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ormation process for planets and [[binary star|binary stars]] may be fundamentally different. == See also == *[[brown dwarf]] *[[terrestrial planets]] *[[solar system]] *[[planetary system]] *[[Floating cities (science fiction)|floating cities]] [[Category:Planets]] [[bg:Газов гигант]] [[ca:Gegant gasós]] [[da:Gaskæmpe]] [[de:Gasriese]] [[es:Gigante gaseoso]] [[fr:Géante gazeuse]] [[id:Raksasa gas]] [[is:Gasrisi]] [[it:Gigante gassoso]] [[ms:Gergasi gas]] [[nl:Gasreus]] [[pl:Gazowy olbrzym]] [[pt:Planeta gasoso]] [[ru:Газовые планеты]] [[sl:Plinski velikan]] [[fi:Jättiläisplaneetta]] [[sv:Gasjätte]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Goddess</title> <id>12734</id> <revision> <id>42077935</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T17:51:49Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Bloodofox</username> <id>308199</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>/* Wicca and Neopaganism */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Ceres_statue.jpg|frame|Ceres, the Roman goddess of agriculture]] A '''goddess''' is a female [[deity]], in contrast with a male deity known as a &quot;[[god (male deity)|god]]&quot;. A great many cultures have goddesses, sometimes alone, but more often as part of a larger [[wiktionary:pantheon|pantheon]] that includes both of the conventional genders and in some cases even [[hermaphroditic]] (or [[gender neutral]]) deities. As the concept of [[monotheism]] and [[polytheism]] can be relativistic, so too can related concepts be culturally misunderstood. The concept of gender as applied to a god and goddess, may connote deeper tendencies of [[patriarchy]] and [[matriarchy]], which may have equivalence to the rift between monotheism and polytheism. The '''Goddess''' concept is advocated by modern matriarchs and [[pantheists]] as a female version of, or analogue to [[God]], (i.e. the [[Abrahamic god]]) who in [[feminist]] and other circles is perceived as being rooted in patriarchal concept of dominance&amp;mdash; much to the exclusion of feminine concepts. Use of parallel language such as &quot;patriarchy&quot; and &quot;matriarchy&quot; to indicate gender tendencies can add to the misunderstanding of the social organizational preferences of women and men, as evidenced in archaeological and cultural anthropological findings. The feminine-masculine relationship between deifications is sometimes rooted in [[monism]], (&quot;One-ism&quot;) rather than through a definitive and rigid concept of [[monotheism]] versus [[polytheism]], wherein the '''Goddess''' and '''God''' are seen as the genders of one transcendental monad. ==Ancient Near East== {{stubsection}} ===Egypt=== {{main|Egyptian religion}} *[[Isis]] ===Mesopotamia=== {{main|Sumerian religion}} *[[Ninhursag]] *[[Tiamat]] *[[Ishtar]] *[[Lilit]] ===Arabia=== In the pagan religion prevalent in Arabia before [[Islam]], a number of goddesses were worshipped, including the three referred to as daughters of [[Allah]]: [[Al-Lat]], [[Al-Uzza]] and [[Manah]]. ==Indo-European religion== {{main|Indo-European religion}} === Hinduism === [[Hinduism]] is a complex of various belief systems that sees many gods and goddesses as being representative of and/or emanative from a single source, [[Brahman]], understood either as a formless, infinite, impersonal monad in the [[Advaita]] tradition or as a dual God in the form of [[Lakshmi]]-[[Vishnu]], [[Radha]]-[[Krishna]], [[Devi]]-[[Shiva]] in [[Dvaita]] traditions. [[Shaktas]], worshippers of the Goddess, equate this God with [[Devi]], the mother goddess. Such aspects of One God as male God ([[Shaktiman]]) and female energy ([[Shakti]]), working as a pair are often envisioned as male gods and their wives or consorts and provide many analogues between passive male ground and dynamic female energy. [[Brahma (god)|Brahma]] pairs with [[Sarasvati]] and Shiva with [[Uma (goddess)|Uma]], [[Parvati]], or Durga. [[Kali]] is a form of [[Parvati]]. A further step was taken by the idea of the ''Shaktis''. Their ideology based mainly on [[tantra]]s sees Shakti as the principle of energy through which all divinity functions, thus showing the masculine to be dependent on the feminine. Indeed, in the great shakta scripture known as the [[Devi Mahatmya]], all the goddesses are shown to be aspects of one presiding female force, one in truth and many in expression, giving the world and the cosmos the galvanic energy for motion. It is expressed through both philosophical tracts and metaphor that the potentiality of masculine being is given actuation by the feminine divine. Local deities of different village regions in [[India]] were often identified with &quot;mainstream&quot; Hindu deities, a process that has been called &quot;Sanskritization&quot;. Others attribute it to the influence of [[monism]] or ''Advaita'' which discounts polytheist or monotheist categorization. While the monist forces have led to a fusion between some of the goddesses (108 names are common for many goddesses), centrifugal forces have also resulted in new goddesses and rituals gaining ascendance among the laity in different parts of Hindu world. Thus, the immensely popular goddess [[Durga]] was a pre-Vedic goddess who was later fused with Parvati, a process that can be traced through texts such as Kalika Purana ([[10th century]]), Durgabhaktitarangini ([[Vidyapati]] [[15th century]]), Chandimangal ([[16th century]]) etc. ===Graeco-Roman religion=== {{main articles|[[Greek religion]] and [[Roman religion]]}} *[[Potnia Theron]] *[[Demeter]] *[[Cybele]] ===Celtic religion=== {{main|Celtic paganism}} *[[Dea Matrona]] *[[Sulis]], [[Verbeia]] *[[Brigid]] *[[Agrona]], [[Mórrígan]] ===Germanic religion=== {{main|Germanic paganism}} Surviving accounts of indigenous Germanic paganism contain numerous female deities, giantesses and goddesses. *[[Freya]] *[[Frigg]] *[[Fulla]] *[[Gná]] *[[Hel (being)|Hel]] *[[Hlín]] *[[Iðunn]] *[[Nanna (Norse deity)|Nanna]] *[[Nerthus]] *[[Norns]] *[[Skaði]] *[[Sol (goddess)|Sol]] == Abrahamic religions == [[Monotheism|Monotheist]] cultures, which recognise only one central deity, generally do characterize that deity as male, implicitly already grammatically by using masculine [[gender (grammar)|gender]], but also explicitly by terms such as &quot;Father&quot; or &quot;Lord&quot;. In all monotheist religions, however, there are mystic undercurrents which emphasize the feminine aspects of the godhead, e.g. the [[Collyridians]] in the time of early Christianity, who viewed [[Mary, the mother of Jesus | Mary]] as a Goddess, the medieval visionary [[Julian of Norwich]], the [[Judaism | Judaic]] [[Shekinah]] and the [[Gnostic]] [[Sophia (gnosticism)|Sophia]] traditions, and some [[Sufism | Sufi]] texts in [[Islam]]. ===Judaism=== [[Ancient Hebrew]], as well as [[Modern Hebrew]] have no neuter gender, only male and female. Although Judaism uses masculine words to describe God, Judaism maintains that God has no gender. A balance was undertaken where God would be referred to in a masculine role, the majority of objects related to worship in [[Judaism]] such as the [[Torah]] would be referred to in a female gender. ===Christianity=== Belief in a feminine deity under Christianity was usually deemed heretical, and characteristic of heresy. Catholic and Orthodox veneration for [[Mary]] clearly continue Since the 1980s Christian feminists have challenged this view; some such as [[Mary Daly]] no longer consider themselves Christian but others continue to seek room within their traditions for the Divine Feminine and for female spiritual leadership. (See [[thealogy]].) ===Islam=== [[Salman Rushdie]] in the [[1990s]] brought to the limelight the issue of remnants of pre-Islamic female deities in Islam. At the core of the argument is the following apocryphal verse which appears as a quotation in [[The Satanic Verses (novel)]]: : (''tilk-al-gharaniq al-'ula wa inna shafa'ata-hunna la-turtaja'' - p.340 Viking, New York) meaning &quot;These are the exalted females [literally, cranes] whose intercession is to be desired.&quot; (In [[Arabic (language)|Arabic]] تلك الغرانيق العلى وإن شفاعتهن لترتجى.) These lines are an [[antithesis]] of the strong monotheism that is Islam, and attributing it to the Prophet is blasphemy. The lines however, are part of a historical debate - they appear in the work of two early Arab historians (al-Waqidi, [[747]]-[[823]], and at-Tabari, [[839]]-[[923]]), but repudiated by later Islamic scholars. The controversial sentence, known as [[Satanic Verses]] in the debate, was well known to Rushdie who wrote a paper on Muhammad for his [[University of Cambridge|Cambridge]] [[tripos]] in history. The story is that these lines were inserted into the [[Qur'an]] by Muhammad so as to alleviate the persecution of the faithful by those who believed strongly in these goddesses. However, later these lines were recanted: :He stands in front of the statues of the Three and announces the abrogation of the verses which Shaitan [Satan] whispered in his ear. These verses are banished from the true recitation, al qur'an. New verses are thundered in their place. 'Shall He have daughters and you sons?' Mahound recites. 'That would be a fine division! These are but names you have dreamed of, and your fathers. Allah vests no authority on them.' - p.124 [[Muhammad Haykal]] (author of the &quot;Life of Muhammad&quot;) comments that &quot;the story arrested the attention of the western [[Orientalist]]s who took it as true and repeated it ad nauseam.&quot; (Haykal 105). According to Haykal, The controversy over what is known as the &quot;Gharaniq incident&quot; is that it is a fabrication created by the unbelievers of [[Mecca]] in the early days of [[Islam]]. The main argument against the authenticity of the two verses in Haykal's work and elsewhere is that &quot;its incoherence is evident upon the least scrutiny. It contradicts the infallibility of every proph
rn]] *[[River Erme|Erme]] *[[River Lemon|Lemon]] *[[River Lyd|Lyd]] *[[River Meavy|Meavy]] *[[River Plym|Plym]] *[[River Tavy|Tavy]] *[[River Taw|Taw]] *[[River Teign|Teign]] *[[River Walkham|Walkham]] *[[West Okement River|West Okement]] *[[West Webburn River|West Webburn]] *[[River Yealm|Yealm]] ==See also== *[[Geology of the United Kingdom]] ==External links== {{commons|Dartmoor}} *[http://www.dartmoor-npa.gov.uk/ Dartmoor National Park Authority] *[http://dmoz.org/Regional/Europe/United_Kingdom/England/Devon/Dartmoor/ Dartmoor (DMOZ.org)] *[http://www.dartmoorletterboxing.org/ Dartmoor Letterboxing] *[http://www.dartmooroutdoors.co.uk/ Dartmoor Outdoors - Outdoor Pursuits Festival] *[http://www.legendarydartmoor.co.uk/ Dartmoor Legends] *[http://www.phototropic.co.uk/landscapeleaps/ Dartmoor Virtual Tour.] {{National_Parks_of_England_and_Wales}} [[Category:Dartmoor|*]] [[Category:National parks of England and Wales]] [[Category:Hills of Devon]] [[de:Dartmoor]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Dante Alighieri</title> <id>8169</id> <revision> <id>41406093</id> <timestamp>2006-02-27T02:50:17Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>210.80.130.198</ip> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Redirect|Dante}} [[Image:DanteFresco.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Dante in a fresco series of famous men by [[Andrea del Castagno]], ca. 1450 ([[Uffizi Gallery]])]] '''Durante degli Alighieri''', better known as '''Dante''', (c. [[June 1]] [[1265]] &amp;ndash; [[September 14|September 13/14]], [[1321]]) was an Italian [[Florence|Florentine]] poet. His greatest work, ''La divina commedia'' (''[[The Divine Comedy]]''), is considered the greatest literary statement produced in [[Europe]] in the medieval period, and the basis of the modern [[Italian language]]. == From Birth to Death == ===Early history and family=== Dante was born in 1265 and he tells us he was born under the sign of [[Gemini]], placing his birthday in June, or late May. As an infant, Dante may have been originally christened 'Durante' in Florence's [[Battistero di San Giovanni (Florence)|Baptistery]], and the name Dante could be a shortened version of that name. He was born into the prominent Alighieri family of Florence, with loyalties to the [[Guelphs and Ghibellines|Guelf]]s, a political alliance that supported the [[Papacy]], involved in complex opposition to the [[Guelphs and Ghibellines|Ghibellines]], who were backed by the [[Holy Roman Emperor]]. These factions fashioned their names after the ones of opposing factions of German Imperial politics, centered around the noble families of [[Welfen and Weibelingen]], but adapting their meaning to the Italian political arena. After the defeat of the Ghibellines by the Guelfs in 1289, the Guelfs themselves were divided into White Guelfs, who were wary of Papal influence, and Black Guelfs who continued to support the Papacy. Dante (a White Guelf) pretended that his family descended from the ancient Romans (Inferno, XV, 76), but the earliest relative he can mention by name is [[Cacciaguida]] degli Elisei (Paradiso, XV, 135), of no earlier than about 1100. His father, Alighiero de Bellincione, was a White Guelf, but suffered no reprisals after the Ghibellines won the [[Battle of Montaperti]], and this safety reveals a certain personal or family prestige. Dante's mother was Donna Bella degli Abati; &quot;Bella&quot; stands for Gabriella, but also means &quot;beautiful&quot;, while Abati (the name of a powerful family) means [[abbott]]s. She died when Dante was 5 or 6 years old, and Alighiero soon married Miss Lapa di Chiarissimo Cialuffi. (It is uncertain whether he really married her, as widowers had social limitations in these matters.) This woman definitely bore two children, Dante's brother Francesco and sister Tana (Gaetana). When Dante was 12, in 1277, he was promised in marriage to Gemma di Manetto Donati, daughter of Messer Manetto Donati. Contracting marriages at this early age was quite common, and was an important ceremony, requiring formal deeds signed before a [[Notary public|notary]]. Dante had several sons with Gemma. As often happens with famous people, many children pretended to be Dante's offspring; however, it is likely that Jacopo, Pietro, and Antonia were truly his children. Antonia became a nun with the name of Sister Beatrice. Another man, Giovanni, claimed to be his son and was in exile with Dante, but some doubts were advanced about his claim. ===Education and poetry=== [[Image:Dante alighieri.jpg|thumb|left|Dante Alighieri]] Not much is known about Dante's education, and it is presumed he studied at home. We know he studied [[Tuscan]] poetry, at a time when the [[Sicilian School]] (''Scuola poetica siciliana''), a cultural group from [[Sicily]], was becoming known in Tuscany. His interests brought him to discover [[Provençal]] minstrels and poets, and [[Latin]] culture (with an obvious particular devotion to [[Virgil]]). It should be underlined that during the &quot;Secoli Bui&quot; ([[Dark Ages]]), [[Italy]] had become a mosaic of small states, so [[Sicily]] was as far (culturally and politically) from Tuscany as [[Provence]] was: the regions did not share a language, culture, or easy communications. Nevertheless, we can assume that Dante was a keen up-to-date intellectual with international interests. When 18, he met [[Guido Cavalcanti]], [[Lapo Gianni]], [[Cino da Pistoia]], and soon after [[Brunetto Latini]]; together they became the leaders of [[Dolce Stil Nuovo]] (The Sweet New Style). Brunetto later received a special mention in the Divine Comedy (Inferno, XV, 82), for what he had taught Dante. Other studies are reported, or deduced from ''Vita Nuova'' or the Divine Comedy, regarding painting and music. When he was nine years old he met [[Beatrice Portinari]], the daughter of Folco Portinari, with whom he fell in love &quot;at first sight&quot;, and apparently without even having spoken to her. He saw her frequently after age 18, often exchanging greetings in the street, but he never knew her well. It is hard to decipher of what this love consisted, but something extremely important for Italian culture was happening: as it is in the sign of this love that Dante gave his imprint to the Stil Novo and would lead poets and writers to discover the themes of Love (Amore), which had never been so emphasized before. Love for Beatrice (as in a different manner [[Petrarch|Petrarca]] would show for his Laura) would apparently be the reason for poetry and for living, together with political passions. When [[Beatrice Portinari|Beatrice]] died in 1290, Dante tried to find a refuge in [[Latin literature]]. From the ''[[Convivio]]'' we know that he had read [[Anicius Manlius Severinus Boethius|Boethius]]'s ''De consolatione philosophiae'' and [[Cicero]]'s ''De amicitia''. He then dedicated himself to philosophical studies at religious schools like the Dominican one in [[Santa Maria Novella]]. He took part in the disputes that the two principal monastic orders ([[Franciscan]] and [[Dominican Order|Dominican]]) publicly or indirectly held in Florence, the former explaining the doctrine of the mystics and of [[Bonaventure|San Bonaventura]], the latter presenting Saint [[Thomas Aquinas]]' theories. His &quot;excessive&quot; passion for philosophy would later be criticized by the character Beatrice, in ''Purgatory''. ===Florence and politics=== [[Image:Dante Alighieri01.jpg|thumb|left|200px|Statue of Dante at the [[Uffizi]], Florence]] Dante, like many Florentines of his day, became embroiled in the [[Guelphs and Ghibellines|Guelf-Ghibelline]] conflict. He fought in the [[battle of Campaldino]] ([[June 11]], [[1289]]), with Florentine Guelf knights against [[Arezzo]] Ghibellines, then in 1294 he was among those knights who escorted [[Charles Martel d'Anjou|Carlo Martello d'Anjou]] (son of [[Charles of Anjou]]) while he was in Florence. To further his political career, he became a doctor and a pharmacist; he did not intend to take up those professions, but a law issued in 1295 required that nobles who wanted to assume public office had to be enrolled in one of the [[guild|''Corporazioni di Arti e Mestieri'']], so Dante obtained quick admission to the apothecaries' guild. The profession he chose was not entirely inapt, since at the time books were sold from apothecaries' shops. As a politician, he accomplished little of relevance, but he held various offices over a number of years in a city undergoing some political agitation. After their defeat of the Ghibellines, the Guelfs divided into two factions: the White Guelfs (''Guelfi Bianchi''), Dante's party, led by Vieri dei Cerchi, and the Black Guelfs (''Guelfi Neri''), led by [[Corso Donati]]. &quot;Colours&quot; were chosen when Vieri dei Cerchi gave his protection to the Grandi's family in [[Pistoia]], which was locally called ''La parte bianca'' (the white party); Corso Donati had consequently protected the rival (''parte nera''), and these colours became the distinctive colours of the parties in Florence. Being engaged in politics was not easy when [[Pope Boniface VIII]] was planning a military occupation of Florence, because this involved issues which transcended the city, and were beyond the scope of a local official. In 1301, [[Charles of Valois|Charles de Valois]], brother of [[Philip IV of France|Philippe le Bel]] king of [[France]], was expected to visit Florence because the Pope had appointed him peacemaker for [[Tuscany]]. But the city's government had already treated the Pope's ambassadors badly a few weeks before, seeking independence from papal influences. It was thought wise to consider the hypothesis that Charles de Valois could eventually have received other unofficial orders. So the council sent a delegation to [[Rome]], in order to ascertain the Pope's intentions. Dante was the chief of this delegation. ===Exile and death=== [[Image:Dante in Flo
(dry) || 3,500 lb&lt;sub&gt;f&lt;/sub&gt; || 15.5 kN |----- | Thrust (afterburner) || 5,000 lb&lt;sub&gt;f&lt;/sub&gt; || 22.2 kN |----- ! colspan=&quot;3&quot; bgcolor=&quot;skyblue&quot; | Performance |----- |----- | Maximum speed || 917 knots || 1,700 km/h |----- | Combat radius || 760 nautical miles || 1,405 km |----- | Ferry range || 2,010 nautical miles || 3,720 km |----- | Service ceiling || 51,800 ft || 15,800 m |----- | Rate of climb || 34,400 ft/min || 10,500 m/min |----- ! colspan=&quot;3&quot; bgcolor=&quot;skyblue&quot; | Armament |----- |----- | Guns | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | 2 x 20 mm Pontiac [[M39 cannon|M39A2]] cannon with 280 rounds per gun |----- | Bombs | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | Up to 7000 lb (3180 kg) mixed&lt;br/&gt;&amp;nbsp;M129 Leaflet&lt;br/&gt;&amp;nbsp;500 lb (225 kg) Mk82&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;2000 lb (900 kg) Mk84&lt;br/&gt;&amp;nbsp;CBU-24/49/52/58 Cluster |----- | Missiles | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | [[AIM-7 Sparrow]]&lt;br&gt;[[AIM-9 Sidewinder]]&lt;br&gt;[[AGM-65 Maverick]]&lt;br&gt; [[AIM-120 AMRAAM]] [[Python-3]] (on Thailand's upgrade F-5T) and [[Python-4]] (on Singapore's upgraded F-5S/T and Thailand's upgrade F-5T) |} The [[F-5 Freedom Fighter]] (or '''Tiger II''') is a [[fighter aircraft]], designed and built by [[Northrop]] in the [[United States|USA]], beginning in [[1962]]. Originally designed by [[Northrop]] (designated N-156) as a low-cost, low-maintenance fighter, there was little market for such a craft. The [[U.S. Army]] expressed interest in it for ground support, but operating fixed-wing aircraft was a [[U.S. Air Force]] responsibility and the Air Force would neither agree to operate the N-156 nor to allow the Army to operate fixed-wing combat aircraft. The F-5 proved to be a successful combat aircraft that never entered frontline service with the US due to diverging priorities of the US services. When the [[Military Assistance Program]] under the Kennedy Administration needed a low cost fighter for distribution to less-developed nations, the '''N-156F''' was at the top of the pile, and subsequently became the '''F-5A'''. The first contract for the production F-5A was issued in [[1962 in aviation|1962]], the first overseas order coming from [[Norway]] in February [[1964 in aviation|1964]]. 636 F-5As were built before production ended in [[1972 in aviation|1972]]. These were accompanied by 200 two-seat '''F-5B''' aircraft. These were operational trainers, lacking the nose-mounted cannon but otherwise combat-capable. The [[USAF]] made a combat evaluation of the F-5A under the ''Skoshi Tiger'' (little tiger) program in [[1965 in aviation|1965]]. 12 aircraft were delivered for trials to the [[4503rd Tactical Fighter Wing]] (subsequently the [[10th Fighter Commando Squadron]]), redesignated '''F-5C'''. They performed combat duty in [[Vietnam War|Vietnam]], flying more than 3,500 sorties from the [[3rd Tactical Fighter Wing]] at [[Bien Hoa]] in [[South Vietnam]]. Two aircraft were lost in combat. The program was short-lived, more a political gesture than a serious consideration of the type for U.S. service. The 10th FCS's surviving aircraft were subsequently turned over to the air force of South Vietnam. Ironically, when Bien Hoa was later overrun by Communist forces, several of the aircraft were captured and used operationally by the [[North Vietnamese Army|NVAF]], in particular against China. In [[1970 in aviation|1970]] Northrop won a competition for an improved '''International Fighter Aircraft (IFA)''' to replace the F-5A. The resultant aircraft, initially known as '''F-5A-21''', subsequently became the '''F-5E'''. It was lengthened and enlarged, with increased wing area and more sophisticated [[avionics]], initially with an Emerson AN/APQ-159 [[radar]] (the F-5A and -B had no radar). Various specific avionics fits could be accommodated at customer request. A two-seat combat-capable trainer, the '''F-5F''', was offered. Unlike the gunless F-5B, it retained a single [[M39 cannon]] in the nose, albeit with a reduced ammunition capacity. A [[reconnaissance]] version, the '''RF-5E Tigereye''', with a sensor package in the nose displacing the radar and one cannon, was also offered. The F-5E eventually received the official popular name '''Tiger II'''. It is sometimes incorrectly thought to be the only aircraft designated as its own replacement; in fact, the previous &quot;Tiger&quot; was the [[F-11 Tiger|Grumman F11F/F-11]]. The [[AV-8 Harrier II | AV-8B Harrier II]], which followed the [[Hawker-Siddeley Harrier|AV-8A/C Harrier]], is the only aircraft to have truly been designated as its own replacement. Northrop built 792 F-5Es, 140 F-5Fs and 12 RF-5Es. More were built under license overseas: 56 F-5Es and -Fs plus 5 RF-5Es in [[Malaysia]] (they plan to sell them after being upgraded), 90 F-5Es and -Fs in [[Switzerland]] (of which some are currently rented to [[Austria]] to bridge the gap between the retirement of the [[Saab Draken]] fleet and the delivery of new [[Eurofighter Typhoon|Eurofighter]] jets), 68 in [[South Korea]], and 380 in [[Taiwan]]. Various F-5 versions remain in service with many nations. The most advanced are those of [[Singapore]], which has approximately 49 modernised and re-designated '''F-5S''' (single-seaters) and '''F-5T''' (two-seaters) aircraft. Upgrades include new radar, manufactured by [[Israel]], updated cockpits with multi-function displays, and compatibility with the [[Rafael Python]] and [[AIM-120 AMRAAM]] [[air-to-air missile]]s. Although the United States does not use the F-5 in a frontline role, it was adopted for an opposing-forces (OPFOR) &quot;''aggressor''&quot; training role because of its performance similarities to the [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] [[MiG-21]]. A trainer version, the [[T-38 Talon]], was adopted by the [[U.S. Air Force]] as a pilot's first introduction to [[supersonic]] flight. The F-5E saw service with the US Air Force from 1975 until 1990, serving in the [[64th Aggressor Squadron]] and [[65th Aggressor Squadron]] at [[Nellis Air Force Base]] in Nevada, and with the 527th Aggressor Squadron at Alconbury RAF Base in the UK and the 26th Aggressor Squadron at Clark AB in the Phillipines. The Marines purchased ex-USAF models in 1989 to replace their [[F-21]]s. Serving with VMFT-401 at Yuma MCAS, the F-5 fleet continues to be modernized with F-5N replacements purchased from Switzerland. The US Navy used the F-5E extensively at The [[Naval Fighter Weapons School]] at[[NAS Miramar]], VF-127, VF-43 and VF-45. Currently, the only Navy unit flying the F-5 is [[VFC-13]] at Fallon NAS in Nevada. Northrop attempted to develop an advanced version of the F-5E, originally designated '''F-5G''', as an export competitor for the [[F-16]]. The -5G was later redesignated the [[F-20 Tigershark]]. The [[F/A-18_Hornet|F/A-18 Hornet]] was derived from the [[YF-17 Cobra]], which in turn was based in part on the F-5 Tiger II. ==Foreign variations== [[Iran]] has reverse engineered its F-5 fighters supplied to it before the Iranian Revolution and developed two indigenous fighters: the [[Saeqeh]] Fighter and the [[Azarakhsh]] Fighter. ==Use in fiction== * [[Apocalypse Now]] features 4-5 aircraft dropping Napalm on a battlefield. These undoubtedly belonged to the [[Phillippine Air Force]], who provided numerous aircraft (including helicopters) for the film. Interestingly, the aircraft are portrayed as American in the film. * [[Top Gun]] features a number of F-5s as the fictional [[Mikoyan MiG-28 (fictional)|MiG-28]] that battle against US Navy F-14s. * Shin Kazama of [[Area 88]] acquired an F-5 after his F-8 Crusader was destroyed. * F-5s are featured in the videogames [[Ace Combat 04]] and [[Ace Combat 5]]. ==Operators== * Austria, Bahrain, Botswana, Brazil, Canada, Chile, Ethiopia, Greece, Honduras, Indonesia, Iran, Jordan, Kenya, Libya, Malaysia, Mexico, Morocco, Netherlands, Norway, Paraguay, Pakistan, Philippines, Saudi Arabia, Singapore, South Korea, South Vietnam, Spain, Switzerland, Taiwan, Thailand, Tunisia, Turkey, United States (Air Force, Navy, Marine Corps), Venezuela, Yemen, {|align=&quot;left&quot; |[[Image:F-5 3-view.jpg|thumb|300px|left|3-view drawing]] |{{Commons|Northrop F-5 Freedom Fighter}} |} {| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;margin:5px auto; clear:both; border:3px solid;width:60%; font-size:small;&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; !bgcolor=&quot;#e0e0e0&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;border-bottom:3px solid&quot;|Related content |- |'''Related development''' |align=&quot;center&quot;| [[T-38 Talon|T-38]] - [[F-20 Tigershark|F-20]] - [[Grumman X-29|X-29]] - [[IAMI Azarakhsh]] |- |'''Similar aircraft''' |align=&quot;center&quot;| [[Aeritalia G.91]] - [[Dassault Étendard]] |- |'''Designation series''' |align=&quot;center&quot;| [[F2H Banshee|F-2]] - [[F3H Demon|F-3]] - [[F-4 Phantom II|F-4]] - '''F-5''' - [[F4D Skyray|F-6]] - [[F2Y Sea Dart|F-7]] - [[F-8 Crusader|F-8]] |- |'''Related lists''' |align=&quot;center&quot;|[[List of military aircraft of the United States]] - [[List of fighter aircraft]] |- |} {{airlistbox}} [[Category:U.S. fighter aircraft 1950-1959|F-05 Freedom Fighter]] [[de:Northrop F-5]] [[fr:Northrop F-5 Freedom Fighter]] [[ja:F-5 (戦闘機)]] [[ko:F-5 프리덤 파이터]] [[nl:F-5 Freedom Fighter]] [[no:F-5 Freedom Fighter]] [[pt:Northrop F-5E Tiger II]] [[sv:Northrop F-5 Freedom Fighter]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>FDR (disambiguation)</title> <id>11143</id> <revision> <id>40345592</id> <timestamp>2006-02-19T23:26:33Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>130.194.13.106</ip> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">'''FDR''' may refer to: * '''[[Franklin D. Roosevelt]]''' - The 32nd [[President of the United States|President]] of the [[United States]]. * '''[[Full Depth Recycling]]''' - A process that rebuilds worn out asphalt pavements by recycling the existing roadway. *
s Adobes]] *[[Catalina Foothills, Arizona|Catalina Foothills]] *[[Chandler, Arizona|'''Chandler''']] *[[Cottonwood, Arizona|Cottonwood]] *[[Cottonwood-Verde Village, Arizona|Cottonwood-Verde Village]] *[[Douglas, Arizona|Douglas]] *[[Drexel Heights, Arizona|Drexel Heights]] *[[Eloy, Arizona|Eloy]] *[[Flagstaff, Arizona|Flagstaff]] *[[Florence, Arizona|Florence]] *[[Flowing Wells, Arizona|Flowing Wells]] *[[Fortuna Foothills, Arizona|Fortuna Foothills]] *[[Fountain Hills, Arizona|Fountain Hills]] *[[Gilbert, Arizona|'''Gilbert''']] *[[Glendale, Arizona|'''Glendale''']] *[[Globe, Arizona|Globe]] *[[Goodyear, Arizona|Goodyear]] *[[Green Valley, Arizona|Green Valley]] *[[Kingman, Arizona|Kingman]] *[[Lake Havasu City, Arizona|Lake Havasu City]] *[[Marana, Arizona|Marana]] *[[Mesa, Arizona|'''Mesa''']] | valign=&quot;top&quot; | *[[Mohave Valley, Arizona|Mohave Valley]] *[[New Kingman-Butler, Arizona|New Kingman-Butler]] *[[New River, Arizona|New River]] *[[Nogales, Arizona|Nogales]] *[[Oro Valley, Arizona|Oro Valley]] *[[Paradise Valley, Arizona|Paradise Valley]] *[[Payson, Arizona|Payson]] *[[Peoria, Arizona|'''Peoria''']] *[[Phoenix, Arizona|'''Phoenix''']] *[[Prescott Valley, Arizona|Prescott Valley]] *[[Prescott, Arizona|Prescott]] *[[Safford, Arizona|Safford]] *[[San Luis, Arizona|San Luis]] *[[Scottsdale, Arizona|'''Scottsdale''']] *[[Sedona, Arizona|Sedona]] *[[Sierra Vista Southeast, Arizona|Sierra Vista Southeast]] *[[Sierra Vista, Arizona|Sierra Vista]] *[[Sun City West, Arizona|Sun City West]] *[[Sun City, Arizona|Sun City]] *[[Sun Lakes, Arizona|Sun Lakes]] *[[Surprise, Arizona|Surprise]] *[[Tanque Verde, Arizona|Tanque Verde]] *[[Tempe, Arizona|'''Tempe''']] *[[Tucson Southeast, Arizona|Tucson Southeast]] *[[Tucson, Arizona|'''Tucson''']] *[[Yuma, Arizona|Yuma]] *[[Youngtown, Arizona|Youngtown]] |} ===25 Richest Places in Arizona=== Ranked by [[per capita income]] {| border=&quot;1&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot;&gt; |- |City |Income |City |Income |- |1 [[Paradise Valley, Arizona]] |$81,290 |14 [[Sedona, Arizona]] |$31,350 |- |2 [[Carefree, Arizona]] |$62,433 |15 [[Green Valley, Arizona]] |$31,138 |- |3 [[Rio Verde, Arizona]] |$58,783 |16 [[Oro Valley, Arizona]] |$31,134 |- |4 [[Tubac, Arizona]] |$46,643 |17 [[Williamson, Arizona]] |$30,232 |- |5 [[Catalina Foothills, Arizona]] |$42,006 |18 [[Big Park, Arizona]] |$30,026 |- |6 [[Scottsdale, Arizona]] |$39,158 |19 [[Queen Valley, Arizona]] |$28,886 |- |7 [[Cave Creek, Arizona]] |$38,070 |20 [[Corona de Tucson, Arizona]] |$28,304 |- |8 [[Litchfield Park, Arizona]] |$37,793 |21 [[Elgin, Arizona]] |$27,909 |- |9 [[Tanque Verde, Arizona]] |$36,467 |22 [[Sonoita, Arizona]] |$27,312 |- |10 [[Gold Camp, Arizona]] |$35,010 |23 [[Sun City, Arizona]] |$25,935 |- |11 [[Sun Lakes, Arizona]] |$33,394 |24 [[New River, Arizona]] |$25,932 |- |12 [[Fountain Hills, Arizona]] |$32,230 |25 [[Tortolita, Arizona]] |$25,550 |- |13 [[Sun City West, Arizona]] |$32,049 !colspan=2|[[Richest Places in Arizona|''See complete list of Arizona places'']] |} ==Notable people== Famous Arizonans also include former [[Supreme Court of the United States|Supreme Court]] [[Justice]] [[Sandra Day O'Connor]], author [[Zane Grey]], former Governor and Secretary of the Interior [[Bruce Babbitt]], architect [[Frank Lloyd Wright]], Presidential candidate (1964) and former Senator [[Barry Goldwater]], Presidential candidate (1976) and former Arizona congressman [[Mo Udall]] and his brother Secretary of the Interior [[Stewart Udall]], Presidential candidate (2000) and Senior Republican Senator [[John McCain]], former senator [[Carl Hayden]] and former [[Solicitor General]] [[Rex E. Lee]]. From the rock and roll world, both [[Alice Cooper]] and [[Stevie Nicks]] of [[Fleetwood Mac]] are from Phoenix; [[Linda Ronstadt]] is from Tucson. Film director [[Steven Spielberg]] grew up in Scottsdale, as did [[Wonder Woman]] star [[Lynda Carter]]. Labor leader [[Cesar Estrada Chavez]] is from Yuma. For a complete list, see ''[[List of people from Arizona]]''. ==Education== '''Universities''' Higher education in Arizona is governed at the university level by the [[Arizona Board of Regents]] or the ABOR, a 12-member body. According to information published by the ABOR office and available on their Web site, eight volunteer members are appointed by the Governor to staggered eight-year terms; two students serve on the Board for two-year appointments, with the first year being a nonvoting apprentice year. The Governor and the Superintendent of Public Instruction serve as voting ex-officio members. The ABOR provides &quot;policy guidance&quot; and oversight to the three major degree-granting universities, as provided for by Title 15 of the [[Arizona Revised Statutes]]. '''Community colleges''' Community colleges in Arizona were governed historically by a separate statewide Board of Directors, but a bill passed in the 2002 regular session of the Legislature (HB 2710, which later became ARS 15-1444) transferred almost all oversight authority to individual community college districts. ===Colleges and universities=== ====State universities==== (Ranked by student enrollment) *[[Arizona State University]] *[[University of Arizona]] *[[Northern Arizona University]] ====Community colleges==== *[[Central Arizona Community College]] *[[Chandler-Gilbert Community College]] *[[Coconino Community College]] *[[Estrella Mountain Community College]] *[[GateWay Community College]] *[[Glendale Community College (AZ)|Glendale Community College]] *[[Mesa Community College]] *[[Paradise Valley Community College]] *[[Phoenix College]] *[[Rio Salado Community College]] *[[Scottsdale Community College]] *[[South Mountain Community College]] *[[Pima Community College]] **Desert Vista Campus **Downtown Campus **East Campus **Northwest Campus **West Campus *[[Eastern Arizona College]] *[[Yavapai Community College]] *[[Prescott College]] *[[Cochise College]] *[[Mohave Community College]] *[[South Mountain Community College]] *[[Arizona Western College]] *[[Northland Pioneer College]] ====Private colleges and trade schools==== *[[American Indian College of the Assemblies of God]] *[[Art Institute of Phoenix]] *[[Collins College]], Tempe *[[DeVry University, Phoenix]] *[[Embry-Riddle Aeronautical University]] *[[Grand Canyon University]] *[[Prescott College]] *[[Southwestern College (Arizona)|Southwestern College]] *[[Thunderbird - The Garvin School of International Management]] *[[University of Phoenix]] *[[Western International University]] ===Elementary and secondary education=== Public schools in Arizona are separated into about 220 local school districts which operate independently, but are governed in most cases by elected county school superintendents; these are in turn overseen by the [[Arizona State Board of Education]] (a division of the [[Arizona Department of Education]]) and the state Superintendent of Public Instruction (elected in partisan elections every even-numbered year when there is not a presidential election, for a four-year term). ===Education associations=== *[[Arizona Music Educators Association]] *[[Arizona School Boards Association]] ==Professional sports teams== *[[Arizona Cardinals]] ([[National Football League]]) *[[Arizona Diamondbacks]] ([[Major League Baseball]]) *[[Arizona Rattlers]] ([[Arena Football League]]) *[[Arizona Sting]] ([[National Lacrosse League]]) *[[Mesa Miners]] ([[Golden Baseball League]]) *[[Phoenix Coyotes]] ([[National Hockey League]]) *[[Phoenix Mercury]] ([[Women's National Basketball Association]]) *[[Phoenix Roadrunners]] ([[East Coast Hockey League]]) *[[Phoenix Suns]] ([[National Basketball Association]]) *[[Surprise Fightin' Falcons]] ([[Golden Baseball League]]) *[[Tucson Sidewinders]] ([[Minor League Baseball]]) *[[Yuma Scorpions]] ([[Golden Baseball League]]) ===Spring training=== Arizona is a popular location for [[Major League Baseball]] [[spring training]], as it is the site of the '''Cactus League'''. The only other location for spring traing is in [[Florida]] with the '''Grapefruit League'''. The state hosts the following teams: *[[Arizona Diamondbacks]] in [[Tucson Electric Park]] *[[Chicago Cubs]] in [[HoHoKam Park]] *[[Chicago White Sox]] in [[Tucson Electric Park]] *[[Colorado Rockies]] in [[Hi Corbett Field]] *[[Kansas City Royals]] in [[Surprise Stadium]] *[[Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim]] in [[Tempe Diablo Stadium]] *[[Milwaukee Brewers]] in [[Maryvale Baseball Park]] *[[Oakland Athletics]] in [[Phoenix Municipal Stadium]] *[[San Diego Padres]] in [[Peoria Sports Complex]] *[[San Francisco Giants]] in [[Scottsdale Stadium]] *[[Seattle Mariners]] in [[Peoria Sports Complex]] *[[Texas Rangers (baseball)|Texas Rangers]] in [[Surprise Stadium]] ==References== {{unsourced}} *David M. Thomas (Ed.) (2003). '''Arizona Legislative Manual.''' In ''[http://www.azleg.state.az.us/alispdfs/Council/legman2003.pdf]''. Phoenix, AZ, Arizona Legislative Council. Google Print. Retrieved January 16, 2006. ==External links== {{sisterlinks|Arizona}} *[http://www.azreps.com/gallery1.htm Arizona Photos] *[http://www.funonthenet.in/content/view/145/31/ Arizona Pictures] *[http://www.az.gov/webapp/portal/ Arizona @ Your Service] *[http://www.bea.doc.gov/bea/regional/map/map.asp?po=AZ Arizona Regional Accounts Data] *[http://www.fedstats.gov/qf/states/04000.html Arizona Demographic Data from FedStats] *[http://www.census.gov/Press-Release/www/2001/tables/redist_az.html Census 2000 Data for Arizona] *[http://www.arizonaguide.com/home.asp Official Arizona Office of Tourism] *[http://www.pr.state.az.us/Parks/parksites.html Arizona State Parks] *[http://www.lib.az.us/ Arizona State Library, Archives and Public Records] *[http://www.usnewspapers.org/state/arizona Arizona Newspapers] {{Arizona}} {{United_States}} [[Category:1912 establishments]] [[Category:Arizona|*]] [[Category:States of the American West]] [[Category:States of the United States]]
the Bruce]] is described as &quot;Earl of Bruce&quot;, but actually, his title before becoming king was ''Comes'' (count, mormaer or earl) of [[District of Carrick, Ayrshire|Carrick]]. #''Braveheart'' suggests Wallace supported the Bruce claim to the Scottish throne; however, Wallace supported the Balliol claim while Bruce was convinced of his father's rightful succession. # The reality of William Wallace's capture and [[Hanged, drawn and quartered|execution]] was far worse than shown in the film. # The movie depicts [[Robert Bruce, Earl of Carrick|Robert the Bruce's father]] (who was also named Robert) as a leper. There is no historical record of this though Bruce himself contracted a disease before his death that has sometimes been alleged to be [[leprosy]]. # Bruce did not betray Wallace at Falkirk. He did eventually switch sides but that was a few years later and as a result of a dispute with the Comyns (not depicted in the film) who supported the Balliol claim to the throne. The Scottish war effort collapsed a few years later because of the defeat of their French allies by the Flemish at [[Battle of the Golden Spurs|Courtrai]] in [[1302]]. Wallace was hunted down when the Scots were forced to surrender in [[1305]]. # In his speech before the battle of Stirling Bridge, Mel Gibson's Wallace alludes to a hundred years of tyranny. Ironically, the [[13th century]] was one of the few centuries when Anglo-Scottish relations were relatively peaceful. This changed after the unexpected death of [[Alexander III of Scotland|Alexander III]] in [[1286]], when Edward I stepped in to resolve the dispute over the Scottish crown, and used this opportunity to revive English claims of overlordship. # The film depicts Edward I dying at the same time as Wallace was executed. In fact, Wallace's execution took place in 1305, in Westminster, and King Edward died in 1307, two years later, en route to put down a fresh rebellion of the Scots, led by Robert the Bruce. #Edward I never [[defenestrate|defenestrated]], or otherwise killed or harmed, Edward II's lovers. # In battle, Wallace is shown painted blue with [[woad]], a fashion that had become extinct at least with the Picts, some 5 centuries before his time, if not even earlier. Gibson, in his commentary to the film, admits many of these historical inaccuracies such as ''prima nocte'' quite candidly. For a historical treatment of events see the [[William Wallace]] entry. However, as the film notes &quot;history is written by those who have hanged heroes&quot;. ==Miscellaneous== In 1997 a statue of Gibson as &quot;William Wallace&quot; was placed in the car-park of the [[Wallace Monument]] near [[Stirling]], [[Scotland]]. The statue, which includes the word &quot;Braveheart&quot; on Wallace's shield, was the cause of much controversy and one local resident stated that it was wrong to &quot;desecrate the main memorial to Wallace with a lump of crap&quot;. In [[1998]] the statue was vandalised by someone who smashed the face in with a hammer. After repairs were made, the statue was encased in a cage at night to prevent further vandalism. This has only incited more calls for the statue to be removed as it now appears that the Gibson/Wallace figure is imprisoned; an irony, considering that the statue bears the word &quot;Freedom&quot; on the plinth. ==Cast== * [[Mel Gibson]] - [[William Wallace]] * [[Sophie Marceau]] - Princess [[Isabella_of_France|Isabelle]] * [[Patrick McGoohan]] - King [[Edward I]] Longshanks * [[Catherine McCormack]] - [[Marion Braidfute|Murron MacClannough]] * [[Angus MacFadyen]] - [[Robert the Bruce]] * [[Brendan Gleeson]] - [[Hamish Campbell]] * [[Ian Bannen]] - [[Robert de Brus, 6th Lord of Annandale|Robert the Bruce, Sr.]] * [[Alun Armstrong (actor)|Alun Armstrong]] - Mornay * [[Michael Byrne]] - Smythe * [[Liam Carney]] - Sean * [[Bernard Horsfall]] - Balliol * [[Phil Kelly]] - Farmer * [[Sean McGinley]] - MacClannough * [[Gerda Stevenson]] - Mother MacClannough * [[Tam White]] - MacGregor * [[Joe Savino]] - Chief Assassin * [[Ralph Riach]] - Priest No 1 * [[David O'Hara]] - [[Stephen (Braveheart)|Stephen]] * [[Niall O'Brien]] - English General No 2 * [[Alex Norton]] - Bride's Father * [[Martin Murphy]] - Lord Talmadge * [[Peter Mullan]] - Veteran * [[Barry McGovern]] - King's Advisor No 2 * [[Tommy Flanagan (actor)|Tommy Flanagan]] - Morrison * [[Julie Austin]] - Mrs Morrison * [[James Robinson]] - Young William * [[Mhairi Calvey]] - Young Murron MacClannough * [[Donal Gibson]] - Stewart * [[Rupert Vansittart]] - Lord Bottoms * [[Alan Tall]] - Elder Stewart * [[Robert Paterson]] - Priest No 2 * [[John Murtagh]] - Lochlan * [[Gerard McSorley]] - Cheltham * [[Jeanne Marine]] - Nicolette * [[Sean Lawlor]] - [[Malcolm Wallace]] * [[Sandy Nelson (actor) | Sandy Nelson]] - [[John Wallace]] * [[Malcolm Tierney]] - Magistrate * [[James Cosmo]] - Campbell * [[David McKay]] - Young Soldier * [[Brian Cox]] - [[Argyle Wallace]] * [[Mal Whyte]] - Jailor * [[Jimmy Keogh]] - Drinker No 2 * [[John Kavanagh]] - Craig * [[Peter Hanly]] - Edward, Prince of Wales * [[Martin Dempsey]] - Drinker No 1 * [[Martin Dunne]] - Lord Dolecroft * [[David Gant]] - Chief Justice/Executioner ==Soundtrack albums== Like the film itself, the ''Braveheart'' soundtrack has become popular with consumers and the soundtrack has recorded strong sales levels. The soundtrack is composed by composer [[James Horner]], who also composed soundtracks for [[Titanic (1997 film)|''Titanic'']], [[Aliens (1986 film)|''Aliens'']], and [[Apollo 13 (film)|''Apollo 13'']]. Consumers have been drawn to the Scottish and Celtic music that is integrated into the score. The first soundtrack was so successful that Horner produced a follow-up soundtrack in 1997 titled ''More Music from Braveheart''. International and French versions of the soundtrack have also been released. The original album contains 77 minutes of background music taken from significant scenes in the film. ===''Braveheart'' (1995)=== # Main Title (2:51) # A Gift of a Thistle (1:37) # Wallace Courts Murron (4:25) # The Secret Wedding (6:33) # Attack on Murron (3:00) # Revenge (6:23) # Murron’s Burial (2:13) # Making Plans/ Gathering the Clans (2:05) # “Sons of Scotland” (6:19) # The Battle of Stirling (6:07) # For the Love of a Princess (4:07) # Falkirk (4:04) # Betrayal &amp; Desolation (7:48) # Mornay’s Dream (1:18) # The Legend Spreads (1:09) # The Princess Pleads for Wallace’s Life (3:38) # “Freedom”/The Execution/ Bannockburn (7:24) # End Credits (7:12) ===''More Music from Braveheart'' (1997)=== The follow-up soundtrack features much more dialogue taken from the actual film than did the original soundtrack. # Prologue/ &quot;I Shall Tell You of Williams...&quot; (dialogue-Robert the Bruce) (3:35) # Outlawed Tunes on Outlawed Bag Pipes (2:03) # The Royal Wedding (dialogue-Robert the Bruce)(2:12) # &quot;The Trouble with Scotland&quot; (dialogue-King Edward the Longshanks)(0:40) # Scottish Wedding Music (1:14) # Prima Noctes (1:46) # The Proposal (dialogue-Wallace and Murron)(1:35) # &quot;Scotland is Free!&quot; (dialogue-Wallace)(0:17) # Point of War/JonnyCope/Up in the Morning Early (traditional) (2:59) # Conversing with the Almighty (dialogue-various)(1:20) # The Road to the Isles/ Grendaural Highlanders/ The Old Rustic Bridge by the Hill (tradional)(3:52) # &quot;Son of Scotland!&quot; (dialogue-Wallace)(12:09) # Vision of Murron (1:45) # &quot;Unite the Clans!&quot; (dialogue-Wallace)(0:23) # The Legend Spreads (dialogue-Storytellers)(1:07) # &quot;Why Do You Help Me?&quot; (dialogue-Wallace and Princess Isabelle)(0:37) # For the Love of a Princess (previously released score)(4:05) # &quot;Not Every man Really Lives&quot; (dialogue-Wallace and Isabelle) # &quot;The Prisoner wishes to Say a Word (dialogue-The Executioner and Wallace)(3:43) # &quot;After the Beheading&quot; (dialogue-Robert the Bruce)(1:48) # &quot;You Have Bled for Wallace!&quot; (dialogue-Robert the Bruce)(1:22) # Warrior Poets (dialogue-Wallace)(0:29) # Scotland the Brave (tradional) (2:47) # Leaving Glenhurqhart (traditional)(3:32) # Kirkhill (traditional)(4:08) == External links == {{wikiquote}} * {{imdb title|id=0112573|title=Braveheart}} &lt;!-- * [http://www.geocities.com/Hollywood/Cinema/1975/ Braveheart Encyclopedia] --&gt; &lt;!-- Site was unavailable when I tested it; will try to remember to check back later to see if the site really exists or not, then will uncomment this if the site is actually appropriate. --&gt; {{start box}} {{succession box | title=[[Academy Award for Best Picture]] | years=1995 | before=''[[Forrest Gump]]'' | after=''[[The English Patient (film)|The English Patient]]'' }} {{end}} {{Template:AcademyAwardBestPicture}} [[Category:1995 films]] [[Category:Best Picture Oscar]] [[Category:Biographical films]] [[Category:Films based on actual events]] [[Category:War films]] [[Category:Wars of Scottish Independence]] [[da:Braveheart]] [[de:Braveheart]] [[eo:Braveheart]] [[es:Braveheart]] [[fr:Braveheart]] [[he:&amp;#1500;&amp;#1489; &amp;#1488;&amp;#1502;&amp;#1497;&amp;#1509;]] [[ja:&amp;#12502;&amp;#12524;&amp;#12452;&amp;#12502;&amp;#12495;&amp;#12540;&amp;#12488;]] [[nl:Braveheart]] [[no:Braveheart]] [[pl:Waleczne serce]] [[pt:Braveheart]] [[sv:Braveheart]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Brian Aldiss</title> <id>4561</id> <revision> <id>39679472</id> <timestamp>2006-02-15T02:56:19Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>64.81.145.168</ip> </contributor> <comment>/* Fiction */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Brian Aldiss 2005.JPG|thumb|200px|Brian Aldiss at [[63rd World Science Fiction Convention]] in [[Glasgow]], [[August 2005]].]] '''Brian Wilson Aldiss''', [[Order of the British Empire|'''OBE''']], (born [[August 18]], [[1925]] in [[East Dereham]], [[Norfolk, England|Norfolk]]) i
tant issues in Christology include: *His human nature *His divine nature *The interrelationship between these two natures; how they interacted and affected each other Christology may also cover questions concerning the nature of God like the [[Trinity]], [[Unitarianism]] or [[Binitarianism]], and what, if anything, Christ accomplished for the rest of humanity. There are almost as many Christological views as there are variants of Christianity. The different Christological views of various Christian sects have led to accusations of [[heresy]], and subsequent [[religious persecution]]. In many cases, a sect's unique christology is its chief distinctive feature; in these cases it is common for the sect to be known by the name given to its christology. ==Controversies concerning those who deny Christ's divine nature== Some important controversies have included the controversy with [[Arianism|Arians]] over Christ's divinity and relationship with the Father, which led to the adoption of the [[Nicene Creed|Nicene-Constantinople Creed]]; the controversy over [[Nestorianism]], and that over [[Monophysitism]] (and its derivates [[Monothelitism]] and [[Monoenergism]]) which led to the first Seven Ecumenical Councils and their many decrees, canons and professions of faith. The adoption of the [[Council of Chalcedon|Chalcedonian]] view of Christology was, as [[Karl Rahner]] would say, key to the beginning of Christological Discussion. Other controversies in Christology included the [[Docetism|Docetists]] and the [[Adoptionism|Adoptionists]]. We can describe most of these in terms of whether they believed Christ had a divine nature, human nature or both; and if both, in terms of how the two natures coexisted or interacted. All of these views will be presented in simplified form; see the related articles for more complete treatment. Perhaps the earliest dispute within Christianity centered on whether Jesus was God. A number of early Christians believed that Jesus was not divine, but was simply a human [[Moshiach]] prophet promised in the [[Old Testament]], see Deuteronomy 18. This heresy, that believed that Jesus was simply a prophet as promised in the Old Testament, and not truly One with the Father, as the Second Person of the Trinity, True God and True Man, was known as the [[Ebionites|Ebionite]] heresy, and was the first Heresy. It originated in the Judeo-Christian community in Nazareth. The inclusion of the genealogies of Jesus Christ at [[Matthew 1]]:[[Matthew 1:1|1]]-[[Matthew 1:17|17]] and [[Luke]] 3:23-38 are used to explain the belief that Jesus is the Christ from the line of David. An alternative explanation is that Christ's natures were in opposition to each other; this is known as the [[Gnostic]] anti-Christian doctrines - hence considered a heresy - that Jesus Christ only had the illusion of a human body and, thus, no human ancestry at all. The belief that Jesus was only human was opposed by church leaders such as [[Paul of Tarsus|Paul]] and eventually came to be held only by heretical sects, which were soon subsumed by [[orthodox]] churches anyway, therefore these heretical beliefs went out of fashion due to the acceptance of true teaching and scholarly exegesis. A position that is held by many who believe in [[Binitarianism]] is that Jesus was the Word, and thus God (John 1), before His birth, that He was not fully God while on Earth in the sense that He could do nothing of Himself (John 5:19,30;8:28), and that Jesus became fully God after the resurrection with all authority (Matthew 28:18) and power of God as He had prior to His incarnation is also considered by most Orthodox Christian scholars as a modern day heresy. The Chalcedonian view is summarized by the creed of Nicea-Constantinople which was ecumenically accepted at the Council of Chalcedon. This view is that Christ &quot;possesses two natures,&quot; divine and human, which are united in the one person of Jesus Christ without either nature losing any of its properties nor uniqueness but without any separability. This creed was adapted at the [[Council of Chalcedon]], and was greatly influenced by the Tome of Leo which Pope Leo I sent to be read at that council. It is the dogma of the Catholic and Eastern Orthodox churches, and is also the view of the [[Anglican]] church, and many [[Protestant]] churches. One of the doctrines relating in depth to the nature of Jesus while on earth is [[kenosis]]. Some other views lessen the extent to which Jesus was divine, one of which is the [[Arianism|Arian]] view that Christ is ''not fully divine'', but was created by God for the purpose of accomplishing salvation. ==Controversies concerning those who deny Christ's human nature== Yet other views made the claim that Jesus was fully divine but not fully human. The strict [[Monophysite]] view is that the human nature of Christ was dissolved or consumed by the Divine, whereas the Miaphysite view is that Christ exists as a hybrid nature, simultaneously human and Divine, unique in the universe. The [[Docetism|Docetist]] view is that Christ was ''never fully human'', but only appeared to be human. Semi-docetism only partially denies humanity, usually by asserting that Christ was ''not subject'' to temptation nor to any of the normal human frailties of hunger, fatigue, or fear of death. Other views support the idea of Jesus as a man, for example, the [[Nestorianism|Nestorian]] view is that the divine, and the man, shared the same body but retained two separate personhoods. The [[Adoptionism|Adoptionist]] view is that Jesus was born a man only, but ''became God's son by adoption'' when he was baptized in the Jordan, whereas [[Psilanthropism]] is the view that Jesus is literally &quot;only man&quot;, and not in any way divine. There is also the Messianic Jewish view that Yeshuwah and YHWH are the same entity, with Ruach haQodesh and 'Elohiym being separate parts of the G-dhead. YHWH appears in the TaNaKh, while Yeshuwah is the incarnate form of YHWH found in the Briyth Chadashah. In this view, Yeshuwah is born fully man and becomes fully G-d upon His baptism by Ruach haQodesh (symbolizing our inclusion into the family of G-d upon our own baptism with Ruach haQodesh). It could also be argued that Roman Catholics and Calvinists, who believe in a strict concept of original sin also fully or partially deny the human nature of Christ. The Catholic doctrine of the immaculate conception of Mary is but one of several necessary doctrinal bulkheads implemented in the wake of the dogma of original sin. Roman Catholics and Calvinists follow St Augustine’s teachings on original sin in believing that human beings inherit not only the tendency and urges to sin, but the actual guilt of sin as well. They commonly cite Paul’s statement &quot;Therefore as sin came into the world through one man and death through sin, and so death spread to all men because all men sinned.&quot; (Rom 5:12 NRSV). However this leaves the question of Jesus Christ in an untenable position. If we are all born with the actual guilt of sin, then Christ was also born a sinner. In order to get around the concept that Jesus was born a sinner, the Catholic dogma on the immaculate conception of Mary took shape. This doctrine should not be confused with the immaculate conception of Jesus. According to common Catholic understandings, Mary the mother of Jesus was preserved by God from the stain of original sin by being born totally sinless. Mary is then said to have never sinned ever in her life. The net result of this doctrine is that when Jesus was born, he did not inherit the same sinful nature as the rest of humanity. He was born with the nature of Adam before the fall, not after the fall like the rest of us. The problem of this is it denies Christ the same frail post-fall human nature we all have to live with. It also appears inconsistent with a number of other statements by the Apostle Paul: - &quot;For God has done what the law, weakened by the flesh, could not do: sending his own Son in the likeness of sinful flesh and for sin, he condemned sin in the flesh, in order that the just requirement of the law might be fulfilled in us, who walk not according to the flesh but according to the Spirit&quot; (Romans 8:3-4). - “Since the children have flesh and blood, he too shared in their humanity so that by his death he might destroy him who holds the power of death—that is, the devil— and free those who all their lives were held in slavery by their fear of death. For surely it is not angels he helps, but Abraham's descendants. For this reason he had to be made like his brothers in every way, in order that he might become a merciful and faithful high priest in service to God, and that he might make atonement for[f]the sins of the people. Because he himself suffered when he was tempted, he is able to help those who are being tempted” (Hebrews 2:14-18). Other Christians such as Eastern Orthodox or Protestants like Seventh Day Adventists would claim that Roman Catholics and Calvanists fail to understand the real nature and origin of sin. They would claim that there is a big difference between the tendency or urge to sin (i.e. temptation) and the actual act of sinning (see section on original sin). Eastern Orthodox and Adventists would argue that Paul is stating that Christ, like any other human being, inherited the same frail human body as the rest of humanity. Christ nor any other human inherits the actual guilt of sin. What Christ inherited was the tendency and urge to sin. Christ’s temptation is testament to this. He felt the same kind of hunger, the same weaknesses. - &quot;For this reason [Jesus] had to be made like his brothers in every way, in order that he might become a merciful and faithful high priest in service to God, and that he might make atonement for the sins of the people&quot; (Hebrews 2:17). An Eastern Orthodox and Adventists might argue that understanding Christ’
adds that he is &quot;suspicious and undecided&quot;. Alexander's grandiose imagination was, however, more strongly attracted by the great questions of [[Europe]]an politics than by attempts at domestic reform which, on the whole, wounded his pride by proving to him the narrow limits of absolute power. ===Alliances with other powers=== On the morrow of his accession he had reversed the policy of Paul, denounced the League of Neutrals, and made peace with [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland]] (April, [[1801]]), at the same time opening negotiations with [[Francis II, Holy Roman Emperor|Francis II]]. Soon afterwards at [[Memel]] he entered into a close alliance with [[Kingdom of Prussia|Prussia]], not as he boasted from motives of policy, but in the spirit of true [[chivalry]], out of [[friendship]] for the young [[List of Kings of Prussia|King]] [[Frederick William III of Prussia|Frederick William III]] and his beautiful wife [[Louise of Mecklenburg-Strelitz]]. The development of this alliance was interrupted by the short-lived peace of October, [[1801]]; and for a while it seemed as though [[French Consulate|France]] and [[Imperial Russia|Russia]] might come to an understanding. Carried away by the enthusiasm of Laharpe, who had returned to [[Russia]] from [[Paris]], Alexander began openly to proclaim his admiration for French institutions and for the person of [[Napoleon I of France|Napoléon Bonaparte]] . Soon, however, came a change. Laharpe, after a new visit to Paris, presented to the Tsar his Reflexions on the True Nature of the Consulship for Life, which, as Alexander said, tore the veil from his eyes, and revealed Bonaparte &quot;as not a true [[Patriotism|patriot]]&quot;, but only as &quot;the most famous tyrant the world has produced.&quot; His disillusionment was completed by the murder of the [[Louis-Antoine-Henri de Bourbon-Condé, duc d'Enghien|duc d'Enghien]]. The Russian court went into mourning for the last of the [[Prince of Condé|Condés]], and diplomatic relations with Paris were broken off. ===Opposition to Napoleon=== The events of the [[Napoleonic Wars]] that followed belong to the general history of [[Europe]]; but the Tsar's attitude throughout is personal to himself, though pregnant with issues momentous for the world. In opposing Napoleon I, &quot;the oppressor of Europe and the disturber of the world's peace,&quot; Alexander in fact already believed himself to be fulfilling a divine mission. In his instructions to Novosiltsov, his special envoy in [[London]], the Tsar elaborated the motives of his policy in language which appealed as little to the common sense of the prime minister, [[William Pitt the Younger|Pitt]], as did later the treaty of the [[Holy Alliance]] to that of the foreign minister, Castlereagh. Yet the document is of great interest, as in it we find formulated for the first time in an official despatch those exalted ideals of international policy which were to play so conspicuous a part in the affairs of the world at the close of the revolutionary epoch, and issued at the end of the 19th century in the Rescript of [[Nicholas II of Russia|Nicholas II]] and the conference of the [[Hague]]. The outcome of the [[war]], Alexander argued, was not to be only the liberation of France, but the universal triumph of &quot;the [[sacred]] [[Human rights |rights of humanity]]&quot;. To attain this it would be necessary &quot;after having attached the [[nation]]s to their [[government]] by making these incapable of acting save in the greatest interests of their subjects, to fix the relations of the states amongst each other on more precise rules, and such as it is to their interest to respect.&quot; A general treaty was to become the basis of the relations of the states forming &quot;the European Confederation&quot;; and this, though &quot;it was no question of realizing the dream of universal peace, would attain some of its results if, at the conclusion of the general war, it were possible to establish on clear principles the prescriptions of the rights of nations.&quot; &quot;Why could not one submit to it,&quot; the Tsar continued, &quot;the positive rights of nations, assure the privilege of neutrality, insert the obligation of never beginning war until all the resources which the mediation of a third party could offer have been exhausted, having by this means brought to light the respective grievances, and tried to remove them? It is on such principles as these that one could proceed to a general pacification, and give birth to a league of which the stipulations would form, so to speak, a new code of the law of nations, which, sanctioned by the greater part of the nations of Europe, would without difficulty become the immutable rule of the cabinets, while those who should try to infringe it would risk bringing upon themselves the forces of the new union.&quot; ===1807 loss to French forces=== [[Image:Alkruger.jpg|thumb|300px|Equestrian portrait of Alexander I (1812)]] Meanwhile Napoleon, a little deterred by the Russian autocrat's youthful ideology, never gave up hope of detaching him from the coalition. He had no sooner entered [[Vienna]] in triumph than he opened negotiations with him; he resumed them after the [[Battle of Austerlitz]] ([[December 2]], [[1805]]). [[Imperial Russia]] and France, he urged, were &quot;geographical allies&quot;; there was, and could be, between them no true conflict of interests; together they might rule the world. But Alexander was still determined &quot;to persist in the system of disinterestedness in respect of all the states of Europe which he had thus far followed,&quot; and he again allied himself with the [[Kingdom of Prussia]]. The campaign of [[Jena]] and the [[battle of Eylau]] followed; and Napoleon, though still intent on the Russian alliance, stirred up [[Poles]], [[Turkic peoples|Turks]] and [[Persians]] to break the obstinacy of the Tsar. A party too in Russia itself, headed by the Tsar's brother [[Grand Duke Constantine Pavlovich of Russia|Constantine Pavlovich]], was clamorous for peace; but Alexander, after a vain attempt to form a new coalition, summoned the Russian nation to a holy war against Napoleon as the enemy of the Orthodox faith. The outcome was the rout of [[Friedland]] ([[June 13]]/ [[June 14 |14]], [[1807]]). Napoleon saw his chance and seized it. Instead of making heavy terms, he offered to the chastened autocrat his alliance, and a partnership in his glory. The two Emperors met at Tilsit on the [[25 June]], [[1807]]. Alexander, dazzled by Napoleon's [[genius]] and overwhelmed by his apparent generosity, was completely won. Napoleon knew well how to appeal to the exuberant imagination of his new-found friend. He would divide with Alexander the Empire of the world; as a first step he would leave him in possession of the [[Danube River | Danubian]] principalities and give him a free hand to deal with [[Finland]]; and, afterwards, the Emperors of the [[Eastern Roman Empire | East]] and [[Western Roman Empire | West]], when the time should be ripe, would drive the [[Ottoman Empire | Turks]] from Europe and march across [[Asia]] to the conquest of [[Indian subcontinent | India]]. A programme so stupendous awoke in Alexander's impressionable mind an ambition to which he had hitherto been a stranger. The interests of Europe were forgotten. &quot;What is Europe?&quot; he exclaimed to the French ambassador. &quot;Where is it, if it is not you and we?&quot; ===Prussia=== The brilliance of these new visions did not, however, blind Alexander to the obligations of friendship; and he refused to retain the Danubian principalities as the price for suffering a further dismemberment of Prussia. &quot;We have made loyal war,&quot; he said, &quot;we must make a loyal peace.&quot; It was not long before the first enthusiasm of [[Tilsit]] began to wane. Napoleon I was prodigal of promises, but niggard of their fulfilment. The French remained in Prussia, the Russians on the Danube; and each accused the other of breach of faith. Meanwhile, however, the personal relations of Alexander and Napoleon were of the most cordial character; and it was hoped that a fresh meeting might adjust all differences between them. The meeting took place at [[Erfurt]] in October, [[1808]], and resulted in a treaty which defined the common policy of the two Emperors. But Alexander's relations with Napoleon none the less suffered a change. He realized that in Napoleon sentiment never got the better of reason, that as a matter of fact he had never intended his proposed &quot;grand enterprise&quot; seriously, and had only used it to preoccupy the mind of the Tsar while he consolidated his own power in [[Central Europe]]. From this moment the French alliance was for Alexander also not a fraternal agreement to rule the world, but an affair of pure policy. He used it, in the first instance, to remove &quot;the geographical enemy&quot; from the gates of [[Saint Petersburg]] by wresting [[Finland]] from the [[Sweden|Swedes]] ([[1809]]); and he hoped by means of it to make the Danube the southern frontier of Russia. ===Franco-Russian Alliance=== Events were in fact rapidly tending to the rupture of the Franco-Russian alliance. Alexander, indeed, assisted Napoleon in the war of [[1809]], but he declared plainly that he would not allow the [[Austrian Empire]] to be crushed out of existence; and Napoleon complained bitterly of the inactivity of the Russian troops during the campaign. The Tsar in his turn protested against Napoleon's encouragement of the [[Poles]]. In the matter of the French alliance he knew himself to be practically isolated in Russia, and he declared that he could not sacrifice the interest of his people and empire to his affection for Napoleon. &quot;I don't want anything for myself,&quot; he said to the French ambassador, &quot;therefore the world is not large enough to come to an understanding on
nius Piso]], the governor of [[Syria (Roman province)|Syria]], and died in [[Antioch]] in mysterious circumstances. It was widely suspected that Germanicus had been poisoned &amp;ndash; perhaps on the orders of Tiberius himself &amp;ndash; and Agrippina returned to Rome to avenge his death. She boldly accused Piso of the murder of Germanicus. To avoid public infamy, Piso committed suicide. From AD 19 to 29, Agrippina remained in Rome, becoming increasingly involved with a group of senators who opposed the growing power of Tiberius' favourite [[Sejanus]]. Her relations with the emperor became increasingly fraught as she made it clear that she believed that he was responsible for the death of Germanicus. Tiberius also evidently feared that she might seek to secure the throne for her own children. In 26, the emperor rejected her request that she be allowed to marry again. Agrippina and her sons Drusus and [[Nero Caesar]] were arrested in 29 on the orders of Tiberius. They were tried by the Senate and Agrippina was banished to the island of Pandataria (now called [[Ventotene]]) in the [[Tyrrhenian Sea]] off the coast of [[Campania]], where she died on [[October 18]], [[33]] in suspicious circumstances. The official story was that she had starved herself to death, but it seems equally likely that she was starved on the orders of the emperor. After her death, Tiberius convinced the senate to revoke all her former privileges and declared her birthday to be a day of ill-omen. Agrippina had nine children by Germanicus, several of whom died young. Drusus died of starvation after being imprisoned in Rome and Nero Caesar either committed suicide or was murdered after his trial in 29. Only two of her children are of historical importance: [[Agrippina the younger|Agrippina Minor]], also known as Agrippina the Younger, and Gaius Caesar, who succeeded Tiberius under the name of [[Caligula]]. Despite Tiberius' enmity towards Caligula's elder brothers, he nonetheless made Caligula and his cousin [[Tiberius Gemellus]] joint heirs to his property. Agrippina was regarded by contemporaries as being a woman of the highest character and exemplary Roman morals. There is a portrait of her in the [[Capitoline Museums]] at [[Rome]] and a bronze medal in the [[British Museum]] showing her ashes being brought back to [[Rome]] by order of Caligula. See also :[[Tacitus]], ''[[Annals (Tacitus)|Annals]]'' i.-vi. :[[Suetonius]], ''The Twelve Caesars'' :[[Julio-Claudian Family Tree]] ==External links== {{Commons|Agrippina Major}} [[Category:14 BC births]] [[Category:33 deaths]] [[Category:Julio-Claudian Dynasty]] [[Category:Ancient Roman women]] [[Category:Women in war]] [[de:Agrippina die Ältere]] [[es:Agripina la mayor]] [[fr:Agrippine l'Aînée]] [[hu:Agrippina Maior]] [[nl:Vipsania Agrippina maior]] [[ja:大アグリッピナ]] [[pl:Agrypina Starsza]] [[pt:Agripina]] [[sv:Agrippina d.ä.]] [[zh:大阿格里皮娜]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Agrippina the Younger</title> <id>1557</id> <revision> <id>41555964</id> <timestamp>2006-02-28T03:11:46Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>69.250.137.163</ip> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:agripila.JPG|84px|right|Agrippina the younger]] '''Julia Vipsania Agrippina Minor''' or ''' Agrippina Minor''' (Latin for &quot;the younger&quot;) ([[November 7]], [[15|AD 15]] &amp;ndash; March [[59]]), often called &quot;'''Agrippinilla'''&quot; to distinguish her from her mother, was the daughter of [[Germanicus]] and [[Agrippina the elder|Agrippina Major]]. She was sister of [[Caligula]], great granddaughter of [[Augustus]], granddaughter and great-niece of [[Tiberius]], niece and wife of [[Claudius]], and the mother of [[Nero]]. She was born at Oppidum Ubiorum on the [[Rhine]], afterwards named in her honour Colonia Agrippinae (modern [[Cologne]], Germany). Agrippina's first marriage was to consul (1st century AD) [[Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus]]. From this marriage she gave birth to Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus, who would become [[Roman Emperor]] [[Nero]]. Her husband died in January, [[40]]. While still married, Agrippina participated openly in her brother Caligula's decadent court, where, according to some sources, at his instigation she prostituted herself in a palace. While it was generally agreed that Agrippinilla, as well as her sisters, had ongoing sexual relationships with their brother Caligula, incest was an oft-used criminal accusation against the aristocracy, because it was impossible to refute successfully. As Agrippina and her sister became more problematic for their brother, Caligula sent them into exile for a time, where it is said she was forced to dive for sponges to make a living. In January, [[41]], Agrippina had a second marriage to the affluent [[Gaius Sallustius Crispus Passienus]]. He died between [[44]] and [[47]], leaving his estate to Agrippina. As a widow, Agrippina was courted by the freedman Pallas as a possible marriage match to her own uncle, Emperor [[Claudius]], and became his favourite councillor, even granted the honor of being called Augusta (a title which no other queen had ever received). They were married on New Year's Day of [[49]], after the death of Claudius's previous wife [[Messalina]] due her part in a failed coup attempt. As his wife, she commanded Roman legions and Celtic captives assumed that she, not Claudius, was the martial leader and bowed before her throne instead of his. Agrippina then proceeded to persuade Claudius to adopt her son, thereby placing Nero in the line of succession to the Imperial throne over Claudius's own son, [[Britannicus]]. A true Imperial politician, Agrippina did not reject murder as a way to win her battles. Many ancient sources credited her with poisoning Claudius in [[54]] with a plate of poison mushrooms, hence enabling Nero to quickly take the throne as emperor. For some time, Agrippina influenced Nero as he was relatively ill-equipped to rule on his own. But Nero eventually felt that she was taking on too much power relative to her position as a woman of Rome. He deprived her of her honours and exiled her from the palace, but that was not enough. Three times Nero tried to poison Agrippina, but she had been raised in the Imperial family and was accustomed to taking antidotes. Nero had a machine built and attached to the roof of her bedroom. The machine was designed to make the ceiling collapse &amp;mdash; the plot failed with the machine. According to the historians [[Gaius Cornelius Tacitus|Tacitus]] and [[Suetonius]], Nero then plotted her death by sending for her in a boat constructed to collapse, intending to [[drowning | drown]] Agrippina. However, only some of the crew were in on the plot; their efforts were hampered by the rest of the crew trying to save the ship. As the ship sank, one of her handmaidens thought to save herself by crying that she was Agrippina, thinking they would take special care of her. Instead the maid was instantly beaten to death with oars and chains. The real Agrippina realised what was happening and in the confusion managed to swim away where a passing fisherman picked her up. Terrified that his cover had been blown, Nero instantly sent men to charge her with treason and summarily execute her. Legend states that when the Emperor's soldiers came to kill her, Agrippina pulled back her clothes and ordered them to stab her in the belly that had housed such a monstrous son. ''See also:'' [[Julio-Claudian Family Tree]] ==Notable sources== ===Ancient=== '''Tactitus''' [Critical view, considered her vici ous and had a strong disposition against her due to her femininity and influential role in politics. Perhaps the most comprehensive of Ancient sources.]'''Suetonius'''and evil '''Dio Cassius''' ===Modern=== '''Scullard''' [An overly critical view of Agrippina, suggesting she was ambitious and unscrupulous and a depraved sexual physcopath. &quot;Agrippina struck down a series of victims; no man or woman was safe if she suspected rivalry or desired their wealth.&quot;] '''Ferrero''' [Sympathetic and understanding, suggesting Agrippina has been judged harshly by history. Suggesting her marriage to Claudius was to a weak emperor who was, because of his hesitations and terrors, a threat to the imperial authority and government. She saw it her duty to compensate for the innumerable deficiencies of her strange husband through her own intelligence and strength of will.] '''Barret''' [A reasonable view, comparing Scullard's criticisms to Ferrero's apologies.] ==Modern== *Salmonson, Jessica Amanda.(1991) The Encyclopedia of Amazons. Paragon House. Pages 4-5. ==External links== {{Commons|Agrippina Minor}} [[Category:15 births]] [[Category:59 deaths]] [[Category:Ancient Roman women]] [[Category:Julio-Claudian Dynasty]] [[Category:Roman empresses]] [[Category:Women in war]] [[de:Agrippina die Jüngere]] [[es:Agripinila]] [[fr:Agrippine la Jeune]] [[it:Agrippina minore]] [[nl:Julia Agrippina minor]] [[ja:小アグリッピナ]] [[pl:Agrypina Młodsza]] [[pt:Agripina Minor]] [[sv:Agrippina d.y.]] [[zh:小阿格里皮娜]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>American Chinese cuisine</title> <id>1558</id> <revision> <id>42017279</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T06:15:31Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Ichelhof</username> <id>2775</id> </contributor> <comment>/* American vs. Traditional menus */ authentic vegetables just as common in china as european vegetables in american chinese cuisine</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Cuisine_of_China}} '''American Chinese cuisine''' is a unique style of cooking served by Chinese [[restaurants]] in the [[United States]]. This new type of cooking was created for [[Western World|Western]] tastes, but Westerners exposed only to this variety may not realize that it differs from the [[Chinese cuisine|cuisine of China]]. Some restaurants advertise thei
way to the [[classical genetics]] of [[Thomas Hunt Morgan]] and his school, which thoroughly grounded and articulated the applications of Mendelian laws to biology. Eventually, it was shown that a rigorous statistical approach to Mendelism was reconcileable with the data of the biometricians in the work of biologist and statistician [[R.A. Fisher]] in the 1930s. Following this, the work of population geneticists and zoologists in the 1930s and 1940s was able to create a model of Darwinian evolution compatible with the science of genetics, which became known as the [[modern evolutionary synthesis]]. In the 1940s, following up on [[Griffith's experiment]], [[Oswald Avery|Avery]], [[Colin McCleod|McCleod]] and [[Maclyn McCarty|McCarty]] definitively identified [[DNA|deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)]] as the &quot;transforming principle&quot; responsible for transmitting genetic information. In [[1953]], [[Francis Crick]] and [[James Watson]] published their famous paper on the structure of DNA, based on the research of [[Rosalind Franklin]] and [[Maurice Wilkins]]. These developments ignited the era of [[molecular biology]] and transformed the understanding of evolution into a molecular process: the [[mutation]] of segments of DNA (see [[molecular evolution]]). [[George C. Williams]]' 1966 ''Adaptation and natural selection: A Critique of some Current Evolutionary Thought'' marked a departure from the idea of group selection towards the modern notion of the gene as the unit of selection. In the mid-[[1970s]], [[Motoo Kimura]] formulated the [[neutral theory of molecular evolution]], firmly establishing the importance of [[genetic drift]] as a major mechanism of evolution. Debates have continued within the field. One of the most prominent public debates was over the theory of [[punctuated equilibrium]], proposed in 1972 by [[paleontology|paleontologists]] [[Niles Eldredge]] and [[Stephen Jay Gould]] to explain the paucity of gradual transitions between species in the fossil record. ==Overview of evolution== ===Evidence of evolution=== {{main|Evidence of evolution}} The process of evolution has left behind numerous records which reveal the history of different species. While the best-known of these are [[fossil record|the fossils]], fossils are only a small part of the overall physical record of evolution. Fossils, taken together with the [[comparative anatomy]] of present-day plants and animals, constitute the ''morphological'' record. By comparing the anatomies of both modern and extinct species, biologists can reconstruct the lineages of those species with some accuracy. Using fossil evidence, for instance, the connection between [[dinosaur]]s and [[bird]]s has been established by way of so-called &quot;[[Transitional fossil|transitional]]&quot; species such as [[Archaeopteryx]]. The development of [[genetics]] has allowed biologists to study the ''genetic record'' of evolution as well. Although we cannot obtain the [[DNA]] sequences of most extinct species, the degree of similarity and difference among modern species allows geneticists to reconstruct lineages with greater accuracy. It is from genetic comparisons that claims such as the 95% similarity between humans and [[chimpanzee]]s come from, for instance.&lt;ref&gt;Chimpanzee Sequencing and Analysis Consortium (2005) Initial sequence of the chimpanzee genome and comparison with the human genome. Nature 437: 69–87. Britten RJ (2002) Divergence between samples of chimpanzee and human DNA sequences is 5%, counting indels. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 99: 13633–13635.&lt;/ref&gt; Other evidence used to demonstrate evolutionary lineages includes the ''[[geography|geographical]] distribution'' of species. For instance, [[monotreme]]s and most [[marsupial]]s are found only in [[Australia]], showing that their common ancestor with placental mammals lived before the submerging of the ancient [[land bridge]] between Australia and Asia. Scientists correlate all of the above evidence &amp;ndash; drawn from [[paleontology]], anatomy, genetics, and geography &amp;ndash; with other information about the history of the earth. For instance, [[paleoclimatology]] attests to periodic [[ice age]]s during which the climate was much cooler; and these are found to match up with the spread of species such as the [[woolly mammoth]] which are better-equipped to deal with cold. ====Morphological evidence==== [[Image:Knightia.jpg|right|thumb|220px|Fossil fish of the genus ''[[Knightia]]'']] [[Fossil]]s are important for estimating when various lineages developed. Since fossilization on an organism is an uncommon occurrence, usually requiring hard parts (like bone) and death near a site where soft [[sediment]]s are being gently deposited, the [[fossil record]] only provides sparse and intermittent information about the evolution of life. Fossil evidence of organisms without hard body parts, such as shell, bone, and teeth, is sparse but exists in the form of ancient microfossils and the fossilization of ancient burrows, ([[Trace fossil|trace fossils]]), and rarer examples of soft-bodied organisms. Fossil evidence of prehistoric organisms has been found all over the Earth. The age of fossils are typically synchronized with the geologic context in which they are found; many of their absolute ages can be verified with [[radiometric dating]]. Some fossils bear a resemblance to organisms alive today, while others are radically different. Fossils have been used to determine at what time a lineage developed, and ''[[transitional fossil]]s'' can be used to demonstrate continuity between two different lineages. [[Paleontology|Paleontologist]]s investigate evolution largely through analysis of fossils. [[Phylogenetics]], the study of the ancestry of species, has revealed that structures with similar internal organization may perform divergent functions. [[Vertebrate]] limbs are a common example of such ''homologous structures''. Bat wings, for example, are very similar to hands. A [[vestigial organ]] or structure may exist with little or no purpose in one organism, though they have a clear purpose in other species. The human [[wisdom teeth]] and [[Vermiform appendix|appendix]] are common examples. ====Genetic sequence evidence==== Comparison of the genetic sequence of organisms reveals that [[phylogeny|phylogenetically]] close organisms have a higher degree of sequence similarity than organisms that are phylogenetically distant. For example, neutral human DNA sequences are approximately 1.2% divergent (based on substitutions) from those of their nearest genetic relative, the [[chimpanzee]], 1.6% from [[gorilla]]s, and 6.6% from [[baboon]]s.&lt;ref&gt;Two sources: 'Genomic divergences between humans and other hominoids and the effective population size of the common ancestor of humans and chimpanzees'. and 'Quantitative Estimates of Sequence Divergence for Comparative Analyses of Mammalian Genomes' &quot;[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&amp;db=pubmed&amp;dopt=Abstract&amp;list_uids=11170892] [http://www.genome.org/cgi/content/full/13/5/813]&quot;&lt;/ref&gt; Sequence comparison is considered a measure robust enough to be used to correct erroneous assumptions in the phylogenetic tree in instances where other evidence is scarce. Further evidence for common descent comes from genetic detritus such as [[pseudogene]]s, regions of DNA which are [[ortholog]]ous to a gene in a related organism, but are no longer active and appear to be undergoing a steady process of degeneration.&lt;ref&gt;Pseudogene evolution and natural selection for a compact genome. &quot;[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&amp;db=pubmed&amp;dopt=Abstract&amp;list_uids=10833048]&quot;&lt;/ref&gt; Since [[metabolism|metabolic]] processes do not leave fossils, research into the evolution of the basic cellular processes is done largely by comparison of existing organisms. Many lineages diverged when new metabolic processes appeared, and it is theoretically possible to determine when certain metabolic processes appeared by comparing the traits of the descendants of a common ancestor. ====Ancestry of organisms==== {{seealso|Common descent}} In [[biology]], the theory of universal [[common descent]] proposes that all organisms on Earth are descended from a common ancestor or ancestral gene pool (which is called having &quot;common descent&quot;). Evidence for common descent may be found in traits shared between all living organisms. In Darwin's day, the evidence of shared traits was based solely on visible observation of [[morphology (biology)|morphologic]] similarities, such as the fact that all birds &amp;mdash; even those which do not fly &amp;mdash; have wings. Today, the occurrence of evolution has been strongly confirmed by genetics. For example, every living cell makes use of [[nucleic acid]]s as its genetic material, and uses the same twenty [[amino acid]]s as the building blocks for [[protein]]s. All organisms use the same [[genetic code]] (with some extremely rare and minor deviations) to [[translation (genetics)|translate]] nucleic acid sequences into proteins. The universality of these traits strongly suggests common ancestry, because the selection of these traits seems somewhat arbitrary. [[Image:Huxley - Mans Place in Nature.jpg|left|220px|thumbnail|Morphologic similarities in the [[Hominidae]] family is evidence of common descent.]] The evolutionary process can be exceedingly slow. Fossil evidence indicates that the diversity and complexity of modern life has developed over much of the age of the earth. [[geology|Geological]] evidence indicates that the Earth is approximately [[Age of the earth|4.6 billion years old]]. (See [[Timeline of evolution]].) Studies on guppies by David Reznick at the University of California, Riverside, however, have shown that the rate of evolution through natural selection can proceed 10 thousand to 10 million times faster than what
ks about the kings and prophets, and the writings of David, and letters of kings about votive offerings&quot; (2 Macc 2:13). The book also suggests that [[Ezra]] brought the [[Torah]] back from [[Babylon]] to [[Jerusalem]] and the [[Second Temple]] as described in Nehemiah 8. Both I and II Maccabees suggest that [[Judas Maccabeus]] likewise collected sacred books. They do not, however, suggest that the canon was at that time closed; moreover, it is not clear that these sacred books were identical to those that later became part of the canon. Additional evidence of a collection of sacred scripture similar to portions of the Hebrew Bible comes from the book of [[Sirach]] (dating from [[180 BCE]] and also not included in the Jewish canon), which includes a list of names of great men in the same order as is found in the Torah and the [[Nevi'im]] (Prophets), and which includes the names of some men mentioned in the [[Ketuvim]] (Writings). Based on this list of names, some scholars have conjectured that the author, [[Sirach|Yeshua ben Sira]] (Joshua son of Sirach) had access to, and considered authoritative, the books of [[Genesis]], [[Exodus]], [[Leviticus]], [[Book of Numbers|Numbers]], [[Deuteronomy]], [[Book of Joshua|Joshua]], [[Book of Judges|Judges]], [[Books of Samuel|Samuel]], [[Books of Kings|Kings]], [[Book of Isaiah|Isaiah]], [[Book of Jeremiah|Jeremiah]], [[Book of Ezekiel|Ezekiel]], and the [[Minor prophet|Twelve minor prophets]]. His list excludes names from [[Book of Ruth|Ruth]], [[Song of Songs]], [[Book of Esther|Esther]], [[Book of Daniel|Daniel]], and [[Book of Job|Job]], suggesting that he either did not have access to these books, or did not consider them authoritative. In the prologue to the Greek translation of ben Sirach's work, his grandson mentions both the Torah and the Nevi'im, as well as a third group of books which is not yet named as Ketuvim (the prologue simply identifies &quot;the rest of the books&quot;). Based on this evidence, some scholars have suggested that by the [[2nd century BCE]] the books of the Torah and Nevi'im were considered canonical, but that the books of the Ketuvim were not. The [[Septuagint]] (LXX) translation of the [[Hebrew language]] Bible into [[Koine Greek]], probably in the [[1st century BCE|1st]] and [[2nd century BCE|2nd centuries BCE]], provided a text (there are variants) for the Greek-speaking world, and was used by the writers of the [[New Testament]]. In this text (actually [[Scroll (parchment)|scrolls]] rather than a [[codex|book]]) the Torah and Nevi'im are established as canonical, but again, Ketuvim have not yet been definitively canonized (some editions of the Septuagint include, for instance I-IV Maccabees or the 151st Psalm, while others do not include them, also there are the Septuagint additions to Esther, Jeremiah, and Daniel and [[1 Esdras]]). The [[Dead Sea Scrolls]] discovered at caves near [[Qumran]] refer to the Torah and Nevi'im and suggest that these portions of the Bible had already been canonized before [[68|68 CE]]. A scroll that contains all or parts of 41 Biblical psalms, although not in the same order as in the current [[Book of Psalms]], and which includes eight texts not found in the Book of Psalms, suggests that the Book of Psalms had not yet been canonized. In the first century CE, [[Philo]] Judaeus of Alexandria discussed sacred books, but made no mention of a tripartite division of the Bible, however, in ''De vita contemplativa''[http://earlyjewishwritings.com/text/philo/book34.html], a disputed text, v.25, is stated: &quot;studying ... the laws and the sacred oracles of God enunciated by the holy prophets, and hymns, and psalms, and all kinds of other things by reason of which knowledge and piety are increased and brought to perfection.&quot; [[Josephus]], however, refers to sacred scriptures divided into three parts: the five books of the Torah; thirteen books of the Nevi'im, and four other books of hymns and wisdom. The number of 22 books mentioned by Josephus does not correspond to the number of books in the current canon. Some scholars have suggested that he considered [[Book of Ruth|Ruth]] part of [[Book of Judges|Judges]], and [[Lamentations]] part of [[Book of Jeremiah|Jeremiah]]. Other scholars suggest that at the time Josephus wrote, such books as [[Book of Esther|Esther]] and [[Ecclesiastes]] were not yet considered canonical. Significantly, Josephus characterizes the 22 books as canonical because they were divinely inspired; he mentions other historical books that were not divinely inspired and that therefore do not belong in the canon. The first reference to a 24-book Jewish canon is found in [[2 Esdras]] 14:45-46, which was probably written in the first half of the second century CE: :&quot;Make public the twenty-four books that you wrote first, and let the worthy and the unworthy read them; but keep the seventy that were written last, in order to give them to the wise among your people.&quot; [[Revised Standard Version|RSV]] The &quot;seventy&quot; might refer to the [[Septuagint]], [[apocrypha]], or [[Kabbalah|mystical works]]. The [[Pharisees]] also debated the status of these extra-canonical books; in the 2nd century CE, [[Rabbi Akiva]] declared that those who read them would not share in the afterlife (Sanhedrin 10:1). The [[Mishnah]], compiled by the [[2nd century|second century CE]], describes some of the debate over the status of some books of ''Ketuvim'', and in particular whether or not they render the hands &quot;impure&quot;. Yadaim 3:5 calls attention to the debate over [[Song of Songs]] and [[Ecclesiastes]]. The Megillat Taanit, in a discussion of days when fasting is prohibited but that are not noted in the Bible, mentions the holiday of [[Purim]]. Based on these, and a few similar references, [[Heinrich Graetz]] concluded in [[1871]] that there had been a [[Council of Jamnia]] (or [[Yavne]] in Hebrew) which had decided Jewish canon sometime in the late [[1st century]] (c.70-90 CE). This became the prevailing scholarly consensus for much of the [[20th century]]. However, from the [[1960s]] onwards, based on the work of J.P. Lewis, S.Z. Leiman, and others, this view came increasingly into question. In particular, later scholars noted that none of the sources actually mentioned books that had been withdrawn from a canon, and questioned the whole premise that the discussions were about canonicity at all, asserting that they were actually dealing with other concerns entirely. Today, there is no scholarly consensus as to when the Jewish canon was set. == Samaritan canon == The small community of the remnants of the [[Samaritan]]s in Palestine includes only [[Samaritan Pentateuch|their version of the Torah]] and the [[book of Joshua]] in their canon. This grouping is sometimes referred to as the [[Hexateuch]]. The Samaritan community possesses a copy of the Torah that they believe to have been penned by [[Aaron]] himself. == Christian canon == === Orthodox, Catholic and Protestant === [[History of Christianity#The Earliest Church|When Christianity began]]: it had no well-defined set of [[scriptures]] outside of the [[Septuagint]]{{fn|1}}. The [[New Testament]] refers to the &quot;[[Torah|Law]] and [[Nevi'im|Prophets]]&quot;, for example the [[Gospel of Luke]] 24:44-45 records [[Jesus]] stating: &quot;written in the law of Moses, and in the prophets, and in the psalms... the scriptures.&quot; The earliest Christian canon is found in the [[Bryennios manuscript]], published by J.-P. Audet in ''JTS''[http://jts.oxfordjournals.org/] 1950, v1, pp 135-154, dated to around [[100 AD]], written in [[Koine Greek]], [[Aramaic]] and [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]]; it is this '''27-book OT''' list: [[Genesis]], [[Exodus]], [[Leviticus]], [[Book of Numbers|Numbers]], [[Deuteronomy]], [[Book of Joshua|Jesus Nave]], [[Book of Judges|Judges]], [[Book of Ruth|Ruth]], 4 of Kings ([[Books of Samuel|Samuel]] and [[Books of Kings|Kings]]), [[Books of Chronicles|2 of Chronicles]], [[Esdras|2 of Esdras]] (might include [[1 Esdras]]), [[Book of Esther|Esther]] (might include Septuagint additions), [[Psalms]], [[Book of Proverbs|Proverbs]], [[Ecclesiastes]], [[Song of Songs]], [[Book of Job|Job]], [[Minor prophet|Minor prophets]], [[Book of Isaiah|Isaiah]], [[Book of Jeremiah|Jeremiah]] (might include Septuagint additions), [[Book of Ezekiel|Ezekiel]], [[Book of Daniel|Daniel]] (might include Septuagint additions). Early Christianity also relied on the [http://www.scripturecatholic.com/oral_tradition.html Sacred Oral Tradition] of what [[Jesus]] had said and done, as reported by the apostles and other followers. Even after the [[Gospels]] were written and began circulating, some Christians preferred the oral Gospel as told by people they trusted (e.g. [[Papias]], c. [[125 AD]]). By the end of the [[1st century]], some [[Pauline epistles|Letters of Paul]] were collected and circulated, and were known to [[Pope Clement I|Clement of Rome]] (c. [[95 AD]]), [[Ignatius of Antioch]] (died [[117 AD]]), and [[Polycarp of Smyrna]] (c. [[115 AD]]) but they weren't called scripture as the Septuagint was and they weren't without critics. In the late 4th century [[Epiphanius of Salamis]] (died 402) ''Panarion'' 29 says the [[Nazarenes]] had rejected the Pauline epistles and [[Irenaeus]] ''Against Heresies'' 26.2 says the [[Ebionites]] rejected him. Acts 21:21 records a rumor that Paul aimed to subvert the Old Testament. 2 Peter 3:16 says his letters have been abused by [[heretics]] who twist them around. In the 2nd and 3rd centuries [[Eusebius]] ''Ecclesiastical History'' 6.38 says the [[Elkasite|Elchasai]] &quot;made use of texts from every part of the Old Testament and the Gospels; it rejects the Apostle (Paul) entirely&quot;; 4.29.5 says [[Tatian|Tatian the Assyrian]] rejected Paul's Letters and [[Acts of the Apostles]]; 6.25 says [[Origen]] accepted 22 canonical books of the Hebrews plus [[Maccabees]] pl
] (Mo-ch'o) managed to found a new realm of &quot;wild&quot; Turks, which in a series of wars from [[681]] onward gained control of the [[steppe]]s beyond the [[Great Wall of China]], extending by [[705]] to threaten [[Arab]] control of [[Transoxiana]]. Their power centered at the [[Changai Mountains]] (then: Ötükän). The son of Ilteriş, [[Bilge Khan|Bilge]], was also a strong leader, but at his death in [[734]], the empire declined. They ultimately fell to a series of internal crises and renewed Chinese campaigns. After [[Kutluk Khan|Kutluk (Ko-lo) Khan]]'s military victory in [[744]], the successors to the Gokturks became their more China-friendly junior partners, known as the [[Uighur]]s. ==Rulers (''Qağan or Kağan'')== ===First Gokturk Empire:=== *[[Bumin Khan|Bumin/Tuman Khan]] [[551]] - [[553]] *[[Kelou Khan]] (Irksi, Kolo a.k.a. &quot;Kök-Khan&quot;) [[553]] - [[554]] son of Bumin *[[Muhan Khan]] [[554]] - [[572]] son of Bumin *[[Istämi Yabghu]] [[553]] - [[573]] (Western Khan; brother of Bumin) *[[Taspar Khan]] [[572]] - [[581]] son of Bumin *[[Ishbara Khan]] [[581]] - [[587]] === Rival Qaghans === *Rudan Buli Khan [[580s]] *Chuluo-hou Khan [[580s]] *[[Datou Khan, tardu]] [[599]] - [[603]] === Eastern Qaghans === *Shetu E'fu Khan *Chulohou Baga Khan [[587]] - [[588]] *Yongyulu Duolan Khan [[588]] - [[600]] *Qiren (Tuli) Khan [[600]] - [[609]] *Tujieli Shibi Khan [[609]] - [[619]] *Chuluo (Hesana) Khan [[619]]- [[621]] *Xieli Khan -[[621]] - [[630]] === Western Qaghans === *[[Datou Khan, tardu]] [[599]] - [[603]] *Nili Khan [[603]] *Yiwu Khan [[630]] *Simo Khan [[641]]-[[644]] *Chebi Khan 644-649 *Baz Khan (chief of the [[Oghuz]], self-proclaimed Gokturk) -[[682]] *Muchuo Khan [[681]] (or [[682]]) -[[712]] === Second Gokturk Empire === *[[Ilteris Sad]] (Idat) [[680]] - [[691]] (or [[692]]) *[[Qapagan Khan]] (Mo-ch'o) [[691]] - [[716]] (murdered) *Inal Khan [[716]] *[[Bilge Khan|Bilge]] Khan [[716]] - [[734]] (murdered) *[[Kul Tigin]] Khan [[716]] - [[731]] (co-ruler with Bilge) *Yollug Khan [[735]]- *Icen Khan -[[744]] *Etimis Khan [[744]]-[[747]] (in exile) ==See also== *[[Orkhon script]] *[[Ethnic groups in Chinese history]] *[[Khazars]] ==External links== *[http://www.ozturkler.com/data_english/0001/0001_05.htm The Gok-Turks Khans] *[http://www.zentralasienforschung.de A German-language site] [[Category:History of China]] [[Category:Ancient peoples of China]] [[Category:Former countries in Chinese history]] [[Category:Turkic peoples]] [[Category:Eurasian nomads]] [[Category:Gokturks|*]] [[bg:Гоктюрки]] [[de:Reich der Göktürken]] [[fr:Köktürks]] [[ko:돌궐]] [[ku:Tirk]] [[ja:突厥]] [[ru:Тюркский каганат]] [[tr:Gök Türk İmparatorluğu]] [[zh:突厥]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>GDP (disambiguation)</title> <id>12236</id> <revision> <id>24595768</id> <timestamp>2005-10-02T22:06:56Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Stefan h</username> <id>195038</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>[[de:GDP]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''GDP''' is an [[acronym]] which can stand for more than one thing: * (''in [[economics]]'') an abbreviation for '''[[gross domestic product|Gross Domestic Product]]'''. * (''in [[neuroscience]]'') an abbreviation for [[giant depolarizing potentials|Giant Depolarizing Potentials]]. * (''in [[biochemistry]]'') an abbreviation for [[guanosine diphosphate]] * (''in [[baseball]]'') an abbreviation for [[grounded into double play]] * (''in [[computer science]]'') an abbreviation for ''Graphic Display Processor'', see also [[Thomson EF936x]] {{TLAdisambig}} [[de:GDP]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Gobi</title> <id>12237</id> <revision> <id>15909938</id> <timestamp>2002-06-23T23:28:03Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Maveric149</username> <id>62</id> </contributor> <comment>#REDIRECT [[Gobi Desert]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Gobi Desert]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>General Relativity</title> <id>12238</id> <revision> <id>15909939</id> <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>Conversion script</ip> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Automated conversion</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[General relativity]] </text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Guilt</title> <id>12239</id> <revision> <id>40513130</id> <timestamp>2006-02-21T03:02:09Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Nathan Ladd</username> <id>80934</id> </contributor> <comment>Simplified opening sentence</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{emotion}} '''Guilt''' is primarily an [[emotion]] experienced by people who believe they have done something wrong. It can also refer to the condition of having done something morally or legally wrong, regardless of how one feels about it. ==Definitions of guilt== ===In psychology=== In [[psychology]] and ordinary language, guilt is an affective state in which one experiences [[conflict]] at having done something one believes one should not have done. It gives rise to a feeling that does not go away easily, driven by [[conscience]]. [[Sigmund Freud|Freud]] described this as the result of a struggle between the [[id]] (instinct|instinctive desires) and the [[superego]] (parental [[imprinting]]). Guilt and its causes, merits, and demerits is a common theme in [[psychology]] and [[psychiatry]]. It is often associated with [[Clinical depression|depression]]. ===In criminal law=== In [[criminal law]], sometimes in individual and religious [[moral code]]s, and more rarely in systems of [[ethics]] (either as a philosophical questions directly. The relationship between guilt, [[social capital|social trust]] discipline ''or'' in [[ethical code]]s and professions relying on them), '''guilt''' is a concept similar to the [[economics|economic]] concept of [[debt]]. Actions of low or negative legal value that cause damage on the object, put an equal amount of guilt on the agent. [[Value theory]] addresses these, and the law is complex. A nearly universal notion is that guilt cannot accrue by [[ignorance]] except remarkably by [[Ignorantia juris non excusat|ignorance of the law]] - giving law special status in any [[ontology]]. This notion alone explains why religious [[moral code]]s and the [[legal code]]s of [[civilization]]s have tended to evolve closely together. ==Causes of guilt== Some thinkers have theorized that guilt is used as a tool of [[social control]]. Since guilty people feel they are undeserving, they are less likely to assert their rights and prerogatives. Thus, those in power seek to cultivate a sense of guilt among the populace, in order to make them more tractable. This was a theme in [[Eric Hoffer|Eric Hoffer's]] ''[[The True Believer]]''. [[Ayn Rand]] claimed that [[Christian sexual morality]] served a similar purpose. Some evolutionary psychologists have said that guilt is a rational human emotion selected by evolution. If a person feels guilty when he harms another or even fails to reciprocate kindness, he is more likely not to harm others or become too selfish; in this way, he reduces the chances of retaliation by members of his tribe and thereby increases his survival prospects, and those of the tribe. As with any other emotion, guilt can be manipulated to control or influence others. Another common notion is that guilt is assigned by social processes such as a [[jury trial]], i.e. that it is a strictly legal concept. Thus the ruling of a jury that [[O. J. Simpson]] or [[Julius Rosenberg]] was &quot;guilty&quot; or &quot;not guilty&quot; is taken as an actual judgement by the whole society that they must act as if they were so. By corollary, the ruling that such a person is &quot;not guilty&quot; may not be so taken, due to the asymmetry that assumes one is [[innocent until proven guilty]] and prefers to take the [[risk]] of freeing a guilty party over convicting innocents. Still others -- often, but not always, theists of one type or another -- believe that the origin of guilt comes from violating universal principles of right and wrong. In most instances, people who believe this also acknowledge that, even though there is proper guilt from doing 'wrong' instead of doing 'right,' people endure all sorts of guilty feelings that don't stem from violating universal moral principles. ===Collective guilt=== ''Collective guilt'' is the idea that a collection of humans or a human institution can bear guilt above and beyond the guilt of particular members. Collective guilt is regarded by some as impossible because it seems to presuppose that collections of humans can have traits, such as intentions and knowledge, that strictly speaking are claimed to be truly possessed only by individuals. However, there are those who consider such judgements on collective guilt to be overly [[reductionism|reductionistic]] and accept the existence of collective guilt, collective responsibility, etc. Humans seem to have a natural tendency to attribute collective guilt, usually with tragic results. History is filled with examples of a wronged man who tried to avenge himself, not on the person who has wronged him, but on other members of the wrong-doer's family, or ethnic group, or religion, or nation, or tribe, or army. Likewise collective punishment is often practiced in different settings, including schools (punishing a whole class for the actions of a single unknown pupil) and, more transcendentally, in situation of war, economic sanctions, etc, presupposing the existence of collective guilt. [[Terrorism]] is commonly rationalized by its practitioners on ideas of collective guilt and responsibility. Many nations have laws holding corporations, but not the individual decision-makers wi
on]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Holmfrid Olsson]] |- |1972 |{{URS}}&lt;br /&gt;[[Alexander Tikhonov]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Rinnat Safin]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Ivan Biakov]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Victor Mamatov]] |{{FIN}}&lt;br /&gt;[[Esko Saira]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Juhani Suutarinen]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Heikki Ikola]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Mauri Röppänen]] |{{GDR}}&lt;br /&gt;[[Hansjörg Knauthe]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Joachim Meischner]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Dieter Speer]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Horst Koschka]] |- |1976 |{{URS}}&lt;br /&gt;[[Alexander Elisarov]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Ivan Biakov]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Nikolay Kruglov Sr.]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Alexander Tikhonov]] |{{FIN}}&lt;br /&gt;[[Henrik Flöjt]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Esko Saira]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Juhani Suutarinen]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Heikki Ikola]] |{{GDR}}&lt;br /&gt;[[Karl-Heinz Menz]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Frank Ullrich]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Manfred Beer]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Manfred Geyer]] |- |1980 |{{URS}}&lt;br /&gt;[[Vladimir Alikin]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Alexander Tikhonov]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Vladimir Barnashov]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Anatoliy Alyabyev]] |{{GDR}}&lt;br /&gt;[[Mathias Jung]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Klaus Siebert]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Frank Ullrich]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Eberhard Rösch]] |{{FRG}}&lt;br /&gt;[[Franz Bernreiter]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Hans Estner]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Peter Angerer]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Gerd Winkler]] |- |1984 |{{URS}}&lt;br /&gt;[[Dmitri Vasilyev]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Yuri Kashkarov]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Algimantas Salna]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Sergei Buligin]] |{{NOR}}&lt;br /&gt;[[Odd Lirhus]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Eirik Kvalfoss]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Rolf Storsveen]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Kjell Søbak]] |{{FRG}}&lt;br /&gt;[[Ernst Reiter]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Walter Pichler]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Peter Angerer]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Friedrich Fischer]] |- |1988 |{{URS}}&lt;br /&gt;[[Dmitri Vasilyev]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Sergei Tchepikov]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Alexander Popov (biathlete)|Alexander Popov]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Valeriy Medvedtsev]] |{{FRG}}&lt;br /&gt;[[Ernst Reiter]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Stefan Höck]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Peter Angerer]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Friedrich Fischer]] |{{ITA}}&lt;br /&gt;[[Werner Kiem]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Gottlieb Taschler]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Johann Passler]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Andreas Zingerle]] |- |1992 |{{GER}}&lt;br /&gt;[[Ricco Groß]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Jens Steinigen]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Mark Kirchner]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Friedrich Fischer]] |{{EUN}}&lt;br /&gt;[[Valeriy Medvedtsev]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Alexander Popov (biathlete)| Alexander Popov]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Valeriy Kirienko]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Sergei Tchepikov]] |{{SWE}}&lt;br /&gt;[[Ulf Johansson]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Leif Andersson]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Tord Wiksten]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Mikael Löfgren]] |- |1994 |{{GER}}&lt;br /&gt;[[Ricco Groß]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Frank Luck]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Mark Kirchner]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Sven Fischer]] |{{RUS}}&lt;br /&gt;[[Valeriy Kirienko]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Vladimir Dratchev]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Sergei Tarasov]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Sergei Tchepikov]] |{{FRA}}&lt;br /&gt;[[Thierry Dusserre]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Patrice Bailly-Salins]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Lionel Laurent]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Hervé Flandin]] |- |1998 |{{GER}}&lt;br /&gt;[[Ricco Groß]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Peter Sendel]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Sven Fischer]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Frank Luck]] |{{NOR}}&lt;br /&gt;[[Egil Gjelland]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Halvard Hanevold]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Dag Bjørndalen]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Ole Einar Bjørndalen]] |{{RUS}}&lt;br /&gt;[[Pavel Muslimov]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Vladimir Dratchev]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Sergei Tarasov]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Viktor Maigurov]] |- |2002 |{{NOR}}&lt;br /&gt;[[Halvard Hanevold]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Frode Andresen]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Egil Gjelland]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Ole Einar Bjørndalen]] |{{GER}}&lt;br /&gt;[[Ricco Groß]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Peter Sendel]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Sven Fischer]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Frank Luck]] |{{FRA}}&lt;br /&gt;[[Gilles Marguet]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Vincent Defrasne]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Julien Robert]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Raphaël Poirée]] |- |2006 |{{GER}}&lt;br /&gt;[[Ricco Groß]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Michael Rösch]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Sven Fischer]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Michael Greis]] |{{RUS}}&lt;br /&gt;[[Ivan Tcherezov]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Sergei Tchepikov]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Pavel Rostovtsev]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Nikolay Kruglov]] |{{FRA}}&lt;br /&gt;[[Julien Robert]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Vincent Defrasne]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Ferréol Cannard]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Raphaël Poirée]] |} ==Women== ''See the [[List of IOC country codes]] for expansions of country abbreviations.'' ===Individual (15 km)=== This event was first held in [[1992]]. {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; cellspacing=&quot;1&quot; ! Year ! style=&quot;background:gold&quot; width=&quot;180&quot; | Gold ! style=&quot;background:silver&quot; width=&quot;180&quot; | Silver ! style=&quot;background:#cc9966&quot; width=&quot;180&quot; | Bronze |- |1992 |{{flag athl iocc|[[Antje Harvey|Antje Misersky]]|GER}} &lt;!--|{{flag athl iocc|[[Svetlana Petcherskaia|Svetlana Davidova]]|EUN}}--&gt; |[[Image:olympic-rings.png|22px]] [[Svetlana Petcherskaia|Svetlana Davidova]] ([[Unified Team|EUN]]) |{{flag athl iocc|[[Myriam Bédard]]|CAN}} |- |1994 |{{flag athl iocc|[[Myriam Bédard]]|CAN}} |{{flag athl iocc|[[Anne Briand]]|FRA}} |{{flag athl iocc|[[Uschi Disl]]|GER}} |- |1998 &lt;!--|{{flag athl iocc|[[Ekaterina Dafovska]]|BGR}}--&gt; |[[Image:Flag of Bulgaria.svg|22px]] [[Ekaterina Dafovska]] ([[Bulgaria|BUL]]) |{{flag athl iocc|[[Olena Petrova]]|UKR}} |{{flag athl iocc|[[Uschi Disl]]|GER}} |- |2002 |{{flag athl iocc|[[Andrea Henkel]]|GER}} |{{flag athl iocc|[[Liv Grete Skjelbreid Poirée|Liv Grete Poirée]]|NOR}} |{{flag athl iocc|[[Magdalena Forsberg]]|SWE}} |- |2006 |{{flag athl iocc|[[Svetlana Ishmouratova]]|RUS}} |{{flag athl iocc|[[Martina Glagow]]|GER}} |{{flag athl iocc|[[Albina Akhatova]]|RUS}} |} ===Sprint (7.5 km)=== This event was first held in [[1992]]. {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; cellspacing=&quot;1&quot; ! Year ! style=&quot;background:gold&quot; width=&quot;180&quot; | Gold ! style=&quot;background:silver&quot; width=&quot;180&quot; | Silver ! style=&quot;background:#cc9966&quot; width=&quot;180&quot; | Bronze |- |1992 &lt;!--|{{flag athl iocc|[[Anfisa Restzova]]|EUN}}--&gt; |[[Image:olympic-rings.png|22px]] [[Anfisa Restzova]] ([[Unified Team|EUN]]) |{{flag athl iocc|[[Antje Harvey|Antje Misersky]]|GER}} &lt;!--|{{flag athl iocc|[[Elena Belova]]|EUN}}--&gt; |[[Image:olympic-rings.png|22px]] [[Elena Belova|Yelena Belova]] ([[Unified Team|EUN]]) |- |1994 |{{flag athl iocc|[[Myriam Bédard]]|CAN}} |{{flag athl iocc|[[Svetlana Paramyguina]]|BLR}} |{{flag athl iocc|[[Valentina Tserbe Nessina|Valentina Tserbe]]|UKR}} |- |1998 |{{flag athl iocc|[[Galina Koukleva]]|RUS}} |{{flag athl iocc|[[Uschi Disl]]|GER}} |{{flag athl iocc|[[Katrin Apel]]|GER}} |- |2002 |{{flag athl iocc|[[Kati Wilhelm]]|GER}} |{{flag athl iocc|[[Uschi Disl]]|GER}} |{{flag athl iocc|[[Magdalena Forsberg]]|SWE}} |- |2006 |{{flag athl iocc|[[Florence Baverel-Robert]]|FRA}} |{{flag athl iocc|[[Anna Carin Olofsson]]|SWE}} |{{flag athl iocc|[[Lilia Efremova]]|UKR}} |} ===Pursuit (10 km)=== This event was first held in [[2002]]. {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; cellspacing=&quot;1&quot; ! Year ! style=&quot;background:gold&quot; width=&quot;180&quot; | Gold ! style=&quot;background:silver&quot; width=&quot;180&quot; | Silver ! style=&quot;background:#cc9966&quot; width=&quot;180&quot; | Bronze |- |2002 |{{flag athl iocc|[[Olga Pyleva]]|RUS}} |{{flag athl iocc|[[Kati Wilhelm]]|GER}} &lt;!--|{{flag athl iocc|[[Irina Nikoultchina]]|BGR}}--&gt; |[[Image:Flag of Bulgaria.svg|22px]] [[Irina Nikoultchina]] ([[Bulgaria|BUL]]) |- |2006 |{{flag athl iocc|[[Kati Wilhelm]]|GER}} |{{flag athl iocc|[[Martina Glagow]]|GER}} |{{flag athl iocc|[[Albina Akhatova]]|RUS}} |} ===Mass start (12.5 km)=== This event was first held in [[2006]]. {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; cellspacing=&quot;1&quot; ! Year ! style=&quot;background:gold&quot; width=&quot;180&quot; | Gold ! style=&quot;background:silver&quot; width=&quot;180&quot; | Silver ! style=&quot;background:#cc9966&quot; width=&quot;180&quot; | Bronze |- |2006 |{{flag athl iocc|[[Anna Carin Olofsson]]|SWE}} |{{flag athl iocc|[[Kati Wilhelm]]|GER}} |{{flag athl iocc|[[Uschi Disl]]|GER}} |} ===Relay (4&amp;times;7.5/6 km)=== This event was held for the first time in [[1992]] as a 3&amp;times;7.5 km event, then was 4&amp;times;7.5 km at the next three Olympics, and became a 4&amp;times;6 km event in 2006. {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; cellspacing=&quot;1&quot; ! Year ! style=&quot;background:gold&quot; width=&quot;180&quot; | Gold ! style=&quot;background:silver&quot; width=&quot;180&quot; | Silver ! style=&quot;background:#cc9966&quot; width=&quot;180&quot; | Bronze |- |1992 |{{FRA}}&lt;br /&gt;[[Corinne Niogret]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Véronique Claudel]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Anne Briand]]&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt; |{{GER}}&lt;br /&gt;[[Uschi Disl]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Antje Misersky]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Petra Schaaf]]&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt; |{{EUN}}&lt;br /&gt;[[Elena Belova]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Anfisa Restzova]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Elena Melnikova]]&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt; |- |1994 |{{RUS}}&lt;br /&gt;[[Nadejda Talanova]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Natalia Snitina]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Luiza Noskova]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Anfisa Restzova]] |{{GER}}&lt;br /&gt;[[Uschi Disl]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Antje Misersky|Antje Misersky Harvey]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Simone Greiner-Petter-Memm|Simone G.-P.-Memm]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Petra Schaaf]] |{{FRA}}&lt;br /&gt;[[Corinne Niogret]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Véronique Claudel]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Delphine Burlet Heymann|Delphine B. Heymann]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Anne Briand]] |- |1998 |{{GER}}&lt;br /&gt;[[Uschi Disl]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Martina Zellner]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Katrin Apel]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Petra Schaaf|Petra Schaaf Behle]] |{{RUS}}&lt;br /&gt;[[Olga Melnik]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Galina Koukleva]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Albina Akhatova]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Olga Romasko]] |{{NOR}}&lt;br /&gt;[[Ann-Elen Skjelbreid]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Annette Sikveland]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Gunn Margit Andreassen|Gunn M. Andreassen]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Liv Grete Skjelbreid Poirée|Liv Grete Skjelbreid]] |- |2002 |{{GER}}&lt;br /&gt;[[Katrin Apel]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Uschi Disl]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Andrea Henkel]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Kati Wilhelm]] |{{NOR}}&lt;br /&gt;[[Ann-Elen Skjelbreid]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Linda Tjørhom]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Gunn Margit Andreassen|Gunn M. Andreassen]]&lt;br /&gt;
lature and pertinent history with abundant references.'' * Rayburn, Alan. 2001. ''Naming Canada: stories about Canadian place names'', 2nd ed. (ISBN 0-8020-8293-9) University of Toronto Press: Toronto. [[Category:British Empire]] [[Category:Commonwealth realms]] [[Category:History of Canada]] [[de:Dominion]] [[fr:Dominion]] [[he:&amp;#1491;&amp;#1493;&amp;#1502;&amp;#1497;&amp;#1504;&amp;#1497;&amp;#1493;&amp;#1503;]] [[hr:Dominion]] [[ru:&amp;#1044;&amp;#1086;&amp;#1084;&amp;#1080;&amp;#1085;&amp;#1080;&amp;#1086;&amp;#1085;]] [[sv:Dominion]] [[nl:Dominion]] [[tr:Dominyon]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Don McLean</title> <id>8987</id> <revision> <id>41877976</id> <timestamp>2006-03-02T08:30:57Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Jojit fb</username> <id>107307</id> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:B00009P1MP.01._SCLZZZZZZZ_.jpg|thumb|Cover of the ''[[American Pie (album)|American Pie]] album.]]'' :''For the British comedian see [[Don Maclean]].'' '''Don McLean''', (born [[October 2]], [[1945]] in [[New Rochelle, New York]]) is an American [[singer-songwriter]], most famous for his 1971 [[ballad]] &quot;[[American Pie (song)|American Pie]]&quot;, about an event known as [[The Day the Music Died]]. Other well-known songs include *&quot;[[And I Love You So]]&quot; - covered by [[Elvis Presley]], a [[1973 in music|1973 hit]] for [[Perry Como]] *&quot;[[Vincent (song)|Vincent]]&quot; (a tribute to the 19th century Dutch painter, [[Vincent van Gogh]]) *&quot;Castles in the Air&quot; *&quot;Winterwood&quot; A poem about McLean, &quot;Killing Me Softly With His Blues&quot; by [[Lori Lieberman]], was reworked into a song called &quot;[[Killing Me Softly (song)|Killing Me Softly]]&quot; by Charles Fox and Norman Gimbel. Lieberman was the first to record it (in 1971), but the song has two far better-known [[cover version|covers]]. The first major hit version was by [[Roberta Flack]] in 1973; nearly a quarter-century later (1996), another version was a major hit for [[The Fugees]]. In 1981, he had an international number one hit with the [[Roy Orbison]] classic, &quot;[[Crying (song)|Crying]]&quot;. Orbison himself once described McLean as &quot;the voice of the century&quot;, and a subsequent re-recording of the song saw Orbison incorporate elements of McLean's version. ==Discography== *''Tapestry'' (1970) *''[[American Pie (album)|American Pie]]'' (1971) *''Don McLean'' (1972) *''Playin' Favorites'' (1973) *''Homeless Brother'' (1974) *''Solo'' (1976) (LIVE) *''Prime Time'' (1977) *''Chain Lightning'' (1978) *''Believers'' (1981) *''Dominion'' (1982) (LIVE) *''For The Memories I &amp; II'' (1986-7) *''Love Tracks'' (1987) *''Headroom'' (1990) *''Favourites and Rarities'' (1993) *''River of Love'' (1995) *''Don McLean Sings Marty Robbins'' (2001) *''Starry Starry Night'' (2001) {Live} *''You've Got To Share'' (2003) (&quot;The Kid's Album&quot;) *''The Western Album'' (2003) *''Christmastime!'' (2004) *''Rearview Mirror'' (2005) ==External links== *[http://www.americanpie.com/ Official web site] *[http://store.americanpie.com/ Official Don McLean music store] [[Category:1945 births|McLean, Don]] [[Category:Living people|McLean, Don]] [[Category:American composers|McLean, Don]] [[Category:American male singers|McLean, Don]] [[Category:American musicians|McLean, Don]] [[Category:American singer-songwriters|McLean, Don]] [[de:Don McLean]] [[fi:Don McLean]] [[he:דון מקלין]] [[nl:Don McLean]] [[pl:Don McLean]] [[pt:Don McLean]] [[sv:Don McLean]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Delaware Corporation</title> <id>8988</id> <revision> <id>15906916</id> <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>24.93.53.199</ip> </contributor> <comment>*</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Delaware corporation]] </text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Defense</title> <id>8989</id> <revision> <id>39587555</id> <timestamp>2006-02-14T13:55:04Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>128.100.218.10</ip> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Defence''' or '''defense''' can refer to: * For defence of a doctoral dissertation see [[thesis committee]] * [[defense (military)]] * [[Civil defense]] measures and [[emergency preparedness]] * [[war]], a euphemism for * [[defense industry (disambiguation)]] * [[defense (legal)]] , against prosecution and liability *For defense against an attacker: ** [[self-defense]] ** [[Self-defense (theory)]] and [[defense of property]], legal justifications * [[defense (sport)]] * [[La Défense]], a business district of high-rise buildings to the west of Paris {{disambig}} [[da:Forsvar]] [[de:Verteidigung]] [[nl:Defensie]] [[ne:सुरक्षा]] [[ja:防衛]] [[pt:Defesa]] [[simple:Defense]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Dutch Limburg</title> <id>8991</id> <revision> <id>15906919</id> <timestamp>2002-09-06T13:05:57Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Andre Engels</username> <id>300</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>indirect redirect</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Limburg (Netherlands)]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>DirkJan</title> <id>8992</id> <revision> <id>18743391</id> <timestamp>2005-07-13T13:48:58Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Dapete</username> <id>101797</id> </contributor> <minor /> <text xml:space="preserve">[[nl:DirkJan]] '''DirkJan''' is a comic, the creation of author and artist [[Mark Retera]]. It is also the name of its main character. DirkJan is a loser who stumbles through life in mostly three-panel comic strips. He started out in [[1989]] as a student at the current [[Radboud University Nijmegen]] in the Netherlands, where he lived in a typical student house with all the stereotypical side-kicks, such as the frat boy, the beer drinker, the bossy girl who checks if everybody keeps to the house rules, and the tramps who use the heated shared hallway to stay the night. Early DirkJans contained many references to the student life of [[Nijmegen]]. DirkJan was first published in Critic, the magazine for the local union of psychology students. It then moved on to monthly publication in the student magazine of Nijmegen ([[Algemeen Nijmeegs Studentenblad]], [[ANS]]). DirkJan became known nationally when the then only commercial comics magazine of the Netherlands SjoSji (now defunct) started publishing the strip. With the last move, the nature of the strip changed. Most of the student side-kicks got cancelled and DirkJan left university, first for jail (DJ is a notorious [[leprechaun]] abuser) and then to wander the globe and indeed space. As of June 2005, there are eight DirkJan albums, tentatively named 'DirkJan 1' through 'DirkJan 8'. Several newspapers in the [[Netherlands]] publish the comic in their daily edition. The amateur comics magazine [[Iris magazine|Iris]] (1990 - 1995) (re)published a number of DirkJan comics, some of which were refused publication in SjoSji. Links: * http://www.mooves.nl/ (two animated DirkJan strips, Flash-only site) * http://www.rotterdamsdagblad.nl/dirkjan/ (daily DirkJan, at the website of a Dutch newspaper)</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Duck Hunt</title> <id>8993</id> <revision> <id>41122623</id> <timestamp>2006-02-25T04:47:04Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Pagrashtak</username> <id>304316</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>infobox fixes, year link</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox CVG| title = Duck Hunt |image = [[Image:duck_hunt_screenshot.png|center|Screenshot of Duck Hunt.]] |developer = [[Intelligent Systems]] |publisher = [[Nintendo]] |designer = |engine = |released = [[April 21]], [[1984 in video gaming|1984]] ([[Japan|JP]])&lt;br /&gt;[[October 18]], [[1985 in video gaming|1985]] ([[North America|NA]])&lt;br /&gt;[[August 15]], [[1987 in video gaming|1987]] ([[Europe|EU]]) |genre = [[Arcade game|Arcade]] |modes = [[Single player]] |ratings = |platforms = Famicom/[[Nintendo Entertainment System|NES]]/[[Arcade game|Arcade]] |media = 192-[[kilobit]] [[cartridge (electronics)|cartridge]] |requirements = |input = [[NES Zapper]]/[[Light gun]] }} '''''Duck Hunt''''' is a [[Computer and video games|FPS video game]] for the [[Nintendo Entertainment System]] (NES) [[video game console|game console system]]. It was one of the two original pack-in titles for the first release of the game system (the other was ''[[Gyromite]]''). ==Gameplay== In ''Duck Hunt'', players had a special gun apparatus, the [[NES Zapper|Nintendo Zapper Gun]] that they plugged into the NES console, and attempted to shoot down [[ducks]] or [[skeet shooting|clay pigeon]]s in mid-flight. ''Duck Hunt'' was originally released as an [[arcade game]] in [[1984 in video gaming|1984]] and was also included in the [[PlayChoice-10]] arcade console. Like many early video games, ''Duck Hunt'' has no proper ending. [[Image:duck_hunt_arcade.png|left|thumb|225px|The popular dog can be shot in ''[[Nintendo Vs. Series|Vs. Duck Hunt]]''.]] The player is also accompanied by a nameless [[dog]] that laughs whenever a duck is missed. The dog has passed into video gaming folklore. Additionally, one of the more popular [[urban legend]]s within the video game community claims that some players have found a way to shoot the dog. This is actually impossible for several gameplay reasons and limitations, although it ''is'' possible to shoot the dog in the bonus round of the arcade version of the game, ''[[Nintendo Vs. Series|Vs. Duck Hunt]]'' (possibly the origin of the urban legend). There is also a fan-made [[Macromedia Flash]] remake of the game that featu
n [[Oberndorf]], [[Austria]]. *[[1837]] - [[Battle of Okeechobee]]: [[United States]] forces defeat [[Seminole (tribe)|Seminole]] Indians. *[[1868]] - [[U.S. President]] [[Andrew Johnson]] grants unconditional pardon to all [[American Civil War|Civil War]] [[Confederate]] soldiers. *1868 - [[Shogunate]] rebels found [[Ezo Republic]] in [[Hokkaido]]. *[[1914]] - [[World War I]]: Known as the [[Christmas truce]], [[Germany|German]] and [[United Kingdom|British]] troops on the [[Western Front]] temporarily cease fire. *[[1917]] - ''[[Why Marry?]]'', first dramatic play to win a [[Pulitzer Prize]], opens at the [[Astor Theatre]] in [[New York City]]. *[[1926]] - [[Hirohito]] becomes [[Emperor of Japan]], succeeding the [[Taisho Emperor]]. *[[1932]] - A magnitude 7.6 [[earthquake]] in [[Gansu]], [[China]] kills ~70,000 people. *[[1939]] - [[Charles Dickens]]' ''[[A Christmas Carol]]'' is read on the [[radio]] for the first time ([[CBS]] radio). *1939 - ''[[Rudolph the Red-Nosed Reindeer]]'' is introduced by [[Montgomery Ward]] stores. *[[1941]] - [[World War II]]: [[Battle of Hong Kong]] ends, beginning the [[Japanese Occupation of Hong Kong]]. *[[1947]] - The [[Constitution of the Republic of China]] goes into effect. *[[1971]] - In the longest game in [[National Football League|NFL]] history (82m40s), the [[Miami Dolphins]] defeat the [[Kansas City Chiefs]]. *[[1973]] - The [[ARPANET]] crashes when a [[programming]] [[Computer_bug|bug]] causes all ARPANET traffic to be routed through the [[server]] at [[Harvard University]], causing the server to freeze. *[[1974]] - [[Cyclone Tracy]] devastates [[Darwin, Northern Territory]] [[Australia]]. *1974 - [[Marshall Fields (White House intruder)|Marshall Fields]] drove a vehicle through the gates of the [[White House]], resulting in a four-hour standoff. *[[1977]] - [[Prime Minister of Israel]] [[Menachem Begin]] meets in [[Egypt]] with [[President of Egypt]] [[Anwar Sadat]]. *[[1987]] - In one of the highest-rated episodes in ''[[Coronation Street]]'' history, [[Hilda Ogden]] leaves her home of 23 years to be a [[char]] to her doctor in the country. *[[1989]] - [[Nicolae Ceauşescu]], former [[communist]] [[dictator]] of [[Romania]], and his wife [[Elena Ceauşescu|Elena]] are condemned to death and executed under a wide range of charges. *[[1991]] - [[Mikhail Gorbachev]] resigns as president of the [[Soviet Union]] (the union itself is dissolved the next day). *[[2002]] - The [[New Delhi Metro]] opens. *[[2003]] - The ill-fated [[Beagle 2]] probe which was released from the [[Mars Express]] [[Spacecraft]] on [[December 19]], disappears shortly before its scheduled landing. *[[2004]] - Cassini orbiter releases [[Huygens probe]] which will successfully land on [[Saturn (planet)|Saturn]]'s moon, [[Titan (moon)|Titan]] on [[January 14]], [[2005]]. ==Births== *[[1 BC]] - [[Jesus of Nazareth]] (traditionally observed date and year; see [[Chronology of Jesus#Birth|Chronology of Jesus]]) (d. circa [[33]]) *[[1583]] - [[Orlando Gibbons]], English composer (d. [[1625]]) *[[1628]] - [[Noël Coypel]], French painter (d. [[1707]]) *[[1642]] &lt;small&gt;([[O.S.]])&lt;/small&gt; - [[Isaac Newton|Sir Isaac Newton]], English physicist and mathematician (d. [[1727]]) *[[1652]] - [[Archibald Pitcairne]], Scottish physician (d. [[1713]]) *[[1665]] - [[Lady Grizel Baillie]], Scottish songwriter (d. [[1746]]) *[[1667]] - [[Ehrengard Melusine von der Schulenburg, Duchess of Kendal and Munster]], English royal mistress (d. [[1743]]) *[[1674]] - [[Thomas Halyburton]], Scottish theologian (d. [[1712]]) *[[1700]] - [[Leopold II of Anhalt-Dessau]], Prussian general (d. [[1758]]) *[[1711]] - [[Jean Joseph de Mondonville]], French composer (d. [[1772]]) *[[1716]] - [[Johann Jakob Reiske]], German scholar and physician (d. [[1774]]) *[[1742]] - [[Charlotte von Stein]], German friend of [[Johann Wolfgang von Goethe|Goethe]] (d. [[1827]]) *[[1757]] - [[Benjamin Pierce (governor)|Benjamin Pierce]], U.S. politician (d [[1839]]) *[[1763]] - [[Claude Chappe]], French telecommunications pioneer (d. [[1805]]) *[[1771]] - [[Dorothy Wordsworth]], English diarist and sister of [[William Wordsworth]] (d. [[1855]]) *[[1821]] - [[Clara Barton]], founder of the American Red Cross (d. [[1912]]) *[[1856]] - [[Hans von Bartels]], German painter (d. [[1913]]) *[[1861]] - [[Pandit Madan Mohan Malaviya]], Indian founder of Banaras Hindu University (d. [[1946]]) *[[1875]] - [[Theodor Cardinal Innitzer]], Austrian Catholic archbishop (d. [[1955]]) *[[1876]] - [[Muhammad Ali Jinnah]], founder of Pakistan (d. [[1948]]) *1876 - [[Adolf Otto Reinhold Windaus]], German chemist, [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry|Nobel Prize]] laureate (d. [[1959]]) *[[1878]] - [[Louis Chevrolet]], Swiss-born race car driver and automotive pioneer (d. [[1941]]) *[[1883]] - [[Maurice Utrillo]], French artist (d. [[1955]]) *[[1884]] - [[Evelyn Nesbit]], American actress (d. [[1967]]) *[[1886]] - [[Kid Ory]], American musician (d. [[1973]]) *[[1887]] - [[Conrad Nicholson Hilton]], American hotelier (d. [[1979]]) *[[1890]] - [[Robert Ripley]], world traveler and collector of odd facts and artifacts (d. [[1949]]) *[[1899]] - [[Humphrey Bogart]], American actor (d. [[1957]]) *[[1901]] - [[Princess Alice, Duchess of Gloucester]] (d. [[2004]]) *[[1904]] - [[Gerhard Herzberg]], German-born chemist, [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry|Nobel Prize]] laureate (d. [[1999]]) *[[1906]] - Sir [[Lew Grade]], Ukrainian-born film producer (d. [[1998]]) *1906 - [[Ernst Ruska]], German physicist, [[Nobel Prize in Physics|Nobel Prize]] laureate (d. [[1988]]) *[[1907]] - [[Cab Calloway]], American bandleader (d. [[1994]]) *[[1908]] - [[Quentin Crisp]], English author and activist (d. [[1999]]) *[[1912]] - [[Tony Martin (singer)|Tony Martin]], American singer *1912 - [[Natalino Otto]], Italian singer *[[1913]] - [[Henri Nannen]], German journalist and publisher (d. [[1966]]) *[[1915]] - [[Pete Rugolo]], Italian-born composer and arranger *[[1918]] - [[Anwar Sadat]], [[President of Egypt]], recipient of the [[Nobel Peace Prize]] (d. [[1981]]) *[[1924]] - [[Rod Serling]], American television scriptwriter (d. [[1975]]) *1924 - [[Atal Behari Vajpayee]], [[Prime Minister of India]] *[[1925]] - [[Carlos Castaneda]], Peruvian-born author (d. [[1998]]) *[[1927]] - [[Nellie Fox]], baseball player (d. [[1975]]) *[[1928]] - [[Dick Miller]], American actor *[[1932]] - [[Mabel King]], American actress (d. [[1999]]) *[[1936]] - [[Princess Alexandra of Kent]] *1936 - [[Ismail Merchant]], Indian-born film producer (d. [[2005]]) *[[1940]] - [[Pete Brown]], English poet and lyricist *[[1943]] - [[Hanna Schygulla]], German actress *[[1944]] - [[Jairzinho]], Brazilian footballer *[[1945]] - [[Noel Redding]], English bassist ([[The Jimi Hendrix Experience]]) (d. [[2003]]) *1945 - [[Gary Sandy]], American actor *[[1946]] - [[Jimmy Buffett]], American singer and songwriter *1946 - [[Larry Csonka]], American football player *1946 - [[Gene Lamont]], American baseball player and manager *[[1948]] - [[Barbara Mandrell]], American singer and actress *[[1949]] - [[Nawaz Sharif]], [[Prime Minister of Pakistan]] *1949 - [[Sissy Spacek]], American actress *1949 - [[Joe Louis Walker]], American musician *[[1950]] - [[Manny Trillo]], baseball player *1950 - [[Karl Rove]], American presidential advisor *[[1954]] - [[Annie Lennox]], Scottish singer ([[Eurythmics]]) *[[1957]] - [[Chris Kamara]], English [[Football (soccer)|footballer]] and commentator *[[1957]] - [[Shane MacGowan]], Irish musician *[[1958]] - [[Hanford Dixon]], American football player *1958 - [[Rickey Henderson]], baseball player *[[1959]] - [[Michael P. Anderson]], astronaut (d. [[2003]]) *[[1961]] - [[Ingrid Betancourt]], Colombian senator *[[1962]] - [[Dean Cameron]], American actor *[[1964]] - [[Gary McAllister]], Scottish Footballer *[[1967]] - [[Jason Thirsk]], American bass player ([[Pennywise]]) *[[1968]] - [[Helena Christensen]], Danish model &amp;amp; actress *[[1971]] - [[Dido (singer)|Dido]], English singer *[[1971]] - [[Justin Trudeau]], Son of former [[Canadian Prime Minister]], the Right Honourable [[Pierre Elliott Trudeau]] *1971 - [[Noel Hogan]], Irish guitarist and songwriter [[The Cranberries]] *[[1972]] - [[Josh Freese]], American drummer *[[1973]] - [[Alexandre Trudeau|Alexandre (Sacha) Trudeau]] Son of former [[Prime Minister of Canada]], the Right Honourable [[Pierre Elliott Trudeau]] *1973 - [[Robbie Elliott]], English footballer *[[1975]] - [[Marcus Trescothick]], English cricketer *[[1976]] - [[Tuomas Holopainen]], Finnish keyboardist and composer ([[Nightwish]]) *1976 - [[Armin van Buuren]], Dutch keyboardist *[[1978]] - [[Joel Porter]], Australian footballer *[[1979]] - [[Jim Greco]], American Professional Skateboarder *[[1980]] - [[Marcus Trufant]], American football player, defensive back *[[1980]] - [[Reika Hashimoto]], Japanese actress and model *[[1981]] - [[Katie Wright]], American actress *[[1982]] - [[Tapash Baisya]], Bangladeshi cricketer ==Deaths== *[[795]] - [[Pope Adrian I]] *[[1635]] - [[Samuel de Champlain]], French explorer and founder of Quebec City (b. [[1567]]) *[[1676]] - [[Matthew Hale (jurist)|Matthew Hale]], Lord Chief Justice of England (b. [[1609]]) *1676 - [[William Cavendish, 1st Duke of Newcastle]], English soldier, politician, and writer (b. [[1592]]) *[[1683]] - [[Kara Mustafa]], Ottoman general (b. [[1634]]) *[[1758]] - [[James Hervey]], English clergyman and writer (b. [[1714]]) *[[1784]] - [[Yosa Buson]], Japanese poet and painter (b. [[1716]]) *[[1824]] - [[Barbara Juliana, Baroness von Krüdener]], Russian writer (b. [[1764]]) *[[1880]] - [[Fridolin Anderwert]], Swiss Federal Councilor (b. [[1828]]) *[[1921]] - [[Vladimir Korolenko]], Russian writer (b. [[1853]]) *[[1925]] - [[Karl Abraham]], German psychoanalyst (b. [[1877]]) *[[1926]] - [[Taisho Emperor]], Japanese emperor (b. [[1879]]) *[[1933]] - [[Francesc Macia|Francesc Macià]], President of Generalitat, Autonomous government of C
lic services, finances, and jurisdiction. On the other hand, Frederick was the emperor who granted major powers to the German dukes in two far-reaching privileges that would never be reclaimed by the central power. In the [[1220]] ''[[Confoederatio cum principibus ecclesiasticis]]'', Frederick basically gave up a number of ''regalia'' in favour of the bishops, among them tariffs, coining, jurisdiction and fortification. The [[1232]] ''[[Statutum in favorem principum]]'' mostly extended these privileges to the other (non-clerical) territories (Frederick II was forced to give those privileges by a rebellion of his son, Henry). Although many of these privileges had existed earlier, they were now granted globally, and once and for all, to allow the German dukes to maintain order north of the Alps while Frederick wanted to concentrate on his homelands in Italy. The 1232 document marked the first time that the German dukes were called ''domini terrae'', owners of their lands, a remarkable change in terminology as well. The [[Teutonic Knights]] were invited to [[Poland]] by the duke of [[Masovia]] [[Konrad of Masovia]] to Christianize the Prussians in [[1226]]. === The rise of the territories after the Staufen === After the death of Frederick II in [[1250]], none of the dynasties worthy of producing the king proved able to do so, and the leading dukes elected several competing kings. The time from [[1246]] (beginning with the election of [[Heinrich Raspe]] and [[Count William II of Holland|William of Holland]]) to [[1273]], when [[Rudolph I of Habsburg]] was elected king, is commonly referred to as the [[Interregnum]]. During the Interregnum, much of what was left of imperial authority was lost, as the princes were given time to consolidate their holdings and become even more independent rulers. The difficulties in electing the king eventually led to the emergence of a fixed college of electors, the ''[[prince-elector|Kurfürsten]]'', whose composition and procedures were set forth in the [[Golden Bull of 1356]]. This development probably best symbolizes the emerging duality between ''Kaiser und Reich'', emperor and realm, who were no longer considered identical. This is also revealed in the way the post-Staufen kings attempted to sustain their power. Earlier, the Empire's strength (and finances) greatly relied on the Empire's own lands, the so-called ''Reichsgut,'' which always belonged to the respective king (and included many Imperial Cities). After the 13th century, its relevance faded (even though some fractions of it did remain until the Empire's end in 1806). Instead, the ''Reichsgut'' was increasingly pawned to local dukes sometimes to raise money for the Empire but, more frequently, to reward faithful duty or as an attempt to [[civilize]] stubborn dukes. The direct governance of the ''Reichsgut'' no longer matched the needs of either the king or the dukes. Instead, the kings, beginning with [[Rudolph I of Habsburg]], increasingly relied on the lands of their respective dynasties to support their power. In contrast with the ''Reichsgut'', which was mostly scattered and difficult to administer, the territories were comparably compact and thus easier to control. In [[1282]], Rudolph I thus lent his own Austria and [[Styria (duchy)|Styria]] to his own sons. With [[Henry VII, Holy Roman Emperor|Henry VII]], the [[House of Luxembourg]] entered the stage. In 1312, he was crowned as the first Holy Roman Emperor since Frederick II. After him all kings and emperors relied on the lands of their own family (''Hausmacht''): [[Louis IV, Holy Roman Emperor|Louis IV]] of [[Wittelsbach]] (king 1314, emperor 1328&amp;ndash;1347) relied on his lands in Bavaria; [[Charles IV, Holy Roman Emperor|Charles IV]] of Luxembourg, the grandson of Henry VII, drew strength from his own lands in Bohemia. Interestingly, it was thus increasingly in the king's own interest to strengthen the power of the territories, since the king profited from such a benefit in his own lands as well. The 13th century also saw a general structural change in how land was administered. Instead of personal duties, [[money]] increasingly became the common means to represent economic value in agriculture. Peasants were increasingly required to pay tribute for their lands. The concept of &quot;property&quot; more and more replaced more ancient forms of jurisdiction, although they were still very much tied together. In the territories (not at the level of the Empire), power became increasingly bundled: Whoever owned the land had jurisdiction, from which other powers derived. It is important to note, however, that jurisdiction at this time did not include legislation, which virtually did not exist until well into the 15th century. Court practice heavily relied on traditional customs or rules described as customary. It is during this time that the territories began to transform themselves into predecessors of modern states. The process varied greatly among the various lands and was most advanced in those territories that were most identical to the lands of the old Germanic tribes, ''e.g.'' Bavaria. It was slower in those scattered territories that were founded through imperial privileges. === Imperial Reform === [[Image:Imperial Circles-2005-10-15-en.png|right|thumb|220px|Map of the Empire showing division into Circles in 1512]] The &quot;constitution&quot; of the Empire was still largely unsettled at the beginning of the [[15th century]]. Although some procedures and institutions had been fixed, for example by the [[Golden Bull]] of [[1356]], the rules of how the king, the electors, and the other dukes should cooperate in the Empire much depended on the personality of the respective king. It therefore proved somewhat fatal that [[Sigismund, Holy Roman Emperor|Sigismund of Luxemburg]] (king 1410, emperor 1433&amp;ndash;1437) and [[Frederick III, Holy Roman Emperor|Frederick III of Habsburg]] (king 1440, emperor 1452&amp;ndash;1493) neglected the old core lands of the empire and mostly resided in their own lands. Without the presence of the king, the old institution of the ''Hoftag'', the assembly of the realm's leading men, deteriorated. The ''[[Reichstag (institution)|Reichstag]]'' as a legislative organ of the Empire did not exist yet. Even worse, dukes often went into feuds against each other that, more often than not, escalated into local wars. At the same time, the church was in crisis too. The conflict between several competing popes was only resolved at the [[Council of Constance]] ([[1414]]&amp;ndash;[[1418]]); after [[1419]], much energy was spent on fighting the [[heresy]] of the [[Hussites]]. The medieval idea of a unified [[Corpus christianum]], of which the papacy and the Empire were the leading institutions, began to decline. With these drastic changes, much discussion emerged in the [[15th century]] about the Empire itself. Rules from the past no longer adequately described the structure of the time, and a reinforcement of earlier ''Landfrieden'' was urgently called for. During this time, the concept of &quot;reform&quot; emerges, in the original sense of the Latin verb ''re-formare'', to regain an earlier shape that had been lost. [[Image:Quaterionenadler David de Negker.jpg|thumb|The double-headed eagle as symbol of the empire]] When [[Frederick III, Holy Roman Emperor|Frederick III]] needed the dukes to finance war against Hungary in 1486 and at the same time had his son, later [[Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor|Maximilian I]] elected king, he was presented with the dukes' united demand to participate in an Imperial Court. For the first time, the assembly of the electors and other dukes was now called ''Reichstag'' (to be joined by the [[Imperial Free City|Imperial Free Cities]] later). While Frederick refused, his more conciliant son finally convoked the ''Reichstag'' at [[Worms, Germany|Worms]] in [[1495]], after his father's death in 1493. Here, the king and the dukes agreed on four bills, commonly referred to as the [[Imperial Reform|''Reichsreform'' (Imperial Reform)]]: a set of legal acts to give the disintegrating Empire back some structure. Among others, this act produced the [[Imperial Circle Estates]] and the ''[[Reichskammergericht]],'' (Imperial Chamber Court); structures that would &amp;ndash; to a degree &amp;ndash; persist until the end of the Empire in 1806. However, it should take a few more decades until the new regulation was universally accepted and the new court began to actually function; only in [[1512]] would the [[Imperial Circle|Imperial Circles]] be finalized. The King also made sure that his own court, the ''Reichshofrat'', continued to function in parallel to the ''Reichskammergericht''. It is interesting to note that in this year, the Empire also receives its new title, the ''Heiliges Römisches Reich Deutscher Nation'' (&quot;Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation&quot;). === Crisis after Reformation === When [[Martin Luther]] in [[1517]] initiated what would later be known as the [[Reformation]], many local dukes saw the chance to oppose the Emperor [[Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor|Charles V]]. The empire became fatally divided along religious lines, with the North and East and many of the major cities, such as Strassburg, Frankfurt and Nuremberg, becoming [[Protestant]], and the southern and western regions largely remaining [[Roman Catholic|Catholic]]. Religious conflicts were waged in various parts of Europe for a century, though in German regions there was relative quiet from the [[Peace of Augsburg]] in 1555 until the [[Defenestration of Prague]] in 1618. When Bohemians rebelled against the emperor, the immediate result was the series of conflicts known as the [[Thirty Years' War]] (1618&amp;ndash;1648), which devastated the Empire. Foreign powers, including France and Sweden intervened in the conflict, strengthening those fighting Imperial power, and seizing considerable chunks of territory for thems
]] * [[List of artificial objects on the Moon]] ==Quote== Famous '''mis'''quote: &quot;''Houston, we have a problem''&quot;&lt;br /&gt; Actual quote: &quot;''Okay, Houston, we've had a problem here''&quot; [http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/Timeline/apollo13chron.html], uttered by Swigert to ground. Lovell then uttered this similar phrase: &quot;''Houston, we've had a problem.''&quot; ==Mission highlights== The Apollo 13 mission began with a lesser known malfunction which could have been equally catastrophic. During second stage burn the center engine shut down prematurely. Engineers later discovered that this was due to dangerous [[pogo oscillation]]s which might have torn the second stage apart; the engine was experiencing 68g vibrations at 16 hertz, flexing the thrust frame by 3 inches. Luckily the oscillations caused a low pressure reading to register, and the computer shut the engine down automatically. This was later traced to amplification of the pogo that had occurred on previous flights by an unexpected interaction with the cavitation in the turbopumps. Later missions had anti-pogo devices as had already been planned since before Apollo 13 which solved the problem. When Apollo 13 was 321,860 kilometers (199,990 mi) from Earth, an oxygen tank in the service module exploded. The only solution was for the crew to cancel their planned landing, swing around the Moon and return on a trajectory back to Earth. However, because their command/service module &quot;Odyssey&quot; was severely damaged, the three astronauts had to use the lunar module &quot;Aquarius&quot; as a crowded lifeboat for the return home. The four-day return trip was cold, uncomfortable, and tense. But Apollo 13 proved the program's ability to weather a major crisis and bring the crew back home safely. ===Problem=== As the [[spacecraft]] was on its way to the Moon, the number two oxygen tank in the [[Service Module]] (SM) exploded when [[Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center|Mission Control]] requested that the crew perform a &quot;cryo stir&quot;, in which the oxygen &quot;slush&quot; is stirred to prevent it from stratifying. Teflon insulation covering damaged electrical wires powering the stirrer motor caught fire when power was applied. The fire caused a pressure increase above the tank's nominal 1,000 lbf/in&amp;sup2; (7 MPa), and the tank exploded. This explosion damaged other parts of the service module, including the number 1 oxygen tank. At the time of the explosion, however, the true cause was not known; one conjecture was a [[meteoroid]] impact. The loss of both oxygen tanks in the service module and thus the oxygen required to create electrical power for the [[Apollo Command/Service Module|Command/Service Modules]] (CSM) meant that the CSM had to be completely shut down. The [[Command Module]] (CM) contained batteries for use during re-entry, after the Service Module was jettisoned, but these would only last about ten hours, and needed to be saved for re-entry. The crew survived by using the [[Lunar Module]] (LM, still attached to the CM) as a &quot;lifeboat&quot;. [[Image:Apollo 13 SM.jpg|thumb|250px|Apollo 13 damaged Service Module (NASA)]] The damage to the CSM meant that the Moon-landing mission (originally intended to land at the [[Fra Mauro formation|Fra Mauro]] Highlands) had to be aborted; a single pass around the Moon was made and the spacecraft returned to [[Earth]]. Considerable ingenuity under extreme pressure was required from both the crew and the [[flight controller]]s to figure out how to [[jury rig]] the craft for the crew's safe return, with much of the world watching the drama on television. One of the major stumbling blocks in this was that the LM &quot;lifeboat&quot; was equipped to sustain two people for two days, and it would now have to sustain three people for four days. One of the most critical problems was that the [[lithium hydroxide]] [[carbon dioxide]] filters in the LM would not last for all four days, and the CM's spare filters were the wrong shape for the LM's filter receptacle; an adapter had to be fabricated from materials in the spacecraft. To accomplish a safe return to Earth, a significant course correction to place the spacecraft on a [[free return trajectory]] was required. This would normally be a simple procedure using the [[service module]] [[Spacecraft propulsion|propulsion]] engine. However, the [[flight controller]]s did not know the extent of the damage the service module had suffered and did not want to risk firing the main engine. Instead, the course correction would have to be performed by firing the lunar module's descent engine. After extensive discussion, engineers on the ground found it was possible. The initial maneuver to change to a free return trajectory was made within hours of the accident. The descent engine was fired again after passage around the Moon in order to accelerate the spacecraft's return to Earth, and later for a minor course correction. As re-entry to Earth's atmosphere approached, NASA took the unusual step of jettisoning the Service Module first, while the Lunar Module was still attached to the Command Module. The LM thrusters were used to maneuver the CM/LM stack to point its windows at the departing SM, and photos were taken. When the crew saw the damaged service module, they reported that the access panel covering the O&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; tanks and fuel cells had been blown off. There was some fear that the extensive condensation in the CM, due to reduced temperatures during the return leg, might have seriously damaged the electronics of the Command Module, which would become apparent upon activation. But the equipment worked perfectly when activated, at least partly due to the extensive design modifications made to the CM after the [[Apollo 1]] fire. [[Image:Apollo13 splashdown.jpg|left|thumb|160px|A successful splashdown (NASA)]] The crew returned unharmed to Earth, although Haise had a [[urinary tract infection]] resulting from the scarcity of potable water on the damaged ship and the difficulty of disposing of urine, and had to be treated in an infirmary. While the crew was unfortunate to have this kind of major malfunction, they were still extremely lucky that it occurred on the first leg of the mission when they had a maximum of supplies, equipment, and power to use in the emergency. If the explosion had occurred while in orbit around the moon, or on the return leg after the LM had been jettisoned, the crew probably would not have survived. After the completion of the mission, there was a full investigation of the incident and the craft was modified to prevent future occurrences of the fault. [[Jim Lovell]] and [[Jeffrey Kluger|Jeffrey Kluger's]] book about the mission, ''[[Lost Moon]]'', was later turned into a successful movie, ''[[Apollo 13 (film)|Apollo 13]]'', starring [[Tom Hanks]], [[Bill Paxton]] and [[Kevin Bacon]] as the Apollo crewmen. ===Cause of the accident=== The explosion on Apollo 13 led to a lengthy investigation of the underlying cause. Thanks to detailed manufacturing records and logs of mission problems, the failure of the faulty oxygen tank was tracked to multiple faults that were not problems individually, but nearly led to disaster on this mission. Liquid gases are very difficult to handle, and most storage containers holding them are unsealed so that pressure from expanding gas will not cause the container to fail (much like freezing water in even the strongest sealed container will shatter it). Apollo's liquid oxygen tank was a marvel of [[engineering]], able to hold several hundred pounds of highly pressurized liquid gas to supply the craft with oxygen, fuel for [[electricity]] (along with hydrogen) and [[water]] from the by-product of the [[fuel cells]]. Left alone, the tank was capable of safely holding liquid oxygen under high pressure for years before it evaporated because of its design and insulation. Unfortunately, the very characteristic that made the tank useful made internal inspection impossible. The tank was made of several basic components that were relevant to the accident: * A [[thermostat]] to control the heater within the tank that sped the evaporation of the liquid into gaseous oxygen; * A [[thermometer]] to determine the temperature of the heater; * Valves and piping that were designed to allow the tank to be completely emptied of liquid by forcing gas into the tank; * An interior coating of [[teflon]] that protected the wiring from the extremely cold gas; and * An internal fan to stir the liquid oxygen (liquid oxygen will turn into a &quot;slush&quot; at these pressures if it is allowed to sit for a long period of time). These were the basic design, manufacturing and operational problems that led to the accident. * The thermostat was originally designed to handle the 28 [[volt]] supply that would be used in the command module. However, the specification for the tank was changed so that it had to handle 65 [[volt]]s on the launch pad. Most of the wiring was changed to handle the higher voltage, but the thermostat was not. * The thermometer was designed to read out at the highest operational temperature of the heater, about 100 degrees Fahrenheit. Higher temperatures registered at 100 °F, but the thermostat was supposed to cut out at 80 °F (27 °C), making higher temperatures impossible. * During assembly, the structure carrying the tank that failed was dropped about 2 inches (5 cm). The exterior was undamaged, but the pipes that directed flow within the tank became misaligned. * For ground testing the tank was filled. However, when it came time to empty it, the problem with the piping was discovered. As such, the tank could not be properly emptied except by running the heater to evaporate the liquid gas. Not using this tank would have delayed the mission and there was no alternative tank available. Lovell was aware of the decision to use the heater to e
[[Tynwald]]'' (''Tinvaal'') , which dates from 979 A.D. Tynwald is a tricameral legislature, comprising the [[House of Keys]] (directly elected by universal suffrage) and the [[Legislative Council (Isle of Man)|Legislative Council]] (consisting of indirectly elected and ex officio members). Furthermore, when these two bodies meet together the third chamber, called Tynwald, is formed. There is a Council of Ministers, which is headed by the Chief Minister, currently [[Donald Gelling]]. As of 2005, the Island's system of government is under review &amp;mdash; there are plans to transform the Legislative Council into a directly-elected chamber, echoing the push for reform in the UK's [[House of Lords]] and the abolition of indirectly elected Conseillers in [[Guernsey]]. To date, no legislation has successfully passed through the House of Keys and given the fact that the issue has been high up the political agenda for over a decade, change does not seem to be forthcoming in the short term. This was reinforced by the political retirement of one of the main proposers of change, Edgar Quine. In October 2005 Tynwald accepted a proposal to change the title of the [[Lieutenant Governor]] to [[Crown Commissioner]] or [[Barrantagh y Chrooin]] in Manx (the title would also be &quot;Barrantagh ny Benrein,&quot; or &quot;Queen's Commissioner&quot;; when there is a King it will be &quot;Barrantagh ny Ree,&quot; or &quot;King's Commissioner&quot;). It now has to go London for approval, but the United Kingdom Department for Constitutional Affairs indicated early in 2005 that this was likely to be given. However, recent developments have suggested that the issue may be decided on the basis of an Island wide referendum. ===External relations=== A common misconception exists that Mann forms part of the [[United Kingdom]]. Under [[British law]] it does not, although the [[United Kingdom]] takes care of its external and defence affairs. The Isle of Man had a dispute with the [[European Court of Human Rights]] in the 1970s because it was reluctant to change its laws concerning [[birching]] (corporal punishment for male offenders). The law on [[sodomy law|sodomy]] might have also led down this road had it not been changed in the early 1990s. The Isle of Man holds neither membership nor associate membership of the [[European Union]], and lies outside the [[European Economic Area]] (EEA). Nonetheless, Protocol Three of the [http://www.bmdf.co.uk/ukaccessiontreaty.pdf treaty of accession of the United Kingdom] permits trade for Manx goods without non-EU tariffs. In conjunction with the Customs and Excise agreement with the UK, this facilitates free trade with the UK. While Manx goods can be freely moved within the EEA, people, capital and services cannot. There is no Manx citizenship. Manx people are classed as [[British nationality law|British citizens]] but those defined as Manx under Protocol Three have a special endorsement placed in their passports preventing them from freely living or working in EU states. Those Manx persons with a parent or grandparent born in the United Kingdom (England, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland), or who have lived in the UK for 5 years, are not subject to this provision. The restriction on free movement of persons is anomalous in that the treaty establishing the EU (formerly [[EEC]]) clearly states that all citizens of member states will also be citizens of the EU. However a special protocol was inserted in the Treaty of Accession of the United Kingdom excluding the Channel Islands and Isle of Man from the provisions governing free movement of people. This was done at the request of the governments of Jersey, Guernsey and the Isle of Man at the time. Travel to the Isle of Man is regulated by the local government laws. Visitors from countries who require a UK visa may also require a special Manx visa, obtainable from a British diplomatic mission. All non-Manx, including UK citizens, are required to obtain a work permit to take up employment on the Island. ===Politics=== Most Manx politicians stand for election as independents rather than as representatives of political parties. Though political parties do exist, their influence is not nearly as strong as is the case in the United Kingdom. Consequently, much Manx legislation develops through consensus among the members of Tynwald, which contrasts with the much more adversarial nature of the UK [[parliament]]. One political party, [[Mec Vannin]], advocates the establishment of a sovereign [[republic]]. A [[Manx Labour Party]] also exists, unaffiliated to the UK [[Labour Party (UK)|Labour Party]]. The island formerly had a [[Manx National Party]] and a Manx Communist party. There are Manx members in the [[Celtic League (political organisation)|Celtic League]], a political pressure group that advocates greater co-operation between and political autonomy for the [[Modern Celts|Celtic]] nations. The main political issues include the Island's relationship with the finance sector, housing prices and shortages, and the [[Manx language]]. The vast majority of the members of the [[House of Keys]] are non-partisan (19), with two representatives from the [[Manx Labour Party]] and three from the [[Alliance for Progressive Government]]. The next scheduled election is in 2006. ==Local government== {{main|Local government in the Isle of Man}} The [[Isle of Man]] is divided into six administrative districts, called sheadings. The six sheadings are [[Ayre]], [[Glenfaba]], [[Garff]], [[Michael (sheading)|Michael]], [[Rushen]] and [[Middle (sheading)|Middle]]. The sheadings form the basis of some constituencies and each has a [[Coroner]]. This office must not be confused with the Coronor for Inquests, a role usually fulfilled by the High Bailiff. A person may fulfil the role of coroner for more than one sheading at the same time. The term 'sheading' is thought to be a [[Norse language|Norse]] word for 'ship division'; each district was believed to be responsible for producing a certain number of warships. It could also be a [[Celtic language|Celtic]] word meaning 'sixth part'. [[Image:Isle of Man.png|thumb|right|250px|Isle of Man sheadings map]] The sheadings are: *[[Ayre|Ayre]] *[[Garff|Garff]] *[[Glenfaba|Glenfaba]] *[[Michael|Michael]] *[[Middle|Middle]] *[[Rushen|Rushen]] {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; ! Map Number !! Local Government Area!! Type!! Sheading !! [[House of Keys]] Constituency |- |1||[[Andreas Parish|Andreas Parish]]||Parish|| Ayre||Ayre |- |2||[[Arbory Parish|Arbory Parish]]||Parish||Rushen||Rushen |- |3||[[Ballaugh Parish|Ballaugh Parish]]||Parish||Michael||Michael |- |4||[[Braddan Parish|Braddan Parish]]||Parish||Middle||Middle |- |5||[[Bride (parish)|Bride]] ||Parish|| Ayre ||Ayre |- |6||[[Castletown|Castletown]]||Town||Rushen||Castletown |- |7||[[Douglas, Isle of Man|Douglas]]||Town||Middle||Douglas East, West, North and South |- |8||[[German Parish|German Parish]]|| Parish||Glenfaba||Glenfaba |- |9||[[Jurby Parish|Jurby Parish]]||Parish||Michael||Michael |- |10||[[Laxey]]||Village||Garff||Garff |- |11||[[Lezayre Parish|Lezayre Parish]]||Parish|| Ayre||Ayre |- |12||[[Lonan Parish|Lonan Parish]]||Parish|| Garff||Garff |- |13||[[Malew Parish|Malew Parish]]||Parish||Rushen||Malew and Santon |- |14||[[Marown|Marown]]||Parish||Middle||Middle |- |15||[[Maughold Parish|Maughold Parish]]||Parish||Garff||Garfff |- |16||[[Michael Distirct|Michael District]]||District||Michael||Michael |- |17||[[Onchan District|Onchan District]]||District||?||Onchan |- |18||[[Patrick Parish|Patrick Parish]]||Parish|| Glenfaba||Glenfaba |- |19||[[Peel, Isle of Man|Peel]]||Town (City)||Glenfaba||Peel |- |20||[[Port Erin]]||Village||Rushen||Rushen |- |21||[[Port St Mary|Port St Mary]]||Village||Rushen||Rushen |- |22||[[Ramsey, Isle of Man|Ramsey]]||Town||?||Ramsey |- |23||[[Rushen Parish|Rushen Parish]]||Parish||Rushen||Rushen |- |24||[[Santon Parish|Santon Parish]]||Parish||Middle||Malew and Santon |} ==Economy== {{main|Economy of the Isle of Man}} [[Offshore bank|Offshore]] [[banking]], [[manufacturing]], and [[tourism]] form key sectors of the [[economics|economy]] of the [[Isle of Man]]. The government's policy of offering incentives to high-technology companies and financial institutions to locate on the Island has expanded [[employment]] opportunities in high-income industries. As a result, [[agriculture]] and [[fishing]], once the mainstays of the economy, have declined in their shares of [[gross domestic product]] (GDP). Banking and other services now contribute the great bulk of GDP. [[Trade]] takes place mostly with the [[United Kingdom]]. The Isle of Man has access to [[European Union]] markets. Since 1999, the Isle of Man has received [[electricity]] through the '''world's longest submarine AC cable''', the 90 kV [[Isle of Man to England Interconnector]], as well as from a natural gas power station in [[Douglas]], an oil power station in [[Peel]] and a small hydro-electric power station in [[Sulby Glen]]. The Manx government has also been promoting island locations for making films by contributing to the production costs. Among the most successful was [[Waking Ned Devine]] where the Manx countryside stood in for rural [[Ireland]]. ==History== {{main|History of the Isle of Man}} ===Ancient times to present=== The Isle of Man became a [[Viking]] outpost/kingdom from ''circa'' AD 700 to AD 900. The Norse [[Kingdom of Mann and the Isles]] was created by [[Godred Crovan]] in 1079. Norway's King [[Magnus VI]] ceded the isles to [[Scotland]] in 1266, as dictated in the [[Treaty of Perth]]. The Isle of Man came under English control in the 14th century and to the [[British Crown]] in 1765. ===The Tynwald=== The Island arguably has the oldest continuous parliament in the world, the Tynwald, nominally founded in 979 AD (both the [[Iceland|Icelandic]] [[Althing|parliament]] and the [[Faroe Islands|Faroese]] [[Løgting|parliament]] are older, but they were
side the mirror is already tilted towards is greater, since that side is closer to the electrodes. To move the mirror, the required state is first loaded into an [[static RAM|SRAM]] cell located beneath the pixel, which is also connected to the electrodes. The bias voltage is then removed, allowing the charges from the SRAM cell to prevail, moving the mirror. When the bias is restored, the mirror is once again held in position, and the next required movement can be loaded into the memory cell. The bias system is used because it reduces the voltage levels required to address the pixels such that they can be driven directly from the SRAM cell, and also because the bias voltage can be removed at the same time for the whole chip, meaning every mirror moves at the same instant. The advantages of the latter are more accurate timing and a more [[film]]ic moving image. ==Applications== * [[Televisions]] and [[HDTV]]s * [[Holographic Versatile Disc]]s * [[Head-mounted displays]] ==External links== *[http://www.dlp.com/dlp_technology/dlp_technology_white_papers.asp DLP White Paper Library] *[http://www.audioholics.com/techtips/specsformats/displays_DLP_technology2.html DMD Resource] *[http://www.ti.com/sc/docs/products/dlp/spie-paper.pdf Emerging Digital Micromirror Device (DMD) Applications] [[Category:Transducers]] [[Category:Semiconductor devices]] [[de:Digital Micromirror Device]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Dejima</title> <id>8185</id> <revision> <id>41766808</id> <timestamp>2006-03-01T16:24:57Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Marco polo</username> <id>778241</id> </contributor> <comment>/* [[Sakoku]] policy */ Fixed text to be accurate within context</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">:''For the [[Ghost in the Shell]] refugee island, see [[Dejima Island]]''. [[Image:Nagasaki bay siebold.web.jpg|thumb|right|250px|View of Dejima in Nagasaki Bay]] [[Image:Deshima Scale Model2.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Scale model of Dutch trading post on display in Dejima (2003)]] [[Image:Dejima7398.JPG|thumb|right|250px|Edo-era boundaries of Dejima island (outlined in red) within the modern city of Nagasaki.]] '''Dejima''', also '''Deshima''' (&amp;#20986;&amp;#23798;, literally 'protruding island') in modern [[Japanese language|Japanese]], '''Desjima''' in Dutch, often latinised as '''Decima''', was a fan-shaped [[artificial island]] in the bay of [[Nagasaki]] that was a [[Netherlands|Dutch]] trading post during [[Japan]]'s self-imposed isolation ([[sakoku]]) of the [[Edo period]], from [[1641]] until [[1853]]. ==History== The [[island]] was constructed in [[1634]], on orders of shogun [[Tokugawa Iemitsu|Iemitsu]], and originally accommodated [[Portugal|Portuguese]] merchants. The [[Shimabara Rebellion|Shimabara uprising]] of 1637, in which Christian Japanese took an active part, was crushed with the help of the Dutch. After the Portuguese and other Catholic nations were expelled from Japan in 1638, the [[shogunate]] ordered the [[Dutch East India Company]] (V.O.C.) transfer its mercantile operations from the port of [[Hirado]] (established on [[20 September]] [[1609]]) to Deshima. From now on, only the Chinese and the Dutch could trade with Japan. It is significant that Deshima was a man-made island, hence not part of Japan proper. Thus the foreigners were kept at arm's length from the sacred soil of Japan. It was a small island, 120 m by 75 m, linked to the mainland by a small bridge, manned on both sides by guards, with a gate on the Dutch side. It contained houses for about 20 Dutchmen, warehouses and accommodation for Japanese government officials. The Dutch were watched by a number of Japanese officials, gatekeepers, night watchmen and a supervisor (''otona'') with about 50 subordinates. There were a number of merchants for supplies and catering and about 150 interpreters (''tsūji''). They all had to be paid by the V.O.C. Dejima was under direct central supervision of Edo by a governor, called a ''bugyō'', responsible for all contact between the V.O.C. and Edo. Every Dutch ship that arrived in Dejima was inspected by the bugyō. The sails were seized until the ship could leave again. Religious books and weapons were sealed and taken in custody. No religious services were allowed on the island. Despite the financial burden of their residence on Dejima, the trade with Japan was very profitable for the V.O.C., initially yielding profits of 50 % or even more. Trade declined in the 18th century, when only two ships were allowed yearly to dock at Dejima. After the bankruptcy of the V.O.C in 1795, the Dutch government took over the settlement. Times were especially hard when Holland was under French Napoleonic rule and all ties with the homeland were severed. The chief executive on the Dutch side was the ''Opperhoofd'' (here [[Chief factor]], but the same Dutch word is usually used for a native, e.g. American Indian, Chief), and remained so under Dutch state authority. There was about one incumbent a year, until [[28 February]] [[1860]]. == [[Sakoku]] policy == For two hundred years, Dutch merchants were generally not allowed to cross from Deshima to Nagasaki, and Japanese were likewise banned from entering Deshima, except for prostitutes. Official exceptions were also made to this rule, especially following [[Tokugawa Yoshimune]]'s doctrine of promoting European practical sciences. European scholars such as [[Engelbert Kaempfer]], [[Carl Peter Thunberg]], and [[Philipp Franz von Siebold]] were allowed to enter the mainland with the shogunate's permission. Starting in the 1700s, Deshima became known throughout Japan as a center of medicine, military science, and astronomy, and many [[samurai]] travelled there for &quot;Dutch studies&quot; ([[Rangaku]]). In addition, the Head of the Dutch 'factory' (trading post), known by the title of ''opperhoofd'', was treated like a Japanese [[daimyo]], which meant that he had to pay a visit of homage to the [[Shogun]] in [[Edo]] regularly (the so-called [[sankin kotai]]). In contrast to daimyo, the Japanese delegation traveled to Edo yearly between 1660 and 1790 and once every four years thereafter. In Edo the opperhoofd and his retinue (usually his scribe and the factory doctor) were expected to perform Dutch dances and songs etc. for the amusement of the shogunate, but they also used the opportunity of their stay in the capital to exchange knowledge with learned Japanese. The Dutch East India Company's trading post at Deshima was closed in [[1857]], once Dutch merchants were allowed to trade in Nagasaki City. Since then, the island has been surrounded by [[reclaimed land]] and merged into Nagasaki: its original location is marked by rivets. A project to restore Deshima is now underway. In modern Japanese the pronunciation would be ''Dejima''; in relation to the Dutch trading post, ''Deshima'' is the preferred spelling. == See also == * [[Rangaku]] - Dutch studies * [[Sakoku]] - &quot;chained country&quot; ==Sources and External links== *[http://www1.city.nagasaki.nagasaki.jp/dejima/en/index.html Dejima: The Island Comes Back to Life] *[http://Hendrick-Hamel.henny-savenije.pe.kr/henny/Deshima.htm A map of Deshima] *[http://Hendrick-Hamel.henny-savenije.pe.kr/holland3.htm At the bottom you will also find an image of Deshima] *[http://www.worldstatesmen.org/Japan.htm#Dejima WorldStatesmen - includes a list of Chief factors] {{Former Dutch colonies}} [[Category:Artificial islands]] [[Category:Islands of Japan]] [[de:Deshima]] [[fr:Dejima]] [[la:Insula Desima]] [[nl:Dejima]] [[ja:出島]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Descriptive statistics</title> <id>8187</id> <revision> <id>34013497</id> <timestamp>2006-01-05T20:17:49Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Vina-iwbot</username> <id>727408</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>robot Adding: zh</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Descriptive statistics''' is a branch of [[statistics]] that denotes any of the many techniques used to summarize a set of data. In a sense, we are using the data on members of a set to describe the set. The techniques are commonly classified as: # Graphical description in which we use graphs to summarize data. # Tabular description in which we use tables to summarize data. # Summary statistics in which we calculate certain values to summarize data. In general, statistical data can be described as a list of ''subjects'' or ''units'' and the data associated with each of them. Although most research uses many data types for each ''unit'', we will limit ourselves to just one data item each for this simple introduction. We have two objectives for our summary: #We want to choose a [[statistic]] that shows how different ''units'' seem similar. Statistical textbooks call the solution to this objective, a ''measure of [[central tendency]].'' #We want to choose another [[statistic]] that shows how they differ. This kind of statistic is often called a ''measure of [[statistical dispersion|statistical variability]]''. When we are summarizing a quantity like length or weight or age, it is common to answer the first question with the '''[[arithmetic mean]],''' the '''[[median]],''' or the '''[[mode (statistics)|mode]].''' Sometimes, we choose specific values from the [[cumulative distribution function]] called [[quantile]]s. The most common measures of variability for [[quantitative data]] are the [[variance]]; its square root, the [[standard deviation]]; the [[range (statistics) | range]]; [[interquartile range]]; and the [[absolute deviation]]. ==Steps in descriptive statistics== # [[Collect]] data # [[Classify]] data # [[Summarize]] data # [[presentation|Present]] data # Proceed to [[inferential statistics]] if there is enough [[data]] to draw a [[conclusion]]. ==See also== * [[statistical regularity]] * [[planning statistic
ndividuals. Preserved in the [[Midrash]], and the mediaeval [[Alphabet of Ben Sira]], this rabbinic tradition held that the first woman refused to take the submissive position to Adam in [[sexual intercourse|sex]], and eventually fled from him, consequently leaving him lonely. This first woman was identified in the Midrash as [[Lilith]], a figure elsewhere described as a night demon. The word ''liyliyth'' can also mean &quot;screech owl&quot;, as it is translated in the [[King James Version of the Bible|King James Version]] of [[Book of Isaiah|Isaiah]] 34:14, although some scholars take this to be a reference to the same demonic entity as mentioned in the Talmud. In the Talmud, Adam is said to have separated from Eve for 130 years, during which time his [[ejaculation]]s gave rise to ''ghouls, and demons''. Elsewhere in the Talmud, Lilith is identified as the mother of these creatures. The demons were said to prey on newborn males before they had been [[circumcised]], and so a tradition arose in which a protective amulet was placed around the neck of newborns. Traditions in the Midrash concerning Lilith, and her sexual appetite, have been compared to [[Sumerian mythology]] concerning the demon ''ki-sikil-lil-la-ke'', by scholars who postulate an intermediate [[Akkadian]] [[folk etymology]] interpreting the ''lil-la-ke'' portion of the name as a corruption of ''lîlîtu'', literally meaning ''female night demon''. The ''Alphabet of Ben Sira'' Midrash goes even further and identifies a third wife, created after Lilith deserted Adam, but before Eve. This unnamed wife was purportedly made in the same way as Adam, from the &quot;dust of the earth&quot;, but the sight of her being created proved too much for Adam to take and he refused to go near her. It is also said that she was created from nothing at all, and that God created into being a skeleton, then organs, and then flesh. The Midrash tells that Adam saw her as &quot;full of blood and secretions,&quot; suggesting that he may have actually witnessed her creation and was horrified at seeing a body from the inside out. Ben Sira does not record this wife's fate. She was never named, and it assumed that she was allowed to leave the Garden a perpetual virgin, or was ultimately destroyed by God in favor of Eve, who was created when Adam was asleep and oblivous. It should be noted here, that both Lilith and the Second Wife are free from any curse of the Tree of Knowledge, as they left long before the event occurred. ===The Fall of Man=== {{Main|Fall (religion)}} [[Image:Domenichinoadam eve.jpg|200px|thumb|right|[[Domenichino]]'s portrayal of Genesis 3:12: &quot;The woman whom thou gavest [to be] with me, she gave me of the tree, and I did eat&quot; (1623&amp;ndash;1625).]] The main story concerning Adam is traditionally regarded as extremely important in the major &quot;[[Abrahamic religions]]&quot;. This recounts how Adam and Eve are placed in the [[Garden of Eden]], and are allowed to cultivate and enjoy its fruit, living innocently. However, there was one tree they were explicitly forbidden from touching - the [[Tree of the Knowledge of Good and Evil]] - a tree otherwise unidentified, but it has been interpreted as a [[fig]], [[apple]], or [[pomegranate]] tree, or even a [[grape]] (see [[#Cultural influence]]). The Torah then records that a [[Serpent (symbolism)|serpent]], a creature described as having legs at that point, approached Eve and cajoled her into eating the [[forbidden fruit]], saying ''you won't die''. Later, Adam also ate. They both became disturbed by their nudity, making aprons of [[fig]] leaves to cover themselves. The Torah goes on to state that God personally questioned them about this, and on discovering they had disobeyed, expelled them from Eden &amp; did not allow them to access the [[tree of life]], which grants immortality, and cursed the serpent to lose its legs so that it has to crawl, and to have mutual hatred for mankind. ===East of Eden=== The Torah states that Adam was expelled to the East, and that at the eastern entrance of the garden, God placed ''[[Cherubim]]'' and a flaming sword &quot;which turned every way&quot;. Genesis does not tell for how long Adam and Eve were in the [[Garden of Eden]], but the [[Book of Jubilees]] states that they were removed from the garden on the new moon of the fourth month of the 8th year after creation (Jubilees 3:33); other Jewish sources assert that it was less than a day. Shortly after their expulsion, Eve brought forth her first-born child, and thereafter their second &amp;mdash; [[Cain and Abel]], respectively. [[Image:Durer Adam and Eve.jpg|200px|thumb|right|''Adam and Eve'', by [[Albrecht Dürer]] ([[1507]]).]] Only three of Adam's children (Cain, Abel, and Seth) are explicitly named in Genesis, although it does state that there were other sons and daughters as well (Genesis 5:4). In [[Book of Jubilees|Jubilees]], two daughters are named - Azûrâ being the first, and Awân, who was born after Seth, Cain, Abel, nine other sons, and Azûrâ. Jubilees goes on to state that Cain later married Awân and Seth married Azûrâ, thus, despite the [[incest]], accounting for their descendants. However, according to ''[[Genesis Rabba]]'' and other later sources, either Cain had a twin sister, and Abel had two twin sisters, or Cain had a twin sister named Lebuda, and Abel a twin sister named Qelimath. In the [[Conflict of Adam and Eve with Satan]], Cain's twin sister is named Luluwa, and Abel's twin sister is named Aklia. Other [[pseudepigrapha]] give further details of their life outside of Eden, in particular, the [[Life of Adam and Eve]] (also known as the ''Apocalypse of Moses'') consisting entirely of a description of their life outside Eden. As the first man, Adam was traditionally a significant figure to whom was attributed prophecy and wisdom. After Cain killed Abel, and was cursed to wander, Adam and Eve conceived a third child named Seth, who, with Cain, gave rise to the two family lines of the [[Generations of Adam]]. According to the Bible, Adam finally died at the age of 930 years, the traditional Jewish view being that he and Eve are currently buried in the [[Cave of Machpelah]], in [[Hebron]]. ==Separate Adam and Eve Traditions in Christianity== Some branches of Christianity fully accept the tradition of Adam and Eve as portrayed in the Torah, and although some hold various views expressed in the Pseudepigrapha, they do not accept the later Jewish ''Midrash''. For example, the serpent is generally equated with Satan, although this is not explicitly mentioned in the Torah. The early Christian movement showed a toleration of women, although in the 2nd century, such Church Fathers as [[Tertullian]] held Eve especially responsible for the expulsion from Paradise. In &quot;Memory of the Introduction of Sin into the World Through a Woman&quot;, he wrote: :''&quot;If there dwelt upon earth a faith as great as is the reward of faith which is expected in the heavens, no one of you at all, best beloved sisters, from the time that she had first &quot;known the Lord,&quot; and learned (the truth) concerning her own (that is, woman's) condition, would have desired too gladsome (not to say too ostentatious) a style of dress; so as not rather to go about in humble garb, and rather to affect meanness of appearance, walking about as Eve mourning and repentant, in order that by every garb of penitence she might the more fully expiate that which she derives from Eve,-the ignominy, I mean, of the first sin, and the odium (attaching to her as the cause) of human perdition. &quot;In pains and in anxieties dost thou bear (children), woman; and toward thine husband (is) thy inclination, and he lords It over thee.&quot; And do you not know that you are (each) an Eve? The sentence of God on this sex of yours lives in this age: the guilt must of necessity live too. You are the devil's gateway: you are the unsealer of that (forbidden) tree: you are the first deserter of the divine law: you are she who persuaded6 him whom the devil was not valiant enough to attack. You destroyed so easily God's image, man. On account of your desert-that is, death-even the Son of God had to die.&quot;'' The [[Dominicans]] Kramer and Sprengler used similar tracts to justify the ''[[Malleus Maleficarum]]'' (&quot;Hammer of the Witches&quot;) published in [[1486]], that led to three centuries of persecution of &quot;witches&quot;. With the expulsion of Adam and Eve from the garden, [[Eastern Orthodox]] tradition holds that the sword preventing anyone from entering [[Paradise]] again was removed once [[Jesus]] was born, in order to allow [[humanity]] to return to Paradise. ==Adam and Eve in Gnostic and Manichaean Traditions== {{Main|Gnostics}} ===The Role of Androgynic Adam=== While the [[Gnostic]]s used scriptural texts as teaching devices, rather than viewing them to be literal accounts genuinely written by early patriarchs, this was the converse of what was true of what became official Christianity. The [[Gnostic]]'s [[Nag Hamadi]] text &quot;[[Apocalypse of Adam]]&quot;, for instance contains the account of the enlightenment Adam received, for which certain angels became jealous. The &quot;[[Testament of Adam]]&quot;, for example takes a further step to produce a faked ancient prophecy, of events that had supposedly already occurred by the time it was published. In certain forms of Christian [[Gnosticism]] the creation of Adam as Protanthropos - the original man, had a very important place. The [[Apocalypse of Adam]] suggests that Adam and Eve were originally conjoined in a single androgynous being both male and female and greater than the eternal angels and higher than Samael, the God of the Aeon and Powers that had created them. This seems to be what Irenaeus (I, xxix, 3) refers to when he states that the Aeon Autogenes (self-created Aeon) creates a true and perfect human Anthrôpos, also called Adamas,
tes, investments, and trade, and lived in mansions along &quot;the Road to Watertown&quot; (today's Brattle Street), which is known as Tory Row. Most of these estates were confiscated after the revolution and sold to [[Loyalist]]s. Between 1790 and 1840 Cambridge began to grow rapidly with the construction of the [[West Boston Bridge]] in 1792 that connected Cambridge directly to Boston, making it no longer necessary to travel eight miles through the [[Boston Neck]], [[Roxbury, Massachusetts|Roxbury]], and [[Brookline, Massachusetts|Brookline]] to cross the [[Charles River]]. A second bridge, the Canal Bridge, opened in 1809 alongside the new [[Middlesex Canal]]. The new bridges and roads made what were formerly estates and [[marsh|marshland]] prime industrial and residential districts. Soon after, [[turnpike]]s were built: the Concord Turnpike (today's Broadway and Concord Ave.), the Middlesex Turnpike (Hampshire St. and Massachusetts Ave. northwest of Porter Square), and what are today's Cambridge, Main, and Harvard Streets were roads to connect various areas of Cambridge to the bridges. In addition, railroads crisscrossed the town during the same era, leading to the development of Porter Square as well as the creation of neighboring town [[Somerville, Massachusetts|Somerville]] from the formerly rural parts of [[Charlestown, Massachusetts|Charlestown]]. Cambridge was incorporated as the second city in Massachusetts in [[1846]]. Its commercial center also began to shift from Harvard Square to Central Square, which became the [[downtown]] of the city. Between 1850 and 1900, Cambridge took on much of its present character — [[streetcar suburb]]an development along the turnpikes, with [[working class|working-class]] and industrial neighborhoods focused on East Cambridge, comfortable [[middle class|middle-class]] housing being built on old estates in Cambridgeport and Mid-Cambridge, and [[upper class|upper-class]] enclaves near Harvard University and on the minor hills of the city. The coming of the railroad to North Cambridge and Northwest Cambridge then led to three major changes in the city: the development of massive [[brickyards]] and [[brickworks]] between Massachusetts Ave., Concord Ave. and [[Alewife Brook]]; the ice-cutting industry launched by [[Frederic Tudor]] on [[Fresh Pond]]; and the carving up of the last estates into residential subdivisions to provide housing to the thousand of [[immigrant]]s that moved to work in the new industries. By 1920, Cambridge was one of the main industrial cities of [[New England]] with nearly 120,000 residents. As industry in New England began to decline during the [[Great Depression]] and after [[World War II]], Cambridge lost much of its industrial base. It also began the transition to being an intellectual, rather than an industrial, center. Harvard University had always been important in the city (both as a landowner and as an institution), but began to play a more dominant role in the city's life and culture. Also, the move of the [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology]] from Boston in 1912 ensured Cambridge's status as an intellectual center of the United States. After the 1950s, the city population began to decline slowly, as families were replaced by single people and young couples, and by the end of the twentieth century, Cambridge had one of the most expensive housing markets in the Northeastern United States. While maintaining much diversity in class, race, and age, it became harder and harder for those who grew up in the city to be able to afford to stay. == Geography == Cambridge is located at 42&amp;deg;22'25&quot; North, 71&amp;deg;6'38&quot; West {{coor d|42.373746|N|71.110554|W|type:airport}} {{GR|1}}. According to the [[United States Census Bureau]], the city has a total area of 18.5 [[square kilometre|km&amp;sup2;]] (7.1 [[square mile|mi&amp;sup2;]]). 16.7 km&amp;sup2; (6.4 mi&amp;sup2;) of it is land and 1.8 km&amp;sup2; (0.7 mi&amp;sup2;) of it is water. The total area is 9.82% water. Cambridge is bordered by the city of [[Boston, Massachusetts|Boston]] on its south and east (across the [[Charles River]]), by the city of [[Somerville, Massachusetts|Somerville]] and the town of [[Arlington, Massachusetts|Arlington]] to its north, and by the city of [[Watertown, Massachusetts|Watertown]] and town of [[Belmont, Massachusetts|Belmont]] to its west. == Demographics == As of the [[census]]{{GR|2}} of [[2000]], there are 101,355 people, 42,615 households, and 17,599 families residing in the city. The [[population density]] is 6,086.1/km&amp;sup2; (15,766.1/mi&amp;sup2;). There are 44,725 housing units at an average density of 2,685.6/km&amp;sup2; (6,957.1/mi&amp;sup2;). The racial makeup of the city is 68.10% [[White (U.S. Census)|White]], 11.92% [[Black (people)|Black]] or [[Race (U.S. Census)|African American]], 0.29% [[Native American (U.S. Census)|Native American]], 11.88% [[Asian (U.S. Census)|Asian]], 0.08% [[Pacific Islander (U.S. Census)|Pacific Islander]], 3.19% from [[Race (U.S. Census)|other races]], and 4.56% from two or more races. 7.36% of the population are [[Hispanic American|Hispanic]] or [[Latino (U.S. Census)|Latino]] of any race. There are 42,615 households out of which 17.6% have children under the age of 18 living with them, 29.1% are [[Marriage|married couples]] living together, 9.7% have a female householder with no husband present, and 58.7% are non-families. 41.4% of all households are made up of individuals and 9.2% have someone living alone who is 65 years of age or older. The average household size is 2.03 and the average family size is 2.83. In the city the population is spread out with 13.3% under the age of 18, 21.2% from 18 to 24, 38.6% from 25 to 44, 17.8% from 45 to 64, and 9.2% who are 65 years of age or older. The median age is 30 years. For every 100 females there are 96.1 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there are 94.7 males. The median income for a household in the city is $47,979, and the median income for a family is $59,423. Males have a median income of $43,825 versus $38,489 for females. The [[per capita income]] for the city is $31,156. 12.9% of the population and 8.7% of families are below the [[poverty line]]. Out of the total population, 15.1% of those under the age of 18 and 12.9% of those 65 and older are living below the poverty line. ==Economy== Although manufacturing was an important part of the late 19th and early 20th-century Cambridge economy, today long-established educational institutions are its biggest employers; [[Harvard]] employs over 10,000 people and [[MIT]] over 7,000 as of 2004. As a famous cradle of technological innovation, Cambridge has also been home to legendary technology firms, including [[Akamai]], [[BBN]], [[Lotus Development Corporation]] (now part of [[IBM]]), [[Polaroid Corporation|Polaroid]], and [[Thinking Machines]]. Over the years, as companies have grown, prospered, and then either moved away or gone out of business (see this [http://www.cambridgema.gov/~CDD/data/index.html#labor list] of employers for more information), Cambridge's large-scale employment has shifted tremendously. In 1996, [[Polaroid Corporation|Polaroid]], [[Arthur D. Little]], and [[Lotus Development Corporation|Lotus]] were all top employers with over 1,000 people in Cambridge, and all declined or disappeared a few years later. As of 2005, alongside Harvard and MIT, health care and biotechnology dominate the Cambridge economy, with [[Genzyme]], [[Biogen Idec]], and [[Novartis]] the biggest players. Biotech's geographical locus is Kendall Square and [[East Cambridge, Massachusetts|East Cambridge]], the center of much of the city's manufacturing a century before. Of the computer-industry firms that once dominated the Cambridge economy, only [[Akamai]] remains a top-20 employer. However, many smaller start-ups and entrepreneurial companies remain an important part of the Cambridge employment scene. == Law and government == Cambridge has a 9-member City Council, and a 6-member School Committee. The councillors and school committee members are elected every two years using the [[single transferable vote]] (STV) system. [http://www.cambridgema.gov/~Election/prop-voting.html] Since the disbanding of the New York City Community School Boards in 2002, the Council is unusual in being the only governing body in the United States to use STV [http://ccrc.wustl.edu/~lorracks/projects/techreport/subsection3_4_4.html]. Once a laborious process that took several days to complete, vote counting is now done by computer. The mayor is elected by the city councillors, from amongst themselves, and serves as the chair of City Council meetings. The mayor also sits on the School Committee. However, the Mayor is not the Chief Executive of the City. Rather, the City Manager, who is appointed by the City Council, serves in that capacity. Robert W. Healy is currently the City Manager. == Education == [[Image:Charles River Cambridge USA.jpg|thumb|300px|right|A view of Weld Boathouse and [[Harvard]] across the [[Charles River]].]] === Colleges and universities === *[[Cambridge College]] *[[Harvard University]] *[[Lesley University]] *[[Longy School of Music]] *[[Massachusetts Institute of Technology]] === Schools === Cambridge is host to many public and private schools serving the children of Cambridge. The 12 public elementary schools include: *'''Amigos School''' *'''Baldwin School''' *'''Cambridgeport School''' *'''Fletcher-Maynard Academy''' *'''Graham &amp; Parks School''' *'''Haggerty School''' *'''Kennedy/Longfellow School''' *'''King Open School''' *'''Martin Luther King Jr. School''' *'''Morse School''' *'''Peabody School''' *'''Tobin School''' There is only one public high school in Cambridge, which is [[Cambridge Rindge and Latin]], a.k.a. '''CRLS'''. There are many other private schools in the region, serving a variety of needs in both parents and students. Some exam
t will happen when the characters finally learn the truth. Further blurring the moral distinction between the innocent and the guilty, occasionally making this indictment clear, Hitchcock also makes voyeurs of his &quot;respectable&quot; audience. In ''Rear Window'' ([[1954 in film|1954]]), after L. B. Jeffries (played by James Stewart) has been staring across the courtyard at him for most of the film, Lars Thorwald (played by [[Raymond Burr]]) confronts Jeffries by saying &quot;What do you want of me?&quot; Burr might as well have been addressing the audience. In fact, shortly before asking this, Thorwald turns to face the camera directly for the first time &amp;mdash; at this point, audiences often gasp. One of Hitchcock's favourite devices for driving the plots of his stories and creating suspense was what he called the &quot;[[MacGuffin]].&quot; The plots of many of his suspense films revolve around a &quot;MacGuffin&quot;: a detail which, by inciting curiosity and desire, drives the plot and motivates the actions of characters within the story, but whose specific identity and nature is unimportant to the spectator of the film. In ''[[Vertigo (film)|Vertigo]]'', for instance, &quot;Carlotta Valdes&quot; is a MacGuffin; she never appears and the details of her death are unimportant to the viewer, but the story about her ghost's haunting of Madeleine Elster is the spur for Scottie's investigation of her, and hence the film's entire plot. In ''[[Notorious]]'' the uranium that the main characters must recover before it reaches Nazi hands serves as a similarly arbitrary motivation: any dangerous object would suffice. And state secrets of various kinds serve as MacGuffins in several of the spy films, like ''[[The 39 Steps (1935 film)| The 39 Steps]]''. Most of Hitchcock's films contain [[cameo role|cameo]] [[List of Alfred Hitchcock cameo appearances|appearances by Hitchcock himself]]: the director would be seen for a brief moment boarding a bus, crossing in front of a building, standing in an apartment across the courtyard, or appearing in a photograph. This playful gesture became one of Hitchcock's signatures. As a recurring theme he would carry a musical instrument &amp;mdash; especially memorable was the large double bass case that he wrestles onto the train at the beginning of ''[[Strangers on a Train]]''. In his earliest appearances he would fill in as an obscure extra, standing in a crowd or walking through a scene in a long camera shot. But he became more prominent in his later appearances, as when he turns to see [[Jane Wyman]]'s disguise when she passes him on the street in ''[[Stage Fright]]'', and in stark silhouette in his final film ''[[Family Plot]]''. In another amusing cameo, albeit just a photograph, Hitchcock's picture is seen in the &quot;before&quot; side of a newspaper weight loss ad in ''[[Lifeboat]]''. (See a [[list of Hitchcock cameo appearances]].) Hitchcock includes the consumption of brandy in nearly every sound film. &quot;I'll get you some brandy. Drink this down. Just like medicine ...&quot; says James Stewart's character to [[Kim Novak]], in ''Vertigo.'' In a real life incident, Hitchcock dared Montgomery Clift at a dinner party around the filming of ''I Confess'' to swallow a carafe of brandy, which caused his lead actor to pass out, almost immediately. This near obsession with brandy remains unexplained. Another almost inexplicable feature of any Hitchcock film is the inclusion of a staircase. Of course, stairways inspire many suspenseful moments, most notably [[Farley Granger]]'s character visit to the murderer in ''[[Strangers On A Train]]'' or the detective's demise in the Bates' mansion in ''Psycho.'' However, a completely nonfunctional staircase adorns the apartment of the James Stewart character in ''[[Rear Window]]'', as if Hitchcock feels compelled to its inclusion by some unspoken superstition. Hitchcock seemed to delight in the technical challenges of filmmaking. In ''Lifeboat'', Hitchcock sets the entire action of the movie in a small boat, yet manages to keep the cinematography from monotonous repetition. His trademark cameo appearance was a dilemma, given the claustrophobic setting; so Hitchcock appeared on camera in a fictitious newspaper ad for a weight loss product. In ''Spellbound'' two unprecedented point-of-view shots were achieved by constructing a large wooden hand (which would appear to belong to the character whose point of view the camera took) and outsized props for it to hold: a bucket-sized glass of milk and a large wooden gun. For added novelty and impact, the climactic gunshot was hand-colored red on some copies of the black-and-white print of the film. ''Rope'' (1948) was another technical challenge: a film that appears to have been shot entirely in a single take. The film was actually shot in eight takes of approximately 10 minutes each, which was the amount of film that would fit in a single camera reel; the transitions between reels were hidden by having a dark object fill the entire screen for a moment. Hitchcock used those points to hide the cut, and began the next take with the camera in the same place. His 1958 film ''Vertigo'' contains a camera trick that has been imitated and re-used so many times by filmmakers, it has become known as the [[Hitchcock zoom]]. Although famous for inventive camera angles, Hitchcock generally avoided points of view that were physically impossible from a human perspective. For example, he would never place the camera looking out from inside a refrigerator. Regarding Hitchcock's sometimes less than pleasant relationship with actors, there was a persistent rumor that he had said that actors were cattle. Hitchcock later denied this, typically [[tongue-in-cheek]], clarifying that he had only said that actors should be treated like cattle. [[Carole Lombard]], tweaking Hitchcock and drumming up a little publicity, brought some cows along with her when she reported to the set of ''[[Mr. and Mrs. Smith]]''. Hitchcock often dealt with matters that he felt were sexually preverse or kinky, and many of his films darring subverted the restrictive Hollywood Production Code that prohibited any mention of [[homosexuality]]. ==His character and its effects on his films== Hitchcock's films sometimes feature male characters struggling in their relationships with their mothers. In ''[[North by Northwest]]'' (1959), Roger Thornhill ([[Cary Grant]]'s character) is an innocent man ridiculed by his mother for insisting that shadowy, murderous men are after him (in this case, they are). In ''[[The Birds (film)|The Birds]]'' (1963), the [[Rod Taylor]] character, an innocent man, finds his world under attack by vicious birds, and struggles to free himself of a clinging mother ([[Jessica Tandy]]). The killer in ''[[Frenzy]]'' (1972) has a loathing of women but idolizes his mother. The villain Bruno in ''[[Strangers on a Train]]'' hates his father, but has an incredibly close relationship with his mother (played by [[Marion Lorne]]). Norman Bates' troubles with his mother in ''[[Psycho]]'' are infamous. Hitchcock heroines tend to be lovely, cool blondes who seem at first to be proper but, when aroused by passion or danger, respond in a more sensual, animal, perhaps criminal way. As noted, the famous victims in ''The Lodger'' are all blondes. In ''[[The 39 Steps (1935 film)| The 39 Steps]]'', Hitchcock's glamorous blonde star, [[Madeleine Carroll]], is put in handcuffs. In ''[[Marnie]]'' (1964), glamorous blonde [[Tippi Hedren]] is a [[kleptomania]]c. In ''[[To Catch a Thief]]'' (1955), glamorous blonde [[Grace Kelly]] offers to help someone she believes is a cat burglar. After becoming interested in Thorwald's life in ''Rear Window'', Lisa breaks into Thorwald's apartment. And, most notoriously, in ''Psycho'', [[Janet Leigh]]'s character steals $40,000 and gets murdered by a young man named [[Norman Bates]] (played by [[Anthony Perkins]]) who thought he was his own mother. His last blonde heroine was French actress [[Claude Jade]] as the secret agent's worried daughter, Michele, in '''Topaz''' (1969). Hitchcock saw that reliance on actors and actresses was a holdover from the theater tradition. He was a pioneer in using camera movement, camera set ups and montage to explore the outer reaches of cinematic art. Most critics and Hitchcock scholars, including Donald Spoto and Roger Ebert, agree that ''[[Vertigo (film)|Vertigo]]'' is probably the director's most personal and revealing film, dealing with the obsessions of a man who crafts a woman into the woman he desires. ''Vertigo'' explores more frankly and at greater length his interest in the relation between sex and death than any other film in his filmography. Hitchcock often said that his personal favourite was ''[[Shadow of a Doubt]]''. ==His style of working== Hitchcock once commented, &quot;The writer and I plan out the entire script down to the smallest detail, and when we're finished all that's left to do is to shoot the film. Actually, it's only when one enters the studio that one enters the area of compromise. Really, the novelist has the best casting since he doesn't have to cope with the actors and all the rest.&quot; Hitchcock was often critical of his actors and actresses as well, dismissing, for example, Kim Novak's performance in ''[[Vertigo (film)|Vertigo]]'', and once famously remarking that actors were to be treated like cattle. (In response to being accused of saying 'actors are cattle', he said 'I never said they were cattle; I said they were to be ''treated'' like cattle'.) The first book devoted to the director is simply named ''Hitchcock''. It is a document of a one-week interview by [[François Truffaut]] in 1967. (ISBN 0671604295) ==Awards== The [[Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences]] awarded Hitchcock the [[Irving G. Thalberg Memorial Award]], in 1967. However, despite six earlier nominations, he never won an [[Academy A
http://www.emulateme.com/country.aspx?countryid=96&amp;countryName=Greenland]. There are dozens of other, non-[[Sovereignty|sovereign]] territories which constitute a geographical country, but are not sovereign states. Several states have overseas [[dependency|dependencies]], with territory and citizens separate from their own. These have some features of countries and are sometimes listed as such. ==Characteristics of a country== A country usually has its own [[government]], administration and [[law]]s; and often a [[constitution]], [[police]], [[military]], [[tax]] rules, and a [[population]] who are referred to as one another's ''countrymen''. Together they form what [[Benedict Anderson]] referred to as an ''imagined community''. ==Types of Country== ===The State=== {{main|State}} A ''State'' is an [[Independence|independent]] territory with a [[government]], a population and [[Sovereignty|sovereignty]] over these. The entire [[landmass]] of the [[world]] (excluding [[Antarctica]]), along with [[territorial sea|coastal sea]]s is considered to be divided among such countries. There are currently 192 states (countries) recognized by the [[United Nations]] &amp;mdash; its 191 members and the [[Holy See|Vatican City]]. In addition to these, there are other non [[Sovereignty|sovereign]] territories which, under the philosophy of [[self-determination]], wish to be considered countries in this sense. Some of these have ''[[de facto]]'' control over their population and territory, such as [[Abkazia]], but are not considered states as they are not recognised as having sovereignty. On the other hand, in some internationally-recognized states, there is no functioning central government or there are several ''[[de facto]]'' states and governments. These are internationally not considered to constitute separate states, but rather to exist on the territory of the internationally recognized state. === Nation === {{main|Nation}} A nation is a 'set of people with a common identity who have formed a nation-state or usually aspire to do so' (Viotti and Kauppi, 2001). In this sense of country, the reference is more likely to be to a group that supposedly shares a common [[ethnic]] origin, [[language]], religion, or history (real or imagined). The term has become synonymous with 'country' where nations without sovereignty (that is, nations that are not states) have aimed to identify themselves on the same terms as sovereign states. Others, including [[nationalist]]s, may consider their single nation (or country) to be divided between different states. ===Constituent Countries=== {{main|Constituent Country}} Three of the constituent parts of the [[United Kingdom]], which itself may be considered a country in the sense of this article, are also called countries: [[England]], [[Scotland]] and [[Wales]], see [[constituent countries|constituent countries of the United Kingdom]]. [[Northern Ireland]] is known as a [[province]] of the United Kingdom rather than a country. ==Nation, country and state== In the [[English language]], the terms [[nation]] (cultural), [[country]] (geographical) and [[state]] (political) do have precise meanings, but in daily speech and writing they are often used interchangeably, and are open to different interpretations. For example, [[Image:Cornwallflag22.PNG|25px]] [[Cornwall]] is considered by some to be a nation in [[Image:England flag.svg|25px]] [[England]] which is a [[constituent country]], or [[home nation]], of the {{UK}}. The United Kingdom is an internationally recognised [[Sovereignty|sovereign]] [[state]], which is also referred to as a [[country]] and whose inhabitants have British [[nationality]]. The terminology can be further complicated by the use of the word ''state'' to mean a non-sovereign sub-entity of as sovereign state, as is done in the {{USA}} and {{AU}}. In most English-speaking countries when the terms ''state'', ''nation'' and ''country'' are used internally, they are understood by the context in which they are used and are not controversial. However, when these terms are used to describe the statehood aspirations of a people who do not currently live in the internationally recognised [[Independence|independent]] state they would like to inhabit, these terms can be controversial and open to misunderstanding. In reality, there is often a rough correspondence between both senses of country - this is the concept of the [[nation-state]]. It is one that many [[government]]s have attempted to encourage, in order to provide legitimacy to their control over a territory. However, because of historical and modern migration, ethnically homogeneous communities are rare or non-existent ([[Iceland]] and [[Japan]] being the most commonly quoted exceptions). ==See also== *[[Nation-state]] for the history of the development of the modern nation states *[[List of countries]] *[[Lists by country]] *[[List of international rankings]] *[[Constituent Countries]] *[[State]] *[[Dependent area]] *[[List of dependent territories]] *[[List of subnational entities]] *[[ISO 3166]], list of countries and corresponding international standard codes *[[List of country name etymologies]] *[[Enclave]], includes a list of enclaves. *[[Territory]] *[[Border]] *[[Wilderness]] ==References== *Anderson, Benedict; 'Imagined Communities: Reflections On the origin and Spread of Nationalism'; London, Verso; 1991 *Viotti, Paul R. and Kauppi, Mark V.; 'International Relations and World Politics - Security, Economy, Identity'; Second Edition; New Jersey, Prentice Hall; 2001 ==External links== *[http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/index.html The CIA World Factbook] *[http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/ The US Department of State] ''Background notes'' on countries the US has relations with *[http://www.lonelyplanet.com/destinations/ Lonely Planet] Clickable map and information on the world's countries *[http://www.nationmaster.com/ Nationmaster.com] Allows sorting countries on all kinds of statistics *[http://www.populationdata.net PopulationData.net] *[http://unstats.un.org/unsd/ United Nations statistics devision] [[Category:Geography]] [[Category:Countries| ]] &lt;!-- The below are interlanguage links. --&gt; [[ur:ملک]] [[ast:País]] [[bg:Държава]] [[zh-min-nan:Kok-ka]] [[be:Краіна]] [[bn:দেশ]] [[el:χώρα]] [[es:País]] [[eo:Lando]] [[ff:Leydi]] [[fr:Pays]] [[fy:Steat]] [[ga:Tír]] [[ko:나라]] [[hi:देश]] [[he:מדינה]] [[hu:Ország]] [[mi:Rārangi whenua]] [[nah:Altepetl]] [[na:Eb]] [[nl:Land]] [[nds:Land]] [[ja:国家]] [[ko:나라]] [[no:Land]] [[pl:Land]] [[ru:Страна]] [[simple:Country]] [[sl:Država]] [[sr:Држава]] [[sv:Land]] [[th:ประเทศ]] [[vi:Quốc gia]] [[tpi:kantri]] [[tr:Ülke]] [[zh:国家]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Copenhagen</title> <id>5166</id> <revision> <id>41966478</id> <timestamp>2006-03-02T22:56:44Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>195.249.187.11</ip> </contributor> <comment>/* Famous Copenhageners */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the city and municipality of Copenhagen. For the play by Michael Frayn, see [[Copenhagen (play)]]. For the community in Louisiana, see [[Copenhagen, Louisiana]]. For the interpretation of quantum physics, see [[Copenhagen interpretation]]''.{{Copenhagen infobox}} '''Copenhagen''' ([[Danish language|Danish]]: ''København'') is the [[capital]] of [[Denmark]], and the name of the municipality ([[Danish language|Danish]], ''[[Commune (subnational entity)|kommune]]'') in which it resides. With its population of 1,116,979 inhabitants it is the largest city in Denmark. It is also the name of a county in Denmark, [[Copenhagen County]]— but the city ([[municipality]]) is not a part of this county but rather is a semi-[[enclave]] of Copenhagen County. [[Frederiksberg]] is in turn an enclave of the city of Copenhagen, also not part of the County that surrounds both municipalities. The contemporary Danish name for the city is a corruption of the original designation for the city, ''Kjøbmandehavn'', (the silent 'j' was later dropped) a composite in Danish of ''kjøb'' (&quot;to buy&quot;) + ''mand'' (&quot;man&quot;) = &quot;the men one buys from&quot; or &quot;merchants&quot; and thus the &quot;Merchants' Harbour&quot;; ''København'' is pronounced {{IPA|[købm̩ˈhawˀn]}}. The [[English language|English]] word for the city is derived from its [[German language|German]] name, ''Kopenhagen'', but note that the 3rd syllable is more often pronounced &quot;hay&quot; in English, not &quot;hah&quot;, i.e. {{IPA|[kəʊpn̩ˈhɛɪgn̩]}}. Copenhagen is home to the national [[Folketing|parliament]], [[Government of Denmark|government]], and [[List of Danish monarchs|monarchy]], which are all situated in the heart of the city. ==Copenhagen municipality== Copenhagen is one of only three Danish municipalities which do not belong to any of the [[Counties of Denmark]]— the others are [[Frederiksberg]] and [[Bornholm]]. The municipality covers an area of 88 [[square kilometre|km²]], and has a total population of 502,362 (2005). [[Lord Mayor of Copenhagen]] is Ritt Bjerregaard, a member of the [[Social Democrats (Denmark)|Social Democrats]] (''Socialdemokraterne'') [[Politics of Denmark|political party]], who is head of the Finance Committee. Other mayors are Martin Geertsen (Cultural and Recreational Committee), Per Bregengaard (Education and Youth Committee), Inger Marie Bruun-Vierø (Health and Care Committee), Bo Asmus Kjeldgaard (Family and Labout Market Committee), Søren Pind (Building and Construction Committee), and Winnie Berndtson (Energy, Water and Environment Committee). The seat of government is [[Copenhagen City Hall]] (''Rådhus''). Neighboring municipalities are [[Gentofte]], [[Gladsaxe]] and [[Herlev]] to the north, [[Rødovre]] and [[Hvidovre]] to the west, and [[Tårnby]] to the south. [[Frederiksberg]] is located as an [[enclave]] in the municipality, and is thus surrounded by Cop
imov's Guide to the Bible'' in two volumes&amp;mdash;covering the [[Old Testament]] in 1967 and the [[New Testament]] in 1969&amp;mdash;and then combined them into one 1300-page volume in 1981. Replete with maps and tables, the guide goes through the books of the [[Bible]] in order, explaining the history of each one and the political influences that affected it, as well as biographical information about the important characters. Asimov also wrote several essays on the social contentions of his day, including &quot;Thinking About Thinking&quot; and &quot;Science: Knock Plastic&quot; (1967). The great variety of information covered in Asimov's writings once prompted [[Kurt Vonnegut]] to ask, &quot;How does it feel to know everything?&quot; Asimov replied that he only knew how it felt to have the ''reputation'' of omniscience&amp;mdash;&quot;Uneasy&quot;. (See ''In Joy Still Felt,'' chapter 30.) In the introduction to his story collection ''[[Slow Learner]],'' [[Thomas Pynchon]] admitted that he relied upon Asimov's science popularizations (and the ''[[Oxford English Dictionary]]'') to provide his knowledge of [[entropy]]. It is a mark of the friendship and respect accorded Asimov by [[Arthur C. Clarke]] that the so-called &quot;Asimov-Clarke Treaty of Park Avenue&quot;, put together as they shared a cab ride along [[Park Avenue (Manhattan)|Park Avenue]] in [[New York]], stated that Asimov was required to insist that Clarke was the best science fiction writer in the world (reserving second best for himself), while Clarke was required to insist that Asimov was the best science writer in the world (reserving second best for himself). Thus the dedication in Clarke's book ''[[Report on Planet Three]]'' (1972) reads: ''&quot;In accordance with the terms of the Clarke-Asimov treaty, the second-best science writer dedicates this book to the second-best science-fiction writer.&quot;'' ===Other=== In addition to his interest in science, Asimov was also greatly interested in history. Starting in the 1960s, he wrote fourteen popular history books, most notably ''The Greeks: A Great Adventure'' (1965), ''The Roman Republic'' (1966) and ''The Roman Empire'' (1967). Never entirely lacking wit and humor, towards the end of his life Asimov published a series of collections of [[limerick (poetry)|limericks]], mostly written by himself, starting with ''[[Lecherous Limericks]]'', which appeared in 1975. ''Limericks: Too Gross,'' whose title displays Asimov's love of [[pun]]s, contains 144 limericks by Asimov and an equal number by [[John Ciardi]]. He even created a slim volume of [[Sherlock Holmes|Sherlockian]] limericks (and embarrassed one fan by autographing her copy with an impromptu limerick that rhymed 'Nancy' with 'romancy'). Asimov's best attempt at Yiddish humor is found in ''Azazel, The Two Centimeter Demon'' where the two characters, both Jewish, talk over dinner, or lunch, or breakfast, the anecdotes of &quot;George&quot; and his friend Azazel. Asimov's ''Treasury of Humor'' is both a working joke book and a treatise propounding his views on humor theory. According to Asimov, the most essential element of humor is an abrupt change in point of view, one that suddenly shifts focus from the important to the trivial, or from the sublime to the ridiculous. Particularly in his later years, Asimov to some extent cultivated an image of himself as an amiable lecher. In 1971, as a response to the popularity of sexual guidebooks such as ''The Sensuous Woman'' (by &quot;J&quot;) and ''The Sensuous Man'' (by &quot;M&quot;), Asimov published ''The Sensuous Dirty Old Man'' under the byline &quot;Dr. 'A'&quot;, but with his full name prominently displayed on the cover. Asimov published two volumes of autobiography, taking their titles from [[William Wordsworth|Wordsworth]]: ''[[In Memory Yet Green]]'' (1979) and ''[[In Joy Still Felt]]'' (1980). A third autobiography, ''I. Asimov: A Memoir'', was published in April 1994. The epilogue was written by his widow [[Janet Asimov]] shortly after his death. ''[[It's Been a Good Life]]'' (2002), edited by Janet, is a condensed version of his three autobiographies. ===Literary themes=== {{spoiler}} Much of Asimov's fiction dealt with themes of [[paternalism]]. His first robot story, &quot;[[Robbie]]&quot;, concerned a robotic [[nanny]]. Just as well, ''Lenny'' deals with the capacity of robopsychologist Susan Calvin to feel maternal love towards a robot whose positronic brain capacities are those of a 3-year-old. As the robots grew more sophisticated, their interventions became more wide-reaching and subtle. In &quot;[[Evidence (Asimov)|Evidence]]&quot;, a robot masquerading as a human successfully runs for elective office. In &quot;[[The Evitable Conflict]]&quot;, the robots run humanity from behind the scenes, acting as nannies to the whole species. Later, in ''[[Robots and Empire]]'', a robot develops what he calls the [[Zeroth Law of Robotics]], which states that &quot;A robot may not injure humanity, nor, through inaction, allow humanity to come to harm&quot;. He also decides that robotic presence is stifling humanity's freedom, and that the best course of action is for the robots to phase themselves out. A non-robot novel, ''[[The End of Eternity]]'', features a similar conflict and resolution. The significance of the Zeroth Law is that it outweighs and supersedes all other Laws of Robotics: if a robot finds himself in a situation whereby he must [[murder]] one or more humans (a direct violation of the [[First Law of Robotics]]) in order to protect all of humanity (and preserve the Zeroth Law), then the robot's positronic programming will require him to commit murder for humanity's sake. In [[The Foundation Series]] (which did not originally have robots), a scientist implements a semi-secret plan to create a [[utopia|perfect society]] over the course of 1000 years. This series has its version of [[Plato's Republic|Platonic guardians]], called the Second Foundation, to perfect and protect the plan. When Asimov stopped writing the series in the 1950s, the Second Foundation was depicted as benign protectors of humanity. When he revisited the series in the 1980s, he made the paternalistic themes even more explicit. ''[[Foundation's Edge]]'' introduced the planet [[Gaia (planet)|Gaia]], obviously based on the [[Gaia hypothesis]]. Every animal, plant, and mineral on Gaia participated in a shared consciousness, forming a single super-mind working together for the greater good. In ''[[Foundation and Earth]]'', the protagonist must decide whether or not to allow the development of [[Galaxia]], a larger version of Gaia, encompassing the entire galaxy. [[Gaia (planet)|Gaia]] is one of Asimov's best attempts at exploring the possibility of a collective awareness, and is compounded further in ''[[Nemesis (Asimov)|Nemesis]]'', in which the planet ''Erythro'' composed primarily of prokaryotic life has a mind of its own and seeks communion with human beings. ''Foundation and Earth'' introduces robots to the Foundation universe. Two of Asimov's last novels, ''[[Prelude to Foundation]]'' and ''[[Forward the Foundation]]'', explore their behavior in fuller detail. The robots are depicted as [[covert operative]]s, acting for the benefit of humanity. Another frequent theme, perhaps the reverse of paternalism, is social oppression. ''[[The Currents of Space]]'' takes place on a planet where a unique plant fiber is grown; the agricultural workers there are exploited by the aristocrats of a nearby planet. In ''[[The Stars, Like Dust]]'', the hero helps a planet that is oppressed by an arrogant interplanetary empire, the Tyranni. Often the victims of oppression are either Earth people (as opposed to colonists on other planets) or robots. In &quot;The Bicentennial Man&quot;, a robot fights prejudice to be accepted as a human. In ''[[The Caves of Steel]]'', the people of Earth resent the wealthier &quot;Spacers&quot; and in turn treat robots (associated with the Spacers) in ways reminiscent of how whites treated blacks, such as addressing robots as &quot;boy&quot;. ''[[Pebble in the Sky]]'' shows an analogous situation: the Galactic Empire rules Earth and its people use such terms as &quot;Earthie-squaw&quot;, but Earth is a theocratic dictatorship that enforces [[euthanasia]] of anyone older than sixty. One hero is Bel Arvardan, an upper-class Galactic archeologist who must overcome his prejudices. The other is Joseph Schwartz, a 62-year-old twentieth-century American who had emigrated from [[Europe]], where his people were persecuted (he is quite possibly [[Jew]]ish), and is accidentally transported forward in time to Arvardan's period. He must decide whether to help a downtrodden society that thinks he should be dead. Yet another frequent theme in Asimov is rational thought. He invented the science-fiction [[mystery fiction|mystery]] with the novel ''The Caves of Steel'' and the stories in ''[[Asimov's Mysteries]]'', usually playing fair with the reader by introducing early in the story any science or technology involved in the solution. Later, he produced non-SF mysteries, including the novel ''[[Murder at the ABA]]'' (1976) and the &quot;[[Black Widowers]]&quot; short stories, in which he followed the same rule. In his fiction, important scenes are often essentially debates, with the more rational, humane&amp;mdash;or persuasive&amp;mdash;side winning. ==Criticisms== One of the most common impressions of Asimov's fiction work is that his writing style is extremely unornamental. In 1980, SF scholar [[James Gunn (author)|James Gunn]] wrote of ''I, Robot'' that :Except for two stories&amp;mdash;&quot;[[Liar!]]&quot; and &quot;[[Evidence (Asimov)|Evidence]]&quot;&amp;mdash;they are not stories in which character plays a significant part. Virtually all plot develops in conversation with little if any action. Nor is there a great deal of local color or description of any kind. T
]]'' There are many popular professional sports teams in the Gdańsk and Tricity area. Amateur sports are played by thousands of Gdańsk citizens and also in schools of all levels (elementary, secondary, university). == Politics and local government == ''Main article: [[Politics of Gdańsk]]'' Contemporary Gdańsk is the capital of the Pomeranian province and is one of the major centres of economic and administrative life in Poland. Many important agencies of the state and local government levels have their main offices here: the Provincial Administration Office, the Provincial Government, the Ministerial Agency of the State Treasury, the Agency for Consumer and Competition Protection, the National Insurance regional office, the Court of Appeal, and the High Administrative Court. ===Regional center=== [[Gdańsk Voivodship]] was extended in [[1999]] to include most of [[Słupsk Voivodship]], the western part of [[Elbląg Voivodship]] and [[Chojnice County]] from [[Bydgoszcz Voivodship]] to form the new [[Pomeranian Voivodship]]. The area of the region was thus extended from 7,394 km² to 18,293 km² and the population rose from 1,333,800 (1980) to 2,198,000 (2000). By 1998, [[Tricity]] (greater Gdańsk) constituted an absolute majority of the population; almost half of the inhabitants of the new region live in the centre. == Education and science == [[Image:Danzig old.jpg|thumb|300px|Danzig in the 1890s.]] There are 14 universities with a total of 60,436 students, including 10,439 graduates [[as of 2001]]. * [[Gdańsk University]] (Uniwersytet Gdański) * [[Gdańsk University of Technology]] (Politechnika Gdańska) * [[Medical Academy of Gdansk|Medical Academy]] (Akademia Medyczna) * [[Physical Education Academy of Gdansk|Physical Education Academy]] (Akademia Wychowania Fizycznego im. Jędrzeja Śniadeckiego) * [[Musical Academy of Gdansk|Musical Academy]] (Akademia Muzyczna im. Stanisława Moniuszki) * [[Arts Academy of Gdansk|Arts Academy]] (Akademia Sztuk Pięknych) [http://www.asp.gda.pl] * Instytut Budownictwa Wodnego PAN * Ateneum — Szkoła Wyższa * Gdańska Wyższa Szkoła Humanistyczna * Gdańska Wyższa Szkoła Administracji * Wyższa Szkoła Bankowa * Wyższa Szkoła Społeczno-Ekonomiczna * Wyższa Szkoła Turystyki i Hotelarstwa w Gdańsku * Wyższa Szkoła Zarządzania === Scientific and regional organizations === * [[Gdańsk Scientific Society]] * [[Baltic Institute]] (Instytut Bałtycki), established [[1925]] in [[Toruń]], since [[1946]] (?) in Gdańsk * TNOiK - Towarzystwo Naukowe Organizacji i Kierowania (Scientific Society for Organization and Management) O/Gdańsk * IBNGR - Instytut Badań nad Gospodarką Rynkową (The Gdańsk Institute for Market Economics)http://www.ibngr.edu.pl/english/index2.htm == See also == {{commons|Gdańsk}} * [[List of modern neighbourhoods of Gdańsk]] * [[List of Dukes of Gdańsk]] * [[List of famous people born in Gdańsk]] * [[List of major corporations in Gdańsk]] * [[List of famous people living or working in Gdańsk]] * [[St. Mary's Church, Gdansk|St. Mary's Church]] * [[Space of Freedom]] - [[Jean Michel Jarre]]'s concert ([[August 26]][[2005]]) {{Gdansk}} == External links == * [http://www.gdansk.pl/en/ The Website of Gdańsk Town Hall] * [http://roots.gdansk.gda.pl/index_en.asp Together in Gdańsk Again — Comprehensive information about Gdańsk online] * [http://www.airport.gdansk.pl Airport Gdańsk-Rębiechowo] * [http://www.trojmiasto.pl Tricity Regional Portal] * [http://www.univ.gda.pl/pl Gdańsk University] * [http://www.firma.gda.pl Gdańsk Companies] * [http://www.gdansk-life.com Gdańsk Life] * [http://roots.gdansk.pl/en/postacie/burmistrzowie.asp Mayors of Gdańsk] * [http://www.gdansk.jewish.org.pl Gdańsk Jewish community] * [http://www.gdanskie-organy.com Organs of Gdańsk — History of pipe organs in Gdańsk] * [http://www.city-photos.digitalphoto.pl/Gdansk/ Free photos of Gdansk] *[http://sabaoth.infoserve.pl/danzig-online/index3.html Freie Stadt Danzig] *[http://www.electricscotland.com/history/prussia/part3-1.htm Scots to Prussia records] {{Poland}} [[Category:Urban counties of Pomeranian Voivodship]] [[Category:Coastal cities in Poland]] [[Category:Hanseatic League]] [[bg:Гданск]] [[cs:Gdaňsk]] [[da:Gdansk]] [[de:Danzig]] [[et:Gdańsk]] [[eo:Gdańsk]] [[es:Gdańsk]] [[fr:Gdańsk]] [[he:גדנסק]] [[ko:그단스크]] [[id:Gdansk]] [[is:Gdańsk]] [[it:Danzica]] [[csb:Gduńsk]] [[la:Gedania]] [[lt:Gdanskas]] [[lv:Gdańska]] [[nl:Gdansk]] [[ja:グダニスク]] [[no:Gdańsk]] [[pl:Gdańsk]] [[nds:Danzig]] [[pt:Gdansk]] [[ro:Gdańsk]] [[ru:Гданьск]] [[fi:Gdansk]] [[sr:Гдањск]] [[sv:Gdansk]] [[uk:Ґданьськ]] [[zh:格但斯克]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Graviton</title> <id>12100</id> <restrictions>move=sysop</restrictions> <revision> <id>41465611</id> <timestamp>2006-02-27T15:04:37Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Sadi Carnot</username> <id>726928</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>/* Gravitons and models of quantum gravity */ typo</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">In [[physics]], the '''graviton''' is a hypothetical [[elementary particle]] that transmits the force of [[gravity]] in most [[quantum gravity]] theories. In order to do this, one theory posits that gravitons have to be always-attractive (gravity never pushes), work over any distance (gravity is universal) and come in unlimited numbers (to provide high strengths near stars). In [[quantum mechanics|quantum theory]], these requirements define an even-[[spin (physics)|spin]] (spin 2 in this case) [[boson]] with a [[Mass in special relativity|rest mass]] of zero. Gravitons are postulated simply because [[quantum theory]] has been so successful in other fields. For instance, the electromagnetic interaction can be very well explained by the application of quantization to [[photon]]s, a science known as [[quantum electrodynamics]]. In this case photons are being continually created and destroyed by all [[charged particle]]s, and the interactions between these photons produce the familiar effects of [[electricity]] and [[magnetism]]. In the same way, the [[Nuclear force|strong nuclear force]] and the [[weak nuclear force]] are mediated by [[gluon]]s and by [[W and Z bosons]], respectively. Given the widespread success of quantum theory in describing the basic forces in the [[universe]] except for gravity, it seemed only natural that the same methods would work well on gravity as well. Many attempts finally led to introduction of a so-far unseen graviton, which would work in a fashion somewhat similar to the photon, the gluon etc. It was hoped that this would quickly lead to a quantum gravity theory, although the mathematics became convoluted and no internally consistent theory has yet emerged. ==Gravitons and models of quantum gravity== While the [[classical theory]] (i.e. the [[tree diagram]]s) and [[semiclassical]] corrections ([[one-loop diagram]]s) behaved as expected, the [[Feynman diagram]]s with two (or more) loops led to [[ultraviolet divergence]]s; that is, infinite results that could not be removed because the quantized [[general relativity]] was not [[renormalizable]], unlike [[quantum electrodynamics]]. In popular terms, the [[discrete]]ness of quantum theory is not compatible with the [[smooth function|smoothness]] of [[Albert Einstein|Einstein]]'s general relativity. These problems, together with some conceptual puzzles, led many physicists to believe that a theory more complete than just general relativity must regulate the behavior near the [[Planck length]]. [[Superstring theory]] finally emerged as the most promising solution; it is the only known theory in which the quantum corrections of any order to graviton [[scattering]] are finite. [[String theory]] predicts the existence of gravitons and their well-defined [[interaction]]s which represents one of its most important triumphs. A graviton in [[perturbative]] string theory is a [[closed string]] in a very particular low-energy vibrational state. The scattering of gravitons in string theory can also be computed from the [[correlation function (quantum field theory)|correlation functions]] in [[conformal field theory]], as dictated by the [[AdS/CFT]] correspondence, or from [[Matrix theory (physics)|Matrix theory]]. An interesting feature of gravitons in string theory is that, as closed strings without endpoints, they would not be bound to [[brane]]s and could move freely between them; this &quot;leakage&quot; of gravitons from our brane into higher-dimensional space could explain why gravity is such a weak force, and gravitons from other branes adjacent to our own could provide a potential explanation for [[dark matter]]. See [[brane cosmology]] for more details. Some proposed quantum theories of gravity do not predict a graviton. For instance, [[loop quantum gravity]] has no analogous particle. ==Gravitons and experiments== Detecting a graviton, if it exists, would prove rather problematic. Because the gravitational force is so incredibly weak, as of today, physicists are not even able to directly verify the existence of [[gravitational waves]], as predicted by general relativity. (Many people are surprised to learn that gravity is the weakest force. A simple experiment will demonstrate this, however: an ordinary refrigerator [[magnet]] can generate enough force to lift a [[mass]] against the force of gravity generated by the entire planet.) Gravitational waves may be viewed as [[coherent state]]s of many gravitons, much like the electromagnetic waves are coherent states of photons. Projects that should find the gravitational waves, such as [[LIGO]] and [[VIRGO]], are just getting started. ==Problems with the Graviton== Many believe the graviton does not exist, at least in the simplistic manner in which it is envisioned. Superficially speaking, [[quantum gravity]] using the gauge interaction of a spin-2 field (graviton) fails to work like the [[photon]] and other gauge boson
5/] An early portrayal of AA (1962) *''[[South Park]]'' [http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0121955/] Parodied AA in the December 7, 2005 episode (&quot;[[Bloody_Mary_%28South_Park%29|Bloody Mary]]&quot;) *''[[The Simpsons]]'' [[Homer Simpson]] is sentenced to attend AA meetings in the episode [[Duffless]]. In the episode [['Round Springfield]], [[Barney Gumble]] is trying AA, but quickly falls back to drinking. ==External links== Official A.A. links - * [http://www.aa.org/ A.A. home page] * [http://www.aagrapevine.org/ The A.A. Grapevine] There are many unofficial A.A. sites on the internet - * [http://www.alcoholicsanonymous.org/ The Unofficial Website for AA Related Information] * [http://www.ballina.net/aa Example of Regional Unofficial Site] * [http://stayingcyber.org/ Staying Cyber: An AA Meeting for the WWW] * [http://www.recovery.org/aa/bigbook/ww/ AA Big Book] * [http://www.geocities.com/Heartland/Estates/7372/brainwashed.html The Washing Machine] * [http://www.aahistory.com/ AA History and Trivia] * [http://www.aa-intergroup.org/index.html Online Intergroup of AA] * [http://www.xanga.com/GlennS GlennS's AA blog &amp; Friends of Bill W blogring] ===Critical links=== * [http://www.angelfire.com/blog/aaacomix Triple A Comix--AA In Satire] * [http://www.morerevealed.com/ More Revealed: A Critical Analysis of Alcoholics Anonymous] * [http://www.orange-papers.org/ The Orange Papers] * [http://www.geocities.com/drugsandalcoholinfo/webpagesandpapers/mindcontroltactics.htm Allegations of &quot;Mind Control&quot; in A.A.] * [http://oldweb.uwp.edu/academic/criminal.justice/aacult01.htm Is A.A. a Cult?] * [http://www.morerevealed.com/books/coc/ AA Cult Or Cure?] * [http://www.peele.net/ Stanton Peele PhD, national AA and 12-Step treatment critic] ===Links to AA alternatives=== Abstinence based programs * [http://www.smartrecovery.org SMART Recovery] * [http://www.secularsobriety.org/ SOS - Secular Organizations for Sobriety] * [http://www.unhooked.com/index.htm Lifering] * [http://www.womenforsobriety.org/ WFS - Women For Sobriety] Moderation/[[harm reduction]] based programs * [http://www.moderation.org MM - Moderation Management] * [http://www.mywayout.org My Way Out] [[Category:Alcohol abuse]] [[Category:Addiction]] [[Category:Drug rehabilitation]] [[Category:Twelve-step program]] ==References== # ''A Controlled Experiment on the Use of Court Probation for Drunk Arrests'' Keith S. Ditman, M.D., George G. Crawford, LL.B., Edward W. Forgy, Ph.D., Herbert Moskowitz, Ph.D., and Craig MacAndrew, Ph.D., American Journal of Psychiatry, 124:2, August 1967, pp. 160-163. # ''Outpatient Treatment of Alcoholism'' Jeffrey Brandsma, Maxie Maultsby, and Richard J. Welsh. University Park Press, Baltimore, MD., page 105. # ''A Randomized Trial of Treatment Options for Alcohol-abusing Workers'' The New England Journal of Medicine, Volume 325, pages 775-782, September 12, 1991. # ''The Ideology of a Therapeutic Social Movement: Alcoholics Anonymous'' Leonard Blumberg, Journal of Studies on Alcohol, vol 38, pp. 2122-42, Journal of Studies on Alcohol, Inc., Rutgers Center of Alcohol Studies, New Brunswick, NJ. # ''Alcoholics Anonymous comes of age'' Bill W., Harper, New York, 1957. # ''The Varieties of Religious Experience'' William James, Longman's Green, New York, 1928. # ''Three Talks to Medical Societies by Bill W., co-founder of Alcoholics Anonymous'' World Service, 1973. # ''A Study in the Psychology of Religious Phenomenon'' J.H. Leuba, American Journal of Psychology, 7: 309-385, 1896. # ''The Psychology of Religion'' E.D. Starbuck, Scribner's, New York, 1899 # ''A Study of Conversion'' E.D. Starbuck, American Journal of Psychology, 8: 268-308, 1897 [[ca:Alcohòlics anònims]] [[da:Anonyme Alkoholikere]] [[de:Anonyme Alkoholiker]] [[es:Alcohólicos Anónimos]] [[eo:Alkoholuloj Anonimaj]] [[fr:Alcooliques Anonymes]] [[gl:Alcólicos Anónimos]] [[hr:Anonimni Alkoholičari]] [[it:Alcolisti Anonimi]] [[nl:Anonieme Alcoholisten]] [[no:Anonyme alkoholikere]] [[pl:Anonimowi Alkoholicy]] [[pt:Alcoólicos Anônimos]] [[fi:AA-liike]] [[sv:Anonyma Alkoholister]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Alpha compositing</title> <id>2049</id> <revision> <id>40297498</id> <timestamp>2006-02-19T16:56:35Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>212.54.20.215</ip> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">{{merge-to|alpha blending}} In [[computer graphics]], '''alpha compositing''' is often useful to render image elements in separate passes, and then combine the resulting multiple 2D images into a single, final image in a process called compositing. For example, compositing is used extensively when combining computer rendered image elements with live footage. In order to correctly combine these image elements, it is necessary to keep, for each element, an associated ''matte''. This matte contains the coverage information - the shape of the geometry being drawn - and allows us to distinguish between parts of the image where the geometry was actually drawn and other parts of the image which are empty. To store this matte information, the concept of an '''alpha channel''' was introduced by A.R.Smith in the late 1970s, and fully developed in the 1984 paper ''Compositing Digital Images'', by Thomas Porter and Tom Duff. In a 2D image element which stores a color for each pixel, an additional value is stored in the alpha channel containing a value between 0 and 1. A value of 0 means that the pixel does not have any coverage information; i.e. there was no color contribution from any geometry because the geometry did not overlap this pixel. A value of 1 means that the pixel is fully opaque because the geometry completely overlapped the pixel. If an alpha channel is used in an image, it is common to also multiply the color by the alpha value, in order to save on additional multiplications during the compositing process. This is usually referred to as ''premultiplied alpha''. Thus, assuming that the pixel color is expressed using [[RGB_color_space|RGB]] triples, a pixel value of (0.0, 0.5, 0.0, 0.5) implies a pixel which is fully green and has 50% coverage. With the existence of an alpha channel, it is then easy to express useful compositing image operations, using a ''compositing algebra'' defined in the Duff and Porter paper. For example, given two image elements A and B, the most common compositing operation is to combine the images such that A appears in the foreground and B appears in the background; this can be expressed as A '''over''' B. In addition to '''over''', Porter and Duff defined the compositing operators '''in''', '''out''', '''atop''', and '''xor''' (and the reverse operators '''rover''', '''rin''', '''rout''', and '''ratop''') from a consideration of choices in blending the colors of two pixels when their coverage is, conceptually, overlaid orthogonally: [[Image:Alpha_compositing.jpg]] The '''over''' operator is, in effect, the normal painting operation (see [[Painter's algorithm]]). The '''in''' operator is the alpha compositing equivalent of clipping. As an example, the '''over''' operator can be accomplished by applying the following formula to each pixel value: :&lt;math&gt;C_o = C_a + C_b \times \left(1 - \alpha_a\right)&lt;/math&gt; :&lt;math&gt;\alpha_o = \alpha_a + \alpha_b \times \left(1 - \alpha_a\right)&lt;/math&gt; where C&lt;sub&gt;o&lt;/sub&gt; is the result of the operation, C&lt;sub&gt;a&lt;/sub&gt; is the color of the pixel in element A, C&lt;sub&gt;b&lt;/sub&gt; is the color of the pixel in element B, and &amp;alpha;&lt;sub&gt;a&lt;/sub&gt; and &amp;alpha;&lt;sub&gt;b&lt;/sub&gt; are the alpha of the pixels in elements A and B respectively. This assumes that the pixel colors of each element have already been premultiplied by alpha. Alpha compositing on images can be done in several high-end graphics programs, including [[Adobe Photoshop]] and [[Paint Shop Pro]], and free software programs like [[GIMP]]. ==See also== *[[Alpha blending]] *[[RGBA color space]] [[de:Alphakanal]] [[fi:Alfakanava]] [[pt:Canal alfa]] [[zh:阿尔法通道]] [[Category:Computer graphics]] {{compu-graphics-stub}}</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Archaeologist</title> <id>2050</id> <revision> <id>15900500</id> <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>Conversion script</ip> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Automated conversion</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Archaeology]] </text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Anarchist</title> <id>2051</id> <revision> <id>15900501</id> <timestamp>2004-07-09T17:28:30Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Enchanter</username> <id>1104</id> </contributor> <comment>#REDIRECT [[Anarchism]], to replace disambiguation page</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Anarchism]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Array</title> <id>2052</id> <revision> <id>41108699</id> <timestamp>2006-02-25T02:33:17Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Quuxplusone</username> <id>245306</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>fmt, copyedit</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">In [[computer programming]], an '''array''', also known as a ''vector'' or ''list'' (for one-dimensional arrays) or a ''matrix'' (for two-dimensional arrays), is one of the simplest [[data structure]]s. Arrays hold a series of data [[element (mathematics)|element]]s, usually of the same size and [[data type]]. Individual elements are accessed by their position in the array. The position is given by an [[index (information technology)|index]], which is also called a subscript. The index usually uses a consecutive range of [[integer]]s, (as opposed to an [[associative array]]) but the index can have any [[ordinal numbers |ord
for his patiently considered but unorthodox views. ==Hoffer and &quot;Intellectuals&quot;== Hoffer was also one of the most pro-American writers of his day. He did not consider himself an &quot;intellectual&quot;, and he scorned the term as descriptive of the mostly anti-American academics of the West. Academics, he believed, most of all craved power; but they were denied it in the democratic countries of the West (though they were not in totalitarian countries, which Hoffer saw as an intellectual's dream). So instead, he believed, they chose to bite the hand that fed them in their quest to feel important. Hoffer himself drew confidence from his working-class environment, seeing in it vast human potential. He took solace in being an outcast, believing that the outcasts have always been the pioneers of society. Though he felt opposed to &quot;liberal&quot; intellectuals, it would be wrong to call Hoffer's thinking &quot;conservative&quot;. Rather, it was completely apart from the mainstream. As he said, &quot;my writing grows out of my life just as a branch from a tree.&quot; When called an intellectual, he insisted that he was a longshoreman. ==Bibliography== :1951 ''[[The True Believer|The True Believer: Thoughts On The Nature Of Mass Movements]]'' ISBN 0060505915 :1955 ''The Passionate State Of Mind, and Other Aphorisms'' :1963 ''The Ordeal Of Change'' :1967 ''The Temper Of Our Time'' :1969 ''Working And Thinking on The Waterfront; a journal, June 1958-May 1959'' :1973 ''Reflections on the Human Condition'' :1976 ''In Our Time'' :1979 ''First Things, Last Things'' :1979 ''Before the Sabbath'' :1982 ''Between the devil and the dragon : the best essays and aphorisms of Eric Hoffer'' ISBN 0060149841 :1983 ''Truth Imagined'' ==Books on Hoffer== *''Eric Hoffer; an American Odyssey'' Tomkins, Calvin, New York, Dutton, 1968 *''Hoffer's America'', Koerner, James D., La Salle, Ill., Library Press, 1973 *''Eric Hoffer'', Baker, James Thomas. Boston : Twayne, 1982 ISBN 0805773592 Twayne's United States authors series ==Broadcasts== Documentary on Eric Hoffer with Eric Severeid, CBS, [[November 14]], [[1967]] ==Quotes== &quot;The Renaissance was a time of mercenary soldiers, ours is a time of mercenary labor.&quot; --''Before the Sabbath''. &quot;A man is likely to mind his own business when it is worth minding. When it is not, he takes his mind off his own meaningless affairs by minding other people's business.&quot; --''The True Believer''. &quot;For though ours is a godless age, it is the very opposite of irreligious.&quot; --''The True Believer''. &quot;In times of change learners inherit the earth, while the learned find themselves beautifully equipped to deal with a world that no longer exists.&quot; &quot;People who bite the hand that feeds them usually lick the boot that kicks them.&quot; ==External links== {{wikiquote}} * [http://www.makeoutcity.com/Categories/People/EricHoffer/ makeoutcity.com: Categories &gt; People &gt; EricHoffer] * [http://www.townhall.com/columnists/thomassowell/ts20030618.shtml Thomas Sowell: The legacy of Eric Hoffer] * [http://students.berkeley.edu/fao/prizes/proselili.html Fabilli and Hoffer Essay Prize] * [http://www.philosophynow.org/archive/articles/34madigan1.htm The True Believer Revisited] Tim Madigan in Philosophy''Now'' * [http://erichoffer.blogspot.com Eric Hoffer Blog (Searchable quotes)] * [http://www.quotationspage.com/quotes/Eric_Hoffer Eric Hoffer Quotes] ==Passages from his Work== *[http://www.philosophicalsociety.com/Archives/Men%20of%20Words.htm &quot;Men of Words&quot;] &quot;Men of words,&quot; according to Hoffer, are those who enjoy a facility for language who are able to rouse popular sentiment and prey upon the anger, insecurities, and confusion of the masses. [[Category:1902 births|Hoffer, Eric]] [[Category:1983 deaths|Hoffer, Eric]] [[Category:Autodidacts|Hoffer, Eric]] [[Category:German-Americans|Hoffer, Eric]] [[Category:Presidential Medal of Freedom recipients|Hoffer, Eric]] [[Category:Social psychology|Hoffer, Eric]] [[de:Eric Hoffer]] [[ja:エリック・ホッファー]] [[pt:Eric Hoffer]] [[es:Eric Hoffer]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>European Community law</title> <id>9575</id> <revision> <id>15907450</id> <timestamp>2004-05-03T00:17:43Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Michael Hardy</username> <id>4626</id> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[European Union law]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>European Community</title> <id>9576</id> <revision> <id>41605273</id> <timestamp>2006-02-28T13:21:45Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>62.248.233.149</ip> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Politics of the European Union}} The '''European Community''' ('''EC'''), most important of three '''European Communities''', was originally founded on [[March 25]], [[1957]] by the signing of the [[Treaty of Rome]] under the name of '''European Economic Community'''. The 'Economic' was removed from its name by the [[Maastricht treaty]] in [[1992]], which at the same time effectively made the European Community the first of [[three pillars of the European Union|three pillars]] of the [[European Union]], called the '''Community''' (or '''Communities''') '''Pillar'''. [[Image:Rometreaty.jpg|thumb|left|300px|The [[Treaty of Rome]] signing ceremony]] == European Community == '''European Community''' is the name given collectively to the [[European Coal and Steel Community]] (ECSC), the European Economic Community (EEC), and the [[Euratom|European Atomic Energy Community]] (Euratom), when in [[1967]], they were first merged under a single institutional framework with the [[Merger Treaty]]. Soon after the establishment of the ECSC two more European Communities were proposed: [[European Defence Community]] and [[European Political Community]]. They were later rejected. The EEC,established in 1958, soon became the most important of these three communities, subsequent treaties adding it further areas of competence that extended beyond the purely economic areas, while the other two communities remained extremely limited. Furthermore in 2002 the ECSC ceased to exist with the expiration of the [[Treaty of Paris (1951)|Treaty of Paris]] which established it. Seen as redundant, no effort was made to retain it &amp;mdash; its assets and liabilities were transferred to the EC, and coal and steel became subject to the EC treaty. With the ratification of the Maastricht Treaty in 1993 the European Community became known as the European Union which exists today. In [[October 2005]] was initiated the [[European Energy Community]] - the first covering both the [[European Union]] and some non-member states (like the [[European Economic Area]]). == Community Pillar == The Maastricht treaty turned the European Communities as a whole into the first of [[three pillars]] of the European Union, also known as the '''Community Pillar''' or '''Communities Pillar'''. In Community Pillar policy areas decisions are made collectively by [[Qualified Majority Voting]] (QMV). == European Economic Community == The European Economic Community (EEC) was an organization established ([[1958]]) by treaty between [[Belgium]], [[France]], [[Italy]], [[Luxembourg]], the [[Netherlands]], and [[West Germany]], known informally as the Common Market. The EEC was the most significant of the three treaty organizations that were consolidated in [[1967]] to form the European Community (EC; known since the ratification [[1993]] of the Maastricht treaty as the European Union, EU). The EEC had as its aim the eventual economic union of its member nations, ultimately leading to political union. It worked for the free movement of labour and capital, the abolition of trusts and cartels, and the development of joint and reciprocal policies on labour, social welfare, agriculture, transport, and foreign trade. In [[1958]], the [[United Kingdom]] proposed that the Common Market be expanded into a transatlantic free-trade area. After the proposal was vetoed by France, the UK engineered the formation ([[1960]]) of the [[European Free Trade Association]] (EFTA) and was joined by other European nations that did not belong to the Common Market. Beginning in [[1973]], with British, [[Republic of Ireland|Irish]], and [[Denmark|Danish]] accession to the EEC, the EFTA and the EEC negotiated a series of agreements that would ensure uniformity between the two organisations in many areas of economic policy, and by [[1995]], all but four EFTA members had joined the European Union. One of the first important accomplishments of the EEC was the establishment ([[1962]]) of common price levels for agricultural products. In [[1968]], internal tariffs (tariffs on trade between member nations) were scrapped on certain products. ==The future of the European Communities== The signed but unratified [[European Constitution]] would merge the European Community with the other two pillars of the European Union, making the European Union the legal successor of both the European Community and the present-day European Union. It was for a time proposed that the European Constitution should repeal the [[Euratom]] treaty, in order to terminate the legal personality of Euratom at the same time as that of the European Community, but this was not included in the final version. ==See also== *[[History of the European Union]] *[[European Union]] *[[European Union law]] *[[European Energy Community]] *&quot;[[Common European Home]]&quot; ==External links== *[http://europa.eu.int/index_en.htm European Union website] [[Category:European Union law]] [[Category:Trade blocs]] [[nl:Europese Gemeenschap]] [[bg:&amp;#1045;&amp;#1074;&amp;#1088;&amp;#1086;&amp;#1087;&amp;#1077;&amp;#1081;&amp;#1089;&amp;#1082;&amp;#1072; &amp;#1086;&amp;#1073;&amp;#1097;&amp;#1085;&amp;#1086;&amp;#1089;&
ww.chabad.org/library/archive/LibraryArchive2.asp?AID=6289 Bereishit-Genesis (Judaica Press)] translation with [[Rashi]]'s commentary at Chabad.org * [[Christian]] translations: ** [http://www.anova.org/sev/htm/hb/01_genesis.htm ''Genesis'' at The Great Books] (New Revised Standard Version) ** {{biblegateway||Genesis}} ** [http://st-takla.org/pub_oldtest/01_gen.html Genesis in Arabic] (from St-Takla.org) ** [http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Bible%2C_King_James%2C_Genesis ''Genesis'' at Wikisource] (Authorised/King James Version) * Translations identifying sources according to the [[documentary hypothesis]]: **[[Wikisource:Bible, English, King James, Documentary Hypothesis, Genesis|Genesis with sources highlighted, at Wikisource]] ===Related articles=== * [http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=137&amp;letter=G&amp;search=Genesis Book of ''Genesis'' article] (Jewish Encyclopedia) * [http://www.threetwoone.org/diagrams/offspring-adam-2x-00.gif A detailed chart of Adam's descendents, as told in the book of ''Genesis''] * [http://www.plymouthbrethren.org/passage.asp?passage_id=1 Genesis from the Biblical Resource Database] ===Other Sites=== * [http://www.biblicalstudies.org.uk/genesis.php BiblicalStudies.org.uk] Extensive bibliography, on-line articles and books. * [http://www.answersingenesis.org] Answers in Genesis are an organistation who takes a stand for a &quot;straightforward&quot; reading of Genesis which in the 11 first chapters could be defined as a literal interpretation. [[Category:Torah]] [[Category:Old Testament books]] [[Category:Bible]] [[Category:Christian texts]] [[Category:Spiritual books]] &lt;!-- [[en:Genesis (Hebrew Bible)]] --&gt; [[ast:Xénesis]] [[bg:Битие (Библия)]] [[zh-min-nan:Chhòng-sè-kì]] [[ca:Gènesi]] [[cs:Genesis]] [[da:Første Mosebog]] [[de:1. Buch Mose]] [[et:Esimene Moosese raamat]] [[es:Génesis]] [[eo:Genezo]] [[fr:Genèse]] [[gl:Xénese]] [[ko:창세기]] [[id:Kejadian]] [[it:Genesi]] [[he:בראשית]] [[jv:Purwaning Dumadi]] [[la:Liber Genesis]] [[li:Genesis]] [[ml:ഉല്പത്തി]] [[mi:Genesis]] [[nl:Genesis (boek)]] [[ja:創世記]] [[no:Første Mosebok]] [[pl:Księga Rodzaju]] [[pt:Gênesis]] [[ru:Книга Бытие]] [[scn:Gènisi]] [[sk:Genesis (Biblia)]] [[sl:Geneza (Biblija)]] [[fi:Ensimmäinen Mooseksen kirja]] [[sv:Första Moseboken]] [[wa:Djeneze]] [[zh:創世記]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>GM</title> <id>12669</id> <revision> <id>40363926</id> <timestamp>2006-02-20T01:54:29Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Rich Farmbrough</username> <id>82835</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>External links per MoS.</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''GM''' is usually taken to mean [[General Motors]] ({{nyse|GM}}), an automobile manufacturing company. Other meanings include: *[[Game Maker]], a computer game developing program *[[Gamemaster]] or Game Master, in play-by-mail games and role-playing games *[[Gamemaster (board game series)|Gamemaster]], a series of board games created by [[Milton Bradley]] *[[General manager]] of an organisation, including sporting teams *The [[General MIDI]] standard specification *[[General Mills]], a food manufacturing company *[[General Motors]], an automobile company. *[[Grand Marquis]], a Ford Mercury automobile brand *[[Genetically modified]], (a living thing) having its DNA intentionally changed for a particular outcome *[[George Medal]]: a British decoration *[[Germany]], by its [[List of FIPS country codes|FIPS PUB 10-4 territory code]] *[[Gmail]], the email offering from Google *[[Gold medal]]. In the UK rifle shooting community, a person who has won Her Majesty the Queen's Prize at Bisley, Surrey may subsequently put the letters GM ('gold medal') after his/her name *[[Golden master]], a single copy of a reproducible product, created for the purpose of duplication *[[Grammatical modality]], the mode in which the grammar of a sentence is constructed *[[Greasemonkey]] - a program for letting users modify websites on-the-fly *[[International Grandmaster]] in chess *[[The Republic of The Gambia]], a country in Africa ([[ISO 3166]] digram) *The [[RGM-79 GM]] mobile suit and its successors in the anime series Mobile Suit Gundam *A [[Unified Soil Classification System|USCS]] symbol for silty [[gravel]] *'''GM''' is the IATA code for [[Air Slovakia]] '''Gm''' may mean: *[[gigametre]], an SI unit of length ==External links== *[http://acronymfinder.com/af-query.asp?String=exact&amp;Acronym=gm Possible acronyms for &quot;gm&quot;] {{2LCdisambig}} [[de:GM]] [[el:GM]] [[eo:Gm]] [[fr:GM]] [[ko:GM]] [[it:Gm]] [[ja:GM]] [[zh:GM]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>GeV</title> <id>12670</id> <revision> <id>15910341</id> <timestamp>2003-05-13T12:59:23Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Tannin</username> <id>6169</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>fix double redirect</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Electronvolt]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden</title> <id>12671</id> <revision> <id>41345345</id> <timestamp>2006-02-26T19:12:15Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>81.214.22.24</ip> </contributor> <comment>/* Alternativ View */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{| align=&quot;right&quot; | [[Image:Gustavus II Adolphus.jpg|thumb|220px|'''Gustav II Adolf'''&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;King of Sweden&lt;/small&gt;]] |} '''Gustav II Adolf''' (also known as Gustaf Adolf den store or Gustavus II Adolphus) ([[December 9]], [[1594]] &amp;ndash; [[November 6]], [[1632]] &lt;small&gt;[[Old Style and New Style dates|O.S.]]&lt;/small&gt;), widely known by the [[Latin]]ized name '''Gustavus Adolphus''' and referred to by Protestants as the '''Lion of the North''', was [[King of Sweden]] from [[1611]] until his death. He is the only Swedish king to be styled &quot;the Great&quot;. He was born in [[Stockholm]], the son of [[Charles IX of Sweden|Charles IX]] of the [[House of Vasa|Vasa dynasty]] and [[Holstein-Gottorp|Christina of Holstein-Gottorp]]. He was the [[monarch|king]] of [[Sweden]] from [[1611]], and as such one of the major players in the [[Thirty Years' War]]. Gustav Adolf was married to the daughter of the elector of Brandenburg-Prussia, [[Maria Eleonora of Brandenburg|Maria Eleonora]] and chose Prussia's city of [[Elbing]] as base for his operations in Germany. He died in battle on [[November 6]], [[1632]] at [[Lützen, Germany|Lützen]] in [[Germany]]. During his reign, Gustav founded the city of [[Gothenburg]] as well as a number of smaller cities. He is also the founder of the [[University of Tartu]] in [[Tartu]], [[Estonia]], which then belonged to the kingdom of Sweden. In this time, the three largest cities in the kingdom were [[Riga]] (currently the capital of [[Latvia]]), [[Stockholm]] and [[Tallinn]] (capital of [[Estonia]]). ==Military commander== [[Image:Gustavus Adolphus at the Battle at Breitenfeld.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Gustavus Adolphus at the [[Battle of Breitenfield (1631)|Battle of Breitenfield]]]] As a [[general]], Gustav is famous for employing mobile [[artillery]] on the battlefield, as well as a very active [[military tactics|tactic]] where attack was stressed over defense and mobility more important than in the usual [[linear tactic]]. This was only part of the reason why [[Carl von Clausewitz]] and [[Napoleon I of France|Napoleon Bonaparte]] idolized him as one of the greatest generals of all time. His character both of purpose and of amity with all his troops from commanding officers right down to the rank and file, earned him unassailably documented fame which most commanders in chief would gladly accept as mere joking anecdotes. The king was an active participant in the battles, and was wounded several times, including gunshot wounds to the throat and the abdomen. His war wounds led the king to adopt a flexible armour of hide instead of the customary metal cuirass, and this is what he wore in the [[Battle of Lützen]]. Gustav's armour is currently on display in the [[Livrustkammaren]] at the [[Royal Palace in Stockholm]]. Gustav used the name Captain Gars to travel Europe incognito. Gars is derived from the initials of &quot;Gustavus Adolphus [[Rex]] Sueciae&quot;, [[Latin]] for &quot;Gustav Adolf [[Monarch|King]] of [[Sweden]]&quot;. Gustav was killed at the [[Battle of Lützen (1632)|Battle of Lützen]] where, at a crucial point in the battle, he was separated from his troops while leading a cavalry charge into a dense [[smog]] of mist and gunpowder smoke. After his death, his wife [[Maria Eleonora]] of [[Brandenburg]] initially kept his body, and later his heart, in her castle for over a year. His remains (including his heart) now rest in [[Riddarholmskyrkan]] in [[Stockholm]]. [[Image:Autograph of Gustavus Adolphus.jpg|thumb|right|Autograph]] In February 1633, following the death of the great king, the Swedish [[Riksdag of the Estates]] decided that his name would be accompanied by an accolade and that his name was to be styled Gustav Adolf the Great (or ''Gustav Adolf den Store'' in Swedish). Such an honor has not been bestowed on anyone else since. The crown of Sweden was inherited in the family of Vasa, and from Charles IX's time excluded those Vasa princes who had been traitors or descended from deposed monarchs. Gustav Adolph's younger brother had died years ago, and therefore there were only females left. Maria Eleonora and the king's ministers took over the government on behalf of Gustav Adolph's underage daughter [[Christina of Sweden]] upon her father's death. He left two children of which we are aware: his illegitimate son [[Gustav Gustavsson af Vasaborg|Gustav, Count of Vasaborg]], and his legitimate daughter and successor, queen [[Christina of Sweden]]. ===Alternative View=== The German Socialist [[Franz Mehring]] (1846 - 1919) wrote a b
illion unsafe abortions occur around the world annually and that 68,000 of these result in the death of a woman. {{ref|unsafe1}} Complications of unsafe abortion are said to account, globally, for approximately 13% of all [[maternal death|maternal mortalities]], with regional estimates including 12% in [[Asia]], 25% in [[Latin America]], and 13% in [[sub-Saharan Africa]]. {{ref|unsafe2}} [[Health education]], access to [[family planning]], and improvements in [[healthcare]] during and after abortion have been proposed to address this phenomenon. {{ref|unsafe3}} ==Abortion debate== [[Image:Prolife-DC.JPG|thumb|right|240px||Pro-life activists in Washington, DC stage a silent demonstration before the Supreme Court.]] {{main|abortion debate}} Over the course of the [[history of abortion]], induced abortions have been a source of considerable [[debate]] and [[controversy]] regarding the morality and legality of this practice. An individual's position on the complex [[ethical]], [[moral]], [[philosophical]], [[biological]], and [[legal]] issues have a strong relationship with that individual's [[value system]]. A person's position on abortion may be best described as a combination of their personal beliefs on the morality of abortion, and that person's beliefs on the ethical scope and responsibility of legitimate [[government|governmental]] and legal [[authority]]. Another factor for many individuals is [[religion|religious]] doctrine (see [[religion and abortion]]). Abortion debates, especially pertaining to [[abortion law]]s, are often spearheaded by [[advocacy|advocacy groups]] belonging to one of two camps. Most often those in favor of legal prohibition of abortion describe themselves as [[pro-life]] while those against legal restrictions on abortion describe themselves as [[pro-choice]]. Both are used to indicate the central principles in arguments for and against abortion: &quot;Is the fetus a human being with a fundamental right to ''life''?&quot; for pro-life advocates, and, for those who are pro-choice, &quot;Does a woman have the right to ''choose'' whether or not to have an abortion?&quot; In both public and private debate, arguments presented in favor of or against abortion focus on either the moral permissibility of an induced abortion, or justification of [[laws]] permitting or restricting abortion. Arguments on morality and legality tend to collide and combine, complicating the issue at hand. Debate also focuses on whether the [[pregnancy|pregnant]] woman should have to notify and/or have the [[consent]] of others in distinct cases: a [[minor (law)|minor]] her parents; a [[marriage|legally-married]] or [[common-law marriage|common-law]] wife her husband; or a pregnant woman the biological father. In a 2003 [[Gallup]] poll in the [[United States]], 72% of respondents were in favor of spousal notification, with 26% opposed; of those polled, 79% of males and 67% of females responded in favor. {{ref|abortiondebate1}} ===Public opinion=== Political sides have largely been divided into [[moral absolutism|absolutes]]. The abortion debate, as such, tends to center around individuals who hold strong positions. However, public opinion varies from poll to poll, country to country, and region to region: *'''Australia''': In a February 2005 [[AC Nielsen]] poll, as reported in [[The Age]], 56% thought the [[Abortion in Australia|current abortion laws]], which generally allow abortion for the sake of life or health, were &quot;about right,&quot; 16% want changes in law to make abortion &quot;more accessible,&quot; and 17% want changes to make it &quot;less accessible.&quot; {{ref|publicopinion1}} A 1998 poll, conducted by Roy Morgan Research, asked, &quot;Do you approve of the termination of unwanted pregnancies through surgical abortion?&quot; 65% of the [[Australia| Australians]] polled stated that they approved of surgical abortion and 25% stated that they disapproved of it. {{ref|publicopinion2}} * '''Canada''': A recent poll of [[Canadians]], conducted in April 2005 by [[Gallup]], found that 52% of those polled want abortion laws to &quot;remain the same,&quot; 20% want the laws to be &quot;less strict,&quot; and 24% would prefer that the laws become &quot;more strict.&quot; An earlier Gallup poll, from December 2001, asked, &quot;Do you think abortions should be legal under any circumstances, legal only under certain circumstances or illegal in all circumstances and in what circumstances?&quot; 32% of Canadians responded that they believe abortion should be legal in all circumstance, 52% that it should be legal in certain circumstances, and 14% that it should be legal in no circumstances. See [[Abortion in Canada]]. *'''Ireland''': A 1997 [[Irish Times]]/MRBI poll of the [[Republic of Ireland|Republic of Ireland's]] electorate found that 18% believe that abortion should never be permitted, 35% that one should be allowed in the event that the woman's life is threatened, 18% if her health is at risk, 28% that &quot;an abortion should be provided to those who need it,&quot; and 5% were undecided. {{ref|publicopinion3}} * '''The United Kingdom''': An online [[YouGov]]/[[Daily Telegraph]] poll in August 2005 found that 30% of [[The United Kingdom| Britons]] would back a measure to reduce the legal limit for abortion to 20 weeks, 19% support a limit of 12 weeks, 9% support a limit of less than 12 weeks, and 25% support maintaining the current limit of 24 weeks. 6% responded that abortion should never be allowed while 2% said it should be permitted throughout the entirety of pregnancy. {{ref|publicopinion4}} * '''The United States''': In a January 2006 [[CBS News]] poll, which asked, &quot;What is your personal feeling about abortion?&quot;, 27% said that abortion should be &quot;permitted in all cases,&quot; 15% that it should be &quot;permitted, but subject to greater restrictions than it is now,&quot; 33% that it should be &quot;permitted only in cases such as rape, incest or to save the woman's life,&quot; 17% that it should &quot;only be permitted to save the woman's life,&quot; and 5% that it should &quot;never&quot; be permitted. {{ref|publicopinion5}} A November 2005 [[Pew Research Center]] poll asked &quot;In 1973 the Roe versus Wade decision established a woman's constitutional right to an abortion, at least in the first three months of pregnancy. Would you like to see the Supreme Court completely overturn its Roe versus Wade decision, or not?&quot;, with 29% indicating they want it overturned, and 65% that they do not. {{ref|publicopinion6}} ==Abortion law== {{main|Abortion law}} [[Image:AbortionLawsMap.png|thumb|250px|right|International status of abortion law]] The [[Soviet Union]] (1920) and [[Iceland]] (1935) were some of the first countries to generally allow abortion. The second half of the twentieth century saw the liberalization of abortion laws in many other countries. In 1973, the [[U.S. Supreme Court]] struck down state laws banning abortion, ruling that such laws violated an inferred [[right to privacy]] in the [[U.S. Constitution]]. The [[Supreme Court of Canada]], similarly, discarded its criminal code regarding abortion in 1988, after ruling that such restrictions violated the security of person guaranteed to women under in the [[Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms]] in the case of [[R. v. Morgentaler]]. Canada later struck down provincial regulations of abortion in the case of [[R. v. Morgentaler (1993)]]. [[Ireland]], on the other hand, added an [[Eighth Amendment of the Constitution of Ireland| amendment]] to its [[Constitution of Ireland|Constitution]] in 1983 by popular referendum, recognizing &quot;the right to life of the unborn&quot; (see [[Abortion in Ireland]]). Current laws pertaining to abortion are diverse. Religious, moral, and cultural sensibilities continue to influence abortion laws throughout the world. The [[right to life]], the right to [[liberty]], and the right to [[security of person]] are major issues of [[human rights]] that are sometimes used as justification for the existence or the absence of laws controlling abortion. Many countries in which abortion is legal require that certain criteria be met in order for an abortion to be obtained, often, but not always, using a [[trimester]]-based system to regulate the window in which abortion is still legal to perform: * In the [[United States]], some states impose a 24-hour waiting period before the procedure, prescribe the distribution of information on [[fetal development]], or require that parents be contacted if their [[Minor (law)|minor]] daughter requests an abortion. * In the [[United Kingdom]], as in some other countries, two doctors must first certify that an abortion is medically or socially necessary before it can be performed. Other countries, in which abortion is illegal, will allow one to be performed in the case of [[rape]], [[incest]], or danger to the pregnant woman's life or health. A handful of nations ban abortion entirely, such as [[Chile]], [[El Salvador]], and [[Malta]]. ==See also== *[[Abortion in Australia]] *[[Abortion in Canada]] *[[Abortion in Ireland]] *[[Abortion in the United Kingdom]] *[[Abortion in the United States]] *[[Adoption]] *[[Partial-birth abortion]] *[[Pregnancy]] *[[Religion and abortion]] *[[Selective reduction]] *[[Self-induced abortion]] *[[Wrongful abortion]] ==Sources== #{{note|miscarriage1}} &quot;[http://wuphysicians.wustl.edu/dept.asp?pageID=8&amp;ID=35 Reproductive Endocrinology and Infertility: Recurrent Pregnancy Loss (Recurrent Miscarriage)].&quot; (n.d.) Retrieved [[2006-01-18]] from Washington University School of Medicine, Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology web site. #{{note|incidence2}} Henshaw, Stanley K., Singh, Susheela, &amp; Haas, Taylor. (1999). [http://www.guttmacher.org/pubs/journals/25s3099.html The Incidence of Abortion Worldwide]. ''International Family Planning Perspectives, 25 (Supplement)'', 30–8. Retrieved [[2006-0
ntire army and the different regiments and corps. The official flag of the Army as a whole is the [[Union Flag]], flown at ratio 3:5. A non-ceremonial flag also exists, which is used at recruiting events, military events and exhibitions. Whilst at war, the Union Flag is always used, and this flag represents the Army on the [[Cenotaph]] in [[Whitehall]], [[London]] (the UK's memorial to war dead). A British Army ensign also exists for vessels commanded by a commissioned officer, the [[Blue Ensign]] defaced with the Army badge. However, there are currently no commissioned vessels in the Army. Each line regiment (except the Rifle Regiments) also has its own flags, known as [[Colours, standards and guidons|the Colours]] - the Regimental Colour and the Queen's Colour. These colours have been taken into batle in the past and serve as a great sense of pride to the regiment. There is great variation in the different regimental colours. Typically the colour has the regiment's badge in the centre. ==Ranks and insignia== &lt;!--Do not subst the template(s)--&gt; {| style=&quot;border:1px solid #8888aa; background-color:#f7f8ff; padding:5px; font-size:95%; margin: 0px 12px 12px 0px;&quot; {{Ranks and Insignia of NATO/Army/Blank}} {{Ranks and Insignia of NATO/Army/United Kingdom}} |- align = center |Abbreviation||FM||Gen.||Lt-Gen.||Maj-Gen.||Brig.||Col.||Lt-Col.||Maj.||Capt.||Lt.||2nd Lt. |- |colspan = 5| * &lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt; Now an honorary or wartime rank only. |} {| style=&quot;border:1px solid #8888aa; background-color:#f7f8ff; padding:5px; font-size:95%; margin: 0px 12px 12px 0px;&quot; {{Ranks and Insignia of NATO Armies/OR/Blank}} {{Ranks and Insignia of NATO Armies/OR/United Kingdom}} |} Every regiment and corps has its own distinctive insignia, such as [[cap badge]], [[beret]] and [[stable belt]]. ==See also== *[[British military history]] *[[British Army Casualties during Operation TELIC]] *[[UK topics]] ==External links== {{commonscat|British Army}} * [http://www.army.mod.uk/ British Army Website] * [http://www.1914-1918.net/ The British Army in the Great War] * [http://www.arrse.co.uk/ The British Army Rumour Service - an unofficial site for news, gossip and discussion.] * [http://web2.airmail.net/napoleon/foreigners_British_army.htm British Army during the Napoleonic Wars] * Tom Wall, ''[[New Statesman]]'', [[6 December]] [[2004]], [http://www.newstatesman.com/200412060006.htm &quot;Our boy soldiers&quot;] *[http://www.royalmagazine.net/ Women in the armed forces] {{British Military}} [[Category:British Army| ]] [[de:British Army]] [[es:Ejército Británico]] [[fr:British Army]] [[no:British Army]] [[sv:Brittiska armén]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Bruin</title> <id>4888</id> <revision> <id>40385931</id> <timestamp>2006-02-20T05:03:10Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>X-Flare-x</username> <id>667374</id> </contributor> <comment>linked to Archaic</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Bruin''' is a name for the [[brown bear]] (''Ursos arctos''), or for any [[bear]], usually poetically or [[Archaic|archaically]]. The word entered the [[English language]] via [[William Caxton]]'s [[1485]] translation of a [[Flemish (linguistics)|Flemish]] version of the legend of [[Reynard|Reynard the Fox]]. ''Bruin'' is the bear, named for his color; the [[Middle Dutch]] word for brown is ''bruun''. It is a popular [[nickname]] and [[mascot]] in sports. Some teams using this name include ''Professional sports'' * [[Boston Bruins]], [[National Hockey League]] * [[Providence Bruins]], [[American Hockey League]] ''Collegiate sports'' * [[Belmont University]] * [[Bellevue University]] * [[Bethany College (California)]] * [[University of California, Los Angeles]] (UCLA) * [[George Fox University]] ''High school sports'' * [[Twin Falls High School|Twin Falls High School (Idaho)]] *[[Bruin, Pennsylvania]] is a borough of [[Butler County, Pennsylvania]] in the [[United States]]. *'''BRUIN''' is an [[acronym]] for [[Brown University Interactive Language|&lt;b&gt;BR&lt;/b&gt;own &lt;b&gt;U&lt;/b&gt;niversity &lt;b&gt;IN&lt;/b&gt;teractive Language]], a [[programming language]] developed at [[Brown University]] for the [[IBM]] [[System/360]]. *BRUIN was also the name of the [[British Army]]'s tactical communications system deployed in northwestern [[Europe]] from the [[1960s]] to [[1985]]. {{disambig}}</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Big rig</title> <id>4889</id> <revision> <id>15903139</id> <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>Conversion script</ip> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Automated conversion</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Semi-trailer]] </text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Bayesian probability</title> <id>4890</id> <revision> <id>40788240</id> <timestamp>2006-02-23T00:46:22Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>67.52.43.206</ip> </contributor> <comment>/* Applications of Bayesian probability */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">In the [[philosophy of mathematics]] '''Bayesianism''' is the tenet that the [[mathematics|mathematical]] theory of [[probability]] is applicable to the degree to which a person believes a [[proposition]]. Bayesians also hold that [[Bayes' theorem]] can be used as the basis for a rule for updating beliefs in the light of new information &amp;mdash;such updating is known as ''[[Bayesian inference]].'' In this sense, Bayesianism is an application of the probability [[calculus]] and a [[probability interpretations|probability interpretation]] of the term ''probable'', or &amp;mdash;as it is usually put &amp;mdash;an ''interpretation of probability''. == Controversy == A quite different interpretation of the term ''probable'' has been developed by [[Frequency probability|frequentists]]. In this interpretation, what are ''probable'' are not propositions entertained by believers, but events considered as members of collectives to which the tools of statistical analysis can be applied. The Bayesian interpretation of probability allows probabilities to be assigned to all propositions (or, in some formulations, to the events signified by those propositions) independently of any reference class within which purported facts can be thought to have a [[relative frequency]]. Although Bayesian probability is not relative to a reference class, it is relative to the subject: it is not inconsistent for different persons to assign different Bayesian probabilities to the same proposition. For this reason Bayesian probabilities are sometimes called ''personal probabilities'' (although there are theories of personal probability which lack some features that have come to be identified with Bayesianism). Although there is no reason why different interpretations (senses) of a word cannot be used in different contexts, there is a history of antagonism between Bayesians and frequentists, with the latter often rejecting the Bayesian interpretation as ill-grounded. The groups have also disagreed about which of the two senses reflects what is commonly meant by the term 'probable'. To illustrate, whereas both a frequency probability and a Bayesian probability (of, e.g., 0.5) could be assigned to the proposition that the next tossed coin will land heads, only a Bayesian probability could be assigned to the proposition, entertained by a particular person, that there was life on Mars a billion years ago—because this assertion is made without reference to any population relative to which the [[relative frequency]] could be defined. == History of Bayesian probability == [[image:Thomasbayes.jpg|thumb|right|Thomas Bayes. (The correct identification of this portrait has been [http://www.york.ac.uk/depts/maths/histstat/bayespic.htm questioned].)]] &quot;Bayesian&quot; probability or &quot;Bayesian&quot; theory is named after [[Thomas Bayes]] (1701? — 1761), who proved a special case of what is called [[Bayes' theorem]]. The term ''Bayesian'', however, came into use only around [[1950]], and in fact it is not clear that Bayes would have endorsed the very broad interpretation of probability now called &quot;Bayesian.&quot; [[Pierre-Simon Laplace|Laplace]] independently proved a more general version of Bayes' theorem and put it to good use in solving problems in celestial mechanics, medical statistics and, by some accounts, even [[jurisprudence]]. Laplace, however, didn't consider this theorem to be of fundamental philosophical importance for probability theory. He endorsed the [[classical definition of probability|classical interpretation]] of probability, as did everyone else at his time. The application of probability calculus to subjective belief which later became an important aspect of the &quot;Bayesian&quot; approach was proposed for the first time by the philosopher [[Frank P. Ramsey]] in his book ''The Foundations of Mathematics'' from 1931. Ramsey himself saw this interpretation as merely a complement to a [[frequency probability|frequency interpretation]] of probability. The one taking this interpretation seriously for the first time was the statistician [[Bruno de Finetti]] in 1937. The first detailed theory came in 1954 in the book ''The Foundations of Statistics'' by the mathematician and statistician [[Leonard Jimmie Savage|L. J. Savage]]. Bayesian probability is a measure of the degree of belief a person has in some proposition. Several attempts have been made to operationalize the intuitive notion of a &quot;degree of belief&quot;. The most common approach is based on [[Gambling|betting]]: a degree of belief is reflected in the odds and stakes that the subject is willing to bet on the proposition in question. When beliefs have degrees, the theorems of the probability calculus become criteria for the rationality of se
nd saw the ball trundling towards the [[advertising]] hoardings at the far corner, that he realised he'd managed to divert the ball over the bar - he'd known he got a touch but still assumed the ball had gone in. England were not being well received by the locals after cutting comments made about Mexico prior to the tournament by Ramsey, but spontaneous applause rang around the [[Guadalajara, Jalisco]] stadium as Banks got back into position to defend the resulting corner. Pelé, who'd begun to celebrate a goal when he headed the ball, would later describe the save as the greatest he'd ever seen. Brazil still won 1-0 - Jairzinho guided a shot past Banks in the second half - but England missed chances to get something, with [[Jeff Astle]] infamously putting the ball wide of an open goal and [[Alan Ball (footballer)|Alan Ball]] striking the crossbar. England ultimately joined Brazil in the last eight after a win in the final group game against [[Czechoslovakia national football team|Czechoslovakia]]. The reward was a rematch of the 1966 final against West Germany. ==England vs West Germany 1970== The day before the game Banks and England's hopes of making further inroads into the World Cup were dented when he started to complain of an upset stomach. He subsequently spent long periods in the [[bathroom]] and despite rest and medication, he did not seem to be recovering in time. But on the day of the game, he offered a glimmer of hope to Ramsey when he said he felt better and asked for a fitness test. He caught a few balls and did some short sprints but something was not right and Ramsey decided he couldn't risk him. Bonetti was summoned to take his place. The overheard remark by Ramsey after Banks' absence from the game was confirmed was: ''&quot;Of all the players to lose, we had to lose him.&quot;'' Bonetti played fine for an hour and England went into a commanding 2-0 lead, with Peters scoring against the Germans again after [[Alan Mullery]] had put the defending champions ahead. Ramsey then substituted Bobby Charlton, freeing the dangerous [[Franz Beckenbauer]] from his marking duties. Beckenbauer duly hit a low shot under the body of Bonetti, who had been slow to react, and the Germans had hope. In the last ten minutes, veteran striker [[Uwe Seeler]] looped a back header over Bonetti to take the game into extra time; then [[Gerd Müller]] smashed home the winner in the added period. [[Conspiracy|Conspiracies]] began to surface that Banks had been &quot;nobbled&quot; by someone in England's hotel and that his food had been somehow spiked. This was dismissed by Banks, who watched the game on his hotel TV and saw England go 2-0 ahead. After another visit to the bathroom, he returned to his bed and, feeling rough and sleepy, switched off his TV set to take a nap, assuming the match was won. He was woken by his second understudy, Stepney, who came to his room to signal the devastating final score with his fingers. ==England's No.1 (1970-1972)== Banks did not play in England's first game after the World Cup, with Ramsey electing to give his old understudy Shilton a debut against [[East Germany national football team|East Germany]] at Wembley. This would be a sign of things to come, but not for a little while. Banks would play in ten of the next 12 internationals as England tried to qualify for the [[1972 European Football Championship|1972 European Championships]] but lost yet again to West Germany prior to the finals stage. During this period, Banks was also involved in a notorious incident with Manchester United's [[George Best]] who, while playing against England for [[Northern Ireland national football team|Northern Ireland]], flicked the ball out of Banks' hands and headed it into the net as the protesting goalkeeper chased him. The goal was disallowed for ungentlemanly conduct and England won 1-0, but Banks was left feeling rather embarrassed. At club level, Banks came up with his second most famous save when spectacularly palming a vicious penalty from his England team-mate Hurst over the crossbar as Stoke defeated [[West Ham United F.C.|West Ham United]] in the semi final of the [[1972]] League Cup. Banks duly reached his third League Cup final and won it for the second time, when Stoke beat Chelsea 2-1 at Wembley. Having lost two FA Cup finals, Banks' attempts to be luckier with Stoke in the competition fell agonisingly short as [[Arsenal F.C.|Arsenal]] beat them in the semi finals of both the [[1971]] and 1972 competitions. Banks played his 73rd England game in a 1-0 win over Scotland at [[Hampden Park]] on [[27th May]] 1972 and was awarded the ''[[Football Writers' Association|Football Writers' Association Footballer Of The Year]]'' honour. He was 34-years-old and at the peak of his abilities and powers. He began the next season with Stoke in his usual unflappable manner, but then his top-flight career would be suddenly and violently brought to an end. ==A new life== On [[22nd October]] [[1972]], while driving home from a session with the Stoke [[physiotherapist]], Banks lost control of his car which ended up in a ditch. He lost consciousness and was rushed to hospital. When he came round, he was informed that though he had not suffered any life-threatening injury, he had lost the sight of one eye. He considered trying to resume his career as a goalkeeper but even he had to accept that his restricted vision was an obvious barrier to maintaining his goalkeeping livelihood. Shilton became England's number one and, it was he whom Stoke bought in [[1974]] as Banks' long-term replacement. Banks went into scouting, managed non-league side [[Telford United F.C.|Telford United]] and did some work on the commercial side of football. He then went to play as a named superstar in the [[North American Soccer League|NASL]] for [[Fort Lauderdale Strikers]] alongside his old nemesis Best. He later began a business which distributed tickets for big events to corporate clients, but this fell into a mini-scandal when he received a restricted ban on getting tickets for the FA Cup final after some attributed to his company fell into the wrong hands. Banks met his [[wife]] Ursula while on national service in Germany and they married after he returned to England. He now lives in quiet retirement but is still regarded, as a [[Channel 4]] poll to find England's greatest XI showed recently, as the best goalkeeper England has ever produced, and many would claim no goalkeeper in the world has been better. Banks was an Inaugural Inductee to the [[English Football Hall of Fame]] in 2002.[http://www.nationalfootballmuseum.com/Hall%20of%20Fame/gordonbanks.htm] He was awarded an honorary doctorate from [[Keele University]] in February 2006. {{start box}} {{succession box|title=[[FWA Footballer of the Year|Football Writers' Association Footballer of the Year]]|before=[[Frank McLintock]] |after=[[Pat Jennings]]|years=1972}} {{end box}} [[Category:1937 births|Banks, Gordon]] [[Category:Living people|Banks, Gordon]] [[Category:FIFA 100|Banks, Gordon]] [[Category:Football (soccer) goalkeepers|Banks, Gordon]] [[Category:English footballers|Banks, Gordon]] [[Category:England footballers|Banks, Gordon]] [[Category:Chesterfield F.C. players|Banks, Gordon]] [[Category:Leicester City F.C. players|Banks, Gordon]] [[Category:Stoke City F.C. players|Banks, Gordon]] [[Category:NASL players|Banks, Gordon]] [[Category:Officers of the British Empire|Banks, Gordon]] [[de:Gordon Banks]] [[fi:Gordon Banks]] [[fr:Gordon Banks]] [[gl:Gordon Banks]] [[it:Gordon Banks]] [[he:גורדון בנקס]] [[no:Gordon Banks]] [[sv:Gordon Banks]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Ganglion</title> <id>12278</id> <revision> <id>40303073</id> <timestamp>2006-02-19T17:47:54Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Rmky87</username> <id>325543</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>dablinked spinal ganglia</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:DRG Chicken e7.jpg|thumb|340px|This is a dorsal root ganglion (DRG) from a chicken embryo (around stage of day 7) after incubation overnight in NGF growth medium stained with anti-neurofilament antibody. You can see the axons growing out of the ganglion.]] In [[vertebrate]] [[anatomy]], a '''ganglion''' is a [[biological tissue|tissue]] mass that contains the [[dendrite]]s and cell bodies (or &quot;somata&quot;) of [[neuron|nerve cell]]s, in most case ones belonging to the [[PNS|peripheral nervous system]]. Within the [[central nervous system]] such a mass is often called a [[nucleus (neuroanatomy)|nucleus]]. An interconnected group of ganglia is called a [[plexus]]. There are two major groups of ganglia: [[spinal ganglion|spinal ganglia]] and [[autonomic ganglion|autonomic ganglia]]. The former contains the cell bodies of [[sense|sensory]] [[nerve]]s and the latter contains the cell bodies of [[autonomic nervous system|autonomic]] nerves. In the [[autonomic nervous system]], fibers extending from the [[Central nervous system | CNS]] to the ganglion are known as ''preganglionic fibers'', while those from the ganglion to the effector organ are called ''postganglionic fibers''. ==See also== *[[nervous system]] *[[neuron]] *[[ganglion cell]] *[[ganglion cyst]] [[Category:Neuroscience]] [[Category:Central nervous system]] [[Category:Peripheral nervous system]] [[Category:Medical terms]] [[de:Ganglion (Nervensystem)]] [[es:Ganglio]] [[fr:Ganglion]] [[it:Ganglio]] [[pt:Gânglio nervoso]] [[sv:Ganglion]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Guessing game</title> <id>12279</id> <revision> <id>39124005</id> <timestamp>2006-02-10T21:42:32Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Bluebot</username> <id>527862</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Bringing &quot;External links&quot; and &quot;See also&quot; sections in line with the [[Wikipedia:Manual of Style|Manual of Style]]
ch profiles do not contain personal information (name, address, etc.), they have been subject of some privacy concerns. According to the same survey, a large percentage of Internet users are unable to delete cookies. ==Browser settings== Most modern browsers support cookies. However, a user can usually also choose whether cookies should be used or not. The following are common options{{ref|faq}}: cookies are never accepted; the browser asks the user whether to accept every individual cookie; cookies are always accepted. [[Image:Mozilla-cokie.png|right|thumb|200px|The [[Mozilla]] cookie manager: in the list, cookie names with associated domains]] The browser may also include the possibility of better specifying which cookies have to be accepted or not. In particular, the user can typically choose one or more of the following options: reject cookies from specific domains; disallow third-party cookies (see below); accept cookies as non-persistent (expiring when the browser is closed); and allow a server to set cookies for a different domain. Additionally, browsers may also allow users to view and delete individual cookies. Most browsers supporting JavaScript allow the user to see the cookies that are active with respect to a given page by typing &lt;code&gt;javascript:alert(&quot;Cookies: &quot;+document.cookie)&lt;/code&gt; in the browser [[URL]] field. Some browsers incorporate a cookie manager for the user to see and selectively delete the cookies currently stored in the browser. The [[P3P]] specification include the possibility for a server to state a privacy policy, which specifies which kind of information it collects and for which purpose. These policies include (but are not limited to) the use of information gathered using cookies. According to the P3P specification, a browser can accept or reject cookies by comparing the privacy policy with the stored user preferences or ask the user, presenting them the privacy policy as declared by the server. ==Privacy and third-party cookies== Cookies have some important implications on the [[privacy]] and [[anonymity]] of Web users. While cookies are only sent to the server setting them or one in the same [[Internet domain]], a Web page may contain images or other components stored on servers in other domains. Cookies that are set during retrieval of these components are called ''third-party cookies''. [[Image:Thirdparty.png|thumb|300px|In this fictional example, an advertising company has placed banners in two Web sites (which do not show any banner in reality). Hosting the banner images on its servers and using third-party cookies, the advertising company is able to track the browsing of users across these two sites.]] Advertising companies use third-party cookies to track a user across multiple sites. In particular, an advertising company can track a user across all pages where it has placed advertising images or [[Web bug]]s. Knowledge of the pages visited by an user allows the advertisment company to target advertisment to the user's presumed preferences. The possibility of building a profile of users has been considered by some a potential privacy threat, still when the tracking is done on a single domain but especially when tracking is done across multiple domains, which is done using third-party cookies. For this reason, some countries have legislation about cookies. The [[United States]] government has set strict rules on setting cookies in 2000 after it was disclosed that the White House drug policy office used cookies to track computer users viewing its online antidrug advertising to see if they then visited sites about drug making and drug use. In 2002, privacy activist [[Daniel Brandt]] found that the [[CIA]] had been leaving persistent cookies in people's computers for ten years. When notified it was violating policy, CIA stated that these cookies were not intentionally set and stopped setting them{{ref|cbsnews}}. On [[December 25]], [[2005]], Brandt discovered that the [[National Security Agency]] had been leaving two persistent cookies on visitors' computers due to a software upgrade. After being informed, the National Security Agency immediately disabled the cookies {{ref|asspress}} The [http://europa.eu.int/smartapi/cgi/sga_doc?smartapi!celexapi!prod!CELEXnumdoc&amp;lg=en&amp;numdoc=32002L0058&amp;model=guichett 2002 European Union telecommunication privacy Directive] contains rules about the use of cookies. In particular, Article 5, Paragraph 3 of this directive mandates that storing data (like cookies) in a user's computer can only be done if: first, the user is provided information about how this data is used; and second, the user is given the possibility of denying this storing operation. However, this article also states that storing data that is necessary for technical reasons is exempted from this rule. This directive was expected to have been applied since October 2003, but a [http://europa.eu.int/information_society/policy/ecomm/doc/implementation_enforcement/annualreports/10threport/sec20041535vol1en.pdf December 2004 report] says (page 38) that this provision was not applied in practice, and that some member countries ([[Slovakia]], [[Latvia]], [[Greece]], [[Belgium]], and [[Luxembourg]]) did not even transpose it. The same report suggests a thorough analysis of the situation in the Member States. ==Drawbacks of cookies== Besides privacy concerns, there are some other reasons why cookies have been opposed: they do not always accurately identify users, and they can be used for security attacks. ===Inaccurate identification=== If more than one browser is used on a computer, each has a separate storage area for cookies. Hence cookies do not identify a person, but a combination of a user account, a computer, and a Web browser. Thus, a single person who has multiple sets of cookies if they use multiple accounts, computers, or browsers. On the other hand, cookies do not differentiate between multiple users who share a computer and browser, if they do not use different [[user account]]s. ===Cookie theft=== During normal operation, cookies are sent back and forth between a server (or a group of servers in the same domain) and the computer of the browsing user. Since cookies may contain sensitive information (user name, a token used for authentication, etc.), their values should not be accessible to other computers. On the other hand, cookies sent on ordinary HTTP sessions are visible to all users who can listen in on the network using a [[packet sniffer]]. These cookies should therefore not contain sensitive data. This problem can be overcome by using the [[https: URI scheme]], which invokes [[Transport Layer Security]] to encrypt the connection. [[Image:Cookie-theft.svg|thumb|200px|Cookie theft: a cookie that should be only exchanged between a server and a client is sent to another party.]] [[Cross site scripting]] allows the value of cookies to be sent to servers that are normally not sent these values. Modern browsers allow execution of pieces of code retrieved from the server. If cookies are accessible during execution, their value may be communicated in some form to servers that should not access them. The process allowing an unauthorized party to receive a cookie is called ''cookie theft'', and encryption does not help against this attack{{ref|xss}}. This possibility is typically exploited by attackers on sites that allow users to post [[HTML]] content. By embedding a suitable piece of code in an HTML post, an attacker may receive cookies of other users. Knowledge of these cookies can then be exploited by connecting to the same site using the stolen cookies, thus being recognized as the user whose cookies have been stolen. [[Image:Cookie-poison.svg|thumb|200px|Cookie poisoning: an attacker sends a server an invalid cookie, possibly modifying a valid cookie sent it from the server.]] ===Cookie poisoning=== While cookies are supposed to be stored and sent back to the server unchanged, an attacker may modify the value of cookies before sending them back to the server. If, for example, a cookie contains the total value a user has to pay for the items in their shopping basket, changing this value exposes the server to the risk of making the attacker pay less than the supposed price. The process of tampering with the value of cookies is called ''cookie poisoning'', and is sometimes used after cookie theft to make an attack persistent. [[Image:Cookie-cooking.svg|thumb|200px|In cross-site cooking, the attacker exploits a browser bug to send an invalid cookie to a server.]] ===Cross Site Cooking=== Each site is supposed to have its own cookies: &lt;code&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;http://evil.com&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/code&gt; should not be able to set cookies that a browser sent to another site &lt;code&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;http://good.com&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/code&gt;. [[Cross Site Cooking]] vulnerabilities in web browsers allows mallicious sites to break this rule. This is similar to cookie poisoning, but the attacker exploits non-malicious users with vulnerable browsers, instead of attacking the actual site directly. The goal of such attacks may be to perform [[session fixation]]. ==Alternatives to cookies== Some of the operations that can be realized using cookies can also be realized using other mechanisms. However, these alternatives to cookies have their own drawbacks, which make cookies usually preferred to them in practice. Most of the following alternatives allow for user tracing, even if not as reliably as cookies. As a result, privacy is an issue even if cookies are rejected by the browser or not set by the server. ===IP address=== An unreliable technique for tracing users is based on storing the [[IP address]]es of the computers requesting the pages. This technique has been available since the introduction of the World Wide Web, as downloading pages requires the server holding them to know the IP address of the computer running th
Among the legal heritage from Norman law is the [[Clameur de haro|Clameur de Haro]]. ==Geography== [[Image:Jethou Herm Sark viewed from Jersey.jpg|thumb|Viewed from Jersey's north coast, Jethou, Herm and Sark are hazy outlines on the horizon]] The inhabited islands of the Channel Isles are [[Jersey]], [[Guernsey]], [[Alderney]], [[Sark]], [[Herm]] (the main islands); [[Jethou]], [[Brecqhou]] (Brechou), and [[Lihou]]. All of these except Jersey are in the Bailiwick of Guernsey, but the [[Minquiers and Ecréhous]], uninhabited groups of islets, are part of the Bailiwick of Jersey. [[Burhou]] lies off Alderney. As a general rule, the larger islands have the ''-ey'' suffix, and the smaller ones have the ''-hou'' suffix; this is believed to be from the [[Old Norse]] ''ey'' and ''holmr'' respectively. There is another small island [[Chausey]], south of Jersey - not generally included in the geographical definition of the Channel Islands but occasionally as a 'Channel Island' in English despite its French jurisdiction. It is part of France and is incorporated in the commune of Granville ([[Manche]]), and although popular with visitors from France, it is rarely visited by Channel Islanders as there are no direct transport links from the other islands. In official Channel Island French, the Islands are called ''Îles de la Manche'', while in France, the term ''Îles anglo-normandes'' (Anglo-Norman isles) is used to refer to the British ''Channel Islands'' in contrast to other islands in the channel. Chausey is referred to as an ''Île normande'' (as opposed to ''anglo-normande''). ''Îles Normandes'' and ''Archipel Normand'' have also historically been used in Channel Island French to refer to the islands as a whole. The very large tidal variation provides an environmentally rich inter-tidal zone around the islands. ==Economy== Tourism is the major industry in the smaller islands (with some agriculture). Jersey and Guernsey have, since the [[1960s]], relied on financial services. Guernsey's horticultural and glasshouse activities have been more significant than in Jersey, and Guernsey has maintained light industry as a higher proportion of its economy than Jersey. Jersey's economy since the [[1980s]] has been substantially more reliant on finance. Both Bailiwicks issue their own banknotes and coins, which circulate freely in all the islands alongside UK coinage and Bank of England and Scottish banknotes. ''See: [[Guernsey pound]] and [[Jersey pound]]'' ==Transport and Communications== Since [[1969]], Jersey and Guernsey have operated postal administrations independently of the UK's [[Royal Mail]], with their own postage stamps, which can only be used for postage in their respective Bailiwicks. UK stamps are no longer valid, but mail to the Islands, and to the [[Isle of Man]], is still treated as UK inland. However, it was not until the early [[1990s]] that the Islands joined the [[UK postcodes|UK's postcode]] system, Jersey postcodes using the initials JE and Guernsey using GY. Jersey always operated its own [[telephone]] services independently of the UK's General Post Office, but Guernsey did not establish its own telephone services until [[1969]]. Both Islands still form part of the [[UK telephone numbering plan]], but [[Ofcom]] in the UK does not have responsibility for regulatory and licensing issues on the Islands. The Channel Islands have their own country-code top-level-domains ([[ccTLD]]s) on the internet, managed by a single registry based in Alderney. The ccTLDs are [[.gg]] for the Bailiwick of Guernsey (including Alderney and Sark) and [[.je]] for the Bailiwick of Jersey. Alderney has a large and growing internet gambling industry. Each of the three largest islands has a distinct vehicle registration scheme: * Guernsey (GBG)- simply a number, up to five digits; * Jersey (GBJ) - ''J'' followed by up to seven digits (''JSY'' vanity plates are also issued); * Alderney (GBA) - ''AY'' followed by up to five digits (though it seems that four digits are the most that have been used). In Sark - where most motor traffic is prohibited - the few vehicles (nearly all tractors) on the island do not display plates. ==Culture== ''Main article: [[Culture of Jersey]], [[Culture of Guernsey]]'' Culturally, the [[Norman language]] predominated in the Islands until the [[19th century]], when increasing influence from English-speaking settlers and easier transport links led to anglicisation. [[Victor Hugo]] spent many years in exile, first in Jersey and then in Guernsey where he wrote ''Les Misérables''. Guernsey is also the setting of Hugo's later novel, ''Les travailleurs de la mer'' (The Toilers of the Sea). The annual ''Muratti'', the inter-Island [[football]] match, is considered the sporting event of the year - although, thanks to broadcast coverage, it no longer attracts the crowds of spectators travelling between the islands that occurred during the [[20th century]]. Channel Island sportsmen and women compete in the [[Commonwealth Games]] for their respective Islands, and the Islands have been enthusiastic supporters of the [[Island Games]]. Shooting is a popular sport - islanders have won Commonwealth medals in this discipline. Guernsey's traditional colour for sporting and other purposes is [[green]], and Jersey's is [[red]]. [[Image:Crapaud St Helier Jersey.jpg|thumb|This statue of a [[toad|crapaud]] in St. Helier represents the traditional nickname for Jersey people]] The main islanders have traditional animal nicknames: *Guernsey: ''les ânes'' (&quot;donkeys&quot; in French and Jèrriais) - The steepness of St. Peter Port streets required beasts of burden, but Guernsey people also claim it is a symbol of their strength of character. *Jersey: ''crapauds'' (&quot;toads&quot; in French and Jèrriais) - Jersey has toads and snakes that Guernsey lacks. *Sark: ''corbins'' (&quot;crows&quot; in [[Sercquiais]], [[Dgèrnésiais]] and [[Jèrriais]]) - Crows could be seen from sea on the island's coasts. *Alderney: ''lapins'' (&quot;rabbits&quot;) - The island is noted for its warrens. [[Christianity]] was brought to the islands around the [[6th century]]; according to tradition, Jersey was evangelized by Saint [[Helier]], Guernsey by Saint [[Samson of Dol]] and other smaller islands were occupied at various times by monastic communities representing strands of [[Celtic Christianity]]. At the [[Reformation]], the islands turned [[Calvinism|Calvinist]] under the influence of an influx of French-language pamphlets published in Geneva. [[Anglicanism]] was imposed in the [[17th century]], but the non-conformist tendency re-emerged with a strong adoption of [[Methodism]]. The presence of long-term [[Catholicism|Catholic]] communities from France and seasonal workers from Brittany and Normandy added to the mix of denominations among the population. ''See also [[Music of the Channel Islands]]'' ==Other islands in the English channel== There are other islands in other stretches of the English Channel that are not traditionally included within the grouping of Channel Islands. Among these are [[Île d'Ouessant|Ouessant/Ushant]], [[Bréhat]], [[Île de Batz]], and [[Îles Saint-Marcouf]] (under French jurisdiction), and the [[Isle of Wight]], and [[Isles of Scilly]] (under UK jurisdiction). ==External links== *[http://www.mapquest.com/maps/map.adp?formtype=address&amp;searchtype=address&amp;country=GB&amp;addtohistory=&amp;address=&amp;city=alderney&amp;zipcode= Map of Alderney] *[http://www.mapquest.com/maps/map.adp?formtype=address&amp;searchtype=address&amp;country=GB&amp;addtohistory=&amp;address=&amp;city=guernsey&amp;zipcode= Map of Guernsey, Herm, and Sark] *[http://www.mapquest.com/maps/map.adp?formtype=address&amp;searchtype=address&amp;country=GB&amp;addtohistory=&amp;address=&amp;city=jersey&amp;zipcode= Map of Jersey] *[http://www.channelisles.net .GG and .JE Domain Registry] *[http://www.alderney.gov.gg States of Alderney] *[http://www.gov.gg States of Guernsey] *[http://www.gov.je States of Jersey] *[http://www.sark.gov.gg Seigneur of Sark] {{Channel Islands}} [[Category:Guernsey]] [[Category:Jersey]] [[Category:Channel Islands|*]] [[Category:Archipelagoes]] [[Category:Special territories]] [[af:Kanaaleilande]] [[bs:Kanalska ostrva]] [[ca:Illes Anglonormandes]] [[cs:Normanské ostrovy]] [[da:Kanaløerne]] [[de:Kanalinseln]] [[es:Islas del Canal]] [[eo:Manikinsuloj]] [[fr:Îles anglo-normandes]] [[gl:Illas do Canal]] [[ko:채널 제도]] [[id:Kepulauan Channel]] [[is:Ermarsundseyjar]] [[it:Isole del Canale]] [[he:איי התעלה]] [[nl:Kanaaleilanden]] [[ja:チャンネル諸島]] [[no:Kanaløyene]] [[pl:Wyspy Normandzkie]] [[pt:Ilhas do Canal]] [[ro:Insulele Canalului]] [[simple:Channel Islands]] [[sk:Normanské ostrovy]] [[fi:Kanaalisaaret]] [[sv:Kanalöarna]] [[zh:海峽群島]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Comedy film</title> <id>5644</id> <revision> <id>39077631</id> <timestamp>2006-02-10T15:41:59Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>195.37.79.149</ip> </contributor> <comment>disambiguation from [[Spoof]] to [[Parody]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Airplane DVD.jpg|right|thumb|220px|''[[Airplane!]]'' is considered by some critics to be one of the funniest movies of all time.]] A '''comedy film''' is a [[film]] laced with [[humor]] or that may seek to provoke [[laughter]] from the audience. Along with [[drama]], [[horror film|horror]] and [[science fiction film|science fiction]], [[comedy]] is one of the largest [[genre]]s of the medium. A [[comedy of manners]] film satirizes the manners and affectations of a social class, often represented by stock characters. The plot of the comedy is often concerned with an illicit love affair or some other scandal, but is generally less important than its witty and sometimes bawdy dialogue. This form of comedy has a long ancestry, dating back to ''[[Much Ado about Nothing]]'' by [[William Shakespeare]]. In a [[fish
sociate the word &quot;evolution&quot; mainly with [[Common descent|common descent]], the theory that all life arose from one common ancestor. Many people believe that there is enough evidence to call this a fact, too. However, common descent is still not the theory of evolution, but just a fraction of it (and a part of several quite different theories as well). The theory of evolution not only says that life evolved, it also includes mechanisms, like mutations, natural selection, and genetic drift, which go a long way towards explaining how life evolved.{{ref|theory_def2}} ==Common ID Arguments Disproved== The following are some common arguments against evolution and why they are wrong ===Evolution has never been observed=== Biologists observe evolution occurring all the time, as they define evolution as a change in the gene pool of a population over time. One example is insects developing a resistance to pesticides over the period of a few years. Even most Creationists recognize that evolution at this level is a fact. What they don't appreciate is that this rate of evolution is all that is required to produce the diversity of all living things from a common ancestor.{{ref|no_1}} Another example is the evolution of [[Salamander|Ensatina Salamanders]] in the Western United States. One ancestral species in [[Oregon]] spread southward and populated the [[San Joaquin Valley]]. Once the salamanders had spread south and converged into one area, two non-interbreeding species had emerged. In other words, adaptations to a changing environment as they spread south resulted in enough variation to prevent interbreeding and therefore creating, by definition, two separate [[species]].{{ref|no_2}} Even without these direct observations, it would be wrong to say that evolution has not been observed. Evidence isn't limited to seeing something happen before your eyes. Evolution makes predictions about what we would expect to see in the fossil record, comparative anatomy, genetic sequences, geographical distribution of species, etc., and these predictions have been verified many times over. The number of observations supporting evolution is overwhelming. What has not been observed is one animal abruptly changing into a radically different one, such as a frog changing into a cow. This is not a problem for evolution because evolution doesn't propose occurrences even remotely like that. In fact, if we ever observed a frog turn into a cow, it would be very strong evidence against evolution.{{ref|no_3}} Evolution has been observed at a microscopic level as many bacteria species have become immune to certain antibiotics that have worked on them in the past. At the same time bacteria of the same species with no immunity are killed by the antibiotics but the immune ones remain to reproduce. This is an example of both evolution and natural selection. ===Evolution violates the Second Law of Thermodynamics=== This statement of an alleged violation shows more a misconception about [[thermodynamics]] than about evolution. The second law of thermodynamics says, &quot;No process is possible in which the sole result is the transfer of energy from a cooler to a hotter body.&quot;{{ref|2LOTA}} In and of itself, this statement does not appear to have aught to do with evolution. However, the confusion arises when the second law is phrased in another equivalent way, &quot;The entropy of a closed system cannot decrease.&quot; Entropy is an indication of unusable energy and often corresponds to intuitive notions of disorder or randomness. Creationists thus misinterpret the 2nd law to say that things invariably progress from order to disorder. However, they neglect the fact that life is not a closed system. The sun provides more than enough energy to drive things. If a mature tomato plant can have more usable energy than the seed it grew from, why should anyone expect that the next generation of tomatoes can't have more usable energy still? Creationists sometimes try to get around this by claiming that the information carried by living things lets them create order. However, not only is life irrelevant to the second law, but order from disorder is common in nonliving systems, too. Snowflakes, sand dunes, tornadoes, stalactites, graded river beds, and lightning are just a few examples of order coming from disorder in nature; none require an intelligent program to achieve that order. In any nontrivial system with lots of energy flowing through it, you are almost certain to find order arising somewhere in the system. If order from disorder is supposed to violate the 2nd law of thermodynamics, why is it ubiquitous in nature? The thermodynamics argument against evolution displays a misconception about evolution as well as about thermodynamics, since a clear understanding of how evolution works should reveal major flaws in the argument. Evolution says that organisms reproduce with only small changes between generations (after their own kind, so to speak). For example, animals might have appendages which are longer or shorter, thicker or flatter, lighter or darker than their parents. Occasionally, a change might be on the order of having four or six fingers instead of five. Once the differences appear, the theory of evolution calls for differential reproductive success. For example, maybe the animals with longer appendages survive to have more offspring than short-appendaged ones. All of these processes can be observed today. They obviously don't violate any physical laws.{{ref|2LOT}} ===There are no transitional fossils=== A [[Transitional fossil|transitional fossil]] is one that looks like it is from an organism intermediate between two lineages, meaning it has some characteristics of lineage A, some characteristics of lineage B, and probably some characteristics part way between the two. Transitional fossils can occur between groups of any [[Taxonomy|taxonomic level]], such as between species, between [[Order (biology)|orders]], etc. Ideally, the transitional fossil should be found stratigraphically between the first occurrence of the ancestral lineage and the first occurrence of the descendant lineage, but evolution also predicts the occurrence of some fossils with transitional morphology that occur after both lineages. There's nothing in the theory of evolution which says an intermediate form (or any organism, for that matter) can have only one line of descendants, or that the intermediate form itself has to go extinct when a line of descendants evolves. To say there are no transitional fossils is simply false. [[Paleontology]] has progressed a bit since [[Origin of Species|''The Origin of Species'']] was published, uncovering thousands of transitional fossils, by both the temporally restrictive and the less restrictive definitions. The fossil record is still spotty and always will be; erosion and the rarity of conditions favorable to fossilization make that inevitable. Also, transitions may occur in a small population, in a small area, and/or in a relatively short amount of time; when any of these conditions hold, the chances of finding the transitional fossils goes down. Still, there are still many instances where excellent sequences of transitional fossils exist. Some notable examples are the transitions from reptile to mammal, from land animal to early whale, and from early ape to human. The misconception about the lack of transitional fossils is perpetuated in part by a common way of thinking about categories. When people think about a category like &quot;dog&quot; or &quot;ant,&quot; they often subconsciously believe that there is a well-defined boundary around the category, or that there is some eternal ideal form (for philosophers, the [[Platonic realism|Platonic idea]]) which defines the category. This kind of thinking leads people to declare that Archaeopteryx is &quot;100% bird,&quot; when it is clearly a mix of bird and reptile features (with more reptile than bird features, in fact). In truth, categories are man-made and artificial. Nature is not constrained to follow them, and it doesn't. Some Creationists claim that the hypothesis of [[Punctuated equilibrium|punctuated equilibrium]] was proposed by [[Niles Eldredge]] and [[Stephen Jay Gould]] to explain gaps in the fossil record.{{ref|tf2}} Actually, it was proposed to explain the relative rarity of transitional forms, not their total absence, and to explain why speciation appears to happen relatively quickly in some cases, gradually in others, and not at all during some periods for some species. In no way does it deny that transitional sequences exist.{{ref|tf1}} In fact, both Gould and Eldredge are outspoken opponents of Creationism, with Gould having stated, &quot;But paleontologists have discovered several superb examples of intermediary forms and sequences, more than enough to convince any fair-minded skeptic about the reality of life's physical genealogy.&quot;{{ref|tf3}} ===Random chance=== &quot;The theory of evolution says that life originated, and evolution proceeds, by random chance.&quot; There is probably no other statement which is a better indication that the arguer does not comprehend evolution. [[Chance]] certainly plays a large part in evolution, but this argument completely ignores the fundamental role of [[natural selection]], and selection is the very opposite of chance. Chance, in the form of mutations, provides genetic variation, which is the raw material that natural selection has to work with. From there, natural selection sorts out certain variations. Those variations which give greater reproductive success to their possessors (and chance ensures that such beneficial mutations will be inevitable) are retained, and less successful variations are weeded out. When the environment changes, or when organisms move to a different environment, different variations are selected, leading eventually to different species. Harmful mutations us
, the city experienced a brief boom. In sports, the Indians won the [[1948 World Series]] and the Browns dominated the NFL. Businesses proclaimed that Cleveland was the &quot;best location in the nation.&quot; The city's population reached its peak of 914,808, and in 1949 Cleveland was named an [[All-America City Award|All-America City]] for the first time. By the 1960s, however, heavy industries began to slump and residents sought new housing in the suburbs. The city also began witnessing racial unrest, culminating in the [[Hough Riots]] on [[July 18]]–23, 1966, and the [[Glenville Shootout]] on [[July 23]]–25, 1968. The city's nadir is often considered to be its [[default (finance)|default]] on its loans on [[December 15]], [[1978]], when under Mayor [[Dennis Kucinich]] it became the first major American city to enter default since the Great Depression. National media began referring to Cleveland as &quot;the mistake by/on the lake&quot; around this time, in reference to both the city's financial difficulties as well as a 1969 fire on the Cuyahoga River where the oil and waste on the river's surface caught on fire. The city has struggled to shed this nickname ever since, though in recent times the national media have been much kinder to the city, using it as the poster child for downtown revitalization and urban renaissance. The metropolitan area began a recovery thereafter under Mayors [[George Voinovich]] and [[Michael R. White]]. Redevelopment within the city limits has been strongest in the downtown area near the [[Gateway Sports and Entertainment Complex|Gateway complex]]—consisting of [[Jacobs Field]] and [[Quicken Loans Arena]]—and near the [[Rock and Roll Hall of Fame]] and [[Cleveland Browns Stadium]]. Although Cleveland was hailed by the media as the &quot;Comeback City,&quot; many of the inner-city residential neighborhoods remain troubled, and the public school system continues to experience serious problems. [[Economic development]], retention of young professionals, and capitalizing upon its [[Lake Erie]] waterfront are current municipal priorities. ==Geography and climate== ===Geography=== [[Image:Public Square 1912.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Panorama of Public Square in 1912.]] Cleveland is located at {{coor dms|41|28|56|N|81|40|11|W|}}{{GR|1}}. According to the [[United States Census Bureau]]{{ref|census}}, the city has a total area of 82.4&amp;nbsp;[[square mile|mi&amp;sup2;]] (213.5&amp;nbsp;[[square metre|km&amp;sup2;]]). 77.6&amp;nbsp;mi&amp;sup2; (201.0&amp;nbsp;km&amp;sup2;) of it is land and 4.8&amp;nbsp;mi&amp;sup2; (12.5&amp;nbsp;km&amp;sup2;) of it is water. The total area is 5.87% water. The shore of [[Lake Erie]] is 569&amp;nbsp;[[foot (unit of length)|feet]] (173&amp;nbsp;[[metre|m]]) above [[above mean sea level|sea level]]; however, the city lies on a series of irregular bluffs lying roughly parallel to the lake. In Cleveland these bluffs are cut principally by the [[Cuyahoga River]], Big Creek, and Euclid Creek. The land rises quickly from the lakeshore. Public Square, less than a [[mile]] (2 km) inland, sits at an elevation of 650&amp;nbsp;feet (198&amp;nbsp;m), and Hopkins Airport, only five miles (8 km) inland from the lake, is at an elevation of 770&amp;nbsp;feet (235&amp;nbsp;m). Cleveland shares borders with the following suburbs: [[Bratenahl, Ohio|Bratenahl]], [[Brook Park, Ohio|Brook Park]], [[Brooklyn, Ohio|Brooklyn]], [[Brooklyn Heights, Ohio|Brooklyn Heights]], [[Cleveland Heights, Ohio|Cleveland Heights]], [[Cuyahoga Heights, Ohio|Cuyahoga Heights]], [[East Cleveland, Ohio|East Cleveland]], [[Euclid, Ohio|Euclid]], [[Fairview Park, Ohio|Fairview Park]], [[Garfield Heights, Ohio|Garfield Heights]], [[Lakewood, Ohio|Lakewood]], [[Linndale, Ohio|Linndale]], [[Maple Heights, Ohio|Maple Heights]], [[Newburgh Heights, Ohio|Newburgh Heights]], [[Parma, Ohio|Parma]], [[Rocky River, Ohio|Rocky River]], [[Shaker Heights, Ohio|Shaker Heights]], [[South Euclid, Ohio|South Euclid]], and [[Warrensville Heights, Ohio|Warrensville Heights]]. ===Cityscape=== Cleveland's downtown architecture is varied. Many of the city's government and civic buildings, including City Hall, the Cuyahoga County Courthouse, the [[Cleveland Public Library]], and [[Public Auditorium]] are clustered around an open mall and share a common [[neoclassical architecture]]. Built in the early 20th century, they are the result of the [[1903 in architecture|1903]] [[Group Plan]], and constitute one the most complete examples of [[City Beautiful movement|City Beautiful]] design in the United States. The [[Terminal Tower]], dedicated in [[1930 in architecture|1930]], was the tallest building in the United States outside [[New York City]] until [[1967 in architecture|1967]] and the tallest in the city until [[1991 in architecture|1991]]. It is a prototypical [[Beaux-Arts architecture|Beaux-Arts]] [[skyscraper]]. The two newer skyscrapers on Public Square, [[Key Tower]] (currently the tallest building in the state) and the [[BP Building]], combine elements of [[Art Deco]] architecture with [[Postmodern architecture|postmodern]] designs. Another of Cleveland's architectural treasures is [[Cleveland Arcade|The Arcade]] (sometimes called the Old Arcade), a five-story [[arcade (architecture)|arcade]] built in [[1890 in architecture|1890]].{{ref|clevehistory}} [[Image:Terminal Tower.jpg|thumb|right|300px|The [[Tower City Center|Terminal Tower complex]], with [[the Warehouse District]] and [[Lake Erie]] in the background.]] Running east from Public Square to University Circle is [[Euclid Avenue]], which at one time rivaled New York's [[Fifth Avenue (Manhattan)|Fifth Avenue]] for prestige and elegance. Known as &quot;Millionaire's Row&quot;, Euclid Avenue was world-renowned as the home of such internationally-known names as [[John D. Rockefeller|Rockefeller]], [[Marcus Hanna|Hanna]], and [[John Hay|Hay]]. The countywide [[Cleveland Metroparks]] system, often referred to as the &quot;Emerald Necklace&quot;, includes four parks in Cleveland. In the Big Creek valley sits the [[Cleveland Metroparks Zoo]], which contains the largest collection of primates of any zoo in the United States. The other three parks are Brookside Park and parts of the Rocky River and Washington Reservations. Apart from the Metroparks is Cleveland Lakefront State Park, which provides public access to Lake Erie. Among its six parks are Edgewater Park, located between the [[Cleveland Memorial Shoreway|Shoreway]] and Lake Erie just west of downtown, and [[Euclid Beach Park]] and Gordon Park on the east side. The City of Cleveland's Rockefeller Park, with its many Cultural Gardens honoring the city's ethnic groups, follows Doan Brook across the east side. ===Neighborhoods=== [[Downtown Cleveland]] includes mixed-use neighborhoods such as [[the Flats]] and [[the Warehouse District]], which are occupied by industrial and office buildings, and also by restaurants and bars. The number of downtown housing units in the form of [[condominium]]s, [[loft apartment|lofts]], and [[apartment]]s have increased over the past ten years. [[Image:P1220330.JPG|250px|left|thumb|The west bank of [[the Flats]] and the [[Cuyahoga River]] in [[downtown Cleveland]].]] Cleveland residents often define themselves in terms of whether they live on the west side or the east side of the [[Cuyahoga River]].{{ref|neighborhoods}} The west side of the city includes the following neighborhoods: Brooklyn Center, Clark-Fulton, Detroit-Shoreway, Cudell, Edgewater, [[Ohio City (Cuyahoga County), Ohio|Ohio City]], [[Old Brooklyn]], Stockyards, West Boulevard, and the four neighborhoods colloquially known as [[West Park, Cleveland|West Park]]: Kamm's Corners, Jefferson, Puritas-Longmead, and Riverside. The east side comprises the following neighborhoods: Buckeye-[[Shaker Square]], Central, [[Collinwood]], Corlett, Euclid-Green, Fairfax, Forest Hills, Glenville, Goodrich-Kirtland Park, Hough, Kinsman, Lee-Miles, Mount Pleasant, Nottingham, St. Clair-Superior, Union-Miles Park, [[University Circle]], [[Little Italy, Cleveland|Little Italy]], and Woodland Hills. Three neighborhoods in the Cuyahoga Valley are sometimes referred to as the south side: Industrial Valley, [[Slavic Village]] (North and South Broadway), and Tremont. Several inner-city neighborhoods have begun to [[gentrification|gentrify]] in recent years. Areas on both the west side (Ohio City, Tremont, and Edgewater) and the east side (Hough, Fairfax, and Little Italy) have been successful in attracting increasing numbers of artists, gays, and young professionals, which in turn is spurring new residential development.{{ref|gentrification}} Furthermore, a live-work [[zoning]] overlay for the city's near east side has facilitated the transformation of old industrial buildings into loft spaces for artists.{{ref|zoning}} ===Climate=== The shoreline is very close to due east-west from the mouth of the Cuyahoga west to [[Sandusky, Ohio|Sandusky]], but at the mouth of the Cuyahoga it turns sharply northeast. This feature is the principal contributor to the [[lake effect snow]] that is a mainstay of Cleveland (especially east side) weather from mid-November until the surface of Lake Erie freezes, usually in late January or early February. The lake effect causes snowfall totals to range greatly across the city; while Hopkins Airport has only reached 100&amp;nbsp;inches (254&amp;nbsp;cm) of snowfall in a given season three times since 1968{{ref|snowfall}}, seasonal totals approaching or exceeding 100&amp;nbsp;inches are not uncommon in an area known as the &quot;[[Snowbelt|Snow Belt]]&quot;, extending from the east side of Cleveland proper through the eastern suburbs and up the Lake Erie shore as far as [[Buffalo, New York|Buffalo]]. The all-time record high in Cleveland of 104 °[[Fahrenheit|F]] (40 °[[Degree Celsius|C]]) was established on [[June 25]], [[1988]], and the all-time record low of &amp;minus;20 °F (&amp;minus;29 °C)
n, 11.8% of those under the age of 18 and 5.3% of those 65 and older are living below the poverty line. [[Image:Goshen-indiana-courthouse.jpg|thumb|right|[[Elkhart County, Indiana|Elkhart County]] courthouse.]] == Trivia == *Former [[Notre Dame]] and [[NFL]] quarterback [[Rick Mirer]] is a native of Goshen. During his years quarterbacking at Notre Dame, he was often referred to as &quot;The Goshen Motion&quot;. His father, Ken, led the [[Goshen High School]] football team to a state title in 1978. *In [[2005]], Goshen based soccer club [[FC Indiana]] became the first North American women's team ever to win league and cup double by winning the [[Women's Premier Soccer League]] national championship and the [[US Open Cup]] national championship. == External links == {{Mapit-US-cityscale|41.582066|-85.836686}} * [http://www.goshen.edu/aboutgc/goshen.php City of Goshen] - informational page from [[Goshen College]] * [http://www.ci.goshen.in.us/ Goshen city government website] * [http://www.fcindiana.com/ FC Indiana] * [http://www.goshen.org/ Goshen Chamber of Commerce] * [http://www.city-data.com/city/Goshen-Indiana.html Goshen on citydata.com] - collection of statistics and graphs of Goshen demographics. [[Category:Cities in Indiana]] [[Category:Elkhart County, Indiana]] [[Category:Towns in Indiana]] [[Category:Goshen, Indiana]] [[io:Goshen, Indiana]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>GameCube</title> <id>12927</id> <revision> <id>28147330</id> <timestamp>2005-11-12T22:01:55Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>ReyBrujo</username> <id>139561</id> </contributor> <comment>Categorized</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Nintendo GameCube]] {{R from alternate spelling}}</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Greshams Law</title> <id>12928</id> <revision> <id>15910577</id> <timestamp>2004-09-24T01:51:34Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Michael Hardy</username> <id>4626</id> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Gresham's law]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Gallipoli</title> <id>12929</id> <revision> <id>42116202</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T22:52:14Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>151.196.46.162</ip> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}} '''Gallipoli''', called '''Gelibolu''' in modern [[Turkish language|Turkish]], ([[Greek language|Greek]]: Καλλίπολις), is a town in northwestern [[Turkey]]. The name derives from the [[Greek language|Greek]] ''Kallipolis'', meaning &quot;Beautiful City&quot;. It is located on the Gallipoli [[Peninsula]] (Gelıbolu Yarımadası), with the [[Aegean Sea]] to the west and the [[Dardanelles]] straits to the east. The Gallipoli Peninsula was known as [[Thracian Chersonese|&quot;Chersonesus Thracica&quot;]] in ancient times. The peninsula which was inhabitated by populations of the Byzantine Empire was gradually conquered by the [[Ottoman Empire]] starting from [[13th century]] onwards until [[15th century|the 15th]]. The [[Greeks]] living there were allowed to continue their everyday life. The peninsula did not see any more wars up until [[World War I]] when the [[British Empire]] allies trying to find a way to reach their troubled ally in the east, [[Imperial Russia]], decided to try to obtain passage to the east. The Ottomans set up defensive fortifications along the peninsula with [[German Empire|German]] help. == Battle of Gallipoli == {{main|Battle of Gallipoli}} In [[Australia]], [[New Zealand]] and [[Newfoundland]], Gallipoli is the name given to the Allied [[Battle of Gallipoli|Campaign]] on the peninsula during [[World War I]], usually known in [[United Kingdom|Britain]] as the Dardanelles Campaign and in Turkey as the Battle of Çanakkale. This was an attempt to push through the Dardanelles and capture [[İstanbul|Istanbul]]. On [[April 25]], [[1915]], as part of an allied force of British and [[France|French]] troops, the [[Australian and New Zealand Army Corps (army corps)|Australian and New Zealand Army Corps]] (ANZAC) landed at a small bay at the western end of the Peninsula (today officially called [[Anzac Cove]]). The campaign was relatively successful for the Turks and the Germans and a catastophe for Russia which eventually would lead to civil war partly due to this unsuccessful campaign. The Anzacs evacuated on [[December 19]], [[1915]] and the other elements of the invasion force a little later. There were around 180,000 Allied casualties and 220,000 Turkish casualties. This campaign has become a &quot;[[founding myth]]&quot; for both [[Australia]] and [[New Zealand]], and [[Anzac Day]] is still commemorated as a holiday in both countries. Many mementos of the Gallipoli campaign can be seen in the museum at the [[Australian War Memorial]] in [[Canberra]], Australia and at the [[Auckland War Memorial Museum]] in [[Auckland]], New Zealand. This campaign also put a dent in the armour of Winston Churchill who then the war minister had commisioned the plans to invade the Dardanelles. He talks about this campaign vividly in his memoirs The Gallipoli campaign also gave an important boost to the career of [[Mustafa Kemal]], who was at that time a little-known army commander. Kemal exceeded his authority and contravened orders in order to halt the Allied advance and eventually drive them back. He went on to found the modern Turkish state after the collapse of the [[Ottoman Empire]]. Gallipoli is the subject of a [[1981]] [[Gallipoli (film)|movie]] directed by [[Peter Weir]] and starring [[Mel Gibson]]. {{Districts of Çanakkale}} [[Category:Cities in Turkey]] [[Category:Battle of Gallipoli]] [[da:Gallipoli]] [[de:Halbinsel Gallipoli]] [[el:Καλλίπολις]] [[es:Gallípoli (ciudad)]] [[fr:Gelibolu]] [[nl:Gallipoli (schiereiland)]] [[pl:Gallipoli]] [[pt:Gallipoli]] [[fi:Gallipoli]] [[ru:Галлиполи]] [[sv:Gallipoli]] [[tr:Gelibolu, Çanakkale]] Winston Churchill was the First Lord of the Admiralty at the time of Gallipoli campaign and not the War Minister. Around 1917 he returned to public office as Minster of Munitions under Lloyd-George.</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Grammatical Voice</title> <id>12930</id> <revision> <id>15910579</id> <timestamp>2002-04-13T01:05:22Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Damian Yerrick</username> <id>1</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>de-cap title =&amp;gt; Grammatical voice</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Grammatical voice]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Grammatical voice</title> <id>12931</id> <revision> <id>42103382</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T21:21:52Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Ruakh</username> <id>34628</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>/* The passive voice in topic-prominent languages */ on second thought, tables are less ugly than preformatted text</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">In [[grammar]], '''voice''' is the relationship between the action or state expressed by a [[verb]], and its [[verb argument|argument]]s (subject, object, etc.). When the [[subject (grammar)|subject]] is the agent or actor of the verb, the verb is said to be in the '''active voice'''. When the subject is the patient, target or undergoer of the action, it is said to be in the '''passive voice'''. For example, ''The cat ate the mouse'' is active, but ''The mouse was eaten by the cat'' is passive. In a passive voice sentence, the subject and the direct object switch places. The direct object is ''promoted'' to subject, and the subject is ''demoted'' to an optional complement, that may be left out. ==The passive voice in English== In the [[English language]], the [[English passive voice]] is ''[[periphrasis|periphrastic]]''; that is, it is modelled using an ''ad hoc'' phrase structure with a different word order, an auxiliary verb and a participle of the main verb. In other languages, such as the [[Latin language]], the passive voice is simply marked on the verb by [[inflection]]: the passive voice uses different endings than the active voice. ==The middle voice== Some languages (e. g. [[Sanskrit]] and Classical [[Greek language|Greek]]) have a '''[[middle voice]]'''. An intransitive verb that appears active but expresses a passive action characterizes the English middle voice. For example, in ''The casserole cooked in the oven'', ''cooked'' is [[syntax|syntactically]] active but [[semantics|semantically]] passive, putting it in the middle voice. In Classical [[Greek language|Greek]], the middle voice is often reflexive, denoting that the subject acts on or for itself, such as &quot;The boy washes himself.&quot; or &quot;The boy washes.&quot; It can be transitive or intransitive. It can occasionally be used in a causative sense, such as &quot;The father causes his son to be set free.&quot; or &quot;The father ransoms his son.&quot; Many [[deponent verb]]s in [[Latin]] are also survivals of the [[Indo-European]] middle voice; many of these in turn survive as obligatory pseudo-[[reflexive verb]]s in the [[Romance language]]s such as [[French language|French]] and [[Spanish language|Spanish]]. ==Other grammatical voices== Some languages have even more grammatical voices. For example, in Classic [[Mongolian language|Mongolian]] there are five voices: active, passive, causative, reciprocal and cooperative. [[Ergative language]]s usually do not have a passive voice, since their syntactic structure does not agree with it; instead some have an [[antipassive voice]] that deletes the object of transitive verbs. ==The passive voice in topic-prominent languages== [[Topic-prominent language]]s like [[Mandarin (linguistics)|Mandarin]] tend not employ the passive voice as frequently. In Man
y seen in later [[Integrated circuit|IC]]-based microprocessors. This is largely because the term itself is inapplicable to earlier discrete component devices and has only come into use recently.&lt;br/&gt;For several years during the late 1990s and early 2000s, the focus in designing high performance general purpose CPUs was largely on highly superscalar IPC designs, such as the Intel [[Pentium 4]]. However, this trend seems to be reversing somewhat now as major general-purpose CPU designers switch back to less deeply pipelined high-TLP designs. This is evidenced by the proliferation of dual and multi core CMP designs and notably, Intel's newer designs resembling its less superscalar [[P6]] architecture. Late designs in several processor families exhibit CMP, including the [[x86-64]] [[Opteron]] and [[Athlon 64 X2]], the [[SPARC]] [[UltraSPARC T1]], IBM [[POWER4]] and [[POWER5]], as well as several [[video game console]] CPUs like the [[Xbox 360]]'s triple-core PowerPC design. # {{note|scalarvector}} Earlier the term '''scalar''' was used to compare the IPC (instructions per cycle) count afforded by various ILP methods. Here the term is used in the strictly mathematical sense to contrast with vectors. See [[scalar]] and [[vector (spatial)]]. # {{note|mmxsse}} Although SSE/SSE2/SSE3 have superseded MMX in Intel's general purpose CPUs, later [[IA-32]] designs still support MMX. This is usually accomplished by providing most of the MMX functionality with the same hardware that supports the much more expansive SSE instruction sets. &lt;/div&gt; ==References== &lt;div style=&quot;font-size: 90%&quot;&gt; * {{note label|Amdahl1964|Amdahl et al. 1964|a}} {{note label|Amdahl1964|Amdahl et al. 1964|b}} {{Citepaper publisher | Author = Amdahl, G. M., Blaauw, G. A., &amp; Brooks, F. P. Jr. | Title = Architecture of the IBM System/360 | Publisher = IBM Research | PublishYear = 1964 | URL = http://www.research.ibm.com/journal/rd/441/amdahl.pdf }} * {{note label|Brown2005|Brown 2005|a}} {{cite web | last = Brown | first = Jeffery | title = Application-customized CPU design | publisher = IBM developerWorks | url = http://www-128.ibm.com/developerworks/power/library/pa-fpfxbox/?ca=dgr-lnxw07XBoxDesign | year = 2005 | accessdate = 2005-12-17 }} * {{note label|dec1975|Digital Equipment Corporation 1975|a}} {{cite book | author = [[Digital Equipment Corporation]] | year = 1975 | month = November | title = LSI-11, PDP-11/03 user's manual | chapter = LSI-11 Module Descriptions | edition = 2nd edition | pages = 4-3 | publisher = Digital Equipment Corporation | location = Maynard, Massachusetts | url = http://www.classiccmp.org/bitsavers/pdf/dec/pdp11/1103/EK-LSI11-TM-002.pdf }} * {{note label|Garside1999|Garside et al. 1999|a}} {{Citepaper publisher | Author = Garside, J. D., Furber, S. B., &amp; Chung, S-H | Title = AMULET3 Revealed | Publisher = [[University of Manchester]] Computer Science Department | PublishYear = 1999 | URL = http://www.cs.manchester.ac.uk/apt/publications/papers/async99_A3.php }} * &lt;!-- {{note label|HennessyGoldberg1996|Hennessy &amp; Goldberg 1996|a}} --&gt; {{cite book | last = Hennessy | first = John A. | coauthors = Goldberg, David | title = Computer Architecture: A Quantitative Approach | publisher = Morgan Kaufmann Publishers | year = 1996 | id = ISBN 1-55-860329-8 }} * {{note label|MIPSTech2005|MIPS Technologies 2005|a}} {{Citepaper publisher | Author = MIPS Technologies, Inc. | Title = MIPS32® Architecture For Programmers Volume II: The MIPS32® Instruction Set | Publisher = [[MIPS Technologies]], Inc. | PublishYear = 2005 | URL = http://www.mips.com/content/Documentation/MIPSDocumentation/ProcessorArchitecture/doclibrary }} * {{note label|Smotherman2005|Smotherman 2005|a}} {{cite web | last = Smotherman | first = Mark | year = 2005 | url = http://www.cs.clemson.edu/~mark/multithreading.html | title = History of Multithreading | accessdate = 2005-12-19 }} * {{note label|vonNeumann1945|von Neumann 1945|a}} {{Citepaper publisher | Author = [[John von Neumann | von Neumann, John]] | Title = First Draft of a Report on the EDVAC | Publisher = Moore School of Electrical Engineering, [[University of Pennsylvania]] | URL = http://www.virtualtravelog.net/entries/2003-08-TheFirstDraft.pdf | PublishYear = 1945 }} * {{note label|weik1961|Weik 1961|a}} {{note label|weik1961|Weik 1961|b}} {{Citepaper publisher | Author = Weik, Martin H. | Title = A Third Survey of Domestic Electronic Digital Computing Systems | Publisher = [[Ballistics Research Laboratory | Ballistic Research Laboratories]] | URL = http://ed-thelen.org/comp-hist/BRL61.html | PublishYear = 1961 }} &lt;/div&gt; ==External links== ;Microprocessor designers *[http://www.amd.com/ Advanced Micro Devices] - [[Advanced Micro Devices]], a designer of primarily [[x86]]-compatible desktop oriented CPUs. *[http://www.arm.com/ ARM Ltd] - [[ARM Ltd]], one of the few CPU designers that profits solely by licensing their designs rather than manufacturing them. [[ARM architecture]] microprocessors are among the most popular in the world for embedded applications. *[http://www.freescale.com/ Freescale Semiconductor] (formerly of [[Motorola]]) - [[Freescale Semiconductor]], designer of several embedded and [[System-on-a-chip|SoC]] PowerPC based processors. *[http://www-03.ibm.com/chips/ IBM Microelectronics] - Microelectronics division of [[IBM]], which is responsible for many [[IBM POWER|POWER]] and [[PowerPC]] based designs, including many of the CPUs utilized in late [[video game console]]s. *[http://www.intel.com/ Intel Corp] - [[Intel]], a maker of several notable CPU lines, including [[IA-32]], [[IA-64]], and [[XScale]]. Also a producer of various peripheral chips for use with their CPUs. *[http://www.mips.com/ MIPS Technologies] - [[MIPS Technologies]], developers of the [[MIPS architecture]], a pioneer in [[RISC]] designs. *[http://www.sun.com/ Sun Microsystems] - [[Sun Microsystems]], developers of the [[SPARC]] architecture, a RISC design. *[http://www.ti.com/home_p_allsc Texas Instruments] - [[Texas Instruments]] semiconductor division. Designs and manufactures several types of low power microcontrollers among their many other semiconductor products. *[http://www.transmeta.com/ Transmeta] - [[Transmeta]] Corporation. Creators of low-power x86 compatibles like [[Crusoe]] and [[Efficeon]]. ;Further reading *[http://www.gamezero.com/team-0/articles/math_magic/micro/index.html Processor Design: An Introduction] - Detailed introduction to microprocessor design. Somewhat incomplete and outdated, but still worthwhile. *[http://computer.howstuffworks.com/microprocessor.htm How Microprocessors Work] *[http://arstechnica.com/articles/paedia/cpu/pipelining-2.ars/2 Pipelining: An Overview] - Good introduction to and overview of CPU pipelining techniques by the staff of [[Ars Technica]] *[http://arstechnica.com/articles/paedia/cpu/simd.ars/ SIMD Architectures] - Introduction to and explanation of SIMD, especially how it relates to desktop computers. Also by [[Ars Technica]] [[Category:Digital electronics]] [[Category:Computer hardware]] [[ar:وحدة المعالجة المركزية]] [[bg:Централен процесор]] [[bs:Procesor]] [[cs:Procesor]] [[da:Central Processing Unit]] [[de:Hauptprozessor]] [[eo:Procezilo]] [[es:CPU]] [[fa:پردازنده]] [[fi:Suoritin]] [[fr:Processeur]] [[he:מעבד]] [[hr:Procesor]] [[hu:CPU]] [[id:CPU]] [[it:CPU]] [[ja:CPU]] [[ko:중앙 처리 장치]] [[la:Processor centralis]] [[lt:Procesorius]] [[lv:Procesors]] [[ms:Unit Pemproses Pusat]] [[nl:Processor]] [[no:CPU]] [[pl:Procesor]] [[pt:Unidade Central de Processamento]] [[ru:Центральный процессор]] [[sk:CPU]] [[sl:Procesor]] [[sr:Процесор]] [[sv:CPU]] [[th:หน่วยประมวลผลกลาง]] [[vi:CPU]] [[zh:中央处理器]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Complex numbers</title> <id>5220</id> <revision> <id>15903444</id> <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>Conversion script</ip> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Automated conversion</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Complex_number]] </text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Carnivora</title> <id>5221</id> <revision> <id>40008321</id> <timestamp>2006-02-17T13:26:10Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Botteville</username> <id>347079</id> </contributor> <comment>/* Phylogeny */ clarified position of fossils as presented under Miacidae</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Taxobox | color = pink | name = Carnivora | image = Lion snarling.jpg | image_width = 200px | image_caption = [[Lion]] | regnum = [[Animal]]ia | phylum = [[Chordate|Chordata]] | classis = [[Mammal]]ia | ordo = '''Carnivora''' | ordo_authority = [[Thomas Edward Bowdich|Bowdich]], 1821 | subdivision_ranks = [[Family (biology)|Families]] | subdivision = [[Ailuridae]]&lt;br /&gt; [[Amphicyonid|Amphicyonidae]] †&lt;br /&gt; [[Canidae]]&lt;br /&gt; [[Felidae]]&lt;br /&gt; [[Herpestidae]]&lt;br /&gt; [[Hyaenidae]]&lt;br /&gt; [[Mephitidae]]&lt;br /&gt; [[Miacidae]] †&lt;br /&gt; [[Mustelidae]]&lt;br /&gt; [[Nandiniidae]]&lt;br /&gt; [[Nimravidae]] †&lt;br /&gt; [[Odobenidae]]&lt;br /&gt; [[Otariidae]]&lt;br /&gt; [[Phocidae]]&lt;br /&gt; [[Procyonidae]]&lt;br /&gt; [[Ursidae]]&lt;br /&gt; [[Viverravidae]] †&lt;br /&gt; [[Viverridae]] }} The diverse [[Order (biology)|order]] '''Carnivora''' (car-niv' o-ra)(L. ''caro,'' flesh, + ''vorare,'' to devour) includes over 260 placental [[mammal]]s. While the [[Giant Panda]] is an [[herbivore]], nearly all others eat meat as their primary diet item: some (like the [[Felidae|cat family]]) almost exclusively, others (like the bears and foxes) are more omnivorous. Members of Carnivora have a characteristic skull shape, and their [[dentition]] includes prominent canines and carnassials. ==Phylogeny== Older classification schemes divi
Haute-Savoie]] to the South. The altitude of Geneva is 373.6 m, and corresponds to the altitude of the largest of the [[Pierres du Niton]], two large rocks emerging from the lake which date from the last ice age. This rock was chosen by General [[Guillaume Henri Dufour]] as the reference point for all surveying in Switzerland [http://www.swisstopo.ch/en/basics/geo/faq/horizon]. The second main river of Geneva is the [[Arve River]] which flows into the [[Rhône River]] just west of the city centre. == Demographics == As of [[2004]], the population of the Commune (city) of Geneva was 185,526, while 438,500 people lived in the Canton of Geneva. In 2000, 645,000 people lived in the Geneva urban community, which extends into Vaud Canton and neighboring France. The population of the Canton is split between 145,200 people originally from Geneva (33.1%), 123,400 Swiss from other cantons (28.2%) and 169,000 foreigners (38.7%), from 180 different countries. Including people holding [[dual citizenship]], 54.4% of people living in Geneva hold a foreign passport. [http://www.geneve.ch/statistique/statistiques/domaines/domaine.asp?domaine=pop&amp;sousdomaine=pop&amp;vue=apercu] [http://www.swissinfo.org/sfr/swissinfo.html?siteSect=105&amp;sid=6160464] While Geneva is usually considered as a [[Protestant]] city, there are now more [[Roman Catholics]] (39.5%) than Protestants (17.4%) living in the Canton. 22% of the inhabitants indicate that they are not part of any religion, the rest being shared between [[Islam]] (4.4%), [[Judaism]] (1.1%), other religions and people who did not respond. [http://www.geneve.ch/statistique/statistiques/domaines/domaine.asp?domaine=cult_media&amp;sousdomaine=lang_religion&amp;vue=apercu] (2000 figures.) == International organizations == [[Image:Geneva - Switzerland - 2005 - 02.JPG|thumb|right|250px|Streets in the Old Town of Geneva]] Geneva is the seat of many [[international organisation]]s, including the European headquarters of the [[United Nations]] and several other international bodies, such as the [[World Health Organization]], the [[International Labour Organization]], the [[United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees]], the [[United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights]], the [[World Intellectual Property Organization]], the [[International Telecommunication Union]], the [[World Meteorological Organization]], the [[World Trade Organization]] and the [[Inter-Parliamentary Union]]. Geneva also hosts the European Organization for Nuclear Research, or [[CERN]], the [[International Organization for Standardization]], the [[World Council of Churches]], the [[World Wide Web Virtual Library]], the [[World Economic Forum]], the [[International Committee of the Red Cross]] and the [[International AIDS Society]]. Geneva was the seat of the [[League of Nations]] between [[1919]] and the league's dissolution in [[1946]]. It was first housed in the [[Palais Wilson]], and then in the [[Palais des Nations]], which now hosts the [[United Nations]]. ==Economy== The Geneva's economy is mainly services oriented. The city has an important and old [[Financial services|finance sector]], which is specialized in [[private banking]] (managing assets of about 1 trillion US$) and financing of [[international trade]]. It is also an important centre of [[Commodity markets|commodity trade]]. Geneva is the international headquarter of companies like [[Serono]], [[STMicroelectronics]], [[Société Générale de Surveillance]], [[Mediterranean Shipping Company S.A.|Mediterranean Shipping Company]] and [[SITA]]. Many other multinational companies like [[Procter &amp; Gamble]], [[DuPont]], [[Hewlett-Packard]], [[Reuters]], [[Japan Tobacco|JT International (JTI)]], [[Electronic Arts]] and [[Sun Microsystems]] have their European headquarters in the city too. There is a long tradition of [[Watch]]making ([[Rolex]], [[Patek Philippe &amp; Co.|Patek Philippe]], [[Baume et Mercier]], [[Franck Muller]]). Two major international producers of [[flavour]]s and [[fragrance]]s, [[Firmenich]] and [[Givaudan]], have their headquarters and main production facilities in Geneva. ==Infrastructure== ===Transportation=== The city is served by the [[Geneva Cointrin International Airport]]. It is connected to both the Swiss railway network [[SBB-CFF-FFS]], and to the [[France|French]] [[SNCF]] network, including direct connections to [[Paris]] by [[TGV]]. Geneva is also connected to the motorway systems of both Switzerland ([[A1 (Switzerland)|A1 motorway]]) and France. Public transport by [[bus]], [[trolleybus]] or [[tram]] is provided by ''[[Transports Publics Genevois]]'' (TPG). In addition to an extensive coverage the city centre, the network covers most of the municipalities of the Canton, with a few lines extending into France. Public transport by [[boat]] is provided by the [[Mouettes Genevoises]], who link the two banks of the Lake; however, their use is mostly touristic. Regional trains operated by [[SBB-CFF-FFS]] connect the main station of [[Cornavin]] with the airport's train station, and several smaller train stations outside the city center. Trains are currently not used for transportation inside the city; however, work has started on the CEVA (Cornavin - Eaux-Vives - Annemasse) project, first planned in [[1884]], which will connect the city's main train station with the Canton's public hospital, the Eaux-Vives station and [[Annemasse]], in France. The link between the main station and the [[classification yard]] of La Praille already exists; from there, the line will go mostly underground to the Hospital and the Eaux-Vives, where it will link to the existing line to France. [http://www.ceva.ch/menu/CEVA_accueil] === Utilities === [[Water]], [[natural gas]] and [[electricity]] are provided to the municipalities of the Canton of Geneva by the state-owned [http://www.sig-ge.ch/ Services Industriels de Genève] (or SIG). Most of the drinkable water (80%) is extracted from the [[Lake Geneva|lake]]; the remaining 20% is provided by [[groundwater]] originally formed by infiltration from the [[Arve River]]. 30% of the Canton's needs in electricity are locally produced, mainly by three [[hydroelectricity|hydroelectric]] [[dam]]s on the [[Rhone River]] (Seujet, Verbois and Chancy-Pougny). In addition, 13% of the electricity produced in the Canton is made from the heat induced by the burning of waste at the [[Waste management#Incineration|waste incineration facility]] of [http://www.sig-ge.ch/corporate/entreprise_sig/patrimoine/cheneviers.lbl Les Cheneviers]. The remaining needs (70%) are covered by imports from other cantons in Switzerland or other European countries; SIG buys only electricity produced by [[renewable energy|renewable methods]], and in particular does not use electricity produced using [[nuclear reactor]]s or [[fossil fuels]]. Natural gas is available in the City of Geneva, as well as in about two-thirds of the municipalities of the canton, and is imported from western Europe by the Swiss company [http://www.gaznat.ch/ Gaznat]. SIG also provides telecommunication facilities to carriers, service providers and large enterprises. From 2003 to 2005 &quot;Voisin, voisine&quot; a [[FTTH|Fibre to the Home]] pilot project with a [[Triple_play_(telecommunications)|Triple play]] offering was launched to test the end-user market in the Charmilles district. ==Education== Geneva is also home of one of the oldest universities of the world, the [[University of Geneva]], founded in [[1559]], and one of the most prestigious graduate schools of international relations, the [[Graduate Institute of International Studies]]. It is also home to the oldest international school in the world, the [[International School of Geneva]], founded in 1924 with the League of Nations. ==Culture== ===Landmarks and Sights=== [[Image:Geneva flowerclock.jpg|thumb|left|250px|The Flower Clock]] Notable sights in Geneva include the ''Flower Clock'', the ''Art and History Museum'', the ''International Red Cross and Red Crescent Museum'' and the [[Palais des Nations]], the European headquarters of the United Nations. The city's most noted landmark is a [[fountain]]: the [[Jet d'Eau]] (''water-jet''), situated in Lake Geneva. Its 140-metre-high water column is visible from many parts of the city. ===Media=== [[Image:Jet d'Eau - Geneva - Switzerland - September 2005 - 03.JPG|thumb|250px|right|[[Jet d'Eau]] in Geneva]] The city's main newspaper is the [[Tribune de Genève]], a daily newspaper founded on 1 February 1879 by [[James T. Bates]], with a readership of about 187,000. [[Le Courrier]], founded in [[1868]], was originally supported by the [[Roman Catholic Church]], but has been completely independent since [[1996]]. Mainly focused on Geneva, Le Courrier is trying to expand into other cantons in [[Romandy]]. Both [[Le Temps]] (headquartered in Geneva) and [[Le Matin]] are widely read in Geneva, but both journals actually cover the whole of [[Romandy]]. Geneva is covered by the different [[French language]] radio networks of the [[Swiss Broadcasting Corporation]], in particular the [[Radio Suisse Romande]]. While these networks cover the whole of [[Romandy]], special programs related to Geneva are sometimes broadcast on some of the local frequencies in the case of special events such as elections. Other local station broadcast from the city, including [http://www.radiolac.ch/ RadioLac] ([[FM]] 91.8 MHz), [http://radiocite.ch Radio Cité] (Christian Radio, FM 92.2 MHz), [http://www.onefm.ch OneFM] (FM 107.0 MHz, also broadcast in [[Vaud]]), and [[World Radio Geneva]] (FM 88.4 MHz), Switzerland's only English-language radio station. The main television channel covering Geneva is the [[Télévision Suisse Romande]]; while its headquarters are located in Geneva, the programs cover the whole of [[Romandy]] and are not specific to Geneva. [http://www.lemanbleu.ch Léman Bleu] is a local TV channel, founded in [[1996]] and distributed by c
*[[1829]] - [[Joseph Smith, Jr.]], founder of the [[Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints|The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]], commences translation of the [[Book of Mormon]], with [[Oliver Cowdery]] as his scribe. *[[1831]] - Emperor [[Peter I of Brazil|Pedro I of Brazil]] abdicates in favor of his son, [[Pedro II of Brazil|Pedro II]]. *[[1856]] - Foundation of [[Nelson College]], [[Nelson, New Zealand]]. *[[1862]] - [[American Civil War]]: [[Battle of Shiloh]] ends - [[Union Army]] under General [[Ulysses S. Grant]] defeat the [[Confederate States of America|Confederates]] near [[Shiloh, Tennessee]]. *[[1906]] - [[Mount Vesuvius]] erupts and devastates [[Naples]]. *1906 - The [[Algeciras Conference]] gives [[France]] and [[Spain]] control over [[Morocco]]. *[[1908]] - [[Herbert Henry Asquith]] takes office as [[Prime Minister of the United Kingdom]], from Sir [[Henry Campbell-Bannerman]] *[[1922]] - [[Teapot Dome scandal]]: [[United States Secretary of the Interior]] leases [[Teapot Dome]] [[petroleum]] reserves in [[Wyoming]]. *[[1927]] - First long distance [[public television]] broadcast ([[Washington, DC]] to [[New York City]], displaying the image of Commerce Secretary [[Herbert Hoover]]). *[[1933]] - The [[Law for the Restoration of the Professional Civil Service]], the first law meant to discriminate specifically against Jews is passed by the National Socialist regime in Germany. *[[1934]] - The [[Congress of the United States|U.S. Congress]] passes the [[Jones-Connally Farm-Relief Act]]. *[[1939]] - [[World War II]]: [[Italy]] invades [[Albania]]. *[[1940]] - [[Booker T. Washington]] becomes the first [[African American]] to be depicted on a [[United States]] [[postage stamp]]. *[[1943]] - First synthesis of [[LSD]], lysergic acid diethylamide, by Albert Hoffman *[[1945]] - [[World War II]]: The [[Japanese battleship Yamato|Japanese battleship ''Yamato'']] is sunk 200 miles north of [[Okinawa]] while in-route to a suicide mission. *1945 - [[Kantaro Suzuki]] becomes the [[List of Prime Ministers of Japan|42nd]] [[Prime Minister of Japan|Prime Minister]] of [[Japan]] *[[1946]] - [[Syria|Syria's]] independence from [[Vichy France]] is officially recognised *[[1948]] - The [[World Health Organization]] is established by the [[United Nations]]. *[[1952]] - The [[manga]] ''[[Astro Boy]]'' debuts in the monthly magazine ''Sh&amp;#333;nen''. *[[1953]] - [[Dag Hammarskjöld]] is elected [[United Nations Secretary General]]. *[[1954]] - U.S. President [[Dwight D. Eisenhower]] gives his &quot;[[domino theory]]&quot; speech during a news conference. *[[1955]] - [[Anthony Eden]] becomes [[Prime Minister of the United Kingdom]] *[[1956]] - [[Spain]] relinquishes its [[protectorate]] in [[Morocco]]. *[[1963]] - [[Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia|Yugoslavia]] is proclaimed to be a [[Socialist republic]] and [[Josip Broz Tito]] is named President for life. *[[1964]] - [[International Business Machines|IBM]] announces the [[System/360]] *[[1967]] - [[Six-Day War]]: [[Israel]]i fighters shoot down seven Syrian [[MIG-21]]s. *[[1968]] - [[Formula One]] racer [[Jim Clark (racing driver)|Jim Clark]] is killed in an accident during a Formula 2 race in [[Hockenheim]], [[Germany]]. *[[1969]] - The [[Internet]]'s symbolic birth date: publication of [[Request for Comments|RFC]] 1. *[[1977]] - German Federal Prosecutor [[Siegfried Buback]] and his driver are shot by two [[Red Army Faction]] members while waiting at a red light. *1977 - [[Toronto Blue Jays]] play their first-ever game of [[baseball]] against the [[Chicago White Sox]]. *[[1980]] - The [[United States]] severs diplomatic relations with [[Iran]] and imposes economic sanctions following the taking of American hostages on [[November 4]], [[1979]]. *[[1983]] - During [[STS-6]], astronauts [[Story Musgrave]] and [[Don Peterson]] perform the first [[space shuttle]] spacewalk (duration: 4 hours, 10 minutes). *[[1989]] - [[Soviet submarine Komsomolets]] sinks in the [[Barents Sea]] off the coast of [[Norway]] after a fire. 42 sailors die. *[[1990]] - [[Iran Contra Affair]]: [[John Poindexter]] is found guilty of five charges for his part in the scandal but the convictions were later reversed after an appeal. *[[1992]] - [[Republika Srpska]] announces its independence. *[[1994]] - Massacres of [[Tutsis]] begin in [[Kigali]], [[Rwanda]]. *[[1998]] - [[Citicorp]] and [[Travelers Group]] announce plans to merge creating the largest financial-services conglomerate in the world, [[Citigroup]]. *1998 - Singer [[George Michael]] is arrested in a [[Beverly Hills]] public [[restroom]] for &quot;[[cottaging|engaging in a lewd act]].&quot; *[[1999]] - [[Kosovo War]]: [[Kosovo]]'s main border crossings are closed by [[Serbia]]n forces to prevent ethnic [[Albania]]ns from leaving. *[[2001]] - [[Mars Odyssey]] is launched. *2001 - An M-17 helicopter crashes into mountain in south of [[Hanoi, Vietnam]] killing 16. *[[2003]] - US troops capture [[Baghdad]], [[Saddam Hussein]]'s regime falls two days later. *[[2005]] - The State of [[Connecticut]] allows same-sex civil unions. ==Births== *[[1506]] - Saint [[Francis Xavier]], Spanish founder of the Society of Jesus (d. [[1552]]) *[[1613]] - [[Gerhard Douw]], Dutch painter (d. [[1675]]) *[[1644]] - [[François de Neufville, duc de Villeroi]], French soldier (d. [[1730]]) *[[1648]] - [[John Sheffield, 1st Duke of Buckingham and Normanby]], English statesman and poet (d. [[1721]]) *[[1652]] - [[Pope Clement XII]] (d. [[1740]]) *[[1718]] - [[Hugh Blair]], Scottish preacher and man of letters (d. [[1800]]) *[[1727]] - [[Michel Adanson]], French botanist (d. [[1806]]) *[[1763]] - [[Domenico Dragonetti]], Italian composer *[[1770]] - [[William Wordsworth]], English poet (d. [[1850]]) *[[1772]] - [[Charles Fourier]], French philosopher (d. [[1837]]) *[[1803]] - [[James Curtiss]], Mayor of Chicago (d. [[1859]]) *[[1848]] - [[Randall Thomas Davidson]], [[Archbishop of Canterbury]] (d. [[1930]]) *[[1860]] - [[Will Keith Kellogg]], American cereal manufacturer (d. [[1951]]) *[[1867]] - [[Holger Pedersen]], Danish linguist (d. [[1953]]) *[[1870]] - [[Gustav Landauer]], German anarchist and revolutionary (d. [[1919]]) *[[1873]] - [[John McGraw (baseball)|John McGraw]], baseball player and manager (d. [[1934]]) *[[1883]] - [[Gino Severini]], Italian painter (d. [[1966]]) *[[1886]] - [[Ed Lafitte]], Baseball player (d. [[1971]]) *[[1889]] - [[Gabriela Mistral]], Chilean writer, [[Nobel Prize in Literature|Nobel Prize]] laureate (d. [[1957]]) *[[1890]] - [[Marjory Stoneman Douglas]], American conservationist and writer (d. [[1998]]) *[[1891]] - [[Ole Kirk Christiansen]], Danish inventor (d. [[1958]]) *[[1893]] - [[Allen Dulles]], American Central Intelligence Agency director (d. [[1969]]) *[[1897]] - [[Walter Winchell]], American broadcaster and journalist (d. [[1972]]) *[[1899]] - [[Robert Casadesus]], French pianist (d. [[1972]]) *[[1908]] - [[Percy Faith]], Canadian composer and musician (d. [[1976]]) *[[1915]] - [[Billie Holiday]], American singer (d. [[1959]]) *1915 - [[Henry Kuttner]], American writer (d. [[1958]]) *[[1917]] - [[R.G. Armstrong]], American actor *[[1918]] - [[Bobby Doerr]], baseball player *[[1919]] - [[Edoardo Mangiarotti]], Italian fencer *[[1920]] - [[Ravi Shankar (musician)]], Indian sitar player *[[1922]] - [[Mongo Santamaria]], Cuban musician (d. [[2003]]) *[[1924]] - [[Johannes Mario Simmel]], Austrian writer *[[1927]] - [[Babatunde Olatunji]], Nigerian drummer (d. [[2003]]) *[[1928]] - [[James Garner]], American actor *1928 - [[Alan J. Pakula]], American producer and director (d. [[1998]]) *1928 - [[James White (author)|James White]], Northern Irish science fiction writer (d. [[1999]]) *[[1929]] - [[Bob Denard]], French soldier *[[1930]] - [[Andrew Sachs]], British actor *[[1931]] - [[Donald Barthelme]], American author *[[1933]] - [[Wayne Rogers]], American actor *[[1934]] - [[Ian Richardson]], British actor *[[1935]] - [[Bobby Bare]], American musician *[[1936]] - [[Jean-Pierre Changuex]], French neuroscientist *[[1938]] - [[Jerry Brown]], American politician *1938 - [[Freddie Hubbard]], American jazz trumpeter *[[1939]] - [[Francis Ford Coppola]], American film director *1939 - Sir [[David Frost (broadcaster)|David Frost]], English broadcaster and television host *[[1944]] - [[Julia Phillips]], American film producer and writer (d. [[2002]]) *1944 - [[Gerhard Schröder]], [[Chancellor of Germany]] *[[1945]] - [[Joël Robuchon]], French chef *1945 - [[Megas|Magnús Þór Jónsson]] (Megas), Icelandic vocalist, songwriter and writer *[[1946]] - [[Colette Besson]], French runner *[[1949]] - [[John Oates]], American musician ([[Hall and Oates]]) *[[1951]] - [[Janis Ian]], American singer and songwriter *[[1954]] - [[Jackie Chan]], Hong Kong actor *1954 - [[Tony Dorsett]], American football player *[[1955]] - [[Werner Stocker]], German actor (d. [[1993]]) *[[1956]] - [[Charles Carreon]], American lawyer and author *1956 - [[Christopher Darden]], American [[O.J. Simpson]] prosecuter *[[1961]] - [[Pascal Olmeta]], French footballer *[[1962]] - [[Hugh O'Connor]], American actor (d. [[1995]]) *1962 - [[Alain Robert]], French rock and urban climber *[[1964]] - [[Russell Crowe]], New Zealand actor *[[1965]] - [[Bill Bellamy]], American actor and comedian *1965 - [[Alison Lapper]], British artist *[[1966]] - [[Gary Wilkinson]], English snooker player *[[1970]] - [[Leif Ove Andsnes]], Norwegian pianist *[[1971]] - [[Guillaume Depardieu]], French actor, son of [[Gérard Depardieu]] *[[1973]] - [[Carole Montillet]], French skier *[[1975]] - [[Tiki Barber]], New York Giants Running Back (American Football) *1975 - [[Ronde Barber]], Tampa Bay Buccaneers Cornerback (American Football) *[[1979]] - [[Tony Malone]], British designer and activist ==Deaths== *[[858]] - [[Pope Benedict III]] *[[1307]] - [[Joan of Acre]], daughter of [[Edward I of England]] (b. [[1271]]) *[[1498]] - King [[Charle
the family tree created by Don Rosa, Daphne Duck married Goosetave Gander and the two were Gladstone's parents; in Rosa's stories that is the case. In Rosa's story &quot;The Sign of the Triple Distelfink&quot;, first published on [[February 4]], [[1997]], he added the fact that Gladstone was born on the day of Daphne's birthday on [[1920]], under the protection sign of the Triple Distelfink, and that he has inherited his mother's luck. A number of recent [[Italy|Italian]] stories feature Gladstone's protector [[Goddess|goddess]] appearing in person. In those tales, the goddess is named [[Fortuna]], Goddess of Luck, whose equivalent in [[mythology]] is [[Tyche]], the Goddess of Luck in [[Greek mythology]]. Fortuna appears in one noteworthy tale, &quot;Gastone e il debole dalla Fortuna&quot; (&quot;Gladstone and the Struck of Luck&quot;), by [[Enricco Faccini]] and [[Augusto Macchetto]], first published on [[March 24]], [[1998]]. In this story, the Goddess takes mortal guise in order to be able to date her favorite duck, and appears to be love-struck with him. [[Image:DucktalesGladstone.jpg|thumb|260px|Gladstone as seen in ''DuckTales''.]]Gladstone appeared briefly in the [[animated series]] [[DuckTales]]. The episode &quot;A Dime Enough for Luck&quot; featured Gladstone as an unwitting stooge for [[Magica De Spell]] in one of her attempts to steal Scrooge's [[Number One Dime]]. (Probably not coincidentally, this was the thirteenth episode of DuckTales (see [[thirteen]] and [[numerology]]).) His [[voice actor]] was [[Rob Paulsen]], later noted for playing Pinky on the cartoon [[Pinky and the Brain]]. He makes a brief appearance in &quot;Dr. Jekyll &amp; Mr. McDuck&quot; in an auction scene, where he accidentally bids on an item that turns out to be valuable. This inspires Scrooge to bid on the next item - a trunk containing Dr. Jekyll's formula - which sets the plot in motion. He also made non-speaking cameo appearances in the episodes &quot;Sweet Duck of Youth&quot; and &quot;Till Nephews Do Us Part&quot;, as well as an episode of ''[[House of Mouse]]''. Otherwise, Gladstone is unknown to the world of animation, but he remains a prominent character of the [[Scrooge McDuck Universe]] and is strongly familiar to its readers. ==External links== *[http://coa.duckburg.dk/coa/c1/character.php/0/GL His profile in the Inducks] *[http://users.cwnet.com/xephyr/rich/dzone/hoozoo/gladstone.html Gladstone's profile on Disney's HooZoo] *[http://donaldduckcomics.com Comics with him and his rival Donald Duck] *[http://victorian.fortunecity.com/palace/439/characters/gladston.html His profile in a &quot;Who is Who in Duckburg&quot;] *[http://www.geocities.com/komixgreekpage/komix140.htm A Rosa interview on his view of Gladstone] *[http://us.imdb.com/Name?Paulsen,+Rob His voice actor's profile in the Internet Movie Database] [[Category:Characters in the Scrooge McDuck universe|Gander, Gladstone]] [[Category:Fictional ducks|Gander, Gladstone]] [[da:Fætter Højben]] [[de:Bewohner_von_Entenhausen#Gustav_Gans]] [[es:Glad Consuerte]] [[fr:Gontran Bonheur]] [[hu:Gúnár Gusztáv]] [[it:Gastone Paperone]] [[nl:Guus Geluk]] [[fi:Hannu Hanhi]] [[sv:Alexander Lukas]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Gordon Michael Woolvett</title> <id>13039</id> <revision> <id>37814325</id> <timestamp>2006-02-02T07:44:34Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>D6</username> <id>75561</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>adding [[category:Living people]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Gordon Michael Woolvett''' (born [[June 12]], [[1970]]) is a [[Canada|Canadian]]-born [[actor]] best known for his work as [[Seamus Zelazny Harper]] on the [[Television program|television series]] ''[[Andromeda (television)|Andromeda]]'' (2000-2005). Previous to ''Andromeda'' he starred in another [[science fiction]] TV show, ''[[Deepwater Black]]''. He also was in an episode of PSI Factor: chronicles of the paranormal. Woolvett was also one of the first program jockeys for [[YTV (Canadian television)|YTV]]'s ''[[The Zone]]'' (then called ''The After-School Zone'') and the original main host for a program called ''[[Video and Arcade Top 10]]'' which also aired on YTV. Woolvett acted in the [[1999]] [[Television movie|made-for-TV]] [[Film|movie]] ''[[Ultimate Deception]]'' with [[Yasmine Bleeth]]. ==Film credits== *''[[The Highwayman]]'' ([[1999]]) - Walter *''[[Ultimate Deception]]'' ([[1999]]) - Frank McThomas *''[[Bride of Chucky]]'' ([[1998]]) - David *''Clutch'' ([[1998]]) - Spit [[Category:1970 births|Woolvett, Gordon Michael]] [[Category:Living people|Woolvett, Gordon Michael]] [[Category:Canadian actors|Woolvett, Gordon Michael]] [[Category:Andromeda actors|Woolvett, Gordon Michael]] [[de:Gordon Michael Woolvett]] [[es:Gordon Michael Woolvett]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Gypsum</title> <id>13040</id> <revision> <id>41893637</id> <timestamp>2006-03-02T12:33:06Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Collieman</username> <id>485396</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Minor internal link to H&amp;S and silo cleaning</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{| border=1 cellspacing=0 align=right cellpadding=0 width=250 valign=top style=&quot;margin-left:1em&quot; |----- align=center bgcolor=&quot;#9966FF&quot; !colspan=2 align=center|Gypsum |- !colspan=2 | [[Image:desert-rose-big.jpg|250px|Desert rose, 10 cm long]] &lt;br&gt; [[Desert rose]], 10 cm long |----- align=center bgcolor=&quot;#9966FF&quot; !colspan=2|General |----- |Category|| Mineral |----- |[[Chemical formula]]|| CaSO&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;'''&amp;middot;'''2H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O |----- align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#9966FF&quot; !colspan=2|Identification |----- | Colour || White to grey, pinkish-red |----- | [[Crystal habit]] || Massive, flat. Elongated and generally prismatic crystals. |----- | [[Crystal structure|Crystal system]] || Monoclinic |----- | [[Cleavage (crystal)|Cleavage]]|| 2 good (66° and 114°) |----- | [[Fracture]]|| Conchoidal, sometimes fibrous |----- | [[Mohs Scale]] hardness || 1.5-2 |----- | Luster || Vitreous to silky or pearly lustre |----- | [[Refractive index]]|| 1.522 |----- | [[Pleochroism]]|| None |----- | [[Streak]]|| White |----- | [[Specific gravity]]|| 2.31 - 2.33 |----- | [[Fusibility]]|| ? |----- | [[Solubility]]|| No reaction to acid. |----- align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#9966FF&quot; !colspan=2|Major varieties |----- | [[Satin Spar]]|| Pearly, fibrous masses |----- | [[Selenite]] || Transparent and bladed crystals |----- | [[Alabaster]] || Fine-grained, slightly coloured |----- |} '''Gypsum''' is a very soft [[mineral]] composed of '''[[calcium sulfate]] dihydrate''', with the [[chemical formula]] CaSO&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;'''&amp;middot;'''2H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O. ==Chemical structure== Heating gypsum to between 100°C and 150°C (302°F) partially [[dehydrate]]s the mineral by driving off exactly 75% of the water contained in its chemical structure. The temperature and time needed depend on ambiant partial pressure of H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O. Temperatures as high as 170°C are used in industrial calcination, but at these temperatures the anhydrite begins to be formed. The reaction for the partial dehydration is: &lt;nowiki&gt;CaSO&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;·2H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O + heat &amp;rarr; &lt;nowiki&gt;CaSO&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;·&amp;frac12;H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O + 1&amp;frac12;H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O (steam) The partially dehydrated mineral is called '''calcium sulfate hemihydrate''' or '''calcined gypsum''' (commonly known as [[plaster of Paris]]) (&lt;nowiki&gt;CaSO&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;·&amp;frac12;H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O). The dehydration (specifically known as [[calcination]]) begins at approximately 80°C (176°F), although in dry air, some dehydration will take place already at 50°C. The heat energy delivered to the gypsum at this time (the '''heat of hydration''') tends to go into driving off water (as water vapor) rather than increasing the temperature of the mineral, which rises slowly until the water is gone, then increases more rapidly. The [[endothermic]] property of this reaction is exploited by [[drywall]] to confer fire resistance on residential and other structures. In a fire the structure behind a sheet of drywall will remain relatively cool as water is lost from the gypsum, thus preventing (or substantially retarding) damage to the [[framing]] (through [[combustion]] of [[wood]] members or loss of strength of [[steel]] at high temperatures) and consequent structural collapse. In contrast to most minerals, which when rehydrated simply form liquid or semi-liquid pastes, or remain powdery, calcined gypsum has an unusual property: when mixed with water at normal (ambient) temperatures, it quickly reverts chemically to the preferred dihydrate form, while physically &quot;setting&quot; to form a rigid and relatively strong gypsum crystal lattice: &lt;nowiki&gt;CaSO&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;·&amp;frac12;H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O + 1&amp;frac12;H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O &amp;rarr; &lt;nowiki&gt;CaSO&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;·2H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O This reaction is [[exothermic]]. This phenomenon is responsible for the ease with which gypsum can be cast into various shapes including sheets (for drywall), sticks (for blackboard chalk), and molds (to immobilize broken bones, or for metal casting). Mixed with polymers, it has been used as a bone repair cement. Small amounts of calcined gypsum are added to earth to create strong structures directly from [[cast earth]], an alternative to [[adobe]] (which loses its strength when wet). The conditions of dehydration can be changed to adjust the porosity of the hemihydrate, resulting in the
rch|Roman Catholic]] from [[Piggott, Arkansas]], in 1927. Hemingway converted to Catholicism himself at this time. That year saw the publication of ''[[Men Without Women]]'', a collection of [[short story|short stories]], containing &quot;[[The Killers (Hemingway)|The Killers]]&quot;, one of Hemingway's best-known and most-anthologized stories. [[Image:LaCloseriedesLilas.jpg|left|275px|thumb|''La Closerie des Lilas,'' seen here in 1909, was Hemingway's favorite restaurant in the Montparnasse district of Paris.]] In 1928, Hemingway's father, Clarence, troubled with [[Diabetes mellitus|diabetes]] and financial instabilities, committed suicide using an old [[American Civil War|Civil War]] [[pistol]]. This suicide caused great hurt for Hemingway; he immediately traveled to Oak Park to arrange the funeral and caused controversy by vocalizing the Catholic idea that suicides go to [[Hell]]. At about the same time, [[Harry Crosby]], founder of the [[Black Sun Press]] and friend of Hemingway from his days in Paris, also committed suicide. In 1928 Hemingway's second son, Patrick, was born in Kansas City (his third son, Gregory, would be born to the couple a few years later). It was a [[Caesarean section|Caesarean]] birth after difficult labor, details that were incorporated into the concluding scene of his novel ''[[A Farewell to Arms]]'', the last important work associated with the period closely following World War I. It details the romance between [[Frederic Henry]], an American soldier, and Catherine Barkley, a British [[nurse]]. The novel is heavily autobiographical in nature: the plot is directly inspired by his experience with Sister von Kurowsky in Milan; the intense labor pains of his second wife, Pauline, in the birth of Hemingway's son Patrick inspired Catherine's labor in the novel; the real-life [[Kathleen Eaton Cannell|Kitty Cannell]] inspired the fictional Helen Ferguson; the priest was based on Don Giuseppe Bianchi, the priest of the 69th and 70th regiments of the Brigata Ancona. While the inspiration of the character Rinaldi is mysterious, curiously, he had already appeared in ''In Our Time''. ''A Farewell to Arms'' was published at a time when many other World War I books were prominent, including [[Frederic Manning]]'s ''[[Her Privates We]]'', [[Erich Maria Remarque]]'s ''[[All Quiet on the Western Front]]'', [[Richard Aldington]]'s ''[[Death of a Hero]]'', and [[Robert Graves]]' ''[[Goodbye to All That]]''. ''A Farewell to Arms'''s success rendered Hemingway essentially independent financially. He also stated that,&quot;Death is grand only if you're alone.&quot; ====''The (First) Forty Nine Stories''==== Several of Hemingway's most famous short stories were written in the period following the war; in 1938&amp;mdash;along with his only full-length play, entitled ''The Fifth Column''&amp;mdash;49 such stories were published in the collection ''[[The Fifth Column and the First Forty-Nine Stories]]''. Hemingway's intention was, as he openly stated in his own foreword to the collection, to write more. Many of the stories that make up this collection can be found in other abridged collections, including ''In Our Time,'' ''[[Men Without Women]],'' ''[[Winner Take Nothing]],'' and ''[[The Snows of Kilimanjaro]]''. Some of the collection's important stories include: ''Old Man at the Bridge'', ''On The Quai at Smyrna'', ''[[Hills Like White Elephants]]'', ''One Reader Writes'', ''The Killers'' and (perhaps most famously) ''[[A Clean, Well-Lighted Place]]''. While these stories are rather short, the book also includes much longer stories. Among these the most famous are ''[[The Snows of Kilimanjaro]]'' and ''[[The Short Happy Life of Francis Macomber]]''. Only one other story collection by Hemingway appeared during his lifetime, entitled ''[[Four Stories Of The Spanish Civil War]]''; &quot;The Denunciation&quot; is the most notable story therein. ''[[The Nick Adams Stories]]'' appeared posthumously in 1972. What is now considered the definitive compilation of all of Hemingway's short stories is published as ''[[The Complete Short Stories Of Ernest Hemingway]],'' first compiled and published in 1987. ===Early critical interplay=== Hemingway's early works sold well and were generally received favorably by critics. This success elicited some crude and pretentious behavior from Hemingway, even in these formative years of his career. For example, he began to tell [[F. Scott Fitzgerald]] how to write; he also claimed that the English novelist [[Ford Madox Ford]] was sexually impotent. Hemingway in turn was the subject of much criticism. The journal ''[[Bookman]]'' attacked him as a dirty writer. According to Fitzgerald, McAlmon, the publisher of his first non-commercial book, labeled Hemingway &quot;a fag and a wife-beater&quot;{{ref|ref8}} and claimed that Pauline was a [[lesbian]] (she is alleged to have had lesbian affairs after their divorce). Gertrude Stein criticized him in her book ''[[The Autobiography of Alice B. Toklas]]'', suggesting that he had derived his prose style from her own and from [[Sherwood Anderson]]'s{{ref|ref9}}. [[Max Eastman]] disparaged Hemingway harshly, asking him to &quot;come out from behind that false hair on the chest&quot; (these accusations led to a physical confrontation between the two). Eastman would go on to write an essay entitled ''[[Bull in the Afternoon]]'', a [[satire]] of Hemingway's ''[[Death in the Afternoon]]''. Another facet of Eastman's criticism consisted in the suggestion that Hemingway ought to give up his lonely, tight-lipped stoicism and write about contemporary social affairs. Hemingway did so for at least a short time; his article ''[[Who Murdered the Vets?]]'' for ''[[New Masses]]'', a leftist magazine, and ''[[To Have and Have Not]]'' displayed a certain heightened social awareness. ==Key West== Following the advice of [[John Dos Passos]], Hemingway moved to [[Key West, Florida]] where he established his first American home. From his old stone house&amp;mdash;a wedding present from Pauline's uncle&amp;mdash;Hemingway [[fishing|fished]] in the [[Dry Tortugas]] waters, went to the famous bar [[Sloppy Joe's (bar)|Sloppy Joe's]], and traveled occasionally to [[Spain]], gathering material for ''[[Death in the Afternoon]]'' and ''[[Winner Take Nothing]]''. ''[[Death in the Afternoon]]'' a book about [[bullfighting]], was published in 1932. Hemingway had become a bullfighting aficionado after seeing the [[Pamplona]] fiesta of 1925, fictionalized in ''[[The Sun Also Rises]]''. In ''Death in the Afternoon'', Hemingway extensively discussed the metaphysics of bullfighting: the ritualized, almost religious practice. In his writings on Spain he was influenced by the Spanish master [[Pío Baroja]] (when Hemingway won the Nobel Prize, he traveled to see Baroja, then on his death bed, specifically to tell him that he thought Baroja deserved the prize more than he did). A [[safari]] in the fall of 1932 led him to [[Mombasa]], [[Nairobi]], and [[Machakos]] in the [[Mua Hills]]. In Spain reporting on the Spanish Civil War, Hemingway broke friendship with [[John Dos Passos]] because Dos Passos kept reporting despite warning on the atrocities, not only of the Fascists who Hemingway disliked, but also of the Republicans who Hemingway favored (&quot;The Breaking Point: Hemingway, Dos Passos, and the Murder of Jose Robles&quot; by Stephen Koch, published 2005 ISBN 1582432805) and The Spanish Civil War (1961) by [[Hugh Thomas]]). In this circumstance Hemingway has been linked to reporter [[Herbert Matthews]]. Hemingway also began to question his Catholicism at this time, eventually leaving the church (though friends indicate that he had &quot;funny ties&quot; to Catholicism for the rest of his life). The story &quot;The Denunciation&quot; [http://www.nytimes.com/books/99/07/04/specials/hemingway-fifth.html] seems autobiographical, thus suggesting that the author might have been an informant for the Republic as well as weapons instructor (The Spanish Civil War (1961) by [[Hugh Thomas]]). 1935 saw the publication of ''Green Hills of Africa'', an account of his African safari. ''[[The Snows of Kilimanjaro]]'' and ''[[The Short Happy Life of Francis Macomber]]'' were the fictionalized results of his African experiences. Some health problems characterized this period of Hemingway's life: an [[anthrax disease|anthrax]] infection, a cut eyeball, a gash in his forehead, [[Spanish Flu|grippe]], [[tooth|toothache]], [[hemorrhoids]]; [[kidney]] trouble from fishing in [[Spain]], torn groin muscle, finger gashed to the bone in an accident with a punching ball, lacerations (to arms, legs, and face) from a ride on a runaway horse through a deep [[Wyoming]] forest, and a broken arm from a [[car accident]]. ===''For Whom the Bell Tolls''=== [[Francisco Franco]] won the [[Spanish Civil War]] in the spring of 1939. Hemingway had lost an adopted homeland to Franco's fascist nationalists, and would later lose his beloved [[Key West, Florida]] home due to his 1940 divorce. A few weeks after the divorce Hemingway married his companion in Spain, Martha Gellhorn, as his third wife. His novel ''[[For Whom The Bell Tolls]]'' was published in 1940; the long work, which takes place during the Spanish Civil War, based on real events (The Spanish Civil War [[Hugh Thomas]]) tells of an American man named &quot;Robert Jordan&quot; fighting with Spanish guerrillas on the side of the Republicans. It is one of Hemingway's most notable literary accomplishments. The title is taken from the penultimate paragraph of [[John Donne]]'s ''Meditation XVII''. ==World War II and its aftermath== The United States entered [[World War II]] on [[December 8]], [[1941]], and for the first time in his life, Hemingway sought to take part in naval warfare. Aboard the ''Pilar'', now a [[Q-Ship]], Hemingway's crew was charged with sinking German [[submarine]]s threatening the shipping off the coasts of [[Cuba]
ent> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Clipperton Island]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Clipperton Island/People</title> <id>5513</id> <revision> <id>15903719</id> <timestamp>2002-08-20T16:03:46Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Koyaanis Qatsi</username> <id>90</id> </contributor> <comment>putting this info on the main page</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Clipperton Island]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Clipperton Island/Government</title> <id>5514</id> <revision> <id>15903720</id> <timestamp>2002-08-30T20:09:33Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>The Epopt</username> <id>30</id> </contributor> <comment>#REDIRECT [[Clipperton Island]] -- merged</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Clipperton Island]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Clipperton Island/Economy</title> <id>5515</id> <revision> <id>15903721</id> <timestamp>2002-08-30T20:09:28Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>The Epopt</username> <id>30</id> </contributor> <comment>#REDIRECT [[Clipperton Island]] -- merged</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Clipperton Island]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Clipperton Island/Communications</title> <id>5516</id> <revision> <id>15903722</id> <timestamp>2002-08-30T20:09:25Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>The Epopt</username> <id>30</id> </contributor> <comment>#REDIRECT [[Clipperton Island]] -- this section was omitted from the [[CIA World Factbook]] report</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Clipperton Island]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Clipperton Island/Transportation</title> <id>5517</id> <revision> <id>15903723</id> <timestamp>2002-08-30T20:09:49Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>The Epopt</username> <id>30</id> </contributor> <comment>#REDIRECT [[Clipperton Island]] -- merged</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Clipperton Island]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Clipperton Island/Military</title> <id>5518</id> <revision> <id>15903724</id> <timestamp>2002-08-30T20:09:22Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>The Epopt</username> <id>30</id> </contributor> <comment>#REDIRECT [[Clipperton Island]] -- merged</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Clipperton Island]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Cocos (Keeling) Islands</title> <id>5520</id> <revision> <id>41909786</id> <timestamp>2006-03-02T15:29:58Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>MJCdetroit</username> <id>627347</id> </contributor> <comment>/* Geography */ English Units per [[WP:MOSNUM]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Cocos_Islands.png|framed|Cocos (Keeling) Islands]] :''For the [[Costa Rica]]n island, see '''[[Cocos Island]]'''. For the palm tree ''Cocos nucifera'' see [[coconut]] '' The '''Territory of Cocos (Keeling) Islands''', also called '''Cocos Islands''' and '''Keeling Islands''', is a territory of [[Australia]]. There are two [[atoll]]s with 27 coral islands in the group. The [[island]]s are located in the [[Indian Ocean]], about one-half of the way from Australia to Sri Lanka, at {{coor dms|12|30|00|S|96|50|00|E|}}. ==History== [[Image:Keelingsunset.JPG|thumb|250px|right|Sunset over the islands]] [[Image:Flag of the Cocos (Keeling) Islands.svg|right|thumb|250px|Unofficial Islands flag. (The official flag is that of Australia.)]] Captain [[William Keeling]] discovered the islands in [[1609]], but they remained uninhabited until the [[19th century]], when they became a possession of the Clunies-Ross family. [[slavery|Slaves]] were brought to work the [[coconut]] plantation from [[Indonesia]], the [[Cape of Good Hope]] and East Asia by Alexander Hare who had taken part in [[Stamford Raffles]]' takeover of [[Java (island)|Java]] in [[1811]]. A merchant seaman called Captain John Clunies-Ross, who had also served under Raffles in the takeover, set up a compound and Hare's severely mistreated slaves soon escaped to work under better conditions in the Clunies-Ross compound. On [[1 April]] [[1836]] [[the Voyage of the Beagle|HMS Beagle]] under Captain [[Robert FitzRoy]] arrived to take soundings establishing the profile of the atoll. To the young naturalist [[Charles Darwin]] who was on the ship the results supported a theory he had developed of how atolls formed. He studied the natural history of the islands and collected specimens. His assistant [[Syms Covington]] noted that ''&quot;an Englishman and HIS family, with about sixty or seventy [[Mulatto]]s from the Cape of Good Hope, live on one of the islands. Captain Ross, the governor, is now absent at the Cape.&quot;'' The islands were brought under the [[British Empire]] in [[1857]]. In 1867, their administration was placed under the [[Straits Settlements]], which later became known as [[Singapore]]. [[Victoria of the United Kingdom|Queen Victoria]] granted the islands in perpetuity to the [[King of the Cocos Islands|Clunies-Ross family]] in 1886. On [[November 9]], [[1914]], the islands became the site of the [[Battle of Cocos]], one of the first [[naval battle]]s of [[World War I]]. The [[Telegraphy|telegraph]] station on [[Direction Island (disambiguation)|Direction Island]] was attacked by the [[Imperial Germany|German]] [[light cruiser]] [[SMS Emden|SMS ''Emden'']], which was destroyed several hours later by the [[Australia]]n cruiser, [[HMAS Sydney (1912)|HMAS ''Sydney'']]. After the [[Fall of Singapore]] in [[1942]] during [[World War II]], the islands were administered under [[Ceylon]] ([[Sri Lanka]]), while West Island and [[Direction Island (disambiguation)|Direction Island]] were placed under [[Allied]] military administration. On the night of 8/9 May 1942, gunners of the [[Ceylon Garrison Artillery]] on Horsburgh Island rebelled. The [[Cocos Islands Mutiny]] was crushed and three of the rebels were to be the only [[Commonwealth of Nations|British Commonwealth]] soldiers to be executed for [[mutiny]] during the Second World War. In [[1946]] the administration of the islands was reverted back to Singapore. On [[November 23]], [[1955]] the islands were transferred to Australian control under the ''Cocos (Keeling) Islands Act 1955''. In 1978, Australia entered a form of purchase of the islands with the Clunies-Ross family, and subsequently manufactured an identity for locals to whom it gave a degree of [[self-governance|autonomy]]. In the process the position of the Clunies-Ross family has been gradually, and deliberately, undermined. ==Geography== The Cocos (Keeling) Islands consist of two flat, low-lying coral [[atoll]]s with an area of 14.2 [[square kilometre]]s (5.4&amp;nbsp;[[square mile|sq.&amp;nbsp;mi]]), 2.6 [[kilometre]]s (1.6&amp;nbsp;[[mile|mi]]) of coastline, a highest elevation of five [[metre]]s (16&amp;nbsp;[[foot (unitof length)|ft]]) and thickly covered with coconut palms and other vegetation. The climate is pleasant, modified by the southeast trade winds for about nine months of the year and with moderate rainfall. Cyclones may occur in the early months of the year. '''North Keeling Island''' is an atoll consisting of just one C-shaped island, a nearly closed atoll ring with a small opening into the [[lagoon]], about 50 metres (165&amp;nbsp;ft) wide, on the East side. The island measures 1.1 square kilometres (272&amp;nbsp;[[acre]]s) in land area and is uninhabited. The lagoon is about 0.5 square kilometres (124&amp;nbsp;acres). '''South Keeling Islands''' is an atoll consisting of 26 individual islets forming an incomplete atoll ring, with a total land area of 13.1 square kilometres (5.1&amp;nbsp;sq.&amp;nbsp;mi). Only '''Home Island''' and '''West Island''' are populated. There are no rivers or lakes on either atoll; fresh water resources are limited to rainwater accumulations in natural underground reservoirs. ==Demographics== [[As of 2004]], there are 629 inhabitants of the Cocos (Keeling) islands. The population on the two inhabited islands generally is split between the ethnic [[European]]s on West Island (est. pop. 120) and the ethnic [[Malay people|Malay]]s on Home Island (est. pop. 600). A Cocos dialect of Bahasa Malay and English are the main languages spoken and 80% of Cocos Islanders are [[Sunni Muslim]]. ==Government== [[Image:Keelingpalms.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Palm trees on the islands]] The capital of the Territory of Cocos (Keeling) Islands is [[West Island, Cocos Islands|West Island]]. Some sources say that the capital is a small settlement named Bantam which is located on West Island. Governance of the islands is based on the ''Cocos (Keeling) Islands Act of 1955'' and depends heavily on the laws of Australia. The islands are administered from [[Canberra]] by the [[Australian Department of Transport and Regional Services|Department of Transport and Regional Services]], with a non-resident Administrator ([[Neil Lucas]], appointed on [[30 January]] [[2006]]) appointed by the Governor-General (Neil Lucas is also the Administrator of [[Christmas Island]]. These two Territories together make up Australia's Indian Ocean Territories). There also exists a unicameral Cocos (Keeling) Islands Shire Council with seven seats. A full term lasts four years, though elections are held every two years; approximately half the members retire each two years. Federally, Cocos (Keeling) Islanders form the electorate of [[Division of Lingiari|Lingiari]] with [[Christmas Island]] and outback Northern Territory. While the islands' defence is the responsibility of Australia, th
y 15 seconds. A few funicular railways operate in street traffic, and because of this operation are often incorrectly described a cable cars. Examples of such operation, and the consequent confusion, are: * The [[Great Orme Tramway]] in [[Llandudno]], [[Wales]]. * Several street funiculars in [[Lisbon]], [[Portugal]]. Even more confusingly, a hybrid cable car/funicular line once existed in the form of the original [[Wellington Cable Car]], in the [[New Zealand]] city of [[Wellington]]. This line had both a continuous loop haulage cable that the cars gripped using a cable car gripper, and a balance cable permanently attached to both cars over an undriven pulley at the top of the line. The descending car gripped the haulage cable and was pulled downhill, in turn pulling the ascending car (which remained ungripped) uphill by the balance cable. This line was rebuilt in [[1979]] and is now a standard funicular, although it retains its old cable car name. == Cities currently operating cable cars == &lt;!-- Please do not add funiculars here--&gt; The best known existing cable car system is the [[San Francisco cable car system]] in the [[California|Californian]] city of [[San Francisco, California|San Francisco]]. This is the oldest and biggest cable car system in permanent operation, and it is the only system to still operate in the traditional manner with manually operated cars running in street traffic. Some other cities have modern form of cable cars, but they are often referred as [[People mover|people movers]]. The following list is not complete, but shows the best known systems: * [[Laon]], France has a completely automatic Poma-Otis cable car system, called [[Poma 2000]] * [[Las Vegas, Nevada]], has three lines build with this systems, linking some hotels &lt;!-- Please do not add funiculars here--&gt; == Cities previously operating cable cars == === [[Australia]] === [[Image:Melbourne cable tram 1905.jpg|thumb|300px|Cable tram dummy and trailer on the St Kilda Line in [[Melbourne]] in 1905.]] * [[Melbourne]] ([[1885]]&amp;ndash;[[1940]], the [[Melbourne cable tramway system]]) * [[Sydney]] ([[1886]]&amp;ndash;[[1905]]) === [[France]] === * [[Paris]] === [[New Zealand]] === * [[Dunedin]] ([[1881]]&amp;ndash;[[1957]], the [[Dunedin cable tramway system]]) * [[Wellington]] ([[1902]]&amp;ndash;[[1979]], the original [[Wellington Cable Car]] hybrid system) === [[Portugal]] === * [[Lisbon]] === [[United Kingdom]] === * [[Birmingham]] * [[Edinburgh]] ([[1899]]&amp;ndash;[[1923]])) * [[Glasgow]] ([[1896]]&amp;ndash;[[1935]]) * [[Liverpool]] (trial in [[1883]]) * [[London]] ([[1884]]&amp;ndash;[[1909]], connecting [[Archway]] with [[Highgate]], the first cable car in regular operation in Europe) * [[Matlock, Derbyshire|Matlock]] ([[1893]]&amp;ndash;[[1927]]) === [[Isle of Man]] === * [[Douglas, Isle of Man|Douglas]] ([[1896]]&amp;ndash;[[1929]]) === [[United States]] === [[Image:Up-bway.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Cable cars running on [[Broadway (New York City)|Broadway]], [[New York City]], 1897]] * [[Baltimore, Maryland]] * [[Binghamton, New York]] (trial in [[1885]]) * [[Brooklyn, New York]] * [[Butte, Montana]] ([[1889]]&amp;ndash;[[1897]]) * [[Chicago City Railway|Chicago, Illinois]] ([[1882]]&amp;ndash;[[1906]]) * [[Cincinnati, Ohio]] * [[Cleveland, Ohio]] * [[Denver Tramway|Denver, Colorado]] * [[Grand Rapids, Michigan]] * [[Hoboken, New Jersey]] ([[1886]]&amp;ndash;[[1892]]) * [[Kansas City, Missouri]] * [[Los Angeles, California]] ([[1885]]&amp;ndash;[[1902]], the [[Second Street Cable Railway]] and others) * [[New York City|New York, New York]] * [[Newark, New Jersey]] ([[1888]]&amp;ndash;[[1889]]) * [[Oakland, California]] ([[1886]]&amp;ndash;[[1899]]) * [[Omaha, Nebraska]] * [[Philadelphia, Pennsylvania]] * [[Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania]] * [[Portland, Oregon]] ([[1890]]&amp;ndash;[[1904]]) * [[Providence, Rhode Island]] * [[Seattle, Washington]] * [[St Louis, Missouri]] * [[St Paul, Minnesota]] * [[San Diego, California]] ([[1890]]&amp;ndash;[[1892]]) * [[Seattle, Washington]] ([[1888]]&amp;ndash;[[1940]]) * [[Sioux City, Iowa]] * [[Spokane, Washington]] * [[Tacoma, Washington]] ([[1891]]&amp;ndash;[[1938]]) * [[Washington, D.C.]] ([[1890]]&amp;ndash;[[1899]], part of the [[Washington streetcars|Washington streetcar system]]) == See also == * [[Cable railway]] * [[Cable ferry]] * [[Funicular railway]] * [[Metropolitan Street Railway Co.]] (NYC) == Sources == * ''Of Cables and Grips: The Cable Cars of San Francisco'', by Robert Callwell and Walter Rice, published by Friends of the Cable Car Museum, first edition, 2000. == External links == {{Commons|Cable car on rails}} '''Information''' * [http://www.cablecarmuseum.com Cable Car Museum] * [http://www.cable-car-guy.com Cable Car Guy] * [http://www.lostnewyorkcity.com/buildingphotos/Plate-51-b.html The Cable Building] (New York City) Broadway Cable car line. '''Patents''' * {{US patent|19736}} -- ''Railroad track'' * {{US patent|110971}} -- ''Endless wire ropeway'' [[Category:Transportation]] [[Category:Rail transport]] [[de:Kabelbahn]] [[fr:Tramway à traction par câble]] [[nl:Kabeltram]] [[ja:ケーブルカー]] [[pl:Tramwaj linowy]] [[sv:Kabelspårvagn]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Creaky voice</title> <id>7676</id> <revision> <id>41627591</id> <timestamp>2006-02-28T16:59:51Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Kwamikagami</username> <id>93143</id> </contributor> <comment>more appropriate link</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Creaky voice''' (also called '''laryngealisation''' or, in [[singing]], '''vocal fry''' or '''glottal fry'''), is a special kind of [[phonation]] in which the [[arytenoid cartilage]]s in the [[larynx]] are drawn together; as a result, the [[vocal folds]] are compressed rather tightly, becoming relatively slack and compact, and forming a large, irregularly vibrating mass. The frequency of the vibration is very low (20&amp;ndash;50 pulses per second, about two octaves below normal voice) and the airflow through the [[glottis]] is very slow. A slight degree of laryngealisation, occurring e.g. in some [[Korean language|Korean]] consonants is called &quot;[[stiff voice]]&quot;. There is some argument among music instructors as to whether or not this is an actual register as it can be used to add a raspy sound to other registers. By putting less amount of air on the cords than is needed for a clear tone of the pitch you are going for, the tone breaks up and becomes a rasp. Many [[Heavy Metal]] singers use this technique to create a screaming sound. One example is [[Chester Bennington]] of [[Linkin Park]]. The [[Danish language|Danish]] [[prosody|prosodic]] feature ''[[stød]]'' is an example of a form of laryngealisation that has a [[phoneme|phonemic]] function. Creaky voice manifests itself in the [[idiolect]]s of some [[American English]] speakers, particularly at the beginnings of sentences that the speaker wishes to &quot;soft-pedal&quot;. The &quot;eh&quot; of &quot;Eh, I don't know about that.&quot; is frequently pronounced in creaky voice. This phenomenon is more prominent among female American English speakers than among male speakers. It can also occur accidentally when the speaker's throat is tired. ==See also== * [[breathy voice]] * [[glottal stop]] * [[slack voice]] [[no:Knirkestemme]] [[Category:Phonation]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Computer display</title> <id>7677</id> <revision> <id>39983689</id> <timestamp>2006-02-17T07:07:14Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>80.6.177.18</ip> </contributor> <comment>/* Major manufacturers */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:monitor.arp.750pix.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Nineteen inch (48 cm) CRT computer monitor]] A '''computer display''', '''monitor''' or '''screen''' is a [[computer peripheral]] device capable of showing characters and/or still or moving images generated by a computer and processed by a [[graphics card]]. Monitors generally conform to one or more [[computer display standard|display standards]]. Sometimes the name &quot;display&quot; suits better than the word &quot;monitor&quot;, as the latter term can also ambiguously refer to a &quot;machine-level [[debugger]]&quot; or to a &quot;[[thread]] synchronization mechanism&quot;. Some people also refer to computer displays as &quot;heads&quot;, especially when talking about multiple displays connected to a single physical computer. Once an essential component of a [[computer terminal]], computer displays have long since become standardized peripherals in their own right. ==Hardware == ===Technologies=== As with [[television]], several different [[hardware]] technologies exist for displaying computer-generated output: * [[Cathode ray tube]] (CRT) * [[Liquid crystal display]] (LCD). [LCD-based monitors can receive television and computer protocols ([[SVGA]], [[PAL]], [[SECAM]]; [[NTSC]]).) * [[Plasma display]] * [[Surface-conduction electron-emitter display]] (SED) * [[Video projector]] A modern CRT display has considerable flexibility: it can usually handle a range of [[Display resolution|resolution]]s from 320 by 200 [[pixel]]s (320×200) up to 2048 by 1536 pixels (2048×1536) or 2304 by 1440 pixels (2304×1440), with unlimited colours and a variety of [[refresh rate]]s. As of 2005, the highest known maximum native resolution for any type of monitor is 3840 by 2400 pixels (3840×2400) on an LCD screen. [[Dot pitch]] measures the sharpness of a display. In general, the lower the dot pitch, (e.g. .24), the sharper the picture will appear. Early CRT-based VDUs (Visual Display Units) without [[computer graphics|graphics]] capabilities gained the label &quot;glass [[teletype]]s&quot;, because of the functional similarity to their electromechanical predecessors. Black-and-white displays can only display one colour: either as on or off. Monochro
onal Authority]]. *'''[[Palestinian presidential election, 2005|January 2005 Palestinian presidential election]].''' PLO chairman [[Mahmoud Abbas]] elected to replace Yasser Arafat. Hamas boycotts them. *'''[[Palestinian municipal election, 2005|Palestinian municipal elections, January-May 2005]]'''. Relative success of Hamas, which took control of [[Beit Lahya]] in northern Gaza, [[Qalqiliya]] in the West Bank and [[Rafah]]. *'''[[March 2005]]. Hamas proclaims ''[[tadiyah]]''''', a period of calm. *'''[[January 25]], [[2006]].''' Overwhelming victory of the Hamas at the [[Palestinian legislative election, 2006|legislative election]], which takes 74 seats of the 132 seats. *As of 2004, Israeli military and intelligence sources believed that the Hamas infrastructure in the West Bank and Gaza Strip has been significantly weakened by Israeli military operations. Israeli sources have noted that no prominent attacks have been claimed by West Bank-based Hamas members (whereas bombings by the Fatah-linked [[Al-Aqsa Martyrs' Brigades]] continued), even though the Hamas leadership had reputedly ordered an escalation of suicide attacks after the assassinations of sheikh Yassin and Abdel Aziz al-Rantissi. The West Bank has been under increased Israeli military control since [[Operation Defensive Shield]] was launched in April 2002, which severely limited the mobility and organization of the remaining Hamas membership. However, the 2006 legislative elections proved Hamas was a political power, at least in the Gaza strip. === Before 1987 - Palestinian Islamic activities prior to the creation of Hamas === Sheikh Ahmed Yassin returned to Gaza from [[Cairo]] in the 1970s, where he set up Islamic charities, founding Hamas in 1987 as an offshoot of [[Egypt]]'s [[Muslim Brotherhood]]. According to the Israeli weekly ''[[Koteret Rashit]]'' (October 1987), &quot;The Islamic associations as well as the [Islamic university - founded in 1978 in Gaza] had been supported and encouraged by the Israeli military authority&quot; in charge of the (civilian) administration of the West Bank and Gaza. &quot;They [the Islamic associations and the university] were authorized to receive money payments from abroad.&quot; By the end of 1992, they were 600 hundreds mosques in Gaza. Hamas attracted members through preaching and charitable work before spreading its influence into [[trade union]]s, universities, bazaars, professional organizations and local government political races beginning in December 2004 &lt;ref&gt; [http://www.baltimoresun.com/news/nationworld/bal-te.hamas22jan22,1,6755050.story?coll=bal-home-headlines&amp;ctrack=1&amp;cset=true BaltimoreSun] &lt;/ref&gt;. “Thanks to Israel’s intelligence agency [[Mossad]] (Israel’s Institute for Intelligence and Special Tasks), the Islamists were allowed to reinforce their presence in the occupied territories. Meanwhile, the members of Fatah (Movement for the National Liberation of Palestine) and the Palestinian Left were subjected to the most brutal form of repression”, according to ''[[L’Humanite]]'' {{ref label|Humanite|13|a}}. Indeed Israel supported and encouraged Hamas' early growth in an effort to undermine the secular [[Fatah]] movement of [[Yasser Arafat]]. According to [[UPI]], [[Israel]] supported Hamas starting in the late 1970s as a &quot;counterbalance to the [[Palestine Liberation Organization]]&quot;. {{ref label|UPI|14|a}} At that time, Hamas's focus was on &quot;religious and social work&quot;. The grassroots movement concentrated on social issues such as exposing corruption, administration of ''[[waqf]]'' (trusts) and organizing community projects. === 1987 - The establishment of Hamas === The acronym &quot;Hamas&quot; first appeared in 1987 in a leaflet accusing the Israeli [[Mossad|intelligence service]]s of undermining the moral fiber of Palestinian youth as part of their recruitment of what they termed [[collaborator]]s. The use of violence by Hamas appeared almost contemporaneously with the [[First Intifada]], beginning with the beating of Palestinians working with the Israeli government, progressing to attacks against Israeli military targets and moving on to violence aimed at civilians. As its methods have changed over the last twenty years, so has its rhetoric, now effectively claiming that Israeli civilians are &quot;military targets&quot; by virtue of living in a state with a [[military draft]]. The first Hamas suicide bombing was committed during the second Intifada, in April 1994 at Hadara. === 1991 - The Persian Gulf war === Between February and April 1998, Sheikh Ahmed Yassin raised several millions dollars from the Gulf states, which had withdrawn their funding from Fatah following its official support of Saddam Hussein during the first [[Gulf War]]. In prison since 1989, Yassin was released under “humanitarian reasons” by Prime minister [[Netanyahu]] following a failed assassination attempt on [[Khaled Mashal]], and expelled to [[Jordan]], from where he was allowed to return to Gaza in October 1997. The military branch [[Ezzedeen-al-qassam]] were created a year before the [[Oslo Accords]], in an attempt to block those negotiations. === 2004 - A 10-year truce === On [[January 26]] [[2004]], senior Hamas official [[Abdel Aziz al-Rantissi]] offered a 10-year truce, or ''[[hudna]]'', in return for a complete withdrawal by Israel from the territories captured in the [[Six Day War]], and the establishment of a Palestinian state. Hamas leader [[Sheikh Ahmed Yassin]] stated that the group could accept a Palestinian state in the West Bank and Gaza Strip. Rantissi confirmed that Hamas had come to the conclusion that it was &quot;difficult to liberate all our land at this stage, so we accept a phased liberation.&quot; He said the truce could last 10 years, though &quot;not more than 10 years.&quot; &lt;ref&gt; [http://www.aljazeerah.info/News%20archives/2004%20News%20archives/Jan/27n/Hamas%20proposal%20of%2010year%20truce%20scorned.htm AlJazeerah] &lt;/ref&gt; Observed since an attack on the Israeli southern town of [[Beersheba]] in [[August 2004]], in which 15 people were killed and 125 wounded, the truce was generally observed. Hamas violated once, in [[August 2005]], with an attack on the same bus station, wounding seven, and in several attacks on Israeli motorists - killing six in several attacks[http://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-3211836,00.html][http://www.jpost.com/servlet/Satellite?cid=1138622559871&amp;pagename=JPost%2FJPArticle%2FShowFull]. End of January 2004, [[Steve Cohen]], US civil servant mandated by the State Department and [[Colin Powell]], assisted to a meeting with Hamas officials, according to the ''[[Canard Enchaîné]]'' {{ref label|Canard|16|a}}. The mission was not only in informing itself about the objectives of the movement, according to the French newspaper, but also to evalue if Hamas could represent a counter-balance to [[al-Qaeda]]. In exchange, Hamas officials asked for the end of &quot;[[targeted killing]]s&quot; practiced against them by the Israeli military. While the group boycotted the [[Palestinian presidential election, 2005|2005 Palestinian presidential election]], it did participate in the [[Palestinian municipal election, 2005|2005 municipal elections]] organized by Yassir Arafat in the occupied territories. In those elections it won control of over one third of Palestinian municipal councils, besting [[Fatah]], which has traditionally been &quot;the biggest force in Palestinian politics.&quot; &lt;ref&gt; {{Citenews | title=Hamas success in Fatah heartland | org=BBC News | date=May 13, 2005 | url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/middle_east/4541383.stm}} &lt;/ref&gt; With this electoral success behind it, Hamas contested the [[Palestinian legislative election, 2006|2006 elections for the Palestinian Legislative Council]] as the main component of the List of Change and Reform. === 2005 - Israel's unilateral disengagement plan === In 2004, in a prelude to [[Israel's unilateral disengagement plan]] from the Gaza Strip, Israeli forces carried out a number of military attacks on Gaza cities and refugees camps, seeking to draw out and kill Hamas-affiliated gunmen. Awareness of high casualties during such incursions has led the Hamas leadership to instruct its activists to avoid putting themselves needlessly in the line of fire. On [[12 September]] [[2005]] [[Tsahal]] withdrew from the Gaza Strip and declared an official end to Israeli military rule in Gaza, though Israel still retains control of the airspace and of the sea. However the [[Palestinan Authority]] argues that the occupation is on-going, as complete [[sovereignty]] includes control of both airspace and seaways. Critics have called the Gaza strip an &quot;open-air prison&quot;. Hamas claimed that this unilateral withdrawal was a victory for its armed struggle and pledged to liberate all the occupied territories, including the [[West Bank]] and [[East Jerusalem]].{{fact}} Fatah, on the other hand, viewed [[Ariel Sharon]]'s unilateral plan as proof of the Palestinians' failure to obtain international recognition.{{fact}} Both criticized the disengagement plan, citing Sharon's simultaneous encouragement of [[Israeli settlements]] in the West Bank, including [[Ma'ale Adummim]], a large settlement east of [[Jerusalem]] &lt;ref&gt; {{Citenews | title=Israel: Sharon the blessed | org=Le Monde Diplomatique | date=February 2006 | url=http://mondediplo.com/2006/02/03sharon}} &lt;/ref&gt;. In [[April 2005]], an advisor of hawkish [[Benjamin Netanyahu]], principal right-wing opponent of Ariel Sharon, secretly negotiated with a Hamas representant, according to the ''[[Canard Enchaîné]]''. The meeting was about the &quot;possibility of an administrative co-gestion with the Hamas in the occupied territories&quot;, which is already the case in some Hamas-controlled cities of the West Bank, according to the French newspaper, which continues saying that: &quot;Bu
cies and think tanks]] *[[List of business theorists]] *[[List of corporate leaders]] If you have an interest in the Economics and Business section of Wikipedia, drop by at [[Wikipedia:The Business and Economics Forum|The Business and Economics Forum]]. {{compactTOC5}} [[Category:Economists]] [[Category:Lists of people by occupation|Economists]] [[bn:&amp;#2437;&amp;#2480;&amp;#2509;&amp;#2469;&amp;#2472;&amp;#2496;&amp;#2468;&amp;#2495;&amp;#2476;&amp;#2495;&amp;#2470; &amp;#2468;&amp;#2494;&amp;#2482;&amp;#2495;&amp;#2453;&amp;#2494;]] [[cs:Seznam ekonom%C5%AF]] [[de:Liste von Ökonomen]] [[fr:Économistes célèbres]] [[it:Lista di economisti]] [[ja:&amp;#32076;&amp;#28168;&amp;#23398;&amp;#32773;]] [[nl:Lijst van bekende economen]] [[pl:Znani ekonomi&amp;#347;ci]] [[zh:&amp;#32463;&amp;#27982;&amp;#23398;&amp;#23478;&amp;#21015;&amp;#34920;]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Empirical knowledge</title> <id>10232</id> <revision> <id>33876321</id> <timestamp>2006-01-04T19:36:10Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>203.98.111.238</ip> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the ''a posteriori'' in [[Epistemology]]. You may be looking for information about a posteriori [[constructed languages]].'' '''Empirical''' or '''''a posteriori'' knowledge''' is [[propositional knowledge]] obtained by experience or sensorial information. It is contrasted with ''[[a priori|a priori knowledge]]'', or knowledge that is gained through the apprehension of [[innate idea]]s, &quot;[[intuition]],&quot; &quot;pure [[reason]],&quot; or other non-experiential sources. The [[natural science|natural]] and [[social science]]s are usually considered ''[[a posteriori]]'', literally &quot;after the fact,&quot; disciplines. [[Mathematics]] and [[logic]] are usually considered ''[[a priori]]'', &quot;before the fact,&quot; disciplines. For example, &quot;all things fall down&quot; would be an empirical proposition about [[gravity]] that many of us believe we know; therefore we would regard it as an example of empirical knowledge. It is &quot;[[empirical]]&quot; because we have generally observed that things fall down, so there is no reason to believe this will change. This example also shows the difficulty of formulating knowledge claims. Outside of the [[Earth]]'s gravitational field, for example, things do not &quot;fall down&quot;, as there is no &quot;down&quot;. The vast bulk of the empirical knowledge that ordinary people possess is gained via a mixture of direct experience and the [[testimony]] of others about what they have experienced&amp;mdash;iterated in an interesting way that is studied in the field of [[social epistemology]] as well as other fields. More complicated and organized methods of gaining empirical knowledge are the methods of [[science]]&amp;mdash;see [[scientific method]]&amp;mdash;which result in perhaps the best examples of rigorously codified, ''scientific'' empirical knowledge, namely, [[physics]]. [[David Hume]] considered all ''a posteriori'' knowledge to be a [[Matter of Fact]], and never explicitly utilised the term. The modern perusal of ''a posteriori'' thought began with [[Immanuel Kant]] in a reactionary movement to Hume's sceptical approach to knowledge in his ''Enquiries Concerning Human Understanding''. Kant, in adding the distinction between synthetic and analytic truths to the distinction between ''a priori'' and ''a posteriori'' knowledge, created four categories of knowledge (one of which, the [[analytic]] ''[[a posteriori]]'', is never possible). Thus, for Kant, the only type of ''a posteriori'' knowledge is the [[synthetic]] ''a posteriori''. Because of this, Kant proposes that ''a posteriori'' propositions are, as a set, contingent, because ''a posteriori'' propositions all depend on external conditions, which may change in time, making the proposition false (e.g. &quot;My dog is a puppy&quot; has a truth value only ascertained by external verification). [[Saul Kripke]] contends that the category of analytic ''a posteriori'' truths is nonempty, including, among other things, identity claims such as &quot;Water is H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O&quot; and &quot;Hesperus is Phosphorus.&quot; ==See also== * ''[[A priori]]'' * [[Empiricism]] * [[Epistemology]] [[Category:Latin philosophical phrases|A posteriori]] [[Category:Epistemology]] [[cs:A posteriori]] [[de:Aposteriorisches Wissen]] [[nl:A posteriori]] [[sv:A posteriori]] [[tl:A posteriori]] [[tr:A posteriori]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Encyclopedist</title> <id>10233</id> <revision> <id>41069220</id> <timestamp>2006-02-24T21:28:34Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>84.66.229.60</ip> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">The term '''encyclopedist''' (often, though now less often, written '''encyclopaedist''' in [[British English]]) is usually used for a group of French authors who collaborated in the [[18th century]] in the production of the ''[[Encyclopédie]],'' under the direction of [[Denis Diderot]]. More generally, it can also be used as a term for a person helping to write an [[encyclopedia]]. ==See also== *[[Encyclopedia]] *[[Philosophe]] *[[Marie Thérèse Rodet Geoffrin]] *[[m:Wikimedia_servers|Wikimedia servers]] (The Wikimedia servers are named after these people) *[[Wikipedian]] [[Category:Encyclopedists|*]] &lt;!-- interwiki --&gt; [[eo:Enciklopediistoj]] [[hr:Enciklopedisti]] [[he:אנציקלופדיסטים]] [[nl:Encyclopedist]] [[ja:百科全書派]] [[pl:Encyklopedysta]] [[sk:Encyklopedista]] [[zh:百科全书派]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>ELIZA</title> <id>10235</id> <revision> <id>41890704</id> <timestamp>2006-03-02T11:46:35Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Lambiam</username> <id>745100</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>rv vandalism by 62.253.245.100 to last by JLaTondre</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''ELIZA''' is a famous [[1966]] [[computer program]] by [[Joseph Weizenbaum]], which parodied a [[Rogerian psychotherapy|Rogerian therapist]], largely by rephrasing many of the patient's statements as questions and posing them to the patient. Thus, for example, the response to &quot;My head hurts&quot; might be &quot;Why do you say your head hurts?&quot; The response to &quot;My mother hates me&quot; might be &quot;Who else in your family hates you?&quot; It is sometimes inaccurately said that ELIZA &quot;simulates&quot; (or worse, &quot;emulates&quot;) a therapist. Weizenbaum said that ELIZA provided a &quot;[[parody]]&quot; of &quot;the responses of a nondirectional psychotherapist in an initial psychiatric interview.&quot; He chose the context of psychotherapy to &quot;sidestep the problem of giving the program a data base of real-world knowledge&quot;, the therapeutic situation being one of the few real human situations in which a human being can reply to a statement with a question that indicates very little specific knowledge of the topic under discussion. For example, it is a context in which the question &quot;Who is your favorite composer?&quot; can be answered acceptably with responses such as &quot;What about your own favorite composer?&quot; or &quot;Does that question interest you?&quot; Eliza worked by simple [[parsing]] and substitution of key words into canned phrases. Depending upon the initial entries by the user the illusion of a human writer could be instantly dispelled, or could continue through several interchanges. It was sometimes so convincing that there are many anecdotes about people becoming very emotionally caught up in dealing with ELIZA for several minutes until the machine's true lack of understanding became apparent. All this was due to people's tendency to attach to words meanings which the computer never put there. ELIZA impacted a number of early [[computer games]] by demonstrating additional kinds of [[interface design]]s. [[Don Daglow]] wrote an enhanced version of the program called ''Ecala'' on a [[PDP-10]] [[mainframe]] computer at [[Pomona College]] in [[1973]] before writing the first [[Role Playing Game]], [[Dungeon (computer game)|Dungeon]] ([[1975]]). It is likely that ''ELIZA'' was also on the system where [[Will Crowther]] created ''[[Colossal Cave Adventure|Adventure]]'', the 1975 game that spawned the [[interactive fiction]] genre. But both these games appeared some nine years after the original ''ELIZA''. In 1966 interactive computing (via a teletype) was new. It was 15 years before the personal computer became familiar to the general public, and two decades before most people encountered attempts at [[natural language processing]] in Internet services like [[Ask Jeeves|Ask Jeeves!]] or PC help systems such as Microsoft Office [[Office Assistant|Clippy]]. Although those programs included years of research and work (while ''Ecala'' eclipsed the functionality of ''ELIZA'' after less than two weeks of work by a single programmer), ''ELIZA'' remains a milestone simply because it was the first time a programmer had attempted such a human-machine interaction with the goal of creating the illusion (however brief) of human-''human'' interaction. Lay responses to ELIZA were disturbing to Weizenbaum and motivated him to write his book ''Computer Power and Human Reason: From Judgment to Calculation'', in which he explains the limits of computers, as he wants to make clear in people's minds his opinion that the anthropomorphic views of computers are just a reduction of the human being and any lifeform for that matter. ELIZA was named after [[Eliza Doolittle]], the working-class character in [[George Bernard Shaw|Shaw]]'s ''[[Pygmalion (play)|Pygmalion]]'' who is taught to speak with an [[upper class]] [[accent (linguistics)|accent]]. There are many programs based on ELIZA in different languages in addition to ''Ecala''
ushchev's fall from power two years later can be partially linked to [[Politburo of the CPSU Central Committee|Politburo]] embarrassment at both Khrushchev's eventual concessions to the US and his ineptitude in precipitating the crisis in the first place. U.S. military commanders were not happy with the result either. General LeMay told the President that it was &quot;the greatest defeat in our history&quot; and that the US should invade immediately. For Cuba, it was a betrayal by the Soviets whom they had trusted, given that the decisions on putting an end to the crisis had been made exclusively by Kennedy and Khrushchev. In early 1992 it was confirmed that Soviet forces in Cuba had, by the time the crisis broke, received tactical nuclear warheads for their [[artillery]] [[rocket|rockets]], and [[Ilyushin Il-28|IL-28 bombers]] [http://www.armscontrol.org/act/2002_11/cubanmissile.asp], though [[Anatoly Gribkov|General Anatoly Gribkov]], part of the Soviet staff responsible for the operation, stated that the local Soviet commander, General [[Issa Pliyev]], had predelegated authority to use them if the U.S. had mounted a full-scale invasion of Cuba. Gribkov misspoke: the Kremlin's authorization remained unsigned and undelivered. The short time span of the Cuban Missile Crisis and the extensive documentation of the decision-making processes on both sides makes it an excellent case study for analysis of state decision-making. In the ''[[Essence of Decision]]'', [[Graham T. Allison]] and [[Philip D. Zelikow]] use the crisis to illustrate multiple approaches to analyzing the actions of the state. The intensity and magnitude of the crisis also provides excellent material for [[drama]], as illustrated by the [[films|movies]] ''[[The Missiles of October(film)|The Missiles of October]]'' ([[1974]]), a television [[docudrama]] directed by [[Anthony Page]] and starring [[William Devane]], [[Ralph Bellamy]], [[Howard Da Silva]] and [[Martin Sheen]], and ''[[Thirteen Days (film)|Thirteen Days]]'' ([[2000]]), directed by [[Roger Donaldson]] and starring [[Kevin Costner]], [[Bruce Greenwood]] and [[Steven Culp]]. It was also a substantial part of the [[2003]] documentary [[The Fog of War: Eleven Lessons from the Life of Robert S. McNamara|The Fog Of War]], which won an [[Oscar Awards|Oscar]]. In October 2002, McNamara and Schlesinger joined a group of other dignitaries in a &quot;reunion&quot; with Castro in Cuba to continue to release classified documents and further study the crisis. It was during the first meeting that Secretary McNamara first discovered that Cuba had many more missiles than initially expected, and what McNamara refered to as 'rational men' (Castro and Khruschev) were perfectly willing to start a nuclear war over the crisis. Furthermore, it was revealed at this conference that an officer aboard a Soviet submarine, named [[Vasili Alexandrovich Arkhipov]], may have single-handedly prevented the initiation of a nuclear catastrophe [http://www.news.telegraph.co.uk/news/main.jhtml?xml=/news/2002/10/14/wcuba14.xml]. The reported details of this event are remarkably similar to the plot from the [[film|movie]] ''[[Crimson Tide (film)|Crimson Tide]]'' ([[1995]]), except that the roles of the Americans and Soviets are reversed. ==See also== * [[International crisis]] * [[Brinkmanship]] *''[[Thirteen Days]]'' *''[[The Fog of War: Eleven Lessons from the Life of Robert S. McNamara]]'' ==Further reading== *Allison, Graham and Zelikow, P. ''Essence of Decision: Explaining the Cuban Missile Crisis.'' New York: Longman, 1999. *Blight, James G., and David A. Welch. ''On the Brink: Americans and Soviets Reexamine the Cuban Missile Crisis.'' New York: Hill and Wang, 1989. *Brugioni, Dino A. ''Eyeball to Eyeball: The Inside Story of the Cuban Missile Crisis.'' New York: Random House, 1991. *Divine, Robert A. ''The Cuban Missile Crisis.'' New York: M. Wiener Pub.,1988. *Fursenko, Aleksandr, and Naftali, Timothy; ''One Hell of a Gamble - Khrushchev, Castro and Kennedy 1958-1964''; W.W. Norton (New York 1998) *Giglio, James N. ''The Presidency of John F. Kennedy.'' Lawrence, Kansas, 1991. *Gonzalez, Servando ''The Nuclear Deception: Nikita Khrushchev and the Cuban Missile Crisis;'' IntelliBooks, 2002 ISBN: 0-9711391-5-6 *Kennedy, Robert F. ''Thirteen Days: A Memoir of the Cuban Missile Crisis;'' ISBN 0-3933183-4-6 *May, Ernest R., and Philip D. Zelikow., eds. ''The Kennedy Tapes: Inside the White House During the Cuban Missile Crisis.'' Concise Edition. New York: W.W. Norton, 2001. *Nuti, Leopoldo (ed.) ''I «Missili di Ottobre»: La Storiografia Americana e la Crisi Cubana dell’Ottobre 1962'' Milano: LED, 1994. *Thompson, Robert S., ''The Missile of October: The Declassified Story of John F. Kennedy and the Cuban Missile Crisis''. *Diez Acosta, Tomás, ''October 1962: The 'Missile' Crisis As Seen From Cuba.'' Pathfinder Press, New York, 2002. *Bamford, James, ''Body of Secrets: Anatomy of the Ultra-Secret National Security Agency'' Anchor Books, 2002. ==External links== * [http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/nsa/cuba_mis_cri/index.htm Declassified Documents, etc.] - Provided by the [[National Security Archive]]. * [http://www.whitehousetapes.org/pages/trans_jfk2.htm Transcripts and Audio of ExComm meetings] - Provided by the [http://www.whitehousetapes.org Miller Center's Presidential Recordings Program, University of Virginia]. * [http://www.armscontrol.org/act/2002_11/cubanmissile.asp#mcnamara Forty Years After 13 Days] - Robert S. McNamara. * [http://www.hpol.org/jfk/cuban/ Tapes of debates between JFK and his advisors during the crisis] * [http://www.latinamericanstudies.org/missile.htm Cuban Missile Crisis Reunion, October 2002] * [http://www.jfklibrary.org/cmc_exhibit_2002.html The World On the Brink: John F. Kennedy and the Cuban Missile Crisis] * [http://library.thinkquest.org/11046/ 14 Days in October: The Cuban Missile Crisis] - a site geared toward high-school students *[http://www.nuclearfiles.org/menu/key-issues/nuclear-weapons/history/cold-war/cuban-missile-crisis/ Nuclear Files.org] Introduction, timeline and articles regarding the Cuban Missile Crisis {{Cold War}} [[Category:Cold War]] [[Category:Cuban-American relations]] [[Category:History of Cuba]] [[Category:History of foreign relations of the United States]] [[Category:Cold War military history of the Soviet Union]] [[Category:Nuclear weapons of the United States]] [[ca:Crisi dels míssils de Cuba]] [[cs:Karibská krize]] [[da:Cubakrisen]] [[de:Kubakrise]] [[es:Crisis de los misiles de Cuba]] [[fr:Crise des missiles de Cuba]] [[it:Crisi dei missili di Cuba]] [[he:משבר הטילים בקובה]] [[hu:Kubai rakétaválság]] [[nl:Cubacrisis]] [[ja:キューバ危機]] [[no:Cubakrisen]] [[pl:Kryzys kubański]] [[pt:Crise dos mísseis de Cuba]] [[ro:Criza rachetelor cubaneze]] [[rm:Crisa dals missils da Cuba]] [[ru:Карибский кризис]] [[sk:Kubánska kríza]] [[sl:Kubanska raketna kriza]] [[fi:Kuuban ohjuskriisi]] [[sv:Kubakrisen]] [[zh:古巴导弹危机]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Columbine</title> <id>6828</id> <revision> <id>39883652</id> <timestamp>2006-02-16T15:23:16Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>61.123.31.42</ip> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">:''For other uses of this name, see [[Columbine (disambiguation)]]. For the Columbine school shootings, see [[Columbine High School massacre]]''. {{Taxobox | color = lightgreen | name = Columbine | image = Yellow columbine close.jpg | image_width = 250px | image_caption = Yellow columbine | regnum = [[Plant]]ae | divisio = [[Flowering plant|Magnoliophyta]] | classis = [[Magnoliopsida]] | ordo = [[Ranunculales]] | familia = [[Ranunculaceae]] | genus = '''''Aquilegia''''' | subdivision_ranks = Species | subdivision = ''Aquilegia barnebyi ''&lt;br /&gt; ''Aquilegia brevistyla ''&lt;br /&gt; ''Aquilegia buergeriana ''&lt;br /&gt; ''Aquilegia caerulea ''&lt;br /&gt; ''Aquilegia canadensis ''&lt;br /&gt; ''Aquilegia chrysantha ''&lt;br /&gt; ''Aquilegia desertorum ''&lt;br /&gt; ''Aquilegia elegantula ''&lt;br /&gt; ''Aquilegia eximia ''&lt;br /&gt; ''Aquilegia flabellata ''&lt;br /&gt; ''Aquilegia flavescens ''&lt;br /&gt; ''Aquilegia formosa ''&lt;br /&gt; ''Aquilegia grahamii ''&lt;br /&gt; ''Aquilegia jonesii ''&lt;br /&gt; ''Aquilegia karelini ''&lt;br /&gt; ''Aquilegia laramiensis ''&lt;br /&gt; ''Aquilegia longissima ''&lt;br /&gt; ''Aquilegia micrantha ''&lt;br /&gt; ''Aquilegia pubescens ''&lt;br /&gt; ''Aquilegia saximontana ''&lt;br /&gt; ''Aquilegia scopulorum ''&lt;br /&gt; ''Aquilegia schockleyi ''&lt;br /&gt; ''Aquilegia triternata ''&lt;br /&gt; ''Aquilegia vulgaris '' }} The '''columbines''' are a [[genus]] '''''Aquilegia''''' of about 70 species of [[perennial]]s that are found in [[meadow]]s, [[woodland]]s, and at higher altitudes throughout the [[northern hemisphere]]. They are known for their distinctive flowers, generally bell-shaped, with each petal modified into an elongated nectar spur. Several species are grown in [[gardens]]; the [[European Columbine]], ''Aquilegia vulgaris'', is a traditional garden flower in [[British Isles|Britain]], and several of the species that are native to [[North America]] are popular garden plants there. Columbines are used as food plants by some [[Lepidoptera]] species including [[Cabbage Moth]], [[Dot Moth]], [[Engrailed|The Engrailed]] and [[Mouse Moth]]. Species include: *[[Oil Shale Columbine]] ''Aquilegia barnebyi'' *[[Smallflower Columbine]] ''Aquilegia brevistyla'' *[[Colorado blue Columbine]] ''Aquilegia caerulea'' *[[Wild Columbine]] Canadian columbine, red columbine ''Aquilegia canadensis '' * [[Golden Columbine]] ''Aquilegia chrysantha '' * [[Desert Columbine]] ''Aquilegia desertorum '' * [[Western Red Columbine]] ''Aquilegia elegantula '' * [[Van Houtte's Columbine]] ''Aquilegia eximia '' * [[Yellow Columbine]] ''Aquilegia flavescens '' * [[Crimson Columbine]] western columbine '
s Caecilius Metellus]], Roman consul *[[Marcus Atilius Regulus]], Roman consul *[[Publius Claudius Pulcher]], Roman consul *[[Xanthippus]], mercenary in the service of Carthage ==Chronology== *'''[[264 BC]]''' - The Mamertines plead assistance to both Rome and Carthage to deal with the attacks of Hiero II of Syracuse. Rome responds only after Carthage. *'''[[263 BC]]''' - Hiero II is defeated by consul [[Manius Valerius Messalla]] and is forced to change Syracuse's alliance to Rome. *'''[[262 BC]]''' - Roman intervention in Sicily. The city of Agrigentum, occupied by Carthage, is besieged. *'''[[261 BC]]''' - [[Battle of Agrigentum]], which results in a Roman victory. Rome decides to build a fleet to threaten Carthaginian domination in the sea. *'''[[260 BC]]''' - First naval encounter ([[battle of the Lipari Islands]]) is a disaster to Rome, but soon afterwards, [[Gaius Duilius]] wins the [[battle of Mylae]] with the help of the ''[[corvus (weapon)|corvus]]'' engine. *'''[[259 BC]]''' - The land fighting is extended to [[Sardinia]] and [[Corsica]]. *'''[[258 BC]]''' - Naval [[battle of Sulci]]: Roman victory. *'''[[257 BC]]''' - Naval [[battle of Tyndaris]]: Roman victory. *'''[[256 BC]]''' - Rome attempts to invade Africa and Carthage attempts to intersect the transport fleet. The resulting [[battle of Cape Ecnomus]] is a major victory for Rome, who lands in Africa and advances on Carthage. The [[battle of Adys]] is the first Roman success in African soil and Carthage sues for peace. Negotiations fail to reach agreement and the war continues. *'''[[255 BC]]''' - The Carthaginians employ a [[Sparta]]n general, [[Xanthippus]], to organize their defences and defeat the Romans at the [[battle of Tunis]]. The Roman survivors are evacuated by a fleet to be destroyed soon afterwards, on their way back to Sicily. *'''[[254 BC]]''' - A new fleet of 140 Roman ships is constructed to substitute the one lost in the storm and a new army is levied. The Romans win a victory at [[battle of Panormus|Panormus]], in Sicily, but fail to make any further progress in the war. Five Greek cities in Sicily defect from Carthage to Rome. *'''[[253 BC]]''' - The Romans then pursued a policy of raiding the African coast east of Carthage. After an unsuccessful year the fleet head for home. During the return to Italy the Romans are again caught in a storm and lose 150 ships. *'''[[251 BC]]''' - The Romans again win at Panormus over the Carthaginians, led by Hasdrubal. As a result of the recent losses, Carthage endeavours to strengthen its garrisons in Sicily and recapture Agrigentum. Romans begin siege of Lilybaeum. *'''[[249 BC]]''' - Rome loses almost a whole fleet in the [[battle of Drepana]]. In the same year [[Hamilcar Barca]] accomplishes successful raids in Sicily and yet another storm destroys the remainder of the Roman ships. Aulus Atilius Caiatinus is appointed dictator and sent to Sicily. *'''[[248 BC|248]]''' - Beginning of a period of low intensity fighting in Sicily, without naval battles. This lull would last until [[241 BC]]. *'''[[244 BC]]''' - With little to no naval engagements, [[Hanno the Great]] of Carthage advocates demobilization of large parts of the Cathaginian navy to save money. Carthage does so. *'''[[242 BC]]''' - Rome constructs another major battle fleet. *'''[[241 BC]]''' - On [[March 10]] takes place the [[Battle of the Aegates Islands]], with a decisive Roman victory. Carthage is force to accept peace terms and the First Punic War ends. ==References== *'''The Punic Wars''', by [[Adrian Goldsworthy]], Cassel *'''The First Punic War''' by [[J.F.Lazenby]], 1996, UCLPress *'''World History''' by [[Polybius]], 1.7 - 1.60 == External links== * [http://www.livius.org/ps-pz/punic_war/1pw00.html Polybius on the First Punic War] The full text of Polybius's account of the war [[Category:Carthaginian conflicts]] [[Category:Wars of Ancient Rome|Punic War, First]] [[Category:264 BC]] [[ar:حرب بونيقية أولى]] [[bg:Първа пуническа война]] [[ca:Primera Guerra Púnica]] [[da:Første puniske krig]] [[de:Erster Punischer Krieg]] [[es:Primera Guerra Púnica]] [[fr:Première Guerre punique]] [[it:Prima guerra punica]] [[he:המלחמה הפונית הראשונה]] [[nl:Eerste Punische oorlog]] [[pl:I wojna punicka]] [[pt:Primeira guerra púnica]] [[ru:Первая Пуническая война]] [[scn:Prima guerra pùnica]] [[sk:Prvá púnska vojna]] [[fi:Ensimmäinen puunilaissota]] [[sv:Första puniska kriget]] [[zh:第一次布匿战争]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Frame tale</title> <id>11428</id> <revision> <id>15909173</id> <timestamp>2004-08-30T21:52:47Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Gdr</username> <id>55814</id> </contributor> <comment>#REDIRECT [[Frame story]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Frame story]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>False document</title> <id>11429</id> <revision> <id>38829776</id> <timestamp>2006-02-08T22:41:16Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Drae</username> <id>897178</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Style Improvement Project - [[Wikipedia:Elements of Style Improvement Project|You can help !]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">A '''false document''' is a form of [[verisimilitude]] that attempts to create in the reader (viewer, audience, etc) a sense of authenticity beyond the normal and expected [[suspension of disbelief]]. That is, it wants to fool the audience briefly into thinking that what is being presented is actually a fact. This is not to be confused with a [[mockumentary]], an admittedly [[fictional film]] done in the manner of a documentary. In practice, the device takes a very simple form. The [[work (fine arts)|work of art]] (be it a text, a moving image, a comic book or whatever) usually is composed of or includes some piece of [[forgery]]. The false document effect can be achieved in many ways including faked police reports, newspaper articles, bibliographical references and documentary footage. The effect can be extended outside of the confines of the text by way of supplementary material such as badges, ID cards, diaries, letters or other objects. The moral and legal implications of false document art are, by necessity, complex and perhaps insoluble. The difference between a great artistic achievement and a stunning forgery is slim. Sometimes the false document technique can be the subject of a work instead of its technique, though these two approaches are not mutually exclusive as many texts which engage falseness do so both on the literal and the thematic level. ==Origin of the false document technique== One of the earliest examples of the technique is the 16th century [[romance (genre)|romance]] ''[[Amadis de Gaula|Amadis of Gaul]]'' ([[1508]], [[Garci Rodríguez de Montalvo]]). == False documents in film== The 1973 film ''[[The Texas Chain Saw Massacre]]'' claims to be based on true events, but this is not the case. == False documents in art== [[Orson Welles]]' ''[[F for Fake]]'' is a prime example of a film which is both about [[falsification]] ([[art forgery]] and the journalism surrounding art forgery) as well as having falsified moments within the film. The movie follows the exploits of a famous art forger, his biographer [[Clifford Irving]], and the subsequent fake [[autobiography]] of [[Howard Hughes]] that Irving tries to publish. The issues of veracity and forgery are explored in the film while at the same time, Welles tricks the audience by incorporating fake bits of narrative alongside the documentary footage. Another artist who has run afoul of the technique is the artist [[JSG Boggs]], whose life and work have been extensively explored by author and journalist [[Lawrence Weschler]]. Boggs draws currency with exceptional care and accuracy, but he only ever draws one side. He then attempts to buy things with the piece of paper upon which he has drawn the currency. His goal is to pass each bill for its face value in common transactions. He buys lunch, clothes, and lodging in this manner, and after the transactions are complete his bills fetch many times their face value on the art market along with accompanying evidence (receipts, photos, and the like) which prove the veracity of the actual transaction. Boggs does not make any money off of the much larger art market value of his work. He only exists on the profit of the actual transaction. He has been arrested in many countries, and there is much controversy surrounding his work. Mostly, however, the technique is employed in more mundane ways that hark back to its nineteenth century origins. Whether a particular piece of art is a false document, or is using false documentary techniques in a central way, is of course arguable. Usually, the character and extent of the use is examined. == False documents, fakery and forgery == Documentary filmmaking, and other attempts at actual documentation, can wittingly and unwittingly participate in the form as its goals of authenticity are so closely aligned with direct false documentation (that is, in both cases there is an element of authenticity and an element of narrative fudging). In Schwarzenegger's ''Pumping Iron'' for example, Arnold talks about how his father died in the months preceding a major body building competition. He uses this [[anecdote]] to illustrate how important the final months before a competition are to a truly dedicated bodybuilder. He says that, though his father's funeral was set during the penultimate month, he did not attend because he could not be distracted from training. However, in the companion book it is revealed that at the time of printing, Arnold's father had not died. It does not say the story was a lie, it merely provides contrary evidence. Schwarzenegger was executive producer of both the film and the companion book. It has been theorized by Professor Sally
[Lawrence G. Paull]] (production designer) and [[David Snyder]] (art director) realised Scott's and Mead's sketches. [[Jim Burns]] briefly worked designing the [[Spinner (Blade Runner)|Spinner]] hovercars; [[Douglas Trumbull]] and [[Richard Yuricich]] supervised the [[special effects]] for the film. Principal photography of Blade Runner began on March 9, 1981. Prior to [[principal photography]], [[Paul Sammon|Paul M. Sammon]] was commissioned by ''[[Cinefantastique]]'' magazine to do a special article on the making of ''Blade Runner''. His detailed observations and research later became the book ''[[Future Noir: The Making of Blade Runner]]'', which is also called the ''Blade Runner Bible'' by the cult following of the film. The book outlines not only the evolution of ''Blade Runner'' but also the politics and difficulties on-set; particularly on Scott's expectations (coming from Britain) of his first American crew. Also, his directing style with actors created friction with the cast and likely contributed to Ford's subsequent reluctance to discuss the film. == Synopsis == {{Spoiler}} :''Note: The following synopsis refers to the &quot;[[Director's Cut|director's cut]]&quot; version of the film.'' In [[Los Angeles]], November 2019, [[Rick Deckard]] ([[Harrison Ford]]) is called out of retirement when an overconfident Blade Runner — Holden ([[Morgan Paull]]) — is shot during a [[Voight-Kampff machine|Voight-Kampff test]] by Leon ([[Brion James]]), an escaped replicant. [[Image:BladeRunner Sun.jpg|thumb|left|275px|Tyrell dimming the sun.]] A reluctant Deckard is brought to his old boss Bryant ([[M. Emmet Walsh]]), who informs him that the recent escape of Nexus-6 replicants is the worst yet. Deckard resists getting involved but relents after Bryant threatens him enigmatically. Bryant briefs Deckard on the replicants: Roy Batty ([[Rutger Hauer]]) is a commando, Leon a soldier and manual laborer, Zhora ([[Joanna Cassidy]]) a [[sex worker]] retrained as an assassin, and Pris ([[Daryl Hannah]]) a &quot;basic pleasure model.&quot; Bryant also explains that the Nexus-6 model has a four-year lifespan as a failsafe against their developing unstable emotions. Deckard is teamed up with Gaff ([[Edward James Olmos]]) and sent to the [[Tyrell Corporation]] to ensure that the Voight-Kampff test works on Nexus-6 models. While there, Deckard discovers that Tyrell's ([[Joe Turkel]]) young secretary Rachael ([[Sean Young]]) is an experimental replicant (who believes she is a human) with implanted memories from Tyrell's niece, which provide a cushion for her emotions. Deckard and Gaff search Leon's apartment as Roy and Leon force Chew ([[James Hong]]), an eye designer, to direct them to J.F. Sebastian ([[William Sanderson]]) who can lead them to Tyrell. Later, Rachael visits Deckard at his apartment to prove her humanity to him, but leaves in tears after Deckard recites several of her most secret memories and states they were not her memories at all, but were implanted. Pris meets up with Sebastian and takes advantage of his loneliness and kind nature to gain access to his apartment. Clues from Leon's apartment lead Deckard to Taffy Lewis' ([[Hy Pyke]]) bar where the tattooed Zhora is performing with a snake. Zhora attacks Deckard and makes a desperate attempt to get away into the crowded streets; Deckard chases her down and &quot;retires&quot; her. After the shooting, Gaff and Bryant show up and inform Deckard that Rachael will also need to be &quot;retired&quot;. Deckard conveniently spots Rachael in the distance, though as he follows her he is suddenly disarmed by Leon who then proceeds to beat him. Rachael kills Leon, saving Deckard's life, and they go back to Deckard's apartment where they discuss her options, and in a rough scene ending in musical intimacy they begin to fall in love. Meanwhile, Roy arrives at Sebastian's apartment and they convince Sebastian to bring Roy to meet Tyrell. Once in Tyrell's bedroom Roy demands an extension to his lifespan and requests absolution for his sins; upon receiving neither he kills Tyrell and Sebastian. [[Image:BladeRunner Bradbury Interior.jpg|thumb|right|275px|The Bradbury Building]] Deckard is sent to Sebastian's apartment and is ambushed by Pris, though he manages to shoot her after a struggle. Roy returns moments later, trapping Deckard in the apartment and playfully hunts him throughout the dilapidated [[Bradbury Building]], eventually forcing him to the roof. Deckard attempts a jump to another building and ends up desperately hanging from a beam. Roy easily makes the jump and stares down at Deckard — just as Deckard loses his grip Roy grabs his wrist and saves his life. Roy is deteriorating quickly (his 4-year lifespan is up) as he sits down in the rain and eloquently marvels at the highlights of his life and concludes, &quot;All those moments... will be lost... in time... like tears... in rain. Time... to die.&quot; Roy quietly dies as Deckard looks on in silence. Gaff arrives in a [[Spinner (Blade Runner)|spinner]] shortly afterward and, as he's leaving, cryptically shouts, &quot;It's too bad she won't live. But then again, who does?&quot; Deckard returns to his apartment and cautiously enters when he sees the door is ajar. He finds Rachael alive and as they leave Deckard comes across an [[origami]] [[calling card]] left by Gaff; he has allowed them to escape, and they depart toward an uncertain future together. == Themes == {{Main|Themes in Blade Runner}} Despite the initial appearance of an action film, ''Blade Runner'' operates on an unusually rich number of dramatic levels. As with much of the [[cyberpunk]] genre, it owes a large debt to [[film noir]], containing and exploring such conventions as the [[femme fatale]], a [[Raymond Chandler|Chandleresque]] first-person narration (removed in later versions), and the questionable moral outlook of the [[Hero]] — extended here to include even the humanity of the hero, as well as the usual dark and shadowy [[cinematography]]. It is one of the most literate science fiction films, both thematically — enfolding the [[philosophy of religion]] and [[morality|moral]] implications of the increasing human mastery of [[genetic engineering]], within the context of [[History of theater|classical Greek drama]] and its notions of [[hubris]]{{ref|ecofeminist}} — and linguistically, drawing on the poetry of [[William Blake]] and the [[Bible]]. ''Blade Runner'' also features a [[chess]] game based on the famous [[Immortal Game]] of 1851. (The king and queen are interposed on Tyrell's side, a position which a [[International Grandmaster|grandmaster]] would never attempt.) [[Image:BladeRunner Bradbury.jpg|thumb|left|270px|Dark sprawl overlooked by the glimmering towers of LA 2019.]] ''Blade Runner'' depicts a future whose fictional distance from present reality has grown sharply smaller as 2019 approaches. The film delves into the future implications of [[technology]] on the [[natural environment|environment]] and society by reaching into the past using literature, [[religious symbolism]], classical dramatic themes and [[film noir]]. This tension between past, present and future is apparent in the retrofitted future of Blade Runner, which is [[High tech|high-tech]] and gleaming in places but elsewhere decayed and old. A high level of [[paranoia]] is present throughout the film with the visual manifestation of [[Corporation|corporate]] power, omnipresent police, probing lights; and in the power over the individual represented particularly by genetic programming of the replicants. Control over the environment is seen on a large scale but also with how animals are created as mere commodities. This oppressive backdrop clarifies why many people are going to the off-world colonies, which clearly parallels the migration to the [[Americas]]. The popular 1980s prediction of America being economically surpassed by [[Japan]] is reflected in the domination of Japanese culture and advertising in LA 2019. The film also makes extensive use of eyes and manipulated images to call into question reality and our ability to perceive it. [[Image:BladeRunner Deckard and Rachael.jpg|right|275px|thumb|Deckard and Rachael.]] This provides an atmosphere of uncertainty for ''Blade Runner's'' central theme of examining humanity. In order to discover replicants an empathy test is used with a number of questions focused on the treatment of animals; making it the essential indicator of someone's &quot;humanity&quot;. The replicants are juxtaposed with human characters who are unempathetic, while the replicants appear to show passion and concern for one another the mass of humanity on the streets is cold and impersonal. The film goes so far as to put in doubt whether Deckard is a replicant, and forces the audience to reevaluate what it means to be [[human]].{{ref|retro}} === Is Deckard a replicant? === :''Main article: [[Themes in Blade Runner#Deckard: replicant or human.3F|Deckard: replicant or human?]]'' Among fans of the film, the question of whether Deckard is human or replicant has been an ongoing controversy since the film's release. Ridley Scott, after remaining coy on the subject for twenty years, stated in 2002 that Deckard is a replicant. Hampton Fancher and Harrison Ford, however, have stated that Deckard is human. The rough consensus among fans is that in the original version of the film Deckard is probably human, whereas in the Director's Cut he is a replicant. Specifically, the Director's Cut shows a dream of Deckard's that features a [[unicorn]]; when Gaff leaves Deckard an origami unicorn at the end of the film. This suggests Gaff knew about the dream and implies that Deckard is, like Rachael, a replicant with implanted memories. == Cast == ''Blade Runner'' had a significant number of then-unknown actors in its cast: *[[Harrison Ford]] as Rick Deckard. Coming off some success with ''[[Star Wars Episode IV: A New Hope]]'', but still a yea
discovery' of the first planet with the orbital period of one year. That was later retracted, as it was actually the failure to account for the motion of the Earth through its orbit. However, this method did lead to the discovery of the first planets, and first stellar system outside of our own, by [[Aleksander Wolszczan]]. It also led to the discovery of the oldest known planet, by [[Steinn Sigurdsson]]'s team, around [[PSR B1620-26]]'s binary stellar core. This planet is the only known planet to orbit two stars. The pulsar timing method involves precise measurements of the signal of a pulsar in order to determine if there are any timing anomalies in the period of the pulses. Subsequent calculations are used to determine what could cause the anomalies. This method is commonly used to detect pulsar companions but is not used to specifically find planets. ===Astrometry=== {{main|Astrometry}} Astrometry is the oldest method used in the search for extrasolar planets, used as early as [[1943]]. A number of candidates have been found since but none of them are confirmed and most astronomers have given up on this method for more successful ones. The method involves measuring the [[proper motion]] of a star in the search for an influence caused by its planets, but, unfortunately, changes in proper motion are so small that the best current equipment cannot produce reliable enough measurements. This method requires that the planets' orbits be nearly perpendicular to Earth's line of sight, and so planets detected by it could not be confirmed by other methods. ===Radial velocity=== The radial velocity method measures variations in the speed with which the star moves away from Earth or towards Earth, that is, the component along the line of sight, of the relative velocity of the star with respect to Earth. The radial velocity can be deduced from the displacement in the parent star's [[spectral line]]s due to the [[Doppler effect]]. Its variations are induced by the planet orbiting the star, because both orbit their mutual [[barycenter]], as explained by solutions to the [[two-body problem]]. The velocity of the star around the barycenter is much smaller than that of the planet because the radii of the orbits and hence also the velocities are inversely proportional to the masses. Velocities down to 1 m/s can be detected with modern spectrometers, as e.g. the HARPS ([[High Accuracy Radial Velocity Planet Searcher]]) spectrometer at the [[ESO]] 3.6 meter telescope in [[La Silla Observatory]], Chile. This is the first and by far most successful technique used by planet hunters. It is also known as the &quot;Doppler method&quot; or &quot;Wobble method&quot;. But it works only for relatively nearby stars out to about 160 light-years away from Earth. It easily finds planets that are close to stars, but struggles to detect those orbiting at great distances. The Doppler method can be used to confirm findings made by using the [[#Transit method|transit method]]. ===Gravitational microlensing=== {{main|Gravitational lens}} The gravitational microlensing effect occurs when the gravitational field of a planet and its parent star act to magnify the light of a distant background star. For the effect to work the planet and star must pass almost directly between the observer and the distant star. Since such events are rare, a very large number of distant stars must be continuously monitored in order to detect planets at a reasonable rate. This method is most fruitful for planets between earth and the center of the galaxy, as the galactic center provides a large number of background stars. Gravitational microlensing has a checkered past. In [[1986]], Polish astronomer [[Bohdan Paczy&amp;#324;ski]] of [[Princeton University]] first proposed using it to look for mysterious [[dark matter]], the unseen material that is thought to dominate the universe. In 1991 he suggested it might be used to find planets. Successes with the gravity lensing method date back to [[2002]], when a group of Polish astronomers ([[Andrzej Udalski]], [[Marcin Kubiak]] and [[Micha&amp;#322; Szyma&amp;#324;ski]] from [[Warsaw]], and Bohdan Paczy&amp;#324;ski) during project [[OGLE]] (the [[Optical Gravitational Lensing Experiment]]) perfected a workable method. During one month they claimed to find objects, many of which could be planets. Since then, two extrasolar planets have been detected using microlensing, and this technique is viewed as one of the most promising methods for finding Earth-mass planets around sun-like stars. Lensing events are brief, lasting for weeks or days, as the two stars and Earth are all moving relative to each other. More than 1,000 stars have been detected in microlensing relationships over the past ten years. Observations are usually performed using networks of [[robotic telescope|robotic telescopes]]. The key advantage of gravitational microlensing is that it allows low mass (i.e. Earth-mass) planets to be detected using available technology. A notable disadvantage is that the lensing cannot be repeated because the chance alignment never occurs again. Also, the detected planets will tend to be several kiloparsecs away, so follow-up observations would not be possible. However, if enough background stars can be observed with enough accuracy then the method can be used to determine how common earth-like planets are in the galaxy. In addition to the [[NASA]]/[[National Science Foundation]]-funded OGLE, the [[Microlensing Observations in Astrophysics]] (MOA) group is working to perfect this technique. Even more ambitious, microlensing observations with a world-spanning telscope network as carried out by the PLANET ([[Probing Lensing Anomalies NETwork]])/RoboNet campaign allow nearly-continuous round-the-clock coverage providing the opportunity to pick up and follow signals from planets with masses as low as Earth. This strategy was successful in detecting the first low-mass planet on a wide orbit, designated [[OGLE-2005-BLG-390Lb]]. Currently, there is no other technique capable of detecting low-mass and Earth-like planets. ===Transit method=== [[Image:Planetary transit.svg|thumb|300px|right|Transit Method]] A recently developed method detects a planet's shadow when it [[Astronomical transit|transit]]s in front of its host star. This &quot;transit method&quot; works only for the small percentage of planets whose orbits happen to be perfectly aligned from astronomers' vantage point, but can be used on very distant stars. It is expected to lead to the first detection of an Earth-size planet orbiting a sun-like star when employed by NASA's forthcoming space-based [[Kepler observatory]]. While the aforementioned methods allow the determination of a planet's mass, this method can be used to measure the radius of a planet. When combined with the radial velocity technique, one can determine the density of the planet, and hence learn something about the physical structure of the planet. Most of these extrasolar planets found are of relatively high mass, with at least 40 times that of the [[Earth]]. However, a few seem to be approximately the size of the Earth. This reflects current telescope technology, which is not able to detect smaller planets. The mass distribution should not be taken as a reference for a general estimate, since it is likely that many more planets with smaller mass, even in nearby planetary systems, are still undetected. The [[Kepler Space Mission]] is a space-based telescope set to launch in [[2007]], although NASA administrator [[Michael D. Griffin|Mike Griffin]] has indicated that it may be delayed by diversion of money earmarked for the general space telescope program toward a new Hubble maintenance mission. The Kepler is designed specifically to search large numbers of stars for Earth-sized terrestrial planets using the transit method. The [[French Space Agency]], in conjunction with the [[European Space Agency]], plans a similar mission with its [[Corot (space mission)|Corot]] space telescope due to launch in 2006. The transit detection method will also be employed but it is expected that Corot will only find rock planets that are several times larger than Earth. Extrasolar planets also cause the [[Rossiter-McLaughlin effect]], which can be another clue to an extrasolar planet's existence. ===Circumstellar disks=== An even newer approach is the study of [[Interstellar cloud|dust clouds]]. Many solar systems contain a significant amount of space dust that is present due to frequent dust generation activity such as comets, asteroid and planetary collisions. This dust forms as a disc around a star and absorbs regular star light and re-emits it as [[infrared]] radiation. These dust clouds can provide invaluable information through studies of their density and distortion, caused either by an orbiting planet &quot;catching&quot; the dust, or distortion due to gravitational influences of orbiting planets. Unfortunately this method can only be employed by space-based observations because our atmosphere absorbs most infrared radiation, making ground based observation impossible. Our own solar system contains enough dust to make up about 1/10th the mass of our moon. Although its mass is negligible, its surface area is so great that at a distance, its infrared emissions would outshine all our planets by a factor of 100. The [[Hubble Space Telescope]] is capable of these observations using its NICMOS (Near Infrared Camera and Multi-Object Spectrometer) instrument, but was unable to do so due to a cooling unit malfunction that left NICMOS inoperative between 1999 and 2002. Even better images were then taken by its sister instrument, the [[Spitzer Space Telescope]] (formerly SIRTF, the Space Infrared Telescope Facility), in 2003. The Spitzer Telescope was designed specifically for use in the infrared range and probes far deeper into the spectrum than the Hubble Space Telescope can. ===Direct observation=== [[Image:Ph
d after the death of Elizabeth, whilst she was alive it was very effective. ===See also=== *[[English Renaissance]] == Religious Conflict and the Civil War == A number of assassination attempts were made on the Protestant King [[James I of England|James I]], notably the [[Main Plot]] and [[Bye Plot]]s of [[1603]], and most famously, on [[November 5|5th November]] [[1605]], the [[Gunpowder Plot]], by a group of Catholic conspirators, led by [[Guy Fawkes]], which was stoked up and served as further fuel for antipathy in England to the Catholic faith. The [[English Civil War]] broke out in [[1642]], largely as a result of an ongoing series of conflicts between the then King, [[Charles I of England|Charles I]], and [[Parliament]]. The defeat of the Royalist army by the [[New Model Army]] of [[Parliament]] at the Battle of [[Naseby]] in June 1645 effectively destroyed the King's armies. The King fled to Scotland but was handed over to the English Parliament for money by the Scots. He escaped and the Second English Civil War began, although it was to be only a short conflict, with Parliament quickly securing the country. The capture and subsequent trial of [[Charles I of England|Charles I]] led to his execution by beheading in January [[1649]] at [[Whitehall]] Gate in London. The monarchy was abolished and [[Oliver Cromwell]] became the [[Lord Protector]]. After he died, his son [[Richard Cromwell]] acceded him as Lord Protector, but soon abdicated. The monarchy was restored in [[1660]], after England entered a period of anarchy, with King [[Charles II of England|Charles II]] returning to London. In [[1664]]/[[1665|65]] England was swept by a visitation of the [[Great Plague]], and then, in [[1666]], London, the timbered capital city of England, was swept by the [[Great Fire of London]], which raged for 5 days, destroying approximately 15,000 buildings. In [[1689]], the [[Netherlands|Dutch]] Protestant [[William III of England|William of Orange]], William III replaced the Catholic King [[James II of England|James II]]. This became known as the [[Glorious Revolution]] or 'Bloodless Revolution'. However, in [[Scotland]] and [[Ireland]], Catholics loyal to James II were not so content, and a series of bloody uprisings resulted. These [[Jacobite Rebellions]] continued until the mid-18th century. The union of Scotland with England in the [[Act of Union 1707]], saw Scotland united with England and Wales (Wales had already been legally incorporated into England by the [[Laws in Wales Acts 1535-1542]] by Henry VIII). This was no process of harmonisation, for Scotland had effectively capitulated to English economic pressure after the failure of the [[Darién scheme]]. This process was lubricated in the Scottish parliament by the self-interested political manoeuverings of the English puppets, [[John Campbell, 2nd Duke of Argyll|John Campbell]], the 2nd Duke of [[Argyll]] and [[James Douglas, 2nd Duke of Queensberry]]. (NB: After the 1707 Act, the histories of Great Britain and England overlap heavily. Since England was the dominant hegemony, it is assumed for the purposes of this article that the two are largely coterminous.) ==The Industrial Revolution== : ''Main article: [[Economic history of Britain]]'' The late [[18th century|18th]] and early [[19th century|19th centuries]] saw considerable social upheaval as a largely agrarian society was transformed by technological advances and increasing mechanisation, which was the [[Industrial Revolution]]. Much of the agricultural workforce was uprooted from the countryside and moved into large urban centres of production, as the steam-based production factories could undercut the traditional [[cottage industries]], due to economies of scale and the increased output per worker made possible by the new technologies. The consequent overcrowding into areas with little supporting infrastructure saw dramatic increases in the rise of infant mortality (to the extent that many Sunday schools for pre working age children (5 or 6) had funeral clubs to pay for each others funeral arrangements), crime, and social deprivation. The transition to industrialisation was not wholly seamless for workers, many of whom saw their livelihoods threatened by the process. Of these, some frequently sabotaged or attempted to sabotage factories. These saboteurs were known as &quot;[[Luddite|Luddites]]&quot;. This view of the Luddite history should also be set against alternative views, such as [[Luddism#E._P._Thompson.27s_view_of_Luddism|that of E. P. Thompson]]. == Recent history == : ''Main article: [[History of the United Kingdom]]'' The [[Act of Union 1800|Act of Union]] of [[1800]] formally assimilated Ireland within the British political process, and created a new [[state]] &quot;The [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland]]&quot; with effect from 1 January 1801, uniting England, Wales, Ireland and Scotland. Since then England has not existed as an independent political entity, but as a country it has remained highly dominant in the [[United Kingdom]]. The majority of the political and economic leadership the UK is English. London has remained the economic and centre of Britain and one of the world's great cities. During the early [[19th century]], the working classes began to find a voice. Concentrations of industry led to the formation of guilds and unions, which, although at first suppressed, eventually became powerful enough to resist. [[Chartism]] is thought to have originated from the passing of the [[1832]] [[Reform Bill]], which gave the vote to the majority of the (male) middle classes, but not to the 'working class'. Many people made speeches on the 'betrayal' of the working class and the 'sacrificing' of their 'interests' by the 'misconduct' of the government. In [[1838]], six members of Parliament and six workingmen formed a committee, which then published the People's Charter. The [[revolution of 1848|revolutions]] which spread like wildfire throughout mainland Europe during the [[1840s]] did not occur in England and [[Victoria of the United Kingdom|Queen Victoria]]'s reign was largely one of consensus, despite huge disparities in living standards between the few rich and the multitudinous poor. The Anglo-Irish treaty of [[1921]] established the [[Irish Free State]] (now the [[Republic of Ireland]]) as a separate nation, leaving [[Northern Ireland]] as part of the United Kingdom; its official name became &quot;The [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland]]&quot;. England bore the full brunt of German bombing during [[World War II]], many of its cities were badly damaged and huge amounts of infrastructure destroyed. England rapidly recovered after the war, and while internationally the relative wealth and power of Britain have faded, England still remains paramount in the British Isles. [[1999]] saw the establishment of the Scottish Parliament and Welsh Assembly. There is no English equivalent. In part this is a reflection of the hold England has on the British government. ==See also== * [[Bretwalda]] * [[List of British monarchs]], [[British monarchs' family tree]] * [[Politics of the United Kingdom|British politics]] * [[Danelaw]] * [[English people]] * [[History of the British constitution]] * [[History of British society]] * [[Timeline of English history]] * [[Population of England]] - historical estimates * [[History of the Jews in England]] * [[History of Britain]] * [[History of Scotland]] * [[History of Ireland]] * [[History of Wales]] * [[History of Cornwall]] * [[Commonwealth]] * By county/city: [[History of Bedfordshire|Bedfordshire]], [[History of Berkshire|Berkshire]], [[History of Birmingham|Birmingham]], [[History of Bristol|Bristol]], [[History of Buckinghamshire|Buckinghamshire]], [[History of Cambridgeshire|Cambridgeshire]], [[History of Cheshire|Cheshire]], [[History of Cornwall|Cornwall]], [[History of County Durham|County Durham]], [[History of Cumbria|Cumbria]], [[History of Derbyshire|Derbyshire]], [[History of Devon|Devon]], [[History of Dorset|Dorset]], [[History of East Riding of Yorkshire|East Riding of Yorkshire]], [[History of East Sussex|East Sussex]], [[History of Essex|Essex]], [[History of Gloucestershire|Gloucestershire]], [[History of Hampshire|Hampshire]], [[History of Herefordshire|Herefordshire]], [[History of Hertfordshire|Hertfordshire]], [[History of the Isle of Wight|Isle of Wight]], [[History of Kent|Kent]], [[History of Lancashire|Lancashire]], [[History of Leicestershire|Leicestershire]], [[History of Lincolnshire|Lincolnshire]], [[History of London|London]], [[History of Manchester|Manchester]], [[History of Merseyside|Merseyside]], [[History of Norfolk|Norfolk]], [[History of Northamptonshire|Northamptonshire]], [[History of Northumberland|Northumberland]], [[History of North Yorkshire|North Yorkshire]], [[History of Nottinghamshire|Nottinghamshire]], [[History of Oxfordshire|Oxfordshire]], [[History of Rutland|Rutland]], [[History of Sheffield|Sheffield]], [[History of Shropshire|Shropshire]], [[History of Somerset|Somerset]], [[History of Staffordshire|Staffordshire]], [[History of Suffolk|Suffolk]], [[History of Surrey|Surrey]], [[History of Tyne and Wear|Tyne and Wear]], [[History of Warwickshire|Warwickshire]], [[History of West Midlands|West Midlands]], [[History of West Sussex|West Sussex]], [[History of West Yorkshire|West Yorkshire]], [[History of Wiltshire|Wiltshire]], [[History of Worcestershire|Worcestershire]] ==External links== *http://www.historyofengland.net/ * Full text of ''[http://www.gutenberg.net/etext/8556 The History of England From the Norman Conquest to the Death of John (1066-1216)]'' from [[Project Gutenberg]] ==Further reading== *&lt;cite&gt;[[A History of Britain]]: At the Edge of the World, 3500 BC - 1603 AD&lt;/cite&gt; by [[Simon Schama]], BBC/Miramax, 2000 ISBN 0786866756 *&lt;cite&gt;A History of Britain, Volume 2: The Wars of the British 1603-1776&lt;/cite&gt;
tial x}+{\partial f \over \partial v}{\partial v \over \partial x}=3 + \cos(xy)y.&lt;/math&gt; ==Proof of the chain rule== Let ''f'' and ''g'' be functions and let ''x'' be a number such that ''f'' is differentiable at ''g(x)'' and ''g'' is differentiable at ''x''. Then by the definition of differentiability, :&lt;math&gt; g(x+\delta)-g(x)= \delta g'(x) + \epsilon(\delta) \,&lt;/math&gt; where &lt;math&gt; \frac{\epsilon(\delta)}{\delta} \to 0 \,&lt;/math&gt; as &lt;math&gt;\delta\to 0.&lt;/math&gt; Similarly, :&lt;math&gt; f(g(x)+\alpha) - f(g(x)) = \alpha f'(g(x)) + \eta(\alpha) \,&lt;/math&gt; where &lt;math&gt;\frac{\eta(\alpha)}{\alpha} \to 0 \,&lt;/math&gt; as &lt;math&gt;\alpha\to 0. \,&lt;/math&gt; Now :{| |- |&lt;math&gt; f(g(x+\delta))-f(g(x))\, &lt;/math&gt; |&lt;math&gt;= f(g(x) + \delta g'(x)+\epsilon(\delta)) - f(g(x)) \,&lt;/math&gt; |- | |&lt;math&gt; = \alpha_\delta f'(g(x)) + \eta(\alpha_\delta) \,&lt;/math&gt; |} where &lt;math&gt;\alpha_\delta = \delta g'(x) + \epsilon(\delta) \,&lt;/math&gt;. Observe that as &lt;math&gt;\delta\to 0,&lt;/math&gt; &lt;math&gt;\frac{\alpha_\delta}{\delta}\to g'(x)&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;\frac{\eta(\alpha_\delta)}{\delta}\to 0&lt;/math&gt;. Hence :&lt;math&gt; \frac{f(g(x+\delta))-f(g(x))}{\delta} \to g'(x)f'(g(x))\mbox{ as } \delta \to 0.&lt;/math&gt; ==The fundamental chain rule== The chain rule is a fundamental property of all definitions of derivative and is therefore valid in much more general contexts. For instance, if ''E'', ''F'' and ''G'' are [[Banach space]]s (which includes [[Euclidean space]]) and ''f'' : ''E'' &amp;rarr; ''F'' and ''g'' : ''F'' &amp;rarr; ''G'' are functions, and if ''x'' is an element of ''E'' such that ''f'' is differentiable at ''x'' and ''g'' is differentiable at ''f''(''x''), then the derivative (the [[Fréchet derivative]]) of the composition ''g'' o ''f'' at the point ''x'' is given by :&lt;math&gt;\mbox{D}_x\left(g \circ f\right) = \mbox{D}_{f\left(x\right)}\left(g\right) \circ \mbox{D}_x\left(f\right).&lt;/math&gt; Note that the derivatives here are [[linear transformation|linear maps]] and not numbers. If the linear maps are represented as [[matrix_(mathematics)|matrices]] (namely [[Jacobian]]s), the composition on the right hand side turns into a matrix multiplication. A particularly clear formulation of the chain rule can be achieved in the most general setting: let ''M'', ''N'' and ''P'' be ''C''&lt;sup&gt;''k''&lt;/sup&gt; [[manifold]]s (or even Banach-manifolds) and let :''f'' : ''M'' &amp;rarr; ''N'' and ''g'' : ''N'' &amp;rarr; ''P'' be differentiable maps. The derivative of ''f'', denoted by d''f'', is then a map from the [[tangent bundle]] of ''M'' to the tangent bundle of ''N'', and we may write :&lt;math&gt;\mbox{d}\left(g \circ f\right) = \mbox{d}g \circ \mbox{d}f.&lt;/math&gt; In this way, the formation of derivatives and tangent bundles is seen as a [[functor]] on the [[category theory|category]] of ''C''&lt;sup&gt;&amp;infin;&lt;/sup&gt; manifolds with ''C''&lt;sup&gt;&amp;infin;&lt;/sup&gt; maps as morphisms. ==Tensors and the chain rule == See [[tensor field]] for an advanced explanation of the fundamental role the chain rule plays in the geometric nature of [[tensor]]s. ==Higher derivatives== [[Faà di Bruno's formula]] generalizes the chain rule to higher derivatives. The first few derivatives are :&lt;math&gt;\frac{df}{dx} = \frac{dg}{dx} \frac{df}{dg}&lt;/math&gt; :&lt;math&gt; \frac{d^2 f}{d x^2} = \left(\frac{dg}{dx}\right)^2 \frac{d^2 f}{d g^2} + \frac{d^2 g}{dx^2}\frac{df}{dg} &lt;/math&gt; :&lt;math&gt; \frac{d^3 f}{d x^3} = \left(\frac{dg}{dx}\right)^3 \frac{d^3 f}{d g^3} + 3\frac{dg}{dx}\frac{d^2 g}{d x^2} \frac{d^2 f}{d g^2} + \frac{d^3 g}{d x^3} \frac{df}{dg} &lt;/math&gt; :&lt;math&gt; \frac{d^4 f}{d x^4} = \left(\frac{dg}{dx}\right)^4 \frac{d^4 f}{dg^4} + 6 \left(\frac{dg}{dx}\right)^2 \frac{d^2 g}{d x^2} \frac{d^3 f}{d g^3} + \left\{ 4 \frac{dg}{dx} \frac{d^3 g}{dx^3} + 3\left(\frac{d^2 g}{dx^2}\right)^2\right\} \frac{d^2 f}{d g^2} + \frac{d^4 g}{dx^4} \frac{df}{dg} &lt;/math&gt; [[Category:Differential calculus]] [[af:Kettingreël]] [[de:Kettenregel]] [[es:Regla de la cadena]] [[fr:Règle de dérivation en chaîne]] [[he:כלל השרשרת]] [[nl:Kettingregel]] [[pl:Reguła łańcuchowa]] [[sv:Kedjeregeln]] [[th:กฎลูกโซ่]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Complexity classses P and NP</title> <id>6114</id> <revision> <id>15904276</id> <timestamp>2004-08-04T04:34:34Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Ryan524</username> <id>57337</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>reverted vandalism</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Complexity classes P and NP]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Complexity classes P and NP</title> <id>6115</id> <revision> <id>42024301</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T07:46:17Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Mellum</username> <id>45569</id> </contributor> <comment>rvv</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Millennium Problems}} [[Image:Complexity classes.png|thumb|250px|Diagram of complexity classes provided that '''P''' &amp;ne; '''NP'''. If '''P''' = '''NP''', then all three classes are equal.]] [[Computational complexity theory]] is part of the [[theory of computation]] dealing with the resources required during computation to solve a given problem. The most common resources are time (how many steps does it take to solve a problem) and space (how much memory does it take to solve a problem). In this theory, the class '''[[P (complexity)|P]]''' consists of all those [[decision problem|decision problems]] that can be solved on a deterministic sequential machine in an amount of time that is polynomial in the size of the input; the class '''[[NP (complexity)|NP]]''' consists of all those decision problems whose positive solutions can be verified in polynomial time given the right information, or equivalently, whose solution can be found in [[polynomial time]] on a [[Non-deterministic Turing machine | non-deterministic]] machine. Arguably, the biggest open question in [[theory of computation|theoretical computer science]] concerns the relationship between those two classes: :Is '''P''' equal to '''NP'''? In a [[2002]] poll of 100 researchers, 61 believed the answer is no, 9 believed the answer is yes, 22 were unsure, and 8 believed the question may be independent of the currently accepted axioms, and so impossible to prove or disprove.[http://www.cs.umd.edu/~gasarch/papers/poll.ps] The [[Clay Mathematics Institute]] has offered a USD 1,000,000 prize for a correct solution. An important role in this discussion is played by the set of [[NP-complete]] problems (or '''NPC''') which can be loosely described as the ''hardest'' problems in '''NP''' and therefore they are the least likely to be in '''P'''. More precisely, any problem in '''NP''', through some ''efficient'' (takes at most a polynomial-bounded number of steps) transformation, can be expressed as a problem in '''NP-complete'''. Therefore if one finds an ''efficient'' (again, polynomial-bounded) solution to any '''NP-complete''' problem, then every problem in '''NP''' can be solved ''efficiently'' and therefore must be in '''P''', hence proving '''P''' = '''NP'''. (See [[NP-complete]] for the exact definition.) Most theoretical [[computer scientist]]s currently believe that the relationship among the classes '''P''', '''NP''', and '''NPC''' is as shown in the picture, with the '''P''' and '''NPC''' classes disjoint. In essence, the '''P''' = '''NP''' question asks: if positive solutions to a YES/NO problem can be ''verified'' quickly, can the answers also be ''computed'' quickly? Here is an example to get a feeling for the question. Given a large number ''Y'', we might ask whether ''Y'' is a [[composite number]]. For example, we might ask whether the number 53308290611 has nontrivial factors. The answer is YES, though it would take a fair amount of work to find a factor by hand. On the other hand, if someone claims that the answer is &quot;YES, because 224737 is a divisor of 53308290611&quot;, then we can quickly check that with a single division. Verifying that a number is a divisor is much easier than finding the divisor in the first place. The information needed to verify a positive answer is also called a ''certificate''. So we conclude that given the right certificates, positive answers to our problem can be verified quickly (i.e. in polynomial time) and that's why this problem is in '''NP'''. Although this particular problem was recently shown to be in '''P''' as well (see [[AKS primality test]]), this is not at all obvious, and there are many other similar problems that are not believed to be in '''P'''. The restriction to YES/NO problems doesn't really make a difference; even if we allow more complicated answers, the resulting problem (whether [[FP (complexity)|FP]] = [[FNP (complexity)|FNP]]) is equivalent. ==Formal definitions== More formally, a ''decision problem'' is a problem that takes as input some [[String (computer science)|string]] and requires as output either YES or NO. If there is an [[algorithm]] (say a [[Turing machine]], or a [[Lisp programming language|Lisp]] or [[Pascal programming language|Pascal]] program with unbounded memory) which is able to produce the correct answer for any input string of length ''n'' in at most ''n''&lt;sup&gt;''k''&lt;/sup&gt; steps, where ''k'' is some constant independent of the input string, then we say that the problem can be solved in ''polynomial time'' and we place it in the class '''P'''. Intuitively, we think of the problems in '''P''' as those that can be solved reasonably quickly. Now suppose there is an algorithm A(''w'',''C'') which takes two arguments, a string ''w'' which is an input string to our d
amilias'' to put to death a child that was visibly deformed. Although infanticide became a capital offense in Roman law in [[374|AD 374]], offenders were rarely if ever prosecuted. A practice described in Roman texts was to smear the breast with [[opium]] residue so that a nursing baby would die with no outward cause. ==Explanations for the practice== Many historians believe the reason to be primarily economic, with more children born into families than the family is prepared to support. However, this does not explain why infanticide would occur equally among rich and poor, nor why it would be as frequent during decadent periods of the [[Roman Empire]] as during earlier, less affluent, periods. A letter from a Roman citizen to his wife, dating from [[1 BC]], describes the casual nature with which infanticide was often viewed: :&quot;Know that I am still in [[Alexandria]]. &lt;nowiki&gt;[...]&lt;/nowiki&gt; I ask and beg you to take good care of our baby son, and as soon as I received payment I shall send it up to you. If you are delivered &lt;nowiki&gt;[before I come home]&lt;/nowiki&gt;, if it is a boy, keep it, if a girl, discard it.&quot; &amp;ndash; Naphtali Lewis, Life in Egypt Under Roman Rule. Some anthropologists have suggested other causes for infanticide in non-State and non-industrialized societies. Janet Siskind has argued that female infanticide may be a form of [[population control]] in Amazonian societies. Population control is achieved not only by limiting the number of potential mothers; increased fighting among men for access to relatively scarce wives would also lead to a decline in population. Although additional research by [[Marvin Harris]] and [[William Divale]] supports this argument, it has been criticized as an example of environmental determinism. In the [[Solomon Islands]], some people reportedly kill their first-born child as a matter of custom -- and then adopt a child from another island, a practice that suggests that the causes of infanticide are more complex. Other anthropologists have suggested a variety of largely culture-specific reasons for infanticide. In cultures where different value is placed on male and female children, [[sex-selective infanticide]] may be practiced simply to increase the proportion of children of the preferred sex, usually male. In cultures where childbearing is strongly tied to social structures, infants born outside of those structures (illegitimate children, children of incest, children of cross-caste relationships, and so forth) may be killed by family members to conceal or atone for the violation of [[taboo]]. In times of famine or cases of extreme poverty, parents may have to choose which of their children will live and which will starve. A minority of academics subscribe to an alternate school of thought blaming the practice, both modern and historical, on psychological inability to raise children (see [[early infanticidal childrearing]]). Contemporary data suggests that modern infanticide is usually brought about by a combination of [[postpartum depression]] and a psychological unreadiness to raise children. It could also be exacerbated by [[schizophrenia]]. It is also attributed, in some cases, to the desire of unwed, underage parents to conceal their sexual relations and/or avoid the responsibility of childrearing. In addition to debates over the morality of infanticide itself, there is some debate over the effects of infanticide on surviving children, and the effects of childrearing in societies that also sanction infanticide. Some argue that the practice of infanticide in any widespread form causes enormous psychological damage in children. Some anthropologists studying societies that practice infanticide, however, have reported how loving the parents were to their children. (Harris and Divale's work on the relationship between female infanticide and warfare suggests that there are, however, extensive negative effects). In the absence of [[sex-selective abortion]], sex-selective infanticide can be deduced from very skewed birth statistics. The biologically normal birth ratio for [[homo sapiens]] is approximately 105 males per 100 females, and the life expectancy of females is slightly greater than males on average. When a society has an infant male to female ratio which is [[statistical significance|significantly]] higher than the biological norm, sex selection can usually be inferred. (However, new research has led to [http://slate.msn.com/id/2119402/ alternate explanations to this theory].) There have been some accusations that infanticide occurs in [[China]] due to the [[one-child policy]] although most demographers do not believe that the practice is widespread. Others assert that China has twenty-five million fewer girl children than expected. ==Infant euthanasia== [[Joseph Fletcher]], founder of [[situational ethics]] and a [[euthanasia]] proponent, proposed that infanticide be permitted in cases of severe birth defects. He and philosopher [[Peter Singer]] have suggested that it is a logical extension of [[abortion]]. In the [[Netherlands]], euthanasia remains technically illegal for patients under the age of 12. However, Dr. [[Eduard Verhagen]] has documented several cases of infant euthanasia. Together with colleagues and prosecutors, he has developed a protocol to be followed in those cases. Prosecutors will refrain from pressing charges if this ''Groningen protocol'' is followed. ==Infanticide in other species== Other species, besides [[homo sapiens]], commit infanticide. One, perhaps surprising, example is the [[bottlenose dolphin]], which has been reported to kill its young through impact injuries [http://www.sciencenews.org/pages/sn_arc98/7_18_98/fob1.htm]. Another example is hamsters eating their young. == See also == *[[Melissa Drexler]] *[[Margaret Garner]] *[[Amy Grossberg]] *[[Brian Peterson]] *[[abortion]] *[[baby-farming]] *[[bruce effect]] *[[child murder]] *[[eugenics]] *[[filicide]] ==External links== * [http://www.cf.ac.uk/hisar/teach/ancthist/projects/children/ An overview of ancient attitudes in the Roman Empire towards the death of children and infanticide] * [http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0PCG/is_1_21/ai_n6155263 Journal of Population Research: Shortage of girls in China today] [[Category:Infanticide]] [[de:Kindestötung]] [[pt:Infanticídio]] [[zh:殺嬰]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Internet protocol suite</title> <id>15476</id> <revision> <id>42154979</id> <timestamp>2006-03-04T04:32:46Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Cburnett</username> <id>140084</id> </contributor> <comment>/* Layers in the Internet Protocol stack */ This article is about the IP suite, so discussion about that should come first then relate to OSI</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{IPstack}} The '''internet protocol suite''' is the set of [[communications protocol]]s that implement the [[protocol stack]] on which the [[Internet]] and most commercial networks run. It is sometimes called the '''TCP/IP''' [[protocol suite]], after the two most important protocols in it: the [[Transmission Control Protocol]] (TCP) and the [[Internet Protocol]] (IP), which were also the first two defined. The internet protocol suite &amp;mdash; like many protocol suites &amp;mdash; can be viewed as a set of layers, each layer solves a set of problems involving the transmission of data, and provides a well-defined service to the [[upper layer protocol]]s based on using services from some lower layers. Upper layers are logically closer to the user and deal with more abstract data, relying on [[lower layer protocol]]s to translate data into forms that can eventually be physically transmitted. The [[OSI model]] describes a fixed set of seven layers that some vendors prefer and that can be roughly compared to the IP suite. This comparison can cause confusion or give further insight into the IP suite. ==Layers in the internet protocol suite stack== [[Image:UDP encapsulation.png|thumb|511px|Sample encapsulation of data within a [[User Datagram Protocol|UDP]] datagram within an [[Internet Protocol|IP]] packet]] The IP suite uses [[encapsulation (networking)|encapsulation]] to provide abstraction of protocols and services to different layers in the stack. The stack consists of four layers: {| cellpadding=&quot;5&quot; cellspacing=&quot;1&quot; |- |4||style=&quot;border:1px solid black;&quot;|'''Application'''&lt;br /&gt;''(OSI layers&lt;br /&gt;5 through 7)'' |e.g. [[HTTP]], [[File transfer protocol|FTP]], [[DNS]]&lt;br /&gt; ''(routing protocols like [[Border Gateway Protocol|BGP]] and [[Routing information protocol|RIP]], which for a variety of reasons run over TCP and UDP respectively, may also be considered part of the Internetwork layer)'' |- |3||style=&quot;border:1px solid black;&quot;|'''Transport'''&lt;br /&gt;''(OSI layers&lt;br /&gt;4 and 5)'' |e.g. [[Transmission Control Protocol|TCP]], [[User Datagram Protocol|UDP]], [[Real-time Transport Protocol|RTP]], [[Stream Control Transmission Protocol|SCTP]]&lt;br /&gt; ''(routing protocols like [[Open shortest path first|OSPF]], which run over IP, may also be considered part of the Internetwork layer)'' |- |2||style=&quot;border:1px solid black;&quot;|'''Internetwork'''&lt;br /&gt;''(OSI&lt;br /&gt;layer 3)'' | For TCP/IP this is the [[Internet Protocol]] (IP)&lt;br /&gt;''(required protocols like [[Internet control message protocol|ICMP]] and [[Internet group management protocol|IGMP]] run over IP, but may still be considered part of the Internetwork layer; [[Address resolution protocol|ARP]] does not run over IP)'' |- style=&quot;border:1px solid black;&quot; |1||style=&quot;border:1px solid black;&quot;|'''Link'''&lt;br /&gt;''(OSI layers&lt;br /&gt;1 and 2)'' |e.g. [[Ethernet]], [[Wi-Fi]], [[Multiprotocol Label Switching|MPLS]], etc. |} The layers near the top are logically closer to
t;td&gt;46%&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;/td&gt; &lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt; &lt;td&gt;2007&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;$2 million&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;45%&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;/td&gt; &lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt; &lt;td&gt;2008&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;$2 million&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;45%&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;/td&gt; &lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt; &lt;td&gt;2009&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;$3.5 million&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;45%&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;/td&gt; &lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt; &lt;td&gt;2010&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;repealed&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;N/A&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;/td&gt; &lt;/tr&gt; &lt;/table&gt; &lt;/div&gt;&lt;br clear=&quot;all&quot;&gt; ===Inheritance tax at the state level=== Many U.S. states also impose their own estate or inheritance taxes (see [[Ohio estate tax]] for an example). Some states &quot;piggyback&quot; on the federal estate tax law in regard to estates subject to tax (i.e., if the estate is exempt from federal taxation, it is also exempt from state taxation). Some states' estate taxes, however, operate independently of federal law, so it is possible for an estate to be subject to state tax while exempt from federal tax. ===Debate=== The propriety of the estate tax has been debated extensively. Opponents argue that the Federal estate tax rate is effectively higher as a percentage of the amount actually transferred to heirs. For example, an estate worth $3.5 million paid $940,000 federal estate tax in order to transfer $1,280,000 to each heir, suggesting an effective transfer tax rate of 36.7%. Similarly, at the limit, the top federal tax rate of 50% on the estate value would imply a transfer tax rate of 100% of the amount transferred to heirs. The high effective transfer tax rate has prompted many wealthy benefactors to make sizable gifts during their lifetime, paying a [[gift tax]] on the amount transferred, rather than allow the whole amount to be taxed at the estate level. Some argue that the estate tax creates a potential for double taxation, that is, taxation on assets which have already been taxed. Double taxation occurs on earned income, but not the unrealized capital appreciation of [[houses]], [[farms]], [[stock]]s, [[bond]]s, [[real estate]], and [[collecting|collectibles]] such as works of art. [[FactCheck.org]] cites a 2000 study of 1998 estate taxation, which determined that unrealized capital gains made up 36.3% of the value of all estates in 1998, and 56.4% of estates worth more than $10 million (but without taking into account yearly increases of inflation). &lt;div style=&quot;float:left; width:48%;&quot;&gt; The debate sometimes revolves around which estates are affected by current law. The effects of the law on small business owners and family-owned farms (entities which, conservatives argue, are hardest hit by the estate tax) was studied in an analysis undertaken by the [[Tax Policy Center]]. A study of the 18,800 taxable estates taxed in 2004 found 7,090 which had any farm or business income. Of those, there were 440 estates in which half or more of its assets were the value of farms and/or businesses. The effective tax rate on the 440 estates studied in detail never averaged more than 23%. Proponents of the estate tax argue that it serves to prevent the perpetuation of wealth, free of tax, in wealthy families and that it is necessary to a system of [[progressive taxation]]. Proponents point out that the estate tax only affects estates of considerable size and provides numerous credits (including the unified credit) that allow a significant portion of even large estates to escape taxation. Regarding the tax's effect on farmers, proponents counter that this criticism is misguided as there is an exemption built into the law that is specifically designed for family-owned farms. &lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;float:right; width:48%; margin: 0.5em; padding: 0.5em; border: 1px solid #8888aa; &quot;&gt; &lt;table border=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot;&gt; &lt;tr&gt; &lt;td rowspan=&quot;2&quot;&gt;Estate value &lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td colspan=&quot;2&quot; rowspan=&quot;2&quot;&gt; &lt;p align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;Number of &lt;br&gt; returns&lt;/p&gt; &lt;/td&gt; &lt;td colspan=&quot;2&quot; rowspan=&quot;2&quot;&gt; &lt;p align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;Average tax&lt;br&gt; (in thousands)&lt;/p&gt; &lt;/td&gt; &lt;td colspan=&quot;2&quot; rowspan=&quot;2&quot;&gt; &lt;p align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;Effective&lt;br&gt; tax rate&lt;/p&gt; &lt;/td&gt; &lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt; &lt;td&gt;&amp;nbsp; &lt;/td&gt; &lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt; &lt;td&gt;&amp;lt; $1 million&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td &gt;0&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td &gt;$0&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;&lt;br&gt; &lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;0.0%&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;/td&gt; &lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt; &lt;td&gt;$1 - $2 million&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;190&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;&lt;br&gt; &lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;$26&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;&lt;br&gt; &lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;1.6%&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;/td&gt; &lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt; &lt;td&gt;$2 - $3.5 million&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;60&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;$190&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;7.5%&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;/td&gt; &lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt; &lt;td&gt;$3.5 - $5 million&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;40&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;&lt;br&gt; &lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;$449&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;12.0%&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;/td&gt; &lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt; &lt;td&gt;$5 - $10 million&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;80&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;$1,322&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;19.3%&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;/td&gt; &lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt; &lt;td&gt;$10 - $20 million&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;50&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;$2,832&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;22.9%&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;/td&gt; &lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt; &lt;td&gt;&amp;gt; $20 million&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;30&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;$23,442&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;22.2%&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;/td&gt; &lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt; &lt;td&gt;All&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;440&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;$2,238&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;19.9%&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;/td&gt; &lt;/tr&gt; &lt;/table&gt; &lt;/div&gt;&lt;br clear=&quot;all&quot;&gt; Furthermore, supporters argue that many large fortunes do not represent taxed income or savings, that wealth is not being taxed but merely the transfer of that wealth, and that many large fortunes represent unrealized capital gains which with a [[step up in basis]], will never be taxed as capital gains under the federal income tax. Some even go further and suggest all transfers should be taxed, and that the large bequests to family foundations or private charities should be taxed and more heavily regulated. ===Related taxes=== The US also imposes a gift tax, assessed in a manner similar to the estate tax. One obvious purpose is to prevent a person from easily avoiding paying estate tax by giving away all of their assets during their lifetime. However, an exemption is available for transfers of up to $11,000 per person per year. A single donor can make gifts up to this amount to as many people as they wish each year, so if they have enough people they wish to give assets to and/or enough time, they may be able to reduce their estate enough to avoid estate tax. Furthermore, transfers (whether by bequest, gift, or inheritance) in excess of $1 million may be subject to a [[generation-skipping transfer tax]] if certain other criteria are met. ==Further reading== * Ian Shapiro and Michael J. Graetz, ''Death By A Thousand Cuts: The Fight Over Taxing Inherited Wealth'', Princeton University Press (February, 2005), hardcoveer, 372 pages, ISBN 0691122938 *William H. Gates, Sr. and Chuck Collins, with forward by former Federal Reserve Chairman Paul Volcker, ''Wealth and Our Commonwealth: Why America Should Tax Accumulated Fortunes'', Beacon Press (2003) ==External links== * [http://www.lrb.co.uk/v27/n11/runc01_.html &quot;Tax Breaks for Rich Murderers&quot;], a June 2005 article from the ''[[London Review of Books]]'' by David Runciman * [http://www.taxpolicycenter.org/TaxModel/tmdb/TMTemplate.cfm?DocID=734&amp;topic2ID=40&amp;topic3ID=41&amp;DocTypeID= Gross Estate and Net Estate Tax on Farms and Businesses in 2004], from the [[Tax Policy Center]] website * [http://www.factcheck.org/article328m.html ...Ads exaggerate what the tax costs farmers, small businesses...], a June 2005 article from [[FactCheck.org]] [[Category:Taxation]] [[de:Erbschaftsteuer]] [[fr:Droits de succession]] [[he:מס ירושה]] [[ru:Налог на наследство]] [[nl:Schenkingsrecht]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Insider trading</title> <id>15368</id> <revision> <id>41921085</id> <timestamp>2006-03-02T17:05:14Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Smallbones</username> <id>612302</id> </contributor> <comment>intro</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''&q
ncyclopedia of all things Hitchcock. * DeRosa, Steven: ''Writing with Hitchcock''. Faber and Faber, 2001. An examination of the collaboration between Hitchcock and screenwriter John Michael Hayes, his most frequent writing collaborator in Hollywood. Their films include ''Rear Window'' and ''The Man Who Knew Too Much''. * Deutelbaum, Marshall; Poague, Leland (ed.): ''A Hitchcock Reader''. Iowa State University Press, 1986. A wide-ranging collection of scholarly essays on Hitchcock. * Spoto, Donald: ''The Art of Alfred Hitchcock''. Anchor Books, 1992. The first detailed critical survey of Hitchcock's work by an American. * Spoto, Donald: ''The Dark Side of Genius''. Ballantine Books, 1983. A biography of Hitchcock, featuring a controversial exploration of Hitchcock's psychology. * Gottlieb, Sidney: ''Alfred Hitchcock: Interviews''. University Press of Mississippi, 2003. A collection of Hitchcock interviews. * Conrad, Peter: ''The Hitchcock Murders''. Faber and Faber, 2000. A highly personal and idiosyncratic discussion of Hitchcock's oeuvre. * Rebello, Stephen: ''Alfred Hitchcock and the Making of [[Psycho]]''. St. Martin's, 1990. Intimately researched and detailed history of the making of ''Psycho,'' praised as one of the best books on moviemaking ever. &lt;!--- Doesn't this properly belong at the Psycho article, not here? ---&gt; * McGilligan, Patrick: ''Alfred Hitchcock: A Life in Darkness and Light''. Regan Books, 2003. A comprehensive biography of the director. * Modleski, Tania: ''The Women Who Knew Too Much: Hitchcock And Feminist Theory''. Routledge, 2005 (2nd edition). A collection of critical essays on Hitchcock and his films, argues that Hitchcock's portrayal of women was an ambivalent one, not misogynist nor sympathetic (as widely thought). An important text to consider, given the abundance of female heroes and victims in his films. * Wood, Robin: ''Hitchcock's Films Revisited''. Columbia University Press, 2002 (2nd edition). Another collection of critical essays, now revisited by the author in this 2nd edition to supplement and annotate the highly-lauded entries from before with the additional insight and changes that time and personal experience has brought him (including his own coming-out as a gay man). ==External links== {{wikiquote}} * {{imdb name|id=0000033|name=Alfred Hitchcock}} * [http://hitchcock.tv Alfred Hitchcock -- The Master of Suspense] * [http://www.sensesofcinema.com/contents/directors/05/hitchcock.html Senses of Cinema's Alfred Hitchcock Page] * [http://www.screenonline.org.uk/tours/hitch/tour1.html ''Hitchcock's Style''] -- online exhibit from [[screenonline]], a website of the [[British Film Institute]] * [http://alfredhitchcock.directorscut.info/ Multi-Language Website] * [http://www.hitchcockpresentsdvd.com/ Official Universal Website] * [http://www.soundtrackinfo.com/search.asp?q=hitchcock Hitchcock at the SoundtrackINFO project] * [http://warnervideo.com/hitchcock/home.html Warner Video: Alfred Hitchcock] * [http://www.labyrinth.net.au/~muffin/ The MacGuffin Web Page] - the online extension of the Alfred Hitchcock journal ''The MacGuffin'' * [http://www.writingwithhitchcock.com/ Writing With Hitchcock] - Companion site to Steven DeRosa's book of the same name, includes original interviews, essays, script excerpts, and extensive material on Hitchcock's unproduced works. * [http://www.daveyp.com/hitchcock/ The Hitchcock DVD Information Site] - details of Hitchcock DVD releases from around the world * [http://tesla.liketelevision.com/liketelevision/tuner.php?channel=133&amp;format=movie&amp;theme=guide The Man Who Knew Too Much] - Watch the movie online for free * [http://www.borgus.com/think/hitch.htm Basic Hitchcock Film Techniques] A checklist of his top 13 film techniques. {{Link FA|pl}} {{Link FA|fr}} [[Category:1899 births|Hitchcock, Sir Alfred]] [[Category:1980 deaths|Hitchcock, Sir Alfred]] [[Category:British film directors|Hitchcock, Sir Alfred]] [[Category:British film producers|Hitchcock, Sir Alfred]] [[Category:British television directors|Hitchcock, Sir Alfred]] [[Category:Naturalized citizens of the United States|Hitchcock, Sir Alfred]] [[Category:Old Ignatians|Hitchcock, Sir Alfred]] [[Category:Roman Catholics|Hitchcock, Sir Alfred]] [[Category:Londoners|Hitchcock, Sir Alfred]] [[Category:Knights Commander of the British Empire|Hitchcock, Alfred]] [[ilo:Alfred Hitchcock]] [[bg:Алфред Хичкок]] [[bs:Alfred Hitchcock]] [[ca:Alfred Hitchcock]] [[cs:Alfred Hitchcock]] [[cy:Alfred Hitchcock]] [[da:Alfred Hitchcock]] [[de:Alfred Hitchcock]] [[et:Alfred Hitchcock]] [[es:Alfred Hitchcock]] [[eo:Alfred HITCHCOCK]] [[fa:آلفرد هیچکاک]] [[fr:Alfred Hitchcock]] [[ko:앨프리드 히치콕]] [[hr:Alfred Hitchcock]] [[io:Alfred Hitchcock]] [[id:Alfred Hitchcock]] [[is:Alfred Hitchcock]] [[it:Alfred Hitchcock]] [[he:אלפרד היצ'קוק]] [[lb:Alfred Hitchcock]] [[hu:Alfred Hitchcock]] [[nl:Alfred Hitchcock]] [[ja:アルフレッド・ヒッチコック]] [[no:Alfred Hitchcock]] [[pl:Alfred Hitchcock]] [[pt:Alfred Hitchcock]] [[ro:Alfred Hitchcock]] [[ru:Хичкок, Альфред]] [[sq:Alfred Hitchcock]] [[sh:Alfred Hitchcock]] [[simple:Alfred Hitchcock]] [[sk:Alfred Hitchcock]] [[sl:Alfred Hitchcock]] [[sr:Алфред Хичкок]] [[fi:Alfred Hitchcock]] [[sv:Alfred Hitchcock]] [[th:อัลเฟร็ด ฮิตช์ค็อก]] [[vi:Alfred Hitchcock]] [[tr:Alfred Hitchcock]] [[zh:希治閣]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Anaconda</title> <id>809</id> <revision> <id>42042622</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T11:54:38Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>KnightRider</username> <id>430793</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>warnfile Modifying: es</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}} {{Taxobox | color = pink | name = Anacondas | image = Eunectes_notaeus.jpg | image_width = 240px | image_caption = Yellow Anaconda, ''Eunectes notaeus'' | regnum = [[Animal]]ia | phylum = [[Chordate|Chordata]] | classis = [[Reptile|Reptilia]] | ordo = [[Squamata]] | subordo = [[Serpentes]] | familia = [[Boidae]] | genus = '''''Eunectes''''' | genus_authority = [[Johann Georg Wagler|Wagler]], [[1830]] | subdivision_ranks = Species | subdivision = See text. }} '''Anacondas''' (Jibóia and Sucuri, local names) are three species of aquatic [[boa]] inhabiting the swamps and rivers of the dense forests of tropical [[South America]] as well as the southern swamps of the island of [[Trinidad]] . There are two possible origins for the word 'anaconda': It is perhaps an alteration of the [[Sinhalese]] word 'henakanday', meaning 'whip snake', or more likely, the [[Tamil]] word 'anaikolra', which means 'elephant killer', as early [[Spain|Spanish]] settlers in South America referred to the anaconda as 'matatoro', or 'bull killer'. It is unclear how the name originated so far from the snake's native habitat, it is likely due to its vague similarity to the large [[Asia]]n [[python]]s.&lt;sup&gt;[http://news2.nationalgeographic.com/news/2002/08/photogalleries/0802_snakes1.html]&lt;/sup&gt; Two species are well-known: * The '''Green Anaconda''' (''[[Eunectes murinus]]''), which has been reported at over 10 meters (32.8 feet) in length (although most are considerably smaller). Although shorter than the longest recorded species, the [[Reticulated python|Reticulated Python]], it is considerably heavier. In fact, it is the heaviest [[snake]] species in existence. It can weigh 250 kg (551 pounds) and have a girth of more than 30 cm (11.8 inches) in diameter. Females are larger than males, averaging 22-26 feet and 12-16 feet respectively. These are found mainly in northern [[South America]], in [[Venezuela]], [[Colombia]], [[Brazil]], northern [[Bolivia]], northeast [[Peru]], [[Guyana]], and [[Trinidad]]. Although charismatic, very little information was known about the anacondas until [[1992]] when the first study (and so far the only) was made on the field biology of this species in the Venezuelan [[llanos]] by Dr. Jesus Rivas. &lt;sup&gt;[http://www.anacondas.org]&lt;/sup&gt; * The '''Yellow Anaconda''' (''[[Eunectes notaeus]]''), which reaches a relatively smaller average adult length of 3 metres (9.8 feet). These live further south in Bolivia, [[Paraguay]], [[Uruguay]], western Brazil, and northeast [[Argentina]]. The third lesser known species is: * The '''Dark-Spotted''' or '''Deschauense's Anaconda''' (''[[Eunectes deschauenseei]]'') found in northeast Brazil. ''Eunectes murinus'' (formerly called ''Boa murina'') differs from [[Boa]] by the snout being covered with shields instead of small scales, the inner of the three nasal shields being in contact with that of the other side. The general colour is dark olive-[[brown]], with large oval [[black]] spots arranged in two alternating rows along the back, and with smaller white-eyed spots along the sides. The belly is whitish, spotted with black spots. The anaconda combines an arboreal with an aquatic life, and feeds chiefly upon [[bird]]s, [[mammal]]s and [[caiman]], mostly during the night. It lies submerged in the water, with only a small part of its head above the surface, waiting for any suitable prey, or it establishes itself upon the branches of a tree which overhangs the water or the track of game. Like almost all boas, anacondas give birth to live young. == Giant Anacondas == The largest known anacondas measure about 10.6 meters (30.7 feet) long, but unverified reports of much larger snakes have occasionally been made. One notable account was reported by adventurer [[Percy Fawcett]]. In [[1906]], Fawcett wrote that he had shot and wounded an anaconda in South America; he reported the snake measured some 18.9 meters (62 feet) from nose to tail. Once publicized, Fawcett’s account of the giant snake was widely ridiculed, although he insisted his account was both truthful and accurate. [[Bernard Heuvelmans]] came to his defense arguing that Fawcett was generally honest and reliable when relating things. Furthermore, Heuvelmans noted t
that the partnership resources are sufficient to capture this many tricks. Blackwood should not be used when the information gleaned will not answer the question that needs to be answered. A simplified, but instructive, way to think about Blackwood is this: &quot;I am concerned that we may lose the first two tricks, if we bid a slam. I can use Blackwood as a kind of insurance policy, to guarantee that this will not happen.&quot; But Blackwood will not help if, due to the structure of the hands, there are multiple ways to lose the first two tricks. It only helps, for the most part, if the exclusive risk of losing the first two tricks is due to the opponents' holding two cashable '''aces'''. Obviously, the opposition might hold the ace and king of a side suit, and could bang those tricks right down, resulting in an immediate set. Thus, a player should use Blackwood only when he can ascertain that the partnership holds at least second-round controls in all suits (kings or, if a suit fit is found, singletons). Thus, a Blackwood query by the player holding two quick losers in a side suit is a wild gamble, as it is still possible that the suit is not controlled by an Ace or a King. For the same reason, it is generally wrong to use Blackwood with a void. (This is not always true, but the author's rule is: Don't use Blackwood with a void unless you are absolutely sure you know what you are doing, and why you are doing it. If you don't understand why it is correct, in a given case, to use Blackwood with a void, then it's very likely that its usage will be incorrect.) You may be missing two aces, but your void may compensate for the lack of one of the enemy aces. Thus, Blackwood will not tell you what you want to know: Are we at risk of losing the first two tricks? If your side has two aces and a void, then you are not at risk of losing the first two tricks, so long as (a) your void is useful (i.e. does not duplicate the function of an ace that your side holds) and (b) you are not vulnerable to the loss of the first two tricks in the fourth suit (because, for instance, one of the partnership hands holds a singleton in that suit or the protected king, giving your side second round control). Other problems can easily occur when Clubs is the agreed upon trump suit. The reply to Blackwood could take the partnership past their agreed suit and going to the next higher level may be one trick too high. The adage is 'don't use the convention if there is a possibility you won't like the reply.' ==Roman Blackwood== A variation of the convention, known as ''Roman Blackwood'', was popularized by famous Italian [[Blue Team (bridge)|Blue Team]]. In Roman Blackwood, the responses are even more ambiguous, but more space-conserving. The basic outline of responses is: {| |5&lt;font color=black size=&quot;4&quot;&gt;&amp;clubs;&lt;/font&gt;||&amp;ndash; 0 or 3 aces |- |5&lt;font color=red size=&quot;4&quot;&gt;&amp;diams;&lt;/font&gt;||&amp;ndash; 1 or 4 aces |- |5&lt;font color=red size=&quot;4&quot;&gt;&amp;hearts;&lt;/font&gt;||&amp;ndash; 2 aces |} In practice, the ambiguity is unlikely to occur, as a strength difference between hands with 0 or 1 and 3 or 4 aces is big enough that it can be established in previous rounds of bidding. In other words, a partner who has previously shown e.g. 12-15 range of [[High card point|high points]] is unlikely to hold 3 aces for his bid, etc. Even Roman Blackwood convention has several variations, revolving around 5&amp;hearts; and 5&amp;spades; responses. In all variants, they denote 2 aces. One variation is that 5&amp;spades; shows extra values, while 5&amp;hearts; does not. In other variations, responses 5&amp;hearts;-5NT denote specific combinations of aces (same color, same rank, or &quot;mixed&quot;). If the querying partner ascertains that all aces are present, he can continue as follows: *5NT is a [[Grand slam force]] *The first available bid which is not the agreed suit is the Roman Blackwood for kings. The partner responds stepwise, as above. ==Roman Key Card Blackwood (RKCB)== In modern times, a system called Roman Key Card Blackwood (RKCB) has largely replaced the original sytem, at least among more advanced players. The king of trump is included as a control or a &quot;key card&quot;&amp;mdash; in effect, as a &quot;fifth ace&quot;&amp;mdash; and so more information is gained. The responses are basically the same as for Roman Blackwood, but with five &quot;aces&quot; in play, and aditionally queen of trumps: {| |5&lt;font color=black size=&quot;4&quot;&gt;&amp;clubs;&lt;/font&gt;||&amp;ndash; 0 or 3 key cards |- |5&lt;font color=red size=&quot;4&quot;&gt;&amp;diams;&lt;/font&gt;||&amp;ndash; 1 or 4 key cards |- |5&lt;font color=red size=&quot;4&quot;&gt;&amp;hearts;&lt;/font&gt;||&amp;ndash; 2 key cards without trump Queen |- |5&lt;font color=black size=&quot;4&quot;&gt;&amp;spades;&lt;/font&gt;||&amp;ndash; 2 key cards with trump Queen |} As with Roman Blackwood, for the ambiguous answers in the minor suits the asking partner can almost always work out which it is by looking at the controls in his or her own hand and by analyzing the bidding. The response of five key cards does not exists, as it is simply forbidden for the partner lacking any key card to query Blackwood. The old bridge joke that applies here is, if your partner used RKCB (or regular Blackwood), and you have all four aces (or all five key cards, playing RKCB), then don't respond at all. Instead, rise slowly from your seat and leave the room quietly, because you are playing with a lunatic and your life may be in danger. Even if partner gives a minor suit response to the RKCB 4NT inquiry, the inquiring partner may still determine if his side holds the queen of trumps. Bidding the next &quot;meaningless&quot; suit up from the 5-level response of the interrogated partner is a &quot;queen ask&quot; for the queen of trump. It is interesting to note that, in case when one player can ascertain that a 10-trump fit exists, the queen of trump is considered to be held even if it isn't, because two rounds of trumps will draw all the outstanding trumps in a very high percentage of the cases. All the foregoing bidding is predicated on the assumption that a trump suit has been agreed upon. Without trump agreement, the last suit bid before the 4NT bid is considered to be the agreed trump suit for responding purposes. When No Trump was the last bid made, 4NT is considered to be a quantitative raise and invitational to a small slam. Therefore a bid of 4&lt;font size=4&gt;&amp;clubs;&lt;/font&gt; (Gerber) is used in many partnerships to ask for aces in no trump sequences. ==External links== *[http://www.bridgeguys.com/Conventions/RomanBlackwood.html Roman Blackwood] *[http://www.bridgeguys.com/Conventions/BlueTeamRomanResponses.html Blue Team Roman Blackwood] *[http://www.bridgebum.com/rkc.php Roman Key Card Blackwood] [[Category:Bridge conventions]] [[fr:Convention Blackwood]] [[nl:Blackwood]] [[pl:Blackwood]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Bill Bixby</title> <id>4969</id> <revision> <id>41631410</id> <timestamp>2006-02-28T17:33:34Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Grstain</username> <id>74943</id> </contributor> <comment>delete repeated word; spell out numbers; edits; wikis; tidy; avoid redirect; remove repeated links</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[image:hulkbixby.jpg|thumb|200px|Bill Bixby with [[Lou Ferrigno]] in a promotional photo for ''[[The Incredible Hulk (TV Series)|The Incredible Hulk]]''.]] '''Bill Bixby''' ([[January 22]], [[1934]] &amp;ndash; [[November 21]], [[1993]]), was an [[United States|American actor]], [[television director|director]] and frequent [[game show]] panelist who starred in three popular American television series that spanned nearly two decades, as Tim O'Hara in ''[[My Favorite Martian]]'' ([[1963]]&amp;ndash;[[1966]]), as Tom Corbett, the title role in ''[[The Courtship of Eddie's Father]]'' ([[1969]]&amp;ndash;[[1972]]); and as Dr. David Banner in ''[[The Incredible Hulk (TV Series)|The Incredible Hulk]]'' ([[1978]]&amp;ndash;[[1982]]) with [[Lou Ferrigno]]. He also starred in ''[[The Magician (television series)|The Magician]]'' ([[1973]]) and in a short-lived comedy, ''[[Goodnight Beantown]]'' with [[Mariette Hartley]] in 1984. == Early life == He was born '''Wilfred Bailey Bixby''', a fourth-generation Californian, in [[San Francisco, California]] where his father, Wilfred Everett Bixby, was a store clerk and his mother Jane Bixby, was a department store owner. In [[1946]], his mother encouraged him to take [[ballroom dance]] lessons and from there, he started dancing all around the city. While dancing, he attended [[Lowell High School (San Francisco)|Lowell High School]] where he perfected his oratory and dramatic skills as a member of the [[Lowell Forensic Society]]. He competed in high school speech tournaments regionally. After graduation, against his parents wishes, he majored in drama at [[San Francisco City College]] and graduated from the [[University of California, Berkeley]], the same university his parents went to. After he graduated from college, he moved to [[Hollywood]] where he had a string of odd jobs that included bellhop and lifeguard. He organized shows at a resort in [[Jackson Hole]], [[Wyoming]]. In 1959, he was hired to work as a model and to do commercial work for [[General Motors]] and [[Chrysler]]. == Television career == In [[1961]], Bixby went to [[Detroit, Michigan]], where he was in the musical, “The Boyfriend,” at the Detroit Civic Theater. He then returned to Hollywood where he made his [[acting]] debut on an episode of ''[[The Many Loves of Dobie Gillis]]'', and as a [[character actor]]. As his name became popular, he guest-starred in many other [[situation comedy|situation comedies]] and TV series such as ''[[Ben Casey]]'', ''[[The Twilight
g of Daniel. All three Greek words are used for musical instruments. The existence of the Greek word 'symphonia' was cited by Rowlings as having its earliest use in second century BC, but modern scholarship now knows its use much earlier, both in the sense of a specific instrument and as a term referring to a group of instruments playing in unison. Pythagoras used the term to denote an instrument in 6th century BC, while its use to refer to a group performing together is found in the sixth century BC 'Hymni Homerica, ad Mercurium 51' Despite their early use in Greek however, there is no evidence for the use of these instruments in Mesopotamia in the Neo-Babylonian period where they are said to be used in Daniel, and their mention in the book is generally taken as an anachronism. There are also 19 Persian loan-words in the book, most of them having to do with governmental positions. ====Use of the word 'Chaldeans'==== The book of Daniel uses the term &quot;[[Chaldea]]n&quot; to refer both to a Babylonian ethnic group and to astrologers in general. According to Montgomery and Hammer, Daniel's use of the word 'Chaldean' to refer to astrologers in general is an anachronism, as during the Neo-Babylonian and early Persian periods when Daniel is said to have lived it referred only to an ethnicity. Compare the later [[Chaldean Oracles]]. ==Unity of Daniel== The scholarship concerning the question of unity in Daniel differs greatly from the scholarship concerning the dating. Whereas almost all scholars conclude a 2nd century dating of the book in its final form, scholarship varies greatly regarding the unity of Daniel. Many scholars, finding portions of the book dealing with themes they do not believe fit with the time of Antiochus, conclude separate authors for different portions of the book. Included in this group are Barton, L. Berthold, Collins, and H. L. Ginsberg. Some historians who support that the book was a unified whole include J.A. Montgomery, S.R. Driver, R. H. Pfeiffer, and H.H. Rowling in the latter's aptly titled treatise ''The Unity of the Book of Daniel'' Those who hold to a unified Daniel claim that their opponents fail to find any consensus in their various theories of where divisions exist. Montgomery is particularly harsh to his colleagues, stating that the proliferation of theories without agreement showed a &quot;bankruptcy of criticism.&quot; They also charge that composite theories fail to account for the consistent thematic portrayal of Daniel's life throughout the book of Daniel. ==Christian uses of ''Daniel''== As mentioned above, the prayer of Azariah and the Song of the Three Children from the [[deuterocanon]]ical parts of ''Daniel'' are widely used in Orthodox and Catholic prayer. The various episodes in the first half of the book are used by Christians as moral stories, and are often seen to foreshadow events in the [[gospel]]s. The apocalyptic section is primarily important to Christians for the image of the &quot;Son of Man&quot; (Dan. 7:13). According to the gospels, [[Jesus]] used this title as his preferred name for himself. The connection with Daniel's vision (as opposed to the usage in the [[Book of Ezekiel]]) is made explicit in the Gospels of [[Gospel of Matthew|Matthew]] and [[Gospel of Mark|Mark]] (Matt 27:64; Mk 14:62). Christians see this as a direct claim by Jesus that he is the [[Messiah]]. ==Influence of Daniel== Due to the specificity of its prophecy and its place in both the Jewish and Christian canons, the book of Daniel has had great influence in Jewish and Christian history. The Book of Daniel is included in the Hebrew Bible, the [[Tanakh]], in the section known as the ''[[Ketuvim]]'' (''Hagiographa'', or the &quot;Writings&quot;) . Daniel was considered a prophet at [[Qumran]] (4Q174 [4QFlorilegium]&lt;!--opaque to the average reader--&gt;) and later by [[Josephus]] (''Antiquity of the Jews'' 10.11.7 §266) and the author (the &quot;[[Pseudo-Philo]]&quot;) of ''Liber antiquitatum biblicarum'' (L.A.B. [&quot;Book of Biblical antiquities&quot;] 4.6, 8), and was grouped among the prophets in the [[Septuagint]], the Jewish Greek Old Testament, and by Christians, who place the book among the prophets. However, ''Daniel'' is not currently included by the Jews in the section of the prophets, the [[Nebiim]]. The Jewish exegete Rabbi Moses Ben Maimon, sometimes called simply RaMBaM and later called [[Maimonides]], was so concerned that the &quot;untutored populace would be led astray&quot; if they attempted to calculate the timing of the Messiah that it was decreed that &quot;Cursed be those who predict the end times.&quot; This verbiage can be both found in his letter [[IGERET TEIMAN]] and in his booklet ''The Statutes and Wars of the Messiah-King.'' Rabbi [[Judah Loew ben Bezalel]] lamented that the times for the fulfillment of the prophecy of Daniel &quot;were over long ago&quot; (Sanhedrin 98b, 97a). Traditional Christians have embraced the prophecies of Daniel, as they believe they clearly illustrate that Jesus Christ of Nazareth must be the [[Messiah]], and also because in [[Gospel of Matthew|Matthew]] 24 Jesus himself is quoted as describing Daniel's prophecies as applying to future events immediately preceding Judgement Day, and not to Epiphanes who had lived some 175 years earlier. They consider the [[Prophecy of Seventy Weeks]] to be particularly compelling due to what they interpret to be prophetic accuracy. Many Orthodox Jews believe that the prophecy refers to the destruction of the [[Second Temple]] by the Romans in 70 AD. Secular scholars however, believe that the prophecy better fits the reign of Antiochus, and that it is an example of ''[[vaticinium ex eventu]]'' (prophecy after the fact). Medieval study of [[angel]]s was also affected by this book, as it is the only Old Testament source for the names of two of the [[archangel]]s, [[Gabriel (archangel)|Gabriel]] and [[Michael (archangel)|Michael]] (Dan 9:21; 12:1). The only other angel given a name in the Old Testament is [[Raphael (archangel)|Raphael]], mentioned in the deuterocanoncial [[Book of Tobit]]. ==Traditional tomb sites of Daniel== A [[tomb]] said to be the last resting place of the prophet Daniel is located in the [[Kirkuk Citadel]] in the city of [[Kirkuk]] in [[Iraq]]. There is a [[mosque]] built on the tomb, the mosque has [[arches]] and [[pillars]] and two [[domes]] on a decorated base and beside it there are three [[minarets]] belonging to the end of the [[Mongolian]] reign. The mosque is about 400 square meters, it has four illusions tombs of Daniel, [[Hannah]], [[Ezra]] and [[Michael]]. Another tomb in [[Susa]], [[Iran]], also claims to be that of Daniel. ==See also== * [[Book of Revelation]] * [[Apocalypse]] * [[Biblical archaeology]] (reference to [[Nabonidus]] cylinder) * [[Christian eschatology]] * [[Summary of Christian eschatology]] ==External links== *[[Judaism|Jewish]] translations: ** [http://www.chabad.org/library/archive/LibraryArchive2.asp?AID=15773 Daniel (Judaica Press)] translation with [[Rashi]]'s commentary at Chabad.org *[[Christian]] translations: ** [http://www.anova.org/sev/htm/hb/27_daniel.htm ''Daniel'' at The Great Books] (New Revised Standard Version) ** {{biblegateway||Daniel}} ** [http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Bible%2C_King_James%2C_Daniel ''Daniel'' at Wikisource] (Authorised King James Version) ** [http://st-takla.org/pub_Deuterocanon/Deuterocanon-Apocrypha_El-Asfar_El-Kanoneya_El-Tanya__7-Daniel.html The Book of Daniel] (Full text from [http://www.st-takla.org St-Takla.org], also available in [http://st-takla.org/pub_Deuterocanon/Deuterocanon-Apocrypha_El-Asfar_El-Kanoneya_El-Tanya__7-Daniel_.html Arabic]) '''Related Articles''': *[http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=34&amp;letter=D ''Jewish Encyclopedia'':] Daniel * [http://www.infidels.org/library/magazines/tsr/1996/4/4danie96.html Daniel in the Historians' Den] - An analysis of the book's origins, from a skeptical perspective. *[http://www.ministrybooks.org/books.asp?id=375&amp;chapterid=1&amp;sectionid=1&amp;pageid=1 Life-Study of ''Daniel''] - online study of the Book of Daniel, from a Christian perspective *[http://www.kolumbus.fi/hjussila/rsla/OT/OT12.html A discussion of Jewish beliefs about the Messiah] *[http://www.tektonics.org/af/danieldefense.html Book of Daniel Defended] A summary of conservative answers to objections to Daniel's historicity. *[http://www.apologeticspress.org/rr/reprints/Linguistic-Argument-for-the-Dat.pdf &quot;The Linguistic Argument for the Date of Daniel&quot;] by W.D. Jeffcoat, M.A. ([[PDF]]), from a conservative Christian perspective *[http://www.biblequery.org/dan.htm Historical Questions About Daniel] - A Q&amp;A format defense of Daniel's early dating. *[http://www.2think.org/hundredsheep/bible/comment/daniel.shtml Revealing Daniel] - Skeptical analysis of the book. *[http://www.myjewishlearning.com/texts/bible/TO_Writings_2140/BickermanDaniel.htm Daniel: Wise Man and Visionary, by Elias Bickerman] * [http://www.biblicalstudies.org.uk/article_daniel.html ''Daniel'' by Rob Bradshaw] Detailed dictionary-style article. ==References== *E. J. Bickerman, ''Four Strange Books of the Bible'', 1967. ISBN 0805207740. **A standard analysis. *[[Robert Eisenman]], ''James the Brother of Jesus'', 1997. ISBN 014025773X. **&quot;Eisenman here sets out a fascinating and controversial theory that puts St. James at the center of the story as the heir to Jesus' teachings.&quot; *John F. Walvoord, ''Daniel: The Key to Prophetic Revelation'', 1989. ISBN 0802417531. **&quot;A detailed, systematic analysis of the Book of Daniel with emphasis on studying and refuting nonbiblical views.&quot; *[http://www.tektonics.org/guest/danielblast.html The Date of Daniel] **A conservative rebuttal to secular viewpoints on the dating of Daniel. *[http://www.atheists.org/christianity/daniel.html Daniel in the Debunkers Den] **An atheists viewpoint of errors in Daniel.
Sea]], and was awarded the title of Viscount Nelson by the British crown. Napoleon was amassing forces to invade England, however, and Nelson was soon placed in charge of defending the [[English Channel]] to prevent this. However, on [[22 October]] an armistice was signed between the British and the French, and Nelson&amp;mdash;in poor health again&amp;mdash;retired to England where he stayed with his friends, [[William Hamilton (diplomat)|Sir William]] and Lady Hamilton. The three embarked on a tour of England and Wales, culminating in a stay in [[Birmingham]], during which they visited [[Matthew Boulton]] on his sick bed at [[Soho House]], and toured his [[Soho Manufactory]]. ===The Battle of Trafalgar - death and burial=== [[Image:Trafalgar2.jpg|thumb|250px|The [[Battle of Trafalgar]], painted by [[Nicholas Pocock]].]] [[Image:Mort nelson.jpg|thumb|250px|Nelson is shot on the [[quarterdeck]], painted by [[Denis Dighton]], c. 1825.]] The [[Peace of Amiens]] was not to last long though, and Nelson soon returned to duty. He was appointed commander-in-chief of the Mediterranean, and assigned to [[HMS Victory|HMS ''Victory'']] in May [[1803]]. He joined the blockade of [[Toulon, France]], and would not again set foot on dry land for more than two years. Nelson was promoted to [[Admiral (United Kingdom)|Vice Admiral of the White]] (the fifth highest rank) while he was still at sea, on [[23 April]] [[1804]]. The French fleet slipped out of Toulon in early 1805 and headed for the West Indies (see [[battle of Cape Finisterre (1805)]] for a summary of this campaign). A stern chase failed to turn them up and Nelson's health forced him to retire to [[Merton (historic parish)|Merton]] in England. Within two months, his ease ended. On [[13 September]] [[1805]], he was called upon to oppose the French and Spanish fleets, which had managed to join up and take refuge in the harbour of [[Cádiz]], [[Spain]]. On [[21 October]] [[1805]], Nelson engaged in his final battle, the [[Battle of Trafalgar]]. Napoleon Bonaparte had been massing forces once again for the invasion of the British Isles. However, he had already decided that his navy was not adequate to secure the Channel for the invasion barges and had started moving his troops away for a campaign elsewhere in Europe. On the 19th, the French and Spanish fleet left Cádiz, probably because [[Pierre-Charles Villeneuve]], the French commander, had heard that he was to be replaced by another admiral. Nelson, with twenty-seven ships, engaged the thirty-three opposing ships. Nelson's last dispatch, written on the 21st, read: &lt;blockquote&gt;At daylight saw the Enemy's Combined Fleet from East to E.S.E.; bore away; made the signal for Order of Sailing, and to Prepare for Battle; the Enemy with their heads to the Southward: at seven the Enemy wearing in succession. May the Great God, whom I worship, grant to my Country, and for the benefit of Europe in general, a great and glorious Victory; and may no misconduct in any one tarnish it; and may humanity after Victory be the predominant feature in the British Fleet. For myself, individually, I commit my life to Him who made me, and may his blessing light upon my endeavours for serving my Country faithfully. To Him I resign myself and the just cause which is entrusted to me to defend. Amen. Amen.&lt;/blockquote&gt; [[Image:Turner, The Battle of Trafalgar (1822).jpg|thumb|left|200px|[[The Battle of Trafalgar (painting)|''The Battle of Trafalgar'']] by [[J. M. W. Turner]] (oil on canvas, 1822&amp;ndash;1824) shows the last three letters of the famous signal, &quot;[[England expects that every man will do his duty]]&quot; flying from [[HMS Victory|''Victory'']].]] As the two fleets moved towards engagement, he then ran up a thirty-one flag signal to the rest of the fleet which spelled out the famous phrase &quot;[[England expects that every man will do his duty]]&quot;. The original signal that Nelson wished to make to the fleet was ''England confides that every man will do his duty'' (meaning 'is confident that they will'). The signal officer asked Nelson if he could substitute the word 'expects' for 'confides' as 'expects' was included in the [[Telegraphy|telegraph]]ic code devised by [[Home Riggs Popham|Sir Home Popham]] whereas 'confides' would have to be spelled letter by letter. Nelson agreed and the signal was run up ''Victory''&lt;nowiki&gt;'&lt;/nowiki&gt;s [[mizzenmast]]. [[Image:Battle of Trafalgar Poster 1805.jpg|thumb|right|Detail from an 1805 poster commemorating the Battle of Trafalgar.]] After crippling the French flagship [[French ship Bucentaure (1804)|''Bucentaure'']], ''Victory'' moved on to the [[French ship Redoutable (1791)|''Redoutable'']]. The two ships entangled each other, at which point snipers in the fighting tops of ''Redoutable'' were able to pour fire down onto the deck of ''Victory''. Nelson was one of those hit: a bullet entered his shoulder, pierced his lung, and came to rest at the base of his spine. Nelson retained consciousness for four hours, but died soon after the battle was concluded with a British victory.(See [[Horatio Nelson, 1st Viscount Nelson#Last words]].) After the battle ''Victory'' was then towed to [[Gibraltar]], with Nelson's body on board preserved in a barrel of [[brandy]] (see [[Horatio Nelson, 1st Viscount Nelson#&quot;Tapping the Admiral&quot;]]). Upon his body's arrival in [[London]], Nelson was given a [[state funeral]] (one of only five non-royal Britons to receive the honour - others are [[Arthur Wellesley]] and [[Churchill]]) and entombment in [[St. Paul's Cathedral]]. He was laid to rest in a wooden coffin made from the mast of ''L'Orient'' which had been salvaged after the Battle of the Nile, within a [[sarcophagus]] originally carved for [[Thomas Cardinal Wolsey|Cardinal Wolsey]] (when Wolsey fell from favour, it was confiscated by [[Henry VIII of England|Henry VIII]] and was still lying around in royal collections in [[1805]]!). ==Legacy== [[Image:The Ball which mortally wounded the LAMENTED NELSON - Project Gutenberg eText 15233.png|thumbnail|right|150px|The bullet that killed Nelson.]] Nelson was noted for his considerable ability to inspire and bring out the best in his men, to the point that it gained a name: &quot;The Nelson Touch&quot;. Famous even while alive, after his death he was lionized like almost no other military figure in British history (his only peers are the [[John Churchill, 1st Duke of Marlborough|Duke of Marlborough]] and Nelson's contemporary, the [[Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington|Duke of Wellington]]). Most military historians believe Nelson's ability to inspire officers of the highest rank and seamen of the lowest was central to his many victories, as was his unequaled ability to both strategically plan his campaigns and tactically shift his forces in the midst of battle. He may have been the greatest field commander in history. Certainly, he stands as the greatest warrior afloat. It must also be said that his &quot;Nelson touch&quot; also worked with non-seamen; he was beloved in England by virtually everyone. (The only people not affected by him were those offended by his affair with Lady Hamilton!) Now as then, he is a popular hero, included in the top 10 of the ''[[100 Greatest Britons]]'' poll sponsored by the [[BBC]] and voted for by the public, and commemorated in the extensive [[Trafalgar 200]] celebrations in [[2005]], including the [[International Fleet Review]]. Even today phrases such as &quot;[[England expects]]&quot; and [[111 (number)#In other fields|&quot;nelson&quot; (meaning &quot;111&quot;)]] remain closely associated with English sporting teams. ===Monuments to Nelson=== The monumental [[Nelson's Column]] and the surrounding [[Trafalgar Square]] are notable locations in [[London]] to this day, and Nelson was buried in [[St. Paul's Cathedral]]. The first large monument to Nelson was a 43.5m tall pillar on [[Glasgow Green]] erected less than year after his death in [[1806]]. [[Nelson's Monument]] was later constructed atop [[Calton Hill, Edinburgh|Calton Hill]] in [[Edinburgh]]. The first monument funded by popular subscription, sculpted by [[Richard Westmacott]], was erected in Birmingham in [[1809]]. Westmacott also sculpted memorials in [[Liverpool]] and [[Barbados]]. A Monument in [[Great Yarmouth]] to Nelson was started before his death but only completed in [[1819]]. This is sometimes known as the Britannia monument as it is topped by that martial female rather than a statue of Nelson; a statue of Nelson can however be found in the grounds of [[Norwich Cathedral]] alongside the other Napoleonic hero, the [[Duke of Wellington]], near the school he attended. In [[Montreal]] there is a monument to Nelson erected in [[1809]] in [[Place Jacques-Cartier]] which was a market place at the time. It has carved scenes from Nelson's career around the base and the statue on top was claimed to be the oldest public statue of Nelson in the world. It was removed for several years due to excessive weathering but has been replaced after restoration. There is also the [[Nelson Memorial, Swarland|Nelson memorial]] in [[Swarland]], [[Northumberland]] which was raised as a private memorial of Nelson by his friend and sometime agent, Alexander Davison. [[Nelson's Pillar]], a monument to Nelson in [[Dublin]] was destroyed by an bomb planted by former [[Irish Republican Army|IRA]] men in [[1966]]. The city of [[Nelson, New Zealand]] bears his name as well as [[Nelson Island (British Columbia)| Nelson Island]] on the [[Sunshine Coast, British Columbia]], Canada. One of the most unique monuments was constructed on Salisbury Plain, within cannon shot of Stonehenge, on land then owned by the Marquess of Queensbury. The monument consists of a series of clumps of trees in otherwise arable farmland. Known as the &quot;Nile Clumps&quot; they have been arranged to represent the positioning of French and British ships at the
after the initial production run they also eliminated the expansion port. In 1987, the [[Atari XEGS]] was released and it came with a [[light gun]], called the [[XG-1]]. The XG-1 was fully compatible with the 7800 and the 2600, and Atari released four games on the 7800 that utilized this peripheral. The 7800 was test-marketed in [[southern California]] in June of 1984. One month later, [[Warner Communications]] sold Atari to [[Jack Tramiel]], who did not want to build a video game console. He pulled the plug on all projects related to video games and decided to focus on Atari's existing computer line in order to begin development of the new 16-bit computer line (which appeared as the [[Atari ST]]). The 7800 was re-introduced in winter [[1986]] after the success of the [[Nintendo Entertainment System]] proved that the [[Computer and video games|video game]] market was still viable. Unfortunately, by the time the 7800 made it to market, the NES had 90% of the market cornered and the rival [[Sega Master System]] had most of what was left. The 7800's technical superiority is still debated today. The architecture is essentially just an [[Atari 2600]] with a slightly better CPU and an advanced graphics chip (MARIA). While the system could handle far more moving objects on screen (up to 100) than any of its competitors, its audio capabilities were limited due to lack of board space. The designers allowed games (notably ports from the [[Atari 8-bit family|Atari 400/800]] computer line) to include a [[Atari POKEY|POKEY]] audio chip in the cartridge. Only two games, [[Ballblazer]] and [[Commando (video game)|Commando]] used the POKEY chip. The 7800 was also more difficult to program than other systems available at the time, though this was tempered by the fact that many game programmers at the time were already well versed in the 2600. == Aftermath == The 7800 faced the severe software drought that would become the mark of all Atari consoles sold after the [[video game crash of 1983|video game crash]]. Relatively few titles were released by Atari, many of them unpolished and lacking in features, or even games that already were in previous Atari systems. And there was virtually no effort by Atari to recruit [[video game developer|third party developers]], aside from a few titles from [[Absolute Entertainment|Absolute]], [[Activision]], and [[Froggo]]. ==Technical specifications== * CPU: Custom [[MOS Technology 6502|6502C]] ** Speed: 1.79 MHz, drops to 1.19 MHz when the TIA or RIOT chips are accessed ** (note: This is Atari's custom 6502 which can be halted to allow other devices to control the bus) * RAM: 4 KB * ROM: built in 4K BIOS ROM, 48K Cartridge ROM space without bankswitching * Graphics: MARIA custom graphics controller, 320x200 resolution with 256 colors. ** Graphics clock: 7.16 MHz * I/O: Joystick and console switch IO handled byte 6532 RIOT and TIA * Ports: 2 Joystick ports, 1 Cartridge port, 1 expansion connector, Power in, RF output * Sound: TIA custom sound chip, same as the 2600 ==System revisions== Prototypes: *Atari 3600 - original model number *Atari CX-9000 Video Computer System Production: *Atari CX7800 - Vastly modified and enhanced 2600 model. Two joystick ports on lower front panel. New chipset (except sound chip; pokey chips could be added to carts). Side expansion port for upgrades and computer add ons. Bundled accessories included two CX24 ProLine joysticks AC Adapter, switchbox, RCA connecting cable, and Pole Position II cartridge. *Atari CX7800 - Second Revision. Slightly revised mother board, added an addional timing circuit. Expansion port connector removed from mother board but is still etched. Shell has indentation of where expansion port was to be. *Atari CX7800 - Third Revision. As above but only a small &quot;blemish&quot; mark on shell. == Screenshots == &lt;center&gt;&lt;gallery&gt; Image:A7800_Dig_Dug.png|[[Dig Dug]] &lt;br&gt; [[Atari]] ([[1986]]) Image:A7800_Joust.png|[[Joust]] &lt;br&gt; [[Atari]] ([[1986]]) Image:A7800_Pole_Position_II.png|Pole Position II&lt;br&gt; [[Atari]] ([[1986]]) Image:A7800_Winter_Games.png|Winter Games &lt;br&gt; [[Atari]] ([[1987]]) Image:A7800_Donkey_Kong.png|[[Donkey Kong (arcade game)|Donkey Kong]]&lt;br&gt; [[Atari]] ([[1988]]) Image:A7800_Tower_Toppler.png|Tower Toppler &lt;br&gt; [[Atari]] ([[1988]]) Image:A7800_Super_Huey.png|Super Huey &lt;br&gt; [[Atari]] ([[1989]]) Image:A7800_Basketbrawl.png|Basketbrawl &lt;br&gt; [[Atari]] ([[1990]]) &lt;/gallery&gt;&lt;/center&gt; More screenshots can be found in the [[Atari 7800/Screenshots|Screenshot Gallery]]. ==External links== *[http://www.atari7800.com Atari7800.com Institute For Advanced Atari Gaming Studies - Atari History Library &amp; Web Resource] *[http://www.atariage.com/7800/faq/?SystemID=7800 Atari 7800 FAQ] *[http://www.thedoteaters.com/play3sta5.htm The Dot Eaters entry] featuring the 7800 and its games ==See also== {{Dedicated video game consoles}} * [[List of Atari 7800 games]] * [[List of Atari 2600 games]] * [[Atari 2600]] * [[Atari 5200]] * [[XG-1|Atari XG-1 Lightgun]] [[Category:Atari consoles|7800]] [[Category:Third-generation video game consoles]] [[Category:Computer and video game flops]] [[de:Atari 7800]] [[eo:Atari 7800]] [[es:Atari 7800]] [[nl:Atari 7800]] [[pl:Atari 7800]] [[sv:Atari 7800]] [[it:Atari 7800]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Atari Jaguar</title> <id>2782</id> <revision> <id>41803395</id> <timestamp>2006-03-01T21:26:56Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>32X</username> <id>541756</id> </contributor> <comment>/* External links */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{CVG system| title = Atari Jaguar |logo = [[Image:Jaguar_Logo.gif|100px]] |image = [[Image:Atarijaguar.jpg|250px|The Atari Jaguar]] |manufacturer = [[Atari]] |type = [[Video game console]] |generation = [[History of video games (32-bit / 64-bit era)|32-bit / 64-bit era]] |lifespan = November 1993 |media = [[Cartridge (electronics)|Cartridge]], [[CD-ROM]] |onlineservice = |topgame = ''[[Alien vs. Predator (Jaguar)|Alien Vs. Predator]]'' }} The '''Atari Jaguar''' is a [[video game console]] introduced in November 1993 as a powerful next generation platform. It was infamously touted as the &quot;first 64-bit system&quot;. The system eventually wound up as a [[flop|commercial failure]] and prompted Atari to leave the hardware business. == History == Competing with [[Sega]] and [[Nintendo]]'s 16-[[bit]] consoles, the Jaguar was said to be 64-bit. Back then, bit width was a big deal in the gaming industry, just as [[Polygon (computer graphics)|polygon]]-pushing power is today. The Jaguar did not work off of a solitary 64-bit [[central processing unit|processor]], but instead it had a collection of processors with bus widths ranging from 16 to 64 bits. The bit width of the Jaguar is still a source of considerable debate today, but consensus exists among those who are familiar with the system hardware that, because Jaguar's main data bus and some of the processors are 64-bit, the entire system can be considered 64 bit. It would otherwise be considered a [[History of video games (32-bit / 64-bit era)|32-bit console]]. Nonetheless, it was technically superior to the leading 16-bit consoles at the time. Unfortunately, this last ditch effort by [[Atari]] to find room in the console market failed. A relatively small number of games were developed for the system, but Atari pulled the plug altogether in 1996. The Jaguar was a [[Cult following|cult]] success, however, and many games were created by young independent developers. Jaguar conventions are held to show off rare unfinished Jaguar games that never made it to the shelves. A development company named Songbird Productions still produces games available for sale on the commercial market. The Atari Jaguar and the [[Atari Lynx]] were the last two [[Atari]] systems to be developed, but because Atari did not want any direct involvement in hardware production, they were produced by outside contractors. In 1990, [[Flare Technology]], a company formed by [[Martin Brennan]] and [[John Mathieson]] with Atari funding, said that not only could they make a console far superior to the [[Sega Genesis]] or the [[Super Nintendo Entertainment System|SNES]], but they could also be cost-effective. Atari immediately agreed and the system was released in November 1993 for a sale price of $249.99, under a $500 million manufacturing deal with [[International Business Machines|IBM]]. The system was initially marketed only in the [[New York City]] and the [[San Francisco Bay]] areas. A nationwide release followed in early 1994. The system was marketed under the slogan &quot;Do the Math&quot; (i.e. 32 bit + 32 bit = 64 bit), claiming superiority over competing 16-bit systems. Initially, the system sold well, substantially outselling the highly hyped and publicized [[3DO_Interactive_Multiplayer|3DO]], which was also released during the holiday season of 1993. However, the system was eventually considered a failure, due to a perception of the Jaguar having poor games and an overall lack of software developed. The system was difficult to program for as the hardware had a large number of bugs, including one in the memory controller that stopped some of its processors executing code from the system RAM [http://slashdot.org/articles/00/03/02/1430232.shtml#1225535] [http://slashdot.org/articles/00/03/02/1430232.shtml#1225584]. The final nail in the coffin was the release of both the [[Sony]] [[PlayStation]] and the [[Sega]] [[Sega Saturn|Saturn]]. In an interview [http://strider.mjjprod.free.fr/toxic15/articles/tramiel.htm], Sam Tramiel, CEO of Atari, also touted that the Jaguar was much more powerful than the Saturn and a little weaker than the PlayStation. He also predicted the price of the PlayStation to be $500 and said that any price from $250 to $300 would be dumping and t
bert]] occurs. * [[1840]] - Queen [[Victoria of the United Kingdom]] marries [[Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha]]. * [[1846]] - [[Battle of Sobraon]] - British defeat Sikhs in final battle of 1st Anglo-Sikh War * [[1863]] - The world-famous dwarfs [[General Tom Thumb]] and [[Lavinia Warren]] get married in [[New York City]]. * 1863 - [[Alanson Crane]] patents the [[fire extinguisher]]. * [[1870]] - [[Anaheim, California]] is incorporated. * 1870 - The [[YWCA]] is founded ([[New York City]]). * [[1920]] - [[Jozef Haller de Hallenburg]] performs [[Engagement of Poland with the sea|symbolic engagement of Poland with the sea]], celebrating restitution of [[Polish]] access to open sea. * [[1929]] - Msgr. [[Stephen Peter Alencastre|Stephen Alencastre]], [[SS.CC.]], dedicates the beautiful [[Romanesque]] church of [[Saint Patrick Catholic Church in Honolulu|Saint Patrick]] in [[Honolulu]]. * [[1931]] - [[New Delhi]] becomes the capital of [[India]]. * [[1933]] - The [[New York City]]-based [[Postal Telegraph Company]] introduces the first [[singing telegram]]. * 1933 - In round 13 of a [[boxing]] match at [[New York City]]'s [[Madison Square Garden]], [[Primo Carnera]] knocks out [[Ernie Schaaf]], killing him. * [[1947]] - [[Italy]] cedes most of [[Venezia Giulia]] to [[Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia|Yugoslavia]]. * [[1949]] - ''[[Death of a Salesman]]'' opens at the [[Morocco Theatre]] in [[New York City]]. * [[1954]] - [[President of the United States|President]] [[Dwight Eisenhower]] warns against [[United States]] intervention in [[Vietnam]]. * [[1962]] - Captured [[United States|American]] spy pilot [[Gary Powers|Francis Gary Powers]] is exchanged for captured [[Soviet]] spy [[Rudolf Abel]]. * [[1964]] - The aircraft carrier ''[[HMAS Melbourne (1945)|HMAS Melbourne]]'' collides with the [[HMAS Voyage|HMAS ''Voyager'']] off the south coast of [[New South Wales]], [[Australia]]. * [[1967]] - The [[Twenty-fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution|25th Amendment to the United States Constitution]] is ratified. * [[1981]] - A fire at the [[Las Vegas Hilton]] [[hotel]]-[[casino]] kills eight and injures 198. * [[1982]] - The [[German people|German]] movie ''[[Das Boot]]'' opens in [[United States]] theaters. * [[1989]] - [[Ron Brown (U.S. politician)|Ron Brown]] is elected chairman of the [[Democratic National Committee]] becoming the first [[African American]] to lead a major [[United States|American]] [[political party]]. * [[1992]] - In [[Indianapolis, Indiana]], boxer [[Mike Tyson]] is convicted of raping a [[Miss Black America Contest|Miss Black America]] contestant named [[Desiree Washington]]. * [[1996]] - The [[IBM]] supercomputer [[Deep Blue]] defeats [[Garry Kasparov]] for the first time. * [[1997]] - The [[United States Army]] suspends [[Sergeant Major|CSM]] [[Gene C. McKinney]], its top-ranking enlisted soldier, after hearing allegations of sexual misconduct. * [[1998]] - A [[college]] dropout becomes the first person to be convicted of a [[hate crime]] committed in [[cyberspace]]. * 1998 - Voters in [[Maine]] repeal a [[gay rights]] law passed in [[1997]] becoming the first [[U.S. state]] to abandon such a law. * [[1999]] - Avalanches in the [[French Alps]] near [[Geneva]] kill at least 10. * [[2003]] - Hockey star [[Brett Hull]] scores his 700th [[National Hockey League|NHL]] goal. * 2003 - [[France]] and [[Belgium]] broke the [[NATO]] procedure of silent approval concerning the timing of protective measures for [[Turkey]] in case of a possible war with [[Iraq]]. * 2003 - [[Muslim]]s celebrate the [[Islamic festival]] of [[Eid al-Adha]]. See also [[Hajj]]. * [[2005]] - [[North Korea and weapons of mass destruction]]: [[North Korea]] suspends participation in multi-nation talks to discuss its arms program and officially admits to developing [[nuclear weapon]]s. * [[2006]] - The [[2006 Olympic Winter Games]] open in [[Turin]], [[Italy]]. * 2006 - The [[2006 Super 14 season]] opens in [[Eden Park|Auckland]], [[New Zealand]] with the [[Auckland Blues|Blues]] losing at home to the [[Wellington Hurricanes|Hurricanes]], 19&amp;ndash;37. ==Births== *[[1499]] - [[Thomas Platter]], Swiss humanist (d. [[1582]]) *[[1524]] - [[Albrecht Giese IV]], German politician and diplomat (d. [[1580]]) *[[1609]] - Sir [[John Suckling (poet)|John Suckling]], English poet (d. [[1642]]) *[[1685]] - [[Aaron Hill]], English writer (d. [[1750]]) *[[1785]] - [[Claude-Louis Navier]], French physicist (d. [[1936]]) *[[1846]] - [[Charles Beresford]], British admiral and politician (d. [[1919]]) *[[1887]] - [[John Franklin Enders]], American scientist, recipient of the [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]] (d. [[1985]]) *[[1890]] - [[Boris Pasternak]], Russian writer, [[Nobel Prize in Literature|Nobel Prize]] laureate (declined) (d. [[1960]]) *[[1892]] - [[Alan Hale Sr.]], American actor (d. [[1950]]) *[[1893]] - [[Jimmy Durante]], American actor, singer, and comedian (d. [[1980]]) *[[1893]] - [[Bill Tilden]], American tennis player (d. [[1953]]) *[[1894]] - [[Harold Macmillan]], [[Prime Minister of the United Kingdom]] (d. [[1986]]) *[[1897]] - Dame [[Judith Anderson]], Australian actress (d. [[1992]]) *[[1898]] - [[Bertolt Brecht]], German author (d. [[1956]]) *[[1901]] - [[Stella Adler]], American actress (d. [[1992]]) *[[1902]] - [[Walter Houser Brattain]], American physicist, [[Nobel Prize in Physics|Nobel Prize]] laureate (d. [[1987]]) *[[1904]] - [[John Farrow]], American film director (d. [[1963]]) *[[1906]] - [[Lon Chaney Jr.]], American actor (d. [[1973]]) *1906 - [[Erik Rhodes]], American actor (d. [[1990]]) *[[1910]] - [[Georges Pire]], Belgian monk, recipient of the [[Nobel Peace Prize]] (d. [[1969]]) *[[1914]] - [[Larry Adler]], American musician (d. [[2001]]) *[[1920]] - [[Alex Comfort]], physician and writer (d. [[2000]]) *[[1926]] - [[Danny Blanchflower]], Northern Irish footballer and football manager (d. [[1993]]) *[[1927]] - [[Leontyne Price]], American soprano *[[1929]] - [[Jerry Goldsmith]], American composer (d. [[2004]]) *[[1930]] - [[Robert Wagner]], American actor *[[1931]] - [[Thomas Bernhard]], Austrian author (d. [[1989]]) *[[1932]] - [[Branko Lustig]], Croatian film producer *[[1934]] - [[Fleur Adcock]], New Zealand poet *[[1939]] - [[Adrienne Clarkson]], 26th [[Governor General of Canada]] *1939 - [[Roberta Flack]], American singer *[[1941]] - [[Michael Apted]], British director *[[1944]] - [[Peter Allen]], Australian singer and actor (d. [[1992]]) *1944 - [[Frank Keating]], American politician *1944 - [[Vernor Vinge]], American novelist *[[1947]] - [[Louise Arbour]], Canadian judge *[[1948]] - [[Luis Donaldo Colosio]], Mexican politician (d. [[1994]]) *[[1949]] - [[Maxime Le Forestier]], French singer *1949 - [[Harold Sylvester]], American actor *[[1950]] - [[Mark Spitz]], American swimmer *[[1951]] - [[Roxanne Pulitzer]], American model *1951 - [[Robert Iger]], President and CEO of [[The Walt Disney Company]] *[[1955]] - [[Christopher Adams]], British judoka and professional wrestler (d. [[2001]]) *1955 - [[Greg Norman]], Australian golfer *[[1960]] - [[Robert Addie]], British actor (d. [[2003]]) *[[1961]] - [[Alexander Payne]], American film director *1961 - [[George Stephanopoulos]], American political consultant and commentator *[[1962]] - [[Cliff Burton]], American musician (d. [[1986]]) *1962 - [[Bobby Czyz]], American boxer *[[1963]] - [[Lenny Dykstra]], baseball player *[[1968]] - [[Atika Suri]], Indonesian television newscaster *[[1969]] - [[Tim Clark]], golfer *1969 - [[Joe Mangrum]], American artist *[[1970]] - [[Noureddine Naybet]], Moroccan footballer *[[1971]] - [[Lisa Marie Varon]], American professional wrestler *[[1974]] - [[Ty Law]], American football player *[[1976]] - [[Lance Berkman]], baseball player *[[1976]] - [[Dat Nguyen]] - football player *[[1979]] - [[Daryl Palumbo]], American musician *1979 - [[Ross Powers]], American snowboarder *[[1980]] - [[César Izturis]], baseball player *[[1981]] - [[Natasha St-Pier]], Canadian singer *1981 - [[The Rev|The Reverend Tholomew Plague]], American Drummer ([[Avenged Sevenfold]]) *[[1985]] - [[Anette Sagen]], Norwegian ski jumper *[[1991]] - [[Emma Roberts]], American actress *[[1994]] - [[Makenzie Vega]], American actress &lt;!-- Do not add yourself, or anyone else who does not already have a Wikipedia article, to this list. Duplicate instances of years should not be links. --&gt; ==Deaths== *[[1126]] - [[William IX of Aquitaine|William IX, Duke of Aquitaine]], poet (b. [[1071]]) *[[1162]] - King [[Baldwin III of Jerusalem]] (b. [[1130]]) *[[1242]] - [[Emperor Shijo]] of Japan (b. [[1231]]) *[[1278]] - [[Margaret II of Flanders]] (b. [[1202]]) *[[1576]] - [[Guilielmus Xylander]], German classical scholar (b. [[1532]]) *[[1686]] - [[William Dugdale]], English antiquarian (b. [[1605]]) *[[1722]] - [[Bartholomew Roberts]], English pirate *[[1755]] - [[Charles de Secondat, Baron de Montesquieu|Montesquieu]], French writer (b. [[1689]]) *[[1758]] - [[Thomas Ripley (architect)|Thomas Ripley]], English architect *[[1782]] - [[Friedrich Christoph Oetinger]], German theologian (b. [[1702]]) *[[1829]] - [[Pope Leo XII]] (b. [[1760]]) *[[1837]] - [[Aleksandr Pushkin]], Russian poet and novelist (b. [[1799]]) *[[1865]] - [[Heinrich Lenz]], German physicist (b. [[1804]]) *[[1904]] - [[John A. Roche]], Mayor of Chicago (b. [[1844]]) *[[1912]] - [[Joseph Lister]], British surgeon (b. [[1827]]) *[[1917]] - [[John William Waterhouse]], Italian-born artist (b. [[1849]]) *[[1918]] - [[Abdul Hamid II]] [[Ottoman Sultan]] (b. [[1842]]) *1918 - [[Ernesto Teodoro Moneta]], Italian pacifist, recipient of the [[Nobel Peace Prize]] (b. [[1833]]) *[[1923]] - [[Wilhelm Röntgen]], German physicist, [[Nobel Prize in Physics|Nobel Prize]] laureate (b. [[1845]]) *[[1932]] - [[Edgar Wallace]], English novelist and screenwriter (b. [[1875]]) *[[1939]] - [[Pope Pius XI]] (b. [[1857]]) *[[1950]] - [[Marcel Mauss]], French socio
r> <minor /> <comment>#REDIRECT[[IRIX]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT[[IRIX]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Illuminati: New World Order</title> <id>14840</id> <revision> <id>41805586</id> <timestamp>2006-03-01T21:43:54Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Alan McBeth</username> <id>478773</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>direct link</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{wikify}} '''Illuminati: New World Order''' (INWO) is a [[collectible card game]] (CCG) that was released in 1995 by [[Steve Jackson Games]], based on their original boxed game [[Illuminati (game)|Illuminati]], which in turn was inspired by ''[[The Illuminatus! Trilogy]]''. INWO won the [[Origins Award]] for ''Best Card Game'' in the 1997. Cards come in several types, including Illuminati, Plots, Groups, Places, Personalities, Resources, and [[New World Order]] cards. The various cards are printed with two different colored backs and are collectively referred to as simply &quot;Groups&quot; and &quot;Plots&quot;. The premise is that you play one of the Illuminati groups (the [[Bavarian Illuminati]], the [[Unidentified flying object|UFO]]s, the [[Gnomes of Zürich]], etc.) bent on world domination. You seek to control a predetermined number of Groups (such as the [[Scouting|Boy Scouts]], the [[Men in Black]], the [[CIA]], etc.) and/or complete a Plot to achieve your goal before your opponent(s). INWO is more difficult to learn than most CCGs, but it is infused with much more humor, in common with other Steve Jackson games. As with most CCGs, deck building, aggressive play, and sheer luck are key to winning, but intrigue, negotiation, deal-making, and deviousness are often more important elements. This gives INWO the flavor more of a &quot;friendly&quot; game of [[Monopoly game|Monopoly]] than of a [[role-playing game]]. INWO was released as a 412-card main set in double [[starter deck]]s (suitable for two players) and sealed packs, in both black-bordered limited and white-bordered unlimited editions. There was also a boxed set called variously &quot;The Factory Set&quot; and &quot;One With Everything&quot; which contained one of each card from the main set of the black-bordered limited edition, multiples of the Illuminati cards, and a few cards previously only available in magazines. One 125-card expansion of sealed packs has been released, called &quot;Assassins&quot;, as well as a complete-in-one-box 100-card expansion called &quot;INWO [[Church of the SubGenius|SubGenius]]&quot;. SubGenius can also be played as a stand-alone game. There are common, uncommon, and rare cards in the main set and in Assassins; Assassins also included 10 &quot;ultra-rare&quot; cards. All cards in SubGenius have the same rarity. Packs of blank cards are also sold for those who wish to make up their own cards, an activity that has proven so popular that online collections of homebrew INWO cards now list thousands of cards. ''The INWO Book'', by Steve Jackson, is the official guidebook to the game. == External links == * Official INWO site (includes rules): http://www.sjgames.com/inwo/ * INWO Concordance (explains WHY the cards are in the game): http://www.speakeasy.org/~sbrinich/inwoconc.html [[Category:Collectible card games]] [[Category:Origins award winners]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Integration</title> <id>14841</id> <revision> <id>41753897</id> <timestamp>2006-03-01T14:29:35Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Gflores</username> <id>153556</id> </contributor> <comment>cleanup</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Wiktionarypar|integration}} '''Integration''' is a process of combining or accumulating. '''Integration''' may be any of the following: *Integration, in the most general sense, may be any bringing together of things: the integration of two or more economies, cultures, religions (usually called [[syncretism]]), etc. *[[integral|Integration]], in mathematics, a concept of calculus, is the process of finding integrals *[[Antiderivative|Indefinite integration]], in mathematics, referes to antidifferentiation *[[Racial integration]], refers to social and cultural behavior; in a legal sense, see [[desegregation]] *[[Digital integration]], in computer science, allows data from one device or software to be read or manipulated by another, resulting in ease of use; see also [[XML]] *[[Horizontal integration]] and [[vertical integration]], in microeconomics and strategic management, refer to a style of ownership and control *[[Enterprise application integration]], as the use of software and computer systems to bring together a set of enterprise computer applications *[[Integration clause]], in a contract, a term used to declare the contract the final and complete understanding of the parties ==See also== *'''[[Integral (disambiguation)]]''' {{disambig}} [[de:Integration]] [[fr:Intégration]] [[he:אינטגרציה]] [[lt:Integravimas]] [[nl:Integratie]] [[ja:インテグレーション]] [[pl:Integracja]] [[ru:Интеграция]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Industrial and manufacturing engineering</title> <id>14842</id> <revision> <id>18763544</id> <timestamp>2005-07-13T19:36:07Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>66.49.123.51</ip> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Industrial_engineering]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Interstellar travel</title> <id>14843</id> <revision> <id>41600324</id> <timestamp>2006-02-28T12:13:49Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>T. Wong</username> <id>997130</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>/* Sub-light-speed travel */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Interstellar space travel''' is unmanned or manned [[travel]] between [[star]]s, though the term usually denotes the latter. The concept of interstellar travel in [[starship]]s is a staple in [[science fiction]]. There is a tremendous difference between interstellar travel and [[interplanetary travel]], mainly due to the much larger distances involved. As a practical goal interstellar travel has been debated fiercely by various scientists, science fiction authors, hobbyists and enthusiasts. Many scientific papers have been published about related concepts. Given sufficient travel time and engineering work, unmanned interstellar travel seems possible. [[NASA]] has been engaging in research into these topics for several years, and has accumulated a number of theoretical approaches. ==The difficulty of interstellar travel== Interstellar travel poses a number of difficulties. There are all the difficulties of [[interplanetary travel]], including hard [[vacuum]], [[Ionizing radiation|radiation]], [[micrometeoroid]]s, and [[free-fall]]. These difficulties seem tractable; robot missions have been sent to almost every [[planet]] in the [[Solar system]], humans have been sent to the [[Moon]], and manned missions to [[Mars (planet)|Mars]] have been planned for years. Interstellar travel is made enormously more difficult by the million-fold greater distances to nearby stars. [[Intergalactic travel]] would involve distances a million-fold greater than interstellar distances. ===Interstellar distances=== Astronomical distances are sometimes measured in the amount of time it would take a beam of [[light]] to travel between two points. Light in a vacuum travels in approximately 3&amp;times;10&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; metres per second, which is denoted with the letter '''c''', so a light second is approximately 3&amp;times;10&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; metres. The distance between Earth and its Moon is about one and a quarter light seconds. With current propulsion technologies, such a trip will typically take about three days for a spacecraft. The distance from Earth to other planets in the solar system ranges from three light minutes to about five and a half light hours. Depending on the planet and its alignment to Earth, for a typical unmanned spacecraft these trips will take from a few months to a little over a decade. The nearest star to the Sun is the triple system [[Alpha Centauri]]. Light radiating from that star takes a bit more than four years to reach Earth. Currently, the fastest spacecraft built can achieve a velocity of about 30 km per second (relative to Earth). At that rate, the journey would take about 40,000 years. Additionally, at the current stage of space technology, the longest space missions that have been initiated are expected to have an operational lifetime of about 40 years before failure of key components is likely to happen. Significant engineering advances such as automated self-repair may be required to ensure survival. In short, current [[spacecraft propulsion]] technology cannot send objects fast enough to reach the stars in a reasonable time. As a point of comparison, [[Voyager 1]], launched in [[1977]], is the most far-traveled of space probes. As of 2005, it has reached a distance from Earth of approximately 12 light hours. Even theoretical interstellar travel is expected to be slow. Current theories of physics indicate that it is impossible to travel [[faster than light]], and that if it were possible, it would also be possible to build a [[time machine]]. Most proposed mechanisms for [[faster than light]] travel require the existence of [[negative mass]]. However, [[special relativity]] and [[general relativity]] offer the possibility of shortening the ''apparent'' travel time: with sufficiently advanced engines, a [[starship]] could make interstellar voyages at nearly the speed of light, and relativistic [[time dilation]] would make the voyage seem much shorter for the traveller. However, it would be slow for the people on Earth interested in the results of the mission, and
w hours, killing 22 and injuring about a hundred. *[[2003]] - The U.S. [[Food and Drug Administration]] announces a ban on the sale of [[dietary supplement]] [[ephedra]]. *[[2003]] - [[U.S. Attorney General]] [[John Ashcroft]] [[recusal|recuses]] himself and his office from the [[Plame affair]]. *[[2004]] - A fire in the [[República Cromagnon nightclub fire|República Cromagnon nightclub]] in [[Buenos Aires]], [[Argentina]] kills 194. *[[2005]] - [[Tropical Storm Zeta (2005)|Tropical Storm Zeta]] forms in the open Atlantic, tying the record for the latest [[tropical cyclone]] ever to form in the [[Atlantic Ocean|North Atlantic basin]]. ==Births== *[[39]] - [[Roman Emperor Titus]] (d. [[81]]) *[[1204]]- [[Abû 'Uthmân Sa'îd Hakam al Qurashi]], Ra'îs of [[Manûrqa]] (d. [[1282]]) *[[1552]] - [[Simon Forman]], English occultist and astrologer (d. [[1611]]) *[[1642]] - [[Vicenzo da Filicaja]], Italian poet (d. [[1707]]) *[[1673]] - [[Ahmed III]], [[Ottoman Sultan]] (d. [[1736]]) *[[1678]] - [[William Croft]], English composer (d. [[1727]]) *[[1722]] - [[Charles Yorke]], Lord Chancellor of Great Britain (d. [[1770]]) *[[1724]] - [[Louis-Jean-François Lagrenée]], French painter (d. [[1805]]) *[[1819]] - [[Theodor Fontane]], German writer (d. [[1898]]) *[[1838]] - [[Émile Loubet]], 7th [[President of France]] (b.[[1929]]) *[[1865]] - [[Rudyard Kipling]], British writer, [[Nobel Prize in Literature|Nobel Prize]] laureate (d. [[1936]]) *[[1869]] - [[Stephen Butler Leacock]], was a British-Canadian writer and economist.(d. 1944) *[[1873]] - [[Al Smith]], American politician (d. [[1944]]) *[[1884]] - [[Hideki Tojo]], [[Prime Minister of Japan]] (d. [[1948]]) *[[1897]] - [[Alfredo Bracchi]], Italian author (d. [[1976]]) *[[1899]] - [[Helge Ingstad]], Norwegian explorer (d. [[2001]]) *[[1904]] - [[Dmitri Kabalevsky]], Russian composer (d. [[1987]]) *[[1906]] - [[Carol Reed]], English film director (d. [[1976]]) *[[1910]] - [[Paul Bowles]], American composer and author (d. [[1999]]) *[[1911]] - [[Jeanette Nolan]], American actress (d. [[1998]]) *[[1914]] - [[Bert Parks]], American television host (d. [[1992]]) *[[1917]] - [[Seymour Melman]], American industrial engineer (d. [[2004]]) *[[1920]] - [[Jack Lord]], American actor (d. [[1998]]) *[[1928]] - [[Bo Diddley]], American singer and musician *[[1931]] - [[Skeeter Davis]], American singer (d. [[2004]]) *[[1934]] - [[John N. Bahcall|John Norris Bahcall]], American physicist (d. [[2005]]) *[[1934]] - [[Joseph Bologna]], American actor *[[1934]] - [[Joseph P. Hoar]], U.S. general *[[1934]] - [[Del Shannon]], American singer (d. [[1990]]) *[[1934]] - [[Russ Tamblyn]], American actor, dancer, and singer *[[1935]] - [[Omar Bongo]], [[President of Gabon]] *[[1935]] - [[Sandy Koufax]], baseball player *[[1937]] - [[Gordon Banks]], British footballer *[[1937]] - [[John Hartford]], American musician (d. [[2001]]) *[[1937]] - [[Jim Marshall (football player)|Jim Marshall]], American football player *[[1937]] - [[Paul Stookey]], American singer *[[1941]] - [[Mel Renfro]], American football player *[[1942]] - [[Vladimir Bukovsky]], Russian author and dissident *[[1942]] - [[Michael Nesmith]], American singer and musician ([[The Monkees]]) *[[1942]] - [[Fred Ward]], American actor *[[1945]] - [[Davy Jones]], American singer ([[The Monkees]]) *[[1946]] - [[Patti Smith]], American singer *[[1947]] - [[Michael Burns, Ph.D.]], American actor and history professor *[[1947]] - [[Jeff Lynne]], English singer and musician ([[Electric Light Orchestra|ELO]]) *[[1952]] - [[June Anderson]], American soprano *[[1953]] - [[Harald Schmautz]], German-Australian journalist and monarchist *[[1956]] - [[Suzy Bogguss]], American singer *[[1957]] - [[Matt Lauer]], American newscaster *[[1959]] - [[Tracey Ullman]], English actress and singer *[[1961]] - [[Douglas Coupland]], Canadian author *[[1961]] - [[Sean Hannity]], American talk radio host and conservative political commentator *[[1961]] - [[Ben Johnson (athlete)|Ben Johnson]], Canadian athlete *[[1963]] - [[Chandler Burr]], American author *[[1963]] - [[Michelle Douglas]], Canadian human rights activist *[[1965]] - [[Darrin C. Huss]], Canadian musician and singer ([[Psyche]]) *[[1965]] - [[Zoe Kelli Simon]], American actress *[[1969]] - [[Dave England]], American television personality *[[1969]] - [[Jason Kay|Jay Kay]], English musician and singer ([[Jamiroquai]]) *[[1972]] - [[Kerry Collins]], American football player *[[1973]] - [[Jason Behr]], American actor *[[1973]] - [[Ato Boldon]], West Indian athlete *[[1975]] - [[Tiger Woods]], American golfer *[[1976]] - [[Meredith Monroe]], American actress *[[1978]] - [[Tyrese]], American singer *[[1980]] - [[Eliza Dushku]], American actress *[[1982]] - [[Kristin Kreuk]], Canadian actress *[[1984]] - [[LeBron James]], American basketball player *[[1989]] - [[Ryan Sheckler]], Professional skateboarder ==Deaths== *[[1218]] - [[Richard de Clare, 4th Earl of Hertford]], English politician (b. [[1162]]) *[[1460]] - [[Richard, Duke of York]], claimant to the English throne (killed in battle) (b. [[1411]]) *[[1525]] - [[Jacob Fugger]], German banker (b. [[1459]]) *[[1572]] - [[Galeazzo Alessi]], Italian architect (b. [[1512]]) *[[1573]] - [[Giovanni Battista Giraldi]], Italian writer (b. [[1504]]) *[[1591]] - [[Pope Innocent IX]] (b. [[1519]]) *[[1640]] - [[John Regis]], French saint (b. [[1597]]) *[[1644]] - [[Jan Baptist van Helmont]], Flemish chemist (b. [[1577]]) *[[1662]] - Archduke [[Ferdinand Charles of Austria]] (b. [[1628]]) *[[1691]] - [[Robert Boyle]], Irish scientist (b. [[1627]]) *[[1769]] - [[Nicholas Taaffe, 6th Viscount Taaffe]], Austrian soldier (b. [[1685]]) *[[1803]] - [[Francis Lewis]], signer of the American Declaration of Independence (b. [[1713]]) *[[1896]] - [[José Rizal]], national hero of the Philippines (b. [[1861]]) *[[1941]] - [[El Lissitzky]], Russian artist and architect (b. [[1890]]) *[[1944]] - [[Romain Rolland]], French writer, [[Nobel Prize]] laureate (b. [[1866]]) *[[1954]] - [[Eugen, Archduke of Austria]], Austrian field marshal (b. [[1863]]) *[[1967]] - [[Vincent Massey]], [[Governor-General of Canada]] (b. [[1887]]) *[[1968]] - [[Trygve Lie]], first [[United Nations Secretary General]] (b. [[1896]]) *[[1970]] - [[Sonny Liston]], American boxer (b. [[1932]]) *[[1971]] - [[Melba Rae]], American actress (b. [[1922]]) *[[1979]] - [[Richard Rodgers]], American composer (b. [[1902]]) *[[1986]] - [[Era Bell Thompson]], American journalist (b. [[1905]]) *[[1988]] - [[Yuli Daniel]], Russian writer (b. [[1925]]) *[[1993]] - [[Giuseppe Occhialini]], Italian physicist (b. [[1907]]) *[[1994]] - [[Dmitri Ivanenko]], Russian physicist (b. [[1904]]) *[[1995]] - [[Doris Grau]], American actress (b. [[1924]]) *[[1996]] - [[Lew Ayres]], American actor (b. [[1908]]) *[[2001]] - [[Eileen Heckart]], American actress (b. [[1919]]) *[[2002]] - [[Mary Wesley]], English novelist (b. [[1912]]) *[[2003]] - [[David Bale]], South African-born activist (cancer) (b. [[1941]]) *[[2003]] - [[John Gregory Dunne]], American writer (b. [[1932]]) *[[2003]] - [[Anita Mui]], Hong Kong singer and actress (b. [[1963]]) *[[2004]] - [[Artie Shaw]], American jazz clarinetist, composer, and bandleader (b. [[1910]]) ==Holidays and observances== *The sixth [[Twelvetide|day of Christmas]] in Western [[Christianity]]. *[[Calendar of Saints|R.C. Saints]] - [[Pope Felix I]] (optional memorial) *[[Philippines]] - [[José Rizal|Rizal Day]] ==External links== * [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/december/30 BBC: On This Day] * [http://www.tnl.net/when/12/30 Today in History: December 30] ---- [[December 29]] - [[December 31]] - [[November 30]] - [[January 30]] -- [[historical anniversaries|listing of all days]] {{months}} [[af:30 Desember]] [[ar:30 ديسمبر]] [[an:30 d'abiento]] [[ast:30 d'avientu]] [[bg:30 декември]] [[be:30 сьнежня]] [[bs:30. decembar]] [[ca:30 de desembre]] [[ceb:Disyembre 30]] [[cv:Раштав, 30]] [[co:30 di decembre]] [[cs:30. prosinec]] [[cy:30 Rhagfyr]] [[da:30. december]] [[de:30. Dezember]] [[et:30. detsember]] [[el:30 Δεκεμβρίου]] [[es:30 de diciembre]] [[eo:30-a de decembro]] [[eu:Abenduaren 30]] [[fo:30. desember]] [[fr:30 décembre]] [[fy:30 desimber]] [[gl:30 de decembro]] [[ko:12월 30일]] [[hr:30. prosinca]] [[io:30 di decembro]] [[id:30 Desember]] [[ia:30 de decembre]] [[is:30. desember]] [[it:30 dicembre]] [[he:30 בדצמבר]] [[jv:30 Desember]] [[ka:30 დეკემბერი]] [[csb:30 gòdnika]] [[ku:30'ê berfanbarê]] [[la:30 Decembris]] [[lt:Gruodžio 30]] [[lb:30. Dezember]] [[hu:December 30]] [[mk:30 декември]] [[ms:30 Disember]] [[nap:30 'e dicembre]] [[nl:30 december]] [[ja:12月30日]] [[no:30. desember]] [[nn:30. desember]] [[oc:30 de decembre]] [[os:30 декабры]] [[pl:30 grudnia]] [[pt:30 de Dezembro]] [[ro:30 decembrie]] [[ru:30 декабря]] [[se:Juovlamánu 30.]] [[sco:30 December]] [[sq:30 Dhjetor]] [[scn:30 di dicèmmiru]] [[simple:December 30]] [[sk:30. december]] [[sl:30. december]] [[sr:30. децембар]] [[fi:30. joulukuuta]] [[sv:30 december]] [[tl:Disyembre 30]] [[tt:30. Dekäber]] [[te:డిసెంబర్ 30]] [[th:30 ธันวาคม]] [[vi:30 tháng 12]] [[tr:30 Aralık]] [[uk:30 грудня]] [[wa:30 di decimbe]] [[war:Disyembre 30]] [[zh:12月30日]] [[pam:Disiembri 30]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Donn</title> <id>8678</id> <revision> <id>41221424</id> <timestamp>2006-02-25T21:57:32Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Alexander 007</username> <id>493689</id> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">According to [[Irish mythology]], '''Donn''', or '''the Dark One''', is the Lord of the Dead and father of [[Diarmuid Ua Duibhne]], whom he gave to [[Aengus|Aengus Og]] to be nurtured. Donn is regarded as the father of the [[Irish people|Irish race]]; a position similar to that of [[Dis Pater]] and the [[Gaul]]s, as noted by [[Julius Caesar]]. In modern [[Irish language|Irish]], the word for the colour [[brown]] is &quot;donn&quot;. {{Euro-my
tal to her plan to deal with the Honored Matres and to reform the sisterhood. Odrade believes that the Bene Gesserit made a mistake in fearing emotion, and that in order to evolve the Bene Gesserit must learn to accept emotions. Murbella, Odrade is pleased to find, takes and survives the hard path to becoming a [[Reverend Mother (Dune)|Reverend Mother]]. Murbella goes through a manic phase after becoming a Reverend Mother, and her feelings for Duncan are not the same, a fact that worries Odrade as much as Duncan. Whether it is a temporary effect of the experience or a permanent one is unknown. ===Conclusion=== Odrade calls a Convocation--a meeting of all the Bene Gesserit--announcing her plan to attack the Honored Matres. She tells them that this attack will be led by Teg. She also announces candidates to succeed her as Mother Superior; she will share with Murbella and Sheeana before she leaves. Odrade goes to meet the Great Honored Matre with Dortujla, Tamalane and Suipol (an acolyte). To Odrade's surprise Dama seems negotiative; Odrade wonders whether she was wise to have prearranged the attack. After a while she realizes that Dama intends no reasonable negotiation. Under cover of Odrade's diplomacy, the Bene Gesserit forces under Teg attack Gammu with tremendous force. Teg uses his secret ability to see no-ships to secure control of the system. Survivors of the attack flee to Junction, and Teg follows them there and carries all with him. Victory for the Bene Gesserit seems inevitable. In the midst of this battle, the Jews including Rebecca with her precious memories take refuge with the Bene Gesserit fleet. Logno--chief adviser to Dama--assassinates Dama with poison and assumes control of the Honored Matres. Her first act surprises Odrade greatly--she surrenders to Odrade. Teg arrives, and reports come in. Too late; Odrade and Teg realize they have fallen into a trap, and the Honored Matres use &quot;the Weapon&quot; and turn defeat into victory. Murbella saves as much of the Bene Gesserit force as she can and they begin to withdraw to Chapter House. The potential failure of the Bene Gesserit attack was planned for by Odrade, who left Murbella instructions for a last desperate gamble. Murbella pilots a small craft down to the surface, announcing herself as an Honored Matre who has managed to escape the Bene Gesserit in the confusion with all their secrets. She arrives on the planet and immediately announces her intentions by killing an overeager Honored Matre with a blinding speed enhanced by Bene Gesserit training that makes her faster than any Honored Matre before her. Murbella is taken to the Great Honored Matre and immediately declares herself hostile. Logno cannot help herself and attacks, Murbella disposes of her and some allies. Odrade is killed in the melee. Murbella shares with Odrade and takes charge of the Honored Matres, who are awed by her physical prowess. Murbella's ascension to the leadership of the Honored Matres and, by necessity, the Bene Gesserit is not accepted as victory by all the Bene Gesserit. Some feel that she will suborn the spirit of the Bene Gesserit and many worry that her plan of merging the two orders is doomed to failure. Some then decide to escape, notably Sheeana who has a vision of her own. They ask Duncan and Teg whether they wish to join them and they flee Chapterhouse in the giant no-ship, taking also Scytale and the Jews. Murbella recognised their plan at the last minute, but is powerless to stop them, realizing at the same time that Duncan's departure solves many problems for her. ==Analysis== ===A proper conclusion to the Dune saga?=== ''Chapter House: Dune'' ends on a cliffhanger. What happens to the escaped ship? Does Murbella successfully manage to merge the Honored Matres and Bene Gesserit? What role will Scytale play in the future? What precisely are Duncan Idaho's new powers, or Teg's? How will Teg develop? Who chased the Honored Matres back to the old Empire and what will they do when they get to the Old Empire? What role will the Jews play? Who are the god-like characters in the book's last chapter? These unanswered questions may be assuaged by some wisdom from [[Dune]]: :''Arrakis teaches the attitude of the knife&amp;mdash;chopping off what's incomplete and saying: &quot;Now, it's complete because it's ended here.&quot;'' ::&amp;mdash;from ''&quot;Collected Sayings of Muad'Dib&quot;'' by the [[Princess Irulan]] Some readers speculate that Frank Herbert would end the series on a cliffhanger, expousing the philosophy that there is no stopping point to life and that all endings are new beginnings. The lives of our heroes don't end because a book ends, they go on in our imagination. This ending also fits neatly into the grander scheme of the novels. The survival of humanity has been a question since the beginning of the series; by ''Chapter House: Dune'', the Honored Matres threaten to destroy the known universe, and they in turn appear to be fleeing from some unknown (and greater) power. But Herbert leaves the series with at least two locuses of hope for humanity. First, the warring Bene Gesserit and Honored Matres appear united under Murbella, who has been converted to Bene Gesserit ideals. Second, a small but significant group has set out on their own into the Scattering to develop a new society. Given the scope of Herbert's vision, this ending seems quite appropriate. There have also been some hints in the Prelude, written by Brian Herbert and Kevin J. Andersson, that the enemy that drove the Honored Matres back to the Old Empire was the remnants of the Thinking Machines. The Prelude books are, according to Brian, based on notes by Frank Herbert and discussions Brian had with his father. In &quot;Butlerian Jihad&quot; an [[evermind]] overseeing [[Giedi Prime]] sends 5000 deep-space probes, equipped with copies of the evermind, as seeds for new [[Syncronized Worlds]]. Shortly thereafter, human forces arrive and retake the planet, destroying the evermind copy before it was backed-up, thus removing any and all knowledge of the probe/seeds. One of the probes lands on Arrakis and is promptly swallowed by a sandworm attracted by the vibrations caused by its internal factories. The fate of the other 4999 are unknown. It can be postulated that, due to the hazardous nature of deep space and the travel times projected by the evermind, i.e. hundreds to thousands of years, the probes may have suffered a significant failure and attrition rate. In &quot;Battle of Corrin&quot; The last evermind sends a copy of itself into deep space where it hopes to be able to rebuild the machine empire, and wait for the humans to arrive. It is unknown if the nascent Synchronized Worlds seeded by the probes intercept this broadcasted update. If they did, however, then the second machine empire would therefore be fully up to date on the course of the Butlerian Jihad. It is also stated by a Guildsman in &quot;House Corrino&quot;, when they are tossed into deep space, due to activation of shields while folding space, that they must get away fast because there is an &quot;ancient and future enemy&quot; approaching. This could be interpreted as the Thinking machines, the evermind copy sent to establish the &quot;new&quot; empire. They fit in as humanity's ancient enemy, since the Butlerian Jihad, and humanity's future enemy, possibly the one that drove the Honored Matres back. However, Brian Herbert states that Frank Herbert left notes for Dune 7, and when Brian Herbert and Kevin Anderson have completed the prequels to Dune, they intend to work on Dune 7. For now, the only officially announced information about Dune 7 is that it will be published in two volumes named ''[[Hunters of Dune]]'' and ''[[Sandworms of Dune]]''. It is not known whether Frank Herbert would have wished this. ===Daniel and Marty=== One of the controversies of Chapterhouse Dune concerns Daniel and Marty, the elderly couple whom Duncan 'sees' in the net. They are [[Face dancers|Face Dancers]] who have somehow become able to break away from &amp;mdash; or at least live independent of &amp;mdash; a Tleilaxu Master; it also appears that they are the final model of Face Dancers that Waff mentioned in passing- Face Dancers who can not only take on the appearance of a person, but their very identity, memories, and skills. Little else is described about them, but much is speculated. *At one level the old couple could be Frank Herbert and Beverly his wife. This is a provocative suggestion when it is remembered that Idaho saw them and their &quot;net&quot; and managed to evade them by dumping the memory banks of the no-ship. In this interpretation, on the very cusp of Frank Herbert's death his own creations &quot;escaped&quot; even the controlling prescience of the author to carve out new lives in the imaginations of readers. *At another level, they reveal the true insignificance of the Old Empire, by revealing two &quot;godlike&quot; powers who seem beyond human concerns. *It has also been speculated that they were members of the 'unmovable piece' that Duncan had visions of, and that they were using a new application of Holtzmann's equations to trap people in no-ships, like Duncan and co. or the Bene Gesserit sisters dispatched. *Speculation: the enemy that drove the Honored Matres out are the face dancers, who have evolved into these 'godlike' figures. The Honored Matres call the enemy who drove them back to the Old Empire/ Million Worlds the Ones With Many Faces making it seem almost certain that the enemies are Face Dancers. This is in contradiction to the theory that the thinking machines are the enemy. However that theory is suggested by Brian Herbert and Kevin J Anderson making it appear they may decide to include them despite what the original intentions of Frank Herbert may have been ==See also== *[http://www.iwriteiam.nl/Dune7.html DUNE, 7th book] - detailed and interesting speculat
and he began a regular secret correspondence with Winston Churchill, in which the two freely discussed ways of circumventing the Neutrality Acts. In May 1940 Germany attacked France and rapidly occupied the country, leaving Britain vulnerable to German air attack and possible invasion. Roosevelt was determined to prevent this and sought to shift public opinion in favor of aiding Britain. He secretly aided a private body, the [[Committee to Defend America by Aiding the Allies]], and he appointed two anti-isolationist Republicans, [[Henry L. Stimson]] and [[Frank Knox]], as Secretaries of War and the Navy respectively. The fall of [[Paris]] shocked American opinion, and isolationist sentiment declined. Both parties gave strong support to his plans to rapidly build up the American military, but the remaining isolationists bitterly denounced Roosevelt as an irresponsible, ruthless warmonger. He successfully urged Congress to enact the first peacetime draft in 1940 (it was renewed in 1941 by one vote in Congress). America should be the &quot;Arsenal of Democracy&quot; he told his fireside audience, but he did not tell the people or Congress that he was overruling his senior generals and sending the best new airplanes to Britain. In August, Roosevelt openly defied the Neutrality Acts with the [[Destroyers for Bases Agreement]], which gave 50 American [[destroyer]]s to Britain and [[Canada]] in exchange for base rights in the British Caribbean islands. This was a precursor of the March 1941 [[Lend-Lease]] agreement which began to direct massive military and economic aid to Britain. ==The third term and the path to war, 1941-1945== After the 1938 Congressional elections the Republicans staged their first comeback since 1932. They made major gains in both Houses of Congress and by forming the [[Conservative Coalition]] with southern Democrats ended Roosevelt's ability to pass reform legislation. (Only a minimum wage law passed, and then only because of support from Northeastern Republicans who wanted to force higher wages in competing southern textile mills.) The no-third-tradition had been an unwritten rule since the 1790s, but Roosevelt, after blocking the presidential ambitions of cabinet members [[Jim Farley]] and [[Cordell Hull]], decided to run for a third term. In his campaign against Republican [[Wendell Willkie]], Roosevelt stressed both his proven leadership experience and his intention to do everything possible to keep the United States out of war. Roosevelt won the [[1940 election]] with 55 percent of the popular vote and 38 of the 48 states. A shift to the left within the Administration was shown by naming [[Henry A. Wallace]] as his Vice-President in place of the conservative Texan [[John Nance Garner]], a bitter enemy of Roosevelt after 1937. Roosevelt's third term was dominated by World War II, in Europe and in the Pacific. Facing strong isolationist sentiment that supported re-armament, Roosevelt slowly began re-armament in 1938. By 1940 it was in high gear, with bipartisan support, partly to expand and re-equip the [[United States Army]] and [[United States Navy|Navy]] and partly to become the &quot;Arsenal of Democracy&quot; supporting Britain, France, China and (after June 1941), the Soviet Union. As Roosevelt took a firmer stance against the Axis powers, American isolationists, including [[Charles Lindbergh]] and [[America First]] attacked the president as an irresponsible warmonger. Unfazed by these criticisms and confident in the wisdom of his foreign policy initiatives, FDR continued his twin policies of preparedness and aid to the anti-Axis coalition. From 1939, unemployment fell rapidly, as the unemployed either joined the armed forces or found work in arms factories. By 1941 there was a growing labor shortage in all the nation's major manufacturing centers, accelerating the [[Great Migration (African American)|Great Migration]] of African-American workers from the Southern states, and of underemployed farmers and workers from all rural areas and small towns. Roosevelt turned for foreign policy advice to [[Harry Hopkins]]. They sought innovative ways to help Britain, whose financial resources were exhausted by the end of 1940. Congress, where isolationist sentiment was in retreat, passed the [[Lend-Lease Act]] in March 1941, allowing America to &quot;lend&quot; huge amounts of military equipment in return for &quot;leases&quot; on British naval bases in the Western Hemisphere. In sharp contrast to the loans of World War I, there would be no repayment after the war. Britain agreed to dismantle preferential trade arrangements that kept American exports out of the [[British Empire]]. This underlined the point that the war aims of the U.S. and Britain were not the same. Roosevelt was a lifelong [[free trade|free trader]] and anti-[[imperialist]], and ending European [[colonialism]] was one of his objectives. Roosevelt forged a close personal relationship with Churchill, who became British [[Prime Minister]] in May 1940. When Germany invaded the [[Soviet Union]] in June 1941, Roosevelt extended Lend-Lease to the Soviets. During 1941 Roosevelt also agreed that the U.S. Navy would escort Allied convoys as far east as [[Iceland]], and would fire on German ships or submarines if they attacked Allied shipping within the U.S. Navy zone. Moreover, by 1941, U.S. Navy aircraft carriers were secretly ferrying British fighter planes between the U.K. and the Mediterranean war zones, and the British Royal Navy was receiving supply and repair assistance at American naval bases in the United States. Thus by mid-1941 Roosevelt had committed the U.S. to the Allied side with a policy of &quot;all aid short of war.&quot; Roosevelt met with Churchill on [[August 14]], [[1941]] to develop the [[Atlantic Charter]] in what was to be the first of several [[List of World War II conferences|wartime conferences]]. ===Pearl Harbor=== {{main|Attack on Pearl Harbor}} [[Image:Franklin Roosevelt signing declaration of war against Japan December 1941.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Roosevelt signing the declaration of war against Japan, December 1941.]] Roosevelt was less keen to involve the U.S. in the war developing in [[East Asia]], where Japan occupied [[French Indo-China]] in late 1940. He authorized increased aid to China, and in July 1941 he restricted the sales of oil and other strategic materials to Japan, but also continued negotiations with the Japanese government in the hope of averting war. Through 1941 the Japanese planned their attack on the western powers, including the U.S., while spinning out the negotiations in Washington. The &quot;hawks&quot; in the Administration, led by Stimson and Treasury Secretary [[Henry Morgenthau, Jr.|Henry Morgenthau]], were in favor of a tough policy towards Japan, but Roosevelt, emotionally committed to the war in Europe, refused to believe that Japan might attack the U.S. and favored continued negotiations. The U.S. Ambassador in [[Tokyo]], [[Joseph C. Grew]], passed on warnings about the planned attack on the American Pacific Fleet's base at [[Pearl Harbor]] in [[Hawaii]], but these were ignored by the [[State Department]]. On [[7 December]] [[1941]] the Japanese [[attack on Pearl Harbor|attacked the U.S. fleet at Pearl Harbor]], damaging most of it and killing 3,000 American personnel. The American commanders at Pearl Harbor, Admiral [[Husband E. Kimmel]] and General [[Walter Short]], were taken completely by surprise, and were later made scapegoats for this disaster. The fault really lay with the [[United States Department of War|War Department]] in Washington, which since August 1940 had been able to read the Japanese diplomatic codes and had thus been given ample warning of the imminence of the attack (though not of its actual date). In later investigations, the War Department claimed that it had not passed warnings on to the commanders in Hawaii because its analysts refused to believe that the Japanese would really have the effrontery to attack the United States. It has become a staple of postwar [[historical revisionism|revisionist]] history that Roosevelt knew about the planned attack on Pearl Harbor but did nothing to prevent it so that the U.S. could be brought into the war as a result of being attacked. There is no evidence to support this theory. [[Conspiracy theory|Conspiracy theorists]] cite a document known as the [[McCollum memo]], written by a Naval Intelligence officer in 1940 and declassified in 1994, as evidence that the Roosevelt administration actively sought to enter into a war with Japan. It has never been shown, however, that Roosevelt or his Cabinet saw this document or were aware of the arguments it contained, let alone adopted them. In fact it is clear that when the Cabinet met on [[5 December]], its members were not aware of the impending attack. The Cabinet discussed the mounting intelligence evidence that the Japanese were mobilizing for war. Navy Secretary Knox told the Cabinet of the decoded messages showing that the Japanese fleet was at sea, but stated his opinion that it was heading south to attack the British in [[Malaya]] and [[Singapore]], and to seize the oil resources of the [[Dutch East Indies]]. Roosevelt and the rest of the Cabinet seemed to accept this view. There were intercepted Japanese messages suggesting an attack on Pearl Harbor, but delays in translating and passing on these messages through the inefficient War Department bureaucracy meant that they did not reach the Cabinet before the attack took place. There is no evidence that Roosevelt was made aware of them. All contemporary accounts describe Roosevelt, Hull and Stimson as shocked and outraged when they heard news of the attack. The Japanese took advantage of their pre-emptive destruction of most of the Pacific Fleet to rapidly occupy the [[Philippines]] and all the British and Dutch colonies in [[Southeast Asia]], taking [[Singapore]] in February 1942 and
ly influenced by the ideas on [[mythology]] of [[Joseph Campbell]], and echoes of Campbell's work are to be found in many aspects of Glorantha; for instance the story of the &quot;God Learners&quot; can be seen as an exercise on the implications of Campbells idea of a unifying [[monomyth]], and the story of Prince Argrath an exploration of Campbell's ''[[The Hero with a Thousand Faces]]''. More abstractly, Campbell's idea that myths are how we shape our lives deeply informs the picture of life in Glorantha throughout the game world's publication history. The first game system set in Glorantha was the board game [[White Bear and Red Moon]]. Stafford first tried to sell the game to established publishers, but despite being accepted by three different game companies, each attempt ended in failure; eventually he founded his own game company in 1974, the influential [[Chaosium]], to publish his game. The game detailed the rise of the barbarian Prince Argrath to defend his homeland of Sartar against the red tide of the civilised Lunar Empire, and filled out the area of ''Dragon Pass''; since that time the game has undergone several reissues. The next publication was also a board game, [[Nomad Gods]], published by Chaosium in 1978, which detailed the raids and wars between the beast-riding spirit-worshipping tribes of ''Prax'', a cursed land to the east of Dragon Pass. In 1978 the first edition of the role-playing game [[RuneQuest]] was released. Several later editions were made; ''RuneQuest II'' in 1980, considered by some to be the apex of Gloranthan role-playing, and which introduced many sophisticated game aids, such as ''Cults of Prax'' and ''Cults of Terror'', and highly polished game scenarios, such as ''Griffin Mountain''. In an attempt to leverage the power of a much bigger gaming company, ''RuneQuest III'' was published with [[Avalon Hill]] in [[1984]]. This edition both loosened the connection between RuneQuest and Glorantha, introducing Fantasy Europe as a game world for Rune Quest, and much broadened the scope of Glorantha treated as a possible domain of play. Unfortunately, RuneQuest did not prosper with its association with Avalon Hill, and the relationship between Chaosium, who held the rights to Glorantha, and Avalon Hill, who held the rights to RuneQuest, finally broke down completely in 1995. A draft of the ''RuneQuest IV'' rules was written, but never found its way to publication. During this period of breakdown, the evolution of Glorantha did not stand still: the advent of popular use of the internet caused a boom in fan creations in Glorantha, supported by some unofficial business ventures, such as ''Reaching Moon Megacorp'', and a lively convention scene. Loren Miller proposed his [[Maximum Game Fun]] principle as a basis for gaming, which soon became a game system in its own right, David Dunham proposed his [[PenDragon Pass]] system, a nearly freeform game system, and several ambitious [[freeform]] games were played at conventions, such as ''Home of the Bold'' with up to 80 participants. The computer game [[King of Dragon Pass]] was released by [[A-Sharp]], allowing the player to play an Orlanthi hero who seeks to unite the clans and tribes of Dragon Pass in a kingdom; the game features exceptional depth of coverage of the world of Dragon Pass, and featured the first compelling public view of Stafford's ideas about the heroquest. Also Stafford was at this time publishing material about the history and mythology of Glorantha in non-game form as books such as ''King of Sartar'' and ''The Glorious (Re)Ascent of Yelm''. Today, new official material is appearing for the [[HeroQuest (role-playing game)|HeroQuest]] game system, for a short while called the ''Hero Wars'' system. The game system, written by Robin Laws in collaboration with Greg Stafford, is radically different from RuneQuest in that it emphasises narrativist aspects of role-playing; in contrast, RuneQuest emphasised simulationist aspects. Because of this change in approach some RuneQuest fans found it difficult to adjust to HeroQuest. However other long-term fans felt that the game fitted Glorantha far better than RuneQuest. Another company, [[Mongoose Publishing]], has obtained rights from [[Issaries]] to publish material concerning the world of Glorantha. A new Runquest version slated for June, 2006, will incorporate new rules and new material. ==The world of Glorantha== There are a variety of cultures in Glorantha that have strikingly different perceptions of their world, the magic that pervades it and the major events that have shaped it. The [[Issaries]] website [http://www.glorantha.com] introduces Glorantha as: &lt;blockquote&gt; &quot;Glorantha is an action-packed world of adventure. Gods and Goddesses struggle here, with nations of people nothing but their pawns. The stormy barbarians with their brutal but honest Storm God struggle against the Lunar Empire, led by the imperial Sun God and devious Moon Goddess. &lt;br/&gt; Glorantha is an exciting world of heroes. Legends are being made by great individuals, many who are not even human beings. Some work with the deities, other heroes and heroines fight against them. &lt;br/&gt; Glorantha is colorful and full of magic. Supernatural animals are found, ranging from unicorns to seven types of merfolk and the Goddess of Lions. &lt;br/&gt; Glorantha is immense. If explored, it has different worlds and dimensions, whole realms where Gods, spirits and sorcerous powers come from. Unlike many fantasy settings, Glorantha emphasises [[religion]], [[Mythology|myth]] and belief to a level rarely seen in roleplaying or [[fantasy fiction]] elsewhere. &lt;br/&gt; Glorantha shares some [[fantasy]] tropes such as [[dwarf|dwarves]], [[elf|elves]], [[troll]]s, [[giant (mythology)|giants]], but has developed them differently to the more conventional versions based on the work of [[J. R. R. Tolkien|Tolkien]]. [[dwarfs|Dwarves]] are literally made of stone and exist as manifest rigid inflexible laws of creation, while [[Elf|elves]] are intelligent, mobile plants. Glorantha is full of surprises. &lt;br/&gt; Glorantha is as deep as you want it to be, or not. Hackers and choppers have what they want, while scholars and mythologists have a vast playground of new stories, legends and myths to enjoy.&quot; &lt;/blockquote&gt; The world of Glorantha has various cultures analogous to [[Earth]] spread over two major landmasses and a widespread [[archipelago]]. The northern [[continent]] of [[Genertela]] has a feudal society of roughly medieval type to the west, an autocratic [[Oriental]] society to the east and a classical style bronze age culture in the center. The southern continent of [[Pamaltela]] is somewhat like [[Africa]], but with many variants. ===Creatures=== A '''Broo''' or ''Goatkin'' is a creature with the body of a man and the head of goat, or more rarely some other animal. Broos are filthy creatures, always carriers of disease - in Runequest's world of [[Glorantha]], they worship ''Malia'' the Mother of Disease in addition to their patron goddess ''Thed''. In the computer game [[King of Dragon Pass]], they are depicted as bursting out of domestic animals which have been tainted by the powers of chaos, rather than being born naturally. ==See also== *[[King of Dragon Pass]] ==References== * Astinus, 1998. [http://ptgptb.org/0003/hist3.html History of Role-playing: Part III - A golden age emerges]. * Peter Maranci, 2001. [http://www.maranci.net/rqpast.htm History of RuneQuest]. * Greg Stafford, 1997. [http://www.chaosium.com/chaosium/starry-wisdom/sw1-stafford.shtml Why Chaosium is]. From ''Starry Wisdom #1''. ==External links== *[http://www.glorantha.com/ Glorantha.com] - [[Issaries]] website containing information abut Glorantha and [[HeroQuest]] ===Community resources=== * [http://www.lokarnos.com Lokarnos] a community portal to Glorantha, based on [[slashcode]]. * [http://www.runegate.org/whitewall/wiki WhiteWall Wiki], a community effort to describe the events of the Lunar siege of Whitewall, an Orlanthi stronghold south of Dragon Pass. ===Information about game systems based in Glorantha=== * [http://www.pensee.com/dunham/pdp.html PenDragon Pass], the rules for David Dunham's system, which puts the Gloranthan world into the [[Pendragon_RPG|Pendragon]] Arthurian role-playing system. * [http://members.ozemail.com.au/~mrmob/mgf.htm Maximum Game Fun] rules for character generation, written up by Michael O'Brien. * [http://lokarnos.com/article.pl?sid=05/08/10/2243211&amp;mode=nocomment Eleven Years of &quot;Maximum Game Fun&quot;] Retrospective comments by Loren Miller on the use of MGF in [[HeroQuest (role-playing game)|HeroQuest]]. [[Category:Campaign settings]] [[Category:Fantasy worlds]] [[fr:Glorantha]] [[fi:Glorantha]] [[it:Glorantha]] [[ja:グローランサ]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Galactic Astronomy</title> <id>12554</id> <revision> <id>15910235</id> <timestamp>2002-03-12T14:01:18Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>AstroNomer</username> <id>94</id> </contributor> <comment>*</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Galactic astronomy]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Gram (disambiguation)</title> <id>12555</id> <revision> <id>41236570</id> <timestamp>2006-02-25T23:55:30Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Haukurth</username> <id>16226</id> </contributor> <comment>Added a king</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">* [[Gram]] &amp;mdash; A unit of measurement of [[mass]]. * '''Gram-force''' See [[kilogram-force]]. * [[Gram (mythology)]] &amp;mdash; A sword in [[Norse mythology]]. * [[Gram municipality]] &amp;mdash; A municipality in [[Denmark]]. * [[Gram of Denmark]] &amp;mdash; A legendary Danish king. * [[Gram staining]] &amp;mdash; a method of distinguishing [[bacterium|bacteria]
hod for systems of equations over a field where computations are exact, such as [[finite field]]s. == Example == Suppose you need to find numbers ''x'', ''y'', and ''z'' such that the following three equations are all simultaneously true: :&lt;math&gt;2x + y - z = 8&lt;/math&gt;,&lt;br /&gt; :&lt;math&gt;-3x - y + 2z = -11&lt;/math&gt;,&lt;br /&gt; :&lt;math&gt;-2x + y + 2z = -3&lt;/math&gt; This is called a ''system of linear equations'' for the unknowns ''x'', ''y'', and ''z''. They are called ''linear'' because each term is either constant or is a constant times a single variable to the first power. The goal is to transform this system to an equivalent one so that we can easily read off the solution. The operations to transform a system of equations to another, whilst still preserving the solutions are as follows: * multiply or divide an equation by a non-zero number * switch two equations * add or subtract a (not necessarily integer) multiple of one equation to another one The strategy is as follows: eliminate ''x'' from all but the first equation, eliminate ''y'' from all but the second equation, and then eliminate ''z'' from all but the third equation. In our example, we eliminate ''x'' from the second equation by adding 3/2 times the first equation to the second, and then we eliminate ''x'' from the third equation by adding the first equation to the third. The result is: :&lt;math&gt;2x + y - z = 8&lt;/math&gt;,&lt;br /&gt; :&lt;math&gt;\begin{matrix} \frac{1}{2} \end{matrix}y + \begin{matrix} \frac{1}{2} \end{matrix}z = 1&lt;/math&gt;,&lt;br /&gt; :&lt;math&gt;2y + z = 5&lt;/math&gt; Now we eliminate ''y'' from the first equation by adding &amp;minus;2 times the second equation to the first, and then we eliminate ''y'' from the third equation by adding &amp;minus;4 times the second equation to the third: :&lt;math&gt;2x - 2z = 6&lt;/math&gt;,&lt;br /&gt; :&lt;math&gt;\begin{matrix} \frac{1}{2} \end{matrix}y + \begin{matrix} \frac{1}{2} \end{matrix}z = 1&lt;/math&gt;,&lt;br /&gt; :&lt;math&gt;-z = 1&lt;/math&gt; Finally, we eliminate ''z'' from the first equation by adding &amp;minus;2 times the third equation to the first, and then we eliminate ''z'' from the second equation by adding 0.5 times the third equation to the second: :&lt;math&gt;2x = 4&lt;/math&gt;,&lt;br /&gt; :&lt;math&gt;\begin{matrix} \frac{1}{2} \end{matrix}y = \begin{matrix} \frac{3}{2} \end{matrix}&lt;/math&gt;,&lt;br /&gt; :&lt;math&gt;-z = 1&lt;/math&gt; We can now read off the solution by dividing: ''x'' = 2, ''y'' = 3 and ''z'' = &amp;minus;1. This algorithm works generally, also for bigger systems. Sometimes it is necessary to switch two equations: for instance if ''y'' had not occurred in the second equation after our first step above, we would have switched the second and third equation and then eliminated ''y'' from the first equation. It is possible that the algorithm gets &quot;stuck&quot;: for instance if ''y'' had not occurred in the second and the third equation after our first step above. In this case, the system does not have a unique solution. Usually, in practice, one does not deal with the actual systems in terms of equations but instead makes use of the coefficient [[matrix (mathematics)|matrix]] (which is also suitable for computer manipulations), so doing this, our original system would then look like :&lt;math&gt; \begin{pmatrix} 2 &amp; 1 &amp; -1 &amp; 8 \\ -3 &amp; -1 &amp; 2 &amp; -11 \\ -2 &amp; 1 &amp; 2 &amp; -3 \end{pmatrix} &lt;/math&gt; and in the end we are left with :&lt;math&gt; \begin{pmatrix} 2 &amp; 0 &amp; 0 &amp; 4 \\ 0 &amp; 1/2 &amp; 0 &amp; 3/2 \\ 0 &amp; 0 &amp; -1 &amp; 1 \end{pmatrix} &lt;/math&gt; or, after dividing the rows by 2, 1/2 and &amp;minus;1, respectively: :&lt;math&gt; \begin{pmatrix} 1 &amp; 0 &amp; 0 &amp; 2 \\ 0 &amp; 1 &amp; 0 &amp; 3 \\ 0 &amp; 0 &amp; 1 &amp; -1 \end{pmatrix} &lt;/math&gt; In this case we apply matrix operations equivalent to the equation operations, namely: * Multiply or divide a row by a non-zero value. * Switch two rows. * Add or subtract a (not necessarily integer) multiple of one row to another row. == Row echelon and reduced row echelon form == Two special arrangements of matrix are called row echelon form and reduced row echelon form. The definitions of these terms depends on the first non-zero term in each row, called the row's ''leading coefficient''. For a matrix to be in row echelon form (REF), each leading coefficient must equal 1. Furthermore the rows must be arranged as follows. As one moves from the top to the bottom of the matrix, the leading coefficients move from the left to the right and finally rows without any leading coefficient appear last. The final matrix in the example above is in row echelon form, as is this matrix: :&lt;math&gt; \begin{pmatrix} 0 &amp; 1 &amp; 4 &amp; 0 &amp; -3 \\ 0 &amp; 0 &amp; 0 &amp; 1 &amp; 0 \\ 0 &amp; 0 &amp; 0 &amp; 0 &amp; 1 \\ 0 &amp; 0 &amp; 0 &amp; 0 &amp; 0 \\ \end{pmatrix} &lt;/math&gt; A matrix in REF is further said to be in reduced row echelon form (RREF) if each leading coefficient is the only non-zero entry in its column. The above matrix is not in RREF because of the &amp;minus;3 entry. If that entry were 0, the matrix would be in RREF. Gaussian elimination amounts to using the matrix operations to obtain a matrix in RREF. All matrices have a unique equivalent matrix in RREF. When solving a linear system, sometimes there are no solutions and sometimes there are multiple solutions. Whichever is the case, converting the final matrix back into equations reveals the solutions (if any) of the system. For instance, if the above matrix represents a system in four variables, the third row corresponds to the equation 0&amp;nbsp;=&amp;nbsp;1, so the matrix represents a system with no solutions. A system of equations is inconsistent (i.e., it has no solutions) if the RREF of the [[augmented matrix]] has a row which has all zeros except for the last element which is non-zero (i.e. 0 0 0 ... 0 | ''a'', where ''a'' is non-zero.) The following matrix in RREF represents a system with infinitely many solutions: :&lt;math&gt; \begin{pmatrix} 1 &amp; 2/3 &amp; 0 &amp; 11 \\ 0 &amp; 0 &amp; 1 &amp; 7 \\ \end{pmatrix} &lt;/math&gt; In equation form, we have ''x''&amp;nbsp;+&amp;nbsp;(2/3)''y''&amp;nbsp;=&amp;nbsp;11 and ''z''&amp;nbsp;=&amp;nbsp;7. Each value of ''y'' yields a different value of ''x''. A system of linear equations will have infinitely many solutions if the matrix in RREF form has more unknown variables than the total number of rows in RREF where each row has at least a non-zero entry. == Other applications == === Finding the inverse of a matrix === Suppose ''A'' is a square ''n'' × ''n'' matrix and you need to calculate its [[matrix inversion|inverse]]. The ''n'' × ''n'' [[identity matrix]] is augmented to the right of ''A'', which produces an ''n'' × 2''n'' matrix. Then you perform the Gaussian elimination algorithm on that matrix. When the algorithm finishes, the identity matrix will appear on the left; the inverse of ''A'' can then be found to the right of the identity matrix. If the algorithm gets &quot;stuck&quot; as explained above, then ''A'' is not invertible. In practice, inverting a matrix is rarely required. Most of the time, one is really after the solution of a particular system of linear equations. === The general algorithm to compute ranks and bases === The Gaussian elimination algorithm can be applied to any ''m'' × ''n'' matrix ''A''. If we get &quot;stuck&quot; in a given column, we move to the next column. In this way, for example, any 6 by 9 matrix can be transformed to a matrix that has a reduced row echelon form like :&lt;math&gt; \begin{pmatrix} 1 &amp; * &amp; 0 &amp; 0 &amp; * &amp; * &amp; 0 &amp; * &amp; 0 \\ 0 &amp; 0 &amp; 1 &amp; 0 &amp; * &amp; * &amp; 0 &amp; * &amp; 0 \\ 0 &amp; 0 &amp; 0 &amp; 1 &amp; * &amp; * &amp; 0 &amp; * &amp; 0 \\ 0 &amp; 0 &amp; 0 &amp; 0 &amp; 0 &amp; 0 &amp; 1 &amp; * &amp; 0 \\ 0 &amp; 0 &amp; 0 &amp; 0 &amp; 0 &amp; 0 &amp; 0 &amp; 0 &amp; 1 \\ 0 &amp; 0 &amp; 0 &amp; 0 &amp; 0 &amp; 0 &amp; 0 &amp; 0 &amp; 0 \end{pmatrix} &lt;/math&gt; (the *'s are arbitrary entries). This echelon matrix ''T'' contains a wealth of information about ''A'': the [[rank of a matrix|rank]] of ''A'' is 5 since there are 5 non-zero rows in ''T''; the vector space spanned by the columns of ''A'' has as basis the first, third, forth, seventh and ninth column of ''A'' (the columns of the ones in ''T''), and the *'s tell you how the other columns of ''A'' can be written as linear combinations of the basis columns. The Gaussian elimination can be performed over any [[field (mathematics)|field]]. The three elementary operations used in the Gaussian elimination (multiplying rows, switching rows, and adding multiples of rows to other rows) amount to multiplying the original matrix ''A'' with invertible ''m'' × ''m'' matrices from the left. In general, we can say: :To every ''m'' × ''n'' matrix ''A'' over the field ''K'' there exists a uniquely determined invertible ''m'' × ''m'' matrix ''S'' and a uniquely determined reduced row-echelon matrix ''T'' such that ''A'' = ''ST''. ''S'' is the product of the matrices corresponding to the row operations performed. The formal algorithm to compute ''T'' from ''A'' follows. We write ''A''[''i'',''j''] for the entry in row ''i'', column ''j'' in matrix ''A''. The transformation is performed &quot;in place&quot;, meaning that the original matrix ''A'' is lost and successively replaced by ''T''. &lt;pre&gt; i=1 j=1 while (i ≤ m and j ≤ n) do # Find pivot in column j, starting in row i: max_val = A[i,j] max_ind = i for k=i+1 to m do val = A[k,j] if abs(val) &gt; abs(max_val) then max_val = val max_ind = k end_if end_for if max_val ≠ 0 then switch rows i and max_ind divide row i by max_val for u = 1 to m do if u ≠ i then sub
captain]] (position 4). At about 16:30, the [[HMS Southampton (1912)|''Southampton'']] of Beatty's 2nd [[Light cruiser|Light Cruiser]] Squadron led by Commodore [[William Goodenough]] sighted the main body of Scheer's High Seas Fleet, dodging numerous heavy-caliber salvos to report the detailed strength of the Germans: sixteen dreadnoughts with six older battleships. Simultaneously a destroyer action raged between the battlecruiser fleets, as British destroyers meleed with their German counterparts and managed to put a torpedo into ''Seydlitz''. The destroyer ''Nestor'', under the command of Captain Bingham, sank two German [[torpedo boat]]s, the ''V-27'' and the ''V-29'', before she and another destroyer, the ''Nomad'', were hit and abandoned as Scheer's dreadnoughts sped by. Beatty decided to head north to draw the Germans towards Jellicoe and broke contact with the Germans at about 16.45 (position 5). Beatty's move towards Jellicoe is called the &quot;Run to the North.&quot; Because Beatty once again failed to signal his intentions adequately, the super-dreadnoughts of the 5th Battle Squadron found themselves lagging behind the battlecruisers and heading directly into the main body of the High Seas Fleet. For a period they had to fend off the lead German dreadnoughts and Hipper's battlecruisers on their own. [[HMS Malaya (1915)|''Malaya'']] sustained heavy casualties in the process, but the 15 inch (381 mm) fire of the British ships remained effective, causing severe damage to the German battlecruisers (position 6). Jellicoe was now aware that full fleet engagement was nearing, but had insufficient information on the position and course of the Germans. [[Rear Admiral]] [[Horace Hood]]'s 3rd Battlecruiser Squadron was ordered to speed ahead to assist Beatty, while Rear-Admiral Arbuthnot's 1st [[Cruiser]] Squadron patrolled the van of the main body for eventual deployment of Jellicoe's dreadnought columns. Around 17:30 the cruiser [[HMS Black Prince (1904)|''Black Prince'']] of Arbuthnot's squadron, bearing southeast, came within view of Beatty's leading 3rd Light Cruiser Squadron, establishing the first visual link between the converging bodies of the Grand Fleet. Simultaneously the signals cruiser [[HMS Chester|''Chester'']], steaming behind Hood's battlecruisers, was intercepted by the van of the German scouting forces under Rear-Admiral Bodicker. Heavily outnumbered by Bodicker's four light cruisers, ''Chester'' was pounded before being relieved by Hood's heavy units which swung back westward for that purpose. Hood's flagship [[HMS Invincible (1907)|''Invincible'']] disabled the light cruiser [[SMS Wiesbaden|''Wiesbaden'']], as Bodicker's other ships fled toward Hipper and Scheer, in the mistaken belief that Hood was leading a larger force of British capital ships from the north and east. Another destroyer action ensued as German torpedo boats attempted to blunt the arrival of this new formation. ==The fleet action== [[Image:Jutland fleet action.png|right|425px|]] In the meantime Beatty and Evan-Thomas had resumed their engagement of Hipper's battlecruisers, this time with the visual conditions to their advantage. With the battle-worthiness of his ships greatly attrited, Hipper turned back to Scheer around 18.00, just as Beatty's flagship ''Lion'' was finally spotted by Jellicoe on the [[HMS Iron Duke (1912)|''Iron Duke'']]. Jellicoe promptly demanded the latest positioning data of the German forces from Beatty, who failed to respond to this questioning for almost ten minutes. Jellicoe, having overestimated the enemy forces, was in a worrying position, needing to know the position of the Germans in order to judge when and how to deploy from columns to single line. The deployment could be onto either the western or the eastern column and had to be carried out before the Germans arrived; but early deployment could mean losing any chance of a decisive encounter. Deploying to the west would bring his fleet closer to Scheer, gaining valuable time as dusk approached, but the Germans might arrive before the maneuver was complete. Deploying to the east would take the force away from Scheer, but Jellicoe's ships might be able to cross the &quot;T&quot; and would have the advantage of silhouetting Scheer's forces to the west. Deployment would take twenty irreplaceable minutes, and the fleets were approaching at quite a high speed. Jellicoe ordered deployment to the east at 18:10 &amp;#x2777;. Meanwhile Hipper had rejoined Scheer, and the combined High Seas Fleet was heading north, directly toward Jellicoe. Scheer had no indication that Jellicoe was arriving from the northwest and was distracted by the intervention of Hood's ships to his north and east. Beatty's four surviving battlecruisers were now crossing the van of the British dreadnoughts to join Hood's three battlecruisers; in doing so, he nearly rammed Rear-Admiral Arbuthnot's flagship [[HMS Defence (1907)|''Defence'']]. Arbuthnot's obsolete [[Armored cruiser|armoured cruisers]] had no real place in the coming clash between modern dreadnoughts, but he was attracted by the drifting hull of the crippled ''Wiesbaden''. With [[HMS Warrior (1905)|''Warrior'']], ''Defence'' closed in for the kill, only to blunder right into the gunsights of Hipper's and Scheer's oncoming capital ships. ''Defence'' was destroyed in a spectacular explosion viewed by most of the deploying Grand Fleet, sinking with all hands (903 officers and men). ''Warrior'' was hit badly but spared immolation by the mishap of the nearby superdreadnought [[HMS Warspite (1913)|''Warspite'']]. ''Warspite'' had been steaming near 25&amp;nbsp;knots (46&amp;nbsp;km/h) to keep pace with the 5th Battle Squadron as it tailed Beatty's battlecruisers in the run north, creating enough strain to jam her rudder. Drifting in a wide circle, she appeared as a juicy target to the German dreadnoughts and took thirteen hits, inadvertently drawing fire from the hapless ''Warrior''. This maneouvre from ''Warspite'' was known as &quot;[[Windy Corner]]&quot;. Despite surviving the onslaught, ''Warspite'' was soon ordered back to port by Evan-Thomas. As ''Defence'' sank, Hipper moved within range of Hood's 3rd Battlecruiser Squadron. ''Invincible'' inflicted two below-waterline hits on [[SMS Lützow|''Lützow'']] that would ultimately doom Hipper's flagship, but about 18:30 abruptly appeared as a clear target before [[SMS Lützow|''Lützow'']] and ''Derfflinger''. A series of 12 inch (305&amp;nbsp;mm) shells struck ''Invincible'', which blew up and split in two, killing all but six of her crew of 1,032 officers and men, including Rear Admiral Hood. [[Image:British positions at Jutland.jpg|thumb|400px|Approximate positions of the British fleet at about 19:00 &amp;#x2779;, from ''The Fighting at Jutland'', edited by H. W. Fawcett and G. W. W. Hooper, circa 1921.]] By 18:30 the main fleet action was joined for the first time, with Jellicoe effectively &quot;crossing Scheer's T&quot; &amp;#x2778;. Jellicoe's flagship ''Iron Duke'' quickly scored a series of hits on the lead German dreadnought, [[SMS König|''König'']], but in this brief exchange, which lasted only minutes, as few as ten of the Grand Fleet's twenty-four dreadnoughts actually fired shots. The Germans were hampered by poor visibility in addition to being in an unfavorable tactical position. Realizing he was heading into a trap, Scheer ordered his fleet to turn and flee at 18:33. Amid a pall of smoke and mist Scheer's forces succeeded in disengaging. Conscious of the risks to his capital ships posed by torpedoes, Jellicoe did not seek chase but headed south, determined to keep the High Seas Fleet west of him. Scheer knew that it was not yet dark enough to escape and his fleet would suffer terribly in a stern chase, so at 18:55 he doubled back to the east &amp;#x2779;. In his memoirs he wrote, &quot;the manoeuvre would be bound to surprise the enemy, to upset his plans for the rest of the day, and if the blow fell heavily it would facilitate the breaking loose at night.&quot; Commodore [[Goodenough]]'s 2nd Light Cruiser Squadron dodged the fire of German battleships for a second time in reestablishing contact with the High Seas Fleet shortly after 19:00. By 19:15, Jellicoe had crossed the &quot;T&quot; yet again &amp;#x277a;. This time his arc of fire was tighter and deadlier, causing severe damage to the Germans, particularly Rear-Admiral Behncke's leading 3rd Battle Squadron. At 19:17, for the second time in less than an hour, Scheer turned to the west, ordering a major torpedo attack by his destroyers and a &quot;death ride&quot; by Scouting Group I's four remaining battlecruisers &amp;mdash; [[SMS Lützow|''Lützow'']] being out of action and abandoned by Hipper &amp;mdash; to deter a British chase. In this portion of the engagement the Germans sustained thirty-seven heavy hits while inflicting only two, ''Derfflinger'' alone receiving fourteen. Nonetheless Scheer slipped away as sunset (at 20:24) approached. The last major engagement between capital ships took place as the surviving British battlecruisers caught up with their German counterparts, which were briefly relieved by Rear-Admiral Mauve's obsolete pre-dreadnoughts &amp;#x277b;. As [[HMS King George V (1911)|''King George V'']] and [[SMS Westfalen|''Westfalen'']] exchanged a few final shots, neither side could have imagined that the only encounter between British and German dreadnoughts in the entire war was already concluded. At 21:00, Jellicoe, knowing of the Grand Fleet's deficiencies in night-fighting, hoped to avoid a major engagement until early dawn. He placed a screen of cruisers and destroyers behind his battle fleet to patrol the rear as he headed south to guard against Scheer's expected escape to Ems &amp;#x277c;. In reality Scheer opted to bypass his wake and escape via [[Horns Reef]]. Luckily for Scheer, Jellicoe's scouts failed to report his true course while Jellicoe himself was too
business, he just didn't have the experience to make it work and Earnhardt recognized it immediately. Earnhardt and his new owner never hit it off well and the relationship was ended as soon as possible. Earnhardt joined his future championship owner, [[Richard Childress]] to finish off the season after competing in only 4 races for Stacy. Earnhardt went winless in 1981 and finished 7th in the point standings. '''1982: Victory Again''' After [[Richard Childress]] convinced Dale that he didn't have the resources for the defending champion to be driving and that it wouldn't be fair to Earnhardt to go through that, Dale joined legendary car owner [[Bud Moore]] for the [[1982]] season. Earnhardt got back to victory lane at [[Darlington International Raceway]] and ended a 39 race losing streak. But that would be the only win of the year as engine failures in his [[Ford Thunderbird]] would plague their season. Earnhardt would finish 12th in the point standings, the lowest in his career (He would finish 12th again in 1992). '''1983: On the Path to Resurgence''' Earnhardt started the year winning at [[Daytona]]. Not the 500, but a win none the less. Earnhardt won the first of what would be 13 [[Twin-125]] Qualifiers in his career. He didn't win Daytona but did notch wins at [[Nashville]] and [[Talladega]]. He finished 8th in the point standings, but again, unreliable engines convinced Dale that Richard Childress' [[Chevrolets]] could not be worse than driving Moore's [[Fords]]. '''1984: Joining RCR''' [[1984]] began with good news for Earnhardt, he would be going to a new home with [[Richard Childress Racing]]. Earnhardt had a good relationship with [[Bud Moore]] but simply didn't have the results he was looking for. Earnhardt, who drove for Childress in 1981, thought RCR would be the best bet. Childress, who had been receiving help from [[Junior Johnson]] the last few years, had been building up his team and finally felt he was ready for Earnhardt. Earnhardt would match the amount of wins he had in 1983, with wins at Talladega and Atlanta. But the difference in the owner change was notable, as Earnhardt led at the halfway mark in the season before ending up 4th in points. '''1985: Short Track Dominance''' When Earnhardt began his career, former crew chief [[Jake Elder]] and others pegged Earnhardt as a driver who would win many [[short track]] races in his career and a few [[superspeedway]] races. Well, they were half right, as Earnhardt was one of the most prolific superspeedway winners of all time. But, in 1985, they thought they had the Kannapolis, NC native pegged perfectly. Earnhardt would win 4 races, 1 at [[Richmond]], 2 at [[Bristol]], and 1 at [[Martinsville]], all short tracks. He would run respectably at the superspeedways but not consistent enough to contend for the title. His second year with Childress produced 2 more wins, but it resulted in a 8th place points finish. Childress tried to convince Dale to once again go elsewhere, but Earnhardt refused, and the results were historic. '''1986: The Second Championship''' 1986 started on a high note for Earnhardt and the Childress team as he won the [[Busch Clash]]. If you remember, Earnhardt won the Clash in 1980, and the team took it as an omen for a possible second championship. They were correct. Earnhardt would beat [[Darrell Waltrip]] for the title, the second in his career and the first with [[Richard Childress]]. Earnhardt would also win 5 races, at [[North Wilkesboro]], 2 at Charlotte, and 1 at Atlanta. He also had two non-point races wins, the Busch Clash and the Daytona qualifier. '''1987: The Third Championship, the End of Yellow and Blue, and the Season to Remember''' Earnhardt's [[1987]] season started with big news, his longtime sponsor [[Wrangler]] would terminate its sponsorship at the end of the season and [[GM Goodwrench]] would take over for the [[1988]] season. Earnhardt and his team were determined to make Wrangler's last season the best; but not even they could have predicted what would happen in 1987. The team would win 11 races at [[Rockingham]], Richmond, Darlington, North Wilkesboro, Bristol, Martinsville, Charlotte, [[Michigan]], Pocono, Bristol, Darlington, and wrap it up with a win at Richmond. The team set a modern era record of 4 consecutive wins and won 5 of the first 7 races. It would have been 7 of 7 had the team not had bad luck strike at Daytona when he ran out of gas while leading with 3 to go. Earnhardt also earned his nickname &quot;The Intimidator&quot; during the [[Winston All-Star race]] at Charlotte, bullying [[Bill Elliott]] in the final segment before scoring his first of three career wins in the event. The final, 10-lap segment featured Earnhardt's infamous, but erroneously named &quot;pass in the grass&quot;. The point race was a romp. Earnhardt grabbed it early in the year and never let up, stretching the lead at one point to greater than 600 points over Bill Elliott before beating &quot;Million Dollar Bill&quot; by around 400 points. '''1988: The Man in Black''' Earnhardt had always been an [[aggressive]], no holds bar driver his whole career. Black had always seemed perfect for the driver rather than the exact opposite colors of yellow and blue. But in 1988, Earnhardt would change the look of his car, and as a result, the view of his personality, forever. When [[GM Goodwrench]] took over the primary [[sponsorship]] role of the RCR #3 Chevy, they insisted on a black paint scheme, and soon enough, Earnhardt's newest [[nickname]] came up: The Man In Black. The season would be a great year for most, but for Earnhardt, who had won back-to-back titles and was looking to become only the 2nd man in history to win 3 consecutive titles, it was a disappointment. Earnhardt scored 3 wins and finished 3rd in the standings behind [[Bill Elliott]] and [[Rusty Wallace]]. '''1989: So Close, and Yet So Far''' Earnhardt was determined to get back to the top of the [[Winston Cup]] heap in [[1989]], and he proved it early and often. He scored 6 wins, but this season was to belong to a budding rival. [[Rusty Wallace]] would score 5 wins en route to the championship. Earnhardt learned a lesson in points racing from [[Ricky Rudd]] at [[North Wilkesboro]], when he was racing Rudd for the win with a handful of laps to go. The smart thing to do for a title contender would be to let the man go and get the points, but Earnhardt was all about winning, and he wasn't about to let Rudd have it. The result saw the two get together and both of them spun, giving the win to [[Geoff Bodine]]. Earnhardt ended up 12th instead of 2nd, the difference in points costing him another championship. It was a lesson Earnhardt would take with him to 4 more titles. '''1990: Redemption''' Earnhardt couldn't wait to get back behind the wheel of the #3 GM Goodwrench [[Chevrolet Lumina]] in [[1990]]. He had something to prove after letting the 1989 Winston Cup title slip out of his grasp. The season started with another heartbreak. Earnhardt had won the outside pole for the Superbowl of Stock Car Racing, the [[Daytona 500]], and had dominated the entire speedweeks, winning the [[Bud Shootout]] and the qualifying race. On the big day, he had a 40 second lead, he had almost lapped the field, when the day's final caution came out with a handful of laps to go. When the green flag came out, Earnhardt was leading unknown driver [[Derrike Cope]] and was expected to take it home from there. But on the last lap, Earnhardt would have another run-in with his famous bad luck. While coming out of turn 3, Earnhardt would run over a piece of debris, cutting his tire down and giving the lead to Cope, who went on to win the race while Earnhardt finished 5th. This could have crushed a lesser team, but RCR used it as a [[motivational]] tool. They took the tire that cost them the win and mounted it to the wall of their shop to remind their team of what had happened. The results led to a 9-win season and a 4th Winston Cup title for Earnhardt, beating out [[Mark Martin]] by just 26 points for the honor. Other notable wins for Earnhardt in 1990 were the [[Southern 500]], The Winston All-Star race, and the [[Winston 500]]. In [[1991]] as Earnhardt scored his 5th Winston Cup championship. In his previous championship seasons, Earnahrdt had never scored less than 5 wins, but in 1991, Dale would score just 4 wins, but it would be more than enough as he would take the title by 195 points over [[Ricky Rudd]]. One of the biggest highlights of the season for Earnhardt was scoring the win at [[North Wilkesboro]], stealing the thunder of [[Harry Gant]], who had tied Earnhardt's mark of 4 consecutive wins and was going for a 5th but lost the brakes late in the run, giving Earnhardt the chance he needed to take the win and end Gant's streak. '''1992-The Wheels Fall Off''' After back-to-back titles for the 2nd time in his career, Dale Earnhardt was determined to take advantage of the opportunity to make it 3 in a row, but again, it wasn't to be. Earnhardt's lone win of the season came at [[Charlotte]] in the prestigious [[Coca-Cola 600]], but otherwise, the season was a loss to the RCR team. Dale would finish a career-low 12th in the points for the 2nd time in his career, and the only time he had been that low since coming to RCR. Longtime RCR crew chief [[Kirk Shelmerdine]] left at the end of the year, citing burnout and wanting to pursue his own racing dream. The team would regroup with [[Andy Petree]] as the crew chief in 1993. '''1993 Back to the Top''' Hiring Petree turned out to be a good move, as the #3 GM Goodwrench Chevy was back up front in [[1993]]. Earnhardt once again came close to a win at the [[Daytona 500]], dominating throughout speedweeks before finishing 2nd to [[Dale Jarrett]] on a last-lap pass. Earnhardt would score 6 wins en route to his 6th Winston Cup title, including wins in prestigious races as the [[Coca-Cola 600]], the Winston All-Star race and
w.opengl.org/documentation/specs/glut/spec3/spec3.html GLUT documentation] *[http://openglut.sourceforge.net/ OpenGLUT] *[http://freeglut.sourceforge.net/ FreeGLUT] [[Category:3D computer graphics]] [[Category:SourceForge projects]] [[cs:GLUT]] [[de:GLUT]] [[es:GLUT]] [[fr:OpenGL utility toolkit]] [[pl:GLUT]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Giovanni Boccaccio</title> <id>12957</id> <revision> <id>41895461</id> <timestamp>2006-03-02T12:58:32Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Ghepeu</username> <id>217964</id> </contributor> <minor /> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Giovanni_Boccaccio.jpg|right|thumb|150px|Giovanni Boccaccio]] '''Giovanni Boccaccio''' ([[June 16]], [[1313]] &amp;ndash; [[December 21]], [[1375]]) was an [[Italy|Italian]] author and poet, a friend and correspondent of [[Petrarch]], an important [[Renaissance humanism|Renaissance humanist]] in his own right and author of a number of notable works including ''[[On Famous Women]]'', the ''[[Decameron]]'' and his [[poetry|poems]] in the vernacular. Boccaccio's characters are notable for their era in that they are realistic, spirited and clever individuals who are grounded in reality (in contradiction to the characters of his contemporaries, who were more concerned with the [[Medieval]] virtues of [[Chivalry]], [[Piety]] and [[Humility]]). ==Biography== The exact details of his birth are uncertain. But what is certain is that he was the illegitimate son of a [[Florence|Florentine]] banker and an unknown woman. An early biographer claimed his mother was a [[Paris]]ien and that the city was also the place of his birth, this has been largely depreciated as a romanticism and his place of birth is more likely to have been in [[Tuscany]], perhaps in Certaldo, the town of his father. Boccaccio grew up in Florence. His father was working for the ''Compagnia dei Bardi'' and in the 1320s married Margherita del Mardoli, of an illustrious family. It is believed Boccaccio was tutored by [[Giovanni Mazzuoli]] and received from him an early introduction to the works of [[Dante Alighieri|Dante]]. Around 1327 Boccaccio moved to [[Naples]] when his father was appointed to head the Neopolitan branch of his bank. Boccaccio was apprenticed to the bank and spent six years there. It was a trade for which he had no affinity and he eventually persuaded his father to let him study law at the ''Studium'' in the city. However, his father had introduced him into the Neopolitan nobility and the French-influenced court of Robert the Wise. Boccaccio had become a friend of fellow-Florentine [[Niccolo Acciaiuoli]] and benefited from his influence as lover of [[Catherine of Valois]]. Acciaiuoli was later counsellor to Queen Joanna and the &quot;Grand Seneschal&quot;. [[Image:Boccaccio01.jpg|thumb|left|200px|statue outside the [[Uffizi]], Florence]] It seems Boccaccio enjoyed law no more than banking but his studies allowed him the opportunity to study widely and make good contacts with fellow scholars. His early influences included Paolo da Perugia (a curator and author of a collection of myths, the ''Collectiones''), the humanists Barbato da Sulmona and Giovanni Barrili, and the theologian Dionigi da San Sepolcro. In the 1330s Boccaccio also became a father, two illegitimate children of his were born in this time, Mario and Giulio. In Naples Boccaccio began what he considered his true vocation, poetry. Works produced in this period include ''Filostrato'' (the source for [[Geoffrey Chaucer|Chaucer]]'s ''[[Troilus and Criseyde]]''), ''Teseida'' (ditto the ''Knight's Tale''), ''Filocolo'' a prose version of an existing French romance, and ''La caccia di Diana'' a poem in octave rhyme listing Neopolitan women. The period featured considerable formal innovation, including possibly introducing the [[Sicilian octave]] to Florence, where it influenced Petrarch. Boccaccio returned to Florence in early 1341, avoiding the plague in that city of 1340 but also missing the visit of Petrarch to Naples in 1341. He had left Naples due to tensions between the Angevin king and Florence. His father had returned to Florence in 1338, went bankrupt. His mother died a little later. Although dissatisfied with his return to Florence, Boccaccio continued to work, producing ''Comedia delle ninfe fiorentine'' (also known as ''Ameto'') a mix of prose and poems in 1341, completing the fifty canto allegorical poem ''Amorosa visione'' in 1342, ''Fiammetta'' in 1343 and probably the pastoral piece ''Ninfale fiesolano'' dates from this time. In 1343 Boccaccio's father re-married, to Bice del Bostichi. His children by his first marriage had all died (except Boccaccio) and he was gladdened by the birth of a son, Iacopo, in 1344. Boccaccio also became a father again, another illegitimate child, Violante, was born in [[Ravenna]]. In Florence the overthrow of [[Walter VI of Brienne|Walter of Brienne]] brought about the government ''popolo minuto''. It diminished the influence of the nobility and the wealthier merchant classes and assisted in the relative decline of Florence. The city was further hurt in 1348 by the [[Black Death]], later used in the ''Decameron'', which killed maybe three-quarters of the city's population. From 1347 Boccaccio was spending much time in Ravenna, seeking new patronage, and despite his claims it is not certain he was actually present in plague-ravaged Florence. His step-mother died during the epidemic and his father, as Minister of Supply in the city was closely associated with the government efforts. His father died in 1349 and as head of the family Boccaccio was forced into a more active role. Boccaccio began work on the ''Decameron'' around 1349. It is probable that the structure of many of the tales dates from earlier in his career, but the choice of a hundred tales and the frame-story ''lieta brigata'' of three men and seven women dates from this time. The work was largely complete by 1352 and it was Boccaccio's final effort in literature and one of his last works in Italian, the only other substantial work was the misogynist ''Corbaccio'' (dated to either 1355 or 1365). Boccaccio revised and rewrote the ''Decameron'' in 1370-71. This manuscript has survived to the present day. From 1350 Boccaccio, though less of a scholar, became closely involved with Italian humanism and also with the Florentine government. His first official mission was to [[Romagna]] in late 1350, he revisited that region twice and was also sent to [[Brandenburg]], [[Milan]] and [[Avignon]]. He also pushed for the study of Greek, housing Barlaam of Calabria and encouraging his tentative translations of works by [[Homer]], [[Euripides]] and [[Aristotle]]. In October 1350 he was delegated to greet Francesco Petrarca as he entered Florence and also have the great man as a guest at his home during his stay. The meeting between the two was extremely fruitful and they were friends from then on, Boccaccio calling Petrarch his teacher and ''magister''. They met again in [[Padua]] in 1351, Boccaccio on an official mission to invite Petrarch to take a chair at the university in Florence. Although unsuccessful, the discussions between the two were instrumental in Boccaccio writing ''Genealogia deorum gentilium'' - the first edition was completed in 1360 and this would remain one of the key reference works on classical mythology for over 400 years. The discussions also formalized Boccaccio's poetic ideas. Certain sources also see a conversion of Boccaccio by Petrarch, from the open humanist of the ''Decameron'' to a more ascetic style, closer to the dominant 14th century ethos, for example he followed Petrarch (and Dante) in the unsuccessful championing of an archaic and deeply allusive form of Latin poetry. In 1359 following a meeting with [[Pope Innocent VI]] and further meetings with Petrarch it is probable that Boccaccio took some kind of religious mantle. There is a persistent, but unsupported, tale that he repudiated his earlier works, including the ''Decameron'', in 1362 as profane. Following the failed coup of 1361 a number of Boccaccio's close friends and other acquaintances were executed or exiled in the subsequent purge. Although not directly linked to the conspiracy it was in this year that Boccaccio left Florence to reside in Certaldo and also was more distant from government affairs. He did not undertake further missions for Florence until 1365 and traveled to Naples and then on to Padua and [[Venice]], where he met up with Petrarch in grand style, before returning to Certaldo. He met Petrarch only once more, in Padua in 1368. On hearing of the death of Petrarch (July 19, 1374) Boccaccio wrote a commemorative poem, including it in his collection of lyric poems, the ''Rime''. As mentioned he returned to work for the Florentine government in 1365, undertaking a mission to [[Pope Urban V]]. When the papacy returned to Rome in 1367 Boccaccio was again sent to Urban, offering congratulations. He also undertook diplomatic missions to Venice and Naples. Of his later works the moralistic biographies gathered as ''De casibus virorum illustrium'' (1355-74) and ''De mulieribus claris'' (1361-75) were most significant. Other works include a dictionary of geographical allusions in classical literature, ''De montibus, silvis, fontibus, lacubus, fluminibus, stagnis seu paludibus et de nominibus maris liber'' (a title desperate for the coining of the word &quot;geography&quot;). He gave a series of lectures on Dante at the Santo Stefano church in 1373 and these resulted in his final major work, the detailed ''Eposizioni sopra la Commedia di Dante''. His final years were troubled by illnesses, many relating to his great obesity, and he died in [[Certaldo]], [[Tuscany]], on [[21 December]], [[1375]]. ==Bibliography== Alphabetical listing of selected works. *''Amorosa visione'' (1342) *''Buccolicum carmen'' (1367-69) *''Caccia
ot; and &quot;Sacramental Union&quot; to distinguish their understanding of the Lord's Supper from those of the Reformed and other traditions. More liberal Lutheran churches tend to practice open communion, inviting all who are baptized to participate. Conservative Lutheran churches such as the [[Confessional Lutheran]]s are more likely to practice closed communion (or &quot;close communion&quot;), restricting participation to those, who are more or less in doctrinal agreement with them. This might involve the formal declaration of &quot;altar and pulpit fellowship,&quot; another term for eucharistic sharing coupled with the acceptance of the ministrations of one another's clergy. ===Methodism: presence as &quot;mystery&quot;=== The followers of [[John Wesley]] have typically affirmed that the grace of Christ is experienced via his real presence in the sacrament, but have allowed the details to remain a mystery, rejecting the doctrine of [[transubstantiation]] (''see &quot;Article XVIII&quot; of the [[Articles of Religion (Methodist)|Articles of Religion]], [[Means of Grace]]''). In 2004, the [[United Methodist]] Church more clearly defined its view of the sacrament and its belief in the [[Real Presence]] in an official document entitled ''[http://www.gbod.org/worship/thisholymystery/default.html This Holy Mystery]''. ===Calvinist Reformed: spiritual feeding, &quot;pneumatic&quot; presence=== Many [[Reformed]] Christians, particularly those who follow [[John Calvin]], hold that Christ's body and blood do not come down to inhabit the elements, but that &quot;the Spirit truly unites things separated in space&quot; (Calvin). Following a phrase of [[Augustine of Hippo|Augustine]], the Calvinist view is that &quot;no one bears away from this Sacrament more than is gathered with the vessel of faith&quot;. &quot;The flesh and blood of Christ are no less truly given to the unworthy than to God's elect believers&quot;, Calvin said, &quot;but those who partake by faith receive benefit from Christ, and the unbelieving are condemned by partaking. By faith (not a mere mental apprehension), and in the Holy Spirit, the partaker beholds God incarnate, and in the same sense touches him with hands, so that by eating and drinking of bread and wine Christ's actual presence penetrates to the heart of the believer more nearly than food swallowed with the mouth can enter in.&quot; Calvin specifically rejected adoration of the Eucharistic bread and wine as &quot;idolatry&quot;, however. The elements may be disposed of without ceremony; they are unchanged, and as such the meal directs attention toward Christ's bodily resurrection and return. ===Zwinglian Reformed: no Real Presence=== {{Main|Memorialism}} Some Protestant groups see Communion (also called the [[Lord's Supper]] or the Lord's Table) as a symbolic meal, a [[Memorialism|memorial]] of the [[Last Supper]] and the [[Passion]] in which nothing miraculous occurs. This view is known as the Zwinglian view, after [[Huldrych Zwingli]], a Swiss leader during the [[Protestant Reformation|Reformation]]. It is commonly associated with [[Baptist]]s and the [[Disciples of Christ]]. Some of the Reformed hold that Calvin actually held this view, and not the ''Spiritual feeding'' idea more commonly attributed to him; or that the two views are really the same. === Summary of views === Because Jesus Christ is a person, theologies regarding the Eucharist involve consideration of the way in which the communicant's personal relationship with God is fed through this mystical meal. However, debates over Eucharistic theology in the West have centered not on the personal aspects of Christ's presence but on the metaphysical. The opposing views are summarized below. {{details|Real Presence}} *'''''Transubstantiation''''' – the [[Substance theory|substance]] (fundamental reality) of the bread and wine is transformed in a way beyond human comprehension into that of the Body, Blood, Soul, and Divinity of Christ, but the [[accident (philosophy)|accidents]] (physical traits, including chemical properties) of the bread and wine remain; this view is held by the [[Roman Catholic Church]] and many [[Anglicans]], especially in [[Anglo-Catholic]] circles. *'''''&quot;In, with and under the forms&quot;''''' - the body and blood of Jesus Christ are substantially present in, with and under the substance of the bread and wine, which remain. This is the view held by most [[Lutheranism|Lutherans]], and some [[Anglican]]s. Some refer to this view as ''consubstantiation'', but many Lutherans reject this term.&lt;!-- The distinction between this and consubstantiation is not clear to me, but some people feel that there is one. --&gt; *'''''Objective reality, but pious silence about technicalities''''' - the view of all the ancient Churches of the East, including the [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Eastern Orthodox]], the [[Oriental Orthodox Church|Oriental Orthodox]], and the [[Assyrian Church of the East]] as well as perhaps most Anglicans. These, while agreeing with the Roman Catholic belief that the sacrament is not merely bread and wine but truly the body and blood of Christ, do not usually employ the &quot;substance&quot; and &quot;accidents&quot; terminology, preferring not to scrutinize the technicalities of the transformation. *'''''Real Spiritual presence''''' also called &quot;pneumatic presence&quot; - not only the spirit, but also the true body and blood of Jesus Christ (hence &quot;real&quot;) are received by the sovereign, mysterious, and miraculous power of the Holy Spirit (hence &quot;spiritual&quot;), but only by those partakers who have faith. This view approaches the &quot;pious silence&quot; view in its unwillingness to specify how the Holy Spirit makes Christ present, but positively excludes not just symbolism but also trans- and con-substantiation. It is also known as the &quot;mystical presence&quot; view, and is held by most [[Reformed]] Christians, such as [[Presbyterians]], as well as some Methodists and some [[Anglicans]], particularly [[Low Church]] Reformed Anglicans. See [http://www.opc.org/documents/WCF.html Westminster Confession of Faith, ch. 19.] This understanding is often called &quot;'''receptionism'''.&quot; Some argue that this view can be seen as being suggested&amp;mdash;though not by any means clearly&amp;mdash;by the &quot;[[epiklesis|invocation]]&quot; of the Anglican Rite as found in the American [[Book of Common Prayer]], 1928 and earlier and in Rite I of the American BCP of 1979 as well as in other Anglican formularies: ::''And we most humbly beseech thee, O merciful Father, to hear us, and of thy almighty goodness, vouchsafe to bless and sanctify, with thy Word and Holy Spirit, these thy gifts and creatures of bread and wine; that we, receiving them according to thy Son our Savior Jesus Christ's holy institution, in remembrance of his death and passion, may be partakers of his most blessed body and blood.'' *'''''Symbolism''''' - the bread and wine are symbolic of the body and blood of Jesus Christ, and in partaking of the elements the believer commemorates the sacrificial death of Christ. This view is also known as &quot;memorialism&quot; and ''Zwinglianism'' after [[Huldrych Zwingli|Ulrich Zwingli]] and is held by several [[Protestant]] denominations, including most [[Baptist]]s. *'''''Suspension''''' - the partaking of the bread and wine was not intended to be a perpetual ordinance, or was not to be taken as a religious rite or ceremony (also known as ''adeipnonism'', meaning &quot;no supper&quot; or &quot;no meal&quot;). This is the view of [[Religious Society of Friends|Quakers]] and the [[Salvation Army]], as well as the [[hyperdispensationalism|hyperdispensationalist]] positions of [[E. W. Bullinger]], Cornelius R. Stam, and others. ==Ritual and liturgy== ===The Agape feast=== The [[Agape feast]] was the Eucharistic celebration of the early Christians. While centered on the ritual of the bread and wine, it also included various other ritual elements, including elements of the [[Passover seder]] and of Mediterranean funerary banquets, also termed ''Agape Feasts''. ''[[Agape]]'' is one of the [[Greek language|Greek]] words for ''love'', particularly applied to selfless love. Such meals were widespread, though not universal, in the early Christian world. This service was apparently a full meal, with each participant bringing a contribution to the meal according to their means. Perhaps predictably enough, it could at times deteriorate into merely an occasion for eating and drinking, or for ostentatious displays by the wealthier members of the community. This was criticized by St. Paul in the New Testament (cf. {{bibleverse|1|Cor|11:20-22|63}}). Because of such abuses, and the increased ritualization of the feast the ''Agape'' gradually fell into disfavor, and after being subjected to various regulations and restrictions, it was definitively dropped by the Church between the 6th and 8th centuries. Many Christians, however, after celebrating the Eucharist, now routinely participate in a sharing of light refreshments and conversation in an informal ritual that is functionally an Agape. This post-Eucharistic gathering is often called &quot;fellowship hour&quot; or &quot;coffee hour&quot; and is regarded by many clergy as a particularly opportune time for engaging adults in Christian education. Today some contemporary Christians participate in ''Agape'' meals on rare occasions, to experience this historical form of the Eucharist. Others, particularly among the [[House Church]] movement, practice the love feast weekly as the observation of the Lord's Supper--a full meal provided by and shared among the members. The bread and wine are taken as part of the meal, either at the end or the meal may be opened with the bread and ended with the wine. &lt;!-- Don't the Covenanters (Scotch Reformed) historically celebrate the Lord's Supper/Eucharist as part of a meal as w
g., both GAA and GAG code for the amino acid [[glutamic acid]]. A codon is said to be '''four-fold degenerate''' if any nucleotide at its third position specifies the same amino acid; it is said to be '''two-fold degenerate''' if only two of four possible nucleotides at its third position specify the same amino acid. In two-fold degenerate codons, the equivalent third position nucleotides are always either two [[purine]]s (A/G) or two [[pyrimidine]]s (C/T). The degeneracy of the genetic code is what accounts for the existence of [[silent mutations]]. Degeneracy is required in order to produce enough different codons to code for 20 amino acids and a stop and start codon (at least 22 codons required). Because there are four different bases, triplet codons are the minimum number required to produce at least 22 different codes. For example, if there were two bases per codon, then only 16 amino acids could be coded for (4&amp;sup2;=16). Because at least 22 codes are required, then 4&amp;sup3; gives 64, which is the number of possible codons. These properties of the genetic code make it more fault-tolerant for [[point mutation]]s. For example, four-fold degenerate codons can tolerate any point mutation at the third position; two-fold degenerate codons can tolerate one out of the three possible point mutations at the third position. Since transition mutations (purine to purine or pyrimidine to pyrimidine mutations) are more likely than transversion (purine to pyrimidine or vice-versa) mutations, the equivalence of purines or that of pyrimidines at two-fold degenerate sites adds a further fault-tolerance. A practical consequence of redundancy is that some errors in the genetic code only cause either a silent mutation or an error that would not affect the amino acid's [[hydrophilic]]/[[hydrophobic]] property; e.g., a codon of XUX (where X = any nucleotide) tends to code for hydrophobic amino acids. Even so, it is a single point mutation that causes a modified [[hemoglobin]] molecule in [[sickle-cell disease]]. The hydrophilic [[glutamate]] (Glu) is substituted by the hydrophobic [[valine]] (Val), which reduces the solubility of ß-globin. This causes [[hemoglobin]] to form linear polymers linked by the hydrophobic interaction between the valine groups causing sickle-cell deformation of erythrocytes. Sickle-cell disease is generally not caused by a ''[[de novo]]'' mutation. Rather it is selected for in [[malaria|malarial]] regions (in a similar way to [[thalassemia]]), as [[heterozygote|heterozygous]] people have some resistance to the malarial ''[[Plasmodium]]'' parasite ([[heterozygote advantage]]). In general, these properties are widely interpreted to form part of the reason for the origin of the standard genetic code [see below]. These variable codes for amino acids are possible because of modified bases in the first base of the [[anticodon]], and the basepair formed is called a [[wobble base pair]]. The modified bases include [[inosine]] and the U-G basepair. Only two amino acids are specified by a single codon; one of these is the amino-acid [[methionine]], specified by the codon AUG, which also specifies the start of transcription; the other is [[tryptophan]], specified by the codon UGG. === Phase or reading frame of a sequence === Note that a &quot;codon&quot; is entirely defined by your starting position. For example, the string GGGAAACCC, if read from the first position, contains the codons GGG, AAA and CCC. If read from the second position, it contains the codons GGA and AAC (partial codons being ignored). If read starting from the third position, GAA and ACC. Every DNA sequence can thus be read in three '''reading frames''', each of which will produce a radically different amino acid sequence (in our example, Gly-Lys-Pro, Gly-Asp, and Glu-Thr, respectively). The actual frame a protein sequence is translated in is defined by a '''start codon''', usually the first occurrence of AUG in the RNA sequence. Mutations that disrupt the reading frame (i.e. insertions or deletions of one or two nucleotide bases) severely impair the function of a protein and are thus exceedingly rare in ''[[in vivo]]'' protein-coding sequences, since they often lead to death before an organism is viable. ==Variations== Numerous variations of the standard genetic code are found in [[mitochondrion|mitochondria]], which are energy-producing [[organelles]]. [[Ciliate]] [[protozoa]] also have some variation in the genetic code: UAG and often UAA code for Glutamine (a variant also found in some [[green alga]]e), or UGA codes for Cysteine. Another variant is found in some species of the [[yeast]] [[Candida (genus)|candida]], where CUG codes for [[Serine]]. In certain proteins, non-standard amino acids are substituted for standard stop codons, depending upon associated signal sequences in the messenger RNA: UGA can code for [[selenocysteine]] and UAG can code for [[pyrrolysine]] (for details, see the articles on these two amino acids). There may be other non-standard interpretations that are not yet known. ==Origin of the genetic code== Despite the variations that exist, the genetic codes used by all known forms of life on Earth are very similar. Since there are many possible genetic codes that are thought to have similar utility to the one used by Earth life, the theory of [[evolution]] suggests that the genetic code was established very early in the history of life. One can ask the question: is the genetic code completely random, just one set of codon-amino acid correspondences that happened to establish itself and be &quot;frozen in&quot; early in evolution, although ''functionally'' any other of the near-infinite set of possible transcription tables would have done just as well? Already a cursory look at the table shows patterns that suggest that this is not the case. There are three themes running through the many theories that seek to explain the evolution of the genetic code (and hence the origin of these patterns){{fn|1}}. One is illustrated by recent [[aptamer]] experiments which show that some amino acids have a selective chemical affinity for the base triplets that code for them.{{fn|2}} This suggests that the current, complex transcription mechanism involving [[tRNA]] and associated enzymes may be a later development, and that originally, protein sequences were directly templated on base sequences. Another is that the standard genetic code that we see today grew from a simpler, earlier code through a process of &quot;biosynthetic expansion&quot;. Here the idea is that primordial life 'invented' new amino acids (e.g. as by-products of metabolism) and later back-incorporated some of these into the machinery of genetic coding. Although much circumstantial evidence has been found to indicate that originally the number of different amino acids used may have been considerably smaller than today{{fn|3}}, precise and detailed hypotheses about exactly which amino acids entered the code in exactly what order has proved far more controversial{{fn|4}}{{fn|5}}. A third is that [[natural selection]] organized the codon assignments of the genetic code to minimize the effects of genetic errors ([[mutations]]){{fn|6}}. == Other resources == There are several books available online that go into great detail on this topic. They are available through the [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=Books NCBI Bookshelf], maintained by the [[National_Institutes_of_Health|United States National Institutes of Health]]. In particular the following books would be useful to consult: * Griffiths, Anthony J.F.; Miller, Jeffrey H.; Suzuki, David T.; Lewontin, Richard C.; Gelbart, William M. (1999). [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?call=bv.View..ShowTOC&amp;rid=iga.TOC ''Introduction to Genetic Analysis'' (7th ed.)]. New York: W. H. Freeman &amp; Co. ISBN 0-7167-3771-X * Alberts, Bruce; Johnson, Alexander; Lewis, Julian; Raff, Martin; Roberts, Keith; Walter, Peter. (2002). [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?call=bv.View..ShowTOC&amp;rid=mboc4.TOC&amp;depth=2 ''Molecular Biology of the Cell'' (4th ed.)]. New York: Garland Publishing. ISBN 0815332181 * Lodish, Harvey; Berk, Arnold; Zipursky, S. Lawrence; Matsudaira, Paul; Baltimore, David; Darnell, James E. (1999). [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?call=bv.View..ShowTOC&amp;rid=mcb.TOC ''Molecular Cell Biology'' (4th ed.)]. New York: W. H. Freeman &amp; Co. ISBN 0-7167-3706-X There is also a themed wiki devoted to the topic of how the genetic code evolved, and its effects on the subsequent evolution of the genome: * http://www.evolvingcode.net ==References== *{{fnb|1}} e.g. see Knight, R.D.; Freeland S. J. and Landweber, L.F. (1999) [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&amp;db=pubmed&amp;dopt=Abstract&amp;list_uids=10366854 The 3 Faces of the Genetic Code.] ''Trends in the Biochemical Sciences'' '''24'''(6), 241-247. *{{fnb|2}} Knight, R.D. and Landweber, L.F. (1998). [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&amp;db=pubmed&amp;dopt=Abstract&amp;list_uids=9751648 Rhyme or reason: RNA-arginine interactions and the genetic code.] ''Chemistry &amp; Biology'' '''5'''(9), R215-R220. [http://bayes.colorado.edu/Papers/chmbio98.pdf PDF version of manuscript] *{{fnb|3}} Brooks, Dawn J.; Fresco, Jacques R.; Lesk, Arthur M.; and Singh, Mona. (2002). [http://mbe.oupjournals.org/cgi/content/full/19/10/1645 Evolution of Amino Acid Frequencies in Proteins Over Deep Time: Inferred Order of Introduction of Amino Acids into the Genetic Code]. ''Molecular Biology and Evolution'' '''19''', 1645-1655. *{{fnb|4}} Amirnovin R. (1997) [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&amp;db=pubmed&amp;dopt=Abstract&amp;list_uids=9115171 An analysis of the metabolic theory of the origin of the genetic code.] ''Journal of Molecular Evolution'' '''44'''(5), 473-6. *{{fnb|5}} Ronneberg T.A.; Landweber L.F. and Free
humb|right|400px|The four conformations of butane. From left to right: fully eclipsed, inclined, partially eclipsed, antiperiplanar.]] The situation with respect to the two C&amp;ndash;C bonds in [[propane]] is qualitatively similar to that of ethane: it is more complex, however, for [[butane]] and higher alkanes. If one takes the central C&amp;ndash;C bond of butane as the reference axis, each of the two central carbon atoms is bound to two hydrogen atoms and a methyl group. Four different conformations can be defined by the torsion angle between the two methyl groups and, as in the case of ethane, each has its characteristic energy. *The '''fully eclipsed''' or '''synperiplanar''' conformation has a torsion angle of 0°. It is the configuration with the highest energy. *The '''inclined''' conformation has a torsion angle of 60° (or 300°). It is a local energy minimum. *The '''partially eclipsed''' conformation has a torsion angle of 120° (or 240°). It is a local energy maximum. *The '''antiperiplanar''' conformation has a torsion angle of 180°. The two methyl groups are as far from each other as is possible, and this configuration has the lowest energy. The difference in energy between the fully eclipsed conformation and the antiperiplanar conformation is about 19&amp;nbsp;kJ/mol, and is therefore still relatively small at ambient temperature. The case of higher alkanes is similar: the antiperiplanar conformation is always the most favoured around each carbon&amp;ndash;carbon bond. For this reason, alkanes are usually shown in a zigzag arrangement in diagrams or in models. The actual structure will always differ somewhat from these idealised forms, as the differences in energy between the conformations are small compared to the thermal energy of the molecules: alkane molecules have no fixed structural form, whatever the models may suggest. The conformations of other organic molecules are based on those of alkanes, and are discussed in the relevant articles. ==Properties== ===Physical properties=== &lt;!-- Translated from [:de:Alkane]] --&gt; [[Image:Alkanschmelzundsiedepunkt.png|right|thumb|300px|Melting (blue) and boiling (pink) points of the first 14 ''n''-alkanes in °C. ]] The molecular structure, particularly the [[surface area]] of the molecule, determines the boiling point of the alkane: the smaller the surface, the lower the boiling point, as the [[van der Waals force]]s between the molecules are weaker. A reduction of the surface area can be achieved by chain-branching or by a circular structure. This means in practice that alkanes with higher number of carbon atoms usually have higher [[boiling point]]s than those with lower numbers of carbon atoms, and that branched-chain alkanes and [[cycloalkane]]s have lower boiling points than their straight-chain homologues. Under [[standard conditions]], from CH&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt; to C&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;10&lt;/sub&gt; alkanes are gaseous; from C&lt;sub&gt;5&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;12&lt;/sub&gt; to C&lt;sub&gt;17&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;36&lt;/sub&gt; they are liquids; and after C&lt;sub&gt;18&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;38&lt;/sub&gt; they are solids. The boiling point increases between 20 and 30&amp;nbsp;&amp;deg;C per CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;-group. The [[melting point]]s of the alkanes also rise with the increase in the number of carbon atoms (with only one exception, [[propane]]). However the melting points rise more slowly than the boiling points, in particular for the higher alkanes. In addition, the melting points of alkanes with an odd number of carbon atoms increase faster than the melting points of alkanes with an even number of carbon atoms (see figure): the cause of this phenomenon is the higher [[packing density]] of the alkanes with an even number of carbon atoms. The melting points of branched-chain alkanes can be either higher or lower than those of the corresponding straight-chain alkanes, depending on the efficiency of molecular packing: this is particularly true for isoalkanes (2-methyl isomers), which often have melting points higher than those of their normal analogues. Alkanes do not conduct [[electricity]], nor are they substantially [[Polarization|polarized]] by an [[electric field]]. For this reason they do not form [[hydrogen bond]]s and are insoluble in polar solvents such as water. Since the hydrogen bonds between individual water molecules are aligned away from an alkane molecule, the coexistance of an alkane and water leads to an increase in molecular order (a reduction in [[entropy]]). As there is no significant bonding between water molecules and alkane molecules, the [[second law of thermodynamics]] suggests that this reduction in entropy should be minimised by minimising the contact between alkane and water: alkanes are said to be [[hydrophobic]] in that they repel water. Their solubility in nonpolar solvents is relatively good, a property which is called [[lipophilicity]]. Different alkanes are, for example, miscible in all proportions among themselves. The density of the alkanes usually increases with increasing number of carbon atoms, but remains less than that of water. Hence, alkanes form the upper layer in an alkane-water mixture. ===Chemical properties=== &lt;!-- Translated from [:de:Alkane]] --&gt; Alkanes generally show a relatively low reactivity, because their C&amp;ndash;H and C&amp;ndash;C bonds are relatively stable and cannot be easily broken. Unlike all other organic compounds, they possess no [[functional group]]s. They react only very poorly with ionic or other polar substances. The [[Acid dissociation constant|p''K''&lt;sub&gt;a&lt;/sub&gt;]] values of all alkanes are above 60, and so they are practically inert to acids and bases. This inertness is the source of the term ''paraffins'' ([[Latin]] ''para'' + ''affinis'', with the meaning here of &quot;lacking affinity&quot;). In [[crude oil]] the alkane molecules have remained chemically unchanged for millions of years. However [[redox reaction]]s of alkanes, in particular with [[oxygen]] and the [[halogen]]s, are possible as the carbon atoms are in a strongly reduced condition; in the case of [[methane]], the lowest possible [[oxidation state]] for carbon (&amp;minus;4) is reached. Reaction with oxygen leads to [[combustion]]; with halogens, [[substitution]]. In addition, alkanes have been shown to interact with, and bind to, certain transition metal complexes. Free radicals, molecules with unpaired electrons, play a large role in most reactions of alkanes, such as [[cracking]] and [[reformation]] where long-chain alkanes are converted into shorter-chain alkanes and straight-chain alkanes into branched-chain isomers. In highly brached alkanes, the [[bond angle]]s may differ significantly from the optimal value (109.5&amp;deg;) in order to allow the different groups sufficient space. This causes a tension in the molecule, known as [[steric hinderance]], and can substantially increase the reactivity. ===Thermochemistry=== Alkanes are stable molecules relative to their constituent elements, which is manifested as a negative [[Standard enthalpy change of formation|heat of formation]]. For linear alkanes, each [[methylene]] (CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;) unit contributes -5 kcal/mol to the overal heat of formation. Branched alkanes are always a little bit more stable than their linear isomers; for example, 2-methylbutane is more stable than ''n''-pentane by 1.8 kcal/mol, and 2,2-methylpropane is more stable than ''n''-pentane by 5 kcal/mol. See the [[Standard enthalpy change of formation (data table)#Alkanes|alkane heat of formation table]] for detailed data. ===Spectroscopic properties=== Virtually all organic compounds contain carbon&amp;ndash;carbon and carbon&amp;ndash;hydrogen bonds, and so show some of the features of alkanes in their spectra. Alkanes are notable for having no other groups, and therefore for the ''absence'' of other characreistic spectroscopic features. ====Infrared spectroscopy==== The carbon&amp;ndash;hydrogen stretching mode gives a strong absorption between 2850 and 2960&amp;nbsp;cm&lt;sup&gt;&amp;minus;1&lt;/sup&gt;, while the carbon&amp;ndash;carbon stretching mode absorbes between 800 and 1300&amp;nbsp;cm&lt;sup&gt;&amp;minus;1&lt;/sup&gt;. The carbon&amp;ndash;hydrogen bending modes depend on the nature of the group: methyl groups show bands at 1450&amp;nbsp;cm&lt;sup&gt;&amp;minus;1&lt;/sup&gt; and 1375&amp;nbsp;cm&lt;sup&gt;&amp;minus;1&lt;/sup&gt;, while methylene groups show bands at 1465&amp;nbsp;cm&lt;sup&gt;&amp;minus;1&lt;/sup&gt; and 1450&amp;nbsp;cm&lt;sup&gt;&amp;minus;1&lt;/sup&gt;. Carbon chains with more than four carbon atoms show a weak absorption at around 725&amp;nbsp;cm&lt;sup&gt;&amp;minus;1&lt;/sup&gt;. ====NMR spectroscopy==== The proton resonances of alkanes are usually found at &amp;delta;&lt;sub&gt;H&lt;/sub&gt; = 0&amp;ndash;1. The carbon-13 resonances depend on the number of hydrogen atoms attached to the carbon: &amp;delta;&lt;sub&gt;C&lt;/sub&gt; = 8&amp;ndash;30 (methyl), 15&amp;ndash;55 (methylene), 20&amp;ndash;60 (methyne). The carbon-13 resonance of quaternary carbon atoms is characteristically weak, due to the lack of [[nuclear Overhauser enhancement]] and the long [[relaxation time]]: it can be missed in routine spectra. ====Mass spectrometry==== Alkanes have a high [[ionisation energy]], and the molecular ion is usually weak. The fragmentation pattern can be difficult to interpret, but, in the case of branched chain alkanes, the carbon chain is preferentially cleaved at tertiary or quaternary carbons due to the relative stability of the resulting [[free radical]]s. The fragment resulting from the loss of a single methyl group (M&amp;minus;15) is often absent, and other fragment are often spaced by intervals of fourteen mass units, corresponding to sequential loss of CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;-groups. ==Reactions== ===Reactions with oxygen=== All alkanes rea
earchers continue to explore the extent of genetic influence, there is strong evidence that genetic predisposition is often a factor in dependency. Researchers have had difficulty assessing differences, however, between social causes of dependency learned in family settings and genetic factors related to [[heredity]]. *The ''[[culture|cultural]] model'' recognizes that the influence of culture is a strong determinant of whether or not individuals fall prey to certain addictions. For example, alcoholism is rare among [[Saudi Arabia]]ns, where obtaining alcohol is difficult and using alcohol is prohibited. In North America, on the other hand, the incidence of [[gambling]] addictions soared in the last two decades of the [[20th century]], mirroring the growth of the gaming industry. Half of all patients diagnosed as alcoholic are born into families where alcohol is used heavily, suggesting that familiar influence, genetic factors, or more likely both, play a role in the development of addiction. *The ''blended model'' attempts to consider elements of all other models in developing a therapeutic approach to dependency. It holds that the mechanism of dependency is different for different individuals, and that each case must be considered on its own merits. *The ''[[habit]] model'' proposed by [[Thomas Szasz]] questions the very concept of &quot;addiction.&quot; He argues that addiction is a metaphor, and that the only reason to make the distinction between habit and addiction &quot;is to persecute somebody.&quot; [http://www.szasz.com/drugsandfreedom1973.html (Szasz, 1973)] *The genetic neurobiological model called Hypoism. Read about the science behind this and its implications at http://www.nvo.com/hypoism. The scientific argument is at: http://www.nvo.com/hypoism/hypoismhypothesis/ ==Neurobiological basis== The development of addiction is thought to involve a simultaneous process of 1) increased focus on and engagement in a particular behavior and 2) the attenuation or &quot;shutting down&quot; of other behaviors. For example, animals allowed the unlimited ability to self-administer psychoactive drugs will show such a strong preference that they will forgo food, sleep, and sex for continued access. The neuro-anatomical correlate of this that the brain regions involved in driving goal-directed behavior grow increasingly selective for particular motivating stimuli and rewards, to the point that the brain regions involved in the inhibition of behavior can no longer effectively send &quot;stop&quot; signals. A good analogy is to imagine flooring the gas pedal in a car with very bad brakes. In this case, the limbic system is thought to be the major &quot;driving force&quot; and the orbitofrontal cortex is the substrate of the top-down inhibition. A specific portion of the limbic circuit known as the mesolimbic dopaminergic system is hypothesized to play an important role in translation of motivation to motor behavior- and reward-related learning in particular. It is typically defined as the [[ventral tegmental area]] (VTA), the nucleus accumbens, and the bundle of dopamine-containing fibres that connecting them. This system is commonly implicated in the seeking out and consumption of rewarding stimuli or events, such as sweet-tasting foods or sexual interaction. However, ita importance to addiction research goes beyond its role in &quot;natural&quot; motivation: while the specific site or mechanism of action may differ, all known drugs of abuse have the common effect in that they elevate the level of dopamine in the nucleus accumbens. This may happen directly, such as through blockade of the dopamine re-uptake mechanism (see [[cocaine]]). It may also happen indirectly, such as through stimulation of the dopamine-containing neurons of the VTA that synapse onto neurons in the accumbens (see [[opiates]]). The euphoric effects of drugs of abuse are thought to be a direct result of the acute increase in accumbal dopamine. The human body has a natural tendency to maintain [[homeostasis]], and the central nervous system is no exception. Chronic elevation of dopamine will result in a decrease in the number of dopamine [[Transmembrane receptor|receptors]] available in a process known as [[downregulation]]. The decreased number of receptors changes the permeability of the cell membrane located post-synaptically, such that the post-synaptic neuron is less excitable- ie, less able to respond to chemical signalling with an electrical impulse, or [[action potential]]. It is hypothesized that this dulling of the responsiveness of the brain's reward pathways contributes to the inability to feel pleasure, known as [[anhedonia]], often observed in addicts. The increased requirement for dopamine to maintain the same electrical activity is the basis of both [[physiological tolerance]] and [[withdrawal]] associated with addiction. Downregulation can be classically conditioned. If a behavior consistently occurs in the same environment or contigently with a particular cue, the brain will adjust to the presence of the conditioned cues by decreasing the number of available receptors in the absence of the behavior. It is thought that many drug overdoses are not the result of a user taking a higher dose than is typical, but rather that the user is administering the same dose in a new environment. In cases of physical dependency on [[depressant]]s of the [[central nervous system]] such as opioids, [[barbiturate]]s, or alcohol, the absence of the substance can lead to symptoms of severe physical discomfort. Withdrawal from alcohol or sedatives such as barbiturates or benzodiazepines (valium-family) can result in seizures and even death. By contrast, withdrawal from opioids, which can be extremely uncomfortable, is rarely if ever life-threatening. In cases of dependence and withdrawal, the body has become so dependent on high concentrations of the particular chemical that it has stopped producing its own natural versions (endogenous ligands) and instead produces opposing chemicals. When the addictive substance is withdrawn, the effects of the opposing chemicals can become overwhelming. For example, chronic use of sedatives (alcohol, [[barbiturate]]s, or benzodiazepines) results in higher chronic levels of stimulating [[neurotransmitter]]s such as glutamate. Very high levels of glutamate kill nerve cells (called excitatory neurotoxicity). ==Criticism== [[Levi Bryant]] has criticized the term and concept of ''addiction'' as counterproductive in psychotherapy as it defines a patient's identity and makes it harder to become a ''non-addict''. &quot;The signifier 'addict' doesn't simply describe what I am, but initiates a way of relating to myself that informs how I relate to others.&quot; A stronger form or criticism comes from [[Thomas Szasz]], who denies that addiction is a psychiatric problem. In many of his works, he argues that addiction is a choice, and that a drug addict is one who simply prefers a socially taboo substance rather than, say, a low risk lifestyle. In 'Our Right to Drugs', Szasz cites the biography of [[Malcolm X]] to corroborate his economic views towards addiction: Malcolm claimed that quitting cigarettes was harder than shaking his heroine addiction. Szasz postulates that humans always have a choice, and it is foolish to call someone an 'addict' just becuase they prefer a [[drug]] induced [[euphoria]] to a more popular and socially welcome lifestyle. A similar conclusion to that of Thomas Szasz may also be reached through very different [[reasoning]]. This is the somewhat extreme, yet tenanable, view that humans do not have [[free will]]. From this perspective, being 'addicted' to a substance is no different than being 'addicted' to a job that you work everyday. Without the assumption of free will, every human action is the result of the naturally occuring reactions of particle matter in the physical brain, and so there is no longer room for the concept of 'addiction', since, in this view, choice is an illusion of the [[human]] experience. ==Casual addiction== The word addiction is also sometimes used colloquially to refer to something a person has a passion for. Such &quot;addicts&quot; include: *[[Bibliophilia|Biblioholics]] *[[Chocoholic]]s *[[Workaholic]]s ==See also== * [[12-step programs]] * [[Alcoholics Anonymous]] * [[Narcotics Anonymous]] * [[Moderation Management]] * [[Cold turkey]] * [[Junkie]] * [[Love-hate relationship]] * [[Tanha]] * [[YES Recovery]] * [[Higher order desire]] * [[Sexual addiction]] * [[Drug addiction]] * [[Computer addiction]] ==External links== * [http://www.nvo.com/hypoism/hypoismhypothesis/ Hypoism Hypothesis] * [http://www.nature.com/neuro/focus/addiction/index.html nature neurosience - Focus on Neurobiology of addiction] (freely available online through January 2006) * [http://www.nida.nih.gov/ National Institute on Drug Abuse] * [http://www.asam.org/pain/definitions2.pdf Definitions Related to the Use of Opioids for the Treatment of Pain] (2001) - a joint statement by the American Academy of Pain Medicine, the American Pain Society, and the American Society of Addiction Medicine * [http://www.who.int/substance_abuse/terminology/who_lexicon/en/ World Health Organization terminology for substance use and dependence] * [http://www.narecovery.org/ Narcotics Anonymous Help for Addicts by addicts] * [http://www.alcoholicsanonymous.com/ Alcoholics Anonymous] * [http://my-addiction.info/Four_Stages_of_Breaking_an_Addiction_Caryl_Ehrlich.html Four Stages of Breaking an Addiction] * [http://www.marijuana-anonymous.org Marijuana Anonymous] * [http://www.Methadone-Anonymous.org Methadone Anonymous World Services, Inc.] * [http://www.MethadoneSupport.org Methadone &amp; Methadone Anonymous Support] * [http://www.nicd.us/ National Institute on Chemical Dependency] *[http://navisite.collegeclub.com/servlet/channels.ChannelArticleServlet?articleid=4461&amp;areaid=8&amp;grid-me
of the Visigoths]] [[de:Alarich II.]] [[es:Alarico II]] [[fr:Alaric II]] [[sv:Alarik II]] [[zh:亚拉里克二世]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Albategnius</title> <id>1572</id> <revision> <id>39741255</id> <timestamp>2006-02-15T15:15:11Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>N.MacInnes</username> <id>611233</id> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Al-Battani]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Albertus Magnus</title> <id>1573</id> <revision> <id>42105775</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T21:38:10Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Kripkenstein</username> <id>911653</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Minor change</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:AlbertusMagnus.jpg|right|thumb|Albertus Magnus (fresco, 1352, Treviso, Italy)]] {{Redirect3|Albertus|is also the name of a [[Albertus (typeface)|typeface]]}} '''Albertus Magnus''' ([[1193]]? &amp;ndash; [[November 15]], [[1280]]), also known as '''Saint Albert the Great''' and '''Albert of Cologne''', was a [[Dominican Order|Dominican]] friar who became famous for his universal knowledge and advocacy for the peaceful coexistence of science and religion. He is considered to be the greatest German philosopher and theologian of the [[Middle Age]]s. He was the first medieval scholar to apply [[Aristotle]]'s philosophy to Christian thought at the time. [[Catholicism]] honors him as a [[Doctor of the Church]], one of only 33 men and women with that honor. ==Biography== He was born of the noble family of Bollstadt in [[Lauingen]], [[Bavaria]], [[Germany]] on the [[Danube]], sometime between 1193 and [[1206]]. The term &quot;magnus&quot; is not descriptive; it is the [[Latin]] equivalent of his family name, de Groot. Albertus was educated principally at [[Padua]], where he received instruction in [[Aristotle]]'s writings. After an alleged encounter with the [[Blessed Virgin Mary]], he entered holy orders. In [[1223]] (or [[1221]]) he became a member of the [[Dominican Order]], and studied [[theology]] under its rules at [[Bologna]] and elsewhere. Selected to fill the position of lecturer at [[Cologne]], where the order had a house, he taught for several years there, at [[Regensburg]], [[Freiburg]], [[Strasbourg]] and [[Hildesheim]]. In [[1245]] he went to [[Paris]], received his doctorate and taught for some time, in accordance with the regulations, with great success. In [[1254]] he was made provincial of the Dominican Order, and fulfilled the arduous duties of the office with great care and efficiency. During the time he held this office he publicly defended the Dominicans against the attacks by the secular and regular faculty of the [[University of Paris]], commented on [[John the Evangelist|St John]], and answered the errors of the [[Arab philosophy|Arabian philosopher]], [[Averroes]]. In [[1260]] [[Pope Alexander IV]] made him [[bishop]] of [[Regensburg]], which office he resigned after three years. The remainder of his life he spent partly in preaching throughout Bavaria and the adjoining districts, partly in retirement in the various houses of his order. In [[1270]] he preached the [[eighth Crusade]] in [[Austria]]. Among the last of his labours was the defence of the orthodoxy of his former pupil, [[Thomas Aquinas]], whose death in [[1274]] grieved Albertus. After suffering collapse of health in [[1278]], he died on [[November 15]], [[1280]], in [[Cologne]], [[Germany]]. His tomb is in the [[crypt]] of the Dominican church of [[St. Andreas]] in Cologne. Albertus is frequently mentioned by [[Dante Alighieri|Dante]], who made his doctrine of [[free will]] the basis of his ethical system. In his [[Divine Comedy]], Dante places Albertus with his pupil Thomas Aquinas among the great lovers of wisdom (''Spiriti Sapienti'') in the Heaven of the Sun. Albertus was beatified in [[1622]]. He was canonized and also officially named a Doctor of the Church in [[1931]] by [[Pope Pius XI]]. His feast day is celebrated on November 15th. ==Writings== Albertus's writings collected in [[1899]] went to 38 volumes, displaying his prolific habits and literally encyclopedic knowledge of topics including, but not limited to, logic, theology, botany, geography, astronomy, mineralogy, chemistry, zoölogy, physiology, and [[phrenology]], all of it the result of logic and observation. He was the most widely read author of his time. The whole of [[Aristotle]]'s works, presented in the Latin translations and notes of the Arabian commentators, were by him digested, interpreted and systematized in accordance with church doctrine. He came to be so associated with Aristotle that he was referred to as &quot;Aristotle's ape&quot;. Albert's activity, however, was more philosophical than theological (see [[Scholasticism]]). The philosophical works, occupying the first six and the last of the twenty-one volumes, are generally divided according to the Aristotelian scheme of the sciences, and consist of interpretations and condensations of Aristotle's relative works, with supplementary discussions depending on the questions then agitated, and occasionally divergences from the opinions of the master. His principal theological works are a commentary in three volumes on the Books of the Sentences of [[Peter Lombard]] (''Magister Sententiarum''), and the ''Summa Theologiae'' in two volumes. This last is in substance a repetition of the first in a more didactic form. ==Albertus as scientist== Albertus's knowledge of physical science was considerable and for the age accurate. His industry in every department was great, and though we find in his system many of those gaps which are characteristic of scholastic philosophy, yet the protracted study of Aristotle gave him a great power of systematic thought and exposition, and the results of that study, as left to us, by no means warrant the contemptuous title sometimes given him of the &quot;Ape of Aristotle.&quot; They rather lead us to appreciate the motives which caused his contemporaries to bestow on him the honourable surnames &quot;The Great&quot; and ''Doctor Universalis.'' It must, however, be admitted that much of his knowledge was ill digested; it even appears that he regarded [[Plato]] and [[Speusippus]] as [[Stoics]]. Albertus was both a student and a teacher of [[alchemy]] and [[chemistry]]. He isolated [[arsenic]] in [[1250]]. He was alleged to be a magician, since he was repeatedly charged by some of his unfriendly contemporaries with communing with the devil, practicing the craft of magic, and with the making of a demonic automata able to speak. He was also one of the alchemists reputed to have succeeded in discovering the [[Philosopher's Stone]]. [[Image:Albertus Magnus-Denkmal.jpg|thumb|Albertus Magnus monument in Cologne]] ==Music== In music history, Albertus is known for his enlightening commentary on musical practice of the time. Most of his musical observations are given in his commentary on Aristotle's ''Poetics''. Among other things, he rejects the idea of &quot;[[music of the spheres]]&quot; as ridiculous: movement of astronomical bodies, he supposes, is incapable of generating sound. He also wrote extensively on proportions in music, and on the three different subjective levels on which [[plainchant]] could work on the human soul: purging of the impure; illumination leading to contemplation; and nourishing perfection through contemplation. Of particular interest to [[20th century]] music theorists is the attention he paid to silence as an integral part of music. ==Trivia== *Magnus is recorded as having made an [[android]], a mechanical [[automaton]] in the figure of a man. {{ref label|1728|1|^}} ==Quotes== ''Natural science does not consist in ratifying what others have said, but in seeking the causes of phenomena.'' ==See also== *[[History of science in the Middle Ages]] ==References== #{{note label|1728|1|^}}{{1728}} [http://digicoll.library.wisc.edu/cgi-bin/HistSciTech/HistSciTech-idx?type=turn&amp;entity=HistSciTech000900240135&amp;isize=L Androides]. ==External links== *[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/01264a.htm Catholic Encyclopedia article] {{Medieval_Philosophy}} [[Category:1193 births]] [[Category:1280 deaths]] [[Category:Catholic philosophers|Albertus Magnus]] [[Category:Christians in science]] [[Category:Discoverers of chemical elements]] [[Category:Doctors of the Church]] [[Category:Dominicans]] [[Category:German chemists]] [[Category:German philosophers]] [[Category:German theologians]] [[Category:Music theorists]] [[Category:Natives of Bavaria]] [[Category:Roman Catholic bishops]] [[Category:German saints]] [[Category:Scholastic philosophers]] [[de:Albertus Magnus]] [[et:Albert Suur]] [[es:Alberto Magno]] [[eo:Alberto la Granda]] [[fa:آلبرت کبیر]] [[fr:Albert le Grand]] [[gl:Alberte o Magno]] [[hr:Sveti Albert Veliki]] [[id:Albertus Magnus]] [[it:Alberto Magno]] [[la:Albertus Magnus]] [[hu:Albertus Magnus]] [[nl:Albertus Magnus]] [[ja:アルベルトゥス・マグヌス]] [[no:Albertus Magnus]] [[pl:Albert Wielki]] [[pt:Alberto Magno]] [[ru:Альберт Великий]] [[sk:Albert Veľký]] [[sl:Albert Veliki]] [[fi:Albert Suuri]] [[sv:Albertus Magnus]] [[tr:Albertus Magnus]] [[uk:Альберт Великий]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Albion</title> <id>1574</id> <revision> <id>39730222</id> <timestamp>2006-02-15T13:06:10Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Rich Farmbrough</username> <id>82835</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Wikify dates</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the archaic name for Great Britain. For other meanings, see [[Albion (disambiguation)]]'' [[Image:white_cliffs_of_dover_09_2004.jpg|320px|thumb|The white cliffs of Dover]]'''Albion''' (in [[Ptolemy]] ''Alouion''), is the most ancient name of [[Great Bri
ins]]}} {{Fs player| no=33| nat=Denmark | pos=DF| name=[[Niclas Jensen]] }} {{Fs player| no=34| nat=England | pos=MF| name=[[Neale McDermott]]}} {{Fs player| no=35| nat=England | pos=DF| name=[[Ian Pearce]]}} {{Fs player| no=#| nat=France | pos=FW| name=[[Ismael Ehui]]}} {{Fs player| no=#| nat=England | pos=FW| name=[[Chris James (footballer)|Chris James]]}} {{Fs end}} ===Players out on loan=== {| {{Fs player| no=16| nat=Portugal | pos=GK| name=[[Ricardo Batista]] | other=on loan to [[Milton Keynes Dons F.C.|MK Dons]]}} {{Fs player| no=21| nat=Pakistan | pos=DF| name=[[Zeshan Rehman]] | other=on loan to [[Norwich City F.C.|Norwich]]}} {{Fs player| no=25| nat=Czech Republic| pos=GK| name=[[Jaroslav Drobny (footballer)|Jaroslav Drobny]] | other=on loan to [[ADO Den Haag]]}} {{Fs player| no=#| nat=England | pos=MF | name=[[Darren Pratley]] | other=on loan to [[Brentford F.C.|Brentford]] until January 2006}} {{Fs player| no=#| nat=England | pos=DF| name=[[Robert Watkins]] | other=on loan to [[Gravesend &amp; Northfleet F.C.|Gravesend &amp; Northfleet]] until February 23rd}} |} ==External links== {{BBC Football Info|BBClinkname=f/fulham}} * [http://www.fulhamfc.com/ Official website] * [http://www.fulhamsupporterstrust.com/ Fulham Supporters' Trust] * [http://www.fulhamweb.com/ Fulhamweb a fan website] * [http://www.fulhamusa.com/ Fulham USA] *[http://www.4thegame.com/club/ffc/ 4thegame.com's Fulham page] *[http://www.toofif.com/ The Website of a Popular Fanzine] - [[There's Only One F in Fulham]] (TOOFIF) *[http://www.t-f-i.com/ The Fulham Independent - a busy unofficial messageboard] *[http://www.yanks-abroad.com/content.php?mode=search&amp;s=Fulham Fulham articles on Yanks Abroad] *[http://www.footballchants.org/viewChantsRecent.php?teams=13 Fulham Football Chants] * [http://extratime.corporalcarrot.co.uk/mag/club/fulham.php Fulham FC Diary - UK] {{FA_Premier_League}} [[Category:English football clubs]] [[Category:FA Premier League]] [[Category:Fulham F.C.]] [[de:Fulham F.C.]] [[es:Fulham F.C.]] [[fr:Fulham Football Club]] [[it:Fulham Football Club]] [[ja:フラムFC]] [[nl:Fulham F.C.]] [[no:Fulham FC]] [[pl:Fulham F.C.]] [[pt:Fulham FC]] [[simple:Fulham F.C.]] [[fi:Fulham FC]] [[sv:Fulham FC]] [[zh:富勒姆足球俱乐部]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Frankie Goes to Hollywood</title> <id>11229</id> <revision> <id>41961116</id> <timestamp>2006-03-02T22:19:32Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>86.52.36.140</ip> </contributor> <comment>/* &quot;Relax&quot; */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Relax single.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Frankie Goes to Hollywood's biggest selling single, &quot;Relax&quot;.]] '''Frankie Goes To Hollywood''' (FGTH) was one of the biggest, most controversial and most marketed [[United Kingdom|UK]] pop acts of the [[1980s]]. The band was fronted by [[Liverpool|Liverpudlian]] singer [[Holly Johnson]], and was supported by [[Paul Rutherford]] along with [[Peter Gill]], [[Mark O'Toole]] and [[Paul McGurk]]. Its debut single &quot;[[Relax (single)|Relax]]&quot; was famously banned by the [[BBC]] and subsequently [[List of Number 1 singles from the 1980s (UK)#1984|topped the UK singles chart]]. Along with &quot;Two Tribes&quot; and &quot;The Power of Love&quot;, FGTH became only the second band in the history of the UK charts to reach number one with their first three singles (the first was [[Gerry and the Pacemakers]], in 1964). FGTH have recently begun touring again with new lead singer [[Ryan Molloy]]. ==Career== ===Formation=== Emerging from the late [[1970s]] [[Liverpool]] [[punk culture|punk]] movement (key member [[Paul Rutherford]] had previously been in bands including [[The Spitfire Boys]]), FGTH are said to have taken their name from a newspaper headline referring to either [[Frank Sinatra]] or, more likely, [[Frankie Vaughan]]. Both names were mentioned in early interviews, though the Sinatra explanation is the one that has stuck. (This could be seen as meaning that the famous ''&quot;Frankie Say...&quot;'' quotes are from Vaughan, or Sinatra, although they obviously are not from either). Lead singer [[Holly Johnson]], a fellow Liverpool punk veteran from the band [[Big In Japan]] (which also featured future [[Lightning Seeds]] frontman [[Ian Broudie]]), recruited Rutherford as co-singer. Local musicians [[Peter Gill]] ([[drums]]), [[Jed O'Toole]] ([[bass guitar|bass]]) and Jed's [[cousin]] [[Brian Nash]] ([[guitar]]) then joined. The band set out playing shows around the locality. O'Toole quit shortly afterwards but supplied the band with a replacement &amp;mdash; his younger brother [[Mark O'Toole]], whom Jed had taught how to play (Jed also taught Nash the guitar). FGTH were signed up to [[Trevor Horn]]'s new [[ZTT Records|ZTT]] record label after a raw video for the song &quot;Relax&quot; was shown on [[Channel_4|Channel 4]]'s music programme ''[[The_Tube_(TV_series)|The Tube]]''. With a brief from the band to make them sound like &quot;a cross between [[Donna Summer]] and [[KISS (band)|KISS]]&quot;, Horn set to work on their [[Debut album|debut]] single. ===&quot;Relax&quot;=== The final cut of &quot;Relax&quot; was released at the end of [[1983]] and got a modicum of airplay, allowing it steady progress into the UK Top 40. After an appearance on ''[[Top Of The Pops]]'', the song shot into the Top 10 &amp;mdash; and then would come the incident which would propel both song and band into pop notoriety forever. [[BBC Radio 1]] [[disc jockey]] [[Mike Read]] was playing the record on his show when he noticed the mild sexual imagery used as a design on the front cover, including one of the more salacious quotes from the lyrics. This prompted him to listen more intently to the words, and his reaction was such that he removed the disc from the turntable live on air, snapped it in two and branded it &quot;disgusting&quot;. On [[January 10]], [[1984]], two months after its release, and without Read's knowledge or input, the [[BBC]] decided to ban the record from all its TV and radio outlets. A surge to buy the single and find out what the controversy was about followed. Music [[journalist]] and ZTT associate [[Paul Morley]] immediately started a PR campaign which led to a massive demand for the band and song. &quot;Relax&quot; immediately shot to Number 1 in the charts and stayed there for five weeks, leading to the ludicrous and embarrassing situation for the BBC whereby they couldn't feature the nation's best-selling single on their flagship chart shows on TV and radio. [[Image:Frankie says relax t-shirt.jpg|right|thumb|200px|T-shirt slogan design similar to original &quot;Frankie Say Relax&quot; design by [[Katharine Hamnett]].]] Also getting in on the act was fashion designer [[Katharine Hamnett]], who designed a range of minimalist, sloganeering [[T-shirt]]s: &quot;Frankie Say Relax Don't Do It&quot;, &quot;Frankie Say War Hide Yourself&quot;, &quot;Frankie Say Arm The Unemployed&quot;. (T-shirts with &quot;Frankie Say'''s'''&quot; were knockoffs.) Prior to these, Hamnett had also designed the familiar &quot;Choose Life&quot; T-shirts worn by [[Wham! (pop duo)|Wham!]] on their video for &quot;Wake Me Up before You Go Go&quot;. The offending nature of &quot;Relax&quot; was difficult to decipher entirely, although outrage was expressed in some quarters. Allegedly the expression '''''...when you want to suck it to it...''''' which appeared on the sleeve and caused Read's outrage was, in fact, a deliberate inaccuracy placed on the sleeve to cause extra interest and intrigue. The real words were, in fact, '''''...when you want to SOCK it to it...'''''. As for the expression '''''...when you want to come...''''', the imagery is inescapable. The design, meanwhile, depicted a man and woman pressed against each other, back to back, with clothed upper bodies but bared [[buttocks]]. In a relatively liberalised mid-[[1980s]] period, this was saucy at best, not shocking. The [[video]], however, was unsurprisingly banned as it depicted an [[Sadism and masochism|S&amp;M]] den (filmed in a Liverpool [[nightclub]] called ''The Coconut Grove'', near Johnson's home at the time). Adding to the controversy surrounding the song, rumours began to circulate after its release that the single had actually been recorded by session musicians. Some time later, producer [[Trevor Horn]] admitted that in fact he had cut a 'demo' version of the track with [[The Blockheads]], the renowned backing group for [[New Wave music|New Wave]] icon [[Ian Dury]]. He then cut a second version with FGTH, but was unhappy with the result and took the tape away to work on it. The perfectionist Horn then spent five weeks refining it, augmenting the basic tracks with extensive overdubs by session musicians. &quot;Relax&quot; was a massive gamble for Horn and his record label, ZTT, and its failure could well have bankrupted him. By the time it was completed, it had cost £70,000 in studio time alone, with the video clip costing an additional £15,000. &quot;Relax&quot; was revolutionary on the European dance scene in that the single spawned an hitherto unprecedented number of various 12 inch versions which were aggressively marketed for the wider consumer market. Most notable is the &quot;Sex Mix&quot; otherwise known as the &quot;New York Mix&quot; which borrowed heavily from Evelyn Thomas' disco song &quot;Hi-Energy&quot;. Also notable is the &quot;Party Trick&quot; extended remix which clocks in at 17 minutes and features an introductory acapella version of &quot;Relax&quot;, plus additional lyrics by lead vocalist Holly Johnson not found on the 7 inch version of the song. ===&quot;Two Tribes&quot;=== &quot;Relax&quot; was followed into the charts by &quot;Two Tribes&quot;, a topical song about [[nuclear war]]. Featuring sirens, the unmistakable voice of [[Patrick Allen]] (who voiced the [[British Government]]'s actu
Babahoyo and Daule rivers. Briefly constricted at Guayaquil by hills, the Guayas widens south of the city and flows through a deltaic network of small islands and channels. At its mouth, the river forms a broad estuary with two channels around Puná Island, the deeper of which is used for navigation. The second major Costa river system--the Esmeraldas--rises in the Hoya de Quito in the Sierra as the Guayllabamba River and flows westward to empty into the Pacific Ocean near the city of Esmeraldas. The Esmeraldas River is 320 kilometers long and has a 20,000-square-kilometer drainage basin. Major rivers in the Oriente include the Pastaza, Napo, and Putumayo. The Pastaza is formed by the confluence of the Chambo and the Patate rivers, both of which rise in the Sierra. The Pastaza includes the Agoyan waterfall, which at sixty-one meters is the highest waterfall in Ecuador. The Napo rises near Mount Cotopaxi and is the major river used for transport in the Eastern lowlands. The Napo ranges in width from 500 to 1,800 meters. In its upper reaches, the Napo flows rapidly until the confluence with one of its major tributaries, the Coca River, where it slows and levels off. The Putumayo forms part of the border with Colombia. All of these rivers flow into the Amazon River. The Galápagos Islands have no significant rivers. Several of the larger islands, however, have freshwater springs. ==Climate== Each region has different factors that affect its climate. The Costa is influenced primarily by proximity to warm or cool ocean currents. By contrast, climate in the Sierra varies more as a function of altitude. The Oriente has a fairly uniform climate that varies only slightly between the two subregions. Climate in the Galápagos Islands is both moderated by the ocean currents and affected by altitude. Throughout Ecuador variation in rainfall primarily determines seasons. Temperature is determined by altitude. With each ascent of 200 meters in altitude, temperature drops 1° C. This phenomenon is particularly significant in the Sierra. The Costa has a tropical climate. Temperatures for the region as a whole remain fairly constant, ranging from 23° C in the south to 26° C in the north. Although seasonal changes in temperature are not pronounced, the hottest period occurs during the rainy season, especially from February to April. Near Guayaquil, the coolest months are August and September. Rainfall in the Costa decreases from north to south, with vegetation changing from tropical rainforest in the north to tropical savannah to desert in the south. Differences in temperature and rainfall in the Costa are caused by the Peruvian Current and periodic appearances of El Niño. The Peruvian Current, also formerly known as the Humboldt, is a cold ocean current that flows north along the coasts of Chile and Peru. At Cabo Blanco, where the Gulf of Guayaquil begins, the main current veers to the west; a branch continues northward to Cabo Pasado, in Manabí Province, where it also turns westward to merge with the main current near the Galápagos Islands. The cold water and air temperatures associated with the Peruvian Current inhibit rainfall along the coast, creating dry to arid conditions. This effect is greatest along the southern coast of Ecuador. The El Niño occurs periodically every six or seven years. Starting in late December, a change in atmospheric pressure shifts ocean currents so that warm waters come closer to shore and displace the cold waters. During this time, air and water temperatures, tides, sea levels and wave heights, and relative humidity all are higher than usual. These conditions produce heavy rainfall that generally lasts until May in an area that normally experiences nothing more than a drizzle. The resulting flooding and landslides can be devastating. When the Peruvian Current is dominant, the amount of precipitation along the coast varies from north to south, with levels ranging from 300 centimeters to 30 centimeters, respectively. Two rainy seasons in the northernmost part of the coast become a single season (December through June) not far south. Near Esmeraldas, average annual rainfall is 250 centimeters. The rainy season shortens farther south, lasting only from January to May at Guayaquil. Very little rainfall occurs on the end of the Santa Elena Peninsula west of Guayaquil. Arid conditions prevail on the border with Peru south of the Gulf of Guayaquil. Separated from the effects of ocean currents by the Cordillera Costañera, the Costa Internal has a hot and humid climate. Temperatures can surpass 26° C, and the vegetation and cloud cover tend to retain and augment the heat. Rain is constant during the winter months of December through May, with the heaviest rainfall occurring in February and March. Temperatures in the Sierra do not vary greatly on a seasonal basis; the hottest month averages 16° C and the coolest month, 13° C in the upper elevations. Diurnal temperatures, however, vary dramatically, from cold mornings to hot afternoons. The almost vertical sun and the rarified air in the higher Sierra region allow the land to warm quickly during the day and lose heat quickly at night. Mornings typically are bright and sunny, whereas afternoons often are cloudy and rainy. In general, rainfall amounts are highest on exposed locations at lower altitudes. Rain also can vary on a local basis. Sheltered valleys normally receive 50 centimeters per year, whereas annual rainfall is 150 centimeters in Quito and can reach 250 centimeters on exposed slopes that catch rain-bearing winds. On a seasonal basis, the driest months are June through September. Climate in the Sierra is divided into levels based on altitude. The tropical level--400 to 1,800 meters--has temperatures ranging from 20° C to 25° C and heavy precipitation. The subtropical level-- 1,800 to 2,500 meters--has temperatures from 15° C to 20° C and moderate precipitation. The temperate level--2,500 to 3,200 meters- -has a year-round temperature in the range of 10° C to 15° C and an annual rainfall of 100 centimeters. The temperate level experiences rainstorms, hailstorms, and fog. Winter, or the rainy season, lasts from January through June, and the dry season or summer from July through December. Most rain falls in April. There also is a short rainy period in early October caused by moisture penetrating the Sierra from the Oriente. Quito and most other populated areas in the Sierra are located at this temperate level. The cold level extends from the temperate zone to 4,650 meters. Here, average temperatures are 3° C to 9° C, and the precipitation often appears in the form of rain, hail, and thick fog. Above 4,650 meters is the frozen level, where peaks are constantly capped with snow and ice, and temperatures range from below zero to 3° C. Precipitation frequently is in the form of snow, fog, and rain. The Eastern lowlands in the Oriente experience an equatorial climate. Rainfall is abundant, especially in the Andean piedmont, sometimes exceeding 500 centimeters per year. Temperatures average 25° C in the western parts of this region. The jungle-covered plains of the Eastern lowlands register high levels of rainfall and temperatures surpassing 28° C. Being located on the equator, the Galápagos Islands would have an equatorial climate were it not for the modifying effects of the Peruvian Current. Instead, climate on the islands follows a pattern more like that of the Sierra than the Costa. At sea level, the land is desertlike with temperatures of 21° C. The eight summer months experience no precipitation, whereas the winter months of January through April have some fog and drizzle. Above sea level to an altitude of 450 meters, the islands have a mixture of tropical, subtropical, and temperate climates. In general, temperatures are around 17° C. There is constant fog and drizzle in the summer and rain in the winter. The cold level above 450 meters has temperatures below 14° C. ==Elevation extremes== * lowest point: Pacific Ocean 0 m * highest point: Chimborazo 6,300 m ==Natural resources== [[petroleum]], [[fish]], [[timber]], [[hydropower]] ==Land use== * arable land: 6% * permanent crops: 5% * permanent pastures: 18% * forests and woodland: 56% * other: 15% (1993 est.) ===Irrigated land=== 5,560 km&amp;sup2; (1994 est.) ==Natural hazards== frequent [[earthquake]]s, landslides, [[volcano|volcanic]] activity; periodic droughts ==Environment - current issues== deforestation; soil erosion; desertification; water [[pollution]]; pollution from oil production wastes ==Environment - international agreements== : '''party to:''' [[Antarctic Treaty]], [[Antarctic-Environmental Protocol]], [[Biodiversity]], [[United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change|Climate Change]], [[Desertification]], [[Endangered Species]], [[Hazardous Wastes]], [[Nuclear Test Ban]], [[Ozone Layer Protection]], [[Ship Pollution]], [[Tropical Timber 83]], [[Tropical Timber 94]], [[Wetlands]], [[Whaling]] : '''signed, but not ratified:''' Climate Change-[[Kyoto Protocol]] ==Geography - note== [[Cotopaxi]] in the [[Andes]] is the highest active volcano in the world ==Sources== *[http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/cshome.html Library of Congress, Country Studies] *''CIA World Fact Book'' {{South America in topic|Geography of}} [[Category:Geography of Ecuador| ]] [[es:Geografía del Ecuador]] [[fr:Géographie de l'Équateur]] [[pt:Geografia do Equador]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Demographics of Ecuador</title> <id>9337</id> <revision> <id>41286576</id> <timestamp>2006-02-26T07:55:12Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Jorge Stolfi</username> <id>48742</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>dab [[Creole peoples]] --&gt; [[Spanish Criollo peoples]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Ecuador|Ecuador's]] population is ethnically diverse. ''[[Mestizo|Mestizos]]'' (those of mixed Spa
not yet an anticipated implementation date to phase out the use of ICD-9-CM. There will be a two year implementation window once the final notice to implement has been published in the [[Federal Register]]. [http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/about/otheract/icd9/abticd10.htm]. A detailed timeline is provided [http://www.ncvhs.hhs.gov/031105a2.htm here]. Other countries have created their own extensions to ICD-10. For example, [[Australia]] introduced their first edition of [http://www3.fhs.usyd.edu.au/ncchwww/site/4.1.1.htm# &quot;ICD-10-AM&quot;] in 1998, and [[Canada]] introduced [http://secure.cihi.ca/cihiweb/dispPage.jsp?cw_page=codingclass_icd10_e &quot;ICD-10-CA&quot;] in 2000. ==See also== * [[Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders]] * [[diagnosis]] * [[diagnosis-related group]] * [[Medical classification]] ==External links== ===ICD9=== ====Overview==== * [http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/icd9.htm ICD-9-CM homepage] ====Look up codes==== * [http://www.icd9coding.com/ Free 24/7 ICD-9-CM coding site using the Flash Code program], also supports [[Diagnosis-related group|DRG]] * [http://neuro3.stanford.edu/CodeWorrier/FMPro?-db=CodeWorrier&amp;-lay=Detail&amp;-format=search.htm&amp;-view Stanford database] * [http://icd9cm.chrisendres.com/index.php Searchable Chrisendres database] * [http://www.dmi.columbia.edu/hripcsak/icd9/ Columbia] * [http://www.centralx.com/diseases/icdindex.htm CentralX] * [http://www.aafp.org/x20096.xml ICD-9 Coding Tools From Family Practice Management] ===ICD10=== ====Overview==== * [http://www.who.int/whosis/icd10/ ICD-10 homepage] * [http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/about/otheract/icd9/icd10cm.htm ICD-10-CM draft] * [http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/about/otheract/icd9/abticd10.htm ICD-10-CM] ====Look up codes==== * [http://www3.who.int/icd/vol1htm2003/fr-icd.htm?ge00.htm+ Lookup site] from [[World Health Organization]] * [http://www.schs.state.nc.us/SCHS/data/icd10/checkdisease.cfm Lookup site -- North Carolina] * [http://www.avon.nhs.uk/phnet/Methods/sure_start.htm List of codes] * [http://www.medicalize.com/wrapper/ ICD-10 Code Search] ===Conversion between ICD-9-CM-A and ICD-10-AM=== * [http://www.nzhis.govt.nz/documentation/mapping/mappingfiles.html Excel spreadsheets with ICD-10-AM to ICD-9-CM-A and vice versa] [[Category:Medical manuals]] [[Category:Mental illness diagnosis by DSM and ISCDRHP]] [[Category:Diagnosis classification]] [[Category:Medical informatics]] [[Category:Classification systems]] [[da:ICD]] [[de:International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems]] [[et:RHK-10]] [[fr:Classification internationale des maladies]] [[nl:International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems]] [[ja:疾病及び関連保健問題の国際統計分類]] [[no:International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems]] [[pl:ICD-10]] [[ru:Международная классификация болезней]] [[fi:International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems]] [[th:การจำแนกประเภทของโรคตามสถิติและปัญหาสาธารณสุขสัมพันธ์ระหว่างประเทศ]] [[vi:Phân loại bệnh tật quốc tế]] [[tr:Hastalıkların Uluslararası Sınıflaması]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>ICD-10</title> <id>15460</id> <revision> <id>15912934</id> <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>Conversion script</ip> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Automated conversion</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems]] </text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>ICD-9</title> <id>15461</id> <revision> <id>15912935</id> <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>Conversion script</ip> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Automated conversion</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems]] </text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Integral domain</title> <id>15462</id> <revision> <id>41338716</id> <timestamp>2006-02-26T18:18:18Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Ciphergoth</username> <id>9493</id> </contributor> <comment>page has been moved</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">In [[abstract algebra]], an '''integral domain''' is a [[commutative ring]] with an additive identity 0 and a multiplicative identity 1 such that 0 &amp;ne; 1, in which the product of any two non-zero elements is always non-zero; that is, there are no [[zero divisor]]s. Integral domains are generalizations of the [[integer]]s and provide a natural setting for studying divisibility. An integral domain is a commutative [[domain (ring theory)|domain]]. Alternatively and equivalently, integral domains may be defined as commutative rings in which the zero [[ideal (ring theory)|ideal]] {0} is [[prime ideal|prime]], or as the [[subring]]s of [[field (mathematics)|fields]]. Additionally, a commutative ring ''R'' is an integral domain if and only if for every element ''r'' of the ring, the ''R''-module map induced by multiplication by ''r'' is [[injective]]. Viewing the underlying commutative ring as a [[preadditive category]], the above criterion on zero divisors is equivalent to the condition that every nonzero [[morphism]] is a [[monomorphism]] (hence also an [[epimorphism]], by making use of the bilinear structure on the set of morphisms). The condition 0 &amp;ne; 1 only serves to exclude the [[trivial ring]] {0} with a single element. == Examples == The prototypical example is the ring '''Z''' of all integers. Every [[field (mathematics) | field]] is an integral domain. Conversely, every [[artinian ring|Artinian]] integral domain is a field. In particular, the only finite integral domains are the [[finite field]]s. Rings of [[polynomial]]s are integral domains if the coefficients come from an integral domain. For instance, the ring '''Z'''[X] of all polynomials in one variable with integer coefficients is an integral domain; so is the ring '''R'''[X,Y] of all polynomials in two variables with [[real number|real]] coefficients. The set of all [[real number]]s of the form ''a'' + ''b''&amp;radic;2 with ''a'' and ''b'' [[integer]]s is a subring of '''R''' and hence an integral domain. A similar example is given by the [[complex number]]s of the form ''a'' + ''bi'' with ''a'' and ''b'' integers (the ''[[Gaussian integer]]s''). The [[p-adic number|p-adic integers]]. If ''U'' is a [[connectedness|connected]] [[open subset]] of the [[complex number|complex number plane]] '''C''', then the ring H(''U'') consisting of all [[holomorphic function|holomorphic functions]] ''f'' : ''U'' &lt;tt&gt;-&gt;&lt;/tt&gt; '''C''' is an integral domain. The same is true for rings of analytical functions on connected open subsets of analytical [[manifold|manifolds]]. If ''R'' is a commutative ring and ''P'' is an [[ideal (ring theory)|ideal]] in ''R'', then the [[factor ring]] ''R/P'' is an integral domain if and only if ''P'' is a [[prime ideal]]. == Divisibility, prime and irreducible elements == If ''a'' and ''b'' are elements of the integral domain ''R'', we say that ''a divides b'' or ''a is a [[divisor]] of b'' or ''b is a multiple of a'' if and only if there exists an element ''x'' in ''R'' such that ''ax'' = ''b''. If ''a'' divides ''b'' and ''b'' divides ''c'', then ''a'' divides ''c''. If ''a'' divides ''b'', then ''a'' divides every multiple of ''b''. If ''a'' divides two elements, then ''a'' also divides their sum and difference. The elements which divide 1 are called the ''units'' of ''R''; these are precisely the invertible elements in ''R''. Units divide all other elements. If ''a'' divides ''b'' and ''b'' divides ''a'', then we say ''a'' and ''b'' are ''associated elements''. ''a'' and ''b'' are associated if and only if there exists a unit ''u'' such that ''au'' = ''b''. If ''q'' is a non-unit, we say that ''q'' is an ''irreducible element'' if ''q'' cannot be written as a product of two non-units. If ''p'' is a non-zero non-unit, we say that ''p'' is a ''prime element'' if, whenever ''p'' divides a product ''ab'', then ''p'' divides ''a'' or ''b''. This generalizes the ordinary definition of [[prime number]] in the ring '''Z''', except that it allows for negative prime elements. If ''p'' is a prime element, then the principal ideal (''p'') generated by ''p'' is a [[prime ideal]]. Every prime element is irreducible (here, for the first time, we need ''R'' to be an integral domain), but the converse is not true in all integral domains (it is true in [[unique factorization domain]]s, however). == Field of fractions == If ''R'' is a given integral domain, the smallest field Quot(''R'') containing ''R'' as a subring is uniquely determined up to isomorphism and is called the ''[[field of fractions]]'' or ''quotient field'' of ''R''. It consists of all fractions ''a/b'' with ''a'' and ''b'' in ''R'' and ''b'' &amp;ne; 0, modulo an appropriate equivalence relation. The field of fractions of the integers is the field of [[rational number]]s. The field of fractions of a field is [[isomorphism|isomorphic]] to the field itself. == Algebraic geometry == In [[algebraic geometry]], integral domains correspond to [[irreducible (mathematics)|irreducible]] [[algebraic variety|varieties]]. They have a unique [[generic point]], given by the zero ideal. Integral domains are also characterized by the condition that they are [[reduced (ring theory)|reduced]] and irreducible. The former condition ensures that the nilradical of the ring is zero, so that the intersection of all the ring's minimal primes is zero. The latter condition is that the ring have only one minimal prime. It follows that the unique minimal ideal of a reduced and irreducible ring is the zero ideal, hence such rings are integral domains. The
d the ball lost to the other team; however, it is almost inconceivable that the ball be lost before any player of the snapper's team has a chance to play it! ==See also:== *[[American football/Glossary]] [[Category:American football terminology]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Firewire</title> <id>11346</id> <revision> <id>15909097</id> <timestamp>2004-03-29T23:52:45Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Timwi</username> <id>13051</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>fix double-redirect</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[FireWire]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>FIFO</title> <id>11347</id> <revision> <id>40698217</id> <timestamp>2006-02-22T11:10:20Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>151.49.16.182</ip> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">'''FIFO''' is an [[acronym]] for '''First In, First Out'''. This expression describes the principle of a [[queue]] or [[first-come, first-served]] behavior: what comes in first is handled first, what comes in next waits until the first is finished, etc. Thus it is analogous to the behaviour of persons &quot;standing in a line&quot; (preferred in [[American English]]) or &quot;queueing&quot; (preferred in [[Commonwealth English]]), where the persons leave the queue in the order they arrive. A [[priority queue]] is a variation on the queue which does not qualify for the name FIFO, because it is not accurately descriptive of that [[data structure]]'s behavior. [[Queuing theory]] encompasses the more general concept of queue, as well as interactions between strict-FIFO queues. The expression '''FIFO''' can be used in different contexts. ==People== *For queues of people, ''see'' [[queue area]]. ==Computer science== ===Data structure=== In [[computer science]] this term refers to the way data stored in a queue is processed. Each item in the queue is stored in a queue (''simpliciter'') data structure. The first data to be added to the queue will be the first data to be removed, then processing proceeds sequentially in the same order. This is typical behavior for a queue, but see also the [[LIFO]] and [[Stack (computing)|stack]] algorithms. A typical data structure will look like struct fifo_node { fifo_node *next; value_type value; }; class fifo { fifo_node *front; fifo_node *back; fifo_node *dequeue(void) { fifo_node *tmp = front; front = front-&gt;next; return tmp; } queue(value) { fifo_node *tempNode = new fifo_node; tempNode-&gt;value = value; back-&gt;next = tempNode; back = tempNode; } } (For information on the abstract data structure, and an implementation in [[scheme]], see [[Queue]]. For details of a common implementation, see [[Circular buffer]].) Popular UNIX systems include a sys/queue.h C/C++ header file which provides macros usable by applications necessary to create FIFO queues. ===Pipes=== In computing environments that support the [[pipes and filters]] model for [[interprocess communication]], a '''FIFO''' is another name for a [[named pipe]]. ==Electronics== FIFOs are used commonly in [[electronics|electronic]] circuits for buffering and flow control. In hardware form a FIFO primarily consists of a set of read and write pointers, storage and control logic. Storage may be SRAM, flip-flops, latches or any other suitable form of storage. For FIFOs of non-trivial size a dual-port SRAM is usually used where one port is used for writing and the other is used for reading. A synchronous FIFO is a FIFO where the same clock is used for both reading and writing. An asynchronous FIFO uses different clocks for reading and writing. Asynchronous FIFOs introduce [[metastability]] issues. A common implementation of an asychronous FIFO uses a [[Gray code]] (or any unit distance code) for the read and write pointers to ensure reliable flag generation. One further note concerning flag generation is that one must necessarily use pointer arithmetic to generate flags for asynchronous FIFO implementations. Conversely, one may use either a &quot;leaky bucket&quot; approach or pointer arithmetic to generate flags in synchronous FIFO implementations. Examples of FIFO status flags include: full, empty, almost full, or almost empty. ==Accounting== In [[accounting]], '''FIFO''' is a common method for recording the value of [[inventory]]. It is appropriate where there are many different batches of similar products. The method presumes that the next item to be shipped will be the oldest of that type in the warehouse. In practice, this usually reflects the underlying commercial substance of the transaction, since many companies rotate their inventory. See also [[LIFO]] in this context. In an economy of rising prices, it is common for beginning companies to use FIFO for reporting the value of merchandise to bolster their balance sheet. As the older and cheaper goods are sold, the newer and more expensive goods remain as assets on the company's books. Having the more higher valued assets and the lower purchase costs of the sold goods part of the company's books, increases the chances of getting a loan from potential creditors for the company. However, as the company grows it may switch to LIFO to reduce the amount of taxes it pays to the government. ==See also== *[[LIFO]] (Last in, first out) [[Category:Scheduling algorithms]] [[Category:Accounting]] [[de:First In – First Out]] [[es:FIFO]] [[fr:First in, first out]] [[he:נכנס ראשון יוצא ראשון]] [[it:FIFO]] [[lt:FIFO]] [[nl:Fifo]] [[ja:FIFO]] [[pt:FIFO]] [[sv:FIFO]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Farnhams Freehold</title> <id>11348</id> <revision> <id>15909099</id> <timestamp>2002-07-02T21:30:36Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Ellmist</username> <id>2214</id> </contributor> <comment>move to Farmham's Freehold</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Farnham's Freehold]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Firewalls</title> <id>11349</id> <revision> <id>15909100</id> <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>Conversion script</ip> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Automated conversion</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Firewall]] </text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Firewall (construction)</title> <id>11350</id> <revision> <id>38472071</id> <timestamp>2006-02-06T15:41:41Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Pmberry</username> <id>161207</id> </contributor> <minor /> <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about firewalls used in [[construction]]. For the [[computer network|networking]] term, see [[firewall (networking)]].'' In construction, a '''firewall''' consists of a [[window]]less, fireproof [[wall]] (or a wall of substantially heavier construction than other walls in a building) built to prevent [[fire]] from spreading beyond one section of a building. Such firewalls form the built-up equivalent of [[firebreak]]s in a [[landscape]]. A firewall may contain [[fire door]]s and windows made of fire-rated wired [[glass]]. Their function in containing the undesirable resembles the use of [[bulkhead (partition) | bulkhead]]s in [[shipbuilding]] and [[aircraft]] construction. Firewalls are also regularly found in [[aircraft]] and in specially prepared [[automobile|cars]] for competition use. For example, a typical conversion of a production car for [[rallying]] will include a metal firewall which seals the [[fuel]] tank off from the interior of the vehicle. In the event of an accident resulting in fuel spillage, the firewall can prevent burning fuel from entering the passenger compartment, where it could cause serious injury or death. Firewalls have to be fitted so that they form a complete seal &amp;mdash; usually this is done by bonding the metal sheet to the bodywork using [[fiberglass]] [[resin]]. [[Image:Dash Firewall.jpg|right|200px]] The term '''firewall''' is also commonly used by automotive [[mechanic]]s to refer to the barrier between the [[passenger]] and [[engine]] compartments of any vehicle. [[Category:Architectural elements]] [[Category:Firefighting]] [[de:Brandwand]] [[he:&amp;#1495;&amp;#1493;&amp;#1502;&amp;#1514; &amp;#1488;&amp;#1513;]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Feudal system</title> <id>11351</id> <revision> <id>15909102</id> <timestamp>2004-03-15T18:14:56Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Anthony DiPierro</username> <id>34793</id> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Feudalism]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Fenrir (disambiguation)</title> <id>11352</id> <revision> <id>40197823</id> <timestamp>2006-02-18T22:18:07Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>216.174.137.202</ip> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Fenrir''' may refer to: #[[Fenrisulfr]] or '''Fenrir''', a Norse mythological wolf. #[[Minor Dark wizards in Harry Potter#Fenrir Greyback|'''Fenrir''' Greyback]], a lycanthropic Death Eater in the Harry Potter series of books. #[[Maugrim|'''Fenri'''s Ulf]], the captain of the Witch's Secret Police in the Narnia series of books. #'''[[Fenrir (band)|Fenrir]]''', a heavy metal band in Argentina. #'''[[Fenrir (Final Fantasy)|Fenrir]]''', a summoned wolf avatar in the [[Final Fantasy XI]] [[video game]], based on [[Fenrisulfr]]. #'''Fenrir''' is the true form of the [[Lord of Terror]] in the [[anime]]/[[manga]] [[Oh My Goddess!]] #'''[[Fernir]]''', is the name of the bike driven by [[Cloud Strife]] in the movie [[Final Fantasy VII: Advent Children]] {{disambig}}</text> </revision>
ocial position, was imprisoned for debt. At the age of twelve, Dickens was deemed old enough to work and began working for ten hours a day in Warren's boot-blacking factory, located near the present [[Charing Cross railway station]]. He spent his time pasting labels on the jars of thick [[Shoe polish|polish]] and earned six [[shilling]]s a week. With this money, he had to pay for his lodging and help to support his family, which was incarcerated in the nearby [[Marshalsea]] [[Debtor's prison|debtors' prison]]. After a few years, his family's financial situation improved, partly due to money inherited from his father's family. His family was able to leave the Marshalsea, but his mother did not immediately remove him from the boot-blacking factory, which was owned by a relation of hers. Dickens never forgave his mother for this and resentment of his situation and the conditions under which working-class people lived became major themes of his works. Dickens told his biographer [[John Forster]], &quot;No advice, no counsel, no encouragement, no consolation, no support from anyone that I can call to mind, so help me God!&quot; In May 1827, Dickens began work as a [[law clerk]], a junior office position with potential to become a lawyer. He did not like the law as a profession and after a short time as a court [[stenographer]] he became a journalist, reporting parliamentary debate and travelling [[United Kingdom|Britain]] by stagecoach to cover election campaigns. His journalism formed his first collection of pieces ''[[Sketches by Boz]]'' and he continued to contribute to and edit journals for much of his life. In his early twenties he made a name for himself with his first novel, ''[[The Pickwick Papers]]''. On [[2 April]] [[1836]], he married Catherine Hogarth, with whom he was to have ten children, and set up home in [[Charles Dickens Museum, London|Bloomsbury]]. :His ten children by Catherine Thompson Hogarth were: *[[Charles Culliford Boz Dickens]] ([[6 January]] [[1837]]&amp;ndash;1896). *Mary Angela Dickens ([[6 March]] [[1838]]&amp;ndash;1896). *Kate Macready Dickens ([[29 October]] [[1839]]&amp;ndash;1929). *Walter Landor Dickens ([[8 February]] [[1841]]&amp;ndash;1861). *Francis Jeffrey Dickens ([[15 January]] [[1844]]&amp;ndash;1886). *Alfred D'Orsay Tennyson Dickens ([[28 October]][[1845]]&amp;ndash;1912). *Sydney Smith Haldimand Dickens ([[18 April]][[1847]]&amp;ndash;1872). *Henry Fielding Dickens ([[15 January]] [[1849]]&amp;ndash;1933). *Dora Annie Dickens ([[16 August]] [[1850]]&amp;ndash;April 1851). *Edward Bulwer Lytton Dickens ([[13 March]][[1852]]&amp;ndash; 1902). In the same year, he accepted the job of editor of ''[[Bentley's Miscellany]]'', a position he would hold until 1839 when he fell out with the owner. Two other journals in which Dickens would be a major contributor were ''[[Household Words]]'' and ''[[All the Year Round]]''. In 1842, he travelled together with his wife to the [[United States]]; the trip is described in the short [[travelogue]] ''[[American Notes]]'' and is also the basis of some of the episodes in ''[[Martin Chuzzlewit]]''. Dickens' writings were extremely popular in their day and were read extensively. In 1856, his popularity allowed him to buy Gad's Hill Place. This large house in [[Higham, Kent]] was very special to the author as he had walked past it as a child and had dreamed of living in it. The area was also the scene of some of the events of [[William Shakespeare|Shakespeare's]] ''[[Henry IV, part 1]]'' and this literary connection pleased Dickens. Dickens separated from his wife in 1858. In Victorian times, divorce was almost unthinkable, particularly for someone as famous as he was. He continued to maintain her in a house for the next twenty years until she died. Although they were initially happy together, Catherine did not seem to share quite the same boundless energy for life which Dickens had. Her job of looking after their ten children and the pressure of living with and keeping house for a world-famous novelist certainly did not help. Catherine's sister Georgina moved in to help her, but there were rumours that Charles was romantically linked to his sister-in-law. An indication of his marital dissatisfaction was when, in 1855, he went to meet his first love, Maria Beadnell. Maria was by this time married as well, but she seemed to have fallen short of Dickens' romantic memory of her. On the [[9th June]] [[1865]], while returning from France to see [[Ellen Ternan]], Dickens was involved in the [[Staplehurst rail crash]] in which the first six carriages of the train plunged off of a bridge that was being repaired. The only first-class carriage to remain on the track was the one in which Dickens was berthed. Dickens spent some time tending the wounded and the dying before rescuers arrived. Before finally leaving, he remembered the unfinished manuscript for ''[[Our Mutual Friend]]'', and he returned to his carriage to retrieve it. Dickens managed to avoid an appearance at the inquiry into the crash, as it would have become known that he was travelling that day with Ellen Ternan and her mother, which could have caused a scandal. Ellen, an actress, had been Dickens' companion since the break-up of his marriage, and, as he had met her in 1857, she was most likely the ultimate reason for that break-up. She continued to be his companion, and likely mistress, until his death. Although unharmed, he never really recovered from the crash, which is most evident in the fact that his normally prolific writing shrank to completing ''[[Our Mutual Friend]]'' and starting the unfinished ''[[The Mystery of Edwin Drood]]''. Much of his time was taken up with public readings from his best-loved novels. Dickens was fascinated by the theatre as an escape from the world, and theatres and theatrical people appear in ''[[Nicholas Nickleby]]''. The travelling shows were extremely popular, and on [[December 2]] [[1867]], Dickens gave his first public reading in the [[United States]] at a [[New York City]] theatre. The effort and passion he put into these readings with individual character voices is also thought to have contributed to his death. Five years to the day after the Staplehurst crash, on [[9 June]] [[1870]], he died after suffering a stroke. Contrary to his wish to be buried in Rochester Cathedral, he was buried in the [[Poets' Corner|Poets&amp;rsquo; Corner]] of [[Westminster Abbey]]. The inscription on his tomb reads: &quot;He was a sympathiser to the poor, the suffering, and the oppressed; and by his death, one of England's greatest writers is lost to the world.&quot; ==Literary style == [[image:Charles_Dickens.jpg|left|250px|framed|Charles Dickens used his rich imagination, sense of humour and detailed memories, particularly of his childhood, to enliven his fiction.]] Dickens' writing style is florid and poetic, with a strong comic touch. His satires of British aristocratic snobbery &amp;mdash; he calls one character the &quot;Noble Refrigerator&quot; &amp;mdash; are wickedly funny. Comparing orphans to stocks and shares, people to tug boats, or dinner party guests to furniture are just some of Dickens' flights of fancy which can sum up situations better than any simple description. The characters are among the most memorable in English literature &amp;mdash; certainly their names are. The likes of [[Ebenezer Scrooge]], [[Fagin]], Mrs Gamp, [[Wilkins Micawber|Micawber]], Pecksniff, [[Miss Havisham]], Wackford Squeers and many others are so well known and can be believed to be living a life outside the novels that their stories have been continued by other authors. Dickens loved the style of 18th Century [[gothic romance]], though it had already become a bit of a joke &amp;mdash; [[Jane Austen]]'s ''[[Northanger Abbey]]'' being a well known parody &amp;mdash; and while some are grotesques, their eccentricities do not usually overshadow the stories. One 'character' most vividly drawn throughout his novels is [[London]] itself. From the coaching inns on the outskirts of the city to the lower reaches of the [[Thames]], all aspects of the capital are described by someone who truly loved London and spent many hours walking its streets. Most of Dickens' major novels were first written in monthly or weekly instalments in journals such as ''[[Master Humphrey's Clock]]'' and ''[[Household Words]]'', later reprinted in book form. These instalments made the stories cheap, accessible and the series of regular cliff-hangers made each new episode widely anticipated. American fans even waited at the docks in New York, shouting out to the crew of an incoming ship, &quot;Is Little Nell dead?&quot; Part of Dickens' great talent was to incorporate this episodic writing style but still end up with a coherent novel at the end. The monthly numbers were illustrated by, amongst others, &quot;[[Phiz]]&quot; (a pseudonym for [[Hablot Browne]]). Among his best-known works are ''[[Great Expectations]]'', ''[[David Copperfield (novel)|David Copperfield]]'', ''[[The Pickwick Papers]]'', ''[[Oliver Twist]]'', ''[[Nicholas Nickleby]]'', ''[[A Tale of Two Cities]]'', and ''[[A Christmas Carol]]''. Dickens' novels were, among other things, works of social commentary. He was a fierce critic of the poverty and social stratification of Victorian society. Throughout his works, Dickens retained an empathy for the common man and a scepticism for the fine folk. Dickens's fiction is often viewed as overly sentimental, as with the extended death scenes of Little Nell in ''[[The Old Curiosity Shop]]'' (1841) and young Paul Dombey in ''Dombey and Son'' (1848). However, that criticism is a sweeping generalization. In his second novel, ''[[Oliver Twist]]'' (1839), Dickens does provide readers with an idealized portrait of a young boy so inherently &quot;good&quot; that his values are never subverted by either brutal orphanages or coerced involvement in a gang of young pickpockets. But that nove
ic Eastern teachings, or '''Eastern esotericism,''' are also referred to as [[Eastern philosophies]], although if they are taught, practiced, or reformulated by Westerners, they are often considered [[New Age]], a term Bailey coined. ==== &quot;Esotericism&quot; as ''secretive'' or &quot;occult&quot; ==== On the other hand, there are many examples of the highly '''''secretive'' category of esoteric teachings''', which are usually referred to as [[occult]] (from the Latin for ''hidden''). The category of &quot;the occult&quot; is broad and encompasses many exoteric teachings as well, such as [[alchemy]], particularly if those teachings may have also had an esoteric aspect. Further, efforts by certain religions to identify and warn against [[heretical]] teachings has added a highly pejorative connotation to &quot;occult,&quot; and by extension, &quot;esoteric.&quot; This is so prevalent that many non-religious sources now consider &quot;occult&quot; and &quot;esoteric&quot; to mean exactly the same thing, and it has also led to religions like [[Voodoo]], [[Sufiism]], and [[Wicca]] to be grouped together with [[Satanism]], [[cult]]s, and [[Dungeons and Dragons]], regardless of how &quot;hidden&quot; or &quot;inner&quot; the concerns of any of these may be, or even if they are religions at all (but merely games that make no attempt to be ''secretive''). Historically, &quot;occult&quot; (i.e. secretive and hidden) forms of esotericism (&quot;inner&quot; teachings) included [[magic (paranormal)|magic]], [[freemasonry]], and certain [[monastic]] and [[ascetic]] traditions. In Eastern societies, however, such as [[Tibet]], esoteric knowledge was more generally known and was not suppressed by those in power. As well, today in modern Western societies, due to the [[separation of church and state]], the suppression of &quot;inner&quot; teachings has generally subsided, to the extent that formerly secret groups such as the [[Theosophical Society]] and the [[Rosicrucian Fellowship]] may teach freely to anyone, often without cost. ==== &quot;Esotericism&quot; in current usage ==== In Western, English-speaking societies today, the term '''&quot;esotericism&quot; is commonly used in the sense of &quot;the occult,&quot;''' though it carries fewer pejorative connotations. The descriptive term &quot;esoteric,&quot; in slight contrast, has come to mean any '''knowledge that is difficult to understand or remember''', such as [[theoretical physics]], or that pertains to the minutiae of a particular discipline, such as &quot;esoteric&quot; [[baseball]] statistics. The term &quot;esoteric&quot; does not necessarily refer to &quot;esotericism&quot; ''per se'' in the sense of &quot;inner&quot; knowledge, disciplines, or practices, and for this reason &quot;esotericists&quot; generally choose to refer to themselves by a more specific term related to their discipline (such as [[Gnostic]], [[Kabbalist]], [[Sufi]], [[Mystic]], etc.). Some present-day teachings choose to term themselves as forms of &quot;esotericism&quot; due to their focus on the &quot;inner&quot; aspects of experience (such as [[self-transformation]]) or the &quot;inner&quot; meanings of religious texts (such as [[Esoteric Christianity]] and &quot;the Work&quot; of [[G.I. Gurdjieff]]). A variety of past traditions could be classified as forms of &quot;esotericism&quot; due to their similar &quot;inner&quot; focus as well as their &quot;selective&quot; and &quot;secretive&quot; nature, for example [[Martinism]], which was (arguably) one of the most influential &quot;occult&quot; movements since [[the Enlightenment]]. ==Esoteric vs. Esotericism== The word '''''esoteric''''' generally relates to that which is known and accepted by a restricted number of people (contrast [[exoteric]]). The word '''''esotericism''''' (or ''esoterism'') used in a general sense can simply mean any knowledge which is secret or confidential. Used in its more specific sense it refers to the knowledge of those who claim to have had supernatural experiences. While these experiences typically are not validated by scientific experiments, scientific proof is not always necessary for belief. Esoteric experiences tend to be highly subjective and so are difficult to study with the scientific method. There exists some skepticism about these experiences due to this lack of empirical evidence and sufficient proof; however, among supporters of esotericism, most believe that measurement of this phenomena simply exceeds current scientific capabilities. Esotericism is one of the subjects studied under the discipline [[parapsychology]]. ==Nuances== ''Esotericism'' largely overlaps with ''[[occultism]]'' which simply means &quot;hidden knowledge.&quot; However, in the 20th century many esotericists avoid the latter term owing to negative connotations associated with it (for example, the presumption that it involves devil-worship or black magic). For the same reason, many (predominantly Christian) opponents of esotericism prefer the term &quot;occultism.&quot; Much overlap exists as well between esotericism and [[mysticism]]. However, many mystical traditions do not attempt to introduce additional spiritual knowledge, but rather seek to focus the believer's attention or prayers more strongly upon the object of devotion. Thus [[Trappist]] monk [[Thomas Merton]] may be a mystic, but is probably not an esotericist. The [[New Age]] movement has many links with various esoteric traditions. However, many esotericists disavow the &quot;New Age&quot; label. Often they reject elements of the New Age movement as commercialism and/or naivite with which they do not wish to be associated. Another difficulty is that of describing as &quot;new&quot; esoteric traditions that may be hundreds or even thousands of years old. On the other hand, &quot;traditions&quot; that are actually rather new are often clothed in a fictional history and passed off as ancient in commercialized esotericism; it takes some discernment to see through such marketing techniques. &quot;[[Theosophy]]&quot; means &quot;divine wisdom&quot; and once&amp;mdash;in the writings of [[Jacob Boehme]], for example&amp;mdash;meant something similar to &quot;esotericism.&quot; Today, however, it has come to refer to the [[Theosophical Society]] founded by [[H.P. Blavatsky]], and to other movements in this tradition. Finally, culturally speaking, many followers of [[Satanism]] do probably belong under the general category of esotericism. However, these are shunned by practically everyone else, and for that matter their relationships with one another have been strained as well. Esotericism has far deeper ties--both historically and in the present day--with Christianity, though conservative Christian groups may be uncomfortable with the forms that this Christianity has taken. ==Scope== Many religious movements in various parts of the world claim to possess a higher, truer, or better interpretation of the wider religion of which they are a part. Whether they are correct is inevitably a matter of controversy. Not infrequently, the claims of one esoteric group may be rejected by the wider religious culture, or by other esoteric groups which make their own rival claims. While esotericism tends to focus on personal enlightenment and internal spiritual practice, organized religion or [[exotericism]] tends to focus on outer spiritual practice and ritual and on laws that govern the society. Nevertheless, esotericism also involves traditions, institutions, and other public aspects. Esotericism is often said to assume the existence of a spiritual elite, as distinct from the believing masses. While many elements within esotericism are rooted in folk traditions--examples would include the Western study of magic and [[witchcraft]]--these have arguably become transformed into elite traditions by virtue of their appropriation by later antiquarians. &quot;Esotericism&quot; often suggests an additional element of secrecy, for example the requirement that one be initiated before learning the higher truth (as in the case of the [[Freemasons]]). Note however that most &quot;esoteric&quot; teachings are widely available, and indeed often actively promoted. Some of this may be because it is now generally safer to promote alternative religious viewpoints than before. Another possibility is that such knowledge may be kept secret not by the intention of its protectors, but by its very nature&amp;mdash;for example, if it is accessible only to those with the proper intellectual or spiritual background. An example would be [[alchemy]], success in which is said to involve copious amounts of study, practice, and spiritual preparation. In some religious contexts, especially within Western Christianity, &quot;esoteric&quot; knowledge is seen as somewhat dangerous to the mainstream of that religion, involving the possibility of heresy. In other religious cultures such as [[Judaism]], the leaders of the mainstream religion have historically also been recognized as the elite interpreters of its esoteric dimension, in this case [[Kabbalah]]. The English word &quot;esotericism&quot; is usually applied to Western spiritual traditions. However, it has occasionally been used for non-Western religions, or more often, interpreted in such a way as to include such phenomena as [[yoga]] or [[tantra]]. The criteria for inclusion under the label of &quot;esoteric&quot; are not always made explicit, and the result is often a matter of taste or historical usage. For example [[Emanuel Swedenborg]], but not [[Mary Baker Eddy]], is usually considered an esoteric figure, even though both developed their own inspired interpretations of the Bible. ==Historical sketch== Esotericism is not a single tradition but a vast array of often unrelated figures and movements. Nevertheless, the following may be helpful. The Roman Empire gave birth not only to Christianity but also to a group of [[mystery religions]]
t;!--This is not a list of your pet website or article, or favorite AI software &amp; books. please add those to the appropriate links in the see also section. Keep this list short and use only famous and clear examples--&gt; [[Category:Artificial intelligence]] [[Category:Computer science]] [[ar:ذكاء اصطناعي]] [[bg:Изкуствен интелект]] [[bs:Vještačka inteligencija]] [[ca:Intel·ligència artificial]] [[cs:Umělá inteligence]] [[da:Kunstig intelligens]] [[de:Künstliche Intelligenz]] [[et:Tehisintellekt]] [[es:Inteligencia artificial]] [[eo:Artefarita inteligenteco]] [[eu:Adimen artifiziala]] [[fa:هوش مصنوعی]] [[fr:Intelligence artificielle]] [[gl:Intelixencia artificial]] [[ko:인공 지능]] [[hi:आर्टिफिशियल इंटेलिजेंस]] [[hr:Umjetna inteligencija]] [[io:Artifical inteligenteso]] [[id:Kecerdasan Buatan]] [[is:Gervigreind]] [[it:Intelligenza artificiale]] [[he:בינה מלאכותית]] [[lt:Dirbtinis intelektas]] [[hu:Mesterséges intelligencia]] [[nl:Kunstmatige intelligentie]] [[ja:人工知能]] [[no:Kunstig intelligens]] [[pl:Sztuczna inteligencja]] [[pt:Inteligência artificial]] [[ro:Inteligenţă artificială]] [[ru:Искусственный интеллект]] [[simple:Artificial intelligence]] [[sk:Umelá inteligencia]] [[sl:Umetna inteligenca]] [[fi:Tekoäly]] [[sv:Artificiell intelligens]] [[th:ปัญญาประดิษฐ์]] [[vi:Trí tuệ nhân tạo]] [[tr:Yapay zeka]] [[uk:Штучний інтелект]] [[zh:人工智能]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Afro Celt Sound System</title> <id>1166</id> <revision> <id>41181483</id> <timestamp>2006-02-25T16:26:09Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>24.200.133.131</ip> </contributor> <comment>fr</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Afro Celt Sound System''' is a [[band (music)|musical group]] which fuses modern [[dance music|dance]] rhythms ([[trip-hop]], [[techno music|techno]], etc.) with [[Celtic music|Celtic]] and [[Africa]]n influences. It was formed by [[Grammy]]-nominated producer-guitarist [[Simon Emmerson]], and is considered to be somewhat of a [[world music]] [[supergroup (bands)|supergroup]], often having a wide range of guest artists on their albums. Their albums have been released through [[Peter Gabriel]]'s [[Real World Records]], and they are also reportedly the best-selling band on the label, only exceeded in sales by Gabriel himself, and their striking live performances have often become the highlights of the [[WOMAD]] concert festivals. They signed a contract with Real World obliged to release five albums, of which the 2005 release ''Anatomic'' is the last; at this writing it is unclear what path the band will take in the future. In 2003 they changed their name to the simpler '''Afro Celts'''; however, two of their latest albums, ''Pod'', a compilation of new mixes of songs from the first four albums, and their fifth studio album ''Anatomic'' uses the long and familiar form. This decision is apparently affected by the fact that they seem much more well-known as ''Afro Celt Sound System'' around the world. ==Band members== When Afro Celts began their musical journey in the mid-1990s during the [[Real World Records|Real World]] Recording Week the difference between a guest artist and a band member was virtually non-existent, though as time has passed a following combination of people is most often associated with the name Afro Celt Sound System: ''(Please note that the new release Anatomic only lists Simon, James, Iarla and Martin as regulars)'' # [[Simon Emmerson]] (guitar, producing) # [[N'Faly Kouyate]] ([[kora (instrument)|kora]], [[balaphon]], [[n'goma]], vocals) # [[Moussa Sissokho]] ([[djembe]], [[talking drum]]) # [[James McNally (musician)|James McNally]] (ex-[[Pogues]]; [[Bodhrán]], [[accordion]], [[Tin whistle|whistle]]) # [[Johnny Kalsi]] (the [[Dhol drum]]) # [[Iarla Ó Lionáird]] (vocals) # [[Emer Maycock]] ([[tin whistle]], [[flute]], [[uillean pipes]]) # [[Martin Russell]] (keyboards, producing, engineering, programming) ==Discography== # ''[[Sound Magic (album)|Volume 1: Sound Magic]]'' (1996) # ''[[Release (album2)|Volume 2: Release]]'' (1999) # ''[[Further In Time (album)|Volume 3: Further in Time]]'' (2001) # ''[[Seed (album)|Seed]]'' (2003) # ''[[Pod (album2)|Pod]]'' (2004) # ''[[Anatomic (album)|Volume 5: Anatomic]]'' (2005) ==Related links== [http://www.realworldrecords.com/afrocelts/ Afro Celts on Real World Records] [http://www.afrocelts.org/ An Afro Celts Fan Website] [[Category:World music groups]] [[ast:Afro Celts]] [[fi:Afro Celt Sound System]] [[fr:Afro Celt Sound System]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Ancient philosophy</title> <id>1167</id> <revision> <id>37485671</id> <timestamp>2006-01-31T07:20:53Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Pschemp</username> <id>110252</id> </contributor> <comment>Reversion to revision 35648191 using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{histphil}} This page lists some links to '''ancient philosophy''', although for Western thinkers prior to Socrates, see [[Pre-Socratic philosophy]]. In Europe, the spread of Christianity through the Roman world marked the end of [[Hellenistic]] philosophy and ushered in the beginnings of [[Medieval philosophy]]. ==Classical== ===Greek=== * [[Pericles]] (495-429) * [[Aspasia]] (469-406) * [[Socrates]](469-399) * [[Euclid of Megara]] (450-380) * [[Antisthenes]] (445-360) * [[Aristippus]] (435-356) * [[Plato]] (429-347) * [[Xenophon]] (429-355) * [[Speusippus]] (407-339) * [[Diogenes of Sinope]] (400-325) * [[Xenocrates]] (396-314) * [[Aristotle]] (384-322) * [[Stilpo]] (380-300) * [[Theophrastus]] (370-288) * [[Pyrrho]] (365-275) * [[Epicurus]] (341-270) * [[Zeno of Citium]] (365-263) * [[Cleanthes]] (331-232) * [[Timon (philosopher)|Timon]] (320-230) * [[Arcesilaus]] (316-232) * [[Menippus]] (3rd century BC) * [[Archimedes]] (circa 287 BC - 212 BC) * [[Chrysippus]] (280-207) * [[Carneades]] (214-129) * [[Philo of Larissa]] (160-80) * [[Posidonius]] (135-51) * [[Aenesidemus]] (1st century BC) * [[Philo of Alexandria]] (30 BC - 45 AD) * [[Plutarch]] (45-120) ===Roman=== * [[Cicero]] (106-43) * [[Lucretius]] (94-55 BC) * [[Seneca the Younger|Seneca]] (4 BC - 65 AD) * [[Musonius Rufus]] (30 AD - 100) * [[Epictetus]] (55-135) * [[Marcus Aurelius]] (121-180) * [[Clement of Alexandria]] (150-215) * [[Alcinous]] (2nd century AD) * [[Sextus Empiricus]] (3rd century AD) * [[Alexander of Aphrodisias]] (3rd century AD) * [[Ammonius Saccas]] (3rd century AD) * [[Plotinus]] (205-270) * [[Porphyry (philosopher)|Porphyry]] (232-304) * [[Iamblichus (philosopher)|Iamblichus]] (242-327) * [[Themistius]] (317-388) * [[Augustine of Hippo]] (354-430) * [[Proclus]] (411-485) * [[Damascius]] (462-540) * [[Boethius]] (472-524) * [[Simplicius of Cilicia]] (490-560) ==Schools of thought in the [[Hellenistic]] period== *[[Cynicism]] *[[Epicureanism]] *[[Hedonism]] *[[Eclecticism]] *[[Neo-Platonism]] *[[Skepticism]] *[[Stoicism]] ==Vedic philosophy== In the east, Indian philosophy begins with the [[Vedas]] where questions related to laws of nature, the origin of the universe and the place of man in it are asked. In the famous [[Rigveda|Rigvedic]] ''Hymn of Creation'' the poet says: &quot;Whence all creation had its origin, he, whether he fashioned it or whether he did not, he, who surveys it all from highest heaven, he knows--or maybe even he does not know.&quot; In the [[Vedic religion|Vedic]] view, creation is ascribed to the self-consciousness of the primeval being (''Purusha''). This leads to the inquiry into ''the one being'' that underlies the diversity of empirical phenomena and the origin of all things. Cosmic order is termed ''rta'' and causal law by ''karma''. Nature (''prakriti'') is taken to have three qualities (''[[sattva]]'', ''[[rajas]]'', and ''[[tamas]]''). *[[Vedas]] *[[Upanishads]] *[[Hinduism]] ==Classical Indian philosophy== In classical times, these inquiries were systematized in six schools of philosophy. The questions asked were: *What is the ontological nature of consciousness? *How is cognition itself experienced? *Is mind (''chit'') intentional or not? *Does cognition have its own structure? The six schools of [[Indian philosophy]] are: *[[Mimamsa]] *[[Samkhya]] *[[Yoga]] *[[Vaisheshika]] *[[Nyaya]] *[[Vedanta]] ==Old Iranian philosophy== While there are ancient relations between the Indian [[Vedas]] and the Iranian [[Avesta]], the two main families of the Indo-Iranian philosophical traditions were characterized by fundamental differences in their implications for the human being's position in society and their view on the role of man in the universe. The first charter of [[human rights]] by [[Cyrus the Great]] is widely seen as a reflection of the questions and thoughts expressed by [[Zarathustra]] and developed in zoroastrian schools of thought. *[[Avesta]] *[[Gathas]] *[[Zarathustra]] *[[Zoroastrianism]] *[[Mazdakism]] *[[Manichaeism]] ==Chinese philosophy== In China, less emphasis was put upon materialism as a basis for reflecting upon the world and more on conduct, manners and social behaviour, as evidenced by [[Taoism]] and [[Confucianism]]. *[[Chinese philosophy]] -- [[Confucianism]], [[Taoism]], [[Legalism (philosophy)|Legalism]] *[[Buddhist philosophy]] arose in India but contributions to it were made in [[China]], [[Japan]], and [[Korea]] also. *[[Eastern philosophy]] == External links == *[http://www.epistemelinks.com/Main/Topics.aspx?TopiCode=Anci Internet sources] {{Philosophy navigation}} [[Category:Ancient philosophy| ]] [[be:Філязофія антычнасьці]] [[de:Philosophie der Antike]] [[eo:Greka filozofio]] [[eu:Kategoria:Haraitzinako filosofia]] [[fr:Origine de la philosophie]] [[it:Filosofia antica]] [[he:פילוסופיה עתיקה]] [[nl:Klassieke filosofie]] [[pl:Filozofia starożytna]] [[ru:Античная философия]] [[fi:Antiikin filosofia]] [[sv:Antikens filosofi]] [[zh:古希腊哲学家]
lumbia|Richmond]]) * 1977 [[Austria]] &amp;mdash; [[Vienna]] ([[Vösendorf]]) * 1978 [[Netherlands]] &amp;mdash; [[Rotterdam]] ([[Sliedrecht]]) * 1978 [[Singapore]] &amp;mdash; [[Queenstown, Singapore|Queenstown]] * 1980 [[Spain]] &amp;mdash; [[Gran Canaria]] ([[Las Palmas de Gran Canaria|Las Palmas]]) * 1981 [[Iceland]] &amp;mdash; [[Reykjavík]] * 1981 [[France]] &amp;mdash; [[Paris]] ([[Bobigny]]) * 1983 [[Saudi Arabia]] &amp;mdash; [[Jeddah]] * 1984 [[Belgium]] &amp;mdash; [[Brussels]] ([[Zaventem]] and [[Ternat]]) * 1984 [[Kuwait]] &amp;mdash; [[Kuwait City]] * 1985 [[United States]] &amp;mdash; [[Philadelphia]] ([[Plymouth Meeting, Pennsylvania|Plymouth Meeting]]) * 1987 [[United Kingdom]] &amp;mdash; [[Manchester]] ([[Warrington]]) * 1989 [[Italy]] &amp;mdash; [[Milan]] ([[Cinisello Balsamo]]) * 1990 [[Hungary]] &amp;mdash; [[Budapest]] * 1991 [[Poland]] &amp;mdash; [[Platan]] * 1991 [[Czech Republic]] &amp;mdash; [[Prague]] ([[Zličín]]) * 1991 [[United Arab Emirates]] &amp;mdash; [[Dubai]] * 1992 [[Slovakia]] &amp;mdash; [[Bratislava]] * 1994 [[Taiwan]] &amp;mdash; [[Taipei]] * 1996 [[Finland]] &amp;mdash; [[Espoo]] * 1996 [[Malaysia]] &amp;mdash; [[Selangor]] (Re-located to [[Mutiara Damansara]] in 2003) * 1998 [[China]] &amp;mdash; [[Beijing]] * 2000 [[Russia]] &amp;mdash; [[Moscow]] ([[Chimki]]) * 2001 [[Israel]] &amp;mdash; [[Netanya]] * 2001 [[Greece]] &amp;mdash; [[Thessaloniki]] * 2004 [[Portugal]] &amp;mdash; [[Lisbon]] * 2005 [[Turkey]] &amp;mdash; [[Istanbul]] * 2006 [[Japan]] &amp;mdash; [[Funabashi, Chiba|Funabashi]] * 2006 [[Ireland]] &amp;mdash; [[Dublin]] ==See also== * [[List of Swedish companies]] == Notes == # {{note|Map}} Countries in yellow (Ireland and Japan) will open their stores soon. # {{note|Catalogue}} IKEA Q&amp;A section, on the Swedish language site ([http://www.ikea.com/ms/sv_SE/customer_service/faq/faq.html#0700]). == External links == * [http://www.ikea.com/ IKEA] - Official site ** [http://www.ikea-group.ikea.com/corporate/about_ikea/organized.html How IKEA works] * [http://www.elitedesigners.org/ IKEA Advertising Campaign] * [http://www.positivefanatics.com Positive Fanatics - The Unofficial IKEA Web Journal] * [http://www.ikeafans.com IKEA Fansite] FAQ's and Photos primarily focusing on IKEA Kitchens ** [http://www.ikeafans.com/forums IKEA Fansite Forums] *** [http://www.home2garden.org/ikea-catalog.html Find an IKEA store, get an IKEA Catalog] ===Data=== * [http://biz.yahoo.com/ic/42/42925.html Yahoo! - IKEA International A/S Company Profile] ===Directory=== * Store addresses and contact details are on [http://www.yellowikis.org/wiki/index.php/Ikea Yellowikis/IKEA] [[Category:Brands]] [[Category:Furniture manufacturers]] &lt;!-- more info on the location of the company in the section Corporate Structure --&gt; [[Category:Companies of the Netherlands]] [[Category:Dutch multinationals]] [[bg:IKEA]] [[ca:IKEA]] [[de:IKEA]] [[es:Ikea]] [[fr:Ikea]] [[id:IKEA]] [[he:%D7%90%D7%99%D7%A7%D7%90%D7%94]] [[it:IKEA]] [[lv:IKEA]] [[nl:IKEA]] [[ja:イケア]] [[no:IKEA]] [[nn:IKEA]] [[pl:IKEA]] [[fi:IKEA]] [[sv:IKEA]] [[zh:宜家]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Iridium</title> <id>14752</id> <revision> <id>40772774</id> <timestamp>2006-02-22T22:46:11Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Edgar181</username> <id>491706</id> </contributor> <comment>Revert to revision 40012976 using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Otheruses4|the chemical element|the communications satellite|Iridium (satellite)}} {{Elementbox_header | number=77 | symbol=Ir | name=iridium | left=[[osmium]] | right=[[platinum]] | above=[[rhodium|Rh]] | below=[[meitnerium|Mt]] | color1=#ffc0c0 | color2=black }} {{Elementbox_series | [[transition metal]]s }} {{Elementbox_groupperiodblock | group=9 | period=6 | block=d }} {{Elementbox_appearance_img | Ir,77| silvery white }} {{Elementbox_atomicmass_gpm | [[1 E-25 kg|192.217]][[List of elements by atomic mass|(3)]] }} {{Elementbox_econfig | &amp;#91;[[xenon|Xe]]&amp;#93; 4f&lt;sup&gt;14&lt;/sup&gt; 5d&lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt; 6s&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; }} {{Elementbox_epershell | 2, 8, 18, 32, 15, 2 }} {{Elementbox_section_physicalprop | color1=#ffc0c0 | color2=black }} {{Elementbox_phase | [[solid]] }} {{Elementbox_density_gpcm3nrt | 22.65 }} {{Elementbox_densityliq_gpcm3mp | 19 }} {{Elementbox_meltingpoint | k=2719 | c=2446 | f=4435 }} {{Elementbox_boilingpoint | k=4701 | c=4428 | f=8002 }} {{Elementbox_heatfusion_kjpmol | 41.12 }} {{Elementbox_heatvaporiz_kjpmol | 231.8 }} {{Elementbox_heatcapacity_jpmolkat25 | 25.10 }} {{Elementbox_vaporpressure_katpa | 2713 | 2957 | 3252 | 3614 | 4069 | 4659 | comment= }} {{Elementbox_section_atomicprop | color1=#ffc0c0 | color2=black }} {{Elementbox_crystalstruct | cubic face centered }} {{Elementbox_oxistates | 2, 3, '''4''', 6&lt;br /&gt;(mildly [[base (chemistry)|basic]] oxide) }} {{Elementbox_electroneg_pauling | 2.20 }} {{Elementbox_ionizationenergies2 | 880 | 1600 }} {{Elementbox_atomicradius_pm | [[1 E-10 m|135]] }} {{Elementbox_atomicradiuscalc_pm | [[1 E-10 m|180]] }} {{Elementbox_covalentradius_pm | [[1 E-10 m|137]] }} {{Elementbox_section_miscellaneous | color1=#ffc0c0 | color2=black }} {{Elementbox_magnetic | no data }} {{Elementbox_eresist_ohmmat20 | 47.1 n}} {{Elementbox_thermalcond_wpmkat300k | 147 }} {{Elementbox_thermalexpansion_umpmkat25 | 6.4 }} {{Elementbox_speedofsound_rodmpsat20 | 4825 }} {{Elementbox_youngsmodulus_gpa | 528 }} {{Elementbox_shearmodulus_gpa | 210 }} {{Elementbox_bulkmodulus_gpa | 320 }} {{Elementbox_poissonratio | 0.26 }} {{Elementbox_mohshardness | 6.5 }} {{Elementbox_vickershardness_mpa | 1760 }} {{Elementbox_brinellhardness_mpa | 1670 }} {{Elementbox_cas_number | 7439-88-5 }} {{Elementbox_isotopes_begin | isotopesof=iridium | color1=#ffc0c0 | color2=black }} {{Elementbox_isotopes_decay | mn=189 | sym=Ir | na=[[synthetic radioisotope|syn]] | hl=13.2 d | dm=[[electron capture|&amp;epsilon;]] | de=0.532 | pn=189 | ps=[[osmium|Os]] }} {{Elementbox_isotopes_decay | mn=190 | sym=Ir | na=[[synthetic radioisotope|syn]] | hl=11.8 d | dm=[[electron capture|&amp;epsilon;]] | de=2.000 | pn=190 | ps=[[osmium|Os]] }} {{Elementbox_isotopes_stable | mn=191 | sym=Ir | na=37.3% | n=114 }} {{Elementbox_isotopes_decay2 | mn=192 | sym=Ir | na=[[synthetic radioisotope|syn]] | hl=73.83 d | dm1=[[beta emission|&amp;beta;]] | de1=1.460 | pn1=192 | ps1=[[platinum|Pt]] | dm2=[[electron capture|&amp;epsilon;]] | de2=1.046 | pn2=192 | ps2=[[osmium|Os]] }} {{Elementbox_isotopes_decay | mn=192[[Nuclear isomer|m]] | sym=Ir | na=[[synthetic radioisotope|syn]] | hl=241 [[year|y]] | dm=[[isomeric transition|IT]] | de=0.155 | pn=192 | ps=Ir }} {{Elementbox_isotopes_stable | mn=193 | sym=Ir | na=62.7% | n=116 }} {{Elementbox_isotopes_decay | mn=194 | sym=Ir | na=[[synthetic radioisotope|syn]] | hl=19.3 h | dm=[[beta emission|&amp;beta;]]&lt; | de=2.247 | pn=194 | ps=[[platinum|Pt]] }} {{Elementbox_isotopes_decay | mn=195 | sym=Ir | na=[[synthetic radioisotope|syn]] | hl=2.5 h | dm=[[beta emission|&amp;beta;]]&lt; | de=1.120 | pn=195 | ps=[[platinum|Pt]] }} {{Elementbox_isotopes_end}} {{Elementbox_footer | color1=#ffc0c0 | color2=black }} '''Iridium''' is a [[chemical element]] in the [[periodic table]] that has the symbol '''Ir''' and [[atomic number]] 77. A dense, very hard, brittle, silvery-white [[transition metal]] of the [[platinum family]], iridium is used in high strength [[alloy]]s that can withstand high temperatures and occurs in natural alloys with [[platinum]] or [[osmium]]. Iridium is notable for being the most corrosion resistant element known and for its association with the [[Cretaceous-Tertiary extinction event#Impact_event_and_iridium|demise]] of the [[dinosaur]]s. It is used in high temperature apparatus, electrical contacts, and as a hardening agent for platinum. == Notable characteristics == A [[platinum family]] [[metal]], iridium is white, resembling [[platinum]], but with a slight yellowish cast. Due to its extreme hardness and brittle properties, iridium is difficult to machine, form, or work. Iridium is the most [[corrosion]]-resistant metal known. Iridium cannot be attacked by any [[acid]]s or by [[aqua regia]], but it can be attacked by molten [[salt]]s, such as [[sodium chloride|NaCl]] and [[sodium cyanide|NaCN]]. The measured [[density]] of this element is only slightly lower than that of [[osmium]], which is therefore often listed as the heaviest element known. However, calculations of density from the [[space lattice]] may produce more reliable data for these elements than actual measurements and give a density of 22650 [[kilogram per cubic metre|kg/m&amp;sup3;]] for iridium versus 22610 kg/m&amp;sup3; for osmium. Definitive selection between the two is therefore not possible at this time. == Applications == The principal use of iridium is as a hardening agent in platinum alloys. Other uses: *For making [[crucible]]s and devices that require high temperatures. *Electrical contacts (notable example: Pt/Ir [[sparkplug]]s). *Osmium/iridium alloys are used for tipping [[fountain pen]] nibs and for [[compass]] bearings. *Iridium is used as a [[catalyst]] for carbonylation of methanol to produce [[acetic acid]] At one time iridium, as an alloy with platinum, was used in bushing the vents of heavy [[ordnance]] and, in a finely powdered condition (iridium black), for painting [[porcelain]] black. == History == Iridium was discovered in [[1803]] by [[Smithson Tennant]] in London, England along with [[osmium]] in the dark-colored residue of dissolving crude [[platinum]] in [[aqua regia]] (a mixture of [[hydrochloric acid|hydrochloric]] and [[nitric acid]]). The element was named after the Latin word for [[rainbow]] (''iris''; ''iridium'' means &quot;of rainbows&quot;) because many of its salts are strongly colored. An alloy of 90% platinum and 10%
Pentecostals] a non-profit organization uniting former Pentecostals and Charismatics, many who believe that promises of &quot;instant miracles&quot; are a form of psychological or [[spiritual abuse]]. *[http://www.thefaithfulword.org/faithhealing.html Article: Faith Healing -- Is a Christian permitted to seek medical assistance and to use medicine? ] *[http://www.mysteriouspeople.com/Matthew_Manning.htm Matthew Manning - Psychic Healer] *[http://www.spirituality.com] [[Category:Supernatural healing]] [[Category:Forteana]] [[Category:Charismatic and Pentecostal Christianity]] [[de:Geistheiler]] [[es:fe curativa]] [[pt:Cura pela fé]] [[sv:Healing]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Filet Crochet</title> <id>11628</id> <revision> <id>15909364</id> <timestamp>2002-05-20T22:58:23Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Maveric149</username> <id>62</id> </contributor> <comment>*</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Filet crochet]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Furry</title> <id>11629</id> <revision> <id>41033416</id> <timestamp>2006-02-24T16:55:43Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Coyoty</username> <id>808722</id> </contributor> <comment>rv commentary</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Wiktionary}} '''Furry''' is slang often used by members within the [[furry fandom]] which may refer to: *A character or artwork depicting [[anthropomorphism|anthropomorphic]] or [[zoomorphism|zoomorphic]] characteristics, also known as: **[[Funny animal]] **[[Kemono]] **[[Talking animal]] *A member of the [[furry fandom]], which is a loose amalgamation of interests including: **Fans of artwork and stories which feature [[anthropomorphism|anthropomorphic]] animals **[[Furry lifestyler]]s **[[Fursuit]]ers **[[Furvert]]s '''Furry''' is also slang used by some in the [[gay]] community to refer to [[hirsute]] men, though a more common term for this use is ''[[Bear community|bear]]''. {{disambig}} [[de:Furry]] [[fr:Furry]] [[ja:ケモノ]] [[ru:Фурри]] [[sv:Fabeldjur]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Franciscans</title> <id>11630</id> <revision> <id>15909366</id> <timestamp>2002-07-25T01:55:02Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Mswake</username> <id>2651</id> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Franciscan]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Fritz Lang</title> <id>11631</id> <revision> <id>41280826</id> <timestamp>2006-02-26T06:44:01Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>72.47.55.17</ip> </contributor> <comment>/* Filmography */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:FritzLang.jpg|thumb|Fritz Lang]] '''Friedrich Anton Christian Lang''' ([[December 5]], [[1890]] - [[August 2]], [[1976]]) was an [[Austrian]] [[film director]], [[screenwriter]] and occasional [[film producer]], one of the best known ''emigrés'' from [[Germany]]'s school of [[Expressionism (film)|expressionism]]. His most famous films are the groundbreaking ''[[Metropolis (1927 film)|Metropolis]]'' (the world's most expensive silent film at the time of its release) and ''[[M (1931 film)|M]]'', made before he moved to the [[United States]]. ==Early life and career== [[Image:Metropolis-new-tower-of-babel.jpg|thumb|right|320px|Metropolis - Lang's famous 1927 science fiction movie]] Born in [[Vienna]], Lang grew up the son of an architect. Both his father and his mother were practising [[Roman Catholic Church|Roman Catholics]], as was Lang himself; indeed he was baptized in the [[Schottenkirche, Vienna|Schottenkirche]] near his family's home. However, his mother Paula Schlesinger Lang was born [[Jewish]] and was a convert to [[Catholicism]]. Lang took up civil engineering at the [[Technical University of Vienna]] but was not enthusiastic about it and switched studies to art in [[1908]]. In [[1910]] and [[1911]] he left Vienna to see the world, traveling to Africa and later Asia and the Pacific area. At the outbreak of the [[First World War]] he was drafted into service in the Austrian-Hungarian army and fought in [[World War I]], where he was wounded several times. After recovering from injuries and [[combat stress reaction|shell shock]] he was discharged as [[lieutenant]] from the army. After the war he joined Germany's [[Universum Film AG|Ufa]] studio just as the [[German Expressionism|Expressionist]] movement was waxing. In this first phase of his career, Lang alternated between art films such as ''Der Müde Tod'' (The Weary Death) and populist thrillers such as ''Die Spinnen'' (The Spiders) (a two-part film), combining popular genres with Expressionist techniques to create an unprecedented synthesis of popular entertainment with art cinema, culminating in his most famous silent works: ''Dr. Mabuse, der Spieler'' (Dr. Mabuse, the Gambler) ([[1922]]), a crime epic (running four hours in two parts in its original version, recently restored by the [[Munich]] Filmmuseum) focusing on the psychological conflict between the master criminal [[Dr. Mabuse|Mabuse]] and detective Von Wenk; ''Die Nibelungen'' ([[1924]]), and his most famous film, ''[[Metropolis (1927 film)|Metropolis]]'' ([[1927]]). ==The Goebbels myth== Many of the stories about Lang's life and career are hard to verify, including perhaps the most famous Lang story of all. The legend has it that [[Joseph Goebbels]] called Lang to his offices for a meeting in which he gave Lang two pieces of news: the first was that his most recent film, ''[[Das Testament des Dr. Mabuse]]'' (The Testament of Dr. Mabuse) was being banned as an incitement to public disorder. The second was that he was nevertheless so impressed by Lang's abilities as a filmmaker, he was offering Lang a position as the head of German film. Lang had been, unbeknownst to Goebbels, already planning to leave Germany for Paris, but the meeting with Goebbels ran so long that the banks were closed by the time it finished, and Lang fled that night without his money, not to return until after the war. The problem is that many portions of the story cannot be checked, and of those that can, most are contradicted by the evidence. Lang actually left Germany with most of his money, unlike most refugees, and made several return trips later in the same year. There were of course no witnesses to the meeting besides Goebbels and Lang, but Goebbels's appointment books, when they refer to the meeting, mention only the banning of ''Testament''. No evidence has been discovered in any of Goebbels's writings to affirm the suggestion that he was planning to offer Lang any position. Whatever the truth of this legend, it is known that Lang did in fact leave Germany in [[1934]] and moved to Paris and later to the [[United States]]. His wife [[Thea von Harbou]] had started to symphathize with the Nazis in the early 1930s and stayed behind. She joined the [[NSDAP]] (Nazi Party) in [[1932]], leading to a divorce the following year. The aging Lang appeared as himself in Jean-Luc Godard's film &quot;Contempt&quot; (1964) in which the barest outline of this story is presented as fact. ==Metropolis, M and his life in America== [[image:1m-film.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Fritz Lang's M is one of the most important early film noir works]] Although some consider Lang's work to be simple [[melodrama]], he produced a coherent oeuvre that helped to establish the characteristics of ''[[film noir]]'', with its recurring themes of psychological conflict, paranoia, fate and moral ambiguity. His work influenced filmmakers as disparate as [[Jacques Rivette]] and [[William Friedkin]]. In [[1931]], between ''[[Metropolis (1927 film)|Metropolis]]'' and ''Das Testament des Dr. Mabuse'', Lang directed what many film scholars consider to be his masterpiece: ''[[M (1931 film)|M]]'', a disturbing story of a child murderer ([[Peter Lorre]] in his first starring role) who is hunted down and brought to trial by Berlin's criminal underworld. ''M'' remains a powerful work; it was remade in [[1951]] by [[Joseph Losey]], but this version had little impact on audiences, and has become harder to see than the original film. Upon his arrival in Hollywood, Lang joined the [[MGM]] studio and directed the impressive crime drama ''[[Fury (1936 film)|Fury]]''. He became a [[naturalized citizen]] of the United States in [[1939]]. Lang made twenty-one features in the next twenty-one years, working in a variety of genres at every major studio in Hollywood, occasionally producing his films as an independent. These films, often compared unfavourably by contemporary critics to Lang's earlier works, have since been reevaluated as being integral to the emergence and evolution of American genre cinema, ''[[film noir]]'' in particular. During this period, his visual style simplified (owing in part to the constraints of the Hollywood studio system) and his worldview became increasingly pessimistic, culminating in the cold, geometric style of his last American films, ''While the City Sleeps'' ([[1956]]) and ''Beyond a Reasonable Doubt'' ([[1957]]). ==Lang as a director== Lang epitomized the stereotype of the tyrannical [[Teutonic]] film director such as [[Erich von Stroheim]] and [[Otto Preminger]]; he was known for being hard to work with. During the climactic final scene in ''M'', he allegedly threw Peter Lorre down a flight of stairs in order to give more authenticity to Lorre's battered look. He wore a monocle that added to the stereotype (though film historians say this particular cliché began with von Stroheim), and his image has been parodied in a number of media, including [[GWAR]]'s long form video ''Phallus in Wonderland''. ==Late work and death== During the [[1950s]], Lang found it harder to find congenial production conditions in Hollywood and his advancing age left him less in
se, Germany's allies began to question the reason for the war as the conflict dragged on and found their answer in Allied propaganda. As Austria-Hungary began to suffer from internal strife due to its multi-national composition, Germany soon found herself &quot;chained to a dead horse&quot;. From the other point of view, however, Germany was continuing a fight the rest of her [[Central Powers|Central Power]] allies no longer wished to carry on. When the armistice finally came in 1918, Ludendorff's prophecy came true almost immediately. Although the fighting had ended, the British maintained their blockade of the European continent for a full year, leading to starvation and severe malnutrition across the nation. The peace that was quickly signed by [[Weimar Republic]] politicians and established at [[Versailles|Versailles Treaty]] would prove to be punishingly devastating, and certainly not what the German peace-seeking populace had expected. Conservatives, nationalists and ex-military leaders sought others to blame. The common [[scapegoats]] were [[Weimar Republic]] politicians, socialists, [[communists]], and &quot;international Jewry&quot; &amp;mdash; a term referring to [[Jews|Jews]] with a perceived excess of wealth and influence. These '''&quot;November criminals&quot;''', nationalists alleged, had &quot;stabbed them in the back&quot; on the &quot;[[home front]],&quot; by either criticizing the cause of [[German nationalism]] or profiteering. In essence the accusation was that the accused committed [[treason]] against the benevolent and righteous common cause. These theories were given credence by the fact that when Germany surrendered in November 1918, its armies were still in French and Belgian territory - in fact earlier in 1918 the Michael offensive had come close to winning the war for Germany. In addition Germany had already won the war against Russia. This overlooked Germany's strategic position and ignored how the efforts of individuals were somewhat marginalized on the front, since the belligerents were engaged in a new kind of war. The [[industrialization of war]] had dehumanized the process, and made possible a new kind of defeat which the Germans suffered. Non-combatants and homefront production became of great influence as a [[total war]] emerged. There was a considerable amount of political tension prior to the war, especially due to the growing presence of socialists in the [[Bundesrat of Germany|Bundesrat]]. This was a great concern for the absolutists in power. Some historians believe this to be one of the reasons [[Austria-Hungary]] committed itself to war even though diplomatic solutions had not been completely exhausted. Although there are many possible [[Causes of World War I|causes for World War I]], some saw it as an opportunity to unite the nation with a decisive victory, diminishing the threat of social insurrection. The outbreak of the war erased many of the divisions that had existed in German society initially; [[Roman Catholic Church|Roman Catholics]], [[Jews]], Lutherans, socialists, right-wingers and liberals were all overcome by the phenomenon of the &quot;spirit of 1914&quot;. Yet, as the war dragged on, old divisions resurfaced. Suspicion of Catholics, [[Social Democrats]] and Jews grew as initial enthusiasms subsided and their national loyalty was questioned once again. Those who were profiting from the war were also subject to criticism, as well as industrial workers involved in labor strikes. [[Friedrich Alfred Krupp|Krupp]] himself was accused of manufacturing arms for both sides, which was extremely profitable. Individual interests were guided by the behavior of individuals in other sectors. As administrators meddled with the economy by introducing price ceilings and other measures, producers often responded by switching goods, thus creating shortages. This created a great amount of tension between urban and rural settings and, more importantly, exacerbated hardships and bred discord. In 1917, there were roughly five hundred strikes across Germany, resulting in over 2,000,000 total work days lost. Still, civil disorder was a result of an inability to make ends meet, not a shortage of patriotism. While it is true that production slumped in 1917 and 1918, the nation had maximized its war effort and could take no more. Raw production figures confirm that Germany could not have possibly won a war of attrition against Britain, France and the United States combined. Despite its overwhelming power, Germany's industrial might and population were matched and outclassed by the Entente as a whole. Russia's exit in [[1917]] did little to change the overall picture, as the [[United States]] joined the war shortly thereafter on April 16, 1917. American industrial capacity overtook Germany's singlehandedly. Nevertheless, this social mythos of domestic betrayal resonated among its audience, and its claims would codify the basis for public support for the emerging [[Nazi Party]], under a severely [[racialist]]-based form of nationalism. The [[anti-Semitism]] was intensified by the [[Bavarian Soviet Republic]], a [[Communist]] government which ruled the city of [[Munich]] for two weeks before being crushed by the Freikorps militia. Most of the Bavarian Soviet Republic's leaders were Jewish, a fact exploited by anti-Semitic propagandists to tar all Jews with the brush of &quot;Communist treason&quot;. ==Origins== In the latter part of the war, Germany was practically governed as a [[military dictatorship]], with the Supreme High Command (German: OHL, &quot;[[Oberste Heeresleitung]]&quot;) and [[Generalfeldmarschall|General Field Marshal]] [[Paul von Hindenburg]] as commander-in-chief advising [[Wilhelm II of Germany|the Kaiser]]. After the last German offensive on the western front failed in [[1918]], the German war effort was doomed. In response, OHL arranged for a rapid change to a civilian government. General [[Erich Ludendorff]], Germany's Chief of Staff, said: &quot;I have asked His Excellency to now bring those circles to power which we have to thank for coming so far. We will therefore now bring those gentlemen into the ministries. They can now make the peace which has to be made. They can eat the soup which they have prepared for us!&quot; On [[November 11]], [[1918]], the civilian representatives of the newly formed [[Weimar Republic]] of [[Germany]] signed an armistice with the Allies which would end [[World War I]]. The subsequent [[Treaty of Versailles]] led to further territorial and financial losses. As the Kaiser had been forced to abdicate and the military relinquished executive power, it was the temporary, civilian government which &quot;had to&quot; sue for peace. This led to the signing of the Treaty of Versailles. Even though they publicly despised the treaty, it was most convenient for the generals - there were no war crime tribunals, they were celebrated as undefeated heroes, and they could covertly prepare for removing the republic which they had helped to create. In 1919 the [[Reichswehr]] (National Militia) already began &quot;educating&quot; an impressionable [[Adolf Hitler]] about the causes of the war and the defeat, firmly placing the ''Dolchstoßlegende'' in his mind; it was Ludendorff who would lead the unsuccessful [[Beer Hall Putsch]] on [[November 8]], [[1923]] together with Hitler; it was the Reichswehr which provided early funding to the Nazi Party; and it was an 85-year-old Paul von Hindenburg who would appoint Hitler as chancellor of Germany on January 30, 1933. The official birth of the legend can be dated to November [[1919]], when Hindenburg attempted to exonerate himself and the German army as a whole by placing blame specifically on a ''Dolchstoß'' by troops stationed within Germany who joined soldiers' and sailors' unions during the [[Spartacist League|Spartacist]] uprisings. The term &quot;November criminals&quot; refers both to the statesmen who signed the Treaty of Versailles and to a vast Jewish-Marxist conspiracy that was often interpreted as including Germans who were not considered sufficiently patriotic or [[militarism|militaristic]]. It was also applied to those who participated in the revolution that overthrew the imperial government and instituted the Weimar Republic. No [[Allies|Allied]] soldiers had stepped foot on German soil, and German troops stood in fact before Paris in the West, and had signed the Peace of Brest-Litovsk with Russia in the East. Many who believed in the utter invincibility of the army asserted that the statesmen who had signed the Treaty of Versailles were traitors, and that victory would have eventually come otherwise. A point supported by the fact that the German leadership believed in fair and just conditions of a peace treaty, based upon Woodrow Wilson's 14 Points. As a result of the treaty, Germany's territory instead reduced by a third, the [[Rhineland]] was demilitarized and Allied troops were to occupy many areas. There were also enormous [[war reparations]] to be paid for a period of 70 years (until 1988). From a propaganda perspective, perhaps the most important aspect of the treaty was the [[War Guilt Clause]], which forced Germany to accept complete responsibility for the war. The treaty became enormously unpopular in Germany, in no small part because it impinged extensively on internal German sovereignty. However, the Allies were willing to gradually scale down the treaty in the coming years to counter the anti-capitalist Soviet Union. Moreover, the Weimar Republic under [[Friedrich Ebert]] violently suppressed workers' uprisings with the help of the Reichswehr and tolerated the [[paramilitary]] [[Freikorps]] forming all across Germany. In spite or because of this tolerance of the extreme right, the republic was viciously attacked, many of its representatives such as [[Walther Rathenau]] were assassinated, and the leaders were branded as &quot;criminals&quot; and Jews b
odities''': capital goods, food, textiles and [[petroleum]] products; most consumer goods '''Imports - partners''': Pakistan (26.8%), [[South Korea]] (12.3%), [[Japan]] (8.2%), [[Germany]] (7.4%), [[Kenya]] (4.9%), USA (4.8%). (2003 est.) '''Debt - external''': $8 billion in bilateral debt, mostly to Russia; Afghanistan has $500 million in debt to Multilateral Development Banks (2004) '''Economic aid - recipient''': international pledges made by more than 60 countries and international financial institutions at the Tokyo Donors Conference for Afghan reconstruction in January 2002 reached $4.5 billion through 2006, with $1.8 billion allocated for 2002; another $1.7 billion was pledged for 2003. '''Currency''': [[Afghani (currency)|Afghani]] (AFA) '''Exchange rates''': afghanis per US dollar - 3000 (October - December 2002), 3000 (2001), 4,700 (January 2000), 4,750 (February 1999), 17,000 (December 1996), 7,000 (January 1995), 1,900 (January 1994), 1,019 (March 1993), 850 (1991); note - these rates reflect the free market exchange rates rather than the official exchange rate, which was fixed at 50.600 afghanis to the dollar until 1996, when it rose to 2,262.65 per dollar, and finally became fixed again at 3,000.00 per dollar in April 1996 '''Fiscal year''': [[21 March]] - [[20 March]] ==Reference== ''Much of the material in this article comes from the [[CIA World Factbook]] 2003 and the 2003 U.S. Department of State website.'' ==External links== * [[n:Report finds Afghanistan is on the verge of becoming a narcotics state|Report finds Afghanistan is on the verge of becoming a narcotics state]] on ''[[Wikinews]]'', March 5, 2005 * [[n:U.N. reports Afghan opium production is up again|U.N. reports Afgan opium production is up again]] on ''Wikinews'', February 11, 2005 * [http://www.focus-fen.net/index.php?catid=142&amp;newsid=78414&amp;ch=0] [[Category:Economy of Afghanistan]] [[Category:Economies by country|Afghanistan]] [[es:Economía de Afganistán]] [[pt:Economia do Afeganistão]] [[zh:阿富汗经济]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Elf</title> <id>9896</id> <revision> <id>41757611</id> <timestamp>2006-03-01T15:02:40Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>81.132.209.156</ip> </contributor> <comment>/* Elves in modern fantasy */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{dablink|For other meanings, see [[Elf (disambiguation)]]}} [[Image:Small elf.JPG|350px|thumb|right|A small forest elf (''älva'') rescuing an egg, from ''Solägget'' (1932), by [[Elsa Beskow]]]]An '''elf''' is a [[mythical creature]] of [[Norse mythology]] which survived in northern [[Europe]]an [[folklore]]. Originally a race of minor [[gods]] of nature and fertility, elves are often pictured as youthful-seeming men and women of great beauty living in [[forest]]s and other natural places, underground, or in wells and springs. They have been portrayed to be long-lived or [[immortality|immortal]] and they have [[magic (paranormal)|magical]] powers attributed to them. Following the success of [[J. R. R. Tolkien|J.R.R. Tolkien]]'s epic ''[[The Lord of the Rings]]''—wherein a wise, angelic people named ''elves'' play a significant role—they have become [[Stock character|staple characters]] of modern [[fantasy]]. ''Elf'' can be [[plural]]ized both as ''elves'' and ''elfs''. Something associated with elves or the qualities of elves is described by the [[adjective]]s ''elfin'', ''elven'', ''elfish'', or ''elvish''. They are also called: * [[Germany]]: ''Elfen'', ''Elben'' and ''Alben'' * [[Great Britain]]: ''addler'' (obsolete) * [[Iceland]]: ''álfar'', ''álfafólk'' and ''huldufólk'' (hidden people) * [[Netherlands]]: ''Elfen'', ''Alfen'' * [[Scandinavia]]: ''elvere'' or ''ellefolk'' in [[Denmark]], ''alver'' or ''elvefolk'' in [[Norway]], and ''alfer'', ''alver'' or ''älvor'' in [[Sweden]] Although there has been debate, the words ''elf'', ''[[alf|álf]]'' and their relatives almost certainly come from the same [[Indo-European]] root *''albh'' as the Latin ''albus'' (white).{{mn|Hall 2004|H-1}} ==Characteristics of traditional elves== ===Elves in Norse mythology=== The earliest preserved description of elves comes from [[Norse mythology]]. In [[Old Norse language|Old Norse]] they are called ''álfar'' ([[singular]], [[nominative case]]: ''álfr''), and although no older or contemporary descriptions exist, the appearance of beings etymologically related to ''álfar'' in various later folklore strongly suggests that the belief in elves were common among all the [[Germanic tribes]], and not limited solely to the ancient [[Scandinavia]]ns. Elves make various appearances in Norse mythology. Although the concept itself is never clearly defined in our sources, elves appear to have been understood as powerful and beautiful human-sized beings. They are commonly referred to collectively as semi-divine beings associated with fertility as well as the cult of the ancestors. As such, elves appear similar to the [[Animism|animistic]] belief in [[Spiritual being|spirits]] of nature and of the deceased, common to nearly all human religions; something that, on a side note, is true also for the Old Norse belief in ''[[fylgja|fylgjur]]'' and ''[[vörðr|vörðar]]'' (&quot;follower&quot; and &quot;warden&quot; spirits, respectively). Arguably, ''elves'' are the Germanic equivalent to the [[nymph]]s of [[Greek mythology|Greek]] and [[Roman mythology]], as well as the [[wili|vili]] and [[Rusalka|rusalki]] of [[Slavic mythology]]. [[Image:Freyr_art.jpg|thumb|left|180px|The god [[Freyr]], the lord of the light-elves]] The Icelandic mythographer and historian [[Snorri Sturluson]] seems to have referred to [[dwarves]] (''[[Norse dwarves|dvergar]]'') as &quot;dark-elves&quot; (''[[dökkálfar]]'') or &quot;black-elves&quot; (''[[svartálfar]]''); whether this usage reflects wider medieval Scandinavian belief is uncertain.{{mn|Hall 2004|H-2}} Elves who are not dark-elves are referred to by Snorri as &quot;light-elves&quot; (''[[ljósálfar]]''); this usage has often been connected with elves' etymological connection with whiteness. Snorri describes their differences like so: :''There are many magnificent dwellings. One is there called [[Alfheim]]. There dwell the folk that are called light-elves; but the dark-elves dwell down in the earth, and they are unlike the light-elves in appearance, but much more so in deeds. The light-elves are fairer than the sun to look upon, but the dark-elves are blacker than pitch.''{{mn|Younger Edda|YE-1}} Evidence for elves in Norse mythology outside Snorri's work, and in earlier evidence, comes from [[Skaldic poetry]], the ''[[Poetic Edda]]'' and [[legendary saga]]s. Here elves are linked with the [[Æsir]], particularly through the common phrase &quot;Æsir and the elves&quot;, which presumably means &quot;all the gods&quot;.{{mn|Hall 2004|H-3}} The elves have been compared or identified with the [[Vanir]] (fertility gods) by some scholars (e.g. Hall 2004, pp. 43-46). However, in the ''[[Alvíssmál]]'' (&quot;The Sayings of All-Wise&quot;), the elves are considered distinct from both the Vanir and the [[Æsir]], as revealed by a series of comparative names in which Æsir, Vanir, and elves are given their own versions for various words in a reflection of their individual racial preferences. Possibly, the words designate a difference in status between the major fertility gods (the Vanir) and the minor ones (the elves). ''[[Grímnismál]]'' relates that the Van [[Freyr]] was the lord of ''[[Álfheim]]r'' (meaning &quot;elf-world&quot;), the home of the light-elves. ''[[Lokasenna]]'' relates that a large group of Æsir and elves had assembled at [[Ægir]]'s court for a banquet. Several minor forces, the servants of gods, are presented such as [[Byggvir]] and [[Beyla]], who belonged to Freyr, the lord of the elves, and they were probably elves, since they were not counted among the gods. Two other mentioned servants were [[Fimafeng]] (who was murdered by [[Loki]]) and [[Eldir]]. Some speculate that Vanir and elves belong to an earlier [[Nordic Bronze Age]] religion of [[Scandinavia]], and were later replaced by the Æsir as main gods. Others (most notably [[Georges Dumézil]]) argue that the Vanir were the gods of the common Norsemen, and the Æsir those of the priest and warrior castes (see also [[Nerthus]]). A poem from around [[1020]], the ''[[Austrfaravísur]]'' ('Eastern-journey verses') of [[Sigvatr Þorðarson]], mentions that, as a Christian, he was refused board in a heathen household, in [[Sweden]], because an ''[[Blót#Elven blót|álfablót]]'' (&quot;elves' sacrifice&quot;) was being conducted there. However, we have no further reliable information as to what an ''álfablót'' involved,{{mn|Hall 2004|H-4}} but like other [[blót]]s it probably included the offering of foods, and later [[Scandinavian folklore]] retained a tradition of sacrificing treats to the elves (see below). From the time of year (close to the [[autumnal equinox]]) and the elves' association with fertility and the ancestors, we might assume that it had to do with the ancestor cult and the life force of the family. [[Image:Völund.jpg|thumb|right|180px|The smith hero [[Weyland|Völundr]], the ruler of the dökkálfar(dark-elves)]] In addition to this, ''[[Kormáks saga]]'' accounts for how a sacrifice to elves was apparently believed able to heal a severe battle wound: :''Þorvarð healed but slowly; and when he could get on his feet he went to see Þorðís, and asked her what was best to help his healing.'' :''&quot;A hill there is,&quot; answered she, &quot;not far away from here, where elves have their haunt. Now get you the bull that Kormák killed, and redden the outer side of the hill with its blood, and make a feast for the elves with its flesh. Then thou wilt be healed.&quot;''{{mn|Kormáks saga|Ko-1}} The Scandinavian elves were of human size. Full-sized famous men could be elevated to the rank of elves after death, such as the pe
and is Azerbaijan's largest city, one of very few places where Soviet citizens could actually enjoy beaches or relax in now-dilapidated spa complexes overlooking the salty Caspian Sea. The old Inturist Hotel was one of Baku's largest, now being renovated, but overshadowed by the newer Hyatt Park, Hyatt Regency, Park Inn and Excelsior. ==Economy== The basis of Baku's economy is [[petroleum]]. The existence of petroleum has been known since the [[8th century]]. By the [[15th century]] oil for lamps was obtained from hand dug surface wells. Commercial exploitation began in [[1872]], and by the beginning of the [[20th century]] the Baku oil fields were the largest in the world. Towards the end of the 20th century much of the onshore petroleum had been exhausted, and drilling had extended into the sea offshore. Baku ranked as one of the largest centres for the production of oil industry equipment before WWII. The [[World War II]] [[Battle of Stalingrad]] was fought to determine who would have control of the Baku oil fields. Fifty years before the battle, Baku produced half of the world's oil supply: Azerbaijan and the United States are the only two countries ever to have been the world's majority oil producer. Currently the oil economy of Baku is undergoing a resurgence, with the development of the massive Azeri Chirag Gunashli field (Shallow water Gunashli by SOCAR, deeper areas by a consortium lead by BP) and the Shah Deniz gas field. As the largest town in the country, the city is served by the [[Heydar Aliyev International Airport]]. ==Famous people from Baku== Prominent [[Chess]] [[International Grandmaster|Grandmaster]]s hailing from Baku include [[Garry Kasparov]] and [[Teimour Radjabov]] [[Lev Davidovich Landau]] [http://nobelprize.org/physics/laureates/1962/landau-bio.html] was born in Baku on [[January 22]] [[1908]]. He won The Nobel Prize in Physics in 1962 for his pioneering theories for condensed matter, especially liquid helium. [[Mstislav Rostropovich]] [http://www.bakupages.com/enc-show.php?cmm_id=0&amp;id=172&amp;c=938] was born in Baku on [[March 27]] [[1927]]. He is one of the most esteemed cellists of his generation. [[Richard Sorge]] [http://www.bakupages.com/enc-show.php?cmm_id=0&amp;id=171&amp;c=938], one of the greatest spies in modern history, was born in 1895 in Baku. Acting as a German journalist in Germany, China and Japan he passed vital information to the Soviet intelligence agencies. [[Genrich Altshuller]] lived and worked in Baku since he was 5 years old. Genrich Altshuller is the father of [[TRIZ]] (TIPS) system, inventor and author. [[Lotfi Zadeh]], inventor of [[fuzzy logic]], was born in Baku on [[4 February]] [[1921]], grew up in Iran, and is now (2005) a professor of computer science at [[University of California, Berkeley]]. [[Kerim Kerimov]], head of [[Soviet space program]] for 25 years and one of the founders of the Soviet space industry, was born in Baku on [[14 November]] [[1917]]. For a more detailed list, see [[List of Azerbaijanis]]. ==External links== *[http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/958 UNESCO World Heritage Site listing: &quot;Walled City of Baku with the Shirvanshah's Palace and Maiden Tower&quot;] *[http://www.baku-vision.com/ Info on Baku] *[http://www.bakupages.com Baku Pages] *[http://www.usembassybaku.org American Embassy in Baku Azerbaijan] *[http://www.britishembassy.gov.uk/servlet/Front?pagename=OpenMarket/Xcelerate/ShowPage&amp;c=Page&amp;cid=1056117176152 British Embassy in Baku Azerbaijan] *[http://www.emporis.com/en/il/pc/?id=100196&amp;aid=3&amp;sro=1 Baku in Emporis] *[http://www.encyclopedia.com/html/B/Baky.asp Baku now known as Baky] {{Azerbaijan}} [[Category:Baku]] [[Category:Capitals in Europe]] [[Category:Cities in Azerbaijan]] [[Category:Coastal cities]] [[ar:باكو]] [[az:Bakı]] [[bg:Баку]] [[be:Баку]] [[ca:Bakú]] [[cs:Baku]] [[da:Baku]] [[de:Baku]] [[et:Bakuu]] [[es:Bakú]] [[eo:Baku]] [[fa:باکو]] [[fr:Bakou]] [[fy:Bakoe]] [[gl:Bakú - Bakı]] [[ko:바쿠]] [[io:Baku]] [[it:Baku]] [[he:באקו]] [[lt:Baku]] [[nl:Bakoe]] [[ja:バクー]] [[no:Baku]] [[nn:Baku]] [[pl:Baku]] [[pt:Baku]] [[ru:Баку]] [[simple:Baku]] [[sk:Baku]] [[sr:Баку]] [[fi:Baku]] [[sv:Baku]] [[tt:Bakı]] [[tr:Bakü]] [[uk:Баку]] [[zh:巴库]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Balalaika</title> <id>4567</id> <revision> <id>41503215</id> <timestamp>2006-02-27T20:27:48Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>64.59.16.194</ip> </contributor> <comment>/* External links */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Balaika, Nordisk familjebok.png|thumb|Balalaika]] The '''balalaika''' (&lt;font lang=&quot;ru&quot;&gt;балала́йка&lt;/font&gt;) is a stringed instrument of [[Russia]]n origin, with a characteristic [[triangle|triangular]] body and 3 strings (or sometimes 6, in pairs). ==Structure and technique== The modern balalaika is found in six sizes: *piccolo (rare) *prima *secunda *alto *bass *contrabass (also a larger sub-contrabass) The most common [[solo (music)|solo]] instrument is the prima, tuned E-E-A (the two lower [[strings (music)|strings]] being [[tune]]d to the same pitch). The piccolo, prima, and secunda balalaikas are ideally strung with gut (or, today, usually [[nylon]]) [[strings (music)|strings]] on the lower pegs and a wire string on the top peg. An important part of balalaika technique is the use of the left [[thumb]] to fret notes on the bottom string, particularly on the prima, where it is used to form [[chord (music)|chord]]s. The [[hand#The four fingers|index finger]] is used to sound notes on the prima, while a [[plectrum]] is used on the larger sizes. One can play the prima with a plectrum, but it is considered rather [[heterodox]] to do so. Due to the gigantic size of the contrabass' strings, it is not uncommon for the plectrum to be made of a leather [[shoe]] or [[boot]] [[heel (shoe)|heel]]. The contrabass balalaika rests on the ground on a wooden or metal pin drilled into one of its corners. ==History== The origins of the balalaïka are not precisely known. It is thought that they may have been inspired by an instrument imported into Russia by the Mongols of Central Asia at the time of the 12th century invasions. Early representations of the balalaika show it with anywhere from two to six strings, which would be consistent with the nature of the Central Asian instruments described above. Similarly, [[fret]]s on earlier balalaikas were made of animal gut and tied to the neck so that they could be moved around by the player at will (as is the case with the modern [[saz]], which allows for the [[microtonal]] playing distinctive to Turkish and Central Asian music). Eventually, the balalaika evolved into a triangular instrument with a neck substantially shorter than its Asian counterparts. It was popular as a village instrument for centuries, particularly with the ''[[skomorokh]]s'', sort of free-lance musical [[jester]]s whose tunes ridiculed the [[Tsar]], the [[Russian Orthodox Church]], and Russian society in general. The first written reference to a balalaika was on an arrest slip for two serfs in 1688, accused of being drunk and disorderly outside the [[Kremlin]] in [[Moscow]], playing the balalaika. A popular notion is that the three sides and strings of the balalaika are supposed to represent the Holy Trinity. This idea, while whimsical, is quite difficult to reconcile when one is confronted with the fact that at various times in Russian history, the playing of the balalaika was banned because of its use by the ''[[skomorokhi]]'', who were generally highly irritating to both Church and State. Musical instruments are not allowed in Russian Orthodox liturgy. A likelier reason for the triangular shape is given by the writer and historian [[Nikolai Gogol]] in his unfinished novel ''Dead Souls.'' He states that a balalaika was made by peasants out of a pumpkin. If you quarter a pumpkin, you are left with a balalaika shape. Another theory is: Before Tsar Peter The Great, instruments were not allowed in Russia. When Peter allowed them, only the boat builders knew how to work with wood. The balalaika looks a little like the front of a boat, if held horizontally. In the late 19th century, a Russian nobleman, [[Vassily Vassilievich Andreyev]], embarked on a project to standardize the balalaika for [[orchestra]]l use. Andreyev, with the assistance of [[luthier]]s, and furniture maker Nalimov, developed the multiple balalaika sizes and tunings in use today. He arranged many traditional Russian folk songs and melodies for the orchestra and also composed many tunes of his own. Andreyev simultaneously revived two other long-lost Russian instruments: * the [[domra]], a three-stringed long-necked melody instrument with a melon-shaped body, which he developed in prima, alto, tenor, and bass sizes; * the [[gusli]], an autoharp chorded with piano-type keys. ==Rise of the Balalaika Orchestra== [[Image:Balalaika.jpg|thumb|Another Balalaika]] The end result of Andreyev's labours was the development of a strong orchestral tradition in Tsarist Russia, and, later, the [[Soviet Union]]. The balalaika orchestra in its full form -- balalaikas, [[domra]]s, [[gusli]], [[bayan (music)|bayan]], [[kuginkle|kugikles]], [[Vladimir Shepherd's Horns]], [[garmon'|garmoshkas]] and several types of [[percussion instrument]]s -- has a distinctive sound: strangely familiar to the ear, yet decidedly not entirely Western. Not surprisingly, the concept of the balalaika orchestra was adopted wholeheartedly by the [[Soviet]] government as something distinctively Soviet (i.e., Russian). Enormous amounts of energy and time were devoted by the Soviet government to foster conservatory study of the balalaika, from which highly skilled ensemble groups such as the [[Osipov State Balalaika Orchestra]] emerged. Balalaika virtuosi such as Boris Feoktistov and Pavel Necheporenko became stars both inside and outside
Legacy of Gokū 2: International'') * ''[[Dragon Ball Z: The Legacy of Goku I &amp; II]]'' * ''[[Dragon Ball Z: Taiketsu]]'' * ''Dragon Ball Z: Bukū Tōgeki'' (''Dragon Ball Z: Super Sonic Warriors'') * ''[[Dragon Ball Z: Buu's Fury]]'' ====Nintendo: [[Nintendo GameCube|GameCube]] (GC)==== * ''[[Dragon Ball Z: Budokai|Dragon Ball Z: Budōkai]]'' (''Dragon Ball Z'') * ''[[Dragon Ball Z: Budokai 2]]'' (''Dragon Ball Z 2'') * ''[[Dragon Ball Z: Sagas]]'' ====Nintendo: [[Nintendo DS|DS]]==== * ''[[Dragon Ball Z: Super Sonic Warriors 2]]'' (''Dragon Ball Z: Bukū Ressen'') * ''[[Jump Superstars]]'' ===Games only released in Japan=== ====Nintendo: Family Computer [[Famicom]] (FC)==== * ''Dragon Ball Z: Kyosho! Saiyan'' (1990) * ''Dragon Ball Z 2: Gekishin Freeza!!'' 1991) * ''Dragon Ball Z 3: Resen Jinzōningen'' (1992) * ''Dragon Ball Z: Barcode Battler'' (1992) * ''Dragon Ball Z Supplement: The Plan to Eradicate the Saiyans'' (1993) ====Nintendo: Super Family Computer [[Super Famicom]] (SFC)==== * ''Dragon Ball Z: Super Saiyan Legend'' (1992) * ''Dragon Ball Z: Super Butoden'' (1993) * ''Dragon Ball Z: Super Butoden 2'' (1993) * ''Dragon Ball Z: Super Butoden 3'' (1994) * ''Dragon Ball Z: Super Gokū Den'' (1995) * ''Dragon Ball Z: Super Gokū Den 2'' (The last two thirds of the game) (1995) * ''Dragon Ball Z: Hyper Dimension'' (1996) ====Sega: [[Sega Mega Drive|Mega Drive]]==== * ''Dragon Ball Z: Buyū Retsuden'' (1994) ====PC-Engine Duo==== * ''Dragon Ball Z: Idainaru Son Gokū Densetsu'' (Three out of the seven levels) (1994) ====Nintendo: [[Game Boy]] (GB)==== * ''Dragon Ball Z: Gokū Hishō Den'' (1994) * ''Dragon Ball Z: Gokū Gekitō Den'' (1995) ====PlayDia==== * ''The Plan to Eradicate the Saiyans - Part 1'' * ''The Plan to Eradicate the Saiyans - Part 2'' ====Sony: [[PlayStation]] (PS1)==== * ''Dragon Ball Z Legends'' ====Sega: [[Sega Saturn|Saturn]]==== * ''Dragon Ball Z Legends'' * ''Dragon Ball Z: Shin Butoden'' ===Games only released in America and Oceania=== * ''[[Dragon Ball Z: Collectible Card Game]]'' for the [[Game Boy Advance|GBA]] * ''Dragon Ball Z: Sagas'' for the [[PlayStation 2|PS2]], [[Nintendo GameCube|GC]], and [[Xbox]]. ==Trivia== *Ironically, Goku, the actual hero, doesn't kill any of the three major villains in the story. Frieza is killed by Trunks; Cell is killed by Gohan; and Majin Buu literally becomes good in the end. ==See also== * [[List of Dragon Ball Episodes]] * [[List of Dragon Ball characters]] * [[Freeza Family Tree]] * [[Jinzō'ningen Family Tree]] * [[Majin Family Tree]] * [[Red Ribbon Army Family Tree]] * [[Z Fighters]] * [[CHA-LA HEAD-CHA-LA]] (The 1st opening theme song) * [[WE GOTTA POWER]] (The 2nd opening theme song) * [[Dragon Ball (franchise)]] ==External links== * [http://www.dragonballz.com English Dragon Ball Z website] * [http://www.ytv.com/programming/shows/dragonball_z/index.asp?showID=102 YTV Dragon Ball Z Site] * [http://www.toei-anim.co.jp/tv/dragonz/ Toei Dragon Ball Z website] * [http://intropage.bravehost.com/index.txt IntroPage / UltraWeb] (Internet Explorer Required) * [http://www.daizex.com DaizenshuuEX] * [http://www.zerogamez.com/ Zero Gamez] A Dragonball Z, GT Rpg Making Community * [http://www.kanzentai.com Kanzentai] * [http://gtaonline.info/Dragon-Ball Dragon Ball Polish] * [http://www.z-rage.com/ Dragonball Series related website (English/Dutch)] {{Dragon Ball Movies}} {{DBZ Saga Nav}} &lt;!-- Note: We should figure out a better way to divide these. We should use the Funimation names since those are how the US anime divides them officially. The problem is that it makes more sense to break them down differently. The &quot;Freeza&quot; saga logically extends through Namek-&gt;Gi'nyu-&gt;Freeza. Trunks through Cell Games is a second major arc. And Tournament through Majin-Boo is another. (I didn't add in the Funimation Buu sagas, &quot;Fat Buu&quot;, &quot;Evil Buu&quot;, etc. because I can't remember off the top of my head what order they came in...) --&gt; &lt;!-- Note: in case anyone gets the desire to add info about the influence of Journey to the West or Superman on Dragon Ball Z, do the smart thing and note it under a Dragon Ball Manga wiki. Dragon Ball Z is a subtopic to DB, and DB should be referenced for info like that. Same thing about Toriyama--he's done enough stuff to get his own page. thx --&gt; [[Category:1990s TV shows in the United States]] [[Category:2000s TV shows in the United States]] [[Category:Anime series]] [[Category:Children's television series]] [[Category:Dragon Ball|*]] [[Category:Japanese television series]] [[Category:programs broadcast by YTV]] [[Category:Shows on Toonami]] [[ca:Bola de Drac Z]] [[de:Dragonball Z]] [[es:Dragon Ball Z]] [[fi:Dragonball Z]] [[fr:Dragon Ball Z]] [[it:Dragon Ball Z]] [[ja:ドラゴンボールZ]] [[nl:Dragonball Z]] [[pt:Dragon Ball Z]] [[zh:七龙珠]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Dartmoor Preservation Association</title> <id>8414</id> <revision> <id>35437519</id> <timestamp>2006-01-16T19:53:18Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Grenavitar</username> <id>142208</id> </contributor> <comment>{{org-stub}}</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">The '''[[Dartmoor]] Preservation Association''' or DPA was founded in [[1883]]. Their web-site is to be found at http://www.dartmoor-preservation-assoc.org.uk, where a full list of their objectives are to be found, however the DPA is generally a special interest group with a passion for preserving the beauty of Dartmoor. [[Category:Dartmoor]] {{org-stub}}</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Dartmouth</title> <id>8416</id> <revision> <id>40360876</id> <timestamp>2006-02-20T01:30:13Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Dismas</username> <id>152983</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>US -&gt; U.S. per MoS</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Dartmouth''' may mean: Places: *[[Dartmouth, Devon]], England *[[Dartmouth, Victoria]] in Australia *[[Dartmouth, Nova Scotia]], Canada *[[Dartmouth, Kansas]], U.S. *[[Dartmouth, Massachusetts]], U.S. Educational establishments: *[[Dartmouth College]], in Hanover, New Hampshire, U.S. **''[[The Dartmouth]]'', student newspaper at [[Dartmouth College]] *[[Britannia Royal Naval College]] in Dartmouth, Devon, England *[[University of Massachusetts Dartmouth]], in Dartmouth, Massachusetts, U.S. Other: *[[Dartmouth Dam]], Australia {{disambig}} [[ang:Dærentamūða]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Dartmouth College</title> <id>8418</id> <revision> <id>42086336</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T19:05:52Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>66.93.106.194</ip> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses3|Dartmouth}} {{Infobox_University |image = [[Image:Dartmouth_Shield.png|160px|center|Dartmouth College Shield]] |name = Dartmouth College |motto = Vox clamantis in deserto&lt;br /&gt;(''The voice of one crying out in the wilderness'') |established = [[December 13]] [[1769]] |type = [[Private school|Private]] |president= [[James Wright (historian) |James E. Wright '64A]] [[MA]] [[Ph.D]] [[M.Sc]] [[B.Sc]] |city = [[Hanover, New Hampshire|Hanover]] |state = [[New Hampshire|NH]] |country = [[United States|USA]] |undergrad = 4,078 |postgrad = 1,666 |staff= 591 |campus = [[Rural]] town, 265 [[acre]]s (1.1 [[kilometre|km]]&amp;sup2;) -- over 31,000 [[acre]]s total |nickname = [[Big Green]] (unofficial) |free_label = Athletics |free = 34 varsity teams |website= [http://www.dartmouth.edu/ www.dartmouth.edu] |mascot = The Indian, [[Keggy the Keg]], the Big Green (all unofficial) |endowment= $2.7 billion |school colors = Dartmouth green (PMS 349) and white }} '''Dartmouth College''' is a [[private school|private]] academic institution in [[Hanover, New Hampshire|Hanover]], [[New Hampshire]], in the [[United States]]. It is a member of the [[Ivy League]] and is one of the nine colonial colleges founded before the [[American Revolution]]. Founded in [[1769]] by [[Eleazar Wheelock]], with funds partially raised by the efforts of a Native American preacher named [[Samson Occom]], it is the [[Colonial colleges|ninth-oldest college]] in the [[United States]]. In addition to its [[liberal arts college|liberal arts]] undergraduate program, Dartmouth has medical, engineering, and business schools, as well as 18 graduate programs in the arts and sciences; hence it would tend to be called a [[university]] in standard American usage. For the sake of tradition- in part stemming from the legacy of the landmark Dartmouth College case- and in order to emphasize the central importance it gives to undergraduate education, however, it refers to itself as a [[college]]. With a total enrollment of 5,744, Dartmouth is the smallest school in the Ivy League. In 2005 [[Booz Allen Hamilton]] selected Dartmouth College as one of the &quot;World's Ten Most Enduring Institutions,&quot; recognizing its ability to overcome crises that threatened its survival (most famously ''[[Dartmouth College v. Woodward|Trustees of Dartmouth College v. Woodward]]'').[http://www.bah.com/bahng/SilverDemo?PID=Home.html&amp;contType=TABLE&amp;dispType=HTML&amp;Region=&amp;Geography=&amp;Taxonomy1=&amp;Taxonomy2=&amp;Taxonomy3=&amp;SortBy=creation+date+DESC,title+ASC&amp;GroupBy=-1&amp;FORM_ACTION=FOCUS&amp;style=item&amp;ITID=451148] Dartmouth alumni are famously involved in their college, from [[Daniel Webster]] to the many donors in the 19th and 20th centuries. Over many generations, Dartmouth has had one of the highest alumni donor participation rates. ==History== [[Image:Dartmouth College Baker building.jpg|thumb|right|275px|[[Baker Memorial Library]] at Dartmouth College]] Dartmouth was made the ninth and final [[coloni
ngs should suffer from disadvantage when compared, for example, to its large neighbour to the west, Brighton. It has a very attractive setting, many very fine houses and a remarkably conserved Old Town, and contains within its Borough boundaries a major clifftop country park. It has a well documented depth of history. A key work is ''Historic Hastings''&lt;sup&gt;[[#References|1]]&lt;/sup&gt; by a former curator of Hastings Museum. Its principal drawback must be the considerably longer commuting times by rail to London and poor roads. Hastings is currently the site of major regeneration. Already a new rail station has been built and the University Centre Hastings (UCH) has been created to provide higher education in the town for the first time. ([http://www.hastings.ac.uk/ Hastings College of Arts and Technology] and [http://www.uch.ac.uk/ University Centre Hastings]) Further major capital investment is committed and a range of vocational training, community development and neighbourhood regeneration projects are in place. This is hampered by the split administration of the combined Hastings and Bexhill economic region between Hastings and Rother councils. ==Noted residents== ===Former Residents=== *[[John Logie Baird]], pioneer of television *[[Kevin Ball]], ex-footballer and now coach at [[Sunderland A.F.C.]] *[[Gareth Barry]], footballer for [[Aston Villa F.C.|Aston Villa]] (2005) *[[Jo Brand]], comedienne *[[John Bratby]], painter *[[Catherine Cookson]], popular novelist *[[Alistair Crowley]], occultist *[[Pierre Teilhard de Chardin]], philosopher and theologian *[[Simon Fuller]], pop-music manager (most famously of [[The Spice Girls]]) *[[Grey Owl]] (Archibald Belaney), author, nature conservation pioneer, and Canadian icon *[[William Hale White]], novelist also known as &quot;Mark Rutherford&quot; *[[Keane (band)|Keane]], a pop/rock band *Steve Kinch, bass guitarist with [[Manfred Mann]] and formerly with [[Hazel O'Connor]]. *[[Desmond Llewelyn]], seen as 'Q' in the [[James Bond]] movie series *[[Geoff Love]], band leader *[[Graham McPherson]], aka 'Suggs', a singer who was born in Hastings though didn't live there long. *[[Paul Merton]], TV presenter/comic *[[Spike Milligan]], comedian and writer *[[George Monger]], who at 17 won a Victoria Cross at [[Lucknow]] during the [[Indian Mutiny]] *[[Eugénie de Montijo]], Empress of France *[[Titus Oates]], instigator of the &quot;[[Popish Plot]]&quot; *[[Alex Sanders]], King of the Witches *[[Robert Tressell]], socialist novelist *[[Winifred Wagner]], leader of the [[Bayreuth Festival]] *[[Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington]] *[[Paula Yates]], former TV Presenter *[[Elsie Bowerman]], 1889-1973; [[Suffragette]] and [[RMS Titanic|''Titanic'']] survivor. One of the first women called to the Bar and the first to appear at the [[Old Bailey]]. *[[Marianne North]], 1830-1890, botanical painter with permanent gallery at [[Kew Gardens]], London ===Current Residents=== *[[Emma B (model)|Emma B]], model *[[Kevin Carlyon]], High Priest of British White Witches *[[David Gemmell]], novelist *[[Alex Lester]], [[Radio 2]] presenter *[[Fiona Pitt-Kethley]], writer *[[Christopher Priest]], novelist ==Hastings in Film &amp; TV== *[http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0310455/ Foyle's War] (TV, 2002 onwards) *[http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0128239 Grey Owl] (1999) *[http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0119347 I Want You] (1998) ==See also== *[[Hastings embroidery]] *[[William Parker School]] *[[Hastings United FC]] *[[Hastings Half Marathon]] ==References== # John Manwaring Baines FSA, ''Historic Hastings''. F. J. Parsons Ltd, Hastings (1955 and 1963). # Steve Peak, ''Fishermen of Hastings - 200 years of the Hastings Fishing Community'' (1985), {{SE_England}} [[Category:Local government in East Sussex]] [[Category:Seaside resorts in England]] [[Category:Shire districts]] [[Category:Towns in East Sussex]] [[Category:Hastings]] [[af:Hastings]] [[ar:هيستنغس]] [[bg:Хейстингс]] [[da:Hastings]] [[de:Hastings]] [[es:Hastings]] [[eo:Hastings]] [[fr:Hastings (Grande Bretagne)]] [[nl:Hastings]] [[no:Hastings]] [[nn:Hastings]] [[pl:Hastings]] [[pt:Hastings]] [[ru:Гастингс]] [[sv:Hastings]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Human rights</title> <id>13831</id> <revision> <id>42081584</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T18:24:51Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Ian Pitchford</username> <id>230605</id> </contributor> <comment>clean up using [[Wikipedia:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{rights}} '''Human rights''' refers to the concept of [[human beings]] as having universal [[rights]], or status, regardless of legal [[jurisdiction]], and likewise other localizing factors, such as [[ethnicity]] and [[nationality]]. Philosophically, human rights are based on [[social contract]] theories and their conception of [[natural rights]]. The existence, validity and the content of human rights continue to be the subject to debate in philosophy and political science. However human rights are defined in [[international law]] &amp; covenants, and further, in the domestic laws of many states. There is, however, a great deal of variance between how human rights norms are defined in these multiple contexts and how they are upheld in different local jurisdictions. Within particular states, &quot;human rights&quot; refer to safeguards for the individual against arbitrary use of power by the government regarding 1) the well being of individuals, 2) the freedom and autonomy of individuals, and 3) the representation of the human interest in government. Also, &quot;human rights&quot; refer to small subset of values that should be available for implementation by individual, other individuals, or government. These rights commonly include the [[right to life]], the right to an adequate [[standard of living]], freedom from [[torture]] and other mistreatment, [[freedom of religion]] and of [[freedom of expression|expression]], [[freedom of movement]], the right to [[self-determination]], the right to [[education]], and the right to participation in cultural and political life. These norms are based on the legal and political traditions of [[United Nations member states]] and are incorporated into [[international human rights instruments]] (see below). With the exception of so called non-derogable human rights (the four most important are the right to life, the right to be free from slavery, the right to be free from torture and the right to be free from retroactive application of penal laws), the UN recognises that human rights can be limited or even pushed aside during times of national emergency.[http://www.un.org/esa/socdev/enable/comp210.htm] &quot;the emergency must be actual, affect the whole population and the threat must be to the very existence of the nation. The declaration of emergency must also be a last resort and a temporary measure.&quot; Conduct in war is governed by [[International Humanitarian Law]]. ==Human Rights in international law== The [[1948]], the [[Universal Declaration of Human Rights]] resolution was adopted virtually unanimously by the [[United Nations]] [[General Assembly]]. While not legally binding, it urged member nations to promote a number of human, civil, economic and social rights, asserting these rights are part of the &quot;foundation of freedom, justice and peace in the world&quot;. The declaration limits the behavior of the state, which now has duties to the citizen ([[corelative|rights-duty duality]]). Efforts to create a legally binding form of the charter led to disagreements between various states over which rights were acceptable. Thus, two different covenents, the [[International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights]] (opened for signature 1966, entered into force March 23, 1976) [http://www.unhchr.ch/html/menu3/b/a_ccpr.htm] and the [[International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights]] (opened for signature 1966, entered into force January 3, 1976) [http://www.unhchr.ch/html/menu3/b/a_cescr.htm] were created which bind those states that ratify them to protect the rights listed in the respective covenant. Together these three documents constitute the International Bill of Human Rights. There have also been a number of other conventions regarding particular rights, including the *[[Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide]] (entry into force: 1951) [http://www.unhchr.ch/html/menu3/b/p_genoci.htm] *[[UN Convention Against Torture|Convention against Torture]] (entry into force: 1984) [http://www.unhchr.ch/html/menu3/b/h_cat39.htm] *[[Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination]] (entry into force: 1969) [http://www.unhchr.ch/html/menu3/b/d_icerd.htm] *[[Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women]] (entry into force: 1981) [http://www.un.org/womenwatch/daw/cedaw/frame.htm] *[[Convention on the Rights of the Child]] (entry into force: 1989) [http://www.unicef.org/crc/crc.htm] *[[Rome Statute|Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court]] (entry into force: 2002) A modern interpretation of the original Declaration of Human Rights was made in the [[Vienna Declaration and Programme of Action]][http://www.ohchr.org/english/law/vienna.htm], adopted by the World Conference on Human Rights in 1993. The degree of unanimity over these conventions, in terms of how many and which countries have ratified them vary, as does the degree to which they are respected by various states. The UN has set up a number of bodies to monitor and study human rights, under the leadership of the [[UN High Commissioner for Human Rights]] (HCHR). There are also many regional agreements and organisations governing human rights including the [[European Court of Human Rights]], the only international court with jurisdiction to deal with cases brought by individuals (not states). the [[African Commission
ial and cultural term, in other words, within any culture, any given sexual activity can in principle be categorized as either incestuous or non-incestuous. Inbreeding refers to [[procreation]] between individuals with varying degrees of ''genetic'' closeness only. It is a scientific term rather than a social or cultural term. In many societies, the definition of incest relations and the degree of inbreeding may correlate positively. For example, any sexual relations between people of a given degree of genetic closeness is considered incestuous. In many other societies, the definition of incest and the degree of inbreeding may not correlate as sexual relations between certain people of a given degree of genetic closeness are considered incestuous, whereas sexual relations between other people of the same degree of genetic closeness are not considered incestuous. The consequence of inbreeding is to increase the frequency of [[homozygote]]s within a population. Depending on the size of the population and the number of generations in which inbreeding occurs, the increase of homozygotes may have either good or bad effects. ==Genetics== Some have suggested that the incest taboo is a social mechanism to reduce the chances of congenital birth defects that can result from inbreeding. This argument oversimplifies the consequences of inbreeding in a population. Inbreeding leads to an increase in [[homozygote|homozygocity]], that is, the same allele at the same locus on both members of a chromosome pair. This occurs because close relatives are more likely to share more [[allele]]s than unrelated individuals. If an individual has an allele linked to a [[congenital disorder|congenital birth defect]], it is likely that close relatives would either both have, or both lack this allele; some [[homozygote|homozygotes]] would entirely lack the allele and be born healthy, while others would have two alleles and express the congenital birth defect. In small societies lacking advanced medical care, children with congenital birth defects (i.e. possessing both alleles) would die before reaching the age of reproduction. Consequently, over time the frequency of the allele linked to the defect will decrease over time. The ultimate result would be a healthier population. Anthropologists have argued that this is the case in societies where partners with whom marriage is forbidden and partners with whom marriage is preferred are equally related in genetic terms. In large populations with good health care, however, the diversity of the population would make it likely that there will be consistently high levels of [[heterozygote|heterozygosity]] despite periodic inbreeding. Consequently the alleles linked to congenital birth defects will remain in the population, with a significant chance of a homozygote with the linked allele. Some have suggested that strong psychological inhibitions against incest are the result of evolutionary forces. In what is now a key study of the [[Westermarck effect]], the [[anthropology|anthropologist]] [[Melford E. Spiro]] demonstrated that the inhibition against incest has more to do with social closeness than genetic closeness. In a [[cohort (statistics)|cohort]] study of children raised as [[commune (intentional community)|communal]], that is to say, fictive, siblings in the [[Kiryat Yedidim]] [[kibbutz]] in the [[1960s]], Spiro found practically no intermarriage between his subjects as adults despite pressure from parents and community, even when subjects were not closely related genetically. The social experience of having grown up ''as'' brothers and sisters outweighed any biological drive. ==Incest versus exogamy== [[Anthropology|Anthropologists]] have found that marriage everywhere is governed, often informally, by rules of [[exogamy]], which is [[marriage]] of individuals outside their own groups, and [[endogamy]] where individuals marry inside their own group. What is considered a group, for purposes of either exogamy or endogamy, varies considerably. Thus, in most stratified societies one must marry outside of one's [[nuclear family]], a form of exogamy, but should marry a member of one's own [[Social class|class]], [[race]] or [[religion]], a form of endogamy. In this example, the exogamous group is small and the endogamous group is large. But in some societies, the exogamous group and endogamous group may be of equal size. This is the case in societies divided into [[clan]]s or [[lineage]]s. In most such societies, membership in a clan or lineage is inherited through only one parent. Sex with a member of one's own clan or lineage &amp;mdash; whether a parent or a genetically very distant relative &amp;mdash; would be considered incestuous, whereas sex with a member of another clan or lineage &amp;mdash; including the other parent &amp;mdash; would not be considered incest (although it may be considered wrong for other reasons). For example, [[Trobriand Islands|Trobriand Islanders]] prohibit both sexual relations between a man and his mother, and between a woman and her father, but they describe these prohibitions in very different ways: relations between a man and his mother fall within the category of forbidden relations among members of the same clan; relations between a woman and her father do not. This is because the Trobrianders are [[matrilineal]]; children belong to the clan of their mother and not of their father. Thus, sexual relations between a man and his mother's sister (and mother's sister's daughter) are also considered incestuous, but relations between a man and his father's sister are not. Indeed, a man and his father's sister will often have a flirtatious relationship, and a man and the daughter of his father's sister may prefer to have sexual relations or marry. Anthropologists have hypothesized that in these societies, the incest taboo reinforces the rule of exogamy, and thus ensures that social ties between clans or lineages will be maintained through intermarriage. Chinese and Indian society provides an example of a society with a very broad notion of the endogamous group, as relations between two individuals with the same surname may be banned. Some cultures cover relatives by marriage in incest prohibitions. For example, the question of the legality and morality of a widower who wished to marry his [[Deceased Wife's Sister's Marriage Act 1907|deceased wife's sister]] was the subject of long and fierce debate in [[19th century]] [[United Kingdom|Britain]], involving, among others, [[Matthew Boulton]]. The [[Tanakh]], which is the [[Hebrews|Hebrew]] [[Old Testament]], contains prohibitions, primarily in [[Leviticus]], against sexual relations between various pairs of family members. Father and daughter, mother and son, and other pairs are forbidden on pain of death to engage in sexual relations. According to the interpretation given to it by some anthropologists, it prohibits sexual relations between [[aunt]]s and [[nephew]]s but not between [[uncle]]s and [[niece]]s. ==Types of Incest== ===Overt parental incest=== Overt, or ''contact'', incest by parents against their children, including adolescents, is considered the cruelest form of [[sexual offense]] by child [[psychologist|psychologists]] and is a [[felony]] [[criminal offense]] in the United States and many other nations. Parental incest includes opposite-sex and same-sex forms committed by both fathers and mothers. Child-therapist Susan Forward calls parental incest &quot;perhaps the cruelest, most baffling of human experiences&quot; as it &quot;betrays the very heart of childhood--its innocence&quot;. Parental incest often occurs in situations where one parent is either absent from the household or emotionally or sexually unavailable. The present parent may use the child as a substitute for their missing [[spouse]], and the missing spouse may not be present to provide a check on the other parent. Parental incest obviously has tremendous potential for doing psychological harm to a child, given the child's physical, mental, and emotional dependence on a parent, the total disparity in the power of authority, the disparity in emotional and physical maturity, and the fact that an incestuous relationship is likely to disrupt any healthy aspects of the parent-child relationship. Clinical psychologist, Ken Adams states that &quot;a common myth is that overt incest is the exception not the rule in America. This is not the case.&quot;. He quotes researcher Mike Lew's estimate that there are over 40 million American adults who as children were victims of sexual abuse, 15 million of whom were men. Given the taboo nature of parent-child incest and the fact that it is committed against dependent children it is likely to be under-reported in official government statistics. ===Covert parental incest=== The psychological community uses the term ''covert incest'', ''emotional incest'' or ''psychological incest'' where a parent seduces a child, usually of the opposite-sex, into the role of a lover, spouse, or parent. This is seen as a psycho-sexual violation of a child by his or her parent, and a &quot;covert&quot; one as it is concealed within the parenting role and as no overt, contact incest occurs. Covert incest is seen by child-psychologists as violating the child with demands to protect, love, or parent, to be an intimate [[confidant]], or to fulfill other roles that are obligations of the parent or the parent's spouse. The parent often calls the parent-child relationship &quot;special&quot;, as in adult love, and treats the child as a ''peer'' partner. This is seen, by therapists, as a show of pseudo-respect for the child's pseudo-maturity so the parent can use the child, within pathological parent-child [[role reversal]]s, to meet the ''parent's'' needs, at great cost to the child. Covert incest is thus seen by child-psychologists as deeply harmful to children, as it denies them prope
amongst the members of the [[Warsaw Pact]] nations and instability of its western allies, first indicated by [[Lech Wałęsa]]'s [[1980]] rise to leadership of the [[trade union]] [[Solidarity]], accelerated, leaving the Soviet Union unable to depend upon its satellite states for protection of its borders, as buffer states. By 1989, Moscow had repudiated the [[Brezhnev Doctrine]] in favor of non-intervention in the internal affairs of its Eastern European allies, fatally depriving Eastern Europe’s regimes of the assurance of Soviet assistance and intervention in the event of popular uprising. Gradually, each of the Warsaw Pact nations saw their communist governments fall to popular elections and, in the case of [[Romania]], a violent uprising. By 1991, [[Bulgaria]], [[Czechoslovakia]], [[East Germany]], [[Hungary]], [[Poland]] and Romania's communist governments imposed after [[World War II]] were brought down as revolution swept [[Eastern Europe]]. The Soviet Union also began experiencing upheaval as the political consequenses of ''glasnost'' reverberated throughout the country. Despite efforts at containment, the instability in Eastern Europe inevitably spread to nationalities within the USSR. In [[election]]s to the regional assemblies of the Soviet Union's constituent republics, [[nationalism|nationalists]] as well as radical reformers swept the board. As Gorbachev had weakened the system of internal political repression, the ability of the USSR's central Moscow government to impose its will on the USSR's constituent republics had been largely undermined. The rise of nationalism under ''glasnost'' soon reawakened simmering ethnic tensions in various Soviet republics, further discrediting the ideal of a unified Soviet people. One instance occurred in February 1988, when the government in [[Nagorno-Karabakh]], a predominantly ethnic Armenian region in the Azerbaijan SSR, passed a resolution calling for unification with the [[Armenian SSR]]. Violence against local Azerbajanis was reported on Soviet television, provoking massacres of Armenians in the Azerbaijani city of [[Sumgait]]. Emboldened by the liberalized atmosphere of ''glasnost'', public dissatisfaction with economic conditions was much more overt than ever before in the Soviet period. Although ''perestroika'' was considered bold in the context of Soviet history, Gorbachev's attempts at economic reform were not radical enough to restart the country's chronically sluggish economy in the late 1980s. The reforms made some inroads in decentralization, but Gorbachev and his team left intact most of the fundamental elements of the [[Stalinist]] system, including price controls, inconvertibility of the ruble, exclusion of private property ownership, and the government monopoly over most means of production. By 1990 the Soviet government had virtually lost control over economic conditions. Government spending increased sharply as an increasing number of unprofitable enterprises required state support and consumer price subsidies to continue. Tax revenues declined as revenues from the sales of vodka plummeted during the anti-alcohol campaign and because republic and local governments withheld tax revenues from the central government under the growing spirit of regional autonomy. The elimination of central control over production decisions, especially in the consumer goods sector, led to the breakdown in traditional supplier-producer relationships without contributing to the formation of new ones. Thus, instead of streamlining the system, Gorbachev's decentralization caused new production bottlenecks. ==Yeltsin and the dissolution of the USSR== [[Image:Gorbachev and Yeltsin.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Gorbachev accused [[Boris Yeltsin]], his old rival and [[Russia]]'s first post-Soviet president, of tearing the country apart out of a desire to advance his own personal interests.]] On [[February 7]], [[1990]] the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union agreed to give up its monopoly of [[power (sociology)|power]]. The USSR's constituent republics began to assert their national sovereignty over Moscow, and started a &quot;war of laws&quot; with the central Moscow government, in which the governments of the constituent republics repudiated all-union legislation where it conflicted with local laws, asserting control over their local economies and refusing to pay tax revenue to the central Moscow government. This strife caused economic dislocation, as supply lines in the economy were broken, and caused the Soviet economy to decline further. In January 1990, a visit by Gorbachev to the Lithuanian capital, [[Vilnius]], provoked a pro-independence rally of around 250,000 people. On [[March 11]] [[1990]], Lithuania, led by Chairman of the Supreme Council [[Vytautas Landsbergis]], declared independence. However, the [[Red Army]] had a strong presence in Lithuania. The Soviet Union initiated an economic blockade of Lithuania and kept troops there &quot;to secure the rights of ethnic Russians.&quot; On [[March 30]], [[1990]] the Estonian Supreme Council declared Soviet power in [[Estonia]] since [[1940]] to have been illegal, and started a process to reestablish Estonia as an independent state. On [[January 13]], [[1991]] clashes between Soviet troops and unarmed Lithuanian civilians occurred. This further weakened the Soviet Union's legitimacy, internationally and domestically. On [[March 17]], [[1991]], in a Union-wide [[referendum]] 78&amp;nbsp;% of all voters voted for the retention of the Soviet Union in a reformed form. The Baltics, Armenia, Georgia and [[Moldavian SSR|Moldova]] boycotted the referendum. In each of the other nine republics, a majority of the voters supported the retention of the Soviet Union. In June 1991, direct elections were held for the post of president of the [[Russian SFSR]]. [[Boris Yeltsin]] got 57&amp;nbsp;% of the vote, [[Nikolai Ryzhkov]] got 16&amp;nbsp;%. ===The August Coup=== ''For the main article see [[Soviet coup attempt of 1991]].'' Gorbachev attempted to restructure the Soviet Union into a less centralized state. On [[August 20]], [[1991]], the republics were to sign a new union [[treaty]], making them independent republics. The new treaty was supported by the [[Central Asia|Central Asian]] republics, who needed the Soviet Union to prosper. Disintegration of the USSR also accorded the desire of local authorities, such as Yeltsin's presidency, to establish full power over their territories. The conservatives and remaining patriots of the USSR, still strong within the CPSU and military establishment, were completely opposed to anything which might contribute to the weakening of the Soviet state. On [[August 19]], [[1991]], to prevent the signing of the union treaty by forming the &quot;State Committee on the State Emergency.&quot; The &quot;Committee&quot; put Gorbachev (vacationing in the [[Crimea]]) under house arrest and attempted to restore the union state. The coup leaders quickly issued an emergency decree suspending political activity and banning most newspapers. Thousands of people came out to defend the &quot;White House&quot; (Yeltsin's office), then the symbolic seat of Russian sovereignty. The organizers tried but ultimately failed to arrest Boris Yeltsin, who rallied mass opposition to the coup. On [[August 21]], the coup collapsed, and Gorbachev returned as president of the Soviet Union. Gorbachev's powers were fatally compromised as neither union nor Russian power structures heeded his commands. Through the fall of 1991, the Russian government took over the union government, ministry by ministry. In [[November]] 1991, Yeltsin issued a decree banning the CPSU throughout the Russian republic. On [[September 6]], [[1991]], the Soviet government recognized the independence of the three Baltic states. Then on [[December 1]], [[1991]], Ukraine declared its independence from the USSR after a popular referendum wherein 90&amp;nbsp;% of voters opted for independence. ===Formation of the CIS and official end of the USSR=== On [[December 8]], [[1991]], the leaders of the Russian, Ukrainian, and [[Belarusian SSR|Belarusian]] republics met in [[Belavezhskaya Pushcha]] to issue a declaration that the Soviet Union was dissolved and replaced by the [[Commonwealth of Independent States]] (CIS). Twelve of the fifteen republics signed the [[European Energy Charter]] in the Hague on [[December 17]], [[1991]] as if they were sovereign states, along with 28 other European countries, the European Community, and four non-European countries. On [[December 25]], [[1991]], Gorbachev resigned as president of the USSR. By [[December 31]], [[1991]] all official Soviet institutions had ceased operations as individual republics assumed the central government's role. The Soviet flag was lowered for the last time over the Kremlin. ===Summary=== The four principal elements of the old Soviet system were the hierarchy of soviets, ethnic [[federation|federalism]], state [[socialism]], and Communist Party dominance. Gorbachev's programs of ''perestroika'' and ''glasnost'' produced radical unanticipated effects that brought that system down. As a means of reviving the Soviet state, Gorbachev repeatedly attempted to build a coalition of political leaders supportive of reform and created new arenas and bases of power. He implemented these measures because of economic problems and political inertia that clearly threatened to put the Soviet Union into a state of long-term stagnation. But by using structural reforms to widen opportunities for leaders and popular movements in the union republics to gain influence, Gorbachev also made it possible for nationalist, orthodox communist, and populist forces to oppose his attempts to liberalize and revitalize Soviet communism. Although some of the new movements aspired to replace the Soviet system altogether with a liberal democratic one, others demanded independence for the
l who remained as the official party. Both groups secured about 35 MPs but proceeded to diverge even further after the election, with the National Liberals remaining supporters of the government throughout its life. There were to be a succession of discussions about them rejoining the Liberals but these usually foundered on the issues of free trade and continued support for the National Government and came to little (though in [[1946]] the Liberal and National Liberal party organisations in London did merge). The official Liberals found themselves a tiny minority within a government committed to protectionism. Slowly they found this issue to be one they could not support in any way. In early [[1932]] it was agreed to suspend the principle of [[collective responsibility]] to allow the Liberals to oppose the introduction of tariffs. Later in [[1932]] the Liberals resigned their ministerial posts over the introduction of the [[Ottawa Agreement]] on [[Imperial Preference]]. However they remained sitting on the government benches supporting it in Parliament, though in the country local Liberal activists bitterly opposed the government. Finally in late 1933 the Liberals crossed the floor of the House of Commons and went into complete opposition. By this point their number of MPs was severely depleted. In the [[United Kingdom general election, 1935|1935 general election]], just 17 Liberal MPs were elected, along with Lloyd George and three followers as &quot;[[Independent Liberal Party (UK)|independent Liberals]]&quot;. Immediately after the election the two groups reunited, though Lloyd George declined to play much of a formal role in his old party. However over the next ten years there would be further defections as MPs deserted to either the National Liberals or Labour. There were however a few recruits, such as [[Clement Davies]], who had deserted to the National Liberals in [[1931]] but now returned to the party during the [[World War II|Second World War]] and who would lead it after the war. Samuel had lost his seat in the [[United Kingdom general election, 1935|1935]] election and the leadership of the party fell to [[Archibald Sinclair, 1st Viscount Thurso|Sir Archibald Sinclair]]. With many traditional domestic Liberal policies now regarded as irrelevant, he focused the part on opposition to both the rise of Fascism in Europe and the [[appeasement]] foreign policy of the British government, arguing that intervention was needed, in contrast to the Labour calls for pacifism. Despite the party's weaknesses, Sinclair gained a high profile as he sought to recall the [[Midlothian Campaign]] and once more revitalise the Liberals as the party of a strong foreign policy. In [[1940]] they joined Churchill's wartime coalition government, with Sinclair serving as [[Secretary of State for Air]], the last British Liberal to hold Cabinet rank office. However it was a sign of the party's lack of importance that they were not included in the [[War Cabinet]]. At the [[United Kingdom general election, 1945|1945 general election]], however, Sinclair and many of his colleagues lost their seats to both Conservatives and Labour. By [[1951]] there were only six MPs, all but one of them were aided by the Conservatives not putting up a candidate. In [[1957]] this total fell to five when one of their MPs died and the subsequent by-election was lost to the Labour Party, who fielded the former Liberal Deputy Leader [[Lady Megan Lloyd George]] as their candidate. The Liberal Party seemed close to extinction. During this low period, it was often joked that Liberal MP's could hold meetings in the back of one taxi. ==Liberal revival== Through the [[1950s]] and into the [[1960s]] the Liberals survived only because a handful of constituencies in rural [[Scotland]] and [[Wales]] clung to their Liberal traditions, whilst in two English towns, [[Bolton]] and [[Huddersfield]] local Liberals and Conservatives agreed to each contest only one of the town's two seats. [[Jo Grimond]], for example, who became Liberal leader in [[1956]], was MP for the remote [[Orkney]] and [[Shetland]] islands. Under his leadership a Liberal revival began, marked by the famous [[Orpington by-election, 1962|Orpington by-election]] of March [[1962]] which was won by [[Eric Reginald Lubbock, 4th Baron Avebury|Eric Lubbock]], in which the Liberals won a seat in the London suburbs for the first time since [[1935]]. The Liberals became the first of the major British political parties to advocate British membership of the [[European Economic Community]]. Grimond also sought an intellectual revival of the party, seeking to position it as a non-socialist radical alternative to the Conservative government of the day. In particular he appealed to the new university students and graduates in the post-war world, appealing to younger voters in a way that many of his recent predecessors had failed to do so, asserting a new strand of Liberalism for the post war world. The postwar middle class suburban generation began to find the Liberals' policies attractive again, and under Grimond and his successor, [[Jeremy Thorpe]], the Liberals regained the status of a serious third force in British politics, polling up to 20% of the vote but unable to break the duopoly of Labour and Conservative and win more than fourteen seats in the Commons. An additional problem was competition in the Liberal heartlands in Scotland and Wales from the [[Scottish National Party]] and [[Plaid Cymru]] who both grew as electoral forces from the [[1960s]] onwards. In the [[United Kingdom general election, 1974 (February)|February 1974 general election]] the Conservative government of [[Edward Heath]] lost its overall majority. The Liberals now held the balance of power in the Commons. Heath offered Thorpe the [[Home Office]] if he would join a coalition government with Heath. Thorpe was personally in favour, but the party insisted on a clear government commitment to introducing [[proportional representation]] and a change of Prime Minister. The former was unacceptable to Heath's Cabinet and the latter to Heath personally and so the talks collapsed. Instead a minority Labour government was formed under [[Harold Wilson]] but with no formal support from Thorpe. In the [[United Kingdom general election, 1974 (October)|October 1974 general election]] the Liberals slipped back slightly and the Labour government won a very slender majority. Thorpe was subsequently forced to resign in a sordid sex scandal. The party's new leader, [[David Steel]] negotiated the [[Lib-Lab Pact]] with the new Prime Minister, [[Jim Callaghan]], whereby the Liberals would support the government in crucial votes in exchange for some influence over policy. This pact lasted from [[1977]]-[[1978]] but proved relatively fruitless as the Liberals' key demand of [[proportional representation]] was anathema to most Labour MPs whilst the contacts between Liberal spokespersons and Labour ministers often proved detrimental, such as between finance spokesperson [[John Pardoe]] and [[Chancellor of the Exchequer]] [[Denis Healey]] who did not get on at all. When the Labour government fell in [[1979]], the Conservatives under [[Margaret Thatcher]] won [[united Kingdom general election, 1979|a landslide victory]] which pushed the Liberals back into the margins. In [[1981]] defectors from the moderate wing of the Labour Party, led by former Cabinet ministers [[Roy Jenkins]], [[David Owen]] and [[Shirley Williams]], founded the [[Social Democratic Party (UK)|Social Democratic Party]]. The two parties fought the [[United Kingdom general election, 1983|1983]] and [[United Kingdom general election, 1987|1987]] general elections jointly as the [[SDP-Liberal Alliance]]. During [[1982]] and [[1983]], at the depths of Labour's fortunes under [[Michael Foot]], there was much talk of the Alliance becoming the dominant party of the left and even of Jenkins becoming Prime Minister. In fact, while the Alliance won over 20% of the vote each time, it never made the hoped-for breakthrough in terms of parliamentary seats. ==Merger with SDP== ''(see article at [[Liberal Democrats (UK)]] for details of the successor party)'' In [[1988]] the two parties merged to create (after a number of name changes) the [[Liberal Democrats (UK)|Liberal Democrats]]. Over two-thirds of the members, and all the serving MPs, of the Liberal Party joined this party, led first by Steel and later by [[Paddy Ashdown]] and [[Charles Kennedy]]. With the fading away of the ex-Labour element after [[1992]], this party is seen by many as a continuation of the old Liberal Party under a new name, and some of its MPs and many of its rank-and-file continue to refer to themselves simply as Liberals. However others argue that the Liberal Democrats do not always follow traditional Liberal policies, whilst in terms of personalities they argue that both Paddy Ashdown (who was closer to the SDP than the Liberals on several matters) and Charles Kennedy (who was an SDP not a Liberal MP) were not old-style Liberals. ==The post 1988 Liberal Party== {{main|Liberal Party (UK, 1989)}} A group of Liberal opponents of the merger, including [[Michael Meadowcroft]] formerly Liberal MP for Leeds West and Dr Paul Wiggin who served on Peterborough City Council as a Liberal, continued under the old name of &quot;[[Liberal Party (UK, 1989)|the Liberal Party]]&quot;; this was legally a new organisation (the headquarters, records, assets and debts of the old party were inherited by the Liberal Democrats), but its constitution asserts it to be the same party as that which had previously existed. ==Liberal leaders 1859-1988== '''Liberal Leaders in the House of Lords, 1859-1916''' *[[Granville George Leveson-Gower, 2nd Earl Granville]] 1859-1865 *[[John Russell, 1st Earl Russell]] 1865-1868 *[[Granville George Leveson-Gower, 2nd Earl Granville]] 1868-1891 *[[John Wodehouse, 1st Earl of Kimberley]] 1891-1894 *[[Archibald Phil
v/911/index.html The Final 9/11 Commission Report] * http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/1907462.stm * http://observer.guardian.co.uk/waronterrorism/story/0,1373,680320,00.html [[Category:1973 births|Zubaydah, Abu]] [[Category:Al-Qaeda members|Zubaydah, Abu]] [[Category:Saudi Arabian people|Zubaydah, Abu]] [[Category:Living people|Zubaydah, Abu]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Arithmetic</title> <id>3118</id> <revision> <id>40500069</id> <timestamp>2006-02-21T00:30:58Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>ESkog</username> <id>88149</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>rv to ESkog</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Arithmetic''' or '''arithmetics''' (from the [[Greek language|Greek]] word ''ἀριθμός'' = number) in common usage is a branch of (or the forerunner of) [[mathematics]] which records elementary properties of certain ''operations'' on [[numeral]]s, though professional [[mathematician]]s often treat ''arithmetic'' as a synonym for [[number theory]]. It is the oldest and simplest branch of mathematics, used widely by almost everyone from simple daily counting to more advanced [[science]] and [[business]]. == Arithmetic operations == The traditional arithmetic operations are [[addition]], [[subtraction]], [[multiplication]] and [[division (mathematics)|division]], although more advanced operations (such as manipulations of [[percentage]]s, [[square root]], [[exponentiation]], and [[logarithm|logarithmic functions]]) are also sometimes included in this subject. Arithmetic is performed according to an [[order of operations]]. == Number theory == The term ''arithmetic'' is also used to refer to [[number theory]]. This includes the properties of integers related to [[prime number|primality]], [[divisibility]], and the [[Diophantine equations|solution of equations by integers]], as well as modern research which is an outgrowth of this study. It is in this context that one runs across the [[fundamental theorem of arithmetic]] and [[arithmetic function]]s. ''A Course in Arithmetic'' by [[Serre]] reflects this usage, as do such phrases as ''first order arithmetic'' or ''arithmetical algebraic geometry''. ==Arithmetic in education== [[Primary education]] in mathematics often places a strong focus on arithmetic, as further studies in mathematics as well as [[science]] benefit from an understanding of arithmetic. There are exceptions, such as [[New Math]], which taught arithemtic indirectly using [[set theory]]. The arithmetic of [[natural number]]s, [[integer]]s, [[rational number]]s (in the form of [[vulgar fraction]]s), and [[real number]]s (using the [[decimal]] place-value system known as [[algorism]]) is typically studied by schoolchildren, who learn manual [[algorithm]]s for arithmetic. However, in adult life, many people prefer to use tools such as [[calculator]]s, [[computer]]s, or the [[abacus]] to perform the more complex arithmetical computations. == See also == *[[addition in N]] *[[additive inverse]] *[[associativity]] *[[commutativity]] *[[distributivity]] *[[elementary arithmetic]] *[[finite field arithmetic]] *[[number line]] *[[list of publications in mathematics#Arithmetic| important publications in arithmetic]] *[[arithmetic coding]] *[[arithmetic mean]] *[[arithmetic progression]] &lt;!-- *[[algorism]] (included above) --&gt; &lt;!-- *[[order of operations]] (ditto) --&gt; [[Category:Arithmetic]] [[ar:حساب]] [[bn:পাটিগণিত]] [[br:Aritmetik]] [[ca:Aritmètica]] [[cs:Aritmetika]] [[da:Aritmetik]] [[de:Arithmetik]] [[eo:Aritmetiko]] [[es:Aritmética]] [[fa:حساب]] [[fi:Aritmetiikka]] [[fr:Arithmétique]] [[gl:Aritmética]] [[he:אריתמטיקה]] [[hr:Aritmetika]] [[ia:Arithmetica]] [[id:Aritmatika]] [[io:Aritmetiko]] [[it:Aritmetica]] [[ja:算数]] [[la:Arithmetica]] [[lt:Aritmetika]] [[mk:Аритметика]] [[nl:Rekenen]] [[no:Aritmetikk]] [[pl:Arytmetyka]] [[pt:Aritmética]] [[ru:Арифметика]] [[simple:Arithmetic]] [[sk:Aritmetika]] [[sr:Аритметика]] [[sv:Aritmetik]] [[sw:Hesabu]] [[ta:எண்கணிதம்]] [[th:เลขคณิต]] [[tl:Aritmetika]] [[tr:Aritmetik]] [[uk:Арифметика]] [[zh:算术]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Alternative dispute resolution</title> <id>3119</id> <revision> <id>40594319</id> <timestamp>2006-02-21T18:27:02Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>70.95.194.89</ip> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Expert}} '''Alternative dispute resolution''' or '''ADR''' is a name for several [[dispute resolution]] processes and techniques which, while believed by some to be outside the traditional mainstream of state [[jurisprudence]], have gained acceptance among both the general public and the [[legal]] [[profession]]. In this terminology the processes were initially termed &quot;alternative&quot; by [[20th century]] legal typologists because they were seen as extra-legal supplements to state-sponsored dispute resolution. With the continuing increase in caseload placing great strain on traditional courts, many judges have come to see dispute resolution as an acceptable means of decreasing caseload in traditional courts, while settling disputes in a fair and equitable way. While some would not agree that all alternative methods are always fair and equitable, such methods are much less expensive than a traditional lawsuit. [[Arbitration]] was actually one of the earliest forms of dispute resolution. It was practiced by the jurisconsults of the [[Roman Empire]], and predates the [[adversarial system]] of [[common law]] by at over a thousand years. Many people have played the role of [[Mediation|mediator]], [[Conciliation|conciliator]] or [[Arbitration#Arbitrators|arbitrator]] in many jurisdictions at many times. The [[Vodun]] [[priest]]s of [[Haiti]] are well known for their dispute resolution role which occasionally resulted in the losing party being forced to become a [[zombie]]. The [[King of France]] refused [[lawyers]] permission to practice in [[New France]], so [[Catholicism|Catholic]] priests and [[civil law notary|civil law notaries]] were used by the local populace as dispute resolution resources. ADR is generally classified into at least three subtypes: [[negotiation]], [[mediation]], and [[arbitration]]. (Sometimes a fourth type, [[conciliation]], is included as well, but for present purposes it can be regarded as a form of mediation. The salient features of each type are as follows: *In negotiation, participation is voluntary and there is no third party who either facilitates the resolution process or imposes a resolution. *In mediation, participation is voluntary (in that even though a court may mandate the process itself, the parties are not required to reach a resolution), and there is a [[third party]], a mediator, who facilitates the resolution process but does ''not'' impose a resolution on the parties. *In arbitration, participation is ordinarily voluntary, and there is a third party who ''both'' facilitates the resolution process ''and'' imposes a resolution. To what is &quot;alternative&quot; dispute resolution an alternative? Usually, to [[litigation]] -- but more generally, it is also an &quot;alternative&quot; both to allowing a dispute to drop and to resorting to [[violence]]. Lawyers have humorous jokes about ADR which use the term as a synonym for any form of violent, extralegal dispute resolution (e.g., my ADR is a two-by-four). ADR can increasingly be conducted online or by using technology. This branch of dispute resolution is known as [[Online Dispute Resolution]] or ODR. It should be noted, however, that ODR services can be provided by government entities, and as such may form part of the litigation process. Moreover, they can be provided on a global scale, where no effective domestic remedies are available to disputing parties, as in the case of the [[UDRP]] and [[domain name]] disputes. In this respect, ODR might not satisfy the &quot;alternative&quot; element of ADR. == External links == * [http://www.arbitrator.com Arbitrator.com: provides information and links to ADR seminars, classes, conventions, publications, etc. ] ==See also== *[[Ombudsman]] [[Category:Dispute resolution]] [[he:שיטות אלטרנטיביות ליישוב סכסוכים]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Andersonville, Georgia</title> <id>3120</id> <revision> <id>37348314</id> <timestamp>2006-01-30T11:54:07Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>ManiacK</username> <id>757776</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>cleanup</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:GAMap-doton-Andersonville.PNG|right|Location of Andersonville, Georgia]] '''Andersonville''' is a city located in [[Sumter County, Georgia]]. As of the [[2000]] census, the city had a total population of 331 (174 in [[1910]]). It is in the southwest part of the state, about 60 miles southwest of [[Macon, Georgia]] on the [[Central of Georgia]] [[railroad]]. During the [[American Civil War]], it was the site of a [[prisoner-of-war camp]] which is now [[Andersonville National Historic Site]]. == Geography == Andersonville is located at 32&amp;deg;11'49&quot; North, 84&amp;deg;8'30&quot; West (32.197008, -84.141701){{GR|1}}. According to the [[United States Census Bureau]], the city has a total area of 3.4 [[square kilometre|km&amp;sup2;]] (1.3 [[square mile|mi&amp;sup2;]]). 3.4 km&amp;sup2; (1.3 mi&amp;sup2;) of it is land and none of the area is covered with water. == History == Andersonville, originally named Anderson, Georgia, was given the name Andersonville by the United States Postal Service to prevent confusion with another city, also named Anderson. The town, though unimpressive, and very sparsely populated, was in existence before the establishment of the Confederate prison camp at the site. Andersonville is infamous as a [[Confederate]] [[American Civil War|civil war]] [[Prisoner-of-war_
S. general (assassinated) (b. [[1817]]) *[[1906]] - [[James Anthony Bailey]], American circus impresario (b. [[1847]]) *1906 - [[Francis Pharcellus Church]], American editor and publisher (b. [[1839]]) *[[1916]] - [[Richard Harding Davis]], American author (b. [[1864]]) *[[1926]] - [[Luther Burbank]], American botanist (b. [[1849]]) *[[1970]] - [[Cathy O'Donnell]], American actress (b. [[1923]]) *1970 - [[John O'Hara]], American author (b. [[1905]]) *[[1983]] - [[Dolores del Rio]], Mexican actress (b. [[1905]]) *[[1985]] - [[Enver Hoxha]], Albanian statesman (b. [[1908]]) *[[1987]] - [[Erskine Caldwell]], American author (b. [[1903]]) *1987 - [[Primo Levi]], Italian chemist, composer, librettist, and author (b. [[1919]]) *[[1996]] - [[Jessica Dubroff]], American pilot (b. [[1988]]) *[[1999]] - [[Jean Vander Pyl]], American voice actress (b. [[1919]]) *[[2001]] - [[Harry Secombe]], Welsh actor and comedian (b. [[1921]]) *[[2003]] - [[Cecil Howard Green]], British-born geophysicist and businessman (b. [[1900]]) *[[2005]] - [[André François]], French cartoonist (b. [[1915]]) *2005 - [[Lucien Laurent]], French footballer (b. [[1907]]) ==Holidays and observances== *[[1993]], [[2004]], [[2066]]: [[Easter]] *Anniversary of the Battle of [[Rivas]] (State holiday in [[Costa Rica]]) ==External links== * [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/april/11 BBC: On This Day] * [http://www.tnl.net/when/4/11 Today in History: April 11] ---- [[April 10]] - [[April 12]] - [[March 11]] - [[May 11]] -- [[historical anniversaries|listing of all days]] {{months}} [[af:11 April]] [[an:11 d'abril]] [[ar:11 ابريل]] [[ast:11 d'abril]] [[be:11 красавіка]] [[bg:11 април]] [[bs:11. april]] [[ca:11 d'abril]] [[ceb:Abril 11]] [[co:11 d'aprile]] [[cs:11. duben]] [[csb:11 łżëkwiôta]] [[cv:Ака, 11]] [[cy:11 Ebrill]] [[da:11. april]] [[de:11. April]] [[el:11 Απριλίου]] [[eo:11-a de aprilo]] [[es:11 de abril]] [[et:11. aprill]] [[eu:Apirilaren 11]] [[fi:11. huhtikuuta]] [[fo:11. apríl]] [[fr:11 avril]] [[fy:11 april]] [[ga:11 Aibreán]] [[gl:11 de abril]] [[he:11 באפריל]] [[hr:11. travnja]] [[hu:Április 11]] [[ia:11 de april]] [[id:11 April]] [[ie:11 april]] [[io:11 di aprilo]] [[is:11. apríl]] [[it:11 aprile]] [[ja:4月11日]] [[jv:11 April]] [[ka:11 აპრილი]] [[ko:4월 11일]] [[ku:11'ê avrêlê]] [[lb:11. Abrëll]] [[li:11 april]] [[lt:Balandžio 11]] [[mk:11 април]] [[ms:11 April]] [[nap:11 'e abbrile]] [[nl:11 april]] [[nn:11. april]] [[no:11. april]] [[oc:11 d'abril]] [[pam:Abril 11]] [[pl:11 kwietnia]] [[pt:11 de Abril]] [[ro:11 aprilie]] [[ru:11 апреля]] [[scn:11 di aprili]] [[sco:11 Aprile]] [[se:Cuoŋománu 11.]] [[simple:April 11]] [[sk:11. apríl]] [[sl:11. april]] [[sq:11 Prill]] [[sr:11. април]] [[sv:11 april]] [[te:ఏప్రిల్ 11]] [[th:11 เมษายน]] [[tl:Abril 11]] [[tr:11 Nisan]] [[tt:11. Äpril]] [[uk:11 квітня]] [[ur:11 اپریل]] [[vi:11 tháng 4]] [[wa:11 d' avri]] [[war:Abril 11]] [[zh:4月11日]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Adhesive</title> <id>2396</id> <revision> <id>41245219</id> <timestamp>2006-02-26T01:02:43Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>LeCire</username> <id>251741</id> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">:''Glue gun redirects here; for the band Glue Gun, see [[Glue Gun (band)]].'' An '''adhesive''' is a compound that [[adhesion|adheres]] or bonds two items together. Adhesives may come from either natural or synthetic sources. Some modern adhesives are extremely strong, and are becoming increasingly important in modern construction and industry. == History == The first adhesives were [[gum]]s and other plant [[resin]]s. Archaeologists have found 6000-year-old [[ceramic]] vessels that had broken and been repaired using plant resin. Most early adhesives were [[animal glue]]s made by rendering animal products such as the Native American use of [[American Bison|buffalo]] hooves. Native Americans in what is now the eastern United States used a mixture of [[spruce]] gum and fat as adhesives and as [[caulk]] to waterproof seams in their birchbark canoes. During the times of Babylonia, tar-like glue was used for gluing statues. Also, Egypt was one of the most prominent users of adhesives. The Egyptians used animal glues to adhere tombs, furniture, ivory, and papyrus. Also, the Mongols used adhesives to make their short bows. In Europe in the Middle Ages, egg whites were used to decorate parchments with gold leaves. In the [[1700s]], the first glue factory was founded in Holland, which manufactured hide glue. Later, in the [[1750s]], the British introduced fish glue. As the modernization continued, new patents were issued by using rubber, bones, starch, fish, and casein. Modern adhesives have improved flexibility, toughness, curing rate, temperature and chemical resistance. (HSL) ==Categories of adhesives== ===Natural Adhesives=== Adhesives based on vegetable (natural resin), food (animal hide and skin), and mineral sources (inorganic materials). (HSL) ===Synthetic Adhesives=== Adhesives based on elastomers, thermoplastic, and thermosetting adhesives. === Drying adhesives === These adhesives are a mixture of ingredients (typically [[polymers]]) dissolved in a [[solvent]]. [[Glue]]s and [[rubber cement]]s are members of the ''drying adhesive'' family. As the solvent evaporates, the adhesive hardens. Depending on the chemical composition of the adhesive, they will adhere to different materials to greater or lesser degrees. These adhesives are typically weak and are used for [[household]] applications. Some intended for small children are now made non-toxic. ===Hot adhesives (Thermoplastic adhesive)=== [[Image:MVC-013F.JPG|right|thumbnail|200px|A glue gun, an example of a hot adhesive]] Also known as &quot;hot melt&quot; adhesives, these adhesives are generally [[thermoplastic]]s; they are applied hot and simply allowed to harden as they cool. These adhesives have become popular for crafts because of their ease of use and the wide range of common materials to which they can adhere. A glue gun, pictured right, is one method of applying a hot adhesive. The glue gun melts the solid adhesive and then allows the liquid to pass through the &quot;barrel&quot; of the gun onto the material where it solidifies. === Reactive adhesives === Reactive adhesives are generally [[thermosetting plastic]]s. [[Epoxy resin]]s are the most common example of this kind of adhesive. Reactive adhesives generally come in two separate containers. The two ingredients of the adhesive must be mixed in certain proportions immediately before application. Generally one ingredient is a [[monomer]], or [[resin]], and the second is a reaction initialiser. When the two are mixed together, a [[polymer]]isation reaction occurs which solidifies the adhesive. Reaction adhesives may also react with the surface of the materials to be stuck together. This process is called [[bonding]], in which the adhesive forms chemical bonds with the material, and is distinct from sticking, the action of common glues. A special case of this kind of adhesive is [[cyanoacrylate]] (more commonly known by the brand name &quot;super glue&quot;) which reacts with trace moisture on the surfaces being bonded and therefore does not need any mixing before application. Reactive adhesives are very strong and are used for high-stress applications such as attaching wings to aircraft. Because the strength of a reactive adhesive is a result of chemical bonding with the surface material, reactive adhesives are applied in thin films. Reactive adhesives are less effective when there is a secondary goal of filling gaps between the surfaces.. Such adhesives are frequently used to prevent loosening of bolts and screws in rapidly moving assemblies, such as automobile engines. They are largely responsible for the quieter running modern car engines. === Temporary adhesives === Temporary adhesives are designed to repeatedly or easily stick and unstick. They have low adhesion and generally can not support much weight. They are commonly used on paper, but can be used on many other things. They have common applications such as bookmarks, informal notes, and office supplies. Brands include [[Blu-Tack]], a gum-like adhesive (a.k.a. &quot;sticky tak&quot;), [[Sticking plaster|adhesive bandages]], and the pressure-activated adhesive applied to the back of [[3M]]'s [[Post-it note]]s. The adhesives on items such as [[duct tape]] can generally adhere longer than these other products. Also see [[adhesive tape]] and [[gaffer tape]]. [[Plastic wrap]] displays temporary adhesive properties as well. == Adhesive failure == {{cleanup-date|February 2006}} Adhesives may fail in one of two ways: Adhesive failure is the failure of the adhesive to stick or bond with the material to be adhered (also known as the substrate or adherend). Cohesive failure is structural failure of the adhesive. Adhesive remains on both substrate surfaces, but the two items separate. Two substrates can also separate through structural failure of one of the substrates; this is not a failure of the adhesive. In this case the adhesive remains intact and is still bonded to one substrate and the remnants of the other. For example, when one removes a price label, adhesive usually remains on the label and the surface. This is cohesive failure. If, however, a layer of paper remains stuck to the surface, the adhesive has not failed. As another example, when someone tries to pull apart [[Oreo]] cookies with the filling all on one side. The goal is an adhesive failure, rather than a cohesive failure. [[Category:Adhesives| ]] [[de:Klebstoff]] [[es:Adhesivo]] [[fr:Adhésif]] [[io:Adherivo]] [[he:דבק]] [[nl:Lijmen]] [[pt:Cola]] [[ja:接着剤]] [[sv:Lim]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Anthony Hopkins</title> <id>2397</id> <revision> <id>42064579</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T15:46:14Z</timestamp> <contributor>
e like orthodox Christians. When the term &quot;Albigensians&quot; or &quot;Albigensian Crusades&quot; are used they are usually referring to these later Cathars which were a branch of the earlier sect. They believed that the principles of good and evil continually oppose each other in the world. The Albigenses opposed marriage, bearing children (because they thought bringing life into the world to be a sin), and eating meat. Their enemies claimed they advocated suicide,when in reality they only advocated the voluntary cessation of food by those already close to death (so that when they died, they would have little taint on them and free of Earthly desires). In the [[14th century]] the church declared them [[heretics]]. In the years that followed the [[Crusades]] and [[Inquisitions]] against them, they slowly dissolved, and by the 15th century they had completely disappeared as a sect. By the time [[Pope Innocent III]] came to power in 1198, he had resolved to suppress the Cathari. There followed over forty years of war against the indigenous population. During this period some 500,000 Languedoc men women and children were massacred. [http://www.languedoc-france.info/12_cathars.htm] However many of the Albigensians, who as previously stated came closer and closer to identifying with orthodox Christianity, merged with the Waldensians prior to their sect being wiped out in the inquisitions. The Albigensians left their mark on the Waldensian movement which is evident in the Waldensian theology and customs. The Waldensian movement was opposed to the early Cathar movement but was known to work side by side with the Albigensians. There exists today a modern sect that claims to be Cathars which received its consolamentum from survivers of the original sect. This however is difficult if not impossible to prove. ==See also== * [[Cathars]] * [[Albigensian Crusade]] ==External links== *[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/01267e.htm Article from the Old Catholic Encyclopedia on the Albigensian] *[http://www.katharer.de Site of the German Cathars] [[Category:Gnosticism]] [[de:Katharer]] [[fr:Cathares]] [[nl:Katharen]] [[pl:Albigensi]] [[simple:Cathar]] [[ja:カタリ派]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Alexander Solzhenitsyn</title> <id>2146</id> <revision> <id>15900584</id> <timestamp>2002-06-19T01:59:25Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Guppie</username> <id>179</id> </contributor> <comment>Redirect to &amp;quot;Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn&amp;quot;</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Armour</title> <id>2147</id> <revision> <id>41873852</id> <timestamp>2006-03-02T07:31:14Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Jrleighton</username> <id>140144</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>/* See also */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}} [[Image:Greek Hoplite.jpg|thumb|180px|A [[hoplite]] wearing (only) a [[helmet]], [[breastplate]] [[greave]]s and a [[shield]].]] '''Armour''' ([[Commonwealth English]]) or '''armor''' ([[American English]]), is protective clothing intended to defend its wearer from intentional harm in [[combat]] and [[military]] engagements, typically associated with soldiers. Armour has been used throughout [[recorded history]], beginning with [[hide]]s, [[leather]], and [[bone]], before progressing to [[bronze]], then [[steel]] during the [[middle ages]], to modern fabrics such as [[kevlar]], [[Dyneema]] and [[ceramic]]s. Armour was also commonly used to protect [[war animal]]s, such as [[war horse]]s and [[war elephant |elephants]]. Armour for war horses was called &quot;barding&quot;. Armour has also been produced for [[hunting dog]]s that hunt dangerous game, such as [[boar]]s. Since [[World War I]], [[armoured fighting vehicle]]s are protected by [[vehicle armour]]. '''Armour''', or ''[[the armoured]]'' is also a heavily armoured military force or organization, such as heavy [[infantry]] or heavy [[cavalry]] (as opposed to [[light infantry]] or cavalry). In modern [[armoured warfare]], '''armoured units''' equipped with [[tank]]s serve the historic role of heavy cavalry, and belong to the '''armoured branch''' in a national [[army]]'s organization (sometimes, the ''armoured corps''). Heavy infantry have been replaced by [[mechanized infantry]]. ==History== [[Image:SamuraiArmor.jpg|thumb|200px|Japanese [[Samurai]] [[Odoshi]] Armor.]] Throughout human history, the development of armor has always run parallel to the development of increasingly more efficient weaponry on the battlefield, creating an [[arms race]] of sorts across multiple [[civilization]]s to create better protection without sacrificing mobility. In [[European history]], well-known armor types include the [[lorica segmentata]] of the [[Roman legions]], the [[chainmail]] [[hauberk]] of the early medieval age, and the full steel [[plate armor]] worn by later medieval [[knight]]s, and a few key parts, ( breast and back plates) by heavy cavalry in several European countries right up to the first year of World War 1. (1914-15). In East Asian history, [[lamellar armour]] and [[brigandine]] was popular. In pre-Qin dynasty times, leather armor was made out of exotic animals such as rhinoceros. Chinese influence in Japan would result in the Japanese adopting Chinese styles, their famous 'samurai armor' being a result of this influence. === European Medieval Armour: Steel cap, or helmet with linked chain mail 950 A.D. to 1300 === The early middle ages saw the gradual adoption of coats of chain mail, that offered protection from arrows and edged weapons. The mail was made of individually forged steel links, which formed a flexible protective coat for the warrior. A steel helmet fit over the head, usually conforming to the shape of the upper head in a rounded fashion. A nose guard was frequently fitted to the helmet, It could best be described as a steel skull cap. Otherwise, the mail, which usually conformed to cover the neck, legs, arms and hands, offering overall body protection. A medium sized shield was usually carried in the non-weapon bearing hand. This simple combination carried the European combatant through the 3 centuries that included, the [[Norman Conquest]] of England, and the several [[Crusades]] to the &quot;Holy Land&quot;. === Transitional period, the 1300s === Little by little, small additional plates or disks of steel were added to the mail to protect vulnerable areas. The knees were capped with steel, and two circular disks were fitted to protect the underarms, by the late 1200s. The small skull cap evolved into a bigger true helmet, as it was lengthened downward to protect the back of the neck and the sides of the head. This evolutionary process proceeded to add steel plate elements to protect the shins, feet, throat and upper chest. and soon (mid to late 1300s) most of the mail was covered by these protective plates. The next phase saw the plate cover almost all parts of the mail, and several forms of closed-helmets were introduced in the late 1300s. === Plate armour, 1400 and later === {{main |plate armour}} [[image:Joan d'Arc.jpg|thumb|200px|St.Joan mounted in armour {{3d_glasses}}]] Probably the most recognised style of armour in the world, associated with the [[knight]]s of Late Medieval Europe, but continuing later through the 1500 &amp; 1600s in all European countries. Heavy cavalry continued to use breast &amp; back plates into the early 20th century in elite cuirassier units. === Musket ball stopping armour === [[Image:Zbroja Batorego.jpg|200px|thumb|Armour of King [[Stefan Batory]] of [[Poland]], painted by [[Jan Matejko]].]] Conventional wisdom says that plate armour faded away on the battlefild soon after firearms were introduced. This is very much not the case. Crude cannon were being used before plate armour became the norm. Soon, in the 1400s a small, mobile &quot;[[gonne|hand cannon]]&quot; was being used by horsemen. Improved cross bows, and the first pistols and pre-musket long arms, began to take a heavy toll on the mail clad, and partially plated knights and foot soldiers. Rather than dooming the use of body armour, the threat of small firearms intensified the use and further refinement of plate armour. There was a 150 year period, that more and better metallurgically advanced steel armour was being used, precisely because of the danger posed by the gun. In the early years of pistol and muskets, fire arms were relatively low velocity,the full suits of armor, or breast plates actually stopped bullets fired from a modest distance. The front breast plates were, in fact, commonly shot as a test. The impact point would be encircled with ingraving to point it out. This was called the &quot;proof&quot; . It was not uncommon for a man in armour, mounted on a horse, to ride up closer to the enemy, in a tactical maneuver called &quot;The wheel&quot;, and discharge his hand-cannon or later, pistols, right into the faces of the adversary at close range. Cross-bow arrows, if still used, would seldom penetrate good plate, nor would any bullet but one fired from close range. In effect, (and this has long been misunderstood), plate armour actually came to replace chain mail because it was relatively, &quot;musket ball proof&quot;. Plate would stop all of these at a distance. Hence, guns and cavalry in plate armour were &quot;threat and remedy&quot; together on the battlefield for almost 400 years. For most of that period, it allowed horsemen to fight while being the targets of defending musketeers without being easily killed. Full suits of armour were actually worn by generals and princely commanders right up to the second decade of the 1700s. It was the only way they could be mounted &amp; survey the overall battlefield with safety from distant musket fire.
ng boomerang]] A '''boomerang''' is a curved, usually [[wood]]en, device which is thrown. A boomerang spins as it flies through the air, and can travel long distances. A boomerang is designed to, when thrown correctly, fly in a curved path to return to the person who threw it. ''''To boomerang'''' has entered the English language, meaning akin to 'backfire' as in: 'this plan could very well boomerang on us'. This term has also been used to signify young adults who temporarily return home to live with their parents after several years away in a job or college, often for financial reasons. ==History== Boomerang-like devices, including ''hunting sticks'', have been used all over the world for [[hunting]], [[religion|religious]] and [[recreation]]al activities. Their origin is still not fully clear. Research has shown that ancient tribes in [[Europe]] used special throwing axes. Also, in ancient [[Egypt]] a special type of stick was exclusively used by the [[pharaoh]]s for hunting birds. However, the world famous &quot;country of the boomerang&quot; is [[Australia]], where the [[Indigenous Australians|Australian Aborigine]]s have used both boomerangs and hunting sticks for thousands of years. The name of the boomerang comes from the [[Indigenous Australians|Indigenous Australian]] [[Turuwal]] tribe of [[Indigenous Australians|Aborigine]]s who lived south of [[Sydney, Australia]]. Note that the word &quot;boomerang&quot; automatically implies it is returning; a hunting, or throwing, stick (called a &quot;kylie&quot; by boomerang enthusiasts), is a different thing, and the two terms should not be used interchangeably. There is little to no evidence that returning boomerangs were ever used as hunting tools. Today, boomerangs are most often used as sporting items. There are different types of throwing contests: accuracy of return; aussie round; trick catch; maximum time aloft; fast catch; and endurance (See below). The modern sport boomerang (often referred to as a 'boom' or 'rang', is made of [[Finland|Finnish]] hardwood [[plywood]], [[hardwood]] [[plastic]] or [[composite material]]s and comes in many different shapes and colors. Most sport boomerangs typically weigh less than 100 [[gram]]s, with MTA boomerangs (boomerangs used for the maximum time aloft event) often under 25 grams. ==Competitions and Records== In international competition, a '''world cup''' is held every second year, with teams from [[Germany]] and the [[United States]] dominating international competition. The individual World Champion title was won in 2000, 2002 and 2004 by Swiss thrower Manuel Schütz. === Events === In the U.S., most competitions are comprised of six standard events as follows: '''Accuracy:''' Boomerangs are thrown from the center of a bullseye and points are awarded based on where they land. The scores from either five or ten throws are then added. '''Aussie Round:''' Boomerangs are thrown from the center of a bullseye and points are awarded both for where they are caught within the bullseye and for how far they travel (up to 50 meters). The scores from five throws are added. '''MTA:''' In MTA, or Maximum Time Aloft, boomerangs are thrown and must be caught within a 100 meter radius circle. Generally, times are added from the best three of five throws. '''Trick Catch:''' A series of progressively difficult trick catches is made with one boomerang, then with two simultaneously. '''Fast Catch:''' Five consecutive throws and catches are made from the center of the bullseye in the shortest amount of time possible. '''Endurance:''' As many consecutive throws and catches are made from the center of the bullseye as possible within five minutes. Other events are possible such as long distance, GLORP (similar to basketball's HORSE), or juggling among others. === World Records === '''Accuracy:''' Thomas Stehrenberger of Switzerland in 2001 with 50 +18 points. '''Aussie Round:''' Fridolin Frost of Germany in 2005 with 96 points. '''MTA:''' Eric Darnell of the United States in 1997 with 1'44.87&quot;. '''Trick Catch:''' Manuel Schütz of Switzerland in 2004 with 390 points. '''Fast Catch:''' Adam Ruhf of the United States in 1996 with 14.60&quot;. '''Endurance:''' Manuel Schütz of Switzerland in 2005 with 81 catches. '''Long Distance:''' Manuel Schütz of Switzerland in 1999 with 238 meters. '''Smallest Boomerang:''' Sadir Kattan of Australia in 1997 with 48 mm [1.8 in] long and 45 mm [1.77 in] wide. ==Design== [[Image:Boomerangs - melbourne show 2005.jpg|thumb|250px|Boomerangs for sale at the 2005 Melbourne Show]] A returning boomerang is a [[propeller]]. Though it is not a requirement that the boomerang be in its traditional shape, it is usually flat. A falling boomerang starts spinning and most then fall in a spiral. When the boomerang is thrown with high spin, the [[wing]]s produce [[Lift (force)|lift]]. Larger boomerangs are used in hunting, thus they drop on the ground after striking the target. Smaller ones are use in sport, and are the only boomerangs that return to the thrower. No one would think a spinning object flies a straight line, neither does the boomerang, it flies a turn or to be clearly: It flies on a circle. So it naturally returns to its starting point unless all spin is eaten up. Now in more detail: Returning boomerangs consist of two or more arms or [[wing]]s, connected at an angle. Each wing is shaped as an [[airfoil]], air travels faster over one surface of an airfoil than the other, as it follows the longer path, thus creating [[Lift (force)|lift]], along what is roughly a plane which intersects the airfoil at a near right angle along the long axis of the wing. These wings are set so that the lift created by each wing opposes the lift of the other, but at an angle such that the flight pattern is constantly shifted as the forces of lift, drag, speed, [[rotational inertia]] etc. 'attempt' to reach equilibrium, see [[Boomerang engineer]]. This is what makes the boomerang 'return gracefully to the hurler, fluttering to a stop in his hand'... when thrown correctly. This is also what makes the boomerang 'rocket straight up into the air before plunging to its shattered doom'... when thrown incorrectly. With the exception of long-distance boomerangs, they should not be thrown sidearm or like a frisbee, but rather almost vertically. Fast Catch boomerangs usually have three symmetrical wings (in the planform view), whereas a Long Distance boomerang is most often shaped very similar to a question mark. Maximum Time Aloft boomerangs have one wing considerably longer than the other. This feature, along with carefully executed bends and twists in the wings, help to set up an 'auto-rotation' effect to maximize the boomerang's hover-time in descending from its highest point in the flight. Prominent boomerang designer/builders include [[Bob Burwell]] and Tony Butz from Australia, [[Rusty Harding]] from the USA, Jerri Leu from Brazil and others. == Basic Throwing Instructions == * A right-handed boomerang circles towards the left, a left-handed boomerang circles towards the right. Most sport boomerangs are in the range of 2.5 to about 4 ounces. the range on most of these is between 25 - 40 yards (or meters, it is not so precise) * A right or left handed boomerang can be thrown with either hand, but the flight direction will depend upon the boomerang, not the thrower. * Grasp one wing of the boomerang nearly vertically so that the other wing points forward and the flat side is away from you. The other way works also, but this way is usually easier to learn. Holding the tip by just end between thumb and one or two fingers, launch the boomerang forward quickly while trying more for spin than for very much force. * The boomerang should flatten out on its own and arc around, sometimes coming to rest a little in front of the thrower or behind the thrower, but ideally should hover in gently allowing the thrower to catch it as a sort of &quot;boomerang sandwich&quot; between the thrower's hands. * One should not throw a returning boomerang level, like a flying disc. The boomerang will turn in the direction of the top of its airfoils, so if that direction happens to be up rather than to the side it may fly high enough that the landing causes damage to the boomerang or whatever it lands on. ==Trivia== * There are many injected plastic molds in the world but the most famous and used are the Tri-Fly from Eric Darnell (USA) and the LMI&amp;FOX Models (France). * The boomerang sport in Brazil is growing fast with many news: special plywood created for boomerangs (BWoods), Kellogg's company inserting five million boomerangs in cereal boxes, and the First Pan-American Championship set for August 2005. * The most famous seller in the world is &quot;The Boomerang Man&quot;, Richard Harrison. Since 1975 he has introduced thousands of new throwers to the sport. * The next World Championship will be held in Asahikawa, Japan, in 2006. * While fiercely competitive, almost all throwers are amateurs in the sense that they do not receive money as prizes. * The International Federation of Boomerang Associations (IFBA) was officially launched in 2004 at the World Championships in France. * Link from the Legend of Zelda series also uses a boomerang. In the 2D games, it crossed half or the full screen before returning. In the 3D games, it can be aimed towards enemies and objects. It is refered to as the &quot;Gale Boomerang&quot; in the upcoming Zelda title (Twilight Princess). Both the Gale Boomerang and the one from The Wind Waker can lock onto multiple targets at once. Some of the 2D titles also featured the &quot;magic boomerang&quot; which could be steered after being thrown. * The long distance boomerang world record is 238 m, held by Manuel Schütz of Switzerland. The boomerang probably travelled more than 500 m before returning to its starting point! * [[Sango]], a fiction
rtime ally. In order to avoid the same humiliation, the [[Japan|Empire of Japan]] negotiated the [[Gentlemen's Agreement]] in 1907, a protocol that required Japan to prevent her citizens from emigrating to the U.S. in exchange for better treatment of those already living there. Congress also banned persons because of their health, beliefs, or lack of education. An 1882 law banned entry of &quot;lunatics&quot; and infectious disease carriers, and the 1901 [[Anarchist Exclusion Act]] kept people out because of their political beliefs. A literacy requirement was added in [[Immigration Act of 1917]]. In 1921, the United States Congress passed the [[Emergency Quota Act]] establishing national quotas on immigration. The quotas were based on the number of foreign-born residents of each nationality who were living in the United States as of the 1910 census. A more complex quota plan replaced this &quot;emergency&quot; system under the [[Immigration Act of 1924]]. One major change was that the reference census used was changed to that of 1890, which greatly reduced the number of Southern and Eastern European immigrants. Immigrants from most of the [[Western Hemisphere]], however, were admitted outside the quota system. The [[McCarran-Walter Act|Immigration and Nationality Act of 1952]] (the McCarran-Walter Act) revised the quotas again, basing them on the 1920 census. For the first time in American history, racial distinctions were omitted from the U.S. Code. Nevertheless, most of the quota allocation still went to immigrants from [[Ireland]], the [[United Kingdom]] and [[Germany]]. The anti-subversive features of this law are still in force and have been used to bar the entry of countless individuals based upon their political expressions. The [[Immigration and Nationality Act Amendments of 1965]] (the Hart-Cellar Act) abolished the system of national-origin quotas. There was, for the first time, a limitation on Western Hemisphere immigration (120,000 per year), with the Eastern Hemisphere limited to 170,000. Most of these numbers were allocated to immigrants who were relatives of United States citizens. In 1986, the [[Immigration Reform and Control Act of 1986 | Immigration Reform and Control Act]] was passed, creating for the first time penalties for employers who hire illegal immigrants. IRCA also contained an amnesty for illegal immigrants already in the United States, and mandated the intensification of the activities of the [[United States Border Patrol]], increasing the militarization of the [[US-Mexico border]]. By one account, the actual number of annual legal immigrants was estimated at 500,000 to 600,000 in 1989. This subsequently increased and is now well over 1 million annually, not including illegal migration or temporary work visas. Several pieces of legislation signed into law in 1996 marked a turn towards harsher policies for both legal and illegal immigrants. The [[Anti-Terrorism and Effective Death Penalty Act]] (AEDPA) and [[Illegal Immigration Reform and Immigrant Responsibility Act]] (IIRIRA) vastly increased the categories of criminal activity for which immigrants, including [[United States Permanent Resident Card|green card]] holders, can be deported and imposed [[mandatory detention]] for certain types of deportation cases. As a result, well over 1,000,000 individuals have been deported since 1996. See also: [[List of United States Immigration Acts]] ==Contemporary immigration== Contemporary immigrants settle very predominantly in seven states: [[California]], [[New York]], [[Florida]], [[Texas]], [[Pennsylvania]], [[New Jersey]] and [[Illinois]]. The combined total immigrant population of these seven states formed 70% of the total foreign-born population as of 2000. There are a number of discernable categories of immigrants to the United States, each with unique and shared issues. ===Nonimmigrant visas (mostly work visas)=== There are a number of employment-based temporary visas (defined as &quot;nonimmigrant&quot; visas under the immigration law), including the following popular ones, among others: ====H-1B==== The H-1B classification is for professional-level jobs that require a minimum of a bachelor’s degree in a specific academic field. In addition, the employee must have the degree or the equivalence of such a degree through education and experience. Before the H-1B petition can be filed with [[U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services|USCIS]] the employer must file a “Labor Condition Application (LCA) with the Department of Labor demonstrating that it is paying the required wage for this position in the geographic region where the job is located. The required wage for the position is the higher of the “actual wage” that is paid to other employees in this position or the “prevailing wage” which is determined by government surveys and the state labor office offices. As a general rule, a person who is in one nonimmigrant status may not change status or change employers in that status until he or she applies with USCIS for such a change, and such change is granted. However, a provision called “H-1B portability” permits certain individuals already in the United States in H-1B status to commence employment for a new employer once a new employer’s H-1B petition is filed with USCIS. At the dawn of the 21st century, the controversy revived when many high-tech and software-engineering workers started to arrive from abroad on &quot;H-1B&quot; [[visa (document) | visa]]s. [[H-1B visa|H-1B]] expansion was widely unpopular, but was supported by a number of different groups, including campaign donations from corporate interests and from persons who support the arrival of persons from abroad who are highly skilled. Critics claimed that these visas decreased the wages of American citizens, displaced American citizens, enabled corporations to enforce extreme workplace discipline and get around laws concerning working conditions, created national security problems and increased the risk of transmitting new diseases to the United States. However, except for isolated cases of abuse, these fears are mostly unwarranted. In order to obtain an H-1B visa, the employer must show that it will pay the higher of the prevailing local wage or the wage it pays other U.S. who have similar education and experience. The employer is not required to prove there are no American workers available to perform the work unless the employer has a high percentage of current workers in H-1B status (&quot;H-1B dependent&quot;). However, some economists saw H-1B expansion as an assault on the American middle class that benefited the wealthy and made it impossible to maintain traditional American standards of living, or provide incentives to improve productivity as rapidly as nations like Japan with more restrictive immigration policies. The companies who imported the workers usually argued that the U.S. lacked enough American citizens to do the work. A few economists argued that, whatever the truth of that assertion, importing the workers provided more benefits to the U.S., and otherwise the recruiting companies would simply offshore the entire operation. It was claimed this would likely prove worse for the U.S. economy as a whole, because in the first scenario foreign national workers living in the United States would at least spend money in the United States, while the multi-national corporations that would purportedly export the jobs to overseas locations would probably not pass down as much of the savings to the U.S. consumer who purchased for them. ====L-1 intracompany transferee==== The L-1 classification is for international transferees who have worked for a related organization abroad for at least one year in the past three years that will be coming to the United States to work in an executive or managerial (L-1A) or specialized knowledge capacity (L-1B). To qualify as an international executive, the employee must meet the following requirements: *Direct the management of the organization or a major component or function; *Establish the goals and policies of the organization, component, or function; *Exercise wide latitude in discretionary decision-making; and *Receive only general supervision or direction from higher-level executives, the board of directors, or stockholders of the organization. To qualify as an international manager, the employee must meet the following requirements: *Manage the organization or department, subdivision, function or component of the organization; *Supervise and control the work of other supervisory, professional or managerial employees, or manage an essential function within the organization, or a department or subdivision of the organization; *The authority to hire and fire, or recommend hire/fire and other personnel actions (such as promotion and leave authorization), or if no employees are directly supervised, functions at a senior level within the organizational hierarchy or with respect to the function managed; and **Exercises discretion over the day-to-day operations of the activity or function for which the employee has authority. To qualify as a specialized knowledge transferee, the employee must meet the following requirements: *Possess knowledge of the company product and its application in international markets; or *An advanced level of knowledge of processes and procedures of the company. An employee has specialized knowledge if the knowledge is different from that generally found in the particular industry. Possible characteristics of an employee who possesses specialized knowledge including knowledge that is valuable to the employers competitiveness in the market place; knowledge of foreign operating conditions as a result of special knowledge not generally found in the industry; has worked abroad in a capacity involving significant assignments which have enhanced the employer’s productivity, competitiveness, image or financial position; poss
Monday the CDU announced [[Angela Merkel]] as conservative candidate for chancellorship, aspiring to be the first female chancellor in Germany ever. Whereas in May and June 2005 victory of the conservatives seemed highly likely, with some polls giving them an absolute majority, this picture changed shortly before the election at [[September 18]], [[2005]], especially after the conservatives introduced [[Paul Kirchhof]] as potential minister of the treasury, and after a TV duel between Merkel and Schröder where many considered Schröder to have performed better. New for the 2005 election was the alliance between the newly formed [[Labour and Social Justice Party]] (WASG) and the PDS, planning to fuse into a common party (see [[Left Party (Germany)|Left Party.PDS]]). With the former SPD chairman [[Oskar Lafontaine]] for the WASG and [[Gregor Gysi]] for the PDS as prominent figures, this alliance soon found interest in the media and in the population. Polls in July saw them as high as 12 %. After success in the state election for [[Saxony]], the alliance between the far right parties [[National Democratic Party of Germany (NPD)|National Democratic Party]] and [[Deutsche Volksunion]] (DVU), which planed to leapfrog the &quot;five-percent hurdle&quot; on a common party ticket was another media issue. The election results of [[September 18]] [[2005]] were surprising insofar as they differed widely from the polls of the previous weeks. The conservatives lost votes compared to 2002, reaching only 35%, and failed to get a majority for a &quot;black-yellow&quot; government of CDU/CSU and liberal FDP. The FDP polled a stunning 10 % of the votes, one of their best results ever. But the red-green coalition also failed to get a majority, with the SPD losing votes, but polling 34 % and the greens staying at 8 %. The left party alliance reached 8.7 % and entered the [[Bundestag|German Parliament]], whereas the NPD only got 1.6 %. The most likely outcome of coalition talks was a so-called &quot;[[grand coalition]]&quot; between the conservatives (CDU/CSU) and the social democrats (SPD), with the three smaller parties (liberals, greens and the left) in the opposition. Other possible coalitions include a &quot;[[traffic light coalition]]&quot; between SPD, FDP and Greens and a &quot;[[Jamaica coalition]]&quot; between CDU/CSU, FDP and Greens. Coalitions involving the Left Party have been ruled out by all parties (including the Left Party itself), although the combination of one of the major parties and any two small parties would mathematically have a majority. Of these combinations, only a red-red-green coalition is politically even imaginable. Both Gerhard Schröder and Angela Merkel announced that they have won the election and should become next chancellor. On October 10th talks were held between Franz Müntefering, the SPD chairman, Gerhard Schröder, Angela Merkel and Edmund Stoiber, the CSU chairman. In the afternoon it was announced that the CDU/CSU and SPD will begin formal coalition negotiations with the aim of a Grand Coalition with Angela Merkel as the next German chancellor. &lt;/br&gt; Angela Merkel is the first woman, the first East German and the first scientist to be chancellor as well as the youngest German chancellor ever. On November 22nd 2005 Angela Merkel was sworn in by president Horst Köhler for the office of Bundeskanzlerin. ==Foreign Relations== ''see also main article'' [[Foreign relations of Germany]] ==See also== *[[Political culture of Germany]] *[[German emergency legislature]] *[[German federal election, 2005]] *[[List of political parties in Germany]] ==External links== *[http://www.bundesregierung.de/en Official web page of the government] *[http://www.bundeswahlleiter.de/e/index_e.htm Official source of election results] [[Category:Politics of Germany|*]] [[de:Politisches System Deutschlands]] [[fr:Système politique allemand]] [[he:פוליטיקה של גרמניה]] [[lt:Vokietijos politinė sistema]] [[ja:ドイツの政治]] [[pt:Política da Alemanha]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Germany/History</title> <id>11936</id> <revision> <id>15909647</id> <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>Conversion script</ip> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Automated conversion</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[History of Germany]] :''See also :'' [[Germany]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>GNU Free Documentation License</title> <id>11938</id> <revision> <id>42085278</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T18:56:40Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Shimgray</username> <id>126457</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>/* Overly broad DRM clause */ rephrase</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{dablink|For other uses of &quot;GFDL&quot;, see [[GFDL (disambiguation)]].}} [[Image:Heckert GNU white.svg|thumb|200px|right|GNU logo]] The '''GNU Free Documentation License''' ('''GNU FDL''' or simply '''GFDL''') is a [[copyleft]] license for [[free content]], designed by the [[Free Software Foundation]] (FSF) for the [[GNU]] project. It is the open content counterpart to the [[GNU GPL]]. The current state of the license is version 1.2. The license was designed for [[manual]]s, textbooks, other reference and instructional materials, and documentation which often accompanies GPL software. However, it can be used for any text-based work, regardless of subject matter. It stipulates that any copy of the material, even if modified, carry the same license. Those copies may be sold but, if produced in quantity, have to be made available in a format which facilitates further editing. Projects under GFDL include [[Wikipedia]], which is the largest documentation project among them. == About the GFDL == {{section-stub}} === Secondary Sections === The license explicitly separates any kind of &quot;Document&quot; from &quot;Secondary Sections&quot;, which may not be integrated with the Document, but exist as front-matter materials or appendices. Secondary sections can contain information regarding the author's or publisher's relationship to the subject matter, but not any subject matter itself. While the Document itself is wholly editable, and is essentially covered by a license equivalent to (but both-ways incompatible with) the [[GNU General Public License]], some of the secondary sections have various restrictions designed primarily to deal with proper attribution to previous authors. Specifically, the authors of prior versions have to be acknowledged and certain &quot;invariant sections&quot; specified by the original author and dealing with his or her relationship to the subject matter may not be changed. If the material is modified, its title has to be changed (unless the prior authors give permission to retain the title). The license also has provisions for the handling of front-cover and back-cover texts of books, as well as for &quot;History&quot;, &quot;Acknowledgements&quot;, &quot;Dedications&quot; and &quot;Endorsements&quot; sections. == Using the GFDL == === Materials for which commercial redistribution is prohibited === Materials for which commercial redistribution is prohibited generally cannot be used in a GFDL-licensed document, e.g., a [[Wikipedia]] article, because the license does not exclude commercial re-use. However in some specific cases, commercial re-uses may be [[fair use]] and in that case such materials do not need to be licensed to fall within the GFDL if such fair use is covered by all potential subsequent uses. One good example of such liberal and commercial fair use is [[parody]]. ==Criticisms of the GFDL== Many people and groups, notably the [[Debian]] project (based on their [[Debian Free Software Guidelines]]), consider the GFDL a non-free license. The reasons for this are that the GFDL allows &quot;invariant&quot; text which cannot be modified or removed, and that its prohibition against [[digital rights management]] (DRM) systems affects valid usages as well. A number of objections have been made to the GNU FDL, with some critics recommending the use of alternate licenses (such as the [[Creative Commons]] license) or even the GNU GPL. The Debian project has a [http://people.debian.org/~srivasta/Position_Statement.xhtml detailed draft of objections] and Nathanael Nerode has also [http://home.twcny.rr.com/nerode/neroden/fdl.html] summarized his objections. Often mentioned arguments against the GFDL include: ===Overly broad DRM clause=== The GNU FDL contains the following statement. :''&quot;You may not use technical measures to obstruct or control the reading or further copying of the copies you make or distribute.&quot;'' A criticism of this language is that it is too broad, because it applies to private copies made but not distributed. This means that you are not allowed to save document copies you 'make' in a proprietary file format or using encryption. [[Richard Stallman]] [http://lists.debian.org/debian-legal/2003/09/msg00212.html said] about the above sentence on the [http://lists.debian.org/debian-legal debian-legal] mailinglist: :''&quot;This means that you cannot publish them under DRM systems to restrict the possessors of the copies. It isn't supposed to refer to use of encryption or file access control on your own copy. I will talk with our lawyer and see if that sentence needs to be clarified.&quot;'' [[2006|As of 2006]], the sentence has not yet been clarified. ===Invariant sections=== A GNU FDL work can quickly be encumbered because a new, different, title must be given and a list of previous titles must be kept. This could lead to the situation where there are a whole series of title pages, and dedications, in each and every copy of the book if it has a long lineage. These pages cannot ''ever'' be removed, at least not until the work enters the [[public domain]] after [[copyrigh
] (formerly Guriev) * [[Aktau]], [[Kazakhstan]] (formerly Shevchenko) [[Image:Baku_2.jpg|thumb|250 px|right|The Caspian Sea, viewed from [[Baku]], [[Azerbaijan|Republic of Azerbaijan]].]] ==History== The sea is estimated to be about 30 million years old. It became landlocked about 5.5 million years ago. Discoveries in the Huto cave near the town of [[Behshahr]], [[Iran]] suggest human habitation of the area as early as 75,000 years ago. In [[classical antiquity]] it was called the ''[[Hyrcania]]n Ocean''. It has also been known as the ''[[Khazar]] Sea''. In Persian antiquity, as well as in modern [[Iran]], it is known as the ''[[Mazandaran]] Sea''. Old Russian sources call it the ''Khvalyn (Khvalynian) Sea'' after the Khvalis, inhabitants of [[Khwarezmia]]. Ancient Arabic sources refer to ''Bahr-e-Qazvin'' &amp;ndash; the ''[[Qazvin]] Sea''. In fact, the word &quot;Qazvin&quot; is derived from Caspian. See also [http://www.cais-soas.com/CAIS/Geography/Caspian_Sea_Names.htm &quot;Names of the Caspian Sea&quot;]. Historical cities by the sea include * [[Hyrcania]], Persia (Iran) * [[Tamisheh]], Persia * [[Atil, Khazaria]] * [[Khazaran]] ==Fauna== The Caspian holds great numbers of [[sturgeon]], which yield eggs that are processed into [[caviar]]. In recent years overfishing has threatened the sturgeon population to the point that [[Environmentalism|environmentalists]] advocate banning sturgeon fishing completely until the population recovers. However, prices for sturgeon caviar are so high that fisherman can afford to pay equally high bribes to authorities to look the other way, making regulations in many locations ineffective. Caviar harvesting further endangers the fish stocks, since it targets reproductive females. The [[Caspian Seal]] (''Phoca caspica'', ''Pusa caspica'' in some sources) is [[endemic (ecology)|endemic]] to the Caspian Sea, one of very few [[Pinniped|seal species]] living in inland waters (see also [[Baikal Seal]]). ==Oil== The area is rich in energy wealth. As well as recently discovered [[oil field]]s, large natural gas supplies are also in evidence, though further exploration is needed to define their full potential. Geopolitical jockeying is taking place amongst Caspian-bordering countries, especially in the light of Middle East instability and the subsequent recasting of many Western countries' energy policies. Another factor influencing this is the new US military deployment to the Central Asian region. A key problem is the status of the Caspian Sea and the establishment of the water boundaries between the five littoral countries. Russia, Azerbaijan and Kazakhstan signed an agreement in 2003 to divide the northern 64% of the sea between themselves, although the other two bordering countries, Iran and Turkmenistan, did not agree to this. This is likely to result in the three agreeing nations proceeding with oil development regardless; Iranian and Turkmen development is likely to stall. At present, Azerbaijan and Kazakhstan have seen the biggest increase in oil production, an increase of 70% since 1992. Despite this, the region is still achieving less than potential output, with total regional production 1.6 million barrels (250,000 m&amp;sup3;) per day, roughly equal to Brazil's production. This is expected to triple by 2010. ==International disputes== [[Image:Caspian_Borders_Old.PNG|thumb|250 px|right|Old division of the Caspian Sea]] [[Image:Caspian_Borders_New.PNG|thumb|250 px|right|New division of the Caspian Sea]] There are three major issues regulated by the Caspian Sea status: access to mineral resources ([[petroleum|oil]] and [[natural gas]]), access for [[fishing]] and access to [[international waters]] (through [[Russia]]'s [[Volga]] river and the canals connecting it to the [[Black Sea]] and [[Baltic Sea]]). Access to the Volga-river is particulary important for the [[landlocked]] states of [[Azerbaijan]], [[Kazakhstan]] and [[Turkmenistan]]. This issue is of course sensitive to [[Russia]], because this potential traffic will move through its territory (albeit onto the inland [[waterway]]s). If a body of water is labeled as [[Sea]] then there would be some precedents and international treaties obliging the granting of access permits to foreign vessels. If a body of water is labeled merely as [[lake]] then there are no such obligations. [[Environment]]al issues are also somewhat connected to the status and [[border]]s issue. It should be mentioned that [[Russia]] got the bulk of the former Soviet Caspian military fleet (and also currently has the most powerful military presence in the Caspian Sea). Some assets were assigned to [[Azerbaijan]]. [[Kazakhstan]] and especially [[Turkmenistan]] got a very small share (because they lack major port cities). * According to a [[treaty]] signed between the [[Persian Empire]] (predecessor of today's Iran) and the [[Russian Empire]] the Caspian Sea is technically a lake and it is to be divided into two sectors (Persian and Russian), but the resources (then mainly [[fish]]) would be commonly shared. The line between the two sectors was to be seen as an international border in a common [[lake]] (like [[Lake Albert]]). Also the Russian sector was sub-divided into administrative sectors of the four [[littoral]] republics. * After the dissolution of the [[USSR|Soviet Union]] not all of the [[Newly Independent States of the Former Soviet Union|newly independent states]] assumed continuation of the old treaty. At first [[Russia]] and [[Iran]] announced that they would continue to adhere to the old treaty (but they don't have a common border any more, so this is practically impossible). [[Kazakhstan]], [[Azerbaijan]] and [[Turkmenistan]] announced that they do not consider themselves parties to this treaty. * Later followed some proposals for common agreement between all littoral states about the status of the sea. ** [[Azerbaijan]], [[Kazakhstan]] and [[Turkmenistan]] insisted that the sectors should be based on the [[median line]], thus giving each state a share proportional to its Caspian [[coastline]] length. Also the sectors would form part of the sovereign territory of the particular state (thus making them international borders and also allowing each state to deal with all resources within its sector as it wishes unilaterally). ** [[Iran]] insisted that the sectors should be such that each state gets a 1/5th share of the whole Caspian Sea. This was advantageous to Iran, because it has a proportionally smaller coastline. ** [[Russia]] proposed a somewhat compromising solution: the seabed (and thus mineral resources) to be divided along sectoral lines (along the two above-described variants), the surface (and thus fishing rights) to be shared between all states (with the following variations: the whole surface to be commonly shared; each state to receive an exclusive zone and one single common zone in the center to be shared. The second variant is deemed not practical, because of the small size of the whole sea). * Current situation [[Russia]], [[Kazakhstan]] and [[Azerbaijan]] have agreed to a solution about their sectors. There are no problems between [[Kazakhstan]] and [[Turkmenistan]], but the latter is not actively participating, so there is no agreement either. [[Azerbaijan]] is at odds with [[Iran]] over some [[oil fields]] that the both states claim. There have been occasions where Iranian patrol boats have opened fire at vessels sent by Azerbaijan for exploration into the disputed region. There are similar tensions between [[Azerbaijan]] and [[Turkmenistan]] (the latter claims that the former has pumped more oil than agreed from a field, recognized by both parties as shared). Less acute are the issues between [[Turkmenistan]] and [[Iran]]. Regardless, the southern part of the sea remains disputed. ** [[Russia]] and [[Kazakhstan]] signed a treaty, according to which, they divide the northern part of the Caspian Sea between them into two sectors along the median line. Each sector is an exclusive zone of its state. Thus all resources, seabed and surface are exclusive to the particular state. ** [[Russia]] and [[Azerbaijan]] signed a similar treaty about their common border. ** [[Kazakhstan]] and [[Azerbaijan]] signed a similar treaty about their common border. ** [[Iran]] doesn't recognize the bilateral agreements between the other littoral states, but this has limited practical implications, because it doesn't have common borders with [[Russia]] and [[Kazakhstan]]. Also [[Iran]] continues to insist on a single multilateral agreement between all five littoral states (as the only way to achieve 1/5-th share). ** The position of [[Turkmenistan]] is unclear. After [[Russia]] adopted the [[median line]] sectoral division and the three treaties already signed between some littoral states this is looking like the realistic method for regulating the Caspian borders. The Russian sector is fully defined. The Kazakhstan sector is not fully defined, but is not disputed either. Azerbaijan's, Turkmenistan's and Iran's sectors are not fully defined. It is not clear if the issue of Volga-access to vessels from [[Azerbaijan]] and [[Kazakhstan]] is covered by their agreements with [[Russia]] and also what the conditions are for Volga-access for vessels from [[Turkmenistan]] and [[Iran]]. ==Characteristics and ecology== The Caspian has characteristics common to both seas and [[lake]]s. It is often listed as the world's largest lake, though it is not a [[freshwater]] lake. The [[Volga River]] (about 80% of the inflow) and the [[Ural River]] discharge into the Caspian Sea, but it is [[endorheic]], i.e. there is no natural outflow (other than by [[evaporation]]). Thus the Caspian [[ecosystem]] is a closed basin, with its own sea level history that is independent of the [[Eustasis|eustatic]] level of the world's oceans. The Caspian became landlocked about 5.5 million years ago. The level of the Caspian has fallen and risen, o
dley]], American singer (b. [[1928]]) *[[2004]] - [[Doug Ault]], baseball player (b. [[1950]]) *[[2005]] - [[James Dungy]], eldest son of [[Tony Dungy]] (b.[[1987]]) ==Holidays and observances== * [[Calendar of Saints|R.C. Saints]] - commemoration of [[Mother Cabrini|Frances Xavier Cabrini]] * Also see [[December 22 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)]] * [[Japan]] - Tōji ([[winter solstice]]) * In the [[Northern Hemisphere]], the [[winter solstice]] occurs on or very close to this date. In the [[Southern Hemisphere]], the [[summer solstice]] occurs around this time. * [[Astrology]]: First day of sun sign [[Capricorn]] * [[Culture of Spain|Spain]]: the main draw of [[Spanish National Lottery]], where it is a Christmas tradition. ==External links== * [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/december/22 BBC: On This Day] * [http://www.tnl.net/when/12/22 Today in History: December 22] ---- [[December 21]] - [[December 23]] - [[November 22]] - [[January 22]] -- [[historical anniversaries|listing of all days]] {{months}} [[af:22 Desember]] [[ar:22 ديسمبر]] [[an:22 d'abiento]] [[ast:22 d'avientu]] [[bg:22 декември]] [[be:22 сьнежня]] [[bs:22. decembar]] [[ca:22 de desembre]] [[ceb:Disyembre 22]] [[cv:Раштав, 22]] [[co:22 di decembre]] [[cs:22. prosinec]] [[cy:22 Rhagfyr]] [[da:22. december]] [[de:22. Dezember]] [[et:22. detsember]] [[el:22 Δεκεμβρίου]] [[es:22 de diciembre]] [[eo:22-a de decembro]] [[eu:Abenduaren 22]] [[fo:22. desember]] [[fr:22 décembre]] [[fy:22 desimber]] [[ga:22 Nollaig]] [[gl:22 de decembro]] [[ko:12월 22일]] [[hr:22. prosinca]] [[io:22 di decembro]] [[id:22 Desember]] [[ia:22 de decembre]] [[is:22. desember]] [[it:22 dicembre]] [[he:22 בדצמבר]] [[jv:22 Desember]] [[ka:22 დეკემბერი]] [[csb:22 gòdnika]] [[ku:22'ê berfanbarê]] [[la:22 Decembris]] [[lt:Gruodžio 22]] [[lb:22. Dezember]] [[hu:December 22]] [[mk:22 декември]] [[ms:22 Disember]] [[nap:22 'e dicembre]] [[nl:22 december]] [[ja:12月22日]] [[no:22. desember]] [[nn:22. desember]] [[oc:22 de decembre]] [[pl:22 grudnia]] [[pt:22 de Dezembro]] [[ro:22 decembrie]] [[ru:22 декабря]] [[se:Juovlamánu 22.]] [[sco:22 December]] [[sq:22 Dhjetor]] [[scn:22 di dicèmmiru]] [[simple:December 22]] [[sk:22. december]] [[sl:22. december]] [[sr:22. децембар]] [[fi:22. joulukuuta]] [[sv:22 december]] [[tl:Disyembre 22]] [[ta:டிசம்பர் 22]] [[tt:22. Dekäber]] [[te:డిసెంబర్ 22]] [[th:22 ธันวาคม]] [[vi:22 tháng 12]] [[tr:22 Aralık]] [[uk:22 грудня]] [[wa:22 d' decimbe]] [[war:Disyembre 22]] [[zh:12月22日]] [[pam:Disiembri 22]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>David Deutsch</title> <id>8729</id> <revision> <id>40432045</id> <timestamp>2006-02-20T14:31:13Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>DabMachine</username> <id>922466</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>disambiguation from [[Causation]] to [[Causality]] - ([[WP:DPL|You can help!]])</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:DavidDeutsch.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Deutsch]] '''David Deutsch''' (born [[1953]]) is a [[physicist]] at [[University of Oxford|Oxford University]]. He pioneered the field of [[quantum computer|quantum computers]], and is a proponent of the [[Everett many-worlds interpretation|many-worlds interpretation]] of [[quantum mechanics]]. In his book ''The Fabric of Reality'' this interpretation, or what he calls the ''[[multiverse]]'' hypothesis, is one strand of a four-strand theory of everything, the other strands being [[Karl Popper|Karl Popper's]] [[epistemology]] and [[philosophy]] of science, [[Richard Dawkins|Richard Dawkins's]] refinement of [[Darwin]]ian evolutionary theory, and [[Alan Turing|Alan Turing's]] theory of computation especially as developed in Deutsch's idea of a universal quantum computer. His theory of everything is emergentist rather than reductive. It aims not at the reduction of everything to particle physics, but rather mutual support among multiverse, computational, [[epistemological]], and evolutionary principles. This emergentist posture allows computing theory's Turing principle to do serious work in Deutsch's world-view. In the strong form he favors it implies that a universal quantum computer, capable of rendering any physically possible environment, actually exists near the end of spacetime in every universe and is maintained by sentient beings with the knowledge required to increase its memory, computing cycles, and energy supply. In this he follows [[Frank Tipler]] in ''The Physics of Immortality'', though he emphasizes the scientific component of Tipler's [[Omega Point]] hypothesis, the component that is justified by Popperian [[epistemology]] as implied by our best science. He is much less sympathetic to the non-scientific component, which provides rational reconstructions for traditional theological categories such as ''[[God]],'' ''[[omniscience]]'', ''[[omnipresence]]'', ''benevolence'', ''creation'', and so on. The Turing principle is also sometimes called the Deutsch principle by those who question whether Turing's work on the foundations of computing was aiming to disclose what could be computed tractably &quot;in nature&quot;. There are [[Tractable|tractability]] issues when, for instance, [[factoring]] and [[decryption]] problems are attacked with [[turing machine|Turing-machine]] or classical-computation methods, problems that seem to be resolved by quantum-computing techniques such as [[Shor's algorithm]]. Turing universality isn't universality enough, Deutsch thinks. Turing's abstract computer needs to be replaced by the actual, physical, universal quantum computer derived from the Turing/Deutsch principle. That principle is also sometimes called the [[The Matrix|Matrix]] principle, because Deutsch's conception of [[virtual reality]] figures in its statement: &quot;It is possible to build a virtual reality generator whose repertoire includes every physically possible environment.&quot; Some [[Cognitive psychology|cognitive psychologist]]s think that Deutsch's view of the brain as a virtual-reality generating computer, adequate to rendering a humanly experienced environment, affords a sufficiently robust account of subjective experience or [[qualia]], one consistent with a view of the mind/brain as a computer, to break down the impasse between qualia-phobes and qualia-freaks. A virtual-reality generator consists of an image generator to provide the subject with perceptual content from the several sensory modalities, perhaps in the forms of transducers connected directly to afferent nerves by use of neural implants, and a program to handle interaction between the subject's choices and the virtual environment. Nearer to the [[omega point]] this [[transhumanism|transhuman]] enhanced-biology scenario gives way to a [[posthumanism|posthuman]] condition, because biology becomes untenable. Gravitational shearing and other extreme forces call for more durable substrates for human psychology. The brain is replaced by sturdy computational equivalents in virtual realities, protected from the [[Big Crunch]] and pushed in the final moments by unlimited computational cycles affording their posthuman residents the subjective experience of immortality. A [[quantum computer]] farms out computing problems to other universes in order to achieve tractability for solutions that otherwise get bogged down by exponentially increasing demands for more time and other computational resources. The apparent need on a [[scientific realism|realist]] conception of science to posit such collaboration inspires a pugnacious comment from Deutsch: &quot;To those who still cling to a single-universe world-view, I issue this challenge: ''explain how Shor's algorithm works''.&quot; The challenge is meant to imply that a Turing machine is incapable in principle of doing what a quantum computer can do, since the latter's operations in executing [[Shor's algorithm]] require computational resources from other worlds. And generally, a quantum computer's operations include computational steps in other worlds that are not present in any Turing-machine's tape (in this world). Deutsch thinks this has implications for proof theory, which must abandon the model of an inspectable list of premises leading to a conclusion, in favor of a model of a process in which the relationship between premises and conclusion may be mediated by computations that are not inspectable (in this world). Another important theme in the book is that basic ideas about the universe are either vindicated or undermined by the multiverse hypothesis. For instance, [[counterfactual conditional|counterfactual conditionals]] refer to nearby [[parallel worlds]] when they stipulate what a thing would do under conditions that do not actually obtain; one-worlders implicitly collapse what things ''can'' do into what they ''actually'' do. (He acknowledges a kindred spirit in the philosopher [[David Lewis (philosopher)|David Lewis]], whose modal realism handles [[counterfactuals]] in a similar fashion. He takes Lewis to have &quot;postulated the existence of a multiverse for philosophical reasons alone.&quot; This is a contentious claim, since Lewis's realism about possible worlds extends to worlds that are not physically possible, such as the world where [[Harry Potter]] was schooled at [[Hogwarts]], whereas Deutsch's multiverse includes all and only physically possible worlds. Also Lewis's possible worlds are disjoint, whereas Deutsch's parallel worlds interact through interference. On the other hand, Lewis recognizes overlapping worlds as a theoretical possibility, and Deutsch's universal quantum computer can render Harry Potter worlds to any desired degree of accuracy.) [[Knowledge]] is a trans-universe structure, as one might expect because knowledge supports counterfactual implications, as revealed for instance in [[Robert Nozick|Robert Nozick's]] ''tracking'' account of knowledge. Nearby parallel worlds are united by a commo
relative decline in the world, rather than of strength. The evolution of colonialism in India should dissuade people from sweeping generalisations and over-simplifications regarding the roles of inter-capitalist competition and accumulated surplus in precipitating the era of the New Imperialism. Formal empire in India, beginning with the Government of India Act of 1858, was a means of consolidation, reacting to the abortive [[Indian Mutiny]], which was in itself a conservative reaction among Indian traditionalists to British policy in the subcontinent. ===British Colonial Policy === British colonial policy was always driven to a large extent by Britain's trading interests. While settler economies developed the infrastructure to support balanced development, some tropical African territories found themselves developed only as raw-material suppliers. British policies based on comparative advantage left many developing economies dangerously reliant on a single cash crop, with others exported to Britain or to overseas British settlements. A reliance upon the manipulation of conflict between ethnic, religious and racial identities, in order to keep subject populations from uniting against the occupying power — the classic &quot;divide and rule&quot; strategy — left a legacy of partition and/or inter-communal difficulties in areas as diverse as Ireland, India, Zimbabwe, Sudan, and Uganda. ==Britain and the Scramble for Africa== ''Main article: [[Scramble for Africa]].'' [[Image:Rhodes.Africa.jpg|thumb|205px|right|[[Cecil Rhodes]] spanning &quot;Cape to Cairo&quot;.]] In 1875 the two most important European holdings in Africa were French controlled [[Algeria]] and Britain's [[Cape Colony]]. By 1914 only [[Ethiopia]] and the republic of [[Liberia]] remained outside formal European control. The transition from an &quot;informal empire&quot; of control through economic dominance to direct control took the form of a &quot;scramble&quot; for territory by the nations of Europe. Britain tried not to play a part in this early scramble, being more of a trading empire rather than a colonial empire; however, it soon became clear it had to gain its own African empire to maintain the balance of power. As French, [[Belgium|Belgian]] and [[Portugal|Portuguese]] activity in the lower [[Congo River]] region threatened to undermine orderly penetration of tropical Africa, the [[Berlin Conference, 1884-85|Berlin Conference]] of 1884&amp;ndash;[[1885|85]] sought to regulate the competition between the powers by defining &quot;effective occupation&quot; as the criterion for international recognition of territorial claims, a formulation which necessitated routine recourse to armed force against indigenous states and peoples. Britain's 1882 military occupation of [[Egypt]] (itself triggered by concern over the [[Suez Canal]]) contributed to a preoccupation over securing control of the [[Nile]] valley, leading to the conquest of the neighbouring [[Sudan]] in 1896&amp;ndash;[[1898|98]] and confrontation with a French military expedition at [[Fashoda Crisis|Fashoda]] ([[September]] [[1898]]). In 1899 Britain completed her takeover of what is today [[South Africa]]. This had begun with the annexation of the [[Cape of Good Hope|Cape]] in 1795 and continued with the conquest of the [[Boer Republics]] in the late 19th century, following the [[Second Boer War]]. [[Cecil Rhodes]] was the pioneer of British expansion north into Africa with his privately owned [[British South Africa Company]]. Rhodes expanded into the land north of South Africa and established [[Rhodesia]]. Rhodes' dream of a railway connecting [[Cape Town]] to [[Alexandria]] passing through a British Africa covering the continent is what led to his company's pressure on the government for further expansion into Africa. British gains in southern and [[East Africa]] prompted Rhodes and [[Alfred Milner, 1st Viscount Milner|Alfred Milner]], Britain's High Commissioner in South Africa, to urge a &quot;Cape-to-[[Cairo]]&quot; empire linking by rail the strategically important Canal to the mineral-rich South, though German occupation of [[Tanganyika]] prevented its realisation until the end of [[World War I]]. In 1903, the [[All Red Line]] telegraph system communicated with the major parts of the Empire. Paradoxically Britain, the staunch advocate of free trade, emerged in 1914 with not only the largest overseas empire thanks to her long-standing presence in India, but also the greatest gains in the &quot;scramble for Africa&quot;, reflecting her advantageous position at its inception. Between 1885 and 1914 Britain took nearly 30% of Africa's population under her control, compared to 15 % for France, 9 % for Germany, 7 % for Belgium and 1 % for [[Italy]]: [[Nigeria]] alone contributed 15 million subjects, more than in the whole of [[French West Africa]] or the entire German colonial empire. ==Home Rule in white-settler colonies== Britain's empire had already begun its transformation into the modern [[Commonwealth of Nations|Commonwealth]] with the extension of [[Dominion]] status to the already [[self-governing colony|self-governing colonies]] of [[Canada]] ([[1867]]), [[Australia]] ([[1901]]), [[New Zealand]] ([[1907]]), [[Newfoundland and Labrador|Newfoundland]] ([[1907]]), and the newly-created [[Union of South Africa]] ([[1910]]). Leaders of the new states joined with British statesmen in periodic Colonial (from 1907, Imperial) [[Imperial Conferences|Conferences]], the first of which was held in [[London]] in 1887. The foreign relations of the Dominions were still conducted through the Foreign Office of the [[United Kingdom]]: Canada created a Department of External Affairs in 1909, but diplomatic relations with other governments continued to be channelled through the Governors-General, Dominion High Commissioners in [[London]] (first appointed by Canada in 1880 and by Australia in 1910) and British legations abroad. Britain's declaration of war in [[World War I]] applied to all the Dominions. But the Dominions did enjoy a substantial freedom in their adoption of foreign policy where this did not explicitly conflict with British interests: Canada's [[Liberal Party of Canada|Liberal]] government negotiated a bilateral free-trade [[Reciprocity Agreement, 1911|Reciprocity Agreement]] with the United States in 1911, but went down to defeat by the [[Progressive Conservative Party of Canada|Conservative]] opposition. In defence, the Dominions' original treatment as part of a single Empire military and naval structure proved unsustainable as Britain faced new commitments in Europe and the challenge of an emerging German High Seas Fleet after 1900. In 1909 it was decided that the Dominions should have their own navies, reversing an 1887 agreement that the then Australasian colonies should contribute to the [[Royal Navy]] in return for the permanent stationing of a squadron in the region. ==The impact of the First World War== [[Image:BritishEmpireWW1MemorialBrussel Copyright2004KaihsuTai.jpg|thumb|right|British Empire memorial for the First World War in the Brussels cathedral.]] The aftermath of [[World War I]] saw the last major extension of British rule, with Britain gaining control through [[League of Nations Mandate]]s in [[British Mandate of Palestine| Palestine]] and [[Iraq]] ([[British League of Nations Trust Territory of Iraq]]) after the collapse of the [[Ottoman Empire]] in the Middle East, as well as in the former German colonies of [[Tanganyika]], South-West Africa (now [[Namibia]]) and [[New Guinea]] (the last two actually under South African and Australian rule respectively). The British zones of occupation in the German [[Rhineland]] after World War I and West Germany after World War II were not considered part of the Empire. But although Britain emerged among the war's victors, and her rule expanded into new areas, the heavy costs of the war undermined her capacity to maintain the vast empire. The British had suffered millions of casualties and liquidated assets at an alarming rate, which led to debt accumulation, upending of capital markets and manpower deficiencies in the staffing of far-flung imperial posts in Asia and the African colonies. Nationalist sentiment grew in both old and new Imperial territories, fuelled by pride at Empire troops' participation in the war and the grievance felt by many non-white ex-servicemen at the [[racial discrimination]] they had encountered during their service to the Empire. The 1920s saw a rapid transformation of Dominion status. Although the Dominions had had no formal voice in declaring war in 1914, each was included separately among the signatories of the 1919 peace [[Treaty of Versailles]], which had been negotiated by a British-led united Empire delegation. In 1922 Dominion reluctance to support British military action against [[Turkey]] influenced Britain's decision to seek a compromise settlement. Full Dominion independence was formalised in the 1926 [[Balfour Declaration 1926|Balfour Declaration]] and the 1931 [[Statute of Westminster 1931|Statute of Westminster]]: each Dominion was henceforth to be equal in status to Britain herself, free of British legislative interference and autonomous in international relations. The Dominions section created within the Colonial Office in 1907 was upgraded in 1925 to a separate Dominions Office and given its own Secretary of State in 1930. Canada led the way, becoming the first Dominion to conclude an international treaty entirely independently (1923) and obtaining the appointment (1928) of a British High Commissioner in [[Ottawa]], thereby separating the administrative and diplomatic functions of the Governor-General and ending the latter's anomalous role as the representative of the head of state and of the British Government. Canada's first permanent diplomatic mission to a foreign country opened in [[Washington, DC]] in 1927: Australia followed in 1940. Egypt, formally in
.) '''Life expectancy at birth:''' &lt;br&gt;''total population:'' 80.75 years &lt;br&gt;''male:'' 77.8 years &lt;br&gt;''female:'' 83.7 years (Istat 2005) '''Total fertility rate:''' 1.45 children born/woman (Istat 2005) '''HIV/AIDS - adult prevalence rate:''' 0.4% (2001 est.) '''HIV/AIDS - people living with HIV/AIDS:''' 100,000 (2001 est.) '''HIV/AIDS - deaths:''' less than 1,000 (2003 est.) '''Nationality:''' &lt;br&gt;''noun:'' Italian(s) &lt;br&gt;''adjective:'' Italian '''Ethnic groups:''' [[Italians|Italian]] (includes small clusters of [[German people|German]]-, [[France|French]]-, and [[Slovenes|Slovenian]]-Italians in the north and [[Albanians|Albanian]]-Italians and [[Greeks|Greek]]-Italians in the south) (96.0% Italian, 0.9% [[Arab]] North African, 0.8% Italo-Albanian, 0.8% [[German people|German]], 1.5% [[French people|French]], other) '''Literacy:''' &lt;br&gt;''definition:'' age 15 and over can read and write &lt;br&gt;''total population:'' 98.6% &lt;br&gt;''male:'' 99% &lt;br&gt;''female:'' 98.3% (2003 est.) ==See also== * [[Italy]] [[Category:Demographics by country|Italy]] [[Category:Demographics of Italy| ]] [[es:Demografía de Italia]] [[fr:Démographie de l'Italie]] [[pt:Demografia da Itália]] [[zh:意大利人口]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Politics of Italy</title> <id>14701</id> <revision> <id>42110669</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T22:12:12Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Bz2</username> <id>128524</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>/* Political parties */ three minor fixes</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Politics of Italy}} '''Politics of Italy''' takes place in a framework of a [[parliamentary system|parliamentary]] [[representative democracy|representative democratic]] [[republic]], whereby the [[Prime Minister of Italy]] is the [[head of government]], and of a pluriform multi-party system. [[Executive power]] is exercised by the government. [[Legislative power]] is vested in both the [[government]] and the two chambers of parliament. The [[Judiciary]] is independent of the executive and the legislature. [[Italy]] has been a democratic [[republic]] since [[June 2]], [[1946]], when the [[monarchy]] was abolished by popular [[referendum]] (see [[birth of the Italian Republic]]). The constitution was promulgated on [[January 1]], [[1948]]. == Division of powers == The [[1948]] Constitution established a bicameral [[parliament]], with a lower and an upper chamber (respectively [[Chamber of Deputies]] and [[Italian Senate|Senate]]), a separate judiciary branch, and an executive branch composed of a Council of Ministers (cabinet), headed by the president of the council ([[prime minister]]). The government depends on confidence from each branch of the parliament, and has in turn the power to make [[decree]]s. Decrees have to be confirmed in the parliament, and &quot;decree jam&quot; has been a problem in recent years, as governments try to reform the structure of the state using chiefly decrees instead of passing laws directly through the parliament. ==Executive branch== {{office-table}} |[[List of Presidents of the Italian Republic|President]] |[[Carlo Azeglio Ciampi]] | |[[18 May]] [[1999]] |- |[[Prime Minister of Italy|Prime Minister]] |[[Silvio Berlusconi]] |[[Forza Italia]] |[[11 June]] [[2001]] |- |Coalition partners | |[[National Alliance (Italy)|AN]] - [[Democrats' Centre Union|UCD]] - [[Northern League (Italy)|Lega Nord]]| | |} ===The President of the Republic === The [[List of Presidents of the Italian Republic|President of the Republic]] is elected by an electoral college consisting of both houses of Parliament and 58 regional representatives for a seven-year term. Its election needs a wide majority that is progressively reduced from two-thirds to one-half plus one of the votes as the ballots progress. The only presidents ever to be elected on the first ballot are [[Francesco Cossiga]] and [[Carlo Azeglio Ciampi]]. Mr. Ciampi is the current incumbent, and his term is due to end in May [[2006]]. Whereas it is not forbidden by law, no president has ever served two terms. The president represents the unity of the state, and is present, albeit with limited powers, in all branches of the Italian state: he is elected by the law-making, nominates the executive, and is automatically the president of the judiciary. He is also [[commander in chief]] of the [[armed force]]s. In practice, the president should be above party politics, and be an institutional guarantee for all. The president can also reject openly anti-constitutional laws by refusing to sign them. ===The Prime Minister=== The President appoints the Prime Minister whose government must receive a vote of confidence from both parliamentary chambers. ==Legislative branch== : ''Main article: [[Parliament of Italy]]'' Italy elects, on national level, a [[Parliament of Italy|Parliament]] consisting of two [[bicameralism|houses]], the [[Chamber of Deputies of Italy|Chamber of Deputies]] (''Camera dei Deputati'') (630 members) and the [[Italian Senate|Senate of the Republic]] (''Senato della Repubblica'') (315 elected members, plus a few senators for life). ==Political parties and elections== {{elect|List of political parties in Italy|Elections in Italy}} === Political parties === [[Image:ElezioneBrunate.jpg|thumb|right|a poster for the European Parliament election 2004 in Italy, showing party lists]] Italy's dramatic self-renewal transformed the political landscape between 1992 and 1997. Scandal investigations touched thousands of politicians, administrators, and businessmen; the shift from a proportional to an [[Additional Member System]] (with the requirement to obtain a minimum of 4% of the national vote to obtain representation) also altered the political landscape. Party changes were sweeping. The Christian Democratic party dissolved; the Italian People's Party and the Christian Democratic Center emerged. Other major parties, such as the Socialists, saw support plummet. A new [[liberalism|liberal]] movement, [[Forza Italia]], gained wide support among moderate voters. The [[Alleanza Nazionale]] (National Alliance) broke from the (alleged neo-fascist) [[Italian Social Movement]] (MSI). A trend toward two large coalitions (one on the center-left and the other on the center-right) emerged from the April [[1995]] regional elections. For the 1996 national elections, the center-left parties created the [[Olive Tree]] coalition while the center-right united again under the [[House of Freedoms]]. {{main|Italian general election, 2001}} The May 2001 elections, where both coalitions used [[Mixed member proportional representation#Decoy lists|''decoy lists'']] to undermine the proportional-compensation part of the electoral system, ushered a refashioned center-right coalition dominated by Berlusconi's party, Forza Italia, into power. The Olive Tree coalition now sits in the opposition. This emerging bipolarity represents a major break from the fragmented, multi-party political landscape of the postwar era, although it appears to have reached a plateau, since efforts via referendums to further curtail the influence of small parties were defeated in [[1999]] and [[2000]]. The constant debate among the components of both coalitions is however intense, and some observers noted in this infighting some similarities with the previous system. ===Latest elections=== {{Italian general election, 2001-Deputies}} {{Italian general election, 2001-Senate}} == Judicial branch== The Italian judicial system is based on [[Roman law]] modified by the [[Napoleonic code]] and later [[statute]]s. It is based on a [[civil law (legal system)|civil law]] system. Appeals are treated as new trials, and three degrees of trial are present. There is only partial [[judicial review]] of legislation in the American sense. Judicial review under certain conditions in [[Constitutional Court of Italy|Constitutional Court]], which can reject anti-constitutional laws after scrutiny. The Constitutional Court is composed of 15 judges: one-third appointed by the president, one-third elected by Parliament, one-third elected by the ordinary and administrative supreme courts. The constitutional court passes on the constitutionality of laws, and is a post-[[World War II]] innovation. Its powers, volume, and frequency of decisions are not as extensive as those of the [[U.S. Supreme Court]]. Italy has not accepted compulsory jurisdiction of the [[International Court of Justice]]. == History of the post-war political landscape == [[Image:ElezioneMilano.jpg|thumb|left|campaigners working on posters in Milan, Italy, 2004]] === First Republic === There have been frequent government turnovers since [[1945]]. The dominance of the [[Christian Democracy (Italy)|Christian Democratic]] party during much of the postwar period lent continuity and comparative stability to Italy's political situation, mainly dominated by the attempt of keeping the [[Italian Communist Party]] out of power, to maintain [[Cold War]] equilibrium in the region. The communists were in the government only in the national unity governments before [[1948]], in which their party's secretary [[Palmiro Togliatti]] was minister of Justice. After the [[Italian general election, 1948|first democratic elections]] with [[universal suffrage]] in 1948, in which the Christian Democracy and their allies won against the ''Popular front'' of the Italian Communist and [[Italian Socialist Party|Socialists]] parties, the communist party never returned in the government. Even though many repeat the [[cliché]] that Italy had over fifty governments in its first fifty years of democracy to stigmatise its alleged political instability, Italy's main political problem was actually the opposite: in all the course of the so-called First Republic, the government was in the hands of the Christian Democrats and their allies, s
er vision based on correspondences between a physical phenomenon related to light and images of that phenomenon. For example, it is possible to extract information about motion in fluids and about waves by analyzing images of these phenomena. Also, a subfield within computer vision deals with the physical process which given a scene of objects, light sources, and camera lenses forms the image in a camera. Consequently, computer vision can also be seen as an extension of [[physics]]. A third field which plays an important role is [[neurobiology]], specifically the study of the biological vision system. Over the last century, there has been an extensive study of eyes, neurons, and the brain structures devoted to processing of visual stimuli in both humans and various animals. This has led to a coarse, yet complicated, description of how &quot;real&quot; vision systems operate in order to solve certain vision related tasks. These results have led to a subfield within computer vision where artificial systems are designed to mimic the processing and behaviour of biological systems, at different levels of complexity. Also, some of the learning-based methods developed within computer vision have their background in biology. Yet another field related to computer vision is [[signal processing]]. Many existing methods for processing of one-variable signals, typically temporal signals, can be extended in a natural way to processing of two-variable signals or multi-variable signals in computer vision. However, because of the specific nature of images there are many methods developed within computer vision which have no counterpart in the processing of one-variable signals. A distinct character of these methods is the fact that they are non-linear which, together with the multi-dimensionality of the signal, defines a subfield in signal processing as a part of computer vision. Beside the above mentioned views on computer vision, many of the related research topics can also be studied from a purely mathematical point of view. For example, many methods in computer vision are based on [[statistics]], [[Optimization (mathematics)|optimization]] or [[geometry]]. Finally, a significant part of the field is devoted to the implementation aspect of computer vision; how existing methods can be realized in various combinations of software and hardware, or how these methods can be modified in order to gain processing speed without losing too much performance. Computer vision and (digital) [[image processing]] are related fields. The distinction between the two is not very clear, e.g., computer vision uses many methods which traditionally belong to image processing. One formal distinction would be to say that image processing deals with transforming images, producing one image from another, or with producing low-level information about an image, such as edges or lines. Neither of these tasks provide, or require, an interpretation about what the image contains in terms of objects or events. Computer vision, on the other hand, uses models and assumptions about the real world depicted in the images to extract information which, e.g., can be used to control actions on objects in a scene. In more advanced systems, these models can be learned rather than programmed. ==Examples of applications for computer vision== Another way to describe computer vision is in terms of applications areas. One of the most prominent application fields is medical computer vision or medical image processing. This area is characterized by the extraction of information from image data for the purpose of making a medical diagnosis of a patient. Typically image data is in the form of [[microscopy|microscopy images]], [[X-ray|X-ray images]], [[angiography|angiography images]], [[ultrasonography|ultrasonic images]], and [[tomography|tomography images]]. An example of information which can be extracted from such image data is detection of [[tumour|tumours]], [[arteriosclerosis]] or other malign changes. It can also be measurements of organ dimensions, blood flow, etc. This application area also supports medical research by providing new information, e.g., about the structure of the brain, or about the quality of medical treatments. A second application area in computer vision is in industry. Here, information is extracted for the purpose of supporting a manufacturing process. One example is quality control where details or final products are being automatically inspected in order to find defects. Another example is measurement of position and orientation of details to be picked up by a robot arm. See the article on [[Machine Vision|machine vision]] for more details on this area. Military applications are probably one of the largest areas for computer vision, even though only a small part of this work is open to the public. The obvious examples are detection of enemy soldiers or vehicles and guidance of missiles to a designated target. More advanced systems for missile guidance send the missile to an area rather than a specific target, and target selection is made when the missile reaches the area based on locally acquired image data. Modern military concepts, such as &quot;battlefield awareness&quot;, imply that various sensors, including image sensors, provide a rich set of information about a combat scene which can be used to support strategic decisions. In this case, automatic processing of the data is used to reduce complexity and to fuse information from multiple sensors to increase reliability. One of the newer application areas is autonomous vehicles which ranges from submersibles, land-based vehicles (small robots with wheels, cars or trucks) to aerial vehicles. An unmanned aerial vehicle is often denoted [[UAV]]. The level of autonomy ranges from fully autonomous (unmanned) vehicles to vehicles where computer vision based systems support a driver or a pilot in various situations. Fully autonomous vehicles typically use computer vision for navigation, i. e., for knowing where it is, or for producing a map of its environment ([[Simultaneous localization and mapping|SLAM]]) and for detecting obstacles. It can also be used for detecting certain task specific events, e. g., a UAV looking for forest fires. Examples of supporting system are obstacle warning systems in cars and systems for autonomous landing of aircraft. Several car manufactures have demonstrated system for autonomous driving of cars, but this technology has still not reached a level where it can be put on the market. There are ample examples of military autonomous vehicles ranging from advanced missiles to UAVs for recon missions or missile guidance. Space exploration is already being made with autonomous vehicles using computer vision, e. g., NASA's [[Mars Exploration Rover]]. ==Typical tasks of computer vision== ===Object Recognition=== Detecting the presence of known objects or living beings in an image, possibly together with estimating the [[Pose (computer vision)|pose]] of these objects. Examples: * Searching in [[digital image]]s for specific content ([[content-based image retrieval]]) * Recognizing human faces and their location in images. * Estimation of the three-dimensional [[Pose (computer vision)|pose]] of humans and their limbs * Detection of objects which are passing through a manufacturing process, e.g., on a conveyor belt, and estimation of their [[Pose (computer vision)|pose]] so that a robot arm can pick up the objects from the belt. ===Optical Character Recognition=== OCR ([[Optical character recognition|Optical Character Recognition]]) takes pictures of printed or handwritten text and converts it into computer readable text such as [[Ascii|ASCII]] or [[Unicode]]. In the past images were acquired with a [[Image scanner|computer scanner]], however in more recent times some software can also read text from pictures taken with a [[digital camera]]. ===Tracking=== [[video tracking|Tracking]] known objects through an image sequence Examples: * Tracking a single person walking through a shopping center. * Tracking of vehicles moving along a road. ===Scene interpretation=== Creating a [[computer model|model]] from an image/video. Examples: * Creating a [[computer model|model]] of the surrounding terrain from images, which are being taken by a [[robot]]-mounted camera. * Anticipating the pattern of the image to determine size and density to estimate the volume using tomography like device. The cloud recognition is one the government project using this method. ===Egomotion=== Determining the motion of the camera itself. Examples: * Given two images of a scene, determine the 3d rigid motion of the camera between the two views. ==Computer Vision Systems== A typical computer vision system can be divided in the following subsystems: ===Image acquisition=== The [[image]] or [[video|image sequence]] is acquired with an [[imaging system]] ([[camera]],[[radar]],[[lidar]],[[Tomography|tomography system]]). Often the [[imaging system]] has to be [[Calibration|calibrated]] before being used. ===Preprocessing=== In the preprocessing step, the image is being treated with &quot;low-level&quot;-operations. The aim of this step is to do [[noise reduction]] on the image (i.e. to dissociate the [[Signal (information theory)|signal]] from the [[noise]]) and to reduce the overall amount of [[data]]. This is typically being done by employing different ([[digital image processing|digital]])[[image processing]] methods such as: * Sub-[[Sampling (signal processing)|sampling]] the image. * Applying [[Digital filter|digital filter]]s ** [[Convolution|convolutions]], computing a [[scale space]] representation ** [[Correlation]]s or [[LSI|linear shift invariant]] filters *** [[Sobel|Sobel operator]] *** Computing the x- and y-[[Gradient|gradient]] (possibly also the time-gradient). * [[image segment|Segmenting]] the image. ** Pixelwise [[Threshold|threshol