text stringlengths 1.83k 10k |
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e [[NATO reporting name]] of the [[Kaliningrad K-5]] air-to-air missile.
== Common properties of alkalis ==
Alkalis are all [[Svante Arrhenius|Arrhenius]] bases and share many properties with other chemicals in this group (Arrhenius bases form hydroxide ions when dissolved in water). Common properties of alkaline solutions include:
* Alkalis all form [[aqueous]] [[solutions]].
* Alkalis are bitter to taste (compared with acid solutions which are described as sour).
* Caustic (causing chemical burns).
* Slippery or soapy to the touch (due to the caustic reaction dissolving the surface of the skin and fingerprint).
* Alkalis have a [[pH]] greater than 7 and hence can be detected with [[litmus]] paper (litmus will turn blue on contact with an alkali).
* Another common test for alkalis is the use of [[phenolphthalein]] since it turns from colourless to pink when the pH moves from 8 to 10 (making it suitable for detecting all but the most dilute solutions of alkalis).
== Confusion between base and alkali ==
The terms [[Base (chemistry)|base]] and '''alkali''' are often used interchangeably, since most common bases are alkalis. It is common to speak of "measuring the alkalinity of soil" when you actually mean measuring the [[pH]] (base property). Similarly, bases which are not alkalis, like [[ammonia]], are sometimes erroneously referred to as alkaline.
Note that not all or even most salts formed by [[Alkali metal|alkali metals]] are alkaline or even [[Base (chemistry)|basic]].
== Alkali salts ==
Most basic [[salt]]s are alkali salts.
Common alkali salts include:
* [[sodium hydroxide]] (often called "caustic soda")
* [[potassium hydroxide]] (commonly called "potash")
* [[lye]] (generic term, for either of the previous two, or even for a mixture)
* [[calcium carbonate]] (sometimes called "free lime")
== Alkali soil ==
Soil with a pH above 7.4 is normally referred to as alkaline. This soil property can occur naturally, due to the presence of alkali salts. Although some plants do prefer slightly basic soil (including cabbage family vegetables and buffalograss), most plants prefer a mildly acidic soil (pH between 6.0 and 6.8), and high pH levels can cause a problem.
In alkali lakes (a type of [[salt lake]]), evaporation concentrates the naturally occurring alkali salts, often forming a crust of mildly basic
salt across a large area.
Examples of Alkali Lakes:
Redberry Lake, Saskatchewan, Canada.
Tramping Lake, Saskatchewan, Canada.
==Etymology==
The word "alkali" is derived from Arabic ''al qalīy'' = "the calcined ashes", referring to the original source of alkaline substance. Ashes were used in conjunction with animal fat to produce [[soap]], a process known as [[saponification]].
[[Category:Inorganic chemistry]]
[[Category:Arabic words]]
[[de:Alkali]]
[[et:Leelis]]
[[es:Álcali]]
[[fr:alcali]]
[[ru:Щёлочи]]
[[simple:Alkali]]
Alkali tut</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Ain't I a Woman? (book)</title>
<id>2956</id>
<revision>
<id>40204914</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-18T23:14:22Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Melaen</username>
<id>136864</id>
</contributor>
<comment>I shouldn't fix the capitalization (!) beel hooks is not capitalized</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''''Ain't I a Woman?: Black women and feminism''''' is a 1981 book by [[bell hooks]] titled after [[Sojourner Truth]]'s "[[Ar'n't I a Woman?|Ain't I a Woman?]]", ISBN 089608129X. Hooks examines the effect of [[racism]] and [[sexism]] on black women, the [[civil right]]s movement, and [[feminist]] movements from [[suffrage]] to the seventies. She argues that the convergence of sexism and racism during slavery contributed to black women having the lowest status and worst conditions of any group in American society. White female [[abolition]]ists and suffragists were often more comfortable with black male abolitionists such as [[Frederick Douglass]], while southern [[Racial segregation|segregation]]alists and stereotypes of black female promiscuity and immorality caused protests whenever black women spoke. Hooks points out that these white female reformers were more concerned with white morality than the conditions these morals caused black Americans.
Further, she argues that the stereotypes that were set during slavery still affect black women today. She argues that slavery allowed white society to stereotype white women as the pure goddess virgin and move black women to the seductive whore stereotype formerly placed on all women. This has allowed the justification of the devaluation of black femininity and rape which continues to this day. The work which black women have been forced to perform, either in slavery or in a discriminatory work place, that would be non-gender conforming for white women has been used against black women as a proof of their emasculating behaviour. bell hooks argued that [[black nationalism]] was largely a patriarchical and [[misogynist]] movement and thus that it sought to overcome racial divisions by strengthening sexist ones, that it readily latched onto the idea of the emasculating black ''[[matriarch]]'' proposed by [[Daniel Patrick Moynihan]] whose theories are repeatedly criticised by belle hooks. <!-- The intended meaning here is a little unclear. -->
Meanwhile, she says, the "feminist movement", a largely white middle and upper class affair, did not articulate the needs of poor and non-white women, thus reinforcing sexism, racism, and [[classism]]. She suggests this explains the low numbers of black women who participated in the feminist movement in the [[1970s]], pointing to [[Louis Harris]]' [[Virginia Slims]] poll done in [[1972]] for [[Phillip Morris]] that she says showed 62 percent of black women supported "efforts to change women's status" and 67 percent "sympathized with the women's rights movement", compared with 45 and 35 percent of white women (also Steinem, 1972). <!-- Please verify the quoted sections are the exact phrasing of the survey. -->
[[Category:1981 books]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>AMOS BASIC</title>
<id>2957</id>
<revision>
<id>34010702</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-05T19:53:25Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Adrian Buehlmann</username>
<id>216352</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* See also */ C++</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''AMOS BASIC''' is a dialect of the [[BASIC programming language|BASIC]] [[programming language]] implemented on the [[Amiga]] computer. AMOS BASIC was published by [[Europress Software]] and originally written by [[François Lionet]] with [[Constantin Sotiropoulos]]. It is a descendant of [[STOS BASIC]] for the [[Atari ST]]. AMOS BASIC was first produced in [[1990]].
AMOS competed on the Amiga platform with Acid Software's [[Blitz BASIC]]. Both BASICs differed from other dialects on different platforms, in that they allowed the easy creation of fairly demanding multimedia software, with full structured code and many high-level functions to load images, animations, sounds and display them in various ways.
The original AMOS version was [[interpreter (computer software)|interpreted]] which, whilst working fine, suffered from performance problems. Later, an AMOS [[compiler]] was developed, that reduced this problem.
After the original version of AMOS, Europress released two other versions: '''Easy AMOS''', a simpler version for beginners, and '''AMOS Professional''', a more advanced version with added features, such as a better [[Integrated Development Environment|IDE]], [[ARexx]] support, a new [[user interface|UI]] sublanguage and new flow control constructs. Neither of these new versions was significantly more popular than the original AMOS.
AMOS was mostly used to make [[Computer and video games|video games]] (platformers and graphical adventures) and educational software.
The language was mildly successful within the Amiga community. Its ease of use made it especially attractive to beginners.
Perhaps AMOS BASIC's biggest disadvantage was its incompatibility with the Amiga's [[AmigaOS|operating system]] functions and interfaces. Instead, AMOS BASIC controlled the computer directly, which caused programs written in it to have a non-standard user interface, and also caused compatibility problems with newer versions of the operating system.
Today the language has declined in popularity along with the Amiga computer for which it was written. Despite this, a small community of enthusiasts are still using it. The source code to AMOS has since been released under a [[BSD license|BSD style license]] by [[Clickteam]] - a company that includes the original programmer.
==See also==
*[[Alvyn BASIC]] &mdash; An [[open source]] [[multiplatform]] [[BASIC (programming language)|BASIC]] [[interpreter (computing)|interpreter]] that is fully compatible with AMOS Professional. Written in [[C++]] (alpha)
==External links==
*[http://www.clickteam.com/English/amos.php Source code for AMOS and STOS (68000 ASM)]
*[http://groups.yahoo.com/group/amos-list/ The Yahoo! groups mailing list (still active)]
*[http://www.liquido2.com/ Mattathias BASIC] (68k AMOS compiler, early alpha)
[[Category:BASIC dialects]]
[[Category:Game creation software]]
[[Category:Amiga software]]
[[de:AMOS BASIC]]
[[pl:Amos (j&#281;zyk programowania)]]
[[sv:AMOS (programspråk)]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Arcadia 2001</title>
<id>2959</id>
<revision>
<id>37833739</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-02T12:09:29Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Diceman</username>
<id>105919</id>
</contributor>
<comment>category</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''Arcadia 2001''' is a second-generation 8-bit console released by |
t;WID" and "ZOF". By repeatedly testing himself after various time periods and recording the results, he was the first to describe the shape of the forgetting curve.
The forgetting curve is steepest for nonsensical material such as that studied by Ebbinghaus. On the other hand, it is nearly flat for vivid or traumatic memories. The flatness of the curve is not necessarily evidence for the decrease in the [[forgetting rate]], but can be taken as evidence of implicit repetition (e.g. reliving memories) that indefinitely restores memory traces.
In a typical schoolbook application (e.g. learning word pairs), most students show the retention of 90% after 3-6 days (depending on the material). This means that, in this period, the forgetting curve "falls" by 10%.
[[de:Vergessenskurve]]
[[Category:Memory]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Field-programmable gate array</title>
<id>10969</id>
<revision>
<id>41757841</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T15:04:41Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Atlant</username>
<id>124135</id>
</contributor>
<comment>revert; I think "stimulate" was the intended word here, as in "stimulus and response"</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Altera_Flex_EPF10K20_20000_cell_FPGA.jpg|thumb|300px|An [[Altera]] FPGA with 20,000 cells.]]
A '''field-programmable gate array''' or '''FPGA''' is a [[semiconductor]] device containing programmable logic components and programmable interconnects. The programmable logic components can be programmed to duplicate the functionality of basic [[Logic gate|logic gate]]s (such as AND, OR, XOR, NOT) or more complex combinatorial functions such as decoders or simple math functions. In most FPGAs, these programmable logic components (or logic blocks, in FPGA parlance) also include memory elements, which may be simple [[Flip-flop (electronics)|flip-flops]] or more complete blocks of memories.
A hierarchy of programmable interconnects allows the logic blocks of an FPGA to be interconnected as needed by the system designer, somewhat like a one-chip programmable [[breadboard]]. These logic blocks and interconnects can be programmed after the manufacturing process by the customer/designer (hence the term "field-programmable") so that the FPGA can perform whatever logical function is needed.
FPGAs are generally slower than their [[application-specific integrated circuit]] (ASIC) counterparts, can't handle as complex a design, and draw more power. However, they have several advantages such as a shorter [[time to market]], ability to re-program in the field to fix bugs, and lower [[non-recurring engineering]] costs. Vendors may offer less flexible versions of their FPGAs that are cheaper. The development of these designs is made on regular FPGAs and then migrated into a fixed version that more resembles an ASIC due to lack of ability to modify the design once it is committed. Another alternative is complex programmable logic devices [[CPLD]].
== Historical roots ==
FPGAs have their historical roots in complex programmable logic devices ([[CPLD]]s) of the early to mid 1980s. CPLDs and FPGAs include a relatively large number of programmable logic elements. CPLD logic gate densities range from the equivalent of several thousand to tens of thousands of logic gates, while FPGAs typically range from tens of thousands to several million.
The primary differences between CPLDs and FPGAs are architectural. A CPLD has a somewhat restrictive structure consisting of one or more programmable sum-of-products logic arrays feeding a relatively small number of clocked registers. The result of this is a general lack of design flexibility, with the advantage of more predictable timing delays and a higher logic-to-interconnect ratio. FPGA architectures, on the other hand, are dominated by interconnect. This makes them far more flexible (in terms of the range of designs that are practical for implementation within them) but also far more complex to design for.
Another notable difference between CPLDs and FPGAs is the presence in most FPGAs of higher-level embedded functions (such as adders and multipliers) and embedded memories. A related, important difference is that many modern FPGAs support full or partial in-system reconfiguration, allowing their designs to be changed "on the fly" either for system upgrades or for dynamic reconfiguration as a normal part of system operation. Some FPGAs have the capability of [[partial re-configuration]] that lets one portion of the device be re-programmed while other portions continue running.
A recent trend has been to take the coarse-grained architectural approach a step further by combining the logic blocks and interconnects of traditional FPGAs with embedded microprocessors and related peripherals to form complete "systems on a programmable chip". Examples of such hybrid technologies can be found in the [[Xilinx]] Virtex-II PRO and Virtex-4 devices, which include one or more [[PowerPC]] processors embedded within the FPGA's logic fabric. The Atmel FPSLIC is another such device, which uses an AVR processor in combination with Atmel's programmable logic architecture. An alternate approach is to make use of "soft" processor cores that are implemented within the FPGA logic. These cores include the Xilinx MicroBlaze and PicoBlaze, and the [[Altera]] Nios and Nios II processors, as well as third-party (either commercial or free) processor cores.
As previously mentioned, many modern FPGAs have the ability to be reprogrammed at "run time," and this is leading to the idea of [[reconfigurable computing]] or [[reconfigurable system]]s &mdash; [[central processing unit|CPUs]] that reconfigure themselves to suit the task at hand. Current FPGA tools, however, do not fully support this methodology.
It should be noted here that new, non-FPGA architectures are beginning to emerge. Software-configurable [[microprocessor]]s such as the [[Stretch S5000]] adopt a hybrid approach by providing an array of processor cores and FPGA-like programmable cores on the same chip. Other devices (such as Mathstar's Field Programmable Object Array, or FPOA) provide arrays of higher-level programmable objects that lie somewhere between an FPGA's logic block and a more complex processor.
== Applications ==
Applications of FPGAs include [[digital signal processor|DSP]], [[software-defined radio]], [[aerospace]] and [[Defense (military)|defense]] systems, [[ASIC]] prototyping, [[medical imaging]], [[computer vision]], [[speech recognition]], [[cryptography]], [[bioinformatics]], and a growing range of other areas.
FPGAs originally began as competitors to [[CPLD]]s and competed in a similar space, that of [[glue logic]] for [[Printed_circuit_board|PCBs]]. As their size, capabilities and speed increased they began to take over larger and larger functions to the state where they are now marketed as competitors for full systems on chips.
They now find applications in any area or algorithm that can make use of the massive parallelism offered by their architecture.
== Architecture ==
The typical basic architecture consists of an array of logic blocks and routing channels. Multiple I/O pads may fit into the height of one row or the width of one column. Generally, all the routing channels have the same width (number of wires).
[[Image:fpga_structure.gif|frame|center|FPGA structure]]
An application circuit must be mapped into an FPGA with adequate resources.
The typical FPGA logic block consists of a 4-input [[lookup table]] (LUT), and a [[Flip-flop_(electronics)|flip-flop]], as shown at below.
[[Image:logic_block.gif|frame|center|Logic block]]
There is only one output, which can be either the registered or the unregistered LUT output. The logic block has four inputs for the LUT and a clock input. Since clock signals (and often other high-[[fanout]] signals) are normally routed via special-purpose dedicated routing networks in commercial FPGAs, they are accounted for separately from other signals.
For this example architecture, the locations of the FPGA logic block pins are shown below.
[[Image:logic_block_pins.gif|frame|center|Logic Block Pin Locations]]
Each input is accessible from one side of the logic block, while the output pin can connect to routing wires in both the channel to the right and the channel below the logic block.
Each logic block output pin can connect to any of the wiring segments in the channels adjacent to it. The figure below should make the situation clear.
[[Image:F_c.gif|frame|center|Logic block pin to routing channel interconnect]]
Similarly, an I/O pad can connect to any one of the wiring segments in the channel adjacent to it. For example, an I/O pad at the top of the chip can connect to any of the W wires (where W is the channel width) in the horizontal channel immediately below it.
Generally, the FPGA routing is unsegmented. That is, each wiring segment spans only one logic block before it terminates in a switch box. By turning on some of the programmable switches within a switch box, longer paths can be constructed. For higher speed interconnect, some FPGA architectures use longer routing lines that span multiple logic blocks.
[[Image:segmentation.gif|frame|center|Unsegmented FPGA routing]]
Whenever a vertical and a horizontal channel intersect there is a switch box. In this architecture, when a wire enters a switch box, there are three programmable switches that allow it to connect to three other wires in adjacent channel segments. The pattern, or topology, of switches used in this architecture is the planar or domain-based switch box topology. In this switch box topology, a wire in track number one connects only to wires in track number one in adjacent channel segments, wires in track number 2 connect only to other wires in track number 2 and so on. The |
method of scoring a [[field goal]] or [[extra point]] is by '''drop-kicking''' the football through the goal.
The drop kick was often used as a surprise tactic. The ball would be snapped or [[Lateral pass|lateraled]] to a back, who would perhaps fake a run or pass, but then would kick the field goal instead.
This method of scoring worked well in the [[1920s]] and [[1930s]], when the football was rounder at the ends (similar to a modern rugby ball). Early football stars such as [[Jim Thorpe]] and [[Paddy Driscoll]] were skilled drop-kickers.
In 1934, the ball was made more pointed at the ends. This made passing the ball easier, as was its intent, but made the drop kick obsolete, as the more pointed ball did not bounce up from the ground reliably. The drop kick was supplanted by the place kick, which cannot be attempted out of a formation generally used as a running or passing set. The drop kick remains in the rules, but is seldom seen, and rarely effective when attempted.
The only execution of the drop kick in recent years in the [[NFL]] was by [[Doug Flutie]], reserve [[quarterback]] of the [[New England Patriots]], against the [[Miami Dolphins]] on [[January 1]], [[2006]] for an [[extra point]] after a touchdown. Since Doug Flutie estimated that he had "probably an 80 percent chance" of making a drop kick[http://www.theledger.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=/20060102/NEWS/601020380/1002/SPORTS] and regular place-kicked point after attempts have a much higher probability of being good, the kick was not a strategic move. After the game New England coach [[Bill Belichick]] said "I think Doug deserves it"[http://abcnews.go.com/Sports/wireStory?id=1461839] and Flutie said "I just thanked him for the opportunity".[http://www.theledger.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=/20060102/NEWS/601020380/1002/SPORTS] This was the first successful drop kick in the NFL in over 64 years since it was executed by [[Ray (Scooter) McLean|Ray "Scooter" McLean]] of the [[Chicago Bears]] in their 37-9 victory over the [[New York Giants]] on [[December 21]], [[1941]] in the [[NFL championship]] game at Chicago's [[Wrigley Field]]. Though it wasn't part of the NFL at the time, the [[All-America Football Conference]] saw its last drop kick [[November 28]], [[1948]] when [[Joe Vetrano]] of the [[San Francisco 49ers]] dropkicked an extra point after a muffed snap against the [[Cleveland Browns]].[http://www.boston.com/sports/football/patriots/articles/2006/01/29/a_get_rich_kick_scheme_fails/?rss_id=Boston.com+--+New+England+Patriots+news]
Prior to Flutie's historic drop-kick, the only recent vocal proponent of the drop-kick in the NFL had been [[Jim McMahon]], quarterback for several NFL teams. During the 1980s, while playing in Chicago, McMahon regularly practiced the drop kick, and was known to frequently petition [[Chicago Bears|Bears]] head coach [[Mike Ditka]] for an opportunity to use the maneuver. Ditka, who regarded the play as an [[anachronism]], never allowed it.
Exclusively in Canadian football, the drop kick can be attempted beyond or behind the line of scrimmage. Any player on the kicking team behind the kicker, and including the kicker, can recover the kick. A drop kick that goes out of bounds is considered a change of possession.
During one game in the 1980's [[Hamilton Tiger-Cats]] wide receiver [[Earl Winfield]] was unable to field properly a punt and in frustration he kicked the ball out of bounds. The kick was considered a drop kick and it led to a change of possession and the team that punted regained possession of the ball.
The drop kick is most often used as a desperation play at the end of a game.
== Arena football ==
In [[Arena football]] a drop-kicked extra point counts for two points rather than one; a drop-kicked field goal counts for four points rather than three. Seemingly the game's inventors hoped that a team trailing by four points on an apparent final play might attempt a very dramatic drop kick in order to tie the game. However, the additional incentive has not been enough of an enticement to produce many drop kicks after the first few years of Arena play. The absence of drop-kicking with any degree of frequency from any other level or variety of gridiron football in the present day (see above) means that there is no pool of experienced and capable drop kickers for the Arena league to draw from, and the play would in any event occur too seldom to seem to be worth the amount of practice time that would have to be devoted to it for it to be executed at any real level of proficiency; in practice a pass off of the rebound nets above the endlines which, if completed, would result in six points and a win for the team down by four points, rather than a tie and overtime, probably has at least an equal and possibly a superior chance of success.
== Australian Rules football ==
In [[Australian Rules football]], a similarly named and executed kick was used in general play, particularly after a free kick was awarded.
It was popular as players could kick the ball long distances, and the ball's backwards rotation was reasonably easy for teammates to catch (a major feature of the game).
A variation known as the ''stab pass'' or more poetically, the ''daisy cutter'', involved an abbreviated follow-through and travelled on a notably low trajectory, which made it very useful for short-range passing.
The drop kick and stab pass gradually disappeared from the game by the [[1980s]], as it was unreliable, particularly on wet grounds, and players were coached to always use the [[punt_kick|drop punt]] kicking style to avoid having to make a decision on what kind of kick to perform as the game became played at a faster pace.
==See also==
* [[Punt kick]]
* [[Grubber kick]]
* [[Bomb kick]]
* [[Glossary of American football]]
[[Category:American football plays]]
[[Category:Rugby union terminology]]
[[Category:Rugby league terminology]]
[[Category:Australian rules football terminology]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Darcsyde Productions</title>
<id>9052</id>
<revision>
<id>38053219</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-03T21:29:29Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Kbdank71</username>
<id>197953</id>
</contributor>
<comment>[[WP:AWB|AWB assisted]] per [[WP:CFD]] [[Wikipedia:Categories for deletion/Log/2006 January 25|Jan 25]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Darcsyde Productions''' is a [[role-playing game]] publisher which has produced the [[Corum]] supplement for the [[Chaosium]] ''[[Stormbringer (role-playing game)|Stormbringer]]'' (aka ''Elric!'') RPG and is currently working on a [[Hawkmoon]]-themed supplement for the same games.
==External links==
*http://www.darcsyde.org.
[[Category:Role-playing game publishing companies]]
{{rpg-stub}}</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Diaeresis</title>
<id>9053</id>
<revision>
<id>40741971</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-22T18:44:52Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Ade myers</username>
<id>142815</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the double-dot diacritical mark {{unicode|&nbsp;̈}} as used, for instance, in Dutch - for the graphically identical diacritic, as used, for instance, in German, see [[Umlaut (diacritic)]]''
<div style="float: right; margin-right: 10px; margin-bottom: 10px; font-size: 4em;">ä ë ï ö ü ẅ ÿ</div>
In [[linguistics]], a '''diaeresis''', or '''dieresis''' ([[American English|AE]]) (from [[Greek language|Greek]] {{polytonic|διαιρεῖν}} (diaerein), ''to divide'') is the division of two adjacent [[vowel]]s as two [[syllable]]s rather than as a [[diphthong]]. The opposite phenomenon is known as [[synaeresis]].
The [[diacritic]] mark composed of two small dots ('''{{unicode|&nbsp;¨}}'''&nbsp;) placed over a vowel to indicate this modification is also called a '''[[Diaeresis (diacritic)|diaeresis]]''', or a '''trema'''. (In the case of an "i", it replaces the original dot.)
==Usage==
In [[French language|French]], [[Greek language|Greek]] and [[Dutch language|Dutch]] the diaeresis is placed on the second of two consecutive vowels to indicate that it is to be pronounced on its own, not left silent or merged into a [[diphthong]], as in the words ''coöperate'' and ''Anaïs''. [[Welsh language|Welsh]] also uses the diacritic for this purpose, with the diaeresis usually indicating the stressed vowel. French also uses the diaeresis to indicate syllabification in, for example, ''Gaëlle'' and ''païen''. It is called ''trema'' or ''deelteken'' in Dutch, ''tréma'' in French.
The diaeresis has also occasionally been used in native English words for the above purposes (as in ''coöperate'', ''reënact'' and ''noöne''), but this usage has become extremely rare since the [[1940s]]. ''[[The New Yorker]]'', ''[[The Economist]]'' and MIT's ''[[Technology Review]]'' can be noted as some of the few publications that spell ''coöperate'' with a diaeresis. Their use in English today is mostly limited to certain names, such as the surname ''Brontë'' and girls names ''Chloë'' & ''Zoë''
In [[Spanish language|Spanish]], it is used over the vowel ''u'' to indicate that it is pronounced in places where that vowel would normally be silent. In particular, the ''u'' is silent in the letter combinations ''gue'' and ''gui'', but in words such as ''vergüenza'' ("shame") or ''pingüino'' ("penguin"), the ''u'' is pronounced, forming a diphthong with the following vowel ([we] and [wi] respectively). [[Brazilian Portuguese]] uses the diaeresis like Spanish and also with letter combinations ''que'' and ''qui'', in words such as ''cinqüenta'' ("fifty") and ''qüinqüênio'' ("a five-year period"). The diaeresis doesn't exist in the Portuguese of Portugal and its othe |
gh activity time, LTD carries riders on 3.7 million trips every year. LTD's Eugene Station, downtown, covers nearly a city block, and is easily the busiest public plaza outside of the University. LTD is currently constructing a [[Bus Rapid Transit]] line between Eugene and Springfield, much of which will run in its own lane. The [[Emerald Express]], as it is called, is scheduled to be up and running in fall, 2006.
Cycling is big in Eugene. Summertime events and festivals frequently have bike parking "corrals" that many times are filled to capacity by three hundred or more bikes. Many people commute to work by bicycle every month of the year. Numerous bike shops provide the finest rain gear products, running lights and everything a biker needs to ride and stay comfortable in heavy rain. Bike trails take commuting and recreational bikers along the Willamette River, past a scenic rose garden, along Amazon Creek, through the downtown, and through the University of Oregon campus.
The [[Amtrak]] depot downtown was recently restored; it's the south terminus for two daily runs of the [[Amtrak Cascades]], and a stop along the route for the daily [[Coast Starlight]]. Air traffic is served by the [[Eugene Airport]], also known as [[Mahlon Sweet Field]], which is the fifth largest airport in the Northwest.
Highways traveling within and through Eugene include:
* [[Interstate 5]]: Interstate 5 forms much of the eastern city limits, forming a boundary between Eugene and Springfield. To the north, I-5 leads to the Willamette valley and [[Portland, Oregon|Portland]]. To the south, I-5 leads to [[Roseburg, Oregon|Roseburg]] and the southwestern portion of the state.
* [[Interstate 105 (Oregon)|Interstate 105]]/[[Oregon Highway 126]]: Oregon Highway 126 is routed along the Eugene-Springfield Highway, a limited access freeway. The Eugene portion of this highway begins at an interchange with Interstate 5 and ends two miles (3 km) west at a freeway terminus. This portion of Oregon Highway 126 is also signed Interstate 105, a spur route of Interstate 5. Oregon Highway 126 continues west, a portion shared with Oregon Highway 99, and continues west to [[Florence, Oregon|Florence]]. Eastward, Oregon Highway 126 crosses the Cascades and leads to central Oregon.
* [[Belt Line Road (Oregon)|Belt Line Road]]: Beltline Road is a limited-access freeway which runs along the northern edge of incorporated Eugene.
* [[Delta Highway (Eugene, Oregon)|Delta Highway]]: The Delta Highway forms a connector of less than 2 miles (3 km) between Interstate 105 and Beltline Road.
* [[Oregon Highway 99]]: Oregon Highway 99 forks off Interstate 5 south of Eugene, and forms a major surface artery in Eugene. It continues north into the Willamette valley, parallel to I-5.
===Hospitals===
The Eugene/Springfield area is home to two major hospitals, [http://www.mckweb.com/ McKenzie-Willamette] and [http://www.peacehealth.org/Oregon/WhoWeAreSHMC.htm/ Sacred Heart Medical Center] (A hospital owned by PeaceHealth that is located in downtown Eugene next to the [[University of Oregon]] campus.)
Mckenzie/Willamette recently filed a lawsuit angainst PeaceHealth, claiming anti-trust violations on the part of the latter. PeaceHealth, who at the time was based in Eugene, lost the lawsuit. McKenzie-Willamette, which was at the time a small hospital based in Springfield, has gained thousands from the case. Both corporations are in the planning stages of constructing new facilities, with Peacehealth planning one in Springfield ([http://www.peacehealth.org/Oregon/News/Facilities/default.htm "Riverbend"] and Triad (now owner of Mckenzie-Willamette) planning one in north Eugene. Both sites are controversial, as critics prefer more urban locations instead of ones that supposedly encourage urban sprawl.
==Notable people from Eugene==
===Athletes===
* [[Danny Ainge]], North Eugene High School ([[1977]]), [[National Basketball Association|NBA]] player and coach, [[Major League Baseball|MLB]] player
* [[Joey Harrington]], University of Oregon ([[2002]]), [[National Football League|NFL]] quarterback
* [[Bill McChesney]], South Eugene High School ([[1977]]), [[1980]] Olympian
* [[Chris Miller]]. [[Sheldon High School]] (([[1983]]), [[National Football League|NFL]] quarterback
* [[Steve Prefontaine]], [[University of Oregon]] ([[1973]]), Olympic runner
* [[Quentin Mikeel]], Willamette High School, [[National Football League|NFL]] Cornerback
* [[Kailee Wong]], North Eugene High School, [[National Football League|NFL]] Linebacker
* [[Ahmad Rashad]] (formerly Bobby Moore), Football player and sportscaster
* [[Harold Reynolds]], Former [[Major League Baseball|MLB]] Player, ESPN Baseball Analyst
* [[Luke Jackson]], Creswell High School, University of Oregon, [[National Basketball Association|NBA]] player
* [[Nate Jaqua]], South Eugene High School ([[2000]]), Chicago Fire ([[MLS]]) forward
*[[Todd Christensen]], Sheldon High School ([[1974]]), Los Angeles Raiders [[National Football League|NFL]] tight end
* [[Wade Bell]], 4-Minute-Mile runner, 1968 Olympian
===Citizens===
* [[Kate Wilhelm]], author
* [[Phil Knight]], co-founder of [[Nike, Inc.]]
* [[Damon Knight]], author
* [[Richard Brautigan]], author
* [[Grace Llewellyn]], author ''The Teenage Liberation Handbook''
* [[Amit Goswami]], physicist, author
* [[Elizabeth Engstrom (Cratty)]], teacher, author
* [[Wayne Morse]], U.S. Senator
* [[Peter DeFazio]], U.S. Representative (actually lives in Springfield)
* [[Tim Hardin]], musician
* [[David Ogden Stiers]], actor on the television series [[M*A*S*H]] was in the first graduating class of North Eugene High School (1960)
== External links ==
*[http://www.eugene-or.gov/ City of Eugene]
*[http://www.el.com/to/eugene/ Welcome to Eugene]
*[http://www.planeteugene.com/ Planet Eugene]
*[http://www.conger-street-clock-museum.com/ Conger Street Clock Museum]
*[http://www.eugeneweekly.com/ The Eugene Weekly]
*[http://www.registerguard.com/ The Register Guard]
*[http://www.dailyemerald.com/ The Daily Emerald]
*[http://www.oregonvoice.com/ The Oregon Voice]
*[http://www.eugenelive.net/ EugeneLive]
*[http://www.kmtr.com/ KMTR NewsSource 16]
*[http://www.kezi.com/ KEZI Chanell 9]
*[http://www.hultcenter.com/ The Hult Center for Performing Arts]
*[http://www.eugenefreerecycle.com/ Got It Free? I Did at EugeneFreeRecycle.com]
*[http://www.uoregon.edu/ University of Oregon]
*[http://www.ci.eugene.or.us/Airport/ Eugene Airport]
{{Mapit-US-cityscale|44.057663|-123.110345}}
{{Oregon}}
[[Category:County seats in Oregon]]
[[Category:Cities in Oregon]]
[[Category:Lane County, Oregon]]
[[Category:University towns]]
[[Category:Eugene, Oregon|*]]
[[de:Eugene]]
[[fr:Eugene (Oregon)]]
[[io:Eugene, Oregon]]
[[it:Eugene]]
[[ja:ユージン (オレゴン州)]]
[[pl:Eugene (Oregon)]]
[[ro:Eugene]]
[[sv:Eugene]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Early Music</title>
<id>9624</id>
<revision>
<id>15907497</id>
<timestamp>2002-06-12T19:29:09Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Maveric149</username>
<id>62</id>
</contributor>
<comment>#REDIRECT [[early music]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[early music]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Eigenstate</title>
<id>9625</id>
<revision>
<id>24986305</id>
<timestamp>2005-10-07T16:31:50Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>SeventyThree</username>
<id>183256</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Eigenvalue, eigenvector and eigenspace#Schrödinger equation]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Elizabeth Barrett Browning</title>
<id>9627</id>
<revision>
<id>41475932</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-27T16:38:48Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Last Malthusian</username>
<id>414388</id>
</contributor>
<comment>rvv</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Elizabeth Barrett Browning - Project Gutenberg eText 16786.jpg|thumb|Elizabeth Barrett Browning]]
'''Elizabeth Barrett Browning (Moulton)''' ([[March 6]], [[1806]] &ndash; [[June 29]], [[1861]]) was a member of the [[Barrett family]] and one of the most respected [[poet]]s of the [[Victorian era]].
She was born at Cohnadatia Hall (now demolished) near [[Durham, England]] in 1806, the daughter of Creole plantation owner Edward Barrett, who assumed the last name on succeeding to the estates of his grandfather in [[Jamaica]]. She was christened in Kelloe church, where a plaque describes her as 'a great poetess, a noble woman, a devoted wife'. Her mother was Mary Graham-Clarke of a wealthy Newcastle family. She spent her youth at Hope End, near Great Malvern. While still a child she showed her gift, and her father published 50 copies of a juvenile epic, on the Battle of Marathon. She was educated at home, but owed her profound knowledge of Greek and much mental stimulus to her early friendship with the blind scholar, Hugh Stuart Boyd, who was a neighbour. In her early teens, Elizabeth contracted a lung complaint, possibly [[tuberculosis]], although the exact nature has been the subject of much speculation, and was treated as an invalid by her parents. For a girl of that time, she was well-educated, having been allowed to attend lessons with her brother's tutor. She published her first poem, anonymously, at the age of fourteen. In 1826 she published anonymously ''An Essay on Mind and Other Poems''.
Shortly afterwards the abolition of slavery, of which he had been a disinterested supporter, considerably reduced Mr. Barrett's means: he accordingly disposed of his estate and removed with his family first to Sidmouth and afterwards to London. At the former Miss Barrett wrote ''Prometheus Bound'' (1835). After her removal to London she fell into delicate health, her lungs being threatened. This did not, however, interfere with her literary labours |
one thinks of the result, it is true that the stakes were very high, the pressure on Jellicoe was immense, and his caution is certainly understandable - his judgement might have been that even 90% odds in favour were not good enough on which to bet the British Empire. The former [[First Lord of the Admiralty]] [[Winston Churchill]], said of the battle that Jellicoe "was the only man who could have lost the war in an afternoon." The criticism of Jellicoe also fails to give enough credit to Scheer, who was determined to preserve his fleet by avoiding a decisive engagement, and showed great skill in effecting his escape.
===Beatty's actions===
There is another school of thought that condemns the actions of Admiral Beatty for the failure of a complete British victory. Although Beatty was undeniably a brave man, his [[encounter action]] with the German High Seas Fleet almost cost the British the battle. Most of the British losses in tonnage occurred in Beatty's squadron. The three capital ships the British lost that day were all under the command of Beatty. Beatty used his battle cruisers in a manner for which they were not designed. They had been anticipated for use as cruiser-destroyer, rather than for a direct attack on larger and better armored dreadnought battleships. A battlecruiser in a slugging match against a dreadnought battleship was at a decisive disadvantage.
Additionally, Beatty's lack of control over the encounter action is often criticised. Beatty did not apparently appreciate the finer points of command and control over a naval engagement. Beatty was on-board the battlecruiser ''Lion'' and lost contact with his four dreadnought battleships. Having the battlecruisers attack the German High Seas Fleet without the cover of the Queen Elizabeth super-dreadnoughts was a grave blunder. It both exposed the weakly armored battlecruisers and split his forces. Beatty's political influence in England prevented more criticism than took place at the time. Jellicoe's orderly attack on the Germans saved the day, according to proponents of this school of thought, and most probably Beatty's life.
==Losses==
===British===
*Battlecruisers [[HMS Indefatigable (1909)|''Indefatigable'']], [[HMS Queen Mary|''Queen Mary'']], [[HMS Invincible (1907)|''Invincible'']]
*Armoured cruisers [[HMS Black Prince (1904)|''Black Prince'']], [[HMS Warrior (1905)|''Warrior'']], [[HMS Defence (1907)|''Defence'']]
*Flotilla Leaders [[HMS Tipperary (1914)|''Tipperary'']]
*Destroyers [[HMS Shark (1912)|''Shark'']], [[HMS Sparrowhawk (1912)|''Sparrowhawk'']], [[HMS Turbulent (1916)|''Turbulent'']], [[HMS Ardent (1913)|''Ardent'']], [[HMS Fortune (1913)|''Fortune'']], [[HMS Nomad (1916)|''Nomad'']], [[HMS Nestor (1915)|''Nestor'']]
===German===
*Battlecruiser [[SMS Lützow|''Lützow'']]
*'''Pre-Dreadnought''' [[SMS Pommern|''Pommern'']]
*Light cruisers [[SMS Frauenlob|''Frauenlob'']], [[SMS Elbing|''Elbing'']], [[SMS Rostock|''Rostock'']], [[SMS Wiesbaden|''Wiesbaden'']]
*(Heavy Torpedo Boats) Destroyers ''V48'', ''S35'', ''V27'', ''V4'', ''V29''
==Order of battle==
See [[Order of battle at Jutland]].
==External links==
*Beatty's [http://www.gwpda.org/1916/jutlandb.html official report]
*Jellicoe's [http://www.gwpda.org/naval/jut02.htm official despatch]
*Jellicoe, [http://www.richthofen.com/jellicoe/ extract from ''The Grand Fleet''], published 1919
*Scheer, [http://www.richthofen.com/scheer/ ''Germany's High Seas Fleet in the World War''], published 1920
Notable accounts:
*[http://www.lib.byu.edu/~rdh/wwi/1916/jutland.html by Rudyard Kipling]
*[http://www.worldwar1.co.uk/grant.htm by Alexander Grant], a gunner aboard HMS ''Lion''
*[http://www.gwpda.org/naval/jut01.htm by Moritz von Egidy], captain of SMS ''Seydlitz''
*[http://www.gwpda.org/naval/foeseyd.htm by Richard Foerster], gunnery officer on ''Seydlitz''
*[http://www.wtj.com/archives/hase_03.htm by Georg von Hase], gunnery officer on ''Derfflinger''
(Note that due to the [[time zone]] difference, the times in some of the German accounts are two hours ahead of the times in this article.)
==References==
* Robert K. Massie, ''Castles of Steel: Britain, Germany, and the Winning of the Great War at Sea'', Random House, 2003, ISBN 0-345-40878-0
* John Campbell, ''Jutland: An Analysis of the Fighting'', Lyons Press [http://webpages.charter.net/abacus/news/jutland/cont.htm].
* [[Andrew Gordon (naval historian)|Andrew Gordon]], ''The Rules of the Game: Jutland and British Naval Command'', London: John Murray, 1996.
* Charles London, ''Jutland 1916'', Clash of the Dreadnoughts; Osprey Campaign Series #72, Osprey Publishing, 2000.
* V. E. Tarrant, ''Jutland: The German Perspective &mdash; A New View of the Great Battle'', Weidenfeld &amp; Nicholson.
* Nigel Steel and Peter Hart, ''Jutland 1916: Death in the Grey Wastes'', Cassell.
{{featured article}}
{{World War I}}
[[Category:1916]]
[[Category:Naval battles of World War I|Jutland]]
{{Link FA|de}}
[[ca:Batalla naval de Jutlàndia]]
[[da:Søslaget ved Jylland]]
[[de:Skagerrakschlacht]]
[[el:Ναυμαχία της Γιουτλάνδης]]
[[fr:Bataille du Jutland]]
[[he:קרב יוטלנד]]
[[ms:Pertempuran Jutland]]
[[nl:Zeeslag bij Jutland]]
[[no:Slaget ved Jylland]]
[[ja:ユトランド沖海戦]]
[[pl:Bitwa jutlandzka]]
[[pt:Batalha da Jutlândia]]
[[fi:Skagerrakin meritaistelu]]
[[sv:Slaget vid Jylland]]
[[zh:日德兰海战]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Bitter ale</title>
<id>4564</id>
<revision>
<id>15902826</id>
<timestamp>2004-07-17T13:27:41Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Harry R</username>
<id>63691</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Bitter (beer)]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Bambara language</title>
<id>4565</id>
<revision>
<id>42042209</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T11:48:45Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>61.124.72.237</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Language
|familycolor=Niger-Congo
|name=Bambara
|nativename=Bamanankan
|states=[[Mali]], [[Burkina Faso]], [[Côte d'Ivoire]]
|region=central southern Mali and abroad
|speakers=2,700,000 (several millions more including second language speakers)
|fam2=[[Mande languages|Mande]]
|fam3=West Mande
|fam4=[[Manding languages|Manding]]
|iso1=bm|iso2=bam|iso3=bam}}
'''Bambara''', also known as '''Bamanankan''' in the language itself, is a [[language]] spoken in [[Mali]] by as many as six million people (including second language users). The differences between Bambara and '''Dioula''' are minimal. Dioula is a language spoken or understood, by fewer numbers of people, in [[Burkina Faso]], [[Côte d'Ivoire]], and [[Gambia]]. The Bambara language is primarily spoken by members of the [[Bambara]] ethnic group, numbering about 270,000 people, but serves also as an interethnic language of Mali.
Bambara belongs to a group of closely-related languages called [[Manding languages|Manding]], within the larger [[Mande languages|Mandé]] group. It is an [[Subject Object Verb|SOV]] language and has two [[tone (tonal language)|tone]]s.
It uses seven vowels a, e, &#603;, i, o, &#596; and u (a like in car, e like in echo, &#603; similar to the second e in echelon but more open, i like in India, o like in for, &#596; like the final sound in gnaw, and u like in the name Honolulu).
Writing was introduced during the [[French colonial empire|French]] occupation and alphabetisation is a major issue especially in rural areas. Although written literature is only slowly evolving (due to the predominance of French as the "language of the educated"), there exists a wealth of [[oral history|oral literature]], which is often tales of kings and heroes. This oral literature is mainly tradited by the "[[Griot]]" who are a mixture of [[storyteller]]s, [[partysinger]]s and human history books who have studied the trade of singing and reciting for many years. Many of their songs are very old and are said to date back to the old kingdom of Mali.
Bambara is a national language of Mali, and also the most widely understood language in Mali.
Bambara has many local dialects. Some dialect variants: Somono, Segou, San, Beledugu, Ganadugu, Wasulu and Sikasso.
==Dioula==
Dioula is related to Bambara in a manner similar to the relation between [[American English]] and [[British English]]. It's probably the most used language for trade in [[West Africa]].
==Writing==
Since the seventies Bambara has mostly been written in the Latin alphabet, using some additional phonetic characters. The vowels are ''a, e, &#603;'' (formerly ''è''), ''i, o, &#596;'' (formerly ''ò''), ''u''; accents can be used to indicate tonality. The former digraph ''ny'' is now written ''&#626;'' or ''ñ'' (Senegal). The ambiguous digraph "ng" represented both the "hard ng" sound in "finger" and the "ng" in "king." The 1966 Bamako spelling conventions render the latter sound as " &#331;"
[[N'Ko]] is a script devised by [[Solomana Kante]] in [[1949]] as a writing system for the Mande languages of West Africa; N&#8217;Ko means 'I say' in all Mande languages. Kante created N&#8217;Ko in response to what he felt were beliefs that Africans were a "cultureless people" since there was prior to this time, no indigenous African writing system for his language. N'ko came first into use in Kankan, Guinea as a Maninka alphabet and disseminated from there into other Mande-speaking parts of West Africa. The script is still in use for Bambara, although the Latin alphabet is much more common.
There are some <!--or just one? [[User:Guaka|G-u-a-k-@]] hasn't found any yet, after nearly 3 months in Bamako.. :( --> newspapers in Bambara.
==Grammar==
Bambara belongs to a group of closely-related languages called Manding (related to [[Mandinka language|Mandinka]], [[Man |
kṛtam}}|| ||
|-
|Hello||नमो नमः, नमस्कारः ||{{IPA|namo namaḥ, namaskāraḥ}}||Salutations||
|-
|Good-bye||पुनर्दर्शनाय||{{IPA|punardarśanāya}}||To meet again||
|-
|Please||कृपया||{{IPA|kṛpayā}}||With mercy||
|-
|Thank you||अनुगृहितोऽस्मि (for men)<br>अनुगृहितास्मि (for women)||{{IPA|anugṛhito'smi (for men)<br>anugṛhitāsmi (for women)}}||I am blessed||
|-
|That one||अयमेव||{{IPA|ayameva}}|| ||
|-
|How much?||कियत् || {{IPA|kiyat}} || ||
|-
|English||आंग्लभाषा ||{{IPA|āṁglabhāṣā}}|| ||
|-
|Yes||आम् , एवम् ||{{IPA|ām , evam}} || ||
|-
|No|| न , नास्ति , नैवम् || {{IPA|na, nāsti, naivam}}||No, Does not exist, Not that||
|-
|Generic toast|| ||{{IPA|shubhamastu}} ||Let good happen||
|}
== [[Sardinian language|Sardinian]] ([[Romance languages|Romance]]) ==
*Sardinian: ''sardu'' /'sarDu/ "sar-doo"
*hello: ''bona die'' "bon-a dee-a"
*good-bye: ''adiosu'' /a'Djosu/ "ah-dhyohsoo"
*bye-bye: ''a nois bider'' /anois'biDer/ "a-nohss-BI-dere"
*please: ''pro pragher'' /'pro pra'ger/ "pro praw-gare"
*thank you: ''gràtzias'' /'gratsias/ "GRAHSS-yahss"
*that one: ''cussu'' /'kusu/ "KU-hssoo"
*how much?: ''cantu'' /'kantu/ "KAHN-too"
*English: ''Ingresu'' /in'gresu/ "in-GRAY-soo"
*yes: ''eia'' /'eja/
*no: ''no'' /'no/
*sorry: ''mi dispraghidu''
*I don't understand: Non cumprenno
*I don't speak Sardinian: Non faeddo su sardu
*where's the bathroom?:
*hello, and generic toast: ''saludos'' /sa'luDe/ "saw-LOODHE"
== [[Scots language|Scots]] ([[Germanic languages|Germanic]]) ==
Scots survives in a number of dialects. The North east Central (Fife) pronunciation is marked NeC, North East Scots ([[Doric dialect|Doric]]) is marked as NE. C ans S for central and southern pronunciatons. The unmarked pronunciations are generally used in most areas.
A <tt>/t/</tt> between vowels and final is [[Glottal Stop|glottalised]]. This may also occur with a final <tt>/d/</tt>.
*Scots: ''Scots'' <tt>[skots, skOts]</tt>
*hello: ''awricht'' <tt>[A'rIxt, a'rIxt]</tt>, NE: ''whit like'' <tt>[fIt l@ik]</tt>
*good-bye: ''see ye'' <tt>[si: ji:]</tt>
*thank you: ''ta'' <tt>[ta:]</tt>
*that one: ''that ane'' <tt>[<tt>C and S</tt> Dat jIn, </tt>NeC</tt> Dat en, at en,</tt> NE <tt>at in]</tt>
*no: ''nae'' <tt>[ne:, nQ <tt> NE <tt>na]</tt>
*yes: ''ay'' <tt>[AI]</tt>
*sorry: ''sairy'' <tt>[se:rI]</tt>
*I don't understand: ''A dinna unnerstaund'' <tt>[a dIn@ Vn@rstA:n(d), a dIne Vn@rstA:n(d), a dIna Vn@rstA:n(d)]</tt>
*where's the bathroom?: ''whaur's the cludgie?'' <tt>[WA:rz D@ klVdZI,]</tt>. NE: ''whaur's the chantie'' <tt>[fArz i 'tSVntI]</tt>
*generic toast: ''cheers!'' <tt>[tSi:rz]</tt>
*Do you speak English?: ''Dae ye speak English?'' <tt>[de: ji spIk INlIS,<tt> NE <tt> di: ji spIk INlIS]</tt>
== [[Scottish Gaelic language|Scottish Gaelic]] ([[Celtic languages|Celtic]]) ==
*Gaelic: ''Gàidhlig'' (GAH-lick)
*welcome: ''fàilte'' (FAL-tyuh)
*good-bye: ''mar sin leat'' (mar SHIN let)
*please: ''mas e do thoil e'' (mah SHEH daw HOL eh)
*thank you: ''tapadh leat'' (TAH-pah let)
*sorry: ''tha mi duilich'' (hah mee DOO-leekh)
*that one: ''am fear sin'' (am fer SHIN)
*how much?: ''cia mheud'' (kah VIT)
*English: ''Beurla'' (BYER-luh)
*yes: <sup>2</sup>''tha'' (hah)
*no: <sup>3</sup>''chan eil'' (chan YIL)
*I don't understand: ''chan eil mi a' tuigsinn'' (khan YIL mee uh TOOK-shin)
*Where's the bathroom?: ''càit a bheil an taigh beag?'' (KATCH-uh vil an TUH-eeh bik)
*generic toast: ''slàinte'' (SLAN-tyuh)
== [[Serbian language|Serbian]] ([[Slavic languages|Slavic]]) ==
'''Ekavian Speech'''
*Serbian: српски srpski /srp-skee/ (srpskee)
*hello: здраво zdravo /zdrA-vO/ (z like in zebra) Literal translation: healthy
*good morning: добро јутро ''dobro jutro''
*good afternoon: добар дан ''dobar dan''
*good evening: добро вече ''dobro veče''
*good-bye: довиђења ''doviđenja'' /dOvidʲɛnʲɑ/ Literal translation: until we see again
* please: молим ''molim'' /mO-lim/ (moleam)
* thank you: хвала ''hvala'' /hvA-la/ Literal translation: praise
* that one: то ''to'' ('''not''' as English to)
* how much?: колико? ''koliko?'' /ko-lɛ-ko/ (coleeco, co-, -co => cup)
* English: енглески ''engleski'' /ɛn-glɛ-ski/ (-skee)
* yes: да ''da'' /dA/
* no: не ''ne'' /nɛ/
* generic toast: живели! ''živeli!'' /ʒi-vɛ-li/ (zhiveli) Literal translation: live!
* sorry: извините ''izvinite'' /ezveeneete/ (formal)
* I don't understand: не разумем ''ne razumem'' /na rAzumem/
* Where is [the bathroom (toilet)]?: Где је тоалет? ''Gde je toalet?'' /gdɛ jɛ toAlEt/
* Do you speak English?: Да ли говорите енглески? ''Da li govorite engleski?''
== [[Sicilian language|Sicilian]] ([[Romance languages|Romance]]) ==
{| border=0 cellpadding=3 cellspacing=0
|- bgcolor=#eeeeee
! align=left | English
! align=left | Sicilian
|- valign=top
|-
|Yes
|<b>Sì</b>
|-
|No
|<b>No</b>
|-
|Thank you
|<b>Grazzî</b>
|-
|Please
|<b>Pi fauri</b>
|-
|What is your name?
|<b>Comu ti chiami?</b>
|-
|What time is it?
|<b>Chi ura sunnu?</b>
|-
|I don't know
|<b>Nun lu sacciu</b>
|-
|Goodbye
|<b>Nni videmu</b>
|}
== [[Slovak language|Slovak]] ([[Slavic languages|Slavic]]) ==
NOTE: adjectives are in masculine singular nominative, if there are two ways of saying something (formal/informal), the formal one is used.
Stress is always on the first syllable of the word.
*Slovak (adjective): ''slovenský'' (SLOvenskeee) /{{IPA|slovɛnskiː}}/
*Slovak (adverb): ''po slovensky'' (POslovenskee) /{{IPA|po slovɛnski}}/
*hello: ''dobrý deň'' (DObreee dyen) /{{IPA|dobriː ɟɛɲ}}/ Literal translation: good day
*good-bye: ''dovidenia'' (DOveedyeniya) /{{IPA|doviɟɛɲi̯a}}/
*please: ''prosím (Vás)'' (PROseeem vaas) /{{IPA|prosiːm vaːs}}/
*thank you: ''ďakujem (Vám)'' (DYAkooyem vaam) /{{IPA|ɟakujɛm vaːm}}/
*that one: ''tamten'' (TAMten) /{{IPA|tamtɛn}}/
*how much?: ''koľko'' (KOlko) /{{IPA|koʎko}}/
*English (adjective): ''anglický'' (ANglytskeee) /{{IPA|aŋgliʦkiː}}/
*English (adverb): ''po anglicky'' (POanglytskee) /{{IPA|po aŋgliʦki}}/
*yes: ''áno'' (AANO) /{{IPA|aːno}}/
*no: ''nie'' (niye) /{{IPA|ɲi̯ɛ}}/
*generic toast: ''Na zdravie'' (NAzdravye) /{{IPA|na zdravi̯ɛ}}/
*sorry: ''Prepáčte'' (PREpaachtye) /{{IPA|prɛpaːʧcɛ}}/
*I don't understand: ''Nerozumiem'' /NYerozoomyem/ ({{IPA|ɲɛrozumi̯ɛm}}/)
*Where is [the bathroom (toilet)]?: ''Kde je [záchod]? '' (KDYE YE ZAA-khod) /{{IPA|gɟɛ jɛ zaːxot}}/
*Do you speak [English]?: ''Hovoríte [po anglicky]?'' (HOvoreeetye POanglytskee) /{{IPA|hovoriːcɛ po aŋgliʦki}}/
== [[Slovene language|Slovene]] ([[Slavic languages|Slavic]]) ==
*Slovene: ''slovensko'' /{{IPA|slɒ'venskɒ}}/
*hello: ''zdravo'' /{{IPA|'zdrɑvɒ}}/ Literal translation: healthy
*hello: ''živijo'' /{{IPA|'ʒɪʊjɒ}}/
*good-bye: ''nasvidenje'' (also ''na svidenje'') /{{IPA|na'svɪdɛnjɛ}}/
*please: ''prosim'' /{{IPA|'prɔsim}}/
*thank you: ''hvala'' /{{IPA|'hvɑla}}/
*that one: ''tisti'' /{{IPA|'tɪstɪ}}/ (ti-, -ti => ''Ti''bet)
*how much?: ''koliko?'' /{{IPA|'kɔlɪkɒ}}/ (co-, -co => cup)
*English: ''angleško'' /{{IPA|ɑn'gleʃkɒ}}/
*yes: ''da'' /{{IPA|dʌ}}/ (official), ''ja'' (colloquial)
*no: ''ne'' /{{IPA|nɛ}}/
*generic toast: ''na zdravje'' /{{IPA|nɑ zdrɑʊjɛ}}/ Literal translation: to (our) health
== [[Spanish language|Spanish]] ([[Romance languages|Romance]]) ==
<small>NOTE</small>: For words ending in a vowel or the letters n or s, stress is on the penultimate (next to last) syllable. Words ending in other consonants, especially [[verbs]], are stressed on the last syllable. Exceptions require a written accent. The ''th'' {{IPA|[θ]}} pronunciation is typical of standard Spanish as spoken in most of Spain, and is replaced by the ''s'' pronunciation in Latin America and some regions of Spain, such as the Canary Islands.
{| border=0 cellpadding=3 cellspacing=0 style="font-family:'Lucida Sans Unicode';"
|- bgcolor=#eeeeee
! align=left | Translation
! align=left | Phrase
! align=left | IPA
! align=left | Pronunciation
! align=left | Remarks
|- valign=top
| Spanish
| '''castellano'''<br><br>'''español'''
| {{IPA|/kasteˈʎano/}}<br>{{IPA|/kasteˈʝano/}}<br>{{IPA|/espaˈɲol/}}
|
|
|- valign=top bgcolor=#f8f8f8
| hello
| '''hola'''
| {{IPA|/ˈola/}}
| [[Media:Spanish hola.ogg|listen]]
|
|- valign=top
| good morning
| '''buenos días'''
| {{IPA|/bwenosˈð̞iːas/}}
|
| lit. ''good days''
|- valign=top bgcolor=#f8f8f8
| goodbye
| '''adiós'''
| {{IPA|/aˈð̞jos/}}
| [[Media:Spanish adiós.ogg|listen]]
| from '''a Dios''' ''to God''
|- valign=top
| see you
| '''hasta luego'''
| {{IPA|/ˈastaˈlweɰo/}}
| [[Media:Spanish hasta luego.ogg|listen]]
| lit. ''until (we see) later''
|- valign=top bgcolor=#f8f8f8
| please
| '''por favor'''
| {{IPA|/por faˈβ̞or/}}
|
| lit. ''by favour''
|- valign=top
| thank you
| '''gracias'''
| {{IPA|/ˈgraθjas/}}<br>{{IPA|/ˈgrasjas/}}
|
|
|- valign=top bgcolor=#f8f8f8
| you’re welcome<br>don't mention it
| '''de nada'''
| {{IPA|/deˈnað̞a/}}
|
| lit. ''(it was) of nothing''
|- valign=top
| sorry
| '''perdón'''
| {{IPA|/perˈð̞on/}}
|
| lit. ''(I beg your) pardon''
|- valign=top
| pardon me
| '''perdóneme'''
| {{IPA|/pɛɾˈð̞o.ne.me/}}
|
|- valign=top bgcolor=#f8f8f8
| I'm sorry
| '''lo siento'''
| {{IPA|/loˈsjɛn.to/}}
|
|
|- valign=top
| forgive me
| '''discúlpame'''<br />'''disculpe''' (formal)
| {{IPA|/disˈkul.pa.me/}}
|
|
|
|- valign=top bgcolor=#f8f8f8
| this one
| '''éste''' (masculine)<br>'''ésta''' (feminine)
| {{IPA|/ˈeste/}}<br>{{IPA|/ˈesta/}}
|
|
|- valign=top
| that one
| '''ése''' (masculine)<br>'''ésa''' (feminine)
| {{IPA|/ˈese/}}<br>{{IPA|/ˈesa/}}
|
|
|- valign=top |
mong other religious activities. [[Puja]] or worship, frequently uses the aid of a ''[[#Forms of worship: icons and mantras|murti]]'' (statue in which divine presence is invoked) in conjunction with the singing or chanting of meditational prayer in the form of [[mantra]]s. Devotional songs called [[bhajan]]s (written primarily from the 14th-17th centuries), [[kirtan]] (devotional songs), and [[arti]] are sometimes sung in conjunction with performance of puja. This rather organic system of devotion attempts to aid the individual in connecting with God through symbolic communion. This form of icon and temple worship, [[puja]], is integral to the [[Bhakti]] cult.
Most Hindu homes also have a specific area devoted to daily worship of the deities with religious icons and meditation.
===Current geographic distribution===
{{main|Hinduism by country}}
[[Image:Neasden_Temple_-_Shree_Swaminarayan_Hindu_Mandir_-_Gate.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Hinduism continues to grow, as is evidenced by the modern [[Neasden Temple]] in [[London]].]]
[[Image:Mahakumbh.jpg|thumb|225 px|The largest religious gathering on Earth. Around 70 million people from around the world participated in [[Kumbh Mela]] at one of the Hindu Holy city [[Prayaga]] (also known as Allahabad) ([[India]]).]]
Of the total Hindu population of the world, about 94% (890 million) live in [[India]]. Significant numbers of Hindus reside in [[Bali]], [[Bangladesh]], [[Bhutan]], [[Fiji]], [[Guyana]], [[Nepal]], [[Mauritius]], [[Suriname]], [[Singapore]] and [[Trinidad and Tobago]]. In [[Nepal]] and [[Bali]], Hinduism is the major religion, and is still reflected in the traditional culture and architecture. There are also sizeable Hindu populations in [[Sri Lanka]] (3 million), [[Pakistan]] (2.5 million), [[Malaysia]] (1.5 million), [[United States]] (1.5 million), [[South Africa]] (1.1 million) the [[Middle East]] (1 million) and the [[United Kingdom]] (1 million).
==Hindu philosophy: the six Vedic schools of thought==
{{main|Hindu philosophy}}
The six ''Astika'' or orthodox (accepting the authority of the Vedas) schools of Hindu philosophy are [[Nyaya]], [[Vaisheshika]], [[Samkhya]], [[Yoga]], [[Purva Mimamsa]] (also called just 'Mimamsa'), and [[Vedanta|Uttara Mimamsa]] (also called '[[Vedanta]]'). The non-Vedic schools are called Nastika, or heterodox, and refer to [[Buddhism]], [[Jainism]] and [[Lokayata]]. The schools that continue to enrich Hinduism today are [[Purva Mimamsa]], [[Yoga]], and [[Vedanta]]. See [[Hindu philosophy]] for a discussion of the historical significance of [[Samkhya]], [[Nyaya]], and [[Vaisheshika]].
===Purva Mimamsa===
{{main|Purva Mimamsa}}
The main objective of Purva ("earlier") [[Mimamsa]] school (also simply called '''Mimamsa''') was to firmly establish the authority of the Vedas. Consequently, this school's most valuable contribution to Hinduism was its formulation of the rules of interpretation of Vedas. Its adherents believed that true knowledge is self-evidently proven, and tried to find out the basis of the Vedic ritualism through reasoning. This school of thought forms the basis of Modern Hindu ritualism (strictly followed only by a minority), which believes in the inherent power of rituals.
===Yoga===
{{main|Yoga}}
[[Image:Indus 03.jpg|thumb|200px|right|In Hinduism, Yoga is considered to be the ultimate way of attaining spiritual goals. The earliest written accounts of yoga appear in the [[Rig Veda]], which began to be codified between 1500 and 1200 BCE. Some historians believe that this 5000 thousand years old sculpture is of a yogi.]]
Yoga means ''union'' and is generally interpreted as union with the Divine, or integration of body, mind, and spirit. Its goals are [[moksha]] or [[samadhi]]. It, like the [[Upanishad]]s, seeks liberation through the disunion of the spirit ([[Purusha]]) and the nature ([[Prakriti]]), through meditational, physical and spiritual practices, along with a firm belief in God ([[Ishvara]]).
[[Upanishads]], sage [[Patanjali]]'s [[Yoga Sutra]] and the [[Bhagavad Gita]] are indispensable literature in the study of Yoga and elaborate on [[Raja Yoga]], [[Bhakti Yoga]], [[Karma Yoga]] and [[Gyana Yoga]]. Of these, the [[Yoga Sutra]] is essentially a compilation and systematization of meditational Yoga philosophy.
===Uttara Mimamsa: Vedanta and its three main schools===
{{main|Vedanta}}
The Uttara ("later") Mimamsa school, also called as [[Vedanta]], is the central pillar of Hinduism and was responsible for a new wave of philosophical and meditative enquiry, renewal and revival of Hinduism, and established strong philosophical foundation. Primarily associated with the [[Upanishad]]s and their commentaries by [[Badarayana]] — the [[Vedanta Sutra]]s, Vedanta thought, according to the pre-Shankaran Buddhist sources (Aryadeva, Kamalashila, Bhavya) monotheistic, later split into three principal (and three other) groups, initiated by the thinking and writing of [[Adi Sankara]]. Most Hindu thought today in some way relates to changes affected by [[Vedanta|Vedantic]] thought, which focused on unity of the whole God.
The great debate between followers the major Hindu philosophical school, [[Advaita]] and the schools such as those of [[Ramanuja]] and [[Madhva]], focused on the true nature of [[Brahman]], on whether Brahman was essentially monistic, qualified non-dualistic or dualistic in nature. The world famous sect of [[ISKCON]], worshipping [[Krishna]], follows the Vedantic philosophy of '''Acintya Bhedabheda''' by [[Chaitanya Mahaprabhu]].
====Pure monism: [[Advaita Vedanta]]====
{{main|Advaita}}
''Advaita'' literally means "not two"; thus this is what we refer to as a monistic (or non-dualistic) philosophy, which emphasizes the oneness of the Divine. Its proponent was [[Adi Sankara]] ([[788]]?-[[820]]?). Sankara expounded his theories largely based on previous teachings of the [[Upanishad]]s and his own [[guru]] [[Govinda Bhagavadpada]]. By the analysis of Vedas, he proposed the relative nature of the Universe and established the non-dual nature of Brahman in which [[Atman]] (the individual soul) and [[Brahman]] (the Ultimate Reality) are identified to be identical. Reality is categorised into three levels: '''Transcendental''', '''Pragmatic''' and '''Apparent'''. As compared to the Brahman which is the Supreme Reality, everything else, including the universe, the individuals and even Ishvara are not true. The universe, the individuals and Ishvara are true only in the Pragmatic level.
To Advaitists (nondualists) Ultimate Reality is best expressed as [[Nirguna Brahman]], or God without form, or God without physical attributes; indeed, some might go so far as to say it is not 'God' but something beyond - the Godhead. However, even that definition can be limiting. Nirguna Brahman can never be described as that as It transcends all definitions. All personal forms of God ([[Ishvara]]) such as [[Vishnu]] or [[Shiva]] or the Mother Goddess are different aspects of Nirguna Brahman in physical form, or God with attributes, [[Saguna Brahman]]. In fact, when a being tries to know the '''Supreme Spirit''' (Brahman) through his mind, Brahman becomes the '''Supreme Lord''' (Ishvara), under the effect of an illusionary power of Brahman called [[Maya (Hinduism)|Maya]]. The material universe and the appearance of the single Atman to be seen as innumerable individual souls are also because of Maya. True knowledge of the Brahman ('''Jñana''') is the only way to liberation; however, good Karma and Bhakti are recognized as great help in attaining true knowledge. Adi Sankara had also condemned the caste system.
====Qualified monism: [[Vishistadvaita]] [[Bhakti]]====
{{main|Vishistadvaita}}
[[Ramanuja]] ([[1040]] - [[1137]]) was the foremost proponent of the concept of Sriman '''Narayana''' as the supreme Brahman. He taught that Ultimate Reality had three aspects: '''Ishvara''' ([[Vishnu]]), chit (soul) and achit (matter). Vishnu is the only independent reality, while souls and matter are dependent on God Vishnu for their existence. Because of this qualification of Ultimate reality, Ramanuja's system is known as qualified non-dualism. [[Karma]] along with [[Bhakti]] for is the true path for liberation.
====Dualism: [[Dvaita]] [[Bhakti]] ====
{{main|Dvaita}}
Like Ramanuja, [[Shri Madhvacharya|Madhva]] ([[1238]] - [[1317]]) identified [[God]] with Vishnu, but his view of reality was purely dualistic in that he understood a fundamental differentiation between the ultimate Godhead and the individual soul, and the system is therefore called Dvaita (dualistic) Vedanta. [[Bhakti]] is the only way for liberation.
==Alternative cultures of worship==
===The Bhakti schools===
{{main|Bhakti}}
[[Image:Ganesha2.jpg|thumb|right|[[Ganesh|Shri Ganesh]] is the son of [[Shiva]] and [[Parvati]]. He is widely worshipped as [[Vignesh]], the remover of obstacles.]]
The [[Bhakti yoga|Bhakti]] (Devotional) school takes its name from the Hindu term that signifies a blissful, selfless and overwhelming devotion of God as the beloved Father, Mother, Child, or whatever relationship finds appeal in the devotee's heart. The philosophy of Bhakti seeks to relate to the personal form of God. Seen as a form of [[Yoga]], or union, it seeks to interlink the self with God, since consciousness of the body and limited mind as self is seen to be a limiting factor in spiritual realization.
Essentially, it is God who effects all change, who is the source of all works, who acts through the devotee as love and light. 'Sins' and evil-doings of the devotee are said to fall away of their own accord, the devotee shriven, limitedness even transcended, through the devotion of God. The [[Bhakti]] movements rejuvenated Hinduism through their intense expression of devotion and their responsiveness to the emotional and philosophical needs of India.
Altogether, bhakti resulted in a mass of devotional literature, music and art that has enriched the wo |
h]].
:Verily! So much for all that.
And this from the ''[[Principia Discordia]]'''s very beginning, a Discordian [[koan]]:
:GREATER POOP: Is [[Eris]] true?
:MALACLYPSE THE YOUNGER: Everything is true.
:GP: Even false things?
:M2: Even false things are true.
:GP: How can that be?
:M2: I don't know man, I didn't do it.
=== Chao ===
The word '''Chao''' (pronounced similar to "[[cow]]") <!-- fnordblatt! --> was [[neologism|coined]] as the singular of ''chaos''. In the Discordian religion the chao is a symbol of the [[pataphysics|pataphysical]] nature of reality; singular instances of chaos being at the center of pataphysical theory. The word is a [[pun]] that enables the following [[couplet]] in the ''[[Principia Discordia]]'':
:To diverse [[gods]]
:Do mortals bow;
:[[Holy Cow]], and
:Wholly Chao.
====The Sacred Chao====
[[Image:sacred-chao.png|right|thumb|300px|The Sacred Chao]]
The [[Sacred Chao]] is a symbol used by Discordians to illustrate the interrelatedness of order and disorder. It resembles a [[yin yang]] symbol, but according to ''Principia Discordia'' (page 00049):
:The Sacred Chao is not the Yin-Yang of the Taoists. It is the HODGE-PODGE of the Erisians. And, instead of a Podge spot on the Hodge side, it has a [[Pentagon|PENTAGON]] which symbolizes the ANERISTIC PRINCIPLE, and instead of a Hodge spot on the Podge side, it depicts the GOLDEN APPLE OF DISCORDIA to symbolize the ERISTIC PRINCIPLE.
:The Sacred Chao symbolizes absolutely everything anyone need ever know about absolutely anything, and more! It even symbolizes everything not worth knowing, depicted by the empty space surrounding the Hodge-Podge.
The choice of the [[Pentagon]] as a symbol of the Aneristic Principle is partly related to [[The Pentagon]] in [[Washington, D.C.]], and partly a nod to the [[#The Law of Fives|Law of Fives]]. The Golden Apple of Discordia is the one from the story of The Original Snub (below).
=== The Law of Fives ===
[[Image:Principiadiscordia-page16.gif|thumb|right|Page 00016 of the Principia Discordia]]
The Law of Fives is summarized on page 00016 of the ''Principia Discordia'':
:The Law of Fives states simply that: ALL THINGS HAPPEN IN FIVES, OR ARE DIVISIBLE BY OR ARE MULTIPLES OF FIVE, OR ARE SOMEHOW DIRECTLY OR INDIRECTLY APPROPRIATE TO 5.
:The Law of Fives is never wrong.
It is worth noting that the Law of Fives includes the word "Five" five times.
Like most of Discordianism, the Law of Fives appears on the surface to be either some sort of weird joke, or bizarre supernaturalism; but under this, it may help clarify the Discordian view of how the human mind works; Lord Omar is quoted later on the same page as having written, "I find the Law of Fives to be more and more manifest the harder I look."
Appendix Beth of [[Robert Shea]]'s and [[Robert Anton Wilson]]'s [[The Illuminatus! Trilogy]] considers some of the numerology of Discordianism, and the question of what would happen to the Law of Fives if everyone had six fingers on each hand.
Another way of looking at the Law of Fives is as a symbol for the observation of reality changing that which is being observed in the observer's mind. Just as how when one looks for fives in reality, one finds them, so will one find conspiracies, ways to determine when the apocalypse will come, and so on and so forth when one decides to look for them. It cannot be wrong, because it proves itself reflexively when looked at through this lens.
=== The Original Snub ===
(From ''[[Principia Discordia|The Principia Discordia]]'', [[All_Rites_Reversed|all Rites Reversed]], pages 00017 and 00018)
:It seems that [[Zeus]] was preparing a wedding banquet for [[Peleus]] and [[Thetis]] and did not want to invite [[Eris]] because of Her reputation as a trouble maker.*
:This made Eris angry, and so She fashioned an apple of pure [[gold]]** and inscribed upon it [[Kallisti|καλλίστῃ]] <nowiki>("To The Prettiest One")</nowiki> and on the day of the fete She rolled it into the banquet hall and then left to be alone and joyously partake of a [[hot dog]].
:Now, three of the invited [[goddess|goddesses]],*** [[Athena]], [[Hera]], and [[Aphrodite]], each immediately claimed it to belong to herself because of the inscription. And they started fighting, and they started throwing [[punch (drink)|punch]] all over the place and everything.
:Finally Zeus calmed things down and declared that an [[arbitrator]] must be selected, which was a reasonable suggestion, and all agreed. He sent them to a shepherd of [[Troy]], whose name was [[Paris_(mythology)|Paris]] because his mother had had a lot of [[Gaul|gaul]] and had married a [[France|Frenchman]]; but each of the sneaky goddesses tried to outwit the others by going early and offering a bribe to Paris.
:Athena offered him [[Heroism|Heroic]] [[War]] Victories, Hera offered him Great [[Wealth]], and Aphrodite offered him the Most [[beauty|Beautiful]] [[Woman]] on [[Earth]]. Being a healthy young Trojan lad, Paris promptly accepted Aphrodite's bribe and she got the apple and he got screwed.
:As she had promised, she maneuvered earthly happenings so that Paris could have Helen (''the'' Helen) then living with her husband [[Menelaus]], [[Monarch|King]] of [[Sparta]]. Anyway, everyone knows that the [[Trojan War]] followed when Sparta demanded their [[Monarch|Queen]] back and that the Trojan War is said to be The First War among men.
:And so we suffer because of the Original Snub. And so a Discordian is to partake of No [[hot dog|Hot Dog]] [[bun|Buns]].[[Image:Apple of Discord.png|right]]
:Do you believe that?
:<nowiki>*</nowiki> This is called THE DOCTRINE OF THE ORIGINAL SNUB
:<nowiki>**</nowiki> There is historic disagreement concerning whether this apple was of metallic [[gold]] or [[acapulco gold|acapulco]].
:<nowiki>***</nowiki> Actually there were five [[goddess]]es, but the [[Greece|Greeks]] did not know the Law of Fives.
The Golden Apple of Discord is thus one of the major symbols associated with [[Discordianism]].
=== The Curse of Greyface ===
The Curse of Greyface is one of the most important parts of Discordianism. It features prominently on pages 00042 and 00063 of the ''[[Principia Discordia]]''. Counteracting the curse features prominently on pages 00063 and 00074. According to the ''Principia'', Greyface was a man who lived in the year [[1166 BC]] and taught that life is serious and play is sin. The curse is a psychological and spiritual imbalance that results from these beliefs. (Some believe that [[J. R. "Bob" Dobbs]] of the [[Church of the SubGenius]] and Greyface are one and the same, though he is also referred to as the "Anti-Greyface".)
==== The Curse ====
Greyface encouraged his followers to "Look at all the order around you" (''Principia Discordia'' page 00042) and somehow convinced mankind to agree with his ideas about Serious Order. The ''Principia'' notes that it is something of a mystery why Greyface gained so many followers when anyone could have looked at all of the ''disorder'' in the world.
"Greyface and his followers took the game of playing at life more seriously than they took life itself and were known even to destroy other living beings whose ways of life differed from their own." (''Principia Discordia'' page 00042)
==== Order/disorder and constructive/destructive ====
By accepting that life is a serious, orderly matter, the followers of Greyface end up viewing things as either orderly or disorderly. In this system, order is preferred to disorder at all costs. This preference results in both constructive order and destructive order.
The alternative is to view things as either constructive or destructive. In this system, construction is preferred to destruction. Selecting construction results in both constructive order and constructive disorder.
==== Counteracting the Curse ====
"[M]ankind has [...] been suffering from a psychological and spiritual imbalance. Imbalance causes frustration, and frustration causes fear. And fear makes for a bad trip. Man has been on a bad trip for a long time now." (''Principia Discordia'' page 00042)
"The human race will begin solving it's [sic] problems on the day that it ceases taking itself so seriously." (''Principia'' Discordia page 00074)
In addition to the generic advice of culturing your natural love of chaos and playing with Her, the ''Principia Discordia'' provides (on page 00064) "The Turkey Curse Revealed by the Apostle Dr. Van Van Mojo" to counteract The Curse of Greyface.
The Turkey Curse is designed to counteract destructive order. It derives its name from the fact that the [[incantation]] resembles the sounds of a [[Turkey (bird)|turkey]].
===Law of Eristic Escalation===
The ''Principia Discordia'' (page 00046) contains the Law of Eristic Escalation.
This law states that ''Imposition of Order'' = ''Escalation of Chaos''.
This can be read as an argument against [[zero tolerance]] and [[hard security]], or just a statement about the world. It can also be seen as a parallel to the [[second law of thermodynamics]] from [[physics]].
===The Pentabarf===
The Pentabarf (given on page 00004 of the ''Principia'') is the set of 5 holy laws of Discordianism. It is as follows:
#There is no Goddess but Goddess and She is Your Goddess. There is no Erisian Movement but The Erisian Movement and it is The Erisian Movement. And every Golden Apple Corps is the beloved home of a Golden Worm.
#A Discordian Shall Always use the Official Discordian Document Numbering System.
#A Discordian is Required during his early Illumination to Go Off Alone &amp; Partake Joyously of a Hot Dog on a Friday; this Devotive Ceremony to Remonstrate against the popular Paganisms of the Day: of Catholic Christendom (no meat on Friday), of Judaism (no meat of Pork), of Hindic Peoples (no meat of Be |
Nevski, founded the principality of Muscovy based in the city of Moscow, which eventually expelled the Tartars from Russia. Well-situated in the central river system of Russia and surrounded by protective forests and marshes, Muscovy was at first only a [[vassal]] of Vladimir, but soon it absorbed its parent state. A major factor in the ascendancy of Muscovy was the cooperation of its rulers with the Mongol overlords, who granted them the title of Grand Prince of Russia and made them agents for collecting the Tartar tribute from the Russian principalities. The principality's prestige was further enhanced when it became the center of the [[Russian Orthodox Church]]. Its head, the metropolitan, fled from Kiev to [[Vladimir-Suzdal|Vladimir]] in [[1299]] and a few years later established the permanent headquarters of the Church in Moscow.
By the middle of the 14th century, the power of the Mongols was declining, and the Grand Princes felt able to openly oppose the [[Mongol yoke]]. In [[1380]], at [[Kulikovo]] on the [[Don River, Russia|Don River]], the khan was defeated, and although this hard-fought victory did not end Tartar rule of Russia, it did bring great fame to the Grand Prince. Moscow's leadership in Russia was now firmly based and by the middle of the fourteenth century its territory had greatly expanded through purchase, war, and marriage.
===Ivan III, the Great===
In the 15th century, the grand princes of Muscovy began gathering Russian lands to increase the population and wealth under their rule. The most successful practitioner of this process was [[Ivan III of Russia|Ivan III]], the Great ([[1462]]&ndash;[[1505]]), who laid the foundations for a Russian national state. A contemporary of the [[Tudor dynasty|Tudor]]s and other "new monarchs" in Western Europe, Ivan more than doubled his territories by placing most of north Russia under the rule of Moscow, and he proclaimed his absolute sovereignty over all Russian princes and nobles. Refusing further tribute to the Tartars, Ivan initiated a series of attacks that opened the way for the complete defeat of the declining Golden Horde, now divided into several khanates and hordes.
Ivan sought to protect the southern boundaries of his domain against attacks of [[Tatar invasions|hordes]]. Ivan granted manors to nobles, who in turn were obliged to serve in army. The manor system became a basis for an emerging horse army.
During his conflict with Pskov, monk [[Filofei]] composed a letter to Ivan III, with prophecy that the latter's kingdom will be the [[Third Rome]]. Ivan competed with his powerful northwestern rival Lithuania for control over some of the semi-independent former principalities of Kievan Rus' in the upper Dnieper and [[Donets River]] basins. Through the defections of some princes, border skirmishes, and a long, inconclusive war with Lithuania that ended only in [[1503]], Ivan III was able to push westward, and Muscovy tripled in size under his rule.
Internal consolidation accompanied outward expansion of the state. By the 16th century, the rulers of Moscow considered the entire Russian territory their collective property. Various semi-independent princes still claimed specific territories, but Ivan III forced the lesser princes to acknowledge the grand prince of Muscovy and his descendants as unquestioned rulers with control over military, judicial, and foreign affairs. Gradually, the Muscovite ruler emerged as a powerful, autocratic ruler, a tsar.
===Ivan IV, the Terrible===
[[Image:Kremlinpic4.jpg|thumbnail|200px|right|Portrait of Ivan the Terrible.]]
Ivan IV was the first Muscovite ruler to use the title of "[[Tsar]]."
The development of the tsar's autocratic powers reached a peak during the reign ([[1547]]&ndash;[[1584]]) of [[Ivan IV of Russia|Ivan IV]], and he became known as "Ivan the Terrible." Ivan strengthened the position of the tsar to an unprecedented degree, as he ruthlessly subordinated the nobles to his will, exiling or executing many on the slightest provocation. Nevertheless, Ivan was a farsighted statesman who promulgated a new code of laws, reformed the morals of the clergy, and built the great [[St. Basil's Cathedral]] that still stands in Moscow's [[Red Square]]. Also around this period, Russian cossacks were establishing the first settlements in western Siberia.
===Time of Troubles===
Death of Ivan's childless son [[Feodor I of Russia|Feodor]] was followed by a period of civil wars known as the "[[Time of Troubles]]" over the succession and resurgence of the power of the nobility.
The autocracy survived the "Time of Troubles" and the rule of weak or corrupt tsars because of the strength of the government's central bureaucracy. Government functionaries continued to serve, regardless of the ruler's legitimacy or the faction controlling the throne.
The succession disputes during the "Time of Troubles" caused the loss of much territory to the [[Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth]] and [[Sweden]] during the wars such as the [[Dymitriads]], the [[Ingrian War]] and the [[Smolensk War]]. Recovery for Russia came in the mid-17th century, when successful wars with the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth ([[1654]]&ndash;[[1667]]) brought substantial gains, including Smolensk, Kiev and the eastern half of Ukraine.
===The Romanovs===
[[Image:Ryabushkin 17centMoscow.JPG|thumb|200px|left|A painting of a 17th century Moscow street holiday by [[Andrei Ryabushkin]]]]
Order was restored in [[1613]] when [[Michael I of Russia|Michael Romanov]], the grandnephew of Ivan the Terrible, was elected to the throne by a national assembly that included representatives from fifty cities. The [[Romanov]] dynasty ruled Russia until [[1917]].
The immediate task of the new dynasty was to restore order. Fortunately for Moscow, its major enemies, the [[Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth]] and [[Sweden]], were engaged in a bitter conflict with each other, which provided Muscovy the opportunity to make peace with Sweden in [[1617]] and to sign a truce with the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth in [[1619]].
Rather than risk their estates in more civil war, the great nobles or ''[[boyar]]s'' cooperated with the first Romanovs, enabling them to finish the work of bureaucratic centralization. Thus, the state required service from both the old and the new nobility, primarily in the military. In return the tsars allowed the ''boyars'' to complete the process of enserfing the peasants.
In the preceding century, the state had gradually curtailed peasants' rights to move from one landlord to another. With the state now fully sanctioning [[serfdom]], runaway peasants became state fugitives. Landlords had complete power over their peasants and could alienate and transfer them without the land to other landowners. <!--"bought, sold, traded, and mortgaged them." These relations are not characteristic for this period, see Klyuchevski--> Together the state and the nobles placed the overwhelming burden of taxation on the peasants, whose rate was 100 times greater in the mid-17th century than it had been a century earlier. In addition, middle-class urban tradesmen and craftsmen were assessed taxes, and, like the serfs, they were forbidden to change residence. All segments of the population were subject to military levy and to special taxes.<sup>[[#Notes|1]]</sup>
===Peasant uprisings===
In a period when peasant disorders were endemic, the greatest peasant uprising in 17th century Europe erupted in [[1667]]. As the Cossacks reacted against the growing centralization of the state, serfs joined their revolts and escaped from their landlords by joining them. The Cossack rebel [[Stenka Razin]] led his followers up the Volga River, inciting peasant uprisings and replacing local governments with Cossack rule. The tsar's army finally crushed his forces in [[1670]]; a year later Stenka was captured and beheaded. The uprising and the resulting repression that ended the last of the mid-century crises entailed the deaths of a significant share of the peasant population in the affected areas.
==Imperial Russia==
''Main article: [[Imperial Russia]]''
[[Image:1533-1896.jpg.gif|thumbnail|200px|right|A map of Russian expansion from 1533 to 1896. Ivan IV conquered the Tatar <!--in this case Tatar, not Tartar--> states of [[Khanate of Kazan|Kazan]] (1533-84) and [[Khanate of Astrakhan|Astrakhan]] (1556), gaining control of the Volga River down to the Caspian Sea. In addition, from the [[1580s]], the fur trade lured the Russians deep into Siberia across the [[Urals]]. Peter the Great concentrated on achieving a window on the West, wresting the Baltic region from Sweden in 1721. Catherine the Great annexed the Tatar khanate of [[Crimea]] and acquired parts of Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. Russian forces subdued the Kazaks (1816-54), completed Russian control of the [[Caucasus (geographic region)|Caucasus]] (1857-64) and annexed the khanates of Central Asia (1865-76). China ceded to the tsar the [[Amur]] basin and parts of the Pacific Coast (where [[Vladivostok]] was founded in 1860), and leased [[Port Arthur]] (1898).]]
===Peter the Great===
[[Peter I of Russia|Peter I]], the Great ([[1672]]&ndash;[[1725]]), consolidated autocracy in Russia and played a major role in bringing his country into the European state system. From its modest beginnings in the 14th century principality of Moscow, Russia had become the largest state in the world by Peter's time. Three times the size of Europe, it spanned the Eurasian landmass from the [[Baltic Sea]] to the Pacific Ocean. Much of its expansion had taken place in the 17th century, culminating in the first Russian settlement of the Pacific in the mid-17th century, the reconquest of Kiev, and the pacification of the Siberian tribes. However, this vast land had a population of only 14 million. Grain yields trailed those of agriculture in the |
coronation was the last one during which the Latin service was used; future coronations used the English service. She later persuaded her mother's chaplain, [[Matthew Parker]], to become Archbishop. He only accepted out of loyalty to [[Anne Boleyn]]'s memory, since he found working with Elizabeth difficult at times.
One of the most important concerns during Elizabeth's early reign was religion; she relied primarily on [[William Cecil, 1st Baron Burghley|Sir William Cecil]] for advice on the matter. The [[Act of Uniformity 1559]] required the use of the Protestant ''[[Book of Common Prayer]]'' in church services. Papal control over the [[Church of England]] had been reinstated under Mary I, but was ended by Elizabeth. The Queen assumed the title "Supreme Governor of the Church of England", rather than "Supreme Head", primarily because several bishops and many members of the public felt that a woman could not be the head of the Church. The [[Act of Supremacy 1559]] required public officials to take an oath acknowledging the Sovereign's control over the Church or face severe punishment.
Many bishops were unwilling to conform to the Elizabethan religious policy. These were removed from the ecclesiastical bench and replaced by appointees who would submit to the Queen's supremacy. She also appointed an entirely new [[Privy Council]], removing many Catholic counsellors in the process. Under Elizabeth, factionalism in the Council and conflicts at court were greatly diminished. Elizabeth's chief advisors were Sir William Cecil, a [[Secretary of State]], and [[Nicholas Bacon|Sir Nicholas Bacon]], the [[Lord Keeper of the Great Seal]].
Elizabeth also reduced Spanish influence in England. Though Philip II aided her in ending the [[Italian Wars]] with the [[Peace of Cateau Cambrésis]], Elizabeth remained independent in her diplomacy. She adopted a principle of "England for the English". Her other realm, [[Ireland]], never benefited from such a philosophy. The enforcement of English customs in Ireland proved unpopular with its inhabitants, as did the Queen's religious policies.
Soon after her accession, many questioned whom Elizabeth would marry. Her reason for never marrying is unclear. She may have felt repulsed by the mistreatment of Henry VIII's wives. Alternatively, she may have been psychologically scarred by her rumoured childhood relationship with Lord Seymour. Contemporary gossip was that she had suffered from a physical defect that she was afraid to reveal, perhaps scarring from [[smallpox]]. There were also rumors that she would only marry one man, [[Robert Dudley, 1st Earl of Leicester]], with whom she was deeply in love. However, her council refused to sanction the marriage because of his status and his family's participation in the [[Lady Jane Grey]] matter. Elizabeth decided that if she couldn't have him, she would not marry at all. It is also possible that Elizabeth did not wish to share the power of the Crown with another. It could also have been that given the unstable political situation Elizabeth could have feared an armed struggle among aristocratic factions if she married someone not seen as equally favorable to all factions. What is known for certain is that marrying anyone would have cost Elizabeth large amounts of money and independence as all of the estates and incomes Elizabeth inherited from her father, [[Henry VIII]], were only hers until she wed.
==Conflict with France and Scotland==
The Queen found a dangerous rival in her cousin, the Catholic Mary Stuart, Queen of [[Scotland|Scots]] and wife of the [[France|French]] King [[Francis II of France|Francis II]]. In 1559, Mary had declared herself Queen of England with French support. In Scotland, Mary Stuart's mother, [[Mary of Guise]] attempted to cement French influence by providing for army fortification against English aggression. A group of Scottish lords allied to Elizabeth deposed Mary of Guise and, under pressure from the English, Mary's representatives signed the [[Treaty of Edinburgh]], which led to the withdrawal of French troops. Though Mary vehemently refused to ratify the treaty, it had the desired effect, and French influence was greatly reduced in Scotland.
Upon the death of her husband Francis II, Mary Stuart had returned to Scotland. In France, meanwhile, conflict between the Catholics and the [[Huguenot]]s led to the outbreak of the [[French Wars of Religion]]. Elizabeth secretly gave aid to the Huguenots. She made peace with France in [[1564]]; she agreed to give up her claims to the last English possession on the French mainland, [[Calais]], after the defeat of an English expedition at [[Le Havre]]. Elizabeth, however, did not give up her claim to the French Crown, which had been maintained since the reign of [[Edward III of England|Edward III]] during the period of the [[Hundred Years' War]] in the fourteenth century, and was not renounced until the reign of [[George III of the United Kingdom|George III]] during the eighteenth century.
==Plots and rebellions==
At the end of [[1562]], Elizabeth had fallen ill with [[smallpox]], but later recovered. In [[1563]], alarmed by the Queen's near-fatal illness, parliament demanded that she marry or nominate an heir to prevent civil war upon her death. She refused to do either, and in [[April]], she [[Prorogation|prorogued]] parliament. Parliament did not reconvene until Elizabeth needed its assent to raise taxes in [[1566]]. The [[House of Commons|House of Commons]] threatened to withhold funds until the Queen agreed to provide for the succession. On 19 October, 1566, [[Sir Robert Bell]] boldly pursued Elizabeth for the royal answer despite her command to leave it alone; in her own words "Mr. Bell with his complices must needs prefer their speeches to the upper house to have you my lords, consent with them, whereby you were seduced, and of simplicity did assent unto it".
Different lines of succession were considered during Elizabeth's reign. One possible line was that of [[Margaret Tudor]], Henry VIII's elder sister, which led to Mary I, Queen of Scots. The alternative line descended from Henry VIII's younger sister, [[Mary Tudor (queen consort of France)|Mary Tudor, Duchess of Suffolk]]; the heir in this line would be the [[Lady Catherine Grey]], [[Lady Jane Grey]]'s sister. An even more distant possible successor was [[Henry Hastings, 3rd Earl of Huntingdon]], who could claim descent only from [[Edward III of England|Edward III]], who reigned during the fourteenth century. Each possible heir had his or her disadvantages: Mary I was a Catholic, Lady Catherine Grey had married without the Queen's consent and the [[Puritanism|Puritan]] Lord Huntingdon was unwilling to accept the Crown.
Mary, Queen of Scots, had to suffer her own troubles in Scotland. Elizabeth had suggested that if she married the Protestant [[Robert Dudley, 1st Earl of Leicester]], then Elizabeth would "proceed to the inquisition of her right and title to be our next cousin and heir." Mary Stuart refused, and in [[1565]] married a Catholic, [[Henry Stuart, Lord Darnley]]. Lord Darnley was murdered in [[1567]] after the couple had several disputes, and Mary then married the alleged murderer, [[James Hepburn, 4th Earl of Bothwell]]. Scottish nobles then rebelled, imprisoning Mary and forcing her to abdicate in favour of her infant son, who consequently became [[James I of England|James VI]].
In [[1568]], the last viable English heir to the throne, Catherine Grey, died. She had left a son, but he was deemed illegitimate. Her heiress was her sister, the [[Lady Mary Grey]], a hunchbacked dwarf. Elizabeth was once again forced to consider a Scottish successor, from the line of her father's sister, Margaret Tudor, Queen of Scots. Mary I, however, was unpopular in Scotland, where she had been imprisoned. She later escaped from her prison and fled to England, where she was captured by English forces. Elizabeth was faced with a conundrum: sending her back to the Scottish nobles was deemed too cruel; sending her to France would put a powerful pawn in the hands of the French king; forcefully restoring her to the Scottish Throne may have been seen as an heroic gesture, but would cause too much conflict with the Scots; and imprisoning her in England would allow her to participate in plots against the Queen. Elizabeth chose the last option: Mary was kept confined for eighteen years, much of it in [[Sheffield Castle]] and [[Sheffield Manor]] in the custody of [[George Talbot, 6th Earl of Shrewsbury]], and his redoubtable wife [[Bess of Hardwick]].
In [[1569]], Elizabeth faced a major uprising, known as the [[Northern Rebellion]], instigated by [[Thomas Howard, 4th Duke of Norfolk]], [[Charles Neville, 6th Earl of Westmorland]] and [[Thomas Percy, 7th Earl of Northumberland]]. [[Pope Pius V]] aided the Catholic Rebellion by excommunicating Elizabeth and declaring her deposed in a [[papal bull|Papal Bull]]. The Bull of Deposition, ''[[Regnans in Excelsis]]'', was only issued in [[1570]], arriving after the Rebellion had been put down. After the Bull of Deposition was issued, however, Elizabeth chose not to continue her policy of religious toleration. She instead began the persecution of her religious enemies, leading to various conspiracies to remove her from the Throne.
Elizabeth then found a new enemy in her brother-in-law, Philip II, King of Spain. After Philip had launched a surprise attack on the English privateers Sir [[Francis Drake]] and [[John Hawkins]] in 1568, Elizabeth assented to the detention of a Spanish treasure ship in 1569. Philip was already involved in putting down a rebellion in the [[Netherlands]], and could not afford to declare war on England.
Philip II participated in some conspiracies to remove Elizabeth, albeit reluctantly. The 4th Duke of Norfolk was also involved in the first of these plots, the [[Ridolfi plot|Ridolfi Plot]] of [ |
mmunity''' which is now the "first pillar" of the European Union. The EU has evolved from a trade body into an economic and political partnership. For more details, please see [[History of the European Union]]. As president of the [[Convention on the Future of Europe]], the former French president Valéry Giscard d'Estaing proposed to change the name of the European Union to United Europe but it was not adopted.
==Member states and enlargement==
{{main articles|[[European Union member states]], [[Enlargement of the European Union]], and [[European Union Membership criteria]]}}
The European Union has 25 member states, an area of 3,892,685 [[square kilometre|km²]] and approximately 460 million EU citizens as of December 2004. If it were a country, it would be the [[List of countries by area|seventh largest in the world]] by area and the [[List of countries by population|third largest]] by population after [[China]] and [[India]]. The EU describes itself as a "a family of democratic European countries" [http://europa.eu.int/abc/panorama/index_en.htm] but two of the member states, [[Cyprus]] and [[Malta]], are sometimes considered not to belong to Europe in a geographical sense.
The European Union has land borders with 20 nations and sea borders with 31.
{{further|[[Countries bordering the European Union]]}}
[[Image:EU map names isles.png|center| Map of EU member states, 2007 admissions and candidate countries]]
Since its inception with six countries, nineteen further states have joined in successive waves of enlargement:
{| class="wikitable"
! Year !! Country
|-
|valign="top"|1952 || [[Belgium]], [[France]], [[West Germany]], [[Italy]], [[Luxembourg]], [[The Netherlands]] (founding members)
|-
|valign="top"|1973 || [[Denmark]], [[Republic of Ireland|Ireland]], [[United Kingdom]]
|-
|valign="top"|1981 || [[Greece]]
|-
|valign="top"|1986 || [[Portugal]], [[Spain]]
|-
|valign="top"|1990 || [[East Germany]] reunites with [[West Germany]] and becomes part of the EU
|-
|valign="top"|1995 || [[Austria]], [[Finland]], [[Sweden]]
|-
|valign="top"|2004 || [[Cyprus]], [[Czech Republic]], [[Estonia]], [[Hungary]], [[Latvia]], [[Lithuania]], [[Malta]], [[Poland]], [[Slovakia]], [[Slovenia]]
|}
'''Note:'''
* [[Greenland]], which was granted [[home rule]] by [[Denmark]] in 1979, left the European Community in 1985, following a referendum.
* [[Romania]] and [[Bulgaria]] will join the EU on [[1 January]] [[2007]]
===Overseas territories===
Several overseas territories and dependencies have close associations with particular EU member states, for example [[Greenland]], the [[Isle of Man]], the [[Azores]] and [[Madeira]].
{{further|[[Special member state territories and their relations with the EU]]}}
===Future enlargement and close relationships===
{{main|Enlargement of the EU}}
* [[Romania]] and [[Bulgaria]] are scheduled to become members on [[1 January]] [[2007]], provided that they meet the [[Copenhagen criteria|conditions for membership]] and that the Treaty of Accession for the Republic of Bulgaria and Romania is ratified by parliaments of member states. The treaty was signed by representatives of the EU Member States at the Abbaye de Neumünster in Luxembourg on [[25 April]] 2005. As of 2005, member state parliaments are taking forward its ratification.
{{further|[[Accession of Bulgaria to the European Union]]}}
{{further|[[Accession of Romania to the European Union]]}}
* [[Turkey]] is an official candidate to join the European Union. Turkish European ambitions date back to 1963 Ankara Agreements. Turkey started preliminary negotiations on [[3 October]] 2005. However, analysts believe 2015 is the earliest date the country can join the union due to the plethora of economic and social reforms it has to complete. Since it has been granted official candidate status, Turkey has implemented permanent policies on human rights, abolished the death penalty, granted cultural rights to its large Kurdish minority, and taken positive steps to solve the [[Cyprus question]]. However, due to its religious and cultural differences, Turkey faces strong opposition from governments of some member states, including France, Germany, Austria and Cyprus. The Greek government has supported the Turkish candidacy, while linking its progress with the resolution of the long standing Cyprus dispute. [[Pope Benedict XVI]], the head of the [[Roman Catholic Church]], also opposes Turkey becoming a member state, citing its cultural differences with Western Europe.
{{further|[[Accession of Turkey to the European Union]]}}
* [[Croatia]] is an official candidate country to join. It hopes to join by 2010. The arrest of [[Ante Gotovina]] in December 2005 means the accession process is unlikely to be hampered by issues with the [[ICTY|UN War Crimes Tribunal in The Hague]] and will depend only on Croatia's fullfilment of [[European Union Membership criteria|EU requirements]].
:''See also: [[Enlargement of the European Union#Croatia|Croatian accession to the European Union]]''.
* [[Republic of Macedonia]] has been given official candidate status as of December 2005 under the name "former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia". By directive of the Commission, all E.U. documents must use the U.N. compromise name for the country, until the naming dispute with Greece is resolved. It is unlikely that the country will be able to become a member state before this issue is settled.
*The [[European Free Trade Association|EFTA]] states of [[Iceland]], [[Liechtenstein]] and [[Norway]] are members of the [[European Economic Area]] which allows them to participate in most aspects of the EU single market without joining the EU. [[Switzerland]], the fourth EFTA state, rejected EEA membership in a referendum; however, it has established close ties to the EU by means of bilateral treaties. Generally speaking, the EU would be happy for [[Iceland]], [[Norway]] and [[Switzerland]] to become full members ([[Liechtenstein]] poses an issue due to its small size); but the majority of the population of each of these countries opposes membership at present.
{{seealso|Third country relationships with the EU}}
===Context—rationale for enlargement and future prospects===
Supporters of the European Union argue that the growth of the EU is a force for [[peace]] and [[democracy]]. They argue that the wars which were a periodic feature of the history of Western Europe have ceased since the formation of the European Economic Community (which later became the EU) in the 1950s. They also claim that in the early 1970s, Greece, Portugal and Spain were all [[dictatorship]]s, but the desire of the business communities in these three countries to be in the EU created a strong impetus for democracy there. Others argue that peace in Europe since World War II is more due to other causes, such as the need for a unified response to the threat from the Soviet Union, a need for reconstruction after [[World War II]], and a collective temporary tiring of waging war, and that the dictatorships cited came to an end for totally different reasons.
In more recent times, the European Union has been extending its influence to the east. It has accepted several new members that were previously behind the [[Iron Curtain]], and has plans to accept several more in the medium-term. It is hoped that in a similar fashion to the entry of Spain, Portugal and Greece in the 1980s, membership for these states will help cement economic and political stability.
As the EU continues to enlarge eastward, the candidate countries' accessions tend to grow more controversial. As previously explained, the EU has finished accession talks with Bulgaria and Romania, and set an entry date for the two countries in 2007. However, the rejection of the EU Constitution by France and the Netherlands, and the EU's slow economic growth, have cast some doubt on whether the EU will be ready to accept new members after 2007, when Romania and Bulgaria are set to join EU (in early 2005 they signed the Accession Treaty). A further point of contention for EU members is the accession of Turkey. Accession preliminary talks between Turkey and the EU began in early October 2005. Turkey's Government, led by Prime Minister [[Recep Tayyip Erdoğan]], has enacted many legal reforms to meet the EU's entry requirements. However, some member states, especially Austria [http://euobserver.com/9/19989] repudiate Turkey joining the EU, and the possible economic, immigration and cultural implications that may bring. It is also important to note that the vast majority of Turkey's territory lies outside of Europe, and many Europeans claim their opposition of Turkish membership is the fact Turkey only holds a slither of land on European soil.
==Institutions and legal framework==
===EU institutions===
The functioning of the European Union is supported by several institutions:
*The [[European Parliament]] (732 members ''750 max.'')
*The [[Council of the European Union]] (or 'Council of Ministers') (25 members)
*The [[European Commission]] (25 members)
*The [[European Court of Justice]] (incorporating the [[Court of First Instance]]) (25 judges (& 25 judges of CFI))
*The [[European Court of Auditors]] (25 members)
*The [[European Council]] (26 members, 25 head of member states + the European Commission president) - whose unique role is perhaps better described as that of a "quasi-institution"
There are several financial bodies:
*[[European Central Bank]] (which alongside the national [[Central Bank]]s, composes the [[European System of Central Banks]])
*[[European Investment Bank]] (including the [[European Investment Fund]])
There are also several [[Advisory bodies to the European Union|advisory committees]] to the institutions:
*[[Committee of the Regions]], advising on regional issues
*[[Economic and Social Committee]], advising |
o-letter English words]]
* [[List of the longest English words with one syllable]]
==References==
*Sesquipedalian. ''The Compact Edition of the Oxford English Dictionary'' (1971)
*[http://members.aol.com/gulfhigh2/words8.html Typewriter Words]
*[http://rinkworks.com/words/oddities.shtml Fun With Words: Word Oddities]
[[Category:Lists of English words]]
[[Category:Words|Longest word in English]]
[[category: Long words|*]]
[[de:Längste Wörter in der deutschen Sprache]]
[[eo:Rindfleischetikettierungsüberwachungsaufgabenübertragungsgesetz]]
[[fr:Mots les plus longs en français]]
[[ko:긴 한국어 낱말]]
[[la:Longissima Latina verba]]
[[sl:Najdaljša slovenska beseda]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>English words with uncommon properties</title>
<id>9468</id>
<revision>
<id>42058462</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T14:47:05Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>131.111.200.200</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Many consonants */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{not verified}}
For the purposes of this article, any word which has appeared in a recognised general [[English language|English]] dictionary published in the 20th century or later is considered a candidate. For interest, some archaic words, non-standard words and proper names are also included.
The treatment of words of foreign origin can be problematic. The entire history of English involves influence and loanwords from other languages, and this process continues today (see [[Foreign language influences in English]]). However, there is a gray area between foreign words and words accepted as English. Everyone would accept that the formerly foreign ''[[ballet]]'' ([[French language|French]]), ''[[ketchup]]'' ([[Malay language|Malay]]) and ''[[safari]]'' ([[Swahili language|Swahili]]) are now English words. The status of words such as ''[[zeitgeist]]'', ''[[Weltanschauung]]'', and ''[[schadenfreude]]'' is less clear-cut. The ''[[Oxford English Dictionary]]'' calls such words "resident aliens". Generally, a word of foreign origin is legitimate here if it may be encountered in an English text without translation.
== Combinations of letters ==
===Many vowels===
''Euouae'' (a type of cadence in mediæval music) contains six [[vowel]] letters in a row. However this is often considered erroneous given the semantics of the word which demonstrate it to be [[elision]].
There is only one common word in English that has five vowels in a row: ''queueing'' (two vowel sounds). More unusual examples are ''cooeeing'' (making a "cooee" sound), ''miaoued'' or ''miaouing'' (from ''miaou'', to make a sound like a cat), and ''zoaeae'' ((a plural of ''zoaea''). However, this is a graphalogically incorrect variant owing to the simplification by Americanization of the [[diphthong]] [[æ]]). ''[[Zoea]]'' means a crustacean larva and is the term commonly known by [[scrabble]] enthusiasts). The final "ae" as transcribed above represents the same diphthong and, as such, purists may consider "zoaeae" to have only three vowels.
Proper names include ''Rousseauian'' (pertaining to the philosopher [[Rousseau]]), ''[[Aeaea]]'' or ''Aiaia'' (a location in Greek mythology), and the related adjectives ''Aeaean''/''Aiaian''.
The list of common words with four vowels in a row is fairly short, comprising ''[[aqueous]]'', ''[[Hawaiian]]'', ''obsequious'', ''[[onomatopoeia]]'', ''[[pharmacopoeia]]'', ''queue'' (and derivatives ''[[queue]]d'' and ''queues''), and ''[[sequoia]]''.
Examples of words consisting entirely of vowels, including proper names and some words already mentioned, are: ''a'' (the indefinite article), ''[[lava|aa]]'' (a type of lava, of Hawaiian origin), ''ae'' (a [[Scots language|Scots]] adjective form of "one"), ''[[ai (animal)|ai]]'' (the three-toed sloth), ''[[aia]]'' (a Brazilian bird), ''[[Aiea]]'' (a town in Hawaii), ''[[Aeaea]]'' or ''Aiaia'' (a location in Greek mythology), ''au'' (French for "to" or "with", encountered in English in compounds such as ''[[au pair]]'' and ''[[au fait]]''), ''[[Enki|Ea]]'' (a Babylonian god), ''euouae'' (a type of cadence in mediaeval music), ''euoi'' (a Greek exclamation of joy), ''eau'' (French for "water", encountered in English in compounds such as ''eau de cologne''), ''I'' (first person pronoun), ''Iao'' (a Polynesian god), ''[[I'i]]'' (a figure in Polynesian mythology), ''[[Io (mythology)|Io]]'' (a figure in Greek mythology, also a moon of Jupiter), ''oi'' (an impolite exclamation used to gain someone's attention), and ''oo'' (a Hawaiian bird). Exclamations such as ''oooo'', ''aaaa'' and ''eeee'' are not normally considered legitimate words.
The shortest word containing the five regular vowels is ''[[eunoia]]'' at six letters, followed by ''[[sequoia]]'' (and a variety of rarer words such as ''[[Aeonium]]'', ''eulogia'', ''miaoued'') at seven. There are many words that feature all five vowels in alphabetical order, the commonest being ''[[Wiktionary:abstemious|abstemious]]'', ''adventitious'', ''[[Wiktionary:facetious|facetious]]'', and ''sacreligious''. One of the shortest, at eight letters, is ''[[wiktionary:caesious|caesious]]''. Considering ''y'' as a vowel, the [[suffix]] ''[[Wiktionary:-ly|-ly]]'' can be added to a number of these words; thus the shortest word containing six unique vowels in alphabetical order is ''[[Wiktionary:facetiously|facetiously]]'' (11 letters).
''Subcontinental'', ''uncomplimentary'' and ''unnoticeable'' are common words having the five vowels in reverse order. One of the shortest such words, at eight letters, is ''[[Muroidea]]'', a taxonomical grouping of rodents.
Some words not already mentioned that have a high proportion of vowels, including some proper names, are as follows. 6 letters, 5 vowels: ''[[Euboea]]'' (a Greek island), ''[[Aeolia]]'' (a region now in Turkey), ''ooecia'' (plural of ''ooecium'', part of the reproductive system of some primitive animals); 8 letters, 6 vowels: ''aboideau'' or ''aboiteau'' (a sluice gate), ''epopoeia'' (variant of ''epopee'', an epic poem), ''quiaquia'' (a type of fish); 9 letters, 7 vowels: ''[[Aizoaceae]]'' (a plant family), ''[[Aloeaceae]]'' (a plant family); 11 letters, 8 vowels: ''Aecidiaceae'' (a plant family), ''[[Ouagadougou]]'' (capital of Burkina Faso), ''[[Paeoniaceae]]'' (a plant family), ''[[Outaouais]]'' (a region of western Quebec); 9 letters, 7 vowels.
===Many consonants===
The longest word with only one vowel is ''strengths'' (9 letters), packing six consonant sounds into a single syllable. The words ''[[Wiktionary:psychorhythm|psychorhythm]]s'' (13), ''[[polyrhythm]]s'' (11) and ''[[Wiktionary:rhythmlessly|rhythmlessly]]'' (12) are longer, but each clearly uses the letter ''y'' as a vowel. There are also a variety of onomatopoeic words, such as the nine-letter ''tsktsking'' (making a "tsktsk" sound), which appears in Chambers Dictionary. Eight-letter words with just one vowel are also fairly rare &ndash; as well as ''strength'' itself, some examples are ''schmaltz'', ''schnapps'' and ''twelfths''.
Candidates for words with seven consonants in a row are ''Twelfthstreet'' (normally two words but sometimes written as one, as in a song title; ''eighthstreet'' is feasible by analogy), and ''Hirschsprung'', as in ''[[Hirschsprung's disease]]'' (though this is after a Danish surname).
The place-name ''[[Knightsbridge]]'' has six consonants in a row (with four [[consonant]] sounds), as do the compound words ''[[Catch phrase|catchphrase]]'', ''[[Wiktionary:latchstring|latchstring]]'', ''sightscreen'', ''watchspring'' and ''watchstrap'', and the somewhat more obscure ''borschts'' (plural of ''[[borscht]]'', a type of soup from Eastern Europe), and the [[German language|German]]-derived ''[[festschrift]]'' (a collection of writings honouring a noted academic), ''[[Eschscholzia]]'' (a plant genus) and ''[[bergschrund]]'' (a glacier crevasse).
Apart from words already mentioned (and their plurals), long words with just two, three, and four vowels include ''Christchurch'', ''spendthrifts'', ''stretchmarks'' (2 vowels, 12 letters); ''farthingsworths'', ''shillingsworths'', ''strengthfulness'' (3, 15); and ''handcraftsmanship'', ''splanchnemphraxis'' (4, 17). Exclamations such as ''mmmmm'' and ''grrrrrrrr'' are not normally considered legitimate words.
===Alternating vowels and consonants===
The superlatively long word ''[[honorificabilitudinitatibus]]'' (27 letters) alternates consonants and vowels, as do the slightly more prosaic medical terms ''hepatoperitonitis'' and ''mesobilirubinogen'' (both 17 letters). The longest such words that are reasonably well known may be ''overimaginative'', ''parasitological'' and ''verisimilitudes'' (all 15 letters).
The longest alternating words beginning with a vowel are possibly the 16-letter ''adenolipomatosis'' (a glandular condition), ''aluminosilicates'' (a class of chemical compounds containing aluminium and silicon) and ''anatomicomedical'' (relating to anatomy and medicine).
''Theopneustia'' (an obscure word for Christian divine inspiration) alternates pairs of vowels and consonants.
=== Repeated letters ===
A number of English words have three of the same letter in sequence, but almost all are constructions involving a suffix, and could arguably be hyphenated or, in some cases, written as two words. They include ''brasssmith'', ''headmistressship'', ''wallless'' (lacking walls), and ''bulllike'' (like a bull).
Other candidates are the archaic ''agreeeth'' (third person singular present tense of the verb to agree), and ''tweeer'' (comparative adjective of the qualifier ''twee'' meaning infantilely kitsch). There are also many possessives ending in ''-ss's'' (e.g. ''actress's'').
Place-names include ''[[Rossshire]]'' and ''[[Invernessshire]]'', both in Scotland, UK (though both of these counties are usually hyphenated in official documentat |
e|Purāṇa}}'', and the ''{{Unicode|Varāha Purāṇa}}''; and 3) the ''Shiva'' ''{{Unicode|Purāṇa}}s'': the ''{{Unicode|Vāyu Purāṇa}}'', the ''{{Unicode|Liṅga Purāṇa}}'', the ''Skanda {{Unicode|Purāṇa}}'' , the ''Agni'' ''{{Unicode|Purāṇa}}'', the ''Matsya'' ''{{Unicode|Purāṇa}}'', and the ''Karma'' ''{{Unicode|Purāṇa}}''. The ''{{Unicode|Rāmāyaṇa}}'', ''{{Unicode|Mahābhārata}}'' and many ''{{Unicode|Purāṇas}}'' are much more widely read by today's Hindus than the ''Vedas'', and the temple and icon worship of modern Hinduism is attributable to them. It is interesting to note that the Hindus attach much more importance to the ethics and the metaphorical meanings conveyed by these texts, rather than only the literal mythology. Other important scriptures are the sectarian ''[[Hindu Agamas|Hindu {{Unicode|Āgamas}}]]'' which are texts related to rituals and worship and is dedicated to ''{{Unicode|Viṣhnu}}'', ''Shiva'' and ''{{Unicode|Devī}}''. The ''Shruti'' takes precedence over the ''{{unicode|Smṛiti}}'' in any matter of apparent mutual dispute. However, many Vaishnavites regard the ''{{Unicode|Purāṇas}}'' to be as authoritative as the ''Vedas''.
== Origins and society ==
===Origins of Hinduism ===
{{main|History of Hinduism}}
[[Image:Wheel of Konark, Orissa, India.JPG|thumb|right|250px|The [[Sun Temple]] in [[Konark]], [[Orissa]] is one of the most famous stone [[monument]] in the world. The temple is conceived as a massive 24-wheel chariot of the Sun God [[Surya]].]]
Hinduism is one of the world's oldest major religions in existence. From a Hindu perspective, the [[Sanatana Dharma]] propounds eternal and universal principles with no beginning or end. The [[Purana]]s place Lord Krishna's birth at around 3100 BCE. Krishna's incarnation was preceded by Lord [[Rama]]'s, sometimes dated at over 5-6000 BCE, or even more than a million years ago in the [[Treta Yuga]] according to the Ramayana Epic. Many Hindus believe that their religious tradition was fully formed by the time of Lord [[Rama]], the seventh incarnation of Lord [[Vishnu]]. Modern [[Indology]] dates the roots of Hinduism to about 1500-1300 BCE, based on [[Linguistics|linguistic]] and literary dating of the Rig Veda. However this dating is rejected by those who question the validity of the [[Indo-Aryan migration]] hypothesis.
The origin of collective Hindu thought cannot be ascribed to any single founder (though most of its later schools of philosophy and belief can be), or associated with a specific time or a single place of foundation. The Vedas, the earliest Hindu scriptures, are the compilation of spiritual laws and truths binding upon all of creation. It is believed that each Veda was revealed to enlightened sages, called [[Rishi]]s, over a long period of time. Lord Vishnu is believed to have transmitted the Vedas to Lord Brahma via meditative trance at the beginning of each >Afifi< creation.
Hinduism, along with [[Buddhism]] and [[Jainism]], is regarded to be an ''[[Arya]] [[Dharma]]'', meaning, a noble religion.
=== Etymology ===
Though linguists and historians haven't reached a consensus, the term [[Hindu]] is generally accepted to be derived from the name of the [[Sindhu]] ({{lang|sa|सिन्धु}}, i.e., the [[Indus]]) river, which is known as '''Hindu''' in Persian. The term was used for people that lived around or beyond the Sindhu. In this region, the advanced [[Mohenjo-daro]] civilization flourished about five thousand years ago. Hinduism, in some form, probably existed long before that. According to [[Historical linguistics]], the /s/ of the [[Indo-Aryan languages|Indo-Aryan]] branch (as represented by Sanskrit) is cognate with the /h/ sound of the [[Iranian_languages|Iranian]] branch(as represented by [[Avestan]] and Old Persian). In the Rig Veda, the Indo-Aryans mention their expanse as '''sapta sindhu''' (the land of seven rivers). This became the term '''Hapta-Hindu''' in [[Avesta]] (Vendidad: Fargard 1.18). Hindu (In-du or In-tu in [[China]]) is still used in some languages to denote an Indian or India. The [[Greek language|Greek]] term "India" was originally pronounced Hindia; /h/ became lost as in later Greek there was no character for "h". In modern Persian and Arabic, the term '''Hindustan''' denotes the Indian subcontinent, and '''Hind''' or '''Al-Hind''' is used to denote the Republic of India.
The word '''Hindu''' ({{lang|sa|हिन्दु}}), possibly due to Iranian influence, in the sense of people of India, is used in some early-medieval Sanskrit texts like BhaviShya Purana, Kalika Purana, Merutantra, Ramakosha, Hemantakavikosha and Adbhutarupakosha. India is also traditionally, but unofficially called [[Hindustan]] or [[Hind]] in [[Hindi]], [[Persian language|Persian]] and [[Arabic]]. Note that the word [[Hindustan]] also has other meanings.
Until about 19th century the term Hindu implied a culture and ethnicity and not a religion. When the British government started periodic censuses and established a legal system, the need arose to define [[Hinduism]] as a distinct religion, along the lines of [[Christianity]] or [[Islam]]. Some scholars, such as [[Bal Gangadhar Tilak]], defined it as a religion based on the [[Vedas]], using the analogy of the [[Bible]] being the basis of Christianity and the [[Qur'an]] being the Muslim scripture.
That even an [[atheism|atheist]] may be called a Hindu is an example of the fact that Hinduism is far more than a simple religious system; it is actually an extremely diverse and complicated river of evolving [[philosophy|philosophies]] and ancient [[tradition]]s.
===Vedic religion===
{{main|Vedic religion}}
Modern Hinduism grew out of the knowledge described in the [[Vedas]]. The earliest of these, the [[Rigveda]] centers on worship of the deities [[Indra]] and [[Agni]], and on the [[Soma]] ritual. They would perform fire-sacrifices called [[yagna|yajña]] (यज्ञ) with the chanting of the Vedic mantras, but they built no temples, idols or icons. Probably animals were also sacrificed in larger yajñas, as claimed by Buddhist and Jain texts. The [[Ashvamedha]] was the most important sacrifice described in the [[Yajurveda]], possibly performed for the last time by [[Samudragupta]] in the [[4th century]]. The age and origins of the Vedas themselves are disputed, but it is clear that they were transmitted orally for several millennia. They show strong similarities to the language and religion of the [[Avesta]], as well as more distantly to other [[Indo-European languages]] and religions (see [[Indo-Aryan migration]]).
===Hindu nationalism===
{{main articles|[[Hindu Nationalism]], [[Hindutva]], and [[Hindu Rashtra]]}}
In the 20th century, emerging Indian [[nationalism]] began to emphasize Hinduism, in opposition to the British Raj, but also in contrast to [[Islam]], and after Independence in connection with the territorial disputes with Pakistan. Such nationalistic Hinduism is generally termed [[Hindutva]] ("Hinduness", paradoxically not a well-formed Sanskrit word, since "Hindu" is a Persian word), but the boundaries are fluid and the Indian Supreme Court ruled that "no precise meaning can be ascribed to the terms 'Hindu', 'Hindutva' and 'Hinduism'; and no meaning in the abstract can confine it to the narrow limits of religion alone, excluding the content of Indian culture and heritage." Hindutva ideology was enunciated first by [[Savarkar]] in his seminal work 'Hindutva'. Hindutva ideology rose to importance in [[Politics of India|Indian politics]] in the [[1980s]] and is chiefly associated with the [[Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh]] movement. It has come to symbolize the rising bi-polarization of Indian polity in the late 1990's and the first decade of the 21st century, evident in the rise of the [[Bharatiya Janata Party]] (BJP) in the same period. One of their short term aims is to build a temple to Rama at the site of the controversial [[Babri]] [[mosque]] (destroyed by some Hindutva activists in 1992) in [[Ayodhya]]. Many believe that Lord Rama was born at the site, and that a Vaishnavite temple was constructed there to commemorate the birthplace. Some historians and Hindutva activists claim that the [[Mughal]] commander [[Mir Baki]] destroyed the temple and built the Babri mosque, in his alleged frenzy of [[iconoclasm]]. However, the destruction of the temple is also attributed to the [[Mughal]] Emperor [[Aurangzeb]].
===Temples===
{{main|Mandir}}
[[Image:Temple4.jpg|thumb|295px|left|The world's first [http://www.swaminarayan.info/mandirs/kalupur/ Swaminarayan Temple]was built in [[Ahmedabad]] by the instructions of [[Bhagwan Swaminarayan]].]]
[[Image:Gopuram-madurai.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Most of the Hindu temples have their principal shrine facing the rising sun and their entrance facing east. An important aspect of the temple design is that it is intended to lead from the temporal world to the eternal one. Shown here, is the [[Meenakshi temple]] in Tamil Nadu, a southern state of India.]]
Hindu temples inherited rich and ancient rituals and customs, and have occupied a special place in Hindu society. They are usually dedicated to a primary deity, called the presiding deity, and other subordinate deities associated with the main deity. However, some ''mandirs'' are dedicated to multiple deities. Most major temples are constructed as per the [[agama|agama shastras]] and many are sites of pilgrimage. For many Hindus, the four '''Shankaracharyas''' (the abbots of the monasteries of [[Jyotirmath|Joshimath]], [[Govardhana matha|Puri]], [[Sringeri Sharada Peetham|Sringeri]] and [[Dwaraka Pītha|Dwarka]] — four of the holiest pilgrimage centers — sometimes to which a fifth at [[Kanchi matha|Kanchi]] is also added) are viewed as the four highest [[Patriarch]]s of the Hindudom.
Temples are a place for darshan (vision of the divine), [[puja]], [[meditation]], and religious congregation (though not so regular and often as among the Muslims and the Christians) a |
arl of]]
[[Category:1604 deaths|Oxford, Edward de Vere, 17th Earl of]]
[[Category:English poets|Oxford, Edward de Vere, 17th Earl of]]
[[Category:Lord Great Chamberlains|Oxford, Edward de Vere, 17th Earl of]]
[[Category:Earls of Oxford|Vere de, Edward 17th Earl of Oxford]]
[[de:Edward De Vere]]
[[id:Edward de Vere]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Erinyes</title>
<id>10141</id>
<revision>
<id>42121565</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T23:34:53Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Copysan</username>
<id>716829</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Disambiguate [[Nemesis]] to [[Nemesis (mythology)]] using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Greek myth (earth)}}
In [[Greek mythology]] the '''Erinyes''' or '''Eumenides''' (the [[Rome|Romans]] called them the '''Furies''') were female personifications of [[vengeance]]. When a formulaic oath in the ''[[Iliad]]'' (iii.278ff; xix.260ff) invokes "those who beneath the earth punish whoever has sworn a false oath"&mdash;"the Erinyes are simply an embodiment of the act of self-cursing contained in the oath" (Burkert 1985 p 198). They were usually said to have been born from the blood of [[Uranus (mythology)|Uranus]] when [[Cronus]] castrated him. According to a variant account, they issued from an even more primordial level&mdash;from [[Nyx]], "Night". Their number is usually left indeterminate, though [[Virgil]], probably working from an [[Alexandria]]n source, recognized three: Alecto ("unceasing"), Megaera ("grudging"), and Tisiphone ("avenging murder"). The heads of the Erinyes were wreathed with serpents (compare [[Gorgon]]), their eyes dripped with blood, and their whole appearance was horrific and appalling. Sometimes they had the wings of a bat or bird, or the body of a dog.
[[Image:Deux furies.png|thumb|left|200px|Two Furies, from an ancient vase.]]
The Erinyes generally stood for the rightness of things within the standard order; for example, [[Heraclitus]] declared that if [[Helios]] decided to change the course of the [[Sun]] through the sky, they would prevent him from doing so. But for the most part they were understood as the persecutors of mortal men and women who broke "natural" laws. In particular, those who broke ties of kinship through patricide, murdering a brother (Fratricide), or other such familial killings brought special attention from the Erinyes. It was believed in early epochs that human beings might not have the right to punish such crimes, instead leaving the matter to the dead man's Erinyes to exact retribution.
The Erinyes were connected with [[Nemesis (mythology)|Nemesis]] as enforcers of a just balance in human affairs. The goddess [[Nike (mythology)| Nike]] originally filled a similar role, as the bringer of a ''just'' victory. When not stalking victims on Earth, the Furies were thought to dwell in [[Tartarus]], where they applied their tortures to the damned souls there.
The Erinyes are particularly known for the [[The_Oresteia#The_Eumenides|persecution of Orestes for the murder of his mother]], [[Clytemnestra]]. Since [[Apollo]] had told [[Orestes (mythology)|Orestes]] to kill the murderer of his father, [[Agamemnon]], and that person turned out to be his mother, Orestes prayed to him. Athena intervened and the Erinyes turned into the ''Eumenides'' ("goodly ones"), as they always did in their beneficial aspects.
Many scholars believe that when they were originally referred to as the Eumenides it was not to reference their good sides but as a [[euphemism]] to avoid their wrath that would ensue from calling them by their true name. This [[taboo]] on speaking the names of certain uncanny spirits included [[Persephone]]; there are parallels in many cultures. The Erinyes might also be recognized as ''Semnai'' ("the venerable ones"), the ''Potniae'' ("the Awful Ones"), the ''Maniae'' ("the Madnesses") and the ''Praxidikae'' ("the Vengeful Ones").<!--these unfocused translations could be bettered-->
One myth had [[Tisiphone]] fall in love with [[Cithaeron]]. She caused his death by snakebite, specifically, one of the snakes from her head. Another myth says that the Erinyes struck the magical horse Xanthus dumb for rebuking Achilles.
The Furies (their [[Roman mythology|Roman name]]) or ''Dirae'' ("the terrible") typically had the effect of driving their victims insane, hence their [[Latin]] name ''furor''.
== Erinyes in later culture ==
In ''[[The Divine Comedy]]'' Dante sees the Erinyes at the gates of the city of Dis, which is the entry point to the four lower circles of Hell.
[[Leconte de Lisle]]'s tragedy "Les Érinnyes" (1872), with accompanying music composed by [[Massenet]].
[[Jean-Paul Sartre]]'s 1943 play ''The Flies'' (''Les Mouches'') uses a retelling of the ''[[Oresteia]]'' (with the titular Flies being the Furies) in a modern perspective against religion [http://www.geocities.com/Athens/Academy/6422/rev0008.html].
== Erinyes in popular culture ==
There is an [[A Perfect Circle]] song, entitled "Orestes," that refers to the Erinyes.
The Furies are invoked by [[Fury (DC Comics)|Hippolyta Hall]] in the ninth collection of the [[DC Comics|DC]] [[comic book]] series ''[[The_Sandman_(DC_Comics_Modern_Age)|The Sandman]]'', ''[[The Sandman: The Kindly Ones|The Kindly Ones]]'' (which is also named for a translation of a name used for the Furies, ''Eumenides''), because she mistakenly believes that [[Dream (DC Comics)|Dream]] had kidnapped and murdered her child. Officially, the Furies are able to target Dream because he had recently killed his son [[Orpheus]], and the Furies may take revenge on anyone who has shed family blood.
In [[Wildstorm]]'s [[The Authority]] "Human on the Inside", the Furies show up at the request of Dr Ledbedder to initiate the destruction of the Authority. They claim to punish all who believe themselves good (that is: have superpowers).
Erinyes have been adapted in the TV series ''[[Charmed]].'' They were portrayed as dog-faced women from Hell. They were called Furies and attacked human sinners with deadly smoke.
In the [[science fiction]] novel ''Path of the Fury'' by [[David Weber]], Tisiphone, having died when the worship of Greek gods ceased, reappears in the far future. She finds a powerful mind that has suffered a great wrong, and embarks upon a path of destruction to correct it. This involves stealing a powerful starship and wreaking havoc on an interstellar scale.
In the eponymous track of his first album, [[Rob Dougan]] calls them ''[[Furious Angels]]'' and poetically imagines that his love for a woman is so strong that, should she leave him, "furious angels will bring you back to me".
In [[Stephen King]]'s novel ''[[Rose Madder (novel)|Rose Madder]]'', Erinyes is an angry, blind bull that lives in a maze within a painting.
In [[Robert Weinberg]]'s sorcery-meets-modern-society novel ''[[A Calculated Magic]]'', the Erinyes (referred to only as ''The Kindly Ones'', the ''Furies'', and the ''Eumenides'') are regularly hired by a [[KGB]] operative to assassinate his targets for him.
In [[Dungeons & Dragons]], [http://www.systemreferencedocuments.org/35/sovelior_sage/monstersDtoDe.html#erinyes-devil erinyes] are a kind of [[baatezu]] fiend charged with the temptation of mortals into evil deeds and service to the Nine Hells of [[Baator]].
Xena suffered a similar persecution to Orestes at the hand of three Furies in the third season opener of ''[[Xena: Warrior Princess]]''.
In [[Terry Brooks]]' [[The Elfstones of Shannara]], mystic [[Druid]] [[Allanon]] battles Furies and the Dagda Mor in his escape from the Druid Keep, Paranor.
Erinyes appeared in Castlevania [[Dawn of Sorrow]] and [[Aria of Sorrow]] as well, as an enemy monster with the
name "Erinys".
The MMORPG [[Redmoon]] has a set of unique armor pieces called the "Erinyes Set". The set consist of a helmet, an armor plate, an armored pair of pants and a shield. Individually, they would increase a character's attack and defense by a various percentage, but if all were equipped, they would provide an additional bonus.
"[[Minor_Dark_wizards_in_Harry_Potter#Alecto_and_Amycus|Alecto]]" is the name of a particularly vicious [[witch]] in the [[Harry Potter]] series.
In the computer game Freespace 2 the Erinyes form a class of assault fighter.
==See also==
{{Commonscat|Erinyes}}
*[[Nemesis (mythology)]]
*[[Karma]]
*[[Psychological trauma]]
*[[Post Traumatic Stress Disorder]]
*[[Lilith]]
==References==
*''[[Iliad]]'' xiv.274-9; xix.259f.
*[[Virgil]], ''[[Aeneid]]'' vii, 324, 341, 415, 476.
*[[Walter Burkert|Burkert, Walter]], 1977 (tr. 1985). ''Greek Religion'' (Harvard University Press)
[[Category:Greek goddesses]]
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[[bg:Еринии]]
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[[lb:Erinyen]]
[[nl:Erinyen]]
[[ja:エリニュス]]
[[pl:Erynie]]
[[ro:Furia]]
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</page>
<page>
<title>Marquess of Aberdeen and Temair</title>
<id>10142</id>
<revision>
<id>36323199</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-23T05:53:38Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>John Kenney</username>
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<comment>/* Marquesses of Aberdeen and Temair ([[1916]]) */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Marquess of Aberdeen and Temair''' is a title in the [[Peerage of the United Kingdom]]. The other titles held by the Marquess are: ''Earl of Aberdeen'' (created 1682), ''Earl of Haddo'' (1916), ''Viscount of Formartine'' (1682), ''Viscount Gordon'' (1814) and ''Lord Haddo, Methlic, Tarves and Kellie'' (1682). The title ''Earl of |
Phil Shenk
* Sexton = Act III monster
Examples of item names taken from the developer team:
* Civerb's set = surnames of [[David Brevik]] and [[Peter Brevik]], spelled backwards (and replacing the 'k' with a 'c')
* Schaefer's Hammer = Erich/Max Schaefer
Examples of locations taken from development team:
* The Halls of Vaught = Fredrick Vaught
Additionally, other items are references to movies or books. A good example here is a small dagger, or ''Dirk'', called ''The Diggler'', which is based on the main character of the movie [[Boogie Nights]] called [[Dirk Diggler]].
===The Secret Cow Level===
{{Spoiler}}
[[Image:Diablo_2,_Secret_Cow_Level.jpg|thumb|500|right|Diablo 2 screenshot of the Secret Cow Level]]
The "Secret Cow Level" is the result of a running joke from the original ''Diablo'' that spawned from an internet rumor about a cow which, if you clicked on it a certain number of times, was reported to open a portal to a secret level. The rumor was a hoax, but the legend was born, and player after player asked Blizzard about how to access the level.
In ''[[Diablo: Hellfire]]'', the only official expansion to the original ''Diablo'', it was possible to change a parameter in a specific .ini file so that the farmer who gives out the "rune bomb" quest was dressed in a cow suit, with appropriate new dialogue ("Moo." "I said Moo!"). This added fuel to the fire. To quell the rumor, Blizzard included a cheat (that automatically won the game) in [[StarCraft]] that read "There is no cow level" (implying no secret cow levels in Diablo).
However, there really ''was'' a cow level in the sequel, ''Diablo II''. To access the level, one must kill Diablo (or, in ''Lord of Destruction'', kill Baal), return to Rogue Encampment in Act I within the same difficulty level, and then combine Wirt's Leg with a Tome of Town Portal in the Horadric Cube. This will open a portal to the secret level.
The cow level granted so many experience points and cows dropped so many unique and rare items, that soon Battle.net was filled with endless "cow" games, especially because it was very easy for characters such as Amazons, Barbarians and particulary Sorceresses to complete it quickly.
This changed, somewhat, with the release of patch 1.10, halving the cows' experience rate and item drops. Characters were previously able to stand near the portal to a Cow Level from a very low level and rocket up in levels very quickly as cows were killed. However, Blizzard has now programmed the game to only give experience to characters near to where monsters are killed, and the Mlvl(monster level) and Clvl(character level) must now be closer together or a very minimal amount of experience is awarded per kill.
It is important to note that the character who opened the portal to the secret cow level must be careful not to kill The Cow King. Doing so will result in that character being unable to open future secret cow levels of that difficulty. A loophole in this event was for players to open the cow level with one character, and then exit the game and enter with another character to kill the cows. Killing The Cow King in this fashion would not result in the original player being exempt from opening portals to the cow level.
The most popular way to spot The Cow King in a game is to look out for a cow that creates 'charged bolts' (Lightning Enchanted) when attacked. A Lightning enchanted monster in the secret cow level is usually The Cow King.
A small reference to the cow level has been spotted in ''[[World of Warcraft]]'', in the form of a loading screen tip saying "there is no cow level". This may or may not be a reply to WoW players (non-seriously) asking for one. Also, there exists a special item set called "Cow King's Leathers", consisting of studded leather, a war hat, and heavy boots, that can only be found on the Secret Cow Level.
==Diablo III Rumors==
Rumors of a sequel to Diablo II have been, for the most part, entirely insubstantial. However, in early 2006, Blizzard posted a job opportunity on its website, stating: "The team behind Diablo I and II is looking for a talented, motivated, and experienced Art Director to help lead our art team in developing beautiful, cohesive game worlds for an unannounced PC Project and future projects." [http://www.blizzard.com/jobopp/]. Listings for various game development positions within the Diablo team were simultaneously listed, as well. Among fans, this has resulted in elevated hopes for a Diablo III release.
==Game Credits==
Project and Design Leads: [[David Brevik]], [[Erich Schaefer]], [[Max Schaefer]]
Executive Producer: [[Michael Morhaime]]
Senior Producer: [[Matthew Householder]], [[Bill Roper (programmer)|Bill Roper]]
Producer: [[Mark E. Kern]], Kenneth Williams
Technical Producer: [[Michael Huang]]
Design: [[Stieg Hedlund]]
Lead Programmer: [[Rick Seis]]
Programmers: Theodore Bisson, [[Peter Brevik]], Doron Gartner, Peter Hu, Peter Kemmer, Doug McCreary, Jesse McReynolds, Jon Morin, Divo Palinkas, Jason Regier, [[Michael Scandizzo]], Jonathan Stone, Tyler Thompson, Steven Woo
Lead Character Artist: Phil Shenk
Character Artists: John Kubasco, Cheeming Boey, Evan Carroll, [[Michael Dashow]], Ben Haas, Kelly Johnson, [[Michio Okamura]], [[Kris Renkewitz]], Anthony Rivero, Christopher Root, Eric Sexton, Robert Steele, Patrick Tougas
Background Artists: Alan Ackerman, Ben Boos, David Glenn, Alex Munn, Mark Sutherland, Marc Tattersall, Fredrick Vaught
Music: [[Matt Uelmen]]
Sound Design: Scott Peterson, Jonathan Stone, [[Matt Uelmen]]
Additional Sound Effects: Joseph Lawrence [http://www.futurityfx.com Futurity]
Level Design: Derek McAuley, Stefan Scandizzo, Grant Wilson
Additional Game Design: [[Eric Sexton]]
Story and Dialog: Kurt Beaver, [[Stieg Hedlund]], Matthew Householder, Phil Shenk, Robert Vieira
Story Concept and Script Editor: [[Chris Metzen]]
Production Manager: Karin Colenzo
==See also==
* [[Diablospeak]]
* [[Diablo II: Lord of Destruction]]
== External links ==
* [http://www.blizzard.com/diablo2/ Official Site]
* [http://www.battle.net/diablo2exp/ The Arreat Summit], official Strategy Guide
* [http://diabloii.net/ Diablo II.net] - Database, guides and player forums
* [http://www.mobygames.com/game/windows/diablo-ii Diablo II at MobyGames]
* [http://www.gamespot.com/pages/video_player/popup.php?sid=6131665&pid= Video of the Secret Cow Level] from [[Gamespot]]
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<page>
<title>Diesel Engine</title>
<id>8559</id>
<revision>
<id>15906539</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
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<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Diesel engine]]
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</page>
<page>
<title>Design</title>
<id>8560</id>
<revision>
<id>41884984</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T10:14:59Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Nigel Cross</username>
<id>155939</id>
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<minor />
<comment>/* See also */ rm non-useful link</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">Usually considered in the context of the [[applied art]]s, [[engineering]], [[architecture]], and other such [[creativity|creative]] endeavours, "'''design'''" is used as both a [[noun]] and a [[verb]]. "Design" as a verb refers to the process of originating and developing a plan for a new object (machine, building, product, etc.). As a noun, "design" is used both for the final plan or proposal (a drawing, model, or other description), or the result of implementing that plan or proposal (the object produced).
Designing normally requires considering [[aesthetic]], [[functional]], and many other aspects of an object, which usually requires considerable [[research]], [[thought]], [[model (physical)|modelling]], iterative adjustment, and re-design.
Design as a [[process]] can take many forms depending on the object being designed and the individual or individuals participating.
In [[philosophy]], the abstract noun "design" refers to pattern, or to [[purpose]]/purposefulness (or [[teleology]]). Design is thus contrasted with purposelessness, [[randomness]], or lack of [[complexity]].
==See also==
* [[Architecture]]
* [[Automotive design]]
* [[Ceramic and Glass design]]
* [[Combinatorial design]] theory concerns the existence and construction of set systems that have specified numerical properties
* [[Communication design]]
* [[Computer-aided design]] covers [[Technical drawing|draft]]ing and other forms of modelling.
* [[Critical design]]
* [[Design classic]]
* [[Design management]]
* [[Design of experiments]]
* [[Design research]] seeks to understand design in all its many fields.
* [[Environmental design]] and [[Green design]]
* [[Error-tolerant design]]
* [[Fault tolerant|Fault tolerant design]]
* [[Fashion design]]
* [[Game design]]
* [[Garden design]]
* [[Graphic design]]
* [[Inclusive design]]
* [[Industrial design]]
* [[Information design]]
* [[Instructional design]]
* [[Intelligent design]] is a [[Creation (theology)|Creation]]ism theory.
* [[Interaction design]] examines the role of embedded behaviour in human environments.
* [[Interior design]]
* [[Landscape architecture]]
* [[New product development]]
* [[Packaging design]]
* [[Participatory design]] actively involves the users in the design process.
* [[Reliable system design]]
* [[Service d |
r than allow it to fall into [[Confederate States of America|Confederate]] hands. Unfortunately for the Union, these orders were bungled. The steam frigate [[USS Merrimack (1855)|USS ''Merrimack'']] sank before it completely burned. When the Confederates entered the yard, they raised the ''Merrimack'' and decided to use the engines and hull to build an [[ironclad warship|ironclad ram]].
This new ship was named ''Virginia''. It had an [[iron]] deck and casement, four inches (102 mm) thick. It mounted ten cannons, one in front and rear and four on each side. Further, the designers of the ''Virginia'' had heard of plans by the North to build an ironclad. Figuring that cannon would be unable to harm such a ship, and to conserve gunpowder, they equipped the ''Virginia'' with a ram&mdash;the first ship so-equipped in over a thousand years. The ''Merrimack'''s engines, now part of the ''Virginia'', had not been in good working order, and the salty [[Elizabeth River (Virginia)|Elizabeth River]] water did not help it very much. The addition of a number of tons of iron did not improve the situation.
== Battle of Hampton Roads ==
[[Image:Merrimac.jpg|thumb|left|300px|Drawing depicting the battle of Hampton Roads]]
The [[Battle of Hampton Roads]] began on [[March 8]] [[1862]] when ''Virginia'' set out for [[Hampton Roads]]. Despite an all-out effort to complete her, the ship still had workmen on board when she sailed. Supported by [[CSS Raleigh (1861)|''Raleigh'']] and [[CSS Beaufort|''Beaufort'']], and accompanied by [[CSS Patrick Henry|''Patrick Henry'']], [[CSS Jamestown|''Jamestown'']], and [[CSS Teaser|''Teaser'']], ''Virginia'' took on the blockading fleet.
The first ship engaged, [[USS Cumberland (1842)|USS ''Cumberland'']], was sunk after being rammed. However, in sinking, ''Cumberland'' broke off ''Virginia's'' ram. Seeing what happened to ''Cumberland'', the captain of [[USS Congress (1841)|USS ''Congress'']] ordered his ship grounded in shallow water. ''Congress'' and ''Virginia'' traded fire for an hour, after which the badly-damaged ''Congress'' surrendered. While the surviving crewmen of ''Congress'' were being ferried off the ship, a Union battery on the north shore opened fire on ''Virginia''. In retaliation, the captain of ''Virginia'' ordered ''Congress'' fired upon with red-hot shot, to set her ablaze.
''Virginia'' did not emerge from the battle unscathed. Shot from ''Cumberland'', ''Congress'', and Union troops had riddled her smokestack, reducing her already low speed. Two of her guns were out of order, and a number of armor plates had been loosened. Even so, her captain attacked [[USS Minnesota (1855)|USS ''Minnesota'']], which had run aground on a sandbank trying to escape ''Virginia''. However, because of the deep draft of the ship, ''Virginia'' was unable to do significant damage. It being late in the day, ''Virginia'' left with the expectation of returning the next day and completing the destruction of the Union fleet.
Later that night, the [[USS Monitor|USS ''Monitor'']] arrived at Union-held [[Fort Monroe]]. This Union ironclad had been rushed to [[Hampton Roads]] in hopes of protecting the Union fleet and preventing ''Virginia'' from threatening Union cities.
The next day, on [[9 March]] [[1862]], the world's first battle between ironclad warships took place. The smaller and nimbler ''Monitor'' was able to outmaneuver ''Virginia'', but neither ship proved able to do significant damage to the other. Finally, ''Virginia'' retreated up the James River, leaving ''Monitor'' and the rest of the Union fleet in possession of the "battlefield."
During the next two months, ''Virginia'' made several sorties to Hampton Roads hoping to draw ''Monitor'' into battle. ''Monitor'', however, was under orders not to engage ''Virginia'' and refused to fight.
Finally on [[May 10]], [[1862]], advancing Union troops occupied [[Norfolk, Virginia|Norfolk]]. ''Virginia'' was unable to retreat further up the James River due to her deep draft, nor was she seaworthy enough to enter the ocean. Without a home port, ''Virginia'' was ordered burnt to keep her from being captured. Early on the morning of [[May 11]], [[1862]], off [[Craney Island]], the flames reached her magazine and the ship was destroyed by a great explosion.
[[Image:Destruction of Merrimac, May 11, 1862.png|thumb|right|Destruction of the Rebel Monster "Merrimack", pic of [[Currier and Ives]]]]
==Historical names: ''Merrimack'', ''Virginia'', ''Merrimac''==
The name of the warship which served the Confederacy in the famous Battle of Hampton Roads has become a source of confusion, which continues to the present day.
She was commissioned by the Confederacy as ''Virginia''. However, even after she was rebuilt, the [[Union (American Civil War)|Union]] preferred to call the Confederate ironclad warship by her earlier name, ''Merrimack''. Perhaps because the Union won the US Civil War, the history of the United States generally records the Union version. However, in an apparent quirk in history, at some later time, the name commonly used was shortened to drop the final "-k", hence "the Battle of the ''Monitor'' and the ''Merrimac''".
==Memorial, heritage==
*It is said that the most popular exhibit at [[Jamestown Exposition]] held in [[1907]] at [[Sewell's Point]] was the "Battle of the ''Merrimac'' and ''Monitor''," a diorama which was in a special building.
*The small community in [[Montgomery County, Virginia]] near the location where the iron for the Confederate ironclad was forged is now known as [[Merrimac, Virginia]].
*Some of the iron mined at Merrimac, Virginia and used in the plating on the confederate ironclad is displayed at the [[Norfolk Naval Shipyard]] in [[Portsmouth, Virginia]].
*Other pieces of the ''Virginia'' are on display at the [[Mariners' Museum]] in [[Newport News, Virginia|Newport News]] and the [[Museum of the Confederacy]] in [[Richmond, Virginia|Richmond]], where the [[anchor]] has resided on the front lawn for many years.
The name of the [[Monitor-Merrimac Memorial Bridge-Tunnel]], built in Hampton Roads in the general vicinity of the famous engagment, with both Virginia and federal funds, also reflects the more recent version.
Should the periodic modern efforts to recover more of the Confederate vessel from the depths of [[Hampton Roads]] prove successful, it is unclear what name will be applied to the remains.
==See also==
*[[Norfolk Naval Shipyard]]
*[[USS Merrimack %281855%29]]
== References ==
[[Military Heritage]] did a feature on the Merrimack (C.S.A. Virginia), USS Monitor, and the Battle at Hampton Roads (Keith Milton, Military Heritage, December 2001, Volume 3, No. 3, pp.38 to 45 and p. 97).
==External links==
*[http://www.lva.lib.va.us/ Library of Virginia official website]
*[http://www.vahistorical.org/ Virginia Historical Society official website]
*[http://www.moc.org/ Museum of the Confederacy in Richmond, VA official website]
*[http://cssvirginia.org/ website devoted to the CSS ''Virginia'']
*[http://www.hamptonroadsvisitor.com Hampton Roads Visitor Guide]
* [http://www.monitorcenter.org/ USS Monitor Center and Exhibit Newport News, Virginia]
* [http://www.mariner.org/ Mariner's Museum, Newport News, Virginia]
* [http://www.hrnm.navy.mil/ Hampton Roads Naval Museum]
* [http://www.multied.com/Navy/cwnavalhistory/ Civil War Naval History]
* [http://www.geocities.com/hrforts/Fort_Wool/history.htm Fort Wool History]
* [http://www.roadstothefuture.com/I664_VA_MMMBT.html Roads to the Future - I-664 Monitor-Merrimac Memorial Bridge Tunnel]
[[Category:Naval ships of the Confederate States of America|Virginia]]
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</page>
<page>
<title>Canon</title>
<id>5934</id>
<revision>
<id>41484030</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-27T17:49:04Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Jcbarr</username>
<id>482173</id>
</contributor>
<comment>added entry</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{wiktionarypar|canon}}
'''Canon''' may mean:
In '''religion''':
* [[Canon law]], all legislation adopted by an ecumenical council of the Catholic or Eastern Orthodox churches
* [[Canon (priest)]], a form of Christian priest
* [[Canon (hymnography)]], a type of [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Eastern Orthodox]] hymn
* ''Canon'', a collection of texts accepted by a religious community as authoritative or divinely inspired, such as:
** [[Biblical canon]]
** [[Taoist canon]]
** [[Tripitaka]]
'''Other uses''':
* [[Canon (art)]], a set of rules and measurements used in creating a work of art
* [[Canon (music)]], a contrapuntal composition that employs a melody with one or more imitations
* ''Canon'' is another name for the stringed instruments the [[psaltery]] and the [[qanún]]
* [[Canon (fiction)]], the body of works that are considered to be "genuine" or "official" within a certain fictional universe.
* [[Canon Inc.]], a Japanese corporation that specialises in imaging and optical products.
* ''Literary canon'', a body of literature which is widely considered to define a certain civilization, such as:
** [[Western canon]]
** [[Chinese classic texts]]
** [[Geek canon]]
*''Literary canon'' is also understood as the body of work attributed to an author that is widely accepted as genuine.
* In many instances it could be a spelling error for "[[cannon]]", a large weapon used in combat.
* Canons was a country estate outside of [[London]] where the current [[Canons Park]] is located.
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<page>
<title>Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints</title>
<id>5935</id>
<revision>
<id>41987588</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T01:39:59Z</timestamp>
<cont |
etylsalicylic acid was already being manufactured by the Chemische Fabrik von Heyden Company in [[1897]], although without a brand name. [[Arthur Eichengrün]] claimed in [[1949]] that he planned and directed the synthesis of aspirin while Hoffmann's role was restricted to the initial lab synthesis using Eichengrün's process. In [[1999]], Walter Sneader of the Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences at the University of [[Strathclyde]] in [[Glasgow]] reexamined the case and agreed with Eichengrün's account. Bayer continues to recognize Felix Hoffmann as aspirin's official inventor. Despite its argued origin, Bayer's marketing was responsible for bringing it to the world.
It was not until the [[1970]]s that the mechanism of action of aspirin and similar drugs called [[NSAID]]s was elucidated (see below).
==Synthesis of aspirin==
[[Image:Aspirin-synthesis.gif]]
Aspirin is commercially synthesized using a two-step process. First, [[phenol]] (generally extracted from coal tar) is treated with a sodium base generating sodium phenoxide, which is then reacted with [[carbon dioxide]] under high temperature and pressure to yield salicylate, which is acidifed, yielding [[salicylic acid]].
Salicylic acid is then acylated using [[acetic anhydride]], yielding aspirin. It is a common experiment performed in organic chemistry labs, and generally tends to produce low yields due to the relative difficulty of its extraction from an aqueous state.
Formulations containing high concentrations of aspirin often smell of vinegar, this is because aspirin can undergo autocatalytic degradation to salicylic acid in moist conditions, yielding salicylic acid and [[acetic acid]].
== How it works ==
In a piece of research for which he was awarded both a [[Nobel prize]] in [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine| Physiology or Medicine]] in 1982 and a knighthood, [[John Robert Vane]], who was then employed by the Royal College of Surgeons in London, showed in 1971 that aspirin suppresses the production of [[prostaglandins]] and [[thromboxanes]]. This happens because [[cyclooxygenase]], an [[enzyme]] that participates in the production of prostaglandins and thromboxanes, is irreversibly inhibited when aspirin acetylates it. This makes aspirin different from other NSAIDS (such as [[diclofenac]] and [[ibuprofen]]), which are reversible inhibitors.
Prostaglandins are local [[hormone]]s (paracrine) produced in the body and have diverse effects in the body, including but not limited to transmission of pain information to the brain, modulation of the [[hypothalamus|hypothalamic]] thermostat, and inflammation.
Thromboxanes are responsible for the aggregation of [[platelet]]s that form [[clot|blood clots]]. Heart attacks are primarily caused by blood clots, and their reduction with the introduction of small amounts of aspirin has been seen to be an effective medical intervention. The side-effect of this is that the ability of the blood in general to clot is reduced, and excessive bleeding may result from the use of aspirin.
[[Image:Aspirin-rod-povray.png|thumb|right|3D model of chemical structure of aspirin]]
More recent work has shown that there are at least two different types of cyclooxygenase: COX-1 and COX-2. Aspirin inhibits both of them. Newer [[NSAID]] drugs called [[COX-2 selective inhibitor]]s have been developed that inhibit only COX-2, with the hope for reduction of gastrointestinal side-effects.
However, several of the new [[COX-2 selective inhibitor]]s have been recently withdrawn, after evidence emerged that COX-2 inhibitors increase the risk of heart attack. It is proposed that endothelial cells lining the arteries in the body express COX-2, and, by selectively inhibiting COX-2, prostaglandins (specifically PGF2) are downregulated with respect to thromboxane levels, as COX-1 in platelets is unaffected. Thus, the protective anti-coagulative effect of PGF2 is decreased, increasing the risk of thrombus and associated heart attacks and other circulatory problems. Since platelets have no DNA, they are unable to synthesize new COX once aspirin has irreversibly inhibited the enzyme, rendering them "useless": an important difference with reversible inhibitors.
Furthermore, aspirin has 2 additional modes of actions, contributing to its strong analgesic, antipyretic and antiinflammatory properties:
* It uncouples oxidative phosphorylation in cartilaginous (and hepatic) mitochondria.
* It induces the formation of NO-radicals in the body that enable the white blood cells (leukocytes) to fight infections more effectively. This has been found recently by Dr. Derek W. Gilroy, winning Bayer's International Aspirin Award 2005.
Also, recently aspirin has been proven to prevent carcinoma of the colon, if given in low doses over years.
== Indications ==
Aspirin, as with many older drugs, has proven to be useful in many conditions, and, despite its well-known toxicity, it is widely used, since physicians are familiar with its properties. Indications for its use include:
* [[Fever]]
* [[Pain]] (especially useful for conditions involving osteoid [[osteoma]], [[arthritis]] and chronic pain)
* [[Migraine]]
* [[Myocardial infarction]] prophylaxis (low dose)
* [[Rheumatic fever]] (drug of choice)
* [[Kawasaki's Disease]] (along with IVIG)
== Contraindications and warnings ==
* Do ''not'' take this medicine if you are allergic to aspirin, [[ibuprofen]] or [[naproxen]].
* Talk to your doctor if your symptoms do ''not'' improve after a few days of therapy.
* If you have [[kidney disease]], [[ulcer]]s, mild [[diabetes]], [[gout]] or [[gastritis]], talk to your doctor before using this medicine.
* Taking aspirin with [[alcoholic beverage|alcohol]] increases the chance of stomach bleeding. Avoid alcohol with this medicine.
* Giving aspirin to children, including teenagers having a cold or flu can cause a serious condition known as [[Reye's syndrome]].
* Patients with [[hemophilia]], other bleeding tendencies, or a bleeding ulcer should not take salicylates.
* Some sources recommend that patients with [[hyperthyroidism]] avoid aspirin because it elevates T4 levels. [http://www.patient.co.uk/showdoc/40001339/]
== Common side-effects ==
* Gastrointestinal complaints (stomach upset, [[dyspepsia]], heartburn, small blood loss). To help avoid these problems, it is recommended that aspirin be taken at or after meals. Undetected blood loss may lead to [[hypochromic anemia]].
* Severe gastrointestinal complaints (gross bleeding and/or ulceration), requiring discontinuation and immediate treatment. Patients receiving high doses and/or long-term treatment should receive gastric protection with high-dosed antacids, [[ranitidine]] or [[omeprazole]].
* Frequently, central effects (dizziness, [[tinnitus]], hearing loss, [[Vertigo (medical)|vertigo]], centrally mediated vision disturbances, and headaches). The higher the daily dose is, the more likely it is that central nervous system side effects will occur.
* Sweating, seen with high doses, independent from antipyretic action
* Long-term treatment with high doses (arthritis and rheumatic fever): often increased liver enzymes without symptoms, rarely reversible liver damage. The potentially fatal [[Reye's syndrome]] may occur, if given to pediatric patients with fever and other signs of infections. The syndrome is due to fatty degeneration of liver cells. Up to 30 percent of those afflicted will eventually die. Prompt hospital treatment may be life-saving.
* Chronic [[nephritis]] with long-term use, usually if used in combination with certain other painkillers. This condition may lead to chronic renal failure.
* Prolonged and more severe bleeding after operations and post-traumatic for up to 10 days after the last aspirin dose. If one wishes to counteract the bleeding tendency, fresh [[thrombocyte]] concentrate will usually work.
* Skin reactions, [[angioedema]], and [[bronchospasm]] have all been seen infrequently.
== Overdose ==
Aspirin overdose has serious consequences and is potentially lethal. Possible effects of overdose include [[tinnitus]], abdominal pain, [[hypokalemia]], [[hypoglycemia]], [[pyrexia]], [[hyperventilation]], [[cardiac arrhythmia|dysrhythmia]], [[hypotension]], [[hallucination]], [[renal failure]], [[Mental confusion|confusion]], [[seizure]], [[coma]] and [[death]].
Overdose can be acute or chronic; that is, a person can overdose by taking one very large dose or smaller doses over a period of time. Acute overdose has a [[mortality rate]] of 2%. Chronic overdose is more commonly lethal with a mortality rate of 25%. The most common cause of death during an aspirin overdose is [[pulmonary edema|noncardiogenic pulmonary edema]].
An acute-overdose patient must be taken to a hospital immediately. Contrary to the [[urban legend]], you can die from eating a bottle of pills, even if you subsequently throw up. Treatment of an acute overdose requires ingestion of [[activated charcoal]] to neutralize the acetylsalicylic acid in the [[gastrointestinal tract]], followed by a [[stomach pump]] with subsequent re-ingestion of [[activated charcoal]]. Patients are then monitored for at least 12 hours and typically given [[intravenous]] [[potassium chloride]] to counteract [[hypokalemia]], [[sodium bicarbonate]] to neutralize [[salicylate]] in the blood and restore the blood's sensitive pH balance, and [[glucose]] to restore [[blood sugar]] levels. Frequent blood work is performed to check [[metabolic]], [[salicylate]], and [[blood sugar]] levels; [[arterial blood gas]] assessments are performed to test for [[alkalosis|respiratory alkalosis]] and [[metabolic acidosis]]. If the overdose was intentional, the patient will undergo psychiatric
evaluation, as with any [[suicide]] attempt.
Fifty-two deaths involving single-ingredient aspirin were reported in the United States in the year 2000.{{ref|litovitz-2001}}
== External links ==
* http://bmj.bmjjournals.com/cgi/content/full/321/7276/1591
* |
and military police.
Previously, France relied a great deal on [[conscription]] to provide manpower to its armies, with only a minority of career soldiers. Following from the [[Algerian War of Independence]], the use of non-volunteer draftees in foreign operations was ended; if their unit is called for duty in war zones, draftees were offered the choice between requesting a transfer to another unit or volunteering for the mission. In 1996, President [[Jacques Chirac]]'s government announced the end of conscription; in 2001, conscription was ended. However, young people must still register for possible conscription should the situation call for it, with the cosmetic change that now females must register as well.
==International stance==
French military doctrine is based on the concepts of national independence, nuclear deterrence (''see [[Force de frappe]]''), and military sufficiency. [[France]] is a charter member of the [[North Atlantic Treaty Organisation]] ([[NATO]]), and has worked actively with Allies to adapt NATO--internally and externally--to the post-[[Cold War]] environment. In December 1995, France announced that it would increase its participation in NATO's military wing, including the Military Committee (the French withdrew from NATO's military bodies in 1966 while remaining full participants in the alliance's political councils). France remains a firm supporter of the [[Organisation for Security and Co-operation in Europe]] and other efforts at cooperation. [[Paris]] hosted the May 1997 NATO-Russia [[Summit]] for the signing of the Founding Act on Mutual Relations, Cooperation and Security.
Outside of NATO, France has actively and heavily participated in both coalition and unilateral peacekeeping efforts in [[Africa]], the [[Middle East]], and the [[Balkans]], often taking the lead in these operations. France has undertaken a major restructuring to develop a professional military which will be smaller, more rapidly deployable and better tailored for operations outside of mainland France. Key elements of the restructuring include reducing personnel, bases, and headquarters and rationalising equipment and the armaments industry. French active-duty military at the beginning numbers approximately 270,000 ([[World Almanac]] 2004), of which nearly 35,000 were assigned outside of metropolitan France.
Since the end of the [[Cold War]], France has placed a high priority on arms control and non-proliferation. French Nuclear testing in the [[Pacific]], and the [[Sinking of the Rainbow Warrior]] strained French relations with its Allies and South Pacific states. France acceded to the [[Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty]] in 1992 and supported its indefinite extension in 1995. After conducting a controversial final series of six nuclear tests on [[Mururoa]] in the [[Pacific Ocean|South Pacific]], the French signed the [[Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty]] in 1996. France has implemented a moratorium on the production, export, and use of anti-personnel [[land mine|landmines]] and supports negotiations leading toward a universal ban. The French are key players in the adaptation of the Treaty on Conventional Armed Forces in Europe to the new strategic environment.
France is an active participant in the major supplier regimes designed to restrict transfer of technologies that could lead to proliferation of weapons of mass destruction: the Nuclear Suppliers Group, the [[Australia Group]] (for chemical and biological weapons), and the [[Missile Technology Control Regime]]. France has signed and ratified the [[Chemical Weapons Convention]].
''See also: [[France and weapons of mass destruction]]''
==Recent operations==
France provides, along with the [[United States]] and other countries, troops for the force stationed in [[Haiti]], sanctioned by the [[United Nations]], following the [[2004 Haiti rebellion]].
France has sent troops, especially [[special force]]s, into [[Afghanistan]] to help the United States and NATO forces fight the remains of the [[Taliban]] and [[Al Qaeda]].
A force of a few thousand French soldiers, under a mandate from the UN (Opération Licorne), are stationned in Côte d'Ivoire on a peacekeeping mission. These troops were initially sent under the terms of a mutual protection pact between France and Côte d'Ivoire, but the mission has since evolved into the current UN peacekeeping operation.
==Equipment==
* The standard [[assault rifle]] is the [[FAMAS]].
* Heavy armoured vehicles are bought from [[GIAT Industries]].
==See also==
{{commons|Military of France}}
* [[:Category:French Air Force]]
* [[:Category:French Army]]
* [[:Category:French Navy]]
== External links ==
* [http://www.defense.gouv.fr/ Official site of the French Ministry of Defence]
*[http://www.defencetalk.com Global Military & Defence News, Pictures and Discussions] DefenceTalk.com
{{NATO}}
[[Category:Militaries|France]]
[[Category:Military of France|Military of France]]
[[cs:Armáda Francie]]
[[de:Französisches Militär]]
[[fr:Armée française]]
[[ja:フランス軍]]
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<page>
<title>Foreign relations of France</title>
<id>10725</id>
<revision>
<id>41719192</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T07:14:38Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Jrleighton</username>
<id>140144</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Germany and Europe */ clarify: europe <> eu</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Politics of France}}A charter member of the [[United Nations]], France holds one of the permanent seats in the [[Security Council]] and is a member of most of its specialized and related agencies.
==Relations per wide geographic areas==
=== Germany and Europe===
France is a major power in [[western Europe]] because of its size, location, strong economy, membership in European organizations, strong military posture, and energetic diplomacy. France generally has worked to strengthen the global economic and political influence of the [[EU]] and its role in common European defense and [[collective security]].
It views [[Franco-German cooperation]] and the development of a [[European Security and Defence Identity]] (ESDI) as the foundation of efforts to enhance European Union security. France cooperates closely with [[Germany]] and [[Spain]], but the relations with the [[United Kingdom]] are historically tense.
===Middle East===
{{NPOV-section}}
France's relations with Middle East have a long history. During the [[Thirty Years War]] France was a friend of and ally to the [[Ottoman Empire]] supplying weaponry and training and on occasion cooperating against the [[Holy Roman Empire]]. One advisor that was about to be sent to Constantinople in [[1795]] was a young artillery commander named [[Napoleon I of France|Napoleon Bonaparte]], but a few days before he was to leave the famous "[[whiff of grapeshot]]" occurred and it was decided he should stay in France.
Throughout the nineteenth century the French pursued a policy of shoring up the Ottoman Empire to prevent advances by France's rivals [[Austria]] and [[Russia]] into the Balkans. This finally culminated in the [[Crimean War]] where France joined with Britain to prevent the Russian overrunning of the Ottoman Turks.
France also pursued close relations with the semi-autonomous Egypt. In [[1869]] French workers completed the [[Suez Canal]]. A rivalry emerged between France and Britain for control of Egypt, and eventually Britain emerged victorious.
After the unification of [[Germany]] in [[1870]] Germany attempted to co-op France's relations with the Ottomans and was quite successful. In [[World War I]] the Ottoman Empire joined the [[Central Powers]], and was defeated by France and the United Kingdom. After the collapse of the Ottoman Empire France and Britain divided the Middle East between them. France received [[Syria]] and [[Lebanon]].
These colonies were granted independence after the [[World War II|Second World War]] but France still tries to forge cultural and educational bonds between the areas, particularly with Lebanon. Relationships with Syria are more strained, due to the policies of that country. In [[2005]], France, along with the United States, pressured Syria to evacuate Lebanon.
In the post-WWII era French relations with the Arab Middle East reached a very low point. The [[Algerian War of Independence|war in Algeria]] between Muslim fighters and French colonists deeply concerned the rest of the rest of the Muslim world. The independence fighters received much of their supplies and funding from [[Egypt]] and other Arab powers, much to France's displeasure. Most damaging to Franco-Arab relations, however, was the [[Suez Crisis]]. It greatly diminished France's reputation in the region. France openly supported the Israeli attack on the [[Sinai peninsula]], and was working against Nasser, then a popular figure in the Middle East. The Suez Crisis also made France and the United Kingdom look again like imperialist powers attempting to impose their will upon weaker nations.
Another hindrance to France's relations with the Arab Middle East was its close alliance with Israel. In the [[1950s]] France was, perhaps, Israel's closest ally in the world. France had quickly recognized the state of Israel and for many years backed Israel at the [[United Nations]]. French arm shipments, including fighter jets, missiles, and helicopters had formed the backbone of Israel's army in the nineteen-fifties and early sixties. In the [[1967]] war it was French [[Mirage (aircraft)|Mirage]] fighters that had guaranteed Israeli air superiority, while on the ground French small arms equipped the [[Israel Defense Forces|IDF]] soldiers. This support was consistent, and also deeply ingrained in the population. The support for Israel has been attributed to a number of causes, including guilt felt over the Vichy regime's treatment of Jews, and a similar desire to |
system — before Van Halen. By the time of the 1982 Rush album ''Signals'', Lifeson's primary guitar had become a hot-rodded Stratocaster with a [[Bill Lawrence]] high-output [[humbucker]] (a type later made famous by [[Dimebag Darrell]]) in the bridge position and a Floyd Rose bridge, and as the '80s wore on he switched from passive to active pickups and from vacuum tube to solid-state amplification, all with an increasingly thick layer of [[digital signal processing]]. (Lifeson was the primary endorser of the now all-but-forgotten [[Gallien-Krueger]] solid-state guitar amplifier line.) In the late 1980s he switched to [[Carvin]] guitars in the studio and his short-lived Signature brand guitars onstage.
Lifeson primary used [[PRS Guitars|PRS]] guitars during the recording of ''Roll The Bones'' in 1990/1991. When recording 1993's ''Counterparts'', Lifeson returned to rock guitar tradition: he continued to use [[PRS Guitars|PRS]] guitars and Marshall amplifiers to record the album, and for the subsequent tour. On one ''Counterparts'' song, ''Stick It Out'', Lifeson used a [[Gibson Les Paul]] to create a deeper, more resonant tone for the song's signature riff. He maintains this "classicist" stage rig today, although his signal processing chain is still so complicated as to make [[Pat Metheny]]'s processing rack or [[Robert Fripp]]'s "Lunar Module" look minimalist. Lifeson currently uses PRS, [[Fender]], and Gibson guitars, and [[Hughes and Kettner]] amplifiers. In 2005, Hughes and Kettner introduced an Alex Lifeson signature series amplifier; $50 from every amplifier sold will be donated to [[UNICEF]].
== The Naples incident ==
On [[New Year]]'s Eve 2003, Lifeson, his son, and his daughter-in-law were arrested at the Ritz Carlton hotel in [[Naples, Florida]]. Lifeson, after intervening in an altercation between his son and police, was accused of assaulting a sheriff's deputy in what was described as a drunken brawl.
On April 21, 2005 a plea deal was met between Lifeson and the prosecution by which he would be spared a custodial sentence if he agreed to plead guilty to a single charge of resisting arrest without violence. Lifeson was required to spend 12 months on probation and to pay all court costs.
According to the band's official website [http://www.rush.com], Lifeson is currently pursuing legal action against the Ritz Carlton and the Collier County Sheriff's Department for what he calls "their incredibly discourteous, arrogant and aggressive behavior of which I had never experienced in thirty years of travel."
== Trivia ==
Bandmates often call him by his nickname, "Lerxst," which also appears in a subsection of ''La Villa Strangiato'' (an instrumental based on images of Lifeson's famously vivid nightmares) from ''[[Hemispheres (1978 album)|Hemispheres]]'', titled "A Lerxst in Wonderland."
== Awards ==
* 1983 - "Best Rock Talent" - ''Guitar for the Practicing Musician''
* 1991 - Inducted into the Guitar for the Practicing Musician Hall of Fame
==External links==
* [http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Alex_Lifeson_CNN_Interview_2002 Read 2002 CNN interview with Alex]
* [http://www.naplesnews.com/npdn/news/article/0,2071,NPDN_14940_2547066,00.html Article about Lifeson's arrest]
* [http://www.contactmusic.com/new/xmlfeed.nsf/mndwebpages/lifeson%20and%20son%20spared%20jail Article about Lifeson's plea deal]
{{Rush}}
[[Category:1953 births|Lifeson, Alex]]
[[Category:Living people|Lifeson, Alex]]
[[Category:Canadian musicians|Lifeson, Alex]]
[[Category:Rush|Lifeson, Alex]]
[[Category:Members of the Order of Canada|Lifeson, Alex]]
[[Category:Guitarists|Lifeson, Alex]]
[[Category:Serbian diaspora|Lifeson, Alex]]
[[Category:Serbian Canadians|Lifeson, Alex]]
[[de:Alex Lifeson]]
[[ja:アレックス・ライフソン]]
[[it:Alex Lifeson]]
[[pl:Alex Lifeson]]
[[pt:Alex Lifeson]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>AZ</title>
<id>2894</id>
<revision>
<id>38561442</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-07T03:05:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Tobias Conradi</username>
<id>10784</id>
</contributor>
<comment>[[ISO 639-1]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Wiktionarypar2|AZ|az}}
'''AZ''', '''Az''' or '''az''' can mean:
__NOTOC__
==AZ==
*'''[[Arizona]]''' ( [[United States|U.S.]] [[U.S. state|state]] [[U.S. postal abbreviations|postal symbol]])
*'''[[AstraZeneca]]''', a [[pharmaceutical company]]
*'''[[Azerbaijan]]''': 2-letter [[ISO 3166-1|ISO]] [[country code]]
*'''[[AZ (rapper)|AZ]]''', a [[rapper]] from [[Brooklyn]], [[New York City|New York]], and associate of [[Nas (rapper)|Nas]]
*'''[[AZ Alkmaar]]''', a [[Netherlands|Dutch]] [[football (soccer)]] club
*'''[[Azimuth]]''' (as in "el-az", short for "elevation and azimuth")
*the [[IATA airline designator]] for '''[[Alitalia]]'''
*'''''[[I]]''''' in [[Bulgarian language|Bulgarian Language]]
==Az==
* In [[Persian mythology|Persian]] religion '''Az''' was a demonic principle, thought of as feminine and associated with [[lust]].
* In [[Manichaeism]], '''Az''' was the mother of evil spirits.
* '''Az''' is the first letter of the [[Early Cyrillic alphabet]].
==az==
*'''[[Azeri language]]''' ([[ISO 639-1]], '''az''')
'' '''See also: [[.az]]''' (the [[ccTLD]] for Azerbaijan).''
{{2LCdisambig}}
[[Category:Persian mythology]]
[[de:AZ]]
[[eo:Az]]
[[fr:AZ]]
[[ko:AZ]]
[[it:Az]]
[[nl:AZ]]
[[ja:AZ]]
[[sl:AZ]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Arizona/state parks</title>
<id>2895</id>
<revision>
<id>15901276</id>
<timestamp>2004-03-22T05:53:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Decumanus</username>
<id>37527</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[List of Arizona state parks]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Arizona/Counties</title>
<id>2896</id>
<revision>
<id>15901277</id>
<timestamp>2002-09-19T23:34:09Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Zoe</username>
<id>2376</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[List of Arizona counties]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Natives of Arizona</title>
<id>2897</id>
<revision>
<id>31059646</id>
<timestamp>2005-12-12T16:03:30Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>RussBot</username>
<id>279219</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Robot: Fixing [[Special:DoubleRedirects|double-redirect]] -"Native American tribes of Arizona" +"Native American tribes in Arizona"</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Native American tribes in Arizona]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Abdul Rashid Dostam</title>
<id>2898</id>
<revision>
<id>15901279</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Abdul Rashid Dostum]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>ArgoUML</title>
<id>2899</id>
<revision>
<id>41503084</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-27T20:26:52Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>84.172.124.253</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''ArgoUML''' is an [[open source]] application which uses the [[Unified Modeling Language|UML]] to model the design of computer software. The application runs on most platforms since it is implemented in [[Java programming language|Java]]. It is distributed under the [[BSD license]]. It provides support for all diagram types of the UML standard and includes cognitive support.
Software Development Magazine gives annual awards to popular software development tools in various categories. In 2003 ArgoUML was a finalist in the "Design and Analysis Tools" category. It received a runner-up award, beating many commercial tools.
Previous stable releases:
*V0.16.1 (August 2004)
*V0.18.1 (April 2005)
*V0.20 (February 2006)
New Features in V0.20:
*UML 1.4 - Enhanced extensibility features of UML 1.4 including multiple Stereotypes per ModelElement, Enumerations, and enhanced TaggedValue support.
*Sequence Diagrams - a completely new Sequence Diagram implementation - ArgoUML now supports all diagram types
*AndroMDA compatibility - AndroMDA is an open source MDA tool which can generate code of a variety of types, up to entire applications, from the UML 1.4 models created by ArgoUML.
*Improved interoperability - this version reads and writes XMI files compatible with a wider variety of tools. UML 1.3 & 1.4 using XMI 1.0, 1.1, & 1.2 are read and UML 1.4/XMI 1.2 is written.
*JMI (JSR-40) support - A shiny new model subsystem using the NetBeans Model Data Repository (MDR) implementation of the Java Metadata Interface. While largely transparent to users, it will allow easier upgrades to later versions of UML.
*Quality - Hundreds of bugs have been fixed for this release.
*Visual enhancements - a fresh new splash screen and support for Java 5 look and feel
*Most functions now support Multiple selection of modelelements.
*Drag and Drop from the explorer tree into the diagram and within the explorer tree.
Features from earlier versions:
*100% Java - runs on any supported Java platform - also via web start
*Free and Open Source
*Built in design critics provide unobtrusive review of design and suggestions for improvements
*Extensible modules interface - supports add-on modules such as: Java byte code reverse engineering, C#, IDL reverse engineering, Scheme scripting support, etc.
*i18n support for English, German, French, Spanish and Russian
*OCL constraints for Classes.
*code generation language support: Java, PHP, C++ and Csharp (C#)
*reverse eng |
t Roman emperors, the shoguns of Japan, many Chinese emperors, and others.
However, it should be noted that the terms ''heterosexual'', ''bisexual'', ''homosexual'', and the concept of "sexual orientation" itself are all modern sociological constructs, and may not be appropriate in historical contexts, in which ''behavior'' might be considered homosexual, but ''people'' were not labeled using such terms.
===Ancient Greece===
Ancestral law in ancient [[Sparta]] mandated same-sex relationships with youths who were coming of age for all adult men, so long as the men eventually took wives and produced children. The Spartans thought that love and erotic relationships between experienced and novice soldiers would solidify combat loyalty and encourage heroic tactics as men vied to impress their lovers. Once the younger soldier reached maturity the relationship was supposed to become non-sexual, but it is not clear how strictly this was followed. There was some stigma attached to young men who continued their relationships with their mentors into adulthood.
Greek religious texts, reflecting cultural practices, incorporated bisexual themes. The subtexts varied, from the mystical to the didactic. See ''[[Mythology of same-sex love]]''.
===Middle Eastern cultures===
[[Image:Shah Abbas and Wine Boy.jpg|left|thumb|150px|[[Shah Abbas I]] embracing his wine boy.]]
Men's attraction to beautiful youths is understood to be normal and universal in Islamic cultures. Some religious texts warn men to avoid falling for this temptation, held to be stronger than attraction to women. Other [[Sufism|religious texts]], not uncontroversially, teach that gazing upon the beauty of boys is a path to communing with god. Poets and artists routinely celebrated their love of boys, consummated or not, from the [[Middle Ages|medieval]] times until the early twentieth century. Among these were the famous poets [[Abu Nuwas]], [[Hafez]], and [[Omar Khayyam]], and painters such as the [[Persians|Persian]] [[Reza Abbasi]]. The [[Qur'an]]ic prohibition against ''liwat'' ([[anal intercourse]] with either males or females, held to be a major sin) was flouted by some and circumvented by others who indulged in such relationships but stopped short of intercourse. Men convicted of ''liwat'', as well as their partners, could be and were upon occasion executed.
The Qur'an however requires that the transgression be witnessed by four men or eight women in order to convict the participants. Therefore, men are not given much trouble about these behaviors as it cannot be easily proved, so as long as they marry and raise families and fulfill other societal duties, they can easily "blend" in society. Such practices are claimed to be less common than in the past and have become covert, as a result of exposure to Western Victorian morality starting in the eighteen hundreds. An open declaration of homosexual preference in the Western egalitarian style would be unacceptable. In this way, some of the [[bisexuality in the Arab world]] and [[Persian Empire|Persian]] world is somewhat similar to the [[down-low|DL]] culture prevalent in some African-American and Latino communities.
==Modern Western prevalence of bisexuality==
''Main articles: [[Demographics of sexual orientation]] and [[Kinsey Reports]]''
Some modern surveys report about 2%-6% of modern western populations as bisexual, but there are still many methodological difficulties with regard to randomness and size of the sample population, and the accuracy of self-reports of such personal information. (The accuracy of these numbers is [[Talk:Demographics of sexual orientation|disputed]].) Different studies also use different standards for bisexuality. Some studies ignore bisexual phenomena entirely, or separate it into same-sex and opposite-sex components. Reported results disagree over whether homosexuality is more common than bisexuality (with various definitions for each). Anecdotal reports from areas outside the west suggest much higher rates of bisexual expression.
Some studies, notably [[Alfred C. Kinsey|Alfred Kinsey]]'s ''Sexual Behavior in the Human Male'' (1948) and ''Sexual Behavior in the Human Female'' (1953), have indicated that the majority of people appear to be at least somewhat bisexual. The studies report that most people have some attraction to either sex, although usually one sex is preferred. According to some (falsely attributed to Kinsey), only about 5-10% of the population can be considered to be fully heterosexual or homosexual. On the other hand, an even smaller minority has no distinct preference for one gender or the other.
==Social status of bisexuality==
Historically, bisexuality has largely been free of the social stigma associated with homosexuality, prevalent even where bisexuality was the norm. In Ancient Greece [[pederasty]] was not problematic as long as the men eventually married and had children. All over the world among upper-class men of good social standing (i.e., properly married) homosexual affairs were tolerated, and heterosexual marriage was often successfully used as a defense against accusations of homosexuality.
Some in the gay and lesbian communities accuse those who self-identify as bisexual of duplicity, believing they are really homosexuals who are attempting to hold onto the social approval through their heterosexual activity. They may be accused of "not doing their part" in gaining acceptance of "true" homosexuality. Gay and lesbian people may also suspect that a self-described bisexual is merely a homosexual in the initial stage of questioning their presumed heterosexuality, and will eventually accept that they are gay; this is expressed by a glib saying in gay culture: "Bi now, gay later." These situations can and do take place, but do not appear to be true of the majority of self-described bisexuals. Nonetheless, bisexuals do sometimes experience lesser acceptance from gay and lesbian people, because of their declared orientation.
Bisexuals are often associated with men who engage in [[men who have sex with men|same-sex activity]] while [[the closet|closeted]] and heterosexually [[marriage|married]]. The majority of such men - said to be ''living on the [[down-low]]'' - do not self-identify as bisexual.
Because many bisexual people do not feel that they fit into either the [[gay community]] or the heterosexual world, and because they have a tendency to be "invisible" in public (fitting in rather seamlessly into both homosexual and heterosexual society), some bisexual persons are committed to forming their own communities, culture, and political movements.
[[Image:Bi flag.svg|thumb|200px|right|The bisexual pride flag]]A common symbol of bisexual identity is a pair of overlapping pink and blue triangles (the pink triangle being a well-known symbol for the gay community), forming purple where they intersect. Another symbol is the [[bisexual pride flag]], which has a deep pink stripe at the top for homosexuality, a blue one on the bottom for heterosexuality, and a purple one (blended from the pink and blue) in the middle to represent bisexuality.
==Terminology==
The term ''bisexual'' was coined by botanists c. 1809. It originally applied to plants that had both male and female sex organs. It is not known when the term was first applied to the context of sexual orientation. Some bisexuals and sex researchers are dissatisfied with the term, and have developed a variety of alternative or supplementary terms to describe aspects and forms of bisexuality. Many are [[neologism]]s not widely recognized by the larger society.
*''Pansexual'', ''omnisexual'', and ''[[pomosexual]]'' ([[postmodernism|postmodern]] sexuality) are substitute terms that rather than referring to ''both'' or "bi" gender attraction, refer to ''all'' or "omni" gender attraction, and are used mainly by those who wish to express acceptance of ''all'' gender possibilities including [[transgender]] and [[intersex]] people, not just two. Pansexuality sometimes includes an attraction for less mainstream sexual activities, such as [[BDSM]]. Some people who might otherwise identify as pansexual or omnisexual choose to self-identify as bisexual because the term ''bisexual'' is more widely known, and because they see it as an important term in [[identity politics]].
*''[[Bi-permissive]]'' describes someone who does not actively seek out sexual relations with a given gender, but is open to them. Such a person may self-identify as heterosexual or homosexual, and engage predominantly in sexual acts with individuals of the corresponding gender, and might be rated ''1'' or ''5'' on Kinsey's scale. Near-synonyms include [[heteroflexible]] and [[homoflexible]].
*''Ambisexual'' indicates a primarily indiscriminate attraction to either sex. A person who self-identifies as ambisexual might be attracted with equal intensity on physical, emotional, intellectual, and spiritual levels to partner(s) regardless of sex or gender presentation, while upholding selectivity standards in other areas. Some might experience equally intense attractions that could be triggered by sex- or gender-specific traits in given the partner(s). A person with this orientation might fall in the ''3'' category on Kinsey's scale, as would some who subscribe to the ''2'' or ''4'' rating (although some individuals in these latter categories consider themselves Bi-permissive).
*''[[Bi-curious]]'', has several distinct and sometimes contradictory meanings. It is commonly found in personal ads from those who identify as heterosexual but are interested in homosexual "experimentation". Such people are commonly suspected - not necessarily correctly - of being homosexuals or bisexuals in [[denial]] of their homosexuality. It can also be used to describe someone as being [[passively-bi]], bi-permissive or open to indirect bisexual contact.
*''Trisexua |
istian]] religious overtones (especially over the terms [[Behemoth]] and [[Leviathan]]). The show also seems to draw from [[Plato]]’s dialogue "[[Republic (dialogue)|The Republic]]", as it continually references the "watchdogs" of Paradigm City while showing Roger Smith in his fight for justice. Finally, several basic premises mirror the ''Batman'' world, with the main character a high-class, influential individual leading a double life. Norman, also, can be compared to Alfred, Batman's ever-helpful butler. Both shows ran on [[Toonami]] in a similar timeframe. The tagline used for ''Batman'' was "Good Guys Wear Black" (which is actually the name of a [[Chuck Norris]] movie) and the tagline for ''The Big O'' was "Good Guys Still Wear Black"
<!-- Unsourced image removed: [[image:big o.jpg|right|thumb|Counterclockwise from top : Big O, Norman Burg, Roger Smith and R. Dorothy Waynewright.]] -->
The principal character of Big O is [[Roger Smith]], a professional freelance negotiator, but the added twist on the show is the fact that he is also the pilot of Big O, an enigmatic giant robot known as a megadeus which is a creation from the world prior to "The Event".
''Big O'' is set in [[Paradigm City]], a doomed metropolis with a mixture of futuristic and contemporary features. It is widely believed that no human civilization exists outside the city. Forty years before the show first takes place, a mysterious occurrence known only as "The Event" completely wiped out the memories of the isolated city's inhabitants. There are few clues as to what exactly took place during that fateful moment, but it forced the people of Paradigm to start anew, severed ties and all; this mystery is a central feature of the show. The Event's lingering mysteries still haunt the Negotiator in nearly every case, and they don't seem to stop, even after 'we have come to terms.' The Event has been theorized by many and seems to rear its head in every adventure unraveled before Roger, his android housemate [[R. Dorothy Wayneright]], his faithful butler [[Norman Burg]], and the whole of Paradigm City.
[[Pets]] are a rare luxury, and [[insect]]s are nonexistent, though they did exist before The Event. People sometimes remember small things from before The Event.
Initially there were only thirteen episodes created, abruptly leaving the plot with many questions left to be answered.
On [[August 3rd]], [[2003]], a second season of ''Big O'' co-produced by [[Cartoon Network]] debuted on the [[Adult Swim]] programming block of the same network. This second season continues the ''Big O'' storyline beginning with the last part of the first season's last episode, but there are some obvious differences in the style and narrative. Because it had more of a western setting and explored western themes the series did not make a huge impact in [[Japan]]. It aired on a satellite network [[WOWOW]]. But due to the popularity of its American broadcast, and with Cartoon Network funding, the second season was created by the same studio.
The second season contains elements that are explicitly derivative of the classic science-fiction movie, ''[[Metropolis_(1927_movie)|Metropolis]]''. The title of "Negotiator", and the secretive group "The Union" have direct counterparts in ''Metropolis''. Also of interest are the numerous appearances of a red book entitled ''Metropolis'' which contains a mystery of its own, and occasionally seems not to be a book at all but a symbolic representation of Paradigm City or of the lost or collective memories of its inhabitants.
Speculation about the meaning of the series varies widely. It contains many direct parallels to movies or theater production, prompting some to believe that the entire existence was a fabrication by one or more of the characters. In other words...a production of sorts. However, many found it nearly impossible to make sense of the ending in a way that ties up the many, many loose ends established in the series, such as Roger's bizzare flash backs and what he saw at the bottom of the sea.
By the extraordinary amount of mysteries fans were wondering whether the show had actually ended or not. Recently, it has been revealed that the series is in fact unfinished. The production crew wished to create a third season to tie up the loose ends and finish the series, as per an option on the contract between Cartoon Network and Sunrise, but the network determined that the show lacked the marketability of Adult Swim's comedy offerings. This was further exemplified on March 28, 2005 when [adult swim] became a separately rated individual network. [http://www.timewarner.com/corp/newsroom/pr/0,20812,1043594,00.html Time-Warner reports] There is a great deal of controversy over the true nature of this decision however, there are behind the scene statements and rumors that there was difficulties within the ranks of Adult Swim concerning this program. The show's ratings were also not nearly as bad as Adult Swim had stated, not bringing in the highest but also not bringing in the lowest either. Due to the shady nature of all of this however, it is nothing more than rumor. Many accept the series for what it is now regardless of their stand on the true nature of the ending.
While the show has proven to be a unique and powerful anime, it has suffered from the stigma of being labeled as the "Batman" of giant robo. Nevertheless, many fans of the anime remain hopeful that one day the network will acquiesce and greenlight a third season. A petition is currently being prepared by a few fans at Savebigo and Paradigm-City.com, who are presently seeking an estimate of signatures required by Time Warner for consideration of a third season.
==Episode List==
===Season 1 (1998-1999)===
* ACT 1 -- Roger The Negotiator
* ACT 2 -- Dorothy Dorothy
* ACT 3 -- Electric City
* ACT 4 -- Underground Terror
* ACT 5 -- Bring Back My Ghost
* ACT 6 -- A Legacy of Amadeus
* ACT 7 -- The Call From The Past
* ACT 8 -- Missing Cat
* ACT 9 -- Beck Comes Back
* ACT 10 -- Winter Night Phantom
* ACT 11 -- Daemonseed
* ACT 12 -- Enemy Is Another Big!
* ACT 13 -- R - D
===Season 2 (2000-2001)===
* ACT 14 -- Roger The Wanderer
* ACT 15 -- Negotiation with the Dead
* ACT 16 -- Day of the Advent
* ACT 17 -- Leviathan
* ACT 18 -- The Greatest Villain
* ACT 19 -- Eyewitness
* ACT 20 -- Stripes
* ACT 21 -- The Third Big
* ACT 22 -- Hydra
* ACT 23 -- Twisted Memories
* ACT 24 -- The Big Fight
* ACT 25 -- The War of Paradigm City
* ACT 26 -- The Show Must Go On
==Quotes==
* "Cast in the name of God, ye not guilty." - display message on Big O's console
* "You really are such a louse, Roger Smith." - R. Dorothy Wayneright
* "This mansion has rules even I must follow." - Roger Smith
* " Big O! Showtime!" - Roger Smith
* "Open your eyes to the truth!" - Schwarzwald
* "Goodbye... Negotiator!" -RD
* "I saved your lives and this is the thanks I get?" -Roger Smith
* "It's coming... Megadeus." -Dastun
* "There is but one Truth. If you avert your eyes from it, you will always remain nothing more than a puppet." -Schwarzwald
* "We have choices. Some people like to stand in the rain without an umbrella. That's what it means to live free." -Roger Smith
==See also==
*[[Dark City]]
*[[Megadeus]]
==External links==
*[http://www.animenfo.com/animetitle,1083,pnzuky,big_o_roger.html Animenfo.com entry]
*[http://www.sunrise-inc.co.jp/datacard/card0173.htm Official site (Japanese)]
*[http://www.freewebs.com/seebach/ FAQ Concerning future episodes of "The Big O"]
*[http://www.savebigo.com A campaign to get a Big O Season Three]
*[http://sqn.com/metrop26.html Analysis of ''Metropolis'' for the purpose of comparing to the plot of "Big O"]
*[http://www.paradigm-city.com An English language fan site for ''Big O'' information and fan works.]
*[http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0280240/ The Big O at IMDB]
*[http://www.tv.com/the-big-o/show/32423/summary.html?q=the%20big%20o The Big O at TV.com]
[[Category:Anime series|Big O, The]]
[[Category:Manga series|Big O, The]]
[[Category:Japanese television series|Big O, The]]
[[Category:Shows on Toonami]]
[[Category:Shows on Adult Swim|Big O, The]]
[[Category:Fictional robots|Big O, The]]
[[ja:THE ビッグオー]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>BIOS</title>
<id>4473</id>
<revision>
<id>42158210</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T05:08:05Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>The tooth</username>
<id>652482</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>RV</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Otheruses3|Bios}}
[[Image:Phone BIOS.jpg|thumb|BIOS settings on a public Internet [[payphone]]]]
<!-- There is currently much more information in the German wikipedia. Please help translate and add some information from that article. -->
'''BIOS''', in [[computing]], stands for '''Basic Input/Output System''' or '''Basic Integrated Operating System'''.
BIOS refers to the [[Source code|software code]] run by a computer when first powered on. The primary function of BIOS is to prepare the machine so other [[Computer software|software]] programs stored on various media (such as [[hard drive]]s, [[floppy|floppies]], and [[Compact disk|CD]]s) can load, execute, and assume control of the computer. This process is known as
[[booting]] up.
Bios can also be said to be a coded program embedded on a chip that recognises and controls various devices that make up the computer.
The term BIOS is specific to [[personal computer]] vendors. Among other classes of computers, the generic terms ''boot monitor'', ''boot loader'' or ''boot ROM'' are commonly used.
While the name BIOS is an [[acronym]], it may also be a play on the [[Greek language|Greek]] word βιος (bios) ''life''. The term first app |
]]
[[cy:Daear]]
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[[id:Bumi]]
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[[ja:地球]]
[[jbo:terdi]]
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[[pam:Yatu]]
[[pl:Ziemia]]
[[pt:Terra]]
[[ro:Pământ]]
[[ru:Земля (планета)]]
[[sco:The Yird]]
[[scn:Terra]]
[[simple:Earth]]
[[sk:Zem]]
[[sl:Zemlja]]
[[sr:Земља (планета)]]
[[su:Marcapada]]
[[sv:Jorden]]
[[sw:Ardhi]]
[[th:โลก]]
[[tl:Lupa (planeta)]]
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[[uk:Земля (планета)]]
[[vi:Trái Đất]]
[[zh:地球]]
[[zh-min-nan:Tē-kiû]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>EnglishChannel</title>
<id>9229</id>
<revision>
<id>15907132</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[English Channel]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>English Channel</title>
<id>9230</id>
<revision>
<id>42127256</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T00:19:40Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Johan Elisson</username>
<id>82380</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* See also */ +link</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:EnglishChannel.jpg|thumb|400px|right|Satellite view of the English Channel]]
The '''English Channel''' ([[French language|French]]: '''La Manche''', [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]]: {{IPA|[mɑ̃ʃ]}}, "''the sleeve''"), also for some time known in England as the British Sea, is the part of the [[Atlantic Ocean]] that separates the [[island]] of [[Great Britain]] from northern [[France]], and joins the [[North Sea]] to the [[Atlantic Ocean]]. It is about 563&nbsp;[[kilometre|km]] (350&nbsp;[[mile|mi]]) long and at its widest is 240&nbsp;km (150&nbsp;mi). The [[Strait of Dover]] is the narrowest part of the channel, being only 34&nbsp;km (21&nbsp;mi) from [[Dover, England|Dover]] to [[Cap Gris Nez]], and is located at the eastern end of the English Channel, where it meets the North Sea.
The Channel is quite shallow, with an average depth of about 120&nbsp;m at its widest part, reducing to about 45&nbsp;m between Dover and [[Calais]], then remaining shallow where it lies over the remains of the former land bridge between East Anglia and the Low Countries. (See '[[#Formation of the Channel|Formation of the Channel]]')
The [[Channel Islands]] lie in the Channel, close to the French side. The [[Isles of Scilly]] in the [[United Kingdom|UK]] and [[Ushant]] in France mark the western end of the Channel.
The French ''[[département in France|département]]'' of [[Manche]], which incorporates the [[Cotentin Peninsula]] that juts out into the Channel, takes its name from the surrounding seaway.
==Formation of the Channel==
Before the end of the last [[ice age]], around 10,000 years ago, the [[British Isles]] were part of mainland Europe. During the ice age today's [[North Sea]] and almost all of the British Isles were covered with ice. The sea level was about 120 metres lower then, and the "channel" was an expanse of low-lying [[tundra]], through which passed a river which drained the [[Rhine]] and [[River Thames|Thames]] towards the Atlantic to the West. As the icesheet melted, a large freshwater lake formed in the southern part of what is now the North Sea. As the meltwater could still not escape to the North (as the northern North Sea was still frozen) the outflow channel from the lake entered the Atlantic Ocean in the region of Dover and Calais.
At some point around [[7th millennium BC|6500 BC]], catastrophic [[erosion]] swept away the [[chalk]] to create the English Channel, which has since been further widened by [[wave action]] on the soft, chalk cliffs. The same mechanism continues to widen the English Channel today.
==Historical significance==
The Channel has been a key natural defence for Britain, a fact that is referred to in [[William Shakespeare]]'s play ''[[Richard II (play)|Richard II]]'':
[[image:English Channel.jpg|thumb|300px|Map of the English Channel]]
:''This precious stone set in the silver sea,''
:''Which serves it in the office of a wall''
:''Or as a moat defensive to a house,''
:''Against the envy of less happier lands''
:&nbsp; &ndash; ''Richard II''. Act 2, Scene 1.
It has allowed Britain to intervene but rarely be dangerously threatened in European conflicts. Without the gap [[Napoleon I|Napoleon]] and [[Hitler]] would possibly have been able to overcome the powerful enemy that the British state represented.
Nevertheless, the Channel has been the scene of many invasions (or attempted invasions) including the [[Norman Conquest]] in [[1066]], the [[Spanish Armada]] in [[1588]], and the [[Battle of Normandy|WWII Normandy landings]] in [[1944]].
The Channel has been the scene of many [[list of naval battles|naval battles]], including the [[Battle of Goodwin Sands]] ([[1652]]), the [[Battle of Portland]] ([[1653]]), the [[Battle of La Hougue]] ([[1692]]) and the engagement between [[USS Kearsarge (1861)|USS Kearsarge]] and [[CSS Alabama]] ([[1864]]).
However, at times the Channel has served as a link joining shared cultures and political structures, from pre-Roman [[Celt]]ic society, the [[Culture of Rome|Roman imperial culture]], and the foundation of [[Brittany]] by settlers from Great Britain, to the [[Normans|Anglo-Norman]] state.
Cross-Channel trade has been a significant factor for societies on both sides of the Channel from prehistoric times, and a number of important [[seaport|ports]] have developed in England and in France:
* [[Dover]]
* [[Calais]]
* [[Dieppe, France]]
* [[Southampton]]
* [[Portsmouth]]
* [[Poole]]
* [[Le Havre]]
* [[Cherbourg-Octeville]]
Important [[ferry]] routes are
* Dover-Calais
* [[Newhaven, East Sussex|Newhaven]]-Dieppe
* Portsmouth-[[Caen]] ([[Ouistreham]])
* Portsmouth-Cherbourg
* Portsmouth-Le Havre
* [[Poole]]-[[Saint Malo]]
* [[Weymouth, Dorset|Weymouth]]-Saint Malo
* [[Plymouth]]-[[Roscoff]]
Adding to the high level of cross-Channel traffic is the very significant traffic passing through the Channel, linking the economies of northern Europe with the rest of the world. Combined, this maritime traffic makes the Channel one of the busiest seaways in the world, accounting for a large share of global maritime trade (some sources place this at up to one quarter).
The coastal resorts of the Channel, such as [[Brighton]] and [[Deauville]], inaugurated an era of aristocratic tourism in the early [[19th century]] which developed into the democratic seaside tourism that has shaped resorts around the world.
== The Channel Tunnel ==
Nowadays, many travellers cross the English Channel underneath, by way of the [[Channel Tunnel]] or "Chunnel". This grand engineering feat, first proposed in the time of Napoleon and finally completed in 1994, connects England and France by [[Rail transport|rail]].
It is now routine to travel between [[Paris]], [[Brussels]] and [[London]] on the [[Eurostar train]].
== Notable Channel crossings ==
On [[7 January]] [[1785]] Frenchman [[Jean-Pierre Blanchard]] and [[United States|American]] [[John Jeffries]] travelled from Dover to Calais in a gas [[balloon]], becoming the first to cross the English Channel by air. [[Pilâtre de Rozier]] perished while attempting a similar balloon crossing - the first recorded air crash.
[[William Murdoch]]'s ''The Caledonia'' became the first steamboat to carry out a cross-channel crossing.
The first person to swim the channel was [[Matthew Webb]] in [[1875]].
In [[1909]], [[Louis Blériot]] (France) was the first person to fly over the English Channel in a heavier-than-air [[aircraft]].
On [[August 23]] [[1910]], [[John Moisant]] flew the first aircraft flight with a passenger across the English Channel. His passenger was his mechanic, Albert Fileux, and he also took his cat.
On [[6 August]] [[1926]], [[Gertrude Ederle]] became the first woman to swim the Channel, breaking the men's record of the time by two hours.
On November 24 1927, [[Mercedes Glietze]] swims across wearing a [[Rolex Oyster]].
The [[Mountbatten class hovercraft]] entered commercial service in August [[1968]] initially operated between Dover and Boulogne but later craft also made the [[Ramsgate]] ([[Pegwell Bay]]) to Calais route. The journey time, Dover to Boulogne, was roughly 35 minutes, with six trips a day at peak times. The fastest crossing was made in [[1995]] at just 22 minutes.
In July [[1972]], [[Lynne Cox]] became the youngest person to swim the English Channel at age fifteen, breaking both the men's and women's records. She swam the channel again in 1973, setting a new record time of nine hours and thirty-six minutes.
In [[1979]], a 70 lb (32 kg) aircraft called the ''[[Gossamer Albatross]]'' won the £100,000 [[Kremer prize]] for being the first human-powered airplane to fly over the Channel. The pilot [[Bryan Allen (cyclist)|Bryan Allen]] pedalled for 3 hours to accomplish this feat.
In [[1981]] the ''Solar Challenger'' became the first solar-powered airplane to complete a crossing.
The fastest swim of the channel was by Christof Wandratsch in [[2005]]. He crossed the channel in 7 hours 3 minutes and 52 seconds.
In [[1997]] the ''SB Collinda'' was the first vessel to complete a solar-powered crossing using photovoltaic cells.
On [[31 July]] [[2003]], Austrian skydiver [[Felix Baumgartner]], wearing high-tech [[carbon]] wings, jumped out of a plane |
s of ''[[Pac-Man]]'' and many other hits), Coleco involved itself with companies like [[Sega]], [[Konami]], and [[Universal (game company)|Universal]]. The ColecoVision had enough power to produce near-arcade-quality ports, which boosted its popularity. Industry magazines like [[Electronic Games]] were unanimous in their enthusiasm over Coleco's machine.
Some of the more popular games included ''[[Donkey Kong]]'' (the pack-in), ''[[Donkey Kong Junior]]'', ''[[Carnival (game)|Carnival]]'', ''[[Ladybug (arcade game)|Ladybug]]'', [[Mouse Trap]], ''[[Smurf: Rescue in Gargamel's Castle]]'', and ''[[Zaxxon]]''. The ColecoVision didn't offer many revolutionary new games, since most of its popular titles were arcade ports. Still, it offered a few notable original titles like ''[[War Room (video game)|War Room]]'', ''[[Illusions (video game)|Illusions]]'', and ''[[Fortune Builder]]'', an early milestone in the style of ''[[SimCity]]''. Most cartridges did not have an end-game to beat, but instead would loop around to the beginning, such as ''[[Cosmic Avenger]]''.
==Twelve second delay==
All Coleco cartridges and most third-party titles had a twelve second delay before the game select screen showed up. A common, but incorrect, anecdote suggested that this delay was the result of a function in the ColecoVision that emulated the programming language [[PASCAL]]. The real reason behind the twelve second delay is a loop in the ColecoVision [[BIOS]], so the delay was purely intentional. Some companies like [[Parker Brothers]], [[Activision]], and [[Micro Fun]] avoided the delay by simply bypassing the loop in the BIOS.
==Other games==
Coleco was infamous for not releasing the games it advertised. In most cases, it isn't certain if games that never came out were advertised using actual screenshots of a game or artist renditions designed to look like a completed game. Neverless, over fifty ColecoVision games were advertised in catalogs or on boxes, but never released.
In 1997, ColecoVision was given its first "homebrew" game, the ''[[Tetris]]'' clone Kevtris by Kevin Horton. Since then, designer of homebrew games John Dondzila has released three new ColecoVision games, ''[[Space Invasion]]'', ''[[Star Fortress]]'', and ''[[Purple Dino Demo]]''.
==Screenshots==
<gallery>
Image:Coleco_Donkey_Kong.png|''[[Donkey Kong (arcade game)|Donkey Kong]]''<br>[[Coleco]] ([[1982]])
Image:Coleco_Smurf_Rescue.png|''[[Smurf Rescue]]''<Br>[[Coleco]] ([[1982]])
Image:Coleco_Zaxxon.png|''[[Zaxxon]]''<Br>[[Coleco]] ([[1982]])
Image:Coleco_Galaxian.png|''[[Galaxian]]''<br>[[Atari]] ([[1983]])
Image:Coleco_Pitstop.png|''Pitstop''<br>[[Epyx]] ([[1983]])
Image:Coleco_Cabbage_Patch_Kids.png|''[[Cabbage Patch Kids]]''<Br>[[Coleco]] ([[1984]])
Image:Coleco_Congo_Bongo.png|''[[Congo Bongo]]''<br>[[Coleco]] ([[1984]])
Image:Coleco_Tournament_Tennis.png|''Tournament Tennis''<br>[[Imagic]]/[[Coleco]] ([[1984]])
</gallery>
==Technical specifications==
*CPU: [[Zilog]] [[Zilog Z80|Z80]]A @ 3.58 MHz
*Video processor: [[Texas Instruments]] [[Texas Instruments TMS9918|TMS9928A]]
**256x192 resolution
**32 sprites
**16 colors
*Sound: [[Texas Instruments SN76489|Texas Instruments SN76489A]]
**3 tone generators
**1 noise generator
*VRAM: 16KB
*RAM: 1KB
*Storage: Cartridge: 8/16/24/32KB
===Similarities to other platforms===
The ColecoVision contains the same CPU and graphics chip as the [[MSX]]1 and [[SG-1000|Sega SG-1000]]/[[SC-3000]]. It also shares a sound chip with the Sega machines, making them identical in hardware capabilities. The MSX contains a different sound chip that is very similar in capabilities, the [[General Instruments AY-3-8912|General Instruments AY-3-8910]]. For this reason it proved very easy to port games between the three systems.
==See also==
{{Dedicated video game consoles}}
==External links==
*[http://dmoz.org/Games/Video_Games/Console_Platforms/ColecoVision/ Category at ODP]
*[http://www.thedoteaters.com/play3sta4.htm Article at The Dot Eaters], a complete history of the ColecoVision
*[http://www.classicgaming.com/museum/colecovision/ ClassicGaming's history of the ColecoVision.]
*[http://www.maniacworld.com/game_console_history/Colecovision.htm Complete Specs of ColecoVision] An exhaustive specification guide and history of ColecoVision
[[Category:Coleco consoles]]
[[Category:Second-generation video game consoles]]
[[de:Colecovision]]
[[fr:Colecovision]]
[[it:ColecoVision]]
[[nl:ColecoVision]]
[[sv:Colecovision]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Christian cross</title>
<id>7308</id>
<revision>
<id>41503978</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-27T20:33:26Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>198.4.159.6</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* History and Usage */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Christian_cross.png|thumb|right|140px|The traditional form of the Christian cross, known as the [[Latin cross]].]]
The '''Christian cross''' is a familiar [[religious symbol]] of [[Christianity]]. It is significant for Christians based on the gospel accounts of the [[New Testament]], <!--verse?--> which describe the manner of [[Jesus]] [[Christ]]'s death as [[crucifixion]]. This painful method of [[execution (legal)|execution]] was common for slaves and non-Romans convicted of serious crimes in the [[Roman Empire]]. It was an inately disgraceful association in the eyes of the Roman world for at least 250 years after the death of Jesus. It was different in Egypt, which had another kind of cross, the [[Ankh]]. It had been a religious symbol for 2500 years. It was this exception, the association of the cross and ankh, that allowed the cross to become the symbol of the entire faith.
The type of cross actually used by Romans for crucifixion is now known as [[Cross of Tau|St. Anthony's Cross]], shaped like the letter "T", unlike the traditionally depicted Latin cross.
== History and Usage ==
During the first three centuries of Christianity, the cross was rare in Christian [[iconography]] as it depicts a purposely painful and gruesome method of public execution by impalement and/or exposure. The [[Ichthys]], or fish symbol, was used by early Christians to covertly identify each other. The [[Chi-Rho]] monogram, which was adopted by the [[Constantine I of the Roman Empire|emperor Constantine]] in the fourth century as his banner called the ''[[labarum]],'' was an [[Early Christian]] symbol of wider use.
Descriptions of the cross are to be found in Christian writings from the early 2nd century onwards. The Cross first became prominent in Christian imagery during the 3rd century in Egypt. A Christian bust from the site of an early church in Fayoum, Egypt, shows an ankh partially evolved, changing, over time, from a round upper section, to one that is half-way through a
"morphing process", leading to the Coptic cross . It is being worn, in this half-way mode, as a necklace on the bust. (see image)
[[Image:coptic_bust.jpg|thumb|200px|Bust of early Christian Ankh wearer. {{3d_glasses}}]]
An early third century reference (there are few others) is in [[Clement of Alexandria]]'s unfinished ''Stromateis'' or 'Miscellanies' (book VI): he speaks of the Cross as ''tou Kuriakou semeiou tupon'', ''i.e.'' "the symbol of the Lord." His contemporary [[Tertullian]] could designate the body of Christian believers as ''crucis religiosi'', ''i.e.'' "devotees of the Cross" (''Apol''., chapter xvi). A crucifix or cross is considered by Christians as one of the most effective ways of warding off evil.
In Christianity, the cross represents Christ's victory over death and sin, since it is believed that through His death he conquered death itself. [[Catholic]] Christians often make the [[sign of the cross]] by moving their right hand so as to draw a cross upon themselves. [[Orthodox]] Christians mke the sign with their left hand. Making the sign of the cross was already a common Christian practice in the time of [[Augustine of Hippo|Augustine]]. One of the twelve great feasts in the [[Eastern Orthodox Church]] is the Exaltation of the Cross on [[September 14]], which commemorates the consecration of the basilica on the site where the (allegedly) original cross was discovered in [[326]] by [[Helena, mother of Constantine the Great]]. In the Catholic Church the comparable feast is the Invention of the Cross, celebrated on May 3.
The Cross was the first of the [[Instruments of the Passion]] that came to be venerated in the form of [[relic]]s. In time, even the "[[Nail (relic)|Holy Nails]]" that were used to nail Christ to the cross would be sought out, discovered, elaborately mounted as relics, and venerated in Catholic circles. A nail, said to be one of these, is mounted in the [[Iron Crown of Lombardy|Iron Crown]] of [[Lombardy]], preserved in the cathedral of the former Lombard capital, [[Monza]].
Numerous [[relic]]s are claimed to be pieces of the [[True Cross]], often brought to Europe during the [[Crusades]]. By the 16th century, skepticism surfaced: [[Erasmus]] joked that one could build a ship with all that wood. [[Santo Toribio de Liébana]] in Spain holds the biggest of these pieces and is one of the most privileged [[pilgrim]]age sites for the Catholic Church. Even a large portion of the cross of the 'good thief' crucified with Jesus (who came to be given the name [[Dismas]] in medieval legend) has been recovered; it is reverenced at Rome in the altar of the Chapel of the Relics at the church of [[Santa Croce in Gerusalemme]].
Connected with the cross is the medieval legend of the [[Tree of Jesse]], from the wood of which the cross was said to have been fashioned.
== Forms of the Cross ==
The cross is often shown in different shapes and sizes, in many different styles. It may be used in personal jewelry, or used on top of church buildings. It is shown both empty, and with t |
a River|Volga]] and [[Kama River|Kama]].
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[[Category:Bulgaria| ]]
[[ar:بلغاريا]]
[[an:Bulgaria]]
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[[bg:България]]
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[[be:Баўгарыя]]
[[bn:বুলগেরিয়া]]
[[bs:Bugarska]]
[[ca:Bulgària]]
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[[cs:Bulharsko]]
[[cy:Bwlgaria]]
[[da:Bulgarien]]
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[[fa:بلغارستان]]
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[[gl:Bulgaria - България]]
[[ko:불가리아]]
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[[hr:Bugarska]]
[[io:Bulgaria]]
[[id:Bulgaria]]
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[[kw:Bulgari]]
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[[th:ประเทศบัลแกเรีย]]
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[[fiu-vro:Bulgaaria]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Bryozoa</title>
<id>3416</id>
<revision>
<id>41823817</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T23:54:44Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Gdr</username>
<id>55814</id>
</contributor>
<comment>use Haeckel picture in taxobox to show the variety of forms, but keep old picture</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Taxobox | color = pink
| name = Bryozoa
| image = Haeckel Bryozoa.jpg
| image_width = 240px
| image_caption = "Bryozoa", from [[Ernst Haeckel]]'s ''Artforms of Nature'', 1904
| regnum = [[Animal]]ia
| superphylum = [[Lophotrochozoa]]
| phylum = '''Bryozoa'''
| subdivision_ranks = Classes
| subdivision = [[Stenolaemata]]<br/>[[Gymnolaemata]]<br/>[[Phylactlaemata]]
}}
'''Bryozoans''' are tiny colonial animals that generally build stony [[skeleton]]s of [[calcium carbonate]], superficially similar to [[coral]]. They are also known as '''moss animals''' or '''sea mats'''. They generally prefer warm, tropical waters but are known to occur worldwide. There are about 5,000 living [[species]], with several times that number of fossil forms known.
Most species of Bryozoan live in marine environments, though there are about 50 species which inhabit freshwater. In their aquatic habitats, bryozoans may be found on all types of hard substrates: [[sand]] grains, rocks, shells, [[wood]], blades of [[kelp]], pipes and ships may be heavily encrusted with bryozoans. Some bryozoan colonies, however, do not grow on solid substrates, but form colonies on [[sediment]]. While some species have been found at depths of 8,200 meters, most bryozoans inhabit much shallower water. Most bryozoans are sessile and immobile, but a few colonies are able to creep about, and a few species of non-colonial bryozoans live and move about in the spaces between sand grains. One remarkable species makes its living while floating in the [[Antarctic]] (Great Southern) Ocean. Several Bryozoan species can be found in the Mid West Section of the United States. Especially in Ohio, Indiana, and Kentucky which used to be a part of a large ocean.
Bryozoans are also colony-forming animals. A few to many millions of individuals may form one colony. The colonies range from millimeters to meters in size, but the individuals that make up the colonies are tiny, usually less than a millimeter long. In each colony, different individuals assume different functions. Some individuals gather up the food for the colony (autozooids), others depend on them (heterozooids). Some individuals are devoted to strengthening the colony (kenozooids), and still others to cleaning the colony (vibracula). There is only a single known solitary species, ''Monobryozoon ambulans'', which does not form colonies.
==Anatomy==
[[Image:Costazia_costazi.jpg|thumb|240px|''Costazia costazi'', a [[coralline]] bryozoan]]
Bryozoans skeletons grow in a variety of shapes and patterns: mound-shaped, lacy fans, branching twigs, and even cork screw-shaped. Their [[skeleton]]s have numerous tiny openings, each of which is the home of a minute animal called a ''zooid''. They also have a [[body cavity| coelomate]] body with a "blind-ended" gut. This "gut" is a pouch-like intestinal sack where the same opening forms both the [[mouth]] and [[anus]]. They feed with a specialized, [[cilia]]ted structure called a [[lophophore]] that is attached to [[tentacle]]s surrounding the mouth. Their diet consists of small microorganisms, including [[diatom]]s and other unicellular [[algae]]. In turn, bryozoans are preyed on by grazing organisms such as [[sea urchin]]s and [[fish]]. Bryozoans do not have any defined respiratory, circulatory or [[nerve]] systems due to their small size. However, they do have a hydrostatic skeletal system.
The tentacles of the bryozoans are ciliated, and the beating of the [[cilia]] creates a powerful current of water which drives water together with entrained food particles (mainly phytoplankton) towards the mouth. The gut is U-shaped, ending in the anus which opens outside the [[lophophore]]. Gut and lophophore are the principal components of the [[polypide]]. Cyclical degeneration and regeneration of the polypide is characteristic of marine bryozoans. After the final polypide degeneration, the skeletal aperture of the feeding zooid may become sealed by the secretion of a terminal [[diaphragm]]. In many bryozoans only the zooids within a few generations of the growing edge are in an actively feeding state; older, more proximal zooids (e.g. in the interiors of bushy colonies) are usually dormant.
Because of their small size, Bryozoans have no need of a [[blood]] system. Gaseous exchange occurs across the entire surface of the body, but particularly through the tentacles of the lophophore.
Bryozoans can reproduce both sexually and asexually. All Bryozoans, as far as is known, are [[hermaphrodite]] (meaning they are both male and female). [[Asexual reproduction]] occurs by budding off new zooids as the colony grows, and is the main way by which a colony expands in size. If a piece of a bryozoan colony breaks off, the piece can continue to grow and will form a new colony. A colony formed this way is composed entirely of [[Cloning|clones]] (genetically identical individuals) of the first animal, which is called the ''ancestrula''.
One species of bryozoan, ''Bugula neritina'', is of current interest as a source of [[cytotoxicity|cytotoxic]] chemicals, [[bryostatin]]s, under clinical investigation as anti-cancer agents.
==Fossils==
[[Image:Bryozoa 8679.jpg|thumb|Fossilized Bryozoa, Ordovician limestone, Batavia, Ohio]]
[[Fossil]] bryozoans are found in rocks beginning in the [[Ordovician]]. During the [[Mississippian]] (354 to 323 million years ago) bryozoans were so common that their broken skeletons form entire [[limestone]] beds. The Bryozoa are one of the few classical phyla from which no members have been found in the [[Cambrian]]. The oldest known fossil bryozoans, including representatives of both major marine groups, the [[Stenolaemata]] (tubular bryozoans) and [[Gymnolaemata]] (boxlike bryozoans), appear in the Early [[Ordovician]]. It is plausible that the Bryozoa existed in the [[Cambrian]] but were soft-bodied or not preserved for some other reason; perhaps they evolved from a [[phoronid]]-like ancestor at about this time.
==Classification==
The Bryozoans were formerly considered to contain two subgroups: the [[Ectoprocta]] and the [[Entoprocta]], based on the similar bodyplans and mode of life of these two groups. (Some researchers also included the [[Cycliophora]], which are thought to be closely related to the Entoprocta.) However, the Ectoprocta are coelemate (possessing a [[body cavity]]) and their embryos undergo [[radial cleavage]] and the Entoprocta are acoelemate and undergo [[spiral cleavage]]. Molecular studies are ambiguous about the exact position of the Entoprocta, but do not support a close relationship with the Ectoprocta. For these reasons, the Entoprocta are now considered a phylum of their own.{{ref|Valentine}} The removal of the 150 species of Entoprocta leaves Bryozoa synonymous with Ectoprocta; some authors have adopted the latter name for the group, but the majority continue to use the former.
==References==
* {{note|Valentine}} {{cite book|author = James W. Valentine|title = On the origins of phyla|year = 2004|publisher = University of Chicago Press}}
==External links==
*[http://www.sms.si.edu/irlspec/IntroBryozoa.htm Bryozoan Introduction]
*[http://www.earthlife.net/inverts/bryozoa.html The Phylum Ectoprocta (Bryozoa)]
*[http://www.civgeo.rmit.edu.au/bryozoa/indexes.html Index to Bryozoa] at RMIT University, Australia
*[http://species.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bryozoa Phylum Bryozoa ] at Wikispecies
*[http://www.bio.umass.edu/biology/conn.river/bryozoa.html Bryozoans] in the [[Connecticut River]]
*[http://www.civgeo.rmit.edu.au/bryozoa/links.html Other Bryozoan WWW Resources]
[[Category:Bryozoa]]
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<page>
<title>Biennial plant</title>
<id>3417</id>
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<timestamp>2006-02-26T21:32:55Z</timestamp>
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<username>Fastfission</username>
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<comment>add an image</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Parsley Curled.jpg|right|thumb|200px|[[Parsley]] is an example of a biennial plant.]]
A '''Biennial plant''' is a [[plant]] that takes between twelve and twenty-four m |
s eventually quenched.
Following the [[France|French]] emperor [[Napoleon I]]'s defeat of Prussia, a Polish state was again set up in 1807 under French tutelage as the [[Duchy of Warsaw]]. Upon Austria's defeat in 1809, Lodomeria was added, giving the new state a population of some 3.75 million, a quarter of that of the former commonwealth. Polish nationalists were to remain among the staunchest allies of the French as the tide of war turned against them, inaugurating a relationship that continued into the [[twentieth century]].
With Napoleon's defeat, the [[Congress of Vienna]] in 1815 converted most of the grand duchy into a [[Congress Poland|Kingdom of Poland]] ruled by the Russian [[Tsar]]. Several national uprisings were bloodily subdued by the partitioning powers. However, Polish patriotism and their striving to regain independence could not be extinguished by them. The opportunity for freedom appeared only after [[World War I]] when the oppressing states were defeated or weakened.
==Independence Regained (1918-1939)==
{{mainarticles|[[History of Poland (1918-1939)]] and [[Second Polish Republic]]}}
The upcoming [[World War I]] and the political turbulence that was sweeping throughout Europe in 1914 offered the Polish nation hopes for regaining independence. By the end of World War I, Poland had seen the defeat or retreat of all three occupying powers.
Polish independence was eventually proclaimed on [[November 3]], [[1918]] and later confirmed by the [[Treaty of Versailles]] in 1919; the same treaty also gave Poland some German and Austrian territories (see [[Polish Corridor]]). Polish independence has boosted the development of culture and economy; however, the new Polish state had had only 20 years of relative stability and uneasy peace before Poland's aggressive neighbours tried to wipe her from the map of Europe again.
==World War II in Poland (1939-1945)==
{{mainarticles|[[History of Poland (1939-1945)]], [[Polish government in exile]] and [[Polish Secret State]]}}
On August 23, 1939, [[Germany]] and the [[Soviet Union]] signed the [[Ribbentrop-Molotov pact|Ribbentrop&ndash;Molotov]] non-aggression pact, which secretly provided for the dismemberment of Poland into [[Nazi]] and Soviet-controlled zones. On [[September 1]], [[1939]], [[Hitler]] ordered his troops into Poland. On [[September 17]], Soviet troops invaded and then occupied most of the areas of eastern Poland having significant [[Ukrainians|Ukrainian]] and [[Belarusians|Belarusian]] populations under the terms of this agreement. After Germany invaded the Soviet Union in June 1941, Poland was completely occupied by German troops.
The Poles formed an underground resistance movement and a [[Polish government in exile, 1939&ndash;1990|government in exile]], first in [[Paris]] and later in [[London]], which was recognized by the Soviet Union. During [[World War II]], 400,000 Poles fought under Soviet command, and 200,000 went into combat on Western fronts in units loyal to the Polish government in exile. Many Polish refugee camps were set up, including one in Valdivadé, near [[Kolhapur]] in [[India]]. The camp numbered about 5000, and the Polish embassy in exile had its office in [[Bombay]]. The camp existed from 1943 to 1948.
In April 1943, the Soviet Union broke relations with the Polish government in exile after the German military announced that they had discovered mass graves of murdered Polish army officers at [[Katyń massacre|Katyń]], in the USSR (the Soviets claimed that the Poles had insulted them by requesting that the [[Red Cross]] investigate these reports.) In July 1944, the Soviet [[Red Army]] entered Poland, defeated Germans (600.000 Soviet soldiers died in fights) and established a communist-controlled "Polish Committee of National Liberation" at [[Lublin]].
Resistance against the Nazis in [[Warsaw]], including [[Warsaw Ghetto Uprising|uprising by Jews]] in the [[Warsaw Ghetto]] and the [[Warsaw Uprising]] by the [[Armia Krajowa|Polish underground]], was brutally suppressed. As the Germans retreated in January 1945, they leveled the city.
During the war, about 6 million Polish citizens were killed by Germans, and 2.5 million were deported to Germany for forced labor. In 1941-1943 Ukrainian nationalists (OUN and Ukrainian Insurgent Army) massacred more than 100.000 Poles in Galicia and Volhynia. About 3 million Jews (all but about 300,000–500,000 of the Jewish population) died of starvation in [[ghettos]] and [[labor camp]]s or were killed in [[extermination camp]]s of Oświęcim ([[Auschwitz concentration camp|Auschwitz II]]), [[Treblinka extermination camp|Treblinka]], [[Majdanek]], [[Belzec]], [[Sobibór]], [[Chełmno extermination camp|Chełmno]], [[List of Polish Martyrology sites]].
About 1.5–2 million Polish citizens were deported to the [[Soviet Union]], many of them to [[concentration camp]]s and [[labor camp]]s ([[Gulag]]).
The Soviet government insisted on retaining the territories captured in the course of the [[Nazi-Soviet pact]] (now western [[Ukraine]] and western [[Belarus]]), compensating Poland with one fifth of Germany in its extension of 1937 ("[[Regained Territories]]"). About 8 million Germans were forcefully expelled. As a consequence, more than 1.2 million Germans died or were killed, many of them in 1.255 Polish labor camps (Lambinowice).
==People's Republic of Poland (1945-1989)==
{{mainarticle|[[History of Poland (1945-1989)]], [[People's Republic of Poland]]}}
Following the [[Yalta Conference]] in February 1945, a ''Polish Provisional Government of National Unity'' was formed in June 1945; the [[United States|US]] recognized it the next month. Although the Yalta agreement called for free elections, those held in January 1947 were controlled by the [[PZPR|Communist Party]]. The [[communist]]s then established a regime entirely under their domination.
In October 1956, after the [[Twentieth Party Congress|20th Soviet Party Congress]] at [[Moscow]] ushered in [[destalinization]] and riots by workers in [[Poznań]], there was a shakeup in the communist regime. While retaining most traditional communist economic and social aims, the regime of First Secretary [[Władysław Gomułka]] liberalized Polish internal life.
In 1968, the trend reversed when student demonstrations were suppressed and an [[anti-Zionism|anti-Zionist]] campaign initially directed against Gomułka supporters within the party eventually led to the emigration of much of Poland's remaining Jewish population. In December 1970, disturbances and strikes in the port cities of [[Gdańsk]], [[Gdynia]], and [[Szczecin]], triggered by a price increase for essential consumer goods, reflected deep dissatisfaction with living and working conditions in the country. [[Edward Gierek]] replaced Gomułka as First Secretary.
Fueled by large infusions of Western credit, Poland's economic growth rate was one of the world's highest during the first half of the 1970s. But much of the borrowed capital was misspent, and the centrally [[planned economy]] was unable to use the new resources effectively. The growing debt burden became insupportable in the late 1970s, and economic growth had become negative by 1979.
In October 1978, the Bishop of Kraków, Cardinal Karol Józef Wojtyła, became [[Pope]] [[Pope John Paul II|John Paul II]], head of the [[Roman Catholic Church]]. Polish Catholics rejoiced at the elevation of a Pole to the papacy and greeted his June 1979 visit to Poland with an outpouring of emotion.
On [[July 1]], [[1980]], with the Polish foreign debt at more than $20 billion, the government made another attempt to increase meat prices. A chain reaction of strikes virtually paralyzed the Baltic coast by the end of August and, for the first time, closed most coal mines in [[Silesia]]. Poland was entering into an extended crisis that would change the course of its future development.
On [[31 August]], [[1980]], workers at the Lenin Shipyard in [[Gdańsk]], led by an electrician named [[Lech Wałęsa]], signed a 21-point agreement with the government that ended their strike. Similar agreements were signed at [[Szczecin]] and in [[Silesia]]. The key provision of these agreements was the guarantee of the workers’ right to form independent [[trade union]]s and the right to strike. After the Gdańsk agreement was signed, a new national union movement "[[Solidarity]]" swept Poland.
The discontent underlying the strikes was intensified by revelations of widespread corruption and mismanagement within the Polish state and party leadership. In September 1980, Gierek was replaced by [[Stanisław Kania]] as First Secretary.
Alarmed by the rapid deterioration of the PZPR's authority following the Gdańsk agreement, the Soviet Union proceeded with a massive military buildup along Poland's border in December 1980. In February 1981, Defense Minister Gen. [[Wojciech Jaruzelski]] assumed the position of Prime Minister as well, and in October 1981, he also was named party First Secretary. At the first Solidarity national congress in September–October 1981, Lech Wałęsa was elected national chairman of the union.
===Martial law===
On [[December 12]]–[[December 13|13]], the regime declared [[martial law]], under which the army and [[ZOMO]] riot police were used to crush the union. Virtually all Solidarity leaders and many affiliated intellectuals were arrested or detained. The United States and other Western countries responded to martial law by imposing economic sanctions against the Polish regime and against the Soviet Union. Unrest in Poland continued for several years thereafter.
In a series of slow, uneven steps, the Polish regime rescinded martial law. In December 1982, martial law was suspended, and a small number of political prisoners were released. Although martial law formally ended in July 1983 and a general amnesty was enacted, several hundred political prisoners remained in jail.
In July 1984, another gen |
lleged Bigfoot tracks found near [[Bossburg, Washington]], in 1969 appeared to show that the creature's right foot was affected by [[clubfoot]]. The deformed footprints are consistent with genuine disfigurement, and some argue that a hoax is unlikely. John Napier wrote of this case, "It is very difficult to conceive of a hoaxer so subtle, so knowledgeable; and so sick; who would deliberately fake a footprint of this nature. I suppose it is possible, but it is so unlikely that I am prepared to discount it" [http://www.rfthomas.clara.net/papers/cripplefoot.html]. Krantz declared that "analysis of the apparent anatomy of these tracks proved to be the first convincing evidence... that the animals were real" (Krantz, 54).
====Handprints====
As another argument offered for the existence of Bigfoot, Krantz cited two alleged Sasquatch handprints taken from northeastern Washington in the summer of 1970. He claims the prints were of a left hand, showing a very broad, flat palm (more than twice as broad as Krantz' own larger-than-average hands) with stubby fingers, lacking an [[opposable thumb]]. Krantz writes that the prints have "many irregularities ... which cannot be identified in terms of human anatomy" (Sprague and Krantz, 118).
Another pair of alleged handprints was recovered in the late 1980s by [[Paul Freeman (cryptozoologist)|Paul Freeman]] and given to Krantz for analysis; for similar reasons, Krantz judged them genuine (Krantz, 47-51).
====Fingerprints====
Several alleged Bigfoot hand and foot impressions said to contain dermal ridges ([[fingerprint]]s) have been discovered; fingerprints are present only on humans and other primates.
Krantz reports that he offered casts of these prints to "more than forty" law enforcement fingerprint specialists across Canada and the United States for study. The reactions that he received ranged from "'very interesting' and 'they sure look real' to 'there is no doubt these are real.' The only exception was the [[Federal Bureau of Investigation]] expert who had said something to this effect, 'The implications of this are just too much; I can't believe it's real'" (Krantz, 71).
Krantz offered these same casts to [[Physical anthropology|physical anthropologists]] and [[primatologist]]s. Conclusions were similarly varied, with several ruling them hoaxes. [[Tim White (anthropologist)|Tim White]], unlike most respondents, said there was "no good reason to reject them" (ibid). Opinion remains divided, however, with suggestions that the man who allegedly discovered the prints had confessed to other hoaxes [http://www.n2.net/prey/bigfoot/articles/skeptical.htm].
One of the casts with visible fingerprints showed what Krantz took to be [[sweat]] pores. Krantz reports that "police expert Benny Kling ... commented that anyone who could engrave ridge detail of such quantity and quality should be making [[counterfeit]] money" (Krantz, 77). This same print showed [[dysplasia]], a common minor irregularity. Krantz writes, "The late Robert Olson was particularly impressed with this irregularity, as was Ed Palma of the [[San Diego]] Police Department" (ibid).
====Body cast====
The so-called [[Skookum Body Cast]] was collected in the summer of 2000, and researchers argue that it could be the impression of a Sasquatch. Prominent primate expert [[Daris Swindler]] said, "In my opinion the impression is not made by a [[deer]], a bear or an [[Red Deer|elk]] nor was it made artificially. The Skookum body cast is that of an unknown hominoid primate".
====Hair and feces====
In ''Analysis of Feces and Hair Suspected to be of Sasquatch Origin'', anthropologist Vaughn M. Bryant Jr. and ecologist Burleigh Trevor-Deutch report the analysis of six alleged Bigfoot hairs recovered near [[Riggins, Idaho]]. Roy Pinker, a police science instructor at [[California State University, Los Angeles]] offered his opinion that "the hairs did not match specimens from any known animal species and that they had some characteristics common to both humans and nonhumans" (Halpin and Ames, 296). Note, though, that this analysis did not involve [[DNA testing]].
===Problems with physical evidence===
'''Absence of fossil evidence''':
Critics think it significant that the [[fossil]] record provides no support for Sasquatch. There is ample fossil evidence in North America of prehistoric species of bear, [[cougar]], [[moose]] and [[mammoth]]. Yet, aside from clearly human remains, there is no evidence of a prehistoric hominid or any other North American primate. A skeleton, or even a bone of a huge primate, if discovered, could not be mistaken as coming from any other North American mammal. No one has found [[coproliths]] (fossilized dung) from a Bigfoot.
Bigfoot researchers argue that the absence of fossilized evidence is not evidence of fossil absence. Sasquatch is not represented in the fossil record, but neither are [[gorilla]]s nor [[chimpanzee]]s. Coleman and Patrick Huyghe note that "no one will look for such fossils, if the creatures involved are not thought to exist in the first place. But even with recognized [[primate]]s, fossil finds are usually meager at best" (Coleman and Huyhge, 162). However, it is worth noting that gorillas, chimpanzees and most other primates, live in tropical rainforests where conditions are unsuitable to create fossils, and in areas where few or no archeological studies were undertaken. In contrast, there are thousands of known remains of native American mammals and humans.
As to the lack of Bigfoot remains, Krantz suggested that this alone is not a valid argument against the creature's actuality. Noting that most animals hide before they die and are then quickly lost to [[scavenger]]s, he writes, "I have yet to meet anyone who has found the remains of a bear that was not killed by human activity." (Krantz, 10) Fossilization also requires "ideal" conditions, such as being covered by a landslide, mudslide, or other deposit soon after death so that mineralization can take place on an undisturbed carcass.
'''Inconclusive analysis''':
Most scientists find that the physical evidence, cited as supporting the existence of Bigfoot, has been ambiguous at best, or hoaxes at worst. There have been no dead bodies, bones or artifacts. There have been reported samples of fur and feces, but aside from the hair analysis by Dr. Rosen, none have been ruled conclusively (or by multiple authorities) as originating from any unknown animal. Some reputed Bigfoot samples, studied using DNA testing, were judged to have come from common animals; one such case earned press attention in mid-2005, but the alleged Bigfoot hairs were ruled by [[University of Alberta]] geneticist David Coltman to have come from a [[bison]], as related in this [[MSNBC]] story. [http://msnbc.msn.com/id/8704462] Other hair samples did not contain the hair follicle, so no DNA analysis was possible.
===Audio and visual evidence===
'''Audio''':
Analyses of purported Sasquatch vocalizations have been recorded and analyzed, leading [[bioacoustics]] expert Dr. Robert Benson of [[Texas A&M University]] to report that some recordings "left him puzzled", and helped change his opinion "from being a raving skeptic to being curiously receptive" [http://www.usatoday.com/news/nation/2002-10-31-bigfoot-cover_x.htm].
'''Visual''':
On October 20, 1967, Roger Patterson and Robert Gimlin captured a hairy, bipedal Bigfoot-type figure on film. There is much debate as to whether the creature in the [[Patterson-Gimlin film]] is genuine. Krantz was in the minority in his conviction that the film was proof of Bigfoot's existence. He argued that you could not have a man in an ape suit unless "you broke his arms and placed a new hinge in them". He claimed the human body was not built that way and it would be physically impossible to "fake" a film like this. Pyle, while not endorsing the film as authentic, wrote that it "has never been convincingly debunked" (Pyle, 208).
The Patterson-Gimlin film shows a creature that is definitely not a bear, and this film was for a long time considered the strongest evidence for Bigfoot. However, Wallace claimed to have been involved in hoaxing the film, and opinions remain divided as to the film's authenticity. Many experts have judged it as a hoax, Napier among them. In late 2005 the film was stabilized to make the action clearer. It can be seen [http://www.bigfootencounters.com/files/mk_davis_pgf.gif here], and some say it clearly shows the action of a man walking. See [[Patterson-Gimlin film]] for further information.
===Problems with audio and visual evidence===
Critics note that most audio and/or visual evidence is often of poor quality, making analyses troublesome or even worthless.
===Psychological explanations===
Arguing against the existence of Bigfoot, anthropologist David Daegling suggests that Sasquatch fills a basic human need for mysteries and monsters.
===Hoaxes===
The fact that many Bigfoot sightings have been proven to be hoaxes suggests to some that others may also have been. For example, Jerome Clark argues that the "Jacko" affair, involving an 1884 newspaper report of an ape-like creature captured in British Columbia (details below), was a hoax. Citing research by John Green, who uncovered the fact that several other contemporary British Columbia newspapers regarded the alleged capture as most dubious, Clark notes that the [[New Westminster, British Columbia]] ''Mainland Guardian'' wrote, "Absurdity is written on the face of it" (Clark, 195).
Wallace claimed to have produced a substantial amount of hoaxed evidence from 1958 onward in a prank that continued beyond his expectations. Wallace's family published many of the details following his death in 2002, and critics have offered this |
e southern tip of [[Euboea]], was forced to join the League by military actions of the Athenians. The justification for this was that Carystus was enjoying the advantages of the League (protection from pirates and the Persians) without taking on any of the responsibilities. Furthermore, Carystus was a traditional base for Persian occupations. Athenian politicians had to justify these acts to Athenian voters in order to get votes. [[Naxos, Greece|Naxos]], a member of the Delian League, attempted to secede, and was enslaved; Naxos is believed to have been forced to tear down her walls, lost her fleet, and her vote in the League.
[[Thucydides]] tells us that this is how Athens' control over the League grew.
<blockquote>
Of all the causes of defection, that connected with arrears of tribute and vessels, and with failure of service, was the chief; for the Athenians were very severe and exacting, and made themselves offensive by applying the screw of necessity to men who were not used to and in fact not disposed for any continuous labor. In some other respects the Athenians were not the old popular rulers they had been at first; and if they had more than their fair share of service, it was correspondingly easy for them to reduce any that tried to leave the confederacy. The Athenians also arranged for the other members of the league to pay its share of the expense in money instead of in ships and men, and for this the subject city-states had themselves to blame, their wish to get out of giving service making most leave their homes. Thus while Athens was increasing her navy with the funds they contributed, a revolt always found itself without enough resources or experienced leaders for war. [Thucydides i. 99]
</blockquote>
In [[454 BC]], Athens moved the treasury of the Delian League from Delos to Athens, allegedly to keep it safe from Persia. However, [[Plutarch]] indicates that many of [[Pericles]]' rivals viewed the transfer as Athens usurping monetary resources to fund elaborate building projects. They also switched from accepting ships, men and weapons, to only accepting money. The new treasury established in Athens was used for many purposes, not all relating to the defense of members of the league. It was from tribute paid to the league that Athenians built the [[Acropolis]] and the [[Parthenon]], as well as many other non-defense related expenditures. It was during this time that some claim that the [[Athenian Empire]] arose, as the technical definition of ''empire'' is a group of cities paying taxes to a central, dominant city, while keeping local governments intact. This is what was happening in the Delian League. It was turning from an alliance to an empire.
In [[461 BC]], Cimon was [[ostracism|ostracized]], and was succeeded in his influence by democrats like [[Ephialtes]] and [[Pericles]]. This signaled a complete change in Athenian foreign policy, neglecting the alliance with the [[Sparta]]ns and instead allying with her enemies, [[Argos]] and [[Thessaly]]. [[Megara]] deserted the Peloponnesian league and allied herself with Athens, allowing construction of a double line of walls across the isthmus of [[Corinth]], protecting Athens from attack from that quarter. Around the same time they also constructed the [[Long Walls]] connecting their city to the [[Piraeus]], its port, making it effectively invulnerable to attack by land.
Soon war with the Peloponnesians broke out. In [[458 BC]], the Athenians blockaded the island of [[Aegina]], and simultaneously defended Megara from the Corinthians by sending out an army composed of those too young or old for regular military service. The next year [[Sparta]] sent an army into [[Boeotia]], reviving the power of [[Thebes (Greece)|Thebes]] to help hold the Athenians in check. Their return was blocked, and they resolved to march on Athens, where the Long Walls were not yet completed, winning a victory at the [[Battle of Tanagra (457 BC)|Battle of Tanagra]]. All this accomplished, however, was to allow them to return home via the Megarid. Two months later, the Athenians under [[Myronides]] invaded [[Boeotia]], and winning the [[battle of Oenophyta]] gained control of the whole country except Thebes.
War with the Persians continued, however. In [[460 BC]], [[Egypt]] had revolted under [[Inarus]] and [[Amyrtaeus]], who requested aid from Athens. [[Pericles]] led 200 ships, originally intended to attack [[Cyprus]], to their aid because it would hurt Persia. Persia's image had already been hurt when it failed to conquer the [[Greeks]] and [[Pericles]] wanted to further this. After four years, however, the rebellion was defeated by the general [[Megabyzus]], who captured the greater part of the Athenian forces. The remainder escaped to [[Cyrene, Libya|Cyrene]] and thence returned home.
This was Athenians' main (public) reason for moving the treasury of the League from Delos to Athens, further consolidating their control over the League. The Persians followed up their victory by sending a fleet to re-establish their control over [[Cyprus]], and 200 ships were sent out to counter them under [[Cimon]], who returned from ostracism in [[451 BC]]. He died during the blockade of [[Citium]], though the fleet won a double victory by land and sea over the Persians off [[Salamis, Cyprus|Salamis]].
This battle was the last major one fought against the Persians. Many writers report that a formal peace treaty, known as the [[Peace of Callias]], was formalized in [[450 BC]], but some writers believe that the treaty was a myth created later to inflate the stature of Athens. However, an understanding was definitely reached, enabling the Athenians to focus their attention on events in Greece proper.
The peace with Persia, however, was followed by further reverses. The [[battle of Coronea (447 BC)|Battle of Coronea]], in [[447 BC]], led to the abandonment of Boeotia. [[Euboea]] and [[Megara]] both revolted, and while the former was restored to its status as a tributary ally, the latter was a permanent loss. The Delian and Peloponnesian Leagues signed a peace treaty, which was set to endure for thirty years. It only lasted until [[431 BC]], when the [[Peloponnesian War]] broke out.
Those who revolted unsuccessfully during the war saw the example made of the [[Mytilene|Mytilenians]], the principal people on Lesbos. After an unsuccessful revolt, the Athenians ordered the death of the entire male population. After some thought, they rescinded this order, and only put to death the leading 1000 ringleaders of the revolt, and redistributed the land of the entire island to Athenian shareholders, who were sent out to reside on Lesbos.
This type of treatment was not reserved solely for those who revolted. [[Thucydides]] documents the example of [[Melos]], a small island, neutral in the war, though originally founded by Spartans. The Melians were offered a choice to join the Athenians, or be conquered. Choosing to resist, their town was besieged and conquered; the males were put to death, and the women sold into slavery (see [[Melian dialogue]]).
The Delian League was never formally turned into the Athenian Empire; but by the start of the [[Peloponnesian War]], only [[Chios]] and Lesbos were left to contribute ships, and these states were by now far too weak to secede without support. Lesbos tried to revolt first, and failed completely. Chios, the greatest and most powerful of the original members of the Delian League (save Athens), was the last to revolt, and in the aftermath of the [[Syracusan Expedition]] enjoyed a success of several years, inspiring all of Ionia to revolt. Athens was, however, still able to eventually suppress these revolts.
The Athenian Empire was very stable, and only 27 years of war, aided by the Persians and internal strife, were able to defeat it. The Athenian Empire did not stay defeated for long. The [[Second Athenian Empire]], a maritime self-defense league, was founded in [[377 BC]] and was led by Athens; but Athens would never recover the full extent of her power, and her enemies were now far stronger and more varied.
==See also==
*[[Athenian democracy]]
*[[Hellenic civilization]]
*[[Peloponnesian War]]
*[[Delian League (Band)]]
==External links==
*[http://www.livius.org Livius], [http://www.livius.org/de-dh/delian_league/delian_league.html Delian League] by Jona Lendering
[[Category:Ancient Greece]]
[[Category:History of Athens]]
[[Category:Military alliances]]
[[de:Attischer Seebund]]
[[fr:Impérialisme athénien]]
[[he:הליגה האטית-דלית]]
[[nl:Delische Bond]]
[[ja:デロス同盟]]
[[pl:Ateński Związek Morski]]
[[sv:attiska sjöförbundet]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>August Horch</title>
<id>2038</id>
<revision>
<id>38963211</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-09T20:36:36Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Gaius Cornelius</username>
<id>293907</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>[[WP:AWB|AWB assisted]] clean up + typo fix</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''August Horch''' ([[October 12]], [[1868]] - [[February 3]], [[1951]]) was a German engineer and automobile pioneer, he founded the manufacturing firm that would become [[Audi]].
[[Image:Gedenktafel horch ehrenfeld.jpg|thumb|Memorial plate in [[Cologne, Germany]].]]
He was born in [[Winningen]], [[Moselle]]. He was educated in Mittweida.
He worked for [[Karl Benz]] from [[1896]] before founding ''A. [[Horch]] & Cie'' in November [[1899]] in Ehrenfeld, [[Cologne, Germany]]. The first Horch automobile was built in 1901. The company moved to Reichenbach in [[1902]] and [[Zwickau]] in [[1904]]. Horch left the company in 1909 after a dispute and set up in competition in Zwickau. His new firm was initially called ''Horch Automobil-Werke GmbH'', but following a legal dispute over the ''Horch'' name he was oblidged to change the company name. (The court decided that '' |
with his regimental team. On his return he was offered a full-time contract by the Chesterfield manager, [[Ted Davison]].
He reached the two-legged [[FA Youth Cup]] final with Chesterfield in [[1956]], losing 4-3 on aggregate to the [[Manchester United F.C.|Manchester United]] team of the famous ''[[Matt Busby|Busby Babes]]''. He made his debut for the first team at home in November 1958 against Colchester United in the newly formed Third Division. He played just 23 games for the club before First Division [[Leicester City F.C.|Leicester City]] offered Chesterfield 7,000 [[Pound sterling|pound]]s in the summer of [[1959]].
Banks' career started to rise rapidly from hereon in. After 4 games for the reserves, he replaced the injured Dave McLaren for his Leicester City debut in a 1-1 draw against Blackpool on the 9th September 1959 and retained his place for the 2-0 defeat against Newcastle 3 days later. With McLaren fit again, Banks was sent back to the reserves but, after the first team conceded 14 goals in the next 5 games, he was recalled and became the first-choice goalie for the remainder of the season.
In [[1961]], Leicester City beat Sheffield United to reach the [[FA Cup]] final at [[Wembley Stadium|Wembley]], the first of three they would manage that [[decade]]. Their opponents were [[Tottenham Hotspur F.C.|Tottenham Hotspur]], who were a cut above everyone else having won the [[Football League First Division|First Division]] title with ease and style. Banks played well, but with the right back Len Chalmers carrying an injury, was powerless to prevent second half goals from [[Bobby Smith]] and [[Terry Dyson]] giving Spurs a 2-0 win and the first "double" of the 20th century.
At the time, [[Ron Springett]] was the goalkeeper for England, but after the [[Football World Cup 1962|1962 World Cup]] in [[Chile]], a new coach was appointed in former England right back [[Alf Ramsey]]. Ramsey demanded sole control of team and began looking towards the next World Cup. He knew that he just needed to find a squad for the final stages as England were hosting the event and didn't need to undergo a qualifying campaign. In goal, Banks was checked out by Ramsey for the first time in April [[1963]] against [[Scotland national football team|Scotland]] at Wembley. Though England lost 2-1, Banks gained plaudits and Ramsey was pleased with him. He played in 13 of the next 15 internationals, including a 1-1 draw against Brazil.
Meanwhile, a month after his international bow, Banks was back at Wembley with Leicester for another FA Cup final, this time against Manchester United. United were looking for their first trophy since the [[Munich air disaster]] of five years earlier which had claimed the lives of eight of the ''Busby Babes'' whom Banks had faced as an [[adolescent]]. Banks failed to hold a [[Bobby Charlton]] shot from distance which gifted a chance to [[David Herd (footballer)|David Herd]] and afterwards it went from bad to worse for England's newest keeper, when [[Denis Law]] wrongfooted Banks with a smart shot on the turn to put United 2-0 ahead. After Leicester had pulled one back through a diving header from [[Ken Keyworth]], Banks leapt high in the air to claim a high cross from [[Johnny Giles]], only to drop the ball at Herd's feet. Herd scored his second to conclude a 3-1 win.
In [[1964]], Banks had some domestic success when Leicester beat [[Stoke City F.C.|Stoke City]] 4-3 in the [[League Cup]] final over two legs, though they lost the trophy a year later after a 3-2 defeat by [[Chelsea F.C.|Chelsea]] on [[aggregate]] in the final.
==The 1966 World Cup==
By [[1965]], Banks was indisputably the first-choice England goalkeeper. He was settling into the form of his life which would last for the next seven years; agile and alert, he was frequently seen making amazing reflex saves and possessed flawless positional sense and reading of attackers' movements and instincts.
His place in the starting line-up was secure as the World Cup approached; that said, one of his most famous stories tells of how he casually said ''"See you Alf!"'' to his England boss after one get-together ended, only for Ramsey to reply ''"Will you?"''
When the World Cup began, Banks was in goal as England got through their group containing [[Uruguay national football team|Uruguay]], [[Mexico national football team|Mexico]] and [[France national football team|France]], drawing 0-0 with the former and clinching 2-0 victories over the latter. Banks wasn't greatly tested, but it was hugely encouraging that he emerged from the group with three clean sheets from three games, a trend which continued when England beat a thuggish [[Argentina national football team|Argentina]] side 1-0 in the last eight, with [[Geoff Hurst]] scoring with a header.
Bobby Charlton scored twice in the semi final against [[Portugal national football team|Portugal]] before a late penalty was conceded by [[Jack Charlton]] handling the ball. Banks was finally beaten after 443 minutes when [[Eusebio]] put away the spot kick to his right. That said, England had won 2-1 and were in the final, where [[Germany national football team|West Germany]] awaited.
It was England who dominated the final but it was Banks who was beaten first. A weak header from [[Ray Wilson (footballer)|Ray Wilson]] handed a chance to [[Helmut Haller]] whose shot wasn't fierce but was on target and needed dealing with. Banks thought Jack Charlton was going to clear; Charlton in turn thought Banks had it covered. Neither went for it as a result, and the ball crept in the corner. England equalised through a Geoff Hurst header within six minutes and went ahead late in the second half through [[Martin Peters]].
Banks had little to do during the second half but his known powers of concentration were required when Jack Charlton gave away a dubious free kick 30 yards from goal. Banks duly organised a defensive wall and got into position. [[Lothar Emmerich]] slammed the ball into the wall, the ball ricocheted across goal and Banks struggled to follow it across his six yard box, such was the speed and unpredictability of its movement as it took deflections and swipes. Ultimately German defender [[Wolfgang Weber]] reached it at the far post and swept it into the net with Banks diving in vain to get his palms to the ball. The final whistle went seconds later to send the game into extra time.
England took the lead in extra time with that hotly debated third goal from Hurst. Banks not troubled again until the final minute, when he saved a shot from Siggy Held and moments later could only watch as Uwe Seeler lunged for the ball and missed. Hurst then scored his hat-trick goal and the game was all over. Gordon Banks had 33 England caps and was a world champion. But his career at club level was shortly to take an interesting and unexpected turn.
==1966-1970==
Coming through the ranks at Leicester City was a young local goalkeeper called [[Peter Shilton]], who was given his debut as a 17-year-old in [[1966]]. It was clear that Shilton was something special, yet the man he had to displace was now regarded as the world's number one goalkeeper. When Shilton told Leicester he wouldn't sign a professional contract unless he was guaranteed first team football, Banks found himself available for transfer, just a year after winning the World Cup.
Banks joined Stoke City and maintained his England place, while Shilton lost in Leicester's third FA Cup final of the 1960s (the [[1969]] game against [[Manchester City F.C.|Manchester City]]) and began to make his name. Ramsey gave the odd chance to Chelsea keeper [[Peter Bonetti]], [[Everton F.C.|Everton]]'s [[Gordon West]] and Manchester United's [[Alex Stepney]], but when the big games came along, it was only Banks.
England reached the last four of the [[1968 European Football Championship|1968 European Championships]] where they lost to [[Yugoslavia national football team|Yugoslavia]] in [[Florence]]. A year later, Banks picked up his 50th cap as England defeated Scotland 4-1 at Wembley. He played in nine more internationals prior to the start of the 1970 World Cup in [[Mexico]], for which England once again had not needed to qualify, this time owing to their status as holders.
Banks, who discovered just after arriving in Mexico that he had been decorated with the [[Order of the British Empire|OBE]], played his 60th England game in the opening group victory over [[Romania national football team|Romania]] before taking to the field for the keenly-awaited clash with [[Brazil national football team|Brazil]]. After just ten minutes, Banks wrote himself into football folklore.
==The 1970 save against Pelé==
Playing at pace, Brazil were putting England under enormous pressure and an attack was begun by captain [[Carlos Alberto]] who sent a fizzing low ball down the right flank for the speedy [[Jairzinho]] to latch on to. The Brazilian winger sped past left back [[Terry Cooper]] and reached the byline. Stretching slightly, he managed to get his toes underneath the fast ball and deliver a high but dipping cross towards the far post. Banks, like all goalkeepers reliant on positional sensibility, had been at the near post and suddenly had to turn on his heels and follow the ball to its back post destination.
Waiting for the ball was [[Pelé]], who had arrived at speed and with perfect timing. He leapt hard at the ball above England right back [[Tommy Wright]] and thundered a harsh, pacy downward header towards Banks' near post corner. Banks was still making his way across the line from Jairzinho's cross and in the split-second of assessment the incident allowed, it seemed impossible for him to get to the ball. Yet he hurled himself downwards and backwards and got the base of his thumb to the ball, with the momentum sending him cascading to the ground. It was only when he heard the applause and praise of captain [[Bobby Moore]] and then looked up a |
30,000 feet (9 100 m) above Dover, glided over the Channel, and opened his parachute above Calais.
[[Image:RBAquada.jpg|thumbnail|150px|right|Sir Richard Branson, about to embark on his channel crossing in a floating car.]]
On [[14 June]] [[2004]], Sir [[Richard Branson]] broke the world record for crossing the Channel in an amphibious vehicle. The Gibbs [[Aquada]], a two-seater open-top sports car, in which he did it, broke the record by some 6 hours.
Other swimming crossings include: [[Vicki Keith]] (first butterfly swim crossing); [[Florence Chadwick]] (first woman to swim the Channel in both directions); [[Winnie Leuszler]] (first Canadian woman); [[Marilyn Bell]] (youngest person up to 1955); [[Amelia Gade Corson]] (first mother and second woman); [[Mercedes Gleitze]] (first Englishwoman, 7 October 1927); Comedian [[Doon Mackichan]] has also swum the channel.
==See also==
*[[:Category:Islands in English Channel]]
*[[Automatic]]
*[[Phoenix breakwaters]]
*[[Booze cruise]]
*[[English Canal]]
[[Category:Straits of Europe]]
[[Category:Seas of the Atlantic Ocean]]
[[Category:Geography of Europe]]
[[ca:Canal de la Mànega]]
[[cs:Lamanšský průliv]]
[[cy:Môr Udd]]
[[da:Engelske Kanal]]
[[de:Ärmelkanal]]
[[et:La Manche]]
[[es:Canal de la Mancha]]
[[eo:Manika Markolo]]
[[fr:Manche (mer)]]
[[fy:It Kanaal]]
[[gl:Canle da Mancha]]
[[ko:영국 해협]]
[[id:Selat Inggris]]
[[is:Ermarsund]]
[[it:La Manica]]
[[he:תעלת למאנש]]
[[kw:Chanel]]
[[lb:Äermelkanal]]
[[nl:Het Kanaal]]
[[ja:イギリス海峡]]
[[no:Den engelske kanal]]
[[nn:Den engelske kanalen]]
[[pl:Kanał La Manche]]
[[pt:Canal da Mancha]]
[[ru:Ла-Манш]]
[[sk:Lamanšský prieliv]]
[[sl:Rokavski preliv]]
[[sv:Engelska kanalen]]
[[uk:Ла-Манш]]
[[zh:英吉利海峡]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Estimating Parameters</title>
<id>9231</id>
<revision>
<id>34431691</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-09T00:58:43Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>MarkSweep</username>
<id>58666</id>
</contributor>
<comment>rdr to [[estimation theory]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[estimation theory]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Eiffel Tower</title>
<id>9232</id>
<revision>
<id>42033598</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T09:46:54Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Tawker</username>
<id>212671</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/193.213.42.22|193.213.42.22]] ([[User talk:193.213.42.22|Talk]]) to last version by Ixfd64</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Tour eiffel at sunrise from the trocadero.jpg|thumb|right|160px|The Tower at sunrise]]
The '''Eiffel Tower''' ([[French language|French]]: ''Tour Eiffel''; [[IPA|IPA pronunciation]]: {{IPA|/'aɪfəl/}}, "eye-full" [[English language|English]]; {{IPA|/ɛ'fɛl/}}, "eh-fehl" [[French language|French]]) is an [[iron]] [[tower]] built on the ''[[Champ de Mars]]'', beside the [[River Seine]] in [[Paris]]. It is among the most recognized symbols of [[France]]. Named after its designer, engineer [[Gustave Eiffel]], it is a premier [[tourist destination]], with over 5.5 million visitors per year.
==Statistics==
The tower stands 300 m (986 feet) high, which is about 75 stories. Including the 24 m (72 feet) antenna, the structure is 324 m (1058 feet) high. At the time of its construction in [[1889]], the Eiffel Tower was the [[World's tallest structures|tallest structure in the world]], a title it retained until [[1930]], when [[New York City|New York City's]] [[Chrysler Building]] (319 m/1046 feet tall) was completed (although the Eiffel Tower was still taller if the respective spires of the two structures were excluded). The Eiffel Tower is the second-highest structure in France, after the 350 m [[Allouis longwave transmitter]]. By far, the tower is the highest structure in Paris; France's third-highest structure, the [[Tour Montparnasse|Montparnasse Tower]] (''Tour Montparnasse'') in [[Montparnasse]] neighborhood, is 209 m.
==Background==
[[Image:Tour Eiffel 1878.jpg|thumb|250px|left|Eiffel tower under construction in July 1888]]
The structure was built between [[1887]] and [[1889]] as the entrance arch for the [[Exposition Universelle (1889)]], a [[World's fair]] marking the centennial celebration of the [[French revolution]]. It is located at [[geographic coordinates]] {{coor dms|48|51|29|N|2|17|40|E|region:FR_type:landmark}}. The tower was inaugurated on [[March 31]], [[1889]], and opened on [[May 6]]. Three hundred workers joined together 18,038 pieces of [[Puddling furnace|puddled iron]] (a very pure form of structural iron), using two and a half million [[rivet]]s, in a structural design by [[Maurice Koechlin]]. The risk of accident was great, for unlike modern skyscrapers the tower is an open frame without any intermediate floors except the two platforms. Yet, because Eiffel took good care of his workers with movable stagings, guard-rails and screens, only one man died (during the installation of [[Otis Elevator Company|Otis Elevator]]'s [[elevator|lift]]s).
The tower is 300 [[metre|meters]] (986 feet) tall, not including the 24-meter television [[antenna (electronics)|antenna]] on top. The metal structure weighs 7,300 [[tonne|metric ton]]s, the total weight is 10,100 metric tons. The number of steps to the summit has varied over the history of the tower through various renovations: at the time of construction in 1889, there were 1710 steps to the summit platform at 300.65 m; after a renovation in the early 1980s, there were 1920 steps; and today there are 1665 steps (although it is not possible for the public to reach the summit via the stairs&mdash;elevators are required beyond the second platform).
[[Image:Tour Eiffel nuit Concorde.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The Eiffel Tower from the [[Pont de la Concorde]]]]
Depending on the ambient temperature, the top of the Eiffel Tower may shift away from the sun by up to 8 cm (3.25 inches), due to [[thermal expansion|expansion of the metal]] on the side facing the sun.
Maintenance on the tower includes applying 50 metric tons of three graded tones of paint every 7 years to protect it from rust. On occasion, the colour of the paint is changed (the tower is currently painted a shade of brown). On the first floor, there are interactive consoles hosting a poll for the colour to use for a future session of painting.
The tower was met with resistance from the public when it was first built, many thinking it an eyesore. Today, it is widely considered to be one of the most striking pieces of structural art in the world.
One of the great [[Hollywood]] movie clichés is that the view from a Parisian window always includes the Eiffel Tower. In reality, since zoning restrictions limit the height of most buildings in Paris to a few stories, only a few of the taller buildings have a clear view of the Tower.
Originally, Eiffel had a permit to leave the tower standing for 20 years, more than recouping his expenses, but, as it proved valuable for communication purposes, it was allowed to stay after the end of the permit.
==Installations ==
[[Image:Eiffel_closeup.jpg|thumb|right|200px|The lace-like iron detailing]]
Since the beginning of the [[20th century]], the Eiffel Tower has been used for [[radio]] transmission. Until the [[1950s]], an occasionally modified set of antenna wires ran from the summit to anchor points on the [[avenue de Suffren]] and [[Champ de Mars]]. They were connected to long-wave transmitters which were in small bunkers; in [[1909]], a permanent underground radio center was built near the south pillar of the tower and still exists today. Since [[1957]], the Eiffel Tower has been used as transmission tower for [[Frequency modulation|FM]] and [[television]].
The Eiffel Tower has [http://www.tour-eiffel.fr/teiffel/uk/pratique/resto/index.html two restaurants]: ''Altitude 95'', on the first floor (95&nbsp;m above [[sea level]]); and the ''[[Jules Verne]]'', an expensive [[gastronomy|gastronomical]] restaurant on the second floor, with a private elevator. This restaurant has one star in the [[Michelin_Guide|Michelin Red Guide]].
== Events ==
[[Image:Paris-Eiffel-down.jpg|thumb|left|200px|Looking down from the top observation deck]]
[[Priest|Father]] [[Theodor Wulf]] in [[1910]] took observations of [[radiant energy]] radiating at the top and bottom of the Eiffel Tower, discovering more than was expected at the top, and thereby detecting what are today known as [[cosmic ray]]s.
In [[1925]], the con artist [[Victor Lustig]] twice "sold" the Eiffel Tower for scrap.
In [[1930]], the Tower lost the title of the World's tallest structure when the [[Chrysler Building]] was completed in [[New York City|New York]].
From [[1925]] to [[1934]], illuminated signs for [[Citroën]] adorned three of the tower's four sides, making it the tallest billboard in the world at the time.
[[Image:TourEiffel_gobeirne.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Looking down from the first level at one of the feet of the Tower]]
When the [[Nazis]] occupied [[Paris]] in [[1940]], the lift cables were cut by the French so that [[Adolf Hitler | Hitler]] would have to climb the 1,665 steps to the summit - the parts to repair them were allegedly impossible to obtain because of [[World War II|the war]], though it was working again within hours of the departure of the [[Nazi]]s. He chose to stay on the ground. A Frenchman also scaled the tower during the German occupation to hang the French flag. In August [[1944]], when the [[Allies]] were nearing Paris, [[Hitler]] ordered general [[Dietrich von Choltitz]], the military governor of Paris, to burn down the tower along with the rest of the city. He disobeyed the order.
On [[January 3]], [[1956]], a fire damaged the top of the tower.
In [[1959]] the present radio antenna was added to the top.
In the [[1980s]] an old [[restaurant]] and its su |
ns in Canada and also produces excellent [[cider]]s, but exports little of either drink. The small rural towns of [[Penticton, British Columbia|Penticton]], [[Oliver, British Columbia|Oliver]], and [[Osoyoos, British Columbia|Osoyoos]] have some of the warmest summer climates in [[Canada]].
Much of [[Vancouver Island]] is covered by a temperate [[rain forest]], one of a mere handful of such [[Ecosystem|ecosystems]] in the world (notable others being on the [[Olympic Peninsula]] of [[Washington]] and in [[Chile]] and [[Tasmania]]). The province's mainland has snowy, cold winters, especially in the north. The coast and Vancouver Island are temperate in many places, where the climate is moderated by the [[Pacific Ocean]]. In the interior, summer temperatures can be quite warm, even notably hot and there are large semi-arid areas and a few localities classifiable as [[pocket deserts]], including at the towns of [[Osoyoos, British Columbia|Osoyoos]] and [[Lillooet, British Columbia|Lillooet]]. There is more than one spot in British Columbia that has recorded peak summer temperatures of 43.3&nbsp;°C (110&nbsp;°F) and an ongoing rivalry exists between the [[Fraser Canyon]] towns of [[Lytton, British Columbia|Lytton]] and [[Lillooet, British Columbia|Lillooet]] for the title of "Canada's Hot Spot".
{| class="wikitable" style="margin-left:20px;"
|+ Ten Largest Municipalities in BC by population
!align=left|Municipality
!2001
!1996
|-
|align=left|[[Vancouver]]
|545,671
|514,008
|-
|align=left|[[Surrey, British Columbia|Surrey]]
|347,825
|304,477
|-
|align=left|[[Victoria, British Columbia|Victoria]]
|288,346
|?
|-
|align=left|[[Burnaby, British Columbia|Burnaby]]
|193,954
|179,209
|-
|align=left|[[Richmond, British Columbia|Richmond]]
|164,345
|148,867
|-
|align=left|[[Abbotsford, British Columbia|Abbotsford]]
|115,463
|104,403
|-
|align=left|[[Coquitlam, British Columbia|Coquitlam]]
|112,890
|101,820
|-
|align=left|[[Saanich, British Columbia|Saanich]]
|103,654
|101,388
|-
|align=left|[[Delta, British Columbia|Delta]]
|96,950
|95,411
|-
|align=left|[[Kelowna, British Columbia|Kelowna]]
|96,288
|89,422
|}
==History==
{{main|History of British Columbia}}
From [[1818]] to [[1846]], British Columbia south of 54°40′ and west of the [[Rocky Mountains]] was part of a region named by the Americans (after they started claiming it, even though there were none actually in the territory), the [[Oregon Country]], after an old name for the Columbia River coming from the French word ''ouragan'' (hurricane). The land was under the control of - but unlike [[Rupert's Land]] not owned by - the [[Hudson's Bay Company]], who had a monopoly within the region on trade with the Indians. Hudson's Bay territories west of the Rockies were divided into the departments of [[Columbia (Oregon Country)|Columbia]], vaguely defined as to the (south of the [[Thompson River]]) and [[New Caledonia (Canada)|New Caledonia]] (north of the river).
In 1846, the [[Oregon Treaty]] divided the territory along the [[49th parallel north|49th parallel]] to [[Georgia Strait]], with the area north of this boundary (and all of [[Vancouver Island]] and the [[Gulf Islands]]) becoming exclusively [[United Kingdom|British]] territory. The [[Colony of Vancouver Island]] was created in [[1849]], with [[Victoria, British Columbia|Victoria]] designated as the capital. New Caledonia — the mainland — continued to be an unorganized territory of [[British North America]], "administered" by individual HBC [[fur trade|trading post]] managers.
With the [[Fraser Canyon Gold Rush]] in 1858, the mainland was organized into the [[Colony of British Columbia]], with [[New Westminster]] as its capital. The name was chosen by [[Queen Victoria]], to differentiate the [[British]] part of the Columbia District from that portion lost to the United States, i.e. the remaining US portion of the [[Oregon Country]]. The name "Columbia" does not derive directly from [[Christopher Columbus]], as does the name of the country [[Colombia]] or as in the [[Washington, D.C.|District of Columbia]], but instead comes from the name of the ship sailed up the Columbia's lower reaches (allegedly) by [[United States|American]] Captain [[Robert Gray]]. That voyage, foregone by Captain Vancouver a few years before during his charting of the Coast, was one of the determining factors in the final surrender of what had been clearly a British fur dominion into the hands of expanding Americans. Unlike other names in Canada and elsewhere, the name Columbia (as in the river) is not translated in French, since it is a ship's ''name'', although the province secondarily-named for it is rendered ''la Colombie-Britannique'' (the province's official name in French).
In [[1858]], in response to the [[Fraser Canyon]] gold rush, the mainland portion of the former Oregon Country was organized into the colony of British Columbia as a preventive against the risk of annexation by the American-dominated mining population, many of whom had defied the Governor's orders to enter the Colony via Victoria and instead came overland via [[Whatcom County]] and the [[Okanagan Trail]]. The [[Cariboo]] region ("Central Interior") of British Columbia experienced a gold rush in the years [[1862]] to [[1865]]. This created a rapid influx of miners and settlers, about 30,000 in all. The colonial authorities feared the gold rush might spread beyond B.C.'s northern border (54°40′ north), so the [[Stikine Territory]] was created in [[1862]]. However, the following year this new territory was disestablished, most of its area going to B.C., whose northern limit was increased to its current location, 60° north.
This period in the province's history is acknowledged today in the ''Gold Rush Trail'': historic and other sites along the route from [[Lillooet]] to [[Barkerville]] and beyond. Some of the towns along this route are numbered according to their distance from the end of the navigable part of the [[Fraser River]] at Lillooet. Best known of these is the town of [[100 Mile House]] which, along with the residential hub of [[108 Mile Ranch]], forms a substantial trading, tourism, and population centre for this region.
After the mainland's gold rushes collapsed and the colony almost went bankrupt from building roads in its interior, the two colonies of Vancouver's Island and British Columbia agreed to merge and share the debt. The merger was effected in [[1866]], with the name ''British Columbia'' being applied to the newly united colony.
Several factors played in the decision of British Columbia to join Canada on [[July 20]], [[1871]]. These included fear of [[annexation]] to the [[United States]], the overwhelming debt created by rapid population growth, the need for government-funded services to support this population, and the economic depression caused by the end of the gold rush. The decision was made largely because the Canadian government offered to link British Columbia to the more settled parts of Canada via the [[Canadian Pacific Railway]] and offered to pay off the $1,000,000 British Columbian debt.
The completion of the CPR in [[1885]], and its upgrades during [[1886]], was a huge boost to Vancouver, the line's terminus founded in 1886, and it rapidly grew to become one of Canada's largest cities. The province became a centre of fishing, mining, and especially of logging throughout the twentieth century.
In [[1903]], British Columbia's territory shrank somewhat after the [[Alaska Boundary Dispute]] settled the vague boundary of the Alaska panhandle.
B.C. has long taken advantage of its Pacific coast to have close relations with [[East Asia]]. However, this has caused friction, with frequent feelings of animosity towards Asian immigrants. This was most manifest during the [[World War II|Second World War]] when many people of [[Japan]]ese descent were interned in the interior of the province.
The post-[[World War II]] years saw Vancouver and Victoria also become cultural centres as poets, authors, artists, musicians, as well as dancers, actors, and ''haute cuisine'' chefs flocked to the beautiful scenery and warmer temperatures. Similarly, these cities have either attracted or given rise to their own noteworthy academics, commentators, and creative thinkers. Tourism also began to play an important role in the economy. The rise of Japan and other Pacific economies was a great boost to the B.C. economy.
==Demographics==
External link: [http://www12.statcan.ca/english/census01/products/highlight/ETO/Table1.cfm?T=501&Lang=E&GV=1&GID=59&S=1&O=D|1 British Columbia ethno-cultural profile] at Statistics Canada
==Politics==
[[Image:British Columbia legislature building with totem pole.jpg|thumb|Legislative Buildings in Victoria, B.C.]]
BC has a 79-member elected [[Legislative Assembly of British Columbia|Legislative Assembly]], elected by the [[First Past the Post]] system.
British Columbia's political culture is polarized and has tended to swing between [[Left-Right politics|right and left]]. There is little middle ground between the two main parties, whose core support each is estimated at 15-20%, with the middle fracturing variously towards either side because of few alternatives. Within Canada, BC is viewed much as [[California]] is in the [[United States]], prone to unusual politics and scandals. Its electorate is perhaps the most cynical in the country because of the history of sleaze and promise-breaking by temporarily-popular politicians. BC voters are known not to vote ''for'' someone or for their party, but ''against'' them as voter motivation is more about getting rid of someone instead of caring who is actually brought in. As a result elections can produce sudden reversals, as well as overly dominant majorities of extreme left or extreme right.
Currently the province is governed by the revived [[British |
esign-related organisations ===
*[[Benelux Designs Office]] (BDO)
== Think tanks, institutes and non-profit organizations ==
* [[American Intellectual Property Law Association]] (AIPLA)
* [[International Association for the Protection of Industrial Property]] (AIPPI)
* [[Centre for International Industrial Property Studies]] (CEIPI)
* [[Center for Intellectual Property Studies]] (CIP)
* [[Institute of Patentees and Inventors]]
* [[Institute of Professional Representatives before the European Patent Office|European Patent Institute]] (epi)
* [[International Association for the Protection of Industrial Property]] (AIPPI)
* [[International Federation of Intellectual Property Attorneys]] (FICPI)
* [[International Intellectual Property Alliance]] (IIPA)
* [[International Intellectual Property Institute]] (IIPI) [http://www.iipi.org/]
* [[International Trademark Association]] (INTA)
* [[Japan Intellectual Property Association]] (JIPA)
* [[Max Planck Institute for Intellectual Property, Competition and Tax Law]]
* [[Queen Mary Intellectual Property Research Institute]]
* [[Trade Marks, Patents and Designs Federation]] (TMPDF) [http://www.tmpdf.org.uk/]
== See also ==
* [[Intellectual property]]
* [[List of organizations]]
* [[Patent attorney]]
* [[Patent clerk]]
[[Category:Intellectual property organizations| ]]
[[Category:Intellectual property]][[Category:International organizations]]
[[vi:T&#7893; ch&#7913;c s&#7903; h&#7919;u trí tu&#7879;]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Idealist</title>
<id>15427</id>
<revision>
<id>15912901</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Idealism]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Idealism</title>
<id>15428</id>
<revision>
<id>40627537</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-21T22:50:30Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>204.52.215.101</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the '''philosophical''' notion of Idealism. Idealism is also a term in [[Idealism in international relations theory|international relations theory]] and in [[Idealism (Christian eschatology)|Christian eschatology]].''
'''Idealism''' is an approach to [[philosophy|philosophical enquiry]]. As a basis for [[cosmology]], or an approach to understanding the existence, idealism is often contrasted with ''[[materialism]]'', both belonging to the class of [[monism|monist]] as opposed to [[dualism|dualist]] or [[pluralism|pluralist]] [[ontology|ontologies]]. The approach to idealism by western philosophers has been different from that of eastern thinkers. In western thought ''the ideal'', generally relates to direct knowledge of subjective mental ideas, or images. It is then usually juxtaposed with ''[[realism]]'' in which the real is said to have absolute existence prior to and independent of our knowledge. [[Epistemology|Epistemological]] idealists might insist that the only things which can be directly ''known for certain'' are ideas. In eastern thought, as reflected in [[Hindu idealism]], the concept of ''idealism'' takes on the meaning of [[consciousness]], essentially the living consciousness of an all-pervading ''[[God]]'', as the basis of all phenomena. A variant of [[oriental]] idealism is [[Consciousness-only|Buddhist idealism]].
==History==
'''Idealism''' names a number of philosophical positions with quite different tendencies and implications.
===Idealism in the East===
Several [[Hinduism|Hindu traditions]] and [[History of Buddhist schools|schools of Buddhism]] can be accurately characterized as idealist. Some of the Buddhist schools are called "[[Consciousness-only]]" schools as they focus on consciousness without a God or soul.
.
===Idealism in the West===
====Antiphon====
In his chief work ''Truth'', [[Antiphon]] wrote: "[[Time]] is a [[thought]] or a [[measure]], not a [[substance]]." This presents time as an ideational, internal, mental operation, rather than a real, external object.
====Plato====
{{main|Platonic idealism}}
[[Plato]] proposed an idealist theory as a solution to the [[problem of universals]]. A universal is that which all things share in virtue of having some particular property. So for example the wall, the moon and a blank sheet of paper are all white; ''white'' is the universal that all white things share. Plato argued that it is universals, [[The Forms]], or [[Platonic Ideals]] that are real, not specific individual things. Confusingly, because this idea asserts that these mental entities are ''real'', it is also called ''[[Platonic realism]]''; in this sense ''realism'' contrasts with ''[[nominalism]]'', the notion that mental abstractions are merely names without an independent existence. Nevertheless, it is a form of idealism because it asserts the primacy of the idea of universals over material things. <!-- More on maths here ? -->
====Plotinus====
[[Schopenhauer]] wrote of this [[Neoplatonist]] philosopher: "With [[Plotinus]] there even appears, probably for the first time in [[Western philosophy]], ''idealism'' that had long been current in the [[East]] even at that time, for it taught ([[Enneads]], iii, lib. vii, c.10) that the [[soul]] has made the [[world]] by stepping from [[eternity]] into [[time]], with the explanation: 'For there is for this [[universe]] no other place than the soul or [[mind]]' (neque est alter hujus universi locus quam anima), indeed the ideality of time is expressed in the words: 'We should not accept time outside the soul or mind' (oportet autem nequaquam extra animam tempus accipere)." (''Parerga and Paralipomena'', Volume I, "Fragments for the History of Philosophy," § 7)
====Malebranche====
[[Malebranche]] disagreed that if the only things that we know for certain are the ideas within our mind, then the existence of the external world would be dubious and known only indirectly. He declared instead that the real external world is actually God. All activity only appears to occur in the external world. In actuality, it is the activity of God. For Malebranche, we directly know internally the ideas in our mind. Externally, we directly know God's operations. This kind of idealism led to the pantheism of [[Spinoza]].
====George Berkeley====
[[George Berkeley|Bishop Berkeley]], in seeking to find out what we could know with certainty, decided that our knowledge must be based on our [[Perception|perceptions]]. This led him to conclude that there was indeed no "real" knowable object behind one's perception, that what was "real" was the perception itself. This [[subjective idealism]] or [[dogmatic idealism]] led to his placing the full weight of [[theory of justification|justification]] on our perceptions. This left Berkeley with the problem, common to other forms of idealism, of explaining how it is that each of us apparently has much the same sort of perceptions of an object. He solved this problem by having [[God]] intercede, as the immediate cause of all of our perceptions.
[[Schopenhauer]] wrote: "Berkeley was, therefore, the first to treat the subjective starting-point really seriously and to demonstrate irrefutably its absolute necessity. He is the father of idealism...." (''Parerga and Paralipomena'', Vol. I, "Fragments for the History of Philosophy," § 12)
====Arthur Collier====
[[Arthur Collier]] published the same assertions that were made by [[George Berkeley|Berkeley]]. However, there seemed to have been no influence between the two contemporary writers. Collier claimed that the represented image of an external object is the only knowable reality. Matter, as a cause of the representative image, is unthinkable and therefore nothing to us. An external world, as absolute matter, unrelated to an observer, does not exist for human perceivers. As an appearance in a mind, the universe cannot exist as it appears if there is no perceiving mind.
Collier was influenced by [[John Norris]]'s ([[1701]]) ''An Essay Towards the Theory of the Ideal or Intelligible World''. The idealist statements by Collier were generally dismissed by readers who were not able to reflect on the distinction between a mental idea or image and the object that it represents.
====Jonathan Edwards====
Edwards, an American theologian, went to [[Yale University]] in [[1716]] at the age of thirteen. After reading [[Locke]]'s doctrine of ideas, he kept a notebook entitled "Mind." In it, he wrote, at the age of fourteen, that the only things that are real are minds. He contended that [[matter]] exists only as an [[idea]] in a mind. Due to his theological manner of thinking, he asserted that space is God, due to its infinity. After adolescence, he never elaborated on these early idealistic notes.
====Immanuel Kant====
[[Immanuel Kant]] held that the mind shapes the world as we perceive it to take the form of space-and-time. Kant focused on the idea drawn from British [[empiricism]] (and its philosophers such as [[John Locke|Locke]], [[George Berkeley|Berkeley]], and [[David Hume|Hume]]) that all we can know is the mental impressions, or ''[[phenomena]]'', that an outside world which may or may not exist independently creates in our minds; our minds can never perceive that outside world directly. Kant's postscript to this added that the mind is not a [[blank slate]] (contra [[John Locke]]), but rather comes equipped with [[category|categories]] for organising our sense impressions. This Kantian sort of idealism opens up a world of abstractions (i.e., the universal categories minds use to understand phenomena) to be explored by reason, but in sharp contrast to Plato's, confirms uncertainties about a (un)knowable world outside our own minds. We canno |
4 || 0 || T-2nd NFL West || --
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|1938 || 8 || 3 || 0 || 1st NFL West || Lost NFL Championship ([[New York Giants|Giants]])
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|1939 || 9 || 2 || 0 || 1st NFL West || '''Won NFL Championship''' ([[New York Giants|Giants]])
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|1940 || 6 || 4 || 1 || 2nd NFL West || --
|-
|1941 || 10 || 1 || 0 || 2nd NFL West || Lost Western Divisional Playoff ([[Chicago Bears|Bears]])
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|1942 || 8 || 2 || 1 || 2nd NFL West || --
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|1943 || 7 || 2 || 1 || 2nd NFL West || --
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|1944 || 8 || 2 || 0 || 1st NFL West || '''Won NFL Championship''' ([[New York Giants|Giants]])
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|1945 || 6 || 4 || 0 || 3rd NFL West || --
|-
|1946 || 6 || 5 || 0 || T-3rd NFL West || --
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|1947 || 6 || 5 || 1 || 3rd NFL West || --
|-
|1948 || 3 || 9 || 0 || 4th NFL West || --
|-
|1949 || 2 || 10 || 0 || 5th NFL West || --
|-
|1950 || 3 || 9 || 0 || T-5th NFL NFC || --
|-
|1951 || 3 || 9 || 0 || 5th NFL NFC || --
|-
|1952 || 6 || 6 || 0 || 4th NFL NFC || --
|-
|1953 || 2 || 9 || 1 || 6th NFL West || --
|-
|1954 || 4 || 8 || 0 || 5th NFL West || --
|-
|1955 || 6 || 6 || 0 || 3rd NFL West || --
|-
|1956 || 4 || 8 || 0 || T-5th NFL West || --
|-
|1957 || 3 || 9 || 0 || 6th NFL West || --
|-
|1958 || 1 || 10 || 1 || 6th NFL West || --
|-
|1959 || 7 || 5 || 0 || T-3rd NFL West || --
|-
|1960 || 8 || 4 || 0 || 1st NFL West || Lost NFL Championship ([[Philadelphia Eagles|Eagles]])
|-
|1961 || 11 || 3 || 0 || 1st NFL West || '''Won NFL Championship''' ([[New York Giants|Giants]])
|-
|1962 || 13 || 1 || 0 || 1st NFL West || '''Won NFL Championship''' ([[New York Giants|Giants]])
|-
|1963 || 11 || 2 || 1 || 2nd NFL West || --
|-
|1964 || 8 || 5 || 1 || T-2nd NFL West || --
|-
|1965 || 10 || 3 || 1 || 1st NFL West || '''Won NFL Championship''' ([[Cleveland Browns|Browns]])
|-
|1966 || 12 || 2 || 0 || 1st NFL West || '''Won NFL Championship''' ([[Dallas Cowboys|Cowboys]])<br>'''Won [[Super Bowl I]]''' ([[Kansas City Chiefs|Chiefs]])
|-
|1967 || 9 || 4 || 1 || 1st NFL Central || '''Won NFL Championship''' ([[Dallas Cowboys|Cowboys]])<br>'''Won [[Super Bowl II]]''' ([[Oakland Raiders|Raiders]])
|-
|1968 || 6 || 7 || 1 || 3rd NFL Central || --
|-
|1969 || 8 || 6 || 0 || 3rd NFL Central || --
|-
|1970 || 6 || 8 || 0 || 3rd NFC Central || --
|-
|1971 || 4 || 8 || 2 || 4th NFC Central || --
|-
|1972 || 10 || 4 || 0 || 1st NFC Central || Lost [[NFL playoffs, 1972-73|Divisional Playoffs]] ([[Washington Redskins|Redskins]])
|-
|1973 || 5 || 7 || 2 || 3rd NFC Central || --
|-
|1974 || 6 || 8 || 0 || 3rd NFC Central || --
|-
|1975 || 4 || 10 || 0 || 4th NFC Central || --
|-
|1976 || 5 || 9 || 0 || 4th NFC Central || --
|-
|1977 || 4 || 10 || 0 || 4th NFC Central || --
|-
|1978 || 8 || 7 || 1 || 2nd NFC Central || --
|-
|1979 || 5 || 11 || 0 || 4th NFC Central || --
|-
|1980 || 5 || 10 || 1 || 5th NFC Central || --
|-
|1981 || 8 || 8 || 0 || 3rd NFC Central || --
|-
|1982 || 5 || 3 || 1 || 3rd NFC Conf. || Lost [[NFL playoffs, 1982-83|Second Round]] ([[Dallas Cowboys|Cowboys]])
|-
|1983 || 8 || 8|| 0 || 2nd NFC Central || --
|-
|1984 || 8 || 8 || 0 || 2nd NFC Central || --
|-
|1985 || 8 || 8 || 0 || 2nd NFC Central || --
|-
|1986 || 4 || 12 || 0 || 4th NFC Central || --
|-
|1987 || 5 || 9 || 1 || 3rd NFC Central || --
|-
|1988 || 4 || 12 || 0 || 5th NFC Central || --
|-
|1989 || 10 || 6 || 0 || 2nd NFC Central || --
|-
|1990 || 6 || 10 || 0 || 4th NFC Central || --
|-
|1991 || 4 || 12 || 0 || 4th NFC Central || --
|-
|1992 || 9 || 7 || 0 || 2nd NFC Central || --
|-
|1993 || 9 || 7 || 0 || 3rd NFC Central || Lost [[NFL playoffs, 1993-94|Divisional Playoffs]] ([[Dallas Cowboys|Cowboys]])
|-
|1994 || 9 || 7 || 0 || 2nd NFC Central || Lost [[NFL playoffs, 1994-95|Divisional Playoffs]] ([[Dallas Cowboys|Cowboys]])
|-
|1995 || 11 || 5 || 0 || 1st NFC Central || Lost [[NFL playoffs, 1995-96|Conference Championship]] ([[Dallas Cowboys|Cowboys]])
|-
|1996 || 13 || 3 || 0 || 1st NFC Central || '''Won [[Super Bowl XXXI]]''' ([[New England Patriots|Patriots]])
|-
|1997 || 13 || 3 || 0 || 1st NFC Central || Lost [[Super Bowl XXXII]] ([[Denver Broncos|Broncos]])
|-
|1998 || 11 || 5 || 0 || 2nd NFC Central || Lost [[NFL playoffs, 1998-99|Wild Card Playoffs]] ([[San Francisco 49ers|49ers]])
|-
|1999 || 8 || 8 || 0 || 4th NFC Central || --
|-
|2000 || 9 || 7 || 0 || 3rd NFC Central || --
|-
|2001 || 12 || 4 || 0 || 2nd NFC Central || Lost [[NFL playoffs, 2001-02|Divisional Playoffs]] ([[St. Louis Rams|Rams]])
|-
|2002 || 12 || 4 || 0 || 1st NFC North || Lost [[NFL playoffs, 2002-03|Wild Card Playoffs]] ([[Atlanta Falcons|Falcons]])
|-
|2003 || 10 || 6 || 0 || 1st NFC North || Lost [[NFL playoffs, 2003-04|Divisional Playoffs]] ([[Philadelphia Eagles|Eagles]])
|-
|2004 || 10 || 6 || 0 || 1st NFC North || Lost [[NFL playoffs, 2004-05|Wild Card Playoffs]] ([[Minnesota Vikings|Vikings]])
|-
|2005 || 4 || 12 || 0 || 4th NFC North || --
{{end box}}
<small>1=The NFL was originally named the '''American Professional Football Association''' (APFA) from 1920-1922.</small>
<small>2=The NFL did not hold playoff games until 1932. The team that finished with the best regular-season record was named the league champion.</small>
^At the end of the [[2005 NFL season]], the Packers All-Time Record (since 1921) is 639-506-36 (including playoffs).
==Players of note==
===Current players===
{{Green Bay Packers roster}}
===[[Pro Football Hall of Fame]]rs===
* 26 [[Herb Adderly]]
* 3 [[Tony Canadeo]]
* 87 [[Willie Davis (American football)|Willie Davis]]
*[[Len Ford]]
* 75 [[Forrest Gregg]]
* 83 [[Ted Hendricks]]
* 38 [[Arnie Herber]]
* 30 [[Clarke Hinkle]]
* 5 [[Paul Hornung]]
* 36 [[Cal Hubbard]]
* 14 [[Don Hutson]]
* 75 [[Henry Jordan]]
* 2 [[Walt Kiesling]]
* 20 [[Curly Lambeau|Earl (Curly) Lambeau]]
* 80 [[James Lofton]]
*[[Vince Lombardi]]
* 24 [[Johnny (Blood) McNally]]
* 2 [[Mike Michalske]]
* 66 [[Ray Nitschke]]
* 51 [[Jim Ringo]]
* 15 [[Bart Starr]]
* 3 [[Jan Stenerud]]
* 31 [[Jim Taylor]]
*[[Emlen Tunnell]]
* 92 [[Reggie White]]
* 24 [[Willie Wood]]
In addition, the Green Bay Packer Hall of Fame has honored 133 players, coaches and executives.
===Retired numbers===
*[[Tony Canadeo]] #3
*[[Don Hutson]] #14
*[[Bart Starr]] #15
*[[Ray Nitschke]] #66
*[[Reggie White]] #92
===Not to be forgotten===
*[[John Anderson (football player)|John Anderson]] - LB
*[[Edgar Bennett]] - RB
*[[Tony Bennett (football)|Tony Bennett]] - LB
*[[John Brockington]] - RB
*[[Robert Brooks]] - WR
*[[Gilbert Brown]] - DT (a.k.a. "Gravedigger")
*[[Mark Brunell]] - QB
*[[Terrell Buckley]] - CB
*[[LeRoy Butler]] - S
*[[Chuck Cecil]] - S
*[[Mark Chmura]] - TE
*[[Lynn Dickey]] - QB
*[[Santana Dotson]] - DT
*[[Boyd Dowler]] - WR
*[[Antonio Freeman]] - WR
*[[Brent Fullwood]] - RB
*[[Tim Harris]] - LB
*[[Craig Hentrich]] - P
*[[Johnny Holland]] - LB
*[[Desmond Howard]] - WR/KR
*[[Cecil Isbell]] - QB
*[[Chris Jacke]] - K
*[[Keith Jackson (football player)|Keith Jackson]] - TE
*[[Ezra Johnson]] - DT
*[[Sean Jones]] - DE
*[[Jerry Kramer]] - G, K (author of ''[[Instant Replay]]'')
*[[Mark Lee]] - CB
*[[Dorsey Levens]] - RB
*[[Don Majkowski]] - QB
*[[Tony Mandarich]] - T (bust)
*[[Larry McCarren]] - C
*[[Max McGee]] - WR
*[[Steve McMichael]] - DT
*[[Brian Noble]] - LB
*[[Bryce Paup]] - LB
*[[Andre Rison]] - WR
*[[Marco Rivera]] - G
*[[Eugene Robinson]] - S
*[[Ken Ruettgers]] - OL
*[[Sterling Sharpe]] - WR
*[[Darren Sharper]] - S
*[[Fred "Fuzzy" Thurston]] - G
*[[Mike Wahle]] - G
*[[Vince Workman]] - RB
===First round draft picks===
* 1936 [[Russ Letlow]]
* 1937 [[Ed Jankowski]]
* 1938 [[Cecil Isbell]]
* 1939 [[Larry Buhler]]
* 1940 [[Hal Van Every]]
* 1941 [[George Paskvan]]
* 1942 [[Urban Odson]]
* 1943 [[Dick Wildung]]
* 1944 [[Merv Pregulman]]
* 1945 [[Walt Schlinkman]]
* 1946 [[Johnny Strzyalski]]
* 1947 [[Ernie Case]]
* 1948 [[Earl Girard|Earl "Jug" Girard]]
* 1949 [[Stan Heath]]
* 1950 [[Clayton Tonnemaker]]
* 1951 [[Bob Gain]]
* 1952 [[Babe Parilli]]
* 1953 [[Al Carmichael]]
* 1954 [[Art Hunter]] and [[Veryl Switzer]]
* 1955 [[Tom Bettis]]
* 1956 [[Jack Losch]]
* 1957 [[Paul Hornung]] and [[Ron Kramer]]
* 1958 [[Dan Currie]]
* 1959 [[Randy Duncan]]
* 1960 [[Tom Moore (football)|Tom Moore]]
* 1961 [[Herb Adderly]]
* 1962 [[Earl Gros]]
* 1963 [[Dave Robinson]]
* 1964 [[Lloyd Voss]]
* 1965 [[Donny Anderson]] and [[Larry Elkins]]
* 1966 [[Jim Grabowski]] and [[Gale Gillingham]]
* 1967 [[Bob Hyland]] and [[Don Horn]]
* 1968 [[Fred Carr]] and [[Bill Lueck]]
* 1969 [[Rich Moore]]
* 1970 [[Mike McCoy]] and [[Rich McGeorge]]
* 1971 [[John Brockington]]
* 1972 [[Willie Buchanon]] and [[Jerry Tagge]]
* 1973 [[Barry Smith]]
* 1974 [[Barty Smith]]
* 1975 Traded away
* 1976 [[Mark Koncar]]
* 1977 [[Mike Butler]] and [[Morris Brown]]
* 1978 [[James Lofton]] and [[John Anderson (football)|John Anderson]]
* 1979 [[Eddie Lee Ivory]]
* 1980 [[Bruce Clark]] and [[George Cumby]]
* 1981 [[Rich Campbell]]
* 1982 [[Ron Hallstrom]]
* 1983 [[Tim Lewis]]
* 1984 [[Alphonso Carreker]]
* 1985 [[Ken Ruettgers]]
* 1986 Traded away
* 1987 [[Brent Fullwood]]
* 1988 [[Sterling Sharpe]]
* 1989 [[Tony Mandarich]]
* 1990 [[Tony Bennett (football)|Tony Bennett]] and [[Darrell Thompson]]
* 1991 [[Vinnie Clark]]
* 1992 [[Terrell Buckley]]
* 1993 [[Wayne Simmons (football player)|Wayne Simmons]] and [[George Teague]]
* 1994 [[Aaron Taylor]]
* 1995 [[Craig Newsome]]
* 1996 [[John Michels]]
* 1997 [[Ross Verba]]
* 1998 [[Vonnie Holliday]]
* 1999 [[Antuan Edwards]]
* 2000 [[Bubba Franks]]
* 2001 [[Jamal Reynolds]]
* 2002 [[Javon Walker]]
* 2003 [[Nick Barnett]]
* 2004 [[Ahmad Carroll]]
* 2005 [[Aaron Rodgers]]
* 2006 ''To be announced'' (5th overall pick)
===2005 NFL Draft picks===
{|border ="1" cellpadding ="2"
!width="150"|Round/Pick
!width="200"|Player
!width="100"|Position
!width="250"|College
|-
|1/24
|[[Aaron Rodgers]]
|[[Quarterback]]
|[[University of California, Berkeley|California]]
|-
|2/51
|[[Nick Collins]]
|[[Safety]]
|[[Bethune-Cookman |
puter file|file]]s. [[C programming language]] defines functions that allow programs to perform I/O through [[stream (computer)|stream]]s, such as read data from them and write data into them.
A rare alternative to special primitive functions is the IO [[monads in functional programming|monad]] that permits programs to just describe I/O, and the actions are carried out outside the program. This is notable because the I/O functions would introduce [[side-effect (computer science)|side-effect]]s to any programming language but now [[purely functional]] programming is practical.
== See also ==
* [[Direct memory access]] (DMA)
* [[Hardware register]]
* [[IPO Model]]
* [[Interrupt]]
* [[Programmed input/output]]
== External links ==
* [http://www.iometer.org/ I/O Meter]
[[Category:Input/Output| ]]
[[Category:Computer architecture]]
[[da:I/O]]
[[et:I/O]]
[[fr:Entrées Sorties]]
[[it:Input/output]]
[[lt:Išvesties įrenginys]]
[[ja:入出力]]
[[pt:I/O]]
[[ru:Устройства ввода-вывода]]
[[zh:I/O]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Indictment</title>
<id>14559</id>
<revision>
<id>40750262</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-22T19:53:44Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Famspear</username>
<id>600513</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Revert vandal.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{CrimPro}}
In the [[common law]] legal system, an '''indictment''' is a formal charge of having committed a serious criminal offence. In those jurisdictions which retain the concept of a [[felony]], the serious crime offence would be a felony; those jurisdictions which have abolished the concept of a felony often substitute instead the concept of an [[indictable offence]], i.e. an offence which requires an indictment. Traditionally an indictment was handed down by a [[grand jury]], but most common law jurisdictions (with the exception of those in the [[United States]]) have abolished grand juries.
== In Australia ==
In [[Australia]], an indictment is issued by government official (the [[Attorney-General]], the Director of Public Prosecutions, or one of their subordinates). A [[magistrate]] then holds a committal [[hearing (law)|hearing]], which decides whether the [[evidence (law)|evidence]] is serious enough to commit the person to [[trial (law)|trial]].
== In England and Wales ==
In [[England]] and [[Wales]] (except in [[private prosecution]]s by individuals) an indictment is issued by the [[Crown Prosecution Service]] (CPS) on behalf of the Crown, i.e. the monarch, presently [[Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom|Queen Elizabeth II]]--who is nominally the [[plaintiff]] in all [[public prosecution]]s under [[English law]]. This is why a public prosecution of a man called Mr. Smith would be referred to as "R v Smith" (short for "Regina versus Smith", [[Regina]] being Latin for Queen). The head of the CPS is the [[Director of Public Prosecutions]].
== In the United States ==
In [[United States of America|U.S.]] jurisdictions retaining the grand jury, a charge issued by the prosecutor without presentment of the case to a grand jury (as for [[misdemeanor]] offenses) is usually called an ''information'' or ''accusation'', or sometimes a "complaint", to distinguish it from a grand jury indictment. The substance of an indictment or other charging instrument is usually the same, regardless of the jurisdiction: it consists of a short and plain statement of the time, place and manner in which the defendant is alleged to have committed the offense. Each offense is usually set out in a separate count. Some indictments for complex crimes, particularly those involving [[conspiracy (criminal)|conspiracy]] or numerous counts, can run to hundreds of pages, but many indictments, even for crimes as serious as [[murder]], consist of a single sheet of paper.
Indictable offences are normally tried by [[jury]], unless the accused waives the right to a jury trial. In common law systems, the accused is not normally entitled to a jury trial if the offence charged does not require an indictment; the main exception here is again the U.S., where the [[Sixth Amendment to the United States Constitution|Sixth Amendment]] mandates the right of having a jury trial for any criminal offense punishable by imprisonment for more than six months. Notwithstanding the existence of the right to jury trial, the vast majority of criminal cases in the U.S. are resolved by the [[plea bargain]]ing process.
== Sealed Indictment ==
An indictment can be sealed so that it stays non-public until it is unsealed. This can be done for a number of reasons. It may be unsealed, for example, once the named person is arrested.
== See also ==
* [[Complaint]]
* [[Preliminary hearing]].
[[Category:Criminal law]]
[[Category:Prosecution]]
[[he:כתב אישום]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Republic of Ireland</title>
<id>14560</id>
<revision>
<id>41915123</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T16:16:16Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Angrynight</username>
<id>792838</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Culture */ Added Stiff Little Fingers</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the state also called ''Ireland''; for the titular island, see [[Ireland]]. For other uses, see [[Ireland (disambiguation)]].
:''For an explanation of often confusing terms like ''[[Ulster]]'', ''(Republic of) [[Ireland]]'', ''([[Great Britain|Great]]) [[Britain]]'' and ''[[United Kingdom]]'' see '''[[British Isles (terminology)]]''' ''.
{{Infobox Country |
native_name = Éire<br>Ireland |
common_name = the Republic of Ireland |
image_flag = Flag of Ireland.svg |
image_coat = Coat_of_arms_of_Ireland.png |
image_map = LocationIrelandA.png |
national_motto = none |
national_anthem = ''[[Amhrán na bhFiann]]'' (''The Soldier's Song'') |
official_languages = [[Irish language|Irish]], [[English language|English]] |
national_language = [[Irish language|Irish]], [[English language|English]] |
capital = [[Dublin]] |
latd=53|latm=26|latNS=N|longd=6|longm=15|longEW=W|
largest_city = [[Dublin]] |
government_type =[[Parliamentary democracy]] |
leader_titles = [[President of Ireland|President]]<br>[[Taoiseach]] |
leader_names = [[Mary McAleese]]<br>[[Bertie Ahern]] |
area = 70,273 |
area_rank = 117th |
area_magnitude = 1 E9|
percent_water = 2.00% |
population_estimate = 4,130,000|
population_estimate_year = August 2005 |
population_estimate_rank = 122nd |
population_census = 3,917,203 |
population_census_year = 2002 |
population_density = 57 |
population_density_rank = 143rd |
GDP_PPP_year = 2005 |
GDP_PPP = $136.9 Billion |
GDP_PPP_rank = 50th |
GDP_PPP_per_capita = $34,100 |
GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 4th |
HDI_year=2003|
HDI=0.946|
HDI_rank=8th|
HDI_category=<font color="#009900">high</font>|
sovereignty_type = [[History of Ireland|Independence]] |
established_events = &nbsp;- Declared<br>&nbsp;- Recognised |
established_dates = From [[United Kingdom|UK]] by treaty<br>[[21 January]] [[1919]]<br>[[6 December]] [[1921]] |
currency = [[Euro]] (€)<sup>1</sup> |
currency_code = EUR |
time_zone = [[Greenwich Mean Time|GMT]] |
utc_offset = +0 |
time_zone_DST = [[Irish Summer Time|IST]] |
utc_offset_DST = +1 |
cctld = [[.ie]] (also [[.eu]] as part of EU) |
calling_code = 353 |
footnotes = <sup>1</sup> Prior to [[1999]]: [[Irish pound]]|
}}The '''Republic of Ireland''' ([[Irish language|Irish]]: ''Poblacht na hÉireann'') is the official description of the sovereign state which covers approximately five-sixths of the island of [[Ireland]], off the coast of north-west [[Europe]]. The state's official name is '''Ireland''' (Irish: ''[[Éire]]''), and this is how international organisations and citizens of Ireland usually refer to the country. It is a member of the [[European Union]], has a [[developed country|developed economy]] and a population of slightly more than four million. The remaining sixth of the island of Ireland is known as [[Northern Ireland]] and is part of the [[United Kingdom|United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland]].
==Name==
''Main article: [[Names of the Irish state]]''
The constitution provides that the name of the state is "Éire, or, in the [[English language]], Ireland." However, the [[state]] is sometimes referred to as the "Republic of Ireland", in order to distinguish it from the island of Ireland. The name ''Republic of Ireland'' came into use after the [[Republic of Ireland Act]] defined it as the official description of the state in [[1949]] (the purpose of the act being to declare that the state was a [[republic]] rather than a form of [[constitutional monarchy]]). It is also the accepted legal name of the state in the [[United Kingdom]] as per the [[Ireland Act 1949]]. Today, while ''Republic of Ireland'' is a valid term for the state, ''Ireland'' is used for official purposes such as treaties, government and legal documents, and membership of international organisations.
The state is also known by, in English, many other names, such as ''[[Éire]]'', ''The Free State'' and the ''Twenty-six Counties''. The use of Éire when speaking English in Ireland has become increasingly rare, not least due to historical condescending connotations.
The state has had more than one official title. The revolutionary state established by nationalists in [[1919]] was known as the "[[Irish Republic]]"; when the state achieved ''de jure'' independence in [[1922]], it became known as the "[[Irish Free State]]" (in the [[Irish language]] ''Saorstát Éireann''), a name that was retained until [[1937]].
==History==
''Main article: [[History of the Republic of Ireland]]''
The partition of Ireland came about because of complex constitutional developments in the early twentieth century.
From [[1 January]] [[1801]] unti |
en called a ''[[mooring]]'', and is rarely moved; it's quite possible the vessel cannot hoist it aboard but must hire a service to move or maintain it. A temporary anchor is usually carried by the vessel, and hoisted aboard whenever the vessel is under way.
An anchor works by resisting the movement force of the vessel which is attached to it. There are two primary ways to do this - via sheer mass, and by "hooking" into the [[seabed]]. It may seem logical to think wind and currents are the largest forces an anchor must overcome, but actually the vertical movement of [[Ocean surface wave|waves]] develop the largest loads, and modern anchors are designed to use a combination of technique and shape to resist all these forces.
[[Image:Anchor1.png|right|frame|A stocked ship's anchor.<small><br />a. Shank<br />b. Crown<br />c. Arm<br />d. Fluke<br />e. Point<br />f. & g. Eye and Ring<br />h. Stock<br />i. Fisherman's bend</small>]]
The kind of anchor you probably envision is a temporary anchor, the kind which might be carried aboard a [[ship]] or a [[boat]]. A modern temporary anchor usually consists of a central bar called the ''shank'', and an armature with some form of flat surface (''fluke'' or ''palm'') to grip the bottom and a point to assist penetration of the bottom; the position at which the armature is attached to the shank is called the ''crown'', and the shank is usually fitted with a ring or shackle to attach it to the [[cable]]. There are many variations and additions to these basic elements—for example, the whole class of anchors which include a ''stock'' such as the [[anchor#Fisherman|fisherman]] and [[anchor#Fluke|fluke]] anchors.
A permanent anchor, on the other hand, may come in a wide range of types and has no standard form. A slab of rock with an iron ''staple'' in it to attach a chain to serves very well, as does a Chevy long-block motor. Modern moorings may be anchored by sand screws which look and act very much like over-sized screws drilled into the seabed, or by barbed metal beams pounded in (or even driven in with explosives) like pilings, or a variety of other non-mass means of getting a grip on the bottom. One method of building a mooring is to use three or more temporary anchors laid out with short lengths of chain attached to a swivel, so no matter which direction the vessel moves one or more anchors will be aligned to resist the force.
An interesting element of anchor jargon is the term ''under weigh'', which describes the anchor when it is hanging on the rope, not on the bottom; this is linked to the term ''to weigh anchor'', meaning to lift the anchor from the sea bed, allowing the ship or boat to move. Usually an anchor is described as ''under weigh'' when it has been broken out of the bottom and is being hauled up to the boat because all the weight of the anchor and rode (a term for the chain linking the anchor and the ship) are lifted, and when lifted from the water it becomes ''stowed''. Although the terms may be linked, ''under weigh'' should not be confused with ''under way'', which describes a vessel which is moving through the water,
== Development ==
The earliest anchors were probably rocks and many rock anchors have been found dating from at least the [[Bronze Age]]. Many modern moorings still rely on a large rock as the primary element of their design. It simply works. However, using pure mass to resist the forces of a storm only works well as a permanent mooring; trying to move a large enough rock to another bay is nearly impossible.
A simple anchor using a pair of wood arms under a rock mass is a primitive anchor which is still in use today. The wood arms are pointed to penetrate the bottom, and the mass will overcome normal movement forces. Together they comprise what may have been the first successful attempts to hook into the seabed and use the strength there to prevent a vessel from moving. Almost all future anchor developments combine these two elements—a penetrating point and a reasonable mass.
In the western world the vast majority of anchors worked on the concept of the grappling hook—multiple points on arms such that at least one will be aimed toward the bottom. Suddenly the concept of the stock, a bar placed perpendicular to the hooking arm at the other end of the shank which would roll the anchor over so the point would penetrate the bottom, was developed and within a single century became the standard anchor type.
In the East, however, another model of anchor had been known for some time which also used a stock, but with the stock located at the crown along with the arm. This successful model is still built today in virtually unchanged form. It also informed such modern designs as the [[US Navy]]'s stockless Mark IV and the [[anchor#Fluke|fluke-style anchor]].
== Designs of temporary anchors ==
The range of designs is wide, but there are actually trends in designs for modern anchors which allow them to be classed as ''hook, plow'', and ''fluke'' types, depending on the method by which they set.
* ''Hook'' designs use a relatively small fluke surface on a heavy, narrow arm to penetrate deeply into problematic bottoms such as rocky, heavy kelp or eel grass, coral, or hard sand. Two of the more common versions of this design are the [[anchor#Fisherman|fisherman]] and the [[anchor#Grapnel|grapnel]].
* ''Plow'' designs are reminiscent of the antique farm plow, and are designed to bury themselves the bottom as force is applied to them, and are considered good in most bottom conditions from soft mud to rock. ''North sea'' designs are actually a variation of a plow in how they work; they bury into the bottom using their shape.
* ''Fluke'' designs use large fluke surfaces to develop very large resistance to loads once they dig into the seabed. Although they have less ability to penetrate and are designed to reset rather than turn, their light weight makes them very popular.
In the past 20 years or so, many new anchor designs have appeared. Driven by the popularity of private pleasure boats, these anchors are usually designed for small to medium sized vessels, and are usually not appropriate for large ships. See [[anchor#Modern_designs|modern designs]].
=== Fisherman ===
[[Image:fisherman2-sm.jpg|thumb|left|A fisherman style anchor suspended against the bows]]
A traditional design, the fisherman, also known as a ''kedge'', is familiar to people who've never used an anchor. The design is a non-burying type, with one arm penetrating the seabed and the other standing proud. The anchor is popular as the ultimate storm anchor, and has a good reputation for use in rock, hard bottoms, and kelp or eel grass covered bottoms. The three piece versions can be stowed quite compactly, and most versions include a folding stock so the anchor may be stowed flat on deck.
[[Image:Walraversijde28.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Medieval kedge with double stock; ca. 1465]]
The primary weakness of the design is its ability to foul the cable over changing tides. Once fouled the anchor is likely to drag. In comparison tests the fisherman design developed much less resistance than other anchors of similar weight. It is difficult to bring aboard without scarring the topsides, and does not stow in a hawse pipe or over an anchor roller.
<br style="clear:both;" />
=== Fluke ===
[[Image:Fluke anchor.gif|thumb|A fluke-style anchor]]
The most common commercial brand is the Danforth, which is sometimes used as a generic name for the class. The fluke style uses a stock at the crown to which two large flat surfaces are attached. The stock is hinged so the flukes can orient toward the bottom (and on some designs may be adjusted for an optimal angle depending on the bottom type.) The design is a burying variety, and once well set can develop an amazing amount resistance. Its light weight and compact flat design make it easy to retrieve and relatively easy to store; some anchor rollers and hawse pipes can accommodate a fluke-style anchor. A few high-performance designs are available, such as the Fortress, which are lighter in weight for a given area and in tests have shown better than average results.
The fluke anchor has difficulty penetrating kelp and weed-covered bottoms, as well as rocky and particularly hard sand or clay bottoms. If there is much current or the vessel is moving while dropping the anchor it may "kite" or "skate" over the bottom due to the large fluke area acting as a sail or wing. Once set, the anchor tends to break out and reset when the direction of force changes dramatically, such as with the changing tide, and on some occasions it might not reset but instead drag.
=== Grapnel ===
[[Image:Grapnel-sm.jpg|thumb|A grapnel-style anchor]]
A traditional design, the grapnel style is simple to design and build. It has a benefit in that no matter how it reaches the bottom one or more tines will be aimed to set. The design is a non-burying variety, with one or more tines digging in and the remainder above the seabed. In coral it is often able to set quickly by hooking into the structure, but may be more difficult to retrieve. A grapnel is often quite light, and may have additional uses as a tool to recover gear lost overboard; its weight also makes it relatively easy to bring aboard.
Grapnels rarely have enough fluke area to develop much hold in sand, clay, or mud. It is not unknown for the anchor to foul on its own rode, or to foul the tines with refuse from the bottom, preventing it from digging in. It is quite possible for this anchor to find such a good hook that, without a trip line, it is impossible to retrieve. The shape is generally not very compact, and is difficult to stow, although there are a few collapsing designs available.
=== North sea ===
[[Image:Anchor_Bruce.jpg|thumb|Small-boat version of the popular Bruce]]
Designed originally for anchoring floating |
e kernel, even a whole free operating system, is not sufficient to use your computer in freedom; we need free software for everything else, too. Free applications, free drivers, free BIOS: some of those projects face large obstacles -- the need to reverse engineer formats or protocols or pressure companies to document them, or to work around or face down patent threats, or to compete with a network effect. Success will require firmness and determination. A better kernel is desirable, to be sure, but not at the expense of weakening the impetus to liberate the rest of the software world." [http://software.newsforge.com/article.pl?sid=05/04/25/130207]
McVoy withdrew permission for gratis use by free software projects. Many in the free software movement see the whole affair as a vindication of [[Richard Stallman]]'s principled position over the more utilitarian approach of [[Linus Torvalds]].
== See also ==
* [[Dual license]]
* [[Free software magazine]]
* [[Free audio software]]
* [[Free file format]]
* [[Free game software]]
* [[Free/Libre/Open-Source Software]]
* [http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/FLOSS_Concept_Booklet FLOSS Concept Booklet] on [[Wikibooks]]
* [[Free Software Foundation]]
* [[Free software license]]s
* [[GNU General Public License]]
* [[GNU|GNU Project]]
* [[List of free software packages]]
* [[List of liberated software]]
* [[Open source]]
* [[Open source vs. free software]]
* [[Open standard]]
* [[Open format]]
* [[Software Freedom Day]]
* [[X License]]
== External links ==
* [http://www.gnu.org/philosophy/free-sw.html The Free Software Definition] - published by FSF
* [http://www.ffii.org/index.en.html Foundation for a Free Information Infrastructure (FFII)].
* [http://en.howto.wikicities.com/wiki/Free_Software_and_Open_Source_software_%28Where_to_find%29 Free Software and Open Source software (Where to find)] - from Wikisolutions
* [http://www.gnu.org/licenses/license-list.html FSF's list of free software licenses], including clarifications on often confused non-free licenses
* [http://www.gnu.org/directory FSF/UNESCO directory of free software packages]
* [http://www.gnu.org/philosophy/ The GNU philosophy pages]
* [http://www.gnu.org/philosophy/free-software-for-freedom.html FSF's comparison of "Open Source" and "Free Software"]
* [http://www.dwheeler.com/oss_fs_why.html Why Open Source Software / Free Software (OSS/FS)? Look at the Numbers!] &mdash; David Wheeler's analysis of the advantages of OSS/FS.
{{software distribution}}
[[Category:Free software]]
[[Category:Software licenses]]
[[ar:برمجيات حرة]]
[[bg:Свободен софтуер]]
[[zh-min-nan:Chū-iû nńg-thé]]
[[br:Lojissiel digor]]
[[ca:Programari lliure]]
[[cs:Svobodný software]]
[[da:Fri software]]
[[de:Freie Software]]
[[es:Software libre]]
[[eo:Libera programaro]]
[[fa:نرمافزارهای آزاد]]
[[fr:Logiciel libre]]
[[ko:자유 소프트웨어]]
[[hr:Slobodan softver]]
[[id:Perangkat lunak bebas]]
[[ia:Software libere]]
[[ilo:Nawaya a software]]
[[io:Libera programaro]]
[[is:Frjáls hugbúnaður]]
[[it:Software libero]]
[[he:תוכנה חופשית]]
[[ku:Nivîsbariya azad]]
[[lt:Laisvoji programinė įranga]]
[[hu:Szabad szoftver]]
[[nl:Vrije software]]
[[ja:フリーソフトウェア]]
[[no:Fri programvare]]
[[oc:Logicial liure]]
[[pl:Free software]]
[[pt:Software livre]]
[[ro:Software liber]]
[[ru:Свободное программное обеспечение]]
[[simple:Free software]]
[[sk:Slobodný softvér]]
[[sl:Prosto programje]]
[[sr:Слободни софтвер]]
[[fi:Vapaa ohjelmisto]]
[[sv:Fri programvara]]
[[tl:Malayang software]]
[[th:ซอฟต์แวร์เสรี]]
[[tr:Özgür yazılım]]
[[zh:自由软件]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Free</title>
<id>10636</id>
<revision>
<id>41983921</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T01:12:06Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rhobite</username>
<id>82899</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/141.153.244.69|141.153.244.69]] ([[User talk:141.153.244.69|talk]]) to last version by RexNL</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Wiktionary}}
'''Free''' is an [[English language]] [[adjective]], [[verb]], and [[adverb]].
As an adjective or adverb, '''free''' may either describe a state of [[autonomy]], or the quality of being unfettered by some arbitrary restriction. It may also describe a [[commodity]] for which one is unobligated to pay. For an elaboration on this distinction, see [[Gratis versus Libre]].
The transitive verb ''to free'' may variously mean to [[Emancipation|emancipate]], to release from a constriction, or to confer [[freedom]].
The adjective '''free''' appears in many [[context]]s:
===Economics===
*[[Free software]]
*[[Freeware]]
*[[Free photos]]
*''[[Gratis]]''
===Mathematics===
*[[Free object]]
**[[Free group]]
**[[Free abelian group]]
**[[Free module]]
**[[Free algebra]]
*[[Free variable]]
===Philosophy===
Negative - there is no such thing as a free lunch, freedom is not free
Positive - free as a bird or free oxygen
*[[Free will]]
*[[Freedom]]
===Popular music===
*[[Free jazz]]
*[[Free (band)]]
**''[[Free (Free album)|Free]]'', an [[eponym]]ous [[music album]] by the [[musical group]] Free
*''[[Free (For Real album)|Free]]'', a music album by the musical group [[For Real]]
*''[[Free (Negativland album)|Free]]'', a music album by the [[rock band]] [[Negativland]]
*[[Free (rapper)]]
===Literature===
[[Abbie Hoffman|Free]], a [[pseudonym]] for the [[activist]] and [[writer]] [[Abbie Hoffman]]
===Computer science===
[[free (programming)|free]] is a function in [[C programming language]] which deallocates or unloads a certain part of the memory.
{{disambig}}
[[fr:Libre]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Free software movement</title>
<id>10638</id>
<revision>
<id>34242965</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-07T14:48:22Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Gronky</username>
<id>87356</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>moved see also link into article</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''free software movement''' began in 1983 when [[Richard Stallman]] announced the [[GNU]] project. The goal of the movement is to give freedom to computer users by replacing [[computer software|software]] which has restrictive licensing terms with [[free software]] ([[gratis versus Libre|free as in freedom]]).
Most members of the free software movement believe that all software should come with the freedoms listed in the free software definition. Many hold that it is [[morality|immoral]] to prohibit or prevent people from exercising these freedoms and that these freedoms are required to create a decent society where software users can help each other, and to have control over their use of a computer.
On the other hand, many who prefer the term "free software" and consider themselves part of the movement do not believe proprietary software to be strictly immoral. They argue, however, that freedom is valuable (both socially and pragmatically) as a property of software in its own right, separate from technical quality in a narrow sense. Moreover, they may use the term "free software" to distance themselves from claims that "[[open source]]" software is always technically superior to proprietary software (which is often demonstrably false, at least in the short term). In this sense, they object that "open-source" advocates, by concentrating solely on technical merits, encourage users to sacrifice their freedom (and the long-term benefits thereof) for short-term conveniences that proprietary software may provide.
Supporters of open source argue for the pragmatic virtues of free software (aka "open source software") rather than questions of morality. Their basic disagreement with the [[Free Software Foundation]] is its blanket condemnation of proprietary software. There are many programmers who enjoy supporting and using free software but make their livings developing proprietary software, and do not consider their actions immoral. The "official" free-software and open-source definitions are slightly different, with the free-software definition generally considered to be more strict, but the open source licenses which are not considered to be [[free software licenses]] are generally obscure, so in practice virtually all open source software is also free software.
The free software movement, as such, does not take a stand about works other than software and its documentation, but some free software advocates also believe that other works that serve a practical purpose should also be free (see [[Free content]]).
== See also ==
* [[Free Software Foundation]], [[Hacker culture]]
* [[Open source]], [[Open source movement]], [[Open source license]], [[GNU Manifesto]]
* [[Free Culture Movement]]
== External links ==
*[http://www.fsf.org/ The Free Software Foundation]
*[http://www.gnu.org/ The GNU Project]
*[http://www.opensource.org/ Open Source Initiative]
; Debate
*[http://forum.redlers.com/viewtopic.php?t=14 Forum Debate] a lively and informative ongoing debate over open vs. closed systems, standards, and formats and the OpenDocument format (ODF)
[[Category:free software]]
[[Category:Cultural movements]]
[[ja:&#12501;&#12522;&#12540;&#12477;&#12501;&#12488;&#12454;&#12455;&#12450;&#36939;&#21205;]]
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<page>
<title>Free Software Foundation</title>
<id>10640</id>
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<timestamp>2006-03-01T18:34:02Z</timestamp>
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<minor />
<comment>robot Modifying: id</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Free_Software_Foundation_logo.png|frame|right|The Free Software Foundation [[logo]]]]
The ''' |
The Polish state was born in 966 with the [[Baptism of Poland|baptism]] of [[Mieszko I of Poland|Mieszko I]], duke of the [[Slavic peoples|Slavic]] tribe of [[Polans (western)|Polans]] and founder of the [[Piast dynasty]]. His conversion from Pagnism to Christianity marked the first written historical event of Poland. By 990, when Mieszko officially submitted to the authority of the [[Holy See]], he had transformed his country into one of the strongest powers in [[Eastern Europe]]. Mieszko's son [[Boleslaus I of Poland|Bolesław the Brave]] built on his father's achievements, for the first time uniting all the provinces that subsequently came to comprise the traditional territory of Poland. In 1025 he became the first king of Poland. After his death the country entered a period of instability, but was unified under the reign of [[Boleslaus III of Poland|Bolesław the Wrymouth]]. After he died in 1138, however, the kingdom was divided among four of his sons, ushering in a period of fragmentation. For two centuries, the Piasts sparred with each other, the clergy, and the nobility for control over the divided kingdom. The civil strife and foreign invasions, such as that of the Mongols in 1241, weakened and depopulated the small Polish principalities.
In 1226, [[Konrad I of Masovia]] invited the [[Teutonic Knights]] to Poland to help him fight the pagan [[Prussian people|Prussians]] on the border of his lands. After exterminating the Prussians, the Knights turned their attention to Poland and Lithuania, waging war with them for most of the 14th and 15th centuries.
In the middle of 14th century Poland started expansion on the East and annexed Galich Rus'.
The regional division ended when [[Wladislaus I of Poland|Władysław the Elbow-high]] united the various principalities of Poland. His son [[Casimir III of Poland|Kazimierz the Great]], the last of the Piast dynasty, considerably strengthened the country's position in both foreign and domestic affairs. Before his death in 1370, the sonless king arranged for his nephew, the [[Andegawen]] [[Louis I of Hungary|Louis of Hungary]], to inherit the throne.
In 1385, the [[Union of Krewo]] was signed between Louis' daughter [[Jadwiga of Poland|Jadwiga]] and the Lithuanian Grand Duke [[Wladislaus II of Poland|Władysław]], beginning the [[Polish-Lithuanian Union]] and strengthening both nations in their shared opposition to the Teutonic Knights and the growing threat of [[Muscovy]].
==The Jagiellon Era (1385-1572)==
{{mainarticles|[[History of Poland (1385-1569)]] and [[Kingdom of Poland of the Jagiellons]]}}
The [[personal union]] with the [[grand duchy|Grand Duchy]] of [[Lithuania]] to the North-East, paved the way for the extension of Polish power far to the East and the creation (by the [[Union of Lublin]] in 1569), of a unified [[Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth]] (''[[Rzeczpospolita]]''), stretching from the [[Baltic|Baltic Sea]] and the [[Carpathians]] mountains, to present-day [[Belarus]] and Western and Central [[Ukraine]] (which earlier had been Kievan Rus' principalities).
In the north-west, the [[Teutonic Knights]], in control of [[Prussia]] since the 13th century, were forced after their defeats by a combined Polish-Lithuanian force in the [[Battle of Grunwald]] (1410), and in the later [[Thirteen Years War]], to surrender to the Polish crown, the Western half of the territory they had controlled (the areas known afterwards as [[Royal Prussia]]), and to accept Polish-Lithuanian [[suzerainty]], over the remainder (the later [[Ducal Prussia]]) in the 1466, [[Peace of Toruń 1466|Second Treaty of Toruń]].
During this period Poland became the home to Europe's largest Jewish population, as royal edicts guaranteeing Jewish safety and religious freedom from the 13th century, contrasted with bouts of persecution in Western Europe. This persecution intensified following the [[Black Death]] of 1348–1349, when some in the West, blamed the outbreak of the plague, on the Jews themselves. Much of Poland suffered relatively little from this disease, while Jewish immigration brought their valuable contributions and abilities to the rising state. The greatest increase in Jewish numbers, occurred in the 18th century, when Jews came to make up 7% of the population. Generally speaking, the Kings of Poland, and the [[szlachta]] (nobles), were friendly to the Jews, while the peasants and the Catholic church were not.
==The Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth (1572-1795)==
{{mainarticles|[[History of Poland (1569-1795)]], [[Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth]]}}
During the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, in the 16th century, Poland became the only country to ever elect a king. This king would serve as the monarch until he died. At that time the country would have another election.
In 1572 CE, the Polish king Zygmunt August died without any heirs. At the time, Poland didn’t have any method of choosing a king if such a thing happened. It took a long time for the Poles to decide how to elect their king. Finally, after much debate, they decided to let the entire nobility of Poland decide who the king was to be. The nobility were to gather near Warsaw and vote in a “free election”. However, they did not have elections every two or four years like most countries do today. Instead, they voted after the death of the old king.
The first Polish election was held in 1573. There were four men running for king in this election. These men were; Henryk Walezy, who was the brother of the king of France, the Russian tsar Ivan IV "the Terrible", Archduke Ernest from the Austrian Habsburg dynasty, and the king of Sweden, Johan Vasa III. Walezy was the winner in a very disorderly election. The reason for so much disorder was that a huge amount of people came to elect the new king. Walezy only served as king for four months. After four months as Polish king, he received news that his brother had died. He then went to France and claimed the throne as Henry III. This surprised much of the country because Poland had a better economy at the time.
Poland stopped electing kings in 1795, when Russia took over, after the death of Stanislaw August Poniatowski. The elected kings in order of when they were elected were: Henryk Walezy, Stefan Batory, Zygmunt Waza III, Wladyslaw Waza IV, Jan Kazmierz Waza, Michal Korybut Wisniowiecki, Jan Sobierski III, August II “The Strong”, Stanislaw Leszczynski, August III and, last, Stanislaw August Poniatowski.
The [[Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth]], following upon the [[Union of Lublin]], became an interesting counterpoint to the [[absolute monarchy|absolute monarchies]] gaining power in Europe. Its quasi-[[democracy|democratic]] [[political system]] of [[Golden Liberty]], albeit limited to nobility (''[[szlachta]]'') was mostly unprecedented in the [[history of Europe]].
However the series of power struggles between the lesser nobility, the higher nobility ([[magnate]]s) and [[free election|elected]] [[monarch|kings]] undermined [[citizenship]] values and gradually eroded the [[government]]'s function and authority. After the series of devastating wars in the middle of the 17th century (most notably the [[Chmielnicki Uprising]] and [[The Deluge]]) Poland-Lithuania stopped being an influential player in the European politics. Its [[economic system|economy]] and growth was further damaged by the nobility reliance on [[agriculture]] and [[serfdom]], delaying the [[industrialization]] of the country. By the beginning of the 18th century, the Polish-Lithuanian Commownealth, the largest European country, was little more then a pawn of its neighbours ([[Russian Empire]], [[Prussia]] and [[Austro-Hungary]]) who interfered in its domestic politics almost at will.
With the coming of the [[Polish Enlightenment]] in the second half of the 18th century, the movement for reform and revitalization of the country made important gains, culminating in the adoption of the [[Constitution of May 3]], the first modern codified [[constitution]] on the [[Europe|European]] continent. However the reforms, which transformed the Commonwealth into a [[constitutional monarchy]] were viewed as dangerous by Poland's neighbours, who didn't want the rebirth of the strong Commonwealth. Before the Commonwealth could fully implement and benefits from its reforms, it was [[War in the Defence of the Constitution|invaded by its neighbours]].
==Partitioned Poland (1795-1918)==
{{mainarticles|[[History of Poland (1795-1918)]], [[Galicia (Central Europe)|Kingdom of Galicia]], [[Duchy of Warsaw]], [[Congress Poland|Congress Kingdom]], [[Free City of Kraków]], [[Grand Duchy of Poznań]] and [[Kingdom of Poland (1916-1918)|Regency Kingdom]]}}
Polish independence ended in a series of [[Partitions of Poland| partitions]] (1772, 1793 and 1795) undertaken by [[Russia]], [[Prussia]] and [[Austria]], with Russia gaining most of the Commonwealth's territory including nearly all of the former [[Lithuania]] (except [[Podlasie]] and lands West from [[Niemen river]]), [[Volhynia]] and [[Ukraine]]. Austria gained the populous southern region henceforth named [[Galicia (Central Europe)| Galicia]]–[[Lodomeria]], named after the Duchy of [[Halicz]] and [[Wlodzimierz Wolynski| Volodymyr]]. (The Duchy was briefly occupied by [[Hungary]] between 1372 and 1399 and [[Habsburg]]s claimed were inherited after Hungarian Kings, despite the fact that [[Wlodzimierz Wolynski|Volodymyr]] was not a part of [[Galicia (Eastern Europe)|Galicia]]). In 1795 Austria also gained the land between [[Kraków]] and [[Warsaw]], between [[Vistula river]] and [[Pilica river]]. Prussia acquired the western lands from the [[Baltic Sea|Baltic]] through [[Greater Poland]] to [[Kraków]], as well as [[Warsaw]] and [[Lithuania| Lithuanian]] territories to the north-east ([[Augustów]], [[Mariampol]]) and [[Podlasie]]. The last heroic attempt to save Poland's independence was a national uprising (1794) led by [[Tadeusz Kościuszko]], however it wa |
f this, some adult children began suing their parents or deprogrammers. Also, in the mid-1980s, psychologist [[Margaret Singer]] lost her status as an [[expert witness]] when the APA declined to endorse the DIMPAC report. From this point on, deprogramming's legal basis almost immediately vanished, and some deprogrammers re-styled themselves as "exit counselors". See also ''[[Brainwashing#Brainwashing_controversy_in_new_religious_movements|Brainwashing controversy in new religious movements]]''.
Since that time, deprogramming has been virtually unknown in the United States.
Deprogrammers claim that the voluntary participation is due to "[[mind control]]," a controversial theory that a person's thought processes can be changed by outside forces. They justify this intervention or "therapy" as necessary to bring the person out from under the influence of the group's "mind control." The existence of mind control is widely disputed, and sometimes dismissed as [[pseudoscience]] by the [[psychiatry|psychiatric establishment]]. Modern [[behaviorism|behavorist psychology]], however, can do much to explain the ability of external forces to control actions even if it has studied little regarding the internal thought processes associated with them (although [[relational framing]] and other theoretical constructs hedge into such territory). Present-day psychological principles suggest that traditional deprogramming approaches would almost certainly be inferior to other forms of intervention. Even supposing mind control is possible, it would be extremely difficult to prove to a legal standard that any individual person's mind has been controlled. In light of the legal and psychological issues, less intrusive and more patient-oriented interventions will likely replace this practice completely.
Deprogramming has fallen into disfavor because of its controversial aspects. As a result of the CAN judgement, a number of prominent [[anti-cult movement|anti-cult group]]s and persons have distanced themselves from the practice, noting that a less intrusive form of intervention called exit counseling has been shown to be more effective, less harmful, and less likely to lead to legal action. Organizations often referred to as cults, such as the [[Scientology|Church of Scientology]], insist that the practice is still commonplace, and they often make statements that their critics and opponents are "deprogrammers."
The [[American Civil Liberties Union]] published a statement in 1977 in which they position deprogramming as a violation of constitutional freedoms:
:"ACLU opposes the use of mental incompetency proceedings, temporary conservatorship, or denial of government protection as a method of depriving people of the free exercise of religion, at least with respect to people who have reached the age of majority. Mode of religious proselytizing or persuasion for a continued adherence that do not employ physical coercion or threat of same are protected by the free exercise of religion clause of the First Amendment against action of state laws or by state officials. The claim of free exercise may not be overcome by the contention that 'brainwashing' or 'mind control' has been used, in the absence of evidence that the above standards have been violated."
In the 1980s in the United States, namely in [[New York]] (Deprogramming Bill, 1981), [[Kansas]] (Deprogramming Bill, 1982), and [[Nebraska]] (conservatorship legislation for 1985), the anti-cult movement attempted several times to pass laws that would allow to legalize deprogramming. These attempts were unsuccessful.
==People and Places==
During the [[1990s]], [[Rick Ross]], a noted cult intervention advocate who allegedly took part in a number of deprogramming sessions, was sued by a former member of a group called the [[Life Tabernacle Church]] after an attempt at intervention was unsuccessful. He was ordered to pay damages of about $5 million, though this amount was later rescinded. This legal case was expanded to include a prominent anti-cult group called the [[Cult Awareness Network]] (CAN). The judgement was used to force CAN into bankruptcy, and its name and assets were purchased by a representative of the [[Church of Scientology]], which had been frequently criticized by CAN, shortly afterwards. This case was seen as effectively closing the door on the practice of deprogramming.
A notable case is the [[Jason Scott (Life Tabernacle Church)|Jason Scott]] case, in which a jury awarded him $875,000 in compensatory damages and punitive damages in the amount of $1,000,000 against the [[Cult Awareness Network]] and $2,500,000 which were later reduced to $5,000 against deprogrammer [[Rick Ross]] for Scott's abduction during the failed attempt to deprogram him (Scott vs. Ross, Workman, Simpson, Cult Awareness Network).
Patrick was found guilty of kidnapping a 25-year old woman of Tucson, Ariz., in order to "deprogram" her in 1980.
In the case of Kathy Crampton, she went back to the group Love Israel several days after the apparently successful deprogramming. Patrick was charged for kidnapping, but he was acquitted with the reasoning:
:"[w]here parents are, as here, of the reasonable and intelligent belief that they were not physically capable of recapturing their daughter from existing, imminent danger, then the defense of necessity transfers or transposes to the constituted agent, the person who acts upon their belief under such conditions. Here that agent is the Defendant [Ted Patrick] '' ((District Court of the United States 1974: 79; New York Times 1974).
[[Steve Hassan]], author of the book ''Combatting Cult Mind Control'', states that he took part in a number of deprogrammings in the late 1970s, but he no longer approves of the practice and has not participated in any deprogrammings since then. He is one of the major proponents of [[exit counseling]] as a form of intervention therapy, and he refers to his method as "strategic intervention therapy."
==See also==
*[[Opposition to cults and new religious movements]]
* [[Intervention (counseling)]]
{{cult mind control links}}
==Bibliography==
* Conway, Flo & Jim Siegelman, ''Snapping'' (1978), [http://www.rickross.com/reference/deprogramming/deprogramming7.html excerpt] ISBN 0964765004
* Colombrito v. Kelly, 764 F.2d 122 (2d Cir. 1985)
* Dubrow-Eichel, Steve K., Ph.D.: ''Deprogramming: A Case Study'', Cultic Studies Journal
* [[Stephen A. Kent]] and [[Josef Szimhart]]: ''Exit Counseling and the Decline of Deprogramming.'', Cultic Studies Review 1 No.3, 2002
* [[Michael Langone|Langone, Michael]]: ''Deprogramming, Exit Counseling, and Ethics, Clarifying the Confusion'', Christian Research Institute Journal, 1993 [http://www.iclnet.org/pub/resources/text/cri/cri-jrnl/web/crj0121a.html]
* [[J. Gordon Melton|Melton, Gordon, J.]] ''"Brainwashing": Career of a Myth in the United States and Europe'', . [http://www.cesnur.org/conferences/BrainWash.htm]
* Le Moult J. (1978), ''Deprograrnming members of religious sects'', Fordham Law Review, 46, pp. 599-640.
* [[Rick Ross|Ross, Rick]]: ''A brief history of cult intervention work'', 1999 [http://www.culteducation.com/standards.html]
* Szimhart, Joseph: ''Persistence of "Deprogramming" Stereotypes in Film'', Cultic Studies Journal, 3/2 2004
==Dramatization==
*[[Holy Smoke!]] 1999 movie based on the book with the same name
==External links==
*[http://www.cesnur.org/testi/se_brainwash.htm Brainwashing and Mind Control Controversies] - Center for Studies on New Religions
* [http://www.freedomofmind.com/ Center for Freedom of Mind] - espouses "mind control" idea
* [http://www.apologeticsindex.org/ Apologetics Index] Collection of research resources on religious cults, sects, world religions, doctrines, and related issues. While operated from an evangelical Christian perspective, the entries also include links to material from a variety of viewpoints.
* [http://www.religionnewsblog.com Religion News Blog] Up-to-date news about religious cults, sects, world religions, and related issues.
*[http://www.bezinningscentrum.nl/teksten/wim_eng/oracle.htm The Oracle of Ifa and the Verdict of the Court: A failed attempt to deprogram from the African "Ifa" religion] article by Wim Haan (see [[Ifá|Ifá religion]])
{{cults}}
[[Category:Religion and society]]
[[Category:Moral panics]]
[[Category:Cults]]
[[Category:Anti-cult terms and concepts]]
{{merge|exit counseling}}</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>DrinkOrDie</title>
<id>8961</id>
<revision>
<id>41954188</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T21:28:21Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Hoovernj</username>
<id>122559</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[image:DOD NFO.png|thumb|right|320px|DrinkOrDie [[ASCII art|ASCII]] [[NFO]] header. Their slogan reads "''warez bearz from Russia and beyond''".]]
'''DrinkOrDie''' ('''DoD''') was an underground [[software cracking]] and [[warez]] trading network during the [[1990s]], shut down by a major raid in [[2001]].
DrinkOrDie was founded in [[1993]] in [[Moscow]] by a [[Russia]]n with the [[pseudonym|handle]] "deviator" and a friend who went by "CyberAngel." By [[1995]], the group was global. One of its earliest major accomplishments was the [[Internet]] release of [[Windows 95]] two weeks before [[Microsoft]] released the official version. It is also known for its DoD [[DVD]] Speed Ripper released in [[1999]] shortly before [[DeCSS]]. The activity of the DoD group diminished after [[1996]], and they were not considered major players in the warez scene by [[2000]]. The DrinkOrDie network is considered criminal for [[copyright]] [[copyright infringement|infringement]]. As a rule, they made no financial [[profit]] from their activities.
The DoD network prima |
s|Malden]], as far south as [[Braintree, Massachusetts|Braintree]], and as far west as [[Newton, Massachusetts|Newton]]. Collectively known as the "T", the MBTA also operates an extensive network of [[MBTA Bus|bus lines]] and water shuttles, and a [[MBTA Commuter Rail|commuter rail]] network extending north to the [[Merrimack River]] valley, west to [[Worcester, Massachusetts|Worcester]], and south to [[Providence, Rhode Island]].
Amtrak's [[Northeast Corridor]] and [[Chicago, Illinois|Chicago]] lines originate at [[South Station (Massachusetts Bay Transportation Authority)|South Station]] and stop at [[Back Bay (Massachusetts Bay Transportation Authority)|Back Bay]]. Fast Northeast Corridor trains, which service [[New York City]], [[Washington, D.C.]], and points in between, also stop at [[Route 128 Station]] in the southwestern suburbs of Boston. Meanwhile, Amtrak's [[Downeaster]] service to [[Maine]] originates at [[North Station (Boston)|North Station]].
===Utilities===
Water supply and sewage-disposal services are provided by the [[Boston Water and Sewer Commission]]. The Commission in turn purchases wholesale water and sewage disposal from the [[Massachusetts Water Resources Authority]] (MWRA). Established as a public authority in 1984, the MWRA pipes water from reservoirs in Western and Central Massachusetts, notably the [[Quabbin Reservoir|Quabbin]] and [[Wachusett Reservoir|Wachusett Reservoirs]], for several communities within Greater Boston. The agency operates several facilities for sewage treatment, notably an effluent tunnel in Boston Harbor and the Deer Island Wastewater Treatment Plant near the mouth of Boston Harbor.
[[NSTAR]] is the exclusive ''distributor'' of [[electric power]] to the city, though due to deregulation, customers now have a choice of electric ''generation'' companies. [[Natural gas]] is distributed by [[KeySpan Corporation]] (the successor company to Boston Gas); only commercial and industrial customers may choose an alternate natural gas supplier. [[Verizon]], successor to [[New England Telephone]], [[NYNEX]], and [[Bell Atlantic]], is the primary wired telephone service provider for the area. Phone service is also available from various [[List of United States mobile phone companies|national wireless companies]]. [[Cable television]] is available from [[Comcast]] and [[RCN]]. [[Broadband Internet access]] is provided by Comcast and RCN in certain areas. [[Satellite television]] is available from [[Dish Network]] and [[DirecTV]]. A variety of [[digital subscriber line|DSL]] providers and resellers are able to provide broadband Internet over Verizon-owned phone lines.
==See also==
*[[Notable Bostonians]]
*[[List of television shows set in Boston]]
*[[List of films, operas, and plays set in Boston]]
*[[List of Boston skyscrapers]]
*[[Boston in fiction]]
*[[Fictional people from Boston]]
*[[Banned in Boston]]
==Notes==
#{{note|landfillfoot}}[http://www.iboston.org/rg/backbayImap.htm The History of Land Fill in Boston] ''iBoston.org''. Accessed January 9, 2006. Also see [http://www.bc.edu/bc_org/avp/cas/fnart/fa267/bos_fill2.html Boston: History of the Landfills]
#{{note|temperature}}[http://weather.yahoo.com/climo/USMA0046_c.html Records and Averages - Boston (2005)]. ''Yahoo! Weather''. Accessed September 13, 2005.
#{{note|census}}[http://www.census.gov/population/www/documentation/twps0027.html Population of the 100 Largest Cities and Other Urban Places in the United States: 1790 to 1990 (June 1998)]. ''U.S. Census Bureau''.
#{{note|crime}}Winship, Christopher (March 2002). [http://www.wjh.harvard.edu/soc/faculty/winship/End_of_a_Miracle.pdf End of a Miracle?] ''Harvard University''.
#{{note|crime2}}[http://www.ci.boston.ma.us/police/ore.asp Boston Police Department's Monthly Crime Statistics (2005)]. ''CityOfBoston.gov''.
#{{note|crime3}}[http://boston.areaconnect.com/crime1.htm Boston MA Crime Statistics (2004 - New Crime Data)]. ''areaConnect.com''.
#{{note|NIH}}[http://www.ssti.org/Digest/Tables/022006t.htm Top 100 NIH Cities, 2004]. ''SSTI.org''.
#{{note|school}}[http://www.boston.k12.ma.us/bps/bpsglance.asp The Boston Public Schools at a Glance (2004)]. ''Boston Public School''. Accessed October 5, 2005.
#{{note|radio}}[http://www.arbitron.com/radio_stations/mm001050.asp Arbitron - Market Ranks and Schedule, 1-50 (Fall 2005)].
#{{note|TV}}[http://www.nielsenmedia.com/DMAs.html Nielsen Media - DMA Listing (September 24, 2005)].
#{{note|Skyscraper}}[http://www.emporis.com/en/wm/ci/?id=101045 Boston Skyscrapers. ''Skyscrapers.com'']. Accessed May 15, 2005.
#{{note|MLB}}[http://mlb.mlb.com/NASApp/mlb/mlb/history/postseason/mlb_ws_recaps.jsp?feature=1903 1903 World Series - Major League Baseball: World Series History. ''MLB.com''].
==References==
*[http://www.tbf.org/indicatorsProject/ The Boston Indicators Project (2004)]. ''The Boston Foundation''.
*{{cite book| author= Ira Gershkoff and Richard Trachtman | title=The Boston Driver's Handbook | publisher=Da Capo Press | year=2004 | id=ISBN 0306813262}}
*{{cite book| author=Patricia Harris and David Lyon | title=Boston | publisher=Oakland, CA: Compass American Guides | year=1999 | id=ISBN 0679002847}}
*{{cite book| author=Howard Mumford Jones and Bessie Zaban Jones | title=The Many Voices of Boston: A Historical Anthology 1630-1975 | publisher=Boston: Little, Brown and Company | year=1975 | id=ISBN 0316472824}}
*{{cite book| author=Rambow, John D. et. al | title=Fodor's Boston | publisher=New York: Fodors Travel Publication | year=2003 | id=ISBN 1400010284}}
*{{cite book| author=Vanderwarker, Peter | title=Boston Then and Now | publisher=Courier Dover Publications | year=1982 | id=ISBN 0486243125}}
==External links==
{{sisterlinks|Boston}}
*[http://www.cityofboston.gov City's official website]
:*[http://www.cityofboston.gov/bra/maps/mapsPDFs.asp Maps of Boston neighborhoods]
*[http://www.bostonsquares.com Boston guide organized by square]
*[http://www.bostonusa.com/ Greater Boston Convention & Visitors Bureau]
*[http://www.boston-online.com/glossary.html Guide to the local language]
*[http://www.bostonhistory.org/ The Boston Historical Society]
*[http://boston.about.com About.com for Boston]
*[http://www.urbanplanet.org/forums/index.php?showforum=61 Boston Urban Discussion]
*[http://www.tripadvisor.com/Tourism-g60745-Boston_Massachusetts-Vacations.html Boston travel guide at TripAdvisor]
*{{wikitravelpar|Boston}}
{{Mapit-US-cityscale|42.35|-71.066666}}
{{Massachusetts}}
{{USStateCapitals}}
{{USLargestCities}}
[[Category:All-America City]]
[[Category:Boston, Massachusetts|*]]
[[Category:Cities in Massachusetts]]
[[Category:Coastal cities]]
[[Category:State capitals in the United States]]
[[Category:Suffolk County, Massachusetts]]
[[ar:بوسطن]]
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[[zh-min-nan:Boston]]
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[[fr:Boston]]
[[ga:Bostún]]
[[gl:Boston, Massachusetts]]
[[ko:보스턴]]
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[[he:בוסטון]]
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[[mr:बॉस्टन]]
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[[zh:波士顿]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Babylon</title>
<id>4311</id>
<revision>
<id>42002077</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T03:45:33Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>68.180.8.41</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Archaeology of Babylon */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{AIDnom}}
{{alternateuses}}
{{Template:Ancient Mesopotamia}}
'''Babylon''' is the Greek variant of [[Akkadian language|Akkadian]] '''Babilu''', an ancient city in [[Mesopotamia]] (Location: {{coor dms|32|32|11|N|44|25|15|E|}}, modern [[Al Hillah]], [[Iraq]]). It was the "holy city" of [[Babylonia]] from around [[2300 BC]], and the seat of the [[Babylonia|Neo-Babylonian]] empire from [[612 BC]]. In the [[Hebrew Bible]], the name appears as ''בבל'' (''[[Babel]]),'' interpreted by Gen. 11:9 to mean "confusion", from the verb ''balal'', "to confuse". In Akkadian, ''b&#257;b-ilû'' means "Gateway of the god", translating [[Sumerian language|Sumerian]] '''Kadingirra'''.
The [[Hanging Gardens of Babylon]] were one of the [[Seven Wonders of the Ancient World]].
==History==
The earliest mention of Babylon is in a dated tablet of the reign of [[Sargon of Akkad]] ([[24th century BC]] [[short chronology|short chr.]]). Over the years, its power and population waned. From around the [[20th century BC]], it was occupied by [[Amorites]] (nomadic [[Semitic]] tribes), flooding southern [[Mesopotamia]] from the west. The [[First Babylonian Dynasty]] was established by Sumu-abum, but the city-state controlled little surrounding territory until it became the capital of [[Hammurabi]]'s empire (ca. [[18th century BC]]). From that time onward, it continued to be the capital of Babylonia, although during the 440 years of domination by the [[Kassites]] (1595-1155 BC), the city was renamed "''Karanduniash''".
The city itself was built upon the [[Euphrates]], and divided in equal parts along its left and right banks, with steep embankments to contain the river's seasonal floods. Babylon grew in extent and grandeur over time, but gradually became subject to the rule of [[Assyria]].
It has been estimated that Babylon was the largest city in the world from c. 1770 to 1670 BC, and again between c. 612 and 320 BC. It was perhaps the first city to reach a population above 200,000.[http://geography.about.com/library/weekly/aa011201a.htm]
===Assyrian period===
[[Image:Babylon relief.jpg|left|thumb|Detail of the Ishtar Gate]]
During the reign of [[Sennacherib]] of Assyria, Babylonia was in a constant state of revolt, led by [[Mushezib-Marduk]], and suppressed only by the complete destruction of the city of Babylon. In [[689 BC]], its walls, templ |
tolen the silver. Some also think the name may derive from [[Greek language|Greek]] ''kobalos'', which means 'mine', and which may have common roots with kobold, goblin, and cobalt.
== Biological role ==
[[image:bristol.blue.glass.arp.750pix.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Cobalt blue glass]]
Cobalt in small amounts is essential to many living [[organism]]s, including [[humans]]. Having 0.13 to 0.30 mg/kg of cobalt in soils markedly improves the health of [[grazing]] animals. Cobalt is a central component of the [[vitamin]] [[cobalamin]], or [[vitamin B-12]].
== Occurrence ==
[[Image:Cobalt OreUSGOV.jpg|thumb|Cobalt ore]]
Cobalt is not found as a [[free metal]] and is generally found in the form of [[ore]]s. Cobalt is usually not mined alone, and tends to be produced as a [[by-product]] of [[nickel]] and [[copper]] mining activities. The main ores of cobalt are [[cobaltite]], [[erythrite]], [[glaucodot]], and [[skutterudite]]. The world's major producers of cobalt are the [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]], [[China|mainland China]], [[Zambia]], [[Russia]] and [[Australia]]. It is also found in [[Finland]], [[Azerbaijan]], and [[Kazakhstan]]. It is also produced in the town of [[Cobalt, Ontario|Cobalt, Ontario]] as a byproduct of the [[silver]] mining.
; see also [[:Category:Cobalt minerals]]
== Compounds ==
Due to the various [[oxidation state]]s, there is an abundant number of compounds. Oxides are [[antiferromagnetic]] at low [[temperature]] CoO ([[Neel temperature]]: 291 K) and Co<sub>3</sub>O<sub>4</sub> (Neel temperature: 40 K). Cobalt(II) compounds are red-pink in solution. However, the colour changes to blue when the solution is heated to boiling. Adding excess chloride will also change the colour from pink to blue, due to the formation of a [[complex ion]], CoCl<sub>4<sub><sup>2-<sup>.
; see also [[:Category:Cobalt compounds]]
== Isotopes ==
Naturally occurring cobalt is composed of 1 stable [[isotope]], 59-Co (<sup>59</sup>Co). 22 [[radioisotope]]s have been characterized with the most stable being <sup>60</sup>Co with a [[half-life]] of 5.2714 years, 57-Co (<sup>57</sup>Co) with a half-life of 271.79 days, and 56-Co (<sup>56</sup>Co) with a half-life of 77.27 days, and 58-Co (<sup>58</sup>Co) with a half life of 70.86 days. All of the remaining [[radioactive]] isotopes have half-lifes that are less than 18 hours and the majority of these have half lives that are less than 1 second. This element also has 4 [[meta state]]s, all of which have half lives less than 15 minutes.
The isotopes of cobalt range in [[atomic weight]] from 50 [[atomic mass unit|amu]] (<sup>50</sup>Co) to 73 amu (<sup>73</sup>Co). The primary [[decay mode]] before the most abundant stable isotope, <sup>59</sup>Co, is [[electron capture]] and the primary mode after is [[beta decay]]. The primary [[decay product]]s before <sup>59</sup>Co are element 26 ([[iron]]) isotopes and the primary products after are element 28 ([[nickel]]) isotopes.
== Precautions ==
Powdered cobalt in metal form is a fire hazard. Cobalt compounds should be handled with care due to cobalt's slight toxicity.
[[Cobalt-60 (isotope)|Cobalt-60]] is a powerful gamma ray emitter and exposure to <sup>60</sup>Co is therefore a cancer risk. Ingestion of <sup>60</sup>Co will lead to incorporation of some cobalt into tissues, which is released very slowly. Cobalt-60 is a risk factor in a nuclear confrontation because neutron emissions will convert Cobalt-59 into this isotope. Some [[nuclear weapon design]]s could intentionally increase the amount of Cobalt-60 dispersed as [[nuclear fallout]] &ndash; this is sometimes called a [[dirty bomb]] or [[cobalt bomb]], once predicted by a leading scientist as being capable of wiping out all life on earth. The risk in the absence of a [[nuclear war]] comes from improper handling (or theft) of medical radiotherapeutic units. Nevertheless, the gamma radiation emitted from cobalt-60 is used to kill bacteria on fruit and vegetables thus increasing their shelf life. This process is referred to as [[food irradiation|irradiation]].
==References==
*[http://periodic.lanl.gov/elements/27.html Los Alamos National Laboratory - Cobalt]
*[http://www.chevrolet.com/cobalt/ Cobalt] is the name of a current line of cars from [[Chevrolet]].
Cobalt was also the name of [[Sun Microsystems]]' mainly rack-mounted, [[Intel]] and [[Linux]] based, server appliance line. Previously known as Cobalt Systems, this Internet appliance company was acquired by Sun in 2000. In the third quarter of 2003 Sun discountinued their Cobalt line in favor of the [[AMD]] based [[Sun Fire]] line.
== External links ==
{{Commons|Cobalt}}
* [http://www.npi.gov.au/database/substance-info/profiles/26.html National Pollutant Inventory - Cobalt fact sheet]
* [http://www.webelements.com/webelements/elements/text/Co/key.html WebElements.com &ndash; Cobalt]
* [http://www.caro-acro.ca/caro/educ/publ/vig/vignettes/cobalt/Interactions.pdf London celebrates 50 years of Cobalt-60 Radiotherapy ]
==See also==
* [[Benjamin Wegner]]
[[Category:Chemical elements]]
[[Category:Transition metals]]
[[af:Kobalt]]
[[ca:Cobalt]]
[[cs:Kobalt]]
[[da:Kobolt]]
[[de:Kobalt]]
[[et:Koobalt]]
[[el:Κοβάλτιο]]
[[es:Cobalto]]
[[eo:Kobalto]]
[[fr:Cobalt]]
[[ko:코발트]]
[[io:Kobalto]]
[[id:Kobal]]
[[is:Kóbolt]]
[[it:Cobalto]]
[[he:קובלט]]
[[ku:Kobalt]]
[[lv:Kobalts]]
[[hu:Kobalt]]
[[nl:Kobalt]]
[[ja:コバルト]]
[[no:Kobolt]]
[[nn:Kobolt]]
[[oc:Cobalt]]
[[pl:Kobalt]]
[[pt:Cobalto]]
[[ru:Кобальт]]
[[sl:Kobalt]]
[[sr:Кобалт]]
[[fi:Koboltti]]
[[sv:Kobolt]]
[[th:โคบอลต์]]
[[uk:Кобальт]]
[[zh:钴]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Cymbal</title>
<id>5671</id>
<revision>
<id>38471675</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-06T15:38:34Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>68.90.80.141</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Manufacturers */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the [[percussion instrument]]s made of [[metal]] disks. For the [[string instrument]] played with [[drum stick|beater]]s see [[cymbalum]].''
[[Image:Sabian Paragon.jpg|right|thumb|250px|[[Sabian]] Paragon cymbals]]
'''Cymbals''' (Fr. cymbales; Ger. Becken; Ital. piatti or cinelli), are a modern [[percussion_instrument|percussion instrument]]. Cymbals consist of thin, normally round plates of various [[cymbal alloys]]; see [[cymbal making]] for a discussion of their manufacture. Most modern cymbals are of indefinite pitch (tuned sets have been manufactured but are rare), whereas small cup-shaped cymbals based on ancient designs sound a definite note; see [[crotal]].
Cymbals are used in modern [[orchestra]]s and many military, marching, concert and other [[band (music)|band]]s. They are one of the two instrument types that form the modern [[drum kit]], the other of course being the [[drum]], and as such are a basic part of much [[contemporary music]]. Even the most basic drum kit normally contains at least one [[suspended cymbal]] and a pair of [[hi-hat]] cymbals.
== Orchestral cymbals ==
Although cymbals are not often required they form part of every [[orchestra]]; their chief use is for marking the rhythm and for producing weird, fantastic effects or adding military colour, and their shrill notes hold their own against a full orchestra playing fortissimo. Cymbals are specially suited for suggesting frenzy, fury or bacchanalian revels, as in the Venus music in [[Richard Wagner|Wagner]]'s ''[[Tannhäuser]]'' and [[Grieg]]'s ''[[Peer Gynt suite]]''.
=== [[Crash cymbal]]s ===
[[Image:Crash cymbals profile.png|thumb|100px|A pair of clash cymbals in profile. The bell is in green and the straps are in red.]]
Orchestral [[crash cymbal]]s are traditionally used in pairs, each one having a strap set in the bell of the cymbal by which they are held. Such a pair is known technically as a pair of '''clash cymbals''', although this term is rarely used, see [[clash cymbals]]. They are confusingly sometimes referred to simply as ''crash cymbals'', although this term properly applies also to some [[suspended cymbal]]s.
The sound is obtained by rubbing their edges together in a sliding movement rather than by clashing them against each other as laymen often suppose. A skilled player can obtain an enormous dynamic range from such a pair of cymbals. For example, in [[Beethoven's ninth symphony]], one of their first appearances in an orchestral work, they make their entry pianissimo, adding a touch of colour rather than an almighty crash.
Clash cymbals are usually [[damping|damped]] by pressing them against the player's body. A composer may write ''laissez vibrer'', "Let them vibrate" (usually l.v.), ''sec'' (dry), or equivalent indications on the score; more usually, the player must judge exactly when to damp the cymbals based on the written duration of crash and the context in which it occurs.
Clash cymbals have traditionally been accompanied by the [[bass drum]] playing an identical part. This combination, played loudly, is an effective way to accentuate a note since the two instruments together contribute to both very low and very high frequency ranges and provide a satisfying "crash-bang-wallop". In older music the composer sometimes provided just one part for this pair of instruments, writing senza piatti, or piatti soli if the bass drum is to remain silent. However, the modern convention is for the instruments to have independent parts.
Clash cymbals evolved into the [[low-sock]] and from this to the modern [[hi-hat]]. Even in a modern drum kit, they remain paired with the bass drum as the two instruments which are played with the player's feet. However, hi-hat cymbals tend to be heavy with little taper, more similar to a [[ride cymbal]] than to a [[crash cymbal]] as found in a d |
agriculture: 12.5%
industry: 34.3%
services: 53.3% (2005 est.)
Labor force:
20.52 million (2005 est.)
Labor force - by occupation:
agriculture 22.7%, industry 18.7%, services 58.5% (2000 est.)
Unemployment rate:
11.8% (2005 est.)
Population below poverty line:
59% (2001 est.)
Household income or consumption by percentage share:
lowest 10%: 1%
highest 10%: 44% (1999)
Distribution of family income - Gini index:
57.1 (2003 est.)
Inflation rate (consumer prices):
5% (2005 est.)
Investment (gross fixed):
20.2% of GDP (2005 est.)
Budget:
revenues: $46.82 billion
expenditures: $48.77 billion, including capital expenditures of NA (2005 est.)
Public debt:
44.2% of GDP (2005 est.)
Agriculture - products:
coffee, cut flowers, bananas, rice, tobacco, corn, sugarcane, cocoa beans, oilseed, vegetables; forest products; shrimp
Industries:
textiles, food processing, oil, clothing and footwear, beverages, chemicals, cement; gold, coal, emeralds
Industrial production growth rate:
4.5% (2005 est.)
Electricity - production:
47,140 GWh (2003)
Electricity - consumption:
42,850 GWh (2003)
Electricity - exports:
1,082 GWh (2003)
Electricity - imports:
100 GWh (2003)
Oil - production:
512,400 bbl/day (2005 est.)
Oil - consumption:
270,000 bbl/day (2003 est.)
Oil - exports:
NA (2003)
Oil - imports:
NA (2003)
Oil - proved reserves:
1.436 billion bbl (2005 est.)
Natural gas - production:
6.354 billion cu m (2004 est.)
Natural gas - consumption:
6.219 billion cu m (2004 est.)
Natural gas - exports:
0 cu m (2004 est.)
Natural gas - imports:
0 cu m (2004 est.)
Natural gas - proved reserves:
127.4 billion cu m (2005)
Current account balance:
$-917 million (2005 est.)
Exports:
$23.06 billion f.o.b. (2005 est.)
Exports - partners:
US 42.1%, Venezuela 9.7%, Ecuador 6% (2004)
Imports:
$20.42 billion f.o.b. (2005 est.)
Imports - partners:
US 29.1%, Venezuela 6.5%, China 6.4%, Mexico 6.2%, Brazil 5.8% (2004)
Reserves of foreign exchange and gold:
$14.18 billion (2005 est.)
Debt - external:
$37.06 billion ([[30 June]] [[2005]] est.)
Economic aid - recipient:
NA
Currency (code):
Colombian peso (COP)
Exchange rates:
Colombian pesos per US dollar - 2,324.08 (2005), 2,628.61 (2004), 2,877.65 (2003), 2,504.24 (2002), 2,299.63 (2001)
Fiscal year:
calendar year
==Notes==
#{{note|coalprod}} Unidad de Planeación Minero Energética - UPME (2004), ''Boletín Estadístico de Minas y Energía 1994 - 2004''. [http://www.upme.gov.co/Docs/Boletin_Esta_Minas_Energia.pdf PDF file in Spanish].
#{{note|coalworld}} World Coal Institute (2004), ''Coal Facts - 2004 Edition''. [http://www.worldcoal.org/assets_cm/files/PDF/coal_facts_2004.pdf PDF file].
==See also==
* [[Colombia]]
* [[Economy of South America]]
{{SACN}}
{{WTO}}
{{South America in topic|Economy of}}
[[Category:WTO members|Colombia]]
[[Category:Economy of Colombia| ]]
[[Category:Economies by country|Colombia]]
[[es:Economía de Colombia]]
[[no:Colombias økonomi]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Communications in Colombia</title>
<id>5840</id>
<revision>
<id>40448074</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-20T16:57:19Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Warofdreams</username>
<id>20855</id>
</contributor>
<comment>{{CIA}}, {{South America in topic|Communications in}}</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{CIA}}
'''Communications in Colombia'''
'''Telephones - main lines in use:'''
7,500.420 (junio de 2005)
'''Telephones - mobile cellular:'''
16,200.000 (julio 2005)
'''Telephone system:'''
modern system in many respects
<br>''domestic:''
nationwide microwave radio relay system; domestic satellite system with 41 earth stations; fiber-optic network linking 50 cities
<br>''international:''
satellite earth stations - 6 Intelsat, 1 Inmarsat; 3 fully digitalized international switching centers; 8 submarine cables
'''Radio broadcast stations:'''
AM 454, FM 34, shortwave 27 (1999)
'''Radios:'''
21 million (1997)
'''Television broadcast stations:'''
60 (includes seven low-power stations) (1997)
'''Televisions:'''
4.59 million (1997)
'''Internet Service Providers (ISPs):'''
13 (1999)
'''[[Country codes]]:''' CO
:''See also :'' [[Colombia]]
{{South America in topic|Communications in}}
[[Category:Communications in Colombia| ]]
[[Category:Communications by country|Colombia]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Transportation in Colombia</title>
<id>5841</id>
<revision>
<id>40488576</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-20T23:02:21Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Colonies Chris</username>
<id>577301</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>formatting</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">== Railways ==
''Total'' 3,380 km
*''Standard gauge'' 150 km of 1.435 m gauge (connects [[Cerrejón]] coal mines to maritime port at [[Bahia de Portete]])
*''Narrow gauge'' 3,230 km of 0.914 m gauge (1,830 km in use) (1995)
=== Railway links to adjacent countries ===
* [[Transportation in Venezuela|Venezuela]] - no
* [[Transportation in Brazil|Brazil]] - no
* [[Transportation in Ecuador|Ecuador]] - no
* [[Transportation in Peru|Peru]] - no
* [[Transportation in Panama|Panama]] - no
== Highways ==
''Total'' 115,564 km
*''Paved'' 13,868 km
*''Unpaved'' 101,696 km (1997 est.)
== Waterways ==
18,140 km, navigable by river boats (April 1996)
== Pipelines ==
*''Crude oil'' 3,585 km
*''Petroleum products'' 1,350 km
*''Natural gas'' 830 km
*''Natural gas liquids'' 125 km
== Ports and harbors ==
=== Atlantic Ocean ===
* [[Barranquilla]]
* [[Cartagena, Colombia|Cartagena]]
* [[Turbo, Colombia|Turbo]]
* [[Santa Marta]]
=== Pacific Ocean ===
* [[Buenaventura|Buenaventura, Colombia]]
* [[Tumaco]]
=== Amazonia ===
* [[Leticia]]
=== Other ===
*[[Bahia de Portete]]
*[[Puerto Bolivar]]
*[[San Andres]]
== Merchant marine ==
''Total'' 13 ships (1,000 [[Gross Register Tonnage|GRT]] or over) totaling 51,343 GRT/67,168 [[deadweight tonnage|DWT]]
Ships by type
*''Bulk'' 4
*''Cargo'' 5
*''Container'' 1
*''Multi-functional large load carrier'' 1
*''Petroleum tanker'' 2 (1999 est.)
== Airports ==
1,101 (1999 est.)
=== Airports - with paved runways ===
''Total'' 90
*''Over 3,047 m'' 2
*''2,438 to 3,047 m'' 9
*''1,524 to 2,437 m'' 37
*''914 to 1,523 m'' 35
*''under 914 m'' 7 (1999 est.)
=== Airports - with unpaved runways ===
''Total'' 1,011
*''2,438 to 3,047 m'' 1
*''1,524 to 2,437 m'' 62
*''914 to 1,523 m'' 330
*''Under 914 m'' 618 (1999 est.)
'''National Airline:'''
*[[Avianca]]
== See also ==
* [[Colombia]]
* [[Ernesto Cortissoz International Airport]]
* [[TransMilenio]]
{{South America in topic|Transportation in}}
[[Category:Transportation in Colombia| ]]
[[es:Transporte de Colombia]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Colombia/Transnational issues</title>
<id>5842</id>
<revision>
<id>15904033</id>
<timestamp>2002-08-02T10:09:54Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Jeronimo</username>
<id>108</id>
</contributor>
<comment>redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Foreign relations of Colombia]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Military of Colombia</title>
<id>5843</id>
<revision>
<id>37839479</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-02T13:25:51Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Warofdreams</username>
<id>20855</id>
</contributor>
<comment>{{South America in topic|Military of}}</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Colombia''''s [[Ministry of Defense of Colombia|Ministry of Defense]], charged with the country's internal and external defense and security, has an [[Army]], [[Navy]] (which includes both [[marines]] and [[coast guard]]) [[Air Force]], and National [[Police]] under the leadership of a [[civilian]] Minister of Defense. In [[1999]], Colombia assigned 3.6% of its GDP to defense, according to the National Planning Department. The armed forces number about 250,000 uniformed personnel: 145,000 military and 105,000 police. These figures do not include assistance personnel such as cooks, medics, mechanics, etc. Many Colombian military personnel have received training in the [[United States]] or in Colombia. The United States has provided equipment to the Colombian military and police through the military assistance program, foreign military sales, and the international narcotics control program.
[[Narcotics decertification]] in [[1996]] forced a temporary halt to U.S. military assistance programs, except for those related to counternarcotics. On August 1, [[1997]], the U.S. and Colombia signed an [[End Use Monitoring]] (EUM) memorandum of understanding which stipulated that U.S. counternarcotics assistance to the Colombian military be conditioned on [[human rights]] screening of proposed recipient units. Once equipment is provided, it continues to be subject to end-use monitoring to ensure it is being used for counternarcotics purposes.
U.S. assistance to Colombian military and police forces is provided strictly in accordance with Section 564 of the Foreign Operations Appropriations Act (Public Law 106-113) and with Section 8098 of Department of Defense Appropriations Act (Public Law 106-79). No assistance is provided to any unit of the security forces for which the U.S. Government has credible evidence of commission of gross violations of human rights, unless the [[Secretary of State of the United States|Secretary of State]] is able to certify that the Government of Colombia has taken effective measures to bring those responsible to justice. End-use monitoring also is required in these cases.
Since 2000 the Ministry of Defense (Ministerio de Defensa) and the Joint Staff |
[[Chinese American]] (includes lengthy history of Chinese immigration to the United states)
* [[Thai immigration to the United States]]
* [[Finnish immigration to North America]]
==References==
===Secondary sources===
* Archdeacon, Thomas J. ''Becoming American: An Ethnic History'' (1984)
* Berthoff. Rowland Tappan. ''British Immigrants in Industrial America, 1790-1950'' (1953).
* Bodnar, John. ''The Transplanted: A History of Immigrants in Urban America'' Indiana University Press, (1985)
* Briggs, John. ''An Italian Passage: Immigrants to Three American Cities, 1890-1930'' Yale University Press, (1978)
* Daniels, Roger. ''Asian America: Chinese and Japanese in the United States since 1850'' University of Washington Press, (1988)
* Daniels, Roger. ''Coming to America'' 2nd ed. (2002)
* Daniels, Roger. ''Guarding the Golden Door : American Immigration Policy and Immigrants since 1882'' (2005)
* Diner, Hasia. ''The Jews of the United States, 1654 to 2000'' (2004)
* Diner, Hasia. ''Hungering for America : Italian, Irish, and Jewish Foodways in the Age of Migration'' (2003)
* Eltis, David; ''Coerced and Free Migration: Global Perspectives'' (2002) emphasis on migration to Americas before 1800
* Gjerde, Jon, ed. ''Major Problems in American Immigration and Ethnic History'' (1998) primary sources and excerpts from scholars.
* Glazier, Michael, ed. ''The Encyclopedia of the Irish in America'' (1999), articles by over 200 experts, covering both Catholics and Protestants.
* Greene, Victor R. ''A Singing Ambivalence: American Immigrants Between Old World and New, 1830-1930'' (2004), coving musical traditions
* Joseph, Samuel; ''Jewish Immigration to the United States from 1881 to 1910'' Columbia University Press, (1914)
* Kulikoff, Allan; ''From British Peasants to Colonial American Farmers'' (2000), details on colonial immigration
* Meagher, Timothy J. ''The Columbia Guide to Irish American History''. (2005)
* Miller, Kerby M. ''Emigrants and Exiles'' (1985), influential scholarly interpretation of Irish immigration
* Henry A. Pochmann, and Arthur R. Schultz; ''German Culture in America, 1600-1900: Philosophical and Literary Influences'' (1957)
* Sowell, Thomas. ''Ethnic America: A History'' (1981), by a conservative economist
* Thernstrom, Stephan, ed. ''Harvard Encyclopedia of American Ethnic Groups'' (1980) (ISBN: 0674375122), the standard reference, covering all major groups and most minor groups
* U.S. Immigration Commission, ''Abstracts of Reports,'' 2 vols. (1911),
* Carl Wittke, ''We Who Built America: The Saga of the Immigrant'' (1939), covers all major groups
* Yans-McLaughlin, Virginia ed. ''Immigration Reconsidered: History, Sociology, and Politics'' Oxford University Press. (1990)
===Recent: post 1965===
* Bogen, Elizabeth. ''Immigration in New York'' (1987)
* Bommes, Michael and Andrew Geddes. ''Immigration and Welfare: Challenging the Borders of the Welfare State'' (2000)
* Borjas, George. ''Friends or Strangers'' (1990)
* Briggs, Vernon M., Jr. ''Immigration Policy and the America Labor Force'' John Hopkins University Press, 1984.
* Briggs, Vernon M., Jr. ''Mass Immigration and the National Interest'' (1992)
* Fawcett, James T., and Benjamin V. Carino. ''Pacific Bridges: The New Immigration from Asia and the Pacific Islands'' . New York: Center for Migration Studies, 1987.
* Foner, Nancy. ''In A New Land: A Comparative View Of Immigration'' (2005)
* Levinson, David and Melvin Ember, eds. ''American Immigrant Cultures'' 2 vol (1997) covers all major and minor groups
* Meier, Matt S. and Gutierrez, Margo, eds. ''The Mexican American Experience : An Encyclopedia'' (2003) (ISBN: 0313316430)
* Portes, Alejandro, and Robert L. Bach. ''Latin Journey: Cuban and Mexican Immigrants in the United States.'' Berkeley: University of California Press, 1985.
* Portes, Alejandro, and Jozsef Borocz. "Contemporary Immigration: Theoretical Perspectives on Its Determinants and Modes of Incorporation." ''International Migration Review'' 23 (1989): 606-30.
* Portes, Alejandro, and Ruben Rumbaut. ''Immigrant America''. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1990.
* Reimers, David. ''Still the Golden Door: The Third World Comes to America'' Columbia University Press, (1985).
* Smith, James P, and Barry Edmonston, eds. ''The Immigration Debate: Studies on the Economic, Demographic, and Fiscal Effects of Immigration'' (1998), [http://www.nap.edu online version]
* Yang, Philip Q. ''Immigration to the United States: Structural Determinants'' (1995), statistical
==External links==
===History===
* [http://www.asian-nation.org/first.shtml Asian-Nation: Early Asian Immigration to the U.S.]
* [http://www.spartacus.schoolnet.co.uk/USAMproject.htm European Immigration to the United States]
* [http://www.cyndislist.com/immigrat.htm Cyndi's List - Immigration & Naturalization]
* [http://home.att.net/~wee-monster/passengers.html U.S Immigration Records & Passenger Lists Research Guide 1820-1940s]
* [http://www.amerikanetz.de/index.php?id=14&L=1 Network for German (Westphalian) Emigration to America since the 19th Century]
* [http://www.ericdigests.org/1997-3/nyc.html The Education of Immigrant Children in New York City]
* [http://www.paperson.com One Chinese American Family's Story about coming to American under the Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882]
*[http://memory.loc.gov/learn/features/immig/irish2.html Irish Catholic Immigration to America]
*[http://memory.loc.gov/learn/features/immig/irish.html Scotch-Irish Immigration to Colonial America]
===Immigration policy===
* [http://www.ailf.org/ipc/ipc_index.asp American Immigration Law Foundation - Immigration Policy Center]
* [http://www.brookings.edu/gs/projects/immigration.htm/ Brookings Institute: Immigration Policy webpage]
* [http://www.carryingcapacity.org/ Carrying Capacity Network]
*[http://digital.library.unt.edu/govdocs/crs/search.tkl?type=subject&q=immigration&q2=liv Read Congressonal Research Service (CRS) Reports regarding Immigration]
* [http://www.freetrade.org/issues/immigration.html Cato Institute's Center for Trade Policy Studies - Immigration webpage]
* [http://www.cis.org/ Center for Immigration Studies]
* [http://www.derechoshumanosaz.net Coalición de Derechos Humanos]
* [http://www.diversityalliance.org/ Diversity Alliance for a Sustainable America]
* [http://www.fairimmigration.org/ Fair Immigration Reform Movement]
* [http://www.fairus.org/ Federation for American Immigration Reform]
* [http://www.iwfr.org/ Immigrant Workers Freedom Ride Coalition]
* [http://legalizationusa.org/ The Legalization Site]
* [http://lonewacko.com/blog/archives/cat_immigration.html Lonewacko: Immigration category]
* [http://www.migrationpolicy.org/ Migration Policy Institute]
* [http://www.immigrationforum.org/ National Immigration Forum]
* [http://www.nilc.org/ National Immigration Law Center]
* [http://www.nnirr.org/ National Network for Immigrant and Refugee Rights]
* [http://www.newamericanopportunitycampaign.org/ New American Opportunity Campaign]
* [http://www.numbersusa.com/ NumbersUSA]
* [http://www.balance.org/ Population-Environment-Balance]
* [http://www.projectusa.org/ Project USA]
* [http://www.rightsworkinggroup.org/ Rights Working Group]
* [http://www.visa2003.com/ U.S. Immigration.]
* [http://www.urban.org/content/IssuesInFocus/immigrationstudies/immigration.htm/ Urban Institute: Immigration Studies webpage]
* [http://www.vdare.com/ VDARE]
* [http://www.zazona.com/ ZaZona]
* [http://unitefamilies.org/ unitefamilies.org] Lobby group working towards introduction of a 'V Visa'
===Current immigration===
* [http://uscis.gov/graphics/index.htm U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services]
* [http://www.law.cornell.edu/topics/immigration.html Cornell University's Legal Information Institute: Immigration]
The [[U.S. Census, 1850|1850 United States census]] was the first federal U.S. census to query about the "nativity" of citizens&mdash;where they were born, either in the United States or outside of it&mdash;and is thus the first point at which solid statistics become available. From the [[U.S. Census]] [http://www.census.gov/population/www/documentation/twps0029/twps0029.html], this chart shows the place of birth of the non-native population. Note that the same immigrant will be counted in each census during which they lived, so the numbers are of the cumulative number of living non-native citizens.
<TABLE CELLPADDING="5" BORDER="0">
<TR ALIGN="left" VALIGN="top">
<TH>Table 4.</TH>
<TH>Region and Country or Area of Birth of the Foreign-Born<BR>
Population, With Geographic Detail Shown in Decennial Census<BR>
Publications of [[U.S. Census, 1930|1930]] or Earlier: [[U.S. Census, 1850|1850]] to [[U.S. Census, 1930|1930]] and [[U.S. Census, 1960|1960]] to [[U.S. Census, 1990|1990]]</TH>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD>&nbsp;</TD>
<TD>Source: U.S. Bureau of the Census<BR>
Internet Release date: March 9, 1999
<P>
(See text for sources, definitions, and explanations)</TD>
</TR>
</TABLE>
<TABLE CELLPADDING="5" BORDER="1">
<TR ALIGN="right" VALIGN="bottom">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">Line<BR>
number</TD>
</TD><TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1">Region and country or area</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">[[U.S. Census, 1990|1990]]*</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">[[U.S. Census, 1980|1980]]*</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">[[U.S. Census, 1970|1970]]*</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">[[U.S. Census, 1960|1960]]*</TD>
</TR>
<TR></TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
&l |
Baron]]
[[Category:Barons in the Peerage of the United Kingdom|Lytton, Edward Bulwer-Lytton, 1st Baron]]
[[Category:Baronets in the Baronetage of the United Kingdom|Lytton, Edward Bulwer-Lytton, 1st Baron]]
[[Category:UK Conservative Party politicians|Lytton, Edward Bulwer-Lytton, 1st Baron]]
[[de:Edward Bulwer-Lytton]]
[[eo:Edward George BULWER-LYTTON]]
[[fr:Edward Bulwer-Lytton]]
[[ja:エドワード・ジョージ・ブルワー・リットン]]
[[nl:Edward Bulwer-Lytton]]
[[pt:Edward Bulwer-Lytton]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Euclidean ring</title>
<id>10394</id>
<revision>
<id>15908208</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Zundark</username>
<id>70</id>
</contributor>
<comment>remove text after redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Euclidean_domain]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Esperanto History</title>
<id>10395</id>
<revision>
<id>15908209</id>
<timestamp>2005-04-29T06:40:05Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Postdlf</username>
<id>29695</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[History of Esperanto]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Esperanto Grammar</title>
<id>10396</id>
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<title>Esperanto Culture</title>
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<title>History of Esperanto</title>
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<username>Flauto Dolce</username>
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<comment>Disambiguate [[Samos]] to [[Samos Island]] using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Esperanto}}
The [[constructed language|constructed]] [[international auxiliary language]] [[Esperanto]] was developed in the 1870s and 80s by [[L. L. Zamenhof]], and first published in 1887. The number of speakers has grown gradually over time, although it has not had much support from governments and international bodies, and has sometimes been outlawed or otherwise suppressed.
== Development of the language before publication ==
{{seesubarticle|Proto-Esperanto}}
Zamenhof would later say that he had dreamed of a world language since he was a child. At first he considered a revival of [[Latin]], but after learning it in school he decided it was too complicated to be a common means of international communication. When he learned English, he realized that [[grammatical conjugation|verb conjugations]] were unnecessary, and that grammatical systems could be much simpler than he had expected. He still had the problem of memorizing a large vocabulary, until he noticed two Russian signs labelled '''Швейцарская''' (''švejtsarskaja,'' a porter's lodge — from '''швейцар''' ''švejtsar,'' a porter) and '''Кондитерская''' (''konditerskaja,'' a confectioner's shop — from '''кондитер''' ''konditer,'' a confectioner). He then realized that a judicious use of [[affix]]es could greatly decrease the number of root words needed for communication. He chose to take his word stock from [[Romance languages|Romance]] and [[Germanic languages|Germanic]], the languages that were most widely taught in schools around the world and would therefore be recognizable to the largest number of people.
Zamenhof taught an [[Proto-Esperanto|early version of the language]] to his high-school classmates. Then, for several years, he worked on [[translation]]s and [[poetry]] to refine his creation. In 1895 he wrote, "I worked for six years perfecting and testing the language, even though it had seemed to me in 1878 that it was already completely ready." When he was ready to publish, the Czarist censors would not allow it. Stymied, he spent his time in translating works such as the [[Bible]] and [[William Shakespeare|Shakespeare]]. This enforced delay led to continued improvement. In July 1887 he published his ''[[Unua Libro]]'' (First Book), a basic introduction to the language. This was essentially the language spoken today.
== Esperanto history from publication until the first world congress ==
At first the movement grew most in the Russian empire and eastern Europe, but soon spread to western Europe and beyond: to [[Canada]] in 1901; to [[Algeria]], [[Chile]], [[Japan]], [[Mexico]], and [[Peru]] in 1903; to [[Tunisia]] in 1904; and to [[Australia]], the [[United States]], [[Guinea]], [[Indochina]], [[New Zealand]], [[Tonkin]], and [[Uruguay]] in 1905.
In its first years Esperanto was used mainly in publications by Zamenhof and early adopters like Anton Grabowski, in extensive correspondence (mostly now lost), in the magazine ''La Esperantisto'', published from 1889 to 1895 and only occasionally in personal encounters.
In 1894 under pressure from Wilhelm Trompeter, the publisher of the magazine ''La Esperantisto'', and some other leading users, Zamenhof reluctantly put forward a radical reform to be voted on by readers. He proposed the reduction of the alphabet to 22 letters (by eliminating the accented letters and most of their sounds), the change of the plural to ''-i'', the use of a positional accusative instead of the ending ''-n'', the removal of the distinction between adjectives and adverbs, the reduction of the number of participles from six to two, and the replacement of the [[table of correlatives]] with more latinate words or phrases. These reforms were overwhelmingly rejected, but some were picked up in [[esperantido|subsequent reforms]] (such as [[Ido]]) and criticisms of the language. In the following decade Esperanto spread into western Europe, especially France. By 1905 there were already 27 magazines being published ([[#References|Auld 1988]]).
A small international conference was held in 1904, leading to the first world congress in August 1905 in [[Boulogne-sur-Mer]], [[France]]. There were 688 Esperanto speakers present from 20 nationalities. At this congress, Zamenhof officially resigned his leadership of the Esperanto movement, as he did not want personal prejudice against himself (or [[anti-Semitism]]) to hinder the progress of the language. He proposed a [[Declaration of Boulogne|declaration]] on founding principles of the Esperanto movement, which the attendees of the congress endorsed.
== Esperanto history since the first congress ==
World congresses have been held every year since 1905, except during the two World Wars.
The autonomous territory of [[Neutral Moresnet]], between Belgium and Germany, had a sizeable proportion of Esperanto-speakers among its small and multiethnic population. There was a proposal to make Esperanto its official language.
In the early 1920s, there was a proposal for the [[League of Nations]] to accept Esperanto as their working language. Ten delegates accepted the proposal with only one voice against, the French delegate, [[Gabriel Hanotaux]]. Hanotaux did not like how the [[French language]] was losing its position as the international language and saw Esperanto as a threat. However, two years later the League recommended that its member states include Esperanto in their educational curricula. Many people see the 1920s as the heyday of the Esperanto movement.
Starting in the 1930s, [[Adolf Hitler]] and [[Joseph Stalin]] murdered many Esperanto speakers because of their [[nationalism|anti-nationalistic]] tendencies. Hitler wrote in ''[[Mein Kampf]]'' that it was created as a universal language to unite the [[Judaism|Jewish]] [[diaspora]]. Stalin called it "the language of spies". While Esperanto itself was not enough cause for execution, its use was extended among Jews or trade unionists and encouraged contacts with foreigners.
[[Fascist Italy]], on the other hand, made some efforts of promoting [[tourism in Italy]] through Esperanto leaflets.
The [[Cold War]], especially in the 1950s and 1960s, put a damper on the Esperanto movement as well, as there were fears on both sides that Esperanto could be used for enemy [[propaganda]]. However, the language experienced something of a renaissance in the 1970s and spread to new parts of the world, such as its veritable explosion in popularity in [[Iran]] in 1975. By 1991 there were enough African Esperantists to warrant a pan-African congress. The language continues to spread, although it is not officially recognized by any country, and is part of the state educational curriculum of only a few.
== Evolution of the language ==
The [[Declaration of Boulogne]] [http://www.geocities.com/Athens/Delphi/9061/bulonja.html] of 1905 limited changes to Esperanto. That declaration stated, among other things, that the basis of the language should remain the ''Fundamento de Esperanto'' ("Foundation of Esperanto", a group of early works by Zamenhof), which is to be binding forever: nobody has the right to make changes to it. The declaration also permits new concepts to be expressed as the speaker sees fit, but it recommends doing so in accordance with the original style.
Many Esperantists believe this declaration stabilizing the language is a major reason why the Esperanto speaker community grew beyond the levels attained by other constructed languages an |
pg|thumb|right|250px|Charlie Chaplin (not as a Jewish barber, but as himself) in "The Great Dictator" (1940)]]
==Politics==
Chaplin's political sympathies always lay with the [[left-wing politics|left]]. His politics seem tame by modern standards, but after the 1940's his views (in conjunction with his influence and fame) were seen by many as dangerously radical. His silent films made prior to the [[Great Depression]] typically did not contain overt political themes or messages, apart from the Tramp's plight in poverty and his run ins with the law. But his films made in the 1930's were more openly political. ''[[Modern Times]]'' ([[1936 in film|1936]]) depicts the dismal situation of workers and the poor in industrial society. The final dramatic speech in his 1940 film ''[[The Great Dictator]]'', which was critical of patriotic nationalism, was highly controversial, as was his vocal public support for the opening of a second European front in 1942 to assist the [[Soviet Union]] in [[World War II]]. The critical view of [[capitalism]] in his 1947 black comedy ''[[Monsieur Verdoux]]'' was hugely controversial, with the film being protested at many US cities.
[[image:CharlieChaplinAndGandhi.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Charlie Chaplin and Mahatma Gandhi.]]
==McCarthyism==
Although Chaplin had his major successes in the [[United States]] and was a resident from 1914 to 1952, he retained his [[United Kingdom|British]] nationality. During the era of [[McCarthyism]], Chaplin was accused of "[[un-American activities]]" as a suspected [[communism|communist]]; and [[J. Edgar Hoover]], who had instructed the [[FBI]] to keep extensive files on him, tried to end his United States residency. FBI pressure on Chaplin grew after his 1942 campaign for a second front in the war, and reached a critical level in the late 1940's, when Congressional figures threatened to call him as a witness in hearings. This was never done, probably because of fear of Chaplin's ability to ridicule and lampoon the investigators.
In [[1952]], Chaplin left the US for a trip to England; Hoover learned of it and negotiated with the [[Immigration and Naturalization Service|INS]] to revoke his re-entry permit. Chaplin then decided to stay in [[Europe]], and made his home in [[Vevey]], [[Switzerland]]. He briefly returned to the United States in April [[1972 in film|1972]], with his wife, to receive an [[Academy Honorary Award|Honorary Oscar]]. Even though he was invited by the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences (the [[Academy Awards]]), he was only issued a one-time entry visa valid for two months.
[[image:Chaplin_The_Kid.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Chaplin and [[Jackie Coogan]] in "[[The Kid (1921 film)|The Kid]]" (1921)]]
==Academy Award==
Chaplin won two honorary [[Academy Award|Oscar]]s. When the first Oscars were awarded on [[May 16]], [[1929 in film|1929]], the voting audit procedures that now exist had not yet been put into place, and the categories were still very fluid. Chaplin had originally been nominated for both Best Actor and Best Comedy Directing for his movie ''[[The Circus]]'', but his name was withdrawn and the Academy decided to give him a special award "for versatility and genius in acting, writing, directing and producing ''The Circus''" instead. The other film to receive a special award that year was ''[[The Jazz Singer]]''.
Chaplin's second honorary award came 44 years later in 1972, and was for "the incalculable effect he has had in making motion pictures the art form of this century". He came out of his exile to accept his award. Upon receiving the award, Chaplin received the longest [[standing ovation]] in Academy Award history, lasting a full five minutes from the delighted, enthralled star-studded studio audience.
Chaplin was also nominated without success for Best Picture, Best Actor, and Best Original Screenplay for ''[[The Great Dictator]]'', and again for Best Original Screenplay for ''[[Monsieur Verdoux]]'' ([[1947 in film|1947]]).
It is sometimes overlooked that Chaplin also won a competitive Academy Award. In [[1973 in film|1973]], he received an Oscar for the [[Academy Award for Original Music Score|Best Music in an Original Dramatic Score]] for the 1952 film ''[[Limelight (movie)|Limelight]]'', which co-starred [[Claire Bloom]]. The film also features a cameo with [[Buster Keaton]], which was the first and last time the two great comedians ever appeared together. Because of Chaplin's difficulties with McCarthyism, the film did not open in Los Angeles when it was first produced. This criterion for nomination was not fulfilled until 1972.
His final films were ''[[A King in New York]]'' ([[1957 in film|1957]]) and ''[[A Countess From Hong Kong]]'' ([[1967 in film|1967]]), starring [[Sophia Loren]] and [[Marlon Brando]].
==Relationships==
===Mildred Harris===
Chaplin's professional successes were repeatedly overshadowed by his private life, particularly with regard to his politics and his pattern of relationship with young women. On [[October 23]], [[1918]], the 28 year old Chaplin married the 16-year-old [[Mildred Harris]]. They had one child, Norman Spencer Chaplin, who died in infancy; they divorced in 1920. During the divorce Chaplin claimed Harris had had a [[lesbian]] affair with noted actress of the time [[Alla Nazimova]], well known for seducing young actresses. Harris in turn claimed Chaplin was a sexual addict into very unusual sex activities. Both claims have merit.
===Lita Grey===
At 35, he became involved with 16-year-old [[Lita Grey]] during preparations for ''[[The Gold Rush]]''. They married on [[November 26]], [[1924]] after she became pregnant. They had two sons, the actors [[Charles Chaplin Jr.]] (1925-1968) and [[Sydney Earle Chaplin]]. Their extraordinarily bitter divorce in 1928 had Chaplin paying Grey a then-record-breaking $825,000 settlement. The stress of the sensational divorce, compounded by a tax dispute, allegedly turned his hair white. The publication of court records, which included many intimate details, led to a campaign against him.
===Paulette Goddard===
Chaplin and actress [[Paulette Goddard]] were involved in a romantic and professional relationship between 1932 and 1940, with Goddard living with Chaplin in his Beverly Hills home for most of this time. After the relationship ended, Chaplin made public statements that they had been secretly married in 1936, but in private he claimed they were in fact never officially married. In any case, their common-law marriage ended amicably in 1942, with Goddard being granted a divorce and settlement.
===Joan Barry===
Chaplin briefly dated actress [[Joan Barry]], but ended it when she started harassing him and displaying signs of severe mental illness. In May 1943, she filed a paternity suit against him. Blood tests proved Chaplin was not the father, but as blood tests were inadmissible evidence in court, he was ordered to pay $75 a week until the child turned 21.
===Oona O'Neill===
Shortly thereafter, he met [[Oona O'Neill]], daughter of [[Eugene O'Neill]], and married her on [[June 16]], [[1943]]. He was 54; she was 17. This happened in the face of her father's refusal to give his permission; he said that if they went through with the marriage, he would never speak to Oona again. As far as is known, he kept his word. Despite this, the marriage was a long and happy one, with eight children. They had three sons: [[Christopher Chaplin|Christopher]], [[Eugene Chaplin|Eugene]] and [[Michael Chaplin]] and five daughters: [[Geraldine Chaplin|Geraldine]], [[Josephine Chaplin|Josephine]], [[Jane Chaplin|Jane]], [[Victoria Chaplin|Victoria]] and [[Annette-Emilie Chaplin]].
[[image:CharlieChaplinTheModernTimes3.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Charlie Chaplin and [[Paulette Goddard]] in "Modern Times" (1936)]]
==Knighted==
On [[March 4]], [[1975]], he was [[British honours system|knighted]] as a [[Order of the British Empire|Knight of the British Empire]] by [[Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom|Queen Elizabeth II]]. The honour was first proposed in [[1956]], but was vetoed by the British [[Foreign Office]] on the grounds that he sympathized with the left and that it would damage British relations with the United States, at the height of the [[Cold War]] and with planning for the ill-fated [[Suez Crisis|invasion of Suez]] underway.
==Death==
Chaplin died on [[Christmas Day]], [[1977]], in [[Vevey]], [[Switzerland]], following a [[stroke]], aged 88, and was interred in [[Corsier-Sur-Vevey Cemetery]] in [[Corsier-Sur-Vevey]], [[Vaud]]. On [[March 1]], [[1978]], his body was stolen in an attempt to extort money from his family. The plot failed, the robbers were captured, and the body was recovered 11 weeks later near [[Lake Geneva]].
==Misinformation==
Some have said or suggested Chaplin was Jewish. It is unclear how this rumor began. One anti-Semite, [[George Lincoln Rockwell]] founder of the [[American Nazi Party]], claimed Chaplin's real name was Israel Thonstein.[http://www.skrewdriver.org.uk/tttw4.html] There has never been any documentation showing Charlie Chaplin was Jewish and he made a point of not giving an answer so as to not dignify the question.
==Legacy==
*There is a statue of Chaplin in front of the alimentarium in [[Vevey]] to commemorate the last part of his life.
*Amongst his many honours, Chaplin has a star on the [[Hollywood Walk of Fame]] and in 1985 he was honoured with his image on a [[List of people on stamps of the United Kingdom|postage stamp of the United Kingdom]] and in 1994 he appeared on a [[List of people on stamps of the United States|United States postage stamp]] designed by caricaturist [[Al Hirschfeld]].
*In 1992 a film was made about his life entitled ''[[Chaplin (film)|Chaplin]]'', directed by Oscar-winner Lord [[Richard Attenborough]], and starring [[Robert Downey Jr.]], [[Dan Aykroyd]], [[Geraldine Chaplin]] (Charlie's daughter, portr |
;Delta;H <sup>...</sup>(1)
The process was first patented by [[Fritz Haber]] in [[1908]]. In [[1910]] [[Carl Bosch]], while working for chemical company [[BASF]], successfully commercialized the process and secured further patents. It was first used on an industrial scale by the Germans during [[World War I]]: Germany had previously imported [[Sodium nitrate|'Chilean saltpeter']] from [[Chile]], but the demand for munitions and the uncertainty of this supply in the war prompted the adoption of the process. The ammonia produced was oxidized for the production of [[nitric acid]] in the [[Ostwald process]], and the [[nitric acid]] for the production of various explosive nitro compounds used in munitions.
The nitrogen is obtained from the air, and the hydrogen is obtained from water and [[natural gas]] in [[steam reforming]]:
:[[carbon|C]]H<sub>4</sub>(g) + H<sub>2</sub>[[oxygen|O]](g) &rarr; CO(g) + 3H<sub>2</sub>(g) <sup>...</sup>(2)
and [[shift conversion]]:
:CO(g) + H<sub>2</sub>O(g) &rarr; CO<sub>2</sub>(g) + H<sub>2</sub>(g) <sup>...</sup>(3)
==Equilibrium and the Haber process==
The reaction of nitrogen and hydrogen (1) is [[chemical equilibrium|reversible]], meaning the reaction can proceed in either the forward or the reverse direction depending on conditions. The forward reaction is [[exothermic reaction|exothermic]], meaning it produces heat and is favored at low [[temperature]]s. Increasing the temperature tends to drive the reaction in the reverse direction, which is undesirable if the goal is to produce ammonia. However, reducing the temperature reduces the rate of the reaction, which is also undesirable. Therefore, an intermediate temperature high enough to allow the reaction to proceed at a reasonable rate, yet not so high as to drive the reaction in the reverse direction, is required. Usually, 400°C is used.
High [[pressure]]s favour the forward reaction because there are fewer molecules on the right side. So the only compromise in pressure is the economical situation trying to increase the pressure as much as possible. Usually, 200 [[atm]] is used.
The [[catalyst]] has no effect on the position of equilibrium, however it does increase the reaction rate. This allows the process to be operated at lower temperatures, which as mentioned before favors the forward reaction. The first Haber-Bosch reaction chambers used [[osmium]] and [[uranium]] catalysts. However, today a much less expensive [[iron]] catalyst is used almost exclusively.
In industrial practice, the iron catalyst is prepared by exposing a mass of [[magnetite]], an iron oxide, to the hot hydrogen feedstock. This reduces some of the magnetite to metallic iron, in the metallic iron, removing [[oxygen]] in the process. However, the catalyst maintains most of its bulk volume during the reduction, and so the result is a highly porous material whose large surface area aids its effectiveness as a catalyst. Other minor components of the catalyst include [[calcium]] and [[aluminium]] oxides, which support the porous iron catalyst and help it maintain its surface area over time, and [[potassium]], which increases the [[electron]] density of the catalyst and so improves its reactivity.
The ammonia is formed as a gas but on cooling in the condensor liquefies at the high pressures used, and so is removed as a [[liquid]]. Unreacted nitrogen and hydrogen is fed back in to the reaction.
The Haber process now produces 500 million tons of artificial fertilizer per year, mostly in the form of anhydrous [[ammonia]], [[ammonium nitrate]], and [[urea]]. 1% of the world's energy supply is consumed in the manufacturing of that fertilizer (Science 297(1654), Sep 2002). That fertilizer is responsible for sustaining 40% of the Earth's population.
==References==
* ''Enriching the Earth: Fritz Haber, Carl Bosch, and the Transformation of World Food Production'' by Vaclav Smil (2001) ISBN 0-262-19449-X
* ''Fertilizer Industry: Processes, Pollution Control and Energy Conservation'' by Marshall Sittig (1979) Noyes Data Corp., N.J. ISBN 0-8155-0734-8
==External links==
*[http://www.wisegeek.com/what-is-the-haber-bosch-process.htm What is the Haber-Bosch Process?]
*[http://www.idsia.ch/~juergen/haberbosch.html Haber-Bosch process]
*[http://www.efma.org/Publications/10anniversary/Section02.asp Fertilizer,agriculture and the production of food]
*[http://www.earthinstitute.columbia.edu/crosscutting/cciseminars/2005spring/Sanchez040705.htm Food Crises and the Role of Agriculture: Past and Current]
*[http://www.britannica.com/nobel/micro/253_44.html Britannica guide to Nobel Prizes: Haber-Bosch process]
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[[Category:Industrial processes]]
[[Category:Peak oil]]
[[de:Haber-Bosch-Verfahren]]
[[es:Proceso de Haber]]
[[fr:Procédé de Haber]]
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<title>Hot or Not</title>
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<username>Moncrief</username>
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<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Hot or Not''' is a [[website]] that allows users to rate the attractiveness of [[photo]]s submitted voluntarily by others. Photos are approved by volunteer moderators, who strive to keep the site "fun, clean, and real."
Founded in [[October 2000]] by two [[Silicon Valley]]-based engineers, James Hong and Jim Young, the site was originally called '''Am I Hot or Not''', and quickly became very popular. The site allowed people to submit their pictures, and visitors would rate them on a scale of one (not) to ten (hot).
Within a week of launching, the site had reached the level of serving almost two million page views per day. Within a few months, the site had penetrated the [[NetNielsen Rating]]'s Top 25 advertising domains, placed immediately behind [[CNET]] and [[NBCi]].
In order to keep up with rising costs, Hong and Young added a [[matchmaking]] component to their website called "Meet Me at Hot or Not", i.e. a system of [[range voting]].
==Imitators==
Hot or Not was originally preceded by the popular [http://RateMyFace.com RateMyFace.com], which was launched a year earlier in the summer of [[1999]], although Hot or Not would eventually become a more popular website. Since then, Hot or Not has spawned many imitators. Imitators have even taken the concept as far as rating Network Diagrams [http://www.ratemynetworkdiagram.com RateMyNetworkDiagram.com] and the female breast [http://www.getyourboobsout.com GetYourBoobsOut.com] to grading ambiguously pornographic images on [http://pornornot.net PornOrNot.net]. The concept always remains the same, but the subject matter varies greatly.
===Rating distribution===
A comparison of the original hotornot.com and others, such as the German [http://www.hotornot.de hotornot.de], revealed a large difference in average ratings between the sites. One possible cause of this difference is that the [[algorithm]] used to keep track of scores on hotornot.com contains a [[bias term]] to effectively 'overrate' all participants, with most pictures rated 7 or above. However, the more likely reason is that hotornot.com only show pictures of people who continue to check their scores, suggesting that those who have higher ratings return to the site more frequently than those with low scores.
==External links==
* [http://www.hotornot.com Hot or Not website]
* [http://dmoz.org/Recreation/Picture_Ratings/ A list of picture rating sites at dmoz.org]
[[Category:Entertainment websites]]
[[Category:Sexuality and society]]
[[sv:HOT or NOT]]</text>
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<page>
<title>H.263</title>
<id>14024</id>
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<timestamp>2006-02-20T01:57:38Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
<id>82835</id>
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<minor />
<comment>External links per MoS.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''H.263''' is a [[video codec]] designed by the [[ITU-T]] as a low-bitrate encoding solution for [[videoconferencing]]. It was first designed to be utilized in [[H.324]] based systems ([[Public Switched Telephone Network|PSTN]] and other [[Circuit switching|circuit-switched]] network videoconferencing and videotelephony), but has since found use in [[H.323]] ([[Real-time Transport Protocol|RTP]]/IP-based videoconferencing), [[H.320]] ([[Integrated Services Digital Network|ISDN]]-based videoconferencing), [[RTSP]] ([[streaming media]]) and [[SIP]] (Internet conferencing) solutions as well.
H.263 was developed as an evolutionary improvement based on experience from [[H.261]], the previous ITU-T standard for video compression, and the [[MPEG-1]] and [[MPEG-2]] standards. Its first version was completed in 1995 and provided a suitable replacement for [[H.261]] at all bitrates. It was further enhanced in projects known as [[H.263v2]] (a.k.a. H.263+ or H.263 1998) and H.263v3 (a.k.a. H.263++ or H.263 2000).
The next enhanced codec developed by the [[ITU-T]] (in partnership with [[MPEG]]) after H.263 is the [[H.264/MPEG-4 AVC|H.264]] standard, also known as AVC and [[MPEG-4]] part 10. As H.264 provides a significant improvement in capability beyond H.263, the H.263 standard is now considered primarily a legacy design (although this is a recent development). Most new videoconferencing products now include H.264 as well as H.263 and H.261 capabilities.
==External links==
* [http://www.ietf.org/html.charters/avt-charter.html IETF AVT Working Group] - Group that reviews codec packetizations for [[Real-time_Transport_Protocol|RTP]]
** [http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc2190.txt RTP Payload Format for H.26 |
nion]] - of interest to [[marketing | marketeer]]s, to [[opinion poll]] and to [[secret police]]men
In modern times, "gossip" is now often commonly understood to mean the spreading of [[rumor]] and [[misinformation]], often through exicted conversation over [[scandal]]s.
==Enemies of gossip==
Some see gossip as trivial, hurtful and socially and/or intellectually unproductive.
In a more sinister interpretation, restrictions on gossip could potentially paralyse the free flow of information and enforce [[straight-jacket]]ed [[thought | think]]ing and [[censorship]] in a community. Compare [[freedom of speech]].
==Quotes==
''Gossip, even when it avoids the sexual, bears around it a faint flavor of the erotic.'' - Patricia Meyer Spacks
==See also==
* [[Gossip magazines]]
* [[Libel]]
* [[Rumor]]
* [[Scandal]]
* [[Misinformation]]
==Bibliography==
* Robert F. Goodman and A. Ben-Zeev, eds. ''Good Gossip''. Univ. Press of Kansas, 1993.
* Patricia Meyer Spacks. ''Gossip''. New York: Knopf, 1985.
==External links==
{{Wikiquote}}
*[http://www.chass.utoronto.ca/~sousa/gossip.html Ronald Susa (U Toronto) on Gossip]
*[http://www.nytimes.com/2002/08/10/arts/10GOSS.html?todaysheadlines Go Ahead Gossip May Be Virtuous, New York Times article August 10, 2002]
*[http://www.holidaycook.com/party-games/gossip.shtml Gossip - Rules for the Parlor Game]
*[http://las.alfred.edu/~hustud/Westacott/The%20Ethics%20of%20Gossiping.PDF Emrys Westacott (Alfred U) The Ethics of Gossiping]
[[pl:plotka]]
*[http://www.tuttogossip.com Italian gossip resource]
[[Category:Human communication]]
[[Category:Communication of falsehoods]]
[[Category:Social constructionism]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Graphical User Interface</title>
<id>12617</id>
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<id>19150259</id>
<timestamp>2005-07-19T13:14:36Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Sonett72</username>
<id>71107</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Graphical user interface]]</text>
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<page>
<title>G4</title>
<id>12618</id>
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<id>41615648</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T15:11:23Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Kbdank71</username>
<id>197953</id>
</contributor>
<comment>per [[WP:CFD]] [[Wikipedia:Categories for deletion/Log/2006 February 20|Feb 20]] using [[Wikipedia:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''G4''' or '''G-4''' is the name of:
* '''[[PowerPC G4]]''' – a type of [[microprocessor]] used by [[Apple Computer]].
* '''[[G4 (TV channel)]]''' – a male-oriented (formerly video game oriented) [[television station|TV channel]].
* '''[[G4 (band)]]''' – a pop group on the [[ITV]] [[television programme]] ''[[The X Factor (television series)|The X Factor]]''.
*'''G4''' is the IATA code for [[Allegiant Air]]
* '''G4 star''' – a subclass of G-[[Stellar classification|class]] [[star]]s.
* '''[[Group 4]]''' of the [[periodic table]].
* '''[[G4 nations]]''' – four major nations seeking seats on the [[UN Security Council]]: [[Germany]], [[Brazil]], [[Japan]], and [[India]].
* '''[[G4 bloc]]''' – [[China]], [[India]], [[Brazil]], and [[South Africa]]&mdash;the core leadership of the larger [[G20]] trade bloc within the [[World Trade Organization]].
* '''[[Gulfstream G400]] and G450''' – private jets.
*'''[[Santa Clara County Route G4]]''' – a county [[highway]] in [[Santa Clara County, California]], [[United States|USA]].
* [[Group of Four]]
* A former VIP unit of the Hong Kong Police Force.
{{2CC}}
[[ja:G4]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Garbage collection</title>
<id>12619</id>
<revision>
<id>34563076</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-10T02:09:03Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>JosephBarillari</username>
<id>28715</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Garbage collection''' can refer to two different things:
* [[Garbage collection (computer science)]]: an automatic way of reclaiming unused storage;
* Civic garbage collection: [[waste management]].
{{disambig}}</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Guitarist</title>
<id>12620</id>
<revision>
<id>40091084</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-18T01:43:35Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Jazzgtrpunk</username>
<id>951361</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:howe.jpg|thumb|250px|Steve Howe playing lead guitar for Yes in 1977]]
A '''guitarist''' is a [[musician]] who plays the [[guitar]]. <br>
<!-- This section was becoming a vanity section and not adding much usefulness; commenting it out entirely until someone/some people can clean it up.
==Noted guitarists==
===[[European classical music|Classical]]===
==== Baroque (XVII & XVIII century) ====
* [[François Campion]] (ca 1688-1748)
* [[Antoine Carré (guitarist)|Antoine Carré]]
* [[Francisco Corbetta]] (ca 1620-1681)
* [[Nicolas Desrosiers]]
* [[Giovanni Paolo Foscarini]]
* [[Henri Grenerin]]
* [[Giovanni Battista Granata]]
* [[Francisco Guerau]]
* [[Louis Jourdan de La Salle]]
* [[Girolamo Montesardo]]
* [[Santiago de Murcia]]
* [[Gaspard Sanz]] (1640-1710)
* [[Robert de Visée]] (ca 1658-1725)
==== XIX century ====
*[[Dioniso Aguado]] (1784-1849)
*[[Matteo Carcassi]] (1792-1853)
*[[Ferdinando Carulli]] (1770-1841)
*[[Napoléon Coste]] (1806-1883)
*[[Zani de Ferranti]] (1801-1878)
*[[José Ferrer (guitarist)|José Ferrer]] (1835-1916)
*[[François de Fossa]]
*[[Mauro Giuliani]] (1781-1829)
*[[Johann Kaspar Mertz]] (1806-1856)
*[[Niccolò Paganini]] (1782-1840)
*[[Julio Regondi]]
*[[Fernando Sor]] (1778-1839)
*[[Francisco Tárrega]]
==== XX century ====
*[[Agustín Barrios]] (Agustín Pió Barrios) (1885-1944)
*[[Alexandre Lagoya]] (1929-1999)
*[[Antonio Lauro]] (1917-1986)
*[[Miguel Llobet]] (1878-1938)
*[[Godelieve Monden]]
*[[Sergei Orekhov]]
*[[Emilio Pujol]]
*[[Ida Presti]] (1924-1967)
*[[Regino Sainz de la Maza]]
*[[Andrés Segovia]] (1893-1987)
*[[Joseph Tomo]]
*[[Dimitris Fampas]] (1921-1996)
*[[Narciso Yepes]] (1927-1997)
*[[Mike Reid]] (1929-1990)
==== Contemporary ====
===== England/Scotland =====
*[[Jeff Beck]]
*[[Ritchie Blackmore]]
*[[Eric Clapton]]
*[[Peter Frampton]]
*[[Jimmy Page]]
*[[Angus Young]]
===== United States =====
*[[Lily Afshar]]
*[[Magnus Andersson]] (*1955)
*[[Roberto Aussel]]
*[[Manuel Barrueco]] (*1952)
*[[Paulo Bellinati]]
*[[Dusan Bogdanovic]]
*[[Ben Bolt]] (*1953)
*[[Julian Bream]] (*1933)
*[[Leo Brouwer]] (*1939)
*[[Il-Ryun Chung]]
*[[Marco Comandè]] (*1956)
*[[Alirio Diaz]] (*1923)
*[[Máximo Diego Pujol]]
*[[Carlo Domeniconi]]
*[[Zoran Dukić]] (*1969)
*[[Roland Dyens]] (*1955)
*[[Eva Fampas]]
*[[Oliver Fartach-Naini]] (*1964) Guitarist from Berlin, teaches at the University of Adelaide, Australia
*[[Eliot Fisk]]
*[[Jimi Hendrix]]
*[[James Hogan]]
*[[Sharon Isbin]]
*[[Jovan Jovicic]]
*[[Nikita Koshkin]]
*[[Carlo Marchione]] (*1964)
*[[Pablo Márquez]]
*[[Jaime Mirtenbaum Zenamon]]
*[[Jorge Morel]] (*1931)
*[[Tony Morris]] (*1962) Performer & national public radio producer
*[[Thomas Müller-Pering]] (*1958)
*[[Silvia Ocougne]] (*1957) Contemporary music performer and composer. Brasilian, lives in Berlin, Germany.
*[[Allar Õunapuu]] (*1967)
*[[Christopher Parkening]] (*1947)
*[[Alvaro Pierri]]
*[[Alberto Ponce]] (*1935)
*[[Stanko Prek]]
*[[David Qualey]] (*1947)
*[[Štěpán Rak]]
*[[Duke Robillard]]
*[[David Russell]]
*[[Angel Romero]]
*[[Pepe Romero]]
*[[Stephan Schmidt]]
*[[John Schneider (guitarist)|John Schneider]]
*[[Frank Lee Sprague]]
*[[David Starobin]]
*[[Pavel Steidl]]
*[[David Tanenbaum]]
*[[John Williams (guitarist)|John Williams]]
*[[Kazuhito Yamashita]]
*[[Andrew York]]
*[[Laura Young]]
==== Promising talents ====
*[[Alex Wand]]
*[[Carlo Corrieri]]
*[[Marcin Dylla]]
*[[Boris Gaquere]]
*[[Pablo Gómez]]
*[[Joseph Jacks]]
*[[Timo Korhonen]]
*[[Goran Krivokapić]]
*[[Dimitri Illarionov]]
*[[Grégory Leclair]]
*[[Anthony Ocana]]
*[[Antal Pusztai]]
*[[Denis Sung-Hô]]
*[[Aliéksey Vianna]]
*[[Yang Xuefei]]
*[[Ryan Lloyd]]
*[[Eric Bates]]
==== Guitar Quartet ====
*[[Los Angeles Guitar Quartet]]
Ed Snook
==== Guitar trios ====
*[[Trio de Cologne]]
==== Guitar duos ====
*[[Duo Assad]]
*[[Duo Astor]]
*[[Duo Lee Song-Ou & Oliver Fartach-Naini]]
----
===[[Latin-American music]]===
*[[Baden Powell]]
*[[Atahualpa Yupanqui]]
*[[Victor Villadangos]]
----
===[[Flamenco]]===
:[[Vicente Amigo]]
:[[Moraito Chico]]
:[[Mario Escudero]]
:[[Oscar Herrero]]
:[[Paco de Lucía]]
:[[Luis Maravilla]]
:[[Carlos Montoya]]
:[[Ramón Montoya]]
:[[Paco Peña]]
:[[Esteban de Sanlucar]]
:[[Nino Ricardo (Manuel Serrapi)]]
:[[Sabicas (Augustin Castellon)]]
:[[Manolo Sanlúcar]]
:[[Tomatito]]
:[[Tito Alcedo]]
----
===[[Jazz]]===
[[List of jazz guitarists| List of jazz guitarists]]
:[[Danny Barker]]
:[[Jørn Are Vigestad Berge]]
:[[Lenny Breau]]
:[[Charlie Byrd]]
:[[Charlie Christian]]
:[[Franco Cerri]]
:[[Gigi Cifarelli]]
:[[Eddie Condon]]
:[[Drew Denton]]
:[[Al Di Meola]]
:[[Bill Frisell]]
:[[Frank Gambale]]
:[[Jim Hall (musician)|Jim Hall]]
:[[Chuck Hammer]]
:[[Scott Henderson]]
:[[Allan Holdsworth]]
:[[Charlie Hunter]]
:[[Stanley Jordan]]
:[[Enver Izmailov]]
:[[Barney Kessel]]
:[[Eddie Lang]]
:[[Tony Macalpine]]
:[[Pat Martino]]
:[[John McLaughlin (musician)|John McLaughlin]]
:[[Pat Metheny]]
:[[Wes Montgomery]]
:[[Joe Pass]]
:[[Andreas Paolo Perger]]
:[[Snoozer Quinn]]
:[[Django Reinhardt]]
:[[Marc Ribot]]
:[[John Scofield]]
:[[Sonny Sharrock]]
:[[Mike Stern]]
:[[Andy Summers]]
:[[Martin Taylor]]
:[[Gabor Szabo]]
:[[Herb Ellis]]
:[[Richard Hallebeek]]
Michael ATONAL Vick on Fretless Guitar Guitars and Bass
[http://www.atonal-hole.com Atonal-Hole.com]
----
===Folk and acoustic===
:[[William Ackerman]]
:[[Dan Ar Braz]]
:[[Patrick Beverley]]
:[[Chet Atkins]]
:[[Joan Baez]]
:[[Gilles le Bigot]]
:[[Martin Carthy]]
:[[Ry Cooder]]
:[[Jim Croce]]
:[[John Denver]]
:[[A |
ho had a much more compassionate persona.
{{law-bio-stub}}
[[Category:Ancient Athenians]]
[[Category:Legislators]]
[[de:Drakon]]
[[es:Dracón]]
[[fr:Dracon]]
[[he:דרקון (מנהיג אתונה)]]
[[la:Draco]]
[[nl:Draco (wetgever)]]
[[pl:Drakon]]
[[pt:Drácon de Atenas]]
[[fi:Drakon]]
[[zh:德拉古]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Determinant</title>
<id>8468</id>
<revision>
<id>41908259</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T15:13:24Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>StradivariusTV</username>
<id>164429</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* Determinants of 2-by-2 matrices */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">In [[linear algebra]], a '''determinant''' is a [[function (mathematics)|function]] depending on ''n'' that associates a [[scalar]] det(''A'') to every ''n''&times;''n'' [[square matrix]] ''A''. The fundamental geometric meaning of a determinant is as the [[scale factor]] for [[volume]] when ''A'' is regarded as a [[linear transformation]]. Determinants are important both in [[calculus]], where they enter the [[substitution rule]] for several variables, and in [[multilinear algebra]].
For a fixed positive integer ''n'', there is a unique determinant function for the ''n''&times;''n'' matrices over any [[commutative ring]] ''R''. In particular, this function exists when ''R'' is the [[field (mathematics)|field]] of [[real number|real]] or [[complex number]]s.
A determinant of ''A'' is also sometimes denoted by |''A''|, but this notation is ambiguous: it is also used to for certain [[matrix norm]]s, and for the [[square root]] of <math>{AA}^*</math>.
== Determinants of 2-by-2 matrices ==
The 2&times;2 matrix
<math>A=\begin{bmatrix}a&b\\
c&d\end{bmatrix}</math>
has determinant
<math>\det(A)=ad-bc. \,</math>
The interpretation when the matrix has real number entries is that this gives the [[area (geometry)|area]] of the [[parallelogram]] with vertices at (0,0), (''a'',''c''), (''b'',''d''), and (''a'' + ''b'', ''c'' + ''d''), with a sign factor (which is &minus;1 if ''A'' as a [[transformation matrix]] flips the [[unit square]] over).
A formula for larger matrices will be given below.
== Applications ==
Determinants are used to characterize [[invertible matrix|invertible matrices]] (namely as those matrices, and only those matrices, with non-zero determinants), and to explicitly describe the solution to a system of [[linear equation]]s with [[Cramer's rule]]. They can be used to find the [[eigenvalue]]s of the matrix <math>A</math> through the [[characteristic polynomial]]
:<math>p(x) = \det(xI - A) \,</math>
where ''I'' is the [[identity matrix]] of the same format as ''A''.
One often thinks of the determinant as assigning a number to every [[sequence]] of <math>n</math> vectors in <math>\Bbb{R}^n</math>, by using the square matrix whose columns are the given vectors.
With this understanding, the sign of the determinant of a [[basis (linear algebra)|basis]] can be used to define the notion of [[orientation (mathematics)|orientation]] in [[Euclidean space]]s. The determinant of a set of vectors is [[negative and non-negative numbers|positive]] if the vectors form a right-handed [[coordinate system]], and negative if left-handed.
Determinants are used to calculate [[volume]]s in [[vector calculus]]: the [[absolute value]] of the determinant of real vectors is equal to the volume of the [[parallelepiped]] spanned by those vectors. As a consequence, if the [[linear transformation|linear map]] <math>f: \Bbb{R}^n \rightarrow \Bbb{R}^n</math> is represented by the matrix <math>A</math>, and <math>S</math> is any [[Lebesgue measure|measurable]] [[subset]] of <math>\Bbb{R}^n</math>, then the volume of <math>f(S)</math> is given by <math>\left| \det(A) \right| \times \operatorname{volume}(S)</math>. More generally, if the linear map <math>f: \Bbb{R}^n \rightarrow \Bbb{R}^m</math> is represented by the <math>m</math>-by-<math>n</math> matrix <math>A</math>, and <math>S</math> is any measurable subset of <math>\Bbb{R}^{n}</math>, then the <math>n</math>-[[dimension]]al volume of <math>f(S)</math> is given by <math>\sqrt{\det(A^\top A)} \times \operatorname{volume}(S)</math>. By calculating the volume of the [[tetrahedron]] bounded by four points, they can be used to identify [[skew line]]s.
The volume of any [[tetrahedron]], given its vertices '''a''', '''b''', '''c''', and '''d''', is (1/6)&middot;|[[determinant|det]]('''a'''&minus;'''b''', '''b'''&minus;'''c''', '''c'''&minus;'''d''')|, or any other combination of pairs of vertices that form a simply connected [[graph theory|graph]].
== General definition and computation ==
Suppose <math>A = (A_{i,j}) \,</math> is a square matrix.
If <math>A</math> is a 1-by-1 matrix, then <math>\det(A) = A_{1,1}. \,</math>
If <math>A</math> is a 2-by-2 matrix, then <math>\det(A) = A_{1,1}A_{2,2} - A_{2,1}A_{1,2}. \,</math>
For a 3-by-3 matrix <math>A</math>, the formula is more complicated:
:<math>
\begin{matrix}
\det(A) & = & A_{1,1}A_{2,2}A_{3,3} + A_{1,3}A_{2,1}A_{3,2} + A_{1,2}A_{2,3}A_{3,1}\\
& & - A_{1,3}A_{2,2}A_{3,1} - A_{1,1}A_{2,3}A_{3,2} - A_{1,2}A_{2,1}A_{3,3}.
\end{matrix}\,</math>
For a general <math>n</math>-by-<math>n</math> matrix, the determinant was defined by [[Gottfried Leibniz]] with what is now known as the '''Leibniz formula''':
:<math>\det(A) = \sum_{\sigma \in S_n} \sgn(\sigma) \prod_{i=1}^n A_{i, \sigma(i)}.</math>
The sum is computed over all [[permutation]]s <math>\sigma</math> of the numbers {1,2,...,''n''} and <math>\sgn(\sigma)</math> denotes the [[signature (permutation)|signature]] of the permutation <math>\sigma</math>: +1 if <math>\sigma</math> is an even permutation and &minus;1 if it is odd (see [[even and odd permutations]]).
This formula contains <math>n!</math> ([[factorial]]) summands and is therefore impractical to use it to calculate determinants for large <math>n</math>.
In general, determinants can be computed with the [[Gauss-Jordan elimination|Gauss algorithm]] using the following rules:
* If <math>A</math> is a [[triangular matrix]], i.e. <math>A_{i,j} = 0 \,</math> whenever <math>i > j</math>, then <math>\det(A) = A_{1,1} A_{2,2} \cdots A_{n,n}. \,</math>
* If <math>B</math> results from <math>A</math> by exchanging two rows or columns, then <math>\det(B) = -\det(A). \,</math>
* If <math>B</math> results from <math>A</math> by multiplying one row or column with the number <math>c</math>, then <math>\det(B) = c\,\det(A). \,</math>
* If <math>B</math> results from <math>A</math> by adding a multiple of one row to another row, or a multiple of one column to another column, then <math>\det(B) = \det(A). \,</math>
Explicitly, starting out with some matrix, use the last three rules to convert it into a triangular matrix, then use the first rule to compute its determinant.
It is also possible to expand a determinant along a row or column using ''[[Laplace expansion|Laplace's formula]]'', which is efficient for relatively small matrices. To do this along row <math>i</math>, say, we write
:<math>\det(A) = \sum_{j=1}^n A_{i,j}C_{i,j} = \sum_{j=1}^n A_{i,j} (-1)^{i+j} M_{i,j}</math>
where the <math>C_{i,j}</math> represent the matrix [[cofactor (mathematics)|cofactor]]s, i.e. <math>C_{i,j}</math> is <math>(-1)^{i+j}</math> times the [[minor (matrix)|minor]] <math>M_{i,j}</math>, which is the determinant of the matrix that results from <math>A</math> by removing the <math>i</math>-th row and the <math>j</math>-th column.
==Quick Reference==
The determinants for square matrices of size 1 to 3 are:
:<math>\det \begin{bmatrix} a \end{bmatrix} = a</math>
:<math>\det \begin{bmatrix}a&b\\
c&d\end{bmatrix} = ad - bc</math>
:<math>\det \begin{bmatrix}a&b&c\\
d&e&f\\
g&h&i\end{bmatrix} = aei + bfg + cdh - afh - bdi - ceg</math>
==Example==
Suppose we want to compute the determinant of
:<math>A = \begin{bmatrix}-2&2&-3\\
-1& 1& 3\\
2 &0 &-1\end{bmatrix}.</math>
We can go ahead and use the Leibniz formula directly:
:{|
|-
|<math>\det(A)\,</math>
|<math>=\,</math>
|<math>(-2\cdot 1 \cdot -1) + (-3\cdot 0 \cdot -1) + (2\cdot 3\cdot 2)</math>
|-
|
|
|<math>- (-3\cdot 1 \cdot 2) - (-2\cdot 3 \cdot 0) - (2\cdot -1 \cdot -1)</math>
|-
|
|<math>=\,</math>
|<math>2 + 0 + 12 - (-6) - 0 - 2 = 18.\,</math>
|}
Alternatively, we can use Laplace's formula to expand the determinant along a row or column. It is best to choose a row or column with many zeros, so we will expand along the second column:
:{|
|-
|<math>\det(A)\,</math>
|<math>=\,</math>
|<math>(-1)^{1+2}\cdot 2 \cdot \det \begin{bmatrix}-1&3\\ 2 &-1\end{bmatrix} + (-1)^{2+2}\cdot 1 \cdot \det \begin{bmatrix}-2&-3\\ 2&-1\end{bmatrix}</math>
|-
|
|<math>=\,</math>
|<math>(-2)\cdot((-1)\cdot(-1)-2\cdot3)+1\cdot((-2)\cdot(-1)-2\cdot(-3))</math>
|-
|
|<math>=\,</math>
|<math>(-2)(-5)+8 = 18.\,</math>
|}
A third way (and the method of choice for lar |
" the deficit, printing money to pay for the government's efforts to survive. The hyperinflation under the Chinese Nationalists from 1939-1945 is a classic example of a government printing money to pay civil war costs. By the end, currency was flown in over the [[Himalaya]], and then old currency was flown out to be
destroyed.
In the United States, hyperinflation was seen during the [[American Revolutionary War|Revolutionary War]] and during the [[American Civil War|Civil War]], especially on the [[Confederate States of America|Confederate]] (losing) side. Many other cases of extreme social conflict encouraging hyperinflation can be seen, as in [[Germany]] after [[World War I]], [[Hungary]] at the end of [[World War II]] and in [[Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia|Yugoslavia]] after the death of [[Josip Broz Tito|Marshall Tito]].
==The Weimar Inflation in Germany==
[[Image:billionmarks.jpg|thumb|right|200px|A 1000 Mark banknote, over-stamped in red with 1,000,000,000 (1 billion) Marks, issued in Germany during the hyperinflation of 1923]]
The hyper-inflation episode in the Weimar Republic in the 1920's is, in many respects, the paradigmatic example, and the one which made economists and others aware of hyper-inflation as a phenomenon unto itself, it was not the first example of hyper-inflation, but it was the first one that was recognized as such.
Following the [[First World War]], the [[Treaty of Versailles]] forced Germany to pay significant reparations (compensation) to the nations that won the war, starting in 1919. However, Germany had a very weak economy at this time: in effect, the young republic of Weimar had no money. To pay its reparations and rebuild the economy, the German government printed money. However, there was no faith in this money, and the hyperinflation began. The inflation reached its peak by November 1923, but ended when a new currency (the [[Rentenmark]]) was introduced. The government stated this new currency had a fixed value, and this was accepted.
Hyperinflation did not directly bring about the [[Nazi]] takeover of Germany; the inflation ended with the introduction of the Rentenmark and the [[Weimar Republic]] continued for a decade afterward. The inflation did, however, call into question the competence of [[Liberalism|liberal]] institutions, especially amongst a middle class who had held cash savings and bonds. It also produced resentment of Germany's bankers and speculators (many of them [[Jewish]]) who were blamed for the inflation.
== Models of hyperinflation ==
[[Image:millionlira.jpg|thumb|right|200px|A 1,000,000 (1 Million) Lira banknote, issued by Turkey. The Lira was replaced by the New Turkish Lira in 2005, at 1 million old Lira = 1 New Lira]]
[[Image:500kcruzeiros.jpg|thumb|right|200px|A 500,000 Cruzeiro banknote, issued by Brazil in 1993. Now worthless. Every few years the currency has been renamed, and three zeros dropped from the bank notes. A 1960's Cruzeiro is now worth less than one trillionth of a US cent, after adjusting for multiple devaluations and note changes.]]
Since hyperinflation is visible as a monetary effect, models of hyperinflation center on the demand for money. Economists see both a rapid increase in the [[money supply]] and an increase in the [[Quantity Theory of Money|velocity of money]]. Either one or both of these encourage inflation and hyperinflation. A dramatic increase in the velocity of money as the cause of hyperinflation is central to the "crisis of confidence" model of hyperinflation, where the risk premium that sellers demand for the paper currency over the nominal value grows rapidly. The second theory is that there is first a radical increase in the amount of circulating medium, which can be called the "monetary model" of hyperinflation. In either model, the second effect then follows from the first — either too little confidence forcing an increase in the money supply, or too much money destroying confidence.
In the ''confidence model'', some event, or series of events, such as defeats in battle, or a run on stocks of the specie which back a currency, removes the belief that the authority issuing the money will remain solvent — whether a bank or a government. Because people do not want to hold notes which may become valueless, they want to spend them in preference to holding notes which will lose value. Sellers, realizing that there is a higher risk for the currency, demand a greater and greater premium over the original value. Under this model, the method of ending hyperinflation is to change the backing of the currency — often by issuing a completely new one. War is one commonly cited cause of crisis of confidence, particularly losing in a war, as occurred during Napoleanic Vienna, and capital flight, sometimes because of "contagion" is another. In this view, the increase in the circulating medium is the result of the government attempting to buy time without coming to terms with the root cause of the lack of confidence itself.
In the ''monetary model'', hyperinflation is a [[positive feedback]] cycle of rapid monetary expansion. It has the same cause as all other inflation: money-issuing bodies, central or otherwise, produce currency to pay spiralling costs, often from lax fiscal policy, or the mounting costs of warfare. When businesspeople perceive that the issuer is committed to a policy of rapid currency expansion, they start factoring the decay of the currency's value into prices. The issuer must then accelerate its expansion to cover these prices, which pushes the currency value down even faster. According to this model the issuer cannot "win" and the only solution is to abruptly stop expanding the currency. Unfortunately, the end of expansion can cause a severe financial shock to those using the currency as expectations are suddenly adjusted. This policy, combined with reductions of pensions, wages, and government outlays, formed part of the [[Washington consensus]] of the 1990s.
Whatever the cause, hyperinflation involves both the supply and velocity of money. Which comes first is a matter of debate, and there may be no universal story that applies to all cases. But once the hyperinflation is established, the pattern of increasing the money stock, by which ever agencies are allowed to do so, is universal. Because this practice increases the supply of currency without any matching increase in demand for it, the price of the currency, that is the exchange rate, naturally falls relative to other currencies. Inflation becomes hyperinflation when the increase in money supply turns specific areas of pricing power into a general frenzy of spending quickly before money becomes worthless. The purchasing power of the currency drops so rapidly that holding cash for even a day is an unacceptable loss of purchasing power. As a result, no one holds currency, which increases the velocity of money, and worsens the crisis.
That is, rapidly rising prices undermine money's role as a store of value, so that people try to spend it on real goods or services as quickly as possible. Thus, the monetary model predicts that the velocity of money will rise [[endogenous | endogenously]] as a result of the excessive increase in the money supply. At the point where ordinary purchases are affected by inflation pressures, hyperinflation is out of control, in the sense that ordinary policy mechanisms, such as increasing reserve requirements, raising interest rates or cutting government spending will all be responded to by shifting away from the rapidly dwindling currency and towards other means of exchange.
During a period of hyperinflation, bank runs, loans for 24 hour periods, switching to alternate currencies, the return to use of gold or silver or even [[barter]] becomes common. Many of the people who hoard gold today expect hyperinflation, and are hedging against it by holding specie. There is, also, extensive [[capital flight]] or flight to a "hard" currency such as the U.S. dollar. These are sometimes met with [[capital controls]], an idea which has swung from standard, to anathema, and back into semi-respectability. All of this constitutes an economy which is operating in an "abnormal" way, which may lead to decreases in real production. If so, that intensifies the hyperinflation, since it means that the amount of goods in "too much money chasing too few goods" formulation is also reduced. This is also part of the [[vicious circle]] of hyperinflation.
Once the vicious circle of hyperinflation has been ignited, dramatic policy means are almost always required, simply raising interest rates is insufficient. [[Bolivia]], for example, underwent a period of hyperinflation in 1985, where prices increased 12,000% in the space of less than a year. The government raised the price of gasoline, which it had been selling at a huge loss to quiet popular discontent, and the hyperinflation came to a halt almost immediately, since it was able to bring in hard currency by selling its oil abroad. The crisis of confidence ended, and people returned deposits to banks. The German hyperinflation of the 1920s was ended by producing a currency based on assets loaned against by banks, called the [[rentenmark]]. Hyperinflation often ends when a civil conflict ends with one side winning. Though sometimes used, [[incomes policies|wage and price controls]] to control or prevent inflation, no episode of hyperinflation has been ended by the use of price controls alone, though they have sometimes been part of the mix of policies used to halt hyperinflation.
==Hyperinflation and the currency ==
[[Image:Goldkey logo removed.jpg|thumb|200px|In times of hyperinflation, [[gold]] is a store of value which can not be printed out of existence]]
[[Image:3sovriegns.jpg|thumb|200px|A [[Krugerrand]] and three [[Gold sovereign|Sovereigns]]. Gold coins are hoarded to escape inflation. In time |
ion|Composition]]
** [[Computer music|Computer Music]]
** [[Ethnomusicology]]
* [[Neuroscience]]
* [[Old World]] [[Archaeology]] and [[Visual arts|Art]]
* [[Philosophy]]:
** [[Philosophy]] (Standard Program)
** [[Ethics]] and [[Political philosophy|Political Philosophy]]
** [[Logic]] and [[Philosophy of science|Philosophy of Science]]
* [[Physics]]
* [[Political Science]]
* [[Portugal|Portuguese]] and [[Brazil|Brazilian Studies]]
* [[Psychology]]
* [[Public sector|Public]] and [[Private sector|Private Sector]] [[Organizations]] <small>(replaced by COE)</small>
* [[Public policy|Public Policy and American Institutions]]
* [[Religious studies|Religious Studies]]
* [[Renaissance]] and [[Early modern Europe|Early Modern Studies]]
* [[Science and technology studies|Science and Society]]
* [[Semiotics]]-[[French language|French]]
* [[Gender and sexuality studies|Sexuality and Society]]
* [[Slavistics|Slavic Studies]]
* [[Sociology]]
* [[South Asia|South Asian Studies]]
* [[Statistics]]
* [[Theatre|Theatre Arts]]
* [[Urban studies|Urban Studies]]
* [[Visual arts|Visual Arts]]
|}
=== The Graduate School ===
==== Graduate programs ====
The Graduate School offers more than 50 different graduate programs:
{|
| valign="top" |
* [[American studies|American Civilization]]
* [[Anthropology]]
* [[Applied mathematics|Applied Mathematics]]
* [[Archaeology]] and the [[Ancient history|Ancient World]]
* [[Biology]] and [[Medicine]]:
** [[Artificial organ|Artificial Organs]], [[Biomaterial]]s, and [[Cell (biology)|Cellular Technology]]
** [[Biostatistics]] and [[Epidemiology]]
** [[Ecology]] and [[Evolutionary biology|Evolutionary Biology]]
** [[Molecular biology|Molecular Biology]], [[Cell biology|Cell Biology]], and [[Biochemistry]]
** [[Pharmacology|Molecular Pharmacology]] and [[Physiology]]
** [[Pathology|Pathobiology]]
** [[Public health|Public Health]]
* [[Biomedical engineering|Biomedical Engineering]]
* [[Human brain|Brain Science]]
* Brown / [[Trinity Repertory Company|Trinity Repertory]] Consortium
* [[Chemistry]]
* [[Classics]]
* [[Cognitive science|Cognitive Science]]
* [[Comparative literature|Comparative Literature]]
* [[Computer science|Computer Science]]
| valign="top" |
* [[Development studies|Development Studies]]
* [[Economics]]
* [[Education]]:
** [[Teacher education|Teacher Education]]
** [[Urban]] [[Education policy|Education Policy]]
* [[Egyptology]] and [[Ancient Near East|Ancient Western Asian Studies]]
* [[Engineering]]:
** [[Electrical engineering|Electrical Sciences]] and [[Computer engineering|Computer Engineering]]
** [[Fluid mechanics|Fluids]], [[Thermodynamics|Thermal]], and [[Chemical engineering|Chemical Process]]es
** [[Materials science|Materials Science]]
** [[Solid mechanics|Mechanics of Solids and Structures]]
* [[English language|English]]
* [[Environmental studies|Environmental Studies]]
* [[France|French Studies]]
* [[Geology|Geological Sciences]]
* [[German studies|German Studies]]
* [[Hispanic|Hispanic Studies]]
* [[History]]
* [[History of art|History of Art]] and [[Architectural history|Architecture]]
* [[History of mathematics|History of Mathematics]] <small>(admissions suspended)</small>
| valign="top" |
* [[Italy|Italian Studies]]
* [[Linguistics]]
* [[Creative writing|Literary Arts]]
* [[Mathematics]]
* [[Media studies|Modern Culture and Media]]
* [[Musicology|Music]]:
** [[Computer music|Electronic Music and Multimedia]]
** [[Ethnomusicology]]
* [[Neuroscience]]
* [[Philosophy]]
* [[Physics]]
* [[Political science|Political Science]]
* [[Portugal|Portuguese]] and [[Brazil|Brazilian Studies]]
* [[Psychology]]
* [[Public affairs|Public Affairs]] and [[Public policy|Public Policy]]
* [[Religious studies|Religious Studies]]
* [[Slavic languages|Slavic Languages]]
* [[Sociology]]
* [[Theatre]] and [[Performing arts|Performance Studies]]
|}
=== Brown Medical School ===
The University's [[Brown Medical School|medical program]] started in 1811, but the school was suspended by President Wayland in 1827. In 1975, the first [[Doctor of Medicine|M.D.]] degrees of the modern era were awarded to a graduating class of 58 students. In 1984, Brown endorsed an eight-year medical program called the [[Program in Liberal Medical Education]] (PLME). The majority of openings for the first-year medical school class are reserved for PLME students. Each year, approximately 60 students matriculate into the PLME out of an applicant pool of about 1,600.
In addition, Brown offers a joint program with [[Dartmouth Medical School]] called the Brown-Dartmouth Medical Program. Approximately 15 students at Dartmouth Medical School enroll in this program annually. They spend the first two basic medical science years at [[Dartmouth College|Dartmouth]] and the next two years in clinical education at Brown, where they receive their M.D. degree. In June 2005, however, the deans of both schools announced that the Brown-Dartmouth program would accept its final class in the fall of 2006, stating that the institutions desired to move in their own directions.
Several other admission pathways exist. The Early Identification Program (EIP) encourages Rhode Island residents to pursue careers in medicine by recruiting sophomores from [[Providence College]], [[Rhode Island College]], the [[University of Rhode Island]], and [[Tougaloo College]] to BMS. In 2004, the school once again began to accept applications via the "standard route", from pre-medical students at any [[college]] or [[university]]. For the Class of 2009, nine students were accepted via this route.
BMS also offers combined degree programs leading to the M.D./[[Doctor of Philosophy|Ph.D.]] or M.D./[[Master of Public Health|M.P.H.]] degrees.
=== Presidents of Brown University ===
{| border="0" cellspacing="5"
! align="left" |
! align="left" |President
! align="left" |Brown Class
! align="left" |Life
! align="left" |Tenure
! align="left" |Events
|-
|1. ||[[James Manning]] ||- ||1738-1791 ||1765-1791 ||Rhode Island College established
|-
|2. ||[[Jonathan Maxcy]] ||1787 ||1768-1820 ||1792-1802 ||
|-
|3. ||[[Asa Messer]]||1790 ||1769-1836 ||1802-1826 ||Renamed as Brown University; first Medical School founded
|-
|4. ||[[Francis Wayland]] ||- ||1796-1865 ||1827-1855 || Med School Suspended
|-
|5. ||[[Barnas Sears]]||1825 ||1802-1880 ||1855-1867 ||
|-
|6. ||[[Alexis Caswell]]||1822 ||1799-1877 ||1868-1872 ||
|-
|7. ||[[Ezekiel Gilman Robinson]]||1838 ||1815-1894 ||1872-1889 ||Graduate study instituted
|-
|8. ||[[Elisha Benjamin Andrews]]||1870 ||1844-1917 ||1889-1898 ||Women's College founded
|-
|9. ||[[William H.P. Faunce]]||1880 ||1859-1930 ||1899-1929 ||Women's College renamed to Pembroke College
|-
|10. ||[[Clarence A. Barbour]]||1888 ||1867-1937 ||1929-1937 ||Last of long line of Baptist minister Presidents
|-
|11. ||[[Henry M. Wriston]]||- ||1889-1978 ||1937-1955 ||
|-
|12. ||[[Barnaby C. Keeney]]||- ||1914-1980 ||1955-1966 ||
|-
|13. ||[[Ray L. Heffner]]||- ||1925- ||1966-1969 || New Curriculum passed
|-
|14. ||[[Donald F. Hornig]]||- ||1920- ||1970-1976 ||Pembroke merged with Brown, Medical School founded
|-
|15. ||[[Howard R. Swearer]] ||- ||1932-1991 ||1977-1988 ||
|-
|16. ||[[Vartan Gregorian]]||- ||1934- ||1989-1997 ||
|-
|17. ||[[Gordon Gee|E. Gordon Gee]] ||- ||1944- ||1998-2000 ||
|-
|18. ||[[Ruth J. Simmons]] ||- ||1945- ||2001- ||
|}
== Student life ==
=== Setting ===
Brown's campus is located atop College Hill, in the city's East Side neighborhood, across the Providence River from downtown Providence. The East Side is home to the largest remaining collection of historic [[Thirteen Colonies|colonial]] homes in the country. The [[Thayer Street]] commercial strip is so well integrated into geographic area of Brown, that students often just consider it as part of the campus. Also on the hill, but further to the south and away from the main campus area, is Wickenden Street, which offers another array of restaurants and bistros that students like to frequent.
=== Atmosphere ===
[[Princeton Review]] ranks Brown third among all American colleges for "happiest students."[http://www.princetonreview.com/college/research/rankings/rankingDetails.asp?categoryID=6&topicID=43] Brown was recently named "the most fashionable school in the Ivy League" by the [[fashion]] trade journal ''Women's Wear Daily'' on the basis that students on campus seem to have the strongest sense of personal style. Students at Brown, as at most Ivies, lean [[left-wing politics|Left]] ([[American liberalism|liberal]]) on the [[Left-Right politics|Left-Right]] [[political spectrum]].
==== Nightlife ====
Brown is home to an active on-campus nightlife. A wide array of parties take place on the weekends, most of them in dorms and off-campus houses. Greek life is restricted to a fraction of the Brown student body, though they do take the spotlight during the annual Spring Weekend. Some parties, such as the Queer Alliance’s debauched [[SexPowerGod]] and [[Starf*ck (party)|Starf*ck]], are annual occurrences.
[[Image:Brown bears logo.jpg|right|Brown Bears]]
=== Athletics ===
Brown is a member of the [[National Collegiate Athletic Association]] (NCAA) [[Division I]] Ivy League athletic conference. It sponsors 37 [[varsity team|varsity]] intercollegiate teams. Its athletics program has been featured in the College Sports Honor Roll as one of the top 20 athletic programs in the country according to [[U.S. News & World Report]]. [http://www.usnews.com/usnews/edu/college/sports/rankings/honor.htm] Brown also features several competitive intercollegiate club sports, including its nationally ranked [[sailing]], [[Taekwondo]] and [[Ultimate (sport)|Ultimate]] teams. In 2005, the men's ultimate frisbee team won the national championship, and the football team won its first-ever outright Ivy League title. |
r status by writing "Western food" on their signs in [[hanzi|Chinese]]. It deters those who seek more traditional dishes, while still attracting those who are either unable to read Chinese or are looking for westernized fare. [[Canadian Chinese cuisine]] is quite similar to American Chinese cuisine.
== History ==
In the 19th century, Chinese restaurateurs invented American Chinese cuisine when they modified their food for American tastes. First catering to [[railroad]] workers, they opened restaurants in towns where Chinese food was completely unknown.
The influx of immigrants in the late 20th century disdained the Americanized dishes, preferring more traditional Chinese food. Classical Chinese cuisine now dominates major cities like [[San Francisco, California|San Francisco]] and [[New York, New York|New York]].
But American Chinese cuisine remains, especially in places with few [[Chinese American]]s. One finds Americanized cuisine in "[[mom and pop]]" [[restaurant|restaurants]], "tourist trap" [[diner|diners]], and small town restaurants. [[Panda Express]] and Manchu WOK are popular franchise restaurants that offer Westernized dishes in shopping malls.
==American vs. Traditional menus==
American Chinese food treats vegetables as garnish while authentic styles emphasize vegetables. Authentic Chinese cuisine makes frequent use of Asian leafy vegetables like [[bok choy]] and [[gai-lan]], and puts a greater emphasis on [[seafood]]. American Chinese food is usually less pungent than authentic cuisine.
[[Image:Chinese buffet2.jpg|left|thumb|250px|A Chinese buffet restaurant in the U.S.]]
American Chinese food tends to be cooked very quickly with lots of oil and salt. Many dishes are quickly and easily prepared, and require inexpensive ingredients. [[Stir-frying]], [[Pan frying|pan-frying]], and [[deep-frying]] tend to be the most common cooking techniques which are all easily done using a [[wok]]. The food also has a reputation for high levels of [[Monosodium glutamate|MSG]] to enhance the flavor; the symptoms of MSG sensitivity have been dubbed "[[Chinese restaurant syndrome]]" or "Chinese food syndrome". While there is heated scientific debate over whether or not MSG is harmful, market forces and customer demand have enouraged many restaurants to offer "MSG Free" or "No MSG" menus.
Most American Chinese establishments cater to non-Chinese customers, and their menus are written in English. Those that do have Chinese menus, have ones that are different from the English version. Americanized menus might exclude some foods which the Chinese consider delicacies, like liver, and chicken feet. Americanized menus often include:
* [[Batter-fried meat]] &mdash; Meat that has been deep fried in bread or flour, such as ''sesame chicken'', ''lemon chicken'', ''orange chicken'', ''[[sweet and sour pork]]'', and ''[[General Tso's chicken]]'' is often overemphasized in American-style Chinese dishes. Battered meat occasionally appears in [[Hunan_cuisine|Hunanese]] dishes, but it generally uses lighter sauces with less sugar and corn syrup.
**The [[chicken ball]] uses a large amount of leavening and flour in its preparation and battering process which causes them to be more similar to doughy "[[Hushpuppy|hush puppies]]" than actual batter-fried meat.
* [[Chinese chicken salad]] &mdash; Salad is not a Chinese dish. This is a 100% western dish. It is served in Chinese restaurants, because it contains crispy noodle (fried wonton skin) and sesame dressing. Some restaurants serve the salad with Mandarin Orange.
* [[Chop suey]] &mdash; Connotes "leftovers" in Chinese. It is usually a mix of vegetables and meat in a brown sauce.
* [[Chow mein]] &mdash; literally means 'stir-fried noodles'. Chow mein consists of fried noodles with bits of meat and vegetables.
* [[Crab rangoon]] &mdash; Fried [[wonton]] skins stuffed with artificial crab meat and cream cheese, originally served at [[Trader Vic]]'s restaurant in the 1950s.
* [[Egg foo young]] also egg foo yung
* [[Egg roll]] &mdash; While Chinese [[spring roll|spring rolls]] have a thin crispy skin with mushrooms, bamboo, and other vegetables inside, the New York version uses a thick, fried skin stuffed with cabbage. In other areas, [[bean sprout]]s form the basis of most of the filling. Other American versions remain closer in similarity to their spring roll style authentic counterparts.
*[[Fortune cookie]] &mdash; Invented at the Japanese Tea Garden restaurant in [[San Francisco]], fortune cookies became sweetened and found their way to American Chinese restaurants. Fortune cookies have become so popular in the U.S., that even some authentic Chinese restaurants serve them at the end of the meal. Some are even produced with Chinese-language translations of the English-language fortunes.
* [[Fried rice]] &mdash; Fried rice dishes are popular offerings in American Chinese food due to the speed and ease of preparation and their appeal to western tastes. Fried rice is generally prepared with rice cooled overnight, so this allows restaurants to put unserved leftover rice to good use.
* [[Lo mein]] &mdash; This is a New York-style Chinese food oddity. "Lo mein" in New York is closer to "[[chow mein]]" in the rest of the country. Strictly the term means "mixed noodles", that is one made with eggs, as opposed to most noodles which are made without egg.
* [[Moo shu pork]] &mdash; The Chinese version uses more authentic ingredients (including [[wood ear]] fungi and [[daylily]] buds) and thin flour pancakes while the American version uses more Western vegetables and thicker pancakes.
* [[Shrimp toast]] &mdash; Triangles of bread, coated with egg, [[shrimp]], and [[water chestnut]]s, and then deep-fried or baked.
* [[Wonton soup]] &mdash; The soup noodle does not exist in American Chinese cuisine, while it is ubiquitous in many authentic styles. The closest popular example would be [[ramen]]. The true Cantonese Wonton Soup is a full meal in itself consisting of thin egg noodles and a few wontons in a pork soup broth.
==Regional Variations on American Chinese cuisine==
===San Francisco===
Since the early 1990s, many American Chinese restaurants influenced by the [[Cuisine of California]] have opened in [[San Francisco]] and the [[San Francisco Bay Area|Bay Area]]. The trademark dishes of American Chinese cuisine remain on the menu, but there is more emphasis on fresh vegetables, and the selection is vegetarian-friendly.
The new cuisine has exotic ingredients like [[mango]]es and [[portobello mushroom]]s. Other cuisines influence the menu: some restaurants substitute grilled flour tortillas for the rice pancakes in mu shu dishes; [[brown rice]] is often offered as an optional alternative to [[white rice]].
[[Chop suey]] is not widely available in [[San Francisco]], and the city's chow mein is different from Midwestern chow mein.
Authentic restaurants with Chinese-language menus may offer 黃毛鶏 (Yale Cantonese: wòhng mouh gāai [Pinyin huang mao ji], literally yellow-hair chicken), essentially a [[free range|free-range]] chicken, as opposed to typical American mass-farmed chicken. Yellow-hair chicken is valued for its flavor, but needs to be cooked properly to be tender due to its lower fat and higher muscle content. This dish usually does not appear on the English-language menu.
Dauh Miu (Pinyin: Dou Meo), literally Bean Grass but actually snow pea vines, is a Chinese vegetable that has become popular since the early 1990s, and now not only appears on English-language menus, usually as "pea shoots", but is often served by upscale non-Asian restaurants as well. Originally it was only available during a few months of the year, but it is now grown in greenhouses and is available year-round.
===Hawaii===
Owing to the different history of the [[Chinese in Hawaii]], Hawaiian Chinese food developed a bit differently from the continental United States. Owing to the diversity of ethnicities in Hawaii, Chinese cuisine forms a component of the [[cuisine of Hawaii]], which is a [[fusion cuisine|fusion]] of different culinary traditions. Some Chinese dishes are typically served as part of [[plate lunch]]es in Hawaii. Some names of foods are different like ''[[Manapua|manapua]]'' from Hawaiian meaning ''chewed up pork'' for the dim sum ''bao'', not just the pork variety. As is typical in Hawaii, Chinese food in Hawaii is also noted for its use of [[SPAM]], much to the puzzlement of outsiders.
===Springfield, Missouri===
[[Springfield, Missouri]] has numerous Chinese restaurants with a specialized dish: [[cashew chicken]]. It was invented at Leong's Tea House in Springfield and is responsible for the large numbers of Chinese restaurants in the city. The dish has spread to several other cities, where it is sometimes known as "Springfield-style cashew chicken".
== American Chinese fast food chains ==
* [http://www.foodsystemsunlimited.com/restaurants/asianchao.php Asian Chao]
* [http://www.leeannchin.com Leeann Chin] &mdash; Locations in Minnesota.
* [http://www.markpi.com Mark Pi's Express] &mdash; Located in Arizona, Indiana, Kentucky, Missouri, Nevada, and Ohio.
* [http://www.mrchausfastfood.com Mr. Chau's Chinese Fast Food] &mdash; Locations in the [[San Francisco Bay Area]] and [[Silicon Valley]].
* [[Panda Express]] &mdash; Nationwide in the USA.
* [http://www.peiwei.com Pei Wei] &mdash; Southwest USA &mdash; From the creators of P.F. Chang's.
* [http://www.pfchangs.com P.F. Chang's China Bistro] Nationwide, highly Westernized food
* [http://www.pickupstix.com Pick Up Stix] &mdash; Located throughout California, Arizona, and Nevada.
* [http://www.tastygoody.com Tasty Goody] &mdash; Locations in Southern California.
== Museum exhibits ==
* [http://www.moca-nyc.o |
t common scenario is accessing the Internet from a laptop by dialling up on a mobile phone, wirelessly. It is based on SPP, and provides for relatively easy conversion of existing products, through the many features that it has in common with the existing wired serial protocols for the same task. These include the AT command set specified in [[European Telecommunications Standards Institute|ETSI]] 07.07, and [[Point-to-Point Protocol|PPP]].
; Fax Profile (FAX) : This profile is intended to provide a well defined interface between a mobile phone or [[landline|fixed-line phone]] and a PC with Fax software installed. Support must be provided for [[T.31 and T.32 |ITU T.31 and / or ITU T.32]] [[AT command]] sets as defined by [[ITU-T]]. Data and voice calls are not covered by this profile.
; File Transfer Profile (FTP) : Provides access to the file system on another device. This includes support for getting folder listings, changing to different folders, getting files, putting files and deleting files. It uses [[OBEX]] as a transport and is based on GOEP.
; General Audio/Video Distribution Profile (GAVDP) : Provides the basis for A2DP, and VDP.
; Generic Access Profile (GAP) : Provides the basis for all other profiles.
; Generic Object Exchange Profile (GOEP) : provides a basis for other data transfer profiles. Based on [[OBEX]].
; Hands Free Profile (HFP) : This is commonly used to allow car hands free kits to communicate with mobile phones in the car. It uses SCO to carry a mono, [[Pulse-code modulation|PCM]] audio channel. It is considered to be the [[killer app]] for Bluetooth as more Governments are passing legislation to ban the direct use of mobile phones while driving.
; Hard Copy Cable Replacement Profile (HCRP) : This provides a simple wireless alternative to a cable connection between a device and a printer. Unfortunately it does not set a standard regarding the actual communications to the printer, so drivers are required specific to the printer model or range. This makes this profile less useful for embedded devices such as digital cameras and palmtops, as updating drivers can be problematic.
; Headset Profile (HSP) : This is the most commonly used profile, providing support for the popular Bluetooth Headsets to be used with mobile phones. It relies on SCO for audio and a subset of [[AT command|AT commands]] from GSM 07.07 for minimal controls including the ability to ring, answer a call, hang up and adjust the volume.
; Human Interface Device Profile (HID) : provides support for devices such as mice, joysticks, keyboards, etc. It is designed to provide a low latency link, with low power requirements. Popular devices that feature support for this profile include: [[Logitech]] diNovo Media Desktop 2.0, [[Microsoft]] Optical Desktop Elite. The unreleased [[PlayStation 3]] controllers will also use BT HID.
; Intercom Profile (ICP) : This is often referred to as the [[walkie-talkie]] profile. It is another TCS based profile, relying on SCO to carry the audio. It is proposed to allow voice calls between two Bluetooth capable handsets, over Bluetooth.
; Object Push Profile (OPP) : A basic profile for sending "objects" such as pictures, [[vCard|virtual business cards]], or [[vCalendar|appointment details]]. It is called push because the transfers are always instigated by the sender (client), not the receiver (server).
; Personal Area Networking Profile (PAN) : This profile is intended to allow the use of Bluetooth Network Encapsulation Protocol on [[Network Layer|Layer 3]] protocols for transport over a Bluetooth link.
; Serial Port Profile (SPP) : This profile is based on the [[ETSI]] TS07.10 specification and uses the [[RFCOMM]] protocol. It emulates a serial cable to provide a simply implemented wireless replacement for existing [[RS232]] based serial communications applications, including familiar control signals. It provides the basis for DUN, FAX, HSP and LAN profiles.
; Service Discovery Application Profile (SDAP) : This mandatory profile is used to find out which profiles are offered by the Server device.
; SIM Access Profile (SAP) : This allows devices such as car phones with built in GSM transceivers to connect to a SIM card in a phone with Bluetooth, so the car phone itself doesn't require a separate SIM card.
; Synchronisation Profile (SYNCH) : This profile allows synchronisation of Personal Information Manager (PIM) items. As this profile originated as part of the infrared specifications but has been adopted by the Bluetooth SIG to form part of the main Bluetooth specification, it is also commonly referred to as IrMC Synchronization.
; Video Distribution Profile (VDP) : This profile allows the transport of a video stream. It could be used for streaming a recorded video from a PC media centre to a portable player, or from a digital video camera to a TV. Support for H.263 baseline is mandatory. Support for MPEG-4 Visual Simple Profile, H.263 profiles 3 and 8 are optionally supported, and covered in the specification.
The remaining profiles are still not finalised, but are currently proposed within the Bluetooth SIG:
* Handsfree Profile 1.5 (HFP 1.5)
* Unrestricted Digital Information (UDI)
* Wireless application Protocol over BT (WAP)
* Extended Service discovery profile (ESDP)
* Local Positioning Profile (LPP)
* Video Conferencing Profile (VCP)
* Device ID (DID) : Allows a device to be identified according to the Specification version met, the Manufacturer, product, product version, etc. It enables similar applications to those the [[Plug-and-play]] specification allows.
Compatibility of products with profiles can be verified on the [http://qualweb.bluetooth.org/Template2.cfm?LinkQualified=QualifiedProducts Bluetooth Qualification website].
== Future of Bluetooth ==
Bluetooth technology already plays a part in the rising [[Voice over IP]] (VOIP) scene, with Bluetooth headsets being used as wireless extensions to the PC audio system. As VOIP becomes more popular, and more suitable for general home or office users than wired phone lines, Bluetooth may be used in Cordless handsets, with a base station connected to the Internet link.
In May 2005, the [[Bluetooth Special Interest Group]] (SIG) announced its intent to work with [[ultra wideband|UWB]] manufacturers to develop a next-generation Bluetooth technology using UWB technology and delivering UWB speeds. This will enable Bluetooth technology to be used to deliver high speed network [[data exchange rates]] required for wireless VOIP, music and video applications.
== Origin of the name and the logo ==
The system is named after a [[Denmark|Danish]] king Harald Blåtand ([[Harold I of Denmark]] in English), King of [[Denmark]] and [[Norway]] from 935 and 936 respectively, to 940 known for his unification of previously warring tribes from Denmark (including [[Skåne]], present-day Sweden, where the Bluetooth technology was invented) and [[Norway]]. Bluetooth likewise was intended to unify different technologies like [[computer]]s and mobile phones. The Bluetooth logo merges the Nordic [[Runic alphabet|rune]]s analogous to the modern Latin H and B: [[Haglaz|ᚼ]] and [[Berkanan|ᛒ]]. This is the official story; however, the actual Harald Blåtand that was referred to in naming Bluetooth was most probably the liberal interpretation given to him in [[The Long Ships]] by [[Frans Gunnar Bengtsson]], a Swedish [[best-seller|best-selling]] [[Viking]]-inspired novel.
This logo is also a variation on an older logo for Beauknit Textiles, a division of Beauknit Corporation. That logo, using the obvious connection of a reversed K and B for Beauknit, is wider and has rounded corners, but is otherwise the same.
The name was originally only a code-name for the project, but ended up sticking.
== Bluetooth Consortium ==
In [[1998]], [[Intel]], [[IBM]], [[Ericsson]], [[Nokia]] and [[Toshiba]] formed the consortium among themselves and adopted the code name Bluetooth for their proposed open specification. Later [[Microsoft]], [[3Com]] and [[Lucent Technologies]] joined the initial founders as the promoter group. Since that time, [[Lucent Technologies]] transferred their membership to their spinoff [[Agere Systems]] and [[3Com]] has since left the Promoter group.
Of the original Promoter group, only Intel has not yet shipped a Bluetooth enabled product.
{{Template:Wireless_competitors}}
== See also ==
* [[Bluecasting]]
* [[Bluechat]]
* [[Bluejacking]] — a form of communication via Bluetooth
* [[Bluetooth sniping]]
* [[Bluesnarfing]]
* [[Blunt]] — Bluetooth protocol stack for Newton OS 2.1
* [[Cable spaghetti]] — a problem wireless technology hopes to solve
* [[Cambridge Silicon Radio]] — designer, manufacturer and supplier of Bluetooth chips
*''[[Harold I of Denmark#Bluetooth wireless specification|Origin of the word '''Bluetooth''']]''
* [[Infrared Data Association|IrDA]]
* [[JINI|Jini]]
* [[LibertyLink]]
* [[MaxStream]]
* [[OSGi]] Alliance
* [[Salutation (computing)|Salutation]]
* [[Service Location Protocol]]
* [[Toothing]]
* [[Ultra Wideband]]
* [[Universal plug-and-play]]
* [[Vehicular communication systems]]
* [[Wireless dating]]
== References ==
* Bluetooth SIG (November 8, 2004). [http://www.bluetooth.com/news/releases.asp?A=2&PID=1437&ARC=1 Bluetooth Special Interest Group Launches Bluetooth Core Specification Version 2.0 + Enhanced Data Rate]. Press release. (link not working 2/21/2006)
== External links ==
*[http://electronics.howstuffworks.com/bluetooth.htm HowStuffWorks] "How Bluetooth Works" on [[HowStuffWorks|HowStuffWorks.com]]
*[http://www.uwbforum.org/ UWB Forum] — partner trade association for higher speed "Bluetooth" built with Ultra-Wideband.
*[http://www.bluetooth.com/ The Official Bluetooth&reg; Wireless Info Site] SIG public pages
*[http://www.bluetomorrow.com/ What is Bluetooth Technology] The Comprehensive Guide to everything Bluetooth related
*[http://www.tutorial-reports |
ut them.
He no longer wants to burn books, he wants to know if they have something worth hearing. He looks up Faber, a retired English professor that he met a year ago. Although Faber knew that Guy was a fireman, and was scared, he recited poems to Guy at that time. As he left, Faber gave his address to Guy for his file in case he decided to be angry with him. Montag visits Faber and he tells him of his problems. He does not want to turn in the Bible, but he also cannot find a substitute. Furthermore, Montag does not know if Beatty knows which book he has stolen, and if he would recognize that Montag has got a whole library at home if he ''doesn't'' bring the Bible. He doesn't want Beatty to find out Guy's real attitude towards books.
Faber gives Guy a [[Covert listening device|bug]] with which Faber is able to listen to Beatty and Guy talk and advise Guy on what to say. They decide to copy books and plant them in other firemen's houses, to sabotage the fire brigade. When Guy arrives at the fire house, he hands Beatty the book. Then Beatty wants to test Guy. He quotes from books and asks for Guy's opinion about them. In the moment he wants to answer the station bell rings and they have to leave. They get into their vehicle, and when they arrive Guy recognizes that it is his house.
Mildred has denounced him. When the firemen arrive she is leaving the house for good. Beatty forces Guy to burn the books he has. But he not only burns the books but also the entire house. He wants to destroy all that reminds him of his previous life. When he comes out of the house and Beatty antagonizes Montag, and threatens to find Faber, Montag points the flamethrower at him and burns him alive. As Montag escapes, he knocks out his fellow firemen, but he then flees for his life, pursued by a relentless Mechanical Hound.
After warning Faber to destroy all traces of his presence at Faber's house as well as to escape as well, he embarks on a harrowing journey from the city. Losing the trace of Montag at the river, the police are forced to replace Montag with an [[insomnia]]c, killing this man, who looks like Montag, so that the viewing public can enjoy a good show (this is a reference to a short story of Bradbury's "The Pedestrian", which features a similarly insomniac gentleman who walks for pleasure and is detained by the police when he gives this as reason).
Montag eventually escapes the pursuit by jumping in the river and floating downstream. Once he comes ashore again, he meets a group of tramps – mostly older men – who, to Montag's astonishment, have been expecting him. Every one of them has committed entire books to memory, to share with those who would listen, until books will be allowed again. They themselves burned the books they read to prevent them from being discovered. Amongst them is Granger, the leader of the group. Guy arrives at the camp and warms himself over a campfire, where he realizes that fire is capable of giving warmth as well as destruction. Afterward, the city which Guy has just escaped from, and other cities as well, are soon struck with the [[atomic bomb]] and destroyed, along with their way of life, so that people might once again learn from the books, and learn from the past. He has a talk with Granger about the fact that it is necessary for the mythical [[Phoenix (mythology)|phoenix]] to be consumed by fire when it gets old and complacent, for it to be [[rebirth|born again]]. This is relayed to Montag as an allegory of society.
The metamorphosis of society, the Phoenix, and Montag are intertwined. Following the destruction, Guy and his newly made friends travel back to the ruins of the city to embark on the reconstruction of society.
== Character Analysis ==
*'''[[Guy Montag]]''' is the [[protagonist]] and fireman (see above) whose [[metamorphosis]] is illustrated throughout the book and who presents the dystopia through the eyes of a loyal worker to it, a man in conflict about it, and one resolved to be free of it. Bradbury notes in his afterword that '''[[Montag]]''' is the name of a paper mill.
*'''Faber''' is the former English professor who represents those who know what is being done is wrong, but are too fearful to act. Bradbury notes in his coda that '''Faber''' is part of the name of a manufacturer of [[pencil]]s ([[Faber-Castell]]).
*'''Mildred Montag''' is Montag's wife, who tries to hide her own emptiness and fear of questioning her surroundings or herself, with drugs, meaningless chatter, and a constant barrage of television. She constantly tries to reach the glorified state of [[happiness]], but is inwardly miserable. She is used symbolically as the opposite of Clarisse McClellan. She is known as '''Linda Montag''' in the 1970s film.
*'''[[Clarisse McClellan]]''' displays every trait Mildred does not. She is outgoing, naturally cheerful, and intuitive. She serves as the "wake up call" for Guy Montag, by posing the question "why" to him. She is unpopular among peers, and disliked by parents for (as she puts it) asking why instead of how, and focusing on nature rather than technology. Montag always regards her as odd until she goes missing; the book gives no definitive explanation.
*'''[[Captain Beatty]]''' is Montag's boss and the fire chief. Once an avid reader himself, he is disgusted with the idea of books and detests how they all contradict and refute each other. In a removed scene by Bradbury, he invited Guy to his house where he shows him walls of books which he leaves to moulder on their shelves. He tries to entice Guy back into the book-burning business, but is burnt alive by Montag when he underestimates Montag's resolve. He is the symbolic opposite of Granger.
*'''Granger''' is the leader of a group of wandering intellectual exiles, who memorize books so they will be saved. Where Beatty destroys, he creates; where Beatty uses fire for the purpose of burning, he uses it for the purpose of warming. His acceptance of Montag is considered the final step in Montag's metamorphosis, from embracing Granger's ultimate value (happiness and complacency), to embracing his value (love of knowledge).
=== List of Books/Authors in Fahrenheit 451 the movie ===
''Note:'' Neither Bradbury nor Truffaut chose the books that appeared in the film.
*''[[Alice's Adventures in Wonderland]]'' and ''[[Through the Looking Glass]]'' by [[Lewis Carroll]]
*''[[Animal Farm]]'' by [[George Orwell]]
*[[Arthur Schopenhauer]]
*''[[David Copperfield]]'' by [[Charles Dickens]]
*''[[Don Quixote]]'' by [[Miguel de Cervantes]]
*[[Friedrich Nietzsche]]
*''[[Gulliver's Travels]]'' by [[Jonathan Swift]]
*''[[Jane Eyre]]'' by [[Charlotte Brontë]]
*[[Leo Tolstoy]]
*''[[Lolita]]'' by [[Vladimir Nabokov]]
*''[[Madame Bovary]]'' by [[Gustave Flaubert]]
*''[[Mein Kampf]]'' by [[Adolf Hitler]]
*''[[Metaphysics]]'' by [[Aristotle]]
*''[[Moby Dick]]'' by [[Herman Melville]]
*''[[Nadia]]''
*''[[Othello]]'' by [[William Shakespeare]]
*''[[Pride and Prejudice]]'' by [[Jane Austen]]
*''[[Republic (dialogue)|Republic]]'' by [[Plato]]
*''[[Robinson Crusoe]]'' by [[Daniel Defoe]]
*''[[The Adventures of Tom Sawyer]]'' by [[Mark Twain]]
*''[[The Brothers Karamazov]]'' by [[Fyodor Dostoyevsky]]
*''[[The Catcher in the Rye]]'' by [[J. D. Salinger]]
*''[[The Corsair]]'' by [[George Byron]]
*''[[The Good Life]]''
*''[[The Martian Chronicles]]'' by [[Ray Bradbury]]
*''[[The Pickwick Papers]]'' by [[Charles Dickens]]
*''[[The Trial]]'' by [[Franz Kafka]]
*[[Walt Whitman]]
*[[William Faulkner]]
*''[[Wuthering Heights]]'' by [[Emily Brontë]]
*''[[Nineteen Eighty-Four]]'' by George Orwell
*''[[A History of Science & Technology]]''
*''[[A Journal of the Plague Year]]'' by [[Daniel Defoe]]
*''[[A Year of Grace]]''
*''[[Argos]]''
*''[[Baby Doll]]''
*''[[Cahiers du Cinéma]]''
*[[Christopher Landon]]
*''[[Confessions of an Irish Rebel]]'' by [[Brendan Behan]]
*''[[Death of a Dream]]''
*''[[Death of a Ghost]]'' by Margaret Allingham
*''[[Death on Milestone Buttress]]'' by Glyn Carr
*''[[Decline and Fall]]'' by [[Evelyn Waugh]]
*''[[Deux Anglaises et le Continent]]''
*''[[Dom Juan]]'' by [[Molière]]
*''[[Fathers And Sons]]'' by [[Ivan Turgenev]]
*''[[Gargantua and Pantagruel]]'' by [[François Rabelais]]
*''[[Gasparo Hauser]]'' (This is the book Montag takes in the film, as opposed to the [[Bible]] in the novel)
*''[[Geheimnisse der Fürstin von Cadignan]]'' by [[Honoré de Balzac]]
*''[[Gone with the Wind]]''
*''[[Holy Deadlock]]'' by [[A. P. Herbert]]
*''[[In ze pocket]]'' by [[Walter Tevis|Walter S. Tevis]]
*''[[Inspector French and the Cheyne Mystery]]'' by [[Freeman Wills Crofts]]
*''[[Interglossa]]'' by [[Lancelot Hogben]]
*''[[Jazz]]''
*[[Jean Cocteau]]
*''[[Jeanne D'Arc]]'' by Joseph Delter
*''[[Journal of André Bulat]]''
*''[[Journey into Space]]'' by [[Charles Chilton]]
*''[[Justine]]'' by [[Marquis de Sade]]
*''[[La Peau de Chagrin]]'' by [[Honoré de Balzac]]
*''[[Le Avventure di Pinocchio]]'' by [[Carlo Collodi]]
*''[[Le Monde à Côté]]'' by [[Sibylle Gabrielle Marie Antoinette Riqueti de Mirabeau|Gyp]]
*''[[Les Nègres]]'' by [[Jean Genet]]
*''[[Lewis et Irène]]'' by [[Paul Morand]]
*''[[Look With Mother ABC Book]]''
*''[[Mad magazine]]''
*''[[Marcel Proust]]''
*''[[Marie Dubois]]'' by [[Jacques Audiberti]]
*''[[Memoirs of Saint Simon]]'' by [[Louis de Rouvroy]]
*''[[Metallurgy for Engineers]]''
*''[[My Autobiography]]'' by [[Charles Chaplin]]
*''[[My Life and Loves]]'' by [[Frank Harris]]
*''[[My Life in Art]]'' by [[Constantin Stanislavski]]
*''[[Nest of Vipers]]'' by Tod Claymore
*''[[New Writing]]''
*''[[Ninety Years Wiser]]''
*''[[No Orchids for Miss Blandish]]'' by [[James Hadley Chase]]
*''[[Or Be the Deed]]''
*''[[Our Nuclear Future]]''
*''[[La peau de chagrin]]'' by Honoré de Balzac
*''[[Petrouchka]]'' by [[Igor Stravinsky]]
*''[[Plexus]]'' by [[Henry Miller]]
*''[[Raffles and Miss Blandish]]'' by [[George Orwell]]
*''[[Reappraisals of History]]''
*''[[Rebus]]'' by Paul Gegauff
*''[[Rob |
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[[Image:Hector brought back to Troy.jpg|thumb|Hector brought back to Troy. From Roman sarcophagus.]]
In [[Greek mythology]], '''Hector''' ( &#x1F19;&kappa;&tau;&omega;&rho;, "holding fast"), or '''Hektor''', was a [[Troy|Trojan]] prince and one of the greatest fighters in the [[Trojan War]], equal to [[Ajax the great|Ajax]] and surpassed only by [[Achilles]].
He was the son of [[Priam]] and [[Hecuba]], his younger brother being the less brave [[Paris of Troy|Paris]]. With his wife, [[Andromache]], he fathered [[Astyanax]]. He had a horse named [[Lampos]] and friends named [[Misenus]] and [[Poludamas]]. His charioteer was [[Cebriones]], his half-brother.
In the ''[[Iliad]]'', [[Homer]] calls him "breaker of horses," largely to maintain the meter of his lines and because Troy in general was known for horse raising. Another [[epithets in Homer|epithet]] applied to him is "of the flashing helmet".
Hector provides a stark contrast for Achilles, who was from first to last a man of war. Hector represents Troy and what it stood for. Some modern scholars have even suggested that he, not Achilles, is the true hero of the ''Iliad''. Hector was fighting not for personal glory, but in defense of his homeland. His rebuke to Poludamas, "Fight for your country - that is the first and only omen" became a proverb to patriotic [[Greeks]]. Through him we can see glimpses of what life in Troy and elsewhere in the [[Bronze Age]] Mediterranean civilization depicted by Homer might have been like in more peaceful times. The scene where he bids farewell to his wife [[Andromache]] and his infant son is one of the more moving scenes in the ''Iliad''. However, he still shares some of the same faults as Achilles, and does have a great amount of pride that proves to be disastrous for the Trojans.
During the Trojan War, Hector killed [[Protesilaus]] and was wounded by Ajax. In the portion of the war described in the ''Iliad'', he fights with many of the Greek warriors and usually (but not always) succeeds in killing or wounding his opponent. When, with the assistance of [[Apollo]], he kills [[Patroclus]] and throws the entire Greek force into disarray, it seems that the war has reached a turning point.
Nonetheless, Hector's personal fate, as decreed by [[Zeus]] early on in the story, is never in doubt. Achilles, raging over the death of Patroclus, kills him and drags his body around the walls of Troy. Ultimately, with the assistance of the god [[Hermes]], Priam convinces Achilles to permit him to allow Hector his funeral rights. The final passage in the ''Iliad'' is his funeral, after which the doom of Troy is just a matter of time. In the final sack of Troy, as described in Book II of the ''[[Aeneid]]'', his father and many of his brothers are killed, his son is hurled from the walls in fear that he would avenge Hector, and his wife is carried off by Achilles' son [[Neoptolemus]] to live as a slave.
[[Homer]], [[Iliad]]; [[Apollodorus]], [[Bibliotheke]] III, xii, 5-6; [[Apollodorus]], [[Epitome]] IV, 2.
In the [[Middle Ages]] Hector's legend was held so highly that [[Jean de Longuyon]] included him as one of the [[Nine Worthies]]. In [[the Divine Comedy]] [[Dante]] sees the shade of Hector with the other noble Roman and Trojan personages in the portion of [[Limbo]] reserved for the most virtuous pagans.
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<title>Hera</title>
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<text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the Greek goddess. For the asteroid, see [[103 Hera]], and also [[1 Ceres]], which briefly bore the name Hera. For the [[particle accelerator]] see [[Hadron Elektron Ring Anlage]]. For the missile system, see [[Hera missile]].''
{{Greek myth (Olympian)}}
In the [[Twelve Olympians|Olympian pantheon]] of classical [[Greek Mythology]], '''Hêra''' ([[Wikipedia:Manual of Style (pronunciation)/IPA vs. other pronunciation symbols#Chart|World Book]] ''«HIHR uh»'') ([[Greek language|Greek]] {{polytonic|&#7981;&rho;&alpha;}} or {{polytonic|&#7981;&rho;&eta;}}) was the wife and sister of [[Zeus]]. She also presided as [[goddess]] of marriage, the patriarchal bond of her own subordination. (Slater 1968)
Hera is portrayed as being majestic and solemn, often enthroned and crowned with the ''polos'', the high cylindrical crown worn by several of the [[Great Goddess]]es. In her hand she may bear the [[pomegranate]], emblem of fertile blood and death and a substitute for the narcotic capsule of the opium poppy (Ruck and Staples 1994). "Nevertheless, there are memories of an earlier, aniconic representation, as a pillar in Argos and as a plank in Samos" (Burkert 1985 p.131).
In [[Roman mythology]], the consort of [[Jupiter (god)|Jupiter]] (Zeus) was [[Juno (mythology)|Juno]].
==Etymology and Pre-History==
Unlike some Greek gods, such as [[Zeus]] and [[Poseidon]], Hera's name is not analyzable as a Greek or [[Indo-European]] word. She therefore seems to be a survival of a pre-Greek "great goddess" figure - perhaps one of the powerful female divinities of the [[Minoan civilization|Minoan]] pantheon, or of some unidentified pre-Greek ("[[Pelasgian]]") people.
Hera's importance in the early archaic period is attested by the large building projects undertaken in her honor. The temples of Hera in the two main centers of her [[cult (religion)|cult]], at [[Samos Island|Samos]] and in the [[Argolid]], were the very earliest monumental [[Greek temple]]s constructed, in the [[8th century BC]].
At Olympia, her seated cult figure was older than the warrior figure of Zeus that accompanied it. Homer expressed her relationship with Zeus delicately in The [[Iliad]], in which she declares to Zeus, "I am [[Cronus]]' eldest daughter, and am honourable not on this ground only, but also because I am your wife, and you are king of the gods."[http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/2199] Though Zeus is often called ''Zeus Heraios'' ("Zeus, consort of Hera"), Homer's treatment of Hera is less than respectful, and in late anecdotal versions of the myths (see below) she appeared to spend most of her time plotting revenge on the [[nymph]]s seduced by her Consort, for Hera upheld all the old right rules of Hellene society and sorority.
[[Image:Hera.jpg|thumb|right|Greek marble statue of Hera made in the 5th century B.C.]]
== [[Cult (religion)|Cult]] ==
Hera was especially worshipped, as "Argive Hera" (''Hera Argeia''), at her sanctuary that stood between the former Mycenaean city-states of [[Argos]] and [[Mycenae]], where the festivals in her honor called ''[[Heraia]]'' were celebrated. "The three cities I love best," the ox-eyed Queen of Heaven declares (''Iliad'', book iv) "are Argos, Sparta and Mycenae of the broad streets." Her other main center of cult was at [[Samos Island|Samos]]. There were also temples to Hera in [[Olympia, Greece|Olympia]], [[Corinth, Greece|Corinth]], [[Tiryns]], [[Perachora]] and the sacred island of [[Delos]]. In [[Magna Graecia]], the temple long called the Temple of Poseidon among the group at [[Paestum]] was identified in the 1950s as a second temple there of Hera.
Greek [[altar]]s of Classical times were always under the open sky. Hera may have been the first to whom an enclosed roofed temple sanctuary was dedicated, at Samos about [[800 BC]]. (It was replaced later by the [[Heraion]], one of the largest Greek temples anywhere.) Earlier sanctuaries, whose dedication is less secure, were of the Mycenaean t |
Robert A. ''The Golden Dawn Companion''. Weiser Books, (1986) ISBN: 0850304369
* Gilbert, Robert A. ''Golden Dawn Scrapbook - The Rise and Fall of a Magical Order'' Weiser Books (1998) ISBN 1578630371
* Howe, Ellic. ''The Magicians of the Golden Dawn: A Documentary History of a Magical Order 1887-1923''. Samuel Weiser (1978). ISBN 0877283699.
* Regardie, Israel, et. al., eds., ''The Golden Dawn: A Complete Course in Practical Ceremonial Magic'' (Llewellyn, [[1989]]) ISBN 0875426638
* Runyon, Carroll ''Secrets of the Golden Dawn Cipher Manuscripts'', (C.H.S., 1997) ISBN 0965488128
==External links==
*[http://www.flashback.se/archive/gdfaq.html Golden Dawn FAQ]
*[http://www.hermetic.com/gdlibrary/ The Golden Dawn Library Project]
*[http://www.angelfire.com/ab6/imuhtuk/ Golden Dawn Lectures and Rituals]
*[http://www.llewellynencyclopedia.com/term/Golden+Dawn Golden Dawn entries in Llewellyn Encyclopedia]
*[http://www.witchvox.com/va/dt_va.html?a=usxx&c=trads&id=3210 Traditions at Witchvox: The Golden Dawn]
*[http://altreligion.about.com/library/texts/bl_historygoldendawn.htm Golden Dawn Tradition, by co-founder Dr. W. Wynn Westcott]
*[http://www.hermetic.com/gdlibrary/cipher/ Photocopies and the translation of the original Cipher Manuscripts]
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<text xml:space="preserve">A '''hash function''' or '''hash algorithm''' is a [[function (programming)|function]] for examining the input data and producing an output of a fixed length, called a '''hash value'''. Two different inputs are unlikely to hash to the same hash value.
The process of computing such a value is known as '''hashing''', and is used in cryptography and error-checking.
Simply put, a piece of information&mdash;this article for example&mdash;is run through a function. The result is a relatively short string of digits, which is likely to be unique. If you change one letter in this article, and then run it through the function again, the result should be different. This is used in computing as a way to verify whether a piece of information, like a video file or this article, has been altered.
[[Image:Hash_function.svg|thumb|330px|right|A typical hash function at work]]
A fundamental property of all hash functions is that if two hashes (according to the same function) are different, then the two inputs were different in some way. This property is a consequence of hash functions being [[deterministic algorithm|deterministic]], [[function (mathematics)|mathematical functions]], but the equality of two hash values does not guarantee the two inputs were the same unless the function is [[one-to-one]]. More typically, [[probability theory|probability theoretic]] or [[Computability theory (computation)|computability theoretic]] properties apply to the case of equal hash values.
Because of the variety of applications for hash functions (details below), they are often tailored to the application. For example, [[cryptographic hash functions]] assume the existence of an [[adversary]] who can deliberately try to find inputs with the same hash value. Functions for error detection and correction focus on distinguishing cases in which data has been disturbed by random processes. In any application, a good hash function is one that yields few [[hash collision|hash collisions]] in expected input domains. In [[hash table]]s and [[data processing]], collisions inhibit the distinguishing of data, making [[Database record|records]] more costly to find.
Typical hash functions have an infinite domain, such as [[byte]] [[string (computer science)|strings]] of arbitrary length, and a finite range, such as [[bit]] sequences of some fixed length. Functions that follow this paradigm and produce random-looking output are considered ''stock'' hash functions, because they can be used directly in or easily adapted for most applications. Functions intended for cryptographic hashing, such as [[MD5]], are commonly used as stock hash functions.
Hash functions that are [[one-to-one]] are also called '''randomization functions'''. Randomization functions cannot directly use stock hash functions, but instead use a series of [[reversible]] "mixing" operations on the function input to satisfy the required [[one-to-one]] property.
== Cryptography ==
:''Main article: [[cryptographic hash function]]''
[[one-way function|One-way]] hash functions are fundamental for much of [[cryptography]]. In this application, functions are characterized and evaluated in terms of their ability to withstand attack by an [[adversary]]. More specifically, given a message x, if it is computationally infeasible to find a message y not equal to x such that H(x) = H(y) then H is said to be a ''weakly collision-free hash function''. A ''strongly collision-free hash function'' H is one for which it is computationally infeasible to find any two distinct messages x and y such that H(x) = H(y).
The requirements for a good cryptographic hash function are stronger than those in many other applications (error correction and audio identification ''not'' included). For this reason, cryptographic hash functions make good stock hash functions&mdash;even functions whose cryptographic security is compromised, such as [[MD5]] and [[SHA-1]]. The [[SHA-2]] algorithm, however, has no known compromises.
A typical cryptographic [[one-way function]] is not one-to-one and makes an effective hash function; a typical cryptographic [[trapdoor function]] ''is'' one-to-one and makes an effective randomization function.
== Hash tables ==
:''Main article: [[Hash table]]''
Hash tables, a major application for hash functions, enable fast lookup of a data record given its ''key.'' (Note: Keys are not usually secret as in [[cryptography]], but both are used to "unlock" or access information.) For example, keys in an English dictionary would be English words, and their associated records would contain definitions. In this case, the hash function must map alphabetic strings to indexes for the hash table's internal [[array]].
The generally impossible/impractical ideal for a hash table's hash function is to map each key to a unique index (see [[perfect hashing]]), because this guarantees access to each data record in the first probe into the table.
Hash functions that are truly random with uniform output (including most [[Cryptographic hash function|cryptographic hash functions]]) are good in that, on average, only one or two probes will be needed (depending on the [[load factor]]). Perhaps as important is that excessive [[hash collision|collision]] rates with random hash functions are highly improbable&mdash;if not [[Computational complexity|computationally infeasible]] for an [[adversary]]. However, a small, predictable number of collisions is virtually inevitable (see [[birthday paradox]]).
In many cases, a [[Heuristic (computer science)|heuristic]] hash function can yield many fewer collisions than a random hash function. Heuristic functions take advantage of [[Regularity|regularities]] in likely sets of keys. For example, one could design a heuristic hash function such that file names such as <tt>FILE0000.CHK</tt>, <tt>FILE0001.CHK</tt>, <tt>FILE0002.CHK</tt>, etc. map to successive indices of the table, meaning that such sequences will not collide. Beating a random hash function on "good" sets of keys usually means performing much worse on "bad" sets of keys, which can arise naturally&mdash;not just through [[Computer insecurity|attacks]]. Bad performance of a hash table's hash function means that lookup can degrade to a costly [[linear search]].
Aside from minimizing collisions, the hash function for a hash table should also be fast relative to the cost of retrieving a record in the table, as the goal of minimizing collisions is minimizing the time needed to to retrieve a desired record. Consequently, the optimal balance of performance characteristics depends on the application.
One of the most respected hash functions for use in typical hash tables is Bob Jenkins' [http://burtleburtle.net/bob/c/lookup2.c LOOKUP2] hash function, published in an [http://burtleburtle.net/bob/hash/doobs.html article] in [[Dr. Dobb's Journal]]. The hash function performs well as long as there is no [[adversary]], for it is trivially [[Preimage|reversible]] and useless as a [[cryptographic hash function]].
== Error correction ==
:''Main article: [[Error correction and detection]]''
Using a hash function to detect errors in transmission is straightforward. The hash function is computed for the data at the sender, and the value of this hash is sent with the data. The hash function is performed again at the receiving end, and if the hash values do not match, an error has occurred at some point during the transmission. This is cal |
xp(-βE<sub>i</sub>)'' or ''exp(-E<sub>i</sub>/kT)'', which gives the (unnormalised) relative probability of a state, is called the [[Boltzmann factor]] and appears often in the study of physics and chemistry.
When the energy is simply the kinetic energy of the particle
:<math>E_i = {\begin{matrix} \frac{1}{2} \end{matrix}} mv^{2}</math>,
then the distribution correctly gives the [[Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution]] of gas molecule speeds, previously predicted by [[James Clerk Maxwell|Maxwell]] in [[1859]]. The Boltzmann distribution is, however, much more general. For example, it also predicts the variation of the particle density in a gravitational field with height, if <math>E_i = {\begin{matrix} \frac{1}{2} \end{matrix}} mv^{2} + mgh</math>. In fact the distribution applies whenever quantum considerations can be ignored.
In some cases, a continuum approximation can be used. If there are ''g(E)dE'' states with energy ''E'' to ''E+dE'', then the Boltzmann distribution predicts a probability distribution for the energy:
:<math>p(E)dE = {g(E) \exp({-\beta E})\over {\int g(E') \exp {(-\beta E')}}dE'} dE</math>
''g(E)'' is then called the [[density of states]] if the energy spectrum is continuous.
Classical particles with this energy distribution are said to obey [[Maxwell-Boltzmann statistics]]. For quantum particles, quantum [[identical particles|indistinguishability]] must be taken into account, giving corresponding [[Bose-Einstein statistics]] for [[bosons]], and [[Fermi-Dirac statistics]] for [[fermions]].
== Derivation ==
See [[Derivation of the partition function]] - first presented by [[Boltzmann]] in [[1877]].
[[Category:Particle statistics]]
[[Category:Statistical mechanics]]
{{physics-stub}}
[[pl:Rozkład Boltzmanna]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Leg theory</title>
<id>4109</id>
<revision>
<id>15902407</id>
<timestamp>2005-05-09T21:48:59Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Tintin1107</username>
<id>152352</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Early instances of leg theory</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Leg theory''' is a [[bowling (cricket)|bowling]] tactic in the [[sport]] of [[cricket]]. The term ''leg theory'' is somewhat archaic and seldom used any more, but the basic tactic still plays a part in modern cricket.
Simply put, leg theory involves concentrating the bowling attack at or near the line of leg [[stump (cricket)|stump]]. This may or may not be accompanied by a concentration of [[fielding positions in cricket|fielders]] on the [[leg side]]. The line of attack aims to cramp the [[batsman]], making him play the [[cricket ball|ball]] with the [[cricket bat|bat]] close to the body. This makes it difficult to hit the ball freely and score runs, especially on the [[off side]]. Since a leg theory attack means the batsman is more likely to hit the ball on the leg side, additional fielders on that side of the field can be effective in preventing runs and taking catches.
Stifling the batsman in this manner can lead to impatience and frustration, resulting in rash play by the batsman, which in turn can lead to him getting [[dismissal (cricket)|out]].
Leg theory can be a moderately successful tactic when used with both [[fast bowling]] and [[spin bowling]], particularly [[leg spin]] to right-handed batsmen or [[off spin]] to left-handed batsmen. However, because it relies on lack of concentration or discipline by the batsman, it can be risky against patient and skilled players, especially batsmen who are strong on the leg side. The English opening bowlers [[Sydney Barnes]] and [[Frank Foster]] used leg theory with some success in Australia in [[1911]]-[[1912|12]]. In England, at around the same time Fred Root was one of the main proponents of the same tactic.
Concentrating attack on the leg stump is considered by many cricket fans and commentators to lead to boring play, as it stifles run scoring and encourages batsmen to play conservatively.
==Fast leg theory==
''Main article: [[Bodyline]]''
In [[1930]], [[English cricket team|England]] captain [[Douglas Jardine]], together with [[Nottinghamshire]]'s captain [[Arthur Carr]] and his bowlers [[Harold Larwood]] and [[Bill Voce]], developed a variant of leg theory in which the bowlers bowled fast, short-pitched balls that would rise into the batsman's body, together with a heavily stacked ring of close fielders on the leg side. The idea was that when the batsman defended against the ball, he would be likely to deflect the ball into the air for a catch.
Jardine called this modified form of the tactic ''fast leg theory''. On the 1932-33 English tour of [[Australia]], Larwood and Voce bowled fast leg theory at the Australian batsmen. It turned out to be extremely dangerous, and most Australian players sustained injuries from being hit by the ball. [[Wicket-keeper]] [[Bert Oldfield]]'s skull was fractured by a ball hitting his head, almost precipitating a riot by the Australian crowd.
The Australian press dubbed the tactic ''Bodyline'', and claimed it was a deliberate attempt by the English team to intimidate and injure the Australian players. Reports of the controversy reaching England at the time described the bowling as ''fast leg theory'', which sounded to many people to be a harmless and well-established tactic. This led to a serious misunderstanding amongst the English public and the [[Marylebone Cricket Club]] - the administrators of English cricket - of the dangers posed by Bodyline. The English press and cricket authorities declared the Australian protests to be a case of sore losing and "squealing".
It was only with the return of the English team and the subsequent use of Bodyline against English players in England by the touring [[West Indian cricket team]] in [[1933]] that demonstrated to the country the dangers it posed. The MCC subsequently revised the [[Laws of Cricket]] to prevent the bowling of fast leg theory/Bodyline ever again.
==See also==
* [[Bodyline]]
* [[Off theory]]
[[Category:Cricket captaincy and tactics]]
[[Category:Bowling (cricket)]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Blythe Danner</title>
<id>4110</id>
<revision>
<id>41839385</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T02:01:46Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>64.0.112.155</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>Corrected son Jake's occupation from actor to director. There are no acting credits on file for him at imdb.com.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Blythe Katherine Danner''' (born [[February 3]], [[1943]]) is a prolific, [[Emmy]]-winning [[United States|American]] [[actor|actress]] who has appeared in numerous [[theater|stage]], [[television|screen]], and [[film]] roles.
Danner was born in [[Philadelphia, Pennsylvania]] to a [[Quaker]] family, the daughter of a bank executive. She has two brothers - opera singer/actor Harry Danner, and violin maker [[William Moennig]] (half-brother). She attended the private [[George School]], in [[Newtown, Bucks County, Pennsylvania]], and [[Bard College]], where she was graduated in [[1965]]. She holds three honorary doctorates of fine arts from Bard, [[Williams College]], and [[Hobart and William Smith Colleges|Hobart]].
==Acting career==
Danner first appeared on stage with the Theater Company of Boston and the Trinity Square Playhouse of Boston, and first gained national attention at age 25 by winning the [[Theatre World Award]] for her performance in the [[Lincoln Center Rep]]'s production of ''[[The Miser]]''. She went on to win a [[Tony Award]] in [[1970]] for her [[Broadway theatre|Broadway]] debut in ''[[Butterflies Are Free]]'', playing the role later portrayed by [[Goldie Hawn]] in the film adaptation. The same year she appeared in her first film role, in a television production of ''[[Dr. Cook's Garden]]''. She also received Tony nominations in [[1980]] for the original Broadway production of [[Harold Pinter]]'s ''[[Betrayal]]'', in [[1988]] for a [[revival]] of the [[Pulitzer Prize for Drama|Pulitzer Prize-winning drama]] ''[[A Streetcar Named Desire]]'', and again in [[2001]] for a revival of [[Stephen Sondheim]]'s ''[[Follies]]''. Danner was a close friend of actor [[Christopher Reeve]] and appeared with him in several plays.
Due to Danner's WASPy appearance and husky voice, she most frequently is cast as a [[middle class]] or [[upper class]] wife, or more lately, matriarch; although in [[1986]] in ''[[Brighton Beach Memoirs]]'', she portrayed a middle-aged Jewish woman, and in [[1982]] in the TV movie ''[[Inside the Third Reich]]'', she played the wife of [[Albert Speer]]. Her earliest starring film roles were opposite [[Alan Alda]] in ''[[To Kill a Clown]]'' ([[1972 in film|1972]]) and in the title role of ''[[Lovin' Molly]]'' ([[1974 in film|1974]]), directed by [[Sidney Lumet]]. She has appeared in two films based on the novels of [[Pat Conroy]], ''[[The Great Santini]]'' ([[1979 in film|1979]]) and ''[[The Prince of Tides]]'' ([[1991 in film|1991]]), as well as two television movies adapted from books by [[Anne Tyler]], ''[[Saint Maybe]]'' and ''[[Back When We Were Grownups]]'', both for the [[Hallmark Hall of Fame]].
Danner is more recently known for her role opposite [[Robert De Niro]] in the comedy hit ''[[Meet the Parents]]'' ([[2000 in film|2000]]) and its [[2004 in film|2004]] sequel, ''[[Meet the Fockers]]'' (with [[Barbra Streisand]] and [[Dustin Hoffman]]). She currently stars in the cable TV series ''[[Huff (TV series)|Huff]]'', which premiered in [[2004]]. Since [[2001]], she has regularly guest starred on ''[[Will & Grace]]'' as [[Will Truman|Will's]] mother [[Supporting characters on Will & Grace#Will's Family|Marilyn]]. In [[2005]] she was nominated for three [[Emmy]] Awards, for her work on ''Will & Grace'', ''Huff'' and ''Back When We Were Grownups''. Emmy hos |
psid=10 National Science Teachers Association] Position Statement: The Teaching of Evolution
* [http://www.nabt.org/sub/position_statements/evolution.asp National Association of Biology Teachers] Statement on Teaching Evolution
* [http://www.ncseweb.org/ National Center for Science Education]
* [http://atheism.about.com/religion/atheism/cs/creationism/index.htm About creationism]
* [http://www.infidels.org/library/modern/science/creationism/ creationism]
* [http://www.nap.edu/books/0309064066/html/ Science and Creationism: A View from the National Academy of Sciences] by the Steering Committee on Science and Creationism, National Academy of Sciences
* [http://omnibus.uni-freiburg.de/~riexinge/EvolutionIslam.html Links to Islamic creationist and anti-creationists websites]
* [http://www.skepdic.com/creation.html Skeptics Dictionary] Introduction and criticism of creationism.
* [http://www.scicom.lth.se/fmet/myths.html Origin Myths] Introduction to a number of alternative origin myths from varied cultures around the world
* [http://www.sciam.com/article.cfm?articleID=000D4FEC-7D5B-1D07-8E49809EC588EEDF 15 Answers to Creationist Nonsense] - Scientific American
* [http://emporium.turnpike.net/C/cs/mod.htm Comparison of evolution and creation]
* [http://www.nap.edu/html/creationism/introduction.html Introduction to creationism]
* [http://mypage.direct.ca/w/writer/gish.html Creationism: Bad Science or Immoral Pseudoscience?]
<!--Categories-->
[[Category:Creation Science]]
[[Category:Pseudoscience]]
<!--Other languages-->
[[bg:Научен креационизъм]]
[[de:Schöpfungstheorie]]
[[ko:창조과학]]
[[ja:創造科学]]
[[ru:Научный креационизм]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Boeing C-135</title>
<id>7684</id>
<revision>
<id>15905742</id>
<timestamp>2004-09-12T04:29:44Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rlandmann</username>
<id>8817</id>
</contributor>
<comment>redirect to existing article</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[C-135 Stratolifter]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>List of cartographers</title>
<id>7685</id>
<revision>
<id>41640566</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T18:55:05Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>RHaworth</username>
<id>161142</id>
</contributor>
<comment>+ john tallis</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Cartography]] is the study of map making and '''cartographers''' are map makers.
==Before 1400==
*[[Dicaearchus]] (Greece, circa [[350 BC|350 B.C.]] - circa [[285 BC|285 B.C.]]), philosopher, cartographer, geographer, mathematician, author
*[[Hipparchus (astronomer)|Hipparchus]], (Greece, [[190 BC|190 B.C.]] - [[120 BC|120 B.C.]]), astronomer, cartographer, geographer
*[[Isidore of Seville]] (Spain, [[560]] - [[636]])
*[[Ptolemy]], (Ptolemaic Egypt, Greece, circa [[85]] - circa [[165]]), astronomer, cartographer, geographer'
*[[Al-Idrisi]] ([[Sicily]], [[1100]]-[[1166]]) [[Arab]] cartographer, geographer and traveller.
==15th century==
*[[Martin Behaim]] (Germany, [[1436]] – [[1507]])
*[[Erhard Etzlaub]] ([[1460]] – [[1532]])
*[[Fra Mauro]] (Venice, c.[[1459]])
*[[Sebastian Münster]] (Germany, [[1488]] – [[1552]])
*[[Piri Reis|Piri Reis/Hadji Muhammad]] (Dardanelles, [[1465]] – [[1554]]/[[1555]])
*[[Hartmann Schedel]] (Germany, [[1440]] – [[1514]])
*[[Amerigo Vespucci (explorer)|Amerigo Vespucci]] (Italy, [[1454]] – [[1512]])
*[[Martin Waldseemüller]] (Germany, c.[[1470]] – c.[[1521]]/[[1522]])
*[[Johannes Werner]] (Germany, [[1466]] – [[1528]]) refined and promoted the ''Werner [[map projection]]''
==16th century==
*[[Philipp Apian]] ([[1531-1589]])
*[[Willem Blaeu|Willem Janszoon Blaeu]] (Netherlands, [[1571]] - [[1638]])
*[[Johannes Blaeu]] (Netherlands, [[1596]] - [[1673]])
*[[Gemma Frisius]] (or Reiner Gemma, [[1508]] - [[1555]])
*[[Martin Heilwig]] (Germany, [[1516]] - [[1574]])
*[[Jodocus Hondius]], (Flanders, England, Netherlands, [[1563]] - [[1612]])
*[[Henricus Hondius]] (Netherlands, [[1597]] - [[1651]])
*[[Jan Janssonius]] (Netherlands, [[1588]] - [[1664]])
*[[Gerard de Jode]] (Flanders, [[1509]] - [[1591]])
*[[Gerardus Mercator]] (Flanders, Netherlands, [[1512]] - [[1594]])
*[[A. Matthäus Merian]] (Switzerland, [[1593]] - [[1650]])
*[[Pedro Nunes]], (Portugal, [[1502]] - [[1578]])
*[[Abraham Ortelius]], (Flanders, [[1527]] - [[1598]])
*[[Petrus Plancius]], (Netherlands, ([[1552]] - [[1622]])
*[[John Speed]], (England, [[1542]] - [[1629]])
*[[Christopher Saxton]], (England, born c 1540)
==17th century==
*[[Giambattista Albrizzi|Giambattista (Giovanni Battista) Albrizzi]] (Venice, [[1698]] &ndash; [[1777]]), publisher of illustrated books and maps
*[[Vincenzo Coronelli]] ([[1650]] &ndash; [[1718]])
*[[Guillaume Delisle]] ([[1675]] &ndash; [[1726]]), cartographer
*[[Johann Homann]] (Germany, [[1664]] &ndash; [[1724]]), geographer
*[[Johannes van Keulen]], cartographer, founder of Firm of Van Keulen
*[[Matthäus Merian]] (Switzerland, [[1621]] &ndash; [[1687]])
*[[Nicolas Sanson]] (France, [[1600]] &ndash; [[1667]])
*[[Robert Morden]] (England, died [[1703]])
*[[Peter Schenk]] ([[1660]] &ndash; [[1718]]/[[1719]])
*[[Friedrich Wilhelm Karl von Schmettau]] (died [[1743]])
*[[Matthias Seutter]] ([[1678]] &ndash; [[1757]])
*[[Alain Manesson Mallet]] ([[1630]] &ndash; [[1706]])
==18th century==
*[[Thomas Jefferys]] (c. [[1710]] - [[1771]]) Geographer of King [[George III of the United Kingdom]]
*[[Johann Friedrich Endersch]] (Germany, fl. [[1755]])
*[[Robert Erskine|Colonel Robert Erskine]] ([[1735]] - [[1780]]) [[Geographer]] and Surveyor-General of the [[Continental Army]] during the [[American Revolution]].
*[[John Rocque]] (England, [[1709]] - [[1762]])
*[[Simeon De Witt]] ([[1756]] - [[1834]]) Successor to Robert Erskine and Surveyor-General of the State of [[New York]]
*[[Fielding Lucas Jr.|Lucas, Fielding Jr.]] (c. [[1781]]—[[1854]]) Lucas Brothers, [[Baltimore]], [[USA]]
*[[Thomas Richardson mapmaker|Thomas Richardson]] - [[Scottish people|Scottish]]
*[[James Cook]] (Captain [[Royal Navy | RN]]) ([[1728]] &ndash; [[1779]]) navigator and naval chart maker
*[[James Wilson (globe maker)|James Wilson]] ([[1763]] &ndash; [[1835]]) First globe maker in the US.
==19th century==
*[[George Bradshaw]] (1801 - 1853)
*[[Carl Diercke]] (1842 - 1913)
*[[Paul Diercke]] (1874 - 1937)
*[[Max Eckert-Greifendorff]] (1868 - 1938)
*[[Hermann Haack]] (1872 - 1966)
*[[Charles F. Hoffmann]]
*[[Eduard Imhof]] ([[1895]] - [[1986]])
*[[Peter Kozler]] (Slovenia, [[1824]] - [[1879]]), lawyer, geographer, politician, manufacturer.
*[[Thomas Moule]] (England, 1784 - 1851)
*[[John Tallis|John Tallis and Company]] (England, 1838 - 1851)
*[[Nicolas Auguste Tissot]] (France)
*[[Philippe Vandermaelen]] (Belgium, 1795 - 1869)
==20th century==
*[[Erik Arnberger]] (1917 - 1987)
*[[Jacques Bertin]] (1918- )
*[[Roger Brunet]] (1931- )
*[[Günther Hake]] (1922 - 2000)
*[[George F. Jenks]] (1916 - 1996)
*[[Edgar Lehmann]] (1905 - 1990)
*[[Rudi Ogrissek]] (1926 - 1999)
*[[Erwin Raisz]] (1893 - 1968)
*[[Arthur H. Robinson]] (1915 - 2004)
*[[John C. Sherman]] (1916 - 1996)
*[[Waldo R. Tobler]] (1930- )
==21st century==
*[[Mike Reagan (mapmaker)|Mike Reagan]]
*[[Jay Foreman (mapmaker)|Jay Foreman]]
==Cartography organizations==
*[http://www.cartography.org.uk/ British Cartographic Society]
*[http://www.soc.org.uk/ Society of Cartographers]
*[[NACIS]] [http://www.nacis.org/ North American Cartographic Information Society]
*[http://www.cartography.ch/ Swiss Society of Cartography]
*[[Ordnance Survey]] ([[United Kingdom]])
[[Category:Lists of people by occupation|Cartographers]]
[[Category:Cartographers| List of Cartographers]]
[[de:Kartograf]][[pt:Lista de cartógrafos]]
[[sl:seznam kartografov]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Christian antisemitism</title>
<id>7688</id>
<revision>
<id>15905746</id>
<timestamp>2002-12-09T15:14:20Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Magnus Manske</username>
<id>4</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>#REDIRECT [[Christianity_and_anti-Semitism]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Christianity_and_anti-Semitism]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Cirth</title>
<id>7689</id>
<revision>
<id>37596595</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-31T23:56:07Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Weregerbil</username>
<id>700735</id>
</contributor>
<comment>fix incorrect link</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:cirth.png|thumb|This chart showing the runes shared by the '''''Angerthas Daeron''''' and '''''Angerthas Moria''''' is presented in Appendix E of ''[[The Return of the King (book)|The Return of the King]]''. Some of the '''''cirth''''' had different values for the [[Elvish]] and [[Khuzdul|Dwarvish]] languages and some were used in only one system or the other.]]
The '''Cirth''' ("''[[Runic alphabet|Runes]]''") are the letters of an [[artificial script]] which was invented by [[J. R. R. Tolkien]] for the [[constructed language]]s he devised and used in his works.
In the fictional history of [[Middle-earth]], the original '''''Certhas Daeron''''' was created by [[Daeron]], the [[minstrel]] of king [[Thingol]] of [[Doriath]] and was later expanded into what was known as the '''''Angerthas Daeron'''''. Although the Cirth were later largely replaced by the [[Tengwar]] (which were enhanced and brought by [[Fëanor]]), they were adopted by [[Dwarves (Middle-earth)|Dwarves]] to write down their [[Khuzdul|Khuzdûl]] language ('''''Angerthas Moria''''' and '''''Angerthas Erebor''''') because their straight lines were better suited to carving than the curved strokes of the Tengwar. Some examples of Cirth writings are the inscription on [[Balin|Balin's]] tomb in [[Moria (Middle-earth)|Moria]] and the inscriptions |
headquarters are based in [[Irvine, California]]. The company has a history of largely overshooting release dates. However, many Blizzard fans see this as somewhat of a blessing in disguise, as Blizzard has a reputation for producing classic games that are played for years to come. Blizzard also has a reputation for taking fierce legal action against anyone who reverse engineers their software, copies their game concepts, or publishes third-party server software that is compatible with their games.
==Overview==
Blizzard Entertainment was founded in February, 1991 as ''Silicon & Synapse'' by [[Mike Morhaime]], [[Allen Adham]] and [[Frank Pearce]]. The company developed games like ''[[Rock & Roll Racing]]'' and ''[[The Lost Vikings]]'' (published by [[Interplay Productions]]). In 1994, the company briefly changed its name to Chaos Studios, before finally settling on Blizzard Entertainment after it was discovered that another company with the Chaos name already existed. That same year, they were acquired by distributor [[Davidson & Associates]] for under [[United States dollar|$]]10 million. Shortly thereafter, Blizzard shipped their breakthrough hit ''[[Warcraft]]''.
Blizzard has changed hands several times since then: Davidson was acquired by a timeshare company called [[CUC International]] in 1996; CUC then merged with a hotel, real-estate, and car-rental franchiser called [[HFS Corporation]] to form [[Cendant Software]], in 1997. In 1998 it became apparent that CUC had engaged in accounting fraud for years before the merger; Cendant's stock lost 80% of its value over the next six months in the ensuing widely discussed accounting scandal. The company sold its consumer software operations, including Blizzard, to [[France|French]] publisher [[Havas]] in 1998, the same year Havas was purchased by [[Vivendi SA|Vivendi]]. Blizzard is now part of the VU Games group of [[Vivendi Universal]].
In 1996, Blizzard acquired Condor Games, which had been working on the game ''[[Diablo (computer game)|Diablo]]'' for Blizzard at the time. Condor was renamed [[Blizzard North]], and has since developed hit games ''[[Diablo (computer game)|Diablo]]'', ''[[Diablo II]]'', and its expansion pack ''[[Diablo II: Lord of Destruction]]''. Blizzard North is located in [[San Mateo, California]].
Blizzard launched their online gaming service ''[[Battle.net]]'' in January of 1997 with the release of their action-[[Computer role-playing game|RPG]] ''Diablo''.
On November 23, 2004, Blizzard released [[World of Warcraft]], which has quickly grown to become one of the most popular [[MMORPG]]s in history.
On May 16, 2005, Blizzard announced the [[acquisition]] of [[Swingin' Ape]], a [[console games|console]] game maker, which is now ''Blizzard Console'', currently working on ''[[Starcraft: Ghost]]''.
On August 1, 2005, Blizzard announced the [[consolidation]] of [[Blizzard North]] into the headquarters in [[Irvine, California]].
==Titles==
*''[http://www.mobygames.com/browse/games/blizzard-entertainment-inc/offset,0/so,1a/list-games/ The Lord of the Rings]'' (1990) - [[Computer role-playing game|RPG]]
*''[[The Lost Vikings]]'' (1992) - [[platform game]]
*''[[Rock & Roll Racing]]'' (1993) - racing game
*''[[Blackthorne]]'' ([[1994]]) - fantasy platform game
*''The Death and Return of [[Superman]]'' (1994) - side-scrolling [[beat 'em up]]
*''[[Warcraft]]'' (1994) - fantasy [[real-time strategy game]]
*''[[Justice League Task Force]]'' (1995) - one-on-one [[fighting game]]
*''[[The Lost Vikings II]]'' (1995) - platform game
*''[[Warcraft II]]'' (1995) - fantasy real-time strategy game
*''[[Warcraft II|Warcraft II: Beyond the Dark Portal]]'' (1996) - [[expansion pack]]
*''[[Diablo (computer game)|Diablo]]'' (1996) - action-oriented [[computer role-playing game]]
*''[[Diablo: Hellfire]]'' (1997) - [[expansion pack]] (co-created by Sierra Studios)
*''[[StarCraft]]'' (1998) - [[science fiction]] real-time strategy game
*''[[StarCraft: Brood War]]'' (1998) - [[expansion pack]]
*''[[Diablo II]]'' (2000) - action-oriented RPG
*''[[Diablo II: Lord of Destruction]]'' (2001) - [[expansion pack]]
*''[[Warcraft III|Warcraft III: Reign of Chaos]]'' (2002) - fantasy real-time strategy game
*''[[Warcraft III: The Frozen Throne]]'' (2003) - expansion pack
*''[[World of Warcraft]]'' (2004) - [[MMORPG]] set in the Warcraft universe
[[As of 2006]], Blizzard is currently overseeing development on a stealth action game called ''[[StarCraft: Ghost]]'', by Blizzard Console. It is also working on an expansion to the highly successful ''World of Warcraft'' called ''[[World of Warcraft: The Burning Crusade]]''. Both games are expected to be released in December 2006.
==Bnetd==
A group of gamers [[reverse engineering|reverse engineered]] the network protocol used by Battle.net and Blizzard games, and released a free (under the [[GNU General Public License|GNU GPL]]) Battle.net emulation package called [[bnetd]]. With bnetd, a gamer is not required to use the official Battle.net servers to play Blizzard games.
In February of 2002, lawyers retained by Blizzard threatened legal action under the [[DMCA|Digital Millennium Copyright Act]] against the developers of bnetd. Blizzard games are designed to operate online exclusively with a set of Blizzard-controlled servers collectively known as "[[Battle.net]]". Battle.net servers include a [[CD key]] check as a means of preventing [[software piracy]].
Despite offers from the bnetd developers to integrate Blizzard's CD key checking system into bnetd, Blizzard claims that the public availability of any such software package facilitates piracy, and moved to have the bnetd project shut down under provisions of the DMCA. As this case is one of the first major test cases for the DMCA, the [[Electronic Frontier Foundation]] became involved, for a while negotiations were ongoing to resolve the case without a trial. The negotiations failed however, and Blizzard won the case on all counts: the defendants were ruled to have breached both StarCraft's [[End User License Agreement]] (EULA) and the [[Terms of Use]] of Battle.net.
This decision was appealed to the [[Eighth Circuit Court of Appeals]], which also ruled in favor of Blizzard/Vivendi on September 1 2005.
[http://www.eff.org/IP/Emulation/Blizzard_v_bnetd/ Details on the EFF website]
[http://blizzard.com/press/041008.shtml Blizzard's Press Release]
==[[FreeCraft]]==
On [[June 20]] [[2003]], Blizzard issued a [[cease and desist]] letter to the developers of an [[open source]] clone of the Warcraft engine called ''FreeCraft''. This hobby project had the same gameplay and characters as ''Warcraft II'', but came with different graphics and music. It was written from scratch and no Blizzard code was used.
As well as a similar name, ''FreeCraft'' enabled gamers to use ''Warcraft II'' graphics, provided they had the ''Warcraft II'' CD. The programmers of the clone shut down their site without challenge. Soon after that the developers regrouped to continue the work by the name of ''[[Stratagus]]''.
==Warden Client==
Blizzard has made use of a special form of [[Software|software]] known as the 'Warden Client' in order to detect the use of third-party programs used for the purpose of [[cheating]]. The Warden client scans the [[Process (computing)|process names]], window titles, and a small portion of the [[code segment]] of running processes in order to determine whether any of these third-party programs are running. This determination is made by [[Hash function|hashing]] the scanned [[String (computer science)|strings]] and comparing the hashed value to a list of hashes known to correspond to cheat programs. The Warden client is known to be used with Blizzard's [[World of Warcraft]] [[MMORPG|online game]].
The Warden software has run afoul of controversy among some [[privacy]] advocates. Since Warden scans running processes other than the World of Warcraft game, and could possibly run across e-mail addresses, instant messenger IDs, and [[personally identifiable information]], privacy advocates and others state that Warden behaves similarly to [[spyware]]. However, many World of Warcraft players note that only hashed strings are compared, and no personally identifiable information is transmitted back to Blizzard; moreover, all players consent, via the [[EULA]] and [[terms of use]], to the Warden software performing these scans while World of Warcraft is running. Supporters of the Warden software claim that, instead of being spyware, Warden behaves more like [[anti-virus software]], except that instead of detecting [[viruses]], Warden detects third-party cheat programs, and thus helps to prevent cheating within the game.
* [http://www.wowsharp.net/forums/viewtopic.php?t=7024 Technical description of Warden] on the forums of the WoW!Sharp third-party software development forums
* [http://www.worldofwarcraft.com/legal/termsofuse.html World of Warcraft Terms of Use] (See section 13.A)
==Trivia==
{{spoilers}}
* The phrase "There is no cow level" is a running joke started by the company's game designers stemming from repeated rumors on Battle.net that a "secret cow level" existed in ''Diablo''. The phrase "There is no cow level" was a cheat code in the original ''Starcraft'' game. In ''Diablo II'', a cow level was made as a secret level. "There is no cow level" now also appears as a 'tip of the day' on the loading screen of World of Warcraft.
* In Blizzard's [[real-time strategy]] games (the ''Starcraft'' and ''Warcraft'' series), clicking on a character repeatedly will invoke humorous sound bites, with some of the most famous including the Orc Grunt's "Stop poking me!" or the Human Footman's "Are you ''still'' touching me?". Blizzard most likely took note of this, because in ''Warcraft III'' the same units said similar things such as "Why are you poking me again?" and &qu |
need not be a real number, but, for instance, a [[vector (spatial)|vector]] in '''R'''<sup>3</sup>. [[Fubini's theorem]] shows that such integrals can be rewritten as an iterated integral. In other words, the integral can be calculated by integrating one coordinate at a time.
[[Image:Integral as region under curve.png|thumb|250px|The integral of ''f''(''x'') is the area between the curve ''y'' = ''f''(''x'') and the ''x''-axis in the interval [''a'', ''b''].]]
If a function has an integral, it is said to be ''integrable''. The function for which the integral is calculated is called the '''integrand'''. Integrals result in a number, not another function. If the domain of the function to be integrated is the [[real number]]s, and if the region of integration is an [[interval (mathematics)|interval]], then the [[infimum|greatest lower bound]] of the interval is called the ''lower limit of integration'', and the [[supremum|least upper bound]] is called the ''upper limit of integration''.
[[Image:Areabetweentwographs.png|thumb|287px|Finding the area between two curves.]]
== Computing integrals ==
The most basic technique for computing integrals of one real variable is based on the [[fundamental theorem of calculus]]. It proceeds like this:
# Choose a function ''f(x)'' and an interval [''a'',''b''].
# Find an [[antiderivative]] of ''f'', that is, a function ''F'' such that ''F' '' = ''f''.
# By the fundamental theorem of calculus, provided the integrand and integral have no singularities on the path of integration, <math>\int_a^b f(x)\,dx = F(b)-F(a)</math>.
# Therefore the value of the integral is ''F(b) − F(a)''.
Note that the integral is not actually the antiderivative, but the fundamental theorem allows us to use antiderivatives to evaluate definite integrals.
The difficult step is finding an antiderivative of ''f''. It is rarely possible to glance at a function and write down its antiderivative. More often, it is necessary to use one of the many techniques that have been developed to evaluate integrals. Most of these techniques rewrite one integral as a different one which is hopefully more tractable. Techniques include:
* [[Integration by substitution|Integration by substitution]]
* [[Integration by parts]]
* [[trigonometric substitution|Integration by trigonometric substitution]]
* [[Partial fractions in integration|Integration by partial fractions]]
Even if these techniques fail, it may still be possible to evaluate a given integral. The next most common technique is [[Residue (complex analysis)|residue calculus]]. There are also many less common ways of calculating definite integrals; for instance, [[Parseval's identity]] can be used to transform an integral over a rectangular region into an infinite sum. Occasionally, an integral can be evaluated by a trick; for an example of this, see [[Gaussian integral]].
Computations of volumes of [[solid of revolution|solids of revolution]] can usually be done with [[disk integration]] or [[shell integration]].
Specific results which have been worked out by various techniques are collected in the [[list of integrals]].
=== Approximation of definite integrals ===
Definite integrals may be approximated using several methods of [[numerical integration]]. One popular method, called the [[rectangle method]], relies on dividing the region under the function into a series of rectangles and finding the sum. Other well-known methods are the [[trapezoidal rule]] and [[Simpson's rule]].
Some integrals cannot be found exactly, and others are so complex that finding the exact answer would be extremely time-consuming or computationally-intensive. Approximation, however, is a process which relies only on variable substitution, multiplication, addition, and [[division (mathematics)|division]]. It can be done easily and quickly by modern graphing calculators and computers. Many real-world applications of calculus rely on calculating integrals approximately because of the complexity of formulas and since an exact answer is unnecessary.
=== Integrals and computerized algebra systems ===
Many professionals, educators, and students now use [[computerized algebra systems]] to make difficult (or simply tedious) algebra and calculus problems easier. The design of such a computer algebra system is nontrivial as systematic methods of antidifferentiation are difficult to formulate, although in many cases a definite integral can be computed without finding an antiderivative.
One difficulty in computing definite integrals is that it is not always possible to find "[[closed-form expression|explicit formulae]]" for antiderivatives. For instance, there is a (nontrivial) proof that there is no nice function (e.g., involving sin, cos, exp, [[polynomial]]s, roots and so on) whose derivative is ''x''<sup>''x''</sup>. As such, computerized algebra systems have no hope of being able to find an antiderivative for this particular function. Unfortunately, functions that have nice antiderivatives are the exception. If one writes a large random expression involving [[exponential function|exponentials]] and polynomials, the odds are almost nil that it will have an antiderivative. (This statement can be made formal, but it is difficult to do so.)
One of the difficulties is to decide what set of functions to use as building blocks for antiderivatives. Usually, we need a set of antiderivatives closed under, say, multiplication and composition. This set of antiderivatives should also include polynomials, perhaps quotients, exponentials, [[logarithm]]s, sines and [[cosine]]s. The [[Risch-Norman algorithm]] is able to compute any integral of such a shape; that is, if the antiderivative involves polynomials, sines, cosines, etc..., the Risch-Norman algorithm will be able to compute it. Extended versions of this algorithm are implemented in [[Mathematica]] and the [[Maple computer algebra system]].
Some special integrands occur often enough to warrant special study. In particular, it may be useful to have, in the set of antiderivatives, the [[special functions]] of [[physics]] (like the [[Legendre function]]s, the [[hypergeometric function]], the [[Gamma function]] and so on). Extending the Risch-Norman algorithm so that it includes these functions is possible but challenging.
Most humans are not able to integrate such general formulae, so in a sense computers are more skilled at integrating highly complicated formulae. On the other hand, very complex formulae are unlikely to have closed-form antiderivatives, so this advantage is dubious.
== Improper integrals ==
Not all integrals can be evaluated using a single limit process. An integral which can only be evaluated by considering it as the limit of integrals on successively larger and larger intervals is called an '''[[improper integral]]'''. Improper integrals usually turn up when the [[range of a function|range]] of the function to be integrated is infinite or, in the case of the [[Riemann integral]], when the [[domain of a function|domain]] of the function is infinite. One common example of an improper integral is the [[Cauchy principal value]].
== Definitions of the integral ==
The most important integrals are the [[Riemann integral]] and the [[Lebesgue integral]]. The Riemann integral was created by [[Bernhard Riemann]] in [[1854]] and was the first [[rigor]]ous definition of the integral. The Lebesgue integral was created by [[Henri Lebesgue]] to integrate a wider class of functions and to prove very strong [[theorem]]s about interchanging [[limit]]s and integrals (see Lebesgue's [[dominated convergence theorem]]).
Although the Riemann and Lebesgue integrals are the most important ones, a number of others exist, including but not limited to:
* The [[Daniell integral]].
* The [[Darboux integral]], a variation of the Riemann integral.
* The [[Denjoy integral]] (also known as the [[Henstock-Kurzweil integral]]), an extension of both the Riemann and Lebesgue integrals.
* The [[Haar integral]].
* The [[Henstock-Kurzweil integral]], an extension of both the Riemann and Lebesgue integrals (also called HK-integral).
* The [[Henstock-Kurzweil-Stieltjes integral]] (also called HK-Stieltjes integral).
* The [[Lebesgue-Stieltjes integral]] (also called Lebesgue-Radon integral).
* The [[Perron integral]], which is equivalent to the restricted [[Denjoy integral]].
* The [[Riemann-Stieltjes integral]], an extension of the Riemann integral.
== Definitions by means of an integral ==
Several mathematical functions and constants can be defined by using an integral. The [[natural logarithm]] is usually defined as
:<math>\ln x = \int_1^x \! {dt\over t}.</math>
The mathematical constant ''e'' may then be defined as the number such that
:<math>\ln e =\int_1^e \! {dt\over t} = 1.</math>
== See also ==
* [[Lists of integrals]]
* [[Multiple integral]] (integrals for functions of more than one variable)
* [[Integral (examples)]]
* [[Antiderivative]]
== External links ==
* [http://www.cut-the-knot.org/Curriculum/Calculus/RiemannSums.shtml Riemann Sums - Function Integration (a Java simulation)] at [[cut-the-knot]]
* [http://www.cut-the-knot.org/Curriculum/Calculus/CubicSpline.shtml Function, Derivative and Integral (a Java simulation)] at [[cut-the-knot]]
* [http://integrals.wolfram.com/ The Integrator] by [[Wolfram Research]]
* [http://wims.unice.fr/wims/wims.cgi?module=tool/analysis/function.en Function Calculator] from [[WIMS]]
* P.S. Wang, [http://www.lcs.mit.edu/publications/specpub.php?id=660 Evaluation of Definite Integrals by Symbolic Manipulation] (1972) - a cookbook of definite integral techniques
* [http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Calculus Wikibook of Calculus]
[[cs:Integrál]]
[[da:Integralregning]]
[[de:Integralrechnung]]
[[eo:Integralo]]
[[fr:Intégrale]]
[[is:Heildun]]
[[it:Integrale]]
[[he:&#1488;&#1497;&#1504;&#1496;&#1490;&#1512;&#1500;] |
wn mass in additional shell structure. The arrangement of such tracks suffers from the same difficulties as arranging the orbits of a Dyson swarm, and it is unclear how much energy would be consumed ensuring the velocity of the masses was maintained.
<!--
* If a Dyson Sphere had a penetrable shell simply by digging though the interior sufarce, then the atmosphere would be compromised and collapse within a matter of minutes. [[Image:Dysonsphere2.png]]
-->
===Dyson bubble===
A third type of Dyson sphere is the "Dyson bubble". It would be similar to a Dyson swarm, composed of many independent constructs (usually [[solar power satellite]]s and [[Space colonization|space habitat]]s) and likewise could be constructed incrementally.
Unlike the Dyson swarm, the constructs making it up are not in orbit around the star, but would be [[statite]]s &mdash; satellites suspended by use of enormous [[light sail]]s using [[radiation pressure]] to counteract the star's pull of gravity. Such constructs would not be in danger of collision or of eclipsing one another; they would be totally stationary with regards to the star, and independent of one another. As the ratio of [[radiation pressure]] and the force of gravity from a star are constant regardless of the distance (provided the statite has an unobstructed line-of-sight to the surface of its star)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.grc.nasa.gov/WWW/K-12/Numbers/Math/Mathematical_Thinking/sunlight_exerts_pressure.htm| title= Sunlight Exerts Pressure| format=HTML| accessdate=2006-03-02}}</ref>, such statites could also vary their distance from their central star.
The practicality of this approach is questionable with modern [[material science]], but cannot yet be ruled out. A statite deployed around our own sun would have to have an overall [[density]] of 0.78 grams per square meter of sail<ref>[http://www.nada.kth.se/~asa/Hx/dyson.html 404 error] as of 2006-03-02</ref>. In comparison, new carbon-fiber sail material has a density &mdash; without payload &mdash; of 3g/m<sup>2</sup>.<ref>{{cite web| url=http://www.space.com/businesstechnology/technology/carbonsail_000302.html| title=SPACE.com Exclusive: Breakthrough In Solar Sail Technology | first=Greg| last=Clark| publisher=Space.com| year=2000| accessdate=2006-03-02| format=HTML}}</ref> There has been some speculation about the creation of ultra light [[nanomesh]] sail materials created through [[molecular manufacturing]] techniques whose density would be below 0.1g/m<sup>2</sup>.<ref>{{cite web| url=http://www.physorg.com/news5890.html| title=Researchers produce strong, transparent carbon nanotube sheets| publisher=Physorg.com| accessdate=2006-03-02| format=HTML| year=2005}}</ref>. If such materials are feasible, and the average sail density with [[rigging]] might be kept to 0.3g/m<sup>2</sup> (a "[[Solar sail#Investigated sail designs|spin stabilized]]" light sail requires minimal additional mass in [[rigging]]), a Dyson bubble could be possible. If such a sail could be constructed at this [[areal density]], a [[space habitat]] the size of the [[L5 Society]]'s proposed [[O'Neill cylinder]] (500 km<sup>2</sup>, with room for over 1 million inhabitants) could be supported by a circular light sail 3,000 km in diameter[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talk:Dyson_sphere#A_defense_of_Staties.], with a combined sail/habitat mass of 5.4 x 10<sup>9</sup>kg. For comparison, this is just slightly smaller that the diameter of [[Jupiter]]'s moon [[Europa (moon)|Europa]] (although the sail is a flat disc not a sphere), or the distance between [[San Francisco]] and [[Kansas City, Missouri|Kansas City]]. Such a structure would, however, have a mass quite a lot less than many asteroids. While the construction of such a massive inhabitable statite would be a ''gigantic'' undertaking, and the required material science behind it as-of-yet uncertain, its technical challenges are slight compared to other engineering feats and required materials proposed in other Dyson sphere variants.
===Other types===
* Another possibility is the "Dyson net", a web of cables strung about the star which could have power or heat collection units strung between the cables, like the one used in the book ''Star Trek: Voyager - The Final Fury''. The Dyson net reduces to a special case of Dyson shell or bubble, however, depending on how the cables are supported against the sun's gravity.
* The [[Ringworld]], or [[Niven ring]], could be considered a particular kind of Dyson sphere. [[Larry Niven]], who first developed the concept, described it as "an intermediate step between Dyson Spheres and planets". The ringworld, or "Niven ring", could perhaps be described as a slice of a Dyson Sphere (taken through its equator), spun for artificial gravity, and used mainly for habitation as opposed to energy collection.
* [[Stellar engine]]s are a class of hypothetical [[megastructure]]s, whose purpose is to extract useful energy from a star, sometimes for specific purposes. For example, [[Matrioshka brain]]s extract energy for purposes of computation; [[Stellar engine#Class A .28Shkadov thruster.29|Shkadov thrusters]] extract energy for purposes of propulsion. Some of the proposed stellar engine designs are based on the Dyson sphere.
==References==
<references/>
* [[Astounding Magazine|Analog]], March 1974- ''Bigger than Worlds'', [[Larry Niven]].
* ''[[Science (journal)|Science]]'', 1959, "Search for Artificial Stellar Sources of Infra-Red Radiation", [[Freeman Dyson]].
==See also==
*[[Dyson spheres in fiction]]
*[[Alderson Disc]]
*[[Future energy development]]
*[[Globus Cassus]]
*[[Hollow Earth]]
*[[Klemperer rosette]]
*[[Matrioshka Brain]]
*[[Megascale engineering]]
*[[Megastructure]]
*[[Ringworld]]
*[[Star lifting]]
*[[Stellar engineering]]
*[[Stellar engine]]
*[[Technological singularity]]
==External links==
* [http://www.nada.kth.se/~asa/dysonFAQ.html Dyson Sphere FAQ]
* [[Quadrant Delta]]'s [http://www.quadrantdelta.com/gorvosh/index.html GorVosh Station]
* [http://c2.com/cgi/wiki?DysonSphere Dyson Sphere]
* [http://www.aeiveos.com/~bradbury/ETI/Authors/Dyson-FJ/SfASSoIR.html Search for Artificial Stellar Sources of Infra-Red Radiation]
* [http://www.futurehi.net/docs/Matrioshka_Brains.html Matrioshka Brains]
* [http://www.aeiveos.com/~bradbury/MatrioshkaBrains/DSSatDLFiG.html Dyson Shell Supercomputers as the Dominant "Life Form" in Galaxies]
* [http://www.alcyone.com/max/writing/essays/outside-dyson-shells.html Outside Dyson shells]
* {{memoryalpha|Dyson Sphere}}
[[Category:Megastructures]]
[[Category:Astronomy]]
[[Category:SETI]]
[[Category:Science fiction themes]]
[[Category:Exploratory engineering]]
[[de:Dyson-Sphäre]]
[[fi:Dysonin kehä]]
[[es:Esfera de Dyson]]
[[fr:Sphère de Dyson]]
[[it:Sfera di Dyson]]
[[ja:ダイソン球]]
[[he:כדור דייסון]]
[[pl:Sfera Dysona]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Democide</title>
<id>8587</id>
<revision>
<id>42105305</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T21:34:53Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Ultramarine</username>
<id>152649</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Reorganzied</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center" align=right
|+'''20th century democides causing more than one million deaths.''' From ''Death by Government'', 1987 [http://www.hawaii.edu/powerkills/20TH.HTM]. Several estimates have been revised after this date.
|-
| U.S.S.R || 1917-1987 || 61,911,000
|-
| China (PRC) || 1949-1987 || 35,236,000
|-
| Germany || 1933-1945 || 20,946,000
|-
| China (KMT) || 1928-1949 || 10,075,000
|-
| Japan || 1936-1945 || 5,964,000
|-
| China (Mao Soviets) || 1923-1949 || 3,465,000
|-
| Cambodia || 1975-1979 || 2,035,000
|-
| Turkey || 1909-1918 || 1,883,000
|-
| Vietnam || 1945-1987 || 1,670,000
|-
| Poland || 1945-1948 || 1,585,000
|-
| North Korea || 1948-1987 || 1,563,000
|-
| Pakistan || 1958-1987 || 1,503,000
|-
| Mexico || 1900-1920 || 1,417,000
|-
| Yugoslavia (Tito) || 1944-1987 || 1,072,000
|-
| Russia || 1900-1917 || 1,066,000
|}
''''Democide''' is a term coined by [[political scientist]] [[R.J. Rummel]]. While of relatively recent origin, the word has increased in usage, particularly by legal and social activists for [[human rights]].
==Definition==
Rummel defines it as "The murder of any person or people by a [[government]], including [[genocide]], [[politicide]], and [[mass murder]]". For example, government-sponsored killings for political reasons would be considered democide. Democide can also include deaths arising from "intentionally or knowingly wreckless and depraved disregard for life"; this brings into account many deaths arising through various neglects and abuses, such as forced [[mass starvation]]. Rummel explicitly excludes battle deaths in his definition. Capital punishment, actions taken against armed civilians during mob action or riot, and the deaths of noncombatants killed during attacks on military targets so long as the primary target is military, are not considered democide. More exact details can be found here: [http://www.freedomsnest.com/rummel_definition.html]
He has further stated: "I use the civil definition of murder, where someone can be guilty of murder if they are responsible in a reckless and wanton way for the loss of life, as in incarcerating people in camps where the may soon die of malnutrition, unattended disease, and forced labor, or deporting them into wastelands where they may die rapidly from exposure and disease."
Some examples of democide include [[the Great Purges]] carried out by [[Joseph Stalin]] in the [[Soviet Union]], the deaths from the [[colonial]] policy in the [[Congo Free State]], and [[Mao]]'s [[Great Leap F |
diana.jpeg|thumb|250px|[[Harrison Ford]] as Indiana Jones]]
'''Professor Henry "Indiana" Jones, Jr.''' is a [[fictional character|fictional]] [[bullwhip]]-toting, [[Fedora (hat)|fedora]]-wearing [[archaeology|archaeologist]] with an [[ophidiophobia]] (fear of [[snake]]s). He first appeared in a series of [[film]]s produced by [[George Lucas]] and directed by [[Steven Spielberg]] in the 1980s.
Jones was originally portrayed by [[Harrison Ford]] in ''[[Raiders of the Lost Ark]]''. Younger versions of the character were also played by [[River Phoenix]] (in ''[[Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade]]''), and by [[Corey Carrier]] and [[Sean Patrick Flanery]] (in ''[[The Young Indiana Jones Chronicles]]''). An older version (93) of Jones, played by [[George Hall (actor)|George Hall]], also appeared in ''The Young Indiana Jones Chronicles''.
Indiana Jones is also the general name given to the series as a whole, which is comprised of three films, a TV series, various novels, comics, video games, and other media. A fourth film has also been announced for a likely [[2007]] release.
{{Spoiler}}
== Biography ==
[[Image:Indiana Jones 2.jpg|200px|thumb|When not adventuring, Jones is a respectable professor]]
Indiana Jones was born '''Henry Jones Jr.''' to [[Scotland|Scottish]]-born [[Professor]] of [[Medieval literature]], Dr. Henry Jones Sr. (played by [[Lloyd Owen]] in the TV series and by [[Sean Connery]] in the films), and his wife Anna on [[July 1]], [[1899]], in [[Princeton, New Jersey|Princeton]], [[New Jersey]]. "Junior" accompanied his father on his travels throughout [[Europe]], where he learned to speak, read, and write 27 languages, including [[French language|French]], [[German language|German]], [[Italian language|Italian]], [[Spanish language|Spanish]], [[Russian language|Russian]], [[Swedish language|Swedish]], [[Greek language|Greek]], [[Arabic language|Arabic]], [[Turkish language|Turkish]], [[Vietnamese language|Vietnamese]], [[Swahili language|Swahili]], [[Latin]] and [[Chinese language|Chinese]], as well as some [[Hindi language|Hindi]], apart from [[English language|English]]. Although his father called him "Junior," Henry Jr. adopted the name of his beloved [[dog]] Indiana for himself, insisting he be referred to as Indiana Jones. It is not known for sure when he first did this, except that he was referred to as Indiana during childhood by his peers.
In [[1912]], Indy was living in [[Utah]] and was a member of the [[Boy Scouts of America|Boy Scouts]] with the rank of [[Life Scout rank (Boy Scouts of America)|Life Scout]]. It was here, while attempting to secure the [[Cross of Coronado]] from thieves, Indy first learned to use the bullwhip and received his trademark [[Fedora (hat)|fedora]], as well as the scar on his chin. This was also the time when he first developed his aversion to snakes.
His father wanted Indiana to go to [[Princeton University]]. To escape this, he ran away from home by [[train]]. He ended up in [[Mexico]] and was kidnapped by Mexican revolutionaries. He joined this army of revolutionaries, playing a part in the [[Mexican Revolution]] in [[1916]], under [[Pancho Villa]]. It is here that he also met his friend Remy, a [[Belgium|Belgian]]. With Remy, he left Mexico and traveled to [[Ireland]] just in time for the [[Easter Rising]]. He then traveled to England, getting involved with the suffrage movement, and then he and Remy joined the [[Belgian Army]]. He participated in the [[Western Front (WWI)|Western Front]]. He was taken prisoner by the Germans, escaped, encountered (and lost his virginity to) [[Mata Hari]] eventually making his way to [[Africa]] at the beginning of [[World War I]].
[[image:IndianaJ.jpg|thumb|250px|Indiana Jones with his father Dr. Henry Jones, Sr.]]
When they arrived in Africa, Jones and Remy were [[Commissioned officer|commissioned]] as [[lieutenants]]. Jones' inability to read [[map]]s properly caused him to lose his intended unit, and he instead fought along side a team of old men under the [[British Army]]. Among missions (depicted in the television series), the team destroyed a giant cannon mounted on a train, and they kidnapped the (real-life) German military genius [[Paul Erich von Lettow-Vorbeck]] in a [[balloon]], but they were forced to release him. Also while in Africa, Jones took ill, and was treated by [[Albert Schweitzer]].
Jones and Remy then transferred to the French Army, and Jones worked as an intelligence officer, vied with [[Ernest Hemingway]] for the affections of a young nurse, and worked as a translator for the [[Treaty of Versailles]], seeing the war come to its conclusion but laying down the groundwork for a second conflict.
Sometime after the war, Jones returned to the [[United States]], where he studied [[archaeology]] at the [[University of Chicago]] under Professor Abner Ravenwood. At the same time, he became romantically involved with the Professor's daughter Marion.
Dr. Jones abruptly left the Ravenwoods in [[1926]] and did not contact them for 10 years. He divided his time between teaching and archaeological expeditions, including a journey to [[China]] and [[India]] in [[1935]] where he raced [[Nazis]] to a mystical gem called "The Heart of the Dragon" from the ancient tomb of a Chinese emperor. Immediately afterword, he faced the gangster [[Lao Che]] and the followers of the [[cult]] of [[Kali]] (''[[Indiana Jones and the Temple of Doom|Temple of Doom]]''). In [[1936]], he was contacted by the United States government to retrieve the [[Ark of the Covenant]] before the [[Nazi]]s (''[[Raiders of the Lost Ark]]''). He continued to take on infrequent missions for the government over the ensuing years. In [[1938]], Indy rescued his father from the Nazis and became embroiled in the search for the [[Holy Grail]] (''[[Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade|Last Crusade]]''). His life during [[World War II]] is unknown, but in [[1947]] he was deceived by the recently born [[CIA]] to search the mechanism of the [[Babylon]]ian ''Infernal Machine'', in confrontation with a [[Soviet]] expedition.
When last seen in [[1993]], Jones was living in [[New York City]] with his daughter and her family. Sporting an eyepatch and cane, he was stopping anyone within earshot to regale them with tales of his exploits. He seems remarkably spry for a man in his 90s&mdash;whether that is because of his drinking from the Grail is unknown. It is yet to be chronicled as to what adventure led Indy to wear an eyepatch.
== Appearances ==
Since his introduction in 1981's ''Raiders of the Lost Ark'', the character of Indiana Jones has become a [[cultural icon]] for adventure. His popularity has allowed him to make appearances in three more feature films, a three-season TV series, dozens of novels, comic books, and video games, and even had his own amusement park ride.
The [[television]] series, ''[[The Young Indiana Jones Chronicles]]'', aired from [[1992]] to [[1996]], with the 17-year-old Indy played by [[Sean Patrick Flanery]], 93-year-old Indy by [[George Hall (actor)|George Hall]], and 10-year-old Indy by [[Corey Carrier]]. This inspired a number of made-for-TV and made-for-video movies featuring Flanery as young Indy. One of the last Young Indiana Jones TV movies featured a cameo appearance by Harrison Ford, reprising the role of Indy as a man in his 50s. The show ran for 44 episodes, with each pairing of episodes forming a feature-length TV film. The stories spanned from Indy’s childhood travels with his father (who was on, what seemed, one continuous Medieval studies lecture tour) to the solo journeys of his youth and even into World War I. Every episode began with a 93-year-old Indy, a grey-haired professor, talking about one of his old childhood adventures.
The popular trilogy of theatrical films: ''Raiders of the Lost Ark'', ''Indiana Jones and the Temple of Doom'', and ''Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade'', were made from 1981&ndash;1989, created by George Lucas and directed by Steven Spielberg. The series starred Harrison Ford as Jones. The upcoming fourth Indiana Jones movie, once again to star Harrison Ford, has been in the planning stages for several years; it is in pre-production and is not expected to be released until February 2007 at the earliest. [[Jim Ward]], Vice President of [[Lucasfilm]], has said in a recent press conference that a new ''Indiana Jones'' video game is expected that same year, around the time of the movie.
=== TV films ===
[[Image:Mo_37.jpeg|thumb|right|200px|Harrison Ford makes a cameo appearance as 50 year old Indy in Chapter 20: Mystery of the Blues.]]
*Chapter 1: My First Adventure
*Chapter 2: Passion for Life
*Chapter 3: The Perils of Cupid
*Chapter 4: Travels with Father
*Chapter 5: Journey of Radiance
*Chapter 6: Spring Break Adventure
*Chapter 7: Love's Sweet Song
*Chapter 8: Trenches of Hell
*Chapter 9: Demons of Deception
*Chapter 10: Phantom Train of Doom
*Chapter 11: Oganga, the Giver and Taker of Life
*Chapter 12: Attack of the Hawkmen
*Chapter 13: Adventures in the Secret Service
*Chapter 14: Espionage Escapades
*Chapter 15: Daredevils of the Desert
*Chapter 16: Tales of Innocence
*Chapter 17: Masks of Evil
*Chapter 18: Treasure of the Peacock's Eye
*Chapter 19: Winds of Change
*Chapter 20: Mystery of the Blues
*Chapter 21: Scandal of 1920
*Chapter 22: Hollywood Follies
=== Theatrical films ===
*Chapter 23: ''[[Indiana Jones and the Temple of Doom|The Temple of Doom]]'' ([[1984]])
*Chapter 24: ''[[Raiders of the Lost Ark]]'' ([[1981]])
*Chapter 25: ''[[Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade|The Last Crusade]]'' ([[1989]])
*Chapter 26: ''[[Indiana Jones 4]]'' ([[2007]]) (categorized as "in production")
*Chapter 27: (unproduced) Originally, George Lucas had signed a deal with Paramount Pictures for four theatrical sequels to ''Raiders of the Lost Ark''. After the first three, ''Raiders of the Lost Ark'', ''Indiana Jones and the |
ed from the lunar surface; longest lunar surface stay time (33 hours); longest lunar surface EVA (9 hours and 17 minutes); first use of shortened lunar orbit rendezvous techniques; first use of color TV with new [[vidicon tube]] on lunar surface; and first extensive orbital science period conducted during CSM solo operations.
On the way back to Earth, the crew conducted the first U.S. materials processing experiments in space. The Apollo 14 astronauts were the last lunar explorers to be quarantined on their return from the Moon.
Shepard and Mitchell named their landing site ''Fra Mauro Base'', and this designation is recognized by the [[International Astronomical Union]] (depicted in Latin on lunar maps as ''Statio Fra Mauro'').
===Mission notes===
*Shepard is the only astronaut from [[Project Mercury]] (the original seven astronauts) to reach the Moon.
*Shepard smuggled a makeshift six iron [[golf]] club and two golf balls to the [[moon]], and took several swings. He exuberantly, and somewhat whimsically, exclaimed that the second ball went "miles and miles and miles" in the lunar [[gravity]], but later estimated it actually went 200 to 400 yards (200 to 400 m). Mitchell then used a lunar scoop handle as a javelin, creating the first 'Lunar Olympics'.
*Mitchell conducted some unauthorized [[extra-sensory perception]] experiments while en route to the Moon, with friends back on Earth; the number of matches were reportedly less than would have been obtained by [[random]] chance.
*Shepherd's moonwalking suit was the first to incorporate red bands on the arms and legs, and a red stripe on the top of the lunar EVA sunshade "hood," as to allow easy identification of the commander while on the surface; on the [[Apollo 12]] pictures, it had been almost impossible to distinguish between the two crewmen, causing a great deal of confusion. This feature was on [[Jim Lovell]]'s [[Apollo 13]] suit, but because of the accident, this was not used. It was used on the remaining three Apollo flights and is used on both the U.S. and Russian spacesuits on both the [[Space Shuttle]] and [[International Space Station]].
*Of the three crewmen, only Mitchell is the only member of the crew to remain alive (as of 1/06)--Roosa dying in 1994 from [[pancreatitis]] and Shepherd from [[leukemia]] in 1998.
*The mission was somewhat of a personal success for Shepard, who had battled back from [[Ménière’s disease]], earned his flight status back and made his first mission in space in ten years.
The mission's command module ''Kitty Hawk'' is displayed at the [[Astronaut Hall of Fame]], [[Titusville, Florida]] and the lunar module ''Antares'' impacted the Moon [[7 February]], [[1971]] at 3.42° S, 19.67° W.
===Quotes===
"It's been a long way, but we're here."
Alan B. Shepard, Jr, his first words on the moon. Unlike Apollo 11's Neil Armstrong and Apollo 12's Pete Conrad, Shepard had already gotten off the ladder and was a few meters from the LM.
"I think you're all finks."
Edgar B. Mitchell. ''(said in response to Cmdr. Shepard's suggestion to turn back during their second EVA, where they came within 65 feet (21 m) of the rim of the 1,000 foot (300 m) wide Cone Crater that they were looking for)''
==Media==
{{video|filename=Ap14 flag.ogg|title=Shepard and Mitchell erect flag on lunar surface|description=|format=[[Ogg]]}}
==See also==
*[[Moon tree]]s, taken from seeds brought to the Moon on Apollo 14.
==External links==
*[http://astrogeology.usgs.gov/Projects/LunarAtlas/maps/images/AP14_traverseL.jpg Map of surface activities for Apollo 14]
*[http://www.astronautix.com/flights/apollo14.htm Apollo 14 entry in Encyclopedia Astronautica]
*[http://groups.msn.com/spacecowboysaloon/apollo14underconstruction.msnw From the Space Cowboy Saloon]
===References===
*[http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/sc-query.html NASA NSSDC Master Catalog]
*[http://history.nasa.gov/SP-4029/Apollo_00a_Cover.htm APOLLO BY THE NUMBERS: A Statistical Reference by Richard W. Orloff (NASA)]
*[http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/SP-4009/cover.htm The Apollo Spacecraft: A Chronology]
*[http://history.nasa.gov/apsr/apsr.htm Apollo Program Summary Report]
*[http://history.nasa.gov/SP-4012/vol3/table2.42.htm Apollo 14 Characteristics - SP-4012 NASA HISTORICAL DATA BOOK]
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<title>Apollo 15</title>
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<text xml:space="preserve">{| class="infobox" style="font-size: 95%; width: 20em;"
|+<big>'''''Apollo 15'''''</big>
|-
!colspan="2" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="2" bgcolor="#FFDEAD"|Mission insignia
|-
|colspan="2" align="center"|[[Image:Apollo-15-LOGO.jpg|220px|Apollo 15 insignia]]
|-
!colspan="2" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="2" bgcolor="#FFDEAD"|Mission statistics
|-
|'''Mission name:'''||Apollo 15
|-
|'''Call sign:'''||Command module: ''Endeavour''<br />Lunar module: ''Falcon''
|-
|'''Number of<br />crew:'''||3
|-
|'''Launch:'''||[[July 26]], [[1971]]<br />13:34:00 [[Coordinated Universal Time|UTC]]<br />[[Kennedy Space Center]]<br />LC 39A
|-
|'''Lunar landing:'''||[[July 30]], 1971<br />22:16:29 UTC<br />26° 7' 55.99" N - 3° 38' 1.90" E<br />Hadley Rille
|-
|'''Lunar EVA<br />length:'''||LM Stand Up: 33 min 7 s<br />1st: 6 h 32 min 42 s<br />2nd: 7 h 12 min 14 s<br />3rd: 4 h 49 min 50 s<br />Total: 18 h 34 min 46 s
|-
|'''CMP EVA:'''|| 39 min 7 s
|-
|'''Lunar surface<br />time:'''||66 h 54 min 53.9 s
|-
|'''[[Lunar sample]]<br />mass:'''|| 77 kg (170 lb)
|-
|'''Splashdown:'''||[[August 7]], [[1971]]<br />20:45:53 UTC<br />{{coor dm|26|13|N|158|13|W|}}
|-
|'''Duration:'''||12 d 7 h 11 min 53 s
|-
|'''Number of<br />lunar orbits:'''||74
|-
|'''Time in<br />lunar orbit:'''||145 h 12 min 41.68 s
|-
|'''Mass:'''||CSM 30,370 kg;<br />LM 16,430 kg
|-
!colspan="2" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="2" bgcolor="#FFDEAD"|Crew picture
|-
|colspan="2" align="center"|[[Image:Apollo 15 crew.jpg|250px|Apollo 15 crew portrait (L-R: Scott, Worden and Irwin)]]<br><small>''Apollo 15'' crew portrait <br/>(L-R: Scott, Worden and Irwin)</small>
|-
!colspan="2" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="2" bgcolor="#FFDEAD"|Apollo 15 crew
|}
'''''Apollo 15''''' was the ninth manned mission in the [[Project Apollo|Apollo program]] and the fourth mission to land on the [[Moon]]. It was the first of what were termed J missions &mdash; long duration stays on the Moon with a greater focus on science than had been on previous missions.
Commander [[David Scott]] and Lunar Module Pilot [[James Irwin]] spent three days on the Moon and a total of 18½ hours outside the spacecraft on lunar [[extra-vehicular activity]]. The mission was the first not to land in a [[Lunar mare]], instead landing near [[Mons Hadley|Hadley rille]] in an area of the [[Mare Imbrium]] called ''Palus Putredinus'' (Marsh of Decay). The crew explored the area using the first [[Lunar Rover]] allowing them to travel much further from the [[Apollo Lunar Module|Lunar Module]] lander than had previously been possible. They collected a total of 77 kg (170 lb) lunar surface material.
At the same time Command Module Pilot [[Alfred Worden]] orbited the Moon, using a Scientific Instrument Module (SIM) to study the lunar surface and environment in great detail using a panoramic camera, [[gamma ray spectrometer]], mapping camera, laser [[altimeter]], [[Mass spectrometry|mass spectrometer]], and lunar sub-satellite that was launched at the end of the mission.
== Crew ==
*[[David Scott]] (flew on ''[[Gemini 8]]'', ''[[Apollo 9]]'', & ''Apollo 15''), commander
*[[Alfred Worden]] (flew on ''Apollo 15''), command module pilot
*[[James Irwin]] (flew on ''Apollo 15''), lunar module pilot
=== Backup crew ===
The backup crew trained to take the place of the prime crew in case of illness or death.
*[[Dick Gordon]], commander
*[[Vance Brand]], command module pilot
*[[Harrison Schmitt]], lunar module pilot
=== Support crew ===
The support crew were not trained to fly the mission but were able to stand in for astronauts in meetings and be involved in the minutiae of mission planning, while the prime and backup crews trained. They often also served as Capcoms during the mission.
*[[Joseph P. Allen|Joe Allen]]
*[[Robert A. Parker|Bob Parker]]
*[[Karl Henize]]
== Mission parameters ==
*'''Mass:'''
**Launch mass: 2,921,005 kg
**Total spacecraft: 46,782 kg
***CSM mass: 30,354 kg, of which CM was 5840 kg, SM 24,514 kg
***LM mass: 16,428 kg, ascent stage at lunar liftoff 4,951 kg
*'''Earth orbits:''' 3 before leaving for Moon, about one on return
*'''Lunar orbits:''' 74
===Earth parking orbit===
*'''[[Perigee]]:''' 169.5 km
*'''[[Apogee]]:''' 171.3 km
*'''[[Inclination]]:''' 29.679°
*'''[[Orbital period|Period]]:''' 87.84 min
=== LM-CSM docking ===
*'''Undocked''': [[July 30]], [[1971]] - 18:13:16 UTC
*'''Docked''': [[August 2]], [[1971]] - 19:10:25 UTC
=== EVAs ===
*'''''Scott''''' - Stand up EVA - LM upper hatch
*'''Start Stand Up EVA''': [[ |
]'', and ''[[Manifold: Origin]]'' by [[Stephen Baxter]]
* The [[Revelation Space]] novels by [[Alastair Reynolds]]
* [[Accelerando (novel)|''Accelerando'']] by [[Charles Stross]]
* Marvel's Ultimate [[Galactus]] trlogy by [[Warren Ellis]] uses the concept of [[Galactus]] to explain the paradox and it is mentioned in great detail during the series.
==References==
*''The Millennial Project: Colonizing the Galaxy in 8 Easy Steps'' by Marshall T. Savage (Empyrean Publishing; Denver; 1992) pages 341&ndash;354 ISBN 0-9633914-8-8
*"[http://www.sciam.com/article.cfm?articleID=0009CDEA-33FC-1C74-9B81809EC588EF21&pageNumber=1&catID=2 Where Are They? Maybe we are alone in the galaxy after all]", by Ian Crawford. ''Scientific American'' &mdash; June 2000.
*''If the Universe Is Teeming with Aliens... Where Is Everybody?'' by Stephen Webb (Copernicus Books; 2002) ISBN 0-387-95501-1
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[[uk:Парадокс Фермі]]</text>
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<title>Fundamentalism</title>
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<text xml:space="preserve">In [[comparative religion]], '''''fundamentalism''''' has come to refer to several different understandings of religious thought and practice, including literal interpretation of sacred texts such as the [[Bible]] or the [[Qu'ran]] and sometimes also [[antimodernism|anti-modernist]] movements in various [[religion]]s.
In some ways religious fundamentalism is a modern phenomenon, characterized by a sense of embattled [[alienation]] in the midst of the surrounding [[culture]], even where the culture may be nominally influenced by the adherents' religion. The term can also refer specifically to the belief that one's religious texts are infallible and historically accurate, despite possible contradiction of these claims by modern scholarship.
Many groups described as fundamentalist often strongly object to this term because of the negative connotations it carries, or because it implies a similarity between themselves and other groups, which they find objectionable.
==The fundamentalist phenomenon==
Although the term fundamentalism in popular usage sometimes refers derogatorily to any fringe religious group, or to extremist ethnic movements with only nominally religious motivations, the term does have a more precise [[denotation]]. "Fundamentalist" describes a movement to return to what is considered the defining or founding principles of the religion. It has especially come to refer to any religious enclave that intentionally resists identification with the larger religious group in which it originally arose, on the basis that fundamental principles upon which the larger religious group is supposedly founded have become corrupt or displaced by alternative principles hostile to its identity.
This formation of a separate identity is deemed necessary on account of a perception that the religious community has surrendered its ability to define itself in religious terms. The "fundamentals" of the religion have been jettisoned by neglect, lost through compromise and inattention, so that the general religious community's explanation of itself appears to the separatist to be in terms that are completely alien and fundamentally hostile to the religion itself. Fundamentalist movements are therefore founded upon the same religious principles as the larger group, but the fundamentalists more self-consciously attempt to build an entire approach to the modern world based on strict fidelity to those principles, to preserve a distinctness both of doctrine and of life.
The term itself is borrowed from the title of a four volume set of books called ''The Fundamentals'' published in [[1909]]. The books were published by the Bible Institute of Los Angeles (B.I.O.L.A. now [[Biola University]]), and edited by R.A. Torrey, who was a minister affiliated with the [[Moody Bible Institute]] in [[Chicago]]. Initially the project was funded by [[Lyman Stewart]], president and cofounder of the Union Oil Company of California (currently known as [[UNOCAL]]), and cofounder of B.I.O.L.A. The books were a republication of a series of essays that were sent by mail to every minister in the United States. They were called "The Fundamentals" because they appealed to all Christians to affirm specific fundamental doctrines such as The Virgin Birth and bodily Resurrection of Jesus. This series of essays came to be representative of the "Fundamentalist-[[Modernist Christianity|Modernist]] controversy" which appeared late in the [[19th century]] within the [[Protestant]] [[church]]es of the [[United States]], and continued in earnest through the [[1920s]].
The pattern of the conflict between [[Fundamentalist Christianity|Fundamentalism]] and [[Modernist Christianity|Modernism]] in Protestant Christianity has remarkable parallels in other religious communities, and in its use as a description of these corresponding aspects in otherwise diverse religious movements the term "fundamentalist" has become more than only a term either of self-description or of derogatory contempt. Fundamentalism is therefore a movement through which the adherents attempt to rescue religious identity from absorption into modern, [[Westernisation|Western]] culture, where this absorption appears to the enclave to have made irreversible progress in the wider religious community, necessitating the assertion of a separate identity based upon the fundamental or founding principles of the religion.
Fundamentalists believe their cause to have grave and even cosmic importance. They see themselves as protecting not only a distinctive doctrine, but also a vital principle, and a way of life and of salvation. Community, comprehensively centered upon a clearly defined religious way of life in all of its aspects, is the promise of fundamentalist movements, and it therefore appeals to those adherents of religion who find little that is distinctive, or authentically vital in their previous religious identity.
The fundamentalist "wall of virtue", which protects their identity, is erected against not only alien religions, but also against the modernized, compromised, nominal version of their own religion. In Christianity, fundamentalists are "Born again" and "Bible-believing" Protestants, as opposed to "Mainline", "liberal", "modernist" Protestants, who represent "Churchianity"; in Islam they are ''jama'at'' ([[Arabic language|Arabic]]: ''(religious) enclaves'' with connotations of ''close fellowship'') self-consciously engaged in ''[[jihad]]'' (''struggle'') against Western culture that suppresses authentic ''Islam'' (''submission'') and the ''God-given'' (''[[Sharia|Shari'ah]]'') way of life; in Judaism they are ''[[Haredi Judaism|Haredi]]'' "Torah-true" Jews; and they have their equivalents in [[Hinduism]] and other world religions. These groups insist on a sharp boundary between themselves and the faithful adherents of other religions, and finally between a "sacred" view of life and the "secular" world and "nominal religion". Fundamentalists direct their critiques toward and draw most of their converts from the larger community of their religion, by attempting to convince them that they are not experiencing the authentic version of their professed religion.
Many scholars see most forms of fundamentalism as having similar traits. This is especially obvious if [[modernity]], [[secularism]] or an [[atheism|atheistic]] perspective is adopted as the norm, against which these varieties of [[traditionalism]] or [[supernaturalism]] are compared. From such a perspective, [[Peter Huff]] wrote in the [[International Journal on World Peace]]:
:"According to Antoun, fundamentalists in Judaism, Christianity, and Islam, despite their doctrinal and practical differences, are united by a common worldview which anchors all of life in the authority of the sacred and a shared ethos that expresses itself through outrage at the pace and extent of modern secularization." [http://www.worldandi.com/subscribers/feature_detail.asp?num=24175]
== Fundamentalism and politics ==
"Fundamentalism" is a morally charged, emotive term, often used as a term of opprobrium, particularly in combination with other epithets (as in the phrase "[[Islamic fundamentalism|Muslim fundamentalists]]" and "right-wing fundamentalists").
Very often religious fundamentalists, in all religions, are politically aware. They feel that legal and government pr |
me. However, this is usually corrected on the display within 15 minutes once the UTC offset message is received for the first time.
==History==
The inspiration for the GPS system came when the [[Soviets]] launched the first [[Sputnik]] in 1957. A team of U.S. scientists led by Dr. Richard B. Kershner were monitoring Sputnik's radio transmissions. They discovered that, due to the [[Doppler effect]], the frequency of the signal being transmitted by Sputnik was higher as the satellite approached, and lower as it continued away from them. They realized that since they knew their exact location on the globe, they could pinpoint where the satellite was along its orbit by measuring the Doppler distortion. It was only a small leap of logic to realize that the converse was also true; if the satellite's position was known then they could identify their own position on Earth.
The first satellite navigation system, [[Transit (satellite)|Transit]], used by the US Navy, was first successfully tested in 1960. Using a constellation of five satellites, it could provide a navigational fix approximately once per hour.
The first experimental Block-I GPS satellite was launched in February 1978 [http://www.hydrographicsociety.org/Articles/journal/2002/104-1.htm]. The GPS satellites were initially manufactured by [[Rockwell]] and now manufactured by [[Lockheed Martin]].
In 1983, after Soviet [[interceptor aircraft|jet interceptors]] shot down the civilian airliner [[KAL 007]] in restricted Soviet airspace, killing all 269 people on board, [[Ronald Reagan]] announced that the GPS system would be made available for civilian uses once it was completed.
By 1985, ten more experimental Block-I satellites had been launched to validate the concept. The first modern Block-II satellite was launched on 14th February 1989, and a complete constellation of 24 satellites was in orbit by 17th January 1994.
[http://netlab18.cis.nctu.edu.tw/html/paper/2001_11_06/Challenges%20in%20bringing%20GPS%20to%20Mainstream%20Consumers.pdf]. The most recent launch was in September 2005. The oldest GPS satellite still in operation was launched in February 1989.
== Technical description ==
===Satellites===
[[Image: Global Positioning System satellite.jpg|200px|right|thumb|GPS satellite on test rack]]
The GPS system uses a [[satellite constellation]] of 24 satellites in [[intermediate circular orbit]]s. The orbits are designed so at least four satellites are always within [[line of sight]] from almost any place on earth. [http://electronics.howstuffworks.com/gps1.htm]
Each satellite circles the Earth twice each day at an altitude of 20,200 [[kilometre]]s (12,600 miles). There are four satellites in each of six [[Orbital plane (astronomy)|orbital plane]]s. The constellation also includes three spare satellites in orbit. Each orbit is [[inclination|inclined]] 55 degrees from the [[equator|equatorial]] plane, and the [[right ascension]] of the ascending nodes are separated by sixty degrees. [http://www.colorado.edu/geography/gcraft/notes/gps/gif/oplanes.gif]
The flight paths of the satellites are measured by five monitor stations around the world (Hawaii, Kwajalein, Ascension Island, Diego Garcia, Colorado Springs). The master control station, at [[Schriever AFB]], processes their combined observations and sends updates to the satellites through the stations at Ascension Island, Diego Garcia, Kwajalein. The updates synchronize the atomic clocks onboard each satellite to within one [[microsecond]], and also adjust the [[ephemeris]] of the satellites' internal orbitial model to match the observations of the satellites from the ground. [http://tycho.usno.navy.mil/gpsinfo.html]
Each satellite repeatedly re-broadcasts the exact time acording to it's internal atomic clock along with a digital data packet. The data includes the [[orbital elements]] of the satellite's precise position, satellite status messages, and an almanac of the approximate position of every other active GPS satellite. The almanac lets GPS receivers use data from the strongest satellite signal to locate other satellites.
===Receivers===
GPS receivers calculate their current position ([[latitude]], [[longitude]], [[elevation]]), and the precise time, using the process of [[trilateration]] after measuring the distance to at least four satellites by comparing the satellites' coded time signal transmissions. The receiver calculates the orbit of each satellite based on information encoded in their radio signals, and measures the distance to each satellite, called a [[pseudorange]], based on the time delay from when the satellite signals were sent until they were received.
In order to measure the delay, the satellite repeatedly sends a 1,023 [[bit]] long [[pseudorandom number generator|pseudo random sequence]]; the receiver calculates an identical sequence from a known [[random seed|seed number]], and shifts it until the two sequences match. Each satellite uses a different sequence, which lets them share the same radio frequencies, using [[CDMA|Code Division Multiple Access]], while still allowing receivers to identify each satellite.
Once the location and distance of each satellite is known, the receiver should theoretically be located at the intersection of four imaginary [[sphere]]s, one around each satellite, with a radius equal to the time delay between the satellite and the receiver multiplied by the speed of the radio signals. In practice, GPS calculations are more complex for several reasons. One complication is that GPS receivers do not have atomic clocks, so the precise time is not known when the signals arrive. Fortunately, even the relatively simple clock within the receiver provides an accurate comparison of the timing of the signals from the different satellites. The receiver is able to determine exactly when the signals were received by adjusting its internal clock (and therefore the spheres' radii) so that the spheres intersect near one point.
One of biggest problems for GPS accuracy is that changing atmospheric conditions change the speed of the GPS signals unpredictably as they pass through the [[ionosphere]]. The effect is minimized when the satellite is directly overhead and becomes greater toward the horizon, as the satellite signals must travel through the greater "thickness" of the ionosphere as the angle increases. Once the receiver's rough location is known, an internal mathematical model can be used to estimate and correct for the error.
Because ionospheric delay affects the speed of radio waves differently based on their frequencies, a second frequency band was added to help eliminate this type of error. Newer GPS receivers can compare the phase difference between the L1 and L2 frequencies to actually measure the atmospheric effects on the signals and apply precise corrections.{{fact}}
GPS signals can also be affected by multipath reflections of the radio signals off the ground and/or surrounding structures (buildings, canyon walls, etc). For long delay multipath signals, the receiver itself can filter the signals out. A variety of receiver techniques, most notably [[Narrow Correlator spacing]], have been developed to mitigate multipath errors. For shorter delay multipath signals that result from reflections from the ground, special antenna features may be used such as a ground plane, or a choke ring antenna. Shorter multipath signals from ground reflections can often be very close to the direct signals, and can greatly reduce precision.
===Frequencies===
Several frequencies make up the GPS [[electromagnetic spectrum]]:
* L1 (1575.42 [[megahertz|MHz]]):<BR>Carries a publicly usable coarse-acquisition (C/A) code as well as an encrypted precision P(Y) code.
* L2 (1227.60 MHz):<BR>Usually carries only the P(Y) code. The encryption keys required to directly use the P(Y) code are tightly controlled by the U.S. government and are generally provided only for military use. The keys are changed on a daily basis. In spite of not having the P(Y) code encryption key, several high-end GPS receiver manufacturers have developed techniques for utilizing this signal (in a round-about manner) to increase accuracy and remove error caused by the ionosphere. Recognizing the civilian need for increased accuracy, "modernized" IIR-M (IIR-14 (M) and later) satellites carry a civilian signal interleaved with an improved military signal on both the L1 and L2 frequencies.
* L3 (1381.05 MHz):<BR>Carries the signal for the GPS constellation's alternative role of detecting missile/rocket launches (supplementing [[Defense Support Program]] satellites), nuclear detonations, and other high-energy infrared events.
* L4 (1841.40 MHz):<BR>Being studied for additional ionospheric correction.
* L5 (1176.45 MHz):<BR>Proposed for use as a civilian safety-of-life (SoL) signal. This frequency falls into an internationally protected range for aeronautical navigation, promising little or no interference under all circumstances. The first Block IIF satellite that would provide this signal is set to be launched in 2007.
===GPS and relativity===
The clocks on the satellites are also affected by both [[special relativity|special]] and [[general relativity]], which causes them to run at a slightly faster rate than do clocks on the Earth's surface. This amounts to a discrepancy of around 38 microseconds per day, which is corrected by electronics on each satellite. This offset is a practical demonstration of the theory of relativity in a real-world system; it is exactly that predicted by the theory, within the limits of accuracy of measurement.
Neil Ashby presented a good account of how these relativistic corrections are applied, why, and their orders of magnitude, in ''Physics Today'' (May 2002) [http://www.ipgp.jussieu.fr/~tarantola/Files/Professional/GPS/Neil_Ashby_Relativity_GPS.pdf]. Whether relativity must be considered as |
cessitate a bailout from federal or state agencies, raising taxes or both. But city officials insist such a nightmare scenario is unlikely. The city has been cutting its workforce through layoffs and attrition and additional layoffs are likely. The city also is attempting to negotiate union concessions and is strongly considering a property-tax rollback to help spur development in the city.
Detroit has several [[Town twinning|sister cities]], including [[Chongqing]] ([[People's Republic of China]]), [[Dubai]] ([[United Arab Emirates]]), [[Kitwe]] ([[Zambia]]), [[Minsk]] ([[Belarus]]), [[Nassau, Bahamas]], [[Toyota, Aichi|Toyota]] ([[Japan]]), and [[Turin]] ([[Italy]]).
{{seealso|List of mayors of Detroit, Michigan}}
=== Politics ===
As with most large urban centers in the United States, Detroit consistently supports the [[United States Democratic Party|Democratic Party]] in national and state elections. Its city elections are non-partisan, though mayors for the past four decades have been open about being members of the Democratic Party.
Considered by some to be a rising political star when he won election in 2001 at age 31, Mayor [[Kwame Kilpatrick]] has been dubbed by wags as "America's [[hip-hop]] mayor" because of his fond appreciation for youth culture, flashy dress, and a [[diamond]] stud [[earring]] as well as his sponsorship of a "hip-hop" summit.[http://www.forrelease.com/D20030418/def008.P2.04182003171023.18422.html] Since taking office, however, the mayor and his administration have found themselves dogged by accusations of scandal and impropriety (including using city funds to buy his wife a [[Lincoln Navigator]] while the city was running a huge deficit). Detroit's major media have relentlessly pursued the stories, including reports of wild parties involving strippers at the mayoral mansion. The mayor has strongly denied accusations of wrongdoing. Nevertheless, Kilpatrick was re-elected for a second four-year term as mayor in 2005, helped in part by strong support from members of Detroit Renaissance[http://www.detroitrenaissance.com], a group formed in 1970 by leading business leaders.
In 2004, following scandals and legal decisions, a court-ordered reorganization of the Detroit Police Department was implemented under the supervision of the [[Federal Bureau of Investigation|FBI]].
=== Courts ===
Detroit's courts are all state-administered and elections are nonpartisan. The Circuit Court for Wayne County is located downtown in the Coleman A. Young Municipal Center (previously called the "City-County Building"). Circuit judges are elected county-wide and handle all cases where more than [[United States dollar|$]]25,000 is in dispute, felonies, divorce/custody actions and all matters of general equitable jurisdictions. Prior to a court reorganization in the late [[1990s]], the city had a separate criminal court called Recorders Court, located at the [[Frank Murphy]] Hall of Justice across from police headquarters. Judges for the Recorders Court were elected city-wide. The criminal division of the circuit court is still at the Frank Murphy building.
The Wayne County Probate Court is responsible for estate administration, guardianships and conservatorships for the disabled and minors, juvenile delinquency and neglect proceedings, as well as the divorce/family court docket that is run jointly with the Circuit Court. Probate judges are elected on a county-wide ballot. In addition to the facilities at the Municipal Center, the Probate Court also operates juvenile detention facilities and hosts referee offices at the James Lincoln Justice Building.
The state-run 36th District Court is located on Madison Avenue and handles civil disputes where less than $25,000 is in dispute, landlord-tenant matters, [[misdemeanor]]s, and preliminary examinations of criminal defendants charged with [[felony|felonies]] prior to being bound over to circuit court. The 36th District Court incorporated the city's common pleas, traffic court, and misdemeanor prosecutions that were previously handled in Recorders Court.
In addition to the above trial courts, Detroit also hosts the 1st District of the Michigan Court of Appeals' offices, located in the New Center area in what once was the [[General Motors]] headquarters building.
The [[United States District Court]] for the Eastern District of Michigan is also based in Detroit. The main offices are located in the [[Theodore Levin]] Courthouse building on Fort Street in Downtown Detroit. The building was originally dedicated in 1932 during the administration of [[Herbert Hoover]] and renamed in 1995.[http://www.theragens.com/history/Levin%20-%20Theodore's%20Courthouse.htm] Various judges of the [[United States court of appeals]] for the Sixth Circuit also have offices within the [[Art Deco]] federal building.
== Crime ==
During the latter half of the 20th century, Detroit's [[crime]] figures were often among the highest in the U.S. The city is currently listed as the second most dangerous city by the [[Morgan Quitno]] Corporation's statistics [http://www.morganquitno.com/] (after [[Camden, New Jersey]]). Detroit is consistently in the top five for homicide rates, and was third in 2004, with a murder rate of 42.1 per 100,000. The highest murder total for Detroit was 714 murders in 1974, though the highest murder <i>rate</i> was recorded in 1991, when there were 615 homicides and the city's population was just over a million. This factored into a rate of around 60 murders per 100,000. Many of these problems are blamed on the widespread [[middle-class]] flight (which has contributed greatly to [[urban decay]]), poverty, de facto [[racial segregation|segregation]] of the region, and unemployment. In 2005, there were 374 murders in Detroit.
An analysis of crime in downtown Detroit by the Michigan Metropolitan Information Center at Wayne State University found crime rates in the central city lower than rates for the entire nation, state and other large Michigan metro areas — and improving. Detroit also includes many middle-class neighborhoods in which crime is far less prevalent than in more impoverished areas of the city. On the other hand, many of the suburbs, which are predominantly [[whites|white]] (though some include sizable African-American and Asian minorities) and boast much higher household income levels than Detroit, are among the 25 safest cities in the United States with a population of 75,000 or above.
The city has, in the past, faced hundreds of [[arson]]s, often in the city's many abandoned homes, each year on [[Devil's Night]], the evening before [[Halloween]]. The [[Angel's Night]] campaign, launched in the late [[1990s]], draws tens of thousands of volunteers to patrol the streets during Halloween week. The effort has put a serious damper on Devil's Night arson: in 2002, there were just 110 fires during the October 29&ndash;31 period, representing a 30 percent decline in total fires and a 41 percent decline in suspicious fires; this compares to 500-800 fires in past decades. In 2003, the three-day number was 117, increasing slightly to 141 in 2004; officials attributed the 2004 increase to power lines being knocked down by high winds.
==Education==
=== Primary and secondary education ===
[[Image:Detroitlogo.jpg|left|thumb|250px|The current Detroit Public Schools logo.]]
The city is served by the [[Detroit Public Schools]] (DPS) district, various [[charter school]]s, and [[private school]]s, with the [[Archdiocese of Detroit]] running a private [[Catholic]] school system in and around the city.[http://www.detnews.com/2005/specialreport/0502/27/A01-101701.htm]. The student population was 130,600 as of November 2005 [http://www.detnews.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=/20051123/SCHOOLS/511230328]. The district consists of 232 schools: 147 elementary, 31 middle, 28 high schools, ten adult education and four vocational education. In addition to the ten newly built schools (eight elementary, two middle), five area high schools have either been remodeled or have new buildings. More than half of the city schools were built before 1930.[http://www.detroitk12.org/importantNews/Deficit_Elimination_Plan1.pdf]
DPS has not escaped many of the problems that other city sectors have encountered. In the early [[1970s]], the [[NAACP]] brought DPS to court seeking remedies for past ''de jure'' racial segregation. In a series of decisions beginning in September 1971, federal judge [[Stephen Roth]] ordered [[busing]] to desegregate the system, speeding up the [[white flight]] that had been on-going within the city. As of 2004, Detroit schools were 91% African-American.[http://www.detroitk12.org/schools/index.php?type=All+Schools] In the latest count, Detroit lost over 10,000 students, and the district continues to project similar losses for the next several years.[http://www.detnews.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=/20051123/SCHOOLS/511230328]
The school district continued a steady decline and, in the mid to late 1990s, was rocked by allegations of mismanagement by the school board. In 1999, the [[Michigan Legislature]] removed the locally elected board of education and replaced it with a reform board appointed by the mayor and governor, with the reform board selecting a CEO to run the schools. In 2004, reports revealed that the appointed reform board was no improvement. The elected board of education responsible for selecting the General Superintendent to run the schools was reinstated following a city referendum. The election of the eleven member board of education, with four chosen at-large and seven by district, occurred on [[November 8]], [[2005]].
Detroit has a well developed [[charter school]] system. While charter schools accept students from any location within Michigan, making it difficult to determine the number of Detroit children attending, news reports indicate that charter enrollment was up 22.5% or almost 10,000 |
do not even understand the idea of rights, they cannot be regarded as possessors of moral rights. The [[Philosophy|philosopher]] [[Roger Scruton]] argues that only human beings have [[Duty|duties]] and that "[t]he corollary is inescapable: we alone have rights." [http://www.city-journal.org/html/10_3_urbanities-animal.html] Critics holding this position argue that there is nothing inherently wrong with using animals for [[Meat|food]], as entertainment, and in [[Animal testing|research]], though human beings may nevertheless have an obligation to ensure they do not suffer unnecessarily (Frey 1980 and Scruton 1997). This position is generally called the [[animal welfare]] position, and it is held by some of the oldest of the animal-protection agencies: for example, by the [[Royal Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals]] in the UK.
==Overview==
{{Template:Animal liberation movement}}
Animal rights is the concept that all or some animals are entitled to possess their own lives; that animals are deserving of, or already possess, certain [[moral]] rights; and that some basic rights for animals ought to be enshrined in law. The animal-rights view rejects the concept that animals are merely [[capital goods]] or [[property]] intended for the benefit of humans. The concept is often confused with [[animal welfare]], which is the philosophy that takes cruelty towards animals and animal suffering into account, but that does not necessarily assign specific moral rights to them.
The animal-rights [[philosophy]] does not necessarily maintain that human and non-human animals are equal. For example, animal rights advocates do not call for [[voting rights]] for chickens. Some also would make a distinction between [[sentient]] or self-aware animals and other life forms, with the belief that only sentient animals, or perhaps only animals who have a significant degree of self-awareness, should be afforded the right to possess their own lives and bodies, without regard to how they are valued by humans. Others would extend this right to all animals, even those without developed [[nervous system]]s or self-[[consciousness]]. They maintain that any [[human]] or human institution that commodifies animals for the purposes of [[food]], [[entertainment]], [[cosmetics]], [[clothing]], [[Animal testing|scientific testing]], or for any other reason, infringes upon their fundamental rights to possess themselves and to pursue their own ends.
Few people would deny that other [[great apes]] are highly intelligent animals who are aware of their own condition and goals, and can become frustrated when their freedoms are curtailed. In contrast, many other animals, like [[jellyfish]], have only extremely simple nervous systems, and are little more than simple automata, capable only of simple reflexes but incapable of formulating any "ends to their actions" or "plans to pursue" them, and equally unable to notice whether they are in captivity or free. By the criteria that [[biologists]] use, jelly fish are undeniably animals, while from an animal-rights perspective, it is questionable whether they should not rather be considered "vegetables". There is as yet no consensus with regard to which qualities make a living organism an animal in need of rights. The animal-rights debate (much like the [[abortion]] debate) is therefore marred by the difficulty that its proponents search for simple, clear-cut distinctions on which to base moral and political judgements, even though the biological realities of the problem present no hard and fast boundaries on which such distinctions could be based. Rather, the biological realities are full of complex and diverse gradients. From a [[neurobiology|neurobiological]] perspective, jellyfish, farmed chicken, laboratory mice, or pet cats would fall along different points on a (complex and high-dimensional) spectrum from the "nearly vegetable" to the "highly sentient".
== Animal rights in philosophy ==
[[Jean-Jacques Rousseau]] briefly alludes to the concept of animal rights in the preface of his [[Discourse on Inequality]]. He argues that man starts as an animal, though not one "devoid of intellect and freedom" like others; however, as animals are sensitive beings, "they too ought to participate in natural right, and that man is subject to some sort of duties toward them," specifically "one [has] the right not to be uselessly mistreated by the other."
Contemporaneous with Rousseau was the Scottish writer [[John Oswald (d. 1793)]]. Oswald argued in "The Cry of Nature or an Appeal to Mercy and Justice on Behalf of the Persecuted Animals", that man is naturally equipped with feelings of mercy and compassion. If each man had to personally experience the death of the animals he ate, so argued Oswald, a vegetarian diet would be far more common. The division of labor, however, allows modern man to eat flesh without experiencing the prompting of man's natural sensitivities, while the brutalization of modern man made him inured to these sensitivities. Although Oswald gave compassion a central place in his philosophy, he was not a pacifist. Oswald was a radical republican and died in battle fighting in defence of the [[French Revolution]].
One of the first philosophers to take animal liberation seriously was one of the founders of modern [[utilitarianism]], [[Jeremy Bentham]], who wrote, speaking of the need to extend legal rights to animals: "The day may come when the rest of the animal creation may acquire those rights which never could have been witholden from them but by the hand of tyranny." Bentham also argued that an animal's apparent lack of rationality ought not to be held against it insofar as morality is concerned:
<blockquote>It may one day come to be recognized that the number of the legs, the villosity of the skin, or the termination of the ''os sacrum'' are reasons equally insufficient for abandoning a sensitive being to the same fate.</blockquote>
<blockquote>What else is it that should trace the insuperable line? Is it the faculty of reason or perhaps the faculty of discourse? But a full-grown horse or dog is beyond comparison a more rational, as well as more conversable animal, than an infant of a day or a week or even a month old. But suppose they were otherwise, what would it avail? The question is not, Can they reason?, nor Can they talk? but, Can they suffer? Why should the law refuse its protection to any sensitive being? The time will come when humanity will extend its mantle over everything which breathes ... (Bentham, 1781)</blockquote>
[[Arthur Schopenhauer]] argued that animals have the same essence as humans, despite lacking the faculty of reason. Although he produced a utilitarian justification for eating animals, he argued for consideration to be given to animals in morality, and he opposed [[vivisection]]. His critique of [[Kant]]ian ethics contained a lengthy and often furious polemic against the exclusion of animals in his moral system, which contained the famous line: "Cursed be any morality that does not see the essential unity in all eyes that see the sun."
The concept of animal rights was the subject of an influential book &mdash; ''Animals' Rights: Considered in Relation to Social Progress'' &mdash; by [[England|English]] social reformer [[Henry Salt]] in 1892. A year earlier, Salt had formed the Humanitarian League; its objectives included the banning of hunting as a sport.
In modern times, the idea of animal rights was re-introduced by S. and R. Godlovitch, and J. Harris, with their 1971 book ''Animals, Men and Morals''. This was a collection of articles which restated the case for animal rights in a powerful and philosophically sophisticated way. It could justly be said that it was this work that reinvigorated the animal rights movement, and it inspired later philosophers to develop their ideas. It was, for example, in a review of this book, that the Australian philosopher [[Peter Singer]], now Ira W. DeCamp Professor of [[Bioethics]] in the University Center for Human Values at [[Princeton University]], first coined the term 'animal liberation.'
Peter Singer and [[Tom Regan]] are the best-known proponents of animal liberation, though they differ in their philosophical approaches to the issue. Another influential thinker is [[Gary L. Francione]], who presents an [[abolitionist]] view that non-human animals should have the basic right not to be treated as the property of humans. Activists [[Karen Davis]] of [[United Poultry Concerns]], and [[Ingrid Newkirk]] of [[People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals|PETA]] have also presented philosophies of animal rights.
Although Singer is the ideological founder of today's animal-rights movement, his approach to an animal's moral status is not based on the concept of rights, but on the [[utilitarianism|utilitarian]] principle of [[equal consideration of interests]]. His 1975 book ''[[Animal Liberation]]'' argues that humans grant moral consideration to other humans not on the basis of intelligence (in the instance of children, or the mentally disabled), on the ability to moralize (criminals and the insane), or on any other attribute that is inherently human, but rather on their ability to experience ''suffering''. As animals also experience suffering, he argues, excluding animals from such consideration is a form of discrimination known as '[[speciesism]]' &mdash; a term first coined by the British psychologist [[Richard D. Ryder]].
Tom Regan (''The Case for Animal Rights'' and ''[[Empty Cages]]''), on the other side, claims that non-human animals as "subjects-of-a-life" are bearers of rights like humans, although not necessarily of the same degree. This means that animals in this class have "inherent value" as individuals, and cannot mer |
rivately owned and run.
==Government==
The federal district has an autonomous government and legislative powers, but the judiciary is upheld by the Union. The District Governor is elected directly for a 4-year term. Local laws are issued by a legislative assembly also elected by the local population.
The district also has the status of a federal state in many aspects. It has representatives both in the Lower House of Congress (Câmara Federal) as in the national Senate.
Moreover, Brasília is home to the country's federal government. The national executive, legislative and judicial powers are all located there.
==A planned city==
===History===
President [[Juscelino Kubitschek]] ordered the construction of Brasília. It is a [[planned city]]. The main [[urban planner]] was [[Lucio Costa|Lúcio Costa]]. [[Oscar Niemeyer]] was the chief [[architect]] to most of the public buildings and [[Roberto Burle Marx]] was the [[landscape designer]]. The city plan was based on the ideas of [[Le Corbusier]]. Brasilia was built in 41 months, from [[1956]] to [[April 21]], [[1960]] when it was officially inaugurated.
From 1763 to 1960 [[Rio de Janeiro]] was the capital of Brazil, and resources tended to be centred on the south east region of Brazil. Brasilia’s geographically central location in the middle of the country made for a more neutral federal capital. However, the placement of Brazil's capital in the interior actually dates back to the first republican [[constitution]] of 1891, which defined where the [[federal district]] should be placed, but the placement was not planned until 1922.
More importantly, Brasilia’s location would promote the development of Brazil's central region and better integrate the entire territory of Brazil. Some say the real reason was to move the government to a place far from the masses.
According to legend, in 1883 the Italian priest [[Giovanni_Melchior_Bosco|Don Bosco]] had a prophetic dream in which he described a futuristic city that roughly fitted Brasília's location. Today, in Brasília, there are many references to this educator who founded the [[Salesian]] order. One of the main cathedrals carries his name.
===Design===
Lúcio Costa’s plan for the city was detailed and thorough. It stipulates which zones are to be residential and which are to be commercial. It limits where industries can settle, where certain buildings can be built and how tall those buildings can be etc.
Costa had insisted that Brasilia be shaped like a [[butterfly]]. However, most people think that the city is shaped like an [[aeroplane]], instead.
The fuselage of the aeroplane contains the ministries, government buildings, the senate and chamber of deputies and a futuristic cathedral, designed by Oscar Niemeyer. There is also a tall [[Brasilia TV Tower|television tower]], with spectacular views of the city and the lake.
The wings of the aeroplane are named the North Wing and South Wing: each is roughly 7 km. in length. The avenue between the lake and the wings, called '''L2 Sul''' or '''L2 Norte''', depending on which wing it’s on, has churches, schools and hospitals.
[[Image:Brasilia National Congress.JPG|thumb|right|300 px|National Congress]]
A wide, high-speed avenue, called the '''Eixo''', connects the two wings by passing under a central bus station, where the banking sector (Sector Bancário) and hotel sector (Sector Hoteleiro) are located. The 100s and 300s addresses are on one side of the Eixo, and 200s and 400s are on the other. There are residential areas on these streets made up of blocks of flats, named Super Quadra Sul or Super Quadra Norte. The blocks are filled with three or six-storey buildings. Each has eleven buildings, identified by letter, with schools and churches in areas placed in between them. Commercial streets typically separate Superquadra blocks from each other. Green space and trees make these areas very pleasant to inhabit, and residents of the city affirm that it is one of the best cities in which to raise children.
There is also a zoo close to the airport with animals native to the Cerrado area. Embassies, recreational clubs and luxury homes surround the lake, and an enormous park, called the 'Parque da Cidade' (City Park), gives much-needed space for cycling, jogging and contact with nature.
One major criticism of Brasília is that it was not designed on a pedestrian scale. Pedestrians were not taken much into consideration during the advent of the motor age, when the city was developed. In the original plan there were no traffic lights - all cars travelled over overpasses and through tunnels to avoid intersecting traffic. Today, with half a million people living in the Plano Piloto (the Pilot Plan), the plan soon became out-dated. Pedestrians had to walk long distances between points of interest and the high speed avenues were dangerous to navigate. An [[metro|underground railway]] has been recently built to alleviate these problems. A line was completed for the South Wing, which continues to the major satellite city of Taguatinga. Whilst public transportation is plentiful, the car remains popular as a means of transportation in Brasília. A popular saying is that the inhabitants are born with wheels instead of feet.
Another criticism of Brasilia is the displacement of poor residents to far away satellite towns like Taguatinga, Gama, Ceilândia and Sobradinho. Buses and a surface rapid transit system connect these cities to the centre. Inhabitants of these satellite towns live in conditions inferior to those of the Pilot Plan. When one talks of Brasília, these satellite cities are rarely taken into consideration, even though the population of these cities far surpasses that of the Pilot Plan. Some, like Taguatinga, are now larger than Brasília itself.
According to the original plan -- which Brasilia must follow -- the city is constantly under construction.
[[UNESCO]] has declared Brasília a [[World Heritage Site]].
==Mystical Brasília==
One aspect that is usually unknown by visitors to Brasília is that it has attracted many members of offbeat religious sects and esoteric cults that have come here in what they see as the anticipation of the dawn of a new age — sects that embrace reincarnation and universal oneness, academics and sci-fi enthusiasts who associate Brasilia with ancient Egypt or the lost city of Atlantis. Land was given to almost any religous group that was legally constituted so many non-mainstream groups were able to built their temples or churches at low cost and exempt of taxes.
Their dreams are fed by an alien-looking cityscape, a showcase for Modernist architect Oscar Niemeyer. Among his creations are the twin towers of the Brazilian National Congress, between which the sun rises, Stonehenge-like, on April 21, the date the capital was officially moved from Rio de Janeiro.
There is also the famous prophecy about the future building of Brasília. In 1883, an Italian priest named Dom Bosco had a strange dream of a land abundant in precious metals and oil that would be discovered between the 15th and 20th parallels. "There a grand civilization will appear, a Promised Land flowing with milk and honey," the priest recorded in his journal. "These things will happen in the third generation."
Many believe that Brasilia, situated between the 15th and 16th parallels, is that place. The man who made the city a reality, former Brazilian President Juscelino Kubitschek, thought so as well.
There are many buildings with pyramidal designs and a university, the UPIS, founded by Brazil's most famous UFO investigator, General Moacyr Uchoa who supposedly had close encounters with alien beings near [[Alexânia]], west of Brasília. One of the history teachers at that school was Yara Kern, a U.S.-trained Egyptologist who concluded, after six years of study, that Kubitschek was the reincarnation of the pharaoh Akhnaton and Brasilia was the modern version of Akhnaton's made-to-order capital along the banks of the Nile
The most impressive building in the city from a religious point of view is the utopian Legion of Goodwill Temple, a seven-sided, seven-story pyramid topped by what sources call the world's largest crystal.
Other tourist points are the University of Peace and isolated religious communities such as the [[Cidade Eclética |Eclectic City]], founded by the pilot for one of Brazil's presidents, and [[Vale do Amanhecer |Valley of the Dawn]], where women wear medieval-style purple and black dresses, silver tiaras, glittering veils, and cone hats. There is an enormous temple with a statue of the great spirit White Arrow and an artificial lake hemmed by pyramids and wooden cutouts of Afro-Brazilian goddesses.
Farther out there is the famous [[João de Deus (medium)|João de Deus]], a spiritual surgeon who operates on patients in [[Abadiânia]] in Goiás, and the Chapada dos Veadeiros national park north of the city where the small community of [[Alto Paraíso de Goiás]] has attracted New Agers, Rajneesh, and assorted mystical groups.
==External links==
*[http://www.brasilia.df.gov.br/ Official Brasília site] (in Portuguese)
*[http://www.guiabsb.com.br/brasilia/satelite.asp Informative Brasília page, with aeroplane view] (in Portuguese)
*[http://www.uoregon.edu/~sergiok/brasil/brasilia.html Informative Brasília page]
*[http://maps.google.com/maps?ll=-15.782673,-47.882881&spn=0.106399,0.167645&t=k&hl=en Brasilia on Google Maps (Satellite Image)]
*[http://maps.google.com/maps?ll=-15.800162,-47.863033&spn=0.003325,0.005239&t=k&hl=en National Congress Palace and Three Powers Square on Google Maps (Satellite Image Detail)]
*[http://www.geocities.com/thetropics/3416/index.htm Information about Brasília]
*[http://www.aboutbrasilia.com/ Facts about Brasília]
*[http://www.geocities.com/thetropics/3416/minis_i.htm Photos of Brasília]
*[http://www.citymayors.com/development/brasilia.html Feature article on CityMayors.com]
|
water leaves the salts behind. For example, [[Lake Magadi]] is almost solid soda ([[sodium carbonate]]), and [[Lake Elmenteita]], [[Lake Baringo]], [[Lake Bogoria]], and [[Lake Nakuru]] are all strongly alkaline, while [[Lake Naivasha]] needs to be supplied by freshwater springs to support its biological variety.
[[Image:EAfrica.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Map of East Africa showing some of the historically active volcanoes (red triangles) and the [[Afar Triangle]] (shaded, center) &mdash; a [[triple junction]] where three plates are pulling away from one another: the Arabian Plate, and the two parts of the African Plate (the Nubian and the Somalian) splitting along the East African Rift Zone (USGS).]]
The formation of the Rift Valley continues, probably driven by [[mantle plume]]s and ultimately a result of the [[African superswell]]. The associated geothermal activity and spreading at the rift has caused the [[lithosphere]] to thin from a typical 100 km thickness for continents to a mere 20 km. Within a few million years, the lithosphere may rupture and eastern Africa will split off to form a new landmass. If spreading continues, this will lead to the formation of a new [[mid-ocean ridge]].
The volcanic activity at this site and unusual concentration of [[hotspot (geology)|hotspot]]s has produced the volcanic mountains [[Mount Kilimanjaro]], [[Mount Kenya]], [[Mount Karisimbi]], [[Mount Nyiragongo]], [[Mount Meru, Tanzania|Mount Meru]] and [[Mount Elgon]] as well as the [[Crater Highlands]] in [[Tanzania]]. The [[Ol Doinyo Lengai]] [[volcano]] remains active, and is currently the only [[carbonatite|natrocarbonatite]] volcano in the world.
The Rift Valley has been a rich source of [[anthropology|anthropological]] discovery, especially in an area known as Piedmont. Because the rapidly eroding highlands have filled the valley with sediments, a favourable environment for the preservation of remains has been created. The bones of several [[hominid]] ancestors of modern humans have been found there, including those of "[[Australopithecus afarensis|Lucy]]", a nearly complete [[australopithecine]] skeleton, which was discovered by anthropologist [[Donald Johanson]]. [[Richard Leakey|Richard]] and [[Meave Leakey]] have also done significant work in this region.
==See also==
*[[Graben]]
*[[Horst]]
== External links ==
*[http://anthro.palomar.edu/hominid/images/map_of_great_rift_valley.gif Small simple-coloured map]
*[http://www.albertinerift.org/arift-protectedareas Maps from the Albertine Rift Programme]
[[Category:Great Rift Valley|*]]
[[Category:Seismic faults]]
[[de:Great Rift Valley]]
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[[fi:Itä-Afrikan hautavajoama]]
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[[gl:Gran Val do Rift]]
[[he:&#1492;&#1513;&#1489;&#1512; &#1492;&#1505;&#1493;&#1512;&#1497; &#1488;&#1508;&#1512;&#1497;&#1511;&#1504;&#1497;]]
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[[sv:Östafrikanska riftsystemet]]
[[zh:&#26481;&#38750;&#22823;&#35010;&#35895;]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Genitals</title>
<id>12801</id>
<revision>
<id>15910458</id>
<timestamp>2002-08-23T04:20:28Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Ap</username>
<id>122</id>
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<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Sex organ]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Genital</title>
<id>12802</id>
<revision>
<id>15910459</id>
<timestamp>2002-08-23T04:20:49Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Ap</username>
<id>122</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Sex organ]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>GTIN</title>
<id>12803</id>
<revision>
<id>25468327</id>
<timestamp>2005-10-13T23:48:22Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Tobias Conradi</username>
<id>10784</id>
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<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Global Trade Item Number]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Grigori Rasputin</title>
<id>12804</id>
<revision>
<id>42117273</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T23:00:41Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>199.95.32.10</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Early life */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Rasputin.jpg|thumb|right|Grigori Rasputin]]
'''Grigori Yefimovich Rasputin''' ({{lang-ru|Григо́рий Ефи́мович Распу́тин}}) ([[10 January]] [[1869]] &ndash; {{OldStyleDate|29 December|1916|16 December}}) was a [[Russia]]n [[Mysticism|mystic]] with an influence in the later days of Russia's [[Romanov]] dynasty. Rasputin played an important role in the lives of the [[Russian Tsars|Tsar]] [[Nicholas II of Russia|Nicholas II]], his wife the [[Tsarina]] [[Alexandra of Hesse|Alexandra]], and their only son the [[Tsarevich]] [[Tsarevich Alexei of Russia|Alexei]], who suffered from [[hemophilia]].
Rasputin has often been called the '''Mad Monk''', although he was never a [[monk]] and made no secret of being married. Some considered him to be a "strannik" (religious [[pilgrim]]) or even a [[starets]] (ста́рец) ("elder", a title usually reserved for monk-confessors) and believed him to be a psychic and faith healer. He can be considered one of the more controversial characters in [[20th century]] history, although Rasputin is viewed by most historians today as a [[scapegoat]]. He played a small but spectacular role in the downfall of the [[Romanov]] dynasty.
Rasputin's birth date is questionable. "It is still not known with any certainty when Rasputin was born, and all the books which deal with him and his career give differing dates; not even his biographers — and there have been many — have been able to agree. The closest one can come with certainty is sometime between the years 1863 and 1873." (Heinz Liepman, ''Rasputin and the Fall of Imperial Russia'', 21).
==Early life==
Grigory Efimovich Rasputin was possibly born a peasant in a small Siberian village along the [[Tura River]] called Pokrovskoye. This village was located in the [[Tobolsk]] ''[[guberniya]]'' (now in [[Tyumen Oblast]], Russia). When he was around the age of eighteen, he spent three months in the [[Verkhoturye Monastery]]. There, he joined the [[Khlysty]], a renegade sect of Russian Orthodox creed. Shortly after leaving the Monastery he visited a holy man named Makariy, whose hut was nearby. Makariy had an enormous influence on Rasputin, who would model himself after the older man. Rasputin married Praskovia Fyodorovna in 1889 and had three children with her (and another child with someone else). In 1901, he left his home in Pokrovskoye as a ''strannik'', or [[pilgrim]]. During the time of his journeying, he traveled to [[Greece]] and [[Jerusalem]]. In 1903, Rasputin arrived in [[Petrograd]] ([[Saint Petersburg]]), where he declared himself a ''starets'', or holy man, with healing and [[Prophet|prophetical]] powers.
==Healer to the Tsarevich==
There are many theories as to Rasputin's early life, but the most widely accepted by historians is that of George Still, a British historian.
Rasputin was wandering as a pilgrim in [[Siberia]] when he heard reports of [[Tsarevich]] Alexei's [[hemophilia]] in [[1904]]. The disease had been inherited from his great-grandmother ([[Victoria of the United Kingdom|Queen Victoria]]). Rasputin was regarded as the last resort of the desperate Tsar and Tsarina. When the young Tsarevich got a bruise while rowboating, he suffered from internal bleeding for days. The Tsar and Tsarina, looking everywhere for help, asked the charismatic peasant healer for help in [[1905]]. He was said to possess the ability to heal through [[prayer]], and he was indeed able to give the boy some relief. Skeptics have claimed that he did so by [[hypnosis]], though during a particularly grave crisis, Rasputin, from his home in Siberia, was believed to have eased the suffering of the tsarevich (in [[Saint Petersburg]]) through prayer.
The Tsar referred to Rasputin as 'our friend', a sign perhaps of the trust the family put in him. Rasputin had considerable personal and political influence on Alexandra especially after Alexei encountered a [[bee]] attack in the summer of [[1905]]. Rasputin allegedly ran to the boy's help and yelled at the bees, "ужальте его и вы умретe!" ("Sting him and you will die!”).Supposedly the bees left because of Rasputin's holy powers, but now it is more commonly believed that the bees left because their hive was no longer being threatened.
His position within the church further enabled him to influence young Alexei; it was verified that before the pair were introduced, the Tsarina lamented her son 'made Jesus sad' with his blasphemous ways. However, upon meeting Rasputin, she proclaimed exultantly that Alexei had 'learned the error of his ways'.
The Tsar and Tsarina considered him to be a man of [[God]] and a religious [[prophet]], and Alexandra believed God spoke to her through Rasputin. This relationship can also be viewed in the context of the very strong, traditional, age-old bond between the [[Russian Orthodox Church]] and the Russian leadership. Another important factor was probably the Tsarina's German-Protestant origin: she was highly fascinated by her new Orthodox religion, but seems to have lacked some [[discernment]] regarding its practices.
==Controversy==
Rasputin in the meantime became a controversial figure, leading a scandalous personal life with his mostly female followers from Saint Petersburg high society. Furthermore, he was freq |
m.JPG|366px|thumb|left|King Aleksander in Polish Senate]]
==See also==
* [[History of Poland (1385-1569)]]
==External links==
* [http://www.istorija.net/ Pages and Forums on the Lithuanian History]
*[http://www.findagrave.com/cgi-bin/fg.cgi?page=gr&GRid=3990 Aleksander Jagiellon on Find-A-Grave]
{{start box}}
{{succession box two to one|before1=[[Kazimierz IV Jagiellon]]|before2=[[Jan I Olbracht]]|title1=[[Grand Duke of Lithuania]]|title2=[[King of Poland]]|years1=1492–1506|years2=1501–1506|after=[[Zygmunt I the Old]]}}
{{end box}}
{{Monarchs of Poland}}
[[Category:1461 births]]
[[Category:1506 deaths]]
[[Category:Polish monarchs]]
[[Category:Lithuanian rulers]]
[[de:Alexander (Polen)]]
[[pl:Aleksander Jagiellończyk]]
[[ru:Александр Ягеллон]]
[[sv:Alexander av Polen]]
[[uk:Александр Яґеллончик]]
[[zh:亚历山大 (波兰)]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Alexander I of Russia</title>
<id>1590</id>
<revision>
<id>42098392</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T20:42:36Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Ksenon</username>
<id>541820</id>
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<minor />
<comment>finland</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Aleksander Pavlovich Romanov''' or '''Tsar Alexander I (The Blessed)''', ([[Russian language|Russian]]: Александр I Павлович) ([[December 23]], [[1777]]&ndash;[[December 1]], [[1825]]), was [[Tsar|Emperor]] of [[Russia]] from [[March 23]], [[1801]]&ndash;[[December 1]], [[1825]] and [[King of Poland]] from [[1815]]&ndash;[[1825]], as well as the first Russian [[Grand Duke of Finland]].
He was born in [[Saint Petersburg]] to Grand Duke Paul Petrovich, afterwards [[Paul I of Russia|Paul I]], and [[Sophie Marie Dorothea of Württemberg|Maria Fedorovna]], daughter of the [[Friedrich II Eugen, Duke of Württemberg|Duke of Württemberg]]. Alexander succeeded to the throne after his father was murdered, and ruled Russia during the chaotic period of the [[Napoleonic Wars]]. The strange contradictions of his character make Alexander one of the most interesting Tsars, and he is one of the most important figures in the history of 19th century Europe.
[[Image:Aldawe.jpg|thumb|250px|Portrait of Alexander I in the [[Military Gallery]] of the [[Winter Palace]].]]
==Early life==
His complex nature resulted, in truth, from the outcome of the complex character of his early environment and education. Reared in the free-thinking atmosphere of the court of [[Catherine II of Russia|Catherine the Great]], he had imbibed from his [[Swiss]] tutor, Frederic Caesar de Laharpe, the principles of [[Jean-Jacques Rousseau|Rousseau]]'s gospel of humanity; from his military governor, [[Nikolay Saltykov]], the traditions of Russian autocracy; while his father had inspired him with his own passion of military parade, and taught him to combine a theoretical love of [[mankind]] with a practical contempt for [[men]]. These contradictory tendencies remained with him through life, revealed in the fluctuations of his policy and influencing through him the [[fate]] of the [[world]].
==Succeeds to the throne==
Another element in his character emerged when on [[March 23]], [[1801]] he mounted the throne over the body of his murdered father: a mystic melancholy liable at any moment to issue in extravagant action. At first, indeed, this exercised but little influence on the [[Emperor of Russia | Emperor]]'s life. Young, emotional, impressionable, well-meaning and egotistic, Alexander displayed from the first an intention of playing a great part on the world's stage, and plunged with all the ardour of youth into the task of realizing his political ideals. While retaining for a time the old [[Political minister | ministers]] who had served and overthrown the Emperor Paul, one of the first acts of his reign was to appoint the [[Private Committee]], also called ironically the "[[Committee of Public Safety |Comite du salut public]]", consisting of young and enthusiastic friends of his own - [[Victor Palvovich Kochubey|Victor Kochubey]], [[Nikolay Nikolayevich Novosiltsev|Nikolay Novosiltsev]], [[Pavel Alexandrovich Stroganov|Pavel Stroganov]] and [[Adam Jerzy Czartoryski]] - to draw up a scheme of internal reform. Most importantly the liberal [[Mikhail Speransky]] became one of the Tsar's closest advisors, and drew up many plans for elaborate reforms. Their aims, inspired by their admiration for [[Kingdom of Great Britain | English]] institutions, far outstripped the possibilities of the time, and even after they had been raised to regular ministerial positions but little of their programme could come to pass. For [[Imperial Russia | Russia]] was not ripe for [[liberty]]; and Alexander, the disciple of the [[revolution]]ist Laharpe, was&mdash;as he himself said&mdash;but "a happy accident" on the throne of the tsars. He spoke, indeed, bitterly of "the state of [[barbarism]] in which the country had been left by the traffic in men."
==Early reign==
"Under Paul," he said, "three thousand [[peasant]]s had been given away like a bag of [[diamond]]s. If [[civilization]] were more advanced, I would abolish this [[slavery]], if it cost me my [[head (anatomy)|head]]". But the universal [[Political corruption|corruption]], he complained, had left him no men; and the filling up of the government offices with [[German people|Germans]] and other foreigners merely accentuated the sullen resistance of the "old [[Russians]]" to his reforms. That Alexander's reign, which began with so large a promise of amelioration, ended by riveting still tighter the chains of the Russian people was, however, due less to the corruption and backwardness of Russian life than to the defects of the tsar himself. His love of liberty, though sincere, was in fact unreal. It flattered his [[vanity]] to pose before the world as the dispenser of benefits; but his theoretical [[liberalism]] linked with an [[autocratic]] will which brooked no contradiction. "You always want to instruct me!" he exclaimed to [[Gavril Romanovich Derzhavin|Derzhavin]], the [[List of Justice Ministers of Imperial Russia|Minister of Justice]], "but I am the autocratic emperor, and I will this, and nothing else!" "He would gladly have agreed," wrote Prince Czartoryski, "that every one should be free, if every one had freely done only what he wished." Moreover, this masterful temper joined an infirmity of purpose which ever let "I dare not wait upon I would," and which seized upon any excuse for postponing measures the principles of which he had publicly approved.
===Legal reform===
[[Image:Althorv.jpg|thumb|225px|Bust of Alexander I, by [[Thorvaldsen]].]] The codification of the laws initiated in 1801 was never carried out during his reign; nothing was done to improve the intolerable status of the Russian peasantry; the constitution drawn up by [[Mikhail Speransky]], and passed by the emperor, remained unsigned. Alexander, in fact, who, without being consciously tyrannical, possessed in full measure the [[tyrant]]'s characteristic distrust of men of ability and independent judgment, lacked also the first requisite for a reforming sovereign: confidence in his people; and it was this want that vitiated such reforms as were actually realized. He experimented in the outlying provinces of his [[Empire]]; and the Russians noted with open [[murmur]]s that, not content with governing through foreign instruments, he was conferring on [[Poland]], [[Finland]] and the [[Baltic States | Baltic provinces]] benefits denied to themselves.
===Social reforms===
::''Main articles: [[Government reform of Alexander I]] and [[Mikhail Speransky]]''
In Russia, too, certain reforms were carried out; but they could not survive the suspicious interference of the autocrat and his officials. The newly created [[Russian Council of Ministers| Council of Ministers]] and [[State Council]] under [[Governing Senate]], endowed for the first time with certain theoretical powers, became in the end but the slavish instruments of the Tsar and his favorites of the moment. The elaborate system of [[Education]], culminating in the reconstituted, or new-founded, [[university|universities]] of [[Dorpat]], [[Vilna]], [[Kazan]] and [[Kharkov]], was strangled in the supposed interests of "order" and of [[Russian Orthodox Church | Orthodox]] [[piety]]; while the [[military settlements]] which Alexander proclaimed as a blessing to both [[soldier]]s and [[state]] were forced on the unwilling peasantry and army with pitiless cruelty. Even the [[Bible]] [[Society]], through which the Emperor in his later mood of [[evangelism|evangelical]] zeal proposed to bless his people, was conducted on the same ruthless lines. The [[Roman Catholic Church | Roman]] [[Archbishop]] and the Orthodox [[Metropolitan bishop | Metropolitans]] were forced to serve on its committee side by side with [[Protestant]] [[pastor]]s; and [[village]] [[priest]]s, trained to regard any tampering with the letter of the traditional documents of the [[Christian Church | Church]] as [[mortal sin]], became the unwilling instruments for the propagation of what they regarded as works of the [[Devil]].
==Influence on European politics==
===Views held by his contemporaries===
Autocrat and "[[Jacobin]]", man of the world and mystic, he appeared to his contemporaries as a riddle which each read according to his own temperament. [[Napoleon I of France|Napoleon I]] thought him a "shifty [[Derogatory use of Byzantine|Byzantine]]", and called him the [[François Joseph Talma|Talma]] of the North, as ready to play any conspicuous part. To [[Klemens Wenzel von Metternich|Metternich]] he was a madman to be humoured. [[Robert Stewart, Viscount Castlereagh|Castlereagh]], writing of him to Lord Liverpool, gives him credit for "grand qualities," but |
orward]] resulting in a famine which killed millions of people. These were not cases of genocide, because those who were killed were not selected on the basis of their race, but were killed in large numbers as a result of government policies. Famine is classified as democide if it fits the definition above.
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center" align=left
|+'''Selected pre-20th century democides.''' From ''Death by Government'', 1987 [http://www.hawaii.edu/powerkills/MURDER.HTM].
|-
| In China || 221 BC-19th Century || 33,519,000
|-
| By [[Mongols]] || 14th-15th Century || 29,927,000
|-
| Slavery of Africans || 1451-1870 || 17,267,000
|-
| Of American-Indians || 16th-19th Century || 13,778,000
|-
| [[Thirty Years War]] || 1618-1648 || 5,750,000
|-
| In India || 13th-19th Century || >4,511,000
|-
| In Iran || 5th-19th Century || >2,000,000
|-
| In [[Ottoman Empire]] || 12th-19th Century || >2,000,000
|-
| In Japan || 1570-19th Century || >1,500,000
|-
| In Russia || 10th-19th Century || >1,007,000
|-
| By [[Aztecs]] || Centuries || >1,000,000
|-
| Christian [[Crusades]] || 1095-1272 || 1,000,000
|-
| [[Spanish Inquisition]] || 16th-18th Century || 350,000
|-
| [[French Revolution]] || 1793-1794 || 263,000
|-
| [[Albigensian Crusade]] || 1208-1249 || 200,000
|-
| [[Witch Hunt]] || 15th-17th Century || 100,000
|-
|}
As an example, Rummel until recently did not classify the Great Leap Forward as democide. He believed that Mao's policies were largely responsible for the famine, but he was misled about it, and finally when he found out, he stopped it and changed his policies. Thus not an intentional famine and thus not a democide. New information from ''[[Mao: the Unknown Story]]'' states that Mao knew about the famine from the beginning and didn't care. Eventually he had to be stopped by a meeting of 7,000 top Communist Party members. Thus the famine was intentional and a democide.[http://freedomspeace.blogspot.com/2005/11/getting-my-reestimate-of-maos-democide.html]
According to Rummel, [[genocide]] has 3 different meanings. The ordinary meaning is murder by government of people due to their national, ethnical, racial, or religious group membership. The legal meaning of genocide refers to the international treaty, the [[Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide]]. This also includes nonkillings that in the end eliminate the group, such as preventing births or forcibly transferring children out of the group to another group. A generalized meaning of genocide is similar to the ordinary meaning but also includes government killings of political opponents or otherwise intentional murder. It is to avoid confusion regarding what meaning is intended that Rummel created the term democide for the third meaning.[http://www.hawaii.edu/powerkills/GENOCIDE.HTM]
== Research on democide ==
Accusations of mass killings by a government are relatively common. Less common are well-documented cases with enough evidence to support the accusation. Almost all accusations are disputed to some degree, although the evidence in some cases is stronger than in others.
Rummel's sources include scholarly works, refugee reports, memoirs, biographies, historical analyses, actual exhumed body counts, records kept by the murderers themselves, and so on. In short his data are all estimates available in English for all nations over a period of a century, and available in the libraries he worked in, including the [[Library of Congress]].
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center" align=right
|+'''Ten bloodiest dictators for the millennium.'''[http://www.hawaii.edu/powerkills/QA.V2.HTML#statistics]
|-
| [[Joseph Stalin]] || 1929-1953 || 43,000,000
|-
| [[Mao Tse-tung]] || 1923-1976 || 38,000,000
|-
| [[Adolph Hitler]] || 1933-1945 || 21,000,000
|-
| [[Khubilai Khan]] || 1252-1279 || 19,000,000
|-
| [[Qing Dynasty]], <br> mainly [[Empress Dowager Cixi]] || 1859-64, <br> [[Tai Ping Rebellion]] || 12,000,000
|-
| [[Chiang Kai-shek]]|| 1921-1948 || 10,000,000
|-
| [[Genghis Khan]] || 1215-1233 || 4,000,000
|-
| [[Vladimir Lenin]] || 1917-1924 || 4,000,000
|-
| [[Tojo Hideki]] || 1941-1945 || 4,000,000
|-
| [[Pol Pot]] || 1968-1987 || 2,000,000
|-
|}
He provides a most probably death toll and and a low and a high that are meant to be the most unlikely low and high, and thus to bracket the probable true count. It is to determine these lows and highs that he includes what some others might consider absurd estimates. His published books do not include new research and new sources available after the publication date.
Rummel's counts 43 million deaths due to democide during Stalin's regime inside and outside the Soviet Union. This is much higher than an often quoted figure of 20 million. Rummel has responded that this is based on a figure from [[Robert Conquest]]'s book ''[[The Great Terror]]'' from [[1968]] and that Conquest's qualifier "almost certainly too low" is usually forgotten. Conquest's calculations excluded camp deaths after 1950, and before 1936; executions 1939-53; the vast deportation of the people of captive nations into the camps, and their deaths 1939-1953; the massive deportation within the Soviet Union of minorities 1941-1944; and their deaths; and those the Soviet Red Army and secret police executed throughout Eastern Europe after their conquest during 1944-1945. Moreover, the [[Holodomor]] that killed 5 million in 1932-1934 is not included.[http://freedomspeace.blogspot.com/2005/04/how-many-did-stalin-really-murder.html]
His research shows that the death toll from democide is far greater than the death toll from war. After studying over 8,000 reports of government caused deaths, Rummel estimates that there have been 262 million victims of democide in the last century. According to his figures, six times as many people have died from the inflictions of people working for governments than have died in battle.
One of his main findings is that liberal democracies have much less democide than authoritarian regimes.[http://www.hawaii.edu/powerkills/MIRACLE.HTM] He argues that there is a relation between political power and democide. Political mass murder grows increasingly common as political power becomes unconstrained. At the other end of the scale, where power is diffuse, checked, and balanced, political violence is a rarity. According to Rummel, "The more power a regime has, the more likely people will be killed. This is a major reason for promoting freedom." Rummel concludes: "Concentrated political power is the most dangerous thing on earth."
For books, articles, data, and analyses regarding democide, see Rummel's website.[http://www.hawaii.edu/powerkills/] In particular, he has an extensive [[FAQ]].[http://www.hawaii.edu/powerkills/QA.V2.HTML] Researchers often give widely different estimates of mass murder. They use different definitions, methodology, and sources. For example, some include battle deaths in their calculations. Matthew White's website has compiled some of these different estimates.[http://users.erols.com/mwhite28/warstats.htm]
== Update on democides ==
In November 2005, RJ Rummel estimated the democide in [[Mao Zedong|Mao]]'s [[People's Republic of China|China]] (1949-1975) to 73,000,000.
[http://freedomspeace.blogspot.com/2005/11/reevaluating-chinas-democide-to-be.html Reevaluating China's Democide to be 73,000,000 ]
In May 2005 he guessed the number for [[Darfur Conflict]] to be [http://freedomspeace.blogspot.com/2005/05/democide-galore_08.html Democide Galore] >400,000
== See also ==
*[[Genocide]]
*[[Democratic peace theory]]
*[[Linguicide]]
*[[Genocides in history]]
== External links ==
* The [http://www.hawaii.edu/powerkills/DBG.CHAP2.HTM Definition of Democide] by R.J. Rummel, from his book ''Death by Government''.
* Rummel's website [http://www.hawaii.edu/powerkills Power Kills]
* [http://www.neveragaininternational.org/ Never Again] International youth genocide prevention orgnanization; organized the 2004 Rwanda Forum at the Imperial War Museum in London.
* [http://www.neveragaininternational.org/wiki Never Again Wiki]
[[Category:Violence]]
[[Category:Human rights abuses]]
[[Category:Death]]
[[Category:Democides| ]]
[[de:Demozid]]
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<page>
<title>December 9</title>
<id>8589</id>
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<id>42129221</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T00:35:19Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>64.53.209.169</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Births */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''December 9''' is the 343rd day (344th in leap years) of the year in the [[Gregorian calendar]]. There are 22 days remaining.
{{DecemberCalendar}}
==Events==
*[[1425]] - The Catholic University of [[Leuven]] is founded
*[[1531]] - First apparition of the [[Virgin Mary]] ([[Our Lady of Guadalupe]]) to [[Juan Diego Cuauhtlatoatzin]] on Tepeyac Hill
*[[1793]] - [[New York, New York|New York City]]'s first daily [[newspaper]], the ''American Minerva'', is established by [[Noah Webster]].
*[[1824]] - [[Battle of Ayacucho]]: [[Peruvian]] nationalists led by [[Antonio José de Sucre]] defeat [[Viceroyalty of Peru|Spanish]] colonial forces and secure the independence of Peru.
*[[1835]] - The [[Republic of Texas]] captures [[San Antonio, Texas|San Antonio]].
*[[1851]] - The first [[YMCA]] in [[North America]] is established in [[Montreal, Quebec]].
*[[1856]] - The [[Iran]]ian city of [[Bushehr]] surrenders to occupying [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland|British]] forces.
*[[1861]] - [[American Civil War]]: The [[Joint Committee on the Conduct of the War]] is established by the [[Congress of the United States|U.S. Congress]].
*[[1872]] - In [[Louisiana]], [[P. B. S. Pinchback]] becomes the first serving [[African-American]] governor of a U.S. stat |
, the third of the triad, in the bass:
[[Image:inv2.png]]
This means that a triad in first inversion consists of the root plus a third and a sixth above it. The ''[[second inversion]]'' has the fifth, the G, in the bass:
[[Image:inv3.png]]
A triad in second inversion, therefore, consists of the root plus a fourth and a sixth above it.
The ''third inversion'' of a triad does not really make much sense to discuss, since inverting the second inversion just leads to the tonic again, an octave higher. Chords of four notes or more, however, can be in their third inversion: the third inversion of a [[dominant seventh]] in C major, for example (made up of the notes G, B, D and F) has the seventh, F, in the bass. This gives a chord made up of the root plus a second, fourth and sixth above it.
The terms "root", "first inversion", and "second inversion" may also be applied to chords in which the notes are not closely spaced. For instance, C-G-E, where the E is a major sixth above G, is also considered to be in root position, and more generally, any C major chord in which C is the lowest note is considered to be in root position. Similarly, any C major chord with E on the bottom counts as a first inversion, any C major chord with G on the bottom counts as a second inversion; and analogously for all other chords.
===Notations for inverted chords===
There are at least four different notations for the inversions of chords.
(i) Perhaps the most commonly used method is [[figured bass]]. In this system, first inversions are normally indicated by the digit 6 and second inversions by the digits 64. A full presentation of figured bass notation is given in the Wikipedia article on this subject.
(ii) The letters a, b, c, etc., may be placed after any chord symbol to indicate the root, first and second inversion respectively. Hence the C chord below, in first inversion (i.e. with E in the bass) may be notated as Cb. (If no letter is added, the chord is assumed to be in root inversion, having the same meaning as if 'a' had been added explicitly.)
[[Image:inv2.png]]
(iii) A less common, but occasionally used, notation for chord inversion is to place the number 1, 2 or 3 etc. after a chord to indicate that it is in first, second, or third inversion respectively. Hence the C chord above, in first inversion (i.e. with E in the bass) may be notated as C1. No number is added in the case of a chord in root inversion. This notation should not be confused with a quite different meaning of the same notation, where a number is placed after a note name to indicate the octave in which a single note is to sound, e.g. C4 is often used simply to mean the single note [[middle C]].
(iv) A notation for chord inversion often used in [[popular music]] is to write the name of a chord, followed by a forward slash, and then the name of the note that is to sound in the bass. For example, the C chord above, in first inversion (i.e. with E in the bass) may be notated as C/E. Interestingly, this notation works consistently even when a note not present in a triad or other chord is to sound in the bass, e.g. F/G is a way of notating a particular approach to voicing a G13th chord. This should not be confused with notations of the "[[diatonic functionality|function]] of function" style, for instance the subdominant of the dominant is IV/V or S/D.
==Inverted intervals==
An [[interval (music)|interval]] is inverted by raising or lowering either of the notes the necessary number of [[octave]]s, so that both retain their names ([[pitch class]]) and the one which was higher is now lower and vice versa, changing the perspective or relation between the pitch classes. For example, the inversion of an interval consisting of a C with an E above it is an E with a C above it - to work this out, the C may be moved up, the E may be lowered, or both may be moved.
Under inversion, perfect intervals remain perfect, major intervals become minor and the reverse, augmented intervals become diminished and the reverse. (Double diminished intervals become double augmented intervals, and the reverse.) Traditional interval names sum to nine: seconds become sevenths and the reverse, thirds become sixes and the reverse, and fourths become fifths and the reverse. Thus a perfect fourth becomes a perfect fifth, an augmented fourth becomes a diminished fifth, and a simple interval (that is, one that is narrower than an octave) and its inversion, when added together, will equal an octave. See also [[complement (music)]].
==Inversion in counterpoint==
Contrapuntal inversion requires that two [[melody|melodies]], having accompanied each other once, do it again with the melody that had been in the high voice now in the low, and vice versa. Also called "double counterpoint" (if two voices are involved) or "triple counterpoint" (if three), themes that can be developed in this way are said to involve themselves in "invertible counterpoint."
Invertible counterpoint can occur at various intervals, usually the octave (8va), less often at the 10th or 12th. To calculate the interval of inversion, add the intervals by which each voice has moved and subtract one. For example: If motive A in the high voice moves down a 6th, and motive B in the low voice moves up a 5th, in such a way as to result in A and B having exchanged registers, then the two are in double counterpoint at the 10th (6+5)-1 = 10.
Invertible counterpoint achieves its highest expression in the four canons of J. S. Bach's [[Art of Fugue|Art of Fugue]], with the first canon at the 8va, the second canon at the 10th, the third canon at the 12th, and the fourth canon in augmentation and contrary motion. Other exemplars can be found in the fugues in [http://jan.ucc.nau.edu/~tas3/wtc/ii16.html#movie G minor] and [http://jan.ucc.nau.edu/~tas3/wtc/ii21.html#movie B-flat major] [external Shockwave movies] from Book II of Bach's [[Well-Tempered Clavier|Well-Tempered Clavier]], both of which contain invertible counterpoint at the 8va, 10th, and 12th.
==Inverted melodies==
When applied to [[melody|melodies]], the ''inversion'' of a given melody is the melody turned upside-down. For instance, if the original melody has a rising major third (see [[interval (music)|interval]]), the inverted melody has a falling major third (or perhaps more likely, in tonal music, a falling ''minor'' third, or even some other falling interval). Similarly, in [[twelve-tone technique]], the ''inversion'' of the [[tone row]] is the so-called ''prime series'' turned upside-down.
==Inversional equivalency==
'''Inversional equivalency''' or '''inversional symmetry''' is the concept that [[interval (music)|interval]]s, [[chord (music)|chord]]s, and other sets of pitches are the same when inverted. It is similar to [[enharmonic equivalency]] and [[octave equivalency]] and even [[transpositional equivalency]]. Inversional equivalency is used little in [[tonal]] theory, though it is assumed a set which may be inverted onto another are remotely in common. However, taking them to be identical or near-identical is only assumed in musical set theory.
All sets of pitches with inversional symmetry have a '''center''' or '''axis of inversion'''. For example, the set C-E-F-F#-G-B has one center at the dyad F and F# and another at the tritone, B/C, if listed F#-G-B-C-E-F. For C-Eb-E-F#-G-Bb the center is F and B if listed F#-G-Bb-C-Eb-E. (Wilson 1992, p.10-11)
==Inversion in musical set theory==
In [[musical set theory]] inversion may be usefully thought of as the compound operation ''transpositional inversion'', which is the same sense of inversion as in the [[Inversion (music)#Inverted melodies|Inverted melodies]] section above, with transposition carried out after inversion. Pitch inversion by an ordered pitch interval may be defined as:
*<math> T^p_nI = -x+n </math>
which equals
*<math> T^p_nI = n-x </math>
First invert the pitch or pitches, ''x''=-''x'', then transpose, -''x''+''n''.
[[Pitch class]] inversion by a pitch class interval may be defined as:
*<math>T_nI(x) = -x+n\ (mod 12)</math>
==Source==
*Wilson, Paul (1992). ''The Music of Béla Bartók''. ISBN 0300051115.
[[de:Umkehrung (Musik)]]
[[Category:Musical techniques]]
[[Category:Music theory]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Iranaeus</title>
<id>15411</id>
<revision>
<id>15912885</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Irenaeus]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Infrared spectroscopy</title>
<id>15412</id>
<revision>
<id>42050494</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T13:28:19Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>131.227.185.60</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:IR_spectrum_of_ethanol.gif|thumb|right|350px|IR spectrum of a thin film of liquid [[ethanol]].]]
'''Infrared spectroscopy''' (IR Spectroscopy) is a type of [[absorption spectroscopy]] that uses the [[Infrared]] part of the [[electromagnetic spectrum]].
As with [[spectroscopy | all spectroscopic techniques]], it can be used to identify a compound and to investigate the composition of a sample.
Infrared spectroscopy works because [[chemical bond]]s have specific frequencies at which they vibrate corresponding to [[energy level]]s. The [[resonant frequency|resonant frequencies]] are determined by the shape of the molecular [[potential energy surface]]s, the masses of the atoms and, eventually by the associated [[vibronic coupling]]. In order to be IR active, a molecule needs to have a changing dipole. In particular, in the [[Born-Oppenheimer approximation | Born-Oppenheimer]] and harmonic approximations, i.e. when the [ |
municate through this network. Users of the [[Internet]] are sometimes given a [[host name]] in addition to their numerical IP address by their [[Internet service provider]].
The IP addresses of users browsing the [[World Wide Web]] are used to enable communications with the server of the Web site. Also, it is usually in the header of [[e-mail]] messages one sends. In fact, for all programs that utilize the [[TCP/IP]] protocol, the sender IP address and destination IP address are required in order to establish communications and send data.
Depending on one's [[Internet]] connection the IP address can be the same every time one connects (called a static IP address), or different every time one connects, (called a dynamic IP address). In order to use a dynamic IP address, there must exist a server which can provide the address. IP addresses are usually given out through a server service called DHCP or the [[Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol]]. If a static address is used, it must be manually programmed into parameters of the device's [[network interface]].
Internet addresses are needed not only for unique enumeration of hosted interfaces, but also for routing purposes, therefore a high fraction of them are always unused or reserved.
The unique nature of IP addresses makes it possible in many situations to track which computer &mdash; and by extension, which person &mdash; has sent a message or engaged in some other activity on the Internet. This information has been used by law enforcement authorities to identify criminal suspects; however dynamically-assigned IP addresses can make this difficult.
== IP version 4 ==
{{main|IPv4#Addressing}}
IPv4 uses 32-[[bit]] (4 [[byte]]) addresses which limits the [[address space]] to 4,294,967,295 possible unique addresses.
However, many are reserved for special purposes such as [[private network]]s (~18 million addresses) or [[multicast]] addresses (~1 million addresses). This reduces the number of addresses that can be allocated as public Internet addresses and as the number of addresses available is consumed, an [[#Exhaustion|IPv4 address shortage]] appears to be inevitable in the long run.
This limitation has helped stimulate the push towards [[IPv6]], which is currently in the early stages of deployment and is currently the only contender to replace IPv4.
== IP version 5 ==
What would be considered ''IPv5'' existed only as an experimental non-IP real time streaming protocol called ST2, described in RFC 1819. In keeping with standard [[UNIX]] release conventions, all odd-numbered versions are considered experimental, and this version was never intended to be implemented; the protocol was not abandoned. [[Integrated services|RSVP]] has replaced it to some degree.
== IP version 6 ==
In '''[[IPv6]]''', the new (but not yet widely deployed) standard protocol for the Internet, addresses are 128 bits wide, which, even with generous assignment of netblocks, should suffice for the foreseeable future. In theory, there would be exactly 2<sup>128</sup>, or about 3.403 &times; 10<sup>38</sup> unique host interface addresses. If the earth were made entirely out of 1 cubic millimeter grains of sand, then you could give a unique address to each grain in 300 million planets the size of the earth. This large address space will be sparsely populated, which makes it possible to again encode more routing information into the addresses themselves.
=== Addressing ===
A version 6 address is written as eight 4-digit [[hexadecimal]] numbers separated by colons. For readability, addresses may be shortened in two ways. Within each colon-delimited section, leading zeroes may be truncated. Secondly, one string of zeroes (and only one) may be replaced with two colons (::). For example, all of the following addresses are equivalent:
* 1080:0000:0000:0000:0000:0034:0000:417A
* 1080:0:0:0:0:34:0:417A
* 1080::34:0:417A
Global [[unicast]] IPv6 addresses are constructed as two parts: a 64-bit routing part followed by a 64-bit host identifier.
Netblocks are specified as in the modern alternative for IPv4: network number, followed by a slash, and the number of relevant bits of the network number (in decimal). Example: 12AB::CD30:0:0:0:0/60 includes all addresses starting with 12AB00000000CD3.
IPv6 has many improvements over IPv4 other than just bigger address space, including [[autorenumbering]] and mandatory support for [[IPsec]].
''Further reading:'' [[Request for Comments|Internet RFCs]] including RFC 791, RFC 1519 (IPv4 addresses), and RFC 2373 (IPv6 addresses).
==See also==
*[[Ping]]
*[[MAC address]]
*[[Regional Internet Registry]]
**[[African Network Information Center]]
**[[American Registry for Internet Numbers]]
**[[RIPE Network Coordination Centre]]
**[[Asia-Pacific Network Information Centre]]
**[[Latin American and Caribbean Internet Addresses Registry]]
*[[Subnet address]]
*[[Geolocation]]
*[[Geolocation software]]
==External links==
*[http://www.linuxjournal.com/article/7856 Introduction to geolocation by IP address]
*[http://www.circleid.com/community/topics/view/IP%20Addressing/ Articles on CircleID about IP addressing]
*[http://www.securityfocus.com/infocus/1674 IP Spoofing: An Introduction]
*[http://www.byte.com/art/9602/sec16/art4.htm IP-Address Management on LANs] - article in [[Byte magazine]]
*[http://www.circleid.com/posts/ip_address_allocation_vs_internet_production_i_understanding_the_relationsh/ Introduction to IP Address Allocation]
*[http://www.hostip.info/ Community project to geotarget IP addresses]
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[[Category:Computer networks]]
[[Category:Information technology]]
[[Category:Internet architecture]]
[[Category:Identifiers]]
<!-- interwiki -->
[[als:IP-Adresse]]
[[ar:IP]]
[[ca:Adreça IP]]
[[cs:IP adresa]]
[[da:IP-adresse]]
[[de:IP-Adresse]]
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[[es:Dirección IP]]
[[eo:IP-adreso]]
[[fa:نشانی پروتکل اینترنت]]
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[[nn:IP-adresse]]
[[pl:Adres IP]]
[[pt:Endereço IP]]
[[ru:IP-адрес]]
[[sq:Adresa IP]]
[[simple:IP address]]
[[sl:IP-naslov]]
[[sr:ИП адреса]]
[[fi:IP-osoite]]
[[sv:IP-nummer]]
[[th:หมายเลขไอพี]]
[[tr:IP adresi]]
[[zh:IP地址]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>If and only if</title>
<id>14922</id>
<revision>
<id>40394705</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-20T06:30:23Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Matthew Low</username>
<id>75033</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>revert - the presence of the link does not imply that "if and only if" is mathematical jargon; further, "iff" redirects here, so there should be a reference to mathematical jargon here</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{merge|Logical biconditional}}
<div id="shortcut" class="noprint" style="border:1px solid #999; background:#fff; margin:0 0 .5em 1em; text-align:center; padding:5px; float:right; clear:right; font-size:smaller;">
<big><big><big><big><big>
&#8596; <br/>
&#8660; <br/>
&#8801;</big></big></big></big></big><br/><div style="line-height: 120%; text-align: left">logical symbols<br/>representing '''iff'''.</div></div>
{{dablink|'''Iff''' redirects here. For other meanings, see [[IFF]].}}
In [[logic]] and technical fields that rely on it, such as [[mathematics]] and [[philosophy]], "'''if and only if'''" is a connective between statements which means that the truth of either one of the statements requires the truth of the other. Thus, either both statements are true, or both are false.
In writing, common alternative phrases to "if and only if" include '''iff''', "Q is [[Necessary and sufficient conditions|necessary and sufficient]] for P", "P is equivalent to Q", "P precisely if Q", and "P precisely when Q". Many authors regard "iff" as unsuitable in formal writing; others use it freely.
In logical formulae, logical symbols are used instead of these phrases; see the discussion of notation.
==Usage==
===Notation===
The corresponding logical symbols are "&harr;", "&hArr;" and "&equiv;", and sometimes "iff". These are usually treated as equivalent. However, some texts of [[mathematical logic]] (particularly those on [[first-order logic]], rather than [[propositional logic]]) make a distinction between these, in which the first, &harr;, is used as a symbol in logic formulas, while &hArr; is used in reasoning about those formulas (e.g., in [[metalogic]]).
Another term for the [[logical connective]] is [[exclusive nor]].
===Proofs===
In most logical systems, one [[Proof theory|proves]] a statement of the form "P iff Q" by proving "if P, then Q" and "P if Q" (or its [[contrapositive]], "if not P, then not Q"). Proving this pair of statements sometimes leads to a more [[natural proof]], since there are not obvious conditions in which one would infer a biconditional directly. An alternative is to prove the [[disjunction]] "(P and Q) or (not-P and not-Q)", which itself can be inferred directly from either of its disjuncts &mdash; that is, because "iff" is [[truth-function]]al, "P iff Q" follows if P and Q have both been shown true, or both false.
===Origin of |
on for wealthy French [[expatriate]]s. Its school system is highly regarded and includes an excellent international school based on a U.S. [[curriculum]] and several excellent French-based schools.
Côte d'Ivoire has stepped up public investment programs after the stagnation of the pre-devaluation era. The government's public investment plan accords priority to investment in human capital, but it also will provide for significant spending on economic infrastructure needed to sustain growth. Continued infrastructure development is also expected to occur because of [[private sector]] activity.
In the new environment of government disengagement from productive activities and in the wake of recent privatizations, anticipated investments in the petroleum, [[electricity]], [[water]], and telecommunications sectors, and in part of the [[transport]] sector, will be financed without any direct government intervention.
== Major Trends and Outlooks ==
Since the [[colonial]] period, Côte d'Ivoire's economy has been based on the production and export of tropical products. Agriculture, forestry, and [[fisheries]] account for more than one-third of GDP and two-thirds of exports. Côte d'Ivoire produces 40% of the world's cocoa crop and is a major exporter of [[banana]]s, [[coffee]], [[cotton]], [[palm oil]], [[pineapple]], [[rubber]], [[tropical wood product]]s, and [[tuna]]. The 1994 devaluation of the CFA franc and accompanying structural adjustment measures generally favored the agricultural sector by increasing competitiveness. However, reliance on raw cocoa and coffee exports, which account for 40% of total exports, exposes the economy to sharp price swings on world markets for these commodities. The government encourages export diversification and intermediate processing of cocoa beans to reduce this exposure. Cocoa beans exports to the U.S. increased sharply in 1996 due to lower freight rates.
The four years following the January 12, 1994, devaluation of the CFA franc saw Côte d'Ivoire return to the rapid economic growth it knew in the [[1960s]] and [[1970s]]. The spur provided by the devaluation, by increased aid flows, rigorous [[macroeconomics|macroeconomic]] policies, and fortuitous international [[commodity]] prices yielded strong GDP growth in both 1996 and [[1997]]. In addition to these factors, the long period of pre-devaluation stagnation, in which local businesses and potential outside investors put off capital expenditure, caused a boom in investment following the devaluation. Côte d'Ivoire has also begun to turn the corner on its daunting debt problem: first with a generous rescheduling of official bilateral debt at the [[Paris Club]] in March 1994; more recently, with a tentative [[London Club]] agreement in November 1996, and the April 1997 decision by the [[G-7]] countries to include Côte d'Ivoire in the new [[IMF]]-[[World Bank]] debt forgiveness initiative for highly indebted poor countries.
Côte d'Ivoire's recent economic performance has been impressive, particularly in 1995 and 1996. Real GDP growth was 7% in 1995, 6.8% in 1996, and an estimated 6% in 1997. The country has been meeting its IMF targets for growth, inflation, government finance, and [[balance]] of payments. Traditional commodity exports were boosted both by the devaluation (though improved prices in local currency terms were only partially passed through to farmers) and by higher world prices for cocoa and coffee. At the same time, the devaluation and the generally favorable business environment produced growth in nontraditional crops, local processing of commodities, and the services sector.
In 1996 and 1997, inflation continued the downward trend begun after the devaluation, when the government kept a tight lid both on salary increases and on the size of the [[public sector]] work force. Inflation as measured by the increase in the [[consumer price index]] has fallen sharply, from 1994's post-devaluation 32.2% to 7.7% in [[1995]], 3.5% in 1996, and an estimated 5% in 1997.
Public sector finances are another bright spot: Government revenues are on a strongly rising trend since 1993, capped by a 15% increase from 1995 to 1996. The stronger revenue picture, when combined with restraint on the spending side, has resulted in three years of primary surpluses (i.e., receipts minus expenditure, excluding borrowing and debt service). Following a concerted government repayment effort, domestic arrears had been virtually eliminated by the end of 1996.
The outlook for the near and medium term in Côte d'Ivoire remains positive. The government hopes to attain double-digit real GDP growth, but this appears achievable only in a best-case scenario, including continued or enhanced investment flows, additional oil or [[mineral]] production, and no drop in world commodity prices; short of this optimistic scenario, a continuation of 6% or 7% growth seems likely for the near term.
==Economic Data==
* '''GDP:''' [[purchasing power parity]] - $24.78 billion (2004 est.)
* '''GDP - real growth rate:''' -1% (2004 est.)
* '''GDP - per capita:''' purchasing power parity - $1,500 (2004 est.)
* '''GDP - composition by sector:'''
**''agriculture:'' 27.8%
**''industry:'' 19.4%
**''services:'' 52.8% ([[2004]])
* '''Population below poverty line:''' 37% (1995 est.)
* '''Household income or consumption by percentage share:'''
**''lowest 10%:'' 3.1%
**''highest 10%:'' 28.8% ([[1995]])
* '''Inflation rate (consumer prices):''' 2.5% (1999 est.)
* '''Labor force:''' N/A
* '''Unemployment rate:''' N/A
* '''Budget:'''
**''revenues:'' $2.3 billion
**''expenditures:'' $2.6 billion, including capital expenditures of $640 million (1997 est.)
* '''Industries:''' foodstuffs, [[beverage]]s; wood products, [[oil refining]], [[automobile industry|automobile assembly]], [[textile]]s, [[fertilizer]], [[construction]] materials, electricity
* '''Industrial production growth rate:''' 15% (1998 est.)
* '''Electricity - production:''' 3,360 GWh (1998)
* '''Electricity - production by source:'''
**''[[fossil fuel]]:'' 35.71%
**''[[hydroelectricity|hydro]]:'' 64.29%
**''[[nuclear power|nuclear]]:'' 0%
**''other:'' 0% (1998)
* '''Electricity - consumption:''' 3,165 GWh (1998)
* '''Electricity - exports:''' 0 kWh (1998)
* '''Electricity - imports:''' 40 GWh (1998)
* '''Agriculture - products:''' coffee, cocoa beans, bananas, palm kernels, [[maize]], rice, [[manioc]] ([[tapioca]]), [[sweet potato]]es, [[sugar]], cotton, rubber; timber
* '''Exports:''' $3.9 billion (f.o.b., 1999 est.)
* '''Exports - commodities:''' cocoa(37%), coffee, tropical woods, petroleum, cotton, bananas, pineapples, palm oil, cotton, [[fish]] (1998)
* '''Exports - partners:''' France (17%), [[Netherlands]] (12%), [[United States]] (9%), [[Italy]] (6%) (1998)
* '''Imports:''' $2.6 billion (f.o.b., 1999 est.)
* '''Imports - commodities:''' food, consumer goods; capital goods, fuel, transport equipment
* '''Imports - partners:''' France (29%), United States (5%), Italy (5%), [[Germany]] (5%) (1998)
* '''Debt - external:''' $16.8 billion (1998 est.)
* '''Economic aid - recipient:''' ODA, $1 billion (1996 est.)
* '''Currency:''' [[Communauté Financière Africaine franc]] (CFAF) = 100 centimes
* '''[[Exchange rate]]s:''' CFA francs (CFAF) per US$1 - 647.25 (January 2000), 615.70 (1999), 589.95 (1998), 583.67 (1997), 511.55 (1996), 499.15 (1995)
**''note:'' since [[1 January]] 1999, the CFAF is pegged to the [[euro]] at a rate of 655.957 CFA francs per euro
* '''[[Fiscal year]]:''' calendar year
==See also==
* [[Politics of Côte d'Ivoire]]
* [[Départements of Côte d'Ivoire]]
* [[Geography of Côte d'Ivoire]]
* [[Demographics of Côte d'Ivoire]]
* [[Economy of Africa]]
{{WTO}}
[[Category:WTO members|Côte d'Ivoire]]
[[Category:Economies by country|Côte d'Ivoire]]
[[Category:Côte d'Ivoire]]
[[Category:African Union member economies|Côte d'Ivoire]]
[[he:&#1499;&#1500;&#1499;&#1500;&#1514; &#1495;&#1493;&#1507; &#1492;&#1513;&#1504;&#1492;&#1489;]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Communications in Côte d'Ivoire</title>
<id>5569</id>
<revision>
<id>41398112</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-27T01:42:13Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Niran</username>
<id>190872</id>
</contributor>
<comment>added updated World Factbook info</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''[[Telephone]]s - main lines in use:'''
328,000 (2003)
'''Telephones - mobile cellular:'''
more than 60,000 (December 1998)
1.236 million (2003)
'''Telephone system:'''
well-developed by African standards but operating well below capacity
<br>''domestic:''
open-wire lines and [[microwave]] radio relay; 90% digitalized
<br>''international:''
[[satellite]] earth stations - 2 Intelsat (1 Atlantic Ocean and 1 Indian Ocean); 2 coaxial submarine cables (June 1999)
'''[[Radio]] broadcast stations:'''
[[AM broadcasting|AM]] 2, [[FM]] 9, [[shortwave radio|shortwave]] 3 (1998)
'''Radios:'''
2.26 million (1997)
'''[[Television]] broadcast stations:'''
14 (1999)
'''Televisions:'''
900,000 (1997)
'''[[Internet]] hosts:'''
3,795 (2004)
'''Internet users:'''
90,000 (2002)
'''Internet Service Providers ([[ISP]]s):'''
2 Africaonline and Aviso
'''[[Country codes]]:''' CI
:''See also :'' [[Côte d'Ivoire]]
{{factbook}}
[[Category:Communications by country|Côte d'Ivoire]]
[[Category:Côte d'Ivoire]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Transport in Côte d'Ivoire</title>
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<text xml:space="preserve">== Railways ==
<br>''total:''
660 km
<br>''narrow gauge:''
660 km 1.00 |
1-671
*1927 "Die Schneefinken (Gattungen ''Montifringilla'' und ''Leucosticte'')" ''J. für Ornithologie'' 75:596-619
*1929 with W Meise. ''Zeitschriftenverzeichnis des Museums fur Naturkunde Mitteilungen aus dem Zoologischen Museum in Berlin'' 14:1-187
*1930 (by [[Ernst Hartert]]) "List of birds collected by Ernst Mayr". ''Ornithologische Monatsberichte'' 36:27-128
*1930 "My Dutch New Guinea Expedition". 1928. ''Ornithologische Monatsberichte'' 36:20-26
*1931 ''Die Vogel des Saurwagedund Herzoggebirges (NO Neuginea) Mitteilungen aus dem Zoologischen Museum in Berlin'' 17:639-723
*1931 "Birds collected during the Whitney South Sea Expedition. XII Notes on ''Halcyon chloris'' and some of its subspecies". ''American Museum Novitates'' no 469
*1932 "A tenderfoot explorer in New Guinea". ''Natural History'' 32:83-97
*1935 "Bernard Altum and the territory theory". ''Proceedings of the Linnaean Society of New York'' 45, 46:24-38
*1940 "Speciation phenomena in birds". ''American Naturalist'' 74:249-278
*1941 "Borders and subdivision of the Polynesian region as based on our knowledge of the distribution of birds". ''Proceedings of the 6th Pacific Scientific Congress'' 4:191-195
*1941 "The origin and history of the bird fauna of Polynesia". ''Proceedings of the 6th Pacific Scientific Congress'' 4:197-216
*1943 "A journey to the Solomons". ''Natural History'' 52:30-37,48
*1944 "Wallace's Line in the light of recent zoogeographics studies". ''Quarterly Review of Biology'' 19:1-14
*1944 "The birds of Timor and Sumba". ''Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History'' 83:123-194
*1944 "Timor and the colonization of Australia by birds". ''Emu'' 44:113-130
*1946 "History of the North American bird fauna". ''Wilson Bulletin'' 58:3-41
*1946 "The naturalist in Leidy's time and today". ''Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia'' 98:271-276
*1947 "Ecological factors in speciation". ''Evolution'' 1:263-288
*1948 "The new Sanford Hall". ''Natural History'' 57:248-254
*1950 ''The role of the antennae in the mating behavior of female Drosophila''. Evolution 4:149-154
*1951 ''Introduction and Conclusion. Pages 85,255-258 in The problem of land connections across the South Atlantic with special reference to the Mesozoic''. Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History 99:79-258
*1951 with [[Dean Amadon]], "A classification of recent birds". ''American Museum Novitates'' no. 1496
*1953 with E G Linsley and R L Usinger. ''Methods and Principles of Systematica Zoology''. McGraw-Hill, New York.
*1954 "Changes in genetic environment and evolution". Pages 157-180 in ''Evolution as a Process'' (J Huxley, A C Hardy and E B Ford Eds) Allen and Unwin. London
*1955 "Karl Jordan's contribution to current concepts in systematics and evolution". ''Transactions of the Royal Entomological Society of London'' 107:45-66
*1956 with C B Rosen. "Geographic variation and hybridization in populations of Bahama snails (''Cerion'')". ''American Museum Novitates'' no 1806.
*1957 "Species concepts and definitions". Pages 371-388 in ''The Species Problem'' (E. Mayr ed). AAAS, Washington DC.
*1959 "The emergence of evolutionary novelties". Pages 349-380 in ''The Evolution of Life: Evolution after Darwin, vol 1'' (S. Tax, ed) University of Chicago.
*1959 "Darwin and the evolutionary theory in Biology". Pages 1-10 in ''Evolution and Anthropology: A Centennial Appraisal'' (B J Meggers, Ed) The Anthropological Society of Washington, Washington DC.
*1959 "Agassiz, Darwin, and Evolution". ''Harvard Library Bulletin''. 13:165-194
*1961 "Cause and effect in biology: Kinds of causes, predictability, and teleology are viewed by a practicing biologist". ''Science'' 134:1501-1506
*1962 "Accident or design: The paradox of evolution". Pages 1-14 in ''The Evolution of Living Organisms'' (G W Leeper, Ed) Melbourne University Press.
*1964 Introduction, Bibliography and Subject Pages vii-xxviii, 491-513 in ''On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, or the Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life, by Charles Darwin''. A Facsimile of the First Edition. Harvard University Press.
*1965 ''Comments. In Proceedings of the Boston Colloguium for the Philosophy of Science, 1962-1964''. Boston Studies in the Philosophy of Science 2:151-156
*1969 ''Discussion: Footnotes on the philosophy of biology''. Philosophy of Science 36:197-202
*1972 ''Continental drift and the history of the Austrailan bird fauna''. Emu 72:26-28
*1972 ''Geography and ecology as faunal determinants''. Pages 549-561 in Proceedings XVth International Ornithological Congress (K H Voous, Ed) E J Brill, Leiden, The Netherlands.
*1972 ''Lamarck revisited''. Journal of the History of Biology. 5:55-94
*1974 ''Teleological and teleonomic: A new analysis''. Boston studies in the Philosophy of Science 14:91-117
*1978 ''Tenure: A sacred cow?'' Science 199:1293
*1980 ''How I became a Darwinian, Pages 413-423 in The Evolutionary Synthesis'' (E Mayr and W Provine, Eds) Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts.
*1980 with W B Provine, Eds. ''The Evolutionary Synthesis''. Harvard University Press.
*1981 ''Evolutionary biology. Pages 147-162 in The Joys of Research'' (W. Shripshire Jr, Ed.) Smithsonian Institution Press.
*1984 ''Evolution and ethics. Pages 35-46 in Darwin, Mars and Freud: Their influence on Moral Theory'' (A L Caplan and B Jennings, Eds.) Plenum Press, New York.
*1985 ''Darwin's five theories of evolution. Pages 755-772 in The Darwinian Heritage'' (D. Kohn, Ed.) Princeton University Press.
*1985 ''How biology differs from the physical sciences. Pages 43-63 in Evolution at a Crossroads: The New Biology and the New Philosophy of Science'' (D. J. Depew and B H Weber, Eds.) MIT Press, Cambridge.
*1988 ''The why and how of species''. Biology and Philosophy 3:431-441
*1992 ''The idea of teleology''. Journal of the History of Ideas 53:117-135
*1994 with Walter J Bock. ''Provisional classifications v. standard avian sequences: Heurisitics and communication in ornithology''. Ibis 136:12-18
*1996 ''The autonomy of Biology: The position of biology among the sciences''. Quarterly Review of Biology 71:97-106
*2001 ''The philosophical foundations of Darwinism''. Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society 145:488-495
*2002 with Walter J Bock. ''Classifications and other ordering systems''. Zeitschrift für Zoologische Systematic und Evolutionsforschung 40:1-25
==References==
*Barrow, Mark V. 1998. A passion for birds: American ornithology after Audubon. Princeton University Press. ISBN 0691044023
*Coyne, Jerry. 2005. Ernst Mayr (1904-2005). ''Science'' 307:1212-1213.
*Diamond, Jared. 2005. Obituary: Ernst Mayr (1904−2005). ''Nature'' 433:700-701.
*Milner, Richard. 1990. ''The Encyclopedia of Evolution.'' Facts on File, New York. ISBN 0816014728
*Schilthuizen, Menno. 2001. ''Frogs, Flies, and Dandelions: Speciation-The Evolution of New Species''. Oxford ISBN 0198503938
==External links==
*[http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/full/305/5680/46 "80 Years of Watching the Evolutionary Scenery"], Science.
*[http://www.stephenjaygould.org/library/mayr_punctuated.html Mayr on Eldredge and Gould's punctuated equilibria].
*[http://www.timesonline.co.uk/article/0,,60-1473218,00.html Ernst Mayr obituary in the Times]
*[http://www.economist.com/people/displayStory.cfm?story_id=3644451 Ernst Mayr obituary in the Economist]
*[http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/evolution/library/06/2/l_062_01.html Ernst Mayr and the Evolutionary Synthesis]
[[Category:1904 births|Mayr, Ernst]]
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[[Category:American philosophers|Mayer, Ernst]]
[[Category:Centenarians|Mayr, Ernst]]
[[Category:Evolutionary biologists|Mayr, Ernst]]
[[Category:German biologists|Mayr, Ernst]]
[[Category:German ornithologists|Mayr, Ernst]]
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[[he:ארנסט מאייר]]
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<page>
<title>Europe</title>
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<text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}
[[Image:LocationEurope.png|thumb|250px|right|World map showing Europe]]
{{portal}}
'''Europe''' is conventionally considered one of the seven [[continent]]s which, in this case, is more a [[human geography|cultural and political]] distinction than a [[physical geography|physiogeographic]] one. Physically and [[geology|geologically]], Europe is a [[subcontinent]] or large [[peninsula]], forming the westernmost part of [[Eurasia]]. Europe is bounded to the north by the [[Arctic Ocean]], to the west by the [[Atlantic Ocean]] and to the south by the [[Mediterranean]] and the [[Caucasus]]. Europe's boundary to the east is vague, but has traditionally been given as the [[watershed]] for the [[Ural Mountains]] and [[Caspian Sea]] to the southeast: the Urals are considered by most to be a geographical and tectonic landmark separating [[Asia]] from Europe.
:''For detailed description of the Asia-Europe boundary see [[Transcontinental_nation#Europe_and_Asia|this article]]. See also [[Copenhagen criteria#Geographic criteria|Geographic criteria for EU membership]].''
Europe is the world's second-smallest continent in terms of [[area]], |
the alphabet (i.e., '<math>a</math>' and '<math>b</math>'). Finishing off our example, if we now choose rule 2, we replace '<math>S</math>' with '<math>ba</math>' and obtain "<math>aababb</math>", and are done. We can write this series of choices more briefly, using symbols: <math>S \longrightarrow aSb \longrightarrow aaSbb \longrightarrow aababb</math>. The language of the grammar is the set of all the strings that can be generated using this process: <math>\left \{ba, abab, aababb, aaababbb, ...\right \}</math>.
=== Formal definition ===
In the classic formalization of generative grammars first proposed by [[Noam Chomsky]] in the [[1950s]], a grammar ''G'' consists of the following components:
* A finite set <math>N</math> of ''nonterminal symbols''.
* A finite set <math>\Sigma</math> of ''terminal symbols'' that is [[disjoint]] from <math>N</math>.
* A finite set <math>P</math> of ''production rules'' where a rule is of the form
:: string in <math>(\Sigma \cup N)^{*} \longrightarrow</math> string in <math>(\Sigma \cup N)^{*} </math>
:(where <math>{}^{*}</math> is the [[Kleene star]] and <math>\cup</math> is [[union (set theory)|union]]) with the restriction that the left-hand side of a rule (i.e., the part to the left of the <math>\longrightarrow</math>) must contain at least one nonterminal symbol.
* A symbol <math>S</math> in <math>N</math> that is indicated as the ''start symbol''.
Usually such a formal grammar <math>G</math> is simply summarized as the quad-tuple <math>(N, \Sigma, P, S)</math>.
The ''language'' of a formal grammar <math>G = (N, \Sigma, P, S)</math>, denoted as <math>\boldsymbol{L}(G)</math>, is defined as all those strings over <math>\Sigma</math> that can be generated by starting with the start symbol <math>S</math> and then applying the production rules in <math>P</math> until no more nonterminal symbols are present.
=== Example ===
''For these examples, formal languages are specified using [[set-builder notation]].''
Consider, for example, the grammar <math>G</math> with <math>N = \left \{S, B\right \}</math>, <math>\Sigma = \left \{a, b, c\right \}</math>, <math>P</math> consisting of the following production rules
: 1. <math>S \longrightarrow aBSc</math>
: 2. <math>S \longrightarrow abc</math>
: 3. <math>Ba \longrightarrow aB</math>
: 4. <math>Bb \longrightarrow bb </math>
and the nonterminal symbol <math>S</math> as the start symbol. Some examples of the derivation of strings in <math>\boldsymbol{L}(G)</math> are:
* <math>\boldsymbol{S} \longrightarrow (2) abc</math>
* <math>\boldsymbol{S} \longrightarrow (1) aB\boldsymbol{S}c \longrightarrow (2) a\boldsymbol{Ba}bcc \longrightarrow (3) aa\boldsymbol{Bb}cc \longrightarrow (4) aabbcc</math>
* <math>\boldsymbol{S} \longrightarrow (1) aB\boldsymbol{S}c \longrightarrow (1) aBaB\boldsymbol{S}cc \longrightarrow (2) a\boldsymbol{Ba}Babccc \longrightarrow (3) aaB\boldsymbol{Ba}bccc\longrightarrow (3) aa\boldsymbol{Ba}Bbccc </math><math> \longrightarrow (3) aaaB\boldsymbol{Bb}ccc \longrightarrow (4) aaa\boldsymbol{Bb}bccc \longrightarrow (4) aaabbbccc</math>
(where the used production rules are indicated in brackets and the replaced part is each time indicated in bold).
It is clear that this grammar defines the language <math>\left \{ a^{n}b^{n}c^{n} | n > 0 \right \}</math> where <math>a^{n}</math> denotes a string of n <math>a</math>'s. Thus, the entire language consists of any positive number of 'a's, followed by the same number of 'b's followed by the same number of 'c's.
Generative formal grammars are identical to [[Lindenmayer system]]s (L-systems), except that L-systems are not affected by a distinction between ''terminals'' and ''nonterminals'', L-systems have restrictions on the order in which the rules are applied, and L-systems can run forever, generating an infinite sequence of strings. Typically, each string is associated with a set of points in space, and the "output" of the L-system is defined to be the limit of those sets.
=== The Chomsky Hierarchy ===
When [[Noam Chomsky]] first formalized generative grammars in the [[1950s]], he classified them into four types now known as the [[Chomsky hierarchy]]. The difference between these types is that they have increasingly strict production rules and can express fewer formal languages. Two important types are ''[[context-free grammar]]s'' and ''[[regular grammar]]s''. The languages that can be described with such a grammar are called ''[[context-free language]]s'' and ''[[regular language]]s'', respectively. Although much less powerful than unrestricted grammars, which can in fact express any language that can be accepted by a [[Turing machine]], these two restricted types of grammars are most often used because [[parser]]s for them can be efficiently implemented. For example, for context-free grammars there are well-known algorithms to generate efficient [[LL parser]]s and [[LR parser]]s.
==== Context-free grammars ====
In [[context-free grammar]]s, the left hand side of a production rule may only be formed by a single non-terminal symbol. The language defined above is not a context-free language, but for example the language <math>\left \{ a^{n}b^{n} | n > 0 \right \}</math> (any positive number of 'a's followed by the same number of 'b's) is, as it can be defined by the grammar <math>G2</math> with <math>N=\left \{S\right \}</math>, <math>\Sigma=\left \{a,b\right \}</math>, <math>S</math> the start symbol, and the following production rules:
: 1. <math>S \longrightarrow aSb</math>
: 2. <math>S \longrightarrow ab</math>
==== Regular grammars ====
In [[regular grammar]]s, the left hand side is again only a single non-terminal symbol, but now the right-hand side is also restricted: It may be nothing, or a single terminal symbol, or a single terminal symbol followed by a non-terminal symbol, but nothing else. (Sometimes a broader definition is used: one can allow longer strings of terminals or single non-terminals without anything else, making languages [[syntactic sugar|easier to denote]] while still defining the same class of languages.)
The language defined above is not regular, but the language <math>\left \{ a^{n}b^{m} | m,n > 0 \right \}</math> (any positive number of 'a's followed by any positive number of 'b's, where the numbers may be different) is, as it can be defined by the grammar <math>G3</math> with <math>N=\left \{S, A,B\right \}</math>, <math>\Sigma=\left \{a,b\right \}</math>, <math>S</math> the start symbol, and the following production rules:
: 1. <math>S \longrightarrow aA</math>
: 2. <math>A \longrightarrow aA</math>
: 3. <math>A \longrightarrow bB</math>
: 4. <math>B \longrightarrow bB</math>
: 5. <math>B \longrightarrow \epsilon</math>
In practice, regular grammars are commonly expressed using [[regular expression]]s.
==== Regular vs. Context-Free Languages ====
Aside from the differences in production rules required to generate the two languages, the key high-level difference between <math>\left \{ a^{n}b^{n} | n > 0 \right \}</math> (context-free) and <math>\left \{ a^{n}b^{m} | n,m > 0 \right \}</math> (regular) is the specification that the number of 'a's and the number of 'b's must be equal in the context-free language. Thus, any [[automata theory|automaton]] attempting to recognize the context-free language must necessarily keep track of more information than one that is attempting to recognize the regular language. The latter does not have to count the number of 'a's or 'b's, just to make sure there are more than zero of each.
For more detail, see [[context-free language]] and [[regular language]].
=== Other forms of generative grammars ===
Many extensions and variations on Chomsky's original hierarchy of formal grammars have been developed more recently, both by linguists and by computer scientists, usually either in order to increase their expressive power or in order to make them easier to analyze or [[parse]]. Of course these two goals tend to be at odds: the more expressive a grammar formalism is, the harder it is to analyze or parse using automated tools. Some forms of grammars more recently developed include:
* [[Tree-adjoining grammar]]s increase the expressiveness of conventional generative grammars by allowing rewrite rules to operate on [[parse tree]]s instead of just strings.
* [[Affix grammar]]s and [[attribute grammar]]s allow rewrite rules to be augmented with semantic attributes and operations, useful both for increasing grammar expressiveness and for constructing practical language translation tools.
A yearly conference is devoted to formal grammars: [http://www.formalgrammar.tk]
== Analytic grammars ==
Though there is a tremendous body of literature on [[parsing]] [[algorithms]], most of these algorithms assume that the language to be parsed is initially ''described'' by means of a ''generative'' formal grammar, and that the goal is to transform this generative grammar into a working parser. An alternative approach is to formalize the language in terms of an '''analytic grammar''' in the first place, which more directly corresponds to the structure of a [[parser]] for the language. Examples of analytic grammar formalisms include the following:
* [h |
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<title>Declaration of Arbroath</title>
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<comment>/* Overview */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''Declaration of Arbroath''' was a declaration of [[Scottish independence]], and set out to confirm [[Scotland]]'s status as an [[Independence|independent]], [[Sovereignty|sovereign]] [[state]] and its use of military action when unjustly attacked. It is in the form of a letter submitted to [[Pope John XXII]], dated [[6 April]] [[1320]]. Sealed by fifty-one [[magnate]]s and [[nobles]], the letter is the sole survivor of three created at the time. The others were a letter from the [[King of Scots]] and a letter from the [[clergy]] which all presumably made similar points.
==Overview==
The Declaration made a number of much-debated [[rhetoric]]al points: that Scotland had always been independent, indeed for longer than [[England]]; that [[Edward I of England]] had unjustly attacked Scotland and perpetrated atrocities; that [[Robert I of Scotland]] had delivered the Scottish [[nation]] from this peril; and, most controversially, that the independence of Scotland was the prerogative of the Scots people, rather than the King of Scots. In fact it stated that the nobility would choose someone else to be king if the current one did anything to threaten Scotland's independence.
While often interpreted as an early expression of 'popular sovereignty' &ndash; that kings could be chosen by the population rather than by [[God]] alone &ndash; it can also be argued to have been a means of passing the responsibility for disobeying [[Papacy|papal]] commands from the king to the people. In other words, Robert I was arguing that he was forced to fight an illegal war (as far as the [[pope]] was concerned) or face being deposed.
Written in [[Latin]], it is believed to have been drafted by [[Bernard de Linton| Bernard]], [[abbot]] of [[Arbroath Abbey]] (often identified as Bernard de Linton, although his surname is unknown), who was the [[Chancellor of Scotland]] at the time. While dated to [[6 April]] [[1320]] at [[Arbroath Abbey]], there was in fact no meeting of nobles there by whom the document was drafted. Instead the document may have been discussed at a council meeting at [[Newbattle Abbey]], [[Midlothian]], in March 1320 (although firm evidence for such a debate is lacking). Arbroath was simply the location of the [[royal chancery]] (in other words Abbot Bernard's writing office), and the date provides evidence only for his part in proceedings.
The seals of eight [[earl]]s and as many as forty-one other Scottish nobles were appended to the document, probably over the space of some weeks and months, with nobles sending in their seals to be used, perhaps under some duress. It has been argued that this resentment played a role in the [[Soules Conspiracy]] to overthrow Robert I later in 1320. The Declaration was then taken to the [[papal court]] at [[Avignon Papacy|Avignon]].
The Pope seems to have paid some heed to the arguments contained by the Declaration, although its contemporary influence should not be overstated. It was in part due to his intervention that a short-lived [[peace treaty]] between Scotland and [[Kingdom of England|England]], the [[Treaty of Northampton]], renouncing all English claims to Scotland, was finally signed by the [[English king]], [[Edward III of England|Edward III]], on the [[1 March]] [[1328]].
The original copy of the Declaration that was sent to Avignon is lost. However a file copy has been maintained by the [[National Archives of Scotland]] in [[Edinburgh]]. The most widely known [[English language]] translation was created by [[Sir James Fergusson]], formerly [[Keeper of the Records of Scotland]], from text that he reconstructed using this extant copy and early copies of the original draft. One passage in particular is often quoted from the Fergusson translation:
:''...for, as long as but a hundred of us remain alive, never will we on any conditions be brought under English rule. It is in truth not for glory, nor riches, nor honours that we are fighting, but for freedom &ndash; for that alone, which no honest man gives up but with life itself.''
==Influence==
The stirring rhetoric of the Declaration has made it famous both in Scotland, and internationally, and it is argued that it had some influence on the drafters of the [[Declaration of Independence (United States)|United States Declaration of Independence]]. Debate still rages about the contemporary relevance of the document &ndash; whether it represented the genuine thoughts of the nobility regarding independence, sovereignty and the proto-[[democratic]] right of the people to choose a king, or whether it was above all a piece of royal [[propaganda]] and special pleading, drafted strictly under the control of the chief royal minister, Abbot Bernard. However it is not disputed that the document subsequently played an influential role in the history of [[Scottish national identity]] and the creation of the common belief (whether based in legal reality or not) that in Scotland it is the 'people' that are sovereign, rather than the monarch or parliament, as in England.
Some have used the Declaration's references to the exodus of the "people of Israel" to support a Scottish version of [[British Israelism]]. However the Declaration does not explicitly claim descent from the "people of Israel" - the reference could be (and, on the face of it, without further evidence, probably is) making a comparison between, on the one hand, the Scots making an exodus across a sea from the barbarism of Spain, and entering their own "promised land" of Scotland; and on the other hand, the Biblical exodus of the Israelites from Egypt across a sea into the promised land of Israel. Such a comparison could be based equally well on the Scots' seeing themselves as a Christian nation and therefore chosen of God, as on the supposition, which may or may not have other evidence, that Scots actually believed they were literally descended from the Israelites.
==See also==
*[[Declaration of Independence]]
*[[Tartan Day]]
*[[Claim of Right for Scotland]]
==External links==
{{wikisource}}
*[http://www.nas.gov.uk National Archives of Scotland (NAS)]
*[http://www.scottisharchivesforschools.org/ffa/arbroath.asp Declaration of Arbroath Scottish Archives for Schools (run by the NAS)]
*[http://www.geo.ed.ac.uk/home/scotland/arbroath_latin.html Latin Original Text at University of Edinburgh]
*[http://www.clanstirling.org/Main/lib/research/TheDeclarationofArbroath.html Fergusson translation at Clan Stirling Online]
[[Category:International law]]
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[[Category:History of Scotland]]
[[af:Verklaring van Arbroath]]
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[[ru:Арбротская декларация]]</text>
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<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/24.97.185.243|24.97.185.243]] ([[User talk:24.97.185.243|talk]]) to last version by 201.58.163.73</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{merge-from|Dual layer recording}}
[[Image:DVD.svg|right|250px|The official DVD logo.]]
[[Image:DVD-R bottom-side.jpg|right|thumb|250px|DVD-R writing/reading side]]
[[Image:DVD 2394729743289.png|right|thumb|250px|DVD-R with purple dye, 4.7 GB]]
'''DVD''' (sometimes known as "'''Digital Versatile Disc'''" or "'''Digital Video Disc'''") <!-- **NOTE: Please do not edit the parenthetical explanation. DVD is not officially an acronym. See Talk. --> is an [[optical disc]] [[computer storage|storage]] media format that can be used for data storage, including movies with high video and sound quality. DVDs resemble [[compact disc]]s as their physical dimensions are the same (12 cm (4.72 inches) or occasionally 8 cm (3.15 inches) in diameter) but they are encoded in a different format and at a much higher density. The official DVD specification is maintained by the [[DVD Forum]].
==History==
In the early [[1990s]] two high density optical storage standards were being developed: one was the MultiMedia Compact Disc (MMCD), backed by [[Philips]] and [[Sony]], and the other was the Super Density Disc (SD), supported by [[Toshiba]], [[Time-Warner]], [[Matsushita Electric]], [[Hitachi, Ltd.|Hitachi]], [[Mitsubishi Electric]], [[Pioneer Corporation|Pioneer]], [[Thomson_SA|Thomson]], and [[JVC]]. [[IBM]]'s president, [[Lou Gerstner]], acting as a matchmaker, led an effort to unite the two camps behind a single standard, anticipating a repeat of the costly [[Videotape format war|format war]] between [[VHS]] and [[Betamax]] in the [[1980s]].
Philips and Sony abandoed their MMCD format and agreed upon Toshiba's SD format with two modifications that are both related to the servo tracking technology. The first one was the adoption of a pit geometry that allows "push-pull" tracking, a proprietary Philips/Sony technology. The second modification was the adoption of Philips' [[Eight-to-Fourteen Modulation|EFMPlus]]. EFMPlus, created by [[Kees A |
from April to September in the Tonle Sap Basin-Mekong Lowlands area averages 130 to 190 centimeters annually, but the amount varies considerably from year to year. Rainfall around the basin increases with elevation. It is heaviest in the mountains along the coast in the southwest, which receive from 250 to more than 500 centimeters of precipitation annually as the southwest monsoon reaches the coast. This area of greatest rainfall, however, drains mostly to the sea; only a small quantity goes into the rivers flowing into the basin. The relative humidity is high at night throughout the year; usually it exceeds 90 percent. During the daytime in the dry season, humidity averages about 50 percent or slightly lower, but it may remain about 60 percent in the rainy period.
==Drainage==
Except for the smaller rivers in the southeast, most of the major rivers and river systems in Cambodia drain into the Tonle Sap or into the Mekong River. The Cardamom Mountains and Elephant Range form a separate drainage divide. To the east the rivers flow into the Tonle Sap, while on the west they flow into the Gulf of Thailand. Toward the southern end of the Elephant Mountains, however, because of the topography, some small rivers flow southward on the eastern side of the divide.
The Mekong River in Cambodia flows southward from the CambodiaLaos border to a point below Kracheh city, where it turns west for about 50 kilometers and then turns southwest to Phnom Penh. Extensive rapids run above Kracheh city. From Kampong Cham the gradient slopes very gently, and inundation of areas along the river occurs at flood stage--June through November--through breaks in the natural levees that have built up along its course. At Phnom Penh four major water courses meet at a point called the Chattomukh (Four Faces). The Mekong River flows in from the northeast and the Tonle Sab--a river emanating from the Tonle Sap--flows in from the northwest. They divide into two parallel channels, the Mekong River proper and the Basak River, and flow independently through the delta areas of Cambodia and Vietnam to the South China Sea.
The flow of water into the Tonle Sab is seasonal. In September or in October, the flow of the Mekong River, fed by monsoon rains, increases to a point where its outlets through the delta cannot handle the enormous volume of water. At this point, the water pushes northward up the Tonle Sab and empties into the Tonle Sap, thereby increasing the size of the lake from about 2,590 square kilometers to about 24,605 square kilometers at the height of the flooding. After the Mekong's waters crest--when its downstream channels can handle the volume of water--the flow reverses, and water flows out of the engorged lake.
As the level of the Tonle Sap retreats, it deposits a new layer of sediment. The annual flooding, combined with poor drainage immediately around the lake, transforms the surrounding area into marshlands unusable for agricultural purposes during the dry season. The sediment deposited into the lake during the Mekong's flood stage appears to be greater than the quantity carried away later by the Tonle Sab River. Gradual silting of the lake would seem to be occurring; during low-water level, it is only about 1.5 meters deep, while at flood stage it is between 10 and 15 meters deep.
==Regional divisions==
Cambodia's boundaries were for the most part based upon those recognized by France and by neighboring countries during the colonial period. The 800-kilometer boundary with Thailand, coincides with a natural feature, the watershed of the Dangrek Mountains, only in its northern sector. The 541-kilometer border with Laos and the 1,228-kilometer border with Vietnam result largely from French administrative decisions and do not follow major natural features. Border disputes have broken out in the past between Cambodia and Thailand as well as between, Cambodia and Vietnam.
==Area and boundaries==
'''Area:'''
<br>''total:''
181,040 km&sup2;
<br>''land:''
176,520 km&sup2;
<br>''water:''
4,520 km&sup2;
'''Maritime claims:'''
<br>''contiguous zone:''
24 nm
<br>''continental shelf:''
200 nm
<br>''exclusive economic zone:''
200 nm
<br>''territorial sea:''
12 nm
'''Elevation extremes:'''
<br>''lowest point:''
Gulf of Thailand 0 m
<br>''highest point:''
Phnum Aoral 1,810 m
==Resources and land use==
'''Natural resources:'''
[[timber]], [[gemstone]]s, some [[iron]] ore, [[manganese]], [[phosphate]]s, [[hydropower]] potential
'''Land use:'''
<br>''arable land:''
13%
<br>''permanent crops:''
0%
<br>''permanent pastures:''
11%
<br>''forests and woodland:''
66%
<br>''other:''
10% (1993 est.)
'''Irrigated land:'''
920 km&sup2; (1993 est.)
==Environmental concerns==
'''Natural hazards:'''
monsoonal rains (June to November); flooding; occasional droughts
'''Environment - current issues:'''
illegal logging activities throughout the country and strip mining for gems in the western region along the border with Thailand have resulted in habitat loss and declining biodiversity (in particular, destruction of mangrove swamps threatens natural fisheries); soil erosion; in rural areas, a majority of the population does not have access to potable water; toxic waste delivery from Taiwan sparked unrest in Kampong Saom (Sihanoukville) in December 1998
'''Environment - international agreements:'''
<br>''party to:''
[[Biodiversity]], [[United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change|Climate Change]], [[Desertification]], [[Endangered Species]], [[Marine Life Conservation]], Ship Pollution ([[MARPOL 73/78]]), [[Tropical Timber 94]], [[Wetlands]]
<br>''signed, but not ratified:''
[[Law of the Sea]], [[Marine Dumping]]
'''Geography - note:'''
a land of paddies and forests dominated by the [[Mekong River]] and Tonle Sap
'''Lakes'''
* [[Tonlé Sap Lake]]
==Sources==
*[http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/cshome.html Library of Congress, Country Studies]
*''CIA World Fact Book''
{{Asia in topic|Geography of}}
[[Category:Geography of Cambodia| ]]
[[Category:Geography by country|Cambodia]]
[[pt:Geografia do Camboja]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Demographics of Cambodia</title>
<id>5430</id>
<revision>
<id>39207851</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-11T14:26:03Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Bobblewik</username>
<id>51235</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Implement MoS. x percent or x per cent -> x %</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Cambodia-demography.png|thumb|300px|right|Number of inhabitants between [[1961]] and [[2001]] in thousands. Note the decrease during the Khmer Rouge years (1975-1979). FAO Data, Demographics of Cambodia]]
Between [[1874]] and [[1921]], the total population of [[Cambodia]] increased from about 946,000 to 2.4 million. By [[1950]] it had increased to between 3,710, 107 and 4,073,967, and in 1962 it had reached 5.7 million. From the 1960s until [[1975]], the population of Cambodia increased by about 2.2 % yearly, the lowest increase in [[Southeast Asia]]. By 1975 when the [[Khmer Rouge]] took power, it was estimated at 7.3 million. Of this total an estimated one million to two million reportedly died between 1975 and [[1978]]. In [[1981]] the PRK gave the official population figure as nearly 6.7 million, although approximately 6.3 million to 6.4 million is probably a more accurate one. The average annual rate of population growth from 1978 to [[1985]] was 2.3 % (see table 2, Appendix A). [[Life expectancy]] at birth was 44.2 years for males and 43.3 years for females in [[1959]]. By 1970 life expectancy had increased by about 2.5 years since [[1945]]. The greater [[longevity]] for females apparently reflected improved health practices during [[maternity]] and childbirth.
In 1959 about 45 % of the population was under 15 years of age; by 1962 this figure had increased slightly to 46 %. In [[1962]] an estimated 52 % of the population was between 15 and 64 years of age, while 2 % was older than 65. The percentage of males and females in the three groups was almost the same.
==Demographic data from the CIA World Factbook==
===Population===
:13,607,069
:''Note'': estimates for this country take into account the effects of excess [[mortality]] due to [[AIDS]]; this can result in lower life expectancy, higher [[infant mortality]] and [[death rates]], lower population growth rates, and changes in the distribution of population by age and sex than would otherwise be expected (July 2005 est.)
===Age structure===
:0-14 years: 37.3% (male 2,559,734/female 2,510,235)
:15-64 years: 59.7% (male 3,887,642/female 4,232,313)
:65 years and over: 3.1% (male 150,862/female 266,283) (2005 est.)
===[[Median]] age===
:Total: 19.91 years
:Male: 19.16 years
:Female: 20.79 years (2005 est.)
===Population growth rate===
:1.81% (2005 est.)
===Birth rate===
:27.08 births/1,000 population (2005 est.)
===Death rate===
:8.97 deaths/1,000 population (2005 est.)
===Net migration rate===
:0 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2005 est.)
===[[Sex ratio]]===
:At birth: 1.05 male(s)/female
:Under 15 years: 1.02 male(s)/female
:15-64 years: 0.92 male(s)/female
:65 years and over: 0.57 male(s)/female
:Total population: 0.94 male(s)/female (2005 est.)
===Infant mortality rate===
:Total: 71.48 deaths/1,000 live births
:Male: 80.13 deaths/1,000 live births
:Female: 62.43 deaths/1,000 live births (2005 est.)
===Life expectancy at birth===
:Total population: 58.87 years
:Male: 55.92 years
:Female: 61.96 years (2005 est.)
===Total [[fertility rate]]===
:3.44 children born/woman (2005 est.)
===HIV/AIDS===
:Adult prevalence rate: 2.6% (2003 est.)
:People living with [[HIV]]/AIDS: 170,000 (2003 est.)
:Deaths: 15,000 (2003 est.)
===Major infectious diseases===
:Degree of risk: very high
:Food or waterborne diseases: bacterial and protozoal [[diarrhea]], [[hepa |
eycode, for ''Break''. Ctrl-Break traditionally stopped programs in DOS. Ctrl-Break is also used to halt execution of the debugger in some programming environments such as Microsoft Visual Studio. In combintion with the Windows key, it brings up the System Properties window in Microsoft Windows environments.
*''Alt'' shifts the letters and numbers into the range above hex 0x80 where the international characters and special characters exist in the PC's standard character set.
*''Alt Gr'' works like the Ctrl+Alt key combination, often used to print special characters like the [[backslash]] on Spanish keyboards. (On the original IBM AT Enhanced keyboard the right Alt key has green letters).
*''Alt'' plus a number typed on the numeric pad produces special characters, see [[Windows Alt keycodes]].
==Connectors==
There are three types of [[connector]] used to connect a PC keyboard to the main system unit. All three are mechanically different from each other, but the first two are electrically identical (except for XT keyboards). The three connector types are listed below in descending chronological order:
* 5-pin [[DIN connector|DIN]] (DIN 41524) "[[AT]]" connector
* 6-pin "Mini-DIN" (DIN 45322) "[[PS/2]]" connector
* 4-pin [[Universal Serial Bus|USB]] connector
==External links==
*[http://www.pcguide.com/ref/kb/layout/std.htm Standard keyboard layouts] &ndash; From The PC Guide website
*[http://www-306.ibm.com/software/globalization/topics/keyboards/physical.jsp IBM.com keyboard page]
[[Category:Computer keyboards|IBM PC]]
[[Category:IBM PC compatibles|Keyboards]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Italian battleship Giulio Cesare</title>
<id>15441</id>
<revision>
<id>41932232</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T18:39:45Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Fdewaele</username>
<id>153790</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">{| border="1" align="right" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" width=300 style="margin-left:1em;margin-bottom:1em"
|-
|colspan="2" align="center"|[[image:GiulioCesare1914.jpg|300px|RN ''Giulio Cesare'', speed tests, 1914]]
|-
!style="color: white; height: 30px; background:navy;"|Career
!style="background:navy;align:right;"|[[Image:Regia Marina Ensign.png|40px|Kingdom of Italy]]
|-
|Laid down:||[[June 24]], [[1910]]
|-
|Launched:||[[October 15]], [[1911]]
|-
|Commissioned:||1915
|-
|Decommissioned:||[[18 May]] [[1928]]
|-
|Reconstructed:||1933&ndash;1937
|-
|Fate:||Given to Soviet Navy, sunk 1955
|-
|Struck:||1947
|-
!colspan="2" style="color: white; height: 30px; background:navy;"|General Characteristics (before reconstruction)
|-
|Displacement:||23,088 tons standard,
25,086 tons full load
|-
|Length:||168.9 - 176.1 m
|-
|Beam:||28 m
|-
|Draught:||9.4 m
|-
|Propulsion:||20 boilers, 4 shafts, 31,000 hp
|-
|Speed:||21.5 knots (41 km/h)
|-
|Range:||4,800 miles at 10 knots
|-
|Complement:||1,000
|-
|Armament:||13 305/46 mm,
18 120/50 mm,
16 76/50 mm,
6 76/40 mm,
3 450 mm torpedo launchers
|-
|Aircraft:||0
|-
|Protection:||max 280 mm (vertical)
111 mm (horizontal)
|-
|colspan="2" align="center"|
|-
!colspan="2" style="color: white; height: 30px; background:navy;"|General Characteristics (after reconstruction)
|-
|Displacement:||28,800 tons standard,
29,100 tons full load
|-
|Length:||168.9 - 186.4 m
|-
|Beam:||28 m
|-
|Draught:||10.4 m
|-
|Propulsion:||8 boilers, 2 shafts, 93,000 hp
|-
|Speed:||28 knots (53 km/h)
|-
|Range:||3,100 miles at 20 knots
|-
|Complement:||1,236
|-
|Armament:||10 320/44 mm,
12 120/50 mm,
8 100/47 mm,
8 37/54 mm,
12 20/65 mm
|-
|Aircraft:||0
|-
|Protection:||max 280 mm (vertical)
135 mm (horizontal)
|}
'''''Giulio Cesare'' ''' was an [[Italy|Italian]] [[Conte di Cavour class battleship|''Conte di Cavour''-class]] [[battleship]] that served in the [[Regia Marina]] in both [[World War]]s before joining the [[Soviet Navy]]. Her keel was laid down on [[June 24]], [[1910]] at Cantieri [[Ansaldo]], [[Genoa]]. She was launched [[October 15]], [[1911]], and construction was completed [[May 14]], [[1914]].
''Giulio Cesare'' ([[Italian language|Italian]] for [[Julius Caesar]], motto ''Caesar Adest'') had no active missions during [[World War I]]. In 1926 attacked the Greek island of [[Corfu]], as a reaction against the killing of Italian representatives in Jamina; later was renovated. From 1928 to 1933 she was used as an [[artillery]] training ship, then went into the yards for extensive modernization.
Between 1933 and 1937 she was completely rebuilt, changing her silhouette and increasing her combat capabilities. Length was increased by 10.3 meters, and she was given new armored decks and new propulsion machinery that uprated her to 93,000 [[horsepower]] (69 MW), and allowed a speed of 28 [[knot (nautical)|knots]] (52 km/h).
During the [[Battle of Calabria|Battle of Punta Stilo]] on [[July 9]], [[1940]], ''Giulio Cesare'' was hit by a 15 inch (381 mm) shell as [[HMS Warspite (1913)|HMS ''Warspite'']] set the record for naval gunnery against a moving target at well over 24,000 meters (26,000 yards).
''Giulio Cesare'' was assigned to covering convoys, participating in the [[First Battle of Sirte]], until 1942, when she was declared obsolete for operative missions and used for training purposes only. After [[World War II]], ''Giulio Cesare'' was ceded to the [[Soviet Union]] as compensation for war damages.
==''Novorossiysk'' ==
The Soviet Navy recommissioned the [[battleship]] as the ''Novorossiysk''. ''Novorossiysk'' was based at [[Sevastopol]] from July 1949, serving as flagship of the Black Sea Fleet and later as a gunnery training vessel. On [[October 29]], [[1955]], the ''Novorossiysk'' was moored in [[Sevastopol]] Bay, 300 meters (1000 feet) from shore and opposite a hospital. At 1:30am, an explosion estimated to be the equivalent of 1,200 kilograms of [[Trinitrotoluene|TNT]] under the bow of the ship pierced all decks from the bottom plating to the forecastle deck. In the forecastle deck there was one hole which measured 14×4 meters in size. The damage extended aft from the bow 22 meters.
The ship sank slowly from the bow, capsizing at 4:15am, 2 hours 45 minutes after the explosion, and 18 hours later became fully submerged. The capsizing resulted in the death of 608 sailors, most of whom were staying in the ship's compartments. It became the worst disaster in Soviet naval history. Because of the politics of the [[Cold War]], the fate of the ''Novorossiysk'' remained clouded in mystery until the late 1980s.
The cause of the explosion is still unclear. The official and most probable cause of the sinking is a magnetic [[naval mine]] RMH, laid by the Germans during the [[World War II|war]]. During the next two years, divers found 19 German mines on the bottom of Sevastopol Bay. Eleven of the mines were as powerful as the estimated blast under ''Novorossiysk''. There is some doubt that the blast was caused by a mine. The area where ''Novorossiysk'' sank was considered swept of mines, and other ships had used the area without triggering the mine. Some experts place the maximum battery life of the magnetic mines at 9 years, and thus contend that such a mine would be unlikely to trigger by the time of the explosion. Another problem some experts claim is that the size of the crater (1 - 2.1 m deep) was too small for such a big mine. According to some research, damage to the ship corresponded to an explosion equivalent to 5,000 kilograms of [[Trinitrotoluene|TNT]].
A more theatrical explanation was that Italian [[frogmen]] were avenging the transfer of the formerly-Italian battleship to the USSR. Covert action by the Italian special operations unit ''[[Decima Flottiglia MAS]]'' has often been surmised, and there are reports that not long thereafter a small group of Italian Navy frogmen received high military awards. However, no firm evidence exists for this hypothesis. Another theory states that explosives were hidden in the ship before she was given to the Russians. No evidence of sabotage has been found, though Soviet enquiries did not rule out the possibility because of the poor safeguarding of the fleet base on the night of the explosion. The goal of covertly destroying the battleship would be a small prize compared to the risk of provoking war if discovered, so the motive of such an Italian operation is questionable and does not support these theories. There is also a [[conspiracy theory]] that ''Novorossisyk'' was sunk by Soviet secret service divers in order to blame [[Turkey]] for the sabotage as justification to take control of [[Bosporus]] and [[Dardanelles]], and that the plan was eventually abandoned. There is no strong evidence to support this hypothesis.
The enormous loss of life was directly blamed on the incompetent actions of her captain, Fleet Commander Vice Admiral [[Victor Parkhomenko]]. Among other underestimates of the danger to his ship, he did not know the conditions of the sea bottom, believing that the ratio between the sea depth (17 meters) and the ship's beam (28 meters) would prevent capsizing. However, the bottom was soft ooze, 15 meters deep, which offered no resistance. It was also reported that the commander displayed conceit and groundless calmness during this critical situation, and had even expressed the wish to "go have some tea".
Because of the loss of ''Novorossiysk'', the First Deputy Minister of Defence and Commander-in-Chief of the Navy [[Nikolai Gerasimovich Kuznetsov]] was fired from his post in November 1955, and in February 1956 was demoted to the rank of vice admiral and sent to retirement without the right to return to active service in the Navy.
[[Category:Soviet Navy ships|Novorossiysk]]
[[Category:Conte di Cavour class battles |
hostility to a group or point of view.
* Cry for help: Many so-called trolls, in their postings, indicate disturbing situations regarding family, relationships, substances, and school &mdash; although it is generally impossible to know whether this is just simply part of the troll. Some believe that trolling is an aggressive, confrontational way by which trolls seek a sort of tough love guidance in an anonymous forum.
* Self-proclaimed trolls, and their defenders, suggest that trolling is a clever way of improving discussion, or an alternative method of viewing power-relations.
* Setting oneself a challenge, simply to see if one can do it, and be successful: One member of an online forum, for example, joins under an unrecognizable identifying name to see if the other members of the forum can be fooled and, if so, for how long.
* Wasting others' time: One of the greatest themes in trolling is the idea that a troll can spend one minute of time posting a troll, causing multiple other people to waste several minutes of their time, catalytically affecting others. Most trolls enjoy the idea that they can waste others' time at comparatively little effort on their behalf.
* [[Domino effect]]: Related to amusement, but in a more specific fashion, it starts large [[chain reaction]]s in response to one's initial post. Achieving a disproportionately large response to a small action is the general theme. This is similar to how a young child that goes "missing" (but is actually hiding) may act with glee, seeing a large number of people conducting a massive search in response to the supposed disappearance.
* Suppression of information: A particularly [[nihilism|nihilistic]] troll often aims to curb the sharing of helpful information between forum participants. For example, the skilled troll can turn an informative discussion about tips and techniques on coping with disease X... into a completely useless [[flame fest]]. This can keep essential information out of the hands of those who need it most, thus proliferating human suffering. A slightly less hostile variant is the supression of a discussion the troll does not like or finds offensive. A troll trolling a thread of sexist jokes would fit into this category.
* Effect change in user opinions: A troll may state extreme positions to make his or her actual beliefs seem moderate (this often involves sock puppeteering or duals, where the bad cop is a sock-puppet troll) or, alternatively, play the role of the devil's advocate to strengthen the opposing convictions (with which he or she actually agrees).
* Test the integrity of a system against social attacks or other forms of misbehavior: For example, blatantly violating terms-of-use in order to see whether any action is taken by the site [[Administration|administrator]]s.
* Overcome feelings of [[Inferiority complex|inferiority]] or powerlessness by getting the experience of controlling an environment.
* Self-promotion.
* Fight "[[groupthink]]": Many trolls defend their actions as shocking people out of entrenched [[conformism]].
[[Image:klerck1.jpg|frame|right|160px|[[Klerck]], also known as Kevin Ealy, was an Internet troll and [[Slashdot troll]] before his 2005 death.]]
* [[Satire]]: In these cases, the individuals do not think of themselves as trolls, but misunderstood [[humorist]]s or political commentators.
* Satisfaction gained from personal attacks.
* [[Harassment]]: following a person &mdash; who has been targetted for harassment in one forum, but who has chosen to escape being victimized by moving on &mdash; and trolling the forum as a means of making that new "home" an uncomfortable place for that person to be online.
* Lowering [[signal to noise ratio]]: On [[Slashdot]], moderation points, that could be used to moderate up alternative posts, are wasted on moderating down things like [[ASCII]] pictures of the [[goatse.cx|goatse]] man. At certain thresholds, this lowers the quality of comments.
* Anonymously testing an alternate persona.
* Emptying a forum: this is usually only feasible if the forum is small.
* Attempting to discredit a group by posing as a member of that group, and posting inflammatory messages to give the appearance that the group espouses such opinions. This type of troll usually gives him or herself away faily quickly.
It is difficult to gauge the motivations of trolls, since most of the justifications offered by alleged trolls for their behavior are nothing more than ruses concocted to continue whatever mischief they imagine themselves to have started. This is unfortunate because, as the above list supposes, there are legitimate reasons for engaging in the sort of actions for which trolling is known. Still, etiquette is simple and straightforward enough that most people can advance the aims professed by self-exculpatory trolls, without actually resorting to these methods. Since there is a wide spectrum of possible motivations for trolls, some of these functions being [[Benevolence|benevolent]] and others, clearly [[Malevolence|malevolent]], to typecast users as trolls in the negative sense is often rash.
Some users of Internet forums are considered to be "trollhunters", or "trollbaiters". They willingly enter into conflicts when trolls emerge. Often, trollhunters are as disruptive as trolls. A single troll-post may be ignored, but if ten trollhunters "pounce", following a troll, they will drive the thread off-topic.
==Resolutions and alternatives==
In general, [[popular wisdom]] advises users to avoid feeding trolls, and to ignore temptations to respond. Responding to a troll inevitably drives discussion off-topic, to the dismay of bystanders, and supplies the troll with the craved attention. When trollhunters pounce on the trolls, ignorers reply with: "'''YHBT. YHL. HAND.'''", or "You have been trolled. You have lost. Have a nice day." However, since trollbaiters (like trolls) are often conflict-seekers themselves, the loss usually is not on the part of the trollhunter; rather, the losers are the other forum-users who would have preferred that the conflict does not emerge at all.
<!-- ref: Jargon File -->
Literature on [[conflict resolution]] suggests that labeling participants in Internet discussions as "trolls&quot; can perpetuate the unwanted behaviors. A person rejected by a social group, both online and offline, may assume an [[antagonism | antagonistic]] role toward it, and seek to further annoy or anger members of the group. The "troll" label, often a sign of social [[Rejection (emotion)|rejection]], may therefore perpetuate trolling.
Better results normally ensue when users take the [[Moderator (communications)|moderator]] role and describe more constructive behaviors in a non-judgmental, non-confrontational way. Trolls are excited by trollhunters, and frustrated by "ignorers", and neither of these emotions produce positive results for the forum. Engaging trolls results in "flame wars". Trolls frustrated by the "ignore strategy" may leave the forum (and either troll elsewhere, or become constructive users) or may become progressively more inflammatory until they get a response.
Novice trolls may experience serious "troll's remorse", a feeling of great regret after losing their account (whether it be from an Internet service provider or from a website) as a consequence of their reckless trolling.
There are those who argue that a lack of response to trolling can also inspire trolling, a "Damned if you do, damned if you don't" result. Particularly fanatical or irrational commentators will respond to a forum that irks them largely independent of responses. Trolls also often continue to post, taking umbrage with peripheral arguments or arguments that were less well-founded, until their positions become untenable, then turning either to insults or moving to another topic. By this logic, relentless confrontation through argument of trolls (when such argument is to be found) can be vital.
==Usefulness of trolling==
A major debate on the Internet is whether or not trolls perform any ''useful'' function. Because troll is such a broadly-applied term, if all definitions thereof are to be accepted, the answer must definitively be "yes and no".
Users performing many useful, but controversial, functions are often decried as trolls, and in these cases, so-called trolling may actually benefit the forum in which it occurs. For example, the presence of a radical right-winger, described as a troll, may allow a conservative lurker to feel more comfortable expressing his or her viewpoints, which seem very moderate in contrast. On the other hand, if trollhunters mount a [[flame war]] against this right-wing troll, the conservative bystander may feel ''less'' comfortable in expressing her views, to the detriment of the forum. As much as trolls claim to fight [[groupthink]], they may actually encourage it by solidifying opinion against them.
Trolls can also, in some circumstances, be a source of genuine humour, which depends entirely upon whether the troll is a good or a bad troll. It is usually fairly easy to spot the difference between such actions: a bad troll resorts only to weak uncreative arguments, whereas a good troll will create a subtle set of arguments which draw people in, with cunning twists to provide a thread of [[Non sequitur (absurdism)|non sequitur]] humour.
Trolls may also provide a valuable service by making people question the validity of what is read both on the Internet, and from other sources. Trolls show that expressing any opinion is as easy as expressing an informed and considered opinion, and may get as much visibility. It has also been argued that [[shock jocks]], and newspaper [[columnist]]s, often track public opinions by trolling. [[John C. Dvorak]], and [[Slashdot]], have often been cited as |
ot; trigger group rotate rear of selector all the way up, so that front of selector points to depiction of bullet with X through it ''(will be only depiction outlined in white)''. Weapon is now safed.
#Holding the weapon by the pistol grip with the right hand, grasp charging handle located on front left side of weapon with the left hand and pull all the way to rear, lock into place by maneuvering handle clockwise into slot found near top of weapon.
#Insert loaded magazine into magazine well located directly behind rear of foregrip.
#Grasp charging handle with left hand, maneuver handle down back into travel slot. Release handle, allowing it to slam forwards. Hitting the top of the gun hard enough with the palm of the hand will also allow the bolt to slam closed by itself.
The weapon is now loaded.
===Firing===
#While holding the weapon by the pistol grip with the right hand, and having the left hand supporting front of weapon by grasping the foregrip (reverse hand positions if left-handed), place buttstock of weapon firmly against shoulder.
#Depending on model*, rotate selector down one position to "E" or to image of single red bullet. Weapon will now fire one bullet each time trigger is pulled. If fully-automatic fire is desired, rotate selector to "F", or depiction of 7 red bullets in a row.
#Select target and place top of post sticking up from front site over target. Center top of post inside aperture of rear sight (see [http://hkpro.com/sights.htm] for more in depth sighting procedures), gently squeeze trigger.
''*Some models will have burst options (2 or 3 red bullets in a row), or will be labeled numerically (0 for safe, 1 for semi-automatic, 20 or 25 for fully-automatic)''
===Unloading===
#Holding weapon by the pistol grip with the right hand, use right thumb to rotate selector to safe position.
#With left hand, grasp magazine. Place left thumb between magazine release (~4mm-thick piece of metal sticking down from bottom of gun) and front of trigger guard. While grasping the magazine with the left hand, use the left thumb to push the magazine release towards the magazine, and while holding the release in this position, pull the magazine out of the magazine well.
#Pull back charging handle and lock to rear via slot mentioned in step two of loading procedure, if weapon is "condition 1" (meaning cocked with round chambered) prepare for round to be ejected from right side of weapon when charging handle is brought to rear. Collect round and temporarily store in a place where it will not be lost.
#After charging handle has been locked in the rearward position, visually inspect weapon to be sure no round remains in the chamber. This is done by rotating the weapon so that the right side faces up, and looking forwards into the ejection port. Chambered round should be fairly easy to spot by its golden-brass color. If any doubt remains as to status of weapon, inspect chamber physically by inserting finger through ejection port and feeling around chamber.
:'''WARNING:''' Be sure charging handle is securely positioned to the rear; the handle going forwards when a finger is inside the weapon will cause injury to the user.
After the weapon has been visually/physically inspected it can be declared as "Condition 3" (unloaded). When the weapon is unloaded, the charging handle should remain in the rearward position, with no magazine inserted in order to signify its condition to any others who may be around, or handling the weapon.
[[Image:Elián González Breaking News Photography.GIF|thumb|230px|[[Elián González]] taken by INS agent armed with MP5]]
==Popular culture==
The MP5 is a very popular image in [[popular culture]]. It is a very common movie and TV prop.
It appears in countless films such as ''[[Air Force One (film)|Air Force One]]'', ''[[Batman Begins]]'', ''[[Bad Boys II]]'', ''[[Die Hard]]'', ''[[Mission: Impossible III]]'', ''[[Predator (film)|Predator]]'', ''[[Returner]]'', ''[[S.W.A.T. (film)|S.W.A.T.]]'', ''[[Terminator 3: Rise of the Machines]]'', ''[[The Matrix]]'', ''[[The Rock (film)|The Rock]]'' and ''[[Tomorrow Never Dies]]'', to name a few. It is also present in the [[Television program|TV series]] ''[[Stargate SG-1]]''.
It is notable that up until the 1990s, the MP5 and [[Uzi submachine gun|Uzi]] were the only non-American (designed abroad) weapons that were as widespread in Hollywood productions as the US-produced [[Colt Firearms|Colt]] [[M1911]] pistols, [[M16 (rifle)|M16]] assault rifles, [[Thompson submachine gun|Tommy Guns]] and revolvers.
[[Image:Rote armee fraktion logo.png|thumb|100px|RAF logo with [[red star]] and MP5 (with straight, or "waffle", magazine)]]
The MP5 is also commonly used in written popular culture. The most famous of which is in the novel ''[[Rainbow Six (book)|Rainbow Six]]'', where [[Tom Clancy]] arms his fictional counter-terrorist team with suppressed MP5/10s. Clancy nicknames them MP10s, from where the common misconception of the correct designation is sourced.
Many [[computer and video games]] feature the MP5 as a playable weapon. It appears in name or similarity in many [[First-person shooter|first-person shooter]]s and other types of games, most famously ''[[Half-Life]]'', ''[[Max Payne 2]]'', ''[[Counter-Strike]]'', ''[[Tom Clancy's Rainbow Six]]'' series, ''[[Grand Theft Auto (series)|Grand Theft Auto]]'' series, ''[[SOCOM: U.S. Navy SEALs]]'' series, ''[[Battlefield 2]]'', ''[[Perfect Dark Zero]]'' and ''[[Far Cry]]'', among many others.
The MP5 is also pictured in the logo of the former German radical leftist terrorist group the [[Red Army Faction]] (right picture).
{{-}}
==See also==
* [[Heckler & Koch MP5K]]
* [[Heckler & Koch MP7]]
* [[Heckler & Koch UMP]]
* [[Uzi submachine gun]]
* [[Firearm]]
* [[List of individual weapons of the U.S. Armed Forces]]
==External links==
* [http://www.heckler-koch.de official website]
* [http://www.hkdefense.us/pages/military-le/smg/mp5/mp5.html US regional HK MP5 website]
* [http://www.hkpro.com/mp5.htm MP5 at HKPRO]
* [http://www.scottsdalegunclub.com/mga_machineguns/MP5.html Photos and descriptions of all MP5 variants at Scottsdale Gun Club]
*[http://www.nazarian.no/wep.asp?id=174&group_id=4&country_id=60&lang=0 Nazarian`s Gun`s Recognition Guide]
==Video links==
* [http://www.nazarian.no/wep.asp?id=174&group_id=4&country_id=60&lang=0&p=7 Nazarian's Guns Recognition Guide (FILM) MP5/MP5 With external silencer (.swf)]
* [http://www.nazarian.no/wep.asp?id=174&group_id=4&country_id=60&lang=0&p=8 Nazarian's Guns Recognition Guide (FILM) MP5SD With integrated silencer (.MOV)]
==Manual==
*[http://www.nazarian.no/images/wep/174_hkmp5manual.pdf Nazarian's Guns Recognition Guide (MANUAL) HK MP5 Manual (.pdf)]
[[Category:Submachine guns]]
[[da:MP5]]
[[de:MP5]]
[[fr:MP5]]
[[ko:헤클러&코흐 MP5]]
[[he:MP5]]
[[nl:HK MP-5]]
[[ja:MP5]]
[[no:MP-5]]
[[pl:Pistolet maszynowy MP 5]]
[[sl:Heckler & Koch MP5]]
[[fi:MP5]]
[[sv:MP5]]
[[tr:HK MP5]]
[[zh:MP5冲锋枪]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Henry Middleton</title>
<id>14298</id>
<revision>
<id>41984195</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T01:14:16Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Cmdrjameson</username>
<id>101935</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>sp (4): daugther→daughter, marraige→marriage</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Henry Middleton''' ([[1717]] &ndash; [[June 13]], [[1784]]) of [[South Carolina]] was the second [[President of the Continental Congress|President]] of the [[Continental Congress]], and thus the leader of what was to become the [[United States]], from [[October 22]], [[1774]] until [[Peyton Randolph]] was able to resume his duties briefly beginning on [[May 10]], [[1775]].
He was preceded in office by [[Peyton Randolph]] and succeeded first by [[Peyton Randolph]] for a few days, then by [[John Hancock]].
While a delegate to the [[Continental Congress]], he resigned in order to prepare for the coming war. He was replaced by his son [[Arthur Middleton]] (1742-1787), who went on to sign the [[Declaration of Independence]] and the [[Articles of Confederation]].
Arthur's son, also named [[Henry Middleton (governor)|Henry]] (1770-1846), had a long career in politics. He was [[List of Governors of South Carolina|Governor of South Carolina]] (1810-1812), [[U.S. Representative]] (1815-1819), and the Minister to [[Russia]] (1820-1830).
Several of Henry's other children married well:
*Henrietta was married to [[Edward Rutledge]].
*Sarah was the first wife of [[Charles Cotesworth Pinckney]].
*Thomas married Anne Manigault; one daughter Esther married Ralph Stead Izard a distant cousin of South Caroina Congressman [[Ralph Izard]] & Alice De Lancey.(Alice was niece of [[James DeLancey]]; [[James DeLancey]]'s sister Susannah was the wife of Sir [[Peter Warren]] (Admirial). Another daughter Elizabeth Middleton was married to Ralph DeLancey Izard son of [[Congressman]] [[Ralph Izard]].
{Note: Joseph-a brother of Anne Manigault- was first married to a daughter of [[Arthur Middleton]] and Mary Izard; by Joseph Manigault's second marriage he was the father of [[Confederate]] [[General]] Arthur Middleton Manigault (1824-1886)whose wife was a cousin 1st removed of [[Confederate]] [[General]] [[Benjamin Huger]]}
==External links==
*[http://bioguide.congress.gov/scripts/biodisplay.pl?index=M000698 biographic sketch at U.S. Congress website]
{{start box}}
{{succession box| title=[[President of the Continental Congress|President of the First Continental Congress]]| before=[[Peyton Randolph]]| after=[[Peyton Randolph]]<br>''(as President of the Second Continental Congress)''| years=[[October 22]], [[1774]] &ndash; [[October 26]], [[1774]]}}
{{end box}}
[[Category:1717 births|Middleton, Henry]]
[[Category:1784 deaths|Middleton, Henry]]
[[Category:Co |
. Sometimes grotesque or misunderstood (i.e. the opening line in his play ''Ubu Roi'', "Merdre!", has been translated into English as "Shittr!", "Shikt!", and "Shitsky!"), he invented a science called ''[['pataphysics]]''.
==Biography and works==
A precociously brilliant student, Jarry enthralled his classmates with a gift for pranks and troublemaking.
At the lycée in [[Rennes]] when he was 15, he led of a group of boys who devoted much time and energy to poking fun at their well-meaning, obese and incompetent physics teacher, a man named Hébert. Jarry and classmate Charles Morin wrote a play they called ''Les Polonais'' and performed it with [[marionettes]] in the home of one of their friends. The main character, ''Père Heb'', was a blunderer with a huge belly; three teeth (one of stone, one of iron, and one of wood); a single, retractable ear; and a misshapen body. In Jarry's later work ''[[Ubu Roi]]'', Père Heb would develop into Ubu, one of the most monstrous and astonishing characters in French literature.
At 17, Jarry passed his [[baccalauréat]] and moved to [[Paris]] to prepare for admission to the École Normale Supérieure. Though he was not admitted, he soon gained attention for his original poems and prose-poems. A collection of his work, ''Les minutes de sable mémorial'', was published in 1893.
That same year, both his parents died, leaving him a small inheritance which he quickly spent.
Jarry had meantime discovered the pleasures of alcohol, which he called "my sacred herb" or, when referring to [[absinthe]], the "green goddess". A story is told that he once painted his face green and rode through town on his bicycle in its honour (and possibly under its influence).
Drafted into the army in 1894, his gift for turning notions upside down defeated attempts to instill military discipline. The sight of the small man in a uniform much too large for his less than 5-foot frame&mdash;the army did not issue uniforms small enough&mdash;was so disruptively funny that he was excused from parades and marching drills. Eventually the army discharged him for medical reasons. His military experience eventually inspired the novel, ''Days and Nights''.
Jarry returned to Paris and applied himself to drinking, writing, and the company of friends who appreciated his witty, sweet-tempered, and unpredictable conversation. This period is marked by his intense involvement with [[Remy de Gourmont]] in the publication of ''L'Ymagier'', a luxuriously produced "art" magazine devoted to the symbolic analysis of medieval and popular prints. [[Symbolism (arts)|Symbolism]] as an art movement was in full swing at this time and ''L'Ymagier'' provided a nexus for many of its key contributors. Jarry's play ''Caesar Antichrist'' (1895) drew on this movement for material. This is a work that bridges the gap between serious symbolic meaning and the type of critical absurdity with which Jarry would soon become associated. Using the biblical [[Book of Revelations]] as a point of departure, ''Caesar Antichrist'' presents a parallel world of extreme formal symbolism in which [[Christ]] is resurrected not as an agent of [[spirituality]] but as agent of the [[Roman Empire]] that seeks to dominate spirituality. It is a unique [[narrative]] that effectively links the domination of the [[soul]] to contemporaneous advances in the field of [[Egyptology]] such as the 1894 excavation the [[Narmer Palette]], an ancient artifact used for situating the [[rebus]] within [[hermeneutics]].
The spring of 1896 saw the publication, in Paul Fort's review ''Le Livre d'art'', of Jarry's 5-act play ''[[Ubu Roi]]''&mdash;the rewritten and expanded ''Les Polonais'' of his school days. ''Ubu Roi'''s savage humor and monstrous absurdity, unlike anything thus far performed in French theater, seemed unlikely to ever actually be performed on stage. However, impetuous theater director [[Aurélien-Marie Lugné-Poe]] took the risk, producing the play at his Théâtre de l'Oeuvre.
On opening night ([[December 10]], [[1896]]), with traditionalists and the [[avant-garde]] in the audience, King Ubu (played by [[Firmin Gémier]]) stepped forward and intoned the opening word, "Merdre!" ("Shittr!"). A quarter of an hour of pandemonium ensued: outraged cries, booing, and whistling by the offended parties, countered by cheers and applause by the more forward-thinking contingent. Such interruptions continued through the evening. At the time, only the dress rehearsal and opening night performance were held, and the play was not revived until 1907.
The play brought fame to the 23-year-old Jarry, and he immersed himself in the fiction he had created. Gémier had modeled his portrayal of Ubu on Jarry's own staccato, nasal vocal delivery, which emphasized each syllable (even the silent ones). From then on, Jarry would always speak in this style. He adopted Ubu's ridiculous and pedantic figures of speech; for example, he referred to himself using the [[royal we|royal ''we'']], and called the wind "that which blows" and the bicycle he rode everywhere "that which rolls".
Jarry moved into a flat which the landlord had made by horizontally dividing one flat into two. He could just manage to stand up in the place, but guests had to bend or crouch. Jarry took to carrying a loaded pistol. In response to a neighbor's complaint that his target shooting endangered her children, he replied, "If that should ever happen, ma-da-me, we should ourselves be happy to get new ones with you" (though he was not at all inclined to engage with females in the manner implied).
Living in worsening poverty, neglecting his health, and drinking excessively, Jarry went on to write what is often cited as the first [[cyborg]] sex novel, ''[[Supermale (novel)|The Supermale]]'', which is partly a satire on the [[Symbolist]] ideal of self-transcendence.
Unpublished until after his death, his fiction ''[[Exploits and Opinions of Dr. Faustroll, pataphysician]]'' (''Gestes et opinions du docteur Faustroll, pataphysicien'') describes the exploits and teachings of a sort of antiphilosopher who, born at age 63, travels through a hallucinatory Paris in a sieve and subscribes to the tenets of ''[['pataphysics]]''. 'Pataphysics deals with "the laws which govern exceptions and will explain the universe supplementary to this one". In 'pataphysics, every event in the universe is accepted as an extraordinary event.
Jarry once wrote, expressing some of the bizarre logic of 'pataphysics, "If you let a coin fall and it falls, the next time it is just by an infinite coincidence that it will fall again the same way; hundreds of other coins on other hands will follow this pattern in an infinitely unimaginable fashion".
In his final years, he was a legendary and heroic figure to some of the young writers and artists in Paris. [[Guillaume Apollinaire]], [[André Salmon]], and [[Max Jacob]] sought him out in his truncated apartment. After his death, [[Pablo Picasso]], fascinated with Jarry, acquired his pistol and wore it on his nocturnal expeditions in Paris, and later bought many of his manuscripts as well as executing a fine drawing of him.
Jarry lived in his 'pataphysical world until his death in Paris on [[November 1]], [[1907]] of [[tuberculosis]], aggravated by drug and alcohol use. It is recorded that his last request was for a toothpick. He was interred in the [[Cimetière de Bagneux]], near Paris.
==See also==
* [['pataphysics]]
* ''[[Ubu Roi]]''
==Selected Jarry works==
===Plays===
* [[Ubu Roi|''Ubu the King'' or ''King Turd (Ubu Roi)'']], written at age 15 as ''Les Polonais''.
* ''Ubu Cuckolded (Ubu cocu ), Ubu Bound (Ubu enchaíné)''
===Novels===
* ''[[Supermale (novel)|The Supermale]] (Le Surmâle)''
* ''[[Exploits and Opinions of Dr. Faustroll, pataphysician]] (Gestes et opinions du docteur Faustroll, pataphysicien)''
===Other notable works===
* Short story, ''The Passion Considered as an Uphill Bicycle Race'', has been widely circulated and imitated, notably by [[J.G. Ballard]].
== Bibliography ==
* {{cite book | author=Beaumont, Keith| title=Alfred Jarry: A Critical and Biographical Study | publisher=U.S.: St. Martin's Press | year=1984 | id=ISBN 0-3120-1712-X}}
* {{cite book | author=Tompkins, Calvin | title=Duchamp: A Biography | publisher=U.S.: Henry Holt and Company, Inc | year=1996 | id=ISBN 0-8050-5789-7}}
* ''The Banquet Years'' by Roger Shattuck (1958) ISBN 0394704150
== External links ==
{{wikiquote}}
* [http://pata.obspm.fr/livres/jarry/Ubu_roi.html ''Ubu Roi''] (French)
* [http://pata.obspm.fr/livres/jarry/faustrol.htm ''Gestes et opinions du docteur Faustroll, pataphysicien''] (French)
* [http://pata.obspm.fr/ College of Pataphysics] (French)
*[http://www.findagrave.com/cgi-bin/fg.cgi?page=gr&GRid=9101496 Alfred Jarry at Find-A-Grave]
*[http://www.blather.net/shitegeist/2001/05/alfred_jarry_absinthe_bicycle.htm Alfred Jarry: Absinthe, Bicycles and Merdre]
* {{gutenberg author| id=Jarry+Alfred | name=Alfred Jarry}}
[[Category:1873 births|Jarry, Alfred]]
[[Category:1907 deaths|Jarry, Alfred]]
[[Category:French dramatists and playwrights|Jarry, Alfred]]
[[Category:Pataphysicians|Jarry, Alfred]]
[[Category:French satirists|Jarry, Alfred]]
[[br:Alfred Jarry]]
[[cs:Alfred Jarry]]
[[de:Alfred Jarry]]
[[es:Alfred Jarry]]
[[fr:Alfred Jarry]]
[[it:Alfred Jarry]]
[[ka:ჟარი, ალფრედ]]
[[nl:Alfred Jarry]]
[[pl:Alfred Jarry]]
[[sr:Алфред Јари]]
[[sv:Alfred Jarry]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Amalric</title>
<id>1870</id>
<revision>
<id>35514196</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-17T07:28:50Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Jaraalbe</username>
<id>261435</id>
</contributor>
<comment>hndis</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Amalric''' is the name of several kings.
* [[Amalaric|Amalri |
essee Williams]], American playwright (b. [[1911]])
*[[1987]] - [[James Coco]], American actor (b. [[1930]])
*[[1994]] - [[Baruch Goldstein]], American-born mass killer (b. [[1956]])
*1994 - [[Jersey Joe Walcott]], American boxer (b. [[1914]])
*[[1996]] - [[Haing S. Ngor]], Cambodian-born actor (b. [[1940]])
*[[1999]] - [[Glenn T. Seaborg]], American chemist, [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry|Nobel Prize]] laureate (b. [[1912]])
*[[2001]] - [[Donald Bradman|Sir Donald Bradman]], Australian cricketer (b. [[1908]])
*[[2003]] - [[Tom O'Higgins]], Irish Chief Justice (b. [[1916]])
*[[2003]] - [[Alberto Sordi]], Italian actor (b. [[1920]])
*[[2005]] - [[Peter Benenson]], founder of Amnesty International (b. [[1921]])
*[[2006]] - [[Octavia Butler]], American author and [[MacArthur Foundation]] Fellow (b. [[1947]])
*[[2006]] - [[Darren McGavin]], American Actor (b. [[1922]])
*[[2006]] - [[Charlie Wayman]], English footballer (b. [[1922]])
==Holidays and observances==
* [[Kuwait|Kuwait's]] national day.
* [[EDSA Revolution|People Power Day]], special holiday in the [[Philippines]].
==External links==
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/february/25 BBC: On This Day]
* [http://www.nytimes.com/learning/general/onthisday/20060225.html ''The New York Times'': On This Day]
* [http://www1.sympatico.ca/cgi-bin/on_this_day?mth=Feb&day=25 On This Day in Canada]
----
[[February 24]] - [[February 26]] - [[January 25]] - [[March 25]] -- [[historical anniversaries|listing of all days]]
{{months}}
[[af:25 Februarie]]
[[ar:25 فبراير]]
[[an:25 de frebero]]
[[ast:25 de febreru]]
[[bg:25 февруари]]
[[be:25 лютага]]
[[bs:25. februar]]
[[ca:25 de febrer]]
[[ceb:Pebrero 25]]
[[cv:Нарăс, 25]]
[[co:25 di frivaghju]]
[[cs:25. únor]]
[[cy:25 Chwefror]]
[[da:25. februar]]
[[de:25. Februar]]
[[et:25. veebruar]]
[[el:25 Φεβρουαρίου]]
[[es:25 de febrero]]
[[eo:25-a de februaro]]
[[eu:Otsailaren 25]]
[[fo:25. februar]]
[[fr:25 février]]
[[fy:25 febrewaris]]
[[ga:25 Feabhra]]
[[gl:25 de febreiro]]
[[ko:2월 25일]]
[[hr:25. veljače]]
[[io:25 di februaro]]
[[id:25 Februari]]
[[ia:25 de februario]]
[[is:25. febrúar]]
[[it:25 febbraio]]
[[he:25 בפברואר]]
[[jv:25 Februari]]
[[ka:25 თებერვალი]]
[[csb:25 gromicznika]]
[[ku:25'ê reşemiyê]]
[[lt:Vasario 25]]
[[lb:25. Februar]]
[[hu:Február 25]]
[[mk:25 февруари]]
[[ml:ഫെബ്രുവരി 25]]
[[ms:25 Februari]]
[[nap:25 'e frevaro]]
[[nl:25 februari]]
[[ja:2月25日]]
[[no:25. februar]]
[[nn:25. februar]]
[[oc:25 de febrièr]]
[[os:25 февралы]]
[[pl:25 lutego]]
[[pt:25 de Fevereiro]]
[[ro:25 februarie]]
[[ru:25 февраля]]
[[se:Guovvamánu 25.]]
[[sco:25 Februar]]
[[sq:25 Shkurt]]
[[scn:25 di frivaru]]
[[simple:February 25]]
[[sk:25. február]]
[[sl:25. februar]]
[[sr:25. фебруар]]
[[fi:25. helmikuuta]]
[[sv:25 februari]]
[[tl:Pebrero 25]]
[[tt:25. Febräl]]
[[te:ఫిబ్రవరి 25]]
[[th:25 กุมภาพันธ์]]
[[vi:25 tháng 2]]
[[tr:25 Şubat]]
[[uk:25 лютого]]
[[wa:25 di fevrî]]
[[war:Pebrero 25]]
[[zh:2月25日]]
[[pam:Pebreru 25]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Finite state machine</title>
<id>10931</id>
<revision>
<id>42044228</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T12:14:58Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>212.119.183.93</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Tools */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Finite state machine example with comments.gif|thumb|225px|right|Fig.1 Finite State Machine]]
A '''finite state machine''' (FSM) or '''finite automaton''' is a model of behavior composed of [[state (computer science)|state]]s, transitions and actions. A state stores information about the past, i.e. it reflects the input changes from the system start to the present moment. A transition indicates a state change and is described by a condition that would need to be fulfilled to enable the transition. An action is a description of an activity that is to be performed at a given moment. There are several action types:
;Entry action: execute the action when entering the state
;Exit action: execute the action when exiting the state
;Input action: execute the action dependent on present state and input conditions
;Transition action: execute the action when performing a certain transition
FSM can be represented using a [[state diagram]] (or state transition diagram) as in figure 1. Besides this, several [[state transition table]] types are used. The most common representation is shown below: the combination of current state (B) and condition (Y) shows the next state (C). The complete actions information can be added only using footnotes. An FSM definition including the full actions information is possible using [[Virtual_finite_state_machine#State_Table|state tables]] (see also [[VFSM]]).
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" align="center"
|-
| valign="top" | &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Current State/<br />Condition || State A || State B || State C
|-
| Condition X || ... || ... || ...
|-
| Condition Y || ... || State C || ...
|-
| Condition Z || ... || ... || ...
|-
|+ Caption | State transition table
|}
In addition to their use in modeling reactive systems presented here, finite state automata are significant in many different areas, including [[linguistic]]s, [[computer science]], [[philosophy]], [[biology]], [[mathematic]]s, and [[logic]]. A complete survey of their applications is outside the scope of this article. Finite state machines are one type of the automata studied in [[automata theory]] and the [[theory of computation]].
In computer science, finite state machines are widely used in modelling of application behaviour, design of hardware digital systems, software engineering, compilers, and the study of computation and languages.
==Classification==
There are two groups distinguished: Acceptors/Recognizers and Transducers.
===Acceptors and recognizers===
[[Image:Fsm parsing word nice.jpg|thumb|400px|right|Fig. 2 Acceptor FSM: parsing the word "nice"]]
This kind of machine gives a binary output, saying either ''yes'' or ''no'' to answer whether the input is accepted by the machine or not. The machine can also be described as defining a language, in this case the language defined would contain every word accepted by the machine but none of the rejected ones. All states of the FSM are said to be either accepting or not accepting. If when all input is processed the current state is an accepting state, the input is accepted, otherwise not. As a rule the input are symbols (characters); actions are not used. The example in figure 2 shows a finite state machine which accepts the word "nice", in this FSM the only accepting state is number 7.
===Transducers===
[[Transducers]] generate output based on a given input and/or a state using actions. They are used for control applications. Here two types are distinguished:
[[Image:Fsm moore model door control.jpg|thumb|350px|right|Fig. 3 Transducer FSM: Moore model example]]
;[[Moore machine]]: The FSM uses only entry actions, i.e. output depends only on the state. The advantage of the Moore model is a simplification of the behaviour. The example in figure 3 shows a Moore FSM of an elevator door. The state machine recognizes two commands: "command_open" and "command_close" which trigger state changes. The entry action (E:) in state "Opening" starts a motor opening the door, the entry action in state "Closing" starts a motor in the other direction closing the door. States "Opened" and "Closed" don't perform any actions. They signal to the outside world (e.g. to other state machines) the situation: "door is open" or "door is closed".
[[Image:Fsm mealy model door control.jpg|thumb|350px|right|Fig. 4 Transducer FSM: Mealy model example]]
;[[Mealy machine]]: The FSM uses only input actions, i.e. output depends on input and state. The use of a Mealy FSM leads often to a reduction of the number of states. The example in figure 4 shows a Mealy FSM implementing the same behaviour as in the Moore example (the behaviour depends on the implemented FSM execution model and will work e.g. for [[Virtual finite state machine|virtual FSM]] but not for [[event driven finite state machine|event driven FSM]]). There are two input actions (I:): "start motor to close the door if command_close arrives" and "start motor in the other direction to open the door if command_open arrives".
In practice mixed models are often used.
More details about the differences and usage of Moore and Mealy models, including an executable example, can be found in the external technical note [http://www.stateworks.com/active/content/en/technology/technical_notes.php#tn10 "Moore or Mealy model?"]
A further distinction is between '''deterministic''' ([[Deterministic finite state machine|DFA]]) and '''non-deterministic''' ([[NDFA]], [[GNFA]]) automata. In deterministic automata, for each state there is exactly one transition for each possible input. In non-deterministic automata, there can be none or more than one transition from a given state for a given possible input. This distinction is relevant in practice, but not in theory, as there exists an algorithm which can transform any NDFA into an equivalent DFA, although this transformation typically significantly increases the complexity of the automaton.
The FSM with only one state is called a combinatorial FSM and uses only input actions. This concept is useful in cases where a number of FSM are required to work together, and where it is convenient to consider a purely combinatorial part as a form of FSM to suit the design tools.
==FSM logic==
[[Image:Finite state machine definition.gif|thumb|200px|right|Fig. 5 FSM Logic]]
The next state and output of a FSM is a function of the input and of the current state. The FSM logic is shown in Figure 5
==Mathematical model==
Depending on the type there are several definiti |
a new order of congregation) and other ones (often younger daughters), even when these are not (or no longer) [[priories]] but have their own abbot.
As a daughter could often become a mother in a next phase, the 'family tree' can become very complex, but often the grandmother remains the only one with acknowledged seniority.(because she is old ...)
Sometimes a very real hold was maintained, so the Abbot of [[Abbey of Cluny|Cluny]] had such vast income from the network of filial monasteries that he was one of the most powerful men in the church, and a real [[papabile]]. In other cases the precedence is little more than a honorary status.
In several cases, the senior abbot is entitled to '''a specific style''', such as [[Abbot general]], [[abbot president]], [[abbot primate]] and [[archabbot]].
Such titles may also apply to the presidents of federation of monasteries, not necessarily reserved for one abbey.
==Modern Abbots not as Superior==
The title [[abbé]] (French; Ital. ''abbate''), as commonly used in the Catholic church on the European continent, is the equivalent of the English "Father" (parallel etymology), being loosely applied to all who have received the [[tonsure]]. This use of the title is said to have originated in the right conceded to the king of France, by the [[concordat]] between [[Pope Leo X]] and [[Francis I of France|Francis I]] (1516), to appoint ''abbes commendataires'' to most of the abbeys in France. The expectation of obtaining these [[sinecure]]s drew young men towards the church in considerable numbers, and the class of abbés so formed--''abbes de cour'' they were sometimes called, and sometimes (ironically) ''abbes de sainte esperance'', abbés of St Hope--came to hold a recognized position. The connection many of them had with the church was of the slenderest kind, consisting mainly in adopting the name of abbe, after a remarkably moderate course of theological study, practising [[celibacy]] and wearing a distinctive dress--a short dark-violet coat with narrow collar. Being men of presumed learning and undoubted leisure, many of the class found admission to the houses of the French nobility as tutors or advisers. Nearly every great family had its abbé. The class did not survive the [[French Revolution|Revolution]]; but the [[courtesy title]] of abbé, having long lost all connection in people's minds with any special ecclesiastical function, remained as a convenient general term applicable to any clergyman.
==Protestant abbots==
In the [[Evangelical Church in Germany|German Evangelical Church]] the German title of ''Abt'' (abbot) is sometimes bestowed, like the French ''abbé'', as an honorary distinction, and survives to designate the heads of some monasteries converted at the Reformation into collegiate foundations.
Of these the most noteworthy is the abbey of Lokkum in [[Hanover]], founded as a [[Cistercian]] house in 1163 by Count Wilbrand of Hallermund, and reformed in 1593. The abbot of Lokkum, who still carries a pastoral staff, takes precedence of all the clergy of Hanover, and was ''ex officio'' a member of the [[consistory]] of the kingdom. The governing body of the abbey consists of the abbot, prior and the "convent" of ''[[Stiftsherr]]en'' (canons).
In the [[Church of England]], the [[Bishop of Norwich]], by royal decree given by [[Henry VIII]], also holds the honorary title of "Abbot of St. Benēt." This title hails back to England's separation from Rome, when King Henry, as supreme head of the newly independent church, took over all of the monastaries, mainly for their possessions, except for St. Benēt, which he spared because the abbot and his monks possesed no wealth, and lived like simple beggers, disposing the incumbent Bishop of Norwich and seating the abbot in his place, thus the dual title still held to this day.
==See also==
*[[List of historical abbots]]
*[[Hegumen]]
*[[Archimandrite]]
==Sources and References==
{{Wikisource1911Enc|Abbot}}
*[http://www.google.com/custom?domains=NewAdvent.org&q=abbot&sitesearch=NewAdvent.org&client=pub-8168503353085287&forid=1&ie=ISO-8859-1&oe=ISO-8859-1&safe=active&cof=GALT%3A%23008000%3BGL%3A1%3BDIV%3A%23336699%3BVLC%3A663399%3BAH%3Acenter%3BBGC%3AFFFFFF%3BLBGC%3A336699%3BALC%3A0000FF%3BLC%3A0000FF%3BT%3A000000%3BGFNT%3A0000FF%3BGIMP%3A0000FF%3BFORID%3A1%3B&hl=en| 999 occurrences in the [[Catholic Encyclopaedia]]]
*{{1911}}
[[Category:Abbots]]
[[category: Ecclesiastical titles]]
[[Category:Organisation of Catholic religious orders]]
[[Category:Christian leaders]]
[[Category:Religious work]]
[[Category:Religious executives]]
[[ang:Abbod]]
[[ca:Abat]]
[[cs:Opat]]
[[da:Abbed]]
[[de:Abt]]
[[es:Abad]]
[[eo:Abato]]
[[fr:Abbé]]
[[gl:Abade]]
[[ia:Abba]]
[[it:Abate]]
[[li:Abdis]]
[[hu:Apát]]
[[nl:Abt (abdij)]]
[[nds:Abt]]
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[[pl:Opat]]
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[[sv:Abbot]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Ardipithecus</title>
<id>1144</id>
<revision>
<id>40359090</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-20T01:16:10Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
<id>82835</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>External links per MoS.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Taxobox | color = pink
| name = Ardipithecus
| fossil_range = [[Pliocene]]
| image = Ardipithecus ramidus tooth.jpg
| image_width = 200px
| image_caption = ''Ardipithecus ramidus'' teeth
| regnum = [[Animal]]ia
| phylum = [[Chordate|Chordata]]
| classis = [[Mammal]]ia
| ordo = [[Primate]]s
| familia = [[Hominid]]ae
| subfamilia = [[Homininae]]
| tribus = [[Hominini]]
| genus = '''''Ardipithecus'''''
| genus_authority = [[Tim White (anthropologist)|White]], [[1994]]
| subdivision_ranks = [[Species]]
| subdivision =''Ardipithecus kadabba''<br /> ''Ardipithecus ramidus''
}}
'''''Ardipithecus''''' is a very early [[hominin]] [[genus]] ([[subfamily]] [[Homininae]]). Because it shares several traits with the African [[great ape]]s (genus ''[[chimpanzee|Pan]]'' and genus ''[[Gorilla]]''), it is considered by some to be on the [[chimpanzee]] rather than [[human]] branch, but most consider it a [[proto-human]] because of a likeness in teeth with ''[[Australopithecus]]''. ''A. ramidus'' lived about 5.4 and 4.2 million years ago during the early [[Pliocene]].
Two [[species]] have been described, ''Ardipithecus ramidus'' and ''Ardipithecus kadabba''. The latter was initially described as a [[subspecies]] of ''A. ramidus'', but on the basis of teeth recently discovered in [[Ethiopia]] has been raised to species rank. ''A. kadabba'' is dated to have lived between 5.8 million to 5.2 million years ago. The [[canine teeth]] show primitive features that distinguish them from those of more recent hominines. ''A. kadabba'' is believed to be the earliest organism yet identified that lies in the human line following its split from the lineage that gave rise to the two modern chimpanzee species.
On the basis of bone sizes, ''Ardipithecus'' species are believed to have been about the size of a modern chimpanzee. The toe structure of ''A. ramidus'' suggests that the creature walked upright, and this poses problems for current theories of the origins of hominid [[bipedalism]]: ''Ardipithecus'' is believed to have lived in shady forests rather than on the savannah, where the faster running permitted by bipedalism would have been an advantage.
The forest lifestyle poses problems for the current theories regarding the development of bipedalism, most of which focus on the savanna. New thought will be necessary in order to reconcile these savanna theories with the current knowledge of early forest-dwelling hominids.
==External links==
*[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/4187991.stm BBC News: Amazing hominid haul in Ethiopia]
{{Human_Evolution}}
[[Category:early hominids]]
[[Category:Pliocene]]
[[de:Ardipithecus ramidus]]
[[eu:Ardipithecus]]
[[es:Ardipithecus ramidus]]
[[fr:Ardipithecus ramidus]]
[[it:Ardipithecus kadabba]]
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[[pl:Ardipithecus ramidus]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Assembly line</title>
<id>1146</id>
<revision>
<id>41872264</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T07:12:34Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>129.22.33.101</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* History of the assembly line */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">An '''assembly line''' is a [[manufacturing]] process in which interchangeable parts are added to a product in a sequential manner to create an end product.
==History of the assembly line==
Until the 19th century, a single craftsman or team of craftsmen would create each part of a product individually, and assemble them together into a single item, making changes in the parts so that they would fit together - the so-called [[English System]] of manufacture.
[[Eli Whitney]] developed the [[American system of manufacturing|American System]] of manufacturing in 1799, using the ideas of ''[[division of labor]]'' and of ''[[Tolerance (engineering)|engineering tolerance]]'', to create assemblies from parts in a repeatable manner.
[[Ransom Eli Olds]] patented the first assembly line concept which he put to work in his Olds Motor Vehicle Company factory in 1901, becoming the first company in America to mass-produce automobiles.
By contrast, [[Henry Ford]] is often credited with the invention of the assembly line but in actuality only applied the idea of using the [[conveyer belt]] to Olds' idea of the assembly line.
==Sociological problems with the assembly line==
In early industrial times, the assembly line ran smoothly, but as competition increased, the workers had to work faster and longer hours, therefore increasing the rate at which workplace injuries occurred.
Many workers were unhappy with the assembly line, because most never had the satisfa |
scribes [[ice Ih|ice I<sub>h</sub>]], which is the most abundant of these phases in [[Earth|Earth's]] [[Biosphere|biosphere]]. This type of ice is a soft, fragile, [[crystal|crystalline]] solid, which can appear transparent or an opaque bluish-white [[color]] depending on the presence of [[Impurity|impurities]] such as [[air]]. The addition of other materials such as [[soil]] may further alter appearance. The most common [[phase transition]] to [[ice Ih|ice I<sub>h</sub>]] occurs when [[liquid]] water is cooled below 0&nbsp;[[Celsius|°C]] (273.15&nbsp;[[Kelvin|K]], 32&nbsp;[[Fahrenheit|°F]]) at [[standard atmospheric pressure]]. However, it can also [[Sublimation_%28physics%29|sublimate]] from a vapor with no intervening liquid phase such as in the formation of [[frost]]. Ice appears in varied forms such as [[hail]], [[ice cube]]s, and [[glacier|glaciers]]. It plays an important role with many meteorological phenomena. The ice caps of the polar regions are of significance for the [[global climate]] and particularly the [[water cycle]].
An unusual feature of ice frozen at a pressure of one [[Atmosphere (unit)|atmosphere]] is that the solid is some 8% less dense than liquid water. Ice has a [[density]] of 0.917 g/cm³ at 0 °C, whereas water has a density of 0.9998 g/cm³ at the same temperature. Liquid water is most dense, essentially 1.00 g/cm³, at 4 °C and becomes less dense as the water molecules begin to form the [[Hexagonal (crystal system)|hexagonal]] [[crystal]]s of [[ice crystals|ice]] as the temperature drops to 0 °C. (In fact, the word "crystal" derives from the Greek word for frost.) This is due to [[hydrogen bond]]s forming between the water molecules, which line up [[molecules]] less efficiently (in terms of volume) when water is frozen. The result of this is that ice floats on liquid water, an important factor in Earth's [[climate]]. Density of ice increases slightly with decreasing temperature (density of ice at at -180 °C (93 K) is 0.9340 g/cm³).
When ice melts, it absorbs as much heat [[energy]] (the [[heat of fusion]]) as it would take
to heat an equivalent mass of water by 80&nbsp;°C, while its temperature remains a constant 0&nbsp;°C.
As a crystalline solid, ice is considered a [[mineral]].
== Types of ice ==
[[Image:SnowflakesWilsonBentley.jpg|left|thumb|235px|[[Snowflake]]s by [[Wilson Bentley]], 1902]]
Everyday ice and [[snow]] is [[Hexagonal (crystal system)|hexagonal]] ice ([[ice Ih|ice I<sub>h</sub>]]). Subjected to higher pressures and varying temperatures, ice can form in roughly a dozen different phases. Only a little less stable (metastable) than I<sub>h</sub> is cubic structure ice ([[Ice Ic|I<sub>c</sub>]]). But cooling I<sub>h</sub> causes a different arrangement to form in which the protons move, [[Ice XI|XI]].
With both cooling and pressure more types exist, each being created depending on the phase diagram of ice. These are [[Ice II|II]], [[Ice III|III]], [[Ice V|V]], [[Ice VI|VI]], [[Ice VII|VII]], [[Ice VIII|VIII]], [[Ice IX|IX]], and [[Ice X|X]]. With care all these types can be recovered at ambient pressure. The types are differentiated by their crystalline structure, ordering and density. There are also two metastable phases of ice under pressure, both fully hydrogen disordered, these are [[Ice IV|IV]] and [[Ice XII|XII]]. Ice XII was discovered in 1996. As well as crystalline forms solid water can exist in amorphous states as [[amorphous solid water]] (ASW), [[low density amorphous ice]] (LDA), [[high density amorphous ice]] (HDA), [[very high density amorphous ice]] (VHDA) and [[hyperquenched glassy water]] (HGW).
[[Kurt Vonnegut]]'s novel ''[[Cat's Cradle]]'' features Ice IX as a central element of the plot, although real Ice IX does not have the properties of Vonnegut's fictional [[ice-nine]] (i.e. the ability to freeze all water on Earth with the introduction of one granule).
[[Rime Ice|Rime]] is a type of ice formed by [[fog]] freezing on cold objects. It contains a high proportion of trapped air, making it appear white rather than transparent, and giving it a [[density]] about one quarter of that of pure ice.
Ice can also form '''icicles''', similar to [[stalactite]]s in appearance, as water drips and re-freezes.
[[Clathrate hydrate]]s are forms of ice that contain gas molecules trapped within its crystal lattice. [[Pancake ice]] is a formation of ice generally created in areas with less calm conditions.
Some other substances (particularly solid forms of those usually found as fluids) are also called "ice": [[dry ice]], for instance, is a popular term for solid [[carbon dioxide]].
[[Image:Ice Harvesting on Lake St Clair Michigan circa 1905--photograph courtesy Detroit Publishing Company.jpg|left|frame|Harvesting ice on [[Lake Saint Clair (North America)|Lake Saint Clair]] in [[Michigan]], ''circa'' 1905.]]
== Human relationship with ice ==
[[Image:Yakhchal.jpg|thumb|right|An ancient ice house ([[yakhchal]]) in [[Kerman]], [[Iran]], built during the [[Middle Ages]] for storing harvested ice.]]
Ice has long been valued as a means of cooling. Until recently, the [[Hungarian Parliament]] building used ice harvested in the winter from [[Lake Balaton]] as its primary source of energy for air conditioning. [[Icehouse (building)|Icehouse]]s were used to store ice formed in the winter to make ice available year-round, and early [[refrigerator]]s were known as [[icebox]]es because they had a block of ice in them. In many cities it was not unusual to have a regular ice delivery service during the summer. The advent of artificial [[refrigeration]] technology has since made delivery of ice obsolete.
In 400 BC [[Iran]], [[Persian Empire|Persian]] engineers had already mastered the technique of storing ice in the middle of summer in the desert. The ice was brought in during the winters from nearby mountains in bulk amounts, and stored in specially designed, naturally cooled ''refrigerators'', called [[yakhchal]] (meaning ''ice storage''). This was a large underground space (up to 5000 m&sup3;) that had thick walls (at least two meters at the base) made out of a special mortar called ''sārooj'', composed of sand, clay, egg whites, lime, goat hair, and ash in specific proportions, and which was resistant to heat transfer. This mixture was thought to be completely water impenetrable. The space often had access to a [[Qanat]], and often contained a system of [[windcatcher]]s that could easily bring temperatures inside the space down to frigid levels in summer days. The ice was then used to chill treats for royalty during hot summer days.
=== Sports on ice ===
[[Image:Ice surfing.jpg|thumb|Ice surfing on the [[Żnin]] Great Lake]]
Ice also plays a role in winter recreation, in sports such as [[ice skating]], [[ice hockey]], [[ice fishing]], [[ice climbing]], [[curling]] and sled racing on [[bobsled]] and [[luge]]. A sort of sailboat on blades gives rise to iceboating.
The human quest for excitement has even led to [[ice racing]], where drivers must speed on lake ice while also controlling the skid of their vehicle (similar in some ways to [[dirt track racing]]). The sport has even been modified for [[ice rink]]s.
===Ice travel===
[[Image:IcebreakerNasa.jpg|left|thumb|Coast Guard [[icebreaker]]s near [[McMurdo Station]], February 2002.]]
Ice can also be an obstacle; for [[harbor]]s near the [[geographical pole|pole]]s, being ice-free is an important advantage, ideally all-year round. Examples are [[Murmansk]] (Russia), [[Petsamo]] (Russia, formerly Finland) and [[Vardø]]. Harbors that are not ice-free are opened up using [[icebreaker]]s.
Ice forming on [[road]]s is a dangerous winter hazard. [[Black ice]] is very difficult to see because it lacks the expected glossy surface. Whenever there is [[freezing rain]] or snow that occurs at a temperature near the melting point, it is common for ice to build up on the [[window]]s of vehicles. Driving safely requires the removal of the ice build-up. [[Ice scraper]]s are tools designed to break the ice free and clear the windows, though removing the ice can be a long, labor-intensive, and stressful process&mdash;especially when a driver ends up running late for work as a result.
Far enough below the freezing point, a thin layer of ice crystals can form on the inside surface of windows. This usually happens when a vehicle has been left alone after being driven for a while, but can happen while driving if the outside temperature is low enough. Moisture from the driver's breath is the source of water for the crystals. It is troublesome to remove this form of ice, so people often open their windows slightly when the vehicle is parked in order to let the moisture dissipate, and it is now common for cars to have rear-window [[defroster]]s to combat the problem. A similar problem can happen in homes, which is why many colder regions require [[Insulated glazing|double-pane windows]] for insulation.
[[Image:Ice_water.jpg|thumb|A glass of iced water.]]
When the outdoor temperature stays below freezing for extended periods, very thick layers of ice can form on [[lake]]s and other bodies of water (although places with flowing water require much colder temperatures). The ice can become thick enough to drive onto with [[automobile]]s and [[truck]]s. Doing this safely requires a thickness of at least 30 centimeters (one foot).
=== Other uses of ice ===
[[Image:Icicles at Big White.jpg|220px|left|Icicles at [[Big White Ski Resort]], [[Canada]].]]
*The manufacture and use of [[ice cube]]s or [[crushed ice]] is common for drinks.
*[[Pagophagia]], a type of [[pica (disorder)|pica]] eating disorder, is the compulsive consumption of ice.
*Structures and [[ice sculpture]]s are built out of large chunks of ice. The structures are mostly ornamental (as |
the previous messages generated. It is common in information theory to speak of the "rate" or "entropy" of a language. This is appropriate, for example, when the source of information is English prose. The rate of a memoryless source is simply <math>H(M)</math>, since by definition there is no interdependence of the successive messages of a memoryless source. The rate of a source of information is related to its [[redundancy (information theory)|redundancy]] and how well it can be [[data compression|compressed]].
====Fundamental theorem====
: ''See main article: [[Noisy channel coding theorem]]''.
=====Statement (noisy-channel coding theorem)=====
: 1. For every discrete memoryless channel, the channel capacity
:: <math>C = \max_{P_X} \,I(X;Y)</math>
: has the following property. For any &epsilon; &gt; 0 and ''R &lt; C'', for large enough ''N'', there exists a code of length ''N'' and rate &ge; R and a decoding algorithm, such that the maximal probability of block error is &le; &epsilon;.
: 2. If a probability of bit error ''p<sub>b</sub>'' is acceptable, rates up to ''R(p<sub>b</sub>)'' are achievable, where
:: <math>R(p_b) = \frac{C}{1-H_2(p_b)} .</math>
: 3. For any ''p<sub>b</sub>'', rates greater than ''R(p<sub>b</sub>)'' are not achievable.
(MacKay (2003), p. 162; cf Gallager (1968), ch.5; Cover and Thomas (1991), p. 198; Shannon (1948) thm. 11)
{{section-stub}}
====Channel capacity of particular model channels====
* A continuous-time analog communications channel subject to Gaussian noise — see [[Shannon-Hartley theorem]].
==Related concepts==
===Measure theory===
Here is an interesting and illuminating connection between information theory and measure theory:
If to arbitrary discrete random variables ''X'' and ''Y'' we associate the existence of [[set]]s <math>\tilde X</math> and <math>\tilde Y</math>, somehow representing the information borne by ''X'' and ''Y'', respectively, such that:
* <math>\mu(\tilde X \cap \tilde Y) = 0 </math> whenever ''X'' and ''Y'' are independent, and
* <math>\tilde X = \tilde Y</math> whenever ''X'' and ''Y'' are such that either one is completely determined by the other (i.e. by a bijection);
where <math>\mu</math> is a [[measure (mathematics)|measure]] over these sets, and we set:
: <math>H(X) = \mu(\tilde X),</math>
: <math>H(Y) = \mu(\tilde Y),</math>
: <math>H(X,Y) = \mu(\tilde X \cup \tilde Y),</math>
: <math>H(X|Y) = \mu(\tilde X \,\backslash\, \tilde Y),</math>
: <math>I(X;Y) = \mu(\tilde X \cap \tilde Y);</math>
we find that Shannon's "measure" of information content satisfies all the postulates and basic properties of a formal measure over sets. This can be a handy [[mnemonic device]] in some situations. Certain extensions to the definitions of Shannon's basic measures of information are necessary to deal with the [[Sigma-algebra|σ-algebra]] generated by the sets that would be associated to three or more arbitrary random variables. (See Reza pp. 106-108 for an informal but rather complete discussion.) Namely <math>H(X,Y,Z,\cdots)</math> needs to be defined in the obvious way as the entropy of a joint distribution, and an extended transinformation <math>I(X;Y;Z;\cdots)</math> defined in a suitable manner (left as an exercise for the ambitious reader) so that we can set:
: <math>H(X,Y,Z,\cdots) = \mu(\tilde X \cup \tilde Y \cup \tilde Z \cup \cdots),</math>
: <math>I(X;Y;Z;\cdots) = \mu(\tilde X \cap \tilde Y \cap \tilde Z \cap \cdots);</math>
in order to define the (signed) measure over the whole σ-algebra. (It is interesting to note that the mutual information of three or more random variables can be negative as well as positive: Let ''X'' and ''Y'' be two independent fair coin flips, and let ''Z'' be their [[exclusive or]]. Then <math>I(X;Y;Z) = - 1</math> bit.)
This connection is important for two reasons: first, it reiterates and clarifies the fundamental properties of these basic concepts of information theory, and second, it justifies, in a certain formal sense, the practice of calling Shannon's entropy a "measure" of information.
===Kolmogorov complexity===
[[A. N. Kolmogorov]] introduced an alternative information measure that is based on the length of the shortest algorithm to produce a message, called the [[Kolmogorov complexity]]. The practical usefulness of the Kolmogorov complexity, however, is somewhat limited by two issues:
* Due to the [[halting problem]], it is in general not possible to actually calculate the Kolmogorov complexity of a given message.
* Due to an arbitrary choice of programming language involved, the Kolmogorov complexity is only defined [[up to]] an arbitrary additive constant.
These limitations tend to restrict the usefulness of the Kolmogorov complexity to proving asymptotic bounds, which is really more the domain of [[complexity theory]]. Nevertheless it is in a certain sense the "best" possible measure of the information content of a message, and it has the advantage of being independent of any prior probability distribution on the messages.
==Applications==
====Coding theory====
[[Coding theory]] is the most important and direct application of information theory. It can be subdivided into [[data compression]] theory and [[error correction]] theory. Using a statistical description for data, information theory quantifies the number of [[bit]]s needed to describe the data. There are two formulations for the compression problem — in [[lossless data compression]] the data must be reconstructed exactly, whereas [[lossy data compression]] examines how many bits are needed to reconstruct the data to within a specified fidelity level. This fidelity level is measured by a function called a distortion function. In information theory this is called [[rate distortion theory]]. Both lossless and lossy source codes produce [[bit]]s at the output which can be used as the inputs to the channel codes mentioned above.
The idea is to first compress the data, i.e. remove as much of its [[redundancy (information theory)|redundancy]] as possible, and then add just the right kind of redundancy (i.e. [[error correction]]) needed to transmit the data efficiently and faithfully across a noisy channel.
This division of coding theory into compression and transmission is justified by the [[information transmission theorem]]s, or [[source-channel separation theorem]]s that justify the use of bits as the universal currency for information in many contexts. However, these theorems only hold in the situation where one transmitting user wishes to communicate to one receiving user. In scenarios with more than one transmitter (the [[multiple-access channel]]), more than one receiver (the [[broadcast channel]]) or intermediary "helpers" (the [[relay channel]]), or more general [[computer network|networks]], compression followed by transmission may no longer be optimal. [[Network information theory]] refers to these multi-agent communication models.
====[[Cryptography]], [[Cryptanalysis]]====
{{section-stub}}
Information theoretic concepts are widely used in making and breaking cryptographic ciphers. For an interesting historical example, see the article on [[deciban]]. Shannon himself defined an important concept called the [[unicity distance]]. Based on the [[redundancy]] of the [[plaintext]], it attempts to give a minimum amount of [[ciphertext]] necessary to ensure [[unique decipherability]].
Several additional concepts relating to the rate of an information source are especially important in the study of cryptology. These are the ''absolute rate'', the ''absolute redundancy'', the ''relative redundancy'', and the ''efficiency''.
====Relation with thermodynamic entropy====
See main article: ''[[Entropy in thermodynamics and information theory]]''.
====Quantum Information Science====
{{section-stub}}
See main article: ''[[Quantum information science]]''.
====Detection and Estimation Theory====
{{section-stub}}
{{see|Detection theory|Estimation theory}}
====Gambling====
{{section-stub}}
Information theory is also important in [[gambling]] and (with some ethical reservations) [[investing]]. An important but simple relation exists between the amount of side information a gambler obtains and the expected exponential growth of his capital (Kelly). The so-called '''equation of ill-gotten gains''' can be expressed in logarithmic form as
: <math> \mathbb E \log K_t = \log K_0 + \sum_{i=1}^t H_i </math>
for an optimal betting strategy, where <math>K_0</math> is the initial capital, <math>K_t</math> is the capital after the ''t''th bet, and <math>H_i</math> is the amount of side information obtained concerning the ''i''th bet (in particular, the [[mutual information]] relative to the outcome of each bettable event). This equation applies in the absence of any transaction costs or minimum bets. When these constraints apply (as they invariably do in real life), another important gambling concept comes into play: the gambler (or unscrupulous investor) must face a certain [[probability of ultimate ruin]]. Note that even food, clothing, and shelter can be considered fixed transaction costs and thus contribute to the gambler's probability of ultimate ruin. That is why food is so cheap at casinos.
This equation was the first application of Shannon's theory of information outside its prevailing paradigm of data communications (Pierce). No one knows how much lucre has been gained by the use of this notorious equation since its discovery a half century ago.
The ill-gotten gains equation actually underlies much if not |
[[Great Lakes]], and portions often freeze over in the winter. When this occurs, lake-effect snowfall ends. Perhaps the best known snow storm in Buffalo history is the [[Blizzard of '77]]. Severe storms also occurred on November 20, 2000 and around Christmas, 2001. The city is an annual competitor for the [[Golden Snowball Award]] between large [[Upstate New York|Upstate]] cities.
Often obscured by media frenzy over winter snowstorms is the fact that Buffalo benefits from the moderating influence of Lake Erie. Its summers are delightful, with cooling southwest breezes from the lake tempering the warmest days. Buffalo's official weather station has never recorded a temperature of 100 degrees Fahrenheit or more, one of only three major US city weather stations with this distinction.(ironically, the other two are [[Miami, Florida]] and [[Honolulu, Hawaii]]). The city has the highest per-capita number of private swimming pools of any major American city. Sailing, waterskiing, and swimming are popular summer pastimes, as well as sport fishing, which has at its disposal one of the greatest varieties of fresh-water fish in the nation, in the Niagara River, Lake Erie, and tributary streams. These include walleye, perch, large- and small-mouth bass, trout and steelhead, northern pike, muskellunge, and imported salmon.
==Demographics==
[[Image:M&T_Bank_Center_&_Liberity_Building_-_Buffalo_NY.jpg|thumb|M&T Center & The Liberty Building - Buffalo, New York]]
As of the [[census]]{{GR|2}} of [[2000]],the city had a total population of 292,648. Erie and [[Niagara County, New York | Niagara]] Counties have a combined population of 1,170,111 (2000).
At that time there were 292,648 people, 122,720 households, and 67,005 families residing in the city. The [[population density]] is 2,782.4/km&sup2; (7,205.8/mi&sup2;). There are 145,574 housing units at an average density of 1,384.1/km&sup2; (3,584.4/mi&sup2;). The racial makeup of the city is 54.43% [[White (U.S. Census)|White]], 37.23% [[African American]], 0.77% [[Native American (U.S. Census)|Native American]], 1.40% [[Asian (U.S. Census)|Asian]], 0.04% [[Pacific Islander (U.S. Census)|Pacific Islander]], 3.68% from [[Race (U.S. Census)|other races]], and 2.45% from two or more races. 7.54% of the population are [[Hispanic American|Hispanic]] or [[Latino]] of any race.
There were 122,720 households out of which 28.6% have children under the age of 18 living with them, 27.6% are [[Marriage|married couples]] living together, 22.3% have a female householder with no husband present, and 45.4% are non-families. 37.7% of all households are made up of individuals and 12.1% have someone living alone who is 65 years of age or older. The average household size is 2.29 and the average family size is 3.07.
In the city the population included 26.3% under the age of 18, 11.3% from 18 to 24, 29.3% from 25 to 44, 19.6% from 45 to 64, and 13.4% who are 65 years of age or older. The median age is 34 years. For every 100 females there are 88.6 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there are 83.5 males.
The median income for a household in the city is $24,536, and the median income for a family is $30,614. Males have a median income of $30,938 versus $23,982 for females. The [[per capita income]] for the city is $14,991. 26.6% of the population and 23.0% of families are below the [[poverty line]]. Out of the total population, 38.4% of those under the age of 18 and 14.0% of those 65 and older are living below the poverty line.
Buffalo has very sizable populations of Italian, Polish, and German descents. Despite many true references to Buffalo in "The X-Files" TV series, the episode "Born Again" makes a reference to a nonexistent Chinatown.
==Education==
Buffalo is home to two [[State University of New York]] institutions, each the largest of their type in the system. [[Buffalo State College]], a comprehensive college, and the [[University at Buffalo]], the flagship university center of the State University of New York. The city also is home to [[Bryant and Stratton |Bryant and Stratton College]], [[Daemen College]], [[D'Youville College]], [[Medaille College]], [[Canisius College]], and [[Trocaire College]]. A campus of [[Erie Community College]] and a site of [[Empire State College]] are also located in the downtown area.
The [http://www.buffaloschools.org/ Buffalo Public Schools] are going through a transitional phase, with many buildings requiring renovation and enrollments overall declining. The system boasts the best academically performing high school in Western New York, the [http://www.cityhonors.org City Honors School at Fosdick-Masten Park]],and [[Lafayette High School (Buffalo)|Lafayette High School]], completed in 1903 and the oldest Buffalo public school still in its original building.
==Business, Commerce, and Industry==
Buffalo and the surrounding area was long involved in steel-making and automobile production. While steel production is now mostly a thing of the past, several smaller steel mills remain in operation. In addition, [[Ford Motor Company|Ford]] maintains operation of its Buffalo Stamping Plant south of the city.The windshield wiper was invented in Buffalo, and the [[Trico]] company still operates some facilities there.
In the 21st Century, Buffalo has become a center for bio-informatics and human genome research, including work by researchers at the [[University at Buffalo]] and the [[Roswell Park Cancer Institute]]. SUNY at Buffalo also does a lot of research in how to make buildings resistant to the effects of earthquakes.
Buffalo has a District Office of the [[US Army Corps of Engineers]], a civilian agency which designed portions of the [[St. Lawrence Seaway]], and designed and built the [[Mount Morris Dam]] for flood control on the Genesee River above [[Rochester, New York|Rochester]], the largest concrete-arch dam in the eastern United States. The agency now is heavily involved in remediation of hazardous waste sites in the northeast.
==Culture==
===Nicknames===
By no means has "City of Light" been Buffalo's only nickname. The most common of its monikers - ''[[Queen City |The Queen City]]'' - refers to its position at the turn of the 20th century as the second-largest city on the [[Great Lakes]], after [[Chicago, Illinois]]. Buffalo has also been called ''The Nickel City'' due to the appearance of a buffalo on the back of [[Nickel (U.S. coin) |US nickels]] in the early part of the 20th century. ''The City of Good Neighbors'' refers to the spirit of its inhabitants.
=== Diversity ===
Buffalo was first settled by New Englanders, then experienced a large influx of Germans, was further populated by Irish canal workers, and infused by Polish, Sicilian, Black, and more recently Latino populations, all of which have made it a melting-pot of diverse ethnic cultures. The old First Ward in South Buffalo retains strong Irish influences; Kaisertown reflects German heritage, and the [http://www.broadwaymarket.com/ Broadway Market] is a microcosm of Polish traditions and food delicacies. The Sicilian custom of preparing [[St. Joseph's Day]] (March 19) tables, at which various Lenten meatless courses are laid out for the poor, is continued in many Buffalo households near the waterfront as well as by some nearby churches and restaurants. A small but significant [[Jewish]] community exists, traditionally centered along Hertel Avenue but more recently concentrated in the nearby suburb of [[Williamsville, New York|Williamsville]].
=== Food ===
The Buffalo area's [[cuisine]] reflects [[Italian cuisine|Italian]], [[Irish cuisine|Irish]], [[Jewish cuisine|Jewish]], [[Polish cuisine|Polish]], [[Greek cuisine|Greek]] and [[Cuisine of the United States|American]] influences. [[Kummelweck|Beef on Weck]], Sahlen's hot dogs, Pierogi, and Haddock [[Fish and chips|Fish Fries]] are among the local favorites. [[Teressa Bellissimo]], the chef/owner of the city's Anchor Bar, first prepared the now-widespread [[Buffalo wings| chicken wing (Buffalo Wing)]] there on [[October 3]],[[1964]]. Buffalo pizza is also of unique design; perhaps because Buffalo is geographically located halfway between [[New York City]] and [[Chicago, Illinois]], the pizza made there is likewise about halfway between thin-crust [[New York]] style and deep-dish Chicago style. Several websites exist that will ship Buffalo pizza (and other local foods) anywhere in the country.
Buffalo also has several specialty grocery stores in old ethnic neighborhoods and is home to an eclectic collection of cafes and restaurants that serve more cosmopolitan fare.
Buffalo is home to several well-known food products companies. Whipped topping, later imitated by [[Cool Whip]], was invented in Buffalo in [[1945]] by Robert E. Rich, Sr. The food company that produced this first whipped topping, [[Rich Products Corporation]], is today a major employer in Buffalo. General Mills was organized in Buffalo, and Gold Medal brand flour, Wheaties, Bisquick, [[Betty Crocker]] mixes and [[Cheerios]] are produced there. Freezer Queen Foods, a well-known producer of frozen food dinners, also operates from the Buffalo waterfront.
One of the countries largest cheese manufacturers, [[Sorrento Lactalis]] has been here since 1947.
Buffalo is also home to one of the largest privately held food companies in the world, [[Delaware North Companies]] which runs concessions in sports arenas, stadiums, resorts and many state & federal parks.
=== Art ===
Buffalo is home to over 50 private and public art galleries, most notably the [[Albright-Knox Art Gallery]], home to a world-class collection of [[Modern art]]. The local art scene is also serviced by the [[Burchfield-Penney Art Center]], [http://www.hallwalls.org/ Hallwalls Contemporary Arts Center], and countless small galleries and studios. Two street festivals - the [[Allentown Arts Festival]] |
892
* [[Thomas H. Gale Residence]], [[Oak Park, Illinois]], 1892
* [[Robert P. Parker Residence]], [[Oak Park, Illinois]], 1892
* [[Dr. Allison W. Harlan Residence]], [[Chicago, Illinois]], 1892
* [[Albert Sullivan Residence]], [[Chicago, Illinois]], 1892
* [[W. Irving Clark Residence]], [[LaGrange, Illinois]], 1893
* [[Walter M. Gale Residence]], [[Oak Park, Illinois]], 1893
* [[Robert M. Lamp Cottage]], Rocky Roost,[[ Lake Mendota]], [[Wisconsin]], 1893
* [[Lake Mendota Boathouse]], [[Madison, Wisconsin]], 1893
* [[Francis Woolley Residence]], [[Oak Park, Illinois]], 1893
* [[Peter Goan Residence]], [[Lagrange, Illinois]], 1893
* [[ Winslow House|William Herman Winslow Residence]], [[River Forest, Illinois]], 1894
* [[Frederick Bagley Residence]], [[Hinsdale, Illinois]], 1894
* [[Henry and Lily Mitchell Residence]], [[Racine, Wisconsin]], 1894
* [[Francisco Terrace Apartments]], [[Chicago, Illinois]], 1895
* [[Edward C. Waller Apartments]], [[Chicago, Illinois]], 1895
* [[Francis Apartments]], [[Chicago, Illinois]], 1895
* [[Chauncey L. Williams Residence]], [[River Forest, Illinois]], 1895
* [[Nathan G. Moore Residence]], [[Oak Park, Illinois]], 1895
* [[Romeo and Juliet Windmill]], [[Spring Green, Wisconsin]], 1896 rebuilt in 1938
* [[Isidore Heller Residence]], [[Chicago, Illinois]], 1896
* [[Harry C. Goodrich Residence]], [[Oak Park, Illinois]], 1896
* [[George W. Smith Residence]], [[Oak Park, Illinois]], 1896
* [[George Furbeck Residence]], [[Oak Park, Illinois]], 1897
* [[Rollin Furbeck Residence]], [[Oak Park, Illinois]], 1897
* [[River Forest Golf Club]], [[River Forest, Illinois]], 1898
* [[Thomas H. Gale Cottage]], [[Whitehall, Michigan]], 1897
* [[Joseph and Helen Husser Residence]], [[Chicago, Illinois]], 1899
===1900s===
* [[William and Jessie M. Adams Residence]], [[Chicago, Illinois]], 1900
* [[S.A. Foster Residence]] and Stable, [[Chicago, Illinois]], 1900
* [[B. Harley Bradley Residence]] and Stable, [[Kankakee, Illinois]], 1900
* [[Warren Hickox Residence]], [[Kankakee, Illinois]], 1900
* [[E.H. Pitkin Residence]], [[Desbarats, Ontario]], [[Canada]], 1900
* [[Henry Wallis Cottage]], [[Delavan, Wisconsin]], 1900
* [[Fred B. Jones Residence]], [[Delavan, Wisconsin]], 1900
* Ward Winfield [[Willits House|Willits Residence]], and Gardener’s Cottage and Stables, [[Highland Park, Illinois]], 1901
* [[F.B. Henderson Residence]], [[Elmhurst, Illinois]], 1901
* [[William G. Fricke Residence]], [[Oak Park, Illinois]], 1901
* [[Edward C. Waller Gates and Stables]], [[River Forest, Illinois]], 1901
* [[Buffalo Exposition Pavilion for Universal Portland Cement Company]], [[Buffalo, New York]], 1901
* [[Frank Wright Thomas Residence]], 210 Forest Avenue, [[Oak Park, Illinois]], 1901
* [[E. Arthur Davenport Residence]], [[River Forest, Illinois]], 1901
* [[William E. Martin Residence]], [[Oak Park, Illinois]], 1902
* [[Lake Delavan Yacht Club]], [[Lake Delavan]], [[Delavan, Wisconsin]], 1902
* [[Hillside Home School II]], [[Spring Green, Wisconsin]], 1902
* [[Francis W. and Mary Little Residence I]] and Stable I, [[Peoria, Illinois]], 1902
* Arthur and Grace [[Heurtley Residence]], [[Oak Park, Illinois]], 1902
* [[Mrs. George Gerts Double House, Bridge Cottage]], [[Whitehall, Michigan]], 1902
* [[Susan Lawrence Dana House]], [[Springfield, Illinois]], 1902
* [[Walter Gerts Cottage]], [[Whitehall, Michigan]], 1902
* [[George W. Spencer Residence]], [[Delavan, Wisconsin]], 1902
* [[Charles S. Ross Residence]], [[Delavan, Wisconsin]], 1902
* [[J.J. Walser, Jr. Residence]], [[Chicago, Illinois]], 1903
* [[Larkin Administration Building]], [[Buffalo, New York]], 1903
* [[Scoville Park Fountain]], [[Oak Park, Illinois]], 1903
* [[Abraham Lincoln Center]], [[Chicago, Illinois]], 1903
* [[Robert M. Lamp Residence]], [[Madison, Wisconsin]], 1903
* George [[Barton House|Barton Residence]], [[Buffalo, New York]], 1903
* [[Mamah Borthwick and Edwin H. Cheney Residence]], [[Oak Park, Illinois]], 1903
* [[Mrs. Thomas H. Gale Residence]], [[Oak Park, Illinois]], 1904
* [[Unity Temple]], [[Oak Park, Illinois]], 1904
* Burton J. [[Westcott House|Westcott Residence]], [[Springfield, Ohio]], 1904
* Darwin D. [[Martin House|Martin Estate]], [[Buffalo, New York]], 1904
* William R. [[Heath House|Heath Residence]], [[Buffalo, New York]], 1904
* Ferdinand Frederick and Emily [[Tomek Residence]], [[Riverside, Illinois]], 1904
* [[Harvey P. Sutton Residence]], [[McCook, Nebraska]], 1905
* [[Hiram Baldwin Residence]], [[Kenilworth, Illinois]], 1905
* [[Mary M. W. Adams Residence]], [[Highland Park, Illinois]], 1905
* [[William A. Glasner Residence]], [[Glencoe, Illinois]], 1905
* [[Charles A. Brown Residence]], [[Evanston, Illinois]], 1905
* [[Frank L. Smith Bank]], [[Dwight, Illinois]], 1905
* [[E.W. Cummings Real Estate Office]], [[River Forest, Illinois]], 1905
* [[E-Z Polish Factory]], [[Chicago, Illinois]], 1905
* [[Lawrence Memorial Library]], [[Springfield, Illinois]], 1905
* [[A.P. Johnson Residence]], [[Delavan, Wisconsin]], 1905
* [[Darwin D. Martin Gardener’s Cottage]], [[Buffalo, New York]], 1905
* [[Thomas P. Hardy Residence]], [[Racine, Wisconsin]], 1905
* [[William H. Pettit Mortuary Chapel]], [[Belvidere, Illinois]], 1906
* [[Peter A. Beachy Residence]], [[Oak Park, Illinois]], 1906
* [[Frederick D. Nichols Residence]], [[Flossmoor, Illinois]], 1906
* [[River Forest Tennis Club]], [[River Forest, Illinois]], 1906
* [[P. D. Hoyt Residence]], [[Geneva, Illinois]], 1906
* [[A. W. Gridley Residence]], [[Batavia, Illinois]], 1906
* [[Grace Fuller Residence]], [[Glencoe, Illinois]], 1906
* [[K. C. DeRhodes Residence]], [[South Bend, Indiana]], 1906
* [[George Madison Millard Residence]], [[Highland Park, Illinois]], 1906
* Frederick C. [[Robie House|Robie Residence]], [[Chicago, Illinois]], 1906
* [[Jamestown Exhibition Pavilion]], [[Norfolk, Virginia]], 1907
* [[George Blossom Garage]], [[Chicago, Illinois]], 1907
* [[Tanyderi]], [[Spring Green, Wisconsin]],1907
* Avery [[Coonley House|Coonley Residence]], [[Riverside, Illinois]], 1907
* [[Stephen M. B. Hunt Residence I]], [[LaGrange, Illinois]], 1907
* [[G. C. Stockman Residence]], [[Mason City, Iowa]], 1908
* [[Raymond W. Evens Residence]], [[Chicago, Illinois]], 1908
* [[Browne’s Bookstore]], [[Chicago, Illinois]], 1908
* [[L. K. Horner Residence]], [[Chicago, Illinois]], 1908
* [[Bitter Root Inn]], [[Stevensville, Montana]], 1908
* [[Eugene A. Gilmore Residence]], [[Madison, Wisconsin]], 1908
* [[Edward E. Boynton Residence]], [[Rochester, New York]], 1908
* [[Meyer May Residence]], [[Grand Rapids, Michigan]], 1908
* Walter V. [[Davidson House|Davidson Residence]], [[Buffalo, New York]], 1908
* [[Isabel Roberts Residence]], [[River Forest, Illinois]], 1908
* [[Como Orchard Summer Colony]], [[Darby, Montana]], 1909
* [[Frank J. Baker Residence]], [[Wilmette, Illinois]], 1909
* [[Oscar Steffens Residence]], [[Chicago, Illinois]], 1909
* [[W. Scott Thurber Art Gallery]], [[Chicago, Illinois]], 1909
* [[City National Bank Building and Park Inn Hotel]], [[Mason City, Iowa]], 1909
* [[Stewart Summer Residence]], [[Montecito, California]], 1909
* [[J. Kibben Ingalls Residence]], [[River Forest, Illinois]], 1909
* [[Peter C. Stohr Arcade Building]], [[Chicago, Illinois]], 1909
* [[Edward P. Irving Residence]], [[Decatur, Illinois]], 1909
* [[Edward C. Waller Bathing Pavilion]], [[Charlevoix, Michigan]], 1909
===1910s===
* [[New York City Exhibition for the Universal Portland Cement Company]], [[New York, New York]], 1910
* [[Jessie R. Ziegler Residence]], [[Frankfort, Kentucky]], [[1910]]
* [[O. B. Balch Residence]], [[Oak Park, Illinois]], 1911
* [[Herbert Angster Residence]], [[Lake Bluff, Illinois]], 1911
* [[Sherman M. Booth Cottage]], [[Glencoe, Illinois]], 1911
* [[Banff National Park Pavilion]], [[Banff, Alberta]], 1911
* [[Lake Geneva Hotel]], [[Lake Geneva, Wisconsin]], 1911
* [[Taliesin I]], [[Spring Green, Wisconsin]], 1911
* [[Francis W. Little Residence II]], [[Deephaven, Minnesota]], 1912
* [[Avery Coonley Playhouse]], [[Riverside, Illinois]], 1912
* [[Observation Platform for Island Woolen Mills]], [[Baraboo, Wisconsin]], 1912
* [[William B. Greene Residence]], [[Aurora, Illinois]], 1912
* [[Harry S. Adams Residence]], [[Oak Park, Illinois]], 1913
* [[Midway Gardens]], [[Chicago, Illinois]], 1913
* [[Mori Oriental Art Studio]], [[Chicago, Illinois]], 1914
* [[Woman’s Building at Inter-County Fairgrounds]], [[Spring Green, Wisconsin]], 1914
* [[Taliesin II]], [[Spring Green, Wisconsin]], 1914
* [[A.D. German Warehouse]], [[Richland Center, Wisconsin]], 1915
* [[Edmund F. Brigham Residence]], [[Glencoe, Illinois]], 1915
* [[Ravine Bluffs Development]], [[Glencoe, Illinois]], 1915
* [[Ravine Bluffs Development Sculptures]], [[Glencoe, Illinois]], 1915
* [[Ravine Bluffs Development Bridge]], [[Glencoe, Illinois]], 1915
* [[Sherman M. Booth Residence]], [[Glencoe, Illinois]], 1915 in Ravine Bluffs Development
* [[Charles R. Perry Residence]], [[Glencoe, Illinois]], 1915 in Ravine Bluffs Development
* [[Hollis R. Root Residence]], [[Glencoe, Illinois]], 1915 in Ravine Bluffs Development
* [[William F. Kier Residence]], [[Glencoe, Illinois]], 1915 in Ravine Bluffs Development
* [[William F. Ross Residence]], [[Glencoe, Illinois]], 1915 in Ravine Bluffs Development
* [[Lute F. and Daniel Kissam Residence]], [[Glencoe, Illinois]], 1915 in Ravine Bluffs Development
* [[Emil Bach Residence]], [[Chicago, Illinois]], 1915
* [[Imperial Hotel]], [[Tokyo, Japan]], 1915 demolished, 1968, lobby and pool reconstructed in 1976 in at [[Meiji Mura]], near [[Nagoya, Japan]]
* [[Arthur L. Richards Small House]], [[Milwaukee, Wisconsin]], [[1915]], [[American System-Built Home]]
* [[Richards Bungalow]], [[Milwaukee, Wisconsin]], 1915, American System-Built Home
* [[Lewis E. Burleigh Residence]], [[Wilmette, Illinois]], 1915, American System-Built Home
* [[Ida and Grace McElwain Residence]], [[Lake Bluff, Illinois]], 1915, American System-Built Home
* [[Frederick C. Bogk]], [ |
nd the rise of Participatory Journalism]''', ''RTHK Media Digest'', March 2004, by Andrew Lih. Article about origins of Wikipedia and Chinese Wikipedia.
* '''[http://news.independent.co.uk/digital/features/story.jsp?story=504287 A turn up for the books]''', ''The Independent'', pg. 11, Danny Bradbury, March 24, 2004, "Weighty volumes are on their way out. Even CD-Roms are old hat. So why has the biggest online encyclopedia decided to produce a paper version?" Story about Jimbo Wales and Wikipedia.
* '''[http://www.usatoday.com/tech/columnist/andrewkantor/2004-03-26-kantor_x.htm Open-source software offers alternative to off-the-shelf products]''', ''USA Today.com'', Andrew Kantor, March 26, 2004. A story on source products mentions Wikipedia: "To see an incredible example of open-source intellectual collaboration, check out Wikipedia, an online encyclopedia with more than 230,000 articles contributed by anyone who wants to add to it. You might expect it to be a hodgepodge of garbage and rhetoric, but it's not. It's not. It's actually one of the best reference resources on the Web."
* David Sidwell, "The Web As It Was Meant To Be", ''The Age'' (Mar. 18, 2004). "But the idea of web-based creation and updating never really went away. Indeed, it is very much alive in a concept known as a Wiki."
===April===
*'''[http://www.pcworld.com/resource/printable/article/0,aid,114725,00.asp Beyond Google]''', ''PCWorld'', April 2004, "Or try Wikipedia, a volunteer encyclopedia with a global flavor, for data on topics from math to mythology to the arts."
*'''[http://www.nytimes.com/2004/04/01/technology/circuits/01askk.html Q. What does the term "wiki" mean with regard to the Web?]''', J. Biersdorfer tech column, April 1, 2004, ''The New York Times'' "The Wikipedia (wikipedia.org) is an ambitious online encyclopedia in several languages that also invites participation."
*'''[http://www.guardian.co.uk/online/story/0,3605,1182809,00.html Weave a wiki web]''', ''The Guardian'', April 1, 2004. "Wiki sites that work include the impressive Wikipedia, a collaborative encyclopaedia covering every topic imaginable. It puts the wiki concept to practical use, drawing on the combined knowledge and experience of all its contributors to create something informative and authoritative." ''Reprinted in [http://www.hindu.com/2004/04/02/stories/2004040201702400.htm The Hindu] (India), April 2, 2004.''
*'''[http://www.usatoday.com/money/books/reviews/2004-04-12-future-of-work_x.htm Tomorrow's work forecast]''', ''USA TODAY'', April 12, 2004. "Loose hierarchies. The free online encyclopedia Wikipedia (www.wikipedia.org ) is mostly a volunteer operation, but it employs a few guidelines, such as writing articles from a neutral point of view..."
*'''[http://www.theage.com.au/articles/2004/04/12/1081621875197.html The power of search]''', ''The Age'', April 13, 2004. "By far the best of the free services is Wikipedia, constructed by volunteers. It works on the premise that everyone is an expert in at least one topic and can write an encyclopedic entry that is vetted and corrected by others with enough knowledge to make it authoritative. This peer-to-peer nature has seen Wikipedia grow to one of the biggest resources. However, its open nature means that some controversial materials should be double-checked against other sources for accuracy and objectivity. Wikipedia is available in 73 languages including Catalan, Vietnamese and Greek."
*'''[http://www.pcmag.com/article2/0,1759,1558375,00.asp 2004 100 Top Websites You Didn't Know You Couldn't Live Without]''', ''PC Magazine'', April 20, 2004. Under [http://www.pcmag.com/article2/0,1759,1555130,00.asp Information] category: "Wikipedia is a collaborative, community-built, open-content encyclopedia; anyone can edit any page, augment an existing entry, or add a new one. Sure, there's a lot of questionable and incomplete content, but you'll also find many fascinating, detailed, well-written articles. Go ahead and make your contribution to the sum of human knowledge."
*[[Google bomb]] of Wikipedia's [[Jew]] article:
**'''[http://www.jpost.com/servlet/Satellite?pagename=JPost/JPArticle/ShowFull&cid=1081998816187&p=1008596975996 Anti-Semitic site bumped off Google's top spot]''' (''Jerusalem Post'', Internet, April 15, 2004) "Utilizing a cyber-petition and some clever HTML programming, a diverse group of Jewish activists, academics and even a US senator managed to replace the top spot with Wikipedia's encyclopedia, which two weeks ago held no rank."
**'''[http://www.webpronews.com/news/ebusinessnews/wpn-45-20040416GooglebombingOfJewKeywordContinues.html Googlebombing Of Jew Keyword Continues]''', ''WebProNews'', April 15, 2004, " Daniel Sieradski, editor of Jew School, a Web site dedicated to Jewish fringe culture, has spearheaded a Googlebomb designed to knock JewWatch.com out of the first place. Yesterday, the top listing for the keyword was Wikipedia.org, a reference page devoted to the definition of the word "Jew"." It was reported later in the article that JewWatch.com was back to the number one spot.
**'''[http://www.jpost.com/servlet/Satellite?pagename=JPost/JPArticle/ShowFull&cid=1082606042155 Googling for a better tomorrow]''', ''Jerusalem Post'', Internet, April 22, 2004, "The Wikipedia page (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jew ) is a lot more user-friendly, and discusses Judaism from an objective, factual point of view &#8211; just the thing for our friends in Wyoming and China."
**'''[http://msnbc.msn.com/id/4767133/ Google: Watch Out for 'Watch']''', Steven Levy, ''Newsweek'', April 26, 2004, "Soon people may see a different top choice for "Jew": a hate-free entry in the participatory reference work called Wikipedia."
**'''[http://www.jta.org/page_view_story.asp?intarticleid=14026&intcategoryid=4 Who can define 'Jew?' Internet flap shows challenge of the digital age]''', ''Jewish Telegraphic Agency'', April 27, 2004, "The Jewschool-led offensive pointed to the online encyclopedia Wikipedia. Within weeks, Wikipedia&#8217;s definition of the word 'Jew' became the first result for that search term."
*'''[http://www.journalism.co.uk/news/story866.shtml Targeted ads are the route to online profits]''', ''Journalism.co.uk'', April 22, 2004. "Wikipedia, an online encyclopaedia project, invites readers to add or amend information on the site. The site is an interesting example of a project with participatory journalism at its core, said speaker Andrew Lih, assistant professor at Hong Kong University."
*'''[http://www.webpronews.com/insiderreports/searchinsider/wpn-49-20040422YahooSearchShortcuts.html Yahoo Search Shortcuts]''', ''WebProNews'', April, 22 2004). "Now, Yahoo does offer a built-in encyclopedia search. If you type in 'caterpillar facts' then your top result links to an encyclopedia entry. Now, does this beat wikipedia's [[caterpillar]] entry? No, but it does beat Google's encyclopedia entry."
*'''[http://www.zdnet.com.au/news/communications/0,2000061791,39145754,00.htm Brisbane council Web site nominated for Web Oscar]''', ''ZDNet'', April 23, 2004). "Receiving multiple [Webby Awards] nominations include iTunes Music Store, Meetup.com, Google, Noggin, Wikipedia and Live 365."
*'''[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/technology/3653425.stm A question of trust online]''', ''BBC News'', April 23, 2004. "And there is the wikipedia, a community-written encyclopedia that has evolved over the years from a largely technical bunch of articles into one of the most reliably useful sources of information around, on or off-line."
*'''[http://www.salon.com/tech/feature/2004/04/27/wikipedia/index.html Everyone is an Editor]''', ''Salon.com'', April 27, 2004. "Launched in January 2001 with barely a dozen articles, Wikipedia crossed the 500,000 articles mark in February, with posters contributing content in more than 30 languages and, by last measure, at a rate of 300,000 articles per year."
===May===
*'''[http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/4815771/ Grass-roots guide to everything]''', ''Newsweek'' and ''Newsweek Society'', May 3, 2004. "Here's an encyclopedia that evokes a variation on the famous Groucho line: would you get your information from a reference work that accepts you as an author?"
*'''[http://yaleglobal.yale.edu/display.article?id=3808 Build an Encyclopedia: Everybody is Invited]''', YaleGlobal Online, May 5, 2004. "Wikipedia - the largest example of these collaborative efforts - is a functioning, user-contributed online encyclopedia that has become a popular and highly regarded reference in just three years of existence."
** '''[http://www.thejakartapost.com/detaileditorial.asp?fileid=20040508.F01&irec=1 Anyone may contribute to E-encyclopedia]''', ''Jakarta Post (Indonesia)'', May 8, 2004. ''Syndicated version of above Yale Global article''.
** '''Wikipedia builds 'free market of knowledge' ''', ''The Standard (Hong Kong)'', May 10, 2004. ''Syndicated version of above Yale Global article''.
*'''[http://journalism.utexas.edu/onlinejournalism/story17.html Participatory Journalism: The Essence of Wikipedia]''', International Symposium on Online Journalism (from the University of Texas), May, 2004. "Wiki wiki -- Hawaiian for "quick" -- is at the root of Wikipedia, a encyclopedia website where any page can be edited by users with the simple click of an "edit this page" button." There is also a PDF of a paper from that Symposium by Andrew Lih, of Hong Kong University: [http://journalism.utexas.edu/onlinejournalism/wikipedia.pdf]
* Wikipedia has '''[http://www.webbyawards.com/main/webby_awards/nominees.html#community won a Webby award]''' in the "Community" category. Related coverage |
|in Finland]], and [[nationalist activism|activist]] expeditions (called [[Heimosodat (Finland)|Heimosodat]], or "tribal wars" in Finnish), including the [[Viena expedition|to White Karelia]] and [[Aunus expedition|to Aunus]], complicated relations.
In 1918, the country experienced a brief but bitter [[Finnish Civil War|Civil War]] that coloured domestic politics for many years. The Civil War was fought between "the whites", who gained support from [[Imperial Germany]], and "the reds", supported by Bolshevist Russia. The reds consisted mostly of leftist property–less rural and industrial workers who, despite [[universal suffrage]] in 1906, felt that they lacked political influence. The white forces were mostly made up of bourgeoisie and wealthy peasantry, politically more to the right. Eventually, the whites overcame the reds.
The Finnish&ndash;Russian border was agreed to in the [[Treaty of Tartu]] in 1920, largely following the historic border but granting [[Petsamo]] and its [[Barents Sea]] harbour to Finland.
[[Image:Finnish_Soldiers_Skiing.jpg|thumb|right|Defending the country against foreign invaders has been a major issue.]]
During [[World War II]], Finland fought the [[Soviet Union]] twice: in the [[Winter War]] of 1939&ndash;1940 and in the [[Continuation War]] of 1941&ndash;1944, in time closely following [[Operation Barbarossa]], the [[Nazi Germany|German]] invasion of the Soviet Union. This was followed by the [[Lapland War]] of 1944&ndash;1945, when Finland forced the Germans out of northern Finland.
Treaties signed in 1947 and 1948 with the Soviet Union included obligations, restraints and reparations on Finland vis-à-vis the Soviet Union as well as further territorial concessions by Finland (compared to the [[Moscow Peace Treaty (1940)|Moscow Peace Treaty of 1940]]). Finland ceded most of [[Finnish Karelia]], [[Salla]] and Petsamo. The reparations to Soviet Union forced Finland to transform from primarily agrarian to industrialized economy, after they were paid Finland continued to supply Soviet Union. (Russia has assumed a large part of the unpaid national debt which is slowly being remunerated with raw materials(oil, ores) and electricity)
After the Second World War, Finland was in the grey zone between western countries and Soviet Union. The "[[YYA Treaty]]" (Finno-Soviet Pact of Friendship, Cooperation, and Mutual Assistance) gave the Soviet Union some leverage in Finnish domestic politics and included a guarantee whereby Finland promised to defend her territory and airspace against [[Germany]] or her allies, in practice [[NATO]]. Many politicians, like [[Urho Kekkonen|President Kekkonen]] (1956&ndash;[[1981|81]]), used their relations with Moscow to solve party controversies, which meant that the Soviet Union gained even more influence; other people worked single-mindedly to oppose the Kremlin. The society had also a strong tendency of self-censorship regarding the Fenno-Soviet relations and Soviet Union and the press was often reprimanded or given instructions in handling issues related to the Soviet Union. There was virtually no critizism or objective discussion of communism or Soviet Union in Finland during those years. This phenomenon of self-censorship was given the name [[finlandisation]] by German press. However, Finland maintained a democratic government and market economy, unlike other countries bordering the Soviet Union.
The post-war era was a period of rapid economic growth and increasing wealth and stability for Finland. The war-ravaged agrarian country was transformed into a technologically advanced market economy with a sophisticated social welfare system.
When the [[fall of the Soviet Union|Soviet Union fell]] in 1991 Finland was surprised and suffered economically, but was free to follow her own course and joined the [[European Union]] in 1995, where Finland is an advocate of [[federalism]] contrary to the other [[Nordic countries]] that are predominantly supportive of [[confederalism]].
==Etymology==
The name ''Suomi'' has uncertain origins, but a strong candidate is Baltic ''zheme'' "ground, earth, country", which is consistent with Finnic peoples traditionally calling themselves ''maaväki'' "country people". Furthermore, ''suo'' means "bog", which is the characteristic biotype of Finland.
The exonym ''Finland'', which not found in Finnish, has resemblance with e.g. the [[Scandinavian languages|Scandinavian]] [[placename]]s [[Finnmark]], [[Finnveden]] and [[Finnskogen]] and all are thought to be derived from ''finn'', an ancient Germanic word for [[nomadic]] "[[hunter-gatherer]]s" (as opposed to sedentary farmers). This would explain the connection between these names and the modern nation called [[Finns]], a few of whom were nomadic or semi-nomadic until the [[Middle Ages]] beside the farming majority.
== Politics==
[[Image:Stairs_of_Finnish_Parliament.jpg|thumb|[[Finnish Parliament]] House in [[Helsinki]]]]
''Main article: [[Politics of Finland]]''
Finland has a [[semi-presidential system]] with [[Parliamentarism]]. The [[President of Finland]] is formally responsible for [[Foreign policy of Finland|foreign policy]]. Most executive power lies in the [[cabinet (government)|cabinet]] (the [[Finnish Council of State]]) headed by the [[Prime Minister of Finland|prime minister]] chosen by the [[Parliament of Finland|parliament]]. The Council of State is made up of the prime minister and the ministers for the various departments of the central government as well as an ex-officio member, the [[Chancellor of Justice#Finland|Chancellor of Justice]].
The 200-member [[unicameral]] [[Parliament of Finland]] is called the ''Eduskunta'' (Finnish) or ''Riksdag'' (Swedish). It is the supreme legislative authority in Finland. The parliament may alter the [[Constitution of Finland]], bring about the resignation of the Council of State, and override presidential vetoes. Its acts are not subject to judicial review. [[Legislation]] may be initiated by the Council of State, or one of the Eduskunta members, who are elected for a four-year term on the basis of proportional representation through [[open list]] multimember districts.
The [[judicial system of Finland]] is divided between [[court (judicial)|courts]] with regular civil and criminal jurisdiction and administrative courts with responsibility for litigation between the individuals and the administrative organs of the state and the communities. Their jurisdiction can be illustrated with an example: Parents unsatisfied with the school placement of their child would appeal against the board of education in an administrative court as the school placement is subject to an administrative decision. Finnish law is codified and its court system consists of local courts, regional appellate courts, and the [[Judicial system of Finland#Supreme Court|Supreme Court]]. The administrative branch of justice consists of administrative courts and the [[Judicial system of Finland#Supreme Administrative Court|Supreme Administrative Court]]. The administrative process has more popularity as it is cheaper and has lower financial risk to the person making claims. In addition to the regular courts, there are a few special courts in certain branches of administration. There is also a [[Judicial system of Finland#High Court of Impeachment|High Court of Impeachment]] for criminal charges (for an offence in office) against the President of the Republic, the justices of the supreme courts, members the Council of State, the [[Chancellor of Justice#Finland|Chancellor of Justice]] and the [[Ombudsman#Finland|Ombudsman]] of Parliament.
The parliament has, since [[equal and common suffrage]] was introduced in 1906, been dominated by [[National Coalition Party (Finland)|secular Conservatives]], [[Centre Party of Finland|the Centre Party (former Agrarian Union)]], and [[Social Democratic Party of Finland|Social Democrats]]. After 1944 [[Communist Party of Finland|Communists]] were a factor to consider for few decades. The [[Swedish People's Party in Finland|Swedish People's Party]] represents Finland Swedes, especially in language politics. The relative strengths of the parties vary only slightly in the elections due to the proportional election from multimember districts but there are some visible long-term trends.
It should be noted that the Finnish political system remained democratic during the [[Cold War]], although the political atmosphere was largely influenced by the neighbouring [[Soviet Union]] and a certain degree of self-censorship.
The [[constitution of Finland]] and its place in the judicial system are unusual in that there is no constitutional court and the supreme court does not have an explicit right to declare a law unconstitutional. In principle, the constitutionality of laws in Finland is verified by a simple vote in the parliament. However, the Constitutional Law Committee of the parliament reviews any doubtful bills and recommends changes, if needed. In practice, the Constitutional Law Committee fulfils the duties of the constitutional court. A Finnish peculiarity is the possibility to make exceptions to the constitution in usual laws that are enacted in the same procedure as constitutional amendments. An example of such law is the State of Preparedness Act which gives the Council of State certain exceptional powers in cases of national emergency. As these powers, which correspond the US executive orders, affect the constitutional basic rights, the law was enacted in the same manner as a constitutional amendment. However, it can be repealed in the same manner as a usual law. In addition to the preview of the Constitutional Law Committee, all Finnish courts of law have the obligation to give precedence to the constitution when there is an obvious conflict between the constitution and a regular law. That is, however, very rare. The |
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:# Nutritional substrates
:# [[Adenosine triphosphate|ATP]] – required as a source of free energy
:# Intact [[cell membrane]]s
:# Steady-state activity requires O<sub>2</sub> consumption
=== Physiological changes ===
A. Events leading to death:
:# Brain ceases to supply information vital for controlling ventilation, heart rhythm, and/or [[vasodilation]] and [[vasoconstriction]];
:# Lungs unable to supply O<sub>2</sub> exchange with blood stream;
:# Heart and blood vessels unable to maintain adequate circulation of blood to vital tissues.
B. [[Cerebrovascular system]]:
:# [[Hemorrhage]];
:# Pump failure;
:# Decreased [[Carbon dioxide|CO<sub>2</sub>]] leads to decreased PCO<sub >2</sub > leads to [[Cheyne-Stokes respiration]].
C. [[Central nervous system|CNS]] problems:
:# [[Infection]];
:# [[Blood vessel]] disruption;
:# [[Malignant]] [[tumor]]s;
:# [[Metabolism|Metabolic]] changes:
:## [[Renal failure]];
:## [[Hepatic failure]];
:## [[Pancreas|Pancreatic]] failure.
D. [[CNS]] decompensation:
:# Early signs:
:## Sluggish pupils:
:### Non-reactive to stimuli;
:### Dilated and fixed - this is also an effect of certain [[drug|drugs]].
:## Confusion;
:## Inability to orient oneself.
:# Later signs:
:## [[Lethargy]];
:## Decreased ability to perform simple [[cognition|cognitive]] functions;
:## Attention only by tactile, auditory or visual stimuli.
:# Late signs:
:## Stupor, sleep;
:## Withdrawal of purposeless involvement to stimuli without wakefulness or arousal;
:## Loss of bowel control.
:# Semi-[[coma|comatose]] - movement occurs only with pain;
:# Deep coma - unresponsive to stimuli.
E. Respiratory system:
:# [[Cerebral blood flow|CBF]];
:# [[Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease|COPD]];
:# Infections;
:# Cancer [[metastasis]].
:Changes after death:
:# Body cools at a rate of 1.5[[°F]]/hr;
:# [[Rigor mortis]] - begins prior to [[decomposition]]:
:## Muscles gradually become hard due to decreased ATP and [[lactic acidosis]] within muscle [[fibril|fibrils]]
:## Begins 2-4 hours after death, though the process may begin more immediately;
:## May disappear after 9-12 hours in a warm enough [[climate]].
:# [[Livor mortis]] - begins on the point of death:
:## Body becomes distended;
:## Skin color progressively changes from green to purple and finally to black;
:## Dependent areas of the body undergo this process first due to the pooling of blood;
:## Seen within 2 hours of death, the process of livor mortis reaches its maximum at 8-12 hours.
== Signs of approaching death ==
;When death is imminent
Physical death is a progressive process, during which there are some signs that usually indicate that death is imminent. Not all of the following changes occur, nor do they necessarily occur in any particular order, as the body shuts down during the dying process. In general, the following information may help anticipate and understand changes that appear as an individual approaches death and is “actively dying.”
* The dying individual may become increasingly tired and sleepy, and may be difficult to arouse ([[lethargy]]).
* The dying individual may become confused much of the time and may no longer recognize familiar persons, places, or objects.
* Hearing and vision may become impaired, and speech may be slurred, difficult to understand, or nonsensical.
* A few dying individuals become restless or very anxious and move about frequently in the bed, pull at the bed clothes or bedding (linen clutch), and reach out.
* The person may experience hallucinations.
* Less nourishment will be required, and the person’s intake of food and water will diminish. Difficulty in swallowing (dysphagia) may also occur.
* The person may sweat profusely.
* The dying person may lose control of his/her urine or bowels ([[incontinence]]), necessitating that the individual be kept especially clean and dry in order to prevent [[bed sores]] (decubitis ulcers).
* Urine may become darker, and urination may diminish or stop.
* The mouth of the dying individual may become dry, and then secretions may accumulate in the back of the throat. Breathing may become noisy because of the gurgling or rattling of the secretions in the mouth or chest ([[death rattle]]).
* The pattern of breathing may change; become slower or faster, deeper or shallower, or irregular. Often the dying individual will have periods of rapid breathing followed by periods in which breathing is very slow or is even absent for as long as 15 seconds.
* The legs, and then arms, may become cold and nonreflexive as the circulation slows down.
* The skin may be pale or mottled, and some parts, particularly the underside of the body, may become a dark color as the blood pools, usually a deep blue or purple.
;When death occurs
* Breathing ceases entirely.
* Heartbeat and pulse stop.
* The person is entirely unresponsive to stimuli.
* The eyes may be fixed in directions. The pupils are dilated and fixed to light. The eyelids may be open or closed.
* A loss of control of urine and/or bowels may occur.
* The person becomes progressively mottled and cold and stiff (known as [[rigor mortis]])
* The skin may become pale; there may be signs of blood buildup in the part of the body at lowest elevation (known as [[Livor mortis]]).
== Causes of human death in the US ==
In [[2002]], in the [[United States]], various common or noteworthy causes of death were:
* [[Heart disease]]: 696,947
* [[Cancer]]: 557,271
* [[Stroke]]: 162,672
* Chronic lower [[respiratory disease]]s: 124,816
* [[Accident]]s (unintentional injuries): 106,742
* [[Diabetes]]: 73,249
* [[Influenza]]/[[pneumonia]]: 65,681
* [[Alzheimer's disease]]: 58,866
* [[Nephritis]], [[nephrotic syndrome]], and [[nephrosis]]: 40,974
* [[Septicemia]]: 33,865
* [[Suicide]]: 30,622
* [[Murder]]: 16,110
* [[Execution]]: 71
Statistical data from
[http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/fastats/lcod.htm U.S. Department of Health & Human Services], [http://www.deathpenaltyinfo.org/ Death Penalty Information Center]
===Prebirth Deaths in the US===
These entries are [[controversy|controversial]], as they are based on the premise that [[personhood]] begins at conception rather than birth or a particular prenatal development (See [[abortion debate]]; there are various opinions as to whether or not a fetus is an independant organism or fully human, for this reason abortion and miscarriage are not normally considered when compiling death statistics).
* [[Spontaneous abortion]] (''Miscarriage''): Approximately 1,000,000 (This number may be considerably more, as most miscarriages aren't reported; perhaps as many as 1 in 3 pregnancies end in miscarriage).
* [[Abortion|Clinical abortion]]s: 1,293,000
Statistical data from
[http://www.agi-usa.org/media/presskits/2005/06/28/abortionoverview.html The Alan Guttmacher Institute], and
[http://www.hopexchange.com/Statistics.htm Miscarriage Statistics].
== Consciousness after death ==
Belief in [[consciousness]] [[after life|after death]] is common and has endured throughout history. Almost every civilization in history has had some belief system relating to life after death. This point of view holds conciousness to be more than simply one of the things that [[brain]]s do.
== Physiological consequences of human death ==
[[Image:Human remains.jpg|thumb|rsight|Human remains found in scrub, circa 1900-1910.]]
For the human body, the physiological consequences of death follow a recognized sequence through early changes into [[bloating]], then decay to changes after decay and finally skeletal remains.
Soon after death (15&ndash;120 minutes depending on various factors), the body begins to cool ([[algor mortis]]), becomes pallid ([[pallor mortis]]), and internal sphincter muscles relax, leading to the release of [[urine]], [[feces]], and [[stomach]] contents if the body is moved. The blood moves to pool in the lowest parts of the body, [[livor mortis]] (dependent lividity), within 30 minutes and then begins to [[coagulate]]. The body experiences muscle stiffening ([[rigor mortis]]) which peaks at around 12 hours after death and is gone in another 24 (depending on temperature) as [[enzyme]]s begin to break down the [[biological tissue|tissues]]. Within a day, the body starts to show signs of [[decomposition]] ([[decay]]), both [[autolysis|autolytic]] changes and from 'attacking' organisms&mdash;[[bacteria]], [[fungi]], [[insect]]s, [[mammal]]ian scavengers, etc. Internally, the body structures begin to collapse, the [[skin]] loses integration with the underlying tissues, and bacterial action creates [[gas]]es which cause bloating and swelling. The rate of decay is enormously variable; a body can be reduced to [[skeleton|skeletal]] remains in days, or remain largely intact for thousands of years.
== Settlement of dead human bodies ==
In most cultures, before the onset of significant decay, the body undergoes some type of ritual disposal, usually either [[cremation]] or deposition in a [[tomb]] that is often a hole in the ground called a [[grave]], but may also be a [[sarcophagus]], [[crypt]], [[sepulchre]], or [[ossuary]], a mound or barrow, or a monumental surface structure such as a [[mausoleum]] (exemplified by the [[Taj Mahal]]) or a [[pyramid]] (as exemplified by the [[Great Pyramid of Giza]]).
In [[Tibet]], one method of corpse disposal is [[sky burial]], which involves placing the body of the deceased on high ground (a [[mountain]]) and leaving it for [[birds]] of prey to dispose of. Sometimes this is because in some religious views, [[bird of prey|birds of prey]] are carriers of the [[soul]] to the heavens, but at other times this simply reflects the fact that when terrain (as in [[Tibet]]) makes the ground too hard to dig, there are few trees around to burn and the local religion ([[Buddhism]]) believes that the body after death is only an empty shell, there are more practical ways of disposing of a body, such as leaving it for anim |
[[Safety (American football)#free kick|free kick]]''' instead of a kickoff. A free kick is made from a team's own 20-yard-line and can be punted or placekicked.
===Penalties===
Rule violations are punished with '''penalties'''. Most penalties result in moving the football either towards the endzone in the case of a defensive penalty, or away from the endzone in the case of an offensive penalty. Some defensive penalties give the offense an automatic first down. In addition, if a penalty gives the offensive team enough yardage to gain a first down, the first down is automatically given. If a penalty occurs during a play, an official throws a yellow flag near the spot of the foul. When the play is over, the team that did not commit the penalty has the option of taking either the penalty or the result of the play. For example, say a defensive player commits an offsides penalty on first down by passing the line of scrimmage before the snap, and the offense gains eight yards on the play. The team with the ball has the option of taking the penalty and repeat the first down with five yards to go, or declining the penalty and scrimmaging with 2nd and 2.
====Some common penalties====
* '''False start''': A player on the offense, other than a back moving parallel to the line of scrimmage, moves just prior to the snap. Five yards.
* '''Offsides''': A player is on the wrong side of the ball at the start of a play. Five yards. Similar fouls: Touching an opponent before the snap is '''encroachment'''; lining up alongside the football instead of behind it is a '''neutral zone infraction'''.
* '''Holding''': A blocker unfairly impedes a would-be tackler or pass receiver, by grabbing the player's jersey, hooking, or tackling. When commited by the offense, or by either team on a change of possession, the penalty is ten yards. When committed by the defense, the penalty is five yards and an automatic first down is awarded to the offense. If the penalty occurred beyond the line of scrimmage, the penalty would be enforced from the spot of the foul.
* '''Pass interference''': After a pass is launched into the air, a defender pushes, hooks, grabs, or knocks down a would-be pass receiver, or if the receiver does the same to the defender to prevent an interception. First down at the spot of the foul if against the defense (15 yards from the previous spot in college football), or ten yards from the previous spot if against the offense. Similar penalties before a pass are called as '''holding''' or '''illegal contact'''.
* '''Facemask''': a player places his hand on an opponent's facemask during a play. Five yards, or fifteen (a '''personal foul''') if the player hooks his fingers into the facemask or pulls on it.
* '''Roughing the passer/kicker''': A player places a hard hit on a passer long enough after a pass has been thrown to consider the contact avoidable, or places a hard hit on a punter or place kicker. Fifteen yards and automatic first down.
* '''Running into the kicker''': A lighter contact on a kicker, especially after the kick has been made. Five yards.
* '''Intentional grounding''': The passer throws a forward pass not near any eligible receiver, without first leaving the area behind where the blocking linemen were standing before the snap (the "pocket"), or the passer throws a forward pass outside of the pocket which does not reach the original '''line of scrimmage''' and is not near any eligible receiver. Ten yards plus loss of down, except if the penalty occurred in the end zone, then it is ruled a safety, and the defense is awarded 2 points. In college football and high school football, the defense is also credited with a quarterback sack. Note that spiking the ball to stop the clock is exempt from this.
* '''Ineligible receiver downfield''': On every play the offense must have 7 players on the line of scrimmage, the player furthest from the ball on each side are eligible receivers; the interior five players are considered ineligible to receive passes. This penalty is called if one of the 5 interior players is more than five yards past the line of scrimmage during a forward pass.
* '''Dead ball personal foul''': After the play is blown dead, a player tackles or makes rough contact with a player on the other team. Fifteen yards, automatic first down if on defense.
* '''Unnecessary roughness''': A catch-all for rough play that doesn't merit its own foul. An example is an avoidable late hit on a ball carrier who has run out of bounds. Fifteen yards.
* '''Unsportsmanlike conduct''': Another catch-all call, commonly used for taunting, excessive celebration after a touchdown, and certain banned forms of pantomime (like slashing the throat). Fifteen yards.
==The players==
{{Main|American football positions}}
As noted above, most football players have highly specialized roles. At the college and NFL levels, most play only offense or only defense.
===Offense===
* The '''[[offensive line]]''' consists of five players whose job is to protect the passer and clear the way for runners by blocking members of the defense. Except for the center, offensive linemen generally do not handle the ball.
* The '''[[quarterback]]''' receives the ball on most plays. He then hands or tosses it to a running back, throws it to a receiver or runs with it himself.
*'''[[Running back]]s''' line up behind or beside the QB and specialize in rushing with the ball. They also block, catch passes and, on rare occasions, pass the ball to others.
*'''[[Wide receiver]]s''' line up near the sidelines. They specialize in catching passes.
*'''[[Tight end]]s''' line up outside the offensive line. They can either play like wide receivers (try to catch passes) or like offensive linemen (protect the QB or create spaces for runners).
Not all of these types of players will be in on every offensive play. Teams can vary the number of wide receivers, tight ends and running backs on the field at one time.
===Defense===
* The '''[[defensive line]]''' consists of three to five players who line up across from the offensive line. They try to tackle the running backs before they can gain yardage or the quarterback before he can throw a pass.
* At least three players line up as '''[[defensive back]]s'''. They cover the receivers and try to stop pass completions. They occasionally rush the quarterback.
* The other players on the defense are known as '''[[linebacker]]s'''. They line up between the defensive line and backs and may either rush the quarterback or cover potential receivers.
===Special teams===
The units of players who handle kicking plays are known as '''[[special teams]]'''. Special-teams feature players that include the '''[[punter (football position)|punter]]''', who handles punts, and the '''[[placekicker]]''' or '''kicker''', who kicks off and attempts field goals and extra points.
==Basic football strategy==
{{Main|American football strategy}}
To many fans, the chief draw of football is the chess game that goes on between the two coaching staffs. Each team has a '''playbook''' of dozens to hundreds of plays. Plays are the directions for what the players should do on a down. Some plays are very safe; they are very likely to get a few yards, but not much more than that. Other plays have the potential for long gains but a greater risk of a loss of yardage or a turnover.
Generally speaking, rushing plays are less risky than passing plays. However, there are relatively safe passing plays and risky running plays. To fool the other team, there are passing plays designed to look like running plays and vice versa. There are many trick or gadget plays, such as when a team lines up like it is going to kick and then tries to run or pass for a first down. Such high-risk plays are a great thrill to the fans when they work. However, they can spell disaster if the opposing team realizes the deception and acts accordingly.
It has been said that football is the closest sport that strategically resembles real war, which may explain why it is by far the most popular sport in the American military. In fact, the [[United States Military Academy]], the [[United States Naval Academy]], and the [[United States Air Force Academy]] each field football teams that participate in [[Division I-A]] of the [[National Collegiate Athletic Association|NCAA]]. Army and Navy have a particularly historic [[Army-Navy Game|rivalry]].
==A physical game==
American football is a collision sport. To stop the offense from advancing the ball, the defense must tackle the player with the ball by knocking him down. As such, defensive players must use some form of physical contact to bring the ball-carrier to the ground, within certain rules and guidelines. Tacklers cannot kick, punch or trip the runner. They also cannot grab the face mask of the runner's helmet, lead into a tackle with their own helmet, or lift the ball carrier up off his feet and drop him. Despite these and other rules regarding unnecessary roughness, most other forms of tackling are legal. Blockers and defenders trying to evade them also have wide leeway in trying to force their opponents out of the way. Quarterbacks are regularly hit by defenders coming on full speed from outside the quarterback's field of vision.
The high level of physical contact in football makes it more dangerous than other major American team sports. To compensate for this, players must wear a good deal of special protective equipment, such as a padded plastic [[football helmet|helmet]], [[shoulder pads]], hip pads and knee pads. These protective "paddings" were introduced decades ago and improved ever since to help minimize lasting injury to players.
Despite protective equipment and rule changes to emphasize safety, injuries remain very common in football, due to its physical nature. Twenty-five football players, mostly high schoolers, died from injuries directly related to football from 2000-2004, according to t |
he National Center for Catastrophic Sport Injury Research. [[concussion|Concussions]] are common, with an estimated 62,000 suffered every year among high school players according to the Brain Injury Association of Arizona. [http://www.prnewswire.com/cgi-bin/stories.pl?ACCT=104&STORY=/www/story/08-23-2005/0004093186&EDATE=]. It is common to see injuries in the game, and deaths are not unheard of. The game is particularly risky when played by amateurs without proper gear, such as is common amongst Americans in backyards and parks across the country.
Some have criticized American football as a violent sport. American football is indeed quite physical in comparison to sports like [[basketball]] and [[soccer]] as well as other major American team sports. Tackle football is often banned in American schoolyards in favor of [[touch football]], which uses two-hand touching instead of tackling; or [[flag football]] in which a player is "tackled" when an opponent pulls a flag off a belt attached to the player's waist. School [[physical education]] classes often use the "two-hand touch" version of the game, leaving the tackles to the school's official after-school sports program which can provide the appropriate gear and supervision.
The level of physical aggression and risk of injury has also made football less appealing to females, as they generally lack the muscle and body mass to compete without serious risk. The tackle nature of football also tends to favor the largest and strongest players, along with the fastest. The average weight of players in the NFL has increased in recent years.
All these factors have brought the sport into controversy in the past few decades, joining the group of other "violent" and thus controversial sports such as [[dodgeball]], [[wrestling]], [[hockey]], and [[boxing]]. Critics argue that these sports emphasize size, physical strength, and brute force, and breed aggression and unhealthy competitive attitudes in children. Others argue that such sports teach sportsmanship and teamwork, and though [[contact sports]] are all violent to some degree, they always emphasize skill and strategy over mere belligerence.
==Development of the game==
{{Details|History of American football}}
Both American football and soccer have their origins in [[football|varieties of football]] played in the [[United Kingdom]] in the mid-19th century, and American football is directly descended from [[rugby football]].
Rugby was first introduced to North America in [[Canada]], brought by the [[British Army]] garrison in [[Montreal]] which played a series of games with [[McGill University]]. Both Canadian and American football evolved from this point. For an in-depth overview of the differences and similarities of [[Canadian football]] and American football see: [[Comparison of Canadian and American football]]
American colleges spearheaded the growth of football. The [http://www.scarletknights.com/football/history/first_game.htm first inter-collegiate football game] was played between Rutgers and Princeton Universities on November 6, 1869. The game was won by Rutgers (6-4) although "The game, which bore little resemblance to its modern-day counterpart, was played with two teams of 25 men each under rugby-like rules, but like modern football, it was “replete with surprise, strategy, prodigies of determination, and physical prowess,” to use the words of one of the Rutgers players." - [http://www.scarletknights.com/football/history/first_game.htm Rutgers Football]
American football in its current form grew out of a series of three games between [[Harvard University]] and [[McGill University]] of [[Montreal]] in 1874. McGill played [[rugby football]] while Harvard played the [[Boston Game]], which was closer to soccer. As often happened in those days of far from universal rules, the teams alternated rules so that both would have a fair chance. The Harvard players liked having the opportunity to run with the ball, and in 1875 persuaded [[Yale University]] to adopt rugby rules for their annual game. In 1876 Yale, Harvard, [[Princeton University|Princeton]], and [[Columbia University|Columbia]] formed the [[Intercollegiate Football Association]], which used the rugby code, except for a slight difference in scoring.
In 1880 [[Walter Camp]] introduced the scrimmage in place of the rugby [[Scrum (rugby)|scrum]]. In 1882 the system of downs was introduced to thwart Princeton's and Yale's strategy of controlling the ball without trying to score. In 1883 the number of players was reduced, at Camp's urging, to eleven, and Camp introduced the soon standard arrangement of a seven-man offensive line with a quarterback, two halfbacks, and a fullback.
On [[September 3]], [[1895]] the first professional football game was played, in [[Latrobe, Pennsylvania]], between the Latrobe [[YMCA]] and the Jeannette Athletic Club. (Latrobe won the contest 12-0.).
By the 1890s interlocking offensive formations such as the flying wedge and the practice of teammates physically dragging ball-carrying players forward had made the game extremely dangerous. Despite restrictions on the flying wedge and other precautions, in 1905 eighteen players were killed in games. President [[Theodore Roosevelt]] informed the universities that the game must be made safer. To force them to respond to his concerns, he threatened to pressure Congress to make playing football a federal crime.
In 1906, two rival organizing bodies, the [[Intercollegiate Rules Committee]] and the [[Intercollegiate Athletic Association]], met in New York; eventually they agreed on several new rules intended to make the game safer, among them the addition of a neutral zone between the scrimmage lines and a requirement that at least six players from each team line up on them. The most far-reaching innovation they considered, though, was the legalization of the forward pass. This was very controversial at the time, much derided by purists. As an alternative means of opening out the play, Walter Camp would have preferred widening the field; but representatives from Harvard pointed to recently constructed [[Harvard Stadium]], which could not be widened, and the forward pass was adopted; it has come to shape the whole history of American football, as opposed to its cousins around the world.
In 1910, after further deaths, interlocking formations were finally outlawed; and in 1912 the field was changed to its current size, the value of a touchdown increased to 6 points, and a fourth down added to each possession. The game had achieved its modern form.
==Problems in football==
{{Main|Issues in American Football}}
Injuries are more common in American football than in many other sports, although rule changes made in the past 90 years (for instance, the elimination of "[[Horse-collar tackle|horse-collar tackles]]") have gradually lowered the rates of injuries. In addition, protective equipment has become better - for example, the optional leather helmets introduced during the 1890s have been replaced (in several stages) by required high-tech padded plastic helmets with bars protecting the face.
More recently, the use of steroids and the extent thereof has become an object of debate in professional, college, and even high school football leagues.
Another problem with football is that it is an expensive sport. The specialized helmets, uniforms, and pads can cost hundreds of dollars. There is a widespread perception that football teams based in schools and public recreational leagues consume far more than their fair share of the sports budget, although sales of tickets to college (and to some extent high school) football games often make it a revenue-producing sport.
[[Image:DSCN4567_clevelandbrownsstadium_e2.jpg|thumb|300px|[[Cleveland Browns Stadium]] in [[Cleveland, Ohio]], home of the [[Cleveland Browns]].]]
==Professional, college, and other leagues==
Football is played at a number of levels in the United States. These include the following:
* [[National Football League]] (NFL) - the top-level men's professional league
* [[NFL Europe]] - semi-professional league in [[Europe]]
* [[College football]] - played at many U.S. colleges
* [[American Football Association]] National organization for the advancement and promotion of semi-pro/minor league football teams and leagues in the United States.
* [[North American Football League]] - Amateur minor league with more than 100 member organizations since 1996
* [[Women's American football]] - since 2000, there has been a surge of women's professional leagues.
* High school football - played at most U.S. High Schools
* [[Pop Warner Little Scholars|Pop Warner]] or youth football - involves younger children who are too young to play high school, generally in middle school.
* [[Sprint football]] - players must weigh no more than 172 pounds
American football is also played in many nations around the world. Some of the organizations/leagues that play American football are:
* [[Mexican College Football]] League or [[ONEFA]] - played by many Mexican colleges, with essentially NCAA rules
* [[British Collegiate American Football League]] (BCAFL) - Fast-growing college football league in the UK
* [[British American Football League]] (BAFL)-Higher League of American Football in the UK
* [[European Federation of American Football]] (www.efaf.info) European organization that crowns its champion in the [[Euro Bowl]]
* [[German Football League]]
* [[Gridiron Australia]] - national body of several state-level leagues
* [[International Federation of American Football]] International governing body for American football with 39 member associations from North America, Europe, Asia and Oceania. The IFAF also overseas the World Championship of American Football.
* [[Okinawan Football League]] - Various football teams made up of U.S. servicemembers and one from Ryuku University
Other kinds of fo |
pen Service. Their main aim is robustness against jamming and the reliable detection of problems within 10 seconds. They will be targeted at security authorities (police, military, etc.) and safety-critical transport applications (air-traffic control, automated aircraft landing, etc.), respectively.
In addition, the Galileo satellites will be able to detect and report signals from COSPAS-SARSAT search-and-rescue [[Emergency position-indicating rescue beacon|beacon]]s in the 406.0–406.1 MHz band, which makes them a part of the [[Global Maritime Distress Safety System]].
==Galileo Satellite Test Beds==
The [[European Space Agency|ESA]] and [[Galileo Joint Undertaking|GJU]] sucessfully launched the first of two Galileo In-Orbit Validation Element test satellites, GIOVE-A (GSTB-2A), on [[28 December]] [[2005]] by [[Soyuz launch vehicle]], 05:19 UTC from [[Baikonur]], [[Kazakhstan]]. It began transmitting as planned at 12:51 UTC while circling Earth at a height of 23 222 km. [[GIOVE|GIOVE-A]], built by [[Surrey Satellite Technology Ltd]] (SSTL), is basically a transmitter beacon.
The first navigational signals from Giove-A were received at [[Chilbolton Observatory]] in [[Hampshire]], [[UK]] and the ESA Station at [[Libin|Redu]], [[Belgium]] on [[12 January]] [[2006]].
[[GIOVE|GIOVE-B]], built by [[Galileo Industries]], has a more advanced payload which includes two [[atomic clock]]s and is targeted for launch in the spring of 2006. For both test satellites, the primary objective is achieving the [[International Telecommunication Union|ITU]] frequency-filing requirements that require using the allocated transmission frequencies by the deadline date. GIOVE-B also has clock and [[MEO]] environment characterisation objectives, as well as Signal-In-Space and receiver experiments. GIOVE-B will contain a [[rubidium]] atomic clock and the first space-qualified passive hydrogen [[maser]] atomic clock.
== EGNOS ==
The [[European geostationary navigation overlay system]] (EGNOS) is a system of satellites and ground stations designed to increase the accuracy of the current GPS and [[GLONASS]] in Europe.
==See also==
* [[Commercialization of space]]
* [[Multilateration]] - the mathematical technique used for Galileo positioning
==External links==
* [http://europa.eu.int/comm/dgs/energy_transport/galileo EU Galileo Project]
* [http://www.galileoju.com Galileo Joint Undertaking]
* [http://www.galileo-industries.net Galileo Industries]
* [http://www.esa.int/export/esaSA/GGGMX650NDC_navigation_0.html What is Galileo?] - [[European Space Agency|ESA]] article, [[7 October]] [[2003]]
* [http://www.informatics.bangor.ac.uk/~jdl/gnss2004.pdf GPS and Galileo: where are we headed?] ([[Portable Document Format|PDF]]) - [[University of Wales]] Professor David Last, [[24 May]] [[2004]]
* [http://www.galileo-navigation.net/indexe.htm Infoportal about Galileo]
===Press coverage===
* [http://www.wired.com/news/politics/0,1283,49778,00.html Europe GPS Plan Shelved] - [[Wired Magazine]], [[17 January]] [[2002]]
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/1893022.stm Green light for Galileo project] - [[BBC News]], [[26 March]] [[2002]]
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/business/3121682.stm China joins EU's satellite network] - BBC News, [[19 September]] [[2003]]
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/3839809.stm EU-US strike sat-navigation deal] - BBC News, [[26 June]] [[2004]]
* [http://svaradarajan.blogspot.com/2004/11/galileo-fusion-energy-propel-india-eu.html Galileo, fusion energy propel India, E.U. `strategic partnership'] - The Hindu [[9 November]] [[2004]]
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/4085651.stm Europe presses ahead on sat-navigation] - BBC News, [[10 December]] [[2004]]
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/4115761.stm Four Galileo spacecraft ordered] - BBC News, [[21 December]] [[2004]]
* [http://www.eubusiness.com/Rd/050114131900.dvswih8n Legal battle over rights to name of Galileo satellite navigation system] - EUbusiness, [[14 January]], [[2005]]
* [http://www.caribbeannetnews.com/2005/01/17/system.shtml Barbados firm wins legal battle over name of Galileo satellite navigation system] - CaribbeanNetNews, [[17 January]], [[2005]]
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/4308975.stm Dead heat for Galileo companies] - BBC News, [[1 March]] [[2005]]
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/4627661.stm Consortia combine to run Galileo] - BBC News, [[27 June]] [[2005]]
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/4555276.stm Q&A: Europe's Galileo project] - BBC News, [[26 December]] [[2005]]
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/4555298.stm Europe launches Galileo satellite] - BBC News, [[28 December]] [[2005]]
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/4610452.stm First Galileo signals received] - BBC News, [[13 January]] [[2006]]
== References ==
<references/>
* The Galileo Project – GALILEO Design consolidation, European Commission, 2003
* Guenter W. Hein, Jeremie Godet, et al: [http://europa.eu.int/comm/dgs/energy_transport/galileo/doc/galileo_stf_ion2002.pdf Status of Galileo Frequency and Signal Design], Proc. [http://www.ion.org/ ION] GPS 2002.
* Jean-Luc Issler, Gunter W. Hein, et al.: [http://www.gpsworld.com/gpsworld/article/articleDetail.jsp?id=61244 Galileo Frequency and Signal Design]. GPS World, vol. 14, no. 6, June, 2003, pp. 30–37.
* Dee Ann Divis: [http://www.globalsecurity.org/org/news/2002/020514-gps.htm Military role for Galileo emerges]. GPS World, May 2002, Vol. 13, No. 5, p. 10.
{{GPS}}
[[Category:European Union]]
[[Category:Satellite navigation systems]]
[[Category:European Space Agency]]
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[[cs:Navigační systém Galileo]]
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[[es:Sistema de posicionamiento Galileo]]
[[fr:Galileo (système de positionnement)]]
[[id:Sistem posisi Galileo]]
[[it:Sistema di posizionamento Galileo]]
[[he:גלילאו (מערכת לווייני ניווט)]]
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[[uk:Галілео]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Gavrilo Princip</title>
<id>13010</id>
<revision>
<id>41785914</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T19:09:45Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Sannya</username>
<id>763106</id>
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<minor />
<comment>hr link</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:gavrilloprincip.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Gavrilo Princip in prison cell at [[Theresienstadt]]]]
'''Gavrilo Princip''' ([[Serbian language|Serbian]] [[Cyrillic]]:''Гаврило Принцип'') ([[July 25]], [[1894]] &ndash; [[April 28]], [[1918]]) was a [[Bosnia and Herzegovina | Bosnia]]n [[Serb]] committed to South Slav unification who killed [[Franz Ferdinand, Archduke of Austria]], and his wife [[Sophie Chotek|Countess Sophie]] in [[Sarajevo]] on [[June 28]], [[1914]]. The event, known as the [[assassination in Sarajevo]], prompted the [[Austria]]n action against [[Serbia]] that led to [[World War I]].
==Early Life==
Princip was born in the village of [[Obljaj]], near [[Bosansko Grahovo]], [[Bosnia and Herzegovina]]. His parents, Petar and Marija ''Nana'' Mičić, had nine children, five sons and four daughters, six of whom died in infancy. His health was poor. From an early age, he suffered from [[tuberculosis]], which was his eventual cause of death in 1918, and was also one of the reasons he let himself kill Archduke Ferdinand in the first place.
Most historians agree that Princip was a member of the [[Black Hand]] (or at the very least trained by the group), but there are some who contend that he was actually a member of the [[Young Bosnia]] (''Mlada Bosna''). The Young Bosnia Movement was a group made up of Serbs, Croats, and Bosniaks, committed to achieving independence for Bosnia.
In February 1912, he took part in protest demonstrations against the Sarajevo authorities for which he was expelled from school. Following his expulsion, he went to [[Belgrade]]. While crossing the border, he made a point of kissing the soil of Serbia. In Belgrade, he sought to gain admission to the First Belgrade [[Gymnasium (school)|Gymnasium]] but failed the entrance exam.
In 1912, Serbia was abuzz with mobilization for the [[First Balkan War]]. Princip planned to join the ''komite'', irregular Serbian guerrilla forces under Serbian Major [[Vojislav Tankosic]] which had fought in [[Macedonia (region)|Macedonia]] against Ottoman units. Tankosic was a member of the central committee of the secret society Unification or Death (''Ujedinjene ili Smrt''). Princip, however, was rejected by the komite in Belgrade because of his small physical stature. He then went to [[Prokuplje]] in southern Serbia where he sought a personal interview with Tankosić. Tankosić, however, rejected Princip for being "too small and too weak." He was determined to compensate for his lack of physical stature and the underestimation of his abilities that he was subjected to. Dedijer argued that his rejection was "one of the primary personal motives which pushed him to do something exceptionally brave in order to prove to others that he was their equal."
==Assassination==
===Background===
On [[June 28]], [[1914]] Gavrilo Princip participated in the [[assassination in Sarajevo]]. General [[Oskar Potiorek]], Governor of the Austrian provinces of [[Bosnia-Herzegovina]] had invited Archduke Franz Ferdinand and Sophia to watch his troops on maneuvers. Franz Ferdinand knew that the visit would be dangerous, knowing his uncle, [[Franz Josef I of Austria|Emperor Franz Josef]], had been the subject of an assassination attempt by the Black Hand in 1911.
[[Image:Princip arrested.jpg|thumb|200px|left|This photo was at one time believed to show Princip's arrest. It was later confirm |
*[[Table-top game]]s
*[[Tile-based game]]s
*[[Theater game]]s
*[[Traditional game]]s
*[[Travel games]]
*[[Unclassified game]]s
*[[Wargame]]s
*[[Win-win game]]s
*[[Word game]]s
==See also==
{{commons|Game}}
*{{wikicities|gameinfo|Games}}
*[[List of game manufacturers]]
*[[List of game topics]]
*[[List of computer puzzle games]]
*[[Ludology]]
*[[Game club]]
*[[Game semantics]]
*[[Game theory]]
*[[Play]]
*[[Puzzle]]
*[[Toy]]
*[[Artistic computer game modification]]
*[[Sport]]s
==References==
* Avedon, Elliot; Sutton-Smith, Brian, ''The Study of Games''. (Philadelphia: Wiley, 1971), reprinted Krieger, 1979. ISBN 0898740452
[[Category:Games| ]]
[[ast:Xuegu]]
[[bg:Игра]]
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[[cs:Hra]]
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[[de:Spiel]]
[[el:Παιχνίδι]]
[[es:Juego]]
[[eo:Ludo]]
[[fa:بازی]]
[[fr:Jeu]]
[[ga:Cluiche]]
[[ko:놀이]]
[[hi:खेल]]
[[hr:Igra]]
[[io:Ludo]]
[[id:Permainan]]
[[is:Leikir]]
[[it:Gioco]]
[[he:משחק]]
[[lad:Juego]]
[[la:Ludus]]
[[lt:Žaidimas]]
[[li:Sjpel]]
[[mk:Игри]]
[[ms:Permainan]]
[[nl:Spel]]
[[nds:Speel]]
[[ja:ゲーム]]
[[no:Spill]]
[[pl:Gra]]
[[pt:Jogo]]
[[ro:Joc]]
[[ru:Игра]]
[[simple:Game]]
[[sl:Igra]]
[[sr:Игра]]
[[fi:Peli]]
[[sv:Spel]]
[[tl:Laro]]
[[th:เกม]]
[[tr:Oyun (anlam)]]
[[zh:游戏]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Galaxy formation and evolution</title>
<id>11971</id>
<revision>
<id>42034495</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T09:59:42Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Iantresman</username>
<id>67907</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* See also */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Cosmology}}
In [[astrophysics]], the questions of '''[[galaxy]] formation and evolution''' are:
*''How, from a homogeneous universe, did we obtain the very inhomogeneous one we live in?''
*''How did galaxies form?''
*''How do galaxies change over time?''
The formation of [[galaxy|galaxies]] is still one of the most active research areas in astrophysics; and, to some extent, this is also true for galaxy evolution. Some ideas, however, are now widely accepted.
[[image:cartwheel.galaxy.arp.750pix.jpg|thumb|300px|left|A spectacular head-on collision between two galaxies is seen in this [[NASA]] [[Hubble Space Telescope]] true-color image of the [[Cartwheel Galaxy]].]]
After the [[Big Bang]], the [[universe]] had a period when it was remarkably [[homogeneous]], as can be observed in the [[Cosmic Microwave Background]], the fluctuations of which are less than one part in one hundred thousand.
The most accepted view is that all the structure we observe today was formed as a consequence of the growth of [[primordial fluctuations]] by [[gravitational instability]].
Recent data strongly suggests that the first galaxies formed as early as 600 million years after the Big Bang, much earlier than astronomers had previously believed. That leaves hardly enough time for the tiny [[primordial]] instabilities to grow sufficiently forming [[protogalaxy|protogalaxies]] into [[galaxy|galaxies]].
A great deal of the research in this area is focused on components of our
own [[Milky Way]], since it is the easiest galaxy to observe.
The observations which must be explained in, or at least not at odds with, a
theory of galactic evolution, include:
* the [[Galactic plane|stellar disk]] is quite thin, dense, and rotates
* the [[galactic halo|stellar halo]] is very large, sparse, and does not rotate (or has perhaps even a slight [[retrograde]] rotation), with no apparent substructure
* halo [[star]]s are typically much older and have much lower [[metal (disambiguation)|metallicities]] than disk stars (there is a correlation, but there is no absolute connection between these data)
* some astronomers have identified an intermediate population of stars, variously called the "metal weak thick disk", the "intermediate population II", et al. If these are indeed a distinct population, they would be described as metal-poor (but not as poor as the halo stars), old (but not as old as the halo stars), and orbiting very near the disk, in a sort of "puffed-up", thicker disk shape.
* [[globular cluster]]s are typically old and metal-poor as well, but there are a few which are not nearly as metal-poor as most, and/or have some younger stars. Some stars in globular clusters appear to be as old as the universe itself (by entirely different measurement and analysis methods)!
* in each globular cluster, all the stars were born at virtually the same time (except for a few globulars that show multiple epochs of star formation)
* globular clusters with smaller orbits (closer to the [[galactic center]]) have orbits which are somewhat flatter (less [[inclination|inclined]] to the disk), and less eccentric (more circular), while those further out have orbits in all inclinations, and tend to be more [[eccentricity (orbit)|eccentric]].
* [[High Velocity Cloud]]s, clouds of [[neutral]] [[hydrogen]] are "raining" down on the galaxy, and presumably have been from the beginning (these would be the necessary source of a gas disk from which the disk stars formed).
==Spiral galaxies==
[[Image:warped_galaxy.jpg|thumb|right|220px|A spiral galaxy warped as a result of colliding with another galaxy. After the other galaxy is completely absorbed, the distortion will disappear. The process typically takes millions of years.]]
[[Spiral galaxy|Spiral galaxies]] cannot be built up by mergers of already existing smaller galaxies. When galaxies collide, the individual stars barely notice. The stars themselves never collide with each other because of the enormous distances between them, compared to their size. So when galaxies collide, they actually simply pass through each other, but the gravitational effects disrupts their structure as this happens. As they separate, [[gravity]] slows them down and, if they are gravitationally bound, will eventually bring them back together for another collision. After several collisions their individual structures are so changed, with many stars mixed up between them, that we identify the result as a single merged object. So after a merger, most of the stars originally belonging to both galaxies remain to form the new merged galaxy (a small fraction will have been thrown out entirely). If either galaxy were a spiral before the merger, the violence of the event would disrupt the delicate structure of the [[disk (mathematics)|disk]]. The existing stars cannot afterwards change their orbits to form a new disk. The stellar disk must essentially form in place; a dense rotating disk of gas forms first, then stars are born inside it.
The earliest modern theory of the formation of our galaxy (known by astronomers as ELS, after the initials of the authors of that paper, [[Olin Eggen]], [[Donald Lynden-Bell]], and [[Allan Sandage]]{{ref|ELS}}) describes a single (relatively) rapid monolithic collapse, with the halo forming first, followed by the disk.
Another view published in 1978 (known as SZ for its authors, [[Leonard Searle]] and [[Robert Zinn]]{{ref|SZ}}) describes a more gradual process, with smaller units collapsing first, then later merging to form the larger components.
An even more recent idea is that significant portions of the stellar halo could be stellar debris from destroyed dwarf galaxies and globular clusters that once orbited the Milky Way. The halo would then be a "new"er component made of "recycled" old parts!
In recent years, a great deal of focus has been put on understanding merger events in the evolution of galaxies. Rapid technological progress in computers have allowed much better simulations of galaxies, and improved observational technologies have provided much more data about distant galaxies undergoing merger events. After the discovery in 1994 that our own Milky Way has a [[satellite]] galaxy (the [[Sagittarius Dwarf Elliptical Galaxy]], or SagDEG) which is currently gradually being ripped up and "eaten" by the [[Milky Way]], it is thought these kinds of events may be quite common in the evolution of large galaxies. The [[Magellanic Clouds]] are satellite galaxies of the Milky Way that will almost certainly share the same fate as the SagDEG. A merger with a fairly large satellite galaxy could explain why [[M31]] (the [[Andromeda Galaxy]]) appears to have a double core.
The SagDEG is orbiting our galaxy at almost a [[right angle]] to the disk. It is currently passing through the disk; stars are being stripped off of it with each pass and joining the halo of our galaxy. Eventually, only the core of SagDEG will exist. Although it will have the same mass as a large [[globular cluster]] like [[Omega Centauri]] and [[Mayall II|G1]], it will appear rather different, as it has far lower surface density due to the presence of substantial amounts of [[dark matter]], while globular clusters appear, mysteriously, to contain very little dark matter.
Further examples of satellite dwarf galaxies that are in the process of merging with the Milky Way are the [[Canis Major Dwarf Galaxy]], discovered in 2003 and thought to be responsible for the [[Monoceros Ring]], and the [[Virgo Stellar Stream]], discovered in 2005.
==Elliptical galaxies==
Giant [[elliptical galaxy|elliptical galaxies]] are probably formed by mergers on a grander scale. In the [[Local Group]], the Milky Way and [[M31]] (the [[Andromeda Galaxy]]) are gravitationally bound, and currently approaching each other at high speed. Since we cannot determine the speed of M31 perpendicular to the line from us to it, we do not know if it will collide with the Milky Way. If the two galaxies do meet they will pass through each other, with gravity distorting both galaxies severely and ejecting some gas, dust and stars into [[intergalactic space]]. They will travel apart, slow down, and then again be drawn towards each other, and again collide. Eventually both galaxies will have merged completely, strea |
a [[Spain|Spanish]] [[conquistador]] and a companion and rival of [[Francisco Pizarro]]. Born in [[Aldea del Rey]], one account<!--Which?--> states he was a [[foundling]] in the village from which he derived his name. He later lost his left eye battling with coastal natives in the [[New World]].
In [[1525]] he joined the [[Pizarro brothers]] and [[Hernando de Luque]] at [[Panama]] for the conquest of [[Peru]].
Almagro is credited as the European discoverer of [[Chile]]. After the [[Spanish conquest of Peru]], Almagro was dissatisfied that the country had been given to Pizarro without a major role for him. After complaining, he got Spanish royal permission to conquer the region south of Peru. His epic journey south started in [[Cuzco|Cuzco, Peru]]. With the help of Inca Paullu, a son of the Inca ruler [[Huayna Capac]], he led his men over the [[Andes]] mountains, at the latitude of the current city of [[Copiapó]], at a great cost in life. He traveled further south to the Aconcagua river, where hostile [[Mapuche]] Indians forced him to turn back north, without the treasure and riches he had hoped to find. On his voyage north he encountered the [[Atacama desert]], where lack of water and food also took their toll. He never founded a city in the territory of (what is now) [[Chile]].
Upon his return to [[Peru]] in [[1536]], Almagro was bitter and eager to claim the riches of the city of Cuzco for himself. In the previous year, the Inca [[Manco Inca Yupanqui|Manco]] had briefly recaptured the royal city and weakened the Spanish hold in the Sacred Valley. Hoping to enlist the help of the Inca, Almagro offered [[Manco Inca]] a pardon on behalf of the Spanish government. Manco Inca never officially joined Almagro in his attack on Cuzco. However, most of [[Hernándo Pizarro]]'s army marched into the [[Andes]] in pursuit of Manco Inca, allowing Almagro's men to claim the city for themselves.
[[Image:Diego-de-Almagro capture.png|thumb|200px|Capture and execution of Diego de Almagro (Engraving, around 1600)]]
The [[Pizarro brothers]] led by Gonzalo defeated and captured Almagro at the [[Battle of Las Salinas]] (near [[Cuzco]]) in April 1538. Almagro was executed three months later in [[July 8]], [[1538]]. His men then turned against [[Francisco Pizarro]] and killed him in [[Lima, Peru|Lima]] in [[1541]].
== El Mozo ==
'''Diego de Almagro II''' ([[1520]]-[[1542]]), known as ''El Mozo'' (The Lad), son of Diego de Almagro I, whose mother was an Indian girl of [[Panama City, Panama|Panama]], became the foil of the conspirators who had put [[Francisco Pizzaro|Pizzaro]] to the sword. The [[Francisco Pizarro|marquis]] was murdered on June 26, 1541; the conspirators promptly proclaimed the lad Almagro Governor of Peru. From various causes, all of the conspirators either died or were killed except for one, who was executed after the lad Almagro gave an order. The lad Almagro fought a desperate battle on September 16, [[1542]], escaped to [[Cusco|Cuzco]], but was arrested, immediately condemned to death, and executed in the great square of the city.
==See also==
*[[History of Chile]]
*[[Pedro de Valdivia]]
*[[Spanish conquest of Peru]]
[[Category:1475 births|Almagro, Diego de]]
[[Category:1538 deaths|Almagro, Diego de]]
[[Category:Spanish explorers and conquistadores|Almagro, Diego de]]
[[Category:City founders|Almagro, Diego de]]
[[Category:History of Chile|Almagro, Diego de]]
[[Category:History of Peru|Almagro, Diego de]]
[[bg:Диего де Алмагро]]
[[ca:Diego de Almagro]]
[[de:Diego de Almagro (Vater)]]
[[es:Diego de Almagro]]
[[fr:Diego de Almagro]]
[[nl:Diego de Almagro]]
[[pl:Diego de Almagro]]
[[pt:Diego de Almagro, o Velho]]
[[sv:Diego de Almagro]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Divinity</title>
<id>8363</id>
<revision>
<id>41473608</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-27T16:17:36Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Sam Spade</username>
<id>29048</id>
</contributor>
<comment>rv, please re-read the passage</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}
----
'''Divinity''' and '''divine''' (sometimes 'the Divinity' or 'the Divine'), are broadly applied but loosely defined terms, used variously within different faiths and belief systems &mdash; and even by different individuals within a given faith &mdash; to refer to some transcendent or transcendental power, or its attributes or manifestations in the world. The root of the words is literally 'Godlike' (from the Latin 'Divus,' closely related to Greek 'Deus'), but the use varies significantly depending on the underlying conception of God that is being invoked. This article outlines the major distinctions in the conventional use of the terms.
For academic or professional uses of the terms, see [[Divinity (academic discipline)]], or [[Anglican terminology|nomenclature of the Anglican Church]].
==Usages==
There are three distinct usages of ''divinity'' and ''divine'' in religious discourse:
:*[[#Divinity as entity|to refer to a deity or godlike being or entity]]
:*[[#Divine force or power|to refer to powers or forces that are universal, or transcend human capacities]]
:*[[#Divinity applied to mortals|to refer to qualities of individuals who are considered to have some special access or relationship to the divine]]
Overlap occurs between these usages because deities or godlike entities are often identical with and/or identified by the powers and forces that are credited to them &mdash; in many cases a deity is merely a power or force personified &mdash; and these powers and forces may then be extended or granted to mortal individuals. For instance, throughout much of the Old Testament Yahweh is closely associated with storms and thunder: He is said to speak in thunder, and thunder is seen as a token of His anger. This power was then extended to prophets like Moses and Samuel, who caused thunderous storms to rain down on their enemies.
Divinity in monotheistic faiths always carries connotations of goodness, beauty, beneficence, justice, and other positive, pro-social attributes. In these faiths there is an equivalent cohort of malefic supranormal beings and powers, such as demons, devils, afreet, etc., which are not conventionally referred to as divine; ''[[demon|demonic]]'' is often used instead. Pan- and polytheistic faiths make no such distinction; gods and other beings of transcendent power often have complex, ignoble, or even irrational motivations for their acts. Note that while the terms ''demon'' and ''demonic'' are used in monotheistic faiths as antonyms to ''divine'', they are in fact derived from the Greek word ''daimón'' (δαίμων), which itself translates as ''divinity''.
=== Divinity as entity ===
In monotheistic faiths, the word ''divinity'' is often used to refer to the single, supreme being central to that faith. Often (in English, at any rate), the word takes the definite article and is capitalized &mdash; ''"the Divinity"'' &mdash; as though it were a proper name or definitive honorific. Thus it is appropriate to speak of Yahweh, Allah, and the Christian God as 'the Divinities' of their particular faiths. ''Divine'' &mdash; capitalized &mdash; is used as an adjective to refer to the manifestations of such a Divinity or its powers: e.g. "''basking in the Divine presence...''"
The terms ''divinity'' and ''divine'' &mdash; uncapitalized, and lacking the definite article &mdash; are sometimes used as to denote 'god(s)'<sup id="fn_1_back">[[#fn_1|(1)]]</sup> or certain other beings and entities which fall short of godhood but lie outside the human realm. These include (by no means an exhaustive list):
:*the multiple gods of pan- and polytheistic faiths (as in the ancient Greek or the Hindu pantheons)
:*angels, archangels, cherubim, and other members of the Christian heavenly choir
:*angels and djinn of Muslim tradition
:*elementals such as the dragons of traditional Chinese religion and sylphs and salamanders from Celtic traditions
:*anthropomorphized aspects of nature, like the tree and river spirits of Roman mythology
:*animal beings, many of which populate the stories of Native American and Australian Aboriginal tribes
:*conceptual beings like the Muses and Fates of ancient Greek belief
In certain instances, individual humans are elevated to divine status without becoming actual gods: the eight immortals of taoism, for instance, or the Virgin Mary in the Catholic faith. Compare with the section on [[#Divinity applied to mortals|divinity and mortals]] given below.
See '''[[god]]''' for further information about deities and divine entities.
=== Divine force or power ===
As previously noted, divinities are closely related to the transcendent force(s) or power(s) credited to them,<sup id="fn_2_back">[[#fn_2|(2)]]</sup> so much so that in some cases the powers or forces may themselves be invoked independently. This leads to the second usage of the word ''divine'' (and a less common usage of ''divinity''): to refer to the operation of transcendent power in the world.
In its most direct form, the operation of transcendent power implies some form of divine intervention. For pan- and polytheistic faiths this usually implies the direct action of one god or another on the course of human events. In Greek legend, for instance, it was Poseidon (god of the sea) who raised the storms which blew Odysseus' craft off course on his return journey, and Japanese tradition holds that a [[Kamikaze#Origin_of_the_word_Kamikaze|god-sent wind]] saved them from mongol invasion. Prayers or propitiations are often offered to specific gods of pantheisms to garner favorable interventions in particular enterprises: e.g. safe journeys, success in war, or a season of bountiful crops. Many faiths around the world &mdash; from Japanese Shinto and Chinese traditional religi |
not actually the highest '''point''' in the state. That distinction belongs to an anonymous location a mile to the northwest and a quarter-mile east of the point where Connecticut, [[Massachusetts]], and [[New York]] meet (42° 3' N; 73° 29' W), on the southern slope of 2,453 foot high [[Mount Frissell]] whose peak lies 740 feet north in Massachusetts. Only a green metal stake set into a rock ledge marks this, the 2,372 foot (723 meters) high top of Connecticut. According to [http://peakbagger.com/peak.aspx?pid=7083 Peakbagger.com,] this makes Connecticut the only state whose highest point is not also its highest peak.
The Connecticut River cuts through the center of the state, flowing into Long Island Sound, Connecticut's outlet to the [[Atlantic Ocean]].
{{further|[[List of Connecticut rivers]]}}
[[image:False Inscription.JPG|thumb|left|100px|Erroneous inscription at summit of Bear Mountain]]
The state, although small, has regional variations in its landscape and culture from the wealthy estates of Fairfield County's "[[Gold Coast, Connecticut|Gold Coast]]" to the rolling mountains and farms of the [[Litchfield Hills]] and the casinos of [[Southeastern Connecticut]]. Connecticut's rural areas and small towns in the northeast and northwest corners of the state contrast sharply with its industrial cities, located along the coastal highways from the New York border to New Haven, then northwards to Hartford, as well as further up the coast near New London. Many towns center around a small park, known as a "green," ''e.g.'' [[New Haven Green]]. Near the green may stand a small white church, a town meeting hall, a tavern and several colonial houses. Forests, rivers, lakes, waterfalls and a sandy shore add to the state's beauty.
The northern boundary of the state with Massachusetts is marked by the distinctive [[Southwick Jog]], an approximately 2.5 mile square detour into Connecticut slightly west of the center of the border. Somewhat surprisingly, the actual origin of this anomaly is not absolutely certain, with stories ranging from surveyors who were drunk, attempting to avoid hostile Native Americans, or taking a shortcut up the Connecticut River; Massachusetts residents attempting to avoid Massachusetts' (even then) high taxes for the (even then) low taxes of Connecticut; Massachusetts' interest in the resources represented by the [[Congamond Lakes]] which lie on the border of the jog; and the need to compensate Massachusetts for an amount of land given to Connecticut due to inaccurate survey work.[http://www.southwickma.org/Public_Documents/F000102F9/S00476B50-00476B5B.0/The%20Southwick%20Jog.pdf] [http://www.cslib.org/jog.htm] [http://strsd.southwick.ma.us/woodland/teachers/bwhalley/childshistory/jog.htm] Perhaps the only suggested reason which can be safely ruled out is that the jog is necessary to prevent Massachusetts from sliding out into the [[Atlantic Ocean]]. In any event, the dispute over the border retarded the development of the region, since neither state would invest in even such basic amenities as schools for the area until the dispute had been settled.
The southwestern border of Connecticut, where it abuts New York State, is marked by a [[panhandle]] in [[Fairfield County]], containing [[Greenwich, Connecticut|Greenwich]], [[Stamford, Connecticut|Stamford]], [[New Canaan]], and [[Darien, Connecticut|Darien]], housing some of the wealthiest residents in the world. This irregularity in the boundary is the result of [[History of Connecticut#Territorial disputes|territorial disputes]] in the late [[1600s]], culminating with New York giving up its claim to this area, whose residents considered themselves part of Connecticut, in exchange for an equivalent area extending northwards from [[Ridgefield, Connecticut]] to the Massachusetts border as well as undisputed claim to [[Rye, New York]].[http://www.cslib.org/panhandle.htm]
{{further|[[Geology of Connecticut]]}}
===Regions of Connecticut===
[[Image:National-atlas-connecticut.png|right|thumb|300px|Connecticut]]
[[Image:Connecticut_population_map.png|right|thumb|300px|Connecticut Population Density Map]]
The state of Connecticut can be said to be sub-divided into eight general regions which generally correspond with the [[list of Connecticut counties|eight counties]] of the state, though there are differences in the boundaries. Each region boasts varied qualities which distinguish it within the state, and at times there are minor cultural frictions between the regions and their major cultural centers as each competes for tourists, new residents, and internal state pride. Fairfield County's "[[Gold Coast, Connecticut|Gold Coast]]" and towns west of Waterbury and New Haven, for example, are often derided by residents of the rest of the state as being more similar to [[New York]] than to [[New England]], and many of the residents go for years or even decades without ever traveling to other regions of the state, considering themselves more attached to [[New York City]] and its suburbs in eastern [[New York State]].
The eight regions of Connecticut are:
*[[Gold Coast, Connecticut|Gold Coast]]
*[[Litchfield Hills]]
*[[Naugatuck River Valley]]
*[[Greater New Haven]]
*[[Greater Hartford]]
*[[Lower Connecticut River Valley]]
*The [[Quiet Corner (Connecticut)|Quiet Corner]]
*[[Southeastern Connecticut]]
===Transportation===
Transportation in Connecticut is predominantly via [[highway]]. [[Bradley International Airport]] (BDL) is located in the central part of the state (15 miles North of [[Hartford, Connecticut|Hartford]]). Another large airport mostly used by corporate executives is the Oxford Airport in western Connecticut. The airport is located 15 miles east of Danbury and 12 miles south of Waterbury. There is [[railway]] service along the coastline from [[New York City]] to [[Boston, Massachusetts|Boston]], including [[commuter rail]] service between [[New Haven, Connecticut|New Haven]] and New York and a new commuter service along the river north of New Haven, with spur service running northwards to cities such as Hartford. (In an episode of the American television show [[Miracles (tv)|Miracles]], the protagonist took a train from Boston directly to Hartford, causing Connecticut residents to joke that '''that''' would '''really''' have been a miracle.) [[Bus]] service is supplied by [[Connecticut Transit]], owned by the [[Connecticut Department of Transportation]]. In practice, most Connecticut residents find public transportation not fully adequate for all their needs and either own a private vehicle or have access to one.
The [[glacier]]s carved valleys in Connecticut running north to south; as a result, many more roadways in the state run north to south than do east to west, mimicking the previous use of the many north-south rivers as transportation. The [[Interstate highway]]s in the state are [[I-95]] (the [[Connecticut Turnpike]]) running southwest to northeast along the coast, [[Interstate 84 (east)|I-84]] running southwest to northeast in the center of the state, [[I-91]] running north to south in the center of the state, and [[Interstate 395 (Connecticut)|I-395]] running north to south near the eastern border of the state. The other major interstate traffic arteries in Connecticut are the [[Merritt Parkway]] and [[Wilbur Cross Parkway]], which together form Connecticut State Route 15, running from the [[Hutchinson River Parkway]] in [[New York State]] parallel to I-95 before turning north of [[New Haven]] and running parallel to I-91, finally becoming a surface road in [[Berlin, Connecticut]]. This road and I-95 were originally [[toll road]]s; they relied on a system of [[toll plaza]]s at which all traffic would stop and pay an incremental fare, rather than the alternative system of providing drivers a ticket where they entered the highway and charging them when they exited. A series of terrible crashes at these plazas eventually led to abandonment of the whole toll system in 1988. Other major arteries in the state include [http://www.nycroads.com/roads/CT-8/ State Routes 8 and 25] and [[U.S. Highway 7]].
I-95 from south of New Haven to the New York border is one of the most congested highways in the United States due to increasing population density, increasing business in the New York area, and a general increase in American driving, and the congestion spills over to clog the parallel Merritt Parkway. At rush hours, multiple backups tens of miles long are common, and the daily radio broadcasts of where crashes have completely blocked traffic are a fact of life for commuters in this area. As a result, commuter rail is also heavily crowded, along with parking facilities and traffic at the stations. Funds to relieve the situation, either by enhancing commuter rail, increasing highway capacity, or both, are lacking, and the problem is noted as one hindering further economic development for the state.
See [http://www.kurumi.com/roads/ct/index.html] for a very complete and in-depth discussion of Connecticut roadways, current, past, and future.
== Headline text ==
== Economy ==
[[Image:wiki_connecticut.jpg|thumb|350px|Greetings from Connecticut]]
The total [[gross state product]] for 2004 was $187 billion. The [[per capita income]] for 2004 was $55,398, ranking 1<sup>st</sup> among the states [http://www.bea.doc.gov/bea/regional/statelocal.htm]. There is, however, a great disparity in incomes through the state; [[Connecticut locations by per capita income|although New Canaan has the highest per capita income in America, Hartford is one of the ten cities with the lowest per capita incomes in America]]. This is due to Fairfield County having become a [[bedroom community]] for higher paid [[New York City]] workers seeking a less urban lifestyle, as well as the spread of businesses outwards from New York City having reached into southwestern Connecticut, most notably to [[Stamford]]. The state d |
ists like [[Egyptian Lover]] and [[World Class Wreckin' Cru]]. The latter crew included [[Dr. Dre]] before he joined N.W.A.
Aside from electro hop, early pioneer hardcore hip hop artists, including most notably [[Ice-T]], gained underground fame in the Los Angeles area during the early 1980s. Ice-T is often considered the earliest gangsta rapper, though paradoxically, he is most well known to mainstream America for the controversy regarding "Cop Killer", a song from his [[heavy metal music|heavy metal]] band [[Body Count]]'s self-titled debut album which bears virtually no resemblance to modern forms of gangsta rap. Aside from N.W.A and Ice-T, early West Coast gangsta rappers include [[Too Short|Too $hort]] (from [[Oakland, California]]) and others from [[Compton, California|Compton]] and [[Watts, Los Angeles, California|Watts]], Los Angeles, as well as Oakland, [[San Francisco]] and [[San Diego]].
By the late [[1980s]], gangsta rap began to become a major force in hip hop. The first blockbuster hip hop album was the [[West Coast hip hop|West Coast]] gangsta rap album ''[[Straight Outta Compton]]'' by N.W.A first released in 1988 (see [[1988 in music]]). ''Straight Outta Compton'' also established West Coast hip hop as a vital genre, and a rival of hip hop's long-time capital, [[New York City]]. ''Straight Outta Compton'' sparked the first major controversy regarding hip hop lyrics when their song "[[Fuck Tha Police]]" earned a letter from the [[FBI]] strongly expressing [[law enforcement]]'s resentment of the song.Eazy-E , the leader of the group was called the Godfather of gangsta rap , because of making such hardcore Gansta Rap songs .
==Gangsta rap in the [[1990s]]==
===G funk and Death Row Records===
<div style="float:right;margin:10px;width:100px">
[[Image:Ice Cube-The Predator (album cover).jpg|frame|none|''The Predator'' by Ice Cube]]
[[Image:Dr.DreTheChronicalbumcover.jpg|frame|none|Dr. Dre's ''The Chronic'']]
[[Image: Raekwon only.jpg|frame|none|[[Raekwon]]- ''[[Only Built 4 Cuban Linx]]'']]
[[Image:NasIllmatic.jpg|frame|none|Nas' ''[[Illmatic]]'']]
</div>
In 1992 (see [[1992 in music]]) former N.W.A member [[Dr. Dre]] released ''[[The Chronic]]'', which further established the dominance of West Coast gangsta rap and [[Death Row Records]], and is also the beginning of [[G-funk]], a slow, drawled form of hip hop that dominated the charts for some time. Extensively sampling [[P-Funk]] bands, especially [[Parliament (band)|Parliament]] and [[Funkadelic]], G-funk was multi-layered, yet simple and easy to dance to, with anti-authoritarian lyrics that helped endear it to many young listeners. Another G-Funk success was [[Ice Cube|Ice Cube]]'s [[The Predator|Predator]] album released on the same time as [[The Chronic]] in [[1992]]. It sold over 5 million copies and was #1 in the Charts. Despite the fact that Ice Cube wasn't a [[Death Row]] artist. One of the genre's biggest crossover stars was Dre's protégé [[Snoop Doggy Dogg]] (''[[Doggystyle]]'', 1993), whose exuberant party-oriented themes made songs such as "Gin and Juice" party anthems and top hits nationwide. [[Tupac Shakur]] (''[[Me Against the World]]'', 1995) has endured as one of the most successful West Coast hip hop artists of all time. Snoop and Tupac were both artists on [[Death Row Records]], owned by Dre and [[Suge Knight|Marion "Suge" Knight]]. Many of Tupac's greatest hits sampled or [[Interpolation (music)|interpolated]] earlier music by [[Zapp (band)|Zapp & Roger]].
Another label , Ruthless Records , also marked a succes with his founder : Eazy-E , Ruthless Records , label of the most pioneering group in the history of Gangsta Rap to exist : NWA , after the group split up the 5 members headed there own way , Ice Cube left first in 1989 for financial reasons , Dr.Dre in 1991 as the second one to make Deathrow Records with bodyguard Suge Knight , MC Ren and Eazy-E both kept with Ruthless Records for a solo career ,
DJ Yella also kept with Ruthless Records to help MC Ren and Eazy-E with there beats (since he was a DJ ).A big feud began between the Deathrow Records and the Ruthless Records camp .
Eazy-E was dissed in almost every song on Dr.Dre 's 'The Chronic'. Eazy-E had no other choice but to fight back . Eazy-E released his second own solo album 'It's On Dre (187um Killa) ' where he dissed Dr.Dre back . But Eazy-E also putted a little picture in the album box showing
Dr.Dre when he was with another group called "World Class Wreckin' Crew" where Dr.Dre wears make-up . Dr.Dre didn't say a thing back , with the outcome : the Ruthless Records camp wins the feud .Even though they defeated Dr.Dre , one of world's best-known hip hop producers and rappers , and his camp . Eazy-E's victory over Dr.Dre and Deathrow Records didn't last long , since the dead of Eazy-E in 1995 by AIDS , Ruthless Records , Eazy-E and MC Ren and there glorious victory over Deathrow Records is largely forgotten .
===Mafioso rap===
''''Mafioso rap'''' is a hip hop sub-genre which flourished in the mid-1990s. It is the pseudo-[[Mafia]] extension of [[East Coast hip hop|East Coast]] [[hardcore rap]], and was the counterpart of West Coast [[G-Funk]] rap during the [[1990s]]. In contrast to [[West Coast hip hop|West Coast]] Gangsta rappers, who tended to depict realistic urban life on the ghetto streets, Mafioso rappers' subject matter included self-indulgent and luxurious fantasies of rappers as Mobsters, or ''Mafiosis'', while making numerous references towards notorious crime organizations of the Italian underworld, including the [[Gambino]] crime family and ''[[La Cosa Nostra]]''. Fantasized and fictional narratives told by Mafioso rappers are often adapted versions of classic crime thrillers, most notably ''[[Bonnie and Clyde (film)|Bonnie and Clyde]]'', ''[[The Godfather]]'', ''[[Goodfellas]]'', ''[[Casino (film)|Casino]]'', ''[[King of New York]]'', and ''[[Scarface (1983 film)|Scarface]]''. Another trademark feature of Mafioso rap is the idolizing of high profile organized crime figures. These crime kingpins range from legendary gangsters of the [[1920s]] and [[1930s]] such as [[Al Capone]], [[Frank Costello]], and [[Lucky Luciano]], to the druglords of Latin America (including [[Pablo Escobar]]).
[[Kool G Rap]] was one of the first rappers to embrace the Mafioso theme in his subject matter. On his debut album, ''Road to the Riches'' ([[1989]]), Kool G Rap showcases graphic narratives about the "''glamorous life''" of a criminal:
:''Gettin' richer and richer, the police took my picture''
:''But I still supplied, some people I knew died''
:''Murders and homicides for bottles of suicide''
:''Money, jewelry, livin' like a star''
:''And I wasn't too far from a Jaguar car ''
:''In a small-time casino, the town's Al Pacino ''
:''For all of the girls, the pretty boy Valentino ''
:''I shot up stores and I kicked down doors ''
:''Collecting scars from little neighborhood wars ''
:''Many legs I broke, many necks I choked ''
:''And if provoked I let the pistol smoke ''
:''Eyes of hate and their hearts get colder ''
:''Some young male put in jail ''
:''His lawyer so good his bail is on sale ''
:''Lookin' at the hourglass, how long can this power last? ''
:''Longer than my song but he already fell ''
:''He likes to eat hardy, party ''
:''Be like John Gotti, and drive a Maserati''
Kool G Rap's epic tales, chronicling the [[crime]] underworld of [[drug trafficking]] and the luxurious pleasures of the high-end illegal business, helped inspire the related Mafioso rap phenomenon of the mid-1990s, which later achieved some mainstream success and great critical acclaim with albums such as [[Raekwon]]'s'' [[Only Built 4 Cuban Linx]]'', [[AZ (rapper)|AZ]]'s ''[[Doe Or Die]]'', and [[Jay-Z]]'s ''[[Reasonable Doubt]]''. At the genre's zenith in the [[pop culture|mainstream]] [[music industry]], mafioso-inspired albums, including [[Nas (rapper)|Nas]]'s ''[[It Was Written]]'' and [[Biggie]]'s ''[[Life After Death]]'', went on to become multi-platinum commercial successes.
===The rise of Bad Boy records===
Meanwhile, [[East Coast rap]]pers like [[Black Moon]] (''[[Enta da Stage]]'', 1993), [[Mobb Deep]] (''[[The Infamous (album)|The Infamous]]'', 1995), [[Nas (rapper)|Nas]] (''[[Illmatic]]'', 1994) and the [[Notorious B.I.G.]] (''[[Ready to Die]]'', 1994) pioneered a grittier sound in East Coast gangsta rap. B.I.G. and the rest of [[Puff Daddy]]'s [[Bad Boy Records]] roster paved the way for New York City to take back chart dominance from the West Coast as gangsta rap continued to explode into the mainstream. The "East Coast/West Coast" battle between Death Row Records and Bad Boy Records resulted in the deaths of Death Row's Tupac Shakur and Bad Boy's Notorious B.I.G. This had a knock-on effect on Death Row itself, which sank quickly when most of its big name artists like [[Dr. Dre]] and [[Snoop Dogg]] left and it found itself on the receiving end of multiple lawsuits. Dr. Dre, at the [[MTV Video Music Awards]], claimed that "gangsta rap was dead", which proved untrue. Bad Boy Records survived, though not untarnished. Puff Daddy's commercial empire continued to lose the support of the hip hop fan base with a mainstream sound aimed at middle-class America, and challenges from [[Atlanta]] and, especially, [[Master P]]'s [[No Limit Records|No Limit]] stable of popular rappers.
===Southern and Midwestern gangsta rap===
After the deaths of Biggie and Tupac, gangsta rap remained a major commercial force. However, most of the industry's major labels were in turmoil, or bankrupt, and new locations sprang up.
[[Atlanta, Georgia|Atlanta]] had been firmly established as a hip hop center by artists such as [[Goodie Mob]] and [[Outkast]] and many other Southern hip hop artists emerged in their wake, with gangsta rap artists achieving the most pop-chart success. [[ |
g>
|-
!align="left" valign="top"|Currency
|colspan="2" valign="top"|1 [[Euro]] = 100 cents
|-
!align="left" valign="top"|Fiscal year
|colspan="2" valign="top"| calendar year
|-
!align="left" valign="top"|Trade Organisations
|colspan="2" valign="top"|[[WTO]] and full member of The [[EU]]
|-
!align="center" bgcolor="darkblue" colspan="3"|Statistics
|-
!align="left" valign="top"|[[Gross domestic product|GDP]] Ranking (2004)
|colspan="2" valign="top"|[[List of countries by GDP (nominal)|28th]] (nominal) by volume; [[List of countries by GDP (nominal) per capita|27th]] per capita (nominal)
|-
!align="left" valign="top"|GDP (2005)
|colspan="2" valign="top"|$226.4 billion(nominal)
|-
!align="left" valign="top"|GDP growth rate (2004)
|colspan="2" valign="top"|4.4%-4.7%
|-
!align="left" valign="top"|GDP per Capita (2004)
|colspan="2" valign="top"|$22,000
|-
!align="left" valign="top"|GDP by sector (2004)
|colspan="2" valign="top"|agriculture (7%), industry (22%), services (71%)
|-
!align="left" valign="top"|[[Inflation]] rate (2004)
|colspan="2" valign="top"|>2.9%
|-
!align="left" valign="top"|Pop below [[poverty line]] (2001)
|colspan="2" valign="top"|N/A
|-
!align="left" valign="top"|Labour force (2003)
|colspan="2" valign="top"|4.4m
|-
!align="left" valign="top"|Labour force by occupation (2001)
|colspan="2" valign="top"|agriculture (12%), industry (20%), services (68%)
|-
!align="left" valign="top"|[[Unemployment]] rate (2005)
|colspan="2" valign="top"|8.8%
|-
!align="left" valign="top"|Main Industries
|colspan="2" valign="top"| tourism; food and tobacco processing, textiles; chemicals, metal products; mining, petroleum
|-
!align="center" bgcolor="darkblue" colspan="3"|Trading Partners
|-
!align="left" valign="top"|[[Imports]] (2004 est)
|colspan="2" valign="top"|$54.28bn
|-
!align="left" valign="top"|Main Partners (2004.)
|colspan="2" valign="top"| [[Germany]] 13.3%, [[Italy]] 12.8%, [[France]] 6.4%, [[Netherlands]] 5.5%, [[Russia]] 5.5%, [[United States|U.S.]] 4.4%, [[UK]] 4.2%, [[South Korea]] 4.1%
|-
!align="left" valign="top"|Exports (2004 est.)
|colspan="2" valign="top"|$15.5bn
|-
!align="left" valign="top"|Main Partners (2004)
|colspan="2" valign="top"| [[Germany]] 13.2%, [[Italy]] 10.3%, [[UK]] 7.5%, [[Bulgaria]] 6.3%, [[United States|U.S.]] 5.3%, [[Cyprus]] 4.6%, [[Turkey]] 4.5%, [[France]] 4.2%
|-
!align="left" valign="top"|Public Debt
|colspan="2" valign="top"|112% of GDP (2004)
|}
The '''Greek economy''' is growing fast after the implementation of stabilization policies in recent years. [[Greece]] remains a net [[import]]er of industrial and capital goods, foodstuffs, and [[petroleum]]. Leading [[export]]s are manufactured goods, food and beverages, petroleum products, [[cement]], chemicals, and [[pharmaceuticals]].
== Recent economic history ==
The development of the modern Greek economy began in the late [[19th century|19th]] and early [[20th century|20th]] centuries with the adoption of social and industrial legislation and protective tariffs and the creation of the first industrial enterprises. Industry at the turn of the century consisted primarily of food processing, shipbuilding, and the manufacture of textiles and simple consumer products.
The evolution of the Greek economy in relation to that of Western Europe can best be represented by comparative measures of standard of living. The per capita income (purchasing power terms) of Greece was 65% that of France in 1850, 50% in 1900, 62% in 1938, 55% in 1970 and 76% in 2005 (Paul Bairoch, 'Europe's GNP 1800-1975', J. of European Economic History, 5, pp. 273-340 (1976); Angus Maddison, 'Monitoring the World Economy 1820-1992', OECD (1995); CIA, The World Factbook, data for 2005).
Greece achieved high rates of growth in the [[1960s]] and early [[1970s]] due to large foreign investments. In the mid-[[1970s]], Greece suffered declines in its [[Gross domestic product|GDP]] growth rate, ratio of investment to GDP, and productivity, and real labor costs and oil prices rose. In [[1981]], protective barriers were removed when Greece joined the [[European Community]]. The government pursued expansionary policies, which fueled inflation and caused [[balance of payments|balance-of-payment]] difficulties. Growing public sector deficits were financed by borrowing. In October [[1985]], supported by a 1.7 billion [[European Currency Unit]] (ECU) loan from the [[European Union]] (EU), the government implemented a two-year "stabilization" program with limited success. Public sector inefficiency and excessive spending caused [[government borrowing]] to increase; by the end of [[1992]], general [[government debt]] exceeded 100% of GDP.
Greece continued to rely on foreign borrowing to finance its deficits. Public sector external debt was $32 billion at the end of [[1998]]. The general government debt was $119 billion at the end of 1998, or 105.5% of GDP. Greece's external debt was $32 billion at the end of 1998.
Greece, as a member of the [[European Union]], strived to reduce its budget deficit and inflation rate in order to meet the prerequisites for the [[Economic and Monetary Union of the European Union|Economic and Monetary Union]]. Although growth remained above the convergence program guidelines, high budget deficits and deficient infrastructure continued to dampen the economy's long-term potential growth rate.
In May 1994, the Bank of Greece successfully managed a currency crisis triggered by the lifting of currency restrictions on short-term capital movements. The bank contained speculative attacks on the drachma by tightening its monetary policy and raising interest rates dramatically: For a few days, interest rates pushed as high as 180%. In less than 2 months, with speculation on the drachma no longer a threat, interest rates returned to normal levels. A similar wave of speculation was beaten back in the fall of 1997, following the [[Asian financial crisis]].
One of the successes of recent Greek economic policy has been the reduction of inflation rates. For more than 20 years, inflation hovered in the double digits, but a combination of fiscal consolidation, wage restraint, and strong drachma policies resulted in lowered inflation. Inflation fell to 2.0% by mid-1999. High interest rates have been historicallz a significant problem. The government's strong drachma policy and Public Sector Borrowing Requirement (PSBR) made the lowering of interest rates difficult, but progress was made in 1997-99 and rates gradually declined in line with inflation.
In 2001 Greece joined the Economic and Monetary Union (eurozone). Interest rate policy is now in the hands of the European Central Bank.
Due to the more stable macroeconomic framework and lower interest rates, growth has picked up significantly. In 2003 the Greek economy grew at an estimated rate of 4.7, the fastest in the EU. A part of this has been sustained by the investment in infrastructure in the run up to the Summer Olympic Games 2004 to be held in Athens.
Recent economic performance has been satisfying. However there are two challenges for policymakers: a)to avoid an economic slump after the enthusiasm of the Games has gone and the EU farm subsidies get cut in 2006 and b) to proceed with stuctural economic reforms, especially in the areas of [[social insurance]], [[social welfare|welfare]], and the [[labour market]] which will encourage further [[investments]], lower the country's high [[unemployment]] and promote growth and economic stability. The first step was taken on the 30th June 2005 with substantial reforms of the insurance system for bank employees against fierce opposition from the unions and the main opposition political party [[PASOK]] with laws liberalising working hours in [[retail]] [[trade]] and employment and providing for public/private financing initiatives of public works and services to follow over the summer.
In 2004, [[Eurostat]], the statistical arm of the [[European Commission]] (after an audit performed by the New Democracy government) revealed that the budgetary statistics, on the basis of which Greece joined the European monetary union, had been massively [http://epp.eurostat.cec.eu.int/cache/ITY_PUBLIC/GREECE/EN/GREECE-EN.PDF falsified] by the previous Greek government (mostly by delaying accounting for huge military expenses; the country, though, had met the criteria for entry into the Eurozone even with revised numbers, when calculated with the [[Eurostat]] methodology still in force at the time of Greece's application for entry).
== Principal sectors ==
Services, including [[tourism]], make up the largest and fastest-growing sector of the Greek economy, accounting for about 70% of GDP in 2002.
Tourism is a major source of foreign exchange earnings. Although it is one of the country's most important industries, it has been slow to expand and suffers from poor infrastructure. With more than 14 million tourists visiting Greece in 2002, the tourist industry faced declining revenues, partly due to the strong [[drachma]]. Revenue from tourism exceeded $5.2 billion in 1998, having increased somewhat as Greek tourism benefited fro |
of Italy]] (b. [[1881]])
*[[1957]] - [[David Bomberg]], English painter (b. [[1890]])
*1957 - [[Carl-Gustaf Rossby]], Swedish meteorologist (b. [[1898]])
*[[1959]] - [[Jacob Epstein]], American-born sculptor (b. [[1880]])
*[[1967]] - [[Hugo Gernsback]], Luxembourg-born editor and publisher (b. [[1884]])
*[[1968]] - [[George Gamow]], Ukrainian-born physicist (b. [[1904]])
*[[1969]] - [[Ludwig Mies van der Rohe]], German architect (b. [[1886]])
*[[1970]] - [[Pawel Jasienica|Paweł Jasienica]], Polish historian (b. [[1909]])
*[[1976]] - [[Alastair Sim]], Scottish actor and former rector of Edinburgh University (b. [[1900]])
*[[1977]] - [[Groucho Marx]], American comedian and actor (b. [[1890]])
*[[1980]] - [[Otto Frank]], father of Anne Frank (b. [[1889]])
*[[1982]] - [[August Neo]], Estonian wrestler, Olympic medalist (b.[[1908]])
*[[1994]] - [[Linus Pauling]], American chemist, recipient of the [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry]] and [[Nobel Peace Prize|Peace]] (b. [[1901]])
*[[1995]] - [[Pierre Schaeffer]], French composer (b. [[1910]])
*[[2003]] - [[Carlos Roberto Reina]], [[President of Honduras]] (b. [[1926]])
*2003 - [[Sérgio Vieira de Mello]], Brazilian diplomat (b. [[1948]])
*[[2005]] - [[Bueno de Mesquita]], Dutch comedian and actor (b. [[1918]])
*2005 - [[Mo Mowlam]], British politician (b. [[1949]])
==Holidays and observances==
*[[Roman festivals]] - [[Vinalia Rustica]] celebrated in honor of [[Venus (mythology)|Venus]] ''Libitina'' commemorating the founding of the oldest known temple to her, on the [[Esquiline Hill]], in [[293 BC]] on this date.
*[[List of saints|RC saints]] - [[Saint Sebald]], [[Saint Louis of Toulouse]], [[Jean-Eudes de Mézeray]]
*[[Afghanistan]] - [[Afghan Independence Day]] ''see above: 1919''
*National Day of the Filipino Language, [[Philippines]] - Holiday for [[Quezon City]], [[Quezon Province]] and other municipalities named after [[Manuel Quezon]]
*[[National Aviation Day]], [[United States|USA]]
==External links==
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/august/19 BBC: On This Day]
* [http://www.tnl.net/when/8/19 Today in History: August 19]
----
[[August 18]] - [[August 20]] - [[July 19]] - [[September 19]] -- [[historical anniversaries|listing of all days]]
{{months}}
[[af:19 Augustus]]
[[ar:19 أغسطس]]
[[an:19 d'agosto]]
[[ast:19 d'agostu]]
[[bg:19 август]]
[[be:19 жніўня]]
[[bs:19. august]]
[[ca:19 d'agost]]
[[ceb:Agosto 19]]
[[cv:Çурла, 19]]
[[co:19 d'aostu]]
[[cs:19. srpen]]
[[cy:19 Awst]]
[[da:19. august]]
[[de:19. August]]
[[et:19. august]]
[[el:19 Αυγούστου]]
[[es:19 de agosto]]
[[eo:19-a de aŭgusto]]
[[eu:Abuztuaren 19]]
[[fo:19. august]]
[[fr:19 août]]
[[fy:19 augustus]]
[[ga:19 Lúnasa]]
[[gl:19 de agosto]]
[[ko:8월 19일]]
[[hr:19. kolovoza]]
[[io:19 di agosto]]
[[id:19 Agustus]]
[[ia:19 de augusto]]
[[ie:19 august]]
[[is:19. ágúst]]
[[it:19 agosto]]
[[he:19 באוגוסט]]
[[jv:19 Agustus]]
[[ka:19 აგვისტო]]
[[csb:19 zélnika]]
[[ku:19'ê gelawêjê]]
[[lt:Rugpjūčio 19]]
[[lb:19. August]]
[[li:19 augustus]]
[[hu:Augusztus 19]]
[[mk:19 август]]
[[ms:19 Ogos]]
[[nap:19 'e aùsto]]
[[nl:19 augustus]]
[[ja:8月19日]]
[[no:19. august]]
[[nn:19. august]]
[[oc:19 d'agost]]
[[pl:19 sierpnia]]
[[pt:19 de Agosto]]
[[ro:19 august]]
[[ru:19 августа]]
[[sco:19 August]]
[[sq:19 Gusht]]
[[scn:19 di austu]]
[[simple:August 19]]
[[sk:19. august]]
[[sl:19. avgust]]
[[sr:19. август]]
[[fi:19. elokuuta]]
[[sv:19 augusti]]
[[tl:Agosto 19]]
[[tt:19. August]]
[[te:ఆగష్టు 19]]
[[th:19 สิงหาคม]]
[[vi:19 tháng 8]]
[[tr:19 Ağustos]]
[[uk:19 серпня]]
[[wa:19 d' awousse]]
[[war:Agosto 19]]
[[zh:8月19日]]
[[pam:Agostu 19]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>August 20</title>
<id>1498</id>
<revision>
<id>42069073</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T16:32:04Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>85.20.186.33</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Births */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{| style="float:right;"
|-
|{{AugustCalendar}}
|-
|{{ThisDateInRecentYears|Month=August|Day=20}}
|}
'''[[August 20]]''' is the 232nd day of the year (233rd in [[leap year]]s) in the [[Gregorian Calendar]]. There are 133 days remaining. If you take the numbers 232 and 133, you got one 1, two 2´s and three 3´s.
==Events==
*[[636]] - [[Battle of Yarmuk]]: [[Arab]] forces led by [[Khalid bin Walid]] take control of [[Syria]] and [[Palestine (region)|Palestine]] away from the [[Byzantine Empire]], marking the first great wave of [[Muslim]] conquests and the rapid advance of [[Islam]] outside [[Arabia]].
*[[917]] - [[Battle of Anchialus]]: Tsar [[Simeon I of Bulgaria]] invades [[Thrace]] and drives the [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantines]] out.
*[[1391]] - [[Konrad IV von Wallenrode]] becomes the 24th [[Grand master (order)|Grand Master]] of the [[Teutonic Order]].
*[[1794]] - [[Battle of Fallen Timbers]] - [[United States|American]] troops force a confederacy of [[Shawnee (tribe)|Shawnee]], [[Mingo (tribe)|Mingo]], [[Delaware (tribe)|Delaware]], [[Wyandot]], [[Miami (tribe)|Miami]], [[Ottawa (tribe)|Ottawa]], [[Chippewa]], and [[Potawatomi]] warriors into a disorganized retreat.
*[[1804]] - [[Lewis and Clark Expedition]]: The "Corps of Discovery", exploring the [[Louisiana Purchase]], suffers its only death when Sergeant [[Charles Floyd (explorer)|Charles Floyd]] dies, apparently from acute [[appendicitis]].
*[[1833]] - [[Nat Turner]] leads his [[revolt]] against the Southern plantation owners of Southampton County, [[Virginia]]
*[[1882]] - [[Piotr Ilyitch Tchaikovsky]]'s [[1812 Overture]] debuts in [[Moscow]].
*[[1900]] - [[Japan|Japan's]] primary school law is amended to provide for four years of mandatory schooling.
*[[1914]] - [[World War I]]: [[Germany|German]] forces occupy [[Brussels]].
*[[1920]] - The first commercial [[radio]] station, 8MK (WWJ), begins operations in [[Detroit, Michigan]].
*[[1926]] - [[Japan|Japan's]] [[Public broadcasting|public broadcasting]] company, [[NHK|Nippon Hōsō Kyōkai (NHK)]] is established.
*[[1940]] - Exiled [[Russia]]n revolutionary [[Leon Trotsky]] is fatally wounded in [[Mexico City]] by an assassin's ice axe. He will die the next day.
*[[1955]] - In [[Morocco]], a force of [[Berber]]s from the [[Atlas Mountains]] region of [[Algeria]], raid two rural settlements and kill 77 [[France|French]] nationals.
*[[1960]] - [[Senegal]] breaks from the [[Mali]] federation, declaring independence.
*[[1968]] - 200,000 [[Warsaw Pact]] troops and 5,000 [[tank]]s invade [[Czechoslovakia]] to end the "[[Prague Spring]]" of political liberalization.
*[[1975]] - [[Viking program]]: [[NASA]] launches the [[Viking 1]] planetary probe toward [[Mars (planet)|Mars]].
*[[1977]] - [[Voyager program]]: The [[United States]] launches the [[Voyager 2]] spacecraft.
*[[1982]] - [[Lebanese Civil War]]: A multinational force lands in [[Beirut]] to oversee the [[PLO]] withdrawal from [[Lebanon]].
*[[1986]] - In [[Edmond, Oklahoma]], [[United States Postal Service|US Postal]] employee [[Patrick Sherrill|Patrick Henry Sherrill]] guns down 14 of his co-workers and then commits [[suicide]].
*[[1988]] - [[Peru]] becomes a member of the [[Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works|Berne Convention]] [[copyright]] [[treaty]].
*[[1989]] - In [[Beverly Hills, California]], [[Lyle and Erik Menendez]] shoot and kill their wealthy parents.
*[[1991]] - [[Collapse of the Soviet Union]]: More than 100,000 people rally outside the [[Soviet Union]]'s parliament building protesting the [[coup]] aiming to depose President [[Mikhail Gorbachev]]. [[Estonia]] reclaimed its independence and seceded from the [[Soviet Union]]. Estonia had been occupied by the Soviets for more than 50 years.
*[[1993]] - After rounds of secret negotiations in [[Norway]], the [[Oslo Peace Accords]] were signed, followed by a public ceremony in [[Washington, D.C.]] the next month.
*[[1994]] - Circus elephant trainer [[Allen Campbell]] is crushed to death in Honolulu, Hawaii, by the performing elephant "[[Tyke]]".
*[[1997]] - [[Souhane massacre]] in [[Algeria]]; over 60 people killed, 15 kidnapped.
*[[1998]] - The [[Supreme Court of Canada]] states [[Quebec]] cannot legally secede from [[Canada]] without the federal government's approval.
*1998 - [[1998 U.S. embassy bombings|U.S. embassy bombings]]: The [[United States military]] launches [[cruise missile]] attacks against alleged [[al-Qaida]] camps in [[Afghanistan]] and a suspected chemical plant in [[Sudan]] in retaliation for the [[August 7]] bombings of American embassies in [[Kenya]] and [[Tanzania]]. The [[al-Shifa pharmaceutical factory]] in [[Khartoum]] is destroyed in the attack.
==Births==
*[[1517]] - [[Antoine Perrenot de Granvelle]], French church leader (d. [[1586]])
*[[1561]] - [[Jacopo Peri]], Italian composer (d. [[1633]])
*[[1601]] - [[Pierre de Fermat]], French mathematician (d. [[1665]])
*[[1625]] - [[Thomas Corneille]], French dramatist (d. [[1709]])
*[[1632]] - [[Louis Bourdaloue]], French Jesuit preacher (d. [[1704]])
*[[1710]] - [[Thomas Simpson]], British mathematician (d. [[1761]])
*[[1719]] - [[Christian Mayer]], Czech astronomer (d. [[1783]])
*1719 - [[Charles-François de Broglie, marquis de Ruffec]], French soldier and diplomat (d. [[1791]])
*[[1779]] - [[Jöns Jakob Berzelius]], Swedish chemist (d. [[1848]])
*[[1833]] - [[Benjamin Harrison]], 23rd [[President of the United States]] (d. [[1901]])
*[[1847]] - [[Boleslaw Prus]], Polish writer (d. [[1912]])
*[[1860]] - [[Raymond Poincaré]], French statesman (d. [[1934]])
*[[1881]] - [[Edgar Guest]], English poet (d. [[1959]])
*[[1897]] - [[Tarjei Vesaas]], Norwegian writer (d. [[1970]])
*[[1890]] - [[H. P. Lovecraft]], American writer (d. [[1937]])
*[[1901]] - [[Salvatore Quasimodo]], Italian writer, [[Nobel Prize in Literature|Nobel Prize]] laureate (d. [[1968]])
*[[1905]] - [[Jean Gebser]], German-born author, linguist, and poet (d. [[1973]])
*1905 - [[Jack Teagarden]], American musician (d. [[1964 |
ey would be known as "Team USA".
==Equipment==
===Shoes===
[[image:curlingshoes.jpg|thumb|'''Curling shoes:''' The slider shoe (center), with its thin [[Teflon]] surface, is worn during delivery to slide on the ice; a slip-on gripper (left) is worn over the slider at other times; the other shoe (right) has a rough surface to give traction on the ice.]]
When curling, players need to wear specially designed shoes. The sole of one shoe has a thin strip of Teflon or another type of smooth surface, called a ''slider''. Inexpensive sliders can be purchased and attached to any shoes by means of an elastic strap. This enables curlers to slide out of the hack when delivering a rock. Left-handed curlers wear this shoe on their right foot, while right-handed curlers wear it on their left. The other shoe has a thin layer of rubber to maximize traction on the ice. Another piece of footwear is the gripper, which can slide on and off the shoe with the slippery surface. This is also usually made of rubber. This piece of equipment is needed when a player is sweeping, and needs traction with both feet.
[[image:curlingbroom.jpg|thumb|left|100px|The '''curling broom''' is used to sweep the ice surface in front of the rock.]]
=== Brooms (or brushes) ===
The curling broom is used to sweep the ice surface in front of the rock. Aggressive sweeping momentarily melts the ice, which lessens friction, thereby lessening the deceleration of the rock, while straightening the trajectory of the rock. The broom can also be used to clean debris off the ice. The skip will also hold a broom at the opposite end of the rink from the delivering player to show the deliverer where to aim the rock.
In earlier days, brooms were made of corn strands and were similar to household brooms. Brushes were used primarily by elderly curlers as a substitute for corn brooms. Today, brushes have replaced traditional corn brooms at every level of curling, but are universally referred to as brooms. Brooms are also used by some curlers as a balancing aide during delivery of the stone.
=== Curling stone (or rock) ===
[[image:curlingrock.jpg|thumb|The curling '''stone''' or '''rock''' is made out of [[granite]].]]
The curling stone, or rock, weighs a maximum of 44 lbs. (19.96 kg) and is fitted with a handle on top allowing it to be rotated as it is released. If the handle is rotated across the body (clockwise for a right-handed thrower, counter-clockwise for a leftie), the shot is said to be an in-turn, and if rotated away from the body (counter-clockwise for a right-handed thrower, clockwise for a leftie), it is an out-turn. The handle may also contain circuitry for detecting hog line violations. [http://www.curling.ca/fan_central/features/from_the_ntc/article.asp?id=21]
The bottom of the rock is not flat, however, but [[concave]] with the actual surface in contact with the ice ("running surface") being only ¼ to ½ inch (6 to 12 mm) wide along the rim of the concave bottom. This narrow running surface allows the pebble applied to the ice to have an effect on the action of the rock. On properly prepared ice, the rock's path will bend (curl) in the direction the front edge of the rock is turning, especially toward the end of its delivery. The degree of curl depends on several factors, including the preparation of the ice and the flattening of common paths to the house during the game. Ice on which the rocks curl well is said to be swingy.
The Scots in particular believe that the best quality curling stones are made from a specific type of [[granite]] called "Ailsite", found on the [[Ailsa Craig]], an island off the [[Ayrshire]] coast. Most curling stones are made from this granite. Because of the particular rarity of Ailsite, costs for curling stones can reach as much as $1500 ([[United States dollar|USD]]) for Olympic grade stones. Many curling clubs use a lower grade stone that can be upwards of $500. Very informal neighbourhood curling clubs with limited resources may make cylindrical "curling stones" out of concrete-filled cans.
The curling stones used at the 2006 [[Winter Olympic Games|Winter Olympics]] in [[Turin|Torino]] were provided by the [[Garn For]] granite quarry at the [[Yr Eifl]] mountain on the [[Llŷn Peninsula]] in North-West [[Wales]].
=== Specialized equipment ===
A special handle for stones, called "[http://www.eyeonthehog.com/ Eye On The Hog]", has recently been developed, which integrates electronics to ensure the stone is released before it crosses the hog line. The handle is coated in metallic paint; the circuitry detects the relative charge of the thrower's hand contact to determine if they are still in contact, and a linear field is established at the hog line to indicate its location to the internal sensor. Lights at the base of the handle indicate whether contact was sustained past the line or not. Not only does this remove the chance for human error (eliminating the game's most frequent cause of controversy), but it means there is no need for hogline officials as well. It is finding use in curling clubs and high-level tournaments (including the 2006 Winter Olympics) alike.
Although the rock is designed to be delivered by players grasping the handle as they slide down the ice, a special "delivery stick" may be used by players incapable of delivering the rock in this fashion. Such a stick is designed to attach to the handle so that it can be released without requiring the player to place a hand on the handle in a crouched position. This allows the game to be played by players with disabilities, as well as those unable to crouch comfortably. According to the [[Canadian Curling Association]] Rules of Curling, "The use of a curling aid commonly referred to as a 'delivery stick' which enables the player to deliver a stone without placing a hand on the handle is considered acceptable."
== Game play ==
A competitive game usually consists of ten ends. Recreational games are more commonly only eight or even six ends. An end consists of each player from both teams throwing two rocks with the players on each side alternating shots, for a total of sixteen rocks. If the teams are tied at the completion of ten ends an extra end is played to break the tie. If the match is still tied after the extra end, play continues for as many ends as may be required to break the tie. The winner is the team with the highest score after all ends have been completed (see '''Scoring''' below).
It is not uncommon at any level for a losing team to terminate the match before all ends are completed if it believes it no longer has a realistic chance of winning. Most competitive tournaments require eight ends to be completed before allowing a losing team to concede in this manner. Competitive games will usually end once the losing team is "run out of rocks" - that is, once it has fewer stones in play and/or available for play than the number of points needed to tie the game in the final end.
In international competition each side is given 73 minutes to complete all of their throws. Each team is also allowed two 60 second timeouts per ten end game. If extra ends are required each team is allowed 10 minutes of playing time to complete their throws during the extra end. One added 60 second timeout is allowed in each extra end.
=== Throwing ===
When throwing the rock, you must release it before reaching the near hogline (players usually slide while releasing their shots) and it must cross the far hogline; otherwise the rock is removed from play.
While the first three players throw their rocks, the skip remains at the far end of the ice to guide the players. While the skip is throwing, the ''third'' takes this role. Thus, each time a rock is thrown, there is one player throwing the rock, and another player at the far end.
The two remaining players, equipped with brooms, follow the rock and assist in guiding its trajectory by sweeping the ice before the rock. Sweeping causes the rock to decrease its curl but travel a greater distance. The sweeping players combine directions from the skip and/or the thrower with their own instincts for the weight of the rock, as well as extremely precise timing, to guide the rock into the appropriate position. Often when giving instructions, the thrower or skip will yell "HARD." They are referring to the amount of pressure the sweepers should use to sweep the ice. Teams confer between throws to determine where they will attempt to place the next rock.
====Delivering the rock====
The process of throwing a rock is known as ''the delivery''. While not mandatory, most curlers deliver the rock from sliding out from the hack. When sliding out, one must start with one shoe (the one with the non-slippery sole) against one of the hacks (a position referred to as being ''in the hacks''). For a right-handed curler, this means starting from the left hack, and vice versa for a left-handed curler.
When delivering the rock, it is important to remember that the momentum behind how much weight is applied to the rock depends on how much leg drive the delivery has. It is usually not wise to push the rock with the arm, unless absolutely necessary. When in the hack, one must crouch down with the body lined up and shoulders square with the skip's broom at the other end. While in the hack, one may hold a broom out for balance. Different curlers hold their broom out in many different fashions. The broom is held in the hand opposite from the rock, and should be positioned so that the non-sweeping side of the broom is against the ice. This prevents drag which would be caused by the soft head of the broom dragging against the ice.
Before any delivery is done, it is important to ensure that the running surface of the rock is clean, and that the area around you is clean as well. This is achieved by wiping the running surface of the rock with either yo |
rface inside itself (<code>Applet</code> is a descendent of {{Javadoc:SE|java/awt|Panel}} which is a descendent of {{Javadoc:SE|java/awt|Container}}).
== Compatibility issues ==
[[Sun_Microsystems|Sun]] has made a considerable effort to ensure compatibility is maintained between Java versions as they evolve. For example, [[Microsoft]]'s [[Internet Explorer]], the most popular web browser since late 1990s, used to ship with Microsoft's own [[JVM]] as the default. The MSJVM had some extra non-Java features added which, if used, would prevent MSJVM applets from running on Sun's Java (but not the other way round). Sun sued for breach of [[trademark]], as the point of Java was that there should be no proprietary extensions and that code should work everywhere. Development of MSJVM was frozen by a legal settlement, leaving many users with an extremely outdated Java virtual machine. Later, in October 2001, MS stopped including Java with Windows, and for some years it has been left to the computer manufacturers to ship Java independently of the OS. Most new machines now ship with official Sun Java.
Some browsers (notably [[Firefox]]) do not do a good job of handling <tt>height=100%</tt> on applets which makes it difficult to make an applet fill most of the browser window ([[Javascript]] can be used for this but its hard to get it perfect). Having the applet create its own main window is not a good solution either, as this leads to a large chance of the applet getting terminated unintentionally and leaves the browser window as a largely useless extra window.
== Advantages of applets ==
A Java applet can have any or all of the following advantages:
*it is simple to make it work on Windows, Mac OS and Linux, i.e. to make it cross platform
*the same applet can work on "all" installed versions of Java at the same time, rather than just the latest [[plug-in]] version only
*it can work without any security approval from the user - who doesn't need to trust the software's author
*it is supported by most [[web browser]]s
*it will [[cache]] in most web browsers, so will be quick to load when returning to a web page
*it can have full access to the machine it is running on if the user agrees
*it can improve with use: after a first applet is run, the JVM is already running and starts quickly, benefitting regular users of Java
*it can run at a comparible (but generally slower) speed to other compiled languages such as [[C++]]
*it can be a [[real-time computing|real time]] application
*it can move the work from the [[server (computing)|server]] to the [[client (computing)|client]], making a web solution more scaleable with the number of users/clients
== Disadvantages of applets ==
A Java applet is open to any of the following disadvantages:
*it requires the Java [[plug-in]], which isn't available by default on all [[web browser]]s
*it can't start up until the [[JVM]] is running, and this may have significant startup time the first time it is used
*if it is uncached, it must be downloaded (usually over the [[internet]]), and this takes time
*it is considered more difficult to build and design a good [[user interface]] with applets than with [[HTML]]-based technologies
*if untrusted, it has severely limited access to the user's system - in particular having no direct access to the client's disc or clipboard
Though not strictly a disadvantage of Java applets, alternative technologies exist (for example, [[Ajax (programming)|Ajax]] and [[Macromedia Flash|Flash]]) that satisfy much of the scope of what is possible with an applet.
Another option for client side java is [[Java Web Start]]. This runs outside the browser getting arround many of the compatibility issues and makes availible a number useful of APIs for interacting with things like files and the clipboard from untrusted code.
== See also ==
* [[Java Servlet]]
* [[Java Web Start]]
* [[ActiveX|ActiveX control]]s
* [[Macromedia Flash]]
* [[Java programming language|Java]]
== External links ==
*[http://java.sun.com/docs/books/tutorial/applet/index.html Information about writing applets from Sun Microsystems]
*[http://java.sun.com/applets/jdk/1.0/index.html Demonstration applets from Sun Microsystems] ([[JDK]] 1.0)
*[http://www.java.com/en/download/download_the_latest.jsp Download the latest version of Sun Microsystems Java Virtual Machine] (includes browser plug-ins for runing Java applets in most web browsers).
*[http://www-math.mit.edu/daimp Some mathematics applets, at MIT]
*[http://forscene.net/guest/ Video editing/publishing applet from Forbidden Technologies]
*[http://www.jpowered.com/ JPowered.com for prebuilt applets]
[[Category:Java platform|Applet]]
[[Category:Java programming language|Applet]]
[[de:Java-Applet]]
[[es:Java applet]]
[[it:Java applet]]
[[ja:Java&#12450;&#12503;&#12524;&#12483;&#12488;]]
[[nl:Java-applet]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>London Heathrow Airport</title>
<id>13595</id>
<revision>
<id>41403092</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-27T02:24:01Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>69.192.243.110</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Terminal 1 */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Airport frame}}
{{Airport title|name=Heathrow Airport|}}
{{Airport image|airport_image=heathrow.london.750pix.jpg}}
{{Airport infobox |
IATA = LHR |
ICAO = EGLL |
type = public |
run by = [[BAA plc|BAA]] |
closest town = London|
elevation_ft = 80 |
elevation_m = 24 |
coordinates = {{coor dms|51|28|39|N|0|27|41|W|type:airport}}
}}
{{Runway title}}
{{Runway|
runway_angle = 09L/27R |
runway_length_f = 12,801 |
runway_length_m = 3,902 |
runway_surface = Grooved Asphalt |
}}
{{Runway|
runway_angle = 09R/27L |
runway_length_f = 12,001 |
runway_length_m = 3,658 |
runway_surface = Grooved Asphalt |
}}
{{Runway|
runway_angle = 23 |
runway_length_f = 5,551 |
runway_length_m = 1,692 |
runway_surface = Paved |
}}
{{Airport end frame}}
'''London Heathrow Airport''' {{Airport codes|LHR|EGLL}}, often referred to as '''Heathrow''', is the [[United Kingdom]]'s busiest and best-connected [[airport]]. It is the busiest airport in Europe and by international passenger traffic is the [[List of the world's busiest airports by international passenger traffic |busiest international airport]] in the world. By total passenger traffic it is the world's third-busiest airport. Heathrow is located in the [[London Borough of Hillingdon]], 15 miles (24 km) west of [[Charing Cross]] in [[Central London]].
== History==
Heathrow began in the 1930s as the Great Western Aerodrome, privately owned by [[Fairey Aviation]], primarily for testing, the land being acquired from the [[vicar]] of Harmondsworth. The airport was named after the hamlet [[Heathrow, London|Heath Row]], which was demolished to make way for the airport and was located approximately where Terminal 3 is sited now. [http://www.thisislongford.com/heathrow.htm]. It had no commercial traffic and [[Croydon Airport]] was then the main airport for London.
In [[1944]] Heathrow came under control of the Ministry of Air. [[Harold Balfour]] (later Lord Balfour, then Under-[[Secretary of State for Air]] [[1938]]-[[1944]], wrote in his 1973 autobiography ''Wings over Westminster'' that he deliberately deceived the government committee that a requisition was necessary in order that Heathrow could be used as a [[bomber]] base. In fact, Balfour wrote, he always intended the site to be used for civil aviation and used a wartime emergency requisition order to avoid a lengthy and costly [[public inquiry]]. The [[Royal Air Force]] never made use of the airport and control was transferred to the Ministry of Civil Aviation on [[1 January]] [[1946]], the first civil flight that day being to [[Buenos Aires]], via [[Lisbon]] for refuelling.
The airport opened fully for civilian use on [[31 May]] [[1946]]. By 1947 Heathrow had three runways with three more under construction. These older runways, built for [[aircraft engine|piston-engined]] planes, were short, and criss-crossed to allow flights in all wind conditions. The first concrete slab of the first modern runway was ceremonially placed by Queen [[Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom|Elizabeth II]] in [[1953]]. She also opened the first terminal building, the Europa Building (later Terminal 2), in 1955. Shortly afterwards the Oceanic Terminal (later Terminal 3) became operational. Terminal 1 was opened in 1968, completing the cluster of buildings at the centre of the Heathrow site. The location of the original terminals in the centre of the site has since become a constraint to expansion. This decision was due to an early assumption that airline passengers would not require extensive car parking, as air travel was then only affordable to the wealthy, who would be chauffeur-driven.
[[image:heathrow.view.arp.jpg|thumb|right|250px|View across Heathrow Airport. The Concorde is G-BOAB in open-air storage.]]
In [[1977]], the [[London Underground]] was extended to Heathrow, connecting the airport with Central London in just under an hour via the [[Piccadilly Line]]. Currently the loop to Terminal 4 is inactive, with all underground trains terminating at the station for Terminals 1, 2 and 3. This is to allow the loop to be extended to Terminal 5; this extension is currently dubbed "PiccEx", an abbreviation of "'''Picc'''adilly Line '''Ex'''tension". The loop, together with the T4 and T5 underground stations, is expected to re-open in [[2007]].
Terminal 4 was built away from the three older terminals, to the south of the southern runway. The terminal opened in 1986 and became the home for then newly privatised [[British Airways]]. In [[1987]], the British Government [[privatised]] the [[BAA plc|British Airports Authority]] (now just "BAA plc"), which included seven of Brita |
Method''
* [[Ronald J. Pestritto]] ''[[Woodrow Wilson]] and the roots of modern liberalism'' 2005
* [[Karl Popper|Popper, Karl]]. 1945. ''The Open Society and Its Enemies'' (in 2 volumes). (ISBN 0691019681) Routledge.
* [[Karl Popper|Popper, Karl]]. 1993. ''The Poverty of Historicism''. (ISBN 0415065690) Routledge.
* [[G.W.F Hegel]] ''Philosophy of History''
* [[Franz Boas]] ''The Mind of Primitive Man'' 1911
==External links==
Hegel
* [http://www.hegel.org/ The Hegel Society of America]
* [http://www.hegel.net/ Site Hegel]
* [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/hegel/ Hegel in Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy]
* http://www.gwfhegel.org/
* [http://www.historyguide.org/intellect/hegel.html Hegel page in 'The History Guide']
Anthropology
* [http://www.as.ua.edu/ant/Faculty/murphy/histor.htm Historicism in Anthropology]
Popper
* [http://lachlan.bluehaze.com.au/books/popper_poverty_of_historicism.html Extracts from ''The Poverty of Historicism'']
New Historicism
* [http://www.sou.edu/English/Hedges/Sodashop/RCenter/Theory/Explaind/nhistexp.htm New Historicism Explained]
* [http://www.nhinet.org/ryn-rob.htm Claes G. Ryn, ''Defining Historicism'' ]
* [http://www.as.ua.edu/ant/Faculty/murphy/histor.htm M. D. Murphy, ''Historicism'']
Biblical Prophecy
* [http://www.everythingimportant.org/viewtopic.php?t=1124 A Modern Historicist Interpretation of Revelation 2 and 3]
* http://www.historicism.net/
* http://www.historicism.com/
* http://www.rev14.info/
* http://www.historicist.com/
* http://www.ianpaisley.org/
* http://www.truthleftbehind.com/
[[Category:Social philosophy]]
[[Category:Evolution]]
[[Category:Georg Hegel]]
[[de:Historizismus]]
[[es:Historicismo]]
[[fr:Historicisme]]
[[he:היסטוריציזם]]
[[nl:Historicisme]]
[[pt:Historicismo]]
[[sv:Historicism]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Hunter College</title>
<id>14330</id>
<revision>
<id>40658209</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-22T02:54:31Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>JesseRafe</username>
<id>641784</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* Notable alumni */ Smigel's occupation</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve"><div style="float: right; margin: 0 0 1em 2em; width: 20em; text-align: right; font-size: 0.86em; font-family: lucida grande, sans-serif; line-height: normal;"><!-- start of floated right section -->
<div style="border: 1px solid #ccd2d9; background: #f0f6fa; text-align: left; padding: 0.5em 1em; text-align: center;"><!-- start of slate grey box -->
<font style=
"font: inherit; font-size: 100%; font-weight: bold; text-align: center; border: none; margin: 0; padding: 0; color: #6a6c76;">Hunter College of The City University of New York</font>
[[Image:Hunter.gif|Hunter logo]]
<table style="background: transparent; text-align: left; table-layout: auto; border-collapse: collapse; padding: 0; font-size: 100%;" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<th style="border-top: solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding: 0.4em 1em 0.4em 0; vertical-align: top; text-align: left;">Motto</th>
<td style="border-top: solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding: 0.4em 1em 0.4em 0; vertical-align: top">''Mihi cura futuri'' ("Mine is the care of the future")</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th style="border-top: solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding: 0.4em 1em 0.4em 0; vertical-align: top; text-align: left;">Established</th>
<td style="border-top: solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding: 0.4em 1em 0.4em 0; vertical-align: top">[[1870]]</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th style="border-top: solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding: 0.4em 1em 0.4em 0; vertical-align: top; text-align: left;">School type</th>
<td style="border-top: solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding: 0.4em 1em 0.4em 0; vertical-align: top">[[Public school|Public]]</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th style="border-top: solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding: 0.4em 1em 0.4em 0; vertical-align: top; text-align: left;">President</th>
<td style="border-top: solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding: 0.4em 1em 0.4em 0; vertical-align: top">[[Jennifer Raab]]</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th style="border-top: solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding: 0.4em 1em 0.4em 0; vertical-align: top; text-align: left;">Location</th>
<td style="border-top: solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding: 0.4em 1em 0.4em 0; vertical-align: top">[[New York City|New York]], [[New York|NY]], [[United States|USA]]</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th style="border-top: solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding: 0.4em 1em 0.4em 0; vertical-align: top; text-align: left;">Enrollment</th>
<td style="border-top: solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding: 0.4em 1em 0.4em 0; vertical-align: top">15,566 undergraduate, 5,743 graduate and professional</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th style="border-top: solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding: 0.4em 1em 0.4em 0; vertical-align: top; text-align: left;">Faculty</th>
<td style="border-top: solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding: 0.4em 1em 0.4em 0; vertical-align: top">544</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th style="border-top: solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding: 0.4em 1em 0.4em 0; vertical-align: top; text-align: left;">Campus</th>
<td style="border-top: solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding: 0.4em 1em 0.4em 0; vertical-align: top">[[urban area|Urban]]</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th style="border-top: solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding: 0.4em 1em 0.4em 0; vertical-align: top; text-align: left;">Athletics</th>
<td style="border-top: solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding: 0.4em 1em 0.4em 0; vertical-align: top">12 sports teams</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th style="border-top: solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding: 0.4em 1em 0.4em 0; vertical-align: top; text-align: left;">Mascot</th>
<td style="border-top: solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding: 0.4em 1em 0.4em 0; vertical-align: top">[[Hawk]]</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th style="border-top: solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding: 0.4em 1em 0.4em 0; vertical-align: top; text-align: left;">Homepage</th>
<td style="border-top: solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding: 0.4em 1em 0.4em 0; vertical-align: top">[http://www.hunter.cuny.edu/ hunter.cuny.edu]</td>
</tr>
</table></div><!-- end of slate grey box -->
</div><!-- end of floated right section; article starts here -->
:''See also: [[Hunter College High School]]''
'''Hunter College of The City University of New York''' (known more commonly as simply '''Hunter College''') is a senior college of the [[City University of New York]] (CUNY), located on [[Manhattan]]'s [[Upper East Side]]. Hunter, apart from being the largest of the CUNY colleges, is one of the oldest public colleges in the [[United States]]. It is also one of the country's most diverse schools; Hunter has students hailing from 84 countries and speaking approximately 40 languages. The college is particularly noted for its professional schools in [[education]], [[health sciences]], [[nursing]], and [[social work]].
== History ==
Hunter College has its origins in the nineteenth-century movement for [[normal school]] training which swept across the [[United States]]. Hunter descends from the '''Female Normal and High School''' (later renamed the '''Normal College of the City of New York'''), organized in [[New York City]] in [[1870]]. Founded by Irish immigrant [[Thomas Hunter (school founder)|Thomas Hunter]], who was president of the school during the first 37 years, it was originally an all-female school for training teachers. The school, which was housed in an armory and saddle store at Broadway and East Fourth Street in Manhattan, was open to all qualified women, irrespective of race, religion or ethnic background, which was incongruent to the prevailing admission practices of other schools during this era. Created by the New York State Legislature, Hunter was deemed the only approved institution for those seeking to teach in New York City during this time. The school incorporated an elementary and high school for [[gifted children]], where students practiced teaching. In [[1887]], a [[kindergarten]] was established as well. (Today, the [[elementary school]] and the [[Hunter College High School|high school]] still exist at a different location, and are now called the Hunter Campus Schools.)
During Thomas Hunter's tenure as president of the school, Hunter became known for its impartiality regarding race, religion, ethnicity, financial or political favoritism; its pursuit of higher education for women; its high entry requirements; and its rigorous academics. The college's student population quickly expanded, and the college subsequently moved uptown, into a new [[Gothic architecture|Gothic]] structure on Lexington Avenue between 68th and 69th Streets.
In [[1888]] the school was incorporated as a college under the statutes of New York State, with the power to confer the degree of [[Bachelor of Arts|A.B.]] This led to the separation of the school into two "camps": the "Normals," who pursued a four-year course of study to become licensed teachers, and the "Academics," who sought non-teaching professions and the Bachelor of Arts degree. After [[1902]] when the "Normal" course of study was abolished, the "Academic" course became standard across the student body.
In [[1914]] the Normal College became Hunter College in honor of its first president. At the same time, the college was experiencing a period of great expansion as increasing student enrollments necessitated more space. The college reacted by establishing branches in the boroug |
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