text stringlengths 1.83k 10k |
|---|
team-mate [[Dennis Viollet]] swapped places with [[Tommy Taylor]] and [[David Pegg]], who had decided they would be safer at the back of the plane. This would prove a fatal decision.
The plane clipped the fence at the end of the runway on its next take-off attempt and a wing tore through a nearby house, setting it alight. The wing and part of the tail came off and hit a tree and a wooden hut spinning along the snow until coming to a halt. It had been cut in half.
Charlton, strapped into his seat, had fallen out of the cabin and when United goalkeeper [[Harry Gregg]] (who had somehow got through a hole in the plane unscathed and begun a one-man rescue mission) found him, he thought he was dead. That said, he grabbed both Charlton and Viollet by their [[trousers|trouser]] waistbands and dragged them away from the plane in constant fear that it would explode. Gregg returned to the plane to try to help the appallingly injured Busby and Blanchflower and when he turned around again, he was relieved to see that Charlton and Viollet, both of whom he had presumed to be dead, had got out of their detached seats and were looking into the wreckage.
Charlton suffered cuts to his head and severe [[shock]] and was in hospital for a week. Seven of his team-mates had perished at the scene, including Taylor and Pegg, with whom he and Viollet had swapped seats prior to the fatal take-off attempt. Club captain [[Roger Byrne]] was also killed, along with [[Mark Jones (footballer)|Mark Jones]], [[Liam Whelan|Billy Whelan]], [[Eddie Colman]] and [[Geoff Bent]]. [[Duncan Edwards]] died a fortnight later from the injuries he had sustained. In total, the crash claimed 23 lives. Initially, [[ice]] on the wings was blamed, but another inquiry later declared that [[slush]] on the runway had made the plane's facility to achieve a safe take-off almost impossible.
Charlton was the first survivor to leave hospital. He arrived back in [[Manchester]] on [[February 14]] [[1958]], eight days after the crash. As he convalesced, he spent some time kicking a ball around with local youths and a famous photograph of him was taken. He was still only 20 years old, yet now there was an expectation that he help with the rebuilding of the club as Busby's aides tried to piece together what remained of the season.
Not unexpectedly, United went out of the European Cup to [[AC Milan]] in the semi finals to a 5-2 aggregate defeat and fell behind in the League. Yet somehow they reached their second consecutive FA Cup final and the big day at Wembley coincided with Busby's return to work. His words could not inspire a side which was playing on a nation's goodwill and sentiment, and [[Nat Lofthouse]] scored twice to give a professional [[Bolton Wanderers F.C.|Bolton Wanderers]] side a 2-0 win.
==Hero of United & England==
At the same time, Charlton's emergence as the country's leading young football talent was completed when he was called up to join the [[England national football team|England]] squad for a [[British Home Championship]] game against [[Scotland national football team|Scotland]] at [[Hampden Park]]. It would be the start of a long, prolific, record-breaking and globally respected career for his country.
Charlton was handed his debut as England romped home 4-0, with the new player gaining even more admirers after scoring a magnificent thumping volley dispatched with authority after a cross by the left winger [[Tom Finney]]. He scored both goals in his second game as England beat [[Portugal national football team|Portugal]] 2-1 in a friendly at Wembley; and overcame obvious nerves on a return to [[Belgrade]] to play his third match against [[Yugoslavia national football team|Yugoslavia]]. Unfortunately, England lost that game 5-0 and Charlton played poorly. He was selected for the squad which competed at the [[Football World Cup 1958|1958 World Cup]] in [[Sweden]], but didn't kick a ball, something at which critics expressed surprise and bewilderment, even allowing for his lacklustre performance in Belgrade.
Charlton began to settle back into his footballing life with Manchester United and England and enhanced his reputation as a scorer of great goals as well as a great goalscorer - rarely is a player regarded as both. In 1959 he scored a [[hat-trick]] as England demolished the [[United States men's national soccer team|USA]] 8-1; and his second England hat-trick came in 1961 in an 8-0 thrashing of [[Mexico national football team|Mexico]].
He played in qualifiers for the [[Football World Cup 1962|1962 World Cup]] in [[Chile]] against [[Luxembourg national football team|Luxembourg]] and Portugal and was named in the squad for the finals themselves. His goal in the 3-1 group win over [[Argentina national football team|Argentina]] was his 25th for England in just 38 appearances, but his individual success could not be replicated by that of the team, which was eliminated in the quarter final by [[Brazil national football team|Brazil]].
Further success with Manchester United finally came when they beat [[Leicester City F.C.|Leicester City]] 3-1 in the FA Cup final of 1963, with Charlton finally earning a winners' medal in his third final. Busby's post-Munich rebuilding programme continued to progress with two League championships within three seasons, with United taking the title in 1965 and 1967. In between, there was the pressing matter for Charlton of the [[Football World Cup 1966|1966 World Cup]] for which England, as hosts, had not needed to qualify. A successful (though trophyless) season with Manchester United had seen him take the honours of ''[[Football Writers' Association|Football Writers' Association Footballer of the Year]]'' and ''[[European Footballer of the Year|European Footballer Of The Year]]'' into the competition.
By now, England were coached by [[Alf Ramsey]] who had managed to gain sole control of the recruitment and team selection procedure from the [[committee]]-based call-up system which had lasted up to the previous World Cup. Ramsey had already cleared out some of the older players who had been reliant on the loyalty of the committee for their continued selection - it was well known that decorum on the pitch at club level had been just as big a factor in playing for England as ability and form. Luckily for Charlton, he had all three.
Charlton had remained the attacking midfield player around whom Ramsey had intended to build his team. He was still scoring and creating freely and as the tournament was about to start, he was expected to become one of its stars and galvanise his established reputation as one of the world's best footballers.
==The success of 1966==
The opening game of the tournament was Charlton's 69th for his country - a goalless draw with [[Uruguay national football team|Uruguay]]. England swept aside this minor hiccup to dispose of Mexico in the next game, with Charlton scoring one of the most famous goals of his career.
Picking up the ball in the centre circle of the Wembley pitch, Charlton issued a Mexican challenger with a body swerve which sent his opponent the wrong way and opened up a sizeable gap ahead of him. His reputation for long-range finishes now the stuff of legend, everyone braced themselves for a shot - and Charlton memorably obliged. It arrowed straight into the top corner of the Mexico net, finally opening England's goal account in the tournament and setting them up for a 2-0 win. This was followed by an identical scoreline against [[France national football team|France]] and England were in the last eight.
There they overcame a thuggish Argentina side with a slender 1-0 win - the game was the only one in which Charlton received a caution - and Portugal awaited in the semi finals. This turned out to be one of Charlton's most important games, for both himself and those for whom he played.
Charlton opened the scoring with a crisp side-footed finish after a run by [[Roger Hunt]] had forced the Portuguese goalkeeper out of his net; the second was a sweetly struck shot after a run and pull-back from [[Geoff Hurst]]. Charlton and Hunt were now England's equal-highest scorers in the tournament with three each, and a final against [[Germany national football team|West Germany]] was to come.
Though the game had drama, great team performances and some breathtaking individual displays, it actually turned out to be one of Charlton's quieter days. He had a young [[Franz Beckenbauer]] marking him and vice versa, and the two ultimately seemed to cancel each other out. However, the team did what was required and won 4-2 (although controversy still exists as to whether the 3rd goal ever crossed the line), with Hurst's hat-trick entering football folklore (and overtaking Charlton and Hunt as England's top marksman). Charlton was playing alongside his brother Jack and the two openly embraced and wept as the enormity of their achievement sunk in.
==European glory==
Charlton's next England game was his 75th as England beat [[Northern Ireland national football team|Northern Ireland]]; two caps later and he had become England's second most-capped player, behind the veteran [[Billy Wright]], who was approaching his 100th appearance when Charlton was starting out and ended with 105 caps.
In 1968, Manchester United reached the European Cup final, ten seasons after Munich. Even though other clubs had taken part in the competition in the intervening [[decade]], the team which got to this final was still the first English side to do so. On a highly emotional night at Wembley, Charlton scored twice in a 4-1 win after extra time against [[SL Benfica|Benfica]] and, as United captain, lifted the trophy. Weeks later he scored his 45th England goal in a friendly against [[Sweden national football team|Sweden]], breaking the record of 44 set the previous year by [[Jimmy Greaves]]. He was then in the England team which was knocked out in the semi final of the [[1968 European Football Championship|1968 Europe |
PA|mʊin}}] - my
*2nd person: ''tú'' [{{IPA|tʉu}}] - you, ''teg'' [{{IPA|teː}}] - you (''acc.''), ''tær'' [{{IPA|tɛɹ}}] - you (''dat.''), ''tín'' [{{IPA|tʊin}}] - your (''gen.'')
*3rd person masculine: ''hann'' [{{IPA|hanː}}] - he, him (''nom., acc.''), ''honum'' [{{IPA|ˈhoːnʊn}}] - him (''dat.''), ''hansara'' [{{IPA|ˈhansaɹa}}] - his (''gen.'')
*3rd person feminine: ''hon'' [{{IPA|hoːn}}] - she, ''hana'' [{{IPA|ˈhɛana}}] - her (''acc.''), ''henni'' [{{IPA|hɛnːɪ}}] - her (''dat.''), ''hennara'' [{{IPA|ˈhɛnːaɹa}}] - her (''gen.'')
*3rd person neuter: ''tað'' [{{IPA|tɛa}}] - it (''nom., acc.''), ''tí'' [{{IPA|tʊi}}] - it (''dat.''), ''tess'' [{{IPA|tɛsː}}] - its (''gen.'')
'''Plural'''
*1st person: ''vit'' [{{IPA|viːt}}] - we, ''okkum'' [{{IPA|ɔʰkːʊn}}] - us (''acc., dat.''), ''okkara'' [{{IPA|ˈɔʰkːaɹa}}] - our (''gen.'')
*2nd person: ''tit'' [{{IPA|tiːt}}] - you (''pl.''), ''tykkum'' [{{IPA|ˈtɪʰkːʊn}}] - you (''acc., dat. pl.'') ''tykkara'' [{{IPA|ˈtɪʰkːaɹa}}] - your (''gen. pl.'')
*3rd person masculine: ''teir'' [{{IPA|taiɹ}}] - they, them (''m. nom., acc.''), ''teimum'' [{{IPA|ˈtaimʊn}}] - them (''dat.''), ''teirra'' [{{IPA|ˈtaiɹːa}}] - their (''gen.'')
*3rd person feminine: ''tær'' [{{IPA|tɛaɹ}}] - they, them (''f. nom., acc.'')
*3rd person neuter: ''tey'' [{{IPA|tɛi}}] - they, them (''n. nom., acc.'')
The 3rd person plural neuter ''tey'' will be used in all cases when both genders are meant, as in:
*teir eru onglendingar - they are Englishmen (''about males'')
*tær eru føroyingar - they are Faroese (''about females'')
*tey eru fólk úr Evropa - they are people from Europe (''both sexes'')
===Verbs===
====Weak Inflection====
There are 4 classes of weak inflection of verbs (with some underclasses). E.g.:
#stem-final '''-a''', 2-3.pers.sg. '''-r''' - kall'''a!''' ([[imperative]]), tú/hann kalla-r (you/he call(s))
#2-3.pers.sg. '''-ur''' - tú/hann sel'''ur''' (you/he sell(s))
#2-3.pers.sg. '''-ir''' - tú/hann døm'''ir''' (you/he judge(s))
#2. pers.sg. '''-rt''' - tú rø'''rt''' (you row). There occurs a Verschärfung in certain surroundings: ''eg rógvi'' [{{IPA|eː ɹɛgvɪ}}], I row; vs. ''eg róði'' [{{IPA|eː ɹɔuwɪ}}], I rowed.
{| id=toc style="margin-left: 15px;" width=460 cellpadding=2
|- style="background:#ccccff"
|colspan="9" align="center" bgcolor="#ccccff"| Weak Inflection
|-
|Infinitive
| colspan=2 align=center | 1. '''kalla'''
| colspan=2 align=center | 2. '''selja'''
| colspan=2 align=center | 3. '''døma'''
| colspan=2 align=center | 4. '''rógva'''
|-
|colspan="9" bgcolor="#dddddd"|
|-
|bgcolor="#eeeeee"| '''Singular'''
|bgcolor="#eeeeee"| Present
|bgcolor="#eeeeee"| Past
|bgcolor="#eeeeee"| Present
|bgcolor="#eeeeee"| Past
|bgcolor="#eeeeee"| Present
|bgcolor="#eeeeee"| Past
|bgcolor="#eeeeee"| Present
|bgcolor="#eeeeee"| Past
|-
|1st pers.
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| kall'''i'''
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| kalla'''ði'''
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| selj'''i'''
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| sel'''di'''
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| døm'''i'''
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| døm'''di'''
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| rógv'''i'''
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| ró'''ði'''
|-
|2nd pers.
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| kalla'''r'''
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| kalla'''ði'''
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| sel'''ur'''
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| sel'''di'''
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| døm'''ir'''
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| døm'''di'''
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| rø'''rt'''
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| ró'''ði'''
|-
|3rd pers.
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| kalla'''r'''
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| kalla'''ði'''
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| sel'''ur'''
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| sel'''di'''
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| døm'''ir'''
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| døm'''di'''
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| rø'''r'''
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| ró'''ði'''
|-
|colspan="9" bgcolor="#dddddd"|
|-
|bgcolor="#eeeeee"| '''Plural'''
|bgcolor="#eeeeee"| Present
|bgcolor="#eeeeee"| Past
|bgcolor="#eeeeee"| Present
|bgcolor="#eeeeee"| Past
|bgcolor="#eeeeee"| Present
|bgcolor="#eeeeee"| Past
|bgcolor="#eeeeee"| Present
|bgcolor="#eeeeee"| Past
|-
|1st, 2nd, 3rd pers.
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| kall'''a'''
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| kalla'''ðu'''
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| selj'''a'''
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| sel'''du'''
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| døm'''a'''
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| døm'''du'''
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| rógv'''a'''
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| ró'''ðu'''
|-
|colspan="9" bgcolor="#deeede"|
|-style="background:#efffef"
|[[Supine]]
| colspan=2 align=center |kalla'''ð'''
| colspan=2 align=center |sel'''t'''
| colspan=2 align=center |døm'''t'''
| colspan=2 align=center |ró'''ð'''
|}
====Strong Inflection====
These verbs are also referred to as regular. There are 7 classes (with underclasses), distinguished by the variations of the stem-vowel:
#'''í - ei - i- i;''' - at b'''í'''ta - eg b'''ei'''t - vit b'''i'''tu - vit hava b'''i'''tið (bite)
#'''ó/ú- ey - u- o;''' - at br'''ó'''ta - eg br'''ey'''t - vit br'''u'''tu - vit hava br'''o'''tið (break)
#'''e/i/ø - a- u- o/u;''' - at sv'''i'''mja - eg sv'''a'''m - vit sv'''u'''mu - vit hava sv'''o'''mið (swim)
#'''e/o - a - ó - o;''' - at b'''e'''ra - eg b'''a'''r - vit b'''ó'''ru - vit hava b'''o'''rið (bear)
#*'''o - o - o - o;''' - at k'''o'''ma - eg k'''o'''m - vit k'''o'''mu - vit hava k'''o'''mið (come)
#'''e/i - a/á - ó - i;''' - at l'''i'''ggja - eg l'''á''' - vit l'''ó'''gu - vit hava l'''i'''gið (lie)
#'''a - ó - ó - a;''' - at f'''a'''ra - eg f'''ó'''r - vit f'''ó'''ru - vit hava f'''a'''rið (go)
#'''a/á - e - i - i;''' - at f'''á'''a - eg f'''e'''kk - vit f'''i'''ngu - vit hava f'''i'''ngið (get)
{| id=toc style="margin-left: 15px;" width=700 cellpadding=2
|- style="background:#ccccff"
|colspan="15" align="center" bgcolor="#ccccff"| Strong Inflection
|-
|Infinitive
| colspan=2 align=center | 1. '''bíta'''
| colspan=2 align=center | 2. '''bróta'''
| colspan=2 align=center | 3. '''svimja'''
| colspan=2 align=center | 4. '''bera'''
| colspan=2 align=center | 5. '''koma'''
| colspan=2 align=center | 6. '''fara'''
| colspan=2 align=center | 7. '''fáa'''
|-
|colspan="15" bgcolor="#dddddd"|
|-
|bgcolor="#eeeeee"| '''Singular'''
|bgcolor="#eeeeee"| Present
|bgcolor="#eeeeee"| Past
|bgcolor="#eeeeee"| Present
|bgcolor="#eeeeee"| Past
|bgcolor="#eeeeee"| Present
|bgcolor="#eeeeee"| Past
|bgcolor="#eeeeee"| Present
|bgcolor="#eeeeee"| Past
|bgcolor="#eeeeee"| Present
|bgcolor="#eeeeee"| Past
|bgcolor="#eeeeee"| Present
|bgcolor="#eeeeee"| Past
|bgcolor="#eeeeee"| Present
|bgcolor="#eeeeee"| Past
|-
|1st pers.
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| bít'''i'''
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| beit
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| brót'''i'''
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| breyt
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| svimj'''i'''
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| svam
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| kom'''i'''
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| kom
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| ligg'''i'''
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| lá
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| far'''i'''
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| fór
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| fá'''i'''
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| fekk
|-
|2nd pers.
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| bít'''ur'''
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| beit'''st'''
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| brýt'''ur'''
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| breyt'''st'''
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| svim'''ur'''
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| svam'''st'''
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| kem'''ur'''
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| kom'''st'''
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| ligg'''ur'''
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| lá'''st'''
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| fer'''t'''
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| fór'''t'''
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| fær'''t'''
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| fek'''st'''
|-
|3rd pers.
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| bít'''ur'''
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| beit
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| brýt'''ur'''
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| breyt
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| svim'''ur'''
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| svam
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| kem'''ur'''
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| kom
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| ligg'''ur'''
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| lá
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| fer
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| fór
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| fær
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| fekk
|-
|colspan="15" bgcolor="#dddddd"|
|-
|bgcolor="#eeeeee"| '''Plural'''
|bgcolor="#eeeeee"| Present
|bgcolor="#eeeeee"| Past
|bgcolor="#eeeeee"| Present
|bgcolor="#eeeeee"| Past
|bgcolor="#eeeeee"| Present
|bgcolor="#eeeeee"| Past
|bgcolor="#eeeeee"| Present
|bgcolor="#eeeeee"| Past
|bgcolor="#eeeeee"| Present
|bgcolor="#eeeeee"| Past
|bgcolor="#eeeeee"| Present
|bgcolor="#eeeeee"| Past
|bgcolor="#eeeeee"| Present
|bgcolor="#eeeeee"| Past
|-
|1st, 2nd, 3rd pers.
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| bít'''a'''
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| bit'''u'''
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| brót'''a'''
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| brut'''u'''
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| svimj'''a'''
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| svum'''u'''
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| kom'''a'''
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| kom'''u'''
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| liggj'''a'''
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| lóg'''u'''
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| far'''a'''
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| fór'''u'''
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| fá'''a'''
|bg |
at we are indebted for depictions of the generic Carthaginian merchant, hawking cloth, pots and jewellery. He was usually portrayed as an amusing scoundrel, a relatively peaceful and colourful trader intent on making a profit and cheating noble but innocent Greeks of every spare penny they might have. Diggings show evidence of all kinds of exchanges, from the vast quantities of tin needed for a bronze-based metals civilization to all manner of textiles, ceramics and fine metalwork. Before and in between the wars Carthaginian merchants were in every port in the Mediterranean, buying and selling, establishing warehouses where they could, or just bargaining in open-air markets after getting off their ship.
The [[Etruscan language]] has not yet been deciphered, but archaeological excavations of Etruscan cities show that the [[Etruscan civilization]] was for several centuries a customer and a vendor to Carthage, long before the rise of Rome. The Etruscan city-states were, at times, both commercial partners of Carthage and military allies.
===Carthaginian government===
Carthage's government was an [[oligarchy]], not unlike that of republican [[Rome]], but few details are known. Roman writers referred to its heads of state as ''reges'' "kings"; Punic inscriptions and Greco-Roman accounts show the indigenous term was ''Sōfetīm'' "Judges" (the same name early rulers are given in the Bible), which might originally have been the title of the city's governor installed by the mother city of [[Tyre]]. Later, one ''sōfet'' or two ''sōfetêm'', who were believed to have exercised judicial and executive (but not military) functions, were elected annually from among the most wealthy and influential families. These aristocratic families were represented in a supreme council comparable to the [[Roman senate]] that had a wide range of powers. However, it is not known whether the ''sōfetīm'' were elected by this council or by an assembly of the people. Although the city's administration was firmly controlled by oligarchs, democratic elements were to be found as well: Carthage had elected legislators, trade unions and town meetings. There was a system of checks and balances, as well as public accountability: the Head of the Admiralty would have to pay with his life for military defeat.
[[Eratosthenes]], head of the Greek [[library of Alexandria]], noted that the Greeks had been wrong to describe all non-Greeks as barbarians, since the Carthaginians as well as the Romans had a constitution. [[Aristotle]] also knew and wrote about the Carthaginian constitution in his <i>Politics</i> (Book II, Chapter 11).
===Carthaginian religious practices===
Carthage under the Phoenicians was notorious to its neighbors for [[child sacrifice]]. [[Plutarch]] (ca. [[46]]-120 CE) mentions the practice, as do [[Tertullian]], [[Orosius]] and [[Diodorus Siculus]]. [[Livy]] and [[Polybius]] do not. Modern archeological excavations could be taken to confirm Plutarch's view. In a single child cemetery called the [[Tophet]] an estimated 20,000 urns were deposited between [[400 BC]] and [[200 BC]], with the practice continuing until the early years of the Christian period. The urns contained the charred bones of newborns and in some cases the bones of fetuses and 2-year-olds. These remains have been interpreted to mean that in the cases of [[stillborn]] babies, the parents would sacrifice their youngest child. There is a clear correlation between the frequency of sacrifice and the well-being of the city. In bad times (war, poor harvests) sacrifices became more frequent, indicating an increased assiduousness in seeking divine appeasement.
It is sometimes argued, however, that these bodies were merely the cremated remains of children that died naturally, although in light of other [[Canaan]]ite evidence this seems less likely. The few Carthaginian texts which have survived make absolutely no mention of child sacrifice. It has been argued by some modern scholars that evidence of Carthaginian child sacrifice is sketchy at best and that it is far more likely to have been part of Roman [[propaganda]] against the Carthaginians to justify their conquest and destruction. The debate is ongoing among modern archeologists and other antiquarians.
While the surviving Punic texts mention no practices of religious sacrifice, they are detailed enough to give a portrait of a very well organized caste of temple priests and acolytes performing different types of functions, for a variety of prices.
Carthage had many gods. The supreme divine couple was that of [[Tanit]] and [[Baal#Ba.27al_of_Carthage|Ba'al Hammon]]. Priests were clean shaven, unlike most of the population. In the first centuries of the city ritual celebrations included rhythmic dancing, derived from Phoenician traditions. The goddess [[Astarte]] seems to have been popular in early times. At the height of its cosmopolitan era Carthage seems to have hosted a large array of divinities from the neighbouring civilizations of Greece, Egypt and the Etruscan city-states.
==Conflict with the Greeks and Romans==
===First Sicilian War===
Carthage's success led to the creation of a powerful navy to discourage both pirates and rival nations. This, coupled with its success and growing hegemony, brought Carthage into increasing conflict with the [[Greeks]], the other major power contending for control of the central Mediterranean.
The island of Sicily, lying at Carthage's doorstep, became the arena on which this conflict played out. From their earliest days, both the Greeks and Phoenicians had been attracted to the large island, establishing a large number of colonies and trading posts along its coasts. Small battles had been fought between these settlements for centuries.
By [[480 BC]], [[Gelon]], the [[tyrant]] of Greek [[Syracuse, Italy|Syracuse]], backed in part by Greek support, was attempting to unite the island under his rule. This imminent threat could not be ignored, and Carthage - possibly as part of an alliance with [[Persian Empire|Persia]], then engaged in a war with Greece - fielded its largest military force to date, under the leadership of the general [[Hamilcar]]. Traditional accounts give Hamilcar's army a strength of three hundred thousand men; though these are almost certainly exaggerated, it must nonetheless have been of formidable force.
En route to Sicily, however, Hamilcar suffered losses (possibly severe) due to poor weather. Landing at Panormus (modern-day [[Palermo]]), he was then decisively defeated by Gelon at the [[Battle of Himera (480 BC)|Battle of Himera]]. He was either killed during the battle or committed suicide in shame. The loss severely weakened Carthage, and the old government of entrenched nobility was ousted, replaced by the Carthaginian Republic.
===Second Sicilian War===
By [[410 BC]] Carthage had recovered under a series of successful rulers. It had conquered much of modern day [[Tunisia]], strengthened and founded new colonies in North Africa, and sponsored [[Mago Barca]]'s journey across the [[Sahara Desert]] and [[Hanno the Navigator]]'s journey down the African coast. Although, in that year, the Iberian colonies seceded&mdash;cutting off Carthage's major supply of [[silver]] and [[copper]]&mdash;Hannibal Mago, the grandson of Hamilcar, began preparations to reclaim Sicily, while expeditions were also led into [[Morocco]] and [[Senegal]], and also into the [[Atlantic Ocean|Atlantic]].
In [[409 BC]], Hannibal Mago set out for Sicily with his force. He was successful in capturing the smaller cities of Selinus (modern [[Selinunte]]) and [[Himera]], before returning triumphantly to Carthage with the spoils of war. But the primary enemy, Syracuse, remained untouched, and in [[405 BC]] Hannibal Mago led a second Carthaginian expedition, this time to claim the island in its entirety. This time, however, he met with fierce resistance and ill-fortune. During the [[siege]] of [[Agrigentum]], the Carthaginian forces were ravaged by plague, Hannibal Mago himself succumbing to it. Although his successor, [[Himilco]], successfully extended the campaign by breaking a Greek siege, capturing the city of [[Gela]] and repeatedly defeating the army of [[Dionysius I of Syracuse|Dionysius]], the new tyrant of Syracuse, he, too, was weakened by the plague and forced to [[sue for peace]] before returning to Carthage.
In [[398 BC]], Dionysius had regained his strength and broke the peace treaty, striking at the Carthaginian stronghold of [[Motya]]. Himilco responded decisively, leading an expedition which not only reclaimed Motya, but also captured [[Messina, Italy|Messina]]. Finally, he laid siege to Syracuse itself. The siege met with great success throughout [[397 BC]], but in [[396 BC]] plague again ravaged the Carthaginian forces, and they collapsed.
Sicily by this time had become an obsession for Carthage. Over the next sixty years, Carthaginian and Greek forces engaged in a constant series of skirmishes. By [[340 BC]], Carthage had been pushed entirely into the southwest corner of the island, and an uneasy peace reigned over the island.
===Third Sicilian War===
In [[315 BC]] [[Agathocles]], the tyrant of Syracuse, seized the city of [[Messene]] (present-day Messina). In [[311 BC]] he invaded the last Carthaginian holdings on Sicily, breaking the terms of the current peace treaty, and laid siege to [[Agrigentum|Akragas]].
[[Hamilcar]], grandson of [[Hanno the Navigator]], led the Carthaginian response and met with tremendous success. By [[310 BC]] he controlled almost all of Sicily and had laid siege to Syracuse itself. In desperation, Agathocles secretly led an expedition of 14,000 men to the mainland, hoping to save his rule by leading a counterstrike against Carthage itself. In this, he was successful: Carthage was forced to recall Hamilcar and most of his army from Sicily to face the new and unexpected threat. Although Agathocles' army w |
as [[urea]].
==Protein denaturation==
Proteins denature when they lose their three-dimensional structure - their [[chemical conformation]] and thus their characteristic [[protein folding|folded]] structure. Proteins may be denatured at the [[secondary structure|secondary]], [[tertiary structure|tertiary]] and [[quaternary structure|quaternary]] structural levels, but not at the [[primary structure|primary]] structural level.
[[Protein]]s are long strands of [[amino acid]]s linked together in specific sequences. A protein is created by [[ribosome]]s that "read" [[codon]]s in the gene and assemble the requisite amino acid combination from the [[DNA|genetic]] instruction, in a process known as [[Translation (genetics)|translation]]. The newly created protein strand then undergoes post-translational modification in which additional [[atom]]s or [[molecule]]s are added, for example [[copper]], [[zinc]], [[iron]]. Once this post-translational modification process has been completed, the protein begins to fold (spontaneously, and sometimes with [[enzymatic]] assistance), curling up on itself so that [[hydrophobic]] elements of the protein are buried deep inside the structure and [[hydrophilic]] elements end up on the outside. The final shape of a protein determines how it interacts with its environment. If the shape of the protein is altered through some form of external stress (for example, by applying heat, acid or [[alkali]]) then it will no longer be able to carry out its cellular function. This is called denaturation of the protein.
Denatured proteins can exhibit a wide range of characteristics, from loss of [[solubility]] to [[communal aggregation]].
===How denaturation occurs at levels of protein structure===
*In '''quaternary''' structure denaturation, protein sub-units are dissociated and/or the spatial arrangement of protein subunits is disrupted.
*'''Tertiary''' structure denaturation involves the disruption of:
:*[[Covalent]] interactions between amino acid side chains (such as [[disulfide bridge]]s between [[cysteine]] groups)
:*Noncovalent [[dipole]]-dipole interactions between polar amino acid side chains (and the surrounding [[solvent]])
:*[[Van der Waals force|Van der Waals (induced dipole) interactions]] between nonpolar amino acid side chains.
*In '''secondary''' structure denaturation, proteins lose all regular repeating patterns such as [[alpha helix|alpha-helices]] and [[beta sheet|beta-pleated sheets]], and adopt a [[random coil]] configuration.
*'''Primary''' structure, such as the sequence of amino acids held together by covalent [[peptide bond]]s, is not disrupted by denaturation.
===Loss of function===
Most biological proteins lose their biological function when denatured, For example, [[enzyme]]s lose their [[catalysis|catalytic activity]], because the substrates can no longer bind to the [[active site]], and because amino acid residues involved in stabilizing substrates' [[transition state]]s are no longer positioned to be able to do so.
===Reversibility and irreversibility===
In many proteins (unlike egg whites), denaturation is reversible (the proteins can regain their native state when the denaturing influence is removed). This was important historically, as it led to the notion that all the information needed for proteins to assume their native state was encoded in the primary structure of the protein, and hence in the [[DNA]] that codes for the protein.
===Some common examples===
When food is cooked, some of its proteins become denatured. This is why boiled eggs become hard and cooked meat becomes firm.
A classic example of denaturing in proteins comes from [[egg white]]s, which are largely egg [[albumin]]s in water. Fresh from the eggs, egg whites are transparent and [[liquid]]. But by cooking they are turned opaque and white, and form an interconnected [[solid]] mass. The same transformation can be effected with a denaturing chemical. Pouring egg whites into a beaker of [[acetone]] will also turn egg whites opaque and solid. The skin which forms on [[curdled]] milk is another common example of denatured protein.
==Nucleic acid denaturation==
The denaturation of nucleic acids such as [[DNA]] due to high temperatures, is the separation of a double strand into two single strands, which occurs when the [[hydrogen bond]]s between the strands are broken. This may occur during [[polymerase chain reaction]]. Nucleic acid strands realign when "normal" conditions are restored during [[annealing (biology)|annealing]]. If the conditions are restored too quickly, the nucleic acid strands may realign imperfectly.
[[Category:Biochemistry]]
[[de:Denaturierung]]
[[he:דנטורציה]]
[[nl:Denaturatie]]
[[ja:変性]]
[[pl:Denaturacja DNA]]
[[sv:Denaturering]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Diploidy</title>
<id>8457</id>
<revision>
<id>15906452</id>
<timestamp>2005-03-13T22:23:50Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Petaholmes</username>
<id>59986</id>
</contributor>
<comment>redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Ploidy]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Dwight L. Moody</title>
<id>8459</id>
<revision>
<id>39193891</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-11T10:53:54Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Brusselsshrek</username>
<id>235512</id>
</contributor>
<comment>made "President" part of the link</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Dwight Lyman Moody c. 1900.jpg|thumb|250px|Dwight Lyman Moody, circa 1890s.]]
'''Dwight Lyman Moody''' ([[February 5]], [[1837]] - [[December 22]], [[1899]]), also known as D.L. Moody, was an [[United States|American]] [[evangelist]] and [[publisher]] who founded the Moody Church, Northfield School and Mount Hermon School in Massachusetts (now the [[Northfield Mount Hermon]] School), the [[Moody Bible Institute]] and Moody Press.
Moody's work in [[Chicago, Illinois]] led to the largest [[Sunday School]] of his time. He labored so abundantly that within a year the average attendance at his school was 650, while sixty volunteers from various churches served as teachers. It became so well known that the just-elected [[Abraham Lincoln|President Lincoln]] visited and spoke at a Sunday School meeting on November 25, 1860.
After the [[American Civil War|Civil War]] started, he was involved with the U.S. Christian Commission of the [[YMCA]], and ministered at several battlefields.
He started a church in Chicago that was burnt down in the [[Great Chicago Fire]]. It was rebuilt within three months. His lay follower [[William Eugene Blackstone]] was a prominent American [[Zionist]].
It was in a trip to [[England]] that he became well known as an evangelist, to the point that some have claimed he was the greatest evangelist of the [[19th century]]. His preaching had an impact as great as that of [[George Whitefield]] and [[John Wesley]] within Britain, Scotland and Ireland. On several occasions he filled stadiums of 2,000 to 4,000 capacity. In the Botanic Gardens Palace, a meeting had between 15,000 to 30,000 people. This turnout continued throughout 1874 and 1875, with crowds of thousands at all of his meetings. When he returned to the United States, crowds of 12,000 to 20,000 were just as common as in England. President [[Ulysses S. Grant|Grant]] and some of his cabinet attended a meeting on January 19, 1876. His evangelistic meetings were held from Boston to New York, throughout New England and as far as San Francisco, and other West coast towns from Vancouver to San Diego.
He preached his last sermon on [[November 16]], [[1899]]. It has been claimed he was instrumental in converting one million people to the Christian religion, although this is unprovable, due to lack of centralized record keeping.
* http://www.moody.edu/
* http://www.moodychurch.org/
==See also==
[[Horatio Spafford]] - Spafford, a friend of Moody, wrote the words to the hymn ''"It Is Well With My Soul"''
[[Category:1837 births|Moody, Dwight L.]]
[[Category:1899 deaths|Moody, Dwight L.]]
[[Category:Born-again Christians|Moody, Dwight L.]]
[[Category:Christian evangelicalism|Moody, Dwight L.]]
[[Category:Christian leaders]]
[[Category:Christian ministers|Moody, Dwight L.]]
[[Category:Christian writers]]
[[Category:People from Massachusetts|Moody, Dwight L.]]
[[de:Dwight Lyman Moody]]
[[it:Dwight L. Moody]]
[[nl:Dwight L. Moody]]
[[zh:慕迪]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Dieting</title>
<id>8460</id>
<revision>
<id>41903711</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T14:27:54Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Kuzaar</username>
<id>739272</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>rv to Monkeyman- spam</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:feetonscale.jpg|thumb|right|Measuring body weight on a [[weighing scale|scale]]]]
'''Dieting''' is the practice or habit of [[eating]] (and [[drinking]]) in a regulated fashion. Though some definitions restrict dieting to weight loss programs, these are not the only types of diets. Diets may be of a religious nature, they may be medically necessary, or they may even be designed to promote weight gain. Reasons people seek to lose weight include the improvement of personal appearance, physical fitness and general health.
==Types of Diets==
Several kinds of diets exist:
*Weight loss diets restrict the intake of specific foods, or food in general, or reduce body weight. This is what [[#Fad diets]] are marketed for. There exists a (sometimes confusing) multitude of weight loss techniques, many of which are ineffective. What works for one person will not necessarily work for another, due to metabolic differences and lifestyle factors.
*Certain religions (such as [[Judaism]], [[Hinduism]] and [[Islam]]) impose strict restrictions on food choices and preparation, in |
a day (about $25,000 in 2005 when adjusted for inflation) until it was released. Finally, Mattel offered the Keyboard Component for sale via mail order.
Four thousand units were sold; many were later returned for a full refund when Mattel recalled the unit in 1983 due to various support problems, especially that the then-innovative cassette tape unit never proved to be reliable. According to the Blue Sky Rangers web site, users who opted to keep theirs were made to sign a waiver absolving Intellivision of all future responsibility for technical support. [http://www.intellivisionlives.com/bluesky/hardware/index.html] In addition, the Keyboard Component could be modified into a development platform for the Intellivision, and such units were used internally for game development during the latter portion of the system's lifespan.
By this time, Mattel had set up competing internal engineering teams, each trying to either fix the Keyboard Component or replace it. The rival Mattel engineers had come up with a much less expensive keyboard alternative. The [[Entertainment Computer System]] (ECS), was much smaller, sleeker, and easier to produce than the original Keyboard Component. Unfortunately, while the original Keyboard Component had some advantages over the small computers of its day, the new Keyboard Component was designed to be inexpensive, not functional, and was far less powerful than emerging machines like the Commodore 64. The two keyboard units were incompatible, but owners of the older unit were offered a new ECS.
To maintain secrecy in a [[toy]] industry where [[industrial espionage]] was a way of life, many projects had code names, so documents and casual discussion did not reveal company secrets. With the video games business already staggering by the time the new Keyboard Component was planned, Daglow suggested the new device be code-named LUCKI (for "Low User Cost Keyboard Interface.") The name stuck but the good fortune did not: the cheaply manufactured ECS keyboard add-on was a retail failure.
==IntelliVoice==
[[Image:Intellivision1.jpg|thumb|right|315px|Intellivision II featuring the game ''[[Burger Time]]'' and the [[voice synthesis]] module.]]
In [[1983]] Mattel introduced a new [[peripheral]] innovative for the time: [[IntelliVoice]], a [[voice synthesis]] device which produced speech when used with certain games, most of which would not work without the add-on component. Top Mattel programmers including [[Bill Fisher]], [[Steve Roney]], [[Gene Smith]] and John Sohl were diverted to the project, slowing the previous initiative to counter Atari with new arcade-style games. Voice titles included:
* ''[[Bomb Squad (game)|Bomb Squad]]''
* ''[[B-17 Bomber (game)|B-17 Bomber]]''
* ''[[Intellivision World Series Baseball]]'' (IntelliVoice optional since the game already required the ECS keyboard)
* ''[[Space Spartans]]''
* ''[[TRON Solar Sailer]]''
==Intellivision II==
In addition to the IntelliVoice module, 1983 also saw the introduction of a redesigned model, called the [[Intellivision II]] (featuring detachable controllers and sleeker case), the [[System Changer]] (which played [[Atari 2600]] games on the Intellivision II), and a music keyboard add-on for the ECS.
Like the ECS, Intellivision II was designed first and foremost to be inexpensive to manufacture. Among other things, the raised bubble keypad of the original hand controller was replaced by a flat [[membrane keyboard]] surface. Unfortunately, many Intellivision games had been designed for users to play by feeling the buttons without looking down, and many games were far less playable on Intellivision II.
==Competition and market crash==
:''See also:'' [[Video game crash of 1983]]
Amid the flurry of new hardware, there was trouble for the Intellivision. New game systems ([[Colecovision|ColecoVision]], [[Atari 5200]], and [[Vectrex]], all in [[1982]]) were further subdividing the market, and the [[video game crash of 1983|videogame crash]] began to put pressure on the entire industry. The Intellivision team rushed to finish a major new round of games, including [[Burger Time]] and the ultra-secret [[3D glasses]] game [[Hover Force]]. Unfortunately, although Burger Time was one of the best games on the Intellivision and was programmed by Blue Sky Ranger [[Ray Kaestner]] in record time, the five-month manufacturing cycle meant that the game did not appear until the late spring of 1983, after the video game crash had severely damaged game sales.
In the spring of 1983 Mattel went from aggressively hiring game programmers to laying them off within a two week period. By August there were massive layoffs, and the price of the Intellivision II (which launched at $150 earlier that year) was lowered to $69. Mattel Electronics posted a $300 million loss. Early in 1984, the division was closed - the first high profile victim of the crash.
Intellivision game sales continued when a liquidator purchased all rights to the Intellivision and its software from Mattel, as well as all remaining inventory. After much of the existing software inventory had been sold, former Mattel Marketing executive [[Terry Valeski]] bought all rights to Intellivision and started a new venture. The new company, INTV Corp., continued to sell old stock via retail and mail order. When the old stock of Intellivision II consoles ran out, they introduced a new console dubbed [[INTV III]]. This unit was actually a cosmetic rebadge of the original Intellivision console (this unit was later renamed the [[Super Pro System]].) In addition to manufacturing new consoles, INTV Corp. also continued to develop new games, releasing a few new titles each year. Eventually, the system was discontinued in [[1991]].
Intellivision games became readily available again when Keith Robinson, an early Intellivision programmer responsible for the game [http://www.intellivisionlives.com/bluesky/games/credits/voice2.shtml#solar_sailer TRON Solar Sailer] purchased the software rights and founded a new company, Intellivision Productions. As a result, games originally designed for the Intellivision are available on modern-day consoles including the [[PlayStation 2]], [[Xbox]], [[Nintendo GameCube]] and [[Nintendo DS]], in the ''[[Intellivision Lives!]]'' package.
==Statistics==
*Over 3 million Intellivision consoles were sold during its 12 year run.
*There were a total of 125 Intellivision games released.
==Innovations==
*Intellivision was the first [[16-bit]] game console, though some people have mistakenly referred to it as a 10-bit system because the [[central processing unit|CPU]]'s instruction set and game cartridges are 10 bits wide. A 10-bit chunk of data is called a "decle". The [[processor register|registers]] in the [[microprocessor]], where the mathematical logic is processed, were 16 bits wide.
*The Intellivision was also the first system to feature downloadable games (though without a storage device the games vanished once the machine was turned off). In 1981, [[General Instrument]] (manufacturer of the Intellivision's CPU) teamed up with Mattel to roll out the [[PlayCable]], a device that allowed the downloading of Intellivision games via cable TV.
*Intellivision was the second game console to provide real-time human and robot voices in the middle of gameplay, courtesy of the IntelliVoice module. The first was Magnavox's voice module for the Odyssey2.
*[[Intellivision World Series Baseball]], designed by [[Don Daglow]] and [[Eddie Dombrower]] and released in 1983, was the first video game to use the concept of displaying the action in simulated 3D through "camera angles" that emulated those used in TV sports coverage. Prior games always showed a single fixed or scrolling camera view of the field. Daglow and Dombrower went on to create the [[Earl Weaver Baseball]] games at [[Electronic Arts]] in [[1987]].
*It was also the first console to feature a controller with a directional pad that allowed 16 directions, which was handy for sports games. However, the ergonomics of the disc-shaped pad, and particularly the "action" buttons on the side of the controller, were poor. This turned off some gamers. Along with cost, this was one of the factors in making the Intellivision less popular than the Atari 2600. However, it is interesting to note that the method of controlling movement on the Intellivision (with the thumb) is not too different from the popular home video game controllers we see now (from the NES to today). The joystick style controller is much more rare on modern consoles.
== Trivia ==
*During the early 80s, [[New York]] based television station [[WPIX]] ran a very popular telephone interactive game called TV-PIXX (The PIXX being derived from the TV station's call letters). It was aired during the traditional weekday afternoon slot of children's programming as an interlude during whatever show was being aired. Participants would be called at home to play a videogame that appeared on their screen. Two of the Earliest games featured on the segment were simple games such as Tic Tac Toe and a Breakout type game called Moving Target. Intellivision's Football, Baseball, Basketball, and Space Battle were later featured as the TV segment got more popular. Participants would say the word "PIXX" in order to affect a game action such as passing the ball, swinging the bat, or firing the laser. Based on the score, Kids could win prizes such as T-shirts and $10 Dollar U.S. [[Savings Bonds]]. They could double their prize or win a bonus prize (such as advance tickets to see upcoming films) by answering a Trivia question. For a chance at playing, kids could send a postcard with their name, address, and phone number to TV PIXX c/o WPIX TV, New York, NY. TV Pixx lasted until 1982 when the Intellivision system became a popular home game system but for many New York viewers, this TV segment was their first glimpse of the Int |
eral Motors and vice versa". Later this statement was often garbled when quoted, suggesting that Wilson had said simply, "What's good for General Motors is good for the country." At the time, GM was the one of the largest employers in the world &ndash; only Soviet state industries employed more people.
===General Motors Hughes Electronics===
[[Hughes Electronics]] was formed in [[1985]] when [[Hughes Aircraft]] was sold by the [[Howard Hughes Medical Institute]] to General Motors for $5 billion. General Motors merged Hughes Aircraft with its Delco Electronics unit to form GM Hughes Electronics (GMHE). The group then consisted of:
*Hughes Aircraft
*Delco Electronics
*Hughes Space and Communications
*Hughes Network Systems
*Hughes Training
In August [[1992 in aviation|1992]] GM Hughes Electronics purchased [[General Dynamics]]' Missile Systems business. In [[1994 in aviation|1994]] Hughes Electronics introduced [[DirecTV]], the world's first high-powered [[direct broadcast satellite]] service. In [[1995 in aviation|1995]] Hughes Electronic's [[Hughes Aircraft#Hughes Space and Communications|Hughes Space and Communications]] division became the largest supplier of commercial satellites. Also in 1995 the group purchased [[Magnavox Electronic Systems]] from the [[Carlyle Group]]. In [[1996 in aviation|1996]] Hughes Electronics and [[PanAmSat]] agree to merge their fixed satellite services into a new publicly held company, also called PanAmSat with GM Hughes Electronics as majority shareholder.
In [[1997 in aviation|1997]] GM transferred Delco Electronics to its [[Delphi Corporation|Delphi Automotive Systems]] business. Late in the year the defense operations of Hughes Electronics (Hughes Aircraft and missile business) were merged with Raytheon.
Hughes Space and Communications remained independent until [[2000 in aviation|2000]], when it was purchased by [[Boeing]] and became [[Boeing Satellite Systems]].
In 2000, the remaining parts of Hughes Electronics: DirecTV, DirecTV Latin America, PanAmSat and Hughes Network Systems, were purchased by [[NewsCorp]] and renamed The DirecTV Group. NewsCorp sold PanAmSat to [[Kohlberg Kravis Roberts & Co.]] (KKR) in August 2004.
==Corporate structure and issues==
Current members of the [[board of directors]] of General Motors are: [[Percy Barnevik]], [[Erskine Bowles]], [[John Bryan]], [[Armando Codina]], [[George M. C. Fisher|George Fisher]], [[Karen Katen]], [[Kent Kresa]], [[Ellen Kullman]], [[Philip Laskawy]], [[Jerome York]], [[Eckhard Pfeiffer]], and [[Rick Wagoner]] (chairman). York was elected to the board on [[February 6]], [[2006]] to represent [[Kirk Kerkorian]], as [[E. Stanley O'Neal]] stepped down.
Rick Wagoner is also the [[chief executive officer]] of the company (since [[June 1]], [[2000]]), succeeding [[John F. Smith, Jr.]]
===Social policies===
General Motors was named one of the 100 Best Companies for Working Mothers in [[2004]] by ''Working Mothers'' magazine.
Due to its highly compensated workforce GM has the highest health care and labor costs in the industry, and some analysts have criticized the company for this.
===Subsidies===
In March [[2005]], the [[Government of Canada]] "gave [[Canadian dollar|C$]]200 million to General Motors for its Ontario plants, and last fall it awarded C$100 million to [[Ford Motor Co.]] to expand their Canadian auto production, provide jobs and contribute to the economy," according to [[Jim Harris (politician)|Jim Harris]]. With additional subsidies promised to non-North American auto companies like Toyota, Premier Dalton McGuinty said the money the province and Ottawa are pledging for the project is well-spent. His government has committed [[Canadian dollar|C$]]400 million, including the latest Toyota package of [[Canadian dollar|C$]]125 million, to the province's automobile sector, which helped finance $5 billion worth of industry projects.
===Marketing problems===
GM corporate management has since 1955 allowed the gradual blurring of the distinctions between its own divisions. These divisions were once each targeted to specific market segments and, despite some shared components, each vehicle distinguished itself from comparable GM stablemates with unique styling and (to some extent) bespoke technology. The shared components and common corporate management created substantial [[economy of scale| economies of scale]] while the distinctions between the divisions created an orderly upgrade path, with an entry-level buyer starting out with a practical and economical Chevrolet and, (assuming progressive prosperity of the buyer), moving through offerings of the several divisions until the purchase of a Cadillac. The divisions were not [[competition|competing]] with each other so much but rather they were passing along the same customer, who would thus always be buying a GM product, with the profits flowing to this single corporation.
Before 1955:
*[[GMC Truck]] - produced strictly utilitarian commercial vehicles over a wide range of capacities
*[[Chevrolet]] - an entry-level brand offering high utility at low price, with some light trucks and panel vans
*[[Pontiac]] - a brand that sold solid, extremely quiet vehicles (these used a side valve straight eight), attractive to a modest and reserved lower middle class
*[[Oldsmobile]] - a leading technical innovator with the first production [[automatic transmission]], this eventually became GM's first "performance" division, introducing the industry's first short-stroke, high-compression overhead-valve V8 (the "Oldsmobile Rocket") in 1949
*[[Buick]] - a more expensive and luxurious brand for the upper middle class (often called the "doctor's car") with four models - the small body/engine ''Special'' and ''Super'' and the larger ''Century'' and ''Roadmaster'', each emphasizing a soft ride, upscale interior, and in the late 1940's an available "shiftless" automatic transmission and hydraulic power windows
*[[Cadillac]] - the self styled "''standard of luxury''", with large production competition only from rival [[Packard]]
The postwar industry became enamored with the concept of "planned obsolescence", implemented by both technical and styling innovations, with a three year product cycle typical within the industry. In this cycle, a new basic body shell is introduced and then modified for the next two years by minor styling changes. GM, [[Ford Motor Company|Ford]], and [[Chrysler Corporation|Chrysler]] competed vigorously in this new environment.
By 1957, with a "horsepower race" active in the U.S. industry, Pontiac became somewhat performance-minded, rivaled by some specific Buick models (the Century for example), completing the evolution in the early and mid 1960's with the Bonneville and the GTO, with Oldsmobiles mostly later becoming soft, comfortable, and (for larger families) practical vehicles. High performance vehicles were available from all of the divisions, peaking in 1970 and ending with the imposition of anti-[[smog]] technologies that severely impacted performance, drivability, and efficiency across the industry in the early 1970's.
By the late 1960s, most of GM's vehicles were built upon a few common ''platforms'' and in the 1970s, began to use nearly identical body panel stampings, differing only in internal and external trim items. This was seen especially in the compact passenger vehicles offered by the divisions.
Beginning in the 1980's, GM frequently "rebadged" one division's successful vehicle into several models across the divisions, all positioned close to one another in the market place. Thus, a new GM model's main competition might be another model spawned off the same platform. This led to so-called market "[[Cannibal#Other uses of the word|cannibalization]]", where GM's respective divisions spent time stealing sales from one another, while other more co-ordinated efforts (notably from the Japanese manufacturers) were allowed to increase their market penetration. For instance, the company's GMT360 midsized light truck platform has, since its inception in 2002, spawned the basic Chevrolet Trailblazer, an extended version of the Trailblazer, the Oldsmobile Bravada, the GMC Envoy, the Envoy XL (an extended Envoy with a reconfigurable tailgate) and later, the Isuzu Ascender, Buick Rainier, and Saab 9-7X. Though each model had a more or less unique mission, without bespoke engine choices or radically different suspension settings and trim choices, the cars can hardly be told apart.
Critics have suggested that this progressive blurring of well-defined brands has been a large contributor the late 20<sup>th</sup> and early 21<sup>st</sup> century market failures of GM.
During the 1980's and later GM divisions had market issues concerning quality - not that the vehicles produced were especially bad but rather that they did not compare well to foreign competition in matters of fit and finish, durability of sheet metal, paint (which was not at all durable for several years after a formulation change), and plastic components.
In 2004, GM redirected resources from the development of new sedans to an accelerated refurbishment of their light trucks and [[SUV]]s for introduction as 2007 models in early 2006. Shortly after this decision, fuel prices increased by over 50 % and this in turn affected both the trade-in value of used vehicles and the perceived desirability of new offerings in these market segments. The current marketing plan is currently to extensively tout these revised vehicles as offering the best fuel economies ''in their class'' (of vehicle), although such advantages are expected to be minor until the introduction of new hybrid light trucks in 2007, with projected 25% mileage improvements. In contrast, Ford, GM's primary domestic competitor, has emphasized building more and better passenge |
cards moving from the deck to the play area or player's hand being tightly controlled. Relative card strength is often balanced by the number or type of basic resources needed in order to play the card, and pacing after that may be determined by the flow of cards moving in and out of play. Resources may be specific cards themselves, or represented by other means (i.e. tokens in various resource pools, symbols on cards, etc...).
Players select which cards will compose their deck from the available pool of cards - unlike traditional [[card game]]s such as [[poker]] or [[UNO (game)|UNO]] where the deck's content is limited and pre-determined. This allows a CCG player to strategically customize their deck to take advantage of favorable card interactions, combinations and statistics.
During a game, players traditionally take turns playing cards and performing game-related actions. The order and titles of these steps vary between different game systems, but these are typical:
* Restore - make all in play cards ready for the upcoming turn
* Draw card(s) - necessary in order to circulate cards in players' hands
* Play card(s) - use the cards in hand to interact with the game
* Conflict - the primary method for victory in most games (combat is a very popular theme)
* Discard card(s) - most games have a maximum hand size, or need to refresh for next turn
=== Internet play ===
Modern CCGs have also been developed that are played over the [[Internet]]. Instead of receiving physical cards, a player establishes a "virtual" collection that is kept only in electronic memory and cards can be purchased or traded within this environment. There are online versions of games that originated as physical CCGs, as well as games that exist solely online. The first online CCG was known as [[Chron X]] and was designed and produced by [[Genetic Anomalies]]
== Distribution ==
Specific game cards are most often produced in various degrees of scarcity, generally denoted as ''common'', ''uncommon'', and ''rare''. Some games use alternate or additional designations for the relative rarity levels. Special cards may also only be available through promotions, events, or redemption programs.
Most ''collectible card games'' are distributed as sealed packs containing a subset of the available cards, much like [[trading card]]s. Some of the most common distribution methods are:
* Starter set - This is an introductory product which contains enough cards for two player and includes instructional information for the specific game. In order to speed the learning process, the card content is typically fixed and designed around a theme, so that the new players can start playing right away.
* Tournament or [[starter deck]] - This contains enough game cards (usually 40 or more) for one player. It usually contains a random selection of cards, but with some basic elements so that it may be playable from the start.
* Theme deck - Most CCGs are designed with opposing factions, themes, or strategies. A theme deck is composed primarily of cards that will work well together and is typically non-random.
* [[Booster pack]]s - This method of distribution is most similar to trading cards as the packs contain a random selection of typically 8 to 15 cards.
== Patent ==
[[Wizards of the Coast]] holds {{US patent|5,662,332}} on trading card games. The [[patent]], filed in October 1995 and granted in September 1997, covers:
* Games published in the form of trading cards.
* Games in which a player selects a collection of tradeable elements and uses that set to compete with other players.
* Certain aspects of gameplay originally developed for ''Magic: The Gathering'', such as "[[tap (gaming)|tapping]]" a card to indicate it is temporarily depleted.
As a holder of the patent, Wizards of the Coast has requested that all trading card game publishers license the mechanics described in the patent, usually for a royalty fee based on total sales.
In October [[2003]], Wizards of the Coast filed suit against [[Nintendo]] and related companies in [[U.S. District Court]] in [[Seattle, Washington|Seattle]] shortly after its distribution agreement expired. The suit alleged, along with other claims, that the [[Pokémon Trading Card Game]] infringed on the company's patent. In December of that year, the parties settled the case on undisclosed terms, precluding a judicial ruling which might have been the first test of the patent's legal validity. As a result of this suit, the "magic cards" in the [[Yu-Gi-Oh! Trading Card Game]] are now called "spell cards".
== References ==
* Wizards of the Coast (Oct. 15, 1997). Wizards of the Coast Inc. Granted Patent on Trading Card Games. ''Press Release''.
* Cook, John (Oct. 11, 2003). [http://seattlepi.nwsource.com/business/143467_pokemon11.html It's Wizards vs. Pokemon as ex-partners square off]. ''Seattle Post-Intelligencer''.
* Sports Collectors Digest (April 7, 2000) at 50. Description of the first known collectible card game, The Base Ball Card Game produced by The Allegheny Card Co. and registered on April 4, 1904 featuring 104 unique baseball cards with individual player attributes printed on the cards enabling each collector to build a team and play the game against another person.
== See also ==
* [[List of collectible card games]]
* [[Collectible Miniatures Game]]
== External links ==
* [http://www.cartamundi.com/ Carta Mundi, world wide leader in card manufacturing]
* [http://www.rpweld3.com/reviews/ccgreviews.html Richard Weld's Penultimate CCG Review Page]
* [http://www.drumwrightco.com/ Drumwright & Co., trading card printing]
[[Category:Collectible card games|!]]
[[Category:Dedicated deck card games]]
[[de:Sammelkartenspiel]]
[[es:Juego de cartas coleccionables]]
[[fr:Jeu de cartes à collectionner]]
[[it:Gioco di carte collezionabile]]
[[ja:&#12488;&#12524;&#12540;&#12487;&#12451;&#12531;&#12464;&#12459;&#12540;&#12489;&#12466;&#12540;&#12512;]]
[[pl:Kolekcjonerska gra karciana]]
[[pt:Jogos de cartas colecionáveis]]
[[ru:Коллекционная карточная игра]]
[[sv:Samlarkortspel]]
[[uk:&#1050;&#1086;&#1083;&#1077;&#1082;&#1094;&#1110;&#1081;&#1085;&#1110; &#1082;&#1072;&#1088;&#1090;&#1086;&#1095;&#1085;&#1110; &#1110;&#1075;&#1088;&#1080;]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Chemotherapy</title>
<id>7172</id>
<revision>
<id>41669149</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T23:25:48Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Mets501</username>
<id>880249</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Chemotherapy''' is the use of chemical substances to treat disease. In its modern-day use, it refers primarily to [[Cytotoxicity|cytotoxic]] drugs used to treat [[cancer]].
In its non-[[Oncology|oncological]] use, the term may also refer to [[antibiotic]]s (''antibacterial chemotherapy''). In that sense, the first modern chemotherapeutic agent was [[Paul Ehrlich]]'s [[arsphenamine]], an arsenic compound discovered in [[1909]] and used to treat [[syphilis]]. This was later followed by [[sulfonamide]]s discovered by [[Gerhard Domagk|Domagk]] and [[penicillin]] G discovered by [[Alexander Fleming]].
Other uses of cytostatic chemotherapy agents (including the ones mentioned below) are the treatment of [[autoimmune disease]]s such as [[multiple sclerosis]] and [[rheumatoid arthritis]], the treatment of some chronic viral infections such as [[Hepatitis]], and the suppression of [[transplant rejection]]s (see [[immunosuppression]] and [[DMARD]]s).
==History==
{{main|history of cancer chemotherapy}}
The era of chemotherapy began in the 1940s with the first uses of [[nitrogen mustard]]s and [[folic acid]] inhibitors. [[Cancer]] drug development since then has exploded into a multi-billion dollar industry. The targeted-therapy revolution has arrived, but the principles and limitations of chemotherapy discovered by the early researchers still apply.
==Principles==
[[Cancer]] is the uncontrolled growth of [[cell (biology)|cell]]s due to damage to [[DNA]] ([[mutation]]s) and, occasionally, due to an [[genetic disorder|inherited]] propensity to develop certain [[tumor|tumours]]. [[Autoimmune diseases]] arise from an overactive immune response of the body against substances and tissues normally present in the body - in other words, the body attacks its own cells. In contrast, [[transplant rejection]] happens because a normal healthy human immune system can distinguish foreign tissues and attempts to destroy them. Also the reverse situation, called [[graft-versus-host disease]], may take place.
Broadly, most ''chemotherapeutic'' drugs work by impairing [[mitosis]] ([[cell division]]), effectively targeting fast-dividing cells. As these drugs cause damage to cells they are termed ''cytotoxic''. Some drugs cause cells to undergo [[apoptosis]] (so-called "cell suicide").
Unfortunately, scientists have yet to be able to locate specific features of malignant and immune cells that would make them uniquely targetable (barring some recent examples, such as the [[Philadelphia chromosome]] as targeted by [[imatinib]]). This means that other fast dividing cells such as those responsible for [[hair]] growth and for replacement of the [[intestine|intestinal]] [[epithelium]] (lining) are also affected. However, some drugs have a better [[Adverse effect (medicine)|side-effect]] profile than others, enabling [[physician|doctors]] to adjust treatment regimens to the advantage of patients in certain situations.
As chemotherapy affects cell division, tumours with high ''growth fractions'' (such as [[acute myelogenous leukemia]] and the [[lymphoma]]s, including [[Hodgkin's disease]]) are more sensitive to chemotherapy, as a larger proportion of the targeted cells are undergoing [[cell division]] at any time.
Chem |
rainis.
Environmental issues facing Bahrain include desertification resulting from the degradation of limited arable land and coastal degradation (damage to coastlines, coral reefs, and sea vegetation) resulting from oil spills and other discharges from large tankers, oil refineries, and distribution stations. Over-ion of the [[Dammam aquifer]], the principal aquifer in Bahrain, by the agricultural and domestic sectors, has led to its salinization by adjacent brackish and saline water bodies.
==Demographics==
[[Image:Manama bahrain.jpg|thumb|300px|Bahrain from space, June 1996]]
''Main article: [[Demographics of Bahrain]]''
The official religion of Bahrain is [[Islam]], with the majority of the population practicing Islam. However, due to an influx of immigrants and guest workers from non-Muslim countries, such as the Philippines and Sri Lanka, the overall percentage of Muslims in the country has declined in recent years. According to the 2001 census, 81.2 percent of Bahrain's population was Muslim (Shi'a and Sunni), 9 percent were Christian, and 9.8 percent practiced other Asian or Middle Eastern religions.
Recently, Bahrain has transformed into a cosmopolitan society with mixed communities: two thirds of Bahrain's population consists of [[Arabs]], while the rest are immigrants and guest workers largely from [[Iran]], [[South Asia]] and [[Southeast Asia]]. A Financial Times published on [[31 May]] [[1983]] found that "Bahrain is a [[polyglot]] state, both religiously and racially. Leaving aside the temporary immigrants of the past 10 years, there are at least eight or nine communities on the island."
The present communities may be classified as Al-Khalifa, Arab tribes allied to [[Al-Khalifa]], the [[Baharnah]] (Shia Arabs), the [[Howilla]] (Sunni Arabs from Persia), Sunni Arabs (from the mainland), [[Ajam]] (Persian Shia), Indians who traded with Bahrain and settled before the age of oil (used to be called Banyan), a tiny Jewish community, and a miscellaneous grouping.
==Culture==
''Main article: [[Culture of Bahrain]]''
As flashy and modern as central [[Manama]] may be, the basic rhythms of life in the island's many villages (and in parts of Manama itself) remain remarkably traditional. By the same token, where there's tradition in the Persian Gulf there's Islamic conservatism: women cover themselves from head to foot and women travellers are expected to wear long skirts and one-piece bathing suits. Bahrain's population is 85% Muslim and Islam is the state religion. Arabic is the official language but English and Indian languages such as Hindi, Malayalam, Tamil, and Telugu are widely spoken.
Traditional craftwork continues in several places around Bahrain: dhows (fishing boats) are built on the outskirts of Manama and Muharraq, cloth woven at Bani Jamrah and pottery thrown at A'ali. A few goldsmiths still operate in the Manama souk, though a lot of the work is now done abroad. One of the mainstays of Bahraini culture is the drinking of traditional Arabian [[coffee]]. You can't go far without finding a coffee pot in a shop or a souk. Traditional Arabian street food like [[shawarma]] (lamb or chicken carved from a huge rotating spit and served in [[pita]]) and desserts such as [[baklawa]] and halwa are also ubiquitous.
Political liberalisation under [[King Hamad bin Isa Al Khalifa]] has been accompanied by a greater willingness by society in general to examine previous social taboos. It is now common to find public seminars on once unheard of subjects such as [http://www.gulf-daily-news.com/1yr_arc_Articles.asp?Article=133261&Sn=BNEW&IssueID=28308&date=1-22-2006 marital problems and sex] and [http://www.gulf-daily-news.com/arc_Articles.asp?Article=132912&Sn=BNEW&IssueID=28304 child abuse]. Another facet of the new openness is Bahrain's status as the most prolific book publisher in the Arab world, with 132 books published in 2005 for a population of 700,000. In comparison the average for the entire Arab world is seven books published per one million people in 2005, according to the United Nations Development Programme. [http://archive.gulfnews.com/articles/06/01/04/10009260.html]
It was revealed on [[October 20]], [[2005]] that [[Michael Jackson]] intended on permanently leaving the [[United States]] in order to seek a new life in Bahrain. Mr Jackson has reportedly told friends that he feels [http://archive.gulfnews.com/articles/06/01/23/10013403.html 'increasingly Bahraini'] after buying a former MP's mansion in [[Sanad]], and is now seeking another property by the sea shore. Other celebrites connected with the Kingdom include Grand Prix driver [[Jenson Button]], who also owns a property, and [[Shakira]] (for more details see [[List of famous people connected with Bahrain]]).
===Language===
[[Arabic]] is the official language of Bahrain. The two main dialects are [[Baharna Arabic]], spoken by the indigenous [[Baharna]] Shia, and [[Gulf Arabic]] spoken by the tribal Sunnis. [[Persian language|Persian]], [[Urdu]], [[English language|English]] and [[Malayalam]] are also spoken by sections of the population.
===Formula One===
Bahrain is the home of [[Formula One]] racing in the Middle East, hosting the [[Gulf Air Grand Prix]] on 4/4/04, the first for an Arab country and then followed by the [[Bahrain Grand Prix]] in 2005. Bahrain has been chosen to host the opening Grand Prix of the 2006 season on [[March 12]].
===Holidays===
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! style="background:#efefef;" | Date
! style="background:#efefef;" | English Name
! style="background:#efefef;" | Local Name
! style="background:#efefef;" | Remarks
|-
| [[January 1]] || [[New Year's Day]] || -
| -<!-- WHAT IS THIS?? &nbsp; &#1585;&#1571;&#1587; &#1575;&#1604;&#1587;&#1606;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1610;&#1604;&#1575;&#1583;&#1610;&#1577; -->
|-
| [[May 1]] || Labour Day || -
|-
| [[December 16]] || National Day || -
| -<!-- WHAT IS THIS?? &nbsp; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1610;&#1583; &#1575;&#1604;&#1608;&#1591;&#1606;&#1610; -->
|-
| [[December 17]] || Accession Day || -
| -
|-
| date varies
| Feast of the Sacrifice or the Big Feast (4 days)
| [[Eid ul-Adha]]
| Commemorates [[Ibrahim#Abraham in Islam|Abraham]]'s willingness to sacrifice his son, occurs at the end of the month of [[hajj]]
|-
| date varies || the Little Feast (3 days) || [[Eid ul-Fitr]]
| Commemorates end of [[Ramadan]]
|-
| date varies || Hijri New Year || [[Muharram]]
| Islamic New Year
|-
| date varies || Al-Isra' ul-Miraj || -
| Commemorates Muhammad's trip to heaven
|-
| date varies
| [[Prophet]] [[Muhammad]]'s birthday
| Mawlid al-Nabi || -
|-
| date varies || [[Ashoura]] (2 days)
|
| death of imam Husain Al Shaheed (AS) | -
|}
== Tourism ==
''Main articles, [[Tourism in Bahrain]] and [[List of Bahrain's tourist attractions]]''
Bahrain has long been a popular tourist destination for visitors from neighboring states, but growing awareness of its rich heritage dating back five thousand years to the [[Dilmun]] civilization means that the Kingdom is steadily attracting visitors from further abroad.
Bahrain combines a modern infrastructure and comparatively liberal society with an authentic Gulf experience making it an ideal introduction to the Middle East. Tourist attractions include historic sites such as the recently [[UNESCO]] listed [[Qalat Al Bahrain]] castle and archaeological complex, the tens of thousands of ancient [[Dilmun Burial Mounds]] that dot the landscape, traditional Arab culture, shopping in the Kingdom's malls and souks, and the opportunity to relax in the many hotel beach resorts and luxury spas.
The Kingdom is becoming increasingly popular with celebrities: during a 2006 New Year break in Manama controversial former [[Daily Mirror]] editor [[Piers Morgan]] told the [http://www.telegraph.co.uk/opinion/main.jhtml?xml=/opinion/2006/01/03/dp0301.xml#top Telegraph] that he found his "arch-enemies", TV presenter [[Carol Vorderman]] and journalist [[Des Kelly]], sharing the same hotel swimming pool.
==Education==
''Main article: [[Education in Bahrain]]''
Numerous international educational institutions and schools have established links to Bahrain. One prominent institution is [[DePaul University]] of the [[United States]].
Quranic schools (Kuttab) were the only form of education in Bahrain at the beginning of the 20th century. They were traditional schools aimed at teaching children and youth the reading of the [[Qur'an]].
Many people of Bahrain had felt that this type of education did not fulfil the academic efficiency that match with the spirit of age. After the [[First World War]], things changed and Bahrain became widely open upon the modern western renaissance. Political and social changes have occurred in the country that caused the rise of social and cultural awareness among people.
Due to all these, a demand for modern educational institutions different from (Kuttab) has appeared in terms of system, curricula and objectives.
1919 marked the beginning of modern public school system in Bahrain. Al-Hidaya Al-Khalifia school for boys was opened in Muharraq. In 1926, the Education Committee had opened the second public school for boys in Manama.
In 1928 the first public school for girls was opened in Muharraq.
The first institution of higher education in Bahrain, the Gulf Polytechnic, was accomplished in 1968 as the Gulf Technical College. In 1986 Gulf Polytechnic merged with the University College of Art, Science, and Education (UCB), founded in 1979, to create the [[University of Bahrain]], a national university offering bachelor of arts and bachelor of science degrees.
==External links==
{{sisterlinks|Bahrain}}
'''Government'''
* [http://www.bahrain.gov.bh/ Bahrain Government ] official web site
'''Heritage'''
|
the undernourished children and feed them to [[Ireland]]'s rich land-owners. Children of the poor could be sold into a meat market at the age of one thus combating [[overpopulation]] and [[unemployment]], sparing families the expense of child-rearing while providing them with a little extra income, improving the culinary experience of the wealthy, and contributing to the overall economic well-being of the nation.
He offers statistical support for his assertions and gives specific data about the number of children to be sold, their weight and price, and the projected consumption patterns. He suggests some recipes for preparing this delicious new meat, and he feels sure that innovative cooks will be quick to generate more. He also anticipates that the practice of selling and eating children will have positive effects on family morality: husbands will treat their wives with more respect, and parents will value their children in ways hitherto unknown. His conclusion is that the implementation of this project will do more to solve Ireland's complex social, political, and economic problems than any other measure that has been proposed.
This is widely believed to be the greatest example of sustained [[irony]] in the history of the English language.
==Reactions==
The satirical intent of ''A Modest Proposal'' was misunderstood by many of Swift's peers, and he was harshly criticized for writing prose in such exceptionally "[[Taste (sociology)|bad taste]]". He came close to losing his [[patronage]] because of this essay. The misunderstanding of the intent of the satirical attack came about largely because of the disparity between the satirical intent of the [[cannibal|cannibalistic]] proposal and the sincere tone of the narrative voice.
==Modern usage==
In modern usage, the phrase "modest proposal" has come to indicate a proposal that is anything but modest. Such a 'proposal' may serve to advance a cause or [[Logical argument|argument]], by promoting discussion on the merits of the argument's opposite.
==Other examples of "modest proposals"==
*[http://sniggle.net/lithoax.php Modest Proposals and other literary hoaxes]
*[[Report From Iron Mountain]]
*[[Sokal Affair]]
*[[Miscegenation]] (origin of the word)
*[[Dihydrogen monoxide]]
*[[Jack Thompson]], attorney, has been criticised for writing an open letter similar to Swift's piece, one that included a promise of donating money to charity.
==External links==
{{wikisource}}
* [http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/1080 A Modest Proposal (Gutenberg)]
* [http://librivox.org/a-modest-proposal-by-jonathan-swift/ Free audiobook] from [http://librivox.org/ LibriVox]
* [http://sniggle.net/lithoax.php sniggle.net: Modest Proposals]
[[Category:Satire]]
[[Category:Essays|Modest Proposal, A]]
[[Category:Non-fictional British literature|Modest Proposal, A]]
[[Category:1729 books|Modest Proposal, A]]
[[sv:Ett anspråkslöst förslag]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Alkali metal</title>
<id>666</id>
<revision>
<id>41685752</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T01:29:33Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Ummit</username>
<id>328950</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">{| align="right" style="margin:0 0 1em 1em;"
! [[Periodic table group|Group]]
! [[Group 1 element|1]]
|-
! [[Periodic table period|Period]]
| &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;
|-
! [[Period 2 element|2]]
| {{element cell| 3|Lithium|Li| |Solid|Alkali metals|Primordial}}
|-
! [[Period 3 element|3]]
| {{element cell|11|Sodium|Na| |Solid|Alkali metals|Primordial}}
|-
! [[Period 4 element|4]]
| {{element cell|19|Potassium|K| |Solid|Alkali metals|Primordial}}
|-
! [[Period 5 element|5]]
| {{element cell|37|Rubidium|Rb| |Solid|Alkali metals|Primordial}}
|-
! [[Period 6 element|6]]
| {{element cell|55|Caesium|Cs| |Solid|Alkali metals|Primordial}}
|-
! [[Period 7 element|7]]
| {{element cell|87|Francium|Fr| |Solid|Alkali metals|Natural radio}}
|}
The '''alkali metals''' are the [[chemical series|series]] of [[chemical element|elements]] in [[Periodic table group|Group 1]] ([[International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry|IUPAC]] style) of the [[periodic table]] (excluding [[hydrogen]] in all but one [[Metallic_hydrogen|rare circumstance]]): [[lithium]] ('''Li'''), [[sodium]] ('''Na'''), [[potassium]] ('''K'''), [[rubidium]] ('''Rb'''), [[caesium]] ('''Cs'''), and [[francium]] ('''Fr'''). They are all highly reactive and are never found in elemental form in nature.
The alkali metals are silver-colored (caesium has a golden tinge), soft, low-[[density]] [[metal]]s, which react readily with [[halogen]]s to form [[ionic salt]]s, and with [[water (molecule)|water]] to form strongly [[alkali|alkaline]] [[Base (chemistry)|(basic)]] [[hydroxide]]s. These elements all have one [[electron]] in their outermost shell, so the energetically preferred state of achieving a filled [[electron shell]] is to lose one electron to form a singly [[electric charge|charged]] positive [[ion]].
[[Hydrogen]], with a solitary electron, is sometimes placed at the top of Group 1, but it is not an alkali metal (except under extreme circumstances as [[metallic hydrogen]]); rather it exists naturally as a diatomic [[gas]]. Removal of its single electron requires considerably more energy than removal of the outer electron for the alkali metals. As in the [[halogen]]s, only one additional electron is required to fill in the outermost shell of the hydrogen atom, so hydrogen can in some circumstances behave like a halogen, forming the negative [[hydride]] ion. Binary compounds of hydride with the alkali metals and some [[transition metal]]s have been prepared.
Under extremely high [[pressure]], such as is found at the core of [[Jupiter]], hydrogen does become metallic and behaves like an alkali metal; see [[metallic hydrogen]].
{|style="text-align: center;" border="1" cellpadding="2"
|+ '''Explanation of above periodic table slice:'''
| bgcolor="{{element color/Alkali metals}}" | [[Alkali metal]]s
| atomic number in <font color="{{element color/Solid}}">{{element color/Solid}}</font> are solids
| style="border:{{element frame/Primordial}};" | solid borders are [[primordial element]]s (older than the [[Earth]])
| style="border:{{element frame/Natural radio}};" | dashed borders are naturally [[radioactive decay|radioactive element]]s with no isotopes older than the Earth
|}
{{PeriodicTablesFooter}}
<!--Category-->
[[Category:Alkali metals]] [[Category:Periodic table]]
<!--Interlanguage links-->
[[ar:فلز قلوي]]
[[bg:Група 1А на периодичната система]]
[[bs:Alkalni metali]]
[[ca:Metall alcalí]]
[[da:Alkalimetal]]
[[de:Alkalimetalle]]
[[es:Alcalino]]
[[eo:Alkala metalo]]
[[eu:Metal alkalino]]
[[fr:Métal alcalin]]
[[gl:Alcalino]]
[[ko:알칼리 금속]]
[[hr:Alkalijski metali]]
[[is:Alkalímálmur]]
[[it:Metalli alcalini]]
[[he:מתכת אלקלית]]
[[la:Metallum alkalicum]]
[[lv:Sārmu metāli]]
[[lt:Šarminiai metalai]]
[[mk:Алкален метал]]
[[ms:Logam Alkali]]
[[nl:Alkalimetaal]]
[[ja:第1族元素]]
[[no:Alkalimetall]]
[[nn:Alkalimetall]]
[[pl:Metale alkaliczne]]
[[pt:Alcalino-metálicos]]
[[ro:Metal alcalin]]
[[sk:Alkalické kovy]]
[[sl:Alkalijska kovina]]
[[sr:Алкални метали]]
[[fi:Alkalimetalli]]
[[sv:Alkalimetall]]
[[th:โลหะแอลคาไล]]
[[vi:Kim loại kiềm]]
[[tr:Alkali metal]]
[[zh:碱金属]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Argument form</title>
<id>668</id>
<revision>
<id>19406655</id>
<timestamp>2005-07-22T23:16:01Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>KSchutte</username>
<id>295931</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">In [[logic]], the '''argument form''' or ''test form'' of an [[logical argument|argument]] results from replacing the different words, or sentences, that make up the argument with letters, along the lines of [[algebra]]; the letters represent logical ''[[variable]]s''. The ''sentence forms'' which classify argument forms of common arguments important are studied in [[college logic]].
Here is an example of an argument:
'''A''' All humans are mortal. Socrates is human. ''Therefore'', Socrates is mortal.
We can rewrite argument A by putting each sentence on its own line:
'''B'''
:All humans are mortal.
:Socrates is human.
:''Therefore'', Socrates is mortal.
To demonstrate the important notion of the ''form'' of an argument, substitute letters for similar items throughout '''B''':
'''C'''
:All S are P.
:''a'' is S.
:''Therefore'', ''a'' is P.
All we have done in '''C''' is to put 'S' for 'human' and 'humans', 'P' for 'mortal', and '''a''' for 'Socrates'; what results, '''C''', is the ''form'' of the original argument in '''A'''. So argument form '''C''' is the form of argument '''A'''. Moreover, each individual sentence of '''C''' is the ''sentence'' ''form'' of its respective sentence in '''A'''.
Attention is given to argument and sentence form, because ''form is what makes an argument [[validity|valid]] or [[cogency|cogent]]''. Some examples of valid arguments forms are [[modus ponens]], [[modus tollens]], and the [[disjunctive syllogism]]. Two invalid argument forms are [[affirming the consequent]] and [[denying the antecedent]].
==See also==
*[[analytic proposition]]
*[[synthetic proposition]]
[[Category:Logic]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Allotrope</title>
<id>669</id>
<revision>
<id>15899195</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Allotropy]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Alphabet</title>
<id>670</id>
<revision>
<id>41872890</id>
<timestamp> |
&nbsp;1,&nbsp;2,&nbsp;3) describe the shape of the [[atomic orbital]]. In most atoms, orbitals of differing ''l'' are not exactly [[degenerate energy level|degenerate]] but separated into a [[fine structure]]. Orbitals of differing ''m'' are degenerate but may be separated by applying a [[magnetic field]], creating the [[Zeeman effect]]. Electrons with differing ''s'' have very slight energy differences called [[hyperfine splitting]].
====Nucleon properties====
The constituent [[proton]]s and [[neutron]]s of the [[atomic nucleus]] are collectively called [[nucleon]]s. The nucleons are held together in the nucleus by the [[strong nuclear force]].
Nuclei can undergo transformations that affect the number of protons and neutrons they contain, a process called [[radioactive decay]]. When nuclei transformations take place spontaneously, this process is called [[radioactivity]]. Radioactive transformations proceed by a wide variety of modes, but the most common are [[alpha decay]] (emission of a [[helium]] nucleus) and [[beta decay]] (emission of an electron). Decays involving electrons or [[positron]]s are due to the [[weak nuclear interaction]].
In addition, like the electrons of the atom, the nucleons of nuclei may be pushed into [[excited state]]s of higher energy. However, these transitions typically require thousands of times more energy than electron excitations. When an excited nucleus emits a photon to return to the [[ground state]], the photon has very high energy and is called a [[gamma ray]].
Nuclear transformations also take place in [[nuclear reaction]]s. In [[nuclear fusion]], two light nuclei come together and merge into a single heavier nucleus. In [[nuclear fission]], a single large nucleus is divided into two or more smaller nuclei.
===Atom size and speed===
Atoms are much smaller than the [[wavelength]]s of [[light]] that human vision can detect, so atoms cannot be seen in any kind of optical [[microscope]]. However, there are ways of detecting the positions of atoms on the surface of a solid or a [[thin film]] so as to obtain images. These include: [[electron microscope]]s (such as in [[scanning tunneling microscopy]] (STM)), [[atomic force microscopy]] (AFM), [[nuclear magnetic resonance]] (NMR) and [[x-ray microscopy]].
Since the [[electron cloud]] does not have a sharp cutoff, the size of an atom is not easily defined. For atoms that can form solid [[crystal]] [[crystal lattice|lattice]]s, the distance between the centers of adjacent atoms can be easily determined by [[x-ray diffraction]], giving an estimate of the atoms' size. For any atom, one might use the radius at which the electrons of the [[valence shell]] are most likely to be found. As an example, the size of a [[hydrogen]] atom is estimated to be approximately 1.0586&times;10{{smsup|−10}}&nbsp;m (twice the [[Bohr radius]]). Compare this to the size of the [[proton]] (the only particle in the nucleus of the hydrogen atom), which is approximately 10{{smsup|−15}}&nbsp;m. So the ratio of the size of the hydrogen atom to its nucleus is about 100,000:1. If an atom were the size of a [[stadium]], the nucleus would be the size of a [[marbles|marble]]. Nearly all the mass of an atom is in its nucleus, yet almost all the space in an atom is filled by its electrons.
Atoms of different [[chemical element|elements]] do vary in size, but the sizes do not scale linearly with the mass of the atom. Their sizes are roughly the same to within a factor of 2. The reason for this is that heavy elements have large positive charge on their nuclei, which strongly attract the electrons to the center of the atom. This contracts the size of the [[electron shell]]s, so that more electrons fit in the only a slightly greater volume.
The [[temperature]] of a collection of atoms is a measure of the average energy of motion of those atoms; at 0 [[kelvin]]s ([[absolute zero]]) atoms would have no motion. As the temperature of the system is increased, the kinetic energy of the particles in the system is increased, and their speed of motion increases. At [[room temperature]], atoms making up gases in the air move at a speed of 500&nbsp;m/s (about 1100 mph or 1800 km/h).
===Elements, isotopes and ions===
Atoms are generally classified by their [[atomic number]] ''Z'', which corresponds to the number of protons in the atom. The atomic number determines which [[chemical element]] the atom is. For example, [[carbon]] atoms are atoms containing six protons. All atoms with the same atomic number share a wide variety of physical properties and exhibit the same [[chemical properties]]. The elements may be sorted according to the [[periodic table]] in order of increasing atomic number.
The [[atomic mass]] ''A'', atomic mass number, or nucleon number of an element is the total number of protons and neutrons in an atom of that element, so-called because each proton and neutron has a mass of about 1&nbsp;[[amu]]. The number of neutrons ''A''−''Z'' in an atom has no effect on which element it is. Each element can have numerous kinds of atoms with the same number of protons and electrons but varying numbers of neutrons. Each has the same atomic number but a different mass number. These are called the [[isotope]]s of an element. When writing the name of an isotope, the element name is followed by the mass number. For example, [[carbon-14]] contains 6 protons and 8 neutrons in each atom, for a total mass number of 14.
The atomic mass listed for each element in the periodic table is an average of the isotope masses found in nature, [[weighted average|weighted]] by their [[abundance of the chemical elements|abundance]].
The simplest atom is the [[hydrogen]] isotope [[protium]], which has atomic number 1 and atomic mass number 1; it consists of one proton and one electron. The hydrogen isotope which also contains one neutron so is called [[deuterium]] or hydrogen-2; the hydrogen isotope with two neutrons is called [[tritium]] or hydrogen-3. Tritium is an unstable isotope which decays through a process called [[radioactivity]]. Almost all isotopes of each element are radioactive; only a few are [[stable isotope|stable]]. The elements with atomic number 84 ([[polonium]]) and heavier have no stable isotopes and are all radioactive.
Virtually all elements heavier than hydrogen and [[helium]] were created through [[stellar nucleosynthesis]] and [[supernova nucleosynthesis]]. Most of the elements lighter than [[uranium]] (''Z''=92) have stable-enough isotopes to occur naturally on [[Earth]] (with the notable exception of [[technetium]] ''Z''=43). Several elements that do not occur on Earth have been found to be present in [[star]]s. Elements not normally found in nature have been artificially created by [[synthetic element|nuclear bombardment]]; [[as of 2006]], elements have been created through atomic number 116 (given the temporary name [[ununhexium]]). These ultra-heavy elements are generally highly unstable and decay quickly.
Atoms that have either lost or gained electrons are called atomic [[ion]]s (with either positive(+) or negative charge(−), respectively).
===Valence and bonding===
:''see main article [[valence electron]]s and [[chemical bond]]''
The number of electrons in an atom's outermost shell (the [[valence shell]]) governs its bonding behavior. Therefore, elements with the same number of valence electrons are [[periodic table group|group]]ed together in the columns of the [[periodic table]] of the elements. [[Alkali metal]]s contain one electron on their outer shell; [[alkaline earth metal]]s, two electrons; [[halogen]]s, seven electrons; and various others.
Every atom is most stable with a full valence shell. This means that atoms with full valence shells (the [[noble gas]]es) are very unreactive. Conversely, atoms with few electrons in their valence shell are more [[reactivity|reactive]] it is. Alkali metals are therefore very reactive, with [[caesium]], [[rubidium]], and [[francium]] being the most reactive of all metals. Also, atoms that need only few electrons (such as the halogens) to fill their valence shells are reactive. [[Fluorine]] is the most reactive of all elements.
Atoms may fill their valence shells by [[chemical bond]]ing. This can be achieved one of two ways: an atom can either share electrons with other atoms (a ''[[covalent bond]]''), or it can remove electrons from (or donate electrons to) other atoms (an ''[[ionic bond]]''). The formation of a bond causes a strong attraction between two atoms, creating [[molecule]]s or [[ionic compound]]s. Many other types of bonds exist, including:
*[[polar covalent bond]]s;
*[[coordinate covalent bond]]s;
*[[metallic bond]]s;
*[[hydrogen bond]]s; and
*[[van der Waals bond]]s.
===Atomic spectrum===
:''see main article [[Atomic spectroscopy]]''
Since each element in the [[periodic table]] consists of an atom in a unique configuration with different numbers of [[proton]]s and [[electron]]s, each element can also be uniquely described by the [[energy level|energies]] of its [[atomic orbital]]s and the number of electrons within them. Normally, an atom is found in its lowest-energy [[ground state]]; states with higher energy are called [[excited state]]s. An electron may move from a lower-energy orbital to a higher-energy orbital by absorbing a [[photon]] with energy equal to the difference between the energies of the two levels. An electron in a higher-energy orbital may drop to a lower-energy orbital by emitting a photon. Since each element has a unique set of energy levels, each creates its own [[light]] pattern unique to itself: its own spectral signature.
If a set of atoms is heated (such as in an [[arc lamp]]), their electrons will move into excited states. When these atoms fall back toward the ground state, they will produce an [[emission spectrum]]. If a set of atoms is illuminated by a [[continuous spectrum]], it will only absorb specific [[wavelength]]s ( |
taircase
|}
== [[Benedictine abbey]]s ==
Monasticism in the West owes its extension and development to [[Benedict of Nursia]] (born A.D. [[480]]). His rule was diffused with miraculous rapidity from the parent foundation on [[Monte Cassino]] through the whole of [[western Europe]], and every country witnessed the erection of monasteries far exceeding anything that had yet been seen in spaciousness and splendour. Few great towns in Italy were without their Benedictine convent, and they quickly rose in all the great centres of population in [[England]], [[France]] and [[Spain]]. The number of these monasteries founded between A.D. [[520]] and [[700]] is amazing. Before the [[Council of Constance]], A.D. [[1415]], no fewer than 15,070 abbeys had been established of this [[order (religious)|order]] alone. The buildings of a Benedictine abbey were uniformly arranged after one plan, modified where necessary (as at Durham and Worcester, where the monasteries stand close to the steep bank of a river) to accommodate the arrangement to local circumstances. We have no existing examples of the earlier monasteries of the Benedictine order. They have all yielded to the ravages of time and the violence of man. But we have fortunately preserved to us an elaborate plan of the great Swiss monastery of St Gall, erected about A.D. [[820]], which puts us in possession of the whole arrangements of a monastery of the first class towards the early part of the 9th century. This curious and interesting plan has been made the subject of a memoir both by [[Keller]] ([[Zürich]], [[1844]]) and by Professor [[Robert Willis]] (''Arch. Journal,'' 1848, vol. v. pp. 86-117. To the latter we are indebted for the substance of the following description, as well as for the plan, reduced from his elucidated transcript of the original preserved in the archives of the convent. The general appearance of the convent is that of a town of isolated houses with streets running between them. It is evidently planned in compliance with the Benedictine rule, which enjoined that, if possible, the monastery should contain within itself every necessary of life, as well as the buildings more intimately connected with the religious and social life of its inmates. It should comprise a [[mill (factory)|mill]], a [[bakehouse]], [[stable]]s, and [[cattle|cow]]-houses, together with accommodation for carrying on all necessary mechanical arts within the walls, so as to obviate the necessity of the monks going outside its limits.
[[Image:Jumièges.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Abbey of Jumièges, [[Normandy]]]]
The general distribution of the buildings may be thus described:-The church, with its cloister to the south, occupies the centre of a quadrangular area, about 430 feet square. The buildings, as in all great monasteries, are distributed into groups. The church forms the nucleus, as the centre of the religious life of the community. In closest connection with the church is the group of buildings appropriated to the monastic line and its daily requirements---the refectory for eating, the dormitory for sleeping, the common room for social intercourse, the chapter-house for religious and disciplinary conference. These essential elements of monastic life are ranged about a cloister court, surrounded by a covered arcade, affording communication sheltered from the elements between the various buildings. The infirmary for sick monks, with the physician's house and physic garden, lies to the east. In the same group with the infirmary is the school for the novices. The outer school, with its headmaster's house against the opposite wall of the church, stands outside the convent enclosure, in close proximity to the abbot's house, that he might have a constant eye over them. The buildings devoted to hospitality are divided into three groups,--one for the reception of distinguished guests, another for monks visiting the monastery, a third for poor travellers and pilgrims. The first and third are placed to the right and left of the common entrance of the monastery,---the hospitium for distinguished guests being placed on the north side of the church, not far from the abbot's house; that for the poor on the south side next to the farm buildings. The monks are lodged in a guest-house built against the north wall of the church. The group of buildings connected with the material wants of the establishment is placed to the south and west of the church, and is distinctly separated from the monastic buildings. The kitchen, buttery and offices are reached by a passage from the west end of the refectory, and are connected with the bakehouse and brewhouse, which are placed still farther away. The whole of the southern and western sides is devoted to workshops, stables and farm-buildings. The buildings, with some exceptions, seem to have been of one story only, and all but the church were probably erected of wood. The whole includes thirty-three separate blocks. The church (D) is cruciform, with a nave of nine bays, and a semicircular apse at either extremity. That to the west is surrounded by a semicircular colonnade, leaving an open "paradise" (E) between it and the wall of the church. The whole area is divided by screens into various chapels. The high altar (A) stands immediately to the east of the transept, or ritual choir; the altar of [[Paul of Tarsus|Saint Paul]] (B) in the eastern, and that of [[St Peter]] (C) in the western apse. A cylindrical campanile stands detached from the church on either side of the western apse (FF).
The `cloister court', (G) on the south side of the nave of the
{| width="100%" border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" align="center"
|+ '''Ground plan of St. Gall'''
|-
| align="center" colspan="2" | [[image:st_gall_plan.jpg]]
| valign="top" |
<pre>
CHURCH.
A. High altar.
B. Altar of St Paul.
C. Altar of St Peter.
D. Nave.
E. Paradise.
FF. Towers.
MONASTIC BUILDINGS
G. Cloister.
H. Calefactory, with dormitory over.
I. Necessary.
J. Abbot's house.
K. Refectory.
L. Kitchen.
M. Bakehouse and brewhouse.
N. Cellar.
O. Parlour. (over.
P1. Scriptorium with library k,
P2. Sacristy and vestry.
Q. House of Novices--1.chapel;
2. refectory; 3. calefactory;
4. dormitory; 5. master's room
6. chambers.
R. Infirmary--1--6 as above in
the house of novices.
S. Doctor's house.
T. Physic garden.
U. House for blood-letting.
V. School.
W. Schoolmaster's lodgings.
X1X1. Guest-house for those of superior rank
X2X2. Guest-house for the poor.
Y. Guest-chamber for strange monks.
MENIAL DEPARTMENT.
Z. Factory.
a. Threshing-floor
b. Workshops.
c, c. Mills.
d. Kiln.
e. Stables.
f Cow-sheds.
g. Goat-sheds.
h. Pig-sties. i. Sheep-folds.
k, k. Servants' and workmen's sleeping-chambers.
l. Gardener's house
m,m. Hen and duck house.
n. Poultry-keeper's house.
o. Garden.
q. Bakehouse for sacramental
s, s, s. Kitchens.
t, t, t. Baths.
</pre>
|}
church has on its east side the "[[pisalis]]" or "[[calefactory]]", (H), the common sitting-room of the brethren, warmed by flues beneath the floor. On this side in later monasteries we invariably find the [[chapter house]], the absence of which in this plan is somewhat surprising. It appears, however, from the inscriptions on the plan itself, that the north walk of the cloisters served for the purposes of a chapter-house, and was fitted up with benches on the long sides. Above the calefactory is the "[[dormitory]]" opening into the south transept of the church, to enable the monks to attend the nocturnal services with readiness. A passage at the other end leads to the "[[necessarium]]" (I), a portion of the monastic buildings always planned with extreme care. The southern side is occupied by the "refectory" (K), from the west end of which by a vestibule the kitchen (L) is reached. This is separated from the main buildings of the monastery, and is connected by a long passage with a building containing the bake house and brewhouse (M), and the sleeping-rooms of the servants. The upper story of the refectory is the "vestiarium," where the ordinary clothes of the brethren were kept. On the western side of the cloister is another two story building (N). The cellar is below, and the [[larder]] and store-room above. Between this building and the church, opening by one door into the cloisters, and by another to the outer part of the monastery area, is the "parlour" for interviews with visitors from the external world (O). On the eastern side of the north transept is the "[[scriptorium]]" or writing-room (P1), with the library above.
To the east of the church stands a group of buildings comprising two miniature conventual establishments, each complete in itself. Each has a covered cloister surrounded by the usual buildings, i.e. refectory, dormitory, etc., and a church or chapel on one side, placed back to back. A detached building belonging to each contains a bath and a kitchen. One of these diminutive convents is appropriated to the "[[oblati]]" or novices (Q), the other to the sick monks as an "[[infirmary]]" (R).
The "residence of the physicians" (S) stands contiguous to the infirmary, and the physic garden (T) at the north-east corner of the monastery. Besides other rooms, it contains a drug store, and a chamber for those who are dangerously ill. The "house for bloodletting and purging" adjoins it on the west (U).
The "outer school," to the north of the convent area, contains a large schoolroom divided across the middle by a screen or partition, and surrounded by fourteen little rooms, termed the dwellings of the scholars. The head-master's house (W) is opposite, built against the side wall of the church. The two "[[hospitia]]" or guest-houses for the entertainment of strangers of different degrees (X |
and a talented [[Philadelphia Athletics]] club quickly closed the gap. In early [[September]], the A's took over first place with a 1-game lead, but in a pivotal series later that month, the Yankees took 3 out of 4 games and held on to win the pennant.
Ruth's play in 1928 mirrored his team's play. He got off to a hot start, and on August 1, had 42 home runs, well ahead of the pace of his record 60 home run season set the previous season. But Ruth's power waned, and he hit just 12 home runs in the last two months of the regular season. Still, he ended the season with an impressive [[54]], the fourth (and last) time he passed 50 home runs in a season.
[[Image:RuthGehrig.jpg|thumb|200px|left|Ruth and Lou Gehrig, one of the greatest slugging duos in baseball history.]]
The Yankees had a [[World Series]] rematch with the [[St. Louis Cardinals]], who had upset them in the 1926 series. The Cardinals had the same core players as the 1926 team, except for [[Rogers Hornsby]] at second base, who was traded for [[Frankie Frisch]] after the 1926 season.
The series was no contest. The Yankees swept the Cardinals 4-0. No game was close, and Ruth and Gehrig demolished Cardinal pitching. Ruth went 10&ndash;16 for a .625 average (still a record for average in World Series play), and hit 3 home runs, the second time in a World Series game, and all hit in game 4. Gehrig was just as great, going 5&ndash;11 for a .545 average, with 4 home runs and 9 RBIs. The Yankees also extracted some revenge on [[Grover Alexander]], who went 0&ndash;1, with an ERA of 19.80 in 5 innings pitched. The Yankees had their second straight title, and the 4 game sweeps in back-to-back World Series has been accomplished only one other time, by the 1938 and 1939 Yankees.
== Personal life ==
=== Personality ===
[[Image:Ruthcharity.jpg|thumb|270px|right|Charity work, especially for children, was something Ruth enjoyed. Here he signs autographs for some hospitalized youngsters.]]
For someone who performed larger-than-life heroics on the field, Ruth was very
often less than the ideal role model in his behavior and personality. He drank too much, his speech was splattered with profanities, chased women while a married man, drove cars recklessly, was frequently childishly rebellious with a disregard for rules and authority figures, and sometimes had a quick temper with players, umpires, and even fans. Yet despite all of his well-publicized faults, millions of people adored him. He was generous with his time and money, and set up numerous charities, many directed toward children. On a number of occasions after games, Ruth, not wanting to disappoint any fans, would stand for hours signing autographs. Long after Ruth's death, [[Ernie Shore]], a teammate of Ruth when both played for the [[Red Sox]], echoed a sentiment shared by many who knew Ruth, "He was the best-hearted fellow who ever lived. He'd give you the shirt off of his back."
===Marital separation and the death of first wife===
Ruth's womanizing eventually led to a separation with his wife Helen. Indeed, for Ruth women were always available and he frequently took advantage of the opportunity. He seldom talked about his sexual exploits but never shied away when asked, and once claimed he bedded every woman in a [[St. Louis]] [[brothel]] in one night. The promiscuous lifestyle came with consequences, as it may have led to his 1925 health problems (q.v.), and he also had a couple of paternity suits filed against him, although both of these accusations never went anywhere. His wife Helen undoubtedly heard about her husband's sexual escapades over the years, and seemingly managed to ignore much of it. In 1925, however, with their marriage well beyond repair, both agreed to a separation, but neither sought a [[divorce]], as they were [[Roman Catholic Church|Catholic]].
[[Image:Ruth1929.jpg|thumb|220px|left|Ruth at the graveside service of his first wife Helen.]]
Unfortunately, Helen did not live long after her separation from Ruth. On [[January 11]], [[1929]], Helen died in a house fire in [[Watertown]], [[Massachusetts]]. She had been living there with a dentist, Dr. Edward Kinder, who was away at the time. Fire examiners later determined that the house had been improperly electrically wired. As a result, the house's fuses were too large and did not cut off the power when the [[electrical network|circuits]] became overloaded. Helen had taken Kinder's last name, and after her death, he was shocked to learn that his [[common law]] wife was the legal wife of Babe Ruth. Despite their separation, Ruth cried when he heard the news, and he and a number of Yankees attended her funeral. Helen was just 31.
===New marriage===
[[Image:RuthClaire1930.jpg|thumb|250px|right|Ruth with his second wife Claire Merritt in 1930.]]
By the time of Helen's death, Ruth was involved with a widowed socialite named [[Claire Merritt Hodgson]], a woman he first met in 1923. Claire was educated, socially sophisticated, and a somewhat strong-minded woman. Babe was instantly attracted to her, and they began regularly seeing each other after his separation from his wife Helen. Helen's death cleared the way for Ruth to marry Claire, and they took their wedding vows on [[April 17]], [[1929]].
Upon marriage, Claire took complete control of their finances, and managed Babe's often free-wheeling spending, although he never had any financial problems. She frequently traveled with the team on road trips, and curtailed some of his late-night social activities. She also helped manage his [[diet (nutrition)|diet]], even though she did little cooking herself. Claire cut down his food portions, reduced his starchy foods and desserts, and forced him to eat more meat and vegetables. Ruth loved to drink, and even though he could usually control it, Claire put a limit on it. Claire proved to be an ideal companion for Babe, and they remained together until his death.
==1929&ndash;31==
[[Image:Ruth1930-2.jpg|thumb|190px|right|A well-dressed Ruth in 1930.]]
In 1929, the Yankees [[World Series]] run ended, and the three-year period from 1929 to 1931 would be the longest stretch (excluding his ending years of 1933&ndash;35) that a Ruth team did not win a pennant. The offense was still highly productive, and in fact the 1930 and 1931 teams outscored the great 1927 team, but the pitching fell off badly. The [[Philadelphia Athletics]] overtook the Yankees, and for the next three years won the A.L. pennant. Manager [[Connie Mack]] had rebuilt the A's into one of the best teams ever, and they won the World Series in 1929 and 1930 but were upset in the 1931 series in seven games. The powerful lineup was led by [[Jimmie Foxx]], [[Al Simmons]], [[Mickey Cochrane]], and the pitching was anchored by [[Lefty Grove]], who undoubtedly was the best pitcher of his era (not to mention one of the greatest pitchers of all-time). Although the Yankees slipped, Ruth continued to put up stellar numbers, and led or tied for the league lead in home runs all three of these years.
During the 1929 season another tragedy struck close to Ruth. Yankee manager [[Miller Huggins]] developed an ugly looking [[carbuncle]] on his face that turned out to be a symptom of [[erysipelas]], a streptococcal [[infection]] of the [[skin]]. The bacterial infection had been left untreated for too long, and [[sepsis]] developed, which proved fatal for Huggins in [[September]]. Huggins had been the only manager Ruth had had as a Yankee, and despite many run-ins with the feisty Huggins, Ruth had great admiration and respect for him. After hearing of his death, Ruth and several Yankee players cried, and the league paid its respect by canceling all games the day after his death.
==Last Glory: The Called Shot==
The Yankees were back on top in 1932. The team went 107&ndash;47, and easily won the pennant under manager [[Joe McCarthy (baseball)|Joe McCarthy]], who had taken over in 1931 (a job Ruth had eagerly wanted). The [[Philadelphia Athletics]] run ended, and soon the team was broken up as difficult economic times made it impossible for the A's to meet their stars' salary demands. Since their last pennant four years earlier, the Yankees had rebuilt their team by adding pitchers [[Red Ruffing]] and [[Lefty Gomez]], infielder [[Joe Sewell]], and catcher [[Bill Dickey]], all future Hall of Fame players.
For Ruth, it was the last year where he produced at a high level. He hit .341, with 41 home runs and 137 RBIs, but it was the first time since 1918 that Ruth did not lead the league in home runs when he had played nearly a full season of games. [[Jimmie Foxx]] nearly equaled Ruth's 60 mark with 58 home runs in 1932, and it was apparent that Ruth was no longer the home run king. Ruth also missed 21 games, and at the end of the year had missed a couple of weeks due to severe abdominal pains that left him weakened before the start of the World Series.
[[Image: Ruth1932.jpg|thumb|200px|left| An artist's depiction of Ruth's "called shot."]]
The Yankees opponents in the 1932 World Series were the [[Chicago Cubs]]. The Cubs were playing just a little better than mediocre ball much of the season, but in a weak year in the [[National League]], they were still in first place with a 53&ndash;46 record under manager [[Rogers Hornsby]]. After a heated argument with Cubs president William Veeck, Hornsby was fired and replaced by [[Charlie Grimm]], the Cubs first baseman. Grimm led the Cubs to a 37&ndash;18 record the rest the season, and they edged out the [[Pittsburgh Pirates]] for the pennant. The Cubs built their team on pitching and, led by [[Lon Warneke]], Guy Bush, and [[Charlie Root]], led the league in ERA. The everyday lineup also had fine players, such as [[Billy Herman]], [[Kiki Cuyler]], and [[Gabby Hartnett]].
The Yankees dispatched the Cubs in 4 games with one of the greatest offensive displays in a Wor |
was a [[Persian people|Persian]] mathematician, as well as a poet. Along with his fame as a poet, he was also famous during his lifetime as a mathematician, well known for inventing the general method of solving [[cubic equation]]s by intersecting a parabola with a circle. In addition he discovered the [[binomial expansion]], and authored criticisms of Euclid's theories of parallels which made their way to England, where they contributed to the eventual development of [[non-Euclidean geometry]]. Omar Khayyam also combined the use of trigonometry and [[approximation theory]] to provide methods of solving algebraic equations by geometrical means. He was mostly responsible for the development of algebraic geometry.
In a paper written by Khayyam before his famous algebra text ''Treatise on Demonstration of Problems of Algebra'', he considers the problem: ''Find a point on a quadrant of a circle in such manner that when a normal is dropped from the point to one of the bounding radii, the ratio of the normal's length to that of the radius equals the ratio of the segments determined by the foot of the normal.'' Khayyam shows that this problem is equivalent to solving a second problem: ''Find a right triangle having the property that the hypotenuse equals the sum of one leg plus the altitude on the hypotenuse.'' This problem in turn led Khayyam to solve the cubic equation x<sup>3</sup> + 200x = 20x<sup>2</sup> + 2000 and he found a positive root of this cubic by considering the intersection of a rectangular hyperbola and a circle. An approximate numerical solution was then found by interpolation in trigonometric tables. Perhaps even more remarkable is the fact that Khayyam states that the solution of this cubic requires the use of conic sections and that it cannot be solved by ruler and compass methods, a result which would not be proved for another 750 years.
His ''Treatise on Demonstration of Problems of Algebra'' contained a complete classification of cubic equations with geometric solutions found by means of intersecting conic sections. In fact Khayyam gives an interesting historical account in which he claims that the Greeks had left nothing on the theory of cubic equations. Indeed, as Khayyam writes, the contributions by earlier writers such as al-Mahani and [[al-Khazin]] were to translate geometric problems into algebraic equations (something which was essentially impossible before the work of [[al-Khwarizmi]]). However, Khayyam himself seems to have been the first to conceive a general theory of cubic equations.
In ''Commentaries on the difficult postulates of Euclid's book'' Khayyam made a contribution to non-Euclidean geometry, although this was not his intention. In trying to prove the parallel postulate he accidentally proved properties of figures in non-Euclidean geometries. Khayyam also gave important results on ratios in this book, extending Euclid's work to include the multiplication of ratios. The importance of Khayyam's contribution is that he examined both Euclid's definition of equality of ratios (which was that first proposed by [[Eudoxus]]) and the definition of equality of ratios as proposed by earlier Islamic mathematicians such as al-Mahani which was based on [[continued fraction]]s. Khayyam proved that the two definitions are equivalent. He also posed the question of whether a ratio can be regarded as a number but leaves the question unanswered.
===Sharafeddin Tusi===
Persian mathematician [[Sharafeddin Tusi]] (born [[1135]]) did not follow the general development that came through [[al-Karaji]]'s school of algebra but rather followed Khayyam's application of algebra to geometry. He wrote a treatise on cubic equations, which represents an essential contribution to another algebra which aimed to study curves by means of equations, thus inaugurating the study of algebraic geometry.
==The 17th and early 18th centuries==
When Europe began to emerge from its [[Dark Ages]], the [[Hellenistic]] and [[Islam]]ic texts on geometry found in Islamic libraries were translated from [[Arabic]] into [[Latin]]. The rigorous deductive methods of geometry found in Euclid’s ''Elements of Geometry'' were relearned, and further development of geometry in the styles of both Euclid ([[Euclidean geometry]]) and Khayyam ([[algebraic geometry]]) continued, resulting in an abundance of new theorems and concepts, many of them very profound and elegant.
In the early 17th century, there were two important developments in geometry. The first and most important was the creation of [[analytic geometry]], or geometry with coordinates and equations, by [[Rene Descartes]] (1596-1650) and [[Pierre de Fermat]] (1601-1665). This was a necessary precursor to the development of [[calculus]] and a precise quantitative science of [[physics]]. The second geometric development of this period was the systematic study of [[projective geometry]] by [[Girard Desargues]] (1591-1661). Projective geometry is the study of geometry without measurement, just the study of how points align with each other. There had been some early work in this area by [[Hellenistic]] geometers, notably [[Pappus]] (c. 340). The greatest flowering of the field occurred with [[Jean-Victor Poncelet]] (1788-1867).
In the late 17th century, [[calculus]] was developed independently and almost simultaneously by [[Isaac Newton]] (1642-1727) and [[Gottfried Wilhelm von Leibniz]] (1646-1716). This was the beginning of a new field of mathematics now called [[analysis]]. Though not itself a branch of geometry, it is applicable to geometry, and it solved two families of problems that had long been almost intractable: finding tangent lines to odd curves, and finding areas enclosed by those curves. The methods of calculus reduced these problems mostly to straightforward matters of computation.
==The late 18th and 19th centuries==
===Non-Euclidean geometry===
The old problem of proving Euclid’s Fifth Postulate, the "Parallel Postulate", from his first four postulates had never been forgotten. Beginning not long after Euclid, many attempted demonstrations were given, but all were later found to be faulty, through allowing into the reasoning some principle which itself had not been proved from the first four postulates. Though Omar Khayyám was also unsuccessful in proving the parallel postulate, his criticisms of Euclid's theories of parallels and his proof of properties of figures in non-Euclidean geometries contributed to the eventual development of [[non-Euclidean geometry]]. By 1700 a great deal had been discovered about what can be proved from the first four, and what the pitfalls were in attempting to prove the fifth. [[Saccheri]], [[Johann Heinrich Lambert|Lambert]], and [[Legendre]] each did excellent work on the problem in the 18th century, but still fell short of success. In the early 19th century, [[Carl_Friedrich_Gauss|Gauss]], [[János Bolyai|Johann Bolyai]], and [[Lobatchewsky]], each independently, took a different approach. Beginning to suspect that it was impossible to prove the Parallel Postulate, they set out to develop a self-consistent geometry in which that postulate was false. In this they were successful, thus creating the first [[non-Euclidean geometry]]. By 1854, [[Bernhard Riemann]], a student of Gauss, had applied methods of calculus in a ground-breaking study of the intrinsic (self-contained) geometry of all smooth surfaces, and thereby found a different non-Euclidean geometry. This work of Riemann later became fundamental for [[Albert Einstein|Einstein]]'s [[theory of relativity]].
It remained to prove mathematically that the non-Euclidean geometry was just as self-consistent as Euclidean geometry, and this was first accomplished by [[Eugenio Beltrami|Beltrami]] in 1868. With this, non-Euclidean geometry was established on an equal mathematical footing with Euclidean geometry.
While it was now known that different geometric theories were mathematically possible, the question remained, "Which one of these theories is correct for our physical space?" The mathematical work revealed that this question must be answered by physical experimentation, not mathematical reasoning, and uncovered the reason why the experimentation must involve immense (interstellar, not earth-bound) distances. With the development of relativity theory in physics, this question became vastly more complicated.
===Introduction of mathematical rigor===
All the work related to the Parallel Postulate revealed that it was quite difficult for a geometer to separate his logical reasoning from his intuitive understanding of physical space, and, moreover, revealed the critical importance of doing so. Careful examination had uncovered some logical inadequacies in Euclid's reasoning, and some unstated geometric principles to which Euclid sometimes appealed. This critique paralleled the crisis occurring in calculus and analysis regarding the meaning of infinite processes such as convergence and continuity. In geometry, there was a clear need for a new set of axioms, which would be complete, and which in no way relied on pictures we draw or on our intuition of space. Such axioms were given by [[David Hilbert]] in 1894 in his dissertation ''Grundlagen der Geometrie'' (''Foundations of Geometry''). Some other complete sets of axioms had been given a few years earlier, but did not match Hilbert's in economy, elegance, and similarity to Euclid's axioms.
===Analysis situs, or topology===
In the mid-18th century, it became apparent that certain progressions of mathematical reasoning recurred when similar ideas were studied on the number line, in two dimensions, and in three dimensions. Thus the general concept of a metric space was created so that the reasoning could be done in more generality, and then applied to special cases. This method of studying calculus- and analysis-related concepts came to be known as analysis situs, and later as [[topolo |
cher)|Dutch Leonard]], and a rejuvenated [[Smokey Joe Wood]], and their pitching carried the Red Sox to the pennant. Ruth won 18 games and lost 8, and helped himself with the bat by hitting .315 and hitting his first four major league home runs. The Red Sox won the [[1915 World Series]], defeating the [[Philadelphia Phillies]] 4 games to 1, but because manager [[Bill Carrigan]] preferred right-handers, Ruth did not pitch and grounded out in his only at bat.
Ruth continued to improve in 1916. After a slightly shaky spring, he would make a case as the best pitcher in the American League. He went 23&ndash;12, with a 1.75 ERA and 9 shutouts; the shutout mark is still tied for the best mark for an A.L. left hander. The Red Sox offense had been weakened by the sale of [[Tris Speaker]] to the [[Cleveland Indians]], but their strong pitching again took them to the [[World Series]], where they met the [[Brooklyn Dodgers|Brooklyn Robins]]. In game 2 of the series, Ruth pitched a 14-inning complete game victory, helping the Red Sox to another World Series title, a 4&ndash;1 series win over the Robins. He repeated his strong performance in 1917, going 24&ndash;13, but the Red Sox could not keep pace with the [[Chicago White Sox]] and their 100 wins, and they missed out on a third straight postseason appearance.
===Emergence as a hitter===
After the 1917 season in which he hit .325, albeit with limited at bats, teammate [[Harry Hooper]] suggested that Ruth might be more valuable in the lineup as an everyday player. In 1918, he began playing in the outfield more and pitching less. His contemporaries thought this was ridiculous; former teammate [[Tris Speaker]] speculated the move would shorten Ruth's career, but Ruth himself wanted to hit more and pitch less. In 1918, Ruth batted .300 and led the A.L. in home runs with 11 despite having only 317 at bats, well below the total for an everyday player. He also pitched well, going 13&ndash;7 with a 2.22 ERA. Ruth's excellence as hitter and pitcher made a strong case as the best player in baseball during the 1918 season. He also led the Red Sox to another World Series, where they met the [[Chicago Cubs]].
[[Image:Ruth1918.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Ruth batting in 1918, the first year he started to make a name for himself as a hitter.]]
The 1918 World Series would be marred by not only the specter of [[World War I]], but by abysmal attendance and such low revenue-sharing that players threatened to strike before game 5. In the series, Ruth as a pitcher went 2&ndash;0 with a 1.06 ERA, helping the Red Sox to a 4&ndash;2 series victory over the Cubs. During the series, Ruth extended his World Series consecutive scoreless inning streak to 29 2/3 innings (a record that lasted until [[Whitey Ford]] broke it in 1961). Since the Cubs top left-handers [[Hippo Vaughn]] and Lefty Tyler pitched nearly all the innings, Ruth's left-hand batting kept him from the regular lineup, and he batted just five times. The Red Sox had won their fourth World Series in seven years and fifth overall, and Ruth had played a major part in three of the series titles. From the 1903 inception of the World Series to 1918, the [[Boston Red Sox]] were the most successful franchise in major league baseball.
By 1919, Ruth was basically a full-time outfielder, pitching in only 17 of the 130 games in which he appeared. He set his first single-season home run record that year, hitting 29 home runs, breaking the previous record of 27 set by [[Ned Williamson]] in 1884, in addition to batting .322 and driving in 114 runs. News of his batting feats spread rapidly, and wherever he played large crowds turned out to see him. As his fame spread, so did his waistline. Since his time as an Oriole, teammates had marveled at Ruth's capacity for food, and by 1919 his physique had changed from a tall athletic frame to more of a rotund shape, although Ruth's weight would have wide fluctuations until the mid-1920s. Beneath his barrel-shaped body, his powerful muscular legs seemed strangely thin, but he was still a capable baserunner and outfielder. His contemporary [[Ty Cobb]], noted for his cruel bench jockeying of Ruth, would later remark that Ruth "ran okay for a fat man."
===Growing problems===
Despite his success on the field, Ruth had started to become a headache for the Red Sox. In July 1918, Ruth ignored a sign from manager [[Ed Barrow]] during an at bat that led to a heated verbal spat when Ruth reached the dugout, and Barrow fined Ruth $500 when Ruth threatened to punch him in the nose. Ruth threw a tantrum and quit the team for a few days, and it was reported he had signed a new contract with the Chester Shipyards, a [[Pennsylvania]]-based pro team. It was also during the 1918 season that he started to refuse his pitching turns in the starting rotation, often citing injuries that Barrow would question. By this time, Ruth considered himself an everyday outfielder and had no more desire to pitch. "I'll win more games playing everyday in the outfield than I will pitching every fourth day," Ruth remarked. After his 1918 season, Ruth had the leverage of knowing he had become baseball's biggest star, and before the 1919 season, he was blunt with the Red Sox&mdash;he wanted to play every day and not pitch at all. Initially, Barrow and the Red Sox acquiesced, but injuries to the Red Sox pitching staff in 1919 forced a balking Ruth back into the rotation for spot starts.
There were also Ruth's off-the-field indiscretions. His late nights of partying and boozing were further sources of irritation to the franchise, and he had numerous fights with Barrow over [[curfew]] violations. Eventually Ruth was forced to write Barrow notes on what time he came in each night (notes Barrow never verified). He signed a 3-year contract in 1919 for $10,000 a year, but at the end of the 1919 season, he demanded $20,000 a year and threatened to sit out the 1920 season if he did not receive a new contract. Ruth was certainly worthy of the price, but he also needed more money to finance the large amount of money he spent on fast automobiles, fine clothes, and entertaining his many women "friends." Red Sox owner [[Harry Frazee]] commented, "If Ruth doesn't want to work for the Red Sox, we can work out an advantageous trade." To some people, Ruth had become an ''enfant terrible'', although after his 1919 season, it seemed almost inconceivable that anyone would seriously recommend trading him.
=== Sold to New York ===
[[Image:FrazeeRedsox.JPG|thumb|left|200px|[[Harry Frazee]], the Boston Red Sox owner from 1916 to 1923. Frazee's selling of Ruth has been called the worst and best deal in sports history, depending on one's perspective.]]
Despite Ruth's box office appeal, the Red Sox were in a perilous financial position. After he took over the club in 1916, Red Sox owner [[Harry Frazee]] paid large salaries to attract the best players (some even accused him of trying to buy the pennant). But because of [[World War I]], Red Sox attendance, as in every other major league city, fell off badly. Revenue was down, and the financial failure of the [[1918 World Series]] did not help Frazee either. Frazee, whose true passion was the [[theater]], owned several theaters and financed his own shows, but at that time his shows were also losing money. Having overextended himself financially, Frazee was desperate for cash, and his players were his only source of money. When the Red Sox championship run from 1912 to 1918 ended with a crash&mdash;the 1919 team finished 66&ndash;71&mdash;Frazee began selling off his best players. He sold many of these players to the [[New York Yankees]], who until then were a perennial losing club. Ruth had a record-setting season in 1919, and he made it clear he wanted his salary doubled. Knowing he could never meet Ruth's salary demands and coupled with the other problems Frazee believed Ruth brought, Frazee worked out a deal with Yankees owner [[Jacob Ruppert]]. For a sum of $125,000 and a loan of more than $300,000 (secured on [[Fenway Park]] itself), Frazee sold Ruth to the Yankees on [[January 3]].
There was an uneasiness in the Boston sports world just after the sale was announced, although a number of sportswriters supported the sale. On [[January 5]], 1920, Frazee faced the press and answered his critics with calmness and assuredness. He justified his actions with these comments:
:"It would be impossible to start next season with Ruth and have a smooth-working machine. Ruth had become simply impossible, and the Boston club could no longer put up with his eccentricities. I think the Yankees are taking a gamble. While Ruth is undoubtedly the greatest hitter the game has ever seen, he is likewise one of the most selfish and inconsiderate men ever to put on a baseball uniform."
The trading of Ruth sent the Red Sox franchise into a downward spiral. From 1920 to 1934, during Ruth's tenure as a Yankee, the Boston Red Sox were the worst team in the [[American League]]. During this span they finished last 10 times, never finished above 5th place, and they did not have a single winning season. After they sold Ruth, Boston's failure to win even a single World Series for the next 86 years (until [[2004 World Series|2004]]), contrasted with the Yankees' overwhelming success, led to a superstition that was dubbed the "[[Curse of the Bambino]]."
==Ruth the Yankee==
[[Image:Ruth1920.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Babe Ruth in 1920, the year he joined the New York Yankees.]]
Almost immediately, the Yankees' investment in Ruth began to pay off. He trained extensively over the [[winter]], and in 1920 turned up at spring training physically fit. When the season started, it was clear that the more hitter-friendly [[Polo Grounds]] suited him, and Ruth's 1920 season turned into one that no one had ever |
serve">#REDIRECT [[intermolecular force]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Dipole-dipole attraction</title>
<id>8380</id>
<revision>
<id>15906383</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Sodium</username>
<id>41</id>
</contributor>
<comment>*</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[intermolecular force]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Delocalised</title>
<id>8382</id>
<revision>
<id>15906385</id>
<timestamp>2005-01-16T18:10:45Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Cacycle</username>
<id>83784</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Delocalized electron]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Dry beer</title>
<id>8385</id>
<revision>
<id>33385443</id>
<timestamp>2005-12-31T16:09:52Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Wasbeer84</username>
<id>737831</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Moved to "Beer styles". "Types of beer" is obsolete.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Dry''' is a category of [[beer]] originally developed in [[Japan]]. The "dry" refers to the amount of unconverted [[sugar]] left in the beer after [[fermentation]]. In dry beer, nearly all the sugar is converted in to [[ethanol|alcohol]] due to the long fermentation period. Dry beer is supposed to have a crisp, clean finish and less aftertaste.
In the 1990's, this style of beer found some brief popularity in the [[United States]]. Several of the major brewing companies, including [[Anheuser-Busch]] (maker of [[Budweiser (Anheuser-Busch)|Budweiser]]), and [[Miller Brewing|Miller]] produced dry beers. The style has all but died out since then.
{{Beer-stub}}
[[Category:Beer styles]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Dynamics</title>
<id>8386</id>
<revision>
<id>41365704</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-26T21:59:07Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>82.122.131.204</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>added interwiki to Turkish</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The word '''dynamics''' can refer to:
*in [[physics]], a branch of [[mechanics]]; see [[dynamics (mechanics)]]. More generally an adjective applying to a theory or model that describes the effects of forces on a system. A system in which all time evolution has stopped in said to be in ''steady-state.''
*the volume of [[music]]; see [[dynamics (music)]]
*DYNAMIC+
See also
*[[Dinamic Multimedia]], a [[Spain|Spanish]] software company
{{disambig}}
[[pl:Dynamika]]
[[tr:Dinamik]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Draught beer</title>
<id>8387</id>
<revision>
<id>41741836</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T12:15:53Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Slui</username>
<id>921573</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Keg Fonts.jpg|right|thumb|250px|Draught beer keg fonts at the Delirium Café in Brussels]]
'''Draught beer''' (also called '''draft beer''' or '''tap beer''') is "any beer that is stored in a large container and then transferred to smaller containers when served." [http://www.leeds-camra.com/General/glossary.shtml#draughtbeer] It includes [[cask ale]] and [[keg beer]]. Recently the term may also be applied to canned or bottled beers that are cold-filtered, or to beers using nitrogen [[widget (beer)|widgets]]. This use is controversial among beer purists. [http://www.nherts-camra.org.uk/aims.htm]
==History of draught==
Until [[Joseph Bramah]] invented the beer engine in 1785, beer was served direct from the cask and carried to the customer. The old English word for carry was ''dragen'' from the German ''tragen'', which developed into a series of related words including drag, draw and draught. By extension the word for carrying or drawing a beer came to mean the serving of the beer, and in some senses the act of drinking or a drink of beer itself regardless of serving method. By the time Bramah's beer pumps became popular the use of the word draught to mean the act of serving beer was well established and transferred easily to beer served via the hand pumps.
By the early 20th century draught beer was starting to be served from pressurised containers, and artificial [[carbonation]] was introduced in Britain in 1936 with Watney’s experimental pasteurised beer Red Barrel. Though this method of serving beer did not take hold in Britain until the late 1950s, it did become the favoured method in the rest of Europe where it is known by such terms as ''en pression''. The method of serving beer under pressure then spread to the rest of the world, and by the early 1970s draught beer was almost exclusively beer served under pressure.
Shortly after the British consumer organisation [[CAMRA]] was founded in 1971 to protect unpressurised beer, they devised the term [[Real Ale]] to differentiate beer served from the cask from beer served under pressure. By 2004 the term Real Ale had been expanded to include [[bottle conditioned]] beer, while the term Cask Ale had become the accepted global term to indicate a beer not served under pressure.
==Keg dispense==
{{main|Keg beer}}
In modern beer dispensing, a metal keg is pressurised with [[carbon dioxide]] (CO<sub>2</sub>) gas or [[nitrogen]] (N<sub>2</sub>) gas or a combination of both (known as Beer Gas). Pressure in the keg drives the beer to the dispensing tap, or faucet.
The addition of the CO<sub>2</sub> in the keg also carbonates the beer giving it ''life'', ''sparkle'' and ''bite''. The CO<sub>2</sub> pressure varies depending on the amount of CO<sub>2</sub> already in the beer and the keg storage temperature. Occasionally the CO<sub>2</sub> gas is blended with nitrogen gas. Nitrogen is used because it makes the beer taste smooth and gives a foamy appearance.
==Country differences==
Draught beer is usually unpasteurised in America. It is intended to be kept refrigerated between 2°C (35°F) and 4°C (40°F), and consumed quickly after being "tapped". Above 6°C (44°F), a beer may within two days turn sour and cloudy. Below 6°C (44°F), a keg of draft beer should last 20-30 days before it loses its fresh taste and aroma.
In the UK draught beer is nearly always pasteurised. The term [[keg beer]] would imply the beer is pasteurised. Some of the newer microbreweries may offer a nitro keg stout which is filtered but not pasteurised, but the older established breweries do pasteurise.
==Smooth flow==
'''Smooth flow''' (also known as '''cream flow''' or just '''smooth''') is the name brewers give to beers pressurised with nitrogen; either from a can or bottle with a [[Widget (beer)|widget]], or from a pressurised keg.
==Canned and bottled draught==
Recently the words "draft" and "draught" have been used as marketing terms to describe [[aluminum can|canned]] or [[bottle]]d beers, implying that they taste and appear as beers from a keg. Two examples are [[Miller Genuine Draft]], which is a cold-filtered [[lager]], and [[Guinness]] stout in patented "Draught-flow" cans and bottles. Guinness is an example of beers that use nitrogen [[Widget (beer)|widget]]s to create a smooth beer with a large foamy head.
==See also==
*[[Cask ale]]
*[[Keg beer]]
*[[Real Ale]]
[[Category:Beer]]
[[de:Fassbier]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Director</title>
<id>8388</id>
<revision>
<id>41445529</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-27T10:29:01Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>GilliamJF</username>
<id>506179</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* The Arts */ add one</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{wiktionarypar|director}}
'''Director''' may refer to:
===The Arts===
*[[Animation director]]
*[[Art director]]
*[[Artistic director]], a theatre management position
*[[Casting director]]
*[[Choral director]]
*[[Creative director]]
*[[Film director]], the person responsible for orchestrating the artistic and dramatic aspects of a film
*[[Game director]]
*Museum director, see [[curator]]
*[[Music director]]
*[[Music video director]]
*[[Television director]]
*[[Theatre director]]
===Business===
*[[Board of directors]]
*[[Executive director]]
*[[Managing director]]
*[[Non-executive director]]
*[[Technical director]]
*[[Director-general]]
*Director may also be the title of a mid-level [[management|manager]] in a business organization.
===Other===
*[[Funeral director]]
*[[Tournament director]], for sporting events
*[[Macromedia Director]], multimedia authoring software
===See also===
* ''[[The Director (film)]]'', an Australian movie
* [[Osama bin Laden]], one of whose nicknames is "The Director"
{{disambig}}
[[de:Regisseur]]
[[es:Director]]
[[fr:Réalisateur]]
[[is:Leikstjóri]]
[[he:במאי]]
[[ja:監督]]
[[pl:Reżyser]]
[[ru:Режиссёр]]
[[sq:Regjisor]]
[[sv:Regissör]]
[[zh:导演]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Clinical depression</title>
<id>8389</id>
<revision>
<id>42092939</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T19:58:27Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Monkeyman</username>
<id>79245</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>rv to RC Cola. Spam.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{DiseaseDisorder infobox
| Name = Depressive episode
| ICD10 = F32, F33 Recurrent depressive disorder
| ICD9 = {{ICD9|296.2}} Single episode, {{ICD9|296.3}} Recurrent, {{ICD9|296.5}} Bipolar I disorder most recent episode depressed
}}
'''Clinical depression''' is a state of [[sadness]] or [[melancholia]] that has advanced to the point of being disruptive to an individual's social functioning and/or activities of daily living. The diagnosis may be applied when an |
uot;background: #e3e3e3;"
|4||Pittsburgh 5, Boston 4||[[October 6]]
|-
|5||Boston 11, Pittsburgh 2||[[October 7]]
|-style="background: #e3e3e3;"
|6||Boston 6, Pittsburgh 3||[[October 8]]
|-
|7||Boston 7, Pittsburgh 3||[[October 10]]
|-style="background: #e3e3e3;"
|8||Boston 3, Pittsburgh 0||[[October 13]]
|}
===Game 1, [[October 1]]===
[[Huntington Avenue Grounds]], [[Boston, Massachusetts|Boston]], [[Massachusetts]]
The Pirates started Game 1 strong, scoring six runs in the first four innings. They extended their lead to 7-0 on a solo home run by Jimmy Sebring in the 7th, the first home run in World Series history. Boston tried to mount a comeback in the last three innings, but it was too little, too late, as they ended up losing by a score of 7-3 in the first ever World Series game. Both Phillippe and Young threw complete games, with Phillippe striking out 10 and Young fanning 5, but Young also gave up twice as many hits and allowed 3 earned runs to Phillippe's 2.
{| border=1 cellspacing=0 width=425 style="margin-left:3em;"
|- style="text-align:center; background-color:#e6e6e6;"
!align=left width=125|Team
!width=25|1
!width=25|2
!width=25|3
!width=25|4
!width=25|5
!width=25|6
!width=25|7
!width=25|8
!width=25|9
!width=25|R
!width=25|H
!width=25|E
|- style="text-align:center;"
|align=left|'''Pittsburgh'''
|4||0||1
|1||0||0
|1||0||0
|'''7'''||'''12'''||'''2'''
|- style="text-align:center;"
|align=left|Boston
|0||0||0
|0||0||0
|2||0||1
|'''3'''||'''6'''||'''4'''
|- style="text-align:left;"
|colspan=13|<small>'''W''': [[Deacon Phillippe]] (1-0) &nbsp;&nbsp;'''L''': [[Cy Young]] (0-1)&nbsp;&nbsp;</small>
|- style="text-align:left;"
|colspan=13|<small>'''HR''': '''PIT''' &ndash; [[Jimmy Sebring]] (1)</small>
|}
===Game 2, [[October 2]]===
[[Huntington Avenue Grounds]], [[Boston, Massachusetts|Boston]], [[Massachusetts]]
After starting out strong in Game 1, the Pirates simply shut down offensively, managing to get a meager 3 hits, all of which were singles. Pirates starter Sam Leever went only one inning and gave up 3 hits and 2 runs before being replaced by Bucky Veil in the second inning due to injury, who finished the game for Pittsburgh. Bill Dinneen struck out 11 and pitched a complete game for the Americans, while Patsy Dougherty hit home runs in the first and sixth innings to produce 2 of the Boston's 3 runs.
{| border=1 cellspacing=0 width=425 style="margin-left:3em;"
|- style="text-align:center; background-color:#e6e6e6;"
!align=left width=125|Team
!width=25|1
!width=25|2
!width=25|3
!width=25|4
!width=25|5
!width=25|6
!width=25|7
!width=25|8
!width=25|9
!width=25|R
!width=25|H
!width=25|E
|- style="text-align:center;"
|align=left|Pittsburgh
|0||0||0
|0||0||0
|0||0||0
|'''0'''||'''3'''||'''2'''
|- style="text-align:center;"
|align=left|'''Boston'''
|2||0||0
|0||0||1
|0||0||X
|'''3'''||'''9'''||'''0'''
|- style="text-align:left;"
|colspan=13|<small>'''W''': [[Bill Dineen]] (1-0) &nbsp;&nbsp;'''L''': [[Sam Leever]] (0-1)&nbsp;&nbsp;</small>
|- style="text-align:left;"
|colspan=13|<small>'''HR''': '''BOS''' &ndash; [[Patsy Dougherty]] 2 (2)</small>
|}
===Game 3, [[October 3]]===
[[Huntington Avenue Grounds]], [[Boston, Massachusetts|Boston]], [[Massachusetts]]
Deacon Phillippe, pitching on only one day rest, started Game 3 for the Pirates, and did not let them down as he pitched his second complete game victory of the series to put the Pirates up two games to one.
{| border=1 cellspacing=0 width=425 style="margin-left:3em;"
|- style="text-align:center; background-color:#e6e6e6;"
!align=left width=125|Team
!width=25|1
!width=25|2
!width=25|3
!width=25|4
!width=25|5
!width=25|6
!width=25|7
!width=25|8
!width=25|9
!width=25|R
!width=25|H
!width=25|E
|- style="text-align:center;"
|align=left|'''Pittsburgh'''
|0||1||2
|0||0||0
|0||1||0
|'''4'''||'''7'''||'''0'''
|- style="text-align:center;"
|align=left|Boston
|0||0||0
|1||0||0
|0||1||0
|'''2'''||'''4'''||'''2'''
|- style="text-align:left;"
|colspan=13|<small>'''W''': [[Deacon Phillippe]] (2-0) &nbsp;&nbsp;'''L''': [[Tom Hughes]] (0-1)&nbsp;&nbsp;</small>
|}
===Game 4, [[October 6]]===
[[Exposition Park (Pittsburgh)|Exposition Park]], [[Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania|Pittsburgh]], [[Pennsylvania]]
After two days of rest, Deacon Phillippe was ready to pitch his second straight game. He threw his third complete game victory of the series against Bill Dinneen, who was pitching in his second start of the series. However, Phillippe's second straight victory was almost not to be, as the Americans, down 5-1 in the top of the ninth, staged a rally to bring the game within one. The comeback attempt failed, though, as Phillippe managed to put an end to it and give the Pirates a commanding 3-1 series lead.
{| border=1 cellspacing=0 width=425 style="margin-left:3em;"
|- style="text-align:center; background-color:#e6e6e6;"
!align=left width=125|Team
!width=25|1
!width=25|2
!width=25|3
!width=25|4
!width=25|5
!width=25|6
!width=25|7
!width=25|8
!width=25|9
!width=25|R
!width=25|H
!width=25|E
|- style="text-align:center;"
|align=left|Boston
|0||0||0
|0||1||0
|0||0||3
|'''4'''||'''9'''||'''1'''
|- style="text-align:center;"
|align=left|'''Pittsburgh'''
|1||0||0
|0||1||0
|3||0||X
|'''5'''||'''12'''||'''1'''
|- style="text-align:left;"
|colspan=13|<small>'''W''': [[Deacon Phillippe]] (3-0) &nbsp;&nbsp;'''L''': [[Bill Dinneen]] (1-1)&nbsp;&nbsp;</small>
|}
===Game 5, [[October 7]]===
[[Exposition Park (Pittsburgh)|Exposition Park]] , [[Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania|Pittsburgh]], [[Pennsylvania]]
Game 5 was a pitcher's duel for the first five innings, with Boston's Cy Young and Pittsburgh's Brickyard Kennedy giving up no runs. That changed at the top of the sixth, however, when the Americans scored a then-record 6 runs that inning. Young, on the other hand, managed to keep his shutout intact before finally giving up a pair of runs in the bottom of the eighth. He went the distance and struck out four for his first World Series win.
{| border=1 cellspacing=0 width=425 style="margin-left:3em;"
|- style="text-align:center; background-color:#e6e6e6;"
!align=left width=125|Team
!width=25|1
!width=25|2
!width=25|3
!width=25|4
!width=25|5
!width=25|6
!width=25|7
!width=25|8
!width=25|9
!width=25|R
!width=25|H
!width=25|E
|- style="text-align:center;"
|align=left|'''Boston'''
|0||0||0
|0||0||6
|4||1||0
|'''11'''||'''14'''||'''2'''
|- style="text-align:center;"
|align=left|Pittsburgh
|0||0||0
|0||0||0
|0||2||0
|'''2'''||'''6'''||'''4'''
|- style="text-align:left;"
|colspan=13|<small>'''W''': [[Cy Young]] (1-1) &nbsp;&nbsp;'''L''': [[Brickyard Kennedy]] (0-1)&nbsp;&nbsp;</small>
|}
===Game 6, October 8===
[[Exposition Park (Pittsburgh)|Exposition Park]], [[Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania|Pittsburgh]], [[Pennsylvania]]
Game 6 featured a rematch between the starters of Game 2, Bill Dinneen (Boston) and Sam Leever (Pittsburgh). This time, Leever would pitch the entire game, but despite throwing a complete game he was outmatched by Dinneen, who ended up with his second complete game victory of the series. After losing three of the first four games of the World Series, the underdog Boston Americans had tied the series at three games apiece.
{| border=1 cellspacing=0 width=425 style="margin-left:3em;"
|- style="text-align:center; background-color:#e6e6e6;"
!align=left width=125|Team
!width=25|1
!width=25|2
!width=25|3
!width=25|4
!width=25|5
!width=25|6
!width=25|7
!width=25|8
!width=25|9
!width=25|R
!width=25|H
!width=25|E
|- style="text-align:center;"
|align=left|'''Boston'''
|0||0||3
|0||2||0
|1||0||0
|'''6'''||'''10'''||'''1'''
|- style="text-align:center;"
|align=left|Pittsburgh
|0||0||0
|0||0||0
|3||0||0
|'''3'''||'''10'''||'''3'''
|- style="text-align:left;"
|colspan=14|<small>'''W:''' [[Bill Dinneen]] (2-1)&nbsp;&nbsp;'''L:''' [[Sam Leever]] (0-2)</small>
|}
===Game 7, [[October 10]]===
[[Exposition Park (Pittsburgh)|Exposition Park]], [[Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania|Pittsburgh]], [[Pennsylvania]]
The fourth and final game in Pittsburgh saw Deacon Phillippe start his fourth game of the series for Pittsburgh. This time, however, he wouldn't fare as well as he did in his first three starts. Cy Young, pitching in his third start of the series, would face a much more favorable fate, holding the Pirates to only three runs. The upstart Americans were now one win away from winning the first ever baseball World Series, taking three out of four at Pittsburgh's Exposition Park.
{| border=1 cellspacing=0 width=425 style="margin-left:3em;"
|- style="text-align:center; background-color:#e6e6e6;"
!align=left width=125|Team
!width=25|1
!width=25|2
!width=25|3
!width=25|4
!width=25|5
!width=25|6
!width=25|7
!width=25|8
!width=25|9
!width=25|R
!width=25|H
!width=25|E
|- style="text-align:center;"
|align=left|'''Boston'''
|2||0||0
|2||0||2
|0||1||0
|'''7'''||'''11'''||'''4'''
|- style="text-align:center;"
|align=left|Pittsburgh
|0||0||0
|1||0||1
|0||0||1
|'''3'''||'''10'''||'''3'''
|- style="text-align:left;"
|colspan=14|<small>'''WP:''' [[Cy Young]] (2-1)&nbsp;&nbsp;'''LP:''' [[Deacon Phillippe]] (3-1)</small>
|}
===Game 8, [[October 13]]===
[[Huntington Avenue Grounds]], [[Boston, Massachusetts|Boston]], [[Massachusetts]]
The final game of the inaugural World Series started out as an intense pitcher's duel, with no runs being scored until the fourth inning. Deacon Phillippe started his fifth and final game of th |
d the ''[[Pour le Mérite]]''. On [[July 7]], [[1918]], after the death of Wilhelm Reinhard, the successor of Baron [[Manfred von Richthofen]] (''The Red Baron''), he was made commander of ''Jagdgeschwader Freiherr von Richthofen'' (''Jasta'' 11). He finished the war as an "[[flying ace|ace]]," with 22 confirmed kills. Incidentally, his appointment as commander had not been well received and he was the only veteran of [[Jasta 11]] to have never been invited to the squadron's post-war reunions.
In June 1917, after a lengthy dogfight, Göring shot down a novice [[Australian]] pilot named [[Frank Slee]]. The battle is recounted flamboyantly in ''The Rise and Fall of Hermann Goering''. Göring landed and met with the Australian, and presented Slee with his [[Iron Cross]]. Years after, Slee gave Göring's [[Iron Cross]] to a friend, who later died on the beaches of [[Normandy]] on [[D-Day]].
He remained in flying after the war, worked briefly at [[Fokker]], tried "[[barnstorming]]," and in [[1920]] he joined [[Svenska Lufttrafik]]. He was also listed on the officer rolls of the [[Reichswehr]], the post-World War I peacetime army of Germany, and by [[1933]] had risen to the rank of ''Generalmajor''. He was made a ''Generalleutnant'' in [[1935]] and then a General in the [[Luftwaffe]] (German air force) upon its founding later that year.
In [[Stockholm]] he met [[Karin von Kantzow]] (née ''Fock'', [[1888]]-[[1931]]), whom he later married. She died in [[1931]], and soon after he married actress [[Emmy Sonnemann]].
===Political career===
[[Image:Gustavgoring1939.JPG|thumb|300px|left|[[Prince Gustaf Adolf, Duke of Västerbotten|Prince Gustaf Adolf]], Hermann Göring and [[Gustaf V of Sweden]] in 1939]]
As early as [[1922]], Göring joined the [[Nazi Party]] and initially took over the [[Sturmabteilung|SA]] leadership as the ''[[Oberste SA-Führer]]''. After stepping down as the SA Commander, he was appointed an ''SA-[[Gruppenführer]]'' (Lieutenant General) and held this rank on the SA rolls until 1945.
Having been a member of the ''[[Reichstag (institution)|Reichstag]]'' since [[1928]], he became the parliament's [[president]] from [[1932]] to [[1933]], and was one of the key figures in the process of ''[[Gleichschaltung]]'' that established the Nazi [[dictatorship]].
In its early years, he served as minister in various key positions at both the ''Reich'' level and in [[Prussia]], being responsible for the economy as well as the build-up of the German military in preparation for the war. Among others, he was appointed ''Reichsluftfahrtminister'' in 1935, head of the Luftwaffe. In [[1939]], he became the first Luftwaffe [[Field Marshal]] (''Generalfeldmarschal'') and by a decree on [[29 June]], [[1941]], [[Hitler]] appointed Göring his formal successor and promoted him to the rank of [[Reichsmarschall]], the highest military rank of the Greater German Reich. Reichsmarschall was a special rank intended for Göring and which made him senior to all Army and Air Force Field Marshals.
The [[Reichstag Fire]], according to the [[Nuremberg Trials|Nuremberg]] testimony of General [[Franz Halder]], was the handiwork of Göring, not of '[[Communist]] instigators.' "At a luncheon on the birthday of Hitler in 1942..." Halder testifies, "[Göring said]...The only one who really knows about the Reichstag is I, because I set it on fire!" "With that," said Halder, "he slapped his thigh with the flat of his hand." Göring in his own Nuremberg testimony denied this story.
The famous quotation, "When I hear the word culture, I reach for my [[Browning Arms Company|Browning]]" is frequently attributed to Göring. Whether or not he actually used this phrase, it did not originate with him. The line comes from German [[playwright]] [[Hanns Johst]]'s play ''Schlageter'', "Wenn ich [[Kultur]] höre ... entsichere ich meinen Browning," "Whenever I hear of culture... I release the safety-catch of my Browning!" (Act 1, Scene 1). Nor was Göring the only Nazi official to use this phrase: [[Rudolf Hess]] used it as well.
Göring was known for his extravagant tastes and garish clothing. As the only major Nazi with a prominent [[World War I]] record, he was a key connection between the former corporal Hitler and the traditional military elite. Göring, married to a [[Sweden|Swedish]] baroness, built a vast [[Prussia|Prussian]] estate, Karinhall, named after her. To avoid it falling into enemy hands, Göring had Karinhall blown up on April 20, 1945, immediately before attending Hitler's last birthday party.
He exulted in [[aristocracy|aristocratic]] trappings, and after the Nazis conquered much of Europe, collected [[Nazi Plunder|artworks looted from numerous museums]], even some within Germany itself. Handsome and athletic in his youth, Göring sustained a painful injury during the [[Beer Hall Putsch]], leaving him dependent on [[narcotic]] [[painkillers]], particularly [[morphine]]. This addiction contributed to his later [[obesity]].
===World War II===
Once [[World War II]] started, Göring became the driving force behind the failed attempt to force Britain's surrender (or at least acquiescence) by air battle in the [[Battle of Britain]]. After that campaign he lost much of his influence in the Nazi hierarchy, exacerbated by the Luftwaffe's failings in [[Russia]] and against the Allied bomber raids. His reputation for extravagance made him particularly unpopular as ordinary Germans began to suffer deprivations.
Göring was the only WWII recipient of the [[Grand Cross of the Iron Cross]], awarded to him by Hitler for his leadership of the Luftwaffe during the conquest of France and the Low Countries. He avidly pursued additional decorations, in marked contrast to Hitler, who wore only what he earned in WWI.
Göring also sponsored a ground combat unit, the eponymous [[Hermann Göring Division]], which fought on various fronts with mixed success.
He was also [[Commander-in-Chief]] of ''[[Forschungsamt]]'' ("[[FA]]"), the [[German Nazi]] underground monitoring services for telephone and radio communications. This was connected to [[SS]], [[SD]] and [[Abwehr]] intelligence services.
Göring was also placed in charge of exploiting the vast industrial resources captured during the war, particularly in the Soviet Union. This proved to be an almost total disaster and little of the available potential was effectively harnessed for the service of the German military machine. However, Göring was notorious for his role as one of the [[Nazi plunder]]ers of [[art]] and other valuables from occupied Europe.
Göring was the highest figure in the Nazi Hierarchy who had authorized ''on paper'' the '[[final solution]] of the Jewish Question', when he issued a memo to [[Schutzstaffel|SS]] Obergruppenführer [[Reinhard Heydrich]] to organize the practical details (which culminated in the [[Wannsee Conference]]). It is almost certain however that Hitler issued a verbal order to Göring in the fall of [[1941]] to this effect.
Near the end of the war, as the [[Red Army]] closed in around the German capital on [[April 23]], [[1945]], Göring sent a telegram from [[Berchtesgaden]] to Berlin in which he proposed to assume leadership of the ''Reich'' as Hitler's designated successor. Hitler considered this disloyalty and high treason, especially because Göring mentioned time limit after which he would consider Hitler incapacitated. Hitler had Göring placed under arrest by [[Bernhard Frank]] on [[April 25]] and in his [[Last_will_and_testament_of_Adolf_Hitler|political testament]] Hitler dismissed Göring from all his sundry offices and expelled him from the party.
===Capture, trial and death===
[[Image:Goering_in_Nuremberg.jpg|right|300px|thumb|Göring at Nuremberg]]
Göring surrendered on [[May 8]], [[1945]] in [[Austria]]. He was the highest ranking Nazi official brought before the [[Nuremberg Trials]]. Though he defended himself vigorously, he was sentenced to death; the judgment stated that "his guilt is unique in its enormity". One of his last acts was to ask his brother [[Albert Göring]] to look after his wife and daughter. Defying the sentence imposed by his captors, he committed [[suicide]] with a [[potassium cyanide]] capsule the night before he was supposed to be [[hanging|hanged]]. Where Göring obtained the cyanide, and how he had managed to hide it during his entire imprisonment at Nuremberg, remains unknown. In the [[1950s]], [[Erich von dem Bach-Zalewski]] would claim that he had given Göring the cyanide shortly before Göring's death, however this claim is wontedly dismissed. Later theories speculate that Göring befriended a U.S. Army Lieutenant stationed at the Nuremberg Trials who helped Göring obtain cyanide which had likely been hidden among Göring's personal effects when they were confiscated by the Army. In [[2005]], former Army private [[Herbert Lee Stivers]] claimed he gave Göring "medicine" hidden inside a gift fountain pen from a German woman the private had met and flirted with. Stivers served in the [[US 1st Infantry Division]]'s 26th Regiment, who formed the honor guard for the Nuremberg Trials. Stivers claims to have been unaware of what the "medicine" he delivered actually was until after Göring's death. After his suicide, Hermann Göring was [[cremated]] and his ashes were scattered in the [[Conwentzbach]] in Munich, which runs into the [[Isar]] river.
==Göring's last days==
[[Image:Goersuicide.jpg|left|thumb|Göring in his cell after committing suicide by cyanide]]
Göring's last days were spent with [[Gustave Gilbert]], a Jewish German-speaking intelligence officer and [[psychologist]] who was granted free access by the Allies to all the prisoners held in the Nuremberg jail. Gilbert classified Göring as having an IQ of 138, the same as he ascribed to [[Karl Dönitz]]. He kept a journal of his observations of the proceed |
used in the 370s' predecessors, the [[System/360]] line, did not lose its contents when powered down). Normally this task would be left to various [[tape drive]]s which almost all 370 systems included, but tapes were large and slow. IBM wanted something faster and more purpose-built that could also be used to send out updates to customers for $5.
David Noble, working under the direction of [[Alan Shugart]], tried a number of existing solutions to see if he could develop a new-style tape for the purpose, but eventually gave up and started over. The result was a read-only, 8-inch (20 cm) floppy they called the "memory disk", holding 80 [[kilobyte]]s. The original versions were simply the disk itself, but dirt became a serious problem and they enclosed it in a plastic envelope lined with fabric that would pick up the dirt. The new device became a standard part of the 370 in 1971.
A [[Japan]]ese inventor, [[Yoshiro Nakamatsu]] (aka Dr.&#xA0;NakaMats), claims he independently came up with the floppy disk principle back in 1950, and so a sales license had to be acquired by IBM when they started manufacturing their floppy disk systems.
In 1973 IBM released a new version of the floppy, this time on the 3740 Data Entry System. The new system used a different recording format that stored up to 250¼ KB on the same disks, and was read-write. These drives became common, and soon were being used to move smaller amounts of data around, almost completely replacing [[magnetic tape]]s.
The IBM standard soft-sectored disk format was designed to hold just as much data as one box of [[punch cards]]. The disk was divided into 77 tracks of 26 sectors, each holding 128 bytes. Note that 77×26 = 2002 sectors, whereas a box of punch cards held 2000 cards.
When the first [[microcomputer]]s were being developed in the 1970s, the 8-inch floppy found a place on them as one of the few "high speed, mass storage" devices that were even remotely affordable to the target market (individuals and small businesses). The first microcomputer operating system, [[CP/M operating system|CP/M]], originally shipped on 8-inch disks. However, the drives were still expensive, typically costing more than the computer they were attached to in early days, so most machines of the era used [[compact audio cassette|cassette tape]] instead.
This began to change with the acceptance of the first standard for the floppy disk, [[ECMA|ECMA International]]-59, authored by Jim O'Reilly of [[Burroughs]], Helmuth Hack of [[BASF]] and others. O'Reilly set a record for maneuvering this document through ECMA's approval process, with the standard sub-committee being formed in one meeting of ECMA and approval of a draft standard in the next meeting three months later. This standard later formed the basis for the ANSI standard too. Standardization brought together a variety of competitors to make media to a single interchangeable standard, and allowed rapid quality and cost improvement.
By this time Alan Shugart had left IBM, moved to [[Memorex]] for a brief time, and then again in 1973 to found [[Shugart Associates]]. They started working on improvements to the existing 8-inch format, eventually creating a new 800 kB system. However, profits were hard to find, and in 1974 he was forced out of his own company.
Burroughs Corporation, meanwhile, was developing a high-performance dual-sided 8-inch drive at their Glenrothes, Scotland factory. With a capacity of 1 MB (MiB), this unit exceeded IBM's drive capacity by 4 times, and was able to provide enough space to run all the software and store data on the new Burrough's B80 data entry system, which incidentally had the first VLSI disk controller in the industry. The dual-sided 1MB floppy entered production in 1975, but was plagued by an industry problem, poor media quality. There were few tools available to test media for 'bit-shift' on the inner tracks, which made for high error rates, and the result was a substantial investment by Burroughs in a media tester design that they then gave to media makers as a quality control tool, leading to a vast improvement in yields.
===The 5¼-inch minifloppy===
[[Image:Floppy disk 5.25 inch.JPG|right|thumb|200px|A 5¼-inch disk with a partly exposed magnetic medium spun about a central hub for reading. The flexible plastic cover contains a cloth inner liner to brush dust from the medium. Note the "write-enable slot" to the upper right (confusingly also called a "write-protect notch").]]
This format is also known as 5.25-inch.
In 1975, Burroughs' plant in Glenrothes developed a prototype 5¼-inch drive, stimulated both by the need to overcome the larger 8-inch floppy's asymmetric expansion properties with changing humidity, and, to reflect the knowledge that IBM's audio recording products division was demonstrating a dictation machine using 5¼-inch disks. In one of the industry's historic gaffes, Burroughs corporate management decided it would be "too inexpensive" to make enough money, and shelved the program.
In 1976 one of [[Shugart Associates]]'s employees, [[Jim Adkisson]], was approached by [[An Wang]] of [[Wang Laboratories]], who felt that the 8-inch format was simply too large for the desktop [[word processing]] machines he was developing at the time. After meeting in a bar in Boston, Adkisson asked Wang what size he thought the disks should be, and Wang pointed to a napkin and said "about that size". Adkisson took the napkin back to California, found it to be 5¼-inches (13 cm) wide, and developed a new drive of this size storing 110 KB <!--- Confirmation required, but seems to be (48 tpi SSSD) 40 tracks * 11 blocks/track * 256 bytes --->.
The 5¼-inch drive was considerably less expensive than 8-inch drives from IBM, and soon started appearing on CP/M machines. At one point Shugart was producing 4,000 drives a day. By 1978 there were more than 10 manufacturers producing 5¼-inch floppy drives, in competing physical disk formats: hard-sectored (90 kB) and soft-sectored (110 kB). The 5¼-inch formats quickly displaced the 8-inch from most applications, and the 5¼-inch hard-sectored disk format eventually disappeared. These early drives read only one side of the disk, leading to the popular budget approach of cutting a second write-enable slot and index hole into the carrier envelope and flipping it over (thus, the "[[flippy disk]]") to use the other side for additional storage.
[[Image:Floppy_tabs.JPG|right|thumb|250px|Floppy disk write protect tabs. These sticky paper tabs are folded over the notch in the side of a 5¼-inch disk to prevent the computer from writing data to the disk. Later disks, such as the 3½-inch disk, had a built-in slideable plastic tab to implement write-protection.]]
[[Tandon Corporation|Tandon]] introduced a double-sided drive in 1978, doubling the capacity, and a new "double density" format increased it again, to 360 KB <!--- (48 tpi DSDD) 40*2 tracks * 9 blocks/track * 256*2 bytes; note that 8 and 10 blocks/track also existed, for 320 KiB and 400 KiB capacities (see http://www.swtpc.com/knowledgebase/kbpage1.htm) --->.
For most of the 1970s and 1980s the floppy drive was the primary storage device for [[microcomputer]]s. Since these micros had no hard drive, the OS was usually booted from one floppy disk, which was then removed and replaced by another one containing the application. Some machines using two disk drives (or one dual drive) allowed the user to leave the OS disk in place and simply change the application disks as needed. In the early 1980s, 96 track-per-inch drives appeared, increasing the capacity from 360 to 720 KB <!--- (96 tpi DSDD) 80*2 tracks * 9 blocks/track * 256*2 bytes --->. These did not see widespread use, as they were not supported by IBM in its PCs. (Another oddball format was used by [[Digital Equipment Corporation]]'s [[Rainbow-100]], [[DECmate-II]] and [[Pro-350]]. It held 400 KB <!--- 80*1 tracks * 10 blocks/track * 256*2 bytes ---> on a single side by using 96 tracks-per-inch and cramming 10 sectors per track.) In 1984, along with the [[IBM PC/AT]], the quad density disk appeared, which used 96 tracks per inch combined with a higher density magnetic media to provide 1200 KB (1280 KiB)<!--- 80*2 tracks * 8 blocks/track * 256*4 bytes (confirmation needed) ---> of storage (normally and misleadingly referred to as 1.2 [[megabyte]]s). Since the usual (very expensive) [[hard disk]] held 10&ndash;20 megabytes at the time, this was considered quite spacious.
By the end of the 1980s, the 5¼-inch disks had been superseded by the 3½-inch disks. Though 5¼-inch drives were still available, as were disks, they faded in popularity as the 1990s began. The main community of users was primarily those who still owned '80s legacy machines running [[MS-DOS]] that had no 3½-inch drive; the advent of [[Windows 95]] (not even sold in stores in a 5¼-inch version; a coupon had to be obtained and mailed in) and subsequent phaseout of standalone MS-DOS with version 6.22 forced many of them to upgrade their hardware. On most new computers the 5¼-inch drives were optional equipment. By the mid-1990s the drives had virtually disappeared as the 3½-inch disk became the preeminent floppy disk.
===New formats, no standard===
Throughout the early 1980s the limitations of the 5¼-inch format were starting to become clear. Originally designed to be a smaller and more practical 8-inch, the 5¼-inch system was itself too large, and as the quality of the recording media grew the same amount of data could be placed on a smaller surface. Another problem was that the 5¼-inch disks were simply copies of the 8-inch physical format, which had never really been engineered for ease of use. The thin folded-plastic shell allowed the disk to be easily damaged through bending, and allowed dirt to get onto the disk surface through the opening.
A number of |
by Apple at about the same time. These ran under a non-DOS operating system called the UCSD P-System, which had its own disk format and included a "virtual machine" that allowed it to run on many different types of hardware.
Like the Apple II, the Apple II Plus had no [[lowercase]] functionality. All letter keys on the keyboard would type uppercase letters, and there were no lowercase letters in the text-mode [[font]] stored in the computer's [[Read-Only Memory|ROM]]. (Note the lack of a [[caps lock]] key on the keyboard.) To display lowercase letters, some applications would run in the slower ''hi-res graphics mode'' and use a custom font, rather than running in the fast ''text mode'' using the font in ROM. Alternatively, users could install a custom ROM chip that contained lowercase letters in the font; or purchase an ''80-column card'' that enabled a text mode that could display 80-column, upper- and lower-case text. For lowercase input, since it was not possible to detect whether the keyboard's Shift keys were in use, a modification called the "one-wire shift key mod" wired the Shift keys to one of the pins on the motherboard's joystick connector. Compatible applications, including nearly all [[word processor]]s, could then detect whether the Shift key was being pressed. This modification, however, involved [[soldering]], and was therefore only popular among hobbyists.
===Apple IIe===
[[Image:290px-Apple IIe middle age.jpg|thumb|300px|right|A typical Apple IIe system. Seen here with DuoDisk 5&frac14;" floppy drive unit that sat sandwiched between case and monitor.]]
The Apple II Plus was followed in 1983 by the '''[[Apple IIe]]''', a cost-reduced yet more powerful machine that used newer chips to reduce the component count and add new features, such as the display of upper and lowercase letters and a standard 64 KB of RAM. The IIe RAM was configured as if it were a 48K Apple II Plus with a language card; the machine had no slot 0, but instead had an auxiliary slot that for all practical purposes took the place of slot 3. The auxiliary slot could accept a 1K memory card to enable the 80-column display (the card contained only RAM; the hardware and firmware for the 80-column display was built into the Apple IIe). An "extended 80-column card" with more memory expanded the machine's RAM to 128 KB. As with the language card, the memory in the 80-column card was bank-switched over the machine's main RAM; this made the memory better suited to data storage than to running software, and in fact the [[ProDOS]] operating system, which was introduced with the Apple IIe, would automatically configure this memory as a [[RAM disk]] upon booting. Third-party aux-slot memory cards later allowed expansion up to 1 MB. The extended 80-column card also enabled two new graphics modes, Double Hi-Res and Double Lo-Res, which doubled the horizontal resolution and, in the case of Double Hi-Res, doubled the number of available colors as well over the standard hi-res mode.
Introduced with the IIe was the DuoDisk, essentially two Disk II 5&frac14;" drives in a single enclosure designed to stack between the computer and the monitor, and a new controller card to run it. This controller was functionally identical to the original Disk II controller but used a different connector, allowing a single cable to control both drives in the DuoDisk.
The IIe was the most popular Apple II ever built and was widely considered the "workhorse" of the line. It also has the distinction of being the longest-lived Apple computer of all time -- it was manufactured and sold with only minor changes for nearly eleven years. In that time, following the original, two important variations came to pass known as the [[Apple IIe#The Enhanced IIe|Enhanced IIe]] (four new replacement chips to give it the same features as the later model [[Apple IIc|Apple IIc]]) and [[Apple IIe#The Platinum IIe| Platinum IIe]] (a modernized new look for the case color to match other Apple products of the era, along with the addition of a built-in numeric keypad).
Two and a half years before the Apple IIe, Apple had produced and marketed a computer called the ''[[Apple III]]'' for business users. This product was not a success, and Steve Wozniak has been quoted as saying that the Apple III had a 100% failure rate -- every single machine manufactured had some kind of fault. Many of its features were carried over in the design of the Apple IIe, though, including the ProDOS operating system, which was based on Apple III SOS.
===Apple IIc===
[[Image:Apple_IIc.jpg|thumb|right|300px|The Apple IIc was Apple's first compact and portable computer. Pictured here with a very early and extremely rare [[LCD]] display.]]
Apple released the '''[[Apple IIc]]''' in April 1984, billing it as a portable Apple II. (By portable it was meant that the computer could be easily carried from place to place; lacking battery power and a built-in display, it was not a true portable as the term is used today.) The IIc even sported a carrying handle that folded down to prop the machine up in a typing position. It was the first of three Apple II models to be made in the [[Snow White design language]] -- and the only one that was actually white. (The other machines, the Apple II<small>GS</small> and the IIc Plus, were actually light gray, or as Apple had it, "platinum.")
The Apple IIc was the first Apple II to use the updated [[65C02 Microprocessor|65C02]] processor, and featured a built-in floppy drive and 128K RAM, with a built-in disk controller that could control external drives, composite video (NTSC or PAL), serial interfaces for modem and printer, and a joystick/mouse port. Unlike previous Apple II models, the IIc had no internal expansion slots at all, this being the means by which its compact size was attained. Third parties did eventually figure out how to wedge up to 1 MB of additional memory and a real-time clock into the machine, and a later revision of the motherboard provided an expansion slot that could accept an Apple memory card bearing up to 1 megabyte of RAM. The disk port, originally intended for a second 5&frac14;" floppy drive, eventually was able to interface to 3&frac12;" disk drives and (via third parties) even hard disks.
To play up the portability, two different monochrome [[LCD]] displays were sold for use with the IIc's video expansion port, although both were short-lived due to high cost and poor legibility. (A IIc with the smaller of these displays appeared briefly in the film [[2010: The Year We Make Contact|2010]].) The IIc had an external power supply that converted AC power to 12V DC, allowing third parties to offer battery packs and automobile power adapters that connected in place of the supplied AC adapter.
The Apple IIc was the first microcomputer to include support for the [[Dvorak Simplified Keyboard]], which was activated using a switch above the keyboard. This feature was also later found in late-model Apple IIe computers (though the switch was inside the computer) and in the Apple IIgs (accessible via the built-in control panel).
===Apple II<small>GS</small>===
[[image:Apple_IIGS.jpg|right|frame|px300|The Apple II<small>GS</small>, the most powerful Apple II, featuring a true 16-bit CPU, 4096 colors, Ensoniq synthesizer, a Mac-like GUI -- and a mouse]]
The next member of the line was the '''[[Apple IIgs|Apple II<small>GS</small>]]''' computer, released in 1986. A radical departure from the existing Apple II line, the II<small>GS</small> featured a true [[16-bit]] microprocessor, the [[65816 Microprocessor|65C816]], operating at 2.8 MHz with 24-bit addressing, allowing expansion up to 8 MB of RAM without the bank-switching hassles of the earlier machines. It introduced two completely new graphic modes sporting higher resolutions and a palette of 4,096 colors; however, only 4, 16, or 256 colors could be used at a time, depending on the mode and other restrictions.
In a welcome departure from earlier Apple II graphics modes, the new modes laid out the scanlines sequentially in memory. However, programmers in search of a graphics challenge could always turn to 3200-color mode, which involved precisely swapping out the color palettes as the monitor's electron beam traced the screen, allowing up to sixteen different colors for each of 200 scanlines. This technique did not leave many CPU cycles available for other processing, so this "mode" was best suited to displaying static images.
The Apple II<small>GS</small> stood out from any previous (or future) Apple II models, evolving and advancing the platform into the next generation of computing while still maintaining near-complete backward compatibility. The secret of the Apple II<small>GS</small>'s compatibility was a single chip called the Mega II, which contained the functional equivalent of an entire Apple IIe computer (sans processor), which, combined with the flawless 65C02 emulation mode of the 65C816 processor, provided full support for legacy software.
The computer also included a 32-voice [[Ensoniq]] [[wavetable]] music synthesizer with 64K dedicated RAM, 256K of standard RAM, built-in peripheral ports (switchable between IIe-style card slots and IIc-style onboard controllers for disk drives, mouse, RGB video, and serial devices), built-in [[AppleTalk]] networking, and a ROM toolbox that supported a graphical user interface derived from the Macintosh toolbox. The computer could run existing 8-bit Apple II software (including software written for the very first Apple II in Integer BASIC), but also supported 16-bit software running under a new OS first called ProDOS 16 and later called GS/OS. The new OS eventually included a Finder that could be used for managing disks and files and opening documents and applications, along with |
out of water comedy film]] the main character, or characters, finds himself in an alien environment and this drives most of the humor in the film. Such films can be portrayals of opposite gender lifestyle, such as in ''[[Tootsie]]'' ([[1982]]); adults swapping roles with a kid, as in ''[[Big]]'' ([[1988]]); a freedom-loving individual fitting into a structured environment, as in ''[[Police Academy]]'' ([[1984]]), and so forth.
A [[Parody film|parody or spoof film]] is a comedy that satirizes other film genres or classic films. Such films employ sarcasm, stereotyping, mockery of scenes from other films, inconsequential violence, and the obviousness of meaning in a character's actions. Examples of this form include ''[[Blazing Saddles]]'' ([[1974]]), ''[[Airplane!]]'' ([[1980]]), and ''[[Young Frankenstein]]'' ([[1974]]).
The [[anarchic comedy film]] uses nonsensical, stream-of-consciousness humor which often lampoons some form of authority. Films of this nature stem from a theatrical history of anarchic comedy on the stage and in street performances. Well-known films of this sub-genre include ''[[National Lampoon's Animal House]]'' ([[1978]]) and ''[[Monty Python and the Holy Grail]]'' ([[1975]]).
The [[black comedy]] is based around normally [[taboo]] subjects, including, death, murder, suicide and war. Examples include ''[[Arsenic and Old Lace]]'' ([[1944]]), ''[[Kind Hearts and Coronets]]'' ([[1949]]), ''[[The Ladykillers]]'' ([[1955]]), ''[[The Loved One]]'' ([[1965]]), ''[[Monty Python's the Meaning of Life]]'' ([[1983]]) and ''[[The War of the Roses]]'' ([[1989]]).
[[Gross-out film]]s are a relatively recent development, and rely heavily on sexual or "toilet" humour. Example of these movies include ''[[American Pie (film)|American Pie]]'' ([[1999]]), ''[[There's Something About Mary]]'' ([[1998]]), and ''[[Dumb and Dumber]]'' ([[1994]]).
The [[romantic comedy]] sub-genre typically involves the development of a relationship between a man and a woman. The stereotyped plot line follows the "boy-gets-girl", "boy-loses-girl", "boy gets girl back again" sequence. Naturally there are innumerable variants to this plot, and much of the generally light-hearted comedy lies in the social interactions and sexual tensions between the pair. Examples of this style of film include ''[[Pretty Woman]]'' ([[1990]]), ''[[It's a Wonderful World]]'' ([[1939]]), ''[[The Shop Around the Corner]]'' ([[1940]]),
''[[When Harry Met Sally...]]'' ([[1989]]), and ''[[Four Weddings and a Funeral]]'' ([[1994]]).
It was not uncommon for the early romantic comedy film to also be a [[screwball comedy film]]. This form of comedy film was particularly popular during the 1930s and 1940s. There is no consensus definition of this film style, and it is often loosely applied to slapstick or romantic comedy films. Typically it can include a romantic element, an interplay between people of different economic strata, quick and witty [[repartee]], some form of role reversal, and a happy ending. Some examples of the screwball comedy are: ''[[It Happened One Night]]'' ([[1934]]), ''[[Bringing Up Baby]]'' ([[1938]]), ''[[His Girl Friday]]'' ([[1940]]), and more recently ''[[What's Up, Doc? (1972 film)|What's Up, Doc?]]'' ([[1972]]).
<!--
* [[Anarchic comedy film]]
* [[Comedy of manners]]
* [[Fish out of water comedy film]]
* [[Gross-out film]]
* [[Parody film]]
* [[Romantic comedy film]]
* [[Screwball comedy film]]
-->
* [[Social comedy film]]
* [[Silent comedy film]]
* [[Slapstick film]]
* [[splatter film|Splatstick film]]
* [[Teen comedy film]]
* [[Tragicomedy]] and related [[Black comedy]]
==History==
The very first movies to be produced was [[Thomas Edison]]'s [[kinetoscope]] of his assistant [[Fred Ott]] in [[Record of a Sneeze]]. This could also be considered the first to show a comedic element.
Comedic films began to appear in significant numbers during the era of silent films, prior to the [[1930s]]. These were mainly focused on visual humor, including slapstick and [[burlesque]]. A very early comedy short was ''Watering the Gardener'' [[1895]] by the Lumiere Brothers. Prominent [[clown]]-style actors of the silent era include [[Charlie Chaplin]], [[Buster Keaton]] and [[Harold Lloyd]].
A popular trend during the 1920s and afterward was comedy in the form of animated cartoons. Several popular characters of the period received the cartoon treatment. Among these were [[Felix the Cat]], [[Krazy Kat]], and [[Betty Boop]]. However the development of the cartoon medium was inhibited by the lack of sound and color.
===[[1930s in film|1930s]]===
Toward the end of the 1920s, the introduction of sound into movies made possible dramatic new film styles and the use of verbal humor. During the 1930s the silent film comedy was replaced by dialogue from film comedians such as the [[W. C. Fields]] and the [[Marx Brothers]]. A few studios still clung to the silent film medium, but within three years of [[1928]] almost all movies were making use of sound. The comedian [[Charlie Chaplin]] was one of the last hold-outs, and his films during the 1930s were devoid of dialogue, although they did employ sound effects.
The introduction of sound led to a consolidation of the studios, as the equipment required was too expensive for the smaller studios to afford. The [[MGM]] studio became particularly dominant during this period, and they were noted for their comedies among other genres.
Screwball comedies, such as produced by [[Frank Capra]], exhibited a pleasing, idealised climate that portrayed reassuring social values and a certain optimism about everyday life. Movies still included slapstick humor and other physical comedy, but these were now frequently supplemental to the verbal interaction.
Another common comedic production from the 1930s was the short subject. The [[Three Stooges]] were particularly prolific in this form, and their studio [[Columbia Pictures|Columbia]] produced 190 Three Stooges releases. These non-feature productions only went into decline in the 1950s when they were migrated to the [[television]].
Other notable comedians of this period were [[Mae West]] and [[Jack Benny]].
In [[Britain]], film adaptations of stage [[farce|farces]] were popular in the early [[1930s]], while the [[music hall]] tradition strongly influenced film comedy into the [[1940s]] with [[Will Hay]] and [[George Formby]] among the top comedy stars of the time.
===[[1940s in film|1940s]]===
With the entry of the United States into [[World War II]], [[Hollywood]] became focused on themes related to the conflict. Comedies portrayed military themes such as service, civil defense, boot-camp and shore-leave. The war-time restrictions on travel made this a boom time for Hollywood, and nearly a quarter of the money spent on attending movies.
Major film comedians of this period included [[Bing Crosby]], [[Bob Hope]], and [[Danny Kaye]], as well as the comedy teams of [[Abbot and Costello]] and [[Laurel and Hardy]].
In Britain, [[Ealing Studios]] achieved popular success as well as critical acclaim with a series of films known collectively as the "Ealing comedies", from [[1946 in film|1946]] to [[1956 in film|1956]]. They usually included a degree of social comment, and featured ensemble casts which often included [[Alec Guinness]] or [[Stanley Holloway]]. Among the most famous examples were ''[[Kind Hearts and Coronets]]'' ([[1949]]), ''[[The Lavender Hill Mob]]'' ([[1951]]) and ''[[The Ladykillers]]'' ([[1955]]).
The post-war period was an age of reflection on the war, and the emergence of a competing medium, the television. In [[1948]] the TV began to acquire commercial momentum and by the following year there were nearly a hundred television transmitters in American cities.
===[[1950s in film|1950s]]===
By the [[1950s]] the television industry had become a serious competition for the movie industry. Despite the technological limitations of the TV medium at the time, more and more people chose to stay home to watch the television. The Hollywood studios at first viewed the TV as a threat, and later as a commercial market. Several comedic forms that had previously been a staple of movie theaters transitioned to the TV. Both the short subject and the cartoon now appeared on the TV rather than in the theater, and the "B" movie also found its outlet on the television.
[[Image:Some like it hot.jpg|right|thumb|220px|''[[Some Like it Hot]]'' won an [[academy award]] for best costume and was nominated in several other categories.]]
The 1950s saw a trend away from family oriented comedies and toward more realistic social situtions. Only the [[Walt Disney]] studios continued to steadily release family comedies. The release of comedy films
also went into a decline during this decade. In [[1947]] almost one in five films had been comedic in nature, but by [[1954]] this was down to ten percent.
Some comedy films began to examine more realistic, mature themes. [[Marilyn Monroe]] starred in adult-oriented comedies such as ''[[Some Like it Hot]]'' ([[1959]]). The film themes often avoided social issues, and focused on humor.
This decade saw the decline of past comedy stars and a certain paucity of new talent in Hollywood. Among the few popular new stars during this period were [[Judy Holliday]] and the comedy team of [[Dean Martin]] and [[Jerry Lewis]]. Lewis followed the legacy of such comedians as Keaton and Harold Lloyd, but his work was not well-received by critics in the United States (in contrast to [[France]] where he proved highly popular.)
The [[Cinema of the United Kingdom|British film industry]] produced a number of highly successful film series, however, including the [[Doctor in the House|Doctor series]], the [[St. Trinian's]] films and the increasingly bawdy [[Carry on films]]. [[John and Roy Boulting]] also wrote and directed a series of successful [[satires]], including ''[[Private's Progress] |
logist (b. [[1872]])
*[[1957]] - [[Laura Ingalls Wilder]], American author (b. [[1867]])
*[[1960]] - [[Aloysius Stepinac]], Croatian cardinal (b. [[1898]])
*[[1964]] - [[Eugen Sänger]], Austrian aerospace engineer (b. [[1905]])
*[[1966]] - [[Billy Rose]], American composer and band leader (b. [[1899]])
*[[1984]] - [[David Adkisson|David Von Erich]], professional wrestler (b. [[1958]])
*[[1985]] - [[Johnny Mokan]], baseball player (b. [[1895]])
*[[1992]] - [[Alex Haley]], American author (b. [[1921]])
*[[1993]] - [[Fred Hollows]], Australian ophthalmologist (b. [[1929]])
*[[2000]] - [[Jim Varney]], American actor (b. [[1949]])
*[[2001]] - [[Abraham Beame]], Mayor of New York City (b. [[1906]])
*[[2002]] - [[Traudl Junge]], [[Hitler]]'s secretary (b. [[1920]])
*[[2003]] - [[Edgar de Evia]], American photographer (b. [[1910]])
*2003 - [[Curt Hennig]], American professional wrestler (b. [[1958]])
*2003 - [[Clark MacGregor]], U.S. Congressman (b. [[1922]])
*2003 - [[Al Ruffo]], Mayor of San Jose, California (b. [[1908]])
*2003 - [[Ron Ziegler]], American press secetary to [[Richard Nixon]] (b. [[1939]])
*[[2005]] - [[Arthur Miller]], American playwright (b. [[1915]])
*[[2006]] - [[J Dilla]], Rapper/Producer, former member of Slum Village (b. [[1974]])
<!-- Duplicate instances of years should not be links. -->
==Holidays and observances==
* [[Catholicism]] - [[Scholastica|St. Scholastica Day]]; [[World Marriage Day]].
* [[Italy]] - ''[[National Memorial Day of the Exiles and Foibe]]'' to commemorate [[Italian]] [[Istria]]n and [[Dalmatia]]n exiliee and [[Foibe massacres]].
* [[Malta]] - [[Paul of Tarsus|St. Paul's]] Shipwreck day. Birth of [[Catholicism]] in Malta.
==External links==
* [http://www1.sympatico.ca/cgi-bin/on_this_day?mth=Feb&day=10 On this day in Canada]
* [http://www.nytimes.com/learning/general/onthisday/20060210.html NY Times: On this day]
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/february/10 BBC: On This Day]
----
[[February 9]] - [[February 11]] - [[January 10]] - [[March 10]] -- [[historical anniversaries|listing of all days]]
{{months}}
[[af:10 Februarie]]
[[ar:10 فبراير]]
[[an:10 de frebero]]
[[ast:10 de febreru]]
[[bg:10 февруари]]
[[be:10 лютага]]
[[bs:10. februar]]
[[ca:10 de febrer]]
[[ceb:Pebrero 10]]
[[cv:Нарăс, 10]]
[[co:10 di frivaghju]]
[[cs:10. únor]]
[[cy:10 Chwefror]]
[[da:10. februar]]
[[de:10. Februar]]
[[et:10. veebruar]]
[[el:10 Φεβρουαρίου]]
[[es:10 de febrero]]
[[eo:10-a de februaro]]
[[eu:Otsailaren 10]]
[[fo:10. februar]]
[[fr:10 février]]
[[fy:10 febrewaris]]
[[ga:10 Feabhra]]
[[gl:10 de febreiro]]
[[ko:2월 10일]]
[[hr:10. veljače]]
[[io:10 di februaro]]
[[ilo:Febrero 10]]
[[id:10 Februari]]
[[ia:10 de februario]]
[[ie:10 februar]]
[[is:10. febrúar]]
[[it:10 febbraio]]
[[he:10 בפברואר]]
[[jv:10 Februari]]
[[ka:10 თებერვალი]]
[[csb:10 gromicznika]]
[[ku:10'ê reşemiyê]]
[[lt:Vasario 10]]
[[lb:10. Februar]]
[[hu:Február 10]]
[[mk:10 февруари]]
[[ms:10 Februari]]
[[nap:10 'e frevaro]]
[[nl:10 februari]]
[[ja:2月10日]]
[[no:10. februar]]
[[nn:10. februar]]
[[oc:10 de febrièr]]
[[pl:10 lutego]]
[[pt:10 de Fevereiro]]
[[ro:10 februarie]]
[[ru:10 февраля]]
[[se:Guovvamánu 10.]]
[[sco:10 Februar]]
[[sq:10 Shkurt]]
[[scn:10 di frivaru]]
[[simple:February 10]]
[[sk:10. február]]
[[sl:10. februar]]
[[sr:10. фебруар]]
[[fi:10. helmikuuta]]
[[sv:10 februari]]
[[tl:Pebrero 10]]
[[tt:10. Febräl]]
[[te:ఫిబ్రవరి 10]]
[[th:10 กุมภาพันธ์]]
[[vi:10 tháng 2]]
[[tr:10 Şubat]]
[[uk:10 лютого]]
[[wa:10 di fevrî]]
[[war:Pebrero 10]]
[[zh:2月10日]]
[[pam:Pebreru 10]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Frankfurt</title>
<id>10992</id>
<revision>
<id>41992323</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T02:18:31Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Manop</username>
<id>292857</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>fixing th</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''For other uses, see [[Frankfurt (disambiguation)]]''
[[Image:Frankfurt desde MainTower 1.JPG|thumb|310px|Skyline of Frankfurt]]
{{Infobox Town DE|
name = Frankfurt|
name_local = |
image_coa = Wappen-frankfurt.png|
image_map = Karte frankfurt am main in deutschland.png|
state = [[Hesse]] |
regbzk = [[Darmstadt (region)|Darmstadt]]|
district = [[List of German urban districts|urban district]]|
population = 648,325|
population_as_of = 2005|
population_ref = [http://www.statistik-hessen.de/themenauswahl/bevoelkerung-gebiet/regionaldaten/bevoelkerung-der-hessischen-gemeinden/default.htm source]|
pop_dens = 2,611|
area = 248.31|
elevation = 112|
lat_deg = 50|
lat_min = 7|
lat_hem = N|
lon_deg = 8|
lon_min = 41|
lon_hem = E|
postal_code = 60001-60599,<br>65901-65936|
area_code = 069, 06109, 06101|
licence = F|
mayor = Petra Roth ([[CDU]])|
website = [http://www.frankfurt.de/ frankfurt.de]|
}}
{{Audio|De-Frankfurt_am_Main-pronunciation.ogg|'''Frankfurt am Main'''}} {{IPA|[&#x02c8;fraŋkf&#x028a;rt]}} is the largest city in the German [[States of Germany|state]] of [[Hesse]] and the fifth-largest city in [[Germany]]. Situated on the [[Main]] river, it is the seat of the [[European Central Bank]], the [[Frankfurt Stock Exchange]] and is the largest financial centre in [[Germany]] and [[continental Europe]]. Frankfurt is also one of the richest cities in the [[European Union]].
The city's metropolitan area, the '''[[Frankfurt Rhine Main Area]]''', has a population of 5 million and is Germany's second largest.
Among [[English language|English]] speakers the city is commonly known simply as "Frankfurt", though Germans sometimes call it by its full name to distinguish it from the other Frankfurt in the German state of [[Brandenburg]], known as [[Frankfurt an der Oder]]. It was once called '''[[Frankfort]]-on-the-Main''' in English, a direct translation of Frankfurt am Main.
==Overview==
[[Image:Sonnenuntergang Frankfurt.jpg|thumb|The skyline of Frankfurt at night]]
[[Image:Deutsche-Bank-Frankfurt-am-Main.jpg|thumb|Twin Tower of the [[Deutsche Bank]]]]
[[Image:Frankfurt am Main nightshot.jpg|thumb|Commerzbank-Tower & Maintower]]
Frankfurt has played a central role in the political history of Germany and the German states for centuries. From [[855]] to [[1792]] Frankfurt was the electoral city for the Emperors of the [[Holy Roman Empire|Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation]]. In the [[The Revolutions of 1848 in the German states|1848-49 revolutions]], it became a sort of revolutionary capital and was the seat of the first democratically elected German parliament, the [[Frankfurt Parliament]], which met in the ''[[Frankfurter Paulskirche]]'', or the St. Paul's Church.
The three pillars of Frankfurt's economy are finance, transport, and trade fairs. Frankfurt has been Germany's financial capital for centuries, and it is the home of a number of major banks and brokerages. The [[Frankfurt Stock Exchange]] is Germany's largest, and one of the world's most important. Frankfurt houses the [[European Central Bank]], which sets monetary policy for the [[Eurozone]] economy, and the German [[Bundesbank]]. It also houses a number of major commercial banks, including [[Deutsche Bank]], [[Dresdner Bank]], and [[Commerzbank]]. Frankfurt's financial industry gives it the highest [[GDP]] per capita of major cities in Europe and makes it fifteenth in total GDP production as a city.[http://www.conway.com/ssinsider/snapshot/sf020527.htm]
The GaWC identifies Frankfurt as an [[Global city|Alpha World City]].
Frankfurt has an excellent transportation infrastructure and a major international airport and European transportation hub, the [[Frankfurt International Airport]]. Frankfurt Airport ranks among the world's top ten airports and serves 304 flight destinations in 110 countries.Depending whether total passengers or flights are used to measure, it ranks as the second or third busiest in Europe alongside London [[Heathrow Airport]] and Paris' [[Charles de Gaulle Airport|Charles de Gaulle]]. Its central location at Europe's heart and its excellent accessibility by air, rail and road make Frankfurt Airport City especially attractive. With its complete range of services, Fraport AG is a competent and reliable partner for all aspects of airport operation. In addition, many large trade fairs take place in Frankfurt each year, notably the [[Internationale Automobil-Ausstellung]] (''Frankfurt Motor Show'') and the [[Frankfurt Book Fair]], which have far over 100,000 visitors each, but also important special interest fairs like the ''LinuxWorld Conference & Expo'' or ''Musikmesse Frankfurt''.
Frankfurt is often nicknamed "Bankfurt" or "Mainhattan" (derived from the local [[Main River]]). It is one of only four [[Europe]]an cities that have a significant number of high-rise [[skyscraper]]s. With eleven skyscrapers taller than 150 m (492 ft) in 2004, Frankfurt is second behind [[Paris]] ([[La Défense]] and [[Montparnasse]], with twelve skyscrapers taller than 150 m, not counting the [[Eiffel Tower]]), but ahead of [[London]] ([[Canary Wharf]] and the [[City of London|City]], with eight skyscrapers taller than 150 m) and [[Moscow]] (seven skyscrapers taller than 150 m). The city of Frankfurt contains the tallest skyscraper in the European Union, the [[Commerzbank Tower]], which is also the second tallest on the continent (after the [[Triumph-Palace]] building in [[Moscow]]).
Yet Frankfurt has a different feel from [[New York City]], and many residents prefer its nickname of "the smallest metropolis of the world." Despite the central concentration of tall buildings, the city has many open natural spaces and a spread-out city plan, which make some of the large buildings look a bit lonely in comparison to other global financial centres such as those in [[New York City|New York]], [[Singapore]], or [[Shanghai]].
Frankfurt is also home to many cultural and educational institutions, the ''[[Johann Wolfgang Goethe University Frankfurt |
venerated in the [[Temple of Artemis]], the largest building of the ancient world, according to [[Pausanias (geographer)|Pausanias]] (4.31.8) and one of the [[Seven Wonders of the World]], of which scarcely a trace remains (''illustration, left'').
==Roman Ephesus==
[[Image:ephesus_theater.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The Roman Theater at Ephesus]]
Beginning in the [[Roman Republic]], Ephesus was the capital of proconsular Asia, which covered the western part of Asia Minor. The city bore the title of "the first and greatest metropolis of Asia." It was distinguished for the [[Temple of Artemis]] ([[Diana (goddess)|Diana]]), who had her chief shrine there, for its library, and for its theatre, which would have been capable of holding 25,000 spectators. It was, like all ancient theatres, open to the sky; it was used initially for drama, but during later Roman times gladiatorial combats were also held on its stage. The population of Ephesus has been estimated to be in the range of 400,000 to 500,000 inhabitants in the year 100 AD, making it one of the largest cities of the day. Ephesus also had several major bath complexes, built at various points while the city was under Roman rule.
Ephesus was an important center for early [[Christianity]]. [[Paul of Tarsus|Paul]] used it as a base. He became embroiled in a dispute with artisans, whose livelihood depended on the Temple of Artemis there ([[Acts]] 19:23&ndash;41), and wrote [[1 Corinthians]] from Ephesus. Later Paul [[Epistle to Ephesians|wrote]] to the Christian community at Ephesus.
''The Catholic Encyclopedia'' notes, "the Apostle and Evangelist John lived in Asia Minor in the last decades of the first century and from Ephesus had guided the Churches of that province...After Domitian's death the Apostle returned to Ephesus during the reign of Trajan, and at Ephesus he died about A.D. 100 at a great age". Ephesus was one of the [[Seven churches of the Book of Revelation|seven cities]] addressed in [[Book of Revelation|Revelation]] (2:1&ndash;7).
There is also a letter written by [[Ignatius of Antioch]] to the Ephesians in the early 2nd century AD, that begins with, "Ignatius, who is also called Theophorus, to the Church which is at Ephesus, in Asia, deservedly most happy, being blessed in the greatness and fulness of God the Father, and predestinated before the beginning of time, that it should be always for an enduring and unchangeable glory" (''Letter to the Ephesians'').
The [[house of the Virgin Mary]], about 7 km from [[Selçuk]], is said by the [[Roman Catholic Church]] to have been the last home of the Virgin Mary and is a popular place of pilgrimage.
Ephesus was the setting for the [[Council of Ephesus|Third Ecumenical Council]] in [[431]], which resulted in the condemnation of [[Nestorius]].
The Roman city of Ephesus was abandoned in the 6th century AD when the harbor completely filled in with river silt (despite repeated dredges during the city's history), removing its access to the [[Aegean Sea]].
==Modern Ephesus==
[[image:Ephesus_library-650px.jpg|thumb|250px|Roman scholars spent their mornings studying in the civic library.]]
A part of the site of this once famous city is now occupied by a small Turkish town, [[Selçuk]], which is also the site of the St. John's Basilica.
It is a vast site, not yet completely excavated but what is visible gives some idea of its original splendour and the names associated with it are evocative of its former life. The amphitheatre is huge and in a very outstanding position which dominates the view down Harbour Street leading to the harbour, long since silted up.
The [[Celsus Library]], whose facade has been carefully reconstructed from all original pieces, was built by a Roman in memory of his father. It is spectacular. The building faces east so that the reading rooms could make best use of the morning light. An underground tunnel leads from the library to a nearby building believed to have been a drinking establishment or brothel.
The Temple of [[Artemis]], one of the [[Seven Wonders of the World]], is represented only by one inconspicuous column, owing to the removal of the vast majority of material by the British. Most of the artwork from the temple currently resides in the [[British Museum]].
Turkey's annual [[camel wrestling]] championship occurs at the ancient stadium in Ephesus in the winter.
----
''This article uses text from Easton's Bible Dictionary, 1897 -- Please update as needed''
== External links ==
* [http://online.mq.edu.au/pub/ACANSCAE/ Coinage of Ephesus, Macquarie University, Australia]
* [http://www.turkishodyssey.com/places/aegean/aegean3.htm Ephesus]
* [http://www.pbase.com/dosseman/ephesus Photographic tour of the historic city]
* [http://www.pbase.com/dosseman/selcuk The nearby modern town, with some nearby other monuments]
* [http://www.turkishclass.com/turkey_pictures_gallery_45 Pictures of Ephesus]
* [http://www.livius.org/a/turkey/ephesus/ephesus1.html Livius Picture Archive: Ephesus (Selçuk)]
{{commons|Ephesos}}
[[Category:Athenian colonies]]
[[Category:Roman sites in Turkey]]
[[Category:Archaeological sites in Turkey]]
[[Category:Pauline churches]]
[[cs:Efesos]]
[[de:Ephesos]]
[[es:Éfeso]]
[[eo:Efeso]]
[[fr:Éphèse]]
[[ko:에페소스]]
[[id:Efesus]]
[[it:Efeso]]
[[la:Ephesus]]
[[nl:Efeze]]
[[ja:エフェソス]]
[[no:Efesos]]
[[pl:Efez]]
[[pt:Éfeso]]
[[fi:Efesos]]
[[sv:Efesos]]
[[tr:Efes, İzmir]]
[[zh:以弗所]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Egyptian Mythology</title>
<id>9844</id>
<revision>
<id>15907709</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Egyptian mythology]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>JavaScript</title>
<id>9845</id>
<revision>
<id>42002589</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T03:49:59Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>70.109.62.250</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Usage */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''JavaScript''' is the name of [[Netscape]]'s implementation of [[ECMAScript]], a [[scripting language|scripting]] [[programming language]] based on the concept of [[prototype-based programming|prototypes]]. The language is best known for its use in [[website]]s, but is also used to enable scripting access to objects embedded in other applications.
Despite the name, JavaScript is only distantly related to the [[Java programming language]], the main similarity being their common debt to the [[C programming language]]. JavaScript has far more in common with the [[Self programming language]].
JavaScript is a registered trademark of [[Sun Microsystems]], Inc.,
used under license for technology invented and implemented by Netscape.
[http://www.sap.com/company/legal/copyright/index.epx]
[http://www.sun.com/suntrademarks/]
==History==
JavaScript was originally developed by [[Brendan Eich]] of [[Netscape Communications Corporation]] under the name ''Mocha'', then ''LiveScript'', and finally renamed to JavaScript. The change of name from LiveScript to JavaScript roughly coincided with Netscape adding support for Java technology in its [[Netscape Navigator]] [[web browser]]. JavaScript was first introduced and deployed in the Netscape browser version 2.0B3 in December of 1995. When web developers talk about using JavaScript in Internet Explorer, they are actually using [[JScript]]. The choice of name proved to be a source of much confusion.
[[As of 2005]], the latest version of the language is JavaScript 1.6, which corresponds to ECMA-262 Edition 3 like JavaScript 1.5, except for Array extras, and Array and String generics. [[ECMAScript]], in simple terms, is a standardized version of JavaScript. The ECMA-357 standard specifies [[E4X]], a language extension dealing with [[XML]].
==Usage==
JavaScript is a prototype-based scripting language with a syntax loosely based on C. Like C, the language has no input or output constructs of its own. Where C relies on standard I/O libraries, a [[JavaScript engine]] relies on a ''host environment'' into which it is embedded. There are many such host environment applications, of which web technologies are the most well known examples. These are examined first.
One major use of web-based JavaScript is to write functions that are embedded in or included from [[HTML]] pages and interact with the [[Document Object Model]] (DOM) of the page to perform tasks not possible in HTML alone. Some common examples of this usage follow.
;Opening or [[Pop-up ad|popping up]] a new window with programmatic control over the size, position and 'look' of the new window (i.e. whether or not the menus, toolbars etc are visible. Usually JavaScript is used to ensure that they are not): If this degree of control is not required, JavaScript is not necessary. Simply adding the attribute <code>target="xxx"</code> to the [[Html element#Links and anchors|link element]] in HTML will reliably produce a new window the same size as the current one, with menus etc displayed as per the user's preferences. Note that many browsers now include mechanisms that, by default, block all JavaScript pop-ups, displaying only a small message to say that they have done so.
;Checking or [[Validation|validating]] [[Form (web)|web form]] input values to make sure that they will be accepted before they are submitted to the server: There is always a time delay, and a processing overhead on the server, when a form has to be submitted. Nonetheless input validation should be repeated at the server in case the JavaScript failed to run (see below).
;Changing images as the mouse cursor [[Rollover (web design)|moves over them]]: This effect is still enjoyed by many designers, often to draw the user's attention to important links displayed |
ers]]
* [[Magic: The Gathering]]
* [[Pokémon Trading Card Game|Pokémon]]
* [[Yu-Gi-Oh! Trading Card Game]]
* [[Harry Potter Trading Card Game]]
===Other card games===
* [[1000 Blank White Cards]]
* [[Blitz (game)|Blitz]]
* [[Bohnanza]]
* [[Chez Geek]]
* [[Chrononauts]]
* [[Flinch]]
* [[Fluxx]]
* [[GOLF (card game)|GOLF]]
* [[Gother Than Thou]]
* [[Grass card game|Grass]]
* [[Hanafuda]]
* [[Illuminati (game)|Illuminati]]
* [[Karuta]]
* [[Lucky Seven]]
* [[Mille Bournes]]
* [[Munchkin (card game)|Munchkin]]
* [[Mus (card game)|Mus]]
* [[Numero (card game)|Numero]]
* [[Pens (Game)|Pens]]
* [[Pit (game)|Pit]]
* [[Pits (game)|Pits]]
* [[San Juan]]
* [[Scopa]]
* [[Scopone]]
* [[Set (game)|Set]]
* [[Sheepshead]]
* [[LeCardo]]
===Fictional card games===
* [[Cripple Mr Onion]] - from the ''[[Discworld]]'' book series
* [[Diamondback (game)|Diamondback]] - from the [[Cerebus the Aardvark|Cerebus]] comics
* [[Double Fanucci]] - from the [[Zork]] series
* [[Dragon Poker]] - from the [[MythAdventures]] novels
* [[Fizzbin]] - from the original [[Star Trek]]
* Pazzak - from the [[KOTOR|Knights of the Old Republic]] video game
* [[Pyramid (game)|Pyramid]] - from the [[Battlestar Galactica]] series
* [[Sabacc]] - from the [[Star Wars]] universe
* [[Tall Card]] - from the [[Firefly (TV series)|Firefly]] television series
===Pranks===
*[[52_pickup]]
==See also==
* [[Edmond Hoyle]]
* [[Playing card]]
* [[John Scarne]]
* [[Q2J]]
==External links==
*[http://www.pagat.com/ Card Games] - contains detailed rules for a lot of card games, has an alphabetic and classified index of card games
*[http://www.thehouseofcards.com/ The House of Cards] - comprehensive directory of traditional and commercial card games
*[http://www.pagat.com/ipcs/ International Playing Card Society]
*[http://jducoeur.org/game-hist/game-rules.html Rules for historic card games]
[[Category:Card games|*]]
{{Link FA|nl}}
[[ca:Joc de cartes]]
[[cs:Karetní hra]]
[[da:Kortspil]]
[[de:Kartenspiel]]
[[es:Juego de naipes]]
[[eo:Kartludo]]
[[fi:Korttipeli]]
[[fr:Jeu de cartes]]
[[he:משחק קלפים]]
[[io:Lud-kartaro]]
[[it:Giochi con le carte]]
[[ja:カードゲーム]]
[[lt:Kortų žaidimai]]
[[nl:Kaartspel]]
[[pl:Gra karciana]]
[[ru:Карточная игра]]
[[sl:Igra s kartami]]
[[sv:Kortspel]]
[[tr:İskambil oyunları]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Cross-stitch</title>
<id>5361</id>
<revision>
<id>40361360</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-20T01:33:46Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
<id>82835</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>External links per MoS.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Welsh_dresser.jpg|thumb|A sample cross-stitch of a [[Welsh dresser]].]]
'''Cross-stitch''' is a popular form of [[counted-thread embroidery]] in which X-shaped stitches are used to form a picture. Other stitches are also commonly used in cross-stitch, among them, 1/4, 1/2 and 3/4 stitches and backstitches. Cross-stitch is usually executed on easily countable evenweave fabric, or more rarely on non-countable fabric, on which a countable fabric is applied that is removed later, by drawing out every thread of it under the embroidery. This fabric is called waste canvas. The stitcher counts the threads in each direction so that the stitches are of uniform size and appearance.
This form of cross-stitch is also called ''counted cross-stitch'' in order to distinguish it from other forms of cross-stitch. Sometimes cross-stitch is also done on designs printed on the canvas, showing every single cross (stamped cross-stitch).
== Modern cross-stitch ==
=== Description of the technique===
Cross-stitch embroiderers frequently use an even-weave fabric of [[linen]] or [[cotton]] and work from charts on graph paper. Cross-stitching can also be done on a specialty [[Aida cloth]] that is available in 11, 14, 16, 18, and 22 count sizes. The sizes of Aida and Evenweave types denote the approximate number of fibers in an [[inch]]. Special vinyl weaves and perforated paper products are also available. The size of a piece of embroidery can be changed by using a fabric with another count size.
[[Image:Cross stitch closeup.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Counted cross-stitch on even-weave fabric]]
Today [[cotton embroidery floss]] is the most usual thread. It is a thread made of mercerised [[cotton]], made of six strands that are only loosely twisted together and easily separable. Other materials used are [[pearl cotton]], [[Danish flower thread]] and several different threads made of [[silk]] or [[Rayon]]. Danish flower thread is especially popular for nature motifs which originally came from [[Denmark]]. Sometimes different wool threads, metallic threads or other specialty threads are used, sometimes for the whole work, sometimes for accents and embellishments.
Thread size is usually chosen so that the stitches cover the fabric completely, creating a tapestry-like effect. But especially in monochrome work the thread can also be chosen a bit thinner, so that the individual crosses can be recognised as such and let the fabric show through a bit. The latter possibility can look nice in monochrome patterns and in combination with [[Blackwork]].
===Uses===
Today cross-stitch is the most popular form of embroidery as a hobby in the western world. It lends itself well to recreational use because it's easy to learn and very versatile. There are patterns available for almost every taste, and even beginners can create beautiful stitchery with some patience.
Traditionally cross-stitch was used to embellish things like dishwear, household linen, doilies and similar, half useful, half ornamental items. This use is still popular, especially in Europe. But often cross-stitch is used to make pieces that are meant to be framed and hung as pictures. On items for daily use, usually only small areas are embroidered. The pictures can either have an unembroidered background or be completely covered with stitches.
There are cross-stitching "guilds" in various cities of the USA and other countries that propagate knowledge about cross-stitch and give stitchers the opportunity to meet people with the same interest. Often they also offer lessons. Sometimes these guilds do collaborative works that would be too big for one stitcher.
===Designs===
Modern cross-stitch designs often makes extensive use of colours in many shades. When using fine fabric and thread this can create very realistic effects, almost like paintings, if that is desired. The look of such opulent designs is somewhat related to [[Berlin wool work]], although the subjects are more varied and sometimes more modern. Others prefer more stylised patterns with less colours, which may go well with modern furniture, but also may be suggestive of traditional patterns.
Often cross-stitch is combined with other popular forms of embroidery, such as [[Hardanger embroidery]] or [[blackwork embroidery]].
A fairly recent development is the use of other stitches in cross-stitch work, in this context called ''special stitches'', in order to create new visual effects and satisfy the wishes of keen stitchers who may find pure cross-stitch boring after a while. These may be stitches from [[surface embroidery]], [[canvaswork]] or even [[drawn thread work]] and other more unusual branches of embroidery. Also beadwork and other embellishments like paillettes and specialty threads of various kinds are becoming more popular.
This development, new as it may seem is in fact a reinvention. In earliest times, cross-stitch was often used as one of many different stitches.
Especially in the [[USA]] there are many cross-stitch designers who sell their patterns under their names and are well-known among stitchers. Many of them maintain websites and keep in touch with possible customers, although usually the patterns are sold by shops and other distributors. Other patterns are published in cheap magazines, especially patterns done by native designers in Europe.
Cross-stitch design has become possible for many hobby embroiderers with the advent of cross-stitch design computer software. Thus it can be a form of creative expression rather than just copying the patterns of someone else.
== Related stitches and forms of embroidery ==
Cross-stitch was often used together with other stitches. It is sometimes used in [[Crewel embroidery]], especially in its more modern derivatives. It is also often used in [[needlepoint]].
A specialized historical form of embroidery using cross-stitch is [[Assisi Embroidery]].
There are many stitches which are related to cross-stitch and were used in similar ways in earlier times. The best known are [[Italian cross-stitch]], [[long-armed cross-stitch]], and [[Montenegrin stitch]]. Italian cross-stitch and Montenegrin stitch are reversible, that means the work looks the same on both sides. They have a slightly different look than regular cross-stitch. Two-sided cross-stitch looks exactly like regular cross-stitch, but is also reversible. The reversible stitches are more difficult and time-consuming, and use more thread. All those stitches are rarely used in mainstream embroidery, but they are still used to recreate historical pieces of embroidery or by the creative and adventurous stitcher.
[[Berlin wool work]] and similar petit point stitchery resembles the heavily shaded, opulent styles of cross-stitch, and sometimes also used charted patterns on paper.
Photo to cross-stitch conversion is also becoming popular. Here is a site that may be helpful to those wishing to learn a method of converting photos to cross-stitch designs.
http://laydenwithstitches.4t.com
== History ==
[[Image:Cross stitch detail.jpg|left|thumb|200px|Detail of floral border pattern in cotton. Tea cloth (small tablecloth), [[Hungary]], mid-twentieth century]]
Cross-stitch is one of the oldest forms of embroidery and can be found all over the world. Many folk museums show examples of c |
est Side Story]] by Leonard Bernstein, also performed by the UK rock group The Nice
* [[America (XM)]], [[XM Satellite Radio]] channel 10
*''[[América (soap opera)|América]]'', a Brazilian telenovela (soap opera).
* [[America (television station)]], an [[Argentina|Argentinian]] television station
* ''[[America (magazine)|America]]'', a weekly Roman Catholic magazine
''Sports:''
* [[Club America]], Mexican football (soccer) team
*[[América de Cali]], a Colombian football (soccer) team
* ''[[America (yacht)|America]]'', a racing yacht that won the first ever America's Cup in 1851
''Transportation:''
* ''[[America (airplane)|America]]'', a multi-engine airplane used by Richard E. Byrd and his crew on a 1927 transatlantic flight
* ''[[America (commercial ship)|America]]'', a passenger liner commanded by [[George Fried]] involved in a famous sea rescue in 1929
* [[USS America|USS ''America'']], the name of three United States Navy ships
* ''[[SS America (1940)|SS America]]'', a passenger liner owned by the United States Lines.
America is an alternative title for:
* [[My Country, 'Tis of Thee|"My Country, 'Tis of Thee"]], a patriotic song of the United States
* [[Our America]], an essay by [[Jose Marti]]
==See also==
*[[Amerika (disambiguation)]]
*[[Americas#Naming of America|Naming of America]]
{{disambig}}
<!-- interwiki -->
[[cy:America]]
[[de:Amerika]]
[[fr:America]]
[[hr:Amerika]]
[[nl:Amerika]]
[[ja:アメリカ (曖昧さ回避)]]
[[no:Amerika (andre betydninger)]]
[[pt:América (desambiguação)]]
[[sq:America]]
[[sr:Америка]]
[[fi:Amerikka]]
[[tr:Amerika]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Africa</title>
<id>588</id>
<revision>
<id>42098769</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T20:46:07Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>BanyanTree</username>
<id>137674</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>rv back to Ashmoo</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}
{{portal}}
[[Image:Africa satellite orthographic.jpg|thumb|280px|A satellite composite image of Africa]]
'''Africa''' is the world's second-largest and second most populous [[continent]], after [[Asia]]. At about 30,370,000 [[square kilometre|km&sup2;]] (11,730,000 [[square mile|sq mi]]) including its adjacent islands, it covers 5.9% of the [[Earth]]'s total surface area, and 20.3% of the total land area. With over 840,000,000 people (as of 2005) in 61 territories, it accounts for more than 12% of the world's [[human population]].
==Etymology==
[[Image:LocationAfrica.png|thumb|250px|World map showing Africa (geographically)]]
The name '''Africa''' came into Western use through the [[Ancient Rome|Romans]], who used the name ''Africa terra'' — "land of the Afri" (plural, or "Afer" singular) — for the northern part of the continent, as the [[Africa (province)|province of Africa]] with its capital [[Carthage]], corresponding to modern-day [[Tunisia]].
The Afri were a tribe — possibly [[Berber]] — who dwelt in [[North Africa]] in the Carthage area. The origin of ''Afer'' may be connected with [[Phoenician languages|Phoenician]] ''`afar'', [[dust]] (also found in most other [[Semitic languages]]); some other etymologies that have been postulated for the ancient name 'Africa' that are much more debatable include:
:*the [[Latin]] word ''aprica'', meaning "sunny";
:*the [[Greek language|Greek]] word ''aphrike'', meaning "without cold" (see also [[List of traditional Greek place names]]). The historian [[Leo Africanus]] ([[1495]]-[[1554]]) attributed the origin to the Greek word ''phrike'' (φρίκη, meaning "cold and horror"), combined with the negating prefix a-, so meaning a land free of cold and horror. However, the change of sound from ''ph'' to ''f'' in Greek is datable to about the [[first century]], so this is unlikely to be the origin.
Ancient Africa extended into what is now known as Asia. There was no line drawn between the two continents until the geographer [[Ptolemy]] ([[85]] - [[165]] AD), accepted [[Alexandria]] as [[Prime Meridian]] and made the [[Suez Canal|isthmus of Suez]] and the [[Red Sea]] the boundary between [[Asia]] and Africa. As [[Europe]]ans came to understand the real extent of the continent, the idea of ''Africa'' expanded with their knowledge.
==Geography==
''Main article: [[Geography of Africa]]''
[[Image:The Earth seen from Apollo 17.jpg|thumb|250px|Africa in the [[Blue marble]] picture, with [[Antarctica]] to the south, and the [[Sahara]] and [[Arabian peninsula]] at the top of the globe]]
Africa is the largest of the three great southward projections from the main mass of the Earth's surface. It includes within its remarkably regular outline an area, of c. 30,360,288 [[square kilometre|km&sup2;]] (11,722,173 [[square mile|mi&sup2;]]), including the islands.
Separated from [[Europe]] by the [[Mediterranean Sea]], it is joined to Asia at its northeast extremity by the [[Suez Canal|Isthmus of Suez]] (transected by the Suez Canal), 130 km (80 miles) wide. ([[Geopolitical]]ly, [[Egypt]]'s [[Sinai Peninsula]] east of the Suez Canal is often considered part of Africa, as well.) From the most northerly point, [[Cape Blanc]] (Ra’s al Abyad) in [[Tunisia]] (37&deg;21&prime; N), to the most southerly point, [[Cape Agulhas]] in [[South Africa]] (34&deg;51&prime;15&Prime; S), is a distance approximately of 8,000 km (5,000 miles); from [[Cap-Vert|Cape Verde]], 17&deg;33&prime;22&Prime; W, the westernmost point, to [[Ras Hafun]] in [[Somalia]], 51&deg;27&prime;52&Prime; E, the most easterly projection, is a distance (also approximately) of 7,400 km (4,600 miles). The length of coast-line is 26,000 km (16,100 miles) and the absence of deep indentations of the shore is shown by the fact that Europe, which covers only [[1 E12 m²|9,700,000 km&sup2;]] (3,760,000 square miles), has a coast-line of 32,000 km (19,800 miles).
The main structural lines of the continent show both the east-to-west direction characteristic, at least in the eastern hemisphere, of the more northern parts of the world, and the north-to-south direction seen in the southern peninsulas. Africa is thus composed of two segments at right angles, the northern running from east to west, the southern from north to south, the subordinate lines corresponding in the main to these two directions.
==History==
''Main article: [[History of Africa]]''
[[Image:Afryka 1890.jpg|right|thumb|250px|Map of Africa 1890]]
Africa is home to the [[cradle of Humankind|oldest inhabited territory]] on earth, with the [[human]] race [[mitochondrial Eve|originating]] from this continent. During the mid 20th century, [[Anthropology|anthropologists]] discovered many [[fossil]]s and evidence of human occupation perhaps as early as 7 million years ago. Fossil remains of several species of early ape-like humans thought to have [[evolve]]d into modern day man, such as ''[[Australopithecus afarensis]]'' ([[radiometrically dated]] to 3.9-3.0 million years [[Before_Christ|BC]]), ''[[Paranthropus boisei]]'' (2.3-1.4 million BC) and ''[[Homo ergaster]]'' (c. 600,000-1.9 million BC) has been discovered.
The [[Ishango Bone]], dated to c. 25,000 years ago, shows [[tally stick|tallies]] in [[mathematical notation]]. Throughout humanity's [[prehistory]], Africa (like all other continents) had no [[nation state]]s, and was instead inhabited by groups of [[hunter-gatherers]] such as the [[Khoi]] and [[San]] (formerly known as [[bushmen]]).
Around 3300 BC, the historical record opens in Africa with the rise of literacy in [[Egypt]], which continued with varying levels of influence over other areas until 343 BC. Other prominent [[civilization]]s include [[Ethiopia]], the [[Nubia]]n kingdom, [[Carthage]], the kingdoms of the [[Sahelian kingdom|Sahel]] ([[Ghana Empire|Ghana]], [[Mali Empire|Mali]], and [[Songhai empire|Songhai]]) and [[Great Zimbabwe]].
In 1482, the [[Portugal|Portuguese]] established the first of many trading stations along the Guinea coast at [[Elmina]]. The chief commodities dealt in were slaves, gold, ivory and spices. The European discovery of America in 1492 was followed by a great development of the [[slave trade]], which, before the Portuguese era, had been an overland trade almost exclusively, and never confined to any one continent.
But at the same time that slavery was ending in Europe, in the early 19th century the European [[Imperialism|imperial]] powers staged a massive "[[scramble for Africa]]" and occupied most of the continent, creating many [[colony|colonial]] nation states, and leaving only two independent nations: [[Liberia]], the Black American colony, and [[Ethiopia]]. This occupation continued until after the conclusion of the [[World War II|Second World War]], when all colonial states gradually obtained formal independence.
Today, Africa is home to over 50 independent countries, all but 2 of which still have the [[border]]s drawn up during the era of European [[colonialism]].
==Politics==
[[Image:ColonialAfrica.png|frame|''Map showing European claimants to the African continent at the beginning of [[World War I]]'']]
===Precolonial Africa===
{{sect-stub}}
===Colonial Africa===
[[Colonialism]] had a destabilizing effect on what had been a number of ethnic groups that is still being felt in African politics. Prior to European influence, national borders were not much of a concern, with Africans generally following the practice of other areas of the world, such as the Arabian peninsula, where a group's territory was congruent with its military or trade influence. The European insistence of drawing borders around territories to isolate them from those of other colonial powers often had the effect of separating otherwise contiguous political groups, or forcing traditional enemies to live side by side with no buffer between them. For example, the [[Congo River]], although i |
se_response|FIR]]) filter uses only the input signal, while an "infinite impulse response" filter ([[IIR]]) uses both the input signal and previous samples of the output signal. FIR filters are always stable, while IIR filters may be unstable.
Most filters can be described in Z-domain (a superset of the frequency domain) by their [[transfer function]]s. A filter may also be described as a [[difference equation]], a collection of [[Zero (complex analysis)|zeroes]] and [[pole (complex analysis)|pole]]s or, if it is an FIR filter, an [[impulse response]] or [[step response]]. The output of an FIR filter to any given input may be calculated by [[convolution|convolving]] the input signal with the [[impulse response]]. Filters can also be represented by block diagrams which can then be used to derive a sample processing [[algorithm]] to implement the filter using hardware instructions.
== Frequency domain ==
Signals are converted from time or space domain to the frequency domain usually through the [[Fourier transform]]. The Fourier transform converts the signal information to a magnitude and phase component of each frequency. Often the Fourier transform is converted to the power spectrum, which is the magnitude of each frequency component squared.
The most common purpose for analysis of signals in the frequency domain is analysis of signal properties. The engineer can study the spectrum to get information of which frequencies are present in the input signal and which are missing.
There are some commonly used frequency domain transformations. For example, the [[cepstrum]] converts a signal to the frequency domain through Fourier transform, takes the logarithm, then applies another Fourier transform. This emphasizes the frequency components with smaller magnitude while retaining the order of magnitudes of frequency components.
== Applications ==
The main applications of DSP are [[audio signal processing]], [[audio compression]], [[digital image processing]], [[video compression]], [[speech processing]], [[speech recognition]] and [[digital communication]]s. Specific examples are [[speech compression]] and transmission in digital [[mobile phone]]s, equalisation of sound in [[Hifi]] equipment, [[weather forecasting]], [[economic forecasting]], [[seismology|seismic]] data processing, analysis and control of [[industrial process]]es, computer-generated [[animation]]s in [[Film|movie]]s, [[medical imaging]] such as [[CAT]] scans and [[MRI]], [[computer graphics|image manipulation]], and [[digital effects]] for use with [[electric guitar]] [[amplifiers]].
A further application is [[very low frequency]] (VLF) reception with a PC soundcard [http://www.vlf.it/harald/strangerec.htm].
== Techniques ==
* [[Bilinear transform]]
* [[Discrete Fourier transform]]
* [[Discrete-time Fourier transform]]
* [[Filter design]]
* [[LTI system theory]]
* [[Minimum phase]]
* [[Transfer function]]
* [[Z-transform]]
* [[Goertzel algorithm]]
== Related fields ==
* [[Automatic control]]
* [[Computer Science]]
* [[Data compression]]
* [[Electrical engineering]]
* [[Information theory]]
* [[Seismology|Seismic Data Processing]]
* [[Telecommunication]]
== References ==
*[[Alan V Oppenheim|Alan V. Oppenheim]], [[Ronald W Schafer|Ronald W. Schafer]], John R. Buck : ''Discrete-Time Signal Processing'', Prentice Hall, ISBN 0-13-754920-2
*Richard G. Lyons: ''Understanding Digital Signal Processing'', Prentice Hall, ISBN 0131089897
*[[Jonathan (Y) Stein]], ''Digital Signal Processing, a Computer Science Perspective'', Wiley, ISBN 0471295469
*Sen M. Kuo, Woon-Seng Gan: ''Digital Signal Processors: Architectures, Implementations, and Applications'', Prentice Hall, ISBN 0130352144
*Bernard Mulgrew, Peter Grant, John Thompson: ''Digital Signal Processing - Concepts and Applications'', Palgrave Macmillan, ISBN 0-333-96356-3
*Steven W. Smith: ''Digital Signal Processing - A Practical Guide for Engineers and Scientists'', Newnes, ISBN 0-7506-7444-X
*Paul A. Lynn, Wolfgang Fuerst: ''Introductory Digital Signal Processing with Computer Applications'', John Wiley & Sons, ISBN 0-471-97984-8
*James D. Broesch: ''Digital Signal Processing Demystified'', Newnes, ISBN 1878707167
*John G. Proakis, Dimitris Manolakis: ''Digital Signal Processing - Principles, Algorithms and Applications'', Pearson, ISBN 0133942899
*Hari Krishna Garg: ''Digital Signal Processing Algorithms'', CRC Press, ISBN 0849371783
*P. Gaydecki: ''Foundations Of Digital Signal Processing: Theory, Algorithms And Hardware Design'', Institution of Electrical Engineers, ISBN 0852964315
*Paul M. Embree, Damon Danieli: ''C++ Algorithms for Digital Signal Processing'', Prentice Hall, ISBN 0131791443
*Anthony Zaknich: ''Neural Networks for Intelligent Signal Processing'', World Scientific Pub Co Inc, ISBN 9812383050
*Vijay Madisetti, Douglas B. Williams: ''The Digital Signal Processing Handbook'', CRC Press, ISBN 0849385725
*Stergios Stergiopoulos: ''Advanced Signal Processing Handbook: Theory and Implementation for Radar, Sonar, and Medical Imaging Real-Time Systems'', CRC Press, ISBN 0849336910
*Joyce Van De Vegte: ''Fundamentals of Digital Signal Processing'', Prentice Hall, ISBN 0130160776
*Ashfaq Khan: ''Digital Signal Processing Fundamentals'', Charles River Media, ISBN 1584502819
*Jonathan M. Blackledge, Martin Turner: ''Digital Signal Processing: Mathematical and Computational Methods, Software Development and Applications'', Horwood Publishing, ISBN 1898563489
*Bimal Krishna, K. Y. Lin, Hari C. Krishna: ''Computational Number Theory & Digital Signal Processing'', CRC Press, ISBN 0849371775
*Doug Smith: ''Digital Signal Processing Technology: Essentials of the Communications Revolution'', American Radio Relay League, ISBN 0872598195
*Henrique S. Malvar: ''Signal Processing with Lapped Transforms'', Artech House Publishers, ISBN 0890064679
*Charles A. Schuler: ''Digital Signal Processing: A Hands-On Approach'', McGraw-Hill, ISBN 0078297443
*[[James H. McClellan]], [[Ronald W Schafer|Ronald W. Schafer]], Mark A. Yoder: ''Signal Processing First'', Prentice Hall, ISBN 0130909998
*Artur Krukowski, Izzet Kale: ''DSP System Design: Complexity Reduced Iir Filter Implementation for Practical Applications'', Kluwer Academic Publishers, ISBN 1402075588
*John G. Proakis: ''A Self-Study Guide for Digital Signal Processing'', Prentice Hall, ISBN 0131432397
==External links==
*[http://Microcontroller.com Microcontroller.com]
*[http://www.dspguide.com The Scientist and Engineer's Guide to Digital Signal Processing]
*[http://www.dsprelated.com DSP related discussion groups ]
*[http://www.altera.com/technology/dsp/dsp-index.jsp FPGA based DSP dev kit]
*[http://www.dsptutor.freeuk.com/ Digital Signal Processing Tutorial]
*[http://www.bdti.com/faq/dsp_faq.htm FAQ on Digital Signal Processing]
*[http://www.tapr.org/tapr/html/dspf.html Introduction to Digital Signal Processing]
*[http://www.e-dsp.com/ Digital Signal Processing projects]
*[http://www.cdsp.neu.edu/ CDSP - Center for Digital Signal Processing]
*[http://www.musicdsp.org Music DSP Source Code Archive]
*[http://users.aber.ac.uk/dgw/dsp.htm DSP links]
*[http://www.bores.com/courses/intro/ Yet another good DSP tutorial (bores) ]
*[http://www.spectrum-analyzer.info Spectrum Analysis Tutorials]
*[http://www.k9spud.com/traxmod/ TRAXMOD dsPIC MOD music player]
*[http://www.devicetools.com DeviceTools] - Tools and silicon for embedded device developers
*[http://www.digitalfilterdesign.com Free digital filter design software]
*[http://dsp-book.narod.ru/books.html Some free books on DSP (in English and in Russian)]
[[Category:Digital electronics]]
[[Category:Digital signal processing|*]]
[[da:Digital signalbehandling]]
[[de:Digitale Signalverarbeitung]]
[[es:Procesamiento digital de señales]]
[[fr:Traitement numérique du signal]]
[[it:Elaborazione numerica dei segnali]]
[[hu:Digitális jelfeldolgozás]]
[[ja:デジタル信号処理]]
[[pl:Cyfrowe przetwarzanie sygnałów]]
[[ru:Цифровая обработка сигналов]]
[[sl:Digitalno procesiranje signalov]]
[[fi:Digitaalinen signaalinkäsittely]]
[[th:การประมวลผลสัญญาณดิจิทัล]]
[[zh:数字信号处理]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Dark matter problem</title>
<id>8526</id>
<revision>
<id>15906510</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Dark matter]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Discordianism</title>
<id>8527</id>
<revision>
<id>41693635</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T02:38:33Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Kodemage</username>
<id>286584</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* The Curse of Greyface */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Discordianism''' is a modern, <!-- fnord --> Chaos-based [[religion]] founded in either [[1958]] or [[1959]]. It has been described as both an elaborate joke disguised as a religion, and as a religion disguised as an elaborate [[joke]]. Some of its followers make the claim that it is "a religion disguised as <!-- fnord --> a joke disguised as a religion" (or "a joke disguised as a religion disguised as a joke disguised as..."). It can be viewed as a simple rejection of [[reductionism]] and [[dualism]], even [[falsifiability]] &mdash; not in concept different from [[postmodernism]] or certain trends in the [[philosophy of mathematics]]. It has also been described as "[[Zen]] for [[roundeyes]]," and converges with some of the more absurdist interpretations of the [[Rinzai school]].
==Founding==
The foundational document of Discordianism is the ''[[Principia Discordia]]'' written by [[Malaclypse the Younger|Malaclypse The Younger]] (most likely an alias of [[Gregory Hill (writer)|Greg Hill]]). This book contains many |
hannel bonding and burst transmission techniques) in order to increase speed to 22, 33, and 44 Mbit/s, but the extensions are proprietary and have not been endorsed by the IEEE. Many companies call enhanced versions "802.11b+". These extensions have been largely obviated by the development of 802.11g, which has data rates up to 54 Mbit/s and is backwards-compatible with 802.11b.
==== Channels and international compatibility ====
802.11b and 802.11g divide the spectrum into 14 overlapping, staggered [[channel (communications)|channels]] whose center frequencies are 5 megahertz (MHz) apart. It is a common misconception that channels 1, 6 and 11 (and, if available in the regulatory domain, channel 14) do not overlap and those channels (or other sets with similar gaps) can be used so that multiple networks can operate in close proximity without interfering with each other, but this statement is somewhat over-simplified. The 802.11b and 802.11g standards do not specify the width of a channel; rather, they specify the center frequency of the channel and a [[spectral mask]] for that channel. The spectral mask for 802.11b requires that the signal be [[wiktionary:attenuated|attenuated]] by at least 30 [[decibel|dB]] from its peak energy at ±11 MHz from the center frequency, and attenuated by at least 50 dB from its peak energy at ±22 MHz from the center frequency.
Since the spectral mask only defines power output restrictions up to ±22 MHz from the center frequency, it is often assumed that the energy of the channel extends no further than these limits. In reality, if the transmitter is sufficiently powerful, the signal can be quite strong even beyond the ±22 MHz point. Therefore, it is incorrect to say that channels 1, 6, and 11 do not overlap. It is more correct to say that, given the separation between channels 1, 6, and 11, the signal on any channel should be sufficiently attenuated to minimally interfere with a transmitter on any other channel. However, this is not universally true; for example, a powerful transmitter on channel 1 can easily overwhelm a weaker transmitter on channel 6. In one lab test, throughput on a file transfer on channel 11 decreased slightly when a similar transfer began on channel 1, indicating that even channels 1 and 11 can interfere with each other to some extent.
Although the statement that channels 1, 6, and 11 are "non-overlapping" is incomplete, the 1, 6, 11 guideline has merit. If transmitters are closer together than channels 1, 6, and 11 (e.g. 1, 4, 7, and 10), overlap between the channels will probably cause unacceptable degradation of signal quality and throughput.
The channels that are available for use in a particular country differ according to the regulations of that country. In the [[United States]], for example, [[Federal Communications Commission|FCC]] regulations only allow channels 1 through 11 to be used. In Europe channels 1-13 are licensed for 802.11b operation but allow lower transmitted power (only 100mW) to reduce the interference with other ISM band users.
=== 802.11a ===
The 802.11a amendment to the original standard was ratified in [[1999]]. The 802.11a standard uses the same core protocol as the original standard, operates in 5 GHz band, and uses a 52-subcarrier [[orthogonal frequency-division multiplexing]] (OFDM) with a maximum raw data rate of 54 Mbit/s, which yields realistic net achievable throughput in the mid-20 Mbit/s. The data rate is reduced to 48, 36, 24, 18, 12, 9 then 6 Mbit/s if required. 802.11a has 12 non-overlapping channels, 8 dedicated to indoor and 4 to point to point. It is not interoperable with 802.11b, except if using equipment that implements both standards.
Since the 2.4 GHz band is heavily used, using the 5 GHz band gives 802.11a the advantage of less interference. However, this high carrier frequency also brings disadvantages. It restricts the use of 802.11a to almost line of sight, necessitating the use of more access points; it also means that 802.11a cannot penetrate as far as 802.11b since it is absorbed more readily, other things (such as power) being equal.
Different countries have different regulatory support, although a [[2003]] World Radiotelecommunications Conference made it easier for use worldwide. 802.11a is now approved by regulations in the [[United States]] and [[Japan]], but in other areas, such as the [[European Union]], it had to wait longer for approval. European regulators were considering the use of the European [[HIPERLAN]] standard, but in mid-2002 cleared 802.11a for use in Europe. In the US, a mid-2003 [[Federal Communications Commission|FCC]] decision may open more spectrum to 802.11a channels.
Of the 52 OFDM subcarriers, 48 are for data and 4 are pilot subcarriers with a carrier separation of 0.3125 MHz (20 MHz/64). Each of these subcarriers can be a BPSK, QPSK, 16-QAM or 64-QAM. The total bandwidth is 20 MHz with an occupied bandwidth of 16.6 MHz. Symbol duration is 4 [[micro]][[second]]s with a guard interval of 0.8 microseconds. The actual generation and decoding of orthogonal components is done in baseband using DSP which is then upconverted to 5 GHz at the transmitter. Each of the subcarriers could be represented as a complex number. The time domain signal is generated by taking an Inverse [[Fast Fourier transform]] (IFFT). Correspondingly the receiver downconverts, samples at 20 MHz and does an FFT to retrieve the original coefficients. The advantages of using OFDM include reduced multipath effects in reception and increased spectral efficiency.
802.11a products started shipping in [[2001]], lagging 802.11b products due to the slow availability of the 5 GHz components needed to implement products. 802.11a was not widely adopted overall because 802.11b was already widely adopted, because of 802.11a's disadvantages, because of poor initial product implementations, making its range even shorter, and because of regulations. Manufacturers of 802.11a equipment responded to the lack of market success by improving the implementations (current-generation 802.11a technology has range characteristics much closer to those of 802.11b), and by making technology that can use more than one 802.11 standard. There are dual-band, or dual-mode or tri-mode cards that can automatically handle 802.11a and b, or a, b and g, as available. Similarly, there are mobile adapters and access points which can support all these standards simultaneously.
{|class="wikitable"
! Data rate<br />''(Mbit/s)''
! Modulation
! Coding rate
! ''Ndbps''
! 1472 byte<br />transfer duration<br />''(&micro;s)''
|-
| 6
| BPSK
| 1/2
| 24
| 2012
|-
| 9
| BPSK
| 3/4
| 36
| 1344
|-
| 12
| 4-QAM
| 1/2
| 48
| 1008
|-
| 18
| 4-QAM
| 3/4
| 72
| 672
|-
| 24
| 16-QAM
| 1/2
| 96
| 504
|-
| 36
| 16-QAM
| 3/4
| 144
| 336
|-
| 48
| 64-QAM
| 2/3
| 192
| 252
|-
| 54
| 64-QAM
| 3/4
| 216
| 224
|}
<!-- [[Image:Table of phy rates.jpg]] -->
=== 802.11g ===
In June 2003, a third modulation standard was ratified: 802.11g. This flavour works in the 2.4 GHz band (like 802.11b) but operates at a maximum raw data rate of 54 Mbit/s, or about 24.7 Mbit/s net throughput like 802.11a. 802.11g hardware will work with 802.11b hardware. Details of making b and g work well together occupied much of the lingering technical process. In older networks, however, the presence of an 802.11b participant significantly reduces the speed of an 802.11g network. The modulation scheme used in 802.11g is [[orthogonal frequency-division multiplexing]] (OFDM) for the data rates of 6, 9, 12, 18, 24, 36, 48, and 54 Mbit/s, and reverts to (like the 802.11b standard) CCK for 5.5 and 11 Mbit/s and DBPSK/DQPSK+DSSS for 1 and 2 Mbit/s. Even though 802.11g operates in the same frequency band as 802.11b, it can achieve higher data rates because of its similarities to 802.11a.
The 802.11g standard swept the consumer world of early adopters starting in January 2003, well before ratification. The corporate users held back and Cisco and other big equipment makers waited until ratification. By summer 2003, announcements were flourishing. Most of the dual-band 802.11a/b products became dual-band/tri-mode, supporting a, b, and g in a single mobile adaptor card or access point. Despite its major acceptance, 802.11g suffers from the same interference as 802.11b in the already crowded 2.4 GHz range. Devices operating in this range include microwave ovens, Bluetooth devices, and cordless telephones.
While 802.11g held the promise of higher throughput, actual results were degraded by a number of factors: conflict with 802.11b-only devices (see above), exposure to the same interference sources as 802.11b, limited channelization (only 3 fully non-overlapping channels like 802.11b) and the fact that the higher data rates of 802.11g are often more susceptible to interference than 802.11b, causing the 802.11g device to reduce the data rate to effectively the same rates used by 802.11b. The move to dual-mode/tri-mode products also carries with it economies of scale (e.g. single chip manufacturing). For the consumer, dual-band/tri-mode products ensure the best possible throughput in any given environment.
=== Non-Standard Channel Bonding ===
Chipmaker [[Atheros]] sells a proprietary [[channel bonding]] feature called Super G{{ref|superG}} for manufacturers of access points and client cards. This feature can boost network speeds up to 108 Mbit/s by using [[channel bonding]]. Also range is increased to 4x the range of 802.11g and 20x the range of 802.11b. This feature may interfere with other networks and may not support all b and g client cards. In addition, packet bursting techniques are also available in some chipsets and products which will also considerably increase speeds. This feature may not be compatible with other equipment. [[Broadcom]], another chipmaker, developed a competing proprietary frame bursting feature cal |
er of which have been founded by treaty, though in non-legal contexts these are sometimes referred to as international organizations as well.
International organizations must also be distinguished from treaties; while all international organizations are founded on a treaty, many treaties (e.g., the [[North American Free Trade Agreement]] (NAFTA)) do not establish an international organization and rely purely on the parties for their administration.
==Membership and function==
International organizations differ in function, membership and membership criteria. Membership of some organizations ([[global organization]]s) is open to all the nations of [[Earth|the world]]. This category includes the [[United Nations]] and its specialized agencies and the [[World Trade Organization]]. Other organizations are only open to members from a particular [[subregion|region]] or [[continent]] of the world, like [[European Union]], [[African Union]], [[ASEAN]] and so on.
Finally, some organizations base their membership on other criteria: '''cultural or historical links''' (the [[Commonwealth of Nations]], [[La Francophonie]], the [[Community of Portuguese Language Countries]]), level of '''economic''' development or type of economy ([[Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development]] (OECD), [[OPEC|Organization of Petroleum-Exporting Countries]] (OPEC)), or '''religion''' ([[Organization of the Islamic Conference]]).
Were it to come about, the ultimate international organization would be a [[Federal World Government]].
In the [[nineteenth century]], [[France]] was the ''fons et origo'' of many international organizations: This means that much of the driving force to form such bodies (such as those which maintain the [[SI]] (metric system)) came from the French, and that their headquarters is in France, often in [[Paris]]. Under the [[French Third Republic|Third Republic]], the [[Exposition Universelle (1878)|International Exposition of 1878]] in that city held a great number of meetings of such international organizations - as opposed to the preceding regimes. The motivation was that to keep France a republic and not slip back into either a monarchist or [[Bonapartism|Bonapartist]] regime, the republicans would underscore their inheritance of the crusading nature of the [[French Revolution]] against feudal cultural remnants within France, which had been generalized to the rest of feudal Europe, eventually to the world. Some conclude from this example that internationalism often has national origins, at the difference of [[globalism]].
The [[Union of International Associations]] provides information on international organizations.
==Examples of organizations==
===Global organizations===
*[[United Nations]], its specialized agencies, and associated organizations
*[[INTERPOL]]
*[[International Hydrographic Organization]]
*[[World Trade Organization]]
*[[Universal Postal Union]]
===Regional organizations===
[[Image:Continental Orgs Map.png|450px|right|thumb|Organizations bringing together almost all the countries in their respective continents. [[Russia]] is member of both the [[Council of Europe]] and the [[Asian Cooperation Dialogue]].]]
[[Image:Regional Organizations Map.png|450px|right|thumb|Map of several smaller regional organizations with non-overlapping memberships.]]
'''Europe''':
*[[European Union]] (EU)
*[[Council of Europe]]
*[[European Free Trade Association]] (EFTA)
*[[European Space Agency]] (ESA)
*[[European Patent Organisation]]
'''Asia''':
*[[Asian Cooperation Dialogue]] (ACD)
*[[Association of Southeast Asian Nations]] (ASEAN)
*[[South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation]] (SAARC)
*[[Gulf Cooperation Council]]
'''Eurasia''':
*[[Commonwealth of Independent States]] (CIS)
*[[Shanghai Cooperation Organization]] (SCO)
*[[Eurasian Economic Community]]
*[[Central Asian Cooperation Organization]]
*[[GUAM]]
'''Africa''':
*[[African Union]]
*[[Conseil de l'Entente]]
*[[Economic Community of West African States]] (ECOWAS)
*[[Southern African Development Community]] (SADC)
*[[Intergovernmental Authority on Development]] (IGAD)
*[[Arab Maghreb Union]]
'''Western Hemisphere''':
*[[Organization of American States]] (OAS)
*[[South American Community of Nations]]
*[[Mercosur]]
*[[Andean Community]]
*[[Caribbean Community]] (CARICOM)
*[[Organisation of Eastern Caribbean States]] (OECS)
*[[Central American Parliament]]
*[[Rio Group]]
*[[NAFTA]]
'''Trans-atlantic''':
*[[North Atlantic Treaty Organisation]] (NATO)
*[[Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe]] (OSCE)
'''Pacific''':
*[[Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation]] (APEC)
*[[Pacific Islands Forum]]
*[[Secretariat of the Pacific Community]]
===Organizations with various membership criteria===
[[Image:Postempire Orgs Map.png|450px|right|thumb|International organizations that largely represent the independent states formed after the breakup of an empire. [[La Francophonie]] has overlapping membership with all three of the other organizations shown in the map.]]
*[[Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development]] (OECD)
*[[OPEC|Organization of Petroleum-Exporting Countries]] (OPEC)
*[[Commonwealth of Nations]]
*[[La Francophonie]]
*[[Comunidade dos países de língua portuguesa]] (CPLP)
*[[Organization of Ibero-American States]] (OEI)
*[[Unión Latina]]
*[[Non-Aligned Movement]]
*[[Arab League]]
*[[Organization of the Islamic Conference]]
===Financial international organizations===
* [[Bank for International Settlements]]
* [[International Monetary Fund]] (IMF)
* [[World Bank Group]]
==See also==
* [[List of organizations]]
* [[List of international organizations]]
* [[Supranational union]], [[Supranationalism]]
* [[World government]]
* [[Intergovernmentalism]]
* [[International decoration]]
* [[Environmental organizations]]
* [[Trade bloc]]
* [[Organizations with .INT domain names]]
* [[List of international trade topics]]
[[Category:International organizations|*]]
[[Category:International relations]]
[[Category:Lists of organizations]]
[[Category:International trade]]
[[de:Internationale Organisation]]
[[eo:Internacia organiza&#309;o]]
[[fr:Organisation internationale]]
[[he:ארגון בינלאומי]]
[[it:Organizzazione internazionale]]
[[ja:&#22269;&#38555;&#27231;&#38306;]]
[[pl:Organizacja mi&#281;dzynarodowa]]
[[pt:Organização internacional]]
[[ru:&#1052;&#1077;&#1078;&#1075;&#1086;&#1089;&#1091;&#1076;&#1072;&#1088;&#1089;&#1090;&#1074;&#1077;&#1085;&#1085;&#1099;&#1077; &#1086;&#1073;&#1098;&#1077;&#1076;&#1080;&#1085;&#1077;&#1085;&#1080;&#1103;]]
[[uk:&#1052;&#1110;&#1078;&#1085;&#1072;&#1088;&#1086;&#1076;&#1085;&#1110; &#1086;&#1088;&#1075;&#1072;&#1085;&#1110;&#1079;&#1072;&#1094;&#1110;&#1111;]]
[[zh:&#22269;&#38469;&#32452;&#32455;]]
[[zh-min-nan:Kok-chè cho·-chit]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>International Telecomunications Union</title>
<id>14833</id>
<revision>
<id>15912365</id>
<timestamp>2003-11-08T12:20:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Minesweeper</username>
<id>7279</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>fix double redir</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[International Telecommunication Union]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>International Telecommunications Union</title>
<id>14834</id>
<revision>
<id>15912366</id>
<timestamp>2003-10-16T03:00:19Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>213.48.145.26</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[International Telecommunication Union]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>International Telecomunication Union</title>
<id>14835</id>
<revision>
<id>15912367</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[International Telecommunication Union]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>International Telecommunication Union</title>
<id>14836</id>
<revision>
<id>40415556</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-20T10:52:29Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Thomas Blomberg</username>
<id>407237</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{redirect|ITU}}
[[Image:Flag of ITU.svg|right|300px|Flag of the ITU]]
[[Image:ITU monument, Bern.jpg|thumb|300px|Monument in [[Bern]], [[Switzerland]]. The text reads: "Union Télégraphique Internationale fondée à Paris en 1865 sur l'initiative du gouvernement français. Érigé par décision de l'Union Télégraphique prise à la conférence internationale de Lisbonne en 1908." (In English: "International Telegraph Union founded at Paris in 1865 on the initiative of the French government. [This monument] erected by a decision of the Telegraph Union made at the international conference at Lisbon in 1908.")]]
The '''International Telecommunication Union''' (ITU) is an [[international organization]] established to standardize and regulate international radio and [[telecommunication]]s. It was founded as the ''International Telegraph Union'' in [[Paris]] in [[May 17]], [[1865]], and is today the world's oldest international organization. Its main tasks include [[standardization]], allocation of the [[radio]] spectrum, and organizing interconnection arrangements between different countries to allow international phone calls. (In which regard it performs for telecommunications a similar function to what the [[UPU]] performs for postal services.) It is one of the [[specialized agencies]] of the [[United Nations]], and ha |
ontributor>
<username>LawrenceTheGreat</username>
<id>1015954</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Background */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''This article describes the 1862 United States proclamation freeing slaves in some parts of the U.S. For the 1834 act banning slavery in the colonies of the British Empire, see [[Slavery Abolition Act]].
[[Image:Emancipation_proclamation_document.jpg|thumb|The Emancipation Proclamation]]
The '''Emancipation Proclamation''' was a declaration by [[United States]] [[President of the United States | President]] [[Abraham Lincoln]] announcing that all [[slavery|slaves]] in [[Confederate States of America|Confederate]] territory still in rebellion were freed. The Proclamation exempted slaveholding [[Border states (Civil War)|border states]] which had not seceded from the Union, and those states already under Union control. As Union armies advanced, every week thousands of slaves were liberated in fact. Legally their emancipation was effected by the [[Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution|Thirteenth Amendment]] ratified in late 1865.
== How the Emancipation Proclamation was issued ==
The Proclamation was issued in two parts. The first part, issued on September 22, 1862, was a preliminary announcement outlining the intent of the second part, which officially went into effect January 1, 1863, during the second year of the [[American Civil War]]. It was [[Abraham Lincoln]]'s declaration that all [[slavery|slaves]] in all states which had seceded from the Union and which had not returned to federal control by January 1, 1863 would be [[emancipation|emancipated]]. The ten affected states were individually named in the second part issued on January 1, 1863. Not included were Tennessee, (already under Union control), and the Union slave states of Maryland, Delaware, Missouri and Kentucky. Specific exemptions were stated for 48 counties designated to become the state of [[West Virginia]], along with several other named counties of [[Virginia]]; and also [[New Orleans, Louisiana|New Orleans]] and several named parishes in [[Louisiana]] already under Union control. That is, areas under Union control on January 1, 1863 were not affected.
The Proclamation, normally at the National Archives, will be on display at the Bill Clinton Presidential Library and Museum in Little Rock, Arkansas, in 2007, as part of the 50th anniversary of the integration of Central High School in that city.
== Background ==
[[Image:Emancipation_proclamation.jpg|thumb|right|250px|First Reading of the Emancipation Proclamation - Lincoln meets with his Cabinet.]]
A strict application of the [[Fugitive Slave Law of 1850]] could have required return of fugitive slaves to their masters, but on March 13, 1862, Lincoln forbade all Union army officers from returning fugitive slaves. On April 10, 1862, Congress declared that the federal government would compensate slave owners who freed their slaves. All slaves in the [[District of Columbia (geography)|District of Columbia]] were freed in this way on April 16, 1862. On June 19, 1862, Congress prohibited slavery in United States territories, thus nullifying the 1857 decision of the Supreme Court in the [[Dred Scott v. Sandford|Dred Scott Case]], which had ruled that Congress was powerless to regulate slavery in the territories.
In January 1862, [[Thaddeus Stevens]], the Republican leader in the House, called for total war against the rebellion, arguing that emancipation would ruin the rebel economy. In July 1862 Congress passed, and Lincoln signed, the "Second Confiscation Act." It liberated the slaves held by rebels. [http://www.history.umd.edu/Freedmen/conact2.htm Original Text]. It provided: <blockquote>
SEC. 2. And be it further enacted, That if any person shall hereafter incite, set on foot, assist, or engage in any rebellion or insurrection against the authority of the United States, or the laws thereof, or shall give aid or comfort thereto, or shall engage in, or give aid and comfort to, any such existing rebellion or insurrection, and be convicted thereof, such person shall be punished by imprisonment for a period not exceeding ten years, or by a fine not exceeding ten thousand dollars, and by the liberation of all his slaves, if any he have; or by both of said punishments, at the discretion of the court.
...<br>
SEC. 9. And be it further enacted, That all slaves of persons who shall hereafter be engaged in rebellion against the government of the United States, or who shall in any way give aid or comfort thereto, escaping from such persons and taking refuge within the lines of the army; and all slaves captured from such persons or deserted by them and coming under the control of the government of the United States; and all slaves of such person found or being within any place occupied by rebel forces and afterwards occupied by the forces of the United States, shall be deemed captives of war, and shall be forever free of their servitude, and not again held as slaves. </blockquote>
Lincoln himself had declared he had no constitutional authority to free the slaves. In addition, freeing slaves was still a risky political act, since there were still slave states loyal to the Union and the initial war aims were centered on preserving the Union rather than freeing slaves. As such, the proclamation was a military order issued by Lincoln in his capacity as Commander-in-Chief, rather than the equivalent of a statute enacted by Congress, or a constitutional amendment. There is also some argument that the Emancipation Proclamation itself was unconstitutional, as the Commander-in-Chief power extends to directing the activities of the armed forces, not making new laws (see ''Youngstown Sheet and Tube Co. v. Sawyer'', 343 U.S. 579 (1952) (holding that the president lacked power as commander-in-chief to seize steel mills for Korean War effort). The Emancipation Proclamation also allowed for the admittance of freed slaves into the United States military (though the military was segregated), an unusual opportunity taken advantage of by nearly 200,000 black men, many of them former slaves. This gave the North an additional manpower resource that the South would not emulate until the final days before its defeat.
Lincoln first discussed the proclamation with his cabinet in July 1862, but because of the political implications of this act (including the presence of slave states within the Union), he felt that he needed a Union victory in the Civil War before he could issue it. After the [[Battle of Antietam]], in which Union troops turned back a [[Confederate States of America|Confederate]] invasion of Maryland, he issued a preliminary proclamation on [[September 22]], [[1862]]. The final proclamation was then issued in January of the following year.
The Emancipation Proclamation itself had limited immediate effect upon slavery, except as territory in Confederate states came under Union control. Slaves in the [[border states (Civil War)|border states]] ([[Delaware]], [[Kentucky]], [[Maryland]], [[Missouri]] and [[West Virginia]]) which remained loyal to the Union were not affected. Secretary of State [[William Seward]] commented on this by remarking, "We show our sympathy with slavery by emancipating slaves where we cannot reach them and holding them in bondage where we can set them free." Had any seceding state rejoined the Union (or simply returned its congressmen to Washington) before it took effect, it would have been in the same position as the border states and could have kept slavery, at least temporarily (although Maryland, Missouri, Tennessee, and West Virginia all went on to abolish slavery by their own internal political processes even before the ratification in 1865 of the [[United States Constitution|Constitution's]] [[Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution|13th amendment]] which outlawed slavery uniformly throughout the entire nation).
Although implicitly granted authority by Congress, Lincoln used his powers as Commander-in-Chief of the Army and Navy, "as a necessary war measure" as the basis of the proclamation.
In short, If you remained loyal to the Union you could continue to own slaves.
== Immediate historical impact ==
Despite the limited immediate effect on the slaves, the proclamation represented a shift in the war objectives of the North&mdash;merely reuniting the nation would no longer become the sole outcome. It represented a major step toward the ultimate abolition of slavery in the United States and the formation of a "more perfect Union."
However, there were a limited number of slaves who were freed immediately by the proclamation. Runaway slaves who made it to Union lines had been held by the Union army as "contraband of war" in contraband camps; when the proclamation took effect they were told at midnight that they were free to leave. Also, the [[Sea Islands]] off the coast of [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]] had been occupied by the Union navy earlier in the war. The whites had fled to the mainland while the blacks stayed, largely running their own lives. Naval officers read the proclamation to them and told them they were free.
In the military, the reaction to this proclamation varied widely, with some units coming to near mutiny in protest, and desertions were reported because of it. On the other hand, other units were inspired with the adoption of a cause that seemed to them to ennoble their efforts, such that at least one unit took up the motto "For Union and Liberty".
Slaves were part of the "engine of war" for the Confederacy. They produced and prepared food; sewed uniforms; repaired railways; worked on farms and in factories, shipping yards, and mines; built fortifications; and served as hospital workers and common laborers. To encourage discontent among slaves in the |
always been slower than the processor itself. Step (2) often introduces a lengthy (in CPU terms) delay while the data arrives over the [[computer bus]]. A considerable amount of research has been put into designs that avoid these delays as much as possible. This often requires complex circuitry and was at one time found only on hand-wired [[supercomputer]] designs. However, as the manufacturing processes have improved, they have become a common feature of almost all designs.
===RISC===
The basic concept of [[RISC]] is to clearly identify what step 2 does. In older processor designs, now retroactively known as [[CISC]], the instructions were offered in a number of different modes that meant that step 2 took an unknown length of time to complete. In RISC, almost all instructions come in exactly one mode that reads data from one place -- the registers. These ''addressing modes'' are then handled by the [[compiler]], which writes code to load the data into the registers and store it back out. For this reason the term '''load-store''' is often used to describe this philosophy in design; there are many processors with limited instruction sets that are not really RISC.
The side effect of this change is twofold. One is that the resulting logic core is much smaller, largely by making step 1 and 2 much simpler. Secondly it means that step 2 always takes one cycle, also reducing the complexity of the overall chip design which would otherwise require complex "locks" that ensure the processor completes one instruction before starting the other. For any given level of performance, a RISC design will have a much smaller "gate count" (number of transistors), the main driver in overall cost -- in other words a fast RISC chip is much cheaper than a fast CISC chip.
The downside is that the program gets much longer as a side effect of the compiler having to write out explicit instructions for memory handling, the "code density" is lower. This increases the number of instructions that have to be read over the computer bus. When RISC was first being introduced there were arguments that the increased bus access would overwhelm the speed, and that such designs would actually be slower. In theory this might be true, but the real reason for RISC was to allow [[instruction pipeline]]s to be built much more easily.
===Instruction pipelining===
One of the first, and most powerful, techniques to improve performance is the [[instruction pipeline]]. Early microcoded designs would carry out all of the steps above for one instruction before moving onto the next. Large portions of the circuitry were left idle at any one step, for instance, the instruction decoding circuitry would be idle during execution and so on.
Pipelines improve performance by allowing a number of instructions to work their way through the processor at the same time. In the same basic example, the processor would start to decode (step 1) a new instruction while the last one was waiting for results. This would allow up to four instructions to be "in flight" at one time, making the processor look four times as fast. Although any one instruction takes just as long to complete, there's still four steps, the CPU as a whole "retires" instructions much faster and can be run at a much higher clock speed.
RISC make pipelines smaller, and much easier to construct by cleanly separating each stage of the instruction process and making them take the same amount of time -- one cycle. The processor as a whole operates in an [[assembly line]] fashion, with instructions coming in one side and results out the other. Due to the reduced complexity of the [[Classic RISC pipeline]], the pipelined core and an instruction cache could be placed on the same size die that would otherwise fit the core alone on a CISC design. This was the real reason that RISC was faster, early designs like the [[SPARC]] and [[MIPS architecture|MIPS]] often running over 10 times as fast as [[Intel]] and [[Motorola]] CISC solutions at the same clock speed and price.
Pipelines are by no means limited to RISC designs. By 1986 the top-of-the-line VAX (the 8800) was a heavily pipelined design, slightly predating the first commercial MIPS and SPARC designs. Most modern CPUs (even embedded CPUs) are now pipelined, and microcoded CPUs with no pipelining are seen only in the most area-constrained embedded processors. Large CISC machines, from the VAX 8800 to the modern Pentium 4 and Athlon, are implemented with both microcode and pipelines. Improvements in pipelining and caching are the two major microarchitectural advances that have enabled processor performance to keep pace with the circuit technology on which they are based.
===Cache===
It was not long before improvements in chip manufacturing allowed for even more circuitry to be placed on the die, and designers started looking for ways to use it. One of the most common was to add an ever-increasing amount of [[CPU cache|cache memory]] on-die. Cache is simply very fast memory, memory that can be accessed in a few cycles as opposed to "many" needed to talk to main memory. The CPU includes a cache controller which automates reading and writing from the cache, if the data is already in the cache it simply "appears", whereas if it is not the processor is "stalled" while the cache controller reads it in.
RISC designs started adding cache in the mid-to-late 1980s, often only 4k in total. This number grew over time, and modern CPU's typically include about 512kbytes, while CPU's intended for server use come with 1 or 2 Mbytes. Generally speaking, more cache means more speed.
===Superscalar designs===
Even with all of the added complexity and gates needed to support the concepts outlined above, chip manufacturing had soon made even them have room left over. This led to the rise of [[superscalar]] processors in the early 1990s, processors that could run more than one instruction at once.
In the outline above the processor runs parts of a single instruction at a time. If one were simply to place two entire cores on a die, then the processor would be able to run two instructions at once. However this is not actually required, as in the average program certain instructions are much more common than others. For instance, the load-store instructions on a RISC design are more common than [[floating point]], so building two complete cores isn't as efficient a use of space as building two load-store units and only one floating point.
In modern designs it is common to find two load units, one store (many instructions have no results to store), two or more integer math units, two or more floating point units, and often a [[SIMD]] unit of some sort. The decoder grows in complexity by reading in a huge list of instructions from memory and handing them off to the different units that are idle at that point. The results are then collected and re-ordered at the end, as in out-of-order.
===Out-of-order execution===
The addition of caches reduces the frequency of stalls due to waiting for data to be fetched from the memory hiearchy, but does
get rid of these stalls entirely. In early designs a ''cache miss'' would force the cache controller to stall the processor and wait. Of course there may be some other instruction in the program whose data ''is'' available in the cache at that point. [[Out-of-order execution]] allows that ready instruction to be processed while the processor waits on the cache, then re-orders the results to make it appear that everything happened in the normal order.
===Speculative execution===
One problem with an instruction pipeline is that there are a class of instructions that must make their way entirely through the pipeline before execution can continue. In particular, conditional branches need to know the result of some prior instruction before "which side" of the branch to run is known. For instance, an instruction that says "if x is larger than 5 then do this, otherwise do that" will have to wait for the results of x to be known before it knows if the instructions for this or that can be fetched.
For a small four-deep pipeline this means a delay of up to three cycles -- the decode can still happen. But as clock speeds increase the depth of the pipeline increases with it, and modern processors may have 20 stages or more. In this case the CPU is being stalled for the vast majority of its cycles every time one of these instructions is encountered.
The solution, or one of them, is ''[[speculative execution]]'', also known as ''branch prediction''. In reality one side or the other of the branch will be called much more often than the other, so it is often correct to simply go ahead and say "x will likely be smaller than five, start processing that". If the prediction turns out to be correct, a huge amount of time will be saved. Modern designs have rather complex prediction systems, which watch the results of past branches to predict the future with greater accuracy.
===Multiprocessing and Multithreading===
Computer architects have become stymied by the growing mismatch in CPU operating frequencies and [[Dynamic random access memory|DRAM]] access times. None of the techniques that exploited instruction-level parallism within one program could make up for the long stalls that occurred when data had to be fetched from main memory. For this reason, newer generations of computers have started to exploit higher levels of parallelism that exist outside of a single program or [[thread (computer science)|program thread]].
This trend is sometimes known as ''throughput computing''. This idea originated in the mainframe market where [[OLTP|online transaction processing]] emphasized not just the execution speed of one transaction, but the capacity to deal with massive
numbers of transactions. With transaction-based applications such as network routing a |
ed [[Santee Dakota]] who had massacred innocent farmers, Lincoln affirmed 39 of these for execution (one was later reprieved).
==1864 election and second inauguration==
After Union victories at [[Battle of Gettysburg|Gettysburg]], [[Battle of Vicksburg|Vicksburg]] and [[Battle of Chattanooga|Chattanooga]] in 1863, many in the North believed that victory was soon to come after Lincoln appointed [[Ulysses S. Grant|U.S. Grant]] General-in-Chief on [[March 12]], [[1864]]. Although no president since [[Andrew Jackson]] had been elected to a second term (and none since [[Martin Van Buren|Van Buren]] had been re-nominated), Lincoln's re-election was considered a certainty.
However, when the spring campaigns, east and west, all turned into bloody stalemates, Northern morale dipped and Lincoln seemed less likely to be re-nominated. [[U.S. Treasury Secretary|Treasury Secretary]] [[Salmon P. Chase]] strongly desired the Republican nomination and was working hard to win it, while [[John Fremont]] was nominated by a breakoff group of radical Republicans, potentially taking away crucial votes in the November elections.
Fearing he might lose the election, Lincoln wrote out and signed the following pledge, but did not show it to his cabinet, asking them each to sign the sealed envelope. Lincoln wrote:
:This morning, as for some days past, it seems exceedingly probable that this Administration will not be re-elected. Then it will be my duty to so co-operate with the President elect, as to save the Union between the election and the inauguration; as he will have secured his election on such ground that he can not possibly save it afterwards.
The Democrats, hoping to make setbacks in the war a top campaign issue, waited until late summer to nominate a candidate. Their platform was heavily influenced by the [[Copperheads (politics)|Peace wing]] of the party, calling the war a "failure," but their candidate, former General [[George McClellan]], was a [[War Democrats|War Democrat]], determined to prosecute the war until the Union was restored, although willing to compromise on all other issues, including slavery.
McClellan's candidacy was soon undercut as on [[September 1]], just two days after the [[1864 Democratic National Convention|convention]], [[Battle of Atlanta|Atlanta]] was abandoned by the Confederate army. Coming on the heels of [[David Farragut|David Farragut's]] capture of [[Battle of Mobile Bay|Mobile Bay]] and followed by [[Phil Sheridan|Phil Sheridan's]] crushing victory over [[Jubal Anderson Early|Jubal Early's]] army at [[Battle of Cedar Creek|Cedar Creek]], it was now apparent that the tide had turned in favor of the Union and that Lincoln may be reelected despite the costs of the war.
Still, Lincoln believed that he would win the [[U.S. Electoral College|electoral vote]] by only a slim margin, failing to give him the [[Mandate (politics)|mandate]] he'd need if he was to push his lenient [[reconstruction]] plan. To his surprise, Lincoln ended up winning all but two states, capturing 212 of 233 electoral votes.
After Lincoln's election, on [[March 4]], [[1865]], he delivered his [[Lincoln's second inaugural address|second inaugural address]], which was his favorite of all his speeches. At this time, a victory over the rebels was within sight, [[slavery]] had effectively ended, and Lincoln was looking to the future.
:Fondly do we hope--fervently do we pray--that this mighty scourge of war may speedily pass away. Yet, if God wills that it continue, until all the wealth piled by the bond-man's two hundred and fifty years of unrequited toil shall be sunk, and until every drop of blood drawn with the lash, shall be paid by another drawn with the sword, as was said three thousand years ago, so still it must be said "the judgments of the Lord, are true and righteous altogether"
:With malice toward none; with charity for all; with firmness in the right, as God gives us to see the right, let us strive on to finish the work we are in; to bind up the nation's wounds; to care for him who shall have borne the battle, and for his widow, and his orphan--to do all which may achieve and cherish a just and lasting peace, among ourselves, and with all nations.
==Civil War and reconstruction==
===Conducting the war effort===
The war was a source of constant frustration for the president, and it occupied nearly all of his time. Lincoln had a contentious relationship with General [[George B. McClellan]], who became general-in-chief of all the Union armies in the wake of the embarrassing Union defeat at the [[First Battle of Bull Run]] and after the retirement of [[Winfield Scott]] in late 1861. Lincoln wished to take an active part in planning the war strategy despite his inexperience in military affairs. Lincoln's strategic priorities were two-fold: first, to ensure that Washington, D.C., was well-defended; and second, to conduct an aggressive war effort in hopes of ending the war quickly and appeasing the Northern public and press, who pushed for an offensive war. McClellan, a youthful [[United States Military Academy|West Point]] graduate and railroad executive called back to military service, took a more cautious approach. McClellan took several months to plan and execute his [[Peninsula Campaign]], which involved capturing [[Richmond, Virginia|Richmond]] by moving the [[Army of the Potomac]] by boat to the [[Virginia Peninsula|peninsula]] between the [[James River (Virginia)|James]] and [[York River (Virginia)|York Rivers]]. McClellan's delay irritated Lincoln, as did McClellan's insistence that no troops were needed to defend Washington, D.C. Lincoln insisted on holding some of McClellan's troops to defend the capital, a decision McClellan blamed for the ultimate failure of his Peninsula Campaign.
McClellan, a lifelong [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democrat]] who was temperamentally conservative, was relieved as general-in-chief after releasing his ''[[Harrison's Landing Letter]]'', where he offered unsolicited political advice to Lincoln urging caution in the war effort. McClellan's letter incensed Radical Republicans, who successfully pressured Lincoln to appoint fellow Republican [[John Pope (military officer)|John Pope]] as head of the new [[Army of Virginia]]. Pope complied with Lincoln's strategic desire for the Union to move towards Richmond from the north, thus guarding Washington, D.C. However, Pope was soundly defeated at the [[Second Battle of Bull Run]] during the summer of 1862, forcing the Army of the Potomac back into the defenses of Washington for a second time. Pope was sent to Minnesota to fight the [[Sioux]].
Panicked by Confederate General [[Robert E. Lee]]'s invasion of [[Maryland]], Lincoln restored McClellan to command of all forces around Washington in time for the [[Battle of Antietam]] in September 1862. It was the Union victory in that battle that allowed Lincoln to release his Emancipation Proclamation. Lincoln relieved McClellan of command shortly after the 1862 midterm elections and appointed Republican [[Ambrose Burnside]] to head the Army of the Potomac, who promised to follow through on Lincoln's strategic vision for an aggressive offensive against Lee and Richmond. After Burnside was stunningly defeated at [[Battle of Fredericksburg|Fredericksburg]], [[Joseph Hooker]] was given command, despite his idle talk about becoming a military strong man. Hooker was routed by Lee at [[Battle of Chancellorsville|Chancellorsville]] in May 1863 and also relieved of command.
After the Union victory at [[Battle of Gettysburg|Gettysburg]], [[George G. Meade | Meade's]] failure to pursue Lee, and months of inactivity for the Army of the Potomac, Lincoln decided to bring in a western general: General [[Ulysses S. Grant]]. He had a solid string of victories in the Western Theater, including [[Battle of Vicksburg|Vicksburg]] and [[Battle of Chattanooga III|Chattanooga]]. Earlier, reacting to criticism of Grant, Lincoln was quoted as saying, "I cannot spare this man. He fights." Grant waged his bloody [[Overland Campaign]] in 1864, using a strategy of a [[war of attrition]], characterized by high Union losses at battles such as the [[Battle of the Wilderness|Wilderness]] and [[Battle of Cold Harbor|Cold Harbor]], but by proportionately higher losses in the Confederate army. Grant's aggressive campaign would eventually bottle up Lee in the [[Siege of Petersburg]] and result in the Union taking Richmond and bringing the war to a close in the spring of 1865.
Lincoln authorized Grant to use a [[scorched earth]] approach to destroy the South's morale and economic ability to continue the war. This allowed Generals [[William Tecumseh Sherman]] and [[Philip Sheridan]] to destroy farms and towns in the [[Shenandoah Valley]], [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]], and [[South Carolina]]. The damage in [[Sherman's March to the Sea]] through Georgia totaled in excess of $100 million.
Lincoln had a star-crossed record as a military leader, possessing a keen understanding of strategic points (such as the [[Mississippi River]] and the fortress city of Vicksburg) and the importance of defeating the enemy's army, rather than simply capturing cities. However, he had little success in his efforts to motivate his generals to adopt his strategies. Eventually, he found in Grant a man who shared his vision of the war and was able to bring that vision to reality with his relentless pursuit of coordinated offensives in multiple theaters of war.
Lincoln, perhaps reflecting his lack of military experience, developed a keen curiosity with military campaigning during the war. He spent hours at the [[United States War Department|War Department]] [[Telegraphy|telegraph]] office, reading dispatches from his generals through many a night. He frequently visited battle sites and seemed fascinated by watching scenes of war. During [[Jubal A. Early]]'s [[Battle of Fort Stevens|raid into Washington, |
cial change|social]] or [[politics|political]] change. This action is in support of, or opposition to, one side of an often [[controversy|controversial]] argument.
The word "activism" is often used [[synonymous]]ly with [[protest]] or [[dissent]], but activism can stem from any number of political orientations and take a wide range of forms, from writing letters to newspapers or politicians, simply [[Economic activism|shopping ethically]], rallies and [[demonstration|street marches]], [[direct action]], or even [[guerrilla warfare|guerrilla tactics]]. In the more confrontational cases, an activist may be called a [[freedom fighter]] by some, and a [[terrorism|terrorist]] by others, depending on which side of the political fence is making the observation.
Since the 2004 elections and controversy over [[gay marriage]] in the United States, "activist" has often been used as a [[pejorative]] for those who seek to redress [[social injustice|social ills]] through [[lawsuit|legal]] rather than [[legislation|legislative]] action. Thus many [[American conservatism|conservative]] politicians have sought to curb the power of those deemed "activist [[judge]]s" whom they claim are acting outside traditional boundaries of [[judicial review]] [http://www.csmonitor.com/2005/0413/p15s02-usju.html]. Some [[American liberalism|liberal]]s contend that [[judicial activism]] is in a long-standing US legal tradition, while others have responded that judicial activism is more prevalent among judges deemed conservative [http://www.nytimes.com/2005/07/06/opinion/06gewirtz.html?ex=1278302400&en=0e5fac7774080327&ei=5090&partner=rssuserland&emc=rss].
== Types of activism ==
* [[Animal liberation movement]]
* [[Boycott]]
* [[Civil and social disobedience]]
* [[Civil disobedience]]
* [[Culture jamming]]
* [[Demonstration]]
* [[Direct action]]
* [[Economic activism]]
** [[Divestment]] (economic boycott)
* [[Electronic advocacy]]
* [[Guerrilla communication]]
* [[Hacktivism]]
* [[Judicial activism]]
* [[Lobbying]]
* [[Media activism]]
* [[Nonviolence]]
* [[Protest]]
**[[Protest#Forms of protest|Forms of protest]]
* [[Strike action]]
*[[Theater for Social Change]]
* [[Voluntary simplicity]]
== Activist issues ==
* [[Animal rights activism]]
* [[Consumerism|Anti-consumerism]]
* [[Anti-corporate activism]]
* [[Anti-cult movement|Anti-cult activism]]
* [[Christian right|Christian right activism]]
* [[Civil rights]]
* [[Digital divide|Digital divide activism]]
* [[Disability rights]]
* [[Environmentalism]]
* [[Fair trade]]
* [[Gay rights]]
* [[Human rights]]
* [[Libertarian socialism]]
* [[Nationalist activism]]
* [[Pro-life|Pro-life activism]]
* [[Public nudity]]
* [[Racism]] – see [[Anti-racism]], [[White supremacism]]
* [[Rastafari movement]]
* [[Social activist|Social activism]]
* [[Sovereignty]] – see Category: [[:Category:Sovereignty movements|Sovereignty movements]]
* [[Student activism]]
* [[Tactical Frivolity]]
* [[Feminism|Women's rights]]
* [[Youth activism]]
==See also==
* [[Revolution]]
* [[Rebellion]]
* [[Reform movement]]
* [[Social movement]]
* [[Activism industry]]
* [[:Category:Activists]]
* [http://activism.wikicities.com/wiki/Main_Page Wikicities:Activism]
[[Category:Activism]]
[[Category:Politics]]
[[Category:Dissent]]
[[Category:Social justice]]
[[Category:Community organizing]]
[[cs:Aktivismus]]
[[da:Aktivisme]]
[[de:Aktivist]]
[[fr:Activisme politique]]
[[he:אקטיביזם]]
[[nl:Politiek activisme]]
[[fi:Aktivismi]]
[[sv:Aktivism]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Atomic clock</title>
<id>2243</id>
<revision>
<id>41780704</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T18:26:35Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Emre D.</username>
<id>665265</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Revert to revision 40671856 using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Atomicclock.jpg|thumb|250px|Atomic clock]]
[[Image:ChipScaleClock2 HR.jpg|thumb|250px|Chip-Scale Atomic Clock Unveiled by NIST]]
An '''atomic clock''' is a type of [[clock]] that uses an [[atom]]ic resonance frequency standard as its counter. Early atomic clocks were [[maser]]s with attached equipment. Today's best atomic frequency standards (or clocks) are based on more advanced physics involving cold atoms and atomic fountains.
National standards agencies maintain an accuracy of 10<sup>-9</sup> seconds per day, and a precision equal to the frequency of the radio transmitter pumping the maser. The clocks maintain a continuous and stable time scale, [[International Atomic Time]] (TAI). For civil time, another time scale is disseminated, [[Coordinated Universal Time]] (UTC). UTC is derived from TAI, but synchronized with the passing of day and night based on astronomical observations.
The first atomic clock was built in [[1949]] at the U.S. [[National Bureau of Standards]]. The first accurate atomic clock, based on the transition of the [[caesium]]-133 atom, was built by [[Louis Essen]] in [[1955]] at the [[National Physical Laboratory, UK|National Physical Laboratory]] in the [[United Kingdom|UK]]. This led to the internationally agreed definition of the [[second]] being based on atomic time.
In [[August 2004]], [[National Institute of Standards and Technology|NIST]] scientists demonstrated a chip-scaled atomic clock. According to the researchers, the clock was believed to be one hundredth the size of any other. It was also claimed that it requires just 75 [[milliwatt|mW]], making it suitable for [[battery (electricity)|battery]]-driven applications.
Modern [[radio clock]]s are referenced to atomic clocks, and provide a way of getting high-quality atomic-derived time over a wide area using inexpensive equipment; however, radio clocks are not appropriate for high-precision, scientific work.
==How they work ==
Frequency reference [[maser]]s use glowing chambers of [[ion (physics)|ion]]ized gas, most often [[caesium]], because caesium is the [[Chemical element|element]] used in the official international definition of the [[second]].
Since 1967, the International System of Units ([[SI]]) has defined the second as 9,192,631,770 cycles of the radiation which corresponds to the transition between two energy levels of the ground state of the Caesium-133 atom.
This definition makes the caesium oscillator (often called an atomic clock) the primary standard for time and frequency measurements (see [[caesium standard]]). Other physical quantities, like the [[volt]] and [[metre]], rely on the definition of the second as part of their own definitions.
The core of the atomic clock is a [[microwave]] cavity containing the ionized gas, a tunable microwave [[radio]] oscillator, and a [[PID loop|feedback loop]] which is used to adjust the oscillator to the exact frequency of the absorption characteristic defined by the behavior of the individual atoms.
The microwave transmitter fills the chamber with a standing wave of [[radio wave]]s. When the radio frequency matches the [[hyperfine transition]] frequency of caesium, the caesium atoms absorb the radio waves and emit [[light]]. The radio waves make the [[electron]]s move farther from their [[atomic nucleus|nuclei]]. When the electrons are attracted back closer by the opposite [[electric charge|charge]] of the nucleus, the electrons wiggle before they settle down in their new location. This moving charge causes the light, which is a wave of alternating [[electricity]] and [[magnetism]].
A [[photocell]] looks at the light. When the light gets dimmer because the frequency of the excitation has drifted from the true resonance frequency, [[electronics]] between the photocell and radio transmitter adjusts the frequency of the radio transmitter.
This adjustment process is where most of the work and complexity of the clock lies. The adjustment tries to eliminate unwanted side-effects, such as frequencies from other electron transitions, distortions in quantum fields and temperature effects in the mechanisms. For example, the radio wave's frequency could be deliberately cycled sinusoidally up and down to generate a modulated signal at the photocell. The photocell's signal can then be demodulated to apply feedback to control long-term drift in the radio frequency. In this way, the ultra-precise quantum-mechanical properties of the atomic transition frequency of the caesium can be used to tune the microwave oscillator to the same frequency (except for a small amount of experimental error). In practice, the feedback and monitoring mechanism is much more complex than described above.
When a clock is first turned on, it takes a while for it to settle down before it can be trusted.
[[Image:Clock accurcy.jpg|thumb|left|200px|Historical accuracy of atomic clocks from [[NIST]].]]
A counter counts the waves made by the radio transmitter.
A computer reads the counter, and does math to convert the number to something that looks like a digital clock, or a radio wave that is transmitted.
Of course, the real clock is the original mechanism of cavity, oscillator and feedback loop that maintains the frequency standard on which the clock is based.
A number of other atomic clock schemes are in use for other purposes. [[Rubidium]] clocks are prized for their low cost, small size (commercial standards are as small as 400 cm<sup>3</sup>), and short term stability. They are used in many commercial, portable and aerospace applications. [[Hydrogen]] [[maser]]s (often manufactured in [[Russia]]) have superior short term stability to other standards, but lower long term accuracy.
Often, one standard is used to fix another. For example, some commercial applications use a Rubidium standard slaved to a [[GPS]] receiver. This achieves excellent short term accuracy, with long term accuracy equal to (and traceable to) the U.S. national time standards.
T |
ote over Lancaster, and ever since then has had the hallucination that it is being followed, a curious municipal state of mind which affects, in some way or other, all those who live there. Columbus is a town in which almost anything is likely to happen and in which almost everything has." --Columbus born/raised humorist, writer and cartoonist [[James Thurber]].{{ref|thurber}}
==References==
*Lentz, Ed (2003). ''Columbus: The Story of a City''. Charleston: Arcadia Publishing. ISBN 0-7385-2429-8.
{{note|thurber}} Thurber, James (1999). "My Life and Hard Times". New York: Harper Collins. ISBN 0-06-093308-9. (Page 40).
== External links ==
{{sisterlinks|Columbus, Ohio}}
*[http://ci.columbus.oh.us/ Official City Website]
*[http://www.columbus.org/ Columbus Chamber of Commerce]
*[http://www.cml.lib.oh.us/ Columbus Metropolitan Library]
*[http://www.columbuslandmarks.org/ Columbus Landmarks Foundation]
*[http://www.thejeffersoncenter.org The Jefferson Center for Learning & the Arts]
{{Mapit-US-cityscale|39.989783|-82.99146}}
{{Ohio}}
{{United_States_state_capitals}}
<br>
{{USLargestCities}}
[[Category:All-America City]]
[[Category:Cities in Ohio]]
[[Category:Columbus, Ohio|Columbus, Ohio]]
[[Category:County seats in Ohio]]
[[Category:Delaware County, Ohio]]
[[Category:Fairfield County, Ohio]]
[[Category:Franklin County, Ohio]]
[[Category:State capitals in the United States]]
[[Category:Places on Placeopedia]]
[[bg:Колумбус]]
[[da:Columbus (Ohio)]]
[[de:Columbus (Ohio)]]
[[es:Columbus (Ohio)]]
[[eo:Columbus, Ohio]]
[[fr:Columbus (Ohio)]]
[[it:Columbus (Ohio)]]
[[he:קולומבוס (אוהיו)]]
[[nl:Columbus (Ohio)]]
[[ja:コロンバス]]
[[nn:Columbus i Ohio]]
[[pl:Columbus (Ohio)]]
[[pt:Columbus]]
[[simple:Columbus, Ohio]]
[[fi:Columbus (Ohio)]]
[[sv:Columbus, Ohio]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Cleveland, Ohio</title>
<id>5951</id>
<revision>
<id>41789616</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T19:41:19Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Avogadro94</username>
<id>433771</id>
</contributor>
<comment>rv vandalism by [[User:Buckeyefball6&action=edit]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{featured article}}
{{Infobox City |official_name = Cleveland, Ohio
|nickname = [[The Forest City]]
|motto = Progress and Prosperity
|website = [http://www.city.cleveland.oh.us www.city.cleveland.oh.us]
|image_skyline = Cleveland From The Lake.jpg
|image_flag = ClevelandCityFlag.png
|image_seal = ClevelandCitySeal.png
|image_map = Cleveland,_Ohio_Map.png
|map_caption = Location in [[Cuyahoga County, Ohio|Cuyahoga County]], [[Ohio]]
|subdivision_type = [[Countries of the world|Country]]<br> [[Political divisions of the United States|State]]<br> [[List of counties in Ohio|County]]
|subdivision_name = [[United States]]<br>[[Ohio]]<br>[[Cuyahoga County, Ohio|Cuyahoga]]
|leader_title = [[Mayor]]
|leader_name = [[Frank G. Jackson]] ([[Democratic Party (United States)|D]])
|area_magnitude = 1 E8
|area_total = 213.5
|area_land = 201.0
|area_water = 12.5
|population_as_of = 2000
|population_total = 478,403
|population_metro = 2,250,871
|population_density = 2,380.9
|timezone = [[Eastern Standard Time Zone|EST]]
|utc_offset = -5
|timezone_DST = [[Eastern Daylight Time|EDT]]
|utc_offset_DST = -4
|latd = 41
|latm = 28
|lats = 56
|latNS = N
|longd = 81
|longm = 40
|longs = 11
|longEW = W
|elevation = 177
|footnotes = <table border="0" cellpadding="3" cellspacing="0" style="margin: 0 0 0 0; background: #f9f9f9;">
<tr><td>'''Founded'''</td><td>[[1796]]</td></tr>
<tr><td>'''Incorporated'''</td><td>[[1836]]</td></tr>
</table>
}}
{{redirect|Cleveland}} ''For the Cleveland area, see [[Greater Cleveland]].''
The city of '''Cleveland''' is the [[county seat]] of [[Cuyahoga County, Ohio|Cuyahoga County]] in the [[United States|U.S.]] state of [[Ohio]]. The municipality is located on the southern shore of [[Lake Erie]], in the [[Connecticut Western Reserve|Western Reserve]] in northeastern Ohio on the [[Cuyahoga River]], approximately 60&nbsp;miles (100&nbsp;km) west of the [[Pennsylvania]] border. It was founded in 1796 near the mouth of the river, and became a manufacturing center owing to its location at the head of numerous [[canal]]s and [[railroad]] lines. After the decline of heavy manufacturing, Cleveland's businesses are now more often in the financial services, insurance, and healthcare sectors.
As of the [[United States Census, 2000|2000 Census]], the city proper had a total population of 478,403, making it the 33rd largest city in the nation (recent estimates from the Census Bureau show it to currently be the 36th largest). It is the center of [[Greater Cleveland]], the largest [[metropolitan area]] in Ohio, which spans several counties and is defined in several different ways by the [[United States Census Bureau]]. The Cleveland-[[Elyria, Ohio|Elyria]]-[[Mentor, Ohio|Mentor]] [[United States metropolitan area|Metropolitan Statistical Area]] has 2,250,871 people and is the 23rd largest in the country. Cleveland is also part of the larger Cleveland-[[Akron, Ohio|Akron]]-Elyria [[Combined Statistical Area]], which is the 14th largest in the country with a population of 2,945,831 according to the 2000 Census.
City residents and tourists benefit from investments made by wealthy residents in the city's heyday in arts and cultural institutions, and philanthropy also helped to establish a robust [[Cleveland Public Library|public library system]] in the city. More recent investments have provided the city with tourist attractions in the downtown area, such as [[Jacobs Field]], the [[Rock and Roll Hall of Fame]], and [[Playhouse Square Center]]. In studies conducted by ''[[The Economist]]'' in 2005, Cleveland and [[Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania|Pittsburgh]] were ranked as the most [[quality of life|livable]] cities in the United States,{{ref|livable}} and the city was ranked as the best city for business meetings in the continental U.S.{{ref|meetings}} Nevertheless, the city faces continuing challenges, in particular from concentrated poverty in some neighborhoods and difficulties in the funding and delivering of high-quality public education.
Residents of Cleveland are usually referred to as ''[[List of people from Cleveland, Ohio|Clevelander]]s''. Nicknames used for the city include ''[[The Forest City]]'', ''Metropolis of the Western Reserve'', ''The New American City'', ''America's North Coast'', and ''[[C-Town (nickname)|C-Town]]''. Its [[Sister Cities of Cleveland, Ohio|nineteen sister cities]] include [[Volgograd]], [[Russia]]; [[Ljubljana]], [[Slovenia]]; [[Miskolc]], [[Hungary]]; and [[Alexandria]], [[Egypt]].
==History==
{{main|History of Cleveland, Ohio}}
Cleveland obtained its name on [[July 22]], [[1796]], when surveyors of the [[Connecticut Land Company]] named an area in Ohio "Cleaveland" after General [[Moses Cleaveland]], the superintendent of the surveying party, a month after white settlers had signed a treaty with local [[Native Americans in the United States|Native American]]s to acquire the land. Cleaveland laid out the plan for the modern [[Public Square]] area before returning home, never again to visit the area. The village of Cleaveland was incorporated on [[23 December]] [[1814]].{{ref|clevehistory}} The spelling of the city's name was later changed to "Cleveland" when, in 1831, an "a" was dropped so the name could fit a newspaper's masthead.
[[Image:Cleveland map 1904.jpg|thumb|left|300px|Map of Cleveland in 1904.]]
Though not initially apparent—the city was surrounded by swampland and the harsh winters did not encourage settlement—the location proved providential. The city began to grow rapidly after the completion of the [[Ohio and Erie Canal]] in 1832, turning the city into a key link between the [[Ohio River]] and the [[Great Lakes]], and particularly once the city [[Rail transport|railroad]] links were added. The rapid growth resulted in Cleveland's incorporation as a city in 1836.{{ref|clevehistory}} The following year, the city, then located on the eastern banks of the [[Cuyahoga River]], nearly erupted into open warfare with neighboring [[Ohio City (Cuyahoga County), Ohio|Ohio City]] (since annexed), over a bridge connecting the two. As a halfway point for [[iron ore]] coming from [[Minnesota]] across the [[Great Lakes]] and for [[coal]] and other raw materials coming by rail from the south, the site flourished. Cleveland became one of the major [[manufacturing]] and population centers of the [[United States]], and was home to numerous major [[steel]] firms. [[Standard Oil]] founder [[John D. Rockefeller]] made his fortune there, and by 1920, it was the fifth largest city in the country. The city was also one of the centers of the national [[Progressive Era|progressive movement]], headed locally by Mayor [[Tom L. Johnson]]. Many Clevelanders of this era are buried in the historic [[Lake View Cemetery]], including the 20th [[President of the United States|president]], [[James A. Garfield]].
[[Image:Cleveland ohio 1937.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Aerial view of [[downtown Cleveland]] in December 1937. The [[Cuyahoga River]] winds through [[the Flats]].]]
In commemoration of the [[centennial]] of Cleveland's incorporation as a city, the [[Great Lakes Exposition]] debuted in June 1936 along the lakeshore north of downtown. Conceived as a way to energize a city hit hard by the [[Great Depression]], the exposition drew 4 million visitors in its first season, and 7 million by the end of its second and final season in September 1937. The exposition was housed on grounds that are now used by the [[Great Lakes Science Center]], the [[Rock and Roll Hall of Fame]], and [[Burke Lakefront Airport]], among others.
Immediately after [[World War II]] |
a]] - French Congo
*[[Antoine de la Mothe Cadillac]] - Louisiana
*[[Samuel de Champlain]] - [[New France]]
*[[Joseph François Dupleix]] - French territories in India
*[[Louis Faidherbe]] - [[Senegal]]
*[[Joseph Gallieni]] - [[Madagascar]]
*[[Francis Garnier]] - [[French Indo-China]] (Vietnam, Cambodia, and Laos)
*[[Émile Gentil]] - [[French Congo]]
*[[Hubert Lyautey|Louis Hubert Gonzalve Lyautey]] - [[Algeria]]
*[[Jean-Baptiste Le Moyne de Bienville]] - [[Louisiana]]
*[[Jean Talon]] - [[Canada]]
==Composers==
*[[Georges Auric]]
*[[Hector Berlioz]]
*[[Georges Bizet]] -- composer of ''[[Carmen]]''
*[[Pierre Boulez]] -- [[avant-garde]] composer
*[[Marc Antoine Charpentier]]
*[[François Couperin]]
*[[Michel Richard Delalande]]
*[[Georges Delerue]]
*[[Claude Debussy]] -- [[Impressionist]] composer
*[[Paul Dukas]] -- composer of ''[[The Sorcerer's Apprentice]]''
*[[Henri Duparc]]
*[[Gabriel Fauré]]
*[[César Franck]] -- also considered Belgian
*[[Jean-Jacques Goldman]]*
*[[Reynaldo Hahn]]
*[[Pierre Henry]] -- writer of [[musique concrète]] and [[electronic music]]
*[[Jean-Michel Jarre]]
*[[Maurice Jarre]] -- film music composer
*[[Michel Legrand]]
*[[Jean François Lesueur]]
*[[Jean-Baptiste Lully|Jean Baptiste Lully]], court composer to [[Louis XIV of France|Louis XIV]]
*[[Darius Milhaud]]
*[[Jacques Offenbach]] -- noted for his [[operetta]]s
*[[Francis Poulenc]]
*[[Jean Philippe Rameau]]
*[[Maurice Ravel]]
*[[Claude Joseph Rouget de Lisle]] -- composer of "La Marseillaise", French National Anthem
*[[Edmond Roussel]]
*[[Camille Saint-Saëns]]
*[[Erik Satie]] composer of ''Musiques d'ameublement''
*[[Pierre Schaeffer]] -- inventor of [[musique concrète]]
*[[Les Six]] -- group of composers
*[[Germaine Tailleferre]]
*[[Charles-Marie Widor]]
==Criminals==
For [[Collaboration]] with [[Nazi Germany]] see also the ''politicians'' section.
*[[Jacques de Bernonville]] (1897-1972), war criminal sentenced to death
*[[Bonnot gang|Jules Bonnot]]
*[[Alain Juppé]]
*[[Émile Louis]]
*[[Henri Désiré Landru]] -- serial killer
*[[Jacques Mesrine]]
*[[Zacarias Moussaoui]]
*[[Maurice Papon]] -- politician and war criminal
*[[Marcel Petiot]] -- serial killer
*[[Jean-Claude Romand]] -- murderer
*[[Paul Touvier]] -- The only Frenchman convicted of crime against humanity
==Dancers==
*[[Jane Avril]]
*[[La Goulue]]
*[[Marcelle Lender]]
*[[Cléo de Mérode]]
*[[Hellé Nice]]
*[[Roland Petit]]
See also [[Moulin Rouge]] and [[Folies Bergeres]]
==Economists==
*[[Maurice Allais]]
*[[Raymond Barre]] -- Economist and Politician
*[[Frederic Bastiat]]
*[[Marcel Boiteux]]
*[[Fernand Braudel]]
*[[Jules Dupuit]]
*[[Gerard Debreu]] -- Nobel memorial prize [[1983]]
*[[Dominique Guellec]]
*[[Jean-Jacques Laffont]]
*[[Alain Lipietz]] -- green economist
*[[François Quesnay]]
*[[Pascal Salin]]
*[[Jean-Baptiste Say]]
*[[Anne Robert Jacques Turgot|Turgot]]
==Fashion==
*[[Liliane Bettencourt]], majority owner of ''L'Oreal'', wealthiest person in France
*[[Pierre Cardin]] -- Fashion Designer
*[[Gabrielle Chanel|Coco Chanel]] -- fashion designer
*[[Edouard de Givenchy]]
*[[Christian Dior]] -- fashion designer
*[[Jean-Paul Gaultier]]
*[[Madame Grey]]
*[[Daniel Hechter]] -- inventor of ready-to-wear
*[[Paul Poiret]]
*[[Yves Saint-Laurent]] -- fashion designer
==Fictional characters==
*[[Asterix]], [[Obelix]] and [[Dogmatix]] (French: Idéfix) ([[René Goscinny]] and [[Albert Uderzo]]) -- [[Gaul]] warriors
*[[Athos (fictional character)|Athos]], [[Porthos]], [[Aramis]] and [[D'Artagnan]] ([[Alexandre Dumas]]) -- [[The Three Musketeers|Musketeers]] of the [[King of France]]
*[[Cyrano de Bergerac (play)|Cyrano de Bergerac]] ([[Edmond Rostand]] -- not fictional but there's no better category)
*[[Jean-Luc Picard]] ([[Patrick Stewart]]) -- Captain of three Federation starships within one television series and four motion pictures
*[[Phantom of the Opera|Erik,The Phantom of the Opera]] ([[Gaston Leroux]])) -- The "Opera Ghost" who haunted the [[Palais Garnier]].
*Vicomte [[Raoul]] de Chagny ([[Gaston Leroux]]) -- Childhood friend of [[Christine Daae]] and brother of Comte Phillipe. Competed for the affections of [[Christine Daae]] with Erik.
*[[Rastignac]] ([[Honoré de Balzac]]) -- The most ambitious man in Paris?
*[[The Man in the Iron Mask]] -- Not fictional either, but who knows who he was?
*[[Tintin]]
*[[Cpl. Louis LeBeau]] -- POW, Stalag 13
*[[Inspector Jacques Clouseau]] -- The bumbling French detective, and star of the [[Pink Panther]] movies.
==Filmmakers==
*[[Olivier Assayas]]
*[[Jacques Becker]]
*[[Jean-Jacques Beineix]]
*[[Luc Besson]]
*[[Alice Guy-Blaché]]
*[[Bertrand Blier]]
*[[Catherine Breillat]]
*[[Robert Bresson]]
*[[André Cayatte]]
*[[René Clair]]
*[[René Clément]]
*[[Henri-Georges Clouzot]]
*[[Jean Cocteau]]
*[[Fabien Cousteau]]
*[[Jacques-Yves Cousteau]]
*[[Jacques Demy]]
*[[Henri Diamant-Berger]]
*[[Abel Gance]]
*[[Jean-Luc Godard]]
*[[Jean-Pierre Jeunet]]
*[[Mathieu Kassovitz]]
*[[Jan Kounen]]
*[[Patrice Leconte]]
*[[Claude Lelouch]]
*[[Louis Malle]]
*[[André Malraux]]
*[[Georges Méliès]]
*[[Maurice Pialat]]
*[[Roman Polanski]]
*[[Jean Renoir]]
*[[Alain Resnais]]
*[[Yves Robert]]
*[[Alain Sarde]]
*[[Claude Sautet]]
*[[Jacques Tati]]
*[[Jacques Tourneur]]
*[[Maurice Tourneur]]
*[[François Truffaut]]
*[[Roger Vadim]]
*[[Agnès Varda]]
*[[Jean Vigo]]
==Humorists==
*[[Coluche]]
*[[Francis Blanche]]
*[[Pierre Dac]] humorist and Resistance worker
*[[Pierre Desproges]]
*[[Thierry Le Luron]]
==Monarchs==
See also [[list of French monarchs|French monarchs]], [[members of the French Royal Families]]
*[[Charlemagne]]
*[[Henry IV of France|Henri IV]]
*[[Louis XIV of France|Louis XIV]], the Sun King -- King of France
*[[Louis XVI of France|Louis XVI]] -- King of France when the [[Revolution]] started.
*[[Marie Antoinette]] -- Austrian born Queen of France, wife of Louis XVI.
*[[Napoleon I of France|Napoléon Bonaparte]] and [[Joséphine de Beauharnais]] -- Emperor and Empress of France
*[[Napoleon III of France|Napoleon III]] -- Président and Emperor
*[[Charles-Marie David de Mayréna|Charles-Marie David de Mayréna I]] -- King of the [[Kingdom of Sedang]]
==Musicians, singers==
*[[Charles Aznavour]]
*[[Josephine Baker]], American born entertainer
*[[Jane Bathori]], opera singer
*[[Monique Serf|Barbara]]
*[[Guy Béart]]
*[[Michel Berger]]
*[[Lucienne Boyer]]
*[[Georges Brassens]]
*[[Aristide Bruant]]
*[[Manu Chao]]
*[[Air_(band)]]
*[[Dalida]]
*[[Marie-Louise Damien|Damia]]
*[[Marie Dubas]]
*[[Jacques Dutronc]]
*[[Claude François]] -- popular singer 1960s-1970s
*[[Fréhel]]
*[[France Gall]]
*[[Serge Gainsbourg]]
*[[Gipsy Kings]]
*[[Georges Guibourg|Georgius]]
*[[Jean-Jacques Goldman]]
*[[Stéphane Grappelli]] -- jazz musician
*[[Juliette Gréco]]
*[[Gribouille]] (Marie-France Gaîté)
*[[Yvette Guilbert]]
*[[Johnny Hallyday]] - born in Belgium, served in the French army
*[[David Hallyday]]
*[[Françoise Hardy]]
*[[Joëlle Mogensen|Joëlle]]
*[[Kassav']]
*[[Alice Prin|Kiki]] -- "Queen of [[Montparnasse]]"
*[[La Goulue]]
*[[Claudine Longet]]
*[[Luis Mariano]]
*[[Didier Marouani]] — musician and composer
*[[Félix Mayol]]
*[[Mireille Mathieu]]
*[[Mireille Hartuch|Mireille]]
*[[Mistinguett]]
*[[Ginette Neveu]]
*[[Yannick Noah]]
*[[Noir Désir]]
*[[Vanessa Paradis]]
*[[Pierre Perret]]
*[[Michel Petrucciani]]
*[[Edith Piaf]]
*[[Lily Pons]] — opera singer (naturalized as a [[United States|U.S.]] citizen in 1940)
*[[Tino Rossi]]
*[[Jean Sablon]]
*[[Alain Souchon]]
*[[Charles Trenet]]
*[[Sylvie Vartan]]
*[[Pauline Garcia-Viardot]] — opera singer & composer
*[[Jossé Lajoie]]
==Painters==
*[[Maurice Boitel]]
*[[François Boucher]]
*[[Pierre Brissaud]]
*[[Bernard Buffet]]
*[[Gustave Caillebotte]]
*[[Paul Cézanne]]
*[[Jules Chéret]]
*[[Jean-Baptiste Camille Corot]]
*[[Gustave Courbet]]
*[[Thomas Couture]]
*[[Jacques Louis David]]
*[[Edgar Degas]]
*[[Eugène Delacroix]]
*[[Robert Delaunay]]
*[[André Derain]]
*[[Marcel Duchamp]]
*[[Suzanne Duchamp]]
*[[Henri Fantin-Latour]]
*[[Jean-Honoré Fragonard]]
*[[Antonio de La Gandara]]
*[[Paul Gauguin]]
*[[Jean-Baptiste Gros]]
*[[Jean Auguste Dominique Ingres]]
*[[Charles de La Tour]]
*[[Georges Lacombe]]
*[[Fernand Léger]]
*[[Edouard Manet]]
*[[Henri Matisse]]
*[[Claude Monet]]
*[[Gustave Moreau]]
*[[Berthe Morisot]]
*[[Gen Paul]]
*[[Francis Picabia]]
*[[Camille Pissarro]]
*[[Nicolas Poussin]]
*[[Pierre-Auguste Renoir]]
*[[Georges Seurat]]
*[[Nicolas de Staël]]
*[[Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec]]
*[[Maurice Utrillo]]
*[[Suzanne Valadon]]
*[[Horace Vernet]]
*[[Jacques Villon]]
*[[Philippe Watteau]]
*[[Félix Ziem]]
==Philosophers==
*[[Louis Althusser]]
*[[Raymond Aron]] — sociologist & philosopher
*[[Jean le Rond d'Alembert]]
*[[Gaston Bachelard]]
*[[Georges Bataille]]
*[[Roland Barthes]]
*[[Jean Baudrillard]] -- philosopher and sociologist
*[[Pierre Bourdieu]], sociologist
*[[Julien Benda]]
*[[Henri Bergson]]
*[[Emile Boutroux]]
*[[Michel de Certeau]]
*[[André Comte-Sponville]]
*[[Jean de Crèvecoeur]]
*[[Guy Debord]]
*[[Gilles Deleuze]]
*[[Jacques Derrida]]
*[[René Descartes]] -- scientist and philosopher
*[[Denis Diderot]] -- [[the Enlightenment|Enlightenment]] author and atheist philosopher
*[[Elisabeth Bourdiau de Fontenay]]
*[[Michel Foucault]]
*[[Félix Guattari]]
*[[Vladimir Jankelevitch]]
*[[Étienne de La Boétie]] -- philosopher and politician
*[[Philippe Lacoue-Labarthe]]
*[[Henri Lefèbvre]]
*[[Marcel Légaut]] - christian philosopher
*[[Jean de Léry]] -- ''corsaire''and ethnologist, anti-racism acivist
*[[Immanuel Levinas|Emmanuel Lévinas]]
*[[Jean-François Lyotard]]
*[[Nicolas Malebranche]]
*[[Gabriel Marcel]] -- philosopher
*[[Maurice Merleau-Ponty]] -- phenomenologist
*[[Michel de Montaigne]] -- philosopher essayist
*[[Charles de Secondat, Baron de Montesquieu|Montesquieu]], political philosopher
*[[Emmanuel Mounier]] -- philosopher
*[[Jean Luc Nancy]] -- philosopher
*[[Blaise Pascal]] -- scientist, Christian philosopher and author
*[[Jean-François Revel]]
*[[Paul Ricoeur]]
*[[Jean-Jacques Rousseau]]
*[[J |
1841-1896)
*[[Edmund Blunden]] (1896-1974)
*[[Wilfrid Scawen Blunt]] (1840-1922)
*[[Barcroft Boake]] (1866-1892)
*[[George Henry Boker]] (1823-1890)
*[[Eavan Boland]] (born 1944)
*[[Horatius Bonar]] (1808-1889)
*[[Arna Wendell Bontemps]]
*[[Marx Alexander Boyd]] (1563-1601)
===Br-By===
*[[Anne Bradstreet]] (ca. 1612-1672)
*[[E. J. Brady]] (1869-1952)
*[[Christopher Brennan]] (1870-1932)
*[[John Le Gay Brereton]] (1871-1933)
*[[Nicholas Breton]] (1542-1626)
*[[Ken Brewer]] (1941- )
*[[Robert Bridges]] (1844-1930)
*[[Emily Brontë]] (1818-1848)
*[[Rupert Brooke]] (1887-1915)
*[[Gwendolyn Brooks]] (1917-2000)
*[[Sterling A. Brown]]
*[[Thomas Edward Brown]] (1830-1897)
*[[Isaac Hawkins Browne]] (1705-1760)
*[[William Browne]] (1588-1643)
*[[Elizabeth Barrett Browning]] (1806-1861)
*[[Robert Browning]] (1812-1889)
*[[William Cullen Bryant]] (1794-1878)
*[[Vincent Buckley]] (1925-1988)
*[[Charles Bukowski]] (1920-1994)
*[[Basil Bunting]] (1900&ndash;1985)
*[[Anthony Burgess]] (1917-1993)
*[[Jim Burns]]
*[[Richard Burns]] (1943)
*[[Robert Burns]] (1759-1796)
*[[William S. Burroughs]] (1914-1997)
*[[George Gordon Byron, 6th Baron Byron]] (1788-1824)
==C==
===Ca-Ci===
*[[Richard Caddel]]
*[[Charles Stuart Calverley]] (1831-1884)
*[[Thomas Campbell]] (1774-1844)
*[[Thomas Campion]] (1567-1620)
*[[Mary Wedderburn Cannan]] (1893-1973)
*[[Thomas Carew]] (1595-1639)
*[[Henry Carey (writer)|Henry Carey]] (1693-1743)
*[[Lewis Carroll]] (1832-1898)
*[[William Cartwright]] (1611-1643)
*[[Carolyn Joyce Carty]] (1957-
*[[Alice Cary]]
*[[Phoebe Cary]]
*[[Charles Causley]] (1917-2003)
*[[Constantine Cavafy]]
*[[Joseph Ceravolo]]
*[[John Chalkhill]]
*[[Miles Champion]]
*[[William Ellery Channing (1818-1901)]]
*[[George Chapman]] (1560-1634)
*[[Geoffrey Chaucer]] (ca.1343-1400)
*[[Maxine Chernoff]]
*[[Sandra Cisneros]]
===Cl===
*[[John Clare]] (1793-1864)
*[[Thomas A. Clark]]
*[[Tom Clark]]
*[[Jack Clarke]]
*[[Austin Clarke (poet)|Austin Clarke]] (1886-1974)
*[[John Cleveland]] (1613-1658)
*[[Michelle Cliff]]
*[[Lucille Clifton]]
*[[Arthur Hugh Clough]] (1819-1861)
===Co===
*[[Bob Cobbing]]
*[[Brian Coffey]] (1905-1995)
*[[Norma Cole]]
*[[Wanda Coleman]]
*[[Hartley Coleridge]] (1796-1849)
*[[Mary Elizabeth Coleridge]] (1861-1907)
*[[Samuel Taylor Coleridge]] (1772-1834)
*[[Billy Collins]]
*[[William Collins (poet)|William Collins]] (1721-1759)
*[[William Congreve (playwright)|William Congreve]] (1670-1729)
*[[Henry Constable]] (1562-1613)
*[[Clark Coolidge]]
*[[Thomas Cooper]] (poet) (1805-1892)
*[[Wendy Cope]] (born 1945)
*[[Richard Corbet]] (1582-1635)
*[[William Corbett]]
*[[Corinna]]
*[[James D. Corrothers]]
*[[Jayne Cortez]]
*[[William Johnson Cory]] (1823-1892)
*[[Louisa Stuart Costello]] (1799-1877)
*[[Anne Ross Cousin]] (1824-1906)
*[[Kerensa Cowan-Fields]] (1981-)
*[[Abraham Cowley]] (1618-1667)
*[[William Cowper]] (1731-1800)
===Cr-Cu===
*[[George Crabbe]] (1754-1832)
*[[Hart Crane]], (1899-1932)
*[[Richard Crashaw]] (1613-1649)
*[[Thomas Creech]] (1659-1700)
*[[George Croly]] (1780-1860)
*[[William Crowe]] (1745-1829)
*[[Aleister Crowley]] (1875-1947)
*[[Andrew Crozier]]
*[[Countee Cullen]], (1903-1946)
*[[E. E. Cummings]] (1894-1962)
*[[Allan Cunningham]] (1784-1842)
*[[Allen Curnow]] (1911-2001)
==D==
===Da-Do===
*[[Samuel Daniel]] (1562-1619)
*[[George Darley]] (1795-1846)
*[[Tina Darragh]]
*[[Robert von Dassanowsky]] (aka Robert Dassanowsky)
*[[William Davenant]] (1606-1668)
*[[John Davidson (poet)|John Davidson]] (1837-1909)
*[[Michael Davidson]]
*[[John Davies (poet)|John Davies]] (1569-1626)
*[[Thomas Osborne Davis]] (1814-1845)
*[[Jean Day]]
*[[Thomas Dekker]] (1575-1641)
*[[John Denham (poet)|John Denham]] (1615-1669)
*[[Thomas Dermody]] (1775-1802)
*[[William F. DeVault]]
*[[Denis Devlin]] (1908-1959)
*[[James Dickey]] (1923-1997)
*[[Emily Dickinson]] (1830-1886)
*[[Ray DiPalma]]
*[[Diane Di Prima]]
*[[John Donne]] (1572-1631)
*[[Des Donnelly]] (born 1955)
*[[Maura Dooley]]
*[[Edward Dorn]]
*[[Keith Douglas]] (1920-1944)
*[[Rita Dove]]
*[[Buck Downs]]
*[[Ernest Dowson]] (1867-1900)
*[[Francis Hastings Doyle]] (1810-1888)
===Dr-Dy===
*[[Michael Drayton]] (1563-1631)
*[[William Drummond of Hawthornden]] (1585-1649)
*[[John Dryden]] (1631-1700)
*[[W.E.B. DuBois]] (1868-1963)
*[[Carol Ann Duffy]] (born 1955)
*[[Charles Gavan Duffy]] (1816-1903)
*[[Paul Laurence Dunbar]] (1872-1906)
*[[William Dunbar]] (1465-1520)
*[[Robert Duncan]] (1919-1988)
*[[Douglas Dunn]] (born 1942)
*[[Alan Dunnett]]
*[[G.F.Dutton]]
*[[John Dyer]]
*[[Bob Dylan]] (born 1941)
==E==
*[[Richard Eberhart]] (1904-2005) (died at the three digit age of 101)
*[[Richard Edwards (English poet)|Richard Edwards]] (1523?-1566)
*[[T. S. Eliot]] (1888-1965)
*[[Ebenezer Elliot]] (1781-1849)
*[[Jean Elliot]] (1727-1805)
*[[Ebenezer Elliott]] (1781-1849)
*[[Ralph Waldo Emerson]] (1803-1882)
*[[William Empson]] (1906-1984)
*[[Theodore Enslin]] (born 1925)
*Sir [[George Etherege]] (1635-1691)
*[[Mari Evans]]
==F==
*[[Edward Fairfax]] (1580?-1635)
*[[William Falconer]] (1732-1769)
*[[Catherine Maria Fanshawe]] (1765-1834)
*Sir [[Richard Fanshawe]] (1608-1666)
*[[Francis Fawkes]] (1721-1777)
*[[Jonathan FeBland]] (born 1960)
*[[Elaine Feinstein]]
*[[Elijah Fenton]] (1683-1730)
*[[James Fenton]] (born 1949)
*[[Deanna Ferguson]]
*[[Lawrence Ferlinghetti]] (born 1919)
*[[Peter Finch]]
*[[Ian Hamilton Finlay]] (born 1925)
*[[Allen Fisher]]
*[[Roy Fisher]] (born 1930)
*[[Edward FitzGerald (poet)|Edward Fitzgerald]] (1809-1883)
*[[Penelope Fitzgerald]]
*[[John Fletcher (playwright)|John Fletcher]] (1579-1625)
*[[Douglas Florian]]
*[[John Ford (dramatist)|John Ford]] (1586-1639)
*[[Janet Frame]] (1924-2004)
*[[Ulli Freer]]
*[[Philip Freneau]] (1752-1832)
*[[Robert Frost]] (1874-1963)
*[[Stephen Fry]]
*[[Heather Fuller]]
*[[William Fuller]]
*[[Alice Fulton]] (born 1952)
*[[Richard Furness]] (1791-1857)
==G==
===Ga-Go===
*[[Dick Gallup]]
*[[Sarah Gambito]]
*[[Forest Gander]]
*[[Samuel Garth]]
*[[George Gascoigne]] (1525-1577)
*[[David Gascoyne]] (1916-2001)
*[[John Gay]] (1685-1732)
*[[Theodor Seuss Geisel]] (1904-1991)
*[[Merrill Gilfillan]]
*[[Mary Gilmour|Dame Mary Gilmour]]
*[[Allen Ginsberg]] (1926-1997)
*[[Nikki Giovanni]] (born 1943)
*[[Michael Gizzi]]
*[[Peter Gizzi]]
*[[Denis Glover]] (1912-1980)
*[[Louise Gluck]]
*[[Oliver Goldsmith]] (1728-1774)
===Gr-Gy===
*[[W. S. Graham]]
*[[Richard Graves]] (1715-1804)
*[[Robert Graves]] (1895-1985)
*[[Thomas Gray]] (1716-1771)
*[[Robert Greene]] (1560-1592)
*[[Ted Greenwald]]
*[[Fulke Greville]], Lord Brooke (1554-1628)
*[[Bill Griffiths]] (born 1948)
*[[Nicholas Grimald]] (1519-1562)
*[[Nikki Grimes]]
*[[Angelina Weld Grimke]]
*[[Charlotte Forten Grimke]]
*[[Barbara Guest]]
*[[Edgar Guest]], (1881-1959)
*[[Arthur Guiterman]] (1871-1943)
*[[Thom Gunn]] (1929-2004)
*[[Ivor Gurney]] (1890-1937)
*[[Brion Gysin]] (1916-1986)
==H==
===Ha-He===
*[[William Habington]] (1605-1654)
*[[Thomas Hardy]] (1840-1928)
*[[Joy Harjo]]
*[[William Harmon]]
*[[Frances E. W. Harper]]
*[[Michael S. Harper]]
*[[Tony Harrison]] (born 1937)
*[[Carla Harryman]]
*[[Lee Harwood]] (born 1939)
*[[Sterling Harwood]] (born 1958)
*[[Alamgir Hashmi]]
*[[Stephen Hawes]] (died 1523)
*[[Robert Hayden]]
*[[Randolph Healey]]
*[[Seamus Heaney]] (born 1939)
*[[Anthony Hecht]] (1923-2004)
*[[John Hegley]]
*[[Lyn Hejinian]]
*[[Piero Heliczer]]
*[[Felicia Hemans]] (1793-1835)
*[[Essex Hemphill]]
*[[William Ernest Henley]] (1849-1903)
*[[George Herbert]] (1593-1632)
*[[Robert Herrick (poet)|Robert Herrick]] (1591-1674)
*[[Phoebe Hesketh]] (1909-2005)
*[[Dorothy Hewett]] (1923-2002)
*[[Thomas Heywood]] (157?-1650)
===Hi-Hu===
*[[Geoffrey Hill]] (born 1932)
*[[James Hogg]] (1770-1835)
*[[Anselm Hollo]]
*[[Oliver Wendell Holmes, Sr.]] (1809-1894)
*[[Thomas Hood]] (1798-1845)
*[[A. D. Hope]]
*[[Gerard Manley Hopkins]] (1844-1889)
*[[Frances Horovitz]] (1938-1983)
*[[Michael Horovitz]] (Born 1935)
*[[George Moses Horton]]
*[[Alfred Edward Housman|A. E. Housman]], (1859-1936)
*[[Henry Howard, Earl of Surrey]] (1517-1547)
*[[Fanny Howe]]
*[[Susan Howe]]
*[[Ada Verdun Howell]]
*[[Langston Hughes]] (1902-1967)
*[[Ted Hughes]] (1930-1998)
*[[Richard Hugo]] (1923-1982)
*[[Alexander Hume]] (1560-1609)
*[[James Henry Leigh Hunt|Leigh Hunt]], (1784-1859)
*[[Cynthia Huntington]], (Born 1952)
==I-J==
*[[P.Inman]]
*[[Richard Jago]], (1715-1781)
*[[John James]]
*[[Lisa Jarnot]] (born 1967)
*[[Randall Jarrell]] (1914-1965)
*[[Robinson Jeffers]] (1887-1962)
*[[Fenton Johnson]]
*[[Georgia Douglas Johnson]]
*[[Helene Johnson]] (1906-1995)
*[[James Weldon Johnson]] (1871-1938)
*[[Samuel Johnson]] (1709-1784)
*[[Billy "The Blogging Poet" Jones]] (born 1956) [http://www.bloggingpoet.com BloggingPoet.com]
*[[David Jones (poet)|David Jones]]
*[[Erica Jong]] (born 1942)
*[[Ben Jonson]] (1573-1637)
*[[June Jordan]] (born 1936)
*[[Jenny Joseph]] (born 1932)
*[[James Joyce]] (1882-1941)
*[[Trevor Joyce]] (born 1947)
*[[Donald Justice]] (1925-2004)
==K==
*[[Ilya Kaminsky]]
*[[Bobbi Katz]]
*[[Bob Kaufman]]
*[[Jayne Fenton Keane]]
*[[John Keats]] (1795-1821)
*[[W.B. Keckler]] (born 1966)
*[[Jack Kerouac]] (1922-1969)
*[[Sidney Keyes]] (1922-1943)
*[[Keorapetse Kgositsile]] (born 1938)
*[[Jack Kimball]]
*[[Amy King]]
*[[Henry King (poet)|Henry King]] (1592-1669)
*[[William King (poet)|William King]] (1663-1712)
*[[Galway Kinnell]] (born 1927)
*[[John Kinsella]]
*[[Thomas Kinsella]] (1927-)
*[[Rudyard Kipling]] (1865-1936)
*[[Etheridge Knight]]
*[[Kenneth Koch]] (1925-2002)
*[[Yusef Komunyakaa]] (born 1948)
*[[Monika Krystowczyk]]
*[[Karla Kuskin]]
*[[Joanne Kyger]]
==L==
===La-Le===
*[[Charles Lamb]] (1775-1834)
*[[Tim Lander]] (1938- )
*[[Letitia Elizabeth Landon]]
*[[Walter Savage Landor]] (1775-1864)
*[[Doug Lang]]
*[[Emilia Lanier]] (1569-1645)
*[[Philip Larkin]] (1922-1985)
*[[Evelyn Lau]]
*[[D.H. Lawrence]] (1885-1930)
*[[Henry Lawson]] (1867-1922)
*[[Edward Lear]] (1812-1888)
*[[Francis Ledwidge]], (1887-1917)
*[[Tom Leonard (poet)|Tom Leonard]]
*[[Philip Levin |
r se''. For most of Protestant history the term 'evangelical' for a self-description has been used by both [[Modernist Christianity|modernists]] and [[Fundamentalist Christianity|fundamentalists]]. However, in common contemporary parlance, the name has been all but relinquished to the "moderates", rather than liberals or fundamentalists.
==Roots==
The contemporary evangelical movement has its origins in the 18th century. In that period, the [[First Great Awakening]] was deeply influencing American religious life, while at the same time [[John Wesley]] and the [[Methodist movement]] were renewing British Christianity. Much of this religious fervor was a reaction to [[Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]] thinking and the [[Deism|deistic]] writings of many of the western philosophical elites.
The chief emphases of the fledgling Methodist movement as well as the Awakening were individual conversion, personal piety and Bible study, [[public morality]] often including [[Temperance]] and [[family values]], and [[Abolitionism]], a broadened role for [[laity|lay people]] and women in worship, evangelism and teaching, and cooperation in evangelism across denominational lines (that is, [[interdenominational]]ly).
In its early years, what was to become known as evangelicalism was largely a hybrid of the [[Calvinism|Reformed]] emphasis on doctrinal orthodoxy, and the [[Pietism|pietist]] emphasis on the heart and a "personal relationship" with God. The movement saw a variety of liturgical styles and ministry approaches, though strong preaching, personal conversion (similar to Wesley's [[Aldersgate]] experience), and evangelism were common features.
Other key figures include: [[Jonathan Edwards (theologian)|Jonathan Edwards]], American Puritan preacher/theologian; [[George Whitefield]], British Methodist preacher; [[Robert Raikes]], who established the first [[Sunday School]] to prevent children in the slums entering a life of crime; [[Charles Wesley]], popular hymn writer; and [[Francis Asbury]], American Methodist bishop.
==Doctrine==
{{Christian theology}}
The Bible is accepted as reliable and the ultimate authority in matters of faith and practice. The [[Protestant Reformation]] [[doctrine]]s of [[sola scriptura]] and [[sola fide]] are primary. The historicity of the [[miracles]] of Jesus and the [[Virgin Birth (Christian doctrine)|virgin birth]], [[crucifixion]], [[Resurrection of Jesus|resurrection]], and [[Second Coming]] are asserted, although there are a variety of understandings of the [[end times]] and [[eschatology]].
Commentators and historians describe four characteristics of evangelicals:
#Emphasis on the [[conversion]] experience, also called being ''saved'', or ''[[New Birth|new birth]]'' or ''[[born again]]'' after John 3:3. Thus evangelicals often refer to themselves as ''born-again Christians.'' This experience is said to received by "faith alone" and to be given by God as the result of "grace alone."
#The [[Protestant]] [[Biblical Canon|canon]] of the [[Bible]] as the primary, or only, source of religious authority, as God's revelation to humanity. [[Bible prophecy]], especially as interpreted according to [[dispensationalism]], is often emphasized. Thus, the doctrine of "[[sola scriptura]]" is often affirmed and emphasized.
#Encouragement of evangelism (the act of sharing one's beliefs) -- in organized missionary work or by personal encounters and relationships with others.
#A central focus on Christ's redeeming work on the cross as the only means for salvation and the forgiveness of [[sin]]s.
These characteristics are similar to the ''Bebbington quadrilateral'' identified in his study of British evangelicalism.
John C. Green, director of the Ray C. Bliss Institute of Applied Politics at the [[University of Akron]] in [[Ohio]], found in the 2004 American Religious Landscape Report [http://pewforum.org/publications/surveys/green-full.pdf] that despite many variations, evangelicals in the United States generally adhere to four core beliefs:
#[[Biblical inerrancy]]
#Salvation comes only through faith in Jesus and not good works
#Individuals (above an age of accountability) must personally trust in Jesus Christ for salvation.
#All Christians are commissioned to evangelize
In regard to "Biblical inerrancy", a notable summit on Bible inerrancy was held in Chicago in 1978. The [[Chicago Statement on Biblical Inerrancy]] was signed by nearly 300 noted evangelical scholars (see ''[[Biblical inerrancy|main article]]''). There is no absolute consensus among evangelicals regarding Biblical inerrancy, however there is a general acceptance of Biblical authority.
==Development==
===19th century===
Evangelical Christians were a diverse group; some were at the forefront of movements such as [[abolitionism|abolition]] of slavery, [[prison reform]], [[orphanage]] establishment, [[hospital]] building, and founding educational institutions.
In [[1846]], eight hundred Christians from ten countries met in London and set up the ''[[Evangelical Alliance]]''. They saw this as "a new thing in church history, a definite organization for the expression of unity amongst Christian individuals belonging to different churches." However, the Alliance floundered on the issue of slavery. Despite this difficulty it provided a strong impetus for the establishment of national and regional evangelical fellowships.
Evangelicals, along with trade unionists, [[Chartists]], members of cooperatives, the self-help movement and the Church of England were involved in setting up the [[temperance movement]]s in the U.S.A., Ireland, Scotland and England.
[[William Booth]], a [[Methodism|Methodist]] [[Religious minister|minister]], founded the ''Christian Mission'' in [[London]], England on [[July 5]], [[1865]]. This became ''[[The Salvation Army]]'' in [[1878]] as it took on a quasi-[[military]] style.
===20th century===
Evangelicals today are at least as varied as ever. Some work entirely within their own denominations, others pay less heed to denominational differences and may be members of less formal and locally based, independent churches. Their focus may be on assisting their own members first and foremost, their inspiration being this emphasis of Paul in his New Testament letters. However, there remains the long-standing evangelical tradition of taking to needy areas practical assistance (e.g. medical, educational) along with the gospel, though eschewing attempts, at home or abroad, to influence society by means other than the gospel.
Others, particularly in the USA, are engaged in attempts at social improvement through political means. Evangelical activism might be expressed in literacy training, inner-city relief and food banks, adoption agencies, marriage counselling and spousal abuse mediation, day-care centers for children, and counsel and care for unwed mothers, or any number of other help and advocacy works. The popular perception seems to locate all of evangelicalism on the 'right' of political controversies, such as [[abortion]], or the liberalizaton of the legal definitions of "[[family]]", "[[marriage]]", or "[[civil union]]" to include same-sex couples. This supposed uniformity is not actually the case; however there is some correspondence between theological and religious conservatism, and social conservatism, for obvious reasons.
The [[World Evangelical Alliance|World Evangelical Fellowship (now Alliance)]] (WEA) was formed in 1951 by believers from 21 countries. It has worked to support its members to work together globally.
Within the broad denominations (often called ''"mainline denominations"'') evangelical movements are organizing within various structures, which are often referred to as the [[Confessing Movement]]. The theological call for the mainline churches to return to their evangelical roots is known as [[Paleo-Orthodoxy]], especially within Methodism, where [[Thomas Oden]] is one of its best known spokesmen.
The movement represents a range of Protestant understandings of the Bible, liturgical forms, and church traditions - some of which are very non-traditional, and artistically conceived or innovative. On the average, evangelicals tend to be distrustful of reliance upon historical definitions of belief, if they are not qualified as being subordinate to the Bible; and yet, they may be inclined to refer to these documents of faith in defense of their understanding of the Bible. In controversies with those who favor a more highly structured liturgy, the evangelical party is usually the one in favor of a relatively more simple, casual and participatory form of worship, centered on preaching and the [[Lord's Supper]] ([[Eucharist]]), rather than more elaborate ceremony.
Especially toward the end of the 20th century, the secular media tended to describe traditional Christian believers as [[fundamentalist Christians|fundamentalists]], including most evangelicals. However, in both movements, these terms ''fundamentalist'' and ''evangelical'' are not synonymous; the labels represent very distinct differences of approach which both groups are diligent to maintain.
====Fundamentalism====
{{main|Christian Fundamentalism}}
At the turn of the 20th century, in light of modern scholarship gaining the majority view, [[Modernist Christianity]] in the Protestant denominations was producing novel understandings and/or interpretations of the role of the Bible for a Christian, and the Bible's teachings. These trends were seen by their opponents as a threat to Christian faith and the welfare of society, as accommodations to [[the Enlightenment]] and an abandonment of the principles of the [[Protestant reformation]].
The [[Fundamentalist Christianity|Fundamentalist]] Movement was a [[conservative]] Protestant response in the USA to [[Liberal Christianity|liberal]] trends in their churches. It was a movemen |
|ecumenical]] paper ''Baptism, Eucharist and Ministry'', prepared by representatives across a spectrum of Christians, Orthodox, Roman Catholic, and Protestants traditions of Christianity attempts to express a common understanding of baptism, as it is derived from the New Testament.
: " ... according to Acts 2:38, baptisms follow from Peter's preaching baptism in the name of Jesus and lead those baptized to the receiving of Christ's Spirit, the Holy Ghost, and life in the community: "They devoted themselves to the apostles' teaching and fellowship, to the breaking of bread and the prayers" (2:42) as well as to the distribution of goods to those in need (2:45). Those who heard, who were baptized and entered the community's life, were already made witnesses of and partakers in the promises of God for the last days: the forgiveness of sins through baptism in the name of Jesus and the outpouring of the Holy Ghost on all flesh (2:38). Similarly, in what may well be a baptismal pattern, 1 Peter testifies that proclamation of the resurrection of Jesus Christ and teaching about new life (1:3-21) lead to purification and new birth (1:22-23). This, in turn, is followed by eating and drinking God's food (2:2-3), by participation in the life of the community &mdash; the royal priesthood, the new temple, the people of God (2:4-10) &mdash; and by further moral formation (2:11 ff.). At the beginning of 1 Peter the writer sets this baptism in the context of obedience to Christ and sanctification by the Spirit (1:2). So baptism into Christ is seen as baptism into the Spirit (cf. 1 Cor. 12:13). In the fourth gospel Jesus' discourse with Nicodemus indicates that birth by water and Spirit becomes the gracious means of entry into the place where God rules (John 3:5)." [http://www.wcc-coe.org/wcc/what/faith/faverg.html]
The most commonly cited reference for the command justifying the continuing practice of baptism by Christians, is the "Great Commission," found in the book of St. Matthew chapter 28, verses 18-20. It is typically viewed as the rite by which a person is joined to Jesus and his body, the Church, in connection with which the baptized person who has received the Holy Spirit is considered to be a Christian.
==Roman Catholic, Eastern Catholic, Eastern Orthodox, Lutheran, Anglican and Methodist baptism==
[[Image:BaptismalFontStRaphaelDubuque.jpg|thumbnail|The baptistry at [[St. Raphael's Cathedral (Dubuque)|St. Raphael's Cathedral]], [[Dubuque, Iowa]].]]
The [[liturgy]] of baptism in the [[Catholicism|Catholic]], [[Eastern Orthodoxy|Eastern Orthodox]], [[Lutheranism|Lutheran]], [[Anglicanism|Anglican]], and [[Methodism|Methodist]] traditions makes clear reference to baptism as not only a symbolic burial and resurrection, but an actual supernatural transformation, one that draws parallels to the experience of [[Noah]] and the passage of the [[Israelites]] through the [[Red Sea]] divided by [[Moses]]. Thus baptism is literally and symbolically not only cleansing, but also dying and rising again with Christ. Catholics believe that baptism is necessary for the cleansing of the taint of [[original sin]], and for that reason infant baptism is a common practice. The Orthodox also practice infant baptism on the basis of various texts such as [[Gospel of Matthew|Matthew]] 19:14 which are interpreted to condone full Church membership for children, and so baptism is immediately followed by [[Chrismation]] and [[Eucharist|Communion]] at the next [[Divine Liturgy]] regardless of age. Anglicans believe that Baptism is also the entry into the Church and therefore allows them access to all rights and responsibilities as full members, including the privilege to receive Holy Communion. Most Anglicans agree that it also cleanses the taint of original sin, though those Anglicans who agree with a more Eastern understanding of original sin think it exactly the same was as the Eastern Orthodox.
[[Latin Rite]] Catholics generally baptize by infusion (pouring); Orthodox and Eastern Catholics usually by immersion. However immersion is gaining in popularity within the Catholic Church. In newer churches, the baptismal font may be designed to expressly allow for baptism by immersion. Older church building may feature this as well by either building a new baptismal font or expanding an existing one. Anglicans practice a myriad of ways to be baptized, from immersion to sprinkling.
According to Holy Tradition, if baptism through immersion cannot be done, it should be done through pouring (and if that isn't possible, through sprinkling). In addition, cold water is preferred over warm. The water must be in a state of motion (living water implies motion), so immersion in stagnant water is thought less than pouring or even sprinkling.
The Catholic, Orthodox, and Anglican churches practice a triple baptism in the name of the Holy [[Trinity]].
===Baptism and salvation===
In Catholic teaching, baptism plays an essential role in salvation. The Church teaches that "baptism is necessary for salvation" (Catechism, 1257) and entry into heaven; and therefore, a person who knowledgeably, willfully and unrepentedy rejects baptism has no hope of salvation. Three forms of baptism are acknowledged by the Church. Baptism by water refers to the traditional baptism where the individual is immersed or infused with water in the name of the Trinity.
The Church also recognizes two other forms of baptism: "baptism of blood" and "baptism of desire." Baptism of blood refers to unbaptized individuals who are [[martyr]]ed for the Faith, while baptism of desire refers to [[catechumen]]s who die before they can be baptized. The Catechism of the Catholic Church describes these two forms:
<blockquote>The Church has always held the firm conviction that those who suffer death for the sake of the faith without having received Baptism are baptized by their death for and with Christ. This ''Baptism of blood'', like the desire for Baptism, brings about the fruits of Baptism without being a sacrament. (1258) </blockquote>
<blockquote>For catechumens who die before their Baptism, their explicit desire to receive it, together with repentance for their sins, and charity, assures them the salvation that they were not able to receive through the sacrament. (1259)</blockquote>
As for unbaptized infants, the Church is unsure of their fate; "the Church can only entrust them to the mercy of God" (Catechism, 1261).
===Conditions of the validity of a baptism===
[[Image:Baptism - Saint Calixte.jpg|thumb|left|Baptism - Saint Calixte Catacomb - 3rd century.]]Since the Catholic, Orthodox, and Anglicans believe that baptism is a sacrament having actual spiritual and salvific effects, certain criteria must be complied with for it to be valid (i.e. to actually have those effects.) These criteria are actually broader than the ordinary practice. Violation of some rules regarding baptism renders the baptism ''illicit'' (in violation of the church's laws) but still valid. For example, if a Priest introduces some variation in the authorised rite for the ceremony, the baptism will be valid (provided certain key criteria are met).
One of the criteria for validity is that the correct form of words be used. Roman Catholics use the form "I baptise you.."; some [[Eastern-Rite]] Catholics and the Orthodox use the form "Let this servant of Christ be baptised..." or "This person is baptised by my hands...". However, both churches recognise the other's form as valid. The Catholic church teaches that the use of the verb "baptise" is essential.
It is also considered essential that the [[Trinitarian formula]] is used; thus they do not accept as valid baptisms of non-[[Trinitarian]] churches such as [[Oneness Pentecostals]]. There was an ancient controversy over baptism using the formula that Oneness Pentecostals use, with some ancient authorities holding it to be valid. However, this was motivated by the apparent use of that formula at some places in scripture, not by anti-Trinitarian intentions (which would certainly be considered an invalidation of the baptism, regardless of the superficial validity of the formula). The most significant part, some theologians have argued, is not so much the Trinitarian wording, as the Trinitarian intention, and the recognition that the baptism involves all three Persons.
Another condition is that water be used. Some Christian groups historically have rejected the use of water for baptism, for example the [[Albigensians]]. These baptisms would not be valid, nor would a baptism in which some other liquid was used. However, the Church has determined that emergency baptism performed with a liquid other than water (only where water is not available) is vaild. In one such case, antifreeze from a car radiator was used under extraordinary necessity, and declared valid.
Another requirement is that the celebrant intends to perform baptism. This requirement entails that the theology of baptism that the baptiser holds be sufficiently similar to that of the Catholic Church, although an exact identity is not required. However, where another denomination has a somewhat different, somewhat similar, theology of baptism, it can be difficult to be sure whether the requirement of intention is met. This is why [[Conditional baptism|conditional baptisms]] are often performed in these cases.
Some conditions expressly do not affect validity; fpr example, whether immersion, infusion or aspersion is used. Some theologians have also argued that sprinkling on a part of the body other than the head in an emergency would also be valid. In many communions it does not affect validity for a single immersion to be performed rather than a triple, but in Orthodoxy this is controversial.
According to the church, the act of baptism imparts an indelible "sea |
n choosing.
With the political consciousness that emerged from the political and social ferment of the late [[1960s]] and early [[1970s]], ''Negro'' fell into disfavor among many African Americans. It had taken on a moderate, accommodationist, even [[Uncle Tom]]<nowiki>ish</nowiki>, connotation. In this period, a growing number of blacks in the U.S., particularly African American youth, celebrated their [[blackness]] and their historical and cultural ties with the African continent. The [[Black_nationalism#Black_Power|Black Power]] movement defiantly embraced ''black'' as a group identifier&mdash;a term they themselves had repudiated only two decades earlier&mdash;a term often associated in English with things negative and undesirable, proclaiming, "Black is beautiful."
In this same period, others favored the term ''Afro-American''; this particular term never gained much traction, but by the [[1990s]], the term ''African American'' had emerged as the leading choice of self-referential term. Just as other ethnic groups in American society historically had adopted names descriptive of their families' geographical points of origin (such as ''[[Italian-American]]'', ''[[Irish-American]]'', ''[[Polish-American]]''), many blacks in America expressed a preference for a similar term. Because of the historical circumstances surrounding the capture, enslavement and systematic attempts to de-Africanize blacks in the U.S. under chattel slavery, most African Americans are unable to trace their ancestry to a specific African nation; hence, the entire continent serves as a geographic marker.
For many, ''African American'' is more than a name expressive of cultural and historical roots. The term expresses African pride and a sense of kinship and solidarity with others of the African [[diaspora]]&mdash;an embracing of the notion of pan-Africanism earlier enunciated by prominent African thinkers such as [[Marcus Garvey]], [[W.E.B. Dubois]] and, later, [[George Padmore]].
A discussion of the term ''African American'' and related terms can be found in the journal article "The Politicization of Changing Terms of Self Reference Among American Slave Descendants" in ''American Speech'' v 66 is 2 Summer 1991 p. 133-46.
===Who is African American?===
To be considered African American in the [[United States|United States of America]], not even half of one's ancestry need to be black African. The nation's answer to the question "Who is black?" long has been that a "black" is any person with any known African ancestry. This definition reflects the long experience with [[racism]], [[white supremacy]], [[slavery]], and, later, with [[Jim Crow laws]].
In the [[Southern United States]], it became known as the ''[[one-drop rule]]'', meaning that a single drop of "black blood" makes a person "black". Some courts have called it the ''traceable amount rule'', and [[anthropology|anthropologists]] call it the ''hypo-descent rule'', meaning that racially mixed persons are assigned the status of the subordinate group. This definition emerged from the American South to become America's national definition, generally accepted by whites and blacks -- but for different reasons. White supremacists, whose motivation was [[racism|racist]], considered anyone with African ancestry tainted, inherently inferior morally and intellectually and, thus, subordinate. During slavery, there was also a strong economic incentive to maximize the number of individuals who could be owned, bred, worked, traded and sold outright as human chattel. The designation of anyone possessing any trace of African ancestry as "black", and, therefore, of subordinate status to whites, guaranteed a source of cheap labor during slavery and for decades afterward. For African Americans, the one-drop system of racial designation was a significant factor in ethnic solidarity. African Americans generally shared a common lot in society and, therefore, common cause -- regardless of their ethnic admixture and social and economic stratification.
The [[Supreme Court of the United States|United States Supreme Court]] formalized the legal status of this rule in ''[[Plessy v. Ferguson]]'' ([[1896]]), where the Court affirmed the legality of [[racial segregation]] and upheld the State of [[Louisiana]]'s ruling that, despite being 7/8 white, [[Homer Plessy]]'s one black great-grandparent rendered him legally non-white and, therefore, subject to being barred from whites-only railway carriages.
[[Caucasoid]] peoples, [[India|Indians]], [[Asians]] and [[Arab]]s are traditionally not considered African American, though they or their [[ancestor]]s may have [[emigrate|emigrated]] from the African continent after generations of residence. In relatively rare cases when [[South Africa|South African]] whites, Caucasoid [[North Africa|North African]]s or [[Asia]]n immigrants from Africa living in America have self-identified as African American in an attempt to benefit from [[Affirmative Action]] or other entitlement programs, their claims generally have not been upheld.
In the [[1980s]], parents of mixed-race children began to organize and lobby for the addition of a more inclusive term of racial designation that would reflect the heritage of their offspring. As a result, the term ''[[biracial]]'' has become more widely used and accepted to classify people of mixed race.
===Terms no longer in common use===
The term ''[[Negro]]'', which was widely used until the [[1960s]], today increasingly is considered passé and inappropriate or derogatory. It is still fairly commonly used by older individuals, in the Deep South, and by medical/anthropological texts. Once widely considered acceptable, ''Negro'' fell into disfavor for reasons already herein stated. The self-referential term of preference for ''Negro'' became ''black''.
''Negroid'' is a term used by European anthropologists first in the [[18th century]] to describe indigenous Africans and their descendants throughout the African diaspora. As with most descriptors of [[race]] based on inconsistent, unscientific phenotypical standards, the term is controversial and imprecise. Because of its similarity to ''Negro'', growing numbers of blacks have substituted the term ''Africoid'' which, unlike ''Negroid'', encompasses the phenotypes of all indigenous African peoples.
Other largely defunct, seldom used terms to refer to African Americans are ''[[mulatto]]'' and ''[[colored]]''. Even so, the use of the word "colored" can still be found today in the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People, or [[NAACP]]. The American use of the term ''mulatto'' originally was used to mean the offspring of a "pure African black" and a "pure European white". The Latin root of the word is ''mulo'', as in "[[mule]]", implying incorrectly that, like mules, which are [[horse]]-[[donkey]] [[hybrid]]s, mulattoes are sterile crosses of two different species. For example, in the early [[20th century]], African American leaders such as [[Booker T. Washington]] and [[Frederick Douglass]], who had enslaved blacks as mothers and white fathers, were referred to as mulattoes. While not as common as "mixed" or "biracial," or even "multiracial," ''mulatto'' is still sometimes used to refer to people of mixed parentage and, despite its origin, is not considered inherently derogatory.
The term ''quadroon'' referred to a person of one-fourth African descent, for example, someone born to a [[Whites|Caucasian]] father and a mulatto mother. Someone of one-eighth African descent technically was an ''octoroon'', although the term often was used to refer to any white person with even a hint of black ancestry.
''Mulatto'' and terms with the ''-roon'' suffix persisted in a social context for a number of decades, but by the mid twentieth century, they no longer were in common use. With the end of slavery, there was no longer a strong commercial incentive to classify blacks by their African-European ancestral admixture. The occasional use of these terms, however, does still persist in electronic media, literature and in some social settings.
===Criticisms of the Term===
Some criticism has arisen with the use of the term "African American". To be African-American, some would argue that an individual would have to be born in Africa and then immigrate to U.S. and obtain citizenship. So an overwhelming majority of Black Americans would not be African-American, but of African American descent. Some inaccuracies also exist with the term. It is associated with black people however one could be completely white and still technically be "African American" if they were born in Africa and immigrated to the U.S.
However, some counter that the "hyphenated American" is used to describe one's national origin, so any person born in Africa would take on the name of their country. For example, indivuals from Nigeria would be called Nigerian-American as it describes their national origin as opposed to African-American. The term African-American is preferred among many because although the regional/national origin of black Americans in Africa is not traceable, due to slavery, the continent of Africa provides a descriptive term of themselves.
==Black American population==
The following gives the black population in the U.S. over time, based on U.S. Census figures. (Numbers from years 1920 to 2000 are based on U.S. Census figures as given by the ''Time Almanac'' of 2005, p 377)
{| border=1 cellpadding=5 cellspacing=0 class="wikitable"
! Year || Number || Percentage of total population
|-
| [[1790]] || 757,208 || 19.3% (highest historic percentage)
|-
| [[1800]] || 1,002,037 || 18.9%
|-
| [[1810]] || 1,377,808 || 19.0%
|-
| [[1820]] || 1,771,6 |
he 1960s began on a bright note for Anchorage after Alaska's attaining statehood. After Alaska became a state, Anchorage faced a severe housing shortage, which was solved partially by [[suburb|suburban expansion]]. In January 1964, Anchorage became both a City and a Borough. But on [[March 27]], [[1964]], Anchorage was hit by the [[Good Friday Earthquake]], which registered 9.2 on the [[Richter scale]] and caused tremendous destruction in south Alaska. This earthquake was the strongest ever recorded in [[North America]] and [[United States]] history, and Anchorage lay only 75 miles (120 km) from the [[epicenter]]. It killed 131 people across [[South Central Alaska]], and property damage was estimated at over $300 million (1964 dollars). The brand new J.C. Penney department store in Anchorage was flattened. Anchorage's remarkable recovery from this disaster dominated life in the late 1960s. The continued threat of earthquakes has prompted a limit on the height of buildings in the city; the tallest buildings are 21 stories high. In 1968, Kincaid Park was created in South Anchorage from a former [[Project Nike|Nike]] surface-to-air missile site. That same year, oil was discovered in [[Prudhoe Bay, Alaska|Prudhoe Bay]] on the Arctic Slope and, in 1969, oil-lease sales brought billions of dollars to the state.
[[Image:Statue_of_Balto_in_Anchorage.jpg|thumb|right|Statue in downtown Anchorage of [[Balto|Balto]], the lead sled dog during the last part of the [[Iditarod]] serum run.]]
The decade of the 1970s was an important time of growth for the Anchorage economy. On [[March 3]], [[1973]], the first 1049-mile-long (1690 km) [[Iditarod Trail Sled Dog Race]] started from downtown Anchorage with 34 mushers. Twenty-two mushers finished the race, with the last one arriving in [[Nome, Alaska|Nome]] one-month after he left the starting line. In recent years, winners have finished the race in less than 10 days. In 1974, construction begain on the [[Trans-Alaska Pipeline System]], with [[Valdez]], not Anchorage, as its southern terminus. The oil discovery and pipline construction fueled a modern-day boom when oil and construction companies set up their headquarters in Anchorage. The pipeline was completed in 1977 at a cost of more than $8 billion. In 1975, Bicentennial Park was created in Southeast Anchorage. On [[September 15]], [[1975]], the city and borough consolidated forming a [[unified government]]. Also included in this unification were [[Eagle River, Alaska|Eagle River]], [[Eklutna, Alaska|Eklutna]], [[Girdwood, Alaska|Girdwood]], [[Glen Alps, Alaska|Glen Alps]], and several other communities. The unified area became officially known as the [[Anchorage Municipality|Municipality of Anchorage]]. By 1980, the population of Anchorage had grown to 174,431.
The decade of the 1980s was a time of growth, thanks to a flood of North Slope oil revenue into the state treasury. Capital projects and an aggressive beautification program, combined with far-sighted community planning, greatly increased infrastructure and quality of life. These included a new [[library]], [[civic center]], [[arena|sports arena]], and [[performing arts center]]. The 1980s was also a time when Alaska's up-and-down economy struck. The price of oil dropped dramatically, and recession hit Anchorage. But in 1984, [[Hilltop Ski Area]] was established, which along with the [[Alyeska Resort]] in [[Girdwood, Alaska|Girdwood]], and [[Alpenglow at Arctic Valley]] gave residents three fully- operational skiing areas, benefitting tourism and recreational activities. In 1986, Kincaid Outdoor Center opens. In 1989, [[Mount Redoubt]] erupted again, curtailing aviation in the Anchorage area for a short period of time.
The decade of the 1990s was a time when Anchorage saw gold. In 1996, the Arctic Winter Games were held in [[Chugiak]]/[[Eagle River, Alaska|Eagle River]] and, in 1999, the [[Alaska Native Heritage Center]] opened.
On [[July 8]], [[2000]], the municipal airport was renamed "[[Ted Stevens Anchorage International Airport]]" in honor of Alaska's longest-serving [[United States Senator]].
<!-- Unsourced image removed: [[Image:AnchoragewithMcKinleyinthebackground.jpg|thumb|right|280px|A view of downtown Anchorage with a clear view of [[Mount McKinley]] ([[Denali]]) in background.]] -->
In spite of the height limitations on buildings, Anchorage today has an attractive skyline nevertheless, particularly with the [[Chugach Mountains]], [[Cook Inlet]], or the often-visible [[Mount McKinley]] (also known as [[Denali]]) as a backdrop. From Government Hill, one can see the best view of Mount McKinley. Though space is limited in the "Anchorage bowl," as locals call the peninsula on which the city is located, many parks, greenbelts, and other undeveloped areas can be found within the city itself, making it particularly attractive to nature lovers (to say nothing of the attractions available just a short distance outside the city). Over the past thirty years, however, many of these undeveloped areas have filled in with houses, strip malls, and other development. Nonetheless, there is an enormous amount of land under the Anchorage Municipal control, which totals some 1,955 square miles (5063 km&sup2) - about the size of Delaware. The majority of this land is located within the [[Chugach Mountains]] to the east of the city, which also comprises [[Chugach State Park]].
== Geography and climate ==
=== Geography ===
[[Image:Vicinity map of Municipality of Anchorage.gif|right|350px]]
According to the [[United States Census Bureau]], the municipality has a total area of 5,079.2 [[Square Kilometre|km&sup2;]] (1,961.1 [[Square Mile|mi&sup2;]]), 4,395.8 km&sup2; (1,697.2 mi&sup2;) of it is land and 683.4 km&sup2; (263.9 mi&sup2;) of it is water. The total area is 13.46% water.
Anchorage is located in [[South Central Alaska]], at 61 °13'06"North [[latitude]] (about the same as [[Stockholm]] and [[Saint Petersburg|St. Petersburg]]), -149 °53'57"West [[longitude]] (about the same as [[Hawaii]]), northeast of the [[Alaska Peninsula]], [[Kodiak Island]], and [[Cook Inlet]], due north of the [[Kenai Peninsula]], northwest of [[Prince William Sound]] and [[Alaska Panhandle]], and nearly due south of [[Mount McKinley]]/[[Denali]]. The city is situated on a triangular [[peninsula]] bordered on the east by the rugged, scenic, and eminently hike-worthy [[Chugach Mountains]], on the northwest by the [[Knik Arm]], and on the southwest by the [[Turnagain Arm]], upper branches of the Cook Inlet, which itself is the northernmost reach of the [[Pacific Ocean]]. Despite this, the city lacks coastal beaches, instead having wide, treacherous [[mudflats]]. Adjacent to the north is [[Matanuska-Susitna Borough, Alaska]]. To the south is [[Kenai Peninsula Borough, Alaska]], and to the east is [[Valdez-Cordova Census Area, Alaska]].
{{seealso|Anchorage neighborhood communities}}
=== Climate ===
Average daytime summer temperatures are approximately 55 to 80 degrees [[Fahrenheit]] (13 to 27 degrees [[Celsius]]); average daytime winter temperatures are about 5 to 20 degrees (-15 to -7 degrees Celsius) (warmer than many places in the [[The Lower 48|contiguous United States]]). Ted Stevens Anchorage International Airport (PANC) average January low and high temperatures are 9 °F / 22 °F (-13 °C / -5 °C) with an average winter snowfall of 70.60 inches (179.3 cm). The weather on any given day and indeed for entire seasons can be very unpredictable. Some winters feature several feet of snow and bitterly cold temperatures, while others, just a foot or two of snow and frequent thaws, which puts dangerous ice on the streets. On [[March 17]], [[2002]], a record 24-hour ([[St. Patrick's Day]]) [[snow]] storm dumped 25.7 inches (65.3 cm) of snow on the Anchorage area, causing the airport and schools to close on that day, and several days longer for the schools. The 1954-1955 winter had 132.8 inches (337.3 cm), which made it the snowiest winter on record. The coldest [[temperature]] ever recorded at [[Ted Stevens Anchorage International Airport]] was -38 °F (-38.8 °C) on [[February 3]], [[1948]]. Summers are typically very mild and pleasant, though it can rain frequently. There isn't any beach-bathing in Anchorage, except at a few local lakes on the warmest summer days, when those lakeside beaches can be extremely popular. Ted Stevens Anchorage International Airport average July low and high temperatures are 52 °F / 66 °F (11 °C / 19 °C) and the hottest reading ever recorded was 86 °F (30 °C) on [[June 25]], [[1953]]. The average annual precipitation at Ted Stevens Anchorage International Airport is 16.07 inches (40.8 cm). Aside from the winter cold, which most Alaskans don't mind, there are two primary nuisances associated with the seasons: in the summer, mosquitoes (which are much worse out in [[Alaskan Bush|the Bush]] than in the city itself); in the winter, long nights and very short days. Since Anchorage is at such a high latitude, for months in mid-winter, residents go to work in the dark and return home in the dark. Those who don't study or work next to a window can go all week long without seeing the sun.
== Demographics ==
{| class="wikitable" style="float:right; margin-left:3px; text-size:80%; text-align:right"
|align=center colspan=2| '''City of Anchorage <br>Population by year [http://www.muni.org/iceimages/Planning/popu1a.pdf]'''
|-
|1950 || 30,060
|-
|1960 || 82,833
|-
|1970 || 126,385
|-
|1980 || 174,431
|-
|1990 || 226,338
|-
|2000 || 260,283
|}
As of the [[U.S. Census]]{{GR|2}} of 2000, Anchorage had a population of 260,283 and in all the Municipality of Anchorage is home to almost two-fifths of Alaska's population. The [[population density]] is 59.2/ km&sup2; (153.4/ mi&sup2;). There are 100,368 housing units at an average density of 22.8/ km&sup2; (59.1/ mi&sup2;). The racial |
occ|[[Olga Pyleva]]|RUS}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Olga Nazarova]]|BLR}}
|-
| 2003
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Albina Akhatova]]|RUS}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Svetlana Ishmouratova]]|RUS}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Sandrine Bailly]]|FRA}}
|-
| 2004
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Liv Grete Skjelbreid Poirée|Liv Grete Poirée]]|NOR}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Katrin Apel]]|GER}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Sandrine Bailly]]|FRA}}
|-
| [[Biathlon World Championship 2005|2005]]
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Gro Marit Istad-Kristiansen|Gro M. Istad-Kristiansen]]|NOR}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Anna Carin Olofsson]]|SWE}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Olga Pyleva]]|RUS}}
|}
(&sup1; Olena Zubrilova changed her citizenship from Ukrainian to Belarusian in 2002)
=== Relay (4 &times; 7.5/6 km) ===
This event was first held in [[1984]]. Through 1991, the event was 3 &times; 5 km. In 2003, leg distance was set to 6 km.
{| class="wikitable" cellspacing="1"
! Year
! style="background:gold" width="210" | Gold
! style="background:silver" width="210" | Silver
! style="background:#cc9966" width="210" | Bronze
|-
| 1984
|{{URS}}<br />[[Venera Chernychova]]<br />[[Ludmila Sabolotyana]]<br />[[Kaya Parve]]<br />&nbsp;
|{{NOR}}<br />[[Sanna Grønlid]]<br />[[Gry Østvik]]<br />[[Siv Bråthen Lunde|Siv Bråten]]<br />&nbsp;
|{{USA}}<br />[[Holly Beatie]]<br />[[Julie Newman]]<br />[[Kari Swenson]]<br />&nbsp;
|-
| 1985
|{{URS}}<br />[[Venera Chernychova]]<br />[[Elena Golovina]]<br />[[Kaya Parve]]<br />&nbsp;
|{{NOR}}<br />[[Sanna Grønlid]]<br />[[Gry Østvik]]<br />[[Siv Bråten Lunde|Siv Bråten]]<br />&nbsp;
|{{FIN}}<br />[[Pirjo Matilla]]<br />[[Tuija Vouksiala]]<br />[[Teja Nieminen]]<br />&nbsp;
|-
| 1986
|{{URS}}<br />[[Kaya Parve]]<br />[[Nadejda Belova]]<br />[[Venera Chernychova]]<br />&nbsp;
|{{SWE}}<br />[[Eva Korpela]]<br />[[Inger Björkbom]]<br />[[Sabine Karlsson]]<br />&nbsp;
|{{NOR}}<br />[[Sanna Grønlid]]<br />[[Siv Bråten Lunde|Siv Bråten]]<br />[[Anne Elvebakk]]<br />&nbsp;
|-
| 1987
|{{URS}}<br />[[Elena Golovina]]<br />[[Venera Chernychova]]<br />[[Kaya Parve]]<br />&nbsp;
|{{SWE}}<br />[[Inger Björkbom]]<br />[[Mia Stadig]]<br />[[Eva Korpela]]<br />&nbsp;
|{{NOR}}<br />[[Anne Elvebakk]]<br />[[Sanna Grønlid]]<br />[[Siv Bråten Lunde]]<br />&nbsp;
|-
| 1988
|{{URS}}<br />[[Venera Chernychova]]<br />[[Elena Golovina]]<br />[[Kaya Parve]]<br />&nbsp;
|{{NOR}}<br />[[Elin Kristiansen]]<br />[[Anne Elvebakk]]<br />[[Mona Bollerud]]<br />&nbsp;
|{{SWE}}<br />[[Eva Korpela]]<br />[[Inger Björkbom]]<br />[[Mia Stadig]]<br />&nbsp;
|-
| 1989
|{{URS}}<br />[[Natalia Prikostshikova]]<br />[[Svetlana Petcherskaia|Svetlana Davidova]]<br />[[Elena Golovina]]<br />&nbsp;
|{{BGR}}<br />[[Zvetanka Krasteva]]<br />[[Maria Manolova]]<br />[[Nadejda Alexieva]]<br />&nbsp;
|{{TCH}}<br />[[Eva Buresová]]<br />[[Renata Novotná]]<br />[[Jirina Pelcova|Jirina Adamicková]]<br />&nbsp;
|-
| 1990
|{{URS}}<br />[[Elena Batsevich]]<br />[[Elena Golovina]]<br />[[Svetlana Petcherskaia|Svetlana Davidova]]<br />&nbsp;
|{{NOR}}<br />[[Grete Ingeborg Nykkelmo]]<br />[[Anne Elvebakk]]<br />[[Elin Kristiansen]]<br />&nbsp;
|{{FIN}}<br />[[Tuija Vouksialo]]<br />[[Seija Hyytiäinen]]<br />[[Pirjo Matila]]<br />&nbsp;
|-
| 1991
|{{URS}}<br />[[Elena Belova]]<br />[[Elena Golovina]]<br />[[Svetlana Petcherskaia|Svetlana Davidova]]<br />&nbsp;
|{{NOR}}<br />[[Grete Ingeborg Nykkelmo]]<br />[[Anne Elvebakk]]<br />[[Elin Kristiansen]]<br />&nbsp;
|{{GER}}<br />[[Uschi Disl]]<br />[[Kerstin Möring]]<br />[[Antje Harvey|Antje Misersky]]<br />&nbsp;
|-
| 1993
|{{CZE}}<br />[[Jana Vapenikova|Jana Kulhavá]]<br />[[Jirina Pelcova|Jirina Adamicková]]<br />[[Iveta Roubickova|Iveta Knizková]]<br />[[Eva Haková]]
|{{FRA}}<br />[[Corinne Niogret]]<br />[[Véronique Claudel]]<br />[[Delphyne Heymann-Burlet|Delphyne Heymann]]<br />[[Anne Briand]]
|{{RUS}}<br />[[Svetlana Paniutina]]<br />[[Nadejda Talanova]]<br />[[Olga Simushina]]<br />[[Elena Belova]]
|-
| 1995
|{{GER}}<br />[[Uschi Disl]]<br />[[Antje Harvey]]<br />[[Simone Greiner-Petter-Memm]]<br />[[Petra Behle|Petra Schaaf]]
|{{FRA}}<br />[[Corinne Niogret]]<br />[[Véronique Claudel]]<br />[[Florence Baverel]]<br />[[Anne Briand]]
|{{NOR}}<br />[[Ann Elen Skjelbreid]]<br />[[Hildegunn Fossen]]<br />[[Anette Sikveland]]<br />[[Gunn Margit Andreassen]]
|-
| 1996
|{{GER}}<br />[[Uschi Disl]]<br />[[Simone Greiner-Petter-Memm]]<br />[[Katrin Apel]]<br />[[Petra Behle]]
|{{FRA}}<br />[[Corinne Niogret]]<br />[[Florence Baverel]]<br />[[Emmanuelle Claret]]<br />[[Anne Briand]]
|{{UKR}}<br />[[Tetyana Vodopyanova]]<br />[[Valentina Tserbe]]<br />[[Olena Petrova]]<br />[[Olena Zubrilova]]&sup1;
|-
| 1997
|{{GER}}<br />[[Uschi Disl]]<br />[[Simone Greiner-Petter-Memm]]<br />[[Katrin Apel]]<br />[[Petra Behle]]
|{{NOR}}<br />[[Ann Elen Skjelbreid]]<br />[[Anette Sikveland]]<br />[[Liv Grete Skjelbreid Poirée|Liv Grete Skjelbreid]]&sup2;<br />[[Gunn Margit Andreassen]]
|{{RUS}}<br />[[Olga Melnik]]<br />[[Galina Koukleva]]<br />[[Nadejda Talanova]]<br />[[Olga Romasko]]
|-
| 1999
|{{GER}}<br />[[Uschi Disl]]<br />[[Simone Greiner-Petter-Memm]]<br />[[Katrin Apel]]<br />[[Martina Zellner]]
|{{RUS}}<br />[[Nadejda Talanova]]<br />[[Galina Koukleva]]<br />[[Olga Romasko]]<br />[[Albina Akhatova]]
|{{FRA}}<br />[[Delphyne Heymann-Burlet]]<br />[[Florence Baverel]]<br />[[Christelle Gros]]<br />[[Corinne Niogret]]
|-
| 2000
|{{RUS}}<br />[[Olga Pyleva]]<br />[[Svetlana Tchernousova]]<br />[[Galina Koukleva]]<br />[[Albina Akhatova]]
|{{GER}}<br />[[Uschi Disl]]<br />[[Katrin Apel]]<br />[[Andrea Henkel]]<br />[[Martina Zellner]]
|{{UKR}}<br />[[Olena Zubrilova]]&sup1;<br />[[Olena Petrova]]<br />[[Nina Lemesh]]<br />[[Tetyana Vodopyanova]]
|-
| 2001
|{{RUS}}<br />[[Olga Pyleva]]<br />[[Anna Bogaliy-Titovets|Anna Bogaliy]]<br />[[Galina Koukleva]]<br />[[Svetlana Ishmouratova]]
|{{GER}}<br />[[Uschi Disl]]<br />[[Katrin Apel]]<br />[[Andrea Henkel]]<br />[[Kati Wilhelm]]
|{{UKR}}<br />[[Olena Zubrilova]]&sup1;<br />[[Olena Petrova]]<br />[[Nina Lemesh]]<br />[[Tatyana Vodopyanova]]
|-
| 2003
|{{RUS}}<br />[[Albina Akhatova]]<br />[[Svetlana Ishmouratova]]<br />[[Galina Koukleva]]<br />[[Svetlana Tchernousova]]
|{{UKR}}<br />[[Oksana Khvostenko]]<br />[[Irina Merkushina]]<br />[[Oksana Yakovleva]]<br />[[Olena Petrova]]
|{{GER}}<br />[[Simone Denkinger]]<br />[[Uschi Disl]]<br />[[Kati Wilhelm]]<br />[[Martina Glagow]]
|-
| 2004
|{{NOR}}<br />[[Linda Tjørhom]]<br />[[Gro Marit Istad|Gro M. Istad-Kristiansen]]<br />[[Gunn Margit Andreassen]]<br />[[Liv Grete Skjelbreid Poirée|Liv Grete Poirée]]&sup2;
|{{RUS}}<br />[[Olga Pyleva]]<br />[[Svetlana Ishmouratova]]<br />[[Anna Bogaliy-Titovets|Anna Bogaliy]]<br />[[Albina Akhatova]]
|{{GER}}<br />[[Martina Glagow]]<br />[[Katrin Apel]]<br />[[Simone Denkinger]]<br />[[Kati Wilhelm]]
|-
| [[Biathlon World Championship 2005|2005]]
|{{RUS}}<br />[[Olga Pyleva]]<br />[[Svetlana Ishmouratova]]<br />[[Anna Bogaliy-Titovets]]<br />[[Olga Zaitseva]]
|{{GER}}<br />[[Uschi Disl]]<br />[[Katrin Apel]]<br />[[Andrea Henkel]]<br />[[Kati Wilhelm]]
|{{BLR}}<br />[[Ekaterina Ivanova]]<br />[[Olga Nazarova]]<br />[[Ludmilla Ananko]]<br />[[Olena Zubrilova]]&sup1;
|}
(&sup1; Olena Zubrilova changed her citizenship from Ukrainian to Belarusian in 2002)<br />
(&sup2; Liv Grete Skjelbreid married biathlete Raphaël Poirée in 2000)
=== Team ===
This event was held from [[1989]] to 1998.
{| class="wikitable" cellspacing="1"
! Year
! style="background:gold" width="210" | Gold
! style="background:silver" width="210" | Silver
! style="background:#cc9966" width="210" | Bronze
|-
| 1989
|{{URS}}
|{{NOR}}
|{{FRG}}
|-
| 1990
|{{URS}}
|{{FRG}}
|{{BGR}}
|-
| 1991
|{{URS}}
|{{BGR}}
|{{NOR}}
|-
| 1992
|{{GER}}
|{{EUN}}
|{{TCH}}
|-
| 1993
|{{FRA}}
|{{BLR}}
|{{POL}}
|-
| 1994
|{{BLR}}
|{{NOR}}
|{{FRA}}
|-
| 1995
|{{NOR}}
|{{GER}}
|{{FRA}}
|-
| 1996
|{{GER}}
|{{UKR}}
|{{FRA}}
|-
| 1997
|{{NOR}}
|{{RUS}}
|{{UKR}}
|-
| 1998
|{{RUS}}
|{{NOR}}
|{{FIN}}
|}
==Mixed==
''[[Romanization#Cyrillic|Romanization]] of [[Cyrillic alphabet]]-based names follows the [[Biathlon#Governing body|IBU]]'s athlete records''.
===Relay (4 &times; 6 km)===
This event was first held in [[Biathlon World Championship 2005|2005]], at the [[Biathlon World Cup champions|BWC]] finals in [[Khanty-Mansiysk]].
{| class="wikitable" cellspacing="1"
! Year
! style="background:gold" width="210" | Gold
! style=& |
in of which was initially a mystery. Crater chains seen on the [[Moon]] often radiate from large craters, and are thought to be caused by secondary impacts of the original ejecta, but the chains on the [[Jovian planet|Jovian]] moons did not lead back to a larger crater. The impact of SL9 strongly implied that the chains were due to trains of disrupted cometary fragments crashing into the satellites.
<br clear=all />
==Jupiter as a "cosmic vacuum cleaner"==
The impact of SL9 highlighted Jupiter's role as a kind of "cosmic vacuum cleaner" for the inner solar system. Studies have shown that the planet's strong gravitational influence leads to many small comets and [[asteroid]]s colliding with the planet, and the rate of cometary impacts on Jupiter is thought to be between two and ten times higher than the rate on Earth <sup>[14]</sup>
If Jupiter were not present, these small bodies could collide with the inner planets instead. The extinction of the [[dinosaur]]s at the end of the [[Cretaceous]] period is generally believed to have been caused by the impact which created the [[Chicxulub crater]], demonstrating that impacts are a serious threat to life on Earth. Astronomers have speculated that without Jupiter to mop up potential impactors, extinction events might have been much more frequent on Earth, and complex life may not have been able to develop <sup>[15]</sup>. This is part of the argument used in the [[Rare Earth hypothesis]].
==References==
# Benner L. A. M., McKinnon W. B. (1994), ''Pre-Impact Orbital Evolution of P/Shoemaker-Levy 9'', Abstracts of the 25th Lunar and Planetary Science Conference, held in Houston, TX, 14–[[18 March]] [[1994]]., p.93
# Martin T. Z. (1994), ''Shoemaker-Levy 9: Temperature, Diameter and Energy of Fireballs'', DPS meeting #28, Bulletin of the American Astronomical Society, v. 28, p.1085
# Weissman P. R., Carlson R. W., Hui J., Segura M. E., Smythe W. D., Baines K. H. (1995), ''Galileo NIMS Direct Observation of the Shoemaker-Levy 9 Fireballs and Fall Back'', Abstracts of the Lunar and Planetary Science Conference, v. 26, p. 1483
# McGrath M. A., Noll K. S., Weaver H. A., Yelle R. V., Trafton L., Caldwell J. F. (1995), ''HST Spectroscopic Observations of Jupiter Following the Impact of Comet Shoemaker-Levy 9'', American Astronomical Society, 185th AAS Meeting, Bulletin of the American Astronomical Society, v.26, p.1374
# Ingersoll A. P., [[Hiroo Kanamori|Kanamori H.]] (1995), ''Waves from the collisions of comet Shoemaker-Levy 9 with Jupiter.'', Nature, v.374, p. 706–8.
# Olano, C. A. (1999), ''Jupiter's Synchrotron Emission Induced by the Collision of Comet Shoemaker-Levy 9'', Astrophysics and Space Science, v. 266,p. 347–369
# Bauske R., Combi M. R., Clarke J. T. (1999) ''Analysis of Mid-latitude Auroral Emissions Observed during the Impact of Comet Shoemaker-Levy 9 with Jupiter'', Icarus, v. 142, p. 106–15
# [[Michael E. Brown|Brown M. E.]], Moyer E. J., Bouchez A. H., Spinrad H. (1995), ''Comet Shoemaker-Levy 9: No effect on the Io plasma torus'', Geophysical Research Letters, v. 22, p. 1833–1836
# Hu Z. W., Chu Y., Zhang, K. (1996), ''On Penetration Depth of the Shoemaker-Levy 9 Fragments into the Jovian Atmosphere'', Earth, Moon and Planets, v. 73, p. 147–155
# Hockey T. A. (1994), ''The Shoemaker-Levy 9 spots on Jupiter: Their place in history'', Earth, Moon, and Planets (ISSN 0167-9295), v. 66, p. 1–9
# McGrath M. A., Yelle R. V., Bétrémieux Y. (1996), ''Long-term Chemical Evolution of the Jupiter Stratosphere Following the SL9 Impacts'', American Astronomical Society, DPS meeting 28, Bulletin of the American Astronomical Society, V. 28, p.1149
# Bézard B. (1997), ''Long-term response of Jupiter's thermal structure to the SL9 impacts'', Planetary and Space Science, v. 45, p. 1251–1270
# Moreno R., Marten A., Biraud Y., Bézard B., Lellouch E., Paubert G., Wild W. (2001), ''Jovian stratospheric temperature during the two months following the impacts of comet Shoemaker-Levy 9'', Planetary and Space Science, v. 49, p. 473–486
# Nakamura T., Kurahashi H. (1998), ''Collisional probability of periodic comets with the terrestrial planets - an invalid case of analytic formulation'', Astronomical Journal, v. 11, p. 848
# Wetherill, G. W. (1994), ''Possible consequences of absence of Jupiters in planetary systems'', Astrophysics and Space Science, v. 212, p. 23–32
# Chodas P. W., and Yeomans D. K. (1996), ''The Orbital Motion and Impact Circumstances of Comet Shoemaker-Levy 9'', in ''The Collision of Comet Shoemaker-Levy 9 and Jupiter'', edited by K. S. Noll, [[Paul D. Feldman|P. D. Feldman]], and H. A. Weaver, Cambridge University Press, pp. 1-30
# Chodas P. W. (2002), [http://www.lns.cornell.edu/~seb/celestia/elements_1993e_.txt ''Communication of Orbital Elements to Selden E. Ball, Jr.''] Accessed [[February 21]], [[2006]]
# Landis R. R. (1994) [http://www.seds.org/sl9/landis.html ''Comet P/Shoemaker-Levy's Collision with Jupiter: Covering HST's Planned Observations from Your Planetarium''], in Proceedings of the International Planetarium Society Conference held at the Astronaut Memorial Planetarium & Observatory, Cocoa, Florida, 10-16 July 1994
<!---
The various author full names are:
* Lance A. M. Benner
* William B. McKinnon
* Terry Z. Martin
* Paul R. Weissman
* Richard W. Carlson
* John Hui
* Marcia E. Segura
* William D. Smythe
* Kevin H. Baines
* Melissa A. McGrath
* Keith S. Noll
* Harold A. Weaver
* Roger V. Yelle
* Laurence M. Trafton
* John F. Caldwell
* Andrew P. Ingersoll
* Hiroo Kanamori
* Carlos A. Olano
* Rainer Bauske
* Michael R. Combi
* John T. Clarke
* Michael E. Brown
* Elisabeth J. Moyer
* Antonin H. Bouchez
* Hyron Spinrad
* Zhong-Wei Hu
* Yi Chu
* Kai-Jun Zhang
* Thomas A. Hockey
* Yan Bétrémieux
* Bruno Bézard
* Raphaël Moreno
* André Marten
* Yvon Biraud
* Emmanuel Lellouch
* Gabriel Paubert
* Walter Wild
* Takashi Nakamura
* George W. Wetherhill
* Paul W. Chodas
* Donald K. Yeomans
* Paul D. Feldman
* Rob R. Landis
--->
==External links==
{{Spoken Wikipedia|Comet_Shoemaker-Levy_9.ogg|2005-11-19}}
* [http://www.physics.sfasu.edu/astro/sl9.html Comet Shoemaker-Levy 9 FAQ]
* [http://www.seds.org/sl9/sl9.html Comet Shoemaker-Levy 9 Photo Gallery]
* [http://apod.gsfc.nasa.gov/apod/ap001105.html Jupiter Swallows Comet Shoemaker Levy 9]
* [http://www2.jpl.nasa.gov/sl9/sl9.html Comet Shoemaker-Levy Collision with Jupiter]
* [http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/comet.html National Space Science Data Center information]
==See also==
* [[Impact event]]
* [[Mushroom cloud]]
{{featured article}}
[[Category:Comets|Shoemaker-Levy 9]]
[[Category:Impact events]]
[[ca:Cometa Shoemaker-Levy 9]]
[[de:Shoemaker-Levy 9]]
[[es:Cometa Shoemaker-Levy 9]]
[[fr:Comète Shoemaker-Levy 9]]
[[ko:슈메이커-레비 9 혜성]]
[[is:Shoemaker-Levy 9]]
[[it:Cometa Shoemaker-Levy 9]]
[[nl:Shoemaker-Levy 9]]
[[ja:シューメーカー・レヴィ第9彗星]]
[[pl:Shoemaker-Levy 9]]
[[pt:Cometa Shoemaker-Levy 9]]
[[sk:Kométa Shoemaker-Levy 9]]
[[fi:Shoemaker-Levy 9]]
[[sv:Shoemaker–Levy 9]]
[[vi:Sao chổi Shoemaker-Levy 9]]
[[zh:苏梅克-列维9号彗星]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Ceres Brewery</title>
<id>6796</id>
<revision>
<id>34041845</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-06T00:12:05Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Angelbo</username>
<id>511847</id>
</contributor>
<comment>added brewbox</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{brewbox_begin|name=Ceres Bryggeriet A/S}}
<!-- {{brewbox_image|image=[[Image:albanilogo.gif|100 px|]]|caption=Ceres corporate logo}} -->
{{brewbox_location|location=[[Århus]], [[Denmark]]}}
{{brewbox_owner|owner=[[Royal Unibrew]]}}
{{brewbox_opened|year=[[1856]]}}
{{brewbox_beers}}
{{brewbox_beer|name=Ceres TOP Pilsner|style=[[Pilsner]]}}
{{brewbox_beer|name=Ceres TOP Classic|style=[[Pilsner]]}}
{{brewbox_beer|name=Bering Bryg|style=[[Porter]]}}
{{brewbox_beer|name=Cerest MALT øl|style=[[Pilsner]]}}
{{brewbox_beers|type=Seasonal}}
{{brewbox_beer|name=Julehvidtøl|style=Christmas Beer}}
{{brewbox_end}}
The '''Ceres Brewery''' is a [[brewery]] located in [[Aarhus]], [[Denmark]]. Today, it is part of [[Royal Unibrew]].
It was founded by a [[grocer]] named [[M. C. Lottrup]], with help from the [[chemist]]s A. S. Aagard and Knud Redelien, as the city's seventh brewery. It was named after the [[Rome|Roman]] [[goddess]] [[Ceres (mythology)|Ceres]], and its opening was announced in the local [[newspaper]], ''Stifstidende'', in [[1856]].
The brewery was successful, and Lottrup became one of the most prominent people of Aarhus. After ten years, he extended the brewery, adding a grand building as his own private residence, where he entertained other local figures.
Lottrup's son-in-law, L. Christian Meulengracht, took over the running of the brewery after that, and was in charge for nearly thirty years, expanding it further. He then sold it to another brewery, [[Østjyske Bryggerier A/S]].
The brewery gained more esteem in [[1914]] when it was made "Purveyor to the Royal Danish Court".
== External links ==
* The official web-site of the Ceres Brewery
** [http://www.ceres.dk/ Danish version]
** [http://www.ceresbrew.com/ English version] - includes a history of the brewery
[[Category:Danish breweries]]
[[Category:Companies of Denmark]]
[[Category:Brands of Denmark]]
[[da:Ceres (bryggeri)]]
[[de:Bryggerigruppen]]
[[no:Ceres Bryggerierne]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Cable TV</title>
<id>6797</id>
<revision>
<id>15904915</id>
<timestamp>2002-10-30T15:43:27Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Tarquin</username>
<id>83</id>
</contributor>
<comment>manual #REDIRECT [[Cable television]] (can't move, that page has history)</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Cable television]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>CATV</title>
<id>6798</id>
<revision |
cal genre|style]] of [[hip hop music]] distinguished by beats, samples, and lyrics that differ from the general template of popular commercial hip hop. Positive lyrics are often a hallmark of alternative hip hop, which detract from the materialistic and sexually fueled lyrics of mainstream hip hop. Although some listeners may associate live instrumentation with alternative hip hop, this distinction is invalid because popular rap acts like [[J-Kwon]] and The Roots use live instruments as well. Alternative hip hop artists generally have not achieved the same level of mainstream success that commercial rap and other forms of the genre have seen, although they are often critically acclaimed. Interestingly, alternative hip hop has developed differently from virtually every other [[musical genre]], with its originators ([[De La Soul]], [[A Tribe Called Quest]]) being more popular than later innovators ([[Guru (rapper)|Guru]], [[Mos Def]], [[Common]]). This is why some consider alternative hip hop more a trend than a rigid genre within hip hop.
The term "alternative hip hop", coined by music scholars, can be considered something of a misnomer: artists labeled as "alternative hip hop" musicians usually record and perform in styles that are more closely related to the original concepts and styles of hip hop music and [[hip hop culture]], as opposed to their more popular [[gangsta rap|commercial counterparts]]. [[DJ Kool Herc]], the inventor of hip hop music, once said in an essay about hip hop, that "it's not about keeping it real. It's about keeping it right." In this sense, many would argue that alternative hip hop might not be so much an alternative as much as it is a continuation of the original concepts and ideals of hip hop.
==The late 1980s==
{| align="right"
|-
| [[Image:DeLaSoul3FeetHighandRisingalbumcover.jpg]]
|}Alternative hip hop is usually said to have begun with [[De La Soul]]'s landmark ''[[3 Feet High and Rising]]'' ([[1989]], [[1989 in music]]). The trio's distinctive style, mixing unique sampling sources (such as [[The Turtles]] and [[Johnny Cash]]) with spacey, [[hippie]]-ish lyrics and a sense of humor, made the album a commercial and critical success. With its inclusion of pre-recorded bits from outlandish sources, such as a [[French language]] instruction tape, the release foreshadowed the self-referential [[Sampling (music)|sampling]] kaleidoscope that would soon envelop hip hop (and pop music in general).
In addition to ''3 Feet High and Rising'', influential singles were released one year previously, in [[1988]] (see [[1988 in music]]), by [[Gang Starr]] ("Words I Manifest") and [[Stetsasonic]] ("Talkin' All That Jazz"); these two singles fused hip hop with jazz in a way never done before, and helped lead to the development of [[jazz rap]].
1989 also saw the release of:
*[[Def Jef]]'s landmark ''[[Just a Poet With a Soul]]'', which included [[Etta James]], an influential [[1960s]] [[soul music|soul]] singer on one track
*[[Gang Starr]]'s debut, ''[[No More Mr. Nice Guy (Gang Starr album)|No More Mr. Nice Guy]]'', which is often considered the first LP to mix hip hop and jazz
*[[Jungle Brothers]]' critically acclaimed second album ''[[Done By the Forces of Nature]]'', which included [[dance music|dance]] beats and achieved some mainstream success
*[[Queen Latifah]]'s [[feminism|feminist]] tract ''[[All Hail the Queen]]''.
==Early 1990s==
During the early [[1990s]], mainstream hip hop was dominated by the [[West Coast hip hop|West Coast]] [[G-Funk]] (like [[Dr. Dre]] and [[Snoop Doggy Dogg]]). Other artists found success difficult to achieve, though some East Coast acts, such as [[Puff Daddy]]'s empire of [[East Coast hip hop]] artists ([[Bad Boy Records]]) gained chart success ([[Mary J. Blige]]'s [[1992]] ''[[What's the 411?]]'') as well as critical success ([[Nas (rapper)|Nas]]'s [[1994]] ''[[Illmatic]]''), though rarely both at the same time.
===The Underground Emerges===
{| align="left"
|-
| [[Image:Innercity_griots.jpg]]
|}
While [[gangsta rap]] dominated the charts, the East Coast alternative sound began to lose its luster. Strangely enough, underground hip hop, as we know it today, was born on the streets of South Central Los Angeles, best represented by the seminal [[Freestyle Fellowship]]. Consisting of members Aceyalone, Mikah 9, P.E.A.C.E., and Self Jupiter, the [[Freestyle Fellowship]] married conscious lyrics with spectacular, jazz-like rhyme cadences. Their "[[To Whom It May Concern]]" and "[[Innercity Griots]]" albums remain as the most influential albums in the history of underground hip hop. Furthermore, the DIY ethic of selling tapes and CDs "out of the trunk" to record stores and directly to fans would soon be adopted by the underground rappers around the world.
Spurred by the Freestyle Fellowship, other West Coast artists like [[The Pharcyde]] (''[[Bizarre Ride II the Pharcyde]]'', [[1992]]) and the [[Disposable Heroes of Hiphoprisy]] (''[[Hypocrisy Is the Greatest Luxury]]'', [[1992]]) also rose to prominence in the field. Despite the popularity of Bay Area [[Booty Rap]]per [[Too Short]], Oakland gave birth to underground artists [[Del tha Funkee Homosapien]] (cousin to [[Gangsta Rap]]per [[Ice Cube]]) and [[Souls of Mischief]] with their seminal album ("[[93 'til Infinity]]"). Alongside these West Coast groups were generally more popular East Coast groups like [[A Tribe Called Quest]] (''[[People's Instinctive Travels and the Paths of Rhythm]]'', [[1990]]) and [[Gang Starr]] (''[[Step in the Arena]]'', [[1991]]). International groups, like Britain's [[The Brand New Heavies]] (''[[Heavy Rhyme Experience, Vol. 1]]'', [[1992]]) and [[Massive Attack]] (''[[Blue Lines]]'', [[1991]]) helped combine hip hop with [[R&B]] and [[electronica]], respectively.
A Tribe Called Quest's [[1991]] album ''[[The Low-End Theory]]'' is regarded as one of the most influential recordings in alternative hip hop, especially with its timely indictment of the perceived commercializing and demoralizing effects of the music industry, then tearing hip hop apart into multiple competing genres, all rushing to sell out for mainstream success; the album also tackles subjects like [[date rape]] and [[rap feud]]s. ''The Low End Theory'' includes the legendary [[upright bass]]ist [[Ron Carter]] and the [[Leaders of the New School]] (which included future superstar [[Busta Rhymes]]).
While A Tribe Called Quest and De La Soul are considered jazz-rappers, the pioneer of an actual fusion between the two genres is unquestionably the Freestyle Fellowship. Their collaborations with live jazz bands, including the likes of [[Horace Tapscott]], date back to 1990. This inspired other artist s like [[Guru (rapper)|Guru]], whose [[1993]] ''[[Jazzmatazz, Vol. 1]]'' was a critically acclaimed solo debut with live jazz backing. A jazz band including [[Lonnie Liston Smith]], [[Roy Ayers]], [[Branford Marsalis]] and [[Donald Byrd]] solos in the background while Guru (and guests like the [[Senegal]]ese-[[France|French]] [[MC Solaar]]) raps.
Stubbornly insisting on sticking to their themes and ideas, alternative hip hop artists were able to incorporate elements of virtually every form of music around at the time.
{| align="right"
|-
| [[Image:ArrestedDevelopment3Years,5Months&2DaysintheLifeOf....jpg]]
|}
Meanwhile, [[Christian hip hop]] group and pioneering [[Southern rap]] crew [[Arrested Development (rap)|Arrested Development]] scored big with [[1992]]'s ''[[3 Years, 5 Months and 2 Days in the Life of...]]'', which put Southern hip hop on the map. The album was particularly successful with non-hip hop fans, listeners who were turned off by the macho posturing of many other groups, and who wanted a safer alternative. Arrested Development's focus on peace and love and groovy beats made them relatively accessible, though their devout [[Christianity]] (reflected in the lyrics) also made them unattractive to some audiences.
==Genres related to alternative hip hop==
''Alternative hip hop'' generally refers to a specific style of hip hop that is opposed to the mainstream sounds of [[gangsta rap]]. However, certain other hip hop fusion genres are closely related to this genre, including a mixture of [[1970s]]-style [[soul music]] and hip hop called [[neo soul]].
===Neo soul===
[[Image:LaurynHillTheMiseducationofLaurynHillalbumcover.jpg|right]]
Hip hop also influenced [[R&B]] music in the 1990s. By the time hip hop began to enter the mainstream, R&B was rapidly losing its most legendary artists. While [[Michael Jackson]], [[Prince (artist)|Prince]], [[Tina Turner]] and [[Whitney Houston]] remained popular, the genre was seen as stunted and atrophied. Soon after, hip hop began to dominate what mainstream audiences thought of as ''African-American music'' with the release of [[Dr. Dre]]'s blockbuster ''[[The Chronic]]''. R&B became less popular among mainstream audiences, and several of the groups achieving commercial success mostly failing to find critical acclaim. The groups that did succeed incorporated hip hop beats and [[doo wop]] influences; these include [[Guy]] (''[[The Future (album)|The Future]]'', [[1990]]) and [[Boyz II Men]] (''[[Cooleyhighharmony]]'', [[1991]]). [[Mary J. Blige]]'s ''[[What's the 411?]]'' from [[1992]] was especially innovative, and lead to a style of [[R&B]] called [[hip hop soul]] that was popular during the early to mid 1990s.
During the mid- to late 90s, the hip hop soul sound was blended with a retro 1970s [[soul music]] feel, resulting in a new genre called ''neo soul''. Widely regarded as a pioneer of the genre, [[D'Angelo]]'s [[1995]] ''[[Brown Sugar]]'' was profoundly influential in its development, while a group of female artists like [[Erykah Badu]] (''[[Baduizm]]'', [[1997]]), [[Lauryn Hill]] (''[[The Miseducation of La |
voters from Memphis do not vote tactically (perhaps because they think they have a chance of winning outright, perhaps because they dislike insincerity, etc.), voters from Nashville can improve their result by "compromising" and ranking Chattanooga over Nashville. This would allow Chattanooga to defeat Knoxville in the first round and go on to become eventual winner, a better result for Nashville voters than a Knoxville win.
Nearly all voting methods produce an incentive to use the compromising strategy in some scenarios, i.e. in scenarios where there is no [[Condorcet criterion|Condorcet winner]]. However, IRV clearly has more frequent compromising incentive than [[Condorcet method|Condorcet methods]], in that it sometimes produces a compromising incentive even when there is a [[Condorcet criterion|Condorcet winner]].
This problem is exacerbated in versions of IRV that do not allow equal rankings. If voters do choose to compromise in a version of IRV that does not allow equal rankings, they will have to so by ranking a more-preferred candidate ''below'' a less-preferred candidate, which is a more severe distortion of their sincere preferences than ranking them equally.
==== Push-over ====
IRV is unusual in that it fails the [[monotonicity criterion]]. The implication of this is that it is vulnerable to the "push-over" [[tactical voting|strategy]]. Tactical voters can benefit by raising "push-overs" (candidates unlikely to win) above their real favorite, causing a stronger opponent to their favorite to be eliminated early, leaving only the push-over to contend with their favorite in the last round.
This strategy typically requires a great deal of coordination, and typically entails a substantial risk of backfire. Thus, some argue that IRV's vulnerability to the strategy will rarely or never manifest in practice.
==== Failure to pick a compromise candidate ====
Imagine that candidates are located along a one dimensional ideological spectrum, and that the center of the spectrum is defined by the median voter. IRV does not reliably choose the option closest to the center of the spectrum. Thus it can be argued that IRV is less apt at choosing compromise candidates (than for example the [[Condorcet method|Condorcet methods]]), and more likely to choose an ideologically polar candidate.
For example, this failure can occur in a 3-choice election where parties A and C are bitterly opposed, and party B is first choice for a minority but tolerable for a large majority. For a real-life example, consider the 17th-century Europe struggle over "government-enforced [[Catholicism]]" versus "government-enforced [[Protestantism]]", with "freedom of private worship" as the compromise B.
Imagine that votes are cast as follows:
{| border=1
!38% of voters
!11% of voters
!13% of voters
!38% of voters
|-
|1. A
|1. B
|1. B
|1. C
|-
|2. B
|2. A
|2. C
|2. B
|-
|3. C
|3. C
|3. A
|3. A
|}
In IRV, the compromise (choice B) is eliminated immediately. Choice C is elected, arguably giving severely lower total satisfaction amongst voters than choice B, who is preferred by a large majority to A, and who is also preferred by a large majority to C.
===Logistical issues===
IRV fails the [[summability criterion]], which means that the results for a particular precinct cannot be conveniently summarized for transfer to the central tally location. Instead, the precincts must send a total record of every ordering of the candidates made by a voter, times the frequency of that ordering. The unwieldiness of this data may prolong the counting procedure, provide more opportunities for undetected tampering than in summable methods and make recounts more costly.
If counting takes place in several places for a single IRV election (as in Australia), these counting centers must be connected by a securely authenticated channel (historically the telegraph was used) to inform them which candidate has come last and should be dropped.
===Logistical issues in Australia===
==== House of Representatives ====
Initially, in Australia, ballots are counted at the booth level, with first preference results reported to the Divisional Returning officer and then to the National Tally Room. If it is clear who the two leading candidates will be, a notional distribution of the preferences of the minor candidates may be made. Postal and absentee ballots are of course yet to be processed - that takes another week or two.
Over the next few weeks, ballots and matching documentation are concentrated in the offices of the Divisional Returning Officer, where a actual distribution of preferences is made. This may be done by physically moving the ballots around, or by entering ballot data into a suitable computer.
If a candidate wins 51% of first preferences, a distribution of minor party preferences is strictly speaking not necessary, however the law now allows that such preferences be distributed to see what the "two-party preferred vote" actually is.
Federal elections are conducted by the Australian Electoral Commission, who employ all the workers at all the booths, to a common standard of neutrality and efficiency. Candidates may appoint scrutineers to watch (but not touch) what is going on.
==Other single-winner methods==
IRV is not the only alternative to the [[Plurality voting|plurality]] system. Other possible reforms include several different [[Condorcet method|Condorcet methods]] (e.g. [[ranked pairs]] and [[Schulze method|Schulze]]), [[approval voting]], [[range voting]], the [[Borda count]], [[Bucklin voting|Bucklin]], and many others. (See the [[voting systems]] article.)
==U.S. Legislation==
On May 26, 2005, Representative [[Cynthia McKinney]] introduced [http://www.govtrack.us/congress/bill.xpd?bill=h109-2690 H.R.2690], the "Voter Choice Act of 2005," which requires the use of Instant Runoff Voting for General Elections for Federal Office. The [[bill]] has no co-sponsors, and has sat without action in the [[U.S. House Committee on House Administration]] since the date of introduction.
==See also==
*[[Alternative vote top-up]]
*[[Single Transferable Vote]]
*[[List of democracy and elections-related topics]]
*[[Table of voting systems by nation]]
*[[Australian electoral system]]
*[[Electoral systems of the Australian states and territories]]
*[[Voting system]] - many other ways of voting
*[[Runoff voting]]
*[[First Past the Post electoral system]]
*[[Approval voting]]
*[[Condorcet method]]
*[[Borda count]]
*[[Politics of Papua New Guinea|Papua New Guinea]] uses an IRV variant known as ''Limited Preferential Vote''
==External links==
* Advocacy organizations
** [http://www.fairvote.org/irv Instant Runoff Voting] at the [[Center for Voting and Democracy]]
** [http://instantrunoff.com instantrunoff.com], by the Midwest Democracy Center [http://www.midwestdemocracy.org/]
** [http://www.firv.org FIRV] ([[Ferndale, Michigan]] for Instant Runoff Voting)
** [http://www.calirv.org/ California IRV Coalition]
** [http://cirv.org Coalition for Instant Runoff Voting in '''Florida''']
** [[Green Party (United States)]]
** [http://www.usalone.com/cgi-bin/petition.cgi?pnum=114 e-mail ] your [[U.S. Representative]] to Support H.R. 2690, "The Voter's Choice Act of 2005."
* Advocacy positions
** [http://www.isye.gatech.edu/~jjb/papers/stv.pdf "Single Transferable Vote Resists Strategic Voting"] ([[Portable Document Format|PDF]] file) by John J. Bartholdi, III and James B. Orlin.
** [http://thedemocraticagenda.blogspot.com/2005/01/what-is-instant-runoff-voting.html "What is Instant Runoff Voting?"] a [[weblog]] ''The Democratic Agenda'', [[January 1]], [[2005]]
* Con positions
** [http://www.tfproject.org/tfp/archive/index.php/t-73366.html "The Problem with Instant Runoff Voting"]
* Analysis positions
** [http://www.mcdougall.org.uk/VM/ISSUE15/P2.HTM Nonmonotonicity in AV] Article by Eivind Stensholt.
** [http://www.condorcet.org/rp/IRV.shtml Comparison] with [[Condorcet method|Condorcet Voting]] by Blake Cretney
** [http://fc.antioch.edu/~james_green-armytage/voting.htm Voting methods: tutorial and essays] by James Green-Armytage (for IRV, see e.g. [http://fc.antioch.edu/~james_green-armytage/vm/survey.htm#irv 1] [http://fc.antioch.edu/~james_green-armytage/vm/define.htm 2] [http://fc.antioch.edu/~james_green-armytage/vm/introduction.htm#irv 3] [http://fc.antioch.edu/~james_green-armytage/vm/cvdletter.htm 4] [http://fc.antioch.edu/~james_green-armytage/vm/value_of_first_choice.htm 5])
** [http://www.ijs.co.nz/irv-wrong-winners.htm Advocacy of the "Avy" method, opposition to IRV]
* Examples
** [http://www.demochoice.org/dcballot.php?poll=1984 IRV Poll For 2008 U.S. Democratic Party Nomitee] at demochoice.org
** [http://www.mnip.org/caucusresults.htm IRV poll for U.S. President, 2004] by the [[Independence Party of Minnesota]]
** [http://stv.sourceforge.net/ pSTV -- Open source software for computing IRV and STV]
** [[Australian Electoral Commission]] [http://www.aec.gov.au/]
** [http://www.demochoice.org/dcballot.php?poll=Futurama1 ''Favourite Futurama Character Poll'']
* Legislation
** U.S. [http://www.govtrack.us/congress/bill.xpd?bill=h109-2690 House Resolution 2690] the "Voter's Choice Act of 2005"
[[Category:Voting systems]]
[[de:Instant-Runoff-Voting]]
[[fr:Vote alternatif]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Islamism</title>
<id>15012</id>
<revision>
<id>42115019</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T22:43:28Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>209.115.232.94</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Islamism''' refers to a set of political ideologies derived from various [[religion|religious views]] of [[Muslim fundamentalism|Muslim fundamentalists]], which hold that [[Islam]] is not only a religion, but also a political system that can govern the legal, economic an |
tism|Protestant]] denominations, especially among [[Evangelicalism|Evangelicals]] such as the [[Southern Baptist Convention]]. However, there has been a minority of interpreters who have advanced a different understanding of these passages and have argued that homosexuality can be seen as moral. This approach has been taken by a number of churches, notably the [[Metropolitan Community Church]].
There are also theologians within denominations which still officially regard homosexual sex as sinful who take the opposite view. Most notably, the [[Anglican Communion]]'s leader, the [[Archbishop of Canterbury]], [[Rowan Williams]], regards same-sex relationships as moral, while most churches within the Anglican Communion do not hold this position. Many denominations have therefore experienced deep divisions over this topic, including the Anglican Communion, especially after the consecration of [[Gene Robinson]] as a [[bishop]] in the [[Episcopal Church in the United States of America]], who was the first openly [[gay bishop]] in the Communion.
==The Bible and homosexuality==
{{main|The Bible and homosexuality}}
The [[Bible]] is regarded by most Christians as inspired by God or at least recording God's relationship with humanity and includes within it certain [[moral]] teachings. Passages from the Bible commonly used in the debate over homosexuality include [[Leviticus 18]] and 21, and [[Epistle to the Romans|Romans]] 1. The arguments over these passages have centered on to what extent these passages are still relevant, whether they refer only to certain sexual acts or to homosexual orientation and how they should be interpreted, understood and applied.
==Early Christianity==
Many [[Church Fathers]] condemned homosexuality [http://www.catholic.com/library/Early_Teachings_on_Homosexuality.asp ]. In his fourth homily on Romans [http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/210204.htm ], St. [[John Chrysostom]] argued in the fourth century that homosexual intercourse is worse than murder and so degrading that it constitutes a kind of punishment in itself, and that their enjoyment actually makes it worse, "for suppose I were to see a person running naked, with his body all besmeared with mire, and yet not covering himself, but exulting in it, I should not rejoice with him, but should rather bewail that he did not even perceive that he was doing shamefully." He also said:
:But nothing can there be more worthless than a man who has pandered himself. For not the soul only, but the body also of one who hath been so treated, is disgraced, and deserves to be driven out everywhere.
The [[Council of Ancyra]] (314) prescribed a penance of at least twenty years' duration for those guilty of "bestial lust" [http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/3802.htm]. There is dispute whether this reference is to homosexuality or bestiality, but it was recieved in the West as governing penances for sodomy [http://krotov.info/spravki/temy/g/gomosex2.html].
[[Image:Sergebac7thcentury.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Saints Sergius and Bacchus]]
Whether such condemnations are fully characteristic of early Christianity is debated. Historian [[John Boswell]] has argued that [[Adelphopoiesis]], a Christian [[rite]] for uniting two persons of the same sex as brothers or sisters, amounted to an approved outlet for romantic and indeed sexual love between couples of the same sex. He drew attention to [[Saints Sergius and Bacchus]], whose [[icon]] depicts the two standing together with [[Jesus]] between or behind them, a position he identifies with a pronubus or "best man". Others have argued that the union created was more like [[Blood brother|blood brotherhood]]; and that this icon is a typical example of an icon depicting two [[saint]]s who were [[martyr]]ed together, with the usual image of [[Christ]] that appears on most religious icons, and therefore that there is no indication that it depicts a wedding. In his essay ''The Church and the Homosexual'' [http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/pwh/1979boswell.html], he attributes Christianity's denunciations of homosexuality to alleged rising intolerance in [[Europe]] in the [[12th century]], which he claims was also reflected in other ways. This theory is disputed by critics who cite the numerous doctrinal sources before the twelfth century that condemned homosexual intercourse.
{{main|History of Christianity and homosexuality}}
==The Middle Ages==
[[Image:Benozzo Gozzoli 004a.jpg|thumb|200px|left|St. Thomas Aquinas]]
The most influential theologian of the [[High Middle Ages|Medieval]] period is [[Thomas Aquinas]], regarded by Catholics as a [[Doctor of the Church]]. His [[moral theology]] contained a strong element of [[Teleology|teleological]] [[natural law]]. On his view, not all things to which a person might be inclined are "natural" in the morally relevant sense; rather, only the inclination to the full and proper expression of the human nature, and inclinations which align with that inclination, are natural. Contrary inclinations are perversions of the natural in the sense that they do seek a good, but in a way destructive of good. [http://www.newadvent.org/summa/209400.htm ] [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/natural-law-ethics/ ] [http://www.nd.edu/Departments/Maritain/ti04/budz.htm ]
This view points from the natural to the Divine, because (following [[Aristotle]]) he said all people seek happiness; but it turns out that happiness can only finally be attained through the [[Beatific Vision]] [http://www.newadvent.org/summa/200308.htm ]. Therefore all sins are also against the natural law. But the natural law of many aspects of life is knowable apart from special [[revelation]] by examining the forms and purposes of those aspects. It is in this sense that Aquinas considered homosexuality unnatural, since it involves a kind of partner other than the kind to which the purpose of sexuality points. Indeed, he considered it second only to bestiality as an abuse of sexuality [http://www.newadvent.org/summa/315411.htm ] [http://www.newadvent.org/summa/315412.htm ].
[[Image:StPeterDamian.jpg|thumb|right|St. Peter Damian]]
An earlier Doctor of the Church, St. [[Pietro Damiani|Peter Damian]], wrote the ''Liber Gomorrhianus'', an extended attack on homosexuality and even masturbation [http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/homo-damian1.html ]. He portrayed homosexuality as a counter-rational force undermining morality, religion, and society itself [http://www.luc.edu/publications/medieval/vol11/11ch5.html ], and in need of strong suppression lest it spread even and especially among clergy [http://helpthebishops.com/StPeterDamian.htm ].
[[Hildegard of Bingen]], born seven years after the death of St. Peter Damian, reported seeing visions and recorded them in ''Scivias'' (short for ''Scito vias Domini'', "Know the Ways of the Lord" [http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/apocalypse/primary/scivias.html ]). In Book II Vision Six, she quotes God as condemning same-sex intercourse, including lesbianism; "a woman who takes up devilish ways and plays a male role in coupling with another woman is most vile in My sight, and so is she who subjects herself to such a one in this evil deed".
Her younger contemporary [[Alain de Lille]] personified the theme of sexual sin in opposition to nature in ''The Complaint of Nature'' by having nature herself denounce sexual immorality and especially homosexuality as rebellion against her direction, terming it confusion between masculine and feminine and between subject and object. The ''Complaint'' also includes a striking description of the neglect of womanhood:
:Though all the beauty of man humbles itself before the fairness of woman, being always inferior to her glory; though the face of the daughter of Tyndaris is brought into being and the comeliness of Adonis and Narcissus, conquered, adores her; for all this she is scorned, although she speaks as beauty itself, though her godlike grace affirms her to be a goddess, though for her the thunderbolt would fail in the hand of Jove, and every sinew of Apollo would pause and lie inactive, though for her the free man would become a slave, and Hippolytus, to enjoy her love, would sell his very chastity. Why do so many kisses lie untouched on maiden lips, and no one wish to gain a profit from them? [http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/alain-sel.html ]
The tone of the denunciations often indicate a more than theoretical concern. Archbishop Ralph of Tours had his lover John installed as bishop of Orleans with agreement of both the King of [[France]] and [[Pope Urban II]] [http://andrejkoymasky.com/liv/fam/bioj2/john04.html]. In [[1395]] there was a transvestite homosexual prostitute arrested in London with some records surviving [http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/1395rykener.html], and the [[The Twelve Conclusions of the Lollards|Twelve Conclusions]] of the [[Lollardy|Lollards]] included the denunciation of priestly celibacy as a cause of sodomy [http://www3.calvarychapel.com/ccbcgermany/histdoc04.htm].
==Early Modernity==
[[Image:Kjv.png|thumb|200px|right|Frontispiece to the first edition of the King James Version]]
King [[James I of England]] and VI of Scotland commissioned the translation of the [[King James Version of the Bible]], also known as the Authorized Version, which is generally considered the most important Bible translation into English, having extensive influence on Anglophone Christianity, [[English literature]], and the later development of the [[English language]] itself. Historians have said, based upon an assortment of contemporary accounts, that James had male lovers throughout his life, beginning with [[Esmé Stewart, 1st Duke of Lennox]], and was not much interested in his wife. This was open enough that the saying "Elizabeth was King: now James is Queen" has survived [http://www.infopt.demon.co.uk/jamesi.htm]. Responding to criticism of his sexualit |
n Collecting] - A directory of coin collecting resources.
*[http://www.coinfacts.com/ CoinFacts.com - The Internet Encyclopedia of US Coins] Free information on United States Coins, including pricing, rarity, and historical information.
*[http://dihu.ancients.info Numismopolis-Ancient Coin collecting, Ancient Minting, and Experimental archaeology.] - includes information about collecting and ancient minting
* [http://www.coincommunity.com/ Coin Community Forum] - A coin collecting community.
* [http://www.greekandromancoins.com/forum Ancient Coins Forum]
* [http://www.coinpage.com Coin Image Database ]
[[Category:Coins| ]]
[[an:Moneda]]
[[bg:Монета]]
[[ca:Moneda]]
[[da:Mønt]]
[[de:Münze]]
[[el:&#925;&#972;&#956;&#953;&#963;&#956;&#945;]]
[[eo:Monero]]
[[fr:Jeton]]
[[it:Moneta]]
[[lv:Mon&#275;ta]]
[[nl:Munt]]
[[ja:&#30828;&#36008;]]
[[no:Mynt]]
[[pl:Moneta]]
[[ro:Moned&#259;]]
[[ru:&#1052;&#1086;&#1085;&#1077;&#1090;&#1072;]]
[[simple:Coin]]
[[sl:Kovanec]]
[[fi:Kolikko]]
[[sv:Mynt]]
[[zh-min-nan:Gîn-kak-á]]
[[zh:硬币]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Coinage metal</title>
<id>7559</id>
<revision>
<id>15905621</id>
<timestamp>2004-05-07T06:05:13Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Alexwcovington</username>
<id>37752</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Group 11 element]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>College of the City of New York</title>
<id>7560</id>
<revision>
<id>34383855</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-08T17:36:54Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Georgia guy</username>
<id>161456</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Edit an ancient page</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''College of the City of New York''' was the former name of at least two buildings in New York City:
*[[City College of New York]]
*[[City University of New York]]
{{disambig}}</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Cubewano</title>
<id>7561</id>
<revision>
<id>42054822</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T14:13:59Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Eurocommuter</username>
<id>870041</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* Orbit plots */ wording + replaced gold wit yellow</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{TNO}}
A '''cubewano''' is a [[Kuiper belt]] object, [[orbit]]ing beyond [[Pluto]] and not controlled by [[orbital resonance|resonances]] with [[Neptune]]. Cubewanos, called also ''Classical'' Kuiper Belt objects, have semi-major axes in 40-50 [[astronomical unit|AU]] range and, unlike Pluto, do not cross Neptune’s orbit.
The odd name is derived from the first [[Trans-Neptunian object|trans-Neptunian object]] found, {{mpl|(15760) 1992 QB|1}}. Later objects were called "QB1-o's", or cubewanos.
Objects identified as cubewanos include:
*{{mpl|(15760) 1992 QB|1}}
*{{mpl|2005 FY|9}} the largest known cubewano and one of the largest [[trans-Neptunian object]]s
*{{mpl|2003 EL|61}}, notable for its two moons and rapid rotation (3.9h)
*[[(50000) Quaoar]]
*[[(20000) Varuna]]
*[[(19521) Chaos]]
*[[(53311) Deucalion]]
==Orbits==
[[Image:TheKuiperBelt_55AU_Classical.svg|right|thumb|400px|Large cubewanos and [[plutino]]s.]]
Most classical Kuiper objects are found between the 2:3 [[orbital resonance]] with Neptune (populated by [[plutino]]s) and the 1:2 resonance. The diagram illustrates larger cubewanos with [[semi-major axis]] on X axis. The [[eccentricity]] of the orbits is represented by red segments (extending from [[perihelion]] to [[aphelion]]) with [[inclination]] represented on Y axis.
The largest [[plutino]]s ([[Pluto]], [[90482 Orcus]] and [[28978 Ixion]]) are also plotted for comparison (in grey). [[50000 Quaoar]], for example, has a typical, near circular (short red segment), close to the [[ecliptic]] orbit. Plutinos on the other hand, have more eccentric orbits bringing some of them closer to the Sun than [[Neptune]] (marked as 1:1 resonance).
The majority of objects, so called '''cold''' population, have low inclination, near circular orbits. (the brightest: {{mp|1997 CS|29}}, {{mp|2001 QT|297}} and {{mp|2001 QS|322}} are shown on the diagram). A smaller population, named '''hot''', is characterised by highly inclined, more eccentric orbits<ref>D.Jewitt,A.Delsanti ''The Solar System Beyond The Planets'',to appear in the book ''Solar System Update'', Springer-Praxis Ed., Horwood, Blondel and Mason, 2006. [http://www.ifa.hawaii.edu/faculty/jewitt/papers/2006/DJ06.pdf Preprint version (pdf)]</ref>.
=== Distribution ===
[[Image:TheKuiperBelt_55AU_ClassicalAndPlutinos.svg|right|thumb|400px|Distribution of cubewanos and [[plutino]]s.]]
The distribution of all known cubewanos (532 as of February, 2006) is plotted on the second diagram. The small inserts on the right show [[histogram]]s for orbit inclinations '''i''' (5° interval) and eccentricity '''e''' (interval 0.05).<sup>1</sup>
The vast majority of objects (more than <sup>2</sup>/<sub>3</sub>) have inclination < 5° and eccentricity <0.1. The distribution of semi-major axis '''a''', also shown, illustrates the preference for the middle of the main belt; arguably, smaller objects close to the limiting resonances have been either captured into resonance or have their orbits modified by Neptune.
The inserts on the left side of the diagram compare the populations of cubewanos and plutinos <ref>Minor Planet Circular 2005-X77 [http://cfa-www.harvard.edu/mpec/K05/K05X77.html Distant Minor planets] was used for plutinos' orbits classification. The updated data can be found in [http://cfa-www.harvard.edu/iau/mpec/K06/K06D28.html MPC 2006-D28].
</ref> using eccentricity versus inclination plots. Each small square represents a given range for both the eccentricity '''e''' and the inclination '''i''' <sup>2</sup>. The relative population of objects within this range is represented with ‘cartographic’ colours (from small numbers plotted as green ''valleys'' to brown ''peaks''<sup>3</sup>.
The two populations are quite different: more than 30% of all cubewanos are on low inclination, near circular orbits (the low bottom corner ‘peak’). The parameters of plutinos’ orbits are more evenly distributed with a local maximum in moderate eccentricities in 0.15-0.2 range and low inclinations 5-10°.
See also the comparison with [[scattered disk#Scattered objects versus classical objects|scattered disk objects]].
<sup>1</sup><small>Distribution of plutinos is plotted but excluded from cubewanos’ histograms.</small> <sup>2</sup><small>As near-circular orbits occupy the first column (e<0.05) and the orbits with the lowest inclination (i<5 degrees) occupy the lowest row, the square in the bottom left corner represents the number of near circular, very lowly inclined orbits.</small> <sup>3</sup><small>A grey square represents a single object (an outlier) in this range.</small>
<br clear=all>
=== Orbit plots ===
[[Image:TheKuiperBelt_Projections_55AU_Classical_Plutinos.svg|left|thumb|240px|The orbits of [[plutino]]s and classical objects.]]
The graph on the left represents polar and ecliptic views of the (aligned) orbits of the classical objects (in blue) together with the plutinos (in red)<sup>1</sup>.
The solid blue ring, resulting from hundreds of overlapping orbits of the classical objects, fully deserves the name of the main (classical or cubewanos) '''belt'''. Unlike the classical objects with the orbits entirely outside, the plutinos approach, or even cross, the orbit of Neptune (in yellow).
On the ecliptic view, the yellow arc represents Neptune’s orbit (at ~30AU). The perihelia, typically inside Neptune’s orbit for the plutinos, and always safely outside for the cubewanos, are the distinctive attribute between the two families. Hot cubewanos can also be easily distinguished by their inclination, the plutinos typically keeping orbits below 20°.
<sup>1<sup><small>For roughly a half of known TNO the orbits are not yet known with the precision sufficient for the classification (a particularly delicate task for resonant objects).</small>
<br clear=all>
== External links ==
*[[David Jewitt]]'s [http://www.ifa.hawaii.edu/faculty/jewitt/kb.html Kuiper Belt site] @ [[University of Hawaii]]
*[http://www.boulder.swri.edu/ekonews/ The Kuiper Belt Electronic Newsletter]
*Minor Planet Center [http://cfa-www.harvard.edu/iau/lists/TNOs.html List of Trans-Neptunian objects]
*TNO pages at[http://www.johnstonsarchive.net/astro/tnos.html johnstonarchive]
*Plot of the current positions of bodies in the [http://cfa-www.harvard.edu/iau/lists/OuterPlot.html Outer Solar System]
== References ==
<references/>
{{MinorPlanets Footer}}
[[Category:Trans-Neptunian objects]]
[[ca:Cubewano]]
[[cs:Kubewano]]
[[de:Cubewano]]
[[es:Cubewano]]
[[fr:Cubewano]]
[[it:Cubewano]]
[[ja:キュビワノ族]]
[[nl:Cubewano]]
[[sk:Kubewano]]
[[zh:類QB1天體]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Cem Akas</title>
<id>7562</id>
<revision>
<id>38591966</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-07T08:56:18Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>85.106.138.19</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Cem Akas''' (born 1[[968]]) is a [[Turkey|Turkish]] [[novelist]], who was born in [[Mannheim]], [[Germany]]. He was educated in [[Turkey]] and the [[United States]] in [[Political Science]] and [[Turkish History]]. He has worked for [[Yapi Kredi Publications]], [[Istanbul]], between [[1992]] and [[2004]]. In 2004 he left YKY and formed his own publishing group: [[g yayin grubu]].
==Bibliography==
'''Novels'''
*''7'', 1992
*''Suc ve Ceza'' ("Crime and Punishmen |
00 members of those organizations who were interned in British camps. The British deported 251 of them to camps in [[Africa]].
* From about October of 1945 until July 1946, Irgun was in an alliance with the Haganah and Lehi called the [[Jewish Resistance Movement]] (תנועת המרי העברי), organized to fight British restrictions on Jewish immigration. This alliance ended when Irgun bombed British military, police, and civil headquarters at the King David Hotel as a retaliation for [[Operation Agatha]].
* From July 1946 until June 1948, Irgun fought as irregulars against the British mandate and Arab forces, informally in coordination with Haganah forces. Their participation in alleged [[war crimes]] at [[Deir Yassin]] has been widely discussed and documented. Their largest single operation was a successful assault on [[Jaffa, Israel|Jaffa]] (an Arab enclave according to the UN partition plan) starting on May 25.
* In 1948, the group was formally dissolved and its members integrated into the newly formed [[Israeli Defense Forces]]. This integration largely coincided with the sinking of the [[Altalena Affair|Altalena]], a ship with fighters Irgun had recruited and arms Irgun had acquired for the Israeli forces.
===Legacy of Irgun===
Leaders within the mainstream [[Jewish Agency]], [[Haganah]], [[Histadrut]], as well as British authorities, routinely condemned (publicly at least; privately the Haganah kept a dialogue with the dissident groups) Irgun operations as [[Terrorism|terrorist]] and branded it an illegal organization, as a result of the groups attacks on civilian targets. In their defense, former Irgun leaders assert that:
* The premises for their founding and strategy were vindicated by subsequent events. Arab violence against Jews in the mandate of Palestine could only be deterred through retaliation; the British authorities only ended their restrictions on Jewish immigration when pressured by force; and unrestricted Jewish immigration was a matter of saving lives, both during the [[Shoah]] and during post-World War II [[pogrom]]s in [[Poland]] and [[Ukraine]].
* Operations that are usually characterized as "terrorist" had another character. The [[King David Hotel bombing]] was considered a legitimate military target, being the British military headquarters; the attack on [[Deir Yassin]] was part of a campaign to control the road between Jerusalem and Tel Aviv; the attack on the Acre prison was to release prisoners the British intended to hang.
<!-- * At least one of the attacks plainly made against civilians was unauthorized by the Irgun.-->
===Radio station===
The Irgun had, from 1939, a [[Radio station]]: [[Kol TSion HaLokhemet]].
===See also===
* [[Lehi (group)]] (also known as Stern gang)
* [[List of Irgun attacks during the 1930s]]
* [[List of Irgun attacks during the 1940s]]
==Further reading==
*J. Bowyer Bell, ''Terror Out of Zion: Irgun Zvai Leumi, Lehi, and the Palestine Underground, 1929-1949'', (Avon, 1977), ISBN 0-380393964
==External links==
* [http://www.etzel.org.il/english/index.html Official History of Irgun]
* [http://www.us-israel.org/jsource/History/irguntoc.html History of Irgun by an American Jewish Organization]
* [http://www.britannica.com/ebc/article?eu=393481 Encyclopedia Britannica Entry on Irgun]
[[Category:History of Israel]]
[[Category:Israel Defense Forces]]
[[Category:Militant Zionist groups]]
[[Category:National liberation movements]]
[[Category:Terrorism]]
[[ar:أرجون (منظمة عسكرية)]]
[[de:Irgun Tzwai Le’umi]]
[[es:Irgún]]
[[fi:Irgun]]
[[fr:Irgoun]]
[[he:ארגון צבאי לאומי]]
[[nl:Etsel]]
[[no:Irgun]]
[[pt:Irgun]]
[[ru:Иргун]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Isuroku Yamamoto</title>
<id>15407</id>
<revision>
<id>15912882</id>
<timestamp>2004-10-09T18:23:37Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Timwi</username>
<id>13051</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>fix double-redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Isoroku Yamamoto]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Isoroku Yamamoto</title>
<id>15408</id>
<revision>
<id>42108300</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T21:55:07Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Slaniel</username>
<id>507056</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* Preparing for war, 1920s and 1930s -- added an accent aigu to 'attache' */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{cleanup-date|December 2005}}
[[Image:Admiral Isoroku Yamamoto.jpg|thumb|260px|Admiral Isoroku Yamamoto]]
'''Isoroku Yamamoto''' ([[:ja:山本五十六|山本五十六]] ''Yamamoto Isoroku'', [[April 4]] [[1884]] &ndash; [[April 18]] [[1943]]) was the commander of the [[Imperial Japanese Navy]] for the first four years of [[World War II]]. He is generally regarded to be Japan's greatest naval strategist of the war, and among the greatest naval strategists in history.
==Family background==
Yamamoto was born ''Isoroku Takano'' (高野 五十六 ''Takano Isoroku'') in [[Nagaoka, Niigata|Nagaoka]] in [[Niigata prefecture|Niigata]]. His father was ''Takano Sadayoshi'' (高野 貞吉 ''Takano Sadayoshi''), a lower-ranking [[samurai]] of Nagaoka-[[Han (Japan)|han]]. "Isoroku" is an old Japanese term meaning "56"; the name referred to his father's age at Isoroku's birth.
In 1916, Isoroku was adopted into the Yamamoto family and took the Yamamoto name. It was a common practice for Japanese families lacking sons to adopt suitable young men in this fashion to carry on the family name. In 1918, Isoroku married a woman named Reiko with whom he sired four children: two sons and two daughters.
==Early naval career==
Yamamoto enrolled at the [[Naval Academy]] at [[Etajima]], [[Hiroshima, Japan|Hiroshima]] in [[1901]], graduating in [[1904]]. In [[1905]] during the [[Russo-Japanese War]], he saw action as an ensign on the cruiser ''[[Nisshin]]'' at the [[Battle of Tsushima]] against the [[Russian Baltic Fleet]]. At that engagement, he lost two [[finger]]s on his left hand (see picture on the right). After the war, served in various shipboard assignments for several years.
In 1911 he took the "B" course at the Naval Staff College, and later the "A" course in 1916 on an obvious track for higher command. While studying in the United States at [[Harvard University]] (1919-1921) he was hired to plant a garden and several trees, on a farm in Dartmouth, Massachusetts. He served as executive officer of the light cruiser ''Kitakami'', toured Europe and America as an admiral's aide (1923-1924), and then moved into the realm of Naval Aviation in 1924 as the executive officer of a naval air station.
He served attaché duty in Washington, D.C. (1925-1928), then returned to naval aviation, commanding in succession, the [[aircraft carrier]] [[Japanese aircraft carrier Akagi|Akagi]] (1928), the Naval Aviation Department's Technical Bureau (1930-1933) and the First Carrier Division (1933). After serving as a delegate to the London Naval Conference, he commanded the Naval Aviation Department (1935).
Yamamoto received appointment as the Navy Vice Minister in 1936, holding that post until his assignment as Commander-in-Chief of the Combined Fleet. He also held the Naval Aviation Department command concurrently (1938-1939).
Yamamoto was promoted to Rear Admiral in 1929, Vice Admiral in 1934, and Admiral in 1940.
:''Reference: Evans & Peattie (1997).''
==Preparing for war, 1920s and 1930s==
[[Image:Yamamoto.jpg|thumb|right|260px|Admiral Yamamoto]]
Although a political dove and fundamentally opposed to war with the United States by virtue of studies in the U.S., his tour of the nation as an admiral's aide, and his attach&eacute; duty in Washington D.C., Yamamoto was inevitably drawn into war preparations by circumstance and his devotion to duty. His participation in the second [[London Naval Conference]] of 1930 made him a marked man for radical militarists in his service, as the continuing limitation of Japan's naval armaments was wildly unpopular with them.
Yamamoto systematically opposed the invasion of [[Manchuria]] in [[1931]], the subsequent land war with China (1937), and the alliance with [[Nazi Germany]]. He further enraged militarist sentiments by personally apologizing to U.S. Ambassador Joseph C. Grew for the bombing of the gunboat U.S.S. Panay in December 1937. As Japan slid progressively toward war, the militarists marked Yamamoto for assassination and he was prudently reassigned from the Navy Ministry to sea as Commander-in-Chief of the Combined Fleet ([[30 August]] [[1939]]), in part to make him harder for assassins to reach. He was promoted to Admiral, [[15 November]] [[1940]]. Yamamoto warned Premier [[Konoe Fumimaro]] to avoid war with the United States: "If I am told to fight... I shall run wild for the first six months... but I have utterly no confidence for the second or third year." He was proven uncannily correct as the June 1942 [[Battle of Midway]] (generally considered the key turning point in the Pacific conflict) occurred almost six months to the day after the bombing of [[Attack on Pearl Harbor|Pearl Harbor]].
In naval matters, Yamamoto opposed the building of the super-battleships [[Japanese battleship Yamato|Yamato]] and [[Japanese battleship Musashi|Musashi]]. He believed their construction a strain on Japan's limited resources and their utility questionable. Uninformed observers have criticized Yamamoto as being somehow latently "battleship-centric" for later employing both ships as flagships, but these selections were probably driven by the mundane demands of having adequate accommodations for the Combined Fleet staff personnel, and sufficient radio facilities for command and control. Ultimately, Yamamoto was proven correct about the super-battleships' limited usefulness as they spent much of the war at anchor and never successfully came to grips |
of the US one.
At the drafting of the Constitution of the Confederate States of America, a few radical proposals such as allowing only slave states to join and the reinstatement of the Atlantic slave trade were turned down. The Constitution specifically did not include a provision allowing states to secede, since the southerners considered this to be a right intrinsic to a sovereign state which the United States Constitution had not required them to renounce, and thus including it as such would have weakened their original argument for secession.
The President of the Confederate States of America was to be elected to a six-year term and could not be reelected. The only president was [[Jefferson Davis]]; the Confederate States of America was defeated by the federal government before he completed his term. One unique power granted to the Confederate president was the ability to subject a bill to a [[line item veto]], a power held by some state governors. The [[Confederate Congress]] could overturn either the general or the line item vetoes with the same two thirds majorities that are required in the [[Congress of the United States|US Congress]].
Printed currency in the forms of bills and stamps was authorized and put into circulation, although by the individual states in the Confederacy's name. The government considered issuing Confederate coinage. Plans, dies and 4 "proofs" were created, but a lack of bullion prevented any public coinage.
Although the preamble refers to "each State acting in its sovereign and independent character", it also refers to the formation of a "permanent federal government". Also, although slavery was protected in the constitution, it also prohibited the importation of new slaves from outside the Confederate States of America (except from slaveholding states or territories of the United States).
===Capital===
[[Image:Virginia Capitol 1865.jpg|thumb|150px|right|[[Virginia State Capitol|Virginia State House]]<br>Served as Confederate Capitol]]
The capital of the Confederate States of America was [[Montgomery, Alabama]] from February 4, 1861 until May 29, 1861. [[Richmond, Virginia]] was named the new capital on May 6, 1861. Shortly before the end of the war, the Confederate government evacuated Richmond, planning to relocate further south. Little came of these plans before Lee's surrender at [[Appomattox Court House]]. [[Danville, Virginia]] served as the last capital of the Confederate States of America, from April 3 to April 10, 1865.
===International diplomacy and legal status===
The legal status of the Confederate Government was a subject of extensive debate throughout its existence and for many years after the war. During its existence, the Confederate government conducted negotiations with several [[Europe]]an powers (including [[Second French Empire|France]] and the [[British Empire|United Kingdom]]). [[Ernst II, Duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha]], ruler of the Duchy of [[Saxe-Coburg and Gotha]], the brother-in-law of Queen Victoria, appointed [[Ernst Raven]] as consul to the Confederate government in 1861. Raven was granted diplomatic exequatur on July 30, 1861. [http://memory.loc.gov/ll/llcc/005/0400/04240422.gif] The UK considered recognizing the Confederacy during the [[Trent Affair]] and began preparations to offer mediation along with France (due to [[Napoleon III of France|Emperor Napoleon III]]'s project, the [[Mexican Empire]]). Queen Victoria's husband, [[Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha|Prince Albert]] helped block recognition. Recognition was again considered following the [[Second Battle of Manassas]] when the British government were preparing to mediate in the conflict, but both nations backed away after the [[Battle of Antietam]] and Lincoln's [[Emancipation Proclamation]]. In early December 1863, [[Pope Pius IX]] addressed a letter "to the Illustrious and Honorable Jefferson Davis, President of the Confederate States of America." This was interpreted by many as a de facto recognition and generated widespread outrage in the North.
Throughout the war, most European powers adopted a policy of neutrality, meeting informally with Confederate diplomats but withholding diplomatic recognition. In its place, they applied international law principles that recognized the Northern and Southern sides of the war as [[belligerent]]s. [[British North America|Canada]] allowed both Confederate and Union agents to work openly within its borders and some state governments in northern [[Mexico]] negotiated regional agreements to cover trade on the Texas border.
For the four years of its existence, the Confederate States of America asserted its independence and appointed dozens of diplomatic agents abroad. The Northern government, by contrast, asserted that the southern states were provinces in rebellion and refused any formal recognition of their status. Telling of this dispute, the Confederate Government responded to the hostilities by formally declaring war on the United States while the Union Government conducted its war efforts under a proclamation of [[Union blockade|blockade]] and rebellion by President Lincoln. Mid-war negotiations between the two sides occurred without formal political recognition, though the [[laws of war]] governed military relationships.
Four years after the war, the [[Supreme Court of the United States|United States Supreme Court]] ruled in [[Texas v. White]] that secession was unconstitutional and legally null. The court's opinion was rendered by Chief Justice [[Salmon P. Chase]], the former [[Secretary of the Treasury|Treasury Secretary]] under Lincoln. Chase's opinion was immediately attacked and remains controversial to this day. Critics, such as Jefferson Davis and [[Alexander Stephens]] penned subsequent legal arguments in favor of secession's legality, most notably Davis' ''Rise and Fall of the Confederate Government''.
===Confederate flags===
{{main|Flags of the Confederate States of America}}
<center>
<gallery>
Image:Starsnbars.png|1st National<br>"Stars and Bars"
Image:Stainlessbanner.png|2nd National<br>"Stainless Banner"
Image:Confederate Battle Flag.svg|Naval Jack
Image:Battle flag of the US Confederacy.svg|Battle Flag<br>"Southern Cross"
</gallery>
</center>
The official flag of the Confederate States of America, and the one actually called the "Stars and Bars", has seven stars, for the seven states that initially formed the Confederacy. This flag was sometimes hard to distinguish from the [[Flag_of_the_United_States#Historical_star_patterns|Union flag]] under battle conditions, so the Confederate battle flag, the "Southern Cross", became the one more commonly used in military operations. The Southern Cross has 13 stars, adding the four states that joined the Confederacy after Fort Sumter, and the two divided states of Kentucky and Missouri.
As a result of its depiction in 20th century popular media, the "Southern Cross" is a flag commonly associated with the Confederacy today. The actual "Southern Cross" is a square-shaped flag, but the more commonly seen rectangular flag is actually the flag of the First Tennessee Army, also known as the Naval Jack because it was first used by the Confederate Navy.
===Political leaders of the Confederacy===
====Executive====
{| cellpadding="1" cellspacing="4" style="margin:3px; border:3px solid #000000;" align="left"
!bgcolor="#000000" colspan="3"|
|-
|align="left"|'''OFFICE'''||align="left"|'''NAME'''||align="left"|'''TERM'''
|-
!bgcolor="#000000" colspan="3"|
|-
|align="left"|[[President of the Confederate States of America|President]]||align="left" |'''[[Jefferson Davis]]'''||align="left"|16.10.1861&ndash;(May 10)1865
|-
|align="left"|[[Vice President of the Confederate States of America|Vice President]]||align="left" |'''[[Alexander Stephens]]'''||align="left"|16.10.1861&ndash;(11. 5.)1865
|-
|-
!bgcolor="#000000" colspan="3"|
|-
|align="left"|[[Confederate States Secretary of State|Secretary of State]]||align="left"|'''[[Robert Toombs]]'''||align="left"|16.10.1861&ndash;25. 7.1861
|-
|align="left"|&nbsp;||align="left"|'''[[Robert M. T. Hunter]]'''||align="left"|25. 7.1861&ndash;22. 2.1862
|-
|align="left"|&nbsp;||align="left"|'''[[William M. Browne]]''' ([[Acting (law)|acting]])||align="left"| 7. 3.1862&ndash;18. 3.1862
|-
|align="left"|&nbsp;||align="left"|'''[[Judah P. Benjamin]]'''||align="left"|18. 3.1862&ndash;1865
|-
|align="left"|[[Confederate States Secretary of the Treasury|Secretary of the Treasury]]||align="left"|'''[[Christopher Memminger]]'''||align="left"|16.10.1861&ndash;21. 6.1864
|-
|align="left"|&nbsp;||align="left"|'''[[George Trenholm]]'''||align="left"|18. 7.1864&ndash;27. 4.1865
|-
|align="left"|&nbsp;||align="left"|'''[[John H. Reagan]]'''||align="left"|27. 4.1865&ndash;(10. 5.)1865
|-
|align="left"|[[Confederate States Secretary of War|Secretary of War]]||align="left"|'''[[Leroy Pope Walker]]'''||align="left"|16.10.1861&ndash;17. 9.1861
|-
|align="left"|&nbsp;||align="left"|'''[[Judah P. Benjamin]]'''||align="left"|17. 9.1861&ndash;24. 3.1862
|-
|align="left"|&nbsp;||align="left"|'''[[George W. Randolph]]'''||align="left"|24. 3.1862&ndash;15.11.1862
|-
|align="left"|&nbsp;||align="left"|'''[[Gustavus Smith]]''' ([[Acting |
e>
<id>132185</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/69.205.245.35|69.205.245.35]] ([[User talk:69.205.245.35|talk]]) to last version by Tawker</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{dablink|This article deals with the Holocaust committed by the [[Nazi Germany|Nazis]]. For other meanings of the word Holocaust see [[Holocaust (disambiguation)]]}}
[[image:Selection Birkenau ramp.jpg|right|thumb|250px|Selection at the [[Auschwitz-Birkenau|Auschwitz]] ramp in 1944, where the Nazis chose whom to kill immediately and whom to use as [[slavery|slave labor]] or for [[Nazi human experimentation|medical experimentation]]. The entrance to the main camp is in the background. Between 1.1 and 1.6 million people were killed at Auschwitz; over 90% of the victims were Jews.]]
The '''Holocaust''' is the name applied to the systematic state-sponsored [[persecution]] and [[genocide]] of the [[Jew]]s of Europe along with other groups during [[World War II]] by [[Nazi Germany]] and [[The Holocaust#Who was directly involved in the killings?|collaborators]]{{ref|whatis}}. Early elements of the Holocaust include the [[Kristallnacht]] [[pogrom]] and the [[T-4 Euthanasia Program]], progressing to the later use of [[Einsatzgruppen|killing squads]] and [[extermination camps]] in a massive and centrally organized effort to exterminate every possible member of the populations targeted by the [[Nazis]].
The [[Jew]]s of Europe were the main victims of the Holocaust in what the Nazis called the "[[Final Solution|Final Solution of the Jewish Question]]". The commonly used figure for the number of Jewish victims is [[6000000 (number)|six million]], so much so that the phrase "six million" is now almost universally interpreted as referring to the Jewish victims of the Holocaust, though estimates by historians using, among other sources, records from the [[Nazi]] regime itself, range from five million to seven million.
About 220,000 [[Sinti]] and [[Roma people|Roma]] were killed in the Holocaust (some estimates are as high as 800,000), between a quarter to a half of the European population. Other groups deemed "racially inferior" or "undesirable": [[Soviet]] military [[prisoners of war]] and civilians on occupied territories including [[Russians]] and other [[Slavs]], [[Poles]] (3 million Polish Jews, and 2 million Polish gentiles, total 5 million Poles killed in Holocaust), the mentally or physically [[disability|disabled]], [[homosexuality|homosexuals]], [[Jehovah's Witnesses]], [[Communist]]s and political [[dissident]]s, [[trade union]]ists, some [[Catholic]] and [[Protestant]] clergy, were also [[persecution|persecuted]] and killed. Many scholars do not include the Nazi persecution of all of these groups in the definition of the Holocaust, with some scholars limiting the Holocaust to the genocide of the Jews; some to genocide of the Jews, Roma, and disabled; and some to all groups targeted by Nazi racism.{{ref|whichgroups}} Taking all these other groups into account, however, the total death toll rises considerably, estimates generally place the total number of Holocaust victims at 9 to 11 million, though some estimates have been as high as 26 million.{{ref|totalkilled}}
{{The Holocaust}}
== Etymology and usage of the term ==
{{main|Names of the Holocaust}}
The word ''holocaust'' originally derived from the [[Greek Language|Greek]] word ''[[Holocaust (sacrifice)|holokauston]]'', meaning "a completely (holos) burnt (kaustos) sacrificial offering" to a god. Since the late 19th century, "holocaust" has primarily been used to refer to disasters or catastrophes. According to the [[Oxford English Dictionary]], the word was first used to describe Hitler's treatment of the Jews from as early as 1942, though did not become a standard reference until the 1950s. By the late 1970s, however, the conventional meaning of the word became the Nazi genocide. The term is also used by many in a narrower sense, to refer specifically to the unprecedented destruction of European Jewry in particular.
The biblical word '''''Shoa''''' (שואה), also spelled '''''Shoah''''' and '''''Sho'ah''''', meaning "calamity" in [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]], became the standard Hebrew term for the Holocaust as early as the early 1940s.{{ref|shoah}} ''Shoa'' is preferred by many [[Jew]]s and a growing number of others for a number of reasons, including the potentially [[theologically]] offensive nature of the original meaning of the word ''holocaust''.
[[Image:Children in the Holocaust concentration camp liberated by Red Army.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Child survivors of the Holocaust filmed during the liberation of [[Auschwitz concentration camp]] by the [[Red Army]]. January, 1945]]
==Features of the Nazi Holocaust==
There were several characteristics to the Nazi Holocaust which, taken together, distinguish it from other [[genocides in history]].
===Premeditation===
In 1904, [[Alfred Ploetz]] founded the German Eugenics Society. Sixteen years later, a work seminal to the development of the German [[eugenics]] movement, ''The Permission to Destroy Life Unworthy of Life'', was published. Written by [[Karl Binding]], a widely respected judge, and renowned [[Psychiatry|psychiatrist]] [[Alfred Hoche]], the work was key to the formulation of Nazi ideology, rhetoric and practice:
:''[It] defended the theory which stated that the elimination of "worthless people" should be legalized. Thus the concepts of "worthless life" or "life unworthy of life" used by the Nazis come from that book. Binding and Hoche speak in that book about "worthless human beings". [Binding and Hoche] plead for "the elimination of those who cannot be saved, ... whose death is an urgent need" ... [and] about those who are below the beast[s] [with] "neither the will to live nor to die". [The book also refers] to those who are "mentally dead" and who form "a foreign body to the human society".''{{ref|trdd}}
The work of Ploetz and the words of Binding and Hoche were both foreshadows of Hitler's "final solution" two decades later.
[[Image:Einsengruppen.gif|thumb|200px|right|Locations of mass killings carried out by the Nazi [[Einsatzgruppen]] death squads in [[Eastern Europe]].]]
The Holocaust was an intentional and meticulously planned attempt to entirely eradicate the target groups based on ethnicity. It is estimated that ''die Endlösung der Judenfrage'' (the [[Final Solution]] of the Jewish Question), as the Nazis called it during the [[Wannsee conference]] of January 1942, saw the extermination of 64 percent of all the Jews in Europe, or 35 percent of the world's Jewish population.
In a speech in October 1943, [[Heinrich Himmler]], the [[Reichsführer]] of the [[Schutzstaffel]] ([[SS]]), told a group of senior SS men and [[Nazi]] party leaders: "What about the women and children? I decided to find an absolutely clear solution here too. I regard myself as having no right to exterminate (''ausrotten'') the men&mdash;in other words, to kill them or have them killed&mdash;and to let the avengers in the form of the children grow up for our sons and grandsons to deal with. The difficult decision had to be taken to make these people disappear from the earth."
The Holocaust was justified by claiming that the victims were ''[[Untermensch]]en'', i.e., 'underlings' or 'subhumans', who were seen as both biologically inferior and (in the case of Jews) a potential challenge to the superiority of the '[[Aryan]]s'. Its perpetrators saw it as a form of eugenics&mdash;the creation of a better race by eliminating the designated "unfit"&mdash;along the same lines as their programs of [[compulsory sterilization]], [[T-4 Euthanasia Program|compulsory euthanasia]], and "[[racial hygiene]]".
===Efficiency===
[[Image:Ghettos.gif|thumb|200px|right|[[Ghettos]] established in Europe in which Jews were confined, in ghettos and later in temporary concentration locations and later shipped to extermination camps.]]
The Holocaust was characterized by the efficient and systematic attempt on an industrial scale to assemble and kill as many people as possible, using all of the resources and technology available to the Nazi state.
[[Image:Hoefletelegram.jpg|right|thumb|left|250px|The Nazis methodically tracked the progress of the Holocaust in thousands of reports and documents. Pictured is the [[Höfle Telegram]] sent to [[Adolf Eichmann]] in January, 1943, that reported that 1,274,166 Jews had been killed in the four [[Aktion Reinhard]] camps during 1942.]]
For example, detailed lists of potential victims were made and maintained using [[Dehomag]] statistical machinery, and meticulous records of the killings were produced. As prisoners entered the death camps, they were made to surrender all personal property to the Nazis, which was then precisely catalogued and tagged, and for which receipts were issued. In addition, considerable effort was expended over the course of the Holocaust to find increasingly efficient means of killing more people; for example, by switching from [[carbon monoxide]] poisoning in the [[Aktion Reinhard]] death camps of [[Belzec extermination camp|Belzec]], [[Sobibór extermination camp|Sobibór]], and [[Treblinka extermination camp|Treblinka]] to the use of [[Zyklon B]] at [[Majdanek]] and [[Auschwitz concentration camp|Auschwitz]].
In his book ''Russia's War'', British historian [[Richard Overy]] describes how the Nazis sought more efficient ways to kill people. In 1941, after occupying [[Belarus]], they used mental patients from [[Minsk]] [[asylum]]s as guinea pigs. Initially, they tried shooting them by having them stand one behind the other, so that several people could be killed with one bullet, but it was too slow. Then they tried [[dynamite |
last through to [[2100]] with [[space age]] technologies. At the start of the game there are no cities anywhere in the world: the player controls one or two Settler units, which can be used to found new cities in appropriate sites, and also alter terrain and build improvements such as mines and roads and, later, railroads.
[[Image:Civ02.png|right|thumb|240px|Choosing which technology to pursue]]
As time advances, new technologies are developed; these technologies are the primary way in which the game changes and grows. Players choose from, at the beginning, advances such as [[Pottery]], the [[Wheel]], and the [[Alphabet]] to, at the close of the game, [[Nuclear fission]] and [[Space flight]]. Players gain a large advantage if their civilization is the first to learn a particular technology (the secrets of flight, for example). Most advances give access to new units, city improvements or derivative technologies: for example, the [[Chariot]] unit becomes available after the Wheel development, and the Granary building becomes available for building after the Pottery development. The whole system of advancements from beginning to end is called the [[Technology tree]], or simply the Tech tree, a concept adopted in many other strategy games. Since only one tech may be "researched" at any given time, the order in which technologies are chosen makes a considerable difference in the outcome of the game and generally reflects the player's preferred style of gameplay.
Players can also build Wonders of the world in all the epochs of the game, subject only to possession of the necessary knowledge. These wonders are often important human achievements of society, science, and culture in human history, ranging from the [[Pyramids]] and the [[Great Wall of China|Great Wall]] in the Ancient age, to [[Nicolaus Copernicus|Copernicus' Observatory]] and [[Ferdinand Magellan|Magellan's Expedition]] in the middle period, up to the [[Apollo Program]], the [[United Nations]], and the [[Manhattan Project]] in the modern era. Each of these wonders can only be built by one civilization and takes up a lot of resources to build (far more than most other city upgrades or units). However, each of these wonders provides unique benefits that can be gained by no other methods. Wonders can also be made obsolete by technological advances. ''See also [[List of Wonders in Civilization]]''
The game can be won either by destroying all other civilizations or by becoming the first civilization to succeed at [[space colonization]], in this case reaching the star system of [[Alpha Centauri]]. In the later installments of the series, other ways to win have been added, including cultural victory (buildings like [[Temples]] and [[Libraries]] add culture points to a civilization) and diplomatic victory (being elected [[United Nations Secretary-General]]).
==Legacy==
[[Image:Civ3.jpg|right|thumb|240px|In this game of ''Civilization III'', only a small portion of the game world has been discovered by the player, as can be seen by the much larger black, unexplored area in the map in the lower left corner of the screen.]]
This game has been one of the most popular [[strategy game]]s of all time, and has a loyal following of fans. The degree of popularity may be discerned from the observation that in an industry where the lifespan of a product typically averages 6 months or less, this game, (by means of all its versions and updates), has endured for over a decade and a half, with product being offered for sale the entire time in retail stores. This high level of interest has spawned a number of [[Free software|free]] versions, such as ''[[Freeciv]]'' and ''[[C-evo]]'', and inspired similar games by other commercial developers, as well.
*''[[CivNet]]'' was released [[1995]] and was a remake of the original game with added multiplayer, improved graphics and sound, and Windows 95 support. Gameplay was almost identical to the original game. There were several methods of multiplayer, including [[LAN]], primitive Internet play, [[hotseat]], modem, and direct serial link.
*'''''[[Civilization II]]''''' was released in [[1996]] and eventually spawned two expansion packs. The original version was designed by [[Brian Reynolds]]. A Multiplayer Gold Edition was released in [[1999]]. Two more expansion packs, ''Fantastic Worlds'' and ''Conflicts in Civilization'' were released after the gold edition.
*'''''[[Civilization III]]''''' was released in [[2001]]. The original version was designed by [[Jeff Briggs]] and [[Soren Johnson]]. Two expansion packs followed: '''''[[Civilization III: Play the World]]''''', which added multiplayer, and '''''[[Civilization III: Conquests]]'''''. The latest version of '''''Civ III''''' is '''''Sid Meier's Civilization III Complete''''', which was released in [[2003]].
*'''''[[Civilization IV]]''''' was produced by [[Firaxis]] and was released on [[October 24]] [[2005]]. It was designed by [[Soren Johnson]]. It's the most RTS like and moddable in the series. This game is the first in the series which uses 3D graphics.
In [[1992]], ''Civilization'' won the [[Origins Award]] for ''Best Military or Strategy Computer Game of 1991''.
In November [[1996]] Computer Gaming World's Anniversary Edition, ''Civilization'' was chosen the #1 of the 150 Best Games of All Time, and it was described as follows:
:''While some games might be equally addictive, none have sustained quite the level of rich, satisfying gameplay quite like Sid Meier's magnum opus. The blend of exploration, economics, conquest and diplomacy is augmented by the quintessential research and development model, as you struggle to erect the Pyramids, discover gunpowder, and launch a colonization spacecraft to Alpha Centauri. For its day, Civ had the toughest computer opponents around - even taking into account the "cheats," that in most instances added rather than detracted from the game. Just when you think the game might bog down, you discover a new land, a new technology, another tough foe - and you tell yourself, "just one more game," even as the first rays of the new sun creep into your room...the most acute case of game-lock we've ever felt.''
===Inspiration===
Meier admits to "borrowing" many of the technology tree ideas from a [[board game]] also called ''[[Civilization board game|Civilization]]'' (published in the [[United Kingdom]] in [[1980]] by [[Hartland Trefoil]] (later by [[Gibson Games]]), and in the [[United States]] in [[1981]] by [[Avalon Hill]]). The early versions of the game even included a flier of information and ordering materials for the board game. In an ironic twist, there is now a board game based on the computer game version of ''Civilization''.
===Intellectual property status===
Between ''Civilization II'' and ''III'', [[Activision]] released a similar game ''[[Civilization: Call To Power]]''. They acquired the rights to the name for a time and took advantage of it by releasing the game using the property in its title.
As of late [[as of 2004|2004]], [[Atari]], the latest publisher of a ''Civilization'' game sold the [[intellectual property]] of the ''Civilization'' brand to [[Take 2|Take 2 Interactive Software]], who will distribute Civilization games under the 2K Games label. Take 2 went public with news of the sale on [[January 26]] [[2005]].
===Similar games===
In [[1994]] Meier produced a similar game called ''[[Colonization (game)|Colonization]]''. ''Colonization'', while being very similar to ''Civilization'', never became quite as popular. It has also been criticized for leaving out [[slavery]] and other historically important features in the creation of many of the nations of today's [[Americas|America]]. Civilization IV, however, recognized slavery in the game play.
The game ''[[Sid Meier's Alpha Centauri|Alpha Centauri]]'' is also by Meier and is in the same genre, but with a futuristic/space theme. Many of the interface and gameplay innovations in this game eventually made their way into ''Civilization III'' and ''IV''.
In [[1993]] Microprose published ''[[Master of Magic|Master of Magic]]'', a similar game but embedded in a medieval-fantasy setting where instead of technologies the player (a powerful wizard) develops spells, among other things. The game also shared many things with the popular fantasy card-trading game ''[[Magic: The Gathering]]''.
In 1994 [[Stardock]] released ''[[Galactic Civilizations]]'', a similar turn-based strategy game for [[OS/2]] which became one of the best-selling games for that platform. They released a reprogrammed Windows version in 2003, and [[Galactic Civilizations II: Dread Lords|a sequel]] in 2006.
==Civilization's introduction==
An introduction movie shows when a new game is started in ''Civilization''. The movie was added to give players something to look at while the game world was being created. Later editions of ''Civilization'' no longer include such an introduction, presumably because world creation can be done almost instantaneously. The exception to this is '''''[[Civilization IV]]''''', which contains an updated version of this introduction, narrated by [[Leonard Nimoy]]; the player can, however, skip this, as their world will be created in a fraction of the duration of the introduction. The following words is the actual introduction of ''Civilization'':
''In the beginning, the [[Earth]] was without form, and void.''
''But the [[Sun]] shone upon the sleeping Earth and deep inside the brittle [[crust]] massive forces waited to be unleashed.''
''The seas parted and great [[continents]] were formed. The continents shifted, [[mountains]] arose. [[Earthquakes]] spawned massive [[waves|tidal waves]]. [[Volcanoes]] erupted and spewed forth fiery [[lava]] and charged the [[atmosphere]] with strange gases.''
''Into this swirling maelstrom of [[Fire]] and [[Air]] and [[Water]] the first stirrings of [[Life]] appeared: tiny organisms, [[cells |
gn="right"| Population
|-
| colspan=2|<hr>
|-
| align="center"| 1840 || align="right"| 43,112
|-
| align="center"| 1850 || align="right"| 192,214
|-
| align="center"| 1860 || align="right"| 674,913
|-
| align="center"| 1870 || align="right"| 1,194,020
|-
| align="center"| 1880 || align="right"| 1,624,615
|-
| align="center"| 1890 || align="right"| 1,912,297
|-
| align="center"| 1900 || align="right"| 2,231,853
|-
| align="center"| 1910 || align="right"| 2,224,771
|-
| align="center"| 1920 || align="right"| 2,404,021
|-
| align="center"| 1930 || align="right"| 2,470,939
|-
| align="center"| 1940 || align="right"| 2,538,268
|-
| align="center"| 1950 || align="right"| 2,621,073
|-
| align="center"| 1960 || align="right"| 2,757,537
|-
| align="center"| 1970 || align="right"| 2,824,376
|-
| align="center"| 1980 || align="right"| 2,913,808
|-
| align="center"| 1990 || align="right"| 2,776,755
|-
| align="center"| [[United States 2000 Census|2000]] || align="right"| 2,926,324
|}
As of 2005, Iowa has an estimated population of 2,966,334, which is an increase of 13,430, or 0.5%, from the prior year and an increase of 39,952, or 1.4%, since the year 2000. This includes a natural increase since the last census of 53,706 people (that is 197,163 births minus 143,457 deaths) and a decrease due to net migration of 11,754 people out of the state. Immigration from outside the United States resulted in a net increase of 29,386 people, and migration within the country produced a net loss of 41,140 people.
According to the U.S. Census Bureau, as of 2004, Iowa's population included about 97,000 foreign-born (3.3%).
The racial makeup of the state is:
*92.6% [[Whites|White]] non-Hispanic
*2.1% [[Blacks|Black]]
*2.8% [[Hispanics|Hispanic]]
*1.3% [[Asian American|Asian]]
*0.3% [[Native American (U.S. Census)|Native American]]
*1.1% [[Mixed race]]
The five largest ancestry groups in Iowa are: [[German-American|German]] (35.7%), [[Irish American|Irish]] (13.5%), [[British American|English]] (9.5%), [[United States|American]] (6.6%), [[Norwegian-American|Norwegian]] (5.7%).
Iowans are mostly of [[Northern Europe|Northern European]] origin. There are large numbers of [[German-American]]s in the state (1 in 3 Iowans answered that they were of German ancestry on the 2000 Census), as well as people of British, Scandinavian, and Dutch ancestry, among others.
6.4% of Iowa's population were reported as under 5, 25.1% under 18, and 14.9% were 65 or older. Females made up approximately 50.9% of the population.
==="Rural flight"===
Iowa, in common with other Great Plains states (especially [[Kansas]], [[Nebraska]], [[Oklahoma]], [[North Dakota|North]] and [[South Dakota]]), is feeling the brunt of falling populations. 89% of the total number of cities in those states have fewer than 3000 people; hundreds have fewer than 1000. Between 1996 and 2004, almost half a million people, nearly half with college degrees, left the six states. ''"Rural flight"'' as it is called has led to offers of free land and tax breaks as enticements to newcomers.
===Religion===
Most Iowans are [[Protestant]] Christians, with [[Lutheranism]] being the largest single Protestant denomination, followed by Methodist. The state has the second largest population of Reformed Christians, both RCA and CRC.
The religious affiliations of the people of Iowa are:
*[[Christianity|Christian]] &ndash; 86%
**[[Protestantism|Protestant]] &ndash; 62%
***[[Lutheranism|Lutheran]] &ndash; 17%
***[[Methodism|Methodist]] &ndash; 14%
***[[Baptist]] &ndash; 5%
***[[Presbyterianism|Presbyterian]] &ndash; 3%
***[[Reformed churches|Reformed]] &ndash; 2%
***[[Congregational church|Congregational]]/[[United Church of Christ]] &ndash; 2%
***Other Protestant or general Protestant &ndash; 19%
**[[Roman Catholicism in the United States|Roman Catholic]] &ndash; 23%
**Other Christian &ndash; 1%
*Other Religions &ndash; <1%
*Non-Religious &ndash; 14%
{{US state symbols |
Name = Iowa |
Flag = Iowa state flag.png |
Seal = Iowastateseal.jpg |
Nickname = The Hawkeye State |
Capital = [[Des Moines, Iowa|Des Moines]] |
Animal = None |
Bird = [[American Goldfinch|Eastern Goldfinch]] |
Butterfly = None |
Fish = Channel [[catfish]] (unofficial) |
Flower = Wild [[Rose]] |
Furbearer = None |
Game = None |
Grass = [[Bluebunch wheatgrass]] |
Insect = [[Honey Bee]] |
Reptile = None |
Tree = [[Oak]] |
Wildflower = None |
Beverage = None |
Colors = Red, white, and blue (in state flag) |
Dance = None |
Fossil = [[Crinoid]] (proposed) |
Gemstone = None |
Mineral = None |
Motto = Our liberties we prize and our rights we will maintain |
MusicalInstrument = None |
StateRock = [[Geode]] |
Ships = [[Iowa class battleship]], [[USS Iowa (BB-4)]], [[USS Iowa (BB-53)]], [[USS Iowa (BB-61)]] |
Song = ''The Song of Iowa'' |
Soil = [[Tama]] (unofficial) |
Waltz = None
}}
== Important cities and towns ==
{|-
!align="left"|Population > 100,000 (urbanized area)
!align="left" colspan="3"|Population > 10,000 (urbanized area)
|-
|valign=top|
* [[Des Moines, Iowa|Des Moines]], state capital
* [[Cedar Rapids, Iowa|Cedar Rapids]]
* [[Davenport, Iowa|Davenport]], home of [[Saint Ambrose University]]
* [[Sioux City, Iowa|Sioux City]]
* [[Waterloo, Iowa|Waterloo]]
* [[Iowa City, Iowa|Iowa City]], home of [[University of Iowa]]
* [[Council Bluffs, Iowa|Council Bluffs]]
|valign=top|
* [[Dubuque, Iowa|Dubuque]], college town, manufacturing center, river port
* [[Ames, Iowa|Ames]], home of [[Iowa State University]]
* [[West Des Moines, Iowa|West Des Moines]], suburb and insurance center
* [[Cedar Falls, Iowa|Cedar Falls]], suburb and college town
* [[Clinton, Iowa|Clinton]], industrial river town
* [[Burlington, Iowa|Burlington]], industrial river town
* [[Mason City, Iowa|Mason City]], close to Clear Lake, industrial town
* [[Marshalltown, Iowa|Marshalltown]], near center, industrial town
* [[Fort Dodge, Iowa|Fort Dodge]], industrial town on Des Moines River
* [[Ottumwa, Iowa|Ottumwa]], main commercial center of southeastern Iowa
|valign=top|
* [[Muscatine, Iowa|Muscatine]], location of many chemical plants
* [[Newton, Iowa|Newton]], Maytag washers made here
* [[Keokuk, Iowa|Keokuk]], river port in extreme southeast
* [[Pella, Iowa|Pella]], Pella Windows headquarters, Central College, Wyatt Earp childhood home, Tulip Fest
|-
!align="left"|Other Cities
|-
|colspan=4|
* [[Bettendorf, Iowa|Bettendorf]] part of the [[Quad Cities]]
* [[Cedar Falls, Iowa|Cedar Falls]], home of the [[University of Northern Iowa]] (part of [[Waterloo, Iowa|Waterloo]] metropolis)
* [[Fayette, Iowa|Fayette]], home of [[Upper Iowa University]]
|}
== Education ==
Iowa has historically placed a strong emphasis on education, which is shown in standardized testing scores. In 2003, Iowa had the second highest average [[SAT]] scores by state, and tied for second highest average [[ACT (examination)|ACT]] scores in states where more than 20% of graduates were tested. The national office of ACT is in [[Iowa City, Iowa|Iowa City]], and the [[ITBS]] and [[ITED]] testing programs used in many states are provided by the [[University of Iowa]].
An overhaul of the current education system is being discussed. One of the suggested ideas is switching from 180 days to a year-round school system. [http://www.whotv.com/Global/story.asp?S=3447742]
===State universities===
*[[Iowa State University]]
*[[University of Iowa]]
*[[University of Northern Iowa]]
===Independent colleges and universities===
<table><tr><td valign=top>
*[[Ashford University]]
*[[Briar Cliff University]]
*[[Buena Vista University]]
*[[Central College]]
*[[Clarke College]]
*[[Coe College]]
*[[Cornell College]]
*[[Divine Word College]]
*[[Dordt College]]
*[[Drake University]]
*[[Emmaus Bible College]]
*[[Faith Baptist Bible College]]
*[[Graceland University]]
*[[Grand View College]]
*[[Grinnell College]]
</td><td valign=top>
*[[Iowa Wesleyan College]]
*[[Loras College]]
*[[Luther College]]
*[[Maharishi University of Management]]
*[[Morningside College]]
*[[Mount Mercy College]]
*[[Northwestern College of Iowa|Northwestern College]]
*[[Simpson College]]
*[[Saint Ambrose University]]
*[[University of Dubuque]]
*[[Upper Iowa University]]
*[[Vennard College]]
*[[Waldorf College]]
*[[Wartburg College]]
*[[William Penn University]]
</td></tr></table>
===Community colleges===
<table><tr><td valign=top>
*[[Clinton Community College, Iowa|Clinton Community College]]
*[[Des Moines Area Community College]]
*[[Ellsworth Community College]]
*[[Hawkeye Community College]]
*[[Indian Hills Community College]]
*[[Iowa Central Community College]]
*[[Iowa Lakes Community College]]
*[[Iowa Western Community College]]
*[[Kirkwood Community College]]
</td><td valign=top>
*[[Marshalltown Community College]]
*[[Muscatine Community College]]
*[[North Iowa Area Community College]]
*[[Northeast Iowa Community College]]
*[[Northwest Iowa Community College]]
*[[Scott Community College]]
*[[Southeastern Community College]]
*[[Southwestern Community College]]
*[[Western Iowa Community College]]
</td></tr |
(n)}</math> at any given point and for any possible values of the lower order derivatives, though there may be ranges of these points and values where there are fewer solutions (or none at all). A [[Lipschitz continuity|Lipschitz condition]] must also be satisfied for a solution to exist.
Thus, in the previous example, a second-order, first-degree equation, any point on the plane and any slope through that point can be selected and yield a unique solution (since the single root of <math>y''</math> exists for any value of <math>y</math>). Note in particular that there are an infinity of solutions through any given point; this is a general characteristic of equations of order higher than one.
[[Image:Diffeq.png|right|thumb|300px|Some solutions to (y')^2+xy'-y=0. Particular solutions are in blue; the singular solution is in green; the hybrid solution described in the text is in red]]
Consider now
:<math>(y')^2 + xy' - y = 0 \,</math>
with general solution
:<math>y = Ax + A^2 \,</math>
This is a first-order, second-degree equation, thus any point can have at most two solutions passing through it, corresponding to the two roots of <math>y'</math> in the [[quadratic equation]] that would result after fixing <math>x</math> and <math>y</math>. Studying the quadratic equation's [[discriminant]] (<math>x^2 + 4y</math>) leads to the conclusion that only a single solution exists along the parabola <math>y = - \frac{1}{4} x^2</math> (where the discriminant is zero) and that no solution exists below this parabola (where both roots are complex).
The parabola in this problem is an example of a '''cusp locus'''; a curve along which two or more roots of the differential equation are identical. Along such a locus it is possible to move from one general solution to another while still obeying the differential equation; thus the presence of cusp loci introduce the possibility of '''singular''' solutions. In this example, the parabola <math>y = - \frac{1}{4} x^2</math> is such a singular solution; it satisfies the original differential equation, and a full set of solutions must include such possibilities as the hybrid solution:
<math>y = \begin{cases} x + 1, & \mbox{if } x < -2 \\ - \frac{1}{4} x^2, & \mbox{if } -2 \le x < 2 \\ -x + 1, & \mbox{if } 2 \le x \end{cases} </math>
where the cusp locus has been used to connect two particular solutions; note that the first derivative (the only derivative to appear in the differential equation) is continuous at the transitions.
([http://www.hti.umich.edu/cgi/b/bib/bibperm?q1=abv5010.0001.001 ''Johnson''], Chapter 5)
==Types of differential equations with some history==
The influence of geometry, physics, and astronomy,
starting with [[Isaac Newton|Newton]] and [[Gottfried Leibniz|Leibniz]], and further manifested through the [[Bernoulli|Bernoullis]], [[Riccati]], and [[Clairaut]], but chiefly through [[d'Alembert]] and [[Euler]], has been very marked, and especially on the theory of [[linear partial differential equations with constant coefficients]].
===Homogeneous linear ODEs with constant coefficients===
The first method of integrating linear ordinary differential
equations with constant coefficients is due to [[Euler]], who realized that solutions have the form <math>e^{z x}</math>, for possibly-complex values of <math>z</math>. Thus
:<math>\frac {d^{n}y} {dx^{n}} + A_{1}\frac {d^{n-1}y} {dx^{n-1}} + \cdots + A_{n}y = 0</math>
has the form
:<math>z^n e^{zx} + A_1 z^{n-1} e^{zx} + \cdots + A_n e^{zx} = 0</math>
so dividing by <math>e^{zx}</math> gives the ''n''th-order polynomial
:<math>F(z) = z^{n} + A_{1}z^{n-1} + \cdots + A_n = 0</math>
In short the terms
:<math>\frac {d^{k}y} {dx^{k}}\quad\quad(k = 1, 2, \cdots, n).</math>
of the original differential equation are replaced by ''z''<sup>''k''</sup>. [[Root-finding_algorithm#Finding_roots_of_polynomials|Solving]] the polynomial gives ''n'' values of ''z'', <math>z_1, \dots,z_n</math>. Plugging those values into <math>e^{z_i x}</math> gives a [[basis]] for the solution; any [[linear combination]] of these basis functions will satisfy the differential equation.
This equation ''F''(''z'') = 0, is the "characteristic"
equation considered later by [[Monge]] and [[Cauchy]].
{{ExampleSidebar|35%|<math>y''''-2y'''+2y''-2y'+y=0 \,</math>
has the characteristic equation
<math>z^4-2z^3+2z^2-2z+1=0 \,</math>.
This has zeroes, ''i'', &minus;''i'', and 1 (multiplicity 2). The solution basis is then
<math>e^{ix}\,</math>, <math>e^{-ix}\,</math>, <math>e^x\,</math>, <math>xe^x\,</math>.
This corresponds to the real-valued solution basis
<math>\cos x</math>, <math>\sin x</math>, <math>e^x</math>, <math>xe^x \,</math>.}}
If ''z'' is a (possibly not real) [[Root (mathematics)|zero]] of ''F''(''z'') of multiplicity ''m'' and <math>k\in\{0,1,\dots,m-1\} \,</math> then <math>y=x^ke^{zx} \,</math> is a solution of the ODE. These functions make up a [[Basis (linear algebra)|basis]] of the ODE's solutions.
If the ''A<sub>i</sub>'' are real then real-valued solutions are preferable. Since the non-real ''z'' values will come in [[complex conjugate|conjugate]] pairs, so will their corresponding ''y''s; replace each pair with their [[linear combination]]s [[real part|Re(''y'')]] and [[Imaginary part|Im(''y'')]].
A case that involves complex roots can be solved with the aid of [[Euler's formula]].
* Example: Given <math>y''-4y'+5y=0 \,</math>. The characteristic equation is <math>z^2-4z+5=0 \,</math> which has zeroes 2+''i'' and 2&minus;''i''. Thus the solution basis <math>\{y_1,y_2\}</math> is <math>\{e^{(2+i)x},e^{(2-i)x}\} \,</math>. Now ''y'' is a solution [[iff]] <math>y=c_1y_1+c_2y_2 \,</math> for <math>c_1,c_2\in\mathbb C</math>.
Because the coefficients are real,
*we are likely not interested in the complex solutions
*our basis elements are mutual conjugates
The linear combinations
:<math>u_1=\mbox{Re}(y_1)=\frac{y_1+y_2}{2}=e^{2x}\cos(x) \,</math> and
:<math>u_2=\mbox{Im}(y_1)=\frac{y_1-y_2}{2i}=e^{2x}\sin(x) \,</math>
will give us a real basis in <math>\{u_1,u_2\}</math>.
===Linear ODEs with constant coefficients===
Suppose instead we face
:<math>\frac {d^{n}y} {dx^{n}} + A_{1}\frac {d^{n-1}y} {dx^{n-1}} + \cdots + A_{n}y = f(x)</math>
For later convenience, define the characteristic polynomial
:<math>P(v)=v^n+A_1v^{n-1}+\cdots+A_n</math>
We find the solution basis <math>\{y_1,y_2,\ldots,y_n\}</math> as in the homogeneous (''f''=0) case. We now seek a '''particular solution''' ''y<sub>p</sub>'' by the '''variation of parameters''' method. Let the coefficients of the linear combination be functions of ''x'':
:<math>y_p=u_1y_1+u_2y_2+\cdots+u_ny_n</math>
Using the "operator" notation <math>D=d/dx</math> and a broad-minded use of notation, the ODE in question is <math>P(D)y=f</math>; so
:<math>f=P(D)y_p=P(D)(u_1y_1)+P(D)(u_2y_2)+\cdots+P(D)(u_ny_n)</math>
With the constraints
:<math>0=u'_1y_1+u'_2y_2+\cdots+u'_ny_n</math>
:<math>0=u'_1y'_1+u'_2y'_2+\cdots+u'_ny'_n</math>
:&hellip;
:<math>0=u'_1y^{(n-2)}_1+u'_2y^{(n-2)}_2+\cdots+u'_ny^{(n-2)}_n</math>
the parameters commute out, with a little "dirt":
:<math>f=u_1P(D)y_1+u_2P(D)y_2+\cdots+u_nP(D)y_n+u'_1y^{(n-1)}_1+u'_2y^{(n-1)}_2+\cdots+u'_ny^{(n-1)}_n</math>
But <math>P(D)y_j=0</math>, therefore
:<math>f=u'_1y^{(n-1)}_1+u'_2y^{(n-1)}_2+\cdots+u'_ny^{(n-1)}_n</math>
This, with the constraints, gives a linear system in the <math>u'_j</math>. This much can always be solved; in fact, combining [[Cramer's rule]] with the [[Wronskian]],
:<math>u'_j=(-1)^{n+j}f\frac{W(y_1,\ldots,y_{j-1},y_{j+1}\ldots,y_n)}{W(y_1,y_2,\ldots,y_n)}</math> <!-- caution: check my sign -->
The rest is a matter of integrating <math>u'_j</math>.
The particular solution is not unique; <math>y_p+c_1y_1+\cdots+c_ny_n</math> also satisfies the ODE for any set of constants ''c<sub>j</sub>''.
See also [[variation of parameters]].
'''Example:''' Suppose <math>y''-4y'+5y=sin(kx)</math>. We take the solution basis found above <math>\{e^{(2+i)x},e^{(2-i)x}\}</math>.
:{|
|-
|<math>W\,</math>
|<math>= \begin{vmatrix}e^{(2+i)x}&e^{(2-i)x} \\ (2+i)e^{(2+i)x}&(2-i)e^{(2-i)x} \end{vmatrix}</math>
|-
|
|<math>=e^{4x}\begin{vmatrix}1&1\\ 2+i&2-i\end{vmatrix}</math>
|-
|
|<math>=-2ie^{4x}\,</math>
|}
:{|
|-
|<math>u'_1\,</math>
|<math>=\frac{1}{W}\begin{vmatrix}0&e^{(2-i)x}\\ \sin(kx)&(2-i)e^{(2-i)x}\end{vmatrix}</math>
|-
|
|<math>=-\frac{i}2\sin(kx)e^{(-2-i)x}</math>
|}
:{|
|-
|<math>u'_2\,</math>
|<math>=\frac{1}{W}\begin{vmatrix}e^{(2+i)x}&0\\ (2+i)e^{(2+i)x}&\sin(kx)\end{vmatrix}</math>
|-
|
|<math> =\frac{i}{2}\sin(kx)e^{(-2+i)x}</math>
|}
Using the [[list of integrals of exponential functions]]
:{|
|-
|<math>u_1\,</math>
|<math>=-\frac{i}{2}\int\sin(kx)e^{(-2-i)x}\,dx</math>
|-
|
|<math>=\frac{ie^{(-2-i)x}}{2(3+4i+k^2)}\left((2+i)\sin(kx)+k\cos(kx)\right)</math>
|}
:{|
|-
|<math>u_2\,</math>
|<math>=\frac i2\int\sin(kx)e^{(-2+i)x}\,dx</math>
|-
|
|<math>=\frac{ie |
other factor is that Melcher converted to Christian Science during his relationship with Day, and his beliefs led him to put off going to the doctor for some time.
Upon Melcher's death she learned that he had committed her to a [[television|TV]] series. From [[1968]] to [[1973]], she therefore starred in her own [[situation comedy]], ''[[The Doris Day Show]]'', which had "Que Será, Será" as its theme song. Day continued with the show only as long as she needed the work to help pay down her debts.
Though generally presenting a happy, carefree image to the public, she had four difficult marriages:
# To Al Jordan, a [[trombone|trombonist]] whom she had met when he was in Barney Rapp's band, from March 1941 to 1943. She was not yet 17 when she married Jordan, and her only child, [[Terry Melcher]], was born from this marriage, when Day was 17, but Jordan was physically and emotionally abusive. He committed suicide after their divorce.
# To George Weidler, (a [[saxophone|saxophonist]]), from [[March 30]], [[1946]] to [[May 31]], [[1949]]. Weidler never could accept the fact that his wife would become a bigger star than he, and they broke up after eight months. Weidler and Day met again several years later and during a brief reconciliation he helped her become involved in Christian Science.
# To Marty Melcher, whom she married on her 27th birthday, [[April 3]], [[1951]]. This looked like a happy marriage, and lasted much longer than her first two. Melcher adopted Terry (thus becoming Terry Melcher), and also produced many of Day's movies. However, when he died in 1968 it turned out he had been spending her money without restraint, leaving her [[bankruptcy|bankrupt]], and owing thousands. Her money difficulties continued for a number of years after his death, she ultimately returned to financial security. Day also later revealed that Melcher had physically abused Terry.
# To Barry Comden, from [[April 14]], [[1976]] to [[1981]]. Comden was her only husband outside show business. Comden was the maitre d' at one of Doris's favorite restaurants. Knowing of her great love of dogs, Comden began the practice of giving Doris a bag of meat scraps and bones on her way out. This is how he got to meet and endear himself to her.
In 1972 the name of '''Doris Day''' was included in one of the songs of the famous musical ''[[Grease (musical)|Grease]]'' side by side with the name of '''[[Sandra Dee]]''' as an example of overly sentimental and righteous person.
In [[1985]] Day hosted her own [[talk show]], ''Doris Day's Best Friends''. The show generated unexpected press when her old friend [[Rock Hudson]] appeared in the first episode. Day was taken aback by Hudson's emaciated and wizened frame, as he had always been in top physical condition. Soon after, she and the world learned that he was dying of [[AIDS]]. Day stood by his side, but refused to accept that his illness was the result of his sexual proclivities.
In 1987, she founded the '''Doris Day Animal League''', and she currently devotes much of her time towards the cause of helping animals.
She wrote a best-selling autobiography, '''Doris Day: My Own Story'''.
In [[2004]] she was awarded the [[Presidential Medal of Freedom]] but refused to attend the ceremony because of a [[aviophobia|fear of flying]]. She has turned down an honorary Academy Award and a Kennedy's Center Honor for similar reasons.
In November 2004 her son Terry died from complications of [[melanoma]], aged 62.
She is part-owner of the Cypress Inn in [[Carmel, California]], where pets are, of course, very welcome.
==Songs ==
Hit Records (Singles)
(with [[Les Brown's Band of Renown]])
*[[Sentimental Journey]]
::1,000,000+ sales
*[[My Dreams Are Getting Better All The Time]]
::1,000,000+ sales
[[Image:DorisDayalbumcover.jpg|right|thumb]]
(As A Solo Performer)
*[[It's Magic]]
::1,000,000+ sales
*[[Again (1949 song)|Again]]
*[[Love Somebody]] (duet with [[Buddy Clark]])
::1,000,000+ sales
*[[Confess (song)|Confess]] (duet with Buddy Clark)
*[[Bewitched, Bothered, and Bewildered|Bewitched]]
::1,000,000+ sales
*[[Shanghai (song)|Shanghai]]
*[[Sugarbush]] (duet with [[Frankie Laine]])
::1,000,000+ sales
*[[Mister Tap Toe]]
*[[Secret Love]]
::1,000,000+ sales
*[[If I Give My Heart To You]]
*[[I'll Never Stop Loving You]]
::1,000,000+ sales
*[[Everybody Loves A Lover]]
*[[Move Over, Darling (song)|Move Over, Darling]]
ALBUMS
You're My Thrill
Tea For Two
Young Man With A Horn
Lullaby Of Broadway
On Moonlight Bay
I'll See You In My Dreams
By The Light Of The Silvery Moon
Calamity Jane
The Deadwood Stage
Secret Love
Just Blew in From The Windy City
The Black Hills Of Dakota
(4 more)
Young At Heart
Till My Love Comes To Me
You, My Love
Ready, Willing and Able
Hold Me In Your Arms
(2 more)
12" LPs
Day Dreams
Reissue of "You're My Thrill"
plus 4 more, also early singles
Love Me Or Leave Me (Soundtrack of the MGM film: Orchestra
arranged and conducted by Percy Faith)
It All Depends on You (DeSylva, Brown, Henderson)
Sam, The Old Accordion Man (Donaldson)
Shaking The Blues Away (Berlin)
Mean To Me (Ahlert, Turk)
plus 8 more, plus outtakes on current reissues
Day By Day (Orchestra arranged and conducted by Paul Weston)
The Song Is You (Kern, Hammerstein)
I Remember You (Mercer, Schertzenberger)
Day By Day (cahn, Stordahl, Weston)
Autumn Leaves (Mercer, Kosma)
plus 8 more
Day By Night (Orchestra arranged and conducted by Paul Weston)
I See Your Face Before Me (Dietz, Schwartz)
Moonglow
Dream A Little Dream Of Me (Kahn)
You Do Something To Me (Porter)
plus 8 more
The Pajama Game (Soundtrack of the Warner Bros. film:
Orchestra arranged and conducted by Ray Heindorf)
I'm Not At All In Love
Small Talk
There Once Was A Man
Seven-and-a-Half Cents
Once-A-Year Day
Hooray For Hollywood (2 volumes: orchestra arranged and
conducted by Frank Devol)
Volume One:
Cheek To Cheek (Berlin)
Over The Rainbow (Arlen, Washington)
Blues In The Night (Mercer, Arlen)
Night And Day (Porter)
plus 8 more
Volume Two:
Three Coins In The Fountain (Cahn, Styne)
It Might As Well Be Spring (Rodgers, Hammerstein)
You'll Never Know (Gordon, Warren)
Nice Work If You Can Get It (GGershwin, IGershwin)
plus 8 more
Cuttin' Capers (Orchestra arranged and conducted by
Frank DeVol)
Making Whoopee (Kahn, Donaldson)
Sitting On Top Of The World (Brown)
Let's take A Walk Around The Block (Arlen, Lane,
I.Gershwin)
Stepping Out With My Baby (Berlin)
plus 8 more
What Every Girl Should Know (Orchestra arranged and consucted
by Harry Zimmerman)
When You're Smiling
Something Wonderful (Rodgers, Hammerstein)
Mood Indigo (Ellington)
A Hundred Years From Today (Washington)
plus 8 more
Show Time (Orchestra arranged and conducted by Axel Stordahl)
On The Street Where You Live (Lerner, Loewe)
They Say It's Wonderful (Berlin)
People Will Say We're In Love (Rodgers, Hammerstein)
I Love Paris (Porter)
plus 8 more
The Love Album (orchestra arranged and conducted by Sid
Feller)
Wonderful One
For All We Know
Life Is Just A Bowl Of Cherries
Are You Lonsome Tonight?
plus 8 more (2 in a medley)
Complete recorded performances of Doris Day are available by collecting:
the two above referenced collections;
the four Bear Family collections:
It's Magic
Secret Love
Que Sera, Sera
Move Over Darling
and
The Complete Doris Day with Les Brown, and
Hidden Treasures
*"[[Anything You Can Do]]"
*"Any Way the Wind Blows"
*"[[Bewitched, Bothered and Bewildered]]"
*"But Not For Me"
*"[[By The Light Of The Silvery Moon]]"
*"[[Confess (song)|Confess]]" (duet with [[Buddy Clark]]) (also done by [[Patti Page]])
*"Cheek To Cheek"
*"Dream A Little Dream Of Me"
*"[[Everybody Loves A Lover]]"
*"Everybody Loves My Baby"
*"[[Hey There]]"
*"Hooray For Hollywood"
*"[[If I Give My Heart to You]]" (also done by [[Denise Lor]])
*"I'll Never Stop Loving You"
*"I'm An Indian Too"
*"It All Depends on You"
*"[[It's Magic]]"
*"[[It's a Great Feeling]]"
*"It Takes Time"
*"Julie"
*"Just One of Those Things"
*"Love Me In The Daytime"
*"[[Love Me or Leave Me (song)|Love Me or Leave Me]]"
*"[[Love Somebody]]" (duet with [[Buddy Clark]])
*"[[Lullaby of Broadway (song)|Lullaby of Broadway]]"
*"Move Over, Darling"
*"[[My Darling, My Darling]]" (duet with [[Buddy Clark]])
*"My Young and Foolish Heart"
*"On Moonlight Bay"
*"[[Perhaps, Perhaps, Perhaps]]"
*"[[Pillow Talk (song)|Pillow Talk]]"
*"Put 'em in a Box, Tie 'em with a Ribbon"
*"[[Secret Love]]"
*"[[Sentimental Journey (song)|Sentimental Journey]]"
*"[[Singin' in the Rain (song)|Singin' in the Rain]]"
*"Someone Like You"
*"[[Sugarbush]]" (duet with [[Frankie Laine]])
*"Tacos, Enchiladas and Beans"
*"[[Teacher's Pet (song)|Teacher's Pet]]"
*"[[When I Fall in Love (song)|When I Fall in Love]]"
*"[[Whatever Will Be, Will Be (song)|Whatever Will Be, Will Be]]" ("Que Será, Será")
*"[[You Are My Sunshine]]"
*"[[You Do Something to Me]]"
==Filmography==
*''Romance on the High Seas'' ([[1948]])
*''My Dream Is Yours'' ([[1949]])
*''[[It's a Great Feeling]]'' ([[1949]])
*''[[Young Man with a Horn]]' |
ances resume their British nationality after renunciation.
=== Automatic loss of British nationality ===
British subjects (other than British subjects by virtue of a connection with the Republic of Ireland) and British protected persons will lose their British nationality upon acquiring any other form of nationality, whether British, Commonwealth or foreign.
* These provisions do not apply to British citizens.
* British Overseas Territories citizens (BOTCs) who acquire another nationality do not lose BOTC status. However they may be liable to lose [[Belonger status]] in their home territory under its immigration laws. Such persons are advised to contact the Governor of that territory for information.
* British Overseas citizens (BOC) do not lose BOC upon acquisition of another citizenship. However any entitlement to registration as a British citizen on the grounds of having no other nationality will no longer exist after acquiring another citizenship.
=== Deprivation of British nationality ===
Under amendments made by the [http://www.opsi.gov.uk/acts/acts2002/20020041.htm Nationality, Immigration and Asylum Act 2002], British nationals can be deprived of their citizenship if the Secretary of State is satisfied they are responsible for acts seriously prejudicial to the vital interests of the United Kingdom or an Overseas Territory. This provision only applies to dual nationals — it is not applicable if deprivation would result in a person's statelessness.
British nationals who are ''naturalised'' or ''registered'' may have their certificates revoked (and hence lose British nationality) if:
* British nationality was obtained by fraud or concealment of material facts
* the person, within five years of being granted citizenship, receives a prison sentence exceeding 12 months (although not if the person would otherwise be stateless).
== Dual nationality and dual citizenship ==
In general there is no restriction, in United Kingdom law, on a British national being a citizen of another country as well. So, if a British national acquires another nationality, they will not automatically lose British nationality. Similarly, a person does not need to give up any other nationality when they become British.
Different rules apply in the cases of British protected persons and certain British subjects. A person who is a British subject otherwise than by connection with the Republic of Ireland will lose that status on acquiring any other nationality or citizenship. Similarly, a British protected person will no longer be a British protected person on acquiring any other nationality or citizenship. Although British Overseas citizens are not subject to loss of citizenship, a British Overseas citizen may lose an entitlement to register as a British citizen under s4B of the 1981 Act if he acquires any other citizenship.
Many other countries, however, do not allow dual nationality (''see [[Multiple citizenship]]''). If you have British nationality, and are also a national of a country which does not allow dual nationality, the authorities of that country may either regard you as having lost that nationality or may refuse to recognise your British nationality. If you are a British national, and you acquire the nationality of a country which does not allow dual nationality, you may be required by the other country to renounce (give up) your British nationality in order to retain the other citizenship.
Under international law, a State may not give diplomatic protection to one of its nationals in a country whose citizenship that person also holds. For example, if you are British and have another nationality, for example, American, and are visiting the [[United States]], a British [[Consul]] in the United States cannot give you diplomatic help.
A British person who acquired a foreign citizenship by naturalisation before 1949 may have lost British nationality at the time. No specific provisions were made in the 1948 legislation for such former British subjects to acquire or otherwise resume British nationality, and hence such a person would not be a British citizen today. However women who lost British nationality on marriage to a foreign man before 1949 were deemed to have re-acquired British subject status immediately before the coming into force of the 1948 Act.
==British citizenship ceremonies==
With effect from [[1 January]] [[2004]], all '''new''' applicants for British citizenship by naturalisation or registration who are aged 18 or over when the application is decided must attend a citizenship ceremony and take an Oath and Pledge to the United Kingdom.
Citizenship ceremonies are normally organised by:
* local councils in England, Scotland and Wales
* the Northern Ireland Office
* the governments of the [[Isle of Man]], [[Jersey]] and [[Guernsey]]
* the Governors of British Overseas Territories
* British consular offices outside the United Kingdom and Territories.
Persons from the [[Republic of Ireland]] (born before 1949) reclaiming [[British subject]] status under section 31 of the 1981 Act do not need to attend a citizenship ceremony. However should such a person subsequently apply for British citizenship by registration or naturalisation, attendance at a ceremony will be required.
For those who applied for British citizenship prior to 2004:
* the oath of allegiance was administered privately through signing a witnessed form in front of a solicitor or other accredited person
* those who already held British nationality (other than [[British protected person|British protected persons]]) were exempt, as were those citizens of countries with the Queen as Head of State (such as [[Australia]] or [[Canada]]).
==European citizenship==
British nationals who are "United Kingdom nationals for Community purposes", namely:
* British citizens;
* British subjects with the right of abode; and
* British Overseas Territories citizens connected to [[Gibraltar]]
are ''European citizens'' under [[European law]].
However, British citizens who connected with the Channel Islands and Isle of Man do not have the right to live in other European Union countries (except the Republic of Ireland) unless they have connections though descent or residence with the United Kingdom itself.
==Recent nationality legislation==
Recent changes to the law include the British Overseas Territories Act 2002 and Nationality, Immigration and Asylum Act 2002. These have:
* conferred full British citizenship on virtually all ''British overseas territories citizens''
* introduced a facility for otherwise stateless ''British Overseas citizens'', ''British subjects'' and ''British protected persons'' to register as British citizens (by descent).
* allowed those born overseas to British born or naturalised mothers between 1961 and 1982 to register as British citizens by descent.
* introduced mandatory citizenship ceremonies for those applying for registration or naturalisation as a British citizen
See also [[History of British nationality law]]
==Statistics on British Citizenship ==
The Home Office ''Research and Statistics Division'' publishes an annual report with statistics on grants of British citizenship broken down by type and former nationality. Since 2003, the report has also included research on take-up rates for British citizenship.
*[http://www.homeoffice.gov.uk/rds/pdfs05/hosb0805.pdf Persons Granted British Citizenship, 2004 (pdf)]
*[http://www.homeoffice.gov.uk/rds/pdfs04/hosb0704.pdf Persons Granted British Citizenship, 2003 (pdf)]
==See also==
*[[United Kingdom passports]]
*[[Britishness test]]
*[[Immigration to the United Kingdom]]
*[[Citizen Information Project]]
*[[Multiple citizenship]]
*[[UK topics]]
*[[Immigration arrangements for British passport holders from Hong Kong visiting the Republic of China (Taiwan)]]
*[[Indefinite Leave to Remain]]
*[[British nationality and the Republic of Ireland]]
*[[History of British nationality law]]
*[[British nationality law and Hong Kong]]
==External links==
*[http://www.coe.int/T/E/Legal_Affairs/Legal_co-operation/Foreigners_and_citizens/Nationality/Documents/National_legislation/UK%20Falkland%20Islands.pdf British Nationality (Falkland Islands) Act 1983]
*[http://www.democracy.org.hk/en/apr1999/op_01.htm Emily Lau's Letter to former Foreign Secretary [[Robin Cook]]] (In the letter [[Emily Lau|she]] urges the UK to include Hong Kong in its [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/politics/298408.stm offer to extend British citizenship to colonial citizens])
*[[Sanjay Shah]], a British Overseas citizen passport holder, spent the 13 months living in the duty free section of Nairobi's Jomo Kenyatta airport, petitioning for full British Citizenship. [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/4635011.stm] [http://www.iht.com/articles/2005/06/30/news/journal.php] [http://www.nytimes.com/2005/06/30/international/africa/30airport.html?8hpib=&pagewanted=print] [http://www.etaiwannews.com/Perspective/2005/07/01/1120185081.htm]
*[http://www.ind.homeoffice.gov.uk/ind/en/home/laws___policy/policy_instructions/nis.html Home Office Nationality Instructions (British nationality policy and background notes)]
*British Nationality Acts: [http://www.uniset.ca/naty/BNA1981revd.htm 1981], [http://www.uniset.ca/naty/BNA1965.htm 1965], [http://www.uniset.ca/naty/BNA1964.htm 1964], [http://www.uniset.ca/naty/BNA1958.htm 1958], [http://www.uniset.ca/naty/BNA1948.htm 1948], [http://www.uniset.ca/naty/BNA1772.htm 1772], [http://www.uniset.ca/naty/BNA1730.htm 1730]
*[http://bhc.britaus.net/passports/passportsdefault.asp?id=376 Registration of a Child of an Unmarried British Father as a British Citizen (information from British High Commission, Canberra)]
*[http://www.southern-cross-group.org/anothercitizenship/uk.html Southern Cross Group - Acquiring Another Citizenship - United Kingdom]
*[http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/february/24/newsid_2518000/2518513.stm 1971: UK restricts Commonwealth mi |
albums]]
*[[VFunk]]
==References==
*Michaels, Mark (1990). ''The Billboard Book of Rock Arranging''. ISBN 0823075370
[[Category:Dance music]]
[[Category:Radio formats]]
[[Category:Popular music]]
[[de:Tanzmusik]]
[[es:Dance]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Dog Tag</title>
<id>7945</id>
<revision>
<id>15905978</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Dog tag]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Dog tag (identifier)</title>
<id>7946</id>
<revision>
<id>41296332</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-26T10:10:31Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Los688</username>
<id>294540</id>
</contributor>
<comment>ja</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Dog tags.jpg|thumb|250px|Dog tags of a U.S. Army soldier during World War II]]
:''For the tag worn by dogs, see [[dog tag]].''
A '''dog tag''' is the colloquial name for the identification tags worn by military personnel, because of their resemblance to actual [[dog tag]]s. In the US the name, military ID number, blood type, and religion are stamped on a small piece of [[metal]] that is worn on a metal chain around the neck. During World War II, certain medical information such as the date of the soldier's last tetanus shot was also included on the tag. The tag is primarily used for the identification of dead and wounded. In the event the member has a medical condition that requires special attention, an additional red tag with the pertinent information is issued and worn with the dog tags.
Wearing of the tag is required at all times by soldiers in the field. It may contain two copies of the information and be designed to break easily into two pieces. This allows half the tag to be collected for notification while the other half remains with the body when battle conditions do not allow the casualty to be immediately recovered. Alternately, a two identical tags are issued. One is worn on a long chain around the neck; the second on a much smaller chain attached to the first chain. In the event the wearer is killed the second tag is collected and the first remains with the body.
==Dog tags in history==
Dog tags were worn at least as far back as ancient [[Sparta]].
During the [[American Civil War]] of [[1861]]-[[1865]], some soldiers pinned paper notes with their name and home address to the backs of their coats. Other soldiers stencilled identification on their knapsacks or scratched it in the soft lead backing of the Army belt buckle.
Manufacturers of identification badges recognized a market and began advertising in periodicals. Their pins were usually shaped to suggest a branch of service and engraved with the soldier's name and unit. Machine-stamped tags were also made of [[brass]] or [[lead]] with a hole and usually had (on one side) an eagle or shield and such phrases as "War for the Union" or "Liberty, Union, and Equality." The other side had the soldier's name and unit and sometimes a list of [[battle]]s in which he had participated.
A [[New York]]er named John Kennedy wrote to the [[United States Army|U.S. Army]] in [[1862]], offering to furnish discs for all officers and men in the Federal Army, enclosing a design for the disc. The National Archives now has the letter along with the reply, a summary refusal without explanation.
In the [[Spanish-American War]], [[soldier]]s purchased crude stamped identification tags; sometimes with misleading information.
The [[Prussia|Prussian]] Army issued identification tags for its troops at the beginning of the [[Franco-Prussian War]] in 1870.
The U.S. Army first authorized identification tags in War Department General Order No. 204, dated [[December 20]], [[1906]], which essentially prescribes the Kennedy identification tag:
:"An aluminum identification tag, the size of a silver half dollar and of suitable thickness, stamped with the name, [[military rank|rank]], [[company (military unit)|company]], [[regiment]], or [[corps]] of the wearer, will be worn by each officer and enlisted man of the Army whenever the field kit is worn, the tag to be suspended from the neck, underneath the clothing, by a cord or thong passed through a small hole in the tab. It is prescribed as a part of the uniform and when not worn as directed herein will be habitually kept in the possession of the owner. The tag will be issued by the Quartermaster's Department gratuitously to enlisted men and at cost price to officers..."
The Army changed regulations on [[July 6]], [[1916]], so that all men were issued two tags: one to stay with the body and the other to go to the person in charge of the burial for record-keeping purposes. In [[1918]], the Army adopted and allotted the serial number system, and name and serial numbers were ordered stamped on the identification tags of all enlisted men. (Serial number 1 was assigned to enlisted man Arthur B. Crean of Chicago in the course of his fifth enlistment period.) In [[1969]] the Army converted to the [[Social Security number]] for personnel identification.
There is a recurring myth about WWII dog tags. There was a notch cut into the side of the tag which held the tab in place on the embossing machine. It has been rumored that the notch's purpose was so that if a soldier found one of his comrades on the battlefield, he could take on tag to the commanding officer and kick the other between the teeth of the soldier to ensure that the tag would remain with the body and be identifed. According to Snopes, the notch is there simply to hold the tag in place on the embossing machine.
In the [[1950s]], at the height of fears about possible [[nuclear war]], all [[New York City]] public school pupils were issued dog tags.
In more modern battles, like the [[Vietnam War]], American soldiers were required to place rubber silencers on their dog tags so the enemy would not hear the metallic clanking.
Dog tags are traditionally part of the makeshift battlefield memorials soldiers and marines create to their fallen comrades. The casualty's rifle with [[bayonet]] affixed is stood vertically atop the empty boots, with the helmet over the stock of the rifle. The dog tags are then hung from the handle or trigger guard of the rifle.
Recently, the army stopped calling the tags "Dog tags" and adopted the more civilized "I.D tags". It was rumored that, in the 1990s, some enlisted trainees complained that the term "dog tag" was offensive, but this has not been confirmed.
[[Category:Personal identification]]
[[Category:Military life]]
[[de:Erkennungsmarke]]
[[pl:Nie&#347;miertelnik]]
[[ja:ドッグタグ]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Definition of philosophy</title>
<id>7947</id>
<revision>
<id>40589140</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-21T17:42:16Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>KSchutte</username>
<id>295931</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''definition of philosophy''' is famously a difficult matter, and indeed many definitions of [[philosophy]] begin by stating that it is famously difficult. Nonetheless, a review of [[Definition_of_philosophy#References|standard reference works]] suggests that there is a broad agreement among the philosophers who write these reference works, as to what the definition actually is.
This article lists the main points of agreement.
#Philosophy is difficult to define. The ''Oxford Companion to Philosophy'' ({{fn|OCP}}) says that most interesting definitions of philosophy are controversial. ''Philosophy: The Basics'' ({{fn|PTB}}) says it is "notoriously difficult". ''Mastering Philosophy'' {{fn|MP}} says there is "no straightforward definition".
#''Method'': The ''Penguin Dictionary of Philosophy'' ({{fn|PDP}}) says the method of philosophy is rational enquiry, or enquiry guided by the canons of rationality. OCP says it is explicitly rationally critical thinking 'of a more or less systematic kind'. The ''Collins English Dictionary'' ({{fn|CED}}) mentions the use of 'rational argument'. ''Modern Thomistic Philosophy'' ({{fn|MTP}}) says 'natural light of reason'. PTB says that the most distinctive feature of philosophy is its use of logical argument. There is some agreement, therefore, that the philosophical method is rational, systematic and critical, or characterised by logical argument.
#''Intrinsic Character'':
#*Philosophy is distinct from [[Empiricism|empirical science]] and [[Religion|religion]]. The ''Penguin Encyclopedia'' ({{fn|PE}}) says that philosophy differs from science in that its questions cannot be answered empirically, ''i.e.'' by observation or experiment, and from religion, in that its purpose is entirely intellectual, and allows no place for faith or [[Revelation|revelation]]. MTP says philosophy does not try to answer questions by appeal to revelation, myth or religious knowledge of any kind, but uses reason, "without reference to sensible observation and experiments".
#*'Second-order' nature: PDP says it is a "common view" that philosophy enquiry is second order, having concepts, theories and presupposition as its subject matter. OCP says it is "thinking about thinking", and that philosophy has a "generally second-order character", being reflective thought about particular kinds of thinking. ODP says that in philosophy we study rather than use the concepts that structure our thinking, and that this is second-order reflection. TYP also uses the expression 'second-order'.
#*Misleading etymology: Only PE gives "Love of wisdom" as a possible meaning. PTB says the etymology is "not much help". Other works |
ion n°49 July 1991 (in French)
* La Revue de l'Automobile historique n°7&nbsp;March/April 2001 (in French)
* http://www.gizmag.co.uk/go/1230/1/
==External links==
* [http://www.gt40s.com/ World's Largest GT40 Web Community]
* [http://www.roaringforties.com.au/ The Roaring Forties GT40 Web Site]
* [http://www.drbsportscars.com/ GT40 Australia Web Site]
{{Ford}}
[[Category:Ford vehicles|GT40]]
[[Category:Sports cars]]
[[Category:Mid-engined vehicles]]
[[de:Ford GT40]]
[[sv:Ford GT40]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>GoD</title>
<id>11832</id>
<revision>
<id>15909549</id>
<timestamp>2004-10-17T22:23:03Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Joseph Dwayne</username>
<id>52361</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>REDIRECT [[Gates of Discord]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Gates of Discord]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>GerMany</title>
<id>11833</id>
<revision>
<id>15909550</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Germany]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>GNUFreeDocumentationLicense</title>
<id>11834</id>
<revision>
<id>15909551</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[GNU Free Documentation License]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Glycine</title>
<id>11835</id>
<revision>
<id>41907685</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T15:07:35Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>199.88.192.186</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Presence in the Interstellar Medium */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{dablink|This is an article about Glycine, the amino acid. For the plant genus containing the [[soybean]], see [[Glycine (plant)]]}}
:<span class="dablink">''Not to be confused with [[Glycin]].''</span>
<div>
<!-- Here is a table of data; skip past it to edit the text. -->
<!-- Submit {{:subst:chembox_simple_organic}} to get this template or go to [[:Template:Chembox_simple_organic]]. -->
{| align="right" border="1" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3" style="margin: 0 0 0 0.5em; background: #FFFFFF; border-collapse: collapse; border-color: #C0C090;"
! {{chembox header}} | '''{{PAGENAME}}''' <!-- replace if not identical with the article name -->
|-
| [[IUPAC nomenclature|Chemical name]]
| Aminoethanoic acid
|-
| Abbreviations
| '''Gly<br/>G'''
|-
| [[Chemical formula]]
| C<sub>2</sub>H<sub>5</sub>NO<sub>2</sub>
|-
| [[Molecular mass]]
| 75.07 g mol<sup>-1</sup>
|-
| [[Melting point]]
| 290 &deg;C
|-
| [[Density]]
| 1.607 g cm<sup>&minus;3</sup>
|-
| [[Isoelectric point]]
| 5.97
|-
| [[Acid dissociation constant|p''K''<sub>a</sub>]]
| 2.34<br/>9.58
|-
| [[Standard enthalpy change of formation|Standard enthalpy<br/> of formation]] &Delta;<sub>f</sub>''H''&deg;<sub>solid</sub>
| &minus;528.6 kJ/mol
|-
| [[Standard enthalpy change of combustion|Standard enthalpy<br/> of combustion]] &Delta;<sub>c</sub>''H''&deg;<sub>solid</sub>
| &minus;981.1 kJ/mol
|-
| [[CAS registry number|CAS number]]
| [56-40-6]
|-
{{EINECS Row|200-272-2}}
|-
| [[Simplified molecular input line entry specification|SMILES]]
| NCC(=O)O
|-
| align="center" colspan="2" | [[Image:Glycine2.png|100px|Chemical structure of Glycine]][[Image:Glycine3d.png|100px|Chemical structure of the amino acid Glycine]]
|-
| {{chembox header}} | <small>[[wikipedia:Chemical infobox|Disclaimer and references]]</small>
|-
|}
</div>
'''Glycine''' ('''Gly''', '''G''') is a [[nonpolar]] [[amino acid]]. It is the simplest of the 20 standard ([[proteinogenic]]) amino acids: its [[side chain]] is a [[hydrogen]] [[atom]].
Because there is a second hydrogen atom at the &alpha; [[carbon]], glycine is not [[optical isomerism|optically active]].
Since glycine has such a small side chain, it can fit into many places where no other amino acid can.
For example, only glycine can be the internal amino acid of a [[collagen helix]].
Glycine is very evolutionarily stable at certain positions of some [[protein]]s (for example, in [[cytochrome]] c, [[myoglobin]], and [[hemoglobin]]), because mutations that change it to an amino acid with a larger side chain could break the protein's structure.
Most proteins contain only small quantities of glycine. A notable exception is [[collagen]], which is about one-third glycine.
==Physiological function==
Glycine is an inhibitory [[neurotransmitter]] in the [[Central nervous system|CNS]], especially in the [[spinal cord]]. When glycine receptors are activated, Cl<sup>-</sup> enters the neuron via ionotropic receptors, causing an [[inhibitory post-synaptic potential]] (IPSP). [[Strychnine]] is an antagonist at these ionotropic receptors. Its [[LD50]] is 0.96 mg/kg in rats, and it usually causes death by [[hyperexcitability]]. Glycine is a required [[co-agonist]] along with [[glutamate|Glu]] in CNS. In contrast to the inhibitory role of glycine in the spinal cord, this behaviour is facilitated at the ([[NMDA]]) glutaminergic receptors which are excitatory.
Glycine is a non-essential amino acid, meaning that cells of the body can synthesize sufficient amounts to meet physiological requirements.
==Presence in the Interstellar Medium==
In 1994 a team of astronomers from the [[University of Illinois]], led by [[Lewis Snyder]], claimed that they had found the glycine molecule in space. It turned out that, with further analysis, this claim could not be confirmed. Nine years later, in 2003, [[Yi-Jehng Kuan]] from [[National Taiwan Normal University]] and Steve Charnley made the extraordinary claim that they detected interstellar glycine toward three sources in the [[interstellar medium]] (Kuan ''et al.'', 2003). They claimed to have identified 27 [[spectral]] lines of glycine utilizing a [[radio telescope]]. According to computer simulations and lab-based experiments, glycine was probably formed when ices containing simple organic molecules were exposed to [[ultraviolet light]] [http://www.newscientist.com/news/news.jsp?id=ns99992558].
In October of 2004, [[Lewis Snyder]] and his collaborators reinvestigated the glycine claim in Kuan ''et al.'' (2003). In a rigorous attempt to confirm the detection, Snyder ''et al.'' (2005) showed that glycine was not detected in any of the three claimed sources.
Should any glycine claim be substantiated, it does not prove that life exists outside the [[Earth]], but certainly makes that possibility more plausible by showing that amino acids can be formed in the interstellar medium. The finding would also indirectly support the idea of [[panspermia]], the theory that life was brought to Earth from space.
==References==
*Kuan YJ, Charnley SB, Huang HC, et al. (2003) Interstellar glycine. ASTROPHYS J 593 (2): 848-867
*Snyder LE, Lovas FJ, Hollis JM, et al. (2005) A rigorous attempt to verify interstellar glycine. ASTROPHYS J 619 (2): 914-930
*Dawson, R.M.C., Elliott, D.C., Elliott, W.H., and Jones, K.M., ''Data for Biochemical Research'' (3rd edition), pp. 1-31 (1986)
==External links==
*{{PubChemLink|750}}
*[http://www.pdrhealth.com/drug_info/nmdrugprofiles/nutsupdrugs/gly_0127.shtml PDRHealth - Glycine]
*[http://www.compchemwiki.org/index.php?title=Glycine Computational Chemistry Wiki]
*[http://www.chem.qmul.ac.uk/iubmb/enzyme/reaction/AminoAcid/GlyCleave.html Glycine cleavage system]
{{AminoAcids}}
[[Category:Neurotransmitters]]
[[de:Glycin]]
[[es:Glicina]]
[[eo:Glicino]]
[[fr:Glycine (acide aminé)]]
[[it:Glicina]]
[[he:גליצין]]
[[ja:グリシン]]
[[lt:Glicinas]]
[[lb:Glycin]]
[[nl:Glycine (aminozuur)]]
[[no:Glycin]]
[[pl:Glicyna]]
[[ru:Глицин]]
[[fi:Glysiini]]
[[sv:Glycin]]
[[zh:甘氨酸]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>GermanicLanguages</title>
<id>11836</id>
<revision>
<id>15909553</id>
<timestamp>2004-10-15T10:51:06Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Dbachmann</username>
<id>86857</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Germanic languages]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>GNUEncyclopediaTechFaq</title>
<id>11838</id>
<revision>
<id>15909554</id>
<timestamp>2002-09-18T01:48:00Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Stephen Gilbert</username>
<id>86</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Wikipedia:GNE Project Files/GNU Encyclopedia Tech FAQ]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>GNUStufF</title>
<id>11839</id>
<revision>
<id>15909555</id>
<timestamp>2004-04-07T22:00:39Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Michael Snow</username>
<id>34289</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[m:Historical Wikipedia pages]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>GermanY</title>
<id>11840</id>
<revision>
<id>15909556</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Germany]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>GNEArchitecTure</title>
<id>11841</id>
<revision>
|
ing eggs<br>
Jughead<br>
jukebox<br>
jump<br>
jumper<br>
jump off into never-never land<br>
jump trace buffer<br>
Junction FET<br>
Junction Field Effect Transistor<br>
Juno<br>
jupiter<br>
Just a Bunch Of Disks<br>
just-in-time<br>
JVM<br>
Jym<br>
K<br>
K5<br>
K56flex<br>
K6 '''DONE'''<br>
K7 '''DONE'''<br>
KA9Q '''DONE'''<br>
KADS '''DONE'''<br>
kahuna '''NO''' not in FOLDOC<br>
Kaleidoscope<br>
Kali<br>
kamikaze packet '''DONE''' redirect<br>
Kamin's interpreters<br>
kana<br>
kangaroo code '''DONE'''<br>
kanji<br>
KAOS '''DONE'''<br>
KAP<br>
Karel<br>
katakana<br>
Kb<br>
KBMS '''No''' too little info<br>
kbps<br>
KBS<br>
KCL<br>
ke<br>
KEE<br>
Keldysh Institute of Applied Mathematics<br>
ken<br>
Ken Thompson<br>
Kerberos<br>
Kermit<br>
kernal<br>
kernel (computers)<br>
Kernel Parlog<br>
Kernel User Interface Package '''DONE''' <br>
kerning<br>
Kevo<br>
key<br>
keyboard<br>
Keyboard Commando '''DONE''' <br>
keyboard plaque '''DONE''' <br>
Keyboard Send Receive '''DONE''' <br>
Keyed-Hashing Message Authentication '''DONE''' <br>
Keyed Sequential Data Set '''DONE''' <br>
key escrow '''DONE''' <br>
key field '''DONE''' <br>
key frame '''DONE''' <br>
KeyNote Software '''NO''' a company, little info<br>
keypal '''DONE''' <br>
KeySpell '''DONE''' <br>
keyword '''DONE''' <br>
KFX '''DONE''' <br>
kg '''NO''' country code<br>
kgbvax '''DONE''' redirect<br>
kh '''NO''' country code<br>
Khornerstone<br>
ki '''NO''' country code<br>
KIBO '''DONE''' <br>
kiboze '''DONE''' <br>
kick<br>
Kid '''DONE''' <br>
KIDASA Software '''NO''' limited company info<br>
killer micro '''DONE''' <br>
killer poke '''DONE''' <br>
kill file '''DONE''' <br>
kilo- REDIRECT prefix<br>
kilobaud REDIRECT baud<br>
kilobit REDIRECT bit<br>
kilobyte<br>
kiloflops REDIRECT FLOPS<br>
kiosk '''DONE''' <br>
KIPS '''DONE''' <br>
KIS REDIRECT Knowbot Information Service<br>
KISS '''DONE''' <br>
KISS Principle '''DONE''' <br>
kit '''DONE''' <br>
KL0 '''DONE''' <br>
KL1 '''DONE''' <br>
Klamath '''DONE''' <br>
KLB REDIRECT [[Known Lazy Bastard]]<br>
Kleene closure REDIRECT Kleene star<br>
Kleene star<br>
Kleene, Stephen Cole '''DONE''' <br>
Klerer-May System '''DONE''' <br>
KLOC '''DONE''' <br>
klone REDIRECT clone<br>
KL-ONE '''DONE''' <br>
kludge<br>
kluge<br>
kluge around '''DONE''' <br>
km '''NO''' country code<br>
KMODEL '''DONE''' <br>
KMS REDIRECT Knowledge Management System<br>
kn '''NO''' country code<br>
knapsack problem -- '''DONE'''<br>
Knights of the Lambda-Calculus '''DONE''' <br>
knowbot '''DONE''' <br>
Knowbot Information Service '''DONE'''<br>
knowledge<br>
Knowledge Analysis and Design System<br>
knowledge base<br>
knowledge-based system<br>
knowledge level<br>
Knowledge Management System<br>
Knowledge Query and Manipulation Language<br>
knowledge representation<br>
Knowledge Sharing Effort<br>
Knowledge Systems Laboratory<br>
[[Known Lazy Bastard]] '''DONE'''<br>
Knuth '''DONE''' <br>
Kodak '''NO''' insufficient company info.<br>
Kohonen '''NO''' insufficient info for redirect.<br>
KOMPILER '''DONE''' <br>
Konrad Zuse<br>
Korn Shell '''DONE''' <br>
kp '''NO''' country code<br>
KQML REDIRECT Knowledge Query and Manipulation Language<br>
KR REDIRECT knowledge representation<br>
kr '''NO''' country code<br>
K and R '''DONE''' <br>
KRC '''DONE''' <br>
K and R C '''DONE''' <br>
kremvax '''DONE''' <br>
KRL '''DONE''' <br>
KRS '''DONE''' <br>
KRYPTON '''DONE''' <br>
ksh REDIRECT Korn Shell<br>
KSL REDIRECT Knowledge Systems Laboratory<br>
KSR '''DONE''' <br>
KTH REDIRECT Kungliga Tekniska Hogskolan<br>
KUIP REDIRECT Kernel User Interface Package<br>
Kungliga Tekniska Hogskolan<br>
KUTGW '''DONE''' <br>
Kvatro Telecom AS '''DONE''' <br>
Kvikkalkul<br>
kw '''NO''' country code<br>
ky '''NO''' country code<br>
Kyoto Common Lisp '''DONE''' <br>
kyrka REDIRECT feature key<br>
kz '''NO''' country code<br>
:''See also :'' [[Free On-line Dictionary of Computing]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Wikipedia:Free On-line Dictionary of Computing/L - N</title>
<id>11331</id>
<revision>
<id>28113143</id>
<timestamp>2005-11-12T13:14:20Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Gene Nygaard</username>
<id>146986</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Free_On-line_Dictionary_of_Computing/symbols - B|symbols - B]] -- [[Free_On-line_Dictionary_of_Computing/C - D|C - D]] -- [[Free_On-line_Dictionary_of_Computing/E - H|E - H]] -- [[Free_On-line_Dictionary_of_Computing/I - K|I - K]] -- '''L - N''' -- [[Free_On-line_Dictionary_of_Computing/O - Q|O - Q]] -- [[Free_On-line_Dictionary_of_Computing/R - S|R - S]] -- [[Free_On-line_Dictionary_of_Computing/T - W|T - W]] -- [[Free_On-line_Dictionary_of_Computing/X - Z|X - Z]] -- [[Free_On-line_Dictionary_of_Computing/Status|FOLDOC Status Page]]
L0<br>
l10n<br>
L1 cache<br>
L2 cache<br>
L2TP<br>
L6<br>
la<br>
label edge router<br>
label switched path<br>
label switching<br>
Label Switching Router<br>
Lab for Computer Science<br>
Laboratory INstrument Computer<br>
Laboratory Virtual Instrument Engineering Workbench<br>
LaborNet<br>
Labtech Notebook<br>
LabVIEW<br>
Lace<br>
lace card<br>
LADY<br>
lag<br>
Lakota<br>
LALR<br>
lalr.ss<br>
Lambada-Calculus<br>
LAMBDA<br>
lambda abstraction<br>
lambda-calculus<br> '''DONE''' - merged into lambda calculus
lambda expression<br>
lambda lifting<br>
LambdaMOO<br>
Lambda-Prolog<br>
lamer<br>
LAMINA<br>
lamp-post error<br>
LAN<br>
LANCE<br>
language<br>
language-based editor<br>
Language for Communicating Systems<br>
Language H<br>
language lawyer<br>
Language Of Temporal Ordering Specification<br>
Language Sensitive Editor<br>
language-sensitive editor<br>
languages of choice<br>
Laning and Zierler<br>
LANL<br>
Lan Manager<br>
LANtastic<br>
LAP<br>
LAP4<br>
LAPB<br>
LAPD<br>
LAPM<br>
LAPSE<br>
laptop computer<br>
LaQuey<br>
Larch<br>
Larch/C++<br>
LARCH/CLU<br>
Large Installation Systems Administration<br>
Larry Wall<br>
LART<br>
larval stage<br>
lase<br>
laser printer<br>
Lasherism<br>
last call optimisation<br>
last-in first-out<br>
LAT<br>
latch<br>
latency<br>
LaTeX<br>
Latin 1<br>
lattice<br>
LAU<br>
laundromat<br>
LAURE<br>
LAVA<br>
law<br>
LAWN<br>
Lawrence Livermore Labs<br>
Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory<br>
LAX<br>
layer<br>
Layer Two Tunneling Protocol<br>
laziness<br>
lazy evaluation<br>
lazy list<br>
Lazy SML<br>
lazy sml2c<br>
Lazy Standard ML<br>
lb<br>
LBA<br>
LBE<br>
LBL<br>
lc<br>
LCC<br>
lcc<br>
LCD<br>
LCF<br>
LCL<br>
lclint<br>
LCP<br>
LCS<br>
ld<br>
LDAP REDIRECT Lightweight Directory Access Protocol<br>
LDB<br>
LDL<br>
LDL1<br>
LDP<br>
LDT<br>
LE/1<br>
leading<br>
LEAF<br>
leaf<br>
Leaf Distribution Limited<br>
leaf site<br>
League for Programming Freedom<br>
leak<br>
leaky heap<br>
Lean<br>
LEAP<br>
leapfrog attack<br>
learning curve<br>
leased line<br>
least fixed point<br>
least recently used<br>
least significant bit<br>
least upper bound<br>
leaves<br>
LEC<br>
LECOM<br>
LED<br>
LEDA<br>
Leda<br>
LED page printer<br>
LED printer<br>
leet<br>
left arrow<br>
left brace<br>
left bracket<br>
left outer join<br>
left parenthesis<br>
LeFun<br>
legacy code<br>
legacy software<br>
legacy system -- '''DONE'''<br>
legal<br>
legalese<br>
LEGOL<br>
Le-Lisp<br>
lemma<br>
Lempel-Ziv compression<br>
Lempel-Ziv Welch compression<br>
Lenat, Doug<br>
lenient evaluation<br>
LEO<br>
Leo<br>
LER<br>
LERP<br>
less than<br>
LessTif<br>
let floating<br>
letterbomb<br>
level 1 cache<br>
level 2 cache<br>
LEVEL5 OBJECT<br>
level one cache<br>
level-sensitive scan design<br>
level two cache<br>
Lex<br>
lexeme<br>
lexer<br>
lexical analyser<br>
lexical analysis<br>
lexical scope<br>
lexical scoping<br>
lexiphage<br>
LF<br>
LG<br>
LGDF<br>
LGEN<br>
LGN<br>
lha<br>
LHARC<br>
lhs<br>
lhz<br>
li<br>
Liana<br>
Liar<br>
liar paradox<br>
libg++<br>
library<br>
Library of Efficient Data types and Algorithms<br>
librery<br>
LIDO<br>
LiE |
ickr]
* [http://www.google.com/apis Google]
* [http://kernelnewbies.org/documents/kdoc/kernel-api/linuxkernelapi.html The Linux Kernel]
* [http://share.skype.com/developer_zone/documentation/documentation/ Skype]
* [http://developer.yahoo.net Yahoo]
* [http://java.sun.com/j2se/1.5.0/docs// Java]
* [http://www.paypal.com/sdk/ Paypal]
* [http://www.ontok.com/wikipedia/ Wikipedia]
[[Category:Technical communication]]
[[Category:Application programming interfaces|*]]
[[ca:API]]
[[cs:API]]
[[da:API]]
[[de:Programmierschnittstelle]]
[[et:API]]
[[es:API]]
[[fr:Interface de programmation]]
[[gl:API]]
[[ko:API]]
[[id:API]]
[[it:Application programming interface]]
[[he:API]]
[[hu:Alkalmazásprogramozási felület]]
[[nl:Application Programming Interface]]
[[ja:Application Programming Interface]]
[[pl:API (informatyka)]]
[[pt:API]]
[[ru:Интерфейс программирования приложений]]
[[sv:Application Programming Interface]]
[[tr:API]]
[[vi:Giao diện lập trình ứng dụng]]
[[uk:API]]
[[zh:编程接口]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>AMD</title>
<id>2400</id>
<revision>
<id>42145497</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T02:59:55Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>24.6.142.2</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Pacifica */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses|AMD}}
{{Infobox_Company |
company_name =Advanced Micro Devices, Inc.|
company_logo = [[Image:AMD logo.png|150px|AMD Logo]] |
company_type = [[Public company|Public]] ([[NYSE]]: [http://www.nyse.com/about/listed/lcddata.html?ticker=AMD AMD])|
foundation = 1969 |
location = [[Sunnyvale, California]], [[United States|USA]] |
key_people = [[Héctor Ruiz]], CEO |
industry = [[Semiconductors]] |
products = [[Microprocessors]]<br/>[[Flash memory]] |
revenue = [[Image:green up.png]]$5.85 billion [[United States dollar|USD]] ([[2005]]) |
num_employees = 18,100 ([[November 2005|Nov 2005]]) |
homepage = [http://www.amd.com/ www.amd.com]
}}
'''Advanced Micro Devices, Inc.''' ('''AMD''') {{nyse|AMD}} is a manufacturer of [[integrated circuits]] based in [[Sunnyvale, California|Sunnyvale]], [[California]]. It is the second-largest supplier of [[x86]]-compatible [[Central Processing Unit|processor]]s, and a leading supplier of [[flash memory|non-volatile flash memory]]. It was founded in 1969 by a group of defectors from [[Fairchild Semiconductor]], including [[Jerry Sanders]]. AMD's current CEO is [[Héctor Ruiz|Dr. Héctor Ruiz]]. The current president and Chief Operating Officer is [[Dirk Meyer]].
AMD is best known for the [[Athlon]], [[Opteron]], [[Turion64]], [[Sempron]] and [[Duron]] lines of x86-compatible processors.
== Financial information ==
AMD is publicly traded at [[NYSE]] with the symbol AMD. Its [[market capitalization]] was around US$13 billion at the end of 2005.
== General history ==
[[Image:AMD C8080A.jpg|thumb|Early AMD 8080 Processor (AMD AM9080ADC / C8080A), 1977]]The company started as a producer of logic chips in 1969, then entered the [[Random Access Memory|RAM]] chip business in 1975. That same year, it introduced a [[reverse engineering|reverse-engineered]] clone of the [[Intel]] [[Intel 8080|8080]] [[microprocessor]]. During this period, AMD also designed and produced a series of [[bit-slice]] processor elements ([[Am2900]], Am29116, Am293xx) which were used in various minicomputer designs.
During this time, AMD attempted to embrace the perceived shift towards [[RISC]] with their own [[Am29000|AMD 29K processor]], and they attempted to diversify into graphics and audio devices as well as flash memory. While the AMD 29K survived as an [[embedded processor]] and AMD continues to make industry leading [[flash memory]], AMD was not as successful with its other endeavours. AMD decided to switch gears and concentrate solely on Intel-compatible microprocessors and flash memory. This put them in direct competition with Intel for x86 compatible processors and their flash memory secondary markets.
== 8086, 80286, 80386, Am486 ==
[[Image:Amd_intel.jpg|thumb|right|200px|AMD 80286 1982]]
In February 1982, AMD signed a contract with [[Intel]], becoming a licensed second-source manufacturer of [[Intel 8086|8086]] and [[Intel 8088|8088]] processors. [[International Business Machines|IBM]] wanted to use the Intel 8088 in its [[IBM PC]], but IBM's policy at the time was to require at least two sources for its chips. AMD later produced the [[80286]], or 286, under the same arrangement, but Intel cancelled the agreement in 1986, and refused to hand over technical details of the i386 part. The growing popularity of the [[IBM PC compatible|PC clone]] market meant Intel could produce CPUs on its own terms, rather than IBM's.
AMD challenged this decision, and subsequently won under arbitration. A long legal dispute followed, ending in 1991 when the [[Supreme Court of California]] sided with AMD and forced Intel to pay over $1 billion in compensation for violation of contract. Subsequent legal disputes centered on whether AMD had legal rights to use derivatives of Intel's microcode. Rulings were made in both directions. In the face of uncertainty, AMD was forced to develop "[[Clean room design|clean room]]" versions of Intel code. In this fashion, one engineering team described the function of the code, and a second team without access to the source code itself had to develop microcode that performed the same functionality.
In 1991 AMD released the [[Am386]], its clone of the later Intel [[80386]] processor. It took less than a year for AMD to sell a million units. AMD's [[Am386|386DX-40]] was very popular with smaller, independent clone manufacturers. AMD followed in 1993 with the [[Am486]]. Both sold at a significantly lower price than the Intel versions. The [[Am486]] was used by a number of large [[Original Equipment Manufacturer|OEM]]s, including [[Compaq]], and proved popular, but again was just a clone of Intel's processor technology. But as product cycles shortened in the PC industry, cloning Intel's products became an ever less viable strategy for AMD, as it meant their technology would always be behind Intel.
On [[December 30]] [[1994]] the Supreme Court of California finally formally denied AMD rights to use the i386's microcode. Afterwards AMD and Intel concluded an agreement, the details of which remain largely secret, which gave AMD the right to produce and sell microprocessors containing the microcodes of Intel 286, 386, and 486. The agreement appears to allow for full cross-licensing of [[patent]]s and some [[copyright]]s, allowing each partner to use the other's technological innovations without charge. Whatever the details, no significant legal action had resulted between AMD and Intel (until the 2005 antitrust suits in Japan and the U.S.), and the agreement evidently provided a "clean break".
== K5 ==
AMD's first completely in-house processor was the [[AMD K5|K5]], launched belatedly in 1995. The "K" was a reference to "[[Kryptonite]]" which from comic book lore was the only substance that could harm Superman (a clear reference to Intel which was dominant in the market).
It was intended to compete directly with the Intel [[Pentium]] CPU, which had been released in 1993, but architecturally it had more in common with the newly-released [[Pentium Pro]] than the Pentium or [[Cyrix]]'s [[Cyrix 6x86|6x86]], decoding x86 instructions into micro-ops and executing them on a RISC core. There were a number of problems. Many consumers were upset to learn the clock speed of their processor did not match the [[PR rating]] used to label some of the parts, and this was especially obvious at boot time, when the clock speed was posted to the main screen on many systems.
More tellingly, the K5 couldn't match the 6x86's integer performance, nor the Pentium's [[FPU]] performance. AMD tended to use benchmarks for its rating systems that avoided FPU intensive tasks. This, combined with the large [[die]] size and the fact that the design scaled badly, doomed the K5 to near-total failure in the marketplace. To its credit, the K5 did not suffer from the compatibility problems of the 6x86 nor did it run as hotly.
While the K5 was arguably better than the Pentium classic technologically, with modern features such as out of order execution and micro-ops RISC core, AMD was slow by two years compared to Intel. Missing schedule deadlines and lack of manufacturing expertise in scaling designs would continue to plague AMD until the K7. With a new fabrication plant in Austin, they could not afford to wait for another inhouse design.
== NexGen / K6 ==
[[Image:AMD-K6-2-300.jpg|thumb|right|200px|AMD-K6-2-300]]
In 1996, AMD purchased [[NexGen]] specifically for the rights to their Nx series of x86 compatible processors. It is fair to say the technology gained in this acquisition saved AMD, which is somewhat ironic when one considers [[NexGen]] had been founded by ex-Intel employees.
AMD gave the NexGen design team their own building, left them alone, and gave them time and money to rework the Nx686. The result was branded the [[AMD K6|K6]] processor, introduced in 1997. The redesign included a feedback dynamic instruction reordering mechanism, [[MMX]] instructions, and added the missing floating point unit (FPU). It was also made pin-compatible with Intel's Pentium, enabling it to be used in the widely available "[[Socket 7]]"-based motherboards. Like the Nx686 and Nx586 before it, the K6 translated the Pentium compatible x86 instruction set to [[RISC]]-like micro-instructions. In the following year, AMD released the [[AMD K6-2|K6-2]] which added a set of floating point multimedia instructions called [[3DNow!]], preceding Intel's SSE instructions, as well as a new socket standard called "[[Super Socket 7]]", that extended the front side bus frequency from 66 to 100&nbsp;MHz.
In January 1999, the final iteration o |
dy shaving is not nearly as common for men.
==Structure==
[[Image:Female brunette.jpg|right|170px|thumb|Hair with a round cross-section will fall straight, as opposed to curly hair, which has a flat cross-section]]
Hair consists 90% of a [[biology|biological]] [[polymer]], [[keratin|&alpha;-keratin]], and about 10% [[water]], which modifies its mechanical properties. This [[alpha helix|&alpha;-helically]] coiled [[protein]] is further wound into [[molecule|supermolecular]] coiled-coil microfibrils, many of which are held together with a protein glue to form long macrofibrils, which are packed inside dead hair cells about 100 µm long by 3 µm across. Several of these associate to form one strand of hair, which is covered with tiny surface scales. The ends of individual keratin chains are high in the [[amino acid]]s [[proline]] (an &alpha;-helix breaker) and [[cysteine]]. Adjacent keratin chains are held together by many [[disulfide bond]]s bridging their [[cysteine]]s. These links are very robust; virtually intact hair has been recovered from ancient Egyptian tombs. Different parts of the hair have different cysteine levels, leading to harder or softer material.
Hair consists of an inner cortex, comprising spindle-shaped cells, and an outer sheath, called the cuticle. Within each cortical cell are the many fibrils, running parallel to the fibre axis, and between the fibrils is a softer material called the matrix. It grows from a [[hair follicle]].
The cuticle is responsible for much of the mechanical strength of the hair fibre. It consists of scale-shaped layers. Human hair typically has 6-8 layers of cuticle. Wool has only one, and other animal hair may have many more layers.
Hair responds to its environment, and to its mechanical and chemical history. For example, hair which is wetted, styled and then dried, acquires a temporary 'set', which can hold it in style. This style is lost when the hair gets wet again. For more permanent styling, chemical treatments (perms) break and re-form the disulphide links within the hair structure.
[[Image:Naturalblonde.jpg.jpg|thumb|An Adult|200px|right|A natural blonde]]
The diameter of a human hair ranges from about [[1 E-5 m|18 µm]] to [[1 E-4 m|180 µm]]. In people of European descent, blond hair and black hair are at the finer end of the scale, while red hair is the coarsest. The hair of people of Asian descent is typically coarser than the hair of other groups.
The cross-sectional shape of human hair is typically round in people of Asian descent, round to oval in European descent, and nearly flat in African peoples; it is that flatness which allows African hair to attain its frizzly form. In contrast, hair that has a round cross section will be straight. A strand of straight round cross-section hair that has been flattened, for example, with an edge of a coin, will curl up into a micro-afro.
The speed of growth is roughly 11 cm/yr = 0.3 mm/day = 3 nm/s.
Cells at the base of the hair follicle divide and grow extremely rapidly. Drugs used in [[cancer]] [[chemotherapy]] frequently cause a temporary loss of hair, noticeable on the head and eyebrows, because they kill all rapidly dividing cells, not just the cancerous ones. Other [[disease]]s and [[trauma]]s can cause temporary or permanent loss of hair, generally or in patches.
With [[tensile strength]] of approximately 190 MPa[http://72.14.207.104/search?q=cache:YrVSrG7_PrEJ:web.mit.edu/tas/www/HairStretch/HairTensileTest.pdf+tensile+strength+of+human+hair+steel&hl=en&gl=au&ct=clnk&cd=6], a single strand of human hair can hold approximately 100 g (3.5 oz) of weight, although this will vary greatly with thickness. Wet hair, however, is very fragile.
== Hair change with aging ==
Older people tend to develop gray hair because the pigment in the hair is lost and the hair becomes colorless. Gray hair is considered to be a characteristic of normal aging. The age at which this occurs varies from person to person, but in general nearly everyone 75 years or older has gray hair, and in general men tend to become gray at younger ages than women. People starting out with very pale blond hair usually develop white hair instead of grey hair when aging. Red hair usually doesn't turn grey as redheads age; red hair usually turns a sandy color and then turns white after that. Some degree of scalp hair loss or thinning generally accompanies in both males and females, and it's estimated that half of all men are affected by male pattern baldness by the time they are 50. The tendency toward baldness is a trait shared by a number of other primate species, and is thought to have evolutionary roots.
==Androgenic hair==
The hair follicles on much of the body respond to [[androgen]]s (primarily [[testosterone]] and its derivatives). The rate of hair growth increases and the weight of the hairs increases. However, different areas respond with different sensitivities. As testosterone level increases (normally at puberty), the sequence of appearance of sexual (androgenic) hair reflects the gradations of androgen sensitivity. The pubic area is most sensitive, and heavier hair usually grows there first in response to androgens. The following regions also respond to androgens, in order of decreasing sensitivity: axillary and perianal areas, sideburns, above the upper lip, periareolar areas, chin and beard areas, center of chest, arms and legs, across the chest, shoulders, buttocks, back, and abdomen.
It is the hair in these areas that appears earlier or grows to excess in disorders of excess androgen (e.g., [[precocious puberty]], late-onset [[congenital adrenal hyperplasia]], and [[polycystic ovary syndrome]]).
==Other information==
[[Image:red hair.jpg|240px|right|thumb|A woman with dyed red hair]]
Notable variations in physical appearance of the top and back of the head are:
*[[headgear]]
*[[hair color]] (original or artificial)
*hair type
*[[haircut]], [[curls]], [[dreadlocks]], [[braid]]s, [[ponytail]]s, [[wig]]s, decorative [[hairpin]]s, the way the hair is combed or otherwise arranged, or disarranged.
Hair spray, gel, etc. may be used for fixation of the arrangement and may also make it shiny.
It is commonly claimed that hair and nails will continue growing for several days after death. This is a myth; the appearance of growth is actually caused by the retraction of skin as the surrounding tissue dehydrates, making nails and hair more prominent.
The hair shafts may also store certain [[poison]]s for years, even decades, after death. In the case of Col. [[Lafayette Baker]], who died [[July 3]], [[1868]], use of an atomic absorption spectrophotometer showed the man was killed by white [[arsenic]]. The prime suspect was [[Wallace Pollock|Wally Pollack]], Baker's brother-in-law. According to Dr. [[Ray A. Neff]], Pollack had laced Baker's beer with it over a period of months, and a century or so later minute traces of arsenic showed up in the dead man's hair. Mrs. Baker's [[diary]] seems to confirm that it was indeed arsenic, as she writes of how she found some vials of it inside her brother's suitcoat one day.
==End material==
===See also===
* [[Facial hair]]
* [[Pubic hair]]
* [[Hirsutism]]
* [[Baldness]]
* [[Depilation]]
* [[Widow's peak]]
* [[Cowlick]]
* [[Social role of hair]]
* [[Blond]]
* [[Brunette]]
* [[Red hair]]
* [[Trichophilia]]
* [[Trichotillomania]]
===References===
*{{note|halfofmen}}[http://nl.newsbank.com/nl-search/we/Archives?s_site=ozarksnow&f_site=ozarksnow&f_sitename=Springfield+News-Leader+%28MO%29&p_theme=gannett&p_product=SNLB&p_action=search&p_field_base-0=&p_text_base-0=baldness&Search=Search&p_perpage=10&p_maxdocs=200&p_queryname=700&s_search_type=keyword&p_sort=_rank_%3AD&p_field_date-0=YMD_date&p_params_date-0=date%3AB%2CE&p_text_date-0= "Uncovering the bald truth about hair loss."] ''Springfield News-leader'', May 10, 2005. "Half of men" estimate is made by the American Academy of Dermatology and specifically estimates prevalence in the U.S. population, though this should reflect prevalence in other populations.
===External links===
*[http://answers.google.com/answers/threadview?id=122411 Discussion about shaving and cultures]
{{integumentary_system}}
[[Category:Human appearance]]
[[Category:Integumentary system]]
[[Category:Animal anatomy]]
<!-- The below are interlanguage links. -->
[[cs:Vlas]]
[[da:Hår]]
[[de:Haar]]
[[es:Pelo]]
[[eo:Haro]]
[[fa:مو]]
[[fi:Hiukset]]
[[fr:Pilosité humaine]]
[[gl:Pelo]]
[[he:שיער]]
[[io:Haro]]
[[ja:毛 (動物)]]
[[ko:머리카락]]
[[lt:Plaukas]]
[[ms:Rambut]]
[[nl:Haar]]
[[no:Hår]]
[[pt:Cabelo]]
[[ru:Волосы]]
[[simple:Hair]]
[[sk:Vlas]]
[[sv:Hår]]
[[vi:Lông]]
[[zh:頭髮]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Hawker-Siddeley Harrier</title>
<id>14314</id>
<revision>
<id>41736012</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T11:03:48Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Jaganath</username>
<id>789583</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* Harrier GR.Mk 3 */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{| cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" style="margin:3px; border:3px solid #87CEEB;width:30%;" align="right"
!bgcolor="#87CEEB" colspan="3" align="center" style="border-bottom:3px solid"|Hawker Siddeley Harrier
|-
|colspan="3" align="center"|[[Image:Harrier.gr7.750pix.jpg|300px]]<br/>''RAF Harrier GR7''
|-
!bgcolor="#87CEEB" colspan="3"|Description
|-
|Role||colspan="2"|Close-support and reconnaissance
|-
|Crew||colspan="2"|
|-
|First flight||colspan="2"|
|-
|Entered service||colspan="2"|1969
|-
|Manufacturer||colspan="2"|Hawker Siddeley/BAe
|-
!bgcolor="#87CEEB" colspan="3"|Dimensions
|-
|Length|| ft in||13.90 m
|- |
system that cannot be used to do work. In simpler terms, it is also a measure of the disorder and randomness present in a system.
In [[thermodynamics]] and [[statistical mechanics]], it is a key physical variable in describing a [[system (thermodynamics)|thermodynamic system]].
Entropy is "a quantitative measure of the amount of thermal energy ''not'' available to do work" within a closed thermodynamic system.[http://www.answers.com/entropy&r=67]
The [[SI]] unit of entropy is J·K<sup>−1</sup> ([[joule]]s per [[kelvin]]), which is the same as the unit of [[heat capacity]], and entropy is said to be thermodynamically [[conjugate variables (thermodynamics)|conjugate]] to [[temperature]]. The entropy depends only on the current state of the system, not its detailed previous history, and so it is a [[state function]] of the parameters like [[pressure]], [[temperature]], etc., which describe the observable macroscopic properties of the system.
There is an important connection between entropy and the amount of internal energy in the system which is ''not'' available to perform [[mechanical work|work]]. In any process where the system gives up an energy ''&Delta;E'', and its entropy falls by ''&Delta;S'', a quantity at least ''T<sub>R</sub> &Delta;S'' of that energy must be given up to the system's surroundings as unusable heat. Otherwise the process will not go forward. (''T<sub>R</sub>'' is the temperature of the system's external surroundings, which may not be the same as the system's current temperature ''T''&nbsp;).
==Introduction==
Many quantities of matter tend to equalize their thermodynamic parameters - reducing differentials towards zero. Pressure differences, density differences, and temperature differences, all tend towards equalizing. Entropy is a measure of how far along this process of equalization has come. Entropy increases as this equalization process advances. For example, the combined entropy of "a cup of hot water in a cool room" is less than the entropy of "the room and the water after it has cooled (and warmed the room slightly)," because the heat is more evenly distributed. The entropy of the room and the empty cup after the water has evaporated is even higher.
An important [[Physical law|law of physics]], the [[second law of thermodynamics]], states that ''the total entropy of any isolated thermodynamic system tends to increase over time, approaching a maximum value''; and so, by implication, the entropy of the universe as a whole (i.e. the system and its surroundings) tends to increase. We will consider the meaning of the "second law" further in a subsequent section. Two important consequences are that heat cannot of itself pass from a colder to a hotter body: i.e., it is impossible to transfer heat from a cold to a hot reservoir without at the same time converting a certain amount of work to heat. It is also impossible for any device that operates on a cycle to receive heat from a single reservoir and produce a net amount of work; it can only get useful work out of the heat if heat is at the same time transferred from a hot to a cold reservoir. This means that there is no possibility of a '[[perpetual motion|perpetuum mobile]]' which is isolated. Also, from this it follows, that a reduction in the increase of entropy in a specified process, such as a [[chemical reaction]], means that it is energetically more efficient.
[[Statistical mechanics]] explains entropy as the amount of uncertainty (or "mixedupness" in the phrase of [[J. Willard Gibbs|Gibbs]]) which remains about a system, after its observable macroscopic properties have been taken into account. For a given set of macroscopic quantities, like temperature and volume, the entropy is a function of the probability that the system is in various quantum states. The more states available to the system with higher probability, the greater the "disorder" and thus, the greater the entropy.
(Note that it is important to distinguish the definition of disorder in the context of entropy and the definition of disorder in the context of everyday usage. In physics, the term "disorder" in this sense refers to a specific, well-defined quantity, while disorder in everyday usage is more akin to disorganization. A more thorough exploration of this concept can be found below).
The two definitions match up because adding heat to a system, which increases its classic thermodynamic entropy, also increases the system's [[temperature|thermal fluctuations]], so giving an increased lack of information about the exact microscopic state of the system, i.e. an increased statistical mechanical entropy. This will be considered in more detail below.
The entropy in statistical mechanics can be considered as a specific application of [[Shannon entropy]], according to a viewpoint known as [[MaxEnt thermodynamics]]. Roughly speaking, Shannon entropy is proportional to the minimum number of yes/no questions you have to ask to get the answer to some question. The statistical mechanical entropy is then proportional to the minimum number of yes/no questions you have to ask in order to determine the microstate, given that you know the macrostate.
==History==
Thermodynamic entropy was first introduced in the context of classical thermodynamics by [[Rudolf Clausius]] in [[1850]], in his analysis of [[Nicolas Léonard Sadi Carnot|Sadi Carnot]]'s [[1824]] work on thermodynamic efficiency; although it was not until [[1865]] that Clausius singled the quantity out and gave it the name entropy.
In [[1877]], [[Ludwig Boltzmann]] formulated the alternative definition of entropy as a measure of statistical "mixedupness" or disorder, soon refined by [[J. Willard Gibbs]], which is now regarded as one of the cornerstones of the theory of [[statistical mechanics]].
[[Claude Elwood Shannon|Claude Shannon]] introduced the very general concept of [[information entropy]], used in [[information theory]], in [[1948]]. The view of seeing entropy in statistical mechanics as merely a particular application of Shannon's information entropy is largely due to the campaigning of [[E. T. Jaynes]], starting in [[1957]].
When necessary, to disambiguate between the statistical thermodynamic concept of entropy, and entropy-like formulae put forward by different researchers, the statistical thermodynamic entropy is most properly referred to as the '''[[Gibbs entropy]]'''. The terms '''Boltzmann-Gibbs entropy''' or '''BG entropy''', and '''Boltzmann-Gibbs-Shannon entropy''' or '''BGS entropy''' are also seen in the literature.
== Thermodynamic definition of entropy ==
In this section, we discuss the original definition of entropy, as introduced by Clausius in the context of classical thermodynamics. Clausius defined the ''change in entropy'' of a thermodynamic system, during a [[reversible process (thermodynamics)|reversible process]] in which an amount of [[heat]] <math>\delta Q</math> is introduced at constant [[temperature|absolute temperature]] ''T'', as
:<math>dS = \frac{\delta Q}{T} \,\!</math>
This definition makes sense when absolute temperature has been defined. Note that the small amount <math>\delta Q</math> of energy transferred by heating is denoted by
<math>\delta Q</math> rather than <math>dQ</math>, because ''Q'' is not a [[state function]] while the entropy is.
Clausius gave the quantity ''S'' the name "entropy", from the Greek word ''&tau;&rho;o&pi;&#942;'', "transformation". Since this definition involves only differences in entropy, the entropy itself is only defined [[up to]] an arbitrary additive constant.
When a process is irreversible, the above definition must be replaced by the statement that the entropy change is equal to the amount of energy required to return the system to its original state by a reversible transformation at a constant temperature, divided by that temperature. This is explained in more detail below.
=== Heat engines ===
Clausius' identification of ''S'' as a significant quantity was motivated by the study of reversible and irreversible thermodynamic transformations. A thermodynamic transformation is a change in a system's thermodynamic properties, such as [[temperature]] and [[volume]]. A transformation is reversible if it is [[quasistatic process|quasistatic]] which means that it is [[infinitesimal]]ly close to [[thermodynamic equilibrium]] at all times. Otherwise, the transformation is [[reversible process (thermodynamics)|irreversible]]. To illustrate this, consider a gas enclosed in a [[piston]] chamber, whose volume may be changed by moving the piston. If we move the piston slowly enough, the density of the gas is always homogeneous, so the transformation is reversible. If we move the piston quickly, [[pressure wave]]s are created, so the gas is not in equilibrium, and the transformation is irreversible.
A [[heat engine]] is a thermodynamic system that can undergo a sequence of transformations which ultimately return it to its original state. Such a sequence is called a [[cyclic process]], or simply a ''cycle''. During some transformations, the engine may exchange energy with the environment. The net result of a cycle is (i) [[mechanical work]] done by the system (which can be [[negative and non-negative numbers|positive]] or negative, the latter meaning that work is done ''on'' the engine), and (ii) heat energy transferred from one part of the environment to another. By the [[conservation of energy]], the net energy lost by the environment is equal to the work done by the engine.
If every transformation in the cycle is reversible, the cycle is reversible, and it can be run in reverse, so that the energy transfers occur in the opposite direction and the amount of work done switches sign.
=== Defi |
. Between the 11th and 13th centuries, the [[Romanesque]] style ''Münster'' ([[cathedral]]) was built, and in 1597 it became the capital of the [[principality]] of Cologne. The town gained more influence and grew considerably. The [[Archbishopric of Cologne|elector]] [[Klemens August of Bavaria|Clemens August]] (ruled 1724-1761) ordered the construction of a series of [[Baroque]] buildings which still give the city its character. Another memorable ruler was Max Franz (ruled 1784-1794), who founded the university and the spa quarter of [[Bad Godesberg]]. In addition he was a patron of the young [[Ludwig van Beethoven]], who was born in the city in 1770; the elector financed the composer's first journey to [[Vienna]].
In 1794, the town was seized by [[France|French]] troops. It became a part of the [[Napoleon I of France|Napoleon]]ic Empire. In 1815 Bonn was taken by [[Prussia]] and remained a Prussian city until 1945. The town was of little relevance in these years.
Following [[World War II]] Bonn was in the [[United Kingdom|British]] zone of occupation, and in 1949 became the capital of [[West Germany]]. The choice of Bonn was made due to the advocacy of [[Konrad Adenauer]], a former [[Cologne]] Mayor and Chancellor of West Germany after World War II, who came from that area.
[[German reunification]] in 1990 made [[Berlin]] the nominal capital of Germany again. This decision did not mandate that the republic's political institutions would also move. This was only concluded by the ''[[Bundestag]]'' (Germany's parliament) on [[June 20]], [[1991]], after a heated debate. While the government and parliament moved, as a compromise, some of the ministries largely remained in Bonn, with only the top officials in Berlin. There was no plan to move these departments, and so Bonn remained a second, unofficial capital. Because of the necessary construction work, the move took until 1999 to complete.
The [[University of Bonn]], with about 30,000 students, is one of the largest in Germany.
==Districts==
In 1969, the independent towns of [[Bad Godesberg]] and [[Beuel]] as well as several villages were incorporated into Bonn, resulting in a city more than twice as large as before. Bad Godesberg and Beuel became districts (''Stadtbezirke'') of Bonn with some independence and populations of about 70,000 each.
==Buildings and structures==
*[[Beethoven-House]] [http://www.beethoven-haus-bonn.de/sixcms/detail.php//portal_en]
*Botanischer Garten (Botanical Garden), where [[Titan arum]] reached a world record
*[[Poppelsdorf-Castle]] [http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poppelsdorfer_Schloss] (german)
*United Nations Campus [http://www.bonn.de/wirtschaft_wissenschaft_internationales/uno-stadt/00779/index.html?lang=en]
* University
* Haus der Geschichte (museum of history)
* Museum Mile
* Kunstmuseum (art museum)
* [[Deutsches Museum]]
* Doppelkirche [[Double Church]] Schwarzrheindorf built in 1151
*[[Fortress Godesburg]] [http://www.bonn-region.de/ns/articleview_en.php?folderID=10204&sub_folderID=10215&articleID=623]
==[[Transportation]]==
Bonn is connected by three [[Autobahn|Autobahnen]] (motorways) and two railway lines including the High-Speed Train [[InterCity Express]]. Bonn's international airport is [[Cologne Bonn Airport]] with low-cost connections to many European cities and a direct connection to [[Newark Liberty International Airport|Newark]], New Jersey (Continental Airlines).
== [[Nightlife]] ==
Due to the 30000 students Bonn has about 550 pubs and bars including some Irish pubs.
Bonn has one opera, 12 theaters and 20 cinemas.
According to the [[Gault Millau]] 2006, Bonn has the most gourmet restaurants per head in Germany.
== [[Twin towns]] ==
* [[Image:Flag of the United Kingdom.svg|25px]] [[Oxford]], [[United Kingdom]] since 1947
* [[Image:Flag of Israel.svg|25px]] [[Tel Aviv-Jaffa]], [[Israel]] since 1983
* [[Image:Flag of Germany.svg|25px]] [[Potsdam]], [[Brandenburg]] (formerly [[GDR]]) since 1988
* [[Image:Flag of Hungary.svg|25px]] [[Budafok]], District XII of [[Budapest]], [[Hungary]] since 1991
* [[Image:Flag of Poland.svg|25px]] [[Opole]], [[Poland]] (officially since 1997; contacts were established 1954)
of the district of [[Bad Godesberg]]
* [[Image:Flag of France.svg|25px]] [[Saint-Cloud]], [[France]]
* [[Image:Flag of Italy.svg|25px]] [[Frascati]], [[Italy]]
* [[Image:Flag of the United Kingdom.svg|25px]] [[Royal Borough of Windsor and Maidenhead|Windsor and Maidenhead]], [[United Kingdom]]
* [[Image:Flag of Belgium.svg|25px]] [[Kortrijk]], [[Belgium]]
* [[Image:Flag of Turkey.svg|25px]] [[Yalova]], [[Turkey]]
of the district of Beuel
* [[Image:Flag of France.svg|25px]] [[Mirecourt]], [[France]]
of the district of Hardtberg
* [[Image:Flag of France.svg|25px]] [[Villemomble]], [[France]]
==See also==
*[[History of Germany since 1945]]
*[[University of Bonn]]
*[[Maria Laach Abbey]]
*[[List of mayors of Bonn]]
==External links==
{{Commons|Bonn}}
*[http://www.bonn.de/index.html?lang=en Official Website] (English)
*[http://www.beethoven-haus-bonn.de Beethoven-Haus Bonn is the place, where Beethoven was born - contains a large archive of historic and modern documents related to Beethoven]
*[http://www.weihnachtsmarkt-bonn.info/ Bonn Christmas market (English)]
*[http://www.bonn-region.de/ns/default_en.php Tourist information]
*[http://www.bonn.de/tourismus_kultur_sport_freizeit/bonn_ist_kultur/museen/museumsmeile/index.html?lang=en "The Museum Mile"]
*[http://www.kah-bonn.de/index_e.htm Germany's Museum of Art in Bonn]
*[http://kunstmuseum.bonn.de/start_e.htm Bonn's Museum of Art]
*[http://www.museumkoenig.uni-bonn.de/ Natural history research museum]
*[http://www.hdg.de/indexeng.html Museum of German History since 1949]
*[http://www.deutsches-museum-bonn.de/ "German Museum" partially English]
*[http://www.firework.rhine-river.com/bonn/index.html Rhine in Flames - annual firework spectacle]
*[http://www.rheinkultur-festival.de/index.php?navi=700&kategorie=8#eng Rhine culture - one of Germany`s biggest annual rock festivals with up to 170000 visitors]
----
{{Germany districts north rhine-westphalia}}
----
[[Category:Bonn|*]]
[[Category:Cities in North Rhine-Westphalia]]
[[Category:Roman legions camps]]
[[Category:Cities on the Rhine]]
[[ar:بون]]
[[ca:Bonn]]
[[da:Bonn]]
[[de:Bonn]]
[[et:Bonn]]
[[el:Βόννη]]
[[es:Bonn]]
[[eo:Bonn]]
[[eu:Bonn]]
[[fr:Bonn]]
[[ko:본]]
[[hr:Bonn]]
[[id:Bonn]]
[[it:Bonn]]
[[he:בון]]
[[la:Bonna]]
[[lt:Bona]]
[[nl:Bonn]]
[[nds:Bonn]]
[[ja:ボン]]
[[no:Bonn]]
[[nn:Bonn]]
[[pl:Bonn]]
[[pt:Bona]]
[[ro:Bonn]]
[[ru:Бонн]]
[[fi:Bonn]]
[[sv:Bonn]]
[[tr:Bonn]]
[[zh:波恩]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>BritannicaPublicDomain</title>
<id>3296</id>
<revision>
<id>34638525</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-10T18:14:18Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>R.Koot</username>
<id>170083</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>fixed double redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[11th edition of the Encyclopædia Britannica]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>BokoNonism</title>
<id>3297</id>
<revision>
<id>15901651</id>
<timestamp>2002-04-14T04:58:47Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Zundark</username>
<id>70</id>
</contributor>
<comment>move to Bokononism</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Bokononism]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>BuddHa</title>
<id>3298</id>
<revision>
<id>15901652</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Buddha]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>BiJection</title>
<id>3299</id>
<revision>
<id>35315550</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-15T21:38:55Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>MarkSweep</username>
<id>58666</id>
</contributor>
<comment>dbl rdr</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[map (mathematics)]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>BuddhIsm</title>
<id>3300</id>
<revision>
<id>15901654</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Buddhism]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>BushTalk</title>
<id>3301</id>
<revision>
<id>17817910</id>
<timestamp>2005-06-29T08:43:01Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Susvolans</username>
<id>94325</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[talk:George W. Bush]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>BaltimoreRavens</title>
<id>3303</id>
<revision>
<id>15901656</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Baltimore Ravens]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>BiblE/Aaron</title>
<id>3307</id>
<revision>
<id>15901657</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Dreamyshade</username>
<id>32</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Aaron]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>BusinessSchools</title>
<id>3308</id>
<revision>
<id>15901658</id>
<timestamp>2003-05-15T03:25:53Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Minesweeper</username>
<id>7279</id>
</contributor>
|
the same [[Computer architecture|architecture]], using a binary [[compatibility layer]]. Much simpler and faster than [[emulation]], this allows, for instance, applications intended for [[Linux]] to be run at effectively full speed. This makes BSDs not only suitable for server environments, but also for workstation ones, given the increasing availability of commercial or closed-source software for Linux only. This also allows administrators to migrate legacy commercial applications, which may have only supported commercial Unix variants, to a more modern operating system, retaining the functionality of such applications until they can be replaced by a better alternative.
Current BSD operating system variants support many of the common IEEE, ANSI, ISO, and POSIX standards, while retaining most of the traditional BSD behavior. Like [[AT&T Unix]], the BSD kernel is [[monolithic kernel|monolithic]], meaning that device drivers in the kernel run in [[privileged mode]], as part of the core of the operating system. Early versions of BSD were used to form [[Sun Microsystems]]' [[SunOS]], founding the first wave of popular Unix workstations.
==Significant BSD descendants==
:''See also: [[:Category:BSD]]''
BSD has been the base of a large number of operating systems. Most notable among these today is perhaps the major [[open source]] BSDs, [[DragonFly BSD]], [[FreeBSD]], [[NetBSD]] and [[OpenBSD]]—sometimes known as ''the BSDs''—which have themselves spawned a number of children, including [[FreeSBIE]], [[MirOS BSD]] and [[PC-BSD]]. They are targeted at an array of systems for different purposes and are common in government facilities, universities and in commercial use. A number of commercial operating systems are also partly or wholly based on BSD or its descendents, including [[Sun Microsystems|Sun]]'s [[SunOS]] and the [[Apple Computers|Apple]]'s popular [[Mac OS X]]. A selection of significant Unix versions and [[Unix-like]] operating systems that descend from BSD includes:
* the defunct [[BSD/OS]]
* [[Juniper Networks]] routers
* [[386BSD]], the first open source BSD-based operating system
* [[DragonFly BSD]], a [[Fork (software development)|fork]] of FreeBSD to follow an alternative design, particularly related to [[Symmetric_multiprocessing|SMP]]
* [[FreeBSD]], a major open source effort specialising on speed and the [[i386]] platform
* [[NetBSD]], a free BSD with an emphasis on portability
* [[OpenBSD]], a 1995 fork of NetBSD, now focuses on security
* [[Nextstep|NeXTSTEP]] and [[OpenStep]], the parents of Mac OS X
* [[Darwin (operating system)|Darwin]], the core of Mac OS X
* [[Ultrix]], [[Digital Equipment Corporation|DEC]]'s native Unix
* SunOS, one of Sun's earlier products, suceeded by [[Solaris Operating Environment|Solaris]]
==See also==
*[[Bill Joy]]
*[[Marshall Kirk McKusick]]
*[[Keith Bostic]]
*[[386BSD]]
<!-- we should be able to do better than this list. Who wants to write [[UCB Computer Science Research Group]]?-->
==External links==
*[http://www.dragonflybsd.org/ DragonFlyBSD]. [http://www.freebsd.org FreeBSD], [http://www.netbsd.org NetBSD] and [http://www.openbsd.org OpenBSD] – Popular BSD descendents
* [http://www.freebsdsoftware.org Freebsd software]
*[http://www.freebsd.org/cgi/cvsweb.cgi/~checkout~/src/share/misc/bsd-family-tree?rev=HEAD A timeline of BSD and Research UNIX]
*[http://metawire.org/~liamfoy/bsdportal/ BSD Portal] – A BSD news site
*[http://www.bsdwiki.com/ BSDWiki] – A wiki dedicated to the BSD operating systems
*[http://www.levenez.com/unix/ UNIX History] – History of UNIX and BSD using diagrams
*[http://www.google.com/bsd Google's specialized BSD search]
*[http://www.bsdcertification.org/index.htm The BSD Certification Group]
==Further reading==
* Chris Dibona, Mark Stone, Sam Ockman, Open Source (Organization), Brian Behlendorf and J. Scott Bradner. ''Open Sources: Voices from the Open Source Revolution''. [http://www.oreilly.com/ O'Reilly & Associates], 1999. Trade paperback, 272 pages. ISBN 156592582. Online at http://www.oreilly.com/catalog/opensources/book/toc.html; Chapter on BSD - [http://www.oreilly.com/catalog/opensources/book/kirkmck.html "Twenty Years of Berkeley Unix - From AT&T-Owned to Freely Redistributable"]
{{unix-like}}
[[Category:BSD]]
[[Category:Free software]]
[[Category:Unix]]
[[Category:Operating systems]]
<!-- interwiki -->
[[ar:BSD]]
[[ast:BSD]]
[[ca:BSD]]
[[cs:BSD]]
[[da:BSD]]
[[de:Berkeley Software Distribution]]
[[et:BSD]]
[[es:BSD]]
[[eo:BSD]]
[[fr:Berkeley software distribution]]
[[ko:BSD]]
[[hr:BSD]]
[[it:Berkeley Software Distribution]]
[[he:BSD]]
[[lt:BSD]]
[[li:Berkeley Software Distribution]]
[[hu:Berkeley Software Distribution]]
[[nl:Berkeley Software Distribution]]
[[ja:BSD]]
[[no:Berkeley Software Distribution]]
[[pl:BSD]]
[[pt:Berkeley Software Distribution]]
[[ru:BSD]]
[[simple:Berkeley Software Distribution]]
[[sr:Berkeley Software Distribution]]
[[fi:Berkeley Software Distribution]]
[[sv:BSD]]
[[vi:BSD]]
[[tr:BSD]]
[[uk:BSD]]
[[zh:BSD]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Barcelona</title>
<id>4443</id>
<revision>
<id>42154327</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T04:25:45Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>67.142.130.14</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>+ka</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{OtherUses|the Spanish city}}
{| cellpadding="2" style="float: right; width: 310px; background: #e3e3e3; margin-left: 1em; border-spacing: 1px;"
! align="center" colspan="2" style="background: #e3e3e3;" | '''City of Barcelona'''
|---- bgcolor="#FFFFFF"
| align="center" valign="top" width="50%" | Flag<br><br><br><br>[[Image:Bandera de Barcelona.png|150px]]<br><br><br>([[Flag of Barcelona|In details]])
| align="center" valign="top" width="50%" | Coat of arms<br>[[Image:Coat of arms of Barcelona.jpg|150px]]<br>([[Coat of arms of Barcelona|In details]])
|----
| align="center" colspan="2" | [[Image:Barcelona,_Spain_location.png]]
|---- bgcolor="#FFFFFF"
| align="center" colspan="2" | <!-- Unsourced image removed: [[Image:Barcelona within Barcelonès.png|Barcelona within Barcelonès]] --><br>[[Barcelonès|Barcelona within Barcelonès]]
|---- bgcolor="#FFFFFF"
| [[Province]] || [[Barcelona (province)|Barcelona]]
|---- bgcolor="#FFFFFF"
| [[Autonomous community]] || [[Catalonia]]
|---- bgcolor="#FFFFFF"
| [[Postal code]] || 08xxx
|---- bgcolor="#FFFFFF"
| [[Coordinate]]s<br>&nbsp;- Latitude: <br>&nbsp;- Longitude: || <br> 41[[grade|°]]23[[minute|']] [[north|N]] <br>2º11' [[east|E]]
|---- bgcolor="#FFFFFF"
| [[Altitude]] || 12 [[metre|m]]
|---- bgcolor="#FFFFFF"
| [[Area]] || 100.4 [[square kilometre|km²]]
|---- bgcolor="#FFFFFF"
| [[Distance]]s || 500 [[kilometre|km]] to [[Madrid]]
|---- bgcolor="#FFFFFF"
| [[Population]]<br>&nbsp;- Total ([[2005]])<br>&nbsp;- [[Density of population|Density]] ([[2005]]) || <br> 1,593,075 inhab. <br> 15,869 inhab./km²
|---- bgcolor="#FFFFFF"
| [[Demonym]] || barcelonés/barcelonesa ([[Spanish language|Spanish]])<br>barceloní/barcelonina ([[Catalan language|Catalan]])
|---- bgcolor="#FFFFFF"
| [[River|Rivers]] || [[Llobregat]]<br>[[Besòs]]
|---- bgcolor="#FFFFFF"
| Mayor (1997- )|| [[Joan Clos]] ([[Partit dels Socialistes de Catalunya]])
|---- bgcolor="#FFFFFF"
| Local council website || [http://www.bcn.cat/english/ihome.htm www.bcn.cat]
|}
'''Barcelona''' is the capital city of [[Catalonia]] (Spain). It is located in the [[Comarques of Catalonia|comarca]] of [[Barcelonès]], along the [[Mediterranean Sea|Mediterranean]] coast ({{coor dm|41|23|N|2|11|E|type:city(1,582,738)_region:ES}}) between the mouths of the rivers [[Llobregat]] and [[Besòs]]. It is 160 km (100 mi) south of the [[Pyrenees]] mountain range. The population of the city proper is 1,593,075 (est. 2005), while the population of the [[metropolitan area]] is 4,686,701 (est. 2005). Population of the [[Barcelona (province)|province of Barcelona]] is 5,226,354 (est. 2005), although this only covers 7,733 km² (3,000 mi²) around the city. The [[mayor of Barcelona]] is [[Joan Clos]].
==History==
Legend attributes the [[Carthage|Carthaginian]] foundation of ''Barcino'' to [[Hamilcar Barca]], father of [[Hannibal]]. About [[15 BC]], [[Roman empire|Romans]] redrew the town as a ''[[castra|castrum]]'' (a Roman military camp) centred on the "Mons Taber", a little hill nearby the contemporary city hall (Plaça de Sant Jaume). The Roman ''Colonia Julia Augusta Faventia Paterna Barcino'' was outshone by the province's capital [[Tarragona]] but some important Roman remains are exposed under the [[Plaça del Rei]], entrance by the city museum, [[Museu d'Història de la Ciutat]] and the typically Roman grid-planning is still visible today on the map of the historical centre, the ''Barri Gótic'' ("Gothic Quarter"). Some remaining fragments of the Roman walls have been incorporated in the cathedral butted up against them [http://www.bluffton.edu/~sullivanm/spain/barcelona/walls/walls.html]; the basilica ''La Seu'' is credited to have been founded in 343. The city was conquered by the [[Visigoths]] in the early [[5th century]], by the [[Moors]] in the early [[8th century]], reconquered from the emir in [[801]] by [[Charlemagne]]'s son [[Louis the Pious|Louis]] who made Barcelona the seat of Carolingian "Spanish Marches" (''[[Marca Hispanica]]''), a buffer zone ruled by the [[Count of Barcelona]]. Barcelona was still a Christian frontier territory when it was sacked by [[Al-Mansur (Abi Amir)|Al-Mansur]] in [[985]].
[[Image:Barcelona |
earned a [[Doctor of Philosophy|Ph.D.]] in [[chemistry]] there in 1948. In between, he spent three years during [[World War II]] working at the [[Philadelphia Navy Yard]]'s Naval Air Experimental Station. After the war ended, he was drafted into the [[U.S. Army]], serving for just under nine months before receiving an honorable discharge. In the course of his brief military career, he rose to Corporal on the basis of his typing skills and narrowly avoided participating in the 1946 atomic bomb tests at [[Bikini Atoll]].
After completing his doctorate, he joined the faculty of [[Boston University]], with which he remained associated thereafter. From 1958 this was in a non-teaching capacity, as he became a full-time writer (his writing income already exceeded his academic salary). Being [[tenure]]d meant that he retained the title of [[associate professor]], and in 1979 the university honored his writing by promoting him to full [[professor]]. His personal papers from 1965 onward are archived at their [[Mugar Memorial Library]], where they fill 464 boxes on 71 [[metre]]s of shelf space.
In 1985, he became President of the [[American Humanist Association]] and remained in that position until his death in 1992; his successor was his friend and fellow writer [[Kurt Vonnegut|Kurt Vonnegut, Jr]]. He was a close friend of [[Star Trek]] creator [[Gene Roddenberry]].
He married Gertrude Blugerman (1917-1990) on [[July 26]], [[1942]], and they had two children, [[David Asimov|David]] (b. 1951) and Robyn Joan (b. 1955). After an extended separation, they were divorced in 1973, and Asimov married [[Janet Asimov|Janet O. Jeppson]] later that year. Gertrude, born in Canada, died in Boston in 1990.
Asimov was a [[claustrophilia|claustrophile]]; that is, he enjoyed small, enclosed spaces. In his first volume of autobiography, he recalls a childhood desire to own a magazine stand in a [[New York City Subway]] station, within which he imagined he could enclose himself and listen to the rumble of passing trains.
Asimov was [[fear of flying|afraid of flying]], only doing so twice in his entire life (once in the course of his work at the Naval Air Experimental Station and once returning home from the army base in Oahu in 1946). He seldom traveled great distances, partly because his aversion to aircraft made the logistics of long-distance travel complicated; this phobia influenced several of his fiction works, such as the Wendell Urth mystery stories and the Robot novels featuring Elijah Baley. In his later years, he found he enjoyed traveling on [[cruise ship]]s, and on several occasions he became part of the cruises' "entertainment," giving science-themed talks on ships like the [[RMS Queen Elizabeth 2|RMS ''Queen Elizabeth 2'']].
His physical dexterity was very poor. He never learned how to swim or ride a [[bicycle]], although he did learn to drive a car and found he enjoyed it. He did not learn to operate a car until after he moved to [[Boston, Massachusetts]]; in his jokebook ''Asimov Laughs Again,'' he describes Boston driving as "anarchy on wheels".
Asimov's wide interests included his participation in his later years in organizations devoted to the operettas of [[Gilbert and Sullivan]] and the [[Nero Wolfe]] mysteries of [[Rex Stout]]. He was a prominent member of the [[Baker Street Irregulars]], the leading Sherlock Holmes society.
Asimov died on [[April 6]], [[1992]]. He was survived by his second wife, Janet, and his children from his first marriage. Ten years after his death, Janet Asimov's edition of Asimov's autobiography, ''[[It's Been a Good Life]]'', revealed that his death was caused by [[AIDS]]; he had contracted [[HIV]] from an infected [[blood transfusion]] during [[heart bypass surgery]] in 1983. The specific cause of death was heart and renal failure as complications of AIDS. Janet Asimov writes in the epilogue of ''It's Been a Good Life'' that Asimov had wanted to "go public", but his doctors convinced him to remain silent, warning that anti-AIDS [[prejudice]] would extend to his family members. Asimov's family considered disclosing his AIDS infection after he died, but the controversy which erupted when [[Arthur Ashe]] announced that ''he'' had contracted AIDS convinced them otherwise. Ten years later, after Asimov's doctors had died, Janet and Robyn agreed that the AIDS story could be made public [http://www.locusmag.com/2002/Issue04/Letter.html].
==Intellectual positions==
Isaac Asimov was a [[Humanist]] and a [[rationalism|rationalist]]. He did not oppose genuine religious conviction in others but vocally opposed [[superstition|superstitious]] or unfounded beliefs. During his childhood, his family did not for the most part observe any religion, and so Asimov grew up without strong religious influences, coming to believe that the Bible represented Hebrew mythology in the same way that the ''[[Iliad]]'' recorded [[Greek mythology]]. (For a brief while his father, Judah Asimov, worked in the local [[synagogue]] to enjoy the familiar surroundings and "shine as a learned scholar" versed in the sacred writings. This experience had little effect upon his son Isaac beyond teaching him the [[Hebrew alphabet]].) For many years, Asimov called himself an [[atheism|atheist]], though he felt the term was somewhat inadequate, describing more about what he did not believe than about what he did. Later, he found the term "humanist" a useful substitute.
In his last autobiographical book, Asimov wrote, "If I were not an atheist, I would believe in a God who would choose to save people on the basis of the totality of their lives and not the pattern of their words. I think he would prefer an honest and righteous atheist to a TV preacher whose every word is God, God, God, and whose every deed is foul, foul, foul." The same memoir states his belief that [[Hell]] is "the drooling dream of a [[sadism|sadist]]" crudely affixed to an all-merciful God; if even human governments were willing to curtail cruel and unusual punishments, wondered Asimov, why would punishment in the afterlife not be restricted to a limited term? Asimov rejected the idea that a human belief or action could merit infinite punishment. If an afterlife of just deserts existed, he claimed, the longest and most severe punishment would be reserved for those who "slandered God by inventing Hell". As his ''Treasury of Humor'' and ''Asimov Laughs Again'' record, he was amply willing to tell [[joke]]s involving the Judeo-Christian God, [[Satan]], the [[Garden of Eden]] and other religious topics, expressing the viewpoint that a good joke can do more to provoke thought than hours of philosophical discussion.
Asimov was a [[progressivism|progressive]] on most [[politics|political issues]], and a staunch supporter of the [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democratic Party]]. He was a vocal opponent of the [[Vietnam War]] in the 1960s, and in a television interview in the early 1970s he publicly endorsed [[George McGovern]]. He was unhappy at what he saw as an irrationalist track taken by many progressive political activists from the late 1960s onwards. In his autobiography ''In Joy Still Felt,'' he recalls meeting the counterculture figure [[Abbie Hoffman]]; Asimov's impression was that the 1960s' counterculture heroes had ridden an emotional wave which, in the end, left them stranded in a "no-man's land of the spirit" from which he wondered if they would ever return. (This attitude echoes a famous passage in [[Hunter S. Thompson]]'s ''[[Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas]].'') His defense of civil applications of [[nuclear power]] even after the [[Three Mile Island]] incident damaged his relations with some of his fellow liberals. In a letter reprinted in ''Yours, Isaac Asimov,'' he states that though he would prefer living in "no danger whatsoever" than near a nuclear reactor, he would still prefer a home near a nuclear power plant than in a slum, on [[Love Canal]] or near "a [[Union Carbide]] plant producing [[methyl isocyanate]]" (see [[Bhopal disaster]]). He issued many appeals for [[population control]] reflecting the perspective articulated by people from [[Thomas Malthus]] through [[Paul R. Ehrlich]]. Asimov considered himself a [[feminism|feminist]] even before [[Women's Liberation]] became a widespread movement; he joked that he wished women to be free "because I hate it when they charge". More seriously, he argued that the issue of women's rights was closely connected to that of population control. Furthermore, he believed that [[homosexuality]] must be considered a "moral right" on population grounds, as must all consenting adult sexual activity which does not lead to reproduction (''Yours, Isaac Asimov'').
In the closing years of his life, Asimov blamed the deterioration of the quality of life that he perceived in [[New York City|New York]] on the shrinking [[tax]] base caused by [[middle class]] flight to the [[suburb|suburbs]]. His last non-fiction book, ''Our Angry Earth'' (1991, co-written with his long-time friend science fiction author [[Frederik Pohl]]), deals with elements of the [[natural environment|environment]]al crisis such as [[global warming]] and the destruction of the [[ozone layer]].
==Asimov's writing career==
===Overview===
[[Image:AsimovOnThrone.png|thumb|300px|right|[[Rowena Morrill]] depicts Asimov enthroned with symbols of his life's work]]
Asimov's career can be divided into several time periods. His early career, dominated by science fiction, began with short stories in 1939 and novels in 1950. This lasted until about 1958, all but ending after publication of ''[[The Naked Sun]]''. He began publishing nonfiction in 1952, co-authoring a college-level textbook called ''Biochemistry and Human Metabolism''. Following the brief orbit of the first man-made satellite [ |
experiments have demonstrated that individuals do not play equilibrium strategies. For instance, in the [[Centipede game]], [[Guess 2/3 of the average]] game, and the [[Dictator game]], people regularly do not play Nash equilibria. There is an ongoing debate regarding the importance of these experiments. {{ref|experimental}}
Alternatively, some authors claim that Nash equilibria do not provide predictions for human populations, but rather provide an explanation for why populations that play Nash equilibria remain in that state. However, the question of how populations reach those points remains open.
Some game theorists have turned to [[evolutionary game theory]] in order to resolve these worries. These models presume either no rationality or [[bounded rationality]] on the part of players. Despite the name, evolutionary game theory does not necessarily presume [[natural selection]] in the biological sense. Evolutionary game theory includes both biological as well as cultural evolution and also models of individual learning (for example, [[fictitious play]] dynamics).
====Normative====
{| border="1" align=right cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" style="margin: 1em 1em 1em 1em; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;"
|+ align=bottom|''The Prisoner's Dilemma''
|
! ''Cooperate''
! ''Defect''
|-
! ''Cooperate''
| 2, 2
| 0, 3
|-
! ''Defect''
| 3, 0
| 1, 1
|}
On the other hand, some scholars see game theory not as a predictive tool for the behavior of human beings, but as a suggestion for how people ought to behave. Since a [[Nash equilibrium]] of a game constitutes one's [[best response]] to the actions of the other players, playing a strategy that is part of a Nash equilibrium seems appropriate. However, this use for game theory has also come under criticism. First, in some cases it is appropriate to play a non-equilibrium strategy if one expects others to play non-equilibrium strategies as well. For an example, see [[Guess 2/3 of the average]].
Second, the [[Prisoner's Dilemma]] presents another potential counterexample. In the Prisoner's Dilemma, each player pursuing his own self-interest leads both players to be worse off than had they not pursued their own self-interests. Some scholars believe that this demonstrates the failure of game theory as a recommendation for behavior.
===Biology===
{| border="1" align=right cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" style="margin: 1em 1em 1em 1em; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;"
|+ align=bottom|''Hawk-Dove''
|
! ''Hawk''
! ''Dove''
|-
! ''Hawk''
| (V-C)/2, (V-C)/2
| V, 0
|-
! ''Dove''
| 0, V
| V/2, V/2
|}
Unlike economics, the payoffs for games in [[biology]] are often interpreted as corresponding to [[fitness]]. In addition, the focus has been less on [[solution concept|equilibria]] that correspond to a notion of rationality, but rather on ones that would be maintained by [[evolution]]ary forces. The most well-known equilibrium in biology is known as the [[Evolutionary stable strategy]] or (ESS), and was first introduced by [[John Maynard Smith]] (described in his 1982 book). Although its initial motivation did not involve any of the mental requirements of the [[Nash equilibrium]], every ESS is a Nash equilibrium.
In biology, game theory has been used to understand many different phenomena. It was first used to explain the evolution (and stability) of the approximate 1:1 [[sex ratio]]s. [[Ronald Fisher]] (1930) suggested that the 1:1 sex ratios are a result of evolutionary forces acting on individuals who could be seen as trying to maximize their number of grandchildren.
Additionally, biologists have used [[evolutionary game theory]] and the ESS to explain the emergence of [[animal communication]] ([[John Maynard Smith|Maynard Smith]] & Harper, 2003). The analysis of [[signaling games]] and [[cheap talk|other communication games]] has provided some insight into the evolution of communication among animals.
Finally, biologists have used the [[hawk-dove game]] (also known as chicken) to analyze fighting behavior and territoriality.
===Computer science and logic===
Game theory has come to play an increasingly important role in [[logic]] and in [[computer science]]. Several logical theories have a basis in [[game semantics]]. In addition, computer scientists have used games to model [[interactive computation]]s.
===Philosophy===
Game theory has been put to several uses in [[philosophy]]. Responding to two papers by [[W.V.O. Quine]] (1960, 1967), [[David Lewis]] (1969) used game theory to develop a philosophical account of [[convention]]. In so doing, he provided the first analysis of [[common knowledge]] and employed it in analyzing play in [[coordination game]]s. In addition, he first suggested that one can understand [[meaning]] in terms of [[signaling game]]s. This later suggestion has been pursued by several philosophers since Lewis (Skyrms 1996, Grim et al. 2004).
{| border="1" align=right cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" style="margin: 1em 1em 1em 1em; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;"
|+ align=bottom|''The Stag Hunt''
|
! ''Stag''
! ''Hare''
|-
! ''Stag''
| 3, 3
| 0, 2
|-
! ''Hare''
| 2, 0
| 2, 2
|}
In [[ethics]], some authors have attempted to pursue the project, begun by [[Thomas Hobbes]], of deriving morality from self-interest. Since games like the [[Prisoner's Dilemma]] present an apparent conflict between morality and self-interest, explaining why cooperation is required by self-interest is an important component of this project. This general strategy is a component of the general [[social contract]] view in [[political philosophy]] (for examples, see Gauthier 1987 and Kavka 1986). {{ref|ethics}}
Finally, other authors have attempted to use [[evolutionary game theory]] in order to explain the emergence of human attitudes about morality and corresponding animal behaviors. These authors look at several games including the Prisoner's Dilemma, [[Stag hunt]], and the [[Nash bargaining game]] as providing an explanation for the emergence of attitudes about morality (see, e.g., Skyrms 1996, 2004; Sober and Wilson 1999).
==History of game theory==
The first known discussion of game theory occurred in a letter written by [[James Waldegrave]] in 1713. In this letter, Waldegrave provides a [[minimax]] [[mixed strategy]] solution to a two-person version of the card game [[le Her]]. It was not until the publication of [[Antoine Augustin Cournot]]'s ''Researches into the Mathematical Principles of the Theory of Wealth'' in 1838 that a general game theoretic analysis was pursued. In this work Cournot considers a [[duopoly]] and presents a solution that is a restricted version of the [[Nash equilibrium]].
Although Cournot's analysis is more general than Waldegrave's, game theory did not really exist as a unique field until [[John von Neumann]] published a series of papers in 1928. These results were later expanded in the 1944 book ''The Theory of Games and Economic Behavior'' by von Neumann and [[Oskar Morgenstern]]. This profound work contains the method for finding optimal solutions for two-person zero-sum games. During this time period, work on game theory was primarily focused on [[cooperative game]] theory, which analyzes optimal strategies for groups of individuals, presuming that they can enforce agreements between them about proper strategies.
In 1950, the first discussion of the [[Prisoner's dilemma]] appeared, and an experiment was undertaken on this game at the [[RAND corporation]]. Around this same time, [[John Forbes Nash|John Nash]] developed a definition of an "optimum" strategy for multiplayer games where no such optimum was previously defined, known as [[Nash equilibrium]]. This equilibrium is sufficiently general, allowing for the analysis of [[non-cooperative game]]s in addition to cooperative ones.
Game theory experienced a flurry of activity in the 1950s, during which time the concepts of the [[core (economics)|core]], the [[extensive form game]], [[fictitious play]], [[repeated game]]s, and the [[Shapley value]] were developed. In addition, the first applications of Game theory to [[philosophy]] and [[political science]] occurred during this time.
In 1965, [[Reinhard Selten]] introduced his [[solution concept]] of [[subgame perfect equilibrium|subgame perfect equilibria]], which further refined the [[Nash equilibrium]] (later he would introduce [[trembling hand perfection]] as well). In 1967, [[John Harsanyi]] developed the concepts of [[complete information]] and [[Bayesian game]]s. He, along with John Nash and Reinhard Selten, won the [[Bank of Sweden Prize in Economic Sciences in Memory of Alfred Nobel]] in 1994.
In the 1970s, game theory was extensively applied in [[biology]], largely as a result of the work of [[John Maynard Smith]] and his [[evolutionary stable strategy]]. In addition, the concepts of [[correlated equilibrium]], trembling hand perfection, and [[common knowledge]]{{ref|commonknowledge}} were introduced and analyzed.
In 2005, game theorists [[Thomas Schelling]] and [[Robert Aumann]] won the [[Bank of Sweden Prize in Economic Sciences in Memory of Alfred Nobel|Bank of Sweden Prize in Economic Sciences]]. Schelling worked on dynamic models, early examples of [[evolutionary game theory]]. Aumann contributed more to the [[solution concept|equilibrium school]], developing an equilibrium coarsening correlated equilibrium and developing extensive analysis of the assumption of common knowledge.
==Notes==
# {{note|popculture}} [http://www.gametheory.net GameTheory.net] has an extensive list of [http://www.gametheory.net/popular/ references to game theory in popular culture].
# {{note|symmetry}} Some |
arles Bradlee, music publisher, in Boston, USA in 1835, with the title, "The A.B.C., a German air with variations for the flute with an easy accompaniment for the piano forte". The musical arrangement was attributed to Louis Le Maire (sometimes Lemaire), an 18th century composer. This was "Entered according to act of Congress, in the year 1835, by C. Bradlee, in the clerk's office of the District Court of Massachusetts", according to the Newberry Library catalog, which also says, "The theme is that used by Mozart for his piano variations, Ah, vous dirai-je, maman."
The alphabet song is sometimes said to come from another of Bradlee's publications, "The Schoolmaster", but the first line of that song is given as "Come, come my children, I must see", in Yale University's library catalog. It is described as "a favorite glee for three voices, as sung at the Salem glee club."
Lyrics: ''(each line represents a measure, or four beats)''
:''a-b-c-d-e-f-g''
:''h-i-j-k-l-m-n-o-p'' (l-m-n-o spoken twice as quickly as rest of rhyme)
:''q-r-s, t-u-v'' (the comma denotes a short pause)
:''w-x, y and z'' (pronounced "zed" in most English-speaking countries, but "zee" in the U.S. and sometimes elsewhere)
:''Now I've sung my A, B, C's''
:''Tell me what you think of me.''
A variant changes the last two lines to:
:''Now I know my A, B, C's''
:''Won't you come and play with me.''
...or...
:''Next time won't you sing with me.''
Variants of the song are used in [[Commonwealth of Nations|Commonwealth]] countries (and former Commonwealth regions where English is in significant use, such as [[Hong Kong]]), which pronounce the letter [[Z]] as "''zed''". One variation shortens the second line and lengthens the last, to form a near-rhyme between [[N]] and [[Z]] (zed):
:''a-b-c-d-e-f-g''
:''h-i-j-k-l-m-n''
:''o-p-q, r-s-t''
:''u-v-w, x-y-z''
Other variants make significantly more changes in order to rhyme with "zed", and even alter the rest of the song to fit a new rhythm. For example:
:''a-b-c-d-e-f-g''
:''h-i-j-k-lmnop''
:''lmnop-q-r-s-t''
:''u-v-w-x-y-z''
:''x-y-z.''
:''Butter on your bread''
:''If you don't like it you'll have to go to bed.''
The song can be heard [http://evaeaston.com/pr/alphabet.html here], by selecting the "The Alphabet Song" link directly under the chart.
The alphabet song's popularity inspired [[comedian]] [[Steven Wright]] to quip, "Why is the [[Latin alphabet|alphabet]] in that order? Is it because of ''that song?''"
There is a common misconception among young children, due to the way "l-m-n-o-p" is sung faster than the rest of the letters, that there is a single letter called "elemenopee".
A joke variation sung by children to each other is to sing the whole song except the "P".
The listener then asks "Where's the P?" To this the child in jest responds "Running down your knee" (interpreting the "P" as "[[Pee]]").
----
There is a version of the alphabet song using a different melody taught by some pre-schools that use the [[phonics]] method.
:''What does the A say? Ay Aa Ah'' (the vowels are sounded completely)
:''What does the B say? B* B* B*'' (only the leading sound of consonants are sung in the response part)
:''What does the C say? K* K* K*''
:''What does the D say? D* D* D*''
:''What does the E say? Ee and Eh''
:. . .
(continue for each letter with several slightly different melodies)
:. . .
:''What does the X say? Ks Ks Ks''
:''What does the Y say? Y* Y* Y*''
:''What does the Z say? Zzz Zzz Zzz''
:''What do you call these phones and sounds?''
:''English alphabet letters.''
:''Yeah!''
This song teaches children that each letter has a name and sounds. Just like a [[dog]] says "woof" and a [[cat]] says "meow", the "I" says "eye" and "ee".
----
Another variant popular at many children's summer camps goes:
:''A: you're an alphabet''
:''B: you're a belly button''
:''C: you're a cantaloupe with arms''
:''D: you're delirious''
:''E: you're an elephant''
:''F: you're the fairy of my arms''
:''G: you're a goony goon''
:''H: you're a hairy loon''
:''I: you're an icky dicky doo''
:''J: you've got joppy knees''
:''k: klaustrophobia (sp)''
:''l: you've got leprosy too!''
:''M, N: you're a maniac''
:''O: you're an octopus-pus-pus-pus''
:''P:, Q: particularly queer''
:''R, S, T,: responsible for stupid things''
:''U: pick your nose in bed''
:''V: you're a vomit head''
:''W, X, Y, Z''
==See also==
*[[ABC-DEF-GHI]], a song sung by [[Big Bird]] of ''[[Sesame Street]]''
*[[The Elements (song)|The Elements]], a [[mnemonic]] song of the [[periodic table]] by [[Tom Lehrer]]
*[[Elemeno P]], a [[New Zealand]] [[rock band]] whose name is derived from the alphabet song
[[Category:1834 songs]]
[[Category:19th century songs]]
[[Category:Nursery rhymes]]
[[sv:Alfabetsvisan]]
[[th:เพลงตัวอักษรของภาษาอังกฤษ]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Antigonid dynasty</title>
<id>2826</id>
<revision>
<id>34604495</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-10T10:36:33Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>KnightRider</username>
<id>430793</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>warnfile Adding: es</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''Antigonid dynasty''' was a dynasty of [[Macedon|Macedonian]] kings descended from [[Alexander the Great|Alexander the Great's]] general [[Antigonus I Monophthalmus]] ("the One-eyed"). Antigonus himself ruled mostly over Asia Minor and northern Syria. His attempts to take control of the whole of Alexander's empire led to his defeat and death at the [[Battle of Ipsus]] in [[301 BC]]. Antigonus's son [[Demetrius I Poliorcetes]] survived the battle, and managed to seize control of Macedon itself a few years later, but eventually lost his throne, dying in prison. After a period of confusion, Demetrius's son [[Antigonus II Gonatas]] was able to establish the family's control over the old Kingdom of Macedon, as well as over most of the Greek city-states, by [[276 BC]].
It was one of three such empires, the others being the [[Seleucid dynasty]] and [[Ptolemaic dynasty]]. The dynasty ended with the [[Roman empire|Roman]] domination of the area after the [[Battle of Pydna]] in [[168 BC]].
The members of the Antingonid dynasty were:
*[[Antigonus I Monophthalmus]]
*[[Demetrius I Poliorcetes]] ([[294 BC]]-[[287 BC]])
*[[Antigonus II Gonatas]] ([[276 BC]]-[[239 BC]])
*[[Demetrius II of Macedon|Demetrius II]] (239 BC-[[229 BC]])
*[[Antigonus III Doson]] (229 BC - [[221 BC]])
*[[Philip V of Macedon|Philip V]] (221 BC-[[179 BC]])
*[[Perseus of Macedon|Perseus]] (179 BC-[[168 BC]])
[[Category:Macedonian monarchs]]
[[de:Antigoniden]]
[[es:Dinastía Antigónida]]
[[fr:Antigonides]]
[[hr:Antigonidi]]
[[nl:Antigoniden]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Abingdon</title>
<id>2827</id>
<revision>
<id>37636297</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-01T05:29:20Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Lockley</username>
<id>207616</id>
</contributor>
<comment>correct ref</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Abingdon''' may refer to the following places:
*The eponymous [[Abingdon, Oxfordshire]]
*[[Abingdon, Ontario]], Canada
*[[Abingdon, Iowa]], USA
*[[Abingdon, Illinois]], USA
*[[Abingdon, Maryland]], USA
*[[Abingdon, North Carolina]], USA
*[[Abingdon, South Carolina]], USA
*[[Abingdon, Virginia]], USA
*[[Abingdon Magisterial District, Virginia]], USA
It may also refer to:
*[[Abingdon (1902 automobile)]]
*[[Abingdon (1922 automobile)]]
{{geodis}}
[[de:Abingdon]]
[[io:Abingdon]]
[[sv:Abingdon]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Abipones</title>
<id>2828</id>
<revision>
<id>27957298</id>
<timestamp>2005-11-10T21:12:45Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Bluebot</username>
<id>527862</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Standardising 1911 references.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''Abipones''' were a tribe of [[South America]]n Indians of Guaycuran stock recently inhabiting the territory lying between Santa Fe and St. Iago. They originally occupied the Chaco district of [[Paraguay]], but were driven south by the hostility of the Spaniards and other native tribes. According to [[Martin Dobrizhoffer]], a Jesuit missionary, who, towards the end of the [[18th century]], lived among them for a period of seven years, they then numbered not more than 5,000. They were a well-formed, handsome people, with black eyes and aquiline noses, thick black hair, but no beards. The hair from the forehead to the crown of the head was pulled out, this constituting a tribal mark. The faces, breasts and arms of the women were covered with black figures of various designs made with thorns, the tattooing paint being a mixture of ashes and blood. The lips and ears of both sexes were pierced. The men were brave fighters, their chief weapons being the bow and spear. No child was without bow and arrows; the bow-strings were made of foxes' entrails. In battle the Abipones wore an armour of tapir's hide over which a jaguar's skin was sewn. They were excellent swimmers and good horsemen. For five months in the year when the floods were out they lived on islands or even in shelters built in the trees. They seldom married before the age of thirty, and were singularly chaste.
"With the Abipones," wrote [[Charles Darwin]] in ''The Descent of Man'', "when a man chooses a wife, he bargains with the parents about the price. But it frequently happens that the girl rescinds what has been agreed upon between the parents and bridegroom, obstinately rejecting the very mention of marriage. She often runs away and hides herself, and |
]'', in which he travels alone). The idea of the companion is to provide a [[audience surrogate|surrogate]] with whom the audience can identify and to further the story by asking questions and getting into trouble. The Doctor regularly gains new companions and loses old ones; sometimes they return home or find new causes &mdash; or loves &mdash; on worlds they have visited. Some have even died during the course of the series.
There are some disputes as to the definition of a companion, but fans mostly agree that at least thirty (including [[K-9 (Doctor Who)|K-9]] Marks I and II) meet the criteria for "companion" status in the television series, with others being [[list of Doctor Who spin-off companions|established in the various spin-offs]]. For further details, see the notes in [[List of Doctor Who supporting characters]].
Despite the fact that the majority of the Doctor's companions are young, attractive females, the production team for the 1963–1989 series maintained a longstanding taboo against any overt romantic involvement in the TARDIS. However, that has not prevented fans from speculating about possible romantic involvements, most notably between the [[Fourth Doctor]] and the Time Lady [[Romana]] (whose actors, [[Tom Baker]] and [[Lalla Ward]], shared a romance and brief marriage in real life). The taboo was controversially broken in the 1996 television movie when the [[Eighth Doctor]] was shown kissing companion [[Grace Holloway]]. The 2005 series played with this idea by having various characters think that the [[Ninth Doctor]] and [[Rose Tyler]] were a couple, which they vehemently denied.
Previous companions have reappeared in the series, usually for anniversary specials. One former companion, [[Sarah Jane Smith]] (played by [[Elisabeth Sladen]]), will guest star in [[School Reunion (Doctor Who)|an episode]] of the 2006 series together with the robotic dog, [[K-9 (Doctor Who)|K-9]], their first appearance in the programme since the 20th Anniversary story ''[[The Five Doctors]]'' (1983).
==Adversaries==
[[Image:Daleknew.jpg|thumb|180px|The [[Dalek]]s are perhaps the best known adversaries faced by the Doctor.]]
When Sydney Newman commissioned the series, he specifically did not want to perpetuate the cliché of the "bug-eyed monster" of science fiction. However, monsters were a staple of ''Doctor Who'' almost from the beginning and audiences responded to them.
Notable adversaries of the Doctor include the [[Auton]]s, the [[Cyberman|Cybermen]], the [[Sontaran]]s, the [[Ice Warrior]]s, the [[Yeti (Doctor Who)|Yeti]], the [[Silurian (Doctor Who)|Silurians]], and [[Master (Doctor Who)|the Master]], a rival Time Lord with a thirst for universal conquest. Of all the monsters and villains, the ones that ensured the series' place in the public's imagination were the [[Dalek]]s. The Daleks are lethal mutants in tank-like mechanical armour from the planet [[Skaro]]. Their chief role in the great scheme of things, as they frequently remark in their instantly recognisable metallic voices, is to "Exterminate!" [[Davros]], the Daleks' fictional creator, also became a recurring villain after he was introduced.
The Daleks were created by writer [[Terry Nation]] (who intended them as an allegory of the [[Nazism|Nazis]]) and BBC designer [[Raymond Cusick]]. Nation also wrote for 1960s telefantasy like ''[[The Avengers (television)|The Avengers]]''. He later created the 1970s [[science fiction]] programmes ''[[Survivors]]'' and ''[[Blake's 7]]'' and was a writer for the popular American series ''[[MacGyver]]''. The Daleks' debut in the programme's second serial, ''[[The Daleks]]'', caused a tremendous reaction in the viewership ratings, and put ''Doctor Who'' on the map. A Dalek even appeared on a postage stamp celebrating British popular culture in 1999, photographed by [[Antony Armstrong-Jones, 1st Earl of Snowdon|Lord Snowdon]].
==Music==
{{main|Doctor Who theme music}}
The original 1963 arrangement of the ''Doctor Who'' theme music, as composed by Ron Grainer and realised by [[Delia Derbyshire]] at the [[BBC Radiophonic Workshop]], is widely regarded as a significant and innovative piece of electronic music, working from tape loops of an individually struck piano string and individual test [[oscillator]]s and filters. The Derbyshire arrangement served, with minor edits, as the theme tune up to the end of [[List of Doctor Who serials#Season 17 (1979-80)|Season 17]].
A more modern and dynamic arrangement was composed by [[Peter Howell]] for [[List of Doctor Who serials#Season 18 (1980-81)|Season 18]] ([[1980]]), which was in turn replaced by [[Dominic Glynn]]'s less well received arrangement for Season 23's ''[[The Trial of a Time Lord]]'' (1986). [[Keff McCulloch]] provided the new arrangement for the [[Seventh Doctor]]'s era which lasted from [[List of Doctor Who serials#Season 24 (1987)|Season 24]] (1987) until the series' suspension in 1989. For the new series in 2005, [[Murray Gold]] provided a new arrangement which featured samples from the 1963 original with further elements added.
In the early 1970s, [[Jon Pertwee]], who had played the [[Third Doctor]], recorded a version of the ''Doctor Who Theme'' with spoken lyrics, entitled, "Who Is The Doctor". In 1988 the band [[The Justified Ancients of Mu Mu]] (later known as [[The KLF]]) released the single "Doctorin' The Tardis" under the name [[The Timelords]], which reached No. 1 in the UK. Others who have covered or reinterpreted the theme include [[Orbital (band)|Orbital]], the Australian string ensemble [[Fourplay Electric String Quartet|Fourplay]], [[The Pogues]], [[Pink Floyd]] and the comedian [[Bill Bailey]]. The theme tune has also appeared on many compilation CDs and has even made its way to the world of [[mobile phone]] ring tones. Fans have also produced and distributed their own remixes of the theme tune.
{{Listen|filename=Doctor Who theme excerpt.ogg|title=Doctor Who theme excerpt|description=An excerpt from the theme music to ''Doctor Who''}}
==Viewership==
[[Image:3doctardis.jpg|right|thumb|180px|The image of the [[TARDIS]] is iconic in British popular culture.]]
''Doctor Who'' has always appeared on the BBC's mainstream [[BBC One]] channel, drawing audiences of many millions of viewers. It was most popular in the late 1970s, when audiences frequently averaged as high as 12 million viewers per airing. During the [[ITV]] network strike of 1979, viewership peaked at 16 million. No first-run episode of ''Doctor Who'' has ever drawn fewer than three million viewers on BBC One, although its late 1980s performance of three to five million regular viewers was seen as being poor at the time, and was, according to the BBC Board of Control, a leading cause of the programme's 1989 suspension. Some fans considered this excuse disingenuous, since the programme was scheduled against the [[soap opera]] ''[[Coronation Street]]'', the most popular show at the time (as it is also today). The BBC One broadcast of ''[[Rose (Doctor Who)|Rose]]'', the first episode of the 2005 revival, drew an average audience of 10.81 million, No. 3 for BBC One that week and No. 7 across all channels. The latest series has been generally receiving an audience of about 7.5 million, although the figures have not yet exceeded that of ''Rose''.
The programme also gained a strong following in [[Australia]], where it continues to be screened repeatedly due to the close connections between the BBC and Australia's major public broadcaster, the [[Australian Broadcasting Corporation|ABC]]. It has a fan base in the [[United States]] as well, where it was shown in syndication through the 1970s and 1980s, particularly on [[PBS]] stations (see [[Doctor Who in America]]). [[Canada]] was the first country outside the UK to screen ''Doctor Who'' beginning in January 1965, but the CBC only aired the first twenty-six episodes.
Only four episodes have ever had their premiere showings on channels other than BBC One. The 1983 twentieth anniversary special ''[[The Five Doctors]]'' had its debut on [[November 23]] (the actual date of the anniversary) on the [[Chicago, Illinois|Chicago]] [[PBS]] station [[WTTW-TV]] in the United States and various other PBS members two days prior to its BBC One broadcast. The 1988 story ''[[Silver Nemesis]]'' was broadcast with all three episodes edited together in compilation form on [[TVNZ]] in New Zealand in November, after the first episode had been shown in the UK but before the final two instalments had aired there. Finally, the 1996 television movie premiered on [[May 12]] on [[CITV-TV|CITV]] in [[Edmonton, Alberta|Edmonton]], Canada, fifteen days before the BBC One showing, and two days before it aired on [[Fox Broadcasting Company|Fox]] in the USA.
There was some controversy over the show's suitability for children. The moral campaigner, [[Mary Whitehouse]], made a series of complaints to the BBC in the 1970s over its sometimes frightening or gory content. Ironically, her actions made the programme even more popular, especially with children. [[John Nathan-Turner]], who produced the series during the 1980s, was heard to say that he looked forward to Whitehouse's comments, as the show's ratings would increase soon after she had made them. During the 1970s, the ''[[Radio Times]]'', the BBC's own listings magazine, announced that a child's mother said the theme music terrified her son. The ''Radio Times'' was apologetic, but the theme music remained.
There were more complaints about the programme's content than its music. During [[Jon Pertwee]]'s [[List of Doctor Who serials#Season 8 (1971)|second season]] as the Doctor, in the serial ''[[Terror of the Autons]]'', images of murderous plastic dolls, daffodils killing unsuspecting victims and blank-featured android policemen marked the apex of the show's ability to frighten children. Other notable moments in that decade included the Doctor ap |
. (A [[wood engraving]] made by Robert Bruce on July 27, 1866.)]]
The Melbourne Football Club rules of 1859 are the oldest surviving set of laws for Australian football. They were drawn up at the Parade Hotel, [[East Melbourne]] on [[May 17]], by Wills, W. J. Hammersley, J. B. Thompson and Thomas Smith (some sources include H. C. A. Harrison). The 1859 rules did not include some elements which soon became important to the game, such as the requirement to bounce the ball while running, and Melbourne's game was not immediately adopted by neighbouring clubs. Before each match, the rules had to be agreed by the two teams involved. By 1866, however, several other clubs had agreed to play by an updated version of Melbourne's rules.
It is often said that the founders were partly inspired by the ball games of the local [[Australian Aborigine|Aboriginal]] people in western Victoria. Aborigines did play a sport called ''[[Marn Grook]]'', which used a ball made out of [[possum]] hide, and included play resembling the ''high marking'' ("speccie") in Australian football. There is considerable debate over the connection between the two. Wills did have a deep knowledge of Aboriginal culture, and Harrison had grown up in an area near present day [[Moyston, Victoria]] where he may have seen Marn Grook.
The influence of [[United Kingdom|British]] [[public school]] and [[university]] football codes, while also undetermined, was clearly substantial. Wills had been educated at [[Rugby School]] in England (where [[Rugby football]] had been codified since 1845). Wills had also, like W. J. Hammersley and J. B. Thompson, been to the [[University of Cambridge]]. The [[Cambridge Rules]], drawn up in 1848, included some elements which are important in Australian football, such as the mark. Thomas Smith was [[Ireland|Irish]] and had attended [[Trinity College, Dublin]], where the Rugby School rules were popular at a very early stage. These men would have been familiar with other public school and university games. They may also have been inspired by surviving forms of [[Medieval football]] and other traditional sports, played among the thousands of immigrants who poured into Victoria from the UK, Ireland and many other countries during the gold rushes of the [[1850s]].
===Similarities to Gaelic football===
While it is clear even to casual observers that Australian rules football is similar to [[Gaelic football]], the exact relationship is unclear, as the Irish game was not codified by the [[Gaelic Athletic Association]] (GAA) until 1887. The historian B. W. O'Dwyer points out that Australian football has always been differentiated from [[rugby football]] by having no limitation on ball or player movement (in the absence of an offside rule), the need to bounce the ball (or toe-kick it, known as a ''solo'' in Gaelic football) while running, punching the ball (hand-passing) rather than throwing it, and other traditions. As O'Dwyer says:
:''These are all elements of Irish football. There were several variations of Irish football in existence, normally without the benefit of rulebooks, but the central tradition in [[Ireland]] was in the direction of the relatively new game [i.e. rugby]...adapted and shaped within the perimeters of the ancient Irish game of [[hurling]]... [These rules] later became embedded in Gaelic football. Their presence in Victorian football may be accounted for in terms of a formative influence being exerted by men familiar with and no doubt playing the Irish game. It is not that they were introduced into the game from that motive [i.e. emulating Irish games]; it was rather a case of particular needs being met...'' [B. W. O'Dwyer, March 1989, "The Shaping of Victorian Rules Football", ''Victorian Historical Journal'', v.60, no.1.]
After 1887, the two games developed in isolation from each other. A number of players, most notably [[Jim Stynes]] have successfully made the transition from Gaelic football to Australian rules.
:''See also:'' [[Australian_football_around_the_world#Gaelic_converts_to_Australian_football|Gaelic Football converts]]
====International rules football====
{{main|International rules football}}
Since 1967, there have been many matches between Australian and Irish teams, under various sets of hybrid, compromise rules. In 1984, the first official representative matches of [[International Rules football]] were played, and these are now played annually each October.
In 1999, a record Australian International Rules crowd of 65,000 at the [[MCG]] attended a game that saw Ireland defeat Australia but Australia win the series. In 2002, a record Irish International Rules crowd of 71,532 at [[Croke Park]], [[Dublin]] witnessed a draw which also saw Australia win the series.
The rules are a compromise between the two codes, using the round ball and the rectangular field of Gaelic football. The fierce tackling of the Australian code is allowed, although this has often caused controversy with the Irish players, who play a mostly non-contact game.
===History of clubs and competitions===
The modern day [[Australian Football League]] (AFL) has many teams dating back to the beginnings of the game: apart from the Melbourne Football Club, other early clubs still in existence include: [[Geelong Football Club|Geelong]] ([[1860]]), [[Carlton Football Club|Carlton]] ([[1864]]), North Melbourne (aka Hotham, now [[Kangaroos Football Club|Kangaroos]]) ([[1869]]), [[Port Adelaide Football Club|Port Adelaide]] ([[1870]]), [[Essendon Football Club|Essendon]] and [[St Kilda Football Club|St Kilda]] ([[1873]]), South Melbourne (now [[Sydney Swans]]) ([[1874]]) and Footscray (now the [[Western Bulldogs]]) ([[1877]]).
===The first league===
In 1877, the [[Victorian Football Association]] (VFA), the game's first league, was formed by 14 clubs: Albert Park, Ballarat, Barwon, Beechworth, Carlton, Castlemaine, East Melbourne, Essendon, Geelong, Hotham (later North Melbourne), Inglewood, Melbourne, Rochester and St Kilda. Six of these clubs were from the Victorian country. At the time, Essendon was regarded as a semi-junior club rather than a full member, and was allowed concessions such as fielding teams of 25 players, instead of the standard 20.
===Leagues outside Victoria===
Gradually the game – known at first as "Melbourne Rules", "Victorian Rules or sometimes as "Australasian Rules" – spread from Victoria into other Australian colonies, especially [[South Australia]] (SA), [[Tasmania]] and [[Western Australia]] (WA). The first [[interstate matches in Australian rules football|intercolonial match]], between Victoria and SA, was held in 1879.
Competitions also began in [[Queensland]] and [[New South Wales]] in the 1880s. In [[Newcastle, New South Wales]] the Black Diamond league was founded by Victorian goldminers and the [[Black Diamond Challenge Cup]] remains Australia's oldest sporting trophy.
The precursors of the [[South Australian National Football League]] (SANFL) and the [[West Australian Football League]] (WAFL) were strong, separate competitions by the 1890s.
The game also spread to New Zealand in 1876, and grew to a formidable league of 115 clubs. In 1908, New Zealand defeated both New South Wales and Queensland at the [[Jubilee Australasian Football Carnival]], an event held to celebrate 50 years of Australian Football. The game was also introduced to England, Scotland and Japan.
The outbreak of [[World War I]] signalled a hiatus in the game overseas in all countries but Australia (which lasted until the late 1980s), whilst factors such as interstate rivalry and the denial of access to grounds in Sydney caused the code to struggle in New South Wales and Queensland.[http://www.convictcreations.com/football/evolution.htm]
===Formation of the VFL===
A rift in the VFA led to the formation of the [[Victorian Football League]] (VFL), which commenced play in 1897 as an eight-team breakaway of the stronger clubs in the VFA competition: Carlton, [[Collingwood Football Club|Collingwood]], Essendon, [[Fitzroy Football Club|Fitzroy]], Geelong, Melbourne, St Kilda and South Melbourne.
Another five VFA clubs joined the VFL later: [[Richmond Football Club|Richmond]] and [[University Football Club|University]] joined the VFL in 1908, although University withdrew in 1915. Footscray, [[Hawthorn Football Club|Hawthorn]] and North Melbourne joined in 1925, by which time VFL had become the most prominent league in the game.
===Interstate competition===
{{main|Interstate matches in Australian rules football}}
For most of the 20th century, the absence of a national club competition – and the inability of players to compete internationally – meant that matches between state representative teams were regarded with great importance. Because VFL clubs increasingly recruited the best players in other states, Victoria dominated these games. However, [[State of Origin]] rules were introduced in 1977, and in the first such game, at [[Subiaco Oval]] in [[Perth, Western Australia|Perth]], Western Australia defeated Victoria, 23.13 (151) to 8.9 (57), a huge reversal of the results in most previous games. Western Australia and South Australia began to win many of their games against Victoria. However, during the 1990s, following the emergence of the Australian Football League, state of origin games declined in importance especially after an increasing number of withdrawals by AFL players, who were under increasing pressure from clubs concerned by the risk of injuries. Australian football State of Origin matches ceased in 1999. The second-tier state and territorial leagues still contest interstate matches.
===A national league===
In 1982, in a move which heralded big changes within the sport, one of the original VFL clubs, [[South Melbourne Football Club]], relocated to the [[Rugby League]] stronghold of [[Sydney]] and became known as the [[Sydney Swans]]. In the late 1980s, strong interstat |
s, but it is important to note the variety of practice that occurs.
A broad overview would then have [[Erasmus]], [[Francis Bacon (philosopher)|Francis Bacon]], [[Niccolò Machiavelli]], and [[Galileo Galilei]] represent the rise of empiricism and humanism in place of scholastic tradition. [[17th-century philosophy]] is dominated by the need to organize philosophy on rational, skeptical, logical and axiomatic grounds, such as the work of [[René Descartes]], [[Blaise Pascal]] and [[Thomas Hobbes]], attempting to integrate religious belief into philosophical frameworks, and, often to combat atheism or other unbelief, by adopting the idea of material reality, and the [[dualism]] between spirit and material. The extension, and reaction, against this would be the monism of [[George Berkeley]] and [[Benedict de Spinoza]].
The [[18th-century philosophy]] article deals with the period often called the early part of "The Enlightenment" in the shorter form of the word, and centers around the rise of systematic empiricism, following after [[Sir Isaac Newton]]'s natural philosophy. Thus [[Diderot]], [[Voltaire]], [[Rousseau]] and culminating with [[Kant]] and the political philosophy of the [[American Revolution]] are part of [[The Enlightenment]].
The 19th century took the radical notions of self-organization and intrinsic order from Goethe and Kantian metaphysics, and proceeded to produce a long elaboration on the tension between systematization and organic development. Foremost was the work of [[Hegel]], whose ''Logic'' and ''Phenomenology of Spirit'' produced a "dialectical" framework for ordering of knowledge. The 19th century would also include [[Arthur Schopenhauer|Schopenhauer]]'s negation of the will. As with the 18th century, it would be developments in science that would arise from, and then challenge, philosophy: most importantly the work of [[Charles Darwin]], which was based on the idea of organic self-regulation found in philosophers such as [[Adam Smith]], but fundamentally challenged established conceptions.
=== Contemporary philosophy ===
The 20th Century deals with the upheavals produced by a series of conflicts within philosophical discourse over the basis of knowledge, with classical certainties overthrown, and new social, economic, scientific and logical problems. 20th Century philosophy was set for a series of attempts to reform and preserve, and to alter or abolish, older knowledge systems. Seminal figures include [[Søren Kierkegaard]], [[Sigmund Freud]], [[Friedrich Nietzsche]], [[Ernst Mach]], [[John Dewey]]. Epistemology and its basis was a central concern, as seen from the work of [[Martin Heidegger]], [[Karl Popper]], [[Claude Lévi-Strauss]], [[Bertrand Russell]] and [[Ludwig Wittgenstein]]. Phenomenologically oriented metaphysics undergirded [[existentialism]] ([[Jean-Paul Sartre]], [[Simone de Beauvoir]], [[Karl Jaspers]], [[Albert Camus]]) and finally [[postmodern philosophy]] ([[Jean-François Lyotard]], [[Michel Foucault]], [[Jacques Derrida]]). Also notable was the rise of "pop" philosophers who promulgated systems for dealing with the world, including [[Ayn Rand]], [[C. S. Lewis]] and others.
=== Chronological list of important philosophers ===
''See also:'' [[list of philosophers]] for a more comprehensive list of philosophers.
* [[Thales]] (620-546 BC), traditionally the first Presocratic philosopher.
* [[Anaximander]] (610-540 BC), Ionic Presocratic, the first to write a philosophical treatise (in historical record).
* [[Anaximenes of Miletus|Anaximenes]] (fl. 6th cent. BC), Ionic Presocratic, possibly a pupil of Anaximander.
* [[Heraclitus]] (540-480 BC), Presocratic philosopher. Credited with the maxim that "one cannot step in the same river twice". All of existence is always in flux.
* [[Pythagoras]] (570-497 BC), philosopher-mathematician based in Italy. Invented Pythagorean theorem.
* [[Theano]] (fl. 6th cent. BC), female philosopher, pupil of Pythagoras and later his wife.
* [[Xenophanes]] (570-475 BC), Presocratic philosopher-poet pre-empting the Eleatic school.
* [[Parmenides]] (510-440 BC), Eleatic philosopher of ontology.
* [[Anaxagoras]] (500-428 BC), Presocratic, the first philosopher known to have been based in Athens.
* [[Diogenes Apolloniates]] (fl. 5th cent. BC), Ionian Presocratic philosopher.
* [[Empedocles]] (493-433 BC), Presocratic philosopher and cosmologist.
* [[Zeno of Elea]] (fl. 5th cent. BC), Eleatic philosopher famous for his paradoxes of motion.
* [[Leucippus]] (fl. 5th cent. BC), Presocratic philosopher, founder of atomism.
* [[Protagoras]] (485-415 BC), Sophist known for his relativism.
* [[Hippias]] (485-415 BC), Sophist.
* [[Gorgias]] (483-376 BC), Sophist and teacher of rhetoric. The first nihilist.
* [[Antiphon (person)|Antiphon]] (480-411 BC), Orator and [[Sophist]] (if these two are in fact the same person), fragments of whose treatise ''On Truth'' were discovered at Oxyrhynchus.
* [[Aspasia]] (fl. 5th cent. BC), female philosopher and rhetorician, companion of Socrates.
* [[Socrates]] (469-399 BC), Athenian philosopher. Put to death on charges of corrupting the youth.
* [[Prodicus]] (fl. 5th cent. BC), Sophist contemporary with Socrates.
* [[Democritus]] (460-370 BC), famous atomic philosopher.
* [[Euclid of Megara]] (450-380 BC), associate of Socrates and founder of the Megarian school.
* [[Antisthenes]] (445-360 BC), companion of Socrates, often associated with the later Cynic movement.
* [[Aristippus]] (435-356 BC), companion of Socrates, traditionally the founder of the Cyrenaic school devoted to hedonism.
* [[Plato]] (429-347 BC), younger associate of Socrates, founder of the Academy, teacher of Aristotle.
* [[Xenophon]] (427-355 BC), historian and philosophical author, famous for his accounts of Socrates.
* [[Speusippus]] (407-339 BC), pupil of Plato who succeeded him as second head of the Academy.
* [[Diogenes of Sinope]] (400-325 BC), Cynic philosopher.
* [[Xenocrates]] (396-314 BC), follower of Plato and third head of the Academy.
* [[Aristotle]] (384-322 BC), pupil of Plato, founder of the Lyceum and the Peripatetic tradition.
* [[Arete of Cyrene]] (fl. 4th cent. BC), daughter of Aristippus and his successor as head of the Cyrenaic school.
* [[Stilpo]] (380-300 BC), Megarian philosopher, influenced by Cynicism and an influence on Stoicism.
* [[Theophrastus]] (370-288 BC), pupil of Aristotle and his successor as head of the Lyceum.
* [[Pyrrho]] (365-275 BC), founder of the sceptical philosophy named after him.
* [[Epicurus]] (341-270 BC), atomist and hedonist philosopher, founder of school named after him.
* [[Zeno of Citium]] (335-263 BC), founder of the Stoic school.
* [[Cleanthes]] (331-232 BC), second head of the Stoic school.
* [[Aristo]] (fl. 3rd cent. BC), Stoic philosopher, a pupil of Zeno, focused primarily on ethics.
* [[Timon (philosopher)|Timon]] (320-230 BC), sceptical philosopher, pupil of Pyrrho.
* [[Arcesilaus]] (316-242 BC), head of Plato's Academy, perhaps responsible for its turn towards scepticism.
* [[Menippus]] (fl. 250 BC), Cynic philosopher and famous as a satirist.
* [[Chrysippus]] (280-207 BC), third (and probably most important) head of the Stoic school.
* [[Diogenes of Babylon]] (240-152 BC), Stoic philosopher, member of the famous embassy of philosophers to Rome.
* [[Carneades]] (214-129 BC), head of the Academy and founder of the 'New Academy', member of the famous embassy of philosophers to Rome.
* [[Panaetius]] (185-109 BC), Stoic philosopher with eclectic tendencies, pupil of Diogenes of Babylon and Antipater, influence upon Cicero.
* [[Philo of Larissa]] (160-80 BC), head of the Academy, teacher of Cicero.
* [[Zeno of Sidon]] (150-70 BC), Epicurean philosopher.
* [[Posidonius]] (135-51 BC), Stoic philosopher and historian, often characterised as an eclectic representative of the 'Middle Stoa'.
* [[Antiochus of Ascalon]] (130-68 BC), pupil of Philo of Larissa, head of the Academy turning it away from the scepticism of the 'New Academy' and back to the 'Old Academy'. An important influence upon Cicero.
* [[Philodemus]] (110-40 BC), Epicurean philosopher, many of whose works were buried at Herculaneum.
* [[Cicero]] (106-43 BC), Roman philosophical author.
* [[Aenesidemus]] (fl. 1st cent. BC), sceptical philosopher who attempted to revive Pyrrhonism.
* [[Lucretius]] (94-55 BC), Epicurean philosopher-poet. Atomist.
* [[Philo of Alexandria]] (30 BC - 45 AD), Jewish Hellenistic philosopher and prolific author based in Alexandria.
* [[Seneca the Younger|Seneca]] (4 BC - 65 AD), Latin Stoic author, onetime tutor to the Emperor Nero.
* [[Musonius Rufus]] (30-100 AD), Stoic philosopher-preacher.
* [[Plutarch]] (45-120 AD), biographer and author of an important collection of philosophical essays, the Moralia.
* [[Epictetus]] (55-135 AD), Stoic philosopher, pupil of Musonius Rufus and founder of a school in Nicopolis.
* [[Demonax]] (fl. 2nd cent. AD), Cynic philosopher, pupil of Epictetus.
* [[Diogenes of Oenoanda]] (fl. 2nd cent. AD), author of Epicurean inscription at Oenoanda.
* [[Alcinous]] (fl. 2nd cent. AD), Platonist and author of the Handbook of Platonism.
* [[Marcus Aurelius]] (121-180 AD), Roman Emperor and Stoic philosopher.
* [[Galen of Pergamum]] (129-199 AD), philosopher-doctor influenced by Platonism. Physician to Marcus Aurelius. Prolific author.
* [[Clement of Alexandria]] (150-215 AD), Christian Church Father. Heavily influenced by Greek philosophy.
* [[Sextus Empiricus]] (fl. 200 AD), sceptical philosopher and author.
* [[Alexander of Aphrodisias]] (fl. 200 AD), Aristotelian commentator.
* [[Julia Domna]] (170-217 AD), female philosopher and wife of the Emperor Septimius Severus. Included Galen and Philostratus in her philosophical circle.
* [[Diogenes Laertius]] (fl. 3rd cent. AD), famous biographer of ancient philosophers.
* [[Plotinus]] (205-270 AD), Platonic philosopher and founder of Neoplatonism.
* [[Porphyry (philosopher)|Porphyry]] (2 |
pt to take Morris back from the critics who had emphasised his art and downplayed his politics for more than 50 years.
Although Morris' political work is well to the fore, Thompson also used his literary talents to comment on aspects of Morris' work, such as his early Romantic poetry, which had previously received relatively little consideration.
As the preface to the 2nd edition (1976) notes, the first edition (1955) appears to have received relatively little attention from the literary establishment, because of its then-unfashionable Marxist viewpoint. However the somewhat-rewritten 2nd edition was much better received.
== The first New Left ==
After [[Nikita Khruschev]]'s "secret speech" to the 20th Congress of the [[Communist Party of the Soviet Union]] in [[1956]], which revealed that the Soviet party leadership had long been aware of Stalin's crimes, Thompson, with [[John Saville]] and others, started a dissident publication inside the CP, the [[Reasoner]]. Six months later, he and most of his comrades left the party in disgust at the Soviet invasion of [[Hungary]].
But he remained what he called a "[[socialist humanist]]", and with Saville and others set up the ''[[New Reasoner]]'', a journal that sought to develop a democratic socialist alternative to what its editors saw as the ossified official [[Marxism]] of the [[Communism|Communist]] and [[Trotskyist]] parties and the managerialist cold war social democracy of the Labour Party and its international allies. The ''New Reasoner'' was the most important organ of what became known as the "[[New Left]]", an informal movement of dissident leftists closely associated with the nascent movement for nuclear disarmament in the late 1950s and early 1960s.
The ''New Reasoner'' combined with the ''[[Universities and Left Review]]'', to form ''[[New Left Review]]'' in 1960, though Thompson and others fell out with the group around [[Perry Anderson]] who took over the journal soon after its launch. (The fashion ever since has been to describe the Thompson ''et al'' New Left as "the first New Left" and the Anderson ''et al'' sequel, which by 1968 had embraced Tariq Ali and various Trotskyists, as the second.)
Thompson subsequently allied himself with the journal ''Socialist Register'', and was (with [[Raymond Williams]] and [[Stuart Hall]]) one of the editors of the 1967 ''May Day Manifesto'', one of the key left-wing challenges to the 1964-70 Labour government of Harold Wilson.
==''The Making of the English Working Class''==
Thompson's most influential work was and remains [[The Making of the English Working Class]], published in 1963 while he was working at Leeds University. It told the forgotten history of the first working-class left in the world in the late-18th and early-19th centuries. In his introduction to this book, Thompson set out his approach to writing history from below:
:"I am seeking to rescue the poor stockinger, the [[Luddite]] cropper, the 'obsolete' hand-loom weaver, the 'Utopian' artisan, and even the deluded follower of [[Joanna Southcott]], from the enormous condescension of posterity. Their crafts and traditions may have been dying. Their hostility to the new industrialism may have been backward-looking. Their communitarian ideals may have been fantasies. Their insurrectionary conspiracies may have been foolhardy. But they lived through these times of acute social disturbance, and we did not. Their aspirations were valid in terms of their own experience; and, if they were casualties of history, they remain, condemned in their own lives, as casualties".
A major work of research and synthesis, it was also important in historiographical terms: with it, Thompson demonstrated the power of an historical Marxism rooted in the experience of real flesh-and-blood workers. It remains on university reading lists 40 years after its publication.
== Freelance polemicist ==
Thompson left [[Warwick University]] in protest at the commercialisation of the academy, documented in the book ''Warwick University Limited'' (1971). He continued to teach and lecture as a visiting professor, particularly in the United States, but increasingly worked as a freelance writer. He turned to freelancing, contributing many fine essays to ''New Society'', ''Socialist Register'' and historical journals. In [[1978]] he published ''The Poverty of Theory'', which attacked the [[structuralist]] Marxism of [[Louis Althusser]] and his followers in Britain on ''New Left Review'', which provoked a book-length response from Perry Anderson, ''Arguments Within English Marxism''.
During the late [[1970s]] he acquired a large public audience as a critic of the then Labour government's disregard of civil liberties – his writings from this time are collected in ''Writing By Candlelight'' (1980).
== Voice of the peace movement ==
From [[1980]], Thompson was the most prominent intellectual of the revived movement for [[nuclear disarmament]], revered by activists throughout the world. In Britain, his pamphlet ''Protest and Survive'', a parody on the government leaflet [[Protect and Survive]], played a major role in the rebirth of the [[Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament]]. Just as important, Thompson was, with [[Ken Coates]], [[Mary Kaldor]] and others, an author of the 1980 [[Appeal for European Nuclear Disarmament]], calling for a [[nuclear-free Europe]] from [[Poland]] to [[Portugal]], which was the founding document of [[European Nuclear Disarmament]] - confusingly, END was both a Europe-wide campaign that comprised a series of large public conferences, the END Conventions, and a small British pressure group.
Thompson played a key role in both END and CND throughout the 1980s, speaking at inumerable public meetings, corresponding with hundreds of fellow activists and sympathetic intellectuals, and doing more than his fair share of committee work. He had a particularly important part in opening a dialogue between the west European peace movement and dissidents in Soviet-dominated eastern Europe, particularly in Hungary and Czechoslovakia – for which he was denounced as a tool of American imperialism by the Soviet authorities.
He wrote dozens of polemical articles and essays during this period, which are collected in the books ''Zero Option'' (1982) and ''The Heavy Dancers'' (1985). He also wrote an extended essay attacking the ideologists on both sides of the cold war, ''Double Exposure'' (1985) and edited a collection of essays opposing Ronald Reagan's Strategic Defence Initiative, ''Star Wars'' (1985).
== William Blake ==
The last book Thompson finished was ''Witness Against the Beast: William Blake and the Moral Law'' (1993). The product of years of research and published shortly after his death, it shows convincingly how far Blake was inspired by dissident religious ideas rooted in the thinking of the most radical opponents of the monarchy during the English civil war.
== Personal life ==
Thompson married [[Dorothy Towers]], a fellow left-wing historian, in 1948. She has contributed major studies on women in the [[Chartist]] movement, and of [[Victoria of the United Kingdom|Queen Victoria]] (subtitled 'Gender and Power'), and was Professor of History at the University of Birmingham.
==Key Works==
* ''William Morris: Romantic to Revolutionary'' (1st ed. London: Lawrence & Wishart 1955, revised 2nd ed. New York: Pantheon, 1976).
* ''[[The Making of the English Working Class]]'' London: Victor Gollancz (1963); 2nd edition with new postcript, Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1968, third edition with new preface 1980.
* ''Warwick University Limited''Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1971.
* ''Whigs and Hunters: The Origin of the Black Act'', London: Allen Lane, 1975; with a new poscript, Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1977.
*(editor) ''Albion's Fatal Tree: Crime and Society in Eighteenth Century England'', London: Allen Lane, 1975.
* ''The Poverty of Theory and Other Essays'', London: Merlin Press, 1978.
* ''Writing by Candlelight'', London: Merlin Press, 1980.
* ''Protest and Survive'', London: Penguin, 1980.
* ''Zero Option'', London: Merlin Press, 1982.
* ''The Heavy Dancers'', London: Merlin Press, 1985.
* ''Double Exposure'', London: Merlin Press, 1985.
* ''Star Wars'', London: Penguin, 1985.
* ''[[The Sykaos Papers]]'', London: Bloomsbury, 1988.
* ''Customs in Common: Studies in Traditional Popular Culture'', London: Merlin Press, (1991).
* ''Making History: Writings on History and Culture'', (1994).
* ''Witness Against the Beast: William Blake and the Moral Law'', (1993).
* ''The Romantics: England in a Revolutionary Age'', (1997).
* ''The Collected Poems'' (Poetry, first pub. 1999).
== Further reading ==
*[[Perry Anderson|Anderson, Perry]] ''Arguments within English Marxism'', London: Verson, 1980.
*Johnson, R. "Edward Thompson, Eugence Genovese and Socialist-humanist History" pages 7-9 from ''History Workshop Journal'', Volume 6, 1978.
*Kaye, Harvey ''The British Marxist Historians'', Cambridge: Polity Press, 1984.
*Harvey J. Kaye and Keith McClelland, editors ''E.P.Thompson: Critical Perspectives'' Polity Press, London, 1990.
*Merrill, M. "Interview with E.P. Thompson" pages 5-25 from ''Visions of History'' edited by H. Abelove, Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1976.
*''New Left Review'' pages 3-25, Volume 201, 1993.
*Palmer, B.D. ''The Making of E.P. Thompson: Marxism, Humanism, and History'', Toronto: New Hogtown Press, 1981.
*Palmer, B.D. ''E.P. Thompson Objections and Oppositions'', New York: Verson, 1994.
*''Radical History Review'', pages 152-164, Volume 58, 1994.
[[Category:1924 births|Thompson, Edward Palmer]]
[[Category:1993 deaths|Thompson, Edward Palmer]]
[[Category:Alumni of Corpus Christi College, Cambridge|Thompson, Edward Palmer]]
[[Category:British communists|Thompson, E. P.]]
[[Category:British historians|Thompson, E. P.]]
[[Category:Marxist historians|Thompson, E. P.]]
[[de: |
ebruary 1996, he again won reelection with 98% of the vote; several opponents withdrew from the race, however, and the election was criticized by international observers. Subsequently, Obiang named a new cabinet, which included some opposition figures in minor portfolios.
While the economy remained primarily agricultural throughout the 1980s, with coffee and cocoa being the chief products, there was some room for hope with the exploitation of oil and natural gas in the late 1990s.
Despite the formal ending of one-party rule in 1991, Mr. Obiang's PDGE remains the dominant political party. In the legislative election in March 1999, the party increased its majority in the 80-seat parliament from 68 to 75. The main opposition parties, the [[Convergence for Social Democracy]] (CPDS) and the [[Unión Popular]] (UP) supposedly won four seats and one seat, respectively, in Parliament; they refused to accept them. Local elections in May 2000 saw the PDGE overwhelm its rivals once again, winning a clean sweep of all major municipalities. However, the main opposition parties rejected the elections as invalid and boycotted them.
In [[2003]], a government in exile was formed in [[Spain]]. Apparently they hired a [[Channel Island]] registered company by the name of Logo Logistics Ltd. to overthrow the current government. In March of [[2004]], 64 suspected mercenaries were detained on [[Harare]] airport, after the owners of their plane had supposedly made false declaration of the cargo and crew. In 2004, [[Margaret Thatcher]]'s son [[Mark Thatcher]] was arrested in [[South Africa]] on charges of aiding the attempted insurrection. In November 2004 19 men including [[Nick du Toit]] recieved lengthy sentences for being the [[vanguard]] of the failed [[coup]]. No death sentences were issued, keeping the door open for the potential [[extradition]] of Thatcher and [[Simon Mann]]
==External links==
[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/4044305.stm BBC news article on the verdicts handed to the coup force]
{{Africa in topic|History of}}
[[Category:Equatorial Guinea]]
[[es:Historia de Guinea Ecuatorial]]
[[pt:História da Guiné Equatorial]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Geography of Equatorial Guinea</title>
<id>9368</id>
<revision>
<id>40697766</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-22T11:03:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Lupo</username>
<id>34978</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Shaded relief map</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{| border=1 align=right cellpadding=4 cellspacing=0 width=300 style="margin: 0.5em 0 1em 1em; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaaaaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;"
|+<big><big>'''República de Guinea Ecuatorial<br>République de la Guinée Équatoriale'''</big></big>
|-
| style="background:#efefef;" align="center" colspan="2" |
[[Image:Equatorial Guinea Map.png|none|300px|Shaded relief map of Equatorial Guinea]]
|-
| '''[[Continent]]''' || [[Africa]]
|-
| '''[[Geographic coordinates]]''' || {{coor dm|2|00|N|10|00|E|type:country}}
|-
| '''[[Area]]'''<br />&nbsp;- Total <br />&nbsp;- % water
| [[List of countries by area|Ranked 141st]] <br /> 28,051 [[square kilometre|km&sup2;]] <br /> Negligible
|-
| '''Coastline''' || 296 km
|-
| '''Highest point''' || [[Pico Basile]], 3,008 m
|-
| '''Lowest point''' || [[Atlantic Ocean]], 0 m
|-
| '''Longest river''' || [[Uola River]]
|-
| '''Land Use'''<br>&nbsp;- Arable land<br>&nbsp;- Permanent<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;crops<br>&nbsp;- Permanent<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;pastures<br>&nbsp;- Forests and<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;woodlands<br>&nbsp;- Other ||<br>5 %<br><br>4 %<br><br>4 %<br><br>46 %<br>41 % (1993 est.)
|-
| '''[[Climate]]''': || [[Tropics|Tropical]]
|-
| '''add more''' || need ideas
|-
| '''Natural resources''' || [[petroleum]], [[timber]], small unexploited deposits of [[gold]], [[manganese]], [[uranium]]
|-
| '''Environmental issues''' || [[drinking water]], [[desertification]]
|}
The Republic of '''Equatorial Guinea''' is located in west central [[Africa]]. [[Bioko|Bioko Island]] lies about 40 kilometers (25 mi.) from [[Cameroon]]. [[Annobón]] Island lies about 595 kilometers (370 mi.) southwest of Bioko Island. The larger continental region of [[Rio Muni]] lies between Cameroon and [[Gabon]] on the mainland; it includes the islands of [[Corisco]], [[Elobey Grande]], [[Elobey Chico]], and adjacent islets.
Bioko Island, called Fernando Po until the [[1970s]], is the largest island in the [[Gulf of Guinea]] - 2,017 square kilometers (780 sq. mi.). It is shaped like a boot, with two large volcanic formations separated by a valley that bisects the island at its narrowest point. The 195-kilometer (120-mi.) coastline is steep and rugged in the south but lower and more accessible in the north, with excellent harbors at [[Malabo]] and [[Luba, Equatorial Guinea|Luba]], and several scenic beaches between those towns.
On the continent, Rio Muni covers 26,003 square kilometers (10,040 sq. mi.). The coastal plain gives way to a succession of valleys separated by low hills and spurs of the [[Crystal Mountains]]. The [[Rio Benito]] (Mbini) which divides Rio Muni in half, is unnavigable except for a 20-kilometer stretch at its estuary. Temperatures and humidity in Rio Muni are generally lower than on Bioko Island.
Annobon Island, named for its discovery on New Year's Day [[1472]], is a small volcanic island covering 18 square kilometers (7 sq. mi.). The coastline is abrupt except in the north; the principal volcanic cone contains a small lake. Most of the estimated 1,900 inhabitants are fisherman specializing in traditional, smallscale tuna fishing and whaling. The climate is tropical--heavy rainfall, high humidity, and frequent seasonal changes with violent windstorms.
'''Location:'''
Western [[Africa]], bordering the [[Bight of Biafra]], between [[Cameroon]] and [[Gabon]].
== Boundaries ==
Equatorial Guinea's land boundaries total 539 km. It borders [[Cameroon]] (189 km) in the north and [[Gabon]] (350 km) in the east and south.
'''Maritime claims:'''
exclusive economic zone:
200 nm
territorial sea:
12 nm
== Climate ==
Always hot, humid
== Terrain ==
Coastal plains rise to interior hills; islands are volcanic
'''Irrigated land:'''
NA km&sup2;
'''Natural hazards:'''
violent windstorms, flash floods
'''Environment - current issues:'''
tap water is not potable; desertification
'''Environment - international agreements:'''
party to:
Biodiversity, Desertification, Endangered Species, Law of the Sea, Ship Pollution
signed, but not ratified:
none of the selected agreements
'''Geography - note:'''
insular and continental regions rather widely separated
==See also==
*[[Equatorial Guinea]]
{{Africa in topic|Geography of}}
[[Category:Geography of Equatorial Guinea| ]]
[[Category:Geography by country|Equatorial Guinea]]
[[es:Geografía de Guinea Ecuatorial]]
[[fr:Géographie de la Guinée équatoriale]]
[[pt:Geografia da Guiné Equatorial]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Demographics of Equatorial Guinea</title>
<id>9369</id>
<revision>
<id>40772992</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-22T22:47:35Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Jorge Stolfi</username>
<id>48742</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>dab [[Creole]] --> [[Creole peoples]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The majority of the people of [[Equatorial Guinea]] are of [[Bantu]] origin. The largest tribe, the [[Beti-Pahuin#Fang|Fang]], is indigenous to the mainland, but substantial migration to [[Bioko Island]] has resulted in Fang dominance over the earlier Bantu inhabitants. The Fang constitute 80% of the population and are themselves divided into 67 clans. Those in the northern part of [[Rio Muni]] speak [[Fang-Ntumu]], while those in the south speak [[Fang-Okah]]; the two dialects are mutually unintelligible. The [[Bubi]], who constitute 15% of the population, are indigenous to Bioko Island. In addition, there are coastal tribes, sometimes referred to as "Playeros": [[Ndowe]]s, [[Bujeba]]s, [[Balengue]]s, and [[Benga]]s on the mainland and small islands, and "[[Fernandino]]s", a [[Creole peoples|Creole]] community, on Bioko. Together, these groups comprise 5% of the population. There is a growing number of foreigners from neighboring [[Cameroon]], [[Nigeria]] and [[Gabon]]. In 2001, there were about 280 Americans residing in Equatorial Guinea.
[[Spanish language |Spanish]] and [[French language|French]] are the [[official language]]s. The [[Roman Catholic Church]] has greatly influenced both religion and education.
Equatoguineans tend to have both a Spanish first name and an African first and last name. When written, the Spanish and African first names are followed by the father's first name (which becomes the principal surname) and the mother's first name. Thus people may have up to four names, with a different surname for each generation.
'''Population:'''
474,214 (July 2000 est.); 2002 census results claim 1,015,000 residents, although this most likely was inflated in anticipation for the December election.[http://www.nationbynation.com/EquitorialGuinea/Human.html]
'''Age structure:'''
<br>''0-14 years:''
43% (male 101,724; female 100,787)
<br>''15-64 years:''
54% (male 121,290; female 132,581)
<br>''65 years and over:''
3% (male 7,960; female 9,872) (2000 est.)
'''Population growth rate:'''
2.47% (2000 est.)
'''Birth rate:'''
38.13 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
'''Death rate:'''
13.4 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
'''Net migration rate:'''
0 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)
'''Sex ratio:'''
<br> |
tegory:Legendary birds]]
[[ca:Huginn i Munnin]]
[[da:Hugin og Munin]]
[[de:Hugin und Munin]]
[[fr:Hugin et Munin]]
[[hr:Hugin i Munin]]
[[is:Huginn og Muninn]]
[[lb:Hugin a Munin]]
[[nl:Hugin]]
[[nn:Hugin og Munin]]
[[pl:Hugin i Munin]]
[[sv:Hugin och Munin]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Heat engine</title>
<id>13654</id>
<revision>
<id>41731403</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T10:04:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Dodo bird</username>
<id>901231</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>rv van</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Thermodynamic cycles}}In [[engineering]] and [[thermodynamics]], a '''heat engine''' performs the conversion of [[heat]] [[energy]] to [[mechanical work]] by exploiting the [[temperature]] gradient between a hot "[[source]]" and a cold "[[sink]]". Heat is [[heat transfer|transferred]] to the sink from the source, and in this process some of the heat is converted into [[energy|work]].
==Everyday examples==
Examples of everyday heat engines include: the [[steam engine]], the [[diesel engine]], and the gasoline (petrol) engine in an [[automobile]].
All of these familiar heat engines are powered by the expansion of heated gases.
The general surroundings are the heat sink, providing relatively cool gases which when heated, expand rapidly to drive the mechanical motion of the engine.
==Examples of heat engines==
=== Phase change cycles ===
In these cycles and engines the working fluids are gases and liquids. The engine converts the working fluid from a gas to a liquid.
* [[Rankine cycle]] (classical [[steam engine]])
* [[Regenerative cycle]] Are more efficient than [[Rankine cycle]].
* [[Drinking bird]] cycle
* [[Frost heaving]] - Water changing from Ice to water and back again can lift rock up to 60m.
=== Gas only cycles ===
In these cycles and engines the working fluid are always like gas:
* [[Carnot cycle]] ([[Carnot heat engine]])
* [[Brayton cycle]] or [[Joule cycle]] ([[Gas turbine]])
* [[Ericsson Cycle]]
* [[Stirling cycle]] ([[Stirling engine]])
* [[Internal combustion engine]] (ICE):
** [[Otto cycle]] (eg. [[Gasoline/Petrol engine]], high-speed [[diesel engine]])
** [[Diesel cycle]] (eg. low-speed [[diesel engine]])
** [[Atkinson Cycle]]
** [[Lenoir cycle]] (eg [[pulse jet engine]])
** [[Miller cycle]]
=== Electron cycles ===
* Thermoelectric ([[Peltier-Seebeck effect]])
* [[thermionic emission]]
* [[Thermotunnel cooling]]
=== Photon cycles ===
* [[Solar sail]]
=== Cycles used for refrigeration ===
A [[refrigerator]] is a [[heat pump]]: a heat engine in reverse. Work is used to create a heat differential.
* [[Carnot refrigeration]]
* [[Vuilleumier refrigeration]]
* [[Absorption refrigeration]]
==Efficiency==
The efficiency of a heat engine relates how much useful power is output for a given amount of heat energy input.
From the laws of [[thermodynamics]]:
::<math> dW \ = \ dQ_c \ - \ (-dQ_h) </math>
:where
::<math> dW = -PdV </math> is the work extracted from the engine. (It is negative since work is ''done by'' the engine.)
::<math> dQ_h = T_hdS_h </math> is the heat energy taken from the high temperature system .(It is negative since heat is extracted from the source, hence <math>(-dQ_h)</math> is positive.)
::<math> dQ_c = T_cdS_c </math> is the heat energy delivered to the cold temperature system. (It is positive since heat is added to the sink.)
In other words, a heat engine absorbs heat energy from the high temperature heat source, converting part of it to useful work and delivering the rest to the cold temperature heat sink.
In general, the efficiency of a given heat transfer process (whether it be a refrigerator, a heat pump or an engine) is defined informally by the ratio of "what you get" to "what you put in."
In the case of an engine, one desires to extract work and puts in a heat transfer.
::<math>\eta = \frac{-dW}{-dQ_h} = \frac{-dQ_h - dQ_c}{-dQ_h} = 1 - \frac{dQ_c}{-dQ_h}</math>
The ''theoretical'' maximum efficiency of any heat engine depends only on the temperatures it operates between. This efficiency is usually derived using an ideal imaginary heat engine such as the [[Carnot heat engine]], although other engines using different cycles can also attain maximum efficiency. Mathematically, this is due to the fact that in [[Thermodynamic reversibility | reversible]] processes, the change in [[entropy]] of the cold reservoir is the negative of that of the hot reservoir (i.e., <math>dS_c = -dS_h</math>), keeping the overall change of entropy zero. Thus:
::<math>\eta_{max} = 1 - \frac{T_cdS_c}{-T_hdS_h} \equiv 1 - \frac{T_c}{T_h}</math>
where <math>T_h</math> is the [[absolute temperature]] of the hot source and <math>T_c</math> that of the cold sink, usually measured in [[kelvin|kelvins]]. Note that <math>dS_c</math> is positive while <math>dS_h</math> is negative; in any reversible work-extracting process, entropy is overall not increased, but rather is moved from a hot (high-entropy) system to a cold (low-entropy one), decreasing the entropy of the heat source and increasing that of the heat sink.
The reasoning behind this being the '''maximal''' efficiency goes as follows. It is first assumed that if a more efficient heat engine than a Carnot engine is possible, then it could be driven in reverse as a heat pump. Mathematical analysis can be used to show that this assumed combination would result in a net decrease in [[entropy]]. Since, by the [[second law of thermodynamics]], this is forbidden, the Carnot efficiency is a theoretical upper bound on the efficiency of ''any'' process.
Empirically, no engine has ever been shown to run at a greater efficiency than a Carnot cycle heat engine.
==Other criteria of heat engine performance==
One problem with the ideal Carnot efficiency as a criterion of heat engine performance is the fact that by its nature, any maximally-efficient Carnot cycle must operate at an infinitesimal temperature gradient. This is due to the fact that ''any'' transfer of heat between two bodies at differing temperatures is irreversible, and therefore the Carnot efficiency expression only applies in the infinitesimal limit. The major problem with that is that the object of most heat engines is to output some sort of power, and infinitesimal power is usually not what is being sought.
A much more accurate measure of heat engine efficiency is given by the '''endoreversible process''', which is identical to the Carnot cycle except in that the two processes of heat transfer are ''not'' treated as reversible. As derived in Callen (1985), the efficiency for such a process is given by:
::<math>\eta = 1 - \sqrt{\frac{T_c}{T_h}}</math>
The accuracy of this model can be seen in the following table (Callen):
{| class="wikitable"
|+'''Efficiencies of Power Plants'''
|-
! ''Power Plant'' !! <math>T_c</math> (°C) !! <math>T_h</math> (°C) !! <math>\eta</math> (Carnot) !! <math>\eta</math> (Endoreversible) !! <math>\eta</math> (Observed)
|-
! [[West Thurrock]] ([[United Kingdom|UK]]) [[Fossil fuel power plant|coal-fired power plant]]
| -25 || 565 || 0.64 || 0.40 || 0.36
|-
! [[CANDU reactor|CANDU]] ([[Canada]]) [[nuclear power plant]]
| -25 || 300 || 0.48 || 0.28 || 0.30
|-
! [[Larderello]] ([[Italy]]) [[Geothermal power|geothermal power plant]]
| 80 || 250 || 0.32 || 0.175 || 0.16
|}
As shown, the endoreversible efficiency much more closely models the observed data.
==Heat engine processes==
{| class="wikitable"
|+<!-- no title, because it starts a section.-->
|-
! Cycle/Process !! Compression !! Heat Addition !! Expansion !! Heat Rejection
|-
! Carnot
| adiabatic || isothermal || adiabatic || isothermal
|-
! Otto (Petrol)
|adiabatic ||isometric || adiabatic || isometric
|-
! Diesel
|adiabatic || isobaric || adiabatic || isometric
|-
! Brayton (Jet)
|adiabatic || isobaric || adiabatic || isobaric
|-
! Stirling
|isothermal || isometric || isothermal || isometric
|-
! Ericsson
|isothermal || isobaric || isothermal || isobaric
|}
Each process is one of the following:
* [[isothermal]] (at constant temperature, maintained with heat added or removed from a heat source or sink)
* [[isobaric]] (at constant pressure)
* [[isochoric process|isometric/isochoric]] (at constant volume)
* [[adiabatic]] (no heat is added or removed from the working fluid)
==See also==
*[[Heat pump]]
==References==
* {{cite book | last = Kroemer | first = Herbert | coauthors = Kittle, Charles | title = Thermal Physics | edition = 2nd ed. | publisher = W. H. Freeman Company | year = 1980 | id = ISBN 0716710889 }}
* {{cite book | last = Callen | first = Herbert B. | title = Thermodynamics and an Introduction to Thermostatistics | edition = 2nd ed. | publisher = John Wiley & Sons, Inc. | year = 1985 | id = ISBN 0471862568 }}
==External links==
*[http://www.taftan.com/thermodynamics/HENGINE.HTM Heat Engine]
*[http://web.archive.org/web/20030123072140/www.uq.edu.au/~e4nsrdja/teaching/e4213/Related/Cycles/Refrig.htm Webarchive backup: Refrigeration Cycle] Citat: "...The refrigeration cycle is basically the Rankine cycle run in reverse..."
*[http://www.redrok.com/engine.htm Red Rock Energy Solar Heliostats: Heat Engine Projects] Citat: "...Choosing a Heat Engine..."
*[http://www.stanford.edu/class/ee293a/FEP4_Text_X.pdf Overview of heat engine types]
[[Category:Heat]]
[[Category:Energy conversion]]
[[Category:HVAC]]
[[da:Varmekraftmaskine]]
[[de:Wärmekraftmaschine]]
[[he:מנוע חום]]
[[hu:Hőerőgép]]
[[it:Macchina termica]]
[[ja:熱機関]]
[[ko:열기관]]
[[nl:Warmtemachine]]
[[ru:Тепловой двигатель]]
[[sl:Toplotni stroj]]
[[th:เครื่องจักรความร้อน]]
[[uk:Тепловий двигун]]
[[zh:热机]] |
are its children. This provides a fast way of getting the list of triangles to remove (which is the slowest part of any incremental insertion algorithm).
===Divide and conquer===
A [[divide and conquer]] algorithm for triangulations in two dimensions is due to Guibas and Stolfi. In this algorithm, one recursively draws a line to split the vertices into two sets, the Delaunay triangulation is computed for each set, and then the two sets are merged along the splitting line. Using some clever tricks, the merge operation can be done in time O(''n''), so the total running time is O(''n''&nbsp;log&nbsp;''n'').
For certain types of point sets, such as a uniform random distribution, by intelligently picking the splitting lines the expected time can be reduced to O(''n''&nbsp;log&nbsp;log&nbsp;''n'') while still maintaining worst-case performance.
A divide and conquer paradigm to performing a triangulation in ''d''-dimensions is presented in "DeWall: A Fast Divide & Conquer Delaunay Triangulation Algorithm in E<sup>d</sup>" by P. Cignoni, C. Montani, R. Scopigno.
===Sweepline===
This is another O(''n''&nbsp;log&nbsp;''n'') algorithm for two dimensions. However in most implementations the divide and conquer approach provides better performance.
== Applications ==
The [[Euclidean minimum spanning tree]] of a set of points is a subset of the Delaunay triangulation of the same points, and this can be exploited to compute it efficiently.
For modeling terrain or other objects given a set of sample points, the Delaunay triangulation gives a nice set of triangles to use as polygons in the model. In particular, the Delaunay triangulation avoids narrow triangles (as they have large circumcircles compared to their area).
Delaunay triangulations are often used to build meshes for the [[finite element method]], because of the angle guarantee and the fact that we know fast triangulation algorithms. Typically, the domain to be meshed is specified as a coarse [[simplicial complex]]; for the mesh to be numerically stable, it must be refined, for instance by using [[Ruppert's algorithm]]. This has been implemented by [[Jonathan Shewchuk]] in the freely available [http://www.cs.cmu.edu/~quake/triangle.html Triangle] package.
== References ==
# B. Delaunay, Sur la sphère vide, ''Izvestia Akademii Nauk SSSR'', Otdelenie Matematicheskikh i Estestvennykh Nauk, '''7''':793-800, 1934
== External links ==
* http://www.cs.cornell.edu/Info/People/chew/Delaunay.html
* http://goanna.cs.rmit.edu.au/~gl/research/comp_geom/delaunay/delaunay.html
* http://astronomy.swin.edu.au/~pbourke/terrain/triangulate
* http://www-2.cs.cmu.edu/~quake/tripaper/triangle0.html
[[Category:Discrete geometry]]
[[Category:Geometric algorithms]]
[[de:Delaunay-Triangulation]]
[[fr:Triangulation de Delaunay]]
[[he:&#1513;&#1497;&#1500;&#1493;&#1513; &#1491;&#1500;&#1493;&#1504;&#1497;]]
[[pl:Triangulacja Delaunay]]
[[sl:Delaunayeva triangulacija]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Defendant</title>
<id>8865</id>
<revision>
<id>41117472</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-25T03:59:23Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Sunnyhsli</username>
<id>430029</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">A '''defendant''' or '''defender''' is any party who is required to answer the [[complaint]] of a [[plaintiff]] or [[pursuer]] in a civil [[lawsuit]] before a [[court]], or any party who has been formally [[charge|charged]] or accused of violating a [[crime|criminal]] [[statute]].
A defendant in a civil action usually makes his or her first court appearance voluntarily in response to a summons, whereas a defendant in a Criminal law criminal case is usually taken into custody by police and brought before a court, pursuant to an arrest warrant. The actions of a defendant, and its lawyer counsel, is known as the defense defence.
A '''respondent''' is the parallel term used in a proceeding which is commenced by [[petition]].
Historically, a defendant in a civil action could also be taken into custody pursuant to a writ of ''[[capias ad respondendum]]'' and forced to post [[bail]] before being released from custody. However, a modern day defendant in a civil action is usually able to avoid most (if not all) court appearances if he or she is represented by a [[lawyer]] whereas a defendant in a criminal case (particularly a [[felony]] or [[indictment]]) is usually obliged to post bail before being released from custody and must be present at every stage thereafter of the proceedings against him or her.
In an informal usage and non-legalistic sense outside the legal [[context]], the term ''respondent'' can be used to refute or response to a thesis or an argument in question [http://selfknowledge.com/81325.htm].
In [[cross-cultural communication]] , a [[respondent]] is the second person responding to the meaning or message from an original source which has been contextualised [[Contextualization]] or decoded for the understanding of respondents as ''recipients or hearers'' of the message occurring from a different cultural context.
==Elsewhere==
In [[Hong Kong]], a defendant is still referred to as defendant.
[[Category:Legal terms]]
[[cs:Žalovaný]]
[[de:Beklagter]]
[[es:demandado]]
[[ja:被告]]
[[zh:被告]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Department of Defense</title>
<id>8867</id>
<revision>
<id>15906806</id>
<timestamp>2003-11-22T05:59:53Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Minesweeper</username>
<id>7279</id>
</contributor>
<comment>redirect to most common usage</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[United States Department of Defense]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Dimensional analysis/comments</title>
<id>8870</id>
<revision>
<id>15906808</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[talk:Dimensional analysis]]
:''See also :'' [[Dimensional analysis]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>District of Ajmere</title>
<id>8872</id>
<revision>
<id>15906809</id>
<timestamp>2004-08-07T02:49:06Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Timwi</username>
<id>13051</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>fix double-redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Ajmer]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Domitius Afer</title>
<id>8873</id>
<revision>
<id>30279636</id>
<timestamp>2005-12-06T00:07:27Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>LaurenCole</username>
<id>550718</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Domitius Afer''' (died [[60]]) was a [[Roman Empire|Roman]] [[orator]] and advocate, born at Nemausus ([[Nimes|Nîmes]]) in ''[[Gallia Narbonensis]]''. He flourished in the reigns of [[Tiberius]], [[Caligula]], [[Claudius]] and [[Nero]].
His pupil [[Quintilian]] calls him the greatest orator he had ever known; but he disgraced his talents by acting as public informer against some of the most distinguished personages in [[Rome]]. He gained the favour of Tiberius by accusing [[Agrippina the Elder]], the widow of [[Germanicus]], of [[adultery]] and the use of magic arts against the emperor. Judicious flattery secured him the [[consulship]] under Caligula ([[39]]); and under Nero he was superintendent of the water supply. He died AD [[60]], according to [[Jerome]], of over-eating.
Quintilian quotes some of his witty sayings (''dicta''), collections of which were published, and mentions two books by him On Witnesses.
==References==
* Quintilian, ''Instit.'' vi. 3. 42, viii. 5. 16, x. 1. 118, &c.; Tac. ''Ann.'' iv. 52;
* Dio Cassius lix. 19, lx. 33;
* Pliny, ''Epp.'' viii. 18.
{{1911}}
[[Category:Ancient Romans]]
[[Category:60 deaths]]
[[fr:Domitius Afer]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Davis</title>
<id>8874</id>
<revision>
<id>42017584</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T06:19:48Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Downwards</username>
<id>671535</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">The word '''Davis''' when used alone, has a number of possible meanings:
Schools named '''Davis''':
*[[UC Davis]]
Places named '''Davis''':
*[[Davis, California]]
*[[Davis, Illinois]]
*[[Davis, Oklahoma]]
*[[Davis Station]] - the Australian base in [[Antarctica]]
People named '''Davis''':
*[[Bette Davis]], actress
*[[Geena Davis]], actress
*[[Glenn Robert Davis]], a member of the United States House of Representatives representing Wisconsin's Ninth Congressional District from April 22, 1947 to January 3, 1957 and again from January 3, 1965 to December 31, 1974.
*[[Gray Davis]], former governor of California
*[[Howell Davis]], [[pirate]]
*[[John Davis (English explorer)|John Davis]], an english explorer
*[[H. L. Davis]], novelist and poet
*[[Jefferson Davis]], president of the [[Confederate States of America]]
*[[Mark Davis (baseball)|Mark Davis]], baseball player
*[[Mark Davis (NBL)|Mark Davis]], basketball player
*[[Mark Anthony Davis|Mark Davis]], basketball player
*[[Mark Davis (porn actor)|Mark Davis]], porn actor
*[[Mark Davis (talk show host)|Mark Davis]], radio talk show host
*[[Miles Davis]], jazz musician
*[[Priscilla Davis]], [[Fort Worth, Texas]] socialite
*[[Richard Harding Davis]], writer and journalist
*[[Sean Davis]], English footballer
*[[Shani Davis]], American Speedskater
*[[Steve Davis]], snooker player
*[[Steven Davis (footballer)|Steven Davis]], Northern Irish footballer
*[[Stuart Davis (painter)]]
*[[Stuart Davis (musician)]]
*[[T. Cullen Davis] |
using edited [[Sampling (music)|samples]] of [[Margaret Thatcher]] and [[Ronald Reagan]]s' voices, in which they appeared to allege that [[Europe]] would be used as a target for [[intermediate range nuclear weapons]] in any conflict between the [[United States]] and the [[Soviet Union]]. Copies were leaked into the [[public domain]], and although put together totally anonymously, the British [[Observer newspaper|Observer]] [[newspaper]] was somehow able to link the tape with the band.
==Dissolution==
Crass all but retired from the public eye after becoming a particularly irritating thorn in the side of [[Margaret Thatcher]]'s government following the [[Falklands War]]. Questions in [[Parliament of the United Kingdom|Parliament]] and an attempted prosecution under the UK's [[Obscene Publications Act]] for their single "How Does It Feel..." [http://www.southern.com/southern/label/CRC/09422b.html] led to a round of court battles and what the band describe as harassment that finally took its toll. On [[July 7th]] 1984 the band played their final gig at [[Aberdare]] in [[Wales]], a benefit for [[UK miners' strike (1984-1985)|striking miners]], before retreating to Dial House to concentrate their energies elsewhere.
Guitarist [[Andy Palmer]] had announced that he intended to move on from the band in order to further his [[art college]] studies, and the reported group [[consensus]] was that replacing him would be "like having a corpse in the band". This [[catalyst|catalysed]] the affirmation of Crass' consistently stated intention to 'split up in 1984'. Steve Ignorant went on to join the band [[Conflict (band)|Conflict]], with whom he had already worked on an ''[[ad hoc]]'' basis, and in 1992 formed [[Schwartzeneggar]](sic). From 1997-2000, he was a member of the group [[Stratford Mercenaries]]. He has also worked as a '[[Punch and Judy]]' performer. Eve Libertine continued to record with her son [[Nemo Jones]] as well as performance artist [[A-Soma]]. Pete Wright concentrated on building himself a [[house-boat]] and formed the performance art group [[Judas 2]], whilst Rimbaud continued to write and perform both solo and with other artists.
==Influences==
The philosophical and aesthetic influence of Crass on numerous punk bands from the 1980s cannot be overstated, even if few bands mimicked their later more [[free improvisation|free-form]] musical style (as on ''Yes Sir, I Will'' and their final recording, ''10 Notes on a Summer's Day''). The band has stated that their musical antecedents and influences were seldom drawn from the [[Rock (music)|rock music]] tradition, but rather from classical music (particularly [[Benjamin Britten]], from whom, Rimbaud states, some of Crass' riffs are direct [[plagiarism]]s), [[Dadaism|Dada]] and the avant-garde such as [[John Cage]] as well as performance art traditions. Their painted and [[collage]]-art black-and-white record sleeves produced by [[Gee Vaucher]] themselves became a signature aesthetic model.
Crass has experienced a resurgence in popularity due partially to the growing popularity of the Web.
==2002 onwards: The Crass Collective/Crass Agenda/Last Amendment==
In November [[2002]] several former members of Crass collaborated under the name [[The Crass Collective]] to arrange ''Your Country Needs You'', a concert of "voices in opposition to war" held at the [[Queen Elizabeth Hall]] on [[London]]'s South Bank that included a performance of Britten's ''[[War Requiem]]''. In October 2003, the Crass Collective changed their working title to [[Crass Agenda]], and they continue to perform regularly. During 2004 Crass Agenda were at the forefront of the campaign to save the ''[[Vortex Jazz Club|Vortex]]'' Jazz Club in [[Stoke Newington]], North [[London]], which has now relocated to [[Hackney]]. In June 2005 Crass Agenda was declared to be 'no more', subsequently changing the name of the project to the 'more appropriate' [[Last Amendment]].
A "new" Crass track (actually a remix of 1982's "Major General Despair", with new lyrics), "The Unelected President", is also available [http://www.peace-not-war.org/Music/Crass/index.html].
==Statistics==
*'''Genre:''' [[punk rock|Anarcho punk]]
*'''Country:''' [[United Kingdom|UK]]
*'''Status:''' Disbanded
*'''Time:''' [[1977]] &ndash; [[1984]]
==Members==
*[[Penny Rimbaud]] (drums)
*[[Gee Vaucher]] (artwork)
*[[Steve Ignorant]] (voice)
*[[N.A.Palmer]] (Guitar)
*[[Phil Free]] (Guitar)
*[[Pete Wright]] (Bass)
*[[Eve Libertine]] (Voice)
*[[Joy De Vivre]] (Voice)
*[[Mick Duffield]] (films)
*The late [[John Loder]], [[sound engineer]] and founder of [[Southern Studios]], is often considered to be the '10th member' of Crass.
==Discography==
(All released on the Crass record label unless otherwise stated.)
*''[[The Feeding of the 5000 (album)|The Feeding Of The 5000]]'' (12" EP, 1978, originally released by [[Small Wonder Records]])
*"Reality Asylum" (7", 1978)
*''[[Stations Of The Crass]]'' (LP, 1979)
*"You Can Be You" (single by Honey Bane, backed by Crass under the name Donna and the Kebabs, 1980)
*"Bloody Revolutions" (single, joint released with the [[Poison Girls]], 1980)
*"Tribal Rival Rebel Revels" (Flexi disc single given away with ''[[Toxic Grafity]]'' (sic) [[fanzine]], 1980)
*''The Feeding of the 5000 (Second Sitting)'' (1980, a reissue of the 1978 Small Wonder release on Crass Records, with the missing track "Asylum" reinstated)
*"Nagasaki Nightmare" (single, 1981))
*''[[Penis Envy (album)|Penis Envy]]'' (LP, 1981)
*"Our Wedding" (flexi disc single recorded under the name ''Creative Recording And Sound Services'' given away with magazine ''Loving'' [http://www.southern.com/southern/label/CRC/09410.html])
*"Merry Crassmas" (single, 1981, Crass' tongue-in-cheek stab at the Christmas novelty market [http://www.southern.com/southern/label/CRC/09417.html])
*''[[Christ The Album]]'' (double LP, 1982)
*"Sheep Farming In The Falklands" (single 1982, originally distributed anonymously as a flexi-disc)
*"How Does It Feel To Be The Mother Of 1000 Dead?" (Single 1983)
*"Whodunnit?" (Single, 1983, pressed in "shit coloured vinyl", Crass' response to the re-election of [[Prime Minister of the United Kingdom|Prime Minister]] Margaret Thatcher)
*''[[Yes Sir, I Will]]'' (LP, 1983)
*"You're Already Dead" (single, 1984)
*''Acts Of Love'' (LP and book, 1985 (described as "50 songs to my Other Self", this features the poems of Penny Rimbaud set to [[European classical music|classical music]] and sung by Eve Libertine and Steve Ignorant. The book is illustrated by the paintings of Gee Vaucher)
*"It's You" &mdash; track on ''P.E.A.C.E.'' international anti-war benefit compilation released by [[R. Radical Records]] (1984)
*"Powerless With A Guitar" &mdash; track on ''Devastate to Liberate'' benefit compilation for the [[Animal Liberation Front]], TIBETan records, (1986) (the title is a reference to a poem by [[Günter Grass]])
*"Ten Notes On A Summer's Day" (12" EP, 1986)
*''[[Best Before 1984]]'' (retrospective LP compilation, 1986)
*''[[Christ: The Bootleg]]'' (recorded live in Nottingham, 1984, released 1989 on Allied Records)
*''[[Christ: The Movie]]'' (a series of short films by Mick Duffield that were shown at Crass performances, VHS, released 1990)
*''Semi-Detached'' (video collages by Gee Vaucher, 1978-1984, VHS, 2001)
*''[[You'll Ruin It For Everyone]]'' (recorded live in Perth, Scotland, 1981, released 1993 on Pomona Records)
*"The Unelected President" &mdash; track on ''Peace Not War'' anti-war CD compilation. (This track is actually a remix of 1982's "Major General Despair", with new lyrics and additional instrumentation provided by [[Dylan Bates]]), (2003)
===Also of note===
*''You've Heard It All Before'' (1993, [[Ruptured Ambitions Records]]), a 'tribute album' consisting of [[cover version]]s of songs by Crass performed by various artists.
*"Bullshit Crass" ([[Rondolet Records]], [[1982]]) &mdash; a 'critique' of Crass by [[Colchester]] punk band [[Special Duties]] that parodied Crass' chant of "fight war, not wars" with the words "fight Crass, not punk" [http://www.angelfire.com/punk/XLordAshX/specialduties.html].
==Related writings and references==
*''A Series Of Shock Slogans And Mindless Token Tantrums'' (Exitstencil Press, 1982) (originally issued as a pamphlet with the LP ''Christ The Album'', much of the text is now published online at [http://www.southern.com/southern/label/CRC/text/09438a.html])
*''Shibboleth- My Revolting Life'' (Penny Rimbaud, 1999, AK Press)
*''The Diamond Signature'' (Penny Rimbaud, 1999, AK Press)
*''Crass Art and other Post Modern Monsters'' (Gee Vaucher, 1999, AK Press)
*''International Anthem: A Nihilist Newspaper For The Living'' issues 1-3 (Exitstencil Press, 1977-81) (see [http://www.southern.com/southern/label/CRC/misc.html])
*''Love Songs'' (collected lyrics of Crass with an introduction by Penny Rimbaud, Pomona Books, 2004) [http://www.pomonauk.com/books/crass/]
*'"The Hippies Now Wear Black": Crass and the anarcho-punk movement, 1977-1984', Richard Cross in ''Socialist History'', 26, 2004 [http://www.socialist-history-journal.org.uk/SH_26_contents.html]
*There is an extended section covering Crass in the book ''Senseless Acts of Beauty'' by [[George McKay]] ([[Verso]], 1996, ISBN1859840280)
==See also==
*[[Chumbawamba]]
*[[Poison Girls]]
*[[Current 93]] (Steve Ignorant contributed to early works of the band)
*[[The Ex]]
*[[Anarchism in the arts]]
*[[Punk ideology]]
*[[Conflict (band)|Conflict]]
*[[The Stratford Mercenaries]]
==External links==
*[http://www.southern.com/southern/label/CRC/ Official Crass website]
*[http://airy.phy.ulaval.ca/~pystl/Lyrics.h |
k]], ''Tamias canipes''
*[[Gray-Collared Chipmunk]], ''Tamias cinereicollis''
*[[Cliff Chipmunk]], ''Tamias dorsalis''
*[[Merriam's Chipmunk]], ''Tamias merriami''
*[[Least Chipmunk]], ''Tamias minimus''
*[[California Chipmunk]], ''Tamias obscurus''
*[[Yellow-cheeked Chipmunk]], ''Tamias ochrogenys''
*[[Palmer's Chipmunk]], ''Tamias palmeri''
*[[Panamint Chipmunk]], ''Tamias panamintinus''
*[[Long-eared Chipmunk]], ''Tamias quadrimaculatus''
*[[Colorado Chipmunk]], ''Tamias quadrivittatus''
*[[Red-Tailed Chipmunk]], ''Tamias ruficaudus''
*[[Hopi Chipmunk]], ''Tamias rufus''
*[[Allen's Chipmunk]], ''Tamias senex''
*[[Siberian Chipmunk]], ''Tamias sibiricus''
*[[Siskiyou Chipmunk]], ''Tamias siskiyou''
*[[Sonoma Chipmunk]], ''Tamias sonomae''
*[[Lodgepole Chipmunk]], ''Tamias speciosus''
*[[Eastern Chipmunk]], ''Tamias striatus''
*[[Townsend's Chipmunk]], ''Tamias townsendii''
*[[Uinta Chipmunk]], ''Tamias umbrinus''
==Pop Culture References==
===Alvin and the Chipmunks===
In [[1958]] [[Ross Bagdasarian]] (using the stage name [[David Seville]], named after [[Seville, Spain]]) released "The Chipmunk Song" ("Christmas, Don't Be Late"), a sped-up recording of himself performing three-part harmony. The resulting high-pitched cartoony voices were named "Alvin", "Simon", and "Theodore" after executives at the record company which published the record. "The Chipmunk Song" went on to win two [[Grammy Award]]s and a new "group" called "[[Alvin & the Chipmunks|David Seville & the Chipmunks]]" became a popular novelty act.
In [[1961]], the group starred in their own [[animation|animated]] [[television series]], ''The Alvin Show''. The characters substantially regained popularity in the early [[1980s]] under the guidance of Bagdasarian's son [[Ross Bagdasarian, Jr.|Ross Jr.]]. A new series, ''[[Alvin and the Chipmunks]]'', debuted in [[1983]], with a feature film (''The Chipmunk Adventure'', [[1987]]) and several [[direct-to-video]] releases in the [[1990s]] following it. Ross Bagdasarian, Jr. provides the voices of Dave, Alvin, and Simon in the new production; his wife [[Janice Karman]] does the voice of Theodore and the female Chipmunk spin-off group The Chipettes.
===Walt Disney===
In [[The Walt Disney Company|Disney]]'s animated movie ''[[The Emperor's New Groove]]'', character Krunk regularly converses with chipmunks, in their language of squeaks. Walt Disney also created two talking chipmunks, [[Chip and Dale]], during the 1940's.
[[image:leastchipmunk.jpg|thumb|thumb|right|Least Chipmunk, ''Tamias minimus'']]
[[Image:Least Chipmunk1.jpg|thumb|left|Least Chipmunk (''Tamias minimus'')]]
[[Image:Streifenhoernchen.jpg|thumb|left|220px|[[Siberian Chipmunk]] ''tamias sibiricus'']]
[[image:Chipmunkcanada rs 300x.jpg|thumb|center|Chipmunk, Western Canada, Rocky Mountains]]
<br style="clear:both;">
==References==
*Nichols, John D. and Earl Nyholm (1995). ''A Concise Dictionary of Minnesota Ojibwe''. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.
==External links==
*[http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?search=chipmunk&searchmode=none Etymology Online: Chipmunk]
[[Category:Squirrels]]
[[chr:ᎩᏳᎦ]]
[[de:Streifenhörnchen]]
[[fr:Tamia]]
[[it:Chipmunk]]
[[lt:Burundukai]]
[[nl:Chipmunks]]
[[ru:Бурундук]]
[[simple:Chipmunk]]
[[fi:Maaoravat]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Criminal organization</title>
<id>6973</id>
<revision>
<id>37046924</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-28T05:20:38Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Tazmaniacs</username>
<id>777928</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">A '''criminal organization''' is a group run by [[criminal]]s to further their illegal activities. They are usually involved with [[Illegal drug trade|drugs]], [[prostitution]], [[money laundering]] and [[black market]]eering. These activities are also called [[vice]] and [[organized crime]]. Some also engage in acts of political, racist, and religiously motivated violence, and in acts of [[terrorism]] and [[crimes against humanity]].
Examples of criminal organizations would include the [[Mafia]] and the [[Yakuza]]. The role of [[prison gang]]s, by definition criminal, on activities on the outside is under-estimated by many.
----
Another use of the term "criminal organization" exists in [[human rights law]] and refers to an organization which has been found guilty of [[crimes against humanity]]. Once an organization has been determined to be a criminal organization, then one must only demonstrate that an individual belonged to that organization to be punished and not that the individual actually individually committed illegal acts.
The concept of the criminal organization came into being during the [[Nuremberg Trials]]. Several [[public sector]] organizations of [[Nazi Germany]] such as the [[Schutzstaffel|SS]] and [[Gestapo]] were judged to be criminal organizations, while other organizations such as the [[German Army High Command]] {{dubious}} were indicted but acquitted of charges.
This conception of criminal organizations was, and continues to be, controversial, and has not been used in human rights law since the trials at Nuremberg.
[[Category:Criminal organizations| ]]
[[Category:Underground economy]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Computer music</title>
<id>6974</id>
<revision>
<id>38624601</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-07T15:45:38Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Vivenot</username>
<id>320020</id>
</contributor>
<comment>rvv</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Computer music''' is [[music]] generated with, or composed with the aid of [[computer]]s. It also refers to a field of study that examines both the theory and application of new and existing technologies in the areas of [[music]], [[sound design]] and diffusion, [[acoustics]], [[sound synthesis]], [[digital signal processing]], and [[psychoacoustics]]. The field of computer music can trace its roots back to the origin of [[electronic music]], and the very first experiments and innovations with electronic instruments at the turn of the 20th century.
Much of the work on computer music has drawn on the relationship between [[music theory]] and [[mathematics]]. The world's first computer music was generated in Australia by programmer [[Geoff Hill]] on the [[CSIRAC]] computer which was designed and built by [[Trevor Pearcey]] and [[Maston Beard]]. Subsequently, [[Lejaren Hiller]] (e.g., the Illiac Suite) used a computer in the 1950s to compose works that were then played by conventional musicians. Later developments included the work of [[Max Mathews]] at Bell Laboratories, who developed the influential [[MUSIC-N|MUSIC I]] program. [[Vocoder]] technology was also a major development in this early era. More recently, [[MIDI]] technology has allowed personal computers to interact with synthesizers through a standardized interface, which has widened the use of computer technology.
Throughout the world there are many organizations and institutions dedicated to the area of computer and electronic music study and research, including the [[ICMC]] (International Computer Music Association), [[IRCAM]], [[SEAMUS]] (Society for Electro Acoustic Music in the United States), and a great number of institutions of higher learning around the world.
== Key topics ==
* [[Algorithmic composition]]
* [[Computer music programming languages]]
* [[Computer generated music]]
* [[Chip Tune]]
* [[ChucK]]
* [[CSound]]
* [[Digital audio workstation]]
* [[Digital sampling]]
* [[Digital signal processing]]
* [[Digital synthesizer]]
* [[Electronic music]]
* [[Granular synthesis|Granular Synthesis]]
* [[Fast Fourier Transform]]
* [[Human-computer interaction]]
* [[Interactive music]]
* [[Music cognition]] and Perception
* [[Music information retrieval]]
* [[Max Mathews]]
* [[Max/MSP]]
* [[Music sequencer]]
* [[MIDI]]
* [[Music theory]]
* [[New interfaces for musical expression]]
* [[Physical modeling]]
* [[Psychoacoustics]]
* [[Spectralism]]
* [[Tracker]]
== External links ==
* [http://xltronic.com/ Xltronic (community for electronic musicians)] - messageboard, discography and 24/7 radio
* Synthtopia features [http://www.synthtopia.com/ computer music news], software reviews, and extensive coverage of computer and electronic music.
* [http://www.computermusic.org/ International Computer Music Association]
* [http://www.sas.upenn.edu/music/ams/musicology_www.html#CEM Links of interest on Computer Music]
* [http://www.computermusic.co.uk/ Computer Music magazine]
*[http://AmbientMusic-Radio.com/ Computer music, streamed 24/7, ambient space music internet radio]
[[Category:Musical techniques]]
[[de:Computermusik]]
[[fr:Musique assistée par ordinateur]]
[[it:Rapporto tra musica e informatica]]
[[nl:Computermuziek]]
[[fi:Tietokonemusiikki]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Catharine of Aragon</title>
<id>6975</id>
<revision>
<id>15905082</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Amillar</username>
<id>206</id>
</contributor>
<comment>redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Catherine of Aragon]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Code for</title>
<id>6976</id>
<revision>
<id>15905083</id>
<timestamp>2004-11-15T12:05:22Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Lexor</username>
<id>5364</id>
</contributor>
<comment>merged with and #REDIRECTed to [[genetics]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[genetics]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Congo-Brazzaville</title>
<id>6977</id>
<revision>
<id>15905084</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
<cont |
hat the Book of Mormon contains, as does the Bible, the true ''[[gospel]]'' (the message of Christ's [[Atonement]] and of the plan of [[salvation]]), untarnished by centuries of misinterpretation.
The following passages appear to most observers to conflict with Mormon (and more specifically, LDS) doctrines:
*The Father and the Son are one God (Mosiah 15:4). Critics argue that this means the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit cannot be three individuals, as is claimed in Doctrine and Covenants 130:22. However, members of the church claim that this scripture is describing Christ and his mission, not all members of the Godhead, and that this interpretation fails to consider the context of the passage.
* Critics argue that the doctrine of plural marriage contradicts the Book of Mormon by stating that [http://scriptures.lds.org/jacob/1/15#15 Jacob 1:15] forbids the practice in its entirety. Members of the church argue that critics also fail to mention that polygamy was acceptable in the Old Testament, and even sanctioned by God ([http://scriptures.lds.org/2_sam/12/7-8#7 2 Samuel 12:7-8]); and that critics fail to consider the whole context of what Jacob said concerning polygamy:
::"I the Lord God will not suffer that this people shall do like unto them of old. Wherefore, my bretheren, hear me, and hearken to the word of the Lord: For there shall not any man among you have save it be one wife; and concubines he shall have none. For I, the Lord God, delight in the chastity of women. And whoredoms are an abomination before me; thus saith the Lord of Hosts. Wherefore, this people shall keep my commandments, saith the Lord of Hosts, or cursed be the land for their sakes. For if I will, saith the Lord of Hosts, raise up seed unto me, I will command my people; otherwise they shall hearken unto these things." ([[Book of Jacob|Jacob]] [http://scriptures.lds.org/jacob/2/26-30#26 2:26-30]).
:Current members of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints believe that the Lord commanded polygamy for a time as permitted by the ending clause, for raising up seed in a time of hardship, but when the [[1890 Manifesto]] revoked that commandment, [[Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints|The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]] began to excommunicate members who entered into polygamous relationships. Although polygamy is considered a doctrine essential to salvation (D&C 132 [[Doctrine and Covenants]]), current revelation defers to the restrictions of U.S. legal canon in regard to its practice.
Latter Day Saints counter such arguments stating that critics of the church are intentionally misinterpreting scripture to create arguments to support their own position. It is argued that if critics intend to criticise scriptures that they must use the common interpretations of the scriptures found in the many resources of the church if they seek to disprove doctrines.
==Book of Mormon Editions==
The ''Book of Mormon'' is published today in the following forms:
*by [[Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints|The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]] under the expanded title '''''The Book of Mormon: Another Testament of Jesus Christ''''' (since 1982)
*for the [[Community of Christ]] by Herald House as '''''The Book of Mormon - Revised Authorized Version''''' (1966) and '''''The Book of Mormon - Authorized Version''''' (1908)
*by the [[Church of Jesus Christ (Bickertonite)]] as '''''The Book of Mormon: An Account Written by the Hand of Mormon upon Plates taken from the Plates of Nephi''''' &mdash; an original edition compiled by a committee made up of Church of Jesus Christ apostles Thurman S. Furnier, Charles Ashton and William H. Cadman
*for the [[Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints (Strangite)]] by Richard Drew, Burlington ([[Voree, Wisconsin|Voree]]), Wisconsin &mdash; a photo enlarged facsimile of the 1840 edition
*by Zarahemla Research Foundation as '''''The Book of Mormon - Restored Covenant Edition'''''
*by the University of Illinois Press as '''''The Book of Mormon: A Reader's Edition''''' (2003) (this edition is based on the 1920 LDS edition)
*by Doubleday under the title '''''The Book of Mormon: Another Testament of Jesus Christ''''' (2004)
*By Herald Heritage (Herald House) 1830 Reproductions.
<!-- //// I'm commenting out this paragraph because its premise is NOT true. While it is the first time that the LDS Church has approved a commercial edition, the Community of Christ approved such an edition in 1973. That edition was published by Family Library, an imprint of Pyramid Books, ISBN 0515030341. /////
For the first time since its original publication, a special edition of ''The Book of Mormon'' was printed by a trade publisher for commercial distribution. While it contains all the original text of the current LDS [[English language|English]] edition of the ''Book of Mormon'', it lacks the [[footnote]]s and cross-references of the church-published version. This hardcover edition of the book was made available on [[November 16]] [[2004]] by [[Doubleday]].
/////// -->
Some critics have suggested that some of the changes across editions significantly affect the meaning of the Book of Mormon and indicate an agenda inconsistent with the idea of a revealed or inspired book. A portion of these changes have been discussed in official Church publications including the ''[[Ensign (magazine)|Ensign]]'', ''[[Improvement Era]]'', ''[[Millennial Star]]'' and ''[[Times and Seasons]]'', and are consistent with early pre- and post-publication edits made by Joseph Smith. Some corrections were made due to earlier print or copy errors, or changes in punctuation. ''See'' [[Linguistics and the Book of Mormon]].
==References==
*{{cite journal | author=Brewster, Quinn | title=The Structure of the Book of Mormon: A Theory of Evolutionary Development | journal=Dialogue: A Journal of Mormon Thought | volume=29(2) | year=1996 | pages=109&ndash;140 | url=http://content.lib.utah.edu/cgi-bin/docviewer.exe?CISOROOT=/dialogue&CISOPTR=11460&CISOSHOW=11376}}
*Bushman, Richard L.. 2005. Joseph Smith: Rough Stone Rolling. New York: Alfred Knopf. ISBN 1400042704
*Givens, Terryl. 2002. By the Hand of Mormon: The American Scripture That Launched a New World Religion. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0195168887
*{{cite journal| author=Jessee, Dean C. | title=The Original Book of Mormon Manuscript | journal=BYU Studies | volume=10(3) | year=1970 | pages=259&ndash;278 | url=https://byustudies.byu.edu/shop/PDFfiles/10.3Jessee.pdf}}
*Mauss, Armand L. 2003. All Abraham's Children: Changing Mormon Conceptions of Race and Lineage. Illinois: University of Illinois Press. ISBN 0252028031
*Persuitte, David. ''Joseph Smith and the Origins of The Book of Mormon'', second edition, McFarland & Company (2000), trade paperback, 325 pages, ISBN 078640826X
*Vogel, Dan. 2004. Joseph Smith: The Making of a Prophet. Salt Lake City: Signature Books. ISBN 1560851791
==See also==
*[[Archaeology and the Book of Mormon]]
*[[Golden Plates]]
*[[Linguistics and the Book of Mormon]]
*[[Record of the Nephites]]
*[[Reformed Egyptian]]
==External links==
{{Wikisource}}
===Links to texts===
*[http://scriptures.lds.org/bm/contents ''Book of Mormon'' (The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints Edition)]
*[http://www.centerplace.org/hs/bofm/default.htm ''Book of Mormon'' (Community of Christ Edition)]
*[http://centerplace.org/hs/bofm/ ''Book of Mormon'' (RLDS 1908 Authorized Edition)]
*[http://www.ldsaudio.com/free-book-of-mormon/ ''Audio Book of Mormon''] in mp3 format (free download)
*[http://www.colinandbethany.com/phpBB2/index.php?c=6 ''Book of Mormon'' Discussion Board]
===Links to articles about===
==== Official sources ====
*[http://www.mormon.org/learn/0,8672,1090-1,00.html ''Book of Mormon'', basic information and beliefs] from [[The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]]
*[http://www.cofchrist.org/history/BofM.asp Information about ''Book of Mormon''] from the [[Community of Christ]]
==== Sympathetic views ====
*[http://www.jefflindsay.com/BMEvidences.shtml ''Book of Mormon'' Evidences]
*[http://www.ldsresources.net/?view=link_home&cat_id=2 ''Book of Mormon'' Information]
*[http://www.signaturebookslibrary.org/essays/bookofmormon.htm A short introduction to the ''Book of Mormon'']
*[http://bomf.org/research.html ''Book of Mormon'' Research] from the ''Book of Mormon'' Foundation
*[http://www.computercontrolsystems.com/GE/BoM/Index.htm ''Book of Mormon'' Archive-Archeology, Evidence, Study Materials, Rebuttals] from the Abundant Life Fellowship[http://www.restoredgospel.com/]
*[http://www.lightplanet.com/mormons/basic/bom/editions_eom.htm Editions of ''The Book of Mormon'']
*[http://www.lightplanet.com/mormons/basic/bom/manuscripts_eom.htm ''Book of Mormon'' Manuscripts]
==== Critical views ====
*[http://www.skepticsannotatedbible.com/BOM/index.html Skeptics Annotated ''Book of Mormon'']
*[http://www.contenderministries.org/mormonism/bomproblems.php Evangelical Christian view of the ''Book of Mormon'']
* [http://mormonwiki.org/Book_of_Mormon (Another) Evangelical Christian view of the ''Book of Mormon'']
*[http://www.helpingmormons.org/twain.htm ''A Review of The Book of Mormon'' by Mark Twain]
*[http://www.saintsalive.com/mormonism/bomchanges.htm Saints Alive ''Book of Mormon'' Changes]
[[Category:Book of Mormon]]
[[Category:Latter Day Saint texts]]
[[Category:Mormonism]]
[[Category:Pre-Columbian trans-oceanic contact]]
[[Category:Religious texts]]
[[Category:Spiritual books]]
[[da:Mormons Bog]]
[[de:Buch Mormon]]
[[es:Libro de Mormón]]
[[eo:Libro de Mormon]]
[[fr:Livre de Mormon]]
[[ko:몰몬경]]
[[ia:Libro de Mormon]]
[[it:Libro di Mormon]]
[[nl:Boek van Mormon]]
[[ja:モルモン書]]
[[no:Mormons bok]]
[[pl:Księga Mormona]]
[[pt:Livro de Mórmon]]
[[ru:Книга Мормона]]
[[scn:Lu Libbru di Mormon]]
[[sk:Kniha Mormónova]]
[[sv:Mormons bok]]
[[zh:摩門經]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page |
>
<contributor>
<username>Supermorff</username>
<id>239586</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about a [[fictional character]]; for information on real eider ducks, see [[Eider]] and [[Common Eider]].''
'''Eider Duck''' is a fictional [[duck]] published in [[Walt Disney]]'s [[comic book]]s, and is the uncle of [[Donald Duck]].
Eider was first mentioned in [[August]] [[1944]] in the story "The Fighting Falcon" by [[Carl Barks]]. In this story, Donald receives a [[falcon]] as a present by his uncle Eider who does not live in [[Duckburg]]. Barks never mentioned Eider again but [[Keno Don Rosa|Don Rosa]] decided to include him in his Duck Family Tree.
According to Rosa, Eider is the son of [[Humperdink Duck]] and [[Elvira Coot]]. Eider worked on his parents' farm until at least [[1902]]. He later married [[Lulubelle Loon]] and became the father of three sons:
*[[Abner Duck|Abner "Whitewater" Duck]].
*[[Fethry Duck]].
*[[Gipfel Duck]].
It is presumed that he was a falcon trainer. It is unknown when (per Don Rosa's timeline) exactly he died.
[[Category:Characters in the Scrooge McDuck universe|Duck, Eider]]
[[Category:Fictional ducks|Duck, Eider]]
[[it:Eider Duck]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Ebor, New South Wales</title>
<id>10343</id>
<revision>
<id>38868863</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-09T04:01:43Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Titoxd</username>
<id>227287</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/165.228.129.12|165.228.129.12]] ([[User talk:165.228.129.12|talk]]) to last version by Can't sleep, clown will eat me</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Ebor''' is a small town in northern [[New South Wales]], [[Australia]], situated about 88km (about 55mi) east of [[Armidale, New South Wales|Armidale]], and about one third of the way between [[Armidale, New South Wales|Armidale]] and the coast. Population in the year 2000 is about 50. There is a general store, a pub, and a primary school.
Ebor is at fairly high altitude, about 1350 metres, and by Australian standards has cold winters with overnight frost and occasional light snow falls.
The surrounding district has sheep grazing and some tourism. The main tourist attractions are several spectacular waterfalls ([[Ebor Falls]], [[Wollomombi Falls]]), the cool temperate rain-forest walks in [[New England National Park]] and recreational trout fishing.
There is some dispute as to whether Ebor should be known as a [[town]]. Given the size of it at best it could claim to be a [[village]] however in reality it would be more appropriate to refer to it as a [[hamlet (place)|hamlet]]. This situation has arisen from wide spread ignorance of the terms of populated areas. On another scale [[cities]] that are located in rural areas are usually wrongfully referred to as [[towns]] by sole virtue of the fact that they happen to be located in these rural areas.
[[Category:Towns in New South Wales]]
{{NewSouthWales-geo-stub}}</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Pre-Islamic period of Afghanistan</title>
<id>10344</id>
<revision>
<id>41545759</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T01:46:01Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Siddiqui</username>
<id>308269</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* External links and References */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{History of Afghanistan}}
[[Archaeology|Archaeological]] exploration began in [[Afghanistan]] in earnest after [[World War II]] and proceeded until the [[Soviet invasion of Afghanistan]] disrupted it in December of [[1979]]. Artifacts typical of the [[Paleolithic]], [[Mesolithic]], [[Neolithic]], [[Bronze Age|Bronze]], and [[Iron Age|Iron]] ages were found.
==Prehistory==
It is not yet clear, however, to what extent these periods were contemporaneous with similar stages of development in other geographic regions. The area that is now Afghanistan seems in prehistory - as well as ancient and modern times - to have been closely connected by culture and trade with the neighboring regions to the east, west, and north. Urban civilization in the [[Iranian plateau]], which includes most of [[Iran]] and Afghanistan, may have begun as early as 3000 to 2000 BCE (see also [[Bactria-Margiana Archaeological Complex]]). Archaelogical finds also indicate the possible beginnings of the Bronze Age which would ultimately spread throughout the ancient world from Afghanistan. It is also believed that the region had early trade contacts with both the [[Indus Valley Civilization]] and [[Mesopotamia]] and that the ancient city of [[Mudigak]] may have even been a provincial colony of the Indus Valley Civilization or closely affiliated, but this remains largely circumstantial and speculative.
==Ancient Afghanistan: From the Aryans to the Medes. [[1500 BCE]] - [[551 BC|551 BCE]]==
[[Image:Median Empire.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Median Empire]]
Between 2000-1200 BCE, a branch of [[Indo-European]]-speaking tribes known as the [[Aryans]] or [[Indo-Iranians]] began migrating into the region. They appear to have split into [[Iranian peoples|Iranian]], [[Nuristani]], and [[Indo-Aryans|Indo-Aryan]] groups at an early stage, possibly between 1500 and 1000 BCE in what is today Afghanistan or much earlier as eastern remnants of the Indo-Aryans drifted much further west as with the [[Mitanni]]. The Iranians and Nuristanis dominated the [[Iranian plateau]], while the Indo-Aryans ultimately headed towards the [[Indian subcontinent]], but probably not before establishing some early civilization in what is today eastern Afghanistan and western Pakistan. The [[Avesta]] is believed to have been composed possibly as early as 1800 BCE and written in ancient [[Ariana]] (Aryana), possibly the earliest name of Afghanistan which indicates an early link with Iranian tribes to the west, or adjacent regions in Central Asia or northeastern Iran in the 6th century BCE.[http://www.people.fas.harvard.edu/~witzel/EJVS-7-3.pdf] Due to the similarity between early Avestan and [[Sanskrit]] (and other related early Indo-European languages such as [[Latin]] and [[Ancient Greek]]), it is believed that the split between the Iranian and Indo-Aryan tribes had taken place at least by 1000 BCE. There are striking similarities between the Eastern Iranian language of [[Avestan]] and [[Sanskrit]], which may support the notion that the split was contemporary with the Indo-Aryans living in Afghanistan at a very early stage. Also, the Avesta itself divides into Old and New sections and neither mention the [[Medes]] who are known to have rule Afghanistan starting around 700 BCE. This suggests an early time-frame for the Avesta that has yet to be exactly determined as most academics believe it was written over the course of centuries if not millennia. Much of the archaelogical data comes from the [[Bactria-Margiana Archaeological Complex]] (BMAC) that probably played a key role in early Iranic civilization in Afghanistan.
It has also been surmised by many researchers that the Iranian prophet [[Zoroaster]] was born somewhere in ancient Aryana, possibly in the ancient city of [[Balkh]], but it remains unknown even if he was born in what is today Afghanistan or northeastern Iran or Central Asia and the timeframe of his life literally spans millennia from as early 2000 BCE to as late as 600 BCE. Regardless, Zoroastrianism spread throughout the region alongside early pagan beliefs and centuries later Buddhism.
During this early period, the [[Pashtuns]] or some of their early Eastern Iranian ancestors are believed to have originated near the vicinity of [[Kandahar]] and/or the [[Sulaiman Mountains]] and possibly begun to expand into other parts of Afghanistan. Herodotus mentions a tribe called the Pactyan as inhabiting much of what is today Afghanistan and northwestern Pakistan and it is speculated by some that these people were the ancient ancestors of the Pashtuns, although, aside from phoenetic name similarities, this remains unproven. Others such as [[Strabo]] relate the existence of tribes west of the [[Indus]] as part of [[Ariana]], while the east is referred to as 'India', but it is not clear whether or not various Pashtun tribes are what Strabo is referring to. [[Arrian]]'s ''Indica'' also makes reference to various wild tribes west of the Indus who may or may not have been ancestors of the Pashtuns. The [[Rig Veda]] makes mention of a group called the ''Pakhat'' and it is possible that either this is a reference to the ancestors of the Pashtuns or a reference to an [[Indo-Aryan languages|Indo-Aryan]]-speaking group or some other tribe altogether. Mainly pagan at first, many Pashtuns appear to have adopted [[Buddhist]] and [[Zoroastrian]] traditions due to contact with both Iranic and Indic cultural influences, while other eastern Afghans may have remained pagans not unlike their neighbors the [[Kafirs]] of [[Nuristan]] as well as the [[Kalash]].
The [[Medes]], a Western Iranian people, arrived from what is today [[Kurdistan]] sometime around the 700s BCE and came to dominate most of ancient Afghanistan. They were an early Iranian tribe that forged the first empire on the Iranian plateau and were rivals of the Persians whom they initially dominated in the province of [[Fars]] to the south. Median domination of Afghanistan would last until the [[Persians]] challenged and ultimately replaced them from their original base in [[Fars]] in southern Iran near ancient [[Elam]].
== Early Indo-Aryans prior to their move to India ==
In the region around what is today [[Kabul]] and eastern Afghanistan, an early [[Indo-Iranian]] or specifically some early [[Indo-Aryans|Indo-Aryan]] culture may have emerged as eastern Afghanistan could possibly have been either the site of the [[Vedic civilization]], that later came to i |
ip at the end, since smoke from the funnels often made it impossible to identify signals on ships behind the one directly ahead or behind, so every ship had to repeat the signal for the following one to understand. The time required for this was often doubled as most signals had to be confirmed by every ship before they could be executed.
For the actual battle the fleet would deploy into a single column by the leading ships of the columns turning 90 degrees to port or starboard, the remaining ships following their leaders in succession, the column being formed at right angles to the original line of advance. To form the column into the right direction the fleet had to know from which direction the enemy was approaching before he could be seen by the [[battleship]]s, as this maneuver took longer than two fleets heading towards each other at high speed needed to come within fighting range. It was the task of the scouting forces, consisting of [[battlecruiser]]s and [[cruiser]]s, to find the enemy and report from where he approached in time and if possible deny the enemy's scouting force to obtain the same information.
Ideally the line of battleships would cross the path of the enemy column so that the maximum number of [[gun]]s could be brought to bear, while the enemy could only fire with the front [[turret]]s of the leading ships. Carrying out this classic maneuver of "[[crossing the T]]" was largely a matter of luck; more likely would be a heavy exchange between two fleets on roughly parallel courses.
===German plan===
The German naval strategy, according to Scheer, was:
:to damage the English Fleet by offensive raids against the naval forces engaged in watching and blockading the [[Heligoland Bight|German Bight]], as well as by [[naval mine|mine]]-laying on the British coast and [[submarine]] attack, whenever possible. After an equality of strength had been realised as a result of these operations, and all our forces had been got ready and concentrated, an attempt was to be made with our Fleet to seek battle under circumstances unfavourable to the enemy.
Since in 1916 the High Seas Fleet had only 18 battleships to the Grand Fleet's 33 and the Germans were falling increasingly further behind as the war progressed, there was no chance of defeating the British in a head-to-head clash of battleships. Instead, they planned to divide and conquer: by staging raids into the North Sea they would lure out small British squadrons which could then be attacked and destroyed. Since the British [[Admiralty]], unknown to the Germans, had gained possession of the main German code books, German naval radio communications picked up could be decyphered, and the Admiralty was therefore usually quite well aware of German plans.
The plan for May 1916 was to station a large number of [[U-boat]]s off the British naval bases and lure Beatty's battlecruiser squadrons out by sending a fleet under Hipper to raid the coast of [[Sunderland]]. After attrition from the submarines, the British would be drawn by Hipper towards the German dreadnoughts under Scheer and destroyed.
===British response===
[[Image:Jutland campaign map.png|left|Fleet movements before and during the battle of Jutland, [[30 May]] to [[1 June]] [[1916]].]]
The British intercepted and decrypted a German signal on [[28 May]] ordering all ships to be ready to put to sea on the 30th. Further signals were intercepted and although they were not decrypted it was clear that a major operation was likely. The Grand Fleet of twenty-four [[battleship|dreadnoughts]] and three [[battlecruiser]]s left [[Scapa Flow]] under Jellicoe before Hipper left the [[Jade Estuary]] on [[30 May]]. Beatty's force of four dreadnoughts and six battlecruisers left the [[Firth of Forth]] on the same day, and Jellicoe's intention was to rendezvous ninety miles (145 km) <!-- if the 'miles' are statute --> west of the [[Skagerrak]] off the coast of [[Jutland]] and wait for the Germans.
===The fleets===
During the battle the actual force under Jellicoe was twenty-eight dreadnoughts and nine battlecruisers, while Scheer had sixteen dreadnoughts, five battlecruisers and six obsolete [[pre-dreadnought]]s. The British were superior in light vessels as well. In terms of weight of broadside the British had an advantage of 332,400&nbsp;lb (151&nbsp;tonnes) against 134,000&nbsp;lb (61&nbsp;t).
This British superiority was countered by certain technical factors: German [[gun]]nery was more accurate, in part because the British had adopted an inferior [[fire-control system|firing control]] design; German ships had thicker [[armour]] against torpedo attack and more water-tight doors; German [[Armor-piercing shot and shell|armour-piercing shells]] were more effective than the British shells; and, vitally important, the British [[cordite]] [[propellant]] was oversensitive, and the British [[Magazine (artillery)|magazine]]s were not well protected. The British also suffered from exceptionally poor communication between their ships.
==The battlecruiser action==
[[Image:Jutland battlecruiser action.png|right|]]
The German submarines were completely ineffective; they did not sink a single ship and provided no useful information as [[Reconnaissance|scout]]s. Jellicoe's ships proceeded to his rendezvous undamaged but misled by [[Admiralty]] [[intelligence (information gathering)|intelligence]] that the Germans were nine hours later than they actually were.
At 14:20 on [[31 May]], scouts from Beatty's force reported enemy ships to the south-east: British light units, investigating a neutral Danish [[steamer]] which was sailing between the two fleets, were finding German scouts engaged in the same mission. Beatty moved to cut the German ships off from their base. The first shots of the battle were fired when [[HMS Galatea (1914)|''Galatea'']] of the British 1st Light [[Cruiser Squadron]] mistook two German [[destroyer]]s for cruisers and engaged them. ''Galatea'' was subsequently hit at extreme range by her German counterpart, [[SMS Elbing|''Elbing'']], of Rear Admiral Bodicker's Scouting Group II.
At 15:30, Beatty sighted Hipper's cruisers moving north-west (position 1 on map). Hipper promptly turned away to lead Beatty towards Scheer. Beatty, some three miles (5 km) <!-- if the 'miles' are statute --> from Admiral [[Hugh Evan-Thomas|Sir Hugh Evan-Thomas]]'s [[5th Battle Squadron]], turned to the enemy and signaled by flag for the 5th Battle Squadron to follow. Given the distance and visibility, the 5th could not read the flag signals; and as Beatty made no effort to communicate via [[light signal]] or [[radio]] [[telegraph]], the 5th continued on its original course for several minutes. At 15:45, after having the German ships within range for over ten minutes, and with both fleets roughly parallel at 15,000&nbsp;yards (14&nbsp;km), Beatty opened fire simultaneously with Hipper (position 2). Thus began the opening phase of the fleet action, known as the "Run to the South".
Beatty ordered his ships to engage in a line, one British ship engaging with one German and his [[flagship]] [[HMS Lion (1910)|''Lion'']] doubling on the German flagship [[SMS Lützow|''Lützow'']]. However, due to a mistake on the British part, [[SMS Derfflinger|''Derfflinger'']] was left unengaged and free to fire without disruption, while [[SMS Moltke|''Moltke'']] drew fire from two battlecruisers. The Germans drew first blood. Hipper's five battlecruisers promptly registered hits on three of the six British battlecruisers. Nearly 10 minutes passed before the British managed to score their first hit. The first near-disaster of the battle occurred when a 12 inch (305 mm) salvo from [[SMS Lützow|''Lützow'']] wrecked "Q" turret of Beatty's [[flagship]] [[HMS Lion (1910)|''Lion'']]. Dozens of crewmen were instantly killed, but a far larger catastrophe was averted when Major [[Francis John William Harvey|Francis Harvey]] of the [[Royal Marines]], the mortally wounded turret commander, ordered the magazine doors shut and the magazine flooded, thereby preventing the fickle propellant from setting off a massive explosion. ''Lion'' was saved, but [[HMS Indefatigable (1909)|''Indefatigable'']] was not so lucky. At 16:00 she was smashed aft by three 11 inch (280&nbsp;mm) shells from [[SMS Von der Tann|''Von der Tann'']], causing damage sufficient to knock her out of line. ''Von der Tann'' landed another 11&nbsp;inch (280 mm) salvo on one of her 12 inch (305&nbsp;mm) turrets at near-maximum range. The plunging shells easily pierced the armour and, with no time for the heroics that saved ''Lion'', ''Indefatigable'' was ripped apart by a magazine explosion, sinking in moments with all but two of her crew of 1,019 officers and men (position 3).
[[Image:HMS Lion (1910).jpg|thumb|left|300px|[[David Beatty, 1st Earl Beatty|Beatty]]'s flagship [[HMS Lion (1910)|''Lion'']] burning after being hit by a salvo from [[SMS Lützow|''Lützow'']].]]
The odds had been evened to Hipper's benefit, but not for long. Evan-Thomas had finally brought up his squadron of four "super-dreadnoughts" &mdash; fast warships of the [[Queen Elizabeth class battleship|''Queen Elizabeth'' class]] armed with 15 inch (381&nbsp;mm) guns. With 15 inch (381 mm) shells landing on his ships and unable to respond effectively at long range with his smaller guns, Hipper was in a tight spot, but he knew Scheer's main body was fast approaching and his baiting mission was close to completion. The battlecruiser action intensified again: at 16:25 [[HMS Queen Mary|''Queen Mary'']] was hit by what may have been a combined salvo from [[SMS Derfflinger|''Derfflinger'']] and [[SMS Seydlitz|''Seydlitz'']], and she disintegrated in a magazine explosion with all but nine of her 1,275 man crew lost. Viewing this, Beatty noted "There seems to be something wrong with our bloody ships today" to his [[flag |
lapse: collapse; clear: right; margin: 0 0 0 0.5em"
|-
|'''Indicated for:'''<br/>
*[[diet suppressant]]
*[[attention deficit disorder|ADD]]
*[[attention deficit hyperactivity disorder|ADHD]]
*[[narcolepsy]]
*[[treatment-resistant depression]]
'''[[Recreational drug use|Recreational]] uses:'''<br/>
*[[Stimulant]]
'''Other uses:'''<br/>
*Used by the US military to combat fatigue and increase wakefulness
|-
|'''[[Contraindication]]s:'''<br/>
*CNS Stimulants
*[[MAOI]] use
|-
|'''[[Side effect]]s:'''
*dizziness
*tachycardia (rapid heartbeat)
*sweating
*decrease in appetite/weight loss
*enhanced feelings of well-being followed by depression
*insomnia
*anger
*agressiveness
*hostility
'''''Atypical [[sensation]]s:'''''
*?
'''''[[Cardiovascular]]:'''''
*[[Bronchodilator]]
'''''[[Ear]], [[nose]], and [[throat]]:'''''
*[[Decongestant]]
'''''[[Endocrinal]]:'''''
*?
'''''[[Eye]]:'''''
*[[Mydriasis]] (Pupil dilation)
'''''[[Gastrointestinal]]:'''''
*Diarrhea
'''''[[Hematological]]:'''''
*?
'''''[[Muscle|Musculo]][[skeletal]]:'''''
*Muscle aches/cramps
'''''[[Neurological]]:'''''
*[[Dopamine]] [[Agonist]]
*[[Norepinephrine]] [[Agonist]]
'''''[[Psychological]]:'''''
*
'''''[[Respiration (physiology)|Respiratory]]:'''''
*[[Bronchodilator]]
'''''[[Skin]]:'''''
*?
'''''[[Urogenital]] and [[reproductive]]:'''''
*?
'''''Miscellaneous:'''''
*
|}
'''Amphetamine''' ('''a'''lpha-'''m'''ethyl-[[phenethylamine|'''ph'''en'''et'''hyl'''amine''']]), also known as '''speed''', is a synthetic [[stimulant]] used to [[anorectic|suppress the appetite]], control weight, and treat disorders including [[narcolepsy]] and [[Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder]]. It is also used recreationally and for performance enhancement (these uses are illegal in most countries).
Due to the widespread use of amphetamines as a treatment for [[attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder|ADD/ADHD]] in the [[USA]], Canada, and other countries, they frequently find their way onto the street and are one of the most frequently-abused drugs in high schools and colleges.
Patients with acute toxicity from amphetamines may have symptoms of lock-jaw, diarrhea, [[palpitations]], [[arrhythmia]], [[fainting|syncope]], [[hyperpyrexia]], and [[hyperreflexia]] progressing to [[convulsion]]s and [[coma]].
Patients with chronic use of amphetamines develop a rapid tolerance to the drug and may have to increase the number of pills to reach a desired affect and eventually develop addiction.
Patients that develop addiction show symptoms of restlessness, [[anxiety]], [[depression]], [[insomnia]], and suicidal behavior.
A urine drug screen can be performed to determine the presence of amphetamines.
Patients may need to be hospitalized.
Supportive therapy is important.
Cooling blankets may be used for [[hyperthermia]].
[[sedative|Sedation]] may be obtained with [[lorazepam]] or [[diazepam]].
[[Haloperidol]] may be given for agitation and [[delusion]]s.
[[Hypertension]] and arrhythmias should be treated.
== Pharmacology ==
'''Amphetamine''' is a synthetic [[Medication|drug]] with strong stimulant effects. In the United States, it is most commonly used for treatment of attention-deficit disorders and narcolepsy, but is also approved as a weight-loss medication in certain cases of obesity. Within the armed forces only, it is also frequently prescribed as an anti-fatigue pill for pilots and other individuals in situations requiring vigilance and alertness. Amphetamine is also used illegally to take advantage of these effects.
The term ''amphetamine'' causes a certain amount of confusion because it is often used incorrectly. In the general sense, amphetamine can describe other drugs with similar, stimulant effects, namely [[methamphetamine]] and [[methylphenidate]]. Chemists often use the term "amphetamine class" to describe chemicals that are structurally similar (and often similar in effect as well) to amphetamine - namely, chemicals with an ethyl backbone, terminal phenyl and amine groups, and a methyl group adjacent to the amine. A large number of chemicals fall into this category, including the club drug [[MDMA]] ([[Ecstasy (drug)|Ecstasy]]) and methamphetamine. It is important to note that such an "amphetamine class" does not technically exist. In the pharmacodynamic sense, these drugs all fall under the umbrella of central nervous system stimulants; in the chemical sense, they are [[phenylethylamines]]. Amphetamine, for example, is methylated phenylethylamine, and methamphetamine is double-methylated phenylethylamine.
Amphetamine traditionally comes in the salt-form ''amphetamine sulfate'' and is comprised of 50% l-amphetamine and 50% d-amphetamine (where ''l-'' and ''d-'' refer to ''levo'' and ''dextro'', the two optical orientations the amphetamine structure can have). In the United States, pharmaceutical products containing solely amphetamine (for example, Biphetamine) are no longer manufactured. Today, dextroamphetamine (d-amphetamine) sulphate is the predominant form of the drug used; it consists entirely of d-isomer amphetamine, which acts in a slightly different way on the brain than does l-amphetamine. Attention disorders are often treated using '''[[Adderall]]''' or generic-equivalent formulations of mixed amphetamine salts that contain both d/l-amphetamine and d-amphetamine in the sulfate and saccharate forms mixed to a final ratio of 3 parts d-amphetamine to 1 part l-amphetamine.
Amphetamine was first synthesized in 1887 by the [[Romania|Romanian]] [[Chemist]] [[Lazar Edeleanu]], who called it '''"phenylisopropylamine"'''.
==Medicinal use==
The experimental medical use of amphetamines began in the [[1920s]]. It was introduced in most of the world in the form of the pharmaceutical '''[[Benzedrine]]''' in the late-[[1920s]]. The drug was used by the militaries of several nations, especially the air forces, to fight fatigue and increase alertness among servicemen. After decades of reports of abuse, the [[United States Food and Drug Administration|FDA]] banned Benzedrine inhalers, and limited amphetamines to prescription use in 1959, but illegal use became common.
Along with [[methylphenidate]] ([[Ritalin]] [[Concerta]]), amphetamine is one of the standard treatments for [[ADHD]]. Beneficial effects for ADHD can include improved impulse control, improved concentration, decreased sensory overstimulation, and decreased irritability. These effects can be dramatic, particularly in young children. The ADHD medication [[Adderall]] is composed of four different amphetamine [[salt]]s, [[Adderall XR]] is a timed release formulation of these same salt forms.
When used within the recommended doses, side-effects like loss of appetite tend to decrease over time. However, amphetamines last longer in the body than [[methylphenidate]] ([[Ritalin]] [[Concerta]]), and tend to have stronger side-effects on appetite and sleep.
Amphetamines are also a standard treatment for [[narcolepsy]] as well as other sleeping disorders. They are generally effective over long periods of time without producing addiction or physical dependence.
Amphetamines are sometimes used to augment anti-depressant therapy in treatment-resistant depression.
Medical use for weight loss is still approved in some countries, but is regarded as obsolete and dangerous in, for example, the United States.
== Performance-enhancing use ==
Amphetamines are usually not used by athletes in sports involving extreme cardiovascular efforts, as methamphetamine and amphetamine put a great deal of additional stress on the heart.
The [[United States Air Force]] uses amphetamines ([[Dexedrine]]) as stimulants for pilots, calling them "go-pills." After a mission, the Air Force issues a "no-go pill" ([[Zolpidem|Ambien]]) to help the pilot sleep.
Amphetamines have been popular among some truck drivers, construction workers, and factory workers whose jobs require long or irregular [[shift work]] or automatic, repetitive tasks. It is for this reason that they are sometimes labeled a "redneck drug." They are also used by [[white-collar]] workers trying to stay alert during long hours of multitasking, and by students hoping to improve their academic performance. There has also been at least one report of the coercive administration of amphetamines to cannery workers in Thailand, in order to enhance productivity (Seabrook, 1996).
== Effects of use==
Amphetamines release stores of [[norepinephrine]] and [[dopamine]] from nerve endings by converting the respective molecular transporters into open channels. Amphetamine also releases stores of [[serotonin]] from [[synaptic vesicle]]s. Like [[methylphenidate]] ([[Ritalin]]), amphetamines also prevent the [[monoamine transporter]]s for [[dopamine]] and [[norepinephrine]] from recycling them (called [[reuptake]] inhibition), which leads to increased amounts of dopamine and norepinephrine in [[synaptic cleft]]s.
These combined effects rapidly increases the concentrations of the respective [[neurotransmitter]]s in the [[synaptic cleft]], which promotes nerve impulse transmission in neurons that have those receptors.
==='''Physiological effects'''===
Short-term [[physiology|physiological]] effects include [[decreased appetite]], [[increased stamina]] and physical energy, increased [[sexual drive]]/response, involuntary bodily movements, [[increased perspiration]], [[hyperactivity]], [[jitteriness]], [[nausea]], itchy, blotchy or [[greasy skin]], [[increased heart rate]], [[irregular heart rate]], and [[headaches]]. [[Fatigue]] can often follow the dose's period of effectiveness. Overdose can be treated with [[chlorpromazine]]. [http://www.rxlist.com/cgi/generic/amphsulf_od.htm]
Long-term abuse or overdose effects can include [[tremor]], restlessness, changed sleep patterns, poor skin condition, [[hyperreflexia]], [[tachypnea]], gastrointestinal narrowing, and we |
at as soon as a folk tradition comes to be marketed as popular music, its musical content will quickly be modified to become more like popular music. Such modified folk music often incorporates [[electric guitar]]s, [[drum kit]], or forms of rhythmic [[syncopation]] that are characteristic of popular music but were absent in the original.
One example of this sort is contemporary [[country music]], which descends ultimately from a rural American folk tradition, but has evolved to become vastly different from its original model. [[Hip hop music|Rap]] music evolved from an African-American inner-city folk tradition, but is likewise very different nowadays from its folk original. A third example is contemporary [[Bluegrass music|bluegrass]], which is a professionalised development of American [[old time music]], intermixed with [[blues]] and [[jazz]].
As less traditional forms of folk music gain popularity, one often observes tension between so-called "purists" or "traditionalists" and the innovators. For example, traditionalists were indignant when [[Bob Dylan]] began to use an electric guitar. His electrified performance at the [[1965]] [[Newport Folk Festival]] was to prove to be an early focal point for this controversy.
Sometimes, however, the exponents of amplified music were bands such as [[Fairport Convention]], [[Pentangle (band)|Pentangle]], [[Mr. Fox]] and [[Steeleye Span]] who saw the electrification of traditional musical forms as a means to reach a far wider audience, and their efforts have been largely recognised for what they were by even some of the most die-hard of purists. Traditional folk music forms also merged with [[rock and roll]] to form the hybrid generally known as [[folk rock]] which evolved through performers such as [[The Byrds]], [[Simon and Garfunkel]], [[The Mamas and the Papas]], and many others.
Since the [[1970s]] a genre of "contemporary folk", fuelled by new singer-songwriters, has continued to make the coffee-house circuit and keep the tradition of acoustic non-classical music alive in the United States. Such artists include [[Steve Goodman]], [[John Prine]], [[Cheryl Wheeler]], [[Bill Morrisey]], [[Christine Lavin]] and [[Gundula Krause]]. Lavin in particular has become prominent as a leading promoter of this musical genre in recent years. Some, such as Lavin and Wheeler, inject a great deal of humor in their songs and performances, although much of their music is also deeply personal and sometimes satirical. While from Ireland [[The Pogues]] and [[The Corrs]] brought traditional tunes back into the [[album]] charts.
In the 1980s a group of artists like [[Phranc]] and [[The Knitters]] propagated a form of folk music also called [[country punk]] or [[folk punk]], which eventually evolved into [[Alt country]]. More recently the same spirit has been embraced and expanded on by performers such as [[Dave Alvin]], [[Ani DiFranco]], and [[Steve Earle]]. At the same time, a line of singers from Baez to [[Phil Ochs]] have continued to use traditional forms for original material.
The appropriation of folk has even continued into [[hard rock]] and [[heavy metal music|heavy metal]], with bands such as [[Skyclad (band)|Skyclad]], [[Waylander (band)|Waylander]] and [[Finntroll]] melding distinctive elements of folk styles from a wide variety of traditions, including in many cases traditional instruments such as [[fiddle]]s, [[tin whistle]]s and [[bagpipes]] as an element of their sound. Unlike other folk-related genres, [[folk metal]] shies away from monotheistic religion in favour of more ancient [[Paganism|pagan]] inspired themes.
A similar stylistic shift, without using the "folk music" name, has occurred with the phenomenon of [[Celtic music]], which in many cases is based on an amalgamation of [[Irish traditional music]], [[Music of Scotland|Scottish traditional music]], and other traditional musics associated with lands in which [[Celtic language]]s are or were spoken (regardless of any significant research showing that the musics have any genuine genetic relationship; so [[Breton music]] and [[Galician music]] are often included in the genre).
'''[[Neofolk]]''' music is a modern form of music that began in the 1980's. Fusing traditional European folk music with [[post-industrial (music)|post-industrial]] music forms, historical topics, philosophical commentary, traditional songs and [[paganism]], the genre is largely European. Although it is not uncommon for neofolk artists to be entirely acoustic, playing with entirely traditional instruments.
One of the more unusual offshoots of modern folk music is the genre now known as [[filk]], a form of music defined primarily by who its audience is.
Another trend is "antifolk," begun in New York City in the 1980s by [[Lach]] [http://www.lachtoday.com] in response to the confines traditional folk music. It now has a home at the Antihootenany in the East Village, where artists like Beck, the Moldy Peaches and Nellie McKay got their starts, and artists such as [[Robin Aigner]][http://www.robinaigner.html]'s [[Royal Pine]][http://www.royalpinemusic.com], [[Matt Singer]][http://www.matt-singer.com], [[Phoebe Kreutz]] and [[Curtis Eller]][http://www.curtiseller.com] continue to push the envelope of "folk."
Folk music is still extremely popular among some audiences today, with folk music clubs meeting to share traditional-style songs, and there are major folk music festivals in many countries, eg the [[Port Fairy Folk Festival]] is a major annual event in Australia attracting top international folk performers as well as many local artists. Indeed, even for those who consider themselves hip, the arrival of [[Americana]] and the music of [[Bonnie "Prince" Billy]] and [[Devendra Banhart]] has shown that Folk Music can still be cutting edge.
The [[Cambridge Folk Festival]] in [[Cambridge]], [[England]] is always sold out within days, and is noted for having a very wide definition of who can be invited as folk musicians. The "club tents" allow attendees to discover large numbers of unknown artists, who, for ten or fifteen minutes each, present their work to the festival audience.
==Pastiche and parody==
[[Popular culture]] sometimes creates [[pastiche]]s of folk music for its own ends.
One famous example is the pseudo-ballad sung about brave Sir Robin in the film ''[[Monty Python and the Holy Grail]]''. Enthusiasts for folk music might properly consider this song to be pastiche and not [[parody]], because the tune is pleasant and far from inept, and the topic being lampooned is not balladry but the medieval heroic tradition. The arch-shaped melodic form of this song (first and last lines low in pitch, middle lines high) is characteristic of traditional English folk music. A more recent similarly incisive send-up of folk music, this time American in origin, is the film ''[[A Mighty Wind]]'' by [[Christopher Guest]] and [[Eugene Levy]].
In the [[magazine]] ''fRoots'' there was a long-running [[parody]] of [[the English Folk Dance and Song Society]] (EFDSS). They were called "Dance Earnestly and Forget About Song Society" (DEAFASS). DEAFASS supporters favored the [[accordion]] over the [[melodeon]] and the [[string bass]] over the [[electric bass]].
Another instance of pastiche is the notoriously well-known theme song for the television show ''[[Gilligan's Island]]'' (music by [[George Wyle]], lyrics by [[Sherwood Schwartz]]). This tune is also folk-like in character, and in fact is written in a traditional folk [[mode (music)|mode]] (modes are a type of [[musical scale]]); the mode of "Gilligan's Island" is ambiguous between Dorian and Aeolian. The lyrics begin with the traditional folk device in which the singer invites his hearers to listen to the tale that follows. Moreover, two of the stanzas repeat the final short line, a common device in English folk stanzas. However, the raising of the key by a semitone with each new verse is an unmistakable trait of [[popular music|commercial music]] and never occurred in the original folk tradition.
Folk music is easy to [[parody]] because it is, at present, a [[popular music]] genre that relies on a traditional music genre. As such, it is likely to lack the sophistication and glamour that attach to other forms of popular music. Folk music satire ranges from the worst excesses of [[Rambling Syd Rumpo]] and [[Bill Oddie]] to the deft and subtle artistry of [[Sid Kipper]], [[Eric Idle]] and [[Tom Lehrer]]. Even "serious" folk musicians are not averse to poking fun at the form from time to time, for example [[Martin Carthy|Martin Carthy's]] devastating rendition of "All the Hard Cheese of Old England" (written by [[Les Barker]]), to the tune of "All the Hard Times of Old England", [[Robb Johnson]]'s "Lack of Jolly Ploughboy," and more recently "I'm Sending an E-mail to Santa" by the [[Yorkshire]]-based harmony group [[Artisan (group)|Artisan]]. Other musicians have been known to take the tune of a traditional folk song and add their own words, often humourous, or on a similar-sounding yet different subject; these include [[The Wurzels]] and [[Dr. Busker|The Incredible Dr. Busker]].
[[Filk music]] is a closely related musical genre which originated as parodies of folk songs, and parody remains a dominant theme of the style. It is evolving into a true folk tradition, however, with songs learned orally that are undergoing the "folk process" of change in melody and text.
'''Folkies''' is the popular term for folk music enthusiasts.
While the term itself is neutral, and is used by some folk music enthusiasts in an informal and friendly manner, it has at times been used by the [[Mass media|popular press]] at least since the late 1950s, as part of a light-hearted [[beatnik]] stereotype.
==Media==
{{multi-listen start}} |
er, and detonated at one end. Data are collected concerning the rate of radial expansion of the cylinder and maximum cylinder wall velocity. This also establishes the [[Gurney constant]] or 2''E''.
* '''Cylinder [[fragmentation]] test.''' A standard steel cylinder is charged with explosive and fired in a sawdust pit. The fragments are collected and the size distribution analyzed.
* '''[[Detonation]] [[pressure]] (Chapman-Jouguet).''' Detonation pressure data derived from measurements of shock waves transmitted into water by the detonation of cylindrical explosive charges of a standard size.
* '''Determination of critical diameter.''' This test establishes the minimum physical size a charge of a specific explosive must be to sustain its own detonation wave. The procedure involves the detonation of a series of charges of different diameters until difficulty in detonation wave propagation is observed.
* '''[[Infinite|Infinity]] diameter detonation velocity.''' Detonation velocity is dependent on landing density (c), charge diameter, and grain size. The hydrodynamic theory of detonation used in predicting explosive phenomena does not include diameter of the charge, and therefore a detonation velocity, for an imaginary charge of infinite diameter. This procedure requires a series of charges of the same density and physical structure, but different diameters, to be fired and the resulting detonation velocities extrapolated to predict the detonation velocity of a charge of infinite diameter.
* '''Pressure versus scaled distance.''' A charge of specific size is detonated and its pressure effects measured at a standard distance. The values obtained are compared with that for TNT.
* '''Impulse versus scaled distance.''' A charge of specific size is detonated and its impulse (the area under the pressure-time curve) measured versus distance. The results are tabulated and expressed in TNT equivalent.
* '''Relative bubble energy (RBE).''' A 5 to 50 kg charge is detonated in water and piezoelectric gauges are used to measure peak pressure, time constant, impulse, and energy.
::The RBE may be defined as ''K''<sub>''x''</sub> 3
::RBE = ''K''<sub>''s''</sub>
::where ''K'' = bubble expansion period for experimental (''x'') or standard (''s'') charge.
===Brisance===
{{main|Brisance}}
In addition to strength, explosives display a second characteristic, which is their shattering effect or brisance (from the French meaning to "break"), which is distinguished from their total work capacity. This characteristic is of practical importance in determining the effectiveness of an explosion in fragmenting shells, bomb casings, [[grenade]]s, and the like. The rapidity with which an explosive reaches its peak pressure is a measure of its brisance. Brisance values are primarily employed in France and Russia.
The sand crush test is commonly employed to determine the relative brisance in comparison to TNT. No single test is capable of directly comparing the explosive properties of two or more compounds; it is important to examine the data from several such tests (sand crush, trauzl, and so forth) in order to gauge relative brisance. True values for comparison will require field experiments.
===Density===
[[Density]] of loading refers to the mass of an explosive per unit volume. Several methods of loading are available, and the one used is determined by the characteristics of the explosive. The methods available include pellet loading, cast loading, and press loading. Dependent upon the method employed, an average density of the loaded charge can be obtained that is within 80-99% of the theoretical maximum density of the explosive. High load density can reduce [[sensitivity]] by making the [[mass]] more [[resistant]] to [[internal]] [[friction]]. However, if density is increased to the extent that individual [[crystals]] are crushed, the explosive may become more sensitive. Increased load density also permits the use of more explosive, thereby increasing the power of the [[warhead]].
===Volatility===
[[Volatility]], or the readiness with which a substance [[vaporize]]s, is an undesirable characteristic in military explosives. Explosives must be no more than slightly volatile at the temperature at which they are loaded or at their highest storage temperature. Excessive volatility often results in the development of pressure within rounds of ammunition and separation of mixtures into their constituents. Stability, as mentioned before, is the ability of an explosive to stand up under storage conditions without deteriorating. Volatility affects the chemical composition of the explosive such that a marked reduction in stability may occur, which results in an increase in the danger of handling. Maximum allowable volatility is 2 ml of gas evolved in 48 hours.
===Hygroscopicity===
The introduction of [[moisture]] into an explosive is highly undesirable since it reduces the sensitivity, strength, and velocity of detonation of the explosive. [[Hygroscopicity]] is used as a measure of a material's moisture-absorbing tendencies. Moisture affects explosives adversely by acting as an inert material that absorbs heat when vaporized, and by acting as a solvent medium that can cause undesired chemical reactions. Sensitivity, strength, and velocity of detonation are reduced by inert materials that reduce the continuity of the explosive mass. When the moisture content evaporates during detonation, cooling occurs, which reduces the temperature of reaction. Stability is also affected by the presence of moisture since moisture promotes decomposition of the explosive and, in addition, causes corrosion of the explosive's metal container. For all of these reasons, hygroscopicity must be negligible in military explosives.
===Toxicity===
Due to their chemical structure, most explosives are toxic to some extent. Since the toxic effect may vary from a mild headache to serious damage of internal organs, care must be taken to limit toxicity in military explosives to a minimum. Any explosive of high toxicity is unacceptable for military use. Explosive product gases are also toxic.
==Measurement of chemical explosive reaction==
The development of new and improved types of ammunition requires a continuous program of research and development. Adoption of an explosive for a particular use is based upon both proving ground and service tests. Before these tests, however, preliminary estimates of the characteristics of the explosive are made. The principles of [[thermochemistry]] are applied for this process.
Thermochemistry is concerned with the changes in internal energy, principally as heat, in chemical reactions. An explosion consists of a series of reactions, highly exothermic, involving decomposition of the ingredients and recombination to form the products of explosion. Energy changes in explosive reactions are calculated either from known chemical laws or by analysis of the products.
For most common reactions, tables based on previous investigations permit rapid calculation of energy changes. Products of an explosive remaining in a closed [[calorimetric bomb]] (a constant-volume explosion) after cooling the bomb back to room temperature and pressure are rarely those present at the instant of maximum temperature and pressure. Since only the final products may be analyzed conveniently, indirect or theoretical methods are often used to determine the maximum temperature and pressure values.
Some of the important characteristics of an explosive that can be determined by such theoretical computations are:
* Oxygen balance
* Heat of explosion or reaction
* Volume of products of explosion
* Potential of the explosive
===Oxygen balance (OB%)===
[[Oxygen balance]] is an expression that is used to indicate the degree to which an explosive can be oxidized. If an explosive molecule contains just enough oxygen to convert all of its carbon to carbon dioxide, all of its hydrogen to water, and all of its metal to metal oxide with no excess, the molecule is said to have a zero oxygen balance. The molecule is said to have a positive oxygen balance if it contains more oxygen than is needed and a negative oxygen balance if it contains less oxygen than is needed. The sensitivity, strength, and brisance of an explosive are all somewhat dependent upon oxygen balance and tend to approach their maximums as oxygen balance approaches zero.
The oxygen balance (OB) is calculated from the empirical formula of a compound in percentage of oxygen required for complete conversion of carbon to carbon dioxide, hydrogen to water, and metal to metal oxide.
The procedure for calculating oxygen balance in terms of 100 grams of the explosive material is to determine the number of moles of oxygen that are excess or deficient for 100 grams of a compound.
:<math>OB\% = \frac{-1600}{Mol. wt. of compound} \times (2X + (Y/2) + M - Z)</math>
where
''X'' = number of atoms of carbon, ''Y'' = number of atoms of hydrogen, ''Z'' = number of atoms of oxygen, and ''M'' = number of atoms of metal (metallic oxide produced).
In the case of TNT (C<sub>6</sub>H<sub>2</sub>(NO<sub>2</sub>)<sub>3</sub>CH<sub>3</sub>),
Molecular weight = 227.1
''X'' = 7 (number of carbon atoms)
''Y'' = 5 (number of hydrogen atoms)
''Z'' = 6 (number of oxygen atoms)
Therefore
:<math>OB\% = \frac{-1600}{227.1} \times (14 + 2.5 - 6)</math>
:OB% = -74% for TNT
Because sensitivity, brisance, and strength are properties resulting from a complex explosive chemical reaction, a simple relationship such as oxygen balance cannot be depended upon to yield universally consistent results. When using oxygen balance to predict properties of one explosive relative to another, it is to be expected that one with an oxygen balance closer to zero will be the more brisant, powerful, and sensitive; however, many exceptions to t |
lt from the probabilities inherent in atoms that found themselves in favorable circumstances. For example, Spencer concerned himself with explaining how human culture and civilization would result from mere probabilities inherent in favorable circumstances even in the absence of a Creator's plan for how people should live. A Creator was not required to explain civilization, order, ethics, law, harmony, or beauty. Accordingly in 1851, eight years before Darwin's First Edition of [[Origin of Species]], Spencer wrote: "[C]ivilization no longer appears to be a regular unfolding after a specific plan; but seems rather a development of man's latent capabilities under the action of favourable circumstances; which favourable circumstances, mark, were certain some time or other to occur. Those complex influences underlying the higher orders of natural phenomena, but more especially those underlying the organic world, work in subordination to the law of probabilities." [http://oll.libertyfund.org/Texts/LFBooks/Spencer0236/SocialStatics/0331_Bk.html]
Like Spencer, [[Thomas Huxley]] concerned himself with explaining how a world of sunlight, seas, rocks, gases, and trace minerals without a Creator could generate the full span of life, intelligence, and civilization. And according to Huxley, he argued often with Spencer about what mechanism could cause the "transmutation" from one type of animal to another, but Spencer could not provide a convincing mechanism. And in Huxley's words, "even my friend's rare dialectic skill and copiousness of illustration could not drive me from my agnostic position. I took my stand upon two grounds: firstly, that up to that time, the evidence in favor of transmutation was wholly insufficient; and, secondly, that no suggestion respecting the causes of the transmutation assumed, which had been made, was in any way adequate to explain the phenomena." [http://aleph0.clarku.edu/huxley/Book/Recep.html]
According to Huxley, he could not believe the creationists, because they had no convincing evidence. "And, by way of being perfectly fair, I had exactly the same answer to give to the evolutionists of 1851-8." [http://aleph0.clarku.edu/huxley/Book/Recep.html]
But according to Huxley, Darwin's 1859 ''Origin of Species'' provided the first explanation that was better than creation. "That which we were looking for and could not find, was a hypothesis respecting the origin of known organic forms, which assumed the operation of no causes but such as could be proved to be actually at work. We wanted, not to pin our faith to that or any other speculation, but to get hold of clear and definite conceptions which could be brought face to face with facts and have their validity tested. The 'Origin' provided us with the working hypothesis we sought." [http://aleph0.clarku.edu/huxley/Book/Recep.html]
Not surprisingly, when Huxley tried to explain Darwin's working hypothesis to creationists, he encountered interesting resistance to examining reality. One observer noted the following event where Huxley in 1860 attempted to get the audience to deal with the empirical data on "Origins."
:I was happy enough to be present on the memorable occasion at Oxford when Mr Huxley bearded Bishop Wilberforce. There were so many of us that were eager to hear that we had to adjourn to the great library of the Museum. I can still hear the American accents of Dr Draper's opening address, when he asked `Are we a fortuitous concourse of atoms?' and his discourse I seem to remember somewhat dry. Then the Bishop rose, and in a light scoffing tone, florid and he assured us there was nothing in the idea of evolution; rock-pigeons were what rock-pigeons had always been. Then, turning to his antagonist with a smiling insolence, he begged to know, was it through his grandfather or his grandmother that he claimed his descent from a monkey? On this Mr Huxley slowly and deliberately arose. A slight tall figure stern and pale, very quiet and very grave, he stood before us, and spoke those tremendous words - words which no one seems sure of now, nor I think, could remember just after they were spoken, for their meaning took away our breath, though it left us in no doubt as to what it was. He was not ashamed to have a monkey for his ancestor; but he would be ashamed to be connected with a man who used great gifts to obscure the truth. No one doubted his meaning and the effect was tremendous. One lady fainted and had to carried out: I, for one, jumped out of my seat; and when in the evening we met at Dr Daubeney's, every one was eager to congratulate the hero of the day. I remember that some naïve person wished it could come over again; and Mr Huxley, with the look on his face of the victor who feels the cost of victory, put us aside saying, 'Once in a life-time is enough, if not too much.'
There are also other versions of this same event from other observers who claimed to have been there. [http://users.ox.ac.uk/~jrlucas/legend.html]
== Evolutionism from 1869 to 1875 ==
[[Image:Huxley - Mans Place in Nature.jpg|right|300px|thumb|The juxtaposition of slightly different anatomical forms, such as this illustration of ape and human skeletons from Huxley's ''Evidence as to Man's Place in Nature'', has been a common rhetorical device to illustration evolution used from the 19th century to the present.]]
In 1869, [[Thomas Huxley]] used the term ''evolutionism'' to refer to gradual [[geological]] processes when he wrote of the "three schools of geological speculation which I have termed [[Catastrophism]], [[Uniformitarianism]], and Evolutionism." (''Scientific Opinion,'' Apr. 28, 1869, p. 487/1)
By 1872, in some scientific circles, the term ''evolutionism'' was used only to refer to life-form processes such as [[natural selection]]. Under this emerging usage, the term ''evolutionism'' specifically did not apply to either geological processes or to the origin of life as in [[abiogenesis]]. Thus, one reviewer wrote, "Evolutionism does not propose to explain the unfolding of life out of dead matter." (E. Fry, ''Spectator,'' Sep. 21, 1872, p. 1201)
Though Darwin had excluded the words ''evolution'' and ''evolutionist'' from the first five editions of ''Origin of Species,'' he imported both of the terms ''evolution'' and ''evolutionist'' into his Sixth Edition in 1872, as illustrated in the following examples.
* "If numerous species, belonging to the same genera or families, have really started into life at once, the fact would be fatal to the theory of evolution through natural selection."
* "It is admitted by most evolutionists that mammals are descended from a marsupial form; and if so, the mammary glands will have been at first developed within the marsupial sack." [http://www.gutenberg.net/etext99/otoos610.txt]
In 1872, ''[[The Times]]'' published a review of Darwin's book ''The Expression of the Emotions.'' Darwin attributed much of the human emotional capability to an inheritance from the common ancestors of today's animals: "A fierce sneer, in which the upper lip is retracted and the canine tooth exposed on one side alone, Mr. Darwin ventures to say, 'reveals man's animal descent.'" The reviewer finds fault with the mechanical determinism in Darwin's analysis that attributes too much to "our early progenitors" and not enough to the person's consciousness. Then the reviewer says: "His [Darwin's] thorough-going 'evolutionism' tends to eliminate from the developed human form any relations beyond those of the bare mechanism of animal existence." (''The Times'', Dec. 13, 1872; pg. 4, col A)
During this period, ''evolutionism'' was used to label scientific theories that explained the presence of [[humans]] on this earth without assistance from [[divine intervention]]. For example, one opponent of Darwin's theory of evolution said, "Evolutionism . . . excluded creation and theism." (Sir John W. Dawson, The Story of the Earth and Man (1873), p. 348)
== Evolutionism 1875 to the present ==
* Summary of the Second, Fifth Chapter of Robert Carneiro's ''Evolutionism in Cultural Anthropology: A Critical History''
=== Cultural anthropology ===
{{main|Cultural evolutionism}}
* [[Lewis Henry Morgan]]. Human civilizations develop linearly in a "sequence of progress" from [[Noble savage|savagery]], through [[Barbarian|barbarism]], to finally [[civilization]]; see [[Cultural evolution#History of the theory of cultural evolution|Linear progress]] (Lewis Henry Morgan, Ancient Society, 1877)
* [[Neo-evolutionism]]
=== Sociology ===
{{main2|Social Darwinism|Social evolutionism}}
* Sanderson, Stephen K. (1997). "Evolutionism and its Critics." Journal of World-Systems Research 3: 94 - 114. [http://jwsr.ucr.edu/archive/vol3/v3n1a3.php]
* Sanderson, Stephen K. (1990). ''Social evolutionism: A critical history.'' Oxford: Basil Blackwell.
{{sect-stub}}
=== History of ideas ===
* [[Arthur Lovejoy]]
=== Marxist thought ===
There is no direct connection between Marxist thought and Natural Selection theory; they consider entirely different subject matters, the former is concerned with a supposedly superior form of social structure, the latter with the evolution of animal and animal genetics over time.
However, in the [[Soviet Union]], the scientific theory of evolution was neglected in favor of [[Lysenkoism]], a variant of [[Lamarckism]], which says that acquired traits are inherited to the next generation.
''Main article:'' [[Dialectical materialism]]
=== Secular Judaism ===
* [[Judaism#Jewish_identity_in_modern_Israel|Judaism]], the secularization of [[Messianism]] into two [[optimism|optimistic]] views of progress: 1) economics of [[socialism]] or 2) politics of [[Zionism]]; see [[Judaism#Jewish_identity_in_modern_Israel|Judaism]]
=== Modern controversies ===
Today, the scienti |
alth care]], [[post-secondary education]] and regional transportation infrastructure such as [[airports]], fishing [[harbour]]s, [[seaport]]s, and [[rail transport|railways]]. Liberals only managed to hold onto seats in Prince Edward Island, and certain parts of Newfoundland and Labrador, and New Brunswick, while being shut out of Nova Scotia entirely for the second time in history. (The only other time being [[Canadian federal election, 1958|Diefenbaker sweep]])
The Maritimes is currently represented in the Canadian Parliament by 25 Members of the House of Commons (Nova Scotia - 11, New Brunswick - 10, Prince Edward Island - 4) and 24 Senators (Nova Scotia & New Brunswick - 10 each, Prince Edward Island - 4). This level of representation was established at the time of Confederation when the Maritimes had a much larger proportion of the national population. The comparatively large population growth of western and central Canada during the immigration boom of the [[20th century]] has reduced the Maritimes' proportion of the national population to less than 10%, resulting in an over-representation in Parliament, with some federal ridings having fewer than 35,000 people, compared to central and western Canada where ridings typically contain 100,000-120,000 people.
The Canadian Senate is structured along regional lines, giving an equal number of seats (24) to the Maritimes, Ontario, Quebec, and western Canada, in addition to the later entry of Newfoundland and Labrador, as well as the three territories. Enshrined in the Constitution, this model was developed to ensure that no area of the country is able to exert undue influence in the Senate. The Maritimes, with its much smaller proportion of the national population (compared to the time of Confederation) also have an over-representation in the Senate, particularly compared to the population growth of Ontario and the western provinces. This has led to calls to reform the Senate; however such a move would entail constitutional changes, something which is unlikely in the near future.
Another factor related to the number of Senate seats is that a federal court decision in the early [[20th century]] mandated that no province can have fewer Members of Parliament than it has Senators. This court decision resulted from a legal challenge by the Government of Prince Edward Island after that province's number of MPs was proposed to change from 4 to 3, accounting for its declining proportion of the national population at that time. When PEI entered Confederation in 1873, it was accorded 6 MPs and 4 Senators; however this was reduced to 4 MPs by the early [[1900s]]. Senators having been appointed for life at this time, these coveted seats rarely went unfilled for a long period of time anywhere in Canada. As a result, PEI's challenge was accepted by the federal court and its level of federal representation was secured. In the aftermath of the [[1989]] budget which saw a fillibuster by Liberal Senators in attempt to kill legislation creating the [[Goods and Services Tax]], Prime Minister [[Brian Mulroney]] "stacked" the Senate by creating additional seats in several provinces across Canada, including New Brunswick; however, there was no attempt by these provinces to increase the number of MPs to reflect this change in Senate representation.
==History==
===Pre-history===
Following the northerly retreat of glaciers at the end of the [[Wisconsin glaciation]] over ten thousand years ago, human settlement by [[Native Americans in the United States|Native Americans]] or [[First Nations]] began in the Maritimes with [[Paleo-Indians]] during the ''Early Period'', ending around six thousand years ago.
The ''Middle Period'', starting six thousand years ago, and ending three thousand years ago, was dominated by rising sea levels from the melting glaciers in polar regions. This is also when what is called the ''Laurentian tradition'' started among [[Archaic Indians]], existing First Nations peoples of the time. Evidence of Archaic Indian burial mounds and other ceremonial sites existing in the St. John River valley has been uncovered.
The ''Late Period'' extended from three thousand years ago until first contact with European settlers and was dominated by the organization of First Nations peoples into the [[Algonquian]]-influenced [[Abenaki]] Nation which existed largely in present-day interior Vermont, New Hampshire, and Maine, and the[[Mi'kmaq]] Nation which inhabited all of Nova Scotia, Prince Edward Island, eastern New Brunswick and the southern Gaspé. The primarily agrarian [[Maliseet]] Nation settled throughout the St. John River and [[Allagash River]] valleys of present-day New Brunswick and Maine. The [[Passamaquoddy]] Nation inhabited the northwestern coastal regions of the present-day [[Bay of Fundy]]. The Mi'kmaq Nation is also assumed to have crossed the present-day [[Cabot Strait]] at around this time to settle on the south coast of [[Newfoundland]] but were in a minority position compared to the [[Beothuk]] Nation.
===Pre-history - 1604===
The Maritimes was the first area in Canada to be settled by Europeans. There is speculation that [[Viking]] explorers discovered and settled in the [[Vinland|Vinland region]] around [[1000]] [[Anno Domini|AD]], which is when the [[L'Anse aux Meadows]] settlement in [[Newfoundland and Labrador]] has been dated, and it is possible that further exploration was made into the present-day Maritimes and northeastern United States. There have also been undocumented reports of other explorers having sighted the Maritimes in the form of [[Ireland|Irish]] [[Monks]] (before 1000 AD) and of [[Scotland|Scotland's]] [[Henry Sinclair, 1st Earl of Orkney|Prince Henry Sinclair]] in [[1398]].
Both [[Giovanni Caboto]] and [[Giovanni da Verrazano]] are reliably reported to have sailed in or near Maritime waters during their voyages of discovery for [[England]] and [[France]] respectively. Several [[Portugal|Portuguese]] explorers have also documented various parts of the Maritimes, namely [[Diego Homem]]. However, it was French explorer [[Jacques Cartier]] who made the first detailed reconnaissance of the region for a European power, and in so doing, claimed the region for the King of France. Cartier was followed by nobleman [[Pierre Dugua, Sieur de Monts]] who was accompanied by explorer/cartographer [[Samuel de Champlain]] in a [[1604]] expedition where they established the second permanent European settlement in North America, following [[Spain|Spain's]] settlement at [[St. Augustine, Florida|St. Augustine]]. Champlain's settlement at [[Saint Croix Island (Maine)|Saint Croix Island]], later moved to [[Habitation at Port-Royal|Port-Royal]], survived where the ill-fated English settlement at [[Roanoke Colony|Roanoke]] did not, and pre-dated the more successful English settlement at [[Jamestown, Virginia|Jamestown]] by three years. Champlain went on to greater fame as the founder of [[New France]] which comprises much of the present-day lower [[Saint Lawrence River]] valley in the province of [[Quebec]].
===1604 - 1713===
Champlain's success in the region, which came to be called ''[[Acadia|Acadie]]'', led to the fertile tidal marshes surrounding the southeastern and northeastern reaches of the [[Bay of Fundy]] being populated by French immigrants who called themselves ''[[Acadians|Acadien]]''. Acadians eventually built small settlements throughout what is today mainland Nova Scotia and New Brunswick, as well as Ile-Saint-Jean (Prince Edward Island), Ile-Royale (Cape Breton Island), and other shorelines of the Gulf of St. Lawrence in present-day Newfoundland and Labrador, and Quebec. Acadian settlements had primarily agrarian economies, although there were many early examples of Acadian fishing settlements in southwestern Nova Scotia and in Ile-Royale, as well as along the south and west coasts of [[Newfoundland]], the [[Gaspé|Gaspe Peninsula]], and the present-day [[Côte-Nord]] region of Quebec. It should be noted that most Acadian fishing activities were overshadowed by the comparatively enormous seasonal European fishing fleets based out of [[Newfoundland]] which took advantage of proximity to the [[Grand Banks]].
The growing English colonies along the American seaboard to the south, and various European wars between England and France during the [[17th century|17th]] and [[18th century|18th]] centuries saw Acadia, and Acadians at the centre of world-scale geopolitical forces. In [[1613]], Virginian raiders captured Port Royale and in [[1621]] Acadia, that being most of present-day Atlantic Canada, [[Anticosti Island]] and the Gaspe Peninsula, was ceded to [[Scotland|Scotland's]] [[William Alexander, Earl of Stirling|Sir William Alexander]] who renamed it ''Nova Scotia''. By [[1632]], Acadia was returned from Scotland to France under the ''Treaty of [[Saint-Germain-en-Laye]]'', and the Port Royale settlement was moved to the site of nearby present-day [[Annapolis Royal, Nova Scotia|Annapolis Royal]]. More French settlers, primarily from the [[Vienne]], [[Normandie]], and [[Brittany]] regions of [[France]], continued to populate the colony of Acadia during the latter part of the [[17th century|17th]] and early part of the [[18th century|18th]] centuries. Important settlements also began in the [[Tantramar Marshes|Beaubassin]] region of the present-day [[Isthmus of Chignecto]], and in the [[St. John River]] valley, and settlers began to establish communities on Ile-Saint-Jean and Ile-Royale as well.
In [[1654]], [[New England]] raiders attacked Acadian settlements on the [[Annapolis Basin]], starting a period of uncertainty for Acadians throughout the English constitutional crises under [[Oliver Cromwell]], and only being properly resolved under the [[Treaty of Breda]] in [[1667]] when France's claim to the region was reaffirmed. Colonial administration by France throughout the history of Acadia was contemptuous at best. France's prio |
n</title>
<id>5455</id>
<revision>
<id>38334398</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-05T17:57:00Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Eskimbot</username>
<id>477460</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>robot Adding: fr</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The Cameroonian [[military]] generally has been an apolitical force dominated by [[civilian control of the military|civilian control]]. Traditional dependence on the [[France|French]] defense capability, although reduced, continues to be the case as French military advisers remain closely involved in preparing the Cameroonian forces for deployment to the contested [[Bakassi Peninsula]]. The armed forces number 26,000-27,000 personnel in ground, air, and naval forces, the majority being the army and naval ground forces.
'''Military branches:'''
Army, Navy (includes Naval Infantry), Air Force, National Gendarmerie, Presidential Guard
'''Military manpower - military age:'''
18 years of age
'''Military manpower - availability:'''
<br>''males age 15-49:''
3,653,548 (2000 est.)
'''Military manpower - fit for military service:'''
<br>''males age 15-49:''
1,847,871 (2000 est.)
'''Military manpower - reaching military age annually:'''
<br>''males:''
169,661 (2000 est.)
'''Military expenditures - dollar figure:'''
$155 million (FY98/99)
'''Military expenditures - percent of GDP:'''
1.4% (FY98/99)
==See also==
*[[Cameroon]]
[[Category:Military of Cameroon| ]]
[[fr:Forces militaires camerounaises]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Foreign relations of Cameroon</title>
<id>5456</id>
<revision>
<id>37154290</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-29T01:59:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Wikiacc</username>
<id>84893</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>{{Africa in topic|Foreign relations of}}</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Politics of Cameroon}}
[[Cameroon]]'s noncontentious, low-profile approach to foreign relations puts it squarely in the middle of other [[Africa]]n and developing country states on major issues. It supports the principles of [[noninterference]] in the affairs of third world countries and increased assistance to underdeveloped countries. Cameroon is an active participant in the [[United Nations]], where its voting record demonstrates its commitment to causes that include international [[peacekeeping]], the [[rule of law]], [[environmentalism|environmental protection]], and [[Third World]] economic development. In the UN and other [[human rights]] fora, Cameroon's non-confrontational approach has generally led it to avoid criticizing other countries.
Cameroon enjoys good relations with the [[United States]] and other developed countries. It has particularly close ties with [[France]], with whom it has numerous military, economic, and cultural agreements. The [[People's Republic of China]] has a number of health and infrastructure projects underway in Cameroon. Cameroon enjoys generally good relations with its African neighbors, except for [[Nigeria]], with whom it is engaged in a sporadic armed conflict in the oil-rich [[Bakassi Peninsula]]. Cameroon has repeatedly demonstrated its preference for resolving this conflict through peaceful legal means and has submitted its case to the [[International Court of Justice]]. It supports UN peacekeeping activities in [[Central Africa]].
'''Disputes - international:'''
delimitation of international boundaries in the vicinity of [[Lake Chad]], the lack of which led to border incidents in the past, is complete and awaits ratification by Cameroon, [[Chad]], [[Niger]], and [[Nigeria]]; dispute with Nigeria over land and maritime boundaries around the [[Bakasi Peninsula]] and Lake Chad is currently before the [[ICJ]], as is a dispute with [[Equatorial Guinea]] over the exclusive [[maritime economic zone]]
{{Africa in topic|Foreign relations of}}
[[Category:Government of Cameroon]]
[[Category:Politics of Cameroon]]
[[Category:Foreign relations by country|Cameroon]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Civilization/video game</title>
<id>5457</id>
<revision>
<id>15903664</id>
<timestamp>2003-09-07T21:28:56Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Dissident</username>
<id>42935</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Civilization (computer game)]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Cape Verde</title>
<id>5458</id>
<revision>
<id>42118925</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T23:13:16Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Aether8m</username>
<id>515920</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''Republic of Cape Verde''' or '''Cape Verde''' ([[Portuguese language|Portuguese]]: ''Cabo Verde'', [[Pronunciation|pron.]] [[IPA]] /{{IPA|'ka.bu 'veɾ.d(ɨ)}}/) is a [[republic]] located on an [[archipelago]] in the [[Macaronesia]] [[ecoregion]] of the North [[Atlantic Ocean]], off the western coast of [[Africa]]. The previously-uninhabited islands were discovered and [[colonized]] by the [[Portugal|Portuguese]] in the [[15th century]]; they subsequently became a trading centre for African [[slavery|slaves]]. Most Cape Verdeans descend from both groups.
"Cape Verde" is named for [[Cap-Vert]], now in [[Senegal]], the westernmost point of Africa.
{{Infobox_Country <!-- If editing infobox, please update [[Template:Country infobox data Cape Verde]] also -->
|native_name = '''República de Cabo Verde'''
|common_name = Cape Verde
|image_flag = Flag of Cape Verde.svg
|image_coat = Cape verde coa.png
|image_map = LocationCapeVerde.png
|national_motto = Unity, Work, Progress
|national_anthem = [[Cântico da Liberdade]]
|official_languages = [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]] (official) and nine [[Portuguese-based creole languages|Portuguese Creoles]]
|capital = [[Praia, Cape Verde|Praia]]
|latd=14 |latm=55 |latNS=N |longd=23 |longm=31 |longEW=W
|largest_city = [[Praia, Cape Verde|Praia]]
|government_type = Republic
|leader_titles = [[President of Cape Verde|President]]<br>[[Prime Minister of Cape Verde|Prime Minister]]
|leader_names =[[Pedro Pires]]<br>[[José Maria Neves]]
|area_rank = 165th
|area_magnitude = 1 E9
|area= 4,033
|areami²= 1,557 <!-- Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]] -->
|percent_water = Negligible
|population_estimate = 418,224 <!-- cia.gov -->
|population_estimate_rank = 164th <!-- cia.gov -->
|population_estimate_year = July 2005 <!-- cia.gov -->
|population_census = 401,343
|population_census_year = 2001
|population_density = 101
|population_densitymi² = 262 <!-- Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]] -->
|population_density_rank = 71st
|GDP_PPP = $2.99 billion <!-- cia.gov -->
|GDP_PPP_rank = 171st
|GDP_PPP_year= 2005
|GDP_PPP_per_capita = $5,858
|GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 96th
|sovereignty_type = [[Independence]]
|established_events = from [[Portugal]]
|established_dates = Recognized [[July 5]], [[1975]]
|HDI = 0.721
|HDI_rank = 105th
|HDI_year = 2003
|HDI_category = <font color="#FFCC00">medium</font>
|currency = [[Cape Verdean escudo]]
|currency_code = CVE
|country_code =
|time_zone =
|utc_offset = -1
|time_zone_DST =
|utc_offset_DST =
|cctld = [[.cv]]
|calling_code = 238
|footnotes =
}}
== History ==
''Main article: [[History of Cape Verde]]''
Cape Verde was uninhabited when the [[Portugal|Portuguese]] arrived in [[1456]], and the islands were thus made part of the Portuguese empire. Due to its location off the coast of [[Africa]], Cape Verde became an important port, and was a major center of the slave trade.
In [[1975]], the islands achieved independence, partially due to the efforts of the African Party for the Independence of Guinea-Bissau and Cape Verde ([[Partido Africano da Independência da Guiné e Cabo Verde|PAIGC]]). After independence, the PAIGC attempted to unite Cape Verde and [[Guinea-Bissau]] into one nation, the PAIGC controlling both governments, but a coup in the latter nation in [[1980]] ended these plans. In Cape Verde itself the PAICV (affiliated with the PAIGC) governed until elections were held in [[1991]] that resulted in a change of government. The PAICV was re-elected in [[2001]].
External Links:
* [http://virtualcapeverde.net/news2/modules/Downloads/docs/cv_chronological_references.htm#_1900-1997_1 CABO VERDE CHRONOLOGICAL REFERENCES ]
== Politics ==
[[Image:CABRAL_2.jpg|frame|left|Amílcar Cabral]]''Main article: [[Politics of Cape Verde]]''
The government of Cape Verde is based on a Constitution that was established in [[1980]]. Elections are held for both the [[Prime Minister]] and [[President]], who both govern for 5-year terms. Members of the General Assembly are elected as well, and they appoint the Supreme Court along with the President and Prime Minister.
See also: [[President of Cape Verde]], [[symbols of Cape Verde|National symbols]]
<br clear="all"/>
== Geography ==
[[Image:CapeVerde.png|right]]
''Main article: [[Geography of Cape Verde]]''
Cape Verde is an [[archipelago]] off the coast of Africa at 15.02N, 23.34W. It is formed by 10 main islands and about 8 islets. The main islands are:
*[[Barlavento]]s (northern island group)
**[[Santo Antão]]
**[[São Vicente (disambiguation)|São Vicente]]
**[[Santa Luzia, Cape Verde|Santa Luzia]]
**[[São Nicolau]]
**[[Sal, Cape Verde|Sal]]
**[[Boa Vista, Cape Verde|Boa Vista]]
*[[Sotavento]]s (southern island group)
**[[Maio]]
**[[Santiago, Cape Verde|Santiago]]
**[[Fogo, Cape Verde|Fogo]]
**[[Brava, Cape Verde|Brava]]
Of these, only Santa Luzia and the five islets are uninhabited. Presently it is a Natural Reserve. All islands are volcanic, but an active volcano exists on one of the islands, Fogo. See [[Mount Fogo]].
The islets are [[Branco, Cape Verde|Branco]], [[Razo]].
== Municipalities ==
[[Image:Ca |
essfully tested a underwater setting device for long-liners which set the lines below the reach of vulnerable albatross species<ref>O'Toole, Decland & Molloy, Janice (2000) "Preliminary performance assessment of an underwater line setting device for pelagic longline fishing" ''New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research'' '''34''': 455-461. [http://www.rsnz.org/publish/nzjmfr/2000/36.pdf]</ref>. The use of some of these techniques in the [[Patagonian Toothfish]] fishery in the [[Falkland Islands]] is thought to have reduced the number of [[Black-browed Albatross]] taken by the fleet in the last 10 years<ref>Reid, A.T., Sullivan, B.J., Pompert,J., Enticott, J.W., Black, A.D., (2004) "Seabird mortality associated with Patagonian Toothfish (''Dissostichus eleginoides'') longliners in Falkland Islands waters." ''Emu'' '''104''': (4) 317-325.</ref>. Conservationists have also worked on the field of [[island restoration]], removing introduced species that threaten native wildlife, which protects albatrosses from introduced predators.
One important step towards protecting albatrosses and other [[seabird]] is the 2001 [[treaty]] the [[Agreement on the Conservation of Albatrosses and Petrels]], which came into force in 2004 and has been ratified by eight countries, [[Australia]], [[Ecuador]], [[New Zealand]], [[Spain]], [[South Africa]], [[France]], [[Peru]] and the [[United Kingdom]]. This treaty requires specific actions to be taken by these countries to reduce by-catch, pollution and remove introduced species from nesting islands. The treaty has also been signed but not ratified by another three countries, [[Argentina]], [[Brazil]] and [[Chile]].
==Species==
Current thinking divides the albatrosses into four genera. The number of species is a matter of some debate, the [[IUCN]] and [[BirdLife International]] among others recognise 21 species, other authorities retain the more traditional 14 species:
*[[Great albatrosses]] (''Diomedea'')
**[[Wandering Albatross]] '' D. exulans''
**[[Antipodean Albatross]] ''D. (exulans) antipodensis''
**[[Amsterdam Albatross]] ''D. amsterdamensis''
**[[Tristan Albatross]] ''D. (exulans) dabbenena''
**[[Northern Royal Albatross]] ''D. (epomorpha) sanfordi''
**[[Southern Royal Albatross]] ''D. epomophora''
*[[North Pacific albatross]]es (''Phoebastria'')
**[[Waved Albatross]] ''P. irrorata''
**[[Short-tailed Albatross]] ''P. albatrus''
**[[Black-footed Albatross]] ''P. nigripes''
**[[Laysan Albatross]] ''P. immutabilis''
*[[Mollymawk]]s (''Thalassarche'')
**[[Black-browed Albatross]] ''T. melanophris ''
**[[Campbell Albatross]] ''T. (melanophris) impavida''
**[[Shy Albatross]] ''T. cauta''
**[[Chatham Albatross]] ''T. (cauta) eremita''
**[[Salvin's Albatross]] ''T. (cauta) salvini''
**[[Grey-headed Albatross]] ''T. chrysostoma''
**[[Atlantic Yellow-nosed Albatross]] ''T. chlororhynchos''
**[[Indian Yellow-nosed Albatross]] ''T. (chlororhynchos) carteri''
**[[Buller's Albatross]] ''T. bulleri''
*[[Sooty albatross]]es (''Phoebetria'')
**[[Dark-mantled Sooty Albatross]] ''P. fusca''
**[[Light-mantled Sooty Albatross]] ''P. palpebrata''.
==References==
<references/>
==External links==
* [http://www.birdonline.org/birds/albatross.htm Albatross resources from Bird Online] (North America)
* [http://www.itis.usda.gov/servlet/SingleRpt/SingleRpt?search_topic=TSN&search_value=174514 ITIS] (Follows the AOU classification.)
* [http://web.uct.ac.za/depts/fitzpatrick/docs/listintro.html Roberts' VII Bird Species List] (South Africa.)
* [http://www.birdsaustralia.com.au/hanzab/HANZAB_spp_list.pdf HANZAB complete species list] (Handbook of Australian, New Zealand and Antarctic Birds.)
*[http://www.birdlife.net/action/campaigns/save_the_albatross/ Birdlife international Save the Albatross campaign]
* [http://www.acap.aq/ The Agreement for the Conservation of Albatrosses and Petrels (ACAP)]
* [http://www.montereybay.com/creagrus/albatrosses.html Albatross: Don Roberson's family page]
[[Category:Albatrosses|*]]
[[Category:Heraldic birds]]
[[Category:Seabirds]]
[[ar:قطرس]]
[[da:Albatrosser]]
[[de:Albatrosse]]
[[es:Albatros]]
[[fr:Diomedeinae]]
[[fy:Albatrossen]]
[[io:Albatroso]]
[[he:אלבטרוס לבן-כיפה]]
[[lt:Albatrosiniai]]
[[nl:Albatrossen]]
[[ja:アホウドリ亜科 (Sibley)]]
[[pl:Albatrosy]]
[[pt:Diomedeidae]]
[[fi:Albatrossit]]
[[sv:Albatrosser]]
[[tr:Albatros]]
[[uk:Альбатросові]]
[[zh:信天翁科]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Arachnophobia</title>
<id>1386</id>
<revision>
<id>41588408</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T09:19:56Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>213.130.122.51</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}
'''Arachnophobia''' is a [[specific phobia]], an abnormal fear of [[spider (animal)|spiders]]. It is among the most common phobias. The reactions of arachnophobics often seem irrational to others (and sometimes to sufferers themselves, as well). People with arachnophobia may stay away from any area they believe to be inhabited by numerous spiders or covered in spider webs. If they see a spider they may not enter the general vicinity until they overcome the panic attack that is often associated with it. Like most phobias the fear can be overcome by psychological treatments and through gradual exposure to the object. Another technique is 'flooding', in which the phobic person is suddenly exposed to a high intensity stimulus.
Arachnophobia is, in many cases, the result of a traumatizing encounter with spiders in one's early childhood, though the experience may not be remembered. Then, considering the extreme diversity of phobias, always inexplicable and sometimes exceedingly strange, (fear of carrot – as such and not as food – fear of glitter powder, and others.) One hypothesis states that while some phobias are the result of a traumatic event, most are the result of a random brain wiring that causes inexplicable fear at the sight of a seemingly innocuous thing or animal. The main phobias, such as arachnophobia, fear of spiders, [[claustrophobia]], stand out by their prevalence because they would have given over thousands of years a survival edge to sufferers and their offspring. Spiders, for instance, being relatively small, don’t fit the usual criteria for a threat in the animal kingdom where size is a key factor, but most species are [[Venom (poison)|venomous]], and some are lethal. Arachnophobics will spare no effort to make sure that their wherabouts are spider-free, hence reducing sharply the risk of being bitten.
==Reference==
*Stiemerling D. ''Analysis of a spider and monster phobia'', Z. Psychosom Med Psychoanal. 1973 Oct-Dec;19(4):327-45. (in German)
[[Category:Phobias]]
[[Category:Spiders]]
[[da:Araknofobi]]
[[de:Arachnophobie]]
[[eo:Araneofobio]]
[[fr:Arachnophobie]]
[[he:&#1488;&#1512;&#1499;&#1504;&#1493;&#1508;&#1493;&#1489;&#1497;&#1492;]]
[[nl:Arachnofobie]]
[[pl:Arachnofobia]]
[[pt:Aracnofobia]]
[[sl:arahnofobija]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Alabaster</title>
<id>1387</id>
<revision>
<id>40961906</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-24T03:31:53Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Dogears</username>
<id>733091</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* See also */ + category</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{| align=right
|[[image:alabaster.whole.600pix.jpg|thumb|200px|A modern uplighter lamp made completely from Italian alabaster (white and brown types). The base is 5 inches (13 cm) in diameter]]
|-
|[[image:alabaster.base.600pix.jpg|thumb|200px|Detail of base of alabaster lamp]]
|}
'''Alabaster''' (sometimes called '''satin spar''') is a name applied to varieties of two distinct [[mineral]]s: [[gypsum]] (a [[hydroxy|hydrous]] [[sulfur|sulfate]] of [[calcium]]) and the [[calcite]] (a [[carbonate]] of calcium). The former is the alabaster of the present day; the latter is generally the alabaster of the ancients.
The two kinds are readily distinguished from each other by their relative '''hardnesses'''. The gypsum kind is so soft as to be readily scratched by a finger-nail ([[Mohs scale of mineral hardness|hardness]] 1.5 to 2), while the calcite kind is too hard to be scratched in this way (hardness 3), though it does yield readily to a knife. Moreover, the calcite alabaster, being a [[carbonate]], effervesces on being touched with [[hydrochloric acid]], whereas the gypsum alabaster, when so treated, remains practically unaffected.
==Types==
=== Calcite Alabaster ===
This substance, the "alabaster" of the [[Bible]], is often termed ''Oriental alabaster'', since the early examples came from the [[Far East]]. The [[Greek language|Greek]] name ''alabastrites'' is said to be derived from the town of Alabastron, in [[Egypt]], where the stone was quarried, but the locality probably owed its name to the mineral; the origin of the mineral-name is obscure, and it has been suggested that it may have had an [[Arabic language|Arabic]] origin. This "Oriental" alabaster was highly esteemed for making small perfume-bottles or ointment vases called alabastra, and this has been conjectured to be a possible source of the name. Alabaster was also employed in Egypt for [[canopic jar]]s and various other sacred and sepulchral objects. A splendid [[sarcophagus]], sculptured in a single block of translucent calcite alabaster from Alabastron, is in the [[Soane Museum]], [[London]]. This was discovered by [[Giovanni Belzoni]] in [[1817]] in the tomb of [[Seti I]] near [[Thebes, Egypt|Thebes]]. It was purchased by Sir [[John Soane]], having previously been offered to the [[British Museum]].
When cut in thin sheets, alabaster is translucent enough to be used for small windows, and has been used so in [[medieval]] churches, especially in [[Italy]]. Large alabaster sheets are used extensively in the ''Cathed |
h de Maistre]] was the most influential spokesperson for counter-revolutionary and authoritarian conservatism, with the emphasis on monarchy as a guarantee of order in society.
==Schools of Conservatism==
===Cultural Conservatism===
[[Cultural Conservatism]] hopes to enshrine the received heritage of a successful nation or culture. The culture in question may be as large as [[Western culture]] or [[China|Chinese]] [[civilization]] or as small as that of [[Tibet]].
Cultural conservatives try to adapt norms handed down from the past. The norms may be romantic: the [[anti-metric movement]], demanding the retention of [[avoirdupois]] weights and measures in Britain, and opposing their replacement with the [[Metrication#United Kingdom|metric system]] is a classic example. They may be institutional: in the West this has included [[chivalry]] and [[feudalism]], as well as [[capitalism]], [[laicite]] and the [[rule of law]]. In the East, an example is the state examination system in China or widespread cultural tolerance in India. The norms may also be moral, according to [[social conservatism|social conservatives]]. For example, in some cultures such practices as homosexuality or abortion are thought to be wrong. And in other cultures women who expose their faces or limbs in public are considered immoral, and conservatives in those cultures often support laws to prohibit such practices. Other conservatives take a more positive approach, supporting good samaritan laws, or laws requiring public charity, if their
culture considers these acts moral.
Cultural conservatives often argue that old institutions have adapted to a particular place or culture and therefore ought to persevere. Depending on how universalizing (or skeptical) they are, cultural conservatives may or may not accept cultures that differ from their own. Many conservatives believe in a universal morality, but others will allow that moral codes may differ from nation to nation, and only try to support their moral code within their own culture. That is, a cultural conservative may doubt whether the broad ideals of French communities would be equally appropriate in Germany.
===Religious Conservatism===
Religious conservatives look to the receipt of special knowledge from a traditional source. Note that these values arrive external to their surrounding social order; religion opposes "the world," though it may be informed by the world. So religious conservatism, rather than considering local sources of tradition, defers to the officially recognised custodians of the spiritual, theological and legalistic framework considered to be special knowledge received so long ago. These custodians can be, depending on the religion in question, relatively centralized, such as the case of the Catholic church, for example, or relatively de-centralised as in the case of Islam and other religions where there is no single supreme authority equivalent to the Pope or Dalai Lama, but rather authority is distributed among a learned class or caste, leaving it to individual believers to choose their own spiritual leader based on their inclinations, capacities and personal needs. It is worth noting that the greater the degree of this de-centralisation, the greater the lack of a common, clearly elucidated position, which can give rise to often conflicting messages to the outside observer unfamiliar with the tradition in question.
This means religious conservatism may not use the word tradition quite like other conservatives. Tradition in some religious contexts does not invoke a historically informed evolution. Church tradition by definition (in some cases) cannot evolve because it derives tradition from an unchanging divine act. This does not mean that church tradition never adapts, but that any "changes" enacted after [[revelation]] are refinements rather than discontinuities. St. Paul illustrates this use of tradition in [[First Corinthians]]: "I have received from the Lord that which also I ''delivered'' unto you." The Latin word for ''delivered'' here is ''traditio''.
While some conservatives may be wary of government intervention into the private lives of citizens, even when that intervention is in support of traditional values, religious conservative movements in general tend to support such causes. The almost universal support by secular, Christian, Jewish, and Muslim conservatives for pro-life movements is the most prominent example.
Conservative governments influenced by religious conservatives may promote broad campaigns for a return to traditional values, such as the [[Back to Basics]] campaign of British premier [[John Major]]. In the [[European Union]], a conservative campaign sought to constitutionally specify certain conservative values in the proposed [[European Constitution]]. Most prominently, [[Pope John Paul II]] lobbied for inclusion of a reference to God, which was narrowly defeated.
Radical movements within established religious traditions illustrate the paradoxical method by which branches of religious conservatism can emerge that, rather than trying to preserve an existing, generally conservative, social order, seek to overthrow that existing order in the name of a puritanical ideal and enforce adoption of a perceived 'pristine' form of the religion usually consisting of a highly literalist, legalistic and, in some cases anti-spiritual core of traditions, values, worldview, and lifestyle. This radical or revolutionary movement is usually a reaction against perceived abuses, corruption or heresy within the existing tradition, a clear example of this was the [[Protestant]] movement in Christianity.
For example, in [[Islam]] the [[Salafi|Salafist]] movement is often politically and socially radical, and violently repressed by governments and also distrusted by the majority of mainstream Muslims for that reason. Salafism seeks to impose, by force if necessary, its vision of a model Islamic society which existed at the time of [[Muhammad]]'s death and for a short time thereafter, rejects all the later development of Islamic societies, and can therefore be classified as a radical religious conservatism. The Salafi give great prominence to a disputed [[hadith]] (reported statement of the Prophet), which is classically conservative:<blockquote>''Every innovation is misguidance...''[http://www.islamicacademy.org/html/Articles/English/BID'AH%20-%20Innovation%20in%20Islam.htm]</blockquote>
Similar phenomena have arisen in practically all the world's religions, and in many cases this process was triggered by the violent and generally humiliating cultural collision between the traditional society in question and the modern Western form of civilisation that has been propagated throughout the world over the past 500 years. In fact, perhaps most paradoxical of all, it can be observed that much of what is labelled as radical religious conservatism in the modern world is in fact none other than an indigenous fusion of traditional religious ideals with modern, european revolutionary philosophy, often Marxist in nature.
==Ideological Interaction and Influence==
Many forms of conservatism incorporate elements of other [[ideology|ideologies]] and philosophies. In turn, conservatism has influence upon them. Most conservatives strongly support the [[nation-state]] (although that was not so in the 19th century), and [[patriotism|patriotically]] identify with their own nation. Nationalist [[separatist]] movements are by definition radical but also conservative. They appeal to tradition and often emphasise rural life and [[folkways]]. Along such lines, controversial claims of association with [[Fascism]] have been argued, particularly in Europe (see [[Fascism and ideology#Fascism and Conservatism|Fascism and ideology]]).
===Nationalism===
[[Nationalism]], which sees the nation as a long-term, centuries-old, community, has many conservative aspects. Conversely, any centuries-old community is by definition attractive to traditionalist and Burkean conservatives. Conservatives may describe their preferred values as the ''national values'', implying that they are in some way compulsory for any resident of the nation. In recent responses to terrorism, both prime minister [[Tony Blair]] and opposition leader [[Michael Howard]] have suggested that British values and the ''British way of life'' must be enforced in Britain. They refer to a kind of 'Britishness' or 'Englishness' which has a literary rather than a political origin - [[George Orwell]], for instance, defended English values and even the monarchy.
Value conservatives in Europe appeal to 'national values'. Burkean conservatives value them for their own sake, because they are the result of long experience, but religious conservatives may use 'community values' as a [[euphemism]] for their own Christian values, or even for [[dominionism|theonomy]]. All nationalists appeal to national symbolism - the [[national flag]], national historical icons, founders and emblems, the work of national poets and authors, or the representation of the nation by its artists - and this is often adopted by conservatives. Military institutions in particular defend the nation and also provide tradition and ritual, so conservatives often admire military values: [[duty]], [[sacrifice]] and [[obedience]]. But good intentions do not always bear out, and this nationalism has often and easily degenerated into [[militarism]] and [[jingoism]]. Where the nation is not independent, open patriotism is impossible anyway. Consider a [[Kurdistan|Kurdish]] nationalist in Turkey, for
instance, with no official institutions to admire. Saluting the Kurdish flag in public means risking arrest by the Turkish police - one man's patriotism is another man's treason.
[[Nationalism]], and more generally [[patriotism]], are therefore typical features of modern conservatism, in established [[nation-state]]s. This was not the |
d]]
*[[Griffon Bleu de Gascogne]]
*[[Griffon Bruxellois]]
*[[Griffon Fauve de Bretagne]]
*[[Griffon Nivernais]]
*Groenendael - see [[Belgian Shepherd Dog (Groenendael)]]
*[[Guatemalan Bull Terrier]] (Dogo Guatemalteco)
*[[Gull Dong]]
*[[Gull Terr]]
==H==
*[[Hairless Khala]]
*[[Haldenstovare]]
*[[Hamiltonstövare]]
*[[Hanover Hound]]
*[[Harrier (dog)|Harrier]]
*[[Havanese]]
*[[Himalayan Sheepdog]] (Bhotia)
*[[Himalayan Mastiff]] <!-- is this not the same as Tibetan M.? -->
*[[Hokkaido (dog)|Hokkaido]]
*[[Hollandse Herder]] (Dutch Shepherd dog)
*[[Hovawart]]
*Hungarian Greyhound - see [[Magyar Agar]]
*[[Hungarian Vizsla]]
*Hungarian Wirehaired Vizsla - see [[Hungarian Vizsla]]
*[[Huntaway]]
*[[Hygenhund]]
==I==
*[[Ibizan Hound]]
*[[Icelandic Sheepdog]]
*[[Indian Bullterrier]]
*[[Irish Bull Terrier]] <!-- (haven't confirmed existence & standard name anywhere, but was just added to terrier article -elf -->
*[[Irish Red and White Setter]]
*[[Irish Setter]]
*[[Irish Staffordshire Terrier]]
*[[Irish Terrier]]
*[[Irish Water Spaniel]]
*[[Irish Wolfhound]]
*[[Istarski Kratkodlaki Gonic]]
*[[Istarski Ostrodlaki Gonic]] (Istrian Coarse-Haired Hound)
*[[Istrian Sheepdog]]
*[[Italian Greyhound]]
*Italian Spinone - see [[Spinone Italiano]]
==J==
*[[Jack Russell Terrier]] - see also [[Australian Jack Russell Terrier]], [[Parson Russell Terrier]] and [[Russell Terrier]]
*[[Jagdterrier]]
*[[Jämthund]]
*[[Japanese Chin]]
* Japanese Mastiff, see [[Tosa (dog)|Tosa]]
*[[Japanese Spitz]]
*[[Japanese Terrier]]
*Jindo - see [[Korea Jindo Dog]]
*[[Jonangi]]
==K==
*[[Kaikadi (dog)|Kaikadi]]
*[[Kai Ken]]
*[[Kangal Dog]]
*[[Kanni]]
*[[Karelian Bear Dog]]
*[[Kars Dog]]
*[[Keeshond]]
*Kelpie - see [[Australian Kelpie]]
*Kelb-tal Fenek - see [[Pharaoh Hound]]
*[[Kerry Blue Terrier]]
*[[King Charles Spaniel]]
*[[Kishu]]
*[[Kombai]]
*[[Komondor]]
*[[Kooikerhondje]]
*[[Koolie]]
*[[Korea Jindo Dog]]
*[[Korean Mastiff]]
*Korthals Griffon - see [[Wirehaired Pointing Griffon]]
*Krasky Ovcar - see [[Istrian Sheepdog]]
*[[Kromfohrlander]]
*[[Kuvasz]]
*[[Kyi Leo]]
==L==
*[[Labradoodle]]
*[[Labrador Retriever]]
*Laekenois - see [[Belgian Shepherd Dog (Laekenois)]]
*[[Lagotto Romagnolo]]
*[[Lakeland Terrier]]
*[[Lancashire Heeler]]
*[[Landseer (Continental-European type)]] - see also [[Newfoundland (dog)|Newfoundland]]
*[[Lapinporokoira]]
*[[Large Munsterlander]]
*[[Leonberger]]
*[[Leopard Cur]]
*[[Lhasa Apso]]
*Llewellyn Setter - see [[English Setter]]
*[[Longdog]]
*Louisiana Catahoula Leopard Dog - see [[Catahoula Leopard Dog]]
*[[Löwchen]]
*[[Lurcher]]
==M==
*[[Mackenzie River husky]]
*[[Magyar Agar]]
*Malinois - see [[Belgian Shepherd Dog (Malinois)]]
*[[Maltese (dog)|Maltese]]
*[[Maltipoo]]
*[[Manchester Terrier]]
*[[Maremma Sheepdog]]
*[[Mastiff]] - see [[English Mastiff]]
*[[McNab (dog)|McNab]]
*[[Meliteo Kinidio]]
*[[Mexican Hairless Dog]]
*Middle Asian Owtcharka - see [[Central Asia Shepherd Dog]]
*[[Miniature Australian Shepherd]]
*Miniature Bull Terrier - see [[Bull Terrier (Miniature)]]
*[[Miniature Fox Terrier]]
*[[Miniature Pinscher]]
*[[Miniature Schnauzer]]
*[[Mioritic]] <!-- see talk page re Romanian Shepherd Dog -->
*[[Mixed-breed dog]]
*[[Moscovskaya Storozhevaya Sobaka]] (Moscow Watchdog) <!-- can't find this one in any of my books. -elf -->
*[[Mountain Burmese]]
*[[Mountain Cur]]
*[[Mudi]]
*[[Mudhol Hound]]
*[[Munsterlander]] - see [[Large Munsterlander]] or [[Small Munsterlander]]
==N==
*[[Neapolitan Mastiff]]
*[[Nebolish Mastiff]]
*[[Newfoundland (dog)|Newfoundland]]
*[[New Guinea Singing Dog]]
*[[Norfolk Terrier]]
*[[Norrbottenspets]]
*Northern Inuit -- see [[Utonagan]]
*[[Norwegian Buhund]]
*[[Norwegian Elkhound]]
*[[Norwegian Lundehund]]
*[[Norwich Terrier]]
*[[Nova Scotia Duck-Tolling Retriever]]
==O==
*[[Old Danish Pointer]]
*[[Old English Sheepdog]]
*[[Old English Bulldog]]
*[[Olde Englishe Bulldogge]]
*[[Osterreichischer Kurzhaariger Pinscher]]
*[[Otterhound]]
*Otto - see [[Alapaha Blue Blood Bulldog]]
*[[Owczarek Podhalanski]]
==P==
===Pa-Pl===
*Panja, see [[American Mastiff]]
*[[Papillon (dog)|Papillon]]
*[[Parson Russell Terrier]] - see also [[Australian Jack Russell Terrier]], [[Jack Russell Terrier]] and [[Russell Terrier]]
*[[Patterdale Terrier]]
*[[Pekeapoo]]
*[[Pekingese]]
*[[Pembroke Welsh Corgi]]
*[[Perdiguero de Burgos]]
*[[Perro Cimarron]] <!-- can't find this one in any of my books. -elf -->
*[[Perro de Pastor Mallorquin]]
*[[Perro de Presa Canario]]
*[[Perro de Presa Mallorquin]]
*[[Perro de Toro]] <!-- can't find this one in any of my books. -elf -->
*[[Peruvian Hairless Dog]] (Perro Peruano sin Pelo)
*[[Peruvian Inca Orchid]]
*[[Petit Basset Griffon Vendeen]]
*[[Petit Bleu de Gascogne]]
*[[Petit Brabancon]]
*[[Petit Gascon Saintongeois]]
*[[Phalène]]
*[[Pharaoh Hound]]
*[[Phung San]] <!-- from List of dog breeds by country -->
*Picardy Shepherd - see [[Berger Picard]]
*[[Picardy Spaniel]]
*[[Pinscher]] - see [[Affenpinscher]], [[Austrian Short-Haired Pinscher]], [[Dobermann]], [[German Pinscher]], [[Miniature Pinscher]], [[Swiss Shorthaired Pinscher]]
*[[Pit Bull]] - see [[American Pit Bull Terrier]], [[American Staffordshire Terrier]], [[American Bulldog]], [[Staffordshire Bull Terrier]]
*[[Plott Hound]]
===Po-Py===
*[[Podenco Canario]]
*Pointer - see [[English Pointer]]
*[[Poitevin (dog)|Poitevin]]
*[[Polish Scenthound]] (Gonczy Polski)
*Polish Greyhound - see [[Chart Polski]]
*Polish Sighthound - see [[Chart Polski]]
*[[Polish Hound]] (Polish Ogar)
*[[Polish Lowland Sheepdog]] (Polski Owczarek Nizinny or PON)
*Polish Tatra Sheepdog - see [[Owczarek Podhalanski]]
*[[Pomeranian_(dog)|Pomeranian]]
*[[Pont-Audemer Spaniel]]
*[[Poodle]]
*[[Porcelaine]]
*[[Portuguese Podengo]]
*[[Portuguese Pointer]]
*Portuguese Shepherd Dog - see [[Cao da Serra de Aires]]
*[[Portuguese Water Dog]]
*[[Posavac Hound]]
*[[Prazsky Krysavik]]
*[[Pudelpointer]]
*[[Pug]]
*[[Puggle]]
*[[Puli]]
*[[Pumi (dog)|Pumi]]
*[[Pyrenean Mastiff]]
*[[Pyrenean Mountain Dog]]
*[[Pyrenean Shepherd]]
==Q==
*Queensland Heeler - see [[Australian Cattle Dog]]
==R==
*[[Rafeiro do Alentejo]]
*[[Rajapalayam (dog)|Rajapalayam]]
*[[Rampur Greyhound]]
*[[Ratonero Bodeguero Andaluz]]
*[[Rat Terrier]]
*[[Redbone Coonhound]]
*[[Red Setter]]
*[[Rhodesian Ridgeback]]
*[[Rottweiler]]
*[[Rough Collie]]
*Russian Black Terrier - see [[Black Russian Terrier]]
*[[Russian Hound]]
*[[Russian Spaniel]]
*[[Russian Toy Terrier]]
*Russian Tsvetnaya Bolonka - see [[Tsvetnaya Bolonka]]
*[[Russko-Evropeiskaia Laika]]
*[[Russell Terrier]] - see also [[Australian Jack Russell Terrier]], [[Jack Russell Terrier]] and [[Parson Russell Terrier]]
==S==
===Sa-Se===
*[[Saarlooswolfhond]]
*[[Sabueso Espanol]]
*[[Saluki]]
*[[Sakhalin Husky]]
*[[Samoyed (dog)|Samoyed]]
*[[Sapsali]]
*[[Šarplaninac]]
*[[Schapendoes]]
*[[Schillerstovare]]
*[[Schipperke]]
*[[Schnauzer]] - divided into [[Miniature Schnauzer]], [[Standard Schnauzer]], [[Giant Schnauzer]]
*[[Schnoodle]]
*[[Schweizer Laufhund]]
*[[Schweizer Niederlaufhund]]
*Scottish Deerhound - see [[Deerhound]]
*[[Scottish Terrier]]
*[[Sealyham Terrier]]
*[[Segugio Italiano]]
*[[Seppala Siberian Sleddog]]
*[[Serbian Hound]]
*[[Serbian Mountain Hound]]
*[[Serbian Tricolour Hound]]
===Sh-Sp===
*[[Shar Pei]]
*[[Shetland Sheepdog]]
*[[Shiba Inu]]
*[[Shih Tzu]]
*[[Shikoku (dog)|Shikoku]]
*[[Shiloh Shepherd Dog]]
*[[Siberian Husky]]
*[[Silken Windhound]] <!-- a rare developing breed; may be controversy between this, silken windsprite, and long-haired whippet -elf 12/05 -->
*Silky Terrier - see [[Australian Silky Terrier]]
*Sindh Mastiff - see [[Indian Mastiff]] <!-- can't find this one in any of my books. -elf -->
*[[Skye Terrier]]
*[[Sloughi]]
*[[Slovak Cuvac]]
*[[Slovakian Hound]]
*[[Slovensky Hrubosrsty Stavac (Ohar)]]
*[[Smalandsstovare]]
*Small Greek Domestic Dog - see [[Meliteo Kinidio]]
*[[Small Munsterlander]]
*[[Smooth Collie]]
*Smooth Fox Terrier - see [[Fox Terrier (Smooth)]]
*[[Soft-Coated Wheaten Terrier]]
*[[South Russian Ovtcharka]]
*Spanish Alano - see [[Alano Español]] <!-- can't find this one in any of my books. -elf -->
*Spanish Galgo - see [[Galgo Espanol]]
*[[Spanish Mastiff]]
*[[Spanish Water Dog]]
*[[Spinone Italiano]]
*Spitz -- see [[Spitz]] for a list of Spitz-type breeds
*Springer Spaniel - see [[English Springer Spaniel]] or [[Welsh Springer Spaniel]]
===St-Sw===
*[[St. Bernard (dog)|St. Bernard]]
*[[Stabyhoun]]
*[[Staffordshire Bull Terrier]]
*[[Standard Schnauzer]]
*[[Stephens Cur]]
*[[Styrian Coarse-haired Hound]]
*[[Sussex Spaniel]]
*Swedish Elkhound - see [[Jämthund]]
*[[Swedish Lapphund]]
*[[Swedish Vallhund]]
*[[Swiss Shorthaired Pinscher]]
==T==
*Tatra Shepherd Dog - see [[Owczarek Podhalanski]]
*[[Tenterfield Terrier]]
*Tervuren - See [[Belgian Shepherd Dog (Tervueren)]]
*[[Thai Bangkaew Dog]]
*[[Thai Ridgeback]]
*[[Teddy Roosevelt Terrier]]
*[[Tibetan Kyi Apso]]
*Tibetan Lhasa Apso - see [[Lhasa Apso]]
*[[Tibetan Mastiff]]
*[[Tibetan Spaniel]]
*[[Tibetan Terrier]]
*Tornjak - see [[Bosnian Tornjak]]
*[[Tosa (dog)|Tosa]]
*[[Toy Bulldog]]
*[[Toy Fox Terrier]]
*[[Toy Manchester Terrier]]
*[[Toy Mi-Ki]]
*[[Transylvanian Hound]]
*[[Treeing Cur]]
*[[Treeing Feist]]
*[[Treeing Tennessee Brindle]]
*[[Treeing Walker Coonhound]]
*[[Tsvetnaya Bolonka]]
*[[Tyrolean Hound]]
==U==
*[[Utonagan]]
==V==
*[[Valley Bulldog]]
*Vizsla - see [[Hungarian Vizsla]]
*[[Volpino Italiano]]
==W==
*[[Weimaraner]]
*[[Welsh Corgi]]
**[[Cardigan Welsh Corgi]]
**[[Pembroke Welsh Corgi]]
*[[Welsh Springer Spaniel]]
*[[Welsh Terrier]]
*[[West Highland White Terrier]]
*[[West Siberian Laika]]
*[[Westphalian Dachsbracke]]
*[[Wetterhoun]]
*[[Whippet]]
*White Shepherd Dog - see [[Berger Blanc Suisse]]
*[[Wilkinson Bulldog]]
*Wire Fox Terrier - see [[Fox Terrier (Wire)]]
*[[Wirehaired Pointing Griffon]]
==X==
*Xoloitzcuintle - see [[Mexican Hairless]]
==Y==
*[[Yorkshire Terrier]]
*Yugoslavian Mountain Hound - see [[Serbian Mountain Hound]]
*Yugoslavian |
Baptism. Regardless of age, candidates are to be sponsored by parents and/or godparents. Youths able to understand the significance of the Rite may go through the ritual speaking for themselves. Younger children and infants rely on their sponsors to act upon their behalf.
1. The celebrant calls for the candidates for Baptism to be presented.
2. The catechumen or sponsors state their request for Baptism.
3a. If the catechumen is of age, the celebrant will ask him or her if he or she desires Baptism, which the catechumen will state he or she says "I do."
3b. If the candidate relies on sponsors, the celebrant asks them if they will raise the child in "the Christian faith and life" (ECUSA BCP), and will raise the child through "prayers and witness to grow into the full stature of Christ" to which the parents will state to each, "I will, with God's help."
4. A series of questions are then asked, to which the reply is always "I renounce them":
:''Do you renounce Satan and all the spiritual forces of wickedness that rebel against God?''
:''Do you renounce the evil powers of this world which corrupt and destroy the creatures of God?''
:''Do you renounce all sinful desires that draw you from the love of God?''
5. The second half of the query is asked, to which the reply is always "I do":
:''Do you turn to Jesus Christ and accept him as your Savior?''
:''Do you put your whole trust in his grace and love?''
:''Do you promise to follow and obey him as your Lord?''
6. The Apostle's Creed is then recited, in which is divided into three parts; the celebrant asks whether they believe in the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit, to which the Creed is stated in its three divisions in respect to the Three Persons of the Trinity.
===Roman Catholic and Lutheran Rite of Baptism===
An interrogative form of the Apostles' Creed is used in the Rite of Baptism (for both children and adults). The minister of baptism asks the following questions (ICEL, 1974):
:''Do you reject sin so as to live in the freedom of God's children?''
:''Do you reject Satan, father of sin and prince of darkness?''
:''Do you believe in God, the Father almighty, creator of heaven and earth?''
:''Do you believe in Jesus Christ, his only Son, our Lord, who was born of the Virgin Mary, was crucified, died, and was buried, rose from the dead, an is now seated at the right hand of the Father?''
:''Do you believe in the Holy Spirit, the holy Catholic Church, the communion of saints, the forgiveness of sins, the resurrection of the body, and life everlasting?''
To each, the catechumen, or, in the case of an infant, the parents and sponsor(s) (godparent(s)) in his or her place, answers "I do."
===Roman Catholic Profession of Faith at Mass===
Although the canonical creed is in the first person singular, the rubrics of the Roman Missal require that when it is recited in the context of the Sacred Liturgy it is expressed in the first person plural. The Apostles' Creed is specified for use in Masses with children or for other pastoral reasons approved by the relevant prelate (ICEL, 1974); in other circumstances, the [[Nicene Creed|Niceno-Constantinopolitan Creed]] (with the added ''[[Filioque clause|filioque]]'') is used.
==Origin of the Creed==
Many hypotheses exist concerning the date and nature of the origin of the Apostles' Creed. There is no Catholic dogmatic teaching on its origin. One legend proposes that the creed was originally formulated in twelve articles, each written by an Apostle after the Pentecost under the inspiration of the Holy Spirit. Some historians place the origin of the Apostles' Creed as late as fifth century Gaul. The earliest known concrete historical evidence of the creed's existence as it is currently titled (Symbolum Apostolicum) is a letter of the Council of Milan (390 AD) to Pope Siricius (here in English):
::''"If you credit not the teachings of the priests . . . let credit at least be given to the Symbol of the Apostles which the Roman Church always preserves and maintains inviolate."''
The public domain ''Catholic Encyclopedia'' contains a [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/01629a.htm detailed discussion] of the origin of the Apostles' Creed.
==Theological issues==
It does not address some of the [[Christology|Christological]] issues associated with the later [[Nicene Creed]] and other Christian [[Creed]]s. In particular, it was acceptable to many [[Arianism|Arian]]s and [[Unitarianism|Unitarian]]s.
==See also==
*[[Nicene Creed]]
*[[Athanasian Creed]]
*[[Chalcedonian Creed]]
*[[Roman Missal]]
*[[Book of Common Prayer]]
*[[Lutheran Book of Worship]]
*[[Catholic Encyclopedia]]
==References==
* {{cite web
| author = English Language Liturgical Consultation
| title = Apostles' Creed
| publisher = Evangelical Lutheran Church in America
| year = 2004
| work = ELLC Texts
| url = http://www.renewingworship.org/resources/ELLC/texts/apostles_creed.html
| accessdate = June 21 | accessyear = 2005
}}
* {{cite web
| title = Apostles' Creed
| work = Catechism of the Catholic Church
| url = http://www.va/archive/catechism/p1s1c3a2.htm#credo
| accessdate = June 21 | accessyear = 2005
}}
* {{cite book
| author = International Commission on English in the Liturgy ''et al''.
| title = Roman Missal…
| publisher = HarperCollins
| year = 1974
| id = ISBN 0005995051
}}
[[Category:Christian Confessions, Creeds and Statements]]
[[Category:Ancient Roman Christianity]]
[[af:Apostoliese Geloofsbelydenis]]
[[cs:Apoštolské vyznání]]
[[da:Den apostolske trosbekendelse]]
[[de:Apostolisches Glaubensbekenntnis]]
[[es:Símbolo de los Apóstoles]]
[[et:Apostellik usutunnistus]]
[[fi:Apostolinen uskontunnustus]]
[[fr:Symbole des apôtres]]
[[id:Pengakuan Iman Rasuli]]
[[ja:使徒信条]]
[[ko:사도신경]]
[[la:Symbolum Apostolorum]]
[[ms:Pengakuan Iman Rasuli]]
[[nl:Apostolische geloofsbelijdenis]]
[[no:Den apostoliske trosbekjennelse]]
[[pl:Skład Apostolski]]
[[pt:Credo dos Apóstolos]]
[[sv:Apostoliska trosbekännelsen]]
[[zh:使徒信經]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Ammunition</title>
<id>3256</id>
<revision>
<id>41862041</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T05:20:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>136.165.84.255</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Current small arms ammunition */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:boxes_of_ammunition_iraq.jpg|thumb|300px|Boxes of ammunition clog a warehouse in Baghdad]]
'''Ammunition''' is a generic [[military]] term meaning (the assembly of) a [[projectile]] and its [[gunpowder|propellant]]. It is derived through [[French language|French]] from the [[Latin]] ''munire'' (to provide). See also [[munition]].
== Glossary ==
*Small projectiles, like those fired from [[rifle]]s and [[handgun]]s (collectively known as small arms), are called [[bullet]]s.
*A "round" is a unit of ammunition per person firing; for small arms this is the combination of bullet, propellant, primer and cartridge case.
*Large [[caliber]] [[gun]]s often fire explosive-filled projectiles known as [[shell (projectile)|shell]]s, the equivalent non-explosive projectile is a ''shot'' (see [[artillery]]).
*Large numbers of small projectiles intended to be fired all at once in a single discharge are also called shot; hand-held guns designed for this type of ammunition are generally known as [[shotgun]]s.
*[[Dud]]s are ammunition that fail to work as intended.
== General information ==
[[Image:cartridges.jpg|thumb|[[5.56 mm caliber|5.56 mm]] (223 Remington) ammunition]]
The design of the ammunition is determined by its purpose; anti-personnel ammunition is often designed to break up or tumble inside the target, in order to maximize the damage done. Anti-personnel shells contain [[shrapnel]] and are designed to explode in mid-air, so its fragments will spread over a large area. Armor-piercing ammunition tends to be hard, sharp, and narrow, often with [[lubrication]]. Incendiary projectiles include a material such as [[phosphorus|white phosphorus]] which burns fiercely. [[Tracer ammunition|Tracer]] ammunition emits light as it travels, allowing the gunner to see the path of bullets in flight while using a [[machine gun]].
Popular types of military rifle and [[machine-gun]] ammunition include the [[5.45 mm caliber|5.45 mm]], [[5.56 mm caliber|5.56 mm]], and [[7.62 mm caliber|7.62 mm]]. [[tank|Main battle tanks]] use [[KE-penetrator]]s to combat other MBTs and [[armoured fighting vehicle]]s, and HE-Frag (High Explosive-Fragmentation) for [[soft target]]s such as [[infantry]].
Ammunition, particularly that of small arms, is specified by an extremely wide range of designations derived from metric and English measurements, commercial firms' private systems, and the different requirements of armies of different countries. For example, the same round in the US Army was termed .30 (inch) but in the British Army was termed .303 (inch) during the First and Second World Wars; although there was at the time some difference in the inches used by the two countries, that was not enough to make for the difference. German firms in the late twentieth century have decided to make "all-metric" ammunition, a refinement of existing designs.
[[Match-grade]] ammunition is of exceptionally good quality, intended for target shooting competition.
The components of ammunition intended for rifles and [[ordnance]] may be divided into these categories:
* [[explosive|explosives]] and [[gunpowder|propellants]]
* [[projectile]]s of all kinds
* [[cartridge (weaponry)|cartridges]]
== Storage ==
=== Historical (circa World War I) ===
[[Image:M60andsoldierwithammoinnam.jpg|thumb|250px|A soldier mans an [[M60 machine gun]], linked 7.62 mm rounds are draped over the tree]]
These general conditions apply to the storage of ammunition in [[fortress]]es. Here the positions for the [[ammunition dump|magazine]] and ammunition stores |
eorgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]], US)
* [[Gander]] ([[Newfoundland and Labrador]], Canada)
* [[Gibraltar]] (UK)
* [[Griesheim]] ([[Germany]] - US)
* [[Guam]] ([[Pacific Ocean]], US)
* [[Karamursel]] ([[Turkey]] - US)
* [[Kunia]] ([[Hawaii]], US)
* [[Leitrim, Canada|Leitrim]] (south of [[Ottawa]], Canada)
* [[Malta]] ([[Malta]] - UK)
* [[Masset]] ([[British Columbia]], Canada)
* [[Medina Annex]] ([[Texas]], US)
* [[Osan]] Air Base ([[South Korea]], US)
* [[Rota, Spain]] ([[Spain]] - US)
* [[Silvermine]] (near [[Cape Town]], [[South Africa]] - US)
* [[scampton]]
===Former ground stations===
* [[Augsburg]] ([[Germany]] - US) - closed in 1993
* [[Bad Aibling]] ([[Germany]] - US) - closed in 2004
* [[Clark Air Base]] ([[Philippines]] - US) - closed in 1997
* [[Edzell]] ([[Scotland]], UK) - closed in 1997
* [[Kabkan]] ([[Iran]] - US) - closed in 1979
* [[Little Sai Wan]] ([[Hong Kong]] - UK) - closed in 1984
* [[Nurrungar]] ([[South Australia]], Australia - south of [[Woomera, South Australia]]) - closed in 1999
* [[San Vito dei Normanni]] ([[Italy]] - US) - closed in 1994
* [[Teufelsberg]] ([[West Berlin]], [[Germany]] - US) - closed in 1989
==See also==
* [[Carnivore (FBI)|Carnivore]]
* [[Communications Assistance for Law Enforcement Act|CALEA]] ''to make clear a telecommunications carrier's duty to cooperate in the interception of communications for Law Enforcement purposes, and for other purposes''
* [[Counterintelligence Field Activity]] is a US Department of Defense (DoD) agency that has legal authority to spy on Americans.
* [[PROMIS strategic computer system]]
* [[Project MINARET]]
* [[Onyx (interception system)]], the Swiss "Echelon" equivalent
* [[ANCHORY]] [[SIGINT]] intercept database
* [[COINTELPRO]]
* [[Text mining]]
* [[Mass surveillance]]
* [[Right to privacy]]
* [[Frenchelon]]
* [[High Frequency Active Auroral Research Program]]
==Further reading==
* Hager, Nicky; ''Secret Power, New Zealand's Role in the International Spy Network''; Craig Potton Publishing, Nelson, NZ; ISBN 0908802358; 1996
* Keefe, Patrick Radden ''Chatter: dispatches from the secret world of global eavesdropping''; Random House Publishing, New York, NY; ISBN 1400060346; 2005
*Michael Barker. [http://www.thechangeagency.org/resources/resources/socact/Barker2005_Online_privacy.pdf Online privacy? Surveillance of social movements on the Internet], [http://www.thechangeagency.org/resources_socact.htm The Change Agency], November 2005.
==Sources==
{{Commons|Category:Echelon}}
*[http://www.fas.org/irp/program/process/echelon.htm Overview]
*[http://www.fas.org/irp/program/process/docs/98-14-01-2en.pdf Development of Surveillance Technology & Risk of Abuse of Economic Information | PDF]
*[http://www.fas.org/irp/program/process/rapport_echelon_en.pdf European Parliament report on ECHELON | (PDF)]
*[http://www.bernal.co.uk/capitulo3.htm Big Brother Capabilities in an Online World. State Surveillance in the Internet (academic research), by Francisco J. Bernal]
*[http://fly.hiwaay.net/~pspoole/echelon.html Report to the US Congress about ECHELON, by Patrick S. Poole]
*[http://fly.hiwaay.net/~pspoole/echres.html Echelon Research Resources, by Patrick S. Poole]
*[http://www.globalsecurity.org/intell/systems/echelon.htm GlobalSecurity.org's page on ECHELON]
*[http://www.aclu.org/echelonwatch/faq.html FAQ from ACLU (American Civil Liberties Union about ECHELON)] ---broken 20-09-05
*[http://cryptome.org/echelon2-arch.htm Cryptome article reporting claimed interview with 'architect of ECHELON II']
*[http://www.hermetic.ch/crypto/echelon/echelon.htm The NSA's ECHELON System]
*[http://www.echelonwatch.org/ Echelon Watch]
*[http://echelononline.free.fr/documents/dc/inside_echelon.htm Inside Echelon: The history, structure and function of the global surveillance system known as Echelon (comprehensive article)]
*[http://www.guardian.co.uk/alqaida/story/0,12469,911860,00.html "How mobile phones and an £18m bribe trapped 9/11 mastermind"], [[The Guardian]], [[March 11]] [[2003]]
*[http://www.bimbel.de/artikel/artikel-4.html Pictures of Radomes used for Echelon in Griesheim - Germany]
*[http://world-information.org/wio/infostructure/100437611746 World Infostructure - ECHELON]
*[http://www.theregister.co.uk/2001/06/11/us_expands_echelon_spying/ US expands Echelon spying in UK]
*[http://mailman.lbo-talk.org/1999/1999-January/000303.html translation of LE MONDE DIPLOMATIQUE - January 1999 article TOP SECRET SURVEILLANCE SYSTEM : How the United States spies on us all - by PHILIPPE RIVIERE]
*[http://cyberdelix.net/parvati/6929.html Inside Echelon - The history, structure und function of the global surveillance system known as Echelon by Duncan Campbell 25.07.2000] [http://www.globalpolicy.org/globaliz/law/infotech/echelon.htm same article here at Global Policy] [http://www.heise.de/tp/r4/artikel/6/6929/1.html and here at Heise.de]
*[http://www.burojansen.nl/crypto/english/1.html Sources about echelon including "STOA, An appraisal of technologies of political control, Interim study, Luxemburg [[19 January]] [[1998]]."]
*[http://www.staff.ncl.ac.uk/d.f.j.wood/thesis_files/6.pdf PDF file titled "Chapter six: Politics, Parapolitics, and the State"]
*[http://www.fas.org/irp/offdocs/eo12139.htm Executive Order 12139 on [[23 May]] [[1979]]] "the Attorney General is authorized to approve electronic surveillance to acquire foreign intelligence information without a court order"
*Michael Barker. [http://www.thechangeagency.org/resources/resources/socact/Barker2005_Online_privacy.pdf Online privacy? Surveillance of social movements on the Internet], [http://www.thechangeagency.org/resources_socact.htm The Change Agency], November 2005.
* Kurt Nimmo. [http://kurtnimmo.com/?p=169 NSA snoop story: Tell me something I don’t already know], ''Another Day in the Empire'', [[December 24]] [[2005]].
[[Category:National Security Agency]]
[[Category:Government databases in the United States]]
[[Category:Espionage]]
[[Category:Data collection]]
[[Category:Security]]
[[Category:State security]]
[[da:ECHELON]]
[[de:Echelon]]
[[es:ECHELON]]
[[fr:Echelon]]
[[it:ECHELON]]
[[he:אשלון]]
[[lv:ECHELON]]
[[lt:ECHELON]]
[[nl:ECHELON]]
[[ja:エシュロン]]
[[no:Echelon]]
[[pl:Echelon]]
[[pt:Echelon]]
[[fi:ECHELON]]
[[sv:Echelon (data)]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Equation</title>
<id>9284</id>
<revision>
<id>39571520</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-14T10:22:54Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Unfinishedchaos</username>
<id>294794</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about equations in mathematics. For the chemistry term, see [[chemical equation]].''
An '''equation''' is a [[mathematics|mathematical]] statement, in [[table of mathematical symbols|symbols]], that two things are [[equality (mathematics)|the same]]. Equations are written with the [[equals sign]], as in
:2 + 3 = 5.
Equations are often used to state the equality of two [[expression (mathematics)|expressions]] containing one or more [[variable]]s. For example, given any value of ''x'', it is always true that
:''x'' &minus; ''x'' = 0.
The two equations above are examples of [[identity (mathematics)|identities]]: equations that are [[true (logic)|true]] regardless of the values of any variables that appear within them. The following equation is not an identity:
:''x'' + 1 = 2.
The above equation is false for an infinite number of values of ''x'', except the unique [[root (mathematics)|root]] of the equation, '''x=1'''. Therefore, if the equation is known to be true, it carries information about the value of ''x''. In general, the values of the variables for which the equation is true are called ''solutions''. To [[equation solving|solve an equation]] means to find its solutions.
Many authors reserve the term '''equation''' for an equality which is not an identity. The distinction between the two concepts can be subtle; for example,
:(''x'' + 1)<sup>2</sup> = ''x''<sup>2</sup> + 2''x'' + 1
is an identity, while
:(''x'' + 1)<sup>2</sup> = 2''x''<sup>2</sup> + ''x'' + 1
is an equation, whose roots are ''x=0 and x=1''. Whether a statement is meant to be an identity or an equation, carrying information about its variables can usually be determined from its context.
Letters from the beginning of the alphabet like ''a'', ''b'', ''c'', ... are often considered [[constant]]s in the context of the discussion at hand, while letters from end of the alphabet, like ''x'', ''y'', ''z'', are usually considered variables.
==Properties==
If an equation in [[elementary algebra|algebra]] is known to be true, the following operations may be used to produce another true equation:
# Any quantity can be [[addition|added]] to both sides.
# Any quantity can be [[subtraction|subtracted]] from both sides.
# Any quantity can be [[multiplication|multiplied]] to both sides.
# Any nonzero quantity can [[division (mathematics)|divide]] both sides.
# Generally, any [[function (mathematics)|function]] can be applied to both sides.
The algebraic properties (1-4) imply that equality is a [[congruence relation]] for a [[field (mathematics)|field]]; in fact, it is essentially the only one.
The most well known system of numbers which allows all of these operations is the [[real numbers]], which is an example of a [[field (mathematics)|field]]. However, if the equation were based on the [[natural number]]s for example, some of these operations (like division and subtraction) may not be valid as negative numbers and non-[[whole numbers]] are not allowed. The [[integers]] are an example of an [[integral domain]] which does not allow all divisions as, again, whole numbers are needed. However, subtraction is allowed, and is the [[inverse operator]] in that system.
If a function that is not [[injective]] is applied to both sides of a true equati |
tp://www.adamsmith.org/ Adam Smith Institute] website
* [http://www.hayek.de/frames/biographie.html Hayek Bio at hayek.de]
* [http://www.reason.com/0406/fe.jr.objections.shtml Reason magazine's article on what Hayek might think of gay marriage] (describes the conservatism vs. liberalism dispute)
* [http://reality.gn.apc.org/econ/hayek.htm Information and Economics: A critique of Hayek] essay included in the book [http://ricardo.ecn.wfu.edu/~cottrell/socialism_book/new_socialism.pdf ''Towards a New Socialism''] [http://www.mises.org/journals/qjae/pdf/qjae7_1_6.pdf reviewed] by the hayekian Len Brewster
* [http://www.econ-pol.unisi.it/pubdocenti/HEI99.pdf The economics of information, market socialism and Hayek's legacy]
* [http://cob.jmu.edu/rossermv/Caldwell.pdf Hayek and Socialism]
* [http://www.deregulo.com/facetation/pdfs/marketDynamicsOfSpeculation.pdf The Market Dynamics of Speculation: Hayekian Market Signals and the Rise of the Culture Industries]
* [http://hayeklinks.causaliberal.net/ Hayek Links] The most extensive list of links on Hayek
* [http://www.oxford-hayek.org/ Oxford Hayek Society]
[[Category:1899 births|Hayek, Friedrich von]]
[[Category:1992 deaths|Hayek, Friedrich von]]
[[Category:20th century philosophers|Hayek, Friedrich von]]
[[Category:Anti-communism|Hayek, Friedrich von]]
[[Category:Austrian economists|Hayek, Friedrich von]]
[[Category:Austrian nobility|Hayek, Friedrich von]]
[[Category:Austrian philosophers|Hayek, Friedrich von]]
[[Category:Austrian School economists|Hayek, Friedrich von]]
[[Category:Economists|Hayek, Friedrich von]]
[[Category:Lecturers of the London School of Economics|Hayek, Friedrich von]]
[[Category:Minarchists|Hayek, Friedrich von]]
[[Category:Nobel Prize in Economics winners|Hayek, Friedrich von]]
[[bg:Фридрих Хайек]]
[[bn:ফ্রিদ্রিখ ফন হায়ক]]
[[cs:Friedrich Hayek]]
[[de:Friedrich August von Hayek]]
[[eo:Friedrich August VON HAYEK]]
[[es:Friedrich Hayek]]
[[fi:Friedrich von Hayek]]
[[fr:Friedrich August von Hayek]]
[[he:פרידריך האייק]]
[[hu:Friedrich August von Hayek]]
[[is:Friedrich A. von Hayek]]
[[it:Friedrich von Hayek]]
[[ja:フリードリヒ・ハイエク]]
[[ka:ჰაიეკი, ფრიდრიხ]]
[[ko:프리드리히 하이에크]]
[[nl:Friedrich von Hayek]]
[[no:Friedrich Hayek]]
[[pl:Friedrich Hayek]]
[[pt:Friedrich Hayek]]
[[ru:Хайек, Фридрих фон]]
[[sk:Friedrich August von Hayek]]
[[sv:Friedrich von Hayek]]
[[tr:Friedrich August von Hayek]]
[[vi:Friedrich Hayek]]
[[zh:弗里德里克·哈耶克]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Gun</title>
<id>11650</id>
<revision>
<id>41788330</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T19:30:58Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Dewet</username>
<id>88048</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Revert to revision 41709378 using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}
[[Image:Howitzer_firing.jpg|thumb|right|300px|155 mm [[M198 howitzer]]]]
[[Image:CSA-2006-01-12-095303.jpg|thumb|300px|U.S. Army soldier with a compact [[M249]] variant]]
[[Image:Uss iowa bb-61 pr.jpg|300px|right|thumb|[[USS Iowa (BB-61)]] fires a full broadside of nine 16"/50 and six 5"/38 guns during a target exercise near [[Vieques, Puerto Rico|Vieques Island, Puerto Rico]], 1 July 1984.]]
<!-- Unsourced image removed: [[Image:Ariete 1.jpg |thumb|300px|The gun on the modern Italian [[Ariete]] tank is equipped with a fume extractor, barrel jacket, and muzzle reference system.]] -->
A '''gun''' is a mechanical device that fires [[projectile]]s at high velocity, using a propellant such as [[gun powder]] or compressed air. The projectile, usually rated under various sizes, such as "caliber" or "millimeter", are fired through a hollow tube known as the gun's barrel. Related to [[musket]]s, the modern gun is more advanced in technology.
The term '''gun''' is often used as a synonym to [[firearm]], but in its more technical usage refers only to [[artillery]] that fires projectiles at a high velocity along a flat trajectory, such as [[field guns]], [[tank gun]]s and [[anti-tank gun]]s, and [[naval artillery|naval guns]]. [[Howitzer]]s, [[mortar (weapon)|mortar]]s, and all hand-held firearms are excluded from this definition. The exception to this is the [[shotgun]], which is hand-held, has a smooth bore and fires a [[Cartridge (firearms)|cartridge]] of [[pellet]]s.
See the related article on [[firearm]]s for information on weapons informally known as guns.
The word '''gun''' is also applied to some more or less vaguely gun-like [[tool]]s, such as [[staple gun|staple guns]] and [[glue]] guns.
In a [[gun-type fission weapon]] the "gun" is part of a [[nuclear weapon]]. The "projectile" is [[fissile material]] that is fired and captured inside the device. In the case of [[nuclear artillery]] it should not be confused with the gun that fires the whole warhead.
At times, the word gun is used to describe the person holding the weapon rather than the weapon itself, as in "a hired gun".
Etymology: "gun" is found in [[Middle English]] as "gonne", and seems to come from the [[Germanic languages|Germanic]] woman's name [[Gunhild]] or [[Gundhild]] = "war sword", applied to an early [[cannon]].
==See also==
'''''See [[Firearm]] for the main rifle and gun page.'''''
==Gun Related topics==
===Types of weapons===
{|
|- valign=top
| width="33%" |
*[[Airsoft Gun]]
*[[Anti-materiel rifle|Anti-Materiel Rifle]]
*[[Anti-Tank Rifle]]
*[[Arquebus]]
*[[Artillery]]
*[[Assault rifle]]
*[[Autocannon]]
*[[Blowgun]]
*[[Brown Bess]]
*[[Cannon]]
*[[Carbine]]
*[[Charleville musket]]
*[[Combat shotgun]]
*[[Derringer]]
*[[Directed Energy Weapons]]
*[[Duelling pistol]]
*[[Electroshock gun]]
*[[Flintlock]]
| width="33%" |
*[[Gatling gun]]
*[[Gonne]]
*[[Gyrojet]]
*[[Handgun]]
*[[Howitzer]]
*[[Light gas gun]]
*[[Long gun]]
*[[Machine gun]]
*[[Machine pistol]]
*[[Matchlock]]
*[[Metal Storm]]
*[[Mortar (weapon)|Mortar]]
*[[Musket]]
*[[Muzzle-loader]]
*[[Paintball gun]]
*[[Pistol]]
*[[Pneumatic]]
*[[Railgun]]
*[[Recoilless rifle]]
*[[Revolver]]
| width="33%" |
*[[Rifle]]
*[[Saturday night special]]
*[[Sawn-off shotgun]]
*[[Semi-automatic handgun|Semi-automatic/self-loading pistol]]
*[[Semi-automatic rifle]]
*[[Shotgun]]
*[[Suppressor |Silenced]]
*[[Single-shot]]
*[[Small arms]]
*[[Smart Gun]]
*[[Smoothbore]]
*[[Sniper rifle]]
*[[Squirt gun]]
*[[Submachine gun]]
*[[Supergun]]
*[[Wheellock]]
*[[Tank gun]]
|}
===Theory===
*[[Ballistics]]
*[[Electrothermal-chemical technology]]
*[[Firearm action]]
*[[Optics]]
*[[Physics of firearms]]
*[[Rheological fluids based firearms mechanisms]]
*[[Terminal ballistics]]
*[[Stopping Power]]
===Politics and society===
*[[Gun culture]]
*[[Gun law]]
*[[Gun politics]]
*[[Gun safety]]
*[[Non-violence]]
===Lists===
{{wikiquote}}
*[[List of aircraft weapons]]
*[[List of common WWII weapons]]
*[[List of crew served weapons of the US Armed Forces]]
*[[List of firearms]]
*[[List of individual weapons of the US Armed Forces]]
*[[List of modern armament manufacturers]]
*[[List of prototype WWII weapons]]
*[[List of secondary and special issue WWII weapons]]
*[[List of submachine guns]]
*[[Lists of weapons in video games]]
*[[Military technology and equipment]]
[[Category:Firearms]]
[[fa:&#1578;&#1601;&#1606;&#1711;]]
[[simple:gun]]
[[ja:銃]]
[[fi:tykki]]
[[simple:gun]]
[[vi:Súng]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Fred Reed</title>
<id>11651</id>
<revision>
<id>40363628</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-20T01:51:55Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
<id>82835</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>External links per MoS.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{dablink|For the poet working mainly in the [[Northumbrian]] dialect of English, see [[Fred Reed (Poet)]].}}
'''Fred Reed''' is a columnist for ''[[The Washington Times]].'' A former [[United States Marine Corps|Marine]], Reed is a [[wiktionary:streetwise|streety]] [[police]] writer, an occasional [[war correspondent]], and an aficionado of [[wiktionary:raffish|raffish]] bars. His often satirical and opinionated columns are released weekly.
Reed notes that his columns are often provocative, and calls himself "an equal-opportunity irritant."
Fred's output defies characterization as his articles include those attacking [[feminism]] (generally the proviso of the [[Right-wing politics|right]]), [[George W. Bush]] (generally the proviso of the [[Left-wing politics|left]]) and [[evolution]] (generally the proviso of [[religious fundamentalist]]s). Many of Reed's articles speak of a yearning for a simpler time, and urge the reader to forgo the pursuit of money and comforts in favor of a cultured life of the mind. Reed is currently living in [[Mexico]] as an American [[expatriate]].
==External links==
* [http://www.fredoneverything.net/ Fred's articles online]
{{journalist-stub}}
[[Category:American journalists|Reed, Fred]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Fred Brooks</title>
<id>11652</id>
<revision>
<id>40699971</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-22T11:38:24Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Phil Boswell</username>
<id>24373</id>
</contributor>
<comment>[[WP:AWB|AWB assisted]] migrate {{[[template:book reference|book reference]]}} to {{[[template:cite book|cite book]]}}</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Frederick Phillips Brooks, Jr.''' (born [[April 19]], [[1931]]) is a [[software engineer]] and [[computer scientist]], best-known for managing the development of [[OS/360]], then later writing candidly about the process in his seminal book ''[[The Mythical Man-Month]]''. "It is a very humbling experience to make a multi-million-dollar mistake, but it is also very memorable." Brooks received a [[Turing Award] |
so intense and well financed that reviewers cannot make an impact against it. However, the cataclysmic failure of some heavily-promoted movies that were harshly reviewed, as well as the unexpected success of critically praised independent movies indicates that extreme critical reactions can have considerable influence. Others note that positive film reviews have been shown to spark interest in little-known films. Conversely, there have been several films in which film companies have so little confidence that they refuse to give reviewers an advanced viewing to avoid widespread panning of the film. However, this usually backfires as reviewers are wise to the tactic and warn the public that the film may not be worth seeing and the films often do poorly as a result.
It is argued that journalist film critics should only be known as film reviewers, and true film critics are those who take a more academic approach to films. This work is more often known as [[film theory]] or film studies. These film critics try to come to understand why film works, how it works, and what effects it has on people. Rather than write for newspaper or appear on television their articles are published in scholarly journals, or sometimes in up-market magazines. They also tend to be affiliated with colleges or universities.
==The motion picture industry==
The making and showing of motion pictures became a source of profit almost as soon the process was invented. Upon seeing how successful their new invention, and its product, was in their native France, the Lumieres quickly set about touring the Continent to exhibit the first films privately to royalty and publicly to the masses. In each country, they would normally add new, local scenes to their catalogue and, quickly enough, found local entrepreneurs in the various countries of Europe to buy their equipment and photograph, export, import and screen additional product commercially. The Oberammergau Passion play of 1898 was the first commercial motion picture ever produced. Other pictures soon followed, and motion pictures became a separate industry that overshadowed the vaudeville world. Dedicated [[movie theater|theaters]] and companies formed specifically to produce and distribute films, while motion picture actors became major [[celebrity|celebrities]] and commanded huge fees for their performances. Already by [[1917]], [[Charlie Chaplin]] had a contract that called for an annual salary of one million dollars.
In the United States today, much of the film industry is centered around [[Hollywood, California|Hollywood]]. Other regional centers exist in many parts of the world, and the [[Cinema of India|Indian film industry]] (primarily centered around "[[Bollywood]]") annually produces the largest number of films in the world. Whether the ten thousand plus features a year produced by the [[San Fernando Valley|Valley]] [[pornography|porn]] industry should qualify for this title is the source of some debate. Though the expense involved in making movies has led cinema production to concentrate under the auspices of [[movie studio]]s, recent advances in affordable film making equipment have allowed independent film productions to flourish.
Profit is a key force in the industry, due to the costly nature of filmmaking; yet many filmmakers strive to create works of lasting social significance. The [[Academy Award]]s (also known as '''The Oscars''') are the most prominent film awards in the [[United States]], providing recognition each year to films, ostensibly based on their artistic merits. Also, film quickly came to be used in education, in lieu of or in addition to lectures and texts.
==Stages of filmmaking==
{{main|Filmmaking}}
The nature of the film determines the size and type of crew required during filmmaking. Many [[Hollywood]] [[adventure film]]s need [[computer generated imagery]] (CGI), created by dozens of [[3D modelling|3D modellers]], [[animation|animators]], rotoscopers and compositors. However, a low-budget, independent film may be made with a skeleton crew, often paid very little. Filmmaking takes place all over the world using different technologies, styles of acting and genre, and is produced in a variety of economic contexts that range from state-sponsored documentary in China to profit-oriented movie making within the American [[studio system]].
A typical Hollywood-style filmmaking [[Production cycle]] comprises five main stages:
# Development
# Preproduction
# Production
# Post-production
# Distribution
This production cycle typically takes three years. The first year is taken up with ''development''. The second year comprises ''preproduction'' and ''production''. The third year, ''post-production'' and ''distribution''.
==Film crew==
{{main|Film crew}}
A film crew is a group of people hired by a film company for the purpose of producing a film or motion picture. ''Crew'' are distinguished from ''cast'', the [[actor]]s who appear in front of the [[camera]] or provide voices for characters in the film.
==Independent filmmaking==
{{main|Independent film}}
Independent filmmaking takes place outside of the Hollywood, or other major [[studio system]]s. An independent film (or indie film) is a film initially produced without financing or distribution from a [[list of Hollywood movie studios|major movie studio]]. Creative, business, and technological reasons have all contributed to the growth of the indie film scene in the late [[20th century|20th]] and early [[21st century]].
Creatively, it was becoming increasingly difficult to get studio backing for experimental films. Experimental elements in theme and style are inhibitors for the big studios.
On the business side, the costs of big-budget studio films also leads to conservative choices in cast and crew. The problem is exacerbated by the trend towards co-financing (over two-thirds of the films put out by [[Warner Bros.]] in [[2000]] were joint ventures, up from 10% in [[1987]]). An unproven director is almost never given the opportunity to get his or her big break with the studios unless he or she has significant industry experience in film or television. They also rarely produce films with unknown actors, particularly in lead roles.
Until the advent of [[digital film|digital]] alternatives, the cost of professional film equipment and stock was also a hurdle to being able to produce, direct, or star in a traditional studio film. The cost of [[35mm film]] is outpacing inflation: in [[2002]] alone, film negative costs were up 23%, according to ''[[Variety (magazine)|Variety]]''. Film requires expensive lighting and [[post-production]] facilities.
But the advent of consumer [[camcorder]]s in [[1985]], and more importantly, the arrival of high-resolution [[digital video]] in the early [[1990s]], have lowered the technology barrier to movie production significantly. Both production and post-production costs have been significantly lowered; today, the hardware and software for post-production can be installed in a commodity-based [[personal computer]]. Technologies such as [[DVD]]s, [[FireWire|IEEE 1394]] connections and [[non-linear editing system]] pro-level software like [[Adobe Premiere Pro]] and [[Final Cut Pro]], and consumer level software such as [[Final Cut Express]] and [[iMovie]] make movie-making relatively inexpensive.
Since the introduction of [[DV]] technology, the means of production have become more democratized. Filmmakers can conceivably shoot and edit a movie, create and edit the sound and music, and mix the final cut on a home computer. However, while the means of production may be democratized, financing, distribution, and marketing remain difficult to accomplish outside the traditional system. Most independent filmmakers rely on film festivals to get their films noticed and sold for distribution.
==Animation==
{{main|Animation}}
Animation is the technique in which each frame of a film is produced individually, whether generated as a computer graphic, or by photographing a drawn image, or by repeatedly making small changes to a model unit (see [[claymation]] and [[stop motion]]), and then photographing the result with a special [[animation camera]]. When the frames are strung together and the resulting film is viewed at a speed of 16 or more frames per second, there is an illusion of continuous movement (due to the [[persistence of vision]]). Generating such a film is very labour intensive and tedious, though the development of [[computer animation]] has greatly sped up the process.
[[Graphics file format]]s like [[GIF]], [[MNG]], [[SVG]] and [[Macromedia Flash|Flash]] allow animation to be viewed on a computer or over the Internet.
Because animation is very time-consuming and often very expensive to produce, the majority of animation for [[Television|TV]] and movies comes from professional animation studios. However, the field of [[independent animation]] has existed at least since the [[1950s]], with animation being produced by independent studios (and sometimes by a single person). Several independent animation producers have gone on to enter the professional animation industry.
[[Limited animation]] is a way of increasing production and decreasing costs of animation by using "short cuts" in the animation process. This method was pioneered by [[United Productions of America|UPA]] and popularized (some say exploited) by [[Hanna-Barbera]], and adapted by other studios as cartoons moved from [[movie theater]]s to [[television]].
==Film venues==
When it is initially produced, a film is normally shown to audiences in a [[movie theater]]. The first theater designed exclusively for cinema opened in [[Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania]] in [[1905]]. Thousands of such theaters were built or converted from existing facilities within a few years. In the [[United States]], these theaters came to be known as [[Nickelodeon movie theater|nickelodeons]], b |
ght fleet [[aircraft carriers]]. She was laid down [[October 12]], [[1943]] and launched [[September 22]], [[1945]], but work was suspended in May [[1946]]. She was sold to India in January [[1957]], and commissioned [[March 4]], [[1961]] as [[INS Vikrant|INS ''Vikrant'']].
{{shipindex}}
[[Category:Royal Navy ship names|Hercules]]
[[sl:HMS Hercules]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>HMAS Sydney</title>
<id>14327</id>
<revision>
<id>41150325</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-25T10:20:25Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>SpookyMulder</username>
<id>87517</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">Four ships of the [[Royal Australian Navy]] have been named '''HMAS ''Sydney''''' after [[Sydney]], the capital city of [[New South Wales]].
*[[HMAS Sydney (1912)|''Sydney'']] (1912) - [[Town class cruiser (1910)|''Town'' class]] [[light cruiser]] launched [[29 August]] [[1912]]. Engaged and sank the smaller German light cruiser [[SMS Emden|SMS ''Emden'']] at the [[Battle of Cocos]], near the [[Cocos (Keeling) Islands]] in the [[Indian Ocean]] on [[November 9]] [[1914]].
*[[HMAS Sydney (1934)|''Sydney'']] (1934) - Modified [[Leander class cruiser (1931)|''Leander'' class]] light cruiser launched [[22 September]] [[1934]]. The ship was laid down as HMS ''Phaeton'', but was purchased by the Australian Government before completion. Engaged the disguised German raider [[German auxiliary cruiser Kormoran|HSK ''Kormoran'']] off [[Western Australia]] on [[November 19]] [[1941]] and both ships sank. Neither wreck has been found and there were apparently no survivors from ''Sydney''. (See also [[Battle between HMAS Sydney and HSK Kormoran]].)
*[[HMAS Sydney (1944)|''Sydney'']] (1944) - [[Majestic class aircraft carrier|''Majestic'' class]] light [[aircraft carrier]] launched [[30 September]] [[1944]] as HMS ''Terrible'' and commissioned into the RAN [[16 December]] [[1948]]. Used as a vehicle transport during the [[Vietnam War]]. Sold to Taiwan for scrapping in 1975.
*[[HMAS Sydney (FFG03)|''Sydney'']] (1980) - [[Adelaide class frigate|''Adelaide'' class]] guided missile [[frigate]] launched [[26 September]] [[1980]].
*[[HMAS Sydney (2017)|''Sydney'']] - Air warfare destroyer to enter service after 2013.
{{shipindex}}
[[ja:シドニー (豪海軍)]]
[[pl:Sydney (okr&#281;t)]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Hunter S. Thompson</title>
<id>14328</id>
<revision>
<id>42105187</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T21:34:08Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>71.192.100.171</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Middle years */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:10504755110907657454.jpg|225px|right|thumb|Hunter S. Thompson (Photo by Allen G. Arpadi)]]
'''Hunter Stockton Thompson''' ([[July 18]], [[1937]] &ndash; [[February 20]], [[2005]]) &ndash; was an [[United States|American]] [[journalist]] and [[author]]. He was known for his flamboyant writing style, most notably in his novel ''[[Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas]]'', which blurred the distinctions between writer and subject, fiction and nonfiction. He was the creator of [[gonzo journalism]] and, as such, is widely imitated.
==Early years==
A [[Louisville, Kentucky]] native, Thompson grew up in the [[Cherokee Triangle]] neighborhood of the [[Highlands]] and attended [[Louisville Male High School]]. His parents, Jack (d. [[1952]]) and Virginia (d. [[1999]]), married in [[1935]]. Jack's death left three sons&mdash;Hunter, Davison, and James&mdash;to be brought up by their mother, who was a heavy drinker.{{fn|1}} Thompson's difficult youth, and its influence on his behavior and the development of his misanthropic [[worldview]], awaits serious literary analysis.
After early trouble with the law, including an arrest in [[1956]] for robbery, he enlisted in the [[Air Force]] as part of his sentence. At [[Eglin Air Force Base]], [[Florida]], in [[1956]], he began working as a [[sports]] journalist, writing for the base [[newspaper]] and moonlighting for various local newspapers on the side, despite regulations. He was discharged in [[1958]] and claimed to have been issued a "totally unclassifiable" status. On the [[GI Bill]] Thompson attended the [[Columbia University]]'s School of General Studies where he took classes on short story writing, while maintaining a [[Beat generation|beat]]-inspired lifestyle in [[New York City]].
During this time he also worked briefly for [[Time Magazine]] as a copyboy for $50 a week. While at Time he also copied two novels in their entirety on a typewriter in order to learn about the writing styles of the authors. They were [[F. Scott Fitzgerald]]'s ''[[The Great Gatsby]]'' and [[Ernest Hemingway]]'s ''[[A Farewell To Arms]]''. He was fired from the job at Time in early [[1959]] for insubordination. Later that year, he also worked briefly as a reporter for the [[Middletown Daily Record]] in upstate [[New York]]. He was fired from this job after damaging an office candy machine and, separately, arguing with the owner of a local restaurant who happened to be an advertiser with the paper.
In [[1960]] Thompson moved to [[San Juan, Puerto Rico]] to take a job with the sporting magazine ''[[El Sportivo]]'' which soon folded. However the move to Puerto Rico was the beginning of a period during which Thompson was to travel extensively in the [[Caribbean Islands|Caribbean]] and [[South America]] writing [[freelancer|freelance]] articles for a number of U.S. daily newspapers. While in [[Puerto Rico]] he befriended noted journalist [[William Kennedy (author)|William Kennedy]]. Thompson also spent time as a [[South America]]n correspondent for a [[Dow Jones and Company|Dow Jones]]-owned weekly newspaper, the ''[[National Observer]]''. In the early 1960s he lived and worked as a security guard at [[Big Sur]] Hot Springs at the time it became the [[Esalen Institute]].
[[Image:Gonzo_quote.PNG|left|thumbnail|A modification of one of Thompson's original [[Gonzo]] flyers during his bid for [[sheriff]] of [[Aspen, Colorado]].]]
In these years Thompson wrote two serious novels (''[[Prince Jellyfish]]'' and ''[[The Rum Diary]]'') and many [[short stories]], submitting them to many publishers. ''The Rum Diary'' was only published in [[1998]] long after Thompson had become a celebrity. Kennedy later remarked that he and Thompson were both failed novelists who had turned to journalism in order to make a living.
He married his long-time girlfriend Sandra Dawn Conklin (a.k.a. Sandy Conklin Thompson, now Sondi Wright) on [[May 19]], [[1963]]. The couple had one son, Juan Fitzgerald Thompson, born [[March 23]], [[1964]]. The couple conceived five more times together, however, three were miscarriages, and two died shortly after birth. In [[Rolling Stone]] issue 970, a tribute issue for Hunter, Sandy wrote, " I ... want to acknowledge the five children Hunter and I lost &mdash; two full term babies, three miscarriages.... I had so wanted more Hunters! One of the most beautiful gifts that Hunter ever gave me ... Sarah, our full term, eight-pound baby, lived about twelve hours. I lay there in Aspen Valley Hospital waiting, and when I saw the doctor's face it was unbearable. I thought I might go mad. Hunter leaned over the bed and said, '''Sandy, if you want to go out there for awhile &mdash; do that, just know that Juan and I really need you''.' I was back." After nineteen years together and seventeen years of marriage, Hunter and Sandy divorced in [[1980]]; the two remained close friends until Hunter's death.
Thompson got his big break in [[1965]] when he was approached by ''[[The Nation (U.S. periodical)|The Nation]]'' editor [[Carey McWilliams (journalist)|Carey McWilliams]] with an idea for a story based upon his experience with the notorious [[Hells Angels]] motorcycle gang. Thompson had spent a year living and riding with the Hells Angels, but the relationship broke down when the bikers suspected that Thompson was making money from his writing, and they demanded a share of the profits. The author ended up with a savage beating, or 'stomping' as the Angels referred to it. After the article was published by ''The Nation'' ([[May 17]], [[1965]]), numerous book offers on the subject came his way, and [[Random House]] published the hard cover ''[[Hells Angels: The Strange and Terrible Saga of the Outlaw Motorcycle Gangs]]'' in [[1966]].
In the late 1960s, Thompson received a "doctorate" in Divinity from a mail-order church while living in [[San Francisco]]. He was jocularly referred to as "the Good Doctor" on account.
==Middle years==
Thompson went on to work for [[Rolling Stone magazine|''Rolling Stone'' magazine]] where his next two books, ''[[Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas]]'' and ''[[Fear and Loathing on the Campaign Trail 1972]]'', were first serialized.
Published in [[1971]], ''Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas: A Savage Journey to the Heart of the American Dream'' is a first-person account by a journalist (Thompson himself, under the pseudonym "Raoul Duke") on a trip to [[Las Vegas]] with his "300-pound [[Samoa]]n" [[attorney]], "[[Dr. Gonzo]]" (a character inspired by Thompson's friend, [[Chicano]] lawyer [[Oscar Zeta Acosta]]) to cover a [[narcotics]] officers' convention and the "fabulous [[Mint 400]]" [[motorcycle]] race. During the trip, he and his lawyer become sidetracked by a search for the [[American dream]], with the aid of copious amounts of [[alcohol]], [[LSD]], [[Diethyl ether|ether]], [[adrenochrome]], [[mescaline]], [[cocaine]], [[marijuana]] and other drugs. [[Ralph Steadman]], who collaborated with Thompson on several projects, contributed [[expressionism|expressionist]] pen and ink illustrations.
''Fear and Loathing on the Campaign Trail '72'' is a collection of ''Rolling Stone'' articles he wrote wh |
[[Ural Mountains]], and this terminology has spread to the rest of the world, even though ''Asia'' contains multiple [[subregion|regions]] and cultures as large and populous as Europe, and as different and geographically separated from each other as they are from Europe.
[[Jared Diamond]], in his book [[Guns, Germs and Steel]], credits Eurasia's dominance in world history to the east-west extent of Eurasia and its climate zones, and the availability of [[Eurasian]] animals and plants suitable for domestication.
The [[Silk Road]] symbolizes trade and cultural exchange linking[[ Eurasian]] cultures through history and has been an increasingly popular topic. Recent decades have brought forth a view toward a greater [[Eurasian history]], establishing genetic, cultural, and [[linguistic]] relationships between European and Asian cultures of antiquity, which had long been thought of as distinct.
==Other uses==
Eurasia was also a [[fictional country]] comprising approximately the same land area in [[George Orwell]]'s ''[[Nineteen Eighty-Four]]'', excluding the British Isles (controlled by [[Oceania_(fiction)|Oceania]]) and [[Eastasia]], the latter of which was formed, as the novel says, by an alliance of the states of the region, being the most important couple China and Japan after a 'decade of confused fighting'. India was a contested border zone between ''Eurasia'' and ''Oceania''.<br>
In the game universe of the Earth series (Earth 2140,2150,2160), one of the major factions was the Eurasian Dynasty.
==See also==
{{Commons|Eurasia}}
*[[Palearctic]]
*[[Laurasia]], a theoretical supercontinent joining Eurasia and North America.
*[[Eurasian Economic Community]]
*[[Neo-Eurasianism]]
==External links==
*[http://www.eurasianet.org EurasiaNet provides information and analysis about political, economic, environmental and social developments in the countries of Central Asia and the Caucasus, as well as in Russia, the Middle East, and Southwest Asia.]
{{Continent}}
{{Region}}
[[Category:Continents]]
[[Category:Eurasia]]
[[als:Eurasien]]
[[an:Eurasia]]
[[ast:Eurasia]]
[[bg:Евразия]]
[[cs:Eurasie]]
[[cy:Ewrasia]]
[[da:Eurasien]]
[[de:Eurasien]]
[[et:Euraasia]]
[[el:Ευρασία]]
[[es:Eurasia]]
[[eo:Eŭrazio]]
[[eu:Eurasia]]
[[fr:Eurasie]]
[[fy:Jeraazje]]
[[gl:Eurasia]]
[[ko:유라시아]]
[[hr:Euroazija]]
[[id:Eurasia]]
[[is:Evrasía]]
[[it:Eurasia]]
[[he:אירואסיה]]
[[ka:ევრაზია]]
[[la:Eurasia]]
[[lt:Eurazija]]
[[hu:Eurázsia]]
[[mo:Еурасия]]
[[nl:Eurazië]]
[[nds:Eurasien]]
[[ja:ユーラシア大陸]]
[[no:Eurasia]]
[[pl:Eurazja]]
[[pt:Eurásia]]
[[ro:Eurasia]]
[[ru:Евразия]]
[[simple:Eurasia]]
[[sk:Eurázia]]
[[sl:Evrazija]]
[[fi:Euraasia]]
[[sv:Eurasien]]
[[th:ทวีปยูเรเชีย]]
[[tr:Avrasya]]
[[zh:亞歐大陸]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Epistolary novel</title>
<id>10011</id>
<revision>
<id>40450485</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-20T17:20:22Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Olaf Simons</username>
<id>131980</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* External Links */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Behn Love-Letters 1684.jpg|thumb|200px|Titlepage of Aphra Behn's ''Love-Letters'' (1684)]]
An '''epistolary novel''' is written as a series of documents. The usual form is [[letter]]s, although [[diary|diary entries]], [[newspaper]] clippings and other documents are sometimes used. The word "epistolary" comes from the word "epistle," meaning letters.
One argument for using the epistolary form is that it can add greater [[realism (arts)|realism]] and [[verisimilitude]] to the story, chiefly because it mimics the workings of real life. It is thus able to demonstrate differing points of view without recourse to the device of an [[omniscient narrator]].
==Early Works==
It is difficult to make out "the first" epistolary novel. The exchange between [[Abelard]] and [[Heloise (student of Abelard)|Heloise]], imbedded in the ''[[Roman de la Rose]]'' (1230) was an epistolary novel. Several Humanists wrote satirical fictional letters. The 17th century saw the genre exploring politics and scandal. The (sexually explicit) ''[[Letters of a Portuguese Nun]]'' ([[1667]]-[[1668]]) by [[Marianna Alcoforado]] became immensly famous and were translated into several European languages.
The first novel exploring the whole complex play the genre allowed were Aphra Behn's ''[[Love-Letters between a Noble-Man and his Sister]]'' which appeared in three successive volumes in 1684, 1685 and 1687. The novel risked the genre's power of changing perspectives: individual points were presented with the individual correspondents, the central author's voice and moral judgement disappeared (at least in the first volume, her further volumes introduced a narrator's voice). Behn furthermore explored a realm of intrigue with letters which got into the wrong hands, with faked letters, with letters withheld by protagonists of the more and more complex interaction.
The epistolary novel as a genre became popular in the [[18th century]] in the works of such authors as [[Samuel Richardson]], with his first novel ''[[Pamela]]'' ([[1740]]). In [[France]], there was ''[[Lettres persanes]]'' ([[1721]]) by [[Charles de Secondat, Baron de Montesquieu|Montesquieu]], followed by ''[[Julie, ou la nouvelle Héloïse]]'' ([[1761]]) by [[Jean-Jacques Rousseau]], and [[Pierre Choderlos de Laclos|Laclos]]' ''[[Les Liaisons dangereuses]]'' ([[1782]]), which used the epistolary form to great dramatic effect, because the sequence of events was not always related directly or explicitly. In Germany, there was [[Johann Wolfgang von Goethe]]'s ''[[The Sorrows of Young Werther|Die Leiden des jungen Werther]]'' ([[1774]]) (''[[The Sorrows of Young Werther]]'').
Later in the 18th century, the epistolary form was subject to much ridicule, resulting in a number of savage [[burlesque]]s. The most notable example of these was [[Henry Fielding]]'s ''[[Shamela]]'' ([[1741]]), written as a parody of ''Pamela''. In it, the female narrator can be found wielding a pen and scribbling her diary entries under the most dramatic and unlikeliest of circumstances.
The epistolary novel slowly fell out of use in the [[19th century]]. By the time [[Jane Austen]] popularized the technique of the [[omniscient narrator]], the epistolary form had become somewhat archaic. For example, ''[[Pride and Prejudice]]'' ([[1811]]) was originally written as an epistolary novel, but [[Jane Austen|Austen]] rewrote it using a third-person omniscient narrator.
==Later Works==
Epistolary novels have since made rare but memorable appearances in more recent literature. [[Fyodor Dostoevsky]] used the epistolary format for his first novel, ''[[Poor Folk]]'' ([[1846]]), as a series of letters between two lovers, struggling to cope with their impoverished circumstances and their fleeting plans to marry.
[[Bram Stoker]]'s ''[[Dracula]]'' ([[1897]]) uses not only letters and diaries, but dictation tapes and [[newspaper]] accounts.
[[C. S. Lewis]] used the epistolary form for ''[[The Screwtape Letters|The Screwtape Letters]]'' ([[1942]]), and considered writing a companion novel from an [[angel]]'s point of view -- though he never did so.
Some of [[J.D. Salinger]]'s stories about the [[Glass family]] are written in the form of letters.
''[[Flowers for Algernon]]'', written by [[Daniel Keyes]] in 1966 as an expanded version of his 1959 short story of the same name, is ostensibly the journal of mentally-retarded janitor Charlie Gordon, who temporarily becomes a super-genius during a medical experiment. Through changes in grammar and style, Charlie's mental rise and fall are presented in a remarkably effective and poignant way.
Japanese author [[Junichiro Tanizaki]] used the form of diary entries in ''[[Kagi]]'' ([[1956]]) (''[[The Key]]''), which was made into the film ''[[Odd Obsession]]'' ([[1960]]) starring [[Machiko Kyo]] and [[Tatsuya Nakadai]].
Other notable examples from the mid-[[20th century]] are two novels by French author [[Hubert Monteilhet]]: ''[[The Praying Mantises|Les Mantes Religieuses]]'' ([[1960]]) (''[[The Praying Mantises]]''), made into a [[BBC]] television film in [[1982]], and ''[[Return From the Ashes|Le Retour des Cendres]]'' ([[1962]]) (''[[Return From the Ashes]]''), made into a film starring [[Maximilian Schell]] in [[1965]].
[[Emma Bull]] and [[Steven Brust]]'s ''[[Freedom and Necessity]]'' (1997) combines letters with diary entries, as does [[Alice Walker]]'s ''[[The Color Purple]]'' (1982).
The epistolary form has made a few appearances in contemporary literature, such as [[Stephen Chbosky]]'s ''[[The Perks of Being a Wallflower]]'' (1999), [[Andrew Crumey]]'s ''[[Mr Mee]]'' (2001), and [[Tim Parks]]' ''[[Home Thoughts]]'' (1999). Arguably, both ''[[Ella Minnow Pea]]'' (2001) and ''[[Ibid: A Life]]'' (2004) by [[Mark Dunn]] are also written as epistolary novels.
''[[The Green Mile]]'' (1996), by [[Stephen King]] was written in a collection of six, one-hundred page books, and in its introduction King explains why he wanted it published in epistolary form, calling them "chapbooks."
The most recent mutation of the epistolary novel is the novel in e-mails. Examples include [[Carl Steadman]]'s ''[[Two Solitudes]]'' ([[1994]]), [[Rob Wittig]]'s ''[[Blue Company]]'' ([[2001]]), and [[Rosie Rushton]] and [[Nina Schindler]]'s ''[[P.S. He's Mine!]]'' ([[2001]]). In Spanish, the most important epistolary novel is the recent ''[http://www.ciudadseva.com/libros/voltaire.htm Voltaire's Heart]'' (2005) by well- known Puerto Rican author [[Luis López Nieves]].
==External Links==
* [http://www.pierre-marteau.com/editions/letters-1684-87.html Aphra Behn, ''Love-Letters between a Noble-Man and his Sister'' (1684-87).]
[[Category:Narratology]]
[[da:Brevroman]]
[[de:Briefroman]]
[[es:Novela epistolar]]
[[nl:Briefroman]]
[[ja:書簡体小説]]
[[pl:Powieść epistolarna]]
[[pt:Romance epistolar]]
|
t this term has come to represent; though many still refer to themselves as such. There have always been diverse views on issues, such as openness to cooperation with non-Evangelicals, the applicability of the Bible to political choices and social or scientific issues, and even the limited inerrancy of the Bible.
However, the movement has managed in an informal way, to reserve the name ''Evangelical'' for those who adhere to an historic Christian faith, a ''paleo-orthodoxy'', as some have put it. Those who call themselves "moderate evangelicals"(although considered conservative in relation to society as a whole) still hold fast to the fundamentals of the historic Christian faith. Even "Liberal" Evangelicals label themselves as such not so much in terms of their theology, but rather to advertise that they are progressive in their civic, social, or scientific perspective.
There is some debate as to whether [[Pentecostal]]s are considered to be Evangelical. Their roots in [[Pietism]] and the [[Holiness movement]] are undisputedly Evangelical, but their doctrinal distinctives differ from the more traditional Evangelicals, who are less likely to have an expectation of private revelations from God, and differ from the Pentecostal perspective on [[miracles]], [[angels]] and [[demons]]. Typically, those who include the Pentecostals in the Evangelical camp are labeled ''neo-evangelical'' by those who do not. The [[National Association of Evangelicals]] has numerous trinitarian Pentecostal denominations among their membership. Another relatively late entrant to wide acceptance within the Evangelical fold is the [[Seventh-day Adventist Church]].
Evangelicals are as diverse as the names that appear- Billy Graham, [[Chuck Colson]], J. Vernon McGee, [[Benny Hinn]], [[J.I. Packer]], [[John Stott|John R.W. Stott]], [[Pat Robertson]], [[Jimmy Carter]], etc.- or even Evangelical institutions such as Dallas Theological Seminary (dispensationalist), Gordon-Conwell Theological Seminary (Calvinist, Boston), [[Trinity Evangelical Divinity School]] (Chicago), Wheaton College (Illinois), the Christian Coalition, The Christian Embassy (Jerusalem), etc. Although there exists a diversity in the Evangelical community worldwide, the ties that bind all Evangelicals are still apparent. A "high view" of Scripture, belief in the Deity of Christ, the Trinity, salvation by grace through faith, and the bodily resurrection of Christ, to mention a few.
There has also been a polarization of the [[Anglican Communion]] worldwide chiefly because of actions taken by some Anglicans and Episcopalians in the U.S. and Canada.
====10/40 Window====
Evangelicals defined and prioritized efforts to reach the "unreached" in the late 20th and early 21st centuries to focus on countries roughly between 10 north and 40 degrees south latitude. This area is mostly dominated by Muslim nations, many who do not allow missionaries of other religions to enter their countries.
=== Spread of secularism ===
In [[Europe]] there has been a general move away from religious observance and belief in Christian teachings and a move towards [[secularism]]. The "secularization of society", attributed to the time of the Renaissance and its following years, is largely responsible for the spread of secularism. For example the Gallup International Millennium Survey[http://www.gallup-international.com/survey15.htm] showed that only about one sixth of Europeans attend regular religious services, less than half gave God "high importance", and only about 40% believe in a "personal God". Nevertheless the large majority considered that they "belong" to a [[religious denomination]]. Numbers show that the "de-Christianization" of Europe has slowly begun to swing in the opposite direction. Renewal in certain quarters of the Anglican church, as well as in pockets of Protestantism on the continent attest to this initial reversal of the secularization of Europe, the continent in which Christianity originally took its strongest roots and world expansion.
In [[North America]], [[South America]] and [[Australia]], the other three continents where Christianity is the dominant professed religion, religious observance is much higher than in Europe. At the same time, these regions are often seen by other nations as being uptight and "Victorian", in their social mores. In general, the United States leans toward the conservative in comparison to other western nations in its general culture, in part due to the Christian element found primarily in its mid-western and southern states.
South America, historically Catholic, has experienced a large Evangelical and Pentecostal infusion in the 20th Century due to the influx of Christian missionaries from abroad. For example: [[Brazil]], South America's largest country, is the largest Catholic country in the world, and at the same time is the largest Evangelical country in the world (based on population). Some of the largest Christian congregations in the world are found in Brazil.
Australia has seen renewal in different parts of her Anglican Church, as well as a growing presence of an Evangelical community. Although more "traditional" in its Anglican roots, the nation has seen growth in its religious sector. Some of its religious programming is even exported via satellite.
== 21st century ==
*[[Emerging Church]]
*[[Paleo-Orthodoxy]]
*[[Christianity and Islam]]
*[[Homosexuality and Christianity]]
==Historiography==
Noted historians of Christianity include:
* [[Eusebius]]
* [[Gregory of Tours]]
* [[Caesar Baronius]]
* [[Isaac Casaubon]]
* [[Edward Gibbon]]
==See also==
*[[History of the Roman Catholic Church]]
*[[Revival (religious)]]
*[[Timeline of Christianity]]
*[[Esoteric Christianity]] Christian religion as a Mystery religion
*[[Jesus in the Christian Bible]]
*[[Cultural and historical background of Jesus]]
==Print resources==
* {{cite book
| last = Gonzales | first = Justo
| title = The Story of Christianity: Vol. 1: The Early Church to the Reformation
| location = San Francisco
| publisher = Harper
| year = 1984
| id = ISBN 0060633158
}}
* {{cite book
| last = Gonzales | first = Justo
| title = The Story of Christianity, Vol. 2: The Reformation to the Present Day
| location = San Francisco
| publisher = Harper
| year = 1985
| id = ISBN 0060633166
}}
* {{cite book
| last = Latorette | first = Kenneth Scott
| title = A History of Christianity, Volume 1: Beginnings to 1500 (Revised)
| year = 1975
| location = San Francisco
| publisher = Harper
| id = ISBN 0060649526 (paperback)
}}
* {{cite book
| last = Latorette | first = Kenneth Scott
| title = A History of Christianity, Volume 2
| year = 1975
| location = San Francisco
| publisher = Harper
| id = ISBN 0060649534 (paperback)
}}
* {{cite book
| last = Shelley | first = Bruce L.
| year = 1996
| title = Church History in Plain Language
| edition = 2nd edition
| id = ISBN 0849938619
}}
* {{cite book
| last = Hastings | first = Adrian
| year = 1999
| title = A World History of Christianity
| publisher = Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing
| id = ISBN 0802849753
}}
==External links==
The following links give an overview of the history of Christianity:
*[http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/cgi-local/DHI/dhi.cgi?id=dv1-49 ''Dictionary of the History of Ideas'':] Christianity in History
*[http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/cgi-local/DHI/dhi.cgi?id=dv1-50 ''Dictionary of the History of Ideas'':] Church as an Institution
*[http://www.wikichristian.org/index.php?title=Church_history_and_denominations Church history at WikiChristian]
The following link provides quantitative data related to Christianity and other major religions, including rates of adherence at different points in time:
*[http://www.thearda.com American Religion Data Archive]
*[http://www.religiousbook.net/Books/Online_books/Sh/Heart_20.html Early Stages of the Establishment of Christianity]
*[http://www.theandros.com Theandros], a journal of Orthodox theology and philosophy, containing articles on early Christianity and patristic studies.
[[Category:Christian history]]
[[Category:Jewish Christian topics]]
[[cs:Dějiny církve]]
[[de:Christentumsgeschichte]]
[[es:Historia del cristianismo]]
[[fi:Kristinuskon historia]]
[[fr:Histoire du christianisme]]
[[it:Storia del Cristianesimo]]
[[ja:キリスト教の歴史]]
[[nl:Geschiedenis van het christendom]]
[[pl:Historia chrzescijaństwa]]
[[zh:基督教历史]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Hexamter</title>
<id>14118</id>
<revision>
<id>15911695</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Hexameter]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Melody dominated homophony</title>
<id>14119</id>
<revision>
<id>28675605</id>
<timestamp>2005-11-18T15:37:55Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Celestianpower</username>
<id>240556</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>fix doubke word</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Melody dominated homophony''' is [[music]] in which the top line has a dominant [[melody]] in a different [[rhythm]], and all the voices [[Accompaniment|accompany]] it with [[homophony|homophonic]] [[chord (music)|chord]]s.
This music has a distinct [[melody]] and [[harmony]].
Homophony is contrasted with [[polyphony]] (in which each voice is [[counterpoint|contrapuntally]] independent and equal) and [[monophony]] (in which there is only one voice).
Most [[popular music]] can be described as melody dominated homophony. This type of music could be considered a [[monody]], but this is generally applied to Italian song of the early 17th century.
== See also |
d>
<timestamp>2006-02-27T13:37:59Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>CambridgeBayWeather</username>
<id>294180</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/195.188.141.162|195.188.141.162]] ([[User talk:195.188.141.162|talk]]) to last version by Gmapps</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''For films with the same title, see [[Holiday (film)|Holiday film (disambiguation)]]. For songs with the same title, see [[Holiday (song)|Holiday song (disambiguation)]].''
The word '''holiday''' has related but different meanings in English-speaking countries. Based on the words [[holy]] and [[day]] -, holidays originally represented special religious days. The word has evolved in general usage to mean any special day.
In most of the English-speaking world a holiday is also a period spent away from home or business in [[travel]] or [[recreation]] (e.g. "I'm going on holiday to [[Malta]] next week"), the North American equivalent being "[[vacation]]". However, some Canadians (especially those of English or Irish decent) will use both the terms vacation and holiday interchangeably when referring to a trip away from home or time off work.
In [[Canada]] and the [[United States]], a '''Holiday''' is a day set aside by a [[nation]] or [[culture]] (in some cases, multiple nations and cultures) typically for [[celebration (party)|celebration]] but sometimes for some other kind of special culture-wide (or national) observation or activity. A holiday can also be a special day on which school and/or offices are closed, such as Labor Day.
<!--
The term ''farmy holidays'' is used in reference to [[agritourism]].
^ no evidence for this outside Wikipedia
-->
==Public holidays==
A '''public holiday''' or '''legal holiday''' is a holiday endorsed by the [[state]]. Public holidays can be either religious, in which case they reflect the dominant [[religion]] in a country, or [[secular]], in which case they are usually [[political]] or [[historical]] in character. "Public Holiday" is the term used in Australia and "Bank Holiday" in the UK — although some industries in the UK work through Bank Holidays — while "[[Legal holiday]]" is the term used within the United States of America.
==Consecutive holidays==
'''Consecutive holidays''' are a string of holidays taken together without working days in between. They tend to be considered a good chance to take short trips. In late 1990s, the [[Japan]]ese government passed a law that increased the likelihood of consecutive holidays by moving holidays from fixed days to a relative position in a month, such as the second Monday. Well-known consecutive holidays include:
* Began at 2000, in the [[People's Republic of China]], [[Spring Festival]], [[May Day|Labor Day]] and [[National Day]] are week-long holidays.
* In Japan, ''[[golden-week]]'', lasting roughly a full week.
* In [[Poland]] during holidays on the [[1 May|1st]] and [[3 May|3rd May]], when taking a few days of [[leave]] can result in [[Holidays in Poland|9-day]]-long holidays; this is called The [[Picnic]] (or Majówka).
* In [[Ireland]], [[St. Patrick's Day]] can occasionally occur in [[Holy Week]], the week before [[Easter]]; in this case the three holidays (St. Patrick's Day, [[Good Friday]], and [[Easter Monday]]) plus three days leave can result in a 10-day break.
* In [[Australia]] and [[England]], a public holiday otherwise falling on a Sunday will result in observance of the public holiday on the next available weekday (generally Monday). This arrangement results in a [[Long_weekend|long weekend]]
* The [[Congress of the United States|U.S. Congress]] changed the observance of [[Memorial Day]], [[Veterans Day]], and [[Presidents' Day|Washington's Birthday]] from fixed dates to certain Mondays in 1968 (effective 1971). Several states had passed similar laws earlier.
== Religious holidays ==
=== [[Buddhist]] holidays ===
*[[Wesak]]
*[[Matsuri]] (in [[Japan]], could also be considered a [[Shinto]] holiday)
*[[Blessed Rainy Day]] in [[Bhutan]]
=== [[Celtic mythology|Celtic]], [[Norse mythology|Norse]], and [[Neopaganism|Neopagan]] holidays ===
''In the order of the [[Wheel of the Year]]:''
*[[Samhain]] (Celtic): [[31 October]]-[[1 November]], Celtic [[New Year]], first day of [[winter]]
*[[Winternights]] (Norse): [[29 October]]-[[2 November]], Norse [[New Year]]
*[[Yule]] (Norse): [[21 December]]-[[22 December]], [[winter solstice]], Celtic [[mid-winter]]
*[[Imbolc]] (Celtic): [[1 February]]-[[2 February]], Celtic first day of [[Spring (season)|spring]]
*[[Ostara]]/[[Easter]] (Norse): [[21 March]]-[[22 march]], [[vernal equinox]], Celtic [[mid-spring]]
*[[Beltane]] (Celtic): [[30 April]]-[[1 May]], Celtic first day of [[summer]]
*[[Litha]] (Norse): [[21 June]]-[[22 June]], [[summer solstice]], Celtic [[midsummer|mid-summer]]
*[[Lughnasadh]] (Celtic): [[1 August]]-[[2 August]], Celtic first day of [[autumn]]
*[[Mabon]]/[[Harvest End]] (Norse): [[21 September]]-[[22 September]], [[autumnal equinox]], Celtic [[mid-fall]]
=== [[Christianity|Christian]] holidays ===
{{seealso|liturgical year}}
*[[Advent]]
*[[All Saints' Day]]
*[[All Souls' Day]]
*[[Ascension Day]] (Ascension of [[Jesus]] into Heaven)
*[[Ash Wednesday]]
*[[Assumption of Mary]] (Assumption of the Virgin Mary)
*[[Candlemas]]
*[[Childermas]]
*[[Christmas]] (Birth of [[Jesus]])
*[[Corpus Christi]]
*(Sacrifice of [[Jesus]])
*[[Easter]] ([[Resurrection of Jesus]])
*[[Easter Triduum]]
**[[Easter Vigil]]
**[[Good Friday]] (Death of [[Jesus]])
**[[Holy Saturday]]
**[[Holy Thursday]] (Celebration of [[The Last Supper]])
*[[Epiphany (feast)|Epiphany]]
*[[Lent]]
*[[Pentecost]] or [[Whitsun]] (Descent of the [[Holy Spirit]] upon the disciples of [[Jesus]])
*[[Shrove Tuesday]] or [[Mardi Gras]] (last day of [[Carnival]])
*[[Winter Lent]]
*[[Watch Night]]
The Catholic [[fiesta patronal|fiestas patronales]] are celebrated in each place's patron saint's day, according to the [[Calendar of saints]].
=== [[Hinduism|Hindu]] holidays===
*[[Baisakhi]]
*[[Daserra]]
*[[Diwali]]
**[[Diwali Amvasaya]] ([[Laxmi]] Puja)
**Diwali (day 2)
**[[Bhaubeej]]
*[[Ekadasi]]
*[[Ganesh Chaturthi]]
*[[Gokul Ashtami]]
*[[Gudhi Padwa]]
*[[Holi]]
*[[Mahashivratri]]
*[[Makar Sankranti]]
*[[Onam]]
*[[Pongal]]
*[[Rama-Lilas]]
*[[Ram Navami]]
*[[Vaikunta Ekadasi]]
*Ugadi
=== [[Islam]]ic holidays ===
*[[Aashurah]] (especially in [[Shi'a Islam]])
*[[Eid festival|Eid]]: date determined by the [[lunar calendar]] and observation of the moon
**[[Eid ul-Fitr]], Lesser Bairam
***[[Eid ul-Adha]], Greater Bairam
*[[Festival of Muharram]]
*[[Ramadan]]
=== [[Jewish]] holidays ===
{{main|Jewish holiday}}
*[[Hanukkah]] (also: Chanukah; the Festival of Lights)
*[[Lag Ba'omer]]
*[[Passover]]
*[[Purim]] (Based on the events in the Biblical book of Esther)
*[[Rosh Hashanah]] (New Year)
*[[Shavuot]] (Pentecost)
*[[Sukkot]] (The Feast of Tabernacles)
*[[Tisha B'Av]]
*[[Tu Bishvat]] (New year of the trees)
*[[Yom Kippur]] (Day of Atonement)
=== [[Bahá'í Faith|Bahá'í]] holidays ===
{{main|Bahá'í calendar}}
*[[Naw Ruz]] (Bahá'í New Year)
*1st Day of [[Ridván]]
*9th Day of Ridvan
*12th Day of Ridvan
*Declaration of the [[Báb]]
*Ascension of [[Bahá'u'lláh]]
*Martyrdom of the Báb
*Birth of the Báb
*Birth of Bahá'u'lláh
==The Northern Hemisphere winter holiday season==
In many [[Western countries]], the '''winter holiday season''' is a period of time surrounding [[Christmas]]. Except in North America, the phrases "holiday season" and "holiday period" usually mean the summer months when most people take their annual holiday ("[[vacation]]" in North American English), and phrases such as the "festive period" are used to describe the period around [[Christmas]] and [[New Year]]. Usually, this festive period begins near the end of November and ends with [[New Year's Day]] on [[January 1]], reflecting traditional [[Paganism|pagan]] celebrations of the period around the [[winter solstice]] in the northern hemisphere. In some [[Christianity|Christian]] countries, the end of the festive season is considered to be after the feast of [[Epiphany]], although this has only symbolic value.
===Holidays traditionally in the winter holiday season===
*[[Thanksgiving]] - (second Monday in October in Canada, fourth Thursday in November in USA) &mdash; Holiday generally observed as an expression of [[gratitude]], traditionally to [[God]], for the [[autumn]] [[harvest]]. It is traditionally celebrated with a meal shared among friends and family in which [[turkey (bird)|turkey]] is eaten. It is celebrated by many as a secular holiday, and in the USA marks the beginning of the "holiday season".
*[[Hanukkah]] - (26 [[Kislev]] - 2/3 [[Tevet]] - almost always in December) &mdash; [[Jew]]ish holiday celebrating the defeat of [[Seleucid Empire|Seleucid]] forces who had tried to prevent [[Israel]] from practising [[Judaism]], and also celebrating the miracle of the [[Menorah]] lights burning for eight days with only enough (olive) oil for one day.
*[[Christmas Day]] - ([[25 December]]) &mdash; [[Christianity|Christian]] holiday commemorating the traditional birth-date of [[Jesus]]. Christmas is also celebrated as a secular gift-giving holiday; other observances include the decoration of trees and houses.
*[[Kwanzaa]] (USA) - ([[26 December]] - [[1 January]]) &mdash; Holiday observance held from [[December 26]] to [[January 1]] honoring African-American heritage, primarily in the United States. It was created in 1966.
*[[Boxing Day]] ([[26 December]]) &mdash; Holiday observed in many Commonwealth countries on [[26 December]]. In many European countries it is also a holiday, called St Stephen's Day or the second day of Christmas.
*[[New Year's Day]] - ([[1 January]]) &mdash; Holiday observing the first day of the year in the [[Gregorian |
l Signal|EROS]], a brain-scanning technique.
{{disambig}}
[[da:Eros]]
[[de:Eros]]
[[he:ארוס]]
[[it:Eros]]
[[nl:Eros]]
[[pl:Eros]]
[[pt:Eros (desambiguação)]]
[[sk:Eros]]
[[sv:Eros]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Endothermic</title>
<id>10356</id>
<revision>
<id>42009417</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T04:50:13Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Isopropyl</username>
<id>34650</id>
</contributor>
<comment>mergd in endothermic reaction</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Endothermic''' means to absorb heat. Its etymology stems from the Greek suffix ''–thermic'', meaning “to heat”, and the Greek prefix ''endo-,'' meaning “inside”. It refers to a transformation in which a system receives heat from the surroundings: ''Q > 0''. When the transformation occurs at constant pressure: ''∆H > 0''; and constant volume: ''∆U > 0''. If the surroundings do not supply heat, an endothermic transformation leads to a drop in the temperature of the system.
In [[chemistry]] an '''endothermic reaction''' is one in which the [[products]] have more [[energy]] than the [[reactants]]. A net input of energy, usually in the form of heat, is required. Endothermic reactions absorb [[heat]] from their environment, and contrast with [[exothermic reactions]], in which heat is released.
Although the process of bond breaking amongst reactants in a chemical process requires an initial input of energy (the [[activation energy]]), in the case of an endothermic reaction, the energy released when bonds are formed to create reactants is less than that required to break the bonds in the products; bonding electrons in the products are therefore at a higher energy than the reactants. Heat energy from the material surrounding the reactants is usually what breaks their bonds, so as heat energy is transferred from the surroundings to the reactants, the surroundings get colder. This is often summarized in a [[chemical equation]] as follows:
:Reactants + Energy &rarr; Products
==See also==
*[[Warm-blooded|Exothermic]]
== References ==
* {{cite book
| last = Perrot | first = Pierre
| title=A to Z of Thermodynamics
| publisher=Oxford University Press
| year=1998
| id=ISBN 0198565526
}}
[[Category:thermodynamics]]
[[de:Endotherm]]
[[nl:Endotherme reactie]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Earle Page</title>
<id>10357</id>
<revision>
<id>40950457</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-24T01:53:35Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Porturology</username>
<id>281675</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* External links */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox PM
| name=Rt Hon Sir Earle Page
| image=Earlepage.jpg
| country=Australia
| term=[[7 April]]&ndash;[[26 April]], [[1939]]
| before=[[Joseph Lyons]]
| after=[[Robert Menzies]]
| date_birth=[[8 August]] [[1880]]
| place_birth=[[Grafton, New South Wales|Grafton]], [[New South Wales]]
| date_death=[[20 December]] [[1961]]
| party=[[National Party of Australia|Country]]
}}
'''Earle Christmas Grafton Page''' ([[August 8]] [[1880]]&ndash;[[December 20]] [[1961]]), [[Australia]]n politician, was the eleventh [[Prime Minister of Australia]].
Born in [[Grafton, New South Wales]], he was educated at state schools and the [[University of Sydney]], where he graduated in medicine at the top of his year in [[1901]]. He practised in [[Sydney]] and Grafton before joining the [[Australian Army]] as a medical officer in the [[World War I|First World War]], serving in [[Egypt]]. After the war he went into farming and was elected Mayor of Grafton.
In [[1919]] Page was elected to the [[Australian House of Representatives]] as MP for [[Division of Cowper|Cowper]] as a candidate of the Farmers and Settlers Association of New South Wales, which in [[1920]] became the [[National Party of Australia|Country Party]]. He became the party's leader in [[1921]]. Dislike of the [[Billy Hughes|Hughes]] government's rural policies was one of the reasons the Country Party was formed, and when the party won the balance of power in the House at the [[1922]] elections, Page demanded and got Hughes's resignation as the price for supporting the [[Nationalist Party of Australia|Nationalist]] government.
Page then became Treasurer (finance minister) in the [[Stanley Bruce|Bruce]] government, a position he held until [[1929]]. He was a strong believer in orthodox finance and conservative policies, except where the welfare of farmers was concerned: then he was happy to see government money spent freely. He was also a "high protectionist": a supporter of high tariff barriers to protect Australian rural industries.
When the Bruce government was defeated by Labor in [[1929]], Page went into opposition. In [[1931]] [[Joseph Lyons]] was able to form a [[United Australia Party]] government without Country Party support. In [[1934]], however, the coalition was reformed, and Page became Minister for Commerce. He was knighted in [[1938]]. The title of Deputy Prime Minister did not then exist, but when Lyons died suddenly in [[1939]], it was Page whom the [[Alexander Hore-Ruthven, 1st Earl of Gowrie|Governor-General]] called on to become caretaker Prime Minister. He held the office for three weeks while the UAP elected a new leader.
Page had been very close to Lyons, and he disliked [[Robert Menzies]], Lyons's deputy, on the grounds that Menzies had been disloyal to Lyons. When Menzies was elected UAP leader, Page refused to serve under him, and made an extraordinary personal attack on him in the House. His party soon rebelled, however, and Page was deposed as Country Party leader and replaced by [[Archie Cameron]].
In [[1940]] Page and Menzies patched up their differences for the sake of the war effort, and Page returned to the Cabinet. In [[1941]], however, the government fell and Page spent the eight years of the [[John Curtin|Curtin]] and [[Ben Chifley|Chifley]] Labor governments on the opposition backbench. in [[1949]] Menzies returned to office and Page was made Minister for Health. He held this post until [[1956]], when he was 76, then retired to the backbench.
Page refused to consider retirement from Parliament, even at the [[1961]] election, when he was 81, suffering from [[lung cancer]] and too sick to campaign. In one of the great electoral upsets of Australian history, he lost his seat, which he had held for 42 years - indeed only [[William Morris Hughes|Billy Hughes]] served longer as a member of the Australian Parliament. He died a few days later, without knowing he had been defeated.
His grandson [[Don Page]] is currently a National MP in the NSW Parliament.
==See also==
*[[Page Ministry]]
==External links==
* [http://primeministers.naa.gov.au/meetpm.asp?pmId=11 Earle Page] - Australia's Prime Ministers / National Archives of Australia
{{start box}}
{{succession box | title=[[National Party of Australia|Leader of the Country Party]] | before=None | after=[[Archie Cameron]] | years=1921&ndash;1939}}
{{succession box | title=[[Treasurer of Australia]] | before=[[Stanley Bruce]] | after=[[Ted Theodore|E G Theodore]] | years=1923&ndash;1929}}
{{succession box | title=[[Prime Minister of Australia]] | before=[[Joseph Lyons]] | after=[[Robert Menzies]] | years=1939}}
{{succession box | title=[[Australian Minister for Health|Minister for Health]] | before=[[Billy Hughes]]| after= [[Hattil Foll]]| years=1937&ndash;1938}}
{{succession box | title=[[Australian Minister for Health|Minister for Health]] | before=[[Nicholas McKenna]]| after= [[Donald Alastair Cameron|Donald Cameron]]| years=1949&ndash;1958}}
{{end box}}
{{start box}}
{{succession box | title=[[List of longest-serving members of the Australian House of Representatives|Father of the House]] | before=[[Billy Hughes]] | after=[[Eddie Ward]] | years=1952&ndash;1961}}
{{end box}}
{{AustraliaPM}}
[[Category:1880 births|Page, Earle]]
[[Category:1961 deaths|Page, Earle]]
[[Category:Prime Ministers of Australia|Page, Earle]]
[[Category:National Party of Australia politicians|Page, Earle]]
[[Category:Members of the Cabinet of Australia|Page, Earle]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Ephrem the Syrian</title>
<id>10358</id>
<revision>
<id>37256211</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-29T20:53:14Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>LukasPietsch</username>
<id>616237</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Greek name polytonic</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Ephrem the Syrian''' ({{lang-syr|&#1808;&#1830;&#1834;&#1821;&#1825; &#1827;&#1816;&#1834;&#1821;&#1821;&#1808;}}, ''{{unicode|Ap̄rêm Sûryāyâ}}'';[[Greek language|Greek]]: {{polytonic|Ἐφραίμ ὁ Σῦρος}}; [[Latin]]: Ephraem Syrus; ''c.''[[306]]–[[373]]) was a deacon, prolific [[Syriac language]] [[hymn]] writer and [[theologian]] of the [[4th century]]. He is venerated by [[Christianity|Christians]] throughout the world, and especially among [[Syriac Christianity|Syriac Christians]], as a [[saint]]. Ephrem wrote a wide variety of [[hymn]]s, [[poem]]s and [[sermon|homilies]] in [[verse]], as well as [[prose]] [[biblical exegesis|biblical commentaries]]. These were works of practical [[theology]] for the edification of the church in troubled times. So popular were his works, that, for centuries after his death, Christian authors wrote hundreds of [[pseudepigraphy|pseudepigraphous]] works in his name. Ephrem's works witness to an early, vibrant expression of Christian faith, little touched by the European modes of thought, and more engaged with eastern methods of discourse.
== Life ==
[[Image:Mar Jacob Church, Nisibis.jpg|300px|thumb|right|The newly excavated Church of [[Jacob of Nisibis|Saint Jacob]] in [[Nisibis]], where Ephrem taught and ministered.]]
Ephrem was born around the year [[ |
from the first book (''[[The Mysterious Affair at Styles]]''), where he is a refugee staying at Styles, to the last Poirot book (''[[Curtain (novel)|Curtain]]''), where he visits Styles once again before his death. In between, Poirot solves cases outside England as well, including his most famous case, ''[[Murder on the Orient Express]]'' (1934).
Hercule Poirot became famous with the publication, in [[1926]], of ''[[The Murder of Roger Ackroyd]]'', whose surprising solution proved controversial. The novel is still among the most famous of all detective novels: [[Edmund Wilson]] alludes to it in the title of his well-known attack on detective fiction, "Who Cares Who Killed Roger Ackroyd?" Aside from ''Roger Ackroyd'', the most critically-acclaimed Poirot novels appeared from [[1932]] to [[1942]], including such acknowledged classics as ''Murder on the Orient Express'', ''[[The ABC Murders]]'' (1935), ''[[Cards on the Table]]'' (1936), and ''[[Death on the Nile]]'' (1937). The last of these, a tale of multiple homicide upon a Nile steamer, was judged by the celebrated detective novelist [[John Dickson Carr]] to be among the ten greatest mystery novels of all time.
The [[1942]] novel ''[[Five Little Pigs]]'' (aka ''Murder in Retrospect''), in which Poirot investigates a murder committed sixteen years before by analyzing various accounts of the tragedy, is a ''[[Rashomon (movie)|Rashomon]]''-like performance that critic and mystery novelist Robert Barnard called the best of the Christie novels.
==Recurring characters==
While the majority of the supporting cast in the Poirot stories is always different, some characters do show up more often. [[Arthur Hastings]], whom Poirot met almost immediately after arriving in England, becomes his life-long partner and appears in many of the novels and stories. Other frequently recurring characters include the detective novelist [[Ariadne Oliver]], Agatha Christie's humorous self-caricature, and Poirot's secretary, Miss Lemon. [[Chief Inspector Japp]] of Scotland Yard appears in many of the stories, as well. The mysterious [[Russia]]n Countess Vera Rossakoff, Poirot's only known love interest, appears in three stories.
==Books featuring Hercule Poirot==
''[[Short story]] collections listed as ss''
* ''[[The Mysterious Affair at Styles]]'' ([[1920]])
* ''[[Murder on the Links]]'' ([[1923]])
* ''[[Poirot Investigates]]'' ([[1924]], ''ss'')
* ''[[The Murder of Roger Ackroyd]]'' ([[1926]])
* ''[[The Big Four (novel)|The Big Four]]'' ([[1927]])
* ''[[The Mystery of the Blue Train]]'' ([[1928]])
* ''[[Peril at End House]]'' ([[1932]])
* ''[[Lord Edgware Dies]]'' ([[1933]])
* ''[[Murder on the Orient Express]]'' ([[1934]])
* ''[[Three Act Tragedy]]'' ([[1935]])
* ''[[Death in the Clouds]]'' (1935)
* ''[[The A.B.C. Murders]]'' ([[1936]])
* ''[[Cards on the Table]]'' (1936)
* ''[[Murder in Mesopotamia]]'' (1936)
* ''[[Death on the Nile]]'' ([[1937]])
* ''[[Dumb Witness]]'' (1937)
* ''[[Murder in the Mews]]'' (1937, ''ss'')
* ''[[Appointment with Death]]'' ([[1938]])
* ''[[Hercule Poirot's Christmas]]'' ([[1939]])
* ''[[One, Two, Buckle My Shoe]]'' ([[1940]])
* ''[[Sad Cypress]]'' (1940)
* ''[[Evil Under the Sun]]'' ([[1941]])
* ''[[Five Little Pigs]]'' ([[1942]])
* ''[[The Hollow]]'' ([[1946]])
* ''[[The Labours of Hercules]]'' ([[1947]])
* ''[[Taken at the Flood]]'' ([[1948]]) also published as ''There Is a Tide''
* ''[[Mrs McGinty's Dead]]'' ([[1952]])
* ''[[After the Funeral]]'' ([[1953]]) also published as ''Funerals are Fatal''
* ''[[Hickory Dickory Dock (novel)|Hickory Dickory Dock]]'' ([[1955]])
* ''[[Dead Man's Folly]]'' ([[1956]])
* ''[[Cat Among the Pigeons]]'' ([[1959]])
* ''[[The Clocks (novel)|The Clocks]]'' ([[1963]])
* ''[[Third Girl]]'' ([[1966]])
* ''[[Hallowe'en Party]]'' ([[1969]])
* ''[[Elephants Can Remember]]'' ([[1972]])
* ''[[Poirot's Early Cases]]'' ([[1974]], ss)
* ''[[Curtain (novel)|Curtain]]'' (written about 1940, published [[1975]])
==Hercule Poirot on screen and stage==
[[Image:Ustinov_is_Poirot.jpg|framed|[[Peter Ustinov]] as Poirot]]
{{sect-stub}}
Hercule Poirot has been played by several actors. The character first appeared onscreen in [[1931]], played by [[Austin Trevor]]. Perhaps the most notable portrayals have been by [[Albert Finney]] in the cinematic version of ''[[Murder on the Orient Express]]'', and [[David Suchet]] in a long series of television productions. The role has also been played more than once by [[Peter Ustinov]] and by [[Tony Randall]], [[Ian Holm]], and [[Alfred Molina]].
In 2004, [[NHK]] (a Japanese TV network) produced a 39 episode [[anime]] series titled ''[[Agatha Christie's Famous Detectives Poirot and Marple]] (Agatha Christie no Meitantei Poirot to Marple)'', as well as a manga series by the same title released starting in 2005. The series ran from [[July 4]], [[2004]] through [[May 15]], [[2005]], and is now being shown as [[rerun]]s on NHK and other networks in Japan. Poirot was voiced by [[Kōtarō Satomi]] (Satomi Kōtarō) and Miss Marple was voiced by [[Kaoru Yachigusa]] (Yachigusa Kaoru).
{{Agatha Christie}}
[[Category:Agatha Christie|Poirot, Hercule]]
[[Category:Fictional detectives|Poirot, Hercule]]
[[Category:Fictional Belgians|Poirot, Hercule]]
[[cs:Hercule Poirot]]
[[da:Hercule Poirot]]
[[de:Hercule Poirot]]
[[eo:Hercule POIROT]]
[[fa:هرکول پوآرو]]
[[fr:Hercule Poirot]]
[[id:Hercule Poirot]]
[[it:Hercule Poirot]]
[[he:הרקול פוארו]]
[[nl:Hercule Poirot]]
[[ja:エルキュール・ポアロ]]
[[pl:Herkules Poirot]]
[[pt:Hercule Poirot]]
[[ru:Эркюль Пуаро]]
[[fi:Hercule Poirot]]
[[sv:Hercule Poirot]]
[[zh:赫丘勒·白羅]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Miss Marple</title>
<id>1002</id>
<revision>
<id>40408541</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-20T09:20:47Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>GrinBot</username>
<id>411872</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>robot Adding: hu</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Joan_Hickson_is_Miss_Marple.jpg|thumb|[[Joan Hickson]] as '''Miss Marple''']]
'''Jane Marple''', usually known as '''Miss Marple''', is a [[fictional character]] appearing in many [[Agatha Christie]] novels.
She lives in the little village of [[St. Mary Mead]]. She looks like an ordinary [[spinster]], in [[Harris Tweed|tweed]] and with a curiosity as wide as the world, but when it comes to solving mysteries, she turns out to have a sharp logical mind. In the best [[detective fiction|detective story]] tradition, she often embarrasses the local "professional" police, usually by making an analogy with some village occurrence or character.
==Personality==
When we first meet Jane Marple she is very much the stereotypical spinster of the last century — blue-eyed and frail, wearing a black lace cap and mittens, and constantly knitting. She is also a gleeful gossip and not especially nice. The first Marple novel, ''[[The Murder at the Vicarage]]'' sees a markedly different Marple to the one who would appear in later books, as she modernized and became nicer over the years.
Miss Marple's nephew, the "well-known author" Raymond West and his wife Joan (who first appeared as Joyce), a modern artist, were introduced in 1933 in ''[[The Thirteen Problems]]''. Raymond, in particular, is overconfident of himself and dismissive of Miss Marple's mental powers, though she continually upstages him in the end.
''[[A Murder is Announced]]'' ([[1950]]), Agatha Christie's fiftieth novel, is regarded by some as the best Miss Marple novel, and one of the best of Christie's [[whodunit]]s.
Miss Marple is able to solve difficult crimes not only because of her shrewd intelligence, but because St. Mary Mead, over her lifetime, has put on a pageant of human depravity rivaled only by that of [[Sodom and Gomorrah]]. No crime can arise without reminding Miss Marple of some parallel incident in the history of her time.
As with her other famous detective [[Hercule Poirot]], Christie wrote a concluding novel to her Marple series, ''Sleeping Murder'', in [[1940]] and saved it for her old age, causing some embarrassing discrepancies as people who were written off as dead (such as Dolly Bantry's husband, Colonel Arthur Bantry) by the time her mystery "Nemesis" was published, which was the preceding Marple mystery '''but actually the last one written''', appear alive in ''Sleeping Murder'' having been resurrected from the fictional dead. ''Sleeping Murder'' was published in [[1976]], shortly after Christie's death, and was the last of her novels to be published, although, again, it was written in [[1940]].
==Books featuring Miss Marple==
* ''[[The Murder at the Vicarage]]'' ([[1930]])
* ''[[The Body in the Library]]'' ([[1942]])
* ''[[The Moving Finger]]'' ([[1943]])
* ''[[A Murder is Announced]]'' ([[1950]])
* ''[[They Do It with Mirrors]], or Murder With Mirrors'' ([[1952]])
* ''[[A Pocket Full of Rye]]'' ([[1953]])
* ''[[4.50 from Paddington|4.50 from Paddington, or What Mrs. McGillicuddy Saw!]]'' ([[1957]])
* ''[[The Mirror Crack'd from Side to Side]]'' ([[1962]])
* ''[[A Caribbean Mystery]]'' ([[1964]])
* ''[[At Bertram's Hotel]]'' ([[1965]])
* ''[[Nemesis (Christie)|Nemesis]]'' ([[1971]])
* ''[[Sleeping Murder]]'' (written around [[1940]], published [[1976]])
==Quotation==
*"The young people think the old people are fools, but the old people ''know'' the young people are fools" &ndash; Miss Marple's motto, in several of the books and stories.
==[[Film|Movies]]==
[[Image:Margaret_Rutherford_is_Miss_Marple.jpg|thumb|right|[[Margaret Rutherford]] as '''Miss Marple''']]
Although popular from her first appearance in [[1930]], Jane Marple had to wait thirty-two years for her first big-screen appearance; when she made it, the results were disappointing to both Christie purists and Christie herself. ''[[Murder, She Said]]'' ([[1962]], directed by [[George Pollock]]) was the first of four British MGM productio |
]. He was cremated, and the ashes were interred in the Eden Memorial Park Cemetery in [[Mission Hills, Los Angeles, California]]. Aged 86 at death, Groucho was the longest-lived of all the Marx brothers, though younger brother [[Zeppo Marx|Zeppo]] survived him by two years. His death undoubtedly would have received more attention at the time had it not occurred three days after that of [[Elvis Presley]].
==Groucho's legacy==
Various Groucho-like characters have appeared in popular culture, some long after Marx's death, a testament to the character's lasting appeal.
[[Image:BugsAsGroucho.jpg|320px|thumb|right|[[Bugs Bunny]] impersonates Groucho in the 1947 ''[[Looney Tunes]]'' short ''Slick Hare''.]]
*[[Bugs Bunny]] dresses as Groucho for the cartoon ''[[Slick Hare]]'' ([[1947]]), where he's trying to hide in plain sight in the [[Mocambo|Mocrumbo restaurant]]. However, Elmer dresses as [[Harpo Marx|Harpo]], prompting Bugs to walk off with one of Groucho's signature lines "I think I'll slip out of these wet things and into a dry martini."
*Bugs again befuddles [[Elmer Fudd]] memorably in "Wideo Wabbit" ([[1956]]) by imitating the mustachioed comedian in a "You Bet Your Life" parody called "You Beat Your Wife". Later he imitates [[Art Carney]] and slaps comical glasses on Elmer, admonishing "don't be such a Groucho".
*[[Alan Alda]] often vamped as Groucho on [[M*A*S*H (TV series)|M*A*S*H]] and a minor semi-recurring character in the series (played by [[Loudon Wainwright III]]) was named Captain Calvin Spalding in a nod towards Groucho's character in ''[[Animal Crackers]]'', Captain Geoffrey T. Spaulding.
*[[Gabe Kaplan]] portrayed Marx in the biographical [http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0084031/ Groucho] (1982) which was originally produced on Broadway. Kaplan also impersonated Groucho, his hero, in his television series ''[[Welcome Back Kotter]]'', and in [http://www.whatzup.com/Archives/cover082400.html ''WhatzUp''] Magazine recalled that he had even approached Groucho to make a cameo on the show but Groucho's care-giver, [[Erin Fleming]], wouldn't allow it. (According to [[Mark Evanier]], [http://povonline.com/cols/COL239.htm Marx did visit the set] with Fleming, but wasn't well enough to perform.)
*[[Dave Sim]], in his controversial [[comic book]] [[Cerebus the Aardvark]], cast Groucho as the slippery, wisecracking but indomitable Lord Julius, Grandlord of the bureaucrat-ridden [[City-state]] of Palnu.
*In [[Tiziano Sclavi]]'s comic book series [[Dylan Dog]], the hero's sidekick and assistant is called and looks like Groucho Marx. His moustache was removed in the US version of the series.
*[[Rob Zombie]] uses four Groucho Marx character names (Captain Spaulding from ''[[Animal Crackers]]'', Otis Driftwood from ''[[A Night at the Opera (film)|A Night at the Opera]]'', Rufus Firefly from [[Duck Soup]], and S. Quentin Quale from ''[[Go West (film)|Go West]]'') for his movies, ''[[House of 1000 Corpses]]'' & ''[[The Devil's Rejects]]''.
*At the end of the basketball episode of ''[[Clone High]]'' where Joan reveals that she dressed up as a man to play on the team, Principal Scudworth calls out for everyone else wearing a fake moustache to please leave. A man with a fake moustache walks by, followed by a goose wearing a similar moustache, followed by Groucho Marx (or the clone thereof).
*In an episode of the [[Spain|Spanish]] sitcom [[Aquí no hay quien viva]], Paco ([[Guillermo Ortega]]) does an impression of Marx in costume, sporting the fake moustache and eyebrows, glasses and a cigar, imitating Marx's high-pitched fast-talking voice while speaking in [[Spanish language|Spanish]].
*Two of [[Queen (band)|Queen]]'s albums, [[A Night at the Opera]] ([[1975]]) and [[A Day at the Races]] ([[1976]]) are named the same as, if not after, two of the Marx Brothers' films. [[Freddie Mercury]] was supposedly a fan of the Marx Brothers.
*In character as [[Mike Stivic]], [[Rob Reiner]] imitated Groucho Marx on a few occasions on the 1970s sitcom ''[[All in the Family]]'', including a few scenes in a 1974 episode in which Mike Stivic and his wife [[Gloria Stivic|Gloria]] ([[Sally Struthers]]) get ready to go to a Marx Brothers film festival; Mike, dressed as Groucho, does a number of imitations. Gloria is dressed as Harpo Marx.
In a [[2005]] poll, ''[[The Comedian's Comedian]]'', Groucho was voted the 5th greatest comedy act ever by fellow comedians and comedy insiders. His glasses, nose, and moustache have become icons of comedy — to this day, glasses with fake noses and moustaches (referred to as both "nose-glasses" and "Groucho-glasses") resembling Groucho are still sold by novelty and costume shops, and worn by young people who often haven't a clue as to their origin.
==Quotations about Groucho Marx ==
{{wikiquote}}
* "Groucho Marx was the best comedian this country ever produced. [...] He is simply unique in the same way that [[Pablo Picasso|Picasso]] or [[Igor Stravinsky|Stravinsky]] are." &mdash;[[Woody Allen]]
* A famous French witticism (often attributed to [[Jean-Luc Godard]]) was "Je suis Marxiste, tendance Groucho."; "I'm a [[Marxism|Marxist]] of the Groucho variety". This line was notably heard in the 1972 comedy by Claude Lelouch "[http://www.2m.tv/nostalgia/article.asp?id=3189 L'aventure c'est l'aventure]", (starring Lino Ventura, Aldo Maccione, Jacques Brel, Johnny Hallyday and Charles Denner) where the would-be heroes get involved with a central-American guerilla; it spread to other nations as well in the 1960s and 1970s.
==External links==
*{{imdb name|id=0000050|name=Groucho Marx}}
*[http://www.marx-brothers.org/living/groucho.htm Groucho Marx at Marx-Brothers.org]
*[http://users.pandora.be/mx/ Marx-o-rama]
*[http://www.clown-ministry.com/History/marx-brothers/groucho-marx-julius.html Groucho Marx biography at Clown-Ministry.com]
*[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/programmes/letter_from_america/3578615.stm Alistair Cooke's reflections on his friendship with Groucho]
[[Category:1890 births|Marx, Groucho]]
[[Category:1977 deaths|Marx, Groucho]]
[[Category:American film actors|Marx, Groucho]]
[[Category:American radio personalities|Marx, Groucho]]
[[Category:American television personalities|Marx, Groucho]]
[[Category:Jewish American actors|Marx, Groucho]]
[[Category:Jewish American comedians|Marx, Groucho]]
[[Category:Marx Brothers|Marx, Groucho]]
[[Category:People from New York City|Marx, Groucho]]
[[Category:Vaudeville performers|Marx, Groucho]]
[[bg:Граучо Маркс]]
[[ca:Groucho Marx]]
[[de:Groucho Marx]]
[[es:Groucho Marx]]
[[gl:Groucho Marx]]
[[he:גראוצ'ו מרקס]]
[[nl:Groucho Marx]]
[[no:Groucho Marx]]
[[pt:Groucho Marx]]
[[sv:Groucho Marx]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Gameboy Advance</title>
<id>12429</id>
<revision>
<id>28149635</id>
<timestamp>2005-11-12T22:30:33Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>ReyBrujo</username>
<id>139561</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Categorized</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Game_Boy_Advance]] {{R from misspelling}}</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Game Boy Advance</title>
<id>12430</id>
<revision>
<id>42030372</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T09:04:26Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Chobot</username>
<id>259798</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>robot Adding: ko</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox CVG system| title = Game Boy Advance
|logo =
|image = [[Image:Gba.jpg|250px|The Game Boy line is the best-selling handheld to date]]
|manufacturer = [[Nintendo]]
|type = [[Handheld game console]]
|generation = [[History of video games (Sixth generation era)|Sixth generation era]]
|lifespan = [[Image:Flag of Japan.svg|22px|Japan]] [[March 21]], [[2001]]<br>[[Image:Flag of the United States.svg|22px|North America]] [[June 11]], [[2001]]<br>[[Image:European flag.svg|22px|Europe]] [[June 22]], [[2001]]<br>[[Image:Flag of the People's Republic of China.svg|22px|China]] [[June 8]] [[2004]]
|media = [[Cartridge (electronics)|Cartridge]]
|onlineservice =
|unitssold = 70.0 million (all versions, [[2005]])
|topgame = ''[[Pokémon Ruby and Sapphire|Pokémon Ruby, Sapphire]] and [[Pokémon Emerald|Emerald]]''
}}
The '''Game Boy Advance''' (often shortened to '''GBA''') is a [[Handheld game console|handheld video game console]] developed, manufactured and marketed by [[Nintendo]]. It is one of the latest in the [[Game Boy line|Game Boy]] series of consoles, and the successor to the popular [[Game Boy Color]]. It was released in [[Japan]] on [[March 21]], [[2001]]; in [[North America]] on [[June 11]], [[2001]]; in [[Europe]] on [[June 22]], [[2001]]; and in [[China]] on [[June 8]], [[2004]] (excluding [[Hong Kong]]). Its codename during development was '''Project Atlantis'''.
==Hardware==
[[Image:Gba closeup.jpg|thumbnail|left|200px|Close-up of Game Boy Advance]]
The Game Boy Advance is [[backward compatibility|backward compatible]] with most games previously released for the [[Game Boy line|Game Boy]] or the [[Game Boy Color]], as well as new software developed to take advantage of the new technical capabilities of the system. It is powered by two [[List of battery sizes|AA]] batteries, which give about 15&ndash;30 hours of play time, as well as an optional power supply that plugs directly into the GBA's battery bracket.
===Processors===
The GBA has a custom [[32-bit]] 16.8-[[Megahertz|MHz]] [[ARM architecture|ARM]] processor ([[ARM7TDMI]]) based on a [[RISC]] architecture, which is much more suited to the [[C programming language]] than the 8-bit [[Zilog Z80|Z80]]-like processor used in older Game Boy models. The ARM processor can run both 32-bit ARM and [[16-bit]] "Thumb" instruction set encodings. The system also contains an 8.4-MHz [[Zilog Z80 |
signifying the emotions. Because he gave his characters only one psychological dimension, as in ''[[The Scream]]'', Munch's men and women do not seem realistic.
In [[1892]], the [[Union of Berlin Artists]] invited Munch to exhibit at its November exhibition. His paintings invoked bitter controversy at the show, and after one week the exhibition closed. In Berlin, Munch involved himself in an international circle of writers, artists and critics, including the Norwegian playwright [[Henrik Ibsen]] (Munch designed the sets for several Ibsen's plays), and the Swedish dramatist [[August Strindberg]].
Between [[1892]] and [[1908]], Munch divided his time between Paris and Berlin, where he became known for his etchings, his lithographs, and his woodcuts. While in Berlin at the turn of the century, Munch experimented with a variety of new media ([[photography]], [[lithography]], and [[woodcut]]s), in many instances re-working his older imagery.
In the autumn of [[1908]], Munch's anxiety became acute and he entered the clinic of Dr. Daniel Jacobsen. The [[therapy]] Munch received in hospital changed his personality, and after returning to Norway in [[1909]], he showed more interest in nature subjects, and his work became more colourful and less pessimistic.
In the [[1930s]] and [[1940s]], German [[Nazi]]s labeled his work "[[degenerate art]]", and removed his work from German museums. This deeply hurt the [[Anti-Fascism|antifascist]] Munch, who had come to feel Germany was his second homeland.
Munch died in Ekely, near [[Oslo]], on [[January 23]], [[1944]], about a month after his 80th birthday. He left 1,000 paintings, 15,400 prints, 4,500 drawings and watercolors, and six sculptures to the city of Oslo, which built the [[Munch Museum]] at [[Tøyen]] in his honor. The museum houses the broadest collection of his works. His works are also represented in major museums and galleries in Norway and abroad.
Munch appears on the Norwegian 1,000 [[Norwegian_Krone|Kroner]] note along with pictures inspired by his artwork. [http://www.norges-bank.no/english/notes_and_coins/1000kr.html]
:"From my rotting body, flowers shall grow and I am in them and that is [[eternity]]."
:&mdash;Edvard Munch
==''Frieze of Life &mdash; A Poem about Life, Love and Death''==
[[Image:Munch DanceOfLife.jpg|thumb|left|300px|''The Dance of Life''. [[1899]] &ndash; [[1900]]. Edvard Munch. Oil on canvas, 49 1/2 x 75 in. [[National Gallery, Oslo|Nasjonalgalleriet]]]]
In [[December]] [[1893]], [[Unter den Linden]] in Berlin held an exhibition of Munch's work, showing, among other pieces, six paintings entitled ''Study for a Series: Love.'' This began a cycle he later called the ''Frieze of Life &mdash; A Poem about Life, Love and Death.'' ''Frieze of Life'' motifs are steeped in atmosphere such as ''The Storm,'' ''Moonlight'' and ''Starry Night.'' Other motifs illuminate the nocturnal side of love, such as ''Rose and Amelie'' and ''[[Vampire]].'' In ''Death in the Sickroom'' ([[1893]]), he depicts his sister Sophie's death to illustrate the morbid theme. The dramatic focus of the painting, in which he portrays the entire family, is the Munch figure. In [[1894]], he enlarged the spectrum of motifs by adding ''Anxiety'', ''Ashes'', ''[[Madonna (Edvard Munch)|Madonna]]'' and ''Women in Three Stages''.
Around the turn of the century, Munch worked to finish the ''Frieze''. He painted a number of pictures, several of them in larger format and to some extent featuring the [[Art Nouveau]] aesthetics of the time. He made a wooden frame with carved reliefs for the large painting ''Metabolism'' ([[1898]]), initially called ''Adam and Eve''. This work reveals Munch's preoccupation with the "fall of man" myth in Munch's pessimistic philosophy of love. Motifs such as ''The Empty Cross'' and ''Golgota'' (both c. [[1900]]) reflect a metaphysical orientation to the times, and also echo Munch's pietistic upbringing. The entire ''Frieze'' showed for the first time at the [[Vienna Secession|secessionist]] exhibition in [[Berlin]] in [[1902]].
==Trivia==
* After the [[Cultural Revolution]] in [[China]] ended, Munch was the first Western artist to have his pictures exhibited at the National Gallery in [[Beijing]].
* Some art historians believe that the red sky in the background of ''[[The Scream]]'' reflects the unusually intense sunsets seen throughout the world, following the [[1883]] eruption of the [[Indonesia]]n [[volcano]] [[Krakatoa]].
==Further reading==
*Reinhold Heller, ''Munch. His life and work'' (London: Murray, [[1984]]).
*Gustav Schiefler, ''Verzeichnis des graphischen Werks Edvard Munchs bis [[1906]]'' (Berlin: Bruno Cassirer, [[1907]]).
*Gustav Schiefler, ''Edvard Munch. Das graphische Werk [[1906]] &ndash; [[1926]]'' (Berlin: Euphorion, [[1928]]).his painting
==References==
*Fineman, Mia (Nov. 22, 2005). [http://www.slate.com/id/2130897/ "Existential Superstar"]. ''[[Slate (magazine)]]''.
==See also==
* [[Edvard Munch (film)]]
== External links ==
* [http://www.odin.dep.no/odin/engelsk/norway/history/032005-990477/index-dok000-b-n-a.html Biography from the Norwegian Ministry of Foreign Affairs]
* [http://www.museumsnett.no/munchmuseet/ The Munch Museum]
* [http://www.gallerimunch.no Gallery Munch - Løten]
* [http://www.artcyclopedia.com/artists/munch_edvard.html Munch at artcyclopedia]
* [http://www.munch-raisonne.com Catalogue raisonné of Edvard Munch's paintings.]
* [http://www.edvardmunch.info/ Edvard Munch]
* [http://www.interpol.int/public/News/woa20040823.asp [[Interpol]]'s page about the stolen works of art]
Munch and bipolar disorder:
* Rothenberg A. [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_uids=11433879&dopt=Citation Bipolar illness, creativity, and treatment.] ''Psychiatr Q.'' 2001 Summer;72(2):131-47.
* [http://mitpress2.mit.edu/e-journals/Leonardo/reviews/jul2000/vi_MUNCH_behrns.html Edvard Munch in Germany]
{{Commons|Category:Edvard Munch}}
[[Category:1863 births|Munch, Edvard]]
[[Category:1944 deaths|Munch, Edvard]]
[[Category:Norwegian painters|Munch, Edvard]]
[[Category:Symbolist painters|Munch, Edvard]]
[[Category:Art Nouveau|Munch, Edvard]]
[[Category:Expressionism|Munch, Edvard]]
[[Category:Order of St. Olav|Munch, Edvard]]
[[cs:Edvard Munch]]
[[da:Edvard Munch]]
[[de:Edvard Munch]]
[[es:Edvard Munch]]
[[eo:Edvard MUNCH]]
[[fr:Edvard Munch]]
[[hr:Edvard Munch]]
[[it:Edvard Munch]]
[[he:אדוורד מונק]]
[[hu:Edvard Munch]]
[[nl:Edvard Munch]]
[[ja:エドヴァルド・ムンク]]
[[no:Edvard Munch]]
[[nn:Edvard Munch]]
[[pl:Edvard Munch]]
[[pt:Edvard Munch]]
[[ro:Edvard Munch]]
[[ru:Мунк, Эдвард]]
[[sk:Edvard Munch]]
[[sr:Едвард Мунк]]
[[fi:Edvard Munch]]
[[sv:Edvard Munch]]
[[zh:爱德华·蒙克]]
[[zh-min-nan:Edvard Munch]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Extended Industry Standard Architecture</title>
<id>9781</id>
<revision>
<id>40363245</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-20T01:49:06Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
<id>82835</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>External links per MoS.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:EISA_Bus.jpg|300px|thumb|Three EISA Slots.]]
The '''Extended Industry Standard Architecture''' (in practice almost always shortened to '''EISA''' and frequently pronounced "eee-suh") is a bus standard for [[IBM compatible]] [[computer]]s. It was announced in late [[1988]] by [[IBM PC compatible|PC clone]] vendors (the "[[Gang of Nine]]") as a counter to IBM's use of its [[proprietary]] [[MicroChannel Architecture]] (MCA) in its [[PS/2]] series.
EISA extends the [[Industry Standard Architecture|ISA]] bus architecture to 32 [[bit|bits]] and allows more than one [[Central processing unit|CPU]] to share the bus. The [[bus mastering]] support is also enhanced to provide access to 4 [[gigabyte|GB]] of memory. Unlike MCA, EISA can accept older [[XT bus architecture|XT]] and ISA boards &mdash; the lines and slots for EISA are a superset of ISA.
Although somewhat inferior to MCA, EISA was much favoured by manufacturers due to the proprietary nature of MCA, and even IBM produced some machines supporting it. It was somewhat expensive to implement (though not as much as MCA), so it never became particularly popular in desktop PCs. However, it was reasonably successful in the server market, as it was better suited to bandwidth-intensive tasks (such as disk access and networking). Most EISA cards produced were either [[SCSI]] or network cards.
By the time there was a strong market need for a bus of these speeds and capabilities, the [[VESA Local Bus]] and later [[Peripheral Component Interconnect|PCI]] filled this niche and EISA vanished into obscurity.
== Technical data ==
[[Image:EISA_Bus_pins.png|right|300px]]
{| class="wikitable"
| bus width || 32 Bit
|-----
| compatible with || 8 bit ISA, 16 bit ISA, 32 bit EISA
|-----
|[[pin]]s || 98 + 100 inlay
|-----
| Vcc || +5 V, -5 V, +12 V, -12 V
|-----
| clock || 8.33 MHz
|-----
| theoretical data rate (32 bit) || about 32 MByte/s
|-----
| usable data rate (32 bit) || about 20 MByte/s
|}
== See also ==
* [[Industry Standard Architecture]] (ISA)
* [[Micro Channel architecture]] (MCA)
* [[NuBus]]
* [[VESA Local Bus]] (VESA)
* [[Peripheral Component Interconnect]] (PCI)
* [[Accelerated Graphics Port]] (AGP)
* [[PCI Express]] (PCIe)
==External links==
* [http://www.techfest.com/hardware/bus/eisa.htm EISA bus technical summary]
----
{{FOLDOC}}
[[Category:Computer buses]]
[[Category:IBM PC compatibles]]
[[Category:Motherboard]]
[[de:Extended ISA]]
[[es:Extended Industry Standard Architecture]]
[[fr:Bus EISA]]
[[he:EISA]]
[[ja:Extended Industry Standard Architecture]]
[[pl:EISA]]
[[pt:EISA]]
[[fi:EISA]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>EISA</title>
<id>9782</id>
<revision>
<id>28280638</id>
<timesta |
<id>382591</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>link fix - The Mission (film)</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Ennio_morricone.jpg|thumb|270px|Ennio Morricone.]]
'''Ennio Morricone''' (born [[November 10]], [[1928]], [[Rome]]) is an [[List of Italian composers|Italian composer]], especially noted for his [[film score]]s. He has composed the scores of more than 500 films and TV series. Although only 30 of these are for [[Western films]], it is for this work which he is best known. Morricone's sparse style of composition for the genre is particularly exemplified by the soundtracks of the classic [[spaghetti westerns]], ''[[The Good, the Bad and the Ugly]]'' ([[Sergio Leone]], 1966) and ''[[Once Upon a Time in the West]]'' ([[Sergio Leone]], 1968). In more recent years, his haunting scores for ''[[The Mission (film)|The Mission]]'' ([[Roland Joffé]], 1986), ''[[The Untouchables]]'' ([[Brian DePalma]], 1987), and ''[[Cinema Paradiso]]'' ([[Giuseppe Tornatore]], 1988) have demonstrated his giftedness and the power of his work.
==Biography==
Morricone was born in [[Rome]] and was educated at the Conservatory of the [[Accademia Nazionale di Santa Cecilia]] in the [[trumpet]] and composition under [[Goffredo Petrassi]], and [[choral music]] and choral direction. In the beginning he regarded himself to be destined to compose modern classical music, but this changed when he was invited to write arrangements for popular Italian songs, at which he was completely unfamiliar at that time. A particular success was the song ''Se telefonando'' sung by [[Mina]].
In [[1956]] he married Maria Travia. He began writing music for films in [[1962]] but continued to work in classical composition and arrangement. In [[1964]] he began his famous collaboration with [[Sergio Leone]] and [[Bernardo Bertolucci]]. For Leone he wrote the score for ''[[A Fistful of Dollars]]'' ([[Sergio Leone]], 1964) and continued with a number of other [[Spaghetti Western]] films. By [[1968]] he was reducing his work outside of film, in the same year he wrote twenty scores for films. His collaboration with Leone is considered one of the [[List of noted film director and composer collaborations|finest collaborations between a director and a composer]]. He scored all of Leone's films from [[A Fistful of Dollars]] to [[Once Upon A Time In America]]. The latter often considered his finest work. His score of [[The Good, the Bad and the Ugly]] in particular is his most famous and along with the [[William Tell Overture]] is one of the most recognized sounds ever affiliated with the [[Western]] genre. Although he is most famous for writing the scores of Leone's films, he was more at ease with directors such as [[Giuliano Montaldo]] and [[Gillo Pontecorvo]]. Morricone frequently collaborated with childhood friend [[Alessandro Alessandroni]], who performed as the whistler on many of the [[Sergio Leone]] soundtracks.
He received his first ''[[Nastro d'Argento]]'' in [[1970]] for the music in ''Metti, una Sera a Cena'' ([[Giuseppe Patroni Griffi]], [[1969]]) and his second only a year later for ''[[Sacco and Vanzetti]]'' (Guiliano Montaldo, [[1971]]). He received his first nomination for an [[Academy Award]] in [[1979]] for the score to ''[[Days of Heaven]]'' ([[Terrence Malick]], [[1978]]) and another in [[1986]] for ''[[The Mission (film)|The Mission]]'', [[1987]] for ''[[The Untouchables]]'' ([[Brian De Palma]], [[1987]]), [[1991]] for ''[[Bugsy]]'' ([[Barry Levinson]], [[1991]]) and [[2001]] for ''[[Malèna]]'' ([[Giuseppe Tornatore]], [[2000]]).
He composed over two dozen scores for the Italian [[Mafia]] TV series [[La Piovra]]. ''See [[La Piovra 2 (soundtrack)]], [[La Piovra 3 (soundtrack)]], [[La Piovra 4 (soundtrack)]], [[La Piovra 5 (soundtrack)]].''
Morricone's film music has been recorded by other artists on a number of occasions: [[Hugo Montenegro]] had a hit with a version of the theme from ''The Good, the Bad and the Ugly'' in both the UK and the US and followed it up with an album of Morricone's music in 1968, and [[John Zorn]] recorded an album of Morricone's music, ''The Big Gundown'', in the mid-1980s. More recently Morricone collaborated with world music artists, like Portuguese [[fado]] singer [[Dulce Pontes]] (in 2003) and a [[virtuoso]] cellist [[Yo-Yo Ma]] (in 2004), who both recorded albums of Morricone classics with the Roma Sinfonietta Orchestra and Morricone himself conducting. [[Metallica]] uses Morricone's ''Ecstasy of Gold'' as an intro at their concerts. The [[San Francisco Symphony Orchestra]] also played it on Metallica's [[Symphonic Rock]] album [[S&M (album)|S&M]]. [[Ramones]] used the theme from "The Good, the Bad and the Ugly" as a concert intro. The theme from ''A Fistful Of Dollars'' is also used as a concert intro by [[The Mars Volta]].
In [[2003]] he scored the Japanese [[Taiga drama]] about [[Miyamoto Musashi]], Japan's legendary warrior.
In [[2005]] he is currently on a world tour with the Roma Sinfonietta Orchestra, touring from cities like New York, [[Bilbao]], [[Bratislava]] and Tokyo.
In [[2006]] the soundtrack maestro is set to make a guest appearance on the [[Morrissey]] album ''[[Ringleader of the Tormentors]]'', scoring the string part for [[Dear God, Please Help Me]], recorded in Rome's Forum Music Village Studios.
==Prizes and Awards==
*[[1969]] - ''Premio Spoleto Cinema''
*[[1970]] - ''[[Nastro d'argento]]'' for ''Metti, una sera a cena''
*[[1971]] - ''[[Nastro d'argento]]'' for ''Sacco e Vanzetti"''
*[[1972]] - ''[[Cork Film International]]'' for ''La califfa''
*[[1979]] - ''[[Academy Award|Oscar]] Nomination'' for ''[[Days of Heaven]]''
*[[1981]] - ''Premio della critica discografica'' for ''Il prato''
*[[1985]] - ''Nastro d'argento'' and ''[[Bafta]]'' for ''[[Once Upon A Time In America]]''
*[[1986]] - ''[[Academy Award|Oscar]] Nomination'', ''[[Bafta]]'' and ''[[Golden Globe Award]]'' for ''The Mission''
*[[1988]] - ''[[Nastro d'argento]]'', ''[[Bafta]]'', ''[[Grammy Award]]'' and ''[[Academy Award|Oscar]] Nomination'' for ''[[The Untouchables]]''
*[[1988]] - ''[[David di Donatello]]'' for ''Gli occhiali d'oro''
*[[1989]] - ''[[David di Donatello]]'' for ''Nuovo Cinema Paradiso''
*[[1989]] - ''[[Nint Annual Ace Winner]]'' for ''Il giorno prima''
*[[1989]] - ''Pardo d'Oro alla carriera'' ([[Locarno Film Festival]])
*[[1990]] - ''[[Bafta]]'', ''Prix Fondation Sacem del XLIII'' [[Cannes Film Festival]] and ''[[David di Donatello]]'' for ''Nuovo Cinema Paradiso''
*[[1991]] - ''[[David di Donatello]]'' for ''Stanno tutti bene''
*[[1992]] - ''[[Academy Award|Oscar]] Nomination'' for ''[[Bugsy]]''
*[[1992]] - Grolla d'oro alla carriera (Saint Vincent)
*[[1993]] - ''[[David di Donatello]]'' and ''Efebo d'Argento'' for ''Jonas che visse nella balena''
*[[1994]] - ASCAP ''Golden Soundtrack award'' (Los Angeles)
*[[1995]] - ''Leone d'Oro alla carriera'' ([[Venice Film Festival]])
*[[2000]] - ''[[Golden Globe Award]]'' for ''The [[Legend of 1900]] (1998)''
*[[2000]] - ''David di Donatello'' for ''Canone inverso''
*[[2000]] - ''[[Academy Award|Oscar]] Nomination'' for ''[[Malèna]]''
*[[2003]] - ''[[Golden Eagle Award]]'' for ''72 Meters''
*[[2006]] - Grand Officer award from [[List of Presidents of the Italian Republic|President of the Italian Republic]] [[Carlo Azeglio Ciampi]]
==Soundtrack Filmography (-see talk-)==
'''1961'''
*''Il federale'' / ''The Fascist'' ([[Luciano Salce]])
'''1962'''
*''La cuccagna'' / ''Girl In a Million'' (Luciano Salce)
*''Diciottenni al sole'' (Camillo Mastrocinque)
*''La voglia matta'' / ''Crazy Desire'' (Luciano Salce)
*''I motorizzati'' / ''The Motorists'' (Camillo Mastrocinque)
'''1963'''
*''Le monachine'' / ''The Little Nuns'' (Luciano Salce)
*''Il successo'' (Mauro Morassi) - the film was actually directed by Dino Risi
*''I basilischi'' ([[Lina Wertmüller]])
*''Duello nel Texas'' / ''Gunfight at Red Sands'' (Ricardo Blasco)
*''I marziani hanno 12 mani'' (Castellano e Pipolo)
'''1964'''
*''...e la donna creò l'uomo'' (Camillo Mastrocinque)
*''I maniaci'' (Lucio Fulci)
*''I due evasi da Sing Sing'' (Lucio Fulci)
*''Per un pugno di dollari'' / ''[[A Fistful of Dollars]]'' (Sergio Leone)
*''Le Pistole non discutono'' (Mario Caiano)
*''I Malamondo'' (Paolo Cavara)
'''1965'''
*''Trilling'' (Carlo Lizzani, Gianni Luigi Polidori, Ettore Scola)
*''Slalom'' (Luciano Salce)
*''Menage all'italiana'' (Franco Indovina)
*''Una pistola per Ringo'' (Duccio Tessari)
*''Gli amamti d'oltretomba'' (Mario Caiano)
*''Altissima pressione'' (Enzo Trapani) - composed together with [[Luis Enriquez Bacalov]]
*''I pugli in tasca'' (Marco Bellocchio)
*''Idoli controluce'' (Enzo Battaglia)
*''Il ritorno di Ringo'' (Duccio Tessari)
*''Per qualche dollaro in più'' / ''[[For a Few Dollars More]]'' ([[Sergio Leone]])
*''Sette pistole per i Mac Gregor'' (Franco Giraldi)
'''1966'''
*''La battaglia di Algeri'' / ''[[The Battle of Algiers]]'' ([[Gillo Pontecorvo]]) composed together with the director
*''Svegliati e uccidi'' (Carlo Lizzani)
*''Per Firenze'' ([[Franco Zeffirelli]]) - documentary
*''[[Navajo Joe]]'' ([[Sergio Corbucci]])
*''Matchless'' (Alberto Lattuada)
*''Un fiume di dollari'' (Carlo Lizzani) - credited as Leo Nichols
*''Agent 505 - Todesfalle Beirut'' (Manfred R. Köhler)
*''Uccellacci e uccellini'' ([[Pier Paolo Pasolini]])
*''El greco'' (Luciano Salce)
*''Un uomo a metà'' (Vittorio de Seta)
*''Come imparai ad amare le donne'' (Luciano Salce)
*''La resa dei conti'' (Sergio Sollima)
*''Il buono, il brutto, il cattivo'' / ''[[The Good, the Bad, and the Ugly]]'' (Sergio Leone)
*''Sette donne per i McGregor (Franco Giraldi)
*''Per pochi dollari ancora'' (Giorgio Ferroni)
'''1967'''
*''Il giardino delle delizie'' (Silvano Agosti)
*''Dalle Ardenne all'inferno'' (Alberto de Martino)
*''[[L'Avventuriero]]'' / ''The Rover'' ([[Terence Young]])
*''Pedro Páramo'' (Carlos Velo)
*''La terra vista dalla luna'' (Pier Paolo Pasolini) |
rt]]s in the world. The landscape of Hong Kong is fairly hilly to mountainous with steep slopes. The highest point in the territory is [[Tai Mo Shan]], at a height of 958 [[metre]]s (3,142 [[foot (unit of length)|ft]]). Lowlands exist in the northwestern part of the New Territories.
Hong Kong is 60 [[kilometre]]s (37 [[mile|mi]]) east of [[Macau]], on the opposite side of the [[Pearl River Delta]] and borders the [[subprovincial city|city]] of [[Shenzhen]] in [[Guangdong Province]]. Of the territory's 1,102 [[square kilometre]]s (425 [[square mile|mi²]]) and nearly 7 million residents, less than 25% is developed; the remaining land is remarkably green and significant portions are reserved as [[Hong Kong Country Parks & Special Areas|country park]]s and [[nature reserve]]s. This is because most live and work in high-rise buildings in the city and surrounding new towns.
[[Climate of Hong Kong|Hong Kong's climate]] is [[subtropical]] and prone to [[monsoon]]s. It is cool and dry in the [[winter]]time which lasts from around January to March, and is hot, humid and [[rain]]y from [[Spring (season)|spring]] through [[summer]]. It is warm, [[sun]]ny, and dry in [[autumn]]. Hong Kong occasionally has [[typhoon]]s. The ecology of Hong Kong is mostly affected by the results of climatic changes. Hong Kong's climate is seasonal due to alternating wind direction between winter and summer. Hong Kong has been geologically stable for millions of years. However, flora and fauna in Hong Kong are altered by climatic change, sea level alternation and human impact. The highest recorded temperature{{ref|extreme}} in Hong Kong is 40 degrees [[Celsius]] (104°[[fahrenheit|F]]) while the lowest recorded temperature is 0°C (32°F). The average temperature in the coldest month, February, is 16°C (61°F) while the average temperature in the hottest month, July, is 28°C (82°F).
Hong Kong's climate is [[subtropical]] but half of the year is temperate. The territory is situated south of the [[Tropic of Cancer]] which is equatable to [[Hawaii]] in [[latitude]]. In winter, strong and cold winds generate from the north and cool the city; in the summer, the wind's direction reverses and brings the warm and humid air in from the south. This climate can support a [[tropical rainforest]].
==Administrative divisions==
[[Image:Hk map 18.png|thumb|right|450px|18 districts of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region]]
{{main|Districts of Hong Kong}}
Hong Kong consists of 18 administrative districts:
<br clear-all>
# [[Islands District, Hong Kong|Islands]]
# [[Kwai Tsing District|Kwai Tsing]] ([[Kwai Chung]] and [[Tsing Yi]])
# [[North District, Hong Kong|North]]
# [[Sai Kung District|Sai Kung]]
# [[Sha Tin District|Sha Tin]]
# [[Tai Po District|Tai Po]]
# [[Tsuen Wan District|Tsuen Wan]]
# [[Tuen Mun District|Tuen Mun]]
# [[Yuen Long District|Yuen Long]]
# [[Kowloon City District|Kowloon City]]
# [[Kwun Tong District|Kwun Tong]]
# [[Sham Shui Po District|Sham Shui Po]]
# [[Wong Tai Sin District|Wong Tai Sin]]
# [[Yau Tsim Mong District|Yau Tsim Mong]] ([[Yau Ma Tei]], [[Tsim Sha Tsui]] and [[Mong Kok]])
# [[Central and Western District|Central and Western]]
# [[Eastern District|Eastern]]
# [[Southern District, Hong Kong|Southern]]
# [[Wan Chai District|Wan Chai]]
There are several [[List_of_cities_and_towns_in_Hong_Kong|cities and towns]] within Hong Kong, the largest of which include [[Kowloon]], Victoria ([[Hong Kong Island]]), [[Tsuen Wan New Town|Tseun Wan New Town]], and [[Sha Tin|Sha Tin New Town]]. These entities, however, are not granted any formal administrative status and are either administered as parts of districts (e.g. Sha Tin New Town) or divided up amongst districts (e.g. Tsuen Wan New Town and Kowloon).
==Economy==
[[Image:DSCN2009.JPG|thumb|right|250px|[[Exchange Square (Hong Kong)|Exchange Square]] in [[Central, Hong Kong|Central]] houses offices and the [[Hong Kong Stock Exchange]].]]
[[Image:Hong Kong Market Crash.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The [[Hang Seng Index]] fell by 22.8 % in a week of [[28 October]] [[1997]] after the [[real estate]] [[bubble economy]] collapsed, severely damaging the economy.]]
{{main articles|[[Economy of Hong Kong]] and [[Employment in Hong Kong]]}}
Hong Kong has one of the least restricted economies in world and is basically duty-free. It is the world's 10th largest {{ref|10th}} trading entity and 11th largest {{ref|11th}} [[bank|banking centre]]. The dominant presence of international trade is reflected in the number of [[consulate]]s located in the territory: [[As of 2005|As of June 2005]], Hong Kong had 107 consulates and consulates-general, more than any other city in the world. Even [[New York City]], host of the [[United Nations]], only has 93 consulates.
The objective of Hong Kong's monetary policy is to maintain currency stability. Given the highly externally oriented nature of the economy, this objective was further defined as a stable external value for the [[Hong Kong dollar]] in terms of a linked [[exchange rate]] against the US dollar at the rate of HK$7.80 to one [[United States dollar]] until 2005, when it was allowed to trade within a band of HK$7.75-$7.85.
Hong Kong has limited [[natural resources]], and most [[food]] and raw materials must be imported. In fact, [[import]]s and [[export]]s (including re-exports) exceed the [[gross domestic product|GDP]] of Hong Kong. Hong Kong has extensive trade and investment ties with the [[People's Republic of China]] which existed even before the [[handover]] on [[1 July]] [[1997]]. These ties and its autonomous status enable it to be the middleman between the [[Republic of China]] on [[Taiwan]] and the mainland. Flights, investment, and trade from Taiwan go through Hong Kong to get to the mainland. The [[tertiary sector of industry|service sector]] represented 86.5 % {{ref|86.5}} of the GDP in 2001. The territory, with a highly sophisticated banking sector and good communication links, hosts the [[Asia]]n headquarters of many [[multinational corporation]]s.
At [[United States dollar|USD]] 24,080 {{ref|24,626}} in 2004, the nominal [[per capita]] GDP of Hong Kong is somewhat lower than that of the four big economies of [[western Europe]]. However, it would be [[List of countries by GDP (PPP) per capita| ranked 11th]] in terms of per capita GDP ([[purchasing power parity|PPP]]) in the world (USD 32,292), which is even higher than [[Japan]] (USD 31,384), making Hong Kong one of the richest territorial regions in Asia.
Growth averaged a strong 8.9% per annum in real terms in the 1970s and 7.2% p.a. in the 1980s. As the economy shifted to services (manufacturing currently accounts for just 4% of GDP), growth slowed to 2.7% p.a. in the 1990s, including a 5.3% decline in 1998, due to the [[Asian financial crisis|Asian financial crisis']] impact on demand in the region. Growth since 2000 has averaged 5.2% p.a. amid strong deflation.
The economy rebounded rapidly, growing by 10 % in 2000. A world-wide global downturn and the Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS) outbreak reduced economic growth to 2.3 % in 2002. Thereafter, a boom in tourism from the mainland because of China's easing of travel restrictions, a return of consumer confidence, and a solid rise in exports resulted in the resumption of strong growth in late 2003 and 2004, with growth averaging 6.5% in the first half of 2005.
To further increase economic co-operation between Hong Kong and the mainland, the [[Individual Visit Scheme]] was started on [[28 July]] [[2003]], which allows travellers from some cities in mainland China to visit Hong Kong without an accompanying tour group. As a result, the [[Tourism in Hong Kong|tourism industry in Hong Kong]] is booming due to an exponential increase in the number of visitors from mainland China. The upsurge is also boosted by the recent opening of [[Hong Kong Disneyland Resort]].
A revival in both external and domestic demand led to a strong upswing in growth in 2004, surging to 8.2 % for the year. The domestic sector completely shrugged off its earlier sluggishness, and the general weakness of the Hong Kong dollar, when included with the still modest cost and price pressures in Hong Kong, has resulted in a strengthening in Hong Kong's external price competitiveness. In addition, Hong Kong's 68-month-long [[deflation (economics)|deflationary]] spiral, the longest and highest deflation {{ref|deflation}} according to [[Guinness World Records]], ended in mid-2004, with consumer price [[inflation]] hovering at near zero levels.
Along with [[Singapore]], [[South Korea]] and [[Taiwan|Taiwan, ROC]], Hong Kong's fast-paced industrialisation earned it a place as one of the four original [[East Asian Tigers]].
==Demographics==
[[Image:Ap Liu Street in Shamshuipo.jpg|thumb|250px|Hong Kong is home to some of the most densely settled areas of the world. This is the Ap Liu Street in [[Sham Shui Po]] where colourful [[parasol]]s intersperse throughout the pavement.]]
{{main|Demographics of Hong Kong}}
The population of Hong Kong increased markedly during the 1990s, reaching 6.86 million in 2005. About 96 % of Hong Kong's population is Chinese, the majority of which are [[Cantonese people|Cantonese]]. Groups such as the [[Hakka]] and [[Teochew]] are also substantial. Used in government matters, [[Standard Cantonese|Cantonese]] is spoken by most of the local Chinese population at home and in the office, although [[English language|English]] is also widely understood and spoken by more than one-third of the population. Since the Handover, a new group of immigrants from [[mainland China]] have increased the ethnic diversity of the Chinese population and enhanced the development of Mandarin in the territory.
The remaining 4 % of the population is composed of non-Chinese, who form a highly visible group, despite their small numbers.
Among these is a significant [[South Asian]] population, which includes some of Hong Kong's wealthiest fa |
s [[Hausdorff space|Hausdorff]]. A topological space has a Hausdorff compactification if and only if it is [[Tychonoff space|Tychonoff]]. Moreover, there is a unique ([[up to]] [[homeomorphism]]) "most general" compactification, the '''Stone-&#268;ech compactification''' of ''X'', denoted by &beta;''X''. The space ''&beta;X'' is characterized by the [[universal property]] that any [[continuous function (topology)|continuous]] function from ''X'' to a compact Hausdorff space ''K'' can be extended to a continuous function from ''&beta;X'' to ''K'' in a unique way. More explicitly, &beta;''X'' is a compact Hausdorff space for which the induced topology on ''X'' by &beta;''X'' is the same as the topology on ''X'', and for any continuous map <math>f:X\to Y</math>, where ''Y'' is a compact Hausdorff space, there is a unique continuous map <math>g:\beta X\to Y</math> for which ''g'' restricted to ''X'' is identically ''f''. The Stone-&#268;ech compactification can be constructed explicitly as follows: let ''C'' be the set of continuous functions from ''X'' to [0,1]. Then each point in ''X'' can be identified with an evaluation function on ''C''. Thus ''X'' can be identified with a subset of [0,1]<sup>''C''</sup>, the space of ''all'' functions from ''C'' to [0,1]. Since the latter is compact by [[Tychonoff's theorem]], the closure of ''X'' as a subset of that space will also be compact. This is the Stone-&#268;ech compactification.
For any non-compact space ''X'' the ('''Alexandroff''') '''one-point compactification''' of ''X'' is obtained by adding an extra point &infin; (often called a ''point at infinity'') and defining the open sets of the new space to be the open sets of ''X'' together with the sets of the form ''G''&nbsp;<font face="Arial,Helvetica">U</font>&nbsp;{&infin;}, where ''G'' is an open subset of ''X'' and ''X'' \ ''G'' is compact. The one-point compactification of ''X'' is Hausdorff if and only if ''X'' is Hausdorff and [[locally compact]].
==Compactification and discrete subgroups of Lie groups==
In the study of [[discrete]] subgroups of [[Lie group]]s, the [[quotient space]] of [[coset]]s is often a candidate for more subtle '''compactification''' to preserve structure at a richer level than just topological.
For example [[modular curve]]s are compactified by the addition of single points for each [[cusp]], making them [[Riemann surface]]s (and so, since they are compact, [[algebraic curve]]s). Here the cusps are there for a good reason: the curves parametrize a space of [[lattice (group)|lattice]]s, and those lattices can degenerate ('go off to infinity'), often in a number of ways (taking into account some auxiliary structure of ''level''). The cusps stand in for those different 'directions to infinity'.
That is all for lattices in the plane. In ''n''-dimensional [[Euclidean space]] the same questions can be posed, for example about GL<sub>''n''</sub>('''R''')/GL<sub>''n''</sub>('''Z'''). This is harder to compactify. There is a general theory, the [[Borel-Serre compactification]], that is now applied.
==Other compactification theories==
These include the theories of [[ends of a space]] and [[prime end]]s. Also some 'boundary' theories such as the [[collaring of an open manifold]], [[Martin boundary]], [[Silov boundary]] and [[Furstenberg boundary]]. The [[Bohr compactification]] of a [[topological group]] arises from the consideration of [[almost periodic function]]s. One can compactify a [[topological ring]] by forming a ''projective line'' with [[inversive ring geometry]].
[[Category:Topology]]
[[de:Kompaktifizierung]]
[[he:קומפkkkkkkkkkkקטיפיקציה]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Cotangent space</title>
<id>6620</id>
<revision>
<id>42108917</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T21:59:36Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
<id>82835</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Header - references plural</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">In [[differential geometry]], one can attach to every point ''p'' of a differentiable [[manifold]] a [[vector space]] called the '''cotangent space''' at ''p''. Typically, the cotangent space is defined as the [[dual space|dual]] of the [[tangent space]] at ''p'', although there are more direct definitions (see below). The elements of the cotangent space are called '''tangent covectors'''. All cotangent spaces have the same [[dimension of a vector space|dimension]], equal to the dimension of the manifold.
Note that since the tangent space and the cotangent space at a point are both real vector spaces of the same dimension, they are [[isomorphic]] to each other. However, they are ''not'' [[naturally isomorphic]]. That is, given a tangent covector there is no canonical tangent vector associated with it. The situation changes with the introduction of a [[Riemannian metric]] or a [[symplectic form]] in which case the added structure gives rise to a natural isomorphism.
For this reason it is important to maintain the distinction between the tangent space and the cotangent space. Many definitions are more natural on one space than on the other.
All the cotangent spaces of a manifold can be "glued together" to form a new differentiable manifold of twice the dimension, the [[cotangent bundle]] of the manifold.
==Formal definitions==
===Definition as linear functionals===
Let ''M'' be a smooth manifold and let ''p'' be a point in ''M''. Let ''T''<sub>''p''</sub>''M'' be the [[tangent space]] at ''p''. Then the cotangent space at ''p'' is defined as the [[dual space]] of ''T''<sub>''p''</sub>''M'':
:''T''<sub>''p''</sub><sup>*</sup>''M'' = (''T''<sub>''p''</sub>''M'')<sup>*</sup>
Concretely, elements of the cotangent space are [[linear functional]]s on ''T''<sub>''p''</sub>''M''. That is, every element &phi; &isin; ''T''<sub>''p''</sub><sup>*</sup>''M'' is a [[linear map]]
:&phi; : ''T''<sub>''p''</sub>''M''&rarr;'''R'''
The elements of ''T''<sub>''p''</sub><sup>*</sup>''M'' are called tangent covectors.
===Alternate definition===
In some cases, one might like to have a direct definition of the cotangent space without reference to the tangent space. Such a definition can be formulated in terms of [[equivalence class]]es of smooth functions on ''M''.
Let ''M'' be a smooth manifold and let ''p'' be a point in ''M''. Let ''I''<sub>''p''</sub> be the [[ideal (ring theory)|ideal]] of all functions in C<sup>&infin;</sup>(''M'') vanishing at ''p'', and let ''I''<sub>''p''</sub><sup>2</sup> be the set of functions of the form ''fg'' for ''f,g'' &isin; ''I''<sub>''p''</sub>. Then ''I''<sub>''p''</sub> and ''I''<sub>''p''</sub><sup>2</sup> are real vector spaces and the cotangent space is defined as the quotient space ''T''<sub>''p''</sub><sup>*</sup>''M'' = ''I''<sub>''p''</sub> / ''I''<sub>''p''</sub><sup>2</sup>.
==The differential of a function==
Let ''M'' be a smooth manifold and let ''f'' &isin; C<sup>&infin;</sup>(''M'') be a [[smooth function]]. The differential of ''f'' at a point ''p'' is the map
:''df''<sub>''p''</sub>(''X''<sub>''p''</sub>) = ''X''<sub>''p''</sub>(''f'')
where ''X''<sub>''p''</sub> is a [[tangent vector]] at ''p'', thought of as a derivation. That is <math>X(f)=\mathcal{L}_Xf</math> is the [[Lie derivative]] of ''f'' in the direction ''X'', and one has <math>df(X)=X(f)</math>. Equivalently, we can think of tangent vectors as tangents to curves, and write
:''df''<sub>''p''</sub>(&gamma;&prime;(0)) = (''f'' o &gamma;)&prime;(0)
In either case, ''df''<sub>''p''</sub> is a linear map on ''T''<sub>''p''</sub>''M'' and hence it is a tangent covector at ''p''.
We can then define the differential map ''d'' : C<sup>&infin;</sup>(''M'') &rarr; ''T''<sub>''p''</sub><sup>*</sup>''M'' at a point ''p'' as the map which sends ''f'' to ''df''<sub>''p''</sub>. Properties of the differential map include:
# ''d'' is a linear map: ''d''(''af'' + ''bg'') = ''a df'' + ''b dg'' for constants ''a'' and ''b'',
# ''d''(''fg'')<sub>''p''</sub> = ''f''(''p'')''dg'' + ''g''(''p'')''df'',
The differential map provides the link between the two alternate definitions of the cotangent bundle given above. Given a function ''f'' &isin; ''I''<sub>''p''</sub> (a smooth function vanishing at ''p'') we can form the linear functional ''df''<sub>''p''</sub> as above. Since the map ''d'' restricts to 0 on ''I''<sub>''p''</sub><sup>2</sup> (the reader should verify this), ''d'' descends to a map from ''I''<sub>''p''</sub> / ''I''<sub>''p''</sub><sup>2</sup> to the dual of the tangent space, (''T''<sub>''p''</sub>''M'')<sup>*</sup>. One can show that this map is an isomorphism, establishing the equivalence of the two definitions.
==The pullback of a smooth map==
Just as every differentiable map ''f'' : ''M'' &rarr; ''N'' between manifolds induces a linear map (called the ''pushforward'' or ''derivative'') between the tangent spaces
:<math>f_{*}^{}\colon T_p M \to T_{f(p)} N</math>
every such map induces a linear map (called the ''[[pullback]]'') between the cotangent spaces, only this time in the reverse direction:
:<math>f^{*}\colon T_{f(p)}^{*} N \to T_{p}^{ |
ity for the few thousand residents of Gettysburg. Under the direction of David Wills, a wealthy 32-year-old attorney, Pennsylvania purchased 17&nbsp;acres (69,000&nbsp;m²) for a [[cemetery]] to honor those lost in the summer's battle.
Wills originally planned to dedicate this new cemetery on Wednesday, September 23, and invited [[Edward Everett]], who had served as [[United States Secretary of State|Secretary of State]], [[United States Senate|U.S. Senator]], [[United States House of Representatives|U.S. Representative]], [[Governor of Massachusetts]] and president of [[Harvard University]], to be the main speaker. At that time Everett was widely considered to be the nation's greatest orator. In reply Everett told Wills and his organizing committee that he would be unable to prepare an appropriate speech in such a short period of time, and requested that the date be postponed. The committee agreed, and the dedication was postponed until Thursday, November 19.
Almost as an afterthought, Wills and the event committee invited Lincoln to participate in the ceremony. Wills's letter stated, "It is the desire that, after the Oration, you, as [[Chief executive officer|Chief Executive]] of the nation, formally set apart these grounds to their sacred use by a few appropriate remarks."{{ref|Wills}} Lincoln's role in the event was secondary, akin to the modern tradition of inviting a noted public figure to do a [[grand opening|ribbon-cutting]] at a grand opening.{{ref_label|Wills|1|a}}
Lincoln arrived by train in Gettysburg on November 18, and spent the night as a guest in Wills's house on the Gettysburg town square, where he put the finishing touches on the speech he had written in Washington.{{ref|showcase.netins.net.266}} Contrary to popular myth, Lincoln neither completed his prepared remarks while on the train nor wrote them on the back of an envelope.{{ref|Johnson}} On the morning of November 19 at 9:30 a.m., Lincoln joined in a procession with the assembled dignitaries, townspeople, and widows marching out to the grounds to be dedicated astride a chestnut bay horse, between Secretary of State [[William H. Seward]] and [[United States Secretary of the Treasury|Secretary of the Treasury]] [[Salmon P. Chase]].{{ref|showcase.netins.net.267}}{{ref|showcase.netins.net.268}}
Approximately 15,000 to 20,000 people are estimated to have attended the ceremony, including the sitting governors of six of the 24 Union states: [[Andrew Gregg Curtin]] of Pennsylvania, [[Augustus Bradford]] of [[Maryland]], [[Oliver P. Morton]] of [[Indiana]], [[Horatio Seymour]] of [[New York]], [[Joel Parker]] of [[New Jersey]], and [[David Tod]] of [[Ohio]].{{ref|NYT}} The precise location of the program within the grounds of the cemetery is disputed.{{ref|showcase.netins.net.269}} Reinterment of the bodies buried from field graves into the cemetery, which had begun within months of the battle, was less than half complete on the day of the ceremony.{{ref|www.gettysburg.com.270}}
==Program and Everett's "Gettysburg Oration"==
[[Image:Everett-Edward-LOC.jpg|thumb|left|100px|[[Edward Everett]] delivered a two-hour Oration before Lincoln's few minutes of Dedicatory Remarks.]]
The program organized for that day by Wills and his committee included:
:''Music, by Birgfield's Band''
:''Prayer, by Reverend T.H. Stockton, D.D.''
:''Music, by the Marine Band''
:''Oration, by Hon. Edward Everett''
:''Music, Hymn composed by B.B. French, Esq.''
:''Dedicatory Remarks, by the President of the United States''
:''Dirge, sung by Choir selected for the occasion''
:''Benediction, by Reverend H.L. Baugher, D.D.'' {{ref_label|Wills|1|b}}
What was regarded as the "Gettysburg Address" that day was not the short speech delivered by President Lincoln, but rather Everett's two-hour oration. Everett's now-seldom-read 13,609-word speech began:
:''Standing beneath this serene sky, overlooking these broad fields now reposing from the labors of the waning year, the mighty Alleghenies dimly towering before us, the graves of our brethren beneath our feet, it is with hesitation that I raise my poor voice to break the eloquent silence of God and Nature. But the duty to which you have called me must be performed; &mdash; grant me, I pray you, your indulgence and your sympathy.''{{ref|douglassarchives.org.271}}
{{wikisourcepar|Gettysburg Oration}}
And ended two hours later with:
:''But they, I am sure, will join us in saying, as we bid farewell to the dust of these martyr-heroes, that wheresoever throughout the civilized world the accounts of this great warfare are read, and down to the latest period of recorded time, in the glorious annals of our common country, there will be no brighter page than that which relates the Battles of Gettysburg.''{{ref|douglassarchives.org.271}}
==Lincoln's Gettysburg Address==
Not long after those well-received remarks, Lincoln spoke in his high-pitched [[Southern American English|Kentucky accent]] for two or three minutes. Lincoln's "few appropriate remarks" summarized the war in ten sentences and 272 words, rededicating the nation to the war effort and to the ideal that no soldier at Gettysburg had died in vain.
Despite the historical significance of Lincoln's speech, modern scholars disagree as to its exact wording, and contemporary transcriptions published in newspaper accounts of the event and even handwritten copies by Lincoln himself differ in their wording, punctuation, and structure. Of these versions the Bliss version has become the standard text. It is the only version to which Lincoln affixed his signature, and the last he is known to have written:
:''Four score and seven years ago our fathers brought forth on this continent, a new nation, conceived in Liberty, and dedicated to the proposition that all men are created equal.''
:''Now we are engaged in a great civil war, testing whether that nation, or any nation so conceived and so dedicated, can long endure. We are met on a great battle field of that war. We have come to dedicate a portion of that field, as a final resting place for those who here gave their lives <!--"That that nation" is the historically correct version. Please do not modify it. Thank you!--> that that nation might live. It is altogether fitting and proper that we should do this.''<br>
:''But, in a larger sense, we can not dedicate&mdash;we can not consecrate&mdash;we can not hallow&mdash;this ground. The brave men, living and dead, who struggled here, have consecrated it, far above our poor power to add or detract. The world will little note, nor long remember what we say here, but it can never forget what they did here. It is for us the living, rather, to be dedicated here to the unfinished work which they who fought here have thus far so nobly advanced. It is rather for us to be here dedicated to the great task remaining before us &mdash; that from these honored dead we take increased devotion to that cause for which they gave the last full measure of devotion &mdash; that we here highly resolve that these dead shall not have died in vain &mdash; that this nation, under God, shall have a new birth of freedom &mdash; and that government of the people, by the people, for the people, shall not perish from the earth. ''</blockquote>
==The five manuscripts==
[[Image:Gbaddressclip.jpg|right|thumb|300px|Selection from the "Nicolay Copy" of the Gettysburg Address in [[Abraham Lincoln|Lincoln's]] handwriting.]]
The five known manuscript copies of the Gettysburg Address are each named for the associated person who received it from Lincoln. Lincoln gave a copy to each of his private secretaries, [[John Nicolay]] and [[John Hay]]. Both of these drafts were written around the time of his [[November 19]] address, while the other three copies of the address, the Everett, Bancroft, and Bliss copies, were written by Lincoln for charitable purposes well after [[November 19]]. In part because Lincoln provided a title and signed and dated the Bliss Copy, it has been used as the source for most facsimile reproductions of Lincoln's Gettysburg Address.
The two earliest drafts of the Address are associated with some confusion and controversy regarding their existence and provenance. Nicolay and Hay were appointed custodians of Lincoln's papers by Lincoln's son [[Robert Todd Lincoln]] in 1874.{{ref_label|Johnson|3|a}} After appearing in [[facsimile]] in an article written by John Nicolay in 1894, the Nicolay copy was presumably among the papers passed to Hay by Nicolay's daughter Helen upon Nicolay's death in 1901. Robert Lincoln began a search for the original copy in 1908, which spurred Helen to spend several years unsuccessfully searching for Nicolay's copy. In a letter to Lincoln, Helen Nicolay stated, "Mr. Hay told me shortly after the transfer was made that your father gave my father the original ms. of the Gettysburg Address."{{ref_label|Johnson|3|b}} Lincoln's search resulted in the discovery of a handwritten copy of the Gettysburg Address among the bound papers of John Hay&mdash;a copy now known as the "Hay Draft", which differed from the version published by John Nicolay in 1894 in the paper used, number of words per line, number of lines, and editorial revisions in Lincoln's hand.{{ref_label|Johnson|3|c}} It was not until eight years later in March 1916 that the manuscript known as the "Nicolay Copy", consistent with both the recollections of Helen Nicolay and the article written by her father, was reported to be in the possession of Alice Hay Wadsworth, John Hay's granddaughter. (op.cit.)
===Nicolay Copy===
The Nicolay Copy{{ref|LOC}} is often called the "first draft" because it is believed to be the earliest copy that exists. Scholars disagree over whether the Nicolay copy was actually the reading copy Lincoln held at Gettysburg on [[Novem |
Subsets and Splits
No community queries yet
The top public SQL queries from the community will appear here once available.