replaced freight as the main source of business, and the network was severely rationalised.
==History==
=== Background ===
[[Image:British Railways Eastern Region timetable for Summer 1963.jpg|thumb|right|British Railways [[Eastern Region of British Railways|Eastern Region]] [[timetable]] for Summer 1963.]]
The [[rail transport in Great Britain|rail transport system in Great Britain]] developed during the 19th century. After the grouping of 1923 by the [[Railways Act 1921]] there were four large British railway companies, each dominating its own geographic area. These were the [[Great Western Railway]] (GWR), the [[London, Midland and Scottish Railway]] (LMS), the [[London and North Eastern Railway]] (LNER) and the [[Southern Railway (UK)|Southern Railway]] (SR).
The [[London Underground]] and the [[Glasgow Subway]] were independent concerns and there was a small number of independent [[1896 Light Railways Act|light railways]] and [[industrial railway]]s, which did not contribute significant mileage to the system. Neither were non-railway-owned [[tramway]]s considered part of the system.
During the [[World War II|Second World War]] the railways were taken into state control. They were heavily damaged by enemy action and were extremely run down due to lack of capital investment or maintenance in aiding the war effort.
=== Nationalisation ===
The [[Transport Act 1947]] made provision for the [[nationalization|nationalisation]] of the network, as part of a policy of nationalising public services by [[Clement Attlee]]'s [[Labour Party (UK)|Labour]] Government. British Railways came into existence on [[1 January]] [[1948]] with the merger of the Big Four, under the control of the [[Railway Executive]] of the [[British Transport Commission]] (BTC).
The [[Northern Counties Committee]] lines owned by the LMS in [[Northern Ireland]] were quickly sold to the [[Stormont Government]], becoming part of the [[Ulster Transport Authority]] (UTA) in 1949.
[[image:British_Railways_lion_and_wheel_on_coach.jpg|thumb|right|The emblem of British Railways, also called the "Ferret and Dartboard"]]
=== British Railways ===
The new system was split geographically into six regions along the lines of the Big Four:
* [[Eastern Region of British Railways|Eastern Region]] (ER) &mdash; southern LNER lines.
* [[North Eastern Region of British Railways|North Eastern Region]] (NER) &mdash; northern LNER lines in [[England]] and all ex-LMS lines east of [[Skipton]].
* [[London Midland Region of British Railways|London Midland Region]] (LMR) &mdash; LMS lines in England and [[Wales]] and most ex-LNER lines west of [[Skipton]].
* [[Scottish Region of British Railways|Scottish Region]] (ScR) &mdash; LMS and LNER lines in [[Scotland]].
* [[Southern Region of British Railways|Southern Region]] (SR) &mdash; SR lines.
* [[Western Region of British Railways|Western Region]] (WR) &mdash; GWR lines.
These regions would form the basis of the BR business structure until the 1980s. The Eastern and North Eastern Regions were merged to form the Eastern Region in the 1960s, Anglia Region was split off from the Eastern Region in the 1980s. They retained a level of independence, though there was also some centralisation.
[[image:ExLMS_jubilee_Sandwich.jpg|thumb|right|ex-LMS Jubilee Class 45641 ''Sandwich'' at [[Chinley]] in 1954]]
=== 1955 Modernisation Plan ===
After the Second World War, Britain's railways fell behind others in the world. Countries like Japan, USA and France were experimenting with new diesels and electrics. However, Britain wasn't, and the run down network deteriorated even more because of painfully slow rebuilding. Finally, and lately, came the modernisation plan for Britain's railways. It cost the government much more than it should have, because of bad timing.
The 1955 Modernisation Plan, detailed in the [[British Transport Commission]]'s (BTC) ''Modernisation and Re-equipment of British Railways'', argued for spending [[Pound Sterling|£1,240 million]] over a period of 15 years. Services were to be made more attractive to passengers and freight operators, thus recovering traffic which was being lost to the roads. There were three important areas:
* Electrification of principal express routes, the [[Eastern Region of British Railways]], [[Kent]], Birmingham and Central [[Scotland]],
* Large-scale introduction of diesel and electric traction to replace [[steam locomotives of British Railways|steam locomotives]] and including new passenger coach stock
* Resignalling and track renewal
A government [[White Paper]] was produced in 1956, stating that modernisation would help eliminate BR's financial deficit by 1962.
However the modernisation plan failed to take into account the effect that mass road transport would have upon the traditional role of the railways, and as a result much money was wasted by heavy investment in things like [[marshalling yard]]s, at a time when small wagon-load traffic was in rapid decline. Much money was also wasted by the rapid introduction of new classes of diesel locomotives into fleet service without an adequate period of prototype testing, which resulted in several classes being scrapped within a very few years of their being built. The failure of the Modernisation Plan led to a distrust of British Rail's financial planning abilities by the Treasury which was to dog BR for the rest of its existence.
[[Image:Barry Scrapyard line of tank engines.jpg|thumb|right|There was mass withdrawal of steam types]]
=== The Beeching Axe and the end of steam ===
{{main|Beeching Axe}}
In 1963, BR chairman Dr [[Richard Beeching]] published the ''Re-Shaping of British Railways'' calling for major rationalisation of the system. Many rural routes were unprofitable in the face of increasing competition from road hauliers and the private car. The [[Beeching Axe]] fell on most branch lines and some main lines. Some of these lines have since become [[List of British heritage and private railways|heritage railways]].
The early 1960s also saw the "Great Locomotive Cull", with mass withdrawals of steam types, and their replacement with [[diesel]]s, fewer of which were needed on the shrinking system. Steam traction's last stand came in the North-West of [[England]] in August 1968. The use of steam locomotives on independent industrial lines, particularly by the [[National Coal Board]] (NCB), continued into the 1970s. Many locomotives were preserved, having not been scrapped immediately on withdrawal, but most fell victim to the cutter's torch.<br style="clear:both;" />
From 1958 to 1974 the [[West Coast Main Line]] was electrified in stages at the French voltage of [[volt|25 kV]] [[Hertz|50Hz]] [[alternating current|AC]] [[Overhead lines|overhead line electrification]]. Many commuter lines around [[London]] and [[Glasgow]] were also electrified, and the [[Southern Region]] extended its 750 V [[direct current|DC]] [[third rail]] system to the [[Kent]] coast. However electrification never reached system-wide level as on many other [[Europe]]an railways.
=== British Rail ===
[[image:47241_Reading.jpg|thumb|right|[[British Rail Class 47|Class 47]] 47241 in "corporate blue" livery in 1980]]
Steam traction on British Railways ended in August 1968 after the system was rebranded '''British Rail''' (see [[British Rail brand names]] for a full history). This introduced the double-arrow logo, still used by [[National Rail]] to represent the industry as a whole (though some cynics claimed the logo was really called the "arrow of indecision" and meant the railway didn't know if it was coming or going); the standardised [[typeface]] used for all communications and signs; and the "rail blue" livery which was applied to nearly all locomotives and rolling stock.
In 1973 the [[TOPS|TOPS system]] for classifying locomotives and multiple units was introduced, and is the basis of the [[list of British Rail classes|classification system]]. Hauled rolling stock continued to carry numbers in a separate series. Also during this time, [[yellow warning panel]]s, characteristic of British railways, were added to the front of diesel and electric locomotives and multiple units in order to increase the safety of track workers.
The major engineering works were split off into a separate company, ''British Rail Engineering Limited'' ([[BREL]]), in 1970.
=== Sectorisation ===
[[Image:1586 at London Victoria.jpg|thumb|right|Sectorisation produced a more colourful railway &mdash; this is the [[Network SouthEast]] livery. It is a Mk1 electric multiple unit.]]
[[image:Virgin_Trains_class_87_&_train.jpg|thumb|right|Old trains, new livery -- [[Virgin Trains]] took over two [[InterCity (British Rail)|InterCity]] franchises.]]
In the 1980s the regions of BR were aboli |
the functions of the brain at every level, from the [[molecule|molecular]] up to the [[psychology|psychological]].
==History==
[[Image:hieroglyphic-brain.jpg|left|thumb|150px|Hieroglyphic for the word "brain" (c.1700 BC)]]
The Edwin Smith Surgical Papyrus, written in the 17th century BC, contains the earliest recorded reference to the brain. The word brain (adjacent), occuring eight times in this papyrus, describes the symptoms, diagnosis, and prognosis of two patients, wounded in the head, who had compound fractures of the skull.{{ref|kandel}}
In the first millennium BC, the [[Ancient Greece|Ancient Greeks]] developed differing views on the function of the brain. In the 4th BC [[Hippocrates]], the father of medicine, believed the brain to be the seat of intelligence. In the 3rd century BC [[Aristotle]] believed that the brain was a cooling mechanism for the blood while the heart was the seat of [[intelligence (trait)|intelligence]]. He reasoned that humans are more rational than the beasts because they have a larger brain to cool their hot-bloodedness {{ref|bear}}.
[[Image:1543,AndreasVesalius'Fabrica,BaseOfTheBrain.jpg|right|thumb|150px|Drawing of the base of the brain by [[Vesalius|Andrea Vesalius]] (1543).]]
During the [[Roman Empire]], the anatomist [[Galen]] dissected the brains of [[sheep]]. He concluded that since the [[cerebellum]] was more dense than the brain, it must control the [[muscle]]s. Since [[cerebral cortex|cerebrum]] was soft, it must be where the senses were processed. Galen further theorized that the brain functioned by movement of fluids through the [[ventricular system|ventricles]]{{ref|bear}}.
In the [[Age of Enlightenment]], [[René Descartes]] espoused a fluid mechanical view of the brain similar to Galen's. However, Descartes thought that although this explanation was adequate for the brain functions of animals, the higher mental functions of humans were accomplished by the soul. This theoretical separation of the mind and brain became known as the [[mind-body problem]], with Descartes espousing the [[dualism|dualist]] view of the mind as separate from the brain{{ref|bear}}.
[[Image: CajalCerebellum.jpg|left|thumb|200px|Drawing of the cells in the [[chicken]] cerebellum by [[Santiago Ramón y Cajal|S. Ramón y Cajal]]]]
In the mid-[[1600s]] great progress in describing the [[anatomy]] of the brain ([[neuroanatomy]]) was achieved by the [[English people|English]] anatomist [[Thomas Willis]] and [[Flemish people|Flemish]] anatomist [[Vesalius]]. They dispelled many of the notions of Galen and Descartes, and resolved many facts about the macro structure of the brain.
In the [[1700s]], [[Luigi Galvani]] showed that [[electricity|electrically]] stimulating the [[sciatic nerve]] of a dissected [[frog]] caused movement of the attached muscle. His experiments moved scientists away from the fluid mechanical theory of the brain and toward an electrical theory. In the 19th century, Galvani's work led to research in [[bioelectromagnetism|bioelectricity]] and to the discovery of the [[membrane potential]] and [[action potential]] by researchers such as [[Emil du Bois-Reymond]].
The scientists of the [[1800s]] debated whether [[List of regions in the human brain|areas of the brain]] corresponded to specific functions or if the brain functioned as a whole (the "aggregate field theory"). [[Jean Pierre Flourens]] championed the aggregate field theory in opposition to the [[pseudoscience]] of [[phrenology]], founded by [[Franz Joseph Gall]]. However, the work of [[Paul Pierre Broca]], [[Karl Wernicke]], and [[Korbinian Brodmann]] eventually helped to show that areas of the brain had specific functions. Their work showed that, while some functions were repeated, there is also a [[lateralization of brain function]] wherein certain functions such as [[speech]] and [[language]] are usually controlled by one [[cerebral hemisphere]] as opposed to another. The redundancy of functioning has come to be known as parallel distributed processing {{ref|kandel}}.
[[Image:1st-eeg.gif|thumb|First EEG trace recorded by Hans Berger (1929)]]
By the [[20th century]], the anatomical works of [[Santiago Ramón y Cajal]] and [[Camillo Golgi]] laid the foundation for the study of individual neurons. [[Charles Scott Sherrington]] and [[Edgar Douglas Adrian, 1st Baron Adrian|Edgar Douglas Adrian]] furthered the study of neurons with the new techniques using [[electrode]]s. [[Neurotransmitter]]s were discovered and investigated by many scientists, including [[Otto Loewi]], [[Henry Hallett Dale]], and [[Arvid Carlsson]]. These [[neurochemistry|neurochemicals]] are responsible for carrying signals from one neuron to another across the tiny gaps ([[synapse]]s) between the neuronal connections.
In 1929, [[Germans|German]] [[physician]] [[Hans Berger]] recorded the first electrical potentials from a living brain. This technique—known as [[electroencephalography]] or EEG—led to the widespread use of [[neuroimaging]] on live, active humans and animals to study the processes of the mind.
==Modern neuroscience==
Modern neuroscience is experiencing rapid growth due to the availability of computers capable of handling the intense processing required for understanding such a complex system. Neuroscientists use many different approaches to study the brain at different levels—from the molecules to systems. Extensive knowledge has been accumulated about the [[electrophysiology|electrophysiological]] properties of different types of neurons and their responsiveness to neurotransmitters. Recordings from the brains of awake, behaving animals pioneered by [[Edward Evarts]] help to decode neuronal firing during different behaviors and cognitive processes. [[Miguel Nicolelis]] introduced multielectrode recording techniques which led to creation of rudimentary [[brain-computer interface]]s. Rapidly developing neuroimaging techniques such as [[functional magnetic resonance imaging]] (fMRI) allows scientists to study the brain in living humans and animals in ways that their predecessors could not.
==Mind and brain==
{{portalpar|Mind and Brain}}
A distinction is sometimes made in the [[philosophy of mind]] between the [[mind]] and brain. The brain is defined as the physical, biological [[matter]] contained within the [[head]], responsible for all electrochemical neuronal processes. The mind, however, exists as something outside of the brain. The mind is sometimes thought of as [[consciousness]], the [[soul]], or some other non-physical center of thought.
The inability to determine what consciousness is has led to the [[mind-body problem]]. Some philosophers such as [[strong AI]] theorists believe that the mind is analogous to [[computer software]] and the brain to [[computer hardware|hardware]].
==Comparative anatomy==
[[Image:Mouse_brain.jpg|thumb|right|A mouse brain.]]
Three groups of animals, with some exceptions, have notably complex brains: the [[arthropod]]s ([[insect]]s and [[crustacean]]s), the [[cephalopod]]s ([[octopus]]es, [[squid]], and similar [[mollusk]]s), and the [[craniata|craniates]] ([[vertebrate]]s){{ref|butler}}. The brain of arthropods and cephalopods arises from twin parallel nerve cords that extend through the body of the animal. In arthropods, the brain consists of a central brain with three divisions and large ''optical lobes'' behind each [[eye]] for visual processing{{ref|butler}}.
The brain of craniates develops from the [[anatomical terms of location|anterior]] section of a single dorsal [[neural tube|nerve cord]], which later becomes the [[spinal cord]]{{ref|kandel}}. In craniates, the brain is protected by the [[bone]]s of the [[skull]]. In vertebrates, increasing [[complexity]] in the [[cerebral cortex]] correlates with height on the [[phylogenetic tree|phylogenetic]] and [[evolutionary tree]]. Primitive vertebrates such as [[fish]], [[reptile]]s, and [[amphibian]]s have fewer than six layers of neurons in the outer layer of their brains. This cortical configuration is called the [[allocortex]] (or heterotypic cortex){{ref|martin}}.
More complex vertebrates such as [[mammal]]s have a six-layered [[neopallium|neocortex]] (or homotypic cortex, neopallium), in addition to having some parts of the brain that are allocortex{{ref|martin}}. In mammals, increasing convolutions of the brain are characteristic of animals with more advanced brains. These convolutions provide a larger surface area for a greater number of neurons while keeping the volume of the brain compact enough to fit inside the skull. This folding allows more grey matter to fit into a smaller volume, similar to a really long slinky being able to fit into a tiny box when completely pushed together. The folds of the brain are called [[gyrus|gyri]], while the spaces between the folds are called the [[sulcus|sulci]].
Although the general [[histology]] of the brain is similar from person to person, the structural anatomy can differ. Apart from the gross [[embryology|embryological]] divisions of the brain, the individual location of specific gyri and sulci, primary sensory regions, and other structures in relation to one another differs across creatures.
===Invertebrates===
In insects, the brain has four parts, the optical lobes, the protocerebrum, the deutocerebrum, and the tritocerebrum. The optical lobes are behind each eye and process visual stimuli {{ref|butler}}. The protocerebrum contains the [[mushroom bodies]], which respond to [[olfaction|smell]], and the central body complex. In some [[species]] such as [[bee]]s, the mushroom body receives input from the visual pathway as well. The deutocerebrum includes the [[antennal lobe]]s, which are similar to the mammalian [[olfactory bulb]], and the [[mechanosensor|mechanosensory]] [[neuropil]]s which receive information from [[touch]] receptors on the head and [[antenna (biology)|antennae]]. The antennal lobes of [[fly|flies]] and [[moth]]s are quite complex.
In cepha |
ble tea supposedly originated in [[Taichung]], Taiwan during the early 1980s. A Taiwanese tea shop named Chun Shui Tang (春水堂) experimented with cold milk tea by adding [[fruit]], syrup, [[sweet potato|candied yams]] and, finally, tapioca balls. Although the drink was not popular at first, publicity from a Japanese television show caused businessmen to take notice, and the drink became well known throughout Asia in the 1990s.
In the late 1990s, bubble tea began to gain popularity in the United States and Canada. This unique beverage also received some attention in the American mainstream media, including [[Morning Edition]] on [[National Public Radio]] and the [[Los Angeles Times]]. Bubble tea can also be found in major European cities, such as [[London]] and [[Paris]]. Bubble tea has spread internationally, mainly through [[Chinatown|overseas Chinese communities]].
==Names==
Bubble tea is known under a variety of other names, including:
* black pearl tea
* black pearl ice tea
* boba drink
* &#27874;&#38712;&#22902;&#33590; ''b&#333;bà n&#462;ichá'' &mdash; literally "large breast" milk tea.
* boba milk tea ([[Chinese language|Chinese]]: 波霸奶茶; [[pinyin]]: bōbà nǎichá)
* bubble milk tea
* milk pearl tea
* &#22902;&#33590; ''naicha'' &mdash; literally, "milk tea"
* pearl ice tea
* pearl milk tea (珍珠奶茶; zhēnzhū nǎichá)
* pearl sago [milk] tea &mdash; in English only; usually used for canned varieties where pearl sago (&#35199;&#31859;; x&#299;m&#464;; Cantonese: sai<sup>1</sup> mai<sup>5</sup>) is used instead of tapioca.
* pearl tea
* ชาไข่มุก, ชามุก literally, pearl tea
* QQ drinks &mdash; ''kiú'' is Taiwanese slang for "chewy"
* tapioca drink
* tapioca tea
* ''trà trân châu'' (equivalent to 茶珍珠, literally "pearl tea") (Vietnamese)
* &#29645;&#29664;&#22902;&#33590; ''zh&#275;nzh&#363; n&#462;ichá'' ([[Standard Mandarin|Putonghua]], [[Taiwan]]ese and overseas Chinese usage) &mdash; literally, "pearl milk tea"
In southern Taiwan, pearl milk tea with large pearls are usually called "boba milk tea", while those with small pearls are called "pearl milk tea".
==Availability==
Bubble tea is available at small dedicated boba cafes and some restaurants. Most bubble tea stores serve a variety of drinks, including [[coffee]], juices, and fruit freezes, which are sometimes also called bubble tea, even though they do not contain any tea ingredients. These drinks can include flavors which are less familiar to non-Asians, such as [[taro]], [[honeydew]], or [[lychee]]&mdash;as well as the familiar [[chocolate]], [[Ovaltine]], or [[strawberry]]&mdash;and may be available with or without tapioca pearls. Hot versions with tapioca pearls can also be found.
==Trivia==
In [[September 2004]], while defending a US$18 billion weapon purchase plan, the [[Republic of China|ROC]] Ministry of National Defense used bubble tea as an example of the overall cost of the proposed purchase. The Ministry stated that the total cost of the weapons systems would be equivalent to the money saved if all Taiwanese drank one fewer pearl milk tea per week for a period of twenty years.
==See also==
* [[Taiwanese cuisine]]
==Bubble tea vendors==
* [[Lollicup]]
* [[Q-Cup]]
* [[Quickly]]
* [[Tapioca Express]]
* [[Easy Way]]
==External links==
{{cookbook}}
* [http://www.bubbletearecipe.com/ Free bubble tea / boba tea recipes]
* [http://www.cnn.com/2000/FOOD/news/11/27/bubble.tea.ap/ CNN - Tapioca milk tea creating waves as fun coffee alternative]
* [http://www.jorbins.com/food-drink-magazine/articles/bubble-tea-origin.php The Tale of "The Bubble Tea Origin"]
* [http://www.bobafind.com/ US Bubble tea cafe locator]
* [http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/6063203/ MSNBC - Can drinking less tea defend a nation?]
* [http://www.abc.net.au/news/newsitems/200409/s1204428.htm NBC - Taiwanese urged to cut tea to pay for US arms]
[[Category:Taiwanese cuisine]]
[[Category:Tea]]
[[id:Bubble tea]]
[[ja:タピオカティー]]
[[zh:珍珠奶茶]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Battle of Blenheim</title>
<id>4049</id>
<revision>
<id>40814571</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-23T04:41:39Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>213.173.155.208</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>fi</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Military Conflict
|conflict=Battle of Blenheim
|image=
|caption=
|partof=the [[War of the Spanish Succession]]
|date=[[August 13]], [[1704]]
|place=[[Blindheim|Blenheim]], [[Bavaria]]
|result=Decisive Allied victory
|combatant1=[[Kingdom of England|England]]<br>[[Austria]]<br>[[Dutch Republic|United Provinces]], Allies
|combatant2=[[France]]<br>[[Bavaria]]
|commander1=[[John Churchill, 1st Duke of Marlborough|Duke of Marlborough]]<br>[[Eugene of Savoy]]
|commander2=[[Camille de Tallard]]<br>[[Maximilian II Emanuel, elector of Bavaria|Maximilian II Emanuel]]
|strength1=52,000
|strength2=60,000
|casualties1=12,000 dead or wounded
|casualties2=15,000 dead or wounded <br> 15,000 captured
}}
{{Campaignbox War of the Spanish Succession}}
The '''Battle of Blenheim''' (In Germany known as ''Battle of Höchstädt'') was a major battle of the [[War of the Spanish Succession]], fought on [[August 13]], [[1704]].
==Preparations==
A [[France|French]] and [[Bavaria]]n army, under Count [[Camille de Tallard]] and [[Maximilian II Emanuel, elector of Bavaria]], were advancing on the [[Austria]]n capital of [[Vienna]]. To counter this threat, the [[Kingdom of England|English]] army under [[John Churchill, 1st Duke of Marlborough|Duke of Marlborough]] and his [[Dutch Republic|Dutch]] allies rapidly marched south from the [[Low Countries]] to the [[Danube River]], a major logistical effort at the time. The Austrian commander [[Eugene of Savoy]] moved north to join Marlborough's troops. They encountered their opponents at the small Bavarian village of [[Blindheim|Blenheim]] (in German, Blindheim), near [[Höchstädt]], [[Germany]].
==The Battle==
The [[Ally|allied]] army had 52,000 men. Marlborough, commanding the Dutch, English, Hanoverian, Prussian, Hessian and Danish contingents, was in the centre, Eugene on the right, and a third group was on the left &mdash; up against the Danube. The French and Bavarians numbered some 60,000. The battle opened with the allied left attacking the French right twice and being driven back, while the French left attacked Eugene's forces on the right, which held their ground. As the French centre (uncommonly consisting of cavalry) was weakened by the need to reinforce the engaged flanks, Marlborough attacked and routed it. Wheeling left he rolled up the flank of the French right, driving many into the river and removing them from the battle. Savoy's troops then cleaned up the remaining adversaries on his side. French casualties were approximately 30,000, split evenly between those taken prisoner and those who were wounded or killed. The allies suffered about 12,000 casualties.
==Outcome==
The Battle of Blenheim was a decisive victory for the allies, and the French were thrown back across the [[Rhine]]. [[Bavaria]] was knocked out of the war and occupied, and the French allies of [[Savoy]] and [[Portugal]] promptly changed sides.
The battle was one of the first major English victories on the continent since the [[Battle of Agincourt]] nearly 300 years before. British historian Sir [[Edward Creasy]] considered the battle of Blenheim to be one of the pivotal battles in history. He wrote: "Had it not been for Blenheim, all Europe might at this day suffer under the effect of French conquests resembling those of [[Alexander the Great|Alexander]] in extent and those of the [[Roman Empire|Romans]] in durability." After the battle [[Blenheim Palace]] was built for the Duke of Marlborough in recognition of the service to his country during the battle. A good number of English streets (13 in the London ''A-Z'') bear the name to this day.
== See also ==
One of the [[Royal Air Force|RAF]]'s fast fighter bombers of the [[Battle of Britain]], the [[Bristol Blenheim]], is named in commemoration of this battle.
The Battle of Blenheim inspired [[Robert Southey]] to write the anti-war poem "After Blenheim". See [[http://www.answers.com/topic/after-blenheim]]
[[Category:Battles of the War of the Spanish Succession|Blenheim]]
[[cs:Bitva u Höchstädtu]]
[[de:Schlacht von Höchstädt]]
[[fr:Bataille de Blenheim]]
[[no:Slaget ved Blenheim]]
[[pl:Bitwa pod Blenheim]]
[[pt:Batalha de Blenheim]]
[[fi:Blenheimin taistelu]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Battle of Ramillies</title>
<id>4050</id>
<revision>
<id>41965924</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T22:52:41Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Raymond Palmer</username>
<id>859967</id>
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<minor />
<comment>spelling</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Military Conflict
|conflict=Battle of Ramillies
|image=
|caption=
|partof=the [[War of the Spanish Succession]]
|date=[[May 23]], [[1706]]
|place=Near [[Ramillies, Belgium|Ramillies]]
|result=Decisive Allied victory
|combatant1=[[Kingdom of Great Britain|Britain]], [[Netherlands]], Allies
|combatant2=[[France]], [[Spain]], [[Bavaria]]
|commander1=[[John Churchill, 1st Duke of Marlborough|Duke of Marlborough]]
|commander2=[[François de Neufville, duc de Villeroi|duc de Villeroi]]<br>[[Maximilian II Emanuel, elector of Bavaria|Maximilian II Emanuel]]
|strength1=62,000
|strength2=60,000
|casualties1=3,620 dead or wounded
|casualties2=12,000 dead, wounded, or captured
}}
{{Campaignbox War of the Spanish Succession}}
The '''Battle of Ramillies''' was a major battle in the [[War of Spanish Succession]], [[May 23]], [[1706]]. The [[John Churchill, 1st Duke |
pg|thumb|180px|These arrows score as an inner 10, and a 9]]
'''Archery''' is the practice of using a [[bow (weapon)|bow]] to shoot [[arrow|arrows]]. Archery has historically been used in hunting and combat, and has become a precision sport. One term for an archer is a ''toxopholite'', which derives from [[ancient Greek language|ancient Greek]].
==History==
===Beginnings===
Archaeologists suspect that archery may have begun up to 15,000 years ago, but the earliest concrete evidence is between 8,000 and 9,000 years old. The bow probably originated for use in hunting, and was then adopted as a tool of warfare. Bows eventually replaced the [[atlatl]] as the predominant means for launching projectiles. Archery was practiced in antiquity on every continent except Australia, demonstrating that it is both basic and versatile.
===Classical archery===
Classical civilizations, notably the [[Ancient Macedonians|Macedonians]]/[[Ancient Greece|Greeks]], Iranian [[Parthian]]ns, [[India]]ns and [[China|Chinese]], fielded large numbers of archers in their armies. Arrows proved exceptionally destructive against massed formations, and the use of archers often proved decisive. Archers sometimes rode on horseback, combining range with speed. [[Apollo]], [[Odysseus]], and other mythological characters are often depicted with a bow.
The phrase "A parting shot" comes from 'The Parthian shot' as a rider turned in the saddle to shoot as he rode away from the enemy.
===Medieval European archery===
[[Image:Equipement.archer.png|thumb|right|200px|An English longbowman.]]
During the Middle Ages, archery in warfare was not as prevalent and dominant in Western Europe as popular myth dictates. Archers were quite often the lowest paid soldiers in an army or conscripted from the peasantry. This was due to the cheap nature of the bow and arrow as compared to the expense needed to equip a professional [[man-at-arms]] with good armour and a sword. The bow was seldom used to decide battles and viewed as a "lower class weapon" or a toy by the nobility. This disdain was countered by the Vikings, whose widespread use of archery gave them success in their numerous raiding expeditions all over the Western European seaboard (and even well into the Mediterranean) in the [[9th century|9th]] and [[10th century|10th]] centuries.
By the time of the [[Hundred Years' War]], the English had learned how to employ massed archery (as opposed to dispersed skirmishing) as an instrument of tactical dominance with their [[English longbow]]s. Archers were drawn from the freeholding farmers known as [[yeoman|yeomen]], and trained rigorously from childhood. Every boy was given a bow of his own height and was required to train with it. Tournaments were sponsored to encourage proficiency.
In combat, they would often shoot two arrows, one on a high trajectory, and one on a low trajectory. These two arrows would hit the enemy simultaneously from two different angles, making defense difficult. The advent of the [[bodkin point]] also gave arrows better penetrative power.
The [[crossbow]], while dating from classical times, became quite popular during the Middle Ages. While it took many years to train a longbowman, someone could become proficient with a crossbow with little training. The crossbow had about the same power and range as a longbow. Its major drawback was that it took a long time to reload. The armour piercing power of the crossbow caused fear amongst the well armoured nobility, and it was banned by the [[Second Council of the Lateran]] (at least between Christians), although to little avail.
The advent of [[firearm]]s rendered bows obsolete in warfare. Although bows had a longer range and could shoot much more frequently than the earliest guns, guns could penetrate most armour and required minimal training. Later development gradually gave firearms advantages over bows in range, accuracy and eventually in reload time. An illustration of the declining popularity of the bow could be seen in the various edicts promulgated by 16th-century English monarch to make archery a mandatory practice for all men of fighting age, including Henry VIII's famous ban against the practice of all sports other than archery in Sundays.
The term "Second String" (or the phrase 'to have more than one string to your bow') derives from the fact that medieval archers would carry a second string in the event that their "first string" snapped.
*See also [[Medieval archers' helmets]]
===Asian archery===
[[Image:Ladakharchery.jpg|right|thumb|250px|An archery contest in [[Ladakh]], [[India]]]]
Archery was also highly developed in [[Asia]]. In modern times it continues to be practised in some Asian countries but is not used in international competition. Central Asian tribesmen were extremely adept at archery on horseback, and the [[Mongol Empire|Mongols]] used it to dominate the [[Eurasian Steppe]]. Horse archers would shoot while approaching their target, then turn around in the saddle and shoot again after they passed.
The arrows are less stiff than western arrows with smaller fletchings. Bows vary widely.
The bow is held clasped to the chest, arrow point slightly up. Both arms are extended, the left arm up and toward the target, the right arm back and away from the target. The bow and arrow are drawn down into a line with both arms locked on opposite sides of the body, but the elbow of the right arm is permitted to flex. In some styles the bowstring and fletchings may actually be held ''behind'' one's head. The arrow is held at the first joint of the thumb, and the string rests on a [[thumbring]] (Mongol or [[Manchu]]) or a slot at the base of a gauntlet's thumb ([[Japanese language|Japanese]] tsuri), so it does not hurt the thumb. A headband may be worn to keep the bowstring from hurting one's ear or head. Thick, loose clothing protects the bowstring from the arms and chest at release. Warriors on the battlefield often wore leather gauntlets, chest armor and [[helmet]]s with flared ridges to protect against the bowstring.
Foot-bows were known and sometimes used in warfare; they were preferred to crossbows because they had a faster firing rate and somewhat longer range. The basic technique was for archers to lie on their backs, with the bows held to to their feet; they would put the arrow between their feet, and pull back the string with both hands, using their back and legs to bend the bow. Aiming was poor, but with the weight and velocity of the five foot long arrows, combined with massed volleys, this became less important.
Archery was widespread in [[India]]. [[Arjuna]]'s bow, [[Gandiva]], was the Indian equivalent of [[King Arthur]]'s [[Excalibur]].
See also:
*[[Goongdo]], Korean archery.
*[[Kyudo]], Japanese archery.
*[[Yabusame]], Japanese horseback archery.
*[[Turkish archery]]
===Recurve target archery===
This section focuses on the accepted technique for modern competition which is used worldwide. Many other variations exist, some of which are documented below.
The bow is held in the hand opposite the [[eye dominance | dominant eye]]. This hand is referred to as the '''bow hand''' and its arm the '''bow arm.''' The opposite hand is called the '''string hand.''' Terms such as '''bow holder''' or '''string elbow''' follow the same convention. Right eye dominant people hold the bow with their left hand, have their left side facing the target, sight towards the target with their right eye, and handle the arrow and string with their right hand.
Generally one wears a [[bracer (archery)|bracer]] (more commonly known as an arm-guard) to protect the inside of the bow arm, and a [[finger tab|tab]] to protect the fingers of the string hand. Some archers also wear protection on their chests called chestguards (see photo). Chestguards are to protect the bowstring from the archer but can also protect the archer from the bowstring.
To shoot an arrow with a recurve bow, an archer first adjusts stance. The bow shoulder is towards the target. The archer straddles the shooting line with his or her feet shoulder width apart.
To load, the bow is pointed toward the ground and the shaft of the arrow is placed on an arrow rest attached to the bow. The bowstring is then placed into the notch at the back of the arrow. This is called ''nocking the arrow.'' Typical arrows with three vanes should be oriented such that a single vane is pointing away from the bow. This vane is often coloured differently and has numerous names such as ''index fletch'' and ''cock-feather.''
The bowstring and arrow are held with three fingers. When using a sight, the index finger is placed above the arrow and the next two fingers below. The string is usually placed in either the first or second joint of the fingers.
The bow is then raised and drawn. This is often one fluid motion which tends to vary from archer to archer. The string hand is drawn towards the face, where it should rest lightly at an ''anchor point''. This point is consistent from shot to shot, and is usually at the corner of the mouth or on the chin. The bow arm is pushed outward toward the target. The elbow of this arm should be rotated outward so that the bowstring doesn't scrape the inside of the wrist or catch on a [[bracer (archery)|bracer]] when released. The bow should always remain vertical.
In proper form, the archer stands erect, forming a T. The archer's back [[muscle]]s are used to pull the arrow to the anchor point. Most bows will be equipped with a mechanical device called a clicker which produces a clicking sound when the archer reaches the correct draw length.
The arrow is typically released by relaxing the fingers of the drawing hand. An archer should pay attention to the recoil, or ''follow through'' of his or her body, as it may indicate problems with his or her form.
===Compound Bow Technique===
A [[compound bow]] is designed to reduce the force that an archer must hold, |
r the new, objective frame for spiritual matters, a perspective the most notable minds of the time found appealing.
Deism was championed by Enlightenment thinkers such as [[Voltaire]] and some of the [[Founding Fathers of the United States|Founding Fathers]] of the [[United States]]. [[Thomas Jefferson]] and [[Benjamin Franklin]] are among the most well-known of the American founding deists. There is debate as to whether [[George Washington]] was a deist or not.[[Thomas Paine]] published ''[[The Age of Reason]]'', a treatise that popularized deism throughout America and Europe. Paine wrote that deism represented the application of reason to religion, finally settling problems that formerly were thought to be permanently controversial. Deists hoped to also settle religious questions permanently and scientifically by reason alone, without revelation.
The [[List of U.S. Presidential religious affiliations|first six and four later]] [[President of the United States|presidents of the United States]] had strong deistic or [[Unitarianism|allied]] beliefs.
----
:<sup>&dagger;</sup> Kant's identification with deism is controversial. An argument in favor of Kant as deist is Alan Wood's "Kant's Deism," in P. Rossi and M. Wreen (eds.) ''Kant's Philosophy of Religion Re-examined'' (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1991); an argument against Kant as deist is Stephen Palmquist's [http://www.hkbu.edu.hk/~ppp/srp/arts/KTS.html "Kant's Theistic Solution"]
:<sup>&Dagger;</sup> Experts dispute whether Hume was a deist, an [[atheist]], or something else. Hume himself was uncomfortable with the terms 'deist' and 'atheist', and Hume scholar [[Paul Russell]] has [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/hume-religion/ argued] that the best and safest term for Hume's views is 'irreligion'.
----
==Appellations for divinity==
The names used for the divinity by deists include the following:
* Creator ''(used in the [[United States Declaration of Independence]])''
* Divine Author
* Divine Providence ''(used in the [[United States Declaration of Independence]])''
* Divine Watchmaker
* Divine Essence
* First Cause
* Grand Architect of the Universe (often used by members of the [[Freemasonry|Freemasonic lodges]] or societies which involve Masonic rituals)
* Nature's God ''(used in the [[United States Declaration of Independence]])''
* Providence
* The One that is All
* The Eternal One
* The Living Law (Essene)
* The Living Director Principle in All Being
* The Governing Being of the Universe
* Supreme Being
* Supreme Intelligence
==Decline in popularity==
Several factors contributed to a general decline in the popularity of deism, including:
* the writings of [[David Hume]] (and later, [[Charles Darwin]]) increased doubt about the [[first cause]] argument and the [[argument from design]]
* several [[Christianity|Christian]] [[Great Awakening]]s in the USA, especially those that taught a more personal relationship with a deity, and that [[prayer]] could alter events
* loss of confidence that [[reason]] and [[rationalism]] could solve all problems
* criticisms of excesses of the [[French Revolution]]
* criticisms that deism was not significantly distinct from [[pantheism]], and then that pantheism was not significantly different from [[atheism]]
* criticisms that [[freethought]] would lead inevitably to [[atheism]]
* frustration with the [[determinism]] implicit in "This is the best of all possible worlds."
* rise of [[Unitarianism]], which adopted many of its ideas
* it remained a personal philosophy and never became an organized movement
* an anti-deist and anti-reason campaign by some Christian clergymen to vilify and equate deism with atheism in public opinion
==Current status==
Newtonian physics, when linearized and simplified, is considered [[determinism|deterministic]], and so deism based on that, for many, left little room for [[hope]]. Of some relevance in response to this are newer theories in [[physics]], most notably [[quantum mechanics]], which has both a non-[[determinism|deterministic]] interpretation (the [[Copenhagen interpretation]]), and deterministic interpretations (the [[transactional interpretation]] and [[many-worlds interpretation]]). Some modern revivals of deism resemble [[pantheism]] and [[panentheism]]. However, some Unitarian Universalists are bringing deism back in order to counter Fundamentalism.
==See also==
* [[Agnosticism]]
* [[Atheism]]
* [[Cosmological argument]]
* [[Cosmotheism]]
* [[Evolutionary Creationism]]
* [[Freethought]]
* [[Ignosticism]]
* [[List of deists]]
* [[List of U.S. Presidential religious affiliations]]
* [[Panendeism]]
* [[Panentheism]]
* [[Pantheism]]
* [[Philosophical theism]]
* [[Polydeism]]
* [[Transcendentalism]]
* [[Transtheism]]
==External links==
===External informational links===
*[http://www.templeofreason.org/cyclopedia/deistpedia.htm DEISTPEDIA: The Deist Encyclopedia]
*[http://www.deism.org/ DEISM: The Union of Reason and Spirituality]
*[http://www.sullivan-county.com/deism.htm Deism and Reason]
*[http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/mod/paine-deism.html Of the Religion of Deism Compared with the Christian Religion] by Thomas Paine
*[http://www.deism.org/aor1.htm The Age of Reason] by Thomas Paine
*[http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/cgi-local/DHI/dhi.cgi?id=dv1-77 Definition of deism] from ''The Dictionary of the History of Ideas'' at the [[University of Virginia]]
*[http://www.iep.utm.edu/d/deismeng.htm English Deism - Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy]
*[http://www.iep.utm.edu/d/deismfre.htm French Deism - Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy]
*[http://www.renewamerica.us/columns/hutchison/041230 On some links between Deism and Freemasonry] - Warning: agenda driven article, but it does make some connections
*[http://www.religioustolerance.org/deism.htm religious tolerance.org article on Deism]
=== External organization links===
*[http://www.sullivan-county.com/deism.htm Deism and Reason]
*[http://www.positivedeism.com Positive Deism]
*[http://www.dynamicdeism.com Dynamic Deism]
*[http://www.deistnet.com PONDER]
*[http://www.deist.info Deist.info]
*[http://www.deism.com/ World Union of Deists]
*[http://www.aldeism.org/ Aldeism]
*[http://www.americanunitarian.org/ American/ Unitarian Conference]
*[http://www.templeofreason.org Temple of Reason]
[[Category:Deism| ]]
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[[zh:自然神论]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Dogme95</title>
<id>8583</id>
<revision>
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<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
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<ip>Conversion script</ip>
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<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Dogme 95]]
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</page>
<page>
<title>Dramaturg</title>
<id>8584</id>
<revision>
<id>40598115</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-21T18:55:50Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Bastin8</username>
<id>154626</id>
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<minor />
<comment>United Kingdom</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''See also [[dramaturgy]].''
In the [[theater]], a '''dramaturg''' holds a position that gained its modern-day function through the innovations of [[Gotthold Lessing|Gotthold Ephraim Lessing]], a [[playwright]] and theater practitioner who worked in [[Germany]] in the [[18th century]].
The dramaturg's contribution was to categorize and discuss the various types and kinds of plays, their interconnectedness and their styles. Enhanced by a tradition of generous support for theater as part of German cultural identity, which gave nearly every city a fully staffed theater supported by public funds, the position of dramaturg includes the hiring of actors and the development of a season of plays with a sense of the connectedness between them, the assistance and editing of new plays by resident or guest playwrights, the creation of programs or accompanying educational services and even helping the director with rehearsals, serving as elucidator of history or spokesperson for absent (deceased) playwrights.
In the [[United Kingdom]], dramaturgs function similarly although they are more often, themselves, also playwrights. In the [[United States|USA]], where this position was until recently relatively unknown, it has enjoyed a recent growth particularly in cutting edge theaters with an emphasis on developing new plays within the theater.
[[Category:Theatre]]
[[da:Dramaturg]]
[[de:Dramaturg]]
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[[no:Dramaturg]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Dispersion</title>
<id>8585</id>
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<id>34607686</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-10T11:33:13Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>KnightRider</username>
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<minor />
<comment>warnfile Adding: es</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''''Dispersion''''' can mean any of several things:
* A phenomenon that causes the separation of a [[wave]] into components of varying [[frequency]]. See [[dispersion (optics)]] and [[dispersion (water waves)]]. When dealing with optical fibres there can also be dispersion of different modes in the fibre and of different polarizations.
* Distribution of [[fruit]] and its [[seed]]s through [[biological dispersal]].
*In [[chemistry]]:
**A stable or unstable system of fine particles, larger than [[colloid|colloidal]] size, evenly distributed in a medium.
**The fraction of atoms of a material exposed to the surface. See [[dispersion (materials science)]].
* In the [[technical terminology]] of [[gemology]], the difference i |
d_universities_starting_with_Q|Q]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_R|R]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_S|S]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_T|T]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_U|U]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_V|V]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_W|W]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_X|X]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_Y|Y]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_Z|Z]]
----
#Mälardalens Högskola -- see [[University College of Mälardalen]]
#[[M. S. Ramaiah Institute of Technology]]
==Ma==
===Mab-Mal===
#[[Mabie Memorial School]]
#[[Macalester College]]
#[[Macon College]]
#[[Macquarie University]] ([[Sydney, Australia]])
#[[Madison Area Technical College]]
#[[Maebashi City College of Technology]]
#[[Mahanakorn University of Technology]]
#[[Maharaja Sayajirao University of Baroda]]
#[[Maharashtra Institute of Technology, Pune]]
#[[Maharishi University of Management]]
#[[Mahidol University]]
#[[Maine College of Art]]
#[[Maine Maritime Academy]]
#[[Malaspina University-College]] ([[Nanaimo, British Columbia]])
#[[Malmi Business College]]
#[[Malone College]]
===Man-Map===
#[[Manatee Community College]]
#[[University of Manchester]]
#[[Manchester Metropolitan University]]
#[[Manhattan College]]
#[[Manhattanville College]]
#[[Manipal Institute of Technology]]
#[[Manitoba, University of]]
#[[Mankato State University]]
#[[Mansfield University of Pennsylvania]]
#[[Maple Woods Community College]]
===Mar-Mas===
#[[Maria Curie-Sklodowska University]]
#[[Marianopolis College]]
#[[Maricopa Community Colleges]]
#[[Marietta College]]
#[[Marine Institute St. Johns|Marine Institute St. John's]]
#[[Marist College]]
#[[Marlboro College]]
#[[Marmara University]]
#[[Marquette University]]
#[[Marshall University]]
#[[Martin Luther Universitat Halle-Wittenberg]]
#[[Mary Washington University]]
#[[Maryland Bible College and Seminary]]
#[[Maryland Institute College of Art]]
#[[Marymount College]]
#[[Marymount University]]
#[[Marywood University]]
#[[Masaryk University]]
#[[Massachusetts Institute of Technology]] ([[Cambridge, Massachusetts]])
#[[Massachusetts Maritime Academy]]
#[[Massey University]]
#[[Masters College]]
===Mat-May===
#[[Matej Bel University]]
#[[Mathematical Institute of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences]]
#[[Matsuyama University]]
#[[Mayo College]]
#[[Mayo Foundation]]
==Mc==
#[[McDaniel College]]
#[[McGill University]] ([[Montreal, Quebec]])
#[[McLaren School of Business]]
#[[McMaster University]]
#[[McMurry University]]
#[[McNeese State University]]
==Me==
===Med-Mes===
#[[Medical College of Georgia]]
#[[Medical College of Ohio]]
#[[Medical College of Wisconsin]]
#[[Medical University of Luebeck]]
#[[Medical University of South Africa]]
#[[Medical University of South Carolina]]
#[[Medizinische Hochschule Hannover (MHH)]]
#[[Meharry Medical College]]
#[[Meiji University]]
#[[Meiji Gakuin University]]
#[[Meisei University]]
#[[University of Melbourne]]
#[[Memorial University of Newfoundland]] ([[St. John's, Newfoundland and Labrador]])
#[[Mendel University of Agriculture and Forestry]]
#[[Mendocino College]]
#[[Mepco Schlenk Engineering College]]
#[[Mercer County Community College]]
#[[Mercer University]]
#[[Mercyhurst College]]
#[[Meredith College]]
#[[Merton College, Oxford]]
#[[Mesa Community College]]
#[[Messiah College]]
===Met===
#[[Metropolitan Community Colleges]]
#[[Metropolitan State College of Denver]]
#[[Metropolitan State University]]
==Mi==
===Mia-Mil===
#[[Miami Christian University]]
#[[Miami University]]
#[[Miami-Dade Community College]]
#[[Michigan State University]]
#[[Michigan Technological University]]
#[[Mid Sweden University]]
#[[MidAmerica Nazarene University]]
#[[Middle East Technical University]]
#[[Middle Georgia College]]
#[[Middle Tennessee State University]]
#[[Middlebury College]]
#[[Middlesex University]]
#[[Midwestern State University]]
#[[Mie University]]
#[[Millersville University of Pennsylvania]]
#[[Milligan College]]
#[[Millikin University]]
#[[Mills College]]
#[[Millsaps College]] ([[Jackson, Mississippi]])
#[[Milwaukee Area Technical College]]
#[[Milwaukee School of Engineering]]
===Min-Miy===
#[[Mindanao State University - Iligan Institute of Technology]]
#[[Ming-Chuan College]]
#[[Minneapolis College of Art and Design]]
#[[Minot State University]]
#[[MiraCosta College]]
#[[Miramar College - San Diego College District]]
#[[Mississippi College]]
#[[Mississippi State University]]
#[[University of Mississippi]]
#[[Mississippi University for Women]]
#[[Mississippi Valley State University]]
#[[Missouri Baptist College]]
#[[Missouri Western State University]]
#[[Mid Sweden University|Mittuniversitetet]]
#[[Miyazaki International College]]
#[[Miyazaki Medical College]]
#[[Miyazaki University]]
==Mo==
===Mod-Moo===
#[[Model Engineering College]]
#[[Mohave Community College]]
#[[Mohawk College of Applied Arts and Technology]]
#[[Mohawk Valley Community College]]
#[[Molde College]]
#[[Monash Mt Eliza Business School]]
#[[Monash University]]
#[[Monmouth College]]
#[[Monmouth University]]
#[[Montana State University - Billings]]
#[[Montana State University - Bozeman]]
#[[Montana State University - Northern]], Havre
#[[Montana Tech of The University of Montana]]
#[[Montanuniversitat Leoben]]
#[[Montcalm Community College]]
#[[Montclair State University]]
#[[Monterey Institute of International Studies]]
#[[Montreat College]]
#[[Moody Bible Institute]]
#[[Moorpark College]]
===Mor-Mou===
#[[Moraine Park Technical College]]
#[[Moravian College]]
#[[Morehouse College]]
#[[Morehouse School of Medicine]]
#[[Morningside College]]
#[[Morris College]]
#[[Moscow Institute of Physics and Technology]]
#[[Moscow Power Engineering Institute]]
#[[Moscow State Technical University]]
#[[Moscow State University]]
#[[Mount Allison University]]
#[[Mount Holyoke College]]
#[[Mount Ida College]]
#[[Mount Royal College]]
#[[Mount Saint Mary College]]
#[[Mount Saint Mary's University]]
#[[Mount Saint Vincent University]]
#[[Mount Union College]]
#[[Mount Vernon Nazarene University]]
#[[Mountain State University]]
#[[Mountain View College]] (part of the [[DCCCD]])
==Mu==
#[[Muhlenberg College]]
#[[Mumbai University]]
#[[Murdoch University]]
#[[Muroran Institute of Technology]]
#[[Murray State University]]
#[[Musashi Institute of Technology]]
#[[Musashi University]]
#[[Muscatine Community College]]
#[[Muskingum College]]
:''See also :'' [[Colleges and universities]]
[[Category:Lists of universities and colleges by alphabetical order|M]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>List of colleges and universities starting with N</title>
<id>6487</id>
<revision>
<id>38732288</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-08T06:33:45Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>81.179.102.238</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_A|A]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_B|B]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_C|C]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_D|D]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_E|E]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_F|F]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_G|G]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_H|H]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_I|I]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_J|J]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_K|K]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_L|L]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_M|M]] -- '''N''' -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_O|O]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_P|P]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_Q|Q]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_R|R]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_S|S]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_T|T]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_U|U]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_V|V]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_W|W]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_X|X]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_Y|Y]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_Z|Z]]
----
#[[N.L.V.R.G.S.R.V Junior College, Nimmakur]]
#[[Nagano University]]
#[[Nagasaki University]]
#[[Nagoya Institute of Technology]]
#[[Nagoya University]]
#[[Nalanda University]], [[Bihar]], [[India]]
#[[Nan Tai College]]
#[[Nanjing University]]
#[[Nanjing Agricultural University (Alumni)]]
#[[Nanjing University of Science and Technology]]
#[[Nankai University]]
#[[Nanyang Polytechnic]]
#[[Nanyang Technological University]]
#[[Nanzan University]]
#[[Napier University]]
#[[Nara Institute of Science and Technology]]
#[[Naruto University of Education]]
#[[Nassau Community College]]
#[[Nation Changhua University of Education]]
#[[National Central University]]
#[[National Cheng Kung University]]
#[[National Chengchi University]]
#[[National Chiao Tung University]]
#[[National Chi Nan University]]
#[[National Chung Cheng University]]
#[[National Chung-Hsing University]]
#[[National College of Art and Design, Norway]]
#[[National College, Bangalore]]
#[[National Defense University]]
#[[National Hualien Teachers College]]
#[[National Institute of Development Administration]]
#[[National Institute of the Arts, Taiwan]]
#[[National Kaohsiung Normal University]]
#[[National Sun Yat-sen University]]
#[[National Taichung Institute of Commerce]]
#[[National Tainan Teachers College]]
#[[National Taipei Institute of Technology]]
#[[National Taiwan Institute of Technology]]
#[[National Taiwan Normal University]]
#[[National Taiwan Ocean University]]
#[[National Taiwan University]]
#[[National Technical Institute for the Deaf]]
#[ |
[[1983]]) was an [[United States|American]] [[visionary]], [[designer]], [[architect]], and [[inventor]].
Throughout his life, Fuller was concerned with the question of whether humanity has a chance to survive lastingly and successfully on planet Earth, and if so, how. Considering himself an average individual without special monetary means or academic degree, he chose to devote his life to this question, trying to find out what an individual like him could do to improve humanity's condition that large organizations, governments, or private enterprises inherently could not do.
Pursuing this lifelong experiment, Fuller wrote twenty-eight books, coining terms such as [[Spaceship Earth|"spaceship earth"]], [[ephemeralization]], and [[synergetics]]. He also made a large number of inventions, mostly in the fields of design and architecture, the best-known of which is the [[geodesic dome]].
Late in his life, after working on his concepts for several decades, Fuller had achieved considerable public visibility. He traveled the world giving lectures, and received numerous honorary doctorates. Most of his inventions, however, never made it into production, and he was strongly criticized in most of the fields that he tried to influence (such as architecture), or simply dismissed as a hopeless [[Utopianism|utopian]]. Fuller's proponents, on the other hand, claim that his work has not yet received the attention that it deserves.
== Biography ==
Fuller was born on [[July 12]] [[1895]] in [[Milton, Massachusetts|Milton]], [[Massachusetts]], the son of Richard Buckminster Fuller and Caroline Wolcott Andrews. The Fuller family in particular produced noted New England non-conformists. Buckminster Fuller's father died when the boy was 12. Spending his youth on a farm on an island off the coast of Maine, he was a boy with a natural propensity for design and for making things. He often made things from materials he brought home from the woods, and he even sometimes made his own tools. Notably, he experimented with designing a new apparatus for the human-powered propulsion of small boats. Years later he decided that this sort of experience had provided him not only an interest in design, but a habit of being fully familiar and knowledgeable about the materials that his ambitious later projects would require for actualization. Indeed, Fuller earned a machinist's certification, and he also knew how to fabricate using the press brake, stretch press, and other tools and equipment relied upon in the sheet-metal trade.
Fuller was sent to [[Milton Academy]], in Massachusetts. Afterwards, he began studying at [[Harvard University|Harvard]] but was expelled from the university twice: firstly, for entertaining an entire dance troupe; and secondly, for his "irresponsibility and lack of interest." By his own appraisal, he was a non-conforming misfit in the fraternity environment. Later in life, Fuller received a Sc.D. from [[Bates College]] in 1969.
Between his sessions at [[Harvard]], he worked for a time in Canada as a mechanic in a textile mill, and later as a laborer working 12 hours a day in the meat-packing industry. He married in 1917, and he also served in the [[United States Navy|U.S. Navy]] in [[World War I]]. In the Navy he was employed as an aboard-ship radio operator, as an editor of a publication, and as a crash-boat commander. After discharge, he again worked for a period in the meat-packing business, where he acquired management experience. In the early 1920s he and his father-in-law developed the Stockade Building System for producing light-weight, weatherproof, and fireproof housing — though ultimately the company failed.
In 1927 at the age of 32, [[bankruptcy|bankrupt]] and jobless, living in inferior housing in [[Chicago, Illinois]], he saw his beloved young daughter Alexandra die of pneumonia in winter. He felt responsible, and this drove him to drink and the verge of [[suicide]]. At the last moment he decided instead to embark on "an experiment, to find what a single individual can contribute to changing the world and benefiting all humanity."
Fuller accepted a position at a small college in [[North Carolina]], [[Black Mountain College]]. There, with the support of a group of professors and students, he began work on the project that would make him famous and revolutionize the field of engineering, the [[geodesic dome]]. Using lightweight plastics in the simple form of a tetrahedron (a triangular pyramid) he created a small dome. He had designed the first building that could sustain its own weight with no practical limits. The U.S. government recognized the importance of the discovery and employed him to make small domes for the army. Within a few years there were thousands of these domes around the world.
For the next half-century Buckminster Fuller contributed a wide range of ideas, designs and inventions to the world, particularly in the areas of practical, inexpensive shelter and transportation. He documented his life, philosophy and ideas scrupulously in a daily [[diary]] and in 28 publications. Fuller financed some of his experiments with inherited family money, sometimes augmented by funds invested by his professional collaborators, one example being the Dymaxion Car project.
His international recognition was established by the success of his huge [[geodesic dome]]s in the 1950s. Fuller taught at [[Southern Illinois University Carbondale]] from 1959–1970 (Assistant Professor 1959–68, full Professor in 1968) in the School of Art and Design. Working as a designer, scientist, developer, and writer, for many years he also lectured all over the world on design. In 1965 Fuller inaugurated the [[World Design Science Decade]] (1965 to 1975) at the meeting of the [[International Union of Architects]] in [[Paris]]. This was (in his own words) devoted to ''applying the principles of science to solving the problems of humanity.''
Fuller believed human societies would soon be relying mainly on renewable sources of energy, such as solar- and wind-derived electricity. He hoped for an age of "omni-successful education and sustenance of all humanity." He regarded information as "negative entropic".
Fuller was ultimately to be awarded 25 US patents and many honorary doctorates. On [[January 16]], [[1970]] Fuller received the Gold Medal award from the [[American Institute of Architects]] and also received numerous other awards.
He died at the age of 88, a [[guru]] of the design, architecture, and 'alternative' communities. His wife was comatose and dying of cancer. He visited her in hospital. At some point he exclaimed: "She is squeezing my hand!". When he stood up, he suffered a massive heart attack and died an hour later. His wife died 36 hours later. He is buried in [[Mount Auburn Cemetery]] near Boston, Massachusetts.
==Philosophy and worldview==
Buckminster Fuller strove to inspire humanity to take a comprehensive view of the finite world we live in and the infinite possibilities for an ever-increasing standard of living within it. Deploring [[Toyota Production System|waste]], he explored and advocated a principle that he termed "[[ephemeralization]]" — which in essence (according to [[Stewart Brand]]) Fuller coined to mean "doing more with less." Wealth can be increased by recycling resources into newer, higher value products whose more technically sophisticated design requires less material. In practice, it has often meant miniaturization, for example, as when table-model calculating machines were succeeded over time by smaller ones, until the calculator of today fits in one's hand. Fuller also introduced [[synergetics]], which explores holistic engineering structures in nature (long before the term [[synergy]] became popular).
Fuller was one of the first to propagate a [[systems theory|systemic]] [[worldview]] (see '[[Operating manual for Spaceship Earth]]', '[[Synergetics]]') and explored principles of [[energy efficiency|energy]] and [[material efficiency]] in the fields of [[architecture]], [[engineering]] and [[design]]. Viewing [[petroleum]] from the standpoint of its replacement cost out of our current energy "budget" (essentially the incoming [[solar power|solar flux]]), he declared that it had cost nature "over a million dollars" per U.S. gallon ($300,000/L) to produce. From this point of view its use as a transportation fuel by people commuting to work represents a huge net loss compared to their earnings.
Having dedicated himself to advancing the success and fulfillment of humanity, he was deeply concerned about [[sustainability]] and about human survival under the existing socio-economic system, yet was profoundly optimistic about humanity's prospects. Defining wealth in terms of knowledge, as the "technological ability to protect, nurture, support, and accommodate all growth needs of life", his analysis of the condition of "Spaceship Earth" led him to conclude that at a certain point in the 1970's humanity had crossed an unprecedented watershed.
What might otherwise sound like an article of faith in some spiritual or philosophical system had for Fuller become an objective fact — that the accumulation of relevant knowledge, combined with the quantities of key recyclable resources that had already been extracted from the earth, had reached a critical level, such that competition for necessities was no longer necessary. Cooperation had became the optimum survival strategy. "Selfishness", he declared, "is unnecessary and...unrationalizable...War is obsolete..."
By considering historical comparisons like the fact that even relatively poor people today are able to travel at speeds and with a degree of comfort which were unobtainable at any price in earlier times, and that illnesses that were fatal even to kings in the past can n |
llows the combination of the electric and magnetic fields into a single [[tensor field]]. The tensor character of this combined electromagnetic field implies that the field is [[anisotropic]] with respect to the velocity of the charged particle on which it produces a force: the [[Lorentz force]] varies with the velocity of the charged particle.
==Light and electromagnetic waves==
Electrically charged particles are constantly emitting (or absorbing) photonic fluid, which is more commonly known as [[light]]. So how is light related to electromagnetic waves? Electromagnetic (E-M) waves are the undulatory movements of light, which can always be observed to be emitted by electric charges undergoing [[acceleration]].
If a charged particle is at rest, then it does not emit electromagnetic waves. Instead, it is surrounded by an [[electrostatic field]]. If a charged particle is in [[Inertial_frame_of_reference|inertial motion]], then the electrostatic field is joined by a [[magnetostatic field]]. This pair of static fields produce a movement of electromagnetic energy (i.e. a field of non-zero [[Poynting vector]]s), which is similar to an electromagnetic wave, except that the fields are not oscillating.
E-M waves are propagating, expanding, [[simple harmonic motion|harmonic]], [[oscillation|oscillating]] accelerations of the photonic fluid. Since the photonic fluid itself moves at the speed of light (by definition), then E-M waves can move no faster than the speed of light. E-M waves move at a speed close to the speed of light, depending on the [[medium]] through which they move (e.g. faster in air than through water, and faster through water than through a glass [[lens (optics)|lens]]).
==The electromagnetic field as a feedback loop==
The behavior of the electromagnetic field can be resolved into four different parts of a loop: (1) the electric and magnetic fields are generated by electric charges, (2) the electric and magnetic fields interact only with each other, (3) the electric and magnetic fields produce forces on electric charges, (4) the electric charges move in space.
The feedback loop can be summarized in a list, including phenomena belonging to each part of the loop:
* charges generate fields
** [[Gauss's law]] [[Coulomb's law]]: charges generate electric fields
** [[Ampère's law]]: currents generate magnetic fields (<math>\star</math>)
* the fields interact with each other
** [[displacement current]]: changing electric field acts like a current, generating vortex of magnetic field
** [[Faraday's law of induction|Faraday induction]]: changing magnetic field induces (negative) vortex of electric field
** [[Lenz's law]]: negative feedback loop between electric and magnetic fields
** [[Maxwell-Hertz equations]]: simplified version of [[Maxwell's equations]]
** electromagnetic [[wave equation]]
* fields act upon charges
** [[Lorentz force]]: force due to electromagnetic field
*** electric force: same direction as electric field
*** magnetic force: perpendicular both to magnetic field and to velocity of charge (<math>\star</math>)
* charges move
** [[continuity equation]]: current is movement of charges
Phenomena in the list are marked with a star (<math>\star</math>) if they consist of magnetic fields and moving charges which can be reduced by suitable [[Lorentz transformation]]s to electric fields and static charges. This means that the magnetic field ends up being (conceptually) reduced to an appendage of the electric field, i.e. something which interacts with reality only indirectly through the electric field.
==See also==
*[[antenna (electronics)|antenna]]
*[[bremsstrahlung]]
*[[Classification of electromagnetic fields]]
*[[Closed waveguide]]
*[[Coulomb's law]]
*[[electric field]]
*[[electrodynamics]]
*[[electromagnetic interaction]]*
*[[electromagnetic radiation]]
*[[electromagnetic radiation hazard]]
*[[electromagnetic spectroscopy]]
*[[electromagnetic spectrum]]
*[[far-field region]]
*[[Flux]]
*[[Fresnel zone]]
*[[Fresnel equations]]
*[[holography]]
*[[intensity]]
*[[list of environment topics]]
*[[Magneto-optic]] effect
*[[Mode field diameter]]
*[[Near-field region]]
*[[perinormal phenomenon]]
*[[photoelectric effect]]
*[[Radiometry]]
*[[Speckle pattern]]
*[[Surface wave]]
==External links==
*[http://www.fourmilab.ch/etexts/einstein/specrel/www/ On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies] by [[Albert Einstein]], June 30, 1905.
*[http://www.fourmilab.ch/etexts/einstein/specrel/specrel.pdf On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies] (pdf)
* [http://monographs.iarc.fr/htdocs/monographs/vol80/80.html Non-Ionizing Radiation, Part 1: Static and Extremely Low-Frequency (ELF) Electric and Magnetic Fields (2002)] by the [[International Agency for Research on Cancer|IARC]].
* [http://www.greenfacts.org/power-lines/index.htm A summary of the previous report] by [[GreenFacts]].
[[Category:Electromagnetism]]
[[Category:Equations]]
[[ca:Camp electromagnètic]]
[[es:Campo electromagnético]]
[[fr:Champ électromagnétique]]
[[id:Medan elektromagnetik]]
[[it:Campo elettromagnetico]]
[[nl:Elektromagnetisch veld]]
[[ja:&#38651;&#30913;&#22580;]]
[[pl:Pole elektromagnetyczne]]
[[sv:Elektromagnetiskt fält]]
[[vi:Tr&#432;&#7901;ng &#273;i&#7879;n t&#7915;]]
[[zh:&#30005;&#30913;&#22330;]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Empire State Building</title>
<id>9736</id>
<revision>
<id>42087479</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T19:15:18Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Shunpiker</username>
<id>632319</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* History and statistics */ ESB was first building with > 100 floors</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox World's Tallest Building
|building_name= Empire State Building
|image= [[Image:Manhattan at Dusk by slonecker.jpg|center|200px|Empire State Building]]
|previous_building= [[Chrysler Building]]
|year_built= [[1931]]
|surpassed_by_building= [[World Trade Center]]
|year_end= [[1972]]
|location= [[New York City]], [[USA]]
|height_meters= 381 (roof)
|height_feet= 1,250 (roof)
|height_stories= 102
|construction_period= [[1931]]
|destroyed=
|emporis_id=114095}}
The '''Empire State Building''', a 102-story contemporary [[Art Deco]] style building in [[New York City]], was designed by [[Shreve, Lamb and Harmon]] and finished in [[1931]]. The tower takes its name from the [[List of U.S. state nicknames|nickname]] of [[New York State]] and is currently the tallest building in New York City.
The [[American Society of Civil Engineers]] declared the Empire State Building as one of the modern [[Seven Wonders of the Modern World|Seven Wonders of the World]]. The building also belongs to the [[World Federation of Great Towers]].
==History and statistics==
[[Image:Looking_Up_at_Empire_State_Building.JPG|left|thumb|150px|Looking up at the Empire State Building.]]
Excavation of the site for the Empire State Building began on January 22, 1930, and construction on the building itself started on March 17th. The project was hurried to completion in order to take the title of "world's tallest building" from the [[Chrysler Building]]. The Empire State Building was officially opened on May 1, 1931, when President Herbert Hoover pressed a button in Washington, D.C. turning on the building's lights.
The ESB was the first building to have more than 100 floors. It remained the tallest skyscraper in the world for a record 41 years (and the world's tallest man-made structure for 23 years) until the construction of the [[World Trade Center]], and shortly afterwards the [[Sears Tower]]. Following the [[September 11, 2001 attacks]], the Empire State Building regained the title of tallest building in [[New York City]], and the 2nd tallest building in the [[United States]] (see the [[50 Tallest buildings in the U.S.]] list).
The building's distinctive art deco [[spire]] was originally designed to be a mooring mast and depot for [[zeppelin]]s. However, after a couple of brief attempts, the idea proved to be impractical and dangerous due to the powerful updrafts caused by the size of the building itself, though the T-shaped mooring devices remain in place.
The lobby is three stories high and contains an aluminum relief of the skyscraper. The north corridor contains eight illuminated panels, created by Roy Sparkia and Renée Nemorov in 1963, depicting the building as the [[Eighth Wonder of the World]] alongside the traditional seven.
[[Image:Old timer structural worker.jpg|right|thumb|150px|Worker screwing a bolt into a beam during the construction of the Empire State Building]]
The Empire State Building rises to [[Foot (unit of length)|1,250 feet]] or [[1 E2 m|381 m]] at the 102nd floor, and its full structural height (including broadcast antenna) reaches [[Foot (unit of length)|1,472 feet]] or [[1 E2 m|448 m]]. The building was officially opened on [[May 1]], [[1931]], but much of its office space went unrented until the [[1940s]]. This lack of inhabitants earned it the nickname "Empty State Building" in its early years. The large broadcasting antenna rising from the top of the building's spire was added in [[1952]].
A public observatory at the top of the building offers impressive views of the city, and is a popular tourist destination. Floodlights illuminate the top of the building at night, in colors chosen to match seasonal and other events. After the death of [[Frank Sinatra]], for example, the building was bathed in blue light to represent the singer's nickname "Ol' Blue Eyes."
The floodlights bathed the building in red, white, and blue for several months after the destruction of the [[World Trade Center]], then reverted to the [http://www.esbnyc.com/tourism/tourism_lightingschedule.cfm?CFID=15475194&CFTOKEN=55096369 standard schedule].
The building weighs approximately 330,000 [[Tonne|metric tonnes]]. The |
hine de Beauharnais|Napoleon's wife, Josephine]] (b. [[1781]])
*[[1846]] - [[Emperor Ninko of Japan]], (b. [[1800]])
*[[1862]] - [[Justinus Kerner]], German poet (b. [[1786]])
*[[1901]] - [[George Francis FitzGerald]], Irish mathematician (b. [[1851]])
*[[1926]] - [[Heike Kamerlingh Onnes]], Dutch physicist, [[Nobel Prize in Physics|Nobel Prize]] laureate (b. [[1853]])
*[[1938]] - [[George Ellery Hale]], American astronomer (b. [[1868]])
*[[1941]] - [[Frederick Banting]], Canadian physician, recipient of the [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]] (b. [[1891]])
*[[1944]] - [[Ferenc Szisz]], Hungarian-born race car driver (b. [[1873]])
*[[1945]] - [[Eric Liddell]], Scottish runner (b. [[1902]])
*[[1965]] - [[Malcolm X]], American black activist (b. [[1925]])
*[[1967]] - [[Charles Beaumont]], American writer (b. [[1929]])
*[[1968]] - [[Howard Walter Florey]], Australian-born pharmocologist, recipient of the [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]] (b. [[1898]])
*[[1974]] - [[Tim Horton]], Canadian hockey player (b. [[1905]])
*[[1984]] - [[Michail Aleksandrovich Sholokhov]], Russian writer, [[Nobel Prize in Literature|Nobel Prize]] laureate (b. [[1905]])
*[[1991]] - Dame [[Margot Fonteyn]], English ballet dancer (b. [[1919]])
*[[1994]] - [[Luis Donaldo Colosio]], Mexican politician (b. [[1948]])
*[[1996]] - [[Morton Gould]], American composer (b. [[1913]])
*[[1999]] - [[Gertrude B. Elion]], American scientist, recipient of the [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]] (b. [[1918]])
*[[2002]] - [[John Thaw]], English actor (b. [[1942]])
*2002 - [[Harold Furth]], Austrian-born physicist (b. [[1939]])
*[[2004]] - [[John Charles]], Welsh footballer (b. [[1931]])
*2004 - [[Guido Molinari]], Canadian artist (b. [[1933]])
*[[2005]] - [[Ara Berberian]], American opera singer (b. [[1930]])
*2005 - [[Guillermo Cabrera Infante]], Cuban novelist (b. [[1929]])
*2005 - [[Eugene Scott]], American religious broadcaster (b. [[1929]])
<!-- Duplicate instances of years should not be links. -->
==Holidays and observances==
* [[Language Martyrs' Day]] - A day celebrated by [[Bengali]] speaking people for gaining right of [[mother tongue]].
* [[International Mother Language Day]] ([[UNESCO]]).
* [[Catholicism]] - Feast day of [[St Peter Damian]].
==External links==
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/february/21 BBC: On This Day]
* [http://www.nytimes.com/learning/general/onthisday/20060221.html ''The New York Times'': On This Day]
* [http://www1.sympatico.ca/cgi-bin/on_this_day?mth=Feb&day=21 On This Day in Canada]
----
[[February 20]] - [[February 22]] - [[January 21]] - [[March 21]] -- [[historical anniversaries|listing of all days]]
{{months}}
[[af:21 Februarie]]
[[an:21 de frebero]]
[[ar:21 فبراير]]
[[ast:21 de febreru]]
[[be:21 лютага]]
[[bg:21 февруари]]
[[bs:21. februar]]
[[ca:21 de febrer]]
[[ceb:Pebrero 21]]
[[co:21 di frivaghju]]
[[cs:21. únor]]
[[csb:21 gromicznika]]
[[cv:Нарăс, 21]]
[[cy:21 Chwefror]]
[[da:21. februar]]
[[de:21. Februar]]
[[el:21 Φεβρουαρίου]]
[[eo:21-a de februaro]]
[[es:21 de febrero]]
[[et:21. veebruar]]
[[eu:Otsailaren 21]]
[[fi:21. helmikuuta]]
[[fo:21. februar]]
[[fr:21 février]]
[[fy:21 febrewaris]]
[[ga:21 Feabhra]]
[[gl:21 de febreiro]]
[[he:21 בפברואר]]
[[hr:21. veljače]]
[[hu:Február 21]]
[[ia:21 de februario]]
[[id:21 Februari]]
[[ie:21 februar]]
[[io:21 di februaro]]
[[is:21. febrúar]]
[[it:21 febbraio]]
[[ja:2月21日]]
[[jv:21 Februari]]
[[ka:21 თებერვალი]]
[[ko:2월 21일]]
[[ku:21'ê reşemiyê]]
[[lb:21. Februar]]
[[lt:Vasario 21]]
[[mk:21 февруари]]
[[ms:21 Februari]]
[[nap:21 'e frevaro]]
[[nl:21 februari]]
[[nn:21. februar]]
[[no:21. februar]]
[[oc:21 de febrièr]]
[[os:21 февралы]]
[[pam:Pebreru 21]]
[[pl:21 lutego]]
[[pt:21 de Fevereiro]]
[[ro:21 februarie]]
[[ru:21 февраля]]
[[scn:21 di frivaru]]
[[sco:21 Februar]]
[[se:Guovvamánu 21.]]
[[simple:February 21]]
[[sk:21. február]]
[[sl:21. februar]]
[[sq:21 Shkurt]]
[[sr:21. фебруар]]
[[sv:21 februari]]
[[te:ఫిబ్రవరి 21]]
[[th:21 กุมภาพันธ์]]
[[tl:Pebrero 21]]
[[tr:21 Şubat]]
[[tt:21. Febräl]]
[[uk:21 лютого]]
[[vi:21 tháng 2]]
[[wa:21 di fevrî]]
[[war:Pebrero 21]]
[[zh:2月21日]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>FBI (disambiguation)</title>
<id>11011</id>
<revision>
<id>39697388</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-15T05:29:33Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rachel Cakes</username>
<id>502225</id>
</contributor>
<comment>+ FBi Radio</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''FBI''' may stand for:
* [[Federal Bureau of Investigation]]
* [[Filey Bay Initiative]]
* ''[[The F.B.I.|The F.B.I.]]'' (television series)
* In [[professional wrestling]], the ''[[Full Blooded Italians]]'' [[stable (professional wrestling)|stable]]
* [[The FBI Story]] is a [[1959]] film about the [[Federal Bureau of Investigation]]
* [[Funny Business Inc.]], a Danish comedy promotion/management company
* [[FBi Radio]], a community radio station based in [[Sydney]], [[Australia]]
{{TLAdisambig}}
[[ja:FBI (曖昧さ回避)]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Forth programming language</title>
<id>11012</id>
<revision>
<id>41887111</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T10:45:22Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Alextangent</username>
<id>310311</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* Hello world */ following Java style</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Forth''' is a [[Procedural programming|procedural]], [[stack-oriented programming language|stack-oriented]], [[Reflection (computer science)|reflective]] [[programming language]] and programming environment. It was initially developed by [[Charles H. Moore]] at the US [[National Radio Astronomy Observatory]] in the early [[1970s]], formalized as a programming language in [[1977]], and standardized by [[ANSI]] in [[1994]]. It features both interactive execution of commands (making it suitable as a [[operating system shell|shell]] for systems that lack a more formal [[operating system]]), as well as the ability to compile sequences of commands for later execution. Some Forth versions (especially early ones) compile [[threaded code]], but many implementations today generate [[compiler optimization|optimized]] [[machine language|machine code]] like other language compilers.
Forth is so named because Moore considered it appropriate for fourth-generation computers (i.e. [[microcomputer]]s), and the system on which he developed it was limited to five-letter filenames. Although the name is not an acronym, it is sometimes spelled in all capital letters, following the customary usage during its earlier years.
==Overview==
Forth offers a standalone programming environment consisting of a [[stack-oriented programming language|stack-oriented]], interactive, incremental [[interpreter (computer software)|interpreter]] and [[compiler]]. Programming is done by extending the language with ''words'' (the term used for Forth [[subroutine]]s), which become part of the language once defined.
Early versions of Forth were implemented with an ''inner interpreter'' tracing [[Threaded code|indirectly threaded]] [[Machine language|machine code]], which yields compact and fast high-level code that can be compiled rapidly.
A character-oriented screen/block mechanism and standard [[Source code editor|editor]] written in Forth provided a file mechanism for creating and storing Forth source code in the early systems, although today most Forths run under a host operating system and use conventional editors and text files.
A typical Forth package will consist of a pre-compiled kernel of the core words, which the programmer uses to define new words for the application. The application, once complete, can be saved as an image, with all new words already compiled. Generally, programmers will extend the initial core with words that are useful to the sorts of applications that they do and save this as their working foundation.
Forth has been popular for developing [[embedded system]]s and [[instrument control]]s because it is easy to add small machine code definitions to the language and use those in an interactive high-level programming environment.
The logical structure of Forth resembles a [[virtual machine]]. It has been implemented efficiently on modern [[RISC processor]]s, and [[stack machine|processors that use Forth as machine language]] have been produced. The modular extensible nature of Forth permits many high-level applications such as [[CAD]] systems to be written in Forth.
Forth is used in the [[Open Firmware]] [[booting|boot ROMs]] used by [[Apple Computer|Apple]], [[IBM]], and [[Sun Microsystems]]. It is also used by the [[FreeBSD]] operating system as the first stage boot controller.
Forth is quick to implement and can be [[porting|ported]] at low cost. A skilled programmer with good tools can port Forth to a new computer architecture in as little as two weeks. Porting a familiar computer architecture to a new computer is often much faster because only a few drivers are needed. Even programmers unfamiliar with Forth can use low-quality tools and write a Forth system from scratch in a few months of part-time effort.
One result has been a proliferation of nonstandard Forth systems by hobbyists, often of indifferent quality and with poor documentation. A newcomer to the language may download a free version from the net, have problems and dismiss the language without further consideration, mistaking a poor implementation for a fundamentally flawed language.
In contrast, professional implementations are rigorously tested (usually with proprietary test suites), conform to published standards, have manuals and telephone support, and often employ sophisticated optimization techniques to ensure excellent run-time performance. High-end professional Forth systems are usually delivered with all source code required to recompile themselves.
See also [[List of opera |
med vector space|norm]] ||.|| such that every [[Cauchy sequence]] (with respect to the [[metric space|metric]] ''d''(''x'', ''y'') = ||''x'' - ''y''||) in ''V'' has a [[limit (mathematics)|limit]] in ''V''. Since the norm induces a [[topological space|topology]] on the vector space, a Banach space provides an example of a [[topological vector space]].
== Examples ==
Throughout, let '''K''' stand for one of the [[field (mathematics)|field]]s '''R''' or '''C'''.
The familiar [[Euclidean space]]s '''K'''<sup>''n''</sup>, where the Euclidean norm of ''x'' = (''x''<sub>1</sub>, ..., ''x''<sub>''n''</sub>) is given by ||''x''|| = (&sum; |''x''<sub>''i''</sub>|<sup>2</sup>)<sup>1/2</sup>, are Banach spaces.
The space of all [[continuous function|continuous]] functions ''f'' : [''a'', ''b'']
&rarr; '''K''' defined on a closed [[interval (mathematics)|interval]] [''a'', ''b'']
becomes a Banach space if we define the norm of such a function as ||''f''|| = sup { |''f''(''x'')| : ''x'' in [''a'', ''b''] }. This is indeed a norm since continuous functions defined on a closed interval are bounded. The space is complete under this norm, and the resulting Banach space is denoted by C[''a'', ''b'']. This example can be generalized to the space C(''X'') of all continuous functions ''X'' &rarr; '''K''', where ''X'' is a [[compact space]], or to the space of all ''bounded'' continuous functions ''X'' &rarr; '''K''', where ''X'' is any [[topological space]], or indeed to the space B(''X'') of all bounded functions ''X'' &rarr; '''K''', where ''X'' is any [[set]]. In all these examples, we can multiply functions and stay in the same space: all these examples are in fact
unital [[Banach algebra]]s.
If ''p'' &ge; 1 is a real number, we can consider the space of all infinite [[sequence]]s (''x''<sub>1</sub>, ''x''<sub>2</sub>, ''x''<sub>3</sub>, ...) of elements in '''K''' such that the [[infinite series]] &sum;<sub>i</sub> |''x''<sub>''i''</sub>|<sup>''p''</sup> is finite. The ''p''-th root of this series' value is then defined to be the ''p''-norm of the sequence. The space, together with this norm, is a Banach space; it is denoted by ''l<sup> p</sup>''.
The Banach space ''l<sup>&infin;</sup>'' consists of all bounded sequences of elements in '''K'''; the norm of such a sequence is defined to be the supremum of the absolute values of the sequence's members.
Again, if ''p'' &ge; 1 is a real number, we can consider all functions ''f'' : [''a'', ''b''] &rarr; '''K''' such that |''f''|<sup>''p''</sup> is [[Lebesgue integration|Lebesgue integrable]]. The ''p''-th root of this integral is then defined to be the norm of ''f''. By itself, this space is not a Banach space because there are non-zero functions whose norm is zero. We define an [[equivalence relation]] as follows: ''f'' and ''g'' are equivalent if and only if the norm of ''f'' - ''g'' is zero. The set of [[equivalence class|equivalence classes]] then forms a Banach space; it is denoted by L<sup>'' p''</sup>[''a'', ''b'']. It is crucial to use the Lebesgue integral and not the Riemann integral here, because the Riemann integral would not yield a complete space. These examples can be generalized; see [[Lp space|L<sup>&nbsp;''p''</sup> spaces]] for details.
If ''X'' and ''Y'' are two Banach spaces, then we can form their [[direct sum#Direct sum of Banach spaces|direct sum]] ''X'' &oplus; ''Y'', which is again a Banach space. This construction can be generalized to the direct sum of arbitrarily many Banach spaces.
If ''M'' is a closed [[linear subspace|subspace]] of the Banach space ''X'', then the [[quotient space#Quotient of a Banach space by a subspace|quotient space]] ''X''/''M'' is again a Banach space.
Every [[inner product]] gives rise to an associated norm. The inner product space is called a [[Hilbert space]] if its associated norm is complete. Thus every Hilbert space is a Banach space by definition. The converse statement also holds under certain conditions; see below.
== Linear operators ==
If ''V'' and ''W'' are Banach spaces over the same ground field '''K''', the set of all [[continuous function (topology)|continuous]]
[[linear transformation|'''K'''-linear maps]] ''A'' : ''V'' &rarr; ''W''
is denoted by L(''V'', ''W''). Note that in infinite-dimensional
spaces, not all linear maps are automatically continuous. L(''V'', ''W'') is a vector space, and by defining the norm ||''A''|| = sup { ||''Ax''|| : ''x'' in ''V'' with ||''x''|| &le; 1 } it can be turned into a Banach space.
The space L(''V'') = L(''V'', ''V'') even forms a unital [[Banach algebra]]; the multiplication operation is given by the composition of linear maps.
== Dual space ==
If ''V'' is a Banach space and '''K''' is the underlying [[field (mathematics)|field]] (either the [[real number|real]] or the [[complex number|complex]] numbers), then '''K''' is itself a Banach space (using the [[absolute value]] as norm) and we can define the ''[[dual space]]'' ''V''<nowiki>′</nowiki> as ''V''<nowiki>′</nowiki> = L(''V'', '''K'''), the space of continuous linear maps into '''K'''. This is again a Banach space (with the [[operator norm]]). It can be used to define a new [[topology]] on ''V'': the [[weak topology]].
Note that the requirement that the maps be continuous is essential; if ''V'' is infinite-dimensional, there exist linear maps which are not continuous, and therefore not [[bounded function|bounded]], so the space ''V''<sup>*</sup> of linear maps into '''K''' is not a Banach space. The space ''V''* (which may be called the algebraic dual space to distinguish it from ''V''<nowiki>'</nowiki>) also induces a weak topology which is [[finer topology|finer]] than that induced by the continuous dual since ''V''<nowiki>′</nowiki>&sube;''V''*.
There is a natural map ''F'' from ''V'' to ''V''<nowiki>′′</nowiki> (the dual of the dual) defined by
:''F''(''x'')(''f'') = ''f''(''x'')
for all ''x'' in ''V'' and ''f'' in ''V''<nowiki>′</nowiki>. Because ''F''(''x'') is a map from ''V''′ to '''K''', it is an element of ''V''<nowiki>′′</nowiki>. The map ''F'': ''x'' &rarr; ''F''(''x'') is thus a map ''V'' &rarr; ''V''<nowiki>′′</nowiki>. As a consequence of the [[Hahn-Banach theorem]], this map is [[injective]]; if it is also [[surjective]], then the Banach space ''V'' is called [[reflexive space|reflexive]]. Reflexive spaces have many important geometric properties. A space is reflexive if and only if its dual is reflexive, which is the case if and only if its unit ball is [[compact space|compact]] in the weak topology.
For example, ''l<sup>p</sup>'' is reflexive for ''1<p<&infin;'' but ''l<sup>1</sup>'' and ''l<sup>&infin;</sup>'' are not reflexive. The dual of ''l<sup>p</sup>'' is ''l<sup>q</sup>'' where ''p'' and ''q'' are related by the formula (1/''p'') + (1/''q'') = 1. See [[Lp space|L<sup>&nbsp;''p''</sup> spaces]] for details.
== Relationship to Hilbert spaces ==
As mentioned above, every Hilbert space is a Banach space because, by definition, a Hilbert space is complete with respect to the norm associated with its inner product, where a norm and an inner product are said to be associated if ||'''v'''||² = ('''v''','''v''') for all '''v'''.
The converse is not always true; not every Banach space is a Hilbert space. A necessary and sufficient condition for a Banach space ''V'' to be associated to an inner product (which will then necessarily make ''V'' into a Hilbert space) is the '''[[parallelogram identity]]''':
:<math>\|u+v\|^2 + \|u-v\|^2 = 2(\|u\|^2 + \|v\|^2)</math>
for all ''u'' and ''v'' in ''V'', and where ||*|| is the norm on ''V''.
If the norm of a Banach space satisfies this identity, the associated inner product which makes it into a Hilbert space is given by the '''polarization identity'''. If ''V'' is a real Banach space, then the polarization identity is
:<math>(u,v) = \frac{1}{4} (\|u+v\|^2 - \|u-v\|^2)</math>
whereas if ''V'' is a complex Banach space, then the polarization identity is given by
:<math>(u,v) = \frac{1}{4} \left(\|u+v\|^2 - \|u-v\|^2 + i(\|u+iv\|^2 - \|u-iv\|^2)\right).</math>
The necessity of this condition follows easily from the properties of an inner product. To see that it is sufficient&mdash;that the parallelogram law implies that the form defined by the polarization identity is indeed a complete inner product&mdash;one verifies algebraically that this form is additive, whence it follows [[mathematical induction|by induction]] that the form is linear over the integers and rationals. Then since every real is the limit of some Cauchy sequence of rationals, the completeness of the norm extends the linearity to the whole real line. In the complex case, one can check also that the bilinear form is linear over ''i'' in one argument, and conjugate linear in the other.
== Derivatives ==
Several concepts of a derivative may be defined on a Banach space. See the articles on the [[Fréchet derivative]] and the [[Gâteaux derivative]].
== Generalizations ==
Several important spaces in functional analysis, for instance the space of all infinitely often differentiable functions '''R''' &rarr; '''R''' or the space of all [[distribution (mathematics)|distribution]]s on '''R''', are complete but are not normed vector spaces and hence not Banach spaces. In [[Frechet space|Fréchet spaces]] one still has a complete [[metric space|metric]], while [[LF-space]]s are complete [[uniform space|uniform]] vector spaces arising as limits of Fréch |
vision broadcast stations:''' 1456 (128 originating stations, 1328 retransmitters) (2003)
'''Televisions:''' 21.5 million (1997)
'''Internet Service Providers (ISPs):''' 760 (2000 est.)
'''[[Country codes]]:''' CA, CDN, 124
'''[[ITU prefix|ITU prefixes]]:''' Letter combinations available for use in Canada as the first two letters of a television or radio station's call sign are '''CF, CG, CH, CI, CJ, CK, CY, CZ, VA, VB, VC, VD, VE, VF, VG, VO, VX, VY, XJ, XK, XL, XM, XN''' and '''XO'''. Only '''CF, CH, CI, CJ''' and '''CK''' are currently in common use, although four radio stations in [[St. John's, Newfoundland and Labrador]] retained call letters beginning with '''VO''' when Newfoundland joined [[Canadian Confederation]] in [[1949]]. Stations owned by the [[Canadian Broadcasting Corporation]] use '''CB''' through a special agreement with the government of [[Chile]]. Some codes beginning with '''VE''' and '''VF''' are also in use to identify radio repeater transmitters.
'''Internet users:''' 16.84 million (2002)
'''Total households with Internet access:''' 6.7 million out of 12.3 million (2004)
'''Total households with high speed connection:''' 65% (2004)
'''Total users of home online [[banking]]:''' 57% (2004)
Most connected are from [[Alberta]], [[British Columbia]] and [[Ontario]] (2004)
''See also: [[Canada]], [[Canadian Radio-television and Telecommunications Commission]], [[Canadian Broadcasting Corporation]], [[Media in Canada]].''
Source: http://www.crtc.gc.ca/eng/GENERAL/statistics/tab2003-1.htm
[[Category:Communications by country|Canada]]
[[pt:Comunicações do Canadá]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Transportation in Canada</title>
<id>5197</id>
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<id>35666386</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-18T12:04:46Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Morwen</username>
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<comment>{{North America in topic|Transportation in}}</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{CIA}}
== Railways ==
* ''total:'' 49,422 km; note - there are two major transcontinental freight railway systems: [[Canadian National Railway|Canadian National]] (privatized November 1995) and [[Canadian Pacific Railway]]; passenger service provided by government-operated firm [[VIA Rail|VIA]].
* ''standard gauge:'' 49,422 km 1.435-m gauge 4 feet 8½ inches (129 km electrified) (2002)
===Cities with [[commuter train]] systems===
* [[Montreal, Quebec]] ([[Agence métropolitaine de transport|Trains de banlieue]])
* [[Toronto, Ontario]] ([[GO Transit]])
* [[Vancouver, British Columbia]] ([[West Coast Express]])
===Cities with [[metro|subway/metro]] or [[Light rail|light rail]] systems===
* [[Calgary, Alberta]] (the [[C-Train]])
* [[Edmonton, Alberta]]
* [[Montreal, Quebec]] (the [[Montreal Metro|metro or ''métro'']])
* [[Ottawa, Ontario]] (the [[O-Train]])
* [[Toronto, Ontario]] (operated by the TTC - [[Toronto Transit Commission]])
* [[Vancouver, British Columbia]] ([[Vancouver SkyTrain|SkyTrain]])
{{seealso|Rail transport in Canada}}
=== Railway links with adjacent countries ===
* [[Transportation in the United States|United States]] - yes
* [[Transportation in Alaska|Alaska]] - no - Proposed.
== Highways ==
* ''total:'' 1.408 million km
* ''paved:'' 497,306 km (including 16,900 km of expressways)
* ''unpaved:'' 911,494 km (2002)
{{seealso|List of Canadian highways by province|Trans-Canada Highway|Yellowhead Highway}}
== Waterways ==
3,000 km, including [[Saint Lawrence Seaway]]
== Canals ==
* St Lawrence Canal
* Welland Canal
* Soo Locks
* Trent Severn Waterway
* Rideau Canal
== Pipelines ==
crude and refined oil 23,564 km; natural gas 74,980 km
== Ports and harbors ==
[[Bécancour, Quebec]]; [[Churchill, Manitoba]]; [[Halifax Regional Municipality, Nova Scotia|Halifax, Nova Scotia]]; [[Hamilton, Ontario]]; [[Montreal, Quebec]]; [[New Westminster, British Columbia]]; [[Prince Rupert, British Columbia]]; [[Quebec City, Quebec]]; [[Saint John, New Brunswick]]; [[St. John's, Newfoundland and Labrador]]; [[Sept-Îles, Quebec]]; [[Sydney, Nova Scotia]]; [[Trois-Rivières, Quebec]]; [[Thunder Bay, Ontario]]; [[Toronto, Ontario]]; [[Vancouver, British Columbia]]; [[Windsor, Ontario]]
== Merchant marine ==
* ''total:'' 122 ships (1,000 GRT or over) 1,840,272 GRT or 2,740,864 DWT
* ''ships by type:'' barge carrier 1, bulk 61, cargo 11, chemical tanker 6, combination bulk 2, passenger 3, passenger/cargo 1, petroleum tanker 18, rail car carrier 2, roll-on/roll-off 9, short-sea passenger 3, specialized tanker 1 (2002 est.)
* ''note:'' does not include ships used exclusively in the [[Great Lakes (North America)|Great Lakes]] (1998 est.)
== Airports ==
{{see|:Category:Airports in Canada}}
All figures as of January 2006
*Total airports - 1429
*Land aerodromes - 1097
*Water aerodromes - 326
*[[:Category:Airports of Alberta]] - 183 (178 land, 5 water)
*[[:Category:Airports of British Columbia]] - 217 (128 land, 89 water)
*[[:Category:Airports of Manitoba]] - 134 (110 land, 24 water)
*[[:Category:Airports of New Brunswick]] - 31 (31 land, 0 water)
*[[:Category:Airports of Newfoundland and Labrador]] - 36 (30 land, 6 water)
*[[:Category:Airports of the Northwest Territories]] - 65 (40 land, 25 water)
*[[:Category:Airports of Nova Scotia]] - 30 (21 land, 9 water)
*[[:Category:Airports of Nunavut]] - 32 (30 land, 2 water)
*[[:Category:Airports of Ontario]] - 319 (215 land, 104 water)
*[[:Category:Airports of Prince Edward Island]] - 4 (4 land, 0 water)
*[[:Category:Airports of Quebec]] - 183 (135 land, 48 water)
*[[:Category:Airports of Saskatchewan]] - 161 (148 land, 13 water)
*[[:Category:Airports of Yukon]] - 34 (27 land, 7 water)
=== Heliports ===
{{see|List of heliports in Canada}}
All figures as of January 2006
*Total heliports - 295
*[[Alberta]] - 57
*[[British Columbia]] - 67
*[[Manitoba]] - 4
*[[New Brunswick]] - 6
*[[Newfoundland and Labrador]] - 5
*[[Northwest Territories]] - 6
*[[Nova Scotia]] - 19
*[[Nunavut]] - 0
*[[Ontario]] - 92
*[[Prince Edward Island]] - 2
*[[Quebec]] - 39
*[[Saskatchewan]] - 2
*[[Yukon]] - 0
Somewhere it should be mentioned how the Canadian railway linking east and west Canada paralled the [[transcontinental railroad]] in the [[United States]]. Both of these were extremely important to the development of each country.
== See also ==
* [[Canada]]
{{North America in topic|Transportation in}}
[[Category:Transportation in Canada|*]]</text>
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<title>Military of Canada</title>
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<timestamp>2005-12-01T18:56:47Z</timestamp>
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<username>Cleared as filed</username>
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<minor />
<comment>fix double redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Canadian Forces]]</text>
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<page>
<title>United States-Canada relations</title>
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<timestamp>2006-02-23T23:02:22Z</timestamp>
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<username>Gareth Wyn</username>
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<minor />
<comment>/* Trade */ sp.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{bilateral|U.S.-Canada|USA|Canada}}
'''[[Canada]]-[[United States]] relations''' were famously described by Canadian [[Prime Minister of Canada|Prime Minister]] [[Pierre Trudeau]] as being like "sleeping with an elephant. No matter how friendly and even-tempered is the beast," quipped Trudeau, "one is affected by every twitch and grunt."{{ref|1}} Canada and the U.S. have long been close allies, and Canada is of great importance to the United States, in that it is that country's largest trading partner and its guarantor of security on the long and largely undefended and indefensible border.
==History==
At the outset of the [[American Revolution]], the [[Patriot (American Revolution)|American revolutionaries]] regarded the presence of the [[British Empire]] in the Canadian provinces as a strategic threat. [[French Canadians]] were invited to join the resistance by sending representatives to the [[Continental Congress]], and Canada was pre-approved for joining the United States in the [[Articles of Confederation]]. When [[Invasion of Canada (1775)|Canada was invaded]] during the [[American Revolutionary War]] in an attempt to expel the British from [[North America]], Americans hoped French Canadians would join them in the effort. None of these measures proved successful in uniting Canada with the [[thirteen colonies|thirteen American colonies]], and so in peace negotiations, [[Benjamin Franklin]] unsuccessfully attempted to convince British diplomats to cede Canada to the United States. The continued presence of the British Empire in Canada after the war helped to sour relations in the succeeding years, particularly since a great number of [[Loyalist (American Revolution)|Loyalist]] refugees from the American colonies resettled in Canada during and after the war.
The [[Treaty of Paris (1783)]] which ended the war called for the British to vacate a number of fortifications along the [[Great Lakes]] border. The British failed to do so, citing failure of the United States to provide financial restitution for Loyalists who had lost property in the war. The [[Jay Treaty]] in 1795 with Great Britain resolved some lingering issues, but tensions mounted again after the turn of the century, erupting into a shooting [[War of 1812|war in 1812]], when the Americans declared war on the British. The Americans were irked by British harassment of U.S. ships on the high seas, which was a byproduct of British involvement in the ongoing [[Napoleonic Wars]]. The Americans did not possess a navy capable of challenging the [[Royal Navy]], and so an invasion of Canada was proposed as the only feasible means of attacking the British Empire. Americans on the western |
\rightarrow D</math> (or sometimes <math>F:C \rightarrow D^{op}</math>) and call it a functor.
Contravariant functors are also occasionally called ''cofunctors''. This is an incorrect usage of the prefix "co", which in a categorical context usually means "reverse all arrows". Recall that a functor ''F'' maps a morphism ''f'':''X''&rarr;''Y'' to a morphism ''F(f)'':''F(X)''&rarr;''F(Y)''. Reversing all the arrows would map morphisms ''f'':''X''&larr;''Y'' to morphisms ''F(f)'':''F(X)''&larr;''F(Y)'', but by transposing ''X'' and ''Y'' we see that this gives the same object as before. Consequently a cofunctor, properly speaking, is the same type of object as a functor.
==Examples==
'''Constant functor:''' A very boring functor ''C'' &rarr; ''D'' is one which maps every object of ''C'' to a fixed object ''X'' in ''D'' and every morphism in ''C'' to the identity morphism on ''X''. Such a functor is called a ''constant'' or ''selection'' functor.
'''Power sets:''' The power set functor ''P'' : '''Set''' &rarr; '''Set''' maps each set to its [[power set]] and each function <math> f : X \to Y</math> to the map which sends <math>U \subseteq X</math> to its image <math>f(U) \subseteq Y</math>. One can also consider the contravariant power set functor which sends ''f'' to the map which sends ''U'' to its [[inverse image]] in ''Y''.
'''Dual vector space:''' The map which assigns to every [[vector space]] its [[dual space]] and to every [[linear operator|linear map]] its dual or transpose is a contravariant functor from the category of all vector spaces over a fixed [[field (mathematics)|field]] to itself.
'''Fundamental group:''' Consider the category of [[pointed topological space]]s, i.e. topological spaces with distinguished points. The objects are pairs (''X'', ''x''<sub>0</sub>), where ''X'' is a topological space and ''x''<sub>0</sub> is a point in ''X''. A morphism from (''X'', ''x''<sub>0</sub>) to (''Y'', ''y''<sub>0</sub>) is given by a [[continuous function (topology)|continuous]] map ''f'' : ''X'' &rarr; ''Y'' with ''f''(''x''<sub>0</sub>) = ''y''<sub>0</sub>.
To every topological space ''X'' with distinguished point ''x''<sub>0</sub>, one can define the [[fundamental group]] based at ''x''<sub>0</sub>, denoted &pi;<sub>1</sub>(''X'', ''x''<sub>0</sub>). This is the [[group (mathematics)|group]] of [[homotopy]] classes of loops based at ''x''<sub>0</sub>. If ''f'' : ''X'' &rarr; ''Y'' morphism of [[pointed space]]s, then every loop in ''X'' with base point ''x''<sub>0</sub> can be composed with ''f'' to yield a loop in ''Y'' with base point ''y''<sub>0</sub>. This operation is compatible with the homotopy [[equivalence relation]] and the composition of loops, and we get a [[group homomorphism]] from &pi;(''X'', ''x''<sub>0</sub>) to &pi;(''Y'', ''y''<sub>0</sub>). We thus obtain a functor from the category of pointed topological spaces to the [[category of groups]].
In the category of topological spaces (without distinguished point), one considers homotopy classes of generic curves, but they cannot be composed unless they share an endpoint. Thus one has the '''fundamental [[groupoid]]''' instead of the fundamental group, and this construction is functorial.
'''Algebra of continuous functions:''' a contravariant functor from the category of [[topology|topological spaces]] (with continuous maps as morphisms) to the category of real [[associative algebra|associative algebras]] is given by assigning to every topological space ''X'' the algebra C(''X'') of all real-valued continuous functions on that space. Every continuous map ''f'' : ''X'' &rarr; ''Y'' induces an [[algebra homomorphism]] C(''f'') : C(''Y'') &rarr; C(''X'') by the rule C(''f'')(&phi;) = &phi; o ''f'' for every &phi; in C(''Y'').
'''Tangent and cotangent bundles:''' The map which sends every [[differentiable manifold]] to its [[tangent bundle]] and every [[smooth map]] to its [[derivative]] is a covariant functor from the category of differentiable manifolds to the category of [[vector bundle]]s. Likewise, the map which sends every differentiable manifold to its [[cotangent bundle]] and every smooth map to its [[pullback]] is a contravariant functor.
Doing these constructions pointwise gives covariant and contravariant functors from the category of pointed differentiable manifolds to the category of real vector spaces.
'''Group actions/representations:''' Every [[group (mathematics)|group]] ''G'' can be considered as a category (or [[groupoid]]) with a single object. A functor from ''G'' to '''Set''' is nothing but a [[group action]] of ''G'' on a particular set, i.e. a ''G''-set. Likewise, a functor from ''G'' to the [[category of vector spaces]], '''Vect'''<sub>''K''</sub>, is a [[linear representation]] of ''G''. In general, a functor ''G'' &rarr; ''C'' can be considered as an "action" of ''G'' on an object in the category ''C''.
'''Lie algebras:''' Assigning to every real (complex) [[Lie group]] its real (complex) [[Lie algebra]] defines a functor.
'''Tensor products:''' If ''C'' denotes the category of vector spaces over a fixed field, with [[linear operator|linear maps]] as morphisms, then the [[tensor product]] <math>V \otimes W</math> defines a functor ''C'' &times; ''C'' &rarr; ''C'' which is covariant in both arguments.
'''Forgetful functors:''' The functor ''U'' : '''Grp''' &rarr; '''Set''' which maps a [[group (mathematics)|group]] to its underlying set and a [[group homomorphism]] to its underlying function of sets is a functor. Functors like these, which "forget" some structure, are termed ''[[forgetful functor]]s''. Another example is the functor '''Rng''' &rarr; '''Ab''' which maps a [[ring (algebra)|ring]] to its underlying additive [[abelian group]]. Morphisms in '''Rng''' ([[ring homomorphism]]s) become morphisms in '''Ab''' (abelian group homomorphisms).
'''Free functors:''' Going in the opposite direction of forgetful functors are free functors. The free functor ''F'' : '''Set''' &rarr; '''Grp''' sends every set ''X'' to the [[free group]] generated by ''X''. Functions get mapped to group homomorphisms between free groups. Free constructions exist for many categories based on structured sets. See [[free object]].
'''Homomorphism groups:''' To every pair ''A'', ''B'' of [[group (mathematics)|abelian groups]] one can assign the abelian group Hom(''A'',''B'') consisting of all [[group homomorphism|group homomorphisms]] from ''A'' to ''B''. This is a functor which is contravariant in the first and covariant in the second argument, i.e. it is a functor '''Ab'''<sup>op</sup> &times; '''Ab''' &rarr; '''Ab''' (where '''Ab''' denotes the [[category of abelian groups]] with group homomorphisms). If ''f'' : ''A''<sub>1</sub> &rarr; ''A''<sub>2</sub> and ''g'' : ''B''<sub>1</sub> &rarr; ''B''<sub>2</sub> are morphisms in '''Ab''', then the group homomorphism Hom(''f'',''g'') : Hom(''A''<sub>2</sub>,''B''<sub>1</sub>) &rarr; Hom(''A''<sub>1</sub>,''B''<sub>2</sub>) is given by &phi; <tt>|-></tt> ''g'' o &phi; o ''f''. See [[Hom functor]].
'''Representable functors:''' We can generalize the previous example to any category ''C''. To every pair ''X'', ''Y'' of objects in ''C'' one can assign the set Mor(''X'',''Y'') of morphisms from ''X'' to ''Y''. This defines a functor to '''Set''' which is contravariant in the first argument and covariant in the second, i.e. it is a functor ''C''<sup>op</sup> &times; ''C'' &rarr; '''Set'''. If ''f'' : ''X''<sub>1</sub> &rarr; ''X''<sub>2</sub> and ''g'' : ''Y''<sub>1</sub> &rarr; ''Y''<sub>2</sub> are morphisms in ''C'', then the group homomorphism Mor(''f'',''g'') : Mor(''X''<sub>2</sub>,''Y''<sub>1</sub>) &rarr; Mor(''X''<sub>1</sub>,''Y''<sub>2</sub>) is given by &phi; <tt>|-></tt> ''g'' o &phi; o ''f''.
Functors like these are called [[representable functor]]s. A major goal in many settings is to determine whether a given functor is representable.
'''Presheaves:''' If ''X'' is a [[topological space]], then the [[open set]]s in ''X'' form a [[partially ordered set]] Open(''X'') under inclusion. Like every partially ordered set, Open(''X'') forms a small category by adding a single arrow ''U'' &rarr; ''V'' if and only if <math>U \subseteq V</math>. Contravariant functors on Open(''X'') are called ''[[presheaf|presheaves]]'' on ''X''. For instance, by assigning to every open set ''U'' the [[associative algebra]] of real-valued continuous functions on ''U'', one obtains a presheaf of algebras on ''X''.
==Properties==
Two important consequences of the functor [[axiom]]s are:
* ''F'' transforms each [[commutative diagram]] in ''C'' into a commutative diagram in ''D'';
* if ''f'' is an [[isomorphism]] in ''C'', then ''F''(''f'') is an isomorphism in ''D''.
On any category ''C'' one can define the '''identity functor''' 1<sub>''C''</sub> which maps each object and morphism to itself. One can also compose functors, i.e. if ''F'' is a functor from ''A'' to ''B'' and ''G'' is a functor from ''B'' to ''C'' then one can form the composite functor ''GF'' from ''A'' to ''C''. Composition of functors is associative where defined. This shows that functors can be considered as morphisms in categories of categories.
A category with a single object is equivalent to a [[monoid]] whose |
tvatn]]
[[pl:Ciężka woda]]
[[pt:Água pesada]]
[[ro:Apă grea]]
[[ru:Тяжёлая вода]]
[[sl:Težka voda]]
[[fi:Raskas vesi]]
[[sv:Tungt vatten]]
[[zh:重水]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Hemochromatosis</title>
<id>14284</id>
<revision>
<id>15911847</id>
<timestamp>2004-03-23T04:58:35Z</timestamp>
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<username>Cyrius</username>
<id>35616</id>
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<comment>Putting it back where it was, at Haemochromotosis</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Haemochromatosis]]</text>
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<page>
<title>History of science and technology</title>
<id>14285</id>
<revision>
<id>41444991</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-27T10:20:39Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>137.222.70.24</ip>
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<comment>/* Universities with HST programs */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the academic discipline of the history of science and technology. For chronological accounts of the development of science and technology, see [[history of science]] and [[history of technology]].''
The '''history of science and technology (HST)''' is a field of [[history]] which examines how humanity's understanding of [[science]] and [[technology]] has changed over the [[millennia]]. Without this understanding, development of new [[technology|technologies]] would have been improbable. This field of history also studies the [[culture|cultural]], [[economics|economic]], and [[politics|political]] impacts of scientific innovation.
The [[historiography of science]] was originally written by practicing and retired scientists, starting primarily with [[William Whewell]], as a way to communicate the perceived virtues of science to the public. In the early 1930s, after a famous paper given by the [[Soviet]] historian [[Boris Hessen]], effort was focused into looking at the ways in which scientific practices were allied with the needs and motivations of their context. After [[World War II]], extensive resources were put into teaching and researching the discipline, with the hopes that it would help the public better understand both science and technology and they came to play an exceedingly prominent role in the world eye. In the 1960s, especially in the wake of the work done by [[Thomas Kuhn]], the discipline began to serve a very different function, and began to be used as a way to problematize scientific enterprise. At the present time it is often closely aligned with the field of [[Science studies]].
Modern [[mathematics|mathematical]] [[science]] and [[physics|physical]] [[engineering]] as it is understood today took form in the [[scientific revolution]], but was built on the work of the [[Greece|Greek]] civilization, which in turn had learned from the civilizations of [[Egypt]] and [[Mesopotamia]].
See the main articles [[History of science]] and [[History of technology]] for these respective topics.
==Universities with HST programs==
* [[Brown University]] has a program in the [[History of Mathematics]]. [http://www.brown.edu/Departments/History_Mathematics]
* [[Carleton University]] Ottawa offer courses in Ancient Science and Technology in its Technology, Society and Environment program
* [[Case Western Reserve University]] has an undergraduate interdisciplinary program in the History and Philosophy of Science [http://www.case.edu/artsci/hpst/] and a graduate program in the History of Science, Technology, Environment, and Medicine (STEM) [http://www.case.edu/artsci/hsty/graduate.html#stem].
* [[Georgia Institute of Technology]] has an undergraduate and graduate program in the History of Technology and Society. [http://www.hts.gatech.edu/]
* [[Harvard]] has a large undergraduate and graduate program in History of Science, and is one of the largest departments currently in the world. [http://www.fas.harvard.edu/~hsdept/]
* [[Indiana University Bloomington|Indiana University]] offers undergraduate courses and a masters and PhD program in the History and Philosophy of Science. [http://www.indiana.edu/~hpscdept/]
* [[Johns Hopkins University]] has an undergraduate and graduate program in the History of Science, Medicine, and Technology. [http://www.hopkinsmedicine.org/graduateprograms/history_of_science/]
* [[Linköping_University|Linköpings universitet]], Sweden, has a Science, Technology, and Society program which includes HST. [http://www.tema.liu.se/tema-t/]
* The London Centre for the History of Science, Technology and Medicine - this Centre was formed in 1987 and runs a postgraduate programme which is jointly administered and taught by [[Imperial College London]], [[University College London]], and the [[Wellcome Trust]] Centre for the History of Medicine at UCL. [http://www3.imperial.ac.uk/portal/page?_pageid=73,369680&_dad=portallive&_schema=PORTALLIVE]
* [[MIT]] has a Science, Technology, and Society program which includes HST. [http://web.mit.edu/sts/]
* [[Princeton University]] has a program in the History of Science. [http://www.princeton.edu/~hos/]
* [[Stanford]] has a History and Philosophy of Science and Technology program. [http://hpst.stanford.edu/]
* [[Stevens Institute of Technology]] has an undergraduate and graduate program in the History of Science.
* [[UC Berkeley]] offers a graduate degree in HST through its History program, and maintains a separate sub-department for the field. [http://ohst.berkeley.edu]
* [[UCLA]] has a relatively large group History of Science and Medicine faculty and graduate students within its History department, and also offers an undergraduate minor in the History of Science. [http://www.history.ucla.edu/graduate/fields/science.html]
* [[University College London]] has an undergraduate programme in History and Philosophy of Science in the Department of Science and Technology Studies. A postgraduate programme is offered through the London Centre. [http://www.ucl.ac.uk/sts] UCL also contains The [[Wellcome Trust]] Centre for the History of Medicine which runs a postgraduate programme. [http://www.ucl.ac.uk/histmed/]
* [[University of Bristol]] has a masters and PhD program in the Philosophy and History of Science. [http://www.bris.ac.uk/philosophy/]
* [[University of Cambridge]] has an undergraduate course and a large masters and PhD program in the History and Philosophy of Science (including the History of Medicine). [http://www.hps.cam.ac.uk/]
* [[University of Durham]], UK, has a 1st year History of Science module in the Philosophy department. [http://www.dur.ac.uk/philosophy.department/Undergraduates/HistSci.html]
* [[University of Florida]] has a Graduate Program in 'History of Science, Technology, and Medicine' at the University of Florida provides undergraduate and graduate degrees. [http://www.history.ufl.edu/]
* [[University of King's College]] has a History of Science and Technology Program.[http://ukings.ns.ca]
* [[University of Leeds]] has both undergraduate and graduate programmes in History and Philosophy of Science in the Department of Philosophy. [http://www.philosophy.leeds.ac.uk/]
* [[University of Oklahoma]] has an undergraduate minor and a graduate degree program in History of Science. [http://www.ou.edu/cas/hsci/]
* [[University of Oxford]] has a one-year graduate course in 'History of Science: Instruments, Museums, Science, Technology' associated with the [[Museum of the History of Science]]. [http://www.mhs.ox.ac.uk/course/]
* [[University of Pennsylvania]] has a program in history and sociology of Science. [http://ccat.sas.upenn.edu/hss2/hss/]
* [[University of Toronto]] has a program in history and philosophy of Science and Technology. [http://www.chass.utoronto.ca/ihpst/]
* [[University of Wisconsin-Madison]] has a program in the History of Science, Medicine, and Technology. [http://histsci.wisc.edu/]
* [[Utrecht University]] has a program in History and Philosophy of Science. [http://www1.phys.uu.nl/masters/histphilmaster/]
* [[Yale University]] has a program in the History of Medicine and Science. [http://www.yale.edu/hshm/]
==Prominent historians of the field==
*[[Johann Beckmann]]
*[[Jim Bennett (historian)|Jim Bennett]]
*[[Martin Campbell-Kelly]]
*[[Georges Canguilhem]]
*[[Allan Chapman]]
*[[I. Bernard Cohen]]
*[[Pierre Duhem]]
*[[Robert Gunther]]
*[[Paul Forman]]
*[[John L. Heilbron]]
*[[Thomas P. Hughes]]
*[[Daniel Kevles]]
*[[Alexandre Koyré]]
*[[Melvin Kranzberg]]
*[[Thomas Kuhn]]
*[[Simon Lavington]]
*[[Lewis Mumford]]
*[[Abraham Pais]]
*[[Raul Rojas]]
*[[George Sarton]]
*[[Charles Singer]]
*[[Stephen Snobelen]]
==Bibliography==
'''Historiography of science'''
*H. Floris Cohen, ''The Scientific Revolution: A Historiographical Inquiry'', University of Chicago Press 1994 - Discussion on the origins of modern science has been going on for more then two hundred years. Cohen provides an excellent overview.
*[[Ernst Mayr]], ''The Growth of Biological Thought'', Belknap Press 1985
*[[Michel Serres]],(ed.), ''A History of Scientific Thought'', Blackwell Publishers 1995
*''Companion to Science in the Twentieth Century'', John Krige (Editor), Dominique Pestre (Editor), Taylor & Francis 2003, 941pp
*The Cambridge History of Science, Cambridge University Press
**Volume 4, Eighteenth-Century Science, 2003
**Volume 5, The Modern Physical and Mathematical Sciences, 2002
'''History of science as a discipline'''
*J. A. Bennett, 'Museums and the Establishment of the History of Science at Oxford and Cambridge', British Journal for the History of Science 30, 1997, 29–46
*Dietrich von Engelhardt, ''Historisches Bewußtsein in der Naturwissenschaft : von der Aufklärung bis zum Positivismus'', Freiburg [u.a.] : Alber, 1979
*A.-K. Meyer, 'Setting up a Discipline: Conflicting Agendas of the Cambridge History of Science Committee, 1936–1950.' Studies in History and Philosophy of Science, 31, 2000
==Journals and periodicals==
*''[[British Journal for the History of Scienc |
ed at a right angle to the body. The chamber is typically lined with [[refractory]] materials, preferably a hard castable refractory ceramic. The burner mixes fuel and air which are ignited at the tip, which protrudes a short way into the chamber lining. The air pressure (and therefore heat) can be increased through use of a mechanical blower or by taking advantage the [[Venturi effect]].
Gas forges vary widely in size and construction, from very large forges using a big burner with a blower or several atmospheric burners to forges built out of a coffee can utilizing a cheap, simple propane torch. A small forge can even be carved out of a single soft [[firebrick]].
The primary advantage of a gas-powered forge lies in its ease of use, particularly for a novice smith. A gas forge is very simple to operate compared to coal forges, and the fire produced will be clean and consistent. They are however less versatile as the fire cannot be reshaped to accommodate large or unnusually sized pieces; it is also difficult to heat a small section of a piece. A common misconception is that gas forges cannot produce enough heat to ennable forge-[[welding]], but a well designed forge will easily run hot enough for any task.
=== Drop forge ===
[[Image:Forging shop-Gesenkschmiede 1.JPG|thumb|250px|hydraulic forging hammer]]
The workpiece, say a [[spanner]], is created by hammering a piece of hot metal into an appropriately shaped die. The metal (in some default, easily produced shape like a rod or brick) is heated and placed on the bottom part of a [[Die (manufacturing)|die]]. The top part of the die then '''drops''' onto the piece. The die may drop under gravity or be powered, but in all cases drop forging involves [[impact]]. The force of the impact causes the heated metal to flow into the shape of the die, with some metal squirting out of the thin seams between the die covers. This thin metal is called '''flash''' and has to be cut away in the next stage of processing. The drop-forged pieces usually also need further processing (like machining and polishing of working surfaces) in order to comply with stricter tolerances than forging alone can provide, and to present a good finish.
[http://class.et.byu.edu/mfg130/processes/descriptions/deformation/dropforging.htm Drop forging]: From BYU, with a nice crosssectional diagram.
=== Hydraulic Press Forge ===
In hydraulic press forging the work piece is pressed against the two die halves with a gradually increasing force, over a period of a few seconds. The quality of the pieces is better than drop forging as there is more control over metal flow, but the process takes longer and requires more energy.
== See also ==
* [[solar forge]]
* [http://www.ee.washington.edu/conselec/CE/kuhn/manufact/95x2.htm Manufacturing techniques]: Washington university site.
{{Metalworking - Metalworking Smiths}}
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<title>Fight Club (novel)</title>
<id>11058</id>
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<page>
<title>Five Pillars of Islam</title>
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<timestamp>2006-03-03T01:24:10Z</timestamp>
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<text xml:space="preserve">{{Islam}}
The '''Five Pillars of [[Islam]]''' is the term given to the five most fundamental aspects of [[Sunni Islam]]. The term is not used in [[Shi'a Islam]].
For the [[Sunni]] sect, the Five Pillars of Islam (''Arkan-al-Islam'') are the five most important acts of a [[Muslim]], and which devout Muslims will perform faithfully considering them essential to please [[Allah]].
For the [[Shi'a]] sect, there are five beliefs, which are referred to as the '''''Usūl al-Dīn''''', the [[Roots of Religion]]. In addition, there are ten practices, known as the ''Furū al-Dīn'' or [[Branches of Religion]] . The ten Branches of Religion correlate more closely to the Sunni concept of the "Pillars of Islam".
== The Five Pillars of Islam ==
In summary, the practices are (In order of priority):
* '''The profession of faith in Allah''' ([[Shahadah]]) - the declaration that there is none worthy of worship except Allah and that [[Muhammad]] is his messenger.
* '''Prayer''' ([[Salat]]) - establishing of the five daily Prayers.
* '''The paying of alms''' ([[Zakat]]) - which is generally 2.5% of the total savings for a rich man working in trade or industry, and 10% or 20% of the annual produce for agriculturists. This money or produce is distributed among the poor. Also, one may give 25% of found treasure such as money won in a non-gambling lottery. You must give to the needy.
* '''Fasting''' ([[Sawm]]) - refraining from eating, drinking or satisfying sexual needs from dawn to dusk in the month of Ramadan, the ninth month in the Islamic lunar calendar.
* '''The Pilgrimage to [[Mecca]]''' ([[Hajj]]) - this is done during the month of Zul Hijjah, and is compulsory once in a lifetime for one who has the ability to do it. If the Muslim is in ill health or in debt, he or she is not required to perform Hajj.
Note that the Shi'a [[Branches of Religion|branch]] ''Amr Bil Maruf and Nahi Anil Munkar'' (Enjoining the Good and Forbiding the Evil) is also commanded in Sunni Islam but not at the level of The Five Pillars of Islam.
A few Muslims, mainly belonging to the sect of the [[Khawarij]], hold that there is a [[sixth pillar of Islam]], ''[[jihad|jihad]]'' literally meaning "struggle" or "combat." Often understood to refer to holy war, this is viewed by many as a misinterpretation, especially in the sense of [[conversion by sword]]; however, if the English use of "war" is meant spiritually/metaphysically (such as being "at war" with one's conscience), as opposed to literal armed conflict, it is considered to be the most precise and accurate translation. While jih&#257;d is widely considered a duty of Muslims, the view that it is one of the pillars is not shared by most theologians. Modern interpretations of Jihad have contributed to the phenomenon of Islamic terrorism and particularly suicide bombers. Adherents are known as Jihadists or Jihadiis and have been involved in a number of spectacular mass murder events, including the notorious 9/11 massacres in the USA, the Beslan school murders in Southern Russia and the train bombings in Madrid and London. Within Islamic states there are frequent attacks aimed at followers of non-orthodox or rival sects or secularised muslims.
=== Shahadah, the profession of faith in Allah ===
{{main|Shahadah}}
According to the [[Qur'an]], "There is no God but Allah, and Muhammad is his Prophet". This declaration of faith is called the ''shahadah'', a simple formula which all of the faithful Muslims pronounce daily. Intrinsic in this action is the acknowledgment of Muhammad, as ''"Muhammad is not the father of any of your men, but he is the Messenger of Allah and the Seal of the Prophets. And Allah has full knowledge of all things."'' [Qur'an: 33:40]
=== Salāt, prayer ===
{{main|Salat}}
Muslims are obliged to perform ritual prayers, or salāt, five times a day:
*Between dawn and sunrise ([[Fajr]])
*After midday ([[Dhuhr]])
*Midway between midday and sunset ([[Asr]])
*Right after sunset ([[Maghrib]])
*Approximately one hour after sunset ([[Isha'a]])
A Muslim may offer extra optional prayer(s) at any other time.
Although it is preferable for men to pray together in a [[mosque]], there is no strict requirement to do so. On Fridays, congregational prayer (jumu'ah) is held at midday, deemed obligatory for men but optional for women. A Muslim may pray almost anywhere, such as in a place of work or a school. It is also a requirement for a Muslim to [[Qibla|face Mecca]] during prayer.
Before prayer is the ritual of [[ablution]], a ceremonial cleansing with [[water]] (or alternatively, with sand) which is usually performed. The parts cleansed include arms, head, and the feet up to the ankles. If the cleansing was done using water, the Muslim is considered to have ''wudhu'', which means that he or she has cleansed him or herself from the physical manifestations of sin in a lasting fashion that extends between prayers. In other words, unless the Muslim does something to remove this cleanliness, the cleansing would not need to be repeated before the next prayer. When sand is used, the cleansing is only temporary and regardless of whether the Muslim commits any physical acts of uncleanliness he or she will need to undergo the ceremonial cleansing immediately before the next prayer.
The salat must be performed in the [[Arabic language]] (even if the person neither speaks nor understands Arabic; the prayers are to be recited by heart), and include praises to [[Allah]], the ''shahada'', a plea for forgiveness and various blessings, Chapter one (''[[al Fatihah]]'') and one or more other parts of the [[Qur'an]] (by heart) and an optional prayer of one's own. The entire session includes standing upright, bowing down, kneeling and prostrating oneself. The session ends with looking right and left to say "Peace be unto you, and on you be peace" in Arabic to the believers sitting with you. Muslims believe that there are angels sitting on both their shoulders (the angel on the right is said to record the person's good deeds an |
charts (''Double Live'').
* ''Double Live'' is the best-selling live album in music history.
** ''Double Live'' set the all-time record for first week sales 1,085,373 copies. (However, this record was broken by [[Britney Spears]] in 2000 (1.3 million with ''[[Oops!... I Did It Again]]''), [[Eminem]] (1.7 million with ''[[The Marshall Mathers LP]]''), and [[*NSYNC]] (2.41 million with ''[[No Strings Attached]]''.) In total, the ''double live'' album went on to sell in excess of 32 million units worldwide.
** This was also the record for any one week sales period for any genre artist in history.
* Garth's [[Central Park]] concert audience is generally estimated as being the largest for any concert there.
* Garth had three albums at the top of the Billboard pop charts at the same time in 1998 (''Sevens'', ''The Limited Series'', and ''Double Live''). He was the first to do this since [[Elton John]] in 1975.
* Garth Brooks has four albums certified [[RIAA certification|diamond]] (more than 10 million copies), a record for a male solo performer, and the third overall (behind [[The Beatles]] with six and [[Led Zeppelin]] with five).
* In the United States alone, Brooks has sold over 100 million albums, the fourth-highest such total ever.
=== Awards ===
* 2 [[Grammy Award]]s (total of 6 nominations)
* 16 [[American Music Award]]s
* 11 [[Country Music Association|Country Music Association Awards]]
* 18 [[Academy of Country Music|Academy of Country Music Awards]]
* 5 [[World Music Awards]]
* 10 [[People's Choice Awards]]
* 24 [[Billboard Music Award]]s
* 2 [[American Society of Composers, Authors, and Publishers|ASCAP]] Awards
* 2 Blockbuster Awards
* [[American Music Award]]s, Artist of the Decade (1990s)
* [[Academy of Country Music|Academy of Country Music Awards]], Artist of the Decade (1990s)
* [[Recording Industry Association of America]], Artist of the Century (1900s)
* 1 Radio Music Award
* 7 Primetime [[Emmy Award]] nominations (Outstanding in a Variety of Music Program)
* 1 [[Golden Globe Award|Golden Globe]] nomination (Best Original Song)
* [[Songwriters Hall of Fame]]: 2002
== Discography ==
''For a list of singles and albums, see [[Garth Brooks discography]]''
==Personal quotations==
* "No matter where in the world we go, from the countries it was released as a single to the countries that it wasn't, it doesn't seem to matter, people just know that opening, no doubt about it, 'Friends in Low Places' is the most recognised Garth Brooks song."
* "I truly believe if country music had the accessibility pop and rock has been granted it would be the biggest musical format on the planet."
* "There have been hundreds people before me in this seat who will never be up here again and that's because the people were through with them, so I hope I can see it coming, so I can either retire gracefully and go out with some kind of class, I'll be faced with that decision to either do that or either hang in for one more album and see what happens."
* (''after being asked if he felt his was "born to sing and entertain people" )'' "Well I hope I was, cause if there's something else I'm meant to be doing I'm missing the boat."
* "I don't talk very well, but hopefully in my music we can get something across."
*(''After being compared to [[Elvis Presley]]) '' "Come on, let's be realistic.... No one will ever touch Elvis."
* "Sometimes you just can't be afraid to wear a different hat. If Columbus had complied this whole world might still be flat."
* "If you do it for the money you won't last very long, because money is the opposite of music."
* "I want to thank the good Lord, because He's done a heck of a lot for me."
== See also ==
* [[List of best selling music artists]]
* [[List of best selling music artists in US]]
* [[List of best-selling albums in the United States]]
== References ==
* [http://www.allmusic.com/cg/amg.dll?p=amg&sql=11:p95h8qbtbtb4~T1 Stephen Thomas Erlewine's All Music Guide biography]
* [http://www.planetgarth.com/ The Roughstock Network's site "Planet Garth"]
* [http://www.roughstock.com/ Garth Brooks on the Roughstock Country Countdown chart from 1995 forward]
* [http://music.yahoo.com/ar-288490-news--Garth-Brooks Garth Brooks news from 1997 forward]
== External links ==
* [http://www.planetgarth.com/ Planet Garth: Unofficial homepage with lots of information, songtexts, pictures and news]
*[http://www.country-lyrics.co.uk/lyrics_AB/Brooks_Garth/CATALOGUE.php Accurate Garth Brooks lyrics]
* [http://www.music-city.org/Garth-Brooks/discography/ Garth Brooks discography]
* [http://www.touchemall.com/ Teammates for Kids Foundation official website]
* {{imdb name|id=0004779|name=Garth Brooks}}
* [http://www.lyricsdir.com/garth-brooks-lyrics.html Garth Brooks Lyrics]
*[http://marriage.about.com/od/entertainmen1/p/garthbrooks.htm Garth Brooks and Trisha Yearwood Marriage Profile]
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<page>
<title>Gustave Eiffel</title>
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<id>41894972</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T12:51:31Z</timestamp>
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<username>Ahoerstemeier</username>
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<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/202.72.148.102|202.72.148.102]] ([[User talk:202.72.148.102|talk]]) to last version by Ahoerstemeier</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Gustave Eiffel.jpg|right|thumb|Gustave Eiffel]]
[[Image:Gustave Eiffel Monument.jpg|right|thumb|A monument to Gustave Eiffel at the base of the Eiffel Tower]]
'''Alexandre Gustave Eiffel''' ([[December 15]], [[1832]] &ndash; [[December 27]], [[1923]]; French pronunciation {{IPA|/&#603;f&#603;l/}} in [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]], in English usually pronounced in the German manner {{IPA|/'ajfəl/}}) was a [[France|French]] engineer and architect, specialist of metallic structures, famous for building the [[Eiffel Tower]], (under construction [[1887]] - [[1889]]) for the 1889 [[World's fair|Universal Exposition]] in [[Paris]], [[France]]. It is less well known that he designed the armature for the [[Statue of Liberty]] in [[New York City|New York]] Harbor, [[United States|USA]].
He was born in [[Dijon]], [[Côte-d'Or]], [[France]]. The name ''Eiffel'' was adopted by one of his German ancestors in the early 18th century, taken from his birthplace [[Nettersheim|Marmagen]] located in the [[Eifel]], as the French could not pronounce his actual name of ''Bönickhausen''. His mother’s coal business provided ample income for the family and provided the funds for Gustave to receive higher education at the Ecole Centrale des Arts et Manufactures in Paris, where he studied chemistry. Gustave was to take over his uncle’s vinegar-and-paint factory. However, a family dispute removed that opportunity. Eiffel soon accepted entry-level employment with a company that designed railway bridges.
Charles Nepveu provided Eiffel with his first job as one of many project managers over a railway bridge in France. During the construction process, fellow engineers on the project were steadily quiting and eventually Eiffel would become the man in charge of the entire project. Nepveu saw the work that Eiffel performed on the jobsite and continued to place Eiffel in other jobs that involved project management of other railway bridges and structures. During these projects, Eiffel got to know other engineers of the time, would be remembered for his work and allowed to work on other projects. So without the influence of Nepveu and the ability for Eiffel to ride his coattails for a while, Eiffel would not have gone on to be as successful as he would eventually become.
Eiffel had personal characteristics that set him apart from many. He liked to try new things. He was a man that was dedicated to his work and wanted every job to turn out perfect. He was opinionated and if he did not like a design of something he was quick to make sure that it was changed. Eiffel was a family man. He enjoyed spending time with his grandchildren. He took time to teach them to swim and fence. Eiffel had several hobbies and interests. He had a unique and unheard of understanding of math and science and used them to the fullest. He enjoyed building large scale bridges. When he designed his structures he was creative and he always kept safety in mind.
Gustave Eiffel was first and foremost a master of metallurgy in the civil engineering field. Eiffel would do things with metal that people before him had thought could not be done. One of these things was the construction of portable metal bridges. This was something that had not yet been undertaken by any other civil engineer. After much trial and error, the solution that he presented to his client was to have a number of identical triangular components placed back to back and joined together.
This type of bridge proved to have many advantages. The construction techniques of the day required skilled workers to do the iron work such as riveting and welding. However, with Eiffel’s advent of the portable bridge, it became much easier and faster to build. The components of the bridges were made in Eiffel’s workshop and were then shipped out to the location at which they were needed. Once at the location, the bridges could be assembled by workers who were not required to be skilled metalworkers. These bridges soon became us |
G|thumb|130px|The Buddha as an ascetic. [[Gandhara]], 2-3rd century CE. [[British Museum]].]]
Gautama then chose the robes of a [[mendicant]] [[monk]] and headed to north-east [[India]]. He began training in the ascetic life and practicing vigorous techniques of physical and mental austerity. Gautama proved adept at these practices, and was able to surpass his teachers.
However, he found no answer to his questions. Leaving behind his teachers, he and a small group of companions set out to take their austerities even further. Gautama attempted to find enlightenment through complete deprivation of worldly goods, including food, and became a complete ascetic. After nearly starving himself to death (some sources claim that he nearly drowned), Gautama began to reconsider his path. Then he remembered a moment in childhood in which he had been watching his father start the season's plowing, and he had fallen into a naturally concentrated and focused state which was blissful and refreshing.
===After leaving===
After discarding asceticism and concentrating on [[meditation]], Gautama discovered what Buddhists call the [[Middle Way]]&mdash;a path of moderation away from the extremes of [[self-indulgence]] and [[asceticism|self-mortification]]. He accepted a little buttermilk from a passing goatherd, [[Sumedha]]. Then, sitting under a [[pipal]] tree, now known as the [[Bodhi tree]], he vowed never to arise until he had found the Truth. At the age of 35, he attained [[Bodhi|Enlightenment]]; according to some traditions, this occurred approximately in May, and according to others in December. Gautama, from then on, was known as "The Perfectly Self-Awakened One", the [[Sammasambuddha]].
He stated that he had realized complete Awakening and insight into the nature and cause of human suffering, along with steps necessary to eliminate it. These truths were then categorized into the [[Four Noble Truths]]; the state of supreme liberation&mdash;possible for any being&mdash;was called [[Nirvana]].
According to one of the stories in the [[&#256;y&#257;cana Sutta]] (''Samyutta Nikaya'' VI.1), a scripture found in the [[P&#265;li]] and other [[wiktionary:canon|canon]]s, immediately after his Enlightenment, the Buddha was wondering whether or not he should teach the ''[[Dharma]]''. He was concerned that, as human beings were overpowered by greed, hatred and delusion, they would not be able to see the true ''dhamma'' which was subtle, deep and hard to understand. However, a spirit, [[Brahma Sahampati]], interceded and asked that he teach the ''dharma'' to the world, as "there will be those who will understand the ''Dharma''". With his great compassion, the Buddha agreed to become a teacher.
[[Image:Buddha-Sarnath-sepia.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Gautama Buddha preaching at the Deer Park in [[Sarnath]].]]
At the Deer Park near [[Benares]] in northern India he set in motion the [[Wheel of Dhamma]] by delivering his first sermon to the group of five companions with whom he had previously sought enlightenment. They, together with the Buddha, formed the first [[Sangha]], the company of Buddhist monks.
The Buddha emphasized that he was not a [[god]], he was simply enlightened. He stated that there is no intermediary between mankind and the [[divine]]; distant gods are subjected to [[karma]] themselves in decaying heavens; and the Buddha is solely a guide and teacher for the sentient beings who must tread the path of [[Nibbana]] themselves to attain [[Bodhi|spiritual awakening]] and see truth and reality as it is. The Buddhist system of insight, thought, and [[meditation]] practice was not revealed divinely, but by the understanding of the true nature of the [[mind]], which could be discovered by anybody.
For the remaining 45 years of his life, the Buddha traveled in the [[Gangetic Plain]] of Northeastern [[India]], teaching his doctrine and discipline to an extremely diverse range of people&mdash; from nobles to street [[dalit|outcaste]] sweepers, including many adherents of rival philosophies and religions. The Buddha founded the community of Buddhist monks and nuns (the ''[[Sangha]]'') to continue the dispensation after his ''[[Parinibbana]]'' or complete Nibbana, and made thousands of converts. His religion was open to all races and classes and had no [[caste]] structure. On the other hand, Buddhist texts record that he was reluctant to ordain women as nuns: he eventually accepted them on the grounds that their capacity for enlightenment was equal to that of men (and the [[Lotus Sutra]], in Chapter 12, contains a description of the dragon king's daughter attaining enlightenment in her present body), but he gave them certain additional rules ([[Vinaya]]) to follow.
===The Great Passing===
[[Image:Paranirvana.JPG|thumb|200px|left|The death of the Buddha, or [[parinirvana]], Gandhara 2-3rd century.]]
[[Image:EndAscetism.JPG|thumb|200px|Sharing the relics of the Buddha into eight parts, [[Gandhara]], 2-3rd century.]]
At the age of eighty, the Buddha ate his last meal, which, according to different translations, was either a mushroom delicacy or soft pork, which he had received as an offering from a blacksmith named [[Cunda]]. Falling violently ill, possibly from [http://www.lankalibrary.com/Bud/buddha_death.htm mesenteric infarction], the Buddha realized that his end was approaching fast. He told his attendant [[Ananda]] to prepare a bed between two [[Sal]] trees at [[Kushinagar]], and then finally passed away. The Buddha's final words were, "All composite things pass away. Strive for your own salvation with diligence."
The Buddha's body was cremated and the [[relic]]s were placed in monuments or [[stupa]]s, some of which are believed to have survived until the present.
<br clear="left" />
==Personality and character==
[[Image:BuddhaHead.JPG|thumb|194px|right|[[Gandhara]] Buddha, 1st-2nd century CE, [[Musée Guimet]].]]
The Buddha as presented in the Buddhist scriptures is notable for such characteristics as:
*A comprehensive education and training in those fields appropriate to a warrior aristocrat, such as [[martial arts]], [[agricultural management]], and [[literature]], and also a deep understanding of the religious and philosophical ideas of his culture.
*Athletic and fit throughout his life, competent in martial arts such as [[chariot]] combat, [[wrestling]], and [[archery]], and later easily hiking miles each day and camping in the wilderness. (Images of a fat "Jolly Buddha" or [[Laughing Buddha]] are actually depictions of either [[Maitreya]], The future Buddha, or a 10th century Chinese monk, sometimes called ''[[Hotei]]'', ''Hoti'', or ''Milefo''.)
*A superb teacher, with a fine grasp of the appropriate [[metaphors]], and tailoring his teachings to the audience at hand.
*Fearless and unworried at all times, whether dealing with religious debators, royalty, or murderous outlaws. He was never past exasperation when monks of his order misrepresented his teachings.
*Temperate in all bodily appetites. He lived a completely celibate life from age 29 until his death. He was indifferent to hunger and environmental conditions.
==Physical characteristics==
[[Image:SeatedBuddha.JPG|thumb|200px|Seated Buddha, [[Gandhara]], 1st-2nd century CE, [[Tokyo National Museum]].]]
{{main|Physical characteristics of the Buddha}}
Buddha is perhaps one of the few sages for whom we have mention of his rather impressive physical characteristics. He was at least six feet tall and had a strong enough body to be noticed by one of the Kings and was asked to join his army as a general.
Although the Buddha was not represented in human form until around the [[1st century CE]] (see [[Buddhist art]]), his physical characteristics are described in one of the central texts of the traditional [[Pali canon]], the [[Digha Nikaya]]. They help define the global aspect of the historical Buddha, his physical appearance is described by Buddha's wife to his son Rahula upon Buddha's return in the scripture of the "Lion of Men":
3.
Like the full moon is His face;
He is dear to Gods and men;
He is like an elephant amongst men;
His gait is graceful as that of an elephant of
noble breed.
That, indeed, is your father, lion of men.
4.
He is of Aryan (aristocratic nobility) lineage, sprung from the warrior caste;
His feet have been honoured by Gods and men;
His mind is well established in morality and
concentration.
That, indeed, is your father, lion of men.
5.
Long and prominent is His well-formed nose,
His eye-lashes are like those of a heifer;
His eyes are extremely blue ; like a rainbow are
His deep blue eyebrows.
(The word used is "adhi nila", meaning "very blue", nila is used for the word blue sapphire.)
That, indeed, is your father, lion of men.
6.
Round and smooth is His well-formed neck;
His jaw is like that of a lion;
His body is like that of king of beast;
His beautiful skin is of bright golden colour.
That, indeed is your father, lion of men.
Interpretations may vary, and the reliability of the ''[[Sutras]]'' may be questioned. The description above is indicative of a typically [[Indo-Aryans|Indo-Aryan]] body type. This can also be related to the tradition describing the historic Buddha as a member of the Indian [[Kshatriya]] warrior caste.
==Teachings==
[[Image:Sermon in the Deer Park depicted at Wat Chedi Liem-KayEss-1.jpeg|thumb|right|200px|Painting of the first sermon depicted at [[Wat Chedi Liem]] in [[Thailand]].]]
The teachings of the Buddha are covered in the articles on '''[[Buddhism]]''' and '''[[Buddhist philosophy]]'''. Many [[Schools of Buddhism|Buddhist sects]] disagree as to what the Buddha actually taught. There seems to be major agreement on these points:
* The [[Four Noble Truths]]: that suffering is an inherent part of existence; that suffering is caused by attachment(craving); that craving can be cea |
r [[symbol rate]]s and more advanced [[noise shaping]] are responsible for these increased speeds. ADSL2+, also referred to as [[ITU G.992.5]], boosts these rates to up to 24 Mbit/s for spans of less than 1.5 km (5000 feet). ADSL2+ also offers seamless bonding options, allowing lines with higher attenuation or lower signal to noise (SNR) ratios to be bonded together to achieve theoretically the sum total of the number of lines (i.e., up to 50 Mbit/s for two lines, etc.), as well as options in power management and seamless rate adaptation - changing the data rate used without requiring to resynchronize.
Because of the relatively low data-rate (compared to optical backbone networks), [[Asynchronous Transfer Mode|ATM]] is an appropriate technology for [[multiplexer|multiplexing]] time-critical data such as digital voice with less time-critical data such as [[web traffic]]; ADSL is commonly deployed with ATM to ensure that this remains a possibility. In a [[triple play]] scenario, different ATM [[virtual circuit]]s (VCs) may be allocated for different services.
More recently, network operators are increasingly moving away from ATM, and towards [[Ethernet]]-based solutions, where [[IEEE 802.1Q|802.1Q]] and/or [[Virtual Private LAN Service|VPLS]] offer multiplexing solutions. The main reason for this switch is cost savings and the possibility of removing the older and more expensive ATM network.
ADSL service providers may offer either static or dynamic [[IP address]]ing. Static addressing is preferable for people who may wish to connect to their office via a [[virtual private network]], for some [[Internet]] gaming, and for those wishing to use ADSL to host a [[Web server]].
== How ADSL works ==
=== On the wire ===
ADSL uses two separate frequency bands. With standard ADSL, the band from 25.875 [[kHz]] to 138 kHz is used for upstream communication, while 138 kHz - 1104 kHz is used for downstream communication.
[[Image:ADSL_frequency_plan.svg|frame|Frequency plan for ADSL]]
Each of these is further divided into smaller chunks of 4.3125 kHz. During initial training, the ADSL modem tests which of the available chunks have an acceptable [[signal-to-noise ratio]]. The distance from the [[telephone exchange]], or noise on the copper wire, may introduce errors on some frequencies. By keeping the chunks small, an error on one frequency thus need not render the line unusable: the chunk will not be used, merely resulting in reduced throughput on an otherwise functional ADSL connection.
Vendors may support usage of higher frequencies as a proprietary extension to the standard. However, this requires matching vendor-supplied equipment on both ends of the line, and will likely result in crosstalk issues that affect other lines in the same bundle.
There is a direct relationship between the number of chunks available and the throughput capacity of the ADSL connection. The exact data capacity per chunk depends on the [[modulation]] method used.
A common error is to attribute the ''A'' in ''ADSL'' to the word [[asynchronous]]. ADSL technologies use a [[synchronous]] framed protocol for data transmission on the wire.
=== Modulation ===
ADSL initially existed in two flavors (similar to [[VDSL]]), namely [[Carrierless Amplitude Phase Modulation|CAP]] and [[Orthogonal frequency-division multiplexing|DMT]]. CAP was the ''de facto'' standard for ADSL deployments up until [[1996]], deployed in 90 percent of ADSL installs at the time. However, DMT was chosen for the first ITU-T ADSL standards, G.992.1 and G.992.2 (also called ''G.dmt'' and ''G.lite'' respectively). Therefore, all modern installations of ADSL are based on the DMT modulation scheme.
==See also==
* [[DSL around the world]]
* [[Digital Subscriber Line]] for further details and other varieties
* [[Digital subscriber line access multiplexer]]
* [[Low-pass filter|Filter]] and [[ADSL splitter|splitter]].
==External links==
* [http://www.iol.unh.edu/training/dsl/ The UNH-IOL DSL Knowledge Base (advanced tutorials)]
* [http://www.dslforum.org DSL Forum] - Promotional trade organization for the ADSL industry
* [http://www.internode.on.net/adsl2/graph/ ADSL, ADSL2 and ADSL2+ Speeds and Reach Compared]
* [http://www.usr.com/support/8550/8550-ug/two.html ADSL installation].
* [http://www.esatclear.ie/~aodhoh/adsl/report.html ADSL Research Report]
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<page>
<title>Asynchronous Digital Subscriber Line</title>
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<timestamp>2003-11-08T10:36:46Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Minesweeper</username>
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<minor />
<comment>fix double redir</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Ajax Amsterdam</title>
<id>2273</id>
<revision>
<id>41307685</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-26T12:37:10Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>217.199.103.21</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* External links */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Football club infobox |
clubname = Ajax |
image = [[Image:Ajax Amsterdam.png|100px|logo]]|
fullname = Amsterdamsche Football<br/ >Club Ajax [[Naamloze Vennootschap|N.V.]]|
nickname = ''Superjoden (SuperJews)'', <br> ''Godenzonen (GodSons)'', <br> ''Joden(Jews)''|
founded = [[March 18]], [[1900]] |
ground = [[Amsterdam Arena]],<br />[[Amsterdam]] |
capacity = 51,859[http://www.amsterdamarena.nl/index.php?pointer=1-2-2131-2136-2155] |
chairman = [[John C. Jaakke]] |
manager = [[Danny Blind]] |
league = [[Eredivisie]] |
season = 2004-05 |
position = [[Eredivisie]], 2nd |
shirtsupplier= |
shirtsponsors= |
pattern_la1=|pattern_b1=_whitesides|pattern_ra1=|
leftarm1=FFFFFF|body1=FF2020|rightarm1=FFFFFF|shorts1=FFFFFF|socks1=FFFFFF|
pattern_la2=|pattern_b2=_thinwhitesides|pattern_ra2=|
leftarm2=000080|body2=000080|rightarm2=000080|shorts2=000080|socks2=000080|
}}
'''Amsterdamsche Football Club Ajax''' ({{Euronext|AJAX}}) also referred to as '''Ajax Amsterdam''', '''AFC Ajax''', or simply '''Ajax''' (pronounced ''Ah-yahx''), is a [[football (soccer)|football]] club from [[Amsterdam]], [[Netherlands]]. The club is historically one of the top-10 football clubs in the world, and one of the 'Big Three' clubs that dominate Dutch football, the other two being [[Feyenoord Rotterdam]] and [[PSV Eindhoven]]. Ajax is one of only four clubs to have won all three major European trophies at least once (the European Champions Cup, the European Cup Winners Cup and the UEFA Cup). They were the first team to win what has become the [[UEFA Intertoto Cup]].
==History==
The club was founded in Amsterdam on [[March 18]], [[1900]] by Floris Stempel, Carel Reeser and the brothers Han and Johan Dade. Ajax originally played in an all black uniform with a red sash tied around the players' waists, but that uniform was soon replaced by a red/white striped shirt and black shorts. Red, black and white are the three colours of the flag of [[Amsterdam]]. However, when the club got promoted to the top flight of Dutch football in 1911 (then the Eerste Klasse or First Class, later named the [[Eredivisie]]), Ajax were forced to change their colours, because [[Sparta Rotterdam]] already had the exact same outfit. Special kits for away fixtures did not exist at the time and according to football association regulations, the newcomers had to change their colours if two teams in the same league had identical uniforms. Loosely inspired by the kit of [[Arsenal F.C.|Arsenal]], Ajax opted for white shorts and white shirt with a broad, vertical red stripe over chest and back, which still is Ajax's outfit. Today, it is one of the most recognised football jerseys in the world.
Ajax dominated European club football during the early 1970's by winning the European Champion Club's Cup in 1971, 1972 and 1973. The success had two main causes: the highly disciplined coaching by [[Rinus Michels]] and the genius of [[Johan Cruijff]]. From the 1960's onwards Ajax had developed the concept of [[total football]], ending the traditional division of labour between defenders, midfielders and attackers. All players were to participate in all aspects of the game, in an organization that would fill gaps when a player moved to a different position.
The club is also famous for its excellent youth program and has introduced a many great footballers - Cruijff being the best example. Its satellite club is the [[Ajax Cape Town]] of [[South Africa]] from where youth players have been drafted into the [[Eredivisie]] squad, such as [[Steven Pienaar]] and [[Aaron Mokoena]]. In 1995, the year that they won the [[UEFA Champions League]], Ajax was the team that could best represent the [[Netherlands national football team|Dutch national team]] in all departments, with [[goalkeeper]] [[Edwin van der Sar]], players such as [[Michael Reiziger]], [[Frank de Boer]] and [[Danny Blind]] in defense, [[Ronald de Boer]], [[Edgar Davids]] and [[Clarence Seedorf]] in midfield, and [[Patrick Kluivert]] and [[Marc Overmars]] in attack. The team was coached by [[Louis van Gaal]], and also featured foreign stars such as [[Jari Litmanen]], [[Nwankwo Kanu]] and [[Finidi Georg |
<username>Bobblewik</username>
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<text xml:space="preserve">{{cleanup-date|December 2005}}
[[Image:BarrierMay2005.png|thumb|250px|The approved barrier route as of May 2005]]
The '''political status of the West Bank and Gaza Strip''' is one of the most violently disputed issues in the [[Arab-Israeli conflict]]. Various conferences and negotiations have been conducted to determine the status of the [[West Bank]] and [[Gaza Strip]] (see "[[Palestinian territories]]").
The [[Israel]]-[[PLO]] [[Declaration of Principles on Interim Self-Government Arrangements]] (the DOP, better known as the [[Oslo accords]]), signed in [[Washington, DC|Washington]] on [[13 September]] [[1993]], provided for a transitional period not exceeding five years of [[Palestinian]] interim [[self-government]] in sections of the [[Gaza Strip]] and the [[West Bank]]. Under the DOP, Israel agreed to transfer certain powers and responsibilities to the [[Palestinian Authority]], which includes the [[Palestinian Legislative Council]] elected in January 1996, as part of the interim self-governing arrangements in the West Bank and Gaza Strip.
A transfer of powers and responsibilities for the Gaza Strip and [[Jericho]] took place pursuant to the Israel-PLO [[4 May]] [[1994]] [[Cairo Agreement|Cairo Agreement on the Gaza Strip and the Jericho Area]] and in additional areas of the West Bank pursuant to the Israel-PLO [[28 September]] [[1995]] [[Interim Agreement]], the Israel-PLO [[15 January]] [[1997]] [[Protocol Concerning Redeployment in Hebron]], the Israel-PLO [[23 October]] [[1998]] [[Wye River Memorandum]], and the [[4 September]] [[1999]] [[Sharm el-Sheikh Agreement]].
The DOP provides that Israel will retain responsibility during the transitional period for external security and for[internal security and public order of [[Israeli settlement]]s and citizens. Direct negotiations to determine the permanent status of Gaza and West Bank had begun in September 1999 after a three-year hiatus, but have been derailed by the [[al-Aqsa Intifada]] that broke out in September 2000. The resulting widespread violence in the West Bank and Gaza Strip, Israel's military response, and instability within the Palestinian Authority continue to undermine progress toward a permanent agreement.
In 2004, the Israeli government issued a plan for total withdrawal from the [[Gaza Strip]] by late 2005, which became known as the [[Israel's unilateral disengagement plan|Disengagement Plan]]. The [[Palestinian Authority]] welcomed this plan, but declared that until [[Final Status]], the Gaza Strip will still be legally under Israeli occupation. Many Israelis opposed the plan, and tensions were very high in Israel before and after the Disengagement Plan was approved by the Israeli [[Knesset]] on [[February 16]], [[2005]].
Israeli settlers left their homes or were removed from their homes in June by the [[Israel Defense Forces]] and Israeli police. Israel completed the disengagement on [[11 September]] [[2005]].
==See also==
* [[Gaza Strip]]
* [[West Bank]]
* [[Occupation of the West Bank and East Jerusalem by Jordan]]
* [[Occupation of the Gaza Strip by Egypt]]
* [[1949 Armistice Agreements#With Egypt|1949 Armistice Agreements with Egypt]]
* [[1949 Armistice Agreements#With Jordan|1949 Armistice Agreements with Jordan]]
[[Category:History of Israel]]
[[Category:Israeli-Palestinian conflict]]
[[Category:Palestine]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Geography of the Gaza Strip</title>
<id>12049</id>
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<page>
<title>Demographics of the Gaza Strip</title>
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<title>Politics of the Gaza Strip</title>
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<title>Economy of the Gaza Strip</title>
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<page>
<title>Communications in the Gaza Strip</title>
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<page>
<title>Transportation in the Gaza Strip</title>
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<title>Military of the Gaza Strip</title>
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<title>Foreign relations of the Gaza Strip</title>
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<page>
<title>Georgia</title>
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<minor />
<comment>tweak dab descriptions</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Georgia''' most commonly means: <!-- [[Georgia (disambiguation)]] redirects here -->
* [[Georgia (country)]], a [[state|sovereign state]] in the [[Caucasus (geographic region)|Caucasus region]]: <!-- [[Georgia (Caucasus)]], [[Georgia (state)]] redirects -->
** Formerly "Republic of Georgia" (1990&ndash;1995) <!-- [[Republic of Georgia]] redirects -->
** Formerly [[Georgian SSR]], part of the USSR (1921&ndash;1990),
** Formerly [[Democratic Republic of Georgia]] (DRG) (1918&ndash;1921)
* [[Georgia (U.S. state)]], a [[U.S. state|constituent state]] of the [[United States]]:
** Formerly [[Province of Georgia]], one of the Thirteen Colonies (1732&ndash;1805).
Other geographical meanings:
* [[South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands]], a territory of the United Kingdom in the South Atlantic Ocean
* [[Strait of Georgia]], also known as ''Georgia Strait'' and ''Gulf of Georgia''
* [[Georgia, Vermont]], a town in the United States of America
* [[New Georgia]], an island in the Solomon Islands
Other:
* [[USS Georgia|USS ''Georgia'' and CSS ''Georgia'']], U.S. Navy ships
* [[Georgia (typeface)]], a font designed by Matthew Carter in 1993 for Microsoft.
* [[Georgia (soft drink)]], a brand of coffee
* Georgia, a given name and subject of the song "[[Georgia on My Mind]]" associated with Ray Charles
* Any of [[University of Georgia]]'s athletic teams
* Movies: <!-- [[Georgia (movie)]] is a disambiguation page -->
** [[Georgia (1988 film)|''Georgia'' (1988 film)]], an Australian film
** [[Georgia (1995 film)|''Georgia'' (1995 film)]] starring Jennifer Jason Leigh and Mare Winningham
* [[Georgia Railroad]]
* [[Georgia (song)]]
{{disambig}}
[[da:Georgia]]
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<page>
<title>History of Georgia</title>
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</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''History of Georgia''' can refer into historical articles:
* [[History of Georgia (country)]], an article about the country, [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]].
* [[History of Georgia (U.S. state)]], an article about the [[United States|U.S.]] state of [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]].
{{disambig}}</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Geography of Georgia</title>
<id>12059</id>
<revision>
<id>31632436</id>
<timestamp>2 |
Central American nations by the [[1990s]], Costa Rica turned its focus from regional conflicts to the pursuit of neoliberal policies on the isthmus. The influence of these policies, along with the US invasion of Panama, was instrumental in drawing [[Panama]] into the Central American model of [[neoliberalism]]. Costa Rica also participated in the multinational [[Partnership for Democracy and Development in Central America]].
Regional political integration has not proven attractive to Costa Rica. The country debated its role in the Central American integration process under former President Calderon. Costa Rica has sought concrete economic ties with its Central American neighbors rather than the establishment of regional political institutions, and it chose not to join the [[Central American Parliament]]. President Figueres promoted a higher profile for Costa Rica in regional and international fora. Costa Rica gained election as President of the Group of 77 in the [[United Nations]] in 1995. That term ended in 1997 with the South-South Conference held in San Jose. Costa Rica occupied a nonpermanent seat in the [[United Nations Security Council|Security Council]] from [[1997]] to [[1999]] and exercised a leadership role in confronting crises in the [[Middle East]] and [[Africa]], as well as in the former [[Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia]]. It is currently a member of the [[United Nations Commission on Human Rights]].
Costa Rica broke relations with [[Cuba]] in 1961 to protest Cuban support of the left in Central America and has not renewed formal diplomatic ties with the Castro regime. In 1995, Costa Rica established a [[consular office]] in [[Havana]]. Cuba opened a consular office in Costa Rica in [[2001]].
Costa Rica strongly backed efforts by the United States to implement [[UN Security Council Resolution 940]], which led to the restoration of the democratically elected Government of [[Haiti]] in [[October]] [[1994]]. Costa Rica was among the first to call for a postponement of the [[May 22]] elections in [[Peru]] when international observer missions found electoral machinery not prepared for the vote count.
Costa Rica maintains official relations with the [[Republic of China]] (commonly known as "Taiwan") instead of the [[People's Republic of China]]. Strong economic ties exist between the two countries with projects having included the recent construction of a suspension bridge with Taiwanese capital to join the Costa Rican mainland with the Nicoya Peninsula. The bridge has been a boon for the tourist industry in the peninsula by reducing travel time to some locations by as much as two hours.
[[Category:Government of Costa Rica]]
[[Category:Politics of Costa Rica]]
[[Category:Foreign relations by country|Costa Rica, Foreign affairs of]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Computational linguistics</title>
<id>5561</id>
<revision>
<id>31630957</id>
<timestamp>2005-12-16T17:44:52Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>MarkSweep</username>
<id>58666</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/194.44.213.229|194.44.213.229]] ([[User talk:194.44.213.229|talk]]) to last version by Gabr</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">::''This article is about the scientific field. For the journal, see <em>[[Computational Linguistics (journal)]]</em>''.
{{linguistics}}
'''Computational linguistics''' is an [[interdisciplinary]] field dealing with the statistical and [[logic]]al modeling of [[natural language]] from a computational perspective. This modeling is not limited to any particular field of [[linguistics]]. Computational linguists were formerly usually [[computer scientist]]s who had specialized in the application of computers to the processing of a [[natural language]]. Recent research has shown that language is much more complex than previously thought, so computational linguistics work teams are now sometimes interdisciplinary, including linguists (specifically trained in linguistics). Computational linguistics draws upon the involvement of linguists, [[computer science|computer scientists]], experts in [[artificial intelligence]], [[cognitive psychology|cognitive psychologists]] and [[logic|logicians]], amongst others.
==Origins==
Computational linguistics as a field predates artificial intelligence, a field under which it is often grouped. Computational linguistics originated with efforts in the [[United States]] in the 1950s to have computers automatically translate texts in foreign languages into English, particularly [[Russian language|Russian]] scientific journals. Since computers had proven their ability to do complex [[mathematics]] much faster and more accurately than humans, it was thought to be only a short matter of time before the technical details could be taken care of that would allow them the same remarkable capacity to process language.
When [[machine translation]] (a.k.a. mechanical translation) failed to immediately yield accurate translations, the problem was recognized as far more complex than had originally been assumed. Computational linguistics was born as the name of the new field of study devoted to developing [[algorithm]]s and [[software]] for intelligently processing language data. When artificial intelligence came into existence in the 1960s, the field of computational linguistics became that sub-division of artificial intelligence dealing with human-level comprehension and production of natural languages.
In order to translate one language into another, it was observed that one had to understand the [[syntax]] of both languages, and at least at the level of [[morphology (linguistics)|morphology]] (the syntax of words) and whole sentences. In order to understand syntax, one had to also understand the [[semantics]] of the vocabulary, and even to understand something of the [[pragmatics]] of how the language was being used. Thus, what started as an effort to translate between languages evolved into an entire discipline devoted to understanding how to represent and process individual natural languages using computers.
==Subfields==
Computational linguistics can be divided into major areas depending upon the medium of the language being processed, whether spoken or textual; and upon the task being performed, whether analyzing language (parsing) or creating language (generation).
[[Speech recognition]] and [[speech synthesis]] deal with how spoken language can be understood or created using computers. Parsing and generation are sub-divisions of computational linguistics dealing respectively with taking language apart and putting it together. Machine translation remains the sub-division of computational linguistics dealing with having computers translate between languages.
Some of the areas of research that are studied by computational linguistics include:
*Computer aided [[corpus linguistics]]
*Design of parsers for [[natural language]]s
*Design of taggers like POS-taggers (part-of-speech taggers)
*Definition of specialized logics like resource logics for [[Natural language processing|NLP]]
*Research in the relation between formal and natural languages in general
*[[Machine Translation]], e.g. by a translating computer
The [[Association for Computational Linguistics]] defines computational linguistics as:
:...the scientific study of [[language]] from a computational perspective. Computational linguists are interested in providing [[computational model]]s of various kinds of linguistic phenomena.
==See also==
* [[natural language processing]]
* [[machine translation]]
* [[translation memory]]
* [[Computational Linguistics (journal)]]
== External links ==
* [http://www.aclweb.org/ Association for Computational Linguistics (ACL)]
* [http://www.aclweb.org/anthology ACL Anthology of research papers]
* [http://www.lt-world.org/ Language Technology World]
* [http://www.cs.technion.ac.il/~gabr/resources/resources.html Resources for Text, Speech and Language Processing]
[[Category:Computational linguistics|*]]
<!-- interwiki -->
[[bg:Компютърна лингвистика]]
[[de:Computerlinguistik]]
[[es:Lingüística computacional]]
[[fr:Linguistique informatique]]
[[gl:Linguaxe De Computadora]]
[[hr:Ra%C4%8Dunalna_lingvistika]]
[[ko:전산언어학]]
[[it:Linguistica computazionale]]
[[lv:Datorlingvistika]]
[[nl:Computationele taalkunde]]
[[ja:計算言語学]]
[[pl:Lingwistyka komputerowa]]
[[ru:Математическая лингвистика]]
[[fi:Kieliteknologia]]
[[zh:计算机语言学]]
[[zh-min-nan:Kè-sǹg gí-giân-ha̍k]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Cardiac arrhythmia</title>
<id>5562</id>
<revision>
<id>41939693</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T19:40:13Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Arcadian</username>
<id>104523</id>
</contributor>
<comment>clean up using [[Wikipedia:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{DiseaseDisorder infobox |
Name = Cardiac arrhythmia |
ICD10 = I47-I49 |
ICD9 = {{ICD9|427.9}} |
}}
'''Cardiac arrhythmia''' is a group of conditions in which the [[muscle contraction]] of the heart is irregular or is faster or slower than normal. '''Cardiac dysrhythmia''' is technically more correct, as arrhythmia would imply that there is "no rhythm," but this term is not used frequently.
Some arrhythmias are life-threatening [[medical emergencies]] that can cause cardiac arrest and sudden death. Others cause aggravating symptoms, such as an awareness of a different heart beat, or [[palpitation]],which can be annoying. Some are quite benign and normal. Sinus arrhythmia is the mild acceleration followed by slowing of the normal rhythm that occurs with breathing. In adults the normal heart rate ranges from 60 beats per minute to 100 beats per minute. The normal heart beat is controlled by a small area in the upper chamber of th |
yona_n.geo/kizzur/kiz-index1.html Ch 1-97] and [http://www.geocities.com/yona_n.geo/kizzur/kiz-index2.html Ch 98-221]
*[http://www.teachittome.com/index.php?Command=Class&ClassID=BenIshChai&Title=Ben+Ish+Chai+Halachot ''Ben Ish Chai'' lectures] ([[MP3]])
*[http://www.chabad.org/library/article.asp?AID=262763 Laws and customs: daily, shabbat and festivals], chabad.org
===Bibliography===
*[[J. David Bleich]], ''Contemporary Halakhic Problems'' (5 vols), Ktav. ISBN 0870684507, ISBN 0881254746, ISBN 0881253154, ISBN 087068275X, Feldheim ISBN 1568713533
*[[Menachem Elon]], ''Ha-Mishpat ha-Ivri'' (trans. Jewish law), Jewish Publication Society. ISBN 0827605374
*Jacob Katz, ''Divine Law in Human Hands - Case Studies in Halakhic Flexibility'', Magnes Press. ISBN 9652239801
*Mendell Lewittes, ''Jewish Law: An Introduction'', Jason Aronson. ISBN 1568213026
* Daniel Pollack ed., ''Contrasts in American and Jewish Law'', Ktav. ISBN 0881257508
*[[Joel Roth]], ''Halakhic Process: A Systemic Analysis'', Jewish Theological Seminary. ISBN 0873340353
*[[Joseph Soloveitchik]], ''Halakhic Man'', Jewish Publication Society trans. Lawrence Kaplan. ISBN 0827603975
[[Category:Hebrew words]]
[[Category:Jewish law and rituals]]
[[Category:Legal codes]]
[[de:Halacha]]
[[es:Halajá]]
[[fr:Halakha]]
[[he:הלכה]]
[[it:Halachah]]
[[ja:ハラーハー]]
[[nl:Halacha]]
[[nn:Halakhá]]
[[no:Halakha]]
[[pl:Halacha]]
[[pt:Halachá]]
[[ro:Halakha]]
[[ru:Галаха]]
[[sv:Mosaisk rätt]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>History of ancient Israel and Judah</title>
<id>13876</id>
<revision>
<id>41278117</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-26T06:16:39Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Wjhonson</username>
<id>29958</id>
</contributor>
<comment>the Tanakh is *identical* to the Old Testament</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">In compiling the '''[[history]] of ancient [[Kingdom of Israel|Israel]] and [[Kingdom of Judah|Judah]]''', there are many available sources, including the [[Jew|Jewish]] [[Tanakh]] (the [[Old Testament]]) and other Jewish texts such as the [[Talmud]], the [[Ethiopia|Ethiopian]] book of history known as the ''[[Kebra Nagast]]'', the writings of historians such as [[Nicolaus of Damascus]], [[Artapanas]], [[Philo of Alexandria]] and [[Josephus]], other writings, and [[archeology|archaeological]] evidence including [[Egypt|Egyptian]], [[Moabite]], [[Assyria|Assyrian]] and [[Babylon|Babylonian]] inscriptions.
Depending on their interpretation, some writers see these sources as being in conflict. See [[The Bible and history]] for several views as to how the sources are best reconciled. This is a controversial subject, with important implications in the fields of [[religion]], [[politics]] and [[diplomacy]].
This article attempts to give a conservative scholarly view which would currently be supported by most historians. The precise dates and the precision by which they may be stated are subject to continuing discussion and challenge. There are no biblical events whose precise year can be validated by external sources before the early 9th century BCE (The rise of Omri, King of Israel). Therefore all earlier dates are [[extrapolation]]s. Further, the Bible does not render itself very easily to these calculations: mostly it does not state any time period longer than a single life time and a historical line must be reconstructed by adding discrete quantities, a process that naturally introduces [[rounding error]]s. The accuracy in which dates are represented here reflects a [[The Bible and history#Biblical maximalism|maximalist]] view, namely one that believes in the historical accuracy of the core stories of the Bible.
Others, known as ''[[Biblical minimalism|minimalists]]'' dispute that many of the events happened at all, making the dating of them moot: if the very existence of the united kingdom is in doubt, it is pointless to claim that it disintegrated in 922 BCE. However, many of the events from the 9th century onward do have corroborations; see for example [[Mesha Stele]].
{{Jew}}
==Early history==
The [[Mousterian]] [[Neanderthal]]s were the earliest inhabitants of the area known to archaeologists, and have been carbon-dated to c. 200,000 BCE. The first anatomically modern humans to live in the area were the [[Kebaran|Kebarans]] (conventionally c. 18,000 - 10,500 BCE, but recent paleoanthropological evidence suggests that [[Kebaran]]s may have arrived as early as 75,000 BCE and shared the region with the [[Neanderthal]]s for millennia before the latter died out). They were followed by the [[Natufian]] culture (c. 10,500 BCE - 8500 BCE), the [[Yarmukian]]s (c. 8500 - 4300 BCE) and the [[Ghassulians]] (carbon dated c. 4300 - 3300 BCE). (Note that not one of these names appears in any classical sources, and were all devised as conventions in recent times by archaeologists, to refer to the lowest strata of remains.)
The [[Semitic]] culture followed on from the Ghassulians. People became [[urbanization|urbanized]] and lived in [[city-state]]s, one of which was [[Jericho]]. The area's location at the center of routes linking three continents made it the meeting place for religious and cultural influences from [[Egypt]], [[Syria]], [[Mesopotamia]], and [[Asia Minor]]. It was also the natural battleground for the great powers of the region and subject to domination by adjacent [[empire]]s, beginning with Egypt in the late [[3rd millennium BCE]].
Traditions regarding the early history found in later works such as the ''[[Kebra Nagast]]'' and commentaries of [[Rashi]], [[Philo]], and numerous others, (besides of course, the [[Tanakh]]) refer to the early inhabitants as the sons of [[Shem]] and also speak of an invasion by the people known as [[Canaanite]]s descended from [[Ham, son of Noah|Ham]].
The [[Book of Jubilees]] states that the land was originally allotted to Shem and [[Arphaxad]] (ancestor of the Hebrews) when it was still vacant, but was wrongfully occupied by [[Canaan]] and his son [[Sidon]]. Jubilees makes this, then, the true justification for the later war to drive out the Canaanites.
The [[Kebra Nagast]], however, speaks of the Canaanites invading existing cities of Shem and [[Ibn Ezra]], similarly notes that they had seized land from earlier inhabitants. [[Rashi]] mentions that the Canaanites were seizing land from the sons of Shem in the days of Abraham.
== The patriarchal period ==
The patriarchal period begins with [[Abraham]]. The Bible places the events surrounding Abraham (originally Abram) circa [[18th century BCE|1800 BCE]], give or take 100 years. The account of his life is found in the Book of [[Genesis]], beginning in Chapter 11, at the close of a [[genealogy]] of the sons of [[Shem]] (which includes among its members [[Eber]], the [[eponym]] of the [[Hebrews]]).
His father [[Terah]] came from [[Ur Kasdim]]. His father moved his family, including his son Abram, from Ur Kasdim to the city of [[Haran]].
God called Abram to faith and obedience. Abram married Sarai. He and his extended clan then moved to the land of [[Canaan]]. According the Bible, [[God]] called Abram to go to "the land I will show you", and promised to bless him and make him (though hitherto childless) a great nation. Trusting this promise, Abram journeyed down to [[Shechem]], then to a spot between [[Bethel]] and [[Ai (biblical)|Ai]]. He then moved to the oaks of [[Mamre]] in [[Hebron]].
The name ''Abraham'' was given to Abram (and the name [[Sarah]] to Sarai) at the same time as the covenant of [[circumcision]] (chapter 17), which is practiced in [[Judaism]] and [[Islam]] to this day. At this time Abraham was promised not only many descendants, but descendants through Sarah specifically, as well as the land where he was living, which was to belong to his descendants. The covenant was to be fulfilled through [[Isaac]], though God promised that Ishmael would become a great nation as well.
Some modern historians dispute the historical accuracy of the patriarchal narratives in the Bible, and hold these events to be largely, or perhaps entirely, mythical. Others consider them to be largely historical, and presented in terms reflecting the understanding of the times.
Abraham's grandson [[Jacob]] was later renamed Israel, and according to the Biblical account, his twelve sons became the fathers of the [[Israelites|twelve tribes of Israel]][http://www.us-israel.org/jsource/History/hebpat.html][http://www.theology.edu/otha01.htm]
==Egyptian domination==
The narrative behind how the Israelites became slaves, or if they did at all, is still unclear in many sources. A few historians believe that this may have been due to the changing political conditions within Egypt. In [[1600s BCE|1600 BCE]], Egypt was conquered by tribes, apparently Semitic, known as the [[Hyksos]] by the Egyptians. The Hyksos were later driven out by [[Kamose]], the last king of the seventeenth dynasty. Between [[1540s BCE|1540]]-[[1070s BCE|1070 BCE]], [[Ahmose I]] founded the [[Eighteenth dynasty of Egypt|18th Egyptian dynasty]], and a new age for Egypt, the [[New Kingdom]]. [[Thutmose III]] established Egypt's empire in the western Near East. From then on, the chronology can only roughly be given in approximate dates for most events, until about the 7th century BCE.
*[[1440s BCE|1440 BCE]] The Egyptian reign of [[Amenhotep II]], during which the first mention of the [[Habiru|Habiru]] (possibly the Hebrews) is found in Egyptian texts [http://www.us-israel.org/jsource/History/hebrews.html]. Recently discovered evidence (see [[Tikunani Prism]]) indicates that the Habiru spoke [[Hurrian]], the language of the [[Hurrians]].
*c.[[1400]] First mention of the [[Shasu]] in Egyptian records, located just south of the Dead Sea. The Shasu contain a group with a [[Yahwistic]] name.
*[[1300s BCE|1300 BCE]] The Bible places the birth of Moses around this time. [http://www.jajz-ed.org.il/hist |
in [[1987]] so that he could face [[Hulk Hogan]] for the WWF Championship in the main event of [[WrestleMania III]]. In early 1987, Hogan was presented a trophy for being the [[WWE Championship|WWF World Heavyweight Champion]] for three years. Roussimoff came out to congratulate him. Shortly afterwards, Roussimoff was presented a slightly smaller trophy for being "undefeated in the WWF for 15 years." In actuality, Roussimoff had suffered a handful of countout and disqualification losses in the WWF, but had never been pinned or forced to submit in a WWF ring. Hogan came out to congratulate Roussimoff, and ended up being the focal point of the interview. A visibly annoyed Roussimoff walked out in the midst of Hogan's speech. Then, on an edition of ''[[Piper's Pit]]'', Hogan was confronted by Heenan. Heenan announced that his new protege was Roussimoff. Roussimoff then challenged Hogan to a title match at WrestleMania III, ripping the t-shirt and [[crucifix]] off of Hogan.
It was at WrestleMania III that the public first really saw the pain that Roussimoff was going through, by this stage his body was weighed in at about 525 pounds and his bones and joints were finding it hard supporting such a huge weight. Hogan won the match after dropping Roussimoff with a bodyslam, followed by Hogan's running legdrop finisher (years later, Hogan stated that Roussimoff was so heavy, he felt more like 700 pounds). Another famous tall tale about the match is that "no one knew" if Andre would lose the match. In reality, Andre had agreed to the match a long time before, mostly for health reasons. Before being signed to the WWF, Roussimoff had wrestled in Japan. It was here that a doctor diagnosed Roussimoff with his condition and told him that those with the same problem were generally lucky to reach forty. Roussimoff never told his family of the diagnosis and his closest friends believe that it was this motivation that led Roussimoff to live life to the fullest until he died. <!-- Unsourced image removed: [[Image:Andre and hulk.jpg|frame|Hulk Hogan and André the Giant at Wrestlemania III]] -->
The Hogan-André face off in WrestleMania III was likely the most highly anticipated professional wrestling matchup in history &ndash; the apex of wrestling's most recent golden era. The event, held at the [[Pontiac Silverdome]], had millions watching on [[pay-per-view]], and established great permanent value in the WrestleMania franchise. Hogan defeated Roussimoff, in what some consider a passing of the torch from Roussimoff, wrestling's biggest star of the '70s, to Hogan, wrestling's biggest star of the '80s. The [[feud (professional wrestling)|feud]] between Roussimoff and Hogan simmered, even as Roussimoff's health declined. Despite the main event, many feel that the undercard match of Ricky Steamboat challenging Randy Savage for the WWF Intercontinental Championship in retaliation for Savage "crushing" Steamboat's larynx months earlier after delivering his famous top rope elbowsmash on Steamboat, whom he draped over the steel guardrail designed to separate the ring area from the audience. The commonly and frequently repeated figure of "93, 173" has been proven false many times over, another "white lie" designed to "prove" to the media how popular the WWF is. In reality, the Silverdome can't handle that many people in any situation. The real figure is somewhere in the 67,000-78,000 range, depending on the source asked.
Roussimoff won the WWF title from Hogan on [[February 5]], [[1988]] in a match where appointed [[referee]] Dave Hebner was "detained backstage" and a replacement, his "evil" twin brother Earl, made a three count on Hogan while his shoulders were off of the mat. Roussimoff then "sold" the title to "The Million Dollar Man" [[Ted DiBiase]] and the title was vacated. This was shown on the WWF's NBC program "The Main Event" (usually seen Saturdays as "Saturday Night's Main Event"). Andre famously mistakenly called the Federation's Championship the "WWF Tag Team Championship", perhaps foreshadowing his regin with Haku.
At [[WrestleMania IV]], Roussimoff and Hulk Hogan went to a double DQ in a WWF title tournament match. Afterwards, Roussimoff and Hogan's feud died down after a brutal steel cage match held at ''WrestleFest'', on [[July 31]], [[1988]] in Milwaukee.
[[Image:Andregiantmug1.jpg|left|thumb|300px|André the Giant in a police mugshot after being arrested for assaulting a cameraman]]
André won the World Tag Team Championship with his partner [[Uliuli Fitita|Haku]] from [[Demolition (professional wrestling)|Demolition]], on [[December 13]], [[1989]]. Managed by Bobby Heenan, André and Haku were known as The Colossal Connection. They lost their titles at [[WrestleMania VI]] back to [[Demolition (professional wrestling)|Demolition]], on [[April 1]], [[1990]]. Roussimoff had a falling out with Heenan and soon left the WWF altogether. He went back to Japan, this time for [[All Japan Pro Wrestling]], where he briefly teamed with owner [[Giant Baba]], who despite his name was only a giant when compared to the average Japanese.
André starred in several [[film|movies]] towards the end of his career, most notably as Fezzik in 1987's ''[[The Princess Bride (film)|The Princess Bride]]''. He had a [[cameo appearance]] in [[1984]]'s ''[[Conan the Destroyer]]'' as Dagoth, the resurrected horned giant beast, which is killed by Conan, the character portrayed by [[Arnold Schwarzenegger]]. In his final film, he appeared in something of a cameo role as a [[circus]] giant in the [[comedy]] ''[[Trading Mom]]'', which was not released until the year after his death.
The disease that granted him his immense size also began to take its toll on his body. By the late 1980s André was in constant, near-crippling pain and his heart struggled to pump blood throughout his massive body. When he was not in front of a camera, he was usually in a wheelchair.
He stopped competing entirely in the very early [[1990s]] due to the increasing pain his illness was causing him, retiring to his [[winery]] in [[France]]. His heart finally failed him in [[1993]], and Roussimoff passed away in his sleep at a [[hotel]] in [[Paris]] while in town for his father's funeral. He was cremated and his ashes were spread over his ranch in [[Ellerbe, North Carolina]].
== Legacy ==
To honor André the Giant, the WWF created the [[WWF Hall of Fame]] in 1993 and made him their first inductee.
André was the inspiration for the 1998 movie ''[[My Giant]]'', written by his friend [[Billy Crystal]], whom he had met during the filming of ''[[The Princess Bride (film)|The Princess Bride]]''.
Even in death, Andre was memorable. Due to his immense size, no crematorium in France could accommodate his final wishes to be cremated within 48 hours of his passing. Instead, Andre would lie in state for nearly a week while preparations were made, to include a custom casket. Andre's body was to be flown to North Carolina, and airlines had to reshuffle some schedules and cargo to be able to be under the weight limit with Andre on board. Even his ashes weighed nearly twice that of a normal-sized human's ashes.
In the early '90s, shortly after his death, Andre The Giant became somewhat of a figure of social commentary, thanks in part to the [[Andre The Giant Has A Posse]] (Later known as the OBEY) sticker campaign.
==Personal Life==
While always being referred to as a "bachelor for life," Roussimoff did have a daughter, Robin Christensen, born in [[1979]], who stands at around 6 feet tall herself, which has been mentioned in some biographies of André. WWE referee Tim White mentioned in the A&E biography of "Andre the Giant" that she lives somewhere in the Seattle, Washington area. Andre also has 2 nephews, Boris and Godefroy.
==Wrestling facts==
===Managers===
*[[Bobby Heenan]]
*[[Ted DiBiase]]
*Frank Valois
*[[Lou Albano]]
*K.Y. Wakamatsu
*[[Tim White]]
[[Image:Andre_Piledriver.jpg|right|thumb|120px|André the Giant holding an opponent in the [[Piledriver (professional wrestling)#Tombstone piledriver|tombstone piledriver]] position]]
===Finishing and signature moves===
*'''[[Professional wrestling attacks#Elbow drop|Elbow drop]]'''
*'''[[Suplex#Double underhook suplex|Double underhook suplex]]'''
*[[Piledriver (professional wrestling)#Tombstone piledriver|Tombstone piledriver]]
*[[Professional wrestling attacks#Big boot|Big boot]]
*[[Professional wrestling attacks#Backhand chop|Knife edge chops]]
*[[Professional wrestling holds#Bear hug|Bearhug]]
*[[Professional wrestling attacks#Headbutt|Headbutt]]
*[[Professional wrestling holds#Chokes|Choke]]
==Filmography==
*''[[The Princess Bride (film)|The Princess Bride]]'' - [[1987 in film|1987]] - [[Fezzik]]
*''[[Micki & Maude]]'' - [[1984 in film|1984]]
*''[[Conan the Destroyer]]'' - [[1984 in film|1984]]
*''[[I Like to Hurt People]]'' - 1970s
==Championships and accomplishments==
*'''[[World Wrestling Entertainment|World Wrestling Federation]]'''
:*1-time [[WWE Championship|WWF World Heavyweight Champion]]
:*1-time [[World Tag-Team Championship|WWF World Tag Team Champion]] (with [[Uliuli Fifita|Haku]])
:*[[WWE Hall of Fame|WWE Hall of Famer]] (inducted in 1993)
*'''Other titles'''
:*1-time [[International Pro Wrestling|IWA]] Tag Team Champion (with Michael Nader)
:*1-time Australasian Tag Team Champion (with [[Robert Miller (wrestler)|Ron Miller]])
:*1-time Tri-State Tag Team Champion (with [[Virgil Runnels, Jr.|Dusty Rhodes]])
:*1-time [[NWA Florida Tag Team Championship|NWA Florida Tag Team Champion]] (with Dusty Rhodes)
*'''[[Pro Wrestling Illustrated]]'''
:*PWI named him # '''3''' of the 500 best singles wrestlers of the [[PWI Years]] in 2003.
:*PWI Editor's Award (1993)
:*PWI Most Popular Wrestler Award (1977)
:*PWI Most Popular Wrestler |
sco d'Anconia]] stays when he is in town. It was also the scene of [[Characters in Atlas_Shrugged#Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart's]] debut ball when she was seventeen.
It may be based on the Waldorf-Astoria Hotel in New York City.
The Wayne-Falkland Hotel is mentioned in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|sections]] 141, 151 and 152.
==Wyatt Oil Fields==
The Wyatt Oil Fields are in [[Places in Atlas_Shrugged|Colorado]]. They are a bunch of old, abandoned oil wells that were revived by a new technique invented by [[Characters in Atlas_Shrugged#Ellis Wyatt|Ellis Wyatt]]. This has almost single-handedly revitalized the economy of [[Places in Atlas_Shrugged|Colorado]].
The Wyatt Oil Fields appear in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|sections]] 111 and 161.
[[Category:Atlas Shrugged]]
[[Category:Lists of fictional things]]</text>
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<title>Topics of note in Atlas Shrugged</title>
<id>369</id>
<revision>
<id>38560634</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-07T02:58:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Ds13</username>
<id>43805</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>reduce generalization about lack of lying</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">===Atlas===
As told in ''[[Atlas Shrugged]]'', Atlas carried the world on his shoulders. But in the [[Greek Mythology|Greek Myths]], the Titan [[Atlas (mythology)|Atlas]] stands on the earth and holds up the sky. In the statues that represent Atlas, the big round thing on his back represents the heavens, which, because of the apparent circular motion of the planets around the earth, were conceived of as being round. Some tellings of the Atlas myth have him carrying both the earth and the heavens on his back, but this appears to be a modern retelling; further research might confirm this.
===Character names===
Some of the character names are, or appear to be, puns, or have some other significance. (See also [[Characters in Atlas Shrugged]].)
When asked why so many of her names have syllables with many hard consonants like dag, tag, den, stad, Rand said that she just liked those sounds.
*'''Ragnar Danneskjold''' - sounds like 'Dane's Gold', a tribute paid by the medieval English to the Vikings to bribe them into being peaceful. (However, note "skjold" means shield, not gold.) However, the hero of [[Victor Hugo]]'s first novel, ''Hans of Iceland'' becomes the first of the Counts of Danneskjöld. In the 1970's, Rand told Marsha Familaro Enright that her use of this name was not plagiarism because there really were Counts of Danneskjöld.
*'''Robert Stadler''' - sounds like the German word for state, Staat. Dr. Stadler is a statist, in that he believes it appropriate and necessary for the state to fund scientific research.
*'''Francisco d'Anconia''' - Rand's husband was Frank O'Connor.
*'''John Galt''' - the name of a 19th century Scottish novelist, though this is apparently coincidental. Galt is close to 'Geld' and 'gold'. The name was probably used because it had to be such that it could become proverbial&mdash;this would not be possible with a long, awkward name.
*'''Wesley Mouch''' - Mouch is exactly what his name sounds like, a mooch. He has no real virtue or skill, but somehow becomes a powerful figure.
===Crime===
Common street crime is conspicuously absent in ''Atlas Shrugged''. Characters walk the streets with no thought of being mugged or attacked.
===Historical figures and events===
''Atlas Shrugged'' takes place in a world with a different history from our own, but there are some historical figures and events that are mentioned.
*[[Aristotle]] ([[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|section]] 152): Francisco d'Anconia wrote a thesis on the influence of Aristotle's theory of the Immovable Mover.
*[[Dark Ages]] ([[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|section]] 161): Ragnar Danneskjold's piracy is likened to something out of the Dark Ages.
*[[Inquisition]] ([[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|section]] 152): Sebastian d'Anconia flees Spain to escape persecution under the Inquisition.
*[[Middle Ages]] ([[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|section]] 161): It is said that Ragnar Danneskjold hides in the Norwegian fjords as the Vikings did in the Middle Ages.
*[[Nero]] ([[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|section]] 152): Francisco d'Anconia compares himself to the Emperor Nero.
*[[Patrick Henry]] ([[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|section]] 152): The [[eponym]] of Patrick Henry University.
*[[Vikings]] ([[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|section]] 161): It is said that Ragnar Danneskjold hides in the Norwegian fjords as the Vikings did in the Middle Ages.
===Humor===
In [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|section]] 152, Francisco cracks that the Mexican government was promising a roast of pork every Sunday for every man, woman, child and abortion.
In [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|section]] 152, Francisco lists the various buildings constructed for the workers of the San Sebastian Mines, and notes how they are all poorly built and can be expected to collapse, except for the church. "The church, I think, will stand. They'll need it," he quips. Since the other things are things of value&mdash;houses, roads, etc.&mdash;it is ironic that only the church was built to last; to Rand and her heroes, a church is of no real value.
Almost every nation in the world except the United States is referred to as "The People's State of...", and they are all, apparently, the recipients of relief supplies from the United States. In conversation, people casually refer to them as "The People's State of..." rather than just, say, France or Norway. It is obvious that people would not refer to countries by their formal names in casual conversation&mdash;we don't call Canada "The Dominion of Canada" or Germany "The Federal Republic of Germany"&mdash;so by having her characters do this Rand is exercising her dry wit.
===Lying===
The sympathetic characters of ''Atlas Shrugged'' generally do not tell lies. With the following exceptions, even when they are clearly trying to conceal something, they do not rely on overt falsehood, even when it is obvious that they could do so without being found out.
*In section 112 Brakeman tells Dagny Taggart he does not recall the name of the song he was whistling or where he heard it.
*In section 141 Francisco d'Anconia tells the press he came to [[Places in Atlas_Shrugged|New York]] because of a hat check girl and the liverwurst at [[Things in Atlas_Shrugged|Moe's Delicatessen]].
*In section 151 we learn Dagny Taggart once lied to her mother about a cut to her lip that Francisco had given her. This was the only lie she ever told.
*In section 152 Dagny Taggart asks Francisco if Richard Halley has written a fifth concerto. He is evasive and tells her that Halley has stopped writing. Is this a lie?
*In section 161, Hank Rearden tells Dagny that he was the one who invited Bertram Scudder to the Rearden's anniversary party. It was actually Lillian who invited him, and Rearden had been furious about it.
*In part 2/chapter 9, Eddie Willers tells Dagny Taggart that his hesitation and uncertainty is caused by the illegality of her directions. In fact, Eddie was shocked by the evidence and thus realization of her affair with Hank Rearden.
===People's States===
Almost every nation that is mentioned, other than the [[Places in Atlas_Shrugged|United States]], is referred to as a "People's State". These include:
* The People's State of [[Places in Atlas_Shrugged|England]]
* The People's State of [[Places in Atlas_Shrugged|France]]
* The People's State of [[Places in Atlas_Shrugged|India]]
* The People's State of [[Places in Atlas_Shrugged|Mexico]]
* The People's State of [[Places in Atlas_Shrugged|Norway]]
* The People's State of [[Places in Atlas_Shrugged|Portugal]]
* The People's State of [[Places in Atlas_Shrugged|Turkey]]
The leaders of these countries are given the title the "Head of the People's State," and called "Mr._____" (or "Senor"____). The President of the United States is refered to as "Mr. Thompson" and called the "Head of the State," which seems to imply the US is on its way to becoming a People's State as well.
===Religion===
In [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|section]] 152 Francisco tells Dagny he named the [[Things in Atlas_Shrugged|San Sebastian Mines]] after his ancestor Sebastian d'Anconia, a man they both honor deeply. This, to Dagny, is blasphemy&mdash;the only kind of blasphemy she understands.
===Social classes===
Rand is sometimes called an elitist. This claim is probably accurate if we allow for the fact that Rand had her own standard of eliteness&mdash;throughout ''Atlas Shrugged'', virtue is equated with creative ability. It is, however, worth noting that in ''Atlas Shrugged'', there are no characters with creative ability which do not function as [[author surrogate]] characters (most notably Dagny Taggart); conversely, all of the [[Straw man|characters]] which disagree with the author are unintelligent and creatively bankrupt, and usually actively destructive. Compare to the real world, where scientists, inventors, artists and industrialists often have wildly varying and strongly conflicting desires and opinions.
Different social classes are represented among both the heroes and the villains of ''Atlas Shrugged''. Among the heroes, John Galt and Hank Rearden are from working class backgrounds, while Dagny Taggart and Francisco d'Anconia are from wealthy families. Among the villains, Fred Kinnan is from a working class background, while James Taggart and Betty Pope are from wealthy families.
[[Category:Atlas Shrugged]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Atlas Shrugged</title>
<id>568</id>
<revision>
<id>42127150</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T00:18:59Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>72.141.37.94</ip>
</c |
[Milwaukee, Wisconsin]], 1916
* [[Ernest Vosburgh Summer Residence]], [[Grand Beach, Michigan]], 1916
* [[Joseph J. Bagley Summer Residence]], [[Grand Beach, Michigan]], 1916
* [[W.S. Carr Summer Residence]], [[Grand Beach, Michigan]], 1916
* [[Henry J. Allen Residence]], [[Wichita, Kansas]], 1916
* [[Arthur R. Munkwitz Duplex Apartments]], [[Milwaukee, Wisconsin]], 1916, American System-Built Home
* [[Arthur L. Richards Duplex Apartments]], [[Milwaukee, Wisconsin]], 1916, American System-Built Home
* [[Stephen M. B. Hunt Residence II]], [[Oshkosh, Wisconsin]], 1917, American System-Built Home
* [[Guy C. Smith Residence]], [[Chicago, Illinois]], 1917, American System-Built Home
* [[H. H. Hyde Residence]], [[Chicago, Illinois]], 1917, American System-Built Home
* [[Oscar A. Johnson Residence]], [[Evanston, Illinois]], 1917, American System-Built Home
* [[Delbert W. Meier Residence]], [[Monona, Iowa]], 1917, American System-Built Home
* Wilbert [[Wynant House]], [[Gary, Indiana]], 1917 , American System-Built Home (burned January [[2006]])
* [[Charles Heisen Residence]], [[Villa Park, Illinois]], 1917, American System-Built Home
* [[Aisaku Hayashi Residence]], [[Tokyo, Japan]], 1917
* [[Hollyhock House]] (Aline Barnsdall Residence), [[Los Angeles, California]], 1917
* [[Arinobu Fukuhara]], [[Kanagawa-Ken, Japan]], 1918
* [[Tazaemon Yamamura Residence]], [[Hyogo-Ken, Japan]], 1918
=== 1920s===
* [[Taliesin Dam and Hydroelectric Plant]], [[Spring Green, Wisconsin]], 1920
* [[Jiyu Gakuen Girls’ School]], [[Tokyo, Japan]], 1921
* Alice Millard Residence [[La Miniatura]], [[Pasadena, California]], 1923
* [[John Storer Residence]], [[Hollywood, Los Angeles, California|Hollywood, California]], 1923
* [[Samuel Freeman Residence]], [[Los Angeles, California]], 1923
* [[Ennis House|Ennis Residence]], [[Los Angeles, California]], 1923
* [[Taliesin III]], [[Spring Green, Wisconsin]], 1925
* [[Arizona Biltmore Hotel]], [[Phoenix, Arizona]], 1927
* Isabel Martin Residence, ("[[Graycliff Estate]]"), [[Buffalo, New York|Buffalo NY (Derby, NY)]], 1927
* [[Beach Cottages at Dumyat]], [[Dumyat, Egypt]], [[1928]]
* [[Ocatillo Desert Camp]], [[Chandler, Arizona]], 1928
* [[Richard Lloyd Jones Residence]], [[Tulsa, Oklahoma]], 1929
===1930s===
* [[Malcolm E. Willey Residence]], [[Minneapolis, Minnesota]], 1933
* Kaufmann Residence, [[Fallingwater]], [[Bear Run, Pennsylvania]], 1935
* [[Herbert Jacobs Residence I]], [[Madison, Wisconsin]], 1936
* Paul R. Hanna Residence, [[Honeycomb House]], [[Stanford, California]], 1936
* [[Abby Beecher Roberts Residence]], [[Marqutte, Michigan]], 1936
* [[Johnson Wax Headquarters]], [[Racine, Wisconsin]], 1936
* [[Herbert F. Johnson Residence]] ("Wingspread"), [[Wind Point, Wisconsin|Wind Point, WI]], 1937
* [[Ben Rebhuhn Residence]], [[Great Neck Estates, New York]], 1937
* [[Taliesin West]], [[Scottsdale, Arizona]], 1937
* [[Suntop Homes]], [[Ardmore, Pennsylvania]], 1938
* [[Charles L. Manson Residence]], [[Wausau, Wisconsin]], 1938
* [[John Clarence Pew Residence]], [[Shorewood Hills, Wisconsin]], 1938
* [[Frank Lloyd Wright's Florida Southern College Works|Pheiffer Chapel]], [[Lakeland, Florida]], 1938 For [[Florida Southern College]]
* [[Rose Pauson Residence]], [[Phoenix, Arizona]], 1939
* [[Sidney Bazett Residence]], [[Hillsborough, California]], 1939
* [[Andrew F. H. Armstrong Residence]], [[Ogden Dunes, Indiana]], 1939
* [[Rosenbaum House|Stanley Rosenbaum Residence]], [[Florence, Alabama]], 1939
* [[Lloyd Lewis Residence]], [[Libertyville, Illinois]], 1939
* [[Loren Pope Residence]], [[Falls Church, Virgina]], 1939
* [[Goetsch-Winckler Residence]], [[Okemos, Michigan]], 1939
* [[Joseph Euchtman Residence]], [[Baltimore, Maryland]], 1939
* [[Bernard Schwartz Residence]], [[Two Rivers, Wisconsin]], 1939
* [[George Sturges Residence]], [[Brentwood Heights, California]], 1939
* [[Clarence Sondern Residence]], [[Kansas City, Missouri]], 1939
===1940s===
* [[Auldbrass Plantation]], [[Yemassee, South Carolina]], 1940
* [[Gregor S. Affleck Residence]], [[Bloomfield Hills, Michigan]], 1940
* [[Arch Oboler Gatehouse]], [[Malibu, California]], 1940
* [[Theodore Baird Residence]], [[Amherst, Massachusetts]], 1940
* [[James B. Christie Residence]], [[Bernardsville, New Jersey]], 1940
* [[Community Christian Church]], [[Kansas City, Missouri]], 1940
* [[Stuart Richardson Residence]], [[Glen Ridge, New Jersey]], 1940
* [[Frank Lloyd Wright's Florida Southern College Works|Seminar Buildings]], [[Lakeland, Florida]], 1940 For [[Florida Southern College]]
* [[Frank Lloyd Wright's Florida Southern College Works|E.T. Roux Library]], [[Lakeland, Florida]], 1941 For [[Florida Southern College]]
* [[Wall Residence]], [[Plymouth, Michigan]], 1941
* [[Frank Lloyd Wright's Florida Southern College Works|Industrial Arts
Building]], [[Lakeland, Florida]], 1942 For [[Florida Southern College]]
* [[Herbert Jacobs Second Residence]], [[Middleton, Wisconsin]], 1944
* [[Frank Lloyd Wright's Florida Southern College Works|Administration Building]], [[Lakeland, Florida]], 1945 For [[Florida Southern College]]
* [[Lowell Walter Residence]], [[Quasqueton, Iowa]], 1945
* [[Arnold Friedman Vaction Lodge]], [[Pecos, New Mexico]], 1945
* [[Frank Lloyd Wright's Florida Southern College Works|Esplanades]] [[Lakeland, Florida]], 1946 For [[Florida Southern College]]
* [[Melvyn Maxwell Smith Residence]], [[Bloomfield Hills, Michigan]], 1946
* [[Douglas Grant Residence]], [[Marion, Iowa]], 1946
* [[Alvin Miller Residence]], [[Charles City, Iowa]], 1946
* [[Chauncey Griggs Residence]], [[Tacoma, Washington]], 1946
* [[Unitarian Meeting House]], [[Shorewood Hills, Wisconsin]], 1947
* [[Dr. A.H. Bulbulian Residence]], [[Rochester, Minnesota]], 1947
* [[Amy Alpaugh Residence]], [[Northport, Michigan]], 1947
* [[Galesburg Country Homes]], [[Galesburg, Michigan]], 1948
* [[David Weisblat Residence]], [[Galesburg, Michigan]], 1948 a Galesburg Country Home
* [[Eric Pratt Residence]], [[Galesburg, Michigan]], 1948 a Galesburg Country Home
* [[Samuel Eppstein Residence]], [[Galesburg, Michigan]], 1948 a Galesburg Country Home
* [[Curtis Meyer Residence]], [[Galesburg, Michigan]], 1948 a Galesburg Country Home
* [[Parkwyn Village]], [[Kalamazoo, Michigan]], 1948
* [[Robert Levin Residence]], [[Kalamazoo, Michigan]], 1948 a Parkwyn Village Home
* [[Ward McCartney Residence]], [[Kalamazoo, Michigan]], 1949 a Parkwyn Village Home
* [[Eric V. Brown Residence]], [[Kalamazoo, Michigan]], 1949 a Parkwyn Village Home
* [[Herman T. Mossberg Residence]], [[South Bend, Indiana]], 1948
* [[J. Willis Hughes Residence]], Fountainhead, [[Jackson, Mississippi]], 1948
* [[Carroll Alsop Residence]], [[Oskaloosa, Iowa]], 1948
* [[Jack Lamberson Residence]], [[Oskaloosa, Iowa]], 1948
* [[Mrs. Clinton Walker Residence]], [[Carmel, California]], 1948
* [[Albert Adelman Residence]], [[Fox Point, Wisconsin]], 1948
* [[Maynard Buehler Residence]], [[Orinda, California]], 1948
* [[Charles Weltzheimer Residence]], [[Oberlin, Ohio]], 1948
* [[Erling Brauner Residence]], [[Okemos, Michigan]], 1948
* [[V.C. Morris Gift Shop]], [[San Francisco, California|San Francisco, CA]], 1948
* [[James Edwards Residence]], [[Okemos, Michigan]], 1949
* [[Henry Neils Residen]]ce, [[Minneapolis, Minnesota]], 1949
* [[Howard Anthony Residence]], [[Benton Harbor, Michigan]], 1949
* [[Unonia Homes]], [[Pleasantville, New York]], 1948-1951
* [[Sol Friedman Residence]], [[Pleasantville, New York]], 1948 a Unonia Home
* [[Edward Serlin Residence]], [[Pleasantville, New York]], 1949 a Unonia Home
* [[Kenneth Laurent Residence]] [http://www.dgunning.org/architecture/Illinois/laurent.htm:], 4646 Spring Brook Road, [[Rockford, Illinois]], 1949
===1950s===
* [[Robert D. Winn Residence]], [[Kalamazoo, Michigan]], 1950 a Parkwyn Village Home
* [[Wilbur Pearce Residence]], [[Bradbury, California]], 1950
* [[Thomas Keys Residence]], [[Rochester, Minnesota]], 1950
* [[David Wright Residence]], [[Phoenix, Arizona]], 1950
*
* [[Ronny Reisley Residence]], [[Pleasantville, New York]], 1951 a Unonia Home
[[Image:PriceTower.jpg|thumb|300px|right|[[Price Tower]], [[Bartlesville, Oklahoma]]]]
* [[Price Tower]], [[Bartlesville, Oklahoma]], 1952
* [[Cooke House]], [[Virginia Beach, Va.]], designed 1953 built 1959
* [[Kentuck Knob]], [[Uniontown, Pennsylvania]], 1953
* [[Annunciation Greek Orthodox Church]], [[Wauwatosa, Wisconsin]], designed in 1956, completed in 1961
* [[Gorden House]], [[Silverton, Oregon]], Designed in 1957, Completed in 1964
* [[Pilgrim Congregational Church]], [[Redding, California]], 1958
===Other===
* [[Beth Sholom Synagogue]], [[Elkins Park]], [[Pennsylvania]], 1954
* [[R.W. Lindholm Service Station]] [[Cloquet, Minnesota]] 1956
* [[Marin County Civic Center]], [[San Rafael, California|San Rafael, CA]], 1957&ndash;66 (featured in the movies [[Gattaca]] & [[THX-1138]])
* [[Blue Sky Mausoleum]], [[Buffalo, New York|Buffalo NY]], [[2004]]
* [[Louis Penfield House]], [[Willoughby Hills, Ohio]], 1955
* [[Grady Gammage Memorial Auditorium]], [[Tempe, Arizona]], built 1964
=== Unbuilt works ===
* [[San Marcos In The Desert]], near [[Chandler, Arizona]], 1929
* [[Gordon Strong Automobile Objective]], [[Sugarloaf Mountain, Maryland]],1924
* [[Rogers Lacy Hotel]], [[Dallas, Texas]], 1946
==References==
===Selected books and articles on Wright’s philosophy:===
*''Frank Lloyd Wright'', by Robert McCarter
*''Frank Lloyd Wright’s Usonian Homes: Designs for Moderate Cost One-Family Homes'', by John Sergeant
*''Frank Lloyd Wright’s Usonian Homes (Wright at a Glance Series)'', by Carla Lind
*"In the Cause of Architecture," Architectural Record, March, 1908, by Frank Lloyd Wright. Published in ''Frank Lloyd Wright: Collected Writings, vol. 1''.
*''Natural House, The'', by Frank Lloyd Wright
*''Truth Against the World: Frank Lloyd Wright Speaks for an Organic Architecture'', ed. by Patrick Meehan
*''Understanding Frank Lloyd Wright's Architecture'', by |
ish Civil War]], Franco restricted virtually all expressions of Basque culture and banned all expressions of Basque nationalism, including public display of [[Ikurriña|the nationalist flag]], celebration of [[Aberri Eguna|nationalist holidays]], speaking the Basque language in public and teaching it in schools; even [[baptism|baptizing children]] with non-Spanish names was illegal.
The recovery of the Basque industry under Franco's rule attracted a massive [[rural exodus]] from Castile, Galicia, Andalusia and Extremadura, leading to further dilution of the Basque identity.
During the [[Francisco Franco|Franco]] era, ETA had considerable public support even beyond the Basque populace, reaching its peak after the 'Burgos Trials' of 1970, which drew international attention to the organization's cause and highlighted the repressive nature of the Franco regime, and their assassination of Almirante [[Luis Carrero Blanco]] in 1973 (Carrero Blanco was appointed by Franco as his successor in the rule of Spain). Spain's transition to democracy from 1975 on and ETA's progressive radicalization have resulted in a steady loss of support, which became especially apparent at the time of their [[1997]] kidnapping and countdown assassination of [[Miguel Ángel Blanco]]. Their loss of sympathizers has been reflected in an erosion of support for the political parties identified with the MLNV.
In recent years, ETA supporters have become a minority in the Basque region. A [[Euskobarómetro]] [http://www.ehu.es/cpvweb/paginas/euskobarometro.html] [[Statistical survey|poll]] (conducted by the [[Universidad del País Vasco]]) in the [[Basque Country (autonomous community)|Basque Country]] in May 2004, found that a significant number of Basques supported some or all of ETA's goals. (33% favored Basque independence, 31% federalism, 32% autonomy, 2% centralism.) However, few supported their violent methods (87% agreed that "today in Euskadi it is possible to defend all political aspirations and objectives without the necessity of resorting to violence".)
The poll did not cover [[Navarre]] or [[Iparralde|the Basque areas of France]], where Basque nationalism is weaker.
==Tactics==
''See also [[List of ETA attacks]].''
ETA's tactics include:
*Assassination and murder, especially by car bombs or a gunshot to the [[nape]] of the neck. Before bombings, ETA members often make a telephone call so that people can be evacuated, although these calls have sometimes given incorrect information, leading to increased casualties.
*Anonymous threats, often delivered in the Basque Country by placards or graffiti, and which have forced many people into hiding; an example was the harassment of [[Juan María Atutxa]], member of the [[Basque Nationalist Party]], and one-time head of the department Inner Affairs and Justice for the autonomous government of the Basque Country.
*The so-called "revolutionary tax", paid by many businesses in the Basque Country and in the rest of Spain and enforced by the threat of assassination. In [[2002]] the judge [[Baltasar Garzón]] seized the [[herriko taberna]]s ("people's taverns", bars owned directly or indirectly by Herri Batasuna) which were reportedly collecting these "revolutionary taxes". This was seen by members of the Basque left as an attack on the social fabric underlying the independence movement.
*Kidnapping (often as a punishment for failing to pay the "revolutionary tax").
ETA operates mainly in [[Spain]], particularly in the Basque Country, Navarre, and (to a lesser degree) [[Madrid]], [[Barcelona]], and the tourist areas of the [[costa|Mediterranean coast of Spain]]. The overwhelming number of ETA's assassinations have historically targeted so-called "military targets" (which was traditionally limited to the military proper, the Spanish Civil Guard and the Spanish National Police).
As the autonomous police (Basque [[Ertzaintza]] and Catalan [[Mossos d'Esquadra]]) took a greater role in anti-terrorism, they were added by ETA to the "military targets".
Beginning with the killing of [[Gregorio Ordóñez]] in 1995 this was expanded to include politicians of any non-Basque nationalist party, journalists and other civilians.
A police file, dating from 1996, indicated that ETA needs about 15 million [[peseta]]s (about 90,000 [[Euro]]s) daily in order to finance its operations{{fact}}. Although ETA used robbery as a means of financing in its early days, it has since been accused both of [[arms trafficking]] and of benefiting economically from its political counterpart [[Batasuna]]. [[Kidnapping]] and [[extortion]] are other key methods that the organization has used to obtain finances. ETA has also occasionally burgled or robbed storehouses of explosives. It has often maintained large caches of explosives, often over the French side of the Basque border rather than within the Spanish jurisdiction.
ETA victims have included, among others:
*[[Luis Carrero Blanco]], president of the government under Franco (1973)
*Members (and relatives of members) of the army and the security forces of the Spanish state, including [[Guardia Civil]], Policía Nacional, and police of the autonomous regions, such as the [[Ertzaintza]] ([[Basque]] police) or [[mossos d'esquadra]] (the police force of [[Catalonia]]).
*Parliamentarians, members of city councils, sympathizers and partisans of other parties, including the socialist PSOE (such as [[Fernando Buesa]], killed [[February 22]] [[2000]] in [[Vitoria]] and [[Ernest Lluch]] shot through the neck [[November 21]] [[2000]] in [[Barcelona]]), the conservative Partido Popular (such as [[Miguel Ángel Blanco]] and [[Gregorio Ordóñez]]) or even conservative Basque nationalists such as ([[Navarre]]se ''[[fueros|fuerista]]'' [[Tomás Caballero]], assassinated in 1998).
*Judges and lawyers
*Businessmen, such as [[Javier Ybarra]].
*Functionaries of the prison and judicial systems.
*[[Philosophers]] and [[intellectuals]].
*University professors, such as [[Francisco Tomás y Valiente]], killed in [[1996]].
*Journalists, such as [[José Luis López de la Calle]], killed in May 2000.
*Foreign tourists in Spain.
==Government Repression==
Members of ETA have often taken refuge in southwestern France, especially the [[French Basque Country]] and [[Aquitaine]]. Although this used to be tolerated by the French government, especially during the [[Francisco Franco]] dictatorship when ETA members were often regarded as political [[refugee]]s, the expansion of violence into France by Spanish government death squads (GAL) in the 1980s forced the French to reconsider their stance and they have since become extremely active against ETA, including fast-track transfers of detainees to Spanish tribunals. Also ETA carried out actions against French policemen and menaced some French judges and prosecutors. A number of ETA members have been captured on French soil; some are serving sentences in France and others have been extradited to Spain to stand trial.
Several ETA members were [[death penalty|executed]] during the Franco era. During the post-Franco 1970s and the 1980s, ETA members and its suspected supporters were the target of right-wing violence and violence by government agents such as [[GAL]], whose actions not only ETA and their supporters but such observers as the [[BBC]] have characterized as "[[state terrorism]]".[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/168958.stm]
ETA members frequently allege torture at the hands of the Guardia Civil (Civil Guard). While these claims are hard to verify, it should be noted that most convictions are based on confessions obtained while prisoners are held "[[incommunicado]]" without access to a private lawyer or other advocate and that these confessions are routinely repudiated during trials as having been extracted under torture. While there have been some successful prosecutions of torturers after long delays, the penalties are usually light and co-conspirators and enablers have rarely been sanctioned. From the US State Department report on Human Rights in Spain 1994, "In December 1993 the Supreme Court overturned the appeals of five former members of the Civil Guard convicted in 1990 of torturing the father of a suspected ETA member in 1981. The perpetrators received 6-month prison terms and 7 years on probation. Others implicated in the crime or its coverup received probation or reprimands".
ETA considers its prisoners [[political prisoner]]s. Until 2003 {{ref|BastaYaLD}}, ETA consequently forbade them to ask penal authorities for progression to ''tercer grado'', a regime allowing day or weekend [[furlough]]s, or [[parole]]. Before that date, progressing prisoners were expelled from the group.
The second arm of the Spanish Government's campaign against ETA has been to target its social support. This has taken the form of banning Herri Batasuna and its successor parties, imprisoning its leaders for not condeming ETA's armed struggle, closing Herri Batasuna's party pubs that served as a social locus for the Basque left, closing the newspaper ''Egin'' and imprisoning the editor of its investigative unit (who, perhaps coincidentally, led the investigation that brought down the head of the Guardia Civil, Enrique Galindo, for corruption). The [[Spanish Supreme Court]] and the tribunals in Europe have validated the actions of the government against ETA's support net. The pubs that were closed collected money for ETA and were in some cases used to store weapons. Many imprisoned members of HB or Jarrai had dual membership in ETA and its political branches, sentenced for assisting in ETA attacks or collecting ETA's blackmail.
==Structure==
ETA is organized into distinct ''talde'' ("groups"), whose objective is to conduct operations in a specific geographic zone; collectively, they are coordinated by the ''cúpula militar'' ("military [[cupola]]"). In ad |
Lao Sung]] - [[China]], [[Vietnam]], [[Laos]]
*[[Lao Theung]] - [[Laos]]
*[[Lao]] - southeast [[Asia]]
*[[Latino]] - Mixed native [[South America|South]] or [[Central America]]n, [[Spain|Spanish]] or [[Portugal|Portuguese]], and [[Africa]]n
*[[Latvians]] - [[Baltic people]] of [[northeastern Europe]]
*[[lavae]]
*[[Laven]]
*[[Lavi]]
*[[Lazoi]]
* [[:Category:Ethnic Lebanese|Ethnic Lebanese]]
*[[Lebou]]
*[[Lemko|Lemkos]] - mountain people of [[Central Europe]]
*[[Lenca]]
*[[Lezgins|Lezgis]] - [[Dagestan]]i
*[[Lhoba]]
*[[Li Chinese]]
*[[Limbu]]s
*[[Lipovans]] - [[Danube Delta]], [[Romania]]
*[[Lisu]]
*[[Lithuanians]] - [[Baltic people]] of [[northeastern Europe]]
*[[Livonian people|Livonians]] - [[Finnic]] people in [[Latvia]], [[northeastern Europe]]
*[[Lobi]]
*[[Lo Lo]]
*[[Lotuko]]
*[[Low German]] - Northern [[Germany]]
*[[Lu (ethnic group)|Lu]]
*[[Lue]]
*[[Luiseno]]
*[[Lumbee]]
*[[Lummi]]
*[[Luo]]
*[[Lusitanian]]
==M==
*[[M'Baka]]
*[[Ma]]
*[[Macedonian Slavs]] - [[Slavic people]] of [[southeastern Europe]]
*[[Macuxi]]
*[[Madurese]]
*[[Magar]]
*[[Mahican]] - [[Native Americans in the United States|Native Americans]] from [[New England]]
*[[Maidu]]
*Maingtha - see [[Achang]]
*[[Maka-Njem]] - people of southern [[Cameroon]]
*[[Makah]]
*[[Makua]]
*[[Makong]]
*[[Malabo]]
*[[Malayalee]] People of Kerala State, South India
*[[Malay people|Malay]] - dominant ethnic group in south-east Asia specifically [[Malaysia]], Indonesia, Brunei and the Philippines.
*[[Maliseet]]
*[[Malta|Maltese]] - syncretist group in the [[Mediterranean]]
*[[Mam]] - a Maya people of [[Guatemala]]
*[[Manchu]] - [[Manchuria]], now part of [[China]], north of [[Korea]]
*[[Mandan]]
*[[Mang]]
*[[Manx]] - indigenous people of the [[Isle of Man]]
*[[Maonan]]
*[[Mapuche]]
*[[Maratha]] - People of [[Western]] [[India]], formerly emperors of undivided [[India]]
*[[Maricopa]]
*[[Marquesan|Marquesas]] - [[Polynesia]]n island chain in the Eastern [[Pacific]]
*[[Mars|Martians]]
*[[Martinique|Martiniquais]]
*[[Māori]] - indigenous people of [[New Zealand]]
*[[Mashantucket Pequots]] - [[Native Americans in the United States|Native Americans]] of [[New England]]
*[[Mattaponi]]
*[[Matabele]] - [[Southern Africa]]
*[[Maubere]]
*[[Maya peoples|Maya]] - collective term for diverse groups of indigenous peoples of south-east [[Mexico]] and northern [[Central America]], widespread
*[[Me-Wuk]]
*[[Megleno-Romanians]] - in [[Greece]]
*[[Meherrin]]
*[[Melungeon]]
*[[Memon]] - [[India]] and [[Pakistan]]
*[[Menba]]
*[[Menominee]] - Eastern [[United States]] [[Native Americans in the United States|Native American]]
*[[Mentawai]] - [[Mentawai Islands]], [[West Sumatra]], [[Indonesia]]
*[[Métis people (Canada)|Métis]]
*[[Miami (ethnic group)|Miami]]
*[[Miao]]
*[[Miccosukee]] - Eastern [[United States]] [[Native Americans in the United States|Native American]]
*[[Middle Eastern]] - [[Assyrian people|Assyrian]] [[Jewish]] [[Arabs|Arabic]] [[Turkish people|Turkish]] [[Kurdish people|Kurdish]] [[Persians]]
*[[Mi'kmaq]] - Eastern [[United States]] and [[Atlantic Canada]] [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Native American]]
*[[Meenas|Mina]]
*[[Minahasa]] - [[Indonesia]]
*[[Minangkabau]] - [[West Sumatra]], [[Indonesia]]
*[[Mingo (tribe)|Mingo]]
*[[Mission (people)|Mission]]
*[[Miwok]]
*[[Mixtec]] - [[Central America]]n natives
*[[Mnong]]
*[[Modoc]]
*[[Mohave]] - [[Native Americans in the United States|Native Americans]] of the southwest [[United States]]
*[[Mohawk nation|Mohawk]] - Eastern [[United States]] [[Native Americans in the United States|Native American]]
* [[Mohegan]]
*[[Moldovan]] - ethnic group that lives mainly in the [[Republic of Moldova]] and [[Ukraine]]
*[[Mon (ethnic group)|Mon]] - southeast [[Asia]], particularly [[Thailand]]
*[[Monacan]] - [[Native Americans in the United States|Native American]] ethnic group from the Eastern [[United States]], not to be confused with a person from [[Monaco]]
*[[Mongol]] - Central [[Asia]], between [[Russia]] and [[China]]
*[[Mono tribe|Mono]] - [[Native Americans in the United States|Native Americans]] from [[Eastern California]] and [[Nevada]]
*[[Montaukett]]
*[[Montenegrins (people)|Montenegrin]] - Slavicized descendants of the [[Dinaric race|Dinaric]] peoples of [[southeastern Europe]]
*[[Moors|Moor]] - people living mainly in Western Sahara and the Islamic Republic of Mauritania, from which the latter country derives its name.
*[[Moriori]] - indigenous ethnic-group of the [[Chatham Islands]], [[New Zealand]]
*[[Muckleshoot]]
*[[Mulam]]
*[[Munda people|Munda]]s
*[[Muong]]
*[[Mursi]]
*[[Museu]]
*[[Myene]]
==N==
*[[Nahanni]]
*[[Namaqua]]
*[[Nansemond]]
*[[Narragansett (tribe)|Narragansett]] - natives of [[New England]]
*[[Nauru]]an - [[Micronesia]]n group of islands in the [[Pacific Ocean]]
*[[Navajo Nation|Navajo]] - [[Native Americans in the United States|Native Americans]] of the southwest [[United States]]
*[[Naxi]]
*[[Ndau]]
*[[Nepal]]ese - south [[Asia]], between [[India]] and [[China]]
*[[Nespelim]]
* [[Neapolitan|Neapolitans]] - Specifically people from the Campania region of Italy but generally any southern Italian
*[[Nevis|Nevisian]]
*[[Newar]]
*[[Nez Percé]] - [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Native Americans]] of the [[Rocky Mountains]] area
*Ngac'ang - See [[Achang]]
*[[Ngae]]
*[[Nhahuen]]
*[[Nhuon]]
*[[Ni-Vanuatu]] - of [[Vanuatu]], an island chain in the [[Pacific Ocean]]
*[[Niominka]]
*[[Nipmuc]]
*[[Nishka]]
*[[Nisqually (tribe)|Nisqually]]
*[[Niue]]an - [[Polynesia]]n island in the [[Pacific Ocean]]
*[[Nogay|Nogais]] - [[Tatars]] of [[Dagestan]]
*[[Nomlaki]]
*[[Nooksack]] - [[Native Americans in the United States|Native Americans]] of [[Washington (state)|Washington]]
*[[Nu people|Nu]]
*[[Nu|N/u]] or [[Khomani]]
*[[Nubians]] - an African people native to the upper [[Nile Valley]], between Egypt and Sudan
*[[Nung]]
*[[Nuu-chah-nulth]] - [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Native Americans]] of the pacific northwest of [[North America]].
==O==
*[[O Du]]
*[[Occitan]]s
*[[Oglala]] - [[Native Americans in the United States|Native Americans]] of the central [[United States]]
*[[Ojibwa]]
*[[Okamba]]
*[[Okande]]
*[[Olmec]]
*[[Omaha (ethnic group)|Omaha]]
*[[Oneida]]
*[[Onondangua]]
*[[Orkney Island]]ers - people from Great Britain's Orkney Islands
*[[Oromo]] - [[Ethiopia]]
*[[Oroqin]]
*[[Osage Nation]] of Oklahoma (formerly also of Missouri, Kansas, and Arkansas)
*[[Ossetians]] - [[Iranian language|Iranian]] speaking people of the [[Caucasus]]
*[[Otoe-Missouria]]
*[[Ottawa (ethnic group)|Ottawa]]
*[[Ovambo]]
==P==
*[[Pa Then]]
*[[Paiute]]
*[[Pākehā]] - Caucasian New Zealanders with no or little defined European links, typically of British, Irish and Dutch extraction
*[[Pakoh]]
*[[Palestinian]] - much-disputed ethnic group of the [[Middle East]]
*[[Pamunkey]]
*[[Panoan]]
*[[Parsi]] - original native name for [[Persians]] (also used in [[India]] to refer to its Persian community)
*[[Pashtun]] (Pathan) - large group inhabiting [[Afghanistan]] and [[Pakistan]] (with smaller communities in [[Iran]] and [[India]]) who have mixed [[Indo-Aryans|Indo-Aryan]], [[Persians|Persian]]/[[Iranian peoples|Iranian]], [[Turkic peoples|Turkic]], [[Kurdish people|Kurdish]], [[Mediterranean]], [[Mongol]] and [[Central Asian]] descent
*[[Passamaquoddy]]
*[[Patagonia]]n - southern tip of [[South America]], [[Argentina]]
*[[Pataxo]]
*[[Paugusset]]
*[[Pawnee]] - Eastern [[United States]] [[Native Americans in the United States|Native American]]
*[[Plain sects|Pennsylvania Dutch]] - members of [[Plain sects]] who conduct religious services in Pennsylvania German, a dialect very similar to the German spoken in the lower Rhine area, from which they came.
*[[Pennsylvania Dutch|Pennsylvania German]] - people of many religious affiliations whose families were formerly Pennsylvania Dutch. Called Pennsylvania Dutch by some.
*[[Penobscot]] - Eastern [[United States]] [[Native Americans in the United States|Native American]]
*[[Peoria (ethnic group)|Peoria]]
*[[Persians]] - ([[Persian language|Persian]]) speaking [[Iranian peoples]] in [[Iran]], [[Afghanistan]], [[Tajikistan]], [[Uzbekistan]] and other parts of the [[Caucasus]] and [[Central Asia]] (linguistically belong to the [[Aryan]]/[[Indo-Iranian]] branch).
*[[Phong]]
*[[Phu La]]
*[[Phu Noi]]
*[[Phu Thai]]
*[[Piegan]]
*[[Pima]]
*[[Pit River Indians]]
*[[Pitcairn-Norfolk]]
*[[Poles|Polish]] - [[Slavic people]] of Central [[Europe]]
*[[Pomaks]] - [[Slavic Muslim]] [[Bulgarians]] found in [[Bulgaria]],[[Turkey]] and [[Greece]]
*[[Pomo]]
*[[Ponca]]
*[[Poospatuck]]
*[[Portuguese people|Portuguese]] - extreme southwest of [[Europe]]
*[[Potawatomi]] - Eastern [[United States]] [[Native Americans in the United States|Native American]]
*[[Potiguara]]
*[[Powhatan]] - Eastern [[United States]] [[Native Americans in the United States|Native American]]
*[[Proto-Indo-Europeans]] - pre-historic speakers of the hypothetical [[Proto-Indo-European language]]
*[[Pu Peo]]
*[[Pueblo people]] - [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Native Americans]] of the [[Rocky Mountains]]-area
*[[Puelche]]
*[[Puget Sound Salish]] - of [[Washington (US state)|Washington]]
*[[Punjabi]] - [[Indo-Aryans|Indo-Aryan]] group inhabiting the [[Punjab region|Punjab]], located between [[India]] and [[Pakistan]]
*[[Pumi]]
*[[Puyallup (tribe)|Puyallup]]
==Q==
*[[Qashqai]]
*[[Quahatika]]
*[[Quapaw]]
*[[Quechan]]
*[[Qiang]]
*[[Quiché]]
*[[Quileute]]
*[[Quinault]]
==R==
*[[Ra Glai]]
*[[Rais]]
*[[Ramapough Mountain Indians]]
*[[Rappahannock]] - of the mid-Atlantic region of the [[United States]]
*[[Rashaida]] - minority group in [[Sudan]], closely related to the [[Bedouin]]
*[[Ro Mam]]
*[[Rohingya]] - Muslim minority group in North western [[Myanmar]]
*[[Roma people|Roma]] - one of the two groups more commonly known as Gypsies, who are of [[North Indian]]/[[Indo-Aryans|Indo-Aryan]] descent
*[[Romanians|Romanian]] - [[Eastern Europe]]an
*[[Russians|Russian]] - [[Slavic people]] of [[eastern Europe]], originally of [[Moscow]] are |
ion]] with a 5 % [[election threshold]]. The [[Senate of the Czech Republic|Senate]] (''Senát'') has 81 members, in single-seat [[constituency|constituencies]] elected by two-round [[runoff voting]] for a six-year term, with one third renewed every even year in the autumn.
After the split of the former [[Czechoslovakia]], the powers and responsibilities of the now defunct federal parliament were transferred to the Czech National Council, which renamed itself the Chamber of Deputies. Chamber delegates are elected for 4-year terms on the basis of [[proportional representation]] with 5% [[election threshold]]. There are 14 voting districts identical to the country's administrative regions.
The Czech Senate was first elected in 1996; its members serve for 6-year terms with one-third being elected every 2 years. This is patterned after the [[United States Senate|U.S. Senate]] but each constituency is of (roughly) same size and the system used is two-round [[runoff voting]]. The Senate is unpopular among the public and suffers from low election turnout (as low as 10 per cent in some districts).
==Political parties and elections==
{{elect|List of political parties in the Czech Republic|Elections in the Czech Republic}}
{{Czech legislative election, 2002}}
{{Czech senate election, 2004}}
==Judicial branch==
The country's highest court of appeals is the [[Supreme Court]]. The Constitutional Court, which rules on constitutional issues, is appointed by the president, and its 15 members serve 10-year terms.
==Administrative divisions==
The Czech Republic is divided in 14 [[Regions of the Czech Republic|Regions]] including the capital of Prague. The older 73 districts (okresy, singular - okres) and 4 municipalities* (města, singular - město) have been disbanded in an ill-executed administrative reform; however are still traditionally recognized and remain the seats of various branches of state administration:
[[Benešov]], [[Beroun]], [[Blansko]], [[Břeclav]], [[Brno]]-město*, Brno-venkov, [[Bruntál]], [[České Budějovice]], [[Česká Lípa]], [[Český Krumlov]], [[Cheb]], [[Chomutov]], [[Chrudim]], [[Děčín]], [[Domažlice]], [[Frýdek-Místek]], [[Havlíčkův Brod]], [[Hodonín]], [[Hradec Králové]], [[Jablonec nad Nisou]], [[Jeseník]], [[Jičín]], [[Jihlava]], [[Jindřichův Hradec]], [[Karlovy Vary]], [[Karviná]], [[Kladno]], [[Klatovy]], [[Kolín]], [[Kroměříž]], [[Kutná Hora]], [[Liberec]], [[Litoměřice]], [[Louny]], [[Mělník]], [[Mladá Boleslav]], [[Most]], [[Náchod]], [[Nový Jičín]], [[Nymburk]], [[Olomouc]], [[Opava]], [[Ostrava]]*, [[Pardubice]], [[Pelhřimov]], [[Písek]], [[Plzeň]]*, Plzeň-jih, Plzeň-sever, [[Prachatice]], [[Prague|Praha]]*, Praha-Východ, Praha-Západ, [[Přerov]], [[Příbram]], [[Prostějov]], [[Rakovník]], [[Rokycany]], [[Rychnov nad Kněžnou]], [[Semily]], [[Sokolov]], [[Strakonice]], [[Šumperk]], [[Svitavy]], [[Tábor]], [[Tachov]], [[Teplice]], [[Trutnov]], [[Třebíč]], [[Uherské Hradiště]], [[Ústí nad Labem]], [[Ústí nad Orlicí]], [[Vsetín]], [[Vyškov]], [[Žďár nad Sázavou]], [[Zlín]], [[Znojmo]]
==International organization participation==
The Czech Republic is member of [[Australia Group]], [[Bank for International Settlements|BIS]], [[Council of Europe|CE]], [[CEI]], [[CERN]], [[Euro-Atlantic Partnership Council|EAPC]], [[European Bank for Reconstruction and Development|EBRD]], [[United Nations Economic Commission for Europe|ECE]], [[European Union|EU]] (among the 10 new members since May 2004), [[Food and Agriculture Organization|FAO]], [[International Atomic Energy Agency|IAEA]], [[World Bank|IBRD]], [[International Civil Aviation Organization|ICAO]], [[International Confederation of Free Trade Unions|ICFTU]], [[International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement|ICRM]], [[International Development Association|IDA]], [[International Energy Agency|IEA]] (observer), [[International Finance Corporation|IFC]], [[International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies|IFRCS]], [[International Labour Organization|ILO]], [[International Monetary Fund|IMF]], [[International Maritime Organization|IMO]], [[Inmarsat]], [[International Telecommunications Satellite Organization|Intelsat]], [[International Criminal Police Organization - Interpol|Interpol]], [[International Olympic Committee|IOC]], [[International Organisation for Migration|IOM]], [[International Organization for Standardization|ISO]], [[International Telecommunication Union|ITU]], [[NATO]], [[Nuclear Energy Agency|NEA]], [[Nuclear Suppliers Group|NSG]], OAS (observer), [[Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development|OECD]], [[Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons|OPCW]], [[Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe|OSCE]], [[Permanent Court of Arbitration|PCA]], [[Partnership for Peace|PFP]], [[United Nations|UN]], [[United Nations Conference on Trade and Development|UNCTAD]], [[United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization|UNESCO]], [[United Nations Industrial Development Organization|UNIDO]], [[United Nations Mission in Kosovo|UNMIK]], [[United Nations Mission of Observers in Prevlaka|UNMOP]], [[United Nations Mission of Observers in Tajikistan|UNMOT]], [[United Nations Observer Mission in Georgia|UNOMIG]], [[Universal Postal Union|UPU]], [[Visegrád group]], [[World Customs Organization|WCO]], [[Western European Union|WEU]] (associate), [[World Federation of Trade Unions|WFTU]], [[World Health Organization|WHO]], [[World Intellectual Property Organization|WIPO]], [[World Meteorological Organization|WMO]], [[World Tourism Organization|WToO]], [[World Trade Organization|WTrO]], [[Zangger Committee]]
==External links==
http://www.volby.cz/ - website with results of all elections in Czech and English
[[Category:Politics of the Czech Republic]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Economy of the Czech Republic</title>
<id>5849</id>
<revision>
<id>40055635</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-17T20:33:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Pavel Vozenilek</username>
<id>87110</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>rvv</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{cleanup-date|October 2005}}
{| border=1 cellspacing=0 cellpadding=4 width=300 style="float:right; border:1px solid gray; border-collapse:collapse; font-size:90%; margin:0 0 .5em 1em;"
!align="center" bgcolor="lightblue" colspan="3"|<big>Economy of the Czech Republic</big>
|-
!align="left" valign="top"|Currency
|colspan="2" valign="top"|1 [[Czech koruna]] (Kč)
|-
!align="left" valign="top"|Fiscal year
|colspan="2" valign="top"|calendar year
|-
!align="left" valign="top"|Trade organizations
|colspan="2" valign="top"|[[EU]], [[WTO]] and [[OECD]]
|-
!align="center" bgcolor="lightblue" colspan="3"|Statistics
|-
!align="left" valign="top"|[[Gross domestic product|GDP]] ranking
|colspan="2" valign="top"|[[List of countries by GDP (nominal)|39th]] by nominal volume; [[List of countries by GDP (nominal) per capita|39th]] by nominal volume per capita; [[List of countries by GDP (PPP)|41st]] by volume adjusted for [[Purchasing Power Parity|PPP]]; [[List of countries by GDP (PPP) per capita|40th]] per capita adjusted for PPP (2004)
|-
!align="left" valign="top"|GDP PPP
|colspan="2" valign="top"|$187.5 billion (2004)
|-
!align="left" valign="top"|GDP growth rate
|colspan="2" valign="top"|4.7% (2004)
|-
!align="left" valign="top"|GDP per capita
|colspan="2" valign="top"|$19,488 (2005 est.)
|-
!align="left" valign="top"|GDP by sector
|colspan="2" valign="top"|agriculture (3.4%), industry (39.3%), services (57.3%) (2004)
|-
!align="left" valign="top"|[[Inflation]] rate
|colspan="2" valign="top"|1.9% (2005 est.)
|-
!align="left" valign="top"|Pop below [[poverty line]]
|colspan="2" valign="top"|N/A
|-
!align="left" valign="top"|Labour force
|colspan="2" valign="top"|5.25m (2004)
|-
!align="left" valign="top"|Labour force by occupation
|colspan="2" valign="top"|services (58%), industry (38%), agriculture (4%) (2002)
|-
!align="left" valign="top"|[[Unemployment]]
|colspan="2" valign="top"|8.3% (2004)
|-
!align="left" valign="top"|Main industries
|colspan="2" valign="top"|[[motor vehicles]] and parts, machine tools, [[electric power]] equipment, [[metals]], [[chemicals]], [[coal]], [[food processing]], [[glass]], [[beverages]], [[tourism]]
|-
!align="center" bgcolor="lightblue" colspan="3"|Trading partners
|-
!align="left" valign="top"|Exports
|colspan="2" valign="top"|$66.5bn (2004)
|-
!align="left" valign="top"|Main partners
|colspan="2" valign="top"|[[Germany]] 36.1%, [[Slovakia]] 8.4%, [[Austria]] 6%, [[Poland]] 5.3%, [[UK]] 4.7%, [[France]] 4.7%, [[Italy]] 4.3%, [[Netherlands]] 4.3% (2004)
|-
!align="left" valign="top"|Imports
|colspan="2" valign="top"|$68.2bn (2004)
|-
!align="left" valign="top"|Main partners
|colspan="2" valign="top"|[[Germany]] 31.7%, [[Slovakia]] 5.4%, [[Italy]] 5.3%, [[China]] 5.2%, [[Poland]] 4.8%, [[France]] 4.8%, [[Russia]] 4.1% (2004)
|-
!align="center" bgcolor="lightblue" colspan="3"|Public finances
|-
!align="left" valign="top"|Public debt
|colspan="2" valign="top" |
rickety flats of the [[Subura]]).
He built
*a new home or [[Curia]] for the Senate
*the [[Forum of Augustus]]
*new temples to
**[[Apollo]]
**Divine Julius
**[[Temple of Mars Ultor|Mars Ultor]] in his new [[Forum of Augustus|forum]]
*a shrine near the [[Circus Maximus]].
He restored
*the [[Capitoline Temple]]
*the Theater of [[Pompey]]
These are recorded as his projects, but his name was deliberately uncredited.
He also encouraged others to carry out building projects, such as [[Lucius Cornelius Balbus (minor)]] and the [[Museo Nazionale Romano#Crypta Balbi|Crypta Balbi]].
===Economic policy===
Roman rulers understood little about [[economics]], and Augustus was no exception. Like all the Emperors, he overtaxed agriculture and spent the revenue on armies, temples, and games. However, wages and prices moved freely and allowed efficient markets to operate. When the Empire stopped expanding, and had no more loot coming in from conquests, its economy began to stagnate and eventually decline. The reign of Augustus is thus seen in some ways as the high point of Rome's power and prosperity. Augustus settled retired soldiers on the land in an effort to revive agriculture, but the capital remained dependent on grain imports from Egypt.
===Religious reforms===
Augustus also strongly supported worship of [[Roman gods]], especially [[Apollo]], and depicted Roman defeat of Egypt as Roman gods defeating [[Egyptian mythology|Egypt's]].
===Harking back to Rome's heritage===
He sponsored Virgil's [[Aeneid]] in the hopes that it would increase pride in Roman heritage (one of the titles he had refused in favour of Augustus was [[Romulus]], as a 'second founder' of Rome).
===His own image===
[[Image:ac.augustus.jpg|left|thumb|200px|Bronze statue of Augustus, Archaeological Museum, Athens]]
[[Image:Statue-Augustus.jpg|right|thumb|250px|The 'Prima Porta Augustus'([[Vatican Museums]])]]
He made a concerted campaign to have a standard version of his image reproduced throughout the empire as a focus of loyalty and, sometimes, [[Imperial cult (Ancient Rome)#From Julius Caesar to Hadrian|worship]]. Even when he was old, he was portrayed this way. As a result, his image is the most recognizable of all the emperors in museums across the world, including
* *[[British Museum]] (eg head from [[Meroe]][http://www.thebritishmuseum.ac.uk/compass/ixbin/hixclient.exe?_IXDB_=compass&_IXSR_=df9&_IXSS_=_IXFPFX_%3dgraphical%252ffull%252f%26_IXNOMATCHES_%3dgraphical%252fno_matches%252ehtml%26%2524%2b%2528with%2bv2_searchable_index%2529%2bsort%3d%252e%26_IXDB_%3dcompass%26%257bUPPER%257d%253av2_free_text_tindex%3dAugustus%26_IXsearchterm%3dAugustus&_IXFIRST_=9&_IXMAXHITS_=1&_IXSPFX_=graphical/full/&_IXsearchterm=Augustus&submit-button=summary]
* *[[Museo Nazionale Romano#Palazzo Massimo]], Via Labicana type, found on the [[Via Labicana]], Augustus as a [[Pontifex Maximus]]
* *[[Vatican Museums]], Prima Porta Augustus.
See The Power of Images in the Age of Augustus, Paul Zanker.
===Moral crusade===
Augustus also launched a morality crusade, promoting marriage, family, and childbirth while discouraging luxury, unrestrained sex (including [[prostitution]] and [[homosexuality]]), and adultery. It was largely unsuccessful (indeed, his own daughter and - possibly in connection to her - Ovid were both banished due to it.)
===Cultural patronage===
As a patron of the arts, Augustus showered favors on poets, artists, sculptors, and architects. His reign is considered the Golden Age of [[Roman literature]]. [[Horace]], [[Livy]], [[Ovid]], and [[Virgil]] flourished under his protection, but in return, they had to pay tribute to his genius and adhere to his standards. (Ovid was banished from Rome for violating Augustus's morality codes.)
===Conclusion===
He eventually won over most of the Roman intellectual class, although many still pined in private for the Republic. His use of games and special events to celebrate himself and his family cemented his popularity. By the time Augustus died, a return to the old system was unimaginable. The only question was who would succeed him as sole ruler.
==Succession==
Augustus' control of power throughout the Empire was so absolute that it allowed him to name his successor, a custom that had been abandoned and derided in Rome since the foundation of the Republic. At first, indications pointed toward his sister's son [[Marcus Claudius Marcellus (Julio-Claudian dynasty)|Marcellus]], who had been married to Augustus' daughter [[Julia Caesaris]]. However, Marcellus died of food poisoning in 23 BC. Reports of later historians that this poisoning, and other later deaths, were caused by Augustus' wife [[Livia Drusilla]] are inconclusive at best.
After the death of Marcellus, Augustus married his daughter to his right hand man, [[Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa|Marcus Agrippa]]. This union produced five children, three sons and two daughters: [[Gaius Caesar]], [[Lucius Caesar]], [[Vipsania Julia]], [[Agrippina the Elder]], and [[Postumus Agrippa]], so named because he was born after Marcus Agrippa died. Augustus' intent to make the first two children his heirs was apparent when he adopted them as his own children. Augustus also showed favor to his stepsons, Livia's children from her first marriage, [[Nero Claudius Drusus Germanicus]] and [[Tiberius|Tiberius Claudius]], after they had conquered a large portion of [[Germany]].
After Agrippa died in [[12 BC]], Livia's son Tiberius divorced his own wife and married Agrippa's widow. Tiberius shared in Augustus' tribune powers, but shortly thereafter went into retirement. After the early deaths of both Gaius and Lucius in [[4|AD 4]] and [[2|AD 2]] respectively, and the earlier death of his brother Drusus ([[9 BC]]), Tiberius was recalled to Rome, where he was adopted by Augustus.
On [[August 19]], [[14|AD 14]], Augustus died. Postumus Agrippa and Tiberius had been named co-heirs. However, Postumus had been banished, and was put to death around the same time. Who ordered his death is unknown, but the way was clear for Tiberius to assume the same powers that his stepfather had.
==Augustus's legacy==
[[Image:Hw-augustus.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Portrait drawing of Augustus: a detail of the famous statue found at Prima Porta]]
Augustus was deified soon after his death, and both his borrowed surname, Caesar, and his title ''Augustus'' became the permanent titles of the rulers of Rome for the next 400 years, and were still in use at [[Constantinople]] fourteen centuries after his death. In many languages, ''caesar'' became the word for ''emperor'', as in German (''[[Kaiser|Kaiser]]''), in Dutch (''keizer''), and in Russian (''[[Tsar|tsar]]''). The cult of the Divine Augustus continued until the state religion of the Empire was changed to [[Christianity]] in the [[4th century]]. Consequently, there are many excellent statues and busts of the first, and in some ways the greatest, of the emperors. Augustus' mausoleum also originally contained bronze pillars inscribed with a record of his life, the ''[[Res Gestae Divi Augusti]]''.
Caesar Augustus is mentioned in Luke 2:1.
Many consider Augustus to be Rome's greatest emperor; his policies certainly extended the empire's life span and initiated the celebrated ''[[Pax Romana]]'' or ''Pax Augusta''. He was handsome, intelligent, decisive, and a shrewd politician, but he was not perhaps as charismatic as Julius Caesar or Marc Antony. Nevertheless, his legacy proved more enduring.
The month of [[August]] (Latin ''Augustus'') is named after Augustus; until his time it was called [[Sextilis]] (the sixth month of the [[Roman calendar]]). Commonly repeated lore has it that August has 31 days because Augustus wanted his month to match the length of Julius Caesar's [[July]], but this is an invention of the 13th-century scholar [[Johannes de Sacrobosco]]. Sextilis in fact had 31 days before it was renamed, and it was not chosen for its length (see [[Julian calendar]]).
In looking back on the reign of Augustus and its legacy to the Roman world, its longevity should not be overlooked as a key factor in its success. People were born and reached middle age without knowing any form of government other than the Principate. Had Augustus died earlier (in 23 BC, for instance), matters may have turned out differently. The attrition of the civil wars on the old Republican oligarchy and the longevity of Augustus, therefore, must be seen as major contributing factors in the transformation of the Roman state into a de facto monarchy in these years. Augustus' own experience, his patience, his tact, and his political acumen also played their parts. He directed the future of the empire down many lasting paths, from the existence of a standing professional army stationed at or near the frontiers, to the dynastic principle so often employed in the imperial succession, to the embellishment of the capital at the emperor's expense. Augustus' ultimate legacy was the peace and prosperity the empire enjoyed for the next two centuries under the system he initiated. His memory was enshrined in the political ethos of the Imperial age as a paradigm of the good emperor, and although every emperor adopted his name, Caesar Augustus, only a handful, such as [[Trajan]], earned genuine comparison with him. His reign laid the foundations of a regime that lasted for 250 years.
==Augustus in popular culture==
In the [[Home Box Office|HBO]] television series "[[Rome (TV series)|Rome]]", young Octavian is portrayed by [[Max Pirkis]].
Augustus was ranked #18 on [[Michael H. Hart]]'s [[The 100|list of the most influential figures in history]].
Augustus was portrayed in the famous [[BBC]] [[miniseries]] [http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0074006/?fr=c2l0ZT1kZnx0dD0xfGZiPXV8cG49MHxrdz0xfHE9SSBjbGF1ZGl1c3xmdD0xfG14PTIwfGxtPTUwMHxjbz0xfGh0bWw9MXxubT0x;fc=1;ft=21;fm=1 ''I, Claudius''] by [http://www.imdb.com/name/nm0000306/ Brian Blessed]. (1975)
|
emplacement, in deference to the Assyrian king.
*'''The story of the [[Lost Ten Tribes]]''' (2 Kings 17:1-41 and 18:9-12) After taking control of what remained of Israel, Hoshea is forced to become a vassal of the Assyrians, due to aggressive behaviour by [[Shalmaneser V]] (unnumbered in the Bible). However, Hoshea resents this, and not only fails to send the annual tribute to Assyria, but also sends envoys to [[Sais]], the Egyptian king, for help. In consequence, Shalmaneser occupies Israel and besieges Samaria for three years. Samaria falls to [[Sargon II]] (the new king of Assyria after Shalmaneser dies during the siege, though the Bible does not indicate this, and refers to him simply as ''the king of Assyria'' without acknowledging that this is not Shalmaneser), and the nine tribes of Israel are completely deported to other regions of the Assyrian empire, becoming the ''Lost Ten Tribes'' (tradition considers there to be ten lost tribes, though Israel contained only nine). The writer remarks that the exile of Israel is punishment for it following heathen practices. Sargon uses other Assyrian people to populate the now fairly empty Israel, and they worship their own gods, though Sargon sends a few Israelite priests back to teach the Israelite religion, which becomes regarded by the new population [[polytheism|polytheistically]].
*'''The story of [[Hezekiah's reform]]''' (2 Kings 16:20b, and 18:1-6) The son of Ahaz, [[Hezekiah]], succeeds him as king of Judah, and institutes a far reaching religious reform, centralising the religion to the temple at Jerusalem. In [[iconoclasm|iconoclastic]] pursuit of the reform, Hezekiah destroyed the high places, pillars, and Asherah, as well as the [[Nehustan]], which Moses himself is alleged to have created.
*'''An account of the [[Assyrian Siege of Jerusalem]]''' (2 Kings 18:13-19:37, and 20:20b) - Hezekiah rebels against Assyria and partially subjugates the land of the Philistines. However, [[Sennacherib]], the king of Assyria, captures several cities in Judah, and so Hezekiah uses the temple funds, even breaking up the gold plated doors, to pay tribute to Sennacherib. Sennacherib conveys to Hezekiah the message that Egypt is too weak to help Judah, and dares him to attack the weakest cavalry of the Assyrian army, even offering to supply the horses for Judah to do so. Sennacherib offers a peaceful outcome, but the people of Judah respond with a wall of silence, as Hezekiah has ordered them. Sennacherib is briefly forced to back off for a moment in order to battle the Ethiopians that have launched an attack upon him, and so sends Hezekiah a taunting letter instead. Apparantly by way of preparation for any siege, Hezekiah constructs a [[Pool of Siloam|conduit and pool providing water to Jerusalem]]. Hezekiah sends a taunting letter back, and is comforted by [[Isaiah]] who prophecies that Judah is in Yahweh's favour owing to Hezekiah's reforms, and the Assyrians will not be able to besiege Jerusalem. That night an angel kills 185 thousand men of the Assyrian army, and the survivors return to Assyria as a result (in direct contradiction to [[Taylor Prism|the Assyrian account]] which states that Jerusalem was besieged, Hezekiah surrenders and pays tribute, and the Assyrians, now much richer, leave victoriously). Fulfilling Isaiah's prophecy of divine retribution (or simply fulfilling the internal politics of Assyria), Sennacherib is killed by two of his own sons, and a third becomes king in his place.
*'''The story of [[Hezekiah's shadow]]''' (2 Kings 20:1-20a, and 20:20c-21a): Isaiah visits Hezekiah on his deathbed to tell him to prepare for death, but when Hezekiah prays that his faithfulness will be remembered by Yahweh, Yahweh instructs Isaiah that 15 years have just been added to Hezekiah's life. Consequently, Isaiah gets a [[poultice]] to apply to Hezekiah's boil, and Hezekiah miraculously recovers. At Isaiah's instigation, Yahweh causes the shadow on Ahaz's sundial (early translations into English instead have ''Hezekiah's shadow on Ahaz's steps'') to suddenly and noticably extend backwards by an extra ten measures. [[Merodach-baladan]], the son of the Babylonian king, sends get-well gifts to Hezekiah, and so, from politeness, Hezekiah shows the Merodach-baladan's messengers his treasures. Isaiah prophecies that having seen the treasure, Babylon's greed will cause them to invade and take it away, and deport the people at the same time.
*'''The story of [[Manasseh of Judah|Manasseh]]''' (2 Kings 20:21b-21:23 and 21:25-26a) - Manasseh, son of Hezekiah, becomes the next king, and completely reverts Hezekiah's religious changes, which the writer blames for the later destruction of Judah by Babylon. The story of Manasseh is abridged at this point, though the [[Book of Chronicles]] records that Hezekiah was taken prisoner by the Babylonians, and treated so badly that, when released, he was a reformed man. Many copies of the [[vulgate]] translation additionally record a [[Prayer of Manasseh]] which supposedly records Manasseh's repentance. After his death, his penitance is shown to be in vain when his son, Amon, perpetuates the rejection of Hezekiah's reform, and refuses to repent. However, Amon becomes the victim of a conspiracy when he is killed by his own servants.
*'''The story of [[Josiah]]''' 2 Kings 21:24, and 21:26b-23:30a - A counter-conspiracy results in Josiah, son of Amon, being placed on the throne of Judah. During his godly reign, Josiah institutes repairs of the temple, during which the chief priest, [[Hilkiah]], discovers a ''book of the law''. This newly discovered book is verified as genuine by the prophetess [[Huldah]], and the penitent Josiah vows to enact all the newly discovered [[mitzvah]] within it (most scholars, both critical and apologetic, view the book as an early version of [[deuteronomy]], for which reason, Josiah's reform is often referred to as the ''deuteronomic reform''). According to the narrative, no king before Josiah was ever as devout or fulfilled all of the [[torah]], and Josiah is particularly zealous about his [[iconoclasm]]. [[Necho II]] leads an Egyptian army to join that of Assyria in attacking Babylon, and Josiah rides out and meets Necho at the [[Battle of Meggido (609 BC)|Battle of Meggido]], but is killed.
*'''The story of [[Jehoiakim]]''' (2 Kings 23:30b-24:6a and 24:7) - The people appoint [[Jehoahaz]], a son of Josiah, as the king in place of Josiah, but Necho imprisons Jehoahaz, and deports him. Necho appoints another son of Josiah as the new king, who duly changes his name to Jehoiakim. Jehoiakim taxes the land to give tribute to Necho, but the land is soon attacked by [[Nebudchadnezzar]], the [[Babylon]]ian king. Easily defeated, Jehoiakim becomes the vassal of Babylon rather than Egypt, and the Babylonian empire reaches to the border of Egypt, so Egypt makes no further attempt to dominate the region. However, three years later, Jehoiakim rebels, and raiders from the surrounding nations are sent by Nebuchadnezzar to attack Judah. Though the account of Jehoiakim is somewhat abridged and goes no further in the Book of Kings, an account of his rebellion, Nebuchadnezzar's response, and Jehoiakim's violent death at the hands of his own people, is present in the [[Book of Jeremiah]].
*'''The story of [[Jeconiah]]''' (2 Kings 24:6b, 24:8-12, and 25:27-30) - Nebuchadnezzar appoints the son of Jehoiakim, namely Jeconiah, as the new king of Judah. Nebuchadnezzar attacks Jerusalem (for an unexplained reason) and besieges it, so Jehoniah and his court surrender and Jehoiachim is taken captive. Many decades later, [[Evil-merodach]], a later king of Babylon, releases Jehoaichin from prison, give him an allowance, and generally treats him favourably, for the rest of his days.
*'''The story of [[Zedekiah]]''' (2 Kings 24:17-25:7) - Nebuchadnezzar appoints the uncle of Jehoiachim as the new king of Judah, who duly changes his name to Zedekiah (''[[Yahweh]] is [[Zedek]]'' / ''Yahweh is righteous''). However, Zedekiah rebels, and so Nebuchadnezzar besieges Jerusalem and breaches the city walls. Although Zedekiah flees, he is captured and taken to Nebuchadnezzar, who has the sons of Zedekiah killed in front of him, and then has Zedekiah's eyes put out so that it is the last thing he has seen. Zedekiah is then bound in chains and taken to Babylon.
*'''The story of the [[Babylonian captivity]]''' (2 Kings 24:13-16 and 25:8-21) - After Jehoiachim's surrender, Nebuchadnezzar deports everyone of any worth to Babylon, including the army, the people of Jerusalem, nobles, and craftsmen, as well as the treasures of Jerusalem. Once Zedekiah's later rebellion is supressed, Nebudchadnezzar sends [[Nebuzaradan]] to Jerusalem, where he burns down the temple, palace, houses, and walls, and deports the treasures of the temple, and the population (excepting some of the poor), to Babylon. The two highest priests of the temple, a scribe, a courtiers, five personal servants to Zedekiah, and 60 people remaining in Jerusalem, are taken to Nebudchadnezzar and killed.
*'''The story of [[Gedaliah]]''' (2 Kings 25:22-26) - The few people remaining in Judah are put under the command of Gedaliah, who promises the commanders of the army of Judah that they will not be harmed as long as they remain loyal to Babylon. However, one of the commanders, of royal descent, conspires against Gedaliah, and has him killed, but the people are so afraid of what Nebuchadnezzar's reaction might be, that almost the entire population of Judah flee to Egypt.
==Authorship==
The authorship, or rather compilation, of these books is uncertain. The sources of the narrative are explicitly given as:
#The "book of the acts of Solomon" (1 Kings 11:41)
#The "book of the chronicles of the kings of Judah" (14:29; 15:7, 23, etc.)
#The "book of the chronicles of the kings of Israel" (14:19; 15:31; 16:14, 20, 27, etc.).
The date of its composition was p |
Flamsteed]], "to apply himself with the most exact care and diligence to the rectifying of the tables of the motions of the heavens, and the places of the fixed stars, so as to find out the so much desired longitude of places for the perfecting of the art of navigation."
From that time until [[1972]] the Astronomer Royal was Director of the Royal Observatory Greenwich. As Astronomer Royal he receives a [[stipend]] of £100 a year and is a member of the [[Royal Household]], under the general authority of the [[Lord Chamberlain]]. After the separation of the two offices the position of Astronomer Royal has been largely honorary, though he remains available to advise the Sovereign on astronomical and related scientific matters, and the office is of great prestige.
There was also formerly an [[Astronomer Royal for Ireland]].
== List of Astronomers Royal ==
{|
| Rev'd [[John Flamsteed]] || [[1675]] &ndash; [[1719]]
|-
| Professor [[Edmond Halley]] || [[1720]] &ndash; [[1742]]
|-
| Dr [[James Bradley]] || [[1742]] &ndash; [[1762]]
|-
| [[Nathaniel Bliss]] || [[1762]] &ndash; [[1764]]
|-
| Rev'd [[Nevil Maskelyne]] || [[1765]] &ndash; [[1811]]
|-
| [[John Pond]] || [[1811]] &ndash; [[1835]]
|-
| Sir [[George Airy | George Biddell Airy]] || [[1835]] &ndash; [[1881]]
|-
| Sir [[William Christie (astronomer)|William Christie]] || [[1881]] &ndash; [[1910]]
|-
| Sir [[Frank Dyson]] || [[1910]] &ndash; [[1933]]
|-
| Sir [[Harold Spencer Jones]] || [[1933]] &ndash; [[1955]]
|-
| Professor Sir [[Richard van der Riet Woolley]] || [[1956]] &ndash; [[1971]]
|-
| Professor Sir [[Martin Ryle]] || [[1972]] &ndash; [[1982]]
|-
| Professor Sir [[Francis Smith (astronomer)|Francis Graham-Smith]] || [[1982]] &ndash; [[1990]]
|-
| Professor Sir [[Arnold Wolfendale]] || [[1991]] &ndash; [[1995]]
|-
| [[Martin Rees]], Baron Rees of Ludlow || [[1995]] &ndash;
|}
[[Category:Astronomers]]
[[Category:Lists of British people]]
[[Category:Positions within the British Royal Household]]
[[fr:Astronomer Royal]]
[[it:Astronomo Reale]]
[[sl:Kraljevi astronom]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Aeon</title>
<id>1941</id>
<revision>
<id>41192762</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-25T18:08:05Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Tomisti</username>
<id>348887</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>[[fi:Aion]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''For the [[Geology|geologic]] word, see [[eon]]. For other uses of Aeon, see [[Aeon (disambiguation)]].''
The [[Latin]] word '''''aeon''''', also spelled '''''eon''''' or '''''æon''''', means "forever" or "for [[eternity]]". It is derived from the [[Greek language|Greek]] word αίών (''aion''), which at one point meant "a period of existence" or "life".
In [[geology]], the word [[eon (geology)|eon]] quantitatively refers to a period of time of 1,000,000,000 years. However, geologists refer to the period in which [[animal]]s evolved into abundance as the [[Phanerozoic]] Eon, which has only lasted 545 million years, to the present day.
==In philosophy and mysticism==
Occultists sometimes speak of a "magical Aeon" that may last for far less time, perhaps as little as 2,000 years. See [[Thelema]].
[[Plato]] used the word ''aeon'' to denote the eternal world of ideas, which he conceived was "behind" the perceived world, as demonstrated in his famous [[Plato's allegory of the cave|cave allegory]].
===In Gnosticism===
In many [[Gnosticism|Gnostic]] systems, the various [[emanationism|emanations]] of the [[God]], who is also known by such names as '''the One''', the [[Monad (Gnosticism)|Monad]], Aion teleos (The Perfect Aeon), [[Bythos]] (Depth or profundity, Greek Βυθος), Proarkhe (Before the Beginning, Greek προαρχη), E Arkhe (The Beginning, Greek η αρχη), are called '''aeons'''. This first being is also an æon and has an inner being within itself, known as Ennoea (Thought), Charis (Grace), or Sige (Greek Σιγη, Silence). The split perfect being conceives the second aeon, Caen (Power), within itself. Along with the male Caen comes the female æon Akhana (Truth, Love).
The aeons often came in male/female pairs called ''syzygies'', and were frequently numerous (20-30). Two of the most commonly listed æons were [[Jesus]] and [[Sophia (gnosticism)|Sophia]]. The aeons constitute the ''[[pleroma]]'', the "region of light". The lowest regions of the pleroma are closest to the darkness; that is, the physical world.
When an æon named ''Sophia'' emanates without her partner aeon, the result is the ''[[Demiurge]]'', or half-creator (Occasionaly referred to as '''Ialdaboth''' in Gnostic texts), a creature that should never have come into existence. This creature does not belong to the pleroma, and the One emanates two savior æons, ''[[Christ]]'' and ''the [[Holy Spirit]]'' to save man from the Demiurge. Christ then took the form of the man, ''Jesus'', in order to be able to teach man how to achieve [[gnosis]]; that is, return to the pleroma.
====Valentinus====
According to [[Tertullian]]'s ''Against the Valentinians'' (Latin: ''Adversus Valentinianos'') chapter VII and VIII (and we only know the details of this system from its opponents), the Gnostic [[Valentinius]] had 30 different aeons which emanate each other in sequence. The first 8 of these (corresponding to generations one through four below) is referred to as the ''Ogdoad''.
*First generation
**''Bythos'' (the One) and ''Sige'' (Silence, Charis, Ennoea etc)
*Second generation
**''Caen'' (Power) and ''Akhana'' (Love)
*Third generation, emanated from Caen and Akhana
**''Nous'' (Nus, Mind) and ''Aletheia'' (Veritas, Truth)
*Fourth generation, emanated from Nous and Aletheia
**''Sermo'' (the Word) and ''Vita'' (the Life)
*Fifth generation, emanated from Sermo and Vita
**''Anthropos'' (Homo, Man) and ''Ecclesia'' (Church)
*Sixth generation
**Emanated from Sermo and Vita:
***''Bythios'' (Profound) and ''Mixis'' (Mixture)
***''Ageratos'' (Never old) and ''Henosis'' (Union)
***''Autophyes'' (Essential nature) and ''Hedone'' (Pleasure)
***''Acinetos'' (Immovable) and ''Syncrasis'' (Commixture)
***''Monogenes'' (Only-begotten) and ''Macaria'' (Happiness)
**Emanated from Anthropos and Ecclesia
***''Paracletus'' (Comforter) and ''Pistis'' (Faith)
***''Patricas'' (Paternal) and ''Elpis'' (Hope)
***''Metricos'' (Maternal) and ''Agape'' (Love)
***''Ainos'' (Praise) and ''Synesis'' (Intelligence)
***''Ecclesiasticus'' (Son of Ecclesia) and ''Macariotes'' (Blessedness)
***''Theletus'' (Perfect) and ''Sophia'' (Wisdom)
====Ptolemy and Colorbasus====
According to [[Irenaeus|St. Irenaeus]] ''Against heresies'' (Latin: ''Adversus Haereses'') also known as ''The Detection and Overthrow of Falsely So-Called Gnosis'' book 1, chapter 12, the followers of the [[Gnosticism|Gnostics]] [[Ptolemy (Gnostic)|Ptolemy]] and [[Colorbasus]] had aeons which differ from those of [[Valentinius]]. Logos is created when Anthropos learn to speak. The first four are called the ''Tetrad'' and the eight are called the ''Ogdoad''.
*First generation
**''Bythos'' (the One) and ''Sige'' (Silence, Charis, Ennoea etc)
*Second generation (conceived by the One):
**''Caen'' (Power) and ''Akhana'' (Love)
*Third generation, emanated from Caen and Akhana:
**''Ennoae'' (Thought) and ''Thelesis'' (Will)
*Fourth generation, emanated from Ennoae and Thelesis:
**''Nous'' (or ''Monogenes'') and ''Aletheia''
*Fifth generation, emanated from Nouse and Aletheia:
**''Anthropos'' (Homo, Man) and ''Ecclesia'' (Church)
*Sixth generation, emanated from Anthropos and Ecclesia:
**''Logos'' and ''Zoe''
*Seventh generation:
**Emanated from Logos and Zoe:
***''Bythius'' and ''Mixis''
***''Ageratos'' and ''Henosis''
***''Autophyes'' and ''Hedone''
***''Acinetos'' and ''Syncrasis''
***''Monogenes'' and ''Macaria''
**Emanated from Anthropos and Ecclesia:
***''Paracletus'' and ''Pistis''
***''Patricos'' and ''Elpis''
***''Metricos'' and ''Agape''
***''Ainos'' and ''Synesis''
***''Ecclesiasticus'' and ''Macariotes''
***''Theletos'' and ''Sophia''
The order of Anthropos and Ecclesia versus Logos and Zoe are somewhat debated, different sources give different accounts. Logos and Zoe are unique to this system as compared to the previous and may be an evolved version of the first, totalling 34 æons, but it is not clear if the first two were actually regarded æons.
==See also==
*[[Plato]]
*[[Gnosticism]]
*[[Aeon (disambiguation)]]
*[[Mythology of Final_Fantasy X#Fayth and Aeons|Final Fantasy X Aeons]] are powerful beings that summoners can summon to give them aid in the battle. In [[Final Fantasy X]] only 8 Aeons are known : Valefort, Ifrit, Shiva, Ixion, Bahamut, Anima, Yojimbo and The Magus Sisters
==External links==
*[http://www.gnosis.org/library/ter_val.htm Tertullian's account against the Valentinians] is the source text for much of what we know about the Æons.
*[http://www.gmu.edu/departments/fld/CLASSICS/tertullian.valentinianos.html Corresponding text in original Latin]
*[http://www.gnosis.org/library/advh1.htm Irenaeus: Against heresies]
[[Category:Gnostic deities]]
[[Category:Gnosticism]]
[[de:Äon]]
[[pt:Aeon]]
[[fi:Aion]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Airline</title>
<id>1942</id>
<revision>
<id>41859634</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T04:56:21Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Mexaguil</username>
<id>217002</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>fixed typo</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''For other uses, see [[Airline (disambiguation)]].''
[[image:virgin.b747-400.g-vbig.arp.jpg|thumb|right|250px|A [[Boeing 747|Boeing 747-400]] belonging to [[Virgin Atlantic Airways]], one of the [[United Kingdom|UK]]'s largest airlines.]]
An '''airline''' is an organization that specializes in providing scheduled [[civil aviation |
82,904 (July 2005 est.) and is the second most densely populated of the former Soviet republics. There has been a problem of population decline due to elevated levels of [[emigration]] after the break-up of the [[USSR]]. The rates of emigration and population decline, however, have been decreasing in the recent years, a trend which is expected to continue. In fact Armenia is expected to resume its positive population growth by 2010.
Ethnic [[Armenians]] make up 97.9% of the population. [[Kurds]] make up 1.3%, and [[Russians]] 0.5%. There are smaller communities of [[Assyrians]], [[Georgians]], [[Greeks]] and [[Ukrainians]]. Most [[Azerbaijanis]], once a sizable population, have left since independence.
Nearly all of the Armenians in [[Azerbaijan]] (approximately 120,000) now live in the [[Nagorno-Karabakh]] region. Armenia has a very large [[Armenian Diaspora|diaspora]] (8 million by some estimates, greatly exceeding the 3 million population of Armenia itself), with communities existing across the globe, including [[France]], [[Lebanon]], and [[North America]].
The predominant religion in Armenia is [[Christianity]]. The roots of the [[Armenian Church]] go back to the [[1st century|1st]] century AD. According to tradition, the [[Armenian Church]] was founded by two of Jesus' twelve [[Twelve Apostles|apostle]]s--[[Saint Jude|Thaddaeus]] and [[Bartholomew]]--who preached Christianity in Armenia in the 40's-60's AD. Because of these two founding [[Twelve Apostles|apostle]]s, the official name of the [[Armenian Church]] is [[Armenian Apostolic Church]]. Armenia was the first nation to adopt Christianity as a state religion, in AD [[301]]. Over 93% of Armenian Christians belong to the [[Armenian Apostolic Church]], a form of Oriental (Non-[[Chalcedonian]]) Orthodoxy, which is a very ritualistic, conservative church, roughly comparable to the [[Coptic Church|Coptic]] and [[Syriac Orthodox Church|Syrian]] churches. Armenia also has a population of Catholics (both Roman and Mekhitarist - Armenian Uniate (180,000)), evangelical Protestantsand followers of the Armenian traditional religion. The [[Yazidi]] [[Kurds]], who live in the western part of the country, practise [[Yazidism]]. The [[Armenian Catholic Church]] is headquartered in [[Bzoummar]], [[Lebanon]].
Ethnic [[Azeris]] and [[Kurds]] who lived in the country before the [[Nagorno-Karabakh|Karabakh]] conflict practised [[Islam]], but most Azeris were driven out of Armenia into [[Azerbaijan]] between 1988 and 1991 at the beginning of the conflict. During the same period, Armenia also received a large influx of Armenians scattered throughout Azerbaijan and large number of Azeri population migrated to Azerbaijan.
== Culture ==
[[Image:Yerewan with Ararat.jpg|thumb|right|Although located in [[Turkey]], [[Mount Ararat]], here seen from Yerevan, is the national symbol of Armenia.]]
[[Image:Mother Armenia, Yerevan, Day.jpg|thumb|right|Mother Armenia (Mayr Hayastan) statue, located near Victory Park, in Yerevan.]]
{{Main|Culture of Armenia}}
Armenians have their own highly distinctive [[Armenian alphabet|alphabet]] and [[Armenian language|language]]. 96% of the people in the country speak Armenian, while 75.8% of the population speaks [[Russian language|Russian]] as well. The adult literacy rate in Armenia is 99% [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/am.html]. Most adults in Yerevan can communicate in Russian, while [[English language|English]] is increasing in popularity.
[[Caucasus|Caucasian]] hospitality is legendary and stems from ancient tradition. Social gatherings focused around sumptuous presentations of course after course of elaborately prepared, well-seasoned (but not spicy-hot) food. The host or hostess will often put morsels on a guest's plate whenever it is empty or fill his or her glass when it gets low. After a helping or two it is acceptable to refuse politely or, more simply, just leave a little uneaten food.
The National Art Gallery in Yerevan has more than 16,000 works that date back to the [[Middle Ages]]. It houses paintings by many [[European]] masters. The Modern Art Museum, the Children’s Picture Gallery, and the [[Martiros Saryan]] Museum are only a few of the other noteworthy collections of fine art on display in Yerevan. Moreover, many private galleries are in operation, with many more opening each year. They feature rotating exhibitions and sales.
The world-class [[Armenian Philharmonic Orchestra]] performs at the beautifully refurbished city Opera House, where you can also attend a full season of opera. In addition, several chamber ensembles are highly regarded for their musicianship, including the [[National Chamber Orchestra of Armenia]] and the [[Serenade Orchestra]]. Classical music can also be heard at one of several smaller venues, including the State Music Conservatory and the Chamber Orchestra Hall. [[Jazz]] is popular, especially in the summer when live performances are a regular occurrence at one of the city’s many outdoor [[cafe|cafes]].
Yerevan’s Vernisage (arts and crafts market), close to Republic Square, bustles with hundreds of vendors selling a variety of crafts, many of superb workmanship, on weekends and Wednesdays (though the selection is much reduced mid-week). The market offers woodcarving, antiques, fine lace, and the hand-knotted wool carpets and kilims that are a Caucasus specialty. Obsidian, which is found locally, is crafted into an amazing assortment of jewelry and ornamental objects. Armenian gold smithery enjoys a long and distinguished tradition, populating one corner of the market with a selection of gold items. Soviet relics and souvenirs of recent Russian manufacture—nesting dolls, watches, enamel boxes and so on, are also available at the Vernisage.
Across from the Opera House, a popular art market fills another city park on the weekends. Armenia’s long history as a crossroads of the ancient world has resulted in a landscape with innumerable fascinating archaeological sites to explore. [[Medieval]], [[Iron Age]], [[Bronze Age]] and even [[Stone Age]] sites are all within a few hours drive from the city. All but the most spectacular remain virtually undiscovered, allowing visitors to view churches and fortresses in their original settings.
The American University of Armenia has graduate programs in Business and Law, among others. The institution owes its existence to the combined efforts of the Government of Armenia, the [[Armenian General Benevolent Union]], USAID, and the Boalt Hall School of Law at the [[University of California, Berkeley]].
The extension programs and the library at AUA form a new focal point for English-language intellectual life in the city. Many of the country’s most successful young entrepreneurs are graduates of this institution.
== See also ==
*[[Artsakh]]
*[[Armenian people]]
*[[Armenian Genocide]]
*[[First Republic of Armenia]]
*[[Castles of Armenia]]
*[[Hayastani Azgayin Scautakan Sharjum Kazmakerputiun]] - the Armenian National Scout Movement
*[[Nagorno-Karabakh]]
*[[Public holidays in Armenia]]
*[[Music of Armenia]]
*[[Armenian needlelace]]
*[[List of Armenians]]
*[[Khachkar]]s - intricate Armenian knotwork crosses
== Miscellaneous topics ==
*[[Communications in Armenia]]
*[[Foreign relations of Armenia]]
*[[Military of Armenia]]
*[[Transportation in Armenia]]
== External links and references==
{{sisterlinks|Armenia}}
*[http://www.armeniapedia.org Armeniapedia.org] - the Armenian Wiki with thousands of articles
*[http://www.armenianhouse.org Armenianhouse.org] - Armenian literature and history
*[http://www.heritage.org/research/features/index/ The Heritage Foundation] - publishes the index of economic freedom
*[http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/am.html CIA] - The World Factbook -- Armenia
*[http://www.gov.am/enversion/index.html Gov.am] - Government of Armenia
*[http://www.loc.gov/rr/international/amed/armenia/armenia.html LoC.gov] - Library of Congress Portal on Armenia
*[http://www.armeniainfo.am Armeniainfo.am] - Armenia information
*[http://www.armgate.com Armgate.com] - Armenian News and pictures of Churches and Ararat Mountain
*[http://hayastan.republika.pl/armenia.htm hayastan.republika.pl] - General information (Armenian, English, Polish)
*Portals
**[http://www.hayastan.com Hayastan.com] - Armenian portal with millions of visitors (Armenian,Russian,English)
**[http://www.circle.am Circle.am] Armenian web ring
**[http://www.armeniasearch.com Armeniasearch.com] - Armenian Search Engine and Directory
*News sites
**[http://www.panarmenian.net PanARMENIAN.Net] - Armenia & Armenian News
**[http://www.a1plus.am A1plus.am] - Fastest News from Armenia
**[http://www.groong.org Groong.org] - Armenian News Network - Groong
**[http://www.ArmeniaNow.com Armenia Now], edited by John Hughes
**[http://www.caucaz.com/home_uk Caucaz.com] - Weekly online publishing articles and reports about Armenia and South Caucasus. Available in English and French
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[[simple:Armenia] |
ttp://citymayors.com/government/canada_government2.html City Mayors article on provinces and cities]
*[http://www.lobbygov.org Active Citizenship in Canada]
{{NATO}}
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[[Category:Government of Canada]]
[[Category:Westminster System]]
[[Category:Politics of Canada]]
[[es:Política de Canadá]]
[[fr:Politique du Canada]]
[[pt:Política do Canadá]]
[[zh:加拿大政治]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Economy of Canada</title>
<id>5195</id>
<revision>
<id>42108731</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T21:58:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
<id>82835</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Header - references plural</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Economy of Canada table}}
[[Canada]] is one of the world's wealthiest nations, a member of the [[OECD]] and [[G7]]. As with other first world nations, the Canadian economy is dominated by the [[service industry]], which employs about three quarters of Canadians. Canada is unusual among developed countries in the importance of the [[primary industry|primary sector]], with the [[logging]] and [[petroleum|oil]] industries being two of Canada's most important. In part because of this Canada is one highly dependent on [[international trade]], especially trade with the United States. Preserving Canadian independence in the face of the strong pressure from the United States has long been a major political issue. Canada also has a sizeable manufacturing sector, centred in Southern Ontario, with the [[automobile industry]] especially important.
Canada is a [[free market]] economy with slightly more government intervention than the United States, but much less than most European nations. Canada has traditionally had a lower per capita GDP than its southern neighbour (whereas wealth has been more equally divided), but higher than the large western European economies. For the last decade, after a period of turbulence, the Canadian economy has been growing rapidly with low [[unemployment]] and large government surpluses on the federal level.
==Economic sectors==
===Natural resources===
Canada's huge land mass, the second largest in the world after Russia, ensures that a wide array of natural resources are present. Different resources are centered in different parts of Canada. In British Columbia the forestry industry is of great import, while the oil industry is central to Alberta's prosperity. Northern Ontario is home to a wide array of mines, while the [[fishing]] industry has long been central to the character of the Atlantic provinces, though it has recently been in steep decline.
However, these industries have increasingly become less and less important to the overall economy. Only some 4% of Canadians are employed in these fields, and they account for less than 6% of GDP. They are still paramount in many parts of the country. Many, if not most, towns in the northern part of the country, where agriculture is difficult, exist because of a nearby mine or source of timber. Canada is a world leader in the production of many natural resources such as [[gold]], [[nickel]], [[uranium]], and [[lead]]. Several of Canada's largest companies are based in natural resource industries, such as [[EnCana]], [[Inco]], and [[Barrick Gold]]. The vast majority of these products are exported, mainly to the United States. There are also many secondary and service industries that are directly linked to primary ones. For instance one of Canada's largest manufacturing industries is the [[pulp and paper]] sector, which is directly linked to the logging industry.
The relatively large reliance on natural resources has several effects on the Canadian economy and Canadian society. While manufacturing and service industries are easy to standardize, natural resources vary greatly by region. This ensures that differing economic structures developed in each region of Canada, contributing to Canada's strong regionalism. At the same time the vast majority of these resources are exported, integrating Canada closely into the international economy. Howlett and Ramesh argue that the inherent instability of such industries also contributes to greater government intervention in the economy, to reduce the social impact of market changes.
Such industries also raise important questions of sustainability. Despite many decades as a leading producer, there is little risk of depletion. Large discoveries continue to be made, such as the massive nickel find at [[Voisey's Bay]]. Moreover the far north remain largely undeveloped as producers await higher prices or new technologies as many operations in this region are not yet cost effective. In recent decades Canadians have become less willing to accept the environmental destruction associated with exploiting natural resources. High wages and Native land claims have also curbed expansion. Instead many Canadian companies have focused their exploration and expansion activities overseas where prices are lower and governments more accommodating. Canadian companies are increasingly playing important roles in Latin America, Southeast Asia, and Africa. It is the renewable resources that have raised some of the greatest concerns. After decades of escalating overexploitation the [[cod]] fishery all but collapsed in the 1990s, and the Pacific salmon industry also suffered greatly. The logging industry, after many years of activism, have in recent years moved to a more sustainable model.
===Energy===
[[Image:Oil well3419.jpg|frame|right|[[Nodding donkey]] pumping an oil well near [[Sarnia, Ontario]]]]
Canada is one of the only developed nations that is a net exporter of energy. Most important are the large oil and gas resources centred in Alberta, but also present in neighbouring British Columbia and Saskatchewan. The vast [[Athabasca Tar Sands]] give Canada the world's second largest reserves of oil. In Quebec and British Columbia, as well as Ontario and Manitoba, hydroelectric power is a cheap and relatively environmentally friendly source of abundant energy. In part because of this, Canada is also the world's highest per capita consumer of energy. Cheap energy has enabled the creation of several important industries, such as the large [[aluminum]] industry that makes use of cheap Quebec and British Columbia hydroelectricity.
Historically an important issue in Canadian politics is that while Western Canada is one of the world's richest sources of energy, the industrial heartland of Southern Ontario and Quebec has fewer native sources of power. It is, however, cheaper for Alberta to ship its oil to the western United States than to eastern Canada. The eastern Canadian ports thus import significant quantities of oil from overseas, and Ontario makes significant use of nuclear power.
In times of high oil prices this means that the majority of Canada's population suffers, while the West grows extremely wealthy. The [[National Energy Policy]] of the early 1980s attempted to force Alberta to sell low priced oil to eastern Canada. This policy proved deeply divisive, and quickly lost its importance as oil prices collapsed in the mid-1980s. One of the most controversial sections of the [[Canada-United States Free Trade Agreement]] of 1988 was a promise that Canada would never charge the United States more for energy than fellow Canadians.
===Agriculture===
[[Image:Alberta modern cement grain elevator 034 cropped.jpg|right|thumb|300px|A grain elevator in Alberta]]
Canada is also one of the world's most important suppliers of agricultural products, with the Canadian Prairies one of the most important suppliers of wheat and other grains. As with all other developed nations the proportion of the population and GDP devoted to agriculture fell dramatically over the 20th century. Unlike the agricultural industries of many developed nations, the Canadian prairies are fertile enough to compete internationally without large subsidies. This is less true of the smaller dairy and poultry industries of central Canada, which do receive significant government support. Canada is a major exporter of agricultural products, to the United States but also to Europe and East Asia.
===Manufacturing===
The general pattern of development for wealthy nations was a transition from a primary industry based economy to a manufacturing based one, and then to a service based economy. Canada did not follow this pattern, manufacturing has always been secondary, though certainly not unimportant. In part because of this Canada did not suffer as greatly from the pains of [[deindustrialization]] of the 1970s and 1980s. Some important industries, such as the textile industry, did mostly disappear abroad, however.
By a considerable margin the most important Canadian manufacturing industry is the [[automobile industry]] of southwest Ontario. This industry is largely seen as the creation of the [[Autopact]] of the 1960s. Ontario is home to [[branch plant]]s to all the major American automobile makers and many parts factories owned by Canadian firms such as [[Magna International]]. Ontario today produces more vehicles each year than the neighbouring U.S. state of [[Michigan]], the heart of the American automobile industry. Manufacturers have been attracted to Canada due to the highly educated population with lower labour costs than the United States. Canada's government run healthcare system is also an important attraction, as it exempts companies from the high health insurance costs they must pay in the United States.
Much of the Canadian manufacturing industry consists of branch plants of American firms, though there are some important domestic manufacturers such as [[Bombardier]]. This has raised several concerns for Canadians. Branch plants provide mainly blue collar jobs, with research and executive positions confined to the United States.
===Service sector===
[[Image:TD Centre.JPG|thumb|300px|right|The [[Toronto |
se formats are different because of the relative amount of magnification each format will need in order to be projected on a full-sized movie screen.
(A table for 35 mm still photography would be somewhat different since more of the film is used for each image and the amount of enlargement is usually much less.)
Another factor to be considered is that the film format's size will affect the relative depth of field. The larger the area of the film is, the longer a lens will need to be to capture the same framing as a smaller film format. In motion pictures, for example, a frame with a 12 degree horizontal field of view will require a 50 mm lens on 16 mm film, a 100 mm lens on 35 mm film, and a 250 mm lens on 65 mm film. Conversely, using the same focal length lens with each of these formats will yield a progressively wider image as the film format gets larger: a 50 mm lens has a horizontal field of view of 12 degrees on 16 mm film, 23.6 degrees on 35 mm film, and 55.6 degrees on 65 mm film. What this all means is that as the larger formats require longer lenses than the smaller ones, they will accordingly have a smaller depth of field. Therefore, compensations in exposure, framing, or subject distance need to be made in order to make one format look like it was filmed like another.
<br clear="all">
{| align="right"
|[[Image:Jonquil flowers at f32.jpg|thumb|230px|f/32]]
|-
|[[Image:Jonquil flowers at f5.jpg|thumb|230px|f/5]]
|-
| [[Image:aperture_f22.jpg|thumb|230px|f/22]]
|-
| [[Image:aperture_f8.jpg|thumb|230px|f/8]]
|-
| [[Image:aperture_f4.jpg|thumb|230px|f/4]]
|-
| [[Image:aperture_f2.8.jpg|thumb|230px|f/2.8]]
|-
| align="center" | Example of how the [[F-number]] affects<br> depth of field. Above, from top to bottom:<br> f/22, f/8, f/4, f/2.8.
|}
== Hyperfocal distance ==
The hyperfocal distance is the nearest distance at which the far end of the depth of field stretches to infinity. Focusing the camera at the hyperfocal distance results in the largest possible depth of field. Focusing ''beyond'' the hyperfocal distance does not add depth of field to the far end (which is already at infinity), but it does subtract from the focus area in front of the hyperfocal point. Therefore there is less total depth in focus. Likewise, focusing ahead of the hyperfocal distance results in a gain of focus area ahead of the point, but loses the focus area behind the focus point including the subjects near infinity.
== Depth of field formula ==
Let ''H'' be the [[hyperfocal distance]] (calculated below from ''N'' = [[f-stop|aperture number]], and ''c'', the circle of confusion for a given film format), let ''s'' be the distance at which the camera is focused, let ''f'' be the focal length, let ''D''<sub>''F''</sub> be the distance from the camera to the far limit of depth of field, and let ''D''<sub>''N''</sub> be the distance from the camera to the near limit of depth of field. Then depth of field (DOF) is given by
:<math>DOF = \Big(D_F - D_N\Big), where</math>
:<math>H = \frac {f^2}{Nc}</math>
:<math>D_F = \frac {s(H - f)}{H - s} = \frac {Hs}{(H-f)-s}</math>
:<math>D_N = \frac {s(H - f)}{H + s - 2f} = \frac {Hs}{(H-f)+s}</math>
Thus for a given [[film format]], depth of field is calculated from three factors: the [[focal length]] of the lens, the effective diameter of the lens opening (the [[aperture]]), and the camera-to-subject distance. While it is commonly said that lenses of short focal length have greater depth of field than long lenses, this rule of thumb is not strictly true because it takes into account only one of the three factors. In fact, for a given subject framing and aperture, lenses of all focal lengths have exactly the same depth of field. This is because subject framing is dependent on two of the factors (focal length and subject distance), while aperture is the third. Once the three factors are set in a fixed proportion, the depth of field will be the same.
An example makes this easier to understand. Take a photographer using a 400 mm lens to shoot a subject (for example, a bird) 10 metres away. Assuming an aperture of f/2.8, the depth of field of this shot would be 10 cm. Should the photographer now switch to a 50 mm f/2.8 lens, the depth of field at 10 metres is now 7.62 metres. However, once the photographer has moved to 1.25 metres from the bird, being the distance required such that the bird fills as much of the frame as it did with the 400 mm lens at 10 metres, the depth of field is ''exactly'' the same as before, 10 cm.
Casual photographers may be surprised to find that depth of field is not strictly a function of lens length. The common saying that short lenses have greater depth of field than long lenses actually relates to how lenses of each type tend to be used, long lenses are often for distant subjects, whereas wide angle lenses are often used up close.
== Artistic considerations ==
Depth of field can be anywhere from a fraction of an inch to virtually infinite. For instance a shot of a woman's face in closeup may have shallow depth of field (with someone just behind her visible but out of focus&mdash;common, for instance, in [[melodrama]]s and [[horror film]]s); a shot of rolling hills would be likely to have great depth of field, with the objects both in the foreground and in the background in focus.
== Aperture effects ==
The [[aperture]] controls the effective diameter of the lens opening. Reducing the aperture size increases the depth of field; however, it also reduces the amount of light transmitted, placing a practical limit on the extent to which the aperture size may be reduced. Photography lenses almost invariably work best at medium apertures. Motion pictures make only limited use of this control. To produce a consistent image quality from shot to shot, cinematographers usually choose a single aperture setting for interiors and another for exteriors and adjust exposure through the use of camera filters or light levels. Aperture settings are adjusted more frequently in still photography, where variations in depth of field are used to produce a variety of special effects.
[[Image:lens aperture side.jpg|240px|thumb|left|A 35mm lens set to [[f-number|f/11]]. The depth-of-field scale (top) indicates that a subject which is anywhere between 1 and 2 meters in front of the camera will be rendered acceptably sharp. If the aperture was set to f/22 instead, everything from 0.7 meters to infinity would be in focus.]]
For any given lens and aperture, the depth of field is maximized by focusing the lens at the hyperfocal distance. The hyperfocal distance is the point of focus chosen to create a depth of field from infinity to a near point that is half of the hyperfocal distance. For example if a lens is focused at infinity and the closest point of acceptable sharp focus is 10&nbsp;m away (the hyperfocal distance), the depth of field will extend from 10&nbsp;m to infinity. If now the lens is focused on a point 10&nbsp;m away (at the hyperfocal distance), the depth of field will still extend to infinity, but the nearest point of acceptable sharp focus will be 5&nbsp;m, maximizing the depth of field. If the lens is focused on a point closer than the hyperfocal distance, the depth of field will no longer extend to infinity, greatly reducing the depth of field.
== Depth of field versus film format size ==
As the equations above show, depth of field is also related to the circle of confusion criterion, which is typically chosen as a fraction such as 1/1000 or 1/1500 of the [[film format]] size. Larger imaging devices (such as 8x10 inch photographic plates) can tolerate a larger circle of confusion, while smaller imaging devices such as [[point and shoot camera|point-and-shoot digital cameras]] need a smaller circle of confusion. For equal field of view and f-number, depth of field is inversely proportional to the film format size.
In practical terms this means that smaller cameras have deeper depth of field than larger cameras. This can be an advantage or disadvantage, depending on the desired effect. A large format camera is better for photographs where the forground and background are blurred (cf. [[bokeh]]), while a small camera maximizes depth of field, so that objects behind or in front of the focus plane are still in good focus. This difference between formats goes away if the cameras are compared with equal aperture diameters rather than equal f-numbers; but the smaller camera can not usually use a large aperture diameter, so can not achieve a very limited depth of field.
== Depth of field in photolithography ==
In [[semiconductor]] [[photolithography]] applications, depth of field is extremely important as [[integrated circuit]] layout features must be printed with high accuracy at extremely small size. The difficulty is that the [[wafer (electronics)|wafer]] surface is not perfectly flat, but may vary by several [[micrometre]]s. Even this small variation causes some distortion in the projected image, and results in unwanted variations in the resulting pattern. Thus photolithography engineers take extreme measures to maximize the optical depth of field of the photolithography equipment. To mimimize this distortion further, chip makers like [[International Business Machines|IBM]] are forced to use [[chemical mechanical polish]]ing machines to make the wafer surface even flatter before lithographic patterning.
==In ophthalmology and optometry==
A person may sometimes experience better vision in daylight than at night because of an increased depth of field due to constriction of the [[pupil]] (i.e. [[miosis]]).
==References==
*Hummel, Rob (editor). ''American Cinematographer Manual'', 8th edition. Hollywood: ASC Press, 2001.
==See also==
*[[Angle of view]]
*[[Bokeh]]
*[[Deep focus]]
*[[Depth of focus]]
*[[Pers |
id={{PMID|11095878}}
}}</ref>.
* '''Progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy''': [[Progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy]] (PML) is a [[demyelinating disease]], in which the [[myelin]] sheath covering the [[axons]] of nerve cells is gradually destroyed, impairing the transmission of nerve impulses. It is caused by a virus called [[JC virus]] which occurs in 70% of the population in [[latent]] form, causing disease only when the immune system has been severly weakened, as is the case for AIDS patients. It progresses rapidly, usually causing death within months of diagnosis <ref name=Sadler>{{
cite journal
| author=Sadler, M. and Nelson, M. R.
| title=Progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy in HIV
| journal=Int. J. STD AIDS | year=1997 | pages=351-357 | volume=8 | issue=6
| id={{PMID|9179644}}
}}</ref>.
* '''HIV-associated dementia''': HIV-1 associated dementia (HAD) is a metabolic [[encephalopathy]] induced by HIV infection and fueled by immune activation of brain [[macrophage]]s and [[microglia]] <ref name=Gray>{{
cite journal
| author=Gray, F., Adle-Biassette, H., Chrétien, F., Lorin de la Grandmaison, G., Force, G., Keohane, C.
| title=Neuropathology and neurodegeneration in human immunodeficiency virus infection. Pathogenesis of HIV-induced lesions of the brain, correlations with HIV-associated disorders and modifications according to treatments
| journal=Clin. Neuropathol. | year=2001 | pages=146-155 | volume=20 | issue=4
| id={{PMID|11495003}}
}}</ref>. These cells are actively infected with HIV and secrete neurotoxins of both host and viral origin. Specific neurologic impairments are manifested by cognitive, behavioral, and motor abnormalities that occur after years of HIV infection and is associated with low CD4+ T cell levels and high plasma viral loads. Prevalence is between 10-20% in Western countries <ref name=Grant>{{
cite book
| author = Grant, I., Sacktor, H., and McArthur, J.
| year = 2005
| title = The Neurology of AIDS
| chapter = HIV neurocognitive disorders
| chapterurl = http://www.hnrc.ucsd.edu/publications_pdf/2005grant1.pdf
| editor = H. E. Gendelman, I. Grant, I. Everall, S. A. Lipton, and S. Swindells. (ed.)
| edition = 2nd
| pages = 357-373
| publisher = Oxford University Press
| location = London, U.K.
| id = ISBN 0198526105
}}</ref> and has only been seen in 1-2% of India based infections <ref name=Satischandra>{{
cite journal
| author=Satishchandra, P., Nalini, A., Gourie-Devi, M., Khanna, N., Santosh, V., Ravi, V., Desai, A., Chandramuki, A., Jayakumar, P. N., and Shankar, S. K.
| title=Profile of neurologic disorders associated with HIV/AIDS from Bangalore, south India (1989-96)
| journal=Indian J. Med. Res. | year=2000 | pages=14-23 | volume=11 | issue=
| id={{PMID|10793489}}
}}</ref><ref name=Wadia>{{
cite journal
| author=Wadia, R. S., Pujari, S. N., Kothari, S., Udhar, M., Kulkarni, S., Bhagat, S., and Nanivadekar, A.
| title=Neurological manifestations of HIV disease
| journal=J. Assoc. Physicians India | year=2001 | pages=343-348 | volume=49 | issue=
| id={{PMID|11291974}}
}}</ref>.
* '''Cryptococcal meningitis''' This infection of the [[meninges]] (the membrane covering the brain and spinal cord) by the fungus ''[[Cryptococcus]] neoformans'' can cause fevers, headache, fatigue, nausea, and vomiting. Patients may also develop seizures and confusion. If untreated, it can be lethal.
===The major HIV-associated malignancies===
Patients with HIV infection have substantially increased incidence of several malignancies <ref name=Boshoff>{{
cite journal
| author=Boshoff, C. and Weiss, R.
| title=AIDS-related malignancies
| journal=Nat. Rev. Cancer | year=2002 | pages=373-382 | volume=2 | issue=5
| id={{PMID|12044013}}
}}</ref><ref name=Yarchoan>{{
cite journal
| author=Yarchoan, R., Tosatom G. and Littlem R. F.
| title=Therapy insight: AIDS-related malignancies - the influence of antiviral therapy on pathogenesis and management
| journal=Nat. Clin. Pract. Oncol. | year=2005 | pages=406-415 | volume=2 | issue=8
| id={{PMID|16130937}}
}}</ref>. Several of these, [[Kaposi's sarcoma]], high-grade [[lymphoma]], and [[cervical cancer]] confer a diagnosis of AIDS when they occur in an HIV-infected person.
* '''Kaposi's sarcoma:''' [[Kaposi's sarcoma]] is the most common tumor in HIV-infected patients. The appearance of this tumor in young gay men in 1981 was one of the first signals of the AIDS epidemic. It is caused by a gammaherpesvirus called [[Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpes virus]] (KSHV). It often appears as purplish nodules on the skin, but other organs, especially the mouth, gastrointestinal tract, and lungs can be affected.
* '''High-grade lymphoma:''' Several high-grade B cell lymphomas have substantially increased incidence in HIV-infected patients and often portend a poor prognosis. The most common AIDS-defining lymphomas are [[Burkitt's lymphoma]], Burkitt's-like lymphoma, and diffuse large B-cell lymphoma (DLBCL), including primary central nervous system lymphoma. [[Primary effusion lymphoma]] is less common. Many of these lymphomas are caused by either [[Epstein-Barr virus]] (EBV) or KSHV.
* '''Cervical cancer:''' [[Cervical cancer]] in HIV-infected women is also considered AIDS-defining. It is caused by [[human papillomavirus]] (HPV).
* '''Other tumors:''' In addition to the AIDS-defining tumors listed above, HIV-infected patients are also at increased risk of certain other tumors, such as [[Hodgkin's disease]] and [[anal carcinoma|anal]] and [[rectal carcinoma|rectal carcinomas]]. However, the incidence of many common tumors, such as [[breast cancer]] or [[colon cancer]], are not increased in HIV-infected patients. Most AIDS-associated malignancies are caused by co-infection of patients with an oncogenic DNA virus, especially [[Epstein-Barr virus]] (EBV), [[Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus]] (KSHV), and [[human papillomavirus]] (HPV). In areas where [[HAART]] is extensively used to treat AIDS, the incidence of many AIDS-related malignancies has decreased, but at the same time malignancies overall have become the most common cause of death of HIV-infected patients <ref name=Bonnet>{{
cite journal
| author=Bonnet, F., Lewden, C., May, T., Heripret, L., Jougla, E., Bevilacqua, S., Costagliola, D., Salmon, D., Chene, G. and Morlat, P.
| title=Malignancy-related causes of death in human immunodeficiency virus-infected patients in the era of highly active antiretroviral therapy
| journal=Cancer | year=2004 | pages=317-324 | volume=101 | issue=2
| id={{PMID|15241829}}
}}</ref>.
===Other opportunistic infections===
Patients with AIDS and severe immunosuppression often develop opportunistic infections that present with non-specific symptoms, especially low grade fevers and weight loss. These include infection with ''[[Mycobacterium avium]]-intracellulare'' and [[cytomegalovirus]] (CMV). CMV can also cause colitis, as described above, and CMV retinitis can cause blindness. [[Penicilliosis]] due to ''[[Penicillium marneffei]]'' is now the third most common opportunistic infection (after extrapulmonary tuberculosis and cryptococcosis) in HIV-positive individuals within the endemic area of Southeast Asia <ref name=Skoulidis>{{
cite journal
| author=Skoulidis, F., Morgan, M. S., and MacLeod, K. M.
| title=Penicillium marneffei: a pathogen on our doorstep?
| journal=J. R. Soc. Med.| year=2004 | pages=394-396 | volume=97 | issue=2
| id={{PMID|15286196}}
}}</ref>.
==Transmission==
Since the beginning of the [[epidemic]], three main transmission routes of HIV have been identified:
* '''Sexual route.''' The majority of HIV infections have been, and still are, acquired through unprotected sexual relations. Sexual transmission occurs when there is contact between sexual secretions of one partner with the rectal, genital or mouth [[Mucous membrane|mucous membranes]] of another.
* '''Blood or blood product route.''' This transmission route is particularly important for intravenous drug users, [[Haemophilia|hemophiliac]]s and recipients of [[blood transfusion]]s and blood products. Health care workers (nurses, laboratory workers, doctors etc) are also concerned, although more rarely. Also concerned by this route are people who give and receive tattoos and piercings.
* '''Mother-to-child route (vertical transmission).''' The transmission of the virus from the mother to the child can occur ''in utero'' during the last weeks of pregnancy and at childbirth. Breast feeding also presents a risk of infection for the baby. In the absence of treatment, the transmission rate between the mother and child was 20%. However, where treatment is available, combined with the availability of [[Cesarian section]], this has been reduced to 1%.
HIV has been found in the [[saliva]], [[tears]] and [[urine]] of infected individuals, but due to the low concentration of virus in these biological liquids, the risk is considered to be negligible.
==Prevention==
{| class="wikitable" align=right border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0"
|- bgcolor="#efefef"
! colspan=5 style="border-right:0px;";| Estimated per act risk for acquisition of HIV, <br />by exposure route, assuming no condom use
|- bgcolor="#efefef"
| '''Exposure Route'''
| '''Risk per 10,000 exposures <br />to an infected source'''
|-
| Blood Transfusion || 9,000<ref name=Donegan>{{
cite journal | author=Donegan, E., Stuart, M., Niland, J. C., Sacks, H. S., Azen, S. P., Dietrich, S. L., Faucett, C., Fletcher, M. A., Kleinman, S. H., Operskalski, E. A., et al. | title=Infection with human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) among recipients o |
)=\frac{x}{1-x-x^2}.</math>
This function is therefore the [[generating function]] of the Fibonacci sequence. It can be proven as follows:
:<math>s(x) = F_0 + F_1x + F_2x^2 + \cdots = \sum_{k=0}^{\infty} F_k x^k</math>
Substituting <math>F_k = F_{k-1} + F_{k-2}</math>:
:{|
|<math>s(x)</math>
|<math>= F_0 + F_1x + \sum_{k=2}^{\infty} \left( F_{k-1} + F_{k-2} \right) x^k</math>
|-
|
|<math>= x + \sum_{k=2}^\infty F_{k-1} x^k + \sum_{k=2}^\infty F_{k-2} x^k</math>
|-
|
|<math>= x + x \sum_{k=2}^\infty F_{k-1} x^{k-1} + x^2 \sum_{k=2}^\infty F_{k-2} x^{k-2}</math>
|-
|
|<math>= x + x \sum_{j=1}^\infty F_j x^j + x^2 \sum_{m=0}^\infty F_m x^m</math>
|-
|
|<math>= x + x \left( \sum_{j=0}^\infty F_j x^j - F_0 \right) + x^2 s(x)</math>
|-
|
|<math>= x + x s(x) + x^2 s(x)</math>
|}
Therefore,
:<math>s(x) = \frac{x}{1 - x - x^2}</math>
In particular, math puzzle-books note the curious value <math>\frac{s(\frac{1}{10})}{10}=\frac{1}{89}</math>. The sum is easily proved by noting that
:<math>s+\frac{s}{x} = 1 + \sum_{n=1}^\infty (F(n)+F(n+1)) x^n</math>
and then explictly evaluating the sum.
==Reciprocal sum constant==
The sum of the reciprocals of the positive Fibonacci numbers converges:
<math>
C = \sum_{n=1}^{\infty} F(n)^{-1} = 3.359885 \dots
</math> {{OEIS2C|id=A079586}}
[[Convergence]] is easy to show with the [[ratio test]].
This value has been proven [[Irrational number|irrational]] by André-Jeannin, R. No [[Closed-form solution|closed form]] is currently known.
See also the [http://mathworld.wolfram.com/ReciprocalFibonacciConstant.html Mathworld article] on the subject.
==Generalizations==
===Vector space===
The term ''Fibonacci sequence'' is also applied more generally to any [[function (mathematics)|function]] ''g'' where ''g''(''n'' + 2) = ''g''(''n'') + ''g''(''n'' + 1). These functions are precisely those of the form ''g''(''n'') = ''aF''(''n'') + ''bF''(''n'' + 1) for some numbers ''a'' and ''b'', so the Fibonacci sequences form a [[vector space]] with the functions ''F''(''n'') and ''F''(''n'' + 1) as a basis.
===Similar integer sequences===
In particular, the Fibonacci sequence ''L'' with ''L''(1) = 1 and ''L''(2) = 3 is referred to as the '''Lucas numbers''', after [[Edouard Lucas]]. This [[Lucas sequence|sequence]] was described by [[Leonhard Euler]] in 1748, in the ''Introductio in Analysin Infinitorum''. The significance in the Lucas numbers ''L(n)'' lies in the fact that raising the [[golden ratio]] to the ''n''th power yields:
: <math>\left( \frac 1 2 \left( 1 + \sqrt{5} \right) \right)^n = \frac 1 2 \left( L(n) + F(n) \sqrt{5} \right) </math>
Lucas numbers are related to Fibonacci numbers by the relation:
:<math>L\left(n\right)=F\left(n-1\right)+F\left(n+1\right)</math>
A generalization of the Fibonacci sequence are the [[Lucas sequence]]s. One kind can be defined thus:
: ''U''(0) = 0
: ''U''(1) = 1
: ''U''(''n''+2) = ''PU''(''n''+1) &minus; ''QU''(''n'')
where the normal Fibonacci sequence is the special case of ''P'' = 1 and ''Q'' = &minus;1. Another kind of Lucas sequence begins with ''V''(0) = 2, ''V''(1) = ''P''. Such sequences have applications in number theory and [[Prime number|primality]] proving.
The [[Padovan sequence]] is generated by the recurrence ''P''(n) = ''P''(n − 2) + ''P''(n − 3).
The '''tribonacci numbers''' are like the Fibonacci numbers, but instead of starting with two predetermined terms, the sequence starts with three predetermined terms and each term afterwards is the sum of the preceding three terms. The first few tribonacci numbers are {{OEIS2C|id=A000073}}:
:1, 1, 2, [[4 (number)|4]], [[7 (number)|7]], 13, [[24 (number)|24]], [[44 (number)|44]], [[81 (number)|81]], 149, 274, 504, 927, 1705, 3136, 5768, 10609, 19513, 35890, 66012, …
The '''tribonacci constant''' is the ratio toward which adjacent tribonacci numbers tend. It is a root of the polynomial ''x''<sup>3</sup>&nbsp;&minus;&nbsp;''x''<sup>2</sup>&nbsp;&minus;&nbsp;''x''&nbsp;&minus;&nbsp;1, approximately 1.83929, and also satisfies the equation ''x'' + ''x''<sup>&minus;3</sup> = 2. It is important in the study of the [[snub cube]].
The '''tetranacci numbers''' start with four predetermined terms, each term afterwards being the sum of the preceding four terms. The first few tetranacci numbers are {{OEIS2C|id=A000078}}:
:1, 1, 2, 4, 8, [[15 (number)|15]], [[29 (number)|29]], [[56 (number)|56]], [[108 (number)|108]], 208, 401, 773, 1490, 2872, 5536, 10671, 20569, 39648, 76424, 147312, 283953, 547337, …
The '''tetranacci constant''' is the ratio toward which adjacent tetranacci numbers tend. It is a root of the polynomial ''x''<sup>4</sup> &minus; ''x''<sup>3</sup> &minus; ''x''<sup>2</sup> &minus; ''x'' &minus; 1, approximately 1.92756, and also satisfies the equation ''x'' + ''x''<sup>&minus;4</sup> = 2.
Pentanacci, hexanacci and heptanacci numbers have been computed, but they have not interested researchers much.
===Other generalizations===
The [[Fibonacci polynomials]] are another generalization of Fibonacci numbers.
A '''random Fibonacci sequence''' can be defined by tossing a coin for each position ''n'' of the sequence and taking ''F''(''n'')=''F''(''n''-1)+''F''(''n''-2) if it lands heads and ''F''(''n'')=''F''(''n''-1)-''F''(''n''-2) if it lands tails. Work by Furstenburg and Kesten guarantees that this sequence [[almost surely]] grows exponentially at a constant rate: the constant is independent of the coin tosses and was computed in 1999 by [[Divakar Viswanath]]. It is now known as [[Viswanath's constant]].
A '''repfigit''' or '''[[Keith number]]''' is an integer, that when its digits start a Fibonacci sequence with that number of digits, the original number is eventually reached. An example is 47, because the Fibonacci sequence starting with 4 and 7 (4,7,11,18,29,47) reaches 47. A repfigit can be a tribonacci sequence if there are 3 digits in the number, a tetranacci number if the number has four digits, etc. The first few repfigits are {{OEIS2C|id=A007629}}:
:14, 19, 28, 47, 61, 75, 197, 742, 1104, 1537, 2208, 2580, 3684, 4788, 7385, 7647, 7909, …
Since the set of sequences satisfying the relation ''S''(''n'') = ''S''(''n''-1) + ''S''(''n''-2) is closed under termwise addition and under termwise multiplication by a constant, it can be viewed as a [[vector space]]. Any such sequence is uniquely determined by a choice of two elements, so the vector space is two-dimensional. If we abbreviate such a sequence as (''S''(0), ''S''(1)), the Fibonacci sequence ''F''(''n'') = (0, 1) and the shifted Fibonacci sequence ''F''(''n''-1) = (1, 0) are seen to form a canonical basis for this space, yielding the identity:
: ''S''(''n'') = ''S''(0)''F''(''n''-1) + ''S''(1)''F''(''n'')
for all such sequences ''S''. For example, if ''S'' is the Lucas sequence 1, 3, 4, 7, 11&hellip;, then we obtain ''L''(''n'') = ''F''(''n''-1) + 3''F''(''n'').
==Fibonacci primes==
The first few Fibonacci numbers that are also [[prime number]]s are {{OEIS2C|id=A005478}}: 2, 3, 5, 13, 89, 233, 1597, 28657, 514229, &hellip;. It seems likely that there are infinitely many [[Fibonacci prime]]s, but this has yet to be proven.
== Fibonacci strings ==
In analogy to its numerical counterpart, a '''Fibonacci string''' is defined by:
:<math>
F_n := F(n):=
\begin{cases}
b & \mbox{if } n = 0; \\
a & \mbox{if } n = 1; \\
F(n-1)+F(n-2) & \mbox{if } n > 1. \\
\end{cases}
</math>,
where + denotes the concatenation of two strings. The sequence of Fibonacci strings starts:
:b, a, ab, aba, abaab, abaababa, abaababaabaab, &hellip;
The length of each Fibonacci string is a Fibonacci number, and similarly there exists a corresponding Fibonacci string for each Fibonacci number.
Fibonacci strings appear as inputs for the [[worst case]] in some [[computer algorithm]]s.
==Popular culture==
*The Fibonacci sequence plays a prominent, but mathematically questionable, part in the bestselling novel ''[[The Da Vinci Code]]''
* Tool's song "Lateralus" from the album of the same name features the fibonacci sequence syllabically in the verses of the song. The syllables count from one to eight via the sequence and from eight to one via the sequence.
*Along with the concepts of the [[golden rectangle]] and [[golden spiral]], the Fibonacci sequence is used in [[Darren Aronofsky]]'s indie film ''[[Pi (film)|&#960;]]'' (1998)
*Referenced in the film of [[The Phantom Tollbooth]].
*Used in Steven Spielberg's miniseries ''[[Taken]]''.
*It was also used as a key plot point in an episode of the [[The Walt Disney Company|Disney]] original television series ''[[So Weird]]''.
*In a [[FoxTrot]] comic, Jason and Marcus are playing football. Jason yells, "Hut 0! Hut 1! Hut 1! Hut 2!" all the way until "Hut 13!" in the Fibonacci sequence. Marcus yells, "Is it the Fibonacci sequence?" Jason says, "Correct! Touchdown, Marcus!"
*BT ([[Brian Transeau]]) released a song in 2000, titled the "Fibonacci Sequence," in which a sample of someone saying the actual sequence can be heard.
*Dr. Steel released a song titled "Fibonacci Sequence" in 2005.
==See also==
*[[Fibonacci number program]]
*[[Anti-Fibonacci numbers]]
*[[Golden ratio]] (or golden section)
*[[Plastic number]]
*[[Padovan sequence|Padovan number]]
*[[Perrin number]]
==Journals==
* [http://www.engineering.sdstate.edu/~fib/ The Fibonacci Quarterly] &mdash; an academic journal devoted to the study of Fibonacci numbers
==References==
* [[Donald Knuth|Donald Knuth]]. ''Fundamental Algorithms'', Th |
bocharged 2-door model
*** 1999-2003 [[Bentley Continental R|Continental R Mulliner]] &mdash; performance model
*** 1994-1995 [[Bentley Continental S|Continental S]] &mdash; [[intercooled]]
** 1992-1998 [[Bentley Brooklands|Brooklands]] &mdash; improved Eight
*** 1996-1998 [[Bentley Brooklands R|Brooklands R]] &mdash; performance Brooklands
** 1994-1995 [[Bentley Turbo S|Turbo S]] &mdash; limited-edition sports model
** 1995-1997 [[Bentley Turbo R|Turbo R]] &mdash; updated Turbo R
*** 1996 [[Bentley Turbo R|Turbo R Sport]] &mdash; limited-edition sports model
** 1995-2003 [[Bentley Azure|Azure]] &mdash; convertible Continental R
*** 1999-2002 [[Bentley Azure|Azure Mulliner]] &mdash; performance model
** 1996-2002 [[Bentley Continental T|Continental T]] &mdash; short wheelbase performance model
*** 1999 [[Bentley Continental T|Continental T Mulliner]] &mdash; firmer suspension
** 1997-1998 [[Bentley Turbo RT]] &mdash; replacement for the Turbo R
==Volkswagen Group ownership==
[[Image:bentleyazure.JPG|thumb|right|250px|2003 Bentley Azure Mulliner Final Series]]
In [[1998]], Rolls-Royce and Bentley Motors was purchased from [[Vickers]] (its owner since [[1980]]) by [[Volkswagen Group|Volkswagen]] for £430 million, after bidding against [[BMW]]. BMW had recently started supplying components for the new range of cars, notably [[V8]] engines for the [[Bentley Arnage]] and [[V12 engine|V12]] engines for the [[Rolls-Royce Silver Seraph]]. The Rolls-Royce name was not included in VW's purchase; it was instead licensed to BMW (for £40 million) by the Rolls-Royce aero engine company.
BMW and Volkswagen came to an agreement whereby Volkswagen would manufacture both Bentley and Rolls-Royce cars until the end of [[2002]], whereupon the right to build Rolls-Royce cars would be BMW's alone. During this period, Volkswagen reduced its reliance on BMW as a supplier: as of 2003, BMW engines are not used in Bentley cars.
===Modern Bentleys===
[[image:Bentley.ContinentalGT.coupe.300pix.jpg|thumb|250px|2004 Bentley Continental GT coupe]]
In [[2003]], Bentley's 2-door convertible, the [[Bentley Azure]], ceased production, and the company introduced the [[Bentley Continental|Continental GT]], a large luxury coupe. The car is powered by a version of VW's [[W-12 engine]].
Demand has been so great that the factory at [[Crewe]], [[Cheshire]], has been unable to satisfy demand despite producing 4,500 vehicles a year and there is a waiting list of over a year for new cars to be delivered. Consequently there are proposals to produce the new model [[Bentley Continental|Flying Spur]], a four-door version of the Continental GT (140.000 Euros) in [[Dresden]] in the same factory where the [[VW Phaeton]] luxury car is made.
In April, 2005, Bentley confirmed plans to produce a 4-seat convertible model, the [[Bentley Azure|Azure]], derived from the [[Bentley Arnage|Arnage Drophead Coupe]] prototype, at Crewe beginning in [[2006]]. By the fall of 2005, the convertible version of the successful Continental GT, the [[Bentley Continental|Continental GTC]] was also presented.
Bentley sales have been strong in [[2005]] with 8,627 sold worldwide, 3654 of these vehicles were sold in the United States.
* 1998&ndash; [[Bentley Arnage|Arnage]] [[sedan (car)|saloon]]
* 2002&ndash; [[Bentley State Limousine|State Limousine]]
* 2003&ndash; [[Bentley Continental|Continental GT]] [[coupe]]
* 2005&ndash; [[Bentley Continental Flying Spur|Continental Flying Spur]] [[sedan (car)|saloon]]
* 2006&ndash; [[Bentley Azure|Azure]] [[convertible]]
* 2006&ndash; [[Bentley Continental#Continental GTC|Continental GTC]] [[convertible]]
{{Modern Bentleys}}
===Current Bentley racing===
In [[2001]]-[[2003]], the [[Bentley Speed 8]] enjoyed a successful racing streak in the [[Le Mans]] series.
==Timeline==
{{Bentley}}
==See also==
{{commonscat|Bentley vehicles}}
*[[List of automobile manufacturers]]
[[Category:Prestige vehicles]]
== External links ==
*[http://www.bentleymotors.co.uk/ Bentley Motors]
**[http://www.bentleymotors.com/minisites/arnaget/en/arnaget.html Bentley Arnage T microsite]
**[http://www.bentleymotors.com/minisites/arnager/en/arnager.html Bentley Arnage R microsite]
**[http://www.bentleymotors.com/minisites/arnagerl/en/arnagerl.html Bentley Arnage RL microsite]
**[http://www.bentleymotors.com/minisites/bentley825/container.jsp?lang=en Bentley Azure microsite]
**[http://www.bentleymotors.com/minisites/continentalgt2door/container.jsp?lang=en Bentley Continental GT microsite]
**[http://www.bentleymotors.com/minisites/bentley615/container.jsp?lang=en Bentley Continental GTC microsite]
**[http://www.bentleymotors.com/minisites/bentley611/container.jsp?lang=en Bentley Continental Flying Spur microsite]
*[http://www.bentleymedia.com/ Bentley Motors Media Relations]
*[http://biz.yahoo.com/ic/121/121299.html Yahoo! - Bentley Motors Inc. Company Profile]
*[http://www.rrab.com/ Archives of K.-J. Roßfeldt]
*[http://www.bentley-autos.com/ Bentley Autos] - Bentley owner's club established in 1951
*[http://www.stadioscope.com/ Stadioscope mirrors for WO Bentleys]
{{VW}}
[[Category:Bentley]]
[[Category:British automobile manufacturers]]
[[Category:Luxury car manufacturers]]
[[Category:Volkswagen]]
[[de:Bentley]]
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[[id:Bentley]]
[[he:בנטלי]]
[[nl:Bentley]]
[[ja:ベントレー]]
[[no:Bentley]]
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[[ru:Бентли]]
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<use |
r. They were composers of a number of fine works, notable in their own right. London's taste for virtuosity may well have encouraged the complex passage work and extended statements on tonic and dominant.
===The late Classical style (1790-1820)===
When Haydn and Mozart began composing, symphonies were played as single movements before, between, or as interludes within other works, and many of them lasted only ten or twelve minutes; instrumental groups had varying standards of playing and the "continuo" was a central part of music-making. In the intervening years, the social world of music had seen dramatic changes: international publication and touring had grown explosively, concert societies were beginning to be formed, notation had been made more specific, more descriptive, and schematics for works had been simplified (yet became more varied in their exact working out). In 1790, just before Mozart's death, with his reputation spreading rapidly, Haydn was poised for a series of successes, notably his late oratorios and "London" symphonies. Composers in Paris, Rome and all over Germany turned to Haydn and Mozart for their ideas on form.
The moment was again ripe for a dramatic shift. The decade of the 1790s saw the emergence of a new generation of composers, born around 1770, who, while they had grown up with the earlier styles, found in the recent works of Haydn and Mozart a vehicle for greater expression. In 1788 [[Luigi Cherubini]] settled in Paris, and in 1791 composed "Lodoiska", an opera that shot him to fame. Its style is clearly reflective of the mature Haydn and Mozart, and its instrumentation gave it a weight that had not yet been felt in the grand opera. His contemporary [[Étienne Méhul]] extended instrumental effects with his 1790 opera "Euphrosine et Coradin", from which followed a series of successes.
Of course, the most fateful of the new generation would be Ludwig van Beethoven, who launched his numbered works in 1794 with a set of three piano trios, which remain in the repertoire. Somewhat younger than these, though equally accomplished because of his youthful study under Mozart and his native virtuosity, was [[Johann Nepomuk Hummel]]. Hummel studied under Haydn as well; he was a friend to Beethoven and Schubert, and a teacher to Franz Liszt. He concentrated more on the piano than any other instrument, and his time in London in 1791 and 1792 saw the composition, and publication in 1793, of three piano sonatas, opus 2, which idiomatically used Mozart's techniques of avoiding the expected cadence, and Clementi's sometimes modally uncertain virtuoso figuration. Taken together, these composers can be seen now as the vanguard of a broad change in style and the center of gravity in music. They would study one another's works, copy one another's gestures in music, and on occasion behave like quarrelsome rivals.
The crucial differences with the previous wave can be seen in the downward shift in melodies, increasing durations of movements, the acceptance of Mozart and Haydn as paradigmatic, the greater and greater use of keyboard resources, the shift from "vocal" writing to "pianistic" writing, the growing pull of the minor and of modal ambiguity, and the increasing importance of varying accompanying figures to bring "texture" forward as an element in music. In short, the late Classical was seeking a music that was internally more complex. The growth of concert societies and amateur orchestras, marking the importance of music as part of middle-class life, contributed to a booming market for pianos, piano music, and virtuosi to serve as examplars. Hummel, Beethoven, Clementi were all renowned for their improvising.
One explanation for the shift in style has been advanced by [[Arnold Schoenberg|Schoenberg]] and others: the increasing centrality of the idea of [[theme and variations]] in compositional thinking. Schoenberg argues that the Classical style was one of "continuing variation", where a development was, in effect, a theme and variations with greater continuity. In any event, theme and variations replaced the [[fugue]] as the standard vehicle for improvising, and was often included, directly or indirectly, as a movement in longer instrumental works.
Direct influence of the Baroque continued to fade: the [[figured bass]] grew less prominent as a means of holding performance together, the performance practices of the mid 18th century continued to die out. However, at the same time, complete editions of Baroque masters began to become available, and the influence of Baroque style, as the Classical period understood it, continued to grow, particularly in the more and more expansive use of brass. Another feature of the period is the growing number of performances where the composer was not present. This led to increased detail and specificity in notation; for example, there were fewer and fewer "optional" parts that stood separately from the main score.
The force of these shifts would be abundantly apparent with Beethoven's 3rd Symphony, given the name "Eroica", which is Italian for "heroic", by the composer. As with Stravinsky's [[Rite of Spring]], it may not have been the first in all of its innovations, but its aggressive use of every part of the Classical style set it apart from its contemporary works: in length, ambition, and harmonic resources.
===Classical influence on later composers===
Musical eras seldom disappear at once; instead, features are replaced over time, until the old is simply felt as "old-fashioned". The Classical style did not "die" so much as transform under the weight of changes.
One crucial change was the shift towards harmonies centering around "flatward" or subdominant keys. In the Classical style, major key was far more common than minor, chromaticism being moderated through the use of "sharpward" modulation, and sections in the minor mode were often merely for contrast. Beginning with Mozart and Clementi, there began a creeping colonization of the subdominant region. With Schubert, subdominant moves flourished after being introduced in contexts in which earlier composers would have confined themselves to dominant shifts (For a fuller discussion of these terms see [[Tonality]].). This introduced darker colors to music, strengthened the minor mode, and made structure harder to maintain. Beethoven would contribute to this, by his increasing use of the fourth as a consonance, and modal ambiguity &ndash; for example, the opening of the D Minor Symphony.
Among this generation of "Classical Romantics" [[Franz Schubert]], [[Carl Maria von Weber]], and [[John Field (composer)|John Field]] are among the most prominent, along with the young [[Felix Mendelssohn]]. Their sense of form was strongly influenced by the Classical style, and they were not yet "learned" (imitating rules which were codified by others), but directly responding to works by Beethoven, Mozart, Clementi, and others, as they encountered them. The instrumental forces at their disposal were also quite "Classical" in number and variety, permitting similarity with avowedly Classical works.
However, the forces destined to end the hold of the Classical style gather strength in the works of each of these composers. The most commonly cited one is, of course, harmonic innovation. However, also important is the increasing focus on having a continuous and rhythmically uniform accompanying figuration. Beethoven's [[Moonlight sonata]] would be the model for hundreds of later pieces &ndash; where the shifting movement of a rhythmic figure provides much of the drama and interest of the work, while a melody drifts above it. As years wore on, greater knowledge of works, greater instrumental expertise, increasing variety of instruments, the growth of concert societies, and the unstoppable domination of the piano &ndash; which created a huge audience for sophisticated music &ndash; all contributed to the shift to the "Romantic" style.
Drawing the line exactly is impossible: there are sections of Mozart's works which, taken alone, are indistinguishable in harmony and orchestration from music written 80 years later, and composers continue to write in normative Classical styles all the way into the [[20th century]]. Even before Beethoven's death, composers such as [[Louis Spohr]] were self-described Romantics, incorporating, for example, more and more extravagant chromaticism in their works. However, generally the fall of Vienna as the most important musical center for orchestral composition is felt to be the occasion of the Classical style's final eclipse, along with its continuous organic development of one composer learning in close proximity to others. [[Franz Liszt]] and [[Frédéric Chopin]] visited Vienna when young, but they then moved on to other vistas. Composers such as [[Carl Czerny]], while deeply influenced by Beethoven, also searched for new ideas and new forms to contain the larger world of musical expression and performance in which they lived.
==Further reading==
* Rosen, Charles. ''The Classical Style: Haydn, Mozart, Beethoven.'' W.W. Norton & Company. ISBN 0-393-31712-9.
==See also==
*[[List of Classical composers]]
*[[:Category:Classical era composers]]
== External links ==
*[http://www.download-latest-online-music.com/free-classical-music-downloads.html Free music downloads from classical music era]
*[http://www.musiclassical.com Directories of composers and performers of classical.music]
*[http://www.classicalmanac.com A daily glance a this day in classical music history]
[[Category:Classical music era]]
[[Category:Classicism]]
[[Category:Classical music]]
[[Category:Austrian music history]]
[[Category:Music history]]
{{Link FA|eo}}
{{Link FA|fi}}
[[da:Wienerklassicismen]]
[[de:Wiener |
''[[Robert P. Lamont]]'''||align="left"|1929&ndash;1932
|-
|align="left"|&nbsp;||align="left"|'''[[Roy D. Chapin]]'''||align="left"|1932&ndash;1933
|-
|align="left"|[[United States Secretary of Labor|Secretary of Labor]]||align="left"|'''[[James J. Davis]]'''||align="left"|1929&ndash;1930
|-
|align="left"|&nbsp;||align="left"|'''[[William N. Doak]]'''||align="left"|1930&ndash;1933
|}
<br clear="all">
===Supreme Court appointments===
Hoover appointed the following Justices to the [[Supreme Court of the United States]]:
* [[Charles Evans Hughes]] - Chief Justice - 1930
* [[Owen Josephus Roberts]] - 1930
* [[Benjamin Nathan Cardozo]] - 1932
==Post-Presidency==
His opponents in Congress, whom he felt were sabotaging his program for their own political gain, painted him as a callous and cruel president.
Hoover was badly defeated in the [[U.S. presidential election, 1932|1932 presidential election]]. After Roosevelt assumed the presidency, Hoover became a critic of the [[New Deal]], warning against tendencies toward [[statism]]. His misgivings are in the book, ''The Challenge to Liberty'', where he talked of [[fascism]], [[communism]], and [[socialism]] as enemies of traditional American liberties.
In 1938, Hoover went on a tour of Europe and met many heads of state, including [[Adolf Hitler]].
In 1940, Hoover spoke at the Philadelphia Republican convention. Numerous reporters, including [[Drew Pearson (journalist)|Drew Pearson]], wrote that Hoover was positioning himself for the nomination, which, although taking place as France fell to Hitler's armies, was split between four candidates, the isolationists ([[Thomas Dewey]], [[Robert Taft]] and [[Arthur Vandenberg]]) and the eventual winner, and anti-Nazi, [[Wendell Willkie]]. Hoover said that Hitler's victory over Europe was assured, and what America needed was a man as President who could do business with Hitler, and who had never alienated him. This is detailed in the Charles Peters book, "Five Days in Philadelphia."
[[Image:kennedy-hoover.jpg|right|thumb|President [[John F. Kennedy]] meets with former President Hoover.]]
In 1947, President [[Harry S. Truman]] appointed Hoover to a [[commission]], which elected him chairman, to reorganize the executive departments. This became known as the [[Hoover Commission]]. He was appointed chairman of a similar commission by President [[Dwight D. Eisenhower]] in 1953. Many government economies resulted from both commissions' recommendations. Over the years, Hoover wrote many articles and books, one of which he was working on when he died at the age of 90 in [[New York City]] on [[October 20]], [[1964]] at 11:35 AM, 31 years and seven months after leaving office. He had outlived his wife by 20 years. By the time of his death, he had rehabilitated his image and died praised as a beloved statesman. His was the longest retirement of any President. ([[Gerald Ford]] is now a close contender, and, [[as of 2006]], he has been out of office for 29 years). Hoover and his wife are buried at the [[Herbert Hoover Presidential Library and Museum]] in [[West Branch, Iowa]]. Hoover was honored with a [[state funeral]], and it was America's third in a span of 12 months (The others were for [[John F. Kennedy]] and General of the Army [[Douglas MacArthur]]).
==Heritage and memorials==
The Lou Henry and Herbert Hoover House, built in [[1919]] in [[Palo Alto, California]], is now the official residence of the President of Stanford University, and a [[National Historic Landmark]]. Hoover's rustic rural presidential retreat, [[Rapidan Camp]] (also later known as Camp Hoover) in the [[Shenandoah National Park]] in [[Virginia]], has been recently been restored and opened to the public. The [[Hoover Dam]] was also named in his honor.
==Quotes==
*"True American Liberalism utterly denies the whole creed of socialism." ''The Challenge to Liberty'', pg 57.
*"A chicken in every pot and a car in every garage" - Presidential Campaign Slogan 1928
*"I outlived the bastards" - answer to a question of how he managed to survive the long ostracism under the Roosevelt administration.
*"Once upon a time my political opponents honored me as possessing the fabulous intellectual and economic power by which I created a worldwide depression all by myself."
*"Older men declare war. But it is the youth that must fight and die."
*"There are only two occasions when Americans respect privacy, especially in Presidents. Those are prayer and fishing."
*"Wisdom oft times consists of knowing what to do next"
==Media==
{{multi-video start}}
{{multi-video item |
filename = Herbert Hoover video montage.ogg|
title = Herbert Hoover video montage|
description =Collection of video clips of the president. (3.2 [[Megabyte|MB]], [[ogg]]/[[Theora]] format). |
format = [[Theora]]
}}
{{multi-video end}}
==See also==
[[image:Books_fishing_for_fun.jpg|right|250px|thumb|Hoover's "Fishing for Fun".]]
* ''[[Fishing for Fun- and to Wash Your Soul]]''
* [[U.S. presidential election, 1928]]
* [[U.S. presidential election, 1932]]
* [[Hoover-Minthorn House]]
* [[Hoover Institution]]
* [[Herbert Hoover Presidential Library and Museum]] - located near [[Iowa City, Iowa|Iowa City]] in [[West Branch, Iowa]].
* [[Hooverball]] - sport created by Hoover's physician, played nearly every morning of his presidency on the White House lawn
* [[Herbert Hoover National Historical Site]] - also in [[West Branch, Iowa]]
* [[Rapidan Camp]] - Hoover's presidential retreat and fishing camp in [[Virginia]]
* [[Hooverville]]
==References==
===Primary sources===
* Myers, William Starr and Walter H. Newton, eds. ''The Hoover Administration; a documented narrative''. 1936.
* Hawley, Ellis, ed. ''Herbert Hoover: Containing the Public Messages, Speeches, and Statements of the President,'' 4 vols. (1974-1977)
* Hoover, Herbert Clark and Lou Henry Hoover, trans., ''De Re Metallica'', by Agricola, G., The Mining magazine, London, 1912
* Hoover, Herbert C. ''The Challenge to Liberty'', 1934
* Hoover, Herbert C. ''Addresses Upon The American Road, 1933-1938'', 1938
* Hoover, Herbert C. ''Addresses Upon The American Road, 1940-41'', (1941)
* Hoover, Herbert C. ''The Problems of Lasting Peace'', with Hugh Gibson, 1942
* Hoover, Herbert C. ''Addresses Upon The American Road, 1945-48'', (1949)
* Hoover, Herbert C. ''Memoirs.'' New York, 1951–52. 3 vol; v. 1. Years of adventure, 1874–1920; v. 2. The Cabinet and the Presidency, 1920–1933; v. 3. The Great Depression, 1929–1941.
===Secondary sources===
* [http://millercenter.virginia.edu/scripps/reference/bibliographies/hoover.html Long annotated bibliography] via [[University of Virginia]].
* Barber, William J. ''From New Era to New Deal: Herbert Hoover, the Economists, and American Economic Policy, 1921-1933.'' (1985).
* Barry, John M. ''Rising Tide: The Great Mississippi Flood of 1927 and How It Changed America'' (1998), Hoover played a major role.
* Best, Gary Dean. ''The Politics of American Individualism: Herbert Hoover in Transition, 1918-1921'' (1975)
* Burner, David. ''Herbert Hoover: A Public Life''. (1979). The best one-volume biography.
* DeConde, Alexander. ''Herbert Hoover's Latin American Policy.'' (1951).
* Dodge, Mark M., ed. ''Herbert Hoover and the Historians.'' (1989).
* Fausold, Martin L. ''The Presidency of Herbert C. Hoover.'' (1985) standard scholarly overview.
* Fausold Martin L. and George Mazuzan, eds. ''The Hoover Presidency: A Reappraisal'' (1974).
* Ferrell, Robert H. ''American Diplomacy in the Great Depression: Hoover-Stimson Foreign Policy, 1929-1933.'' (1957).
* Gelfand, Lawrence E. ed., ''Herbert Hoover: The Great War and Its Aftermath, 1914-1923'' (1979).
* Hamilton, David E. ''From New Day to New Deal: American Farm Policy from Hoover to Roosevelt, 1928-1933.'' (1991).
* Hatfield, Mark. ed. ''Herbert Hoover Reassessed'' (2002).
* Hawley, Ellis. ''Herbert Hoover as Secretary of Commerce: Studies in New Era Thought and Practice'' (1981). A major reinterpretation.
* Hawley, Ellis. ''Herbert Hoover and the Historians'' (1989).
* Hoff-Wilson, Joan. ''Herbert Hoover: Forgotten Progressive.'' (1975).
* Lichtman, Allan J. ''Prejudice and the Old Politics: The Presidential Election of 1928'' (1979).
* Lisio, Donald J. ''The President and Protest: Hoover, MacArthur, and the Bonus Riot,'' 2d ed. (1994).
* Lisio, Donald J. ''Hoover, Blacks, and Lily-whites: A Study of Southern Strategies'' (1985)
* Lloyd, Craig. ''Aggressive Introvert: A Study of Herbert Hoover and Public Relations Management, 1912-1932'' (1973).
* Nash, George H. ''The Life of Herbert Hoover: The Engineer 1874-1914'' (1983), the definitive scholarly biography.
* Nash, George H. ''Life of Herbert Hoover: The Humanitarian, 1914-1917'' (1988), vol. 2.
* Nash, George H. ''The Life of Herbert Hoover: Master of Emergencies, 1917-1918'' (1996), vol. 3
* Nash, Lee, ed. ''Understanding Herbert Hoover: Ten Perspectives'' (1987)
* Olson, James S. ''Herbert Hoover and the Reconstruction Finance Corporation, 1931-1933'' (1977).
* Romasco, Albert U. ''The Poverty of Abundance: Hoover, the Nation, the Depression'' (1965).
* Schwarz, Jordan A. ''The Interregnum of Despair: Hoover, Congress, and the Depression.'' (1970). Hostile to Hoover.
* Smith, Richard Norton. ''An Uncommon Man: The Triumph of Herbert Hoover'', (1987) covers 1933-64.
* Wilbur, Ray Lyman, and Arthur Mastick Hyde. ''The Hoover Policies.'' (1937). In depth description of his administration by two cabinet members.
===Notes===
<references/>
==External links==
* {{gutenberg author| id=Herbert+Hoover | name=Herbert Hoover}}
* [http://www.uh.edu/engines/epi139.htm Hoover and Agricola]
* [http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/presiden/inaug/hoover.htm Inaugural Addr |
and==
In [[1987]] Winer sold Living Videotext to [[Symantec]] and used the profits to purchase a large home in [[Woodside, California]] (next to [[Joan Baez]]) and founded [[UserLand Software]].
In [[1992]] UserLand developed Frontier, a scripting language for the [[Apple Macintosh|Macintosh]]. After Apple took most of Frontier's market by bundling its own scripting language, [[AppleScript]], with new systems, UserLand ported Frontier to [[Microsoft Windows|Windows]]. The Frontier kernel was made [[open source]] under the [[GPL|GNU General Public License]] on [[September 28]], [[2004]].
During the Web boom of the [[1990s]], Frontier became the technology behind [http://manila.userland.com/ Manila], a content management system that allowed the hosting of web sites and their editing through a browser. UserLand ran a free Manila hosting service, EditThisPage.com, which quickly began being used mostly to run [[weblog]]s, which Winer helped popularize. UserLand also ran one of the first Web aggregators, My.UserLand.Com, which allowed users to follow numerous weblogs from a single web page using a [[Netscape Communications Corporation|Netscape]]-created format called [[RSS (file format)|RSS]], modified to include an XML format Winer had used for his weblog. After Netscape abandoned its My.Netscape RSS project, Winer continued to develop and promote a version of RSS, which he called "[[Really Simple Syndication]]" (distinguishing it from other syndication formats based on [[RDF]]). Winer convinced [[The New York Times]], among other media organizations, to adopt RSS.
Winer also developed the protocol [[XML-RPC]], which led to the creation of [[Simple Object Access Protocol|SOAP]] (co-authored by Winer, [[Microsoft]], and [[Don Box]]).
In [[2001]] UserLand combined My.UserLand.Com's aggregator and Manila's blogging functions to create [[Radio UserLand]], a lower-cost client-side tool that let blogs be uploaded to UserLand's servers as part of the annual software license fee.
In [[June 2002]] Winer had [[coronary artery bypass surgery]] to prevent a heart attack. Afterwards, he quit smoking and left his job as CEO of UserLand, although he maintained ownership of the firm, kept blogging, and kept promoting his flavor of RSS.
==Berkman Fellow at Harvard==
He then spent a year as a resident fellow at the [[Harvard Law School]]'s [[Berkman Center for Internet and Society]] where he worked on using weblogs in education. While there, he launched the [http://blogs.law.harvard.edu/ Harvard Weblogs] community using UserLand software, and held the first [[BloggerCon]] conferences. Winer's fellowship ended in June 2004.
==Contributions to podcasting==
In collaboration with former [[MTV]] personality [[Adam Curry]] and others, Winer helped develop technical specifications for including media files as enclosure links in the RSS protocol, which permitted widespread adoption of [[podcasting]]. In June 2005, he gave the opening keynote speech at the [[Gnomedex]] 5.0 conference in [[Seattle, Washington|Seattle]] (Curry gave the closing keynote). At that conference, Winer demonstrated his new [[open source]] [[OPML]] Editor application&mdash;a web-based take on the outliners for which he originally gained fame&mdash;where he, as of August 2005, is focusing most of his efforts.
==Weblogs.com==
After leaving Userland, Winer continued to maintain the domain weblogs.com, which provided a free [[ping-server]] used by most [[weblog|blog]] applications, as well as free hosting to many early bloggers. (Web-services like [[Feedster]] and [[Technorati]] monitor Weblogs.com for its list of the latest blog posts, generated in response to pings via XML-RPC.)
In mid-June 2004, Winer stopped providing free blog-hosting services there. Free hosting was soon provided elsewhere, however.
In October, 2005, Verisign bought the Weblogs.com [[Ping blog|ping-server]] from Winer, promising that services currently free there would still be free. The [[podcasting]]-related web site audio.weblogs.com was also included in the $2.3 million deal [http://www.eweek.com/article2/0,1895,1868270,00.asp].
==Relationship to the public==
Winer is known as one of the more polarizing figures in the blogging community. [[Tim Bray]], a co-inventor of [[XML]], wrote on his blog "Dave Winer has done a tremendous amount of work on RSS and invented important parts of it and deserves a huge amount of credit for getting us as far as we have. However, just looking around, I observe that there are many people and organizations who seem unable to maintain a good working relationship with Dave." [http://www.tbray.org/ongoing/When/200x/2003/06/23/SamsPie] [[Tim O'Reilly]], who has had a rocky relationship with Dave for many years with regards to the technology conferences Tim organizes, says that Dave "can be a great contributor, but he can also decide, for no apparent reason, that someone is somehow on 'the other side,' at which point he becomes disruptive and abusive." [http://www.oreilly.com/pub/a/oreilly/ask_tim/2000/winer_0900.html]
Others speak of Winer with admiration and affection. "Dave is one of my favorite sources of information and opinion on the Web. His opinions are passionately held, well-informed, intelligent, argumentative, and quite often wrong," quipped [[Hitchhikers Guide to the Galaxy]] author [[Douglas Adams]]. [http://www.wired.com/wired/archive/9.05/winer.html] [[Cluetrain Manifesto]] co-author [[Doc Searls]], a long-time friend of Dave Winer, expressed the sense of indebtedness shared by many of Winer's admirers: "When they scroll the credits of my life, Dave's is going to be one of the first names on the list. And when they scroll the credits for [[weblog|blogging]], [[outliner|outlining]], writing, [[scripting]], journalism, [[XML]], [[RSS]], [[SOAP]], [[podcasting]] and a pile of other technologies, standards and practices we will all eventually take for granted, the same will be true for those as well." [http://doc.weblogs.com/2005/10/07#aPostOfThanks]
==See also==
* [[BloggerCon]]
* [[MORE]]
* [[OPML]]
* [[outliner]]
* [[RSS (file format)|RSS]]
* [[WeblogsDotCom]]
==External links==
* [http://www.scripting.com/ Scripting News, Dave Winer's weblog]
* His [http://scriptingnews.userland.com/cv CV] and [http://dave.editthispage.com/bio BIO]
* [http://newhome.weblogs.com/historyOfWeblogs Dave's history of weblogs]
* [http://eyeonwiner.org/ Eye on Winer] A weblog devoted to criticism of Dave Winer
===News coverage and interviews===
* [http://www.pbs.org/cringely/nerdtv/shows/#6 NerdTV Interview] (video, audio, and transcript available) - [[30 September]] [[2005]]
* [http://www.wired.com/wired/archive/9.05/winer.html Almost famous], a [[Wired Magazine]] profile
* [http://www.eweek.com/article2/0,1895,1868270,00.asp EWeek story: VeriSign acquires Dave Winer's Weblogs.com]
* [http://slashdot.org/articles/04/06/15/2354258.shtml?tid=126&tid=95| Slashdot Discussion On Weblogs.com Controversy] [http://developers.slashdot.org/article.pl?sid=04/06/17/2326207&tid=167&tid=108&tid=163| Slashdot follow-up, three days later]
===Companies and technologies of relevant interest===
* [http://www.userland.com/ UserLand]
* [http://kernel.scripting.com/ Frontier kernel]
* [http://manila.userland.com/ Manila]
* [http://radio.userland.com/ Radio Userland]
* [http://blogs.law.harvard.edu/ Harvard Law School Blogs] (powered by Manila)
* [http://davenet.scripting.com/ Dave Net]
* [http://www.outliners.com/ Outliners]
* [http://www.xmlrpc.org/ XML-RPC]
* [http://www.soapware.org/ Directory For Soap Developers]
* [http://www.opml.org/ OPML] (Outline Processor Markup Language)
[[Category:1955 births|Winer, Dave]]
[[Category:Living people|Winer, Dave]]
[[Category:American bloggers|Winer, Dave]]
[[Category:Berkman Fellows]]
[[Category:Programmers|Winer, Dave]]
[[Category:Technical evangelists|Winer, Dave]]
[[de:Dave Winer]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>December 10</title>
<id>8714</id>
<revision>
<id>42051343</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T13:37:43Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Weregerbil</username>
<id>700735</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Deaths */ rm wrong year, wrong date</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''[[December 10]]''' is the 344th day (345th in [[leap year]]s) of the year in the [[Gregorian calendar]]. There are 21 days remaining.
{{DecemberCalendar}}
==Events==
*[[1041]] - Empress [[Zoe of Byzantium]] elevates her adoptive son to the throne of the [[Eastern Roman Empire]] as [[Michael V]].
*[[1508]] - The [[League of Cambrai]] is formed by [[Pope Julius II]], [[Louis XII of France]], [[Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor]] and [[Ferdinand II of Aragon]] as an alliance against [[Venice]].
*[[1520]] - [[Martin Luther]] burns his copy of the [[papal bull]] ''[[Exsurge Domine]]'' outside [[Wittenberg]]'s Elster Gate.
*[[1684]] - [[Isaac Newton]]'s derivation of [[Kepler's laws]] from his theory of gravity, contained in the paper ''[[De motu corporum in gyrum]]'', is read to the [[Royal Society]] by [[Edmund Halley]].
*[[1817]] - [[Mississippi]] becomes the 20th [[U.S. state]].
*[[1836]] - Emory College (now [[Emory University]]) is chartered in [[Oxford, Georgia]].
*[[1864]] - [[American Civil War]]: [[Sherman's March to the Sea]] - Major General [[William T. Sherman]]'s [[Union Army]] troops reach [[Savannah, Georgia]].
*[[1868]] - The first [[traffic lights]] are installed outside the [[Palace of Westminster|Houses of Parliament]] in [[London]]. Resembling [[railway signals]], they use [[Semaphore (communication)|semaphore]] arms and are illuminated at night by red and green [[gas lamp]]s.
*[[1869]] - [[Wyoming]] grants women the right to vote.
*[[1898]] - [[Spanish-American War]]: The [[Treaty of Paris (1898)|Treaty of Paris]] is signed, officially ending the conflict.
*[[1899]] - The [[Delta |
ose images and feelings to his cause.
Certain media agencies, notably the [[BBC]] and [[Reuters]], aside from attributed quotes, refuse to use the phrase "terrorist" or "freedom fighter", or even more descriptive and neutral terms such as "[[militant]]", "[[guerrilla warfare|guerrilla]]" or "[[assassin]]", to avoid the political repercussions of the use of such words. The BBC did, however refer to the mainly-Catholic [[Provisional Irish Republican Army]] as terrorists, while members of mainly Protestant armed groups in Northern Ireland were usually referred to as "[[paramilitaries]]" rather than terrorists. [[Al Qaeda]] [[militant]]s are usually referred to as terrorists, especially since [[September 11, 2001]]. The actions of [[Timothy McVeigh]] were also described as terrorism.
Typically, [[Palestinian]] terrorist groups such as [[Hamas]] and [[Palestinian Islamic Jihad]], seen by most as terrorist, are referred to in BBC and [[Reuters]] publications as "[[militant]]". This apparent "[[neutralist]]" stand is in contrast with its treatment of states, for example, with the BBC's use of the word "[[dictatorship]]" to describe governments of various [[authoritarianism|authoritarian]] or [[totalitarianism|totalitarian]] tendencies, which has the effect of qualifying the merit of a government.
==See also==
*[[Irregular military]]
*[[Assassin]]
*[[Terrorism]]
*[[Doublespeak]]
*[[Freedom Fighters (computer game)]]
==External links==
*[http://social.chass.ncsu.edu/jouvert/v613/sri.htm News Coverage of Freedom Fighters and Rebels]
[[Category:English phrases]]
[[Category:War]]
[[Category:Warriors]]
[[Category:Irregular military]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Federal Bureau of Investigation</title>
<id>11127</id>
<revision>
<id>41945037</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T20:20:37Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Kmf164</username>
<id>94080</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/71.141.8.48|71.141.8.48]] ([[User talk:71.141.8.48|talk]]) to last version by Gman-cv</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{redirect|FBI}}
[[Image:FBISeal.png|200px|thumb|Official FBI Seal]]
The '''Federal Bureau of Investigation''' ('''FBI''') is a [[Federal police|Federal criminal investigative]] and intelligence agency which is the principal investigative arm of the [[United States Department of Justice]] (DOJ). Title 28, United States Code (U.S. Code), Section 533, which authorizes the [[Attorney General]] to "appoint officials to detect... crimes against the United States", and other federal statutes give the FBI the authority and responsibility to investigate specific crimes. At present, the FBI has investigative jurisdiction over violations of more than 200 categories of [[federal crime]]s and thus has the broadest investigative authority of any federal law enforcement agency. The [[FBI Ten Most Wanted Fugitives]] list has been used since [[1949]] to notify the public of wanted fugitives.
==Mission==
The mission of the FBI is to uphold the law through the investigation of violations of federal criminal law; to protect the United States from foreign intelligence and terrorist activities; to provide leadership and [[Police|law enforcement]] assistance to federal, state, local, and international agencies; and to perform these responsibilities in a manner that is responsive to the needs of the public and is faithful to the [[United States Constitution]]. The Bureau's [[motto]] is "Fidelity, Bravery, Integrity."
Information obtained through an FBI investigation is presented to the appropriate U.S. Attorney or DOJ official, who decides if prosecution or other action is warranted. Top priority has been assigned to three areas: [[counter-terrorism|counterterrorism]], foreign [[counter-intelligence|counterintelligence]], and cyber crime.
==Personnel==
*Special Agents - The number of [[Special agent|Special Agents]] has grown over the years, and as of January 31, 2006 was 12,487 out of a total workforce of 30,306. Some of these Special Agents are stationed in foreign countries and work in U.S. Embassies as "Legal Attaches", or as they are known in the FBI: LEGATS. Both new and veteran agents are routinely trained at the [[FBI Academy]] in [[Quantico, Virginia]].
*The FBI Police - The FBI also maintains a force of 1,000 uniformed [[Security police]] officers in the FBI Police for protecting the [[J. Edgar Hoover Building]], [[FBI Academy]] at [[MCB Quantico]], the Washington Field Office and the New York Field Office.
==Present mission of the FBI ==
[[Image:J edgar hoover bldg.jpg|225px|thumb|right|[[J. Edgar Hoover Building]], FBI Headquarters]]
As of June [[2002]], the FBI's official top priority is [[counter-terrorism|counterterrorism]]. The [[USA PATRIOT Act]] granted the FBI increased powers, especially in [[wiretap]]ping and monitoring of internet activity. One of the most controversial provisions of the act is the so-called "sneak and peek" provision, granting the FBI powers to search a house while the residents are away, and not requiring them to notify the residents for several weeks afterwards. Under the PATRIOT Act's provisions the FBI also resumed inquiring into the [[library]] records of those it suspected of [[terrorism]], something it had supposedly not done since the [[1970s]]. The bureau is also charged with the responsibility of enforcing compliance of the United States Civil Rights Act of 1964 and investigating violations of The Act in addition to prosecuting such violations with the [[United States Department of Justice]] (DOJ). The FBI also shares concurrent jurisdiction with the [[Drug Enforcement Administration|DEA]] in the enforcement of the [[Controlled Substances Act]] of 1970.
== History of the FBI ==
The FBI originated from a force of Special Agents created on [[July 26]], [[1908]], by Attorney General [[Charles Joseph Bonaparte]] during the presidency of [[Theodore Roosevelt]]. At first it was named the '''Bureau of Investigation''' (BOI) and it did not become the FBI until 1935.
Under [[J. Edgar Hoover]], who became director of the Bureau on [[May 10]], [[1924]], the agency spent much of its energy investigating political activists who were not accused of any crime (e.g., [[Albert Einstein]] as a [[socialist]]).
The FBI Scientific Crime Detection Laboratory (better known as the [[FBI Crime Lab]]) officially opened on [[November 24]], [[1932]].
During the 1930s, the agency played a prominent role in apprehending a number of well-known criminals who had conducted kidnappings, robberies and murders throughout the nation. These included [[John Dillinger]], [[Baby Face Nelson |"Baby Face" Nelson]], [[Ma Barker|Kate "Ma" Barker]], [[Alvin Karpis]] and [[Machine Gun Kelly|George "Machine Gun" Kelly]]. It also played a decisive role in reducing the scope and influence of the [[Ku Klux Klan]]. Through the work of [[Edwin Atherton]], the FBI claimed success in apprehending an entire army of Mexican neo-revolutionaries along the California border in the 1920's.
Beginning with the 1940s and continuing into the 1970s, the agency investigated cases of espionage against the United States and its allies. Eight [[Nazi]] agents who had planned [[sabotage]] operations against American targets were arrested.
Although Hoover initially doubted the existence of a close-knit [[organized crime]] network in the United States, the bureau later conducted operations against known organized crime syndicates and families, including those headed by [[Sam Giancana]] and [[John Gotti]].
During the 1950s and 1960s, the FBI carried out controversial [[espionage|domestic surveillance]] in an operation called [[Cointelpro]]. It aimed at investigating and disrupting dissident political organizations within the United States, including militant organizations and non-violent movements. [[Martin Luther King, Jr.]] was a frequent target of investigation. The FBI found no evidence of any crime, but attempted to use tapes of King involved in sexual activity for blackmail. In his 1991 memoirs, [[Washington Post]] journalist [[Carl Rowan]] asserted that the FBI had sent at least one anonymous letter to King encouraging him to commit suicide.[http://www.straightdope.com/columns/030502.html]
==Recent controversies==
The Bureau has endured public criticism and internal conflict in the past decade as it attempts both to modernize technologically and to take on a greater [[counter-terrorism]] role.
*In the [[1990s]], it turned out that the fingerprint unit of the FBI's crime lab had repeatedly done shoddy work. In some cases, the technicians, given evidence that actually cleared a suspect, reported instead that it proved the suspect guilty. Many cases had to be reopened when this pattern of errors was discovered. The FBI Lab is considered to be a leading forensic laboratory, in global terms.
*In [[2000]], the Bureau began the Trilogy project to upgrade its outdated [[Information Technology|IT]] infrastructure. This project, originally scheduled to take three years and cost around $380 million, ended up going far over budget and behind schedule. Efforts to deploy modern computers and networking equipment were generally successful, but attempts to develop new investigation software, outsourced to [[Science Applications International Corporation|SAIC]], were a disaster. [[Virtual Case File]], or VCF, as the software was known, was plagued by poorly defined goals and repeated changes in management. In [[January 2005]], more than two years after the software was originally planned to be completed, the Bureau officially abandoned the project. At least $100 million (and much more by some estimates) was spent on the project, which was never operational. The Burea |
nal restaurants as the expatriot community and tourism grow.
There are a few museums such as the National Museum, the Village Museum, or the Botanical Gardens that one can visit, and within an hour's drive North is [[Bagamoyo]], home to the Kaole ruins. There are beaches on the Kigamboni peninsula East of Dar es Salaam and on Kigamboni Island to the North that residents and tourists frequently visit. The National Stadium hosts periodical football matches between rival Tanzanian clubs and Dar es Salaam's Simba club, as well as international matches.
The first cineplex in [[Tanzania]] to show first-run Western and Indian releases was opened in Dar es Salaam in December of [[2003]].
==Trivia==
The building that houses The National Audit Office of Tanzania used to be a car salesroom before it was nationalised by the state shortly after independence.
Bongo is the commonly-used nickname for Dar es Salaam. The use of the word can be traced to the mid-1980s. Bongo is [[Swahili]] for 'brains'. It is thought that due to the hard economic times during [[Nyerere]]'s rule, the only way one could survive was by using his brains. 'Bongoland' sometimes refers to Tanzania.
[[Masaki]] and Mikocheni are suburbs of Dar es Salaam
==Photos==
<gallery>
Image:Ikulu-tz.jpg|State House Building - '''Ikulu''' in Dar-Es-Salaam
Image:DarEsSalaam-RoundAbout.jpg|Round about at the Askari Monument
Image:DarEsSalaam-SamoraMachelAvenue.jpg|Samora Machel Avenue with N.I.C. House
Image:DarEsSalaam-Skyline.jpg|Ferry to Kigamboni, skyline of the city in background
Image:DarEsSalaam-KigamboniBeach.jpg|Beach on the half island Kigamboni
Image:DarEsSalaam-Buguruni.jpg|Shopping street in Buguruni
Image:Bernard.19.10.95 014.jpg|Mafuta Building at Sunset
Image:0531000225.jpg|Arusha from the Air
Image:Askari.jpg|Askari Monument
Image:Po (1).jpg|Dar Es Salaam International Airport
Image:Jangwani -1.jpg|Fans Celebrate the Arrival of The football Team Young African Sports Club (Yanga)
Image:National-stadium.jpg|National Stadium
Image:Mnazi-mmoja.jpg|Mnazi Mmoja
Image:DSC00513.JPG|Sunset Kigamboni
Image:Jmosi2.jpg|Ferry at Kigamboni
Image:00023.JPG|Msimbazi Orphanage
</gallery>
==External links==
* [http://maps.google.com/maps?ll=0.308304,32.577553&spn=0.166014,0.234180&t=k&hl=en Google Satelite Image of Dar-Es-Salaam]
[[Category:Dar es Salaam| ]]
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<page>
<title>Distributed computing</title>
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<text xml:space="preserve">'''Distributed [[computing]]''' is an aspect of [[computer science]] that deals with the coordination of multiple computers in remote physical locations in order to accomplish a common objective or task. In distributed computing, the type of each computer, [[hardware]], [[programming languages]], [[Operating System]] and resources may vary drastically. [[Clustering]] shares many things in common with distributed computing, but the main difference is the practical physical accessibility of the machines that are working together.
Organising the interaction between each computer is of prime importance. In order to be able to use the widest possible range and types of computers, the protocol or communication channel should not contain and use any information that may not be understood by certain machines. Special care must also be taken that messages are indeed delivered correctly and that invalid messages are rejected which would otherwise bring down the system and perhaps the rest of the network.
Another important factor is the ability to send software over to another computer in a portable way so that it may execute and interact with the existing network. Obviously, this may not always be possible when using differing hardware and resources, so other methods must be used such as cross-compiling or manually porting this software.
== Goal ==
There are many different types of distributed computing systems and many challenges to overcome in successfully designing one. The main goal of a distributed computing system is to connect users and resources in a [[Transparency (computing)|transparent]], open, and [[scalable]] way. Ideally this arrangement is drastically more [[fault tolerant]] and more powerful than many combinations of [[stand-alone]] computer systems.
Today [[Web Services]] provide the standard protocols for connecting distributed systems.
== Examples ==
An example of a distributed system is the [[World Wide Web]]. As you are reading a web page, you are actually using the distributed system that comprises the site. As you are browsing the web, your [[web browser]] running on your own computer communicates with different [[web server]]s that provide web pages. Possibly, your browser uses a [[proxy server]] to access the web contents stored on web servers faster and more securely. To find these servers, it also uses the distributed [[domain name system]]. Your web browser communicates with all of these servers over the [[Internet]], via a system of [[router]]s which are themselves part of a large distributed system.
=== Openness ===
Openness is the property of distributed systems such that each subsystem is continually open to interaction with other systems (see references). [[Web Services]] protocols are standards which enable distributed systems to be extended and scaled. In general, an open system that scales has an advantage over a perfectly closed and self-contained system.
Consequently, open distributed systems are required to meet the following challenges:
; Monotonicity
: Once something is published in an open distributed system, it cannot be taken back.
; Pluralism
: Different subsystems of an open distributed system include heterogeneous, overlapping and possibly conflicting information. There is no central arbiter of truth in open distributed systems.
; Unbounded nondeterminism
: Asynchronously, different subsystems can come up and go down and communication links can come in and go out between subsystems of an open distributed system. Therefore the time that it will take to complete an operation cannot be bounded in advance (see [[unbounded nondeterminism]]).
=== Scalability ===
{{main|Scalability}}
A scalable system is one that can easily be altered to accommodate changes in the number of users, resources and computing entities affected to it. Scalability can be measured in three different dimensions:
; Load scalability
: A distributed system should make it easy for us to expand and contract its resource pool to accommodate heavier or lighter loads.
; Geographic scalability
: A geographically scalable system is one that maintains its usefulness and usability, regardless of how far apart its users or resources are.
; Administrative scalability
: No matter how many different organizations need to share a single distributed system, it should still be easy to use and manage.
Some loss of performance may occur in a system that allows itself to scale in one or more of these dimensions.
==== Multiprocessor systems ====
A [[multiprocessing|multiprocessor]] system is simply a computer that has more than one CPU on its motherboard. If the operating system is built to take advantage of this, it can run different [[process (computing)|processes]] on different CPUs, or different threads belonging to the same process.
Over the years, many different multiprocessing options have been explored for use in distributed computing. Intel CPUs employ a technology called [[Hyperthreading]] that allows more than one [[thread (computer science)|thread]] (usually two) to run on the same CPU. The most recent Sun [[UltraSPARC T1]], [[Athlon 64 X2]] and Intel [[Pentium D]] processors feature multiple processor cores to also increase the number of concurrent threads they can run.
==== Multicomputer systems ====
A multicomputer system is a system made up of several independent computers interconnected by a telecommunications network.
Multicomputer systems can be homogeneous or heterogeneous:
A [[homogeneous]] distributed system is one where all CPUs are similar and are connected by a single type of network. They are often used for [[parallel computing]] which is a kind of distributed computing where every computer is working on different parts of a single problem.
In contrast an [[heterogeneous]] distributed system is one that can be made up of all sorts of different computers, eventually with vastly differing memory sizes, processing power and even basic underlying architecture. They are in widespread use today, with many companies adopting this architecture due to the speed with which hardware goes obsolete and the cost of upgrading a whole system simultaneously.
== Architecture ==
Various hardware and software architectures exist that are usually used for distributed computing. At a lower level, it is necessary to interconnect multiple CPUs with some sort of network, regardless of that network being printed onto a circuit board or made up of several loosely-coupled devices and cables. At a higher level, it is necessary to interconnect processes running on those CPUs with some sort of communication system.
* [[Client-server]] &mdash; Smart client code contacts the server for data, then formats and displays it to the use |
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'''Anthemius of Tralles''' (c. [[474]] - c. [[534]]) was professor of [[geometry]] at [[Constantinople]] and [[architect]], with [[Isidore of Miletus]], of [[Hagia Sophia]]. Anthemius came from an educated family; he was one of five brothers--the sons of Stephanus, a physician of Tralles--who were all more or less eminent in their respective departments. Dioscorus followed his father's profession in his native place; Alexander became at Rome one of the most celebrated medical men of his time; Olympius was deeply versed in Roman jurisprudence; and Metrodorus was one of the distinguished grammarians of the great Eastern capital.
He is known both a mathematician and an architect. As an architect he is best known for replacing the old church of [[Hagia Sophia]] at [[Constantinople]] in [[532]]; his daring plans for the church strikingly displayed at once his knowledge and his ignorance. His skills seem also to have extended to engineering for he is said to have been employed to repair flood defences at [[Daras]].
Anthemius had previously written a book on [[conic section]]s, excellent preparation for designing the elaborate vaulting of Hagia Sophia. He compiled a survey of mirror configurations in his work on remarkable mechanical devices which was known to certain of the Arab mathematicians such as [[Al-Haytham]].
There are a number of stories told about Anthemius, which we may not be able to ascertain for an indefinite amount of time. Regardless of the veracity, these might be the only clues available as to the character of Anthemius.
It is related of Anthemius that, having a quarrel with his next-door neighbour Zeno, he annoyed him in two ways. First, he made a number of leathern tubes the ends of which he contrived to fix among the joists and flooring of a fine upper-room in which Zeno entertained his friends, and then subjected it to a miniature earthquake by sending steam through the tubes. Secondly, he simulated thunder and lightning, the latter by flashing in Zeno's eyes an intolerable light from a slightly hollowed mirror.
Certain it is that he wrote a treatise on burning-glasses. A fragment of this was published under the title &Pi;&eta;&rho;&iota; &pi;&alpha;&rho;&alpha;&delta;&omicron;&xi;&omega;&nu; &mu;&eta;&chi;&alpha;&nu;&eta;&mu;&alpha;&tau;&omega;&nu; by L. Dupuy in 1777, and also appeared in 1786 in the forty-second volume of the ''Hist. de l'Acad. des Inscr''.; A. Westermann gave a revised edition of it in his &Pi;&alpha;&rho;&alpha;&delta;&omicron;&xi;&omicron;&gamma;&rho;&alpha;&phi;&omicron;&iota; (''Scriptores rerum mirabilium Graeci''), 1839. In the course of constructions for surfaces to reflect to one and the same point
# all rays in whatever direction passing through another point,
# a set of parallel rays,
Anthemius assumes a property of an ellipse not found in Apollonius (the equality of the angles subtended at a focus by two tangents drawn from a point), and (having given the focus and a double ordinate) he uses the focus and directrix to obtain any number of points on a parabola--the first instance on record of the practical use of the directrix.
== References ==
* Procopius, ''De Aedific''. i. 1
* Agathias, ''Hist''. v. 6-9
* Gibbon's ''Decline and Fall'', cap. xl.
* {{1911}}
* Biography in ''Dictionary of Scientific Biography'' (New York 1970-1990)
* [[T L Heath]], ''A History of Greek Mathematics''(2 Vols.) (Oxford, 1921)
* [[G L Huxley]], ''Anthemius of Tralles'' (Cambridge, Mass., 1959).
[[Category:474 births]]
[[Category:534 deaths]]
[[Category:Byzantine mathematicians]]
[[Category:Byzantine architects]]
[[Category:5th century mathematicians]]
[[Category:6th century mathematicians]]
==External links==
* {{MacTutor Biography|id=Anthemius}}
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<title>Absalon</title>
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<text xml:space="preserve">'''Absalon''' (''c''. [[1128]]&ndash;[[March 21]], [[1201]]) was a [[Denmark|Danish]] [[archbishop]] and statesman. He was the son of Asser Rig of Fjenneslev ([[Zealand]]), at whose castle he and his brother Esbjørn (Esbern) were brought up along with the young prince Valdemar, afterwards King [[Valdemar I of Denmark|Valdemar I]].
The Rigs were as pious and enlightened as they were rich. They founded the monastery of [[Sorø]] as a civilizing centre, and after giving Absalon the rudiments of a sound education at home, which included not only book-lore but every manly and martial exercise, they sent him to the schools of [[Paris]]. Absalon first appears in [[Saxo Grammaticus|Saxo]]'s Chronicle as a fellow-guest at [[Roskilde]], at the banquet given, in [[1157]], by King Sweyn to his rivals Canute and Valdemar. Both Absalon and Valdemar narrowly escaped assassination at the hands of their treacherous host on this occasion, but at length escaped to [[Jutland]], whither Sweyn followed them, but was defeated and slain at the [[battle of Grathe Heath]].
The same year (1158) which saw Valdemar ascend the Danish throne saw Absalon elected bishop of [[Roskilde]]. Henceforth Absalon was the chief counsellor of Valdemar, and the promoter of that imperial policy which, for three generations, was to give Denmark the dominion of the Baltic. Briefly, it was Absalon's intention to clear the northern sea of the Wendish pirates, who inhabited that portion of the Baltic [[littoral]] which was later called [[Pomerania]], and ravaged the Danish coasts so unmercifully that at the accession of Valdemar one-third of the realm of Denmark lay wasted and
depopulated. The very existence of Denmark demanded the suppression and conversion of these stiff-necked pagan freebooters, and to this double task Absalon devoted the best part of his life.
The first expedition against the [[Wends]], conducted by Absalon in person, set out in [[1160]], but it was not till [[1168]] that the chief Wendish fortress, at Arkona in [[Rügen]], containing the sanctuary of their god [[Svantovit]], was surrendered, the Wends agreeing to accept Danish suzerainty and the Christian religion at the same time. From Arkona Absalon proceeded by sea to Garz, in south Rügen, the political capital of the Wends, and an all but impregnable stronghold. But the unexpected fall of Arkona had terrified the garrison, which surrendered unconditionally at the first appearance of the Danish ships. Absalon, with only Sweyn, bishop of [[Aarhus]], and twelve "house carls," thereupon disembarked, passed between a double row of Wendish warriors, 6000 strong, along the narrow path winding among the morasses, to the gates of the fortress, and, proceeding to the temple of the seven-headed god [[Rugievit]], caused the idol to be hewn down, dragged forth and burnt. The whole population of Garz was then baptized, and Absalon laid the foundations of twelve churches in the isle of Rügen. The destruction of
this chief sally-port of the Wendish pirates enabled Absalon considerably to reduce the Danish fleet. But he continued to keep a watchful eye over the Baltic, and in [[1170]] destroyed another pirate stronghold, farther eastward, at Dievenow on the isle of [[Wolin]].
Absalon's last military exploit was the annihilation, off Strela ([[Stralsund]]), on Whit-Sunday [[1184]], of a Pomeranian fleet which had attacked Denmark's vassal, [[Jaromir of Rügen]]. He was now but fifty-seven, but his strenuous life had aged him, and he was content to resign
the command of fleets and armies to younger men, like Duke Valdemar, afterwards King [[Valdemar II of Denmark|Valdemar II]], and to confine himself to the administration of the empire which his genius had created.
In this sphere Absalon proved himself equally great. The aim of his policy was to free Denmark from the German yoke. It was contrary to his advice and warnings that Valdemar I rendered fealty to the emperor [[Frederick I, Holy Roman Emperor|Frederick Barbarossa]] at Dole in [[1162]]; and when, on the accession of [[Canute V of Denmark|Canute V]] in [[1182]], an imperial ambassador arrived at [[Roskilde]] to receive the homage of the new king, Absalon resolutely withstood him. "Return to the emperor," cried he, "and tell him that the king of Denmark will in no wise show him obedience or do him homage."
As the archpastor of Denmark Absalon also rendered his country inestimable services, building churches and monasteries, supporting international religious orders like the [[Cistercians]] and [[Augustinians]], founding schools and doing his utmost to promote civilization and enlightenment. It was he who held the first Danish Synod at [[Lund]] in [[1167]]. In [[1178]] he became archbishop of [[Lund]], but very unwillingly, only the threat of excommunication from the holy see finally inducing him to accept the pallium. Absalon died in [[1201]] at the family monastery of Sorø, which he himself had richly embellished and endowed.
Absalon remains one of the most striking and picturesque figures of the [[Middle Ages]], and was equally great as churchman, statesman and warrior. That he enjoyed warfare there can be no doubt; and his splendid physique and early training had well fitted him for martial exercises. He was the best rider in the army and the |
dustry has has had a profound effect on cinema across the world since the early [[20th century]]. Its history is marked by four distinct periods: the silent era, [[Classical Hollywood cinema]], [[New Hollywood]] and the contemporary period (after 1980).
==History==
===Early development===
[[Image:Great_train_robbery_still.jpg|thumb|220px|right|Justus D. Barnes in Edwin S. Porter's ''The Great Train Robbery'']]
The birth of cinema, as well as its radical development, can largely be traced back to the United States. The first recorded instance of photographs capturing and reproducing motion was [[Eadweard Muybridge]]'s series of photographs of a [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:The_Horse_in_Motion.jpg running horse], which he captured in [[Palo Alto, California]], using a set of still cameras placed in a row. Muybridge's accomplishment led inventors everywhere to attempt forming devices that would similar capture such motion. In the United States, [[Thomas Alva Edison]] was among the first to produce such a device, the ''[[kinetoscope]]'', whose heavy-handed patent enforcement caused early filmmakers to look for alternatives.
In the United States, the first exhibitions of films for large audiences typically followed the intermissions in [[vaudeville]] shows. Entrepreneurs began travelling to exhibit their films, bringing to the world the first forays into dramatic filmmaking. The first huge success of American cinema, as well as the largest experimental achievement to its point, was ''[[The Great Train Robbery (1903 film)|The Great Train Robbery]]'', directed by [[Edwin S. Porter]].
===Rise of Hollywood===
In early 1910, director [[D. W. Griffith]] was sent by the [[American Mutoscope and Biograph Company|Biograph Company]] to the west coast with his acting troop consisting of actors [[Blanche Sweet]], [[Lillian Gish]], [[Mary Pickford]], [[Lionel Barrymore]], and others. They started filming on a vacant lot near Georgia Street in Downtown [[Los Angeles]]. The company decided while there to explore new territories and travelled several miles north to a little village that was friendly and enjoyed the movie company filming there. This place was called "[[Hollywood]]". D. W. Griffith then filmed the first movie ever shot in Hollywood called ''[[In Old California (1910)|In Old California]]'', a Biograph melodrama about Latino/Mexican occupied California in the 1800's. Biograph stayed there for months and made several films before returning to New York. After hearing about this wonderful place, in 1913 many movie-makers headed west to avoid the fees imposed by Thomas Edison, who owned patents on the movie-making process. In [[Los Angeles, California]], the [[List of Hollywood movie studios|studios]] and [[Hollywood]] grew. Before [[World War I]], movies were made in several U.S. cities, but filmmakers gravitated to southern [[California]] as the industry developed. They were attracted by the mild climate and reliable sunlight, which made it possible to film movies outdoors year-round, and by the varied scenery that was available. There are several starting points for American cinema, but it was [[David Wark Griffith]]'s [[Birth of a Nation]] that pioneered the filmic vocabulary that still dominates celluoid to this day.
[[Image:10045196.jpg|thumb|250px|left|[[Laurel and Hardy]]]]
In the early [[1900s]], when the medium was new, many immigrants, particularly [[Jew]]s, found employment in the U.S. film industry. Kept out of other occupations by racial prejudice, they were able to make their mark in a brand-new business: the exhibition of short films in storefront theaters called [[Nickelodeon movie theater|nickelodeon]]s, after their admission price of a nickel (five cents). Within a few years, ambitious men like [[Samuel Goldwyn]], [[Carl Laemmle]], [[Adolph Zukor]], [[Louis B. Mayer]], and the [[Warner Brothers]] (Harry, Albert, Samuel, and Jack) had switched to the production side of the business. Soon they were the heads of a new kind of enterprise: the [[movie studio]]. (It is worth noting that the US had at least one female director, producer and studio head in these early years, [[Alice Guy Blaché]].) They also set the stage for the industry's internationalism; the industry is often accused of Amero-centric provincialism, but simultaneously employs a huge number of foreign-born talent: from Swedish actress [[Greta Garbo]] to Australian [[Nicole Kidman]], from Hungarian director [[Michael Curtiz]] to Mexican director [[Alfonso Cuarón]].
Other moviemakers arrived from [[Europe]] after World War I: directors like [[Ernst Lubitsch]], [[Alfred Hitchcock]], [[Fritz Lang]], and [[Jean Renoir]]; actors like [[Rudolph Valentino]], [[Marlene Dietrich]], [[Ronald Colman]], and [[Charles Boyer]]. They joined a homegrown supply of actors--lured west from the [[New York City]] stage after the introduction of sound films--to form one of the 20th century's most remarkable growth industries. At motion pictures' height of popularity in the mid-[[1940s]], the studios were cranking out a total of about 400 movies a year, seen by an audience of 90 million Americans per week.
===Golden Age of Hollywood===
[[Image:As Dorothy with dog Toto, The Wizard of Oz.jpg|thumb|220px|right|[[Judy Garland]] in ''[[The Wizard of Oz]]'' (1939).]]
During the so-called [[Classical Hollywood cinema|Golden Age of Hollywood]], which lasted from the virtual end of the silent era in the late 1920s to towards the end of the 1940s, movies issued from the Hollywood studios like <!--Whoever inserted 'went', it is redundant as it duplicates the intended reading of 'issued'-->the cars rolling off Henry Ford's assembly lines. No two movies were exactly the same, but most followed a formula: Western, slapstick comedy, film noir, musical, animated cartoon, biopic (biographical picture), etc. Yet each movie was a little different, and, unlike the craftsmen who made cars, many of the people who made movies were artists. For example, ''[[To Have and Have Not (film)|To Have and Have Not]]'' (1944) is famous not only for the first pairing of actors [[Humphrey Bogart]] ([[1899]]-[[1957]]) and [[Lauren Bacall]] ([[1924]]- ) but also for being written by two future winners of the [[Nobel Prize in Literature]]: [[Ernest Hemingway]] ([[1899]]-[[1961]]), author of the novel on which the script was nominally based, and [[William Faulkner]] ([[1897]]-[[1962]]), who worked on the screen adaptation.
Moviemaking was still a business, however, and motion picture companies made money by operating under the so-called [[studio system]]. The major studios kept thousands of people on salary--actors, producers, directors, writers, stuntmen, craftspersons, and technicians. And they owned hundreds of theaters in cities and towns across the nation--theaters that showed their films and that were always in need of fresh material.
Many film historians have remarked upon the many great works of cinema that emerged from this period of highly regimented filmmaking. One reason this was possible is that, with so many movies being made, not every one had to be a big hit. A studio could gamble on a medium-budget feature with a good script and relatively unknown actors: ''[[Citizen Kane]]'', directed by [[Orson Welles]] ([[1915]]-[[1985]]) and widely regarded as one of the [[List of movies that have been considered the greatest ever|greatest movies of all time]], fits that description. In other cases, strong-willed directors like [[Howard Hawks]] ([[1896]]-[[1977]]) and [[Frank Capra]] ([[1897]]-[[1991]]) battled the studios in order to achieve their artistic visions. The apogee of the studio system may have been the year [[1939]], which saw the release of such classics as ''[[The Wizard of Oz (1939 film)|The Wizard of Oz]]'', ''[[Gone with the Wind (film)|Gone with the Wind]]'', ''[[Stagecoach (film)|Stagecoach]]'', ''[[Mr. Smith Goes to Washington]]'', ''[[Only Angels Have Wings]]'', ''[[Ninotchka]]'', and ''[[Midnight (1939 film)|Midnight]]''. Among the other films in the Golden Age period that remain classics to the present day: ''[[Casablanca (film)|Casablanca]]'', ''[[It's a Wonderful Life]]'', the original ''[[King Kong]]'', and ''[[Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs (1937 film)|Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs]]''.
The studio system and the Golden Age of Hollywood itself succumbed to two forces in the late 1940s: (1) a [[United States v. Paramount Pictures, Inc.|federal antitrust action]] that separated the production of films from their exhibition; and (2) the advent of [[Television in the United States|television]]. The number of movies being made dropped sharply, even as the average budget soared, marking a change in strategy for the industry. Studios now aimed to produce entertainment that could not be offered by television: spectacular, larger-than-life productions, while others would lose the rights to their theatrical film libraries to other companies to sell to television.
===Changing realities and television's rise===
[[Image:Rider3.jpg|220px|thumb|''[[Easy Rider]]'' (1969).]]
Though television broke the movie industry's hegemony in American entertainment, the rise of television would prove advantageous, in its way, to the movies. This is because public opinion about the quality of television content soon declined, and by contrast, cinema's status began to be regarded more and more as a serious art form as worthy of respect and study as the [[fine art|fine arts]]. This was complimented with the [[Miracle Decision]] in which the [[Supreme Court of the United States]] reversed its earlier position and stated that motion pictures were an artform entitled to the protection of the [[First Amendment to the United States Constitution|First amendment]].
===The 'New Hollywood' or Post-classical cinema===
'[[New Hollywood|The New Hollywood]]' and 'post-classical cinema' are terms used to describe the period following the decli |
certain kinds of object and unsuitable for others. Someone who works with hot glass is called a [[glassblowing|glassblower]] or [[lampworking|lampworker]], and these techniques are how most fine glassware is created. Glass that is manipulated in a kiln is called warm glass, and traditional stained glass work is commonly called cold glass work. Glass can also be cut with a [[diamond saw]], and polished to give gleaming facets.
[[Image:Glass-beads.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Hand-blown glass beads and pendants illustrate some of the myriad colors and shapes of glass art. The [[Canadian coin|Canadian]] [[Nickel (Canadian coin)|Nickel]] is for scale.]]
Objects made out of glass include vessels (bowls, [[vase]]s, and other containers), [[Paperweight collecting|paperweights]], [[marbles]], [[bead]]s, [[smoking pipe]]s, [[bong]]s, and [[sculpture]]s. Colored glass is often used, though sometimes the glass is painted; notable examples of painted glass include the work of contemporary artists Judith Schaechter and Walter Lieberman, and innumerable examples of stained glass, such as those by [[John La Farge]] in Boston's Trinity Church.
The [[Harvard Museum of Natural History]] has a collection of extremely detailed models of flowers made of painted glass. These were [[lampworking|lampworked]] by [[Leopold Blaschka]] and his son Rudolph, who never revealed the method he used to make them. The Blaschka [[Glass Flowers]] are still an inspiration to glassblowers today. See [http://www.hmnh.harvard.edu/exhibitions/glassflowers.html the Harvard Museum of Natural History's page on the exhibit] for further information.
[[Stained glass]] is an art form with a long history; many churches have beautiful stained-glass windows.
==Glass in buildings==
''Main articles: [[Architectural Glass]] and [[Glazing]]
Glass has been used in buildings since the 11th century. Typical uses for glass in buildings include as a transparent material for windows in the building envelope, as internal glazed partitions and as architectural features.
Glass in buildings can be of a safety type, including wired, toughened and laminated glasses.
Glass fibre insulation is common in roofs and walls. Foamed glass, made from waste glass, can be used as lightweight, closed-cell insulation.
Several methods of producing glass for applications have been developed, including:
*[[Architectural Glass#Cylinder glass|cylinder glass]]
*[[Architectural Glass#Sheet glass|sheet glass]]
*[[Architectural Glass#Rolled plate glass|rolled plate glass]]
*[[Architectural Glass#Polished plate glass|polished plate glass]]
*[[Architectural Glass#Float (annealed) glass|float (annealed) glass]]
*[[Architectural Glass#figure rolled glass|figure rolled glass]]
These glass types can be further utilised by the following processes:
*[[Architectural Glass#Laminated glass|laminating]]
*[[Architectural Glass#Toughened glass|toughening]]
*[[Architectural Glass#Chemically strengthened glass|chemical strengthening]]
*[[Architectural Glass#Self-cleaning glass|application of a self-cleaning catalyst]]
*[[Architectural Glass#Insulated glazing|double-glazing]]
''See also [[Window]]''.
==Glass as a liquid==
One common misconception is that glass is a '''super-cooled [[liquid]] of practically infinite viscosity''' when at room temperature (see [[Amorphous solid]]). Supporting evidence that is often offered is that old windows are often thicker at the bottom than at the top. It is then assumed that the glass was once uniform, but has flowed to its new shape.
The likely source of this belief is that when panes of glass were commonly made by [[glassblowing|glassblowers]], the technique that was used was to spin molten glass so as to create a round, mostly flat and even plate (the Crown glass process, described above). This plate was then cut to fit a window. The pieces were not, however, absolutely flat; the edges of the disk would be thicker because of [[centrifugal force]]s. When actually installed in a window frame, the glass would be placed thicker side down for the sake of stability and visual sparkle. Occasionally such glass has been found thinner side down, as would be caused by carelessness at the time of installation.
* Writing in the [[American Journal of Physics]], physicist [[Edgar D. Zanotto]] states "...the predicted relaxation time for GeO<sub>2</sub> at room temperature is 10<sup>32</sup> years. Hence, the relaxation period (characteristic flow time) of cathedral glasses would be even longer" (Am. J. Phys, 66(5):392-5, May 1998). In layman's terms, he wrote that glass at room temperature is very strongly on the solid side of the spectrum from solids to liquids.
* If medieval glass has flowed perceptibly, then ancient Roman and Egyptian objects should have flowed proportionately more&mdash;but this is not observed.
* If glass flows at a rate that allows changes to be seen with the naked eye after centuries, then changes in optical telescope mirrors should be observable (by [[interferometry]]) in a matter of days&mdash;but this also is not observed. Similarly, it should not be possible to see [[Newton's rings]] between decade-old fragments of window glass&mdash;but this can in fact be quite easily done.
* Glass in [[Refracting Telescope]]s, with objective lenses greater than 105cm in diameter, is observed to sag under its own weight over time. This sag happens because the lens is only supported around its edge. The result is a loss of focus and is sometimes argued to occur not because of the liquid properties of glass but rather sagging of the telescope itself, but this is not correct. This (along with chromatic aberration and other effects) limits the size of refracting telescopes, with the largest refractor in the [[World]] being the [[Yerkes Observatory]] telescope with a diameter of 102cm.
Note that [[Pitch (resin)|pitch]], another seemingly-solid material, is in fact a highly [[viscous]] liquid, 100 [[billion]] times as viscous as water. This property can be seen in the [[University of Queensland]]'s [[pitch drop experiment]], where each drop has taken approximately 10 years to fall into the beaker.
== See also ==
*[[ALON|Aluminum Oxynitride]]
*[[Art glass]]
*[[Beveled glass]]
*[[Bulletproof glass]]
*[[Fiberglass]]
*[[Glass-reinforced plastic]]
*[[Lexan]]
*[[Magnifying glass]]
*[[Prince Rupert's Drops]]
*[[Pyrex]]
*[[Stained glass]]
*[[Favrile]] Iridescent Glass - Tiffany's technique to make stained glass art
==References==
*"Do Cathedral Glasses Flow?" ''Am. J. Phys.'', '''66''' (May 1998), pp 392&ndash;396
*Noel C. Stokes; ''The Glass and Glazing Handbook''; ''Standards Australia''; SAA HB125-1998
*''[http://www.oxbowbooks.com/bookinfo.cfm/ID/36444/MID/11027 Glass Beads from Anglo-Saxon Graves: A Study on the Provenance and Chronology of Glass Beads from Anglo-Saxon Graves, Based on Visual Examination]'' by Birte Brugmann
==External links==
*[http://www.cmog.org/ Corning Museum of Glass], especially '''Research, Teach, and Learn''' section.
*[http://math.ucr.edu/home/baez/physics/General/Glass/glass.html Is glass liquid or solid?] by Philip Gibbs on the spr USENET physics FAQ
*[http://dwb.unl.edu/Teacher/NSF/C01/C01Links/www.ualberta.ca/~bderksen/windowpane.html Antique windowpanes and the flow of supercooled liquids]
*[http://dwb.unl.edu/Teacher/NSF/C01/C01Links/www.ualberta.ca/~bderksen/florin.html article on the non-flowness of glass]
*[http://tafkac.org/science/glass.flow/ Page devoted to the AFU glass flow controversy, with links to citations]
*[http://www.glassnotes.com/WindowPanes.html Page stating that glass does not flow]
*[http://1st.glassman.com/articles/glasscolouring.html Substances used in the Making of Colored Glass]
*[http://www.activglass.com/index_eng.htm Self-cleaning glass] - Product information from Pilkington.
*[http://www.straightdope.com/classics/a1_120.html The Straight Dope article on glass], article discusses why glass is a liquid treated as a solid
* [http://www.waste-management-information.org.uk Recycling Glass - Waste Management Issues]
[[Category:Glass|*]]
[[Category:Glass art]]
[[af:Glas]]
[[bg:Стъкло]]
[[ca:Vidre]]
[[cs:Sklo]]
[[da:Glas]]
[[de:Glas]]
[[et:Klaas]]
[[es:Vidrio]]
[[eo:Vitro]]
[[eu:Beira]]
[[fa:شیشه]]
[[fr:Verre]]
[[gl:Vidro]]
[[ko:유리]]
[[io:Vitro]]
[[id:Kaca]]
[[it:Vetro]]
[[he:זכוכית]]
[[jv:Kaca]]
[[ku:Cam]]
[[lt:Stiklas]]
[[mk:Стакло]]
[[ms:Kaca]]
[[nl:Glas]]
[[ja:ガラス]]
[[no:Glass]]
[[nn:Glas]]
[[os:Авг]]
[[pl:Szkło]]
[[pt:Vidro]]
[[ro:Sticlă]]
[[ru:Стекло]]
[[simple:Glass]]
[[sl:Steklo]]
[[fi:Lasi]]
[[sv:Glas]]
[[th:แก้ว]]
[[vi:Thủy tinh (chất)]]
[[tr:Cam]]
[[zh:玻璃]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Gel electrophoresis</title>
<id>12582</id>
<revision>
<id>41468194</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-27T15:29:27Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>132.177.88.163</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:SDSPAGE.png|thumb|300px|SDS-PAGE autoradiography]]
[[Image:AgaroseGel.jpg|thumb|300px|DNA agarose gel]]
'''Gel electrophoresis''' is a group of techniques used by scientists to separate molecules based on physical characteristics such as size, shape, or [[isoelectric point]]. Gel electrophoresis is usually performed for analytical purposes, but may be used as a preparative technique to partially purify molecules prior to use of other methods such as [[mass spectrometry]], [[Polymerase chain reaction|PCR]], [[cloning]], [[DNA sequencing]], or [[Western Blot|immuno-blotting]] for further characterization.
The first part, "''gel''", refers to the matrix used to separate the molecules. In most cases the gel is a [[crosslinked polymer]] whose composition and porosity is chosen based on the weight and composition of the target of the analysis. When separating [[protein]]s or small [[nucleic acid]]s ([[DNA]], [[RNA]], or [[oligonucleotide]]s) the gel is usually made with diffe |
filed in either case.
[[Secretary of Agriculture]] [[Mike Espy]] was acquitted on each of 30 charges of illegally accepting gifts such as sports tickets, lodging, and transportation from companies regulated by his department in exchange for favors. <ref>[http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/politics/special/counsels/stories/espy120498.htm A Harsh Verdict for Espy's Prosecutor] - Bill Miller, ''[[Washington Post]]'', [[December 5]], [[1998]]</ref> [[United States Department of Housing and Urban Development|HUD]] Secretary [[Henry Cisneros]] was indicted on 18 counts of conspiracy, giving false statements and obstruction of Justice. He pleaded guilty to a misdemeanor of lying to the [[FBI]] about the amount of money he gave his mistress, political fundraiser [[Linda Medlar]]. Medlar plead guilty to 28 counts related to the investigation. Both Medlar and Cisneros were pardoned by Clinton.
On Clinton's last day in office, he pardoned over 200 convicted felons, including his brother Roger, who was imprisoned on drug charges and [[Dan Rostenkowski]], the former Chairman of [[United States House Committee on Ways and Means|House Ways and Means Committee]] who had been convicted on corruption and mail fraud charges. Another one of those pardoned was Marc Rich, a financier who had fled the United States decades before for tax evation and other illegal activities. Many questioned the pardon, stating that Rich's wife Denise had pleaded with the president for years to pardon her ex-husband and that she personally donated money to his presidential library in exchange for a pardon for her husband. These actions quickly led to public hearings by congress into the legality of all of Clinton's presidential pardons. Clinton's approval rating, when he left office was 61%, it quickly dropped by nearly twenty points to 43% after the scandals broke out.
===The ''"vast right-wing conspiracy"'' charge===
The Clinton Administration was the subject of many investigations and accusations of misconduct and illegality. Led by a network of largely conservative talk radio media outlets, including [[Rush Limbaugh]], and television commentators such as [[FOX NEWS]]' [[Sean Hannity]], [[Geraldo Rivera]], and [[Bill O'Reilly (commentator)|Bill O'Reilly]], made accusations of corruption and dishonesty against Clinton and his administration almost daily. Other efforts such as the [[Arkansas Project]] funded by wealthy conservatives such as Pittsburgh banking heir [[Richard Mellon Scaife]] went about trying to find suggestions of wrongdoing in Clinton's past and publicizing allegations. On NBCs "Today Show," Hillary Rodham Clinton described this informal network as a "''[[vast right-wing conspiracy]]''." She was ridiculed by conservative media networks for the statement, but former conservative journalist [[David Brock]] has described in books his own involvement in exaggerating claims against the Clintons and the network of conservative media operations that kept such accusations at the forefront of the public's attention.
===Timeline===
* [[November 3]] [[1992]] - [[U.S. presidential election, 1992|Clinton is elected]], defeating [[United States Republican Party|Republican]] incumbent [[George H.W. Bush]] and billionaire businessman [[H. Ross Perot]].
* [[January 20]] [[1993]] - First [[Inauguration Day|inauguration]].
* [[February 26]] [[1993]] - World Trade Center terrorist attack. The [[World Trade Center bombing]] killed 6 and injured over 1,000 people.
* [[April 19]] [[1993]] - A government siege of the [[Branch Davidians|Branch Davidian]] compound at [[Waco, Texas]], results in the deaths of 80 people when a cult leader allegedly sets fire to his own compound. Clinton and [[United States Attorney General|Attorney General]] [[Janet Reno]] receive criticism for mishandling the stand-off.
* [[July 20]] [[1993]] - Clinton friend and confidant [[Vince Foster]] is found dead of a gunshot wound; later determined to be [[suicide]].
* [[September 13]] [[1993]] - Clinton brings together [[Israeli Prime Minister]] [[Yitzhak Rabin]] and Chairman of the [[Palestinian Liberation Organization]] [[Yasser Arafat]] on the [[White House]] lawn.
* [[October 3]] [[1993]] - [[Battle of Mogadishu]] - [[U.S. Army Rangers|Ranger Units]] receive heavy casualties in [[Somalia]] (the [[Black Hawk Down]] incident).
* [[January 14]] [[1994]] - Clinton and [[President of Russia|Russian President]] [[Boris Yeltsin]] sign the [[Kremlin accords]] which stop the preprogrammed aiming of [[nuclear missile]]s to targets and also provide for the dismantling of the nuclear arsenal in [[Ukraine]].
* [[November 8]] [[1994]] - Republicans elected to majorities in both houses of Congress.
* [[April 19]] [[1995]] - [[Oklahoma City bombing]] - Terrorist bombing of federal building in [[Oklahoma City]] results in the deaths of 168 people, 19 of whom were children.
* [[November 14]] [[1995]] - Budget negotiations between Congress and Clinton break down, resulting in a temporary [[government shutdown|shutdown of the federal government]] until [[November 19]]. A longer shutdown will last from mid-December 1995 until early January 1996.
* November 1995 - Clinton organizes peace talks for [[Bosnia and Herzegovina]] at the [[Wright-Patterson Air Force Base]], [[Ohio]], eventually resulting in the [[Dayton Agreement]].
* December, 1995 - Clinton visits [[Ireland]], leading to the establishment of an International Commission chaired by former U.S. Senator [[George J. Mitchell]].
* [[June 25]] [[1996]] - [[Khobar Towers bombing]] a powerful truck bomb exploded outside the [[Khobar Towers]] [[barracks]] in [[Dhahran, Saudi Arabia]], tearing the front from the building, blasting a crater 35 feet deep, and killing 19 American soldiers.
* [[November 5]] [[1996]] - [[U.S. presidential election, 1996|Clinton is reelected]], defeating [[United States Republican Party|Republican]] challenger [[Bob Dole]] and [[Reform Party]] founder [[H. Ross Perot]].
* [[January 20]] [[1997]] - Second [[Inauguration Day|inauguration]].
* October 1997 - Visit by [[President of the People's Republic of China]] [[Jiang Zemin]] to the [[White House]].
* August, 1998 - Clinton orders [[cruise missile]] strikes on [[Afghanistan]] to hit a suspected [[chemical weapon]]s [[Al-Shifa pharmaceutical factory|factory]] in [[Sudan]], suspected to be funded by [[Osama Bin Laden]]. Critics cried "[[Wag the Dog|wag the dog]]" and suggested the bombing was intended to divert attention from [[Monica Lewinsky]]'s testimony before a grand jury about her relationship with Clinton, which happened at roughly the same time.
* [[August 17]] [[1998]] - Clinton testifies before a [[grand jury]] about his relationship with Monica Lewinsky. In the evening, he delivers a [http://www.cnn.com/ALLPOLITICS/1998/08/17/speech/transcript.html nationally televised address] in which he describes the relationship as "not appropriate" but also "nobody's business." (See [[Clinton impeachment]].)
* [[December 19]] [[1998]] - Clinton is impeached by the [[United States House of Representatives|House of Representatives]] on grounds of [[perjury]] and [[obstruction of justice]]. (See [[Clinton impeachment]].)
* [[January 7]] [[1999]] - The trial of Clinton in the [[United States Senate|Senate]] begins. (See [[Clinton impeachment]].)
* [[February 12]] [[1999]] - Clinton is acquitted of all charges by the Senate.
* [[March 24]] to [[June 10]] [[1999]] - [[NATO]] bombs [[Kosovo]] and [[Serbia]]. (See [[Kosovo War]].)
* [[May 7]] [[1999]] - U.S. planes accidentally bomb [[People's Republic of China|China's]] embassy in [[Belgrade]]. (See [[Kosovo War]].)
* [[June 10]], [[1999]] - [[Serbia]] hands control of [[Kosovo]] to the [[United Nations]]. (See [[Kosovo War]].)
* [[November 1]] [[1999]] - Visited [[Norway]] to participate in a Memorial sermon in [[Oslo]] in respect of the late Israeli Prime Minister [[Yitzhak Rabin]].
* [[October 5]] [[2000]] - The defeat of [[Slobodan Milošević]] in earlier [[election]]s leads to mass [[demonstration]]s in [[Belgrade]] and the ultimate collapse of the regime's authority. Opposition leader [[Vojislav Koštunica]] takes office as the [[Federal Republic of Yugoslavia|Yugoslavia]]n president the next day. (See [[Kosovo War]].)
* [[January 20]] [[2001]] - Leaves office at the end of second term.
==Public approval==
While Clinton's job approval rating varied over the course of his first term, ranging from a low of 36% in 1993 to a high of 64% in 1993 and 1994 <ref>[http://www.ropercenter.uconn.edu/cgi-bin/hsrun.exe/Roperweb/PresJob/PresJob.htx;start=HS_fullresults?pr=Clinton Job Performance Ratings for President Clinton], accessed [[February 25]], [[2006]]</ref>, his job approval rating consistently ranged from the high 50s to the high 60s in his second term <ref>[http://www.pollingreport.com/clinton-.htm Bill Clinton: Job Ratings] - PollingReport.com</ref>, with a high of 73% approval in 1998 and 1999. <ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/hi/english/events/clinton_under_fire/latest_news/newsid_238000/238677.stm US public wants censure not trial] - [[BBC]], [[December 21]], [[1998]]</ref> A CNN/USA TODAY/Gallup poll <ref>[http://archives.cnn.com/2001/ALLPOLITICS/stories/01/10/cnn.poll.clinton/ Poll: Majority of Americans glad Clinton is leaving office] - Keating Holland, [[CNN]], [[January 10]], [[2001]]</ref> conducted as he was leaving office, revealed deeply contradictory attitudes regarding Clinton. Although his approval rating at 68 percent was higher than that of any other departing president since polling began more than seven decades earlier, only 45 percent said they would miss him. While 55 percent thought he "would have something worthwhile to contribute and should remain active in public life", and 47 percent rated him as either outstanding or above average as a president, 68 percent though |
:Externalismo]]
==External links==
* [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/justep-intext/ Internalist vs. Externalist Conceptions of Epistemic Justification]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Isolationism</title>
<id>15048</id>
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<id>41672235</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T23:48:26Z</timestamp>
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<username>Latinus</username>
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<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/71.224.252.114|71.224.252.114]] ([[User talk:71.224.252.114|talk]]) to last version by Hmains</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{IRTheory}}
'''Isolationism''' is a foreign policy which combines a [[non-interventionism|non-interventionist]] military and political policy with a policy of [[economic nationalism]] ([[protectionism]]). In other words, it asserts both of the following:
# Political rulers should avoid [[entangling alliances]] with other nations and avoid all wars not related to direct territorial [[self-defense]].
# There should be legal barriers to prevent trade and cultural exchange with people in other states.
The term "isolationism" was coined by military interventionists as a pejorative term during [[World War I]] to refer to people who opposed the [[United States]]' entry into that war. Later, the term "isolationism" was used 1939-41 to refer to opponents of [[United States]]' entry into [[World War II]]. The two most prominent leaders were [[Charles Lindbergh]] and historian [[Charles A. Beard]]. See [[America First Committee]].
"Isolationism" is often misused to refer to non-interventionism in general, rather than non-intervention conjoined with economic nationalism.
==See also==
* [[Autarky]]
* [[Sakoku]] - Japanese isolationism lasting over 200 years
* [[Unilateralism]]
==References==
* [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=98186825 Cole, Wayne S. ''Charles A. Lindbergh and the Battle against American Intervention in World War II'' (1974)]
* [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=85979197 Cole, Wayne S. ''America First: The Battle against Intervention, 1940-41'' (1953)]
* [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=14522811 Kennedy, Thomas C. ''Charles A. Beard and American Foreign Policy'' (1975)]
[[Category:International relations]]
[[fr:Isolationnisme]]
[[he:בדלנות]]
[[ja:孤立主義]]
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[[ru:Изоляционизм]]
[[sk:Izolacionizmus]]
[[sv:Isolationism]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Indianapolis Colts</title>
<id>15049</id>
<revision>
<id>42063955</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T15:39:14Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Alakazam</username>
<id>376416</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* 2005 season */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{NFL team | name = Indianapolis Colts
| logo = IndianapolisColts_100.png
| founded = 1953
| city = Indianapolis, Indiana
| colors = Royal Blue and White
| coach = [[Tony Dungy]]
| owner = [[Jim Irsay]]
| general manager = [[Bill Polian]]
| mascot = Spike and Spirit
| stations = [[WFBQ]] (94.7 FM)
| announcers = Bob Lamey and [[Ted Marchibroda]]
| hist_yr = 1984
| hist_misc =
* [[Baltimore, Maryland|Baltimore]] Colts (1953-1983)
| NFL_start_yr = 1953
| division_hist =
*Western Conference (1953-1969)
**Coastal Division (1967-1969)
*'''[[American Football Conference]] (1970-present)'''
**[[AFC East]] (1970-2001)
**'''[[AFC South]] (2002-present)'''|
| no_league_champs = 4
| no_sb_champs = 1
| no_conf_champs = 5
| no_div_champs = 10
| league_champs =
*'''[[List of NFL champions|NFL Championships]] (3)'''<br>1958, 1959, 1968
| sb_champs = 1970&nbsp;([[Super Bowl V|V]])
| conf_champs =
*'''NFL Western:''' 1958, 1959, 1964, 1968
*'''AFC:''' 1970
| div_champs =
*'''NFL Coastal:''' 1968
*'''AFC East:''' 1970, 1975, 1976, 1977, 1987, 1999
*'''AFC South:''' 2003, 2004, 2005
| stadium_years =
*[[Memorial Stadium (Baltimore)]] (1953-1983)
*'''[[RCA Dome]] (1984-present)'''
**a.k.a. Hoosier Dome (1984-1993)
*[[Lucas Oil Stadium]] (scheduled to open in 2008)
}}
The '''Indianapolis Colts''' are a professional [[American football]] team based in [[Indianapolis, Indiana]]. They currently belong to the [[AFC South|Southern Division]] of the [[American Football Conference]] (AFC) in the [[National Football League]] (NFL).
The team began play in 1953 as a second incarnation of the previous '''[[Baltimore Colts (1947-50)|Baltimore Colts]]''' team in the NFL. The original Colts team began play in [[1946 in sports|1946]] as a charter member of the [[All-America Football Conference]] and joined the NFL in [[1950 NFL season|1950]] after the AAFC merged into the older league, but folded after the season. After fans in [[Baltimore, Maryland]] protested, the NFL formed this newer Colts team. While in Baltimore, the club won three [[List of NFL champions|NFL Championships]] and one [[Super Bowl]].
Prior to the [[1984 NFL season|1984 season]], the Colts moved from Baltimore to Indianapolis, highlighted by an infamous incident in which they packed all of their belongings into [[Mayflower Transit]] trucks in the middle of a snowy night on [[March 28]]. The move angered many Baltimore fans and former players so much that they completely disassociated themselves from the relocated Indianapolis team. Meanwhile, the Colts have not returned to the Super Bowl since then.
:'''Uniform colors:''' royal blue and white
:'''Helmet design:''' white background, blue horseshoe
== Franchise history ==
===The AAFC Baltimore Colts===
{{details|Baltimore Colts (1947-50)}}
There have been two unrelated NFL teams called the Baltimore Colts. The first Colts team started in the [[All-America Football Conference]] in 1946 as the '''Miami Seahawks'''. They moved to Baltimore in 1947. In 1950, they joined the [[National Football League]] and finished the season with a record of 1-11. They folded after the 1950 season; however, supporting groups such as a [[fan club]] and a [[marching band]] remained in operation and worked for the team's revival.
===The NFL Baltimore Colts===
The team that is currently the '''Indianapolis Colts''' has taken a long trip to get to where they are today. Officially the NFL considers the Colts to have begun play in [[1953 NFL season|1953]] in Baltimore, but it was created from the nucleus that had previously been the [[Boston Yanks]] 1944-1948, [[New York Bulldogs]] 1949, [[New York Yanks]] 1950-1951 and the [[Dallas Texans (NFL)|Dallas Texans]] 1952.
In 1953, [[Carroll Rosenbloom]] became the principal owner of the new NFL Baltimore Colts. In [[1958 NFL season|1958]], coached by Hall of Famer [[Weeb Ewbank]] and led by [[Hall of Fame]] quarterback [[Johnny Unitas]], the Colts defeated the [[New York Giants]] at [[Yankee Stadium]] 23-17 in the NFL championship game, an overtime contest sometimes called "The Greatest Game Ever Played." The Colts repeated as NFL champions in [[1959 NFL season|1959]], beating the Giants again, 31-16. In the early 1960s, the Colts continued as an elite NFL team although they lost the [[professional football championship games|NFL championship game]] in [[1964 NFL season|1964]] to the Cleveland Browns, 27-0.
The [[1967 NFL season|1967]] Colts entered the final week of the regular season undefeated, but then a 34-10 loss to the [[St. Louis Rams|Rams]] at [[Los Angeles]] kept them out of the playoffs as the result gave both teams a final record of 11-1-2, with the Rams being awarded first place in the Western Conference's Coastal Division because they won the head-to-head series (the first meeting between the two teams, at Baltimore, ended in a 24-24 tie).
In [[1968 NFL season|1968]], after a 13-1 season, they gained a measure of revenge against the Browns, defeating them 34-0 in the [[professional football championship games|NFL championship game]]. The 13-1 regular season and the trouncing of the Browns led NFL-based media to call the Colts ''"the greatest pro football team of all time"''. The Colts went into [[Super Bowl III]] (the first in the series to officially be called the ''Super Bowl'') against the [[American Football League]]'s [[New York Jets]] as 17-point favorites, with NFL icons like [[Pro Bowl]]ers Bobby Boyd (db), Mike Curtis (lb), [[John Mackey (athlete)|John Mackey]] (te), Tom Matte (rb), Fred Miller (dl), [[Earl Morrall]] (qb), Willie Richardson (wr), and Bob Vogel (ol).
The result of the game was one of the greatest upsets in sports history as [[Joe Namath]] and [[Matt Snell]] led the [[American Football League]] champion [[New York Jets|Jets]] to a [[professional football championship games|World Championship]] over the NFL's Colts, 16-7. Ironically, the Jets were coached by [[Weeb Ewbank]], who had previously led the Colts to two NFL titles.
Rosenbloom, [[Art Modell]] (Browns), and [[Art Rooney]] (Steelers) facilitated the NFL merger with the [[American Football League]], by joining the ten AFL teams in the AFC. After the NFL merged with the AFL in [[1970 NFL season|1970]], the Colts moved to the American Football Conference (AFC) and won the AFC championship against the [[Oakland Raiders]] 27-17. Baltimore went on to win the first post-merger Super Bowl ([[Super Bowl V]]) against the NFC's [[Dallas Cowboys]] 16-13, on a Jim O'Brien field goal. Since there was only one league after 1969, the Colts' [[Super Bowl V|1970 Super Bowl win]] was the NFL championship, as were all Super Bowls thereafter. In [[1971 NFL Season|1971]], the Colts made it back to the NFL Playoffs, they defeated the Cleveland Browns in the first round, but lost to the [[Miami Dolphins]] in the AFC Championship on [[January 2]] [[1972]] 21-0.
On [[July 13]], [[1972]], Rosenbloom traded the Colts to [[Robert Irsay]] for the [[Los Angeles Rams]], but the players remained in their same respective cities. The Colts made the playoffs four |
deo compression software program named "[[Compressor (software)|Compressor]]". The professional-quality program is included with Apple's [[Final Cut Pro]] video editing software.
* A computer program that [[data compression|compresses data]] is sometimes called ''compressor''.
== See also ==
* [[compression]]
{{disambig}}
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[[de:Kompressor]]
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<title>Compressors</title>
<id>6712</id>
<revision>
<id>15904833</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Compressor]]
</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Conan the Barbarian</title>
<id>6713</id>
<revision>
<id>41056871</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-24T19:56:39Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>87.202.36.180</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>+pt</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Conan9.jpg|thumb|300px|right|"Hither came Conan, the Cimmerian, black-haired, sullen-eyed, sword in hand, a thief, a reaver, a slayer, with gigantic melancholies and gigantic mirth, to tread the jeweled thrones of the Earth under his sandalled feet." [[Robert E. Howard]], ''[[The Phoenix on the Sword]]'', 1932.]]
'''Conan the Barbarian''' (also known as '''Conan the Cimmerian''', from the name of his homeland, [[Cimmeria (Conan)|Cimmeria]]) is a literary [[fictional character|character]] created by [[Robert E. Howard]] in a series of [[fantasy]] [[Pulp magazine|pulp]] stories published in ''[[Weird Tales]]'' in the [[1930s]].
==Setting==
<!-- Image with unknown copyright status removed: [[Image:hyborianauctionmap.jpg|thumb|200px|right|A map of Robert E. Howard's [[Hyborian Age|Hyborian world]].]] -->
The Conan stories take place on [[Earth]], but in the mythical (created by Howard) "[[Hyborian Age]]," between the time of the sinking of [[Atlantis]] and the rise of the known ancient civilizations. According to Howard himself (in [[The Phoenix on the Sword]]): ''"...between the years when the [[ocean]]s drank Atlantis and the gleaming [[cities]], and the years of the rise of the [[Aryan|Sons of Aryas]]..."''
==Characteristics==
Conan is a [[Cimmeria (Conan)|Cimmeria]]n (not to be confused with the historical [[Cimmerians]]), a [[barbarian]] of the far north; he was born on a battlefield and is the son of a [[blacksmith]]. He grew up fast: by age fifteen he was already a respected [[warrior]], participating in the destruction of the Aquilonian outpost of Venarium. After this he was struck by wanderlust and began the colorful and exciting adventures chronicled by Howard (and subsequently, after Howard's death, by others), encountering fabulous monsters, evil [[wizard]]s, and beautiful wenches and [[princess]]es - he has travelled throughout the world and been a [[thief]] and [[outlaw]], a [[mercenary]] and commander of a mercenary company, and a [[pirate]]. He begins building larger units of men, aiming for greater territorial ambitions, though his efforts are repeatedly thwarted - usually by the total massacre of his force excepting himself. But in his forties he finally succeeds, becoming [[monarch|king]] of [[Aquilonia (Conan)|Aquilonia]], the most powerful kingdom of the age, having strangled the previous ruler on the steps of the throne. Although Conan's adventures often result in him performing heroic feats, his motive is more than often his own survival, enrichment or rise to power and he thus displays many of the characteristics of an [[anti-hero]].
==Appearance==
Conan has "sullen blue eyes," long black hair, stands at least 2 m (6 ft 6 in) and weighs over 90 kg (200 lb) though this is a later extrapolation and Howard never gives dimensions for either.{{fact}} In the tales no human is ever described as stronger than Conan, although several are mentioned as taller (such as the strangler Baal-pteor) or of larger bulk. Although Conan is muscular, Howard frequently compares his agility and way of moving to that of a panther (see for instance ''[[Jewels of Gwahlur]]'', ''[[Beyond the Black River]]'' or ''[[Rogues in the House]]''). His skin is frequently characterised as bronzed from constant exposure to the sun and his garb is most commonly a loincloth, sandals and a sword of some description, depending on his fortunes and location. In his younger years, he is often depicted wearing a light chain shirt and a horned helmet, though appearances vary with different artists.
During his reign as King of Aquilonia, Conan was "... a tall man, mightily shouldered and deep of chest, with a massive corded neck and heavily muscled limbs. He was clad in silk and velvet, with the royal lions of Aquilonia worked in gold upon his rich jupon, and the crown of Aquilonia shone on his square-cut black mane; but the great sword at his side seemed more natural to him than the regal accouterments. His brow was low and broad, his eyes a volcanic blue that smoldered as if with some inner fire. His dark, scarred, almost sinister face was that of a fighting-man, and his velvet garments could not conceal the hard, dangerous lines of his limbs." (''[[The Hour of the Dragon]]'' which can be found in the anthology ''The Bloody Crown of Conan'', pg. 89-90). He loses none of his vigour with age with the above description coming when he is in his mid 40's.
Though several later authors have referred to Conan as "Germanic-looking," Howard imagined the Cimmerians as a proto-[[Celt]]ic people with mostly dark hair and blue or grey eyes. Racially the Cimmerians to which Conan belongs are descendants of the Atlanteans, though they do not remember their ancestry. In his pseudo-historical essay "The Hyborian age", Howard describes how the people of Atlantis (the land where his character [[King Kull]] originated) had to move east after a great cataclysm changed the face of the world and sank their island, settling where northern Scotland and Norway would eventually be located. In the same work, Howard also described how the Cimmerians eventually moved south and east after the age of Conan (presumably in the vicinity of the Black Sea, where the historical [[Cimmerians]] dwelt).
==Abilities and Characteristics==
Despite his brutish appearance, Conan uses his brain as well as his brawn. The Cimmerian is a talented fighter, but due to his travels abroad, he also has vast experience in other trades, especially the thiefly one; he is also a talented commander, tactician and strategist, as well as a born leader. In addition, Conan speaks many languages, including advanced reading and writing abilities: in certain stories, he's able to recognize, or even decipher, certain ancient or secret signs and writings (like when he uses the sign of Jhebbal Sag in ''[[Beyond the Black River]]'') (but noticeably, he apparently is never shown by Howard reading Stygian, though he can speak it), and his very first appearance (in ''[[The Phoenix on the Sword]]'') shows him busy writing.
Another noticeable trait is his sense of humour, largely absent in the comics and movies, but very much a part of Howard's original vision of the character, particularly apparent in [[Xuthal of the Dusk]] a.k.a. The Slithering Shadow.
He is a loyal friend to those true to him with a barbaric code of honour and chivalry that often marks him as more civilized than those more sophisticated people he meets in his travels. Indeed his straighforward nature and barbarism are constants in all the tales.
One fact that is often emphasized is that Conan is very difficult to defeat in hand-to-hand combat. Conan needs only to have his back to the wall so that he cannot be surrounded, and then is capable of engaging and killing opponents by the score. This is seen in several stories, such as ''[[Queen of the Black Coast]]'', "[[The Scarlet Citadel]]" and ''[[A Witch Shall be Born]]''. Conan is not superhuman, though: he did need the providential help of Zelata's wolf to defeat four Nemedian soldiers in the story "[[The Hour of the Dragon]]". Some of his hardest victories have come from fighting single opponents, but ones of inhuman strength: one such as Thak, the ape man from [[Rogues in the House]], or the strangler Baal-Pteor in [[Shadows in Zamboula]]. Conan is far from untouchable and has been captured several times (knocking himself out running into a wall drunk after being betrayed, although he still slays the people initally sent to arrest him, a fall from a wounded horse) but never as a result of martial failings.
==Influences==
Howard corresponded with [[H. P. Lovecraft]], though it is extremely unlikely that they ever met, and the two would sometimes insert references to elements of each others' settings in their works; the Conan stories thus could be said to have originally occurred in the [[Cthulhu Mythos]] universe. Modern editors have since reworked many of the original Conan stories, however, diluting this connection.
The Conan stories are informed by the popular interest of the time in ideas on [[evolution]] and [[social Darwinism]]. Are some peoples destined to rule over others? Are our physical and mental characteristics the result of our experiences or our inheritance from our ancestors? Is human [[civilization]] a natural or unnatural development? As Conan remarks in one story:
::''Civilized men are more discourteous than savages because they know they can be impolite without having their skulls split, as a general thing.'' (Howard, ''[[The Tower of the Elephant]]'', Weird Tales, March 1933)
Additionally, some fans such as comic book artist [[Mark Schultz]] have concluded that Conan was an idealized [[alter ego]] |
han beer consumption.
== Related beverages ==
* [[Africa]]: Hundreds of local drinks made from [[millet]], [[sorghum]], and other available starch crops.
* [[Andes]], [[South America]]: [[Chicha]], an Andean beverage made from germinated [[maize]].
* [[Armenia]]: [[Kotayk]] is brewed as lager, special, dark, light and non-alcoholic beers.
* [[Bhutan]], [[Nepal]], [[Tibet]] and [[Sikkim]]: [[Chhaang]], a popular semi-fermented rice/millet drink in the eastern [[Himalaya]].
* [[China]]: [[Chinese wine|Jiǔ]], primarily [[grain]]-based fermented drinks.
* [[Finland]]: [[Sahti]], a traditional Finnish beer.
* [[Japan]]: [[Sake]], a primarily [[rice]]-based fermented drink, similar in many respects to Chinese ''jiǔ''.
* [[Korea]]: [[Soju]]
* [[Mexico]]: [[Pulque]], an indigenous beer made from the fermented sap of the [[agave]] plant.
* [[Russia]]/[[Ukraine]]: [[Kvass]], a fermented non-alcoholic or mildly alcoholic beverage.
* Various regions: [[Rye beer]], [[mead]] (made from water and [[honey]]), [[cider]] (made from [[apple juice]])
* Some [[Celtic]] peoples of the European Iron Age drank, according to some classical sources, a type of beer known as korma.
== See also ==
{{commons|Beer}}
{{wikibooks|Brewing}}
* [[Brewery]]
* [[Brewing]]
* [[History of beer]]
* [[Homebrewing]]
* [[List of breweries]] and [[:Category:Brewers and breweries]]
* [[List of commercial brands of beer]] and [[:Category:Brands of beer]]
* [[Non-alcoholic beer]]
* [[Reinheitsgebot]]
* [[Vores Øl]] - An Open Source Beer
* [[List of countries ordered by per capita beer consumption]]
==External links==
*[http://www.ratebeer.com/ RateBeer]
*[http://www.BeerAdvocate.com Beer Advocate]
*[http://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cervisia Cervisia] in the Latin Vicipaedia, for the names of local types of beer in Roman times
*{{dmoz|Recreation/Food/Drink/Beer/|Beer}}
==References==
* ''The Complete Guide to World Beer'', Roger Protz. ISBN 1844428656.
* ''The Barbarian's Beverage: a history of beer in ancient Europe'', Max Nelson. ISBN 0415311217.
* ''The World Guide to Beer'', Michael Jackson. ISBN 1850760004
* ''Beer: The Story of the Pint'', Martyn Cornell. ISBN 0755311655
* ''Beer and Britannia: An Inebriated History of Britain'', Peter Haydon. ISBN 0750927488
* ''The Book of Beer Knowledge: Essential Wisdom for the Discerning Drinker, a Useful Miscellany'', Jeff Evans. ISBN 1852491981
* ''Country House Brewing in England, 1500-1900'', Pamela Sambrook. ISBN 1852851279
* ''Ale, Beer and Brewsters in England: Women's Work in a Changing World, 1300-1600 '', Judith M. Bennett. ISBN 0195126505
* ''A History of Beer and Brewing'', I. Hornsey. ISBN 0854046305
* ''Beer: an Illustrated History'', Brian Glover. ISBN 1840385979
* ''Beer in America: The Early Years 1587-1840 - Beer's Role in the Settling of America and the Birth of a Nation'', Gregg Smith. ISBN 0937381659
* ''Big Book of Beer'', Adrian Tierney-Jones. ISBN 1852492120
* ''Gone for a Burton: Memories from a Great British Heritage'', Bob Ricketts. ISBN 1905203691
* ''Farmhouse Ales: Culture and Craftsmanship in the Belgian Tradition'', Phil Marowski. ISBN 0937381845
* ''Man Walks into a Pub: A Sociable History of Beer'', Pete Brown. ISBN 140500553X (Considered to be popular and amusing but inaccurate and unreliable. CAMRA have boycotted the book)
* ''The World Encyclopedia of Beer'', Brian Glover. ISBN 0754809331
[[Category:Beer|*]]
{{Link FA|li}}
{{Link FA|pl}}
[[als:Bier]]
[[ast:Cerveza]]
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[[mk:Пиво]]
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[[ru:Пиво]]
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[[fi:Olut]]
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[[vi:Bia (đồ uống)]]
[[tr:Bira]]
[[uk:Пиво]]
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[[zh:啤酒]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Bit</title>
<id>3364</id>
<revision>
<id>42121773</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T23:36:31Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Gunblade</username>
<id>284024</id>
</contributor>
<comment>reverted from vandalism</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Quantities of bits}}
{{otheruses1|the unit of information}}
A '''bit''' refers to a [[numerical digit|digit]] in the [[binary numeral system]] ([[base (mathematics)|base]] 2). For example, the number 1001011 is 7 bits long. The unit is sometimes abbreviated to '''b''' (but see below).
Binary digits are almost always used as the basic unit of [[information]] [[computer storage|storage]] and [[transmission (telecommunications)|communication]] in digital [[computing]] and digital [[information theory]]. Information theory also often uses the natural digit, called either a ''[[Nit (unit of information)|nit]]'' or a ''[[Nat (information)|nat]]''.
== History and explanation ==
[[Claude E. Shannon]] first used the word ''bit'' in a 1948 paper. Shannon's ''bit'' is a [[portmanteau|portmanteau word]] for '''b'''inary dig'''it''' (or possibly '''bi'''nary uni'''t'''). He attributed its origin to [[John W. Tukey]].
A bit is like a light switch; it can be either on or off. A single bit is a one or a zero, a true or a false, a "flag" which is "on" or "off", or in general, the quantity of information required to distinguish two mutually exclusive ''[[State (computer science)|state]]s'' from each other.
The bit is the smallest unit of storage currently used in computing, although much research is ongoing in [[quantum computing]] with [[qubit]]s.
== More than one bit ==
A [[byte]] is a collection of bits, originally variable in size but now almost always eight bits. Eight-bit bytes, also known as ''[[octet (computing)|octet]]s'', can represent 256 values (2<sup>8</sup> values, 0–255). A four-bit quantity is known as a ''[[nibble]]'', and can represent 16 values (2<sup>4</sup> values, 0–15).
"[[Word (computer science)|Word]]" is a term for a slightly larger group of bits, but it has no standard size. In the [[IA-32]] architecture, 16 bits are called a "word" (with 32 bits being a "double word" or dword), but other architectures have word sizes of 32, 64 or others.
Terms for large quantities of bits can be formed using the standard range of prefixes, e.g., [[kilo]]bit ([[kbit]]), [[mega]]bit ([[Mbit]]) and [[giga]]bit ([[Gbit]]). Note that much confusion exists regarding these units and their abbreviations, see [[binary prefix]]es. It has often been recommended to use "bit" for the bit and "b" for the byte, to prevent confusion with the unit bel, B. However, "b" is often used for bit and "B" for byte. The [[International Electrotechnical Commission|IEC]] recommends to use only "bit" and "B" for maximum disambiguation. Since the bel is almost never used by itself (only used as a [[decibel]], dB) the chances of conflict are small.
Certain [[bitwise operation|bitwise]] computer [[central processing unit|processor]] instructions (such as [[xor]]) operate at the level of manipulating bits rather than manipulating data interpreted as an aggregate of bits.
[[Telecommunications]] or [[computer network]] transfer rates are usually described in terms of [[bits per second]] (not to be confused with [[baud]]).
== See also ==
*[[Integral data type]]
*[[Bitstream]]
*[[Information entropy]]
*[[Qubit]]
*[[Binary arithmetic]]
[[Category:Units of information]]
[[Category:Computing portmanteaus]]
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<page>
<title>Byte</title>
<id>3365</id>
<revision>
<id>41793205</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T20:10:56Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Johnteslade</username>
<id>102856</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">:''For the computer industry magazine, see [[BYTE]].''
{{Quantities of bytes}}
A '''byte''' is commonly used as a unit of [[Computer storage|storage]] measurement in [[computer]]s, regardless of the type of data being stored. It is also one of the basic [[integral data type]]s in many [[programming language]]s.
==Meanings==
The word "byte" has several closely-related meanings:
# A contiguous sequence of a ''fixed'' number of [[bit]]s (binary digits). In recent years, the use of a byte to mean 8 bits is nearly ubiquitous.
# A contiguous sequence of binary bits within a binary computer, that comprises the ''smallest addressable sub-field'' of the computer's natural word-size. That is, the smallest unit of binary data on which meaningful computation, or natural data boundaries, could be applied. For example, CDC 6400 (and other) scientific mainframes divided their 60-bit floating-point words into 10 six-bit bytes. These bytes conveniently held [[Hollerith]] data from punched cards, typically the upper-case alphabet and decimal digits. The PDP-10 used assembly instructions LDB and DPB to extract bytes—these operations survive today in [[Common Lisp]]. Bytes of six, seven, or nine bits were used on some computers, for example within the 36-bit word of the [[PDP-10]].
# A contiguous sequence of binary bits in a serial data stream, such as in modem or satelli |
itle>Galatia</title>
<id>12744</id>
<revision>
<id>42027560</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T08:26:51Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Behemoth</username>
<id>203360</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''For the Greek name for Gaul, see [[Gaul]]''
Ancient '''Galatia''' was an area in the highlands of central [[Anatolia]] (now [[Turkey]]). Galatia was bounded on the north by [[Bithynia]] and [[Paphlagonia]], on the east by [[Pontus]], on the south by [[Lycaonia]] and [[Cappadocia]], and on the west by the remainder of [[Phrygia]], the eastern part of which the [[Gaul]]s had invaded. The modern capital of Turkey, [[Ankara]] lies in ancient Galatia.
Galatia was named for the immigrant Gauls from [[Thrace]], who became its ruling caste in the [[3rd century BCE]]. It has been called the "Gallia" of the East, Roman writers calling its inhabitants [[Galli]]. They were an intermixture of Gauls and Greeks, and hence [[Francis Bacon]] and other Renaissance writers called them "Gallo-Graeci,"<!--not a Roman term--> and the country "Gallo-Graecia".
The Galatians were in their origin a part of that great [[Celt]]ic migration which invaded [[Macedon]], led by the 'second' [[Brennus]], a Gaulish chief. He invaded Greece in [[281 BCE]] with a huge warband and was turned back in the nick of time from plundering the temple of Apollo at Delphi. At the same time, another Gaulish group were migrating with their women and children through Thrace. They had split off from Brennus' Gauls in [[279 BCE]], and had migrated into Thrace under their leaders Leonnorius and Lutarius. These Gaulish invaders appeared in Asia Minor in [[278 BCE|278]]&ndash;[[277 BCE]]; others invaded Macedon, killed the [[Ptolemaic]] king [[Ptolemy Ceraunus]] but were eventually ousted by [[Antigonus Gonatas]], the grandson of the defeated [[diadoch]] [[Antigonus I Monophthalmus|Antigonus the One-Eyed]].
As so often happens in cases of invasion, the invaders came at the express invitation of [[Nicomedes I of Bithynia|Nicomedes I]] of Bithynia, who required help in a dynastic struggle against his brother. Three tribes of Gauls crossed over from Thrace to Asia Minor. They numbered about 10,000 fighting men and about the same number of women and children, divided into three tribes, Trocmi, Tolistobogii and Tectosages. They were eventually defeated by the [[Seleucid]] king [[Antiochus I]], in a battle where the Seleucid war elephants shocked the Celts. While breaking the momentum of the invasion, the Galatians were by no means exterminated.
Instead, the migration led to the establishment of a long-lived Gaulish territory in central [[Anatolia]], which included the eastern part of ancient [[Phrygia]], a territory that became known as [[Galatia]]. There they ultimately settled, and being strengthened by fresh accessions of the same clan from Europe, they overran Bithynia, and supported themselves by plundering neighbouring countries.
The constitution of the Galatian state is described by [[Strabo]]: conformably to Gaulish custom, each tribe was divided into cantons, each governed by a chief ('tetrarch') of its own with a judge under him, whose powers were unlimited except in cases of murder, which were tried before a council of 300 drawn from the twelve cantons and meeting at a holy place, twenty miles southwest of Ancyra, which was likely to have been a sacred oak grove, for it was called 'Drynemeton' the "temple of the oaks" ''drys'' + ''nemed'' "temple". The local population of Cappadocians were left in control of the towns and most of the land, paying tithes to their new overlords, who formed a military aristocracy and kept aloof in fortified farmsteads, surrounded by their bands.
[[Image:WoundedGaulCapitolineMus.jpg|thumb|right|280px|[[Dying Gaul|The Dying Gaul]]: a Hellenistic image of a noble adversary ([[Capitoline Hill|Capitoline Museum]], Rome]]
The Gauls were great warriors, respected by Greeks and Romans (''illustration, right''). They hired themselves out as mercenary soldiers, sometimes fighting on both sides in the great battles of the times. For years the Gaulish chieftains and their warbands ravaged the western half of Asia Minor, as allies of one or other of the warring princes, without any serious check, until they sided with the renegade Seleucid prince [[Antiochus Hierax]], who reigned in [[Asia Minor]]. Hierax tried to defeat king [[Attalus I|Attalus I of Pergamum]] ([[241 BCE|241]]&ndash;[[197 BCE]]), but instead, the hellenised cities united under his banner, and his armies inflicted several severe defeats upon them, about 232 forcing them to settle permanently and to confine themselves to the region to which they had already given their name. The theme of the ''Dying Gaul'' (a famous statue displayed in Pergamon) remained a favorite in Hellenistic art for a generation. Their right to the district was formally recognized. The three Gaulish tribes were settled where they afterwards remained, the Tectosages round Ancyra, the Tolistobogii round [[Pessinus]], sacred to [[Cybele]], and the Trocmi round Tavium.
But the power of the Gauls was not yet broken. The Pergamene king himself soon employed their services in the increasingly devastating wars of Asia Minor; another band deserted from their Egyptian overlord [[Ptolemy IV]] after a [[solar eclipse]] had broken their spirits.
In the early 2nd century BCE they proved terrible allies of [[Antiochus III|Antiochus the Great]], the last Seleucid king trying to regain suzerainity over Asia Minor, but after the defeat of the Seleucid king to the Romans, Rome at last proved a worthy protection against them. In [[189 BCE]] an expedition was sent against them under Ca. Manlius Vulso, who defeated them. Henceforward their military power declined and they fell at times under [[Pontus|Pontic]] ascendancy, from which they were finally freed by the [[Mithridatic Wars]], in which they heartily supported Rome.
[[Image:Galatia Map.png|thumb|280px|left|Galatia as a Roman province.]]
In the settlement of [[64 BC|64 BCE]] Galatia became a client-state of the empire, the old constitution disappeared, and three chiefs (wrongly styled &#8220;tetrarchs &#8220;) were appointed, one for each tribe. But this arrangement soon gave way before the ambition of one of these tetrarchs, [[Deiotarus]], the contemporary of Cicero and Caesar, who made himself master of the other two tetrarchies and was finally recognized by the Romans as 'king' of Galatia. On the death of the third king Amyntas in [[25 BCE]], however, Galatia was incorporated by Augustus in the [[Roman empire]], though near his capital Ancyra ([[Ankara]]) Pylamenes, the king's heir, rebuilt a temple of the Phrygian goddess [[Men]] to venerate Augustus, as a sign of fidelity. It was in a temple carving in Galatia that the major source for the [[Res Gestae]] of Augustus were preserved for modernity. Few of the provinces proved more enthusiastically loyal to Rome. The Galatians also practiced a form of Romano-Celtic polytheism, common in Celtic lands.
During his second missionary journey [[Paul of Tarsus|Paul]], accompanied by Silas and Timothy (Acts 16:6), visited the "region of Galatia," where he was detained by sickness ([[Epistle to Galatians]] 4:13), and had thus the longer opportunity of preaching to them the gospel. On his third journey he went over "all the country of Galatia and [[Phrygia]] in order" (Acts 18:23). During the journeys of Paul he was received with enthusiasm in Galatia.In ''Acts'', xvi, 6 and xviii, 23:"And they went through the Phrygian and Galatian region" (''ten phrygian kai Galatiken choran'') and "he departed and went through the Galatian region and Phrygia" (''ten Galatiken choran kai phrygian''). The Galatians were fickle; at Lystra the multitude could scarcely be restrained from sacrificing to Paul (because they assumed he was a god); shortly afterwards they stoned him and left him for dead. Crescens was sent thither by Paul toward the close of his life (''2 Timothy'' 4:10).
[[Josephus]] related the biblical figure [[Gomer (Ezekiel)|Gomer]] to Galatia. "For Gomer founded those whom the Greeks now call Galatians, [Galls,] but were then called Gomerites." [[Antiquities of the Jews]], I:6. Although others have related Gomer to [[Cimmerians]].
The Galatians were still speaking the [[Celtic languages|Celtic]] [[Galatian language]] in the time of Jerome ([[347]]&ndash;[[420|420 CE]]), who wrote that the Galatians of [[Ankara|Ancyra]] and the [[Treveri]] of [[Trier]] (in what is now the [[Germany|German]] [[Rhineland]]) spoke the same [[Gaulish language|language]]. The final fate of the Galatian people is an subject of some uncertainty, but they seem ultimately to have been absorbed into the [[Greek language|Greek]]- and/or [[Turkish language|Turkish]]-speaking populations of west-central Anatolia.
== External links==
*[http://www.wales.ac.uk/documents/external/cawcs/Galatia2.pdf A detailed map of Celtic settlements in Galatia]
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<text xml:space="preserve">In the [[humanities]] and [[social sciences]], '''critical theory''' has two quite different meanings with different origins and histories, one originating in [[social theory]] and the other in [[literary criticism]]. Though until recently these two meanings had little to do with each other, since the 1970s there has been some overlap between these disciplines. This has led to "critical theory" becoming an umbrella term for an array of theories within the academic world of the United Kingdom and the United States. This article focuses primarily on the differences and similarities between them.
==Critical theory (social theory)==
{{main|Critical theory (Frankfurt School)}}
The first meaning of the term ''critical theory'' was that defined by [[Max Horkheimer]] of the [[Frankfurt School]] of social science in his 1937 essay ''Traditional and Critical Theory'' : critical theory is social theory oriented toward critiquing and changing society as a whole, in contrast to traditional theory oriented only to understanding or explaining it. Horkheimer wanted to distinguish critical theory as a radical, emancipatory form of Marxian theory both from the model of science put forward by [[logical positivism]] and from what he and his colleagues perceived as the covert positivism and authoritarianism of orthodox Marxism and Communism. It is also central to this notion that critical social theory be directed at the totality of society in its historical specificity, i.e. in the way it had come to be configured at a specific point in time, and that it integrates all of the major social science theories that will help grasp the major dimensions of society, including especially economics, sociology, history, political science, anthropology, and psychology. Although this conception of critical theory originated with the Frankfurt School, it also prevails among some other recent social scientists, such as [[Pierre Bourdieu]], [[Louis Althusser]] and arguably [[Michel Foucault]] and certain [[feminist]] theorists and social scientists.
This version of "critical" theory derives from [[Kant]]'s (18th-century) and [[Marx]]'s (19th century) use of the term "[[critique]]", as in Kant's ''[[Critique of Pure Reason]]'' and Marx's notion of his work ''[[Das Kapital]]'' (''Capital'') as "the critique of political economy". For Kant's [[transcendental idealism]], "critique" means examining and establishing the limits of the validity of a faculty, type, or body of knowledge, especially through taking stock of the limitations imposed by the fundamental, irreducible concepts in use in that knowledge. His notion also already associated critique with the disestablishment of false, unprovable, or dogmatic philosophical, social, and political beliefs since for him the critique of reason involved the critique of dogmatic theological and metaphysical ideas and was intertwined with the enhancement of ethical autonomy and the Enlightenment critique of superstition and irrational authority. Marx explicitly developed this notion into the critique of ideology and linked it with the practice of social revolution, as in his famous 11th Thesis on Feuerbach, "Philosophers have only interpreted the world in certain ways; the point is to change it". [http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1845/theses/theses.htm]
This meaning of "critical theory" originated entirely within the social sciences, and there are works of critical social theory and critical social science that pay no attention and show no awareness of the literary/humanities version of critical theory.
==Critical theory (literary criticism)==
{{main|Literary theory}}
The second meaning of ''critical theory'' is that of theory used in literary criticism – hence "critical theory" -- and in the analysis and understanding of literature and is discussed in greater detail under [[literary theory]]. It is not necessarily oriented toward radical social change or even toward the analysis of society but is focused primarily on the analysis of texts and textlike phenomena. It originated among literary scholars and in the discipline of literature in the 1960s and 1970s and really came into broad use only since the 1980s, especially as theory used in literary studies became increasingly influenced by Continental philosophy and social theory and thereby became more "theoretical".
This version of "critical" theory derives from the notion of literary criticism as establishing and enhancing the proper [[aesthetic]] understanding and evaluation of literature, as articulated, for example, in [[Joseph Addison]]'s notion of a critic as one who helps understand and interpret literary works: "A true critic ought to dwell rather upon excellencies than imperfections, to discover the concealed beauties of a writer, and communicate to the world such things as are worth their observation." [http://www.ourcivilisation.com/smartboard/shop/fowlerjh/chap20.htm] This notion of criticism ultimately goes back to Aristotle's ''Poetics'' as a theory of literature.
This meaning of "critical theory" originated entirely within the humanities, and there are works of literary critical theory that pay no attention and show no awareness of the sociological version of critical theory.
==Relationship between the two versions==
These two meanings of critical theory derive from two different intellectual traditions associated with the meaning of criticism and critique, both of which derive ultimately from the Greek word ''kritikos'' meaning judgment or discernment and in their present forms go back to the 18th century. While they can be considered completely independent intellectual pursuits, increasingly scholars are interested in the areas of critique where the two overlap.
To use an [[epistemological]] distinction introduced by [[Jürgen Habermas]] in 1968 in his ''Erkenntnis und Interesse'' (''Knowledge and Human Interests''), critical theory in literary studies is ultimately a form of [[hermeneutics]], i.e. knowledge via interpretation in order to understand the meaning of human texts and symbolic expressions, obeying the practical interest in mutual understanding, while critical social theory is ultimately a form of self-reflective knowledge involving both understanding and theoretical explanation in order to reduce entrapment in systems of [[domination]] or dependence, obeying the emancipatory interest in expanding the scope of autonomy and reducing the scope of domination. From this perspective, much literary critical theory, since it is focused on intepretation and explanation rather than on social transformation, would be regarded as positivistic or traditional rather than critical theory in the Kantian or Marxian sense. Critical theory in literature and the humanities in general does not necessarily involve a [[normative]] dimension, whereas critical social theory does, either through criticizing society from some general theory of [[values]], norms, or oughts, or through criticizing it in terms of its own espoused values.
==Overlap between the two versions of critical theory==
Nevertheless, a certain amount of overlap has come about, initiated both from the critical social theory and the literary-critical theory sides. It was distinctive of the Frankfurt School version of critical theory from the beginning, especially in the work of [[Max Horkheimer]], [[Theodor Adorno]], [[Walter Benjamin]], [[Herbert Marcuse]], and [[Leo Lowenthal]], because of their focus on the role of false consciousness and ideology in the perpetuation of capitalism, to analyze works of culture, including literature, music, art, both "[[high culture]]" and "[[popular culture]]" or "mass culture." Thus it was to some extent a theory of literature and a method of literary criticism (as in Walter Benjamin's interpretation of [[Charles Baudelaire|Baudelaire]], Leo Lowenthal's interpretations of [[Shakespeare]], [[Ibsen]], etc., Adorno's interpretations of [[Kafka]], [[Valery]], [[Balzac]], [[Beckett]], etc.) and (see below) in the 1960s started to influence the literary sort of critical theory.
===Within social theory===
In the late 1960s [[Juergen Habermas]] of the Frankfurt School, redefined critical theory in a way that freed it from a direct tie to Marxism or the prior work of the Frankfurt School. In Habermas's epistemology, critical knowledge was conceptualized as knowledge that enabled human beings to emancipate themselves from forms of domination through self-reflection and took psychoanalysis as the paradigm of critical knowledge. This expanded considerably the scope of what counted as critical theory within the social sciences, which would include such approaches as [[World Systems Theory|world systems theory]], [[feminist theory]], [[postcolonial theory]], [[critical race theory]], [[queer theory]], [[social ecology]], the theory of communicative action ([[Habermas]]), [[structuration theory]], and [[neo-Marxian theory]].
===Within literary theory===
From the literary side, starting in the 1960s literary scholars, reacting especially against the [[New Criticism]] of the previous decades, which tried to analyze literary texts purely internally, began to incorporate into their analyses and interpretations of literary works initially [[semiotic]], [[linguistic]], and i |
in the [[four-momentum]] and the [[stress-energy tensor|stress-energy]] tensors. For any self-contained system or for any physical interaction, the total energy-momentum is conserved in the sense that:
<math>\partial_b \, {T_a}^b = 0</math>, where
* <math>\partial</math> is a [[partial derivative]].
* <math>{T_a}^b</math> is the stress-energy tensor.
For general relativity, this relationship is modified to account for curvature, becoming
<math>\nabla_b \, {T_a}^b = \partial_b \, {T_a}^b + {\Gamma^b}_{cb} \, {T_a}^c + {\Gamma^c}_{ab} \, {T_c}^b = 0</math>, where
* &nabla; is a [[covariant derivative]].
Unlike classical mechanics and special relativity, it is not usually possible to unambiguously define the total energy and momentum in general relativity, so the conservation laws are ''local'' statements only (see [[ADM energy]], though). This often causes confusion in time-dependent spacetimes which apparently do not conserve energy, although the local law is always satisfied.
==== Electromagnetism ====
Electromagnetism sounded the death knell for classical mechanics, since [[Maxwell's Equations]] are not [[Galilean invariance|Galilean invariant]]. This created a dilemma that was resolved by the advent of special relativity.
In tensor form, Maxwell's equations are
<math>\partial_a\,F^{\,ab} = (4\pi/c)\,J^{\,b}</math> and<br>
<math>\partial^{a}\,F^{\,bc} + \partial^{b} \, F^{\,ca} + \partial^{c} \, F^{\,ab} = 0</math>, where
* ''F<sup> ab</sup>'' is the [[electromagnetic field tensor]], and
* ''J<sup> a</sup>'' is a [[four-current]].
The effect of an electromagnetic field on a charged object of mass ''m'' is then
<math>dP^a/d\tau = (q/m)\,P_b\,F^{\,ab}</math>, where
* ''P<sup> a</sup>'' is the [[four-momentum]] of the charged object.
In general relativity, Maxwell's equations become
<math>\nabla_a\,F^{\,ab} = (4\pi/c)\,J^{\,b}</math> and<br>
<math>\nabla^a\,F^{\,bc} + \nabla^b \, F^{\,ca} + \nabla^c \, F^{\,ab} = 0</math>.
The equation for the effect of the electromagnetic field remains the same, although the change of metrics will modify its results.
=== Quantum mechanics ===
General relativity is incompatible with [[quantum mechanics]]; it is generally held that one of the most important unsolved problems in modern physics is the problem of obtaining a true quantum theory of gravitation. Unsuccessful attempts at obtaining such theories include [[supergravity]], a [[field theory]] which attempted to unify general relativity with [[supersymmetry]]. At present, leading contenders which may turn out to solve this problem include [[M-theory]] and [[loop quantum gravity]]. Of these two, M-theory is significantly more ambitious in that it attempts to ''unify'' gravitation with the other known fundamental forces of Nature, whereas loop quantum gravity "merely" attempts to provide a viable quantum theory of gravitation with a well-defined classical limit which agrees with general relativity.
=== Alternative theories ===
Well known classical theories of gravitation other than general relativity include:
*[[Nordström's theory of gravitation]] (1913) was one of the earliest ''metric theories'' (an aspect brought out by Einstein and Fokker in 1914). Nordström soon abandoned his theory in favor of general relativity on theoretical grounds, but this theory, which is a ''scalar theory'', and which features a notion of ''prior geometry'', does not predict any '' light bending'', so it is solidly incompatible with observation.
*[[Alfred North Whitehead]] formulated an alternative theory of gravity that was regarded as a viable contender for several decades, until [[Clifford Martin Will|Clifford Will]] noticed in 1971 that it predicts grossly incorrect behavior for the ocean tides!
*[[George David Birkhoff]]'s (1943) yields the same predictions for the classical four solar system tests as general relativity, but unfortunately requires sound waves to travel at the speed of light! Thus, like Whitehead's theory, it was never a viable theory after all, despite making an initially good impression on many experts.
*Like Nordström's theory, the gravitation theory of [[Wei-Tou Ni]] (1971) features a notion of prior geometry, but Will soon showed that it is not fully compatible with observation and experiment.
*The [[Brans-Dicke theory]] and the [[Rosen bi-metric theory]] are two alternatives to general relativity which have been around for a very long time and which have also withstood many tests. However, they are less elegant and more complicated than general relativity, in several senses.
*There have been many attempts to formulate consistent theories which combine gravity and electromagnetism. The first of these, [[Weyl's gauge theory of gravitation]], was immediately shot down (on a postcard!) by Einstein himself, who pointed out to [[Hermann Weyl]] that in his theory, hydrogen atoms would have variable size, which they do not. Another early attempt, the original [[Kaluza-Klein theory]], at first seemed to unify general relativity with classical electromagnetism, but is nowadays not regarded as successful for that purpose. Both these theories have turned out to be historically important for other reasons: Weyl's idea of [[gauge invariance]] survived and in fact is omnipresent in modern physics, while Kaluza's idea of compact extra dimensions has been resurrected in the modern notion of a [[brane-world]].
*The [[Fierz-Pauli spin-two theory]] was an optimistic attempt to quantize general relativity, but it turns out to be ''internally inconsistent''. [[Pascual Jordan]]'s work toward fixing these problems eventually motivated the Brans-Dicke theory, and also influenced [[Richard Feynman]]'s unsuccessful attempts to quantize gravity.
*[[Einstein-Cartan theory]] includes [[torsion]] terms, so it is not a metric theory in the strict sense.
*[[Teleparallel gravity]] goes further and replaces connections with nonzero curvature (but vanishing torsion) by ones with nonzero torsion (but vanishing curvature).
*The [[Nonsymmetric Gravitational Theory]] (NGT) of [[John Moffat|John W. Moffat]] is a dark horse in the race.
* Similarly, [[Self creation cosmology]] is a modification of the [[Brans-Dicke theory]] that is concondant with local and cosmological observatons and being tested by the [[Gravity Probe B]] experiment.
Even for "weak field" observations confined to our Solar system, various alternative theories of gravity predict quantitatively distinct deviations from Newtonian gravity. In the weak-field, slow-motion limit, it is possible to define 10 experimentally measurable parameters which completely characterize predictions of any such theory. This system of these parameters, which can be roughly thought of as describing a kind of ten dimensional "superspace" made from a certain class of classical gravitation theories, is known as [[PPN formalism]] (Parametric Post-Newtonian formalism). [http://relativity.livingreviews.org/open?pubNo=lrr-2001-4&page=node8.html] Current bounds on the PPN parameters [http://wugrav.wustl.edu/people/CMW/expgravpage/ppnbounds.html] are compatible with GR.
See in particular [http://www.arxiv.org/abs/gr-qc/0103036|The confrontation between Theory and Experiment in Gravitational Physics], a review paper by Clifford Will.
== History ==
{{details|History of general relativity}}
:''See also: [[Tests of general relativity]]''
General relativity was developed by Einstein in a process that began in [[1907]] with the publication of an article on the influence of gravity and acceleration on the behavior of light in [[special relativity]]. Most of this work was done in the years [[1911]]&ndash;[[1915]], beginning with the publication of a second article on the effect of gravitation on light. By [[1912]], Einstein was actively seeking a theory in which gravitation was explained as a geometric phenomenon. In 1915, these efforts culminated in the publication of the [[Einstein field equations]], which are a set of differential equations.
Since 1915, the development of general relativity has focused on solving the field equations for various cases. This generally means finding [[metric tensor (general relativity)|metrics]] which correspond to realistic physical scenarios. The interpretation of the solutions and their possible experimental and observational testing also constitutes a large part of research in GR.
The [[expansion of the universe]] created an interesting episode for general relativity. Starting in [[1922]], researchers found that cosmological solutions of the Einstein field equations call for an expanding universe. Einstein did not believe in an expanding universe, and so he added a [[cosmological constant]] to the field equations to permit the creation of static universe solutions. In [[1929]], [[Edwin Hubble]] found evidence that the universe is expanding. This resulted in Einstein dropping the cosmological constant, referring to it as "the biggest blunder in my career".
Progress in solving the field equations and understanding the solutions has been ongoing. Notable solutions have included the [[Schwarzschild solution]] ([[1916]]), the [[Reissner-Nordström]] solution and the [[Kerr solution]].
Observationally, general relativity has a history too. The perihelion precession of Mercury was the first evidence that general relativity is correct. Eddington's 1919 expedition in which he confirmed Einstein's prediction for the deflection of light by the Sun helped to cement the status of general relativity as a likely true theory. Since then, many observations have confirmed the predictions of general relativity. These include studies of binary pulsars, observations of radio signals passing the limb of the Sun, and even the [[GPS]] system. For more information, see |
on of Aelian was made about [[1350]].
In spite of its academic nature, the copious details to be found in the treatise rendered it of the highest value to the army organizers of the [[16th century]], who were engaged in fashioning a regular military system out of the semi-[[feudal]] systems of previous generations. The [[Macedonian phalanx]] of Aelian had many points of resemblance to the solid masses of [[pikemen]] and the [[squadrons]] of [[cavalry]] of the [[Spain|Spanish]] and [[Netherlands|Dutch]] systems, and the translations made in the 16th century formed the groundwork of numerous books on drill and tactics.
Moreover, his works, with those of [[Xenophon]], Polybius, [[Aeneas Tacticus]] and Arrian, were minutely studied by every soldier of the 16th and [[17th century|17th centuries]] who wished to be master of his profession. It has been suggested that Aelian was the real author of most of Arrian's ''Tactica'', and that the ''Taktike Theoria'' is a later revision of this original, but the theory is not generally accepted.
==References==
*{{1911}}
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<text xml:space="preserve">An '''agarose''' is a [[polysaccharide]] [[polymer]] material, generally extracted from [[seaweed]]. The molecules are extremely water-soluble due to their large number of [[hydroxyl]] groups, and the solutions tend to be low-melting point aqueous [[gel|gels]]. Sheets of agarose gels are readily prepared by pouring the warm, liquid solution into a mould, and are frequently used in [[molecular biology]] for the separation of large molecules by [[Agarose gel electrophoresis|electrophoresis]]. A wide range of different agaroses, of varying molecular weights and properties are commercially available for this purpose.
==See also==
*[[Agar]]
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<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Atomic absorption spectroscopy.jpg|thumb|250px|Atomic absorption spectroscopy]]
'''Atomic absorption spectroscopy''' in [[analytical chemistry]] is a technique for determining the concentration of a particular metal [[chemical element|element]] within a sample. Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy can be used to analyse the concentration of over 62 different metals in a solution.
Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy was first developed during the 1950's by a team of Australian chemists, lead by [[Alan Walsh]], working at the [[CSIRO]] (Commonwealth Science and Industry Research Organisation) Division of Chemical Physics, in Melbourne Australia. Typicaly, the technique makes use of a flame to atomize the sample, but other atomizers such as a graphite furnace are also used. Three steps are involved in turning a liquid sample into an atomic gas:
#Desolvation &#8211; the liquid [[solvent]] is [[evaporation|evaporated]], and the dry sample remains
#Vaporisation &#8211; the solid sample vaporises to a gas
#Volatilisation &#8211; the compounds making up the sample are broken into free [[atoms]].
The flame is arranged such that it is laterally long (usually 10cm) and not deep. The height of the flame must also be controlled by controlling the flow of the fuel mixture. A beam of [[light]] is focused through this flame at its longest axis (the lateral axis) onto a detector past the flame.
The light that is focused into the flame is produced by a hollow cathode lamp. Inside the lamp is a cylindrical metal cathode containing the metal for excitation, and an anode. When a high voltage is applied across the anode and cathode, the metal atoms in the cathode are excited into producing light with a certain [[emission spectra]]. The type of hollow cathode tube depends on the metal being analysed. For analysing the concentration of copper in an ore, a copper cathode tube would be used, and likewise for any other metal being analysed. The [[electron]]s of the atoms in the flame can be promoted to higher orbitals for an instant by absorbing a set quantity of [[energy]] (a quantum). This amount of energy is specific to a particular electron transition in a particular element. As the quantity of energy put into the flame is known, and the quantity remaining at the other side (at the detector) can be measured, it is possible to calculate how many of these transitions took place, and thus get a signal that is proportional to the concentration of the element being measured.
=== Fuel / oxidant mixtures ===
For a low temperature flame, [[acetylene]] and air is used. A hotter flame can be produced using acetylene and pure [[oxygen]], and an even hotter flame can be attained using [[nitrous oxide]] and acetylene, although this mixture is explosive.
[[Category:Spectroscopy]][[Category:Analytical chemistry]]
=== Background correction methods ===
The narrow linewidths of hollow cathode lamps make spectral overlap rare. That is, it is unlikely that an absorption line from one element will overlap with another. Molecular emission is much broader, so it is more likely that some molecular absorption band with overlap with an atomic line. This can result in artificially high absorption and an improperly high calculation for the concentration in the solution. Three methods are typically used to correct for this:
* Zeeman correction - A magnetic field is used to split the atomic line into two sidebands (see [[Zeeman effect]]). These sidebands are close enough to the original wavelenth to still overlap with molecular bands, but are far enough not to overlap with the atomic bands. The absorption in the presence and absence of a magnetic field can be compare, the difference being the atomic absorption or interest.
* Smith-Hieftje correction (invented by Stanley B. Smith and Gary M. Hieftje) - The hollow cathode lamp is pulsed with high current, causing a larger atom population and self-absorption during the pulses. This self-absorption causes a broadening of the line and a reduction of the line intensity at the original wavelength.
* Deuterium lamp correction - In this case, a separate source (a deuterium lamp) with broad emission is used to measure the backround emission. The use of a separate lamp makes this method the least accurate, but its relative simplicity (and the fact that it is the oldest of the three) makes it the most commonly used method.
==References==
* S. B. Smith, Jr and G. M. Hieftje, Appl. Spectrosc., 1983, 37, 419–424
[[de:Atomspektroskopie]]
[[nl:Atomaire-absorptiespectrometrie]]
[[ru:Атомно-абсорбционный спектрометр]]
[[fi:Atomiabsorptiospektrometri]]
[[sv:Atomabsorptionsspektroskopi]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>ACID properties</title>
<id>2638</id>
<revision>
<id>15901033</id>
<timestamp>2003-01-21T10:40:10Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Markonen</username>
<id>6652</id>
</contributor>
<comment>oops, we missed this one when editing ACID</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[ACID]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Arthur St. Clair</title>
<id>2639</id>
<revision>
<id>41543401</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T01:27:36Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Shanel</username>
<id>301280</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/202.168.58.126|202.168.58.126]] ([[User talk:202.168.58.126|talk]]) to last version by DanielCD</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Arthur St. Clair''' ([[March 23]], [[1734]]-[[1736]]?&ndash;[[August 31]] [[1818]]) was the ninth [[President of the Continental Congress]] under the [[Articles of Confederation]], holding office from [[February 2]], [[1787]] to [[October 29]], [[1787]]. He was preceded in office by [[Nathaniel Gorham]] and succeeded by [[Cyrus Griffin]]. He was also a general in the [[Continental Army]] during the [[American Revolution]], and the only territorial governor of [[Ohio]].
[[Image:ArthurStClair.jpeg|left|Portrait of St. Clair]]
St. Clair was born [[Thurso]], [[Caithness]], [[Scotland]] on [[March 23]], sometime between [[1734]] and [[1736]]. He attended the [[University of Edinburgh]] and studied [[medicine]] under the renowned [[anatomy|anatomist]] [[William Hunter (anatomist)|William Hunter]]. In [[1757]], St. Clair purchased a commission in the [[British Army]] and came to America with Admiral [[Edward Boscawen]]'s fleet for the [[French and Indian War]]. He served under General [[Jeffrey Amherst]] at the capture of [[Fortress Louisbourg|Louisburg, Nova Scotia]] on [[July 26]], [[1758]]. On [[April 17]], [[1759]] he received a lieutenant's commission and was assigned to the command of General [[James Wolfe]], under whom he served at the [[Battle of the Plains of Abraham]].
On [[April 16]], [[1762]], he resigned his commission, and in [[1764]] he settled in Ligonier Valley, [[Pennsylvania]], where he purchased land, and erected mills. He was the largest landowner in |
ed into four quadrants. The top left and bottom right quadrants are black, and the remaining area is white.
[[International maritime signal flags|Signal flag]] "India" (a black circle on a yellow square) is frequently used to denote a "blackball" zone where surfboards cannot be used but other water activities are permitted.
== Railway flags ==
Railways use a number of colored flags, usually with the following meanings:
* red = stop
* yellow = proceed with care
* green or white or blue = proceed.
* a flag of any color waved vigorously means stop
* A blue flag on the side of a locomotive means that it should not be moved because someone is working on it (or on the train attached to it). A blue flag on a track means that nothing on that track should be moved. The flag can only be removed by the person or group that placed it.
At night, the flags are replaced with lanterns showing the same colors.
[[Railway signal]]s are a development of railway flags.
== Flagpoles ==
[[Image:Panmunjeom north flagpole 2005 02 02.jpg|thumb|200px|The world's tallest flagpole (160 m), over [[Panmunjeom]], [[North Korea]]]]
A flagpole or flagstaff can be a simple support made of wood or metal. If it is taller than can be easily reached to raise the flag, a cord is used, looping around a pulley at the top of the pole with the ends tied at the bottom. The flag is fixed to one lower end of the cord, and is then raised by pulling on the other end. The cord is then tightened and tied to the pole at the bottom. The pole is usually topped by a flat plate called a "truck" (originally meant to keep a wooden pole from splitting) or by a ball or a [[finial]] in a more complex shape.
Very high flagpoles may require more complex support structures than a simple pole, such as guy wires, or need be built as a mast. The '''highest flagpole''' in the world, at 160 metres, is that at [[Korean Demilitarized Zone|Gijeong-dong]] in [[North Korea]], the flag weighing about 270 kilograms when dry. The world's '''biggest regularly hoisted flag''', however, is the Brazilian national flag flown in the Square of the Three Powers in [[Brasilia]], the capital of [[Brazil]]. This flag weighs about 600 kilograms when dry and measures 70×100 metres. It can be seen from all parts of Brasilia and its flagpole is the tallest structure in the city.
The '''tallest free-standing flagpole''' in the world is in [[Aqaba]], [[Jordan]], with a total height of 132 meters. The second tallest free standing flagpole in the world is also in [[Jordan]] but in the capital, [[Amman]]. It reaches a height of 126 meters, and hoists a flag which measures 60×40 meters, and is illuminated at night, and can be seen from 25 km away.
Sometimes a flag hangs from a pole or rope, the latter especially in the case of multiple small flags.
A flag patch is also often sewn on uniforms.
== Flag facts ==
* The [[flag of Nepal]] is the only national flag which isn't square or rectangular: it is in the shape of two triangles.
* The [[flag of Libya]] is the only national flag which is a single colour: green.
* The flags of [[flag of Switzerland|Switzerland]] and [[flag of Vatican City|Vatican City]] are the only national flags which are exact squares.
* The most popular colour combinations are: red, white, and blue (mainly [[Europe]]an and Western nations) and red, yellow, and green (mainly [[Africa|African]] nations) The [[Olympic rings]] - blue, yellow, black, green and red represent colours used at least once in every national flag around the world.
* Some countries have the same or very similar national flags as other nations, for example:
** [[Flag of India|India]] and [[flag of Niger|Niger]]
** [[Flag of Monaco|Monaco]] and [[flag of Indonesia|Indonesia]] (or [[flag of Poland|Poland]] upside-down)
** [[Flag of Chad|Chad]] and [[flag of Romania|Romania]]
** The flags of [[flag of Luxembourg|Luxembourg]] and the [[flag of the Netherlands|Netherlands]] differ only in their shades and ratios
** [[flag of Guinea|Guinea]] and [[flag of Mali|Mali]] have the same flag, flipped horizontally
** [[flag of Ireland|Ireland]] and the [[Flag of Côte d'Ivoire|Ivory Coast]] also have the same flag, flipped horizontally
** [[flag of Italy|Italy]] and [[flag of Mexico|Mexico]] have the same colors.
** The following national flags are like 'negatives' of each other:
*** [[flag of Costa Rica|Costa Rica]] and [[flag of Thailand|Thailand]];
*** [[flag of Puerto Rico|Puerto Rico]] and [[flag of Cuba|Cuba]]
*** [[flag of Iceland|Iceland]] and [[flag of Norway|Norway]]
==See also==
*[[List of sovereign state flags]]
*[[List of flags]]
*[[Flag Day]]
*[[Unofficial Flags]]
*[[Flag Terminology]]
*[[Vexillology]]
*[[Flag desecration]]
*[[Flag throwing]]
*[[Flagpole annexation]]
*[[Standard-bearer]] (also enumerates various types of standards, both flag types and immobile ensigns)
*[[Gallery of flags by design]]
*[[List of flag names]]
==References==
*William G. Crampton; ''The World of Flags''; Rand McNally; ISBN 0-528-83720-6 (hardcover, [[1994]]).
*''Ultimate Pocket Flags of the World''; [[Dorling Kindersley]]; ISBN 0-7894-2085-6; (1st American edition, hardcover, [[1996]]).
==External links==
*[http://www.fotw.net fotw.net], [[Flags of the World]], an outstanding source of vexillological information, contributed to by a group of international volunteers.
*[http://www.webflags.com Web Flags], comprehensive database of world flags and maps
*[http://www.flags.net World Flag Database]
*[http://www.flaginstitute.org The Flag Institute (UK)]
* [http://reference.allrefer.com/world/facts/flags.html Country Flags]
*[http://www.flagsfantastic.com.au Flags Fantastic - world flags, flag protocol, display & care]
*[http://chinese-school.netfirms.com/other-article-flags.html History of Flags]
*[http://www.piggotts.co.uk One of the earliest suppliers of flags and banners. (Since 1780)]
*[http://openclipart.org/cgi-bin/navigate/signs_and_symbols/flags Open Clip Art Library, flags category] ([[Scalable Vector Graphics|SVG]] and [[PNG]] formats)
*[http://www.nava.org NAVA: North American Vexillological Association]
*[http://www.flags-and-anthems.com Flags and anthems]
{{Lists of flags}}
[[Category:Flags| ]]
[[Category:National symbols]]
[[am:ሰንደቅዓላማ]]
[[bg:Знаме]]
[[ca:Bandera]]
[[cs:Vlajka]]
[[da:Flag]]
[[de:Flagge]]
[[et:Lipp]]
[[es:Bandera]]
[[eo:Flago]]
[[fr:Drapeau]]
[[it:Bandiera]]
[[he:דגל]]
[[nl:Vlag]]
[[ja:&#26071;]]
[[no:Flagg]]
[[pl:Flaga]]
[[pt:Bandeira]]
[[ru:Флаг]]
[[sl:Zastava]]
[[sv:Flagga]]
[[fi:Lippu]]
[[tr:Bayrak]]
[[uk:Прапор]]
[[fiu-vro:Lipuq]]
[[wa:Drapea]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Father Dougal McGuire</title>
<id>11425</id>
<revision>
<id>41618121</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T15:32:18Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>NekoDaemon</username>
<id>239574</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Robot: [[Cat#Communication|Nyaa]]! [[Template talk:Categoryredirect|Categoryredirect]]: [[Category:Fictional Irishmen and women]] → [[Category:Fictional Irish people]]. Requested change by [[User:Kbdank71|]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Father_Dougal.jpg|right|thumb|150 px|[[Ardal O'Hanlon]] as Father Dougal]]
'''Father Dougal McGuire''' is a character in the comedy series ''[[Father Ted]]'', played by the actor [[Ardal O'Hanlon]]. Renowned for sleeping in his [[Irish national football team]] shirt and [[He-Man]] sheets, Father Dougal is one of life's innocents. He quite cheerfully admits that "the lights are on but no one's home".
It is unclear how or why Dougal became a priest, and how or why he is allowed to remain one. Just as unclear is his presence on [[Craggy Island]], though it has been alluded to that he was sent there by Bishop Brennan as a result of some act of stupidity which led to a mysterious incident that put the lives of hundreds of [[nun]]s in danger. He is "addicted" to [[rollerblading]] and often dreams about [[Carol Vorderman]] presenting ''[[Countdown (game show)|Countdown]]'' naked. He doesn't really believe in organised religion, and never seems quite sure what the clergy are meant to do (he famously mistakes bishops for some sort of sci-fi loving insect exterminators). He often wears a dated red sleeveless jumper over priestly black.
He has obvious trouble distinguishing between real life and dreams, and almost never has enough wits about him for the task at hand. For example, Dougal and Ted visit a tourist attraction and see a map poster with the legend "You Are Here". Dougal exclaims "Wow! How did they know that?"
In another scene Ted compares some toy cows with the real cows in a nearby field: "Now, let's try it again, Dougal: ''these'' are small, but ''those'' are far away. Small...far away. Small...far away." Dougal shakes his head in amiable incomprehension.
:Ted: "Dougal, fantastic news!"
:Dougal: "You're getting married!?"
:Ted: (pause) "Is that a joke?"
:Dougal: "Er, yeah..."
(Remember that Catholic priests are required to practice [[clerical celibacy|celibacy]].)
Upon the death of [[Pope John Paul II|John Paul II]] in [[2005]], [[Ireland|Irish]] bookmakers included him in the running for the next [[pope]] (albeit as a joke with odds of 1,000 to 1). This is actually better odds than many real-life [[cardinal (Catholicism)|cardinal]]s and [[archbishop]]s, surprising the [[Roman Curia|Vatican]]. Some small bets were actually received from punters, which is testimony to the popularity of the character and the humour of the Irish and other gamblers.
==See also==
*[[Father Ted Crilly]]
*[[Mrs Doyle]]
*[[Father Jack Hackett]]
[[Category:Father Ted characters|McGuire, Dougal]]
[[Category:Fictional Catholics|McGuire, Dougal]]
[[Category:Fictional Irish people|McGuire, Dougal]]
[[Category:Fictional religious workers|McGuire, Dougal]]</text>
|
|140]] }}
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'''Iodine''' (from the Gr. ''Iodes'', meaning "violet"), is a [[chemical element]] in the [[periodic table]] that has the symbol '''I''' and [[atomic number]] 53. It is required as a [[trace element]] for most living [[organism]]s. Chemically, iodine is the least reactive of the [[halogen]]s, and the most electropositive halogen. Iodine is primarily used in [[medicine]], [[photography]] and in dyes.
As with all other halogens (members of Group VII in the Periodic Table), iodine is found as diatomic molecules, and hence, has the molecular formula of I<sub>2</sub>, RMM=127.
== Notable characteristics ==
Iodine is a silvery-gray, lustrous solid that [[sublimation (chemistry)|sublimes]] at standard temperatures into a purple-pink gas that has an irritating odor. This halogen forms compounds with many elements, but is less active than the other members of its Group VII (halogens) and has some metallic-like properties. Iodine dissolves easily in [[chloroform]], [[carbon tetrachloride]], or carbon disulphide to form purple solutions (It is only slightly [[solubility|soluble]] in water, giving a yellow solution). The deep blue color with [[starch]] is a characteristic only of the free element.
== Applications ==
In areas where there is little iodine in the diet&mdash;typically remote inland
areas and semi-arid equatorial climates where no marine foods are eaten&mdash;[[iodine deficiency]] gives rise to
[[goiter]], so called [[endemic goiter]]. In some such areas, this is now combated by the addition of small amounts of iodine to table salt in form of sodium iodide, potassium iodide, potassium iodate&mdash;this product is known as ''[[iodized salt]]''. Iodine deficiency is the leading cause of preventable [[mental retardation]]. Iodine deficency remains a serious problem that affects people around the globe.
Other uses:
*One of the [[halogen]]s, it is an essential [[trace element]]; the [[thyroid]] [[hormone]]s, ''[[thyroxine]]'' and ''[[triiodothyronine]]'' contain iodine.
*[[Tincture of iodine]] (3% elemental iodine in water/ethanol base) is an essential component of any emergency survival kit, used both to disinfect wounds and to sanitize surface water for drinking (3 drops per liter, let stand for 30 minutes)
*Iodine compounds are important in the field of [[organic chemistry]] and are very useful in [[medicine]].
*Iodides and [[thyroxine]] which contains iodine, are both used in internal medicine and, in combination with [[ethanol|alcohol]] (as tincture of iodine) are used externally to disinfect wounds.
*[[Silver iodide]] is used in photography.
*[[Potassium iodide]] (KI) tablets or liquid drops can be given to people in a nuclear disaster area when [[fission]] has taken place, to flush out the radioactive iodine-131 fission product. The half-life of iodine-131 is only eight days, so the treatment would need to continue only a couple of weeks. In cases of leakage of nuclear materials without fission, or a [[dirty bomb]], this precaution would be of no avail. KI might also serve to dilute the radioactive [[caesium-137]] produced by nuclear fission, because caesium is chemically related to potassium, but potassium chloride would serve as well. The latter is available in low-sodium table salt. The use of KI or NaI to dilute radioactive caesium is problematic, however, because the latter has a half-life of thirty years, requiring long-term dietary change if it is to be diluted with non-radioactive potassium.
*[[Tungsten]] iodide is used to stabilize the filaments in [[light bulb]]s.
*[[Nitrogen triiodide]] is an explosive, too unstable to be used commercially, but is commonly used in college [[prank]]s.
*[[Iodine-131]] is used as a tracer in medicine.
== History ==
Iodine ([[Greek language|Gr.]] ''iodes'' meaning violet) was discovered by [[Barnard Courtois]] in [[1811]]. He was the son of a manufacturer of [[saltpeter]] (potassium nitrate, a vital part of gunpowder). At the time [[France]] was at war and gunpowder was in great demand. Saltpeter was isolated from seaweed washed up on the coasts of [[Normandy]] and [[Brittany]]. To isolate the potassium nitrate, seaweed was burned and the ash then washed with water. The remaining waste was destroyed by adding [[sulfuric acid]]. One day Courtois added too much sulfuric acid and a cloud of purple vapor rose. Courtois noted that the vapor crystallized on cold surfaces making dark crystals. Courtois suspected that this was a new element but lacked the money to pursue his observations.
However he gave samples to his friends, [[Charles Bernard Desormes]] ([[1777]]&ndash;[[1862]]) and [[Nicolas Clément]] ([[1779]]-&ndash;[[1841]]) to continue research. He also gave some of the substance to [[Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac]] ([[1778]]&ndash;[[1850]]), a well-known chemist at that time, and to [[André-Marie Ampère]] ([[1775]]&ndash;[[1836]]). On [[November 29]] [[1813]] Dersormes and Clément made public Courtois&rsquo; discovery. They described the substance to a meeting of the Imperial Institute of France. On [[December 6]] Gay-Lussac announced that the new substance was either an element or a compound of oxygen. Ampère had given some of his sample to [[Humphry Davy]] (1778&ndash;[[1829]]). Davy did some experiments on the substance and noted its similarity to chlorine. Davy sent a letter dated [[December 10]] to the [[Royal Society of London]] stating that he had identified a new element. A large argument erupted between Davy and Gay-Lussac over who identified iodine first but both scientists acknowledged Bernard Courtois as the first to isolate the [[chemical element]].
== Occurrence ==
Iodine can be prepared in an ultrapure form through the reaction of [[potassium iodide]] with [[copper (II) sulfate]]. There are also several other methods of isolating this element. Although the element is actually quite rare, [[kelp]] and certain other plants have the ability to concentrate iodine, which helps introduce the element into the food chain as well as keeping its cost down.
== Isotopes ==
There are 37 [[isotope]]s of iodine and only one, I-127, is stable. The artificial [[radioisotope]] I-131 (a beta emitter), also known as [[radioiodine]] which has a [[half-life]] of 8.0207 days, has been used in treating [[cancer]] and other pathologies of the [[thyroid]] [[gland]]s. The most common compounds of iodine are the iodides of [[sodium]] and [[potassium]] ([[potassium iodide|KI]]) and the iodates (KIO<sub>3</sub>).
I-129 ([[half-life]] 15.7 million years) is a product of [[xenon|Xe]]-129 [[spallation]] in the [[Earth's atmosphere|atmosphere]] and [[uranium]] and [[plutonium]] fission, both in subsurface rocks and nuclear reactors. Nuclear processes, in particular nuclear fuel reprocessing and atmospheric nuclear weapons tests have now swamped the natural signal for this isotope. I-129 was used in rainwater studies following the [[Chernobyl accident]]. It also has been used as a ground-water tracer and as an indicator of nuclear waste dispersion into the natural environment. If humans are exposed to I-129, the thyroid gland will absorb it as if it were non-radioactive Iodine, leading to elevated chances of thyroid cancer. Taking large amounts of regular iodine will saturate the thyroid and prevent uptake. Iodine pills are sometimes distributed to persons living close to nuclear establishments, for use in case of accidents that could lead to releases of radioactive Iodine.
In many ways, I-129 is similar to [[chlorine]]-36. It is a soluble halogen, fairly non-reactive, exists mainly as a non-sorbing [[anion]], and is produced by cosmogenic, thermonuclear, and in-situ reactions. In hydrologic studies, I-129 concentrations are usually reported as the ratio of I-129 to total I (which is virtually all I-127). As is the case with Cl-36/Cl, I-129/I ratios in nature are quite small, 10<sup>-14</sup> to 10<sup>-10</sup> (peak thermonuclear I-129/I during the 1960s and 1970s reached about 10<sup>-7</sup>). I-129 differs from Cl-36 in that its half-life is longer (15.7 vs. 0.301 million years), it is highly biophilic, and occurs in multiple [[ion]]ic forms (commonly, I- and iodate) which have different chemical behaviors. This makes it fairly easy for I-129 to enter the biosphere as it becomes incorporated into vegetation, soil, milk, animal tissue, etc.
Excesses of Xe-129 in meteorites have been shown to result from decay of I-129. This was the first [[extinct radionuclide]] to be identified as present in the early [[solar system]]. Its decay is the basis of the I-Xe [[radiometric dating]] scheme, which covers the first 50 million years of [[solar system]] evolution.
== Precautions ==
Direct contact with skin can cause lesions, so it should be handled with c |
. (previously Alpha Processor Inc.), a private company funded by Samsung and Compaq. In October 2001 [[Microway]] became the exclusive sales and service provider of API NetWorks' Alpha-based product line.
Compaq announced that computers using Alpha would be phased out by 2004 in favour of [[Intel]]'s [[Itanium]]. HP, new owner of Compaq, announced that development for the Alpha series would continue for a few more years, including the release of the EV7z chip (EV79 and EV8 are both cancelled), but that this will be the final iteration of the chip. The [[IA-64]] is supposed to replace this series. HP will continue maintaining and selling AlphaServers with [[OpenVMS]] and Tru64 until 2006, and has extended support to 2011.
Ironically, in mid-2003, as the Alpha was about to be phased out, the fastest and second fastest computers in the [[United States|U.S.]] were both implemented using Alpha processors (in the case of the former, a [http://www.top500.org/list/2002/11/ cluster of 4096 Alpha processors]).
On [[August 16]], [[2004]] HP announced that they are releasing the 1.3GHz EV7z, that has now been released and no more releases are planned.
=== Model history ===
{| border = 1
!Model!!AKA!!Year!!Frequency [Mhz]!!Process [µm]!!Transistors [millions]!!Die size [mm²]!!IO Pins!!Power [W]!!Voltage!!Mem [MB/s]!!Dcache [k]!!Icache [k]!!Scache!!Bcache!!ISA
|-
||EV4||21064||1992||100-200||0.75||1.68||234||290||30||3.3||80||8||8||--||&nbsp;||&nbsp;
|-
||EV45||21064A||1994||200-300||0.5||2.85||164||||33||3.3||80||16||16||--||&nbsp;||&nbsp;
|-
||LCA4||21066||1993||100-166||0.68||1.75||209||||21||3.3||30||8||8||--||&nbsp;||&nbsp;
|-
||LCA45||21066A||1994||166-233||0.5||1.75||161||||23||3.3||30||8||8||--||&nbsp;||&nbsp;
|-
||EV5||21164||1995||266-500||0.5||9.7||299||296||56||3.3/2.5||150||8||8||96k||1||R
|-
||EV56||21164A||1996||400-767||0.35||9.3||209||||46||3.3/2.0||300||8||8||96k||1-2M||R,B
|-
||PCA56||21164PC||1997||400-533||0.35||3.5||141||264||40||3.3/2.5||&nbsp;||8||16||--||1M||R,B,M
|-
||PCA57||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||600-666||0.28||5.7||101||283||20||2.5/2.0||&nbsp;||16||16||--||1M||R,B,M
|-
||EV6||21264||1998||450-600||0.35||15.9||314||389||73||2.0||1600||64||64||--||2-8M||R,B,M,F
|-
||EV67||21264A||1999||667-750||0.25||15.9||210||389||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||64||64||--||2-8M||R,B,M,F,C
|-
||EV68AL||21264B||2001||800-833||0.18||15.9||125||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||64||64||--||2-8M||R,B,M,F,C,T
|-
||EV68CB||21264C||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||64||64||--||2-8M||R,B,M,F,C,T
|-
||EV68CX||21264D||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||64||64||--||2-8M||R,B,M,F,C,T
|-
||EV7||21364||2003||800-1300||0.18||130||397||&nbsp;||125||1.5||&nbsp;||64||64||1.75M||--||R,B,M,F,C,T
|}
ISA extensions:
* R: ?
* B: BWX, instructions to read 8- and 16-bit words from memory
* M: MVI, "multimedia" instructions
* F: FIX, instructions to move data between integer and floating point registers and for square root
* C: CIX, instructions for counting and finding bits
* T: Support for prefetch with modify intent to improve the performance of the first attempt to acquire a lock
==External links==
*[http://www.research.compaq.com/wrl/DECarchives/DTJ/DTJ800 Digital Technical Journal, Volume 4, Number 4, Special Issue 1992 Alpha AXP Architecture and Systems]
*[http://ftp.digital.com/pub/digital/info/semiconductor/literature/dsc-library.html DEC Alpha Documentation Library] Technical documentation for Alpha microprocessors and motherboards, last updated in 1999 (includes the Alpha Architecture Handbook)
*[http://ftp.digital.com/pub/digital/info/semiconductor/literature/archives.html DEC Alpha Documentation Archives] Technical documentation for older Alpha products
*[http://www.xbitlabs.com/articles/cpu/display/alpha.html XBITLABS: The History of Alpha Processors: Facts and Comments]
*[http://www.realworldtech.com/page.cfm?ArticleID=RWT121300000000 Real World Technologies: Alpha EV8 (Part 1): Simultaneous Multi-Threat], by Paul DeMone
*[http://www.realworldtech.com/page.cfm?ArticleID=RWT122600000000 Real World Technologies: Alpha EV8 (Part 2): Simultaneous Multi-Threat], by Paul DeMone
*[http://www.realworldtech.com/page.cfm?ArticleID=RWT011601000000 Real World Technologies: Alpha EV8 (Part 3): Simultaneous Multi-Threat], by Paul DeMone
*[http://www.realworldtech.com/page.cfm?ArticleID=RWT021802145442 Real World Technologies: The Spider and the Mountain], by Paul DeMone, covering the 2002 ISSCC presentations of the Alpha EV8 and Intel Itanium 2
* [http://www.alasir.com/alpha/alpha_history.html Alpha: The History in Facts and Comments]
[[Category:DEC hardware]]
[[Category:Microprocessors]]
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[[ja:Alpha (CPU)]]
[[pl:DEC Alpha]]
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</page>
<page>
<title>Dagger</title>
<id>8972</id>
<revision>
<id>40849567</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-23T11:56:32Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Thryduulf</username>
<id>157530</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>link to [[ceremonial weapon]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''For the typographical mark, see [[dagger (typography)]].''
[[Image:Daggers.jpg|left|thumb]]
A '''dagger''' (from [[Vulgar Latin]]: 'daca' - a [[Dacian]] [[knife]]) is a [[blade weapon]] (essentially a double-edged knife) used for stabbing, thrusting or as a secondary defense weapon in [[close combat]]. In most cases a [[tang (weaponry)|tang]] is placed along the center line of the [[blade]].
Much like [[battle axe]]s, daggers evolved out of prehistoric [[tool]]s. They were initially made of [[flint]], [[ivory]] or even [[bone]] and were used as a weapon since the earliest periods of human civilization. The earliest daggers appear in the [[Bronze Age]], in the [[3rd millennium BC]], predating the [[sword]], which essentially developed from oversized daggers. Although the standard dagger would at no time be very effective against [[axes]], [[spears]] or even [[maces]] due to its limited reach, it was an important step towards the development of a more useful close combat weapon: the [[sword]].
[[Image:Celtic dagger, scabbard and buckle.JPG|right|thumb|Celtic dagger]]
However, almost from the very beginning of Egyptian history, daggers were adorned as [[ceremonial weapon|ceremonial objects]] with golden hilts and later even more ornate and varied construction. Until recently military officers wore ceremonial daggers as a symbol of power and soldiers are still equipped with [[combat knife|combat knives]].
In any case knives and daggers were always considered secondary or even tertiary weapons. Babylonians, Greeks, Spartans, Persians, Romans, Vikings and crusaders all mainly fought with [[pole weapon]]s, swords and axes at arm's length if not already utilizing bows, spears, [[sling (weapon)|slings]] or other long range weapons. Roman soldiers were issued with a [[pugio]]. narrow knives known as ''sica.''
The dagger is symbolically ambiguous. It may be associated with cowardice and treachery due to the ease of concealment and surprise someone wielding one could inflict on an unexpecting victim — many assassinations are supposed to have been carried out using one. The most famous victim of all is certainly [[Julius Caesar]], who suffered from more than 23 stab wounds from irate members of the [[Roman Senate|Senate]]. On the other hand, the dagger may symbolically suggest a determination to courageously close with the enemy.
From the year 1250 onward, gravestones and other contemporary images show knights with a dagger or combat knives at their side. The shaft and blade shapes began to resemble smaller versions of swords and led to a fashion of ornamented scabbards and shafts in the late 15th century.
The increasing sophistication of sword fighting and a prevailing sense of [[Chivalry|chivalrous honour]] caused knives and daggers to lose their popularity as weapons in medieval times, only to regain it during the [[Renaissance]] in the form of the [[Stiletto]], which proved to be very effective against the plated body armor popular at the time.
In that age, the books which trained for the use of weapons prescribed that the dagger would be held in the hand with the blade pointing from the heel of the hand, and used by downward jabs. This would differentiate a dagger wound from that of a [[sword]]. A sword wound was noble, and as the possession of swords was limited to aristocrats could only be caused by one of them. Murder by dagger thrusts was ignoble, and could be done by commoners or vengeful aristocrats who wished to remain anonymous. This is why a group of political murders is called [[Night of the Long Knives]], although daggers were not literally used.
With the development of [[firearms]], the dagger lost more and more of its usefulness in military combat; multipurpose knives and handguns replaced them. However, beginning with the [[Napoleonic Wars]], the [[American Civil War]] and [[World War I]], another form of dagger - the [[bayonet]] - was used to turn [[rifle]]s into [[spear]]s by mounting them on the barrel.
Daggers came back into public notoriety with the [[commando]] forces of the Second World War. The British commandos had an especially slender dagger developed from that used by their police forces in Shanghai. American forces developed their own standard dagger too.
Although not technically a dagger, the [[rondel (dagger)|rondel]], a stabbing weapon with a circular, triangular or rectangular cross-section, is commonly included in the term.
Some daggers also have weighted blades, and are meant for throwing at enemies. The weighted blade provides mom |
won 6-7, 7-6, 7-6, 7-6 in a match with no breaks of serve.
Agassi and Sampras' last duel came in the final of the US Open in 2002. The battle between the two veterans saw Sampras emerge victorious in four sets, and left Sampras with a 20-14 edge in their 34 career meetings. (The match in fact proved to be the last of Sampras' career. He did not play in an event on the professional tour again, and officially announced his retirement in 2003.) Agassi's US Open finish, along with his victories at the Miami Masters, [[Rome Masters]], and [[Madrid Masters]], helped him finish 2002 as the oldest year-end No. 2 at 32 years and 8 months.
In 2003, Agassi won the eighth Grand Slam title of his career at the Australian Open, where he beat [[Rainer Schüttler]] in straight sets in the final. In May that year, he recaptured the World No.1 ranking to become the oldest No. 1 ranked male tennis player in history at 33 years and 13 days. He held the No. 1 ranking on that occasion for 13 weeks. At the year-end Tennis Masters Cup, he lost in the final to [[Roger Federer]] and finished the year ranked World No. 4.
In 2004, the 34-year-old Agassi won the [[Cincinnati Masters]] to bring his career total to 59 top-level singles titles and a record 17 ATP Masters Series titles. He became the second-oldest singles champion in Cincinnati's storied history (the tournament began in 1899), surpassed only by [[Ken Rosewall]] who won the title in 1970 at age 35.
Agassi has also won one doubles title (at the [[Cincinnati Masters]] in 1993, partnering [[Petr Korda]]). He is one of only five male players to have won all the Grand Slams – along with legends [[Don Budge]], [[Roy Emerson]], [[Rod Laver]] and [[Fred Perry]]. He is in fact the first male tennis player to win the four Grand Slams on four different surfaces. The previous players won the Australian Open, Wimbledon, and the US Open on grass courts and the French Open on [[clay court]]s; whereas Agassi won the Australian Open on [[Rebound Ace]], the French Open on clay, Wimbledon on grass, and the US Open on hardcourts. After winning [[French Open]] in 1999, Agassi became the first male tennis player to win the [[Career Golden Slam]]. Agassi also helped the United States win the [[Davis Cup]] in 1990 and 1992. He was named the [[BBC Sports Personality of the Year Overseas Personality|BBC Overseas Sports Personality of the Year]] in 1992. Agassi has earned more than US$30 million in prize-money throughout his career, second only to Sampras. In addition to this, he also earns over US$25 million a year through endorsements, the most by any tennis player and fourth in all sports (first place is [[Tiger Woods]] at US$70 million a year).
===2005===
Agassi started off 2005 with strong runs, most of which were cut short by [[Roger Federer]]. He lost to Federer in the quarterfinals of the Australian Open and the semifinals at Dubai. He reached the quarterfinals at Indian Wells after a dominant victory over Guillermo Coria, but withdrew from his match with Lleyton Hewitt with a swollen big toe. Agassi lost in the semifinals at Miami to Federer in a tight match. Although the claycourt season is the toughest on the body, Agassi played in Rome and reached the semifinals which he lost to Coria in a tough battle. At the 2005 French Open, Agassi lost to [[Jarkko Nieminem]], in their first-round match after enduring back pain related to a pinched [[sciatic nerve]]. He lost in five sets with 6-0 in the fifth. After much media speculation about retirement, the 35-year-old Agassi won in Los Angeles and made the final at Montreal before falling to world No. 2 [[Rafael Nadal]] in three long sets that he might have won if a few points had gone differently. His coach Darren Cahill and close friend and personal trainer [[Gil Reyes]] worked with Agassi throughout the summer to prepare for the [[2005 US Open]]. Agassi made a spectacular run at the Open, beating Razvan Sabau 6-3, 6-3, 6-1, [[Ivo Karlovic]] in the second round 7-6(7-4), 7-6(7-5), 7-6(7-4); [[Tomáš Berdych]] 3-6, 6-1, 6-4, 7-6(7-2); and [[Xavier Malisse]] 6-3, 6-4, 6-7(5-7), 4-6, 6-2. His quarterfinal match against fellow American [[James Blake]] has been called one of the best matches in US Open history. After dropping the first two sets, 3-6, 3-6, Agassi took the next two, 6-3, 6-3. In the fifth set, Blake served for the match at 5-4, but Agassi broke his serve, then won the tiebreak 8-6 to secure the victory at 1:15 a.m. He defeated [[Robby Ginepri]], another rising, talented American with a consistent baseline game, in his third consecutive five-set match to earn a spot in the final against World No. 1 [[Roger Federer]]. After losing the first set 6-3, Agassi broke Federer twice to win the second, 6-2. He broke Federer again and at this point looked to be the better player. Agassi had a 30-love lead but with a few costly errors was broken to force a tiebreak, which Federer took, 7-1. Andre ran out of gas which allowed Federer to reel off five straight games. Being down 5-0 in the fourth set, Agassi held to make it 5-1 before Federer closed it out to win the championship. After the match, Agassi thanked New York for the 20 years of memories, hinting at potential retirement. However, Agassi has made clear that he will only retire on his terms, when he feels that he cannot perform at his best on the court. He will likely continue for another year, as he has qualified for the 2005 Masters Cup (which is limited to the eight best players in the world) and is scheduled to play the lead-in tournament to the 2006 Australian Open.
Coming into the 2005 Masters Cup, Agassi is 29-5 on hard courts (with his only losses coming to [[Roger Federer]] and [[Rafael Nadal]]), and is 5-4 on clay (wins over Gasquet, Ljubicic, and Hrbaty, losses to Coria and Lopez).
In 2005, Agassi left [[Nike, Inc.|Nike]] after 17 years and signed an endorsement deal with [[Adidas]]. [http://sports.espn.go.com/sports/tennis/news/story?id=2116135]
Hampered by a third degree ankle injury caused by several torn ligaments, Agassi lost his opening match against Nikolay Davydenko in the Masters Cup and was forced to withdraw. The withdrawal list also included Rafael Nadal, Andy Roddick, Lleyton Hewitt, and Marat Safin.
===2006===
Agassi withdrew from the Australian Open because of an ankle injury. Once he withdrew, he immediately requested a wildcard to enter the Delray Beach International Tennis Championships, where he eventually finished as a quarterfinalist losing to [[Guillermo Garcia Lopez]] 4-6, 2-6.
He was then forced to retire from SAP Open because of a lower back injury causing him severe pain in his lower back and down his legs.
He then played in the Dubai Open where he won in straight sets over [[Greg Rusedski]] in the first round before losing in straights to German [[Bjorn Phau]] in second round.
Health permitting, Agassi is scheduled to play tournaments in Indian Wells and Miami to close out the winter hardcourt season. Agassi has officially said that he is skipping the entire clay season, since it burdens his body. He will do his best to be ready for Wimbledon. However, Agassi's top priority in 2006 will once again be making yet another run at the US Open in August. Expect all scheduling decisons to be made with that goal in mind.
==Playing style==
Agassi employs a baseline style of play, but unlike most such players, he typically makes contact with the ball ''inside'' the baseline -- exceptionally difficult even for professionals. This is possible because of his short backswing, which also helps him return fast serves. He is also blessed with the best hand and eye coordination, rivaled only by [[Roger Federer]]. [[John McEnroe]] and others have called Agassi the best service returner ever to play professional tennis.
After Agassi's rededication to tennis in 1998, he has focused more on physical conditioning than in the past and is now one of the fittest players on the tour. His upper-body strength allows him to [[bench press]] 350 lbs. He has remarkable endurance and rarely appears tired on court. As long as he is not injured, he handles long, grueling matches arguably better than any other player on the tour (even Roger Federer has been known to tire by the fifth set). Indeed, Agassi is often ready to start the next point when his opponent is catching his breath. One of his strategies is to wear down his opponents, continually putting pressure on them by returning the ball early and deep at angles. Agassi will try to stand in nearly one spot and hit the corners to make his opponent scramble. He will often pass up the winner and hit a slightly less aggressive shot to make his opponent run a little more to retrieve a few more shots. His penchant for running players around point after point has earned him the nickname "The Punisher".
Agassi's biggest weakness currently is his lack of consistent speed, and players who are able to consistently hit at sharp angles with pace give him trouble. Agassi used to be one of the fastest players on tour; however, his recent injuries have forced him to consistently run his fastest selectively, usually in Grand Slams and Tennis Masters Series events. To make up for this recently-adopted weakness, Agassi generally keeps his opponent on the defense. (Federer is the only player with a long winning streak against Agassi; even Sampras lost to Agassi many times).
==Personal and family life==
After a four-year courtship, Agassi married actress Brooke Shields in a lavish ceremony on [[April 19]] 1997. That February, they had filed suit against ''[[The National Enquirer]]'' claiming it printed "false and fabricated" statements: Brooke was undergoing counseling, binge-eating and taking pills; Agassi "lashed into" Brooke and he and Brooke's mother "tangled like wildcats" when she demanded a [[prenuptial agreement|prenup]]; the case was dismissed. Agassi filed for divorce, which was granted |
wild valley of a tributary of the Aube, on land given by [[Count Hugh of Troyes]]. There Bernard, a recent initiate, was appointed abbot.
By the new constitution of the Cistercians, Clairvaux became the chief monastery of the five branches into which the order was divided under the supreme direction of the abbot of Citeaux. Though nominally subject to Citeaux, Clairvaux soon became the most important Cistercian house, owing to the fame and influence of Bernard.
[[Image:Jorg_Breu_Sr_St_Bernhard_Zwettl.jpg|thumb|250px|left|Bernard exorcizing a possession, altarpiece by [[Jörg Breu the Elder]], ca. [[1500]].]]
==Wider influence==
Before long the abbot, who had intended to devote his life to the work of his monastery, was drawn into the affairs of the outside world. When in 1124 [[Pope Honorius II]] was elected, Bernard was already reckoned among the greatest of French churchmen; he now shared in the most important ecclesiastical discussions, and papal legates sought his counsel.
Thus in 1128 he was invited by [[Cardinal (Catholicism)|Cardinal]] [[Matthew]] of [[Albano]] to the [[synod of Troyes]], where he was instrumental in obtaining the recognition of the new order of [[Knights Templar (military order)|Knights Templar]], the rules of which he is said to have drawn up; and in the following year, at the synod of Châlons-sur-Marne, he ended the crisis arising out of certain charges brought against Henry, Bishop of Verdun, by persuading the bishop to resign.
===The schism of 1130&ndash;1138===
The European importance of Bernard, however, began with the death of Honorius (1130) and the disputed election that followed. In the [[conclave]] [[Antipope Anacletus II|Anacletus II]] was elected by a narrow margin, but many influential cardinals favored the contender, [[Pope Innocent II]], a disciple of Bernard and the Cistercian reforms. In the synod convoked by [[Louis the Fat]] at Etampes in April 1130, Bernard successfully asserted the claims of Innocent II against those of Anacletus, and from this moment became Innocent's most influential supporter. He threw himself into the contest with characteristic ardour. While Rome was held by the faction that supported Anacletus, France, England, Spain and Germany declared for Innocent, who, though banished from Rome, was&mdash;in Bernard's phrase&mdash;"accepted by the world." The pope traveled from place to place, with the powerful abbot of Clairvaux at his side; he stayed at Clairvaux itself, humble still, so far as its buildings were concerned; and he went with Bernard to parley with [[Lothair II, Holy Roman Emperor]], at [[Liège (city)|Liège]].
In 1133, the year of the emperor's first expedition to Rome, Bernard was in Italy persuading the [[Genoa|Genoese]] to make peace with [[Pisa]], since Innocent had need of both. He accompanied Innocent to Rome, successfully resisting the proposal to reopen negotiations with Anacletus, who held the [[Castel Sant'Angelo|castle of Sant'Angelo]] and, with the support of [[Roger II of Sicily]], was too strong to be subdued by force. Lothar, though crowned by Innocent in [[St. Peter's Basilica|St Peter's]], could do nothing to establish him in the Holy See so long as his own power was sapped by his quarrel with the house of [[Hohenstaufen]]. Again Bernard came to the rescue; in the spring of 1135 he was at [[Bamberg]] successfully persuading [[Frederick II, Duke of Swabia|Frederick Hohenstaufen]] to submit to the emperor.
In June he was back in Italy, taking a leading part in the council of Pisa, by which Anacletus was [[excommunicate]]d. In northern Italy the effect of his personality and of his preaching was immense; [[Milan]] itself, of all the Lombard cities most jealous of the imperial claims,
surrendered to his eloquence, submitted to Lothar and to Innocent, and tried to force Bernard against his will into the vacant see of Milan.
In 1137, the year of Lothar's last journey to Rome, Bernard was back in Italy again; at [[Monte Cassino]], setting the affairs of the monastery in order, at [[Salerno]], trying in vain to induce Roger of Sicily to declare against Anacletus, in Rome itself, agitating with success against the antipope.
When Anacletus died on [[January 25]] 1138 and the cardinal Gregory was elected his successor, assuming the name of [[Antipope Victor IV (1138)|Victor IV]], Bernard's crowning triumph in the long contest was the abdication of the new antipope, the result of his personal influence. The schism of the church was healed, and the abbot of Clairvaux was free to return to the peace of his monastery.
==The contest with Abelard==
Clairvaux itself had meanwhile (1135--1136) been transformed outwardly-- in spite of the reluctance of Bernard, who preferred the rough simplicity of the original buildings-- into a more suitable seat for an influence that overshadowed that of Rome itself. How great this influence was is shown by the outcome of Bernard's contest with [[Peter Abelard]]. Bernard was the prosecutor in Abelard's trial for heresy. Bernard had been hostile to the scholars at the [[University of Paris]], the center of the new learning based on Aristotle, suspecting those who learned "merely in order that they might know" for the vanity of a learned reputation. For Bernard of Clairvaux the [[liberal arts]] served but a narrow purpose: to prepare the priesthood. In intellectual and dialectical power the abbot was no match for the great schoolman; yet at [[Sens]] in [[1141]] Abelard feared to face him, and when he appealed to Rome Bernard's word was enough to secure his condemnation.
==Bernard and the Cistercian Order==
:''Main article: [[Cistercian Order]].''
One result of Bernard's fame was the growth of the Cistercian order. Between 1130 and 1145 no less than 93 monasteries in connection with Clairvaux were either founded or affiliated from other rules, three being established in [[England]] and one in [[Ireland]]. In 1145 a Cistercian monk, once a member of the community of Clairvaux-- another Bernard, abbot of Aquae Silviae near Rome, was elected pope as [[Pope Eugenius III]]. This was a triumph for the order; to the world it was a triumph for Bernard, who complained that all who had suits to press at Rome applied to him, as though he himself had become pope.
==Bernard and heresy==
Having healed the [[antipope|schism]] within the church, Bernard was next called upon to combat heresy. [[Languedoc]] especially had become a hotbed of heresy, and at this time the preaching of [[Henry of Lausanne]] was drawing thousands from the orthodox faith. In June 1145, at the invitation of Cardinal Alberic of Ostia, Bernard traveled in the south. There his preaching, aided by his emaciated ascetic's looks and simple attire did something to stem the flood of heresy for a while, missionary work and humility having been positive characteristics of [[Cathar]]s and [[Waldensian]]s.
[[Image:BartolomeoVirginBernard.JPG|thumb|right|280px|''The Vision of St Bernard'', by [[Fra Bartolommeo]], ''ca'' 1504 ([[Uffizi]])]]
==The Second Crusade==
:''Main article: [[Second Crusade]].''
Far more important was his activity in the following year, when, in obedience to the pope's command, he preached to promote the [[Second Crusade]]. The effect of his eloquence was extraordinary. At the great meeting at [[Vezelay]], on [[March 21]], as the result of his sermon, King [[Louis VII of France]] and his queen, [[Eleanor of Aquitaine|Eleanor]], took the cross, together with a host of all classes, so numerous that the stock of crosses was soon exhausted. Bernard continued through northern France, [[Flanders]] and the Rhine provinces, everywhere rousing the wildest enthusiasm; and at [[Spires]] on [[Christmas day]] he succeeded in persuading [[Conrad III of Germany|Conrad]], [[king of the Romans]], to join the crusade.
The disastrous outcome of the crusade was a blow to Bernard, who found it difficult to understand why God would move in this way but ascribed it to the sins of the crusaders (Episte 288; ''de Consideratione''. ii. I). The news of the defeats of the crusading host first reached Bernard at Clairvaux, where [[Pope Eugenius III]], driven from Rome by the revolution of [[Arnold of Brescia]], was his guest. Bernard had in March and April 1148 accompanied the pope to the council of Reims, where he led the attack on certain propositions of the scholastic theologian [[Gilbert de la Porrée]]. From whatever cause&mdash;possibly the growing jealousy of the cardinals, or the loss of prestige owing to rumours about the crusade, the success of which he had so confidently predicted&mdash;Bernard's influence, previously a danger to those suspected of heterodoxy, on this occasion had little effect.
On the news of the disaster that had overtaken the crusaders, an effort was made to retrieve it by organizing another expedition. At the invitation of [[Suger]], abbot of [[Saint Denis Basilica|St Denis]], now the virtual ruler of France, Bernard attended the meeting at Chartres convened for this purpose, where he himself was elected to conduct the new crusade, the choice being confirmed by the pope. He was saved from this task, for which he was physically and constitutionally unfit, by the intervention of the Cistercian abbots, who forbade him to undertake it. Bernard was aging, broken by his austerities and by ceaseless work, and saddened by the loss of several of his early friends. His intellectual energy remained undimmed. He continued to take an active interest in ecclesiastical affairs, and his last work, the ''De Consideratione'', shows no sign of failing power.
==Bernard and the veneration of the Virgin Mary==
Bernard expanded upon [[Anselm of Canterbury]]'s role in transmuting the sacramental ritual Christianity of the [[Early Middle Ages]] into a new, more personally held faith, with the life of Christ as a model and a new emphasis on the [[Mary, the mother of Jesus|Virgin Mary]]. In opposition to |
paper.com/columns/story.asp?id=8519 Welcome to the Big Time], ''Baltimore City Paper'' [[September 23]], [[1998]].
==External links==
*[http://www.baltimoreravens.com/ Baltimore Ravens official web site]
*[http://www.ravensinsider.com/ RavensInsider Fan Site]
*[http://www.ravensnests.com/ Chamber of Ravens Nests. Established Ravens fan club]
*[http://www.extremeravens.com/ ExtremeRavens.com. For the Fans. By the Fans.]
*[http://www.sportsecyclopedia.com/nfl/baltrav/ravens.html Sports E-Cyclopedia.com]
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</page>
<page>
<title>British National Party</title>
<id>4294</id>
<revision>
<id>41933872</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T18:53:41Z</timestamp>
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<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_British_Political_Party |
party_name = British National Party |
party_logo = [[Image:BNPsmall.gif|81px|The new logo of the British National Party]] |
party_wikicolourid = BNP |
leader = [[Nick Griffin]] |
foundation = [[1982]] |
ideology = [[Right-Wing]] [[Nationalism]] |
international = Various bilateral ties, see "affiliates" section|
european = ''none'' |
europarl = n/a |
colours = [[Red]], [[White]] and [[Blue]]|
headquarters = &nbsp;|
website = [http://www.bnp.org.uk/ www.bnp.org.uk]
}}
The '''British National Party''' ('''BNP''') is the largest [[political party]] of the [[far right]] in the [[United Kingdom]]. Unlike some of its European analogues, it has no presence in the national Parliament, and a small number of councillors in local government; supporters claim that this is partially because the UK's [[first-past-the-post]] system makes it harder for small parties to achieve electoral success than the [[proportional representation]] systems used in most of [[Europe]]. According to accounts filed with the [[Electoral Commission]] for the year 2004, it had a membership of 7,916, and income and expenditure of around £730,000. [http://www.electoralcommission.org.uk/templates/search/document.cfm/13262]
==History==
===Founding of modern BNP===
The modern BNP has its roots in the '''New National Front''', founded in [[1980]] by the late [[John Tyndall (politician)|John Tyndall]], a former chairman of the [[National Front (UK)| National Front]] (NF) and veteran [[National Socialism|National Socialist]] ideologue. Tyndall was a member of the previous ([[1960s]]) [[British National Party (1960s)|BNP]], which itself was one of the organizations that eventually became the NF. Tyndall resigned from the NF in [[January]] [[1980]] after failing to oust its National Organiser, [[Martin Webster]].
In 1982, the New National Front and a faction of the then-disintegrating [[British Movement]] led by [[Searchlight magazine]] informant [[Ray Hill]] merged to form the new British National Party. Tyndall was elected leader and Hill became his deputy. The launch was announced in a press conference in the spring, and on [[April 24]] the party had its inaugural march in London. (Hill 1988)
===Griffin assumes leadership===
In [[1995]] [[Nick Griffin]] joined the BNP. Griffin was previously a member of the NF Directorate under Tyndall who remained after Tyndall's resignation. In [[December]] [[1983]], Griffin and his colleague [[Joe Pearce]] succeeded where Tyndall had failed and successfully removed Webster from the NF leadership. Griffin continued in the NF through its subsequent [[schism]], eventually leaving in 1989. (See articles on [[Nick Griffin|Griffin]] and the [[British National Front|National Front]] for more detail.)
In [[1998]] Griffin was convicted of violating section 19 of the [[Public Order Act 1986]], relating to [[hate speech|incitement to racial hatred]]. He received a nine-month prison sentence, suspended for two years, and was fined £2,300.
In [[1999]] Griffin replaced Tyndall after a leadership election. Tyndall went on to run several articles in his magazine ''[[Spearhead (magazine)|Spearhead]]'' (which Griffin had previously edited) that were highly critical of the Griffin leadership. He was expelled from the BNP in [[August]] [[2003]].[http://www.spearhead.com/0309-jt2.html] He continued to publish articles in ''Spearhead'' attacking Griffin and disputing the BNP's account of his expulsion, for example [http://www.spearhead.com/0310-jt2.html Tyndall (2003)]. He was readmitted to the party in [[December 2003]] after an out-of-court settlement with Griffin, announced his intention of challenging Griffin for the leadership in [[July]] [[2004]], and was expelled again in [[December]] of the same year.[http://www.spearhead.com/0501-jt1.html] Tyndall died on [[July 18]] [[2005]].
===2004 BBC documentary===
[[Image:BNP Sun headline.jpg|thumb|right|225px]]
In ''The Secret Agent'', a [[BBC]] documentary broadcast on [[July 15]] [[2004]], filmmaker [[Jason Gwynne]] went undercover and joined the BNP for six months. His secret filming recorded party leader Nick Griffin calling Islam a "wicked, vicious faith"; party member [[Steve Barkham]] confessing to assaulting an Asian man in the [[2001]] [[Bradford Riots]]; party member [[Stewart Williams]] stating that he wanted to "blow up" [[Bradford]]'s mosques with a rocket launcher; and council candidate [[Dave Midgley]] confessing to pushing dog faeces through the letterbox of an Asian takeaway.
In his speech, Griffin stated that "For saying that, I tell you, I will get seven years if I said that outside", apparently referring to the maximum sentence for the criminal offence of [[incitement to racial hatred]].
The day after the documentary was broadcast, [[Barclays Bank]] froze the BNP's bank accounts.[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/business/3901621.stm]
The BNP's response to the programme claimed it had featured "the loudest and most hot-headed BNP activists [who] were deliberately plied with drink and subject to suggestive provocation." In the wake of the documentary the party expelled Barkham and Midgley (but not Williams, who had technically committed no crime). Griffin did not apologise for his own comments, stating that "it's still not illegal to criticise Islam". He and BNP member [[Mark Collett]] were subsequently prosecuted for incitement to racial hatred (see below).
===2005 Griffin/Collett prosecutions===
On [[July 21]] [[2005]], Griffin and BNP activist [[Mark Collett]] pleaded not guilty at Leeds Crown Court to four and eight charges respectively of incitement to racial hatred. The charges resulted from the BBC documentary ''The Secret Agent'' (see above). John Tyndall was also due to appear in court but had died three days earlier.
On [[February 2]] [[2006]], Griffin and Collett were each acquitted of half of the charges against them. The jury could not decide on the others and the [[Crown Prosecution Service]] confirmed a retrial the same night.[http://www.guardian.co.uk/farright/story/0,,1701242,00.html]
===Other incidents===
On [[April 25]] [[2004]], Griffin appeared at a joint press conference with [[Front National (France)|Front National]] leader, [[Jean-Marie Le Pen]], sparking protests.[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk_politics/3654941.stm]
On [[11 September]] [[2005]], sixty thousand copies of BNP newspaper, The Voice of Freedom (Vof), were confiscated at Dover by British police (Special Branch) on the orders of the Crown Prosecution Service. The next day Police handed back the seized VoF papers after the BNP sent a legal letter, delivered by a barrister acting on the BNP's behalf, which warned that they would press for “serious and maximum damages” against Kent Constabulary for the loss of earnings from the newspaper with a further threat to take the Force to the European Court of Human Rights.
In the wake of the [[7 July London bombings]], the BNP released leaflets featuring images of the bombed Route 30 bus and the slogan "Maybe now it's time to start listening to the BNP". They were accused [http://www.thesun.co.uk/article/0,,2-2005320172,00.html] of using the leaflet to stir up racial hatred. The leaflet can be viewed [http://www.bnp.org.uk/news_detail.php?newsId=388 here].
After the [[Jyllands-Posten Muhammad cartoons controversy]], the BNP republished one of the cartoons of Muhammad on a leaflet, accompanied by a photo of muslim demonstrators holding placards and a "Which do you find offensive?" caption [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk_politics/4739336.stm].
==Policies, and position on the political spectrum==
The BNP is generally not regarded as economically right-wing, ie as having a strong belief in laissez faire economics. Rather, the description of them as 'far-right' relates to their allegedly extreme social views, obviously particularly in relation to race (see for example [http://www.digitalronin.f2s.com/politicalcompass/extremeright.php]).
Since Griffin took over its leadership, the BNP has tried to moderate its public image in line with the "[[Euronationalism|Euronationalist]]" approach adopted by a number of [[far-right]] European counterparts such as the [[Austrian Freedom Party]]. This is a pattern of emphasis and presentation of policies that is often cited as a factor in such parties' increased electoral successes of the [[1990s]] and, arguably much more, the [[2000s]].
For example, under Tyndall's leadership, the party campaigned for the [[compulsory repatriation]] of all ethnic minorities. Instead, it now advocates "voluntary repatriation" encouraged by government grants. Likewise, th |
irrour, or directions for the perfect ordering and keeping of his accounts formed by way of Debitor and Creditor'', after the (so termed) Italian manner, by Richard Dafforne, accountant, published in 1635, contains many references to early books on the science of accountancy. In a chapter in this book, headed "Opinion of Book-keeping's Antiquity," the author states, on the authority of another writer, that the form of book-keeping referred to had then been in use in Italy about two hundred years, "but that the same, or one in many parts very like this, was used in the time of Julius Caesar, and in Rome long before." He gives quotations of Latin book-keeping terms in use in ancient times, and refers to "ex Oratione Ciceronis pro Roscio Comaedo"; and he adds:
:"That the one side of their booke was used for Debitor, the other for Creditor, is manifest in a certain place, ''Naturalis Historiae Plinii'', lib. 2, cap. 7, where hee, speaking of Fortune, saith thus:
: ''Huic Omnia Expensa.''
: ''Huic Omnia Feruntur accepta et in tota Ratione mortalium sola ''
: ''Utramque Paginam facit."''
An early Dutch writer appears to have suggested that double-entry book-keeping was even in existence among the Greeks, pointing to scientific accountancy having been invented in remote times.
There were several editions of Richard Dafforne's book printed---the second edition having been published in 1636, the third in 1656, and another was issued in 1684. The book is a very complete treatise on scientific accountancy, it was beautifully prepared and contains elaborate explanations; the numerous editions tend to prove that the science was highly appreciated in the 17th century. From this time there has been a continuous supply of literature on the subject, many of the authors styling themselves accountants and teachers of the art, and thus proving that the professional accountant was then known and employed.
Very early in the 18th century, the services of an accountant practising in the city of [[London]] were made use of in the course of an investigation into the transactions of a director of the [[South Sea Bubble|South Sea Company]], who had been dealing in the company's stock. During this investigation the accountant appears to have examined the books of at least two firms of merchants. His report is described Observations made upon examining the books of Sawbridge and Company, by Charles Snell, Writing Master and Accountant in Foster Lane, London. The United States owes the concept of the Certified Public Accountant designation to England which had coined the Chartered Accountant designation in the 19th century.
==Accountancy qualifications and regulation==
The requirements for entry in the profession of accounting vary from country to country.
=== Commonwealth of Nations ===
In the [[United Kingdom]], [[Canada]], [[Australia]] and several other [[Commonwealth of Nations]] countries, the equivalents of Certified Public Accountant (CPA) include [[Chartered Accountant]] (CA - in UK, Commonwealth and former British states), Chartered Certified Accountant (ACCA - United Kingdom), International Accountant (AIA - United Kingdom), Certified Public Accountant (CPA - Ireland and CPA - Hong Kong), Certified General Accountant (CGA - Canada), and Certified Practising Accountant (CPA - Australia).
Please refer to the latest statutory auditing rights of above accounting bodies in individual jurisdictions and distinction from non-audit bodies for various consumers. In UK, only 3 chartered accountants (England & Wales, Scottish and Irish)and their equivalents (AIA and ACCA) are "Registered Auditors" under Companies Act.
ACA is the best known and most respected qualification in the UK, equivalent of a CA but handled by a different board ICAEW.
====Canada====
In Canada, there are three recognized accounting bodies: the Canadian Institute of Chartered Accountants (CA) and the provincial and territorial CA Institutes, the Certified General Accountants Association of Canada (CGA)]], and the Society of Management Accountants of Canada (CMA). CA and CGA were created by Acts of Parliament in 1902 and 1913 respectively and CMA was established in 1920.
The CA program focuses on public accounting and candidates must obtain auditing experience from public accounting firms; the CGA program takes a general approach allowing candidates to focus in their own financial career choices; the CMA program focuses in management accounting. Both the CA and the CMA programs require a candidate to obtain a degree as a program entry requirement. The CGA program only requires a degree as an exit requirement prior to certification.
Auditing and Public Accounting are regulated by the provinces. Historically, only CAs can perform audits in [[Ontario]]. In 2004, the provincial government of [[Ontario]] passed a new Public Accounting Act that would allow qualified CGAs and CMAs to perform audits, conditional on their organizations being able to demonstrate that their qualification and regulatory programs are equivalent in rigour to that of the CA program. As of March 2006, this process of evaluation had not yet begun. In [[Quebec]] as well, CAs still have exclusive public company audit rights by statute. In [[British Columbia]] and [[Prince Edward Island]], CAs and CGAs have equal status regarding public accounting and auditing; In the rest of [[Canada]], CAs, CGAs, and CMAs are considered equivalents pursuant to provincial and territorial legislation.
===United States of America===
In the [[United States]], practicing accountants include [[Certified Public Accountant]]s (CPAs), [[Certified Internal Auditor]]s (CIAs), [[Certified Management Accountant]]s (CMAs) and [[Accredited Business Accountant]]s (ABAs). The difference between these certifications is primarily the types of services provided, although individuals may earn more than one certification. Additionally, much accounting work is performed by uncertified individuals, who may be working under the supervision of a certified accountant.
A CPA is licensed by the state of his/her residence to provide auditing services to the public, although most CPA firms also offer accounting, tax, litigation support, and other financial advisory services. The requirements for receiving the CPA license varies from state to state, although the passage of the Uniform Certified Public Accountant examination is required by all states. This examination is designed and graded by the [[American Institute of Certified Public Accountants]].
A CIA is granted a certificate from the Institute of Internal Auditors (IIA), provided that the candidate passed a rigorous examination of four parts. A CIA mostly provides his/her services directly to his/her employer rather than the public.
A CMA is granted a certificate from the Institute of Management Accountants (IMA), provided that the candidate passed a rigorous examination of four parts and meet the practical experience requirement from the IMA. A CMA mostly provides his/her services directly to his/her employers rather than the public. A CMA can also provide his services to the public, but to an extent much lesser than that of a CPA.
An ABA is granted accreditation from the Accreditation Council for Accountancy and Taxation (ACAT), provided that the candidate passed the eight-hour Comprehensive Examination for Accreditation in Accounting which tests proficiency in financial accounting, reporting, statement preparation, taxation, business consulting services, business law, and ethics. An ABA specializes in the needs of small-to-mid-size businesses and in financial services to individuals and families. In states where use of the word "accountant” is not permitted, the practitioner may use Accredited Business Advisor.
The [[United States Department of Labor]]'s [[Bureau of Labor Statistics]] estimates that there are about one million persons [http://www.bls.gov/oes/current/oes132011.htm] employed as accountants and auditors in the U.S.
U.S. [[tax law]] grants accountants a limited form of [[accountant-client privilege]].
==Accounting scholarship==
Refer [[Accounting scholarship]] for professorship.
==The "Big Four" accountancy firms==
The "[[Big 4 accountancy firm|Big Four auditor]]s" are the largest [[multinational]] accountancy firms.
*[[PricewaterhouseCoopers]]
*[[Deloitte Touche Tohmatsu]]
*[[Ernst & Young]]
*[[KPMG]]
The Big 4 accountancy firms can all trace their history back to firms in Europe, from which they have descended through a long line of mergers. Many of the originating firms were from the [[United Kingdom]]. As British trade interests expanded, correspondent firms were established throughout the world by the organisations. These firms are associations of the partnerships in each country rather than having the classical structure of holding company and subsidiaries, but each has an international 'umbrella' organisation for co-ordination. However, due to the dominant size of the [[Economy of the United States|United States' economy]], the offices of the Big 4 accountancy firms based in the United States have always generated more revenue than the rest of the Big 4 accountancy firms' offices in the world combined.
Before the Enron and other [[accounting scandals]], there were five large firms and were called the Big Five. Since [[Arthur Andersen]]'s [[Assurance services|assurance]] practice split, with a plurality joining KPMG in the US and Deloitte & Touche outside of the US, Arthur Andersen left from the group. Previous to this there were also groupings referred to as the "Big Six" and the "Big Eight".
Enron turned out to be only the first of a series of accounting scandals that enveloped the accounting industry in 2002.
This is likely to have far-reaching consequences for the U.S. accounting industry. Application of [[International |
SD, mescaline, etc., are controlled in a way which is more stringent than morphine under the narcotics treaties. [[Wikisource:Convention_on_Psychotropic_Substances#Article_7:_SPECIAL_PROVISIONS_REGARDING_SUBSTANCES_IN_SCHEDULE_1|Article 7]], which sets down this regime, provides that such substances can only be moved in international trade when both exporter and importer are government authorities, or government agencies or institutions specially authorized for the purpose; in addition to this very rigid identification of supplier and recipient, in each case export and import authorization is also mandatory.''<!--Their quote said Article 6, but it's really Article 7.-->
==Scheduling process==
[[Wikisource:Convention_on_Psychotropic_Substances#Article_2:_SCOPE_OF_CONTROL_OF_SUBSTANCES|Article 2]] sets out a process for adding additional drugs to the Schedules. First, the [[World Health Organization]] (WHO) must find that the drug meets the specific criteria set forth in Article 2, Section 4, and thus is eligible for control. Then, the WHO issues an assessment of the substance that includes:
*The extent or likelihood of abuse,
*The degree of gravity in the public health and social problem, and
*The degree of utility of the substance in legitimate medical therapy.
The [[Commission on Narcotic Drugs]] makes the final decision on whether to add the drug to a Schedule, "taking into account the communication from the World Health Organization, whose assessments shall be determinative as to medical and scientific matters, and bearing in mind the economic, social, legal, administrative and other factors it may consider relevant". A similar process is followed in deleting a drug from the Schedules or transferring a drug between Schedules. For instance, at its 33rd meeting, the WHO Expert Committee on Drug Dependence recommended transferring [[tetrahydrocannabinol]] to Schedule IV of the Convention, citing its medical uses and low abuse potential{{ref|who.int-tetrahydrocannabinol}}.
The [[UN Economic and Social Council]] is the only body with the power to alter or reverse the Commission's scheduling decisions.
In the event of a disagreement about a drug's Scheduling, Article 2, Paragraph 7 allows a Party to, within 180 days of the communication of the Commission's decision, give the [[UN Secretary-General]] "a written notice that, in view of exceptional circumstances, it is not in a position to give effect with respect to that substance to all of the provisions of the Convention applicable to substances in that Schedule." This allows the nation to comply with a less stringent set of restrictions. The U.S. [[Controlled Substances Act]]'s ''21 U.S.C. § 811(d)(4)''{{ref|usdoj.gov-811}} implies that placing a drug in Schedule IV or V of the Act is sufficient to "carry out the minimum United States obligations under paragraph 7 of article 2 of the Convention". This provision, which calls for temporarily placing a drug under federal drug control in the event the Convention requires it, was invoked in 1984 with [[rohypnol]]. Long before abuse of the drug was sufficiently widespread in the United States to meet the Act's drug control criteria, rohypnol was added to the Schedules of the Convention on Psychotropic Substances, and the U.S. government had to place rohypnol in Schedule IV of the Controlled Substances Act in order to meet its minimum treaty obligations{{ref|hhs.gov-daterape}}.
As of March 2005, 111 substances were controlled under the Convention.<!--A number of derivatives (salts, esters, etc.) are also controlled informally.-->
==World Health Organization evaluations of specific drugs==
===Ephedrine===
In 1998, [[ephedrine]] was recommended for control under the Convention. The [[Dietary Supplement Safety and Science Coalition]] lobbied against control, stressing the drug's history and safety, and arguing that "ephedrine is not a controlled substance in the US today, nor should it be internationally"{{ref|ddmi.he.net-ephedrine}}. After a two-year debate, the Expert Committee on Drug Dependence decided against regulating ephedrine. However, the Commission on Narcotics Drugs and the International Narcotics Control Board listed the drug as a Table I precursor under the [[United Nations Convention Against Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances]], a move that did not require WHO approval.
[[Image:Ketamine2.JPG|thumb|right|Despite its well-known presence in the rave scene, [[ketamine]], or Special K, remains uncontrolled internationally due to its importance as an [[anesthetic]] in veterinary medicine.]]
===Ketamine===
The Expert Committee on Drug Dependence cautiously began investigating [[ketamine]] at its thirty-third meeting, noting, "Its use in veterinary medicine must also be considered in relation to its control"{{ref|unicri.it-ketamine}}. Ketamine remains uncontrolled internationally, although many nations have enacted restrictions on the drug.
===MDMA===
The Expert Committee's evaluation of MDMA, or [[Ecstasy (drug)|Ecstasy]], during its twenty-second meeting was marked by pleas from doctors to allow further research into the drug's therapeutic uses. The UN was under considerable pressure from the United States government to control the drug in the wake of extensive seizures of the drug by American authorities. [[Paul Grof]], chairman of the Expert Committee, argued that international control was not yet warranted, and that scheduling should be delayed pending completion of more studies. The Expert Committee concluded that because there was "insufficient evidence to indicate that the substance has therapeutic usefulness," it should be placed in Schedule I. However, its report did recommend more MDMA research{{ref|erowid.org-ecstasy}}:
:''It should be noted that the Expert Committee held extensive discussions concerning therapeutic usefulness of 3,4 Methylenedioxymethamphetamine. While the Expert Committee found the reports intriguing, it felt that the studies lacked the appropriate methodological design necessary to ascertain the reliability of the observations. There was, however, sufficient interest expressed to recommend that investigations be encouraged to follow up these preliminary findings. To that end, the Expert Committee urged countries to use the provisions of [[Wikisource:Convention_on_Psychotropic_Substances#Article_7:_SPECIAL_PROVISIONS_REGARDING_SUBSTANCES_IN_SCHEDULE_1|Article 7]] of the Convention on Psychotropic Substances to facilitate research on this interesting substance.''
===Methcathinone===
Circa 1994, the United States government notified the [[UN Secretary General]] that it supported controlling [[methcathinone]], an addictive stimulant manufactured with common household products, as a Schedule I drug under the Convention. The FDA report warned of the drugs dangers, even noting that addicts in [[Russia]] were observed to often have "[[potassium permanganate]] burns on their fingers" and to "tend not to pay attention to their appearance, thus looking ragged with dirty hands and hair"{{ref|lycaeum.org-FDA}}. Methcathinone did not have any supporters in the pharmaceuticals industry, and the decision to place the drug in Schedule I was therefore uncontested.
===Nicotine===
Traditionally, the UN has been reluctant to control [[nicotine]] and other licit drugs, citing tolerance of a wide range of lifestyles. [[Gabriel Nahas]], in a [[Bulletin on Narcotics]] report, noted{{ref|unodc.org-report2-2}}:
:''Some addictive drugs such as nicotine or caffeine (in moderate amounts) and alcohol (in small amounts) do not produce any measurable symptoms of neuropsychological toxicity. Some pharmacologists have associated the symptoms of neuropsychological toxicity with behavioural toxicity, which include in addition: suppression of normal anxiety, reduction in motivation and non-purposive or inappropriate behaviour. However, the latter be-havioural symptoms do not present "markers" which may be measurable in societies accepting as "normal" a wide range of life styles.''
Nonetheless, in October 1996, the Expert Committee considered controlling nicotine, especially products such as gum, patches, nasal spray, and inhalers{{ref|nida.nih.gov-report}}. The UN ultimately left nicotine unregulated. Since then, nicotine products have become even more loosely controlled; Nicorette gum, for instance, is now an [[over-the-counter substance]] in the United States.
===Tetrahydrocannabinol===
[[Tetrahydrocannabinol]], the active ingredient in [[cannabis]], was originally placed in Schedule I when the Convention was enacted in 1971. At its twenty-sixth meeting, the WHO Expert Committee on Drug Dependence recommended that THC be transferred to Schedule II, citing its low abuse potential. The Commission on Narcotic Drugs rejected the proposal. At its thirty-third meeting, the Committee issued another evaluation of the drug, stating:
:''The abuse liability of dronabinol (delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol) is expected to remain very low so long as cannabis continues to be readily available. The Committee considered that the abuse liability of dronabinol does not constitute a substantial risk to public health and society. In accordance with the established scheduling criteria, the Committee considered that dronabinol should be rescheduled to schedule IV of the 1971 Convention on Psychotropic Substances.''
At its 1045th meeting, on [[April 29]], [[1991]], the Commission on Narcotic Drugs approved the transfer of dronabinol and its stereochemical variants from Schedule I to Schedule II of the Convention, while leaving other tetrahydrocannabinols and their stereochemical variants in Schedule I.
==Medical and other drug uses==
[[Image:peyote.jpg|frame|right|Article 32 makes an exception for [[peyote]] and other "plants growing wild which contain psychotropic substances from among those |
Other direct interchanges between National Rail and the DLR are at Limehouse, Canning Town and Greenwich.
There are no [[limited-stop]] trains on the DLR, so each train serves every stop along its route.
===Future developments===
With the rapid development of the eastern Docklands as part of the ‘[[Thames Gateway]]’ initiative and London’s successful bid for the [[2012 Summer Olympics]], several extensions and enhancements are either under construction or being planned<ref name="dlrdev">Docklands Light Railway (2005). ''[http://developments.dlr.co.uk/index.asp DLR Development Projects]'' Retrieved [[February 23]] [[2006]].</ref>:
*'''Woolwich Arsenal Extension'''
::'''''Status''' - Under Construction''
::A further extension of the [[London City Airport]] branch from King George V to [[Woolwich Arsenal railway station|Woolwich Arsenal]], requiring a second pair of DLR tunnels under the River Thames. Approval and funding for this was given by the Government on [[26 February]] [[2004]], with the projected cost of £150 million expected to be met through the [[Private Finance Initiative]]. Construction began in June 2005, and is due to be completed in February [[2009]].
*'''New platforms at Stratford (Regional)'''
::'''''Status''' - Under Construction''
::Currently the DLR has only one platform at Stratford (Regional), which has a number of flaws. As well as limiting the capacity of the Stratford-Poplar branch it provides poor interchange with the rest of the mainline and tube station. Two new platforms are under construction to replace it, with the first expected to open in [[January 2007]] (with the old platfrom being closed) and followed by the second in [[May 2007]].
*'''Stratford International Extension / North London Line conversion'''
::'''''Status''' - Awaiting [[Transport & Works Act]] approval from the Government''
::An extension from Canning Town to the new [[Stratford International station]], linking the Docklands with domestic and international high-speed services on the [[Channel Tunnel Rail Link]]. Four new stations will be built at Star Lane, Abbey Road, Stratford High Street, and Stratford International, with a possible fifth station between Cody Road and Canning Town. The branch would also serve [[London Underground]] and [[National Rail]] stations at [[West Ham]] and [[Stratford, London|Stratford]]. All stations will be capable of accommodating three-unit trains.
::As part of the TWA application the DLR station at Royal Victoria on the Beckton branch will also be extended to accommodate three-unit trains. Additionally it will have a third platform. The extra platform becomes possible because the part of the North London line due to be abandoned currently runs parallel to Royal Victoria station.<ref name="rvdsplan">Docklands Light Railway. ''[http://developments.dlr.co.uk/pdf/twa_documents/planningdirection/037.pdf Map showing proposed Royal Victoria station]''. Retrieved [[February 26]] [[2006]].</ref>
::The extension will largely run over existing track currently operated by the [[North London Line]], which would in future terminate at Stratford. The extension is projected to open early in [[2010]] and is an important part of the transport improvement package for the [[2012 Olympic Games]], which will be held on a site adjoining Stratford International.
*'''Barking Reach Extension'''
::'''''Status''' - Being planned, Route safeguarded''
::An extension from Gallions Reach to Dagenham Dock via the riverside at Barking. This would connect the Barking Reach area, a formerly industrial area now undergoing major redevelopment, with the Docklands. This includes Creekmouth. A possible opening date according to the DLR website is [[2015]].
*'''Langdon Park station'''
::'''''Status''' - Planning Application submitted''
::Recently there has been a proposal for Langdon Park DLR station. This is to be situated between [[All Saints DLR station|All Saints]] and [[Devons Road DLR station|Devons Road]]. Proposals were first drawn up in 2000 but due to lack of funding, amongst other things, the scheme was dropped. The project was given the green light in mid-to-late 2005, and the station is expected to open in late 2007.<ref name="langdon">Docklands Light Railway (2005). ''[http://developments.dlr.co.uk/enhancements/langdonpark/index.shtml Langdon Park]''. Retrieved [[February 26]] [[2006]].</ref>
*'''Thames Wharf station'''
::'''''Status''' - Proposed''
::This station had been included as potential future development on the '''London City Airport extension''' since it was first planned. It would be located between [[Canning Town station|Canning Town]] and [[West Silvertown DLR station|West Silvertown]], due west of the western end of [[Royal Victoria Dock]]. Since the station's intended purpose is to serve the surrounding area (currently a mix of [[brownfield]] and run-down industrial sites) when it is regenerated, the development is indefinitely on-hold due to the area being safeguarded for the [[Silvertown Link]], a new thames river crossing proposed for opening by [[2015]].<ref name="atoproj41">AlwaysTouchOut.com (2005). ''[http://www.alwaystouchout.com/project/41 Silvertown Link]'' Retrieved [[February 24]] [[2006]].</ref>
*'''Connaught Road\Silvertown Interchange station'''
::'''''Status''' - Proposed''
::A site near to [[London City Airport]] has been at least been given provision of a future possible second station on the '''London City Airport extension'''. There, it will be a possible interchange with [[Crossrail]]. It is to be located between [[London City Airport DLR station]] and [[Pontoon Dock DLR station]]. However, no plans have emerged as to when this station is to be planned and built. It may be located south of the '''Connaught Crossing'''.<ref name="atoproj9">AlwaysTouchOut.com (2006). ''[http://www.alwaystouchout.com/project/9 DLR to City Airport]''. Retrieved [[February 26]] [[2006]].</ref>
*'''Charing Cross Extension'''
::'''''Status''' - Proposed''
::In February 2006 a proposal for extending the DLR to [[Charing Cross tube station|Charing Cross station]] was revealed (running from either the [[Bank tube station|Bank]] or [[Tower Gateway DLR station|Tower Gateway]] DLR branches). First reported March 2006 <ref name="mrmarch">Ian Allan Publishing. ''Modern Railways Magazine''. March 2006''.</ref>, the proposal is in very early stages at the moment, but would involve extending the line from in bored tunnels under Central London to Charing Cross where the disused former [[Jubilee line]] platforms would be reused. While not specifically confirmed it is implied that the scheme would also reuse the incomplete tunnels between the Charing Cross Jubilee platforms and [[Aldwych tube station|Aldwych]], which were part of the abandoned Phase 2 of the 'Fleet Line' (now the Jubilee Line). However the tunnels would need some enlargement as DLR gauge is larger than tube gauge. Also modern safety regulations would almost certainly require a narrow walkway to be provided in the tunnel. The two reasons reported as driving the proposal were capacity problems at Bank, having basically one interchange between the DLR and the central portion of [[London Underground|Underground]], and the difficult journeys faced by passengers from [[Kent]] and South Coast between their rail termini and the DLR.
Besides these extensions, there are plans to upgrade the lines between Bank and Lewisham, and Stratford and Poplar to allow three-unit trains. Besides the lengthening of platforms, this will require viaduct-strengthening works and in one case even moving a station slightly to the east, as most of this section dates from the initial system originally built for single-car operation. The DLR also considered running trains more frequently, but found that the necessary signalling changes would be as expensive as upgrading to longer trains, and provide fewer benefits. <ref name="dlrcapen">Docklands Light Railway (2005). ''[http://developments.dlr.co.uk/enhancements/dlr_capacity/index.shtml DLR Capacity Enhancement]''. Retrieved [[February 26]] [[2006]].</ref>
The current route projections for the trans-London [[Crossrail]] Line 1 entail interchanges with the DLR at Custom House, Stratford (Regional), and the provision for interchanges at West India Quay (with Crossrail station 'Isle of Dogs') and London City Airport (with Crossrail station 'Silvertown').<ref name="atoproj1">AlwaysTouchOut.com (2006). ''[http://www.alwaystouchout.com/project/1#Benchmark Crossrail]''. Retrieved [[February 23]] [[2006]].</ref>
==Rolling stock==
[[Image:Dlr_emu_at_tower_gateway.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This DLR train is headed by B2K stock car 96, shown at [[Tower Gateway DLR station|Tower Gateway station]]]]
[[Image:NewDocklands.jpg|thumb|right|An artist’s impression of the new DLR stock on order from [[Bombardier Transportation]].]]
The DLR is operated by high-floor, bi-directional, single-articulated cars with four doors on each side, with each train composed of two cars. The cars have no driver’s cab, although there is a small driver’s console concealed behind a locked panel at each car end from which the Passenger Service Agent (PSA) can drive the car in an emergency. Other consoles at each door opening allow the PSA to control door closure and make announcements whilst patrolling the train. Because of the absence of a driver’s position, the fully glazed car ends provide an excellent forward (or rear) view for passengers.
Despite having high floors and being highly automated, the cars are derived from a [[Germany|German]] [[light rail|light-rail]] design intended for use in systems with elements of street running. All the cars that have operated on the system look similar, but there have been five separate types, of which three are still in operati |
corative effect, such as are seen in the best products of later [[Hellenic art]]. Architectural ornament was also highly developed. The richness of the Aegean capitals and columns may be judged by those from the "Treasury of Atreus" now set up in the [[British Museum]]; and of the [[frieze]]s we have examples in Mycenaean and Minoan fragments, and Minoan paintings. The magnificent gold work of the later period, preserved to us at [[Mycenae]] and [[Vaphio]], needs only to be mentioned. It should be compared with stone work in Crete, especially the [[steatite]] vases with reliefs found at [[Hagia Triada]]. On the whole, Aegean art at its two great periods, in the middle of the 3rd and 2nd millennia respectively, will bear comparison with any contemporary arts.
==Evidence of Aegean civilization==
For details of monumental evidence the articles on [[Crete]], [[Mycenae]], [[Tiryns]], [[Troad]], [[Cyprus]], etc., must be consulted. The most representative site explored up to now is [[Knossus|Cnossus]] (see [[Crete]]) which has yielded not only the most various but the most continuous evidence from the [[Neolithic age]] to the twilight of classical civilization. Next in importance come [[Hissarlik]], Mycenae, [[Phaestus]], [[Hagia Triada]], Tiryns, [[Phylakope]], [[Palaikastro]] and [[Gournia]].
'''A. INTERNAL EVIDENCE'''
*'''Structures'''; [[Ruin]]s of [[palace]]s, palatial [[villa]]s, houses, built dome- or cist-graves and [[fortification]]s ([[Aegean Sea|Aegean]] islands, [[Greece|Greek]] mainland and northwestern [[Anatolia]]), but not distinct [[temple (Greek)|temples]]; small [[shrine]]s, however, and temene (religious enclosures, remains of one of which were probably found at [[Petsofa]] near Palaikastro by J. L. Myres in [[1904]]) are represented on [[intaglio]]s and [[fresco]]es. From the sources and from inlay-work we have also representations of palaces and houses.
*'''Structural Decoration'''; Architectural features, such as [[column]]s, [[frieze]]s and various [[molding|mouldings]]; [[mural]] decoration, such as fresco-paintings, coloured [[relief]]s and [[mosaic]] inlay.
*'''[[Furniture]]'''; (a) Domestic furniture, such as [[vessel]]s of all sorts and in many materials, from huge store jars down to tiny [[unguent]] pots; culinary and other implements; [[throne]]s, [[chair|seats]], [[Furniture#Table|tables]], etc., these all in stone or plastered [[Terra cotta|terra-cotta]]. (b) Sacred furniture, such as models or actual examples of [[ritual]] objects; of these we have also numerous pictorial representations. (c) [[Funeral|Funerary]] furniture, e.g. [[coffin]]s in painted terra-cotta.
*'''Art products'''; E.g. plastic objects, carved in [[Rock (geology)|stone]] or [[ivory]], cast or beaten in metals ([[gold]], [[silver]], [[copper]] and [[bronze]]), or modelled in [[clay]], [[faience]], [[paste]], etc. Very little trace has yet been found of large free-standing [[sculpture]], but many examples exist of sculptors' smaller work. [[Vase]]s of all kinds, carved in [[marble]] or other stones, cast or beaten in metals or fashioned in [[clay]], the latter in enormous number and variety, richly ornamented with coloured schemes, and sometimes bearing moulded decoration. Examples of painting on stone, opaque and transparent. Engraved objects in great number e.g. ring-bezels and [[gem]]s; and an immense quantity of clay impressions, taken from these.
*'''[[Weapon]]s, [[tool]]s and implements'''; In stone, clay and bronze, and at the last [[iron]], sometimes richly ornamented or inlaid. Numerous representations also of the same. No actual body-[[armour]], except such as was ceremonial and buried with the dead, like the gold breastplates in the circle-graves at Mycenae.
*'''Articles of personal use'''; E.g. [[brooch]]es (fibulae), [[pin]]s, [[razor]]s, [[tweezers]], etc., often found as dedications to a deity, e.g. in the Dictaean Cavern of Crete. No [[textile]]s have survived.
*'''Written documents'''; E.g. clay tablets and discs (so far in Crete only), but nothing of more perishable nature, such as skin, [[papyrus]], etc.; engraved gems and gem impressions; [[legend]]s written with [[pigment]] on [[pottery]] (rare); characters incised on stone or pottery. These show two main systems of script (see [[Crete]]).
*'''Excavated [[tomb]]s'''; Of either the pit or the [[grotto]] kind, in which the dead were laid, together with various objects of use and luxury, without cremation, and in either coffins or loculi or simple wrappings.
*'''Public works'''; Such as paved and stepped roadways, bridges, systems of drainage, etc.
'''B. EXTERNAL EVIDENCE'''
*'''Monuments and records of other contemporary civilizations'''; E.g. representations of alien peoples in Egyptian frescoes; imitation of Aegean fabrics and style in non-Aegean lands; allusions to [[Mediterranean]] peoples in [[Egypt]]ian, [[Semitic]] or [[Babylon]]ian records.
*'''Literary traditions of subsequent civilizations'''; Especially the Hellenic; such as, e.g., those embodied in the [[Homer]]ic poems, the legenda concerning Crete, Mycenae, etc.; statements as to the origin of [[deity|god]]s, [[cult]]s and so forth, transmitted to us by Hellenic antiquarians such as [[Strabo]], [[Pausanias (geographer)|Pausanias]], [[Diodorus Siculus]], etc.
*'''Traces of [[Convention (philosophy and social sciences)|custom]]s, [[creed]]s, [[ritual]]s, etc'''; In the [[Aegean Sea|Aegean]] area at a later time, discordant with the civilization in which they were practised and indicating survival from earlier systems. There are also possible [[linguistics|linguistic]] and even physical survivals to be considered.
[[Mycenae]] and [[Tiryns]] are the two principal sites on which evidence of a [[prehistory|prehistoric]] [[Civilization|civilization]] was remarked long ago by the [[Classical antiquity|classical Greeks]].
==The discovery of Aegean civiliation==
The curtain-wall and towers of the Mycenaean [[citadel]], its gate with heraldic lions, and the great "Treasury of [[Atreus]]" had borne silent witness for ages before [[Heinrich Schliemann]]'s time; but they were supposed only to speak to the [[Homer|Homeric]], or at farthest a rude Heroic beginning of purely [[History of Greece|Hellenic]], civilization. It was not until Schliemann exposed the contents of the graves which lay just inside the gate, that scholars recognized the advanced stage of [[art]] to which prehistoric dwellers in the Mycenaean citadel had attained.
There had been, however, a good deal of other evidence available before [[1876]], which, had it been collated and seriously studied, might have discounted the sensation that the discovery of the citadel graves eventually made. Although it was recognized that certain tributaries, represented e.g. in the XVIIIth Dynasty tomb of Rekhmara at [[Egypt|Egyptian]] [[Thebes, Egypt|Thebes]] as bearing vases of peculiar forms, were of some [[Mediterranean]] race, neither their precise habitat nor the degree of their civilization could be determined while so few actual prehistoric remains were known in the [[Mediterranean]] lands. Nor did the [[Aegean Sea |Aegean]] objects which were lying obscurely in museums in [[1870]], or thereabouts, provide a sufficient test of the real basis underlying the Hellenic myths of the [[Argos|Argolid]], the [[Troad]] and [[Crete]], to cause these to he taken seriously. Aegean vases have been exhibited both at [[Sèvres|Sevres]] and [[Neuchâtel|Neuchatel]] since about [[1840]], the provenience (i.e. source or origin) being in the one case Phylakope in [[Milos|Melos]], in the other [[Kefallinia|Cephalonia]].
Ludwig Ross, the [[Germany|German]] [[Archaeology|archaeologist]] appointed Curator of the Antiquities of [[History of Athens|Athens]] at the time of the establishment of the Kingdom of [[Greece]], by his explorations in the Greek islands from 1835 onwards, called attention to certain early [[intaglio]]s, since known as Inselsteine; but it was not until [[1878]] that C. T. Newton demonstrated these to be no strayed [[Phoenicia|Phoenician]] products. In [[1866]] primitive structures were discovered on the island of Therasia by quarrymen extracting pozzolana, a [[Silicon dioxide|siliceous]] [[Volcanic ash|volcanic ash]], for the [[Suez Canal]] works. When this discovery was followed up in [[1870]], on the neighbouring [[Santorini|Santorin (Thera)]], by representatives of the French School at [[Athens]], much pottery of a class now known immediately to precede the typical late Aegean ware, and many stone and metal objects, were found. These were dated by the [[geologist]] Ferdinand A. Fouqué, somewhat arbitrarily, to 2000 B.C., by consideration of the superincumbent eruptive stratum.
Meanwhile, in [[1868]], tombs at Ialysus in [[Rhodes]] had yielded to Alfred Biliotti many fine painted vases of styles which were called later the third and fourth "Mycenaean"; but these, bought by [[John Ruskin]], and presented to the [[British Museum]], excited less attention than they deserved, being supposed to be of some local Asiatic fabric of uncertain date. Nor was a connection immediately detected between them and the objects found four years later in a tomb at Menidi in [[Attica]] and a rock-cut "bee-hive" grave near the Argive Heraeum.
Even Schliemann's first [[excavation]]s at Hissarlik in the [[Troad]] did not excite surprise. But the "Burnt City" of his second stratum, revealed in [[1873]], with its fortifications and vases, and a hoard of [[gold]], [[silver]] and [[bronze]] objects, which the discoverer connected with it, began to arouse a curiosity which was destined presently to spread far outside the narrow circle of scholars. As soon as Schliemann came on the Mycenae graves three years later, light poured from all sides on the prehistoric period of [[Greece]]. It was recognized that the character of both the fabric and the decoration of the Mycenae |
l>92</small>'''
|'''<small>0.281</small>'''
|'''<small>0.375</small>'''
|'''<small>0.641</small>'''
|'''<small>17</small>'''
|'''<small>4</small>'''
|'''<small>0</small>'''
|'''<small>9</small>'''
|'''<small>19</small>'''
|'''<small>434</small>'''
|'''<small>693</small>'''
|'''<small>RF</small>'''
|- align="center"
|'''<small>1960</small>'''
|'''<small>Braves</small>'''
|'''<small>26</small>'''
|'''<small>153</small>'''
|'''<small>590</small>'''
|'''<small>102</small>'''
|'''<small>172</small>'''
|'''<small>20</small>'''
|'''<small>11</small>'''
|'''<small>40</small>'''
|'''<small>6.78</small>'''
|'''<small>126</small>'''
|'''<small>60</small>'''
|'''<small>63</small>'''
|'''<small>16</small>'''
|'''<small>7</small>'''
|'''<small>0.292</small>'''
|'''<small>0.566</small>'''
|'''<small>0.352</small>'''
|'''<small>0.919</small>'''
|'''<small>119</small>'''
|'''<small>51</small>'''
|'''<small>49</small>'''
|'''<small>0.732</small>'''
|'''<small>7.22</small>'''
|'''<small>334</small>'''
|'''<small>71</small>'''
|'''<small>0.275</small>'''
|'''<small>0.392</small>'''
|'''<small>0.598</small>'''
|'''<small>13</small>'''
|'''<small>2</small>'''
|'''<small>0</small>'''
|'''<small>12</small>'''
|'''<small>8</small>'''
|'''<small>445</small>'''
|'''<small>664</small>'''
|'''<small>RF</small>'''
|- align="center" bgcolor="silver"
|'''<small>1961</small>'''
|'''<small>Braves</small>'''
|'''<small>27</small>'''
|'''<small>155</small>'''
|'''<small>603</small>'''
|'''<small>115</small>'''
|'''<small>197</small>'''
|'''<small>39</small>'''
|'''<small>10</small>'''
|'''<small>34</small>'''
|'''<small>5.64</small>'''
|'''<small>120</small>'''
|'''<small>56</small>'''
|'''<small>64</small>'''
|'''<small>21</small>'''
|'''<small>9</small>'''
|'''<small>0.327</small>'''
|'''<small>0.594</small>'''
|'''<small>0.381</small>'''
|'''<small>0.974</small>'''
|'''<small>131</small>'''
|'''<small>59</small>'''
|'''<small>35</small>'''
|'''<small>0.746</small>'''
|'''<small>8.02</small>'''
|'''<small>358</small>'''
|'''<small>83</small>'''
|'''<small>0.267</small>'''
|'''<small>0.380</small>'''
|'''<small>0.615</small>'''
|'''<small>20</small>'''
|'''<small>2</small>'''
|'''<small>1</small>'''
|'''<small>9</small>'''
|'''<small>16</small>'''
|'''<small>441</small>'''
|'''<small>671</small>'''
|'''<small>RF</small>'''
|- align="center"
|'''<small>1962</small>'''
|'''<small>Braves</small>'''
|'''<small>28</small>'''
|'''<small>156</small>'''
|'''<small>592</small>'''
|'''<small>127</small>'''
|'''<small>191</small>'''
|'''<small>28</small>'''
|'''<small>6</small>'''
|'''<small>45</small>'''
|'''<small>7.60</small>'''
|'''<small>128</small>'''
|'''<small>66</small>'''
|'''<small>73</small>'''
|'''<small>15</small>'''
|'''<small>7</small>'''
|'''<small>0.323</small>'''
|'''<small>0.618</small>'''
|'''<small>0.390</small>'''
|'''<small>1.008</small>'''
|'''<small>139</small>'''
|'''<small>64</small>'''
|'''<small>54</small>'''
|'''<small>0.752</small>'''
|'''<small>8.77</small>'''
|'''<small>366</small>'''
|'''<small>79</small>'''
|'''<small>0.296</small>'''
|'''<small>0.421</small>'''
|'''<small>0.643</small>'''
|'''<small>14</small>'''
|'''<small>3</small>'''
|'''<small>0</small>'''
|'''<small>6</small>'''
|'''<small>14</small>'''
|'''<small>428</small>'''
|'''<small>667</small>'''
|'''<small>CF</small>'''
|- align="center" bgcolor="silver"
|'''<small>1963</small>'''
|'''<small>Braves</small>'''
|'''<small>29</small>'''
|'''<small>161</small>'''
|'''<small>631</small>'''
|'''<small>121</small>'''
|'''<small>201</small>'''
|'''<small>29</small>'''
|'''<small>4</small>'''
|'''<small>44</small>'''
|'''<small>6.97</small>'''
|'''<small>130</small>'''
|'''<small>78</small>'''
|'''<small>94</small>'''
|'''<small>31</small>'''
|'''<small>5</small>'''
|'''<small>0.319</small>'''
|'''<small>0.586</small>'''
|'''<small>0.391</small>'''
|'''<small>0.977</small>'''
|'''<small>149</small>'''
|'''<small>79</small>'''
|'''<small>61</small>'''
|'''<small>0.798</small>'''
|'''<small>8.92</small>'''
|'''<small>370</small>'''
|'''<small>77</small>'''
|'''<small>0.268</small>'''
|'''<small>0.433</small>'''
|'''<small>0.648</small>'''
|'''<small>18</small>'''
|'''<small>0</small>'''
|'''<small>0</small>'''
|'''<small>5</small>'''
|'''<small>11</small>'''
|'''<small>451</small>'''
|'''<small>714</small>'''
|'''<small>RF</small>'''
|- align="center"
|'''<small>1964</small>'''
|'''<small>Braves</small>'''
|'''<small>30</small>'''
|'''<small>145</small>'''
|'''<small>570</small>'''
|'''<small>103</small>'''
|'''<small>187</small>'''
|'''<small>30</small>'''
|'''<small>2</small>'''
|'''<small>24</small>'''
|'''<small>4.21</small>'''
|'''<small>95</small>'''
|'''<small>62</small>'''
|'''<small>46</small>'''
|'''<small>22</small>'''
|'''<small>4</small>'''
|'''<small>0.328</small>'''
|'''<small>0.514</small>'''
|'''<small>0.393</small>'''
|'''<small>0.907</small>'''
|'''<small>112</small>'''
|'''<small>47</small>'''
|'''<small>36</small>'''
|'''<small>0.727</small>'''
|'''<small>7.36</small>'''
|'''<small>293</small>'''
|'''<small>56</small>'''
|'''<small>0.186</small>'''
|'''<small>0.326</small>'''
|'''<small>0.554</small>'''
|'''<small>9</small>'''
|'''<small>0</small>'''
|'''<small>0</small>'''
|'''<small>2</small>'''
|'''<small>22</small>'''
|'''<small>411</small>'''
|'''<small>634</small>'''
|'''<small>RF</small>'''
|- align="center" bgcolor="silver"
|'''<small>1965</small>'''
|'''<small>Braves</small>'''
|'''<small>31</small>'''
|'''<small>150</small>'''
|'''<small>570</small>'''
|'''<small>109</small>'''
|'''<small>181</small>'''
|'''<small>40</small>'''
|'''<small>1</small>'''
|'''<small>32</small>'''
|'''<small>5.61</small>'''
|'''<small>89</small>'''
|'''<small>60</small>'''
|'''<small>81</small>'''
|'''<small>24</small>'''
|'''<small>4</small>'''
|'''<small>0.318</small>'''
|'''<small>0.560</small>'''
|'''<small>0.379</small>'''
|'''<small>0.938</small>'''
|'''<small>121</small>'''
|'''<small>51</small>'''
|'''<small>37</small>'''
|'''<small>0.729</small>'''
|'''<small>7.85</small>'''
|'''<small>319</small>'''
|'''<small>73</small>'''
|'''<small>0.242</small>'''
|'''<small>0.382</small>'''
|'''<small>0.603</small>'''
|'''<small>10</small>'''
|'''<small>1</small>'''
|'''<small>0</small>'''
|'''<small>8</small>'''
|'''<small>15</small>'''
|'''<small>416</small>'''
|'''<small>639</small>'''
|'''<small>RF</small>'''
|- align="center"
|'''<small>1966</small>'''
|'''<small>Braves</small>'''
|'''<small>32</small>'''
|'''<small>158</small>'''
|'''<small>603</small>'''
|'''<small>117</small>'''
|'''<small>168</small>'''
|'''<small>23</small>'''
|'''<small>1</small>'''
|'''<small>44</small>'''
|'''<small>7.30</small>'''
|'''<small>127</small>'''
|'''<small>76</small>'''
|'''<small>96</small>'''
|'''<small>21</small>'''
|'''<small>3</small>'''
|'''<small> |
], [[1998]]|
passedvote4=voice vote|
signedpresident=[[Bill Clinton|Clinton]]|
signeddate=[[October 28]], [[1998]]|
amendments=None|
}}
The '''Digital Millennium Copyright Act''' ('''DMCA''') is a [[United States]] [[copyright]] [[law]]. The act criminalizes production and dissemination of technology that can [[circumvention|circumvent]] measures taken to protect copyright, not merely infringement of copyright itself, and heightens the penalties for copyright infringement on the Internet. Passed on [[May 14]], [[1998]] by a unanimous vote in the United States Senate and signed into law by President [[Bill Clinton]] on [[October 28]], [[1998]], the DMCA amended title 17 of the [[US Code]] to extend the reach of copyright, while limiting the liability of Online Providers from [[copyright infringement]] by their users.
On [[May 22]], [[2001]] the [[European Union]] passed the [[EU Copyright Directive]] or EUCD, similar in many ways to the DMCA.
==DMCA Title I: WIPO Copyright and Performances and Phonograms Treaties Implementation Act==
DMCA Title I has two major portions, one of which includes works covered by several treaties in US copy prevention laws and gave the title its name and the other which is often known as the DMCA anti-circumvention provisions. The latter implemented a broad ban on the circumvention of copy prevention systems and required that all analogue video recorders have copy prevention built in.
==DMCA Title II: Online Copyright Infringement Liability Limitation Act==
DMCA Title II, the [[Online Copyright Infringement Liability Limitation Act]], creates a [[safe harbor]] for online service providers (OSPs, including ISPs) against copyright liability if they adhere to and qualify for certain prescribed safe harbor guidelines and promptly block access if they receive a notification from a copyright holder or their agent. It also includes a counter-notification which requires restoration of the material and a provision for subpoenas to identify alleged infringers.
==DMCA Title III: Computer Maintenance Competition Assurance Act==
DMCA Title III modified [http://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/17/117.html section 117] of the copyright title so that those repairing computers could make certain temporary, limited copies while working on a computer.
==DMCA Title IV: Miscellaneous Provisions==
DMCA Title IV contains an assortment of provisions:
*Clarified and added to the duties of the Copyright Office.
*Added ephemeral copy for broadcasters provisions, including certain [[statutory license]]s.
*Added provisions to facilitate distance education.
*Added provisions to assist libraries with keeping copies of sound recordings.
*Added provisions relating to collective bargaining and the transfer of movie rights.
==DMCA Title V: Vessel Hull Design Protection Act==
DMCA Title V added sections [http://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/17/1301.html 1301] through [http://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/17/1332.html 1332] to add protection for boat hull designs.
As useful articles whose form cannot be cleanly separated from their function, boat hull designs were formerly not protected under copyright law.
==Reform==
There are efforts in Congress to modify the Act. [[Rick Boucher]], a Democratic congressman from Virginia, is leading one of these efforts by introducing the [[DMCRA|Digital Media Consumers&#8217; Rights Act]] (DMCRA).
A prominent bill related to the DMCA is the [[Consumer Broadband and Digital Television Promotion Act]] (CBDTPA), known in early drafts as the Security Systems and Standards Certification Act (SSSCA). This bill, if it were passed, would have dealt with the devices used to access digital content and would have been even more restrictive than the DMCA.
==See also==
*Benefit Authors without Limiting Advancement or Net Consumer Expectations ([[H.R. 1066|BALANCE]]) Act of 2003
*The "No Electronic Theft" ([[NET Act|NET]]) Act
*The "Inducing Infringement of Copyrights Act" ([[Inducing Infringement of Copyrights Act|INDUCE]]) Act
*[[Pirate Act]]
*''[[Chamberlain v. Skylink]]''
*''[[Universal v. Reimerdes]]''
*Digital Media Consumers' Rights Act ([[DMCRA]])
*[[Dmitri Sklyarov]]
*[[Digital Transition Content Security Act]]
*[[Eric Bauman]]
==External links==
*[http://www.copyright.gov/legislation/dmca.pdf U.S. Copyright Office Summary of the DMCA]
*[http://www.loc.gov/copyright/title17/ Copyright Law of the United States of America (Library of Congress)]
*[http://www.anti-dmca.org The Anti-DMCA Website]
*[http://www.tuxers.net/dmca/ DMCA Information]
*[http://www.eff.org/IP/DMCA/ EFF: DMCA Archive]
*[http://www.google.com/dmca.html Google's DMCA policy]
*[http://www.house.gov/boucher/ Rep. Rick Boucher's website]
*[http://thomas.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/z?c105:H.R.2281: Text of the DMCA]
*[http://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/17/ Title 17 of the U.S. Code]
*[http://www.senate.gov/legislative/LIS/roll_call_lists/roll_call_vote_cfm.cfm?congress=105&session=2&vote=00137 Senate DMCA Vote by Senator Name, Vote Position, and Home State (U.S. Senate Roll Call Votes - 105th Congress - 2nd Session - Vote 137)]
* [http://www.cybertelecom.org/ip/dmca.htm Cybertelecom's DMCA Information and Background Material]
* [http://www.usenet-replayer.com/dmca/ Example of a fully automatic DMCA user interface of a ISP]
* [http://www.andrew.cmu.edu/user/twm/embed/dmca.html DMCA legal threats to a software developer who won, good read]
[[Category:1998 in law]]
[[Category:Computer law]]
[[Category:United States copyright law]]
[[Category:United States intellectual property law]]
[[de:Digital Millennium Copyright Act]]
[[fr:Digital Millennium Copyright Act]]
[[ja:デジタルミレニアム著作権法]]
[[pl:DMCA]]
[[fi:Digital Millennium Copyright Act]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Demon</title>
<id>8280</id>
<revision>
<id>41790109</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T19:45:30Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Syrthiss</username>
<id>334792</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/63.147.48.242|63.147.48.242]] ([[User talk:63.147.48.242|talk]]) to last version by El C</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses|Demon}}
[[Image:Schongauer Anthony.jpg|thumb|right|250px|[[Anthony_the_Great|St. Anthony]] plagued by demons, as imagined by [[Martin Schongauer]], in the 1480s]]
In [[religion]], [[folklore]], and [[mythology]] a '''demon''' or '''demoness''' is a [[supernatural]] being that has generally been described as a malevolent [[spirit]], or [[Daemon (mythology)|daemon]] and [[djinn]]. A demon is frequently depicted as a force that may be [[conjury|conjured]] and insecurely [[control]]led. The "good" demon in recent use is largely a literary device (eg: [[Maxwell's demon]]). In common language, "demonizing" one's opponent is an aspersion.
As the [[Iranian]] [[Avestan]] and [[Vedic religion|Vedic]] traditions and also other branches of [[Indo-European religion|Indo-European mythologies]] show, the notion of demon has existed for many centuries.
The [[Greek language|Greek]] conception of a ''[[Daemon (mythology)|daemon]]'' (&#948;&#945;&#943;&#956;&omega;&#957;) appears in the works of [[Plato]] and many other ancient authors, but without the evil connotations which are apparent in the [[Septuagint]] translation of the [[Hebrew Bible]] and in the Greek originals of the [[New Testament]]. The [[medieval]] and neo-medieval conception of a "demon" in Western civilization (see the Medieval [[grimoire]] called the ''[[Ars Goetia]]'') derives seamlessly from the ambient popular culture of Late (Roman) Antiquity: Greco-Roman concepts of ''daemons'' that passed into Christian culture are discussed in the entry [[Daemon (mythology)|daemon]].The Hellenistic "Demon" eventually came to include many Semitic and Near Eastern gods as evaluated by Christianity.
In some present-day cultures, demons are still feared in popular [[superstition]], largely due to their alleged power to [[demonic possession|possess]] humans, and they are an important concept in many modern religions and occultist traditions.
In the contemporary Western occultist tradition (perhaps epitomized by the work of [[Aleister Crowley]]) a demon, such as [[Choronzon]], the "Demon of the Abyss", is a useful metaphor for certain inner psychological processes, though some may also regard it as an objectively real phenomenon.
==Etymology==
The idea of demons is as old as religion itself, and the word "demon" seems to have ancient origins. The Merriam-Webster dictionary gives the etymology of the word as Greek ''daimon,'' probably from the verb ''daiesthai'' meaning "to divide, distribute." The [[Proto-Indo-European language|Proto-Indo-European]] root *''deiwos'' for god, originally an adjective meaning "[[celestial]]" or "bright, shining" has retained this meaning in many related [[Indo-European]] languages and cultures (Sanskrit [[deva deity|deva]], Latin deus, German [[Tiw]]), but also provided another other common word for demon in Avestan [[daeva]].
In modern greek, the word 'δαίμων', is the greek word for demon. But, in ancient greek, the word "δαίμων" means somebody very clever.
==Demons in the Hebrew Bible==
Demons as described in the [[Tanakh]] are not the same as "demons" commonly known in popular or Christian culture.
The demons mentioned in the [[Hebrew Bible]] are of two classes, the ''[[se'irim]]'' and the ''shedim''. The ''se'irim'' ("hairy beings"), to which some [[Israelite]]s offered sacrifices in the open fields, are [[satyr]]-like creatures, described as dancing in the wilderness (Isaiah xiii. 21, xxxiv. 14), and which are identical with the ''[[jinn]]''. (But compare the completely European [[woodwose]].) Possibly to the same class belongs [[Azazel]], the goa |
th/factorial/FastFactorialFunctions.htm ''The Homepage of Factorial Algorithms''].
==External links==
* [http://membres.lycos.fr/rsirdey/facttabl.htm table of 2! - 256! (exact)]
* http://factorielle.free.fr
* [http://home.earthlink.net/~mrob/pub/math/largenum-2.html The Dictionary of Large Numbers]
[[Category:Combinatorics]]
[[Category:Number theory]]
[[Category:Gamma and related functions]]
[[ar:عاملي]]
[[bg:Факториел]]
[[ca:Factorial]]
[[cs:Faktoriál]]
[[da:Fakultet (matematik)]]
[[de:Fakultät (Mathematik)]]
[[et:Faktoriaal]]
[[es:Factorial]]
[[eo:Faktorialo]]
[[fr:Factorielle]]
[[gl:Factorial]]
[[ko:계승]]
[[io:Faktorialo]]
[[id:Faktorial]]
[[is:Aðfeldi]]
[[it:Fattoriale]]
[[he:עצרת]]
[[lt:Faktorialas]]
[[nl:Faculteit (wiskunde)]]
[[ja:階乗]]
[[no:Fakultet (matematikk)]]
[[pl:Silnia]]
[[pt:Factorial]]
[[ru:Факториал]]
[[scn:Fatturiali]]
[[sl:Fakulteta (funkcija)]]
[[fi:Kertoma]]
[[sv:Fakultet (matematik)]]
[[th:แฟกทอเรียล]]
[[uk:Факторіал]]
[[zh:階乘]]</text>
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<title>Film History/Russia</title>
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<title>Cinema of Germany</title>
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<comment>/* See also */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{EuropeanCinema}}
When the [[film]] industry first flowered in the period from [[1900]] to [[1915]], it took hold in [[Europe]] as well as [[United States|America]]. But [[World War I]] shattered the economies of the [[Continental Europe|European continent]] and stunted the growth of the industry there, allowing [[Hollywood]] to gain a dominance in the [[film industry]] that has never been overtaken.
The story of [[Germany|German]] [[film|cinema]] in particular began in the period following World War I, as [[Germany]] slowly recovered from the horrors of [[war]]. Movies were a popular escape into [[fantasy]] for many people, and the film industry boomed. The boom was helped by the low and sinking value of the Mark against other Western currencies. This enabled film makers to borrow and repay the money in the same amount of Marks which by then had been devalued. Nevertheless German filmmakers could not afford to create high-budget films. The need for low budgets, combined with a desire to move forward and embrace the [[future]] that swept most of Europe at the time, led to the rise of [[German Expressionism]]: movies that relied heavily on [[symbolism]] and artistic [[imagery]] rather than stark [[realism (arts)|realism]] to tell their stories. The film usually credited with sparking the popularity of [[expressionism]] is ''[[The Cabinet of Dr. Caligari]]'' ([[1919 in film|1919]]), which is still studied by [[film theory|film scholar]]s today. It painted a picture on the cinema screen with wild, non-realistic sets built with overexagerrated [[geometry]], images painted on the floors and walls to represent objects (and often [[light]] and [[shadow]]), and a story involving the dark [[hallucination]]s of an [[insane]] man. The [[Expressionism (film)|Expressionist movement]] died down during the mid-[[1920s in film|1920s]], but it continued to influence cinema for years after. Please see the main article on [[German Expressionism]] for a more in-depth explanation of the movement and style.
The film conglomerate ''[[Universum Film AG|Universum Film A.G.]]'' (better known as Ufa) was founded on behalf of the German government before the end of World War I to produce pro-war films, though after the war ended it grew to prominence with the success of German cinema in the 1920s. It produced a number of lavish, [[surrealism|surreal]] spectacles, the most famous of which is [[Fritz Lang]]'s ''[[Metropolis (1927 movie)|Metropolis]]''. Other noted Ufa films include ''Madame Dubary'' (1919), Lang's epic production of ''[[Die Nibelungen]]'', and [[F.W. Murnau|F.W. Murnau's]] ''[[The Last Laugh]]'' ([[1925 in film|1925]]). Ufa overextended its budgets in the mid-1920s and had to declare [[bankruptcy]]; they signed an agreement with [[Paramount Pictures]] that relegated the studio to a lesser role.
The rise of the [[Nazi]] party in the [[1930s in film|1930s]] sparked an abrupt change in German cinema. Several prominent German directors [[emigration|emigrated]] (or fled) to [[United States|America]], bringing their substantial talents to bear in [[Hollywood]] and having a major influence in American film as a result. The [[Universal Studios]] [[horror film]]s of the 1930s were directed by German emigree [[filmmaker]]s, including [[Karl Freund]], while Hungarian-born [[Film director|director]] [[Michael Curtiz]] came from Germany to become a top [[Warner Bros.]] director. Fritz Lang's exodus to America is legendary; it is said that ''Metropolis'' so greatly impressed [[Joseph Goebbels]] that he asked Lang to become the head of his [[propaganda]] film unit. Lang chose to flee to America instead, where he had a long and prosperous [[career]]. Directors [[Edgar Ulmer]] and [[Douglas Sirk]] also emigrated from Nazi Germany to Hollywood success.
The flight of many talented German filmmakers, combined with a new era of [[censorship]] and control over the German film industry, has made German cinema of the Nazi era infamous for its contributions to the field of propaganda. [[Leni Riefenstahl]], perhaps the most famous and talented of all propaganda filmmakers, enjoyed a prosperous career during this period. She produced a number of motion pictures, though her two most famous are her documentaries ''[[Olympia (film)|Olympia]]'' ([[1936 in film|1936]]) and especially ''[[Triumph of the Will]]'' ([[1935 in film|1935]]).
The German film industry collapsed, along with that of most of Continental Europe, with the [[Battle of Berlin|defeat of Germany]] in [[1945 in film|1945]]. Germany was especially hard hit, and its film industry suffered a severe decline that lasted for over twenty-five years, as Europe was flooded with American films and European filmmaking talents were swiftly discovered and enticed into coming to America. European films slowly recovered and evolved in different ways (''[[Italian neorealism]]'' was a product of the post-[[World War II]] era), though Germany's film industry foundered. The advent of [[television]] further sapped at Germany's film talent, and the period of the [[1960s in film|1960s]] saw it at its lowest level, producing little more than low-budget [[pornographic film]]s that were barely worth mentioning. The East German film industry was all done through the government sponsored organization called [[DEFA]]. All DEFA films were subject to government approval, and because of this, many films, especially those released soon after the end of World War II, had anti-fascist messages. During this period immediately following the war, films were being produced by those who were children during the Nazi regime, and witnessed it firsthand.
But German film did stage a recovery during the late 1960s into the [[1970s in film|1970s]], with the emergence of a new generation of directors. Working with low budgets, and influenced by the maverick Hollywood directors of the [[Vietnam War]] era, such directors as [[Rainer Werner Fassbinder]], [[Werner Herzog]], [[Volker Schlöndorff]] and [[Wim Wenders]] made names for themselves and produced a number of "small" motion pictures that caught the attention of the [[Art film|art house]] crowd, and enabled these directors (particularly Wenders and Schlöndorff) into better-financed productions which were backed by the [[Film studio|big US studios]]. Their success sparked a renaissance in German films which may not have returned the country to the glory days of the ''UFA'', but did bring the film industry back to Germany and encouraged other German filmmakers to make quality movies. In [[1981 in film|1981 |
[[flower]]s, bees produce [[honey]], which is a clear liquid consisting of nearly 80% water with complex sugars. The collecting bees store the nectar in a second [[stomach]] and return to the hive where worker bees remove the nectar. The worker bees digest the raw nectar for about 30 minutes using [[enzyme]]s to break up the complex sugars into simpler ones. Raw honey is then spread out in empty honeycomb cells to dry, which reduces the water content to less than 20%. When nectar is being processed, honeybees create a [[ventilation|draft]] through the hive by fanning with their [[wing]]s. Once dried, the cells of the honeycomb are sealed (capped) with wax to preserve the honey.
When a hive detects smoke, many bees become remarkably non aggressive. It is speculated that this is a defense mechanism; wild colonies generally live in hollow trees, and when bees detect smoke it is presumed that they prepare to evacuate from a forest fire, carrying as much food reserve as they can. In this state, defense from predation is relatively unimportant; saving as much as possible is the most important activity.
=== Honeybee Queens===
Periodically, the colony determines that a new queen is needed. There are three general triggers.
# The colony becomes space-constrained because the hive is filled with honey, leaving little room for new eggs. This will trigger a swarm where the old queen will take about half the worker bees to found a new colony, leaving the new queen with the other half of worker bees to continue the old colony.
# The old queen begins to fail. This is thought to be recognized by a decrease in queen pheremones throughout the hive. This situation is called [[supersedure]]. At the end of the supersedure, the old queen is generally killed.
# The old queen dies suddenly. This is an emergency [[supersedure]]. The worker bees will find several eggs or larvae in the right age-range and attempt to develop them into queens. Emergency supersedure can generally be recognized because the queen cell is built out from a regular cell of the comb rather than hanging from the bottom of a frame.
Regardless of the trigger, the workers develop the larvae into queens by continuing to feed them royal jelly. This triggers an extended development as a pupa.
When the virgin queen emerges, she is commonly thought to seek out other queen cells and sting the infant queens within and that should two queens emerge simultaneously, they will fight to the death. Recent studies, however, have indicated that colonies may maintain two queens in as many as 10% of hives. The mechanism by which this occurs is not yet known. Regardless, the queen asserts her control over the worker bees through the release of a complex suite of pheremons called queen scent.
After several days of orientation within and around the hive, the young queen flies to a drone congregation point - a site near a clearing and generally about 30 feet above the ground where the drones from different hives tend to congregate. Drones find the queen by site and mate with her in midair. After mating, the drone dies. A queen will mate multiple times and may return several days in a row, weather permitting, until her spermathrecea <!--spelling?--> is full.
The queen lays all the eggs in a healthy colony. The number and pace of egg-laying is controlled by weather and availability of resources and by the characteristics of the specific race of honeybee. Honeybees queens generally begin to slow egg-laying in the early-fall and may even stop during the winter. Egg-laying will generally resume in late winter as soon as the days begin to get longer. Egg-laying generally peaks in the spring. At the height of the season, she may lay over 2500 eggs per day - more than her own body mass.
The queen fertilizes each egg as it is being laid using stored sperm from the spermathrecea. The queen will occasionally not fertilize an egg. These eggs, having only half as many genes as the queen or the workers, develop into drones.
===Honeybee pheromones===
Honeybees use [[pheromone (honey bee)|special pheromones]], or chemical communication, for almost all behaviors of life. Such uses include (but are not limited to): [[mating]], alarm, [[Self-defense|defense]], orientation, [[kin]] and [[colony]] recognition, food production, and integration of colony activities. Pheromones are thus essential to honeybees for their survival.
==Solitary and communal bees==
Other species of bee such as the [[carpenter bee]], Orchard [[Mason bee]] (''Osmia lignaria'') and the [[hornfaced bee]] (''Osmia cornifrons'') are solitary in the sense that every female is fertile. There are no ''worker'' bees for these species. Solitary bees typically produce neither honey nor [[beeswax]]. They are immune from [[acarine]] and [[varroa]] [[mite]]s, but have their own unique [[parasite]]s, [[Pest (animal)|pest]]s and [[disease]]s. (See [[diseases of the honeybee]].)
Solitary bees are important pollinators, as pollen is gathered for provisioning the nests with food for their brood. Often it is mixed with nectar to form a paste-like consistency. Many solitary bees have very advanced types of pollen carry structures on their bodies. Most solitary bees are wild, with a few species being increasingly cultured for pollination.
Solitary bees are often specialists, in that they only visit one or more species of plant (unlike honeybees and bumblebees which are generalists). In some cases only one species of bee can pollinate a [[plant]] species, and some plants are [[endangered species|endangered]] because their pollinator is [[pollinator decline|dying off]].
Solitary bees create nests in hollow [[reed]]s, bored holes in [[wood]], or in tunnels in the ground. The female typically creates a compartment with an egg and some provisions for the resulting larva, then seals it off. A nest may consist of numerous compartments, usually the last (the closest to the entrance) being eggs that will become males. The adult does not care for the brood, and usually dies after making one or more nests. The males emerge first and are ready for mating when the females emerge. Providing nest boxes for solitary bees is increasingly popular for [[gardener]]s. Solitary bees are usually stingless or very unlikely to sting.
While solitary females each make individual nests, some species are gregarious, preferring to make nests near others of the same species, giving the appearance to the causual observer that they are social.
==Cleptoparasitic bees==
Cleptoparasitic bees, commonly referred to as "cuckoo bees" because their behavior is similar to that of cuckoo birds, occur in several bee families. Females of these bees lack pollen-collecting structures and do not construct their own nests. Rather, they enter the nests of pollen-collecting species, and lay their eggs in cells already provisioned by the host bee. When the cuckoo bee larva hatches, it consumes the host larva's pollen ball, and sometimes the host larva itself.
Some cleptoparasitic bees are closely related to, and resemble, their hosts (i.e., the genus Psithyrus, which is a nest parasite of bumble bees in the genus Bombus). Others parasitize dissimilar bees in different families, like Townsendiella, a nomadine anthophorid which is a nest parasite of the melittid Hesperapis.
''See also [[Kleptoparasitism]]
==Learning and Communication==
:"The general story of the communication of the distance, the situation, and the direction of a food source by the dances of the returning (honeybee) worker bee on the vertical comb of the hive, has been known in general outline from the work of [[Karl von Frisch]] in the middle 1950s."
For a discussion of bees' cognition, response to training, varieties of dance, and use of odors, see ''[[Bee learning and communication]]''.
==Miscellaneous==
Bees figure more prominently in myth than any other insect. See [[Bee (mythology)]].
Bees are the favorite meal of ''[[Bee-eater|Merops apiaster]]'', a bird. Other common [[predator]]s are [[kingbird]]s, [[mockingbird]]s, and [[dragonfly|dragonflies]].
Bee stings have also been reputed to help alleviate the associated symptoms of [[Multiple sclerosis]], [[arthritis]], and other [[autoimmune]] diseases. This is an area of ongoing research.
Honey is so sweet that [[bacterium|bacteria]] cannot grow on it, and dry enough that it does not support [[yeast]]s. [[Anaerobic bacteria]] may be present and survive in ''[[spore]]'' form in honey, however, as well as anywhere else in common environments. Honey (or any other sweetener) which is diluted by the non-acidic digestive fluids of [[infant]]s, can support the transition of [[botulism]] bacteria from the spore form to the actively growing form which produces a [[toxin]]. When infants are weaned to solid foods, their [[digestive system]] becomes [[acid]]ic enough to prevent such growth and [[poison]]ing. No sweeteners should be given to infants prior to [[weaning]].
<gallery>
Image:Bees-wings.web.jpg|Bee's wings
Image:Bee mid air.jpg|Bee flying
Image:Bee taking off.jpg|Bee Taking off from flowers
Image:Bee on dandelion.JPG|A bee on a dandelion
Image:Bee flying to almond flower.jpg|Bee flying to [[almond]] flower
Image:Bee landing on rosemary02.jpg|Bee landing on rosemary bush
Image:Bee landing on rosemary.jpg|Bee landing on rosemary bush
Image:Rosemary with bee landing02.jpg|Bee landing on rosemary bush
</gallery>
==See also==
{{Commons|Apis mellifica}}
*[[Africanized bee]]
*[[Bee anatomy (mouth)]]
*[[Bee learning and communication]]
*[[Beekeeping]]
*[[Bee sting therapy]]
*[[Characteristics of common wasps and bees]]
*[[Honeybee]]
*[[Honeybee life cycle]]
*[[Western honeybee]]
*[[Maya the Bee]]
==External links and references==
*''Bees of the World'', C. D. Michener (200)
* [http://www.bwars.com/ Bees, Wasps and Ants Recording Society] (UK)
* [http://gears.tucson.ars.ag.gov Carl Hayden Bee Research Ce |
ctual reversal and subsequent [[bear market]] may have been triggered by the adverse [[findings of fact]] in the [[United States v. Microsoft]] case in the US. The findings, which declared [[Microsoft]] a [[monopoly]], were widely expected in the weeks before their release on [[April 3]].
[[Image:NASDAQ IXIC - dot-com bubble small.png|center|frame|The technology-heavy [[NASDAQ]] Composite index peaked in March 2000, reflecting the high point of the dot-com bubble.]]
Another reason may have been accelerated business spending in preparation for the [[Year 2000 problem|Y2K]] switchover. Once New Year had passed without incident, businesses found themselves with all the equipment they needed for some time and business spending dried up. This correlates quite closely to the peak of U.S. stock markets. The [[Dow Jones Industrial Average|Dow Jones]] peaked in [[January 2000]] and the Nasdaq in [[March 2000]]. Hiring freezes, layoffs, and consolidations followed in several industries, especially in the dot-com.
By [[2001]], the bubble's deflation was running full speed. A majority of the dot-coms have now ceased trading, after having burnt through their [[venture capital]], often without ever making a gross [[profit]], thereby becoming ''[[dot-compost]]''.
==Aftermath==
On [[January 11]], [[2000]], [[Time Warner]], the world's largest media company, was acquired by [[America Online]], a favorite of dot-com investors and pioneer of dial-up internet access. Within two years, boardroom disagreements drove out both of the [[chief executive officer|CEO]]s who made the deal, and in [[October]] [[2003]] AOL Time Warner dropped "AOL" from its name. The acquisition thus became a symbol of the dot-coms' challenge to "old economy" companies and the old economy's ultimate survival. The revolutionary optimism of the boom faded, and analysts once again recognized the relevance of traditional business thinking.
Several communication companies, burdened with unredeemable debts from their expansion projects, sold their assets for cash or filed for [[bankruptcy]]. [[WorldCom]], the largest of these, was found to have used accounting devices to overstate its profits by billions of dollars. The company's stock crashed when these irregularities were revealed, and within days it filed the largest corporate bankruptcy in US history. Other examples include [[NorthPoint Communications]], [[Global Crossing]], [[JDS Uniphase]], [[XO Communications]], and [[Covad Communications]]. Demand for the new high-speed infrastructure never materialized, and it became [[dark fiber]]. Some analysts believe that there is so much dark fiber worldwide that only a small percentage of it will be "lit" in the decades to come.
One by one, dot-coms ran out of capital and were acquired or [[liquidation|liquidated]]; the domain names were picked up by old-economy competitors or domain name investors. Several companies were accused or convicted of [[fraud]] for misusing shareholders' money, and the [[U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission]] fined top investment firms like [[Citigroup]] and [[Merrill Lynch]] millions of dollars for misleading investors. Various supporting industries, such as advertising and shipping, scaled back their operations as demand for their services fell. A few dot-com companies, such as [[Amazon.com]] and [[eBay]], survived the turmoil and appear to have a good chance of long-term survival.
Technology experts such as computer programmers who were laid off found a glutted job market. This was exacerbated by the business trend of [[international outsourcing]] and the recently allowed increase of skilled visa "guest workers" such as those participating in the controversial US [[H-1B visa]] program. University degree programs for computer-related careers saw a noticeable drop in new students. Anecdotes of unemployed programmers going back to school to become accountants or lawyers were common.
==List of well-known dot-coms==
===Successful===
*[[Amazon.com]]
*[[eBay]]
*[[Google]]
*[[MSN]]
*[[PayPal]] (now a subsidiary of eBay)
*[[Priceline.com]]
*[[Yahoo!]]
*[[Netflix]]
===Failed===
:''For more comprehensive listing of failed dot-coms, see [[List of commercial failures#Internet dot-bombs|here]]''
*[[Boo.com]]
*[[eToys]]
*[[Excite@Home]]
*[[Kozmo.com]]
*[[Pets.com]]
*[[Webvan]]
*[[Freeinternet.com]] - The 5th largest [[ISP]] and famous for its mascot "[[Baby Bob]]", the company went bankrupt in 2000. Baby Bob was later sold to [[Quiznos Sub]]. [http://www.internetnews.com/xSP/article.php/435691] [http://www.addlebrain.com/articles/freei.html]
==See also==
===Terminology===
*[[Bankruptcy]]
*[[Digital Revolution]]
*[[E-commerce]]
*[[Irrational exuberance (finance)]]
*[[The South Sea Company]]
*[[Stock market boom]]
*[[Spin-off]]
*[[Stock market bubble]]
*[[Tulip mania]]
*[[Techno-utopianism]]
*[[Technology hype]]
*[[GAMEY]]
===Media===
*[[e-Dreams]]
*[[SatireWire]]
*[[StartUp.com]]
===Venture Capital===
*[[List of venture capital firms]]
==External links==
*[http://www.stock-market-crash.net/nasdaq.htm The Nasdaq Stock Market Crash] - Learn about the spectacular rise and downfall of the Nasdaq.
*[http://www.guardian.co.uk/online/story/0,3605,1433697,00.html Looking back on the crash] - 5 years on, the Guardian sums up
*[http://www.cnet.com/4520-11136_1-6278387-1.html?tag=cnetfd.sd Top 10 dot-com flops] - CNet's list of ten most notable failed dot-com companies
*[http://www.geocities.com/dbdoggle Tech Rip-off HowTo] - Techniques for Wanna-be Dot Com Millionaires
*[http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/tg/detail/-/0743411218 Silicon Follies] - Dot-com lifestyles
[[Category:Digital Revolution]]
[[Category:Dot-com|Dot-com]]
[[Category:Economic bubbles]]
[[Category:Electronic commerce]]
[[Category:Information technology management]]
[[Category:Internet terminology]]
[[da:Dot com]]
[[fr:Bulle Internet]]
[[ja:インターネット・バブル]]
[[pt:Dot-com]]
[[ru:Дотком]]
[[fi:IT-kupla]]</text>
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<title>Dotcom</title>
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<title>Discounted cash flow</title>
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<username>Smallbones</username>
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</contributor>
<comment>/* External links */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">In [[finance]], a '''discounted cash flow''' or DCF is the value of a cash flow adjusted for the [[time value of money]]. The nominal values of two cash flows in different time periods cannot be directly compared because the preference of most people for consumption sooner rather than later, and because of the [[opportunity cost]] of forgoing an interest earning investment. Establishing which interest rate or [[discount|discount rate]] to use can sometimes prove to be a very complicated task.
==Math==
The discounted cash flow is expressed as
<math>DCF = \left (\frac{1}{(1+d)^n}\right) * CF</math>
future receipts;
* ''d'' is the discount rate, which is
==History==
Discounted cash flow calculations have been used in some form since money was first lent at interest in ancient times. As a method of asset valuation it has often been opposed to accounting book value, which is based on the amount paid for the asset. Following the stock market crash of 1929, discounted cash flow analysis gain popularity as a valuation method for stocks. [[Irving Fisher]] in his 1930 book "The Theory of Interest" and [[John Burr Williams]]'s 1938 text '[[The Theory of Investment Value]]' first formally expressed the DCF method in modern economic terms.
==See also==
* [[Adjusted present value]]
* [[Capital budgeting]]
* [[Economic value added]]
* [[Flow to equity]]
* [[Net present value]]
==External links==
*[http://www.disklectures.com/freebies.php Disk Lectures], Discounted Cash Flow audio lecture with slideshow
*[http://www.in-the-money.com/pages/author.htm Great Moments in Financial Economics]
*[http://www.econlib.org/library/YPDBooks/Fisher/fshToI.html <i>The Theory of Interest </i>] at the [http://www.econlib.org/index.html Library of Economics and Liberty].
[[category:Basic financial concepts]]
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</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>List of deities</title>
<id>9025</id>
<revision>
<id>41957016</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T21:48:45Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Juzeris</username>
<id>106063</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* [[Latvian mythology|Latvian]] */ removed names that have nothing to do with Latvian mythology, fixed spelling, added more notable deities</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">This '''list of deities''' aims to give information about [[deity|deities]] in the different religions, cultures and mythologies of the world. It is sorted alphabetically.
There are also lists of deities by type; see the articles [[death deity]], [[household deity]], [[lunar deity]], and [[solar deity]].
See also: [[List of fictional deities]], [[List of people considered to be deities]]
Related articles include [[Deva]], [[Demigod]], [[Divinity]], [[God]], [[God (male deity)]], [[Goddess]], [[Mythology]], [[Religion]], [[Scripture]].
== [[Abenaki]] ==
*[[Azeban]] - [[trickster]]
*[[Bmola]] - [[bird]] spirit
*[[Gluskab]] - kind protector of humanity
*[[Malsumis]] - cruel, evil god
*[[Tabaldak]] - the creator
== [[Africa]]n ==
*[[Jeebo]]
*[[Jengu]]
*[[Mami Wata]]
*[[Waaq]]
== [[Anglo-Saxon mythology|Anglo-Saxon]] ==
*[[Woden|Wóden]]
*[[Frige|Fríge] |
erte ce soir]]'' by [[Pierre Klossowski]]
*''[[Sanctuary]]''
*''[[Sermons and Soda-Water]]'' by [[John O'Hara]]
*''[[She Might Have Been Queen]]'' by Geoffrey Bocca
*''[[Social Aspects of Disease]]'' by A. Leslie Banks
*[[Spanish Crossword Puzzle Book]]
*''[[In Search of Lost Time|Swann's Way]]'' by [[Marcel Proust]]
*''[[Sweet Danger]]'' by Margaret Allingham
*''[[Tales of Mystery & Imagination]]'' by [[Edgar Allen Poe]]
*''[[The Bodley Head]]''
*''[[The Castle on the Hill]]'' by [[Elizabeth Goudge]]
*''[[The Defeat of the Spanish Armada]]'' by [[Garrett Mattingly]]
*''[[Nicomachean Ethics|The Ethics]]'' by [[Aristotle]]
*''[[The Evil of the Day]]'' by Thomas Sterling
*''[[The Ginger Man]]'' by [[J. P. Donleavy]]
*''[[The Good Soldier Schweik]]'' by [[Jaroslav Hašek]]
*''[[The Happy Prisoner]]'' by [[Monica Dickens]]
*''[[The History of Torture]]''
*''[[The House of the Arrow]]'' by [[A. E. W. Mason]]
*''[[The Jason Murders]]'' by John Newton Chance
*''[[The Jewish Question]]'' by [[Jean-Paul Sartre]]
*''[[The Moon & Sixpence]]'' by [[W. Somerset Maugham]]
*''[[The Mystery of Jack the Ripper]]'' by Leonard Matters
*''[[The Owls' House]]'' by Crosbie Garstin
*''[[The Picture of Dorian Gray]]'' by [[Oscar Wilde]]
*''[[The Pilgrim's Progress]]'' by [[John Bunyan]]
*''[[The Prince]]'' by [[Niccolò Machiavelli]]
*''[[The Sittaford Mystery]]''
*''[[The Thief's Journal]]'' by Jean Genet
*[[The Voyage of the Dawn Treader|''The Voyage of the'' Dawn Treader]] by [[C.S. Lewis]]
*''[[The Walrus and the Carpenter]]'' by [[Lewis Carroll]]
*''[[The Weather]]'' by George Kimble & Raymond Bush
*''[[The White Friday Murders]]''
*''[[The White Priory Murders]]''
*''[[The World of Salvador Dali]]'' by Robert Descharnes
*''[[Their London Cousins]]'' by Lydia M. Middleton
*''[[Vanity Fair]]'' by [[William Makepeace Thackeray]]
*''[[Waiting for Godot]]'' by [[Samuel Beckett]]
*''[[Weir of Hermiston]]'' by [[Robert Louis Stevenson]]
*''[[We're Still Using That Greasy MAD Stuff]]'' (a MAD Magazine book)
*''[[Wreck of the Running Gate]]''
*''[[Zazie dans le Métro]]'' by Raymond Queneau
There are plans for a [[remake]] in [[2006]], directed by [[Frank Darabont]].
In addition to the movies, there have been at least two [[BBC Radio 4]] dramatisations, both of which follow the book very closely.
==Influence on popular culture==
The title of Bradbury's book has become a well-known byword amongst those who oppose [[censorship]], in much the way [[George Orwell]]'s ''[[Nineteen Eighty-Four|1984]]'' has (although not to the same extent). As such, it has been alluded to in dozens of later contexts, amongst them the [[American Civil Liberties Union|ACLU]]'s 1997 whitepaper ''Fahrenheit 451.2: Is Cyberspace Burning?'' and [[Michael Moore]]'s [[2004]] film ''[[Fahrenheit 9/11]]'' (Bradbury objected to its allusion of his work [http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/news/archive/2004/06/18/entertainment2219EDT0805.DTL]).
The movie ''[[Equilibrium (2002 movie)|Equilibrium]]'', starring [[Christian Bale]] and [[Sean Bean]], draws heavily from ''Fahrenheit 451'', as well as ''[[Nineteen Eighty-Four|1984]]'' and ''[[Brave New World]]''. The most notable is the overall plot; Both Montag and Equilibrium's main character, John Preston, are enforcers of the law in the near future where literature is a crime, start to experiance illegal emotions after they come into contact with females who have broken the law. They eventually both are hunted for treason.
The [[computer and video games|computer game]] ''[[StarCraft]]'' features a [[flamethrower]]-wielding character named "Gui Montag".
In [[1984]] a ''Fahrenheit 451'' video game was made for the [[C64]] and the [[Apple II]] computers.
In the show ''The Famous Jett Jackson'', the episode "Saving Mr. Dupree" centered around the banning of the book.
The [[Looking Glass Studios]] computer game ''[[System Shock]]'' uses 451 as the first keypad code. The [[Irrational Games]]-developed sequel, ''[[System Shock 2]]'' uses 451 as part of a code twice, both times with numbers added to make the codes 5 digits. The [[Ion Storm|Ion Storm Dallas]] computer game ''[[Deus Ex]]'' uses 0451 as an early keycode, as "an allusion to ''System Shock's'' allusion to ''Fahrenheit 451''". Looking Glass Studios also used 451 for the security keypad to their main offices [http://www.deusex-machina.com/articles/makingofdeusex.asp].
The [[Origin Systems]] computer game [[Crusader (computer game)|''Crusader: No Regret'']] uses 451 as a keypad code for a safe. A nearby terminal gives a clue: "the temperature at which paper burns".
Artist [[Micah Wright]] used the theme 'Hand all books to your local fireman for safe disposal' overlayed on a 1940s fireman propaganda poster.
The website www.enclothe.com sells a t-shirt titled "451" that portrays two "firemen."
==Accuracy as a vision of the future==
Several aspects of the fictional future depicted in the novel have become reality in the late 20th and early 21st century:
*There are now live television broadcasts of police pursuits of fugitives, aided by helicopter-mounted cameras and supplemented by voice-over commentary by announcers.
*"Seashell radios" closely resemble portable [[radio]]s and [[headphone|earbud]]s, such as those found in portable audio players.
*Some television content has become more empty (see [[reality television]]).
*Books considered to be objectionable, such as those from the [[Harry Potter]] series and other books related to witchcraft, have been burned in the [[United States]].
*Anti-depressant pills have become much more common and commercialized.
*[[Abortion]] and [[caesarian section]] are widely used for non-medical or non-lifesaving reasons.
*There is a greater reliance on anonymous tips by law enforcement agencies (portrayed in the movie version).
*Political candidacy is determined in part by media corporations through manipulating presentations and report schemes (see [[spin (public relations)]]).
*Some enforced conformity to dress codes in public (usually enforced in benign ways, but occasionally intrusive or humiliating incidents occur).
*America being hated and verbally attacked by other nations perhaps, as Montag suggests, because it is viewed as possessing a disproportionate share of the world's wealth.
But the following phenomena have not yet occurred (and Bradbury argues that the purpose of his fiction is to keep such things from happening):
*Routine use of robots for pursuing suspects (currently in development for military application; civilian law enforcement would be expected to follow suit).
*Government endorsement of high-speed land vehicles on public highways.
*Flat-screen televisions built into the walls of a house (these exist, but are currently a luxury; most are either placed on a special stand or are mounted onto the surface of existing walls).
*Use of nuclear weaponry as a primary weapon in wartime.
==ISBNs==
* ISBN 0606006281 ([[prebound]], 1953)
* ISBN 0871293102 ([[paperback]], [[1986]])
* ISBN 0345342968 ([[mass market paperback]], [[1987]])
* ISBN 089968484X ([[library binding]], [[1990]], reprint)
* ISBN 067187229X ([[hardcover]], [[1993]])
* ISBN 1560549599 ([[audio cassette]] with hardcover, [[1995]], [[unabridged]])
* ISBN 0345410017 ([[paperback]], [[1996]])
* ISBN 0783883137 (library binding, [[1997]], Large Type Edition)
* ISBN 8401422825 (hardcover, [[1998]])
* ISBN 0395878063 (hardcover, [[1998]], McDougall Littell textbook)
* ISBN 156137301X (hardcover, [[1999]])
* ISBN 1561373028 (hardcover, 1999)
* ISBN 0791059294 (hardcover, [[2001]])
* ISBN 0758776160 (hardcover, [[2002]])
* ISBN 0743247221 (hardcover, [[2003]])
* ISBN 0848801474 (hardcover)
* ISBN 8401422345 (hardcover)
* ISBN 3257208626 (paperback)
* ISBN 7246250102 (paperback)
==See also==
*[[Nevil Shute]]: ''[[On The Beach]]''
*[[Cinema of France]]
*[[List of French language films]]
*[[List of banned books]]
==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
*[http://www.randomhouse.com/highschool/catalog/display.pperl?isbn=9780345342966&view=tg Teacher's Guide] at Random House
*[http://wikibooks.org/wiki/User:Perl/Fahrenheit_451 Wikibooks Fahrenheit 451 project]
*{{imdb title|id=0060390|title=Fahrenheit 451}}
*[http://www.sparknotes.com/lit/451/ SparkNotes Study Guide]
*[http://www.slashdoc.com/tag/fahrenheit_451.html Slashdoc : ''Fahrenheit 451''] Literary analysis of the novel
[[Category:1953 books]]
[[Category:1966 films]]
[[Category:Dystopian films]]
[[Category:Dystopian novels]]
[[Category:Science fiction films]]
[[Category:British films]]
[[Category:Films directed by François Truffaut]]
[[Category:Works of Ray Bradbury]]
[[bg:451 градуса по Фаренхайт]]
[[de:Fahrenheit 451]]
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[[tr:Fahrenheit 451 (kitap)]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>First Gulf War</title>
<id>10956</id>
<revision>
<id>15908746</id>
<timestamp>2004-01-30T15:48:17Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>GCarty</username>
<id>10379</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Gulf War]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Francis Xavier</title>
<id>10957</id>
<revision>
<id>41831879</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T00:59:06Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Fuhghettaboutit</username>
<id>665998</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Revert edits by vandal 220.245.179.134 to last by TKE</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''Not to be confused with St. [[Francis Borgia]], another Spanish nobleman turned Jesuit.''
[[Image:StFrancisXavier.jpg|thumb|250px|Memorial to St. [[Francis Xavier]], [[Hirado]], [[Nagasaki]], |
ed compounds
|-
| Related<br/>[[hydrocarbon]]s
| [[cyclohexane]]<br/>[[naphthalene]]
|-
| Related compounds
| [[toluene]]
|-
| {{chembox header}} | <small>Except where noted otherwise, data are given for<br> materials in their [[standard state|standard state (at 25°C, 100 kPa)]]<br/>[[wikipedia:Chemical infobox|Infobox disclaimer and references]]</small>
|-
|}
'''Benzene''', also known as '''[[Carbon|C]]<sub>6</sub>[[Hydrogen|H]]<sub>6</sub>''', '''[[Phenyl|Ph]]H''', and '''benzol''', is an [[organic compound|organic]] [[chemical compound]] that is a [[color]]less and [[flammable]] liquid with a pleasant, sweet smell. Benzene is a known [[carcinogen]]. It is a minor, or additive, component of [[Petrol|gasoline]]. It is an important industrial [[solvent]] and precursor in the production of [[medication|drugs]], [[plastic]]s, gasoline, synthetic [[rubber]], and [[dye]]s. Benzene is a natural constituent of [[Petroleum|crude oil]], but it is usually synthesized from other compounds present in petroleum. Benzene is an [[aromatic hydrocarbon]], and the second [''n'']-[[annulene]] ([6]-annulene).
== History ==
Benzene was discovered in [[1825]] by the [[England|English]] scientist [[Michael Faraday]], who isolated it from oil gas and gave it the name ''bicarburet of hydrogen''. In [[1833]], the [[Germany|German]] chemist [[Eilhard Mitscherlich]] produced it via the [[distillation]] of [[benzoic acid]] (from [[gum benzoin]]) and [[calcium oxide|lime]]. Mitscherlich gave the compound the name ''benzin''. In [[1845]], the English chemist [[Charles Mansfield]], working under [[August Wilhelm von Hofmann]], isolated benzene from [[coal tar]]. Four years later, Mansfield began the first industrial-scale production of benzene, based on the coal-tar method.
== Structure ==
The formula of benzene (C<sub>6</sub>H<sub>6</sub>) caused a mystery for some time after its discovery, as no explanation had been found that could account for all the [[chemical bond|bond]]s &mdash; [[carbon]] usually forms four single bonds and hydrogen one.
The [[chemist]] [[Friedrich August Kekulé von Stradonitz]] was the first to deduce the ring structure of benzene. An often-repeated story claims that after years of studying carbon bonding, benzene and related molecules, he dreamt one night of the [[Ouroboros]], a [[snake]] eating its own tail, and that upon waking he was inspired to deduce the ring structure of benzene. However, the story first appeared in the ''Berichte der Durstigen Chemischen Gesellschaft'' (Journal of the Thirsty Chemical Society), a [[parody]] of the ''[[Berichte der Deutschen Chemischen Gesellschaft]]'', which appeared annually in the late-19th century on the occasion of the congress of German chemists; as such, it is probably to be treated with circumspection.
While his (more formal) claims were well-publicized and accepted, by the early-1920s Kekulé's biographer came to the conclusion that Kekulé's understanding of the tetravalent nature of carbon bonding depended on the previous research of [[Archibald Scott Couper]] ([[1831]]-[[1892]]); further, the Austrian chemist [[Josef Loschmidt]] ([[1821]]-[[1895]]) had earlier posited a cyclic structure for benzene as early as [[1862]]. The cyclic nature of benzene was finally confirmed by the eminent crystallographer [[Kathleen Lonsdale]].
Benzene presents a special problem in that, to account for all the bonds, there must be alternating [[double bond|double]] carbon bonds:
[[image:benz1.png|Benzene with alternating double bonds]]
Using [[X-ray diffraction]], researchers discovered that all of the carbon-carbon bonds in benzene are of the same length, and it is known that a [[single bond]] is longer than a [[double bond]]. In addition, the [[bond length]], the distance between the two bonded atoms in benzene is greater than a double bond, but shorter than a single bond. There seemed to be in effect, a bond and a half between each carbon.
This is explained by electron [[delocalized|delocalization]]. In order to visualise this, one should consider the position of electrons in the bonds of benzene.
One representation is that the structure exists as a superposition of the forms below, rather than either form individually. This type of structure is called a ''resonance hybrid''.
[[image:benz3.png|Benzene, mesomeric structures]]
In reality, neither form really exists. Delocalisation must be explained using a higher level of theory than single and double bonds.
The single bonds are formed with electrons in line between the carbon atoms - this is called [[sigma bond|σ (sigma) symmetry]]. Double bonds consist of a sigma bond and another, [[pi bond|π bond]]. This second bond has electrons orbiting in paths above and below the plane of the ring at each bonded carbon atom. The π-bonds are formed from [[Atomic orbital|atomic p-orbitals]] above and below the plane of ring. The following diagram shows the positions of these p-orbitals:
[[Image:Benzene-orbitals.png|330px|Benzene electron orbitals]]
Since they are out of the plane of the atoms, these orbitals can interact with each other freely, and become delocalised. This means that, instead of being tied to one atom of carbon, each electron is shared by all six in the ring. Thus, there are not enough electrons to form double bonds on all the carbon atoms, but the "extra" electrons strengthen all of the bonds on the ring equally. The resulting [[molecular orbital]] has π symmetry.
[[Image:benzene-orbitals2.png|Benzene orbital delocalisation]]
This delocalisation of electrons is known as ''[[Aromatic|aromaticity]]'', and gives benzene great stability. This is the fundamental property of aromatic chemicals that differentiates them from non-aromatics.
To reflect the delocalised nature of the bonding, benzene may be depicted as a circle inside a hexagon in chemical structure diagrams:
[[image:benz4.png|Benzene structure with a circle inside the hexagon]]
As is common in diagrams of organic structures, the carbon atoms in the diagram above have been left unlabeled.
Benzene occurs sufficiently often as a component of organic molecules that there is a [[Unicode]] symbol with the code 232C to represent it: <font size="+8">{{unicode|&#9004;}}</font>
''Note: Many fonts do not have this Unicode character, so your browser may not be able to display it correctly.''
== Substituted benzenes ==
Many important chemicals are essentially benzene, with one or more of the hydrogen atoms replaced with another [[functional group]]:
=== Alkyl substituents (alkylbenzenes)===
* [[Ethylbenzene]] C<sub>6</sub>H<sub>5</sub>-CH<sub>2</sub>-CH<sub>3</sub>
* [[Mesitylene]] C<sub>6</sub>H<sub>3</sub>(-CH<sub>3</sub>)<sub>3</sub>
* [[Toluene]] C<sub>6</sub>H<sub>5</sub>-CH<sub>3</sub>
* [[Xylene]] C<sub>6</sub>H<sub>4</sub>(-CH<sub>3</sub>)<sub>2</sub>
=== Other substituents ===
* [[Aniline]] C<sub>6</sub>H<sub>5</sub>-NH<sub>2</sub>
* [[Aspirine|Acetylsalicylic acid]] C<sub>6</sub>H<sub>4</sub>(-O-C(=O)-CH<sub>3</sub>)(-COOH)
* [[Benzoic acid]] C<sub>6</sub>H<sub>5</sub>-COOH
* [[Biphenyl]] (C<sub>6</sub>H<sub>5</sub>)<sub>2</sub>
* [[Chlorobenzene]] C<sub>6</sub>H<sub>5</sub>-Cl
* [[Nitrobenzene]] C<sub>6</sub>H<sub>5</sub>-NO<sub>2</sub>
* [[Paracetamol]] C<sub>6</sub>H<sub>4</sub>(-NH-C(=O)-CH<sub>3</sub>)(-OH)
* [[Phenacetin]] C<sub>6</sub>H<sub>4</sub>(-NH-C(=O)-CH<sub>3</sub>)(-O-CH<sub>2</sub>-CH<sub>3</sub>)
* [[Phenol]] C<sub>6</sub>H<sub>5</sub>-OH
* [[Picric acid]] C<sub>6</sub>H<sub>2</sub>(-OH)(-NO<sub>2</sub>)<sub>3</sub>
* [[Salicylic acid]] C<sub>6</sub>H<sub>4</sub>(-OH)(-COOH)
* [[Trinitrotoluene]] C<sub>6</sub>H<sub>2</sub>(-CH<sub>3</sub>)(-NO<sub>2</sub>)<sub>3</sub>
=== Fused aromatic rings ===
* [[Anthracene]]
* [[Benzofuran]]
* [[Indole]]
* [[Isoquinoline]]
* [[Naphthalene]]
* [[Phenanthrene]]
* [[Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon]]s (PAH)
* [[Quinoline]]
=== Heterocyclic analogs ===
In [[heterocyclic ring|heterocycles]], carbon atoms in the benzene ring are replaced with another element:
* [[Pyrazine]]
* [[Pyridazine]]
* [[Pyridine]]
* [[Pyrimidine]]
See [[Simple aromatic ring]] for analogs of benzene.
== Production ==
Benzene may result whenever [[carbon]]-rich materials undergo incomplete [[combustion]]. It is produced naturally in [[volcano]]es and [[forest fire]]s, and is also a component of [[cigarette]] smoke.
Up until [[World War II]], most benzene was produced as a byproduct of [[coke (fuel)|coke]] production in the [[steel]] industry. However, in the [[1950s]], increased demand for benzene, especially from the growing [[plastic]]s industry, necessitated the production of benzene from petroleum. Today, most benzene comes from the [[petrochemical]] industry, with only a small fraction being produced from coal.
Three chemical processes contribute equally to industrial benzene production: [[catalytic reforming]], [[toluene]] hydrodealkylation, and [[steam cracking]].
=== Catalytic reforming ===
In catalytic reforming, a mixture of [[hydrocarbon]]s with boiling points between 60-200°C is blended with [[hydrogen]] gas, then exposed to a [[platinum]] chloride or [[rhenium]] chloride [[catalyst]] at 500-525°C and pressures ranging from 8-50 atm. Under these conditions, |
involve a build-up phase during which the gymnast jumps repeatedly to achieve height, followed by a sequence of ten leaps without pauses during which the gymnast performs a sequence of aerial tumbling skills. Routines are marked out of a maximum score of 10 points. Additional points (with no maximum) can be earned depending on the difficulty of the moves. Synchronized trampoline is similar except that both competitors must perform the routine together and marks are awarded for synchronicity. Double mini trampoline involves a smaller trampoline with a run-up, two moves are performed and the scores marked in a similar manner to individual trampoline. Tumbling involves a sprung track, athletes must perform a succession of tumbling moves and are marked on difficulty and execution.
[[General gymnastics]], sometimes called group gymnastics, enables people of all ages and abilities to participate in performance troupes of 6 to more than 150 athletes. They perform synchronized, choreographed routines. Troupes may be all one gender or mixed. There are no age divisions in general gymnastics. The largest general gymnastics exhibition is the quadrennial [[World Gymnaestrada]] which was first held in [[1939]].
[[Artistic Gymnastics]]
Artistic Gymnastics is usually divided into Men's (MAG) and Women's Gymnastics (WAG), each group doing different events; Men compete on Vault, Parallel Bars, the Pommel Horse, the Rings, the High Bar, and on the Floor, while women compete on Floor, Uneven Bars, Vault, and Beam. Though routines performed on each event may be short, they are physically exhausting and push the gymnast's strength, flexibility, endurance, and awareness to the limit.
'''WAG'''
[[Vault (gymnastics)|Vault]] - Gymnasts sprint down a runway, usually about 75 feet long, leap onto a springboard, launch onto the vault in a straight body position, flip over and land on their feet. In advanced gymnastics, the postflight may include one or multiple saltos and twists.
In [[2001]] the traditional vault was replaced by the new vaulting table. The new apparatus is more stable than the old, giving gymnasts a larger blocking surface.
[[Uneven Bars]] (also known as [[asymmetric bars]], UK) - The gymnast navigates a set of bars set at different heights with swinging, circling, transitions, release moves and handstands.
[[Balance beam (gymnastics)|Beam]] - The gymnast performs a choreographed 60-90 second routine consisting of leaps, acrobatic skills, turns and dance elements on a padded beam about 125cm high, 5m long, and 10cm wide.
[[Floor (gymnastics)|Floor]] - Gymnasts perform a choreographed exercise, consisting of tumbling, jumps, dance elements and turns, to musical accompaniment. The floor mat itself is a padded, sprung surface of about 12m X 12m.
'''MAG'''
[[Floor (gymnastics)|Floor]] - The floor is a carpeted area, 12m x 12m, usually springed. Men perform a series of tumbling passes along with flexibility, strength, and balance tests. Routines last between 50-70 seconds and are performed without music.
[[Pommel Horse]] - Men must perform circular movements around the horse with their legs while allowing only their hands to actually touch it. This is considered one of the hardest events.
[[Rings (gymnastics)|Rings]] - The rings are about 8 feet off the ground. Men must have good strength and flexibility to swing themselves on these rings while preventing the rings themselves from swinging. The rings are the epitome of male gymnast strength.
[[Vault (gymnastics)|Vault]] - Gymnasts sprint down a runway, usually about 75 feet long, before leaping on a springboard and holding their bodies straight while punching (blocking using only a shoulder movement) the vault and flipping over to a standing position. In advanced gymnastics, twists are added before landing.
[[Parallel Bars]] - Men hold themselves on two bars about a shoulder's width apart and about 6 1/2 feet high while performing a series of swings and balances that require great strength and coordination.
[[Horizontal bar|High Bar]] - a 1-inch thick steel bar 8 feet in the air is all the gymnast has to hold onto as he shows swings, release skills, twists, and even a change of direction.
==See also==
* [[Gymnast]]
* [[Gym]]
* [[Turners]]
* [[Trampolining]]
* [[Gymnopaedia]]
* [[World Gymnastics Championships]]
* [[NCAA Men's Gymnastics championship]]
* [[NCAA Women's Gymnastics championship]]
* [[Pole dance]]
==External links==
* [http://www.fig-gymnastics.com Fédération International de Gymnastique]
* [http://www.i-needtoknow.com/gymnastics/ Gymnastics Coaching]
* [http://gymnastic.on-topic.net/ Gymnastic Topics]
[[Category:Gymnastics]]
[[Category:Olympic sports]]
[[Category:Individual sports]]
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[[nl:Turnen]]
[[ja:体操]]
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[[sr:Гимнастика]]
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</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Great Auk</title>
<id>12552</id>
<revision>
<id>40848633</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-23T11:44:08Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Bastin8</username>
<id>154626</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Great Britain</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Taxobox
| color = pink
| name = Great Auk
| status = {{StatusExtinct|when=[[1844]]}}
| image = Pinguinus impennis.jpg
| regnum = [[Animal]]ia
| phylum = [[Chordate|Chordata]]
| classis = [[bird|Aves]]
| ordo = [[Charadriiformes]]
| familia = [[auks|Alcidae]]
| genus = '''''Pinguinus'''''
| genus_authority = [[Pierre Joseph Bonnaterre|Bonnaterre]], 1791
| species = '''''P. impennis'''''
| binomial = ''Pinguinus impennis''
| binomial_authority = ([[Carolus Linnaeus|Linnaeus]], [[1758]])
}}
At 75 centimetres or 30 inches, the flightless '''Great Auk''' (''Pinguinus impennis'') was the largest of the [[auk]]s. It was hunted for food and down for mattresses from at least the [[8th century]]. It is classified as the only [[species]] in the [[genus]] '''''Pinguinus'''''. It was also known as "garefowl", from the [[Old Norse]] ''geirfugl'', or "penguin" (see below).
The Great Auk was once to be found in great numbers on islands off eastern [[Canada]], [[Greenland]], [[Iceland]], [[Norway]], [[Ireland]] and [[Great Britain]], but it was eventually hunted to [[extinction]]. The last pair was killed [[July 3]] [[1844]], on the island of [[Eldey]] off Iceland, though a later sighting was claimed of a live individual in 1852 off the Newfoundland Banks in Canada.
They were excellent swimmers, using their wings to swim underwater. Unlike other auks, however, the Great Auk could not fly, which is what made it so vulnerable to humans. The Great Auk laid only one egg each year.
One theory connects the Great Auk with the origin of the word ''penguin'', which may have come from the [[Welsh language|Welsh]] phrase ''pen gwyn'', meaning "white head", referring originally to the Great Auk (although the head of the Great Auk was not in fact white, there was a white patch behind the beak). Later, when explorers discovered apparently similar birds in the [[southern hemisphere]], what we now call [[penguin]]s, the term was supposedly transferred to them. An alternative theory, suggested by [[John Latham (ornithologist)|John Latham]] in [[1785]], claims that the word ''penguin'' comes from the [[Latin]] ''pinguis'' meaning "fat", referring to the plump appearance of the bird.
Exploitation and also natural events eventually reduced the Great Auk population to very few birds. About this time collection of the Auk and its eggs for specimens began. These highly prized trophies contributed towards the demise of the species. Today about 80 preserved skins and approximately 70 eggs are known to exist.
==See also==
*[[Extinct birds]]
==External links==
*[http://www.rom.on.ca/biodiversity/auk/ The Great Auk - An Introduction]
*[http://bna.birds.cornell.edu/BNA/account/Great_Auk/ Great Auks described in The Birds of North America]
[[Category:Auks|Auk, Great]]
[[Category:Extinct flightless birds]]
[[de:Riesenalk]]
[[es:Pinguinus impennis]]
[[eo:Granda aŭko]]
[[fr:Grand pingouin]]
[[fy:Grutte Alk]]
[[is:Geirfugl]]
[[he:אלקה גדולה]]
[[nl:Reuzenalk]]
[[ja:オオウミガラス]]
[[no:Geirfugl]]
[[nn:Geirfugl]]
[[pl:Alka olbrzymia]]
[[sl:Velika njorka]]
[[fi:Siivetön ruokki]]
[[sv:Garfågel]]
[[ta:பெரிய ஓக்]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Glorantha</title>
<id>12553</id>
<revision>
<id>42092665</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T19:56:18Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>RandomCritic</username>
<id>838239</id>
</contributor>
<comment>added [[Category:Fantasy worlds]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Glorantha''' is the mythical [[Fantasy world|world]] developed originally by [[Greg Stafford]] and that has since been used as the background for many [[role-playing games]], especially [[RuneQuest]] and [[Hero Wars|HeroQuest]]. The world is characterised by its complex approach to mythology, heavily influenced by the work of [[Joseph Campbell]], its long and distinctive history as a setting for role-playing games, and among [[fantasy role-playing]] games, its relative lack of [[J. R. R. Tolkien|Tolkienesque]] influence.
==History of the Gloranthan game world==
Unlike [[Dungeons and Dragons]], the other approach to fantasy role-playing which traces its roots back to the [[1960s]] and which derives from the [[wargaming]] scene, the roots of Glorantha lie in experiments with mythology, storytelling, and recreation and blending of ancient societies.
Stafford's first imaginings of Glorantha date back to 1966, when he began his studies at college, as a vehicle for him to deepen his own understanding of mythology by creating his own mythology, and also (so he says) as a way of getting to know girls. Stafford was great |
, the [[contradictions]] start with which name was changed and how it was changed. Both opinions are plausible, but lack credible [[evidence]].
==Others present on Vancouver's voyage==
*[[Archibald Menzies]], ship's doctor and naturalist on board Vancouver's voyage.
*[[Peter Puget]], lieutenant
*[[Zachariah Mudge]]
*[[Robert Barrie]]
*[[Spelman Swaine]]
*[[Edward Roberts (RN)|Edward Roberts]]
*[[Joseph Whidbey]]
== Works by George Vancouver ==
* Voyage Of Discovery To The North Pacific Ocean, And Round The World In The Years 1790-95, by George Vancouver (ISBN: 0781251001)
== External links ==
*[http://www.biographi.ca/EN/ShowBio.asp?BioId=36317 Biography at the ''Dictionary of Canadian Biography Online'']
*[http://www.win.tue.nl/~engels/discovery/vancouver.html Discoverers Web]
*[http://www.captainvancouver.8m.com Captain Vancouver Another Theory]
*[http://www.library.ubc.ca/jones/vanety.html The True Meaning of Vancouver]
[[Category:1757 births|Vancouver, George]]
[[Category:1798 deaths|Vancouver, George]]
[[Category:British explorers|Vancouver, George]]
[[Category:Explorers of North America|Vancouver, George]]
[[Category:Explorers of the Pacific|Vancouver, George]]
[[Category:Explorers of British Columbia|Vancouver, George]]
[[Category:Royal Navy officers|Vancouver, George]]
[[Category:Explorers of Canada|Vancouver, George]]
[[Category:Natives of Norfolk|Vancouver]]
[[de:George Vancouver]]
[[es:George Vancouver]]
[[fr:George Vancouver]]
[[ja:ジョージ・バンクーバー]]
[[nl:George Vancouver]]
[[pl:George Vancouver]]
[[pt:George Vancouver]]
[[sv:George Vancouver]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Ghaggar River</title>
<id>12868</id>
<revision>
<id>25052148</id>
<timestamp>2005-10-08T11:27:25Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Machaon</username>
<id>193632</id>
</contributor>
<comment>merging to Ghaggar-Hakra River</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT[[Ghaggar-Hakra River]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Gilbert Arbott a Beckett</title>
<id>12869</id>
<revision>
<id>20304041</id>
<timestamp>2005-08-05T01:17:27Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>SDC</username>
<id>181435</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Gilbert Abbott à Beckett]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Genitalia</title>
<id>12871</id>
<revision>
<id>15910523</id>
<timestamp>2002-08-23T04:21:19Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Ap</username>
<id>122</id>
</contributor>
<comment>fix redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Sex organ]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Great Vowel Shift</title>
<id>12872</id>
<revision>
<id>40548253</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-21T09:52:53Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>TShilo12</username>
<id>153537</id>
</contributor>
<comment>rm idle speculation.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''Great Vowel Shift''' was a major change in the [[pronunciation]] of the [[English language]], generally accomplished in the [[15th century]], although evidence suggests it began as early as the [[14th century]]. The shift continued for some time into the [[16th century]], spreading toward the non-metropolitan and non-port areas. It represented a change in the long [[vowel]]s (''i.e.,'' a [[vowel shift]]).
The values of the long vowels form the main difference between the pronunciation of [[Middle English]] and [[Modern English]], and the Great Vowel Shift is one of the historical events marking the separation of Middle and Modern English. Originally, these vowels had "continental" values much like those remaining in liturgical [[Latin]]. However, during the Great Vowel Shift, the two highest long vowels became [[diphthong]]s, and the other five underwent an increase in [[Vowel_height|tongue height]] with one of them coming to the front.
The principal changes (with the vowels shown in [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]]) are roughly as follows. However, exceptions occur, the transitions were not always complete, and there were sometimes accompanying changes in [[orthography]]:
:* {{IPA|/a&#720;/}} &rarr; {{IPA|/e&#618;/}} (as in ''m'''a'''ke'')
:* {{IPA|/&#603;&#720;/}} &rarr; {{IPA|/e&#618;/}} or {{IPA|/i&#720;/}} (as in ''br'''ea'''k'' or ''b'''ea'''k'')
:* {{IPA|/e&#720;/}} &rarr; {{IPA|/i&#720;/}} (as in ''f'''ee'''t'')
:* {{IPA|/i&#720;/}} &rarr; {{IPA|/a&#618;/}} (as in ''m'''i'''ce'')
:* {{IPA|/&#596;&#720;/}} &rarr; {{IPA|/o&#650;/}} (as in ''b'''oa'''t'')
:* {{IPA|/o&#720;/}} &rarr; {{IPA|/u&#720;/}} (as in ''b'''oo'''t'')
:* {{IPA|/u&#720;/}} &rarr; {{IPA|/a&#650;/}} (as in ''m'''ou'''se'')
This means that the vowel in the English word ''make'' was originally pronounced as in modern English ''father'', but has now become a diphthong, as it is today in standard pronunciations of British English (see [[Received Pronunciation]]); the vowel in ''feet'' was originally pronounced as a long Latin-like ''e'' sound; the vowel in ''mice'' was originally what the vowel in ''feet'' is now; the vowel in ''boot'' was originally a long Latin-like ''o'' sound, which has been preserved in "door"; and the vowel in ''mouse'' was originally what the vowel in ''moose'' is now, but has now become a diphthong.
The Great Vowel Shift was first studied by the [[Denmark|Danish]] [[linguist]] [[Otto Jespersen]] ([[1860]]&ndash;[[1943]]), who coined the term.
The effects of the shift were not entirely uniform, and differences in degree of vowel shifting can sometimes be detected in regional dialects both in written and spoken English, for example in the speech of much of Scotland. The surprising speed and the exact cause of the shift are continuing mysteries in [[linguistics]] and [[cultural history]], but some theories attach the cause to the mass immigration to South East England after the [[Black Death]], where the difference in accents led to certain groups modifying their speech to allow for a standard pronunciation of vowel sounds. The different dialects and the rise of a standardized middle class in [[London]] led to changes in pronunciation, which continued to spread out from London. Other theories point to the sudden social mobility after the Black Death, with people from lower levels in society moving to higher levels (the pandemic hit the aristocracy too). Another theory highlights the language of the ruling class - the medieval aristocracy had spoken French, but by the early 15th century they were using English. This may have caused a change to the "prestige accent" of English, either by making pronunciation more French in style, or by changing it in some other way, perhaps by [[hypercorrection]] to something thought to be "more English" (England was at war with France for much of this period). Yet another theory points to the great political and social upheavals of the 15th century, which were largely contemporaneous with the Great Vowel Shift.
Because English spelling was becoming standardised in the 15th and 16th centuries, the Great Vowel Shift is responsible for many of the peculiarities of [[English spelling]]. Spellings that made sense according to Middle English pronunciation were retained in Modern English.
[[German language|German]] and [[Dutch language|Dutch]] also experienced sound changes resembling the first stage of the Great Vowel Shift: long i changed to /ai/ (as in ''Eis'' and ''ijs'', 'ice'), and long u to /au/ and the Dutch /ui/ (as in ''Haus'' and ''huis'', 'house'). This is why in German "ei" and in Dutch "ij" (actually "ii", sometimes casually written as "y" or "ÿ") are pronounced closer to /ai/; however, otherwise, those languages kept their spellings far more consistent.
==See also==
* [[History of the English language]]
* [[Phonological history of the English language]]
== External links ==
* [http://alpha.furman.edu/~mmenzer/gvs/ Great Vowel Shift website] created by [[Melinda Menzer|Melinda J. Menzer]] and [[Andrea Bean|Andrea S. Bean]] of [[Furman University]]
** "[http://alpha.furman.edu/~mmenzer/gvs/what.htm What is the Great Vowel Shift?]" from the same site
* "[http://icg.fas.harvard.edu/~chaucer/vowels.html The Great Vowel Shift]" page from the [[Geoffrey Chaucer]] section of the [[Harvard University]] website
[[Category:History of the English language]]
[[ja:&#22823;&#27597;&#38899;&#25512;&#31227;]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Gilbert Abbott a Beckett</title>
<id>12873</id>
<revision>
<id>15910525</id>
<timestamp>2005-06-26T21:48:41Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>SDC</username>
<id>181435</id>
</contributor>
<comment>merged duplicate articles</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Gilbert Abbott à Beckett]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Gilbert Arthur a Beckett</title>
<id>12874</id>
<revision>
<id>35050081</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-13T19:31:02Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Shsilver</username>
<id>637</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Gilbert Arthur à Beckett''' ([[1837]] &ndash; [[October 15]], [[1891]]) was an English writer.
Beckett was born at [[Hammersmith]], [[United Kingdom]], the eldest son of [[Gilbert Abbott à Beckett]]. Graduating from [[Christ Church, Oxford|Christ Church]], [[Oxford]], as a Westminster scholar in [[1860]], he was entered at [[Lincoln's Inn]] but gave his attention chiefly to drama, producing "Diamonds and Hearts" at the [[Haymarket theatre, London|Ha |
ot-14a-05-preview.jpg|right|250px|thumb|2005 image of [[2M1207]] (blue) and its planetary companion, [[2M1207b]], one of the first exoplanets to be directly imaged, in this case from the [[Very Large Telescope]] array in [[Chile]].]]
In March [[2005]] it was announced that scientists using the [[Spitzer Space Telescope]] were able to detect infrared radiation emitted from two extrasolar planets. The two teams, from the [[Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics]], led by David Charbonneau and the [[Goddard Space Flight Center]], led by L. D. Deming studied the planets [[HD 209458b]] and [[TrES-1]]. They were able to measure the temperatures of the planets: 1,060 [[Kelvin]] (1,450°[[Fahrenheit|F]]) for [[TrES-1]] and about 1,130 Kelvin (1,570°F) for [[HD 209458b]].
In early 2005, two groups, both using the [[European Southern Observatory]]'s [[Very Large Telescope]] array in Chile announced direct [[infrared]] images of extrasolar planets: [[GQ Lupi b]] and [[2M1207b]]. Both planets are believed to be several times the mass of [[Jupiter (planet)|Jupiter]] and orbit at distances greater than 50 AU from their primary star. [[As of 2005|As of May 2005]], their status as planetary objects (as opposed to being small [[brown dwarf]] stars) has not been firmly established.
==Solar system formation processes==
One question raised by the detection of extrasolar planets is why so many of the detected planets are [[gas giant]]s which, in comparison to Earth's solar system, are unexpectedly close to the orbited star. For example, [[Tau Boötis|&tau; Boötis]] has a planet 4.1 times [[Jupiter (planet)|Jupiter]]'s mass, which is less than a quarter of an [[astronomical unit]] (AU) from the orbited star, which is closer to the star than [[Mercury (planet)|Mercury]] orbits the sun. [[HD 114762]] has a planet 11 times Jupiter's mass which is less than half an AU from the orbited star. The reason for these relatively extreme planetary orbits is that astrometrics detects the extrasolar planets due to their gravitational influences and partially-ecliptic interference. Current technology only permits the detection of systems where a large planet is close to the orbited star, but the results do not mean that such systems are the norm. The technological bias towards finding such systems is referred to as a ''[[selection effect]]'' or ''selection bias''.
The frequency of extrasolar planets is one of the parameters in the [[Drake equation]], which attempts to estimate the probability of communications with [[extraterrestrial intelligence]].
==Notable extrasolar planets==
*In [[1992]], Wolszczan and Frail published results indicating that [[pulsar planets]] existed around [[PSR B1257+12]] in [[Nature (journal)|Nature]], volume 355, 145-147. [[Aleksander Wolszczan|Wolszczan]] had discovered the millisecond [[pulsar]] in question in [[1990]] at the [[Arecibo]] radio observatory. These were the first exoplanets ever verified, all the much more rare, that they orbit a pulsar.
*The first verified discovery of an exoplanet ([[51 Pegasi b]]) orbiting a main sequence star ([[51 Pegasi]]) was announced on [[October 6]], [[1995]] by [[Michel Mayor]] and [[Didier Queloz]] in [[Nature (journal)|Nature]], volume 378, page 355.
*A microlensing event in [[1996]] of the gravitationally lensed [[quasar]] [[Q0957+561]], observed by [[R. E. Schild]] in the A lobe of the double imaged quasar, has led to a controversial, and unconfirmable, speculation that a 3 Earth mass planet is possibly in the unknown lensing galaxy, between Earth and the quasar. This would be the most distant planet, if it could be confirmed, and is assumed to reside at [[redshift]] 0.39; 2.4 G[[parsec|pc]] away (7.8 billion light years or 74 [[Yottametre|Ym]]), where the lensing galaxy is. (The double-image quasar itself, (called The [[Twin Quasar]], or ''Old Faithful'') Q0957+561 A/B, resides at redshift z='''1.41''')
*In [[1999]], [[HD 209458b]] was the first extrasolar planet seen transiting its parent star, conclusively proving that the radial velocity measurements suspected to be planets actually were planets.
*On [[November 27]], [[2001]], astronomers using the [[Hubble Space Telescope]] announced that they had detected the atmosphere of the planet orbiting [[HD 209458]] (known as [[HD 209458b]] and provisionally dubbed "[[Osiris (planet)|Osiris]]"). Also during that year, a star was located which had the remnants of one or more planets within the stellar [[celestial body's atmosphere|atmosphere]] &mdash; apparently the planet was mostly [[vapor]]ized. It has been suggested that there may be planets that orbit so closely to their suns that most of their mass has been stripped away by the heat, provisionally referred to as [[Chthonian planet]]s.
*On [[July 10]], [[2003]], using information obtained from the [[Hubble Space Telescope]], scientists discovered the [[PSR B1620-26c|oldest extrasolar planet]] yet. Dubbed ''Methuselah'' after the [[Bible|biblical]] figure, the planet is about 5,600 light years from Earth, has a mass twice that of Jupiter, and is estimated to be 13 billion years old. It is located in the globular [[star cluster]] M4, in the [[constellation]] [[Scorpius]].
*On [[April 15]], [[2004]], separate teams announced the discoveries of three planets outside our solar system.
** [[OGLE 2003-BLG-235]] or [[MOA 2003-BLG-53]] which is 17,000 light years away, more than three times farther away than the previous record holder. The background star that was used in the gravitational lensing is 24,000 light-years away. The newly-discovered planet is estimated to be about 1.5 times the mass of Jupiter and presumed to be similarly gaseous. It orbits the star about 3 astronomical units (AU). Jupiter is 5.2 AU from the Sun.
** The same day, a European team of planet hunters based at the [[Geneva Observatory]] announced two giant planets using the transit method. Both planets are called "[[hot Jupiter]]s," close to one Jupiter-mass but orbiting its star so closely that it completes an orbit in less than two earth days.
*In August 2004, a planet orbiting [[mu Arae]] with a mass of approximately 14 times that of the Earth [http://www.eso.org/outreach/press-rel/pr-2004/pr-22-04_pf.html] was discovered with the [[European Southern Observatory|ESO]] [[HARPS]] [[spectrograph]]. It is the second lightest extrasolar planet orbiting a main sequence star to be discovered to date, and could be the first [[terrestrial planet]] around a main sequence star found outside the [[solar system]].
*In August 2004, a planet was discovered using the transit method with the smallest aperture telescope to date, 4 inches. The planet was discovered by the TrES survey, and provisionally named [[TrES-1]], orbits the star [[GSC 02652-01324]]. The finding was confirmed by the [[Keck Observatory]], where planetary specifics were uncovered.
*In June 2005 a third planet orbiting the [[red dwarf]] star [[Gliese 876]] was announced by E. Rivera ''et al.''. At only 6 to 8 Earth masses, it is the smallest known extrasolar planet orbiting a normal star, and must almost certainly be rocky in composition. It orbits at 0.021 AU with a period of 1.94 days.
*In July 2005 a planet with the largest core ever was announced. The planet, [[HD149026b]] orbits the star [[HD149026]], has a core that is estimated to be 70 Earth masses, accounting for 2/3's of the planet's mass.
*On [[January 25]], [[2006]] the first low-mass planet on a wide orbit was announced. [[OGLE-2005-BLG-390Lb]] orbits a red dwarf star around 21,500 [[light years]] away, towards the centre of our galaxy. It was discovered using [[microlensing]]. Prior to this discovery, planets with low masses (comparable to that of [[Neptune]]) had only been discovered on short-period orbits.
*Astronomers have recently [http://www.nature.com/news/2005/050711/full/050711-6.html] [http://www.jpl.nasa.gov/news/news.cfm?release=2005-115] detected a planet in a [[triple star|triple star system]], a finding that challenges current theories of planetary formation. The planet, a gas giant slightly larger than Jupiter, orbits the main star of the [[HD 188753]] system, in the constellation [[Cygnus]], and is hence known as [[HD 188753 Ab]]. The stellar trio (yellow, orange, and red) is about 149 light-years from Earth. The planet, which is at least 14% larger than Jupiter, orbits the main star (HD 188753 A) once every 80 hours or so (3.3 days), at a distance of about 8 Gm, a twentieth of the distance between Earth and the Sun. The other two stars whirl tightly around each other in 156 days, and circle the main star every 25.7 years at a distance from the main star that would put them between Saturn and Uranus in our own Solar System. The latter stars invalidate the leading hot Jupiter formation theory, which holds these planets form at "normal" distances and then migrate inward through some debatable mechanism. This could not have occurred here, the outer star pair disrupting outer planet formation.
See the [[list of stars with confirmed extrasolar planets]] for a list of confirmed observations.
===Table of extremes===
{| class="wikitable"
!colspan=5 align=left|Extrasolar Planets
|-
!Title!!Planet!!Star!!&nbsp;!!Notes
|-
||Oldest planet|| [[PSR B1620-26c|''Methuselah'' (PSR B1620-26c)]] || [[PSR B1620-26]] || || 12.7 billion years old
|-
||Youngest planet|| || || ||
|-
||Heaviest planet|| ? || ? || || several planets have minimum masses near 11 M<sub>Jupiter</sub><br/>
:''Note: upper limit for planets is 11 M<sub>Jupiter</sub> ([[deuterium]] fusion limit - lower limit for [[brown dwarfs]])''
|-
||Lightest planet|| [[PSR 1257+12#The planets|PSR 1257+12 A]] || [[PSR 1257+12]] || || 0.02 M<sub>Earth</sub>
:''Note: PSR 1257+12 system may include possible [[asteroid]]al object, but it is not massive enough to qualify as a planet''
|-
||Largest planet|| [[HD 209458b|''Osir |
astronomer [[Anton Maria Schyrleus of Rheita]] mused that "if Jupiter has…inhabitants…they must be larger and more beautiful than the inhabitants of the Earth, in proportion to the [size] of the two spheres."
Such comparisons also appeared in poetry of the era. In "The Creation: a Philosophical Poem in Seven Books" ([[1712]]) Sir [[Richard Blackmore]] observed: "We may pronounce each orb sustains a race / Of living things adapted to the place". The didactic poet [[Henry More]] took up the classical theme of the Greek [[Democritus]] in "Democritus Platonissans, or an Essay Upon the Infinity of Worlds" ([[1647]]). With the new relative viewpoint that the Copernican revolution had wrought, he suggested "our world's sunne / Becomes a starre elsewhere." [[Bernard le Bovier de Fontenelle|Fontanelle]]'s "Conversations on the Plurality of Worlds" (translated into English in [[1686]]) offered similar excursions on the possibility of extraterrestrial life, expanding rather than denying the creative sphere of a Maker.
The possibility of Extraterrestrials remained widespread as scientific discovery accelerated. [[William Herschel]], the discoverer of [[Uranus]], was one of many 18th-19th century astronomers convinced that our Solar System, and perhaps others, would be well populated by alien life. Other luminaries of the period who championed "cosmic pluralism" included [[Immanuel Kant]] and [[Benjamin Franklin]]. At the height of the [[Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]] even the [[Sun]] and [[Moon]] were considered candidates for hosting aliens.
===Extraterrestrials and the Modern era===
This enthusiasm towards the possibility of alien life continued well into the [[20th century]]. Indeed, the roughly three centuries from the [[Scientific Revolution]] through the beginning of the modern era of solar system probes were essentially the zenith for belief in extraterrestrials in the West: many astronomers and other secular thinkers, at least some religious thinkers, and much of the general public were largely satisfied that aliens were a reality. This trend was finally tempered as actual probes visited potential alien abodes in the solar system. The moon was decisively ruled out as a possibility, while [[Venus]] and [[Mars]]—long the two main candidates for extraterrestrials—showed no obvious evidence of current life. The other large moons of our system which have been visited appear similarly lifeless, though interesting geothermic forces observed ([[Io (moon)|Io]]'s volcanism, [[Europa (moon)|Europa]]'s ocean, [[Titan (moon)|Titan]]'s thick atmosphere) has underscored how broad the range of potentially habitable environments may be. Finally, the failure of the [[SETI]] program to detect anything resembling an intelligent radio signal after four decades of effort has partially dimmed the optimism that prevailed at the beginning of the space age and emboldened critics who view the search for extraterrestrials as unscientific. [http://www.crichton-official.com/speeches/speeches_quote04.html]
Thus, the three decades preceding the turn of the second millennium saw a crossroads reached in beliefs in alien life. The prospect of ubiquitous, intelligent, space-faring civilizations in our solar system appears increasingly dubious to many scientists ("All we know for sure is that the sky is not littered with powerful microwave transmitters" in the words of SETI's [[Frank Drake]]). At the same time, the data returned by space probes and giant strides in detection methods have allowed science to begin delineating [[Planetary habitability|habitability criteria]] on other worlds and to confirm that, at least, [[extrasolar planet|other planets]] are plentiful though aliens remain a question mark.
Amongst the general public belief and interest in extraterrestrials remains high and skepticism towards galaxy-exploring alien civilizations is not shared by many individuals. At present, some enthusiasts in the topic believe that extraterrestrial beings regularly visit or have visited the Earth. Some think that [[unidentified flying objects]] observed in the skies are in fact sightings of the spacecraft of intelligent extraterrestrials, and even claim to have met such beings. [[Crop circle]] patterns have also been attributed to the actions of extraterrestrials, although many were later found to be hoaxes. While at least one recent scientific paper published in a respected, peer-reviewed journal has urged a re-evaluation of the UFO phenomenon (Deardorff et al., 2005) [http://www.ufoskeptic.org/JBIS.pdf], as of this time mainstream scientific opinion holds that such claims are unsupportable by the evidence currently available and unlikely to be true.
The possible existence of primitive (microbial) life outside of Earth is much less controversial to mainstream scientists although at present no direct evidence of such life has been found. Indirect evidence has been offered for the current existence of primitive life on the planet Mars; however, the conclusions that should be drawn from such evidence remain in debate.
==Scientific search for extraterrestrial life==
The scientific search for extraterrestrial life is being carried out in two different ways, directly and indirectly.
===Direct search===
Scientists are directly searching for evidence of unicellular life within the [[solar system]], carrying out studies on the surface of Mars and examining [[meteors]] that have fallen to Earth. A mission is also proposed to [[Europa (moon)|Europa]], one of [[Jupiter (planet)|Jupiter]]'s moons with a liquid water layer under its surface, which might contain life.
There is some limited evidence that microbial life might possibly exist or have existed on Mars. An experiment on the [[Viking program|Viking]] Mars lander reported gas emissions from heated Martian soil that some argue are consistent with the presence of microbes. However, the lack of corroborating evidence from other experiments on the Viking indicates that a non-biological reaction is a more likely hypothesis. Recently, [[Circadian rhythms]] have been allegedly discovered in Viking data. The interpretation is controversial. Independently in [[1996]] structures resembling [[bacterium|bacteria]] were reportedly discovered in a meteorite, [[ALH84001]], known to be formed of rock ejected from Mars. This report is also controversial and scientific debate continues. (See [[Viking biological experiments]].)
In February 2005, [[NASA]] scientists reported that they had found strong evidence of present life on [[Mars]] (Berger, 2005). The two scientists, [[Carol Stoker]] and [[Larry Lemke]] of NASA's [[Ames Research Center]], based their claims on methane signatures found in Mars' atmosphere that resemble the methane production of some forms of primitive life on Earth, as well as their own study of primitive life near the [[Rio Tinto river]] in [[Spain]]. NASA officials soon denied the scientists' claims, and Stoker herself backed off from her initial assertions (spacetoday.net, 2005). However, only a few days after Stoker and Lemke made their claims, scientists from the [[European Space Agency]] reported that their own measurements of methane on Mars suggested an organic origin (Michelson, 2005).
Though such findings are still very much in debate, support among scientists for the belief in the existence of life on Mars seems to be growing. In an informal survey conducted at the conference in which the European Space Agency presented its findings, 75 percent of the scientists in attendance reported to believe that life once existed on Mars; 25 percent reported a belief that life currently exists there (Michelson, 2005).
===Indirect search===
It is theorised that any technological society in space will be transmitting information. Projects such as [[SETI]] are conducting an astronomical search for radio activity that would confirm the presence of intelligent life. A related suggestion is that aliens might broadcast pulsed and continuous [[laser]] signals in the optical as well as infrared spectrum [http://www.coseti.org/]; laser signals have the advantage of not "smearing" in the interstellar medium and may prove more conducive to communication between the stars.
Astronomers also search for [[extrasolar]] planets that would be conducive to life. Current radiodetection methods have been inadequate for such a search, as the resolution afforded by recent technology is inadequate for detailed study of extrasolar planetary objects. Future telescopes should be able to image planets around nearby stars, which may reveal the presence of life (either directly or through [[Atomic absorption spectroscopy|spectrography]] which would reveal key information such as the presence of free [[oxygen]] in a planet's atmosphere). [[Darwin (ESA)|Darwin]] is an ESA mission designed to find Earth-like planets, and analyse their atmosphere. It has been argued that one of the best candidates for the discovery of life-supporting planets may be [[Alpha Centauri]], the closest star system to Earth, given that two of the three stars in the system are broadly sun-like.
== Extraterrestrial life in the Solar System ==
Many bodies in the Solar System have been suggested as being likely to contain life. The most commonly suggested ones are listed below; of these, four of the five are moons thought to have large bodies of underground liquid, and life may have evolved there in a similar fashion to deep sea vents.
* [[Mars]] - The best known of the other planets and moons in the Solar system. There was liquid water on Mars in the past and there may be liquid water beneath the surface. Recently, [[methane]] was found in the atmosphere of Mars. For more information, see [[Life on Mars|life on Mars]].
* [[Venus]] - Carbonyl sulphide was recently discovered in Venus' atmosphere. The chemical is suggestive of life.
* [[Titan (moon |
Greece|Greek monarchy]]. Later that same year, in October of 1973, the head of the junta, colonel [[George Papadopoulos]] appointed politician [[Spiros Markezinis]] as the Prime Minister. A few weeks later on [[November 14]], law students that opposed the regime realized that the obvious parody of a government would not end unless they took action. They took control of the [[Athens Law School]] and in so doing inspired the students of the [[Athens Polytechnic School]], who imitated them.
It should be noted that institutions of higher education in Greece are considered to provide political asylum. By [[November 16]], however, the streets around the Polytechnic School resembled a battlefield, leaving no choice for the junta than to respond with military tactics. In the early hours of November 17, a tank smashed the gate of the Athens Law School causing tragic bloodshed. More than 20 students were killed. However, the now-famous [[Athens Polytechnic Uprising]] marked the beginning of a series of events that would eventually result to the end of Papadopoulos' rule. One week later, on November 25 both Papadopoulos and Markezinis were overthrown by a countercoup headed by junta hardliner Brigadier [[Dimitrios Ioannides|Ioannides]]. A new head, [[Phaedon Gizikis]], and a new Prime Minister, [[Adamantios Androutsopoulos]], were appointed by the regime. Ioannides, however, had even more in his mind. The following July, he backed a planned coup d'etat to overthrow the Cypriot President, Archibishop [[Makarios III|Makarios]]. This gave a pretext for neighbouring Turkey to intervene militarily, alledgedly to protect the Turkish minority that resided on the island. [[Turkey]] invaded [[Cyprus]] on [[July 20]], [[1974]] and managed to occupy the northern part or a third of its territory. The colonels did not succeed in either predicting the Turkish action or in effectively mobilizing their armed forces in order to prevent it. This signaled the end for the regime that collapsed within a matter of days.
====Newfound stability====
In the evening of [[July 23]], [[1974]], ex Premier [[Constantine Karamanlis]] was invited back from [[Paris]] where he had found a political refuge. In the morning hours of the following day, the plane carrying him landed in [[Athens]] amidst massive celebrations by cheering crowds that could not believe that the ordeal they had to endure for seven years was over. Karamanlis was immediately appointed as the interim prime minister under President [[Phaedon Gizikis|Gizikis]]. Karamanlis founded the [[conservative]] [[New Democracy|Nea Dimokratia]] party and he then won the elections. Democracy had finally been restored and a democratic republican constitution came into force in 1975. In addition, a referendum held that same year, confirmed the will of the overwhelming majority of the Greek people to abolish the monarchy - this time democratically. Therefore former King [[Constantine II of Greece|Constantine II]] and his family remained in Britain and were not allowed free access to the country until 2004. Meanwhile, yet another prominent figure of the past, charismatic politician [[Andreas Papandreou]] had also returned from the [[United States]] and he had already founded the Panhellenic Socialist Party or [[PASOK]]. Karamanlis won the [[1977]] parliamentary elections as well but he resigned in [[1980]], giving his way to [[George Rallis]]. However, Papandreou won the elections held on [[October 18]], [[1981]] by landslide and he formed the first socialist government in the history of the nation. Papandreou dominated the Greek political course for almost 15 years, up until his death in [[June 23]], [[1996]].
====Greece as a member of the European Union====
The country became the tenth member of the [[European Union]] in [[January 1]], [[1981]]. Over the course of the last 25 years, and particularly during this past decade, Greece has experienced a remarkable economic growth. Massive, widespread investments in industrial enterprises and heavy infrastructure as well as funds from the European Union and impressively growing revenues from tourism, shipping and services have greatly raised the standard of living to unprecedented levels. The country adopted the [[Euro]] in 2001. With a [[GDP per capita]] now standing at $ 22,800 and a growth rate well above European Union's average, Greece is a prosperous nation. Nevertheless, everyone agrees that the government still has to deal with certain economic issues so as to enable the country to use its full potentials and reach the standard of living of the richest nations in [[Europe]].
====The successful battle against domestic terrorism====
In [[June 2002]], Greek police achieved a major breakthrough in dealing with domestic terrorism when it managed to arrest the members of the notorious [[Revolutionary Organization 17 November]] terrorist group. The group had formed in [[1974]] and it was responsible for the killing of several American, British and Turkish officials residing in Greece as well as for the killing of prominent Greek politicians (such as Pavlos Bakoyiannis, late husband of the newly appointed Foreign Minister, [[Dora Bakoyannis]]). The trial of those arrested was held in [[March 2003]] and all of them are now behind bars. Still, however, some people believe there is a chance that certain non-key members may have escaped arrest.
====Greco-Turkish relations====
As far as Greco-Turkish relations are concerned, these have improved substantially over the last 6 years, after successive earthquakes hit both countries in the summer of [[1999]]. The so called earthquake diplomacy came after an unprecedented outpouring of sympathy and generous assistance provided by ordinary Greeks and Turks in each of those cases. Greece was the first one to take the initiative to provide valuable help after a monstrous, magnitude 7.4 [[earthquake]] leveled much of the Turkish northwest on [[August 17]], [[1999]], killing more than 17,000 people. Turks also responded immediately after a magnitude 5.9 quake jolted [[Athens]] on [[September 7]] of that same year, killing 143 people. These generous, brave acts took many foreigners by surprise and led to a considerable breakthrough in bilateral relations, marred by decades of hostility over territorial disputes and the situation in the divided island of [[Cyprus]]. In January 1996, the countries reached the brink of war over the tiny, uninhabited islets of [[Imia/Kardak]], situated in the southeastern [[Aegean Sea]]. While Greece insisted that according to all treaties and conventions the islets belong to Greece, Turks claimed that the relevant articles were rather unclear. The crisis escalated within only a few days and it was only after the personal intervention of President [[Bill Clinton]] that it came to an end. Ten years later, Greece has become one of the chief advocates of Turkey's struggle to enter the [[European Union]] while Greek prime minister, [[Kostas Karamanlis]] was one of the best men in the wedding of the daughter of Turkey's premier.
====The 2004 Olympic Games====
On September 5, 1997, the International Olympic Committee awarded the [[2004 Olympic Games]] to [[Athens]]. The massive preparations that followed literally transformed the Greek capital. Some concerns were raised by certain foreign media over Greece's ability to meet specific construction deadlines as well as its ability to handle a potential terrorist attack. However, Greece triumphantly proved all those who questioned its abilities wrong and immediately after the closing ceremonies many of those media actually apologized, admitting that they were overreacting. The [[2004 Olympic Games]] were globally hailed as a spectacular success.
[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/3610014.stm].
== Politics ==
[[Image:KOSTA KARAMANLIS.jpg|frame|right|Kostas Karamanlis, Prime minister of Greece]]
{{main|Politics of Greece}}
The 1975 [[constitution]] includes extensive specific guarantees of civil liberties. The President of the Republic, elected by an increased majority of the Parliament for a term of five years, is nominally the Head of State.
However, it is the [[Prime Minister]] and [[cabinet (government)|cabinet]], as well as the Vouli (parliament) that play the central role in the political process, while the president performs limited governmental functions, in addition to ceremonial duties.
Greeks elect the 300 members of the country's [[unicameral]] parliament (the ''[[Vouli ton Ellinon]]'') by secret ballot for a maximum of four years, but elections can occur at more frequent intervals. Greece uses a complex reinforced [[proportional representation]] electoral system which discourages splinter parties and ensures that the party which leads in the national vote will win a majority of seats. A party must receive 3% minimum of the total national vote to gain representation. Typically, a 42%+ is sufficient to guarantee the rule by a single party.
Greek parliamentary politics hinge upon the principle of the "''dedilomeni''", the "declared confidence" of Parliament to the Prime Minister and his/her administration. This means that the President of the Republic is bound to appoint as Prime Minister a person who will be approved by a majority of the Parilament's members (i.e. 151 votes). With the current electoral system, it is the leader of the party gaining a plurality of the votes in the Parliamentary elections who gets appointed Prime Minister. An administration may, at any time, seek a "vote of confidence"; conversely, a number of Members of Parilament may ask that a "vote of reproach" be taken. Both are rare occurrences with usually predictable outcomes as voting outside the party line happens very seldom.
On [[March 7]], [[2004]], [[Kostas Karamanlis]], president of the [[New Democracy]] party and nephew of the late [[Constantine Karamanlis]], was elected as the new [[Prime Minister of Gree |
ades of [[Great Depression|economic depression]] and [[Second World War|war]] left them with no stomach to face the costly investments and social changes to fix it.
Veterans returned to the factories just in time to see the founding strike of Local 1005 of the [[United Steelworkers of America]] at [[Stelco]], one of four major ones in [[1946]]. Labour peace ensured by the [[Rand formula]], established by Mr. Justice Ivan Rand when he settled the [[Ford Motor Company|Ford]] strike in [[Windsor, Ontario|Windsor]], allowed the industrial economy to grow. [[Studebaker]] set up shop in Hamilton, shutting down in [[1966]] as its last car factory.
Despite the promise shown in the booming [[1960s]], signs of trouble were beginning to show. The Harbour dredging scheme (including its associated political scandal) and reports by the [[International Joint Commission]] revealed that a few more decades of pollution had all but destroyed the marine environment.
In the early [[1980s]]. Hamilton had entered the economic downturn common to most steel towns in the developed world, such as [[Bethlehem, Pennsylvania]], but survived relatively well. But a couple of bitter strikes at [[Stelco]] did not help matters. The days of heavy industry were numbered.
In the last decade, Hamilton's heavy industry continued to decline &mdash; a fact highlighted when [[Stelco]] recently filed for [[bankruptcy]] protection, though Stelco has returned to profitability in more recent quarters. Non-unionized [[Dofasco]] is doing only somewhat better. However, decreased industrial activity and increased pollution control measures have combined to somewhat increase water and air quality, and to allow Hamilton to showcase its fine natural attributes in a better light. For those employed in or relying on the industrial sector, it is grim news indeed.<br>
As of today December 18, 2005 Stelco is still in Bankruptcy protection. Dofasco getting a buyout or selling it from a country overseas.
===Cultural economy===
As the industrial economy has faltered, the local economy by necessity became much more diversified. However, this process was made possible by decisions taken as early as the 1930s as discussed above.
Attempts at nourishing and spreading cultural economic activities paid off. [[Dundurn Castle]] was refurbished as Centennial project. Local TV station CHCH introduced Canadians to ''[[Smith & Smith]]'', which featured [[Steve Smith (comedian)|Steve]] and Morag Smith (the former better known from his stint as [[The Red Green Show|Red Green]]). Hamilton became a moderately important film and television adjunct of the [[Toronto, Ontario|Toronto]] film market.
Although never entirely out of the music eye, Hamilton gave birth or havens to a number of successful musicians of various genres over the years. Jazz-[[blues music|blues]] musicians The Washingtons were popular in the 1940s, and brother [[Jackie Washington]] continues to perform. [[folk music|Folksinger]] [[Stan Rogers]] was born in [[Dundas, Ontario|Dundas]], where he lived until his death in 1982. The Hamilton Philharmonic Orchestra under [[Boris Brott]], although often troubled financially since his departure as Music Director in 1990, achieved wide renown as one of Canada's finest orchestras. The eponymous [[Brott Music Festival]], founded in 1988 is Canada's largest orchestral music festival and is a cornerstone cultural activity of the summer months. It joins the Art Gallery of Hamilton, the Philharmonic, Theatre Aquarius and Opera Hamilton as one of the City's the leading arts organizations.
Among the rock-pop acts formed in Hamilton or by Hamiltonians were: [[Teenage Head]], [[Forgotten Rebels]], [[Junkhouse]], [[Sarah Harmer]], and [[Appleton (music duo)|Appleton]]. Furthermore, [[Daniel Lanois]], a solo artist in his own right and producer for [[U2]], lived in Hamilton and recorded at Grant Avenue Studios. The [http://www.sonicunyon.com/indexok Sonic Unyon] label started and fostered the Hamilton sound in the early 1990s and continues today as one of Canada's most successful independent record labels and distributors.
Hamilton hosted several cultural and craft fairs since the 1970s, notably Festival of Friends and Earthsong, which made it a major tourist destination. Unfortunately, these [[fair trade]] venues and celebrators of [[world music]] declined in quality and ultimately disappeared, and their replacements have yet to find their niches.
===Other economy===
The growth of post-secondary education &mdash; heralded by the arrival of [[McMaster University]] from [[Toronto, Ontario|Toronto]] in 1930 and the foundation of [[Mohawk College]] in 1967 &mdash; led to numerous direct and indirect jobs in education and research. The addition of a medical school at McMaster in the late 1960s built upon local health care strengths to such an extent that health care has outstripped industry as the region's primary employer.
A business collaboration between a Canadian hockey player and a retired Hamilton policeman began quietly in [[1965]] at 64 Ottawa Street North. After the player's untimely death in [[1974]], an ambitious expansion scheme of the retiree's led [[Tim Hortons]] Donuts to become an enormously successful food retailer selling [[donuts|doughnuts]], [[coffee]] and light snacks. Founder [[Ron Joyce]] sold the business to the [[Wendys]] fast food empire, but not before bestowing his name on Hamilton Place.
[[Image:hamilton-cityhall.jpg|thumb|right|280px|Hamilton's current City Hall]]
An enthusiasm for [[urban renewal]] gripped Hamilton, as it did most other cities in North America, in the [[1960s]] and early [[1970s]]. Historic buildings, including Old City Hall and the original farmers market, were destroyed to make way for wider streets, more parking and large [[shopping malls|shopping centres]]. Hamilton's penchant for one-way streets and synchronized traffic lights, only recently reconsidered and slightly modified, date from just before this period.
Outside the industrial sector, a brutal recession from the late 1980s to the mid-[[1990s]], combined with the accelerated tendency to relocate commercial activity in the cheaper suburbs, devastated the downtown core, and many small businesses. Qualified or failed attempts at reviving the [[central business district]] included the restoration of the Gore Park fountain, the proposed conversion of vacant office space into [[condominiums|condominium]] apartments and allowing two-way traffic on certain downtown streets for the first time in half a century.
More dramatic and successful have been the greening projects of Hamilton undertaken since the 1990s: The Lax lands on Bay Street North were capped with clay and landscaped into a beautiful park, remediation began at Cootes Paradise in west Hamilton, a waterfront trail linking these two places was built, abandoned [[railroads|railway]] right-of-ways in both the east end and west end were converted to multi-use paths.
==Politics==
Politically, Hamilton is known for producing groundbreaking, colourful and left-wing politicians &mdash; illustrated by the polarizing and erratic career of [[Sheila Copps]]. Locally, though, the big political stories have included the controversial amalgamation of Hamilton with its suburbs in 2001, and the destruction of green space around the Red Hill Valley to make way for the [[Red Hill Creek Expressway]].
===Municipal politics===
Hamilton has had a city charter since [[1846]]. In [[1974]], it combined with the Wentworth County and the latter's other [[towns]] and [[township (Canada)|townships]] to form the two-tier municipal federation of [[Hamilton-Wentworth Regional Municipality|Regional Municipality of Hamilton-Wentworth]]. Portions of the former county became part of [[Burlington, Ontario|Burlington]] and [[Cambridge, Ontario|Cambridge]].
The old city of Hamilton was represented at regional council by one councillor each from its two-councillor wards; the other municipalities by their mayors and an additional regional councillor each. The regional chair was appointed by the [[Ontario]] government rather than by the residents or the regional councillors. After a successful drive to make the office elective, the point became moot in [[2001]].
Municipal powers were divided or shared in turn by the city and the county (or its constituent parts besides Hamilton). For instance, the city and county continued their separate [[school districts|boards of education]], while the [[police|police service]] and [[welfare|social services]] became regional responsibilities, and [[firefighters|fire service]] and business licensing remained second-tier responsibilities.
In [[2001]], over the vociferous but hitherto futile objections of rural and suburban voters, the former two-tier Hamilton-Wentworth region was amalgamated into a one-tier city called Hamilton like one of its predecessor governments. New ward boundaries coincided substantially or exactly with old Hamilton's wards and the former municipal boundaries of its suburbs.
As in most Ontario cities, incumbent councillors and mayors tend to be re-elected in municipal elections marked by low turnout. However, in the 1940s, Hamilton City Council was presided over by [[Samuel Lawrence|Sam Lawrence]], a unionized worker called the Labour Mayor. However, for most of the time, moderates of the centre-right or centre-left &mdash; such as [[Lloyd Douglas Jackson|Lloyd D. Jackson]] in the 1960s and [[Robert Maxwell Morrow|Robert Morrow]] in the 1980s &mdash; presided over council.
[http://www.hpl.ca/Local/SPCOLL/mayor48.shtml Victor "Vic" Copps] was a popular centre-left mayor in the [[1970]]s. While taking part in the [http://www.aroundthebayroadrace.com Around the Bay Race] in [[1976]], he suffered a stroke which incapacitated him. His wife [[Geraldine Copps]] served as a city councillor after that unfortunate event. [[Copps Coliseum]] is named after him rath |
blic of Germany|basic law]]" (German constitution). Article 146 was amended so that Article 23 of the current constitution could be used for reunification. Then once the five "reestablished federal states" in East Germany had joined, the Basic Law was amended again to indicate that ''there were no other parts of Germany, which existed outside of the unified territory'', that had not acceded.
Support for the aims of the Federation of Expellees within the German electorate remains low, and when in charge of government, both CDU and SPD have tended to favor improved relations with [[Central Europe|Central]] and [[Eastern Europe]] even when this conflicts with the interests of the displaced. The issue of the Eastern border of Germany, and of return of the ''Heimatvertriebene'' to their ancestral homes is an issue which the current German government, German constitutional arrangements, and German treaty obligations have closed.
However, with the enlargement of the European Union, the organisations of expellees have gained new hopes of recognition of private German property rights in the former German territories in present-day of Poland and the Czech Republic. They have insisted that Poland and the [[Czech Republic]] must respect [[human rights]] and also compensate German victims before being allowed to become members of the European Union. Also the Hungarian Prime Minister Viktor Orban said in [[2002]] in the European Parliament that the Czech Republic and [[Slovakia]] should repeal the [[Benes decrees]] before being allowed into the European Union. The claim was supported by the [[Bavaria]]n government and Prime Minister [[Edmund Stoiber]], as well as the Austrian Chancellor [[Wolfgang Schüssel]]. In [[2003]], [[Liechtenstein]] refused to sign the enlargement of the Common European Economic Space, because the Czech Republic did not withdraw the Benes decrees and compensate the royal family of Liectenstein for their property in Bohemia, which was confiscated after the war. None of these efforts led to any significant result. In [[2004]] the Czech Republic, Poland, and Slovakia became members of the European Union and European institutions generally choose future-oriented approach.
Claims were unanimously rejected by the affected countries and became a source of mistrust between Germany, Poland and the Czech Republics. While ''Expellees'' recall their property and speak of human rights, Poles remind that they were never compensated for damages caused by German government during World War II(In Poland alone the war reperations could reach as high as $640 billion, according to the latest estimates[http://www.dw-world.de/popups/popup_printcontent/0,,1324630,00.html]). They further argue that the Polish government didn't enact the German expulsion and border shift, but it was instead ordered by the [[Potsdam conference]].Furthermore nationalisation of private property by communist governmnent wasn't in regard to Germans only but enforced on all people, regardless of ethnic background. The situation is further complicated by the fact that the majority of the current Polish population in historical eastern Germany are expellees (or descendants of expellees) themselves'. They were moved from territories annexed by the [[Soviet Union|USSR]] and left their homes and property behind. However, if German expellees have only a tiny chance of regaining their property, Polish ones have no such prospect whatsoever.
The fact that colonists settled after 1939 in Poland or those that moved there after 1939 are treated as expellees under German law also adds to controversy.
While the organisation pursues claims towards both Poland and Czech Republic, it remains silent towards Russia and the region of [[Kaliningrad]].
The Federation of Expellees have also, in 2000, initiated the formation of the Center Against Forced Migration ''([[Centre Against Expulsions|Zentrum gegen Vertreibungen]]),''. The representatives of the center are Erika Steinbach and Prof. Dr. Peter Glotz.
Recently, the federation sued the German journalist [[Gabriele Lesser]] for alleged defamations. The questioned article was published [[September 19]], [[2003]], in the daily ''Kieler Nachrichten''.
== Organization ==
The expellees are organized in 21 regional associations ''(Landsmannschaften)'' according to the areas of origin of its members, 16 state organizations ''(Landesverbände)'' according to their current residence, and 5 associate member organizations. It is the single representative federation for the approximately 15 million Germans which after fleeing, being expelled, evacuated or emigrated, found refuge in the Federal Republic of Germany. The organizations have approximately 2 million members, and is a political force of some influence in Germany.
The current president of the federation is the German politician Erika Steinbach (CDU), who also is a member of the [[Bundestag|German parliament]].
The Federation helps members to integrate into German society. Many of the members assist the societies of their place of birth.
=== Charter of the Ethnic German Expellees ===
The ''Charta der deutschen Heimatvertriebenen'' (Charter of the Ethnic German Expellees) of [[August 5]], [[1950]] announced their belief in requiring that "the right to the homeland is recognized and carried out as one of the fundamental rights of mankind given by God", while renouncing revenge and retaliation in the face of the "infinite wrong" (''"unendliche Leid"'') of the previous decade, and supporting the unified effort to rebuild Germany and Europe.
=== Presidents ===
*[[Georg Baron Manteuffel-Szoege]] and [[Linus Kather]] (1957&ndash;1959)
*[[Hans Krüger]] (1959&ndash;1963)
*[[Wenzel Jaksch]] (1964&ndash;1966)
*[[Reinhold Rehs]] (1967&ndash;1970)
*[[Herbert Czaja]] (1970&ndash;1994)
*[[Fritz Wittmann]] (1994&ndash;1998)
*[[Erika Steinbach]] (1998&mdash;)
**Vice president (since 1992): [[Wilhelm von Gottberg]]
=== Member organizations ===
==== Landsmannschaften ====
* [[Landsmannschaft Ostpreußen]]
* [[Landsmannschaft Schlesien]]
* [[Deutsch-Baltische Landsmannschaft]]
* Landsmannschaft der Banater Schwaben e.V.
* Landsmannschaft Berlin-Mark Brandenburg
* Landsmannschaft der Bessarabiendeutschen e.V.
* Landsmannschaft der Buchenlanddeutschen (Bukowina) e.V.
* Bund der Danziger e.V.
* Landsmannschaft der Dobrudscha- und Bulgariendeutschen
* Landsmannschaft der Donauschwaben, Bundesverband e.V.
* Karpatendeutsche Landsmannschaft Slowakei e.V.
* [[Landsmannschaft der Deutschen aus Litauen]] e.V.
* Landsmannschaft der Oberschlesier e.V. - Bundesverband -
* Pommersche Landsmannschaft - Zentralverband - e.V.
* Landsmannschaft der Deutschen aus Russland e.V.
* Landsmannschaft der Sathmarer Schwaben in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland e.V.
* Landsmannschaft der Siebenbürger Sachsen in Deutschland e.V.
* [[Sudetendeutsche Landsmannschaft Bundesverband]] e.V.
* [[Landsmannschaft der Deutschen aus Ungarn]]
* Landsmannschaft Weichsel-Warthe Bundesverband e.V.
* [[Landsmannschaft Westpreußen]] e.V.
==== Landesverbände ====
* Landesverband Baden-Württemberg
* Landesverband Bayern
* Landesverband Berlin
* Landesverband Brandenburg
* Landesverband Bremen
* Landesverband Hamburg
* Landesverband Hessen
* Landesverband Mecklenburg-Vorpommern
* Landesverband Niedersachsen
* Landesverband Nordrhein-Westfalen
* Landesverband Rheinland-Pfalz
* Landesverband Saar
* Landesverband Sachsen / Schlesische Lausitz
* Landesverband Sachsen-Anhalt
* Landesverband Schleswig-Holstein
* Landesverband Thüringen
==See also==
*[[All-German Bloc/League of Expellees and Deprived of Rights]]
*[[Organised persecution of ethnic Germans]]
*[[Pursuit of Nazi collaborators]]
*[[Lebensraum]]
*[[Drang_nach_osten]]
==Further reading==
* ''Casualty of War: A Childhood Remembered (Eastern European Studies, 18)'' Luisa Lang Owen and Charles M. Barber, [http://www.tamu.edu/upress/ Texas A&M University Press], January, 2003, hardcover, 288 pages, ISBN 1585442127
==References==
{{unreferenced}}
==External links==
* [http://www.bund-der-vertriebenen.de/ Bund der Vertriebenen] - Official homepage
* [http://www.z-g-v.de Zentrum gegen Vertreibungen] - Official homepage
* [http://www.cdu.de/omv/charta.htm ''Charta der deutschen Heimatvertriebenen'']
* For latest developments: http://cdu.de/politik-a-z/vertriebenen/inhalt.htm (in German)
[[Category:German society]]
[[Category:Post-World War II]]
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<title>History of Albania</title>
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<contributor>
<ip>80.78.66.182</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* World War II and the rise of Communism, 1941-44 */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{histalbania}}
This article briefly outlines each period of '''History of Albania''' only; details are presented in separate articles (see the links in the box and below).
== The Origin of the Albanians ==
''Main article: [[Origin of Albanians]]''
A number of scholars consider that the Albanians are direct descendants of an Illyrian tribe that was named "Albanoi" that was located in present day [[Albania]]. Many scholars dispute this. See [[Origin of Albanians]]. Some scholars have claimed that the Albanians and the Illyrians are the descendants of the ancient Pelasgians, and thus their history goes back at least 4000 years before Christ.
Those who support the Illyrian-Albanian continuity theory maintain that all the Illyrian tribes except the Albanians disappeared during the [[Early Middle Ages]] under the waves of migrating barbarians. A forbidding mountain homeland and resilient tribal society enabled the Albanians to survive into modern times with their identity and their [[Albanian language|Indo-European language]] intact.
The name |
e.
*[[1888]] - Statistician [[Herman Hollerith]] installs his self-designed computing device at the [[United States War Department]].
*[[1897]] - Activist [[Marguerite Durand]] founds the [[feminist]] daily [[newspaper]], ''[[La Fronde]]'' in [[Paris]].
*[[1905]] - In [[France]], the law [[1905 law on secularity|separating church and state]] is passed.
*[[1931]] - The [[Constituent Cortes]] approves the constitution which establishes the [[Second Spanish Republic]].
*[[1937]] - [[Second Sino-Japanese War]]: [[Battle of Nanjing]] - [[Imperial Japan|Japanese]] troops under the command of Lt. Gen. [[Asaka Yasuhiko]] launch an assault on the [[Republic of China|Chinese]] city of [[Nanjing]].
*[[1940]] - [[World War II]]: [[Operation Compass]] - [[United Kingdom|British]] and [[India]]n troops under the command of Major-General [[Richard O'Connor]] attack [[Military history of Italy during World War II|Italian]] forces near [[Sidi Barrani]] in [[Egypt]].
*[[1941]] - World War II: The [[Republic of China]], [[Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea]] and [[Cuba]] declare war on [[Germany]] and [[Japan]].
*[[1945]] - [[General]] [[George S. Patton]] is injured in an automobile crash in occupied [[Germany]]. He dies twelve days later.
*[[1946]] - The "[[Subsequent Nuremberg Trials|Trials of War Criminals before the Nuremberg Military Tribunals]]" began with the "[[Doctors' Trial]]", prosecuting [[physician|doctor]]s alleged to be involved in [[Nazi human experimentation|human experimentation]].
*[[1950]] - [[Harry Gold]] is sentenced to thirty years in jail for helping [[Klaus Fuchs]] pass information about the [[Manhattan Project]] to the [[Soviet Union]]. His testimony is later instrumental in the prosecution of [[Julius and Ethel Rosenberg]].
*[[1953]] - [[Red Scare]]: [[General Electric]] announces that all [[communist]] employees will be discharged from the company
*[[1958]] - Red Scare: The [[John Birch Society]] founded in the [[United States]].
*[[1960]] - The first episode of [[ITV]] soap-opera ''[[Coronation Street]]'' is aired.
*[[1961]] - The trial of [[Nazi]] [[Adolf Eichmann]] in [[Israel]] ends with him being found guilty of 15 criminal charges, including charges of crimes against humanity, crimes against the Jewish people and membership of an outlawed organization.
* 1961 - [[Tanganyika]] becomes independent from Britain.
*[[1982]] - Activist [[Norman Mayer]] threatens to blow up the [[Washington Monument]], before being killed by [[United States Park Police]].
*[[1987]] - [[Israeli-Palestinian conflict]]: The [[First Intifada]] begins in the [[Gaza Strip]] and [[West Bank]]
*[[1990]] - [[Lech Wa&#322;&#281;sa]] becomes the first directly elected president of [[Poland]].
*[[1992]] - The separation of [[Charles, Prince of Wales]] and [[Diana, Princess of Wales]] is announced
*[[2001]] - [[Chris Jericho]] unifies the [[WWE Championship]] and [[WCW World Heavyweight Championship]] for the first time ever at [[WWE Vengeance]].
*[[2005]] - The last regular [[Routemaster]] bus service in [[London]], route 159, ends.
==Births==
*[[1447]] - [[Chenghua]], Emperor of China (d. [[1487]])
*[[1508]] - [[Gemma Frisius]], Dutch mathematician and cartographer (d. [[1555]])
*[[1561]] - Sir [[Edwin Sandys (American colonist)|Edwin Sandys]], British-born Virginian colonist (d. [[1629]])
*[[1571]] - [[Metius]] (Adriaan Adriaanszoon), Dutch mathematician and astronomer (d. [[1635]])
*[[1579]] - [[Martin de Porres]], Peruvian saint (d. [[1639]])
*[[1594]] - King [[Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden]] (d. [[1632]])
*[[1608]] - [[John Milton]], English poet (d. [[1674]])
*[[1610]] - [[Baldassare Ferri]], Italian castrato (d. [[1680]])
*[[1667]] - [[William Whiston]], English mathematician (d. [[1752]])
*[[1748]] - [[Claude Louis Berthollet]], French chemist (d. [[1822]])
*[[1842]] - [[Peter Kropotkin]], Russian anarchist (d. [[1921]])
*[[1850]] - [[Emma Abbott]], American soprano (d. [[1891]])
*[[1868]] - [[Fritz Haber]], German chemist and [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry|Nobel Prize]] laureate (d. [[1934]])
*[[1871]] - [[Joe Kelley]], American baseball player (d. [[1943]])
*[[1876]] - [[Berton Churchill]], American actor (d. [[1940]])
*[[1882]] - [[Joaquín Turina]], Spanish composer (d. [[1949]])
*[[1886]] - [[Clarence Birdseye]], American frozen food manufacturer (d. [[1956]])
*[[1889]] - [[Hannes Kolehmainen]], Finnish long-distance runner and Olympic gold medalist (d. [[1966]])
*[[1897]] - [[Hermione Gingold]], British actress (d. [[1987]])
*[[1898]] - [[Emmett Kelly]], American circus clown (d. [[1979]])
*[[1899]] - [[Jean de Brunhoff]], French author (d. [[1937]])
*[[1901]] - [[Odon von Horvath|Ödön von Horváth]], Hungarian-born writer (d. [[1938]])
* 1901 - [[Jean Mermoz]], French pilot (d. [[1936]])
*[[1902]] - [[Margaret Hamilton]], American actress (d. [[1985]])
*[[1905]] - [[Dalton Trumbo]], American writer (d. [[1976]])
*[[1906]] - [[Grace Murray Hopper]], American computer pioneer (d. [[1992]])
*[[1909]] - [[Douglas Fairbanks, Jr.]], American actor (d. [[2000]])
*[[1911]] - [[Broderick Crawford]], American actor (d. [[1986]])
*[[1912]] - [[Tip O'Neill]], [[Speaker of the United States House of Representatives]] (d. [[1994]])
*[[1915]] - [[Elisabeth Schwarzkopf]], German soprano
*[[1916]] - [[Kirk Douglas]], American actor and film producer
*[[1917]] - [[James Rainwater]], American physicist and [[Nobel Prize in Physics|Nobel Prize]] laureate (d. [[1986]])
*[[1919]] - [[William Lipscomb]], American chemist and [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry|Nobel Prize]] laureate
*[[1920]] - [[Carlo Azeglio Ciampi]], [[List of Presidents of the Italian Republic|President of the Italian Republic]]
*[[1922]] - [[Redd Foxx]], American comedian and actor (d. [[1991]])
*[[1926]] - [[Henry Way Kendall]], American physicist and [[Nobel Prize]] laureate (d. [[1999]])
* 1926 - [[Jan Kresadlo|Jan K&#345;esadlo]], Czech writer (d. [[1995]])
*[[1927]] - [[Pierre Henry]], French composer
*[[1928]] - [[Dick Van Patten]], American actor
*[[1929]] - [[John Cassavetes]], American actor and film director (d. [[1989]])
* 1929 - [[Bob Hawke]], twenty-third [[Prime Minister of Australia]]
*[[1930]] - [[Buck Henry]], American actor, comedian, writer, director, and producer
*[[1931]] - [[Ladislav Smoljak]], Czech actor, director and humourist
*[[1933]] - [[Morton Downey Jr.]], American talk show host (d. [[2001]])
*[[1934]] - Dame [[Judi Dench]] British actress
* 1934 - [[Junior Wells]], American blues harmonica player (d. [[1998]])
*[[1937]] - [[Darwin Joston]], American actor (d. [[1998]])
*[[1938]] - [[Deacon Jones]], American football player
*[[1941]] - [[Beau Bridges]], American actor
* 1941 - [[Dan Hicks (singer)|Dan Hicks]], American musician
*[[1942]] - [[Dick Butkus]], American football player
*[[1946]] - [[Sonia Gandhi]], Italian-born Indian politician, chair of the United Progressive Alliance
* 1946 - [[Walter Orange]], American drummer ([[The Commodores]])
*[[1947]] - [[Tom Daschle]], American politician
* 1947 - [[Jaak Jõerüüt]], Soviet-born Estonian politician
*[[1950]] - [[Joan Armatrading]], West Indian-born British singer
*[[1952]] - [[Michael Dorn]], American actor
* 1952 - [[Liaqat Baloch]], Pakistani Politician
*[[1953]] - [[John Malkovich]], American actor
*[[1957]] - [[Donny Osmond]], American singer and actor
*[[1958]] - [[Nick Seymour]], Australian bassist ([[Crowded House]])
*[[1960]] - [[Juan Samuel]], Major League Baseball Player
*[[1961]] - [[David Anthony Higgins]], American actor
*[[1962]] - [[Felicity Huffman]], American actress
*[[1964]] - [[Paul Landers]], German guitarist ([[Rammstein]])
*[[1967]] - [[Joshua Bell]], American violinist
*[[1968]] - [[Kurt Angle]], American amateur and professional wrestler
* 1968 - [[Dave Harold]], British snooker player
* 1968 - [[Brian Bell]], American guitarist ([[Weezer]])
*[[1969]] - [[Jakob Dylan]], American singer and songwriter ([[The Wallflowers]])
* 1969 - [[Bixente Lizarazu]], [[France national football team|French]] international footballer and World Cup winner
*[[1972]] - [[Tre Cool]] (Frank Edwin Wright III), German-born American drummer ([[Green Day]])
*1972 - [[Reiko Aylesworth]], American actress
*1972 - [[Fabrice Santoro]], Tahitian-born French tennis player
*[[1976]] - [[Imogen Heap]], British singer and songwriter
*[[1978]] - [[Jesse Metcalfe]], American actor ([[Desperate Housewives]])
*[[1981]] - [[Diya Mirza]], Indian actress
==Deaths==
*[[1165]] - King [[Malcolm IV of Scotland]]
*[[1292]] - [[Saadi|Sheikh Saadi]], great [[Persians|Persian]] [[sufi]] poet
*[[1437]] - [[Sigismund, Holy Roman Emperor]] (b. [[1368]])
*[[1544]] - [[Teofilo Folengo]], Italian poet (b. [[1491]])
*[[1565]] - [[Pope Pius IV]] (b. [[1499]])
*[[1603]] - [[William Watson (priest)|William Watson]], English conspirator (b. [[1559]])
*[[1625]] - [[Ubbo Emmius]], Dutch historian and geographer (b. [[1547]])
*[[1636]] - [[Fabian Birkowski]], Polish writer (b. [[1566]])
*[[1641]] - [[Anthony van Dyck]], Flemish painter (b. [[1599]])
*[[1669]] - [[Pope Clement IX]] (b. [[1600]])
*[[1674]] - [[Edward Hyde, 1st Earl of Clarendon]], English statesman and historian (b. [[1609]])
*[[1692]] - [[William Mountfort]], English actor and dramatist
*[[1706]] - King [[Peter II of Portugal]] (b. [[1648]])
*[[1718]] - [[Vincenzo Coronelli]], Italian cartographer and encylopaedist (b. [[1650]])
*[[1793]] - [[Gabrielle de Polastron, comtesse de Polignac]], French aristocrat (b. [[1749]])
*[[1798]] - [[Johann Reinhold Forster]], German botanist
*[[1887]] - [[Mahmadu Lamine]], Senegalese marabout and miltary leader
*[[1894]] - [[Pafnuty Chebyshev]], Russian mathematician
*[[1930]] - [[Rube Foster|Andrew "Rube" Foster]], American baseball player and founder of the Negro National League
*[[1937]] - [[Nils Gustaf Dalén]], Swedish physicist and [[Nobel Prize in Physics|Nobel Prize]] laureate (b. [[1869]])
*[[1964]] - Dame [[Edith Sitwell]], Br |
age>
<title>Calvin and Hobbes</title>
<id>6059</id>
<revision>
<id>42145058</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T02:55:38Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>John oh</username>
<id>699602</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Miss Wormwood */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Calvin and Hobbes Original.png|200px|thumb|right|Calvin and Hobbes took many wagon rides over the years—this one showed up on the cover of the first collection of comic strips.]]
{{Spoken Wikipedia-3|2006-01-29|CalvinAndHobbes1.ogg|CalvinAndHobbes2.ogg|CalvinAndHobbes3.ogg}}
'''''Calvin and Hobbes''''' was a daily [[comic strip]] written and illustrated by [[Bill Watterson]], following the humorous antics of Calvin, an imaginative six-year-old boy, and Hobbes, his energetic and sardonic—albeit [[stuffed animal|stuffed]]—[[tiger]]. [[Print syndication|Syndicated]] from [[November 18]], [[1985]] until [[December 31]], [[1995]], at its height ''Calvin and Hobbes'' was carried by over 2,400 newspapers worldwide. To date, more than 30 million copies of 18 ''Calvin and Hobbes'' books have been printed.
The strip is [[Setting of Calvin and Hobbes|vaguely set]] in the [[contemporary]] [[Midwestern]] [[United States]], in the outskirts of [[suburbia]] {{ref_harvard|West|West 1989|none}}. Calvin and Hobbes themselves appear in most of the strips, though several have focused instead upon Calvin's family. The broad themes of the strip deal with Calvin's flights of fantasy, his friendship with Hobbes, his misadventures, his views on a diverse range of political and cultural issues and his relationships and interactions with his parents, classmates, educators, and other members of society. The dual nature of Hobbes is also a recurring motif; Calvin sees Hobbes as alive, while other characters see him as a stuffed animal, a point discussed more fully [[#Hobbes' reality|below]]. Unlike political strips such as [[Garry Trudeau]]'s ''[[Doonesbury]],'' the series doesn't mention specific political figures, but it does examine broad issues like [[environmentalism]] and the flaws of [[opinion poll]]s {{ref_harvard|Astor2|Astor 1989|none}}.
Because of Watterson's strong anti-[[merchandising]] sentiments {{ref_harvard|Dean|Dean 1987|none}} and his reluctance to return to the spotlight, almost no legitimate ''Calvin and Hobbes'' licensed material exists outside of the book collections, but collectors do collect items that were officially approved for marketing purposes[http://ignatz.brinkster.net/citems.html]. Two notable exceptions to the licensing embargo were the publication of two 16-month wall calendars and the textbook ''Teaching with Calvin and Hobbes''.
However, the strip's immense popularity has led to the appearance of various "[[Counterfeit|bootleg]]" items, including T-shirts, keychains, bumper stickers, and window decals, often including obscene language or references wholly uncharacteristic of the whimsical spirit of Watterson's work.
==History==
''Calvin and Hobbes'' was first conceived when Watterson, having worked in an advertising job he detested, began devoting his spare time to [[cartooning]], his true love. He explored various strip ideas but all were rejected by the syndicates to which he sent them. However, he did receive a positive response on one strip, which featured a side character (the main character's little brother) who had a stuffed tiger. Told that these characters were the strongest, Watterson began a new strip centered around them. The [[syndicate]] ([[United Features Syndicate]]) which gave him this advice actually rejected the new strip, and Watterson endured a few more rejections before [[Universal Press Syndicate]] decided to take it {{ref_harvard|Christie|Christie 1987|none}} {{ref_harvard|Dean|Dean 1987|none}}.
The first strip was published on [[November 18]], [[1985]] and the series quickly became a hit. Within a year of [[print syndication|syndication]], the strip was published in roughly 250 newspapers. By [[April 1]] [[1987]], only sixteen months after the strip began, Watterson and his work were featured in an article by the ''[[Los Angeles Times]]'', one of the nation's major newspapers {{ref_harvard|Dean|Dean 1987|none}}. ''Calvin and Hobbes'' twice earned Watterson the [[Reuben Award]] from the [[National Cartoonists Society]], in the [[Outstanding Cartoonist of the Year]] category, first in 1986 and again in 1988. (He was nominated again in 1992.) Also, the Society awarded him the Humor Comic Strip Award for 1988.
Before long, the strip was in wide circulation outside the United States; for more information on publication in various countries and languages, see [[Calvin and Hobbes in translation|''Calvin and Hobbes'' in translation]].
Watterson took two extended breaks from writing new strips—from May 1991 to February 1992, and from April through December of 1994.
In 1995, Watterson sent a letter via his syndicate to all editors whose [[newspaper]]s carried his strip. It contained the following:
::I will be stopping ''Calvin and Hobbes'' at the end of the year. This was not a recent or an easy decision, and I leave with some sadness. My interests have shifted however, and I believe I've done what I can do within the constraints of daily deadlines and small panels. I am eager to work at a more thoughtful pace, with fewer artistic compromises. I have not yet decided on future projects, but my relationship with Universal Press Syndicate will continue.
::That so many newspapers would carry ''Calvin and Hobbes'' is an honor I'll long be proud of, and I've greatly appreciated your support and indulgence over the last decade. Drawing this comic strip has been a privilege and a pleasure, and I thank you for giving me the opportunity.
The 3150th<!--can anyone cite this?--> and final strip ran on Sunday, [[December 31]], [[1995]]. It depicted Calvin and Hobbes outside in freshly-fallen snow, reveling in the wonder and excitement of the [[winter]] scene. "It's a magical world, Hobbes ol' buddy!" Calvin exclaims in the last panel. "Let's go exploring!"
===Syndication and Watterson's artistic standards===
From the outset, Watterson found himself at odds with the syndicate, which urged him to begin merchandising the characters and touring the country to promote the first collections of comic strips. Watterson refused. To him, the integrity of the strip and its artist would be undermined by commercialization, which he saw as a major negative influence in the world of cartoon art {{ref_harvard|West|West 1989|none}}.
Watterson also grew increasingly frustrated by the gradual shrinking of available space for comics in the newspapers. He lamented that without space for anything more than simple dialogue or spare artwork, comics as an art form were becoming dilute, bland, and unoriginal {{ref_harvard|Astor1|Astor 1988|none}} {{ref_harvard|West|West 1989|none}}. Watterson strove for a full-page version of his strip (as opposed to the few cells allocated for most strips). He longed for the artistic freedom allotted classic strips such as ''[[Little Nemo]]'' and ''[[Krazy Kat]]'', and he gave a sample of what could be accomplished with such liberty in the opening pages of the Sunday strip compilation, ''The Calvin and Hobbes Lazy Sunday Book.''
During Watterson's first [[sabbatical]] from the strip, Universal Press Syndicate continued to charge newspapers full price to re-run old ''Calvin and Hobbes'' strips. Few editors approved of the move, but the strip was so popular that they had little choice but to continue to run it for fear that competing newspapers might pick it up and draw its fans away. Then, upon Watterson's return, Universal Press announced that Watterson had demanded that his Sunday strip be guaranteed half of a newspaper or tabloid page for its space allotment. Many editors and even a few cartoonists, such as [[Bil Keane]] (''[[The Family Circus]]''), criticized him for what they perceived as arrogance and an unwillingness to abide by the normal practices of the cartoon business—a charge that Watterson ignored. Watterson had negotiated the deal to allow himself more creative freedom in the Sunday comics. Prior to the switch, he had to have a certain number of panels with little freedom as to layout (due to the fact that in different newspapers the strip would appear at a different width); afterwards, he was free to go with whatever graphic layout he wanted, however unorthodox. His frustration with the standard space division requirements is evident in strips before the change; for example, a 1988 Sunday strip published before the deal is one large panel, but with all the action and dialogue in the bottom part of the panel so editors could crop the top part if they wanted to fit the strip into a smaller space. Watterson's explanation for the switch:
::I took a sabbatical after resolving a long and emotionally draining fight to prevent ''Calvin and Hobbes'' from being merchandised. Looking for a way to rekindle my enthusiasm for the duration of a new contract term, I proposed a redesigned Sunday format that would permit more panel flexibility. To my surprise and delight, Universal responded with an offer to market the strip as an unbreakable half page (more space than I'd dared to ask for), despite the expected resistance of editors.
::To this day, my syndicate assures me that some editors liked the new format, appreciated the difference, and were happy to run the larger strip, but I think it's fair to say that this was not the most common reaction. The syndicate had warned me to prepare for numerous cancellations of the Sunday feature, but after a few weeks of dealing with howling, purple-faced editors, the syndicate suggested that papers could reduce the strip to the size tabloid newspapers used for their smaller sheets of paper. … I focused on the bright side: I had complete freedom of design and there wer |
Hungry Mind''.
* [[Michael Spivak]]. (Sept 1994) ISBN 0914098896'' Calculus''. Publish or Perish publishing.
* [[Silvanus P. Thompson]] and [[Martin Gardner]]. (1998) ISBN 0312185480 ''Calculus Made Easy''.
* [[Mathematical Association of America]]. (1988) ''Calculus for a New Century; A Pump, Not a Filter'', The Association, Stony Brook, NY. ED 300 252.
==External links==
===Books===
{{book}}
* Keisler, H. Jerome., [http://www.math.wisc.edu/~keisler/calc.html Elementary Calculus: An Approach Using Infinitesimals], University of Wisconsin
* Stroyan, K.D., [http://www.math.uiowa.edu/~stroyan/InfsmlCalculus/InfsmlCalc.htm A Brief Introduction to Infinitesimal Calculus], University of Iowa
* Mauch, Sean, [http://www.its.caltech.edu/~sean/book/unabridged.html ''Sean's Applied Math Book''], CIT, an online textbook that includes a complete introduction to calculus
* Crowell, Benjamin, [http://www.lightandmatter.com/calc/ ''Calculus''], Fullerton College, an online textbook
* Garrett, Paul, [http://www.math.umn.edu/~garrett/calculus/ Notes on First-Year Calculus]
* Hussain, Faraz, [http://www.understandingcalculus.com Understanding Calculus], a complete online book with a conceptual focus
===Web pages===
*[http://mathworld.wolfram.com/Calculus.html MathWorld general article on calculus]
*[http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/Projects/Pearce/Chapters/Ch9_3.html Madhava of Sangamagramma ]
*[http://integrals.wolfram.com/ Online Integrator by Mathematica]
*[http://www.ericdigests.org/pre-9217/calculus.htm The Role of Calculus in College Mathematics]
*[http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/Projects/Pearce/Chapters/Ch8_5.html Work of Bhaskaracharya II]
*[http://ocw.mit.edu/OcwWeb/Mathematics/index.htm Calculus on MIT OpenCourseWare]
[[Category:Calculus|*]]
[[af:Analise]]
[[ca:Càlcul infinitesimal]]
[[de:Infinitesimalrechnung]]
[[eo:Infinitezima kalkulo]]
[[es:Cálculo]]
[[fa:حسابان]]
[[fr:Analyse (mathématiques)]]
[[he:חשבון אינפיניטסימלי]]
[[id:Kalkulus]]
[[io:Kalkulo]]
[[it:Calcolo (matematica)]]
[[ja:微分積分学]]
[[ko:미적분학]]
[[nl:Calculus]]
[[pl:Rachunek różniczkowy i całkowy]]
[[pt:Cálculo]]
[[sco:Calculus]]
[[simple:Calculus]]
[[sk:Infinitezimálny počet]]
[[sr:Калкулус]]
[[sv:Matematisk analys]]
[[th:แคลคูลัส]]
[[vi:Giải tích]]
[[zh:微积分]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Communication</title>
<id>5177</id>
<revision>
<id>41382574</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-26T23:45:58Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Bookofjude</username>
<id>94969</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Revert to revision 40388961 using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Communication''' is the process of exchanging [[information]], usually via a common [[Communications protocol|protocol]]. "[[Communication studies]]" is the [[academic discipline]] focused on communication forms, processes and meanings, including [[speech]], interpersonal and organizational communication. "[[Mass communication]]" is a more specialized academic discipline focused on the institutions, practice and effects of [[journalism]], [[broadcasting]], [[advertising]], [[public relations]] and related mediated communication directed at a large, undifferentiated or segmented audience.
==Forms and components of human communication==
[[Human]]s communicate in order to share knowledge and experiences, give or receive orders, or cooperate. Common forms of human communication include [[sign language]], [[speech|speaking]], [[writing]], [[gesture]]s, and [[broadcasting]]. Communication can be interactive, [[transactive communication|transactive]], intentional, or unintentional; it can also be [[verbal communication|verbal]] or [[nonverbal communication|nonverbal]]. Communication varies considerably in form and style when considering scale. Internal communication, within oneself, is [[intrapersonal communication|intrapersonal]] while communication between two individuals is [[interpersonal communication|interpersonal]]. At larger scales of communication both the system of communication and media of communication change. [[Small group]] communication takes place in settings of between three and 12 individuals creating a different set of interactions than [[large group|large groups]] such as [[organizational communication|organizational communication]] in settings like companies or communities. At the largest scales [[mass communication]] describes communication to huge numbers of individuals through [[mass media]]. Communication also has a time component, being either [[synchronous]] or [[asynchronous]].
There are a number of [[theories of communication]] that attempt to explain human communication, and various theories relating to human communication draw upon different core philosophies.
For instance, some theories presuppose communication as a five-step process that entails a sender's creation (or encoding) of a message, and the message's transmission through a [[Communications channel|channel]] to another individual, organization or a group of people. This message is received and then interpreted. Finally this message is responded to, which completes the process of communication. This model of the communcation process is based on a model of signal transmission known as the [[Shannon-Weaver model]].
Yet another communication model can be seen in the work of [[Roman Jakobson]]. Six elements and their correlative functions comprise this particular model.
== Communication technology ==
In [[telecommunications]], the first transatlantic two-way [[radio]] broadcast occurred on [[July 25]] [[1920]].
As the technology evolved, communication protocol also had to evolve; for example, [[Thomas Edison]] had to discover that ''hello'' was the least ambiguous greeting by voice over a distance; previous greetings such as ''hail'' tended to be lost or garbled in the transmission.
As regards human communication these diverse fields can be divided into those which cultivate a thoughtful exchange between a small number of people ([[debate]], [[talk radio]], [[e-mail]], [[personal letter]]s) on the one hand; and those which disseminate broadly a simple message ([[Public relations]], [[television]], [[film|cinema]]).
Our indebtedness to the [[Ancient Romans]] in the field of communication does not end with the Latin root "communicare". They devised what might be described as the first real mail or [[postal system]] in order to centralize control of the [[Roman Empire|empire]] from [[Rome]]. This allowed Rome to gather knowledge about events in its many widespread provinces.
As the Romans well knew, communication is as much about taking in towards the centre as it is about putting out towards the extremes.
In [[virtual management]] an important issue is [[computer-mediated communication]].
The view people take toward communication is changing, as new technologies change the way they communicate and organize. In fact, it is the changing technology of communication that tends to make the most frequent and widespread changes in a society - take for example the rise of [[web cam chat]] and other network-based visual communications between distant parties. The latest [[trend]] in communication, decentralized [[personal networking]], is termed [[Smart mob|smartmobbing]].
==Communication barriers==
[[Anxiety]] associated with communication is known as ''communication apprehension''. Such anxiety tends to be influenced by one's [[self-concept]]. Besides apprehension, communication can be impaired via [[bypassing]], [[indiscrimination]], and [[polarization (psychology)|polarization]]. Failing to share a common [[language]] is also an important barrier in many parts of the world.
Apart from that there may be following barriers in communication
# Language
# Time lag
# Politics
# Physical (such as background noise)
# Emotional
== Examples of communication ==
* [[jungle drums]]
* [[smoke signals]]
* Non Verbal Acts: [[sign language|hand signals]] and Body Language
* [[semaphores]] (use of devices to increase the distance "hand" signals can be seen from by increasing the size of the movable object)
* [[vocalization]] (also called ''[[speech]]'' when occurring between [[human]]s)
* [[territorial marking]] (animals such as dogs - stay away from my territory)
* [[Pheromones]] communicate (amongst other things) "I'm ready to mate" - well known example is moths where the pheromones are put into traps to attract them
* Gold-plated disk (sent on [[Voyager 1]] into interstellar space)
* [[writing]]
* [[telecommunications]] - use of technology to aid and enhance distance communications
**[[Digital]] telecommunications
***[[encoding]] and [[decoding]]
***[[data compression|compression]] and [[encryption]] (as they relate to enhancing or specifying communications) for example the use of encryption to turn a one to many into a one to one communication.
***[[Digital Transmission Media]] including [[telegraphy]] and [[computer network]]
**[[analog (signal)|analog]] telecommunications
***[[telephone]]
***[[radio]]
***[[Television|TV]]
***[[Photography]]
***[[Art]] (including [[Theatre Arts]])
== References ==
[1] Dance, Frank. "The 'concept' of communication. ''Journal of Communication, 20'', 201-210 (1970).
==See also==
* [[Knowledge visualization]]
* [[Communication basic topics]]
* [[Communications satellite]]
* [[Computer network]]
* [[Diffusion of innovations]]
* [[Ethernet]]
* [[Global telephone network]] - also known as the Public Switched Telephone Network [[PSTN]]
* [[Information theory]]
* [[Internet]]
* [[Journalism]]
* [[Linguistics]]
* [[Mail]]
* [[Mass media]]
* [[Media studies]]
* [[Neuro-linguistic programming]]
* [[Radioteletype]]
* [[Rhetorical criticism]]
* [[Semaphore]]
* [[Social software]]
* [[Telegraphy]]
* [[Telephony]]
* [[Toastmasters International]]
* [[Vocalization]]
* [[Surveillance]]
* [[Traffic |
The text of the article should go AFTER this section. See: -->
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{{Infobox Dogbreed
| image = Beagle 600.jpg
| image_caption = A tri-color Beagle.
| name = Beagle
| altname = English Beagle
| country = [[United Kingdom]]
| fcigroup = 6
| fcisection = 1
| fcinum = 161
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| akcgroup = Hound
| akcstd = http://www.akc.org/breeds/beagle/index.cfm
| ankcgroup = Group 4 (Hounds)
| ankcstd = http://www.ankc.aust.com/beagle.html
| ckcgroup = Group 2 - Hounds
| ckcstd = http://www.ckc.ca/Default.aspx?tabid=137&Breed_Code=BAL
| kcukgroup = Hound
| kcukstd = http://www.the-kennel-club.org.uk/discoverdogs/hound/h770.htm
| nzkcgroup = Hounds
| nzkcstd = http://www.nzkc.org.nz/br416.html
| ukcgroup = Scenthound Breeds
| ukcstd = http://mail.ukcdogs.com/UKCweb.nsf/80de88211ee3f2dc8525703f004ccb1e/78e507f1bb23b06b8525704c0052462a?OpenDocument
}}
<!-- End Infobox Dogbreed info. Article Begins Here -->
A '''Beagle''' is a medium-sized [[dog]] breed and a member of the [[hound]] group, similar in appearance to a [[Foxhound]] but smaller with shorter legs, and with longer, softer [[ear]]s. Beagles are scent hounds used primarily for hunting rabbits to larger hares.
== Appearance ==
The Beagle has a somewhat oval [[skull]]; a medium-length, square-cut [[muzzle]]; large, hound-like [[hazel (color)|hazel]] or [[brown]] [[eye]]s; long, low-set ears (big), turning towards the [[cheek]]s slightly and rounded at the tips; a medium-length, strong [[neck]] without folds in the [[skin]]; a broad [[chest]] narrowing to a tapered [[abdomen]] and [[waist]]; a short, slightly curved [[tail]]; an overall muscular body; and a medium-length, smooth, hard coat. One standard calls for ideally shaped beagles to be twice as long as tall, and twice as tall as wide.
They appear in a range of colors, not limited to the familiar tricolor ([[white]] with large [[black]] and light [[brown]] spots). Two-color varieties are always white with colored areas, including such colors as "lemon", a very light tan; "red", a reddish, almost orangish brown; "liver", a darker brown, is the only colour not allowed. "Ticked" varieties may be either white or black with different colored spots ("''ticking''"), such as the bluetick beagle, which has spots that appear to be a midnight-blue color, similar to the [[bluetick coonhound]]. Some tricolor beagles also have ticking of various colors in their white areas. The brown is usually the last color to appear on beagles, usually taking 1-2 years to fully develop. Beagles have a white-tipped tail, or "flag", which is important in locating them in the field due to their short height.
===Breed varieties===
The [[American Kennel Club]] and the [[Canadian Kennel Club]] recognize two separate varieties of Beagle: the 13-inch for hounds less than 13 inches, and the 15-inch for those between 13 and 15 inches. The [[Kennel Club (UK)]] and [[Fédération Cynologique Internationale|FCI]] affiliated clubs recognize a single type, with a height of between 13 and 16 inches.
In Medieval times, there was a breed called a "pocket beagle", which stood at 8&ndash;9 inches. This breed no longer exists, and many claims by some breeders to have pocket beagles for sale usually indicate poor breeding practices.
== Temperament ==
[[Image:Copper.jpg|thumb|left|The Beagle has a very well-developed sense of smell]]
The Beagle has a very good temper and gentle disposition. Beagles are intelligent, but are stubborn and may be hard to train (due to their strong will). They are an especially loyal breed and are very friendly. They rarely show signs of aggression, and are excellent with children. Beagles also get along with other dogs, provided that they have been socialized correctly.
They are playful and energetic dogs who enjoy long walks. Never let a Beagle off its leash except in a confined area. If released, it may follow a scent endlessly or will incessantly try to tag along with other dogs.
Beagles are pack animals, and can be prone to separation anxiety. Beagles are best in pairs if they are going to be alone for long periods of time.
== Health ==
Beagles are a healthy breed, often living for 12 to 15 years, but they do have a few common health problems.
The Beagle's ears are long and floppy, which can trap warm moist air or prevent air from reaching the ear canals. This condition can be successfully treated with regular cleaning daily and sometimes medication for major cases. Careless bathing can get water into their ears, potentially causing [[ear infection]]s.
Sometimes their eyelashes grow into the eye and irritate the eye, also known as [[distichia|distichiasis]]; this might require surgery to remove the eyelashes.
Obesity is a common health problem in Beagles due to people overfeeding them in response to their playful and kind behavior. A healthy Beagle should have some definition to its waist and have an hourglass appearance when viewed from above. You should be able to feel their ribs. Excessive weight can lead to problems such as [[hip dysplasia]] and heart trouble. They need exercise and a good diet.
Some Beagles are prone to [[congenital heart disease]].
In some rare cases Beagles may develop [[polyarthritis]] (where the immune system attacks the joints) even at a young age. This can be sometimes treated effectively with [[cortisone]].
Beagles are also prone to seizures/epilepsy. This disease is treatable with medication.
== History ==
[[Image:Beagle_resting.jpg|thumb|left|A Beagle taking a break.]]
Beagles (or their ancestors) appear to have been used for hare hunting in England as early as the reign of [[Edward III of England|Edward III]], who had a pack of up to 120 hare hounds with him on the battlefield during the [[Hundred Years' War]]. The first mention of the beagle in English literature by name dates from 1475. The origin of the word "beagle" is uncertain, although it has been suggested that the word derives from the [[French language|French]] ''begueule'' (meaning "open throat", or more colloquially, "loudmouth") or from an [[Old English language|Old English]], French, or [[Welsh language|Welsh]] term ''beag'', meaning "small." Other possibilities include the French ''beugler'' (meaning "to bellow") and the [[German language|German]] ''begele'' (meaning "to scold").
Beagles were originally used for [[hunting]], and still are in some places. [[Beagling]] has been referred to as "the poor person's [[foxhunting]]," as a Beagle pack (30&ndash;40 dogs) is followed on foot, not [[horse]]back. The usual quarry is the [[hare]]. Beagles are admired by some for the bloodcurdling "Beagle music" they emit when in full pursuit, also called ''tonguing''. Beagling, like foxhunting, is banned in [[England]]. [[Drag hunting]] is another Beagle sport.
===Working life===
[[Image:Cadet2.jpg|thumb|right|A very happy beagle puppy]]
Beagles have superb [[nose]]s and, despite their self-willed temperament, are sometimes used as sniffer dogs for [[recreational drug use|drug]] detection. More often, though, they are the breed of choice of the [[United States Department of Agriculture]] to detect food items in [[luggage]] being transported into the U.S. The force is called the [[Beagle Brigade]] and these dogs wear a green jacket. Beagles were chosen because they are small and easy to care for, and because they are not as intimidating for people who are uncomfortable around dogs. They are also used for this purpose by the [[Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries]] in [[New Zealand]] and by the [[Australian Quarantine and Inspection Service]] (for whom they wear maroon jackets).
Beagles are the dog breed most often used in [[animal testing]], due to ther passive nature.
== Miscellaneous ==
===Beagles in popular culture===
* The ''[[Peanuts]]'' [[comic strip]] character [[Snoopy]] and his siblings are beagles.
* [[Phyllis Reynolds Naylor]]'s ''[[Shiloh (book)|Shiloh]]'' trilogy is about a beagle.
* The [[Beagle Boys]] in [[The Walt Disney Company|Disney]]'s [[DuckTales]].
* Character Audrey fforbes-Hamilton has a Beagle in the BBC series 'To the Manor Born'
* Lou in [[Cats and Dogs]]
* [[Porthos (Star Trek)|Porthos]] in [[Star Trek: Enterprise]]
* Buster in [[The Wonder Years]].
* Buckley in [[The Royal Tenenbaums]]
===Famous beagles===
* US President [[Lyndon Johnson]] owned three Beagles named Him, Her, and Edgar.
==External links==
* [http://clubs.akc.org/NBC/ National Beagle Club of America]
* [http://www.thebeagleclub.co.uk/ The Beagle Club (UK)]
* [http://www.petplace.com/dogs/choosing-a-beagle/page1.aspx Choosing a Beagle]
[[Category:Dog breeds]]
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[[da:Beagle]]
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[[ja:ビーグル]]
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[[pl:Beagle (rasa psów)]]
[[pt:Beagle]]
[[sv:Beagle (hundras)]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>British Monarchs</title>
<id>4369</id>
<revision>
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<timestamp>2005-10-01T21:23:42Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Mais oui!</username>
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<minor />
<comment>correct link</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[List of monarchs in the British Isles]]</text>
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<title>Boiled leather</title>
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<timestamp>2005-10-01T22:31:33Z</timestamp>
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<username>GregAsche</usernam |
derestimates the difficulty in implementing government policy and the amount of possible political resistance to certain orders.
==Important coups in the 19th century==
* [[1851]]: [[French coup of 1851]].
*[[1874]]: [[Arsenio Martínez Campos]] overthrows the [[First Spanish Republic]] and installs [[Alfonso XII of Spain|Alfonso XII]] as king.
==Important coups in the 20th century==
*[[1910]]: A [[Republicanism|republican]] coup d'état deposes [[List of Portuguese monarchs|King]] [[Manuel II of Portugal]] and establishes the [[Portuguese First Republic]].
*[[1920]]: The [[Kapp Putsch]], a failed coup attempt by the Freikorps Ehrhardt.
*[[1923]]: [[Miguel Primo de Rivera]] installs a [[Spain under the Restoration#Primo de Rivera's Dictatorship (1923 - 1930)|dictatorship]] without overthrowing the [[Alfonso XIII of Spain|king]].
*1923: The [[Beer Hall Putsch]], a failed coup attempt by [[Adolf Hitler]] in [[Germany]].
*[[1926]]: Coup of [[Jozef Pilsudski]] in [[Poland]].
*1926: [[28th May 1926 coup d'état|28th May military coup]] of [[Gomes da Costa]] in [[Portugal]].
*[[1932]]: The [[Mäntsälä Rebellion]], failed coup attempt by the [[Lapua Movement]] in [[Finland]].
*1932: The [[May 15 Incident|May 15th Incident]], a military coup in [[Japan]].
*[[1933]]: Failed coup against [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] alleged in the [[United States]] (see [[Business Plot]]).
*[[1934]]: Coup of [[Kārlis Ulmanis]] in [[Latvia]].
*1934: Coup of [[Konstantin Päts]] in [[Estonia]].
*[[1935]]: Coup in [[History of Greece|Greece]].
*1936 Xian Incident, General [[Chiang Kai-shek]] was kidnapped by his deputy Zhang Hsu-liang, who demanded Chiang to stop fighting the Chinese communist. Madame Chiang and her brother T.V. Soongs' subsequent negotiation with Zhang ensure the Generalissimo's release. But Chiang's cease-fire with the Chinese communist gave them time to recuperate and strengthen so much that after WWII their troops outnumber Chiang's and they were able to take over all China, with the exception of Taiwan.
*[[1936]]: Part of the army seizes control of parts of [[Spain]] commencing the [[Spanish Civil War]]. Later General [[Francisco Franco]] assumes control of the country.
*[[1936]]: The [[February 26 Incident|February 26th Incident]], a failed coup attempt in [[Japan]] by junior military officers that did succeed in installing a militarist government.
*[[1937]]: Brazilian president [[Getúlio Vargas]], governing democratically until then, launches a self-coup and becomes the Dictator of Brazilian [[Estado Novo (Brazil)|Estado Novo]].
*[[1942]]: French resistance coup in [[Algiers]], by which 400 Civil French patriots neutralized Vichyst XIXth Army Corps in Algiers during 15 hours, arrested vichyst generals (Juin, Darlan, etc.), and so allowed the immediate success of [[Operation Torch]].
*[[1943]]: Military coup in [[Argentina]] leads to the ascent of extremely popular President [[Juan Perón]].
*[[1944]]: The [[July 20 Plot]], a failed attempt to overthrow [[Adolf Hitler|Hitler]] in [[Nazi Germany]], led by [[Claus von Stauffenberg]].
*[[1945]]: [[Getúlio Vargas]]'s government ends due to a coup, led by General Mourão, one of his former supporters.
*[[1947]]: Coup in [[Thailand]].
*[[1948]]: [[Communist]] coup in [[Czechoslovakia]].
*[[1952]]: Military coup in [[Egypt]].
*1952: [[Fulgencio Batista]] leads successful and bloodless coup to topple democratically elected government of [[Cuba]].
*[[1953]]: Anglo-American coup in [[Iran]], codenamed [[Operation Ajax]].
*[[1954]]: Military coup in [[Paraguay]].
*[[1955]]: A contra-coup in [[Brazil]] led by [[Marechal Lott]] grants the presidency to elected one, [[Juscelino Kubitschek]] and overtrhown the two-days-long legal government of [[Carlos Coimbra da Luz|Carlos Luz]].
*1955: Military coup overthrows [[Argentine]] President Juan Perón
*[[1958]]: Military coup in [[Pakistan]]. Army Chief and Defence Minister Gen. [[Ayub Khan]] overthrows the government of [[Iskander Mirza]] and becomes President after a winning a rigged referendum.
*1958: Civic/Military coup in [[Venezuela]], overthrowing Marcos Perez Jimenez.
*1958: Military coup in [[History of Iraq|Iraq]] overthrows the monarchy.
*[[1960]]: Military coup in [[Turkey]].
*[[1961]]: The [[Coup d'état of May Sixteenth]] in [[South Korea]]. [[Park Chunghee]] established presidency.
*[[1962]]: Failed [[Military]] backed and [[Catholic]] action led [[Coup]] in [[Sri Lanka]] then [[Ceylon]].
*[[1963]]: Military coup in [[South Vietnam]], overthrowing [[Ngo Dinh Diem]].
*1963: Alleged coup in the United States, overthrowing [[John F. Kennedy]] (See [[Kennedy assassination theories]]).
*1963: Military coup in [[Ecuador]].
*1963: Military coup in [[Syria]].
*1963: Coup in [[Iraq]] backed by the CIA, followed by a counter-coup.
*[[1964]]: Military coup in [[History of Brazil (1945-1964)#Goulart and the fall of the Second Republic|Brazil]].
*1964: Military coup in [[South Vietnam]], overthrowing [[Duong Van Minh]].
*1965: Military coup in [[Indonesia]]
*[[1966]]: Military coup in [[Ghana]].
*1966: Military coup in [[Nigeria]] leading to end of first republic.
*1966: [[Shakhbut Bin-Sultan Al Nahyan]], the ruler of the [[United Arab Emirates]] was deposed in a bloodless coup, being replaced by his brother [[Zayed bin Sultan Al Nahayan|Sheikh Zayed Bin-Sultan Al Nahyan]].
*[[1967]]: Military coup in [[History of Greece|Greece]]. See [[Greek military junta of 1967-1974]].
*1967: Military coup in [[Nigeria]]. [[Yakubu Gowon]] comes to power.
*[[1968]]: Coup in [[Panama]] by [[Omar Torrijos]].
*1968: Coup in [[Iraq]] backed by the CIA establishes rule of the [[Ba'ath Party]].
*[[1969]]: [[Moammar Al Qadhafi|Colonel Qadhafi]] overthrows monarchy in [[Libya]].
*1969: Military coup in [[Somalia]].
*[[1970]]: Military coup in Pakistan, Army Chief Gen. [[Yahya Khan]] forces President Field Marshal [[Ayub Khan]] (who himself came to power in a coup) to hand over power to him.
*1970: Coup in [[Bolivia]], soon followed by a leftist countercoup.
*1970: Coup in [[Cambodia]], led by Prime Minister General [[Lon Nol]]. See [[Cambodian coup of 1970]].
*[[1971]]: Military coup in [[Turkey]] ([[Coup by Memorandum]]).
*1971: Military coup in [[Uganda]] led by [[Idi Amin]].
*[[1973]]: Military coup in [[History of Chile|Chile]] supported by the U.S. The democratically elected [[Marxism|Marxist]] president [[Salvador Allende]] is replaced by the [[military dictatorship]] of [[Augusto Pinochet]]. See [[Chilean coup of 1973]].
*1973: The President of [[Uruguay]] dissolves Parliament and heads a coup.
*[[1974]]: Military coup in [[Portugal]] ([[Carnation Revolution]]).
*1974: Military coup in [[Cyprus]] sponsored by [[Greek military junta of 1967-1974|Greek colonels]] overthrows [[Makarios]] and triggers [[Cyprus dispute| invasion by Turkey]].
*[[1975]]: Military coup in [[Ethiopia]] by the communist junta led by General Aman Andom and Megistu Hailemariam.
*1975: Military coup in [[Bangladesh]] overthrows & kills [[Sheikh Mujibur Rahman]].
*1975: Military coup in Nigeria overthrows [[Yakubu Gowon]]. [[Murtala Ramat Mohammed]] comes to power.
*1975: Military [[Chadian coup of 1975|coup in Chad]] overthrows and kills [[Heads of state of Chad|President]] [[François (Ngarta) Tombalbaye|François Tombalbaye]].
*[[1976]]: Military coup in [[Ecuador]].
*[[1976]]: Military coup in [[Thailand]].
*1976: Failed coup attempt in Nigeria. [[Murtala Ramat Mohammed]] killed but [[Obasanjo]] survives and becomes head of state.
*1976: Military coup in [[Argentina]] leads to the [[Proceso de Reorganización Nacional]].
*[[1978]]: Communist coup in [[Afghanistan]].
*[[1979]]: Military coup in [[Pakistan]]. Army Chief Gen. [[Muhammad Zia-ul-Haq]] overthrows the civilian government and hangs Prime Minister [[Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto]] after a sham trial.
*1979: The [[Coup d'état of December Twelfth]] in [[South Korea]]. [[Chun Doo-hwan]] established presidentship.
*[[1980]]: 'Cocaine Coup' in [[Bolivia]] of [[Luis García Meza Tejada]].
*1980: Military coup in [[Turkey]].
*1980: Military coup in [[Liberia]].
*1980: Successful coup in [[Suriname]] by military officers led by [[Dési Bouterse]] that resulted in [[military rule]] until [[1988]].
*[[1981]]: [[23-F|Failed coup]] in [[Spain]] led by [[Antonio Tejero]].
*[[1982]]: [[1982 Kenyan coup|Failed coup in Kenya]] by some members of the [[Kenya Air Force]].
*[[1983]]: Military palace coup in [[Nigeria]]. Second republic overthrown.
*[[1985]]: Military coup in [[Uganda]] led by [[Basilio Olara Okello|Basilio Okello]] and [[Tito Okello]].
*1985: Military coup in [[Nigeria]]. [[Ibrahim Babangida]] replaces [[Muhammadu Buhari]].
*[[1984]]: [[Maaouya Ould Sid'Ahmed Taya]] raise to power in [[Mauritania]] after a coup that overthrow the president [[Mohamed Khouna Ould Haidalla]].
*[[1989]]: Failed coup attempt in the [[Philippines]] led by Col. [[Gregorio Honasan]].
*[[1990]]: Failed coup attempt in Nigeria led by Col. Orkar.
*[[1991]]: [[Soviet coup attempt of 1991|Failed coup attempt]] (the so-called ''August Putsch'') in the [[Soviet Union]].
*[[1992]]: [[Alberto Fujimori#Self-coup|Alberto Fujimori]] launches a self-coup in [[Peru]].
==Recent coups and coup attempts==
*[[1997]]: Military coup in [[Turkey]], called 'post-modern coup' (February 28), overthrows the coalition government.
*[[1999]]: Military coup in Pakistan. [[Pakistani Army|Army]] refuses to obey Prime Minister [[Nawaz Sharif]]'s government. General [[Pervez Musharraf]] becomes dictator (with the title "Chief Executive") and exiles Nawaz Sharif to [[Saudi Arabia]].
*[[1999]]: Military coup in [[Côte d'Ivoire]] (Ivory Coast).
*[[2000]]: Unsuccessful coup in [[Fiji]], under [[George Speight]].
*[[2000]]: A coup in [[Ecuador]] with strong support from indigenous groups and led by [[Lúcio Gutierrez]] overthrows president [[Jamil Mahuad]].
*[[2000]]: Overthrow of President [[Fujimori]] in [[Peru]].
*[[2002]]: [[Venezuelan coup attempt of 2002|Unsuccessful coup]] to o |
tlying villages.
In 1561 lightning struck [[St Paul's Cathedral|Old St Paul&#8217;s Cathedral]]. The roof was repaired, but the spire was never replaced. In 1565 [[Sir Thomas Gresham|Thomas Gresham]] founded a new mercantile exchange in the City, which was awarded the title the &#8220;[[Royal Exchange (London)|Royal Exchange]]&#8221; by [[Elizabeth I of England|Queen Elizabeth]] in 1571.
[[Image:The Swan cropped.png|thumb|A 1596 sketch of a performance in progress at The Swan]]
The late 16th century, when [[William Shakespeare]] and his contemporaries lived and worked in London, was one of the most lustrous periods in the city&#8217;s cultural history. There was considerably hostility to the development of the [[Elizabethan theatre|theatre]] however. Public entertainments produced crowds, and crowds were feared by the authorities because they might become mobs, and by many ordinary citizens who dreaded that large gatherings might contribute to the spread of plague. Theatre itself was discountenanced by the increasingly influential [[Puritan]] strand in the nation. However Queen Elizabeth loved plays, which were performed for her privately at Court, and approved of public performances of ''" such plays only as were fitted to yield honest recreation and no example of evil."'' On April 11, 1582, the Lords of the [[Privy Council of the United Kingdom|Council]] wrote to the Lord Mayor to the effect that, as ''"her Majesty sometimes took delight in those pastimes, it had been thought not unfit, having regard to the season of the year and the clearance of the city from infection, to allow of certain companies of players in London, partly that they might thereby attain more dexterity and perfection the better to content her Majesty."''
Nonetheless the theatres were mostly built outside of the City boundaries, especially on the south side of the river, which was already established as an entertainment centre where less salubrious entertainments such as [[bear-baiting]] might be seen. Theatres on [[Bankside]] included [[Globe Theatre|The Globe]], [[The Rose (theatre)|The Rose]], [[The Swan (theatre)|The Swan]], and The Hope. [[The Theatre]], and The Curtain were in located in [[Shoreditch]], beyond the City&#8217;s eastern wall, and the Blackfriars Theatre, although within the walls, was outside of the City&#8217;s jurisdiction.
During the mostly calm later years of Elizabeth's some of her courtiers and some of the wealthier citizens of London built themselves country residences in [[Middlesex]], [[Essex]] and [[Surrey]]. This was an early stirring of the villa movement, the taste for residences which were neither of the city nor on an agricultural estate, but when the last of the Tudors died in 1603, London was still very compact.
==Stuart London (1603-1714)==
[[Image:Panorama of London by Claes Van Visscher, 1616.jpg|thumb|600px|A panorama of London by [[Claes Van Visscher]], 1616. [[Old St Paul's]] had lost its spire by this time. The two theatres on the foreground (Southwark) side of the Thames are [[The Bear Garden]] and [[Globe Theatre|The Globe]]. The large church in the foreground is St Mary Overie, now [[Southwark Cathedral]].]]
London's expansion beyond the boundaries of the City was decisively established in the 17th century. In the opening years of that century the immediate environs of the City, with the principal exception of the aristocratic residences in the direction of Westminster, were still considered insalubrious. Immediately to the north was [[Moorfields]], which had recently been drained and laid out in walks, but it was frequented by beggars and travellers who crossed it in order to get into London tried not to linger. Adjoining Moorfields were [[Finsbury]] Fields, a favourite practising ground for the archers. [[Mile End]], then a common on the Great Eastern Road, was famous as a rendezvous for the troops.
The preparations for the coronation of [[James I of England|King James I]] were interrupted by a severe plague epidemic, which may have killed over thirty thousand people. The [[Lord Mayor's Show]], which had been discontinued for some years, was revived by order of the king in 1609. The dissolved monastery of the [[London Charterhouse|Charterhouse]], which had been bought and sold by the courtiers several times, was purchased by Thomas Button for £13,000. The new hospital, chapel, and schoolhouse were begun in 1611. [[Charterhouse School]] was to be one of the principal [[public school (England)|public schools]] in London until it moved to Surrey in Victorian times, and the site is still used as a [[Barts and The London, Queen Mary's School of Medicine and Dentistry|medical school]].
The general meeting-place of Londoners in the day-time was the nave of [[St Paul's Cathedral|Old St Paul's]]. Merchants conducted business in the aisles, and used the font as a counter upon which to make their payments; lawyers received clients at their particular pillars; and the unemployed looked for work. St Paul's Churchyard was the centre of the book trade and [[Fleet Street]] was a centre of public entertainment. Under James I the theatre, which established itself so firmly in the latter years of Elizabeth, grew further in popularity. The performances at the public theatres were complemented by elaborate [[masques]] at the royal court and at the inns of court.
[[Charles I of England|Charles I]] acceded to the throne in 1625. During his reign aristocrats began to inhabit the [[West End]] in large numbers. In addition to those who had specific business at court, increasing numbers of country landowners and their families lived in London for part of the year simply for the social life. This was the beginning of the "London season". [[Lincoln's Inn Fields]], was built about 1629. The piazza of [[Covent Garden]], designed by England's first classically trained architect [[Inigo Jones]] followed in about 1632. The neighbouring streets were built shortly afterwards, and the names of Henrietta, Charles, James, King and York Streets were given after members of the royal family.
[[image:Samuel_Pepys.jpg|thumb|Chronicler of Stuart London, [[Samuel Pepys]]]]
In January 1642 five members of parliament whom the King wished to arrest were granted refuge in the City. In August of the same year the King raised his banner at [[Nottingham]], and during the [[English Civil War]] London took the side of the parliament. Initially the king had the upper hand in military terms and in November he won the Battle of Brentford a few miles to the west of London. The City organised a new makeshift army and Charles hesitated and retreated. Subsequently an extensive system of fortifications was built to protect London from a renewed attack by the Royalists. This comprised a strong earthen rampart, enhanced with bastions and redoubts. It was well beyond the City walls and encompassed the whole urban area, including Westminster and Southwark. London was not seriously threatened by the royalists again, and the financial resources of the City made an important contribution to the parliamentarians victory in the war.
The unsanitary and overcrowded City of London has suffered from the numerous outbreaks of the plague many times over the centuries, but in Britain it is the last major outbreak which is remembered as the "[[Great Plague]]" It occurred in 1665 and 1666 and killed around 60,000 people, which was one fifth of the population. [[Samuel Pepys]] chronicled the epidemic in his diary. On the 4th of September 1665 he wrote ''"I have stayed in the city till above 7400 died in one week, and of them about 6000 of the plague, and little noise heard day or night but tolling of bells." ''
The Great Plague was immediately followed by another catastrophe, albeit one which helped to put an end to the plague. On the Sunday 2nd of September 1666 the [[Great Fire of London]] broke out at one o'clock in the morning at a house in Pudding Lane in the southern part of the City. Fanned by an eastern wind the fire spread, and efforts to arrest it by pulling down houses to make firebreaks were disorganised to begin with. On Tuesday night the wind fell somewhat, and on Wednesday the fire slackened. On Thursday it was extinguished, but on the evening of that day the flames again burst forth at the Temple. Some houses were at once blown up by gunpowder, and thus the fire was finally mastered. [[The Monument]] was built to commemorate the fire: for over a century and a half it bore an inscription attributing the conflagration to a ''"popish frenzy"''.
[[Image:John Evelyn's plan for the rebuilding of London after the Great Fire.JPG|thumb|300px|John Evelyn's plan for the rebuilding of London after the Great Fire.]]
The fire destroyed about 60 % of the City, including Old St Paul's Cathedral, eighty-seven parish churches, forty-four [[livery company]] halls and the [[Royal Exchange]]. However the number of lives lost was surprisingly small; it is believed to have been sixteen at most. Within a few days of the fire three plans were presented to the king for the rebuilding of the city, by [[Christopher Wren]], [[John Evelyn]] and [[Robert Hooke]]. Wren proposed to build main thoroughfares north and south, and east and west, to insulate all the churches in conspicuous positions, to form the most public places into large piazzas, to unite the halls of the twelve chief livery companies into one regular square annexed to the [[Guildhall, London|Guildhall]], and to make a fine quay on the bank of the river from [[Blackfriars]] to the [[Tower of London]]. Wren wished to build the new streets straight and in three standard widths of thirty, sixty and ninety feet. Evelyn's plan differed from Wren's chiefly in proposing a street from the church of [[St Dunstan's in the East]] to the St Paul's, and in having no quay or terrace along the river. These plans were not implemented, a |
64
** [[Heliq Society]] &mdash; 99.997th percentile, or SD16 IQ of 164
** [[Sigma Society IV]] &mdash; 99.997th percentile, or SD16 IQ of 164
** [[Pi Society]] &mdash; 99.9999th percentile, or SD16 IQ of 176
** [[Mega Society]] &mdash; 99.9999th percentile, or SD16 IQ of 176
** [[Olympiq Society]] &mdash; 99.99997th percentile, or SD16 IQ of 180
** [[Pars Society]] &mdash; 99.99997th percentile, or SD16 IQ of 180
** [[Sigma Society V]] &mdash; 99.99997th percentile, or SD16 IQ of 180
** [[Giga Society]] &mdash; 99.9999999th percentile, or SD16 IQ of 196
** [[Sigma Society VI]] &mdash; 99.9999999th percentile, or SD16 IQ of 196
===External links===
* [http://www.mensa-test.com www.mensa-test.com] &mdash; Nice intelligence test (not a standard IQ test)
* [http://www.hirhome.com/rr/rrcontents.htm Resurrecting Racism] &mdash; The History of IQ Testing and Research
* [http://www.sigmasociety.com/sigma_teste/sigma_sigma_teste.asp Sigma Test] &mdash; Available in 14 languages, accepted for admission in dozens of high IQ societies (with articles on Psychometry, history of IQ tests etc.)
* [http://members.shaw.ca/delajara/ IQ Comparison Site]
* [[American Psychological Association|APA]] &mdash; [http://www.lrainc.com/swtaboo/taboos/apa_01.html Intelligence: Knowns and Unknowns]
* [http://www.psych.utoronto.ca/~reingold/courses/intelligence/cache/1198yam.html Scientific American: Intelligence Considered]
* [http://www.psych.utoronto.ca/~reingold/courses/intelligence/cache/1198gottfred.html Scientific American: The General Intelligence Factor]
* [http://www.iqte.st iqte.st: Online IQ test reviews]
* [http://www.apa.org/science/testing_on_the_internet.pdf APA Committee on Online Psychological Tests and Assessment report]
* [http://hem.bredband.net/b153434/Index.htm Estimated IQs of the greatest geniuses]
* [http://www.volkmar-weiss.de/lehrl.html The Basic Period of Individual Mental Speed, Underlying IQ]
* [http://www.eskimo.com/~miyaguch/hoeflin.html Uncommonly difficult IQ tests]
===References===
*Carroll, J.B. (1993). Human cognitive abilities: A survey of factor-analytical studies. New York: Cambridge University Press.
*Coward, W.M. and Sackett, P.R. (1990). Linearity of ability-performance relationships: A reconfirmation. ''Journal of Applied Psychology,'' 75:297&#8211;300.
*Duncan, J., P. Burgess, and H. Emslie (1995) Fluid intelligence after frontal lobe lesions. Neuropsychologia, 33(3): p. 261-8.
*Duncan, J., et al., A neural basis for general intelligence. Science, 2000. 289(5478): p. 457-60.
* Frey, M.C. and Detterman, D.K. (2003) Scholastic Assessment or ''g''? The Relationship Between the Scholastic Assessment Test and General Cognitive Ability. ''Psychological Science,'' 15(6):373&ndash;378. [http://www.gnxp.com/MT2/archives/2003_frey_and_detterman_IQ_SAT.pdf PDF]
*Gottfredson, L. S. (1997). "Why g matters: The complexity of everyday life." ''Intelligence'', 24(1), 79&ndash;132. [http://www.udel.edu/educ/gottfredson/reprints/1997whygmatters.pdf PDF]
*Gottfredson, L.S. (1998). The general intelligence factor. ''Scientific American Presents,'' 9(4):24&ndash;29. [http://www.udel.edu/educ/gottfredson/reprints/1998generalintelligencefactor.pdf PDF]
*Gottfredson, L. S. (2005). Suppressing intelligence research: Hurting those we intend to help. In R. H. Wright & N. A. Cummings (Eds.), Destructive trends in mental health: The well-intentioned path to harm (pp. 155&ndash;186). New York: Taylor and Francis. [http://www.udel.edu/educ/gottfredson/reprints/2003suppressingintelligence.pdf Pre-print PDF] [http://www.udel.edu/educ/gottfredson/reprints/2005suppressingintelligence.pdf PDF]
* Gottfredson, L. S. (in press). "Social consequences of group differences in cognitive ability (Consequencias sociais das diferencas de grupo em habilidade cognitiva)". In C. E. Flores-Mendoza & R. Colom (Eds.), ''Introducau a psicologia das diferncas individuais''. Porto Allegre, Brazil: ArtMed Publishers. [http://www.udel.edu/educ/gottfredson/reprints/2004socialconsequences.pdf PDF]
*Gray, J.R., C.F. Chabris, and T.S. Braver, Neural mechanisms of general fluid intelligence. Nat Neurosci, 2003. 6(3): p. 316-22.
*Gray, J.R. and P.M. Thompson, Neurobiology of intelligence: science and ethics. Nat Rev Neurosci, 2004. 5(6): p. 471-82.
*{{cite journal | author=Haier RJ, Jung RE, Yeo RA, et al. | title=The neuroanatomy of general intelligence: sex matters | journal=NeuroImage | year=2005 | volume=25 | pages=320–327}}
*Hunt, E. (2001). Multiple views of multiple intelligence. [Review of Intelligence Reframed: Multiple Intelligences for the 21st Century.]
*Jensen, A.R. (1998). ''The ''g'' Factor.'' Praeger, Connecticut, USA.
*Jensen, A.R. (2006). "Clocking the Mind: Mental Chronometry and Individual Differences." Elsevier Science. --->Highly anticipated new release scheduled for early June, 2006.
*McClearn, G. E., Johansson, B., Berg, S., Pedersen, N. L., Ahern, F., Petrill, S. A., & Plomin, R. (1997). Substantial genetic influence on cognitive abilities in twins 80 or more years old. Science, 276, 1560&ndash;1563.
*Murray, Charles (1998). Income Inequality and IQ, AEI Press [http://www.aei.org/docLib/20040302_book443.pdf PDF]
*Noguera, P.A. (2001). Racial politics and the elusive quest for excellence and equity in education. [http://www.inmotionmagazine.com/er/pnrp1.html In Motion Magazine article]
*Plomin, R., DeFries, J. C., Craig, I. W., & McGuffin, P. (2003). ''Behavioral genetics in the postgenomic era''. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
*Plomin, R., DeFries, J. C., McClearn, G. E., & McGuffin, P. (2001). ''Behavioral genetics (4th ed.)''. New York: Worth Publishers.
* Rowe, D. C., W. J. Vesterdal, and J. L. Rodgers, "The Bell Curve Revisited: How Genes and Shared Environment Mediate IQ-SES Associations," University of Arizona, 1997
*Schoenemann, P.T., M.J. Sheehan, and L.D. Glotzer, Prefrontal white matter volume is disproportionately larger in humans than in other primates. Nat Neurosci, 2005.
* Tambs K, Sundet JM, Magnus P, Berg K. "Genetic and environmental contributions to the covariance between occupational status, educational attainment, and IQ: a study of twins." Behav Genet. 1989 Mar;19(2):209&ndash;22. PMID 2719624.
*Thompson, P.M., Cannon, T.D., Narr, K.L., Van Erp, T., Poutanen, V.-P., Huttunen, M., Lönnqvist, J., Standertskjöld-Nordenstam, C.-G., Kaprio, J., Khaledy, M., Dail, R., Zoumalan, C.I., Toga, A.W. (2001). "Genetic influences on brain structure." Nature Neuroscience 4, 1253-1258.
[[Category:Cognitive tests]]
[[Category:Psychometrics]]
[[ca:Quocient intel·lectual]]
[[da:Intelligenskvotient]]
[[de:Intelligenzquotient]]
[[et:Intelligentsuskvoot]]
[[es:Cociente intelectual]]
[[fr:Quotient intellectuel]]
[[gl:Cociente intelectual]]
[[is:Greindarvísitala]]
[[he:מנת משכל]]
[[lt:Intelekto koeficientas]]
[[hu:IQ]]
[[nl:Intelligentiequotiënt]]
[[ja:知能指数]]
[[no:Intelligenskvotient]]
[[pl:Iloraz inteligencji]]
[[pt:Quociente de inteligência]]
[[sk:IQ]]
[[sl:Inteligenčni količnik]]
[[fi:Älykkyysosamäärä]]
[[sv:IQ]]
[[zh:智商]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Implicit repetition</title>
<id>14893</id>
<revision>
<id>40966116</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-24T04:05:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rfrisbie</username>
<id>896545</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>subcat enough</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">In [[learning]], '''implicit repetition''' is unintentional repetition. For example, an [[explicit repetition]] is when we review the material before an exam. An implicit repetition is when we suddenly recall some fact on the way to school. We remember our name or events from childhood via implicit repetition. This means we do not need to explicitly sit down to a textbook and review those events to be sure they do not get forgotten. Unfortunately, implicit repetition cannot be used to ensure we do not forget things we learn at school. This is why explicit review of material is needed.
{{psych-stub}}
[[Category:Learning]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Indian Institute of Technology, Kanpur</title>
<id>14894</id>
<revision>
<id>41279551</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-26T06:30:21Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>66.68.106.192</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Laboratories and other facilities */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_University
|name = Indian Institute of Technology, Kanpur
|motto = ''Tamaso Ma Jyotirgamaya''
|image = [[Image:IITKLogo.jpg|100px]]
|established = 1959
|campus = 1200 acres
|type = [[Education]] and [[Research]] [[Institution]]
|dean= Dr. S G Dhande
|city = Kanpur
|state = Uttar Pradesh
|country = India
|undergrad = 2,000 (approx)
|postgrad = 2,000 (approx)
|staff= 500 (approx)
|website= http://www.iitk.ac.in
}}
The '''Indian Institute of Technology, Kanpur''' ('''IIT Kanpur''') is one of the [[Indian Institutes of Technology]], set up in the then-industrial city of [[Kanpur]] in [[1960]]. Today, IIT Kanpur has grown into one of the top technological institutes in India, primarily focused on research in engineering and science, and the teaching of undergraduates.
== History ==
IIT Kanpur was established by an act of [[Parliament of India|Parliament]] in [[1959]]. The institute was started in December 1959 in a room borrowed in the Canteen Building of the [[Harcourt Butler Technological Institute]] at Agricultural Gardens in Kanpur. In [[1963]], the Institute moved to its present location, on the historic [[Grand Trunk Road]] near the village of Kalyanpur in Kanpur district. During the first ten years of its existence, IIT Kanpur benefited from the Kanpur Indo-Americ |
[[List of geographical topics]].
:''This list is incomplete; you can help by expanding it.''
The Continents:
* [[Africa]]
* [[Antarctica]]
* [[Australia]]
* [[Eurasia]]
* [[North America]]
* [[South America]]
Basic geographical concepts:
* [[Cartography]]
* [[Climate]]
* [[Continent]]
* [[Country]]
* [[Demographics]]
* [[Geography]]
* [[Great Plains]]
* [[Grassland]]
* [[Island]]
* [[Lake]]
* [[Map]]
* [[Mountain]]
* [[Mountain range]]
* [[Plain]]
* [[Nation]]
* [[Ocean]]
* [[Peninsula]]
* [[Population density]]
* [[Population explosion]]
* [[River]]
* [[Sea]]
* [[Stream]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Wikipedia:Game basic topics</title>
<id>12771</id>
<revision>
<id>15910429</id>
<timestamp>2003-05-05T14:40:21Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Patrick</username>
<id>4388</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Game]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Gas mask</title>
<id>12772</id>
<revision>
<id>41729473</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T09:39:40Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Marskell</username>
<id>194262</id>
</contributor>
<comment>some fixes</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{| align=right
|[[Image:Belgian made Finnish civil defence L.702 mask.jpg|thumb|250px|right|Belgian 1930's era L.702 model civilian mask]]
|---
|{{headgear}} <!--- for more information see [[Wikipedia:WikiProject Hats and Headgear]]; to edit this table, go to [[Template:Headgear]] --->
|}
A '''gas mask''', also known as a respirator, is a [[mask]] worn on the face to protect the body from airborne [[pollutant]]s and [[toxic]] materials. The mask forms a sealed cover over the nose and mouth, but may also cover the eyes and other vulnerable soft tissues of the face.
Airborne toxic materials may be gaseous (for example the [[chlorine]] used in [[WWI]]) or particulate (such as many [[biological warfare|biological agents]] developed for weapons such as bacteria, viruses and [[toxins]]). Many gas masks include protection from both types. Unlike other breathing devices, gas masks do not require the user to carry an air supply as in the use of [[scuba diving|scuba gear]]. However, this means that the wearer depends on the air in the atmosphere, the same medium of the toxic materials. Thus, the mask must remove them and relay clean air to the wearer.
There are three main ways of achieving this: ''filtration'', ''absorption and adsorption'', and ''reaction and exchange''.
=== Filtration ===
A [[Filter (chemistry)|filter]] works by having holes that are smaller than the particles to be removed. Since many pollutant molecules and particles are larger than oxygen and nitrogen molecules, this works for many applications. Filtration thus lends itself to defense against particulate hazards.
[[Image:US_Navy_gas_mask_excerise_021015-N-6996M-589.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Gas-masked [[US Navy]] member in a [[Multiple Integrated Laser Engagement System|MILES]] combat exercise]]
However, the smaller the gap through which the air has to pass, the greater the pressure the wearer's lungs must exert to draw the air through, hereby limiting the porosity of these passages. Thus to extract many toxic gases, masks use other methods.
== Absorption and adsorption ==
[[Absorption]] is the process of being drawn into a (usually larger) body, or substrate, and [[adsorption]] is the process of deposition upon a surface. This can be used to remove both particulate and gaseous hazards. Although some form of [[chemical reaction|reaction]] may take place, it is not necessary; the method may work by attractive [[electric charge|charges]] (for example, if the target particles are positively charged, use a negatively charged substrate). Examples of substrates include [[activated carbon]], and [[zeolite]]s. This effect can be very simple and highly effective, for example using a damp cloth to cover the mouth and nose whilst escaping a fire. Most of the harmful vapours and [[smoke]] will be dissolved in the [[water]] on the cloth, giving you vital extra seconds to escape.
== Reaction and exchange ==
[[Image:Gas mask 501556 fh000007.jpg|thumb|Gas mask used by the [[Military of France|French military]]]]
This principle relies upon the fact that substances that can do harm to humans are usually more reactive than air. This method of separation will use some form of generally reactive substance (for example an [[acid]]) coating or supported by some solid material. An excellent example is [[resin]]s. These can be created with different groups of [[atom]]s (usually called functional groups) that exhibit different properties. Thus a resin can be tailored to a particular toxic group. When the reactive substance comes in contact with the resin, it will bond to it, removing it from the air stream. It may also exchange with a more harmless substance at this site.
There are two main difficulties with gas-mask design:
*The user may be exposed to many different types of toxic material. Military personel are especially prone to being exposed to a diverse range of toxic gases. However if the mask is for a particular use (such as the protection from a specific toxic material in a factory), then the design can be much simpler and the cost lower.
*The protection will wear off over time. Filters will clog up, substrates for absorption will fill up, and reactive filters will run out of reactive substance. This means that the user only has protection for so long, and then they must either replace the filter device in the mask, or use a new mask.
== History and development of the gas mask ==
Contrary to some modern day opinion, there is no single inventor of the "gas mask". In fact, there were [[patent]]s for such devices as early as [[1887]]. A first gas mask to be used by miners was introduced by [[Alexander von Humboldt]] already in [[1799]], when he worked as a mining engineer in Prussia. [[Image:Humboldt_gasmask_1799_copy.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Early gas mask designed by A. von Humboldt in 1799 for underground mining]]
In the early days of World War I, the Canadian Army made field expedient gas masks to protect themselves from the deadly chlorine gas used by the Germans by urinating on rags and holding them to their faces.
One such design began as a "Safety Hood and Smoke Protector" invented by [[African American]] inventor, [[Garrett A. Morgan]] in [[1912]], and patented in [[1914]]. It was a simple device, consisting of a cotton hood with two hoses which hung down to the floor, allowing the wearer to breathe the safer air found there. Morgan won acclaim for his device when in [[1916]] he, his brother, and two other volunteers used his device to rescue numerous men from the gas and smoke-filled tunnels beneath [[Lake Erie]] in the [[Cleveland Waterworks]].
Dr. Cluny MacPherson of [[The Royal Newfoundland Regiment]], while serving in [[Gallipoli]]
in [[1915]], where he acted as an advisor on poisonous gas, used a helmet taken from a captured prisoner to fashion a canvas hood with transparent eyepieces that was treated with chlorine-absorbing chemicals.
Gas masks development since has mirrored the development of chemical agents in warfare, filling the need to protect against ever more deadly threats, biological weapons, and radioactive dust in the nuclear era. However, where agents that cause harm through contact or penetration of the skin occurs, such as [[blister agent]] or [[nerve agent]], a gas mask alone is not sufficient protection, and full protective clothing must be worn in addition, to protect contact from the atmosphere. For reasons of civil defense and personal protection, individuals often purchase gas masks in the belief that they prevent against the harmful effects of an attack with nuclear, biological, or chemical (NBC) agents; this is not the case, as gas masks protect only against respiratory absorption. Whilst most military gas masks are designed to be capable of protection against spectrum of NBC agents, they can be coupled with filter canisters that are proof against those agents (heavier) or just against [[riot control agents]] and smoke (lighter, and often used for training purposes); likewise there are lightweight masks solely for use in riot control agents and not for NBC situations.
Although thorough training and the availability of gas masks and other protective equipment can render the casualty-causing effects of an attack by chemical agents nullified, troops who are forced to operate in full protective gear are less efficient in completing their given tasks, tire easily, and may be affected psychologically by the threat of attack by these weapons. During the [[Cold War]] era, it was seen as inevitable that there would be a constant NBC threat on the battlefield, and thus troops needed protection in which they could remain fully functional; thus protective gear, and especially gas masks have evolved to incorporate welcomed innovations in terms of increasing user-comfort, and in compatibility with other equipment (from drinking devices to artificial respiration tubes, to communications systems etc). The gas mask has thus now arrived at a 'fourth generation' of development.
== Sexual fetish ==
Some people [[sexual fetishism|fetishize]] gas masks. This may be because of childhood [[behavioral imprinting]] when these devices were issued in [[World War I]]. However, this does not explain those who share this fetish who were not children during World War I. One possibility is that gas masks are for them part of a wider [[rubber fetishism]], or that the dehumanized appearance of a person wearing a gas mask leads to [[erotic objectification]] fantasies.
The movie [[Gods and Monsters]] featured a scene of gas mask fetishism possibly implying, within the fictionalised events, a relationship between director [[James Whale]]'s sexuality and trauma ex |
ally referred to as [[pastiche]]. After the death of [[Arthur Conan Doyle]], his son Adrian collaborated with [[John Dickson Carr]], in creating new Holmes adventures. Many novels of Holmes adventures never dreamt of by Doyle have been written and professionally published.
Modern fan fiction probably originated with ''[[Star Trek]]'' fandom which in turn inherited many of its practices from science fiction fandom. The first known published Star Trek [[fanzine]] is ''Spockanalia'', published in [[1967]]. This community popularized many traditions from the science fiction community that are still in place today, including the concepts of crossovers, zine culture and public feedback. They also originated the idea of the [[Mary Sue]] or annoying wish-fantasy character who appears in some juvenile fan fiction.
Other fandoms were active in the same period as ''Star Trek'', including ''[[The Lord of the Rings]]'', ''[[The Prisoner]]'', ''[[Mission: Impossible]]'', ''[[Doctor Who]]'', and ''[[The Man from U.N.C.L.E.]]''
Fan fiction has become much more widespread on the [[Internet]], where it flourishes despite the possibility that it infringes the [[copyright]] of the film, book, TV show, or other media on which it is based. The Internet has widened the scope considerably, allowing many more people than previously possible to share and critique fanfiction. Even a few of the authors of the original works on which the fan fiction is based may be among the readers.
Archives of stories have grown in the web environment. Some, like [[FanFiction.Net]], have millions of stories - all carefully organised and crossindexed, and freely available. The web has also encouraged events like annual awards, competitions and even conferences all based around fan fiction.
Major genres of fan fiction include those based on: Japanese [[anime]]/[[manga]] series; the book series [[Animorphs]] by [[K. A. Applegate]], [[J.K. Rowling]]'s ''[[Harry Potter]]'' series; [[J.R.R. Tolkien]]'s ''[[The Lord of the Rings]]''; [[science fiction]] serials (both on television and in film); other serial television (dramatic and even comedic); American [[cartoon]] series as well as comics published by both [[DC Comics]] and [[Marvel Comics]]. Popular television series which have inspired fanfic include ''[[Xena: Warrior Princess]]'', ''[[Star Trek]]'', ''[[Starsky and Hutch]]'', ''[[The X-Files]]'' and ''[[Buffy the Vampire Slayer]]''. Even video games, such as the ''[[Final Fantasy]]'' and ''[[Street Fighter]]'' series, have become sources. It is also relevant to consider the formalised ''shared universe'' where the originating author actively encourages others to contribute to the development of the whole. Besides the Baker Street Irregulars, the most consistent and long-running shared universe has been [[H.P. Lovecraft]]'s [[Cthulhu Mythos]] which has seen both professional and fan contributions for more than fifty years.
Some writers of essays about fan fiction (usually writers of fan fiction themselves) suggest that fan fiction is simply a new incarnation of amateur storytelling: amateur storytellers are still making up new stories about their favorite characters for "amateur," uncritical audiences, but now those characters are [[Draco Malfoy]] and [[Sailor Moon]] instead of [[Brer Rabbit]] and [[Hercules]]. That some cultures now view such storytelling as unusual and possibly illegal, and that professional storytellers now have much higher status and control, are considered inessential by proponents of the viewpoint. They consider modern fan fiction to be similar to a garage band: not quite a contribution to professional literature or music (although certainly a reflection of it), but a creative, devoted method of enjoyment.
==Types of Fanfiction==
===Dōjinshi===
''Main article: [[Dōjinshi]]''
Japanese [[manga]] fan fiction are known as [[dōjinshi]]. These are self-published [[Japan|Japanese]] works most commonly in the form of [[comic books]] ([[manga]]), [[novels]], fan guides, art collections, and [[games]].
===Mary Sue===
''Main article: [[Mary Sue]]''
Some fanfiction falls into the category of [[Mary Sue fanfiction|Mary Sue]] fantasies, in which a new "flawless" character enters the story and goes on to upstage the established characters. Often the Mary Sue represents an idealized [[author character]]. A Mary Sue can also be a character who, as well as being idealized, also becomes the character upon whom the central characters in canon become dependent. While the Mary Sue style of writing has some fans, it's generally frowned upon. The male form is 'Gary Stu', 'Larry Stu', 'Marty Sam', or 'Marty Stu'.
===Self-Insert===
''See also: [[Author character]]''
A sub-genre of fiction in which an author pens himself or herself into the fiction as an [[author character]]. According to detractors, the author becomes a [[Mary Sue fanfiction|Mary Sue]]: flawless, omnipotent, and unable to make mistakes. In some stories, however, an author will make himself or herself more subject to human flaw. Author characters in comedic stories often retain their omnipotence, but are sometimes depicted as being anywhere from amusingly eccentric to outright insane. Many examples of this sort exist.
There are also some stories where the author hi-jacks the mind of one of the characters in the original work. These are notably different from other Self-Inserts in that they are limited to the abilities of that character as according to [[canon (fiction)|canon]] (and quite possibly [[fanon (fiction)|fanon]]). Though they invariably retain the authors pre-existing knowledge of the series. Most of the time, these Self-Insert hybrids develop into beings of God-like power before the story runs its full course. Some examples are [http://www.asynjor.com/fanfic/danna.html Carrot Glaces Insertion] or earlier [http://www.asynjor.com/fanfic/danna.html Spirit Within] and [http://www.bladeandepsilon.com/hybridtheory.htm Blade and Epsilons Hybrid Theory].
===OC===
OC stands for "Original Character", and is quite simply a character that does not appear in the medium being written about. Closely related to the self-insert or Mary-Sue, OCs are often made to appeal to a certain character in particular. OCs are almost never fully developed. For example, their motives, personality and desires may be expressed, but not their background. Having an OC play a central part in a story may cause them to be unfairly designated a Mary-Sue, although there are examples of very well-developed OCs. Because of this, most authors write their OCs as secondary supporting characters. OCs are often killed off in stories, as this not only creates drama, but does so without the cost of a major character. If a character is called to die, the death of a major character would be a large blow to the overall plotline. The death of a character that is not well-known also creates drama, but leaves all major characters alive.
===Crossover===
Another fan fiction sub-genre is the '''crossover story''' where characters of different media franchises interact. An example would be the human refugee fleet led by the [[Battlestar Galactica]] finding and entering the territory of ''[[Star Trek]]''<nowiki>'</nowiki>s [[United Federation of Planets]]. In fan fiction of animated series, one of the more popular crossover situations is a combination of ''[[Pokémon]]'' and ''[[Digimon]]''. This is common because both series share similar traits: they are [[anime]] cartoons, their main characters are groups of children, and the children command monsters to fight each other in battle. Other common crossovers are between sources in similar settings, such as the two space-based television shows ''[[Babylon 5]]'' and ''[[Star Trek]]''; between two sources created by the same writing staff, such as ''[[Buffy the Vampire Slayer]]'' and ''[[Firefly (TV series)|Firefly]]''; or between two sources which share common actors, such as ''[[Smallville (TV series)|Smallville]]'' and the ''[[Dukes of Hazzard]]'' (both of which feature [[John Schneider (television actor)|John Schneider]]). At times, however, a fan fiction author will attempt a crossover between sources or characters which have practically ''nothing'' in common. Another popular way of generating the crossover is to reveal that two main characters in two different mediums are connected- one may be the reincarnation of another, they may be distant relatives, or past friends who grew apart. The crossover genre has the stigma of being one of the most poorly written story concepts.
===Alternate Pairings===
Pairings refers to two characters who are romantically involved. An alternate pairing is a pairing between two characters who are typically not involved in the canon. Many fandoms have defined pairings in that it is often obvious what characters would become couples. Alternate pairings often experiment with love triangles, with three characters being involved lovingly in some form or another.
For example, two best friends loving the same woman. Starfire and Robin are often regarded as a canon pairing, due to the fact that they were together in the [[Titans (comics)|Teen Titans]] comics and show a strong love for each other in the show, although they do not admit it. But many Teen Titans fans believe Raven and Robin share a deep passion for each other. For an alternate pairing to occur, one of the members of the canon pairing would either need to be alternately paired, killed off in some way, or would betray their partner and become a villain. In the above example, if Starfire were to die, Robin would become depressed and seek comfort in (the usually moody and despondent) Raven. This kind of alternate pairing is typical of the modern term 'rebound', in which one of the characters, Robin in this example, does not truly love Raven and is only with her for comfort. Almost inevitably, in alternate pairing fanfiction, thes |
etails.php?plays_id=79 Guantánamo: 'Honor Bound To Defend Freedom'] Play about Guantánamo Detainees
* [http://www.alfreddezayas.com/ AlfreddeZayas.com] &mdash; Professor Alfred de Zayas' web site ([[English language|English]], [[French language|French]], and [[German language|German]] texts concerning legal and historical aspects of the Guantánamo complex, The Douglas McK Brown Lecture,"The Status of Guantánamo Bay and the Status of the Detainees", in Vol. 37 ''[[University of British Columbia Law Review]]'' pp. 277-341 (2004), and articles in ''Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung'' ([[29 December]] [[2003]]) and ''Tribune de Genève'' ([[24 January]] [[2004]])
* [http://web.amnesty.org/pages/guantanamobay-index-eng Amnesty.org] &mdash; "Guantánamo Bay - a human rights scandal", [[Amnesty International]]
* [http://atlanta.creativeloafing.com/2001-12-12/rant.html CreativeLoafing.com] &mdash; "Trial in error? Military tribunals are better suited to revenge than justice", John Hickman, ([[December 12]], [[2001]])
* [http://www.cdi.org/news/law/gtmo-sct-decision.cfm CDI.org] &mdash; "Supreme Court Guantánamo Decision", Steven C. Welsh, Esq., [[International Security Law Project]] ([[June 30]], [[2004]])
* [http://www.guantanamo.com/ Guantánamo.com] &mdash; "Guantánamo: Latest News from ''[[World News Network]]''"
* [http://HavenWorks.com/world/cuba/guantanamo-bay HavenWorks.com] &mdash; ''Guantánamo Bay News''
* [http://hometown.aol.com/webcuba/guantanamoeng1.html HomeTown.aol.com] &mdash; "Statement by The Government of Cuba to the National and International Public Opinion" ([[January 11]], [[2002]])
* [http://www.cageprisoners.com/ cageprisoners.com] &mdash; Non-sectarian Islamic human rights website on Guantánamo prisoners as well as war on terror prisoners in the UK and the U.S.
* [http://www.kuwaitifreedom.org/ kuwaitifreedom.org] &mdash; Site focusing on Kuwaiti prisoners at Guantánamo
* [http://jurist.law.pitt.edu/currentawareness/guantanamo.php Guantánamo Bay legal news and resources]
* [http://jurist.law.pitt.edu/forumy/2005/11/why-americans-dont-care-about-gtmo-and.php Why Americans Don't Care About GTMO, and Why They Should], [[JURIST]]
* [http://www.newsxs.com/en/preset/447 Guantánamo Bay, international news and rss-feed by NewsXS]
* [http://writ.news.findlaw.com/dorf/20020123.html What is an "Unlawful Combatant" and Why It Matters: The Status Of Detained Al Qaeda And Taliban Fighters], Michael C. Dore, ''Michael I. Sovern Professor of Law'' at Columbia University School of Law (Jan. 23, 2002)
===Official U.S. military website===
* [http://www.nsgtmo.navy.mil/ NSGtmo.navy.mil] &mdash; "U.S. Naval Station Guantánamo Bay Cuba: The United States' oldest overseas Naval Base"
===Official U.S. Congressional Research Service Papers===
* Elsea, et. al ''Detainees at Guantánamo Bay'' ([[July 20]] [[2005]])[http://www.fas.org/sgp/crs/natsec/RS22173.pdf .pdf] [http://66.102.7.104/search?q=cache:sgHnJj4mV9MJ:www.fas.org/sgp/crs/natsec/RS22173.pdf+site:www.fas.org+Guantanamo&hl=en .html] &mdash; good summary of pending court cases
===Maps and photos===
* [http://www.cuba-pictures.com/guantanamo/index.html Cuba-Pictures.com] &mdash; Guantánamo Province photos with the view from Mirador de Malones
* [http://maps.google.com/maps?ll=19.997520,-75.142021&spn=0.163078,0.253372&t=k&hl=en Google Maps]
*[http://www.bradbeckett.com/gbay/ Photos] by Brad Beckett
* [http://www.zone-interdite.net/P/base.php?laenge=-4512&breite=1194&pos=download Virtual 3D Walkthrough of Camp Delta (from the Art project Zone*Interdite) ]
[[Category:2003 Iraq conflict]]
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[[Category:Bays]]
[[Category:Extrajudicial prisoners of the United States]]
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[[Category:Spanish-American War]]
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[[Category:War on terror]]
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</page>
<page>
<title>Gladstone Gander</title>
<id>13038</id>
<revision>
<id>40444303</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-20T16:23:18Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Free Parking</username>
<id>963486</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>added link to German wikipedia</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:gladston.jpg|thumb|right|250px]]'''Gladstone Gander''' is a [[Walt Disney]] [[fictional character]] created by comic artist and writer [[Carl Barks]] for [[Western Publishing]]. Gladstone first appeared in the story "Wintertime Wager" in January, [[1948]].
Gladstone is a lazy and infuriatingly lucky creature who never fails to upset his first cousin [[Donald Duck]]. Gladstone's luck defies [[probability]] and provides him with anything he desires, with hardly the need of effort. His [[philosophy]] in life is summarised in leaving everything to chance and taking advantage of opportunities as they come. As Disney comics writer [[Don Rosa]] has commented on the character: ''"Gladstone is unwilling to make the slightest effort to gain something that his [[luck]] cannot give him, and, when things go wrong, he resigns immediately, certain that around the next corner a wallet, dropped by a passer-by, will be waiting for him"''. For all his luck Gladstone has no achievements to be proud of and no true ambitions, as he is incapable of long-term planning. All of this is in stark contrast to his relative [[Scrooge McDuck]], who is also capable of taking advantage of opportunities but works hard to create situations favorable for him, is strongly motivated by his ambitions and takes pride in forming his fortune by his own efforts.
Gladstone finds working for a living deplorable and has held only one job in his lifetime; so ashamed was he at being forced to work that he hid his salary (a single dime) in a safe (in "Gladstone's Terrible Secret" from 1951). He is a rival of Donald for the love of Donald's girlfriend [[Daisy Duck]]. Gladstone is also considered among the prime candidates for Scrooge McDuck's succession. For all of these reasons, he and Donald have formed an intense rivalry with each other. Gladstone's arrogance and outrageous luck, combined with Donald's own ego and belief he can still best him despite all odds---or as [[Don Rosa]]'s version of Scrooge comments, "''Donald's eternal tendency towards self-destruction"''---have set the stage for many stories featuring the two cousins' confrontations.
Barks gradually developed Gladstone's personality and at first used him frequently - in 24 stories between 1948 and 1953, the first five years of his existence. Gladstone's luck evolved slowly. In his first three appearances in 1948 ("Wintertime Wager", "Gladstone Returns", "Links Hijinks"), he was portrayed as the mirror image of Donald: an obstinate braggart, perhaps just a little bit more arrogant. In "Race to the South Seas" in 1949, Gladstone is amazingly lucky on his sail boat, but meets an unfortunate end, getting disinherited at his first encounter with uncle Scrooge. In his next two appearances, "Rival Beachcombers" and "The Goldilocks Gambit", Gladstone is portrayed as merely lazy and irritable, and also gullible. The breakthrough of his lucky streak occurs in December 1949, and the long adventure story "Luck of the North". It starts by Gladstone reading his horoscope: "I was born under a lucky star, and everything I do will bring me good fortune, it says here. And today, it says here, I’m to be especially lucky". And he remains extremely lucky throughout the story, despite Donald's attempts to get him lost in Alaska. In the following stories, unlikely lucky coincidences continue to follow him, reaching surreal proportions in "Gladstone's Usual Very Good Year" (1952), where he enters his first raffle lotteries. His and Donald's rivalry over Daisy is established in "Donald's Love Letters" (1949), "Wild About Flowers" (1950), and "Knightly Rivals" (1951), and as potential heirs to Scrooge's fortune in "Some Heir Over the Rainbow" (1953). He competes with Donald on elaborate treasure hunts in "Trail of the Unicorn" (1950), "The Gilded Man" (1952), and later, most vividly, in "Secret of Hondorica" (1956). After that, Barks felt unable to develop the character further, finding him basically unsympathetic, and began using him less frequently. But by then, Gladstone had found a steady place in the Duck universe. He was first used by an artist other than Barks in 1951: "Presents For All" by Del Connell and Bob Moore.
Like his other first cousin [[Fethry Duck]], Gladstone has little care for social conventions. Both of them have been sometimes described as the [[Beatnik]]s or the [[Hippie]]s of the [[Duck family]].
His exact relation to the Duck Family Tree is somewhat uncertain. In Carl Barks' original version of the family tree from the [[1950s]], Gladstone was the son of [[Luke the Goose]] and [[Daphne Duck]] who died by overeating at a free-lunch picnic. He was later adopted by [[Matilda McDuck]] and [[Goosetave Gander]]. Later, Barks is reported to have done away with the adoption, which was never featured in any story. (Of course, no stories denying the event were published.) In a more recent version of |
x}}
{{succession box
| title=[[United States House of Representatives, Tennessee District 1|U.S. Congressman for the 1st District of Tennessee]]
| before=[[Thomas Dickens Arnold]]
| after=[[Brookins Campbell]]
| years=1843–1853}}
{{succession box
| title=[[Governor of Tennessee]]
| before=[[William B. Campbell]]
| after=[[Isham G. Harris]]
| years=1853–1857}}
{{U.S. Senator box
| state=Tennessee
| class=1
| before=[[James C. Jones]]
| after=[[David T. Patterson]] <sup>(a)</sup>
| alongside= [[John Bell]], [[Alfred O. P. Nicholson]]
| years=[[October 8]] [[1857]] – [[March 4]] [[1862]]}}
{{succession box
| title=[[Governor of Tennessee]]
| before=[[Isham G. Harris]]
| after=[[E. H. East]]
| years=1862 – 1865}}
{{succession box
| title=[[List of United States Republican Party presidential tickets|Republican Party<sup>(b)</sup> vice presidential candidate]]
| before=[[Hannibal Hamlin]]
| after=[[Schuyler Colfax]]
| years=[[U.S. presidential election, 1864|1864]] (won)}}
{{succession box
| title=[[Vice President of the United States]]
| before=[[Hannibal Hamlin]]
| after=[[Schuyler Colfax]] <sup>(c)</sup>
| years=[[March 4]] [[1865]] – [[April 15]] [[1865]]}}
{{succession box
| title=[[President of the United States]]
| before=[[Abraham Lincoln]]
| after=[[Ulysses S. Grant]]
| years=[[April 15]] [[1865]] – [[March 3]] [[1869]]<!-- Prior to the passage of the 20th Amendment, presidential terms ended at 11:59:59 on [[March 3]]. -->}}
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| state= Tennessee
| class=1
| before=[[William Gannaway Brownlow]]
| after=[[David McKendree Key]]
| alongside=[[Henry Cooper]]
| years=[[March 4]] [[1875]] – [[July 31]] [[1875]]}}
{{succession footnote
| marker=<sup>(a)</sup>
| footnote=Due to [[Tennessee]]'s secession, the Senate seat was vacant for four years before Patterson succeeded Johnson.}}
[[March 4]] [[1869]].}}
{{succession footnote
| marker=<sup>(b)</sup>
| footnote=Lincoln and Johnson ran on the National Union ticket in 1864.}}
{{succession footnote
| marker=<sup>(c)</sup>
| footnote=After Johnson became president in 1865, the Vice Presidency was vacant until [[Schuyler Colfax]] was inaugurated on [[4 March]] [[1869]].}}
{{end box}}
{{USPresidents}}
{{USVicePresidents}}
[[Category:1808 births|Johnson, Andrew]]
[[Category:1875 deaths|Johnson, Andrew]]
[[Category:Autodidacts|Johnson, Andrew]]
[[Category:Baptists|Johnson, Andrew]]
[[Category:Governors of Tennessee|Johnson, Andrew]]
[[Category:Presidents of the United States|Johnson, Andrew]]
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</page>
<page>
<title>Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn</title>
<id>1625</id>
<revision>
<id>41267983</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-26T04:35:28Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Bloodshedder</username>
<id>20963</id>
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<minor />
<comment>main template</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Solzhenitsyn.jpg|right|thumb|Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn]]
'''Aleksandr Isayevich Solzhenitsyn''' ({{lang-ru|Алекса́ндр Иса́евич Солжени́цын}}; born in [[Kislovodsk]], [[Russia]], on [[December 11]], [[1918]]) is a [[Russia|Russian]] [[novel|novelist]], [[drama|dramatist]] and [[historian]]. He was responsible for thrusting awareness of the [[Gulag]] on the world.
Solzhenitsyn was awarded the [[Nobel Prize in Literature]] in [[1970]] and was exiled from the [[Soviet Union]] in [[1974]].
== In the Soviet Union ==
Solzhenitsyn studied [[mathematics]] at [[Rostov State University]], while at the same time taking correspondence courses from the [[Moscow Institute of Philosophy, Literature, and History]]. During [[World War II]], he served as the commander of an artillery position finding company in the [[Soviet Army]], was involved in major action at the front, and was twice decorated. In February [[1945]] while serving in [[East Prussia]] he was arrested for criticising [[Joseph Stalin]] in private correspondence with a friend and sentenced to an eight-year term in a [[labour camp]], to be followed by permanent internal exile.
The first part of Solzehnitsyn's sentence was served in several different work camps; the "middle phase", as he later referred to it, was spent in a ''[[sharashka]]'', special scientific research facilities run by Ministry of State Security: these formed the experiences distilled in ''The First Circle'', published in the West in [[1968]]. In [[1950]] he was sent to a "Special Camp" for political prisoners. During his imprisonment at the camp in the town of [[Ekibastuz]] in [[Kazakhstan]] he worked as a [[miner]], a [[bricklayer]], and a [[foundry]]man. His experiences at Ekibastuz formed the basis for the ''[[One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich]]''. While there he had a tumor removed, although his [[cancer]] was not then diagnosed.
From [[March]] [[1953]] Solzhenitsyn began a sentence of internal exile for life at Kol-Terek in southern [[Kazakhstan]]. His undiagnosed cancer spread, until by the end of the year he was close to death. However in [[1954]] he was permitted to be treated in a hospital in [[Tashkent]], where he was cured. These experiences became the basis of his novel ''Cancer Ward''.
During his years of exile, and following his reprieve and return to European Russia, Solzhenitsyn was, while teaching at a secondary school during the day, spending his nights secretly engaged in writing. He later wrote, in the short [[autobiography]] written at the time of his being awarded the [[Nobel Prize]], that "during all the years until 1961, not only was I convinced that I should never see a single line of mine in print in my lifetime, but, also, I scarcely dared allow any of my close acquaintances to read anything I had written because I feared that this would become known."
Finally, when he was 42 years old, he approached a poet and the chief editor of the ''Noviy Mir'' magazine [[Alexander Tvardovsky]] with the manuscript of ''[[One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich]]''. It was published in [[1962]], and would remain his only major work to be published in the Soviet Union until [[1990]]. It was during this decade of imprisonment and exile that Solzhenitsyn abandoned his youthful [[Marxism]] and evolved toward his mature philosophical and religious positions. His gradual turn to a philosophically-minded [[Christianity]] is described at some length in the fourth part of ''[[The Gulag Archipelago]].'' ("The Soul and Barbed Wire.")
[[Image:Arch gulag cover.jpg|left|thumb|Solzhenitsyn was exiled from the [[Soviet Union]] for his book ''[[The Gulag Archipelago]].'']]
''One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich'' brought the Soviet system of prison labor to the attention of the West, but it was his monumental history of the Soviet prisons for both criminal and political prisoners that won him the most acclaim in the West. It caused as much a sensation in the Soviet Union as it did the West. But the attention devoted to it in the West meant that Solzhenitsyn was a marked man. The printing of his work quickly stopped, and by [[1965]] the KGB had seized his papers, including the manuscript of <i>The First Circle</i>. Meanwhile Solzhenitsyn continued to secretly and feverishly work upon the most subversive of all his writings, the monumental <i>Gulag Archipelago</i>.
''[[The Gulag Archipelago]]'' was a three volume work on the Soviet prison camp system. It was based upon Solzhenitsyn's own experience as well as the testimony of 227 former prisoners. It discussed the system's origins from [[Lenin]] and the very founding of the Communist regime. The appearance of the book in the West put the word [[gulag]] into the Western political vocabulary and guaranteed swift retribution from the Soviet authorities. On [[February 13]], [[1974]], Solzhenitsyn was deported from the Soviet Union to [[West Germany]] and stripped of his Soviet citizenship.
== In the West ==
After a time in [[Switzerland]], Solzhenitsyn was given accommodation by [[Stanford University]] to "facilitate [your] work, and to accommodate you and your family" He stayed on the 11th floor of the Hoover Tower, part of the [[Hoover Institution]]. Solzhenitsyn moved to [[Vermont]] in [[1976]]. Over the next 18 years Solzhenitsyn completed his historical cycle of the [[Russian Revolution of 1917]], ''The Red Wheel'', and several shorter works. In [[1990]] his Soviet citizenship was restored, and in [[1994]] he returned to Russia.
Despite an enthusiastic welcome on his first arrival in America, followed by respect for his privacy, he had never been comfortable outside his homeland. Solzhenitsyn's warnings about the dangers of Communist aggression and the weakening of the moral fiber of the West were generally well received in conservative circles in the West. But liberals and secularists were increasingly critical of what they perceived as his [[reactionary]] preference for [[Russia]]n patriotism and the [[Russian Orthodox]] religion. H |
hops' Council]]
'''General Synods of other churches within the [[Anglican Communion]]'''
*[[Anglican Church of Australia]]
*[[Anglican Church of Canada]]
*[[Church of Ireland]]
*[[Anglican Church in Aotearoa, New Zealand and Polynesia]]
*[[Scottish Episcopal Church]]
==Episcopal Church of the United States==
In the [[Episcopal Church in the United States of America]], the equivalent is [[General Convention of the Episcopal Church in the United States of America|General Convention]].
==Other Churches==
The [[United Church of Christ]] in the United States also calls their main governing body a General Synod. It meets every two years and consists of over 600 delagates from various congregations and conferences.
== External Links ==
* [http://www.etoile.co.uk/Speech/Inaug7thSynod2000.html Queen's Speech at inauguration of seventh General Synod]
* [http://www.cofe.anglican.org/about/gensynod/ Church of England's General Synod website]
* [http://www.peter-owen.myby.co.uk/articles/gsmembers.html List of current members]
* [http://www.ely.anglican.org/ministry/leaflets/gensynod.html Ely Diocese's General Synod Leaflet]
[[Category:Anglicanism]]
[[Category:Christian group structuring]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Gerrymandering</title>
<id>12987</id>
<revision>
<id>41268077</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-26T04:36:33Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Mathwizard1232</username>
<id>549107</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Small clarity</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Gerrymander.jpeg|thumb|260px|right|Printed in 1812, this political cartoon illustrates the electoral districts drawn by the [[Massachusetts]] legislature to favor the incumbent [[Democratic-Republican]] party candidates of Governor Elbridge Gerry over the [[Federalists]], from which the term gerrymander is derived. The cartoon depicts the bizarre shape of one district as a [[salamander]].]]
'''Gerrymandering''' (usually pronounced with a soft ''G'', {{IPA|[ʤɛɹimændɚ]}}) is a controversial form of [[redistricting]] in which electoral district or [[constituency]] boundaries are manipulated for an electoral advantage. The word "gerrymander" is named for the [[United States|American]] politician [[Elbridge Gerry]] ([[July 17]], [[1744]] &ndash; [[November 23]], [[1814]])<ref> Gerry [[IPA chart for English|pronounced]] his name {{IPA|[gɛɹi]}} (with a hard ''G'')</ref>, and is a [[portmanteau]] of his name and the word "[[salamander]]," which was used to described the appearance of a tortuous electoral district Gerry created in order to disadvantage his electoral opponents. "Gerrymander" is used both as a [[verb]] meaning "to commit gerrymandering" as well as a [[noun]] describing the resulting electoral geography.
Gerrymandering may be used to advantage or disadvantage particular [[constituent (politics)|constituent]]s, such as members of a racial, linguistic, religious or class group, often in the favor of ruling [[incumbent]]s or a specific [[political party]]. Although all [[electoral system]]s which use multiple districts as a basis for determining [[representation (politics)|representation]] are susceptible to gerrymandering to various degrees, governments using single winner [[voting system]]s where elected politicians are responsible for drawing districts are the most vulnerable. Most notably, gerrymandering is particularly effective in [[nonproportional voting system|nonproportional system]]s that tend towards fewer parties, such as [[first past the post]]. Among western democracies, only [[Israel]] and the [[Netherlands]] are not susceptible to gerrymandering in the national government, as they employ electoral systems with only one (nationwide) voting district.
The term ''gerrymandering'' sometimes includes instances of [[Apportionment (politics)|malapportionment]], where the electoral rules allow districts to significantly differ in population size. Although the possibility of districts being unequal in population can make gerrymandering particularly easy and effective towards securing electoral advantage, gerrymandering can still be done when districts are required to have equal representative to population ratios.
==Methods: "Packing and cracking"==
[[Image:Gerrymandering Comparison.png|thumb|400px|right|Redrawing the balanced electoral districts in this example creates a guaranteed 3-to-1 advantage in representation for the blue voters. Here, 14 red voters are ''packed'' into the light green district and the remaining 18 are ''cracked'' across the 3 blue districts.]]<!-- old example:[[Image:Gerrymander_diagram_for_four_sample_districts.gif|thumb|350px|right|Redrawing electoral districts in this example creates a guaranteed 3-to-1 advantage in representation for Party 1 as Party 2's voters are ''packed'' into District D.]] -->
There are two principal strategies behind gerrymandering: maximizing the effective votes of supporters, and minimizing the effective votes of opponents. One form of gerrymandering, ''packing'', is to place as many voters of one type into a single district to reduce their influence in other districts. A second form, ''cracking'', involves spreading out voters of a particular type among many districts in order to reduce their representation by denying them a sufficiently large voting block in any particular district. The methods are typically combined, creating a few "forfeit" seats for packed voters of one type in order to secure even greater representation for voters of another type.
Gerrymandering is effective because of the [[wasted vote effect]] - by packing opposition voters into districts they will already win (increasing excess votes for winners) and by cracking the remainder among districts where they are moved into the minority (increasing votes for eventual losers), the number of wasted votes among the opposition can be maximized. Similarly, with supporters now holding narrow margins in the unpacked districts, the number of wasted votes among supporters is minimized.
===The Dame Shirley Porter case===
An interesting, albeit unusual method of achieving the effects of gerrymandering is to attempt to move the population within the existing boundaries. This occurred in [[City of Westminster|Westminster]], in the United Kingdom, where the local government was controlled by the [[Conservative Party (UK)|Conservative party]], and the leader of the council, [[Dame Shirley Porter]], conspired with others to implement the policy of [[council house]] sales in such a way as to shore up the Conservative vote in marginal wards by selling the houses there to people thought likely to vote Conservative. An inquiry by the district auditor found that these actions had resulted in financial loss to taxpayers, and Porter and three others were surcharged to cover the loss. Porter was accused of "disgraceful and improper gerrymandering" by district auditor [[John Magill]]. Those surcharged resisted this ruling with a legal challenge, but, in December 2001, the appeal court upheld the district auditor's ruling. Despite further lengthy legal argument Porter eventually accepted a deal to end the long-running saga, and paid £12 million (out of an original claimed £27 million plus costs and interest) to Westminster Council in July, 2004.
==Effects of gerrymandering==
<!-- contention over districts creates a major distraction for the legislature -->
===Reduction in electoral competition and voter turnout===
The most immediate and obvious effect of gerrymandering is for elections to become less competitive in all districts, particularly packed ones. As electoral margins of victory become significantly greater and politicians have [[safe seat]]s, the incentive for meaningful campaigning is reduced. Similarly, [[voter turnout]] is likely to be adversely affected as the chance of influencing electoral results by voting becomes greatly reduced and, correspondingly, political campaigns are less likely to expend resources encouraging turnout. <!-- an example fact here regarding turnout stats or efforts to encourage turnout in competitive/noncompetitive elections would be great -->
An additional effect of this reduction in competition is the increased importance of securing [[nomination]] rather than ultimate approval of the general electorate for a given district, as a general win once nominated becomes more or less guaranteed in a gerrymandered district. In 2004, for example, when California's 3rd [[Congressional District]] became an [[open seat]] after Republican Congressman [[Doug Ose]] ran for higher office, the state's three strongest Republican congressional candidates campaigned vigorously against one another for nomination in the district's [[primary election]], even though several other districts remained uncontested with no Republican nominee making even a token campaign effort.
===Increased incumbent advantage and campaign costs===
The effect of gerrymandering on incumbents is particularly focused, as incumbents are far more likely to be reelected under conditions of gerrymandering. This is due in part both to the high likelihood of incumbents to be the ones orchestrating a gerrymander as well as the relative ease of renomination for incumbents in subsequent elections, including incumbents among the minority. This shows another commonly cited effect of gerrymandering: a deleterious effect on the principle of democratic accountability. No longer fearing removal from office with their renomination and electoral success secured due to uncompetitive elections, incumbent politicians have a greatly reduced incentive to govern based on the interests of their constituents, even when these interests reflect an issue that enjoys majority support across the electorate as a whole.
Gerrymandering can also have a mo |
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configu |
hearing (sense)|hearing]], [[perception]], and [[sound localization|localization]].
* [[Psychological Acoustics]] is the study of the mechanical, electrical and biochemical function of [[hearing (sense)|hearing]] in living organisms.
* [[Physical acoustics]] is the study of the detailed interaction of sound with materials and fluids and includes, for example, [[sonoluminescence]] (the emission of light by bubbles in a liquid excited by sound) and [[thermoacoustics]] (the interaction of sound and heat).
* [[Speech communication]] is the study of how [[speech]] is produced, the analysis of speech signals and the properties of speech transmission, storage, recognition and enhancement.
* [[Vibration acoustics]] ''Structural Acoustics and Vibration'' is the study of how sound and mechanical structures interact; for example, the transmission of sound through walls and the [[radiation of sound]] from [[vehicle]] panels.
* [[Ultrasonics]] is the study of high [[frequency]] sound, beyond the range of human hearing.
* [[Wolffian Acousitics]] is the study of salient features of pediatric ultrasound insofar as it reviews technologic factors, technique, and the normal anatomy used to evaluate the pediatric tract for abnormality.
* [[Musical acoustics]] is the study of the physics of [[musical instruments]]
* [[Underwater acoustics]] is the study of the [[propagation of sound]] in the [[ocean]]s. Closely associated with [[sonar]] research and development.
* [[Acoustic engineering]] is the study of how sound is generated and measured by [[loudspeaker]]s, [[microphone]]s, [[sonar projector]]s, [[hydrophone]]s, [[ultrasonic transducer]]s, [[sensor]]s, [[Electro Acoustics]], and all other topics on this list. (see external links)
A sound wave is characterized by its speed, its [[wavelength]] and its amplitude. The [[speed of sound]] depends on the medium through which the sound travels and also depends on [[temperature]] and not on the air pressure. The speed of sound is about 340 m/s in air and 1500 m/s in water. The wavelength is the distance from one wave peak to the next. The wavelength, <math>\lambda</math> of a sound wave is related to the speed of sound <math>c</math> and its frequency <math>f</math> by
:<math>
\lambda = \frac{c}{f}
</math>.
== Sound pressure level (SPL)==
The [[amplitude]] of a sound wave is usually characterized by its [[sound pressure]]. In a normal working environment, a very wide range of [[pressure]]s can occur and it is therefore a convention that sound pressure is measured on a [[logarithmic scale]] using the [[Decibel#Acoustics|decibel]]. If <math>p</math> is the [[root mean square|rms]] sound pressure amplitude then the [[sound pressure level]] (SPL) is defined as 20 times the logarithm of the ratio of the pressure to some reference pressure.
'''[[Sound pressure level]] SPL''' is calculated in [[decibel]]s as
:<math>
L_p =20\, \log_{10}\left(\frac{p_1}{p_0}\right)=10\, \log_{10}\left(\frac{p_1^2}{p_0^2}\right)\mbox{ dB} SPL
</math>
The reference sound pressure in air is by convention the [[threshold of hearing]]:
:<math>p_0 = 2 \cdot 10^{-5} \mbox{ Pa}</math>
:'''= 20 µPa in air and 1 µPa in water. (Pa = [[pascal]] = N / m²; N = [[newton]])'''
When speaking of sound levels, one must be sure to differentiate between [[sound pressure level]]s and sound power levels. Sound pressure levels are recorded by [[microphone]]s and other devices. This is a measurement of the amount of pressure in the air being sensed at a given location. It follows that its value can be determined through direct experimentation. In comparison, sound [[power (physics)|power]] levels are a measurement of the actual [[energy]] being put into use by a given device to create [[noise (environmental)|noise]]. Because of environmental factors, and other influences, the amount of energy a device devotes to creating sound may not be equal to the actual level of the sound as it's perceived. It can be useful to express sound pressure in this way when dealing with [[hearing (sense)|hearing]], as the perceived loudness of a sound correlates roughly logarithmically to its sound pressure. Both microphones and eardrums respond to the sound pressure level. They cannot convert the [[sound intensity]]. Sound power measurements cannot be directly measured, and must be inferred through other data.
==Measurement methods==
There are two popular ways for scientists to perform sound power level measurements. They include a "direct method", and a "comparison method". The direct method computes sound power levels by computing an equation of environmental factors (such as room [[temperature]], [[humidity]], [[reverberation]] time, etc.) and sound pressure levels. A more precise implementation of this method can be found in the [[ISO3745]] acoustics standard. The comparison method however, is conducted by measuring sound pressure levels from a [[reference]] sound source which emits a known, constant, sound power level, and then comparing that level with the sound pressure level of the object being recorded. Each way is equally valid and accurate.
==Reverberation and anechoic rooms==
Experiments such as the two methods mentioned above are sometimes performed in [[reverberation room]]s, or in some cases, [[anechoic room]]s. The design of a reverberation room is to create long lasting reflections, or [[echo (phenomenon)|echo]]es, of sound waves. This helps create a highly averaged and [[omnidirectional]] sound level throughout the entire chamber. A typical example of rooms with characteristics similar to reverberation rooms are concrete tunnels, caves, etc. Anechoic rooms, such as [[hemi-anechoic]] rooms, or fully anechoic rooms are created to simulate what is called a ''[[free field]]''. A free field is the representation of a theoretical [[infinite space]], in which no sound wave [[Reflection (physics)|reflection]]s, or echoes, take place. In rooms such as these, the only sounds which exist are being emitted directly from the source, and are not reflected from another part of the chamber. Anechoic rooms have the characteristic of being muted and muffled.
==Helmholtz resonator==
A Helmholtz resonator is a container with an open hole or neck.
It is sometimes used as a passive noise control device.
It behaves essentially as a mass-spring-damper system, and its resonant frequency can be calculated as follows:
*''f'' = resonant frequency
*''s'' = speed of sound in air
*''r'' = radius of neck
*''a'' = area of neck
*''l'' = length of neck
*''L''&prime; = effective length of neck
:''L''&prime; = ''l'' + 1.7''r'' (outer end flanged)
:''L''&prime; = ''l'' + 1.4''r'' (outer end unflanged)
*''v'' = volume
:<math>f = (s/2 \pi)(\sqrt{a/(L' \cdot v)})</math>
(A container with a hole, rather than a neck, behaves as being flanged, with a neck length of 0.)
The Helmholtz resonator is an example of the [[lumped component]] model of acoustic systems which is useful when the [[wavelength]] of interest is significantly larger than the physical dimensions of the system.
Familiar examples of Helmholtz resonators include blowing across the top of a bottle, [[whistling]], and the [[ocarina]].
==Rectangular boxes==
*''f'' = frequency of standing wave of a rectangular box
*''s'' = speed of sound in air
*''x'', ''y'', ''z'' = dimensions of box
*''N''<sub>''x''</sub>, ''N''<sub>''y''</sub>, ''N''<sub>''z''</sub> = any integers
:<math>f = (s/2)(\sqrt{(N_x/x)^2+(N_y/y)^2+(N_z/z)^2})</math>
==See also==
More specialized areas of acoustics include, but are not limited to, [[tonal analysis]], [[sound quality assessment]]s, and [[noise control]].
Subfields and related fields of acoustics:
* [[Acoustic theory]]
* [[Structural acoustics]]
* [[Noise control]]
* [[Outdoor sound propagation]]
* [[Room acoustics]]
* [[Concert hall acoustics]]
* [[Musical instrument]]s
* [[Underwater acoustics]]
* [[Audio signal processing]]
** [[Audio storage]]
** [[Sound synthesis]]
** [[Speech processing]]
* [[Psychoacoustics]]
* [[list of publications in physics#Acoustics|Important publications in acoustics]]
==External links==
*[http://www.isvr.soton.ac.uk/SPCG/Tutorial/Tutorial/StartCD.htm Acoustics - Educational site with great animations]
*[http://physics.kenyon.edu/EarlyApparatus/Rudolf_Koenig_Apparatus/Helmholtz_Resonator/Helmholtz_Resonator.html Helmholtz Resonator]
*[http://www.phys.unsw.edu.au/~jw/Helmholtz.html Helmholtz Resonance]
*[http://www.physics.umd.edu/lecdem/services/demos/demosh3/h3-41.htm Helmholtz Resonator with oscilloscope]
*[http://www.fci.uach.cl/escuela/ingacustica/index.htm Acoustic Engineering at Universidad Austral de Chile]
*[http://www.acoustics.salford.ac.uk/schools/index.htm Sounds Amazing: a learning resource for sound and waves]
*[http://www.fe.up.pt/~carvalho/igrejase.htm Church Acoustics]
[[Category:Acoustics| ]]
[[Category:Building engineering]]
[[az:Akustika]]
[[bg:Акустика]]
[[ca:Acústica]]
[[cs:Akustika]]
[[da:Akustik]]
[[de:Akustik]]
[[es:Acústica]]
[[eo:Akustiko]]
[[fr:Acoustique]]
[[gl:Acústica]]
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[[ja:音響学]]
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[[pt:Acústica]]
[[ru:Акустика]]
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[[th:สวนศาสตร์]]
[[tr:Akustik]]
[[zh:声学]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Angle tribe</title>
<id>1199</id>
<revision>
<id>15899695</id>
<timestamp>2003-07-18T04:38:50Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Adam Bishop</username>
<id>13008</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Redirecting to Angles...both existed, this one seemed the more unnecessary</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Angles]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Atom |
le.asp?issn=0022-3859;year=2003;volume=49;issue=1;spage=3;epage=4;aulast=Rajgopal To clone or not to clone] Article from Journal of Postgraduate Medicine
*[http://samvak.tripod.com/cloning.html Cultural and social considerations in therapeutic and reproductive cloning]
*[http://www.gene-watch.org Council for Responsible Genetics]
*[http://www.epigenome-noe.net/ Epigenome NoE]
*[http://hcs.harvard.edu/stemcell Harvard College Stem Cell Society]
<!-- Categorization -->
[[Category:Cloning]]
[[Category:Molecular biology]]
<!-- Localization -->
[[da:Kloning]]
[[de:Klonen]]
[[eo:Klonado]]
[[el:Κλωνοποίηση]]
[[es:Clonación]]
[[fi:Kloonaus]]
[[fr:Clonage]]
[[ia:Clonage]]
[[id:Kloning]]
[[it:Clonazione]]
[[he:&#1513;&#1497;&#1489;&#1493;&#1496;]]
[[ja:&#12463;&#12525;&#12540;&#12491;&#12531;&#12464;]]
[[nl:Klonen]]
[[pl:Klonowanie]]
[[sv:Kloning]]
[[zh:&#20811;&#38534;]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Cellulose</title>
<id>6911</id>
<revision>
<id>41800888</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T21:08:17Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>24.188.170.54</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* External links */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Cellulose'''
([[carbon|C]]<sub>6</sub>[[hydrogen|H]]<sub>10</sub>[[oxygen|O]]<sub>5</sub>)<sub>n</sub>
is a long-chain [[polymer]] [[polysaccharide]] [[carbohydrate]], of [[glucose|beta-glucose]]. It forms the primary structural component of [[plant]]s and is not [[digestion|digestible]] by [[human]]s. furthermore, it is only present in primary cell walls, and does not make up the secondary cell wall, of which is made of lignin.
==History and Applications==
Cellulose is a common material in plant [[cell wall]]s and was first noted as such in [[1838]]. It occurs naturally in almost pure form only in [[cotton]] fiber; in combination with [[lignin]] and any [[hemicellulose]], it is found in all plant material. Cellulose is the most abundant form of living terrestrial biomass {{ref_harvard|Crawford|R.L. Crawford 1981|a}}. Cellulose, especially [[cotton linter]]s, is used in the manufacture of [[nitrocellulose]], historically used in [[smokeless_powder|smokeless gunpowder]].
Some animals, particularly [[ruminant]]s and [[termite]]s, can digest cellulose with the help of [[symbiosis|symbiotic]] micro-organisms - see [[methanogen]].
Cellulose is processed to make [[cellophane]] and [[rayon]], and more recently [[Modal (textile)|Modal]], a textile derived from beechwood cellulose.
Cellulose is also used within the laboratory as a solid-state substrate for [[Chromatography|thin layer chromatography]].
Cellulose is the major constituent of [[paper]].
==Chemistry==
Cellulose [[monomer]]s (beta-glucose) are linked together through 1,4 [[glycosidic bond]]s by condensation. Cellulose is a straight chain (no coiling occurs). In ''microfibrils'', the multiple hydroxide groups [[hydrogen bond]] with each other, holding the chains firmly together and contributing to their high tensile strength. This strength is important in cell walls, where they are meshed into a carbohydrate ''matrix'', helping keep plants rigid.
Given a cellulose material, the portion that does not dissolve in a 17.5% solution of sodium hydroxide at 20 &deg;C is ''Alpha Cellulose'', which is true cellulose; the portion that dissolves and then precipitates upon acidification is ''Beta Cellulose'', and the proportion that dissolves but does not precipitate is ''Gamma Cellulose''.
Cellulose can be assayed using a method described by Updegraff in [[1969]], where the fiber is dissolved in [[acetic acid|acetic]] and [[nitric acid]], and allowed to react with [[anthrone]] in [[sulfuric acid]]. The resulting coloured compound is assayed spectrophotometrically at a wavelength of approximately 635 [[1 E-9 m|nm]].
==Derivatives==
The [[hydroxyl]] groups of cellulose can be partially or fully reacted with various chemicals to provide derivates with useful properties. They have the general formula Cellulose-O-R where the oxygen can be any of the cellulose hydroxyls. Cellulose [[Ester|esters]] and cellulose [[Ether|ether]]s are the most important commercial materials. In principle, though not always in current industrial practice, the cellulosic polymers are renewable resources.
Among the esters are [[cellulose acetate]] and [[triacetate]], which are film and fiber forming materials that find a variety of uses. The inorganic ester [[nitrocellulose]] was initially used as an explosive and was an early film forming material.
Ether derivatives include
* Ethylcellulose, a water-insoluble commercial thermoplastic used in coatings, inks, binders, and controlled-release drug tablets.
* [[hydroxypropyl cellulose]]
* [[carboxymethyl cellulose]]
* Hydroxypropyl methyl cellulose, [[E number|E464]], used as a viscosity modifier, gelling agent, foaming agent and binding agent.
* Hydroxyethyl methyl cellulose, used in production of cellulose films
==References==
* {{cite book
| author=Crawford, R. L.
| title=Lignin biodegradation and transformation
| publisher=John Wiley and Sons
| location = New York
| year=1981
| id=ISBN 0471057436
}}
* {{cite journal
| author=Updegraff DM
| title=Semimicro determination of cellulose in biological materials
| journal=Analytical Biochemistry
| year=1969 | volume=32 | pages=420–424
}}
==See also==
* [[Cellulase]]
* [[Microcrystalline cellulose]]
==External links==
* [http://www.lsbu.ac.uk/water/hycel.html LSBU cellulose page]
* [http://msa.ars.usda.gov/la/srrc/fb/ca.html Clear description of a cellulose assay method] at the Cotton Fiber Biosciences unit of the [[United States Department of Agriculture|USDA]].
* [http://www.sunopta.com/bioprocess/default.htm Cellulose Ethanol Production - First commercial plant]
[[Category:Polysaccharides]]
[[Category:Cellulose derivates| ]]
[[ar:سيليولوز]]
[[bg:Целулоза]]
[[ca:Cel·lulosa]]
[[cs:Celulóza]]
[[da:Cellulose]]
[[de:Zellulose]]
[[et:Tselluloos]]
[[es:Celulosa]]
[[eo:Celulozo]]
[[fr:Cellulose]]
[[io:Celulozo]]
[[id:Selulosa]]
[[it:Cellulosa]]
[[he:תאית]]
[[lt:Celiuliozė]]
[[nl:Cellulose]]
[[ja:セルロース]]
[[pl:Celuloza]]
[[pt:Celulose]]
[[su:Selulosa]]
[[fi:Selluloosa]]
[[sv:Cellulosa]]
[[th:เซลลูโลส]]
[[uk:Целюлоза]]
[[zh:纤维素]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Cortez</title>
<id>6913</id>
<revision>
<id>42124430</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T23:57:42Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Pagrashtak</username>
<id>304316</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Rm extra links, link fix</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The name '''Cortez''' may refer to:
* [[Hernán Cortés]], conquistador who conquered Mexico for Spain
* Cortez, alias of Trance music duo [[Agnelli & Nelson]]
* [[Sergeant Cortez]], protagonist of the ''TimeSplitters'' video game series
* [[Characters in Paper Mario: The Thousand-Year Door#Cortez the Pirate King|Cortez the Pirate King]] from ''Paper Mario: The Thousand-Year Door''
* [[Jayne Cortez]], an African-American poet
* [[Cortez, Colorado]], a city and county seat of Montezuma County, Colorado
{{disambig}}</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Cortes</title>
<id>6914</id>
<revision>
<id>38997188</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-10T00:50:52Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Kevin Ryde</username>
<id>564285</id>
</contributor>
<comment>revise a bit per [[MOS:DP]]: don't pipe, don't link non-targets, put targets at start of entries</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">* [[Cortes Generales]] ("General Courts"), usually just ''las Cortes'', national legislative assembly of Spain
* The term ''Cortes'' is also used for the historic assembly of the [[three estates]] of [[Portugal]], and for the subnational parliaments of several of Spain's [[Autonomous communities of Spain|autonomous communities]] and various bodies from [[History of Spain|Spanish history]].
* [[Cortes, Navarre]], village in the South border of Navarre
* [[Cortés department]], in Honduras
* [[Hernán Cortés]], 16th century Spanish conquistador
* [[Corte (disambiguation)]], for the judicial bodies of the Spanish-speaking Americas, and the communes in France and Italy
* [[Cortes, Bohol]], municipality in the Philippines
* [[Cortes, Surigao del Sur]], municipality in the Philippines
{{disambig}}
[[de:Cortes (Ständeversammlung)]]
[[nl:Cortes]]
[[pt:Cortes]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Colony</title>
<id>6916</id>
<revision>
<id>42012349</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T05:20:50Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Bookofjude</username>
<id>94969</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/24.251.152.54|24.251.152.54]] to last version by J'raxis</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}
In [[politics]] and in [[history]], a '''colony''' is a [[territory]] under the immediate political [[subjugation|control]] of a geographically-distant [[state]]. For [[colonies in antiquity]], [[city-state]]s would often found their own colonies. Some colonies were historically separate countries, while others were territories without definite [[statehood]] at the moment of [[colonization]]. The '''metropolitan state''' is the state that owns the colony. In [[Ancient Greece]], the city that owned a colony was called the '''metropolis''' within its political organization. '''Mother country''' is the term used to refer to the metropolitan state by its citizens that live in a colony. Today, the terms [[overseas territory]] or [[dependent territory]] are preferred. There is a [[United Nations list of Non-Self-Governing Territories]].
People who migrated to settle permanently in colonies controlled by their country of origin were called ''colo |
was married.
===Watson as archetype of the sidekick===
In Conan Doyle's early rough plot outlines, he intended that the role of Watson would be filled by two junior detectives known as Sandifer and Phillip; these characters were merged into "Watson." In turn, the introduction of Dr. Watson in the Holmes novels proved a precursor to other, similar characters. Many of the great fictional detectives have their Watson: [[Agatha Christie]]'s [[Hercule Poirot]], for example, is accompanied by Captain Arthur Hastings. In the words of William L. De Andrea,
:Watson also serves the important function of catalyst for Holmes's mental processes. [...] From the writer's point of view, Conan Doyle knew the importance of having someone to whom the detective can make enigmatic remarks, a consciousness that's privy to facts in the case without being in on the conclusions drawn from them until the proper time. Any character who performs these functions in a mystery story has come to be known as a "Watson."
In [[1929]], English crime writer and critic [[Ronald Knox]] stated as one of his rules for fledgling writers of detective fiction as that -
:the stupid friend of the detective, the Watson, must not conceal from the reader any thoughts which pass through his mind; his intelligence must be slightly, but very slightly, below that of the average reader."
===Not necessarily a fool===
In a number of film adaptations, in particular those featuring the comic skills of the actor [[Nigel Bruce]], the character of Watson became more of a caricature. Far from being the able assistant as presented by Doyle, Watson was portrayed as an incompetent fool. Modern treatments have returned to the roots of Conan Doyle stories and have portrayed a more sympathetic and competent Watson. The most famous example of this restored image of Watson is the depiction played by [[David Burke]] and later [[Edward Hardwicke]] in the [[1980s]] television series ''[[The Adventures of Sherlock Holmes (television)|The Adventures of Sherlock Holmes]]'', starring [[Jeremy Brett]] in the title role. Another well-liked depiction was by actor [[André Morell]] in the [[1961]] film version of ''[[The Hound of the Baskervilles]]''.
==Cultural references==
[[Microsoft Corporation]] named a tool for [[debugging]] [[Microsoft Windows]] applications "Dr. Watson" (drwatson.exe, drwtsn32.exe).
==Notes==
# {{note|injury}} Watson gives two separate locations for the [[Jezail]] bullet wound he received while serving in the British Army. In ''[[A Study in Scarlet]]'' he states "I was struck on the shoulder by a Jezail bullet, which shattered the bone and grazed the [[subclavian artery]]." However in ''[[The Sign of Four]]'', Watson informs us "... [I] sat nursing my wounded leg. I had had a Jezail bullet through it some time before, and though it did not prevent me from walking it ached wearily at every change of the weather". ''[[The Adventure of the Noble Bachelor]]'' contains the only other reference to the injury. Here Watson is a little ambiguous; he tells us "the Jezail bullet which I had brought back in one of my limbs as a relic of my [[Afghanistan|Afghan]] campaign throbbed with dull persistence."
==External links==
* [http://www.who2.com/drwatson.html Who2 biography]
*[http://www.parkcity.ne.jp/~hirayama/Hamish.htm A discussion of the middle name Hamish]
*[http://www.diogenes-club.com/watson.htm A short illustrated profile of Watson as Honorary Member of the Diogenes Club]
*[http://members.iinet.net.au/~exlibris/watson.html An analytical profile of The Good Doctor]
[[Category:Sherlock Holmes characters|Watson, Dr.]] [[Category:Fictional writers|Watson]]
[[Category:Fictional medical personnel|Watson]]
[[Category:Literature sidekicks|Watson]]
[[Category:Wold Newton Family Members|Watson, Dr.]]
[[de:Dr. Watson]]
[[es:John H. Watson]]
[[fr:Docteur Watson]]
[[ja:&#12472;&#12519;&#12531;&#12539;H&#12539;&#12527;&#12488;&#12473;&#12531;]]
[[pt:Dr. Watson]]
[[zh:&#32422;&#32752;&middot;&#21326;&#29983;]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Donald Rumsfield</title>
<id>8628</id>
<revision>
<id>15906600</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Donald Rumsfeld]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Donald Rumsfeld</title>
<id>8629</id>
<revision>
<id>42063474</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T15:34:35Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Ka1iban</username>
<id>86629</id>
</contributor>
<comment>rv, please see 'Vandalism' on talk page for a discussion of this edit</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{| class="toccolours" style="float: right; margin: 0 0 1em 1em; text-align:left;"
|+ style="margin-left: inherit; font-size: larger;" | '''Donald H. Rumsfeld'''
|colspan="2" align="center"| [[Image:Rumsfeld1.jpg|200px|Donald H. Rumsfeld]]
|-
! Name:
| Donald Henry Rumsfeld
|-
! Order:
| 13th Secretary of Defense<br>21st Secretary of Defense
|-
! Term of Office:
| [[November 20]], [[1975]] &ndash; [[January 20]], [[1977]]<br>[[January 20]], [[2001]]&ndash; present
|-
! Preceded by:
| [[James R. Schlesinger]]<br>[[William S. Cohen]] <!-- | '''Succeeded by:''' || [[Add Successor Here]] -->
|-
| '''Succeeded by:''' || [[Harold Brown (Secretary of Defense)|Harold Brown]]<br>[[Incumbent]]
|-
! Date of Birth
| [[July 9]], [[1932]]
|-
! Place of Birth:
| [[Evanston, Illinois|Evanston]], [[Illinois]], [[United States|USA]]
|-
! [[Wife]]:
| Joyce Rumsfeld
|-
! [[Profession]]:
| [[Corporate officer]]
|-
! [[Political party|Political Party]]:
| [[United States Republican Party|Republican]]
|-
! [[President of the United States|President]]:
| [[Gerald Ford]]<br>[[George Walker Bush]]
|}
'''Donald Henry Rumsfeld''' (born [[July 9]], [[1932]]) is a US politician currently serving as the 21st [[United States Secretary of Defense]], since January 20, [[2001]], under [[President of the United States|President]] [[George W. Bush]]. He is the oldest person to have held that position, and was also the youngest when he served as the 13th Secretary of Defense from [[1975]] to [[1977]] under President [[Gerald Ford]]. Rumsfeld also served four terms in the [[United States House of Representatives]] and as an official in numerous federal commissions and councils.
Rumsfeld married the former Joyce Pierson in 1954. They have three children and six grandchildren.
==Early Life==
He was born in [[Evanston, Illinois|Evanston]], [[Illinois]] to George Donald Rumsfeld and Jeannette Huster, of [[Germany|German]] descent (his grandfather was originally from [[Bremen (city)|Bremen]] in Northern [[Germany]]). Donald Rumsfeld graduated from [[New Trier High School]] and attended [[Princeton University]] on academic and NROTC scholarships (BA, 1954) where he was an accomplished amateur wrestler and served in the [[United States Navy]] (1954-57) as a Naval aviator. While there, he was roommates with [[Frank Carlucci]]. He then went on to attend and subsequently drop out of [[Georgetown University Law Center]] (1957). That same year, during the [[Dwight D. Eisenhower|Eisenhower]] Administration, he served as Administrative Assistant to a Congressman from Ohio. After a stint with investment banking firm [[A. G. Becker]] from [[1960]] to [[1962]], he was elected to the [[United States House of Representatives]] from [[Illinois]] in 1962, at the age of 30, and was re-elected in [[1964]], [[1966]], and [[1968]]. Rumsfeld is an [[Eagle Scout rank (Boy Scouts of America)|Eagle Scout]] and recipient of the [[Distinguished Eagle Scout Award]] from the [[Boy Scouts of America]].
== Career ==
=== Nixon Administration ===
Rumsfeld resigned from Congress in [[1969]] during his fourth term to serve in the [[Richard M. Nixon|Nixon]] Administration as Director of the [[United States Office of Economic Opportunity]], [[Assistant to the President]], and a member of the President's Cabinet (1969-1970); Counselor to the President, Director of the [[Economic Stabilization Act of 1970|Economic Stabilization Program]]; and member of the President's Cabinet (1971-1972).
In [[1973]], he left Washington, DC, to serve as [[Ambassadors from the United States|U.S. ambassador]] to the [[North Atlantic Treaty Organisation]] (NATO) in [[Brussels]], [[Belgium]] (1973-1974).
=== Ford Administration ===
[[Image:Ford-rumsfeld.jpg|thumb|300px|Secretary Rumsfeld laughing at the Cabinet table with President [[Gerald Ford]] in 1975.]]
In August 1974, he was called back to Washington, DC, to serve in the Ford Administration successively as Chairman of the transition to the Presidency of [[Gerald R. Ford]] (1974); [[White House Chief of Staff]] member of the President's Cabinet (1974-1975); and the 13th U.S. Secretary of Defense ([[1975]]-[[1977]]). During this period he oversaw the transition to an all volunteer military and was instrumental in increasing the power of the military within the administration and at the expense of the [[Central Intelligence Agency|CIA]] and [[Henry Kissinger]]. This was accomplished by promulgating the view that the [[Soviet Union]] was increasing defense spending and pursuing secret weapons programs, and that the proper response was a re-escalation of the arms race. Some say that this view was in direct contrast to [[Central Intelligence Agency|CIA]] and generally accepted reports on the declining state of the Soviet economy, and the earlier success of [[Richard Nixon]] in establishing [[Detente]] (referring to a thawing of the [[Cold War]]) with the [[Soviet Union]].
[[Image:Donald Rumsfeld Defenseli |
s (b. [[1905]])
*2005 - Kevin "[[Big Kev]]" Mc Quay, Australian businessman (b. [[1949]])
==Holidays and observances==
*[[Roman festivals]] - [[Faunalia]] celebrated in honor of [[Faunus]] (according to [[Horace]], ''Odes 3.18'')
*[[Calendar of Saints|R.C. Saints]] - formerly: [[Saint Sabas]]
*Also see [[December 5 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)]]
*[[Austria]] - [[Krampus]]
*[[Belgium]], the [[Netherlands]] and the [[United Kingdom|UK]] - [[Nicholas of Myra|Saint Nicholas Eve]] (whom [[Dutch language|Dutch]] speakers call ''Sinterklaas'', which became in other languages [[Santa Claus]])
*[[Thailand]] - The [[Bhumibol Adulyadej|King]]'s Birthday, [[National Day]], [[Father's Day]]
*[[International Volunteer Day]]
*[[Day of the Ninja]]
==External links==
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/december/5 BBC: On This Day]
----
[[December 4]] - [[December 6]] - [[November 5]] - [[January 5]] — [[historical anniversaries|listing of all days]]
Quito Day
{{months}}
[[ceb:Disyembre 5]]
[[nap:5 'e dicembre]]
[[war:Disyembre 5]]
[[pam:Disiembri 5]]
[[af:5 Desember]]
[[ar:5 ديسمبر]]
[[an:5 d'abiento]]
[[ast:5 d'avientu]]
[[bg:5 декември]]
[[be:5 сьнежня]]
[[bs:5. decembar]]
[[ca:5 de desembre]]
[[cv:Раштав, 5]]
[[co:5 di decembre]]
[[cs:5. prosinec]]
[[cy:5 Rhagfyr]]
[[da:5. december]]
[[de:5. Dezember]]
[[et:5. detsember]]
[[el:5 Δεκεμβρίου]]
[[es:5 de diciembre]]
[[eo:5-a de decembro]]
[[eu:Abenduaren 5]]
[[fo:5. desember]]
[[fr:5 décembre]]
[[fy:5 desimber]]
[[ga:5 Nollaig]]
[[gl:5 de decembro]]
[[ko:12월 5일]]
[[hr:5. prosinca]]
[[io:5 di decembro]]
[[id:5 Desember]]
[[ia:5 de decembre]]
[[is:5. desember]]
[[it:5 dicembre]]
[[he:5 בדצמבר]]
[[jv:5 Desember]]
[[ka:5 დეკემბერი]]
[[csb:5 gòdnika]]
[[ku:5'ê berfanbarê]]
[[la:5 Decembris]]
[[lt:Gruodžio 5]]
[[lb:5. Dezember]]
[[hu:December 5]]
[[mk:5 декември]]
[[ms:5 Disember]]
[[nl:5 december]]
[[ja:12月5日]]
[[no:5. desember]]
[[nn:5. desember]]
[[oc:5 de decembre]]
[[os:5 декабры]]
[[pl:5 grudnia]]
[[pt:5 de Dezembro]]
[[ro:5 decembrie]]
[[ru:5 декабря]]
[[se:Juovlamánu 5.]]
[[sco:5 December]]
[[sq:5 Dhjetor]]
[[scn:5 di dicèmmiru]]
[[simple:December 5]]
[[sk:5. december]]
[[sl:5. december]]
[[sr:5. децембар]]
[[fi:5. joulukuuta]]
[[sv:5 december]]
[[tl:Disyembre 5]]
[[tt:5. Dekäber]]
[[te:డిసెంబర్ 5]]
[[th:5 ธันวาคม]]
[[vi:5 tháng 12]]
[[tr:5 Aralık]]
[[uk:5 грудня]]
[[wa:5 di decimbe]]
[[zh:12月5日]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>December 4</title>
<id>8354</id>
<revision>
<id>42096681</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T20:28:27Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>167.127.107.11</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Births */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve"><!-- language links at bottom -->
'''December 4''' is the 338th day (339th on [[leap year]]s) of the [[Gregorian calendar]]. There are 27 days remaining.
{{DecemberCalendar}}
==Events==
*[[771]] - [[Austrasia]]n King [[Carloman,_son_of_Pippin_III|Carloman]] dies, leaving his brother [[Charlemagne]] King of the now complete [[Frankish]] Kingdom.
*[[1110]] - [[First Crusade]]: The [[Crusade]]rs conquer [[Sidon]].
*[[1259]] - Kings [[Louis IX of France]] and [[Henry III of England]] agree to the [[Treaty of Paris (1259)|Treaty of Paris]], in which Henry renounces his claims to [[France|French]]-controlled territory on continental [[Europe]] (including [[Normandy]]) in exchange for Louis withdrawing his support for English rebels.
*[[1563]] - The final session of the [[Council of Trent]] is held (it opened on [[December 13]], [[1545]]).
*[[1619]] - 38 [[colony|colonists]] from Berkeley Parish in [[England]] disembark in [[Virginia]] and give thanks to [[God]] (this is considered to be the first [[Thanksgiving]] in the [[Americas]]).
* [[1639]] - [[Jeremiah Horrocks]] made the first observation of a [[transit of Venus]]. ([[November 24]] under the [[Julian calendar]].)
*[[1674]] - Father [[Jacques Marquette]] founds a mission on the shores of [[Lake Michigan]] to minister to the [[Illiniwek]] (the mission would later grow into the city of [[Chicago, Illinois]]).
*[[1676]] - [[Battle of Lund]]: A Danish army under the command of King [[Christian V of Denmark]] engages the Swedish army commanded by Field Marshal [[Simon Grundel-Helmfelt]].
*[[1783]] - At Fraunces Tavern in [[New York City]], US General [[George Washington]] formally bids his officers farewell.
*[[1791]] - The first issue of ''[[The Observer]]'', the world's first Sunday [[newspaper]], is published.
*[[1829]] - In the face of fierce opposition, [[United Kingdom|British]] governor [[Lord William Bentinck]] carries a regulation declaring that all who abetted [[suttee]] in [[India]] were guilty of culpable [[homicide]].
*[[1864]] - [[American Civil War]]: [[Sherman's March to the Sea]] - At [[Waynesboro, Georgia]], forces under [[United States|Union]] General [[Judson Kilpatrick]] prevent troops led by [[Confederate States of America|Confederate]] General [[Joseph Wheeler]] from interfering with Union General [[William T. Sherman]]'s campaign destroying a wide swath of the South on his march to the [[Atlantic Ocean]] from Atlanta (Union forces did suffer more than three times the Confederate casualties, however).
*[[1867]] - Former [[Minnesota]] farmer [[Oliver Hudson Kelley]] founds the Order of the Patrons of Husbandry (better known today as the [[Grange movement]]).
*[[1872]] - The crewless [[United States|American]] ship ''[[Mary Celeste]]'' is found by the [[United Kingdom|British]] brig ''Dei Gratia'' (the ship was abandoned for 9 days but was only slightly damaged).
*[[1875]] - Notorious [[New York City]] politician [[Boss Tweed]] escapes from prison and flees to [[Cuba]], then [[Spain]].
*[[1906]] - [[Alpha Phi Alpha]] Fraternity Inc., the first intercollegiate Greek-letter [[fraternity]] in the United States established for men of African descent, was founded at [[Cornell University]].
*[[1918]] - US President [[Woodrow Wilson]] sails for the [[World War I]] peace talks in [[Versailles]], becoming the first [[United States|US]] president to travel to [[Europe]] while in office.
*[[1921]] - The [[Virginia Rappe]] [[manslaughter]] trial against [[Roscoe 'Fatty' Arbuckle]] ends in a hung [[jury]].
*[[1942]] - [[Holocaust]]: In [[Warsaw]], [[Zofia Kossak-Szczucka]] and Wanda Filipowicz set up [[Żegota]].
*[[1943]] - [[World War II]]: In [[Kingdom of Yugoslavia|Yugoslavia]], resistance leader [[Marshal Tito]] proclaims a provisional democratic Yugoslav government in-exile.
*1943 - US President [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] closes the [[Works Progress Administration]].
*[[1945]] - By a vote of 65 to 7, the [[United States Senate]] approves [[United States]] participation in the [[United Nations]] (the UN was established on [[October 24]], 1945).
*[[1951]] - Mir Waiz Maulvi Muhammad Yusouf appointed President of [[Azad Kashmir]] Government.
*[[1952]] - [[Great Smog of 1952]]: A cold fog descends upon London, combining with air pollution and killing up to 12,000 in the weeks and months that follow.
*[[1958]] - [[Dahomey]] (present-day [[Benin]]) becomes a self-governing country within the [[French Community]].
*[[1967]] - [[Vietnam War]]: [[United States|US]] and [[South Vietnam]]ese forces engage [[Viet Cong]] troops in the [[Mekong Delta]].
*[[1969]] - [[Black Panther Party|Black Panther]] members [[Fred Hampton]] and [[Mark Clark (Black Panther)|Mark Clark]] are shot and killed in their sleep during a raid by 14 [[Chicago, Illinois|Chicago]] police officers.
*1969 - Surfer [[Greg Noll]] rides a 65-foot [[wave]] on the [[North Shore of Oahu]], still the highest ever recorded.
*[[1971]] - [[UN]] Security Council calls emergency session to consider deteriorating situation between [[India]] and [[Pakistan]].
*[[1977]] - [[Jean-Bédel Bokassa]], president of the [[Central African Republic]], crowns himself Emperor Bokassa I of the [[Central African Empire]].
*1977 - [[Malaysia Airlines Flight 653]] is hijacked and crashes in Tanjong Kupang, [[Johor]], killing 100.
*[[1978]] - Following the murder of Mayor [[George Moscone]], [[Dianne Feinstein]] becomes [[San Francisco, California]]'s first woman mayor (she served until [[January 8]], [[1988]]).
*[[1979]] - The Hastie fire in [[Kingston upon Hull|Hull]], kills three schoolboys and eventually leads police to arrest [[Bruce George Peter Lee]].
*[[1980]] - The rock group Led Zeppelin formally announce their breakup.
*[[1981]] - [[South Africa]] grants "homeland" [[Ciskei]] independence (not recognized outside South Africa).
*[[1982]] - The [[People's Republic of China]] adopts its current [[constitution of the People's Republic of China|constitution]].
*[[1991]] - Journalist [[Terry Anderson]] is released after 7 years in captivity as a hostage in [[Beirut]] (he was the last and longest-held American hostage in [[Lebanon]]).
*1991 - US airline [[Pan American World Airways|Pan Am]] ends operations.
*[[1992]] - [[History of Somalia#Somali Civil War|Somali Civil War]]: President [[George H. W. Bush]] orders 28,000 [[United States|US]] troops to [[Somalia]].
*[[1993]] - A truce is concluded between the government of [[Angola]] and [[UNITA]] rebels.
*[[1994]] - [[Pakistan]] wins World Hockey Championship after 12 years, beating the [[Netherlands]] by four goals to three, in [[Sydney]].
*[[1998]] - ''[[Unity Module|Unity]]'', the second module of the [[International Space Station]], is launched.
*[[2005]] - tens of thousands of people in [[Hong Kong]] [[December 2005 protest for democracy in Hong Kong|protested for democracy]] and called on the [[Hong Kong Government|Government]] to allow [[universal suffrage|universal and equal suffrage]].
==Births==
*[[1555]] - [[Heinrich Meibom (poet)|Heinrich Meibom]], German historian and poet (d. [[1625]])
*[[1580]] - [[Samuel Argall]], English adventurer and naval officer (d. [[1626]])
*[[1585]] - [[John Cotton]], American Puritan leader (d. [[1652]])
*[[1595]] - [[Jean Chap |
p;list_uids=12286905&query_hl=1&itool=pubmed_docsum] suggests that in fact there are no live sperm in the fluid, and the primary cause of failure of this method of contraception is the lack of self-control of those using it: interrupting just at climax can be psychologically difficult, as it goes against the natural instinct to ejaculate deeply within the vagina. It is also largely ineffective in the prevention of [[STDs]], since [[pre-ejaculate]] may carry viral particles or bacteria which may infect the partner should the fluid come in contact with mucous membranes. However, a reduction in the volume of bodily fluids exchanged during intercourse may reduce the likelihood of disease transmission due to the smaller number of pathogens present.
The advantage of coitus interruptus is that it can be used by people who have religious objections against or do not have access to other forms of contraception. It has no cost, requires no artificial devices, has no physical side effects, and can be practiced without a prescription or medical consultation. The disadvantage, as stated, is that it can be unreliable.
The [[Bible]] mentions this method in the story of [[Onan]].
According to a widely circulated joke, the [[obstetrics and gynaecology]] nurses' [[argot]] term for a woman relying on "the natural method" is "mother". In actuality, being educated about different forms of natural methods and combining them can improve the effect. According to [[Emory University]], withdrawal has a typical failure rate of 19%. However, for the couples that use this method correctly, the failure rate is 4% [http://www.gynob.emory.edu/familyplanning/withdrawal.cfm]. In comparison [[Oral contraceptive|the pill]] has a first-year failure rate of 5%, which drops to about 0.1% if used correctly [http://www.gynob.emory.edu/familyplanning/pills.cfm] while the diaphragm has a typical user failure rate of 20% and a perfect user failure rate of 6% [http://www.fda.gov/fdac/features/1997/conceptbl.html].
This method has many nicknames, the most popular of which is "the Hail Mary" due to its low rate of success as well as its connotations for use in the [[Roman Catholic Church|Catholic]] community, even though the Catholic Church considers this practice as a form of masturbation. The dated [[Australian]] slang term 'getting off at [[Redfern]]' derives its meaning from the location of Redfern's [[CityRail]] suburban train station, which is situated one stop from Sydney's Central railway station. Most [[CityRail]] suburban train lines pass through Redfern en-route to Central, making Redfern the second-last stop for many commuters. To 'get off at Redfern', therefore, means to interrupt one's journey just before completion.
== See also ==
* [[coitus reservatus]]
* [[Natural birth control]]
* [[Skeet (slang)]]
== References ==
* Population Action International (1991). "A Guide to Methods of Birth Control." Briefing Paper No. 25, Washington, D. C.
* Rogow, Deborah, and Horowitz, Sonya. (1995). "Withdrawal: A Review of the Literature and an Agenda for Research." Studies in Family Planning. Vol 26, No 3 (May-June 1995), pp. 140-153.
[[Category:Birth control]]
<!-- The below are interlanguage links. -->
[[de:Coitus interruptus]]
[[es:Coitus interruptus]]
[[fr:Coït interrompu]]
[[it:Coito interrotto]]
[[lt:Nutrauktoji sueitis]]
[[nl:Coitus interruptus]]
[[pl:Stosunek przerywany]]
[[sv:Coitus interruptus]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Condom</title>
<id>5374</id>
<revision>
<id>42161315</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T05:41:35Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>207.194.23.146</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>HIV is a virus, not a disease</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the contraceptive device. For the town in [[France]], see [[Condom, France]].''
[[Image:Trojan_condom.jpg|thumb|right|A condom sealed in typical packaging]]
A '''condom''' is a device, usually made of [[latex]] or more recently [[polyurethane]], that is used during [[sexual intercourse]] to reduce the risk of [[pregnancy]] and/or some [[sexually transmitted diseases]] (STDs) such as [[gonorrhea]], [[syphilis]] and [[AIDS]].
Condoms are also often used to cover medical ultrasound imaging transducers, keep a [[sex toy]] clean, and in cases of toys shared between partners, helping provide STD protection. Condoms do not protect against all forms of STDs. Other uses include holding water, keeping gun muzzles dry, and being a membrane to keep drugs intact whilst being trafficked. They are also known as '''prophylactics''', as well as a number of colloquial or slang terms, such as '''rubbers'''.
Folk etymology claims, without basis, that the word "condom" is derived from a purported "Dr. Condom" or "Quondam", who made the devices for King [[Charles II of England]]. Other than through unverifiable folk stories, there is no evidence that any such "Dr. Condom" existed.
==Overview & History==
Prior to the early to mid [[80s]], condoms were low profile, undervalued articles. Their primary use revolved around the avoidance of pregnancy. Their function in helping to prevent sexually transmitted diseases (STDs), although recognized since Roman times, was not a major consideration among the general public.
The advent of Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome (AIDS), coupled with increased incidence of STDs in general and the need to publicise effective means of avoiding infection, led to a much more open discussion of sexual matters. Condoms are now classified medical devices and their production and sale are highly regulated activities
[[Image:Condom 1900.jpg|thumb|left|A condom made from animal hide around 1900]]
The first efforts at making condoms involved the use of [[woven]] [[Cloth|fabric]]s. These were not effective, as both disease-carrying [[virus]]es as well as [[sperm]] could fit between the woven fibers. The earliest effective condoms were made of sheep gut or other animal membrane. These are still available today because of their greater ability to transmit body warmth and tactile sensation, when compared to [[synthetic]] condoms, but they are not as effective in preventing pregnancy and disease. Mass production of condoms started in the mid-19th century, shortly after the invention of the [[rubber]] [[vulcanization]] process. Until the 1930s, condoms were made from rubber; they were still quite uncomfortable and expensive (though reusable) and thus only available to a small part of the population. When [[latex]] condoms became available in late 1930s, it was a leap forward in effectiveness and affordability. However, before the middle of the 20th century, many places outlawed the sale of condoms, and many subsequently allowed their sale "only for the prevention of disease". During this ban, they come under many aliases such as "rubber sponges". One of the early condom brands was called "Merry Widows".
[[Image:UnrolledCondom.jpg|thumb|An unrolled latex condom]]
Latex condoms are packaged in a rolled-up form, and are designed to be applied to the tip of the penis and then rolled over the [[erection|erect]] penis. They have a "right side" and a "wrong side" when rolled up, and the first thing the user must do is to determine which side is which before attempting to apply them. Any touching of the penis to the wrong side of the rolled-up condom before application potentially contaminates the outside with bodily fluid, defeating the condom's purpose.
Early latex condoms were very similar, but later some came to have reservoir tips to contain [[ejaculation|ejaculated]] [[semen]]. One relatively early innovation, the 'short cap', only covered the head of the penis. These were not useful condoms, as there was still contact between the partners' genitals, and bodily fluids could easily spill out of the cap.
[[Image:ThreeColoredRolledUpCondoms.jpg|thumb|left|Condoms in many colors]]
In recent decades, however, condom makers have diversified in colors, sizes and shapes, and thicknesses. Flavors or designs thought to have stimulating properties are sometimes added. Such stimulating properties include enlarged tips or pouches to more fit the [[glans penis]] better and textured surfaces such as ribbing or studs (small bumps). Many condoms have [[spermicide|spermicidal]] [[personal lubricant|lubricant]] added, but it is not an effective substitute for separate spermicide use.
[[Image:McCondom dsc06781.jpg|thumb|100px|An example of flavoured condoms]]
Condoms made from natural materials (such as those labeled "lambskin", made from [[lamb]] [[intestine]]s) are not as effective at preventing disease. A few companies today are also making condoms from [[polyethylene]] and [[polyurethane]], expected to be as effective as, but less tested than, latex. These condoms have the advantage of being compatible with oil-based lubricants. They can also be used by people who have a latex [[allergy]].
As a method of [[contraception]], condoms have the advantage of being easy to use, having few side-effects, and of offering protection against sexually transmitted diseases. With ''typical use,'' condoms have an 85% success rate per year in regard to preventing pregnancy — but with proper knowledge and application technique, the success rate climbs to over 98%, with near-total success when combined with a vaginal [[spermicide]] or [[oral contraception]]. {{citationneeded}}
==Disadvantages==
*Many complain that putting them on can interrupt foreplay and lovemaking, although some people have integrated wearing a condom as part of the entire process for sexual activity.[http://www.plannedparenthood.org/pp2/portal/medicalinfo/birthcontrol/pub-condom.xml] (This doesn't apply to female condoms, which can be put on 8 hours prior to sex.)
*Be |
]]), saw Conan as a mentor to three young adventurers, focusing mainly on the young characters.
===Comics===
Conan has appeared in comics nearly non-stop since 1970. These are arguably, apart from the books, the vehicle that has made the greatest influence on the character.
====Marvel Comics====
[[Marvel Comics]] introduced Conan in 1970 with ''Conan the Barbarian'', written by [[Roy Thomas]] and illustrated by [[Barry Windsor-Smith]]. He was succeeded after several issues by [[penciller]] [[John Buscema]], while Thomas continued to write for many years. Later writers included [[J.M. DeMatteis]], [[Bruce Jones (comics)|Bruce Jones]], [[Michael Fleisher]], [[Doug Moench]], [[Jim Owsley]], [[Alan Zelenetz]], [[Chuck Dixon]], and [[Don Kraar]]. Although many artists worked on the different Marvel Conan comic-books at one time or the other, only a few apart from Windsor-Smith and Buscema produced more than a handful of stories. The most prolific include [[Ernie Chan]], [[Alfredo Alcala]], [[Gil Kane]], [[Mike Docherty]], [[Val Semeiks]] and [[Gary Kwapisz]].
'''John Buscema''', in a 1994 interview, spoke of being Marvel's first-choice for ''Conan'' artist: "I was approached by Roy Thomas with the project to do ''Conan''. He mailed a couple of the paperbacks to me and I read 'em and I loved 'em. I told Roy, 'THIS is what I want, something that I can really sink my teeth into....' [A]t the time, Marvel was owned by [[Martin_Goodman_(publisher)|Martin Goodman]], and he felt that my rate was too high to take a gamble [with] on some new kind of [project]. It wasn't a [[superhero]] or anything that had been done before. The closest thing to that would be [[Tarzan]]. Anyway, he had no confidence in spending too much money on the book, and that's where Barry Smith came in — [he was] very cheap. I know what he got paid, and I'd be embarrassed to tell you how much it was, because I'd be embarrassed for Marvel."{{fn|1}}
;Awards
*1971 Academy of Comic Book Arts Awards
:Best Continuing Feature. ''Conan the Barbarian''
*1971 Academy of Comic Book Arts Awards
:Best Writer (Dramatic). Roy Thomas.
*1973 Academy of Comic Book Arts Awards
:Best Individual Story (Dramatic). ''Song of Red Sonja''.
*1974 Academy of Comic Book Arts Awards
:Best Continuing Feature. ''Conan the Barbarian''.
:Best Penciller (Dramatic). John Buscema.
:Superior Achievement by an Individual. Roy Thomas.
;Core appearances
* ''Conan the Barbarian,'' (1970-1993) 275 issues
* ''Savage Tales,'' (1971-1975) First 5 issues
* ''The Savage Sword of Conan the Barbarian,'' (1974-1995) 235 issues
* ''Conan the Barbarian Annual'' (1973-1987) 12 issues
* ''Giant-Size Conan,'' (1974-1975) 5 issues
* ''The Savage Sword of Conan the Barbarian Annual,'' (1975) 1 issue
* ''Newspaper Strip,'' (1978-19??) ?? strips.
* ''King Conan/Conan the King,'' (1980-1989) 55 issues
* ''Handbook of the Conan Universe,'' (1985) 1 issue
* ''Conan the Adventurer,'' (1994-1995) 14 issues
* ''Conan,'' (1995-1996) 11 issues
* ''Conan the Savage,'' (1995-1996) 10 issues
* ''Conan vs Rune,'' (1995) 1 issue
;Marvel Graphic Novels
* ''The Witch Queen of Acheron,'' (Marvel Graphic Novel (MGN) #19, 1985)
* ''Conan the Reaver,'' (MGN #28, 1987)
* ''Conan of the Isles,'' (MGN #42, 1988)
* ''The Skull of Set,'' (MGN #53, 1989)
* ''The Horn of Azoth,'' (MGN #59, 1990)
* ''Conan the Rogue,'' (MGN #69, 1991)
* ''The Ravagers Out of Time,'' (MGN #73, 1992)
;Marvel Conan the Barbarian Miniseries
* ''Stalker in the Woods,'' (1997) 3 issues.
* ''The Usurper,'' (1997-1998) 3 issues.
* ''Lord of the Spiders,'' (1998) 3 issues.
* ''River of Blood,'' (1998) 3 issues.
* ''Return of Styrm,'' (1998) 3 issues.
* ''Scarlet Sword,'' (1998-1999) 3 issues.
* ''Death Covered in Gold,''(1999) 3 issues.
* ''Flame and the Fiend,'' (2000) 3 issues.
;Marvel Universe appearances
* ''Avengers Forever,'' #12 (1998).
* ''Dr. Strange,'' #11 (volume 3, 19??).
* ''Dr. Strange,'' #26 (volume 3, 19??).
* ''Excaliber,'' #47 (19??).
* ''Fantastic Four,'' #411 (19??).
* ''Tomb of Dracula,'' #27 (19??).
* ''Incomplete Death's Head,'' #11 (19??).
;Miscellaneous appearances
* ''What If...?,'' issues 13, 39, 43 and 16 (volume 2).
* ''Conan the Barbarian - Movie Special,'' (1982) 2 issues.
* ''Conan the Destroyer - Movie Special,'' (1985) 2 issues.
* ''Marvel Age,'' issues 1, 2, 8 and 13.
;Reprints
* ''Conan the Barbarian - Special Edition,'' (1983) Red Nails.
* ''Conan Saga,'' (1987-1995) 97 issues.
* ''Conan Classic,'' (1994-1995) 11 issues.
* ''Marvel Treasury Edition,'' issues 4, 15, 19 and 23.
* ''Marvel Super Special,'' issues 2, 9, 21 and 35.
* ''Essential Conan,'' (2000) 1 issue.
;Footnotes
* {{fnb|1}}} ''Comic World'' (U.K.) #37, March 1995, reprinted in ''Comic Book Artist'' #21. Aug. 2002, p.31b <!--31b is correct--> Interview conducted Oct. 2, 1994.
====Dark Horse Comics====
[[Dark Horse Comics]] began their take on Conan in 2003. Currently publishing the comic series ''Conan'', written by [[Kurt Busiek]] and pencilled by [[Cary Nord]]. This series is a fresh interpretation, based solely on the works of Robert E. Howard, with no connection to the large Marvel run. Dark Horse Comics is also publishing digitally re-coloured compilations of the 1970s Marvel Comics ''Conan the Barbarian'' series in graphic-novel format. By Roy Thomas (writer), Barry Windsor-Smith, John Buscema, Ernie Chan (artists) and others.
;Awards
*2004 Will Eisner Comic Industry Awards
:Best Single Issue or One-Shot. ''Conan #0: The Legend''.
*2004 Eagle Awards
:Favourite new comicbook. ''Conan''.
;Core appearances
* ''Conan #0: The Legend'', (2003).
* ''Conan'', (2004+). 16+ issues.
* ''Conan and the Daughters of Midora'', (2004). 1 issue.
* ''Conan and the Jewels of Gwahlur'', (2005). 3 issues.
;Collections
* ''The Chronicles of Conan''
** ''Volume 1: Tower of the Elephant and Other Stories,'' (2003). Reprints Marvel Comics' ''Conan the Barbarian'' issues 1-8.
** ''Volume 2: Rogues in the House and Other Stories,'' (2003). Reprints Marvel Comics' ''Conan the Barbarian'' issues 9-13,16.
** ''Volume 3: The Monster of the Monoliths and Other Stories,'' (2003). Reprints Marvel Comics' ''Conan the Barbarian'' issues 14,15,17-21.
** ''Volume 4: The Song of Red Sonja and Other Stories,'' (2004). Reprints Marvel Comics' ''Conan the Barbarian'' issues 23-26 and ''Red Nails'' originally published in ''Savage Tales''.
** ''Volume 5: The Shadow in the Tomb and Other Stories,'' (2004). Reprints Marvel Comics' ''Conan the Barbarian'' issues 27-34.
** ''Volume 6: The Curse of the Golden Skull and Other Stories,'' (2004). Reprints Marvel Comics' ''Conan the Barbarian'' issues 35-42.
** ''Volume 7: The Dweller in the Pool and Other Stories,'' (2005). Reprints Marvel Comics' ''Conan the Barbarian'' issues 43-51.
** ''Volume 8: The Tower of Blood and Other Stories,'' (2005). Reprints Marvel Comics' ''Conan the Barbarian'' issues 52-60.
* ''Conan''
** ''Volume 1: The Frost Giant's Daughter and Other Stories'' (2005). Collects issues 0-6 and fourteen pages from issue 7 of the ongoing series ''Conan''.
** ''Volume 2: The God In The Bowl And Other Stories'' (2005). Collecting issues 7, 9-14 of the Dark Horse series
;Creative Teams
* ''Kurt Busiek (writer) & Cary Nord (artist)
* ''Tim Truman (writer-2006) (no new artist announced)
====Miscellaneous or parody appearances====
* ''National Lampoon,'' (May 1972).
* ''Captain Carrot and His Amazing Zoo Crew!,'' (DC, 1982) issue 7. Written by Roy Thomas.
===Games===
====Computer Games====
Four commercial [[computer and video games]] were released based on the Conan [[mythos]].
*In [[1984]], [[Datasoft]] released ''[[Conan: Hall of Volta]]'' for the [[Apple II]] and [[Commodore 64]].
*In [[1990]] [[The Learning Company|Mindscape]] released ''[[Conan]]'' for the [[Nintendo Entertainment System]] [[NES]] (in reality a retooled [[System 3]] game ''Myth'').
*In [[1991]], [[Virgin Interactive]] released ''[[Conan: The Cimmerian]]'' developed by [[Synergistic Software, Inc.]] for [[Amiga]] and [[DOS]].
*In [[2004]], [[TDK Mediactive]] released ''[[Conan (video game)|Conan]]'', a [[video game]] [[video game developer|developed]] by [[Cauldron Ltd.]]. It is a third-person [[action game]], available for [[Microsoft Windows|Windows]], [[PlayStation 2]], [[Xbox]] and the [[Nintendo GameCube|GameCube]].[http://www.conangame.com/]
*In the first half of [[2006]], Conan will be released in [[MMORPG]] form in [[Age of Conan: Hyborian Adventures]].
====Role-Playing Games====
*Two [[List of Dungeons & Dragons modules|modules]] for [[Dungeons & Dragons|Advanced Dungeons & Dragons]]
**CB1 Conan Unchained! (1984)
**CB2 Conan Against Darkness! (1984)
*'''[[Conan Role-Playing Game]]''' (1985) by [[TSR, Inc.]], and 3 [[Adventure (role-playing games)|official game adventures]]:
**CN1 Conan the Buccaneer (1985)
**CN2 Conan the Mercenary (1985)
**CN3 Conan Triumphant (1985)
*[[GURPS Conan]] [http://www.sjgames.com/gurps/books/conan/ ] a [[GURPS]] version by [[Steve Jackson Games]].
*'''[[Conan The Roleplaying Game]]''' (2004), an [[OGL System]] version by [[Mongoose Publishing]] with over a dozen official adventures and supplements.
===Parody and other references===
*[[Terry Pratchett]] has parodied him with the [[Discworld characters|Discworld character]] "[[Cohen the Barbarian]]."
*[[Thrud the Barbarian]] is a British comic strip that is an obvious parody of Conan.
*[[Ator]] was a character created by Italian director [[Joe d'Amato]] to capitalize on the popularity of the Conan movies. Four movies were made which featured the Ator character. One of these films - [[Cave Dwellers]] - was later featured on [[Mystery Science Theater 3000]]. As a result, the film now enjoys modest success as a cult favorite.
*Numerous "[[Conan the Librarian]]" parodies have cropped up, including sketches in [["Weird Al" Yankovic]]'s comedy film ''[[UHF (movie)|UHF]]'' and on the children's |
sed
== Privacy and ethical concerns==
CRMs are not however considered universally good - some feel it invades [[customer privacy]] and enable coercive sales techniques due to the information companies now have on customers - see [[persuasion technology]]. However, CRM does not necessarily imply gathering new data, it can be used merely to make "better use" of data the corporation already has. But in most cases they are used to collect new data.
Some argue that the most basic privacy concern is the centralised database itself, and that CRMs built this way are inherently privacy-invasive. See the commercial version of the debate over the [[carceral state]], e.g. [[Total Information Awareness]] program of the [[United States federal government]].
==Setting up a framework for CRM==
* When you start setting up your CRM segment for your business you first want to see what profile aspects you feel are relevant to your business. Which information will provide you the keys to serve your customers in the best way possible? If you can look at your financial history for this information then what would you have liked to know about your customers in the past? What would have been the effects? And what information is not useful? Being able to eliminate unwanted information is a big aspect in implementing your CRM systems
*When designing your CRM's structure, always remember who your primary customers are. You want to keep more extensive information on them because they are your high-margin customers. You can keep less extensive details on the clients you identify as &#8220;low-margin&#8221;.
==CRM in Business==
In this day and age the use of internet sites and specifically e-mail, in particular, are touted as less expensive communication methods, compared to traditional methods like telephone calls. This revolutionary type of service can be very helpful, but it is completely useless if you are having trouble reaching your customers. It has been determined by some major companies that the majority of clients trust other means of communication, like telephone, more than they trust e-mail. Clients, however, are not the ones to blame because it is often the manner of connecting with consumers on a personal level making them feel as though they are cherished as customers. It is up to the companies to focus on reaching every customer and developing a relationship.
CRM software can run your entire business. From prospect and client contact tools to billing history and bulk email management. The CRM system allows you to maintain all customer records in one centralized location that is accessible to your entire organization through password administration. Front office systems are set up to collect data from the customers for processing into the [[data warehouse]]. The [[data warehouse]] is a back office system used to fulfill and support customer orders. All customer information is stored in the [[data warehouse]]. Back office CRM makes it possible for a company to follow sales, orders, and cancellations. Special regressions of this data can be very beneficial for the marketing division of a firm/company.
==See also==
* [[List of CRM vendors]]
* [[ITIL]]
* [[Predictive dialer]] communicate with the customer
* [[marketing]]
* [[telemarketing]]
* [[customer experience management]]
* [[sales force management system]]
* [[information technology management]]
* [[management information systems]]
* [[management]]
* [[Microenvironment]]
* [[Software as a Service]]
* [[On-demand]]
* [[Vendor-independent solutions provider]]
* [[Customer Reference Management]]
* [[Call Center]]
* [[Database marketing]]
==External links==
*{{dmoz|Business/E-Commerce/Customer_Relationship_Management/|Customer Relationship Management}}
*[http://www.crm-a.org/ CRM Association]
*[http://www.oceanworksuk.net/products/affinity_customer_relationship_management_CRM/ Affinity CRM Software]
*[http://www.crmplanet.net/ CRM Related News from around the Planet]
[[Category:Marketing]]
[[category:Information technology management]]
[[Category:Office and administrative support occupations]]
[[category:Electronic commerce]]
[[da:CRM]]
[[de:Kundenbeziehungsmanagement]]
[[es:CRM]]
[[fr:Gestion de la relation client]]
[[it:Customer relationship management]]
[[lt:CRM]]
[[nl:Customer Relationship Management]]
[[no:Kunderelasjonshåndtering]]
[[pl:Zarządzanie relacjami z klientami]]
[[pt:CRM]]
[[ru:CRM]]
[[zh:客户关系管理]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Chuck-a-luck</title>
<id>6970</id>
<revision>
<id>33579732</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-02T09:15:49Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Gwalla</username>
<id>38016</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>fix format</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">More of a carnival game than anything else (no gaming commission in the world will allow it), '''Chuck-a-luck''' is a simple [[gambling]] [[game]]. There is a cage containing three [[dice]]. Players have the option of betting on the numbers 1 through 6. Should one of your numbers come up once, you get paid even money. Should one of your numbers come up twice you get paid 2-1. Should your number come up three times, you get paid 3-1.
Even an elementary examination will find that the game's [[expected value]] (barring [[loaded dice]], which are common), is far worse than that of any other table game. The game is sometimes used as a fundraiser for charity, but the odds of coming away with more money than originally put in are quite small.
==External links==
* [http://homepage.ntlworld.com/dice-play/Games/ChuckALuck.htm Chuck-a-Luck page]
[[Category:Dice games]]
[[Category:Gambling]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Chipmunk</title>
<id>6972</id>
<revision>
<id>41896260</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T13:08:40Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Slgrandson</username>
<id>191875</id>
</contributor>
<comment>+ SIMPLE</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the animal. For the military training aircraft, see [[De Havilland Chipmunk]].''
{{Taxobox
| color = pink
| name = Chipmunks
| image = chipmunk.png
| image_width = 200px
| regnum = [[Animal]]ia
| phylum = [[Chordate|Chordata]]
| classis = [[Mammal]]ia
| ordo = [[Rodent]]ia
| familia = [[Sciuridae]]
| genus = '''''Tamias'''''
| genus_authority = [[Johann Karl Wilhelm Illiger|Illiger]], 1811
| subdivision_ranks = Species
| subdivision =
23 species, see text
}}
'''Chipmunk''' is the common name for any small [[squirrel]]-like [[rodent]] species of the genus ''Tamias'' in the family [[Sciuridae]]. About 23 species fall under this title, with one species in northeastern [[Asia]], one in the eastern portions of Canada and the US, and all the rest native to the western part of [[North America]].
The name may have originally been spelled "chitmunk" (perhaps from the [[Ojibwe language|Ojibwe]] word ''ajidamoo'', meaning "red squirrel"). However, the earliest form cited in the Oxford English Dictionary (from 1842) is "chipmonk". Other early forms include "chipmuck" and "chipminck". They are also called striped squirrel or ground squirrel; however, the name "ground squirrel" is more usually kept for the genus ''[[Spermophilus]]'', though ''Tamias'' and ''Spermophilus'' are only two of the 13 [[genus|genera]] of ground-living [[Sciuridae|sciurids]].
Eastern chipmunks mate in early spring and again in early summer to produce two litters, each of four to five young, but western chipmunks only breed once a year. The young emerge from the burrow after about six weeks and strike out on their own within the next two weeks.
Though they are commonly depicted with their paws up to the mouth, eating peanuts, or more famously their cheeks bulging out on either side, chipmunks eat a much more diverse range of foods than just nuts. Their [[omnivore|omnivorous]] diet consists of grain, nuts, birds' eggs, fungi, and insects. Come autumn, many species of chipmunk begin to stockpile these goods in their burrows, for [[winter]]. Other species make multiple small caches of food. These two kinds of behavior are called [[larder-hoarder|larder hoarding]] and [[scatter-hoarder|scatter hoarding]]. Larder hoarders usually live in their nests until [[spring (season)|spring]].
These small squirrels fulfill several important functions in [[forest]] [[ecosystem]]s. Their activities with regards to harvesting and hoarding tree seeds play a crucial role in [[seedling]] establishment. They also consume many different kinds of [[fungi]], including those involved in symbiotic mycorrhizal associations with trees, and are an important vector for dispersal of the spores of subterranean [[sporocarps]] (truffles) which have co-evolved with these and other [[mycophagous]] mammals and thus lost the ability to disperse their spores through the air.
Chipmunks play an important role as prey for various predatory mammals and birds, but are also opportunistic predators themselves, particularly with regard to bird eggs and [[nestling]]s. In [[Oregon]], [[Mountain Bluebird]]s (''Siala currucoides'') have been observed energetically mobbing chipmunks that they see near their nest trees.
Chipmunks construct expansive [[burrow]]s which can be more than 3.5 m in length with several well-concealed entrances. The sleeping quarters are
kept extremely clean as shells and feces are stored in refuse tunnels.
If unmolested they often become bold enough to accept food from the hands of humans. The temptation to pick up or pet any wild animal should
be strictly avoided. While rabies is exceptionally rare, if non-existent, in rodents, chipmunk bites can transmit virulent and dangerous bacterial infections.
==Species==
*[[Alpine Chipmunk]], ''Tamias alpinus''
*[[Yellow pine Chipmunk]], ''Tamias amoenus''
*[[Gray-footed Chipmun |
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