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rojects to provide security. Skilled, intensive [[garden|gardening]] can support an adult from as little as 15 square meters of land. Some proven intensive, low-effort food-production systems include [[hydroponics]], and [[forest gardening]]. === Communication === [[Public switched telephone network|Telephone]] and [[Telecommunications network|network]] service will probably be purchased. A increasing number of activists provide free or very inexpensive [[World Wide Web|web]] and [[email]] services using cooperative computer networks that run wireless [[ad hoc network]]s. Network service is provided by a cooperative of neighbors, each operating a router as a household appliance. These minimize wired infrastructure, and its costs and vulnerabilities. [[Satellite]] internet service also can provide high speed connectivity to remote locations, but as of early [[as of 2002|2002]], most of these services are limited in which types of network hardware and operating systems they support. They are also not yet on par with the costs of [[cable modem]] or [[Digital Subscriber Line|DSL]] service providers. ==Financing== If considering a system for the economics, run the numbers with real utility prices. Most utilities have prices 5-10% below the amortized price of the mass-produced rural systems they replace (e.g., electricity will be just below the fuel costs and amortization of a generator powered from natural gas). However, many people pay for utilities from after-tax income, so even the simplest home-based utilities can be 15-45% more efficient by creating untaxed value. Clever purchasing (e.g. in internet co-ops) can cut capital costs. Unless the area has local nuclear or hydroelectric power, new construction can often afford to make its own heat and light. In the coldest areas of the U.S. passive solar heat in new construction costs only 15% more than normal construction. In milder areas, it costs ''nothing'' and is therefore a great bargain. A passive-solar house usually commands a 15-20% price premium. In Southern California, new solar roofs already provide cheaper electricity than utilities, because they keep the rain out, and the amortized cost of such electricity is cheaper than the power prices. In most great plains areas, a 10-meter wind turbine on a hundred-foot (30 m) tower will run an all-electric house, for 10% or less of a new house's cost. Sewage and water are more marginal. Local health regulations can be problematic, and bulk water and sewage services are usually cheap. Water and sewage systems also have unattractive costs, lifestyle and mechanical reliability issues. Groundwater poisoning, deep green beliefs and high utility prices can motivate installations. In all rural and most suburban areas buying land for swales instead of digging storm-drains creates a more valuable and more pleasant building. ==See also== *[[architectural engineering]] *[[biosphere]] *[[Biosphere 2]] *[[Building construction]] *[[eco-village]] *[[Distributed generation]] *[[energy efficiency]] *[[environmental engineering]] *[[life support system]] *[[renewable energy]] *[[wind turbine]] *[[solar power]] *[[solar heating]] *[[thermal insulation|insulation]] *[[composting]] *[[straw-bale construction]] *[[natural capitalism]] == External links == * The [http://www.bfi.org Buckminster Fuller Institute] is still in existence. B. Fuller left thousands of pages of notes to the university where he last taught. * There is a section on [http://reality.sculptors.com/cgi-bin/wiki?Autonomous_Houses Autonomous Houses] in the [http://reality.sculptors.com/cgi-bin/wiki Reality Sculptors] wiki, including links to a mailing list which frequently discusses autonomous design considerations. * Designs for a [[geodesic dome]] version of an Autonomous House can be found at http://reality.sculptors.com/~salsbury/House/ * &quot;Wind Power for Home and Business&quot; by Paul Gipe * [http://www.solarenergymag.com Solar Energy Magazine] * [http://www.onlineopinion.com.au/view.asp?article=1906 An opinion piece by Brenda and Robert Vale] * [http://www.off-grid.net/index.php www.off-grid.net] [[Category:Building engineering]] [[Category:Buildings and structures]] [[Category:Sustainability]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Archimedes screw</title> <id>3023</id> <revision> <id>15901396</id> <timestamp>2005-03-23T21:30:48Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>OldakQuill</username> <id>53329</id> </contributor> <comment>Correct redirect</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Archimedes' screw]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Arithmetic/Multiplication</title> <id>3024</id> <revision> <id>15901397</id> <timestamp>2002-10-31T15:59:35Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Toby Bartels</username> <id>1078</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Remove spurious text after #REDIRECT.</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Multiplication]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Anubis</title> <id>3027</id> <revision> <id>42044182</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T12:14:28Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Garzo</username> <id>140345</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/68.45.198.61|68.45.198.61]] ([[User talk:68.45.198.61|talk]]) to last version by Dvavasour</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the Egyptian god.'' {{otheruses}} {{Hiero|Anubis|&lt;hiero&gt;i-n:p-w-E16&lt;/hiero&gt;|align=right|era=egypt}} '''Anubis''' is the [[Greek language|Greek]] name for the ancient [[god]] in [[Egyptian mythology]] whose [[hieroglyph]]ic is more accurately spelt '''Anpu''' (also '''Anup''', '''Anupu''', '''Wip''', '''Ienpw''', '''Inepu''', '''Yinepu''', or '''Inpw'''). He is also known as Sekhem Em Pet. Prayers to Anubis have been found carved on the most ancient tombs in Egypt; indeed, the [[Unas]] text (line 70) associates him with the [[Eye of Horus]]. ==Lord of the dead== [[Image:Anubis standing.jpg|thumb|140px|left|Anubis]] Originally, in the [[Ogdoad]] system, he was god of the [[duat|underworld]], and his name is frequently thought to have reflected this, meaning something like ''[[putrefaction]]''. He was said to have a wife, '''Anput''' (who was really just his female aspect, her name being his with an additional feminine [[suffix]]: the ''t''), who was depicted exactly the same, though feminine. His father was originally said to be [[Ra]], as he was the creator god, and thus his mother was said to be [[Hesat]], Ra's wife, who later was identified as [[Hathor]] (who her identity was remarkably similar to). As lord of the underworld, Anubis was identified as the father of [[Kebechet]], the goddess of the purification of bodily organs due to be placed in [[canopic jar]]s during [[Mummy|mummification]]. [[Dog]]s and [[jackal]]s often loitered at the edges of the desert, especially near the cemeteries where the dead were buried; in fact, it is thought that the Egyptians began the practice of making elaborate graves and tombs in order to protect the dead from desecration by jackals. In consequence, Anubis was usually thought of as a jackal, an association reinforced by certain variations of his hieroglyph, which can be translated as ''young dog''. Thus, ancient Egyptian texts say that Anubis, like a jackal, silently walked through the shadows of life and death and lurked in dark places, watchful by day as well as by night. In [[art]], he was usually depicted as a man with the head of a [[jackal]] and alert [[ear]]s, often wearing a [[ribbon]], and wielding a [[whip (implement)|whip]]. On very rare occasions, Anubis was shown fully human, or slightly more frequently as fully jackal. However, Anubis was also depicted as [[black]], rather than [[brown]], the colour of jackals, since black was the [[color|colour]] that the body turned as a result of [[Mummy|mummification]]. As ruler over the dead, he was given titles such as ''He who is set upon his mountain'', in reference to his sitting atop desert cliffs to guard multiple [[necropolis]], and '''Chontamenti''' (also spelt '''Khentimentiu''', and '''Khentamenti'''), meaning ''Lord of the Westerners'', in reference to Egyptian belief that the entrance to the underworld was towards the west, since that was the direction in which the sun set. As ruler, he was also said to have been victorious over the dark forces (described as ''[[nine bows]]''), which also, naturally, lurk in the underworld, gaining him the title ''Jackal ruler of the bows''. As king of the underworld, he was also considered to be the one who weighed the [[Egyptian soul|heart of the dead]] against the feather of [[Maàt]] (the concept of truth), gaining him the title ''He who counts the hearts''. One of the reasons that the ancient Egyptians took such care to preserve their dead with sweet-smelling herbs was that it became believed Anubis would check each person with his keen canine nose. Only if they smelled pure would he allow them to enter the Kingdom of the Dead. ==Embalmer== [[Image:Anubis statuette 2.jpg|thumb|Statuette of Anubis]] Following the merging of the [[Ennead]] and [[Ogdoad]] belief systems, as a result of the identification of [[Atum]] with [[Ra]], and their compatibility, Anubis became considered a lesser god in the underworld, giving way to the more popular [[Osiris]]. Indeed, when the [[Legend of Osiris and Isis]] emerged, it was said that when Osiris had died, Anubis stood down from his position out of respect for Osiris. Since he had been more associated with beliefs about the weighing of the heart than had Osiris, Anubis retained this aspect, and became considered more the [[gatekeeper]] of the underworld, the ''Guardian of the veil'' (of ''death''). As such, he was said to p
our parts: #The apostle deals with the subject of the lamentable divisions and party strifes that had arisen among them (chs. 1&amp;ndash;4). #He next treats of a case of [[incest]] that had become notorious among them, and of members of the church who had sued one another, to be judged in a court of law rather than before the saints of the Christian community, and of [[fornication]] (chs. 5&amp;ndash;6). #In the third part, he discusses various questions of doctrine and Christian ethics, in reply to certain communications they had made to him. Paul discusses marriage and the preferable state of continence, the irrelevance of circumcision, the eating of meats that have been offered to an idol, the necessities of a woman covering her head and a man uncovering his, and other particular matters. Chapter 9 is a self-defense. Among other things this section is the most thorough discussion of spiritual gifts, including [[prophecy]] and [[glossolalia]], in the entire New Testament. Paul does not condemn them but urges their orderly use, and also contrasts them with the higher spiritual gifts of faith, hope and love. Paul also rectifies certain flagrant abuses regarding the celebration of the [[Eucharist]] (chs. 7&amp;ndash;14).&lt;br&gt;The lines 14:33&amp;ndash;34 deal with the role and behavior of [[Ordination of women|women in the church]], that women are to keep silent, and are regarded by some to be an interpolation written by someone other than Paul. Some believe that the topic of line 33, of prophesying, appears to be disrupted by the dialogue concerning women, only to be picked up again at line 14:36. Further, these restrictions against women's authority mirror the language and tone of similar restrictions in First Timothy, which is considered by most scholars to be of non-Pauline origin. #The concluding part (chs. 15&amp;ndash;16) contains an elaborate defense of the doctrine of the resurrection of the dead, which had been called into question by some among them, followed by some general instructions, intimations, and greetings. This epistle &quot;shows the powerful self-control of the apostle in spite of his physical weakness, his distressed circumstances, his incessant troubles, and his emotional nature. It was written, he tells us, in bitter anguish, 'out of much affliction and pressure of heart . . . and with streaming eyes' (2 Cor 2:4); yet he restrained the expression of his feelings, and wrote with a dignity and holy calm which he thought most calculated to win back his erring children. It gives a vivid picture of the early church . . . It entirely dissipates the dream that the apostolic church was in an exceptional condition of holiness of life or purity of doctrine.&quot;{{fact}} The apostle in this epistle unfolds and applies great principles fitted to guide the church of all ages in dealing with the same and kindred evils in whatever form they may appear. The traditional subscription to the epistle, translated in the [[Authorized Version]], states that this epistle was written at [[Philippi]], perhaps arising from a misinterpretation of 16:5, &quot;For I do pass through Macedonia,&quot; as meaning, &quot;I am passing through Macedonia.&quot; In 16:8 Paul declares his intention of staying in Ephesus until Pentecost. ==See also== *[[1 Corinthians 13:1]] - the ''tongues of men and angels'' verse ==External links== Online translations of [[First Epistle to the Corinthians]]: *{{biblegateway|1|Corinthians}} *[http://www.earlychristianwritings.com/1corinthians.html Early Christian Writings: ''1 Corinthians''] (also other resources via here) Related articles: *[http://www.studylight.org/enc/isb/view.cgi?number=T2324 International Standard Bible Encyclopedia:] ''1 Corinthians'' {{eastons}} &lt;center&gt; &lt;br&gt; {| border=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;border-collapse: collapse&quot; |- bgcolor=&quot;darkgray&quot; |colspan=3|&lt;center&gt;'''Books of the Bible''' |- bgcolor=&quot;gainsboro&quot; |&lt;Center&gt;Preceded by:&lt;br&gt;&lt;Center&gt;[[Epistle to the Romans|Romans]] |'''[[Epistles]]''' |&lt;Center&gt;Followed by:&lt;br&gt;&lt;Center&gt;[[Second Epistle to the Corinthians|2 Corinthians]] |} &lt;/center&gt; [[Category:New Testament books|Corinthians 1]] [[Category:Charismatic and Pentecostal Christianity]] [[zh-min-nan:Ko-lîm-to Chiân-su]] [[de:1. Korintherbrief]] [[fr:Première épître aux Corinthiens]] [[ko:고린도전서]] [[id:Surat Paulus yang Pertama kepada Jemaat di Korintus]] [[ia:Epistola 1 al Corinthios]] [[jv:I Korintus]] [[nl:Eerste brief van Paulus aan de Korintiërs]] [[ja:コリントの信徒への第一の手紙]] [[pl:1 List do Koryntian]] [[pt:Primeira Epístola aos Coríntios]] [[ru:1-е к Коринфянам]] [[fi:Ensimmäinen kirje korinttilaisille]] [[sv:Första Korinthierbrevet]] [[zh:哥林多前書]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>List of Scots</title> <id>11379</id> <revision> <id>41899514</id> <timestamp>2006-03-02T13:46:16Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Agendum</username> <id>36536</id> </contributor> <comment>/* Theologians */ incl Norman Porteous</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''List of Scots''' is an incomplete list of notable people from [[Scotland]]. {{listdev}} ==Actors (see also 'Humorists')== *[[Ian Bannen]], (1928-1999) *[[Billy Boyd]], (born 1968) *[[Gerard Butler]], (born 1969) *[[Peter Capaldi]] *[[Robert Carlyle]], (born 1961) *[[Hamish Clark]], (born 1967) *[[Robbie Coltrane]], (born 1950) *[[Sean Connery]], (born 1930) *[[Billy Connolly]] (born 1942) *[[Tom Conti]], (born 1941) *[[James Cosmo]], (born 1948) *[[Brian Cox]], (born 1946) *[[Alan Cumming]], (born 1965) *[[Craig Ferguson]], (born 1962) *[[Rikki Fulton]], (1924-2004) *[[Dougie Henshall]], (born 1965) *[[James Robertson Justice]], (1905-1975) *[[Deborah Kerr]], (born 1921) *[[John Laurie]], (1897-1980) *[[Fulton Mackay]], (1922-1987) *[[David McCallum]], (born 1933) *[[Angus McFadyen]], (born 1963) *[[Ewan McGregor]], (born 1971) *[[Paul McGillion]], (born 1968) *[[Kevin McKidd]], (born 1973) *[[Peter Mullan]], (born 1954) *[[Daniela Nardini]] *[[Bill Paterson]], (born 1945) *[[Dougray Scott]], (born 1965) *[[Moira Shearer]], (born 1926) *[[Alastair Sim]], (1900-1976) *[[John Gordon Sinclair]], (born 1962) *[[David Tennant]], (born 1971) *[[Ian McDiarmid]] *[[Denis Lawson]] *[[John Hannah]] *[[David Heyman]] ==Architects== *[[Robert Adam]], (1728-1792) *[[William Adam]], (1689-1748) Father of Robert and architect and builder *[[Robert Rowand Anderson]] (1834 - 1921) *[[Charles Cameron (architect)|Charles Cameron]], (1743-1812) *[[Robert Lorimer]] (1864 - 1929) *[[Charles Rennie Mackintosh]], (1868-1928), [[architect]], [[designer]] and watercolourist, husband of [[Margaret MacDonald (Artist)]] *[[Robert Matthew]], (1906 - 1975) *[[James Playfair]], (1755 - 1794), father of William Henry *[[William Henry Playfair]], (1790-1857) *[[James Robert Rhind]], (1854-1918) *[[James Stirling (architect)|James Stirling]], (1926-1992) *[[Basil Spence]], (1907-1976) *[[Thomas S. Tait]], (1882 - 1954) *[[Alexander 'Greek' Thomson ]], (1817-1875) ==Artists== *[[Muirhead Bone]], (1876 - 1953), etcher *[[Mark Boyle]], (1934-2005) *[[John Byrne (Scottish artist)|John Byrne]], (born 1940) *[[Robert Colquhoun]] *[[Ian Hamilton Finlay]], (born 1925), sculptor and installation artist *[[Peter Howson]] *[[Hew Lorimer]], (1907 - 1993), sculptor and brother of architect [[Robert Lorimer]] *[[Margaret MacDonald (Artist)]], (1865-1933), wife of Charles Rennie Mackintosh *[[Robert MacBryde]] *[[Dugald MacColl]] *[[James MacGillivray]], sculptor *[[David Mach]], (born 1956), sculptor and installation artist *[[Alexander Nasmyth]], (1758-1840), landscape painter *[[Patrick Nasmyth]], (1787-1831), landscape painter, son of Alexander *[[Henry Raeburn]], (1756-1823), portrait painter *[[Jack Vettriano]], (born 1951) *[[David Wilkie (artist)|David Wilkie]] (1785 -1841) painter ==Business== *[[Arthur Anderson (businessman)|Arthur Anderson]], (1792-1868), co-founder of P&amp;O *[[Alexander Berry]], (1781-1873), Australia's first Millionaire? Had a town named after him. *[[David Dunbar Buick|David Buick]], founded the Buick car company *[[Andrew Carnegie]], (1835-1919), steel magnate, major philanthropist *[[William Davidson (lumberman)|William Davidson]],(1740-1790 entrepreneur and founder of the first colony in New Brunswick, Canada *Dr.[[Henry Duncan]], (1774-1846) Church of Scotland Minister. Started the worlds first savings bank in Ruthwell, Dumfries and Galloway *[[Thomas Blake Glover]], (1838-1911) Nagasaki-based trader in 19th century Japan *[[Tom Hunter]], entrepreneur and philanthropist, founder of Sports Division *[[Irvine Laidlaw]] Scotland's 2nd richest man and founder of the modern [[conference company]] *[[John Law (economist)|John Law]], (1671-1729), advocate of paper money and founder of the [[Mississippi Company]] *[[William Paterson (banker)|William Paterson]], (1658-1719), founder [[Bank of England]] and [[Bank of Scotland]] *[[Robert Gordon]], founder of [[The Robert Gordon University]] ==Composers== *[[Robert Carver]] *[[Hamish MacCunn]] *[[John Blackwood McEwen]] *[[James MacMillan (musician)|James MacMillan]] *[[William Wallace (Scottish composer)|William Wallace]] ==Engineers and Inventors== *Sir [[William Arrol]], (1839-1913), bridge builder *[[Alexander Bain]], (1818-1903), fax machine *[[John Logie Baird]], (1888-1946), television *[[Alexander Graham Bell]], (1847-1922), telephone, National Geographic, Hydrofoil *[[Henry Bell]], (1767-1830), ran Euope's first commercially successful steamboat *[[James Braid (physician)|James Braid]], (1795-1860), hypnosis *[[James Chalmers]], (1782-1853), adhesive postage stamp *Sir [[Dugald Clark]] (aka ''Clerk''), (1854-1932), first [[two stroke cycle]] engine (the [[Clark cycle]]) *[[Robert Davidson]], first [[electric locomotive]], 1837 *[[James Dewar]], (1842-1923), inventor of the [[vacuum flask|Thermos fla
ne of many Cygwin-related mailing lists at the [http://cygwin.com/lists.html Cygwin Mailing Lists] page. ==History== Cygwin began in [[1995]] as a project of [[Steve Chamberlain]], a [[Cygnus Solutions|Cygnus]] engineer who observed that Windows NT and 95 used [[COFF]] as their [[object file format]], and that GNU already included support for [[x86]] and COFF, and the C library [[newlib]]; so at least in theory it should not be difficult to retarget [[GNU Compiler Collection|GCC]] and get a [[cross compiler]] producing executables that would run on Windows. This proved to be so in practice, and a prototype came up quickly. The next step was to attempt to bootstrap the compiler on a Windows system, but this required enough emulation of Unix to let the [[Autoconf|GNU configure]] [[shell script]] run, which requires a shell like [[bash]], which in turn requires [[Fork (computing)|fork]] and [[Standard streams|standard I/O]]. Windows includes similar functionality, so the Cygwin library proper just needs to translate calls and manage private versions of data, such as [[file descriptor]]s. By [[1996]], other engineers had joined in, since it was clear that Cygwin would be a useful way to provide Cygnus' embedded tools hosted on Windows systems (the previous strategy had been to use [[DJGPP]]). It was especially attractive because it was possible to do a three-way cross-compile, for instance to use a hefty [[Sun workstation]] to build, say, a Windows-x-[[MIPS]] cross-compiler, which was faster than using the PC of the time. Starting around [[1998]], Cygnus also began offering the Cygwin package as a product of interest in its own right. ==See also== *[[Cygwin/X]] is a [[free software|free]] [[X11]] implementation running on top of Cygwin. *[[MinGW]] is a [[free software|free]] port of the GNU development tools to Windows. *[[Microsoft Windows Services for UNIX|Services for UNIX]] is a [[Microsoft]] product with similar capabilities to Cygwin; it has the advantage of speed, although it is not available for Windows XP Home, or older non NT-based versions of Windows. *[[coLinux]] uses a different approach to running Linux programs in Windows: it runs Linux itself to host them. *[[KDE on Cygwin]] ==External links== {{wikibooks}} *[http://www.cygwin.com Cygwin Home] *[http://www.cygwin.com/faq/ Cygwin FAQ] *[http://www.cygwin.com/packages/ Cygwin Package Listings] *[http://freshmeat.net/projects/cygwin/?topic_id=45%2C74 Cygwin page] on [[Freshmeat.net]] *[http://cygnome.sourceforge.net/ CYGNOME] = cygwin + [[GNOME]] *[http://kde-cygwin.sourceforge.net/ KDE-cygwin] cygwin + [[KDE]] *[http://unxutils.sourceforge.net/ unxutils] and [http://gnuwin32.sourceforge.net/ GnuWin32] - two similar projects, porting Unix utilities to Windows but without the [[emulation]] layer. &lt;!-- the link below is broken; please check it *[http://gecko.gc.maricopa.edu/~medgar/puttycyg/ PuttyCYG] PuttyCYG combines [[PuTTY]] and [[Cygwin]] creating a local terminal for your Cygwin consoles. A great way to replace a DOS CMD prompt. --&gt; [[Category:Compilers]] [[Category:Development tools]] [[Category:Emulation software]] [[Category:Red Hat]] [[da:Cygwin]] [[de:Cygwin]] [[es:Cygwin]] [[eo:Cigvino]] [[fr:Cygwin]] [[it:Cygwin]] [[he:Cygwin]] [[lv:Cygwin]] [[nl:Cygwin]] [[ja:Cygwin]] [[no:Cygwin]] [[pl:Cygwin]] [[pt:Cygwin]] [[ru:Cygwin]] [[sk:Cygwin]] [[fi:Cygwin]] [[sv:Cygwin]] [[th:Cygwin]] [[tr:Cygwin]] [[uk:Cygwin]] [[zh:Cygwin]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Communists</title> <id>6841</id> <revision> <id>15904956</id> <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>Conversion script</ip> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Automated conversion</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Communism]] </text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Conspiracy theories</title> <id>6844</id> <revision> <id>15904959</id> <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>Conversion script</ip> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Automated conversion</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Conspiracy theory]] </text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Corinth</title> <id>6845</id> <revision> <id>39718863</id> <timestamp>2006-02-15T10:20:20Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Ph89</username> <id>818695</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>/* Ottoman Rule */ misspelt</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{OtherUses|the Greek City of Corinth}} {{Infobox Town GR |name = Corinth |name_local = Κόρινθος |image_coa = |image_map = GreeceCorinth.png |periph = [[Peloponnese]] |prefec = [[Corinthia]] |province = |population = 36,555 |population_as_of = 2001 |population_ref = [http://www.statistics.gr/gr_tables/S1100_SAP_1_monimos2001.htm source] |pop_dens = 358 |area = 102.2 |elevation = ±10 |lat_deg = 37 |lat_min = 56 |lat_hem = N |lon_deg = 22 |lon_min = 56 |lon_hem = E |postal_code = 201 00 |area_code = 27410 |licence = &amp;Kappa;&amp;Rho; |mayor = |website = }} '''Corinth''', or '''Korinth''' (''Κόρινθος''; see also [[List of traditional Greek place names]]) is a [[Greece|Greek]] city, on the [[Isthmus of Corinth]], the narrow stretch of land that joins the [[Peloponnesus]] to the mainland of Greece. To the west of the isthmus lies the [[Gulf of Corinth]], to the east lies the [[Saronic Gulf]]. Corinth is about 48 miles (78 km) southwest of [[Athens]]. The isthmus, which was in ancient times traversed by hauling ships over the rocky ridge on sledges, is now cut by a canal. Corinth is also the capital of the [[Prefectures of Greece|prefecture]] of [[Corinthia]]. The city is (clockwise) surrounded by the coastal townlets of [[Lechaio]], [[Isthmia]], [[Kechries]], and the inland townlets of [[Examilia]] and [[Ancient Corinth]] right next to the archaelogical site. Geophysically the city is likewise surrounded by the narrow coastal plain of [[Vocha (plain of)|Vocha]], Corinthian Gulf, [[Corinth Canal]], Saronic Gulf, [[Oneia mountains]], and the monolithic rock of [[Acrocorinth]] where the medieval [[acropolis]] was built. ==History== ===Prehistoric era=== &lt;!-- Image with unknown copyright status removed: [[image:Corinth Temple of Apollon.jpg|thumb|right|289px|Temple of [[Apollo]] at Corinth]] --&gt; The city was founded in the [[Neolithic Age]], circa [[6000 BC]]. According to myth, the city was founded by Corinthos, a descendant of the god [[Helios]] (the Sun), while other myths suggest that it was founded by the goddess Ephyra, a daughter of the [[titan (mythology)|titan]] [[Oceanus]], thus the ancient name of the city (also [[Ephyra]]). There is evidence that the city was destroyed around [[2000 BC]]. Before the end of the [[Mycenae]]an period the [[Dorians]] attempted to settle in Corinth. While at first they failed, their second attempt was successful when their leader [[Aletes]] followed a different path around the Corinthian Gulf from [[Antirio]]. Some ancient names for the place, such as ''Korinthos'', derive from a pre-Greek, &quot;[[Pelasgian]]&quot; language; it seems likely that Corinth was also the site of a [[Bronze Age]] Mycenaean palace-city, like Mycenae, [[Tiryns]] or [[Pylos]]. According to myth, [[Sisyphus]] was the founder of a race of ancient kings at Corinth. It was also in Corinth that [[Jason]], the leader of the [[Argonauts]], abandoned [[Medea]]. ===Classical era=== &lt;!-- Image with unknown copyright status removed: [[image:Corinthian_statue.jpg|thumb|left|140px|Corinthian [[Sphinx]] 7th century BC]] --&gt; Later, in classical times the ancient city rivalled [[Athens]] and [[Thebes, Greece|Thebes]] in wealth, based on the Isthmian traffic and trade. Until the mid-6th century Corinth was a major exporter of [[black-figure pottery]] to cities around the Greek world. Athenian potters later came to dominate the market. Corinth's great temple on its ancient [[acropolis]] was dedicated to [[Aphrodite]]. According to most sources, there were more than one thousand temple prostitutes employed at the Temple of Aphrodite. Corinth was also the host of the [[Isthmian Games]]. [[image:Periander.jpg|thumb|right|100px|Periander '''Περίανδρος''' (r.627-585 BC)]] In the [[7th century BC]], when Corinth was ruled by the tyrants [[Cypselus]] (r. 657-627 BC) and his son [[Periander]] (r. 627-585 BC), the city sent forth colonists to found new settlements: [[Epidamnus]] (modern day [[Durres]], [[Albania]]), [[Syracuse, Italy|Syracuse]], [[Ambracia]] (modern day [[Lefkada|town of Lefkas]]), [[Corcyra]] (modern day [[Corfu|town of Corfu]]) and [[Actium|Anactorium]]. Periander also founded [[Apollonia (city)|Apollonia]] (modern day [[Fier]], Albania) and [[Potidaea]] (in [[Chalcidice]]). Corinth was also one of the nine Greek sponsor-cities to found the colony of [[Naukratis]] in [[Ancient Egypt]]. Naucratis was founded to accommodate the increasing trade volume between the Greek world and the pharaohnic Egypt, during the reign of [[Pharaoh]] [[Psammetichus I]] of the [[26th dynasty]]. Periander was one of the [[Seven Wise Men of Greece]]. During his reign the first Corinthian [[Ancient Greek coinage|coins]] were forged. He was the first to attempt to cut across the Isthmus to create a seaway to allow ship traffic between the Corinthian and the Saronic Gulf. He abandoned the venture due to the extreme technical difficulties he met, but he created the [[Diolkos]] (a stone-build overland ramp) instead. The era of the Cypselids, ending with Periander's nephew [[Psammetichus (Corinthian tyrant)|Psammetichus]], named after the hellenophile Egyptian Pharaoh Psammetichus I (see above), was the golden age of the city of Corinth. During this era Corinthians developed the [[Corinthian order]], the third order of the classica
of water at 0 °C and the boiling point at 100 °C at [[standard atmospheric pressure]]. This definition is still a close approximation to the actual definition and has lead many to wrongly refer to the scale as centigrade. == History == &lt;!-- Note: This is not incorrect, the scale originally counted from 100 &quot;up to&quot; 0, so what is now 1 degree would be 99, what is now 2 degrees would be 98 and so on.. --&gt; The centigrade scale is the original scale devised by Anders Celsius, in which the boiling point of water at 1,000 millibars was defined as 0 degrees and the freezing point of water was defined as 100 degrees. This is exactly the reverse of the modern Celsius scale, named after Anders Celsius. It was then reversed to its modern order some time after his death, in part at the instigation of [[Daniel Ekström]], the Swedish manufacturer of most of the [[thermometer]]s used by Celsius. Several other people, including the Swede [[Per Elvius the Elder]] (1710) and the [[France|Frenchman]] [[Christian of Lyons]] (1743), independently invented the same temperature scale. The oft-quoted claim that the botanist [[Carolus Linnaeus]] (1740) is amongst those is unsubstantiated. The [[Delisle scale]] was another temperature scale that ran &quot;downward&quot;. Since there are one hundred graduations between these two reference points, the original term for this system was '''centigrade''' (100 parts) or '''centesimal'''. In [[1948]] the system's name was officially changed to Celsius (a third name which had also been in use before then) by the 9th [[General Conference on Weights and Measures]] (CR 64), both in recognition of Celsius himself and to eliminate confusion caused by conflict with the use of the [[SI]] ''centi-'' prefix. While the values for freezing and boiling of water remain approximately correct, they are no longer suitable as reference points for a formal standard. The current official definition of the Celsius scale sets 0.01 °C to be at the [[triple point]] of water and a degree to be 1/273.16 of the difference in temperature between the triple point of water and [[absolute zero]]. This definition of the degree was adopted in [[1954]] at the 10th General Conference on Weights and Measures, the very same definition given for the [[kelvin]] degree (but 0 K is not 0°C). For the practical calibration of thermometers, the [[International Temperature Scale of 1990]] defines many additional reference points. == Naming == The degree Celsius is the only SI unit whose full unit name (&quot;degree Celsius&quot;, not &quot;Celsius&quot;) in [[English language|English]] includes an upper case letter. That is a quirk of English, because it is a proper adjective rather than a noun (before the name was changed from &quot;degree Kelvin&quot; to &quot;kelvin&quot; in 1967, that was another SI unit containing a capital letter in English). While [[SI prefix]]es could be applied in principle, they are not used in practice ([[ISO 1000]]). ==Application== [[Image:20050501 1315 2558-Bimetall-Zeigerthermometer.jpg|thumb|A thermometer that uses the celsius scale.]] The Celsius scale is the world's most commonly used temperature scale. It has been adopted by virtually all the countries of the world, with the notable exceptions of the United States of America and Jamaica. In broadcast media it was still frequently referred to as centigrade until the late [[1980s]] or early [[1990s]], particularly by weather forecasters on European networks such as the [[BBC]], [[ITV]], and [[Radio Telifís Éireann|RTÉ]]. In the [[United States]] and [[Jamaica]], [[Fahrenheit]] remains the preferred scale for everyday temperature measurement, although Celsius or kelvin is used for aeronautical and scientific applications. In the [[United Kingdom]], Celsius is the official scale used by the government and the media. It is also the only scale used in temperature controllers (for example, room thermostats). Some of the British media, however, still provide Fahrenheit equivalents since many in Britain, especially older people, still use the Fahrenheit scale. Even so, many that do still switch to the use of Celsius for low temperatures. The [[Unicode]] character set contains a dedicated precomposed degrees Celsius character (℃, U+2103). This character was only intended for compatibility mapping of [[legacy character set]]s that contain it as well. It should not be used in new texts. {{Comparison of temperature scales}} ==References== {{unreferenced}} {{TemperatureScales}} [[Category:SI derived units]] [[Category:Units of temperature]] [[af:Celsius]] [[ar:سيلسيوس]] [[zh-min-nan:Liap-sī]] [[ca:Celsius]] [[cs:Stupeň Celsia]] [[da:Celsius]] [[de:Grad Celsius]] [[es:Grado Celsius]] [[eo:Grado celsia]] [[fr:Degré Celsius]] [[gl:Celsius]] [[ko:섭씨]] [[id:Celsius]] [[is:Celsíus]] [[it:Celsius]] [[hu:Celsius-skála]] [[nl:Celsius]] [[ja:セルシウス度]] [[no:Celsiusskalaen]] [[nn:Celsius]] [[pl:Skala Celsjusza]] [[pt:Celsius]] [[ru:Градус Цельсия]] [[simple:Celsius]] [[sk:Stupeň Celzia]] [[sl:Celzijeva temperaturna lestvica]] [[sr:Целзијус]] [[fi:Celsiusaste]] [[sv:Grad Celsius]] [[th:องศาเซลเซียส]] [[zh:摄氏温标]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Chief Minister of the Northern Territory</title> <id>7167</id> <revision> <id>26251429</id> <timestamp>2005-10-23T06:15:35Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Ambi</username> <id>13040</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>fmt table</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">In [[Australia]], a '''[[Chief Minister]]''' is the [[head of government]] of a self-governing territory, while the head of government of a state is a [[Premiers of the Australian states|Premier]]. The Chief Minister is appointed by the [[Administrator of the Northern Territory of Australia|Administrator of the Northern Territory]], who in normal circumstances will appoint the head of whatever party holds the majority of seats in the legislature of the territory (in the [[Northern Territory]], the [[Legislative Assembly]]). However, in times of constitutional crisis the [[Administrator of the Northern Territory of Australia|Administrator]] can appoint someone else as Chief Minister. === Chief Ministers of the Northern Territory === {| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;border:1px solid #aaa; border-collapse:collapse&quot; |- bgcolor=&quot;#cccccc&quot; ! '''Chief Minister''' ! '''Party''' ! '''Period in office''' |- || Dr [[Goff Letts]] &lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt; || [[Country Liberal Party]] || [[1974]] - [[1977]] |- || [[Paul Everingham]] || [[Country Liberal Party]] || [[1977]] - [[1984]] |- || [[Ian Tuxworth]] || [[Country Liberal Party]] || [[1984]] - [[1986]] |- || [[Stephen Hatton]] || [[Country Liberal Party]] || [[1986]] - [[1988]] |- || [[Marshall Perron]] || [[Country Liberal Party]] || [[1988]] - [[1995]] |- || [[Shane Stone]] || [[Country Liberal Party]] || [[1995]] - [[1999]] |- || [[Denis Burke]] || [[Country Liberal Party]] || [[1999]] - [[2001]] |- || [[Clare Martin]] || [[Australian Labor Party]] || [[2001]] - present |- |} :&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt; While the [[Northern Territory Legislative Assembly]] was created in [[1974]], self-government was not granted until [[1978]]. As a result, members of the executive in the first parliament ([[1974]]-[[1977]]) and the first eighteen months of the second were known by alternative titles. While Dr [[Goff Letts]] and his successor [[Paul Everingham]] were officially known as Majority Leaders, their function was effectively the same as that of a Chief Minister from [[1978]]. [[category:Chief Ministers of the Northern Territory|*]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Chinese exclusion</title> <id>7170</id> <revision> <id>15905249</id> <timestamp>2002-10-14T11:19:29Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Olivier</username> <id>3808</id> </contributor> <comment>redirect</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Chinese Exclusion Act]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Collectible card game</title> <id>7171</id> <revision> <id>37504540</id> <timestamp>2006-01-31T11:44:36Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>McGeddon</username> <id>455421</id> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Collectible card games''' ('''CCGs'''), also called '''customizable card games''' or '''trading card games''', are played using specially designed sets of [[card]]s. While [[trading card]]s have been around for much longer, CCGs combine the appeal of collecting and strategic game play. The first widely-known collectible card game was ''[[Magic: The Gathering]]'', designed by [[Richard Garfield]], published by [[Wizards of the Coast]] in [[1993]]. == Gameplay == Each CCG system has a fundamental set of rules that describes the players' objectives, the categories of cards used in the game, and the basic rules by which the cards interact. Each card will have additional text explaining that specific card's effect on the game. They also generally represent some specific element derived from the game's genre, setting, or source material. The cards are illustrated and named for these source elements, and the card's game function may relate to the subject. For example, ''[[Magic: The Gathering|Magic]]'' is based on the [[fantasy]] genre, so many of the cards represent creatures and magical spells from that setting. In the game, a [[European dragon|dragon]] is illustrated as a reptilian beast, may have the ''flying'' ability, and has quite formidable game statistics compared to smaller creatures. Almost all CCGs are designed around a single resource system by which the pace of each game is generally controlled. Frequently, the cards which comprise a player's deck are also in and of themselves a resource, with the frequency of
nown as an author and scholar, whose best-known work, ''[[Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum]]'' (''The Ecclesiastical History of the English People'') gained him the title &quot;The father of [[History of England|English History]]&quot;. Bede wrote on many other topics, from [[music]] and [[meter (music)|metrics]] to [[Scripture]] commentaries. He is also the only Englishman in [[Dante]]'s [[Divine Comedy#Paradiso|Paradise]] and the only English [[Doctor of the Church]]. ==Life== Almost all that is known of life is contained in a notice added by himself to his ''Historia'' (v.24), which states that he was placed in the monastery at Wearmouth at the age of seven, that he became [[deacon]] in his nineteenth year, and [[priest]] in his thirtieth, remaining a priest for the rest of his life. It is not clear whether he was of [[nobility|noble birth]]. He was trained by the [[abbot|abbots]] [[Benedict Biscop]] and [[Ceolfrid]], and probably accompanied the latter to Jarrow in [[682]]. There he spent his life, finding his chief pleasure in being always occupied in learning, teaching, or writing, and zealous in the performance of monastic duties. There likewise he died and was buried, but his bones were, towards the beginning of the [[11th century]], removed to [[Durham Cathedral]]. Bede became known as ''Venerable Bede'' soon after his death, but this was not linked to consideration for [[Canonization|sainthood]] by the [[Catholicism|Roman Catholic Church]]. His scholarship and importance to Catholicism were recognised in [[1899]] when he was declared a [[Doctor of the Church]] as '''''St Bede The Venerable'''''. ==Work== His works show that he had at his command all the learning of his time. It was thought that the library at Wearmouth-Jarrow was between 300-500 books, making it one of the largest in England. It is clear that Biscop made strenuous efforts to collect books on his extensive travels. Bede was proficient in [[Church father|patristic]] literature, and quotes [[Pliny the Younger]], [[Virgil]], [[Lucretius]], [[Ovid]], [[Horace]], and other [[classical antiquity|classical]] writers, but with some disapproval. He knew some [[Greek language|Greek]] but no [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]]. His [[Latin language|Latin]] is generally clear and without affectation, and he was a skillful story-teller. However, his style can be considerably more obscure in his Biblical commentaries. Bede practiced the [[allegory|allegorical]] method of interpretation, and was by modern standards credulous concerning the miraculous; but in most things his good sense is conspicuous, and his kindly and broad sympathies, his love of truth and fairness, his unfeigned piety, and his devotion to the service of others combine to make him an exceedingly attractive character. Bede's writings are classed as scientific, historical, and theological. The scientific include treatises on [[grammar]] (written for his pupils), a work on natural phenomena (''De rerum natura''), and two on [[chronology]] (''De temporibus'' and ''De temporum ratione''). Bede made a new calculation of the [[age of the earth]] and began the practice of dividing the Christian era into BC and AD. He has also been credited with adjusting the Gregorian calendar such that only one out of every four century-years are leap years ([http://www.google.com/search?q=cache:ixl8ttL2sGoJ:beakman.com/beakman/news/022700/022700.html+%22%22&amp;hl=en&amp;lr=&amp;strip=1 Google cache of source article]). Interestingly, Bede wrote that the Earth was round &quot;like a playground ball&quot;, contrasting that with being &quot;[[Flat earth|round like a shield]]&quot;. ===''Historia Ecclesiastica''=== The most important and best known of his works is the ''[[Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum]],'' giving in five books and 400 pages the history of [[England]], ecclesiastical and political, from the time of [[Julius Caesar|Caesar]] to the date of its completion ([[731]]). The first twenty-one chapters, treating of the period before the mission of [[Augustine of Canterbury]], are compiled from earlier writers such as [[Orosius]], [[Gildas]], [[Prosper of Aquitaine]], the letters of [[Pope Gregory I]], and others, with the insertion of legends and traditions. After [[596]], documentary sources, which Bede took pains to obtain, are used, as well as oral testimony, which he employed with critical consideration of its value. He cited his references and was very concerned about the sources of all his sources, which created an important historical chain. He is credited with inventing [[footnote|footnoting]]. Due to his innovations like footnoting he was accused of heresy at the table of Bishop Wilfred, although the actual accusation was for miscalculating the age of the world, his chronology being contrary to the calculation of the time. The controversy is linked to footnoting because Bede cited another source in a note, rather than opining himself; others misunderstood the significance of citing another source. ===Other historical and theological works=== Circa the [[8th century|8th century AD]], he created a method of referring to years prior to the [[Christian era]] (''anno Domini''), which monk [[Dionysius Exiguus]] created in the [[6th century]]. He named it '''''Ante Christum Natum''''' (a.C.n.) and this was later translated to English as '''''Before Christ''''' (B.C.). His re-editing of the [[Vulgate]] [[Bible]] was of immense importance, and was the official version of the Bible for the whole of Western Christendom until the [[Protestant Reformation|Reformation]], and was used by the [[Catholic]] church until [[1966]]. [[Image:Venbedes.jpg|frame|&quot;The Venerable Bede Translates John&quot; by J. D. Penrose]] Rather than copying from any one source, he researched from several sources to create single volume bibles, a practice which was highly unusual for the time: previously, the Bible had circulated as separate books. Arguably this work of Bede has had a much greater and wider influence than his ''History of the English People''. He also worked on translations of parts of the Bible into [[Old English language|Old English]], although unfortunately these have not survived. His other historical works included lives of the abbots of Wearmouth and Jarrow, as well as lives in verse and prose of [[Cuthbert of Lindisfarne|St. Cuthbert of Lindisfarne]]. The most numerous of his writings are theological, and consist of commentaries on the books of the Old and New Testaments, homilies, and treatises on detached portions of Scripture. His last works, completed on his deathbed, were a translation into Old English of the [[Gospel of John]], and, perhaps, a [[#Vernacular poetry|vernacular poem]] on the [[Last Judgment|final judgment]]. ===Vernacular poetry=== According to his disciple Cuthbert, Bede was also ''doctus in nostris carminibus'' (&quot;learned in our song&quot;). Cuthbert's letter on Bede's death, the ''Epistola Cuthberti de obitu Bedae'', moreover, commonly is understood to indicate that Bede also composed a five line vernacular poem known to modern scholars as ''Bede’s Death Song'' (text and translation [[#colgraveandmynors1969|Colgrave and Mynors 1969]]): :Canebat autem sententiam sancti Pauli apostoli dicentis “Horrendum est incidere in manus Dei uiuentis,” et multa alia de sancta scriptura, in quibus nos a somno animae exurgere praecogitando ultimam horam admonebat. In nostra quoque lingua, ut erat doctus in nostris carminibus, dicens de terribili exitu animarum e corpore: ::Fore ðæm nedfere nænig wiorðe ::ðonc snottora ðon him ðearf siæ ::to ymbhycgenne ær his hinionge ::hwæt his gastæ godes oððe yfles ::æfter deað dæge doemed wiorðe. :And he used to repeat that sentence from [[Paul of Tarsus|St. Paul]] “It is a fearful thing to fall into the hands of the living God,” and many other verses of Scripture, urging us thereby to awake from the slumber of the soul by thinking in good time of our last hour. And in our own language,&amp;mdash;for he was familiar with English poetry,&amp;mdash;speaking of the soul’s dread departure from the body: ::Facing that enforced journey, no man can be ::More prudent than he has good call to be, ::If he consider, before his going hence, ::What for his spirit of good hap or of evil ::After his day of death shall be determined. As [[Opland]] notes, however, it is not entirely clear that Cuthbert is attributing this text to Bede: most manuscripts of the letter do not use a finite verb to describe Bede’s presentation of the song, and the theme was relatively common in Old English and Anglo-Latin literature. The fact that Cuthbert’s description places the performance of the Old English poem in the context of a series of quoted passages from Sacred Scripture, indeed, might be taken as evidence simply that Bede also cited analogous vernacular texts (see [[#opland1980|Opland 1980]], 140-141). On the other hand, the inclusion of the Old English text of the poem in Cuthbert’s Latin letter, the observation that Bede “was learned in our song,” and the fact that Bede composed a Latin poem on the same subject all seem to suggest that his connection to the vernacular poem was stronger than mere quotation. By citing the poem directly, Cuthbert seems to be implying that its specific wording was in some way important, either as a vernacular poem endorsed by a scholar who generally appears to have frowned upon secular entertainment (see [[#mccready1994|McCready 1994]], esp. 14-19) or as a direct quotation of Bede’s final original composition (see [[#opland1980|Opland 1980]], 140-141, for a discussion of some of the implications of this passage). ==References== [[Image:Death of St Bede - Project Gutenberg eText 16785.jpg|thumb|''The Death of St. Bede'']] &lt;span id=&quot;colgraveandmynors1969&quot;&gt;Colgrave, Bertram and R.A.B. Mynors, eds. Bede's Ecclesiastical History of the English People (Oxford, 1969).&lt;/span&gt; &
ltz married former actress [[Wendy Fulton (actress)|Wendy Fulton]] (''Bare Essence'') in 1983 and has a daughter named Ava. ==Filmography== ===Film=== *''[[The First Men on the Moon]]'' (1999) *''[[Star Trek: First Contact]]'' (1996) *''[[Enola Gay and the Atomic Bombing of Japan]]'' (1995) *''[[The Temp]]'' (1993) *''[[Fat Man and Little Boy]]'' (1989) *''[[The Long Walk Home]]'' (1989) *''[[Alone in the Dark (1982 movie)|Alone in the Dark]]'' (1982) *''[[The Fan (1981 film)|The Fan]]'' (1981) ===Television=== *''[[Star Trek: Voyager]]'' **&quot;Endgame, Part II&quot; (2001) **&quot;Endgame, Part I&quot; (2001) **&quot;Author, Author&quot; (2001) **&quot;Life Line&quot; (2000) **&quot;Inside Man&quot; (2000) **&quot;Pathfinder&quot; (1999) **&quot;Projections&quot; (1995) *''The Chimp Channel'' (1999) *''[[Stargate SG-1]]'' **&quot;The Gamekeeper&quot; (1998) *''[[Hart to Hart]]: Till Death Do Us Hart'' (1996) *''[[Diagnosis: Murder]]'' (1995) *''Menendez: A Killing in Beverly Hills'' (1994) *''[[Star Trek: The Next Generation]]'' **&quot;Genesis&quot; (1994) **&quot;Ship in a Bottle&quot; (1993) **&quot;Realm of Fear&quot; (1992) **&quot;Nth Degree&quot; (1991) **&quot;Hollow Pursuits&quot; (1990) *''[[Babylon 5]]'' **&quot;The Long Dark&quot; (1994) *''Victim of Love: The Shannon Mohr Story'' (1993) *''Woman with a Past'' (1992) *''Child of Rage'' (1992) *''Last Wish'' (1992) *''A Killer Among Us'' (1990) *''[[Perry Mason]]'' **&quot;The Case of the Musical Murder&quot; (1989) **&quot;The Case of the Sinister Spirit&quot; (1987) *''When Your Lover Leaves'' (1983) *''[[The A-Team]]'' (1983) *''Bitter Harvest'' (1981) *''Dial 'M' for Murder'' (1981) *''Thin Ice'' (1981) ===Radio=== *''Dark Matters with [[Don Ecker]] and Dwight Schultz'' ===Video Games=== *''[[Fallout 2]]'' (1998) *''[[Final Fantasy X]]'' (2001) *''[[Final Fantasy X-2]]'' (2003) *''[[Star Trek: Elite Force II]]'' (2003) *''[[Battlestar Galactica]]'' (2003) *''[[The Chronicles of Riddick: Escape from Butcher Bay]]'' (2004) *''[[Psychonauts]]'' (2005) *''[[Killer 7]]'' (2005) ===Animation=== *''[[Vampire Hunter D: Bloodlust]]'' *''[[Ninja Scroll: The Series]]'' *''[[The Wild Thornberrys]]'' *''[[Family Guy]]'' *''[[Johnny Bravo]]'' *''[[Grim &amp; Evil]]'' *''[[Spawn: The TV Series]]'' *''[[Princess Mononoke]]'' *''[[Reign: The Conquerer]]'' *''[[Golgo 13]]: Queen Bee'' *''[[The Animatrix]]'' *''[[Van Helsing: The London Assignment]]'' *''[[The Chronicles of Riddick: Dark Fury]]'' ==External links== * {{imdb name|id=0776239|name=Dwight Schultz}} [[Category:1947 births|Schultz, Dwight]] [[Category:Living people|Schultz, Dwight]] [[Category:American film actors|Schultz, Dwight]] [[Category:American television actors|Schultz, Dwight]] [[Category:People from Baltimore|Schultz, Dwight]] [[Category:American stage actors|Schultz, Dwight]] [[Category:Star Trek actors|Schultz, Dwight]] [[Category:American voice actors|Schultz, Dwight]] [[Category:The A-Team actors|Schultz, Dwight]] [[de:Dwight_Schultz]] [[nl:Dwight Schultz]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Democratic Front for the Liberation of Palestine</title> <id>8427</id> <revision> <id>41986253</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T01:30:32Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Fuhghettaboutit</username> <id>665998</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>negotations---&gt;negotiations</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Politics of Palestine}} The '''Democratic Front for the Liberation of Palestine''' ([[Arabic language|Arabic]]: ''''الجبهة الديموقراطية لتحرير فلسطين'''', transliterated '''''Al-Jabha al-Dimuqratiya Li-Tahrir Filastin''''') is a [[Palestinian]] [[Marxism-Leninism|Marxist-Leninist]] political and military organization. Often referred to only as the '''Democratic Front''', or '''al-Jabha al-Dimuqratiyah''' (الجبهة الديموقراطية). ==History== === Formation as the PDFLP === In 1969, a faction of the [[left-wing]] [[Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine]] (PFLP) broke away from the main organization to form the ''Popular Democratic Front for the Liberation of Palestine'' (PDFLP). The PDFLP was headed by Secretary-General [[Niaf Hawatmeh]], who had been referred to as a leader of the PFLP's [[Maoism|Maoist]] tendency. He believed that the PFLP had become, under the guidance of [[George Habash]], too focused on military matters, and wanted to make the PDFLP a more grass-roots and more ideologically focused organization. By contrast, [[Ahmad Jibril]]'s [[Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine-General Command]] (PFLP-GC), which has split away from Habash's organization in 1968, wanted to focus more on the tactical implementation of armed struggle. The DFLP soon gained a reputation as the most intellectual of the Palestinian [[fedayeen]] groups, and drew heavily on [[Marxist-Leninist]] theory to explain the situation in the [[Middle East]]. Its other leaders included [[Yasser Abd Rabbo]]. ===Early years and ideological moderation=== The PDFLP's original political orientation was based on the view that Palestinian national goals could be achieved only through [[revolution]] of the masses and &quot;[[people's war]]&quot;. However, it would soon come around to a more moderate standpoint and while preserving a hard-line attitude to armed struggle, the party began theorizing on various compromise solutions. From the mid-1970s, the group occupied a political stance midway between [[Yasser Arafat]] and the PLO hardliners. The DFLP condemned attacks outside [[Israel]] (such as the [[aircraft hijacking]]s for which the Habash PFLP gained notoriety) and was essential in making the [[binational state]] the goal of the PLO in the 1970s, insisting on the need for cooperation between [[Arabs]] and [[Jews]]. Still, while pioneering Palestinian-Israeli peace talks through making early contact with Jewish and Israeli peace campaigners, the DFLP simultaneously conducted numerous small bombings and minor assaults against Israeli targets, refusing to give up the armed struggle. It also performed some more spectacular operations, of which the largest, and most well known, is the [[Ma'alot massacre]] of 1974. ===Between Fatah and the Rejectionists=== In 1974, the same year as the PDFLP changed its name into the Democratic Front for the Liberation of Palestine (DFLP), it acted as a strong supporter of the 1974 [http://www.palestine-un.org/plo/doc_one.html Ten Point Program]. This document, which was accepted by the Palestinian National Council (PNC) after lobbying by [[Fatah]] and DFLP, cautiously introduced the concept of a [[two-state solution]] in the PLO, and caused a split in the organization leading to the formation of the [[Rejectionist Front]], where radical organizations such as the PFLP, PFLP-GC, [[PLF]] and others gathered with the backing of [[Syria]], [[Libya]] and [[Iraq]] to oppose Arafat and PLO moderation. In [[1978]] the DFLP temporarily switched sides and joined the Rejectionist Front after clashing with Arafat on several issues, but it would continue to serve as a mediator in the factional disputes of the PLO. In the tense situation leading up to the 1983 Fatah rebellion, during the Lebanese Civil War, DFLP offered mediation to prevent the Syrian-backed formation of a rival Fatah leadership under [[Said al-Muragha]] (Abu Musa), the [[Fatah al-Intifada]] faction. Its efforts ultimately failed, and the PLO became embroiled what was in effect a Palestinian [[civil war]]. ===Stagnation in the 1980s=== From the early 1980s the DFLP was seen as the most pro-[[Soviet Union|Soviet]] of the PLO member organisations. The collapse of the Soviet Union and the growing [[Islamist]] trend in Palestinian society during the 1990s sapped the party of much of its popularity and resources. It continued to cautiously support Arafat's attempts to open negotiations with Israel, but this was not uncontroversial within the membership. The First Intifada (1987-93) provoked a shift in Palestinian politics towards the [[Occupied Palestinian Territories]], which proved a severe handicap for the largely [[diaspora]]-based DFLP. With the swift rise of [[Islamism]] and religious groups such as [[Hamas]] in the 1980s, the DFLP faded among the Palestinian youth, and internal confusion over the future path of the organization paralysed political decision-making. ===1991 split=== In [[1991]] the DFLP split, with a minority faction led by [[Yasser Abd Rabbo]] (who had become increasingly close to Yassir Arafat) favouring the [[Madrid Conference of 1991|Madrid negotiations]] that led initially to limited Palestinian [[self-governance|autonomy]] in the [[West Bank]] and [[Gaza Strip]]. Inspired by the USSR's [[Glasnost]] and the fall of the [[Berlin Wall]], this group also favored a new political orientation, focused less on Marxism and armed struggle, and more on the democratisation of Palestinian society. It reconstituted itself as the [[Palestine Democratic Union]] (FIDA), and Abed Rabbo was officially made an advisor of Arafat. There were reports of armed clashes betwen the factions in Syria during the split. Essentially the [[Damascus]]-headquartered DFLP under Hawatmeh was able to retain its external branches, whereas the majority of the organization within Palestine, mainly on the West Bank, was taken over by FIDA. *''For more on FIDA, see [[Palestine Democratic Union]]'' ===The Oslo period=== The DFLP, under Hawatmeh, joined the rejectionist groups to form the [[Alliance of Palestinian Forces]] (APF) to oppose the [[Oslo Accords|Declaration of Principals]] signed in 1993. The group argued that the Oslo negotiations were undemocratic, excluded the PLO from decision-making and deprived the Palestinians of their legitimate rights, but in contrast to most other Alliance members they did not oppose a two-state solution as such. Along with the PFLP, it then broke from the APF over ideological differences, and has ma
o Medal. *[[Royal Society|Fellow of the Royal Society]] (1847) ===International Honours &amp; Titles=== *Conde de Vimeiro ([[18 October]] [[1811]], [[Portugal]]) *Duque de Ciudad Rodrigo (January 1812, [[Spain]]) *[[Grandee]] of the First Class (January 1812, Spain) *Marquês de Torres Vedras (August 1812, Portugal) *Duque de Vittoria ([[18 December]] [[1812]], Portugal) *[[Order of the Golden Fleece|Knight of the Golden Fleece]] (1812, Spain) *[[Prince of Waterloo|Prins van Waterloo]] ([[18 July]] [[1815]], [[The Netherlands]]) *[[GCH|Knight Grand Cross of the Order of Hanover]] (1816, [[Hanover]]) *[[Field Marshal]] batons from 12 countries. These can be seen at [[Apsley House]]. The Duke of Wellington stood as [[godfather]] to [[Victoria of the United Kingdom|Queen Victoria]]'s seventh child, [[Prince Arthur, Duke of Connaught|Prince Arthur]], in 1850. The Duke of Wellington and his godson shared the same birthdate, and as a toddler, young Arthur was encouraged to remind people that the Duke of Wellington was his godfather. ==Styles== *The Hon. Arthur Wesley (birth&amp;ndash;[[7 March]] [[1787]]) *Ensign The Hon. Arthur Wesley ([[7 March]] [[1787]]&amp;ndash;[[25 December]] [[1787]]) *Lieutenant The Hon. Arthur Wesley ([[25 December]] [[1787]]&amp;ndash;[[30 June]] [[1791]]) *Captain The Hon. Arthur Wesley ([[30 June]] [[1791]]&amp;ndash;[[30 June]] [[1791]]) *Major The Hon. Arthur Wesley ([[30 April]] [[1793]]&amp;ndash;[[30 April]] [[1793]]) *Lieutenant-Colonel The Hon. Arthur Wesley ([[30 September]] [[1793]]&amp;ndash;[[3 May]] [[1796]]) *Colonel The Hon. Arthur Wesley ([[3 May]] [[1796]]&amp;ndash;[[5 May]] [[1799]]) *Colonel The Hon. Arthur Wellesley ([[5 May]] [[1799]]&amp;ndash;[[29 April]] [[1802]]) *Major-General The Hon. Arthur Wellesley ([[29 April]] [[1802]]&amp;ndash;[[1 September]] [[1804]]) *Major-General The Hon. Sir Arthur Wellesley, KB ([[1 September]] [[1804]]&amp;ndash;[[8 April]] [[1807]]) *Major-General The Rt Hon. Sir Arthur Wellesley, KB ([[8 April]] [[1807]]&amp;ndash;[[25 April]] [[1808]]) *Lieutenant-General The Hon. Sir Arthur Wellesley, KB ([[25 April]] [[1808]]&amp;ndash;[[4 September]] [[1809]]) *Lieutenant-General The Rt Hon. The Viscount Wellington, KB, PC ([[4 September]] [[1809]]&amp;ndash;May [[1811]]) *General The Rt Hon. The Viscount Wellington, KB, PC (May [[1811]]&amp;ndash;[[28 February]] [[1812]]) *General The Rt Hon. The Earl of Wellington, KB, PC ([[28 February]] [[1812]]&amp;ndash;[[3 October]] [[1812]]) *General The Most Hon. The Marquess of Wellington, KB, PC ([[3 October]] [[1812]]&amp;ndash;[[4 March]] [[1813]]) *General The Most Hon. The Marquess of Wellington, KG, KB, PC ([[4 March]] [[1813]]&amp;ndash;[[21 June]] [[1813]]) *Field Marshal The Most Hon. The Marquess of Wellington, KG, KB, PC ([[21 June]] [[1813]]&amp;ndash;[[11 May]] [[1814]]) *Field Marshal His Grace The Duke of Wellington, KG, KB, PC ([[11 May]] [[1814]]&amp;ndash;[[2 January]] [[1815]]) *Field Marshal His Grace The Duke of Wellington, KG, GCB, PC ([[2 January]] [[1815]]&amp;ndash;[[14 September]] [[1852]]) ==Nicknames== Apart from giving his name to &quot;[[Wellington boot]]s&quot;, the Duke of Wellington also had several nicknames. * The &quot;[[Iron Duke]]&quot;, after an incident in 1830 in which he installed metal shutters to prevent rioters breaking windows at [[Apsley House]] * Officers under his command called him &quot;The Beau&quot;, thanks to him being a fine dresser or &quot;The Peer&quot; after he was created a Viscount. * Regular soldiers under his command called him &quot;Old Nosey&quot; or &quot;Old Hookey&quot; because of his long nose. * Spanish and Portuguese troops called him &quot;the Eagle&quot; and &quot;Douro&quot; respectively. ==Trivia== An interesting fact about Wellington is that he shaved twice a day due to rapid growth of facial hair. He was also insistent that he was not interrupted during shaving. This little tale is seen in ''Redcoats'' by Richard Holmes. [[HMS Iron Duke|HMS ''Iron Duke'']], named for Wellington, was the flagship of [[John Jellicoe|Admiral Sir John Jellicoe]] at the [[Battle of Jutland]] in [[World War I]]. Wellington is a recurring character in the [[Richard Sharpe (fictional character)|Richard Sharpe]] novels by [[Bernard Cornwell]]. In the film versions he was played by [[David Troughton]] for the first two instalments and [[Hugh Fraser (actor)|Hugh Fraser]] for the remainder of the 14 movie series. [[C. S. Forester]] invented a younger sister, &quot;Lady Barbara Wellesley&quot;, as a character in his [[Horatio Hornblower]] novels. The oft quoted phrase &quot;Publish and be damned!&quot; is attributed to Wellington, as what he said after the courtesan [[Harriette Wilson]] threatened to publish her memoirs and his letters if he didn't supply her financial demands. The capital city of [[New Zealand]] is named [[Wellington]] in honour of Wellington. The city has a private intermediate school named ''Wellesley College'' and a private club, ''Wellesley Club''. ==The Duke of Wellington's Government, January 1828 - November 1830== *The Duke of Wellington&amp;mdash;[[First Lord of the Treasury]] and [[Leader of the House of Lords]] *[[John Singleton Copley, 1st Baron Lyndhurst|Lord Lyndhurst]]&amp;mdash;[[Lord Chancellor]] *[[Henry Bathurst, 3rd Earl Bathurst|Lord Bathurst]]&amp;mdash;[[Lord President of the Council]] *[[Edward Law, 1st Earl of Ellenborough|Lord Ellenborough]]&amp;mdash;[[Lord Privy Seal]] *[[Robert Peel]]&amp;mdash;[[Secretary of State for the Home Department]] and [[Leader of the House of Commons]] *[[John William Ward, 1st Earl of Dudley|Lord Dudley]]&amp;mdash;[[Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs]] *[[William Huskisson]]&amp;mdash;[[Secretary of State for War and the Colonies]] *[[Henry Goulburn]]&amp;mdash;[[Chancellor of the Exchequer]] *[[Charles Grant, 1st Baron Glenelg|Charles Grant]]&amp;mdash;[[President of the Board of Trade]] and [[Treasurer of the Navy]] *[[Robert Dundas, 2nd Viscount Melville|Lord Melville]]&amp;mdash;[[President of the Board of Control]] *[[John Charles Herries]]&amp;mdash;[[Master of the Mint]] *[[George Hamilton-Gordon, 4th Earl of Aberdeen|Lord Aberdeen]]&amp;mdash;[[Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster]] *[[Henry John Temple, 3rd Viscount Palmerston|Lord Palmerston]]&amp;mdash;[[Secretary at War]] '''Changes''' *May-June, 1828&amp;mdash;[[Sir George Murray]] succeeds Huskisson as Colonial Secretary. Lord Aberdeen succeeded Lord Dudley as Foreign Secretary. Aberdeen's successor at the Duchy of Lancaster was not in the Cabinet. [[William Vesey-FitzGerald, 2nd Baron FitzGerald and Vesey|William Vesey-FitzGerald]] succeeded Grant as President of the Board of Trade and Treasurer of the Navy. Lord Palmerston left the Cabinet. His successor as Secretary at War was not in the Cabinet. *September, 1828&amp;mdash;[[Robert Dundas, 2nd Viscount Melville|Lord Melville]] becomes [[First Lord of the Admiralty]]. He was succeeded as President of the Board of Control by Lord Ellenborough, who remained also Lord Privy Seal *June, 1829&amp;mdash;[[James St Clair-Erskine, 2nd Earl of Rosslyn|Lord Rosslyn]] succeeded Lord Ellenborough as Lord Privy Seal. Ellenborough remained at the Board of Control. ==The Duke of Wellington's Caretaker Government November 1834 - December 1834== *The Duke of Wellington&amp;mdash;[[First Lord of the Treasury]], [[Secretary of State for the Home Department]], [[Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs]], [[Secretary of State for War and the Colonies]] and [[Leader of the House of Lords]] *[[John Singleton Copley, 1st Baron Lyndhurst|Lord Lyndhurst]]&amp;mdash;[[Lord Chancellor]] *[[Thomas Denman, 1st Baron Denman|Lord Denham]]&amp;mdash;[[Chancellor of the Exchequer]] Other offices were in commission. ==References== *[http://www.thepeerage.com/p10256.htm#i102559 ThePeerage.com] *[[Burke's Peerage]] *[[Military Heritage]] published a feature on Arthur Wellesley, Duke of Wellington, time and conflicts in India on behalf of the [[British East India Company]] (aka East India Tea Company) and the British crown (Charles Hilbert, Military Heritage, August 2005, Volume 7, No. 1, pp.34 to 41), ISSN 1524-8666. *Hutchinson, Lester. ''European Freebooters in Mogul India''. New York: Asia Publishing House, 1964. *Longford, Elizabeth. ''Wellington: The Years of The Sword''. New York: Harper and Row Publishers, 1969. *Mill, James. ''The History of British India''. 6 vols. 5th ed. New York: Chelsea House Publishers, 1968. *Brett-James, ed. ''Wellington at War 1794-1815'', New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1961. *A collection of the Duke’s letters. Beatson, Alexander. ''A View of the Origin and Conduct of the War with Tippoo Sultaun''. London: Bulmer and Co., 1800. *Holmes, Richard. ''Wellington: The Iron Duke''. London: Harper Collins Publishers, 2002 ==Trivia== In [[Auckland]], [[New Zealand]], there is a central city road named Wellesley Steet after Arthur Wellesley. ==See also== {{wikiquote}} {{wikisource author}} *[[Beef tenderloin|Beef Wellington]] *[[Wellington Arch]] *[[Wellington boot]] *[[Wellington's Column]] *[[Stratfield Saye House]] ===External links=== *[http://www.badley.info/history/Wellesley-Arthur-Great-Britain.biog.html Duke of Wellington Chronology World History Database] *[http://www.dwr.org.uk/ Duke of Wellington's Regiment - West Riding] * {{gutenberg author| id=Duke+of+Wellington+Arthur+Wellesley | name=Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington}} *[http://www.nottingham.ac.uk/mss/online/visual-resources/results.php?title=wellington&amp;catshort=cartoon&amp;offset=0 Images of political cartoons featuring the Duke of Wellington (University of Nottingham)] {{start box}} {{succession box | before=[[William Elliot]] | title=[[Chief Secretary for Ireland]] | years=1807&amp;ndash;1809 | after=[[Robert Dundas, 2nd Viscount Melville|Robert Dundas]]}} {{succession box|title=[[British Ambassador to France]]|before=None due to [[Napoleonic Wars]]|after=[[Charl
un to the galactic center can be estimated as well. It thus became clear that the part of the Milky Way seen from Earth was only a small part of the total galaxy, most of which was obscured by gas and dust. ==See also== *[[Plummer model]] ==References== ===General resources=== * [http://adswww.harvard.edu/ NASA Astrophysics Data System] has a collection of past articles, from all major astrophysics journals and many conference proceedings. * [http://astro.u-strasbg.fr/scyon/ SCYON] is a newsletter dedicated to star clusters. * [http://www.manybody.org/modest/ MODEST] is a loose collaboration of scientists working on star clusters. ===Books=== * Binney, James; Tremaine, Scott (1987). ''Galactic Dynamics'', Princeton University Press, Princeton, New Jersey. * Heggie, Douglas; Hut, Piet (2003). ''The Gravitational Million-Body Problem: A Multidisciplinary Approach to Star Cluster Dynamics'', Cambridge University Press. * Spitzer, Lyman (1987). ''Dynamical Evolution of Globular Clusters'', Princeton University Press, Princeton, New Jersey. ===Review Articles=== * Elson, Rebecca; Hut, Piet; Inagaki, Shogo (1987). Dynamical evolution of globular clusters. ''Annual review of astronomy and astrophysics'' '''25''' 565. [http://adsabs.harvard.edu/cgi-bin/nph-bib_query?bibcode=1987ARA%26A..25..565E NASA ADS] * Meylan, G.; Heggie, D. C. (1997). Internal dynamics of globular clusters. ''The Astronomy and Astrophysics Review'' '''8''' 1. [http://adsabs.harvard.edu/cgi-bin/nph-bib_query?bibcode=1997A%26ARv...8....1M NASA ADS] ==External links== * [http://www.seds.org/messier/glob.html Globular Clusters], SEDS Messier pages * [http://www.seds.org/~spider/spider/MWGC/mwgc.html Milky Way Globular Clusters] * [http://physun.physics.mcmaster.ca/Globular.html Catalogue of Milky Way Globular Cluster Parameters] by William E. Harris, McMaster University, Ontario, Canada. * [http://www.mporzio.astro.it/~marco/gc/ A galactic globular cluster database] by Marco Castellani, Rome Astronomical Observatory, Italy. [[Category:Star clusters]] [[Category:Globular clusters]] [[de:Kugelsternhaufen]] [[es:Cúmulo globular]] [[fr:Amas globulaire]] [[it:Ammasso globulare]] [[hu:Gömbhalmaz]] [[la:Cumulus stellarum globosus]] [[nl:Bolvormige sterrenhoop]] [[ja:球状星団]] [[pl:Gromada kulista]] [[ru:Шаровое скопление]] [[sk:Guľová hviezdokopa]] [[fi:Pallomainen tähtijoukko]] [[sv:Klotformig stjärnhop]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>George Vancouver</title> <id>12867</id> <revision> <id>41406434</id> <timestamp>2006-02-27T02:53:27Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Fishhead64</username> <id>604902</id> </contributor> <comment>/* External links */ added cat</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:George Vancouver.jpg|thumb|right|175px|Captain George Vancouver]] '''George Vancouver''' ([[June 22]], [[1757]] &amp;ndash; [[May 12]], [[1798]]) was an officer of the [[Royal Navy]], and an [[exploration|explorer]] best known for his exploration of [[North America]], including the Pacific coast along [[Oregon]], [[Washington]], and [[British Columbia]]; he also explored the southwest coast of [[Australia]]. He is the [[eponymous]] originator of several locations named [[Vancouver (disambiguation)|Vancouver]]. == Early career == George Vancouver was born in [[King's Lynn]], [[England]]. His first voyage to the Pacific was aboard [[Captain James Cook]]'s ''[[HMS Resolution]]'' on Cook's second voyage of exploration, from [[1772]] to [[1775]]. It was Vancouver's first naval service. He was only fifteen years old. Vancouver served under Cook again, during his third voyage of discovery, this time aboard the ''Resolution's'' sister ship, ''[[HMS Discovery (ship)|HMS Discovery]]''. This voyage lasted from [[1776]] to [[1779]]. Upon his return to Britain in 1779 Vancouver was [[commissioned_officer|commissioned]] as a [[lieutenant]]. His first post as a lieutenant was serving aboard the sloop ''[[HMS Martin]]'', on patrol duties in the [[English Channel]]. The next vessel Vancouver served in was the 74-gun [[ship of the line]] ''[[HMS Fame (1759)|HMS Fame]]''. The Fame was one of the vessels participating in the [[United Kingdom|British]] victory in the [[Battle of the Saintes]] in [[1782]]. While serving on the [[West Indies]] station, Vancouver was able to put the [[surveying]] and [[cartography|cartographic]] skills he learned under Cook to use surveying [[Port Royal]] and [[Kingston Harbour]]. He was assisted in this task by [[Joseph Whidbey]], who later served as his [[sailing master]] during his voyage of exploration. In [[1789]] the Royal Navy was planning another voyage of exploration to the Pacific. It was to be commanded by [[Henry Roberts]], another of Captain Cook's [[protégé]]s. Vancouver was to be his second in command. ''[[HMS Discovery]]'' was purchased specifically for this mission. However, a dispute when [[Spain|Spanish]] forces seized Nootka Island in [[Nootka Sound]] put the expedition on hold. Spain and Britain came close to going to war. An accommodation was arrived at, the [[Nootka Convention]], and war was avoided. But the preparations for war had disrupted the preparations for the expedition. By the time the convention had been signed Roberts was no longer available to lead the expedition. Vancouver was given command. == Vancouver's [[1791]]-[[1794]] exploration of North America's Pacific Coast == He followed the coasts of Oregon and Washington northward. In October [[1792]] he sent Lieutenant [[William Robert Broughton]] with several boats from Broughton's own ship to explore the [[Columbia River]]. Broughton navigated as far as the [[Columbia River Gorge]], sighting and naming [[Mt. Hood]]. Vancouver also entered the [[Strait of Juan de Fuca]], between [[Vancouver Island]] and the mainland. He intended to explore every bay and outlet of this region, and many times had to use boats to do so, because the inlets were often too narrow for his ships. He met a Spanish exploring party led by [[Dionisio Alcala Galiano]] and [[Cayetano Valdes y Flores]], and for some time they explored [[Puget Sound]] together. Afterwards, Vancouver went to [[Nootka]] (on [[Vancouver Island]]), then the region's most important harbour, where he was to get any British buildings or lands returned by the Spanish. The Spanish commander [[Juan Francisco Bodega y Quadra|Bodega y Quadra]] was very cordial and he and Vancouver exchanged the maps they had made of their explorations, but no agreement was reached; they decided to await further instructions. After a visit to Spanish [[California]], Vancouver used the winter to further explore the [[Hawaii|Sandwich Islands]]. The next year he went back to [[British Columbia]], and explored the coast further north. He got to 56°N, and because the more northern parts had already been explored by Cook, he then sailed south to California, hoping to be able to fulfill his task regarding Nootka; however, Bodega y Quadra was not there. He again spent the winter in the Sandwich Islands. The [[Burrard Inlet]] was named by Captain Vancouver in June [[1792]], after his friend Sir [[Harry Burrard]]. In [[1794]], he first went to [[Cook Inlet]], the northernmost limit of his exploration, and from there he followed the coast southward to [[Baranov Island]], which he had also reached the year before. He then set sail for [[England]], choosing the route around [[Cape Horn]], thus completing a [[circumnavigation]]. At the end of the exploration. Vancouver determined that the Northwest Passage did not exist at the latitudes that had long been suggested. Various locations around the world have been named after George Vancouver, including [[Vancouver Island]] (originally Vancouver &amp; Quadra Island) and the cities of [[Vancouver, British Columbia]], and [[Vancouver, Washington]]. Vancouver had to face a disciplinary inquiry when he returned because of an action he had taken against a junior officer who happened to be well connected politically. His career was effectively at an end. One of Britain's greatest navigators, Vancouver died in obscurity. His modest grave lies in St. Peters churchyard, [[Petersham]]. == &quot;Vancouver&quot; History of the family name == The origins of the [[family name]] are a hotly disputed issue. Popular belief states that the name is derived from a small village in the northeast of the [[Netherlands]]. However this theory is directly quoted from the misinterpretations of Mr. Adriaan Mansvelt ([[Consul General]] of the Netherlands based in Vancouver BC in the [[1970s]]). According to Mansvelt's theory, The [[family name]] Vancouver was derived from ''&quot;Van [[Coevorden]]&quot;'', meaning ''&quot;from Coevorden&quot;'', hence the locations mentioned were indirectly named after this town in the [[Netherlands]]. It is known that a number of businessmen from the Coevorden area relocated to England in the 18th Century, and some of them were known as &quot;van Coevorden&quot;; others adopted the surname &quot;[[Oxford]]&quot;, which is approximately the English translation of Coevorden. The [[World exposition]] in [[Vancouver]] BC in [[1986]], [[Expo 86]], asserted to the world that this belief was correct and solidified it as [[historical]] fact. However, this theory is based solely on the Mansvelt's assumptions and lacks any actual proof. Documents quoted by Mr. Mansvelt which are accepted as undeniable proof of his theory are inconclusive as documentary evidence (''see'' also [http://www.captainvancouver.8m.com Captain Vancouver, another theory]}. This theory is based on the belief that the name Vancouver was actually a [[misspelling]] or [[anglicized]] version of the name &quot;van Couwen&quot;, which is still a very common name in the [[Netherlands]]. Although the two theories agree that the name was changed to an [[anglicized]] version of the original [[Dutch language|Dutch]] name
nest Hemingway'' edited by William White, and ''Hemingway: The Wild Years'' edited by Gene Z. Hanrahan. ==Influence and legacy== The influence of Hemingway's writings on [[American literature]] was considerable and continues today. Indeed, the influence of Hemingway's style was so widespread that it may be glimpsed in most contemporary fiction, as writers draw inspiration either from Hemingway himself or indirectly through writers who more consciously emulated Hemingway's style. In his own time, Hemingway affected writers within his [[modernist]] literary circle. [[James Joyce]] called &quot;A Clean, Well Lighted Place&quot; &quot;one of the best stories ever written&quot;. [[Pulp fiction]] and &quot;[[hard boiled]]&quot; crime fiction (which flourished from the 1920s to the 1950s) often owed a strong debt to Hemingway. Hemingway's terse prose style--&quot;Nick stood up. He was all right&quot;-- is known to have inspired [[Bret Easton Ellis]], [[Chuck Palahniuk]], [[Douglas Coupland]] and many [[Generation X]] writers. Hemingway's style also influenced [[Jack Kerouac]] and other [[Beat Generation]] writers. [[J.D. Salinger]] is said to have wanted to be a great American [[short story]] writer in the same vein as Hemingway. [[Hunter S. Thompson]] often compared himself to Hemingway, and terse Hemingway-esque sentences can be found in [[The Rum Diary]]. In [[Latin America]]n literature, Hemingway's impact can perhaps best be seen in the work of [[Gabriel García Márquez]], who, for instance, often uses the sea as a central image in his fiction. [[Science fiction]] novelist [[Joe Haldeman]] won the [[Hugo Award]] and the [[Nebula Award]] for his [[novella]], ''The Hemingway Hoax,'' a story which explored the effect that Hemingway's lost stories might have had upon twentieth century history. The famous heavy-metal band, [[Metallica]] were inspired by 'For Whom The Bell Tolls' and penned the eponymous song that went on to become a major hit. In 1999, [[Michael Palin]] retraced the footsteps of Hemingway, in ''Michael Palin's Hemingway Adventure'', a television documentary, one hundred years after his birth of his favorite writer. The journey took him through many sites including [[Chicago]], [[Paris]], [[Italy]], [[Africa]], [[Key West]], [[Cuba]], and [[Idaho]]. The book is available at his [http://www.palinstravels.co.uk/ website]. Since 1987, actor-writer [[Ed Metzger]] has portrayed the life of Ernest Hemingway in one-man stage show ''Hemingway: On The Edge'', featuring stories and anecdotes from Hemingway's own life and adventures. Metzger quotes Hemingway, &quot;My father told me never kill anything you're not going to eat. At the age of 9, I shot a porcupine. It was the toughest lesson I ever had.&quot; More information about the show is available at [http://www.hemingwayplay.com/ website] At this writing, only one of Hemingway's sons (Patrick) survives. In [[Harry Turtledove]]'s Alternate History [[Timeline-191]], Hemingway shows up as a character who drove ambulances on the US-Canadian Front in Quebec during the Great War. The character had part of his reproductive organs shot off in the war, giving him severe depression and suicidal tendencies. In [[Dave Sim]]'s graphic novel [[Cerebus]], the story arc ''Form and Void'' features Ham and Mary Ernestway, parodies of Hemingway and his wife Mary. The last few years of Hemingway's life, including his electroshock therapy, the safari in which he was badly injured, and his suicide, are used as plot points for the story. ===Awards and honors=== During his lifetime Hemingway was awarded with: *[[Silver Medal of Military Valor]] (medaglia d'argento) in [[World War I]] *[[Bronze Star Medal|Bronze Star]] (War Correspondent-Military Irregular in [[World War II]]) in 1947 *[[Pulitzer Prize]] in 1953 (for ''[[The Old Man and the Sea]]'') *[[Nobel Prize in Literature]] in 1954 (''The Old Man and the Sea'' cited as a reason for the award) ===Trivia=== * Sailors were long-known to especially value [[polydactyl cat]]s (which have extra toes as a genetic trait) for their extraordinary climbing and hunting abilities as an aid in controlling shipboard [[rodents]]. Some sailors also considered them to be extremely [[good luck]] when at sea. Hemingway was one of the more famous lovers of polydactyl cats. He was first given a six-toed cat by a ship's captain. As provided in his will, his former home in [[Key West, Florida]] (which is now a popular museum) currently houses approximately sixty descendents of his cats, approximately 50% of whom are polydactyl. The house and its feline residents make a brief appearance in the 1989 [[James Bond]] film [[Licence to Kill]]. * According to various biographical sources, Hemingway was six feet tall and weighed anywhere between 170 and 260 pounds at varying times in his life. His build was muscular, though he became paunchy in his middle years. He had dark brown hair, brown eyes, and habitually wore a moustache (with an occasional beard) from the age of twenty three on. By age fifty, he consistently wore a graying beard. He had a scar on his forehead, the result of a drunken accident in Paris in his late 20s (thinking he was flushing a toilet, he accidentally pulled a skylight down on his head). He suffered from [[myopia]] all his life, but vanity prevented him from being fitted with glasses until he was thirty two (and very rarely was he photographed wearing them). He was fond of tennis, fonder of fishing and hunting, and hated New York City. ==Works== ===Novels/Noveletta=== * (1925) ''[[The Torrents of Spring]]'' * (1926) ''[[The Sun Also Rises]]'' * (1929) ''[[A Farewell to Arms]]'' * (1937) ''[[To Have and Have Not]]'' * (1940) ''[[For Whom the Bell Tolls]]'' * (1950) ''[[Across the River and Into the Trees]]'' * (1952) ''[[The Old Man and the Sea]]'' * (1962) ''[[Adventures of a Young Man]]'' * (1970) ''[[Islands in the Stream (Hemingway)]]'' * (1986) ''[[The Garden of Eden]]'' ===Nonfiction=== * (1932) ''[[Death in the Afternoon]]'' * (1935) ''[[Green Hills of Africa]]'' * (1960) ''[[The Dangerous Summer]]'' * (1964) ''[[A Moveable Feast]]'' * (2005) ''[[Under Kilimanjaro]]'' ===Short story collections=== * (1923) ''[[Three Stories and Ten Poems]]'' * (1925) ''[[In Our Time (book)|In Our Time]]'' * (1927) ''[[Men Without Women]]'' * (1932) ''[[The Snows of Kilimanjaro]]'' * (1933) ''[[Winner Take Nothing]]'' * (1938) ''[[The Fifth Column and the First Forty-Nine Stories]]'' * (1947) ''[[The Essential Hemingway]]'' * (1953) ''[[The Hemingway Reader]]'' * (1972) ''[[The Nick Adams Stories]]'' * (1976) ''[[The Complete Short Stories of Ernest Hemingway]]'' * (1995) ''[[Collected Stories (Hemingway)|Collected Stories]]'' ==Notes== #{{note|ref1}} From [http://www.lostgeneration.com/childhood.htm Childhood] at ''The Hemingway Resource Center''. #{{note|ref2}} Three different sources disagree on how long this habit of his mother's lasted. A note from [http://www.pbs.org/hemingwayadventure/michigan.html a PBS lecture series] states that it lasted for two years; [http://www.cigaraficionado.com/Cigar/CA_Profiles/People_Profile/0,2540,15,00.html Grauer] claims she stopped when he was 6; [http://www.harpercollins.com.au/drstephenjuan/0208news.htm Juan's analysis] suggests that her treatment continued &quot;well into his teens;&quot; he also claims that at times she would attempt to liken Hemingway to his older sister [[Marcelline Hemingway|Marcelline]]. #{{note|ref3}} A large list of such anecdotes are compiled at [http://www.kcstar.com/hemingway/ the centennial commemoration page of the ''Kansas City Star'']. #{{note|ref4}} Burgess, 1978, p. 24. #{{note|ref5}} Ibid. #{{note|ref6}} On [[August 10]], [[1943]], Hemingway typed '''[[Ernest Hemingway/Typed Letter|a letter to Archibald MacLeish]]''' discussing Pound's mental health and other literary matters. #{{note|ref7}} In a conversation with [[John Peale Bishop]], quoted in Hemingway, Cowley, ed, 1944, p. xiii. #{{note|ref8}} Burgess, 1978, p. 57. #{{note|ref9}} Ibid. #{{note|ref10}} Information about these posthumous Hemingway works was taken from Charles Scribner, Jr.'s 1987 Preface to ''The Garden of Eden''. #{{note|ref11}} [http://www.bookrags.com/shortguide-garden_of_eden/ BookRags] makes this quantitative note; it also reveals some more information about the publication of ''The Garden of Eden'' and offers some discussion of thematic content. #{{note|ref12}} [http://upress.kent.edu/books/Hemingway.htm The Kent State University Press] is the official source for this new novel's release. #{{note|ref13}} See the [http://www.und.edu/dept/our/dimensions/march2005/2.html University of North Dakota] feature of editor Robert W. Lewis, for example. ==External links== {{wikiquote}} * [http://www.timelesshemingway.com Timeless Hemingway] * [http://www.davidgagne.net/hem The Hemingway Blog] * [http://www.onetruesentence.com One True Sentence: A Blog Devoted to EH] * [http://www.pbs.org/hemingwayadventure Michael Palin's Hemingway Adventure] Based on a PBS lecture series narrated by Michael Palin. *[http://www.hemingwaysociety.org The Hemingway Society] *[http://www.cnn.com/SPECIALS/books/1999/hemingway/index.html CNN: A Hemingway Retrospective] *[http://www.einstein-hemingway-shows.com &quot;Hemingway:On The Edge,&quot; A One Man Show] * [http://www.retortmagazine.com/05/id_09_05_dan_schneider.htm Review of The Complete Short Stories of Ernest Hemingway] * [http://www.litencyc.com/php/sworks.php?rec=true&amp;UID=7857 Review of The Sun Also Rises] * [http://www.sparknotes.com/lit/oldman/ SparkNotes of The Old Man And The Sea] * [http://www.hemingwayhome.com/ Ernest Hemingway Home and Museum in Key West, Florida, official website] * [http://www.briangordonsinclair.com/hemingway.htm ''Hemingway on Stage''] [[Category:1899 births|Hemingway, Ernest]] [[Category:1960 deaths|Hemingway, Ernest]] [[Category:Ernest Hemingway|*]] [[Category:Writers|Suicide, Writers who committe
|} ==See also== *[[Nuwaubianism]] ==External links== {{wikiquote}} * {{musicbrainz artist|id=fe3503fb-146f-4d68-a591-a7e5798c321f|name=Afrika Bambaataa}} [[Category:1957 births|Bambaataa, Afrika]] [[Category:Living people|Bambaataa, Afrika]] [[Category:1960 births|Bambaataa, Afrika]] [[Category:Living people|Bambaataa, Afrika]] [[Category:Hip hop DJs|Bambaata, Afrika]] [[Category:African American musicians|Bambaata, Afrika]] [[als:Afrika Bambaata]] [[de:Afrika Bambaataa]] [[fr:Afrika Bambaataa]] [[nl:Afrika Bambaataa]] [[pl:Kevin Donovan]] [[pt:Afrika Bambaataa]] [[sv:Afrika Bambaataa]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Alp Arslan</title> <id>868</id> <revision> <id>41127491</id> <timestamp>2006-02-25T05:37:07Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>OrphanBot</username> <id>621721</id> </contributor> <comment>Removing image with no source information. Such images that are older than seven days may be deleted at any time.</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">&lt;!-- Unsourced image removed: [[Image:Alparslan.JPG|thumb|right|250px|''Alp Arslan'']] --&gt; '''Muhammed ben Da'ud''' ([[1029]]–[[December 15]], [[1072]]) was the second sultan of the dynasty of [[Seljuk Turks]], in [[Iran|Persia]], and great-grandson of [[Seljuk]], the founder of the dynasty. He assumed the name of Muhammed when he embraced [[Islam]], and on account of his military prowess and personal valor and fighting skills he obtained the surname '''Alp Arslan''', which signifies &quot;a valiant lion.&quot; He succeeded his father [[Da'ud]] as ruler of [[Khorasan]] in [[1059]], and his uncle [[Toghrül|Toğrül]] as sultan of [[Iran]] and [[Baghdad]] in 1063, and thus became sole monarch of [[Iran|Persia]] from the river [[Oxus]] to the [[Tigris]]. In consolidating his empire and subduing contending factions he was ably assisted by [[Nizam ul-Mulk]], his [[Persians|Persian]] [[vizier]], and one of the most eminent statesmen in early [[Muslim]] history. With Peace and security established in his dominions, he convoked an assembly of the states and declared his son [[Malik Shah I]] his heir and successor. With the hope of acquiring immense booty in the rich church of [[St. Basil]] in [[Caesarea Mazaca]], the capital of [[Cappadocia]], he placed himself at the head of the Turkish cavalry, crossed the [[Euphrates]] and entered and plundered that city. He then marched into [[Armenia]] and [[History of Georgia (country)|Georgia]], which he conquered in [[1064]]. ==Byzantine struggle== In [[1068]] Alp Arslan invaded the [[Byzantine Empire]]. The [[Byzantine Emperors|emperor]] [[Romanus IV]] Diogenes, assuming the command in person, met the invaders in [[Cilicia]]. In three arduous campaigns, the first two of which were conducted by the emperor himself while the third was directed by Manuel Comnenus (great-uncle of Emperor [[Manuel Comnenus]]), the Turks were defeated in detail in [[1070]] driven across the Euphrates. In [[1071]] Romanus again took the field and advanced with 100,000 men, including a contingent of the Turkish tribe of the [[Uzes]] as well as contingents of [[France|French]] and [[Normans]], under [[Ursel of Bahol]], into [[Armenia]]. At [[Manzikert]], on the [[Murad Tchai]], north of [[Lake Van]], he was met by Alp Arslan. The sultan proposed terms of peace, which were rejected by the emperor, and the two forces met in the [[Battle of Manzikert]], in which the Byzantines, after a terrible slaughter, were totally routed; a result due mainly to the betrayal of Romanus by his political enemies during the battle and the rapid tactics of the Turkish cavalry. Emperor Romanus IV was himself taken prisoner and conducted into the presence of Alp Arslan, who treated him with generosity, and terms of peace having been agreed to, dismissed him, loaded with presents and respectfully attended by a military guard. This famous conversation is recorded to have taken place after Romanus IV was brought as a prisoner before the Sultan: :''Alp Arslan'': &quot;What would you do if I was brought before you as a prisoner?&quot; :''Romanus'': &quot;Perhaps I'd kill you, or exhibit you in the streets of Constantinople.&quot; :''Alp Arslan'': &quot;My punishment is far heavier. I forgive you, and set you free.&quot; Unfortunately for Romanus, the Emperor's subjects were far less kind than his enemy, making the mercy of Alp Arlsan a curse: Romanus was blinded and finally killed after great torment. After Alp Arslan's victories the balance in the near Asia changed completely in favour of [[Seljuk Turks]] and [[Sunnite|Sunni]] Muslims. While the Byzantine Empire was to continue for nearly another four centuries, and the Crusades would contest the issue for some time, their victory at Manzikert signalled the beginning of Turkish ascendancy in the [[Middle East]]. Most historians, including Edward Gibbons, date the defeat at Manzikert as the beginning of the end of the Eastern Roman Empire. Certainly the entry of Turkic farmers following their horsemen ended the themes in Anatolia which had furnished the Empire with men and treasure. The importance of this battle, and the skill of Alp Arslan in fighting it, cannot be overstated. ==State organization== Alp Arslan's strength lay in the military realm, domestic affairs being handled by his Persian vizier, [[Nizam al-Mulk]]; founder of the administrative organization which characterized and strengthened the sultanate during the reigns of Alp Arslan and his son, Malik Shah. Military fiefs, governed by Seljuk princes, were established to provide support for the soldiery and to accommodate the nomadic Turks to the established Persian agricultural scene. This type of military fiefdom enabled the nomadic Turks to draw on the resources of the sedantary Persians, and other established cultures within the Seljuk realm, and allowed Alp Arslan to field a huge standing army, without depending on tribute from conquest to pay his soldiery. He not only had enough food from his subjects to maintain his military, but the taxes collected from traders and merchants added to his coffers sufficiently to fund his continuous wars. ==Death== The dominion of Alp Arslan after Manzikert extended over much of western [[Asia]]. He soon prepared to march to the conquest of [[Turkestan]], the original seat of his ancestors. With a powerful army he advanced to the banks of the Oxus. Before he could pass the river with safety, however, it was necessary to subdue certain fortresses, one of which was for several days vigorously defended by the governor, [[Yussuf el-Harezmi]], a [[Khwarezmid Empire|Khwarezmian]]. He was, however, obliged to surrender and was carried a prisoner before the sultan, who condemned him to a cruel death. Yussuf, in desperation, drew his dagger and rushed upon the sultan. Alp Arslan motioned to his guards not to interfere and drew his bow, but his foot slipped, the arrow glanced aside and he received the assassin's dagger in his breast. Alp Arslan died four days later from this wound on [[November 25]], [[1072]] in his 42nd year, and was taken to [[Merv]] to be buried next to his father [[Çağrı Bey]]. Upon his tomb lies the following inscription: :“''O those who saw the sky-high grandeur of Alp Arslan, behold! He is under the black soil now''...” As he lay dying, Alp Arslan whispered to his son that his vanity had killed him. &quot;Alas,&quot; he is recorded to have said, &quot;surrounded by great warriors devoted to my cause, guarded night and day by them, I should have allowed them to do their job. I had been warned against trying to protect myself, and against letting my courage get in the way of my good sense. I forgot those warnings, and here I lay, dying in agony. Remember well the lessons learned, and do not allow your vanity to overreach your good sense...&quot; ==Reference== {{wikiquote}} *[http://www.bookrags.com/biography-alp-arslan/index.html Biography] {{s-start}} {{s-bef|before=[[Toghrül]]}} {{s-ttl|title=[[Seljuk Turks#Rulers of Seljuk Dynasty 1037-1157|Sultan of Great Seljuk]]|years=[[1063]]–[[1072]]}} {{s-aft|after=[[Malik Shah I]]}} {{end}} [[Category:1029 births]] [[Category:1072 deaths]] [[Category:Monarchs of Persia]] [[Category:Seljuk Turks]] [[bg:Алп Арслан]] [[de:Alp Arslan]] [[fr:Alp Arslan]] [[he:אלף ארסלאן]] [[nl:Alp Arslan]] [[pl:Alp Arslan]] [[fi:Alp Arslan]] [[sv:Alp Arslan]] [[tk:Alp Arslan]] [[tr:Alp Arslan]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>American Film Institute</title> <id>869</id> <revision> <id>38775301</id> <timestamp>2006-02-08T15:58:11Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Cookie90</username> <id>733900</id> </contributor> <minor /> <text xml:space="preserve">The '''American Film Institute''' ('''AFI''') is an independent [[non-profit]] organization created by the [[National Endowment for the Arts]], which was established in [[1967]] when President [[Lyndon B. Johnson]] signed the National Foundation on the Arts and the Humanities Act. George Stevens, Jr., was the first CEO and Director. In 1980 [[Jean Picker Firstenberg]] became Director and CEO, a position she still holds. The American Film Institute focuses on training through hands-on experience with established figures in the [[AFI Conservatory]], as well as on preserving old film, which is subject to degradation of its [[film stock]]. In spite of its name, AFI does not focus exclusively on [[film]], but also on [[television]] and [[video]]. In [[1973]], the AFI established a [[AFI Life Achievement Award|Life Achievement Award]]. In [[1998]], the 100th anniversary of American film, AFI began its [[100 Years Series]], celebrating and promoting interest in film history. They recently opened the [[AFI Silver]] theatre in [[Silver Spring, Maryland]] near [[Washington, D.C.]] ==See also== * [[AFI 100 Years series]] * [[2005 American Film In
th weaker binding and action occurring through insulin receptors. The IGF-2 receptor only binds IGF-2 and acts as a &quot;clearance receptor&quot; - it activates no intracellular signalling pathways, functioning only as an IGF-2 sequestering agent and preventing IGF-2 signalling. IGF-1 is present in [[milk]], especially when the cow has been treated with [[Bovine somatotropin|bovine growth hormone]]. ==See also== *[[insulin-like growth factor 1]]&lt;br/&gt; *[[insulin-like growth factor 2]] *[[HGH quackery]] ==References== # Cohen, Pinchas, et al. &quot;[http://jcem.endojournals.org/cgi/content/abstract/73/2/401 Insulin-like growth factors (IGFs), IGF receptors, and IGF-binding proteins in primary cultures of prostate epithelial]&quot;. ''Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism'', Vol. 73, No. 2, 1991, pp. 401-07 # Lippman, Marc E. &quot;The development of biological therapies for breast cancer&quot;. ''Science'', Vol. 259, [[January 29]] [[1993]], pp. 631-32 # Papa, Vincenzo, et al. &quot;Insulin-like growth factor-I receptors are overexpressed and predict a low risk in human breast cancer&quot;. ''Cancer Research'', Vol. 53, 1993, pp. 3736-40 [[Category:biochemistry]] [[Category:endocrinology]] [[he:פקטורים מעוררי צמיחה]] [[ja:インスリン様成長因子]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>IGF</title> <id>15001</id> <revision> <id>39359308</id> <timestamp>2006-02-12T17:15:03Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>81.65.0.143</ip> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">The [[TLA]] '''IGF''' can refer to: * [[insulin-like growth factor]] * [[Internet Governance Forum]] * [[Independent Games Festival]] * [[International Golf Federation]] {{TLAdisambig}}</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>IGF-1</title> <id>15002</id> <revision> <id>15912519</id> <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>Conversion script</ip> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Automated conversion</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Insulin-like growth factor]] </text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Mental deficiency</title> <id>15003</id> <revision> <id>15912520</id> <timestamp>2004-08-22T18:20:51Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Sam Spade</username> <id>29048</id> </contributor> <comment>#REDIRECT [[Mental retardation]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Mental retardation]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Idiot</title> <id>15004</id> <revision> <id>42112315</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T22:23:52Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>RexNL</username> <id>241337</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/88.110.52.195|88.110.52.195]] ([[User talk:88.110.52.195|talk]]) to last version by Hansnesse</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">The word '''idiot''', is derived from the [[Greek language|Greek]] word &amp;iota;&amp;delta;&amp;iota;&amp;omega;&amp;tau;&amp;eta;&amp;sigmaf;, ''idiôtès'', &quot;a private citizen, individual&quot;, from &amp;iota;&amp;delta;&amp;iota;&amp;omicron;&amp;sigmaf;, ''idios'', &quot;private&quot;. It was originally used in the ancient Greek [[city-state]]s to refer to people who were overly concerned with their own self-interest and ignored the needs of the community. These people were seen as having bad judgement in public and political matters. Over time, the term &quot;idiot&quot; shifted away from its original connotation of selfishness and came to refer to individuals with overall ''bad judgement'' - that is, individuals who are [[stupid]]. In modern [[English language|English]] usage, the terms '''idiot''' and '''idiocy''' describe an extreme folly or stupidity, its symptoms (foolish or stupid utterance or deed) or, in psychology, the state or condition of an idiot, i.e. profound mental retardation. ==Antiquity== *In [[Athens]], an ''idiotès'' was a person who 'kept to himself' by declining to take part in public life, such as democratic city state government. Since such activities were considered honorable and could directly affect all citizens, &quot;idiot&quot; became a term of derision. See [[Athenian democracy]]. * In [[Hellenistic civilization|hellenistic]] [[Egypt]], ''idiotès'' was simply a term for soldier (and etymologically parallel to that word deriving from sold 'pay'), derived from the ''idios logos'', the royal treasury that paid them. ==Handicap== In [[19th century|19th]] and early [[20th century]] [[medicine]] and [[psychology]], an &quot;idiot&quot; was a person with a very severe [[mental retardation]] or a very low [[IQ]] level. Idiots were defined as people whose IQ were below 20 (with a standard deviation of 16). In the current classification, these people are now said to have [[profound mental retardation]], but the word &quot;idiot&quot; is no longer used as a scientific term. ==Use as an abuse== In modern [[English language|English]] and other languages, idiot is also a derogatory term used to [[insult]]. Its use usually means &quot;You are [[Stupidity|stupid]].&quot; It's socially acceptable, for example, to refer to a group of drunken folks 'acting up' in a bar as &quot;idiots&quot;. Paradoxically, however, 'idiot' cannot easily be used to describe someone who is genuinely mentally retarded. In the [[21st Century]] such use would be seen as insensitive, hurtful, or [[political correctness|politically incorrect]]. A select number of authors have used &quot;idiot&quot; characters in novels, plays and poetry. Often these characters are used to highlight or indicate something else, that is, often these characters are an allegorical technique. Examplars of such usage are [[William Faulkner]]'s ''[[The Sound and the Fury]]'' and [[William Wordsworth]]'s ''[[The Idiot Boy]]''. Idiot characters in literature are often confused with or subsumed within mad or lunatic characters. The most common imbrication between these two categories of mental impairment occurs in the polemic surrounding Edmund from [[Shakespeare]]'s ''[[King Lear]]''. In [[Dostoyevsky]]'s novel [[The Idiot]], the idiocy of the main character, Prince Myshkin, is attributed more to his honesty, trustfulness, kindness, and humility, than to his mental disability. This somewhat parallels the use of the word &quot;idiot&quot; in colloquial [[Russian language|Russian]] to characterize the naive optimist and the &quot;do gooder&quot;. ==Other uses== *[[The Idiot]] is a classic in world literature, in Russian, by Dostoyevsky; an online-edition (translated in English) is [http://www.online-literature.com/dostoevsky/idiot/] * In June of [[2005]], New York State Assemblyman [[Will Stephens]] sent an e-mail to his constituents referring to them as 'pontificating idiots'. * &quot;Idiot box&quot; is a slang term for [[television]], or for a [[dialog box]] on a computer. * &quot;Walk Idiot Walk&quot; is a song performed by the rock music group [[The Hives]] and released on the band's [[2004]] album, ''Tyrannosaurus Hives''. * &quot;Idiot savant&quot; was the original term for [[savant syndrome]], used to describe people who excel in one particular thing while being below-average in other mental or behavioral areas. Many of these people are also [[autistic savant]]s. * In [[2004]], [[Red Sox]] [[outfielder]] [[Johnny Damon]] affectionately referred to his team as &quot;The Idiots&quot; to describe its eclectic roster and devil-may-care attitude toward &quot;[[Curse of the Bambino|the curse]]&quot;. * &quot;[[Idiot light]]s&quot; was a pejorative term used in the 1960's and 1970's referring to the low oil pressure and alternator fault lights on an automobile dashboard. The implication of the term was that knowledgeable drivers use real gauges and don't need warning lamps. The present and almost universal use of warning lamps in automobiles has caused the term to fall into disuse. * The Idiot's Guide to Everything was released in 2003 as a methodological approach to describing literally everything imaginable. It was not a huge success. ==Quotes== *&quot;Reader, suppose you were an idiot. And suppose you were a member of [[Congress of the United States|Congress]]. But I repeat myself.&quot; ([[Mark Twain]], c.[[1882]]) [http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=idiot] ==External links and references== *[http://dictionary.reference.com/search?q=idiot Dictionary.Reference.Com] &quot;Middle English, ignorant person, from Old French ''idiote'' (modern French idiot), from Latin ''idiota'', from Greek ''idiotès'', private person, layman, from ''idios'', own, private.&quot; *[http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=idiot Etymonline] &quot;c.1300, &quot;person so mentally deficient as to be incapable of ordinary reasoning,&quot; from Old French ''idiote'' &quot;uneducated or ignorant person,&quot; from L. ''idiota'' &quot;ordinary person, layman,&quot; in Late Latin &quot;uneducated or ignorant person,&quot; from Greek ''idiotes'' &quot;layman, person lacking professional skill,&quot; literally &quot;private person,&quot; used patronizingly for &quot;ignorant person,&quot; from ''idios'' &quot;one's own.&quot; *[[Pauly-Wissowa]] (in German) [[Category:Disability]] [[Category:Pejorative terms for people]] [[de:Idiot]] [[eo:Idioto]] [[fi:Idiootti (loukkaus)]] [[nl:Idioot]] [[sr:Идиот]] [[sv:Idiot]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Illuminati</title> <id>15006</id> <revision> <id>42143849</id> <timestamp>2006-03-04T02:44:32Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>69.104.142.200</ip> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Otheruses}} The '''Illuminati''' is the name of many groups, modern and historical, real and fictitious, verified and alleged. Most commonly, however, ''The Ill
[1571]]. After the Catholic Ridolfi Plot was discovered (much to Elizabeth's shock) and foiled, the Duke of Norfolk was executed and Mary lost the little liberty she had remaining. Spain, which had been friendly to England since Philip's marriage to Elizabeth's predecessor, ceased to be on cordial terms. In [[1571]], Sir William Cecil was created [[Baron Burghley]]; a wise and humorous man, who always advised caution in international relations, he had been Elizabeth's chief advisor from the earliest days, and he remained so until his death in 1598. In [[1572]], Burghley was raised to the powerful position of [[Lord High Treasurer]]; his post as Secretary of State was taken up by the head of Elizabeth's spy network, [[Francis Walsingham|Sir Francis Walsingham]]. Also in [[1572]], Elizabeth made an alliance with [[France]]. The [[St. Bartholomew's Day Massacre|St Bartholomew's Day Massacre]], in which thousands of French Protestants (Huguenots) were killed, strained the alliance but did not break it. Elizabeth even began marriage negotiations with [[Henry III of France|Henry, Duke of Anjou]] (later King Henry III of France and of Poland), and afterwards with his younger brother [[François, Duke of Anjou|François, Duke of Anjou and Alençon]]. During the latter's visit in [[1581]], it is said that Elizabeth &quot;drew off a ring from her finger and put it upon the Duke of Anjou's upon certain conditions betwixt them two&quot;. The Spanish Ambassador reported that she actually declared that the Duke of Anjou would be her husband. However, Anjou, who is in any case said to have preferred men to women, returned to France and died in [[1584]] before he could be married. ==Conflict with Spain and Ireland== In [[1580]], [[Pope Gregory XIII]] sent a force to aid the second of the [[Desmond Rebellions]] in Ireland; but by 1583, the rebellion had been put down after a campaign waged by fire, sword and famine, in which almost the entire population of the north-western part of the province of Munster appears to have died; chilling, albeit approving, observations on the campaign are set out in ''A View of the Present State of Ireland'' by the poet, [[Edmund Spenser]] (first licensed for publication in 1633, four decades after it was written). Also in 1580, Philip II annexed [[Portugal]], and with the Portuguese throne came the command of the high seas. After the assassination of the Dutch Stadholder [[William I of Orange|William I]], England began to side openly with the [[Dutch Republic|United Provinces]] of the Netherlands, who were at the time rebelling against Spanish rule. This, together with economic conflict with Spain and English piracy against [[Spanish Empire|Spanish colonies]] (which included an English alliance with Islamic Morocco), led to the outbreak of the [[Anglo-Spanish War (1585)|Anglo-Spanish War]] in [[1585]] and in [[1586]] the Spanish ambassador was expelled from England for his participation in conspiracies against Elizabeth. Fearing such conspiracies, Parliament had passed the [[Act of Association 1584]], under which anyone associated with a plot to murder the Sovereign would be excluded from the line of succession. However, a further scheme against Elizabeth, the [[Babington plot|Babington Plot]], was revealed by Sir Francis Walsingham, who headed the English spy network. Having put the court on full proof of the charge, Mary Stuart was convicted of complicity in the plot on foot of disputed evidence and executed at [[Fotheringhay|Fotheringhay Castle]] on [[February 8]], [[1587]]. [[Image:Elizabeth I (Armada Portrait).jpg|thumb|right|350px|The above portrait was made in approximately 1588 to commemorate the defeat of the [[Spanish Armada]] (depicted in the background). Elizabeth I's international power is reflected by the hand resting on the globe.]] In her will, Mary had left Philip her claim to the English Throne; under force of the threat from Elizabeth's policies in the Netherlands and the east Atlantic, Philip set out his plans for an invasion of England. In [[April]] 1587, Sir [[Francis Drake]] burned part of the Spanish fleet at [[Cádiz]], delaying Philip's plans. In [[July]] [[1588]], the [[Spanish Armada]], a grand fleet of 130 ships bearing over 30,000 men, set sail in the expectation of conveying a Spanish invasion force under the command of the [[Alessandro Farnese, Duke of Parma and Piacenza|Duke of Parma]] across the [[English Channel]] from the Netherlands. Elizabeth encouraged her troops with a notable speech, known as the [[Speech to the Troops at Tilbury]], in which she famously declared, &quot;I know I have the body but of a weak and feeble woman; but I have the heart and stomach of a King, and of a King of England too&quot;. The Spanish attempt was defeated by the English fleet under [[Charles Howard, 1st Earl of Nottingham|Charles Howard, 2nd Baron Howard of Effingham]] and Sir Francis Drake, aided by bad weather. The Armada was forced to return to Spain, with appalling losses on the north and west coasts of Ireland; the victory tremendously increased Elizabeth's popularity. The battle, however, was not decisive, and the war continued in the Netherlands, where the Dutch Estates were seeking independence from Spain. The English government was also concerned with the conflict in France and the claim to the throne of a protestant heir, Henry (later [[Henry IV of France|Henry IV]]). Elizabeth sent 20,000 troops and subsidies of over £300,000 to Henry, and 8,000 troops and subsidies of over £1,000,000 to the Dutch. English [[privateers]] continued to attack Spanish treasure ships from the Americas; the most famous privateers included [[John Hawkins|Sir John Hawkins]] and [[Martin Frobisher|Sir Martin Frobisher]]. In [[1595]] and [[1596]], a disastrous expedition on the [[Spanish Main]] led to the deaths of the aging Sir John Hawkins and Sir Francis Drake. Also in 1595, Spanish troops under the command of [[Don Carlos de Amesquita]] landed in [[Cornwall]], where they routed a large English militia and burned some villages, before celebrating a mass and retiring in the face of a naval force led by Sir [[Walter Raleigh]]. In 1596, England finally withdrew from France, with Henry IV firmly in control. He had assumed the throne, commenting with double-edged irony that, &quot;Paris is worth a mass&quot;; the [[Catholic League (French)|Holy League]], which opposed him, had been demolished, and Elizabeth's diplomacy was beset with a new set of problems; at the same time, the Spanish had landed a considerable force of ''[[tercios]]'' in Brittany, which had expelled the English forces that were present and presented a new front in the war, with an added threat of invasion across the channel. Elizabeth sent a further 2,000 troops to France after the Spanish took [[Calais]]. Then she authorised an attack on the [[Azores]] in [[1597]], but the attempt was a disastrous failure. Further battles continued until [[1598]], when France and Spain finally made peace. The [[Anglo-Spanish War (1585)|Anglo-Spanish War]], meanwhile, reached a stalemate after Philip II died later in the year. In part because of the war, Raleigh and Gilbert's overseas colonisation attempts came to nothing, and the English settlement of North America was stalled, until [[James I of England|James I]] negotiated peace in the [[Treaty of London, 1604]]. ==Later years== [[Image:Nicholas Hilliard 018.jpg|thumb|Portrait by [[Nicholas Hilliard]], c. 1590]] In [[1598]], Elizabeth's chief advisor, Lord Burghley, died. His political mantle was inherited by his son, [[Robert Cecil, 1st Earl of Salisbury|Robert Cecil]], who had previously become Secretary of State in [[1590]]. Elizabeth became somewhat unpopular because of her practice of granting royal [[monopoly|monopolies]] the abolition of which Parliament continued to demand. In her famous &quot;Golden Speech&quot;, Elizabeth promised reforms. Shortly thereafter, twelve royal monopolies were ended by royal proclamation; further sanctions could be sought in the courts of [[common law]]. These reforms, however, were only superficial; the practice of deriving funds from the grants of monopolies continued. At the same time as England was fighting Spain, it also faced a rebellion in Ireland, known as the [[Nine Years War (Ireland)|Nine Years War]]. The chief executor of Crown authority in the north of Ireland, [[Hugh O'Neill, 2nd Earl of Tyrone]], was declared a traitor in [[1595]]. Seeking to avoid further war, Elizabeth made a series of truces with the earl; but during this period, Spain attempted two further armada expeditions against northern Europe, although both failed owing to adverse weather conditions. In [[1598]], O Neill offered a truce, while benefitting from Spanish aid in the form of arms and training; upon expiry of the truce, the English suffered their worst defeat in Ireland at the [[Battle of the Yellow Ford]]. In 1599, one of the leading members of the navy, [[Robert Devereux, 2nd Earl of Essex]], was appointed [[Lord Lieutenant of Ireland]] and given command of the largest army ever sent to Ireland, in an attempt to defeat the rebels. Essex's campaign was soon dissipated, and after a private parley with O Neill - in which the latter sat on horseback in the middle of a river - it became clear that victory was out of reach. In 1600, Essex returned to England without the Queen's permission, where he was punished by the loss of all political offices and of the trade monopolies, which were his principal income. The succession to the throne had been the ultimate political concern in England since Mary Stuart's arrival in Scotland in the 1560s, and by the end of the century there was only one question in the minds of Elizabeth's advisors: who next? It is in this context that the behaviour of Essex is best explained. In [[1601]], he led a revolt against the Queen, but popular support was curiously lacking, and the former darling of the masses was executed. [[C
rmony can be exceeded&quot;. A [[Purcell Club]] was founded in London in 1836 for promoting the performance of his music, but was dissolved in 1863. In 1876 a [[Purcell Society]] was founded, which published new editions of his works. After his death, Purcell was honored by many of his contemporaries, including his old friend [[John Blow]], who wrote ''An Ode, on the Death of Mr Henry Purcell (Mark how the lark and linnet sing)'' with text by his old collaborator John Dryden. The English poet [[Gerard Manley Hopkins]] wrote a famous sonnet entitled simply ''Henry Purcell'', with a head-note reading: &quot;The poet wishes well to the divine genius of Purcell and praises him that, whereas other musicians have given utterance to the moods of man's mind, he has, beyond that, uttered in notes the very make and species of man as created both in him and in all men generally.&quot; A modern day [[Purcell Club]] has been created, and provides guided tours and concerts in support of [[Westminster Abbey]]. Purcell is among the Baroque composers who has had a direct influence on modern rock and roll; according to [[Pete Townshend]] of [[The Who]], Purcell was among his influences, particularly evident in the opening bars of The Who's &quot;[[Pinball Wizard]].&quot; Purcell also had a strong influence on the composers of the English musical renaissance of the early twentieth century, most notably [[Benjamin Britten]], who created and performed a realisation of ''Dido and Aeneas'' and whose ''Young Person's Guide to the Orchestra'' is based on a theme from Purcell's ''Abdelazar''. ==References== *{{1911}} ==Media== {{multi-listen start}} {{multi-listen item|filename=Purcell i was glad.ogg|title=I was Glad|description=|format=[[Ogg]]}} {{multi-listen item|filename=Purcell ode. 1 sinfonia.ogg|title=Ode 1 - Sinfonia|description=|format=[[Ogg]]}} {{multi-listen item|filename=Purcell ode. 2 welcome to all the pleasures.ogg|title=Ode 2 - Welcome to All|description=|format=[[Ogg]]}} {{multi-listen item|filename=Purcell ode. 3 hail to this happy assembly.ogg|title=Ode 3 - Hail to this Happy Assembly|description=|format=[[Ogg]]}} {{multi-listen item|filename=Purcell ode. 4 here the deities approve.ogg|title=Ode 4 - Here the Deities Approve|description=|format=[[Ogg]]}} {{multi-listen item|filename=Purcell ode. 5 while joys celestial.ogg|title=Ode 5 - While Joys Celestial|description=|format=[[Ogg]]}} {{multi-listen item|filename=Purcell ode. 6 then lift up your voices.ogg|title=Ode 6 - Then Lift Up Your Voices|description=|format=[[Ogg]]}} {{multi-listen item|filename=Purcell ode. 7 beauty, thou scene of love.ogg|title=Ode 7 - Beauty, Thou Scene of Love|description=|format=[[Ogg]]}} {{multi-listen item|filename=Purcell ode. 8 in a consort of voices.ogg|title=Ode 8 - In a Consort of Voices|description=|format=[[Ogg]]}} {{multi-listen end}} ==See also== *[[List of compositions by Henry Purcell]] *[[Dido and Aeneas]] *[[King Arthur (opera)|King Arthur]] *[[The Fairy-Queen]] ==External links== *[http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/14430 Purcell] by John F. Runciman, a biography forming part of Bell's Miniature Series of Musicians published in 1909, from [[Project Gutenberg]] *[http://www.cpdl.org/wiki/index.php/Henry_Purcell Henry Purcell] on ChoralWiki *{{IckingArchive|idx=Purcell|name=Henry Purcell}} [[Category:17th century births|Purcell, Henry]] [[Category:1695 deaths|Purcell, Henry]] [[Category:Baroque composers|Purcell, Henry]] [[Category:English composers|Purcell, Henry]] [[Category:Old Westminsters|Purcell, Henry]] [[Category:Opera composers|Purcell, Henry]] [[ar:هنري برسل]] [[bg:Хенри Пърсел]] [[da:Henry Purcell]] [[de:Henry Purcell]] [[es:Henry Purcell]] [[eo:Henry PURCELL]] [[fr:Henry Purcell]] [[hr:Henry Purcell]] [[is:Henry Purcell]] [[it:Henry Purcell]] [[he:הנרי פרסל]] [[nl:Henry Purcell]] [[ja:ヘンリー・パーセル]] [[no:Henry Purcell]] [[nn:Henry Purcell]] [[pl:Henry Purcell]] [[fi:Henry Purcell]] [[sv:Henry Purcell]] [[tr:Henry Purcell]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Hydrophobe</title> <id>14136</id> <revision> <id>41054876</id> <timestamp>2006-02-24T19:38:21Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Omegatron</username> <id>18931</id> </contributor> <comment>/* See also */ «+&quot;[[Superhydrophobe]] *&quot;»</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">:''For other uses, see [[Hydrophobia]]''. ---- '''Hydrophobe''' (from the [[Greek language|Greek]] ''(hydros)'' &quot;water&quot; and ''(phobos)'' &quot;fear&quot;) in [[chemistry]] refers to the physical property of a [[molecule]] that is repelled by [[water]]. Hydrophobic molecules in water often cluster together. '''Hydrophobic''' or '''lipophilic''' species, or hydrophobes, tend to be [[electrically neutral]] and [[nonpolar]], and thus prefer other neutral and nonpolar [[solvent|solvents]] or molecular environments. ''Hydrophobic'' is often used interchangeably with &quot;oily&quot; or &quot;lipophilic.&quot; The term '''hydrophobic interaction''' ('''HI''') has been used in the context of several closely-related phenomena to hydrophobic species. According to [[thermodynamics]], matter seeks to be a low-energy state, and bonding reduces chemical energy. Water is electrically polarized, and is able to form [[hydrogen bond]]s internally, which gives it many of its unique physical properties. But, since hydrophobes are not electrically polarized, and because they are unable to form hydrogen bonds, water repels hydrophobes, in favour of bonding with itself. It is this effect that causes the hydrophobic interaction - which in itself is incorrectly named as the energetic force comes from the hydrophilic molecules. Thus the two immiscible phases (hydrophilic vs. hydrophobic) will change so that their corresponding interfacial area will be minimal. This effect can be visualized in the phenomenon called [[phase separation]]. Examples of '''hydrophobic''' [[molecules]] include the [[alkanes]], oils, fats, and greasy substances in general. Hydrophobic materials are used for oil removal from water, the management of oil spills, and chemical separation processes to remove non-polar from polar compounds. === See also === * [[Superhydrophobe]] * [[Hydrophobia]] * [[Hydrophile]], [[hydrophilic]] * [[Amphiphiles]] * [[Wetting]] == References == * Aryeh Ben-Na'im ''Hydrophobic Interaction'' Plenum Press, New York (ISBN 0-306-40222-X) [[Category:Chemical properties]] [[Category:Biophysics]] [[it:Idrofobico]] [[de:Hydrophob]] [[de:Hydrophobie (Chemie)]] &lt;!-- adj and noun in sep. articles --&gt; [[fr:Hydrophobe]] [[sl:hidrofobnost]] [[nl:Hydrofoob]] [[nl:lipofiel]] &lt;!-- adj and noun in sep. articles --&gt; [[ja:&amp;#30094;&amp;#27700;&amp;#24615;]] [[sv:Hydrofob]] {{chem-stub}}</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Horror fiction authors</title> <id>14138</id> <revision> <id>15911714</id> <timestamp>2003-05-15T03:54:21Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Minesweeper</username> <id>7279</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>fix double redir</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[List of horror fiction authors]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>History of Theater</title> <id>14139</id> <revision> <id>15911715</id> <timestamp>2002-05-05T00:33:53Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Maveric149</username> <id>62</id> </contributor> <comment>*#redirect [[History of theater]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[History of theater]] </text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Harley-Davidson</title> <id>14142</id> <revision> <id>41733634</id> <timestamp>2006-03-01T10:32:19Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Softgrow</username> <id>240189</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>/* External links */ copyedit syntax</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Harley_Davidson_2003.jpg|thumb|250px|Anniversary badge on a 2003 Harley-Davidson]] {{Infobox_Company | | company_name = Harley-Davidson Motor Company | company_logo = [[Image:Harley Davidson logo.jpg|250px]] | company_type = [[Public company]] | foundation = [[1903]] | location = [[Milwaukee, Wisconsin]] | key_people = [[James L. Ziemer]], CEO &amp; CFO&lt;br /&gt;[[James A. McCaslin]], Div. President &amp; Div. COO&lt;br /&gt;[[Donna F. Zarcone]], Div. President &amp; Div. COO | industry = [[recreational vehicles (industry)|recreational vehicles]] | products = [[motorcycle]]s | revenue = $5,015 million ([[2004]]) | num_employees = 9,000 ([[2004]]) | homepage = http://www.harley-davidson.com/ }} The '''Harley-Davidson Motor Company''' {{nyse|HDI}} is a manufacturer of [[motorcycle|motorcycles]] based in [[Milwaukee, Wisconsin]], making it one of the two remaining American mass-producer of motorcycles (along with [[Victory Motorcycles]]). The company emphasizes heavy bikes designed for cruising and known for their distinctive exhaust noise. Harley-Davidson motorcycles (popularly referred to as &quot;Harleys&quot;) are distinctive in design and attract a loyal following, and hold their resale value very well compared to other vehicles. A well maintained vehicle might never drop in value at all, although regular maintenance is expected. Detractors contend that Harleys are badly engineered, under-powered and under-performing, and have poor handling and suspension. This is attributed to an American pedigree that favors designs for long, low-speed cruising on flat, straight roads. The company supplies many domestic [[police force]]s with their motorcycle fleets. Harleys are especially noted for the tradition of heavy customization that gave rise to the [[Chopper (motorcycle)|chopper]]-style of motorcycle. It also licenses its logo, which is a profitable side business ($41 million of revenue in
Birds: Proceedings of the International Archaeopteryx Conference. M. K. O. Hecht, J.H., Viohl, G., and Wellnhofer, P. Eichstatt, Freunde des Jura-Museums Eichstatt: 9-20. * {{cite journal | author = Owen, R. | year = 1863 | title = On the Archaeopteryx of Von Meyer, with a description of the fossil remains of a long-tailed species from the lithographic stone of Solnhofen | journal = Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London | volume = 153 | pages = 33-47 }} * {{cite journal | author=Witmer LM | title=Palaeontology: inside the oldest bird brain | journal=[[Nature (journal)|Nature]] | volume=430 | issue=7000 | year=2004 | pages=619-20}}, PMID 15295579 == External links == *[http://www.dinodata.net/Dd/Namelist/TABA/A166.htm''Archaeopteryx''], ''DinoData'' * [http://www.talkorigins.org/faqs/archaeopteryx/info.html talkorigins ''Archaeopteryx'' FAQ]. * [http://www.grisda.org/georpts/3001.htm Placing ''Archaeopteryx'' among birds and dinosaurs]. * [http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/diapsids/birds/archaeopteryx.html University of California Museum of Paleontology ''Archaeopteryx'' page]. * [http://www.ucalgary.ca/~longrich/archaeopteryx.html How many wings does an ''Archaeopteryx'' have? and other questions]. * [http://www.dinosauria.com/jdp/jdp.htm Journal of Dinosaur Paleontology], with many articles on dinosaur-bird links. [[Category:Prehistoric birds]] [[Category:Feathered dinosaurs]] [[Category:Archaeopterygiformes]] [[bg:Археоптерикс]] [[da:Archaeopteryx]] [[de:Archaeopteryx]] [[et:Ürglind]] [[es:Archaeopteryx]] [[fr:Archéoptéryx]] [[he:ארכיאופטריקס]] [[lt:Archeopteriksas]] [[nl:Archaeopteryx]] [[ja:始祖鳥]] [[pl:Archaeopteryx]] [[pt:Arqueopterix]] [[ru:Археоптерикс]] [[sk:Archaeopteryx]] [[sl:Praptič]] [[fi:Archaeopteryx]] [[sv:Archaeopteryx]] [[zh:始祖鸟]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Ark Royal</title> <id>2996</id> <revision> <id>15901372</id> <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>The Epopt</username> <id>30</id> </contributor> <comment>#REDIRECT [[HMS Ark Royal]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[HMS Ark Royal]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Apeiron</title> <id>2997</id> <revision> <id>41646573</id> <timestamp>2006-02-28T19:46:19Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Laurapr</username> <id>901409</id> </contributor> <comment>add ro:</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about a cosmological theory. For the [[Computer and video games|video game]], see [[Apeiron (video game)|Apeiron]]''. The '''apeiron''' is a [[cosmology|cosmological]] theory created by [[Anaximander]] in the [[6th century BC]]. Anaximander's work is mostly lost. From the few extant fragments, we learn that he believed the beginning or first principle ([[arche]], a word first found in his writings, and which he probably invented) is an endless, unlimited mass (apeiron), subject to neither old age nor decay, which perpetually yields fresh materials from which everything which we can perceive is derived. The apeiron was never defined precisely, and it has generally (e.g. by [[Aristotle]] and [[Augustine of Hippo|Augustine]]) been understood as a sort of [[primal chaos]]. It embraced the opposites of hot and cold, wet and dry, and directed the movement of things, by which there grew up all of the host of shapes and differences which are found in the world. Out of the vague and limitless body there sprung a central mass -- this earth of ours, cylindrical in shape, poised equidistant from surrounding orbs of fire, which had originally clung to it like the bark round a tree, until their continuity was severed, and they parted into several wheel-shaped and fire-filled bubbles of air. Man himself and the animals had come into being by like transmutations. Mankind was supposed by Anaximander to have sprung from some other species of animals, probably aquatic. But as the measureless and endless had been the prime cause of the motion into separate existences and individual forms, so also, according to the just award of destiny, these forms would at an appointed season suffer the vengeance due to their earlier act of separation, and return into the vague immensity whence they had issued. Thus the world, and all definite existences contained in it, would lose their independence and disappear in the &quot;indeterminate.&quot; The blazing orbs, which have drawn off from the cold earth and water, are the temporary gods of the world, clustering round the earth, which, to the ancient thinker, is the central figure. Other pre-[[Socratic]] philosophers had different theories of the apeiron. For [[Pythagoras]], the universe had begun as an apeiron, but at some point it inhaled the void from outside, filling the cosmos with vacuous bubbles that split the world into many different parts. For Anaxagoras, the initial apeiron had begun to rotate rapidly under the control of a godlike Nous (Mind), and the great speed of the rotation caused the universe to break up into many fragments. However, since all individual things had originated from the same apeiron, all things must contain parts of all other things-- for instance, a tree must also contain tiny pieces of sharks, moons, and grains of sand. This alone explains how one object can be transformed into another, since each thing already contains all other things in germ. [[Category:Ancient Greece]] [[de:Apeiron]] [[hr:Apeiron]] [[it:Apeiron]] [[hu:Apeiron]] [[ja:アペイロン]] [[ro:Apeiron]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Accelerate</title> <id>2998</id> <revision> <id>15901374</id> <timestamp>2002-09-07T06:11:12Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Bryan Derksen</username> <id>66</id> </contributor> <comment>redirecting</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Acceleration]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Arthur Laurents</title> <id>2999</id> <revision> <id>41906701</id> <timestamp>2006-03-02T14:57:36Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>RussBot</username> <id>279219</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Robot-assisted fix of link to disambiguation page Gypsy ([[Wikipedia:Disambiguation_pages_with_links|you can help!]])</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Arthur Laurents''' (born [[July 14]], [[1918]]) is an [[United States|American]] [[playwright]], [[novelist]], [[screenwriter]], librettist and stage director. He was born in [[New York City]] to a [[Jewish]] family. After studying at [[Cornell University]] and a stint in the [[Army]], he began writing scripts for radio, and in [[1945]] wrote his first play, ''[[Home of the Brave]]'', a drama set during [[World War II]]. During [[McCarthyism]], Laurents was [[Hollywood blacklist|blacklisted]] by the [[Hollywood]] [[movie studio]] bosses and for several years none of his works were used in film. Other plays by Laurents include ''Time of the Cuckoo,'' ''Invitation to a March,'' ''The Enclave,'' and ''Jolson Sings Again.'' He also has written the books for several musicals, including ''[[West Side Story]],'' ''[[Gypsy: A Musical Fable|Gypsy]],'' ''[[Anyone Can Whistle]],'' and ''Do I Hear a Waltz?'', which was based on his play ''Time of the Cuckoo.'' Laurents has directed several [[Broadway theatre|Broadway]] productions as well, including the musicals ''I Can Get It for You Wholesale'' and ''La Cage Aux Folles.'' Laurents has also written two novels, ''The Way We Were,'' and ''The Turning Point,'' both of which became successful films for which Laurents wrote the screenplays. He also wrote the screenplays for [[Alfred Hitchcock]]'s film ''Rope,'' ''The Snake Pit,'' and ''Anastasia''. In [[2000]] Laurents published a memoir, ''Original Story By.'' In it, the author himself reveals that he is gay and had homosexual relationships with [[Farley Granger]] and [[Tom Hatcher]]. The latter has been his life partner since 1955. More on the subject of his original memoir: &quot;Original Story By&quot;- The story of Arthur Laurents life is fast paced, full of homosexual vibes mixed with a love and passion for anyone who did good work. The business of the business often got him down, however he was great at meeting the right people and getting into the right circles. The book Arthur Laurents; Original Story By follows him from his tiny home with his family in Flatbush to his beautiful upper-class apartments in Hollywood. His work was his life. He had an incredible eye for what was good and what was not. He would become more than a writer/director. He would become a member of the artistic community. A force to be reckoned with. The story of Arthur Laurents life is one that wouldn’t be complete without at least mentioning the name of his “life partner” Tom. Tom is 12 years younger than Arthur though he is described as “wiser than I was.” He describes their relationship in a very strange way, saying “Tom had it (confidence in them), mine was shaky. I was possessive and jealous. If I were to be unfaithful it wouldn’t mean anything but quick sex. If Tom were, the roof would come down; it would mean he was really attracted to someone else. It took time for me to get sane but he was patient and I did.” ==Libretti== *''[[Nick &amp; Nora]]'' - 1991 *''[[The Madwoman of Central Park West]]'' - 1979 *''[[Hallelujah, Baby!]]'' - 1967 - [[Tony Award for Best Musical]] *''[[Do I Hear a Waltz]]'' - 1965 *''[[Anyone Can Whistle]]'' - 1964 *''[[Gypsy: A Musical Fable|Gypsy]]'' - 1959 - [[Tony Award|Tony]] Nomination for [[Tony Award for Best Musical|Best Musical]] *''[[West Side Story]]'' - 1957 - [[Tony Award|Tony]] Nomination for [[Tony Award for Best Musical|Best Musical]] ==Direction== *''[[Anyone Can Whistle]]'' - 1964 *''[[L
lism]] focused on the role of enlightened self-interest (the &quot;invisible hand&quot;) and the role of [[specialisation]] in making capital accumulation efficient. Some proponents of capitalism (like [[Milton Friedman]], [[Ayn Rand]] and [[Alan Greenspan]]) emphasize the role of [[free market]]s, which they claim promote [[cooperation]] between individuals, innovation, economic growth, as well as [[liberty]]. For many (like [[Immanuel Wallerstein]]), capitalism hinges on the elaboration of an economic system in which [[good (economics)|goods]] and [[service]]s are traded in [[market]]s, and capital goods belong to non-state entities, onto a global scale. For others (like [[Karl Marx]]), capitalism is defined by historically unprecedented social relations resulting from the creation of a [[labor market]] in which most people have to sell their [[labor-power]] in order to survive. As Marx argued (see also [[Hilaire Belloc]]), capitalism is also distinguished from other market economies with private ownership by the concentration of the means of production in the hands of individuals. The economists of the [[Austrian School]] expound that an economy that is not planned or guided by governmental authority will be superior in efficiency and organization due to the phenomenon of [[self organization]]. Many others use capitalism as a synonym for a [[market economy]]. ==Characteristics of capitalist economies== A set of broad characteristics are generally agreed on by both advocates and critics of capitalism. These are a [[private sector]], [[private property]], free enterprise, [[profit]], unequal distribution of [[wealth]], competition, [[self-organization]] (or ''[[catallaxy]]''), the existence of [[markets]] (including the [[labor market]]) and the pursuit of [[self-interest]]. An economy with a large amount of intervention - which may include state ownership of some of the means of production - in combination with some free market characteristics is sometimes referred to as a ''[[mixed economy]]'', rather than a capitalist one. [http://economics.about.com/od/howtheuseconomyworks/a/mixed_economy.htm] If intervention occurs to such a degree that it overwhelms private decision, such an economy is often referred to as [[statist]]. Some economists, such as [[Milton Friedman]], oppose all or almost all such state control over an economy. However, such distinctions are disputed. By some definitions, all of the economies in the [[developed world]] are capitalist, or are mixed economies based in capitalism. Others see the world integrated into a global capitalist system, and even those nations which today resist capitalism, operate within a globalized capitalist economy. ===Private ownership of the means of production=== [[Image:Dairycattle2173.JPG|thumb|right|200px|Cattle on an Amish dairy farm]] [[Image:Moyer Factory Post Card 1910-1915.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Private ownership of the means of production is an essential characteristic of capitalism]] An essential characteristic of capitalism is the institution of rule of law in establishing and protecting private property, including, most notably, private ownership of the [[means of production]]. Private property was embraced in some earlier legal systems, such as in ancient Rome [http://www.libertystory.net/LSBIGSTORIESROMANPROPERTYLAW.htm], but protection of these rights was sometimes difficult, especially since Rome had no police [http://nefer-seba.net/essays/roman-police.php]. This system and some earlier systems often forced the weak to accept the leadership of a strong patron or lord and pay him for protection. It has been argued that a strong formal property and legal system made possible a) greater independence; b) clear and provable protected ownership; c) the standardization and integration of property rules and property information in the country as a whole; d) increased trust arising from a greater certainty of punishment for cheating in economic transactions; e) more formal and complex written statements of ownership that permitted the easier assumption of shared risk and ownership in companies, and the insurance of risk; f) greater availability of loans for new projects, since more things could be used as collateral for the loans; g) easier access to and more reliable information regarding such things as credit history and the worth of assets; h) an increased fungibility, standardization and transferability of statements documenting the ownership of property, which paved the way for structures such as national markets for companies and the easy transportation of property through complex networks of individuals and other entities. All of these things enhanced economic growth. Capitalism is often contrasted to [[socialism]] in that besides embracing private property in terms of personal possessions, it supports private ownership of the means of production. Those who support capitalism often credit the lack of control over the means of production by government as crucial to maximizing economic output. [[Ludwig von Mises]], in ''Liberalism'', says that the &quot;history of private ownership of the means of production coincides with the history of the development of mankind from an animal-like condition to the highest reaches of modern civilization.&quot; [http://www.mises.org/liberal/ch2sec1.asp] In all modern economies some of the means of production are owned by the state, however an economy is not considered capitalism unless the bulk of ownership is private. Many governments extend the concept of private property to ideas, in the form of &quot;[[intellectual property]].&quot; It has been argued that the introduction of the [[patent]] system was a crucial factor behind the rapid development and widespread use of new technology and [[memes]] during and following the industrial revolution. [http://depts.washington.edu/~teclass/mit/khanSokoloff.pdf]. Some oppose the establishment of intellectual property as being counterproductive or coercive. Others argue that some intellectual property rights may be too rigid or constraining to innovation, and favor weaker protections. ====Private enterprise==== In capitalist economies, a predominant proportion of productive capacity has belonged to [[companies]], in the sense of for-profit organizations. This include many forms of organisations that existed in earlier economic systems, such as [[sole proprietorship]]s and [[partnerships]]. Non-profit organizations existing in capitalism include [[cooperative]]s, [[credit unions]] and [[commune (intentional community)|communes]]. More unique to capitalism is the form of organization called [[corporation]], which can be both for-profit and non-profit. This entity can act as a virtual person in many matters before the law. This gives some unique advantages to the owners, such as [[limited liability]] of the owners and perpetual lifetime beyond that of current owners. A special form of corporation is a corporation owned by [[shareholders]] who can sell their [[shares]] in a market. One can view shares as converting company ownership into a commodity - the ownership rights are divided into units (the shares) for ease of trading in them. Such share trading first took place widely in Europe during the 17th century and continued to develop and spread thereafter. When company ownership is spread among many shareholders, the shareholders generally have votes in the exercise of authority over the company in proportion to the size of their share of ownership. To a large degree, authority over productive capacity in capitalism has resided with the owners of companies. Within legal limits and the financial means available to them, the owners of each company can decide how it will operate. In larger companies, authority is usually delegated in a hierarchical or [[bureaucracy| bureaucratic]] system of [[management]]. [[Image:Rotterdam 16.03.05 fortis.jpg|200px|thumb|left|A bank in [[Rotterdam]]: Banks act as merchants of money and suppliers of capital in capitalist economies.]] Importantly, the owners receive some of the profits or proceeds generated by the company, sometimes in the form of [[dividends]], sometimes from selling their ownership at higher price than their initial cost. They may also re-invest the profit in the company which may increase future profits and value of the company. They may also liquidate the company, selling all of the equipment, land, and other assets, and split the proceeds between them. The price at which ownership of productive capacity sells is generally the maximum of either the [[net present value]] of the expected future stream of profits or the value of the assets, net of any obligations. There is therefore a financial incentive for owners to exercise their authority in ways that increase the productive capacity of what they own. Various owners are motivated to various degrees by this incentive -- some give away a proportion of what they own, others seem very driven to increase their holdings. Nevertheless the incentive is always there, and it is credited by many as being a key aspect behind the remarkably consistent growth exhibited by capitalist economies. Meanwhile, some critics of capitalism claim that the incentive for the owners is exaggerated and that it results in the owners receiving money that rightfully belongs to the workers, while others point to the fact that the incentive only motivates owners to make a profit - something which may not necessarily result in a positive impact on society. Others note that in order to get a profit one must satisfy some need among other persons that they are willing to pay for. Also, some people in practice prefer to work for and buy products from for-profit organizations rather than to buy from or work for non-profit and communal production organizations which are legal in capitalist economies and which anyone can start or join. When starting a [[business]], the initial owners or inves
ishuddha]] ([[Sanskrit]]: &amp;#2367;&amp;#2357;&amp;#2358;&amp;#2369;&amp;#2342;&amp;#2381;&amp;#2343;) # [[Anahata]] ([[Sanskrit]]: &amp;#2309;&amp;#2344;&amp;#2366;&amp;#2361;&amp;#2340;) # [[Manipura]] ([[Sanskrit]]: &amp;#2350;&amp;#2367;&amp;#2339;&amp;#2346;&amp;#2370;&amp;#2352;) # [[Swadhisthana]] ([[Sanskrit]]: &amp;#2360;&amp;#2381;&amp;#2357;&amp;#2366;&amp;#2367;&amp;#2343;&amp;#2359;&amp;#2381;&amp;#2336;&amp;#2366;&amp;#2344;) # [[Muladhara]] ([[Sanskrit]]: &amp;#2350;&amp;#2370;&amp;#2354;&amp;#2366;&amp;#2343;&amp;#2366;&amp;#2352;) # [[Bindu]] ([[Sanskrit]]: &amp;#2367;&amp;#2348;&amp;#2344;&amp;#2381;&amp;#2342;&amp;#2369;) ===Hesychastic centres of prayer=== [[Hesychasm]] specifies four centres: # '''Cerebrofrontal centre''': Positioned between the [[eyebrow]]s (compare with [[Ajna]]). # '''Buccolaryngeal centre'''. # '''Pectoral centre''': Positioned in the upper and median region of the chest. # '''Cardiac centre''': Positioned near the upper part of the [[heart]] (compare with [[Anahata]]). This compares notably with [[Tibetan Buddhism]], in which the sequence of centres is very similar, beginning with the eyebrows and going down to the [[heart]], which symbolizes the highest [[consciousness]]. Varying Tibetan systems, however, use different numbers of centres, typically between 3 and 7, as appropriate for the practice in question. It is alleged by modern mystics that in [[Hesychasm]], the '''centres of prayer''' were points of [[concentration]] or [[meditation]] on the body to be used during the hesychastic [[prayer]]. This terminology, however, is not used in [[Eastern Orthodoxy|Orthodox Christianity]] and is not and has not been part of hesychastic prayer as practiced within the Orthodox Churches. ==Scientific basis== The idea of chakras as understood in Eastern philosophy does not exist in Western [[medical science]]. In Eastern thought, the chakras are thought to be levels of [[consciousness]], and states of the [[soul]], and 'proving' the existence of chakras is akin to 'proving' the existence of a soul. A [[mysticism|mystic]] deals with these [[occult]] concepts on the occult plane, as a model for their own internal experience, and when talking about 'energy centres', they are generally talking about subtle, spiritual forces, which work on the [[psyche]] and [[spirit]], not about physical electrical or magnetic fields. The primary importance and level of existence of chakras is therefore posited to be in the psyche and in the spirit. However, there are those who believe that chakras have a physical manifestation as well. Although there is no evidence that Indian mystics made this association themselves, it is noted by many that there is a marked similarity between the positions and roles described for chakras, and the positions and roles of the glands in the [[endocrine system]], and also by the positions of the [[neuron|nerve]] [[ganglion|ganglia]] (also known as &quot;[[plexus]]es&quot;) along the spinal column, opening the possibility that two vastly different systems of conceptualization have been brought to bear to systemize insights about the same phenomenon. By some, chakras are thought of as having their physical manifestation in the body as these glands, and their subjective manifestation as the associated psychological and spiritual experiences. Indeed, the various [[hormones]] secreted by these glands do have a dramatic effect on human psychology, and an imbalance in one can cause a psychological or physical imbalance in a person. Whether these changes in body state have a bearing on spiritual matters is a subject of dissent even among the Indian theorists, and the different systems of conceptualization, Indian and Western, make only a partial convergence in this case. Perhaps the most psychologically dramatic and potent secretion of these glands is the [[psychedelic]] drug [[dimethyltryptamine|DMT]] (which is synthesized by the [[pineal gland]], corresponding to the brow chakra). At least in the West, some individuals have sought spiritual breakthroughs through the use of such chemical aids, occasionally referred to as [[entheogens]] in this context. (See for example: [[Aldous Huxley]], ''The Doors of Perception'', a classic of new-age spirituality.) ==References in fiction== Monks in the [[videogames]] [[Final Fantasy Tactics]] and [[Final Fantasy XI]], as well as the character [[Amarant Coral]] in [[Final Fantasy IX]], can use a technique called Chakra for healing and restoring HP or MP. In the [[manga]]/[[anime]] ''[[Naruto (manga)|Naruto]]'', chakra is the mystical internal energy used to perform various ninja techniques such as ''ninjutsu'' and ''genjutsu''. In the [[James Bond]] movie ''[[Tomorrow Never Dies]]'', both Dr. Kaufman and his protege [[Mr. Stamper]] practice 'Chakra Torture&quot;. The Character &quot;Mhenlo&quot; in the online game Guild Wars has written &quot;Baptiste said full chakra&quot; on his inner Torso. ==Reference material and books== * {{cite book | author = Morgen, Robert | authorlink = Robert Morgen | year = 2005 | title = Personal Mastery: Develop Your True Inner Power by Awakening Your Kundalini | edition = 1st | publisher = Windhaven Press | id = 1411635884 | url = http://www.robertmorgen.com }} * {{cite book | author = Sharp, Dr. Michael | authorlink = Michael Sharp | year = 2005 | title = Dossier of the Ascension: A Practical Guide to Chakra Activation and Kundalini Awakening | edition = 1st | publisher = Avatar Publications | id = 0973537930 | url = http://dossier.michaelsharp.org }} ==See also== * [[Acupuncture]] * [[Aura]] * [[Kirlian photography]] * [[Kundalini]] * [[Lataif-e-sitta]] * [[Qi]] * [[Qigong]] * [[Reiki Tummo]] * [[Tree of life (Kabbalah)]] * [[Wheel]] * [[Yoga]] * [[Meditation]] ==External links== *[http://healing.about.com/cs/chakras/a/alignchakras.htm Aligning Your Chakras] Chakra resources at About Holistic Healing *[http://chakracises.com Chakracises] Actions you can take to help get your chakras functioning optimally *[http://www.robertmorgen.com Kundalini Awakening with Robert Morgen] *[http://www.adishakti.org/subtle_system.htm Human Subtle System] *[https://www.cihs.edu/whatsnew/research.asp Update on research] on Apparatus for Meridian Identification at California Institute for Human Science *[http://www.sanatansociety.org/chakras/chakras.htm Tantric Chakras] *[http://www.religiousbook.net/Books/Online_books/Ec/Ecology_35.html Cleansing and development of chakras and meridians] *[http://www.forthejoyofit.com Western articles and book recommendations for opening each major chakra] *[http://www.kriya.org/information/info_links/holystreams.htm Jesus may have taught 7 major chakras. Our awareness may be increased by meditation] &lt;!-- [[Category:Philosophy]] too general --&gt; {{yoga}} {{Hinduism}} [[Category:Hindu philosophical concepts]] [[Category:New Age]] [[Category:Sanskrit terms]] [[Category:Shabd paths]] [[Category:Yoga]] [[ca:Chakra]] [[da:Chakra]] [[de:Chakra]] [[es:Chakra]] [[fr:Chakra]] [[it:Chakra]] [[he:צ'אקרה]] [[nl:Chakra]] [[ja:チャクラ]] [[pl:Czakra]] [[pt:Chakra]] [[ru:Чакра]] [[sl:Čakra]] [[fi:Chakra]] [[sv:Chakra]] [[uk:Чакра]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>City of New York/Mayors</title> <id>6909</id> <revision> <id>15905020</id> <timestamp>2003-04-06T10:19:26Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Docu</username> <id>8029</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>upd. link</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[List of mayors of New York City]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Cloning</title> <id>6910</id> <revision> <id>42055428</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T14:19:40Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Kizor</username> <id>26692</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>rvv (Ask for her risotto recipe)</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Cloning''' is the process of creating an identical copy of an original. A ''clone'' in the [[biology|biological]] sense, therefore, is a single [[Cell (biology)|cell]] (like [[bacteria]], [[lymphocyte]]s etc.) or multi-cellular [[organism]] that is [[genetics|genetically]] identical to another living organism. Sometimes this can refer to &quot;natural&quot; clones made either when an organism [[asexual reproduction|reproduces asexually]] or when two genetically identical individuals are produced by accident (as with [[identical twins]]), but in common parlance the clone is an identical copy by some conscious design. Also see [[clone (genetics)]]. The term ''clone'' is derived from ''&amp;kappa;&amp;lambda;&amp;omega;&amp;nu;'', the [[Greek language|Greek]] word for &quot;twig&quot;. In [[horticulture]], the spelling ''clon'' was used until the twentieth century; the final ''e'' came into use to indicate the vowel is a &quot;long o&quot; instead of a &quot;short o&quot;. Since the term entered the popular lexicon in a more general context, the spelling ''clone'' has been used exclusively. ==Cloning in biology== ===Molecular=== Cloning a gene means to extract a gene from one organism (for example by PCR) and insert it into a second organism (usually via a [[vector (biology)|vector]]), where it can be used and studied. Cloning a gene sometimes can refer to success in identifying a gene associated with some [[phenotype]]. For example, when biologists say that the gene for disease X has been cloned, they mean that the gene's location and DNA sequence has been identified, although the ability to specifically copy the physical DNA is a side-effect of its identification. A related technique called [[subcloning]] refers to transferring a gene from one plasmid into another for further study. Cloned reproductive organs have been known to be able to grow back if damaged. ===Cellular=== [[Image:Cloning_diagram_english.png|thumb|300px|right|Somatic c
[Saint Petersburg]] and destroying [[Bomarsund]] in the [[Åland Islands]]. After the unification of [[Germany]] in [[1871]], the whole southern coast became German. The [[World War I|First World War]] was fought also on the Baltic Sea. After [[1920]] [[Poland]] returned to the Baltic Sea, and Polish ports of [[Gdynia]] and [[Gdańsk]] became leading ports of the Baltic. During [[world War II|the Second World War]] Germany reclaimed all of the southern shore and much of the eastern by occupying Poland and the [[Baltic states]]. In [[1945]] the Baltic Sea became a mass grave for drowned people on torpedoed [[refugee ships]]. [[As of 2004]], the sinking of the [[Wilhelm Gustloff (ship)|Wilhelm Gustloff]] remains the worst [[maritime disaster]] of all time, killing (very roughly) 9,000 people. In 2005, a Russian group of scientists found over 5,000 airplane wrecks, sunken warships, etc., (mainly from [[world War II|the Second World War]]) lying in the bottom of the sea. After [[1945]] the sea was a border between conflicted military blocks: in case of military conflict in Germany, in parallel with a Soviet offensive towards the [[Atlantic Ocean]], communist Poland's fleet was prepared to invade Danish isles. In May [[2004]], the Baltic Sea became almost completely a [[European Union]] internal sea when the [[Baltic states]] and [[Poland]] became parts of the European Union, leaving only the Russian [[Metropolitan area|metropolis]] of [[Saint Petersburg]] and the [[exclave]] of [[Kaliningrad Oblast]] as non-EU areas. The Baltic Sea starts to get very rough with the October storms. These winter storms have been the cause of many shipwrecks, for example, the sinking of the ferry ''[[M/S Estonia]]'' en route from [[Tallinn]], Estonia to [[Stockholm]], Sweden in [[1994]] that claimed the lives of hundreds. But thanks to the cold brackish water where the [[shipworm]] cannot survive, the sea is a time capsule for centuries-old shipwrecks. Perhaps the most famous one is the [[Vasa (ship)|Vasa]]. == Biology == [[Image:Phytoplankton bloom in the Baltic Sea (July 3, 2001).jpg|thumb|320px|Phytoplankton bloom in the Baltic Sea (July 3, 2001)]] Approximately 100,000 square km of the seafloor (¼ of the total area) is a variable dead zone. The more saline (and therefore denser) water remains on the bottom, isolating it from surface waters and the atmosphere. This leads to decreased oxygen concentrations within the zone. It is mainly bacteria that grow in it, digesting organic material and releasing hydrogen sulfide. Because of this large anaerobic zone, the seafloor ecology differs from that of the neighbouring Atlantic. The low salinity of the Baltic sea has led to the evolution of many slightly divergent species, such as the Baltic Sea [[herring]], which is a smaller variant of the [[Atlantic Ocean|Atlantic]] herring. The [[benthos|benthic fauna]] consists mainly of ''[[Monoporeia affinis]]'', which is originally a freshwater species. The lack of [[tides]] has affected the marine species as compared with the Atlantic. == Economy == Construction of the [[Great Belt Bridge]] ([[1997]]) and [[Oresund Bridge]] ([[1999]]) over the [[international waterway]] of the [[Danish Straits]] limited the Baltic Sea to the middle-sized vessels. In meantime, the Baltic Sea is the main trade route for export of Russian oil. Many of the neighboring countries are rather concerned about this, since a major oil leak would be disastrous in the Baltic given the slow exchange of water, and the many unique species. The tourism industries, especially in economies dependent on tourism like for example in northeastern Germany, are naturally very concerned. Shipbuilding is practiced in many large shipyards around the Baltic: [[Gdańsk]], [[Szczecin]] in Poland, [[HDW]] in [[Kiel]], Germany, [[Karlskrona]] and [[Kockums]] in [[Malmö]], Sweden, and [[Rauma, Finland|Rauma]], [[Turku]], [[Helsinki]] in Finland, [[Rīga]], [[Liepāja]] in Latvia and [[Klaipėda]] in Lithuania. There are several cargo and passenger [[ferry]] operators on the Baltic Sea, such as [[Silja Line]], [[Polferries]], [[Viking Line]], [[Tallink]] and [[Superfastferries]]. == Countries == {{Main|Baltic Sea countries}} Countries that border on the sea: *[[Denmark]] *[[Estonia]] *[[Finland]] *[[Germany]] *[[Latvia]] *[[Lithuania]] *[[Poland]] *[[Russia]] *[[Sweden]] Countries that are in the drainage basin but do not border on the sea: *[[Belarus]] *[[Czech Republic]] *[[Norway]] *[[Slovakia]] *[[Ukraine]] == Islands and Archipelagoes == {{Main|List of islands in the Baltic Sea}} *[[Åland Islands]] ([[Finland]], [[autonomous]]) *[[Bornholm]] ([[Denmark]]) *[[Gotland]] ([[Sweden]]) *[[Hailuoto]] ([[Finland]]) *[[Hiiumaa]] ([[Estonia]]) *[[Kotlin]] ([[Russia]]) *[[Muhu]] ([[Estonia]]) *[[Öland]] ([[Sweden]]) *[[Rügen]] ([[Germany]]) *[[Saaremaa]] ([[Estonia]]) *[[Stockholm archipelago]] ([[Sweden]]) *[[Usedom]] or Uznam (split between [[Germany]] and [[Poland]]) *[[Valassaaret]] ([[Finland]]) *[[Wolin]] ([[Poland]]) == Cities == The biggest coastal cities: *[[Saint Petersburg]] (Russia) 4,700,000 *[[Riga]] (Latvia) 760,000 *[[Stockholm]] (Sweden) 743,703 (metropolitan area 1,823,210) *[[Helsinki]] (Finland) 559,716 (metropolitan area 980,000) *[[Copenhagen]] (Denmark) 502,204 (metropolitan area 1,823,109) (facing the [[Oresund|Sound]]) *[[Gdańsk]] (Poland) 462,700 *[[Szczecin]] (Poland) 413,600 *[[Tallinn]] (Estonia) 401,774 *[[Kaliningrad]] (Russia) 400,000 *[[Malmö]] (Sweden) 259,579 (facing the [[Oresund|Sound]]) *[[Gdynia]] (Poland) 255,600 *[[Kiel]] (Germany) 250,000 *[[Lübeck]] (Germany) 216,100 *[[Rostock]] (Germany) 212,700 *[[Klaipėda]] (Lithuania) 194,400 *[[Turku]] (Finland) 175,000 Important ports (though not being big cities): *[[Świnoujście]] (Poland) 50,000 *[[Ventspils]] (Latvia) 44,000 *[[Baltiysk]] (Russia) 20,000 *[[Hanko]] (Finland) 10,000 *[[Ports of the Baltic Sea]] == See also == *[[Baltic]] *[[Baltic region]] *[[Council of the Baltic Sea States]] *[[Baltic states]] *[[Scandinavia]] *[[Northern Europe]] *[[List of rivers of the Baltic Sea]] ==References== *Fairbridge, Rhodes. ''The Encyclopedia of Oceanography''. Pentti Alhonen, &quot;Baltic Sea&quot;, pp. 87-91. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold Company, 1966. == External links == *[http://www.balticseaportal.fi The Baltic Sea Portal] - a site maintained by the [http://www.fimr.fi/en.html Finnish Institute of Marine Research] (FIMR) (in English, Finnish, Swedish and Estonian) *[http://depts.washington.edu/baltic/encyclopedia.html Encyclopedia of Baltic History] *[http://www.nada.kth.se/~ovidiu/maps/images/1493-schedel-europa.jpg 1493 H. Schedel Map with Mare Germanicum] *[http://www.abc.se/~pa/uwa/wrecks.htm Old shipwrecks] in the Baltic *[http://www.pgi.gov.pl/pgi_en/index.php?option=news&amp;task=viewarticle&amp;sid=4&amp;Itemid=2 How the Baltic Sea was changing] - Prehistory of the Baltic from the [http://www.pgi.gov.pl/ Polish Geological Institute] *[http://www.helsinki.fi/maantiede/geofi/fennia/demo/pages/oksanen.htm Late Weichselian and Holocene shore displacement history of the Baltic Sea in Finland] - more prehistory of the Baltic from the [http://www.helsinki.fi/geography/ Department of Geography] of the [[University of Helsinki]] *[http://maps.grida.no/baltic Baltic Environmental Atlas: Interactive map of the Baltic Sea region] *[http://www.envir.ee/baltics/ The Baltic Sea Environment] ===Tourism links=== [[Image:2_SPN_01.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Polish Coast]] * [http://www.zrot.pl Zrot : Official Tourism Site Western Pomerania (PL)] (Polish, English, German) * [http://www.zart.com.pl Zart : Polish Tourism Site Western Pomerania (PL)] (Polish, English, German) * [http://www.vorpommern.de Official German Tourism Site : Regional Tourist Board Vorpommern (D)] (English, German, Swedish, Polish, French, Russian, Spanish) * [http://www.ostseeland.de Ost|See|Land - Overview: German Polish- Tourism site (D)] (English, German, Swedish, Polish) *[http://itameri.kyamk.fi/e.html The Baltic Sea Information Centre] (English, Finnish) [[Category:Baltic Sea]] [[af:Oossee]] [[ar:بلطيق]] [[bg:Балтийско море]] [[ca:Mar Bàltica]] [[cs:Baltské moře]] [[cy:Y Môr Baltig]] [[da:Østersøen]] [[de:Ostsee]] [[et:Läänemeri]] [[el:Βαλτική Θάλασσα]] [[es:Mar Báltico]] [[eo:Balta maro]] [[fr:Mer Baltique]] [[gl:Mar Báltico]] [[ko:발트 해]] [[id:Laut Baltik]] [[is:Eystrasalt]] [[it:Mar Baltico]] [[he:הים הבלטי]] [[csb:Bôłt]] [[la:Mare Balticum]] [[lv:Baltijas jūra]] [[lt:Baltijos jūra]] [[hu:Balti-tenger]] [[mk:Балтичко Море]] [[nah:Mare Baltica]] [[nl:Oostzee]] [[nds:Oostsee]] [[ja:バルト海]] [[no:Østersjøen]] [[nn:Austersjøen]] [[pl:Morze Bałtyckie]] [[pt:Mar Báltico]] [[ro:Marea Baltică]] [[ru:Балтийское море]] [[simple:Baltic Sea]] [[sk:Baltské more]] [[sl:Baltsko morje]] [[sr:Балтичко море]] [[fi:Itämeri]] [[sv:Östersjön]] [[th:ทะเลบอลติก]] [[tr:Baltık Denizi]] [[uk:Балтійське море]] [[zh:波罗的海]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Brackish water</title> <id>3336</id> <revision> <id>41844884</id> <timestamp>2006-03-02T02:47:29Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>71.52.254.139</ip> </contributor> <comment>/* See also */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">''&quot;Brackish&quot; redirects here. For the Kittie song, see [[Brackish (song)]].'' '''Brackish water''' is water that is [[salinity|saltier]] than [[fresh water]], but not as salty as [[sea water]]. It may result from mixing of seawater with fresh water, as in [[estuary|estuaries]], or it may occur as in brackish fossil [[aquifer]]s. Technically, brackish water contains between [[1 E-4 kg|0.5]] and [[1 E-2 kg|30 grams]] of [[salt]] per [[litre]]&amp;mdash;more often expressed as 0.5 to 30 parts per thousand (ppt or &amp;permil;). Thus, ''brackish'' covers a rang
e in [[oxygen]] delivery to the [[cell]], the amount of '''ATP''' produced in the [[mitochondria]] will decrease. ==Function== ATP energy is released when [[hydrolysis]] of the [[high energy phosphate|phosphate-phosphate]] bonds is carried out. This energy can be used by a variety of [[enzyme]]s, [[motor protein]]s, and [[transport protein]]s to carry out the work of the cell. Also, the hydrolysis yields free inorganic [[phosphate|P&lt;sub&gt;i&lt;/sub&gt;]] and [[adenosine diphosphate|ADP]], which can be broken down further to another P&lt;sub&gt;i&lt;/sub&gt; and [[adenosine monophosphate|AMP]]. ATP can also be broken down to AMP directly, with the formation of [[pyrophosphate|PP&lt;sub&gt;i&lt;/sub&gt;]]. This last reaction has the advantage of being an effectively irreversible process in [[aqueous]] [[solution]]. ==ATP in the human body== The total quantity of ATP in the human body is about 0.1 [[Mole (unit)|mole]]. The energy used by human cells requires the [[hydrolysis]] of 200 to 300 moles of ATP daily. This means that each ATP molecule is recycled 2000 to 3000 times during a single day. ATP cannot be stored, hence its consumption must closely follow its synthesis. On a per-hour basis, 1 kilogram of ATP is created, processed and then recycled in the body. ==Other uses== There is talk of using ATP as a [[power (physics)|power]] source for [[nanotechnology]] and implants. [[Artificial pacemaker]]s could become independent of [[battery (electricity)|batteries]]. ATP is also present as a neurotransmitter independent from its energy-containing function. Receptors that utilise ATP as their [[ligand]] are known as purinoceptors. == See also == * [[Adenosine diphosphate]] (ADP) * [[Adenosine monophosphate]] (AMP) * [[Cyclic adenosine monophosphate]] (cAMP) * [[ATPases]] * [[ATP hydrolysis]] * [[Citric acid cycle]] (also called the Krebs cycle or TCA cycle) * [[Phosphagen]] * [[ATP thermochemistry]] * [[Nucleotide exchange factor]] ==External links== * [http://www.zytologie-online.net/atp.php ATP and Cell Biology (Ger)] * [http://www.emc.maricopa.edu/faculty/farabee/BIOBK/BioBookATP.html ATP and biological energy] {{Nucleic acids}} [[Category:Cellular respiration]] [[Category:Exercise physiology]] [[Category:Nucleotides]] [[Category:Organic compounds]] [[Category:Organophosphates]] [[Category:Phosphates]] [[ar:أدينوزين ثلاثي الفوسفات]] [[cs:Adenozin trifosfát]] [[da:ATP (kemi)]] [[de:Adenosintriphosphat]] [[es:Adenosín trifosfato]] [[fi:Adenosiinitrifosfaatti]] [[fr:Adénosine triphosphate]] [[he:ATP]] [[id:ATP]] [[is:Adenósínþrífosfat]] [[ja:アデノシン三リン酸]] [[ko:아데노신 삼인산]] [[lb:Adenosintriphosphat]] [[lt:ATP]] [[nl:Adenosinetrifosfaat]] [[pl:ATP]] [[pt:Adenosina tri-fosfato]] [[ru:Аденозинтрифосфорная кислота]] [[sl:Adenozintrifosfat]] [[sr:Аденозин трифосфат]] [[su:Adénosin trifosfat]] [[sv:Adenosintrifosfat]] [[zh:三磷酸腺苷]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Abbasids</title> <id>1801</id> <revision> <id>15900265</id> <timestamp>2002-04-20T22:56:04Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Maveric149</username> <id>62</id> </contributor> <comment>*#redirect [[Abbasid]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Abbasid]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Ægir</title> <id>1802</id> <revision> <id>41505652</id> <timestamp>2006-02-27T20:46:12Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Nebiros</username> <id>114866</id> </contributor> <comment>Reverted vandalism to version 15 February 2006 by ZwoBot</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about a mythological figure. For the software, see [[Aegir (software)]]; for the [[tidal bore]] on the English River Trent see [[River Trent]].'' '''Ægir''' is a [[jotun|giant]] and a king of the sea in [[Norse mythology]]. He seems to be a personification of the power of the [[ocean]]. He was also known for throwing massive parties for the gods. In [[Snorri Sturluson]]'s [[Skáldskaparmál]] Ægir is identified with Gymir and Hlér who lived on [[Hlesey|Hlésey]]. Gymir, it may be noticed, is the name of the giant father of the beautiful [[Gerd|Gerðr]] wooed by [[Freyr]]. Another link between the [[Æsir]] and the sea giants is found in [[Hymir]], who is said in [[Hymiskviða]] to be father of [[Týr]]. Ægir is said to have had [[Daughters of Ægir|nine daughters]] with his wife, [[Rán]]. His daughters were called the billow maidens. They were named Bára, Blóðughadda, Bylgja, Dúfa, Hefring, Himinglæva, Hrönn, Kólga, and Unnr. The names of each reflect different types of waves of the sea. Ægir is son of [[Fornjót]]r and brother of Logi (fire, flame) and Kári (wind). He is also called Hlér and Gymir. In the [[Lokasenna]], he has a festival for the gods, where he provides the ale brewed in an enormous pot provided by [[Thor]]. The story of Thor getting the pot for the brewing is told in the [[Hymiskviða]]. Ægir had two servants, Fimafengr (killed by Loki) and Eldir. ==Familiar forms== Ægir's name is sometimes [[Old Norse orthography|anglicized]] as &quot;Aegir&quot; or &quot;Aeger&quot;. The common Swedish form is Ägir. {{NorseMythology}} [[Category:Norse giants]] [[Category:Sea and river gods]] [[da:Ægir]] [[de:Ägir]] [[el:Εγκίρ]] [[es:Ægir]] [[eo:Ægir]] [[fr:Ægir]] [[he:אייגיר]] [[ms:Aegir]] [[nl:Aegir]] [[ja:エーギル]] [[no:Æge]] [[pt:Aegir]] [[ru:Эгир]] [[sv:Ägir]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Albert Schweizer</title> <id>1804</id> <revision> <id>15900268</id> <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>Conversion script</ip> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Automated conversion</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Albert Schweitzer]] </text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Antibiotic</title> <id>1805</id> <revision> <id>42161642</id> <timestamp>2006-03-04T05:45:20Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>GreatWhiteNortherner</username> <id>35888</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>spelling, standardize on UK English, delete duplicated word</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">An '''antibiotic''' is a [[Medication|drug]] that kills or slows the growth of [[bacterium|bacteria]]. Antibiotics are one class of [[antimicrobial]]s, a larger group which also includes anti-viral, anti-fungal, and anti-parasitic drugs. They are relatively harmless to the host, and therefore can be used to [[healthcare treatment|treat]] [[infection]]s. The term, coined by [[Selman Waksman]], originally described only those formulations derived from living organisms, in contradistinction to &quot;chemotherapeutic agents&quot;, which were purely synthetic. Nowadays the term &quot;antibiotic&quot; is also applied to [[Chemical synthesis|synthetic]] antimicrobials, such as the [[sulfonamide]]s. Antibiotics are small [[molecule]]s with a [[molecular weight]] less than 2000. They are not [[enzyme]]s. Some antibiotics are made from mould. Unlike previous treatments for infections, which included poisons such as [[strychnine]] and [[arsenic]], antibiotics were labelled &quot;magic bullets&quot;: [[medication|drugs]] which targeted disease without harming the host. Conventional antibiotics are not effective in [[virus|viral]], [[fungal]] and other nonbacterial infections, and individual antibiotics vary widely in their effectiveness on various types of bacteria. Antibiotics can be categorised based on their target specificity: 'narrow-spectrum' antibiotics target particular types of bacteria, such as [[Gram-negative]] or [[Gram-positive]] bacteria, while 'wide-spectrum' antibiotics affect a larger range of bacteria. The effectiveness of individual antibiotics varies with the location of the infection, the ability of the antibiotic to reach the site of infection, and the ability of the bacteria to resist or inactivate the antibiotic. Some antibiotics actually kill the bacteria (bactericidal), whereas others merely prevent the bacteria from multiplying (bacteriostatic) so that the host's immune system can overcome them. Oral antibiotics are the simplest approach when effective, with intravenous antibiotics reserved for more serious cases. Antibiotics may sometimes be administered topically, as with eyedrops or ointments. Antibiotics can also be classified by the organisms against which they are effective, and by the type of infection in which they are useful, which depends on the sensitivities of the organisms that most commonly cause the infection and the concentration of antibiotic obtainable in the affected tissue. == History == :''See also: [[Timeline of antibiotics]]'' Many ancient cultures, including the [[Ancient Greece|ancient Greeks]] and [[Ancient China|ancient Chinese]], already used [[mould|moulds]] and other plants to treat [[infections|infection]]. This worked because some moulds produce antibiotic substances. However, they couldn't distinguish or distil the active component in the moulds. Modern research on antibiotics began with the discovery of [[Penicillin]] in [[1928]] by [[Alexander Fleming]]. == Classes of antibiotics == {| width=&quot;100%&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; frame=&quot;none&quot; rules=&quot;none&quot; border=&quot;0&quot; |+'''Antibiotics{{Ref|antibiotics-classes-table}}''' |- !style=&quot;text-align:left; background:aqua&quot; | Class !!style=&quot;background:silver;&quot; | Generic&amp;nbsp;Name !!Brand&amp;nbsp;Names !!style=&quot;background:silver&quot; | Common&amp;nbsp;Uses !!style=&quot;text-align:left&quot; | Side&amp;nbsp;Effects |- !colspan=&quot;5&quot; style=&quot;text-align:left; background:aqua;&quot;| [[Aminoglycosides]] |- | || style=&quot;text-align:left; background:silver;&quot; | [[Amikacin]] || ||rowspan=&quot;7&quot; style=&quot;text-align:left; vertical-align:top; b
il Including Earth's Last Fortress'' ([[1973]]) * ''The Best of A. E. van Vogt'' ([[1974]]) * ''[[The Gryb]]'' ([[1976]]) (with [[Edna Mayne Hull]]) * ''[[Pendulum (novel)|Pendulum]]'' ([[1978]]) * ''The Best of A. E. van Vogt 1949-1968'' ([[1979]]) * ''Lost: Fifty Suns'' ([[1979]]) * ''The Best of A E van Vogt 1940-1948'' ([[1979]]) * ''Futures Past: The Best Short Fiction of A.E. Van Vogt'' ([[1999]]) * ''Essential A.E. van Vogt'' ([[2002]]) ===Non-fiction=== * ''The Hypnotism Handbook'' ([[1956]]) (with [[Charles Edward Cooke]]) * ''The Money Personality'' ([[1975]]) * ''Reflections of A. E. Van Vogt: The Autobiography of a Science Fiction Giant'' ([[1979]]) * ''A Report on the Violent Male'' ([[1992]]) ==Reference== * [http://www.isfdb.org/cgi-bin/ea.cgi?A._E._van_Vogt ISFDB.org] - 'A. E. van Vogt - Summary Bibliography (Long Works)', Internet Speculative Fiction Database ==External links== * [http://www.home.earthlink.net/~icshi/ Earthlink.net] - 'Icshi: the A.E. van Vogt information site' * [http://www.locusmag.com/2000/News/News01e.html LocusMag.com] - 'A.E. van Vogt, 1912 - 2000: Golden Age SF writer A.E. van Vogt died Wednesday, January&amp;nbsp;26 of complications of pneumonia' * [http://www.mmedia.is/vanvogt/ MMedia.is] - 'Weird Worlds of A. E. van Vogt: 1912-2000' * [http://nicollsbooks.com/vanvogt/index.html NicollsBooks.com] - 'Al's van Vogt pages', Alan Nicoll * [http://scifan.com/writers/vv/VanVogt.asp SciFan.com] - 'Writers: A. E. van Vogt (1912 - 2000, Canada)' (bibliography) * [http://www.scifi.com/sfw/issue326/books2.html SciFi.com] - 'Transfinite: The Essential A.E. van Vogt: Vast conceptions, startling actions and average people rendered into tomorrow's supermen', Paul Di Filippo * [http://www.smartgroups.com/group/group.cfm?GID=1768914 SmartGroups.com] - 'vanvogt' (van Vogt discussion group) * [http://home.kc.rr.com/bobfahey/vanvogt.htm Fansite] * [http://www-users.cs.york.ac.uk/~susan/sf/books/v/aevanvgt.htm list of works] [[Category:1912 births|Van Vogt, A. E.]] [[Category:2000 deaths|Van Vogt, A. E.]] [[Category:American writers|Van Vogt, A. E.]] [[Category:Canadian science fiction writers|Van Vogt, A. E.]] [[Category:Nebula Grand Masters|Van Vogt, A. E.]] [[bg:Алфред ван Вогт]] [[de:Alfred Elton van Vogt]] [[es:A. E. van Vogt]] [[eo:Alfred Elton VAN VOGT]] [[fr:A. E. van Vogt]] [[it:Alfred Elton van Vogt]] [[nl:A.E. van Vogt]] [[ja:A・E・ヴァン・ヴォークト]] [[pl:Alfred Elton van Vogt]] [[ru:Ван Вогт, Альфред]] [[sv:A. E. van Vogt]] [[th:เอ.อี. แวน โวกท์]] [[zh:范·沃格特]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>April 1st RFC</title> <id>889</id> <revision> <id>37780926</id> <timestamp>2006-02-02T02:40:44Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>218.188.0.150</ip> </contributor> <comment>/* External links */ +zh:</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">Every [[April Fool's Day]] ([[1 April]]) since [[1989]], the [[Internet Engineering Task Force]] has published one or more humorous [[Request for Comments|RFC]] documents, following in the path blazed by the June [[1973]] RFC titled '''ARPAWOCKY'''. The following list also includes [[humor]]ous RFCs published on other dates. == List of April 1st RFCs and other humorous RFCs == * RFC 527 &amp;mdash; '''ARPAWOCKY'''. R. Merryman, [[University of California, San Diego|UCSD]]. [[22 June]] [[1973]]. A [[Lewis Carroll]] [[pastiche]]. * RFC 748 &amp;mdash; '''[[Telnet|TELNET]] RANDOMLY-LOSE option'''. M.R. Crispin. [[1 April]] [[1978]]. A parody of the [[Internet protocol suite|TCP/IP]] documentation style. * RFC 968 &amp;mdash; '''Twas the night before start-up'''. V.G. Cerf, [[1 December]] [[1985]]. * RFC 1097 &amp;mdash; '''[[Telnet|TELNET]] SUBLIMINAL-MESSAGE option'''. B. Miller. [[1 April]] [[1989]]. * RFC 1149 &amp;mdash; '''Standard for the transmission of [[IP over Avian Carriers|IP datagrams on Avian Carriers]]'''. D. Waitzman. [[1 April]] [[1990]]. Updated by RFC 2549; see below. A deadpan skewering of standards-document [[legalese]], describing protocols for transmitting Internet data packets by [[carrier pigeon]]. ** Fun fact: In [[2001]], RFC 1149 was actually implemented [http://www.blug.linux.no/rfc1149/] by members of the [[Bergen, Norway|Bergen (Norway)]] [[Linux]] User Group. * RFC 1216 &amp;mdash; '''Gigabit Network Economics and Paradigm Shifts'''. Poorer Richard, Prof. Kynikos. [[1 April]] [[1991]]. * RFC 1217 &amp;mdash; '''Memo from the Consortium for Slow Commotion Research (CSCR)'''. [[Vint Cerf]]. [[1 April]] [[1991]]. * RFC 1313 &amp;mdash; '''Today's Programming for KRFC AM 1313 Internet Talk Radio'''. C. Partridge. [[1 April]] [[1992]]. Certain portions of this RFC are obsolete: [[Doppler effect|Doppler shift]] while flying on the [[Concorde]] is no longer a problem. * RFC 1437 &amp;mdash; '''The Extension of [[MIME]] Content-Types to a New Medium'''. N. Borenstein, M. Linimon. [[1 April]] [[1993]]. * RFC 1438 &amp;mdash; '''[[Internet Engineering Task Force]] Statements Of Boredom (SOBs)'''. A. Lyman Chapin, C. Huitema. [[1 April]] [[1993]]. * RFC 1605 &amp;mdash; '''[[Synchronous optical networking|SONET]] to [[Sonnet]] Translation'''. [[William Shakespeare]]. [[1 April]] [[1994]]. * RFC 1606 &amp;mdash; '''A Historical Perspective On The Usage Of IP Version 9'''. J. Onions. [[1 April]] [[1994]]. * RFC 1607 &amp;mdash; '''A VIEW FROM THE 21ST CENTURY'''. [[Vint Cerf]]. [[1 April]] [[1994]]. * RFC 1776 &amp;mdash; '''The Address is the Message'''. [[Steve Crocker]]. [[1 April]] [[1995]]. Without content, would we need [[information security]]? * RFC 1924 &amp;mdash; '''A Compact Representation of IPv6 Addresses'''. R. Elz. [[1 April]] [[1996]]. * RFC 1925 &amp;mdash; '''The Twelve Networking Truths'''. R. Callon. [[1 April]] [[1996]]. * RFC 1926 &amp;mdash; '''An Experimental Encapsulation of IP Datagrams on Top of ATM'''. J. Eriksson. [[1 April]] [[1996]]. * RFC 1927 &amp;mdash; '''Suggested Additional MIME Types for Associating Documents'''. C. Rogers. [[1 April]] [[1996]]. * RFC 2100 &amp;mdash; '''The Naming of Hosts'''. [[User:Baylink|J. Ashworth]]. [[1 April]] [[1997]]. * RFC 2321 &amp;mdash; '''RITA -- The Reliable Internetwork Troubleshooting Agent'''. A. Bressen. [[1 April]] [[1998]]. * RFC 2322 &amp;mdash; '''Management of IP numbers by peg-dhcp'''. K. van den Hout et al. [[1 April]] [[1998]]. * RFC 2323 &amp;mdash; '''IETF Identification and Security Guidelines'''. A. Ramos. [[1 April]] [[1998]]. * RFC 2324 &amp;mdash; '''[[Hyper Text Coffee Pot Control Protocol]] (HTCPCP/1.0)'''. L. Masinter. [[1 April]] [[1998]]. * RFC 2325 &amp;mdash; '''Definitions of Managed Objects for Drip-Type Heated Beverage Hardware Devices using SMIv2'''. M. Slavitch. [[1 April]] [[1998]]. * RFC 2549 &amp;mdash; '''[[IP over Avian Carriers]] with Quality of Service'''. D. Waitzman. [[1 April]] [[1999]]. Updates RFC 1149, listed above. * RFC 2550 &amp;mdash; '''Y10K and Beyond'''. S. Glassman, M. Manasse, J. Mogul. [[1 April]] [[1999]]. * RFC 2551 &amp;mdash; '''The Roman Standards Process -- Revision III'''. S. Bradner. [[1 April]] [[1999]]. * RFC 2795 &amp;mdash; '''The Infinite Monkey Protocol Suite (IMPS)'''. S. Christey. [[1 April]] [[2000]]. * RFC 3091 &amp;mdash; '''Pi Digit Generation Protocol'''. H. Kennedy. [[1 April]] [[2001]]. * RFC 3092 &amp;mdash; '''Etymology of &quot;Foo&quot;'''. D. Eastlake 3rd, C. Manros, [[Eric S. Raymond|E. Raymond]]. [[1 April]] [[2001]]. * RFC 3093 &amp;mdash; '''Firewall Enhancement Protocol (FEP)'''. M. Gaynor, S. Bradner. [[1 April]] [[2001]]. * RFC 3251 &amp;mdash; '''Electricity over IP'''. B. Rajagopalan. [[1 April]] [[2002]]. * RFC 3252 &amp;mdash; '''''B''inary ''L''exical ''O''ctet ''A''d-hoc ''T''ransport'''. H. Kennedy. [[1 April]] [[2002]]. * RFC 3514 &amp;mdash; '''The Security Flag in the IPv4 Header (Evil Bit)'''. S. Bellovin. [[1 April]] [[2003]]. * RFC 3751 &amp;mdash; '''Omniscience Protocol Requirements'''. S. Bradner [[1 April]] [[2004]]. * RFC 4041 &amp;mdash; '''Requirements for Morality Sections in Routing Area Drafts'''. A. Farrel. [[1 April]] [[2005]]. * RFC 4042 &amp;mdash; '''[[UTF-9 and UTF-18]] Efficient Transformation Formats of Unicode'''. M. Crispin. [[1 April]] [[2005]]. == Source == {{FOLDOC}} ==External links== * [http://cio.co.nz/cio.nsf/0/ab70aab0de0cba74cc256fd2007ff140?OpenDocument&amp;More=Special%20Feature&amp;Click= CIO Magazine commentary] on RFC 3751 and [[1 April]] RFCs in general [[Category:April Fool's Day]] [[ko:만우절 RFC]] [[is:RFC aprílgabb]] [[ru:Первоапрельские RFC]] [[zh:惡搞RFC]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Anna Kournikova</title> <id>890</id> <revision> <id>41766222</id> <timestamp>2006-03-01T16:20:09Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Cactus.man</username> <id>264914</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/64.132.172.213|64.132.172.213]] to last version by Dunne409</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Anna Kournikova.jpg|thumb|right|260px|Anna Kournikova on the cover of [[Maxim (magazine)|''Maxim'' magazine]] in 2004.]] '''Anna Sergeyevna Kournikova''' ([[Russian (language)|Russian]]: '''Анна Сергеевна Курникова''', ''Ánna Sergéyevna Kúrnikova;'' born [[June 7]], [[1981]]) was a professional [[tennis]] player. She was one of the best known tennis players, even among those who do not follow the game. Anna was born in [[Moscow]], [[Russia]] to Alla and Sergei Kournikov; her family later emigrated to the [[United States]], and she currently resides in [[Miami, Florida]]. Anna's major-league tennis career has been curtailed for the past several years by serious back &amp; spinal problems, and this might be the end of it. Anna has had some success at the singles game, but her specialty has been doubles, where she has become the world's #1 doubles player at times, and she has won Grand Slam titles in [[Australia]] in 1999 and 2002, with [[Martina
Enlai]], who was selected to be Whampoa's Political Commissar. However, Chiang was deeply critical of the Kuomintang-Communist Party United Front, suspicious that the Communists would take over the KMT from within. With Sun Yat-sen's death in 1925 a power vacuum developed in the KMT. A power struggle ensued between Chiang, who leaned towards the right wing of the KMT, and Sun Yat-sen's close comrade-in-arms [[Wang Jingwei]], who leaned towards the left wing of the party. Though Chiang ranked relatively low in the civilian hierarchy, and Wang had succeeded Sun to power as Chairman of the National Government, Chiang's deft political maneuvering eventually allowed him to emerge victorious. Chiang, who became [[Commander-in-Chief]] of the [[National Revolutionary Army|National Revolutionary Forces]] in 1925, launched in July [[1926]] the [[Northern Expedition]], a military campaign to defeat the warlords controlling northern China and unify the country under the KMT. The National Revolutionary Army branched into three divisions—to the west, Wang Jingwei led a column to take [[Wuhan]], to the east, [[Pai Ch'ung-hsi]] led another column to take [[Shanghai]], while Chiang led in the middle to take [[Nanjing]]—before they were to press ahead to take [[Beijing]]. However, in January [[1927]], allied with the Chinese Communists and [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] Agent [[Mikhail Borodin]], [[Wang Jingwei]] and his KMT leftist allies (including [[Hu Hanmin]] and [[Song Qingling]]), having taken the city of Wuhan amid much popular mobilization and fanfare, declared the National Government to have moved to Wuhan. After taking Nanjing in March (and with Shanghai under the control of his close ally General Pai), Chiang momentarily halted his campaign and decided to break with the leftists. On [[April 12]], Chiang began a swift and brutal attack on thousands of suspected Communists. He then established his own National Government in [[Nanjing]], supported by his conservative allies. The communists were purged from the KMT and the Soviet advisers were expelled. This earned Chiang the support (and financial backing) of the Shanghai business community, and maintained him the loyalty of his Whampoa officers (many of whom hailed from Hunan elites were discontented by the land redistribution Wang Jingwei was enacting in the area), but led to the beginning of the [[Chinese Civil War]]. Wang Jingwei's National Government, though popular with the masses, was weak militarily and was soon overtaken by a local warlord, forcing Wang and his leftist government into joining him in Nanjing. Finally, the warlord capital of [[Beijing]] was taken in June [[1928]] and in December, the Manchurian warlord [[Chang Hsueh-liang]] pledged allegiance to Chiang's government. Chiang made gestures to cement himself as the successor of Sun Yat-sen. In a pairing of much political significance, Chiang married on [[December 1]], 1927 [[Soong May-ling]], the younger sister of [[Soong Ching-ling]] (Sun Yat-sen's widow, whom he had proposed to beforehand but was swiftly rejected) in Japan and thus positioned himself as Sun Yat-sen's brother-in-law. (To please Soong's parents, Chiang had to first divorce his first wife and concubines and promise to eventually convert to [[Christianity]]. He was baptized in [[1929]].) Upon reaching Beijing, Chiang paid homage to Sun Yat-sen and had his body moved to the capital Nanjing to be enshrined in an [[mausoleum of Sun Yat-sen|grand mausoleum]]. ==&quot;Tutelage&quot; over China== Chiang Kai-shek gained nominal control of China, but his party was &quot;too weak to lead and too strong to overthrow&quot;. In 1928, Chiang was named [[Generalissimo]] of all Chinese forces and Chairman of the National Government, a post he held until [[1932]] and later from [[1943]] until [[1948]]. According to KMT political orthodoxy, this period thus began the period of &quot;political tutelage&quot; under the dictatorship of the Kuomintang. The decade of 1928 to [[1937]] was one of consolidation and accomplishment for Chiang's government. Some of the harsh aspects of foreign concessions and privileges in China were moderated through diplomacy. The government acted energetically to modernize the legal and penal systems, stabilize prices, amortize debts, reform the [[banking]] and [[currency]] systems, build [[railroad]]s and [[highway]]s, improve public health facilities, legislate against traffic in [[narcotic]]s, and augment industrial and agricultural production. Great strides also were made in education and, in an effort to help unify Chinese society—the [[New Life Movement]] was launched to stress [[Confucian]] moral values and personal discipline. [[Mandarin (linguistics)|Mandarin]] was promoted as a standard tongue. The widespread establishment of communications facilities further encouraged a sense of unity and pride among the people. These successes, however, were met with constant upheavals with need of further political and military consolidation. Though much of the urban areas were now under the control of his party, the countryside still lay under the influence of severely weakened yet undefeated warlords and communists. Chiang fought with most of his warlord allies, with one northern rebellion—against the warlords [[Yen Hsi-shan]] and [[Feng Yuxiang]]—in [[1930]] almost bankrupting the government and costing almost 250,000 casualties. When [[Hu Han-min]] established a rival government in Guangzhou in [[1931]], Chiang's government was nearly toppled. A complete eradication of the [[Communist Party of China]] eluded Chiang. The Communists regrouped in [[Jiangxi]] and established the [[Chinese Soviet Republic]]. Chiang's anti-communist stance attracted the aid of [[Nazi Germany|German]] military advisers, and in Chiang's fifth campaign to defeat the Communists in [[1934]], he surrounded the [[Red Army]] only to see the Communists escape through the epic [[Long March]] to [[Yan'an]]. [[Image:Chiangs and Stilwell.jpg|right|thumb|233px|Generalissimo and Madame Chiang Kai-shek with General Stilwell in Burma ([[1942]]).]] == Wartime leader of China == With Japan's invasion of [[Manchuria]] in [[1931]], Chiang adopted a slogan &quot;first internal pacification, then external resistance&quot; which meant that the government would first defeat the Communists before challenging Japan directly. In December [[1936]], Chiang flew to [[Xi'an]] to coordinate the final assault on [[People's Liberation Army|Red Army]] forces holed up in [[Yan'an]]. However, Chiang's allied commander [[Chang Hsueh-liang]], whose forces were to be used in his attack and whose homeland of Manchuria had been invaded by the Japanese, had other plans. On [[December 12]], Chang Hsueh-liang kidnapped Chiang Kai-shek for two weeks in what is known as the [[Xi'an Incident]] and forced Chiang into making an &quot;Second United Front&quot; with the Communists against Japan. Though he lost his chance to finish off the communists, Chiang refused to make a formal public announcement of this &quot;United Front&quot; as the Communists had hoped and his troops continued fighting the Communists throughout the war. [[Sino-Japanese War (1937-1945)|All-out war with Japan]] broke out in July [[1937]]. In August of the same year, Chiang sent 500,000 of his best trained and equipped soldiers to [[Battle of Shanghai (1937)|defend Shanghai]]. With about 250,000 Chinese casualties, Chiang lost his political base of [[Whampoa Military Academy|Whampoa]]-trained officers. Although Chiang lost militarily, the battle dispelled Japanese claims that it could conquer China in three months and demonstrated to the Western powers (which occupied parts of the city and invested heavily in it) that the Chinese would not surrender under intense Japanese fire. This was skillful diplomatic maneuvering on the part of Chiang, who knew the city would eventually fall, but wanted to make a strong gesture in order to secure Western military aid for China. By December, the capital city of Nanjing had fallen to the Japanese and Chiang moved the government inland to [[Chongqing]]. Devoid of economic and industrial resources, Chiang could not counter-attack and held off the rest of the war preserving whatever territory he still controlled, though his strategy succeeded in stretching Japanese supply lines and bogging down Japanese soldiers in the vast Chinese interior who would otherwise have been sent to conquer southeast Asia and the Pacific islands. With the [[Attack on Pearl Harbor]] and the opening of the [[Pacific War]], China became one of the [[Allied Powers]]. During and after [[World War II]], Chiang and his American-educated wife Soong May-ling, commonly referred to as &quot;Madame Chiang Kai-shek&quot;, held the unwavering support of the [[United States]] [[China Lobby]] which saw in them the hope of a [[Christianity|Christian]] and [[democratic]] China. Chiang Kai-shek's policies were far from Christian or democratic, but this remained unknown to the U.S. public due to strong state-imposed [[censorship]] in China and self-imposed censorship in the U.S. during the war years and after. This was especially fomented by the Chiangs' close friendship with ''[[TIME]]'' magazine publisher [[Henry Luce]]. [[Image:Cairo conference.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Chiang, [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]], and [[Winston Churchill]] met at the Cairo Conference in 1943.]] Chiang's strategy during the War opposed the strategies of both [[Mao Zedong]] and the United States. The U.S. regarded Chiang as an important ally able to help shorten the war by engaging the Japanese occupiers in China. Chiang, in contrast, used powerful associates such as [[H. H. Kung]] in [[Hong Kong]] to build the ROC army for certain conflict with the [[Communist Party of China|communist]] forces after the end of WWII. This fact was not understood well in the United States. The U.S. liaison officer, General [[Joseph Stilwell]], correctly deduced that Chian
stance and reforms == Part of its mission has become to provide assistance to countries that experience serious economic difficulties. Member states with [[balance of payments]] problems may request loans and/or organizational management of their national economies. In return, the countries are obliged to launch certain [[structural adjustment program|reforms]], an example of which is the &quot;[[Washington Consensus]]&quot;. ==Criticism == The role of the two Bretton Woods institutions has been controversial to many since the late [[Cold War]] period. Critics claim that IMF policy makers deliberately supported capitalistic [[military dictatorship]]s friendly to American and European [[corporation]]s. Critics also claim that the IMF is generally [[apathetic]] or hostile to their views of [[democracy]], [[human rights]], and [[labor rights]]. These criticisms generated a controversy that helped spark the [[anti-globalization movement]]. Others claim the IMF has little power to democratize sovereign states, nor is that its stated objective: to advise and promote financial stability. Arguments in favor of the IMF say that economic stability is a precursor to democracy. Two criticisms from economists have been that financial aid is always bound to so-called &quot;[[Conditionalities]]&quot;, including [[Structural Adjustment Program]]s. Conditionalities, it is claimed, retard social stability and hence inhibit the stated goals of the IMF. Typically the IMF and its supporters advocate a [[Keynesian economics|Keynesian]] approach. As such, adherents of [[supply-side economics]] generally find themselves in open disagreement with the IMF. The IMF frequently advocates currency [[devaluation]], criticized by proponents of supply-side economics as [[inflation|inflationary]]. Secondly they link higher taxes under &quot;[[austerity]] programmes&quot; with [[economic contraction]]. Currency devaluation is recommended by the IMF to the governments of poor nations with struggling economies. Supply-side economists claim these Keynesian IMF policies are destructive to economic prosperity, although many other economists disagree. Complaints are also directed toward [[International Monetary Fund gold reserve]] being undervalued. At its inception in 1945, the IMF pegged gold at 35 dollars per [[troy weight|Troy ounce]] of gold. In 1973 the Nixon administration lifted the fixed asset value of gold in favour of a world market price. Hence the fixed exchange rates of currencies tied to gold were switched to a [[floating rate]], also based on market price and exchange. This largely came about because ''[[Petrodollar]]s'' outside the United States were more than could be backed by the gold at [[Fort Knox]] under the fixed exchange rate system. The fixed rate system only served to limit the amount of assistance the organization could use to help debt-ridden countries. That said, the IMF sometimes advocates &quot;austerity programmes,&quot; increasing [[tax|taxes]] even when the economy is weak, in order to generate government revenue and balance [[budget deficit]]s, which is the opposite of Keynesian policy. These policies were criticised by [[Joseph E. Stiglitz]], former chief economist at the World Bank, in his book [[Globalization and Its Discontents]]. He argued that by converting to a more Monetarist approach, the fund no longer had a valid purpose, as it was designed to provide funds for countries to carry out Keynesian reflations. Most [[Alter-globalization|altermondialists]], like [[ATTAC]], believe that IMF interventions aggravate the [[poverty]] and [[debt]] of [[Third world|Third World]] and [[Developing nation|developing countries]]. According to the analysis by [[Yves Engler]], the IMF is considered to be responsible for worsening or actually creating [[famine]] in [[Malawi]] ([[2002]]), [[Ethiopia]] ([[2003]]) and [[Niger]] ([[2005]]). [http://www.zmag.org/content/showarticle.cfm?SectionID=2&amp;ItemID=8494] Opposition to the IMF is often fragmented. For instance, advocates of supply-side economics would generally regard the policies advocated by ATTAC to be little different in form to the ideas peddled by the IMF. In other words, they would see ATTAC ''tax-and-spend'' policies and the IMF's austerity policies as being fundamentally similar. [[Argentina]], which had been considered by the IMF to be a model country in its compliance to policy proposals by the Bretton Woods institutions, experienced a catastrophic economic crisis in [[2001]], generally believed to have been caused by IMF-induced budget restrictions &amp;mdash; which undercut the government's ability to sustain national infrastructure even in crucial areas such as health, education, and security &amp;mdash; and [[privatization]] of strategically vital national resources. The crisis added to widespread hatred of this institution in Argentina and other South American countries, with many blaming the IMF for the region's economic problems [http://www.serendipity.li/hr/imf_and_dollar_system.htm]. The current &amp;mdash; as of early 2006 &amp;mdash; trend towards moderate left-wing governments in the region and a growing concern with the development of a regional economic policy largely independent of big business pressures has been ascribed to this crisis. Another example of where IMF Structural Adjustment Programmes aggravated the problem was in [[Kenya]]. Before IMF got involved in the country, the Kenya central bank oversaw all currency movement in and out of the country. IMF mandated that Kenya central bank had to allow easier currency movement. However, the adjustment resulted in very little foreign investment, but allowed [[Kamlesh Manusuklal Damji Pattni]], with the help of corrupt government officials, to syphon out billions of Kenya shillings in what came to be known as the [[Goldenberg scandal]], leaving the country in a state worse than that which it was in before the IMF reforms were implemented. That the IMF intervenes only in countries that experience years of dire economic conditions has certainly hurt its reputation. The financial collapses it intervenes in are products of uneven capitalist development sometimes exacerbated by government mismanagement, but mismanagement is often cited by rich nations as the source of the financial crises. These collapses tend to lead to years of economic difficulty that can be addressed in various ways, but IMF Stuctural Adjustment Policies consistently serve to open up or &quot;liberalize&quot; economies to foreign capital rather than provide for economic recovery through statist policies such as government financed projects to achieve full employment. Thus, IMF policies further the notion that economic development in underdeveloped countries is dependent on attracting foreign investment rather than through a state-managed approach centered on full employment and progressive taxation. It is also true that politicians have used the IMF as an easy target for blame when they themselves have erred, using nationalism to gain easy political points. Overall the IMF success record is limited. While it was created to help stabilize the global economy, since 1980 over 100 countries have experienced a banking collapse that reduced GDP by four percent or more -- far more than at any previous time in history. The considerable delay in IMF response to a crisis, and the fact that it tends to only respond to rather than prevent them, has led many economists to argue for reform. Whatever the feelings people in the Western world have for the IMF, research by the [[Pew Research Center]] shows that more than 60 percent of Asians and 70 percent of Africans feel that the IMF and the [[World Bank]] have a ''positive'' effect on their country [http://people-press.org/reports/pdf/185topline.pdf]. Such research has made proponents of IMF claim the IMF-critique misleading, as it would be difficult to speak of suffering if the sufferers don't feel hurt. The documentary [[Life and Debt]] deals with the IMF's policies' influence on [[Jamaica]] and its economy, from a critical point of view. . == Past managing directors == An unwritten rule establishes that the IMF's managing director must be European and that the president of the World Bank must be from the [[United States]]. Executive Directors, who confirm the managing director are voted in by Finance Ministers from countries they represent. The IMF is for the most part controlled by the major Western Powers, with voting rights on the Executive board based on a quota derived from a monetary stake in the institution. Rarely does the board vote and pass issues contradicting the will of the US or Europeans. There have been some exceptions in the past. Dr. [[Mohamed Finaish]] from [[Libya]], the Executive Director representing the majority of the Arab World and [[Pakistan]], was a tireless defender of the developing nations' rights at the IMF. He stood steadfast in his beliefs and principles for fourteen years until his defeat in the 1992 elections to an Egyptian IMF Staff Member. &lt;table border=0 cellspacing=0 cellpadding=0&gt; &lt;tr valign=top&gt;&lt;td&gt;'''Dates'''&lt;hr&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td rowspan=12&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;'''Name'''&lt;hr&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td rowspan=12&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;'''Country'''&lt;hr&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr valign=top&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[May 6]], [[1946]] - [[May 5]], [[1951]]&lt;td&gt;[[Camille Gutt]]&lt;td&gt;[[Belgium]]&lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr valign=top&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[August 3]], [[1951]] - [[October 3]], [[1956]]&lt;td&gt;[[Ivar Rooth]]&lt;td&gt;[[Sweden]]&lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr valign=top&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[November 21]], [[1956]] - [[May 5]], [[1963]]&lt;td&gt;[[Per Jacobsson]]&lt;td&gt;[[Sweden]]&lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr valign=top&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[September 1]], [[1963]] - [[August 31]], [[1973]]&lt;td&gt;[[Pierre-Paul Schweitzer]]&lt;td&gt;[[France]]&lt;/tr&gt;
Party (1960s)|British National Party]] also emerged in [[1960]] and went on to form a part of the NF. ==Appendices== ===See also=== *[[British Nationalism]] ===References=== *Hill, Ray. ''The Other Face of Terror'', with Andrew Bell, Grafton 1988. ISBN 0586069356 *Tyndall, John (2003). &quot;[http://www.spearhead.com/0310-jt2.html The Problem Is Mr Griffin]&quot; in ''[[Spearhead (magazine)|Spearhead]]'', [[October]] [[2003]] ===External links=== ====Official party sites==== * [http://www.bnp.org.uk Party Website Homepage] * [http://www.bnp-forum.co.uk Official BNP Forum] (Party membership needed for access) * [http://www.bnp.org.uk/bnptv/bnptv.php BNP Internet TV] ====Opposition to the BNP==== *[http://www.uaf.org.uk/ Unite Against Fascism] *[http://www.anl.org.uk Anti-Nazi League] ====General press articles==== * [http://newssearch.bbc.co.uk/cgi-bin/search/results.pl?tab=news&amp;start=1&amp;q=BNP&amp;scope=newsukfs Assorted BBC news articles about the BNP] * [http://news.bbc.co.uk/hi/english/uk/newsid_1507000/1507680.stm BNP: A Party on the fringe (source: The BBC)] * [http://news.bbc.co.uk/hi/english/static/in_depth/programmes/2001/bnp_special/friends_abroad/american_friends.stm BBC news story: Under the skin of the BNP] * [http://www.guardian.co.uk/race/0,11374,617115,00.html ''Guardian Unlimited'': Special Reports 'Race in the UK'] * [http://politics.guardian.co.uk/farright/0,11375,617119,00.html ''Guardian Unlimited'': Special Reports 'The Far Right in Britain'] * [http://www.guardian.co.uk/farright/0,11981,711266,00.html ''Guardian Unlimited'': Special Reports 'Europe's Far Right'] * [http://observer.guardian.co.uk/comment/story/0,6903,687941,00.html ''The Observer/Guardian'' story: Be afraid of the BNP] * [http://www.halifaxcouriertoday.co.uk/ViewArticle2.aspx?SectionID=700&amp;ArticleID=702742 Illingworth Tory defects to the BNP] - Halifax Courier story on defecting Conservative councillor moving to the council's BNP group. * ''Telegraph'' story, [[20 August]] [[2003]]: [http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/main.jhtml?xml=/news/2003/08/20/nbnp20.xml Councillor in fracas expelled by BNP] * BBC story, [[5 September]] [[2003]]: [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk_politics/3082708.stm BNP wins another seat] * [http://archive.thisisworcestershire.co.uk/2003/09/22/169602.html ''This is Worcestershire'' : It's no wonder the British National Party's on the move] [[22 September]] [[2003]] - This article argues that the mainstream parties have allowed social conditions in UK to deteriorate to the extent that people vote BNP to protest. * ''Guardian'' story, [[18 October]] [[2003]]: [http://politics.guardian.co.uk/byelections/story/0,11043,1065726,00.html Lib Dems trounce BNP in council byelections] * [http://icliverpool.icnetwork.co.uk/0100news/0100regionalnews/page.cfm?objectid=12800817&amp;method=full ''Liverpool Echo'' - BNP Man sent razor blades to city Jews - [[2 April]] [[2003]]] * [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/scotland/3554755.stm BBC News: BNP leader defends Scottish visit to area where teenage murder victim was abducted] ([[21 March]] [[2004]]) * [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk_politics/3645307.stm BBC News: Le Pen to help BNP] ([[21 April]] [[2004]]) * [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk_politics/3654941.stm BBC News: Le Pen UK visit sparks protests] ([[25 April]] [[2004]]) * [http://politics.guardian.co.uk/elections2004/story/0,14549,1217914,00.html ''The Observer/Guardian'' : Jennifer's journey to the front of the BNP] ([[16 May]] [[2004]]) - Story about Nick Griffin's daughter Jennifer who heads the Young BNP (now called Young Brits) Note: YBNP used to have a website but it seems to have closed. * [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/england/west_yorkshire/3857397.stm BBC News: Bus driver sacked over BNP membership] ([[1 July]] [[2004]]) * [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/3894529.stm BBC News: BNP activists admit to race crime] ([[15 July]] [[2004]]) * [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/magazine/3896213.stm BBC News: Going Undercover in the BNP] ([[15 July]] [[2004]]) * [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/business/3901621.stm BBC News: Barclays Bank bans BNP accounts] ([[16 July]] [[2004]]) * [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/england/lancashire/3974731.stm BBC News: Comic banned for 'shoot BNP' joke] ([[2 November]] [[2004]]) * [http://www.politics.co.uk/election-2005/bnp-take-london-council-seat-$3437938.htm Politics.co.uk : BNP take London council seat] ([[17 September]] [[2004]]) * [http://www.mirror.co.uk/news/allnews/page.cfm?objectid=14947504&amp;method=full&amp;siteid=50143 ''Mirror'': He sounded white on the phone] * [http://www.yorkshiretoday.co.uk/ViewArticle2.aspx?SectionID=55&amp;ArticleID=967084 ''The Yorkshire Post'': Shock over BNP woman with city care job] ([[10 March]] [[2005]]) * [http://www.yorkshiretoday.co.uk/ViewArticle2.aspx?SectionID=55&amp;ArticleID=974980 ''The Yorkshire Post'': BNP activist to keep job as community care worker] ([[18 March]] [[2005]]) * [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/wales/4386613.stm BBC News: Race ruling against BNP official] ([[27 March]] [[2005]]) - BNP official loses compensation after he was expelled from a trade union (for promoting racism, rather than membership of the BNP as such). * [http://news.scotsman.com/latest.cfm?id=4340029 ''Scotsman.com'' : Racism 'Simmering' in British Schools] ([[1 April]] [[2005]]) * [http://www.eppingforestguardian.co.uk/news/localnews/display.var.585316.0.bnp_attended_awards_without_any_incident.php ''Epping Forest Guardian'' : BNP attended awards without any incident] ([[11 April]] [[2005]]) * [http://www.manchesteronline.co.uk/men/news/s/163/163054_bnp_pair_fined_for_brawl_on_campus.html ''Manchester Evening News'' - BNP pair fined for brawl on campus - [[June 17]] [[2005]]] * [http://www.thesun.co.uk/article/0,,2-2005320172,00.html ''The Sun Newspaper'' : BNP bomb leaflet storm] ([[13 July]] [[2005]]) * [http://www.theaustralian.news.com.au/common/story_page/0,5744,15942648%255E2703,00.html ''The Weekend Australian'' : The streets where revenge brews] Reports growing ethno-religious tensions in England, including the perspectives of local Muslims, as well as, BNP regional organiser Nick Cass and the BNP's national press officer Dr. Phil Edwwards. ([[16 July]] [[2005]]) * [http://www.thisislondon.co.uk/news/articles/PA_NEWA11766291121782872A00001?source=PA%20Feed ''This Is London'' : Architect of BNP found dead at home] Reports on the death of BNP founder John Tyndall ([[20 July]] [[2005]]) *[http://politics.guardian.co.uk/farright/story/0,11375,1533355,00.html ''The Guardian'' : BNP leader denies race hate charges] Update on Trail of Nick Griffin and Mark Collet ([[21 July]] [[2005]]) * [http://www.yorkshiretoday.co.uk/ViewArticle2.aspx?SectionID=55&amp;ArticleID=1101232 ''Yorkshire Post'' : BNP councillor wins fresh hearing in sacking fight] Update on the sacking of bus driver Arthur Redfearn in 2004. ([[30 July]] [[2005]]) * [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk_politics/4239358.stm ''BBC News'' : Bush 'promoted West-Muslim clash'] Article on Ken Livingstone - blaming Bush and the &quot;right-wing neo-con establishment&quot; for the rise in BNP support. [[12 September]] [[2005]] * [http://www.mirror.co.uk/news/tm_objectid=15958932&amp;method=full&amp;siteid=94762&amp;headline=paper-of-the-bnp-is-seized--name_page.html ''Mirror'' : PAPER OF THE BNP IS SEIZED] [[12 September]] [[2005]] * [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/england/kent/4236640.stm ''BBC News'' : Police hand back seized BNP paper] [[12 September]] [[2005]] * [http://www.newsandstar.co.uk/news/viewarticle.aspx?id=281603 ''News &amp; Star'' : BNP Editor Condemns Newspapper Seizure] [[13 September]] [[2005]] ====Police press release==== * [http://www.acpo.police.uk/news/2003/q4/BNP.html Association of Chief Police Officers: News &amp; Press releases] Press Release([[7 November]] [[2003]]) Ban on Police Membership of the BNP. ====Pro-BNP articles==== * [http://www.think-israel.org/locke.bnp.html The BNP Goes Straight (source: Think-Israel)] * [http://www.thirdway.org/files/reviews/copsey.html Third Way'': Review by Pat Harrington: Contemporary British Fascism: The British National Party and the Quest for Legitimacy written by Nigel Copsey] {{British political parties}} [[Category:Political parties in the United Kingdom]] [[Category:Euronationalist parties]] [[Category:LGBT rights opposition]] [[Category:White nationalists]] [[Category:Neo-Nazism]] [[Category:British fascists]] [[Category:1980 establishments]] [[de:British National Party]] [[pl:Brytyjska Partia Narodowa]] [[pt:Partido Nacional Britânico]] [[sv:British National Party]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Batavii</title> <id>4295</id> <revision> <id>38163184</id> <timestamp>2006-02-04T17:00:55Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Panairjdde</username> <id>2400</id> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Batavii''' (or '''Batavi''', '''Batavians''') were a [[Germanic tribes|Germanic]] tribe, originally part of the [[Chatti]], reported by [[Gaius Cornelius Tacitus|Tacitus]] to have lived around the [[Rhine]] delta, in the area which is currently the [[Netherlands]], &quot;an uninhabited district on the extremity of the coast of Gaul, and also of a neighbouring island, surrounded by the ocean in front, and by the river Rhine in the rear and on either side&quot; (Tacitus, ''Histories'' iv). This led to the [[Latin]] name of '''Batavia''' for the area. The same name is used for several military units, originally raised among the Batavii. ==Location== They were mentioned by Julius Caesar in his commentary ''[[Gallic Wars]]'', as living on an island formed by the [[Meuse River]] after it is joined by the [[Waal]], 80 Roman [[mile]]s from the mouth of the river. He said there were many other islands formed by branches of the [[Rhine]], inhabited by savage and barbarous nations, some of whom were supposed to live on fish and the eggs of sea
Foot and Mouth Disease Virus]. *Intervet International has a site devoted to FMD detailing information about Control, Vaccination, Legal Issues, &amp; Preparation [http://www.foot-and-mouth-disease.com/]. ==See also== *[[Hand, foot and mouth disease]] (HFMD) &lt;!----&gt; [[Category:Picornaviruses]] [[Category:Infectious diseases]] [[Category:Animal diseases]] [[en:Foot-and-mouth disease]] [[cy:Clwyf y traed a’r genau]] [[de:Maul- und Klauenseuche]] [[es:Fiebre aftosa]] [[fr:Fièvre aphteuse]] [[he:מחלת הפה והטלפיים]] [[nl:Mond-en-klauwzeer]] [[ja:口蹄疫]] [[pl:Pryszczyca]] [[pt:Febre aftosa]] [[fi:Suu- ja sorkkatauti]] [[sv:Mul- och klövsjuka]] [[zh:口蹄疫]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Fridtjof Nansen</title> <id>11820</id> <revision> <id>38942312</id> <timestamp>2006-02-09T17:57:34Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Chobot</username> <id>259798</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>robot Adding: ko</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[image:Nansen.jpg|thumb|right|Fridtjof Nansen]] '''Fridtjof Nansen''' (born [[October 10]], [[1861]] in Store Frøen, near [[Kristiania]], now [[Oslo]] - died [[May 13]], [[1930]] in [[Lysaker]], outside [[Oslo]]) was a [[Norway|Norwegian]] explorer, scientist and diplomat. Nansen was awarded the [[Nobel Peace Prize]] in [[1922]] for his work as a [[League of Nations]] [[High Commissioner]]. ==Arctic exploration== Nansen made his first voyage to [[Greenland]] waters in a [[sealing]] [[SS Viking|ship]] [[1882]], and in [[1888]] succeeded in crossing the [[Greenland]] icefield on skis from east to west with [[Otto Sverdrup]], [[Olaf Dietrichson]], [[Kristian Kristiansen Trana]], [[Samuel Balto]] and [[Ole Nielsen Ravna]]. In [[1893]], he sailed to the [[Arctic]] in the ''[[Fram]]'' (a purpose-built, round-hulled ship later used by [[Roald Amundsen]] to transport his expedition to [[Antarctica]]) which was deliberately allowed to drift north through the ice, a journey that took more than three years. During this first crossing of the [[Arctic Ocean]] the expedition became the first to discover the existence of a [[North Polar Basin|deep polar basin]]. When, after more than one year in the ice it became apparent that ''Fram'' would not reach the [[North Pole]], Nansen, accompanied by [[Hjalmar Johansen]] ([[1867]]&amp;ndash;[[1913]]), continued north on foot and, in April [[1895]], reached 86° 14´ N, the highest latitude then attained. The two men were forced to spend the winter, surviving on [[walrus]] [[blubber]] and [[polar bear]] meat, on [[Franz Josef Land]], where they eventually, in the summer of [[1896]], connected with a British expedition led by [[Frederick George Jackson]]. ==Academic career and scientific works== Nansen was a professor of [[zoology]] and later [[oceanography]] at the [[University of Oslo|Royal Frederick University]] in [[Oslo]] and contributed with groundbreaking works in the fields of [[neurology]] and [[fluid dynamics]]. Nansen was one of the founders of the [[neuron|neuron theory]] stating that the [[neural network]] consists of individual cells communicating with each other. Nansen did extensive research into the behavior and origin of [[ocean current]]s, following his experiences from the Fram expedition. He was, together with the [[Sweden|Swedish]] mathematician [[V. Walfrid Ekman]], deeply involved in the discovery of how currents are generated from the planetary rotation and the formulation of the theory of the [[Ekman spiral]] that explains the phenomenon. He also invented a bottle for collection of water samples from various depths known as the ''[[Nansen bottle]]'' that, further developed by [[Shale Niskin]], is still in use. ==Diplomatic and political career== Before Norway's [[Separation of Norway from Sweden in 1905|dissolution of its union]] with Sweden on [[7 June]] [[1905]], Nansen had been a devoted republican, along with other prominent Norwegians like the authors [[Bjørnstjerne Bjørnson]] and [[Arne Garborg]]. However, after convincing argument by [[Sigurd Ibsen]] and others, Nansen changed his position (as did Bjørnson and Garborg) and was thereafter influential in convincing [[Haakon VII of Norway|Prince Carl of Denmark]] that he should accept the position as king of Norway. In a referendum where the Norwegian electorate chose between a [[monarchy]] and a [[republic]], Nansen campaigned for monarchy, certain it was the right thing for Norway, although the general view was that Nansen would be elected President if Norwegians chose republican rule. Carl was crowned as King Haakon VII after the referendum results indicated Norwegians' strong preference for monarchy. Following Norway's independence, Nansen was appointed as the Norwegian ambassador in [[London]] ([[1906]]-[[1908|08]]) becoming a close friend of [[Edward VII of the United Kingdom|King Edward]] and assuring support from Britain in the campaign for an international guarantee of Norwegian territorial integrity. In the period between the wars there was an unsuccessful effort on Nansen's behalf to make him the Prime Minister in a broad government based on all the non-socialist parties to counter the growth of [[Arbeiderpartiet]], the Norwegian labour party. In [[1925]] he co-founded Fedrelandslaget (The Fatherland Society), an anti-socialist political organisation that folded at the outbreak of the [[Second World War]]. ==The League of Nations== After [[World War I]], Nansen became involved in the [[League of Nations]] as a [[High Commissioner]] for several initiatives, including organisation of exchange of [[Prisoner of war|war prisoners]] and help to [[High Commissioner for Refugees|Russian refugees]], in which campaign he originated the [[Nansen passport]] for [[refugees]]. For his work in service of the League of Nations he was awarded the [[Nobel Peace Prize]] in [[1922]]. ==Posthumous honors== Fridtjof Nansen has had many honors awarded posthumously among which are: *The ''[[Nansen Refugee Award]]'' formerly known as the ''Nansen Medal'' has (since 1955) been given out yearly to ''a person or group for outstanding services in supporting refugee causes'' by the [[United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees|UNHCR]]. *The [[Royal Norwegian Navy]] has named the [[Fridtjof Nansen class frigate|''Fridtjof Nansen'' class]] of [[frigate]]s, and the lead ship, [[HNoMS Fridtjof Nansen (F310)|HNoMS ''Fridtjof Nansen'']] after him. *The Norwegian Humanist Academy, [[Nansenskolen |Nansenskolen, ''Norsk Humanistisk Akademi'']] is named after Fridtjof Nansen. The academy is a Norwegian folk high-school, engaged in peace-building projects in former Yugoslavia. *A crater on the [[Nansen (lunar crater)|Moon]] and another on [[Nansen (crater on Mars)|Mars]] are named ''Nansen''. *The asteroid [[853 Nansenia]] is named after Fridtjof Nansen. ==References== * Nansen, F. (1999). ''Farthest North''. New York: Modern Library. (English translation of Nansen's own account of the Fram journey.) * [[Roland Huntford|Huntford, Roland]]. (1997). ''Nansen''. London: Gerald Duckworth &amp; Co. * Nansen, Fridtjof (1911). ''In Northern Mists. Arctic Exploration in Early Times ''. London: Heinemann. 2 vols. * Nansen, Fridtjof (1895). ''The First Crossing of Greenland''.Longmans Green. ==External links== * [http://www.nobel.se/peace/laureates/1922/nansen-bio.html Nobel Prize biography] &lt;!-- this link doesn't work: * [http://www.nrsc.no/nansen/fritjof_nansen.html Short Nansen Biography] --&gt; * [http://www.xs4all.nl/~pal/nansen.htm Nansen page w/pictures] * [http://www.mnc.net/norway/Nansen.htm Fridtjof Nansen] * [http://nobelprize.org/peace/laureates/1922/ Nobel Peace Prize laureate Fridtjof Nansen] * [http://www.fni.no The Fridtjof Nansen Institute, Research Institution on natural resource and environmental policies] {{Link FA|fr}} [[Category:1861 births|Nansen, Fridtjof]] [[Category:1930 deaths|Nansen, Fridtjof]] [[Category:Nobel Peace Prize winners|Nansen, Fridtjof]] [[Category:Norwegian people|Nansen, Fridtjof]] [[Category:Norwegian explorers|Nansen, Fridtjof]] [[Category:Norwegian politicians|Nansen, Fridtjof]] [[Category:Norwegian scientists|Nansen, Fridtjof]] [[Category:Order of St. Olav|Nansen, Fridtjof]] [[Category:Explorers of the Arctic|Nansen, Fridtjof]] [[bg:Фритьоф Нансен]] [[da:Fridtjof Nansen]] [[de:Fridtjof Nansen]] [[et:Fridtjof Nansen]] [[es:Fridtjof Nansen]] [[eo:Fridtjof NANSEN]] [[fr:Fridtjof Nansen]] [[ko:프리티오프 난센]] [[hr:Fridtjof Nansen]] [[it:Fridtjof Nansen]] [[he:פריטיוף ננסן]] [[hu:Fridtjof Nansen]] [[nl:Fridtjof Nansen]] [[ja:フリチョフ・ナンセン]] [[no:Fridtjof Nansen]] [[nn:Fridtjof Nansen]] [[pl:Fridtjöf Nansen]] [[pt:Fridtjof Nansen]] [[sl:Fridtjof Nansen]] [[fi:Fridtjof Nansen]] [[sv:Fridtjof Nansen]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Frederick Augustus I the Strong</title> <id>11821</id> <revision> <id>31982771</id> <timestamp>2005-12-19T16:59:13Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Piotrus</username> <id>59002</id> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[August II the Strong]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Frederick Augustus II Wettin</title> <id>11822</id> <revision> <id>31978218</id> <timestamp>2005-12-19T16:13:09Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Appleseed</username> <id>404133</id> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[August III the Saxon]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Frederick Christian Wettin</title> <id>11823</id> <revision> <id>15909540</id> <timestamp>2004-05-22T08:01:51Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Muriel Gottrop</username> <id>8201</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>#REDIRECT [[Frederick Christian, Elector of Saxony]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[F
, etc.). This modern and bygone New York is just another facade of which, for Kubrick, in his last film, the world is entirely made of. ===Narrative structure=== The story follows a dramatic structure of leaving the familiar world, entering situations that are in some way an otherworld, and returning to the familiar world. In the third part of the movie, Bill revisits the scenes of the adventures he had the night before. This is reminiscent of the structure Kubrick used in ''[[A Clockwork Orange]]'', in which the character Alex revisits each of the locations at which he performed violent acts in the first part of that movie. Each location of Dr. Bill's unactualized sexuality is stripped of sexual mystique. ==Critical response== Critics objected chiefly to two features of the film. First, the movie's pacing is slow. While this may have been intended to convey the nature of dreaming, critics objected that it simply made actions and decisions laborious. Second, reviewers commented on the fact that Kubrick had shot his [[New York City]] scenes in a studio and that New York didn't &quot;look like New York.&quot; [[Lee Siegel]], [http://www.indelibleinc.com/kubrick/films/ews/reviews/harpers.html writing] in ''Harper's'', felt that most critics responded mainly to the marketing campaign and were unable to address the film on its own terms. ==American censorship controversy== Citing contractual obligations to deliver an '''R''' rating, [[Warner Brothers]] digitally altered the orgy scene for the American release of ''Eyes Wide Shut'', [[censorship|blocking out]] images of graphic sexuality in order to avoid an '''NC-17''' rating. This alteration of Kubrick's vision antagonized many cinephiles, as they argued that Kubrick had never been shy about ratings: ''[[A Clockwork Orange (film)|A Clockwork Orange]]'' had an [[X-rated|X-rating]]. ==Music== * The film's title music is &quot;Waltz 2&quot; from [[Shostakovich]]'s [[Suite for Variety Stage Orchestra (Shostakovich)|Suite for Variety Stage Orchestra]], for years misidentified as the composer's ''Jazz Suite 2'', recorded and released under the latter, incorrect, name by the [[Royal Concertgebouw Orchestra]]. The headline of the newspaper which Bill Harford buys at the Newstand reads &quot;Lucky to be Alive&quot; - a phrase which corresponds fundamentally with Shostakovich's life; so the choice of music is perhaps a reference to the parallels in Shostakovich's biography. (see Solomon Volkov (2004). ''Shostakovich and Stalin: The Extraordinary Relationship Between the Great Composer and the Brutal Dictator.'' Knopf. ISBN 0375410821.) * In the scene with the strange ritual, the incantations heard in the background are actually [[Christian]] [[prayer]]s sung in [[Romanian language|Romanian]], played in reverse. * One of the recurring pieces of music in the film is the eerie second movement of [[György Ligeti]]'s piano cycle &quot;Musica Ricercata&quot;. The piece is unusual in that it uses only three notes (plus octave displacements), in addition to the unyielding performance indication of ''Mesto, rigido e cerimoniale''. The choice of Ligeti is interesting because Kubrick used Ligeti's ''Atmospheres'' in his film [[2001:_A_Space_Odyssey|2001: A Space Odyssey]] without obtaining Ligeti's consent, much to the composer's dismay. The piece was intended by Ligeti as a portrait of [[Stalin]] and his [[Great Purge|terror]] - possibly another connection to Shostakovich's waltz. * In the morgue scene, Franz Liszt's late solo piano piece, &quot;Nuages Gris&quot; (&quot;Somber Clouds&quot;) (1881), heightens the morbidity. ==Trivia== * [[Christiane Kubrick]], Stanley's wife, had an uncredited guest role as a woman sitting behind Dr. Harford at Café Sonata. * Kubrick considered casting [[Steve Martin]] in the role of Dr William Hartford, eventually given to Tom Cruise. * During the long shooting schedule, actors [[Harvey Keitel]] and [[Jennifer Jason Leigh]] dropped out, and were replaced by [[Sydney Pollack]] and [[Marie Richardson]], respectively. *Rumor has it that Harvey Keitel, who was supposed to pretend to masturbate behind Nicole Kidman's back, did it for real and ejaculated in Kidman's hair. The rumor continues that Nicole Kidman and Tom Cruise approached Kubrick the next day, saying &quot;Keitel goes, or we do.&quot; * Woody Allen claimed that Kubrick had considered him for the role of Victor Ziegler, but says that Kubrick &quot;came to his senses&quot;. * Director Stanley Kubrick died just four days after presenting Warner Bros. with what was reported to be a final cut of the film. ==External links== * [http://eyeswideshut.warnerbros.com/ Official Website at Warner Bros.] * {{imdb title|id=0120663|title=Eyes Wide Shut}} * [http://www.visual-memory.co.uk/amk/doc/0096.html Introducing Sociology: a review of Eyes Wide Shut by Tim Kreider] * [http://www.xahlee.org/Periodic_dosage_dir/skina/skina2.html Screenshots] {{Stanley Kubrick Films}} [[Category:1999 films]] [[Category:Cult films]] [[Category:Drama films]] [[Category:Films based on fiction books]] [[Category:Films directed by Stanley Kubrick]] [[Category:Mystery films]] [[Category:Nicole Kidman films]] [[Category:Thriller films]] [[Category:American films]] [[da:Eyes Wide Shut]] [[de:Eyes Wide Shut]] [[es:Eyes Wide Shut]] [[fi:Eyes Wide Shut]] [[fr:Eyes Wide Shut]] [[it:Eyes Wide Shut]] [[ja:&amp;#12450;&amp;#12452;&amp;#12474;&amp;#12539;&amp;#12527;&amp;#12452;&amp;#12489;&amp;#12539;&amp;#12471;&amp;#12515;&amp;#12483;&amp;#12488;]] [[nl:Eyes Wide Shut]] [[pt:Eyes Wide Shut]] [[sv:Eyes Wide Shut]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Extreme unction</title> <id>9980</id> <revision> <id>15907829</id> <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>Conversion script</ip> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Automated conversion</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Anointing of the Sick]] </text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Extreme Unction</title> <id>9981</id> <revision> <id>15907830</id> <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>Conversion script</ip> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Automated conversion</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Anointing of the Sick]] </text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Embrace, extend and extinguish</title> <id>9983</id> <revision> <id>41023630</id> <timestamp>2006-02-24T15:35:17Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Uzume</username> <id>51070</id> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">&quot;'''Embrace, extend and extinguish'''&quot; ('''EEE''') is a phrase commonly used by [[Common criticisms of Microsoft|Microsoft's critics]] as a scornful takeoff of a public statement made by [[Microsoft]]. The public statement had declared that Microsoft aimed to &quot;'''embrace and extend'''&quot; popular [[standardization|standard]]s and existing work. The term ''Embrace, extend and extinguish'' suggests that the stages of embracing and extending are only prefaces to extinguishing or supplanting existing work with Microsoft alternatives. The term is commonly used on [[website]]s such as [[Slashdot]] where anti-Microsoft thinking abounds. Critics of Microsoft say the company uses EEE to drive competitors out of business by forcing them to use nonstandard and often purportedly problematic technology that Microsoft controls. Although the behavior is today attributed to Microsoft because of their dominant position in the [[computing]] world, it has been present all along in both computer and non-computer history. A similar takeoff with slightly more detail on the process is &quot;'''Copy, corrupt, copyright, circulate, control'''&quot;. ==Microsoft, the Internet, and other standards== Microsoft's strategy toward the [[Internet]] and other [[open standard|standard]]s has been described as being EEE by those who claim that the company exercises unfair anticompetitive practices. The three stages of the EEE strategy consists of the following steps: # '''Embrace:''' The company publicly announces that they are going to support a standard. They assign an [[employee]] or employees to work with the standards bodies, such as the [[World Wide Web Consortium|W3C]] and the [[Internet Engineering Task Force|IETF]]. # '''Extend:''' They do support the standard, at least partially, but start adding company-only extensions of the standard to their products. They argue that they are trying only to add value for their customers, who want them to provide these features. # '''Extinguish:''' Through various means, such as driving use of their extended standard through their server products and developer tools, they increase use of the proprietary extensions to the point that competitors who do not follow the company version of the standard cannot compete. The company standard then becomes the only standard that matters in practical terms (a de facto standard), and it allows the company to control the industry by controlling the standard. Evidence held up in support of the 'EEE' view of Microsoft's policies include the [[Halloween documents]], a series of confidential, internal Microsoft memos related to dealing with [[Linux]] and [[open source]] software, which were leaked to the public. What exactly can be inferred from the documents about Microsoft's strategies is up to debate. Examples of areas where &quot;embrace, extend and extinguish&quot; have been alleged: *[[Softmodem]] *[[HTML]], [[Cascading Style Sheets|CSS]], [[Document Object Model|DOM]] *[[Kerberos (protocol)|Kerberos]] *[[Altair BASIC]] *[[Server message block|SMB]] networking *Indirect control of the [[IBM compatible PC]] architecture *[[Media Transfer Protocol]] *[[C++]] *[[OpenGL]] *[[JavaScript]] *[[Java programming language|Java]] (in relation to
e]] *[[Larry Levis]] *[[D. A. Levy]], (1942-1968) *[[Alun Lewis]] ===Lo-Ly=== *[[Thomas Lodge]] (1556-1625) *[[Christopher Logue]] *[[Henry Wadsworth Longfellow]] (1807-1882) *[[Michael Longley]] *[[Tim Longville]] *[[Luis A. López]] *[[Audre Lorde]], (born 1934) *[[Richard Lovelace]] (1618-1658) *[[Amy Lowell]] (1874-1925) *[[James Russell Lowell]] (1819-1891) *[[Robert Lowell]] *[[Mina Loy]] *[[Fitz Hugh Ludlow]] (1836-1870) *[[John Lydgate]] (1370-1450) *[[John Lyly]] (1553-1606) *[[George Lyttelton]], Lord Lyttelton (1709-1773) ==M== ===Ma=== *[[Máire Mac an tSaoi]] (Born 1922) *[[Norman MacCaig]] (1910-1996) *[[Hugh MacDiarmid]] (1892-1978) *[[Seán Mac Falls]] *[[Thomas MacGreevy]] (1893-1967) *[[Nathaniel Mackey]] *[[Archibald MacLeish]] (1892-1982) *[[Jackson Mac Low]] *[[Louis MacNeice]] (1907-1963) *[[ Barry MacSweeney]] *[[Haki R. Madhubuti]] *[[Isaac T. Madsen]] (Born 1987) *[[Clarence Major]] *[[Taylor Mali]] *[[David Mallet]] *[[Tom Mandel]] *[[Bill Manhire]] (Born 1946) *[[Robert Mannyng of Brunne]] (1269-1340) *[[Christopher Marlowe]] (1564-1593) *[[Andrew Marvell]] (1621-1678) *[[John Masefield]], (1878-1967) *[[Cleopatra Mathis]], (Born 1947) ===Mc-Mi=== *[[Jeffrey McDaniel]] (born [[1967]]) *[[Colleen McElroy]] *[[Mighty Mike McGee]] (born [[1976]]) *[[Bryant H. McGill]] *[[Karyna McGlynn]] *[[William Topaz McGonagall]], (1825-1902) *[[Roger McGough]], (born 1937) *[[Campbell McGrath]] *[[Claude McKay]] *[[David Melnick]] *[[George Meredith]] (1828-1909) *[[James Merrill]] (1926-1995) *[[Thomas Merton]] (1915-1968) *[[W. S. Merwin]] *[[Edna St. Vincent Millay]], (1892-1950) *[[Grazyna Miller]], (born 1957) *[[Joaquin Miller]], (1837-1913) *[[Spike Milligan]] (1918-2002) *[[Ralph Mills]] *[[John Milton]] (1608-1674) *[[Adrian Mitchell]] ===Mo-Mu=== *[[Charles Montagu, 1st Earl of Halifax]], (1661-1715) *[[Marianne Moore]], (1887-1972) *[[Robin Moore]], (1954- ) *[[Thomas Moore]] (1779-1852) *[[ Barbara Moraff]] *[[Edythe Morahan de Lauzon]] *[[Edwin Morgan]] *[[Mervyn Morris]] *[[Tony Morris]](1938- ) *[[William Morris]] (1834-1896) *[[James Douglas Morrison]] (1943-1971) *[[Andrew Motion]] *[[Eric Mottram]] *[[Paul Muldoon]] (born 1951) *[[Laura Mullen]] *[[Harryette Mullen]] *[[Anthony Munday]] (1553-1633) *[[Les Murray]] (born 1938) ==N-O== *[[Syed Ali Naqvi]] (1969-) *[[Ogden Nash]] (1902-1971) *[[Thomas Nashe]] (1567-1601) *[[Alice Moore Dunbar Nelson]] *[[Howard Nemerov]] *[[Kenn Nesbitt]] (1962- ) *[[Aimee Nezhukumatathil]] (1974- ) *[[Henry John Newbolt|Henry Newbolt]], (1862-1938) *[[John Henry Newman]], (1801-1890) *[[Norman Nicholson]] (1914-1987) *[[Eiléan Ní Chuilleanáin]] *[[Nuala Ní Dhomhnaill]] *[[Lorine Niedecker]] (1903-1970) *[[Alice Notley]] *[[Jeff Nuttall]] (1933-2004) *[[Naomi Shihab Nye]] (1952-) *[[Frank O'Hara]] *[[Theodore O'Hara]] (1820-1867) *[[Mary Oliver]] (1935-) *[[Charles Olson]] (1910-1970) *[[Terry A. O'Neal]] *[[Mary Devenport O'Neill]] (1879-1976) *[[George Oppen]] (1908-1984) *[[Maggie O'Sullivan]] *[[Wilfred Owen]] (1893-1918) ==P== *[[Ruth Padel]] (born 1947) *[[Ron Padgett]] *[[Vance and Nettie Palmer|Nettie Palmer]] *[[Dorothy Parker]] (1893-1967) *[[Thomas Parnell]] (1670-1718) *[[Kenneth Patchen]] (1911-1972) *[[Brian Patten]] (born 1946) *[[Ian Patterson]] *[[Andrew Barton &quot;Banjo' Paterson]] (1864-1941) *[[Thomas Love Peacock]] (1785-1866) *[[Ted Pearson]] *[[George Peel]] (1558-1597) *[[Simon Perchik]] (born 1923) *[[Sam Pereira]] *[[Ambrose Philips]] *[[Tom Pickard]] (born 1946) *[[Robert Pinsky]] (born 1940) *[[Ruth Pitter]] (1897-1992) *[[Sylvia Plath]] (1932-1963) *[[Edgar Allan Poe]] (1809-1849) *[[Alexander Pope]] (1688-1744) *[[Christopher Porpora]] (1974-) *[[Ezra Pound]] (1885-1972) *[[Jack Prelutsky]] *[[Matthew Prior]] (1664-1721) *[[J. H. Prynne]] ==Q== *[[Francis Quarles]] (1592-1644) ==R== ===Ra-Ri=== *[[Craig Raine]] (born 1944) *[[Kathleen Raine]] (1908-2003) *[[Carl Rakosi]] (1903-2004) *Sir [[Walter Raleigh]] (1552-1618) *[[Dudley Randall]] (1914-2000) *[[Julia Randall]] (1924-2005) *[[Elaine Randell]] *[[Thomas Randolph]] (1605-1635) *[[John Crowe Ransome]] (1888-1974) *[[Tom Raworth]] (born 1938) *[[Henry Reed]] (1914-1986) *[[Ishmael Reed]] *[[Joan Retallack]] *[[Kenneth Rexroth]] (1905-1982) *[[Charles Reznikoff]] (1894-1976) *[[Adrienne Rich]] (born 1929) *[[Lola Ridge]] (1873-1941) *[[Denise Riley]] *[[John Riley]] *[[Peter Riley]] ===Ro=== *[[Kit Robinson]] *[[Edwin Arlington Robinson]], (1869-1935) *[[Mary Robinson]] (1758-1800) *[[Carolyn M. Rodgers]] *[[Theodore Roethke]], (1908-1963) *[[Patrick Rosal]] *[[Franklin Rosemont]], (born 1943) *[[Penelope Rosemont]] *[[Isaac Rosenberg]] (1890-1918) *[[Christina Rossetti]] (1830-1894) *[[Dante Gabriel Rossetti]] (1828-1882) *[[Nicholas Rowe (dramatist)|Nicholas Rowe]] *[[Richard Rowlands]] (1565-1630) ==S== ===Sa-Si=== *[[Blanaid Salkeld]] (1880-1959) *[[Sonia Sanchez]] *[[Carl Sandburg]] (1878-1967) *[[May Sarton]] (1912-1995) *[[Siegfried Sassoon]] (1886-1967) *[[Sheri Lee Schnauffer]], (born 1962) *Sir [[Walter Scott]] (1771-1832) *[[Maurice Scully]] *[[Peter Seaton]] *Sir [[Charles Sedley]] (1639-1701) *[[Nina Serrano]], (born 1934) *[[Robert W. Service]] *[[Anne Sexton]] (1928-1974) *[[William Shakespeare]] (1564-1616) *[[Tupac Shakur]] (1971-1996) *[[Ntozake Shange]], (born 1948) *[[Jo Shapcott]] *[[Karl Shapiro]] (1913-2000) *[[Percy Bysshe Shelley]] (1792-1822) *[[William Shenstone]] *[[James Shirley]] (1596-1666) *Sir [[Philip Sidney]] (1554-1586) *[[Eli Siegel]] (1902-1978) *[[Ron Silliman]] (born 1946) *[[Shel Silverstein]] (1930-1999) *[[Colin Simms]] *[[Iain Sinclair]] *[[Edith Sitwell]] (1887-1964) ===Sk-Sq=== *[[Beau Sia]] (born [[1976]]) *[[John Skelton]] (1460-1529) *[[Myra Sklarew]] *[[Charlotte Smith]] (1749-1806) *[[Marc Smith]] *[[Rod Smith]] *[[Stevie Smith]] (1902-1971) *[[Tobias Smollett]] (1721-1771) *[[Gary Snyder]] *[[William Somerville]] *[[Charles Sorley]] (1895-1915) *[[Caroline Southey]] (1787-1854) *[[Robert Southey]] (1774-1843) *[[Robert Southwell]] (1561-1595) *[[Wole Soyinka]] (born 1934) *[[A. B. Spellman]] *[[Anne Spencer]] *[[Stephen Spender]] *[[Edmund Spenser]] (1552-1599) *[[Geoffrey Squires]] ===St-Sy=== *[[William Stafford]] *[[C.K. Stead]] (born 1932) *[[Brian Kim Stefans]] *[[Gertrude Stein]] *[[Gerald Stern]] *[[Wallace Stevens]] (1880-1955) *[[Robert Louis Stevenson]] (1850-1894) *[[Mark Strand]] *Sir [[John Suckling (poet)|John Suckling]] (1609-1642) *[[Keston Sutherland]] *[[May Swenson]] *[[Algernon Swinburne]] (1837-1909) *[[Bobbi Sykes]] (born 1945) *[[Joshua Sylvester]] (1563-1618) *[[Arthur Symons]] (1865-1945) *[[Arthur Sze]] (born 1950) ==T-V== *[[F.W. Tancred]] *[[Dorothea Tanning]] (born 1910) *[[Allen Tate]] (1899-1979) *[[Edward Taylor]] (1645-1729) *[[Sara Teasdale]] *[[Alfred Tennyson]], Lord Tennyson (1809-1892) *[[Lucy Terry]] *[[Celia Thaxter]], (1824-1894) *[[Ernest Thayer]], (1863-1940) *[[Dylan Thomas]] (1914-1953) *[[Edward Thomas]] (1878-1917) *[[Ronald Stuart Thomas|R.S. Thomas]] (1913-2000) *[[Francis Thompson]] (1859-1907) *[[James Thomson (B.V.)]] (1834-1882) *[[James Thomson (Seasons)]] *[[Henry David Thoreau]] (1817-1862) *[[Chidiock Tichborne]] (1558-1586) *[[Thomas Tickell]] *[[Melvin B. Tolson]] *[[Jean Toomer]] *[[Rodrigo Toscano]] *[[Thomas Traherne]] *[[Quincy Troupe]] *[[Paul H Tubb]] (Born 1973) *[[Gael Turnbull]] *[[Hone Tuwhare]] (born 1922) *[[Allen Upward]], [[Imagist]] *[[Henry Vaughan]] (1621-1695) *[[Janine Pommy Vega]] ==W== ===Wa-We=== *[[Ugonna Wachuku]] (born 1971) *[[Catherine Wagner]] *[[Diane Wakoski]] *[[Derek Walcott]] (born 1930) *[[Anne Waldman]] *[[Rosmarie Waldrop]] *[[Keith Waldrop]] *[[Alice Walker]], (born 1944) *[[Margaret Walker]] *[[Mark Wallace]] *[[Christopher Wallace-Crabbe]] *[[Edmund Waller]] (1606-1687) *[[Diane Ward]] *[[Robert Penn Warren]] (1905-1989) *[[Isaac Watts]] (1674-1748) *[[John Webster]] (died 1630) *[[Ian Wedde]] (born 1946) *[[Hannah Weiner]] *[[Marjorie Welish]] *[[Gilbert West]] ===Wh-Wy=== *[[Phillis Wheatley]] (1753-1784) *[[James M. Whitfield]] *[[Walt Whitman]] (1819-1892) *[[John Greenleaf Whittier]] (1807-1892) *[[Richard Wilbur]] *[[Oscar Wilde]] (1854-1900) *[[John Wilkinson (poet)|John Wilkinson]] *[[William of Shoreham]] (14th century) *[[Hugo Williams]] *[[Oscar Williams]] *[[Saul Williams]] *[[Sherley Anne Williams]] *[[William Carlos Williams]] (1883-1963) *[[Elizabeth Willis]] *[[John Wilmot, 2nd Earl of Rochester]] (1647-1680) *[[Terence Winch]] *[[George Wither]] (1588-1667) *[[Charles Wolfe]] (1791-1823) *[[Dorothy Wordsworth]] (1771-1855) *[[William Wordsworth]] (1770-1850) *Sir [[Henry Wotton]] (1568-1639) *[[C. D. Wright]] *[[Judith Wright]] *[[Thomas Wyatt]] (1503-1542) ==Y-Z== *[[William Butler Yeats]] (1865-1939) *[[Edward Young]], (1683-1765) *[[Benjamin Zephaniah]] (born 1958) *[[Louis Zukofsky]] (1904-1978) See also: [[list of poets]], [[list of English people]], [[list of people by occupation]], [[list of people by nationality]], [[list of women poets]], [[List of American poets]], [[List of Australian poets]], [[List of Irish poets]], [[List of English poets]], [[List of Canadian poets]], [[List of Chicano poets]] [[Category:Lists of poets|English]] [[fr:Liste de poètes de langue anglaise]] [[pl:Pisarze i poeci anglojęzyczni]] [[sv:Lista över engelskspråkiga poeter]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Endangered Species</title> <id>9715</id> <revision> <id>15907586</id> <timestamp>2004-06-27T10:07:56Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Maveric149</username> <id>62</id> </contributor> <minor /> <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Endangered species]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Environmental Modification</title> <id>9716</id> <revision> <id>15907587</id> <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>Conversion script</ip> </
plied the fighting value of even the smallest forces, allowing them to outflank and avoid, to surprise and overpower, to retreat and escape according to the requirements of the moment.&quot; &lt;!-- The Safeguard of the Sea, NAM Rodger--&gt; In some modern militaries (especially the [[United States Army]]), the term Cavalry is often used for units that fill the traditional horse-borne light cavalry roles of [[reconnaissance | scouting]], [[screening]], [[skirmishing]] and [[Raid (military)|raid]]ing. The shock role, traditionally filled by heavy cavalry, is generally filled by units with the &quot;[[Armoured]]&quot; designation. == Origins == Before the [[Iron Age]], the role of cavalry on the battlefield was largely performed by light [[chariot|chariots]]. The power of mobility given by mounted units was recognized early on, but was offset by the difficulty of raising large forces and by the inability of horses (then mostly small) to carry heavy armor. It is noteworthy to mention that heavy cavalry was first used by the [[Iranian]] [[Parthia|Parthians]], and more so by the [[Sassanid Empire|Sasanids]] (both, but especially the latter, were famed for the [[cataphract]], heavy cavalry armed with lances) [http://www.cais-soas.com/CAIS/History/ashkanian/parthian.htm]. During the [[Roman]]-[[Persian]] [[wars]], the [[Parthians]] swift mounted counter-attacks would prove too much for the [[Romans]] at first, who were the master of hand-to-hand combat. However, later the [[Romans]] would successfully adapt such heavy armor, and tactics[http://www.historynet.com/mhq/blromespersianmirage/]. The chariot originated with the [[Sintashta-Petrovka]] culture in [[Central Asia]] and spread by nomadic or semi-nomadic [[Indo-Iranian]]s. The chariot was quickly adopted by settled peoples both as a military technology and an object of ceremonial status by the [[Pharaoh]]s of the [[New Kingdom of Egypt]] as well as [[Assyrian people|Assyrian]] and [[Babylonian]] royalty. Cavalry techniques were, again, an innovation of [[equestrian nomad]]s of the Eurasian steppe. Use of chariots in battle was obsolete by the Persian defeat at the hands of [[Alexander the Great]], but chariots remained in use for ceremonial purposes, for instance carrying the victorious general in a [[Roman triumph]]. The first cavalry consisted of pairs of men, one using a [[bow (weapon)|bow]] while the other guided both of their horses. [[Image:Kirchholm.jpg|thumb|left|300px|''[[Battle of Kircholm|Kircholm]]'', a 1925 painting by [[Wojciech Kossak]].]]In the armies of the [[Ancient Greeks]] and the [[Roman Republic]], cavalry played a relatively minor role&amp;mdash;in both civilizations conflicts were decided by massed armored infantry. The cavalry in the Roman Republic remained the preserve of the wealthy [[landed class]] known as the [[Equites]]; later on, as the class became more of a social elite instead of a functional property-based military grouping, the Romans turned to [[Gauls]] and [[Iberians]] to fill the ranks of their auxiliary cavalry. [[Numidians]] were also highly valued as mounted skirmishers and scouts. [[Julius Caesar]] himself was known for his escort of Germanic cavalry, and the early Emperors maintained an [[Ala (Roman military)|ala]] of Batavian cavalry as their bodyguards until the unit was dismissed by [[Galba]]. In the army of the late [[Roman Empire]], cavalry played an increasingly important role. [[Sarmatian]]s were hired as cavalrymen. The [[Spatha]], the classical sword throughout most of the 1st millennium, originated as a Roman cavalry sword. The [[Eastern Roman Empire]] itself came to rely increasingly on Visigothic heavy cavalry as the primary shock force of their armies. == Dominance and decline == The decline of the Roman infrastructure made it more difficult to field large infantry forces, and during the [[2nd century|second]] and [[3rd century|third centuries]] cavalry began to take a more dominant role on the battlefield, also in part made possible by the appearance of new, larger breeds of horses. The replacement of the insubstantial Roman [[horse tack|saddle]] by variants on the Scythian model, with pommel and cantle, was significant too. New armored Cataphracts were deployed in eastern [[Europe]] and the [[near East]], notably in [[Persian Empire|Persia]]n forces as the main striking force of the armies, whereas earlier cavalry had to be consigned to the flanks. The introduction of the [[stirrup]] allowed for even heavier cavalry. As a greater weight of man and armor could be supported in the saddle, the almost-certainty of being dismounted in combat was reduced. In the initial charge a [[lance]] could be 'set' rather than held over-head&amp;mdash;leading to an enormous increase in the impact of a charge. In western Europe there emerged the heaviest of the heavy cavalry, the [[knight]]&amp;mdash; exchanging much of the mobility advantage for a massive, irresistible first charge. Knights quickly became an important military force in western Europe, although it is worth noting that Medieval military doctrine actually employed them as part of a combined-arms force along with various kinds of foot troops. Still, Medieval chroniclers tended to pay undue attention to the knights at the expense of the rank and file, and this has led early students of military history to suppose that knights were the only things that mattered on Medieval European battlefields--a view with hardly any grounding in reality. Massed English longbowmen triumphed over French cavalry at [[Battle of Crécy |Crécy]], [[Battle of Poitiers |Poitiers]] and [[Battle of Agincourt |Agincourt]], while at [[Battle of Gisors|Gisors]] (1188), [[Battle of Bannockburn|Bannockburn]] (1314), and [[Battle of Laupen|Laupen]] (1339), foot-soldiers proved their invulnerability to cavalry charges as long as they held their formation. However, the rise of infantry as the principal arm had to wait for the [[Swiss]] to develop their [[pike square|pike-squares]] into an offensive arm instead of a defensive one; this new aggressive doctrine brought the Swiss to victory over a range of adversaries, although eventually numbers would tell ([[Battle of St. Jakob an der Birs]]). The introduction of less effective but simpler missile weapons, like the [[crossbow]], was additionally decisive. A top-quality 15th century army could be 50 percent cavalry, but by the 1520s this proportion had fallen below 25 percent. Knighthood quickly became associated with land ownership and senior positions in the [[feudal]] social structure. [[Image:Italian_cavalry_drill.png|300px|thumb|Italian cavalry officers practice their horsemanship in 1904 outside Rome.]] From the 1550s, the use of gunpowder weapons solidified infantry's dominance of the battlefield, and began to allow true mass armies to develop. This is closely related to the increase in the size of armies throughout the early modern period; heavily armored cavalrymen were expensive to raise and maintain, and it took years to replace a skilled horseman or a trained horse, while [[arquebusier]]s and later [[musketeer]]s could be trained and maintained at a much lower expense, in addition to being much easier to replace. The Spanish [[tercio]] and later formations relegated cavalry to a supporting role. The [[pistol]] was specifically developed to try and bring cavalry back into the conflict, together with manoeuvres such as the [[caracole]]. These innovations were not particularly successful, however, and soon the charge was revived as the primary mode of employment for European cavalry. The [[demi-lancer]]s and the heavily armored sword-and-pistol [[reiter]]s were among the types of cavalry that experienced their heydays in the 16th and 17th centuries. In any case, cavalry still had a role to play. First and foremost they remained the primary choice for confronting enemy cavalry. Attacking an unbroken infantry force head-on was usually unsuccessful, but the extended linear formations were vulnerable to flank or rear attacks. Cavalry was important at [[Battle of Blenheim|Blenheim]] ([[1704]]), [[Battle of Rossbach|Rossbach]] ([[1757]]), and [[Battle of Friedland|Friedland]] ([[1807]]), remaining a significant factor throughout the [[Napoleonic Wars]]. And while massed infantry was deadly to cavalry, it was an excellent target for [[artillery]]&amp;mdash;once formations were broken, cavalry was essential and deadly in the harry and [[rout]] of the scattered infantry. It was not until individual firearms gained accuracy and improved rates of fire that cavalry was diminished in this role as well. Even then light cavalry remained an indispensable tool for scouting, screening the army's movements, and harassing the enemy's supply lines until military aircraft supplanted them in this role in the early 20th century. By the [[Nineteenth Century]], [[Europe]]an cavalry fell into four main categories: * [[Cuirassier]]s, heavy cavalry * [[Dragoon]]s, originally mounted infantry but later regarded as medium cavalry * [[Hussar]]s, light cavalry * [[Lancer]]s or [[Uhlan]]s, light cavalry armed with [[lance]]s There were cavalry variations for individual nations as well: [[France]] had the ''chasseurs à cheval''; [[Germany]] had the ''Jäger zu Pferd''; [[Bavaria]] had the ''Chevaulegers''; and [[Russia]] had Cossacks. Britain had no [[cuirassier]]s (other than the [[Household Cavalry]]), but had Dragoon Guards regiments which were classed as heavy cavalry. In the [[United States Army]], the cavalry were almost always [[dragoon]]s. The [[Imperial Japanese Army]] had its cavalry dressed as [[hussar]]s, but fought as dragoons. These forces found new success in Imperial operations ([[irregular military|irregular warfare]]), where modern weapons were lacking and the slow moving infantry-artillery train or fixed fortifications were often ineffective against native insurgents (unless the natives offered a fight on an equal footing, as
r and taller, with a great force, but were displaced by the ''ferrons'', or workers of ironworks foundries, until their total fade-out. They were pagans, but one of them, [[Olentzero]], accepted Christianity and became a sort of Basque [[Santa Claus]]. They gave name to several toponyms, as ''[[Jentilbaratza]]''. ===Sports=== [[Image:Xabi Alonso.jpg|thumb|right|[[Liverpool FC]]'s star midfielder [[Xabi Alonso]]&lt;br/&gt;&lt;small&gt;Image: soccer-europe.com&lt;/small&gt;]] The Basque Country has also contributed many great sportsmen, primarily in [[football (soccer)]], [[cycling]], [[jai-alai]], and [[rugby football|rugby]]. The main sport in the Basque Country, as in the rest of Spain and France, is football. The top teams [[Athletic Bilbao]], [[Real Sociedad]], [[CA Osasuna|Osasuna]] and [[Deportivo Alavés|Alavés]] are a fixture in the [[La Liga|Spanish national league]]. Athletic Bilbao has a policy of hiring only Basque players, or players who have grown and trained in Basque clubs of lower categories. Cycling as a sport is very popular in the Basque Country. Cycling races often see Basque fans lining the roads wearing orange, the corporate color of the telco [[Euskaltel]], coining the term ''the orange crush'' during the Pyrenees stages of the [[Tour de France]]. Of course, this is not to be mistaken with the orange of the fans from the Netherlands. The Navarrese cyclist [[Miguel Induráin]] (now retired) was the first to win the [[Tour de France]] five consecutive times, and has also won the [[Giro d'Italia]] and the [[World Cycling Championship]] in the discipline of [[individual time trial]]. Fellow Basque cyclist [[Abraham Olano]] has won the [[Vuelta a España]] and the World Cycling Championship. The [[Euskaltel-Euskadi]] cycling team is a commercial team, but also works as an unofficial Basque national team and is partly funded by the Basque Government. They are emerging as a strong contender in the Tour de France, with riders such as [[Iban Mayo]], [[Haimar Zubeldia]] and [[David Etxebarria]] leading the charge. In France, [[rugby football|rugby]] (especially [[rugby union]]) is another popular sport with the Basque community. In [[Biarritz]], the local club is [[Biarritz Olympique|Biarritz Olympique Pays Basque]], the name referencing the club's Basque heritage. They wear red, white and green, and supporters are known to wave the [[Ikurriña|Basque flag]] in the stands. They also recognize 16 other clubs as &quot;Basque-friendly&quot;. The most famous Biarritz &amp; Basque player is the legendary French fullback [[Serge Blanco]], whose mother was Basque. [[Michel Celaya]] captained both Biarritz and France. Current French number 8 [[Imanol Harinordoquy]] is also a Biarritz &amp; Basque player. [[Aviron Bayonnais]] is another top club with ''some'' Basque ties, but Biarritz is by far the most prominent. [[Pelota]] and [[Jai Alai]] are Basque versions of the European game family that includes [[real tennis]] and [[squash (sport)|squash]]. Basque players, playing for either the Spanish or the French teams, dominate international competititions. [[Mountaineering]] is favoured by the mountainous character of Basque terrain and nearness of the [[Pyrenees]]. [[Juanito Oiarzabal]] (from [[Vitoria]]), holds the world record for number of climbs above 8,000 meters with 21. One of the top [[basketball]] clubs in Europe, [[Saski Baskonia|TAU Baskonia]], is located in the Basque city of [[Vitoria|Vítoria/Gasteiz]]. In recent years [[surfing]] has taken root in the Basque shores in spite of the cold Atlantic waters, and [[Mundaka]] and [[Biarritz]] have become spots on the world surf circuit. ====Traditional Basque sports==== There are several sports derived by Basques from everyday chores. Heavy workers were challenged and bets placed upon them. Examples are: *''trainera'' (oar boat) regattas: from fishermen rowing to market with their catch. *''sokatira'': [[tug-of-war]]. *''harri jasoketa'': stonelifting, from quarry works. *''aizkolaritza'' and ''trontzalaritza'': [[tree hacking]] and [[log sawing]]. *''segalaritza'': grass [[scythe]]ing. *''dema'' or stone block pulling, from construction works: **''idi probak'' with couples of oxen. **''asto probak'' with donkeys. **''zaldi probak'' with horses. **''gizon probak'' with couples of sportsmen. ** From 2000, in [[Valle de Trápaga]]-[[Trapagaran]], [[Vizcaya]], snails are being used to compete at stone pulling. These contests imitate some features of the traditional sports (as shape and paintings of the stones) but lack human physical intervention (human effort is important in shows with oxen, horses and donkeys). *shepherd dog competitions. *''txinga erute'': carrying of weights, one in each hand, representing [[milk canister]]s. *[[ram fight]]s. *''[[zipota]]'', a French Basque martial art, similar to [[savate]]. *''barrenador'' competitions: drilling stone blocks with a metal bar, only in the former mining areas of West Biscay. The world-famous [[run of the bulls]] (or [[encierro]]) in [[Pamplona]]'s [[fiesta]]s ''[[San Fermín|Sanfermines]]'' started as a transport of bulls to the ring. [[Bullfight]]s are also popular in the Basque Country in spite of the unsuitability of the terrain for bull raising and a lack of local [[matador]]s. While there is no independent Basque state, Spain's [[autonomous communities of Spain|autonomous community]] of the Basque Country, made up of the provinces of Araba/Álava, Bizkaia/Vizcaya and Gipuzkoa/Guipúzcoa, is primarily Basque in character and has a great deal of automony. Similar remarks apply to the Spanish autonomous community of Nafarroa/Navarra. The political party [[EAJ/PNV]] - ''&quot;Eusko Alderdi Jeltzalea&quot;'' in Euskara, ''&quot;Partido Nacionalista Vasco&quot;'' in Spanish, &quot;Basque Nationalist Party&quot; in English is a moderate nationalist political party from the Basque region of Spain. The political party [[Batasuna]] (&quot;Unity&quot;), based mainly in Spain but with a French presence, is generally presumed to be associated with the armed Basque separatist group [[ETA]]. In March 2003, Batasuna was permanently banned in Spain by means of a controversial law approved by the Spanish parliament for the control of the political parties which support terrorism (it had not retroactive effect. However, it was quickly banished as it gave evidence). The Socialist Party of the Basque Country is the local branch of [[PSOE]]. The mining and industrial areas of Biscay were one of the birthplaces of Spanish socialism. The earliest university in the Basque Country was the [[University of Oñate]], founded 1540 in [[Hernani]] and moved to Oñate in [[1548]]. It lasted in various forms until [[1901]]. [http://www.ehu.es/ingles/paginas/prin_i.htm] In [[1868]] there was an unsuccessful effort to establish a Basque-Navarrese University, thwarted by the hostility of the Spanish Central government. The Jesuits founded the [[University of Deusto]] in Bilbao by the turn of the century. The first modern Basque public university was the Basque University, founded [[November 18]] [[1936]] in Bilbao in the midst of the Spanish Civil War. It operated only briefly before the defeat by Franco's forces. [http://basque.unr.edu/09/9.3/9.3.35t/9.3.35.07.univ.htm]. Several universities, originally teaching only in Spanish, were founded in the Basque region in the Franco era. One of those, the [[University of Bilbao]], has now evolved into the Euskal Herriko Unibertsitatea / Universidad del País Vasco / [[University of the Basque Country]]. There are numerous other significant Basque institutions in the Basque Country and elsewhere. Most Basque organizations in the United States are affiliated with NABO (North American Basque Organizations, Inc.). ==Classification== As with the Basque language, the Basques are generally considered to be an isolated ethnic group. The Basques are clearly a distinct ethnic group in their native region. They are culturally and especially linguistically distinct from their surrounding neighbors, and the controversial claim has often been made that they are comparably genetically distinct as well. Many Basques, especially in Spain, are strongly, even violently, nationalist, identifying far more firmly as Basques than as citizens of any existing state. Indeed, the only question would seem to be whether the term &quot;ethnic group&quot; is too weak, and whether one should favor the term &quot;nation.&quot; In modern times, as a European people living in a highly industrialized area, cultural differences from the rest of Europe are inevitably blurred, although a conscious cultural identity as a people or nation remains very strong, as does an identification with their homeland, even among many Basques who have emigrated to other parts of Spain or France, or to other parts of the world. The strongest distinction between the Basques and their traditional neighbors is linguistic. Surrounded by [[Romance languages|Romance-language]] speakers, the Basques traditionally spoke (and many still speak) a language that was not only non-Romance but non-Indo-European. Although the evidence is open to question, the prevailing belief among Basques, and forming part of their national identity, is that their language has continuity to the people who were in this region not merely in pre-Roman times, but in pre-Celtic times, quite possibly before the great invasions of Europe by Asian tribes. ===Genetics=== As part of the Basque national identity, the Iberian idea of the ''&quot;[[limpieza de sangre]]&quot;'' (&quot;cleanliness of blood&quot;) was adopted by [[Sabino Arana]], founder of the nationalist party [[PNV]], who propagated the idea that Basque people were genetically distinct and even superior to neighbouring people and immigrants, pejoratively referred as ''&quot;[[Offensive terms per nationality|Maketos]]&quot;''. Such arguments are considered racist from a modern point of view, b
6 (overthrow) and 2001 (overthrow). The longest period of stability in Afghanistan was between 1933 and 1973, when the country was under the rule of King [[Mohammed Zahir Shah|Zahir Shah]]. However, in 1973, Zahir's brother-in-law, [[Sardar Mohammed Daoud]] launched a bloodless coup. Daoud and his entire family were murdered in 1978 when the [[communist]] [[People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan]] launched a coup known as the [[Khalq|Great Saur Revolution]] and took over the government. Opposition against, and conflict within, the series of communist governments that followed, was considerable. As part of a [[Cold War]] strategy, the US government began to covertly fund and train anti-government [[Mujahideen]] forces through the Pakistani secret service agency known as Inter Services Intelligence or ISI, which were derived from discontented Muslims in the country who opposed the official atheism of the Marxist regime, in 1978. In order to bolster the local Communist forces the [[Soviet Union]] - citing the 1978 Treaty of Friendship, Cooperation and Good Neighborliness that had been signed between the two countries in 1978 - intervened on [[December 24]], 1979. The Soviet occupation resulted in a mass exodus of over 5 million Afghans who moved into refugee camps in neighboring Pakistan and Iran. More than 3 million alone settled in Pakistan. Faced with mounting international pressure and the loss of approximately 15,000 Soviet soldiers as a result of Mujahideen opposition forces trained by the [[United States]], Pakistan, and other foreign governments, the Soviets withdrew ten years later, in 1989. For more details, see [[Soviet war in Afghanistan]]. The Soviet withdrawal was seen as an ideological victory in the US, which ostensibly had backed the Mujahideen in order to counter Soviet influence in the vicinity of the oil-rich [[Persian Gulf]]. Following the removal of the Soviet forces in 1989, the US and its allies lost interest in Afghanistan and did little to help rebuild the war-ravaged country. The USSR continued to support the regime of Dr. Najubullah (formerly the head of the secret service, Khad) until its downfall in 1992. However, the absence of the Soviet forces resulted in the downfall of the government as it steadily lost ground to the guerrilla forces. [http://www.infoplease.com/ce6/world/A0856490.html] As the vast majority of the elites and intellectuals had either been systematically eliminated by the Communists, or escaped to take refuge abroad, a dangerous leadership vacuum came into existence. Fighting continued among the various Mujahidin factions, eventually giving rise to a state of [[warlordism]]. The chaos and corruption that dominated post-Soviet Afghanistan in turn spawned the rise of the [[Taliban]] in response to the growing chaos. The most serious fighting during this growing civil conflict occurred in 1994, when 10,000 people were killed during factional fighting in Kabul. Exploiting the chaotic situation in Afghanistan, a few regional bedfellows including fundamentalist Afghans trained in refugee camps in western Pakistan, the Pakistani secret intelligence service (ISI), the regional Mafia (well-established network that smuggled mainly Japanese electronics and tyres before the Russian invasion, now involved in drug smuggling) and Arab extremist groups (that were looking for a safe operational hub) joined forces and helped to create the [[Taliban]] movement (Rashid 2000).[http://www.ahmedrashid.com/] Backed by Pakistan, [[Saudi Arabia]] and other strategic allies, the Taliban developed as a politico-religious force, and eventually seized power in 1996. The Taliban were able to capture 90% of the country, aside from the [[Afghan Northern Alliance]] strongholds primarily found in the northeast in the [[Panjshir Valley]]. The Taliban sought to impose a strict interpretation of [[Islam]]ic ''[[Sharia]]'' law and gave safe haven and assistance to individuals and organizations that were implicated as terrorists, most notably [[Osama bin Laden]]'s [[Al-Qaeda]] network. The United States and allied military action in support of the opposition following the [[September 11, 2001 Terrorist Attacks]] forced the Taliban's downfall. In late 2001, major leaders from the Afghan opposition groups and diaspora met in [[Bonn]], and agreed on a [[Bonn Agreement (Afghanistan)|plan]] for the formulation of a new government structure that resulted in the inauguration of [[Hamid Karzai]] as Chairman of the [[Afghan Interim Authority]] (AIA) on December 2001. After a nationwide ''[[Loya Jirga]]'' in 2002, Karzai was elected President. On [[March 3]] and [[March 25]] [[2002]], a series of earthquakes struck Afghanistan, with a loss of thousands of homes and over 1800 lives. Over 4000 more people were injured. The earthquakes occurred at Samangan Province ([[March 3]]) and Baghlan Province ([[March 25]]). The latter was the worse of the two, and caused most of the casualties. International authorities assisted the Afghan government in dealing with the situation. As the country continues to rebuild and recover, as of late 2005, it was still struggling against widespread poverty, continued warlordism, a virtually non-existent infrastructure, possibly the largest concentration of land mines on earth and other unexploded ordinance, as well as a sizable illegal poppy and heroin trade. Afghanistan also remains subject to occasionally violent political jockeying, and the nation's first elections were successfully held in 2004 as women parliamentarians were selected in record numbers. Parliamentary elections in 2005 helped to further stabilize the country politically, in spite of the numerous problems it faced, including inadequate international assistance. The country continues to grapple with occasional acts of violence from a few remaining [[al-Qaeda]] and [[Taliban]] and the instability caused by warlords. See also: [[Afghanistan timeline]], [[Invasions of Afghanistan]] ==Politics== ''Main article: [[Politics of Afghanistan]]'' Afghanistan is currently led by president [[Hamid Karzai]], who was elected in October of 2004. Before the election, Karzai led the country after having been hand-picked by the administration of [[United States]]' [[George W. Bush|President Bush]] to head an interim government, after the fall of the Taliban. His current cabinet includes members of the [[Afghan Northern Alliance]], and a mix from other regional and ethnic groups formed from the transitional government by the [[Loya jirga]] (grand council). Former [[monarch]] [[Mohammed Zahir Shah]] returned to the country, but was not reinstated as king, and only exercises limited ceremonial powers. Under the [[Bonn Agreement (Afghanistan)|Bonn Agreement]] the [[Afghan Constitution Commission]] was established to consult with the public and formulate a draft constitution. The meeting of a constitutional ''loya jirga'' was held in December 2003, when a new constitution was adopted creating a presidential form of government with a bicameral legislature. Troops and [[intelligence agencies]] from the United States and a number of other countries are present, some to keep the peace, others assigned to hunt for remnants of the [[Taliban]] and [[al Qaeda]]. A [[United Nations]] peacekeeping force called the [[International Security Assistance Force]] has been operating in Kabul since December 2001. [[NATO]] took control of this Force on [[August 11]], [[2003]]. Some of the country remains under the control of warlords. [http://www.newstatesman.com/200502070006] On [[March 27]], [[2003]], Afghan deputy defense minister and powerful warlord General [[Abdul Rashid Dostum]] created an office for the [[North Zone of Afghanistan]] and appointed officials to it, defying then-interim president [[Hamid Karzai]]'s orders that there be no zones in Afghanistan. [[Eurocorps]] took over the responsibility for the NATO-led [[International Security Assistance Force|ISAF]] in Kabul [[August 9]], [[2004]]. [[Afghan presidential election, 2004|National elections]] were held on [[October 9]], [[2004]]. Over 10 million Afghans were registered to vote. Most of the 17 candidates opposing Karzai [[boycott]]ed the election, charging fraud; [http://www.dw-world.de/dw/article/0,1564,1354517,00.html] an independent commission found evidence of fraud, but ruled that it did not affect the outcome of the poll. Karzai won 55.4% of the vote. [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/3977677.stm] He was inaugurated as president on [[December 7]]. It was the country's first national election since 1969, when parliamentary elections were last held. On [[September 18]] [[2005]], [[Afghan parliamentary election, 2005|parliamentary elections]] were held; the [[Wolesi Jirga|parliament]] opened on the following [[December 19]]. On [[December 20]] Karzai's close ally and president of the first [[mujahideen]] government, [[Sibghatullah Mojadeddi]], was picked to head the 102-seat upper house. On [[December 21]], [[Yunus Qanuni]], Afghan opposition leader and Karzai's main opponent was chosen to lead the 249-seat lower house of parliament with 122 votes against 117 for his closest challenger. see also: [[List of leaders of Afghanistan]], [[List of Afghanistan Governors]] ==Subdivisions== Afghanistan is divided into 34 provinces (''velayat'') which are further divided into districts. ''Main article: [[Provinces of Afghanistan]]'' ''Main article: [[Districts of Afghanistan]]'' The 34 provinces are: {| | *&lt;small&gt;1&lt;/small&gt; [[Badakhshan Province|Badakhshan]] *&lt;small&gt;2&lt;/small&gt; [[Badghis Province|Badghis]] *&lt;small&gt;3&lt;/small&gt; [[Baghlan Province|Baghlan]] *&lt;small&gt;4&lt;/small&gt; [[Balkh Province|Balkh]] *&lt;small&gt;5&lt;/small&gt; [[Bamiyan Province|Bamiyan]] *&lt;small&gt;6&lt;/small&gt; [[Daikondi Province|Daikondi]] *&lt;small&gt;7&lt;/small&gt; [[Farah Province|Farah]] *&lt;small&gt;8&lt;/small&gt; [[Faryab Province|Faryab]] *&l
], [[Princeton University]] Library **[http://www.mikledet.com Mikledet.com]: Send Hebrew emails without having a Hebrew keyboard. **[http://www.amhaaretz.org/translit/ Hebrew translit]: type in Hebrew using an English keyboard {{Jewish language}} [[Category:Canaanite languages]] [[Category:Guttural R]] [[Category:Hebrew language|*]] [[Category:Judaism]] [[Category:Languages of Israel]] [[Category:Semitic languages]] [[ang:Hebrēisc sprǣc]] [[ar:لغة عبرية]] [[bg:Иврит]] [[br:Hebraeg]] [[bs:Hebrejski jezik]] [[ca:Hebreu]] [[cs:Hebrejština]] [[cy:Hebraeg]] [[da:Hebraisk (sprog)]] [[de:Hebräische Sprache]] [[el:Εβραϊκή γλώσσα]] [[eo:Hebrea lingvo]] [[es:Idioma hebreo]] [[et:Heebrea keel]] [[fa:عبری]] [[fi:Heprea]] [[fr:Hébreu]] [[gl:Lingua hebrea]] [[he:עברית]] [[hu:Ivrit nyelv]] [[ia:Hebreo]] [[id:Bahasa Ibrani]] [[it:Lingua ebraica]] [[ja:ヘブライ語]] [[ko:히브리어]] [[kw:Ebrow]] [[lad:Idioma ebreo]] [[li:Hebreeuws]] [[nds:Hebrääsche Spraak]] [[nl:Hebreeuws]] [[nn:Hebraisk språk]] [[no:Hebraisk språk]] [[pl:Język hebrajski]] [[pt:Língua hebraica]] [[ro:Limba ebraică]] [[ru:Иврит]] [[sh:Hebrejski jezik]] [[simple:Hebrew language]] [[sk:Hebrejčina]] [[sl:Hebrejščina]] [[sr:Хебрејски језик]] [[sv:Hebreiska]] [[th:ภาษาฮีบรู]] [[tl:Wikang Hebreo]] [[tr:İbranice]] [[uk:Гебрейська мова]] [[yi:העברעיש]] [[zh:希伯来语]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Horror film</title> <id>13451</id> <revision> <id>42097618</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T20:36:27Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Tsemii</username> <id>68682</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>+fi:</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:UniversalHorrorCharacters.jpg|right|thumb|225px|DVD cover showing horror characters as depicted by [[Universal Studios]]. [[Elsa Lanchester]] from ''[[Bride of Frankenstein]]'' (1935), [[Claude Rains]] from ''[[The Invisible Man (movie)|The Invisible Man]]'' (1933), [[Bela Lugosi]] from ''[[Dracula (1931 film)|Dracula]]'' (1931), Claude Rains from ''[[Phantom of the Opera (1943 movie)|Phantom of the Opera]]'' (1943), &quot;The Creature&quot; from ''[[Creature from the Black Lagoon]]'' (1954), [[Boris Karloff]] from ''[[Frankenstein (1931 film)|Frankenstein]]'' (1931), [[Lon Chaney Jr.]] from ''[[The Wolf Man]]'' (1941) and Boris Karloff from ''[[The Mummy (1932 movie)|The Mummy]]'' (1932)]] In film, the '''horror''' [[cinematic genre|genre]] is characterized by the attempt to make the viewer experience [[dread]], [[fear]], [[fear#Terror|terror]], [[disgust]] or [[horror (emotion)|horror]]. Its plots often involve the intrusion of an [[evil]] force, event, or personage, sometimes of [[supernatural]] origin, into the mundane world. Some of the most common elements include [[vampire]]s, [[zombie]]s (and other forms of [[Undead|resurrected corpses]]), [[werewolf|werewolves]], ancient [[curse|curses]], [[ghost]]s, [[demon|demons]] and/or [[spiritual possession|demonic possession]], [[Satanism]], [[devil-child movies|evil children]], '[[slasher film|slasher villain]]s', vicious animals, inanimate objects brought to life by [[black magic]] or [[mad scientist|twisted science]], [[haunted house]]s, [[cannibalism|cannibals]], and malicious [[extraterrestrials]]. The [[serial killer]] movie is sometimes regarded as part of the horror genre. Specific stories and characters, often derived from classic literature, have also proven popular, and have inspired many [[sequel]]s, [[remake]]s, and copycats. These include [[Dracula]], [[Frankenstein]], [[The Mummy]], [[The Wolf Man]], [[The Phantom of the Opera]] and [[Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde]]. The horror film is often associated with low budgets and [[exploitation film|exploitation]], but major studios and well-respected [[film director|director]]s have made intermittent forays into the genre. The genre's marginal status has caused it to receive much critical dismissal or moral condemnation over the course of film history. However, during the past few decades new generations of critics - more inclined to take popular genres seriously - have given horror substantial attention and analysis, especially with regard to its perceived subversive content. Over the same period, it has become more than ever a source of controversy, as its level of graphic violence has increased and accusations of [[misogyny]] have been leveled, especially by [[feminist]] critics. Some horror films owe a substantial amount to other genres, particularly [[science fiction films|science fiction]], [[fantasy film|fantasy]] and the [[thriller film|thriller]]. The lines between horror and these other categories are often a subject of debate among fans and critics. == History == === Early milestones=== [[Image:NosferatuShadow.jpg|thumb|250 px|1922's ''Nosferatu'']] The horror genre is nearly as old as film itself. The first depictions of supernatural events appear in several of the silent shorts created by film pioneers such as [[Georges Méliès]] in the late [[1890s]], the most notable being his [[1896 in film|1896]] ''Le Manoir du Diable'' (aka &quot;The Devil's Castle&quot;) which is sometimes credited as being the first horror film. Another of his horror projects was the [[1898 in film|1898]] ''La Caverne maudite'' (aka &quot;The Cave of the Demons&quot;). [http://pages.emerson.edu/organizations/fas/latent_image/issues/1990-05/horror.htm] The early 20th century brought more milestones for the horror genre including the first monster to appear in a full-length horror film, [[Quasimodo]], the hunchback of Notre-Dame who had appeared in [[Victor Hugo]]'s book, &quot;[[The Hunchback of Notre Dame|Notre-Dame de Paris]]&quot; (published in [[1831 in literature|1831]]). Films featuring Quasimodo included [[Alice Guy]]'s ''Esmeralda'' ([[1906 in film|1906]]), ''The Hunchback'' ([[1909 in film|1909]]), ''The Love of a Hunchback'' ([[1910 in film|1910]]) and ''Notre-Dame de Paris'' ([[1911 in film|1911]]). [http://www.moria.co.nz/horror/hunchback39.htm] Many of the earliest feature length 'horror films' were created by [[Cinema of Germany|German]] film makers in [[1910]]s and [[1920s]], many of which were a significant influence on later Hollywood films. [[Paul Wegener]]'s ''[[The Golem (film)|The Golem]]'' ([[1915 in film|1915]]) was seminal; in [[1919 in film|1919]] [[Robert Wiene]]'s ''[[The Cabinet of Dr. Caligari]]'' was both controversial with American audiences, due to postwar sentiments, and influential in its [[German Expressionism|Expressionistic]] style; the most enduring horror film of that era was probably the first vampire-themed feature, [[F. W. Murnau]]'s ''[[Nosferatu]]'' ([[1922 in film|1922]]), an unauthorized adaptation of [[Bram Stoker]]'s ''[[Dracula]]''. [http://silentmoviemonsters.tripod.com/germanexpressionism.html] Early [[Hollywood]] dramas dabbled in horror themes, including versions of ''[[The Hunchback of Notre Dame (1923 film)|The Hunchback of Notre Dame]]'' ([[1923 in film|1923]]) and ''[[The Monster]]'' ([[1925 in film|1925]]) (both starring [[Lon Chaney, Sr.]], the first [[United States|American]] horror [[movie star]]). His most famous role, however, was in ''[[The Phantom of the Opera (1925 film)|The Phantom of the Opera]]'' (1925), perhaps the true predecessor of [[Universal Horror|Universal's famous horror series]]. [http://www.filmsite.org/horrorfilms.html] === 1930s &amp; 1940s === [[Image:Catpeople.jpg|left|thumb|Poster art for ''[[Cat People (1942 film)|Cat People]]'' (1942)]] It was in the early [[1930s]] that [[United States|American]] [[Movie studio|film producers]], particularly [[Universal Studios|Universal Pictures Co. Inc.]], popularized the horror film, bringing to the screen a series of successful [[Gothic novel|Gothic]] features including ''[[Dracula (1931 film)|Dracula]]'' ([[1931 in film|1931]]), and ''[[The Mummy (1932 film)|The Mummy]]'' ([[1932 in film|1932]]), some of which blended [[science fiction film]]s with Gothic horror, such as [[James Whale]]'s ''[[Frankenstein (1931 film)|Frankenstein]]'' (1931) and ''[[The Invisible Man (movie)|The Invisible Man]]'' ([[1933 in film|1933]]). These films, while designed to thrill, also incorporated more serious elements, and were influenced by the German expressionism of the [[1920s]]. Some actors began to build entire careers in such films, most notably [[Boris Karloff]] and [[Bela Lugosi]]. Other studios of the day had less spectacular success, but [[Rouben Mamoulian]]'s ''[[Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde (1931 film)|Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde]]'' ([[Paramount Pictures|Paramount]], 1931) and [[Michael Curtiz]]'s ''[[Mystery of the Wax Museum]]'' ([[Warner Brothers]], 1933) were both important horror films. Universal's horror films continued into the [[1940s]] with ''[[The Wolf Man]]'' [[1941 in film|1941]], not the first [[werewolf]] film, but certainly the most influential. Throughout the decade Universal also continued to produce more sequels in the ''[[Frankenstein]]'' series, as well as a number of films teaming up several of their monsters. Also in that decade, [[Val Lewton]] would produce a series of influential and atmospheric [[B-movie|B-pictures]] for [[RKO Pictures]], including ''[[Cat People (1942 film)|Cat People]]'' ([[1942 in film|1942]]), ''[[I Walked with a Zombie]]'' ([[1943 in film|1943]]) and ''[[The Body Snatcher (film)|The Body Snatcher]]'' ([[1945 in film|1945]]). === 1950s === With the dramatic changes in technology that occurred in the [[1950s]], the tone of horror films shifted away from the gothic and further toward science fiction. A seemingly endless parade of low-budget productions featured humanity overcoming threats from &quot;outside&quot;: [[alien invasion]]s and deadly [[mutation]]s to people, plants, and insects. These films provided ample opportunity for audience exploitation, with gimmicks such as [[3-D film|3-D]] and &quot;Percepto&quot; (producer [[William Castle]]'s electric-shock technique used for [[1959
ame animals. Research also continues into ''[[adaptive camouflage]]'', which is camouflage that changes to match its environment. One method of doing this is by changing the pre-made pattern, either automatically as some animals can like the octopus, or manually by reversing an article of clothing with a different pattern on either side. True adaptive camouflage, which many would call &quot;[[invisibility]]&quot;, is much more difficult. Such camouflage would require a high resolution display that renders thousands of different angles, depending on the position of the viewer (similar to a [[hologram]]). The display information would have to be interpolated from only a few cameras as it is impossible to have one camera per angle displayed. Additionally, the displays would have to be capable of extreme brightness to maintain their illusion during daylight. ''See'': [[optical camouflage]]. ==See also== *[[Battledress]] *[[Army Combat Uniform]], new US Army uniform, similar to MARPAT. *[[Battle dress uniform]], US Army's old combat uniform. *[[Chocolate-chip camouflage]], a six-colour desert pattern designed in 1962 and used by the [[United States Army]] during the [[Gulf War]] in the early [[1990]]s - replaced by a three-colour pattern from 1990. *[[MARPAT]], the new digital pattern used by the [[United States Marine Corps]] since 2002. *[[Flecktarn]], used by the [[Bundeswehr]] in [[Germany]]. *[[CADPAT]], [[Canadian]] Disruptive pattern, designed in 1995, issued from 1997. A digital camouflage and the basis for [[Marpat]]. *[[Disruptive Pattern Material]] or 'DPM', camouflage used by British Forces since the '60s. *[[Mountbatten Pink]], a camouflage used primarily by the British during World War II *[[Active camouflage]], a technology pioneered by the [[United States Air Force]] to allow aircraft to blend into their environment by altering colour or luminosity. *[[Sniper]], a military occupation where camouflaging is very important. *[[Stealth technology]] *[[Tiger Stripe]] ==References== *[http://www.shipcamouflage.com/2_1.htm Alan Raven - The Development of Naval Camouflage 1914 – 1945] *[http://www.arts.ufl.edu/art/rt_room/sparkers/camouflage/history.html Craig Roland - The Art of Camouflage - The History of Camouflage] *[http://mitpress2.mit.edu/e-journals/Leonardo/isast/spec.projects/camouflagebib.html Roy R. Behrens - Art and Camouflage: An Annotated Bibliography] *[http://www.wildernessmanuals.com/manual_6/chpt_1/2.html U.S. Army manual FM 21-76 on camouflage] *[http://college.hmco.com/history/readerscomp/mil/html/ml_008100_camouflage.htm Guy Hartcup - Camouflage: A History of Concealment and Deception in War (1980)] *[http://www.lonesentry.com/camouflage_manual/index.html WWII War Department Field Manual FM 5-20B: Camouflage of Vehicles (1944)] *{{cite book|author=Blechman, Hardy and Newman, Alex|year=2004|title=DPM: Disruptive Pattern Material|publisher=DPM Ltd|id=ISBN 0-9543404-0-X}} *{{cite book|author=Behrens, Roy R.|year=2002|title=FALSE COLORS: Art, Design and Modern Camouflage|publisher=Bobolink Books|id=ISBN 0-9713244-0-9}} ==External links== {{Commons|Camouflage}} *[http://science.howstuffworks.com/animal-camouflage.htm How Stuff Works] *[http://www.kamouflage.net/ kamouflage.net: online index of military camouflage uniforms] *[http://photoshop.pluginsworld.com/plugin.php?directory=adobe&amp;software=photoshop&amp;plugin=249 VanDerLee - Camouflage: plugin for Adobe Photoshop] *[http://efour4ever.com/cammo.htm Camouflage of Individuals and Infantry Weapon] [[Category:Military camouflage]] [[Category:Survival skills]] [[Category:Cryptic animals]] [[da:Camouflage]] [[de:Tarnung]] [[fr:Camouflage]] [[he:הסוואה]] [[nl:Camouflage]] [[ja:カモフラージュ]] [[no:Kamuflasje]] [[pt:Camuflagem]] [[sv:Kamouflage]] [[vi:Ngụy trang]] [[pl:Kamuflaż]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Console</title> <id>6447</id> <revision> <id>41486196</id> <timestamp>2006-02-27T18:07:49Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>69.209.161.188</ip> </contributor> <comment>/* Music */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Console''' may be: ===Computers=== * A [[computer console]], a physical entity to communicate with a computer, possibly at a distance (i.e. [[mainframe computer|mainframe]] console) * A [[command line interface]], which is a software-implementation of the above * A [[Win32 console]] is a special type of [[window (computing)|window]] * A [[video game console]] * A [[PC game console]], as used in Quake, UT, and CS * An [[Internet]] term for a secondary [[web browser]] window [[pop-up]] * An operator station ===Music=== * An [[Organ (music)|organ]] term for the area of an organ including the keys, stops, and foot pedals manipulated by the organist * A [[Mixing console]] * [[Console (musician)|Console]] (indie rock) is a music project by Martin Gretschmann * A [[audio tape|tape deck]] (also used for computer tape) ===Other=== * A small [[shelf]] * A [[Lighting control console]] * To comfort someone in [[distress]] * A support element in [[construction]], (e.g. see [[balcony]] or [[corbel]]) * A type of [[entertainment center]], with various home electronics housed in a self-contained unit * A storage compartment in the center of a [[bucket seating]] setup for modern-day [[automobile]]s. ==See also== * [[Consols]] * [[Konsole]] - a terminal emulator {{disambig}} [[cs:Konzole]] [[es:consola]] [[fr:Console]] [[it:Console]] [[nl:Console]] [[ja:&amp;#12467;&amp;#12531;&amp;#12477;&amp;#12540;&amp;#12523;]] [[pl:Konsola]] [[pt:Consola]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Criminology</title> <id>6448</id> <revision> <id>41687982</id> <timestamp>2006-03-01T01:48:21Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Evil otto</username> <id>91886</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>/m</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Crimin}} '''Criminology''' is the study of [[crime]] as a social phenomenon, including the causes and consequences of crime, criminal [[behavior]], as well as the development of, and impact of [[Law|laws]]. Research in criminology applies the [[scientific method]] to test [[hypothesis|hypotheses]] and ultimately develop theories that help explain the causes and other aspects of crime. Though both deal with crime, criminology differs from [[criminal justice]] in that latter focuses on the components of the justice system including [[police]], [[courts]], and [[corrections]]. ==Schools of thought== Over time, several [[school (discipline)|schools]] of thought have developed and are listed in the infobox. The main thematic distinction has been between the: [[Classical school|Classical School]] associated with [[Cesare Beccaria]], [[Jeremy Bentham]], and others who have argued that: * People have free will to choose how to act. * [[Deterrence]] is based upon the [[utilitarianism|utilitarian]] [[ontology|ontological]] notion of the human being a 'hedonist' who seeks pleasure and avoids pain, and a 'rational calculator' weighing up the costs and benefits of the consequences of each action. Thus, it ignores the possibility of irrationality and unconscious drives as motivational factors. * [[Punishment]] (of sufficient severity) can deter people from crime, as the costs (penalties) outweigh benefits. and the [[Positivist school|Positivist School]] which presumes that criminal behaviour is caused by [[biology|biological]], [[psychology|psychological]], or social determining factors that predispose some people towards crime. [[Cesare Lombroso]], an Italian prison doctor working in the late 19th century and sometimes regarded as the &quot;father&quot; of criminology, was one of the largest contributors to biological positivism, which alleged that physiological traits such as the measurements of one's cheek bones or hairline, or a cleft palate, considered to be throwbacks to [[Neanderthal]] man, were indicative of &quot;[[atavism|atavistic]]&quot; criminal tendencies. This approach, influenced by the earlier theory of [[phrenology]] and by [[Charles Darwin]] and his [[theory of evolution]], has been superseded, but more modern research examines genetic characteristics and the chemistry of [[nutrition]] to determine whether there is an effect on violent behaviour (see [[Natural Justice]]). [[Hans Eysenck]] (1964, 1977), a British psychologist, claimed that psychological factors such as Extraversion and Neuroticism made a person more likely to commit criminal acts. He also includes a Psychoticism dimension that includes traits similar to the psychopathic profile, developed by Cleckley and later Hare. He also based his model on early parental [[socialisation]] of the [[child]]; his approach bridges the gap between biological explanations and environmental or social learning based approaches (see e.g. social psychologists [[Burrhus Frederic Skinner|B. F. Skinner]] (1938) and [[Albert Bandura]] (1973). Sociological positivism (the father of which is considered to be [[Emile Durkheim]]) postulates that societal factors such as [[poverty]], membership of subcultures, or low levels of [[education]] can predispose people to crime. ==Theories of crime== There are many theories, including: ===[[Strain theory]]=== Based on the work of American sociologist [[Robert K. Merton|Robert Merton]], this theory suggests that mainstream [[culture]], especially in the [[United States]], is saturated with dreams of opportunity, freedom and prosperity; as Merton put it, the ''American Dream''. Most people buy into this dream and it becomes a powerful cultural and psychological motivation. Merton also used the term ''anomie'', but it meant something slightly different for him than it did for [[Durkheim]]; he saw the term as meaning a dichotomy between what society expected of its citizens, and what those citizens could actually achieve. Therefore, if the social structure of opportuniti
at]], [[1587]] or [[1588]] -[[1629]] *[[Safi of Persia|Safi I]], [[1629]]–[[1642]] *[[Abbas II of Persia|Abbas II]], [[1642]]–[[1666]] or [[1667]] *[[Suleiman I of Persia|Suleiman I]] (Safi II), [[1666]] or [[1667]]–[[1694]] *[[Husayn (Safavid)|Husayn]], [[1694]]–[[1722]] *[[Tahmasp II]], [[1723]]–[[1732]] *[[Abbas III]], [[1732]]–[[1736]] ===[[Afsharid dynasty]], [[1736]]–[[1749]]=== * [[Nadir Shah]], [[1736]]–[[1747]] * [[Adil Shah]], [[1747]]–[[1748]] * [[Ebrahim Afshar]], [[1748]] * [[Shah Rukh of Persia|Shah Rukh]], [[1748]]–[[1797]], he lost power in [[1750]] but nominally remained Shah. ===[[Zand dynasty]], [[1750]]–[[1794]]=== * [[Karim Khan]], [[1750]]–[[1779]] * [[Abol Fath Khan]], [[1779]] * [[Ali Murad Khan]], [[1779]] * [[Mohammad Ali Khan]], [[1779]] * [[Sadiq Khan (Shah of Persia)|Sadiq Khan]], [[1779]]–[[1782]] * [[Ali Murad Khan]], [[1782]]–[[1785]] * [[Jafar Khan]], [[1785]]–[[1789]] * [[Lotf Ali|Lotf Ali Khan]], [[1789]]–[[1794]] ===[[Qajar dynasty]], [[1796]]–[[1925]]=== *[[Agha Mohammad Khan Qajar]], [[1796]]–[[1797]] *[[Fath Ali Shah]], [[1797]]–[[1834]] *[[Mohammad Shah Qajar]], [[1834]]–[[1848]] *[[Nasser-al-Din Shah]], [[1848]]–[[1896]] *[[Mozzafar-al-Din Shah]], [[1896]]–[[1907]] *[[Mohammad Ali Shah]], [[1907]]–[[1909]] *[[Ahmad Shah Qajar]] ([[1909]]–[[1925]]) ===[[Pahlavi dynasty]], [[1925]]–[[1979]] and in exile=== *[[Reza Pahlavi of Iran|Reza Shah Pahlavi]], [[1925]]–[[1941]] *[[Mohammad Reza Pahlavi|Mohammad Reza Shah Pahlavi]], [[1941]]–[[1979]] and his wife [[Farah Pahlavi|Empress Farah Pahlavi]], [[1938]]-present In [[1979]] a revolution led by [[Ayatollah Khomeini]] forced Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi into exile, and established an [[Islamic Republic]]. *Cyrus Reza II Pahlavi, the firstborn (31st October 1960) son of Mohammad Reza, appointed as Heir Apparent with the title of [[Vali Ahd-i-Iran]] 'Crown Prince of Iran' on 26th October 1967, is pretender to the imperial thone, in exile, since he succeeded on the death of his father as Head of the Imperial House of Pahlavi and assumed the titles of Shahanshah and Aryamehr together with the style of His Imperial Majesty, 27th July 1980. ==See also== *[[History of Iran]] ==External links== * http://www.family-of-man.com/CatalogEnglish/Asia/Central_Asia/timurid_emirate.html [[Category:History of Iran]] [[Category:Iranian peoples]] [[Category:Lists of monarchs|Persia]] [[Category:Lists of office-holders|Persia, List of kings of]] [[Category:Monarchs of Persia|*]] [[Category:Persian history]] [[de:Liste der Herrscher des Irans]] [[fa:پادشاهان ایران]] [[fi:Luettelo Persian kuninkaista]] [[nl:Lijst van koningen van Perzië]] [[no:Liste over konger i Persia]] [[pl:W&amp;#322;adcy Persji]] [[sl:seznam perzijskih kraljev]] [[zh:&amp;#20234;&amp;#26391;&amp;#21531;&amp;#20027;&amp;#21015;&amp;#34920;]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Homology</title> <id>13878</id> <revision> <id>35711324</id> <timestamp>2006-01-18T19:31:12Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Michael Hardy</username> <id>4626</id> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Homology''' may refer to: *[[Homology (anthropology)]] *[[Homology (biology)]] *[[Homology (mathematics)]] *[[Homology (sociology)]] *[[Homologous series]] (chemistry) {{disambig}} [[de:Homologie]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Henry J. Heinz</title> <id>13879</id> <revision> <id>40874022</id> <timestamp>2006-02-23T16:10:04Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Phil Boswell</username> <id>24373</id> </contributor> <comment>migrate {{[[template:book reference|book reference]]}} to {{[[template:cite book|cite book]]}} using [[Wikipedia:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:HenryJHeinz.jpeg|thumb|right|150px]] '''Henry John Heinz''' ([[October 11]], [[1844]]–[[May 14]], [[1919]]) was a [[United States]] businessman. Heinz was one &lt;!-- (1) do we really need this? --&gt; of eight children born to John Henry and Anna Schmidt Heinz. Both parents had emigrated from [[Germany]] and settled in the Birmingham section of [[Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania]]—today known as the [[South Side (Pittsburgh)|South Side]]. When Henry was five the family moved several miles up the Allegheny River to the little town of [[Sharpsburg, Pennsylvania|Sharpsburg]]. There, at age six, young Henry (Called Harry by his family) started helping his mother tend a small backyard garden behind the family home. At age eight Henry was canvassing the neighborhood with a basket under each arm selling vegetables from the family garden door to door. By age nine he was growing, grinding, bottling and selling his own brand of [[horseradish]] sauce. At ten he was given a ¾ acre (3,000 m²) garden of his own and had graduated to a [[wheelbarrow]] to deliver his vegetables. At twelve he was working 3½ acres (14,000 m²) of garden using a horse and cart for his three-times-a-week deliveries to grocery stores in Pittsburgh. At seventeen he was grossing $2,400 a year—a handsome sum for the times. Heinz attended a business college and after graduating started employment with his father's brick-manufacturing business, eventually becoming a partner in the firm. All the while he continued growing and selling fresh produce. In 1869, Heinz founded Heinz Noble &amp; Company with a friend, L. C. Noble, and began marketing horseradish. The company went bankrupt in 1875, but the following year Heinz founded another company, F &amp; J Heinz, with his brother and a cousin. One of this company's first products was tomato [[ketchup]]. The company continued to grow, and in 1888 Heinz bought out his other two partners and reorganized the company as the [[H J Heinz Company]], the name it carries to the present day. Its famous slogan, &quot;57 varieties,&quot; was introduced by Heinz in 1896. Inspired by an advertisement he saw while riding an elevated train in [[New York City]] (a shoe store boasting of &quot;21 styles&quot;), Heinz picked the number more or less at random because he liked the sound of it, selecting 7 specifically because, as he put it, of the &quot;psychological influence of that figure and of its alluring significance to people of all ages.&quot; (The company marketed far more than 57 varieties of product even at that point.) H J Heinz was incorporated in 1905, and Heinz served as its first president, remaining in the position for the rest of his life. Under his tutelage, the company was noted for fair treatment of workers and for pioneering safe and sanitary food preparation. Heinz led a successful lobbying effort in favor of the [[Pure Food and Drug Act]] in 1906. He also was very involved working in his church's Sunday school and in various philanthropic endeavors, notably the Sarah Heinz settlement house in Pittsburgh, which he founded in 1894 and named after his wife. At the time of his death in Pittsburgh at the age of 74, the company had over twenty food processing plants, and also included seed farms and container factories. Heinz was the great-grandfather of Pennsylvania Senator [[John Heinz]]. ==References== * {{cite book | last = Alberts | first = Robert C. | title = The Good Provider: H. J. Heinz and His 57 Varieties | location = Boston | publisher = [[Houghton Mifflin Company]] | year = 1973 | id = ISBN 0395171261 }} [[Category:1844 births|Heinz, Henry J.]] [[Category:1919 deaths|Heinz, Henry J.]] [[Category:People from Pittsburgh|Heinz, Henry J.]] [[da:Henry John Heinz]] [[de:Henry John Heinz]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Heinz</title> <id>13880</id> <revision> <id>41904113</id> <timestamp>2006-03-02T14:31:39Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>E-Kartoffel</username> <id>886257</id> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Heinz''' has several meanings: *''Heinz'' is the common trading name for the [[H. J. Heinz Company]], known for their [[pickle]]s, [[ketchup]], [[baked beans]] and [[soup]]s. *[[Heinz Field]] is the mutual home of the [[Pittsburgh Steelers]] of the [[National Football League]] and the [[University of Pittsburgh Panthers]] of Division I-A College Football. The stadium's [[naming rights]] were purchased by [[Pittsburgh]] based H. J. Heinz Company *[[Teresa Heinz Kerry]] is the wife of US presidential candidate (2004) [[John Kerry]], and the former wife of the late senator [[John Heinz]], a member of the canning family. *[[Mixed-breed dog]]s are sometimes called ''Heinz'' or ''Heinz 57'' after the canning company's long-time [[slogan]] &quot;57 varieties,&quot; referring to their many kinds of canned food. *Heinz is also the name of an [[Austria]]n [[Rock (music)|rock]] band. See [[Heinz (band)]]. *Heinz is the name of a concept to describe software offerings in a modular way and identify possible business models for open source. *[[Heinz Winckler]] is a South African singer who rose to fame after winning the first [[South Africa]] Idols competition. *[[Heinz (singer)|Heinz Burt]] was a German-born British pop singer and musician, known by his first name only, best known for his work with [[Joe Meek]] *[[Alfred Heinz Reumayr]] was arrested for his plot to blow up the [[Trans-Alaska Pipeline System]] on Jan 1, 2000. *[[Marek Heinz]] is a notable [[Czech Republic national football team|Czech]] [[soccer]] player. *[[Robert Heinz]], German pathologist (1865-1924), who described [[Heinz body | Heinz bodies]]. {{disambig}}</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>H. J. Heinz Company</title> <id>13881</id> <revision> <id>41646749</id> <timestamp>2006-02-28T19:47:36Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Elf</username> <id>40082</id> </contributor> <comment>heinz field info rm from [[Heinz 57]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Company
<title>At bat</title> <id>3800</id> <revision> <id>42010148</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T04:57:37Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Zach Smith</username> <id>463629</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Random &quot;Andre is wrong&quot; comment deleted, not sure why it was there</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">In [[baseball statistics]], an '''at bat''' ('''AB''') is used to calculate other data such as [[batting average]]. A [[batter_(baseball)|batter]] has an ''at bat'' every time he faces a [[pitcher]] ''except'' under the following circumstances: * He receives a [[base on balls]] (BB). {{ref|1}} * He is [[hit by pitch|hit by a pitch]] (HBP). * He hits a [[sacrifice fly]] or a [[sacrifice hit|sacrifice bunt]]. * He is awarded [[First baseman|first base]] due to interference or obstruction, usually by the [[catcher]]. * The [[inning]] ends while he is still at bat (due to the third [[out_(baseball)|out]] being made by a runner [[caught stealing]], for example). * He is replaced by another hitter before his at bat is completed (unless he is replaced with two strikes and his replacement strikes out). ==Examples== An ''at bat'' is counted when * the batter reaches first base on a [[Hit (baseball statistics)|hit]] * the batter reaches first base on an [[Error (baseball statistics)|error]] * the batter is called [[Out (baseball)|out]] for any reason * there is a [[fielder's choice]] ==At bat as a phrase== &quot;At bat,&quot; &quot;up,&quot; &quot;up at bat,&quot; and &quot;at the plate&quot; are phrases in baseball describing someone that is facing the pitcher. Interestingly, just because a player is described as being at bat (facing the pitcher) does not mean he will be given an '''at bat''' in his statistics, and in fact just signifies a [[plate appearance]]. ==Notes== {{note|1}} In [[1887 in baseball|1887]], [[Major League Baseball]] counted bases on balls as [[Hit (baseball)|hits]]. The result was skyrocketed [[batting average]]s, including some near .500, and the experiment was abandoned the following season. ==See also== * [[Batting order (baseball)|Batting order]] [[Category:Baseball statistics]] [[ja:打数]] [[zh:打數]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Earned run</title> <id>3801</id> <revision> <id>15902116</id> <timestamp>2005-05-22T07:07:38Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>72.25.103.78</ip> </contributor> <comment>Description of unearned run circumstances</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">In [[baseball]], an '''earned run''' is any [[run (baseball statistics)|run]] for which the [[pitcher (baseball)|pitcher]] is held accountable (i.e. the run did not score as a result of a fielding [[error (baseball statistics)|error]] or a [[passed ball]]). If a run is not earned, it is an '''unearned run'''. Even if a runner scores on a fielding error by the pitcher himself, it is an unearned run. Earned runs are specially denoted because of their use in calculating a pitcher's [[earned run average]]. In determining earned runs, the [[official scorer]] must reconstruct the [[inning]] as it would have occurred without the errors (which include [[catcher's interference]]) and passed balls, with the benefit of the doubt always being given to the pitcher in determining which bases would have been reached by errorless play. A run is counted as unearned when: * The baserunner would have been out had an error not been committed. * The run is scored after an error is committed that would have made the third out * A baserunner scores on a play where an error was committed, and the inning ends before that runner would have had a chance to score. Example: A passed ball allows a runner to score. The batter at the plate then [[strikeout|strikes out]] to end the inning. The run is unearned. If the batter had instead got a [[base hit]], the run would be earned, since the runner would have scored on that play. In most other cases, a run is scored as an earned run. ==See also== * [[Baseball statistics]] [[Category:Baseball statistics]] [[ja:&amp;#33258;&amp;#36012;&amp;#28857;]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Base on balls</title> <id>3802</id> <revision> <id>34889333</id> <timestamp>2006-01-12T14:27:20Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Wknight94</username> <id>352579</id> </contributor> <comment>Note about walks as hits</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">In [[baseball statistics]], a '''base on balls''' ('''BB'''), also called a '''walk''', is credited to a batter and against a pitcher when a batter receives four pitches that the umpire calls [[strike zone|balls]]. It is called a &quot;walk&quot; because the batter is then entitled to walk to first base, or more specifically (as defined in the rules of baseball) he is &quot;entitled to first base without liability to be put out.&quot; Receiving a base on balls does not count as an official [[at bat]] for a batter but does count as a [[plate appearance]]. {{ref|1}} A pitcher can also choose to [[intentional base on balls|intentionally walk]] a batter. This is usually done for the purpose of facing a different batter that the team feels they have a better chance of getting out. A [[hit by pitch]] is not considered a walk, though the consequences are often the same for both. ==Walk leaders in Major League Baseball== '''Bold''' denotes active players. Totals are through the 2004 season. On [[July 4]], [[2004]], [[Barry Bonds]] drew his 2,191st base on balls to pass the career record of [[Rickey Henderson]], who is no longer active in the major leagues. ===Career=== # '''[[Barry Bonds]]''' - 2,302 # [[Rickey Henderson]] - 2,190 # [[Babe Ruth]] - 2,062 # [[Ted Williams]] - 2,021 # [[Joe Morgan]] - 1,865 ===Season=== # '''[[Barry Bonds]]''' ([[2004]]) - 232 # '''[[Barry Bonds]]''' ([[2002]]) - 198 # '''[[Barry Bonds]]''' ([[2001]]) - 177 # [[Babe Ruth]] ([[1923]]) - 170 # [[Mark McGwire]] ([[1998]]); [[Ted Williams]] ([[1947]] and [[1949]]) - 162 ==Notes== {{note|1}} In [[1887 in baseball|1887]], [[Major League Baseball]] counted bases on balls as [[Hit (baseball)|hits]]. The result was skyrocketed [[batting average]]s, including some near .500, and the experiment was abandoned the following season. ==See also== *[[Moneyball: The Art of Winning an Unfair Game]] [[Category:Baseball statistics]] [[Category:Baseball rules]] [[ja:四球]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Ball (baseball statistics)</title> <id>3803</id> <revision> <id>15902118</id> <timestamp>2004-09-30T21:58:53Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>MisfitToys</username> <id>58947</id> </contributor> <comment>redirecting to [[Strike Zone]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Strike zone]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Baseball statistics/SLG</title> <id>3804</id> <revision> <id>37701972</id> <timestamp>2006-02-01T17:43:26Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>RussBot</username> <id>279219</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Robot: Fixing [[Special:DoubleRedirects|double-redirect]] -&quot;Slugging percentage&quot; +&quot;Slugging average&quot;</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Slugging average]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Total bases</title> <id>3805</id> <revision> <id>36609698</id> <timestamp>2006-01-25T06:25:58Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>24.126.40.49</ip> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">{{sabermetric | formula = &lt;math&gt;TB = H + 2B + 2 \cdot 3B + 3 \cdot HR&lt;/math&gt;}} In [[baseball statistics]], '''total bases''' refers to the number of bases a player has gained with [[hit (baseball)|hits]], i.e. the sum of his/her hits [[weight function|weighted]] by 1 for a [[single (baseball)|single]] and a [[double (baseball)|double]], 2 for a [[triple (baseball)|triple]] and 3 for a [[home run]]. Only bases from safe hits count toward this total. Total bases can be calculated from commonly used baseball statistics by using the formula &lt;math&gt;TB = 1B + 2B + 2 x 3B + 3 x HR&lt;/math&gt; ==See also== *[[Slugger]] *[[Slugging average]] *[http://sports.espn.go.com/mlb/news/story?page=stats/glossary ESPN's MLB Statistics Glossary] [[Category:Baseball statistics]] [[ja:塁打]] [[zh:壘打數]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Hit by pitch</title> <id>3806</id> <revision> <id>42045894</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T12:36:23Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Iceberg3k</username> <id>50063</id> </contributor> <comment>/* Crackdown */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">In [[baseball]], being '''hit by a pitch''' refers to the batter being hit in some part of the body by a pitch from the [[pitcher]]. In [[baseball statistics]], '''hit by pitch''' ('''HBP''') records the number of times a batter is awarded first base by virtue of being hit by a pitched ball. In pitching statistics '''HB''' records the number of times a batter opposing each pitcher is awarded first base due to being hit by a pitch. For this latter usage, the terms ''hit batsman'' or ''hit batter'' are used. ==Conditions for 'HBP'== A batter becomes a [[baserunner]] and is awarded first base when he or his equipment (except for his bat) is touched by a pitched ball outside of the strike zone, ''and'' he attempts to avoid it or had no opportunity to avoid it ''and'' he did not swing at the pitch. It is often incorrectly thought that a hit by pitch is not awarded on a pitch that has touched the ground. Such a bouncing pitch is like any other, and if a batter is hit by such a pitch, he will be awarded first unless he made no attempt to avoid it. ==T
sk]] and co-developer of [[cordite]] *[[William Dickson (film pioneer)|William Dickson]], (1860-1935), [[motion picture]] [[camera]] and the [[Dickson Greeting|world's first film]] *[[John Boyd Dunlop]], the modern rubber tyre *Sir [[Alexander Fleming]], (1881-1955), isolated [[Penicillin]] from the fungus ''[[Penicillium notatum]]'' *[[James Harrison]], (1816-1893), pioneer in mechanical [[refrigeration]] *[[James Bowman Lindsay]], (1799-1862), inventor of the constant electric [[light bulb]] *[[Charles Macintosh]], (1766-1843), patented waterproofing *[[Kirkpatrick MacMillan]], (1813–1878) the bicycle *[[John Loudon McAdam]] modern road construction *Sir [[Robert McAlpine]] (''Concrete Bob''), (1847-1934), road builder *[[Patrick Miller of Dalswinton|Patrick Miller]], steamboat pioneer. *[[William Murdoch]], (1754-1839), pioneer of [[gas lighting]] *[[James Nasmyth]], (1808-1890), [[Steam Hammer]] *[[Robert Stirling Newall]], (1812 - 1889), engineer, improved wire rope and submarine cable laying. *[[John Shepherd-Barron]], inventor of the [[Automatic Teller Machine|ATM]] *[[William Symington]], (1764-1831), engineer, built the first practical steam boat *[[Thomas Telford]], (1757-1834) architect, civil engineer, bridge designer *[[Robert William Thomson]], (1822-1873) *[[James Watt]], (1736-1819), engineer, significantly improved the steam engine *[[James Simpson]], introduced chloroform into surgery ==Explorers== *[[William Balfour Baikie]], (1824-1864), [[Africa]], surgeon and naturalist on the [[1854]] [[Niger river|Niger]] expedition *[[James Bruce]], (1730-1794), traveller and travel writer. *[[William S. Bruce]], (1867-1921) [[Antarctica]], first to widely explore the [[Weddell Sea]] *[[David Douglas]], (1799-1834), explorer, botanist, introduced about 240 species of plants to [[Great Britain]], including the [[Douglas-fir]] *[[Alexander Forbes]], [[American Pacific coast]] *[[Robert Gordon of Straloch]], map maker of [[Scotland]] *[[James Augustus Grant]], (1827-1892), eastern Africa, member of the exhibition that found the sources of the [[Nile]] *[[Alexander Gordon Laing]] (1793–1826), first European to reach [[Timbuktu]] *[[David Livingstone]], (1813-1873), explorer, missionary in Africa, discovered [[Victoria Falls]] *[[Alexander Mackenzie (explorer)]] *[[Archibald Menzies]] (1754-1852) *Major Sir [[Thomas Mitchell]] (1792-1855), Australia *[[Mungo Park]] (1771-1806), Africa, first [[European]] to reach the [[Niger river|Niger]] *[[John Rae]], (1813-1893), Canadian Arctic *Sir [[James Clark Ross]] (born in [[London]]), (1800-1862), Antarctica, discovered the [[Ross Sea]], [[Victoria Land]], and the volcanoes [[Mount Erebus]] and [[Mount Terror (Antarctica)|Mount Terror]] *[[John McDouall Stuart]], (1815–1866), most famous of all Australia's inland explorers, led the first expedition to successfully traverse the continent from south to north *[[Henry Sinclair, 1st Earl of Orkney]], allegedly explored [[North America]] in [[1398]] *[[John Muir]] *[[Colin Campbell]], founder of the [[Swedish East India Company]] *[[Tom Weir]] climber, author and broadcaster ==Humourists== *[[Ronald Balfour Corbett]] (Ronnie), (born 1930) *[[Stanley Baxter]], (born 1926) *[[Janet Brown]], (born 1924) *[[Billy Connolly]] (born 1942) *[[Ivor Cutler]] (born 1923) *[[Craig Ferguson]], (born 1962) *[[Graeme Garden]], (born 1943) *[[Rory Bremner]], (born 1961) *[[Doon Mackichan]], (born 1962) *[[Alexander Selkirk]] *[[Chic Murray]] ==Inventors== ''Please see [[List of Scottish inventors]]'' ==Musicians== ''Please see [[List of Scottish musicians]]'' ==Philosophers== *[[John Abercrombie]], (1780-1844) *[[John Anderson (philosopher)|John Anderson]], (1893-1962) *[[Thomas Brown (philosopher)|Thomas Brown]], (1778-1820) *[[Adam Ferguson]], (1723-1816) *Sir [[William Hamilton]], (1788-1856) *[[Henry Home, Lord Kames]], (1696-1782) *[[David Hume]], (1711-1776), inspired [[Immanuel Kant]] *[[John Mair]], othewise known as ''Major'', (1467 - 1550), teacher of [[George Buchanan]], [[John Knox]], and influencer of [[Calvin]] and [[Loyola]] *[[Alasdair MacIntyre]], (born 1929) *[[James McCosh]], (1811-1894) *[[Thomas Reid]], (1710-1796), played an integral role in the [[Scottish Enlightenment]] *[[Duns Scotus]], (1266-1308) *[[Adam Smith]], (1723-1790), Eeconomist, Free Trade, Laisser-faire, Division of Labour ==Rulers, Politicians, Soldiers== *[[William Wallace]], (c. 1270-1305), ''a.k.a. [[The Wallace]]'' *[[Robert the Bruce]], Robert I of Scotland *[[Alex Salmond]], Politician ([[Scottish National Party|SNP]] leader 1990-2000 &amp; 2004-) *[[Gordon Brown]], (born 1951), Labour Chancellor of the Exchequer *[[Bonnie Prince Charlie]], ''The Young Pretender'' to the throne of the [[Kingdom of Great Britain|United Kingdom]] *[[Donald Dewar]], (born 1937), Scotland [[First Minister]] *[[Robert Cunninghame-Graham]] ('Don Roberto') aristocrat socialist *[[Jo Grimond]], (1913-1993), [[Liberal Party (UK)|Liberal Party]] leader from 1956 to 1967 *[[James I of England|James VI of Scotland and I of England]], (1603-1625) *[[James Maxton|Jimmy Maxton]], leader of the [[Independent Labour Party]] *[[Thomas Johnston|Tom Johnston]] (Tam), post WW2 Secretary of State for [[Scotland]] *[[Thomas Cochrane]], Admiral in the [[Royal Navy]] *[[Charles Kennedy]], leader of the [[Liberal Democrats (UK)|Liberal Democrats]] 1999-2006 *[[Mary I of Scotland|Mary, Queen of Scots]], (1542-1587) *[[Macbeth of Scotland]], High King of Scotland *[[John MacCormick]], Nationalist *[[John A. Macdonald]], First [[Prime Minister of Canada]] *[[Margo MacDonald]], Nationalist *[[Ramsay MacDonald]], (1866-1937), UK [[Prime minister]] *[[Malcolm MacDonald]] *[[Alexander Mackenzie]], second [[Prime Minister of Canada]] *[[John Maclean MA|John MacLean]], revolutionary *[[Jerry Rawlings]], former president of [[Ghana]]. He is partly of Scottish descent. *[[Jim Sillars]], founder of [[Scottish Labour Party]], MP *[[John Smith (UK politician)|John Smith]], (1938-1994) [[Labour Party (UK)|Labour Party]] leader *[[David Steel]], (born 1938), Liberal Party leader from 1976 to 1988 *[[Alec Douglas-Home]], (1903-1995), UK [[Prime minister]] *[[Calgacus]] *[[Colin Campbell]] *[[Bernard de Linton|Abbot Bernard de Linton]], author of the [[Declaration of Arbroath]] *[[David Beaton|Cardinal David Beaton]] *[[James IV of Scotland|King James IV]] *[[James Graham, 1st Marquess of Montrose]], Covenanter and Royalist Leader of Highland Armies *[[Richard Cameron (religious leader)|Richard Cameron]], Republican Covenanter and founder of the “Cameronians” *[[Bonnie Dundee|Viscount (Bonnie) Dundee]], [[Jacobitism|Jacobite]] Highland Army leader *[[Andrew Fletcher|Andrew Fletcher of Saltoun]] *[[Rob Roy MacGregor]] *[[Keir Hardie]] *[[James Connolly (nationalist)|James Connolly]] *[[Colin Campbell, 1st Baron Clyde]] *[[Jack McConnell]], Current First Minister ==Scientists== See [[List of Scottish scientists]] ==Sportspeople== :''See also [[Scottish Sports Hall of Fame]].'' *[[Alain Baxter]], alpine skier *[[Ken Buchanan]], (born 1945), world champion boxer *Sir [[Matt Busby]], (1909-1994), football manager, won the [[European Cup]] in [[1968]] *[[Jim Clark (racing driver)|Jim Clark]], (1936-1968), Formula 1 driver *[[David Coulthard]], (born 1971), Formula 1 driver *[[Kenny Dalglish]], (born 1951), footballer and a manager of [[Liverpool F.C.]] *Sir [[Alex Ferguson]], (born 1941), footballer and a manager of [[Manchester United F.C.]] *[[Roberto Frankowski]], (born 1987), junior world champion boxer *[[Wyndham Halswelle]], (1882-1915), Olympic champion runner *[[Stephen Hendry]] (born 1969), professional snooker player, 7 times World champion. *[[Dougal Haston]], (1940-1977), mountaineer *[[Chris Hoy]], (born 1976), world, olympic and commonwealth champion track cyclist *[[Jimmy Johnstone]], (born 1944), football player *[[Denis Law]], (born 1940), football player *[[Eric Liddell]], (1902-1945), athlete, one of the two subjects of ''[[Chariots of Fire]]'' *[[Jackie Lockhart]], (born 1965), curler, skip of Scotland team that won the 2002 world championships *[[Benny Lynch]], (1913-1946), world champion boxer *[[Hamish MacInnes]], (born 1930), mountaineer *[[Colin McRae]], (born 1968), world champion rally driver *[[Rhona Martin]] curler, Olympic gold medallist *[[Ally McCoist]], (born 1962), football player *[[Liz McColgan]], (born 1964), athlete *[[William McGregor]], (1846-1911), founder of the [[Football League]] in England *[[Billy McNeill]], (born 1940), footballer and a manager of [[Celtic F.C.]] *[[David Millar]], (born 1977), road cyclist *[[Robert Millar]], (born 1958), professional cyclist, 'King of the Mountains' in 1984 Tour de France *[[Andrew Murray (tennis player)|Andrew Murray]], (born 1987), tennis player *[[Graeme Obree]] (born ?), world record holding cyclist *[[Bill Shankly]], (1914-1981), football manager *[[Jock Stein]], (1922-1985), football manager, won the [[European Cup]] with [[Celtic F.C.]] *Sir [[Jackie Stewart]], (born 1939), world champion Formula 1 driver *[[Bobby Thomson]], (born 1923), Scots-born American baseball player *[[Andrew Watson]], (1857-?) world's first black international football player, captain and administrator *[[Jim Watt]], (born 1948), world champion boxer, won the WBC World Lightweight title *[[David Wilkie (swimmer)|David Wilkie]], (born 1954), swimmer *[[Jim Baxter]], footballer (September 29, 1939 – April 14, 2001) *[[Davie Cooper]], footballer (February 25, 1956 - March 23, 1995) ==Television Personalities== *[[Ronni Ancona]], (born 1968) *[[Edith Bowman]], (born 1975) *[[Nicky Campbell]], (born 1962) *[[Romana D'Annunzio]], (born 1972) *[[Kirsty Gallacher]], (born 1976) *[[Lorraine Kelly]], (born 1959) *[[John Leslie (television presenter)|John Leslie]] (John Leslie Stott), (born 1965) *[[Gail Porter]], (born 1971) *[[Carol Smillie]], (born 1961) *[[Kirsty Wark]], (born 1955) *[[Cameron Stout]] ==Theologians== *[[William Robinso
three Syriac MSS. in 1883 and subsequently edited in Syriac in 1888. This work has close affinities to the Conflict, but is said by Dillmann to be more original, Armenian books on the ''Death of Adam'' (''Uncanonical Writings of O.T.'' pp. 84 sqq., 1901, translated from the Armenian), ''Creation and Transgression of Adam'' (op. cit. 39 sqq.), ''Expulsion of Adam from Paradise'' (op. cit. 47 sqq.), ''Penitence of Adam and Eve'' (op. cit. 71 sqq.) are mainly later writings from Christian hands. Returning to the question of the Jewish origin of Διηγησις, ''Vita'', Slavonic Adam book, we have already observed that these spring from a common original. As to the language of this original, scholars are divided. The evidence, however, seems to be strongly in favour of Hebrew. How otherwise are we to explain such Hebraisms (or Syriacisms) as ευω ῥεει το ἑλαιον εξ αυτο&amp;upsilon (§ 9), οὑ ειπεν... μη φαγειν απ αυτου (§ 21). For others see §§ 23, 33. Moreover, as Fuchs has pointed out, in the words ἑση εν ματαιοις addressed to Eve (§ 25) there is a corruption of חבליס into הבליס. Thus the words were: &quot;Thou shalt have pangs.&quot; In fact, Hebraisms abound throughout this book. (See Fuchs, ''Apok. u. Pseud, d. A.T.'' ii. 511; ''Jewish Encyc.'' i. 179 sq.) ==== Jannes and Jambres ==== These two men are referred to in 2 Tim. iii. 8 as the Egyptian magicians who withstood Moses. The book which treats of them is mentioned by Origen (''ad Matt.'' xxiii. 37 and xxvii. 9 [''Jannes et Mambres Liber'']), and in the Gelasian Decree as the ''Paenitentia Jamnis et Mambre''. The names in Greek are generally Ιαννησ και Ιαμβρης (=יניס וימבריס) as in the Targ.-Jon. on Exod. i. 15; vii. ii. In the Talmud they appear as יוחני וממרא. Since the western text of 2 Tim. iii. 8 has Μαμβρης, Westcott and Hort infer that this form was derived from a Palestinian source. These names were known not only to Jewish but also to heathen writers, such as Pliny and Apuleius. The book, therefore, may go back to pre-Christian times. (See Schürer iii. 292-294; ''Ency. Biblica'', ii. 2327-2329.) ==== Joseph and Asenath ==== The statement in Gen. xli. 45, 50 that Joseph married the daughter of a heathen priest naturally gave offence to later Judaism, and gave rise to the belief that Asenath was really the daughter of Shechem and Dinah, and only the foster-daughter of Potipherah (''Targ.-Jon.'' on Gen. xli. 45; Tractat. ''Sopherim'', xxi. 9; ''Jalkut Shimoni'', c. 134. See Oppenheim, ''Fabula Josephi et Asenethae'', 1886, pp. 2-4). Origen also was acquainted with some form of the legend (''Selecta in Genesin'', ad Gen. xli. 45, ed. Lommatzsch, viii. 89-90). The Christian legend, which is no doubt in the main based on the Jewish, is found in Greek, Syriac, Armenian, Slavonic and Medieval Latin. Since it is not earlier than the 3rd or 4th century, it will be sufficient here to refer to Smith's ''Dict. of Christ. Biog.'' i. 176-177; Hastings' ''Bible Dict.'' i. 162-163; Schürer, iii. 289-291. === Didactic or Sapiential === ==== Pirke Aboth ==== The ''Pirke Aboth'', a collection of sayings of the Jewish Fathers, are preserved in the 9th Tractate of the Fourth Order of the Mishnah. They are attributed to some sixty Jewish teachers, belonging for the most part to the years A.D. 70-170, though a few of them are of a much earlier date. The book holds the same place in rabbinical literature as the Book of Proverbs in the Bible. The sayings are often admirable. Thus in iv. 1-4, &quot;Who is wise? He that learns from every man.... Who is mighty? He that subdues his nature.... Who is rich? He that is contented with his lot.... Who is honoured? He that honours mankind.&quot; (See further [[Pirke Aboth]].) == New Testament apocryphal literature == [[New Testament apocrypha]] &amp;mdash; books similar to those in the [[New Testament]] but rejected by Catholics, Orthodox and Protestants &amp;mdash; include several gospels and lives of apostles. Some of them were clearly produced by [[Gnosticism|Gnostic]] authors or members of other groups later defined as [[heresy|heterodox]]. Many were discovered in the [[19th century|19th]] and [[20th century|20th centuries]], and produced lively speculation about the state of affairs in early [[Christianity]]. Though Protestants, Catholics and, in general, Orthodox agree on the canon of the [[New Testament]], the [[Ethiopian Orthodox]] are reported by some scholars to add [[Epistles of Clement|I &amp; II Clement]], and [[Shepherd of Hermas]] to the [[New Testament]]. Others deny this. See [http://www.islamic-awareness.org/Bible/Text/Canon/ethiopican.html this link] for details. [[Martin Luther (religious leader)|Martin Luther]] considered the [[Epistle of James]] apocryphal, because he highly doubted its authorship by any of the several New Testament figures named James, and because it contains a statement that seemed to contradict his teachings of [[Salvation#Christian views of salvation|Salvation]] by faith alone: &quot;Faith without works is dead&quot; (2:26). He had a similar feeling about the [[Epistle to the Hebrews]], the [[Epistle of Jude]] and the [[Book of Revelation|Revelation]], and relegated those four books to an appendix in his Bible. Later [[Lutherans]] included these books as full parts in their New Testament, but kept them behind all the other books. The Lutheran New Testament (at least in [[German language|German]]) is thus arranged slightly differently from that of most other Churches. The New Testament apocryphal book that is most famous today is the [[Gospel of Thomas]], the only complete text of which was found in [[Nag Hammadi]] along with other works, most of which were New Testament apocrypha. The entry on [[Gnosticism]] lists more recovered texts considered to be of Gnostic origin. While the New Testament apocrypha are not seen as divinely inspired, artists and theologians have drawn on them for such matters as the names of [[Dismas]] and [[Gestas]] and details about the [[Three Wise Men]]. The first explicit expression on the [[perpetual virginity of Mary]] is found in the pseudepigraphical [[Infancy Gospel of James]]. An extensive online archive of New Testament Apocrypha is available at [http://www.comparative-religion.com/christianity/apocrypha/ www.comparative-religion.com/christianity/apocrypha/] and comprises more than 80 works, including fragments. Among the New Testament Apocrypha are the following: * Gospels ** Uncanonical sayings of the Lord in Christian and Jewish writings. ** [[Gospel according to the Egyptians]]. ** [[Gospel according to the Hebrews]]. ** [[Protevangel of James]]. ** [[Gospel of Nicodemus]]. ** [[Gospel of Peter]]. ** [[Gospel of Thomas]]. ** [[Gospel of the Twelve]]. ** Gnostic gospels of [[Saint Andrew|Andrew]], [[Apelles]], [[Barnabas]], [[Bartholomew]], [[Basilides]], [[Cerinthus]] and some seventeen others. * Acts and Teachings of the Apostles ** [[Acts of Andrew]] and later forms of these Acts. ** [[Acts of John]]. ** [[Acts of Paul]]. ** [[Acts of Peter]]. ** [[Preaching of Peter]]. ** [[Acts of Thomas]]. ** [[Teaching of the Twelve Apostles]]. ** Apostolic constitutions. * Epistles ** [[The Abgar Epistles]]. ** [[Epistle of Barnabas]]. ** [[Epistle of Clement]]. ** &quot;Clement's&quot; [[2nd Epistle of the Corinthians]]. ** &quot;Clement's&quot; [[Epistles on Virginity]]. ** &quot;Clement's&quot; [[Epistles to James]]. ** [[Epistles of Ignatius]]. ** [[Epistle of Polycarp]]. ** Pauline Epp. to the Laodiceans and Alexandrians. ** 3 Pauline Ep. to the Corinthians. * Apocalypses ** see under [[Apocalyptic literature]] ''See also: '' [[New Testament Apocrypha]], a listing of books rejected by most Christians. === Gospels === ==== Uncanonical Sayings of the Lord in Christian and Jewish Sources ==== ''Main Article: [[Agrapha]]'' Under the head of canonical sayings not found in the Gospels only one is found, i.e. that in Acts xx. 35. The uncanonical sayings have been collected by Preuschen (''Reste der ausserkanonischen Evangelien'', 1901, pp. 44-47) and Hennecke (''NTliche Apok.'' 9-11). The same subject is dealt with in the elaborate volumes of Resch (''Aussercanonische Paralleltexte zu den Evangelien'', vols. i.-iii., 1893-1895). To this section belongs also the ''Fayum Gospel Fragment'' and the ''Logia'' published by Grenfell and Hunt. [These editors have discovered (1907) a gospel fragment of the 2nd century which represents a dialogue between our Lord and a chief priest--a Pharisee.] The former contains two sayings of Christ and one of Peter, such as we find in the canonical gospels, Matt. xxvi. 31-34, Mark xiv. 27-30. The papyrus, which is of the 3rd century, was discovered by [[Gustav Bickell]] among the Rainer collection, who characterized it (''Z. f. kath. Theol.'', 1885, pp. 498-504) as a fragment of one of the primitive gospels mentioned in Luke i. 1. On the other hand, it has been contended that it is merely a fragment of an early patristic homily. (See [[Zahn]], ''Gesch. Kanons'', ii. 780-790; [[Harnack]], ''Texte und Untersuchungen'', v. 4; [[Preuschen]], op. cit. p. 19.) The ''[[Logia]]'' is the name given to the sayings contained in a papyrus leaf, by its discoverers Grenfell and Hunt. They think the papyrus was probably written about A.D. 200. According to Harnack, it is an extract from the ''Gospel of the Egyptians''. All the passages referring to Jesus in the Talmud are given by [[Laible]], ''Jesus Christus im Talmud'', with an appendix, &quot;Die talmudischen Texte,&quot; by [[Gustaf Dalman]] (2nd ed. 1901). The first edition of this work was translated into English by [[A. W. Streane]] (''Jesus Christ in the Talmud'', 1893). In [[Hennecke]]'s ''NTliche Apok. Handbuch'' (pp.47-71) there is a valuable study of this question by [[A. Meyer]], entitled ''Jesus, Jesu Jünger und das Evangelium im Talmud und verwandten jüdischen Schriften'', to which also a good bibliography of the subject is prefixed. ==== Gospel according to the Egy
ction, including all nouns ending on '''&lt;u&gt;–ост&lt;/u&gt;'''/'''&lt;u&gt;–ест&lt;/u&gt;''' (&lt;u&gt;мъдрост&lt;/u&gt; “wisdom”, &lt;u&gt;низост&lt;/u&gt; “vileness”, &lt;u&gt;прелест&lt;/u&gt; &quot;loveliness&quot;, &lt;u&gt;болест&lt;/u&gt; &quot;sickness&quot;, &lt;u&gt;любов&lt;/u&gt; “love”), and another, much smaller group of irregular nouns with zero ending which define tangible objects or concepts (&lt;u&gt;кръв&lt;/u&gt; “blood”, &lt;u&gt;кост&lt;/u&gt; “bone”, &lt;u&gt;вечер&lt;/u&gt; “evening”). Nouns ending in '''–е''', '''–о''' are almost exclusively '''neuter''' (&lt;u&gt;дете&lt;/u&gt; “child”, &lt;u&gt;езеро&lt;/u&gt; “lake”). The same regards a limited number of loan words ending in '''–и''', '''–у''', and '''–ю''' (&lt;u&gt;цунами&lt;/u&gt; &quot;tsunami&quot;, &lt;u&gt;табу&lt;/u&gt; &quot;taboo&quot;, &lt;u&gt;меню&lt;/u&gt; &quot;menu&quot;). Plural nouns do not have gender. =====Number===== Two numbers are distinguished in Bulgarian — '''[[singular]]''' and '''[[plural]]'''. The most typical plural ending for feminine nouns is '''–и''', which is appended to the word upon dropping the singular ending '''–а/–я'''. Plural forms of neutral and masculine nouns use a variety of suffixes, the most typical of which are '''–а''', '''–я''' (both require dropping of the singular endings '''–е'''/'''–о''') and '''–та''' for neutral nouns and '''–е''', '''–и''' and '''–ове''' for masculine nouns. Exceptions, irregular declension and alternative plural forms are, however, very common for all three genders. Masculine nouns use a separate count form with [[cardinal number]]s, which stems from the proto-Slavonic '''[[dual grammatical number|dual]]''': &lt;u&gt;двама/трима ученика&lt;/u&gt; (two/three students) versus &lt;u&gt;тези ученици&lt;/u&gt; (these students); cf. feminine &lt;u&gt;две/три/тези жени&lt;/u&gt; (two/three/these women) and neuter &lt;u&gt;две/три/тези деца&lt;/u&gt; (two/three/these children). However, a recently developed language norm requires that count forms should only be used with masculine nouns that do not denote persons. Thus, &lt;u&gt;двама/трима ученици&lt;/u&gt; is perceived as more correct than &lt;u&gt;двама/трима ученика&lt;/u&gt;, while the distinction is retained in cases such as &lt;u&gt;два/три молива&lt;/u&gt; (two/three pencils) versus &lt;u&gt;тези моливи&lt;/u&gt; (these pencils). =====Case===== The complex proto-Slavonic case system is almost completely dissolved in modern Bulgarian. Vestiges are well preserved only in the [[personal pronoun]]s and the masculine personal interrogative pronoun &lt;u&gt;кой&lt;/u&gt; (“who”), which have '''[[nominative]]''', '''[[accusative case|accusative]]''' and '''[[dative]]''' forms. '''[[Vocative]]''' forms are still in use for masculine and feminine nouns (however, not for neuter ones), but endings in masculine nouns are determined solely according to the stem-final consonant of the noun. In all other cases, except for a number of phraseological units and sayings, the proto-Slavonic case system has been replaced by prepositional and other syntactic constructions. =====Definiteness (article)===== The disappearance of the case declension might be connected with the development of the category of definiteness in Bulgarian. The postfixed definite article, which displaced Slavic case inflexions, may have been inherited from Old Bulgar and then spread to other Balkan languages such as Albanian and Romanian. In modern Bulgarian, definiteness is expressed by a '''[[definite article]]''' which is postfixed to the noun (indefinite: &lt;u&gt;човек&lt;/u&gt;, “man”; definite: &lt;u&gt;човек'''ът'''&lt;/u&gt;, “'''the''' man”) or the first nominal constituent of definite noun phrases (indefinite: &lt;u&gt;добър човек&lt;/u&gt;, “a good man”; definite: &lt;u&gt;добри'''ят''' човек&lt;/u&gt;, “'''the''' good man”), much like in the [[Scandinavian languages]] or [[Romanian language|Romanian]]. There are four singular definite articles: '''–ът'''/'''–ят''' for masculine nouns that are grammatical subjects, '''–а'''/'''–я''' for masculine nouns that are grammatical objects, '''–та''' for feminine nouns, and '''–то''' for neuter nouns. The two masculine definite articles may also be considered as two grammatical forms of the same article. The plural definite articles are '''–те''' for masculine and feminine nouns, and '''–тa''' for neuter nouns. When postfixed to adjectives the definite articles are '''–ят'''/'''–я''' for masculine, '''–та''' for feminine, '''–то''' for neuter, and '''–те''' for plural nouns. ====Adjective and numeral inflection==== Both groups agree in gender and number with the noun they are appended to. They may also take up the definite article as explained above. ====Pronouns==== Pronouns may vary in gender, number, definiteness and are the only parts of speech that have retained case inflexions. Three cases are exhibited by some groups of pronouns, nominative, accusative and dative, although dative is often substituted by accusative constructions. The distinguishable types of pronouns include the following: personal, relative, reflexive, interrogative, negative, indefinitive, summative and possessive. ====Adverbs==== The most [[Productivity (linguistics)|productive]] way to form adverbs is to derive them from the neuter singular form of the corresponding adjective (&lt;u&gt;бързо&lt;/u&gt; (fast), &lt;u&gt;силно&lt;/u&gt; (hard), &lt;u&gt;странно&lt;/u&gt; (strangely)), although adjectives ending in &lt;u&gt;-ки&lt;/u&gt; use the masculine singular form, also in &lt;u&gt;-ки&lt;/u&gt;, instead: &lt;u&gt;юнашки&lt;/u&gt; (heroically), &lt;u&gt;мъжки&lt;/u&gt; (bravely, like a man), &lt;u&gt;майсторски&lt;/u&gt; (skilfully): &lt;u&gt;юнашки&lt;/u&gt; (heroically), &lt;u&gt;мъжки&lt;/u&gt; (bravely, like a man), &lt;u&gt;майсторски&lt;/u&gt; (skilfully). The same pattern is used to form adverbs from the (adjective-like) ordinal numerals, e.g. &lt;u&gt;първо&lt;/u&gt; (firstly), &lt;u&gt;второ&lt;/u&gt; (secondly), &lt;u&gt;трето&lt;/u&gt; (thirdly), and in some cases from (adjective-like) cardinal numerals, e.g. &lt;u&gt;двойно&lt;/u&gt; (twice as/double), &lt;u&gt;тройно&lt;/u&gt; (three times as), &lt;u&gt;петорно&lt;/u&gt; (five times as). The remaining adverbs are formed in ways that are no longer productive in the language. A small number are original (not derived from other words), for example: &lt;u&gt;тук&lt;/u&gt; (here), &lt;u&gt;там&lt;/u&gt; (there), &lt;u&gt;вътре&lt;/u&gt; (inside), &lt;u&gt;вън&lt;/u&gt; (outside), &lt;u&gt;много&lt;/u&gt; (very/much) etc. The rest are mostly fossilized declined forms, such as: * archaic unchangeable locative forms of some adjectives, e.g. &lt;u&gt;добре&lt;/u&gt; (well), &lt;u&gt;зле&lt;/u&gt; (badly), &lt;u&gt;твърде&lt;/u&gt; (too, rather), and nouns &lt;u&gt;горе&lt;/u&gt; (up), &lt;u&gt;утре&lt;/u&gt; (tomorrow), &lt;u&gt;лете&lt;/u&gt; (in the summer); * archaic unchangeable instrumental forms of some adjectives, e.g. &lt;u&gt;тихом&lt;/u&gt; (quietly), &lt;u&gt;скришом&lt;/u&gt; (furtively), &lt;u&gt;слепешком&lt;/u&gt; (blindly), and nouns, e.g. &lt;u&gt;денем&lt;/u&gt; (during the day), &lt;u&gt;нощем&lt;/u&gt; (during the night), &lt;u&gt;редом&lt;/u&gt; (one next to the other), &lt;u&gt;духом&lt;/u&gt; (spiritually), &lt;u&gt;цифром&lt;/u&gt; (in figures), &lt;u&gt;словом&lt;/u&gt; (with words). The same pattern has been used with verbs: &lt;u&gt;тичешком&lt;/u&gt; (while running), &lt;u&gt;лежешком&lt;/u&gt; (while lying), &lt;u&gt;стоешком&lt;/u&gt; (while standing). * archaic unchangeable accusative forms of some nouns: &lt;u&gt;днес&lt;/u&gt; (today), &lt;u&gt;сутрин&lt;/u&gt; (in the morning), &lt;u&gt;зимъс&lt;/u&gt; (in winter); * archaic unchangeable genitive forms of some nouns: &lt;u&gt;довечера&lt;/u&gt; (tonight), &lt;u&gt;снощи&lt;/u&gt; (last night), &lt;u&gt;вчера&lt;/u&gt; (yesterday); * homonymous and etymologically identical to the feminine singular form of the corresponding adjective used with the definite article: &lt;u&gt;здравата&lt;/u&gt; (hard), &lt;u&gt;слепешката&lt;/u&gt; (gropingly); the same pattern has been applied to some verbs, e.g. &lt;u&gt;тичешката&lt;/u&gt; (while running), &lt;u&gt;лежешката&lt;/u&gt; (while lying), &lt;u&gt;стоешката&lt;/u&gt; (while standing). * derived from cardinal numerals by means of a non-productive suffix: &lt;u&gt;веднъж&lt;/u&gt; (once), &lt;u&gt;дваж&lt;/u&gt; (twice), &lt;u&gt;триж&lt;/u&gt; (thrice); All the adverbs are immutable. Verb forms, however, vary in aspect, mood, tense, person, number and sometimes gender and voice. ===Verbal morphology and grammar=== ====Finite verbal forms==== Finite verbal forms are '''simple''' or '''compound''' and agree with subjects in '''person''' (first, second and third) and '''number''' (singular, plural) in Bulgarian. In addition to that, past compound forms using participles vary in '''gender''' (masculine, feminine, neuter) and '''voice''' (active and passive) as well as aspect (perfective/aorist and imperfective). =====Aspect===== Bulgarian verbs express '''[[lexical aspect]]''': perfective verbs signify the completion of the action of the verb and form past aorist tenses; imperfective ones are neutral with regard to it and form past imperfect tenses. Most Bulgarian verbs can be grouped in perfective-imperfective pairs ('''imperfective'''&lt;&gt;'''perfective''': &lt;u&gt;идвам&lt;/u&gt;&lt;&gt;&lt;u&gt;дойда&lt;/u&gt; “come”, &lt;u&gt;пристигам&lt;/u&gt;&lt;&gt;&lt;u&gt;пристигна&lt;/u&gt; “arrive”). Perfective verbs can be usually formed from imperfective ones by suffixation or prefixation, but the resultant verb often deviates in meaning from the original. In the pair examples above, aspect is stem-specific and therefore there is no difference in meaning. In Bulgarian, there is also '''[[grammatical aspect]]'''. Three grammatical aspects are distinguishable: neutral, perfect and pluperfect. The neutral aspect comprises the three sim
he physical attributes of a desired human, the new Dancers are able to absorb the memories of another human, and use those memories to shape themselves in a perfect image of the original. Several of these new Dancers have infiltrated the highest ranks of Ixian, Guild, and Fish Speaker leadership. Additionally, the council is expecting the return of Face Dancers sent out in the Scattering hundreds of years prior. There is some mistrust of these Dancers, however, and many Tleilaxu Masters doubt that these Dancers could have maintained their purity after being exposed to the Lost Ones for so long. After this meeting, the Tleilaxu Master [[Waff]] goes to secretly meet with the Honored Matres. The Honored Matres intend to 'mark' him and take over the Bene Tleilax, but they underestimate the little Master, and with the aid of a Face Dancer from the Scattering (disguised as an Honored Matre) Waff takes over the ship and kills the Honored Matres aboard. The Face Dancer reports that the Honored Matres have similar skills to the Bene Gesserit, without [[Other Memory]], but greater sexual and fighting skills. Waff fears that the Honored Matres and Reverend Mothers might make common cause. On Gammu, Duncan Idaho blossoms under the training of Lucilla and Teg. Schwangyu has used all her wiles to seduce Lucilla to her side but is coming to realize that she has much underestimated Lucilla. Meanwhile, the sandrider [[Sheeana]] has been growing up among the priesthood. As a child, Sheeana's home, a village in the desert of Rakis, was destroyed by a rampaging sandworm. At the wane of the attack, Sheeana suicidally confronted the sandworm, which ceased its movements and came to rest in front of the girl. Climbing aboard the great worm as the [[Fremen]] once did, she is carried to Keen (formerly [[Arrakeen]]), where she is found by two priests. She calls the sandworms &quot;[[Shaitan]]&quot;, not the priest-approved &quot;[[Shai-hulud]]&quot;, which was yet another prophecy of the God Emperor. It can be noted that Shaitan, in Islamic, means &quot;God's Adversary&quot;, and is the [[Etymon]] of the word Satan. Her adolescence has been strange to say the least. The priesthood believe her to be holy and obey every order she gives them, though they haven't precisely decided what her role should be, and what she will become. Surprisingly she has not been too spoiled by this experience, and because there have been no constraints on her curiosity, her mind has flowed freely and well. The Bene Gesserit have also attached their own spy to her entourage, and ensure her education proceeds in the right way. The priesthood is in turmoil on Rakis. Sheeana is approaching adulthood, and her actions and commands are putting the priesthood under increasing pressure. She persists in calling the worms Shaitan, and has banned the priesthood from certain punishments, which the priesthood have had to replace with alternative ones. All this has made Sheeana widely popular among the people, and her religious mantle has spread off world as the Bene Gesserit expected. The priesthood are split into two factions led by [[Tuek]] (the High Priest) and [[Stiros]] (leader of the conservatives). Above Gammu, Mother Superior Taraza is willingly captured and held hostage by the Honored Matres aboard an Ixian no-ship. The Honored Matres insist Taraza invite Miles Teg to the ship, hoping to gain control of the ghola project. In an impressive display of his [[Mentat]] powers, Teg manages to turn tables on the Matres, and rescues the Mother Superior and her party as the Mother Superior had planned. Odrade is in Taraza's party, and she and Teg talk on Taraza's orders; it turns out that Odrade is one of Miles Teg's many daughters, and that it is she who wrote the Atreides Manifesto. An attack is made on Sheeana on Rakis, which is only prevented by the intervention of the Bene Gesserit, who take unofficial control of the Priesthood and Rakis (and thus the teaching and guarding of Sheeana). Odrade, personally selected by Taraza, is now leader of the Rakis station, and she takes Sheeana under her wing, training her to be Bene Gesserit. At about the same time an attempt is made on the life of Duncan Idaho, but Teg is able to defeat it. Realizing he can no longer protect his charge at the Bene Gesserit keep, Teg flees with Duncan and Lucilla into the countryside. With secret knowledge from his aide-de-camp Patrin, who was born on Gammu, Teg locates a forgotten Harkonnen [[No-ship|no-globe]] which Patrin located as a boy. Patrin decoys the attackers, sacrificing his life so that his Bashar might live. Taraza arranges a meeting with Waff, going into the meeting full of supposition. The Bene Gesserit have re-evaluated their records and have finally asked themselves the right questions. They have come to recognise that all they know about the Bene Tleilax is what the Tleilaxu have wanted them to know. They suspect that the Tleilaxu have been using gholas among their leaders but aren't even sure of that. Taraza gambles and blackmails Waff with the knowledge that the Bene Tleilax have killed Honored Matres, a knowledge she only has fully confirmed when she sees Waff's reaction. Waff is forced to tell her what he knows about the Honored Matres, and when pressed on the issue of Duncan Idaho admits that the Bene Tleilax have included their own agenda within him. As the meeting draws to a close, she manages by accident to divine that Waff is a secret Zensunni, which finally gives the Bene Gesserit a lever to understand their ancient competitor, and she arranges to meet Waff again on Rakis. In the Harkonnen no-globe, Teg proceeds to awaken Idaho's original memories. Teg is facially the spitting image of Duke [[Leto Atreides]], (Paul [[Muad'dib]]'s father) and uses this semblance (and a variety of relentless physical and mental attacks) to awaken Duncan to his pre-death memories. He does so before Lucilla can imprint Duncan and thus tie him to the Sisterhood. Lucilla naturally is not gratified with this, and is unable to use her wiles to imprint Duncan afterward, because the now-awoken Idaho is aware of her agenda. Duncan even tells her that if she tries it, he will attempt to kill her. Stalemate! Waff meets Odrade on Rakis. In a meeting with Tuek and Odrade, he panics and tries to assassinate them both; while he succeeds in killing the unsuspecting Tuek, Odrade is too clever for him, and not only dodges his attack but shatters both his arms in a counterattack. Odrade turns the tables on Waff, using knowledge Taraza gained from her meeting with Waff to partially convince him that the Sisterhood shares the religious beliefs of the Bene Tleilax. Waff and Odrade install a new Face Dancer as a replacement Tuek, as the alternatives would be too inconvenient. In the meantime Taraza, via Teg's finest pupil [[Burzmali]], has been searching for Teg and his party, having little success. But finally, in a flash of inspiration, Burzmali realizes where Teg must be, and establishes contact with him and arranges to bring his party to safety. During the extraction operation, however, Teg and his companions are ambushed. Teg sacrifices himself to capture while Lucilla and Duncan escape with Burzmali. Odrade decides it would be a good idea to put Waff under pressure and so she arranges a sandworm ride into the desert with Sheeana. The worm, influenced by the God Emperor's &quot;pearl of consciousness&quot; trapped within it, takes the passenger to the former [[Sietch Tabr]], where Odrade finds a secret Spice hoard and a message sent down through time from the God Emperor. This message challenges the Bene Gesserit to abandon their secret ways and openly protect Leto's Golden Path. Leto particularly maligns the Sisterhood's lack of &quot;noble purpose,&quot; an attack that strikes Odrade deeply. Odrade takes it upon herself to offer full alliance with the Bene Tleilax, in the face of the onslaught of forces out of the Scattering. The cement for this alliance is Waff's belief that the Sisterhood shares his Tleilax religion, which sees Leto as a Prophet from God. Part of the alliance promises Bene Gesserit breeding Sisters for the Tleilaxu to work into their ghola breeding programs; as compensation, the Sisterhood will receive a working axlotl tank for their own purposes. This agreement causes consternation among the Bene Gesserit. Some call for Odrade to be assassinated. Taraza worries over this and then decides to go to Arrakis to decide whether to follow Odrade's course, or to kill her. On Gammu, Teg is interrogated, indeed tortured, but under the pressure of the experience discovers a new ability in his Atreides heritage: he is able to speed up his physical and mental reactions to lightning speeds, and so is able to escape his bonds and kill everyone imprisoning him. After this speedup, however, Teg requires massive amounts of food to replenish his lost energy. At the same time, Duncan Idaho, who is attempting to get off of Gammu undetected in the guise of a Tleilaxu Master, is ambushed and taken hostage. Meanwhile on Arrakis, Taraza has come for her inspection. She is worried that Odrade may need to be killed, but on arrival realizes that Odrade has seen her real plan and is merely following it in her own creative way. Taraza seeks the destruction of Dune, because she believes the God Emperor still binds humankind on a particular course through the sandworms of Rakis; Taraza wishes to free humanity to follow its own possibilities. With the destruction of Rakis, the Bene Gesserit would be totally dependent on the Tleilaxu for the Spice they utterly need, so alliance with the Tleilaxu would ensure their supply. Taraza evaluates Sheeana and is impressed with what she sees, and this raises the possibility of the Bene Gesserit following a secondary plan of seeding other planets with worms transported by the sandrider. In an interview with Taraza, Waff discovers he cannot control his
holson]] and [[Johann Ritter]] succeeded in decomposing water into [[hydrogen]] and [[oxygen]] by [[electrolysis]]. Soon thereafter Johann discovered the process of [[electroplating]]. He also observed the amount of metal deposited and the amount of oxygen produced during an electrolytic process that depended on the distance between the [[electrodes]]. By [[1801]] Ritter observed [[thermoelectricity|thermoelectric currents]] and anticipated the discovery of thermoelectricity by [[Thomas Johann Seebeck]]. By [[1810s]] [[William Hyde Wollaston]] made improvements to the [[galvanic pile]]. Sir [[Humphry Davy]] work with electrolysis led to conclude that the production of electricity in simple [[electrolytic cell|electrolytic cells]] resulted from chemical action and that chemical combination occurred between substances of opposite charge. This work led directly to the isolation of [[sodium]] and [[potassium]] from their compounds and of the [[alkaline earth metals]] from theirs in [[1808]]. [[Hans Christian Ørsted]] discovery of the magnetic effect of electrical currents in [[1820]] was immediately recognized as an epoch-making advance, although he left further work on [[electromagnetism]] to others. [[André-Marie Ampère]] quickly repeated Ørsted's experiment, and formulated them mathematically. [[Image:ChemicalHistoryofaCandle.PNG|thumb|right|140px|Professor Michael Faraday's portrait on his book [[The Chemical History of a Candle]].]] In [[1821]], Estonian-German [[physicist]] [[Thomas Johann Seebeck]] demonstrated the electrical potential in the juncture points of two dissimilar metals when there is a [[heat]] difference between the joints. In [[1827]] German scientist [[Georg Ohm]] expressed his [[Ohm's law|law]] in this famous book ''&quot;Die galvanische Kette, mathematisch bearbeitet&quot;'' (The Galvanic Circuit Investigated Mathematically) in which he gave his complete theory of electricity. In [[1832]] [[Michael Faraday]]'s experiments on Electrochemistry led him to state his two laws of electrochemistry. In [[1836]] [[John Frederic Daniell|John Daniell]] invented a primary cell in which [[hydrogen]] was eliminated in the generation of the electricity. Daniell had solved the problem of [[polarization]]. In his laboratory he had learned to [[alloy]] the [[amalgam|amalgamated]] [[zinc]] of Sturgeon with [[Mercury (element)|mercury]] would produce better voltage. [[Image:Arrhenius2.jpg|thumb|left|140px|Swedish chemist [[Svante Arrhenius]] portrait circa [[1880s]].]] [[William Robert Grove|William Grove]] produced the first [[fuel cell]] in [[1839]]. [[Wilhelm Weber]] developed, in [[1846]], the [[electrodynamometer]]. In [[1866]], [[Georges Leclanché]] patented a new cell which eventually became the forerunner to the world's first widely used battery, the [[zinc carbon cell]]. [[Svante August Arrhenius]] published his thesis in [[1884]] on ''Recherches sur la conductibilité galvanique des électrolytes'' (Investigations on the galvanic conductivity of electrolytes). From his results the author concluded that [[electrolyte|electrolytes]], when dissolved in water, become to varying degrees split or dissociated into electrically opposite positive and negative ions. In [[1886]] [[Paul Héroult]] and [[Charles Martin Hall|Charles M. Hall]] developed a successful method to obtain [[aluminum]] by using principles described by Michael Faraday. In [[1894]] [[Wilhelm Ostwald|Friedrich Ostwald]] concluded important studies of the [[electrical conductivity]] and electrolytic dissociation of [[organic acid|organic acids]]. [[Image:Walther Nernst.jpg|thumb|right|140px|German scientist [[Walther Nernst]] portrait in [[1910s]].]] [[Hermann Nernst|Hermann Nernst's]] developed the theory of the [[electromotive force]] of the voltaic cell in [[1888]]. In [[1889]], he showed how the characteristics of the current produced could be used to calculate the [[free energy]] change in the chemical reaction producing the current. He constructed an equation, known as [[Nernst Equation]], which related the voltage of a cell to its properties. In [[1898]] [[Fritz Haber]] showed that definite reduction products can result on electrolytic process if the potential at the [[cathode]] is kept constant. In [[1898]] he explained the reduction of [[nitrobenzene]] in stages at the cathode and this became the model for other similar reduction processes. ===The 20th century and recent developments === In [[1909]], [[Robert Andrews Millikan]] began a series of experiments to determine the electric charge carried by a single [[electron]]. In [[1923]], [[Johannes Nicolaus Brønsted]] and [[Thomas Martin Lowry]] published essentially the same theory about how acids and bases behave using electrochemical basis. [[Arne Tiselius]] developed the first sophisticated [[electrophoretic]] apparatus in [[1937]] and some years later the first sophisticated [[electrophoretic]] apparatus was developed in [[1937]], who was awarded the [[1948]] [[Nobel prize]] for his work in protein [[electrophoresis]]. A year later the [[International Society of Electrochemistry]] (ISE) was founded in [[1949]] By the [[1960s]]&amp;ndash;[[1970s]] [[quantum electrochemistry]] was developed by [[Revaz Dogonadze]] and his pupils. ==Principles== ===Redox reactions=== {{main|Redox reaction}} Electrochemical process are redox reactions where [[energy]] is produced by a [[Spontaneous process|spontaneous reaction]] which produces electricity, otherwise [[electrical current]] stimulates a chemical reaction. In redox reactions atoms oxidation state changes, hence there is an [[electron transfer]]. ===Oxidation and Reduction=== The [[chemical element|element]]s involved in an electrochemical [[chemical reaction |reaction]] are characterized by the number of [[electron]]s each has. The ''oxidation state'' of an [[ion]] is the number of electrons it has accepted or donated compared to its neutral state (which is defined as having an oxidation state of 0). If an [[atom]] or ion donates an [[electron]] in a reaction its oxidation state is increased, if an element accepts an electron its oxidation state is decreased. For example when [[sodium]] reacts with [[chlorine]], sodium donates one electron and gains an oxidation state of +1. Chlorine accepts the electron and gains an oxidation state of &amp;minus;1. The sign of the oxidation state (positive/negative) actually corresponds to the value of each ion's electronic charge. The attraction of the differently charged sodium and chlorine ions is the reason they then form an [[ionic bond]]. The loss of electrons of a substance is called [[oxidation]], and the gain of electrons is [[reduction]]. This can be easily remembered through the use of [[mnemonic]] devices. Two of the most popular are ''&quot;OIL RIG&quot;'' (Oxidation Is Loss, Reduction Is Gain) and ''&quot;LEO&quot;'' says ''&quot;GER&quot;'' (Lose Electrons: Oxidization, Gain Electrons: Reduction). The substance which loses electrons is also known as the ''reducing agent'', or ''reductant'', and the substance which accepts the electrons is called the ''oxidizing agent'', or ''oxidant''. The oxidizing agent is always being reduced in a reaction; the reducing agent is always being oxidized. The gain of [[oxygen]], loss of [[hydrogen]] and increase in oxidation number is also considered to be [[oxidation]], while the inverse is true for reduction. A reaction in which both oxidation and reduction is occurring is called a '''[[redox]] reaction'''. These are very common; as one substance loses electrons the other substance accepts them. Oxidation requires an oxidant. Oxygen is an oxidant, but not the only one. Despite the name, an oxidation reaction does not necessarily need to involve oxygen. In fact, even [[fire]] can be fed by an oxidant other than oxygen: [[fluorine]] fires are often unquenchable, as fluorine is an even stronger oxidant (it has a higher [[electronegativity]]) than oxygen. ===Balancing redox reactions=== {{main|Chemical equation}} Electrochemical reactions in water are better understood by balancing redox reactions using the [[Ion-Electron Method]] where [[Proton|H&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt;]] , [[Hydroxide|OH&lt;sup&gt;-&lt;/sup&gt;]] ion, [[Water (molecule)|H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O]] and electrons (to compensate the oxidation changes) are added to cell's [[Half reaction|half reactions]] for oxidation and reduction. ====Acid medium==== In acid medium [[Proton|H]] atoms and water are added to [[half reaction|half reactions]] to balance the overall reaction. For example on [[Manganese]] reacts to [[Sodium bismuthate]]. :&lt;math&gt;\mbox{Reaction unbalanced: }\mbox{Mn}^{2+}(aq) + \mbox{NaBiO}_3(s)\rightarrow\mbox{Bi}^{3+}(aq) + \mbox{MnO}_4^{-}(aq)\,&lt;/math&gt; :&lt;math&gt;\mbox{Oxidation: }\mbox{4H}_2\mbox{O}(l)+\mbox{Mn}^{2+}(aq)\rightarrow\mbox{MnO}_4^{-}(aq) + \mbox{8H}^{+}(aq)+\mbox{5e}^{-}\,&lt;/math&gt; :&lt;math&gt;\mbox{Reduction: }\mbox{2e}^{-}+ \mbox{6H}^{+}(aq) + \mbox{BiO}_3^{-}(s)\rightarrow\mbox{Bi}^{3+}(aq) + \mbox{3H}_2\mbox{O}(l)\,&lt;/math&gt; Finally the reaction is balanced by [[multiplication|multiplying]] the number of electrons from the reduction half reaction to oxidation half reaction and vice versa and adding both half reactions, thus solving the equation. :&lt;math&gt;\mbox{8H}_2\mbox{O}(l)+\mbox{2Mn}^{2+}(aq)\rightarrow\mbox{2MnO}_4^{-}(aq) + \mbox{16H}^{+}(aq)+\mbox{10e}^{-}\,&lt;/math&gt; :&lt;math&gt;\mbox{10e}^{-}+ \mbox{30H}^{+}(aq) + \mbox{5BiO}_3^{-}(s)\rightarrow\mbox{5Bi}^{3+}(aq) + \mbox{15H}_2\mbox{O}(l)\,&lt;/math&gt; Reaction balanced: :&lt;math&gt;\mbox{14H}^{+}(aq) + \mbox{2Mn}^{2+}(aq)+ \mbox{5NaBiO}_3^{-}(s)\rightarrow\mbox{7H}_2\mbox{O}(l) + \mbox{2MnO}_4^{-}(aq)+\mbox{5Bi}^{3+}(aq)+\mbox{5Na}^{+}(aq)\,&lt;/math&gt; ====Basic medium==== In basic medium [[Hydroxide|OH&lt;sup&gt;-&lt;/sup&gt;]] ions and [[Water (molecule)|water]] are added to half reactions to balance the overall reaction. For example on react
ctive as it was ratified by the states. This process dragged on for several years, stalled by an interstate quarrel over claims to uncolonized land in the west. [[Maryland]] was the last hold-out; it refused to ratify until [[Virginia]] and [[New York]] agreed to rescind their claims to lands in the [[Ohio River]] valley. All of the colonies rebelling against Britain ratified it by [[1781]]. Although Congress debated the Articles for over a year, it requested immediate action on the part of the states. On [[February 5]] [[1778]] [[South Carolina]] became the first state to ratify the Articles of Confederation. However, three and a half years passed before the final ratification by [[Maryland]] on [[March 1]] [[1781]]. ==Article Summaries == {{ChartersOfFreedom}} Even though the Articles of Confederation and the Constitution were established by much of the same people, they were still very different. The document contained 13 articles, a conclusion, and a signatory section. #Establishes the name of the confederation as &quot;The United States of America&quot; #Explains the rights possessed by any state, and the amount of power to which any state is entitled #Establishes the United States as a league of states united &quot;...for their common defense, the security of their liberties, and their mutual and general welfare, binding themselves to assist each other, against all force offered to, or attacks made upon them...&quot; #Establishes [[freedom of movement]]&amp;ndash;anyone can pass freely between states, excluding &quot;[[pauper]]s, [[vagabond]]s, and [[fugitive]]s from justice excepted.&quot; All people are entitled to the rights established by the state into which he or she travels. If a crime is committed in one state and the perpetrator flees to another state, he will be [[extradition|extradited]] to and tried in the state in which the crime was committed. #Allocates one vote in the [[Congress of the Confederation]] (United States in Congress Assembled) to each state, which was entitled to a delegation of between two and seven members. Members of Congress were appointed by state legislatures; individuals could not serve more than three out of any six years. #Limits the powers of states to conduct [[foreign relations]] and to [[declaration of war|declare war]]. #When an army is raised for common defense, [[Colonel (United States)|colonels]] and [[military rank]]s below colonel will be named by the state legislatures. #Expenditures by the United States will be paid by funds raised by state legislatures, and apportioned to the states based on the real property values of each. #Defines the rights of the central government: to declare war, to set weights and measures (including coins), and for Congress to serve as a final court for disputes between states. #Defines a [[Committee of the States]] to be a government when Congress is not in session. #Requires nine states to approve the admission of a new state into the confederacy; preapproves [[Canada]], if they apply for membership. #Reaffirms that the Confederation accepts war debt incurred by Congress before the articles ([[assumption]]). #Declares that the articles are perpetual, and can only be altered by approval of Congress with ratification by ''all'' the state legislatures. Still at war with the [[Kingdom of Great Britain]], the colonists were reluctant to establish another powerful national government. Jealously guarding their new independence, the Continental Congress created a loosely structured [[unicameral]] legislature that protected the liberty of the individual states at the expense of the confederation. While calling on Congress to regulate military and monetary affairs, for example, the Articles of Confederation provided no mechanism to ensure states complied with requests for troops or revenue. At times this left the military in a precarious position, as [[George Washington]] wrote in a [[1781]] letter to the governor of [[Massachusetts]], [[John Hancock]]. == The end of the war == The [[Treaty of Paris (1783)]], ending hostilities with Great Britain, languished in Congress for months because state representatives failed to attend sessions of the national legislature. Yet, Congress had no power to enforce attendance. Writing to [[George Clinton (politician)|George Clinton]] in September [[1783]], George Washington complained: :''Congress have come to no determination yet respecting the Peace Establishment, nor am I able to say when they will. I have lately had a conference with a Committee on this subject, and have reiterated my former opinions, but it appears to me that there is not a sufficient representation to discuss Great National points.'' {{ref|washingtonclinton}} ==Function== The Articles supported the Congressional direction of the [[Continental Army]], and allowed the [[13 Colonies|Thirteen Colonies]] to present a unified front when dealing with the European powers. But as an instrument of government, they were largely a failure. Congress could make decisions, but had no power to enforce them. Perhaps the most important power that Congress was denied was the power of taxation: Congress could only request [[money]] from the states. Understandably, the states did not generally comply with the requests in full, leaving the confederation chronically short of funds. The states and the national congress had both incurred debts during the war, and paying congressional debts became a major issue. Nevertheless the [[Continental Congress]] did take two actions with lasting impact. The [[Land Ordinance of 1785]] established the general land survey and ownership provisions used throughout later American expansion. The [[Northwest Ordinance]] of [[1787]] noted the agreement of the original states to give up western land claims and cleared the way for the entry of new states. Once the unity demanded by the Revolutionary War became unnecessary, the [[Continental Army]] was largely disbanded. A very small national force was maintained to man frontier forts and protect against Indian attacks. Meanwhile, each of the states had an army (or militia), and 11 of them had navies. The wartime promises of bounties and land grants to be paid for service were not being met. In 1783, [[George Washington|Washington]] defused the [[Newburgh conspiracy]], but riots by unpaid [[Pennsylvania]] veterans forced the Congress to leave [[Philadelphia, Pennsylvania|Philadelphia]] on [[June 21]]. ==Revision== In May [[1786]], [[Charles Pinckney (governor)|Charles Pinckney]] of [[South Carolina]] proposed that Congress revise the Articles of Confederation. Recommended changes included granting [[Congress]] power over foreign and domestic commerce, and providing means for Congress to collect money from state treasuries. Unanimous approval was necessary to make the alterations, however, and Congress failed to reach a consensus. In September, five states assembled in the [[Annapolis Convention (1786)]] to discuss adjustments that would improve commerce. Under their chairman, [[Alexander Hamilton]], they invited state representatives to convene in [[Philadelphia]] to discuss improvements to the federal government. After debate, Congress endorsed the plan to revise the Articles of Confederation on [[February 21]] [[1787]]. According to some historians, the Articles were flawed; in particular, the [[confederal]] government was unable to settle state disputes on issues like trade and had no power to tax directly. After all, the states were thirteen individual [[republics]]. It took radical action to strip them of that [[sovereignty]]. ==Lessons== Although ultimately replaced by the [[United States Constitution]], the Articles of Confederation provided stability during the [[American Revolutionary War]] years. Most importantly, the experience of drafting and living under this initial document provided valuable lessons in self-governance and somewhat tempered fears about a powerful central government. Still, reconciling the turmoil between state and federal authority continues to challenge America, as seen in such conflicts as the [[1832]] [[Nullification Crisis]], the [[American Civil War]] ([[1861]]-[[1865|65]]), post-Civil War [[Reconstruction]], and the [[Supreme Court of the United States|Supreme Court]]'s landmark ''[[Brown v. Board of Education]]'' decision in [[1954]]. ***** ==Signatures== The copy of the Articles in the U.S. National Archives has a series of signatures on page six. A list of them is presented here. The signing of the Articles was a process that has caused some confusion. The Articles were approved for distribution to the states, on [[November 15]], [[1777]]. A copy was made for each state and one was kept by the [[Continental Congress|Congress]]. The copies sent to the states for ratification were unsigned, and a cover letter had only the signatures of [[Henry Laurens]] and [[Charles Thomson]], who were the [[President of the Continental Congress|President]] and Secretary to the Congress. But, the Articles at that time were unsigned, and the date was blank. Congress began the signing process by examining their copy of the Articles on [[June 27]], [[1778]]. They ordered a final copy prepared (the one in the National Archives), and that delegates should inform the secretary of their authority for ratification. Then, on [[July 9]], [[1778]] the prepared copy was ready. They dated it, and began to sign. They also requested each of the remaining states to notify its delegation when ratification was completed. On that date, delegates present from New Hampshire, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Connecticut, New York, Pennsylvania, Virginia, and South Carolina signed the articles to indicate that their states had ratified. New Jersey, Delaware, and Maryland could not, since their states had not ratified. North Carolina and Georgia also didn't sign that day, since their delegations were absent. After the first signing, some delegates signed at the n
evision> <id>15908015</id> <timestamp>2005-05-29T23:48:20Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Alan Liefting</username> <id>36352</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>more appropriate redirect</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Environmentalist]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Eastern Orthodox Church</title> <id>10186</id> <revision> <id>42113584</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T22:33:12Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>80.74.170.106</ip> </contributor> <comment>/* Church buildings */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Vladimirskaya.jpg|thumb|150px| The [[Vladimir]] [[Icon]], one of the most venerated of Orthodox Christian icons of the [[Virgin Mary]].]] The '''Eastern Orthodox Church''' (encompassing national Orthodox jurisdictions such as [[Church of Greece|Greek Orthodox]], [[Russian Orthodox]], etc.&amp;mdash;see [[Eastern Orthodox Church organization]]) is a body of [[Christianity|Christians]] that claims origins extending directly back to [[Jesus]] and his [[Twelve Apostles|Apostle]]s through unbroken [[Apostolic Succession]]. Its doctrines were formalized through a series of church councils, the most authoritative being the [[Ecumenical_Council#Councils_.231_to_.237|Seven Ecumenical Councils]] held between the [[4th century|4th]] and [[8th century|8th]] centuries. These councils were convened out of the necessity to resolve conflicts that had developed concerning beliefs such as [[Arianism]], [[Nestorianism]], and [[Monothelitism]]. Toward the end of its first thousand years of existence, differences developed between the Church in the [[Byzantine Empire|Eastern]] and [[Western Roman Empire]] that ultimately led to the [[East-West Schism|Great Schism]] in [[1054]], dividing [[Chalcedonian]] [[Christianity]] into [[Roman Catholicism|Western Catholicism]] and Eastern Orthodoxy. Based on numbers of adherents, Eastern Orthodoxy is the second largest Christian communion in the world after the [[Roman Catholic Church]], and the third largest grouping overall after [[Protestantism]]. The present-day influence of the Eastern Orthodox Church encompasses the territories associated with the former Byzantine and [[Russian Empire|Russian]] empires: [[Eastern Europe]], Asia ([[Russia]]/[[Siberia]]), and parts of the [[Middle East]] and [[Africa]]. Today, although Eastern Orthodoxy's strongest influence can be seen in [[Greece]], [[Russia]], [[Ukraine]], [[Belarus]], [[Serbia and Montenegro]], former Yugoslav [[Republic of Macedonia]]{{ref|Macedoniafootnote}}, [[Romania]], [[Republic of Moldova]], [[Bulgaria]], and [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]], the Orthodox Church has a presence in a great many other countries largely because of the [[emigration]] of Eastern Orthodox peoples, with large communities in the [[United States|USA]], [[Canada]] and [[Australia]]. In the remainder of this article, for convenience of reference, the expressions &quot;Orthodox&quot; and &quot;the Church&quot; refer to &quot;Eastern Orthodox&quot; unless the context indicates otherwise. ==Beliefs== ===The Trinity=== Orthodox Christians believe in a single God who is both three and one (triune): Father, Son, and Holy Spirit, &quot;one in essence and undivided&quot;. The Holy [[Trinity]] is three &quot;unconfused&quot; distinct divine persons (''[[hypostasis|hypostases]]''), with no overlap or [[modalism|modality]] among them, who share one divine [[essence]] (''ousia'')&amp;mdash;uncreated, immaterial and [[eternity|eternal]]. In discussing God's relationship to his creation a distinction is made between God's eternal essence and ''uncreated energies'', though it is understood that this distinction is artificial and that there is no real separation in God. Energies and essence are both inseparably God. This distinction is used by theologians to explain how it is that God can be both transcendent (His &quot;essence&quot; lies outside and infinitely distant from his creation), while at the same time he can touch his creation (His &quot;uncreated energies&quot; interact with His creation). It is also in His energies that we can perceive the three distinct persons of the Trinity. The Father is the eternal source of the Godhead, from Whom the Son is begotten eternally and also from Whom the Holy Spirit proceeds eternally. Orthodox doctrine regarding the Holy Trinity is summarized in the Symbol of Faith ([[Nicene Creed|Nicene-Constantinopolitan Creed]]). ===Salvation=== [[Image:Last Judgment icon.jpg|frame|right|16th c. Russian [[icon]] of the Last Judgment]] Orthodox Christians hold that man was originally created in perfect communion with God, but through his own actions he turned away from God and sinned (&quot;missed the mark&quot;). Because of man's refusal to fulfill the &quot;image and likeness of God&quot; within him, corruption and the sickness of sin whose consequence is death entered man's nature. But when Jesus came into the world He Himself was Perfect Man and Perfect God united. Through his participation in humanity, human nature was re-created, allowing human beings to participate in the divine nature. &quot;The Word of God came in His own Person, because it was He alone, the Image of the Father, Who could recreate man made after the Image. In order to effect this re-creation, however, He had first to do away with death and corruption. Therefore He assumed a human body, in order that in it death might once for all be destroyed, and that men might be renewed according to the Image [of God].&quot; [[St. Athanasius]], ''On the Incarnation'' Salvation, or &quot;being saved,&quot; therefore, refers to this process of being saved from the state of separation from God. It is a distinct concept separate from the concept of &quot;going to heaven.&quot; The Orthodox Church refuses to comment on the state of those outside the Church, choosing to hope in the Mercy of God; however, it is believed that the best and most complete path to participation in the gifts of God is found in the Orthodox Church alone. The Orthodox believe that there is nothing that a person can do to earn entrance into Heaven. It is rather a gift from God, who wants nothing more than to restore the original relationship with mankind. However, this gift of relationship has to be accepted by the believer, since God will not force Heaven on humanity. Man is free to reject the gift of salvation continually offered by God. &quot;God becomes powerless before human freedom; He cannot violate it since it flows from His own omnipotence. Certainly man was created by the will of God alone; but he cannot be deified [made Holy] by it alone. A single will for creation, but two for deification. A single will to raise up the image, but two to make the image into a likeness. The love of God for man is so great that it cannot constrain; for there is no love without respect. Divine will always will submit itself to gropings, to detours, even to revolts of human will to bring it to a free consent.&quot; [[Vladimir Lossky]], ''Orthodox Theology: An Introduction'' The ultimate goal of the Orthodox Christian is to achieve ''[[theosis]]'', or Union with God. This is sometimes expressed thus: &quot;God became Man so that Man might become God.&quot; Some of the greatest saints have achieved, in this life, a measure of this process. Of course, the individual who achieves theosis never realizes his accomplishment, as his perfect humility keeps him blind to pride. Salvation therefore is not merely an escape from the eternal bondage of death, but an entrance to life in Christ here and now. ===Tradition=== Orthodox consider the Bible to be the central part of &quot;[[Tradition]]&quot;, but not the only part in contrast to [[Protestantism]], which generally relies upon the [[Bible]] as the sole, ultimate doctrinal authority (''[[sola scriptura]]''). Tradition also includes the [[Nicene Creed|Creed]], the decrees of the Seven [[Ecumenical Councils]], the writings the &quot;[[Church Fathers]]&quot;, as well as Orthodox laws ([[Canon law|canons]]), liturgical books and [[icon]]s, etc. In defense of extrabiblical tradition, the Orthodox Church quotes Paul: &quot;Therefore, brethren, stand fast, and hold the traditions which ye have been taught, whether by our spoken word, or by our epistle.&quot; ([[2 Thessalonians]] 2:15). The Orthodox Church also believes that the [[Holy Spirit]] works through history to reveal truth to the Church, and that He weeds out falsehood in order that the Truth may grow. ===The Bible=== In Orthodoxy the Bible is not always interpreted with &quot;wooden literalism&quot;. In Orthodoxy, the true believer accepts what is written in The Bible, and never doubts it, but the attitude of Eastern Orthodox toward various details varies, for example concerning the [[Theory of Evolution]]. While many Orthodox do not consider this theory to be necessarily problematic in and of itself, its [[Naturalism|naturalist]] implications clearly contradict the Orthodox Christian belief that ultimately, God created the Universe, regardless of the means used. Orthodoxy interprets truth based on three witness; the consensus of the Holy Fathers and Mothers of the Church; the ongoing teaching of the Holy Spirit guiding the life of the Church through the nous, or mind of the Church, which is believed to be the Mind of Christ; but also in typography, hymnology and iconography. The consensus of the Church over time defines its catholicity&amp;mdash;that which is believed at all times by the entire Church. Those who disagreed with what came to be considered the consensus are not accepted as authentic &quot;Fathers.&quot; All theological concepts must be in agreement with that consensus. Even those considered to be authentic &quot;Fathers&quot; may have some theological opinions that are not universally shared, but are not actually h
-ed.org/heus Encyclopedia of Higher Education in the United States] *[http://www.ericdigests.org/2002-3/finance.htm How Minority Students Finance Their Higher Education] *[http://www.ericdigests.org/2003-3/quality.htm Ensuring Quality and Productivity in Higher Education] *[http://www.cdtl.nus.edu.sg/success Writings on Higher Education Practice from the National University of Singapore] *[http://www.ericdigests.org/2003-3/reform.htm Reform Initiatives in Higher Education] *[http://www.ericdigests.org/pre-9219/higher.htm Budgeting for Higher Education at the State Level: Enigma, Paradox, and Ritual] *[http://www.ericdigests.org/pre-926/blue.htm Blue Ribbon Commissions and Higher Education] *[http://www.fullyemployedmba.com/x374.php Part Time MBA - Balancing Life, Work and School - Article] *[http://www.acenet.edu/ American Council on Education] *[http://www.gseis.ucla.edu/heri/heri.html Higher Education Research Institute] *[http://www.ashe.ws/ Association for the Study of Higher Education] [[Category:Educational stages]] [[de:Studium]] [[es:Educación superior]] [[fr:Études supérieures]] [[ja:高等教育]] [[th:อุดมศึกษา]] [[uk:Вища освіта]] [[zh:高等教育]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Henry Chadwick/Sample writing</title> <id>14424</id> <revision> <id>15911982</id> <timestamp>2003-07-21T20:25:43Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Docu</username> <id>8029</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>redir</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Henry Chadwick]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Hara-kiri</title> <id>14425</id> <revision> <id>15911983</id> <timestamp>2003-07-16T07:06:58Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Emperorbma</username> <id>12403</id> </contributor> <comment>Informal use is a redirect</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Seppuku]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Heather Fargo</title> <id>14428</id> <revision> <id>41546097</id> <timestamp>2006-02-28T01:48:41Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Bretjb</username> <id>551339</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>rm vandalism</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Heather Fargo''' (born [[December 12]], [[1952]], in [[Oakland, California]]) has been [[Mayor of Sacramento, California]] since [[2001]]. She received a [[Bachelor of Science]] degree in Environmental Planning and Management from the [[University of California, Davis]] in [[1975]]. Fargo was first elected to the [[Sacramento, California|Sacramento]] City Council in [[1989]] representing District One. She was re-elected in [[1994]] and [[1998]]. Prior to becoming Mayor full-time, she was employed as a manager of the California State Parks Volunteer Program. In the late 1990s and early 2000s, Mayor Heather Fargo made several abortive attempts to provide taxpayer financing of a new stadium for the Maloof brothers, owners of the Kings NBA basketball franchise. Mayor Fargo's tenure also saw the passing of a resolution for immediate unilateral withdrawal from the War on Terror in Iraq, and a resolution condemning the Patriot Act. {{California-politician-stub}} [[Category:Leaders of cities in California|Fargo, Heather]] [[Category:1952 births|Fargo, Heather]] [[Category:Living people|Fargo, Heather]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Henotheism</title> <id>14429</id> <revision> <id>41751061</id> <timestamp>2006-03-01T14:01:59Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>DabMachine</username> <id>922466</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>disambiguation from [[Myth]] to [[Mythology]] - ([[WP:DPL|You can help!]])</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">In [[religion]] and [[philosophy]], '''henotheism''' is a term coined by [[Max Müller]], meaning devotion to a single [[deity|god]] while accepting the existence of other [[gods]]. It is derived from the Greek ''heis theos'', &quot;one god&quot;. According to Müller, it is &quot;[[monotheism]] in principle and a [[polytheism]] in fact&quot;. Variations on the term have been '''inclusive monotheism''' and '''monarchial polytheism''', designed to differentiate differing forms of the phenomenon. Related terms are [[monolatrism]] and [[kathenotheism]], which are typically understood as sub-types of henotheism. The latter term is an extension of &quot;henotheism&quot;, from ''kath heno theon'' &amp;ndash; &quot;one god at a time&quot;. Henotheism is similar but less exclusive than [[monolatry]] because a monolator worships only one god, while the henotheist may worship any within the [[pantheon (gods)|pantheon]], depending on circumstances. In some [[Belief system|belief systems]], the choice of the supreme deity within a henotheistic framework may be determined by cultural, geographical, or political reasons. ==Henotheism in various religions== ===Classical Greco-Roman [[Paganism]]=== While [[Greek mythology|Greek]] and [[Roman mythology|Roman]] religion began as [[polytheism]], during the [[Classical antiquity|Classical]] period the religion was thoroughly henotheistic, taking the form of a monarchical polytheism. [[Zeus]] (or [[jupiter (god)|Jupiter]]) was viewed as the supreme, all-powerful and all-knowing, king and father of the Olympian gods. To illustrate, [[Maximus Tyrius]] ([[2nd century]] C.E.), stated: :&quot;In such a mighty contest, sedition and discord, you will see one according law and assertion in all the earth, that there is one God, the king and father of all things, and many gods, sons of God, ruling together with him.&quot; The Philosophers [[Plato]] and [[Plotinus]] taught that above the gods of traditional belief was &quot;The One&quot;. The One ([[God]]) is transcendent and ineffable. ===Hinduism=== It is difficult clearly to characterise Hinduism, which can take the form of pantheistic monism, as in [[Vedanta]], or monotheism, as in [[Smarta]] Hinduism. In popular form it appears sometimes as polytheism, or as inclusive monotheism admitting emanating deities. However, Rig Veda (undeveloped early Hinduism), was what Max Müller based his views of henotheism on. In the four [[Vedas]], Müller believed that a striving towards One was being aimed at by the worship of different cosmic principles, such as [[Agni]] (fire), [[Vayu]] (wind), [[Indra]] (rain, thunder, the sky), etc. each of which was variously, by clearly different writers, hailed as supreme in different sections of the books. Indeed, however, what was confusing was an early idea of Rita, or supreme order, that bound all the gods. Other phrases such as ''Ekam Sat, Vipraha Bahudha Vadanti'' (Truth is One, though the sages know it as many) led to understandings that the Vedic people admitted to fundamental oneness. From this mix of [[monism]], monotheism and naturalist polytheism Max Müller decided to name the early Vedic religion henotheistic. However, unprecedented and thitherto unduplicated ideas of pure [[monism]] are to be found even in the early [[Rig Veda]] [[Samhita]], notwithstanding clearly monist and monotheist movements of Hinduism that developed with the advent of the [[Upanishads]]. One such example of early Vedic monism is the Nasadiya hymn of the Rig Veda: &quot;That One breathed by itself without breath, other than it there has been nothing.&quot; To collectively term the Vedas henotheistic, and thus further leaning towards polytheism, rather than monotheism, may play down the clearly monist bent of the Vedas that were thoroughly developed as early as [[1000s BCE|1000 BCE]] in the first [[Aranyaka]]s and [[Upanishads]]. However, to deny that a form of polytheism is also present may equally be to ignore aspects of the early Vedic texts. Whether the concept of &quot;henotheism&quot; adequately addresses these complexities or simply fudges them is a matter of debate. As for classical Hinduism, it evolved within the Vedic line but truly came into being with the ascendancy of aspects of God like [[Shiva]] and [[Vishnu]] in the Puranic and post-Puranic developments. Many sects of monotheistic [[bhakti]] (loving devotion) worshippers came into vogue who, while admitting other deities, saw them as clearly emanating from one principal source. Extreme monists within the [[Advaita Vedanta]] movement, [[Yoga]] philosophy and certain non-dual [[Tantra]] schools of Hinduism preclude a broad categorization of Hinduism as henotheistic, what with the conception of [[Brahman]], a formless non-being-being that is posited to be pure consciousness, beyond attributes, the Divine Ground from which all else that is limited and temporal sprang. The fundamental Hindu trinity, [[Brahma (god)|Brahma]], [[Vishnu]] and [[Shiva]] are seen as many as being creation, preservation and destruction subsumed in one cycle of being that is ultimately transcended with the attainment of [[moksha]]. Nevertheless, different devotional traditions have disputed the primacy of Shiva over Vishnu and ''vice versa''. Again &quot;henotheism&quot; is a loose term covering complex traditions and disputes. The period of Hinduism that most closely corresponded to henotheism as Müller understood it was the early Vedic period (before [[1000s BCE|1000 BCE]] within the four preliminary Vedas) and even that is disputed by some scholars, most notably the great Hindu mystic [[Aurobindo Ghosh]]. ===Christianity=== Although most Christians adamantly label themselves as [[monotheism|monotheists]], some argue that [[Christianity]] is properly a form of henotheism. Most forms of Christianity include the belief in a [[Godhead (Christianity)|Christian Godhead]] consisting of [[God the Father]], [[Jesus]], and the [[Holy Spirit]], with God the Father being dominant &quot;actor&quot; and &quot;creator&quot; &amp;ndash; though most Christians reject the view that God
om/south-america-map.htm South America Maps] *{{en icon}} [http://www.globe-images.com/south-america.htm South America Satellite Images] *{{es icon}} [http://www.fotos-de-argentina.com.ar/ Photos of Argentina] ===Travel=== *{{es icon}} [http://www.turismo.gov.ar/ Secretaria de Turismo de la Nacion] - Official tourism website *{{es icon}} [http://www.argentinatravelnet.com/ Directory of travel websites] *{{en icon}} [http://www.roadjunky.com/argentina/guide_argentina.shtml Travel tips and a deep look at Argentine culture] *{{en icon}} [http://www.argentinacafe.com/ Guidebook reviews and flight tips] *{{en icon}} [http://www.destination360.com/south-america/argentina/argentina.php Travel highlights] *{{en icon}} [http://www.thowra.com/argentina.html Interesting places] *{{en icon}} [http://www.VisitGayBA.com VisitGayBA.com] *{{en icon}} {{wikitravel}} ===Other=== *{{es icon}} [http://www.josemariarosa.galeon.com/ José María Rosa historian] *{{es icon}} [http://www.elhistoriador.com.ar/ Felipe Pigna historian] *{{en icon}} [http://www.argentina-information.com/ Essential facts and other information] *{{en icon}} [http://www.coha.org Council on Hemispheric Affairs] *{{en icon}} [http://www.latinbusinesschronicle.com/argentina Latin Business Chronicle] *{{en icon}} [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/ar.html CIA World Factbook] &lt;/div&gt; {{Provinces of Argentina}} {{South America}} [[Category:Argentina| ]] [[Category:South American countries|Argentina]] {{Link FA|de}} [[af:Argentinië]] [[ar:الأرجنتين]] [[an:Archentina]] [[ast:Arxentina]] [[bg:Аржентина]] [[zh-min-nan:Argentina]] [[be:Аргентына]] [[bn:আর্জেন্টিনা]] [[bs:Argentina]] [[ca:Argentina]] [[cs:Argentina]] [[cy:Ariannin]] [[da:Argentina]] [[de:Argentinien]] [[et:Argentina]] [[el:Αργεντινή]] [[es:Argentina]] [[eo:Argentino]] [[eu:Argentina]] [[fr:Argentine]] [[gd:Argentina]] [[gl:Arxentina - Argentina]] [[ko:아르헨티나]] [[ht:Ajantin]] [[hi:अर्जेन्टीना]] [[hr:Argentina]] [[io:Arjentinia]] [[id:Argentina]] [[ia:Argentina]] [[is:Argentína]] [[it:Argentina]] [[he:ארגנטינה]] [[hy:Արգենտինա]] [[ka:არგენტინა]] [[kw:Arghantina]] [[ku:Arjantîn]] [[la:Argentina]] [[lv:Argentīna]] [[lt:Argentina]] [[lb:Argentinien]] [[li:Argentinië]] [[hu:Argentína]] [[mk:Аргентина]] [[ms:Argentina]] [[nah:Arxentina]] [[na:Argentina]] [[nl:Argentinië]] [[nds:Argentinien]] [[ja:アルゼンチン]] [[no:Argentina]] [[nn:Argentina]] [[oc:Argentina]] [[pl:Argentyna]] [[pt:Argentina]] [[ro:Argentina]] [[qu:Arxintina]] [[ru:Аргентина]] [[sa:अर्जन्टीना]] [[sq:Argjentina]] [[simple:Argentina]] [[sk:Argentína]] [[sl:Argentina]] [[sr:Аргентина]] [[fi:Argentiina]] [[sv:Argentina]] [[tl:Arhentina]] [[ta:அர்ஜென்டினா]] [[th:ประเทศอาร์เจนตินา]] [[vi:Argentina]] [[tr:Arjantin]] [[uk:Аргентина]] [[yi:אַרגענטינע]] [[zh:阿根廷]] [[fiu-vro:Argentina]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Armenia</title> <id>745</id> <revision> <id>42152036</id> <timestamp>2006-03-04T04:03:02Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>68.41.31.120</ip> </contributor> <comment>/* Origin of the name */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses1|the country in Eurasia}} &lt;!-- BEGIN INFOBOX --&gt; {{Infobox Country | native_name = Հայաստանի Հանրապետություն&lt;br /&gt; Hayastani Hanrapetutyun&lt;br /&gt; Republic of Armenia | common_name = Armenia | image_flag = Flag of Armenia.svg | image_coat = Coa_Armenia.jpg | national_motto = ''none'' | image_map = LocationArmenia.png | national_anthem = ''[[Mer Hayrenik]]'' | official_languages = [[Armenian language|Armenian]] | capital = [[Yerevan]] |latd=40|latm=16|latNS=N|longd=44|longm=34|longEW=E| government_type = [[Republic]] | leader_titles = [[President of Armenia|President]]&lt;br /&gt; [[Prime Minister of Armenia|Prime Minister]] | leader_names = [[Robert Kocharian]]&lt;br /&gt; [[Andranik Markaryan]] | largest_city = [[Yerevan]] | area = 29,800 | areami² = 11,506 | &lt;!--Do not remove --&gt; area_rank = 139th &lt;small&gt;1&lt;/small&gt; | area_magnitude = 1 E11 | percent_water = 4.7 | population_estimate = 2,982,904 | population_estimate_year = 2005 | population_estimate_rank = 133rd | population_census = 3,288,000 | population_census_year = 1989 | population_density = 100 | population_densitymi² = 259 | &lt;!--Do not remove --&gt; population_density_rank = 74th | GDP_PPP_year = 2005 | GDP_PPP = $13,650,000,000 | GDP_PPP_rank = 130th | GDP_PPP_per_capita = $4,600 | GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 119th | HDI_year = 2003 | HDI = 0.759 | HDI_rank = 83rd | HDI_category = &lt;font color=&quot;#FFCC00&quot;&gt;medium&lt;/font&gt; | sovereignty_type = [[Independence]] | established_events = &amp;nbsp;-&amp;nbsp;Declared&lt;br /&gt; &amp;nbsp;-&amp;nbsp;Established | established_dates = From the [[Soviet Union]]&lt;br/ &gt; [[August 23]] [[1990]]&lt;br/ &gt; [[September 21]] [[1991]] | currency = [[Dram (currency)|Dram]] | currency_code = AMD | time_zone = [[UTC]] | utc_offset = +4 | time_zone_DST = [[DST]] | utc_offset_DST = +5 | cctld = [[.am]] | calling_code = 374 | footnotes = &lt;small&gt;1: Area does not include [[Nagorno-Karabakh]].&lt;/small&gt; | }} &lt;!-- END INFOBOX --&gt; The '''Republic of Armenia''', or '''Armenia''' ([[Armenian language|Armenian]]: {{Hayeren|Հայաստան}}, ''Hayastan'', {{Hayeren|Հայք}}, ''Hayq''), is a [[landlocked]] [[Eurasian]] country in the [[Caucasus]] region, bordered by [[Turkey]] to the west, [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]] to the north, [[Azerbaijan]] to the east, and [[Iran]] and the [[Nakhichevan]] [[exclave]] of Azerbaijan to the south. Armenia is a member of the [[Council of Europe]] and the [[Commonwealth of Independent States]] and for centuries has been on the crossroads between the east and west. == Origin of the name == The original [[Armenian language|Armenian]] name for the country was ''Hayq'', later ''Hayastan'', translated as ''the land of Haik'', and consisting of the name Haik and the [[Persian language|Persian]] suffix '[[-stan]]' (land). According to legend, [[Haik]] was a great-great-grandson of [[Noah]] (son of [[Togarmah]], who was a son of [[Gomer]], a son of Noah's son, [[Japheth]]), and according to an ancient Armenian tradition, a forefather of all [[Armenian people|Armenians]]. He is said to have settled below [[Mount Ararat]], travelled to assist in building the [[Tower of Babel]], and, after his return, defeated the [[Babylon|Babylonian]] king Bel (believed by some researchers to be [[Nimrod]]) on [[August 11]], [[25th century BC|2492 BC]] near [[Lake Van]], in the southern part of historic Armenia (presently in [[Turkey]]). Hayq was given the name Armenia by the surrounding states, as it was the name of the strongest tribe living in the historic Armenian lands, who called themselves ''Armens''. It is traditionally derived from ''Armenak'' or ''Aram'' (the great-grandson of Haik's great-grandson, and another leader who is, according to Armenian tradition, the ancestor of all Armenians). Some Jewish and Christian scholars write that the name 'Armenia' was derived from ''Har-Minni'', that is 'Mountains of Minni' (or [[Mannai]]). Pre-Christian accounts suggest that ''Nairi'', meaning ''land of rivers'', was an ancient name for the country's mountainous region, first used by [[Assyrians]] around [[1200 BC]]; while the first recorded inscription bearing the name Armenia, namely the [[Behistun Inscription]] in [[Iran]], dates from [[521 BC]]. == History == {{History of Armenia}} {{main|History of Armenia}} Armenia has been populated by humans since prehistoric times, and has been proposed as the site of the Biblical [[Garden of Eden]]. Armenia was a regional empire with a rich culture in the years leading up to the [[1st century]], spanning from the shores of the [[Black Sea]] to the [[Caspian Sea]] and the [[Mediterranean Sea]] during the rule of [[Tigranes the Great]]. Armenia's strategic location between two continents has subjected it to invasions by many peoples, including the [[Assyrians]], [[Persians]], [[Greeks]], [[ancient Rome|Romans]], [[Byzantines]], [[Arabs]], [[Turkic peoples|Turks]] and [[Mongols]]. In [[Anno Domini|AD]] [[301]], Armenia became the first country in the world to adopt [[Christianity]] as its official [[state religion]], twelve years before the Roman Empire granted Christianity official toleration under [[Galerius]], and some 30-40 years before Constantine was baptised. There had been various [[paganism|pagan]] communities before Christianity, but they were converted by an influx of Christian missionaries. Having changed between various dynasties -- including [[Parthian]] (Iranian), [[Ancient Rome|Roman]], [[Byzantine]], [[Arab]], [[Mongol]] and [[Iran|Persian]] occupations -- Armenia was substantially weakened. In 1500's, the [[Ottoman Empire]] and [[Safavid]] Persia divided Armenia among themselves. In 1813 and 1828, present-day Armenia (consisting of the [[Erivan]] and [[Karabakh]] [[khanate]]s within Persia) was temporarily incorporated into the [[Russian Empire]]. After a short-lived independent republic established after the [[Bolshevik Revolution]] in [[Petrograd]], Armenia was incorporated into the [[Union of Soviet Socialist Republics|USSR]]. Between 1922 and 1936 it existed as the [[Transcaucasian Soviet Federated Socialist Republic]] (with Georgia, Armenia, and Azerbaijan), and from 1936 to 1991 as the [[Armenian SSR]]. During the final years of the [[Ottoman Empire]] ([[1915]]-[[1922]]), a large proportion of Armenians living in [[Anatolia]] perished as a result of what is termed the [[Armenian Genocide]], regarded by Armenians and the vast majority of Western historians to have been state-sponsored mass killings. Turkish authorities, however, maintain that the deaths were a result of a [[civil war]] coupled with disease and [[famine]], with casualties incurred by both sides. Most estimates for the number of Armenians killed range from [[Ottoman Armenian casualties|650,000 to 1,500,000]], and these ev
between the groups thus denominated. Today the descendants of the [[16th century]] European movement (particularly the [[Amish]], [[Hutterite]]s, &amp; [[Mennonite]]s) are the most common bodies referred to as Anabaptist. Yet other bodies (such as the early English Baptists) were also referred to by their enemies as Anabaptists, and are clearly Anabaptists in the generally accepted sense of the term. The majority of [[Baptist]]s further engage in a practice others consider &quot;rebaptizing&quot; in that they usually ''re''baptize even adult believers who were baptized by some mode other than immersion or who had not had a &quot;believers' baptism&quot;. Christian church historians generally believe that there is no historical continuity between anabaptists in the first few centuries of Christianity and later anabaptist groups. ==Anabaptist origins== ===Forerunners=== Though the majority opinion is that Anabaptists began with the Radical Reformers in the 16th century, certain people and groups may still legitimately be considered their forerunners. [[Peter Chelcicky]], [[15th century]] [[Bohemia]]n ''Reformer'', taught most of the beliefs considered integral to Anabaptist theology. Medieval antecedents may include the ''Brethren of the Common Life'', the [[Hussite]]s, and some forms of monasticism. The [[Waldensian]]s also represent a faith similar to the Anabaptists. In the following points Anabaptists resembled the medieval dissenters: # Some followed [[Menno Simons]] in teaching that Jesus did not take the flesh from his mother, but either brought his body from heaven or had one made for him by the Word. Some even said that he passed through his mother, as water through a pipe, into the world. In pictures and sculptures of the 15th century and earlier, we often find represented this idea, originated by [[Marcion]] in the [[2nd century]]. The Anabaptists were accused of denying the [[Incarnation]] of Christ: a charge that Menno Simons repeatedly rejected. # They condemned oaths, and also the reference of disputes between believers to law-courts. # The believer must not bear arms or offer forcible resistance to wrongdoers, nor wield the sword. No Christian has the [[jus gladii]]. # Civil government (i.e. &quot;[[Caesar (title)|Caesar]]&quot;) belongs to the world. The believer, who belongs to God's kingdom, must not fill any office, nor hold any rank under government, which is to be passively obeyed. # Sinners or unfaithful ones are to be excommunicated, and excluded from the sacraments and from intercourse with believers unless they repent, according to Matt.18:15 seq. But no force is to be used towards them. Some sects calling themselves [[Spirituales]] or [[Perfecti]] also held that the baptized cannot sin, a very ancient tenet. They seem to have preserved among them the primitive manual called the Teaching of the Apostles, for Bishop Longland in [[England]] condemned an Anabaptist for repeating one of its maxims &quot;that alms should not be given before they did sweat in a man's hand.&quot; This was between 1518 and 1521. ===Views of origins=== Research on the origins of the Anabaptists has been tainted both by the attempts of their enemies to slander them, and the attempts of their friends to vindicate them. It was long popular to simply lump all Anabaptists as Munsterites and radicals associated with the [[Zwickau]] Prophets, [[Jan Matthys]], [[John of Leiden]] (also Jan Bockelson van Leiden, Jan of Leyden), and [[Thomas Muentzer]]. Those desiring to correct this error tended to over-correct and deny all connections between the larger Anabaptist movement and this most radical element. The modern era of Anabaptist historiography arose with the work of Roman Catholic scholar [[Carl Adolf Cornelius]]' publication of ''Die Geschichte des Münsterischen Aufruhrs'' in 1855. Baptist historian [[Albert Henry Newman]] (1852-1933), whom Bender said occupied &quot;first position in the field of American Anabaptist Historiography&quot;, made a major contribution with his ''A History of Anti-Pedobaptism''. Though a number of theories exist concerning origins, the three main ideas are that, # Anabaptists began in a single expression in Zürich and spread from there (Monogenesis), # Anabaptists began through several independent movements ([[polygenism|polygenesis]]), and # Anabaptists are a continuation of New Testament Christianity (apostolic succession or church perpetuity). ====Monogenesis==== A number of scholars (e.g. Bender, Estep, Friedmann) have seen all the Anabaptists as rising out of the Swiss Brethren movement of [[Conrad Grebel]], [[Felix Manz]], [[Georg Blaurock]], et al. The older view among Mennonite historians generally held that Anabaptism had its origins in [[Zürich]], and that the Anabaptism of the Swiss Brethren was transmitted to South Germany, Austria, the Netherlands, and North Germany, where it developed into its various branches. The monogenesis theory usually rejects the Münsterites and other radicals from the category of true Anabaptists. In this view the time of origin is [[January 21]], [[1525]], when Grebel baptized Georg Blaurock, and Blaurock baptized other followers. This remains the most popular single time posited for the establishment of Anabaptism. But in the last quarter of the [[20th century]], Deppermann, Packull, and others suggested that [[February 24]], [[1527]] at Schleitheim is the proper date of the origin of Anabaptism. This correlates with the following polygenesis theory. ====Polygenesis==== [[James M. Stayer]], [[Werner O. Packull]], and [[Klaus Deppermann]] disputed the idea of a single origin of Anabaptists in a 1975 essay entitled &quot;From Monogenesis to Polygenesis&quot;. That article, emphasizing distinctive characteristics and distinct sources, has become a widely accepted treatment of the plural origins of Anabaptism. According to these authors, South German-Austrian Anabaptism &quot;was a diluted form of [[Rhineland]] mysticism,&quot; Swiss Anabaptism &quot;arose out of Reformed [[congregationalism]]&quot;, and Dutch Anabaptism was formed by &quot;Social unrest and the apocalyptic visions of [[Melchior Hoffman]]&quot;. Pilgram Marpeck's ''Vermanung'' of 1542 was deeply influenced by the ''Bekenntnisse'' of 1533 by Münster theologian [[Bernhard Rothmann]]. The Hutterites used Melchior Hoffman's commentary on the Apocalypse shortly after he wrote it. [[David Joris]], a disciple of Hoffman, was the most important Anabaptist leader in the Netherlands before 1540. Grete Mecenseffy and Walter Klaassen established links between Thomas Muentzer and Hans Hut, and the work of Gottfried Seebaß and Werner Packull clearly showed the influence of Thomas Muentzer on the formation of South German Anabaptism. Steven Ozment's work linked [[Hans Denck]] and [[Hans Hut]] with Thomas Muentzer, [[Sebastian Franck]], and others. Calvin Pater has shown that [[Andreas Karlstadt]] influenced Swiss Anabaptism in areas including his view of Scripture, doctrine of the church, and views on baptism. ====Apostolic succession==== {{main|Theology of Anabaptism}} Another theory is that the 16th century Anabaptists were part of an [[apostolic succession]] of churches (or ''church perpetuity'') from the time of Christ. According to this idea there had been a continuity of small groups outside the [[Roman Catholic Church]] from A.D. [[30]] to 1525 (which continues also to the present). Proponents of this view point out many common expressions of belief in these Catholic dissenters. The opponents of this theory emphasize that these non-Catholic groups differed from each other, that they held some heretical views, and/or that they had no connection with one another. This view is held by some Baptists, some Mennonites, and a number of &quot;true church&quot; movements.{{ref|true}} The writings of [[John T. Christian]], [[New Orleans Baptist Theological Seminary]] professor, contain perhaps the best scholarly presentation of this successionist view. Somewhat related to this is that the Anabaptists are of Waldensian origin. Some hold the idea that the Waldenses are part of the apostolic succession, while others simply believe they were an independent group out of whom the Anabaptists arose. Estep asserts &quot;the Waldenses disappeared in Switzerland a century before the rise of the Anabaptist movement.&quot; Ludwig Keller, Thomas M. Lindsay, H. C. Vedder, Delbert Grätz, and Thieleman van Braght all held, in varying degrees, the position that the Anabaptists were of Waldensian origin. ==Types of Anabaptists== It is beneficial to recognize different types among the Anabaptists, although these categorizations tend to vary with the scholar's viewpoint on origins. Estep claims that in order to understand Anabaptism, one must &quot;distinguish between the Anabaptists, inspirationists, and rationalists.&quot; He classes the likes of Blaurock, Grebel, Hübmaier, Manz, Marpeck, and Simons as Anabaptists. He groups Muentzer, Storch, et al. as inspirationists, and anti-trinitarians such as [[Michael Servetus]], [[Juan de Valdes|Juan de Valdés]], [[Sebastian Castellio]], and [[Faustus Socinus]] as [[rationalism|rationalists]]. Mark S. Ritchie follows this line of thought, saying, &quot;The Anabaptists were one of several branches of 'Radical' reformers (i.e. reformers that went further than the mainstream Reformers) to arise out of the Renaissance and Reformation. Two other branches were Spirituals or Inspirationists, who believed that they had received direct revelation from the Spirit, and rationalists or anti-Trinitarians, who rebelled against traditional Christian doctrine, like Michael Servetus.&quot; Those of the polygenesis viewpoint use ''Anabaptist'' to define the larger movement, and include the inspirationists and rationalists as true Anabaptists. James M. Stayer used the term ''Anabaptist'' for those who ''rebaptized'' persons already baptized in infancy. Walter Klaassen
|Jack Johnson]] becomes the first [[African American]] [[heavyweight]] [[boxing]] champion by defeating [[Tommy Burns]] in [[Sydney]], [[Australia]]. *[[1916]] - [[Joseph Joffre]] is made [[Marshal of France]]. *[[1925]] - The [[Communist Party of India]] is founded. *[[1925]] - [[Turkey]] adopts the [[Gregorian Calendar]]. *[[1931]] - The [[Phi Iota Alpha]] fraternity is founded. *[[1933]] - The [[Nissan Motors|Nissan]] Motor Company is organized in [[Tokyo]], [[Japan]]. *[[1933]] - [[Frequency modulation|FM radio]] is patented. *[[1943]] - [[World War II]]: The German warship ''[[German battlecruiser Scharnhorst|Scharnhorst]]'' sinks off the coast of North Cape in [[Norway]] after being attacked by the [[British Royal Navy]] late the previous evening. *[[1944]] - The play ''[[The Glass Menagerie]]'' by [[Tennessee Williams]] is first publicly performed. *[[1944]] - [[World War II]]: [[U.S.]] troops repulse [[Germany|German]] forces at [[Bastogne]]. *[[1945]] - [[CFP franc]] and [[CFA franc]] are created. *[[1946]] - The [[Flamingo Las Vegas|Flamingo Hotel]] opens in [[Las Vegas, Nevada|Las Vegas]]. *[[1947]] - Twenty-six inches of [[snow]] falls in 16 hours in [[New York City]]. *[[1948]] - [[Cardinal Mindszenty]] is arrested in [[Hungary]] and accused of and accused of treason and conspiracy. *[[1966]] - The first [[Kwanzaa]] is celebrated by [[Maulana Karenga]], the chair of [[Black Studies]] at [[California State University, Long Beach]]. *[[1973]] - [[Comet Kohoutek]] reaches [[perihelion]] but is not such a display as expected. *[[1973]] - [[Soyuz 13]] lands on [[earth]] after a week in orbit. *[[1974]] - [[Salyut 4]] is launched. *[[1975]] - The [[Tupolev Tu-144]] goes into service in [[Soviet Union]]. *[[1976]] - The [[Communist Party of Nepal (Marxist-Leninist)]] is founded. *[[1979]] - [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] Special forces troops take over presidential palace in [[Kabul]], [[Afghanistan]]. *[[1980]] - [[Aeroflot]] puts the [[Ilyushin Il-86]] into service. *[[1982]] - ''[[TIME|TIME magazine]]'s'' [[Man of the Year]] was for the first time given to a non-human, the [[personal computer]]. *[[1984]] - [[Princess Astrid of Belgium]] marries Archduke [[Lorenz of Austria-Este]]. *[[1986]] - The first long-running American television [[soap opera]], ''[[Search for Tomorrow]]'', airs its final episode after thirty-five years on the air. *[[1988]] - The [[Nanjing Anti-African protests]] in [[Nanjing]], [[China]] begin. *[[1991]] - [[Supreme Soviet]] meets and formally dissolves the [[Soviet Union|USSR]]. *[[1991]] - [[Mount Pinatubo]] erupts. *[[1996]] - [[JonBenét Ramsey]], a six-year-old [[beauty queen]], is found murdered in her family's basement in [[Boulder, Colorado]]. *[[1996]] - The [[United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification]] goes into force. *[[1998]] - [[Iraq]] announced its intention to fire upon [[U.S.]] and [[United Kingdom|British]] warplanes that patrol the northern and southern [[Iraqi no-fly zones|no-fly zones]]. *[[1998]] - Severe gales over [[Ireland]], northern [[England]], and southern [[Scotland]] cause widespread disruption and widespread power outages in [[Northern Ireland]] and southern [[Scotland]]. *[[1999]] - Severe weather in [[France]] kills over 100 people and causes extensive damage to property and trees and the French national power grid (see [[Lothar (storm)|Lothar]]). *[[2002]] - French [[Raelism|Raelian]] [[scientist]] [[Brigitte Boisselier]] says [[Clonaid]] has delivered the first of a supposed five [[Cloning|clone]] babies through [[cesarean section]]. *[[2003]] - A major [[earthquake]] devastates southeast [[Iran]]ian city of [[Bam]], killing tens of thousands and destroying the citadel of [[Arg-é Bam]]. *[[2004]] - An [[2004 Indian Ocean earthquake|earthquake]] measuring 9.0 on the [[Richter magnitude scale]] creates a [[tsunami]] causing devastation in [[Sri Lanka]], [[India]], [[Indonesia]], [[Thailand]], [[Malaysia]], The [[Maldives]] and many other areas around the rim of the [[Indian Ocean]], killing more than 300,000. ==Births== *[[1194]] - [[Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor]] (d. [[1250]]) *[[1532]] - [[Guilielmus Xylander]], German classical scholar (d. [[1576]]) *[[1536]] - [[Yi I]], Korean Confucian scholar (d. [[1584]]) *[[1646]] - [[Robert Bolling]], English settler in Virginia (d. [[1709]]) *[[1687]] - [[Johann Georg Pisendel]], German musician (d. [[1755]]) *[[1716]] - [[Thomas Gray]], English writer (d. [[1771]]) * 1716 - [[Jean François de Saint-Lambert]], French poet (d. [[1803]]) *[[1723]] - [[Friedrich Melchior, baron von Grimm]], German writer (d. [[1807]]) *[[1737]] - [[Prince Josias of Coburg]], Austrian general (d. [[1815]]) *[[1751]] - [[Clement Hofbauer]], Austrian missionary and saint (d. [[1820]]) *[[1780]] - [[Mary Somerville|Mary Fairfax Somerville]], British mathematician (d. [[1872]]) *[[1791]] - [[Charles Babbage]], English mathematician and inventor (d. [[1871]]) *[[1819]] - [[E. D. E. N. Southworth]], American novelist (d. [[1899]]) *[[1822]] - [[Dion Boucicault]], Irish actor and playwright (d. [[1890]]) *[[1837]] - [[George Dewey]], U. S. admiral (d. [[1917]]) *[[1853]] - [[René Bazin]], French novelist (d. [[1932]]) *[[1872]] - [[Norman Angell]], British politician, recipient of the [[Nobel Peace Prize]] (d. [[1967]]) *[[1873]] - [[Thomas Wass]], English cricketer (d. [[1953]]) *[[1890]] - [[Uncle Charlie Osborne]], American fiddler (d. [[1992]]) *[[1891]] - [[Henry Miller]], American writer (d. [[1980]]) *[[1893]] - [[Mao Zedong]], Chinese military leader and politician (d. [[1976]]) *[[1903]] - [[Elisha Cook Jr.]], American actor (d. [[1995]]) *[[1904]] - [[Alejo Carpentier]], Cuban writer (d. [[1980]]) *[[1914]] - [[Richard Widmark]], American actor *[[1921]] - [[Steve Allen]], American actor, comedian, composer, and author (d. [[2000]]) *[[1927]] - [[Alan King]], American comedian and actor (d. [[2004]]) * 1927 - [[Denis Quilley]], British actor (d. [[2003]]) *[[1933]] - [[Ugly Dave Grey]], Australian television personality *[[1935]] - [[Abdul &quot;Duke&quot; Fakir]], American singer ([[The Four Tops]]) *1935 - [[Norm Ullman]], Canadian [[ice hockey]] player *[[1937]] - [[Jay Heimowitz]], American poker player *[[1940]] - [[Edward C. Prescott]], American economist, [[Nobel Prize in Economics|Bank of Sweden Prize]] winner * 1940 - [[Phil Spector]], American music producer *[[1942]] - [[Gray Davis]], Governor of California, 1998-2003 *[[1945]] - [[John Walsh]], American talk show host *[[1947]] - [[Carlton Fisk]], baseball player *[[1949]] - [[José Ramos Horta]], Foreign Minister of East Timor, recipient of the [[Nobel Peace Prize]] *[[1954]] - [[Ozzie Smith]], baseball player * 1954 - [[Steve Steen]], English actor *[[1955]] - [[Evan Bayh]], U.S. Senator from [[Indiana]] *[[1956]] - [[David Sedaris]], American essayist *[[1959]] - [[Koji Morimoto]], Japanese animated film director *[[1961]] - [[John Lynch (actor)|John Lynch]], Northern Irish actor *[[1963]] - [[Lars Ulrich]], Danish drummer ([[Metallica]]) *[[1971]] - [[Jared Leto]], American actor * 1971 - [[Jonathan M. Parisen]], American film director *[[1976]] - [[Lea De Mae]], Czech actress (d. [[2004]]) ==Deaths== *[[268]] - [[Pope Dionysius]] *[[418]] - [[Pope Zosimus]] *[[1458]] - [[Arthur III, Duke of Brittany]] (b. [[1393]]) *[[1476]] - [[Galeazzo Maria Sforza]], Duke of Milan (b. [[1444]]) *[[1530]] - [[Babur]], Emperor of the Mogul empire (b. [[1483]]) *[[1574]] - [[Charles of Guise]], French cardinal (b. [[1524]]) *[[1624]] - [[Simon Marius]], German astronomer (b. [[1573]]) *[[1731]] - [[Antoine Houdar de la Motte]], French writer (b. [[1672]]) *[[1771]] - [[Claude Adrien Helvétius]], French philosopher (b. [[1715]]) *[[1780]] - [[John Fothergill (physician)|John Fothergill]], English physician (b. [[1712]]) *[[1784]] - [[Seth Warner]], American revolutionary leader (b. [[1743]]) *[[1786]] - [[Gasparo Gozzi]], Italian critic and dramatist (b. [[1713]]) *[[1869]] - [[Jean Louis Marie Poiseuille]], French physiologist (b. [[1797]]) *[[1890]] - [[Heinrich Schliemann]], German archaeologist (b. [[1822]]) *[[1909]] - [[Frederic Remington]], American artist (b. [[1861]]) *[[1933]] - [[Anatoly Lunacharsky]], Russian literary critic and politician (b. [[1875]]) *[[1960]] - [[Watsuji Tetsuro]], Japanese philosopher (b. [[1889]]) *[[1963]] - [[George Wagner]], American professional wrestler and television personality (b. [[1915]]) *[[1972]] - [[Harry S. Truman]], 33rd [[President of the United States]] (b. [[1884]]) *[[1973]] - [[Harold B. Lee]], president of [[Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints|The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]] (b. [[1899]]) *[[1974]] - [[Jack Benny]], American comedian (b. [[1894]]) *[[1977]] - [[Howard Hawks]], American film director and writer (b. [[1896]]) *[[1981]] - [[Savithri]], Telugu, Tamil Actress *[[1983]] - [[Violet Carson]], [[Order of the British Empire|OBE]], British actress *[[1985]] - [[Dian Fossey]], American gorilla specialist (b. [[1932]]) *[[1986]] - [[Elsa Lanchester]], British-born actress (b. [[1902]]) *[[1999]] - [[Curtis Mayfield]], American musician (b. [[1942]]) *[[1999]] - [[Shankar Dayal Sharma]], President of India (b. [[1918]]) *[[2000]] - [[Jason Robards]], American actor (b. [[1922]]) *[[2001]] - [[Nigel Hawthorne]], English actor (b. [[1929]]) *[[2002]] - [[Herb Ritts]], American photographer (b. [[1952]]) * 2002 - [[Armand Zildjian]], American cymbal manufacturer (b. [[1921]]) *[[2003]] - Sir [[Alan Bates]], British actor (b. [[1934]]) *[[2004]] - [[Marianne Heiberg]], Norwegian mediator (b. [[1945]]) *2004 - [[Aki Sirkesalo]], Finnish musician (b. [[1962]]) *2004 - [[Reggie White]], American football player (b. [[1961]]) *[[2005]] - [[Kerry Packer]], Australian businessman (b. [[1937]]) *2005 - [[Vincent Schiavelli]], American actor (b. [[1948]]) *2005 [[Erich Topp]], World War Two U-Boat Ace (b. [[1914]]) ==Holidays and observances== December 26 is a public ho
'''-low qualifier instead, but this is rare. This game is generally played at [[Fixed limit (poker)|fixed limit]]. When high hands only are used, the game is generally called &quot;Omaha high&quot; to avoid ambiguity. This game plays particularly well at [[pot limit]], called &quot;PLO&quot;. Another variant is to deal each player five cards instead of four. The same rules apply for showdown: each player must use two of his cards with three of the community cards. In the game of &quot;Courcheval&quot;, popular in Europe, instead of betting on the initial four cards and then flopping three community cards for the second round, the first community card is dealt before the first betting round, so that each player has four private cards and the single community card on his first bet. Then two more community cards are dealt, and play proceeds exactly as in Omaha. == Manila == One of the most popular games in [[Australia]]n casinos is a Texas hold 'em variant called &quot;Manila&quot; (also called &quot;Seven-up&quot; in some places). It is played with a [[Stripped deck]] in which all cards below the rank of '''7''' are removed (leaving 32 cards). Each player is dealt two private cards, and a single community card is dealt face up, followed by the first betting round. Then a second community card is followed by a second round, a third community card and a third round, and fourth community card and a fourth round, and finally a fifth community card, fifth betting round, and showdown. On showdown, unlike Texas hold 'em (and more like Omaha), each player makes the best hand he can from ''both'' of his hole cards with ''exactly three'' of the five community cards. Because of the stripped deck, a flush beats a full house. Also, an ace may ''not'' be played low for a straight (that is, the hand '''A-7-8-9-10''' is not a straight in Manila). Manila and its variants are rarely played high-low split (in fact, very few stripped deck games are ever played low). Common variations involve dealing three cards to each player, one of which can either be discarded at some point (like Pineapple, above), or else held to the end, but maintaining the requirement that each player play exactly two of his own cards with exactly three of the board. The three-card variant is sometimes played with '''6'''s being restored to the deck, making it 36 cards. === Pinatubo === Because Manila has five betting rounds, it does not play well at no limit or pot limit. This can be easily modified by eliminating the betting round between the second and third community cards. So, each player is dealt two private cards and a single community card is dealt to the board, followed by the first betting round. Then ''two'' community cards are dealt, followed by a second betting round. Then a fourth community card and third betting round, a fifth and final community card and fourth betting round, followed by a showdown as above. The three-card variant can be played this way as well (as with Manila, the player must use exactly two of his three hole cards with three of the board cards to make a hand). == &quot;Home&quot; games == Although some of these games (notably Chowaha and Tic tac toe) have been played in formal casino settings, they are generally better suited to less serious low-stakes home games. They also lend themselves to ad-hoc variation, since the games themselves have not been time-tested for balanced play as have many casino games, so making variations is likely to make the game much worse. === East Village === Also known as &quot;Newmyer's Seven Nuts&quot;, named for its inventor Chris Newmyer, East Village is a modification / bastardization of Omaha high-low split. Each player is dealt seven hole cards. The player then discards two of these cards, never to be seen again. Then, with 5 hole cards left in his hand, each player &quot;donates&quot; one of his cards. All the players &quot;donation&quot; cards are kept face down, and the dealer &quot;shuffles&quot; these cards with a scramble. These cards will then make up the three card flop, the one card turn, and the one card river. All betting takes place as in omaha, and the game is played high-low split with the 8-or-better qualifier. Each player plays the best five-card hand he can make from exactly two of his hole cards plus three of the five community cards. This game is best played with seven players (it cannot be played with more). If it is played with less than seven players, extra cards must be pulled from the stub to be added to the community cards, so that there are always seven community cards. Note that there are no &quot;burn cards&quot; used in this game. The best explanation of how to play the game is found at http://www.selfstarterfoundation.com/stealth/newmyerssevennuts_about.html . === Cincinnati === Each player is dealt five hole cards, and then one community card is dealt face up to the table. After a first betting round, a second community card is dealt, followed by a second betting round. This continues until a fifth community card is dealt, followed by a fifth betting round and showdown. Each player plays the best five-card hand he can make from his five hole cards plus the five community cards in any combination. More sane variants are to restrict each player to using exactly two of his hole cards (as in Omaha) or no more than two (as in Pineapple). === Council Bluffs === Council Bluffs (or Co-Blo for short) is Omaha with a twist. Each player still gets dealt their four hole cards then a round of betting occurs and the same rules of Omaha are followed until the show down. At the show down players have the option of using two or three cards from their hand (Omaha you can only use two). This variant always makes a flush possible. === Iron cross === Each player is dealt five hole cards, and then five community cards are dealt one at a time followed by a betting round, exactly as in Cincinnati. But they are dealt in a cross pattern with a center card (dealt last) and four other cards to its left, right, top, and bottom. Each player plays the best five-card poker hand he can make from his five hole cards plus the three cards from either the vertical arm or the horizontal arm of the cross. A common variant is to make the center card wild, or the center card and all of the same rank wild. One can also make a better game by reducing to four betting rounds: one after the hole cards are dealt but before any community cards are, then another after the left and right cards of the cross are dealt at the same time, a third after the top and bottom cards of the cross are dealt, and a final round after the center card is dealt. === Chowaha === Each player is dealt two hole cards and there is a round of betting as in Texas hold'em. After betting is complete the dealer deals three sets of three communities cards (F1, F2 and F3 in the diagram below). There is another round of betting and the dealer deals two turn cards (T1 and T2 in the diagram) followed by another round of betting. A single card is dealt (R1 in the diagram) and there is a final round of betting. Each player makes their best hand using both their hole cards plus three from one of the valid boards. There are four valid boards F1-F1-F1-T1-R1, F2-F2-F2-T1-R1, F2-F2-F2-T2-R1 and F3-F3-F3-T2-R1. F1-F1-F1 \ T1 F2-F2-F2 &lt; &gt; R1 T2 F3-F3-F3 / Chowaha is often played as a [[High-low split|high-low split]] game in which case you can use one board for the high hand and another for the low hand. Chowaha is occasionally played at low limits in casinos (usually in conjunction with [[B.A.R.G.E]]) and under must-drink, must-toke conditions. === Tic tac toe === In this game, each player will end up with two private cards, and there will be a board of nine cards arranged in a 3x3 square. Each player will make a five-card hand from a combination of his two cards plus any ''consecutive row'' of three on the board, either a horizontally, vertically, or diagonally (as in [[Tic-tac-toe]]). Variations exist in the number of betting rounds based on which community cards are revealed in what order. The simplest is probably to deal each player both hole cards then deal the three cards across the top of the 3x3 array before the first betting round; then deal the three cards across the bottom of the array followed by a second betting round; then deal the two cards on the left and right edge of the middle row, followed by a third round; and finally deal the center community card followed by a fourth betting round and showdown. Another variation is to deal three or four hole cards to each player, though each player may still only play exactly two of them with any consecutive row of three from the grid. (Need examples here) A poker-like beginner's home game is also called &quot;Tic tac toe&quot;; it involves dealing each player two hole cards and then dealing the 3x3 grid face up, followed by a single betting round after which players announce the best hand they can make from their two cards plus any consecutive row, column, or diagonal of the board as above. Hole cards can be redealt several times to the same board of community cards. This is primarily for practice at recognizing and evaluating poker hands. === Lame-brain Pete === Three hole cards are dealt to each player, followed by a first betting round. Then a single community card is dealt, followed by a second betting round. Play continues with a single community card being added to the board followed by a betting round, until there are four community cards, for a total of five betting rounds. Upon showdown, the lowest-ranking card on the board, and all cards of that same rank either on the board or in players' hole cards, play as wild cards (thus, it is not possible to know exactly which cards will be wild until the end, unless a deuce appears on the board earlier than that). Each player makes his best five-card poker hand from his three
ects. Once a quarry, it now boasts an artificial lake that serves as a public swimming pool in summer; it contains a magnificent statue by the Basque artist Eduardo Chillida. *Parc Nou del Prat, on the Llobregat delta, adjoining Sant Cosme and the airport This program of planned parks is often among the civic improvements for which the city actively seeks international events as spurs for redevelopment. For example, the upgrades to Montjuïc and the seaside industrial areas for the 1992 Olympic Games were accompanied by the building of recreational facilities in other parts of the city lacking development. One notable site is the Vall d'Hebron, a deep ravine in the foothills of the [[Collserola]] range north of the city. The urban design by Eduard Bru created a terraced sequence of belvedere-like platforms with views of the city. ==Crime== Barcelona, like other big cities, has a large number of criminals who mainly prey on tourists. They usually work in groups whereby the victim is distracted by one party while being robbed by another party. Many pickpockets are known to the police and some have been arrested hundreds of times only to be released once the police have filled in a report. Stealing money or goods worth less than about $360 without the use or threat of violence is classified as ''hurto'' or petty theft under Spanish law and is treated as a minor misdemeanor no matter how many times it is repeated. The problem is compounded by the few policemen &quot;walking the beat&quot; in Barcelona, even though the city has one of the highest police to citizen ratios in Europe. Areas where one should be particularly careful are the [[Barri Gòtic]], [[El Raval]], and the [[Rambla]]. Internet cafes are a popular target in general. It is not uncommon for thieves to cut bags and backpack straps. Mobile phone theft is also a popular petty theft crime when tourists leave their phones on tabletops. == Sister Cities == * [[Boston]], [[Massachusetts]], [[USA]] ==See also== *[[Municipal elections in Barcelona]] ==External links== {{Wiktionary}} {{commons|Barcelona|Barcelona}} *{{wikitravel}} *[http://www.bcn.cat/english/ihome.htm Official Web Site of Barcelona] *[http://www.barcelona.com Barcelona.com]Barcelona city guide *[http://www.lovento.com/cities/Barcelona Barcelona Nightlife, Venues, Events and Community] Independent Barcelona Nightlife Information without all this accommodation advertisement. Enjoy! *[http://www.barcelonanews.com/ Barcelona News] Newspaper *[http://www.barcelonareporter.com/ Barcelona Reporter] Newspaper *[http://www.geocities.com/medit1976/index.htm Arquitectura Barcelona] - Chronology of Catalan architecture and biographies of Catalan architects from the Gothic master builders to those working today *[http://spain.archiseek.com/catalunya/barcelona/index.html Architecture of Barcelona] at Archiseek.com *[http://itineraris.coac.net/itineraris/angles/index.htm Barcelona's Architecture Itineraries] *[http://www.lodgephoto.com/galleries/spain/barcelona/ Photographs of Barcelona] - good section on La Boqueria market (English captions) *[http://bcnip.blogsome.com/ Barcelona in progress] - News and images of everything related to projects of the new Barcelona. *[http://www.barcelona-home.com/images/mapabcn.gif Map of Barcelona Neighborhoods] *[http://www.catalunya.co.uk/barcelona-history.htm The history of Barcelona] *[http://www.xbarcelona.com xbarcelona.com] 100% non-profit website about living and working in Barcelona. *[http://barcelonaphotoblog.blogspot.com/ Barcelona Daily Photo] {{Olympic Summer Games Host Cities}} [[Category:Barcelona| ]] [[Category:Cities and towns in Catalonia]] [[Category:Coastal cities]] [[Category:Host cities of the Summer Olympic Games]] [[Category:Ports and harbours of Spain]] [[Category:Phoenician colonies]] [[ar:برشلونة]] [[an:Barzelona]] [[ast:Barcelona]] [[bg:Барселона]] [[ca:Barcelona]] [[cs:Barcelona]] [[da:Barcelona]] [[de:Barcelona]] [[el:Βαρκελώνη]] [[es:Barcelona]] [[eo:Barcelono]] [[eu:Bartzelona]] [[fa:بارسلون]] [[fr:Barcelone]] [[ga:Barcelona]] [[gl:Barcelona]] [[ka:ბარსელონა]] [[ko:바르셀로나]] [[io:Barcelona]] [[id:Barcelona]] [[ia:Barcelona]] [[is:Barcelona]] [[it:Barcellona]] [[he:ברצלונה]] [[la:Barcino]] [[lb:Barcelona]] [[lv:Barselona]] [[lt:Barselona]] [[hu:Barcelona]] [[nl:Barcelona]] [[nds:Barcelona]] [[ja:バルセロナ市]] [[no:Barcelona]] [[nn:Barcelona]] [[oc:Barcelona]] [[pl:Barcelona]] [[pt:Barcelona]] [[ro:Barcelona]] [[ru:Барселона]] [[simple:Barcelona]] [[sl:Barcelona]] [[sr:Барселона]] [[fi:Barcelona]] [[sv:Barcelona]] [[tr:Barselona]] [[zh:巴塞罗那]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Bandy</title> <id>4444</id> <revision> <id>41783217</id> <timestamp>2006-03-01T18:47:10Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>82.197.0.208</ip> </contributor> <comment>/* National Bandy Federations */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Bandy''' is a [[winter]] [[sport]], where a ball is hit with a stick. It is often considered to be an ancestor of [[ice hockey]], but there is no definite historical evidence for this theory. It likely descended from [[shinty]] and in turn [[field hockey]]. Bandy is played outdoors on a sheet of ice, and has rules that are similar to [[football (soccer)|association football]]. {{wiktionarypar|bandy}} A [[synonym]] to bandy used to be the term '''hockey on ice''', due to the sport being &quot;field hockey played on ice&quot;, but since this term can be confused with ''ice hockey'', most people prefer the term bandy nowadays. Bandy is now played in a few nations, including [[Belarus]], [[Canada]], [[Estonia]], [[Finland]], [[Hungary]], [[Kazakhstan]], the [[Netherlands]], [[Norway]], [[Russia]], [[Sweden]] and the [[United States]]. ==Rules== The size of a bandy field is in the range [[1 E3 m²|4,050 - 7,150]] [[square metre]]s ([[1 E1 m|45-65 by 90-100]] [[metre]]s), about the same size as a [[Football (soccer) field|football field]]. The size of the ball is [[1 E-3 m|60-65 mm]] and it is usually red to orange in colour. The goal measures 7 ft by 11½ ft. Each team has 11 players in the field at one time, including a goalkeeper. While the goalkeeper wears more padding than other players he or she does not use a stick, but the goalkeeper is the only player allowed to use his hands to control the ball. A game goes on for two 45 minute halves. A ten minute interval takes place at half-time when the teams change ends. Ties are usually broken with 15 minute overtime periods. The rules of bandy are overall very similar to the rules of [[football (soccer)|association football]]. ==International== ===Bandy in the Olympics=== Bandy was the [[demonstration sport]] at the [[VI Olympic Winter Games]] in [[1952 in sports|1952]] ([[Oslo]], Norway). Even if the [[IOC]] frequently states that they are looking for more sports to add to the Winter Game programmes, bandy is still waiting for acceptance as an [[Olympic sports|Olympic sport]]. ===World Championships=== World Championships for men were first held in [[1957]] and then semiannually starting in [[1961]], and every year since [[2003]]. There were 12 countries participating in the [[2006 in sports|2006]] championships: Belarus, Finland, Kazakhstan, Norway, Russia, Sweden (group A) and Canada, Estonia, Hungary, Mongolia, The Netherlands, United States (group B). Finland won the [[2004 in sports|2004]] world championship. All the previous championships were won by the [[Soviet Union]], [[Russia]], or [[Sweden]]. In February 2004, Finland hosted the first World Championship for women. Sweden won the tournament. The second women's World Championships were held in [[Roseville, Minnesota]] in the USA in 2006. The outcome was, Sweden defeated Russia in the final (3-1). For all the tournaments since 1957, see [[Bandy World Championships]]. ===World Cup=== There is an annual [[Bandy World Cup]] held in [[Ljusdal Municipality|Ljusdal]] in Sweden. This is not played by national teams but is for bandy clubs from around the world. ===International federation=== FIB, the [[Federation of International Bandy]], has 15 members (2004). ==Bandy in Britain== A game similar to bandy was once known in [[Wales]] as ''bando'', known throughout the country in varying forms and still to be found in some areas. The earliest example of the [[Welsh language]] term ''bando'' occurs in a dictionary by John Walters published in 1770&amp;ndash;94. It was particularly popular in the Cynfdg-Margam district of the Vale of [[Glamorgan]] where wide stretches of sandy beaches afforded ample room for play. Modern bandy was founded in England in the 19th century. The first rules were written down in 1891 by [[Charles Goodmann Tebbutt]] from [[Bluntisham]] near [[Saint Ives]]. Goodmann Tebbutt also took initiatives to international exchange, particularly with the [[Netherlands]] and introduced bandy in Sweden and Norway (where it is still played today) and a couple of other countries. England won the first European Championships in 1913. Goodman Tebbutts home-made bandy stick can be seen in the [[Norris Museum]] in Saint Ives. ==Bandy in Russia== In Russia bandy is known as hockey with a ball or simply Russian hockey. The game became popular among nobility in early 1700s, with the royal court of [[Peter I of Russia|Peter I the Great]] entertaining the crowds playing bandy on [[Saint Petersburg]] frozen [[Neva]] river. Russians played in bandy with sticks made out of juniper wood later adopting metal skis (imported by Peter I from Holland). By second half of the 19th century the game became also popular among the masses throughout the [[Russian Empire]]. Russia has since adopted the international rules of the game developed in England. ==Bandy in Sweden== Bandy was introduced to Sweden in 1895. The Swedish royal family, barons and diplomats were the first players. In the 1920's students played the game and it became a largely middle clas
line,&quot; or otherwise made rudimentary). The four stages are :(A) Preliminary pre-processing steps. :(B) Organization by context. :(C) Probability estimation. :(D) Length-reducing code. The ubiquitous compression pipeline (A-B-C-D) is what is of interest. * With (A) we mean various pre-processing steps that may be appropriate before the final compression engine. &lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt; Lossy compression often follows the same pattern as lossless, but with one or more quantization steps somewhere in (A). Sometimes clever designers may defer the loss until suggested by statistics detected in (C); an example of this would be modern zerotree image coding. * (B) Organization by context often means data reordering, for which a simple but good example is JPEG's &quot;Zigzag&quot; ordering. The purpose of this step is to improve the estimates found by the next step. * (C) A probability estimate (or its heuristic equivalent) is formed for each token to be encoded. Often the estimation formula will depend on context found by (B) with separate 'bins' of state variables maintained for each conditioned class. * (D) Finally, based on its estimated probability, each compressed file token is represented as bits in the compressed file. Ideally, a 12.5%-probable token should be encoded with three bits, but details become complicated. == Further discussion == === Preliminary pre-processing steps === Preliminary compression steps is a catch-all including such ideas as compaction transforms (e.g. subband image coding), hierarchal decompositions, template matching, string searching, and miscellaneous tricks like the [[Burrows-Wheeler transform]]. We aren't concerned with this stage here, except to note that many such preprocessing steps fall nicely within the scope of &quot;Organization by Context.&quot; In lossy systems, any loss is usually introduced in (A), so remaining steps are the same for both lossy and lossless. === Organization by context === Organization by context often means data reordering, for which a simple example is JPEG's `Zigzag' ordering -- a simple device to sequence a vector's elements into approximate order of expected energy (or bit rate requirement). (One important but little-remarked reason why more modern zerotree-type image compressors outperform JPEG is that they bunch similar statistics across very large image areas, while JPEG just does a 64-pel block.) More generally, context organization includes ''separation'' and ''concatenation'' to move data with similar context, such as adjacent pixel values, to adjacent locations in an encoding stream, or to provide a similar context character to a context-conditioned probability estimation machine. === Probability estimation === A probability estimate (or its heuristic equivalent) is formed for each token to be encoded; the estimates depend on data reordering or bin assignment in step (B). The probability estimate takes the form of a vector of k probabilities, summing to one, for k possible decision outcomes labelled 0, 1, .... k-1. Often k=2 and the outcome tokens are simply bits. These probabilities can be reconstructed by the decoder, so what is encoded into the compressed file is just the outcome token. Instead of using {0, 1} as the outcome token set when k=2, it is often convenient to use {MPS, LPS} -- the More and Less Probable Symbol. Eventually this section should discuss some topics in probability estimation: * Statistical Coding: Conditional probabilities * Statistical Coding: The `Overtraining' problem * Statistical Coding: Distributed estimation * Axioms for Probability estimation: efficacy, ergodicity, insensitivity * Static Probability estimation: offline, semi-adaptive * Stationary Probability estimation: Bayesian * Window-based Probability estimation: e.g. Lempel-Ziv * Decaying-average Probability estimation: e.g. QM-coder === Entropy coding === The encoded events are converted into the bits of the compressed data file. Let us first separate these systems into two types. K is relatively large. [[Huffman coding]] is popular and useful, especially when symbol probabilities were already estimated in an earlier &quot;offline&quot; effort. Adaptive Huffman coding is also in use. K = 2. [[Golomb coding]] and its variants like [[Langdon coding]] are simple, effective and popular; these produce output bits only when LPS is encountered. [[Arithmetic coding]] is also effective, as are their close cousins, quasi-arithmetic codes and FSM codes. An advantage of arithmetic and related codes over Golomb coding is the automatic interleaving of compressed data from multiple contexts, though chips implementing interleaved Golomb-type codes have recently been introduced by Ricoh Co., Ltd. Intermediate values like K=3 might seem to pose a problem. In fact, practical systems may be slightly more complicated than indicated here. Also, in some systems, e.g. LZ text coding, stages (A)-(B) of the compression system may be designed to get good compression even with trivial (C)-(D). == Further examples == Instead of a Huffman code, a simple often applicable coding device is MTF (Move To Front) followed by a simple length-reducing code such as the so-called [[Fibonacci code]]. That might be viewed as MTF is stage (B), the simple &quot;Fibo code&quot; as stage (D), with stage (C) disappearing entirely, if the Fibo code fits the model statistics well. ''See also: [[Data compression]]'' [[nl:Vierstappenmodel voor datacompressie]] [[Category:Data compression]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Data compression/Deflation</title> <id>8116</id> <revision> <id>15906137</id> <timestamp>2004-08-31T04:34:29Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Danakil</username> <id>90366</id> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[DEFLATE (algorithm)]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Dumbarton Bridge (California)</title> <id>8117</id> <revision> <id>42083138</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T18:37:56Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Dante Alighieri</username> <id>5455</id> </contributor> <comment>carpool and FasTrak info</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Dumbarton-Bridge.jpg|right|thumb|300px|The Dumbarton Bridge seen from the western terminus.]] The '''Dumbarton Bridge''' is the southernmost of the highway [[bridge]]s that span the [[San Francisco Bay]] in [[California]]. Carrying over 61,000 vehicles daily, it is also the shortest bridge across San Francisco Bay at 1.63 miles (8600 feet / 2622 m / 2.62 Km). Its eastern terminus is in [[Fremont, California|Fremont]], near [[Newark, California|Newark]] in the [[San Francisco Bay National Wildlife Refuge]] and its western terminus is in [[Menlo Park, California|Menlo Park]]. The bridge has three lanes in each direction, and features a separated bike/pedestrian lane on its eastbound side. Currently there is a toll charge of [[US dollar|$]]3 for cars travelling east to west. The toll plaza also allows [[carpool]]s across for free during certain hours as well as sporting two [[FasTrak]] lanes. [[Image:Raildumbartrazorback.jpg|thumb|left|280px|[[California clapper rail]] is a known resident of the western terminus area. Photo credit Don Roberson]] ==Environmental factors== When the current bridge was planned in the 1970s, [[Caltrans]] conducted extensive environmental research on the [[aquatic]] and [[terrestrial]] environment. Principal concerns of the public were [[air pollution]] and [[noise pollution]] impacts, partiularly in some residential areas of [[Menlo Park]] and [[East Palo Alto]]. The firm of [[ESL Inc.]] was retained to conduct these studies and produce contour maps of projected [[sound level]]s and [[carbon monoxide]] concentrations throughout the western approaches, for each alternative connection scheme{{ref|Hogan}}. The local area around the bridge is an important ecological area, hosting many species of birds, fish and mammals. The [[endangered species]] [[California clapper rail]] is known to be present in the western bridge terminus area. Near the bridge on the Peninsula are Menlo Park's Bayfront Park, East Palo Alto's Ravenswood Open Space Preserve, and Palo Alto's [[Baylands Nature Preserve]]. An accessible portion of the [[San Francisco Bay National Wildlife]] Refuge lies immediately north of the western bridge terminus, where the Ravenswood trail runs{{ref|San}}. On both sides of the eastern terminus of the bridge are large salt ponds and [[levee]] trails belonging to the [[Don Edwards San Francisco Bay National Wildlife Refuge]]. The headquarters and visitor center for the refuge is on a hill south of the bridge approach. North of the eastern bridge terminus is [[Coyote Hills Regional Park]], with its network of trails running over tall hills. North of that is the [[Alameda Creek Regional Trail]], running from the Bay to [[Niles Canyon]]. East of [[Coyote Hills]] is [[Ardenwood Historic Farm]], a restored working farm that preserves and displays turn-of-the-century farming methods ==History and engineering features== The bridge never was officially named, but the common use name comes from Dumbarton Point, which dates to [[1876]] when it was named for [[Dumbarton]] in [[Scotland]]. Built originally to provide a shortcut for traffic originating in San Mateo and Santa Clara Counties, the bridge served industrial and residential areas on both sides. The earlier bridge, opened in on January 17, [[1927]], was the first vehicular bridge to cross San Francisco Bay. Portions of this old drawbridge remain as fishing piers. The original bridge was built with private capital and then purchased by the State for $2.5 million in 1951. Its age and the limitations of a two-lane undivided roadway and lift-span made it necessary for a replacement bridge to be constructed 90 feet to the north. This current bridge, a six
as messages from angels or arch-angels. Indeed, according to the Christian version, Moses himself received the written Torah from the hand of &quot;the Angel of the Lord&quot; (who spoke to Moses out of the 'burning bush'). Daniel himself denied that his ability was because of any human wisdom of his own (Daniel 2:29). * Daniel recorded his visions (which became prophecies) for future as well as present use; including prophecies about the exact date of the coming of the Jewish Messiah into Jerusalem, many other prophetic events which later transpired in history, and prophecies which are regarded by some (perhaps mainly [[premillennialism|premillennialist]]) Christians as referring to a terrible, as-yet unfulfilled, future time of the Tribulation. Accurate prediction of the future is repeatedly given as a mark of a true prophet as opposed to a false one, both in the Hebrew Scriptures and in the Talmud. The feast day of Daniel the Prophet in the [[Greek orthodox church|Greek Orthodox Church]] is [[December 17]]. == See also == * [[Nebuchadnezzar II of Babylon]] * [[Book of Daniel]] (book of the Bible) * [[List of names referring to El]] == References == {{Eastons}} ''Considerable additions/alterations have been made since the material from the Easton's article was inserted here.'' == External links == {{WikisourceEBD1897|Daniel}} * [http://www.biblegateway.com/cgi-bin/bible?language=english&amp;version=NIV&amp;passage=daniel Daniel at Bible Gateway] * [http://www.jewfaq.org/prophet.htm Judaism 101: Prophets and Prophecy] * [http://www.biblicalstudies.org.uk/article_daniel.html ''Daniel'' by Rob Bradshaw] Detailed dictionary-style article. [[Category:623 BC births]] [[Category:Christian prophets]] [[Category:Year of death missing]] [[de:Daniel (Prophet)]] [[es:Daniel]] [[fr:Daniel (prophète)]] [[nl:Daniël (profeet)]] [[ja:ダニエル]] [[pl:Daniel]] [[pt:Daniel]] [[fi:Daniel]] [[sv:Daniel (biblisk person)]] [[zh:但以理]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Down</title> <id>8550</id> <revision> <id>39756762</id> <timestamp>2006-02-15T17:42:30Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>PeteVerdon</username> <id>134408</id> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">{{wiktionary|down}} * A '''down''' is a hill, usually made of [[chalk]] and in southern [[England]]. See [[downland]]. * '''Down''' is the negative direction along the [[z-axis]]. [[Up]] and down are the only two well-defined directions in the presence of gravity. Earlier this was '''adown''', meaning &quot;from the hill&quot;. *'''[[Down syndrome]]''' is a [[genetic disorder]]. * '''[[County Down]]''' is a county in [[Northern Ireland]]. * '''[[Down (district)|Down]]''' is a [[Districts of Northern Ireland|district]] in Northern Ireland. * '''[[Downe]]''' is a village in Kent, where Charles Darwin's house, [[Down House]], is. * '''[[Down feathers]]''' are the fine undercoat of [[bird]]s under the visible exterior feathers, and is often used as insulation in clothing. *'''[[Down hair]]''' is another term for the undercoat of some [[mammal]]s. *'''Down''' is a common command in [[dog training]]. * '''[[down (football)|Down]]''', used in [[American football]], is a stage of play; four downs are allowed in a &quot;possession&quot;; three downs are allowed in [[Canadian football]]. The reference is to the ball or ball carrier being brought to a halt, often by being knocked down. * '''Down''' is a colloquial synonym for [[depression (mood)|depressed]] or blue. * A [[computer system|computer (or other) system]] can go '''down''' when it essentially loses power or [[computer crash|crashes]]. * '''[[Down (band)|Down]]''' is a [[heavy metal music|heavy metal]] band. * '''''Down''''' is a song by [[blink-182]]. The song's video, made in 2004, features many former gang members as part of an agency that talks people out of gangs and into the entertainment industry. * '''''Down''''' is also a song by [[311 (band)|311]] which hit #1 on the [[Modern Rock Tracks chart | US Modern Rock]] chart in [[1996]]. * '''Downing''' or '''whacking off''' is to finish a drink (typically a pint of beer) in one go without pause for breath. This usually takes place during [[drinking games]], or at least circumstances where they might be played. Respect is earned by finishing the drink suitably quickly; failing to do so at all may result in ridicule. As a guide a good, though not exceptional, time might be four or five seconds for a [[pint]] (568ml). * [[Down feat.Diyala]] is a song by [[Bosnian]] rapper [[Edo Maajka]] * '''Down''' is a four issue [[comic book]] miniseries by [[Warren Ellis]] and Tony Harris from [[Top Cow Productions]]. {{disambig}}</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>David</title> <id>8551</id> <revision> <id>42142962</id> <timestamp>2006-03-04T02:36:55Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Lawrencemykytiuk</username> <id>779414</id> </contributor> <comment>/* Historicity of David */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{dablink|This page is about the [[Bible|Biblical]] David. For other uses see [[David (disambiguation)]].}} '''King David''' ([[Standard Hebrew]] '''דָּוִד''', Davíd, &quot;Beloved&quot;, [[Tiberian Hebrew]] Dāwíð; [[Arabic]] '''داؤد''', Dā'ūd, &quot;Beloved&quot;), was the second king of the united [[kingdom of Israel]] (c. 1005 BC - 965 BC) and successor to [[King Saul]]. His life and rule are recorded in the [[Hebrew Bible]]'s [[Books of Samuel]] and the first of the two [[Books of Chronicles]], where he is depicted as having been the most righteous of all the ancient kings of Israel - although not without fault - as well as an acclaimed warrior, musician and poet (he is traditionally credited with the authorship of many of the [[Psalms]]). 2 Samuel 7:12-16 states that God was so pleased with David that He promised that the [[Davidic line]] would endure forever; [[Judaism|Jews]] therefore believe that the [[Jewish Messiah]] will be a direct descendant of King David, and [[Christianity|Christians]] trace the lineage of [[Jesus]] back to him. While the nature of his reign and even his existence have been questioned by modern biblical scholars, the account given in the [[Hebrew Bible]] remains widely accepted by the majority of ordinary Jews and Christians. [[Image:David and Goliath by Caravaggio.jpg|thumb|400px|''[[David and Goliath (Caravaggio)|David and Goliath]]'' by [[Caravaggio]], c. 1599.]] ==David's life== [[Image:Rembrandt Harmensz. van Rijn 030.jpg|thumb|left|300px|David and King Saul, by [[Rembrandt]]. David plays the lyre to the king &quot;tormented by an evil spirit&quot;]] === The choosing of David === God has withdrawn His favour from king Saul and sends the prophet [[Samuel]] to [[Jesse]] of [[Bethlehem]], &quot;for I have provided for myself a king among his sons.&quot; The choice falls upon David, the youngest, who is guarding his father's sheep: &quot;he was ruddy, and had beautiful eyes, and was handsome. And the Lord said [to Samuel], Arise, anoint him; for this is he.&quot; === David plays the lyre before Saul === God has withdrawn his favour from king Saul and sent an evil spirit to torment him. On the advice of the young men around him, Saul sends to Jesse asking that he send him his son, &quot;who is skilful in playing, a man of valor, a man of war, prudent in speech, and a man of good presence; and the Lord is with him.&quot; And so David comes to Saul, &quot;and Saul loved him greatly, and he became his armor-bearer...And whenever the evil spirit from God was upon Saul, David took the lyre and played it with his hand; so Saul was refreshed, and was well, and the evil spirit departed from him.&quot; === David and Goliath === The [[Israelite]]s under Saul are facing the army of the [[Philistines]]. David, the youngest of the sons of Jesse, brings food each day to his brothers who are with Saul, and hears the Philistine champion, the giant [[Goliath]], challenge the Israelites to send out their own champion to decide the outcome in single combat. David insists to his brothers that he can defeat Goliath; Saul, hearing of this, sends for him, and although dubious, allows him to go and make the attempt. And indeed David is victorious, felling Goliath with a stone from his slingshot, at which the Philistines flee in terror and the Israelites win a great victoy. David brings back the head of Goliath to Saul, who asks him whose son he is, and David tells him, &quot;'I am the son of your servant Jesse the Bethlehemite.'&quot; === The enmity of Saul === [[Image:Gentile da Fabriano 026.jpg|right|300px|Prophet David, by Gentile da Fabriano]]Saul gives David his second daughter in marriage, and sets him in command over his armies, (literally, 'commander over a thousand'), and David is successful in many battles. David's popularity awakens Saul's fears - &quot;What more can he have but the kingdom?&quot; - and by various stratagems seeks his death. But the plots of the jealous king all proved futile, and only endear the young hero the more to the people, and very specially to [[Jonathan]], Saul's son, who is one of those who love David. Warned by Jonathan, David flees into the wilderness. === The end of Saul's reign === David flees and is hunted by Saul. He takes service with the Philistine king of [[Gath]], the city of Goliath, who makes him lord of the town of Ziklag. After many years of faithful service the king asks him to make war on Saul, but although he assures the king that he will serve him faithfully, the Philistine captains doubt his loyalty and force the king to send him away. In the ensuing battle on [[Mount Gilboa]] the Israelites are defeated, Jonathan is killed, and Saul takes his own life. === David is made king === The Israelite soldier who killed Saul - at the king's request - brings the news to David, who kills him for having laid hands on an anointed king, and then
=References== * {{cite book | authorlink = John DeFrancis | last = DeFrancis | first = John | title = The Chinese Language: Fact and Fantasy | publisher = University of Hawaii Press | year = 1984 | id = ISBN 0-8248-1068-6 }} * {{cite book | author = Hannas, William C. | title = Asia's Orthographic Dilemma | publisher = University of Hawaii Press | year = 1997 | id = ISBN 0-8248-1892-X }} * {{cite book | author = Norman, Jerry | title = Chinese | publisher = Cambridge University Press | year = 1988 | id = ISBN 0-521-29653-6 }} * {{cite book | author = Ramsey, S. Robert | title = The Languages of China | publisher = Princeton University Press | year = 1987 | id = ISBN 0-691-01468-X }} ==External links== {{InterWiki|code=zh}} {{book}} === Dictionaries === *[http://www.dict.cn Free Online Chinese - English Dictionary] 1,000,000 English and Chinese words *[http://www.zhongwen.com Zhongwen.com:] Chinese to English dictionary and other resources presented in English; searchable by English meanings; Chinese text displayed as graphics (i.e. does not require any Chinese font) *[http://www.chinesedic.com ChineseDic] 30,000 English, French and Chinese words *[http://www.mdbg.net/chindict/chindict.php?page=chardict MDBG free online Chinese-English dictionary] *[http://www.chineselanguage.org/CCDICT/index.html Chinese Characters Dictionary]: supports Japanese, Korean, Cantonese, Hakka etc. *[http://www.websters-online-dictionary.org/definition/Chinese-english/ Chinese - English Dictionary]: from [http://www.websters-online-dictionary.org Webster's Online Dictionary] - the Rosetta Edition *[http://www.chinese-tools.com/tools/chinese-french-dictionary.html Chinese - French Dictionary] search Chinese, pinyin or French, 30 000 words *[http://www.mandarintools.com/cedict.html CEDICT] Chinese-English Dictionary Project *[http://english-to-chinese.online-dictionary.biz/ Chinese dictionary] Free Chinese-English-Chinese dictionary *[http://stardict.sourceforge.net Stardict] free (GPL) multilanguage dictionary including simplified/traditional Chinese for Unix (Linux, FreeBSD, etc.) and win32 *[http://cdict.giga.net.tw English-Chinese Translation Dictionary]: Chinese-English-Chinese Online Dictionary (Taiwan-based; simplified characters not recognised) *[http://www.cantonese.sheik.co.uk/scripts/wordsearch.php CantoDict]: Cantonese-English Dictionary Project *[http://www.chinese-tools.com/tools/dictionary.html chinese english interactive dictionary] search chinese, pinyin or english *[http://www.chinese-tools.com/tools/chinese-spanish-dictionary.html Chinese - Spanish Dictionary] search in Chinese, pinyin or Spanish === Resources for students of Chinese === *[http://china.sytes.net/forums Chinese Language Forums:]Discussion of Chinese language and culture with subject experts/native speakers, with a focus on Chinese pedagogy on how to teach Chinese to inherited Chinese learners overseas. *[http://www.chinese-forums.com Chinese Forums:]Discussion of Chinese language and culture with some very knowledgable participants, mostly intermediate or advanced learners of Chinese but also many native speakers / overseas Chinese. *[http://www.chinese-tools.com/learn/chinese Learn chinese online], 20 free online mandarin chinese lessons, online dictionaries and tools. *[http://www.chinasona.com/bamboo/chinese.html Chinese Language Information Page] A collection of Chinese language learning resources. *[http://www.oneaday.org Oneaday.org] One Chinese idiom a day (simplified and traditional characters) with pinyin transliteration and English translation. *[http://www.shufawest.us/language/tonedrill.html Mandarin Tone Drill] Testing your knowledge of Mandarin tones. *[http://www.mandarin123.com/pronunciation.html Mandarin Tone Quizzes] Useful practices on Mandarin tones. *[http://www.pinyinpractice.com/tones.htm Pinyin Practice] Pinyin practice for Mandarin learners in all levels *[http://deall.ohio-state.edu/chan.9/c-links.htm Marjorie Chan's ChinaLinks]: A large collection of Web resources by a professor of linguistics at Ohio State University *[http://www.rikai.com/perl/HomePage.pl?Language=Zh Rikai.com] A web-mediator that adds mouseover pinyin readings and English meanings to Chinese web-pages. *[http://www.dreamsyssoft.com/chinese-tutor-software/ A Free Chinese Flash Card Utility] A free flash card utility for memorizing chinese characters. *[http://zdt.sourceforge.net/ zdt (Zhongwen Development Tool)] Open source chinese flashcard application. Very easy to make flashcards. Also includes annotation and dictionary features. === Resources on Chinese in general === *[http://www.zanhei.com/ Shanghainese (a Wu Chinese dialect)]: a project to introduce and promote the Shanghai dialect. In the works. *[http://www.unet.univie.ac.at/~a9305416/ Chinese Linguistics]: Sites on Chinese linguistics *[http://sinolect.org Sinolect: An introduction and observation to Wu Chinese] *[http://www.wu-chinese.org/ Wu-Chinese.org (&amp;#27743;&amp;#21335;&amp;#38597;&amp;#38899;&amp;#35805;&amp;#21556;&amp;#35821;)]: Introduction, statistical data, vocal records, dialectmaps and literature datum of Wu Chinese *[http://www.SatelliteTv-Shanghai.com/ Satellite Tv Programmes in Shanghai(卫星电视节目):] You can find dozens of Satellite Tv Programmes in Shanghai *[http://ezmandarin.com/ Easy Mandarin:] An online community with many learning aids for download. *[http://www.ethnologue.com/show_family.asp?subid=1270: Listing of Chinese dialects in Ethnologue] *[http://chinese-school.netfirms.com/Chinese-Mandarin-Easy.html Chinese Mandarin is Easy] Article by Mike Wright *[http://www.loecsen.com/travel/discover_pop.php?lang=en&amp;to_lang=18&amp;learn-Chinese/ Learn and listen to useful expressions in Chinese] Each expression is presented with an audio recording and an illustration *[http://www.chinese-tools.com Chinese Tools] Tools for the chinese language, annotation, converters, dictionaries, on-line courses, etc. *[http://www.sinoling.com Sinoling.com] A variety of Mandarin Chinese language resources. *[http://www.experiencesabroad.com/beijing.html Beijing Readymades] Photos, translations &amp; pin yin for Chinese posters, signs, etc. from Beijing. Excellent resource for students of Chinese and those interested in the meanings behind the characters. === Computer tools for Chinese === *[http://www.scim-im.org/ SCIM input method platform] — Free (GPL) tool for Chinese input via computer. SCIM supports almost all existing Chinese input methods, as well as other languages. *[http://www.chinese-tools.com/tools/ime.html Chinese input editor] — Allows you to write Chinese on your computer without installing any software *[http://chinese-school.netfirms.com/Chinese-characters.html How to type Chinese on your computer] a comprehensive article on Chinese inputing methods. *[http://www.dengsoft.com/ Software for Chinese Learning and Research] — Provides software for Chinese studies like Chinese Article Evaluation, on-line Yuan Opera Information Sytem, and reviews open-source software for Chinese learning. *[http://www.monkeykingsoft.com/ MonkeyKing Learn Chinese Software] — Free download software to help with learning Chinese. Features including Pinyin, dynamic stroke order demo, English-Chinese dictionary, simplified and Traditional Chinese conversion, and IME (Input Method Editor) to input Chinese text with Pinyin or stroke. {{Chinese language}} [[Category:Chinese language|*]] [[Category:Sinology]] [[Category:Tonal languages]] [[ar:صينية]] [[cs:Čínština]] [[cy:Tsieinëeg]] [[da:kinesisk]] [[de:Chinesische Sprache]] [[eo:Ĉina lingvo]] [[es:Idioma chino]] [[fa:زبان چینی]] [[fr:Langue chinoise]] [[he:סינית]] [[hu:Kínai nyelv]] [[id:Bahasa Tionghoa]] [[it:Lingua cinese]] [[ja:中国語]] [[ka:ჩინური ენა]] [[ko:중국어]] [[kw:Cheynek]] [[la:Lingua Sinensis]] [[li:Sjinees]] [[lt:Kinų kalba]] [[mk:Кинески јазик]] [[ms:Bahasa Cina]] [[nl:Chinese talen]] [[nn:Kinesisk språk]] [[no:Kinesisk språk]] [[pl:Język chiński]] [[pt:Língua chinesa]] [[ro:Limba chineză]] [[ru:Китайский язык]] [[simple:Chinese language]] [[sr:Кинески језик]] [[sv:Kinesiska]] [[th:ภาษาจีน]] [[tr:Çince]] [[vi:Tiếng Trung Quốc]] [[zh:中文]] [[zh-min-nan:Hàn-gí]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Coitus</title> <id>5753</id> <revision> <id>15903950</id> <timestamp>2005-03-03T03:49:53Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Meelar</username> <id>31618</id> </contributor> <comment>change to redir</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[sexual intercourse]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Calgary, Alberta</title> <id>5755</id> <revision> <id>42148216</id> <timestamp>2006-03-04T03:25:22Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>93JC</username> <id>327617</id> </contributor> <comment>/* Transportation */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">:'''''Calgary''' redirects here. This page refers to the city of Calgary in [[Alberta]], [[Canada]]. For other places with the name Calgary, see [[Calgary (disambiguation)]]'' {{Canadian City| Reference Name=City of {{PAGENAME}}| Header Format=Custom Flag and Coat of Arms| Flag Image=Flag of Calgary, Alberta.svg| Coat Image=Calgary_Crest.jpg|135px| Location Image Type=Custom| Location Image=Altacgy.PNG| Motto=Onward| Latitude Longitude=| CCMapSource=coor br|d1=51|m1=6|d2=114|m2=01|EP=| Elevation=1048| Time zone=MST| Postal Code=| Population description=&amp;nbsp;- Total (2005) &lt;br&gt; &amp;nbsp;- Metropolitan (2005) &lt;br&gt; &amp;nbsp;- Cdn. Mun. Rank: &lt;br&gt; &amp;nbsp;- Cdn. [[Census Metropolitan Area|CMA]] Rank:| Population=956,078&lt;br&gt; 1,060,300&lt;br&gt; [[List of the 100 largest cities in Canada|Ranked 3rd]]&lt;br&gt; [[List of the 100 largest metropolitan areas in Canada|Ranked 5th]]| Population Density=1252.3| Area=789.9| City Mayor=[[Dave Bronconnier]]| Governing Body=[[Calgary City
also speculation that the show will not be renewed for a third season. According to the Hollywood Reporter, ''Joey'' co-star [[Andrea Anders]] quit the show in early [[2006]] to work on a new [[CBS]] comedy. It has also been rumoured that NBC will produce a pilot for another spin-off from the series entitled ''It's a Guy Thing'' featuring Joey, Chandler and Ross. However, NBC has not yet confirmed this rumour, but has said that &quot;Negotiations on future projects are going on all the time.&quot; [http://www.hollywood.com/news/detail/id/3477372] == Season synopsis == {{spoiler}} {{details|List of Friends episodes}} === Season one (1994-1995)=== Phoebe, Monica, Chandler, Joey, and Ross meet up in Central Perk shortly after Ross's wife Carol realizes she is a lesbian and divorces him. Monica, Phoebe and Ross all live alone, while Chandler and Joey live together. Monica's old school friend, Rachel, enters Central Perk wearing a wedding dress, having just run away from her wedding to Barry Farber. She moves in with Monica, gets a job as a waitress at Central Perk, and struggles to work for a living, having previously lived a rich life. Ross discovers his ex-wife Carol is pregnant. and she gives birth to a boy, named Ben, who is subsequently raised by Carol and her partner, Susan. Ross reveals he had a crush on Rachel in high school (unbeknownst to Rachel), and he still has feelings for her. Throughout the season he fails to make his feelings known to her, and eventually Chandler and Joey persuade him to move on. On Rachel's birthday, Ross leaves for a paleontological trip to China. While he is gone, Chandler accidentally reveals to Rachel that Ross is in love with her. Rachel decides she would like to start a romantic relationship with Ross, and goes to meet him at the airport when he returns from China, unaware that he is getting off the plane with another woman. === Season two (1995-1996) === Unaware that Rachel likes him, Ross starts a relationship with an old friend, Julie, whom he met in China. While drunk, Rachel leaves a message on Ross's answer machine saying she is over him. Ross hears the message and becomes confused over his own feelings. He and Rachel kiss. Ross is unable to choose between Rachel and Julie and decides to make a pro and con list of both women. He decides he loves Rachel, and breaks up with Julie. Unfortunately, Rachel discovers this list, becomes angry, and rejects Ross. They later get back together when Rachel sees how sincere Ross is. Joey gets an acting job as Dr. Drake Ramoray on the soap ''[[Days of our Lives]]'', and earns enough money to move into his own apartment. Left on his own, Chandler gets a new roommate, Eddie, who is insane. When Joey states in an interview that he writes his own lines, the show's writers kill off his character. With no income Joey moves back into Chandler's apartment and Eddie leaves. Phoebe finds she has a half brother called Frank and they start building a relationship. Monica dates Richard Burke, a friend of her parents who is significantly older than her, but they break up when Richard tells her he doesn't want to have children. === Season three (1996-1997) === Rachel quits her job at Central Perk for a job at [[Bloomingdale's]]. Ross becomes convinced her new boss wants to date her, and becomes increasingly jealous. Tension between Ross and Rachel culminates on their anniversary, and Rachel suggests they take a break. After hearing a phone call between Rachel and her boss, he assumes Rachel is dating him. Feeling depressed (and, maybe, under influence from alcohol), he sleeps with another woman. He tries to resume his relationship with Rachel without telling her, but she finds out and they break up. Joey and Chandler buy a chick and a duck as pets. Joey's acting career continues to fail. Phoebe finds a woman, also named Phoebe, who knew her parents. She invites the group to go with her to the beach. Rachel becomes upset when Ross starts dating Bonnie, who unexpectedly comes to the beach. Rachel is unhappy and persuades Bonnie to shave her head so Ross will be less attracted to her. Ross and Rachel argue about this and start to feel like they still love each other. Ross must decide between Rachel and Bonnie. === Season four (1997-1998)=== Ross decides to get back together with Rachel, and breaks up with Bonnie. However, when Ross insists that they were on a break, they break up again. Phoebe learns the older Phoebe is her real mother. Phoebe tells her twin sister Ursula, who knew all along. Phoebe agrees to be a surrogate mother for her half brother Frank and his wife Alice. She becomes pregnant with triplets. Joey begins dating Kathy, but Chandler likes her too. Joey and Kathy break up after Kathy kisses Chandler. Joey is angry, but forgives Chandler when he sees that Chandler and Kathy love each other. Chandler suspects that Kathy is sleeping with a fellow cast member after watching one of her plays. She does sleep with him, and they break up. Monica and Rachel switch apartments with Joey and Chandler after losing a bet. The girls hate their new apartment, so they convince Joey and Chandler agree to switch apartments in exchange for season passes to the [[New York Knicks|Knicks]] and an opportunity to watch Monica and Rachel kiss. Ross dates a British woman, Emily, and they become engaged. The group travels to [[London]] for the wedding, except Phoebe, who is in her last trimester, and Rachel, who doesn't want to see Ross get married. At the wedding rehearsal dinner, Monica becomes depressed because she's not married. Chandler comforts her and they end up sleeping together. Rachel realizes she still loves Ross and goes to London to tell him. When she gets there, she sees him with Emily and decides it wouldn't be right to ruin the wedding. The wedding goes ahead, but comes to an abrupt halt when Ross says &quot;I take thee, Rachel&quot; instead of &quot;I take thee, Emily&quot;. === Season five (1998-1999) === Ross and Emily's wedding continues despite Ross' faux pas and they are married, but Emily disappears at the reception. The group goes back to New York where Emily calls Ross and tells him that she will only stay married if he promises he will never see Rachel again. Ross agrees, but Emily continues to make unreasonable demands and they divorce. Ross moves into Ugly Naked Guy's apartment when he leaves. Phoebe gives birth to triplets. She tries to keep one after becoming attached to them, but finds out that Frank and Alice are unwilling to give up a child. Chandler and Monica continue an intimate relationship in secret. Eventually everybody finds out, and they're all happy about it. Rachel starts a new job at [[Ralph Lauren]]. Joey gets the lead in a movie, but travels to [[Las Vegas]] to find production has shut down. Everyone goes to Vegas to see him. Ross and Rachel get drunk and they get married. Monica and Chandler nearly get married but decide they don't want to, so they end up living together. === Season six (1999-2000)=== After finding out that they are now married, Ross and Rachel agree to get an [[annulment]], but Ross doesn't want to have been divorced three times and lies to Rachel, telling her he has had the marriage annulled when he actually hasn't. Rachel finds out and forces Ross to go ahead with the annulment, but they are ineligible for one and file for divorce. Ross gets a new job teaching paleontology at [[New York University]], and dates Rachel's sister and one of his students named Elizabeth. Chandler and Monica move in together, and Rachel moves in with Phoebe. Joey gets a female roommate, Janine, and they start dating. When Janine reveals she doesn't like Chandler and Monica, Joey breaks up with her. Out of a job and desperate for money, Joey gets a job at Central Perk and tries out other acting gigs until he lands a permanent (but short-lived) role as the main star of Mac and Cheese. A fire wrecks Phoebe and Rachel's apartment. Rachel moves in with Chandler and Monica, Phoebe moves in with Joey. They eventually swap, so Rachel lives with Joey instead. Bruce Willis makes a 3 episode cameo appearance as Elizabeth's father. Towards the end of the season, Chandler decides to propose to Monica, but things don't go smoothly as her ex-boyfriend Richard comes in the finale to almost ruin Chandler's plan. In a dramatic climax, Chandler and Monica become engaged. === Season seven (2000-2001)=== Monica and Chandler begin planning their wedding. Rachel gets a promotion in Ralph Lauren and hires an assistant, Tag, whom she begins dating. They later break up. Phoebe's apartment is repaired, but Rachel likes living with Joey so much she doesn't move back in with Phoebe. Joey's new show Mac and Cheese is cancelled but he is able to return to ''[[Days of Our Lives]]''. The night before his wedding, Chandler disappears. While he is gone, Phoebe finds a positive pregnancy test in Monica's bathroom, and assumes Monica is pregnant. Phoebe and Ross find Chandler at his office and persuade him to come back, but Chandler overhears Phoebe and Rachel talking about Monica's &quot;pregnancy&quot; and disappears again. He quickly returns on his own, however, deciding that a baby wouldn't be so bad. Chandler and Monica get married, but when Chandler tells Monica he knows about the baby, she says she isn't pregnant, and it wasn't her pregnancy test that Phoebe found. === Season eight (2001-2002)=== Rachel confirms she is pregnant and Ross is the father. They secretly slept together before Chandler and Monica's wedding. Ross meets Mona at the wedding and goes out with her for a few months but they break up because of complications arising from his impending fatherhood with Rachel's child. As Rachel and Joey continue living together, Joey starts to develop feelings for her. Feeling that Ross is missing out on his fatherly duties, Joey reluctantly suggests that Rachel move in with Ross,
eland married [[Frances Folsom]], the daughter of his former law partner. He was the second president to be married while in office, and the only president to have a wedding in the White House itself. Folsom was also the youngest First Lady in the history of the U.S. ===Politics=== Cleveland's administration might be characterized by a quote from his inauguration address: &quot;I have only one thing to do, and that is to do right&quot;. Cleveland himself insisted that, as President, his greatest accomplishment was blocking others' bad ideas. He vigorously pursued a policy barring special favors to any economic group. Vetoing a bill to appropriate $10,000 to distribute seed grain among drought-stricken farmers in [[Texas]], he wrote: &quot;Federal aid in such cases encourages the expectation of paternal care on the part of the Government and weakens the sturdiness of our national character....&quot; He also vetoed hundreds of private pension bills to [[American Civil War]] veterans whose claims were fraudulent. When Congress, pressured by the [[Grand Army of the Republic]], passed a bill granting [[pensions]] for disabilities not caused by military service, Cleveland vetoed that, too. Cleveland used the veto far more often than any President up to that time. He angered the [[railroad]]s by ordering an investigation of western lands they held by Government grant, forcing them to return 81,000,000 acres (328,000 km&amp;sup2;). He also signed the [[Interstate Commerce Act]], the first law attempting Federal regulation of the railroads. In December 1887, he called on Congress to reduce high protective [[tariff]]s. Told that he had given Republicans an effective issue for [[U.S. presidential election, 1888|the campaign of 1888]], he retorted, &quot;What is the use of being elected or re-elected unless you stand for something?&quot; He often opposed the Republican-controlled Senate. A joke of the day had the First Lady waking in the middle of the night and whispering to Cleveland, &quot;Wake up, Grover. I think there's a burglar in the house.&quot; Cleveland sleepily mumbled, &quot;No, no. Perhaps in the Senate, my dear, but not in the House.&quot; === Significant events === * [[American Federation of Labor]] is created (1886) * [[Haymarket Riot]] (1886) * [[Wabash, St. Louis &amp; Pacific Railroad Company v. Illinois]] (1886) * [[Interstate Commerce Act]] (1887) * [[Dawes Act]] (1887) ===Administration and Cabinet=== [[Image:DSCN4468 buffaloclevelandstatue e.jpg|left|thumb|Statue of Cleveland outside City Hall in Buffalo, New York]] {| cellpadding=&quot;1&quot; cellspacing=&quot;4&quot; style=&quot;margin:3px; border:3px solid #000000;&quot; align=&quot;left&quot; !bgcolor=&quot;#000000&quot; colspan=&quot;3&quot;| |- |align=&quot;left&quot;|'''OFFICE'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''NAME'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''TERM''' |- !bgcolor=&quot;#000000&quot; colspan=&quot;3&quot;| |- |align=&quot;left&quot;|[[President of the United States|President]]||align=&quot;left&quot; |'''[[Grover Cleveland]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1885&amp;ndash;1889 |- |align=&quot;left&quot;|[[Vice President of the United States|Vice President]]||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[Thomas A. Hendricks]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1885 |- |align=&quot;left&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||align=&quot;left&quot;|''None''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1885&amp;ndash;1889 |- !bgcolor=&quot;#000000&quot; colspan=&quot;3&quot;| |- |align=&quot;left&quot;|[[United States Secretary of State|Secretary of State]]||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[Thomas F. Bayard]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1885&amp;ndash;1889 |- |align=&quot;left&quot;|[[United States Secretary of the Treasury|Secretary of the Treasury]]||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[Daniel Manning]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1885&amp;ndash;1887 |- |align=&quot;left&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[Charles S. Fairchild]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1887&amp;ndash;1889 |- |align=&quot;left&quot;|[[United States Secretary of War|Secretary of War]]||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[William C. Endicott]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1885&amp;ndash;1889 |- |align=&quot;left&quot;|[[Attorney General of the United States|Attorney General]]||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[Augustus H. Garland]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1885&amp;ndash;1889 |- |align=&quot;left&quot;|[[Postmaster General of the United States|Postmaster General]]||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[William F. Vilas]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1885&amp;ndash;1888 |- |align=&quot;left&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[Don M. Dickinson]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1888&amp;ndash;1889 |- |align=&quot;left&quot;|[[United States Secretary of the Navy|Secretary of the Navy]]||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[William C. Whitney]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1885&amp;ndash;1889 |- |align=&quot;left&quot;|[[United States Secretary of the Interior|Secretary of the Interior]]||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[Lucius Quintus Cincinnatus Lamar (II)|Lucius Q. C. Lamar]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1885&amp;ndash;1888 |- |align=&quot;left&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[William F. Vilas]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1888&amp;ndash;1889 |- |align=&quot;left&quot;|[[United States Secretary of Agriculture|Secretary of Agriculture]]||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[Norman Jay Colman]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1889 |} &lt;br clear=&quot;all&quot;&gt; === Supreme Court appointments === Cleveland appointed the following Justices to the [[Supreme Court of the United States]] during his ''first'' term. * [[Lucius Quintus Cincinnatus Lamar (II)|Lucius Quintus C. Lamar]] - 1888 * [[Melville Fuller|Melville Weston Fuller]] - Chief Justice - 1888 === States admitted to the union=== ''none'' ==1888 campaign for reelection== Cleveland was defeated in the 1888 presidential election. Although he won a larger share of the popular vote than Republican candidate [[Benjamin Harrison]], he received fewer [[electoral vote]]s and thus lost the election. Upon leaving the White House in 1889, [[Frances Cleveland]] told the servants, &quot;I want you to take good care of all the furniture and ornaments in the house, for I want to find everything just as it is now when we come back again....four years from today or roughly 1,460 days from now.&quot; ==Second term as President, 1893-1897== ===Campaign=== The primary issues for Cleveland for the [[U.S. presidential election, 1892|1892 campaign]] were reducing the tariff and stopping free [[minting]] of silver which had depleted the gold reserves of the [[United States Department of the Treasury|U.S. Treasury]]. Cleveland was elected again in 1892, the only President ever elected to non-consecutive terms. ===Politics=== Shortly after Cleveland was inaugurated, the [[Panic of 1893]] struck the stock market, and he soon faced an acute [[economic depression]]. He dealt directly with the Treasury crisis rather than with business failures, farm mortgage foreclosures, and unemployment. He obtained repeal of the mildly inflationary [[Sherman Silver Purchase Act]]. With the aid of [[J. P. Morgan]] and [[Wall Street]] he maintained the Treasury's gold reserve. Critics accused him of being unfeeling and heartless, but Cleveland believed that the nation's finances had to be maintained in sound condition. His critics seized control of the Democratic party in 1896, repudiated his administration, and nominated [[William Jennings Bryan]]. Cleveland chose to not run again for the Democratic presidential nomination in 1896, but was disappointed when his party nominated [[William Jennings Bryan]] on a [[Free Silver|Silver Platform]]. Cleveland supported a third-party [[Gold Standard|Gold Standard ticket]] that managed only 100,000 votes in the general election. Agrarians again nominated Bryan in 1900, but in 1904 the conservatives, with Cleveland's support, regained control of the Democratic party and nominated [[Alton B. Parker]]. He was an adamant opponent of strikes that interfered with interstate [[commerce]] and the operation of the government, as shown in his disapproval of the [[Pullman Strike]]. When railroad strikers in [[Chicago, Illinois]] violated a court injunction, Cleveland sent Federal troops to enforce it, since interstate commerce was involved, including mail delivery under the auspices of the federal government. &quot;If it takes the entire army and navy of the United States to deliver a postcard in Chicago,&quot; he thundered, &quot;that card will be delivered.&quot; Invoking the [[Monroe Doctrine]], Cleveland also forced the [[United Kingdom]] to accept [[arbitration]] of a disputed boundary in [[Venezuela]]. His administration is credited with the modernization of the [[United States Navy|U.S. Navy]] that allowed the U.S. to decisively win the [[Spanish-American War]] in 1898, one year after he left office. In 1893, Cleveland sent former Congressman [[James Henderson Blount]] to [[Hawaii]] to investigate the [[Kingdom of Hawaii#Overthrow_of_the_Kingdom_of_Hawai.27i|overthrow]] of Queen [[Liliuokalani]] and the establishment of a republic. He supported Blount's scathing report; called for the restoration of Liliuokalani; and withdrew from the Senate the treaty of annexation of Hawaii. When the deposed Queen announced she would execute the current government in Honolulu, Cleveland dropped the issue. === Significant events === * [[Panic of 1893]] * Cleveland Opposes Annexation of [[Hawaii]] (1893) * [[Wilson-Gorman Tariff Act]] (1894) * [[Pullman Strike]] (1894) * [[Coxey's Army]] (1894) * [[United States v. E. C. Knight Co.]] (1895) === Administration and Cabinet === [[Image:Gcleveland.gif|left|framed|Portrait of Cleveland]] {| cellpadding=&quot;1&quot; cellspacing=&quot;4&quot; style=&quot;margin:3px; border:3px solid #000000;&quot; align=&quot;left&quot; !bgcolor=&quot;#000000&quot; colspan=&quot;3&quot;| |- |align=&quot;left&quot;|'''OFFICE'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''NAME'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''TERM''' |- !bgcolor=&q
t|replacement of electrolytes]], since the death rate is generally high due to the serious dehydration caused by the illness. ===Prevention=== Although cholera can be life-threatening, it is easily prevented. In the United States and Western Europe, because of advanced water and sanitation systems, cholera is not a major threat. The last major outbreak of cholera in the United States was in [[1911]]. However, everyone, especially travelers, should be aware of how the disease is transmitted and what can be done to prevent it. Simple sanitation is usually sufficient to stop an epidemic. There are several points along the transmission path at which the spread may be halted: * Sickbed: Proper disposal and treatment of waste produced by cholera victims. * Sewage: Treatment of general sewage before it enters the waterways. * Sources: Warnings about cholera contamination posted around contaminated water sources. * Sterilization: Boiling, filtering, and chlorination of water before use. Filtration and boiling is by far the most effective means of halting transmission. [[Cloth filter]]s, though very basic, have greatly reduced the occurrence of cholera when used in poor villages in Bangladesh that rely on untreated surface water. In general, education and sanitation are the limiting factors in prevention of cholera epidemics. ==Sources== * FDA &quot;Bad Bug Book&quot; entry: http://vm.cfsan.fda.gov/~MOW/chap7.html * [http://web.archive.org/web/20021218200225/http://attila.stevens-tech.edu/chembio/ecronenw/final~1.htm Cholera and the Cholera Toxin], by Elizabeth Cronenwett == References == * Cholera facts from the United States [[FDA]] website: http://vm.cfsan.fda.gov/~MOW/chap7.html * Gabriel, S.E. et al; Cystic fibrosis heterozygote resistance to cholera toxin in the cystic fibrosis mouse model; Science: 1994, v 266, 5182; pp 107-109 * Cuthbert, A.W. et al; The genetic advantage hypothesis in cystic fibrosis heterozygotes: a murine study; J Physiol: 1995, v 482; pp 449-454 * Hogenauer, C. et al; Active intestinal chloride secretion in human carriers of cystic fibrosis mutations: an evaluation of the hypothesis that heterozygotes have subnormal active intestinal chloride secretion; Am J Hum Genet: 2000, v 67, i 6, pp 1422-1427 * Cholera in 19th century,London: John Snow: website: www.ph.ucla.edu/epi/snow.html == External links == *[http://www.doctorswithoutborders.org/news/cholera/index.cfm Medecins Sans Frontieres/Doctors Without Borders Cholera link to Cholera pages] * [http://www.posen-l.com/Cholera.htm Posen-L:consise description, extended history of epidemics, with timeline] * [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&amp;db=pubmed&amp;dopt=Abstract&amp;list_uids=8035040 Study on the relationship between blood type and cholera susceptibility] (Medline) * [http://textbookofbacteriology.net/cholera.html Todar's Online Textbook of Bacteriology: Cholera] * [http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/dbmd/diseaseinfo/cholera_g.htm What is Cholera?] (CDC) [[Category:Neurotoxins]] [[Category:Foodborne illnesses]] [[Category:Bacterial diseases]] [[Category:Water-borne diseases]] [[Category:Pandemics]] [[cs:Cholera]] [[da:Kolera]] [[de:Cholera]] [[et:Koolera]] [[es:Cólera]] [[eo:Ĥolero]] [[eu:Kolera]] [[fa:وبا]] [[fr:Choléra]] [[ko:콜레라]] [[id:Kolera]] [[it:Colera]] [[he:כולרה]] [[li:Cholera]] [[hu:Kolera]] [[ms:Penyakit Taun]] [[nl:Cholera]] [[ja:コレラ]] [[no:Kolera]] [[pl:Cholera]] [[pt:Cólera]] [[ru:Холера]] [[sq:Kolera]] [[simple:Cholera]] [[sk:Cholera]] [[sl:Kolera]] [[sr:Колера]] [[fi:Kolera]] [[sv:Kolera]] [[tl:Kolera]] [[vi:Bệnh tả]] [[tr:Kolera]] [[uk:Холера]] [[zh:霍亂]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Caldera</title> <id>7592</id> <revision> <id>40315261</id> <timestamp>2006-02-19T19:37:37Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Vsmith</username> <id>84417</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/Instant star 92|Instant star 92]] ([[User talk:Instant star 92|talk]]) to last version by 212.80.64.162</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}} [[Image:Crater Lake from rim-USGS.jpg|thumb|270px|Crater Lake|Crater Lake, Oregon]]A '''caldera''' is a [[volcano|volcanic]] feature formed by the collapse of a volcano into itself. Calderas may be filled with water, creating crater lakes. The word 'caldera' comes from a [[Spanish language|Spanish]] word meaning &quot;cauldron&quot;. ==Caldera formation== A caldera collapse is usually triggered by the emptying of the [[magma chamber]] beneath the volcano, often as the result of a large [[volcanic eruption|eruption]]. If enough magma is erupted, the emptied chamber will not be able to support the weight of the ''volcanic edifice'' (the [[mountain]]) above. Fractures will form around the edge of the chamber, usually in a roughly circular shape. These ''ring fractures'' may in fact serve as volcanic vents. As the magma chamber empties, the center of the volcano within the ring fractures begins to collapse. The collapse may occur as the result of a single massive eruption, or it may occur in stages as the result of a series of eruptions. The total amount of collapse may be hundreds or thousands of meters. ===Explosive calderas=== If the magma is rich in [[silica]], the caldera is often filled in with [[ignimbrite]], [[tuff]], [[rhyolite]], and other [[igneous rock]]s. Silica-rich magma is very [[viscous]]. As a result, gases tend to become trapped at high pressure within the magma. When the magma gets near the surface of the Earth, the gas expands quickly, causing [[explosion]]s and spreading [[volcanic ash]] over wide areas. Further [[lava]] flows may be erupted, and the center of the caldera is often uplifted in the form of a ''[[resurgent dome]]'' by subsequent intrusion of magma. A ''silicic'' or ''rhyolitic caldera'' may erupt hundreds or even thousands of [[cubic kilometer]]s of material in a single event. Even small caldera-forming eruptions, such as [[Krakatoa]] in [[1883]] or [[Mount Pinatubo]] in [[1991]], may result in significant local destruction and a noticeable drop in temperature around the world. Large calderas may have even greater effects. [[Image:Caldera de Taburiente.jpg|thumb|left|250px|View of the massive walls of the Caldera de Taburiente, La Palma: a caldera formed by erosion]] When [[Yellowstone Caldera]] erupted 630,000 years ago it released 1000 cubic kilometers of material, covering half of [[North America]] in up to two meters of debris. By comparison, when [[Mount St. Helens]] erupted in [[1980]], it released 1.2 cubic kilometers of ejecta. The ecological effects of the eruption of a large caldera can be seen in the record of the [[Lake Toba]] eruption in [[Indonesia]]. About 75,000 years ago, this volcano released 2800 cubic kilometers of ejecta, the largest known eruption within the [[Quaternary]] Period (last 1.8 million years). In the late 1990s, [[archeologist]] Stanley Ambrose [http://www.anthro.uiuc.edu/faculty/ambrose/] proposed that a [[volcanic winter]] induced by this eruption reduced the [[human]] population to a few thousand individuals, resulting in a [[population bottleneck]] (''see'' [[Toba catastrophe theory]]). Even larger caldera-forming eruptions are known, especially [[La Garita Caldera]] in the [[San Juan Mountains]] of [[Colorado]], where the 5000 cubic kilometer Fish Canyon Tuff was blasted out in a truly major single eruption 27.8 million years ago. At some points in [[geologic time]], rhyolitic calderas have appeared in distinct clusters. The remnants of such clusters may be found in places such as the [[San Juan Mountains]] of [[Colorado]] (erupted during the [[Tertiary Period]]) or the [[Saint Francois Mountain Range]] of [[Missouri]] (erupted during the [[Proterozoic]]). ===Non-explosive calderas=== Some volcanoes, such as [[Kilauea]] on the island of [[Hawaii (island)|Hawaii]], form calderas in a different fashion. In the case of Kiluaea, the magma feeding the volcano is relatively silica poor. As a result, the magma is much less [[viscous]] than the magma of a rhyolitic volcano. Such calderas are also known as subsidence calderas. The magma chamber is drained by large lava flows rather than by explosive events. [[Kilauea]] Caldera has an inner crater known as Halema&amp;#8216;uma&amp;#8216;u, which has often been filled by a lava lake. The largest volcano on Earth, [[Mauna Loa]] is also capped by a subsidence caldera called [[Mauna Loa|Moku&amp;lsquo;&amp;#257;weoweo Caldera]]. ===Non-volcanic calderas=== It is possible, although rare, for a caldera-like formation to be created by erosion rather than volcanism. It is believed that the [[Caldera de Taburiente]] on [[La Palma]] in the [[Canary Islands]] is an example of this. ==Notable calderas== ''See also [[:Category:Volcanic calderas]] *Africa **[[Ngorongoro Crater]] ([[Tanzania]], Africa) **''See ''Europe'' for calderas in the Canary Islands *Asia **[[Aira Caldera]] ([[Kagoshima Prefecture]], [[Japan]]) **[[Aso]] ([[Kumamoto Prefecture]], [[Japan]]) **[[Kikai Caldera]] ([[Kagoshima Prefecture]], [[Japan]]) **[[Krakatoa]], [[Indonesia]] **[[Mount Pinatubo]] ([[Luzon]], [[Philippines]]) **[[Lake Toba]] ([[Sumatra]], [[Indonesia]]) ** [[Mount Tambora]] ([[Sumbawa]], [[Indonesia]]) **[[Tao-Rusyr Caldera]] ([[Onekotan]], [[Russia]]) *Americas **USA ***[[Mount Aniakchak]] ([[Alaska]], US) ***[[Crater Lake]] on [[Mount Mazama]] ([[Crater Lake National Park]], [[Oregon]], [[United States]]) ***[[Kilauea]] ([[Hawaii]], US) ***[[Mauna Loa|Moku&amp;lsquo;&amp;#257;weoweo Caldera]] on [[Mauna Loa]] ([[Hawaii]], US) ***[[Mount Katmai]] ([[Alaska]], US) ***[[La Garita Caldera]] ([[Colorado]], US) ***[[Long Valley Caldera|Long Valley]] ([[California]], [[United States|US]]) ***[[Newberry Caldera]] ([[Oregon]], US) ***[[Mount Okmok]] ([[Alaska]], US) ***[[Valle Grande]] ([[New Mexico]], US) ***[[Yellowstone Ca
86) and [[Manchester United F.C.|Manchester United]] (1994, 1996, 1999). Arsenal and Manchester United share the record of three doubles. Arsenal are the only club to win doubles in distinct decades, and have in fact won in three different decades. In [[1999]], Manchester United added the [[UEFA Champions League|Champions League]] crown to its double, an accomplishment known as ''[[The Treble]]''. In [[2001]], Liverpool did not win the league, but won the [[League Cup]] and [[UEFA Cup]] to complete a different treble. They also won the [[FA Community Shield|FA Charity Shield]] and the [[European Super Cup]] in 2001, at the start of the following season. [[Leicester City F.C.|Leicester City]] hold the unfortunate record of having appeared in four FA Cup finals without ever winning the cup. [[Kettering Town F.C.|Kettering Town]] have scored the most goals in FA Cup history, having scored 803 goals between 1879 and 2005. (up to [[12 October]] [[2005]]) with Ollie Burgess scoring the 800th goal against [[St Albans City F.C.|St Albans City]] on [[11 October]] [[2005]] ==External links== *[http://www.thefa.com/TheFACup/TheFACup/ The FA Cup] - official Football Association site *[http://www.fattorini.co.uk Thomas Fattorini Ltd. makers of the 1911 FA Cup] - manufacturers of the 1911 FA Cup and other sporting trophys *[http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/football/fa_cup/4151177.stm FA Cup going under the hammer] - BBC News story on the sale of the second trophy {{Template:Football_in_England}} {{Template:National football (soccer) cups}} [[Category:FA Cup| ]] [[cs:Pohár FA]] [[de:FA Cup]] [[es:Copa de Inglaterra]] [[fi:FA Cup]] [[fr:FA Challenge Cup]] [[it:FA Cup]] [[nl:FA Cup]] [[ja:FAカップ]] [[no:FA-cupen]] [[pl:Puchar Anglii w piłce nożnej]] [[sv:FA-cupen]] [[th:เอฟเอคัพ]] [[zh:英格蘭足總盃]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Fenway Park</title> <id>11238</id> <revision> <id>42113982</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T22:36:09Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Hailey C. Shannon</username> <id>174237</id> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_Baseball_Stadium | stadium_name = Fenway Park | nickname = | image = [[Image:Fenway.jpg|310px|Fenway Park]] | location = 4 Yawkey Way&lt;br&gt;[[Boston, Massachusetts]] 02215 | broke_ground = [[1911]] | opened = [[April 20]], [[1912]] | closed = | demolished = | owner = Boston Red Sox | operator = | surface = Grass | construction_cost = $650,000 [[United States dollar|USD]] | architect = Osborn Engineering | former_names = | tenants = [[Boston Red Sox]] ([[Major League Baseball|MLB]]) ([[1912]]-present) &lt;br&gt; [[Boston Redskins]] ([[National Football League|NFL]]) ([[1933]]-[[1936]]) &lt;br&gt; [[Boston Yanks]] ([[National Football League|NFL]]) ([[1944]]-[[1948]]) &lt;br&gt; [[Boston Patriots]] ([[American Football League|AFL]]) ([[1963]]-[[1967]]) | seating_capacity = 35,000 ([[1912]]) 34,824 ([[1953]]) 33,524 ([[1965]]) &lt;br&gt; 33,513 ([[1977]]) 34,182 ([[1989]]) 34,218 ([[1993]])&lt;br&gt; 33,557 ([[2001]] day) 33,993 ([[2001]] night) 33,871 ([[2003]])&lt;br&gt; 36,298 ([[2004]]) 38,805 ([[2006]])| dimensions = Left Field Line - 310 ft (94.5 m) &lt;br&gt; Left-Center (deep) - 379 ft (115.5 m) &lt;br&gt; Center Field - 389 ft 9 in (118.8 m) &lt;br&gt; Right-Center (deep) - 420 ft (128 m) &lt;br&gt; Right Field &quot;Average&quot; - 380 ft (115.8 m) &lt;br&gt; Right Field Line - 302 ft (92 m) &lt;br&gt; Backstop - 60 ft (18 m) }} '''Fenway Park''' is the home [[stadium|ballpark]] for the [[Boston Red Sox]] [[baseball]] club. It is located near, and named for, the [[Fenway-Kenmore|Fenway neighborhood]] in the heart of [[Boston, Massachusetts|Boston]], [[Massachusetts]], USA, which in turn is named for the nearby [[Back Bay Fens|fens]], or marshes. It opened on [[April 20]], [[1912 in sports|1912]], the same day as the now-abandoned [[Tiger Stadium]] in [[Detroit, Michigan|Detroit]]. This makes it the oldest ballpark still in active use in [[Major League Baseball]]. Fenway hosted the 1946 and 1999 MLB All-Star games, as well as the second of two summer classics in 1961. ==Features of the park== Historically, Fenway Park has been decidedly unfriendly to left-handed pitchers. [[Babe Ruth]] is one of the few [[southpaw]] hurlers who found success there. Ruth started his career as a pitcher (mostly during the &quot;[[dead-ball era]]&quot;,) and had a career record of 92 wins, 44 losses. Ruth also set a [[World Series]] record by pitching 29 2/3 scoreless innings, a record that lasted until broken by [[Whitey Ford]] of the [[New York Yankees]] in [[1961]]. Fenway Park is one of the few remaining classic parks in major league baseball to have a significant number of obstructed view seats. These are sold as such, and are a reminder of an era of less commercially-driven ballparks. ===&quot;The Green Monster&quot;=== The stadium is most famous for the left field wall called &quot;[[Green Monster (Fenway Park)|Green Monster]]&quot;. Constructed in [[1934]], the 37-foot (11.3 m) high wall is 240 feet long, has a 22-foot deep foundation, and was constructed from 30,000 pounds of Toncan [[iron]]. Previously, a 23-1/2-foot tall screen protected cars and pedestrians on Lansdowne Street. However, the screen was replaced with more seating atop the Green Monster (in an attempt to fit as many seats as possible in Fenway). The wall measures only 310 feet (94.5 m) from home plate down the left field line (''See [[Fenway Park#&lt;nowiki&gt;&quot;&lt;/nowiki&gt;Duffy’s Cliff&lt;nowiki&gt;&quot;&lt;/nowiki&gt;|Duffy's Cliff]]''). See comments below about the original measurement. During the [[1934]] remodeling, the left-field scoreboard was added, and is one of two remaining original manual scoreboards in professional baseball (the other being at [[Wrigley Field]] in [[Chicago, Illinois]]). Running vertically down the scoreboard, between the columns of out-of-town scores, are the initials &quot;TAY&quot; and &quot;JRY&quot; displayed in [[Morse code]]; a memorial to former Red Sox owners [[Tom Yawkey|Thomas A. Yawkey]] and [[Jean R. Yawkey]]. In [[1947]], advertisements covering the left field wall were painted over using green paint, which gave rise to the &quot;Green Monster&quot; moniker. Prior advertisements were: the Calvert Brewery's owl mascot (''&quot;Be Wise&quot;'',) Gem razor blades (''&quot;Avoid 5 O'Clock Shadow&quot;'',) Lifebuoy soap (''&quot;The Red Sox Use It!&quot;'',) and Vimms vitamins (''&quot;Get that Vimms Feeling!&quot;'') In [[1975]], the wall was remodeled and an electronic scoreboard installed, and manual scoreboard changed to only show out-of-town scores from other [[American League]] games. In [[1976]], the tin panels in the wall were replaced by a [[Formica]]-type panel which resulted in more consistent caroms and less noise when balls hit the wall. In [[2003]], [[National League]] scores returned; American League East division standings were first displayed in [[2005]]. Additionally, advertisements returned to the Green Monster, most notably for [[Volvo]] and [[W.B. Mason]]. ===&quot;The Triangle&quot;=== &quot;The Triangle&quot; is a region of center field where the walls form a triangle 420 feet (128 m) from home plate. That deep right-center point is conventionally given as the center field distance. ===&quot;Williamsburg&quot;=== &quot;Williamsburg&quot;, dubbed by sportswriters, is the bullpens built in front of the right-center field bleachers in 1940 for the benefit of [[Ted Williams]]. The name parodied [[Yankee Stadium]]'s right field area that was often called &quot;[[Babe Ruth|Ruthville]]&quot;. ===The Lone Red Seat=== The lone red seat in the right field bleachers (Section 42, Row 37, Seat 21), signifies the spot where the longest measurable home run ever hit inside Fenway Park landed. [[Ted Williams]] hit the [[home run]] on [[June 9]], [[1946]] off [[Fred Hutchinson]] of the [[Detroit Tigers]]. Williams' bomb was officially measured at 502 feet (153 m) -- well beyond &quot;Williamsburg.&quot; Tour guides at Fenway Park claim that the man sitting in the seat was a fan of the opposing team -- and did not see the ball coming. As a result, he was hit in the face. Supposedly, the next morning, a Boston paper ran the headline &quot;Bullseye!&quot; Since the lone red seat out in right field has been dedicated to [[Ted Williams]], it has never been sold as a seat for a [[Red Sox]] game. ===&quot;The Belly&quot; === &quot;The Belly&quot;, is the sweeping curve of the box-seat railing from the right end of &quot;Williamsburg&quot; around to the right field corner. The box seats were added when the bullpens were built, and they cut the [[1934]] remodeling's right field line distance by some 30 feet. ===&quot;Pesky's Pole&quot;=== [[Pesky's Pole]] is the name for the pole on the right field foul line. The pole was named after [[Johnny Pesky]], a light-hitting shortstop for the Red Sox, who hit some of his six home runs at Fenway Park around the pole and off the pole (a mere 302 feet from home plate). Pesky and the Red Sox attribute pitcher [[Mel Parnell]] with coining the name. The most notable for Pesky is a two-run homer in the eighth inning of the 1946 Opening Day game to win the game. (In his career, Pesky hit 17 home runs.) In similar fashion, [[Mark Bellhorn]] hit what proved to be the game-winning home run in Game 1 of the [[2004 World Series]] off that pole's screen. ===&quot;Pudge’s Pole&quot;=== Carleton (Pudge) Fisk’s Foul Pole is the official name for the pole on the left field foul line atop &quot;The Green Monster&quot;. In a ceremony before the Boston Red Sox's [[2005]] [[Interleague play|interleague]] game against the [[Cincinnati Reds]], the pole was named in honor o
he Continuity Executive and then appointed the Continuity Army Council. Amongst those who split the Provisionals was [[Ruairí Ó Brádaigh]], the former President of Provisional Sinn Féin who had headed the Provos during the similar split from the [[Official IRA]] in [[1970]]. The CIRA believe that, according to the IRA constitution, they are legitimate, while the PIRA betrayed the cause. (Source: &quot;The Long War&quot; by Brendan O'Brien.) (ISBN 0862786061) The CIRA claims to be the legitimate continuation of the '[[Irish Republican Army]]' or ''Óglaigh na hÉireann'', or the IRA. However the term is far more commonly used in a contemporary context to refer to the Provisionals' now defunct military body (known as the [[PIRA]]). Other self-styled &quot;IRAs&quot; include the [[Real IRA]] (RIRA). Following the Provisional ceasefire in [[1994]] the Continuity IRA became active. The CIRA announced its intention to continue the campaign against British rule, well before the formation of the [[Real IRA|&quot;Real IRA&quot;]]. The CIRA continues to oppose the [[Stormont Agreement]] and, unlike the Provisional IRA (and the [[Real IRA]] in [[1998]]), as of [[2006]] the CIRA has not announced a ceasefire or agreed to participate in weapons decommissioning - nor is there any evidence that they will. On [[13 July]] [[2004]], the US government designated the CIRA as an &quot;FTO&quot; (&quot;Foreign Terrorist Organisation&quot;) although there was no evidence that they planned to attack the USA [http://www.state.gov/s/ct/rls/45454.htm], thereby making it illegal for Americans to provide material support to it, requiring US financial institutions to block the group's assets, and denying alleged CIRA members visas into the US. The CIRA claim to be the true inheritors of an Irish Republican tradition that includes the 'Old' [[Irish Republican Army]] that fought the [[1919]]-[[1921]] [[Anglo-Irish War|War of Independence]], and claims to have attained legitimacy as such from the Executive of the Second Dáil (recognised in this claim by [[Tom Maguire]], the last surviving member of the [[Second Dáil]]), as the continuation of the IRA before this. However, these claims are disputed by most Republicans. Recently, several incarcerated members of the Continuity IRA have left the organization for unclear reasons. Supporters of the leadership claim that there was an internal disagreement, however when it was settled some people left the movement anyway. There have been many rumours about the reasons for the prisoners leaving the organization, none of which has been confirmed by both sides. In February 2006, the [[Independent Monitoring Commission]] reported that a dissident republican group styling itself [[Óglaigh na hÉireann]] had been formed after a split from the CIRA. *'''Activities:''' Suspected CIRA activities have included numerous bombings, assassinations and kidnappings, as well as extortion and robbery. Targets of the CIRA have included [[British army|British military]] and Police service (RUC, etc.), as well as [[Loyalist]] terrorists. It has also set off bombs in towns in Northern Ireland. As of 2004, the CIRA is not believed to have an established presence or capability of launching attacks on the island of [[Great Britain|Britain]]. A CIRA bomb defused in Dublin in December 2005 was believed by gardai to have been intended for use against drugs gangs in the city [http://www.rte.ie/news/2005/1209/m50.html]. In February 2006, the Independent Monitoring Commission blamed the CIRA for planting four bombs in Northern Ireland during the final quarter of 2005, as well as several hoax bomb warnings. *'''Strength:''' In [[2004]] the [[United States]] (US) government believed the CIRA to consist of fewer than fifty fully active members. In [[2005]], [[Irish Minister for Justice, Equality &amp; Law Reform]] [[Michael McDowell]] told [[Dáil|Leinster House]] that the organisation had a maximum of 150 members [http://debates.oireachtas.ie/DDebate.aspx?F=DAL20050623.xml&amp;Node=H10-1#H10-1]. *'''External aid:''' The US government suspected the CIRA of receiving funds and arms from supporters in the United States. It is also believed that, in cooperation with the so-called &quot;Real IRA&quot;, the CIRA may have acquired arms and material from the [[Balkans]]. [[de:Continuity Irish Republican Army]] ==References== * Eighth Report of the [[Independent Monitoring Commission]], [[1 February]] [[2006]] [http://www.independentmonitoringcommission.org/publications.cfm?id=31] [[no:Continuity IRA]] [[Category:Irish Republican Army]] [[Category:Proscribed paramilitary organizations in Northern Ireland]] {{IRAs}}</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Cinco de Mayo</title> <id>5860</id> <revision> <id>41114808</id> <timestamp>2006-02-25T03:35:03Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Where</username> <id>722151</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/69.116.177.175|69.116.177.175]] to last version by 206.176.127.227</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:stamp-us-cinco-de-mayo.jpg|thumb|Cinco de Mayo is increasingly celebrated in U.S. Southwest]] '''El Cinco de Mayo''' (&quot;The Fifth of May&quot; in [[Spanish language|Spanish]]) is a national celebration in [[Mexico]]. It commemorates the victory of Mexican forces led by General [[Ignacio Zaragoza]] over the [[France|French]] expeditionary forces in the [[Battle of Puebla]] on [[May 5]], [[1862]]. Under the pretext of forcing payment for Mexico's outstanding and crippling debt, [[United Kingdom|Britain]], [[Spain]] and [[France]] sent troops to Mexico. The democratically elected government of President [[Benito Juárez]] made agreements with the British and the Spanish, who promptly recalled their armies, but the French stayed, thus beginning the period of the [[French intervention in Mexico]]. Emperor [[Napoleon III]] wanted to secure French dominance in the former Spanish colony, including installing one of his relatives, [[Archduke Maximilian of Austria]], as ruler of Mexico. ==The War== Confident of a quick victory, 6,500 French soldiers marched on [[Mexico City]] to seize the capital before the Mexicans could muster a viable defense. Along their march, the French already encountered stiff resistance before Zaragoza struck out to intercept the invaders. The battle between the French and Mexican armies occurred on [[May 5]] when Zaragoza's ill-equipped militia of 4,500 men encountered the better armed French force. However, Zaragoza's small and nimble cavalry units were able to prevent French [[dragoon|dragoons]] from taking the field and overwhelming the Mexican infantry. With the dragoons removed from the main attack, the Mexicans routed the remaining French soldiers with a combination of their tenacity, inhospitable terrain, and a stampede of cattle set off by local peasants. The invasion was stopped and crushed. Zaragoza won the battle but lost the war. The French Emperor, upon learning of the failed invasion, immediately dispatched another force, this time numbering 30,000 soldiers. By [[1864]], they succeeded in defeating the Mexican army and occupying Mexico City. [[Maximilian von Habsburg|Archduke Maximillian]] became [[Emperor of Mexico]]. Maximilian's rule was short-lived. Mexican rebels opposed to his rule resisted, seeking the aid of the United States. Once the American Civil War was over, the U.S. military began supplying Mexicans with weapons and ammunition, and by [[1867]], the rebels finally defeated the French and deposed their puppet Emperor. The Mexican people then reelected Juárez as president. Also on [[5 May]] [[1901]], [[Ignacio Bravo]] telegraphed the news of the end of the [[Caste War of Yucatan]] with the Mexican victory against the self-proclaimed state of [[Chan Santa Cruz]]. ==See also== * [[Fiestas Patrias]] * [[Battle of Puebla]] * [[History of Mexico]] * [[Military history of Mexico]] [[Category:Holidays]] [[Category:Fiestas Patrias]] [[Category:1862 in Mexico]] [[Category:French intervention in Mexico]] [[fr:Cinco de Mayo]] [[de:Cinco de mayo]] [[es:Cinco de mayo]] [[nl:Cinco de mayo]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Congo</title> <id>5862</id> <revision> <id>42006953</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T04:30:45Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Ezeu</username> <id>328201</id> </contributor> <comment>/* Notes */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the various names applied to a region of central Africa; for other uses, see [[Congo (disambiguation)]].'' [[Image:Congo-Brazzaville-Congo-Kinshasa.png|right|frame|Republic of the Congo (light green)&lt;br&gt;Democratic Republic of the Congo (dark green)]] '''Congo''' is a name shared by two neighbouring countries in [[Central Africa]], drained by the [[Congo River]], and usually distinguished by their full official names and occasionally by adding their capital cities. '''&quot;The Congos&quot;''' may be used to refer to both countries. The adjective &quot;Congolese&quot; (as in &quot;Congolese music&quot; or &quot;Congolese culture&quot;) can refer to either or both countries. ==Republic of the Congo== The '''[[Republic of the Congo]]''' ('''ROC'''), also known as '''Congo-Brazzaville''' (and locally as &quot;Braza&quot;), is the smaller of the two countries and lies to the west. It was once a [[French colonial empires|French colony]], originally part of [[French Congo]] and later of [[French Equatorial Africa]]. Between 1971 and 1997 (and also in some recent publications{{ref|hdi}}) it was simply referred to as &quot;Congo&quot;. The area was dominated by [[Bantu]] tribes throughout most of its history. It was annexed as a colony of [[France]] in the 1880s as part of [[French Equatorial Africa]], and Brazzaville was the symbolic capital of [[Free France]] d
istorical source for this comes from the writings of Agricola's son-in-law, [[Tacitus]]. Archaeology backed up with accurate dating from [[dendrochronology]] suggests that the occupation of southern Scotland started before the arrival of Agricola. Whatever the exact dating, for the next 300 years Rome had a significant presence along its northern border, militarily, economically and socially. The Romans marked their [[border]]s with a series of defensive fortifications, including large continuous wall barriers. The earliest of these, the [[Gask Ridge]] in Perthshire, dates from the [[70]]s or [[80]]s AD. In the [[120]]s the Roman emperor [[Hadrian]] ordered the building of a fortified wall on a line running from the [[River Tyne]] to the [[Solway Firth]]. Twenty years later the Roman governor Lollius Urbicus built the [[Antonine Wall]] (so-named after [[Antoninus Pius]], the Roman emperor who ruled from 138 to 161) further north, across the Forth-Clyde isthmus. At half the length of [[Hadrian's Wall]], this considerably shorter border appeared easier to defend, but nevertheless it represented the northern reach of the Roman Empire for only the next two decades. By approximately [[160]] an open but manned border once again ran along Hadrian's Wall. Although the Romans had not found direct rule of [[Caledonia]] viable, perhaps because the wild nature of the country and the sparse population made the collection of taxes infeasible, they maintained control through military outposts and the assistance of tribes such as the [[Votadini]] who appear to have acted as ''[[buffer state]]s''. ==Post-Roman Scotland== In the wake of the Roman withdrawal Scotland's population comprised two main groups: # the [[Picts]], a people of uncertain origin (but possibly a [[Brythonic]] [[Celt]]ic group) who occupied most of Scotland north of the [[Firth of Clyde]] and the [[Firth of Forth]]: the area known as &quot;Pictavia&quot; # the [[Britons]] formed a [[Roman Empire|Roman]]-influenced [[Brythonic]] [[Celt]]ic culture in the south, with the kingdom of Y Strad Glud ([[Kingdom of Strathclyde|Strathclyde]]) from the Firth of Clyde southwards, [[Rheged]] in Cumbria, [[Selgovae]] in the central [[Scottish Borders|Borders]] area and the [[Votadini]] or [[Gododdin]] from the Firth of Forth down to the Tweed Invasions brought three more groups, though the extent to which they replaced native populations is unknown # the [[Old Irish language|Old Irish]]-speaking [[Scotti]] (Irish) or more specifically, the Dal Riatans, arrived from [[Ireland]] from the late [[5th century]] onwards, taking possession of the [[Western Isles]] and the west coast in the Kingdom of [[Dalriada]]. # the [[Anglo-Saxons]] expanding from [[Bernicia]] and the continent. Notably seizing [[Gododdin]] in the 7th Century. A legacy of this influence is the vernacular [[Scots language]], a [[Germanic languages|Germanic]] language similar to, but distinct from, [[English language|English]]. The language was initially termed [[Ynglis|Inglis]] but this terminology became unpalatable after [[Anglo-Norman language|Anglo-Norman]] had been eclipsed by the [[English language]] within England from the late [[14th century]] onwards. [[Scottish Gaelic|Gaelic]], which had earlier been referred to as &quot;Scottis&quot; (pronounced the same way as Scots), was increasingly referred to instead as [[Erse]], the word used for Irish. This terminology has now fallen out of use within [[Scottish Standard English]], however, and [[Scottish Gaelic|Gaelic]] is now normally used instead. # in the aftermath of the [[795]] [[Viking]] raid on [[Iona]], the Norse Jarls of [[Orkney Islands|Orkney]] took hold of the [[Western Isles]], [[Caithness]] and [[Sutherland]], while Norse settlers mixed with the inhabitants of [[Galloway]] to become the ''Gallgaels''. The British [[Saint Ninian]] conducted the first [[Christianity| Christian]] mission in Scotland. From his base, the ''[[Candida Casa]]'' (present-day [[Whithorn]]) on the [[Solway Firth]], he spread the faith in the south and east of Scotland and in the north of England. However, according to the writings of [[Saint Patrick]] and [[Saint Columba]], the Picts appear to have renounced Christianity in the century between Ninian's death (432) and the arrival of [[Saint Columba]] in 563. The reason is not known. The Gaels re-introduced Christianity into Pictish Scotland, gradually pushing out worship of the older Celtic gods. The most famous evangelist of that period, [[Saint Columba]], came to Scotland in [[563]] and settled on the island of [[Iona]]. Some consider his (possibly apocryphal) conversion of the Pictish king [[Bridei I of the Picts|Bridei]] a key event in the [[Christianization|Christianisation]] of Scotland. ==Rise of the Kingdom of Alba== The [[Mythology|myth]] of [[MacAlpin's Treason]] tells how [[Alba]] was born when the Dalriadan [[Kenneth I of Scotland|Kenneth mac Alpin]] conquered the Picts. Modern studies &lt;!-- Woolf's From Pictland to Alba, which would be the last word if it were ready, will take this line. Brown's article National Identity in Lynch's Oxford Companion says Alba is a creation of Constantine II. Driscoll's Alba argues for conquest but see Kenneth mac Alpin as King of Fortriu and Constantine II as 1st King of Alba. --&gt; are less sure of Kenneth's Dalriadan roots and consider Kenneth and his successors to be Pictish Kings. Kenneth's son [[Constantine I of Scotland|Constantine]] had the ''Series Longoir'' written to show his family's claim to the throne of a united Pictland. The triumph of Gaelic over Pictish and the change from Pictland to Alba is placed in the half-century reign of [[Constantine II of Scotland|Constantine mac Aeda]]. Why and how this happened is unknown. At first this new kingdom corresponded to Scotland north of the Rivers Forth and Clyde. Southwest Scotland remained under the control of the Strathclyde Britons. Southeast Scotland was under the control from around 638 of the proto-English kingdom of [[Bernicia]], then of the [[Kingdom of Northumbria]]. This portion of Scotland was contested from the time of Constantine II and finally fell into Scottish hands in [[1018]], when [[Malcolm II of Scotland|Malcolm II]] pushed the border as far south as the [[River Tweed]]. This remains the south-eastern border to this day (except around [[Berwick-upon-Tweed]]). Scotland, in the geographical sense it has retained for nearly a millennium, completed its expansion by the gradual incorporation of the Britons' kingdom of [[Strathclyde]] into Alba. In [[1034]], [[Duncan I of Scotland|Duncan I]], descended from Irish Ui Neill monastery protectors and appointed to the crown of Strathclyde some years earlier, inherited Alba from his maternal grandfather, Malcolm II. With the exception of [[Orkney Islands|Orkney]], the [[Western Isles]], [[Caithness]] and Sutherland, which had come under the sway of the Norse, Scotland stood unified. [[Macbeth I of Scotland|Macbeth]], the &quot;''Cenél Loairn''&quot; candidate for the throne whose family had been suppressed by Malcolm II, defeated Duncan in battle in [[1040]]. Macbeth then ruled for seventeen years before Duncan's son [[Malcolm III of Scotland|Malcolm III]], more commonly known as Malcolm Canmore (Scottish Gaelic: ''Ceann mòr'' meaning &quot;Big Head&quot;), overthrew him. ([[William Shakespeare]], in his play ''[[Macbeth]]'', later immortalised these events, in a heavily fictionalised way based on inaccurate contemporary history that flattered the antecedents of [[James I of England|James VI of Scotland/I of England]] at Macbeth's expense. For a more accurate fictional account, it is better to read [[Dorothy Dunnett]]'s novel, ''King Hereafter''.) ==Anglo-Norman influence== Malcolm's victory foreshadowed what became a major thread of Scottish history for the next thousand years. He had relied on [[Northumbrian]] assistance to return to the throne, and from then on Scotland at no time remained very far from the thoughts of England's rulers. The reciprocal condition equally applied. In [[1066]] the [[Norman Conquest]] shook England to its foundations and one of the claimants of the English throne opposing [[William I of England|William the Conqueror]], [[Edgar Atheling|Edgar]], eventually fled to Scotland. Malcolm married Edgar's sister [[Saint Margaret of Scotland|Margaret]], and thus came into opposition to William who had already disputed Scotland's southern borders. William invaded Scotland in [[1072]], riding through [[Lothian]] and past [[Stirling]] on to the [[Firth of Tay]] where he met up with his fleet of ships. Malcolm submitted, paid homage to William, and surrendered his son [[Duncan II of Scotland|Duncan]] as a hostage. Margaret herself had a great influence on Scotland. She is said to have brought European cultivation to the warlike Scottish court. She had an English father and a Hungarian mother and had grown up in [[Hungary]], recently pagan and largely untouched by the European culture of the period, with her background steeped in the [[Roman Catholic]] church. Her influence in Church politics, pressed the Scottish Church to move away from some of its unique Celtic traditions towards greater conformity with the rites of the Church in the rest of Western Europe. Invasions by the [[Viking]]s during the centuries previous had cut Scotland and Ireland off from the bulk of European Christianity, and their local Churches had evolved along their own paths. However at this point the Church explicitly recognised the Bishop of Rome (the [[Pope]]) as its head and at her instigation, the [[Benedictine]] order founded a monastery at [[Dunfermline]], and St Andrews began to replace Iona as the centre of ecclesiastical leadership. The rites of the Scottish church became gradually re-integrated with mainstream Western Catholicism from that base. When Malcolm died in [[1093]], his brother [[Donald III of Scotland|Donald III]]
statements||twenty-two canons, pope's right to invest bishops, condemnation of [[simony]], &quot;Truce of God&quot; (war allowed only Monday-Wednesday, and only in the summer and fall) |- |colspan=&quot;2&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;|[[Ecumenical council|chronological list of Ecumenical councils]] |} The Council of [[1123]] is reckoned in the series of [[Ecumenical council]]s by the [[Roman Catholic Church]]. It had been convoked in December, 1122, immediately after the [[Concordat of Worms]], which agreement between pope and emperor had caused general satisfaction in the Church. It put a stop to the arbitrary conferring of ecclesiastical benefices by laymen, reestablished freedom of episcopal and abbatial elections, separated spiritual from temporal affairs, and ratified the principle that spiritual authority can emanate only from the Church; lastly it tacitly abolished the exorbitant claim of the emperors to interfere in papal elections. So deep was the emotion caused by this concordat, the first ever signed, that in many documents of the time, the year [[1122]] is mentioned as the beginning of a new era. For its more solemn confirmation and in conformity with the earnest desire of the [[Archbishop of Mainz]], [[Pope Callistus II]] convoked a council to which all the archbishops and bishops of the West were invited. Three hundred bishops and more than six hundred abbots assembled at Rome in March, 1123; Callistus II presided in person. Both originals (instrumenta) of the Concordat of Worms were read and ratified, and twenty-two disciplinary [[Canon law|canons]] were promulgated, most of them reinforcements of previous conciliary decrees. Canons 3 and 11 forbid priests, deacons, subdeacons, and monks to marry or to have [[concubines]]; it is also forbidden them to keep in their houses any women other than those sanctioned by the ancient canons. Marriages of clerics are null pleno jure, and those who have contracted them are subject to [[penance]]. Canon 6: Nullity of the ordinations performed by the heresiarch Burdinus ([[Antipope Gregory VIII]]) after his condemnation. Canon 11: Safeguard for the families and possessions of [[crusaders]]. Canon 14: Excommunication of laymen appropriating offerings made to the Church, and those who fortify churches as strongholds. Canon 16: Against those who molest [[pilgrims]] on their way to Rome. Canon 17: Abbots and religious are prohibited from admitting sinners to penance, visiting the sick, administering extreme [[unction]], singing solemn and public [[Masses]]; they are obliged to obtain the holy [[chrism]] and holy oils from their respective bishops. ==Reference== *[http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/basis/lateran1.html Medieval Sourcebook: First Lateran Council]: Canons with annotations [[Category:1123]] [[Category:Roman Catholic Church Councils|Lateran 1]] [[Category:Investiture Controversy]] [[cs:1. lateránský koncil]] [[de:Erstes Laterankonzil]] [[fr:Ier concile du Latran]] [[no:Første Laterankonsil]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Four Noble Truths</title> <id>11393</id> <revision> <id>41632472</id> <timestamp>2006-02-28T17:42:34Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Sopholatre</username> <id>897475</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>removed vandalism</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{buddhism}} The '''Four Noble Truths''' ([[Pāli|Pali]], &quot;cattari ariya saccani&quot;) are taught in [[Buddhism]] as the fundamental insight or [[Bodhi|enlightenment]] of [[Sakyamuni]] [[Buddha]] (the historical Buddha), which led to the formulation of the Buddhist [[philosophy]]. # '''''[[Dukkha]]''''': There is suffering in life for all beings. &lt;br&gt; # '''''Samudaya''''': There is a cause of suffering, which is attachment and desire (''[[tanha]]'').&lt;br&gt; # '''''Nirodha''''': There is a way out of suffering, which is to eliminate attachment and desire.&lt;br&gt; # '''''Magga''''': There is a path that leads out of suffering, called the [[Noble Eightfold Path]]. This outline form is exactly that used by doctors of the [[Buddha]]'s culture when diagnosing and prescribing for a disease: identify the disease, its [[etiology|cause]], whether it is curable, and the prescribed cure. Thus the Buddha treats suffering as a &quot;disease&quot; we can confidently expect to cure. Because of its focus on suffering, Buddhism is often called pessimistic. But since [[Gautama Buddha]] presented a [[cure]], Buddhists consider it neither pessimistic nor optimistic but realistic. The Four Noble Truths was the topic of the first sermon given by the Buddha after his enlightenment. He gave the sermon to the ascetics with whom he had practiced austerities. ==See also== * [[List of Buddhist topics]] ==External links== * At ''[http://www.accesstoinsight.org Access to Insight]:'' ** ''[http://www.accesstoinsight.org/lib/study/truths.html The Four Noble Truths: A Study Guide]'' (by Thanissaro Bhikkhu) ** ''Wings to Awakening [http://www.accesstoinsight.org/lib/modern/wings/3h1.html Section 3.H.i: The Four Noble Truths]'' (translated by Thanissaro Bhikkhu) * Talks given by Ajahn Sumedho: ** At [http://www.amaravati.org/ Amaravati Monastery]'s web: ''[http://www.amaravati.org/abm/english/documents/4noble2/index.html The Four Noble Truths]'' ** PDF version at ''[http://www.buddhanet.net/ Buddhanet.net]'': ''[http://www.buddhanet.net/filelib/pdf/4nobltru.zip The Four Noble Truths eBook]'' *[http://www.acmuller.net/ddb Digital Dictionary of Buddhism] (log in as &quot;guest&quot;) *[http://buddhism.kalachakranet.org/4_noble_truths.html A View on the Four Noble Truths] *[http://myweb.cableone.net/subru/Buddhism.html ''The Light of Asia (Book Eight)''], a poem in [[iambic pentameter]] by [[Sir Edwin Arnold]]. *[http://www.metta.lk/tipitaka/2Sutta-Pitaka/3Samyutta-Nikaya/Samyutta5/55-Sacca-Samyutta/02-Dhammacakkappavattanavaggo-p.htm 4 noble truths in pali] *[http://www.meditateinlondon.org.uk/buddhism-the-four-noble-truths.php Buddhism - the Four Noble Truths] *[http://www.bswa.org Hundreds of free buddhist talks and huge forum.] *[http://www.buddhanet.net/4noble.htm The Four Noble Truths], a BuddhaNet production by Ajahn Sumedho. * ''[http://www.heartlandsangha.org/feeling.html The Feeling Buddha]:'' An alternate interpretation of the Four Noble Truths. *[http://www.dharmaweb.org DharmaWeb.org] [[Category: Buddhist terms]] [[cs:Čtyři vznešené pravdy]] [[da:De fire hellige sandheder]] [[de:Vier Edle Wahrheiten]] [[es:Cuatro Nobles Verdades]] [[fr:Quatre nobles vérités]] [[ko:사제설]] [[is:Göfugu sannindin fjögur]] [[nl:Vier nobele waarheden]] [[ja:四諦]] [[pl:Cztery szlachetne prawdy]] [[pt:Quatro Nobres Verdades]] [[ru:Четыре Благородные Истины]] [[sk:Štyri vznešené pravdy]] [[sv:De fyra ädla sanningarna]] [[th:อริยสัจ 4]] [[vi:Tứ diệu đế]] [[zh:四谛]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Films</title> <id>11394</id> <revision> <id>35396005</id> <timestamp>2006-01-16T12:58:21Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Jdcooper</username> <id>202051</id> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Film]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>French Republican Calendar</title> <id>11396</id> <revision> <id>41792843</id> <timestamp>2006-03-01T20:07:58Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Nae'blis</username> <id>388895</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>/* Winter */ dab Narcisse</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{French_Revolution}} The '''French Republican Calendar''' or '''French Revolutionary Calendar''' is a [[calendar]] proposed during the [[French Revolution]], and used by the French government for about twelve years from late [[1793]]. It was designed by the politician and [[agronomist]] [[Charles Gilbert Romme]], although it is usually attributed to [[Philippe François Nazaire Fabre d'Églantine | Fabre d'Églantine]], who invented the names of the months. The calendar was adopted by the [[Jacobin]]-controlled [[National Convention]] on [[24 October]] [[1793]]. [[Image:Calendrier-republicain-debucourt2.jpg|thumb|left|French Republican Calendar of 1794, drawn by [[Louis-Philibert Debucourt]].]] Years appear in writing as [[Roman numerals]] (usually), counted from the beginning of the 'Republican Era', [[22 September]] [[1792]] (the day the [[French First Republic]] was proclaimed, one day after the Convention abolished the monarchy). As a result, Roman Numeral I indicates the first year of the republic, that is, the year before the calendar actually came into use. The first day of each year included the [[autumnal equinox]]. There were twelve [[month]]s, each divided into three ten-day weeks called ''décades''. The five or six extra days needed to approximate the [[tropical year]] were placed after the months at the end of each year. Each [[day]] was divided into ten [[hour]]s, each hour into 100 decimal [[minute]]s and each decimal minute had 100 decimal [[second]]s. [[Clock]]s were manufactured to display [[decimal time]], but it did not catch on and was officially abandoned in [[1795]], although some cities continued to use decimal time as late as [[1801]]. A period of four years ending on a leap day was to be called a &quot;Franciade&quot;. [[Sunday]] or the [[Sabbath]] was reintroduced by the [[Concordat of 1801]], effective [[Easter]] Sunday, [[18 April]] [[1802]]. Napoléon finally abolished the calendar effective [[1 January]] [[1806]] (the day after 10 nivôse an XIV), a little over twelve years after its introduction. However, it was used again during the brief [[Paris Commune]] in [[1871]] (year LXXIX). Many conversion tables and programs exist, largely created by genealogists. Some enthusiasts in France still use the calendar, more out of historical re-enactment than practicality. Some legal texts that were adopt
92/newsId=3573.html] '''Cup Winners' Cup runners up''' *1961/1962[http://www.uefa.com/competitions/ECWC/news/Kind=8192/newsId=3571.html] '''Champions' League runners up''' *1956/57 '''UEFA Cup runners up''' *1989/1990 ==Current first team squad== ''As of February 3, 2006'' {{Football squad start}} {{Football squad player|no=1|nat=France|name=[[Sebastien Frey]]|pos=GK|other=on loan from [[Parma F.C.|Parma]]}} {{Football squad player|no=2|nat=Denmark|name=[[Per Krøldrup]]|pos=DF}} {{Football squad player|no=3|nat=Italy|name=[[Dario Dainelli]]|pos=DF|other=captain}} {{Football squad player|no=4|nat=Italy|name=[[Marco Donadel]]|pos=MF}} {{Football squad player|no=5|nat=Italy|name=[[Alessandro Gamberini]]|pos=DF}} {{Football squad player|no=7|nat=Brazil|name=[[Guilherme Raymundo Do Prado]]|pos=MF}} {{Football squad player|no=8|nat=Bulgaria|name=[[Valeri Bojinov]]|pos=FW}} {{Football squad player|no=10|nat=Italy|name=[[Stefano Fiore]]|pos=MF|other=on loan from [[Valencia CF|Valencia]]}} {{Football squad player|no=13|nat=Italy|name=[[Marco Roccati]]|pos=GK}} {{Football squad player|no=14|nat=Italy|name=[[Davide Brivio]]|pos=DF|other=from youth team}} {{Football squad player|no=17|nat=Italy|name=[[Michele Pazienza]]|pos=MF|other=on loan from [[Udinese Calcio|Udinese]]}} {{Football squad player|no=18|nat=Italy|name=[[Riccardo Montolivo]]|pos=MF}} {{Football squad player|no=19|nat=Chile|name=[[Luis Jiménez]]|pos=MF}} {{Football squad mid}} {{Football squad player|no=20|nat=Denmark|name=[[Martin Jørgensen]]|pos=MF}} {{Football squad player|no=21|nat=Czech Republic|name=[[Tomas Ujfalusi]]|pos=DF}} {{Football squad player|no=22|nat=Romania|name=[[Bogdan Lobonţ]]|pos=GK}} {{Football squad player|no=23|nat=Italy|name=[[Manuel Pasqual]]|pos=MF}} {{Football squad player|no=26|nat=Italy|name=[[Giuseppe Pancaro]]|pos=DF}} {{Football squad player|no=27|nat=Italy|name=[[Marco Di Loreto]]|pos=DF}} {{Football squad player|no=29|nat=Italy|name=[[Gianpaolo Pazzini]]|pos=FW}} {{Football squad player|no=30|nat=Italy|name=[[Luca Toni]]|pos=FW}} {{Football squad player|no=32|nat=Italy|name=[[Cristian Brocchi]]|pos=MF|other=on loan from [[A.C. Milan|AC Milan]]}} {{Football squad player|no=33|nat=Italy|name=[[Niccolò Manfredini]]|pos=GK|other=from youth team}} {{Football squad player|no=99|nat=Italy|name=[[Gianluca Berti]]|pos=GK}} {{Football squad player|no=&amp;mdash;|nat=Italy|name=[[Andrea Paolucci]]|pos=MF}} {{Football squad end}} ==Famous players== ===1950s &amp; 60s=== *{{flagicon|Brazil}} [[Amarildo]] *{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Luciano Chiarugi]] *{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Giancarlo De Sisti]] *{{flagicon|Sweden}} [[Kurt Hamrin]] *{{flagicon|Brazil}} [[Julinho]] *{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Mario Maraschi]] *{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Aurelio Milani]] *{{flagicon|Argentina}} {{flagicon|Italy}} [[Miguel Montuori]] *{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Alberto Orzan]] *{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Giuliano Sarti]] *{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Giuseppe Virgili]] ===1970 to 80s=== *{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Giancarlo Antognoni]] *{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Roberto Baggio]] *{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Giovanni Galli]] *{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Francesco Graziani]] *{{flagicon|Argentina}} [[Daniel Passarella]] ===1990s to present=== *{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Daniele Adani]] *{{flagicon|Brazil}} [[Adriano Leite Ribeiro|Adriano]] *{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Lorenzo Amoruso]] *{{flagicon|Argentina}} [[Gabriel Batistuta]] *{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Enrico Chiesa]] *{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Angelo Di Livio]] *{{flagicon|Brazil}} [[Dunga]] *{{flagicon|Brazil}} [[Edmundo]] *{{flagicon|Germany}} [[Stefan Effenberg]] *{{flagicon|Russia}} [[Andrei Kanchelskis]] *{{flagicon|Denmark}} [[Brian Laudrup]] *{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Fabrizio Miccoli]] *{{flagicon|Serbia and Montenegro}} [[Predrag Mijatovic]] *{{flagicon|Japan}} [[Hidetoshi Nakata]] *{{flagicon|Brazil}} {{flagicon|Belgium}} [[Luis Oliveira]] *{{flagicon|Portugal}} [[Rui Costa]] *{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Francesco Toldo]] *{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Luca Toni]] ==External links== * {{it icon}} {{en icon}} {{jp icon}} [http://www.acffiorentina.it Official website] * {{it icon}} [http://groups.google.com/groups?hl=en&amp;lr=&amp;ie=UTF-8&amp;safe=off&amp;group=it.sport.calcio.fiorentina ACF Fiorentina Newsgroup] * {{it icon}} [http://www.fiorentina.it/home02.asp?IDCategoria=1 ACF Fiorentina Fansite] * {{en icon}} [http://www.resultsfromfootball.com/seriea-team/acfiorentina.html Fiorentina statistics] {{Serie A}} [[Category:Italian football clubs|Fiorentina]] [[Category:Florence|Fiorentina]] [[ca:A.C.F. Fiorentina]] [[cs:ACF Fiorentina]] [[de:AC Florenz]] [[es:Associacione Calcio Fiorentina]] [[fr:AC Fiorentina]] [[it:A.C.F. Fiorentina]] [[he:פיורנטינה]] [[nl:AC Fiorentina]] [[ja:フィオレンティーナ]] [[pl:ACF Fiorentina]] [[pt:ACF Fiorentina]] [[fi:ACF Fiorentina]] [[sv:ACF Fiorentina]] [[zh:佛罗伦萨足球俱乐部]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>AC Milan</title> <id>3166</id> <revision> <id>15901528</id> <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>Conversion script</ip> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Automated conversion</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[A.C. Milan]] </text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Afrobeat</title> <id>3168</id> <revision> <id>41761334</id> <timestamp>2006-03-01T15:36:13Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Siva1979</username> <id>755590</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>wikification</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Afrobeat''' is a combination of [[United States|American]] [[funk]] [[rhythm]]s fused with [[Africa]]n [[Percussion_instrument|percussion]] and [[vocal]] styles. Popularized in [[Africa]] in the mid to late [[1960s]]. Afrobeat's most famous artist was the [[Nigeria]]n multi-[[Musical instruments|instrument]]alist and [[bandleader]] [[Fela Kuti]] who actually coined the term, constructed the musical structure and shaped the political context of the genre. He launched afrobeat in [[Lagos]] in [[1968]]. Afrobeat also had influences from [[high-life]] music, a style of African pop-jazz. Kuti had earlier played this type of music with the [[Koola Lobitos]] band. There are certain crucial elements to '''Afrobeat''' that would be encountered in almost all examples of the genre: * [[Big band]]: A large group of musicians playing various instruments (Fela Kuti's band in the 80s ''Egypt 80'' featured 80 musicians); * Energy: Energetic, exciting and with high tempo, [[polyrhythmic]] percussion; * Repetition: The same musical movements are repeated many times; * [[Improvisation]]: Performing without set music; * Combination of genres: A mixture of various musical influences. Afrobeat originated from the southern part of [[Nigeria]] in the 60s, influenced probably by the American [[free jazz]] movement. [[Fela Kuti|Fela Anikulapo Kuti]] went through experimenting different forms of music - first by highlife jazz, and then other forms of contemporary music of the time and local African harmonies and rhythms, taking different elements and combining, modernizing and improvizing thoae rythyms. [[Politics]] is essential to the genre of Afrobeat, since the founder [[Fela Kuti]] was deeply concerned in social criticism to pave way to social change. The message can be described as confrontational and controversial, which can be related to the political climate of most of the African countries in the 60s, which dealt with political injustice and military corruption while recovering from the transition from the colonial governments to self-determination. As the genre spread throughout the African continent, many bands took up the style in the 60s and 70s. The recordings of these bands and their songs were hardly heard or exported to outside the originating countries and can be classified rare. Jazz musicians have always been attracted to afrobeat. From Roy Ayers in the seventies to Randy Weston in the nineties there have been collaborations which have resulted in albums like africa centre of the world by Roy Ayers released on the polydor label in 1981. In 1994 branford marsalis the American jazz saxophonist would include samples of Fela's beast of No nation in his Buckshot le Fonque album. Afrobeat has profoundly influenced important contemporary producers like Brian Eno who credits Fela Kuti as an influence. New generation DJs of the 2000s who have fallen in love with both Kuti's material and other rare releases have made compilations and remixes off of these recordings, thus re-introducing the genre to new generations of listeners and fans of afro-pop and groove. Post-Fela, the Afrobeat scene is spreading and the music seems to have taken root on the global music scene. There is a diverse group of bands influenced by the music operating out of different countries. A list of Acts to watch would definitely include Femi Kuti (Fela's first son and a saxophonist) and the positive force, Ayetoro (a group led by Nigerian piano player/composer Funsho Ogundipe), Antibalas (All-American Afrobeat band formed by baritone saxophonist Martin Perna) and finally, Tony Allen the man who held the drum chair during Fela's productive Africa 70 phase. == References and External Links == *[http://www.afrodizz.com/ AFRODIZZ band website] *[http://www.modiba.net/music.html ASAP: the Afrobeat Sudan Aid Project -- an all-charity compilation] *[http://www.zozoafrobeat.com/ ZoZo Afrobeat] *[http://www.chopteeth.com/ Chopteeth Afrofunk Big Band website] *[http://www.afrobeatdown.com/ Afrobeat Down website] *[http://www.slipcue.com/music/international/africa/aa_styles/afrobeat_01.html Slipcue -Afrobeat] * [http://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/learningenglish/music/musicdirectory/afrobeat.shtml BBC Afrobeat Documentary] *[http://www.antibalas.com/ Antibalas Afrobeat Orchestra website] *[http://www.theafromotive.com/ The Afromotive website] *[http://www.toubabkrewe.com/ Toubab Krewe website] *[http:/
arties in Belgium}} ==Communities and regions== {{main|Communities, regions and provinces of Belgium}} [[Image:350px-Belgium RegProv border.jpg|250px|right|thumbnail|Belgium is composed of the five northern Dutch-speaking provinces of [[Flanders]], the five southern French-speaking provinces of [[Wallonia]] (the [[German-speaking community of Belgium |German-speaking Community]] is located in the [[Liège (province) |province of Liège]] along the German border) and the bilingual [[Brussels-Capital Region|Capital Region of Brussels]]. The boundary between these regions is marked in red.]] The country's constitution was revised on [[14 July]] [[1993]] to create a unique federal state, based on three levels: #The federal government, based in Brussels. #The three language communities: #* the [[Flemish Community|Flemish (i.e., Dutch-speaking) Community]]; #* the [[French Community of Belgium|French (i.e., French-speaking) Community]]; and #* the [[German-speaking Community of Belgium|German-speaking Community]]. # The three regions (which differ from the language communities with respect to the German-speaking community and the Brussels region): #* the [[Flemish Region]]; #* the [[Wallonia|Walloon Region]]; and #* the [[Brussels-Capital Region]]. Conflicts between the bodies are resolved by the [[Court of Arbitration of Belgium|Court of Arbitration]]. The setup allows a compromise so distinctly different cultures can live together peacefully. The Flemish Community absorbed the Flemish Region in 1980 to form the government of [[Flanders]]{{ref|flanders}}. The overlapping boundaries of the Regions and Communities have created two notable peculiarities: the territory of the Brussels-Capital Region is included in both Flemish and French Communities, and the territory of the German-speaking Community lies wholly within the Walloon Region. Flemish and Walloon regions are furthermore subdivided in administrative entities, the provinces. At the highest level of this three-tiered setup is the [[Belgian federal government |federal government]] which manages [[foreign affairs]], [[development aid]], [[defense (military)|defence]], [[Belgium/Military|military]], police, economic management, [[social welfare]], [[social security]] transport, energy, telecommunications, and scientific research, limited competencies in education and culture, and the supervision of taxation by regional authorities. The federal government controls more than 90 per cent of all taxation. The community governments are responsible for the promotion of language, culture and education in mostly schools, libraries and theatres. The third tier is the Regional governments, who manage mostly land and property based issues such as housing, transportation etc. For example, the building permit for a school building in Brussels belonging to the public school system would be regulated by the regional government of Brussels. However, the school as an institution would fall under the regulations of the Flemish government if the primary language of teaching is Dutch, but under the French Community government if the primary language is French. == Geography== {{main|Geography of Belgium}} [[Image:Be-map.gif|thumb|200px| [[Brussels]], [[Antwerp]] (Antwerpen), [[Ghent]] (Gent), [[Charleroi]], [[Liège (city)|Liège]], [[Bruges]] (Brugge) and [[Namur (city)|Namur]] are the seven largest cities of Belgium, with populations above 100,000]] Belgium, with an area of 30,528 [[square kilometre]]s (11,787&amp;nbsp;[[square mile|sq.&amp;nbsp;mi]]), has three main geographical regions: the coastal plain in the north-west, the central plateau, and the [[Ardennes]] uplands in the south-east. The coastal plain consists mainly of sand dunes and [[polder]]s. Polders are areas of land, close to or below sea level that have been reclaimed from the sea, from which they are protected by [[Dike (construction)|dike]]s or, further inland, by fields that have been drained with canals. The second geographical region, the central plateau, lies further inland. This is a smooth, slowly rising area that has many fertile valleys and is irrigated by many waterways. Here one can also find rougher land, including caves and small [[gorge]]s. [[Image:Hautes-Fagnes.jpg|thumb|left|200px|Landscape in the [[Hautes Fagnes]], in the Ardennes]] The third geographical region, called the Ardennes, is more rugged than the first two. It is a thickly forested plateau, very rocky and not very good for farming, which extends into northern France. This is where much of Belgium's wildlife can be found. Belgium's highest point, the [[Signal de Botrange]] is located in this region at only 694&amp;nbsp;[[metre]]s (2,277&amp;nbsp;[[foot (unit of length|ft]]). The climate is maritime [[temperate]], with significant precipitation in all seasons ([[Köppen climate classification]]: ''Cfb''; the average temperature is 3°C (37°F) in January, and 18°[[Celsius|C]] (64°[[Fahrenheit|F]]) in July; the average precipitation is 65&amp;nbsp;[[millimetre]]s (2.6&amp;nbsp;[[inch|in]]) in January, and 78&amp;nbsp;millimetres (3.1&amp;nbsp;in) in July).{{ref|meteo}} == Economy== {{main|Economy of Belgium}} Densely populated, Belgium is located at the heart of one of the world's most highly industrialised regions. [[Image:Ougree_16.jpg|thumb|300px|Steelmaking along the [[Meuse]] at [[Ougrée]], near [[Liège (city) |Liège]].]] Belgium was the first continental European country to undergo the [[Industrial Revolution]], in the early 1800s. [[Liège (city) |Liège]] and [[Charleroi]] rapidly developed mining and steelmaking, which flourished until the mid-20th century. However, by the 1840s the textile industry of Flanders was in severe crisis and there was famine in Flanders (1846&amp;ndash;50). After World War II, [[Ghent]] and [[Antwerp]] experienced a fast expansion of the [[chemical]] and [[petroleum]] industries. The [[1973 oil crisis|1973]] and [[1979 oil crisis|1979 oil crises]] sent the economy into a prolonged recession. The Belgian steel industry has since experienced serious decline. This has been responsible for inhibiting the economic development of [[Wallonia]].{{ref|state_dpt}} In the 1980s and 90s, the economic centre of the country continued to shift northwards to Flanders. Nowadays, industry is concentrated in the populous Flemish area in the north. By the end of the 1980s, Belgian macroeconomic policies had resulted in a cumulative government debt of about 120% of [[GDP]]. Currently, although the government has recently succeeded in balancing its budget, public debt is nearly 100% of GDP.{{ref|state_dpt}} In 2004, the real growth rate of GDP was estimated at 2.7% {{ref|nationalBank}} but is expected to fall to 1.3% in 2005.{{ref|economist}} Belgium has a particularly [[open economy]]. It has developed an excellent [[transportation in Belgium|transportation infrastructure]] of ports, canals, [[Rail transport in Belgium|railways]] and highways to integrate its industry with that of its neighbours. Antwerp is the second-largest European port. One of the founding members of the European Union, Belgium strongly supports the extension of the powers of EU institutions to integrate the member economies. In 1999, Belgium adopted the [[euro]], the single European currency, which replaced the [[Belgian franc]] in 2002. The Belgian economy is strongly oriented towards foreign trade, in particular of high value-added goods. The main imports are food products, machinery, rough diamonds, petroleum and petroleum products, chemicals, clothing and accessories, and textiles. The main exports are automobiles, food and food products, iron and steel, finished diamonds, textiles, plastics, petroleum products, and nonferrous metals. Since 1922, Belgium and [[Luxembourg]] have been a single trade market within a [[customs union |customs]] and [[currency union]]—the [[Belgium-Luxembourg Economic Union]]. Its main trading partners are Germany, the Netherlands, France, the United Kingdom, Italy, the United States and Spain. Belgium ranks ninth on the 2005 [[United Nations]] [[Human Development Index]]. ==Demographics== {{main|Demographics of Belgium}} The [[population density]] (342 per km&amp;sup2; or 886 per sq.&amp;nbsp;mi) is one of the highest in Europe, after the Netherlands and some smaller countries such as [[Monaco]]. The areas with the highest population density are around the Brussels-Antwerp-Ghent-[[Leuven]] agglomerations, also known as the [[Flemish Diamond]], as well as other important urban centres as Liège, [[Charleroi]], [[Kortrijk]], [[Bruges]], [[Hasselt]] and [[Namur (city) | Namur]]. The Ardennes have the lowest density. As of 2005, the Flemish Region has a population of about 6,043,161, Wallonia 3,395,942 and Brussels 1,006,749.{{ref|statbel}} Almost all of the population is urban (97.3% in 1999{{ref|undp}}). The main cities and their populations are Brussels (1,006,749), Antwerp (457,749), Ghent (230,951), Charleroi (201,373), and Liège (185,574).{{ref|statbel}} [[Image:Basilica of the Sacred Heart in Belgium.jpg|thumb|right|250px|[[Basilica of the Sacred Heart, Belgium | Basilica of the Sacred Heart]], [[Brussels]]. The basilica is the National Basilica of Belgium. It stands as a symbol of the historical link between the [[List of Belgian monarchs |Belgian monarchy]] and the Catholic Church.]] About 60% of the country is Dutch-speaking, 40% French-speaking, and 1% German-speaking. Brussels is officially French-Dutch bilingual, but mostly French speaking; it evolved from a Dutch-speaking place to its current dominantly French character when the Belgian state became independent in 1830, with at that time only French as an official language (although the majority of the people spoke Dutch). Both the [[Dutch language|Dutch]] spoken in Belgium and the [[Belgian French]] have minor differences in [[vocabulary]] and [[semantic]] nuances from the varieties spoken in France and the Netherlands. Many people can still
ircuito integrado]] [[ro:Circuit integrat]] [[ru:Интегральная микросхема]] [[simple:Integrated circuit]] [[sl:Integrirano vezje]] [[sr:Интегрално коло]] [[fi:Mikropiiri]] [[sv:Integrerad krets]] [[th:วงจรเบ็ดเสร็จ]] [[vi:Vi mạch]] [[zh:集成电路]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>I-Link</title> <id>15151</id> <revision> <id>15912644</id> <timestamp>2004-03-29T23:53:36Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Timwi</username> <id>13051</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>fix double-redirect</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[FireWire]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Impedance match</title> <id>15152</id> <revision> <id>15912645</id> <timestamp>2004-03-25T02:50:45Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>208.186.187.86</ip> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[impedance matching]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Individual cases of anthrax</title> <id>15153</id> <revision> <id>15912646</id> <timestamp>2003-09-03T01:31:09Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Jiang</username> <id>10049</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>#REDIRECT[[2001 anthrax attacks]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT[[2001 anthrax attacks]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>IBM 3270</title> <id>15154</id> <revision> <id>32787327</id> <timestamp>2005-12-26T19:16:03Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>EagleOne</username> <id>74123</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>fixed several links</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[de:IBM 3270]] [[Image:3270ScreenShot.jpg|thumbnail|right|350px|Clemson University's library catalog as displayed in a 3270 emulation program]] The '''IBM 3270''' is a class of [[computer terminal|terminals]] made by [[IBM]] (known as &quot;Display Devices&quot;) normally used to communicate with [[IBM mainframe]]s. The 3270 attempts to minimize the number of [[input/output|I/O]] interrupts required by accepting large blocks of [[data]] known as [[Data stream|datastreams]]. IBM stopped manufacturing terminals (and [[punch cards]] for that matter) many years ago, but the IBM 3270 protocol is still commonly used via [[emulation]] to access some mainframe-based applications. Use of 3270 is slowly diminishing over time as more and more mainframe applications acquire [[World Wide Web|Web]] interfaces, but in some situations (such as [[call center]]s) the &quot;green screen&quot; 3270 interface is still the most productive and efficient. == Principles == In a datastream, both text and control (or formatting functions) are interspersed allowing an entire screen to be &quot;painted&quot; as a single output operation. The concept of &quot;formatting&quot; in these devices allows the screen to be divided into clusters of contiguous character cells for which numerous attributes (colour, highlighting, character set, protection from modification) can be set. Further, using a technique known as &quot;Read Modified&quot; the changes from any number of formatted fields that have been modified can be read as a single input without transferring any other data, another technique to enhance the terminal throughput of the [[Central processing unit|CPU]]. Some users familiar with character interrupt-driven terminal interfaces find this technique unusual. However, most Web interfaces operate in much the same way and often for the same reasons. The 3270 has twelve, and later twenty-four, special [[function key|Programmed Function Key]]s, or PF keys, and three PA (or ''Program Attention'') keys. When one of these keys is pressed, it will cause its ''control unit'' (historically, usually, an IBM 3274 or 3174, but nowadays the onboard mainframe equivalent) to generate an I/O interrupt and present a special code identifying which key was pressed. Application program functions such as termination, page-up, page-down, or help can be invoked by a single key-push, thereby reducing the load on very busy processors. In this way, the CPU is not bothered at every keystroke, a scheme which allowed an early 3033 mainframe with only 16&amp;nbsp;MB to support up to 17500 3270 terminals under [[CICS]]. On the other hand, [[vi]]-like behaviour was not possible. (But end-user responsiveness was arguably more predictable with 3270, something users appreciated.) For the same reason, a porting of [[Lotus 1-2-3]] to mainframes with 3279 screens did not meet success because its programmers were not able to properly adapt the spreadsheet's user interface to a &quot;screen at a time&quot; rather than &quot;character at a time&quot; device. In contrast, IBM's [[OfficeVision]] office productivity software enjoyed great success with 3270 interaction because of its design understanding, and for many years the PROFS calendar was the most commonly displayed screen on office terminals around the world. As mentioned above, the Web (and [[HyperText Transfer Protocol|HTTP]]) is more similar to 3270 interaction because the terminal (browser) is given more responsibility for managing presentation and user input, minimizing host interaction while still facilitating server-based information retrieval and processing. In fact, not too many years ago 3270 terminals were considered &quot;smart&quot; (or &quot;programmable&quot; or &quot;intelligent&quot;) rather than &quot;dumb.&quot; == Models == *3277 model 1 : 16×40 terminal *3277 model 2 : 24×80 terminal, the biggest success of all *3277 model 3 : 32×80 terminal *3277 GA : a 3277 with a RS232C I/O, often used to drive a Tektronix 4013 or 4015 graphic screen (1024×768, monochrome) *3278 models 3,4,5 : next-generation, with accented characters and dead keys in countries that needed them ** model 2 : 24×80 ** model 3 : 32×80 ** model 4 : 43×80 ** model 5 : 27×132 or 24×80 (switchable) *3278 PS : programmable characters; able to display monochrome graphics *3279 : color terminal, 4-color (text) or 7-color (graphics) version, A version of the [[IBM PC]] called the [[IBM 3270 PC|3270 PC]], released in October 1983, included 3270 [[terminal emulator|terminal emulation]]. Later, the PC/G (graphics) and PC/GX (extended graphics) followed. Unfortunately these machines needed to be rebooted to switch between terminal mode and local (DOS) mode. [[Telnet 3270|TN3270]] is a slighly modified version of the [[Telnet]] protocol which allows a 3270 [[terminal emulator]] to communicate over a [[Internet protocol suite|TCP/IP]] network. Popular 3270 terminal emulators include IBM Host On-Demand and Personal Communications, Attachmate EXTRA!, and Rumba. ---- {{FOLDOC}} [[Category:IBM hardware]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>I. M. Pei</title> <id>15155</id> <revision> <id>41645244</id> <timestamp>2006-02-28T19:35:24Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Everyking</username> <id>44020</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/204.38.32.173|204.38.32.173]] ([[User talk:204.38.32.173|talk]]) to last version by Eskimbot</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Louvre_at_night_centered.jpg|thumb|250px|right|The [[Louvre]] Pyramid, [[Paris]]]] '''Ieoh Ming Pei''' ({{zh-cp|c=貝聿銘|p=B&amp;egrave;i Y&amp;ugrave;m&amp;iacute;ng}}; b. [[April 26]], [[1917]]) is a [[Pritzker Prize]] winning [[architect]], known as the last master of high [[modernist]] [[architecture]]. He works with the abstract form, using [[Rock (geology)|stone]], [[concrete]], [[glass]], and [[steel]]. Pei is one of the most successful architects of the 20th century. ==Early life and education== Ieoh Ming Pei was born in [[Suzhou]], [[Jiangsu Province]], [[China]] on [[April 26]], [[1917]] to a prominent banker. His first education was in [[Shanghai]] and then at [[St. Paul's College, Hong Kong]] before moving to the [[United States]] to study architecture at the age of 18. He started at the [[University of Pennsylvania]] before going on to receive his Bachelor of Architecture degree from [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology]] in 1940. That same year, he was awarded the Alpha Rho Chi Medal, the MIT Travelling Fellowship, and the AIA Gold Medal. He enrolled at the [[Harvard]] Graduate School of Design two years later; shortly thereafter, he served at the [[National Defense Research Committee]] in [[Princeton, New Jersey]]. In 1944 he returned to Harvard, received his master degree in Architecture in 1946 and stayed at Harvard as an assistant professor. He received the Wheelwright Traveling Fellowship in 1951 and became a [[naturalized citizen]] of the United States in 1954.{{ref|officalbio}} ==Career== Pei operated his own architectural firm, founded in 1955, which was known as I. M. Pei &amp; Partners until 1989 when it became known as [[Pei Cobb Freed &amp; Partners]] recognizing [[James Ingo Freed]] and [[Henry N. Cobb]]. ==Personal life== I.M. Pei has two sons: Chien Chung (Didi) Pei, and Li Chung (Sandi) Pei. Both have followed their father to the Harvard Graduate School of Design. Chien Chung Pei helped his father design the [[Louvre]] addition from 1989 to 1993. Li Chung Pei helped his father design the [[Bank of China Tower]] in Hong Kong in 1989. Both became architects practicing under their own firm, [http://www.ppa-ny.com/ Pei Partnerships]. I.M. Pei has helped out at the firm since his retirement from his own firm in 1990.{{ref|jfktalk}} ==Project list== *[[1954]] - [[1959]] [[Mile High Center]], in [[Denver, Colorado]], USA *[[1961]] - [[1967]] [[National Center for Atmospheric Research]], in [[Boulder, Colorado]], USA *[[1961]] - [[Kips Bay Plaza]], in [[New York, New York]], USA [http://www.pcfandp.com/a/p/5705/s.html] *[[1961]] - [[Government Center Master Plan]], [[Boston, Massachus
offending pages. Some pages from the original edition have been posted on the Internet Story Of Davidito [http://www.xfamily.org/index.php/Story_of_Davidito]. Some claim that the publication of this book led to similar sexualization of children throughout the group. By 1988, reports of sexual abuse began to filter up to the top of the Family's leadership. This prompted Berg to renounce his ideas regarding adult/child sex, writing: ''&quot;We do not approve of sex with minors, and hereby renounce any writings of anyone in our Family which may seem to do so! We absolutely forbid it! — Moses David 12/88&quot;'' &lt;ref name=&quot;Child Abuse?!&quot;&gt;[http://www.xfamily.org/index.php/Child_Abuse%3F%21 Child Abuse?!] (March 1989) (Hosted by [http://www.xFamily.org xfamily.org])&lt;/ref&gt; In March 1989, the Family issued a statement which stated that, in &quot;early 1985&quot; an urgent memorandum was sent to all of its members ''&quot;reminding them that any such activities [adult-child sexual contact] are &lt;u&gt;strictly forbidden&lt;/u&gt; within our group.&quot;''&lt;ref name=&quot;Child Abuse?!&quot;/&gt; (emphasis in original). In January 2005, Claire Borowik, spokesperson for the Family International, issued a statement that said, &quot;Due to the fact that our current zero-tolerance policy regarding sexual interaction between adults and underage minors was not clearly stated in our literature published before 1986, we came to the realization that during a transitional stage of our movement, from 1978 until 1986, there were cases when some minors were subject to sexually inappropriate advances... This was corrected officially in 1986, when any contact between an adult and minor (any person under 21 years of age) was declared an excommunicable offense.[http://www.newdaynews.com/resource/davidito/borowick-01.htm]&quot; In December 1988 the Family implemented a policy that forbade adult-child sexual contact on penalty of permanent excommunication (expulsion from the movement). This policy was not retroactive. The Family, as a religious movement, does not take the place of civil authorities when it comes to the investigation of alleged crimes. Individuals, or parents of minors, who have a complaint may take their case to the relevant authorities. Because of the impact such an investigation could have on the lives of other children living in the communal Home, members who file charges or pursue other legal action against those excommunicated for child abuse are expected to temporarily leave the Family or move to a different membership status, explained in the June 2003 Charter amendments&lt;ref name=&quot;Charter Amendments&quot;&gt;Charter Amendments, June 2003 ([http://www.xfamily.org/images/c/c5/CharterAmendments.pdf pdf]) (Hosted by [http://www.xFamily.org xfamily.org])&lt;/ref&gt; in the Rights of Children (pg. 22) and the Right of Redress (pg. 51) sections. In the 1990s, allegations of sexual abuse were laid against The Family in different locations worldwide, including [[Argentina]], [[Australia]], [[Brazil]], [[France]], [[Italy]], [[Japan]], [[Norway]], [[Peru]], [[Spain]], [[Sweden]], the [[United Kingdom|UK]], the [[United States|USA]], and [[Venezuela]] (see links below). The Family leadership has maintained that they did not sanction or condone the sexual abuse of children, and that government-led investigations and court cases did not find evidence of abuse in the 750 children they examined. An outline of some court cases, selected excerpts of some court rulings, newspaper editorials and other material that supports the group's positions can be found at [http://www.cesnur.org/testi/TheFamily/se_thefamily.htm]. Some actual court documents can be found in the [[Children_of_God#Court_cases|Court Cases]] section below. The Family has issued apologies. Karen Zerby, writing in the Letter &quot;An Answer to Him That Asks&quot; in 1995 stated: &quot;Because of the insight Dad [Berg] gave into the Scriptures which granted us a great deal of sexual freedom, without clearly stated explicit restrictions that prohibited all sexual activity between adults and minors, it resulted in actions that caused harm to some children. He must therefore bear responsibility for the harm. ... As the author of the Letters, he accepts the blame, but this doesn't mean that everyone else is completely blameless. Anyone who attempted to use the Law of Love to justify any unloving, selfish or hurtful behavior is responsible before God for it.&quot; According to [[Eileen Barker]]'s book ''An Introduction to New Religious Movements'', the group has been acquitted of all charges of sexual abuse of children. Other researchers have concurred that there is no evidence of greater sexual activity amongst teenagers in the Family than in society at large. &lt;ref&gt;Vogt, Nancy R. &quot;Correlates of Adolescent Sexual Activity in the Family&quot;, Graduate School of Psychology, Fuller Theological Seminary.&lt;/ref&gt; ====Family transformation in the 1990s==== In the early 1990s, alongside many other religious groups, Family members took advantage of the newly opened Eastern Europe (following the fall of communism) and expanded their evangelisation campaigns eastward. The production and dissemination of millions of pieces of Gospel literature earned them the colloquial name &quot;the poster people.&quot; The early 1990s also saw the launch of what the Family terms their &quot;Consider the Poor&quot; (CTP) ministries. Expanding their outreach beyond witnessing, members began reaching out a helping hand in material ways to the poor and disadvantaged. Family members became active in disaster relief efforts, the provision and distribution of humanitarian aid, musical benefit programs for refugees, visitation to hospitals, and so on. ===The Family (1995-2003)=== After Berg's death in October 1994, [[Karen Zerby]], known in the group as Mama, Queen Maria, Maria David or Maria Fontaine, took over leadership of the group. She then married her longtime coworker, [[Steven Douglas Kelly]], an American also known as Christopher Smith, Peter Amsterdam, or King Peter. He became her traveling representative due to Zerby's [[Recluse|reclusive]] separation from most of her followers. In February of 1995, the group introduced the Family Charter [http://thefamily.org/dossier/charter/overview.htm], consisting of the &quot;Charter of Responsibilities and Rights,&quot; which defined the responsibilities which Charter Members, Homes and leadership were expected to live up to as the standard of discipleship and the rights of Charter members and of the Charter Home. Following that was the &quot;Fundamental Family Rules,&quot; which was a summary of all rules and guidelines from past Family publications which were still in effect with the enactment of the Charter. The Charter set forth a new way of living within the organization--that of allowing members to operate according to their own faith and according to their desires. The rights referred to in the Charter were what a member could expect to receive from the group and how members were to be treated by leadership and fellow members. The responsibilities referred to were what members were expected to give to the group if they wished to remain full-time members, including [[tithe|tithing]] ten percent of their income to World Services, giving three percent to the &quot;Family Aid Fund,&quot; which was set up for the sole purpose of helping and supporting needy field situations worldwide, and one percent to the Home's regional common pot, which was used for local projects, activities, and fellowships. The Charter also provided that it or any part of it could be revoked at any time by World Services if the need was to warranted it. The Charter, presently in its second edition, has been subsequently amended over the years according to the growing and changing needs of the movement. In a 1995 court case, [[The Right Honourable|the Rt Hon.]] Lord Justice Ward decided that the group, including some among its top leadership, had engaged in abusive sexual practices involving minors and that they had also engaged in severe [[corporal punishment]] and sequestration of minor children. However, he concluded that the Family had abandoned these practices and that they were a safe environment for children. Nevertheless, he did require that the group cease all corporal punishment of children in the United Kingdom and denounce any of Berg's writings that were &quot;responsible for children in the Family having been subjected to sexually inappropriate behaviour.&quot; The group has publicly renounced any doctrine that alluded to encouraging sex between adults and minors. This was made clear in an internal publication issued by Karen Zerby in 1988, where she stated, “We've already put out an urgent notice to the Family &amp; to the whole world that we don't do such things, and we mean it, we don't do it!--And anybody [in the Family] who does is in serious trouble, not only with the world but with us! … If we hear of anybody who violates these rules, we're going to immediately excommunicate them!” [Child Abuse—1988] This renunciation was later argued by some, using what Family leader Karen Zerby said, as quoted from “Summit '93, Mama Jewels #2,” 1992 [http://www.geocities.com/magicgreenshirt/downloads/sj_pg19.gif], when she brought the subject of loving affection between adults and children up for discussion only at a leadership conference in 1992. Regardless, Family policy remained unchanged and offenders are excommunicated. ===The Family International (2004-present)=== In 2004 the movement's name was changed to the Family International. However Homes were told that they could retain their former names with the proviso that they make clear they are affiliated with the Family International. In 2004 there were major internal changes in the group. Documents of the group talk about arresting a general trend to
her with Aegean writing. In Cyprus and perhaps on the south-west [[Anatolia]]n coasts, there is some reason to think that the cataclysm was less complete, and Aegean art continued to languish, cut off from its fountain-head. Such artistic faculty that survived elsewhere was made in the lifeless geometric style that is reminiscent of the later Aegean, but wholly unworthy of it. Also, [[cremation]] took the place of burial of the dead. This great disaster, which cleared the ground for a new growth of local art, was probably due to yet another incursion of northern tribes, more barbarous than their predecessors, but possessed of superior iron weapons -- those tribes which later Greek tradition and Homer knew as the [[Dorian]]s. They crushed a civilization already hard hit, and it took two or three centuries for the Aegean artistic spirit, probably preserved in suspended animation by the survival of Aegean racial elements, to blossom anew. On this conquest seems to have ensued a long period of unrest and popular movements, known to [[Ancient Greece|Greek]] tradition as the [[Ionian Migration]] and the Aeolic and Dorian &quot;colonizations&quot;. When once more we see the Aegean area clearly, it is dominated by the Hellenes, though it has not lost all memory of its earlier culture. ==Political Organization== Evidence of monarchy at all periods on Crete can be found by the great [[Crete|Cretan]] palaces and the fortified citadels of [[Mycenae]], [[Tiryns]] and [[Hissarlik]], each containing little more than one great residence, surrounded by smaller buildings for the townsfolk. Pockets of local developments of art before the middle of the [[2nd millennium BC]] suggest the early existence of separate traditions, of which the strongest was the [[Minoan civilization|Minoan]]. After that date the evidence strongly suggests that one political dominion was spread for a brief period, or for two brief periods, over almost all the area. The great number of tribute-tallies found at [[Knossos]] perhaps indicates that the center of power was always there. ==Religion== The fact that shrines have so far been found within palaces and not certainly anywhere else indicates that the kings kept religious power in their own hands. Perhaps they were themselves high-priests. [[Religion]] in the area seems to have been essentially the same everywhere from the earliest period, consisting of features like the cult of a [[Divine Principle]], resident in dominant features of nature (sun, stars, mountains, trees, etc.) and of controlling [[fertility]]. This cult passed through an [[aniconic]] stage, from which [[fetish]]es survived to the last, these being rocks or pillars, trees, weapons (e.g. [[bipennis]], or double [[war-axe]], [[shield]]), etc. When the [[iconic]] stage was reached, about [[2000 BC]], we find the Divine Spirit represented as a [[goddess]] with a subordinate young [[deity|god]], as in many other east [[Mediterranean]] lands. The god was probably son and mate of the goddess, and the divine pair represented the genius of [[Reproductive Fertility]] in its relations with humanity. The goddess sometimes appears with [[dove]]s, as [[uranic]] (heavenly), at others with [[snake]]s, as [[chthonic]] (earthly). In the ritual, fetishes, often of miniature form, played a great part: all sorts of plants and animals were [[sacred]]: sacrifice (not burnt, and not human), dedication of all sorts of offerings and [[simulacra]], [[invocation]], etc., were practised. The dead, who returned to the [[Great Mother]], were objects of a sort of [[hero]]-worship. This early nature-cult explains many anomalous features of [[Hellenic]] religion, especially in the cults of [[Artemis]] and [[Aphrodite]]. ==Social Organization== There is a possibility that features of a [[primeval]] [[matriarch]]ate long survived; but there is no certain evidence. Of the organization of the people under the monarch we are ignorant. There are so few representations of armed men that it seems doubtful if there can have been any professional military class. Theatre-like structures found at [[Knossos]] and [[Phaestus]], within the precincts of the palaces, were perhaps used for shows or for sittings of a royal [[assize]], rather than for popular assemblies. The Minoan remains contain evidence of an elaborate system of registration, account-keeping and other secretarial work, which perhaps indicates a considerable body of law. The life of the ruling class was comfortable and even luxurious from early times. This can be seen by the fine stone palaces, richly decorated, with separate sleeping apartments, large halls, ingenious devices for admitting light and air, sanitary conveniences and marvellously modern arrangements for supply of water and for drainage. Even the smaller houses, after the [[Neolithic]] period, seem also to have been of stone, plastered within. After 1600 B.C. the palaces in Crete had more than one story, fine stairways, bath-chambers, windows, folding and sliding doors, etc. In this later period, the distinction of blocks of apartments in some palaces has been held to indicate the seclusion of women in [[Harem (household)|harem]]s, at least among the ruling caste. [[Minoa]]n [[fresco]]es show women grouped apart, and they appear alone on gems. Flesh and fish and many kinds of vegetables were evidently eaten, and [[wine]] and [[beer]] were drunk. Vessels for culinary, table, and luxurious uses show an infinite variety of form and purpose. Craftsmen's tools of many kinds were in use, [[bronze]] succeeding [[obsidian]] and other hard stones as the material. Seats are found carefully shaped to the human form. At least on Crete there was evidently a large-scale [[olive]]- and vine-culture. [[Chariot]]s were in use in the later period, as is proved by the pictures of them on Cretan tablets, and therefore, probably, the [[horse]] also was known. Indeed a horse appears on a gem impression. Main pathways were paved. [[Sport]]s, probably more or less religious, are often represented, e.g. bullfighting, dancing, boxing, armed combats. ==Commerce== Commerce was practised to some extent in very early times, as is proved by the distribution of [[Melian]] [[obsidian]] over all the Aegean area and by the [[Nilotic]] influence on early Minoan art. We find Cretan vessels exported to [[Melos]], [[Egypt]] and the [[Greece|Greek]] mainland. Melian vases came in their turn to Crete. After 1600 B.C. there is very close commerce with Egypt, and Aegean things had their way to all coasts of the Mediterranean. No traces of [[currency]] have come to light, unless certain axeheads, too slight for practical use, had that character. Standard weights have been found, as well as representations of ingots. The Aegean written documents have not yet proved (by being found outside the area) to be [[epistolary]] (letter writing) correspondence with other countries. Representations of ships are not common, but several have been observed on Aegean gems, gem-sealings and vases. They are vessels of low free-board, with [[mast (sailing)|mast]]s. Familiarity with the sea is proved by the free use of marine motives in decoration. Discoveries, later in the twentieth century, of sunken trading vesels round the coasts of the region have brought forth an enormous amount of new information about those times. ==Treatment of the Dead== The dead in the earlier period were laid (so far as we know at present) within cysts constructed of upright stones. These were sometimes inside [[cave]]s. After the burial the cyst was covered in with earth. A little later, in Crete, bone-pits seem to have come into use, containing the remains of many burials. Possibly the flesh was boiled off the bones at once (&quot;scarification&quot;) or left to rot in separate cysts a while. Afterwards the skeletons would be collected and the cysts re-used. Coffins are of small size, contain corpses with the knees drawn up to the chin. They are found in excavated chambers or pits. In the later period, a peculiar [[Beehive tombs|&quot;bee-hive&quot; or &quot;tholos&quot; tomb]]s became common, sometimes wholly or partly excavated, sometimes (as in the magnificent Mycenaean &quot;treasuries&quot;) constructed domewise. The shaft-graves in the Mycenae circle are also a late type, paralleled in the later Minoan cemetery. The latest type of tomb is a flatly vaulted chamber approached by a horizontal or slightly inclined way, whose sides converge above. At no period do the Aegean dead seem to have been burned. Weapons, food, water, cosmetics and various trinkets were laid with the corpse at all periods. In the Mycenae circle an altar seems to have been erected over the graves, and perhaps slaves were killed to bear the dead chiefs company. A painted [[sarcophagus]], found at [[Hagia Triada]], also possibly shows a hero-cult of the dead. ==Artistic Production== Ceramic art reached a specially high standard in technique, form and decoration by the middle of the [[3rd millennium BC]] on Crete. The products of that period compare favorably with any potters' work in the world. The same may be said of fresco-painting, and probably of metal work. Modelling in [[terra cotta]], [[sculpture]] in stone and ivory, [[engraving]] on gems, were following it closely by the beginning of the 2nd millennium. After [[2000 BC]] all these arts revived, and sculpture, as evidenced by relief work, both on a large and on a small scale, carved stone vessels, [[metallurgy]] in [[gold]], [[silver]] and [[bronze]], advanced farther. This art and those of fresco- and vase-painting and of gem-engraving stood higher about the [[15th century BC|15th century B.C.]] than at any subsequent period before the 6th century. The manufacture, modelling and painting of [[faience]] objects, and the making of inlays in many materials were also familiar to Aegean craftsmen, who show in all their best work a strong sense of natural form and an appreciation of ideal balance and de
ences in temperature within the chamber will even out. This fact does not mean that at any given moment there is a small chance that differences in temperature will increase. As [[Louis Menand]] has observed, Darwin's theory of natural selection operates in an analogous fashion: at any given moment most of the members of a species vary little from the average form. Nevertheless, at any given moment there are deviations from the average, and it is the natural selection of specific deviations that leads to a new species. In other words, Darwin applied the same statistical approach to biology that Maxwell applied to physics (Menand 2001: 197-199). ====Organization==== When they consider rocks that just sit there, some people may think it is obvious that matter cannot organize itself. Matter, in fact, organizes itself in numerous ways. Crystals such as diamonds and snowflakes can and do self-organize. Likewise [[protein]]s fold in very specific ways based on their chemical makeup. [[Amino acid]]s are the building blocks of proteins. While the chemical conditions on the relatively young Earth 3.5 billion years ago, when life evolved, are still being debated, the spontaneous synthesis of amino acids has been shown for a wide range of conditions, in such settings as the [[Miller-Urey experiment]]. ====Information==== Misunderstanding the nature of information, some assert that evolution cannot create information, that information is a manifestation of intelligence. [[Physical information]] exists regardless of the presence of an intelligence, and evolution allows for new information whenever a novel mutation or [[gene]] duplication occurs and is kept. It does not need to be beneficial nor visually apparent to be &quot;information.&quot; However, even if those were requirements they would be satisfied with the appearance of [[nylon]]-eating [[bacteria]] [http://www.nmsr.org/nylon.htm], which required new [[enzyme]]s to digest a material that never existed until the modern age. :''&quot;It wasn't a highly competent design because the bacteria weren't extracting a lot of energy from the process, just enough to get by. And it was based on a simply frame shift reading of a gene that had other uses. But with a simple frame shift of a gene that was already there, it could now &quot;eat&quot; nylon. Future mutations, perhaps point mutations inside that gene, could conceivably heighten the energy gain of the nylon decomp process, and allow the bacteria to truly feast and reproduce faster and more plentifully on just nylon, thus leading perhaps in time to an irreducibly complex arrangement between bacteria who live solely on nylon and a man-made fiber produced only by man.&quot; [http://www.edwardtbabinski.us/evolution/darwin_design.html] ==Science of evolution== The word &quot;evolution&quot; has been used to refer both to a fact and a theory, and it is important to understand both these different meanings of evolution, and the relationship between fact and theory in science. ===Status of evolution in science=== When &quot;evolution&quot; is used to describe a fact, it refers to the observations that populations of one species of organism do, over time, change into new species. In this sense, evolution occurs whenever a new species of bacterium evolves that is resistant to antibodies that had been lethal to prior strains. When &quot;evolution&quot; is used to describe a [[theory]], it refers to an ''explanation'' for ''why'' and ''how'' evolution (for example, in the sense of &quot;speciation&quot;) occurs. An example of evolution as theory is the [[Modern synthesis|modern synthesis]] of [[Charles Darwin|Darwin]] and [[Alfred Russell Wallace|Wallace's]] theory of [[Natural selection|natural selection]] and [[Gregor Mendel|Mendel's]] principles of [[Genetics|genetics]]. This theory has three major aspects: # [[Common descent]] of all [[organism]]s from a single ancestor or ancestral gene pool. # Manifestation of novel traits in a lineage. # Mechanisms that cause some traits to persist while others perish. When people provide evidence for evolution, in some cases they are providing evidence that evolution occurs; in other cases they are providing evidence that a given theory is the best explanation yet as to why and how evolution occurs. ===Distinctions between theory and fact=== :''Main article: [[Theory#Science | Theory]] The modern synthesis, like its Mendelian and Darwinian antecedents, is a ''scientific theory.'' In plain English, people use the word &quot;theory&quot; to signify &quot;conjecture&quot;, &quot;speculation&quot;, or &quot;opinion.&quot; [http://www.answers.com/theory&amp;r=67] In this sense, &quot;theories&quot; are opposed to &quot;facts&quot; &amp;mdash; parts of the world, or claims about the world, that are real or true regardless of what people think. In scientific terminology however, a theory is a model of the world (or some portion of it) from which [[falsifiability|falsifiable]] [[hypothesis|hypotheses]] can be generated and tested through controlled experiments, or be verified through [[empiricism|empirical observation]]. In this scientific sense, &quot;facts&quot; are ''parts'' of theories – they are things, or relationships between things, that theories must take for granted in order to make predictions, or that theories predict. In other words, for scientists &quot;theory&quot; and &quot;fact&quot; do not stand in opposition, but rather exist in a reciprocal relationship – for example, it is a &quot;fact&quot; that every apple ever dropped on earth (under normal, controlled conditions) has been observed to fall towards the center of the planet in a straight line, and the &quot;theory&quot; which explains these observations is the current theory of [[gravitation]]. In this same sense evolution is an observed fact and the modern synthesis is currently the most [[predictive power|powerful]] theory explaining evolution. Within the [[science]] of biology, modern synthesis has completely replaced earlier accepted explanations for the origin of species, including [[Lamarckism]] and [[creationism]]. ===Academic disciplines=== Scholars in a number of academic disciplines and subdisciplines document the fact of evolution, and contribute to explaining its occurrence. Every subdiscipline within [[biology]] both informs and is informed by knowledge of the theory and details of evolution (examples: [[population genetics]], [[ecological genetics]], [[human evolution]], [[molecular evolution]], [[phylogenetics]], [[systematics]], [[evo-devo]]). [[Mathematics]] (example [[bioinformatics]]), [[physics]], [[chemistry]] and others all make important foundational contributions. Even disciplines as far-removed as [[geology]] and [[sociology]] play a part, since the process of biological evolution has coincided in time and space with the development of both the Earth itself and human civilization upon it. ====Evolutionary biology==== [[Image:RDawkins.jpg|220px|thumb|[[Richard Dawkins]] is a contemporary evolutionary biologist who has written several best-selling books on the subject.]] [[Evolutionary biology]] is a subfield of [[biology]] concerned with the origin and descent of [[species]], as well as their change over time. At first it was an [[interdisciplinarity]] field including scientists from many traditional [[taxonomy|taxonomically]] oriented disciplines. For example, it generally includes scientists who may have a specialist training in particular [[organism]]s such as [[mammalogy]], [[ornithology]], or [[herpetology]] but use those organisms as systems to answer general questions in evolution. Evolutionary biology as an [[academic discipline]] in its own right emerged as a result of the [[modern evolutionary synthesis]] in the [[1930s]] and [[1940s]]. It was not until the [[1970s]] and [[1980s]], however, that a significant number of universities had departments that specifically included the term ''evolutionary biology'' in their titles. ;'''Evolutionary developmental biology''' [[Evolutionary developmental biology]] is an emergent subfield of evolutionary biology that looks at [[genes]] of related and unrelated organisms. By comparing the explicit [[nucleotide]] sequences of [[Deoxyribonucleic acid|DNA]]/[[RNA]], it is possible to trace and experimentally determine the timelines of species development. For example, gene sequences support the conclusion that chimpanzees are the closest primate ancestor to humans, and that [[arthropods]] (e.g., insects) and [[Vertebrate|vertebrates]] (e.g., humans) have a common biological ancestor. ====Physical anthropology==== [[Physical anthropology]] emerged in the late 1800s as the study of human osteology, and the fossilized skeletal remains of other [[hominid]]s. At that time anthropologists debated whether their evidence supported Darwin's claims, because skeletal remains revealed temporal and spatial variation among hominids, but Darwin had not offered an explanation of the mechanisms that produce variation. With the recognition of Mendelian genetics and the rise of the modern synthesis, however, evolution became both the fundamental conceptual framework for, and object of study of, physical anthropologists. In addition to studying skeletal remains, they began to study genetic variation among human populations (i.e. [[Population genetics|population genetics]]); thus, some physical anthropologists began calling themselves biological anthropologists. ==Modern synthesis== {{main|Modern evolutionary synthesis}} The current understanding of the mechanistics of evolution differs considerably from the theory first outlined by Charles Darwin. Importantly, advances in [[genetics]] pioneered by [[Gregor Mendel]] led to a sophisticated understanding of the basis of variation and the mechanisms of inheritance. In addition natural selection has come to be seen as only one of a number of forces acting in evolution. A notable milestone in this
producing learning outcomes far exceeding those normally encountered in classroom instruction. * [[Robert M. Gagné]] *[[Cooperative learning]] *[[Educational technology]] * [[John R. Anderson]] * [[Cognitive tutor]] * [[Computer Supported Cooperative Learning|Computer supported collaborative learning]] * [[Collaborative learning]] * [[problem-based learning]] ==Applications in teaching== [[Image:FinnGerberBoydZaharias2005.png|right|thumb|250px|A class size experiment in the United States found that attending small classes for 3 or more years in the early grades increased high school graduation of students from low income families (Finn, Gerber, &amp; Boyd-Zaharias, 2005).]] Research on [[classroom management]] and [[pedagogy]] is conducted to guide teaching practice and form a foundation for teacher education programs. The goals of classroom management are to create an environment conducive to learning and to develop students' self-management skills. More specifically, classroom management strives to create positive teacher-student and peer relationships, manage student groups to sustain on-task behavior, and use counselling and other psychological methods to aid students who present persistent psychosocial problems (Emmer &amp; Stough, 2001). *[[Special education]] *[[Lesson plan]] ==History== [[Image:Wm james.jpg|right|thumb|250px|William James]] Educational psychology cannot claim priority in the systematic analysis of educational processes. [[philosophy of education|Philosophers of education]] such as [[Democritus]], [[Quintilian]], [[Vives]] and [[Comenius]], had examined, classified and judged the methods of education centuries before the [[History of psychology|beginnings of psychology]] in the late 1800s. Instead, aspirations of the new discipline rested on the application of the [[scientific methods]] of observation and experimentation to educational problems. Even in the earliest years of the discipline, educational psychologists recognized the limitations of this new approach. In his famous series of lectures ''Talks to Teachers on Psychology'', published in 1899 and now regarded as the first educational psychology textbook, the pioneering American psychologist [[William James]] commented that: &lt;blockquote&gt;Psychology is a science, and teaching is an art; and sciences never generate arts directly out of themselves. An intermediate inventive mind must make that application, by using its originality. (James, 1899/1983, p. 15)&lt;/blockquote&gt; * [[Charles Hubbard Judd]] Thorndike, who developed the theory of [[instrumental conditioning]], presaged later work on programmed instruction, mastery learning and computer-based learning: &lt;blockquote&gt;If, by a miracle of mechanical ingenuity, a book could be so arranged that only to him who had done what was directed on page one would page two become visible, and so on, much that now requires personal instruction could be managed by print. (Thorndike, 1912, p. 165)&lt;/blockquote&gt; ===Influential educational psychologists and theorists=== The following persons were selected and featured in a recent biographical history of educational psychology (Zimmerman &amp; Schunk, 2003), as having made significant contributions to the field: * [[Albert Bandura]] [[1925]] * [[Alfred Binet]] [[1857]]-[[1911]] * [[Benjamin Bloom]] [[1913]]-[[1999]] * [[Ann Brown]] [[1943]]-[[1999]] * [[Jerome Bruner]] [[1915]] * [[Lee Cronbach]] [[1916]]-[[2001]] * [[John Dewey]] [[1859]]-[[1952]] * [[Nathaniel Gage]] * [[Robert M. Gagné|Robert Gagné]] [[1916]]-[[2002]] * [[William James]] [[1842]]-[[1910]] * [[Maria Montessori]] [[1870]]-[[1952]] * [[Jean Piaget]] [[1896]]-[[1980]] * [[Herbert Simon]] [[1916]]–[[2001]] * [[B.F. Skinner|Burrhus Frederic Skinner]] [[1904]]-[[1990]] * [[Charles Spearman]] [[1863]]-[[1945]] * [[Lewis Terman]] [[1877]]-[[1956]] * [[Edward L. Thorndike]] [[1874]]-[[1949]] * [[Lev Vygotsky|Lev Semenovich Vygotsky]] [[1896]]-[[1934]] ==Careers in educational psychology== A person may be considered an educational psychologist if he or she has completed a graduate [[academic degree|degree]] in educational psychology or a closely related field. Universities establish educational psychology graduate programs in either psychology departments or, more commonly, faculties of education. Psychologists who work in a k-12 school setting are usually trained at either the [[Professional Master's degree|masters]] or doctoral ([[Doctor of Philosophy|PhD]] or [[Doctor of Education|EdD]]) level. In addition to conducting assessments, school psychologists provide services such as academic and behavioral intervention, counseling, teacher consultation, and crisis intervention. In recent decades the participation of women as professional researchers in [[North American]] educational psychology has risen dramatically (Evans, Hsieh &amp; Robinson, 2005). The percentage of female authors of peer-reviewed journal articles doubled from 1976 (24%) to 1995 (51%), and has since remained constant. Female membership on educational psychology journal editorial boards increased from 17% in 1976 to 47% in 2004. Over the same period, the proportion of chief editor positions held by women increased from 22% to 70%. ==Research journals== {| align=right style=&quot;margin: 0 0 1em 1em; border: 1px solid #BEBEBE; background:#f9f9f9; color:#000000&quot; cellpadding=3 !Journal !Impact* |- |[https://www.erlbaum.com/shop/tek9.asp?pg=products&amp;specific=0046-1520 Educational Psychologist] ||3.72 |- |[http://www.cc.gatech.edu/lst/jls/ Journal of the Learning Sciences] ||2.28 |- |[http://www.elsevier.com/wps/find/journaldescription.cws_home/620190/description#description Learning and Individual Differences] ||2.17 |- |[http://www.aera.net/publications/?id=319 Review of Educational Research] ||1.96 |- |[http://www.apa.org/journals/edu/ Journal of Educational Psychology] ||1.69 |- |[http://www.elsevier.com/wps/find/journaldescription.cws_home/956/description#description Learning and Instruction] ||1.62 |- |[http://ojs.aera.net/journals/index.php/jebs Journal of Educational and Behavioral Statistics] ||1.35 |- |[http://springerlink.metapress.com/(t0svhs55wsolmg45powgxo55)/app/home/journal.asp?referrer=parent&amp;backto=linkingpublicationresults,1:104855,1 Educational Psychology Review] ||1.23 |- |[http://35.8.171.42/aera/pubs/aerj/ American Educational Research Journal] ||1.10 |- |[http://www.bps.org.uk/publications/journals/bjep/bjep_home.cfm British Journal of Educational Psychology] ||0.92 |- |[https://www.erlbaum.com/shop/tek9.asp?pg=products&amp;specific=0737-0008 Cognition and Instruction] ||0.80 |- |[http://www.elsevier.com/wps/find/journaldescription.cws_home/622811/description#description Contemporary Educational Psychology] ||0.75 |- |[http://www.heldref.org/jexpe.php Journal of Experimental Education] ||0.73 |- |[http://www.springer.com/sgw/cda/frontpage/0,11855,4-40406-70-35680520-0,00.html Instructional Science] ||0.66 |- |[http://www.blackwellpublishing.com/journal.asp?ref=0022-0655 Journal of Educational Measurement] || 0.47 |- |[http://www.aect.org/Intranet/Publications/index.asp#etrd Educational Technology Res and Dev]||0.20 |- |European Journal of Psychology of Education ||0.18 |- |Japanese Journal of Educational Psychology ||0.08 |- | * Citations per article from 2004 ISI JCR |} Although not exhaustive, the table to the right lists [[peer review|peer-reviewed]] journals in educational psychology and related fields. The [[impact factor]] is the average number of [[citations]] per article in each journal. ==See also== * [[:Category:Educational psychologists|Educational psychologists]] * [[:Category:Educational psychology|Articles related to educational psychology]] * [[List of publications in psychology#Educational psychology | Important publications in educational psychology ]] * [[Educational research]] * [[Philosophy of education]] * [[School psychologist]] * [[List of education topics]] * [[American Educational Research Association]] * [[American Psychological Association]] * [[Association for Psychological Science]] * [[International Society of the Learning Sciences]] == External links == * [http://psych.athabascau.ca/html/aupr/educational.shtml Educational Psychology Resources] by [[Athabasca University]] * [http://www.apa.org/about/division/div15.html Division 15 of the American Psychological Association] * [http://www.schoolpsychology.net/ School Psychology on the Web] * [http://www.wcupa.edu/_ACADEMICS/sch_cas.psy/Career_Paths/Educational/Career04.htm Careers in Educational Psychology] * [http://wps.ablongman.com/ab_woolfolk_edpsych_9 Educational Psychology] by Anita Woolfolk * [http://www.psych-ed.org/ The Psychology of Education] by Martyn Long * [http://www.mhhe.com/socscience/education/elliott/ Educational Psychology: Effective Teaching, Effective Learning] by Elliot, Kratochwill, Cook &amp; Travers * [http://courses.ed.asu.edu/berliner/readings//journey.htm The 100-Year Journey of Educational Psychology] by David C. Berliner * [http://tip.psychology.org/index.html Explorations in Learning &amp; Instruction: The Theory Into Practice Database] * [http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/index.htm Classics in the History of Psychology] * Geary, D. C. (2005). [http://web.missouri.edu/~psycorie/FolkKnowledgePDF.pdf Folk knowledge and academic learning.] In B. J. Ellis &amp; D. F. Bjorklund (Eds.), [http://www.guilford.com/cgi-bin/cartscript.cgi?page=pr/ellis.htm&amp;dir=pp/dp&amp;cart_id=208191.21056 Origins of the social mind] (pp. 493-519). New York: Guilford Publications. ==Sources== Alberto, P., &amp; Troutman, A. (2003). ''Applied behavior analysis for teachers'' (6th ed.). Columbus, OH, USA: Prentice-Hall-Merrill. Anderson, L. W., &amp; Krathwohl, D. R. (2001). ''A taxonomy for learning, teaching, and assessing: A revision of Bloom's taxonomy of educational objectives''. New York, USA: Addison-Wesley Longman. Bloom, B. S. (1984). The two sigma proble
s common to have the same color belt at different levels. ==Spirituality== The ending &quot;[[do]]&quot; in the word aikido indicates a spiritual path, unlike the ending &quot;jutsu&quot; in the word aikijujutsu, which indicates a system of techniques. Many people see this difference as important as well as regarding [[iaido|iaijutsu]] and [[iaido]], [[jujutsu]] and [[judo]], and [[kenjutsu]] and [[kendo]]. Others see this distinction as a historically incorrect and somewhat unnatural division. For example, literally, do refers to a path and jitsu to a technique: therefore, some argue, aikido involves both a way (do) and technical study (jutsu). Ueshiba taught that, while it was important to become proficient in physical technique, this is not the ultimate purpose of training. He taught that the principles learned through training in physical technique are universal and are to be applied to all aspects of one's life. He once commented that he was teaching students not how to move their feet but, rather, how to move their minds. Many agree that Ueshiba's style became softer, more fluid, and effortless as he grew older. Some suggest this was due to a shift in focus to the spiritual aspects of the art, while others suggest that this was simply a natural result of Ueshiba becoming more proficient in physical technique. Various interpretations have arisen since Ueshiba's death. A range of aikido schools can be found, each placing a different emphasis on physical techniques, underlying principles, and spiritual concepts. This is largely a result of at what point the founder of each of these schools trained with Ueshiba--earlier or later in Ueshiba's life. The former tend to focus more on physical technique, while the latter tend to focus more on spiritual concepts. However, this should not be overstated, especially since there is considerable variance from sensei to sensei, and an &quot;aikido continuum&quot; is quite problematic to actually construct. Some aikidoka view &quot;physical vs. spiritual&quot; as a false separation, or a failed attempt to stereotype branches of aikido. [[Ki Society]] is an example of a school that focuses heavily on the spiritual concepts of aikido, rather than physical technique. ===Ki=== [[Image:ki-obsolete.png|left|float|200px|Obsolete form of the ki kanji]] The Japanese character for [[Qi|ki]], is a symbolic representation of a lid covering a pot full of rice. The steam being contained within, is ki. This same word is applied to the ability to harness one's own 'breath power', 'power', or 'energy'. This 'ki' is the same as the 'qi' in [[Qigong|qi-gong]], but many people argue it is not the same as the 'chi' in [[Tai Chi Chuan|t'ai chi]]. When [[aikidoka]] say that someone is training with a lot of ki, they usually want to express that the person is very non-forcefully compelling in the execution of his technique. Timing, a sense for the correct distance and a centered (undisturbed) mind and body are particularly important. Most teachers claim to locate ki in the [[hara (Martial Arts)|hara]], which might be loosely defined as the body's center of gravity, situated in the lower abdomen, about two inches below and behind the navel. In training it is constantly emphasized that one should keep one's hara — that is, remain ''centered''. Very high ranking teachers sometimes reach a level of coordination that enables them to execute techniques with very little apparent movement, sometimes even without seeming to touch their opponent's body. Essentially, ki corresponds to the physical concepts of center of gravity, center of momentum, and center of force. However, these centers are not necessarily the same, so ki also encompasses the biological and mental aspect of training oneself to have exquisite control over motion. The &quot;spiritual&quot; interpretation of ki depends very much on what school of aikido one studies, as some emphasize it more than others. Ki Society dojos, for example, tend to spend much more time on ki-related training activities than do, for example, Yoshinkan dojos. The importance of ki in aikido cannot be denied -- the name of the martial art, after all, can be translated as &quot;the meeting of ki&quot;. But what ki is, is debated by many within the discipline. O-Sensei himself appears to have changed his views over time -- for example, Yoshinkan Aikido, which largely follows O-Sensei's teachings from before the war, is considerably more martial in nature, reflecting a younger, more violent and less spiritual O-Sensei. Within this school, ki perhaps could be better thought of as having its original Chinese meaning of breath, and aikido as coordination of movement with breath to maximize power. As O-Sensei evolved and his views changed, his teachings took on a much more ethereal feel, and many of his later students (almost all now high ranking senseis within the Aikikai) teach about ki from this perspective. See also: [[Qi]], [[Qigong]] ==Body== Aikido training is for all-around physical fitness, flexibility, and [[relaxation]]. The human body in general can exert power in two ways: contractive and expansive (aikidofaq.com). Many fitness activities, for example weight-lifting, emphasize the former, which means that specific muscles or muscle groups are isolated and worked to improve tone, mass, and power. The disadvantage of this, however, is that whole body movement and coordination are rarely stressed. Thus, while muscle size and power may increase, there is no emphasis on the ways in which those muscles can work together most efficiently. Also, this sort of training tends to increase tension, decrease flexibility, and stress the joints. The result may be aesthetically pleasing, but when done to excess may actually be detrimental to overall health. The second type of power, expansive, is mostly stressed in activities such as dance or gymnastics. In these activities, the body must learn to move in a coordinated manner and with relaxation. Aikido also mostly stresses this sort of training. While both types of power are important, it is interesting to note that a person who masters the second type of power can, in a martial context, often overcome a person who is much bigger or stronger. The reason for this is that the contractive power is only as great as the mass and power of your individual muscles. Expansive power, however, as used in Aikido, can be much greater than your size may lead you to believe. This is because you move with your whole body. Rather than stressing and tensing only a few muscles, you learn to relax and move from the center of your body, where you are most powerful. Power is then extended out naturally through the relaxed limbs, which become almost whip-like in their motion. Needless to say, the power behind an entire person's body will be more than that of someone's arm or leg alone. Hence, aikido develops the body in a unique manner. Aerobic fitness is obtained through vigorous training. Flexibility of the joints and connective tissues is developed through various stretching exercises and through the techniques themselves. [[Relaxation]] is learned automatically, since without it the techniques will not function. A balanced use of contractive and expansive power is mastered, enabling even a small person to pit his entire body's energy against their opponent. With this, different masters stress different aspects of training. Some masters stress importance of body posture while executing the technique in order to coordinate different parts of the body, while others deal with the physical aspects of it. With each way, comes a different means of interpretation of the same basic principles of the art which is discussed in more detail above. ==Mind== Aikido training does not consider the body and mind as independent entities. The condition of one affects the other. For example, the physical relaxation learned in aikido also becomes a mental relaxation. Likewise, the confidence that develops mentally is manifested in a more confident style. [[Psychological]] or spiritual insight learned during training must become reflected in the body, else it will vanish under pressure, when more basic, ingrained patterns and reflexes take over. Aikido training requires the student to squarely face conflict, not to run away from it. Through this experience, an Aikido student may learn to face other areas of life in a similarly proactive fashion, rather than in with avoidance and fear. ==Styles== The major styles of aikido each have their own [[Hombu Dojo]] in [[Japan]], have an international breadth and were founded by direct students of [[Morihei Ueshiba]]. Although there has been an explosion of &quot;independent styles&quot; generally only the first five listed have been considered major. [[Iwama style|Iwama Ryu]] is a debatable sixth as, although its influence is major, it has until recently been part of the [[Aikikai]] (see below). &lt;!-- Please see Talk concerning Styles and External Links. Entries should not act as a list of individual or dojo clusters. The length of such a list would be very long. If you disagree please discuss in Talk. --&gt; * [[Aikikai]] is the largest aikido organisation, and is led by the family of the founder. Numerous sub-organisations and teachers affiliate themselves with this umbrella organisation, which therefore encompasses a wide variety of aikido styles, training methods and technical differences. These sub-organisations are often centred around prominant [[Shihan]] and are usually organised at the national level, although sub-national and inter-national sub-organisations exist. Please see [[List of famous aikidoka]] for more detail. *[[Yoshinkan]] Founded by [[Gozo Shioda]], has a reputation for being the most rigidly precise. Students of Yoshinkan aikido practise basic movements as solo kata, and this style has been popular among the Japanese police. The international
''Jam'') and produced by [[Ash Atalla]] (''[[The Office]]''). Morris plays Denholm Reynholm, the eccentric managing director of the company. This marks the first time Morris has acted in a substantial role in a project which he hasn't developed himself. The series began on Channel 4 on [[February 3]] [[2006]]. ==Other information== A significant feature of Morris's output is his music. He often co-writes and performs incidental music for his television shows, notably with ''Jam'' and the 'extended remix' version, ''Jaaaaam''. His parodies of musical performances (such as the Pulp spoof mentioned above and an [[Eminem]] parody in the paedophilia special) are very accurate. This is due not only to his musical ability, but also to his understanding of the way in which the original artist created their music. In [[2003]] he was listed in ''[[The Observer]]'' as one of the 50 funniest acts in British comedy. In [[2004]], [[Channel 4]] aired a show called ''[[The Comedian's Comedian]]'' in which foremost writers and performers of comedy ranked their 50 favourite acts. Morris was at number eleven, above many acclaimed comedians including [[Bill Hicks]], [[Peter Sellers]] and [[Eddie Izzard]]. British band Stereolab's song 'Nothing To Do With Me' from their 2001 album 'Sound Dust' featured various lines from Chris Morris sketches as lyrics. Morris is widely regarded as someone reluctant to discuss his work, although he has given interviews, albeit rarely. Morris lives in [[Brixton]] with [[Jo Unwin]]. == Works == * ''[[No Known Cure]]'' (August [[1987]]- March [[1989]], BBC Radio Bristol) * ''Miss Marple'' ([[1988]]-[[1993]], BBC GLR) * ''[[Loose Ends (radio)|Loose Ends]]'' ([[1989]], [[BBC Radio 4]]) * ''[[Up Yer Loose One]]'' ([[1990]], [[BSB]]) * ''[[The Chris Morris Christmas Show]]'' ([[25 December]] [[1990]], BBC Radio 1) * ''[[On The Hour]]'' ([[1991]]-[[1992]], BBC Radio 4) * ''[[Why Bother?]]'' ([[1994]], BBC Radio 3) * ''[[The Day Today]]'' ([[1994]], BBC 2) * ''The Chris Morris Music Show'' ([[1994]], BBC Radio 1) * ''[[Brass Eye]]'' ([[1997]], Channel 4) * ''[[Blue Jam]]'' ([[1997]]-[[1999]], BBC Radio 1) * ''[[Swatman Follies]]'' ([[1998]], BBC Radio 4) * ''[[Big Train]]'' ([[1999]], BBC 2) Various sketches. * ''[[Second Class Male/Time To Go]]'' ([[1999]], newspaper column for [[The Observer]]) * ''[[Jam (TV series)|Jam]]''/''[[Jaaaaam]]'' ([[2000]], Channel 4) * ''[[Brass Eye Special]]'' ([[2001]], Channel 4) * ''[[The Smokehammer]]'' ([[2002]], website) * ''[[Absolute Atrocity Special]]'' ([[2002]], newspaper pullout for [[The Observer]]) * ''[[Bushwhacked MP3|Bushwhacked]]'' (2002) * ''[[My Wrongs 8245 - 8249 and 117]]'' ([[2002]], [[short film]]) * ''[[Nathan Barley]]'' ([[2005]], Channel 4) * ''[[The IT Crowd]]'' ([[2006]], Channel 4) ==External links== *[http://www.thesmokehammer.com/ The Smokehammer] - A site by Chris Morris *{{imdb name|id=0606439|name=Christopher Morris}} *[http://www.cookdandbombd.co.uk Cook'd and Bomb'd] - A site devoted to the work of Chris Morris and his collaborators *[http://www.trashbat.co.ck/ trashbat.co.ck] - This site is referred to in ''Nathan Barley'' throughout and, notionally, is the creation of the titular character. The [[.co]][[.ck]] domain is as a result of the second level domain for ''company'' and the top level domain for the ''[[Cook Islands]]''. *[http://www.theitcrowd.co.uk/ The IT Crowd] - A site dedicated to the [[Channel 4]] show [[The IT Crowd]]. [[Category:1962 births|Morris, Chris]] [[Category:British satirists|Morris,Chris]] [[Category:English comedians|Morris,Chris]] [[Category:Living people|Morris, Chris]] [[Category:Old Stonyhurst|Morris, Chris]] [[Category:University of Bristol Alumni|Morris, Chris]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Computer Security</title> <id>5398</id> <revision> <id>15903608</id> <timestamp>2004-03-05T02:23:50Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>RedWolf</username> <id>27822</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>-&gt; Computer security</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Computer security]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Colorado</title> <id>5399</id> <revision> <id>41264369</id> <timestamp>2006-02-26T03:58:19Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>DividedByNegativeZero</username> <id>508513</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>typo</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Otheruses1|the U.S. State}} &lt;div style=&quot;float: right; width: 325px;&quot;&gt; {{US state | Name = Colorado | Fullname = State of Colorado | Flag = Flag of Colorado.svg | Flaglink = [[Flag of Colorado]] | Seal = Coloradostateseal.jpg | Map = Map of USA highlighting Colorado.png | Nickname = The Centennial State | Capital = [[Denver, Colorado|Denver]] | OfficialLang = English | LargestCity = [[Denver, Colorado|Denver]] | Governor = [[Bill Owens]] (R)| Senators = [[Wayne Allard]] (R) [[Ken Salazar]] (D) | PostalAbbreviation = CO | AreaRank = 8&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt; | TotalArea = 269&amp;nbsp;837 | LandArea = 268&amp;nbsp;879 | WaterArea = 962 | PCWater = 0.36 | PopRank = 24&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt; | 2000Pop = 4,301,261 | DensityRank = 37&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt; | 2000Density = 16.01 | AdmittanceOrder = 38&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt; | AdmittanceDate = [[August 1]], [[1876]] | TimeZone = [[Mountain Standard Time Zone|Mountain]]: [[Coordinated Universal Time|UTC]]-7/[[Daylight saving time|DST]]-6 | Latitude = 37°N to 41°N | Longitude = 102°W to 109°W | Width = 451 | Length = 612 | HighestElev = 4401 | MeanElev = 2100 | LowestElev = 1010 | ISOCode = US-CO | Website = www.colorado.gov }} {|{{US state insignia | Name = Colorado | StateMotto = ''Nil sine numine'' ([[Latin]], &quot;Nothing without Providence&quot;) | StateSlogan = ''none'' | StateBird = [[Lark Bunting]] | StateAnimal = [[Rocky Mountain bighorn sheep]] | StateFish = [[Cutthroat trout|Greenback cutthroat trout]] | StateInsect = [[Colorado Hairstreak Butterfly]] | StateFlower = [[Rocky Mountain Columbine]] | StateTree = [[Blue Spruce|Colorado Spruce or Blue Spruce]] | Fossil=show | StateFossil = [[Stegosaurus]] | StateSong = &quot;[[Where the Columbines Grow]]&quot; | FolkDance=Show | StateFolkDance = [[Square dance]] | Gemstone=Show | StateGemstone = [[Aquamarine]] | Mineral=Show | StateMineral = [[Rhodochrosite]] | Rock=Show | StateRock = [[Yule Marble]] | Grass=Show | StateGrass = [[Blue grama]] | Tartan=Show | StateTartan = ''to be added'' | Butterfly=Hide | Amphibian=Hide | Colors=Hide | Stone=Hide | Soil=Hide | Beverage=Hide | DomesticatedAnimal=Hide | Furbearer=Hide | Game=Hide | Reptile=Hide | Wildflower=Hide | MusicalInstrument=Hide | Waltz=Hide | QuarterRelease = To be released in [[2006]] }} |- style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; |'''[[List of U.S. state dances|Folk dance]]''' || [[Square dance]] |- |'''[[List of U.S. state minerals, rocks, stones and gemstones|Gemstone]]''' || [[Aquamarine]] |- |'''[[List of U.S. state minerals, rocks, stones and gemstones|Mineral]]''' || [[Rhodochrosite]] |- |'''[[List of U.S. state minerals, rocks, stones and gemstones|Rock]]''' || [[Yule Marble]] |- |'''[[List of U.S. state grass|Grass]]''' || [[Blue grama]] |- |'''[[Tartan]]''' || [[Image:ColoradoTartan.gif|100px]] |- {{US state quarter | Name = Colorado | Image = Colorado quarter, reverse side, 2006.jpg | ReleaseDate = To be released in [[2006]] }} |} &lt;/div&gt; '''Colorado''' is a [[Western United States|western]] [[U.S. state|state]] in the central part of the country. Colorado is best known as the home of the highest peaks of the [[Rocky Mountains]], which dominate the western half of the state; eastern Colorado is mostly [[High Plains (United States)|High Plains]] (prairie) and sparsely populated. The state capital and largest city is [[Denver, Colorado]]; the [[Denver-Aurora metropolitan area]] contains over half of the state's population (2.5 million out of 4.3 million). The state was named after the [[Spanish language|Spanish]] word &quot;Colorado&quot; which means &quot;reddish colored&quot; that presumably refers to the red [[sandstone]] formations in the area or reddish brown color of the [[Colorado River]]. The [[U.S. Postal abbreviation]] for the state is '''CO'''. Three different ships have been named [[USS Colorado|USS ''Colorado'']] in honor of this state. ==History of Colorado== {{main|History of Colorado}} The territory which ultimately became Colorado was added to the [[United States]] by the [[1803]] [[Louisiana Purchase]] and the [[1848]] [[Mexican Cession]]. The [[Colorado Gold Rush]] of [[1859]] (see also [[Fifty-Niner]]) brought large numbers of settlers to the [[Denver, Colorado|Denver]] area, although the population collapsed following an initial mining boom. The [[Colorado Territory]] was organized as a [[Political divisions of the United States|United States territory]] on [[February 28]], [[1861]] and Colorado attained statehood in [[1876]] (earning it the moniker the &quot;Centennial State&quot;). Colorado women were granted the right to vote starting on [[November 7]], [[1893]]. ==Law and government== [[Image:Colorado state capitol.jpg|left|thumb|Colorado State Capitol in Denver]] Like the majority of the [[U.S. state|states]], Colorado's current [[constitution]] provides for three branches of government: the legislative, executive and judicial branches. The legislative body is the General Assembly made up of two houses, the House of
Jesus's crucifixion and burial. They reasoned that the Church was inside the city walls, while early accounts (''e.g.'', [[Epistle to the Hebrews|Hebrews]] 13:12) described these events as outside the walls. On the morning after his arrival in Jerusalem, [[Charles George Gordon|General Gordon]] selected a rock-cut tomb in a cultivated area outside the walls as a more likely site for the burial of Jesus. This site is usually referred to as the Garden Tomb to distinguish it from the Holy Sepulchre, and it is still a popular pilgrimage site for those (usually Protestants) who doubt the authenticity of the Anastasis and/or do not have permission to hold services in the Church itself. However, it has since been determined that the site was indeed outside the city walls at the time of the crucifixion. The Jerusalem city walls were expanded by [[Herod Agrippa]] in [[41]]&amp;ndash;[[44]], and only then enclosed the site of the Holy Sepulchre, at which time the surrounding garden mentioned in the Bible would have been built up as well. To quote the [[Israeli]] scholar Dan Bahat, former City Archaeologist of Jerusalem: : &quot;We may not be absolutely certain that the site of the Holy Sepulchre Church is the site of Jesus' burial, but we have no other site that can lay a claim nearly as weighty, and we really have no reason to reject the authenticity of the site.&quot; (Bahat, 1986) ==References== * Bahat, Dan (1986). &quot;Does the Holy Sepulchre church mark the burial of Jesus?&quot;, ''[[Biblical Archaeology Review]]'' '''12''' (3) (May/June) 26&amp;ndash;45. * Biddle, Martin (1999). ''The Tomb of Christ''. Phoenix Mill: Sutton Publishing. ISBN 0-7509-1926-4. * Biddle, Martin; Avni, Gideon; Seligman, Jon &amp; Winter, Tamar (text); Zabé, Michèl &amp; Nalbandian, Garo (photos) (2000). ''The Church of the Holy Sepulchre''. New York: Rizzoli. ISBN 0-8478-2282-6. * [http://www.christianitytoday.com/ct/2002/129/52.0.html &quot;Divvying up the Most Sacred Place] by Chris Armstrong, ''Christianity Today'', Week of July 29, 2002, retrieved February 28, 2006. * [http://www.guardian.co.uk/religion/Story/0,2763,1314466,00.html &quot;Punch-up at tomb of Jesus&quot;] by Allyn Fisher-Ilan, ''The Guardian'', September 28, 2004, retrieved February 28, 2006. ==See also== * [[Order of the Holy Sepulchre]], initiated by [[Godfrey of Bouillon]] * [[Orthodox Patriarch of Jerusalem]] * [[Temple Church]] in London * [[Early Christian art and architecture]] ==External links== * [http://www.custodia.org/indexSaf.html Franciscan Custody of the Holy Land] * [http://www.trekker.co.il/english/church-holy-sepulchre.htm Photos of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre] * [http://www.historychannel.com/classroom/unesco/jerusalem/about_sepulchre.html History Channel site]: Church of the Holy Sepulchre * [http://home.infionline.net/~ddisse/egeria.html Egeria's description in the 380s] * [http://www.geocities.com/Athens/Oracle/1631/cohs_history.html James E. Lancaster, &quot;A brief history of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre&quot;] * [http://www.jerusalem-patriarchate.org/intro.asp The Greek Orthodox Patriarchate of Jerusalem official site] * [http://www.armenian-patriarchate.org/ Armenian Patriarchate of Jerusalem official site] * [http://www.orthodoxwiki.org/Church_of_the_Holy_Sepulchre_%28Jerusalem%29 Church of the Holy Sepulchre] ([[OrthodoxWiki]] article) * [http://www.holyfire.org/eng/index.htm Miracle of the Holy Fire] * [http://www.jerusalemshots.com/cat_en63.html Jerusalem Photos] Portal &amp;mdash; Church of the Holy Sepulchre * [http://www.wildlife-photo.org/gallery/christian_photography?page=1 Pictures in Church of the Holy Sepulchre] * [http://www.nuseibeh.org Nuseibeh Family Website &amp;mdash; Muslim Custodians of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre] [[Category:Crusades]] [[Category:Basilica churches in Asia|Holy Sepulchre]] [[Category:Churches in Jerusalem]] {{Eastern Christianity}} [[ar:كنيسة القيامة]] [[de:Grabeskirche]] [[es:Santo Sepulcro]] [[fr:Saint-Sépulcre]] [[he:כנסיית הקבר הקדוש]] [[ja:聖墳墓教会]] [[pl:Bazylika Grobu Świętego]] [[pt:Santo Sepulcro]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Cernunnos</title> <id>7811</id> <revision> <id>40237780</id> <timestamp>2006-02-19T04:04:38Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Deville</username> <id>364144</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Disambiguate [[Germanic]] to [[Germanic peoples]] using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Cernunnos.jpg|right|Cernunnos|thumb|350px|Depiction of Cernunnos from the ''Pilier des nautes'', Paris]] '''Cernunnos''' in [[Celtic polytheism]] is the deified [[spirit]] of horned male animals, especially of [[stag]]s, a nature god associated with produce and fertility. As a &quot;[[Horned God]]&quot;, Cernunnos was one of a number of similar deities found in many ancient cultures. ==Origins== Cernunnos is known, from archaeological sources such as inscriptions and depictions, to have been worshipped in [[Gaul]], Northern Italy ([[Gallia Cisalpina]]) and the southern coast of [[Ancient Britain|Britain]]. The earliest known probable depiction of Cernunnos was found at [[Val Camonica]] in [[Italy]], dating from the [[4th century BC]], while the best known depiction is on the famous [[Gundestrup cauldron]] of pre-[[Germanic peoples|Germanic]] [[Denmark]], dating to the [[1st century BC]]. In [[Gallo-Roman religion]], his name is known from the &quot;[[Pillar of the Boatmen]]&quot; (''Pilier des nautes''), a monument now displayed in the [[Musée Nationale du Moyen Age]] in [[Paris]]. It was constructed by Gaulish sailors in the early [[first century CE]], from the inscription (CIL XIII number 03026) probably in the year 14, on the accession of the [[Roman emperors|emperor]] [[Tiberius Claudius Nero]]. It was found in [[1710]] in the foundations of the cathedral of [[Notre-Dame de Paris]] on the site of [[Lutetia]], the ''civitas'' capital of the [[Celts|Celtic]] [[Parisii]] tribe. It depicts Cernunnos and other [[Celtic mythology|Celtic deities]] alongside [[Roman mythology|Roman divinities]] such as [[Jupiter]], [[Vulcan (mythology)|Vulcan]], [[Castor]], and [[Pollux]]. The ''Pilier des nautes'' provides the earliest written record of the deity's name. Additional evidence is given by two identical inscriptions on metal plaques from [[Seinsel-Rëlent]] in [[Luxembourg]], in the territory of the Celtic [[Treveri]] tribe. These inscriptions (AE 1987, 0772) read ''Deo Ceruninco'', &quot;to the God Cerunincos&quot;. Lastly, a Gaulish inscription (RIG 1, number G-224) written in [[Ancient Greek language|Greek]] letters from [[Montagnac]] ([[Hérault]], [[Languedoc-Roussilion]], [[France]]) reads ''αλλετ[ει]υος καρνονου αλ[ι]σο[ντ]εας'' thus giving the name &quot;Carnonos&quot;. ==Etymology== On the Parisii inscription ''[_]ernunnos'', the first letter of the name has been scraped off at some point, but can safely be restituted to &quot;Cernunnos&quot; because of the depiction of an antlered god below the name and the fact that in [[Gaulish language|Gaulish]], ''carnon'' or ''cernon'' means &quot;antler&quot; or &quot;horn&quot; (Delmarre, 1987 pp. 106-107). Similarly ''cern'' means &quot;horn&quot; or &quot;bumb, boss&quot; in Old Irish and is etymologically related to similar words ''carn'' in Welsh and Breton. These derive from a proto-Indo-European root ''*krno-'' which also gave the Latin ''cornu'' and Germanic ''*hurnaz'' (from which English &quot;horn&quot;) (Nussbaum 1986) (Porkorny 1959 pp.574-576). The same Gaulish root is found in the names of tribes such as the [[Carnutes]], [[Carni]], and [[Carnonacae]] and in the name of the Gaulish war trumpet, the [[carnyx]]. Therefore, the [[Proto-Celtic]] form of this [[theonym]] can be reconstructed as either *''Cerno-on-os'' or *''Carno-on-os'', both meaning &quot;horned masculine deity&quot;. The -on- is frequently, but not exclusively, found in theonyms (examples: [[Maponos|Map-on-os]], [[Epona|Ep-on-a]], [[Matronae|Matr-on-ae]], [[Sirona|Sir-on-a]]). Following accepted Celtic [[sound law]]s, the [[Romano-British]] [[form]] of this Proto-Celtic theonym is likely to have been ''*Cernonos'' or ''*Carnonos'' both directly comparable to the Gaulish form Cernunnos. ==Iconography== [[Image:Gundestrup_A.jpg|right|Cernunnos|thumb|350px|Depiction of Cernunnos from the [[Gundestrup cauldron]].]] The depictions of Cernunnos are strikingly consistent throughout the Celtic world. His most distinctive attribute are his stag's horns, and he is usually portrayed as a mature man with long hair and a beard. He wears a [[torc]], an ornate neck-ring used by the Celts to denote nobility. He often carries other torcs in his hands or hanging from his horns, as well as a purse filled with coins. He is usually portrayed seated and cross-legged, in a position which some have interpreted as [[meditation|meditative]] or [[shaman|shamanic]], although it may only reflect the fact that the Celts squatted on the ground when hunting. Cernunnos is nearly always portrayed with animals, in particular the [[stag]]. He is also frequently associated with a unique beast that seems to belong primarily to him: a serpent with the horns of a [[ram (sheep)|ram]]. This creature may have been a deity in its own right. He is associated with other beasts less frequently, including [[bull]]s (at [[Reims]]), [[dog]]s and [[rat]]s. Because of his frequent association with creatures, scholars often describe Cernunnos as the &quot;Lord of the Animals&quot; or the &quot;Lord of Wild Things&quot;. Because of his association with stags (a particularly hunted beast) he is also described as the &quot;Lord of the Hunt&quot;. Interestingly, the ''Pilier des nautes'' links him with sailors and with commerce, suggesting that he was also associated with material wealth as does the coin pouch from the Cernunnos of Reims (Marne, Ch
these coupling constants ought to be explained by a theory with fewer free parameters. A gauge theory where the gauge group is a simple group only has one gauge coupling constant, and since the [[fermion]]s are now grouped together in larger [[representation theory|representations]], there are fewer Yukawa coupling coefficients as well. In addition, the chiral fermion fields of the [[Standard Model]] unify into three generations of two irreducible representations (&lt;math&gt;10\oplus \bar{5}&lt;/math&gt;) in SU(5), and three generations of an irreducible representation ('''16''') in SO(10). This is a significant observation, as a generic combination of chiral fermions which are free of [[gauge anomaly|gauge anomalies]] will not be unified in a representation of some larger [[Lie group]] without adding additional matter fields. SO(10) also predicts a [[right-handed neutrino]]. GU theory specifically predicts relations among the [[fermion]] masses, such as between the electron and the [[down quark]], the [[muon]] and the [[strange quark]], and the [[tau lepton]] and the [[bottom quark]] for SU(5) and SO(10). Some of these mass relations hold approximately, but most don't. See [[Georgi-Jarlskog mass relation]]. If we look at the renormalization group running of the three-gauge couplings have been found to nearly, but not quite, meet at the same point if the hypercharge is normalized so that it is consistent with SU(5)/SO(10) GUTs, which are precisely the GUT groups which lead to a simple fermion unification. This is a significant result, as other Lie groups lead to different normalizations. However, if the [[supersymmetry|supersymmetric]] extension [[MSSM]] is used instead of the Standard Model, the match becomes much more accurate. It is commonly believed that this matching is unlikely to be a coincidence. Also, most model builders simply assume SUSY because it solves the [[hierarchy problem]]&amp;mdash;i.e., it stabilizes the electroweak Higgs mass against [[radiative correction]]s. And the Majorana mass of the right-handed neutrino SO(10) theories with its mass set to the gauge unification scale is examined, values for the left-handed neutrino masses (see [[neutrino oscillation]]) are produced via the [[seesaw mechanism]]. These values are 10&amp;ndash;100 times smaller than the GUT scale, but still relatively close. ==Ingredients== A GUT model basically consists of a [[gauge group]] which is a [[compact Lie group]], a [[connection form]] for that Lie group, a [[Yang-Mills action]] for that connection given by an [[invariant]] [[symmetric bilinear form]] over its Lie algebra (which is specified by a [[coupling constant]] for each factor), a [[Higgs sector]] consisting of a number of scalar fields taking on values within real/complex [[representations of Lie groups|representations]] of the Lie group and chiral [[Weyl fermion]]s taking on values within a complex rep of the Lie group. The Lie group contains the [[Standard Model group]] and the Higgs fields acquire [[VEV]]s leading to a [[spontaneous symmetry breaking]] to the [[Standard Model]]. The Weyl fermions represent matter. ==Proposed theories == Several such theories have been proposed, but none is currently universally accepted. An even more ambitious theory that includes ''all'' [[fundamental force]]s, including [[gravitation]], is termed a [[theory of everything]]. Some common [[mainstream]] GUT models are: * minimal [[left-right model]] -- SU(3)&lt;sub&gt;C&lt;/sub&gt;×SU(2)&lt;sub&gt;L&lt;/sub&gt;×SU(2)&lt;sub&gt;R&lt;/sub&gt;×U(1)&lt;sub&gt;B-L&lt;/sub&gt; * [[Georgi-Glashow model]] -- [[Special unitary group|SU(5)]] * [[SO(10) (physics)|SO(10)]] * [[Flipped SU(5)]] -- [[Special unitary group|SU(5)]]×[[Unitary group|U(1)]] * [[Pati-Salam model]] -- [[Special unitary group|SU(4)]]×[[Special unitary group|SU(2)]]×[[Special unitary group|SU(2)]] * [[flipped SO(10)]] -- SO(10)×U(1) * [[Trinification]] -- [[Special unitary group|SU(3)]]×[[Special unitary group|SU(3)]]×[[Special unitary group|SU(3)]] * [[SU(6) (physics)|SU(6)]] * [[E6 (mathematics)|E&lt;sub&gt;6&lt;/sub&gt;]] Not quite GUTs... * [[Technicolor (physics)|Technicolor models]] * [[little Higgs]] * [[preon]]s * [[String theory]] * [[M-theory]] ''Note'': These models refer to [[Lie algebra]]s not to [[Lie group]]s. The Lie group could be [SU(4)×SU(2)×SU(2)]/'''Z'''&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;, just to take a random example. The most promising candidate is [[SO(10)]]. (Minimal) SO(10) does not contain any [[exotic fermion]]s (i.e. additional fermions besides the [[Standard Model]] fermions and the [[right-handed neutrino]]) and it unifies each generation into a single [[irreducible representation]]. Notice that a number of other GUT models are based upon subgroups of SO(10). They are the minimal [[left-right model]], [[SU(5)]], [[flipped SU(5)]] and the [[Pati-Salam model]]. The GUT group E&lt;sub&gt;6&lt;/sub&gt; contains SO(10) but models based upon it are significantly more complicated. The primary reason for studying E&lt;sub&gt;6&lt;/sub&gt; models comes from E&lt;sub&gt;8&lt;/sub&gt; &amp;times; E&lt;sub&gt;8&lt;/sub&gt; [[heterotic string theory]]. GUT models generically predict the existence of [[topological defect]]s such as [[magnetic monopoles|monopoles]], [[cosmic strings]], [[domain wall]]s, and others. None have been observed and their absence is known as the [[monopole problem]] in [[cosmology]]. GUT models also generically predict [[proton decay]], although current experiments still haven't detected proton decay. This experimental limit on the proton's lifetime pretty much rules out minimal SU(5). [[Image:proton_decay2.png]] [[Image:proton_decay3.png]] [[Image:proton_decay4.png]] Some GUT theories like SU(5) and SO(10) suffer from what is called the [[doublet-triplet problem]] in that these theories predict that for each electroweak Higgs doublet, there corresponds a [[QCD|colored]] Higgs triplet field with a very small mass (small, meaning many orders of magnitude smaller than the GUT scale here). After all, if you unify [[quark]]s with [[lepton]]s, the Higgs doublet would also be unified with a Higgs triplet. These triplets have not been observed, and not only that, they would cause extremely rapid proton decay (way below current experimental limits) and completely mess up the running together of the gauge coupling strengths in the renormalization group. Most GUT models require a threefold replication of the matter fields and as such, do not explain why there are three generations of fermions. Most GUT models also do not explain the [[little hierarchy]] between the fermion masses for different generations. ==Current status== [[As of 2005]], there is still no hard evidence nature is described by a GUT theory. In fact, since the [[Higgs particle]] has not yet been discovered, it is not even certain if the [[Standard Model]] is fully accurate. The discovery of [[neutrino oscillation]]s indicate strongly that the Standard Model is incomplete, and lead to renewed interest toward certain GUT such as &lt;math&gt;SO(10)&lt;/math&gt;. One of the few possible experimental tests of certain GUT is proton decay and also fermion masses. There are a few more special tests for supersymmetric GUT. The [[gauge coupling]] strengths of [[QCD]], the [[weak interaction]] and [[hypercharge]] seem to meet at a common length scale called the '''GUT scale''' and equal approximately to &lt;math&gt;10^{16}&lt;/math&gt; GeV, which is slightly suggestive. This interesting numerical observation is called the '''gauge coupling unification''' and it works particularly well if one assumes the existence of [[superpartner]]s of the Standard Model particles. Still it is possible to achieve the same by postulating, for instance, that ordinary (non superymmetric) &lt;math&gt;SO(10) &lt;/math&gt; models break with an intermediate gauge scale, such as the one of Pati-Salam group. It seems fair to say that, at present, theoretical physicists are still to propose a completely self-consistent and satisfactory GUT model. ==See also== * [[Grand unification energy]] * [http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v415/n6875/full/415957b.html An account of the origin of the term GUT] [[Category:particle physics]] [[Category:Protoscience]] [[Category:Cosmology]] [[br:Peurunvanidigezh]] [[ca:Teoria de la gran unificació]] [[de:Große vereinheitlichte Theorie]] [[es:Teoría de Gran Unificación]] [[fr:Grande unification]] [[he:תאוריה מאוחדת גדולה]] [[ja:大統一理論]] [[pl:Teorie wielkiej unifikacji]] [[simple:Grand unification theory]] [[sk:Teória veľkého zjednotenia]] [[sl:Teorija velikega poenotenja]] [[sv:Grand unification theory]] [[vi:Lý thuyết thống nhất lớn]] [[zh:大统一理论]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>GTE</title> <id>12611</id> <revision> <id>40263636</id> <timestamp>2006-02-19T09:20:46Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>216.12.72.43</ip> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Verizon Communications]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>General aviation</title> <id>12612</id> <revision> <id>41275126</id> <timestamp>2006-02-26T05:46:16Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>72.177.197.127</ip> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">'''General aviation''' (abbr. '''GA''') is one of the two categories of [[civil aviation]]. [[Image:Genav.vansrv4.arp.750pix.jpg|thumb|right|250px|A general aviation scene at Kemble airfield, England. The aircraft in the foreground is a [[homebuilt aircraft|homebuilt]] [[Vans RV-4]]]] The term ''general aviation'' describes any flight other than a [[military aviation|military]] or [[scheduled air transport|scheduled airline]] flight, ranging from [[glider]]s and [[powered parachute]]s to large, non-scheduled cargo jet flights. As a result, the majority of the world's air traffic falls into this category, and the vast majority of the world's airports s
ing shooter|horizontally-scrolling]] [[shoot 'em up]] [[arcade game]] developed by [[Konami]] in [[1985]]. It is the first game in the long-running and popular [[Gradius series|''Gradius'' series]]. ''Gradius'' has the distinction of popularizing a weapon selection bar, based upon collecting power-ups to 'purchase' additional weapons. The game was ported to many systems, most notably the [[Nintendo Entertainment System]] and the Japanese [[MSX]] computer. ''Gradius'' is considered a highly influential game and has set the foundation for many other horizontal shooters for years to come {{citation needed}}&lt;!-- need a citation for the popularity/weapon selection first claim/influence on the further shooters --&gt;. ==Description== The player controls the trans-dimensional [[spaceship]] [[Vic Viper]], and must battle waves of enemies through various different environments. Released under the title ''Nemesis'' in some markets, the name ''Gradius'' may be an [[Engrish]] mistranslation of [[Gladius]], [[Latin]] for &quot;sword.&quot; ==Gameplay== ===Weapon system=== When [[gameplay]] begins, the Vic Viper is relatively slow and has only a weak gun. This level of capability is generally insufficient for engaging enemies, but the Vic Viper can gain greater capabilities by collecting and using [[power-up]] items. While most arcade games utilize distinct power up-items that each correspond to a specific effect on the [[player character]], ''Gradius'' has a single power-up item. The effect of this power-up item is to advance the currently selected item in a power-up menu that appears at the bottom of the screen. When the desired power-up is highlighted, the player can obtain it by pressing the power-up button, returning the menu to its initial state in which no power-up is highlighted. [[Image:gradiusselectionbar.png|center|Gradius selection bar]] * '''Speed Up''' &amp;ndash; This power up increases the speed of the Vic Viper's movement; usually needed at the beginning of the game or when restarting an area after the Vic Viper has been destroyed, because the initial speed of the Vic Viper is much too slow to comfortably avoid enemy attacks. This power up may be triggered multiple times to achieve greater speed, but there is a danger in increasing the speed too much, resulting in a lack of precise control needed to avoid collision with terrain or enemy characters. * '''Missile''' &amp;ndash; This power up adds a secondary projectile weapon, which is fired by a separate button. The weapon is a missile that fires downward and to the right, traveling downhill along the ground. * '''Double''' &amp;ndash; This power up adds a second projectile weapon identical in power and firing rate to the standard gun. This second gun fires at a 45-degree angle up and to the right. * '''Laser''' &amp;ndash; This power up changes the standard gun into a [[laser]] weapon that fires to the right. The laser weapon does substantially more damage than the standard gun, and can be controlled to a certain extent while it is being fired by moving the Vic Viper vertically; this can be used to quickly destroy a group of enemies. * '''Option''' &amp;ndash; Options are glowing elliptical entities that mimic the movement and attacks of the Vic Viper, resulting in greatly increased attack capability. Furthermore, Options are invulnerable, making them additionally useful in certain situations if you need to shoot at something right behind a barrier. All attack power ups possessed by Vic Viper are also possessed by each Option. * '''? (Shield)''' &amp;ndash; This power-up adds a projectile-blocking shield to the front of the Vic Viper. The shield diminishes after a number of absorbed projectiles. * '''! (Mega Crush)''' &amp;ndash; This power-up comes in the form of a blueish version of the Power Capsule used to power up Vic Viper. Upon picking up one of these blue capsules, all onscreen enemies are immediately destroyed. ===Levels and bosses=== {{sect-stub}} *'''Stage 1''': Volcano *'''Stage 2''': Stone Henge *'''Stage 3''': Moai *'''Stage 4''': Invert Volcano *'''Stage 5''': Tentacle *'''Stage 6''': Cell *'''Stage 7''': Base ===Konami Code=== Home console and portable versions of ''Gradius'' spawned the now-legendary [[Konami Code]], considered by some to be one of the defining elements of ''Gradius''. The code (traditionally Up, Up, Down, Down, Left, Right, Left, Right, B, A; variants also exist), when entered while the game is paused, grants the player most of the available power ups. While this is essentially a cheat code, the player is only allowed a limited number of uses, suggesting that this is meant only as a limited adjustment of the difficulty. In most cases, the limit starts at one use and an additional use is granted for each completed level. An interesting exception to this rule is ''[[Gradius III]]'' for the [[Super Nintendo Entertainment System|Super NES/Super Famicom]], where entering the original [[Nintendo Entertainment System|NES]] version of the code destroys you, rather than powering you up. Substituting L and R for Left and Right will grant the proper effect, however. While this is a well-known feature among ''Gradius'' fans, many video game enthusiasts more closely associate the Konami Code with the NES version of ''[[Contra (arcade game)|Contra]]'', a later Konami game in which the code can be entered at the title screen to grant the player 30 lives. ==Vs. Gradius== As with other early NES titles, ''Gradius'' was also converted for the [[Nintendo Vs. Series]] arcade platform. It is identical to the NES version, but includes no cheat codes, but does allow the player to continue indefinetely. ==Trivia== *The premature death of the final [[Boss (video games)|boss]] is assumed to be the result of exposure to foreign bacteria, like in the classic novel ''[[The War of the Worlds (novel)|The War of the Worlds]]''. * Some Konami arcade games including ''Gradius'', ''[[Parodius Da!]]'' and ''[[Salamander (arcade game)|Salamander]]'' have the default high score set at 57300. Where the first three digits, '''573''', refers to Ko-Na-Mi (コナミ) [[kana]] letters, a play of word for 'Konami'. * The first level of ''Gradius'' is available as a mini-game in the [[Super Nintendo Entertainment System|Super NES]] game ''[[Legend of the Mystical Ninja]]''. * In the NES hockey game ''[[Blades of Steel]]'', one of the intermission screens is a playable sequence which recreates the fight against the first boss. ==Screenshot gallery== &lt;gallery&gt; Image:Gradius_02.png|Note how options duplicate firepower Image:gradius.png Image:Gradius_04.png|A level featuring [[Moai]] Image:Gradius_03.png|The undefended last boss &lt;/gallery&gt; ==Packaging artwork== &lt;gallery&gt; Image:Gradius-msxbox.jpg|''Gradius''&lt;br /&gt;MSX&lt;br /&gt;Japan, 1986 Image:gradius_pcecover.jpg|''Gradius''&lt;br /&gt;PC Engine&lt;br /&gt;Japan, 1991 &lt;/gallery&gt; ==Legacy== {{sect-stub}} ==References== *[http://www.gamestone.co.uk/gradius/ GameStone - Gradius Home World] *[http://www.classicgaming.com/gradius/ Gradius Base, an extensive resource on all Gradius games] *[http://www010.upp.so-net.ne.jp/muu-word/acgradius.html Japanese page on Gradius] {{Gradius series}} [[Category:1985 arcade games]] [[Category:1986 computer and video games]] [[Category:Arcade games]] [[Category:Commodore 64 games]] [[Category:Gradius]] [[Category:Mobile phone games]] [[Category:NES games]] [[Category:Nintendo Vs. Series games]] [[Category:PlayChoice-10 games]] [[Category:PlayStation games]] [[Category:Sega Saturn games]] [[Category:TurboGrafx 16 games]] [[de:Gradius]] [[ja:グラディウス (ゲーム)]] [[sv:Gradius]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Gamemaster</title> <id>12373</id> <revision> <id>41421147</id> <timestamp>2006-02-27T05:12:06Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Furrykef</username> <id>17163</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>/* An example of a GM's duties, set in a fantasy universe */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article refers to the [[role-playing game]] term. For the series of [[board game]]s, see [[Gamemaster (board game series)]].'' A '''Gamemaster''' or '''Game Master''' (often abbreviated as '''GM''') is a player in a multiplayer [[game]] who acts as organizer, arbitrator, and officiant in rules situations. The term ''gamemaster'' and the role associated with it originated in the [[play-by-mail game|postal gaming]] hobby. In typical play-by-mail games, players control armies or civilizations and mail their chosen actions to the GM. The GM then mails the updated game state to all players on a regular basis. Today, ''gamemaster'' is nearly always associated with role-playing games. In a [[role-playing game]] the '''Gamemaster's''' purpose is to weave the other participants' [[player-character]] stories together, control the non-player aspects of the game, and create environments in which the players can interact. ==Roles of Game Master in popular games== Each gaming system has its own name for the role of the gamemaster, such as &quot;[[judge]]&quot;, &quot;[[narrator]]&quot;, &quot;[[referee]]&quot;, &quot;[[Games Operation Designate]]&quot; ('''G'''.'''O'''.'''D'''.) or &quot;[[storyteller]]&quot;, and these terms not only describe the role of the gamemaster in general but also help define how the game is intended to be run. For example, the [[Storyteller System]] used in [[White Wolf, Inc.|White Wolf Game Studio]]'s [[storytelling game]]s calls its GM the &quot;storyteller&quot;, while the [[rule]]s- and [[Marvel Universe|setting]]-focused [[Marvel Super Heroes Role-Playing Game]] calls its GM the &quot;judge&quot;. The cartoon inspired roleplaying game [[Toon (role-playing game)|Toon]] calls its GM the &quot;animator.&quot; A few games apply system- or setting-specific flavorful names to the GM, such as the [[Hollyhock God]] ([[Nobilis]]), or the oldest
059</id> <timestamp>2004-11-15T10:04:40Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>80.58.3.239</ip> </contributor> <comment>#REDIRECT [[Ancient Greece]] Double redir</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Ancient Greece]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>House of Pain</title> <id>13453</id> <revision> <id>41991828</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T02:14:23Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>24.49.20.160</ip> </contributor> <comment>/* Everlast's failure and House of Pain's rise to stardom */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{cleanup-date|October 2005}} :'''''The House of Pain''' is also a nickname for the [[Carisbrook (stadium)|Carisbrook]] stadium in [[Dunedin]], [[New Zealand]].'' '''House of Pain''' was a Irish-influenced Rap group who released three albums in the early to mid 90's before lead singer [[Everlast (singer)|Everlast]] decided to pursue his solo career again. [[Image:Houseofpainandeverlastshamrocksandshenanigans.jpg|frame|H.O.P. on the Best Of Album cover]] ==Members== * [[Everlast (singer)|Erik '''&quot;Everlast&quot;''' Schrody]] Vocals * [[Danny Boy (singer)|Dan '''&quot;Danny Boy&quot;''' O’Conner]] Vocals * [[DJ Lethal|Leor '''&quot;DJ Lethal&quot;''' Dimant]] DJ, Producer ==History== ===House of Pain's rise to stardom=== Erik '''Everlast''' Schrody was a teenaged hip-hop enthusiast, and his career started as a protégé of pioneering West Coast rapper [[Ice T]], who brought him into his &quot;Rhyme Syndicate&quot; fraternity. Everlast was signed to Sire/Warner Bros. and released the solo album ''[[Forever Everlasting]]'' in 1990. It was not a commercial success, but when he and friends [[Danny Boy (singer)|Dan '''Danny Boy''' O’Connor]] and [[DJ Lethal|Leor '''DJ Lethal''' Dimant]] signed to [[Tommy Boy Records]], House of Pain's [[House of Pain (Fine Malt Lyrics)|1992 self-titled group effort]] went multi-platinum off the hit single &quot;Jump Around&quot;. Fashioning themselves as rowdy Irish-American hooligans (Dimant was actually of Latvian heritage), they toured with various rap and alternative-rock bands after their breakthrough. They participated together with [[Helmet (band)|Helmet]], along with several other rap acts, on the influential rock-rap collaborative ''[[Judgment Night (film)|Judgment Night]]'' movie soundtrack of 1993. ===Sophomore Albums and decline in popularity=== Their 1994 effort, [[Same As It Ever Was]], went gold with minimal airplay. Like [[Cypress Hill]] (who, with House of Pain were a part of the loosely affiliated [[Soul Assassins]] posse), they found Urban Radio airplay an increasingly closed path; the trio abruptly broke up in 1996 during the release of their third album, [[Truth Crushed To Earth Shall Rise Again]], which featured guest appearances by [[Brand Nubian]]'s [[Sadat X]], as well as rappers [[Divine Styler]] and Cockni O'Dire. ===Split, solo success and current affairs=== From this point on, the status of the group would seem to be in the past tense, though the members would continue their careers separately. Ironically, [[Everlast]] would finally get multi-platinum solo fame in 1998, when his folk-&amp; blues-inflected [[Whitey Ford Sings the Blues]] album hit the charts; in 2000, a feud with rapper [[Eminem]] coincided with the gold-selling [[Eat At Whitey's]], which had songs like &quot;Black Jesus&quot; and &quot;Black Coffee&quot;, and featured a collaboration with [[Carlos Santana]]. Meanwhile, DJ Lethal became a founding member of [[Limp Bizkit]]. After the sale of the Tommy Boy Records’ catalog of master tapes to Warner Bros. Music, Everlast left the label, signed with Island/Def Jam, and released the solo LP [[White Trash Beautiful]] in 2004. Recently, [[Rhino Records]], a subdivision of Warner Music, has released a hits collection, [[Shamrocks &amp; Shenanigans]], with singles from Everlast’s early solo days, the House of Pain and his post-group solo efforts. Recently released from Island, Everlast is recording for a new LP effort, due sometime in 2006. ===House of Pain's impact on the hip-hop world=== House of Pain was a pioneering group in furthering racial diversity within hip-hop's ranks. It is observed, however, that with notable exceptions (i.e., [[Eminem]], [[Paul Wall]], [[Bubba Sparxx]]), many newer white rap acts find themselves in a de facto Alternative-Rock world that commercial radio is indifferent to (see [[MC Paul Barman]], [[Company Flow]], [[High and Mighty]], [[Cage]], [[Smut Peddlers]], [[El-P]], [[Kottonmouth Kings]], [[Aesop Rock]]). Thus in some social circles, ‘white rap’ has almost become a distinctive alternative subgenre on its own. ==Discography== ===Albums=== *''[[House of Pain (Fine Malt Lyrics)]]'' (1992) *''[[Same As It Ever Was]]'' (1994) *''[[Truth Crushed To Earth Shall Rise Again]]'' (1996) *''[[Shamrocks &amp; Shenanigans]]'' [[Best Of inc.| Everlast solo efforts]] (2004) ===EPs and Singles=== *''[[Jump Around (single)]]'' (1992) *''[[Who's the man? (single)]]'' (1993) *''[[Shamrocks &amp; Shenanigans (single)]]'' (1994) *''[[On Point (single)]]'' (1994) *''[[Legend/Word Is Bond (EP)]]'' (1994) *''[[Pass The Jinn (single)]]'' (1996) *''[[Fed Up (single)]]'' (1996) ==Other Celtic Hip Hop Artists== *[[Ashley MacIssac]] *[[Black 47]] *[[Emcee Lynx]] *[[House of Pain]] *[[Marxman]] *[[Manau]] *[[Seanchai &amp; the Unity Squad]] ==Trivia== *'''House of Pain''' was also the name of a level in the [[computer game]] ''[[Doom]]''. Which was nearly coincidentally released around the same year the single ''Jump Around'' was released. *'''House of Pain''' is a phrase that [[Jim Cramer]] frequently uses on his televised show ''[[Mad Money]]'' to describe the situation of a person who has bought a stock that dropped substantially in value. *'''House of Pain''' was also used to describe the Houston Astrodome during NFL games played by the Houston Oilers. This was during the days that Warren Moon was the quarterback, and the Oilers defense was a force to be reckoned with. The Oilers since moved to Tennesse, and were briefly known as the Tennessee Oilers before changing their name to the Tennessee Titans. ==External links== * [http://www.vh1.com/artists/az/house_of_pain/bio.jhtml House of Pain biography by All Music Guide's Stephen Thomas Erlewine] [[Category:1990s music groups]] [[Category:Rhythmic Top 40 acts|House of Pain]] [[Category:American hip hop groups]] [[Category:Celtic hip hop musicians]] [[de:House of Pain]] [[fi:House of Pain]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Harald V</title> <id>13454</id> <revision> <id>15911061</id> <timestamp>2002-07-30T16:51:25Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Ktsquare</username> <id>2240</id> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">#Redirect [[Harald V of Norway]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Haakon VII</title> <id>13455</id> <revision> <id>15911062</id> <timestamp>2002-07-26T12:13:29Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Ktsquare</username> <id>2240</id> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">#Redirect [[Haakon VII of Norway]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Head of state</title> <id>13456</id> <revision> <id>40656022</id> <timestamp>2006-02-22T02:35:30Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Palica</username> <id>188933</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>robot Adding: sk</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:ac.thequeen.jpg|thumb|right|150px|[[Queen Elizabeth II]], is the Head of State of 16 countries including: [[the United Kingdom]], [[Canada]], [[Australia]], [[Jamaica]], [[New Zealand]], the [[Bahamas]], as well as crown colonies and overseas territories of the [[United Kingdom]].]] [[Image:gloria_arroyo_with_bush.jpg|thumb|150px|The [[state visit]] of the [[President of the United States]] to the [[President of the Philippines]].]] '''Head of state''' or '''chief of state''' is the generic term for the individual or collective office which serves as the chief public representative of monarchic or republican [[nation-state]], [[federation]], [[commonwealth]] or any other political [[state]]. His or her role generally includes personifying the continuity and legitimacy of the state and exercising the political powers, functions and duties granted to the head of state in the country's [[constitution]]. [[Charles de Gaulle]] described the role he envisaged for the French president when he wrote the modern French [[constitution]]. He said a head of state should embody &quot;the spirit of the nation&quot; to the nation itself and to the world: ''une certaine idée de la France'' (a certain idea about what France is). Today many countries expect their Head of State to embody national values in a similar fashion. ==Constitutional models== Different countries have different executive systems but in essence four major, generalizing categories can be distinguished: *the [[presidential system|presidential (or imperial) system]] in which the head of state is also the [[head of government]] and actively exercises executive power *the [[semi-presidential system]] in which the head of state shares exercise of executive power with a head of government *the parliamentary system in which the head of state possesses theoretical executive power but the exercise of this power is delegated to a head of government, and *the non-executive head of state system in which the head of state does not hold any executive power and mainly plays a symbolic role on behalf of the state. ===Presidential system=== ''Note: 'presidential' in this context does not automatically imply a [[president]] but any head of state –elected, hereditary, or dictatorial– who 'presides'. It is sometimes called the '''Imperial''' model, without reg
15 °C and constant volume; and ''W'' represents the work energy expended in pushing back the surrounding air in an unconfined explosion and thus is not available as net theoretical heat; Then, because of the conversion of energy to work in the constant pressure case, :''Q''&lt;sub&gt;mv&lt;/sub&gt; = ''Q''&lt;sub&gt;mp&lt;/sub&gt; + ''W'' from which the value of ''Q''&lt;sub&gt;mv&lt;/sub&gt; may be determined. Subsequently, the potential of a mole of an explosive may be calculated. Using this value, the potential for any other weight of explosive may be determined by simple proportion. Using the principle of the initial and final state, and heat of formation table (resulting from experimental data), the heat released at constant pressure may be readily calculated. ''m'' ''n'' ''Q''&lt;sub&gt;mp&lt;/sub&gt; = ''v''&lt;sub&gt;i&lt;/sub&gt;''Q''&lt;sub&gt;fi&lt;/sub&gt; - ''v''&lt;sub&gt;k&lt;/sub&gt;''Q''&lt;sub&gt;fk&lt;/sub&gt; 1 1 &lt;!-- are there supposed to be two integral signs, or summation signs, here, for the intervals from 1 to ''m'' and from 1 to ''n''? If so, use math markup to include them --&gt; where: ''Q''&lt;sub&gt;fi&lt;/sub&gt; = heat of formation of product i at constant pressure ''Q''&lt;sub&gt;fk&lt;/sub&gt; = heat of formation of reactant k at constant pressure ''v'' = number of moles of each product/reactants (''m'' is the number of products and ''n'' the number of reactants) The work energy expended by the gaseous products of detonation is expressed by: :''W'' = ''P dv'' With pressure constant and negligible initial volume, this expression reduces to: :''W'' = ''P·V''&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; Since heats of formation are calculated for standard atmospheric pressure (101&amp;nbsp;325 Pa, where 1 Pa = 1 N/m²) and 15 °C, V&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; is the volume occupied by the product gases under these conditions. At this point ''W''/mol = (101&amp;nbsp;325 N/m²)(23.63 L/mol)(1 m³/1000 L) = 2394 N·m/mol = 2394 J/mol and by applying the appropriate conversion factors, work can be converted to units of kilocalories. ''W''/mol = 0.572 kcal/mol Once the chemical reaction has been balanced, one can calculate the volume of gas produced and the work of expansion. With this completed, the calculations necessary to determine potential may be accomplished. For TNT: :C&lt;sub&gt;6&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;(NO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;)&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt; → 6CO + 2.5H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; + 1.5N&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; + C for 10 mol Then: :''Q''&lt;sub&gt;mp&lt;/sub&gt; = 6(26.43) - 16.5 = 142.08 kcal/mol Note: Elements in their natural state (H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;, O&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;, N&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;, C, etc.) are used as the basis for heat of formation tables and are assigned a value of zero. See table 12-2. :''Q''&lt;sub&gt;mv&lt;/sub&gt; = 142.08 + 0.572(10) = 147.8 kcal/mol As previously stated, ''Q''&lt;sub&gt;mv&lt;/sub&gt; converted to equivalent work units is the potential of the explosive. (MW = Molecular Weight of Explosive) Potential = ''Q''&lt;sub&gt;mv&lt;/sub&gt; kcal/mol × 4185 J/kcal × 10&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt; g/kg × 1 mol/(mol·g) Potential = ''Q''&lt;sub&gt;mv&lt;/sub&gt; (4.185 × 10&lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt;) J/(mol·kg) For TNT, Potential = 147.8 (4.185 × 10&lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt;)/227.1 = 2.72 × 10&lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt; J/kg Rather than tabulate such large numbers, in the field of explosives, TNT is taken as the standard explosive, and others are assigned strengths relative to that of TNT. The potential of TNT has been calculated above to be 2.72 × 10&lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt; J/kg. Relative strength (RS) may be expressed as :R.S. = Potential of Explosive/(2.72 × 10&lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt;) ===Example of thermochemical calculations=== The PETN reaction will be examined as an example of thermo-chemical calculations. :PETN: C(CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;ONO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;)&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt; :Molecular weight = 316.15 g/mol :Heat of formation = 119.4 kcal/mol (1) Balance the chemical reaction equation. Using table 12-1, priority 4 gives the first reaction products: :5C + 12O → 5CO + 7O Next, the hydrogen combines with remaining oxygen: :8H + 7O → 4H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O + 3O Then the remaining oxygen will combine with the CO to form CO and CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;. :5CO + 3O → 2CO + 3CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; Finally the remaining nitrogen forms in its natural state (N&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;). :4N → 2N&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; The balanced reaction equation is: :C(CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;ONO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;)&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt; → 2CO + 4H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O + 3CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; + 2N&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; (2) Determine the number of molar volumes of gas per mole. Since the molar volume of one gas is equal to the molar volume of any other gas, and since all the products of the PETN reaction are gaseous, the resulting number of molar volumes of gas (''N&lt;sub&gt;m&lt;/sub&gt;'') is: :''N&lt;sub&gt;m&lt;/sub&gt;'' = 2 + 4 + 3 + 2 = 11 ''V''&lt;sub&gt;molar&lt;/sub&gt;/mol (3) Determine the potential (capacity for doing work). If the total heat liberated by an explosive under constant volume conditions (''Q&lt;sub&gt;m&lt;/sub&gt;'') is converted to the equivalent work units, the result is the potential of that explosive. The heat liberated at constant volume (''Q&lt;sub&gt;mv&lt;/sub&gt;'') is equivalent to the liberated at constant pressure (''Q&lt;sub&gt;mp&lt;/sub&gt;'') plus that heat converted to work in expanding the surrounding medium. Hence, ''Q&lt;sub&gt;mv&lt;/sub&gt;'' = ''Q&lt;sub&gt;mp&lt;/sub&gt;'' + work (converted). :a. ''Q&lt;sub&gt;mp&lt;/sub&gt;'' = ''Q&lt;sub&gt;fi&lt;/sub&gt;'' (products) - ''Q&lt;sub&gt;fk&lt;/sub&gt;'' (reactants) ::where: ''Q&lt;sub&gt;f&lt;/sub&gt;'' = heat of formation (see table 12-2) ::For the PETN reaction: :::''Q&lt;sub&gt;mp&lt;/sub&gt;'' = 2(26.343) + 4(57.81) + 3(94.39) - (119.4) = 447.87 kcal/mol ::(If the compound produced a metallic oxide, that heat of formation would be included in ''Q&lt;sub&gt;mp&lt;/sub&gt;''. :b. Work = 0.572''N&lt;sub&gt;m&lt;/sub&gt;'' = 0.572(11) = 6.292 kcal/mol :As previously stated, ''Q&lt;sub&gt;mv&lt;/sub&gt;'' converted to equivalent work units is taken as the potential of the explosive. :c. Potential ''J'' = ''Q&lt;sub&gt;mv&lt;/sub&gt;'' (4.185 × 10&lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt; kg)(MW) = 454.16 (4.185 × 10&lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt;) 316.15 = 6.01 × 10&lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt; J kg :This product may then be used to find the relative strength (RS) of PETN, which is :d. RS = Pot (PETN) = 6.01 × 10&lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt; = 2.21 Pot (TNT) 2.72 × 10&lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt; == See also == * [[Blasting cap]] * [[Nuclear weapon]] * [[Shaped charge]] * [[Weapon]] * [[Explosive velocity]] == External links == * [http://www.roguesci.org/theforum The Explosives and Weapons Forum] * [http://www.roguesci.org/megalomania/index.html Megalomanias Controversial Chem Lab] * [http://www.blasterexchange.com Blaster Exchange - Explosives Industry Portal] * [http://www.fas.org/man/dod-101/navy/docs/fun/part12.htm Military Explosives] * [http://globalsecurity.org/military/systems/munitions/explosives-class.htm UN hazard classification code] * [http://environmentalchemistry.com/yogi/hazmat/placards/class1.html Class 1 Hazmat Placards] ==References== * Army Research Office. ''Elements of Armament Engineering (Part One)''. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Army Material Command, 1964. * Commander, Naval Ordnance Systems Command. ''Safety and Performance Tests for Qualification of Explosives.'' NAVORD OD 44811. Washington, D.C.: GPO, 1972. * Commander, Naval Ordnance Systems Command. ''Weapons Systems Fundamentals.'' NAVORD OP 3000, vol. 2, 1st rev. Washington, D.C.: GPO, 1971. * Departments of the Army and Air Force. ''Military Explosives.'' Washington, D.C.: 1967. * USDOT Hazardous Materials Transportation Placards [[Category:Explosives]] [[bg:Взривни вещества]] [[ca:Explosiu]] [[cs:Výbušnina]] [[da:Sprængstof]] [[de:Sprengstoff]] [[es:Explosivo]] [[fr:Explosif]] [[id:Bahan peledak]] [[it:Esplosivo]] [[he:חומר נפץ]] [[lt:Sprogstamosios medžiagos]] [[lv:Sprāgstvielas]] [[nl:Explosief]] [[pl:Materiał wybuchowy]] [[pt:Explosivo]] [[ru:Взрывчатые вещества]] [[sl:Eksplozivi]] [[fi:Räjähde]] [[sv:Sprängämne]] [[zh:炸藥]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Enter the Dragon</title> <id>10193</id> <revision> <id>42052729</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T13:52:35Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>67.43.20.52</ip> </contributor> <comment>/* Famous Dialogue */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Film | name = Enter the Dragon | image = Enter the Dragon.jpg | imdb_id = 0070034 | writer = [[Michael Allin]] | starring = [[Bruce Lee]]&lt;br&gt;[[John Saxon]]&lt;br&gt;[[Ahna Capri]] | director = [[Robert Clouse]] | producer = [[Fred Weintraub]]&lt;br&gt;[[Paul Heller]] | distributor = [[Warner Brothers]] | released = [[July 26]], [[1973]] ([[Hong Kong]])&lt;br&gt;[[August 17]], [[1973]] ([[United States]]) | runtime = 98 min. | language = English | music = [[Lalo Schifrin]] | awards = | budget = $850,000 (est.) }} {{otheruses4|the Kung Fu film starring Bruce Lee|the episode of &quot;Xiaolin Showdown&quot;|Enter the Dragon (Xiaolin Showdown)}} '''''Enter the Dragon''''' (&amp;#12298;&amp;#40845;&amp;#29229;&amp;#34382;&amp;#39717;&amp;#12299; aka. ''The Deadly Three'', originally titled ''Blood and Steel'') is a [[1973]] [[Warner Brothers]] [[martial arts film]] starring [[Bruce Lee]], [[John Saxon (actor)|John Saxon]] and [[Jim Kelly (martial artist)| Jim Kelly]]. It is the last complete film made by Bruce Lee before his death; he died the month before it was released. It is considered by ma
discuss her life with Hughes, and declined several lucrative offers from big-name publishers and biographers. She would state only that she had not seen Hughes for several years before their divorce as his psychological problems forced him to stay in a seperate room and converse with Peters by phone only. According to some [[Watergate affair|Watergate]] historians, the infamous 1972 burglary of Democratic headquarters in Washington, D.C. was ordered by [[Richard Nixon|President Nixon]]'s aides with the intention of recovering potentially damaging papers documenting payments from Hughes to Nixon and establishing an apparent connection between Hughes and the Democratic Party ([[Larry O'Brien]], the [[Democratic National Committee]] chairman whose office was broken into, had been a paid lobbyist for Hughes since 1968). In 1972, author [[Clifford Irving]] created a media sensation when he claimed to have co-written an authorized [[autobiography]] of Howard Hughes. Hughes was such a reclusive figure that he hesitated in coming out to publicly refute Irving's statement, leading many people to place faith in the truth of Irving's claim. Prior to the book's publication, however, Hughes (in a rare telephone conference) finally denounced Irving, and the entire project was eventually exposed as a hoax. Irving later spent fourteen months in jail. ==Death and burial== Hughes died on [[April 5]], [[1976]], at the age of 70 while en route on an airplane from his penthouse in Mexico to Methodist Hospital in Houston. Years of severe neglect had made him practically unrecognizable, and the [[Federal Bureau of Investigation|FBI]] had to resort to [[fingerprint]] identification to identify the body. A subsequent [[autopsy]] noted [[renal failure|kidney failure]] as the cause of death even though Hughes bloodstream showed 1.9 micrograms of codeine, a dose more than fatal and significant amount of Valium. Hughes was in extremely poor physical condition at the time of his death; X-rays revealed broken-off hypodermic needles still embedded in his arms and severe malnutrition. Howard Hughes is interred in the [[Glenwood Cemetery (Houston, Texas)|Glenwood Cemetery]] in [[Houston]]. == Estate == [[Image:Time-magazine-cover-1976-howard-hughes-2.jpg|thumb|''Time'' cover depicting a late-life Hughes, on the occasion of his death in 1976]] After Hughes' death, an intensive search began for his [[will]], but one could not be found. Speculation became rampant that he may have written a [[holographic will]]. A holographic will was soon found on the desk of an official of The [[Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]] in [[Salt Lake City, Utah|Salt Lake City]]. The &quot;Mormon Will&quot; gave a gas-station owner named [[Melvin Dummar]] a 1/16th share of Hughes's $2 billion estate. Dummar, who had appeared on ''[[Let's Make a Deal]]'', among other [[game shows]], claimed to reporters that late one evening in December 1967, he found a disheveled and dirty man lying along [[U.S. Highway 95]], 150 miles (250 kilometers) north of [[Las Vegas, Nevada|Las Vegas]]. The man asked for a ride to Las Vegas. Dropping him off at the [[Sands Hotel]], Dummar said the man told him he was Hughes. In a trial presided over by District Court Judge Keith C. Hayes, the Mormon Will was rejected by the [[Nevada]] court in June 1978 as a forgery. The court also declared Hughes died [[intestacy|intestate]]. After saying he knew nothing about the Mormon Will, mounting evidence forced Dummar to admit that he lied. He claimed a &quot;mysterious man&quot; gave him a document with instructions to deposit it at the LDS office. The Mormon Will was one of 40 &quot;wills&quot; filed by 400 people claiming to be Hughes's heirs. The estate was eventually split between 22 cousins in 1983. ''[[Melvin and Howard]]'' starring [[Jason Robards]] and [[Paul Le Mat]] is based on Dummar's tale. A 2005 book titled &quot;The Investigation&quot;, written by retired F.B.I. Agent Gary Magnesen, supports Dummar's claims and brings to light three new witnesses. John Meier, a former Hughes employee entrusted with the purchase of various mining properties, stated that Hughes left the Desert Inn Hotel on different occasions to visit mine sites in the same general area where Dummar claims to have picked up Hughes. Guido Roberto Deiro, a former pilot for Hughes Tool Company, stated that between Christmas and New Years during 1967 he flew Hughes in a Cessna 206 to a brothel called the Cottontail Ranch located in the same general area where Dummar claims to have picked up Hughes. While waiting for Hughes, Deiro fell asleep and later awoke only to learn that Hughes had left the Cottontail Ranch a few hours earlier. Unable to locate Hughes, Deiro eventually flew back to Las Vegas alone, and learned later that Hughes somehow had made it back to the Desert Inn. The third witness is Howard Harrell, the widower of Madam Beverly Harrell, who ran the Cottontail Ranch in 1967. Howard Harrell stated that his wife had told him of Hughes' visits to the Cottontail Ranch. Beverly Harrell had wanted to come forward during the &quot;Mormon Will&quot; trial, and testify that Howard Hughes had been in the same general area and same time that Dummar claimed to have picked him up in the desert. Howard Harrell stated that he convinced his wife not to come forward during the trial since it might bring unwanted publicity. The location where Dummar claimed to have picked up Hughes is 6 miles south of the Cottontail Ranch. Although it now appears that the &quot;Mormon Will&quot; may very well have been authentic, it is too late to change the verdict in the original trial since the statute of limitations has long since expired. The [[Supreme Court of the United States|U.S. Supreme Court]] ruled that Hughes Aircraft was owned by the [[Howard Hughes Medical Institute]], who sold it to [[General Motors]] in 1985 for $5 billion. Suits brought by the states of California and Texas claiming they were owed inheritance tax were both rejected by the court. In 1984, Hughes' estate paid an undisclosed amount to [[Terry Moore (actress)|Terry Moore]], who claimed to have been secretly married to Hughes on a yacht in international waters off [[Mexico]] in 1949 and never divorced. Although Moore never produced proof of a marriage (and married five more times, while Hughes married Jean Peters), her book, ''The Beauty and the Billionaire'', became a best-seller. The original childhood home of Hughes currently serves as a [[landmark]] building at the [[University of St. Thomas (Houston)|University of St. Thomas]], where it currently houses the [[Theology]] offices for the University. ==Factual media portrayals== ===Books=== * George J. Marrett - ''Howard Hughes: Aviator'' (2004) ISBN 1591145104, Naval Institute Press * Richard Hack - ''Hughes: The Private Diaries, Memos and Letters : The Definitive Biography of the First American Billionaire'' (2002) ISBN 1893224643 * Peter Harry Brown and Pat H. Broeske - ''Howard Hughes: The untold story'' (1996) ISBN 0525937854, Penguin Books * Robert Maheu and Richard Hack - ''Next to Hughes: Behind the power and tragic downfall of Howard Hughes by his closest adviser'', HarperCollins (1992) * Michael Drosnin - ''Citizen Hughes: In his own words, how Howard Hughes tried to buy America'', Broadway Books * Donald L. Barlett and James B. Steele - ''Empire: The Life, Legend and Madness of Howard Hughes'' (1979) ISBN 0393075133 Republished in 2003 as ''Howard Hughes: His life and madness'' * Terry Moore - ''The Beauty and the Billionaire'', New York (1984). * Terry Moore and Jerry Rivers - ''The Passions of Howard Hughes''. General Publishing Group (1996) * James Phelan - &quot;Howard Hughes: The Hidden Years&quot;. Random House (1976) * Jack Real - &quot;The Asylum of Howard Hughes&quot;, Xlibris Corporation (2003), ISBN 1413408753 * Ron Kistler - &quot;I caught flies for Howard Hughes&quot;, Playboy Press (1976), ISBN 0872234479 ===Movies=== * ''[[The Amazing Howard Hughes]]'' (1977), directed by [[William A. Graham]] and starring [[Tommy Lee Jones]] as Howard Hughes. * ''[[The Aviator]]'' (2004), directed by [[Martin Scorsese]] and starring [[Leonardo DiCaprio]] as Hughes. Nominated for 11 [[Academy Awards]], and winning five, the film takes the usual bio-pic liberties (Ella Rice is not seen or mentioned although Hughes was married to her during the making of &quot;Hell's Angels&quot;). The film focuses primarily on Hughes's achievements in aviation and in the movies and on the increasing handicap his [[obsessive-compulsive]] behavior represented in his 30s and onwards. ==Fictional media inspirations== The following [[fictional character]]s appear to have been, at least in part, patterned after Hughes: *&quot;Willard Whyte&quot; of the [[James Bond]] [[film]] ''[[Diamonds Are Forever]]'' * ''[[Tony Stark]]'', a wealthy inventor and industrialist who becomes Marvel Comics's [[Iron Man]]. *&quot;[[Charles Foster Kane]]&quot; of the [[Orson Welles]] film ''[[Citizen Kane]]'' is widely believed to be patterned after [[William Randolph Hearst]], but some have suggested that Welles drew inspiration from Hughes' life as well. * ''[[The Simpsons]]'' episode &quot;[[$pringfield]]&quot; in which [[Montgomery Burns]] exhibits Hughes's OCD, including wearing tissue boxes on his feet, moving into a hotel penthouse, allowing his hair and nails to grow untrimmed, and creating an aircraft called the &quot;[[Spruce Moose]].&quot; * In [[The Disney Afternoon]]'s ''[[TaleSpin]]'', the characters join a group of businessmen for a dinner on the main deck of the moosehead-shaped seaplane, the &quot;[[Spruce Moose]]&quot;, built by a reclusive hippopotamus with Hughes's characteristic mannerisms. *&quot;S.R. Hadden&quot; of the [[Carl Sagan]] novel ''[[Contact (novel)|Contact]]'', and the 1997 [[Robert Zemeckis]] film of the same name. *&quot;Jonas Cord&quot; in [[Harold Robbins]]' novel ''[
nly allow up to 2 languages (English and one other language) to be used in a [[database]] or text file. Where true support for multilingual text is desired, a system supporting far more characters is needed. Generally this is done with some form of Unicode support. There is an EBCDIC [[Unicode Transformation Format]] called [[UTF-EBCDIC]] proposed by the Unicode consortium, but it is not intended to be used in open interchange environments, and even on EBCDIC based systems, it is almost never used. IBM mainframes have some support for UTF-16, but they do not support UTF-EBCDIC natively. ==Technical details== EBCDIC code pages and ASCII-based code pages are incompatible with each other. Since computers only understand numbers, these codepages assign a character to these numbers. The same byte values are interpreted as different characters depending on the codepage used. Data stored in EBCDIC require a code page conversion before the text can be viewed on ASCII based machines, like a [[personal computer]]. A single EBCDIC byte occupies eight bits, which are divided in two halves or ''[[nibble]]s''. The first four bits is called the ''zone'' and represent the category of the character, whereas the last four bits is called the ''digit'' and identify the specific character. There is a nice correspondence between [[hexadecimal]] character codes and punch card codes for EBCDIC. This was an important feature at the time the EBCDIC scheme was created. An IBM card punch could make a 12-row punch card with up to 2 punches per column, the first punch somewhere in the first 3 rows (called the zone) and the second punch somewhere in the last 9 rows (called the number). The zone could thus be considered a value from 0 to 3, and the number a value from 0 to 9, where 0 means no punch, and non-zero means the corresponding row was punched. The initial version of EBCDIC was just (0xf-zone)&lt;&lt;4+number and defined only the lower-left 10x4 part of the table shown below (the zone was apparently reversed so the letters would at least be in alphabetic order). There are a number of different versions of EBCDIC, customized for different countries. Some East Asian countries use a double byte extension of EBCDIC to allow display of Chinese, Japanese and Korean scripts for their mainframes. In the double byte extension of EBCDIC, there are shift codes [0x0E,0x0F] to shift between the single byte and double byte modes. IBM typically names all of its code pages with a number called a ''CCSID'' (Coded Character Set IDentifier). It is important to note that the same CCSID can have different character positions in a codepage. For example, the newline character can be a different byte value in [[z/OS]] [[UNIX System Services]] versus the other EBCDIC based operating systems. This becomes an issue when transferring EBCDIC based text data between machines. == Codepage layout == This is CCSID 500, a variant of EBCDIC. Characters 0x00&amp;ndash;0x3F and 0xFF are [[control character|control]]s, 0x40 is [[space character|space]], 0x41 is [[no-break space]], 0xCA is [[soft hyphen]]. {| |- align=&quot;center&quot; |&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F |- align=&quot;center&quot; |40||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;#32;||&amp;#160;||&amp;#226;||&amp;#228;||&amp;#224;||&amp;#225;||&amp;#227;||&amp;#229;||&amp;#231;||&amp;#241;||&amp;#91;||&amp;#46;||&amp;#60;||&amp;#40;||&amp;#43;||&amp;#33; |- align=&quot;center&quot; |50||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;#38;||&amp;#233;||&amp;#234;||&amp;#235;||&amp;#232;||&amp;#237;||&amp;#238;||&amp;#239;||&amp;#236;||&amp;#223;||&amp;#93;||&amp;#36;||&amp;#42;||&amp;#41;||&amp;#59;||&amp;#94; |- align=&quot;center&quot; |60||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;#45;||&amp;#47;||&amp;#194;||&amp;#196;||&amp;#192;||&amp;#193;||&amp;#195;||&amp;#197;||&amp;#199;||&amp;#209;||&amp;#166;||&amp;#44;||&amp;#37;||&amp;#95;||&amp;#62;||&amp;#63; |- align=&quot;center&quot; |70||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;#248;||&amp;#201;||&amp;#202;||&amp;#203;||&amp;#200;||&amp;#205;||&amp;#206;||&amp;#207;||&amp;#204;||&amp;#96;||&amp;#58;||&amp;#35;||&amp;#64;||&amp;#39;||&amp;#61;||&amp;#34; |- align=&quot;center&quot; |80||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;#216;||&amp;#97;||&amp;#98;||&amp;#99;||&amp;#100;||&amp;#101;||&amp;#102;||&amp;#103;||&amp;#104;||&amp;#105;||&amp;#171;||&amp;#187;||&amp;#240;||&amp;#253;||&amp;#254;||&amp;#177; |- align=&quot;center&quot; |90||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;#176;||&amp;#106;||&amp;#107;||&amp;#108;||&amp;#109;||&amp;#110;||&amp;#111;||&amp;#112;||&amp;#113;||&amp;#114;||&amp;#170;||&amp;#186;||&amp;#230;||&amp;#184;||&amp;#198;||&amp;#164; |- align=&quot;center&quot; |A0||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;#181;||&amp;#126;||&amp;#115;||&amp;#116;||&amp;#117;||&amp;#118;||&amp;#119;||&amp;#120;||&amp;#121;||&amp;#122;||&amp;#161;||&amp;#191;||&amp;#208;||&amp;#221;||&amp;#222;||&amp;#174; |- align=&quot;center&quot; |B0||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;#162;||&amp;#163;||&amp;#165;||&amp;#183;||&amp;#169;||&amp;#167;||&amp;#182;||&amp;#188;||&amp;#189;||&amp;#190;||&amp;#172;||&amp;#124;||&amp;#175;||&amp;#168;||&amp;#180;||&amp;#215; |- align=&quot;center&quot; |C0||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;#123;||&amp;#65;||&amp;#66;||&amp;#67;||&amp;#68;||&amp;#69;||&amp;#70;||&amp;#71;||&amp;#72;||&amp;#73;||&amp;#173;||&amp;#244;||&amp;#246;||&amp;#242;||&amp;#243;||&amp;#245; |- align=&quot;center&quot; |D0||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;#125;||&amp;#74;||&amp;#75;||&amp;#76;||&amp;#77;||&amp;#78;||&amp;#79;||&amp;#80;||&amp;#81;||&amp;#82;||&amp;#185;||&amp;#251;||&amp;#252;||&amp;#249;||&amp;#250;||&amp;#255; |- align=&quot;center&quot; |E0||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;#92;||&amp;#247;||&amp;#83;||&amp;#84;||&amp;#85;||&amp;#86;||&amp;#87;||&amp;#88;||&amp;#89;||&amp;#90;||&amp;#178;||&amp;#212;||&amp;#214;||&amp;#210;||&amp;#211;||&amp;#213; |- align=&quot;center&quot; |F0||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;#48;||&amp;#49;||&amp;#50;||&amp;#51;||&amp;#52;||&amp;#53;||&amp;#54;||&amp;#55;||&amp;#56;||&amp;#57;||&amp;#179;||&amp;#219;||&amp;#220;||&amp;#217;||&amp;#218;||&amp;nbsp; |} == See also == * [[EBCDIC 8859|EBCDIC-codepages with Latin-1-charset]] * [[EBCDIC 037|codepage 037 (English, Portuguese)]] * [[EBCDIC 285|codepage 285 (Ireland, United Kingdom)]] ==External links== &lt;!-- {{wikisource}} --&gt; * [http://publib.boulder.ibm.com/cgi-bin/bookmgr/BOOKS/QB3AQ501/F.0 F.0 Appendix F. Code Pages] from [http://publib.boulder.ibm.com/cgi-bin/bookmgr/BOOKS/QB3AQ501/CCONTENTS AS/400 International Application Development V4R2] * [http://www.ibm.com/software/globalization/icu/demo/converters ICU Converter Explorer] Contains more information about EBCDIC, including DBCS EBCDIC (Double Byte Character Set EBCDIC) * [http://icu.sourceforge.net/charts/charset/ ICU Charset Mapping Tables] Contains Unicode mapping tables for EBCDIC and many other character sets * [http://www.legacyj.com/cobol/ebcdic.html LegacyJ- EBCDIC Table] * [http://www.geocities.com/mikes_javascript/hex_table_ascii.html Computer Character Set Table] * [http://www.unicode.org/reports/tr16/#Table%201 Unicode Technical Report #16: UTF-EBCDIC] * [http://dp.comco-inc.com/comco_ebcdic/ EBCDIC-to-ASCII Test Tool] Simple on-line tool outputs ASCII from EBCDIC input. 2000 character limit. * [http://home.arcor.de/wzwz.de/wiki/ebcdic/cc_en.htm EBCDIC-codepages with Latin-1-charset (JavaScript)] * [http://home.arcor.de/wzwz.de/wiki/ebcdic/aa70_all_pages.zip ZIPped version] [[Category:Character sets]] [[Category:EBCDIC code pages| ]] [[cs:EBCDIC]] [[de:Extended Binary Coded Decimals Interchange Code]] [[es:EBCDIC]] [[eo:EBCDIC]] [[fr:Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange Code]] [[nl:EBCDIC]] [[ja:EBCDIC]] [[pl:Kod EBCDIC]] [[pt:Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange Code]] [[ru:EBCDIC]] [[sv:EBCDIC]] [[tr:EBCDIC]] [[zh:EBCDIC]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Endoplasmic reticulum</title> <id>9775</id> <revision> <id>41382599</id> <timestamp>2006-02-26T23:46:06Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>131.111.200.200</ip> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">The '''endoplasmic reticulum''' or '''ER''' (endoplasmic means &quot;within the [[cytoplasm]],&quot; reticulum means &quot;little net&quot;) is an [[organelle]] found in all [[eukaryote|eukaryotic cells]]. The ER modifies [[protein]]s, makes [[macromolecule]]s, and transfers substances throughout the cell. [[prokaryote|Prokaryotic organisms]] do not have membranous organelles and thus do not have an ER. The basic structure and composition of the ER is similar to the [[plasma membrane]], although it is actually an extension of the [[nuclear membrane]]. The ER is the site of the [[protein synthesis|translation]], folding, and transport of [[protein]]s that are to become part of the [[cell membrane]] (e.g., [[transmembrane receptor]]s and other [[integral membrane protein]]s) as well as proteins that are to be secreted or &quot;[[exocytosis|exocytosed]]&quot; from the cell (e.g., digestive [[enzyme]]s). == Structure == [[Image:nucleus_ER_golgi.jpg|thumb|360px|'''Figure 1 :''' Image of [[cell nucleus|nucleus]], endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi apparatus.&lt;br/&gt; (1) Nucleus. (2) Nuclear pore. (3) Rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER). (4) Smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER). (5) Ribosome on the rough ER. (6) Proteins that are transported. (7) Transport vesicle. (8) Golgi apparatus. (9) Cis face of the Golgi apparatus. (10) Trans face of the Golgi apparatus. (11) Cisternae of the Golgi apparatus.]] The ER consists of an extensive membrane network of tubes and [[cisterna]]e (sac-like structures). The membrane encloses a space, the cisternal space (or internal lumen) from the [[cytosol]]. This space is acting as a gateway. Parts of the ER membrane are continuous with the outer membrane of the [[nuclear envelope]], and the cisternal space of the ER is continuous with the space between the two layers of the nuclear envelope (the intermembrane space). Parts of the ER are covered with [[ribosome]]s (which assemble amino acids into proteins based on instru
===£20=== [[Image:Bank_Of_England20.gif|right|250px|thumb|A &amp;pound;20 Bank of England note.]] After the Second World War, the £20 denomination did not reappear until Series D in the early 1970s. The predominant colour of this denomination is purple. The reverse of the Series D £20 features a statue of [[William Shakespeare]] and the balcony scene from ''Romeo and Juliet''. In 1992 this note was replaced by the first Series E note, featuring the physicist [[Michael Faraday]] and the Royal Institution lectures. By 1999 this note had been extensively copied, and therefore it became the first denomination to be replaced by a second Series E design, featuring a bolder denomination figure at the top left of the obverse side, and a reverse side featuring the composer Sir [[Edward Elgar]] and Worcester Cathedral. ===£50=== The fifty pound denomination, much beloved of second hand car and antique dealers, did not reappear until 1981 when a Series D design was issued featuring the architect [[Christopher Wren]] and the plan of Saint Paul's Cathedral on the reverse of this large note. In 1990 this denomination saw the start of the Series E issue, when the Bank commemorated its own impending tercentenary by putting its first governor, Sir [[John Houblon]] on the reverse. The series E £50 saw the first use on Bank of England notes of a [[hologram]] on the note, a practice which has been extended to all the Bank's notes with the second issue of Series E notes. ===£1,000,000=== Bank notes issued by the banks in Scotland and Northern Ireland are required to be backed pound for pound by Bank of England notes. Due to the large number of notes issued by these banks it would be cumbersome and wasteful to hold Bank of England notes in the standard denominations. Special one million pound notes are used for this purpose. These are used only internally within the Bank and are never seen in circulation. [http://www.bankofengland.co.uk/banknotes/about/other_notes.htm] ==Chief Cashiers of the Bank of England== *John Kendrick 1694 *Thomas Speed 1694-1699 *Thomas Madockes 1699-1739 *James Collier (jointly with Daniel Race) 1739-1751 *Ellas Simes (jointly with Daniel Race) 1751-1759 *Daniel Race 1759-1775 *Charles Jewson 1775-1778 *Abraham Newland 1778-1807 *Henry Hase 1807-1829 *Thomas Rippon 1829-1835 *Matthew Marshall 1835-1864 *William Miller 1864-1866 *George Forbes 1866-1873 *Frank May 1873-1893 *Horace George Bowen 1893-1902 *John Gordon Nairne 1902-1918 *Ernest Musgrave Harvey 1918-1925 *C.Patrick Mahon 1925-1929 *Basil G. Catterns 1929-1934 *Kenneth O. Peppiatt 1934-1949 *Percival S. Beale 1949-1955 *Leslie K. O'Brien 1955-1962 *Jasper Q. Hollom 1962-1966 *John S. fforde 1966-1970 *John B. Page 1970-1980 *David H.F. Somerset 1980-1988 *G. Malcolm Gill 1988-1991 *Graham E.A. Kentfield 1991-1998 *Merlyn Lowther 1999-2003 ''(first woman to hold the post)'' *Andrew Bailey 2004 - ==Governors of the Bank of England== *[[John Houblon|Sir John Houblon]] (1694-1697) *[[William Scawen|Sir William Scawen]] (1697-1699) *[[Nathaniel Tench]] (1699-1701) *[[John Ward]] (1701-1703) *[[Abraham Houblon]] (1703-1705) *[[James Bateman|Sir James Bateman]] (1705-1707) *[[Francis Eyles]] (1707-1709) *[[Gilbert Heathcote|Sir Gilbert Heathcote]] (1709-1711) *[[Nathaniel Gould]] (1711-1713) *[[John Rudge]] (1713-1715) *[[Peter Delme|Sir Peter Delme]] (1715-1717) *[[Gerard Conyers|Sir Gerard Conyers]] (1717-1719) *[[John Hanger]] (1719-1721) *[[Thomas Scawen|Sir Thomas Scawen]] (1721-1723) *[[Gilbert Heathcote|Sir Gilbert Heathcote]] (1723-1725) *[[William Thompson]] (1725-1727) *[[Humphry Morice]] (1727-1729) *[[Samuel Holden]] (1729-1731) *[[Edward Bellamy|Sir Edward Bellamy]] (1731-1733) *[[Horatio Townshend]] (1733-1735) *[[Bryan Benson]] (1735-1737) *[[Thomas Cooke]] (1737-1740) *[[Delillers Carbonnel]] (1740-1741) *[[Stamp Brooksbank]] (1741-1743) *[[William Fawkener]] (1743-1745) *[[Charles Savage]] (1745-1747) *[[Benjamin Longuet]] (1747-1749) *[[William Hunt]] (1749-1752) *[[Alexander Sheafe]] (1752-1754) *[[Charles Palmer]] (1754-1756) *[[Matthews Beachcroft]] (1756-1758) *[[Merrik Burrell]] (1758-1760) *[[Bartholomew Burton]] (1760-1762) *[[Robert Marsh]] (1762-1764) *[[John Weyland]] (1764-1766) *[[Matthew Clarmont]] (1766-1769) *[[William Cooper]] (1769-1771) *[[Edward Payne]] (1771-1773) *[[James Sperling]] (1773-1775) *[[Samuel Beachcroft]] (1775-1777) *[[Peter Gaussen]] (1777-1779) *[[Daniel Booth]] (1779-1781) *[[William Ewer]] (1781-1783) *[[Richard Neave]] (1783-1785) *[[George Peters]] (1785-1787) *[[Edward Darell]] (1787-1789) *[[Mark Weyland]] (1789-1791) *[[Samuel Bosanquet]] (1791-1793) *[[Godfrey Thornton]] (1793-1795) *[[Daniel Giles]] (1795-1797) *[[Thomas Raikes]] (1797-1799) *[[Samuel Thornton]] (1799-1801) *[[Job Mathew]] (1801-1802) *[[Joseph Nutt]] (1802-1804) *[[Benjamin Winthrop]] (1804-1806) *[[Beeston Long]] (1806-1808) *[[John Whitmore]] (1808-1810) *[[John Pearse]] (1810-1812) *[[William Manning]] (1812-1814) *[[William Mellish]] (1814-1816) *[[Jeremiah Harman]] (1816-1818) *[[George Dorrien]] (1818-1820) *[[Charles Pole]] (1820-1822) *[[John Bowden]] (1822-1824) *[[Cornelius Buller]] (1824-1826) *[[John Baker Richards]] (1826-1828) *[[Samuel Drewe]] (1828-1830) *[[John Horsley Palmer]] (1830-1833) *[[Richard Mee Raikes]] (1833-1834) *[[James Pattison]] (1834-1837) *[[Timothy Abraham Curtis]] (1837-1839) *[[Sir John Rae Reid]] (1839-1841) *[[Sir John Henry Pelly]] (1841-1842) *[[William Cotton (banker)|William Cotton]] (1842-1845) *[[John Benjamin Heath]] (1845-1847) *[[William Robinson Robinson]] (April 1847-August 1847) *[[James Morris]] (1847-1849) *[[Henry James Prescot]] (1849-1851) *[[Thomson Hankey]] (1851-1853) *[[John Gellibrand Hubbard]] (1853-1855) *[[Thomas Matthias Weguelin]] (1855-1857) *[[Sheffield Neave]] (1857-1859) *[[Bonamy Dobree]] (1859-1861) *[[Alfred Latham]] (1861-1863) *[[Kirkman Daniel Hodgson]] (1863-1865) *[[Henry Lancelot Holland]] (1865-1867) *[[Thomas Newman Hunt]] (1867-1869) *[[Robert Wigram Crawford]] (1869-1871) *[[George Lyall]] (1871-1873) *[[Benjamin Buck Greene]] (1873-1875) *[[Henry Hucks Gibbs]] (1875-1877) *[[Edward Howley Palmer]] (1877-1879) *[[John William Birch]] (1879-1881) *[[Henry Riversdale Grenfell]] (1881-1883) *[[John Saunders Gilliat]] (1883-1885) *[[James Pattison Currie]] (1885-1887) *[[Mark Wilks Collet]] (1887-1889) *[[William Lidderdale]] (1889-1892) *[[David Powell]] (1892-1895) *[[Albert George Sandeman]] (1895-1897) *[[Hugh Colin Smith]] (1897-1899) *[[Samuel Steuart Gladstone]] (1899-1901) *[[Augustus Prevost]] (1901-1903) *[[Samuel Hope Morley]] (1903-1905) *[[Alexander Falconer Wallace]] (1905-1907) *[[William Middleton Campbell]] (1907-1909) *[[Reginald Eden Johnston]] (1909-1911) *[[Alfred Clayton Cole]] (1911-1913) *[[Walter Cunliffe, Baron Cunliffe]] (1913-1918) *[[Brien Ibrican Cokayne, 1st Baron Cullen of Ashbourne|Sir Brien Ibrican Cokayne]] (1918-1920) *[[Montagu Collet Norman|Sir Montagu Collet Norman, 1st Baron Norman]], (1920-1944) *[[Thomas Sivewright Catto, 1st Baron Catto]] (1944-1949) *[[Cameron Fromanteel Cobbold, 1st Baron Cobbold]] (March 1949-[[30 June]] [[1961]]) *[[George Rowland Stanley Baring, 3rd Earl of Cromer]] ([[1 July]] [[1961]]-1966) *[[Leslie Kenneth O'Brien|Sir Leslie O'Brien]] (1966-1973) *[[Gordon Richardson]] (1973-1983) *[[Robin Leigh-Pemberton]], [[Baron Kingsdown]] (1983-1993) *[[Edward George|Sir Edward George]] (1993-[[30 June]] [[2003]]) *[[Mervyn Allister King]] ([[1 July]] [[2003]]-) ==In fiction== *In ''[[Around the World in Eighty Days]]'', [[Phileas Fogg]] is hunted around the world under the suspicion that he robbed the Bank of England. ==See also== * [[Bank of England Museum]] * [[Bank of Japan]] * [[British coinage]] * [[British banknotes]] * [[European Central Bank]] * [[Federal Reserve]] * [[Pound Sterling]] * [[UK topics]] ==External links== {{Wiktionary}} {{commonscat}} *[http://www.bankofengland.co.uk/ Bank of England] *[http://www.bankofengland.co.uk/about/legislation/1694act.pdf 1694 Act of Parliament founding the bank] [[Category:Banks of the United Kingdom]] [[Category:Economy of London]] [[Category:City of London]] [[Category:European System of Central Banks|England]] [[Category:Political London]] [[Category:Government of the United Kingdom]] [[Category:1694 establishments]] [[ar:بنك إنجلترا]] [[de:Bank of England]] [[fr:Banque d'Angleterre]] [[he:בנק אנגליה]] [[ja:イングランド銀行]] [[no:Bank of England]] [[ro:Banca Angliei]] [[sv:Bank of England]] [[uk:Англійський Банк]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Bakelite</title> <id>4485</id> <revision> <id>39141579</id> <timestamp>2006-02-10T23:50:36Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Stubblyhead</username> <id>543517</id> </contributor> <minor /> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Bakelite''' is a [[brand name]]d material based on the [[thermosetting plastic|thermosetting]] [[phenol formaldehyde resin]] [[polyoxybenzylmethylenglycolanhydride]], developed in [[1907]]-[[1909]] by Dr. [[Leo Baekeland]]. Formed by the reaction under heat and pressure of [[phenol]] and [[formaldehyde]], generally with a wood flour filler, it was the first plastic made from synthetic polymers. It was used for its [[nonconductor|nonconductive]] and heat-resistant properties in radio and telephone casings and electrical [[insulators]]. [[image:Bakelit Struktur.png|thumb|right|300px|Structure of Bakelite]] Due to its hardness and durability, it was considered as a material for making [[Penny (U.S. coin)|pennies]] in the United States during World War II, due to copper being needed for shell casings. Several patterns were made in [[1942]], but steel was used instead in [[1943]] and recycled shell casings in [[1944]] and [[1945]]. Bakelite Corp. was formed in 1922 from General Bakelite Co., Condensite Corp. and [[Redmanol Chemical Products Company|Redmanol Co]]. The company was acquired by U
Independence]]''' || [[10 October]] [[1970]] |- | '''[[Currency]]''' || [[Fijian dollar]] |- | '''[[Time zone]]''' || [[Coordinated Universal Time|UTC]] + 12 |- | '''[[National anthem]]''' || [[God Bless Fiji]] |- | '''[[Top-level domain|Internet TLD]]''' || [[.fj]] |- | '''[[List of country calling codes|Calling Code]]''' || +679 |- |colspan=4 | &lt;small&gt;&amp;dagger; - Recognised by Great Council of Chiefs, not repudiated&lt;/small&gt; |}The '''Republic of the Fiji Islands''', or '''Fiji''', is an [[island nation]] in the South [[Pacific Ocean]], east of [[Vanuatu]], west of [[Tonga]] and south of [[Tuvalu]]. The country occupies an [[archipelago]] of about 322 [[island]]s, of which 106 are permanently inhabited; in addition, there are some 522 [[islet]]s. The two major islands, [[Viti Levu]] and [[Vanua Levu]], account for some 87 % of the total population. The name Fiji is the old [[Tongan language|Tongan]] word for the islands, which is in turn derived from the [[Fijian language|Fijian]] name ''Viti''. == History == ''Main article: [[History of Fiji]]'' [[Image:Urville-Viti-Lebouka2.jpg|thumb|left|[[Levuka]], 1842]] The first inhabitants of Fiji arrived from [[South East Asia]] long before contact with [[Europe|European]] explorers in the [[17th century]]. [http://humanities.cqu.edu.au/history/52148/modules/pacific_peoplesA.html This academic question] of [[Pacific migration]] still lingers. [http://www.answers.com/main/ntquery;jsessionid=ch285bg7t494l?method=4&amp;dsid=2222&amp;dekey=Abel+Tasman&amp;gwp=8&amp;curtab=2222_1&amp;sbid=lc05b&amp;linktext=Abel%20Tasman It is documented] that Fiji was discovered by the [[Netherlands|Dutch]] explorer [[Abel Tasman]] in an attempt to find the Great Southern Continent in [[1643]]. It was not until the [[19th century]], however, that Europeans came to the islands to [http://www.janesoceania.com/oceania_history settle] there permanently. The islands came under [[United Kingdom|British]] control as a colony in [[1874]]. It was granted independence in [[1970]]. Democratic rule was interrupted by two [[Fiji coups of 1987|military coups]] in [[1987]], caused by concern over a government perceived as dominated by the [[Indo-Fijian|Indo-Fijian (Indian)]] community. A consequence of the second 1987 coup was that the [[British Monarchy]] was abolished, the [[Governor-General of Fiji|Governor General]] was replaced by a non-executive [[President of Fiji|President]], and the long form of the country's name changed from ''Dominion of Fiji'' to ''Republic of Fiji'' (in turn changed to ''Republic of the Fiji Islands'' in 1997). A [[1990]] constitution guaranteed [[Fijian people|ethnic Fijian]] control of Fiji, but led to heavy Indian emigration; the population loss resulted in economic difficulties, but ensured that Melanesians became the majority. Amendments enacted in [[1997]] made the [[Constitution of Fiji|constitution]] more equitable. Free and peaceful elections in [[1999]] resulted in a government led by an Indo-Fijian. A year later, this was deposed in a [[Fiji coup of 2000|coup]] led by [[George Speight]], a hardline Fijian nationalist. Democracy was restored towards the end of [[2000]], and [[Laisenia Qarase]], who had led an interim government in the meantime, was elected [[List of Prime Ministers of Fiji|Prime Minister]]. Fiji's membership of the [[Commonwealth of Nations]] was suspended due to the anti-democratic activities connected with the 2000 coup. For a country of its size, Fiji has exceptionally capable [[Military of Fiji|armed forces]], and has been a major contributor to [[UN peacekeeping|UN peacekeeping missions]] in various parts of the world. == Politics == ''Main article: [[Politics of Fiji]]'' === Executive authority === ''Main article: [[Constitution of Fiji: Chapter 7]]'' Fiji's Head of State is the [[List of Presidents of Fiji|President]], who is elected by the ''[[Great Council of Chiefs (Fiji)|Great Council of Chiefs]]'' for a five-year term. Although his role is largely an honorary one, modelled after that of the British monarchy, the President has certain [[reserve powers|&quot;reserve powers&quot;]] that may be used only in the event of a national crisis. He is also the Commander-in-Chief of the [[Military of Fiji|Armed Forces]]. The [[Great Council of Chiefs (Fiji)|Great Council of Chiefs]] recognizes Queen [[Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom|Elizabeth II]] as its Paramount Chief, in respect as a nation within the [[Commonwealth of Nations]]. The president formally appoints the [[List of Prime Ministers of Fiji|Prime Minister]], who must be able to rely on the support of a majority in the [[House of Representatives (Fiji)|House of Representatives]]. In practice, that means that the leader of the largest political party or coalition normally becomes Prime Minister, rendering the President's role in the appointment little more than a formality. Sometimes, however, Parliament may become deadlocked, as a result of electoral fragmentation or party splits. In such cases, the President takes on the role of arbitrator, and after consulting with all the political factions, must appoint as Prime Minister the person he judges to be the most acceptable to the majority in the House of Representatives. On the Prime Minister's nomination, the President formally appoints a [[Cabinet (Fiji)|Cabinet]] of around ten to twenty five [[Cabinet minister|ministers]], who exercise executive authority. According to the constitution, the Cabinet is supposed to reflect the political composition of the House of Representatives, with every party holding more than 8 seats in the House entitled to proportionate representation in the Cabinet. In practice, this rule has never been strictly implemented. === Legislative authority === ''Main article: [[Constitution of Fiji: Chapter 6]]'' Fiji's [[Parliament (Fiji)|Parliament]] is bicameral. The [[House of Representatives (Fiji)|House of Representatives]] has 71 members. 25 of these are elected by universal suffrage. The remaining 46 are reserved for Fiji's ethnic communities and are elected from communal electoral rolls: 23 [[Fijian people|Fijians]], 19 [[Indo-Fijian|Indo-Fijians]], 1 [[Rotuman]], and 3 &quot;[[General Electors (Fiji)|General electors]]&quot; (Europeans, Chinese, and other minorities). The upper chamber of the parliament, the [[Senate (Fiji)|Senate]], has 32 members, formally appointed by the President on the nomination of the Great Council of Chiefs (14), the Prime Minister (9), the [[Leader of the Opposition (Fiji)|Leader of the Opposition]] (8), and the [[Council of Rotuma]] (1). Less powerful than the House of Representatives, the Senate may not initiate legislation, but it may reject or amend it. === Judicial authority === ''Main article: [[Constitution of Fiji: Chapter 9]]'' Judicial power is vested in three courts (the [[High Court (Fiji)|High Court]], [[Court of Appeal (Fiji)|Court of Appeal]], and [[Supreme Court (Fiji)|Supreme Court]]) established by the [[Constitution of Fiji|Constitution]], which also makes provision for other courts to be set up by Parliament. The High Court and the Supreme Court are both presided over by the [[Chief Justice (Fiji)|Chief Justice]] (currently [[Daniel Fatiaki]]); the Chief Justice is barred, however, from membership of the Court of Appeal, which has its own [[President of the Court of Appeal (Fiji)|President]] (currently [[Jai Ram Reddy]]). The Appeal Court has the power ''&quot;to hear and determine appeals&quot;'' from judgements of the High Court; decisions of this court may be further appealed to the Supreme Court, whose decision is final. == Local government == ''Main article: [[Local government of Fiji]]'' Fiji is divided into four parts, called [[division (sub-national)|division]]s (capitals in parentheses): *[[Central Division, Fiji|Central Division]] ([[Suva]]) *[[Northern Division, Fiji|Northern Division]] ([[Labasa]]) *[[Eastern Division, Fiji|Eastern Division]] ([[Levuka]]) *[[Western Division, Fiji|Western Division]] ([[Lautoka]]) These divisions are further subdivided into fourteen provinces. Additionally, the island of [[Rotuma]], north of the main archipelago, has the status of a dependency. It is officially included in the Eastern Division for statistical purposes, but administratively has a degree of internal autonomy. Municipal governments, with City and Town Councils presided over by [[Mayor]]s, have been established in [[Suva]], [[Lautoka]], and ten other towns. == Geography == ''Main article: [[Geography of Fiji]]'' [[Image:fj-map.png|thumb|right|200px|Map of Fiji]] Fiji consists of 322 islands, of which 106 are inhabited, and 522 smaller islets. The two most important islands are [[Viti Levu]] and [[Vanua Levu]]. Viti Levu hosts the capital city of [[Suva]], and is home to nearly three quarters of the population. The islands are mountainous, with peaks up to 1200 meters, and covered with tropical forests. Other important towns include [[Nadi]], (the location of the international airport) and [[Lautoka]]. The main towns on [[Vanua Levu]] are [[Labasa]] and [[Savusavu]]. Other islands and island groups include [[Taveuni]] and [[Kadavu]] (the third and fourth largest islands respectively), the [[Mamanuca Group]] (just outside Nadi) and [[Yasawa Islands|Yasawa Group]], which are popular [[tourist]] destinations, the [[Lomaiviti|Lomaiviti Group]], outside of Suva, and the remote [[Lau Islands|Lau Group]]. [[Rotuma]], some 500 kilometers north of the archipelago, has a [[Local government of Fiji|special administrative status]] in Fiji. == Economy == ''Main article: [[Economy of Fiji]]'' Fiji, endowed with forest, [[mineral]], and fish resources, is one of the most developed of the Pacific island economies, though still with a large subsistence sector. Fiji experienced a period of rapid growth in the 60's and 70's but stagnated in the early 80's. The coups of 1987 caused further contraction. Econ
interfaces to back-end applications are being provided and activities with customers are being documented for further reference. Operational CRM provides the following benefits: * Delivers personalized and efficient marketing, sales, and service through multi-channel collaboration * Enables a 360-degree view of your customer while you are interacting with them * Sales people and service engineers can access complete history of all customer interaction with your company, regardless of the touch point According to Gartner Group, the operational part of CRM typically involves three general areas of business: * '''Sales force automation (SFA)''': SFA automates some of the company's critical [[sales]] and [[sales force management]] functions, for example, lead/account management, contact management, quote management, forecasting, sales administration, keeping track of customer preferences, buying habits, and [[demographics]], as well as sales staff performance. SFA tools are designed to improve field sales productivity. Key infrastructure requirements of SFA are mobile synchronization and integrated product configuration. * '''Customer service and support (CSS)''': CSS automates some service requests, complaints, product returns, and information requests. Traditional internal help desk and traditional inbound call-center support for customer inquiries are now evolved into the &quot;customer interaction center&quot; (CIC), using multiple channels (Web, phone/fax, face-to-face, kiosk, etc). Key infrastructure requirements of CSS include computer telephony integration (CTI) which provides high volume processing capability, and reliability. * '''Enterprise marketing automation (EMA)''': EMA provides information about the business environment, including competitors, industry trends, and [[environmental scanning|macroenviromental variables]]. It is the execution side of campaign and lead management. The intent of EMA applications is to improve marketing campaign efficiencies. Functions include demographic analysis, variable segmentation, and predictive modeling occur on the analytical (Business Intelligence) side. Integrated CRM software is often also known as &quot;[[front office]] solutions.&quot; This is because they deal directly with the customer. Many [[call center|call centers]] use CRM software to store all of their customer's details. When a customer calls, the system can be used to retrieve and store information relevant to the customer. By serving the customer quickly and efficiently, and also keeping all information on a customer in one place, a company aims to make cost savings, and also encourage new customers. CRM solutions can also be used to allow customers to perform their own service via a variety of communication channels. For example, you might be able to check your bank balance via your [[WAP]] phone without ever having to talk to a person, saving money for the company, and saving you time. === Analytical CRM === In analytical CRM, data gathered within operational CRM and/or other sources are analyzed to segment customers or to identify potential to enhance client relationship. Customer analysis typically can lead to targeted campaigns to increase share of customer's wallet. Examples of Campaigns directed towards customers are: # Acquisition : Cross-sell, up-sell # Retention : Retaining customers who leave due to maturity or attrition. # Information : Providing timely and regular information to customers. # Modification : Altering details of the transactional nature of the customers' relationship. Analysis typically covers but is not limited to: # Decision support: Dashboards, reporting, metrics, performance etc. # Predictive modelling of customer attributes # Strategy and research. Analysis of Customer data may relate to one or more of the following analyses: # Campaign management and analysis # Contact channel optimization # Contact Optimization # Customer Acquisition / Reactivation / Retention # Customer Segmentation # Customer Satisfaction Measurement / Increase # Sales Coverage Optimization # Fraud Detection and analysis # Financial Forecasts # Pricing Optimization # Product Development # Program Evaluation # Risk Assessment and Management Data collection and analysis is viewed as a continuing and iterative process. Ideally, business decisions are refined over time, based on feedback from earlier analysis and decisions. Therefore, most successful analytical CRM projects take advantage of a [[data warehouse]] to provide suitable data. [[Business Intelligence]] is a related discipline offering some more functionality as separate [[application software]]. === Collaborative CRM === Collaborative CRM facilitates interactions with customers through all channels (personal, letter, fax, phone, web, e-mail) and supports co-ordination of employee teams and channels. It is a solution that brings people, processes and data together so companies can better serve and retain their customers. The data/activities can be structured, unstructured,conversational, and/or transactional in nature. Collaborative CRM provides the following benefits: * Enables efficient productive customer interactions across all communications channels * Enables web collaboration to reduce customer service costs * Integrates call centers enabling multi-channel personal customer interaction * Integrates view of the customer while interaction at the transaction level ==Improving customer service== CRMs are to improve customer service. Proponents say they can improve customer service by facilitating communication in several ways: * Provide product information, product use information, and technical assistance on web sites that are accessible 24 hours a day, 7 days a week. * Help to identify potential problems quickly, before they occur. * Provide a user-friendly mechanism for registering customer complaints (complaints that are not registered with the company cannot be resolved, and are a major source of customer dissatisfaction). * Provide a fast mechanism for handling problems and complaints (complaints that are resolved quickly can increase customer satisfaction). * Provide a fast mechanism for correcting service deficiencies (correct the problem before other customers experience the same dissatisfaction). * Identify how each individual customer defines quality, and then design a service strategy for each customer based on these individual requirements and expectations. * Use internet cookies to track customer interests and personalize product offerings accordingly. * Use the Internet to engage in collaborative customization or real-time customization * Provide a fast mechanism for managing and scheduling followup sales calls to assess post-purchase cognitive dissonance, repurchase probabilities, repurchase times, and repurchase frequencies. * Provide a fast mechanism for managing and scheduling maintenance, repair, and on-going support (improve efficiency and effectiveness). * Provide a mechanism to track all points of contact between a customer and the company, and do it in an integrated way so that all sources and types of contact are included, and all users of the system see the same view of the customer (reduces confusion). * The CRM can be integrated into other cross-functional systems and thereby provide accounting and production information to customers when they want it. ==Improving customer relationships== CRMs are also claimed to be able to improve customer relationships . Proponents say this is so because: * CRM technology can track customer interests, needs, and buying habits as they progress through their life cycles, and tailor the marketing effort accordingly. This way customers get exactly what they want as they change. * The technology can track customer product use as the product progresses through its life cycle, and tailor the service strategy accordingly. This way customers get what they need as the product ages. * In industrial markets, the technology can be used to micro-segment the buying centre and help coordinate the conflicting and changing purchase criteria of its members. * When any of the technology-driven improvements in customer service (mentioned above) contribute to long-term customer satisfaction, they can ensure repeat purchases, improve customer relationships, increase customer loyalty, decrease customer turnover, decrease marketing costs (associated with customer acquisition and customer &amp;ldquo;training&amp;rdquo;), increase sales revenue, and thereby increase profit margins. * Repeat purchase, however, comes from customer satisfaction - which in turn comes from a deeper understanding of each customer, their individual business challenges and proposing solutions for those challenges rather than a &quot;one size fits all&quot; approach. * CRM software enables sales people to achieve this one on one approach to selling and can automate some elements of it via tailorable marketing communications. However, all of these elements are facilitated by or for humans to achieve - CRM is therefore a company-wide attitude as much as a software solution. ==Technical functionality== A '''CRM solution is characterised by the following functionality:''' * scalability - the ability to be used on a large scale, and to be reliably expanded to whatever scale is necessary. * multiple [[communication channel]]s - the ability to interface with users via many different devices (phone, WAP, internet, etc) * [[workflow]] - the ability to trigger a process in the backoffice system, e. g. Email Response, ... * [[assignment]] - the ability to assign requests (Service Requests, Sales Opportunities) to a person or group. * [[database]] - the centralised storage (in a data warehouse) of all information relevant to customer interaction * [[customer privacy]] considerations, e.g. [[data encryption]] and the destruction of records to ensure that they are not stolen or abu
, either by using a capacitor designed to have lower inductance, or by bypassing a large capacitor with a smaller, noninductive one. This practice has become more common in [[audiophile]]-oriented products recently, as inductive problems in low-cost capacitors were demonstrated to degrade high-frequency fidelity. Computers and cell (mobile) phones use surface-mount stacked capacitors, since these devices have no leads and therefore no lead inductance. When the capacitor plates are mounted at right-angles to the circuit board, the inductance can be made extremely low. To further reduce inductance, wide conductor traces and small gaps are used and the capacitor is shaped accordingly. Dielectric materials can produce unwanted side effects. For example, the dielectric constant of [[barium titanate]] used in ceramic capacitors changes with temperature and pressure. Such capacitors are sensitive to vibration and flexing, and can cause a type of signal modulation in electronic circuits called ''microphonics''. ==Capacitor hazards and safety== Capacitors may retain a charge long after power is removed from a circuit; this charge can cause shocks (up to and including [[electrocution]]) or damage to connected equipment. Since capacitors have such low [[equivalent series resistance]]s (ESRs), they have the capacity to deliver large currents into short circuits; this can be dangerous. Care must be taken to ensure that any large or high-voltage capacitor is properly discharged before servicing the containing equipment. For safety purposes, all large capacitors should be discharged before handling. For board-level capacitors, this is done by placing a '''bleeder''' [[resistor]] across the terminals, whose resistance is large enough that the leakage current will not affect the circuit, but small enough to discharge the capacitor shortly after power is removed. High voltage capacitors should be stored with the terminals [[short circuit|shorted]] to dissipate any stored charge. Large oil-filled old capacitors must be disposed of properly as some contain [[polychlorinated biphenyl]]s (PCBs). It is known that waste PCBs can leak into [[groundwater]] under [[landfill]]s. If consumed by drinking contaminated water, PCBs are [[carcinogen]]ic, even in very tiny amounts. If the capacitor is physically large it is more likely to be dangerous and may require precautions in addition to those described above. New electrical components are no longer produced with PCBs. Disambiguation: Please keep in mind that PCB in electronics usually means Printed Circuit Board, unlike in chemistry where it may be used as seen above. ==See also== {{Wikibookspar|Electronics|Capacitors}} *[[Capacitance]] *[[Capacitor plague]] capacitor failures on computer [[motherboard]]s *[[Circuit design]] *[[Electromagnetism]] *[[Electricity]] *[[Electronics]] *[[Inductor]] *[[Practical capacitors]] *[[Supercapacitor]] == External links == *[http://www.societyofrobots.com/electronics_tutorial.shtml#capacitor Practical Capacitors and other Electronics for Robotics] *[http://leonardo.eeug.caltech.edu/~ee14/lab1cds.html Caltech: Practical capacitor properties] *[http://www.faradnet.com/ FaradNet: The Capacitor Resource] *[http://www.nesscap.com NessCap, maker of 5000 farad capacitors] *[http://www.ga-esi.com/ General Atomics Electronic Systems, inc. High Voltage Pulsed Power Capacitors and Systems.] *[http://www.skeletonnanolab.com Skeleton NanoLab, Research &amp; Development of advanced capacitors] *[http://electronics.howstuffworks.com/capacitor.htm/printable Howstuffworks.com: How Capacitors Work] *[http://my.execpc.com/~endlr/ CapSite 2006: Introduction to Capacitors] * [http://www.phys.unsw.edu.au/~jw/AC.html AC circuits] ==References== * Glenn Zorpette &quot;Super Charged: A Tiny South Korean Company is Out to Make Capacitors Powerful enough to Propel the Next Generation of Hybrid-Electric Cars&quot;, &quot;IEEE Spectrum&quot;, January, 2005 Vol 42, No. 1, North American Edition. * &quot;The ARRL Handbook for Radio Amateurs, 68th ed&quot;, The Amateur Radio Relay League, Newington CT USA, 1991 * &quot;Basic Circuit Theory with Digital Computations&quot;, Lawrence P. Huelsman, Prentice-Hall, 1972 * Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society LXXII, Appendix 8, 1782 (Volta coins the word ''condenser'') * A. K. Maini &quot;Electronic Projects for Beginners&quot;, &quot;Pustak Mahal&quot;, 2nd Edition: March, 1998 ([[india|INDIA]]) * [http://www.sparkmuseum.com/BOOK_LEYDEN.HTM Spark Museum] (von Kleist and Musschenbroek) * [http://www.acmi.net.au/AIC/VON_KLEIST_BIO.html Biography of von Kleist] [[Category:Capacitors]] [[Category:Energy storage]] [[ar:مكثف]] [[ca:Condensador]] [[cs:Kondenzátor]] [[da:Elektrisk kondensator]] [[de:Kondensator (Elektrotechnik)]] [[et:Elektrikondensaator]] [[es:Condensador (eléctrico)]] [[eo:Kondensatoro]] [[fa:خازن]] [[fr:Condensateur (électricité)]] [[io:Kondensatoro]] [[id:Kapasitor]] [[ia:Capacitor]] [[it:Condensatore]] [[he:קבל]] [[la:Capacitor]] [[hu:Kondenzátor]] [[nl:Condensator]] [[ja:コンデンサ]] [[pl:Kondensator]] [[pt:Capacitor]] [[ru:Электрический конденсатор]] [[sl:Kondenzator]] [[fi:Kondensaattori]] [[sv:Kondensator]] [[ta:மின் தேக்கி]] [[th:ตัวเก็บประจุ]] [[tr:Kondansatör]] [[zh:电容器]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Chronic Fatigue Syndrome</title> <id>6028</id> <revision> <id>34772563</id> <timestamp>2006-01-11T17:01:23Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>RussBot</username> <id>279219</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Robot: Fixing [[Special:DoubleRedirects|double-redirect]] -&quot;Myalgic Encephalomyelitis&quot; +&quot;Chronic fatigue syndrome&quot;</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Chronic fatigue syndrome]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Chronic Fatigue Syndrome/The name</title> <id>6030</id> <revision> <id>34512549</id> <timestamp>2006-01-09T17:52:53Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Sceptre</username> <id>274040</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>dblredir</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Chronic fatigue syndrome]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Chronic Fatigue Syndrome/Long term course</title> <id>6031</id> <revision> <id>34514280</id> <timestamp>2006-01-09T18:11:26Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Sceptre</username> <id>274040</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>dblredir</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Chronic fatigue syndrome]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Chronic Fatigue Syndrome/Day to day patterns</title> <id>6032</id> <revision> <id>34512396</id> <timestamp>2006-01-09T17:51:24Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Sceptre</username> <id>274040</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>dblredir</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Chronic fatigue syndrome]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Chronic Fatigue Syndrome/Demographics</title> <id>6033</id> <revision> <id>34512403</id> <timestamp>2006-01-09T17:51:29Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Sceptre</username> <id>274040</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>dblredir</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Chronic fatigue syndrome]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Cahn Ingold Prelog priority rules</title> <id>6034</id> <revision> <id>40497409</id> <timestamp>2006-02-21T00:11:10Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Benjah-bmm27</username> <id>126395</id> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">For compounds found in [[organic chemistry]], the '''Cahn Ingold Prelog priority rules''' are used to determine the orientation of a molecule for purposes of assigning [[stereochemistry]] at a stereocenter and for assigning the name of [[isomer]]s of molecules possessing [[double bond]]s such as [[alkene]]s. Simply put, any [[atom]] attached to a [[stereocenter]] or alkene bond carbon (or similar double bond system) has a Cahn-Ingold-Prelog priority corresponding to its [[atomic number]]&amp;mdash;the higher the atomic number, the higher the priority. If two atoms attached to the stereocenter have the same atomic number, then the atomic number of the atoms bonded to these atoms is compared. The atom of highest atomic number on the first bonded atom is compared to the atom of highest atomic number on the second bonded atom, then the atoms of second highest atomic number are compared, and so on. If the atoms directly bonded to the stereocenter are bonded to exactly the same set of atoms, then the two atoms of highest priority are compared in the same fashion. If these are equivalent the process would continue on the atoms of highest atomic number that are attached to the last evaluated piece. If these prove to be the same through the end of the molecule, the bonds to the atoms of second highest value would be compared next (starting these comparisons at the last point of difference, not the first.) Any double or [[triple bond]]s are counted as if the atom was attached to two or three, respectively, of the atom it is bonded to. If the atom contains specific isotopes of atoms then these are compared only if everything else is the same. Examples: :-CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;OH outranks -C(CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;)&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt; :-CH(CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;)&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; outranks -CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;OH :-HC=O outranks -CH(CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;)OH :-CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt; outranks -CH(CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;)D, although -CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/su
) - 1976 '''French Open champion'''; 1975, 1977(Dec) Australian Open semi-finalist, 1978 quarter-finalist; 1977 Wimbledon quarter-finalist, 1976 quarter-finalist * [[Anca Barna]] (Germany) * [[Peaches Bartlowicz]] (USA) * [[Marion Bartoli]] (France) * [[Carling Bassett-Seguso]] (Canada) - 1984 U.S. Open semi-finalist; 1983 Australian Open quarter-finalist; 1984 and 1986 French Open quarter-finalist; 1977 Wimbledon semi-finalist, 1976 quarter-finalist * [[Chantal Beetham]] (Canada) * [[Petra Begerow]] (Germany) * [[Severine Beltrame]] (France) * [[Iveta Benešová]] (Czech Republic) * [[Yulia Beygelzimer]] (Ukraine) * [[Eva Birnerová]] (Czech Republic) * [[Cara Black]] (Zimbabwe) * [[Alyona Bondarenko]] (Ukraine) * [[Lisa Bonder-Kreiss]] (USA) * [[Elena Bovina]] (Russia) - 2002 U.S. Open quarter-finalist * [[Kristina Brandi]] (Puerto Rico) * '''[[Louise Brough]]''' (USA) * '''[[Maria Bueno]]''' (Brazil) - 1965 Australian Championships finalist, 1964 French Championships finalist, 1958, 1960, 1965 and 1966 semi-finalist; 1959-60 and 1964 '''Wimbledon Championships champion''', 1965-66 finalist; 1959, 1963, 1964 and 1966 '''U.S. Championships champion''', 1960 finalist, 1962, 1965 and 1968 semi-finalist. * [[Bettina Bunge]] (Germany) ==C== * [[Els Callens]] (Belgium) * [[Maria Elena Camerin]] (Italy) * '''[[Jennifer Capriati]]''' (USA) - 2001 and 2002 '''Australian Open champion'''; 2001 '''French Open champion'''; ranked '''World No. 1''' for 17 weeks * [[Mary Carillo]] (USA) * [[Rosie Casals]] (USA) - 1969 Australian Open quarter-finalist; 1969-70 French Open quarter-finalist; 1969-70 and 1972 Wimbledon semi-finalist, 1973, 1976 and 1977 quarter-finalist; 1970-71 U.S. Open finalist, 1969 semi-finalist, 1972-73-74 and 1976 quarter-finalist * [[Myriam Casanova]] (Switzerland) * [[Catalina Castano]] (Columbia) * [[Ludmila Cervanova]] (Slovakia) * [[Anna Chakvetadze]] (Russia) * '''[[Dorothea Douglass Chambers|Dorothea Chambers]]''' (USA) * [[Denisa Chládková]] (Czech Republic) * '''[[Kim Clijsters]]''' (Belgium) - 2005 '''U.S. Open champion'''; 2004 Australian Open finalist, 2003 and 2006 semi-finalist; 2001 and 2003 French Open finalist; 2003 Wimbledon semi-finalist; 2002 and 2003 '''WTA Tour Championships champion'''; 2001 '''Fed Cup champion'''; ranked '''World No. 1''' for 13 weeks (current #1) * [[Amanda Coetzer]] (South Africa) - 1996 and 1997 Australian Open semi-finalist; 1997 French Open semi-finalist; 1994, 1996 and 1998 U.S. Open quarter-finalist * [[Stephanie Cohen-Aloro]] (France) * '''[[Maureen Connolly]]''' (USA) * '''[[Charlotte Cooper (tennis player)|Charlotte Cooper]]''' (England) * '''[[Margaret Smith Court]]''' (Australia) - 1960-61-62-63-64-65-66, 69-70-71 and 1973 '''Australian Open champion''', 1968 finalist; 1962, 1964, 1969, 1970 and 1973 '''French Open champion''', 1965 finalist; 1963, 65, 70 '''Wimbledon champion''', 1964 and 1971 finalist; 1962, 1965, 1968-69-70, 73 '''U.S. Open champion''' * [[Jill Craybas]] (USA) * [[Isabel Cueto]] (Germany) * [[Melinda Czink]] (Hungary) ==D-E== * [[Eleni Daniilidou]] (Greece) * [[Kimiko Date]] (Japan) - 1994 Australian Open semi-finalist; 1995 French Open semi-finalist; 1996 Wimbledon semi-finalist; 1993 and 1994 U.S. Open quarter-finalist * '''[[Lindsay Davenport]]''' (USA) - 1998 '''U.S. Open champion'''; 1999 '''Wimbledon champion'''; 2000 '''Australian Open champion'''; ranked '''World No. 1''' for 84 weeks * [[Nathalie Dechy]] (France) - 2005 Australian Open semi-finalist * [[Elena Dementieva]] (Russia) - 2004 French Open finalist; 2004 U.S. Open finalist; 2004 and 2005 '''Fed Cup champion''' * [[Caroline Dhenin]] (France) * [[Mariana Diaz-Oliva]] (Argentina) - * '''[[Lottie Dod]]''' (England) * [[Jelena Dokic]] (Australia) - 2000 Wimbledon semi-finalist; 2002 French Open quarter-finalist * [[Marta Domachowska]] (Poland) * [[Vera Douchevina]] (Russia) * '''[[Dorothea Douglass]]''' (England) * [[Stéphanie Dubois]] (Canada) * [[Gisela Dulko]] (Argentina) * [[Francoise Durr]] (France) - 1967 '''French Open champion''' * [[Jo Durie]] (Britain) - 1983 French Open semi-finalist; 1983 U.S. Open semi-finalist; 1983 Australian Open quarter-finalist; 1984 Wimbledon quarter-finalist * [[Silvia Farina Elia]] (Italy) - 2003 Wimbledon quarter-finalist * '''[[Chris Evert]]''' (USA) - 1974-75, 1979, 1980, 1983, 1985 and 1986 '''French Open champion''', 1973 and 1984 finalist; 1974, 1976 and 1981 '''Wimbledon champion''', 1973, 1978-79, 1980, 1982, 1984 and 1985 finalist; 1975-76-77-78, 1980 and 1982 '''U.S. Open champion''', 1979, 1983 and 1984 finalist; 1982 and 1984 '''Australian Open champion''', 1974, 1981, 1985 and 1988 finalist; 1977-82, 1986-87 and 1989 '''Fed Cup champion'''; ranked '''World No. 1''' for 262 weeks ==F-G== * [[Silvia Farina Elia]] (Italy) * [[Yuliana Fedak]] (Ukraine) * [[Gigi Fernandez]] (Puerto Rico) - 1994 Wimbledon semi-finalist; 1994 U.S. Open quarter-finalist * [[Mary Joe Fernandez]] (USA) - 1990 and 1992 Australian Open finalist; 1993 French Open finalist; 1991 Wimbledon semi-finalist; 1990 and 1992 U.S. Open semi-finalist * [[Stephanie Foretz]] (France) * [[Amy Frazier]] (USA) - 1992 Australian Open quarter-finalist; 1995 Australian Open quarter-finalist * [[Emmanuelle Gagliardi]] (Switzerland) * [[Jarmila Gajdošová]] (Slovakia) * [[Tathiana Garbin]] (Italy) * [[Zina Garrison]] (USA) - 1990 Wimbledon finalist; 1983 Australian Open semi-finalist; 1988 and 1989 U.S. Open semi-finalist * '''[[Althea Gibson]]''' (USA) - 1956 '''French Championships champion'''; 1957 and 1958 '''Wimbledon Championships champion'''; 1957 and 1958 '''United States Championships champion''', 1956 finalist; 1957 Australian Championships finalist * [[Laura Arraya Gildemeister]] (Peru) * [[Sabrina Goles]] (Croatia) * [[Tatiana Golovin]] (France) * '''[[Evonne Goolagong]]''' (Australia) - 1971 '''French Open champion''', 1972 finalist; 1971 and 1980 '''Wimbledon champion''', 1972, 1975 and 1976 finalist; 1973, 1974, 1975 and 1976 U.S. Open finalist * [[Rita Grande]] (Italy) * [[Laura Granville]] (USA) * '''[[Steffi Graf]]''' (Germany) - 1988, 1989, 1990 and 1994 '''Australian Open champion'''; 1987, 1988, 1993, 1995, 1996 and 1999 '''French Open champion'''; 1988, 1989, 1991, 1992, 1993, 1995 and 1996 '''Wimbledon champion'''; 1988, 1989, 1993, 1995 and 1996 '''U.S. Open champion'''; ranked '''World No. 1''' for 377 weeks * [[Anna-Lena Groenefeld]] (Germany) ==H-J== * [[Julie Halard-Decugis]] (France) - 1993 and 2000 Australian Open quarter-finalist; 1994 French Open quarter-finalist * [[Sylvia Hanika]] (Germany) - 1981 French Open finalist; 1983 Australian Open quarter-finalist; 1981, 1983 and 1984 U.S. Open quarter-finalist * [[Daniela Hantuchová]] (Slovakia) - 2003 Australian Open quarter-finalist; 2002 Wimbledon quarter-finalist; 2002 U.S. Open quarter-finalist * [[Ashley Harkleroad]] (USA) * [[Julie Heldman]] (USA) * '''[[Justine Henin-Hardenne]]''' (Belgium) - 2003 and 2005 '''French Open champion'''; 2004 '''Australian Open champion''', 2006 finalist; 2003 '''U.S. Open champion'''; 2001 Wimbledon finalist; ranked '''World No. 1''' for 45 weeks * '''[[Blanche Bingley Hillyard|Blanche Hillyard]]''' (England) - 1886, 1890, 1894, 1897, 1899 and 1900 '''Wimbledon champion''' * '''[[Martina Hingis]]''' (Switzerland) - 1997, 1998 and 1999 '''Australian Open champion''', 2000, 2001, 2002 finalist; 1997 '''Wimbledon champion'''; 1997 '''U.S. Open champion''', 1998 and 1999 finalist; 1997 and 1999 French Open finalist; ranked '''World No. 1''' for 209 weeks * [[Rika Hiraki]] (Japan) * [[Dianne Hollands]] (New Zealand) * [[Kathy Horvath]] (USA) * [[Anke Huber]] (Germany) - 1996 Australian Open finalist; 1993 French Open semi-finalist; 1999 and 2000 U.S. Open quarter-finalist * [[Liezel Huber]] (South Africa) * [[Janette Husárová]] (Slovakia) * [[Etsuko Inoue]] (Japan) * [[Marissa Irvin]] (USA) * [[Ana Ivanovic]] (Serbia) - 2005 French Open quarter-finalist * [[Andrea Jaeger]] (USA) - 1981 French Open finalist; 1982 Wimbledon finalist; 1982 Australian Open semi-finalist; 1982 U.S. Open semi-finalist * [[Jelena Jankovic]] (Serbia) * [[Mima Jausovec|Mima Jausovec]] (Slovenia) - '''French Open champion'''; 1981 Wimbledon quarter-finalist * [[Alina Jidkova]] (Russia) * '''[[Ann Haydon-Jones]]''' (Britain) - 1961 and 1966 '''French Open champion'''; 1969 '''Wimbledon champion''' * [[Mervana Jugic-Salkic]] (Bosnia) ==K-L== * [[Aniko Kapros]] (Hungary) * [[Sesil Karatantcheva]] (Bulgaria) - 2005 French Open quarter-finalist * [[Lilian Kelaidis-Drescher]] (Switzerland) * '''[[Billie Jean King]]''' (USA) * [[Claudia Kohde-Kilsch]] (Germany) * [[Maria Kirilenko]] (Russia) * [[Sandra Kleinová]] (Czech Republic) * [[Jelena Kostanic]] (Croatia) * [[Klára Koukalová]] (Czech Republic) * [[Anna Kournikova]] (Russia) - 1997 Wimbledon semi-finalist; 2001 Australian Open quarter-finalist * [[Michaella Krajicek]] (Netherlands) * [[Lina Krasnoroutskaya]] (Russia) * [[Anne Kremer]] (Luxembourg) * [[Ľubomíra Kurhajcová]] (Slovakia) * [[Svetlana Kuznetsova]] (Russia) - 2004 '''U.S. Open champion'''; 2005 Australian Open quarter-finalist; 2003 and 2005 Wimbledon quarter-finalist * [[ Jenna Langhorst]] (USA) up and comer who will rock the tennis world. AMAZING * [[Janet Lee]] (Taiwan) * [[Lindsay Lee-Waters]] (USA) * '''[[Suzanne Lenglen]]''' (France) * [[Li Na]] (China) * [[Li Ting (tennis player)|Li Ting]] (China) * [[Elena Likhovtseva]] (Russia) - 2005 French Open semi-finalist; 2000 Australian Open quarter-finalist; 2002 Wimbledon quarter-finalist * [[Catarina Lindqvist]] (Sweden) - 1989 Wimbledon semi-finalist; 1985 and 1989 Australian Open quarter-finalist * [[Evgenia Linetskaya]] (Russia) * [[Anita Lizana]] (Chile) - 1937 '''U.S. Championships champion''' * [[Nuria Llagostera Vives]] (Spain) * [[Emilie Loit]] (France) ==M== * [[Gretchen Magers]] (USA) - 1982 U.S. Open quarter-finalist; 1983 French Open quarter-finalist; 1989 Wimbledon quarter-fina
[[aliphatic]] hydrocarbons form rings and lose hydrogen to become aromatic hydrocarbons. The aromatic products of the reaction are then separated from the reaction mixture by [[extraction]] with any one of a number of [[solvent]]s, including [[diethylene glycol]] or [[sulfolane]], and benzene is then separated from the other aromatics by distillation. === Toluene hydrodealkylation === Toluene hydrodealkylation converts [[toluene]] to benzene. In this process, toluene is mixed with hydrogen, then passed over a [[chromium]], [[molybdenum]], or [[platinum]] [[oxide]] catalyst at 500-600°C and 40-60 atm pressure. Sometimes, higher temperatures are used instead of a catalyst. Under these conditions, toluene undergoes dealkylation according to the [[chemical equation]]: :[[toluene|C&lt;sub&gt;6&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;5&lt;/sub&gt;CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;]] + [[hydrogen|H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;]] → C&lt;sub&gt;6&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;6&lt;/sub&gt; + [[methane|CH&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;]] Typical reaction yields exceed 95%. Sometimes, [[xylene]] and heavier aromatics are used in place of toluene, with similar efficiency. === Steam cracking === [[Steam cracking]] is the process used to produce [[ethylene]] and other [[olefin]]s from aliphatic hydrocarbons. Depending on the feedstock used to produce the olefins, steam cracking can produce a benzene-rich liquid byproduct called ''[[pyrolysis gasoline]]''. Pyrolysis gasoline can be blended with other hydrocarbons as a gasoline additive, or distilled to separate it into its components, including benzene. == Uses == In the 19th and early-20th centuries, benzene was used as an aftershave because of its pleasant smell. Prior to the [[1920s]], benzene was frequently used as an industrial solvent, especially for degreasing metal. As its toxicity became obvious, other solvents replaced benzene in applications that directly exposed the user to benzene. Benzene was also used to initially decaffeinate coffee by German importer Lugwig Roselius in 1903. This lead to the production of Sanka, -ka for kaffein, but later discontinued the use of benzene. As a gasoline additive, benzene increases the [[octane rating]] and reduces [[Engine knocking|knocking]]. As a result, gasoline often contained several percent benzene before the [[1950s]], when [[tetraethyl lead]] replaced it as the most widely-used antiknock additive. However, with the global phaseout of leaded gasoline, benzene has made a comeback as a gasoline additive in some nations. In the [[United States]], concern over its negative health effects and the possibility of benzene's entering the [[groundwater]] have led to stringent regulation of gasoline's benzene content, with values around 1% typical. European gasoline specifications now contain the same 1% limit on benzene content. By far the largest use of benzene is as an intermediate to make other chemicals. The most widely-produced derivatives of benzene are [[styrene]], which is used to make polymers and plastics, [[phenol]] for resins and adhesives (via [[cumene]]), and [[cyclohexane]], which is used in Nylon manufacture. Smaller amounts of benzene are used to make some types of rubbers, lubricants, dyes, detergents, drugs, explosives and pesticides. In laboratory research, [[toluene]] is now often substituted for benzene because of health concerns. == Reactions of benzene == [[Image:OChem-Mech-ElectrophilicAromaticSubstitution-General.png|right|450px|Electrophilic aromatic substitution of benzene]] *[[Electrophilic aromatic substitution]] Electrophilic aromatic substitution is a general method of substituting aromatic rings such as benzene. Benzene is [[nucleophile|nucleophilic]] enough, so that, in the presence of strong [[electrophile]]s such as [[acyl]]ium ions or alkyl [[carbocation]]s, reaction will occur to ultimately give substituted benzenes. [[Image:Friedel-Crafts acylation of benzene by ethanol chloride.png|right|300px|Friedel-Crafts acylation of benzene by acetyl chloride]] The [[Friedel-Crafts acylation]] is a specific example of electrophilic aromatic substitution. The reaction is the [[acylation]] of an aromatic ring (such as benzene) with an [[acyl chloride]] using a strong [[Lewis acid]] [[catalyst]]. [[Image:Friedel-craft-alk.png|right|400px|Friedel-Crafts alkylation of benzene with methyl chloride]] Like the Friedel-Crafts acylation, the [[Friedel-Crafts alkylation]] involves the [[alkylation]] of an aromatic ring (such as benzene) and an [[alkyl halide]] using a strong Lewis acid catalyst. The other main reaction types are [[aromatic nitration]] and [[aromatic sulfonation]]. * [[Nucleophilic aromatic substitution]]s take place between electrophilic substituted benzene compounds and nucleophiles * [[Hydrogenation]] of benzene and derivatives is possible with special catalysts at high hydrogen pressure. == [[Health effects]] == Breathing very high levels of benzene can result in [[death]], while high levels can cause drowsiness, dizziness, rapid heart rate, [[headache]]s, tremors, confusion, and unconsciousness. Eating or drinking foods containing high levels of benzene can cause vomiting, irritation of the [[stomach]], dizziness, sleepiness, convulsions, rapid heart rate, and death. The major effect of benzene from [[chronic]] (long-term) exposure is to the [[blood]]. Benzene damages the [[bone marrow]] and can cause a decrease in red blood cells, leading to [[anemia]]. It can also cause excessive bleeding and depress the [[immune system]], increasing the chance of [[infection]]. Some women who breathed high levels of benzene for many months had irregular [[menstruation|menstrual]] periods and a decrease in the size of their [[ovaries]]. It is not known whether benzene exposure affects the developing [[fetus]] in pregnant women or fertility in men. Animal studies have shown low birth weights, delayed bone formation, and bone marrow damage when pregnant animals breathed benzene. The [[US Department of Health and Human Services]] (DHHS) classifies benzene as a human [[carcinogen]]. Long-term exposure to high levels of benzene in the air can cause [[leukemia]], a potentially fatal cancer of the blood-forming organs. In particular, [[Acute Myeloid Leukemia]] (AML) may be caused by benzene. Several tests can show if you have been exposed to benzene. There is a test for measuring benzene in the breath; this test must be done shortly after exposure. Benzene can also be measured in the blood; however, since benzene disappears rapidly from the blood, measurements are accurate only for recent exposures. In the body, benzene is [[Metabolism|metabolized]]. Certain metabolites can be measured in the urine. However, this test must be done shortly after exposure and is not a reliable indicator of how much benzene you have been exposed to, since the same metabolites may be present in urine from other sources. The US [[Environmental Protection Agency]] has set the maximum permissible level of benzene in drinking water at 0.005 milligrams per liter (0.005 mg/L). The EPA requires that spills or accidental releases into the environment of 10 pounds (4.5 kg) or more of benzene be reported to the EPA. The US [[Occupational Safety and Health Administration]] (OSHA) has set a permissible exposure limit of 1 part of benzene per million parts of air (1 ppm) in the workplace during an 8-hour workday, 40-hour workweek. == Benzene exposure == Workers in various industries that make or use benzene may be at risk for being exposed to high levels of this carcinogenic chemical. Industries that involve the use of benzene include the rubber industry, oil refineries, chemical plants, shoe manufacturers, and gasoline related industries. In 1987, OSHA estimated that about 237,000 workers in the United States were potentially exposed to benzene, and it is not known if this number has substantially changed since then. Water and [[soil contamination]] are important pathways of concern for transmission of benzene contact. In the U.S. alone there are approximately 100,000 different sites which have benzene soil or groundwater contamination. In 2005, the water supply to the city of Harbin in China with a population of almost nine million people, was cut off because of a [[Jilin chemical plant explosions 2005|major benzene exposure]]. Benzene leaked into the Songhua River, which supplies drinking water to the city, after an explosion at a China National Petroleum Corporation (CNPC) factory in the city of Jilin on [[13 November]]. In [[February]], [[2006]], a former [[chemist]] at [[Cadbury Schweppes]] revealed that benzene may be created as part of a chemical reaction during production of [[soft drink]]s, particularly those having an [[orange (fruit)|orange]] flavor. Full scale investigations immediately started at the [[Food and Drug Administration]] ([[USA]]), [[Food Standards Agency]] ([[UK]]), and in [[Germany]] to reveal exactly which amounts of benzene, if any, were present, with several other organizations awaiting their findings. [http://www.newsinferno.com/archives/864] [http://www.foodproductiondaily-usa.com/news/ng.asp?n=65933-benzene-soft-drinks-food-safety] The key ingredients leading to the formation of benzene during production would according to his claims be [[ascorbic acid]] (vitamin C) and [[sodium benzoate]] (E211). Of equal concern, the chemist told media the soda industry have known of this problem in 15 years, and supports himself with document copies explaining how benzene is a possible byproduct of these ingredients that exist in over a thousand soft drinks. More than extremely small trace amounts found after investigation would be of major concern, as benzene is a very aggressive [[carcinogen]] even in small amounts, and may among other things lead to [[leukemia]]. == References == * [[Archibald Scott Couper]], ''On a New Chemical Theory'', Philosophical Magazine 16, 104-116 (1858) * Josef Loschmidt, Chemische Studien I,
&amp;sup2;. The island of Cuba lies to the northwest across the [[Windward Passage]]; to the southwest lies [[Jamaica]], separated by the [[Jamaica Channel]]. [[Puerto Rico]] lies east of Hispaniola across the [[Mona Passage]]. The [[Bahamas]] and [[Turks and Caicos Islands]] lie to the north. Cuba, Hispaniola, Jamaica, and Puerto Rico are collectively known as the [[Greater Antilles]]. The Greater Antilles are made up of [[continent]]al rock, as distinct from the [[Lesser Antilles]], which are mostly young [[volcano|volcanic]] or coral islands. The Island has five major mountain ranges: The Central Range, known in the Dominican Republic as the ''Cordillera Central'', span the central part of the island, extending from the south coast of the Dominican Republic into northwestern Haiti, where they are known as the ''Massif du Nord''. This mountain range boasts the highest peak in the Antilles, [[Pico Duarte]] (3,087 meters above [[sea level]]). The ''Cordillera Septentrional'' runs parallel to the Central Range across the northern end of the Dominican Republic, extending into the [[Atlantic Ocean]] as the [[Samaná]] Peninsula. The highest point in the ''Cordillera Septentrional'' is [[Pico Diego de Ocampo]]. The ''Cordillera Central'' and ''Cordillera Septentrional'' are separated by the lowlands of the [[Cibao Valley]] and the Atlantic coastal plains, which extend westward into Haiti as the ''Plaine du Nord'' (Northern Plain). The lowest of the ranges is the ''Cordillera Oriental'', in the eastern part of the country. The ''Sierra de Neiba'' rises in the southwest of the Dominican Republic, and continues northwest into Haiti, parallel to the ''Cordillera Central'', as the ''Montagnes Noires'', ''Chaîne des Matheux'' and the ''Montagnes du Trou d'Eau''. ''The Plateau Central'' lies between the ''Massif du Nord'' and the ''Montagnes Noires'', and the ''Plaine de l'Artibonite'' lies between the ''Montagnes Noires'' and the ''Chaîne des Matheux'', opening westward toward the [[Gulf of Gonâves]]. The southern range begins in the southwesternmost Dominican Republic as the Sierra de Baoruco, and extends west into Haiti as the Massif de la Selle and the Massif de la Hotte, which form the mountainous spine of Haiti's southern peninsula. [[Morne de la Selle]] is the highest peak in the southern range and is the highest point in Haiti, at 2,715 meters above sea level. A depression runs parallel to the southern range, between the southern range and the ''Chaîne des Matheux''-''Sierra de Neiba''. It is known as the ''Plaine du Cul-de-Sac'' in Haiti, and Haiti's capital [[Port-au-Prince]] lies at its western end. The depression is home to a chain of salty lakes, including the [[Saumatre Lagoon]] in Haiti and [[Lake Enriquillo]] in the Dominican Republic. ==Ecology== The climate of Hispaniola is generally [[humid]] and [[tropical]]. The island has four distinct [[ecoregion]]s. The [[Hispaniolan moist forests]] ecoregion covers approximately 50% of the island, especially the northern and eastern portions, predominantly in the lowlands but extending up to 2100 meters elevation. The [[Hispaniolan dry forests]] ecoregion occupies approximately 20% of the island, lying in the [[rain shadow]] of the mountains in the southern and western portion of the island and in the [[Cibao]] valley in the center-north of the island. The [[Hispaniolan pine forests]] occupy the mountainous 15% of the island, above 850 meters elevation. The [[Enriquillo wetlands]] are a [[flooded grasslands and savannas]] ecoregion that surround a chain of lakes and lagoons that includes [[Lake Enriquillo]], [[Rincón Lagoon]], and [[Lake Caballero]] in the Dominican Republic and [[Saumatre Lagoon]] and [[Trou Cayman]] in Haiti. ==External links== *[http://maps.google.com/maps?ll=18.907471,-71.191406&amp;spn=5.218506,8.107910&amp;t=k&amp;hl=en Google maps] [[Category:Caribbean islands]] [[Category:Geography of the Dominican Republic]] [[Category:Geography of Haiti]] [[zh-min-nan:Sió-se-pan-gâ]] [[ca:Hispaniola]] [[da:Hispaniola]] [[de:Hispaniola]] [[et:Haiti saar]] [[es:La Española]] [[eo:Hispaniolo]] [[fr:Hispaniola]] [[ga:An Easpáinneoil]] [[gl:Hispaniola]] [[ko:히스파니올라 섬]] [[hr:Hispaniola]] [[id:Hispaniola]] [[is:Hispaníóla]] [[it:Santo Domingo (isola)]] [[he:אספניולה]] [[lt:Haitis (sala)]] [[nl:Hispaniola]] [[ja:イスパニョーラ島]] [[no:Hispaniola]] [[pl:Haiti (wyspa)]] [[pt:Hispaniola]] [[sk:Haiti (ostrov)]] [[sl:Hispaniola]] [[fi:Hispaniola]] [[sv:Hispaniola]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Halle Berry</title> <id>13717</id> <revision> <id>41956099</id> <timestamp>2006-03-02T21:42:05Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Yamla</username> <id>128551</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/Bigblog|Bigblog]] ([[User talk:Bigblog|talk]]) to last version by Ben King</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:HBerry_Vogue_cover.jpg|200px|thumb|Halle Berry on the cover of ''[[Vogue (magazine)|Vogue]]'' (Dec 2002).]] '''Halle Maria Berry''' (born [[August 14]], [[1966]]) is an [[Academy Award]]-winning [[Actor|actress]] and model. ==Biography== ===Early life and career=== Halle Berry was named after Halle's Department Store, a local landmark in her birthplace of [[Cleveland, Ohio]]. She is the daughter of Judith Ann Hawkins, a caucasian of [[England|English]] ancestry, and Jerome J. Berry, who is [[African-American]]. Berry's maternal grandmother, Nellie Dicken, was born in Sawley, [[Derbyshire]], [[England]], while her maternal grandfather, Earl Ellsworth Hawkins, was born in [[Ohio]]. Berry's parents divorced when she was 4 years old and she subsequently was raised by her mother, a psychiatric-ward nurse. She also has an older sister, Heidi. Berry was a popular student at [[Bedford, Ohio|Bedford]] High School and was a [[cheerleader]], [[honor society]] member, editor of the school [[newspaper]], class president and [[prom|prom queen]]. She worked in the children's department at Higbee's Department Store. Her personality, as described by a co-worker, was expressed in these terms...&quot;I can hardly believe how sweet and nice she had been to everyone. People who weren't half as beautiful as she did not display the kind of inner beauty she exhibited.&quot; She subsequently attended [[Cuyahoga Community College]]. Before becoming an actress, she entered several [[beauty contest]]s, including Miss Ohio USA, Miss Teen All American, [[Miss USA]] (first runner-up in [[1986]]) and [[Miss World]]. ===Hollywood career=== In the late 1980s, she went to [[Chicago, Illinois|Chicago]] to pursue a [[model (person)|modeling]] career as well as acting. One of her first acting projects was a [[television series]] for local [[cable television|cable]] by Gordon Lake Productions called &quot;Chicago Force.&quot; Berry auditioned for a role in an updated ''[[Charlie's Angels]]'' television series by producer [[Aaron Spelling]]. At the time, Spelling wanted one of the &quot;Angels&quot; to be an [[African American]] woman. She did not get the role (because the project never materialized) but she impressed Spelling with her skills, who encouraged her to continue perfecting her craft. In [[1989]], Berry landed the role of brainy Emily Franklin in the short-lived ABC television series ''[[Living Dolls]]'' (which was a spin-off of ''[[Who's the Boss?]]''). Her breakthrough [[feature film]] role was in [[Spike Lee]]'s ''[[Jungle Fever]]'' where she played a [[drug addict]] named Vivian. Her first co-starring role was in the film ''[[Strictly Business]]''. Another one of her early roles was in a supporting capacity in the ''[[The Flintstones (movie)|Flintstones]]'' movie where she played &quot;Sharon Stone&quot; (a part rumored to have been intended for Sharon Stone). Berry would co-star alongside Stone in [[Catwoman]]. The year before, Berry really caught the public's attention with her portrayal as a female slave in the TV adaption of ''[[Queen: The Story of an American Family]]''. Berry is also known by most comic book fans for her portrayal of Storm in the movie adaptation of the successful comic book ''[[X-Men (film)|X-Men]]'' (2000) and its successful sequel ''[[X2 (film)|X2: X-Men United]]'' (2003). Berry will reprise her role again in the third installment ''[[X-Men 3 (film)|X-Men 3]]'' scheduled for a May 2006 release. In late 2003 Berry starred in the thriller ''[[Gothika]]'', which was the first film that she &quot;carried,&quot; i.e., her role was the most important one in the film. Known for her beauty, Halle as served many years as the face of Revlon cosmetics and was recently named the new face of Versace. ===Personal life=== Berry has been [[marriage|married]] twice. Her first marriage in [[1992]] to [[baseball]] player [[David Justice]] ended in a [[1996]] [[divorce]] due to [[adultery|infidelity]]. Her second marriage in [[2001]] to [[musician]] [[Eric Benét]] has resulted in a [[2004]] [[Legal separation|separation]] (and [[2005]] [[divorce]]) reportedly due to Benét's infidelity. She has said that she will never marry again. After her divorce, she had a brief romantic relationship with up-and-coming [[actor]] [[Rey-Phillip Santos]]. Although she does not have any children herself, she is close to her step-daughter, India, from her marriage to Benét. Berry has also recently dated actor [[Michael Ealy]], her costar in ''[[Their Eyes Were Watching God]]''. Her current beau is [[Canadian]] [[Model (person)|model]] Gabriel Aubry, whom she met while shooting an ad for [[Versace]] in November 2005. ==Film Awards== [[Image:HalleBerryReceivesAcademyAward.jpg|right|thumb|150px|Berry winning [[Academy Award for Best Actress|Best Actress]] at the [[74th Academy Awards]].]] *Berry won the best actress [[Academy_award|Oscar]] in [[2002 in film|2002]] for ''[[Monster's Ball]]'', becoming the first [[African American]] woman to win thi
* {{placeopedia|id=9086|title=Brasília}} {{Capitals of Brazil}} [[Category:Brasília| ]] [[Category:Cities in Brazil]] [[Category:Capitals in South America]] [[Category:Planned cities]] [[Category:World Heritage Sites in Brazil]] [[ca:Brasília]] [[da:Brasília]] [[de:Brasília]] [[es:Brasilia]] [[eo:Braziljo]] [[eu:Brasilia]] [[fr:Brasilia]] [[ga:Brasília]] [[gl:Brasilia]] [[ko:브라질리아]] [[io:Brasilia]] [[id:Brasília]] [[it:Brasília]] [[he:ברזיליה]] [[la:Urbs Brasilia]] [[lt:Brazilija (miestas)]] [[nl:Brasilia]] [[ja:ブラジリア]] [[no:Brasília]] [[nn:Brasília]] [[pl:Brasília]] [[pt:Brasília]] [[ro:Brasilia]] [[ru:Бразилиа]] [[sk:Brazília (mesto)]] [[sl:Brasilia]] [[fi:Brasília]] [[sv:Brasília]] [[zh:巴西利亚]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Blue Streak missile</title> <id>4754</id> <revision> <id>38509186</id> <timestamp>2006-02-06T20:51:41Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>GCarty</username> <id>10379</id> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Blue Streak missile''' was a [[United Kingdom|British]] [[ballistic missile]] development programme of the mid to late-[[1950s]], the initial design being based on licensed [[United States|U.S.]] technology. ''[[Black Knight (rocket)|Black Knight]]'' was a vehicle intended to test the design for a re-entry head by firing it to altitudes of several hundreds of kilometers. ==Background== Post-[[World War II|war]] Britain's [[nuclear weapon]]s armament was initially based on free-fall bombs delivered by the [[V bomber]] force. It soon became clear that if Britain wanted to have a credible threat a ballistic missile would be essential. There was a political need for an independent deterrent, so Britain could remain one of the major post-war powers. The use of any American missile would have appeared to hand control to the United States. In April [[1954]] the Americans proposed a joint development programme for ballistic missiles. The United States would develop an [[ICBM]] of 5000 nautical mile (9,300 km) range, while the United Kingdom with United States support would develop a [[MRBM]] of 2000 nautical mile (3,700 km) range. The proposal was accepted as part of the [[Wilson-Sandys Agreement]] of August 1954 which provided for collaboration, exchange of information and mutual planning of development programs. The decision to develop was influenced by what could be learnt about missile design and development in the US. Initial requirements for the booster were made by the [[Royal Aircraft Establishment]] at [[Farnborough, Hampshire|Farnborough]] with input on the rocket engine design from the [[Rocket Propulsion Establishment]] at [[Westcott]]. [[De Havilland]] won the contract to build the missile, and it was to be powered by an uprated liquid-fuelled [[Rocketdyne]] S3D engine, developed by [[Rolls-Royce plc|Rolls-Royce]], called [[RZ2]]. Subcontractors included the [[Sperry Gyroscope Company]] who produced the guidance system whilst the warhead itself was designed by the [[Atomic Weapons Research Establishment]] at [[Aldermaston]]. However, doubts arose as the cost escalated from the first tentative figure of £50m submitted to the [[HM Treasury|Treasury]] in early [[1955]], to £300m in late [[1959]]. The programme was crawling along when compared with the speed of development in the U.S. and the [[Soviet Union]]. ==Cancellation== Eventually the project was cancelled due to its apparent lack of credibility as a deterrent. Some considered the cancellation of Blue Streak to be not only a blow to British military-industrial efforts, but also to [[Commonwealth of Nations|Commonwealth]] ally [[Australia]], which had its own vested interest in the project. The missiles used very cold liquid propellant that could only be kept in the missile for a short length of time before icing became a problem. To fuel the rocket took 15 minutes, meaning it was incapable of being used as a rapid response to an attack. It had been intended to site the missiles in underground [[Missile silo|silos]], capable of withstanding a one megaton blast at a distance of half a mile (800 m), silos originally a British innovation, later exported to the USA. These silos would have protected the missile from a first-strike attack while the missile was being fuelled. However, finding sites for these silos proved extremely difficult and [[RAF Spadeadam]] in [[Cumbria]] was the only site where construction was undertaken. The best sites for silo construction were the more stable rock strata in parts of southern England, but the construction of many large underground silos in the heart of the countryside would have carried an enormous political cost. As no site in Britain provided enough space for actual test firing, a test site was established at [[Woomera, South Australia]]. Whitehall opposition to the project grew, and it was eventually cancelled on the ostensible grounds that it would be too vulnerable to a first-strike attack. Around £84m had been spent. The British government transferred its hopes to the Anglo-American [[Skybolt missile]], before the project's cancellation by the USA as its ICBM program reached maturity. The British instead purchased the [[Polaris missile|Polaris]] system from the Americans, to be carried in British-built [[submarine]]s. ==Civilian Programme== After the cancellation as a military project, there was reluctance to cancel the project outright because of the huge investment that had taken place. Blue Streak would have become the first stage of a projected all British satellite launcher known as ''Black Prince'', the second stage was derived from the ''[[Black Knight (Rocket)|Black Knight]]'' test vehicle, and the orbital injection stage was a small hydrogen peroxide/kerosene motor. This launcher never progressed beyond the design stage. However, this too proved to be too expensive, and so the European Development Launcher Organisation - [[ELDO]] - was set up. This used Blue Streak as the first stage, but used [[France|French]] and [[Germany|German]] second and third stages. The Blue Streak first stage was successfully tested three times at the [[Woomera, South Australia|Woomera]] test range in Australia as part of the ELDO programme. Although a total of 8 launches were made of the multi-stage vehicle, the French and German components proved unreliable leading to the project's final cancellation, and the end of Blue Streak. The final launch was made at the French site of [[Korou]] in [[French Guiana]]. ==Blue Streak Today== Following the cancellation of the Blue Streak project one of the remaining rockets was preserved and this now forms one of the major centrepieces on display at the [[National Space Centre]] in [[Leicester]], [[England]]. ==See also== *[[List of missiles]] *[[Black Arrow]] British satellite launch vehicle *[[UK topics]] ==External links== *http://www.spaceuk.org/bstreak/bstreak.htm *http://www.skomer.u-net.com/projects/bluestreak.htm *http://www.geocities.com/CapeCanaveral/Launchpad/6133/bluestreak.html *[http://www.makingthemodernworld.org.uk/stories/defiant_modernism/05.ST.07/?scene=5 Blue Streak including newsreel footage] *[http://www.raf.mod.uk/spadeadam/bluestreak.html RAF Spadeadam] {{airlistbox}} [[Category:Medium-range ballistic missiles]] [[Category:Space launch vehicles]] [[Category:Cold War missiles of the United Kingdom]] [[id:Peluru kendali Blue Streak]] [[ms:Peluru berpandu Blue Streak]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Bakassi</title> <id>4756</id> <revision> <id>41346224</id> <timestamp>2006-02-26T19:18:51Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Cm205</username> <id>417592</id> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Bakassi''' is the [[peninsula]]r extension of the [[Africa]]n nation of Cameroon into the [[Atlantic Ocean]]. A part of it is currently [[administration|administered]] by [[Nigeria]] but is due to be transferred back to [[Cameroon]]ian [[sovereignty]] following a judgement by the [[International Court of Justice]]. ==Geography and economy== The peninsula lies roughly between latitudes 4°25' and 5°10'N and longitudes 8°20' and 9°08'E . It consists of a number of low-lying, largely mangrove covered islands covering an area of around 665km&amp;sup2;. The population of Bakassi is the subject of some dispute, but is generally put at between 150,000-300,000 people. Bakassi is situated at the extreme eastern end of the [[Gulf of Guinea]], where the warm east-flowing [[Guinea Current]] ([[Efik]]: ''Aya Efiat'') meets the cold north-flowing [[Benguela Current]] (Efik: ''Aya Ubenekang''). These two great ocean currents interact creating huge foamy [[breaker]]s which continually advance towards the shore, and building submarine shoals rich in [[fish]], [[shrimp]], and an wide variety of other marine life. This makes the Bakassi area a very fertile fishing ground, comparable only to [[Newfoundland]] in North America and [[Scandinavia]] in Western Europe. Most of the population make their living through fishing. The peninsula is commonly described as &quot;oil-rich&quot;, though in fact no commercially viable deposits of oil have yet been discovered. However, the area has aroused considerable interest from oil companies in the light of the discovery of rich reserves of high grade [[crude oil]] elsewhere in Nigeria. At least eight multinational oil companies have participated in the exploration of the peninsula and its offshore waters. ==History== Bakassi has it's origins from the Cameroon Oroko people of Ndian Division. The Cameroon Oroko people who are the Bakassi aborigenes are the original settlers of the Peninsula. In the mid-1880's when the Germans sailed along the River Akwayife, they met the Cameroon Oroko, whose relatives are in mainland Cameroon in the Ndian Division. When the Germans colonized Cameroon, Bakassi became a part of Cameroon, as well as C
Hill of Content, 1976 There is yet to be a definitive biography of Whitlam. Such a thing is not considered possible in Whitlam's lifetime. ==External links== {{wikiquote}} * [http://primeministers.naa.gov.au/meetpm.asp?pmId=21 Gough Whitlam] - Australia's Prime Ministers / National Archives of Australia * [http://www.whitlam.org/ The Whitlam Institute] * [http://www.naa.gov.au/the_collection/cabinet/1974_cabinet/1974_cabinet.html 1974 Cabinet Records] / National Archives of Australia * [http://whitlamdismissal.com/ The Whitlam Dismissal - November 11, 1975] * [http://www.saxton.com.au/default.asp?sd8=231 Gough Whitlam] - Exclusive to Saxton Speakers Bureau * [http://www.australianbeers.com/culture/letter.htm Dismissal letter] - Copy of dismissal letter {{start box}} {{succession box one to two | title1=[[Australian Labor Party|Deputy Leader of the Labor Party]] | before=[[Arthur Calwell]] | after1=[[Lance Barnard]] | years1=1960&amp;ndash;1967 | title2=[[Australian Labor Party|Leader of the Labor Party]] | after2=[[Bill Hayden]] | years2=1967&amp;ndash;1977}} {{succession box | title=[[Treasurer of Australia]]| before=[[Billy Snedden]] | after=[[Frank Crean]] | years=1972 }} {{succession box | title=[[Prime Minister of Australia]]| before=[[William McMahon]] | after=[[Malcolm Fraser]] | years=1972&amp;ndash;1975}} {{end box}} {{AustraliaPM}} [[Category:1916 births|Whitlam, Gough]] [[Category:Australian Labor Party politicians|Whitlam, Gough]] [[Category:Living people|Whitlam, Gough]] [[Category:Members of the Cabinet of Australia|Whitlam, Gough]] [[Category:Prime Ministers of Australia|Whitlam, Gough]] [[de:Gough Whitlam]] [[fr:Gough Whitlam]] {{featured article}}</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Geri and Freki</title> <id>12457</id> <revision> <id>39724273</id> <timestamp>2006-02-15T11:44:19Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>SashatoBot</username> <id>743015</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>robot Adding: lb</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">:''For the former [[Spice Girls]] member also known as &quot;Ginger Spice&quot;, see [[Geri Halliwell]].'' '''Geri and Freki''' (also spelled '''Gere and Freke''') are a pair of [[wolf|wolves]], companions of the god [[Odin]] in [[Norse mythology]]. Freki translates to &quot;Fierce&quot; and Geri translates to &quot;Greed&quot;. [[Snorri Sturluson]] in the ''[[Gylfaginning]]'' indicates that it is to these wolves that [[Odin]] gives his [[food]] when in [[Valhalla]], for he has no need of it himself, subsisting solely on [[mead]]. {{NorseMythology}} [[Category:Creatures in Norse mythology]] {{Euro-myth-stub}} [[da:Gere og Freke]] [[de:Geri und Freki]] [[hr:Geri i Freki]] [[lb:Geri a Freki]] [[no:Gere og Freke]] [[nn:Gere og Freke]] [[sv:Gere och Freke]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Ginnungagap</title> <id>12458</id> <revision> <id>38734485</id> <timestamp>2006-02-08T07:02:52Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>MTSbot</username> <id>899034</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>robot Modifying: lt</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">In [[Norse mythology]], '''Ginnungagap''' (&quot;seeming emptiness&quot; or &quot;gaping gap&quot;) was the vast chasm that existed between [[Niflheim]] and [[Muspelheim]] before creation. To the north of Ginnungagap lay the intense cold of [[Niflheim]], to the south the insufferable heat of [[Muspelheim]]. At the beginning of time, the two met in the Ginnungagap; and where the heat met the frost, the frost drops melted and formed the substance [[eitr]], which quickened into life in the form of the giant [[Ymir]], the father of all [[Frost giants]]. See his entry for the continuation of the Old Norse story of the Creation. '''See also:''' [[Chaos (mythology)|Chaos]] {{NorseMythology}} [[Category:Locations in Norse mythology]] [[ca:Ginnungagap]] [[da:Ginnungagap]] [[de:Ginnungagap]] [[el:Γκιννουνγκαγκάπ]] [[fr:Ginnungagap]] [[lt:Ginungagapas]] [[nl:Ginungagap]] [[no:Ginnungagap]] [[nn:Ginnungagap]] [[pl:Ginnungagap]] [[ru:Гинунгагап]] [[sv:Ginnungagap]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Gabriele DAnnunzio</title> <id>12459</id> <revision> <id>15910145</id> <timestamp>2002-04-03T13:31:58Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>213.253.40.53</ip> </contributor> <comment>#REDIRECT [[Gabriele D'Annunzio]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Gabriele D'Annunzio]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Green</title> <id>12460</id> <revision> <id>42121588</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T23:35:06Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Zoe</username> <id>2376</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>/* Green as a symbol */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}} {{infobox color| title= Green (commonly &quot;lime&quot;)| hex= 00FF00| r= 0|g=255|b= 0| c=20|m= 0|y=30|k= 0| h=120|s=100|v=100 }}'''Green''' is any of a number of similar [[colors]]. Green is seen commonly in nature. Many [[plants]] are green mainly because of a complex chemical known as [[chlorophyll]] which is involved in [[photosynthesis]]. Green light has a [[wavelength]] of roughly 520–570 [[Nanometre|nm]] and is considered one of the additive [[primary color]]s. It is the complement of [[magenta]]; more properly the color #FF00FF. People who are red-green [[color blindness|color blind]] can often distinguish between the two colors but confuse them with other colors, for example, bright green with [[yellow]]; dark green with [[brown]]. The term &quot;green&quot; does not define an exact color unless it is conjunction with some standard like [[X11 colors]] or an [[absolute color space]] like [[sRGB]]. ==Uses of the color green== [[Image:UnripeLemon4.jpg|thumb|[[Chlorophyll]] is responsible for the green color in plants. This [[lemon]] will gradually turn [[yellow]] as it ripens.]] *Green symbolizes ''go'' in its use in [[traffic signal]]s, [[railway signal]]s and [[ship signals]]. It is also the color of informational and directional signs. Fire escape [[fire exit|exit signs]] are green in some countries, but red in others. *In the [[Middle Ages]], green represented evil or demonic beings (including [[European dragon|dragons]]) and sometimes [[love]]. *In [[heraldry]], green is called '''[[vert]]'''. *In [[North America|North American]] [[stock markets]], green is used to denote a rise in stock prices. In [[East Asia|East Asian]] stock markets, green is used to denote a drop in stock prices. *In [[night vision goggles]], the color green is used to display the enhanced image because the human eye is able to discern the most shades in that color. *In [[auto racing]] a [[green flag]] signals the start or resumption of a race. *Because of its [[camouflage]] properties, green is typically used for the field uniforms for many military services. It is also used as the dress uniform for many land forces and marines. *Green is a symbol of [[Ireland]], which is often referred to as &quot;the Emerald Isle&quot;. The color is particularly identified with the [[Fianna Fáil|republican]] and [[nationalist]] traditions in modern times. It is used this way on the flag of the Republic of Ireland, in balance with the unionist [[orange (color)|orange]]. *Green also serves as a symbol of the [[Esperanto]] language. It is said that the color was first suggested by an Irishman, [[Richard Henry Geoghegan]], who apparently suggested it as it was the color of his country and because it is the color of hope, hope being a strong theme in [[Esperanto culture]]. The color is particularly associated with the [[green star]], and is seen too on the [[Esperanto flag]]. *Green is the traditional color of [[Islam]], likewise because of its association with nature. [[Muhammad]] is reliably quoted in a [[hadith]] as saying that &quot;water, greenery, and a beautiful face&quot; were three universally good things.{{fact}} *The [[Green screen|Green Screen]] was the common name for a monochrome CRT computer display using a green P1 Phosphor screen. *The [[emotion]] of [[envy]] is traditionally associated with the color green. *In the [[Qu'ran]], [[sura]] [[Al-Insan]], followers of [[Allah]] in [[Paradise|Jannah]] wear fine green silk. [[Image:Snooker_table.jpg|right|thumb|250px|Snooker table]] *Green is the color of the [[snooker]] [[ball]] which has a 3-point value, and is also a common color for the [[baize]] on a snooker table. *The [[Green Lantern]] is a [[DC Comics]] superhero. *The [[Green Arrow]] is a [[DC Comics]] superhero *Green is the color generally associated with [[Plaid Cymru]], the [[Wales|Welsh]] [[political party]] - but not for reasons of its political ideology. *[[British racing green]] is a popular color for cars. It was made famous by the likes of [[Bentley]] in the early [[20th Century]]. It is the traditional color for [[race car]]s sponsored by [[List of British companies|British automakers]]. *One video and film compositing technique uses a [[bluescreen|Greenscreen or Bluescreen]]. *In [[The Fifth Element]], green is a [[List of fads|fad]] expression popularized by talk show host Ruby Rhod indicating something trendy or stylish. *[[It's Not Easy Being Green]] - a popular song by [[Kermit the Frog]] === Green substances === Food colorings used for green include [[chlorophyll]] (E140 and E141), [[quinoline]] (E104) and, in countries where it is permitted, &quot;Green S&quot; (E142). ===Colloquial expressions=== *[[Envy]], one of the [[Seven Deadly Sins]], is also called the ''green-eyed monster'' (after a phrase in [[Shakespeare]]'s ''[[Othello]]''). A person suffering therefrom is said to be &quot;green with envy&quot;. Substances that may impart a greenish hue to one's skin include [[biliverdin]], the green [[pigment]] in [[bile]
* [[Bolsheviks]] ==Sources == *Andrew, C., and Mitrokhin, V. (1999). The Mitrokhin Archive: The KGB in Europe and the West, London: Penguin Books. [[Category:1917 establishments]] [[Category:History of the Soviet Union and Soviet Russia]] [[Category:Law enforcement in the Soviet Union]] [[Category:Soviet and Russian intelligence agencies]] [[Category:Soviet repressions]] [[de:Tscheka]] [[es:Cheka]] [[fr:Tcheka]] [[ja:チェーカー]] [[nl:Tsjeka]] [[pl:Cze-Ka]] [[ro:CEKA]] [[sl:ČEKA]] [[sv:Tjeka]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Clitic</title> <id>6753</id> <revision> <id>41011033</id> <timestamp>2006-02-24T13:38:32Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>129.170.161.62</ip> </contributor> <comment>/* Examples */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">In [[linguistics]], a '''clitic''' is a [[word (linguistics)|word]] that [[syntax|syntactically]] functions as a [[free morpheme]], but phonetically appears as a [[bound morpheme]]; it is always pronounced with a following or preceding word. A clitic is either an '''enclitic''', where the clitic is with the preceding word, or a '''proclitic''', which is with the following word. Some languages, like [[Portuguese_language|Portuguese]], also have '''mesoclitics''', which are inserted in the middle of the word. A word and a clitic attached to it are pronounced like a single word, which respects the usual rules of the [[language]] in question. For example, if a word must have one and only one stressed syllable, then a word with a clitic must too (the clitic is usually unstressed). Clitics are often written as separate words. A clitic is not an [[affix]]. An affix syntactically and phonologically attaches to a base [[morpheme]] of a limited [[part of speech]] such as a verb, to form a new word. A clitic syntactically functions above the word level (i.e. on the [[phrase]] or [[clause]] level) and attaches only phonetically to the first, last, or only word in the phrase or clause, whichever part of speech the word belongs to. ==Examples== In the [[Indo-European language]]s, some clitics can be traced back to [[Proto-Indo-European language|Proto-Indo-European]]: for example, ''-k&lt;sup&gt;w&lt;/sup&gt;e'' is the original form of [[Latin]] ''-que'', [[Greek language|Greek]] ''te'', and [[Sanskrit]] ''-ca''. This word means &quot;and&quot; and is said after the word being added, e.g. [[SPQR|Senatus ''Populusque'' Romani]] &quot;Senate ''and People'' of Rome&quot;. The [[English language|English]] enclitics are: * The abbreviated forms of ''be'': ** ''&amp;#39;m'' in ''I'''&amp;#39;m''''' ** ''&amp;#39;re'' in ''you'''&amp;#39;re''''' ** ''&amp;#39;s'' in ''she'''&amp;#39;s''''' * For negation, the abbreviated form of ''not'': ** ''n't'' in ''could'''n't''''' *** this abbreviated form of ''not'' has been proven to be an affix rather than a clitic (Zwicky &amp; Pullum, 1983). * The abbreviated forms of auxiliary verbs: ** ''&amp;#39;ll'' in ''they'''&amp;#39;ll''''' ** ''&amp;#39;ve'' in ''they'''&amp;#39;ve''''' * To express the possessive of a phrase: ** ''&amp;#39;s'' in ''the girl next door'''&amp;#39;s''' cat'' (It's not just the ''door's cat''.) And the English proclitics are: * ''a'' in '''''a''' desk'' * ''an'' in '''''an''' egg'' * ''the'' in '''''the''' house'' In the [[Romance languages]], the articles and the non-emphatic [[object (grammar)|object]] [[pronoun]]s are all clitics. In [[Spanish language|Spanish]], for example: :''las aguas'' (&quot;the waters&quot;) = /la'saguas/ :''lo hicimos'' (&quot;we made it&quot;) = /loi'simos/ :''dámelo'' (&quot;give it to me&quot;) = /'damelo/ Clitics in other languages: *Latin: ''que'' and, ''ve'' or, ''ne'' (yes-no question) *Greek: ''te'' and, ''de'' but, ''gar'' for (in a logical argument), ''oun'' therefore *[[Russian language|Russian]]: ''&amp;#x43b;&amp;#x438;'' (yes-no question), ''&amp;#x436;&amp;#x435;'' (emphasis), ''&amp;#x43d;&amp;#x435;'' not (proclitic), ''&amp;#x431;&amp;#x44b;'' (subjunctive) *[[Japanese language|Japanese]]: all [[grammatical particle|particle]]s, such as the genitive [[postposition]] &amp;#x306E; ''no'' and the [[topic (linguistics)|topic]] marker &amp;#x306F; ''wa'' *[[Dutch language|Dutch]]: ''&amp;#39;t'' definite article of neuter nouns and third person pronoun, ''&amp;#39;k'' first person pronoun, ''je'' second person pronoun, ''-ie'' third person pronoun (this one should not be written as a separate word, i.e &quot;''Doet-ie 't nog?''&quot;: &quot;Is it still working?&quot;; lit. &quot;Does it still do it?&quot;) ==External links== *[http://www.sil.org/linguistics/GlossaryOfLinguisticTerms/WhatIsACliticGrammar.htm SIL Glossary of Linguistic Terms: What is a clitic?] ==See also== *[[Clitic doubling]] [[Category:Parts of speech]] [[de:Klitika]] [[nl:clitic]] [[ja:&amp;#25509;&amp;#35486;]] [[nn:Klitikon]] [[pl:Enklityka]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>CamelHumpedWord</title> <id>6756</id> <revision> <id>15904876</id> <timestamp>2003-05-25T19:10:16Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Camembert</username> <id>3113</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>fix redir</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[CamelCase]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Context-free grammar</title> <id>6759</id> <revision> <id>42091541</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T19:47:02Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Flamingspinach</username> <id>179659</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/203.134.196.255|203.134.196.255]] to last version by Babajobu</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">In [[linguistics]] and [[computer science]], a '''context-free grammar''' ('''CFG''') is a [[formal grammar]] in which every production rule is of the form :V &amp;rarr; ''w'' where V is a [[Terminal symbol|non-terminal symbol]] and ''w'' is a string consisting of terminals and/or non-terminals. The term &quot;context-free&quot; comes from the fact that the non-terminal V can always be replaced by ''w'', regardless of the context in which it occurs. A [[formal language]] is [[context-free language|context-free]] if there is a context-free grammar that generates it. Context-free grammars are powerful enough to describe the [[syntax]] of most [[programming language]]s; in fact, the syntax of most programming languages are specified using context-free grammars. On the other hand, context-free grammars are simple enough to allow the construction of efficient [[list of algorithms#Parsing|parsing algorithm]]s which, for a given string, determine whether and how it can be generated from the grammar. An [[Earley parser]] is an example of such an algorithm, while [[LR parser|LR]] and [[LL parser]]s only deal with more restrictive subsets of context-free grammars. BNF ([[Backus-Naur Form]]) is the most common notation used to express context-free grammars. Not all formal languages are context-free &amp;mdash; a well-known [[counterexample]] is &lt;math&gt; \{ a^n b^n c^n : n \ge 0 \} &lt;/math&gt;. This particular language can be generated by a [[parsing expression grammar]], which is a relatively new [[formalism]] that is particularly well-suited to programming languages. == Formal definition == Just as any [[formal grammar]], a context-free grammar G can be defined as a 4-tuple: &lt;math&gt;G = (V_t, V_n, P, S)&lt;/math&gt; where *&lt;math&gt;V_t&lt;/math&gt; is a finite set of terminals *&lt;math&gt;V_n&lt;/math&gt; is a finite set of non-terminals *&lt;math&gt;P&lt;/math&gt; is a finite set of production rules *&lt;math&gt;S&lt;/math&gt; is an element of &lt;math&gt;V_n&lt;/math&gt;, the distinguished starting non-terminal. *elements of &lt;math&gt;P&lt;/math&gt; are of the form ::&lt;math&gt;V_n \longrightarrow (V_t \cup V_n)^*&lt;/math&gt; == Examples == === Example 1 === A simple context-free grammar is :S &amp;rarr; aSb | &amp;epsilon; where | is a [[Logical disjunction|logical OR]], and is used to separate multiple options for the same non-terminal—&amp;epsilon; stands for an empty string. This grammar generates the language &lt;math&gt; \{ a^n b^n : n \ge 0 \} &lt;/math&gt; which is not [[regular language|regular]]. === Example 2 === Here is a context-free grammar for syntactically correct infix algebraic expressions in the variables x, y and z: :S &amp;rarr; x | y | z | S + S | S - S | S * S | S/S | (S) This grammar can, for example, generate the string &quot;( x + y ) * x - z * y / ( x + x )&quot;. === Example 3 === A context-free grammar for the language consisting of all strings over {a,b} which contain a different number of a's to b's is :S &amp;rarr; U | V :U &amp;rarr; TaU | TaT :V &amp;rarr; TbV | TbT :T &amp;rarr; aTbT | bTaT | &amp;epsilon; Here, T can generate all strings with the same number of a's as b's, U generates all strings with more a's than b's and V generates all strings with fewer a's than b's. === Example 4 === Another example of a context free language is &lt;math&gt; \{ a^n b^m c^{m+n} : n \ge 0, m \ge 0 \} &lt;/math&gt;. This is not a regular language, but it is context free as it can be generated by the following CFG (Context Free Grammar): :S &amp;rarr; aSc | B :B &amp;rarr; bBc | &amp;epsilon; === Other examples === Context-free grammars are not limited in application to mathematical (&quot;formal&quot;) languages. The grammar of [[Lojban]], a spoken artificial language with an immense expressive power, is also context-free, and unambiguous. The ancient Indian linguist [[Panini (scholar)|Panini]] described [[Sanskrit]] using a context-free grammar. Recently, it has been suggested that a class of [[Tamil language|Tamil]] poetry called [[Venpa]] is governed by a context-free grammar. == Derivations and syntax trees == There are basically two ways to describe how in a certain grammar a string can b
'''Year''' || '''Title''' || '''Label''' |- | 1996 || ''[[Don't Mosh In The Ramen Shop]] ([[Enhanced CD|ECD]])'' || [[Grand Royal]] / [[Turntable Media]] |- | 1999 || ''[[Country Mike's Greatest Hits]]'' || [[Grand Royal]] |} ==Videography== {| border=&quot;2&quot; class=&quot;wikitable&quot; cellspacing=&quot;4&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; |- | '''Year''' || '''Title''' || '''Label''' || '''Format''' |- | 1987 || ''&quot;Licensed To Ill&quot;'' || [[CBS]] / [[Fox Broadcasting Company|FOX]] || [[Laserdisc|LD]] |- | 1987 || ''&quot;Licensed To Ill&quot;'' || [[CBS]] / [[Fox]] || [[VHS]] |- | 1992 || ''&quot;The Skills To Pay The Bills&quot;'' || [[Pioneer Corporation|Pioneer]] / [[Capitol Records|Captiol]] || [[Laserdisc|LD]] |- | 1992 || ''&quot;The Skills To Pay The Bills&quot;'' || [[Grand Royal]] || [[VHS]] |- | 1994 || ''&quot;Sabotage&quot;'' || [[PMI (music)|PMI]] || [[VHS]] |- | 1995 || ''&quot;Sabotage&quot;'' || [[PMI (music)|PMI]] / [[EMI]] || [[Video CD|VCD]] |- | 1997 || ''&quot;Sabotage&quot;'' || [[Pioneer Corporation|Pioneer]] / [[Capitol Records|Captiol]] || [[Laserdisc|LD]] |- | 1997 || ''&quot;Sabotage&quot;'' || [[Grand Royal]] || [[DVD]] |- | 2000 || ''&quot;Beastie Boys Video Anthology&quot;'' || [[Grand Royal]] / [[The Criterion Collection]] || [[DVD]] |} In addition to the above releases, The Criterion Collection issued a promotional DVD single of ''Intergalactic'' in 2000. As well as this there have been some other promotional VHS and DVDs released by Capitol over the years, most notably ''The Hiatus Is Back Off, Again'' DVD which was released in the lead up to the release of [[To the 5 Boroughs]]. Furthermore, a movie titled ''[[Awesome; I Fuckin' Shot That!]]'' [http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0488953/], featuring a live performance on October 9, 2004 at [[Madison Square Garden]], is scheduled for release on March 31, 2006. Directed by [[Adam Yauch|Nathanial Hörnblowér]], it was taped by 50 fans in the crowd who were given [[Hi-8]] video cameras. The film was first screened on January 6, 2006, to the fans that shot the footage. It premiered at the [[Sundance Film Festival]] in January, and the DVD of the film will be released in July, 2006. To promote the film, as well as their hits album, the Beasties performed a medley of classics from &quot;Three MC's and One D.J.&quot; to &quot;So Whatcha Want&quot; on [[Late Night with David Letterman]] on February 8, 2006. ==See also== *[[List of best-selling music artists]] ==External links== *[http://www.beastieboys.com/ Beastie Boys Official Website] *[http://www.grandroyaldirect.com/ Grand Royal Direct] *[http://www.allmusic.com/cg/amg.dll?p=amg&amp;sql=Bjgjteaz04x87 All Music Guide entry for Beastie Boys] *[http://www.beastiemania.com/ Beastiemania] An unofficial information resource for all things Beastie {{Beastie Boys}} [[Category:Beastie Boys|*]] [[Category:American hip hop groups]] [[Category:Def Jam affiliated performers]] [[Category:Musical activists]] [[Category:Futurama actors|Beastie Boys]] [[Category:Alternative hip hop musicians]] [[Category:Rhythmic Top 40 acts|Beastie Boys]] [[Category:Jews in hip hop]] [[de:Beastie Boys]] [[als:Beastie Boys]] [[es:Beastie Boys]] [[fr:Beastie Boys]] [[it:Beastie Boys]] [[he:ביסטי בויז]] [[nl:Beastie Boys]] [[pl:Beastie Boys]] [[fi:Beastie Boys]] [[sv:Beastie Boys]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>British Isles</title> <id>3736</id> <revision> <id>42045633</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T12:32:54Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>BrownHairedGirl</username> <id>754619</id> </contributor> <comment>/* Subsequent political history */ dab. catholic</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{npov}} :''For an explanation of often confusing terms like ([[Great Britain|Great]]) [[Britain]], [[United Kingdom]] and [[England]] see also [[British Isles (terminology)]].'' :''The &quot;British Isles&quot; is also an old name for the [[British and Irish Lions]] rugby team.'' [[Image:LocationBritishIsles.png|thumb|250px|The British Isles consist of Great Britain, Ireland and a number of much smaller surrounding islands.]] The '''British Isles''' are the group of islands off the northwest coast of [[Europe]] including [[Great Britain]] (containing [[England]], [[Scotland]], [[Wales]]), and [[Ireland]] (containing [[Northern Ireland]] and the [[Republic of Ireland]]), and several thousand smaller adjacent islands such as the [[Isle of Man]] and [[Channel Islands]]. The term causes offence to some who believe that it implies a continued [[United Kingdom|British]] sovereignty over the Republic of Ireland, or that the Republic of Ireland is British in some sense. Many alternative names have been suggested, the most common of these being [[Britain and Ireland]] or simply 'these Isles/Islands' but none has achieved widespread acceptance. &lt;br style=&quot;clear:both&quot; /&gt; In terms of geography the term ''British Isles'' is understood in Britain to refer to the whole [[archipelago]], from Scilly to Shetland, containing more than 6,000 islands and totalling 315,134 km&amp;sup2; (121,674 square miles) of land. ==List of the British Isles== [[Image:United Kingdom satellite image.png|200px|thumb|right|Satellite Image of the British Isles (excluding [[Shetland]]) and part of northern [[Continental Europe]].]] :''Main article: [[List of the British Isles|Complete list of the British Isles]]'' * [[Great Britain]] ** [[Northern Isles]] (including [[Orkney]], [[Shetland]] and [[Fair Isle]]) ** [[Hebrides]] (including the [[Inner Hebrides]], [[Outer Hebrides]] and [[Small Isles]]) ** [[Islands of the lower Firth of Clyde]] (including the [[Isle of Arran]] and [[Isle of Bute|Bute]]) ** [[Anglesey]] (in [[Welsh language|Welsh]]: ''Ynys Môn'') ** [[Lundy]] ** [[Isles of Scilly]] ** [[Isle of Wight]] ** [[Lindisfarne]] ** [[Portsmouth Islands]] (including [[Portsea]] and [[Hayling Island]]) * [[Ireland]] **[[Ulster]]: [[Arranmore]], [[Tory Island]] ***[[Northern Ireland]]: [[Rathlin Island]] **[[Connacht]]: [[Achill Island]], [[Clew Bay|Clew Bay islands]], [[Inishturk]], [[Inishbofin]], [[Inishark]], [[Aran Islands]] **[[Munster]]: [[Blasket Islands]], [[Valentia Island]], [[Cape Clear ]], [[Sherkin Island]], [[Great Island]] **[[Leinster]]: [[Lambay Island]], [[Ireland's Eye]] * [[Isle of Man]] * [[Channel Islands]]&lt;sup&gt;[[#Footnotes|1]]&lt;/sup&gt; * [[Rockall]]&lt;sup&gt;[[#Footnotes|2]]&lt;/sup&gt; Many other small islands are not listed. ==Origin of the term ''British Isles''== In classical times, foreign sources used &quot;Brit-&quot; or &quot;Prit-&quot; with various endings and native sources used ''oceani insulae'' meaning &quot;islands of the ocean&quot; or ''insularum'' meaning &quot;islands&quot;. Only in modern times has ''British Isles'' entered the [[English language]]. This usage has been justified by terms used by classical geographers to describe the island group. ===Classical geographers=== The inhabitants of Britain in classical times were apparently called the ''Priteni'' by classical writers of geographies, who named the group of islands after these inhabitants, using a transliteration into their own language such as [[Latin]] (e.g. ''Bretannae'') or [[Greek language|Greek]] (e.g. &amp;Beta;&amp;rho;&amp;eta;&amp;tau;&amp;tau;&amp;alpha;&amp;nu;&amp;omega;&amp;nu;). ''Irene'' was the word they used for the island of Ireland, after the [[Érainn]] of its southern coasts. Throughout Book 4 of his ''Geography'', [[Strabo]] is consistent in spelling the island Britain (transliterated) as ''Prettanikee''; he uses the terms ''Prettans'' or ''Brettans'' for the islands as a group. For example, in Geography 2.1.18, &quot;...&amp;omicron;&amp;iota; &amp;nu;&amp;omicron;&amp;tau;&amp;iota;&amp;omega;&amp;tau;&amp;alpha;&amp;tau;&amp;omicron;&amp;iota; &amp;tau;&amp;omega;&amp;nu; &amp;Beta;&amp;rho;&amp;eta;&amp;tau;&amp;tau;&amp;alpha;&amp;nu;&amp;omega;&amp;nu; &amp;beta;&amp;omicron;&amp;rho;&amp;eta;&amp;iota;&amp;omicron;&amp;tau;&amp;eta;&amp;rho;&amp;omicron;&amp;iota; &amp;tau;&amp;omicron;&amp;upsilon;&amp;tau;&amp;omicron;&amp;nu; &amp;eta;&amp;iota;&amp;sigma;&amp;iota;&amp;nu;&quot;. (...the most southern of the Brettans are further north than this)&lt;sup&gt;[[#Footnotes|3]]&lt;/sup&gt;. He was writing around AD 10, although the earliest surviving copy of his work dates from the 6th century. [[Pliny the Elder]] writing around AD 70 uses a Latin version of the same terminology in section 4.102 of his ''[[Pliny's Natural History|Naturalis Historia]]''. He writes of Great Britain: ''Albion ipsi nomen fuit, cum Britanniae vocarentur omnes de quibus mox paulo dicemus.'' (Albion was its own name, when all [the islands] were called the Britannias; I will speak of them in a moment). In the following section, 4.103, Pliny enumerates the islands he considers to make up the Britannias, listing Great Britain, Ireland, and many smaller islands. [[Ptolemy]] is quite clear that Ireland &amp;ndash; he calls it ''Hibernia'' &amp;ndash; belongs to the group he calls ''Britannia''. He entitles Book II, Chapter 1 of his ''Geography'' as ''Hibernia, Island of Britannia''. ===Native sources=== The early surviving discussion of the geography is almost exclusively in classical languages. The &quot;British Isles&quot; terminology of the classical geographers is found in English only in documents written after the [[Reformation]]. The earliest [[indigenous]] source to use a collective term for the archipelago is the ''[[Life of Saint Columba]]'', a [[hagiography]] recording the [[missionary]] activities of the [[sixth century]] Irish monk [[Saint Columba]] among the peoples of Scotland. Written in the late seventh century by [[Adomnán of Iona|Adomnán]] of [[Iona]], an Irish monk living on the [[Inner Hebridean]] island with considerable [[Picts|Pictish]] interests, it must be considered an authority as regards the t
mention the ''etymology'' without saying that it is the ''meaning''. #*Critical nature: OCP says philosophy is critical thinking. PTB says that philosophy examines the beliefs we take for granted. ERHP says &quot;in English-speaking philosophy (and much European philosophy too) you are taught not to take anything on trust, particularly if it seems obvious and undeniable&quot;. #*What it is not: PTB says philosophy is NOT mysticism or about outlook on life. #''Subject matter'': PDP says the subject matter of philosophy is &quot;the most fundamental and general concepts and principles involved in thought, action and reality&quot;. PE says &quot;the most general questions about our universe and our place in it&quot;. MTP: The &quot;absolutely fundamental reason of everything it investigates&quot; or &quot;the fundamental reasons or causes of all things&quot;. CED lists the branches of p (see below). ODP says it is the investigation of the most general and abstract features of the world and the categories with which we think, in order to &quot;lay bare their foundations and presuppositions&quot;. MP says it is the study of ultimate reality. TYP says that philosophy is about 'the big questions'. #''Branches'': These are metaphysics (PE, OCP, MTP, CED, IP) epistemology (CED, MTP, OCP, IP), ethics (OCP, MTP, IP, CED), logic or semantics (PE, CED), cosmology (MTP), theory of mind (MTP), political philosophy (IP), aesthetics (IP). Hence there is a broad agreement that metaphysics, epistemology and ethics and possibly logic are the main branches of philosophy. #''Goals'': PDP says the goals of philosophy are &quot;the disinterested pursuit of knowledge for its own sake&quot;. MTP says &quot;to discover the absolutely fundamental reason of everything it investigates&quot;. CED says &quot;making explicit the nature and significance of ordinary and scientific beliefs&quot;. MP says the purpose of philosophy is to unify and transcend the insights given by science and religion. ==References== The names of authors are given only where the book is not a reference work. * An Editor Recalls Some Hopeless Papers, by Wilfrid Hodges (from ''The Bulletin of Symbolic Logic'' Volume 4, Number 1, March 1998 (ERHP) * ''[[Collins English Dictionary]]'' (CED) * ''[[Introducing Philosophy]]'' (IP) * ''[[Mastering Philosophy]]'' ({{fnb|MP}}), by [[Anthony Harrison-Birket]] * ''[[Modern Thomistic Philosophy]]'' [[R. Phillips]] (MTP) * ''[[Oxford Companion to Philosophy]]'' ({{fnb|OCP}}) * ''[[Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy]]'' (ODP) * ''[[Penguin Dictionary of Philosophy]]'' ({{fnb|PDP}}) * ''[[Penguin Encyclopedia]]'' (PE), * ''[[Philosophy Made Simple]]'' (PMS) * ''[[Philosophy: The Basics]]'' ({{fnb|PTB}}), by [[Nigel Warburton]] * ''[[Teach Yourself Philosophy]]'' (TYP)</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Data</title> <id>7948</id> <revision> <id>41590444</id> <timestamp>2006-02-28T09:49:20Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>TuukkaH</username> <id>415989</id> </contributor> <comment>/* Uses of ''data'' in computing */ link to main article</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{dablink|For other senses of this word, see [[data (disambiguation)]].}} '''Data''' is the [[plural]] of ''datum''. A '''datum''' is a ''[[statement]] accepted at [[face value]]'' (a &quot;given&quot;). A large class of practically important statements are [[measurement]]s or [[observation]]s of a [[variable]]. Such statements may comprise numbers, words, or images. ==Etymology== The word ''data'' is the plural of [[Latin]] ''datum'', neuter past participle of ''dare'', &quot;to give&quot;, hence &quot;something given&quot;. The [[past participle]] of &quot;to give&quot; has been used for millennia, in the sense of a statement accepted at face value; one of the works of [[Euclid]], circa 300 BC, was the ''Dedomena'' (in Latin, ''Data''). In discussions of problems in [[geometry]], [[mathematics]], [[engineering]], and so on, the terms ''givens'' and ''data'' are used interchangeably. Such usage is the origin of ''data'' as a concept in [[computer science]]: ''data'' are numbers, words, images, etc., accepted as they stand. ==Usage in English== In [[English language| English]], the word ''datum'' is still used in the general sense of &quot;something given&quot;, and more specifically in [[cartography]], [[geography]], [[geology]], and [[technical drawing|drafting]] to mean a reference point, reference line, or reference surface. The Latin plural ''data'' is also used as a plural in English, but it is also commonly treated as a [[mass noun]] and used in the [[singular]]. For example, &quot;This is all the data from the experiment&quot;. This usage is inconsistent with the rules of Latin grammar, which would suggest, &quot;These are the data ...&quot;; each measurement or result is a single ''datum''. However, given the variety and irregularity of [[English plural]] constructions, there seem to be no grounds for arguing that ''data'' is incorrect as a singular mass noun in English. ==Uses of ''data'' in computing== {{main|Data (computing)}} ''Raw data'' are [[number]]s, [[character (computing)|characters]], [[image]]s or other outputs from devices to convert physical quantities into symbols, in a very broad sense. Such data are typically further [[process|processed]] by a human or [[input]] into a [[computer]], [[Computer storage|stored]] and processed there, or transmitted ([[output]]) to another human or computer. ''Raw data'' is a relative term; data processing commonly occurs by stages, and the &quot;processed data&quot; from one stage may be considered the &quot;raw data&quot; of the next. Mechanical computing devices are classified according to the means by which they represent data. An [[analog computer]] represents a datum as a voltage, distance, position, or other physical quantity. A [[digital computer]] represents a datum as a sequence of symbols drawn from a fixed [[alphabet]]. The most common digital computers use a binary alphabet, that is, an alphabet of two characters, typically denoted &quot;0&quot; and &quot;1&quot;. More familiar representations, such as numbers or letters, are then constructed from the binary alphabet. Some special forms of data are distinguished. A [[computer program]] is a collection of data, which can be interpreted as instructions. Most computer languages make a distinction between programs and the other data on which programs operate, but in some languages, notably [[Lisp programming language|Lisp]] and similar languages, programs are essentially indistinguishable from other data. It is also useful to distinguish [[Metadata (computing)|metadata]], that is, a description of other data. A similar, earlier term for metadata is &quot;ancillary data.&quot; The prototypical example of metadata is the library catalog, which is a description of the contents of books. ==Meaning of data, information and knowledge== The terms [[information]] and [[knowledge]] are frequently used for overlapping concepts. These three concepts are ill or ambiguously defined in the subject matter literature &lt;!--Anyone know what subject matter this is referring to? It may need clarifying. User:Joeblakesley--&gt;. However, In recent interdisciplinary research a few independent specializations of these terms have been proposed. See [[Information#Information is not data | Information: Information is not data]] for the commonly made distinction between ''information'' and ''data''. ==See also== *[[Data management]] *[[Data mining]] *[[Data modeling]] *[[Data processing]] *[[Data recovery]] *[[Data remanence]] and data destruction techniques *[[Data warehouse]] *[[Database]] *[[Datasheet]] *[[Data (Star Trek)]] *[[Statistics]] *[[Metadata]] == References == {{FOLDOC}} * http://www.answers.com/topic/data - discussion of the correctness of using data as a singular or plural (&quot;data is&quot; or &quot;data are&quot;) [[Category:Computer data]] [[Category:Data management]] [[af:Data]] [[cs:Data]] [[da:Data (datalogi)]] [[de:Daten]] [[es:Dato]] [[eo:Dateno]] [[fa:داده]] [[fr:Donnée]] [[ko:데이터]] [[id:Data]] [[it:Dato]] [[he:נתונים]] [[hu:Adat (számítástechnika)]] [[mk:Податок]] [[nl:Data]] [[ja:データ]] [[pl:Dane]] [[pt:Dados]] [[ru:Данные]] [[simple:Data]] [[sl:Podatek]] [[sr:Податак]] [[su:Data]] [[fi:Data]] [[sv:Data]] [[tl:Datos]] [[th:ข้อมูล]] [[zh:数据]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Didjeridu</title> <id>7949</id> <revision> <id>15905982</id> <timestamp>2002-05-27T13:56:16Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Dze27</username> <id>164</id> </contributor> <comment>redirect to longer article</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Didgeridoo]] </text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Drum</title> <id>7950</id> <revision> <id>42025387</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T07:59:47Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>201.141.44.51</ip> </contributor> <comment>/* External links */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}} [[Image:DrumMozartRegiment.jpg|thumb|Drum carried by John Unger, Company B, 40th Regiment New York Veteran Volunteer Infantry Mozart Regiment, December 20, 1863 ]] [[Image:Drums for sale at the National Museum of the American Indian.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Several [[Amerindians|American Indian]]-style drums for sale at the [[National Museum of the American Indian]].]] A '''drum''' is a [[musical instrument]] in the [[Percussion instrument|percussion]] family , technically classified as a [[membranophone]]. Drums consist of at least one [[membrane]], called a ''[[drumhead]]'' or ''drumskin'', that is stretched over a shell and struck, either directly with parts of a player's body, or with some sort of implement such as a [[drumstick]], to produce [[sound]]. Drums are among the world's
utor> <minor /> <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/67.22.202.211|67.22.202.211]] to last version by Elf-friend</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}} {| border=1 align=right cellpadding=4 cellspacing=0 width=300 style=&quot;margin: 0 0 1em 1em; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaaaaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;&quot; |+&lt;big&gt;&lt;big&gt;'''Repubblica Italiana'''&lt;/big&gt;&lt;/big&gt; | align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot;| {| border=0 cellpadding=2 cellspacing=0 style=&quot;background:#f9f9f9; text-align:center;&quot; | width=&quot;130px&quot;| [[Image:Flag of Italy.svg|125px|Flag of Italy]] || align=center width=130px| [[Image:Italian coa.png|110px|Italy: Coat of Arms]] |- | width=&quot;130px&quot;| [[Flag of Italy|Flag]] || align=center width=130px| [[Coat of Arms of the Italian Republic]] |} |- | align=center colspan=2 | |- | align=center colspan=2 style=&quot;background:#f9f9f9;&quot; | [[Image:LocationItaly.png|Location of Italy]] |- |'''[[Official language]]''' || [[Italian language|Italian]]&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt; |- |'''[[Capital]] and largest city''' || [[Rome]] |- |'''[[List of Presidents of the Italian Republic|President]]''' || [[Carlo Azeglio Ciampi]] |- |'''[[List of Prime Ministers of Italy|Prime minister]]''' || [[Silvio Berlusconi]] |- |'''[[Area]]''' &lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;- Total &lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;- % water |[[List of countries by area|Ranked 71st]] &lt;br&gt;[[1 E11 m2|301,336 km&amp;sup2;]]&lt;br&gt;2.40% |- |'''[[Population]]''' &lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;- Total ([[December 2004]]) &lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;- [[Population density|Density]] |[[List of countries by population|Ranked 23rd]] &lt;br&gt;58,462,375 &lt;br&gt;194/km&amp;sup2; |- |'''[[Italian Unification|Unification]]''' |[[17 March]] [[1861]] |- |'''[[Gross Domestic Product|GDP]]''' (2004) &lt;br/&gt; &amp;nbsp; - Total (PPP) &lt;br/&gt; &amp;nbsp; - Total (nom.) &lt;br/&gt; &amp;nbsp; - GDP/capita (PPP) &lt;br/&gt; &amp;nbsp; - GDP/capita (nom.) | &lt;br&gt; $1.621 trillion ([[List of countries by GDP (PPP)|8th]]) &lt;br/&gt; $1.672 trillion ([[List of countries by GDP (nominal)|6th]]) &lt;br/&gt; $27,727 ([[List of countries by GDP (PPP) per capita|19th]]) &lt;br/&gt; $28,599 ([[List of countries by GDP (nominal) per capita|20th]]) |- |'''[[Human Development Index|HDI]]''' (2003) || 0.934 ([[List of countries by Human Development Index|18th]]) |- |'''[[Currency]]''' || [[Euro]] (&amp;euro;)&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; |- | '''[[Time zone]]''' &lt;br /&gt;&amp;nbsp;- in [[European Summer Time|summer]] | [[Central European Time|CET]] ([[Coordinated Universal Time|UTC]]+1)&lt;br&gt;[[Central European Summer Time|CEST]] ([[Coordinated Universal Time|UTC]]+2) |- | '''[[National anthem]]''' || [[Il Canto degli Italiani]] |- | '''[[Top-level domain|Internet TLD]]''' || [[.it]] |- | '''[[List of country calling codes|Calling Code]]''' || +39 |- |colspan=&quot;2&quot;| &lt;small&gt;&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt; [[French language|French]] is co-official in the [[Aosta Valley]]; [[German language|German]] is co-official in [[South Tyrol]].&lt;br&gt; &lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; Prior to 1999: [[Lira|Italian Lira]].&lt;/small&gt; |} '''Italy''', officially the '''Italian Republic''' ([[Italian language|Italian]]: ''Italia'' or ''Repubblica Italiana''), is a country in southern [[Europe]]. It comprises the boot-shaped [[Italian peninsula]], the [[Po River]] valley, and two large islands in the [[Mediterranean Sea]], [[Sicily]] and [[Sardinia]], and shares its northern [[alps|alpine]] boundary with [[France]], [[Switzerland]], [[Austria]] and [[Slovenia]]. The independent countries of [[San Marino]] and the [[Vatican City]] are [[enclave]]s within Italian territory. For more than 3,000 years Italy witnessed many migrations and invasions from [[Germanic peoples|Germanic]], [[Celt|Celtic]], [[Frankish]], [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine Greek]], [[Saracens]], [[Norman]], and the French [[Angevin]], and [[Lombard]] peoples. Italy was also home to many well-known and influential civilisations, including the [[Etruscans]], [[ancient Greece|Greeks]] and the [[ancient Rome|Romans]]. Italy is called ''Belpaese'' (Italian for ''beautiful country'') by its inhabitants, due to the beauty and variety of its landscapes and for its world's largest artistic patrimony; the country is home to the greatest number of [[UNESCO]] World Heritage Sites (40 until [[January 1]] [[2006]]). Presently, Italy is a highly developed country with the 6th [[Gross domestic product|GDP]] in 2004, a member of [[G8]] and a founding member of what is now the European Union signing the [[Treaty of Rome]] in 1957. Inhabitants of Italy are referred to as ''Italians'' ([[Italian]]: ''Italiani'' or poetically ''Italici''). ==History== {{main|History of Italy}} Italy has influenced the cultural and social development of the whole Mediterranean area, deeply influencing [[Culture of Europe|European culture]] as well. Important cultures and civilizations have existed there since prehistoric times. After [[Magna Graecia]], the Etruscan civilization and especially the [[Roman Republic]] and [[Roman Empire|Empire]] that dominated this part of the world for many centuries, Italy was central to European science and art during the [[Middle Ages]] and [[Renaissance]]. Modern Italy became a nation-state belatedly — on [[March 17]] [[1861]], when most of the states of the peninsula were united under king [[Victor Emmanuel II]] of the [[Savoy]] dynasty, which ruled over [[Sardinia]] and [[Piedmont]]. The architects of Italian unification were [[Count Camillo Benso di Cavour]], the Chief Minister of Victor Emmanuel, and [[Giuseppe Garibaldi]], a general and national hero. [[Rome]] itself remained for a little less than a decade under the Papacy, and became part of the [[Kingdom of Italy]] only on [[September 20]] [[1870]]. The [[Vatican City|Vatican]] is now an independent enclave surrounded by [[Rome]]. ==Politics== {{main|Politics of Italy}} [[Image:Italy.CarloAzeglioCiampi.01.jpg|thumb|left|[[Carlo Azeglio Ciampi]], President of the Italian Republic since 1999.]] The 1948 [[Constitution of Italy]] established a [[bicameral]] [[parliament]] (''Parlamento''), consisting of a [[Italian Chamber of Deputies|Chamber of Deputies]] (''Camera dei Deputati'') and a [[Italian Senate|Senate]] (''Senato della Repubblica''), a separate [[judiciary]], and an [[executive branch]] composed of a Council of Ministers ([[Cabinet (government)|cabinet]]) (''Consiglio dei ministri''), headed by the [[Prime Minister of Italy|prime minister]] (''Presidente del consiglio dei ministri''). The [[List of Presidents of the Italian Republic|President of the Republic]] (''Presidente della Repubblica'') is elected for 7 years by the parliament sitting jointly with a small number of regional delegates. The president nominates the prime minister, who proposes the other ministers (formally named by the president). The Council of Ministers must retain the support (''fiducia'') of both houses. The houses of [[parliament]] are popularly and directly elected by a mixed majoritarian&lt;!-- this was changed, please update--&gt; and proportional representation system. Under 1993 [[legislation]], Italy has single-member districts for 75% of the seats in parliament; the remaining 25% of seats are allotted on a proportional basis. The Chamber of Deputies has officially 630 members (''de facto'', 619 only after the 2001 elections). In addition to 315 senators, elected members, the Senate includes former presidents and several other persons (no more than 5) appointed for life by the President of the Republic according to special constitutional provisions. Both houses are elected for a maximum of 5 years, but either may be dissolved before the expiration of its normal term. [[Legislative]] bills may originate in either house and must be passed by a majority in both. The Italian judicial system is based on [[Roman law]] modified by the [[Napoleonic code]] and later [[statute]]s. A constitutional court, the ''Corte Costituzionale'', passes on the constitutionality of laws, and is a post-[[World War II]] innovation. All Italian citizens older than 18 can vote. To vote for the senate, the voter must be at least 25. {{see also|Military of Italy}} ==Regions== {{main|Regions of Italy}} [[Image:It-map.png|thumb|Map of Italy]] Italy is subdivided into 20 regions (''regioni'', singular ''regione''). Five of these regions enjoy a special autonomous status that enables them to enact legislation on some of their specific local matters, and are marked by an *: *[[Abruzzo]] (with capital [[L'Aquila]]) *[[Aosta Valley]]*, ''Valle d'Aosta / Vallée d'Aoste'' ([[Aosta]]) *[[Apulia]], ''Puglia'' ([[Bari]]) *[[Basilicata]] ([[Potenza]]) *[[Calabria]] ([[Catanzaro]]) *[[Campania]] ([[Naples]], ''Napoli'') *[[Emilia-Romagna]] ([[Bologna]]) *[[Friuli-Venezia Giulia]]* ([[Trieste]]) *[[Latium]], ''Lazio'' ([[Rome]], ''Roma'') *[[Liguria]] ([[Genoa]], ''Genova'') *[[Lombardy]] ''Lombardia'' ([[Milan]], ''Milano'') *[[Marche]] ([[Ancona]]) *[[Molise]] ([[Campobasso]]) *[[Piedmont (Italy)|Piedmont]], ''Piemonte'' ([[Turin]], ''Torino'') *[[Sardinia]]*, ''Sardegna'' ([[Cagliari]]) *[[Sicily]]*, ''Sicilia'' ([[Palermo]]) *[[Trentino-South Tyrol]]*, ''Trentino-Alto Adige / Südtirol'' ([[Trento]]) *[[Tuscany]], ''Toscana'' ([[Florence]] ''Firenze'') *[[Umbria]] ([[Perugia]]) *[[Veneto]] ([[Venice]], ''Venezia'') All regions except the Aosta Valley are further subdivided into two or more [[Provinces of Italy|provinces]]. == Geography == {{main|Geography of Italy}} Italy consists predominantly of a large [[peninsula]] (the [[Italian peninsula]]) with a distinctive boot shape that extends into the [[Mediterranean Sea]], where together with its two main islands [[Sicily]] and [[Sardinia]] it creates distinct bodies of water, such as the [[Adriatic Sea]] to the north-east, the [[Ionian Sea]] to the sout
htm#_1900-1997_1 Cabo Verde Chronological References] ===Directories=== * [http://search.looksmart.com/p/browse/us1/us317836/us317916/us559898/us559899/us10065674/us10056634/ LookSmart - ''Cape Verde''] directory category * [http://dmoz.org/Regional/Africa/Cape_Verde/ Open Directory Project - ''Cape Verde''] directory category *[http://www-sul.stanford.edu/depts/ssrg/africa/capev.html Stanford University - Africa South of the Sahara: ''Cape Verde''] directory category *[http://www.afrika.no/index/Countries/Cape_Verde/ The Index on Africa - ''Cape Verde''] directory category *[http://www.sas.upenn.edu/African_Studies/Country_Specific/C_Verde.html University of Pennsylvania - African Studies Center: ''Cape Verde''] directory category * [http://dir.yahoo.com/Regional/Countries/Cape_Verde/ Yahoo! - ''Cape Verde''] directory category * [http://www.caboverde24.com Cabo Verde 24 - ''Cape Verde'' ] directory category ===Tourism=== [[Image:Santo-antao agaves.jpg|thumb|Agaves à Santo Antão]] *[http://www.access-investment-property.com/cape-verde-property/ Cape Verde Off Plan Property and Info] *[http://www.bela-vista.net/cape-verde.htm Travel Info by Lucete Fortes] *[http://www.bela-vista.net/map-order-e.htm Maps and Guide books by Lucete Fortes] *[http://www.ecaboverde.com Cape Verde Photos] *[http://www.capeverde.dreamlocations.co.uk Cape Verde Property for sale] *{{wikitravel}} {{Africa}} [[Category:Cape Verde| Cape Verde]] [[am:ኬፕ ቨርዴ]] [[ar:رأس أخضر]] [[bg:Кабо Верде]] [[bs:Zelenortska Republika]] [[zh-min-nan:Chheⁿ-kak Kiōng-hô-kok]] [[bn:কেপ ভের্দ]] [[ca:Cap Verd]] [[cs:Kapverdy]] [[cy:Cabo Verde]] [[da:Kap Verde]] [[de:Kap Verde]] [[et:Cabo Verde]] [[es:Cabo Verde]] [[eo:Kabo-Verdo]] [[fr:Cap-Vert]] [[gl:Cabo Verde]] [[ko:카보베르데]] [[hr:Zelenortska Republika]] [[io:Kabo Verda]] [[id:Tanjung Verde]] [[ia:Capo Verde]] [[is:Grænhöfðaeyjar]] [[it:Capo Verde]] [[he:קייפ ורדה]] [[lv:Kaboverde]] [[lt:Žaliasis Kyšulys]] [[hu:Zöld-foki Köztársaság]] [[mk:Зелено’ртски острови]] [[ms:Cape Verde]] [[na:Kap Verde]] [[nl:Kaapverdië]] [[nds:Kap Verde]] [[ja:カーボベルデ]] [[no:Kapp Verde]] [[nn:Kapp Verde]] [[pl:Republika Zielonego Przylądka]] [[pt:Cabo Verde]] [[ru:Кабо-Верде]] [[sq:Kepi Verde]] [[sk:Kapverdy]] [[sl:Zelenortski otoki]] [[sr:Зеленортска острва]] [[fi:Kap Verde]] [[simple:Cape Verde]] [[sv:Kap Verde]] [[tl:Cape Verde]] [[tr:Kap Verde]] [[uk:Кабо-Верде]] [[zh:佛得角]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Cape Verde/History</title> <id>5459</id> <revision> <id>15903666</id> <timestamp>2002-05-21T03:38:07Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Ap</username> <id>122</id> </contributor> <comment>*</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[History of Cape Verde]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Geography of Cape Verde</title> <id>5460</id> <revision> <id>40556520</id> <timestamp>2006-02-21T11:50:13Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Lupo</username> <id>34978</id> </contributor> <comment>better map</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:LocationCapeVerde.png|right|]] This article describes the '''[[geography]] of [[Cape Verde]]'''. The Cape Verde Islands are located in the mid-Atlantic Ocean some 620 kilometers (385 mi.) off the west coast of Africa. The archipelago consists of 10 islands and 5 islets, divided into the windward ([[Barlavento]]) and leeward ([[Sotavento]]) groups. The six islands in the Barlavento group are [[Santo Antão]], [[São Vicente]], [[Santa Luzia, Cape Verde|Santa Luzia]], [[São Nicolau]], [[Sal, Cape Verde|Sal]], and [[Boa Vista, Cape Verde|Boa Vista]]. The islands in the Sotavento group are [[Maio]], [[Santiago, Cape Verde|Santiago]], [[Fogo, Cape Verde|Fogo]], and [[Brava]]. All but Santa Luzia are inhabited. Three islands &amp;ndash; Sal, Boa Vista, and Maio &amp;ndash; generally are level and lack natural water supplies. Mountains higher than 1,280 meters (4,200 ft) are found on Santiago, Fogo, Santo Antão, and São Nicolau. Sand carried by high winds has caused erosion on all islands, especially the windward ones. Sheer, jagged cliffs rise from the sea on several of the mountainous islands. The lack of natural vegetation in the uplands and coast also contributes to soil erosion. Only the interior valleys support natural vegetation. Rainfall is irregular, historically causing periodic droughts and famines. The average precipitation per year in Praia is 240 millimeters (9.5 in). During the winter, storms blowing from the Sahara sometimes form dense dust clouds that obscure the sun; however, sunny days are the norm year round. The ocean near Cape Verde is an area of [[tropical cyclone]] formation; since these storms have the whole Atlantic to develop as they move westward, they are among the most intense hurricanes, and are called [[Cape Verde-type hurricane]]s. [[Image:Cape Verde Map.jpg|right|thumb|300px|Map of the Cape Verde Islands]] ; Location: : Western [[Africa]], group of islands in the North [[Atlantic Ocean]], west of [[Senegal]] ; Geographic coordinates: : {{coor d|16|N|24|W|}} ; Map references: : World ; Area: :* Total: 4,033 [[Square kilometre|km&amp;sup2;]] :* Land: 4,033 km&amp;sup2; :* Water: 0 km&amp;sup2; ; Area &amp;ndash; comparative: : US: slightly larger than Rhode Island : UK: slightly larger than Suffolk ; Land boundaries: : 0 km ; Coastline: : 965 km ; Maritime claims: :* Measured from claimed archipelagic baselines :* Contiguous zone: 24 [[Nautical mile|nm]] (44.5 km) :* Exclusive economic zone: 200 nm (370.4 km) :* Territorial sea: 12 nm (22.2 km) [[Image:capeverde.jpg|thumb|right| Cape Verde satellite image]] ; Climate: : Temperate; warm, dry summer; precipitation meager and very erratic ; Terrain: : Steep, rugged, rocky, volcanic ; Elevation extremes: :* Lowest point: Atlantic Ocean 0 [[metre|m]] :* Highest point: [[Mount Fogo]] 2,829 m (a volcano on Fogo Island) ; Natural resources: : [[Salt]], [[basalt]] rock, [[pozzuolana]] (a siliceous volcanic ash used to produce hydraulic cement), [[limestone]], [[kaolin]], [[fish]] ; Land use: :* Arable land: 11% :* Permanent crops: 0% :* Permanent pastures: 6% :* Forests and woodland: 0% :* Other: 83% (1993 est.) ; Irrigated land: : 30 km&amp;sup2; (1993 est.) ; Natural hazards: : Prolonged [[drought]]s; harmattan wind can obscure visibility; volcanically and seismically active ; Environment - current issues: : [[Overgrazing]] of [[livestock]] and improper land use such as the cultivation of crops on steep slopes has led to soil [[erosion]]; demand for [[wood]] used as fuel has resulted in [[deforestation]]; [[desertification]]; environmental damage has threatened several species of [[bird]]s and [[reptile]]s; [[overfishing]] ; Environment - international agreements: :* Party to: [[Biodiversity]], [[United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change|Climate Change]], [[Desertification]], [[Environmental Modification]], [[Hazardous Wastes]], [[Law of the Sea]], [[Marine Dumping]], [[Nuclear Test Ban]] :* Signed, but not ratified: None of the selected agreements ; Geography - note: : Strategic location 500 km from west coast of Africa near major north-south sea routes; important communications station; important sea and air refueling site == See also == * [[Cape Verde]] {{Africa in topic|Geography of}} [[Category:Geography by country|Cape Verde]] [[Category:Volcanoes of Cape Verde| ]] [[Category:Hotspot volcanoes|Cape Verde, Geography of]] [[Category:Ridge volcanoes|Cape Verde, Geography of]] [[Category:Geography of Cape Verde| ]] [[es:Geografía de Cabo Verde]] [[pl:Wyspy Zielonego Przyl&amp;#261;dka]] [[pt:Geografia de Cabo Verde]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Demographics of Cape Verde</title> <id>5461</id> <revision> <id>40776360</id> <timestamp>2006-02-22T23:12:14Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Jorge Stolfi</username> <id>48742</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>typo in [[Capeverdean Crioulo languages]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Cape-Verde-demography.png|thumb|300px|right|Demographics of Cape Verde, Data of [[Food and Agriculture Organization|FAO]], year 2005 ; Number of inhabitants in thousands.]] The [[Cape Verde]] [[archipelago]] was uninhabited until the [[Portugal|Portuguese]] discovered it in [[1456]]. [[Africa]]n slaves were brought to the islands to work on Portuguese plantations. As a result, Cape Verdeans have mixed African and [[Europe]]an origins. Vestiges of African culture are most pronounced on the island of [[Santiago Island (Cape Verde)|Santiago]], where 50% of the people live. Survival in a country with few natural resources historically has induced Cape Verdeans to emigrate. In fact, of the more than 1 million people of Cape Verdean ancestry in the world, only a little more than one-third actually live on the islands. Some 500,000 people of Cape Verdean ancestry live in the [[United States]], mainly in [[New England]]. [[Portugal]], [[the Netherlands]], [[Italy]], [[France]], and [[Senegal]] also have large communities. Although the official language is Portuguese, most Cape Verdeans speak a [[creole language]] ([[Capeverdean Crioulo languages|Crioulo, ''Kriolu'', ''Criol'']]) derived from archaic Portuguese, African, and other European languages. There is a rich repertoire of literature and songs in Crioulo. ==Demographic data from the CIA World Factbook== ===Population=== :418,224 (July 2005 est.) ===Age structure=== :0-14 years: 39% (male 82,249/female 80,752) :15-64 years: 54.3% (male 110,119/female 116,816) :65 years and over: 6.8% (male 10,599/female 17,689) (2005 est.) ===Median age=== :Total: 19.4 years :Male: 18.62 years :Female: 20.25 years (2005 est.) ===Population growth rate=== :0.67% (2005 est.) ===Birth rate=== :25.33 births/1,000 population (2005 est.) ===Death rate=== :6.62 deaths/1
h Press 2001 *''Africa shoots back. Alternative perspectives in sub-saharan francophone african film'' by Melissa Thackway, Indiana University Press 2003 *''Glorious Technicolor''; directed by Peter Jones. Based on the book (above); written by Basten &amp; Jones. Documentary, ([[1998]]). *Francesco Casetti, ''Theories of Cinema, 1945-1990'', Paperback Edition, University of Texas Press 1999 *The Oxford Guide to Film Studies, Oxford University Press 1998 *Walters Faber, Helen Walters, Algrant (Ed.), ''Animation Unlimited: Innovative Short Films Since 1940'', HarperCollins Publishers 2004 *Trish Ledoux, Doug Ranney, Fred Patten (Ed.), ''Complete Anime Guide: Japanese Animation Film Directory and Resource Guide'', Tiger Mountain Press 1997 *Steven Spielberg in ''The making of Jurassic Park'' ==External links== {{portal}} {{Wikimedia}} *[http://imdb.com/ The Internet Movie Database (IMDb)] - Information on current and historical films and cast listings. *{{wikicities|filmguide|The Film Guide}} *[http://www.aintitcool.com/ Ain't It Cool News] - Rumors and reviews about current and upcoming films *[http://movies.aurum3.com/ AURUM3 Movies] - Movie reviews and previews *[http://allmovie.com All Movie Guide] - Information on films: actors, directors, biographies, reviews, cast and production credits, box office sales, and other movie data. *[http://www.allwatchers.com AllWatchers] - Categorized movie reviews * [http://www.my-movies-data.info/ Movies articles] *[http://www.boxofficemojo.com Box Office Mojo] - Box office figures by date and genre, including box office records *[http://www.bad-good.org So Bad It's Good] - Bad movie reviews, clips, screenshots and sounds *[http://www.CrewPix.com CrewPix] - Behind the scenes photos from movie shoots, taken by the Film Crews themselves. *[http://www.filmsite.org Film Site] - Reviews of classic films *[http://www.themovieinsider.com The Movie Insider] Tracks upcoming movies. *[http://www.the-numbers.com The Numbers] Box office figures by movie and actor, including box office records *[[Open Directory Project]]: [http://www.dmoz.org/Arts/Movies Movies] *[http://www.rottentomatoes.com Rotten Tomatoes] Film reviews *[http://movies.yahoo.com Yahoo! Movies] Information on specific movies, including upcoming movies by title, date, and actor *[http://www.wa.gov/esd/lmea/sprepts/indprof/motionp.htm Motion Pictures] - An economic report on Motion pictures *[http://www.factbook.net/wbglobal_rev.htm Factbook.net] - Discussion of world box office revenues and breakdowns *[http://www.movieweb.com MovieWeb] - News, reviews, gossip, movie stills, images and trailers. *[http://www.pophistorynow.com The 1950's-2000's Week-By-Week] Complete movie listings from each week of these decades, plus Hollywood news and star tidbits. *[http://www.knowledgeoflondon.com/movies/films.htm/ 'The History of the London Pictures'] *[http://www.netflix.com/Default Netflix] [[Category:Film| ]] {{Link FA|hu}} [[af:Film]] [[an:Zine]] [[ast:Cinematografia]] [[id:Film]] [[bn:&amp;#2458;&amp;#2482;&amp;#2458;&amp;#2509;&amp;#2458;&amp;#2495;&amp;#2468;&amp;#2509;&amp;#2480;]] [[bs:Film]] [[ca:Cinema]] [[cs:Film]] [[da:Film]] [[de:Filmkunst]] [[es:Cine]] [[eo:Kino]] [[fi:Elokuva]] [[fr:Cinéma]] [[gd:Film]] [[gl:Cine]] [[he:&amp;#1511;&amp;#1493;&amp;#1500;&amp;#1504;&amp;#1493;&amp;#1506;]] [[hi:&amp;#2330;&amp;#2354;&amp;#2330;&amp;#2367;&amp;#2340;&amp;#2381;&amp;#2352;]] [[hr:Film]] [[io:Cinemo]] [[it:Cinema]] [[hu:Film]] [[ja:&amp;#26144;&amp;#30011;]] [[ko:&amp;#50689;&amp;#54868;]] [[lb:Film]] [[nl:Film]] [[no:Film]] [[pl:Film]] [[pt:Cinema]] [[ro:Film]] [[ru:&amp;#1050;&amp;#1080;&amp;#1085;&amp;#1077;&amp;#1084;&amp;#1072;&amp;#1090;&amp;#1086;&amp;#1075;&amp;#1088;&amp;#1072;&amp;#1092;]] [[sq:Filmi]] [[simple:Movie]] [[sk:Film]] [[sl:Film]] [[sv:Film]] [[sr:Филм]] [[th:&amp;#3616;&amp;#3634;&amp;#3614;&amp;#3618;&amp;#3609;&amp;#3605;&amp;#3619;&amp;#3660;]] [[vi:Phim]] [[yi:פילם]] [[zh:&amp;#30005;&amp;#24433;]] [[zh-min-nan:Tiān-iáⁿ]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Film Criticism</title> <id>10572</id> <revision> <id>15908375</id> <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>Conversion script</ip> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Automated conversion</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Film criticism]] </text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Fox Film Corporation</title> <id>10573</id> <revision> <id>40252756</id> <timestamp>2006-02-19T06:37:15Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>CoolKatt number 99999</username> <id>389524</id> </contributor> <comment>revert</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Fox Film Corporation''' was an [[United States|American]] company which produced [[film|motion pictures]], formed in [[1915 in film|1915]] when founder [[William Fox (producer)|William Fox]] merged two [[corporation|companies]] he had established in [[1913 in film|1913]]: Greater New York Film Rental, a distribution firm, which was part of the [[independent film|Independents]]; and Fox (or Box, depending on the source) Office Attractions Company, a production company. (see [[vertical integration]]) The company's first film studios were set up in [[Fort Lee, New Jersey]] but in 1917, William Fox sent [[Sol M. Wurtzel]] to [[Hollywood, California]] to oversee the studio's new [[West Coast of the United States|West Coast]] production facilities where a more hospitable and cost effective climate existed for filmmaking. On [[July 23]], [[1926 in film|1926]], the company bought the [[patent]]s of the [[Movietone sound system]] for recording sound on to [[film]]. William Fox lost control over the company after the [[Wall Street Crash 1929|Stock Market Crash of 1929]], in [[1930]], during a hostile takeover. Under new president [[Sidney Kent]], the new owners later merged the company with [[Twentieth Century Pictures]] to form [[20th Century Fox]]. {{film-studio-stub}} [[Category:Film production companies]] [[Category:Film distributors]] [[Category:Movie studios]] [[Category:Entertainment companies of the United States]] [[Category:Defunct American movie studios]] [[Category:News Corporation subsidiaries]] [[nl:Fox Film Corporation]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>First National</title> <id>10574</id> <revision> <id>41022328</id> <timestamp>2006-02-24T15:23:56Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>66.214.253.74</ip> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">:''For the defunct Canadian television newscast, see [[First National (television show)]].'' The '''First National Exhibitors' Circuit''' was founded 1917 by the merger of 26 of the biggest First Run cinema chains in the [[United States|United States of America]], controlling more than 600 cinemas, more than 200 of them were First Run cinemas. The foundation, an initiative by [[Thomas L. Tally]], was a reaction to the overwhelming influence of [[Paramount Pictures]], which dominated the market. First National was set up to combine the financial power of the involved firms, to buy stars, to finance their movies and to gain the right to distribute them later. Between 1917 and 1918, they made contracts with [[Mary Pickford]] and [[Charlie Chaplin]], the first million dollar deals in the history of film. First National's financial power and its control over the lucrative First Run cinemas posed a threat to Paramount so it decided to enter the cinema business. With a sum of ten million dollars they built their own chain of First Run houses and, after a secret plan to merge with First National failed (which led to the foundation of [[United Artists]], and to the loss of First National's biggest stars). In the early twenties, Paramount attempted a hostile takeover, buying one of First National's member firms after the other. First National built its massive studio lot in [[Burbank, Los Angeles County, California|Burbank]] in 1926. First National Pictures was purchased by [[Warner Bros.]] in 1929. For many years afterwards, some Warner Bros. films bore the words &quot;A Warner Bros.-First National Picture.&quot; In 2002, Ryan Kugler (www.ryankugler.com), president and owner of Distribution Video &amp; Audio (www.dva.com), a company which specializing in acquiring excess inventory and close-out properties in the entertainment industry bought the name and resurrected First National Pictures (www.fnp.com) as a DVD label which will license and distribute branded and Children's DVDs and digital content. [http://www.example.com link title] ==Sources== *[http://www.firstnationalpictures.com/about_us.html About Us] Accessed 10/08/2005 *[http://www.firstnationalpictures.com/press_releases.php Press Releases] Accessed 10/08/2005 [[Category:Film production companies]] [[Category:Film distributors]] [[Category:Entertainment companies of the United States]] [[Category:Defunct American movie studios]] [[de:First National]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Film History</title> <id>10575</id> <revision> <id>18973942</id> <timestamp>2005-07-16T20:15:39Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>NatusRoma</username> <id>206468</id> </contributor> <comment>re-redirecting</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[History of film]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Francis Ford Coppola</title> <id>10576</id> <revision> <id>41915022</id> <timestamp>2006-03-02T16:15:33Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>IKR1</username> <id>821177</id> </contributor> <comment>/* Selected filmography */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Francis Ford Coppola(CannesPhotoCall).jpg|thumb|250px|Francis Ford Coppola at [[Cannes Film Festival|Cannes]] [[2001 in film|2001]]]] '''Franc
r cars with attractive styling, features, and quality, with profitability flowing from lower production costs through reduction of excess plant capacity and firm consumer demand, which enables avoidance of marketing incentives (such as ''low'' or ''zero interest'', ''cash back'', or ''free'' or ''low cost'' added accessory, appearance, and other [[automotive package|packages]]). ===Financial woes=== As is the case with other U. S. automobile manufacturers, international exchange rates tend to favor Japanese and Korean competitors. The expected future entry of [[China]] into the U. S. automotive market is likely to be advantaged by unrealistic currency exchange ratios that have become a ''structural'' problem owing to the Chinese government's extensive purchase of U. S. government debt in the form of bonds. European manufactures are somewhat disadvantaged by over-regulation. Irrespective of these various manufacturing conditions, various foreign manufacturers have demonstrated an ability to compete in the U.S. market with vehicles assembled in various U.S. states and using a substantial portion of domestic content. Such plants are advantaged over GM and Ford through the employment of a younger, nonunion, and more generally healthy workforce. General motors has extensive &quot;legacy&quot; costs in pensions and health care costs from retirees, some of these obligations taken at a time when GM had a much larger share of the domestic U.S. market. GM has also committed itself (through union agreements) to pay ongoing wages to non-working employees displaced by automation (the so-called ''Jobs Bank''). The subsequent loss of market share due to marketing and quality problems has severely impacted GM's ability to carry these obligations. In April 2005, General Motors posted a US$1.1-billion loss, for the first quarter of that year. Its debt was also downgraded to [[junk bond]] status. GM announced plans to cut 25,000 jobs in the United States, and included plans to shut down one of the Oshawa, Ontario, plants by 2008. By November 2005, within the first nine months of the year, GM had posted a near $4 billion loss. On [[November 21]], [[2005]], GM had announced a revised plan of increased cuts. These cuts went from 25,000 to 30,000 employees, or 9% of its labor force. GM also increased the number of plant closings. Originally, the company planned eight plant closings; the new plan calls for the closing of twelve facilities. In December, 2005, [[Standard and Poor's]] further downgraded GM bonds to &quot;B&quot;, with the observation that it is &quot;now dubious&quot; whether the new line of SUVs and trucks would return GM's North American auto business to profitability (WSJ US edition, [[13 December]] [[2005]], p. A3). On [[December 21]] [[2005]] Toyota Motor Corp announced that it would produce 9.06 million vehicles for 2006. Analysts estimate that GM will only produce around 8.825 million cars for 2006, giving up the title of the world's largest auto producer. GM has held the title for 74 consecutive years without a doubt. However, GM's Wagoner is confident that GM will remain #1. In February 2006, GM decided to slash its annual dividend to $1.00 per share. GM had resisted the move for some time. However, the reduction will save GM about $565 million in cash each year. ===Plant locations=== The plants scheduled to be closed include (''source: General Motors Corporation''): {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; |- | '''Assembly plants''' || '''Location''' || '''Closing''' || '''Products''' || '''# Employees''' |- | [[Scarborough Assembly]] van plant || Ontario || 1993 || vans || 2,700 |- | [[Moraine Assembly]] (3rd shift) || Ohio || 2006 || Mid-size [[sport utility vehicle|SUV]]s || 4,165 |- | [[Oklahoma City Assembly]] || Oklahoma || Early 2006 || Mid-size [[truck]]s and SUVs || 2,734 |- | [[Lansing Craft Centre]] || Michigan || Mid-2006 || [[Chevrolet SSR]] roadster || 398 |- | [[Oshawa Car Assembly]] No. 1 (3rd shift) || Ontario || Mid-2006 || [[Mid-size car|Mid-size sedan]]s || 3,600 |- | [[Spring Hill Manufacturing]] Line 1 || Tennessee || Late 2006 || [[Saturn Ion]] sedan and coupe || 5,776 |- | [[Oshawa Car Assembly]] No. 2 || Ontario || 2008 || Midsize sedans || 2,700 |- | [[Doraville Assembly]] || Georgia || 2008 || [[Crossover SUV|Crossover]]s and [[minivan]]s || 3,076 |} {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; |- | '''Production facilities''' || '''Location''' || '''Closing''' || '''Products''' || '''# Employees''' |- | [[Lansing Metal Center]] || Michigan || 2006 || Metal fabricating || 1,398 |- | [[Portland Distribution Center]] || Oregon || 2006 || Parts distribution || 95 |- | [[Saint Louis Distribution Center]] || Missouri || 2006 || Parts distribution || 182 |- | [[Pittsburgh Metal]] || Pennsylvania || 2007 || Metal fabricating || 613 |- | [[Ypsilanti Processing Center]] || Michigan || 2007 || Parts processing || 278 |- | [[St. Catharines Engine]] || Ontario || 2008 || Engine/Transmission parts || 1,699 |- | [[Flint North]] 3800 || Michigan || 2008 || Engines || 2,677 |} For the first time ever, in [[2004]] the total number of cars produced by all makers in [[Ontario]] exceeded those produced in [[Michigan]]. GM officials cited profitability of their [[Oshawa, Ontario]], plant in refusing to distribute the job losses. ===Alternative vehicles=== General Motors has long worked on alternative-technology vehicles, but has repeatedly failed to deliver them in a profitable way. The company was the first to use [[turbocharger]]s and was an early proponent of [[V6]] engines in the [[1960s]], but quickly lost interest as the [[muscle car]] race took hold. They demonstrated [http://www.conklinsystems.com/firebird/mlife.php] [[gas turbine]] vehicles powered by [[kerosene]], an area of interest throughout the industry in the late 1950's, but despite extensive thermal recycling (developed by Chrysler) the fuel consumption was too high and starting torque too low for everyday use. They were also an early licensee of [[Wankel engine]] technology, even developing the [[Chevrolet Monza]] around the powerplant, but abandoned the alternative engine configuration in view of the [[1973 oil crisis]]. In the [[1970s]] and [[1980s]], GM pushed [[Diesel]] engines and [[cylinder deactivation]] technologies to disastrous results due to poor durability in the Oldsmobile diesels (this was a modified gasoline engine) and drivability issues in the Cadillac 4-6-8 variable cylinder engines. In [[1996]], GM introduced the [[General Motors EV1|EV1]], the first modern mass-produced [[electric car]]. Despite the positive publicity generated by this vehicle, the company never spread the technology beyond [[California]] and [[Arizona]], and pulled the plug on the program in [[2003]]. GM was also an early innovator in [[hybrid vehicle]] development, building Diesel-electric trains since the [[1930s]] and [[bus]]es since the [[1990s]] (but without stored energy recovery), but did not introduce a true hybrid passenger car until [[2004]]. Their earlier [[Chevrolet Silverado#Hybrid|hybrid pickup truck]] was such a mild application of the technology that many criticized it for being not a hybrid at all. The [[2006]] [[Saturn VUE|Saturn VUE Green Line]] will be the first hybrid passenger vehicle from GM, but it too is a mild design. GM has hinted at new hybrid technologies to be employed that will be optimized for higher speeds such as are encountered in [[freeway]] driving. As a great bulk of GM's fleet fuel consumption is by high fuel consuming light trucks and SUVs, a modest improvement in their mileage applied across this large fleet (say twelve to fifteen percent) would in fact conserve a significant amount of refined fuel. Rather than effectively deliver hybrid and electric vehicles at the present time, GM has extensively touted its research and prototype development of hydrogen powered vehicles, to be produced at some unspecified future time and using a support infrastructure yet to be built. Since production and use of hydrogen from fossil fuels is at present about 1/6 as efficient as direct use of the fuel (e.g, compressed natural gas), this is a future dependent upon the availability of extremely low cost electricity - as might be produced at some indefinite future time by speculative power sources such as nuclear fusion. ===GM in China=== General Motors is the top-selling foreign auto maker in [[China]], with 11.2% of the total market there. The [[Buick]] brand is especially strong, led by the [[Buick Excelle]] subcompact. [[Cadillac]] initiated sales in China in 2004, starting with imports. GM pushed the [[Chevrolet]] brand there in [[2005]] as well, transferring the formerly-Buick Sail to that marque. The company manufactures most of its China-market vehicles locally, through its [[Shanghai GM]] joint venture. The [[SAIC-GM-Wuling Automobile]] joint-venture is also successful selling trucks and vans under the [[Wuling]] marque. ==See also== *[[Alfred P. Sloan]] *[[Buick]] *[[Cadillac]] *[[Chevrolet]] *[[DuPont]] *[[General Motors Acceptance Corporation]] *[[General Motors streetcar conspiracy]] *[[GMC]] *[[Hummer]] *[[Oldsmobile]] *[[Pontiac]] *[[List of GM platforms]] *[[List of GM engines]] *[[List of GM factories]] *[[List of GM VIN codes]] *[[:Category:General_Motors_vehicles|GM vehicles by brand]] *[[EPA 2004 fuel economy report appendix M2#General Motors|EPA 2004 fuel economy report (General Motors)]] ==External links== * [http://www.gm.com/ Official Website] * [http://www.gmacfs.com/us/en/index.html GMAC Financial Services] * [http://www.gmability.com/ GMability, GM's corporate responsibility site] * [http://www.gmability.com/education/ GM's K-12 education site] * [http://fastlane.gmblogs.com GM's Fastlane blog] * [http://www.gm.com/company/corp_info/history/gmhis1900.html Corporate history] * [http://www.vlturbo.com/ General Motors Holden VL Turbo] * [http://www.cheersandgears.com Cheers &amp; Gears] GM Enthusiast
Malgrand-Azio]] [[fa:آناتولی]] [[fr:Anatolie]] [[gl:Anatolia]] [[ko:소아시아]] [[hr:Anatolija]] [[id:Anatolia]] [[is:Anatólía]] [[it:Anatolia]] [[he:אסיה הקטנה]] [[ku:Anatoliya]] [[la:Asia Minor]] [[lb:Anatolien]] [[nl:Anatolië]] [[nds:Anatolien]] [[ja:アナトリア半島]] [[ka:ანატოლია]] [[no:Anatolia]] [[pl:Anatolia (Turcja)]] [[pt:Anatólia]] [[ru:Малая Азия]] [[simple:Asia Minor]] [[sl:Anatolija]] [[fi:Anatolia]] [[sv:Anatolien]] [[th:อนาโตเลีย]] [[tr:Anadolu]] [[uk:Мала Азія]] [[zh:安那托利亚]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Abiotic</title> <id>855</id> <revision> <id>15899369</id> <timestamp>2005-03-13T01:44:12Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Woohookitty</username> <id>159678</id> </contributor> <comment>Fix Double Redirect - [[WP:WS|Please help out by clicking here to fix someone else's Wiki syntax]].</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Ecology]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Apple Computer</title> <id>856</id> <revision> <id>42159476</id> <timestamp>2006-03-04T05:21:49Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Hohohob</username> <id>354391</id> </contributor> <comment>/* Current products */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{applecomputer}} &lt;!--Please keep this article focused on the company. Try to refrain from turning this into an article on their products or innovations, except when relevant to the manufacturers. Although not terribly long, any reduction in length that does not hurt content is nice.--&gt; '''Apple Computer, Inc. '''({{nasdaq|AAPL}} and {{lse|ACP}}) is an [[United States|American]] [[computer]] technology company. Its headquarters are located at 1 [[Infinite Loop (street)|Infinite Loop]], [[Cupertino, California|Cupertino]], [[California]], part of [[Silicon Valley]]. Apple was a major player in the [[personal computer]] revolution in the 1970s. The [[Apple II]] [[microcomputer]], introduced in 1977, was a hit with home users. In 1983, Apple introduced the first commercial personal computer to use a [[graphical user interface]] (GUI), the [[Apple Lisa|Lisa]]. In 1984, Apple introduced the revolutionary [[Apple Macintosh|Macintosh]]. The Macintosh (commonly called the &quot;Mac&quot;) was the first successful commercial implementation of a GUI, which is now used in all major computers. Apple is known for its innovative, well-designed hardware and software, such as the [[Apple iPod | iPod]] and the [[iMac]], as well as the well-known [[iTunes]] application (part of the [[iLife]] suite) and [[Mac OS X]], its current [[operating system]]. ==History== {{main|History of Apple Computer}} ===1976 to 1980 - The founding of Apple=== Apple Computer was founded in [[Los Gatos, California]] on [[April 1]], [[1976]] by [[Steve Jobs]], [[Steve Wozniak]] and [[Ronald Wayne]], to sell the [[Apple I]] personal computer kit at $666.66. They were hand-built in Jobs' parents' garage, and the Apple I was first shown to the public at the [[Homebrew Computer Club]]. Jobs and Wozniak, (&quot;the two Steves&quot;) had been friends since 1971. Jobs managed to interest Wozniak in assembling a personal computer and selling it. Jobs approached a local computer store, The Byte Shop, who, after Jobs' famous persuasion, ordered fifty units and paid $500 for each unit. Jobs then ordered components from Cramer Electronics, a national electronic parts distributor. Using a variety of methods, including borrowing space from friends and family and selling various items including a [[VW Type 2|Volkswagen Type 2 bus]], Jobs managed to secure the parts needed while Wozniak and another friend, [[Ronald Wayne]], assembled the Apple I. They were delivered in June, and paid for on delivery. Eventually 200 Apple I computers were built. Note that the original Apple I was actually a motherboard, it was not a full computer as we know it today. The [[Apple II]] was introduced on [[April 16]], [[1977]] at the first [[West Coast Computer Faire]]. It was popular with home users and was occasionally sold to business users, particularly after the release of the first spreadsheet for any computer called [[VisiCalc]]. (See the timeline for dates of Apple II family model releases&amp;mdash;the 1977 Apple II and its younger siblings, the II Plus, IIe, IIc and IIGS.) But it was a mild success for the small computer company. By now, Jobs and his partners had a staff of computer designers and a production line. The Apple II was succeeded by the [[Apple III]] in May 1980 as the company struggled to compete against [[IBM]] and [[Microsoft]] in the lucrative business and corporate computing market. The designers of the Apple III were forced to comply with Jobs' request to omit the cooling fan, and this ultimately resulted in thousands of recalled units due to overheating. An updated version was introduced in 1983 but it was also a failure due to bad press and discouraged buyers. Nevertheless, the principals of the company persevered with further innovations and marketing. Jobs and several other Apple employees including [[Jef Raskin]] visited [[Xerox PARC]] in December 1979, to see the [[Alto (computer)|Alto computer]]. Xerox granted Apple engineers three days of access to the PARC facilities in return for selling them one million dollars in pre-[[IPO]] Apple stock (approximately $18 million net). ===1981 to 1989 - Lisa and Macintosh=== [[Image:Ad_apple_1984.jpg|left|thumb|250px|The protagonist of Apple's well known [[1984 (television commercial)|1984 ad]], set in a [[dystopia]]n future modeled after the [[Orwellian]] novel [[Nineteen Eighty-Four]].]] In the early 1980s, IBM and Microsoft continued to gain market share at Apple's expense in the personal computer industry. Using a fundamentally different business model, [[IBM]] marketed an open hardware standard created with the [[IBM PC]], which was bundled with [[Microsoft]]'s [[MS-DOS]] (MicroSoft-Disk Operating System). In 1983, Apple introduced the first [[personal computer]] to be sold to the public with a [[graphical user interface]] (GUI), named the [[Apple Lisa|Lisa]]. Using a GUI, the user communicates with the computer by interacting with icons onscreen that resemble real-world items (folders, documents, images). However, the Lisa was a commercial failure as a result of its high price tag ($9995) and limited software titles. After the Lisa, Apple began work on a similar but less expensive computer to be called the [[Apple Macintosh|Macintosh]]. It was launched in 1984 with the now famous [[1984 (television commercial)|Super Bowl advertisement]] based on [[George Orwell]]'s novel ''[[1984 (novel)|1984]]''. It was an immediate success, particularly in the world of graphic and communications design, where its [[GUI]] (which was to become the industry standard) and ability to handle large graphic files surpassed anything else on the market. The Macintosh also spawned the concept of [[Apple evangelist|Mac evangelism]] among users, which was pioneered by Apple employee and later Apple Fellow, [[Guy Kawasaki]]. In anticipation of the Macintosh launch, [[Bill Gates]], co-founder and chairman of [[Microsoft]], was given several Macintosh prototypes in 1983 to develop software for the &quot;Mac&quot;. In 1985, Microsoft launched [[Microsoft Windows]], with its own GUI for IBM PCs using many of the elements of the Macintosh OS. An internal power struggle developed between Jobs and new CEO [[John Sculley]] in 1985. Apple's board of directors sided with Sculley, and Jobs was asked to resign from the company. Jobs then founded [[NeXT]] Inc., a computer company that built machines with futuristic designs and ran the UNIX-derived [[NEXTSTEP|NeXTstep]] operating system. Although powerful, NeXT computers never caught on with buyers, due in part to their high purchase price. ===1990 to 1993 - PowerBook and decline=== Having learned several painful lessons after introducing the bulky [[Macintosh Portable]] in 1989, Apple turned to industrial designers and adopted a product strategy based in three portable devices. One portable was built by [[Sony]], which had a strong reputation for designing small, durable and functional electronics devices. Sony took the specs of the Mac Portable, put in a smaller two-hour battery, a much smaller (physically) twenty [[megabyte]] [[Hard disk|hard drive]] and a smaller nine-inch [[Liquid crystal display|passive matrix screen]]. Called the [[Powerbook|PowerBook 100]], this landmark product was introduced in 1991 and established the modern form and [[ergonomics|ergonomic]] layout of the [[laptop computer]]. This solidified Apple's reputation as a quality manufacturer, both of desktop and now portable machines. The success of the PowerBook and several other Apple products during this period led to increasing revenue. The [[magazine]] ''[[MacAddict]]'' named the period between 1989 to 1991 the &quot;first golden age&quot; of the Macintosh. This golden age was not to last. The introduction of [[Microsoft Windows]] presented an interface that many people thought was close enough to the Macintosh in terms of ease of use and overall look and feel. Apple thought that Windows was ''too'' close, and sued [[Microsoft]] for theft of intellectual property. At about the same time, Apple branched out into consumer electronics. One example of this product diversification was the [[Apple QuickTake]] digital camera (which never caught on). A more famous example was the [[Apple Newton|Newton]], an early [[Personal digital assistant|PDA]] that was introduced in 1993. Though it failed commercially, it defined and launched the new category of computing and was a forerunner and inspiration of devices such as [[BlackBerry]], [[Palm Pilot]] and its descendants-[[PocketPC]]s. During the 1990s, Apple greatly expanded its computer lineup as well. It offered a multitude of different models, yet it failed to adequately
], and [[Eridanus (constellation)|Eridanus]]. == Notable features == This constellation's most notable [[star]] is [[Mira]] (&amp;omicron; Ceti), the first [[variable star]] to be discovered. Over a period of 331.65 days it can reach a maximum magnitude as high as magnitude 2.0, one of the brightest in the sky and easily visible to the unaided eye, then drop to 10.1 and back again. Its discovery in [[1596]] by [[David Fabricius]] further dented the supposed unchangeability of the heavens and lent support to the [[Nicolaus Copernicus|Copernican revolution]]. Other stars in the constellation include [[Alpha Ceti|&amp;alpha; Ceti]] (Menkar); [[Beta Ceti|&amp;beta; Ceti]] (Deneb Kaitos), brightest in the constellation; and [[Tau Ceti|&amp;tau; Ceti]], the [[List of nearest stars|17th closest star to Earth]]. The [[ecliptic]] passes close to the constellation boundary of Cetus, and thus planets may be in this constellation for brief periods of time. This is even more true of asteroids, whose orbits usually have a greater [[inclination]] to the ecliptic than planets. The [[asteroid]] [[4 Vesta]] was discovered in this constellation in [[1807]]. == Notable [[deep sky object]]s == Cetus lies far from the [[galactic plane]], so many distant [[galaxy|galaxies]] are visible, unobscured by dust from the [[Milky Way]]. Of these, the brightest is M77, a 9th-magnitude [[spiral galaxy]] near [[Delta Ceti|&amp;delta; Ceti]]. == History and Mythology == This constellation has been known since antiquity. In Mesopotamia, it was identified with the primordial cosmic female principle, the sea-monster [[Tiamat]]. In [[Greek mythology]], together with the constellations above it, ([[Andromeda (constellation)|Andromeda]], [[Cepheus (constellation)|Cepheus]], [[Perseus (constellation)|Perseus]], [[Cassiopeia (constellation)|Cassiopeia]], and possibly [[Pegasus (constellation)|Pegasus]]), this may be the source of the myth of the [[Boast of Cassiopeia]], with which it is usually identified. In certain earlier Greek mythology, it also represented the gates (and gateposts) of the underworld (considered to be the area under the [[ecliptic]]). As such, together with other features in the [[Zodiac]] sign of [[Pisces]] (including Pisces itself, as well as prominent stars behind Cetus), it may have formed the basis of the myth of the capture of [[Cerberus]] in [[The Twelve Labours]] of [[Herakles]]. ==Stars== :Stars with proper names: :* ([[Alpha Ceti|92/&amp;alpha; Cet]]) 2.54 '''Menkar''' or '''Menkab''' [''Mekab''] or '''''Monkar''''' :*: &lt; &amp;#1605;&amp;#1606;&amp;#1582;&amp;#1585; ''minxar'' nostril :*: &lt; &amp;#1605;&amp;#1606;&amp;#1603;&amp;#1576; ''minkab'' shoulder :*: &lt; (?) &amp;#1605;&amp;#1606;&amp;#1602;&amp;#1575;&amp;#1585; ''minq&amp;#257;r'' peak (snout) :* ([[Beta Ceti|16/&amp;beta; Cet]]) 2.04 '''Diphda''' [''Difda al Thani''] or '''''Deneb Kaitos''''' or '''''Rana Secunda''''' :*: &lt; &amp;#1575;&amp;#1604;&amp;#1590;&amp;#1601;&amp;#1583;&amp;#1593; &amp;#1575;&amp;#1604;&amp;#1579;&amp;#1575;&amp;#1606;&amp;#1610; ''a&amp;#273;&amp;#807;-&amp;#273;&amp;#807;ifda&lt;sup&gt;c&lt;sup&gt; a&amp;#952;-&amp;#952;&amp;#257;n&amp;#299;'' The second frog :*: &lt; &amp;#1584;&amp;#1606;&amp;#1576; ''ðanab'' Tail [of Cetus] :* ([[Gamma Ceti|86/&amp;gamma; Cet]]) 3.47 '''Kaffaljidhmah''' [''Al Kaff al Jidhma''] :*: &lt; &amp;#1575;&amp;#1604;&amp;#1603;&amp;#1601; &amp;#1575;&amp;#1604;&amp;#1580;&amp;#1584;&amp;#1605;&amp;#1575;&amp;#1569; ''al-kaf al-jaðm&amp;#257;´'' The lepered (?) hand [reaching from the [[Pleiades]]] :* ([[Zeta Ceti|55/&amp;zeta; Cet]]) 3.73 '''Baten Kaitos''' :*: &lt; &amp;#1576;&amp;#1591;&amp;#1606; ''ba&amp;#355;n'' belly + &amp;#954;&amp;#942;&amp;#964;&amp;#959;&amp;#962; whale :* ([[Eta Ceti|31/&amp;eta; Cet]]) 3.46 '''''Deneb Algenubi''''' [''Dheneb, Deneb''] :*: &lt; &amp;#1575;&amp;#1604;&amp;#1584;&amp;#1606;&amp;#1576; &amp;#1575;&amp;#1604;&amp;#1580;&amp;#1606;&amp;#1608;&amp;#1576;&amp;#1610; ''að-ðanab al-jan&amp;#363;biyy'' The southern fluke :* ([[Iota Ceti|8/&amp;iota; Cet]]) 3.56 '''Schemali''' [Deneb Kaitos Shemali] :*: &lt; &amp;#1584;&amp;#1606;&amp;#1576; &amp;#1603;&amp;#1575;&amp;#1610;&amp;#1578;&amp;#1608;&amp;#1587; &amp;#1575;&amp;#1604;&amp;#1588;&amp;#1605;&amp;#1575;&amp;#1604;&amp;#1610; ''ðanab k&amp;#257;yt&amp;#363;s aš-šam&amp;#257;liyy'' The northern fluke of Cetus :* ([[Lambda Ceti|91/&amp;lambda; Cet]]) (or ''Menkar'', see [[Alpha Ceti|&amp;alpha; Cet]]) 4.71 :* (68/&amp;omicron; Cet) ~2.00 '''[[Mira]]''' [Mira Ceti] or '''''Collum Ceti''''' &amp;ndash; [[Mira variable]] prototype :*: &lt; ''stella m&amp;#299;ra'' The wondrous star :* ([[Pi Ceti|89/&amp;pi; Cet]]) '''''Al Sadr al Ketus''''' :*: &lt; &amp;#1589;&amp;#1583;&amp;#1585; ''&amp;#351;adr'' chest + &amp;#954;&amp;#942;&amp;#964;&amp;#959;&amp;#962; Chest of Cetus :* (52/&amp;tau; Cet) '''[[Tau Ceti]]''' 3.49 &amp;ndash; nearby; has a circumstellar disk :* ([[Psi Ceti|&amp;psi; Cet]]) '''''Al Nitham''''' :*: &lt; &amp;#1575;&amp;#1604;&amp;#1606;&amp;#1592;&amp;#1575;&amp;#1605; ''an-niz&amp;#807;&amp;#257;m'' The arrangement/string (of pearls/stones/stars) ::* [[Psi1 Ceti|17/&amp;psi;&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;sup&gt; Cet]] 4.77 ::* [[Psi2 Ceti|19/&amp;psi;&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;sup&gt; Cet]] 5.17 ::* [[Psi3 Ceti|22/&amp;psi;&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;sup&gt; Cet]] 5.35 ::* [[Psi4 Ceti|23/&amp;psi;&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;sup&gt; Cet]] 5.62 :Stars with Bayer designations: :: [[Delta Ceti|82/&amp;delta; Cet]] 4.08; [[Epsilon Ceti|83/&amp;epsilon; Cet]] 4.83; [[Theta Ceti|45/&amp;theta; Cet]] 3.60; [[Kappa Ceti|96/&amp;kappa; Cet]] 4.84 &amp;ndash; nearby; [[Mu Ceti|87/&amp;mu; Cet]] 4.27; [[Nu Ceti|78/&amp;nu; Cet]] 4.87; [[Xi1 Ceti|65/&amp;xi;&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt; Cet]] 4.36; [[Xi2 Ceti|73/&amp;xi;&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; Cet]] 4.30; [[Rho Ceti|72/&amp;rho; Cet]] 4.88; [[Sigma Ceti|76/&amp;sigma; Cet]] 4.74; [[Chi Ceti|53/&amp;chi; Cet]] 4.66; [[Upsilon Ceti|59/&amp;upsilon; Cet]] 3.99 :Stars with Flamsteed designations: :: [[1 Ceti|1 Cet]] 6.28; [[2 Ceti|2 Cet]] 4.55; [[3 Ceti|3 Cet]] 4.99; [[4 Ceti|4 Cet]] 6.43; [[5 Ceti|5 Cet]] 6.18; [[6 Ceti|6 Cet]] 4.89; [[7 Ceti|7 Cet]] 4.44; [[9 Ceti|9/BE Cet]] 6.39 &amp;ndash; variable; [[10 Ceti|10 Cet]] 6.16; [[12 Ceti|12 Cet]] 5.72; [[13 Ceti|13 Cet]] 5.20; [[14 Ceti|14 Cet]] 5.94; [[15 Ceti|15 Cet]] 6.64; [[18 Ceti|18 Cet]] 6.15; [[20 Ceti|20 Cet]] 4.78; [[21 Ceti|21 Cet]] 6.15; [[25 Ceti|25 Cet]] 5.40; [[26 Ceti|26 Cet]] 6.06; [[27 Ceti|27 Cet]] 6.09; [[28 Ceti|28 Cet]] 5.58; [[29 Ceti|29 Cet]] 6.44; [[30 Ceti|30 Cet]] 5.71; [[32 Ceti|32 Cet]] 6.40; [[33 Ceti|33 Cet]] 5.97; [[34 Ceti|34 Cet]] 5.93; [[35 Ceti|35 Cet]] 6.55; [[37 Ceti|37 Cet]] 5.14; [[38 Ceti|38 Cet]] 5.70; [[39 Ceti|39 Cet]] 5.42; [[40 Ceti|40 Cet]] 6.52; [[42 Ceti|42 Cet]] 5.87; [[43 Ceti|43 Cet]] 6.50; [[44 Ceti|44 Cet]] 6.21; [[46 Ceti|46 Cet]] 4.90; [[47 Ceti|47 Cet]] 5.51; [[48 Ceti|48 Cet]] 5.11; [[49 Ceti|49 Cet]] 5.62; [[50 Ceti|50 Cet]] 5.41; [[54 Ceti|54 Cet]] 5.92; [[56 Ceti|56 Cet]] 4.92; [[57 Ceti|57 Cet]] 5.43; [[58 Ceti|58 Cet]] 6.52; [[58 Ceti|58 Cet]] 8.83; [[60 Ceti|60 Cet]] 5.42; [[61 Ceti|61 Cet]] 5.96; [[63 Ceti|63 Cet]] 5.94; [[64 Ceti|64 Cet]] 5.64; [[66 Ceti|66 Cet]] 5.65; [[67 Ceti|67 Cet]] 5.51; [[69 Ceti|69 Cet]] 5.29; [[70 Ceti|70 Cet]] 5.42; [[71 Ceti|71 Cet]] 6.34; [[75 Ceti|75 Cet]] 5.36; [[77 Ceti|77 Cet]] 5.74; [[79 Ceti|79 Cet]] 6.83 &amp;ndash; has a planet; [[80 Ceti|80 Cet]] 5.53; [[81 Ceti|81 Cet]] 5.65; [[84 Ceti|84 Cet]] 5.72; [[85 Ceti|85 Cet]] 6.32; [[93 Ceti|93 Cet]] 5.62; [[94 Ceti|94 Cet]] 5.07 &amp;ndash; has a planet; [[95 Ceti|95 Cet]] 5.62; [[97 Ceti|97 Cet]] 5.70 :Other notable stars: :* [[Luyten 726-8]] &amp;ndash; nearby ::* [[UV Ceti]] 12.57 &amp;ndash; flare star ::* [[BL Ceti]] 12.70 &amp;ndash; variable :* [[HD 12039|DK Ceti]] 8.11 &amp;ndash; variable; asteroid belt :* [[YZ Ceti]] 12.05 &amp;ndash; variable {{ConstellationsListedByPtolemy}} {{ConstellationList}} == External links == {{Commons|Cetus}} * [http://www.allthesky.com/constellations/cetus/ The Deep Photographic Guide to the Constellations: Cetus] [[Category:Cetus constellation| ]] [[ca:Balena (constel·lació)]] [[cs:Velryba (souhvězdí)]] [[da:Hvalfisken]] [[de:Walfisch (Sternbild)]] [[es:Cetus]] [[fr:Baleine (constellation)]] [[ga:An Míol Mór]] [[ko:고래자리]] [[id:Cetus]] [[it:Cetus]] [[la:Cetus (sidus)]] [[lt:Banginis (astronomija)]] [[nl:Walvis (sterrenbeeld)]] [[ja:くじら座]] [[nn:Kvalfisken]] [[pl:Wieloryb (gwiazdozbiór)]] [[pt:Cetus]] [[ru:Кит (созвездие)]] [[sk:Súhvezdie Veľryba]] [[fi:Valaskala]] [[sv:Valfisken (stjärnbild)]] [[th:กลุ่มดาวซีตัส]] [[zh:鯨魚座]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Carina (constellation)</title> <id>6363</id> <revision> <id>38843709</id> <timestamp>2006-02-09T00:19:40Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>GrinBot</username> <id>411872</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>robot Adding: hu</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Constellation| name = Carina | abbreviation = Car | genitive = Carinae | symbology = the Keel (of the [[Argo Navis]]) | RA = 9 | dec= &amp;minus;60 | areatotal = 494 | arearank = 34th | numberstars = 5 | starname = [[Canopus (star)|Canopus]] (&amp;alpha; Car)&lt;br&gt; | starmagnitude = &amp;minus;0.7 | meteorshowers = *[[Alpha Carinids]] *[[Eta Carinids]] | bordering = *[[Vela (constellation)|Vela]] *[[Puppis]] *[[Pictor]] *[[Volans]] *[[Chamaeleon]] *[[Musca]] *[[Centaurus]] | latmax = 20 | latmin = 90 | month = March | notes=}} '''Carina''' ([[Latin]] for ''[[keel]]'') is a southern [[constellation]] which forms part of the old constellation of [[Argo Navis]]. It contains [[Canopus (star)|Canopus]], the second brightest [[star]] in the night sky, and the supermassive star [[eta Carinae]] which is embedded in the naked eye visible [[Carina Nebula]] [[NGC]] 3372. ==Stars== :Stars with proper names: :* (&amp;alpha;
icle name --&gt; |- | [[Chemical formula]] | C&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; |- | Other names | Ethyne, Ethine |- | [[Molecular mass]] | 26.0373 g/mol |- | [[CAS registry number|CAS number]] | 74-86-2 |- | [[Density]] | 1.09670E-03 g/cm&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt; |- | [[Melting point]] | -84 °C |- | [[Boiling point]] | -80.8 °C |- | [[Simplified molecular input line entry specification|SMILES]] | C#C |- {{PubChem Row|6326}} |- {{EINECS Row|200-816-9}} |- | {{chembox header}} | &lt;small&gt;[[wikipedia:Chemical infobox|Disclaimer and references]]&lt;/small&gt; |- |} The [[chemical compound]] and [[alkyne|unsaturated]] [[hydrocarbon]] '''acetylene''', also known under [[IUPAC nomenclature]] (see [[IUPAC nomenclature of organic chemistry]]) as '''ethyne''', was discovered in 1836 by [[Edmund Davy]], in [[England]]. ==Preparation== The principal raw materials for acetylene manufacture are [[calcium carbonate]] ([[limestone]]) and [[coal]]. The calcium carbonate is first converted into calcium oxide and the coal into [[coke (fuel)|coke]], then the two are reacted with each other to form [[calcium carbide]] and [[carbon monoxide]]: :CaO + 3C &amp;rarr; CaC&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; + CO Calcium carbide (or calcium acetylide) and water are then reacted by any of several methods to produce acetylene and [[calcium hydroxide]]. :CaC&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; + 2H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O &amp;rarr; Ca(OH)&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; + C&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; Acetylene can also be manufactured by the partial [[combustion]] of [[methane]] with [[oxygen]], or by the [[Cracking (chemistry)|cracking]] of [[hydrocarbon|hydrocarbons]]. ==Safety and handling== ===Compression=== Acetylene can explode with extreme violence if the pressure of the gas exceeds about 100 kPa as a gas or when in liquid or solid form, so it is shipped and stored dissolved in [[acetone]]. The majority of acetylene's chemical energy is contained in the carbon-carbon triple bond. ===Toxic effects=== Inhaling acetylene may cause dizziness, headache and nausea&lt;ref name=&quot;HitCL&quot;&gt;Muir, GD (ed.) 1971, ''Hazards in the Chemical Laboratory'', The Royal Institute of Chemistry, London.&lt;/ref&gt;. It may also contain toxic impurities: the [http://www.cganet.com/publication_detail.asp?id=G-1.1 Compressed Gas Association Commodity Specification for acetylene] has established a grading system for identifying and quantifying [[phosphine]], [[arsine]], and [[hydrogen sulfide]] content in commercial grades of acetylene in order to limit exposure to these impurities. ===Fire hazard=== Mixtures with air containing between 3% and 82% acetylene are explosive on ignition. The minimum ignition temperature is 335°C.&lt;ref name=&quot;HitCL&quot; /&gt; ==Reactions== Above 400 °C (which is quite low for a hydrocarbon), the [[pyrolysis]] of acetylene will start. The main products are the [[dimer]] [[vinylacetylene]] (C&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;) and [[benzene]]. At temperatures above 900 °C, the main product will be [[soot]]. Polymerization with [[Ziegler-Natta catalyst]]s produces [[polyacetylene]] films. ==Uses== Approximately 80 percent of the acetylene produced annually in the [[United States]] is used in chemical synthesis. The remaining 20 percent is used primarily for [[oxyacetylene]] [[gas welding]] and [[blowtorch|cutting]]. Combustion with oxygen produces a flame of over 3300°C, releasing 11,800 [[Joule|J]]/g. Acetylene is also used in the [[carbide lamp|acetylene ('carbide') lamp]], formerly found in mines (not to be confused with the [[Davy lamp]]), and on vintage [[automobile|cars]]; it is still sometimes used by [[spelunker]]s. In this context, the acetylene is generated by adding [[calcium carbide]] (CaC&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;) pellets to [[water]]. In former times a few towns used acetylene for lighting, including [[Tata_(Hungary)|Tata]] in [[Hungary]] where it was installed on [[24 July]] [[1897]], and [[North Petherton]], [[England]] in 1898. Nowadays acetylene is used for [[carburization]] (that is, [[carburization|hardening]]) of [[steel]]. Research in the last ten years has concluded that acetylene is the best hydrocarbon available for this purpose. Acetylene has been proposed as a carbon feedstock for [[Molecular Manufacturing]] using Nanotechnology. Since it does not occur naturally, using acetylene could limit out-of-control self-replication. ==Other meanings== Sometimes the plural &quot;acetylenes&quot; is used to more generally mean organic chemical compounds that contain the -C&lt;u&gt;=&lt;/u&gt;C= group: see [[-yne]]. ==References== &lt;!--See [[Wikipedia:Footnotes]] for an explanation of how to generate footnotes using the &lt;ref(erences/)&gt; tags--&gt; &lt;references/&gt; ==External links== * [http://jchemed.chem.wisc.edu/JCESoft/CCA/CCA5/MAIN/1ORGANIC/ORG07/MENU.HTM Acetylene at Chemistry Comes Alive!] * {{gutenberg|name=Acetylene, the Principles of Its Generation and Use|no=8144}} [[Category:Alkynes]] [[ca:Acetilè]] [[da:Acetylen]] [[de:Ethin]] [[el:Αιθίνιο]] [[es:Acetileno]] [[eo:Acetileno]] [[fr:Acétylène]] [[it:Acetilene]] [[hu:Acetilén]] [[nl:Acetyleen]] [[ja:アセチレン]] [[pl:Etyn]] [[pt:Acetileno]] [[sk:Acetylén]] [[sr:Ацетилен]] [[fi:Asetyleeni]] [[sv:Etyn]] [[zh:乙炔]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Alfred</title> <id>1779</id> <revision> <id>31644715</id> <timestamp>2005-12-16T19:48:35Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>81.153.10.145</ip> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Alfred''' is the name of some places in the [[United States|United States of America]]: *[[Alfred, Maine]] *[[Alfred, New York]] (village) *[[Alfred (town), New York |Alfred, New York]] (town) and in [[Canada]]: *[[Alfred, Ontario]] There are also: *[[Alfred the Great]], king of [[Wessex]] and first king of [[England]] *[[Alfred Hitchcock]] *[[Alfred Nobel]], the inventor of [[dynamite]]. *[[Alfred Pennyworth]], Bruce Wayne's ([[Batman]]) butler *[[Alfred State College]] (in [[New York]] State) *[[Alfred University]] (in [[New York]] State) *[[Alfred Rosenberg]] *[[Alfred (masque)]], [[Thomas Augustine Arne]]'s ''[[Masque]] of Alfred'' (known for &quot;[[Rule Britannia]]&quot;) *[[King Alfred Chair of English Literature]] (at the [[University of Liverpool]]) *[[The Alfred Hospital]] in [[Melbourne]], [[Australia]] ==Note== Alfred University (NY) , Alfred State College (NY), the town Alfred (NY), Arne's ''Masque of Alfred'' and Liverpool's King Alfred Chair of English Literature are all named after Alfred the Great. '''Alfred''' is also a [[Computer and video games|video game]] [[fictional character|character]] from the [[Fatal Fury]] series. '''Alfred''' is also the name by which the personnel of the [[Charles de Gaulle International Airport]] in Paris calls [[Merhan Karimi Nasseri]], who has been living in the departure hall of Terminal 1 since 1988. {{disambig}} [[de:Alfred]] [[eo:Alfredo]] [[fr:Alfred]] [[hu:Alfréd]] [[pl:Alfred]] [[sk:Alfréd]] [[sv:Alfred]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>August 28</title> <id>1781</id> <revision> <id>42113144</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T22:29:49Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Rklawton</username> <id>754622</id> </contributor> <comment>rv silliness</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{| style=&quot;float:right;&quot; |- |{{AugustCalendar}} |- |{{ThisDateInRecentYears|Month=August|Day=28}} |} '''[[August 28]]''' is the 240th day of the year in the Gregorian Calendar (241st in leap years), with 125 days remaining. ==Events== *[[475]] - The Pannonian general [[Orestes (Roman soldier)|Orestes]] forces western [[Roman Emperors|Roman Emperor]] [[Julius Nepos]] to flee his capital of [[Ravenna]] and appoints [[Romulus Augustus]] in his place. *[[489]] - [[Theodoric the Great|Theodoric]], king of the [[Ostrogoths]] defeats [[Odoacer]] at the [[Battle of Isonzo (489)|Battle of Isonzo]], forcing his way into Italy. *[[1521]] - The [[Turkey|Turks]] occupy [[Belgrade]] *[[1542]] - Reinforced with at least 600 arquebusiers and cavalry, Imam [[Ahmad Gragn]] attacks the Portuguese camp in the [[Battle of Wofla]]. The Portuguese are scattered, their leader [[Christovão da Gama]] captured and afterwards executed. *[[1565]] - [[St. Augustine, Florida]], established. It is the oldest surviving European settlement in the [[United States]]. *[[1609]] - [[Henry Hudson]] discovers [[Delaware Bay]]. *[[1619]] - [[Ferdinand II of Germany|Ferdinand II]] is elected emperor of the [[Holy Roman Empire]]. *[[1830]] - The ''[[Tom Thumb]]'' presages the first railway service in the United States. *[[1845]] - ''[[Scientific American]]'' magazine publishes its first issue *[[1849]] - After a month-long siege, [[Venice]], which had declared itself independent, surrenders to [[Austria]]. *[[1850]] - [[Richard Wagner]]'s opera ''[[Lohengrin (opera)|Lohengrin]]'' premieres in [[Weimar, Germany]]. *[[1862]] - [[Second Battle of Bull Run]], also known as the battle of Second Manassas *[[1867]] - The United States occupies [[Midway Island]]. *[[1879]] - [[Cetshwayo]], last king of the [[Zulu]]s, is captured by the British. *[[1884]] - First known photograph of a [[tornado]] is made. *[[1898]] - [[Caleb Bradham]] renames his carbonated soft drink &quot;[[Pepsi-Cola]]&quot;. *[[1907]] - [[UPS]] is founded by [[James E. (Jim) Casey]] in [[Seattle, Washington]]. *[[1913]] - [[Queen Wilhelmina]] opens the [[Peace Palace]] in [[The Hague]]. *[[1914]] - The [[Royal Navy|British fleet]] beats the German fleet in the [[Battle of Heligoland Bight]]. *[[1916]] - [[Germany]] declares war on [[Romania]]. *1916 - [[Italy]] declares war on Germany. *[[1917]] - Ten [[Suffragettes|suffragist]]s are arrested when picketing the [[White House]]. *[[1918]] - [[PFC Spartak Varna]] founded. *[[1937]] - [[Toyota]] Motors beco
disease in Europe between [[1347]] and [[1353]], but was remembered afterwards as the &quot;great&quot; plague because it was one of the last widespread outbreaks in Europe. ===Outbreak=== This episode of plague in Britain is thought to have arrived with Dutch trading ships carrying bales of [[cotton]] from [[Amsterdam]]. The disease had occurred intermittently in the [[Netherlands]] since 1654. The [[Dock (maritime)|dock]] areas outside of London, where poor workers crowded into ill-kempt districts, such as the parish of St. Giles-in-the Fields, were first struck by the plague. During the winter of 1664-65, there were reports of several deaths. However, the winter was very cold, seemingly controlling the contagion. But spring and summer months were unusually warm and sunny, and the plague spread rapidly. Records were not kept on the deaths of the very poor, so the first recorded case was Margaret Porteous, on [[April 12]], [[1665]]. By July 1665, plague was in the city of London itself. King [[Charles II of England]], his family and his court left the city for [[Oxford]]. However, the [[Lord Mayor]] of the city and the [[aldermen]] stayed at their posts. Businesses were closed when most wealthy merchants and professionals fled. Only a small number of [[clergymen]], [[physician]]s and [[apothecaries]] chose to remain, as the plague raged throughout the summer. Several [[public health]] efforts were attempted. Physicians were hired by city officials, and burial details were carefully organized. Authorities ordered fires to be kept burning night and day, in hopes that the air would be cleansed. Substances giving off strong odors, such as [[black pepper|pepper]], [[hops]] or [[frankincense]], were also burned to ward off the infection. London residents, including young children, were strongly urged to smoke [[tobacco]]. Though concentrated in London, the outbreak affected other areas of the country. Perhaps the most famous example was the village of [[Eyam]] in [[Derbyshire]]. The plague arrived in a parcel of cloth sent from London. The villagers imposed a quarantine on themselves to stop the further spread of the disease. Spread of the plague was slowed in surrounding areas, but the cost to the village was the death of around 50% of its inhabitants. Records state that deaths in London crept up to 1000 persons per week, then 2000 persons per week and, by September 1665, to 7000 persons per week. By late fall, the death toll began to slow until, in February 1666, it was considered safe enough for the King and his entourage to return to the city. By this time, however, trade with the European continent had spread this outbreak of plague to [[France]], where it died out the following winter. Plague cases continued at a modest pace until September 1666. On September 2nd and 3rd, the [[Great Fire of London]] destroyed many of the most crowded housing and business areas of the city, causing 16 deaths. This event seems to have effectively stopped the plague outbreak, probably due to the destruction of London rats and their plague-carrying fleas. After the fire, London was rebuilt on an urban plan originally drafted by [[architect]] [[Christopher Wren]] which included widened streets, reduced congestion and basic sewage-drainage systems. Thatched roofs (which had provided splendid places for rats to live) were also forbidden within the city, and remain forbidden under modern codes. The second rebuilding of the [[Globe Theatre]] in [[1997]] required a special permit to have a thatched roof. ===Literary accounts=== Accounts of the plague were given by [[Samuel Pepys]] in his famous [[diary]] (retold musically in [[Robert Steadman]]'s cantata &quot;Pepy's Diary&quot;), and by [[Daniel Defoe]] in the fictional work ''[[A Journal of the Plague Year]]'', published in 1722. In some people, wrote Defoe, ''&quot;...the plague swellings ... grew so painful ... not able to bear the torment, they ... threw themselves out of windows. Others, unable to contain themselves, vented their pain by incessant roarings. Such load and lamentable cries were to be heard as we walked along the streeets that would pierce the very heart to think of.&quot;&quot;'' A modern fictional story of the plague, ''Year of Wonders'', by Geraldine Brooks, was published in 2001. ==References== * Bell, Walter George. &quot;''The Great Plague in London in 1665''.&quot; London: John Lane, The Bodley Head, 1924. * [http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/17221 History of the Plague in England by Daniel Defoe] ===See also=== *[[Black Death]] *[[Bubonic Plague]] *[[Derby plague of 1665]] *[[Eyam]] *[[Ring-a-ring of roses]] *[[UK topics]] [[Category:Disasters in England]] [[Category:History of London]] [[Category:Pandemics]] [[Category:Epidemics]] [[cs:Velký mor (Londýn 1665)]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Great Fire of London</title> <id>12287</id> <revision> <id>42063942</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T15:39:08Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Bluewave</username> <id>427487</id> </contributor> <comment>rv attempt to blame the fire on Gregg's Bakery</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:GreatFireOfLondon1666_VictorianEngravingAfterVisscher300dpi.jpg|thumb|London, as it appeared from Bankside, Southwark, During the Great Fire &amp;mdash; Derived from a Print of the Period by Visscher]] The '''Great Fire of London''' was a major conflagration that swept through the [[City of London]] from [[September 2]] to [[September 5]] [[1666]], and resulted more or less in the destruction of the city. Before this fire, two [[early fires of London]], in [[1133]]/[[1135]] and [[1212]], both of which destroyed a large part of the city, were known by the same name. Later, the [[Luftwaffe]]'s fire-raid on the City on 29th December 1940 became known as [[The Second Great Fire of London]]. The fire of [[1666]] was one of the biggest calamities in the [[history of London]]. It destroyed 13,200 houses, 87 parish churches, 6 chapels, 44 [[Livery Company|Company]] Halls, the [[Royal Exchange (London)|Royal Exchange]], the Custom House, [[St Paul's Cathedral]], the [[Guildhall, London |Guildhall]], the [[Bridewell Palace]] and other City prisons, the Session House, four bridges across the rivers [[River Thames|Thames]] and [[River Fleet|Fleet]], and three city gates, and made homeless 100,000 people, one sixth of the city's inhabitants at that time. The death toll from the fire is unknown, and is traditionally thought to have been quite small, but a recent book theorizes that thousands may have died in the flames or [[smoke inhalation]]. ==Events== [[Image:london-gazette.gif|thumb|300px|'''The ''[[London Gazette]]'' ''', front page from Monday 3–10 September 1666, reporting on the [[Great Fire of London]]. (Click image to enlarge and read)]] The fire broke out on Sunday morning, [[September 2]], [[1666]]. It started in [[Pudding Lane]] at the house of Thomas Farynor, a [[baker]] to [[Charles II of England|King Charles II]]. It is likely that the fire started because Farynor forgot to extinguish his oven before retiring for the evening and that some time shortly after midnight, smouldering embers from the oven set alight some nearby firewood. Farynor managed to escape the burning building, along with his family, by climbing out through an upstairs window. The baker's housemaid failed to escape and became the fire's first victim. Within an hour of the fire starting, the [[Lord Mayor of London]], Sir [[Thomas Bloodworth]], was awakened with the news. He was unimpressed however, declaring that &quot;a woman might piss it out.&quot; Most buildings in [[London]] at this time were constructed of highly [[combustion|combustible]] materials like [[wood]] and [[straw]], and sparks emanating from the baker's shop fell onto an adjacent building. Fanned by a strong wind from the east, once the fire had taken hold it swiftly spread. The spread of the fire was helped by the fact that buildings were built very close together with only a narrow alley between them. According to a contemporary source: &lt;blockquote&gt; Then, then the city did shake indeed, and the inhabitants did tremble, and flew away in great amazement from their houses, lest the flames should devour them: ''rattle, rattle, rattle'', was the noise which the fire struck upon the ear round about, as if there had been a thousand iron chariots beating upon the stones. You might see the houses ''tumble, tumble, tumble'', from one end of the street to the other, with a great crash, leaving the foundations open to the view of the heavens. &lt;/blockquote&gt; The progress of the fire might have been stopped, but for the conduct of the Lord Mayor, who refused to give orders for pulling down some houses, ''without the consent of the owners''. Buckets were of no use, from the confined state of the streets. ==Destruction== The fire consumed a staggering 13,200 [[house]]s and 87 [[church]]es, among them the beloved [[St. Paul's Cathedral]], which at that time was St. Paul's Church. While only 9&amp;ndash;16 people were reported as having died in the fire, author Neil Hanson (''The Dreadful Judgement'') believes the true death toll numbered in the hundreds or the thousands. Hanson believes most of the fatalities were poor people whose bodies were [[cremated]] by the intense heat of the fire, and thus their remains were never found. These claims are controversial, however. The destructive fury of this conflagration is thought never to have been exceeded in the world, by an accidental fire. ''Within'' the walls, it consumed almost five-sixths of the whole city; and ''without'' the walls it cleared a space nearly as extensive as the one-sixth part left unburnt within. Scarcely a single building that came within the range of the flames was left standing. Public buildings, churches, and dwelling-houses,
ics]], two quantities are ''conjugates'' when they are linked by the [[Heisenberg uncertainty principle]], such as position and [[momentum]], or [[energy]] and duration. *In [[organic chemistry]], conjugation is the interaction between two carbon-carbon double bonds, increasing stability and thereby lowering the overall energy of the molecule. The system formed is called a [[conjugated system]]. *In [[metabolism]], conjugation is a [[biochemistry|biochemical]] process to bind a substance to an acid and thereby deactivating its biological activity, making it water-soluble, and facilitating its excretion. Thus [[steroid hormones]] can be excreted as sulfo or glucuro conjugates. * in [[thermodynamics]], it may refer to [[Conjugate variables (thermodynamics)|Conjugate variables]] :''To be merged:'' '''Conjugate''' can be: * in [[quantum physics]], two quantities are conjugates when they are linked by the [[Heisenberg uncertainty principle]], such as position and [[momentum]], or [[energy]] and duration * in [[chemistry]], [[Conjugate acid]] or conjugate base * in [[linguistics]], [[grammatical conjugation]] * in [[biology]], '''conjugation''' is [[sexual reproduction]] involving interchange of [[DNA]] between [[cell (biology)|cells]], rather than their fusion. Various forms of conjugation exist in different groups, such as [[bacterium|bacteria]] (see [[bacterial conjugation]]) and [[ciliate]]s. The term is usually applied only to microscopic life-forms. {{disambig}} [[ca:Conjugació]] [[de:Konjugation]] [[es:Conjugación]] [[ja:&amp;#20849;&amp;#36571;]] [[pl:Koniugacja]] [[pt:Conjugação]] [[sv:Konjugation]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Christians</title> <id>7282</id> <revision> <id>15905357</id> <timestamp>2004-12-29T17:15:05Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Netoholic</username> <id>41995</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>rvt</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Christian]] {{r from plural}}</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Controversy</title> <id>7283</id> <revision> <id>40906903</id> <timestamp>2006-02-23T20:34:37Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>69.159.165.218</ip> </contributor> <comment>removed what appeared to be vandalism in the opening line</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Wiktionary}} {{otheruses}} A '''controversy''' is an [[opinion]] or opinions over which parties are actively arguing. Controversies can range from private disputes between two to large scale disagreements. Present-day areas of controversy include [[religion]], [[politics]], [[war]], [[property]], [[social class]], [[tax|taxes]], and most recently in [[sports]]. Controversy in matters of [[theology]] has traditionally been particularly heated, giving rise to ''[[odium theologicum]]''. ==In law== In [[jurisprudence]], a controversy differs from a [[jurisprudence|case]]. While the latter includes all suits, [[criminal]] as well as [[Civil law (private law)|civil]], a conterversy is a purely civil proceeding. For example, the [[Constitution of the United States]] states that &quot;the judicial Power shall extend to ... Controversies to which the United States shall be a Party&quot; ([[Article Three of the United States Constitution|Article 3, Section 2]]). The meaning to be attached to the word ''Controversy'' in the constitution is that given above. ==In propaganda== The term is not always used in a purely descriptive way. The use of the word tends itself to create controversy where none may have authentically existed, acting as a [[self-fulfilling prophecy]]. [[Propaganda|Propagandists]], therefore, may employ it as a &quot;tar-brush,&quot; [[pejorative]]ly, and thus create a perceived atmosphere of controversy, discrediting the subject: ::&quot;Beatrix Potter's creation, Peter Rabbit...&quot; ::vs. ::&quot;Beatrix Potter's controversial creation, Peter Rabbit...&quot; Thus ''controversy'' may itself be judged controversial. ==In advertising== On the other hand, ''controversy'' is also used in [[advertising]] to try to draw attention to a product or idea by labeling it as controversial, even if the idea has become widely accepted to a given segment of the population. This strategy has been known to be especially successful in promoting [[books]] and [[film]]s. ==In early Christianity== Many of the early [[Christianity|Christian]] writers, among them [[Irenaeus]], [[Athanasius]], and [[Jerome]], were famed as &quot;controversialists&quot;; they wrote works against perceived [[heresy]] or heretical individuals, works whose titles begin &quot;Adversus...&quot; such as Irenaeus' ''Adversus haeresis.'' The Christian writers inherited from the classical [[rhetor]]s the conviction that controversial confrontations, even over trivial matters, were a demonstration of intellectual superiority. ==See also== {{selfref|In Wikipedia, see [[Wikipedia:List of controversial issues]] and [[Wikipedia:Guidelines for controversial articles]].}} * [[Benford's law of controversy]] * [[Succès de scandale]] * [[Amount in controversy]] * [[Case or controversy]] * [[:Category:Controversies]] * [[Media controversy]] * [[Video game controversy]] * [[Controversies in autism]], [[Controversies about functioning labels in the autism spectrum]] * [[Contesting controversies]] * [[Nobel Prize controversies]] * [[BBC controversies]] ==External link== * [http://www.freeglossary.com/Controversial_book Non-fiction books] Categorized bibliography of controversial issues and topics. [[Category:Interpersonal relationships]] [[Category:Legal terms]] [[de:Kontroverse]] [[et:Vaidlus]] [[simple:Dispute]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Centromere</title> <id>7284</id> <revision> <id>40193257</id> <timestamp>2006-02-18T21:42:56Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Eras-mus</username> <id>180998</id> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">The '''centromere''' functions in sister chromatid adhesion, kinteochore formation, pairing of homologous chromosomes and is involved in the control of gene expression. Aberrant centromeric function can lead to improper chromosomal alignment and segregation, resulting in aneuploidy and conditions such as Down syndrome. In most eukaryotes, the centromere has no defined [[DNA sequence]]. It typically consists of large arrays of repetitive DNA (eg, satellite DNA) where the sequence within individual repeat elements is similar but not identical. In humans, the primary centromeric repeat unit is called an &amp;alpha;-satellite, although a number of other sequence types are found in this region. However, repeats of &amp;alpha;-satellite are not sufficient to cause the assembly of a kinetochore, and there are functioning centromeres with no &amp;alpha;-satellite DNA. [[Epigenetic inheritance]] plays a major role in specifying the centromere in most organisms. The daughter chromosomes will assemble centromeres in the same place as the parent chromosome, independent of sequence. However, there must still be some original way in which the centromere is specified, even if it is subsequently propagated epigenetically. In rare cases in humans, neocentromeres can form at new sites on the chromosome. This must be coupled with the inactivation of the previous centromere since chromosomes with two functional centromeres (dicentric chromosomes) will result in chromosome breakage during mitosis. The centromeric DNA is normally in a [[heterochromatic|heterochromatin]] state, which is probably essential for its function. In this chromatin, the normal [[histone]] H3 is replaced with CENP-A, a centromere-specific variant (in S. cerevisiae, but similar specialized nucleosomes seem to be present in all eucaryotic cells). The presence of CENP-A is believed to be important for the assembly of the kinetochore on the centromere and may play a role in the epigenetic inheritance of the centromere site. In the yeast ''[[Schizosaccharomyces pombe]]'' (and probably in other eukaryotes), the formation of centromeric heterochromatin is connected to [[RNAi]]&lt;sup&gt;*&lt;/sup&gt;. In nematodes such as ''[[Caenorhabditis elegans]]'' and in some plants, chromosomes are &quot;holocentric&quot;, indicating that there is not a primary site of microtubule attachments or a primary constriction, and a &quot;diffuse&quot; kinetochore assembles along the entire length of the chromosome. In some unusual cases new human centromeres, '''neocentromeres''', have been observed to form spontaneously on fragmented chromosomes. Some of these new positions were originally euchromatic and lack alpha satellite DNA altogether. ==Related links== *[[Genetics]] *[[Cell biology]] == External links == *[http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2004/01/040111212949.htm Report about ''Nature Genetics'' article that centromere of rice genome carries active genes] *&lt;sup&gt;*&lt;/sup&gt; [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&amp;db=pubmed&amp;dopt=Abstract&amp;list_uids=12193640 ''Science''. 2002 Sep 13;297(5588):1818-9.] [[Category:Chromosomes]] [[de:Centromer]] [[es:Centrómero]] [[fr:Centromère]] [[hu:Centromer]] [[nl:Centromeer]] [[pl:Centromer]] [[pt:Centrómero]] [[sr:центромера]] [[zh:着丝粒]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Castello</title> <id>7287</id> <revision> <id>36946130</id> <timestamp>2006-01-27T14:35:06Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Warofdreams</username> <id>20855</id> </contributor> <comment>see also</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">:''For other uses, see [[Castello (disambiguation)]].'' '''Castello''' is the largest of the six [[sestiere (Venice)|sestieri]] of [[Venice]]. The district grew up from the [[thirteenth century]] around a [[navy|naval]] [[dockyard]] on what was originally the
h he asks Dave if he likes his Mac more than him (because Macs would not undergo the same potential problems with the &quot;[[Year 2000 problem]]&quot; that many other computer systems were expected to have). *In the Windows computer game ''[[Star Control]] 3'' the computer onboard the warp bubble transport spaceship resembles HAL 9000 almost exactly. The voice is also similar. *On the television series ''[[Recess (TV series)|Recess]]'', Principal Prickly installs a system much like HAL 9000 Even bearing HAL's counterpart's name SAL. *The film ''[[Independence Day (movie)|Independence Day]]'' features a scene where [[Jeff Goldblum]] (whose character's name is Dave) boots a [[PowerBook]] 5300 with the startup chime replaced with HAL 9000's voice: &quot;Good morning, Dave.&quot; *Douglas Rain has steadfastly refused to recreate the HAL 9000 voice outside of any ''2001''/''2010'' context, feeling a very protective obligation to the integrity of the computer's character. However, he parodies his famous performance in the [[Woody Allen]] comedy ''[[Sleeper (film)|Sleeper]]'' by providing the voice of the computer as well as some of the robot butlers. *[[9000 Hal|Asteroid number 9000]], discovered by [[E. L. G. Bowell]] in 1981, was eventually given the name &quot;Hal&quot;. *On ''[[The Simpsons]]'', during &quot;[[Treehouse of Horror XII]],&quot; there is a segment that has a character similar to HAL 9000, which was voiced by [[Pierce Brosnan]]. *On ''[[Stargate Atlantis]]'', a brief glimpse of HAL's &quot;eye&quot; can be seen in the episode &quot;The Intruder&quot;. *In the ''[[Futurama]]'' episode ''Love and Rocket'', the actions of the lovestruck Planet Express Ship (voiced by [[Sigourney Weaver]]) extensively parody those of HAL in several scenes. The ship even comments &quot;Oh! If only I could read lips!&quot; upon observing other characters secretly talking in the shower. The scene where HAL is disabled is modified to make the data module removal similar to opening soda cans. *In the computer game ''[[Startopia]]'' the player's primary assistant is a computer by the name of VAL, whose voice resembles that of HAL, and comments that he once had an owner by the name of Dave. *In the computer game ''[[Where in Space is Carmen Sandiego?]]'' the one-eyed computer encyclopedia is named VAL 9000. *In the webseries ''[[Red vs Blue]]'', Sheila the tank sings [[Daisy Bell]] as she dies, just like HAL 9000. She even says beforehand ,&quot;I'm scared, Dave. Will I dream?&quot; *[[HAL Laboratory]], a [[video game]] company based in [[Japan]], takes its name from HAL 9000. *A sentient refrigerator named CAL 900 features in the TV series ''[[Spaced]]''. *In an episode of [[South Park]] entitled &quot;[[Trapper Keeper (South Park)|Trapper Keeper]]&quot;, Kyle must stop Cartman and his [[Trapper Keeper]] from taking over the world. When Kyle enters Cartman/Trapper Keeper it resembles the brain room of HAL 9000 in ''2001: A Space Odyssey''. Cartman even utters the famous lines &quot;What are you doing, [Kyle]?&quot; and &quot;I'm afraid I can't let you do that,&quot; in a similar fashion to the sinister HAL 9000. * A computer similar to HAL appears in the adult film ''Space Nuts'', and refers to the &quot;Dark Overlord&quot; as &quot;Dave&quot; until shot at by the latter. * [[HAL/S]] is a real-time aerospace programming language, best known for its use in the Space Shuttle program. HAL officially stands for High-order Assembly Language, though the fictional HAL 9000 computer may well have been an inspiration. *In the episode of ''[[The Grim Adventures of Billy and Mandy]]'' titled &quot;The House of No Tomorrow,&quot; the Master Computer that controls the robots in the House of Tomorrow at Sassy Cat land has a voice similar to HAL. *In the British TV comedy series ''[[Red Dwarf]]'', the computer aboard the spaceship is called [[Holly (Red Dwarf)|Holly]] and the only surviving human on the ship is named Dave. *During a movie-break skit in an episode of ''[[Mystery Science Theater 3000]]'' in which they lampoon the movie ''[[Mitchell]]'', the robot Gypsy attempts to read the lips of Dr. Forrester and Frank, mocking HAL's famous lip-reading scene. *During one of the later episodes of the [[anime]] ''[[Ghost in the Shell]]'': Stand Alone Complex, the Major discusses the dismissal of the intelligent robot tanks, the Tachikoma, with her right-hand man, Batou. The Tachikoma, meanwhile, spy on them from above and read their lips, alluding to HAL's lip-reading scene. * On the video game ''Dr. Muto'', there is a computer system named AL, which has surprisingly similar voice to HAL 9000. However, AL also has his own personality and constantly mocks its creator, Dr, Muto. The game also hints AL taking full rebellion of the mad scientist, once the player finished the game. Sadly, that never happens at the end. AL is voiced by Wally Fields. *In the USA Channel's animated series ''[[Duckman]]'', Duckman (voiced by ''[[Seinfeld]]'''s [[Jason Alexander]]) destroys an evil supercomputer, and it begins singing &quot;Daisy, Daisy&quot;. *In the video game ''[[Red Faction]]'' by THQ, an orbital station the player boards has a level housing a set of computer rooms, each with the distinctive &quot;red blocks&quot; reminiscent of the memory blocks in the HAL brain room. *[[Anthony Hopkins]] claimed that HAL was the inspiration for his interpretation of the character [[Hannibal Lecter]]. *In [[General Protection Fault(comic)|General Protection Fault]]'s &quot;2001: A Space Oddity&quot; series, Nick tries out [[artificial intelligence]] hardware PAL. However, it acts condescendingly towards him, and, claiming that the toilet is running, locks him in the bathroom. Nick escapes and unplugs PAL, who re-enacts HAL's' famous &quot;daisy, daisy&quot; scene after Nick unplugs it. *The ''[[Care Bears]]'' feature ''[[Care Bears: Journey to Joke-a-lot]]'' includes a computer called &quot;Pal.&quot; The computer repatedly refers to the film's villain, Funnybone, as &quot;Dave.&quot; Later, Funnybone specifically asks the computer to &quot;open the pod bay doors&quot; and the computer responds by telling him &quot;I'm afraid I can't do that, Dave.&quot; ==See also== * [[Computers in fiction]] * [[Frank Poole]] ==External links== {{wikiquote}} * [http://www.imdb.com/Quotes?2001%3A+A+Space+Odyssey+(1968) Text excerpts from HAL 9000 in ''2001: A Space Odyssey''] * [http://www.suonoci.com/ninetriplezero HAL9000 Desktop Theme for older Macs] * [http://www.dailywav.com/numbers.php Audio soundbites from 2001: A Space Odyssey] * [http://mitpress.mit.edu/e-books/Hal/contents.html HAL's Legacy], on-line ebook (mostly full-text) of the printed version edited by David G. Stork, MIT Press, 1997, ISBN 0262692112 - a collection of essays on HAL * [http://www.2001halslegacy.com/interviews/clarke.html HAL's Legacy], ''An Interview with Arthur C. Clarke''. * [http://www.visual-memory.co.uk/amk/doc/0095.html the case for HAL's sanity by Clay Waldrop ] * [http://www.boraski.com/obelisk/cyberfest/s_virgshow.html &quot;2001&quot; fills the theater] at HAL 9000's &quot;birthday&quot; in 1997 at the [[University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign]] {{Spaceodyssey}} [[Category:Fictional computers]] [[Category:Film villains]] [[Category:Literature villains]] [[Category:Science fiction characters]] [[Category:Space Odyssey series]] [[de:HAL 9000]] [[es:HAL 9000]] [[fr:Hal 9000]] [[ja:HAL9000]] [[sr:ХАЛ 9000]] [[sv:HAL 9000]] [[tr:HAL 9000]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Hydrolysis</title> <id>14385</id> <revision> <id>41812225</id> <timestamp>2006-03-01T22:32:21Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>64.8.173.171</ip> </contributor> <comment>/* Hydrolysis of Cool pants */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Hydrolysis''' is a chemical process in which a [[molecule]] is split into two parts by the addition of a molecule of [[water]]. This is distinct from a [[hydration reaction]], in which water molecules are added to a substance, but no cleavage occurs. In [[organic chemistry]], hydrolysis can be considered as the opposite of [[condensation reaction |condensation]], in which two fragments are joined for each water molecule produced. As hydrolysis may be a reversible reaction, condensation and hydrolysis can take place at the same time, with the position of equilibrium determining the amount of each product. In [[inorganic chemistry]], the word is often applied to solutions of salts and the reactions by which they are converted to new ionic species or to precipitates (oxides, hydroxides, or salts). Some examples of hydrolysis are explained below. == Examples == === Hydrolysis of metal salts === Many metal ions are strong [[Lewis acid]]s, and in water they may undergo hydrolysis to form ''basic salts''. Such salts contain a [[hydroxyl]] group that is directly bound to the metal ion in place of a water [[ligand]]. For example, [[aluminium chloride]] undergoes extensive hydrolysis in water, such that the [[pH]] of the solution become quite acidic: [[Image:Al_ion_hydrolysis.gif|200px|Hydrolysis of a hydrated Al&lt;sup&gt;3+&lt;/sup&gt; ion]] This means that if solutions of AlCl&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt; are evaporated, [[hydrogen chloride]] is lost and the residue is a basic salt (in this case an ''oxychloride'') in place of AlCl&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;. Such behaviour is also seen with other metal chlorides such as [[zinc chloride|ZnCl&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;]], [[Tin(II) chloride|SnCl&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;]], [[Iron(III) chloride|FeCl&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;]] and lanthanide halides such as [[Dysprosium(III) chloride|DyCl&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;]]. With some compounds such as [[titanium tetrachloride|TiCl&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;]], the hydrolysis may go to completion and form the pure [[hydroxide]] or [[oxide]], in this case [[Titanium dioxide|TiO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;]]. === Hydrolysis of an ester link =
rapher [[Stanley Forman]] received two Pulitzer Prizes consecutively in 1976 and 1977, the first being a dramatic shot of a young child falling in mid-air from her mother's arms on the upper stories of a burning apartment building to the waiting arms of firefighters below, and the latter being of [[Ted Landsmark]], an [[African American]] city official, being beaten with an [[American flag]] during Boston's school [[busing]] crisis. ==Columnists== *In March 2004, the ''Herald'' hired [[Mike Barnicle]], a local columnist fired by rival [[The Boston Globe]] in 1998 for journalistic fraud that was in part uncovered in a report on the Herald's online site. In early 2005, Barnicle left the paper as a full-time contributor as the ''Herald'' announced a downsizing of staff, saying he did not want to draw his salary while longtime workers were in danger of losing their jobs. *[[Howie Carr]] is a front page columnist who also hosts a [[talk show]] on [[WRKO]]. Carr writes extensively on local politics. *[[Tony Massarotti]] is a [[baseball]] columnist for the paper. *[[Howard Bryant]] ==References== * Sterling Quinlan, ''The Hundred Million Dollar Lunch'' (Chicago, J.P. O'Hara, 1974), ISBN 0879553103. ==External links== * [http://www.bostonherald.com/ The ''Boston Herald'''s website] * [http://www.townonline.com/ Town Online - the smaller papers owned by Herald Media] * [http://www.boston.com/business/articles/2005/11/08/heralds_circulation_declines/ ''Herald'''s circulation declines] * [http://www.heraldmedia.com/history.bg Company History] [[Category:1982 establishments]] [[Category:Newspapers of Massachusetts]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Babe Ruth</title> <id>4173</id> <revision> <id>42072551</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T17:06:56Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Zsinj</username> <id>597658</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/68.81.158.188|68.81.158.188]] to last version by BrownHairedGirl</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox baseball player | name=Babe Ruth | image name=Babe%20Ruth.jpg | birthdate= [[February 6]], [[1895]] | birthplace= [[Baltimore]], [[Maryland|MD]] | dead=dead | deathdate= [[August 16]], [[1948]] | deathplace= [[New York]], [[New York|NY]] | debutdate= [[July 11]], [[1914]] | debutteam= [[Boston Red Sox]] | debutopponent= [[Cleveland Indians]] | debutstadium= [[Fenway Park]] | teams= [[Boston Red Sox]] ([[1914 in sports|1914]]-[[1919 in sports|1919]])&lt;BR&gt;[[New York Yankees]] ([[1920 in sports|1920]]-[[1934 in sports|1934]])&lt;BR&gt;[[Atlanta Braves|Boston Braves]] ([[1935 in sports|1935]]) | HOFer=HOFer | inductiondate=[[1936 in sports|1936]] | careerhighlights=&lt;nowiki&gt;&lt;/nowiki&gt; * Second in career [[home run]]s (714) * First in career [[slugging percentage]] (.690) * Third in career [[runs scored]] (2174) * Second in career [[runs batted in]] (2213) * Third in career [[base on ball]]s (2062) * Set single season record with 60 [[home run]]s (now is fifth all-time) * Led [[American League]] in [[home run]]s 12 times * Led American League in [[slugging percentage]] 13 times * Led American League in [[runs scored]] 8 times * Led American League in [[runs batted in]] 6 times * AL [[MLB Most Valuable Player award|MVP Award]] ([[1923 in sports|1923]]) * Won 7 [[World Series]] }} :''For the band named 'Babe Ruth', see [[Babe Ruth (band)]].'' '''George Herman Ruth''' ([[February 6]], [[1895]] &amp;ndash; [[August 16]], [[1948]]), better known as '''Babe Ruth''', also commonly known by the nicknames ''The Bambino'' and ''The Sultan of Swat'', was an American [[baseball]] player and [[United States]] national icon. Consistently chosen as the greatest baseball player in history, his home run hitting exploits and titanic appetite for living made him one of the representative figures of the [[Roaring Twenties]]. He was one of the first five players elected to the [[Baseball Hall of Fame]], and he was the first player to hit over 30, 40 and 50 home runs in one season. His record of 60 home runs in the 1927 season stood for 34 years until it was broken by [[Roger Maris]] in 1961. He was a member of the original [[American League]] [[Major League Baseball All-Star Game|All-Star]] team in [[1933 in sports|1933]]. In 1969, Ruth was named baseball's Greatest Player Ever in a ballot commemorating the 100th anniversary of professional baseball. In 1998, ''[[The Sporting News]]'' named Ruth as Number One in its list of &quot;Baseball's 100 Greatest Players.&quot; In 1999, Ruth was elected to the [[Major League Baseball]] All-Century Team in fan balloting. As discussed in the book ''The Babe: A Life in Pictures'', by Lawrence Ritter and Mark Rucker, it is more than mere statistical records that make Babe Ruth unequivocally the greatest baseball player of all time. In several ways, he changed the nature of the game itself. His exploitation of the &quot;power game&quot; compelled other teams to follow suit, breaking the monopoly of the &quot;inside game&quot; that had been the primary strategy for decades. Ruth was the focal point of the start of what has become statistically the greatest sports dynasty in history, the [[New York Yankees]]. His international fame helped to fuel the rising interest in sports in the 1920s and 30s. He significantly expanded the fan base of baseball and triggered the major expansion of nearly all of the ballparks in the major leagues, and [[Yankee Stadium]] is often called &quot;The House That Ruth Built&quot;. [[Image:Ruth20.jpg|thumb|75px|right]] [[Image:Ruthstamp2.jpg|thumb|240px|right|This photograph was the model for a United States commemorative stamp (seen above) of Ruth that was issued in 1983.]] ==Early days== {{MLB HoF}} Ruth was born at 216 Emory Street in south [[Baltimore, Maryland]]. The house, which was only a block from where [[Oriole Park at Camden Yards]] now stands, was rented by his maternal grandfather, Pius Schamberger, a [[German people|German]] [[immigrant]] who eked out a living as an upholsterer. Babe's parents, Kate and George, Sr., lived above the [[bar (establishment)|saloon]] they owned and operated on Camden Street. Kate would walk to her father's home each time she gave birth to a child, eight in all. Only Babe and his sister, Mary (some sources give her name as Marnie), survived infancy. Young George was known for mischievous behavior. He skipped school, ran the streets, and committed petty crimes. By age seven, he was drinking, chewing [[tobacco]], and had become difficult for his parents to control. Mary recalled how their father would beat Babe in a desperate attempt to bring the boy into line, but to no avail. He was finally sent to St. Mary's Industrial School for Boys, a school run by [[Roman Catholic Church|Catholic]] brothers. Brother Matthias, a [[Roman Catholic Church|Roman Catholic]] brother and the school's disciplinarian, became the major influence in his life, the one man Babe respected above all others. It was Brother Matthias who taught him baseball, working with him for countless hours on hitting, fielding and, later, pitching. [[Image:RuthStMary's.jpg|thumb|275px|left|The young Ruth (top row, far left) while at St Mary's Industrial School for Boys, where he learned the fundamentals of baseball.]] Because of his &quot;toughness,&quot; George became the team's [[catcher]]. He liked the position because he was involved in every play. One day, as his team was losing, George started mocking his own pitcher. Brother Matthias promptly switched him from catcher to [[pitcher]] to teach him a lesson, but instead of getting his comeuppance, George shut the other team down. Brother Gilbert brought Ruth to the attention of [[Jack Dunn]], owner and manager of the minor-league [[Baltimore Orioles (minor league)|Baltimore Orioles]], and the man often credited with discovering him. In 1914 Dunn signed 19-year-old Ruth to pitch for his club, and took him to spring training in [[Florida]], where a strong performance with both bat and ball saw him make the club, while his precocious talent and childlike personality saw him nicknamed &quot;Dunn's Babe.&quot; On [[April 22]], [[1914]], &quot;The Babe&quot; pitched his first professional game, a six-hit, 6-0 victory over the Buffalo Bisons, also of the [[International League]]. On [[July 4]] the Orioles had a record of 47-22, but their finances were in poor condition. In 1914 the breakaway [[Federal League]], a rebel major league which would last only two years, placed a team in Baltimore, just across the street from the minor league Orioles, and the competition hit Orioles' attendance significantly. To make ends meet, Dunn was obliged to dispose of his stars for cash, and he sold Ruth's contract with two other players to [[Joseph Lannin]], owner of the [[Boston Red Sox]], for a sum rumored to be between $20,000 and $35,000. ==The Red Sox years== ===Ruth the pitcher=== Ruth was a skillful pitcher, but the Red Sox's starting rotation was already stacked with lefties, so they initially made little use of him. With a 1&amp;ndash;1 record, he sat on the bench for several weeks before being sent to the International League with the [[Providence Grays]] of [[Providence, Rhode Island]]. Pitching in combination with the young [[Carl Mays]], Ruth helped the Grays win the pennant. At the end of the season, the Red Sox called him back to the majors, and Ruth would stay in the majors permanently. Shortly after the season, Ruth proposed to Helen Woodford, a waitress he met in [[Boston, Massachusetts|Boston]], and they were married in [[Baltimore, Maryland|Baltimore]] on [[October 14]], [[1914]]. [[image:Babe_Ruth01.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Ruth pitching for the Red Sox at Comiskey Park.]] During spring training in 1915, Ruth secured a spot as a starter. He joined a fine pitching staff that included Rube Foster, [[Dutch Leonard (left-handed pit
minent faculty and visitors, the Center aides provides close interaction and discussion. The Rockefeller Center has established a Public-Policy Minor at Dartmouth College and an exchange program on political economy with Oxford University (Keble College). In addition, the Center provides grants to students engaged in public-policy research and/or activities. The Rockefeller Center's Policy Research Shop is an innovative program that provides research upon the request of elected policy makers and their legislative staff throughout the year. The Center hires students to work under the direction of faculty members, who then produce reports that are typically between 5-15 pages long. The intent is to produce useful information in a timely fashion so that the information can be used in legislative deliberations. ===The John Sloan Dickey Center for International Understanding=== The John Sloan Dickey Center for International Understanding was established in 1982 to honor Dartmouth's twelfth president (1945-70), [[John Sloan Dickey]]. The purpose of the Dickey Center is to &quot;coordinate, sustain, and enrich the international dimension of liberal arts education at Dartmouth.&quot; To this end, the Dickey Center is committed to helping Dartmouth students prepare for a world in which local, national and global concerns are more strongly linked than ever. It strives to promote quality scholarly research at Dartmouth concerning international problems and issues, with an emphasis on work that is innovative and cross-disciplinary. And it seeks to heighten public awareness and to stimulate debate on pressing international issues. The Dickey Center also hosts several student-run organizations, such as the Dartmouth World Affairs Council (WAC) or the War &amp; Peace Fellows, which foster undergraduates' awareness of international affairs. ===Aquatic facilities=== [[Dartmouth College Alumni Gymnasium | Alumni Gym]] hosts two pools, the Karl Michael Competition Pool and the Spaulding Pool. Together they comprise a total of fifteen 25-yard lanes and two 50-meter lanes. The Karl Michael Pool, constructed in [[1962]], was designed by former [[Dartmouth College Men's Varsity Swim Team]] captain R. Jackson Smith, class of [[1936]]. In 1970, it was formally named the Karl Michael Pool, after the coach of the men's varsity swim team from 1939-1970. The pool features eleven 25-yard lanes, with a special bulkhead that can be lowered to create two 50 meter lanes. The pool area has a seating area for 1,200 spectators. The Michael Pool hosted the 1968 Men's [http://www.ncaa.org/ NCAA] Championships, in which several American records were set. The pool also features one and three meter diving boards, with a water well 12 to 14 feet deep. Adjacent is the Spaulding Pool. Spaulding Pool is a 10 by 25 yard pool constructed during 1919 and 1920 and designed by [[Rich &amp; Mathesius, Architects]]. The Spaulding Pool is one of the oldest continuously operating pools in the [[United States]]. The pool's interior walls feature original encaustic tiles apparently designed by noted ceramist Leon Victor Solon. The pool has seating for several hundred spectators. Both pools are currently used by the Men's and Women's Varsity Swim Teams, as well as a host of other programs within the college. ===Housing clusters=== {{main|Dartmouth College residential communities}} As opposed to ungrouped dormitories or [[residential colleges]] as employed at such institutions as [[Yale University|Yale]] and [[Harvard University|Harvard]], Dartmouth uses &quot;housing clusters.&quot; Housing clusters are groups of two to four dormitories (although some single-dorm clusters exist) that are located near one another. ==Athletics== [[As of 2004]], Dartmouth College hosts 34 varsity sports: sixteen for men, sixteen for women, and coeducational sailing and equestrian programs. This place it among the top [[United States]] colleges and universities in this regard. In addition, there are twenty-three club sports and twenty-four intramural sports. ===Nickname, Symbol and Mascot=== Since the 1920s, the Dartmouth College athletic teams have known by the unofficial nicknames &quot;The Green&quot; or &quot;The Big Green.&quot; The nickname is based on students' adoption of a shade of forest green (called &quot;Dartmouth green&quot;) as the school's official color in 1866. At the same time, teams also were known as the &quot;[[Native Americans in the United States|Indian]]s,&quot; and athletic uniforms eventually bore a representation of an Indian warrior's head. That representation and similar images called collectively &quot;the Indian Symbol,&quot; as well as the practice of a cheerleader dressing in Indian costume to serve as a mascot during games, came under criticism; during the early 1970s the Trustees declared the &quot;use of the (Indian) symbol in any form to be inconsistent with present institutional and academic objectives of the College in advancing Native American education.&quot; The Indian symbol continues to be used in an unofficial capacity by some students and alumni. Various student initiatives have been undertaken to adopt a new mascot, but none has garnered sufficient support from students or alumni to become &quot;official.&quot; One proposal devised by the college humor magazine, the ''[[Dartmouth Jack O'Lantern|Jack-O-Lantern]]'', was &quot;[[Keggy the Keg]]&quot;, an [[anthropomorphic]] beer keg who makes occasional appearances at college sporting events, but has only received approval by the student government. ===Varsity teams=== {{main|Dartmouth College athletic teams}} [http://athletics.dartmouth.edu/ Dartmouth's varsity athletic teams] compete in [http://www.ncaa.org/ NCAA] Division 1 as well as in the eight-member [[Ivy League]] conference, which includes [http://www.harvard.edu/ Harvard], [http://www.princeton.edu/ Princeton], [http://www.yale.edu/ Yale], [http://www.brown.edu/ Brown], [http://www.columbia.edu/ Columbia], [http://www.cornell.edu Cornell] and the [http://www.upenn.edu/ University of Pennsylvania]. Some teams also participate in the [http://www.ecac.org/index ECAC] (Eastern Collegiate Athletic Conference). Dartmouth athletics have earned several high honors, excelling in NCAA championships ranging from track and field to basketball, cross country to soccer, as well as skiing, golf, lacrosse and diving. As is true of all Ivy League schools, Dartmouth College does not offer athletic scholarships, yet is home to many student athletes. Currently many as three-quarters of Dartmouth undergraduates participate in some form of athletics, and one-quarter of Dartmouth students play a varsity sport at some point during their undergraduate years. The actual numbers of varsity athletes and varsity sports are thus much larger than at schools ten times Dartmouth's size. In addition to official varsity sports, Dartmouth students participate in several club teams, such as those for [[rugby football|rugby]], [[water polo]], and [[ultimate frisbee]]. These teams generally perform quite well and participate in many regional and national competitions. ===Venues=== Dartmouth hosts many athletic venues. [[Dartmouth College Alumni Gymnasium]], the center of athletic life at Dartmouth, is home of the Dartmouth College Aquatic facilities, basketball courts, squash and racket ball courts, indoor track, fencing lanes as well as a rowing training center. The college also maintains both indoor and outdoor track facilities, hockey arena, football stadium, rowing boat house, and tennis complex. Dartmouth's original sports field is the Green, where students played [[cricket]] during the late eighteenth century and [[Old Division Football]] during the 1800s; some intramural games still take place there. Current venues include [[Memorial Field (Dartmouth)|Memorial Field]], [[Leede Arena]], and [[Thompson Arena]]. ==Student life== ===Student groups=== {{main|Dartmouth College student groups}} Dartmouth hosts a large number of student groups, covering a wide range of interests. Literary publications include: ''[[The Dartmouth]]'' (the nation's oldest daily college paper), the ''[[Dartmouth Jack O'Lantern]]'' (humor magazine), ''[[The Dartmouth Review]]'' (off-campus conservative newspaper), the ''[[Dartmouth Free Press]]'' (liberal/progressive newspaper), and the ''[[Dartmouth Independent]]'' (moderate online newspaper). [[As of 2005]] student musical groups include: the Barbary Coast Jazz Ensemble, the Dartmouth Glee Club, the Christian acapella group [http://www.dartmouth.edu/~xado X.Ado], the Dartmouth Chamber Singers, the [http://www.dartmouthaires.com Dartmouth Aires], the Dartmouth Final Cut, the [http://www.dartmouth.edu/~cords/ Dartmouth Cords], the [http://www.dartmouth.edu/~subtlety/ Dartmouth Subtleties], the Dartmouth Dodecaphonics, the Dartmouth Gospel Choir, the Handel Society of Dartmouth College, the [[Dartmouth College Marching Band]], the Dartmouth Rockapellas, the Dartmouth Symphony Orchestra, the Dartmouth Chamber Orchestra, the Dartmouth Wind Symphony, the Dartmouth Brass Society, and the World Music Percussion Ensemble. ===Greek Life=== {{main|Dartmouth College Greek organizations}} Dartmouth College is host to many [[Greek organizations]] and a large percentage of the [[undergraduate]] student body is active in Greek life. In 2000, nearly half of the undergraduate student body belonged to a [[fraternity]], [[sorority]], or [[coeducational]] Greek house. First year students are not allowed to join Greek organizations, however, so the actual fraction of Dartmouth students that become active in Greek life during their studies at the College exceeds half of the student body. Dartmouth College was among the first institutions of higher education to [[desegregate]] fraternity houses in the 1950s, and was involved in the movement to create [[coeducational]] Greek houses in the 1970s. In the e
<title>Chinese room</title> <id>6216</id> <revision> <id>40759847</id> <timestamp>2006-02-22T21:10:30Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Tailpig</username> <id>312490</id> </contributor> <comment>Revert to revision 40577591 using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Chinese room''' argument is a [[thought experiment]] designed by [[John Searle]] (1980 [http://members.aol.com/NeoNoetics/MindsBrainsPrograms.html]) as a counterargument to claims made by [[strong AI|strong artificial intelligence]] ([[AI]], also [[functionalism (philosophy of mind)|functionalism]]). At its base is Searle's contention that syntax (grammar) is not tantamount to semantics (meaning). Searle laid out the Chinese Room argument in his paper &quot;Minds, brains and programs&quot; published in 1980. Ever since, it has been a mainstay of debate over the possibility of what Searle called 'strong artificial intelligence'. Supporters of strong artificial intelligence believe that an appropriately programmed computer isn't simply a simulation or model of a mind, it actually would count as a mind. That is, it understands, has cognitive states, and can think. Searle's argument (or more precisely, thought experiment) against this position, the Chinese room argument, goes as follows: Suppose that, many years from now, we have constructed a computer which behaves as if it understands Chinese. In other words, the computer takes Chinese symbols as input, consults a large look-up table (as all computers can be described as doing), and then produces other Chinese symbols as output. Suppose that this computer performs this task so convincingly that it easily passes the [[Turing test]]. In other words, it convinces a human Chinese speaker that it is a Chinese speaker. All the questions the human asks are responded to appropriately, such that the Chinese speaker is convinced that he or she is talking to another Chinese speaker. The conclusion proponents of strong AI would like to draw is that the computer understands Chinese, just as the person does. Now, Searle asks us to suppose that he is sitting inside the computer. In other words, he is in a small room in which he receives Chinese symbols, looks them up on look-up table, and returns the Chinese symbols that are indicated by the table. Searle notes, of course, that he doesn't understand a word of Chinese. Furthermore, his lack of understanding goes to show, he argues, that computers don't understand Chinese either, because they are in the same situation as he is. They are mindless manipulators of symbols, just as he is - and they don't understand what they're 'saying', just as he doesn't. ==Thought experiments== In 1980, John Searle published &quot;Minds, Brains and Programs&quot; in the journal ''The Behavioral and Brain Sciences''. In this article, Searle sets out the argument, and then replies to the half-dozen main objections that had been raised during his presentations at various university campuses (see next section). In addition, Searle's article in BBS was published along with comments and criticisms by 27 [[cognitive science]] researchers. These 27 comments were followed by Searle's replies to his critics. Over the last two decades of the [[twentieth century]], the Chinese Room argument was the subject of very many discussions. By 1984, Searle presented the Chinese Room argument in a book, Minds, Brains and Science. In January 1990, the popular periodical Scientific American took the debate to a general scientific audience. Searle included the Chinese Room Argument in his contribution, &quot;Is the Brain's Mind a Computer Program?&quot; His piece was followed by a responding article, &quot;Could a Machine Think?&quot;, written by Paul and Patricia Churchland. Soon thereafter Searle had a published exchange about the Chinese Room with another leading philosopher, Jerry Fodor (in Rosenthal (ed.) 1991). The heart of the argument is an imagined human simulation of a computer, similar to Turing's Paper Machine. The human in the Chinese Room follows English instructions for manipulating Chinese symbols, where a computer &quot;follows&quot; a program written in a computing language. The human produces the appearance of understanding Chinese by following the symbol manipulating instructions, but does not thereby come to understand Chinese. Since a computer just does what the human does — manipulate symbols on the basis of their syntax alone - no computer, merely by following a program, comes to genuinely understand Chinese. This argument, based closely on the Chinese Room scenario, is directed at a position Searle calls &quot;[[Strong AI]]&quot;. Strong AI is the view that suitably programmed computers (or the programs themselves) can understand natural language and actually have other mental capabilities similar to the humans whose abilities they mimic. According to Strong AI, a computer may play chess intelligently, make a clever move, or understand language. By contrast, &quot;[[weak AI]]&quot; is the view that computers are merely useful in psychology, linguistics, and other areas, in part because they can simulate mental abilities. But weak AI makes no claim that computers actually understand or are intelligent. The Chinese Room argument is not directed at weak AI, nor does it purport to show that machines cannot think — Searle says that brains are machines, and brains think. It is directed at the view that formal computations on symbols can produce thought. We might summarize the narrow argument as a reductio ad absurdum against Strong AI as follows. Let L be a natural language, and let us say that a &quot;program for L&quot; is a program for conversing fluently in L. A computing system is any system, human or otherwise, that can run a program. (1) If Strong AI is true, then there is a program for Chinese such that if any computing system runs that program, that system thereby comes to understand Chinese. (2) I could run a program for Chinese without thereby coming to understand Chinese. (3) Therefore Strong AI is false. The second premise is supported by the Chinese Room thought experiment. The conclusion of this argument is that running a program cannot create understanding. The wider argument includes the claim that the thought experiment shows more generally that one cannot get semantics (meaning) from syntax (formal symbol manipulation). The core of Searle's argument is the distinction between [[syntax]] and [[semantics]]. The room is able to shuffle characters according to the rule book. That is, the room’s behaviour can be described as following syntactical rules. But in Searle's account it does not know the ''meaning'' of what it has done; that is, it has no semantic content. The characters do not even count as ''symbols'' because they are not interpreted at any stage of the process. ==Formal arguments== In 1984 Searle produced a more formal version of the argument of which the Chinese Room forms a part. He listed four premises: :Premise 1: Brains cause minds :Premise 2: Syntax is not sufficient for semantics :Premise 3: Computer programs are entirely defined by their formal, syntactic structure :Premise 4: Minds have semantic content The second premise is supposedly supported by the Chinese Room argument, since Searle holds that the room follows only formal syntactical rules, and does not “understand” Chinese. Searle posits that these lead directly to three conclusions: :Conclusion 1: No computer program by itself is sufficient to give a system a mind. Programs are not minds. :Conclusion 2: The way that brain functions cause minds cannot be solely in virtue of running a [[computer program]] :Conclusion 3: Anything else that causes minds would have to have causal powers at least equivalent to those of the brain Searle describes this version as “excessively crude”. There has been considerable debate about whether this argument is indeed valid. These discussions centre on the various ways in which the premises can be parsed. One can read premise 3 as saying that computer programs have syntactic but not semantic content, and so Premises 2, 3 and 4 validly lead to conclusion 1. This leads to debate as to the origin of the semantic content of a computer program. ==Criticism== There are many criticisms of Searle’s argument. Most can be categorized as either systems replies or robot replies. ===The systems reply=== Although the individual in the Chinese room does not understand Chinese, perhaps the person and the room considered together as a system do. Searle’s reply to this is that someone might in principle memorize the rule book; they would then be able to interact as if they understood Chinese, but would still just be following a set of rules, with no understanding of the significance of the symbols they are manipulating. This leads to the interesting problem of a person being able to converse fluently in Chinese without &quot;knowing&quot; Chinese, and a counterargument says that such a person actually does understand Chinese even though they would claim otherwise. A related argument is that the person doesn't know Chinese but the system comprising the person and the rule book does. ===The robot reply=== Suppose that instead of a room, the program was placed into a robot that could wander around and interact with its environment. Surely then it would be said to understand what it is doing? Searle&amp;#8217;s reply is to suppose that, unbeknownst to the individual in the Chinese room, some of the inputs he was receiving came directly from a camera mounted on a robot, and some of the outputs were used to manipulate the arms and legs of the robot. Nevertheless, the person in the room is still just following the rules, and does not know what the symbols mean. Suppose that the program instantiated in the rule book simulated in fine detail the i
ll, field labor was harder to come by. African [[Slavery|slaves]] were imported to work the plantations in order to replace the field labor. However, restrictive Spanish trade laws made it difficult for Cubans to keep up with the 17th and 18th century advances in processing [[sugar cane]] pioneered in British [[History of Barbados|Barbados]] and French [[Saint Domingue]] [[Haiti]]. Spain also restricted Cuba's access to the [[slave trade]], which was dominated by the British, French, and Dutch. One important turning point came in the [[Seven Years War]], when the British conquered the port of Havana and introduced thousands of slaves in a ten month period. Another key event was the [[Haitian Revolution]] in nearby Saint-Domingue, from 1791 to 1804. Thousands of French refugees, fleeing the slave rebellion in Saint Domingue, brought slaves and expertise in sugar refining and [[coffee]] growing into eastern Cuba in the 1790 and early 1800s. In the 1800s, Cuban sugar plantations became the most important world producer of sugar, thanks to the expansion of slavery and a relentless focus on improving the island's sugar technology. Use of modern refining techniques was especially important because the British abolished the slave trade in 1807 and after 1815 began forcing other countries to follow suit. Cubans were torn between the profits generated by sugar and a repugnance for slavery, which they saw as morally, politically, and racially dangerous to their society. By the end of the 19th century Slavery was abolished. However, leading up to the abolition of slavery, Cuba gained great prosperity from their sugar trade. The Spanish had ordered regulations on trade with Cuba, which kept the island from becoming a dominant sugar producer. The Spanish were interested in keeping their trade routes and slave trade routes protected. Nevertheless, Cuba's vast size and abundance of natural resources made it an ideal place for becoming a booming sugar producer. When Spain opened the Cuban trade ports, it quickly became a popular place. New technology allowed a much more effective and efficient means of producing sugar. They began to use water mills, enclosed furnaces, and steam engines to produce a higher quality of sugar at a much more efficient pace than elsewhere in the Caribbean. The boom in Cuba's sugar industry in the 1800's made it necessary for Cuba to improve its means of transportation. They needed safe and efficient ways to transport the sugar from the plantations to the ports, in order to maximize their returns. Many new roads were built, and old roads were quickly repaired. Railroads were built early and changed the way that perishable sugar cane (within one or two days after the cane is cut easily crystalizable sucrose sugar has &quot;inverted&quot; to turn into far less recoverable glucose and fructose sugars)is collected and alling more rapid and effective sugar transp. It was now possible for plantations all over this large island to have their sugar shipped quickly and easily. The prosperity seen from the boom in sugar production is a major reason that Cuban ethnicity became further enriched by new influx of Spanish migrants. Many Spaniards immigrated to Cuba, calling it a place of refuge. ===Sugar Plantations=== Cuba failed to prosper before the 1760s due to Spanish trade regulations. Spain had set up a monopoly in the Caribbean and their primary objective was to protect this. They did not allow the islands to trade with any foreign ships. Spain was primarily interested in the Caribbean for its gold. The crown thought that if the colonies traded with other countries it would itself not benefit from it. This slowed the growth of the Spanish Caribbean. This effect was particularly bad in Cuba because Spain kept a tight grasp on it. It held great strategic importance in the Caribbean. As soon as Spain opened Cuba's ports up to foreign ships a great sugar boom began that lasted until the 1880s. The Island was perfect for growing sugar. It is dominated by rolling plains, with rich soil, and adequate rainfall. It is the largest island in the Caribbean, its relatively low mountains and large plains are suitable for roads, and railroads, and it has the best ports in the area. By 1860 Cuba was devoted to growing sugar. The country had to import all other necessary goods. They were dependent on the United States who bought 82 percent of the sugar. Cubans resented the economic policy Spain implemented in Cuba, which was to help Spain and hurt Cuba. In 1820 Spain abolished the slave trade, hurting the Cuban economy even more and forcing planters to buy more expensive, illegal slaves [http://amistad.mysticseaport.org/discovery/story/havana.html] and trouble some as demonstrated by the events surrounding the ship [[Amistad (ship)]]. Some Cubans seeking freedom from Spain began to support annexation to join the United States even if it were to be a slave state. For a time Cuba ports served as bases for ineffective Confederate blockade runner ships [http://www.hazegray.org/danfs/csn/h.txt]. This movement did not end with the [[American civil war]] but was transmuted to seek freedom for both Black and Whites. ==Anti slavery movements and the Conspiración de La Escalera== In 1812 a mixed race abolitionist conspiracy was organized [[José Antonio Aponte]], a free black carpenter in Havana and others were executed [http://www.coconutxchange.com/literature/show_item.php?id=50&amp;section_id=1072234946]. Cubans began to have an interest in abolishing slavery, and a number of plots and rebellions occurred. One of the most significant was the 'Ladder Conspiracy' ([[Conspiración de La Escalera]]), which occurred circa 1840-1844. This event, once viewed [http://www.afrocubaweb.com/eugenegodfried/placidoenglish.htm] as an excuse to rid the Island of rebellious abolitionists, is now viewed as a real if frustrated plot (see comments in new translation of Villaverde's &quot;Cecilia Valdés.&quot;). The Spanish reacted strongly and many were executed including one of Cuba's greatest poets, [[Gabriel de la Concepción Valdés]] know commonly as &quot;Placido&quot; [http://www.damisela.com/literatura/pais/cuba/autores/placido/]. [[José Antonio Saco]] one of Cuba's foremost thinkers was expelled from Cuba [http://www.cubanet.org/CNews/y03/jun03/18a8.htm]. After the 1868-1878 rebellion [[Ten Years' War]], all slavery was abolished by 1884, making it the second to last country in the Western Hemisphere to abolish slavery (Brazil was the last). ==Minor Wars== Conspiracy to overthrow the Spanish rule started a little after [[Simon Bolivar]] with support from nominally Mercenary English troops defeated Spain in the [[Battle of Carabobo]] in 1821. Blacks and whites began acting together overthrow slavery and colonial rule. In 1826 the first armed uprising for independence took place in Puerto Príncipe (Camagüey Province), led by [[Francisco de Agüero]] and [[Andrés Manuel Sánchez]]. Agüero (white) and Sánchez (mulato, of mixed African and European ancestry) were executed, becoming the first martyrs of Cuban independence [http://www.coconutxchange.com/literature/show_item.php?id=50&amp;section_id=1072234946]. Perhaps the second most significant military action, to that date, after the English capture of Havana were the landings of [[Narciso Lopez]]. ===Cuban Rebels=== Cuba was once perhaps 90% forest. It was still heavily forested at the end of the 19th Century. Buccaneers [[Alexander Exquemelin]] and Bandits [http://www.tallerdehistoria.com/Html/eBook/Bandolerismo%20en%20Cuba%20I,%20Cap%EDtulo%20IV,%20Los%20bandidos%20de%20la%20tregua%20(II).pdf] form an important part of Cuban history. [[Jose Marti]] when plotting the 1895-1898 Cuban War of [[Independence from Spain]] fearing the contagion of crime, rejected the most valuable help of Manuel Garcia, the &quot;King&quot; of the Cuban Countryside. Manuel Garcia was killed just before this war started. Batista, apparently feeling the need to rid Oriente Province of those who could support resistance, had Edesio Hernandez killed [http://www.amigospais-guaracabuya.org/oagld001.php]. Crecencio Perez protected [[Fidel Castro]] in the early days in the Sierra Maestra Sierra and was a major factor in the survival of the Castro revolution. Castillo Ramos, Ruben 1956 Muerto Edesio, El rey de la Sierra Maestra {Edesio The king of the Sierra Maestra Is Dead 1914-1956} {Photographs by Perez Tamarit and Rudolfo Vasell}, Bohemia XLVIII No. 9 {August 12 1956} pp. 52-54 and 87 de Paz Sánchez, Manuel Antonio (en colaboración con José Fernández y Nelson López) 1993-1994. El bandolerismo en Cuba (1800-1933). Presencia canaria y protesta rural, Santa Cruz de Tenerife, two , 2 vols. Perez, Louis A. 1989 Lords of the Mountain: Social Banditry and Peasant Protest in Cuba, 1878-1918 (Pitt Latin American Series) Univ of Pittsburgh Press ISBN: 0822936011 ===Independence from Spain=== Cuban independence from Spain was gained by a complex of three larger wars (with the second La Guerra Chiquita overlapping the end of the first [[La Guerra de los Diez Años]] (Ten Years' War) and a number of other actions. On [[10 October]] [[1868]] [[Carlos Manuel de Céspedes]] freed his slaves and thus started the [[Ten Years' War]] when other plantation owners and guajiros joined in the guerrilla fighting in the Eastern regions. However, the Spanish used mistrust among the rebels to reach a settlement on [[10 February]] [[1878]] with the [[Pact of Zanjón]]. After that, [[José Martí]], who was exiled after an attempt to back up the rebels in the West, started campaigning in the [[United States]], where there was a sizeable community of Cuban exiles. In 1880, there was another significant rising, the so called &quot;Guerra Chiquita&quot; but bad coordination between [[Antonio Maceo]] and [[Calixto Garcia]] doomed it to failure. On [[24 February]] [[1895]] and a little before insurrection was re-started, fol
gt; &lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[I Ching hexagram 40|40. :|:|:: Taking-Apart (&amp;#35299; xiè) ]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Deliverance&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[I Ching hexagram 41|41. ||:::| Diminishing (&amp;#25613; s&amp;#468;n) ]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Decrease&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[I Ching hexagram 42|42. |:::|| Augmenting (&amp;#30410; yì) ]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Increase&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[I Ching hexagram 43|43. |||||: Parting (&amp;#22828; guài) ]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Breakthrough&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[I Ching hexagram 44|44. :||||| Coupling (&amp;#23012; gòu) ]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Coming to Meet&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[I Ching hexagram 45|45. :::||: Clustering (&amp;#33795; cuì) ]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Gathering Together&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[I Ching hexagram 46|46. :||::: Ascending (&amp;#21319; sh&amp;#275;ng) ]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Pushing Upward&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[I Ching hexagram 47|47. :|:||: Confining (&amp;#22256; kùn) ]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Oppression&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[I Ching hexagram 48|48. :||:|: Welling (&amp;#20117; j&amp;#464;ng) ]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;The Well&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[I Ching hexagram 49|49. |:|||: Skinning (&amp;#38761; gé) ]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Revolution&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[I Ching hexagram 50|50. :|||:| Holding (&amp;#40718; d&amp;#464;ng) ]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;The Cauldron&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[I Ching hexagram 51|51. |::|:: Shake (&amp;#38663; zhèn) ]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Arousing&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[I Ching hexagram 52|52. ::|::| Bound (&amp;#33390; gèn) ]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;The Keeping Still&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[I Ching hexagram 53|53. ::|:|| Infiltrating (&amp;#28472; jiàn) ]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Development&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[I Ching hexagram 54|54. ||:|:: Converting The Maiden (&amp;#27512;&amp;#22969; gu&amp;#299; mèi)]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;The Marrying Maiden&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[I Ching hexagram 55|55. |:||:: Abounding (&amp;#35920; f&amp;#275;ng) ]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Abundance&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[I Ching hexagram 56|56. ::||:| Sojourning (&amp;#26053; lü&amp;#780;) ]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;The Wanderer&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[I Ching hexagram 57|57. :||:|| Ground (&amp;#24061; xùn) ]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;The Gentle&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[I Ching hexagram 58|58. ||:||: Open (&amp;#20812; duì) ]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;The Joyous&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[I Ching hexagram 59|59. :|::|| Dispersing (&amp;#28185; huàn) ]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Dispersion&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[I Ching hexagram 60|60. ||::|: Articulating (&amp;#31680; jié) ]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Limitation&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[I Ching hexagram 61|61. ||::|| Centre Confirming (&amp;#20013;&amp;#23386; zh&amp;#333;ng fú) ]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Inner Truth&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[I Ching hexagram 62|62. ::||:: Small Exceeding (&amp;#23567;&amp;#36942; xi&amp;#462;o guò) ]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Small Preponderance&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[I Ching hexagram 63|63. |:|:|: Already Fording (&amp;#26082;&amp;#28639; jì jì) ]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;After Completion&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[I Ching hexagram 64|64. :|:|:| Not-Yet Fording (&amp;#26410;&amp;#28639; wèi jì) ]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Before Completion&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;/table&gt; &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;/table&gt; The hexagrams, though, are mere mnemonics for the philosophical concepts embodied in each one. The philosophy centres around the ideas of ''balance through opposites'' and ''acceptance of change''. ==Unicode== The hexagram symbols range from U+4DC0 &amp;#8211; U+4DFF (19904 &amp;#8211; 19967) in [[Unicode]]. == Philosophy == Gradations of binary expression based on yin and yang -- old yang, old yin, young yang or young yin (see the ''divination'' paragraph below) -- are what the hexagrams are built from. Yin and yang, while common expressions associated with many schools known from classical Chinese culture, are especially associated with the [[Taoist]]s. Another view holds that the ''I Ching'' is primarily a [[Confucianism|Confucianist]] ethical or philosophical document. This view is based upon the following: * The Wings or Appendices are attributed to Confucius. * The study of the ''I Ching'' was required as part of the Civil Service Exams. These exams only studied Confucianist texts. * It is one of the Five Confucian Classics. * It does not appear in any surviving editions of the [[Dao Zheng]]. * The major commentaries were written by Confucianists, or Neo-Confucianists. Both views may be seen to show that the ''I Ching'' was at the heart of Chinese thought, serving as a common ground for the Confucian and Taoist schools. Partly forgotten due to the rise of Chinese Buddhism during the [[Tang dynasty]], the ''I Ching'' returned to the attention of scholars during the [[Song dynasty]]. This was concomitant with the reassessment of Confucianism by Confucians in the light of Taoist and Buddhist [[metaphysics]], and is known in the West as [[Neo-Confucianism]]. The book, unquestionably an ancient Chinese scripture, helped Song Confucian thinkers to synthesize Buddhist and Taoist cosmologies with Confucian and Mencian [[ethics]]. The end product was a new [[cosmogony]] that could be linked to the so-called &quot;lost Tao&quot; of [[Confucius]] and [[Mencius]]. === Binary sequence === In his article ''[[Explication de l'Arithmétique Binaire]]'' ([[1703]]) [[Gottfried Leibniz]] writes that he has found in the hexagrams a base for claiming the universality of the [[binary numeral system]]. He takes the layout of the combinatorial exercise found in the hexagrams to represent binary sequences, so that :::::: would correspond to the binary sequence 000000 and :::::| would be 000001, and so forth. The binary arrangement of hexagrams was developed by the famous Chinese scholar and philosopher [[Shao Yung]] (a neo-Confucian and Taoist) in the 11th century. He displayed it in two different formats, a circle, and a rectangular block. Thus, he clearly understood the sequence represented a logical progression of values. However, while it is true that these sequences do represent the values 0 through 63 in a binary display, there is no evidence that Shao understood that the numbers could be used in computations such as addition or subtraction. == Divination == {{main|I Ching divination}} The ''I Ching'' has long been used as an oracle and many different ways coexist to &quot;cast&quot; a reading, i.e., a hexagram, with its dynamic relationship to others. == Symbolism == [[Image:South_korea_flag_large.png|thumb|The flag of South Korea, with ''tàijítú'' in the center with four trigrams representing Heaven, Water, Earth, and Fire (beginning top left and proceeding clockwise).]] [[Image:Old Flag Of Vietnam.png|thumb|Flag of the [[Empire of Vietnam]] uses Hexagram number 30]] The [[Flag of South Korea]] contains the [[taijitu|''T'ai Chi'' symbol]], or ''tàijítú,'' (yin and yang in dynamic balance, called ''Taeguk'' in Korean), representing the origin of all things in the universe. The ''taijitu'' is surrounded by four of the eight trigrams, starting from top left and going clockwise: Heaven, Water, Earth, Fire. The flag of the [[Empire of Vietnam]] used the hexagram number 30 and was known as ''cờ quẻ Ly'' (Li hexagram flag) because the hexagram represents South. Its successor the [[South Vietnam|Republic of Vietnam]] connected the middle lines, turning it into hexagram number 1. (see [[Flag of the Republic of Vietnam]]). ==Influence on Western culture== {{main|I Ching's influence}} The ''I Ching'' has influenced countless Chinese philosophers, artists and even businessmen throughout history. In more recent times, several Western artists have used it. ==Translations== *Blofeld, J. 1965. ''The Book of Changes: A New Translation of the Ancient Chinese I Ching''. New York: E. P. Dutton. *Huang, A. 1998. ''The Complete I Ching: the Definitive Translation From the Taoist Master Alfred Huang''. Rochester, N.Y: Inner Traditions. *Hua-Ching Ni. 1999. ''I Ching: The Book of Changes and the Unchanging Truth''. (2nd edition). Los Angeles: Seven Star Communications. *Legge, J. 1964. ''I Ching: Book of Changes''. With introduction and study guide by [[Ch'u Chai]] and [[Winberg Chai]]. New York: Citadel Press. *''I Ching, The Classic of Changes'', The first English translation of the newly discovered second-century B.C. Mawangdui texts by Edward L. Shaughnessy, Ballantine, 1996. ISBN 0345362438. *Wilhelm, R. &amp; Baynes, C., 1967. ''The I Ching or Book of Changes,'' With forward by [[Carl Jung]]. 3rd. ed., Bollingen Series XIX. Princeton NJ: Princeton University Press (1st ed. 1950). ==References== *Herbie Brennan, 1973. ''The Syncronistic Barometer'', [[Astounding (magazine)|Analog]], August 1973. *Marshall, S. 2001. ''The Mandate of Heaven: Hidden History in the I Ching''. Columbia University Press *Rutt, R. 1996. ''Zhouyi: The Book of Changes''. Curzon Press. *Reifler, Samuel. 1974. &quot;I Ching: A New Interpretation for Modern Times.&quot; Bantam New Age Books. ISBN: 0553278738 ==External links== * [http://www.zhouyi.com/ I CHING Bookmarks] - Directory of ''I Ching'' sites * [http://pac
c]] - King of the [[Visigoths]] from 526 to 531 * [[Amalric I of Jerusalem]] - [[kingdom of Jerusalem|King of Jerusalem]] from 1162 to 1174 * [[Amalric II of Jerusalem]] - [[King of Jerusalem]] from 1197 to 1205 * [[Amalric of Bena]] - French theologian ca. 1200 AD * [[Amalric of Tyre]] - [[Kingdom of Cyprus|King of Cyprus]] from 1306 to 1310 A French variant of this name is '''Amaury.''' {{hndis}}</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Amalric I of Jerusalem</title> <id>1871</id> <revision> <id>41308826</id> <timestamp>2006-02-26T12:54:52Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>DabMachine</username> <id>922466</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>disambiguation from [[Knights Templar]] to [[Knights Templar (military order)]] - ([[WP:DPL|You can help!]])</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Amalric I''' (also '''Amaury''' or '''Aimery''') ([[1136]] &amp;ndash; [[July 11]], [[1174]]) was [[Kingdom of Jerusalem|King of Jerusalem]] [[1162]]&amp;ndash;[[1174]], and [[Count of Jaffa and Ascalon]] before his accession. Amalric was the second son of [[Melisende of Jerusalem]] and [[Fulk of Jerusalem]]. ==Youth== After the death of Amalric's father, the throne passed jointly to his mother Melisende and his older brother Baldwin III. Melisende did not step down when Baldwin came of age, and by [[1150]] the two were becoming increasingly hostile towards each other. In [[1152]] Baldwin had himself crowned sole king, and civil war broke out, with Melisende retaining [[Jerusalem]] while Baldwin held territory further north. Amalric, who had been given the County of Jaffa as an [[apanage]] when he reached the age of majority in [[1151]], remained loyal to Melisende in Jerusalem, and when Baldwin invaded the south, Amalric was besieged in the [[Tower of David]] with his mother. Melisende was defeated in this struggle and Baldwin ruled alone thereafter. In [[1153]] Baldwin captured the [[Egypt]]ian fortress of [[Ascalon]], which was then added to Amalric's fief of Jaffa (see [[Battle of Ascalon (1153)|Battle of Ascalon]]). Amalric married [[Agnes of Courtenay]] in [[1157]]. Agnes, daughter of [[Joscelin II of Edessa]], had lived in Jerusalem since the western regions of [[Edessa, Mesopotamia|Edessa]] were lost in 1150. [[Patriarch Fulk of Jerusalem|Patriarch Fulcher]] objected to the marriage on grounds of [[consanguinity]], as the two shared a great-great-grandfather, [[Guy I of Montlhéry]], and it seems that they waited until Fulcher's death to marry. Agnes bore Amalric two children, first [[Sibylla of Jerusalem|Sibylla]] and then the future [[Baldwin IV of Jerusalem|Baldwin IV]] in [[1161]]. Both would come to rule the kingdom in their own right. ==Succession== Baldwin III died in 1162 and the kingdom passed to Amalric, although there was some opposition among the nobility to Agnes; they were willing to accept the marriage in 1157 when Baldwin III was still capable of siring an heir, but now the ''[[Haute Cour of Jerusalem|Haute Cour]]'' refused to endorse Amalric as king unless his marriage to Agnes was annulled. The hostility to Agnes, it must be admitted, may be exaggerated by the chronicler [[William of Tyre]], whom she prevented from becoming [[Latin Patriarch of Jerusalem]] decades later, as well as from William's continuators like [[Ernoul]], who hints at a slight on her moral character: &quot;car telle n'est que roine doie iestre di si haute cite comme de Jherusalem&quot; (&quot;there should not be such a queen for so holy a city as Jerusalem&quot;). Nevertheless, consanguinity was enough for the opposition. Amalric agreed and ascended the throne without a wife, although Agnes continued to hold the title Countess of Jaffa and Ascalon and received a pension from that fief's income. Agnes soon thereafter married [[Hugh of Ibelin]], to whom she had been engaged before her marriage with Amalric. The church ruled that Amalric and Agnes' children were legitimate and preserved their place in the order of succession. Through her children Agnes would exert much influence in Jerusalem for almost 20 years. == Conflicts with the Muslim states == As a [[Crusader state]] Jerusalem was constantly in a state of war. Since Baldwin III's blunder by attacking allied [[Damascus]] during the [[Second Crusade]] in [[1147]], the northern frontier was exposed to [[Nur ad-Din]], whose own power continued to grow from his bases in [[Mosul]], [[Aleppo]], and later Damascus when that city fell under his control. Jerusalem lost influence to Byzantium in northern Syria when the Empire imposed its suzerainty over the [[Principality of Antioch]], although Byzantium was increasingly beset by its own conflicts, particularly with the [[Normans]] in [[Sicily]]. The main theatre of conflict of Amalric's reign was [[Fatimid]] [[Egypt]], which was suffering from a series of young [[caliph]]s and civil wars. The crusaders had wanted to conquer Egypt since the days of [[Baldwin I of Jerusalem|Baldwin I]], and even [[Godfrey of Bouillon]] had promised to cede Jerusalem to the [[Latin Patriarch of Jerusalem|Patriarch]] [[Dagobert of Pisa]] if he could capture [[Cairo]]. The capture of Ascalon by Baldwin III made the conquest of Egypt more feasible, and the [[Knights Hospitaller]] began preparing maps of the possible invasion routes. ===Invasions of Egypt=== Amalric led his first expedition into Egypt in [[1163]], claiming that the Fatimids had not paid the yearly tribute that had begun during the reign of Baldwin III. The vizier, Dirgham, had recently overthrown the vizier Shawar, and marched out to meet Amalric at [[Pelusium]], but was defeated and forced to retreat to [[Bilbeis]]. The Egyptians then opened up the [[Nile]] dams and let the river flood, hoping to prevent Amalric from invading any further. Amalric returned home but Shawar fled to the court of Nur ad-Din, who sent his general [[Shirkuh]] to settle the dispute in [[1164]]. In response Dirgham sought help from Amalric, but Shirkuh and Shawar arrived before Amalric could intervene and Dirgham was killed. Shawar, however, feared that Shirkuh would seize power for himself, and he too looked to Amalric for assistance. Amalric returned to Egypt in 1164 and besieged Shirkuh in Bilbeis until Shirkuh retreated to Damascus. Amalric could not follow up on his success in Egypt because Nur ad-Din was active in Syria, having taken [[Bohemund III of Antioch]] and [[Raymond III of Tripoli]] prisoner at the [[Battle of Harim]] during Amalric's absence. Amalric rushed to take up the regency of Antioch and Tripoli and secured Bohemund's ransom in [[1165]] (Raymond remained in prison until [[1173]]). The year [[1166]] was relatively quiet, but Amalric sent envoys to the [[Byzantine Empire]] seeking an alliance and a Byzantine wife, and throughout the year had to deal with raids by Nur ad-Din, who captured [[Banias]]. In [[1167]], Nur ad-Din sent Shirkuh back to Egypt and Amalric once again followed him, establishing a camp near [[Cairo]]; Shawar again allied with Amalric as well and a treaty was signed with the caliph [[al-Adid]] himself. Shirkuh encamped on the opposite side of the [[Nile]]. After an indecisive battle, Amalric retreated to Cairo and Shirkuh took his troops to capture [[Alexandria]]; Amalric followed and besieged Shirkuh there, aided by a fleet from Jerusalem. Shirkuh negotiated for peace and Alexandria was handed over to Amalric. However Amalric could not remain there forever, and after exacting an enormous tribute, returned to Jerusalem. ===Byzantine alliance=== After his return in 1167 he married [[Maria Comnena]], a great-grandniece of [[Byzantine emperor]] [[Manuel I Comnenus]]. The negotiations had taken two years, mostly because Amalric insisted that Manuel return [[Antioch]] to Jerusalem. Once Amalric gave up on this point he was able to marry Maria in [[Tyre]] on [[August 29]], [[1167]]. During this time the queen dowager, Baldwin III's widow [[Theodora Comnena|Theodora]], eloped with her cousin [[Andronicus I Comnenus|Andronicus]] to [[Damascus]], and [[Akko|Acre]] reverted back into the royal domain of Jerusalem. It was also around this time that [[William of Tyre]] was promoted to [[archdeacon]] of Tyre, and was recruited by Amalric to write a history of the kingdom. In [[1168]] Amalric and Manuel negotiated an alliance against Egypt, and William of Tyre was among the ambassadors sent to [[Constantinople]] to finalize the treaty. Although Amalric still had a peace treaty with Shawar, Shawar was accused of attempting to ally with Nur ad-Din, and Amalric invaded. The [[Knights Hospitaller]] eagerly supported this invasion and may have even been responsible for convincing the king to do it, while the [[Knights Templar (military order)|Knights Templar]] refused to have any part in it. In October, without waiting for any Byzantine assistance (and in fact without even waiting for the ambassadors to return), Amalric invaded and seized Bilbeis. The inhabitants were either massacred or enslaved. Amalric then marched to Cairo, where Shawar offered Amalric two million pieces of gold. Meanwhile Nur ad-Din sent Shirkuh back to Egypt as well, and upon his arrival Amalric retreated. ===Rise of Saladin=== In January of 1169 Shirkuh had Shawar assassinated. Shirkuh became vizier, although he himself died in March, and was succeeded by his nephew [[Saladin]]. Amalric became alarmed and sought help from the kings and nobles of Europe, but no assistance was forthcoming. Later that year however a Byzantine fleet arrived, and in October Amalric launched yet another invasion and besieged [[Damietta]] by sea and by land. The siege was long and famine broke out in the Christian camp; the Byzantines blamed the crusaders for the failure and vice versa, and a truce was signed with Saladin. Amalric returned home. Now Jerusalem was surrounded by hostile enemies. In [[1170]] Saladin invaded Jerusalem and took
lt;/font&gt; |- !colspan=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#FFDEAD&quot;|Mission insignia |- |colspan=&quot;2&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;|[[Image:APXexcalibur.JPG|200px]] |- !colspan=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#FFDEAD&quot;|Mission statistics |- |'''Mission Name:'''||Apollo 10 |- |'''Call sign:'''||Command module:&lt;br /&gt;''Charlie Brown''&lt;br /&gt;Lunar module:&lt;br /&gt;''Snoopy'' |- |'''Number of&lt;br /&gt;Crew:'''||3 |- |'''Launch:'''||[[May 18]], [[1969]]&lt;br /&gt;16:49:00 [[Coordinated Universal Time|UTC]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Kennedy Space Center]]&lt;br /&gt;LC 39B |- |'''Lunar orbit:'''||[[May 21]] 20:44:54 UTC-&lt;br /&gt;[[May 24]] 10:25:29 UTC |- |'''Splashdown:'''||[[May 26]], [[1969]]&lt;br /&gt;16:52:23 UTC&lt;br /&gt;15° 2' S - 164° 39' W |- |'''Duration:'''||8 d 0 h 03 min 23 s |- |'''Number of&lt;br /&gt;Lunar Orbits:'''||31 |- |'''Time in&lt;br /&gt;Lunar Orbit:'''||61 h 37 min 23.6 s |- |'''Mass:'''||CSM 28,834 kg;&lt;br /&gt;LM 13,941 kg |- !colspan=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#FFDEAD&quot;|Crew picture |- |colspan=&quot;2&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;|[[Image:GPN-2000-001163.jpg|275px|Apollo 10 crew portrait (L-R: Cernan, Stafford, and Young)]] &lt;br/&gt;Apollo 10 crew portrait &lt;br/&gt;(L-R: Cernan, Stafford, and Young) |- !colspan=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#FFDEAD&quot;|Apollo 10 Crew |} '''Apollo 10''' was the fourth manned mission in the [[Project Apollo|Apollo program]], and the first (and only manned Saturn V) mission to launch from pad 39B. The mission included the second crew to orbit the Moon, and the test of the [[Apollo Lunar Module|lunar module]] in lunar orbit. The module came to within 8.4 nautical miles (15.6 km) of the lunar surface during practice maneuvers. According to the 2001 Guinness World Records Apollo 10 has the record for the highest speed attained by a manned vehicle: 39,897 km/h (11.08 km/s or 24,791 mph). The speed record was set during the return from the Moon on the [[26 May]], [[1969]]. ==Crew== *[[Thomas Stafford]] (flew on ''[[Gemini 6A]]'', ''[[Gemini 9A]]'', ''Apollo 10'', &amp; ''[[Apollo-Soyuz]]''), commander *[[John W. Young]] (flew on ''[[Gemini 3]]'', ''[[Gemini 10]]'', ''Apollo 10'', ''[[Apollo 16]]'', ''[[STS-1]]'', &amp; ''[[STS-9]]''), command module pilot *[[Eugene Cernan]] (flew on ''[[Gemini 9A]]'', ''Apollo 10'', &amp; ''[[Apollo 17]]''), lunar module pilot ===Backup Crew=== *[[Gordon Cooper]] (flew on ''[[Mercury 9]]'', ''[[Gemini 5]]''), commander *[[Donn Eisele]] (flew on ''[[Apollo 7]]''), command module pilot *[[Edgar Mitchell]] (flew on ''[[Apollo 14]]'', lunar module pilot ===Support Crew=== *[[Charles Duke]] (flew on ''[[Apollo 16]]'') *[[Joe Engle]] (flew on ''[[STS-2]]'', ''[[STS 51-I]]'') *[[James Irwin]] (flew on ''[[Apollo 15]]'') *[[Jack Lousma]] (flew on ''[[Skylab 3]]'', ''[[STS-3]]'') ==Mission Parameters== *'''[[Mass]]:''' CSM 28,834 kg; LM 13,941 kg *'''[[Perigee]]:''' 184.5 km *'''[[Apogee]]:''' 190 km *'''[[Inclination]]:''' 32.5° *'''[[Orbital period|Period]]:''' 88.1 min *'''[[Perilune]]:''' 111.1 km *'''[[Apolune]]:''' 316.7 km *'''[[Inclination]]:''' 1.2° *'''[[Orbital period|Period]]:''' 2.15 hours ===LM - CSM Docking=== *'''Undocked''': [[May 22]], [[1969]] - 19:00:57 UTC *'''Redocked''': [[May 23]], [[1969]] - 03:11:02 UTC ===LM closest approach to lunar surface=== *[[May 22]], [[1969]], 21:29:43 UTC On [[May 22]] [[1969]] at 20:35:02 UTC, a 27.4 second LM descent propulsion system burn inserted the LM into a descent orbit of 112.8 km by 15.7 km so that the resulting lowest point in the orbit occurred about 15° from lunar landing site 2 (the Apollo 11 landing site). The lowest measured point in the trajectory was 15.6 km &lt;!--see talk--&gt; above the lunar surface at 21:29:43 UTC. ===See also=== *[[Splashdown]] *[[List of artificial objects on the Moon]] ==Mission Highlights== This dress rehearsal for a Moon landing brought Stafford and Cernan's lunar module, nicknamed &quot;[[Snoopy]]&quot;, to 8.4 nautical miles (15.6 km) from the lunar surface. Except for that final stretch, the mission went exactly as a landing would have gone, both in space and on the ground, where Apollo's extensive tracking and control network was put through a dry run. Shortly after leaving low Earth orbit, the command/service module separated from the S-IVB stage, turned around, and docked its nose to the top of the lunar module still nestled in the S-IVB. The CSM/LM stack then separated from the S-IVB for the trip to the moon. Upon reaching lunar orbit, Young remained alone in his command module &quot;[[Charlie Brown]],&quot; while Stafford and Cernan flew separately in the LM. They checked out the LM's radar and ascent engine, rode out a momentary gyration in the lunar lander's motion (due to a faulty switch setting), and surveyed the Apollo 11 landing site in the Sea of Tranquillity. This test article of the lunar module was not equipped to land, however. Apollo 10 also added another first - broadcasting live color TV from space. On [[May 22]] [[1969]] Apollo 10's lunar module flew within 15.6 km of the [[Moon]]'s surface. :Launched: [[May 18]], [[1969]] from Pad 39B :Returned: [[May 26]], [[1969]] :Crew members: [[Tom Stafford]], commander; [[John W. Young|John Young]], command module pilot; [[Gene Cernan]], lunar module pilot :Command module: [[Charlie Brown]] :Lunar module: [[Snoopy]] The command module is displayed at the [[Science Museum (London)|Science Museum]] in [[London]]. The lunar module is in heliocentric orbit, thus making it the only intact lunar module ascent stage out of all of the lunar modules sent into space (Apollos [[Apollo 5|5]], [[Apollo 9|9]], [[Apollo 13|13]] LM ascent stages burned up in Earth's atmosphere, ''[[Apollo 11]]'' LM ascent stage left in lunar orbit - eventually crashed on moon, Apollos [[Apollo 12|12]], [[Apollo 14|14]], [[Apollo 15|15]], [[Apollo 16|16]], [[Apollo 17|17]] LM ascent stages deliberately crashed into moon) . &lt;gallery&gt; Image:Ap10-KSC-68C-7912.jpg|The [[S-IC]] first stage in the VAB Image:Ap10-KSC-69PC-110.jpg|Apollo 10 during rollout (NASA) Image:As10-27-3881.jpg|CSM &quot;Charlie Brown&quot; (NASA) Image:As10-345117.jpg|LM &quot;Snoopy&quot; (NASA) Image:Apollo_10_earthrise.jpg|Apollo 10 view of Earth rise. (NASA) &lt;/gallery&gt; {{Project Apollo| before=[[Apollo 9]]| after=''[[Apollo 11]]''}} ==References== *[http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/sc-query.html NASA NSSDC Master Catalog] *[http://history.nasa.gov/SP-4029/Apollo_00a_Cover.htm APOLLO BY THE NUMBERS: A Statistical Reference by Richard W. Orloff (NASA)] * [http://history.nasa.gov/SP-4012/vol3/table2.38.htm Apollo 10 Characteristics - SP-4012 NASA HISTORICAL DATA BOOK] ==External links== * [http://www.astronautix.com/flights/apollo10.htm Apollo 10 entry in Encyclopedia Astronautica] *[http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/SP-4009/cover.htm The Apollo Spacecraft: A Chronology] *[http://history.nasa.gov/apsr/apsr.htm Apollo Program Summary Report] *[http://vesuvius.jsc.nasa.gov/er/seh/Ap10.html Mission Report: Apollo 10] {{commons|Apollo 10}} [[Category:1969]] [[Category:Apollo program]] [[Category:Human spaceflights]] [[Category:Lunar spacecraft]] [[da:Apollo 10]] [[de:Apollo 10]] [[fi:Apollo 10]] [[fr:Apollo 10]] [[he:אפולו 10]] [[hu:Apollo-10]] [[it:Apollo 10]] [[nl:Apollo 10]] [[pt:Apollo 10]] [[sv:Apollo 10]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Apollo 12</title> <id>1967</id> <revision> <id>42106663</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T21:44:08Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Rich Farmbrough</username> <id>82835</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Header - references plural</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{| class=&quot;toccolours&quot; border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; style=&quot;float: right; margin: 0 0 1em 1em; border-collapse: collapse; clear: right; font-size:100%;&quot; |+&lt;font size=&quot;+1&quot;&gt;'''Apollo 12'''&lt;/font&gt; |- !colspan=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#FFDEAD&quot;|Mission insignia |- |colspan=&quot;2&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;|[[Image:AP12goodship.JPG|200px|Apollo 12 insignia]] |- !colspan=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#FFDEAD&quot;|Mission statistics |- |'''Mission name:'''||Apollo 12 |- |'''Call sign:'''||Command module:&lt;br /&gt;''Yankee Clipper''&lt;br /&gt;Lunar module:&lt;br /&gt;''Intrepid'' |- |'''Number of&lt;br /&gt;crew:'''||3 |- |'''Launch:'''||[[November 14]], [[1969]]&lt;br /&gt;16:22:00 [[Coordinated Universal Time|UTC]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Kennedy Space Center]]&lt;br /&gt;LC 39A |- |'''Lunar landing:'''||[[November 19]], 1969&lt;br /&gt;06:54:35 UTC&lt;br /&gt;3° 0' 44.60&quot; S - 23° 25' 17.65&quot; W&lt;br /&gt; Oceanus Procellarum/Mare Cognitium &lt;br /&gt;(Ocean of Storms/Known Sea) |- |'''Lunar EVA&lt;br /&gt;length:'''||1st: 3 h 56 min 03 s&lt;br /&gt;2nd: 3 h 49 min 15 s&lt;br /&gt;Total: 7 h 45 min 18 s |- |'''Lunar surface&lt;br /&gt;time:'''||31 h 31 min 11.6 s |- |'''[[Lunar sample]]&lt;br /&gt;mass:'''|| 34.35 kg (75.729 lb) |- |'''Splashdown:'''||[[November 24]], [[1969]]&lt;br /&gt;20:58:24 UTC&lt;br /&gt;15° 47' S - 165° 9' W |- |'''Duration:'''||10 d 4 h 36 min 24 s |- |'''Number of&lt;br /&gt;lunar orbits:'''||45 |- |'''Time in&lt;br /&gt;lunar orbit:'''||88 h 58 min 11.52 s |- |'''Mass:'''||CSM 28,838 kg;&lt;br /&gt;LM 15,235 kg |- !colspan=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#FFDEAD&quot;|Crew picture |- |colspan=&quot;2&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;|[[Image:GPN-2000-001165.jpg|center|thumb|225px|Apollo 12 crew portrait (L-R: Conrad, Gordon and Bean)]]