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n be used in the citric acid cycle. Sometimes beta oxidation can yield propionyl CoA which can result in further glucose production by [[gluconeogenesis]] in liver. The citric acid cycle is always followed by [[oxidative phosphorylation]]. This process extracts the energy from NADH and FADH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;, recreating NAD&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt; and FAD, so that the cycle can continue. The citric acid cycle itself does not use oxygen, but oxidative phosphorylation does. The total energy gained from the complete breakdown of one molecule of glucose by [[glycolysis]], the citric acid cycle and [[oxidative phosphorylation]] equals about 36 ATP molecules. The citric acid cycle is called an [[amphibolic]] pathway because it participates in both [[catabolism]] and [[anabolism]]. ==See also== *[[Oxidative decarboxylation]] *[[Citric acid]] *[[Glycolysis]] *[[Oxidative phosphorylation]] *[[Reverse Krebs cycle| Reverse (reductive ) Krebs cycle]] ==External links== *[http://www.science.smith.edu/departments/Biology/Bio231/krebs.html An animation of the citric acid cycle] *[http://www.johnkyrk.com/krebs.html A more detailed tutorial animation] *[http://www2.ufp.pt/~pedros/bq/tca.htm The chemical logic behind the citric acid cycle] [[Category:Biochemistry]] [[Category:Cellular respiration]] [[Category:Exercise physiology]] [[Category:Metabolism]] {{Link FA|it}} [[da:Citronsyrecyklus]] [[de:Citratzyklus]] [[eo:Ciklo de Krebs]] [[es:Ciclo de Krebs]] [[fi:Sitruunahappokierto]] [[fr:Cycle de Krebs]] [[he:מעגל קרבס]] [[it:Ciclo di Krebs]] [[ja:クエン酸回路]] [[lb:Zitratzyklus]] [[nl:Citroenzuurcyclus]] [[no:Sitronsyresyklus]] [[pl:Cykl kwasu cytrynowego]] [[pt:Ciclo de Krebs]] [[ru:Цикл трикарбоновых кислот]] [[su:Daur asam sitrat]] [[sv:Citronsyracykeln]] [[tr:Krebs döngüsü]] [[zh:三羧酸循环]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Combat engineering vehicle</title> <id>6821</id> <revision> <id>30871748</id> <timestamp>2005-12-10T23:43:55Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Cjrother</username> <id>20394</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>sections</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Armored bulldozer DSC00856.jpg|300px|thumb|The '''EBG''' combat engineering vehicle, based on the [[AMX 30]] [[tank]], is used by the engineers of the [[French Army]] for a variety of missions.]] '''Combat engineering vehicles''' (CEVs) are armoured vehicles built for [[engineering]] work on the battlefield or for the transportation of [[sapper]]s. == Types of combat engineering vehicles == === Modified tanks === Most CEVs are [[armoured fighting vehicle]]s that may be based on a [[tank]] [[chassis]] and have special attachments in order to breach obstacles. Such attachments may include dozer blades, [[land mine|mine]] rollers, cranes etc. An example of an engineering vehicle of this kind is a bridgelaying tank, which replaces the turret with a segmented hydraulic [[bridge]]. Another good example is the American [[M728 Combat Engineer Vehicle]], which is equipped with a dozer blade and a 165mm [[demolition gun]]. === Sappers' carriers === Another type of CEVs are armoured fighting vehicles which are used to transport [[sapper]]s ([[Combat engineer]] troops) and can be fitted with a [[bulldozer]]'s [[blade]] and other mine-breaching devices. They are often used as APCs because of their carrying ability and their heavy protection. They are usually armed with [[machine gun]]s and grenade launchers. Some examples are the [[IDF Puma]], [[Nagmachon]], Husky [[AVGP]], and US [[Stryker]] Combat Engineering model. === Military [[engineering vehicle]]s === [[Image:D9-us pic28m.jpg|300px|thumb|USMC armored [[Caterpillar D9]] bulldozer. The civilian tractor is fitted with an armor kit, produced by [[Israel]] defence industries.]] CEVs may also include civilian heavy equipment which was modified for military applications. In that case, the heavy vehicle must have some sort of protection - usually [[armour plate]]s and steel jackets. Some examples are the [[IDF Caterpillar D9]] armoured [[bulldozer]], American D7 TPK, [[crane (machine)|crane]]s, [[grader]]s, [[excavator]]s, and [[DEUCE]]. === Designated armoured engineering vehicle === These are vehicles specially designed as CEVs for the [[military]]. They have special engineering uses as well as armour protection. A good example is the American [[M9 ACE]]. ==See also== * [[Combat engineering]] * [[Engineering vehicle]]s * [[Sapper]] * [[Bulldozer]] * [[Caterpillar D9]] ==External links== *[http://www.militaryphotos.net/forums/viewtopic.php?t=4663 Combat Engineering Vehicles' pictures from around the world] (www.militaryphotos.net forums) [[Category:Engineering vehicles]] [[Category:Military engineering vehicles | ]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Catalonia</title> <id>6822</id> <revision> <id>41928843</id> <timestamp>2006-03-02T18:10:46Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>84.122.144.70</ip> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">:''There is a separate article on the [[Catalonia (historic territory) | historic territory of Catalonia]]. :''For the part of historical Catalonia which is now part of France, see [[Northern Catalonia]].'' {| border=1 align=right cellpadding=4 cellspacing=0 width=300 style=&quot;margin: 0.5em 0 1em 1em; background: #ffffff; border: 1px #aaaaaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;&quot; |+'''&lt;big&gt;Comunitat Autònoma de Catalunya&lt;/big&gt;'''&lt;br/&gt;'''&lt;big&gt;Comunidad Autónoma de Cataluña&lt;/big&gt;'''&lt;br/&gt;'''&lt;big&gt;Comunautat Autonoma de Catalonha&lt;/big&gt;''' |- | bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot; align=center colspan=2 | {| border=0 cellpadding=2 cellspacing=0 | align=center width=148 | [[Image:Flag of Catalonia.svg|125px]] | align=center width=148 | [[Image:Cataluña coa.png|75px]] |- | align=center width=148 | [[Flag of Catalonia|In detail]] | align=center width=148 | [[Coat of Arms of Catalonia|Coat of Arms]] |} |- | bgcolor=&quot;#c6c6c6&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; | [[Image:Locator map of Catalonia.png]] |- | [[Capital]] | [[Barcelona]] |- | [[Official language|Official languages]] | [[Spanish language|Spanish]] and [[Catalan language|Catalan]]&lt;br/&gt;In [[Val d'Aran]], also [[Aranese]]. |- | [[Area]]&lt;br/&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;ndash; Total&lt;br/&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;ndash; % of Spain | [[List of Spanish autonomous communities by area|Ranked 6th]]&lt;br/&gt;&amp;nbsp;[[1 E10 m²|32 114]] [[square kilometre|km²]]&lt;br/&gt;&amp;nbsp;6,3% |- | [[Population]]&lt;br/&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;ndash; Total (2005)&lt;br/&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;ndash; % of Spain&lt;br/&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;ndash; [[Density]] | [[List of Spanish autonomous communities by population|Ranked 2nd]]&lt;br/&gt;&amp;nbsp;6 995 206&lt;br/&gt;&amp;nbsp;15,9%&lt;br/&gt;&amp;nbsp;217,82/km² |- |[[GDP]] | Total ([[2002]])&lt;br&gt; GDP: $146.1 billion&lt;br&gt; GDP per /capita: $26,550 (2nd) |- | [[Demonym]]&lt;br/&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;ndash; [[English language|English]]&lt;br/&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;ndash; [[Spanish language|Spanish]]&lt;br/&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;ndash; [[Catalan language|Catalan]] | &lt;br/&gt;&lt;br/&gt;&amp;nbsp;Catalan&lt;br/&gt;&amp;nbsp;''catalán (m; catalana (f)''&lt;br/&gt;&amp;nbsp;''català (m); catalana (f)''&lt;br/&gt;&amp;nbsp; |- | Statute of Autonomy | [[December 22]], [[1979]] |- | [[ISO 3166-2]] | ES-CT |- |[[National anthem]] | ''[[Els Segadors]]'' |- | [[Cortes Generales|Parliamentary&lt;br/&gt;representation]]&lt;br/&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;ndash; [[Spanish Congress|Congress seats]]&lt;br/&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;ndash; [[Spanish Senate|Senate seats]] | valign=bottom |&amp;nbsp;46&lt;br/&gt;&amp;nbsp;7 |- | [[List of Presidents of Catalonia|President]] | [[Pasqual Maragall i Mira]] ([[Partit dels Socialistes de Catalunya|PSC]]) |- | align=center colspan=2 | [[Politics of Catalonia|Political information]] |} '''Catalonia''' ([[Catalan language|Catalan]]: ''Catalunya''; [[Spanish language|Spanish]]: ''Cataluña''; [[Aranese language|Aranese]]: ''Catalonha'') is one of the seventeen [[Autonomous communities of Spain|autonomous communities]] that constitute [[Spain]]. Its territory corresponds to most of the historic territory of the former [[Principality of Catalonia]]. The autonomous community of Catalonia covers an area of 31,950 km² with an official population of 6.8 million (2004). Immigrants represent 6.8% of the total population. Catalonian was officially recognised as a [[nationality]] in the [[Catalan Statute of Autonomy]] enacted in 1979 pursuant to the [[Spanish Constitution of 1978]]. [[Official language]]s are Catalan, Spanish (also known as Castilian), and (in [[Val d'Aran]]) Aranese. == Government of Catalonia == The Government of Catalonia is known as the [[Generalitat de Catalunya|Generalitat]] in the Catalan language. It consists of a Parliament, a President and an Executive Council. [http://www10.gencat.net/gencat/AppJava/en/generalitat/generalitat/index.jsp] The Parliament of Catalonia has 135 seats. It serves as the legislative body of government.[http://www.parlament-cat.net/portal/page?_pageid=34,33596&amp;_dad=portal&amp;_schema=PORTAL] The President and the Executive Council serve as the executive authority. They are selected by the Parliament. The Government of Catalonia consists of 16 departments or ministries. [http://www10.gencat.net/gencat/AppJava/en/generalitat/departaments.jsp] Local governments include comarques (roughly equivalent to counties), as well as smaller forms of municipal administration. See [[Catalonia/Comarques|comarques of Catalonia]] for the official division into [[comarques|comarca]]. Catalonia is divided into four [[provinces of Spain|provinces]]: [[Barcelona (province)|Barcelona]], [[Girona (province)|Girona]] (Gerona in Spanish), [[Lleida (province)|Lleida]] (Lérida in Spanish, Lhèida in Aranese), [[Tarragona (province)|Tarragon
y must spend large sums of money paying for staff, book maintains, rent, and additional books. Although digital libraries do away with these fees, it has since been found that digital libraries can be no less expensive in their own way to operate. Digital libraries can and do incur large costs for the conversion of print materials into digital format, for the technical skills of staff to maintain them, and for the costs of maintaining online access (i.e servers, bandwidth costs, etc.). Also, the information in a digital library must often be &quot;migrated&quot; every few years to the latest digital media . This process can incur very large costs in hardware and skilled personnel.(See [[data migration]]). ==Disadvantages== Some people have criticized that digital libraries are hampered by [[copyright]] law, because works cannot be shared over different periods of time in the manner of a traditional library. The content is, in many cases, [[public domain]] or self-generated content only. Some digital libraries, such as [[Project Gutenberg]], work to digitize out-of-copyright works and make them freely available to the public. An estimate of the number of distinct books still existent in library catalogues from 2000B.C. to 1960, has been made [http://www.antiquebooks.net/datatop.html]. Digital libraries cannot reproduce the environment of a traditional library. Many people also find reading printed material to be easier than reading material on a computer screen although this depends heavily on presentation as well as personal preferences[http://www.antiquebooks.net]. Also, due to technological developments, a digital library can see some of its content become out-of-date and its data may become unaccessible. ==Academic Repositories== Many academic libraries are actively involved in building [[Institutional repository|institutional repositories]] of the institution's books, papers, theses, and other works which can be digitized. Many of these repositories are made available to the academic community or the general public. Insitutional repositories are often referred to as digital libraries. ==Digital Archives== [[Archives]] differ from libraries in several ways. Traditionally, archives were defined as: # Containing primary sources of information (typically letters and papers directly produced by an individual or organization) rather than the secondary sources found in a library (books, etc); # Having their contents organized in groups rather than individual items. Whereas books in a library are cataloged individually, items in an archive are typically grouped by provenance (the individual or organization who created them) and original order (the order in which the materials were kept by the creator); # Having unique contents. Whereas a book may be found at many different libraries, depending on its rarity, the records in an archive are usually one-of-a-kind, and cannot be found or consulted at any other location except at the archive that holds them. The technology used to create digital libraries has been even more revolutionary for archives since it breaks down the second and third of these general rules. The use of [[search engines]], [[Optical Character Recognition]] and [[metadata]] allow digital copies of individual items (i.e. letters) to be cataloged, and the ability to remotely access digital copies has removed the necessity of physically going to a particular archive to find a particular set of records. [[Cornell University]] and the [[Wisconsin State Historical Society]] are considered leaders in the field of digital archive creation and management. ==The Future== Large scale digitizaton projects are underway at [[Google]], the [[Million Book Project]], [[MSN]], and [[Yahoo!|Yahoo]]. With continued improvements in book handling and presentation technologies such as [[Optical Character Recognition]] and [[Ebooks]], and many alternative depositories and business models, digital libraries are rapidly growing in popularity as demonstrated by Google, Yahoo, and MSN's efforts. And, just as libraries have ventured into audio and video collections, so have digital libraries such as the [[Internet Archive]]. ==See also== *[[:Category:Digital libraries|Alphabetical List of Digital Libraries (Wikipedia)]] *[[Virtual library]] *[[List of digital library projects]] *[[Baen Free Library]] *[[Virtual documents]] *[[Institutional Repository]] ==External links== *[http://kitab.az/ Kitab.az Azerbaijan Electronic Library Network (Kitab.Az)] Azerbaijan's online network of electornic catalogues of leading Azerbaijan universities and specialised libraries and online library *[http://nsdl.org/ National Science Digital Library (NSDL)] The United States' online library of resources for science, technology, engineering, and mathematics education and research *[http://www.icdlbooks.org The International Children's Digital Library] *[http://info.lib.uh.edu/sepb/sepb.html ''Scholarly Electronic Publishing Bibliography''] *[http://digital.library.upenn.edu/books/ The Online Books Page] Search for free online books by author, title, keyword, etc. *[http://www.ipl.org/ The Internet Public Library] Search for free online books by author, title, keyword, etc. *[http://www.egranary.org The eGranary Digital Library] Millions of digital resources for those with inadequate Internet connectivity. *[http://www.finderseeker.com/cgi-bin/search.cgi?disp=10&amp;sp=1&amp;cat=&amp;key=library&amp;country= Search engines which search digital libraries] *[http://www.ex.ac.uk/library/internet/uklibs.html UK Higher Education &amp; Research Libraries (link list maintained at Exeter University by Ian Tilsed)] *[http://discovery.bits-pilani.ac.in/rahul/I-Net/Complete-InetBook-PHI-2003-Secure.pdf Online version of ''Internetworking Technologies'', by Rahul Banerjee, which deals with the architectures of leading digital libraries in the world (chapter 10)] *[http://loa.codingsource.org/ Lib''rar''y of Anarachy: Collection Of Technology Book (Under Development)] *[http://www.dlib.org/metrics/public/papers/dig-lib-scope.html The Scope of the Digital Library] * {{LISWiki_link|Digital library}} *[http://www.americanjourneys.org/about.asp/ The American Journeys Project] an example of a digital library whose contents center on a particular theme--the exploration of North America. [[Category:Digital libraries|*]] [[Category:Library and information science]] [[de:Virtuelle Bibliothek]] [[fr:Bibliothèque en ligne]] [[it:Biblioteca digitale]] [[ms:perpustakaan digital]] [[nl:Digitale bibliotheek]] [[ja:電子図書館]] [[pt:Biblioteca digital]] [[zh:数字图书馆]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Detroit Red Wings</title> <id>8795</id> <revision> <id>42032512</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T09:32:17Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>83.228.19.7</ip> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">{{NHL Team Infobox |team_name = Detroit Red Wings |bg_color = red |text_color = white |logo = Detroit Redwings.gif |alternate_logo = |founded = [[1926-27 NHL season|1926]] |home_arena = [[Joe Louis Arena]] |hometown = [[Detroit, Michigan]] |team_colors = Red, white |head_coach = [[Mike Babcock]] |captain = [[Steve Yzerman]] |alternate_captains = [[Nicklas Lidstrom]] &lt;br /&gt; [[Brendan Shanahan]] |general_manager = [[Ken Holland]] |owner = [[Mike Ilitch]] |minor_league = [[Grand Rapids Griffins]] ([[American Hockey League|AHL]])&lt;br /&gt;[[Toledo Storm]] ([[ECHL]]) |division_titles = '''24''' ([[1933-34 NHL season|1934]], [[1935-36 NHL season|1936]], [[1936-37 NHL season|1937]], [[1942-43 NHL season|1943]], [[1948-49 NHL season|1949]], [[1949-50 NHL season|1950]], [[1950-51 NHL season|1951]], [[1951-52 NHL season|1952]], [[1952-53 NHL season|1953]], [[1953-54 NHL season|1954]], [[1954-55 NHL season|1955]], [[1956-57 NHL season|1957]], [[1964-65 NHL season|1965]], [[1987-88 NHL season|1988]], [[1988-89 NHL season|1989]], [[1991-92 NHL season|1992]], [[1993-94 NHL season|1994]], [[1994-95 NHL season|1995]], [[1995-96 NHL season|1996]], [[1998-99 NHL season|1999]], [[2000-01 NHL season|2001]], [[2001-02 NHL season|2002]], [[2002-03 NHL season|2003]], [[2003-04 NHL season|2004]]) |conference_titles = '''21''' ([[1933-34 NHL season|1934]], [[1936-37 NHL season|1937]], [[1940-41 NHL season|1941]], [[1941-42 NHL season|1942]], [[1942-43 NHL season|1943]], [[1944-45 NHL season|1945]], [[1947-48 NHL season|1948]], [[1948-49 NHL season|1949]], [[1949-50 NHL season|1950]], [[1951-52 NHL season|1952]], [[1953-54 NHL season|1954]], [[1954-55 NHL season|1955]], [[1955-56 NHL season|1956]], [[1960-61 NHL season|1961]], [[1962-63 NHL season|1963]], [[1963-64 NHL season|1964]], [[1965-66 NHL season|1966]], [[1994-95 NHL season|1995]], [[1996-97 NHL season|1997]], [[1997-98 NHL season|1998]], [[2001-02 NHL season|2002]]) |championships = '''10''' ([[1935-36 NHL season|1936]], [[1936-37 NHL season|1937]], [[1942-43 NHL season|1943]], [[1949-50 NHL season|1950]], [[1951-52 NHL season|1952]], [[1953-54 NHL season|1954]], [[1954-55 NHL season|1955]], [[1996-97 NHL season|1997]], [[1997-98 NHL season|1998]], [[2001-02 NHL season|2002]]) }} The '''Detroit Red Wings''' are a [[National Hockey League]] (NHL) team based in [[Detroit, Michigan]], [[United States|USA]]. ==Facts== :'''Founded''': [[1926-27 NHL season|1926]] :'''Formerly known as''': Cougars [[1926-27 NHL season|1926]]-[[1929-30 NHL season|1930]], Falcons [[1930-31 NHL season|1930]]-[[1931-32 NHL season|1932]] :'''Home arena''': [[Joe Louis Arena]] ::'''Former Home Arenas:''' [[Windsor Arena]] (1926-27); [[Detroit Olympia]] (1927-1979) :'''Uniform colors''': Red and white. :'''Logo design''': Stylized red winged wheel. Main Rivals: [[Colorado Avalanche]], [[St. Louis Blues (hockey)|St. Louis Blues]], [[Nashville Predators]] :'''[[Stanley Cup]]s''': 10 - [[1935-36 NHL season|1936]], [[1936-37 NHL season|1937]], [[1942-43 NHL season|1943]], [[1949-50 NHL season|1950]], [[1
''y'' or ''ü'', [[French language|French]] ''u'', [[Dutch language|Dutch]] ''u''. Letters that share a particular modification sometimes correspond to a similar type of sound. For example, all the [[retroflex consonant]]s have the same symbol as the equivalent [[alveolar consonant]], with the addition of a rightward facing hook at the bottom. Although there is some correspondence between modified letters, generally the IPA symbols do not have a systematic [[distinctive feature|featural]] relationship between shape and articulation. For instance, there is not a consistent relationship between lowercase letters and their small capital counterparts, nor are all [[labial consonant]]s linked through a common design. [[Diacritic mark]]s can be combined with IPA letters to transcribe modified [[phonetic]] values or [[secondary articulation]]s. There are also special symbols for [[suprasegmental feature]]s such as [[stress (linguistics)|stress]] and [[tone (linguistics)|tone]]. ===Types of transcriptions=== The [[International Phonetic Association]] recommends that a [[phonetics|phonetic]] transcription should be enclosed in [[bracket|square brackets]] &quot;[&amp;nbsp;]&quot;. A transcription that specifically denotes only [[phonology|phonological]] contrasts may be enclosed in [[slash (punctuation)|slash]]es &quot;/&amp;nbsp;/&quot; instead. If one is in doubt, it is best to use brackets, for by setting off a transcription with slashes one makes a theoretical claim that every symbol within is [[phoneme|phonemic]]ally contrastive for the language being transcribed. Phonetic transcriptions try to objectively capture the actual pronunciation of a word, whereas phonemic transcriptions are model dependent. For example, [[Noam Chomsky]] transcribed the English word ''night'' phonemically as /nixt/. In his model, the phoneme /x/ is often silent, but shows its presence by “lengthening” the preceding vowel. The preceding vowel in this case is the phoneme /i/, which is pronounced [aj] when long. So phonemic /nixt/ is equivalent to phonetic [najt], but only if you share Chomsky's belief that historical sounds such as the ''gh'' in ''night'' may remain in a word long after they have ceased to be pronounced. For phonetic transcriptions, there is flexibility in how closely sounds may be transcribed. A transcription that gives only a basic idea of the sounds of a language in the broadest terms is called a &quot;broad transcription&quot;; in some cases this may be equivalent to a phonemic transcription (only without any theoretical claims). A close transcription, indicating precise details of the sounds, is called a &quot;narrow transcription&quot;. These are not binary choices, but the ends of a continuum, with many possibilities in between. All are enclosed in brackets. For example, in some dialects the English word ''pretzel'' in a narrow transcription would be {{IPA|[ˈpʰɹ̥ʷɛʔt.sɫ̩]}}, which notes several phonetic features that may not be evident even to a native speaker. An example of a broader transcription is {{IPA|[ˈpʰɹɛt.sɫ̩]}}, which only indicates some of the easier to hear features. A yet broader transcription would be {{IPA|[ˈpɹɛtsl]}}. Here every symbol represents an unambiguous speech sound, but without making any claims as to their status in the language. There are also several possibilities in how to transcribe this word phonemically, but here the differences are generally not of precision, but of analysis. For example, ''pretzel'' could be {{IPA|/ˈprɛtsl/}} or {{IPA|/ˈpretsəl/}}. The special symbol for English ''r'' is not used, for it is not meaningful to distinguish it from a rolled ''r''. The differences in the letter ''e'' reflect claims as to what the essential difference is between the vowels of ''pretzel'' and ''pray''; there are half a dozen ideas in the literature as to what this may be. The second transcription claims that there are two vowels in the word, even if they can't both be heard, while the first claims there is only one. However, phonemic transcriptions may also be broad or narrow, or perhaps it would be better to say abstract vs. concrete. They may show a fair amount of phonetic detail, usually of a phoneme's most common allophone, but because they are abstract symbols they do not need to directly resemble any sound at all. Phonemic symbols will frequently be chosen to avoid diacritics as much as possible, under a 'one sound one symbol' policy, or may even be restricted to the [[ASCII]] symbols of a typical keyboard. For example, the English word ''church'' may be transcribed as {{IPA|/tʃɚtʃ/}}, a close approximation of its actual pronunciation, or more abstractly as {{IPA|/crc/}} (three phonemes, three symbols), which is easier to type. Phonemic symbols should always be explained, especially when they are as divergent from actual pronunciation as {{IPA|/crc/}}. Occasionally a transcription will be enclosed in [[vertical bar|pipes]] (&quot;| |&quot;). This goes beyond phonology into [[morphology (linguistics)|morphological]] analysis. For example, the words ''pets'' and ''beds'' could be transcribed phonetically as {{IPA|[pʰɛʔts]}} and {{IPA|[b̥ɛdz]}} (in a fairly narrow transcription), and phonemically as {{IPA|/pets/}} and {{IPA|/bedz/}}. Because /s/ and /z/ are separate [[phoneme]]s in English (unlike Spanish, for example), they receive separate symbols in the phonemic analysis. However, you probably recognize that underneath this, they represent the same plural ending. This can be indicated with the pipe notation. If you believe the plural ending is essentially an ''s'', as English spelling would suggest, the words can be transcribed {{IPA|&lt;nowiki&gt;|pets|&lt;/nowiki&gt;}} and {{IPA|&lt;nowiki&gt;|beds|&lt;/nowiki&gt;}}. If, as most linguists would probably suggest, it is essentially a ''z'', these would be {{IPA|&lt;nowiki&gt;|petz|&lt;/nowiki&gt;}} and {{IPA|&lt;nowiki&gt;|bedz|&lt;/nowiki&gt;}}. To avoid confusion with IPA symbols, it may be desirable to specify when native orthography is being used, so that, for example, the English word ''jet'' is not read as &quot;yet&quot;. This is done with [[Bracket|angle brackets]] or ''chevrons'': {{Unicode|〈jet〉}}. It is also common to italicize such words, but the chevrons indicate specifically that they are in the original language's orthography, and not in English [[transliteration]]. The Extended IPA for [[speech pathology]] has added additional bracket notations. Parentheses are used to indicate ''mouthing'' (silent articulation), as in {{IPA|(ʃːː)}}, a silent sign to hush; parentheses are also used to indicate silent pauses, for example (...). Double parentheses indicate obscured or unintelligible sound, as in ((2 syll.)), two audible but unidentifiable syllables. Curly brackets with Italian musical terms are used to mark prosodic notation, such as {{IPA|[{&lt;sub&gt;&lt;small&gt;''falsetto''&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/sub&gt; hɛlp &lt;sub&gt;&lt;small&gt;''falsetto''&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;}]}}. == Consonants (pulmonic) == ===Single articulation=== [[Media:IPA consonants 2005.png|Closeup of the main pulmonic consonant section of the IPA chart]] The [[pulmonic egressive|pulmonic]] consonant table, which includes most consonants, is arranged in rows that designate [[manner of articulation]] and columns that designate [[place of articulation]]. The main chart only includes consonants with a single place of articulation. {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center&quot; |- style=&quot;vertical-align: center; font-size: x-small; height: 2em&quot; | style=&quot;font-size: 90%;&quot; | [[Place of articulation]] → ! colspan=2 | [[Labial consonant|Labial]] ! colspan=4 | [[Coronal consonant|Coronal]] ! colspan=4 | [[Dorsal consonant|Dorsal]] ! colspan=4 | [[Radical consonant|Radical]] ! colspan=2 | [[Glottal consonant|(none)]] |- style=&quot;vertical-align: center; font-size: x-small; height: 3em&quot; | style=&quot;font-size: 90%;&quot; | [[Manner of articulation]] ↓ ! style=&quot;width: 4em;&quot; | [[Bilabial consonant|Bi&amp;shy;la&amp;shy;bial]] ! style=&quot;width: 4em;&quot; | [[Labiodental consonant|La&amp;shy;bio&amp;#x2010;&lt;br/&gt;den&amp;shy;tal]] ! style=&quot;width: 4em;&quot; | [[Dental consonant|Den&amp;shy;tal]] ! style=&quot;width: 4em;&quot; | [[Alveolar consonant|Al&amp;shy;veo&amp;shy;lar]] ! style=&quot;width: 4em;&quot; | [[Postalveolar consonant|Post&amp;#x2010;&lt;br/&gt;al&amp;shy;veo&amp;shy;lar]] ! style=&quot;width: 4em;&quot; | [[Retroflex consonant|Re&amp;shy;tro&amp;#x2010;&lt;br/&gt;flex]] ! style=&quot;width: 4em;&quot; | [[Palatal consonant|Pa&amp;shy;la&amp;shy;tal]] ! style=&quot;width: 4em;&quot; | [[Velar consonant|Ve&amp;shy;lar]] ! colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;width: 4em;&quot; | [[Uvular consonant|Uvu&amp;shy;lar]] ! colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;width: 4em;&quot; | [[Pharyngeal consonant|Pha&amp;shy;ryn&amp;#x2010;&lt;br/&gt;geal]] ! colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;width: 4em;&quot; | [[Epiglottal consonant|Epi&amp;#x2010;&lt;br/&gt;glot&amp;shy;tal]] ! colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;width: 4em;&quot; | [[Glottal consonant|Glot&amp;shy;tal]] |- style=&quot;font-size: 120%;&quot; ! style=&quot;font-size: x-small; text-align:left&quot; | [[Nasal consonant|Nasal]] | class=&quot;nounderlines&quot; | &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;[[bilabial nasal|{{IPA|m}}]] | class=&quot;nounderlines&quot; | &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;[[labiodental nasal|{{IPA|ɱ}}]] | class=&quot;nounderlines&quot; colspan=&quot;3&quot; |&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;[[alveolar nasal|{{IPA|n}}]] | class=&quot;nounderlines&quot; | &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;[[retroflex nasal|{{IPA|ɳ}}]] | class=&quot;nounderlines&quot; |&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;[[palatal nasal|{{IPA|ɲ}}]] | class=&quot;nounderlines&quot; | &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;[[velar nasal|{{IPA|ŋ}}]]&lt;/span&gt; | class=&quot;nounderlines&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; | &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;[[uvular nasal|{{I
>Kbdank71</username> <id>197953</id> </contributor> <comment>per [[WP:CFD]] [[Wikipedia:Categories for deletion/Log/2006 February 20|Feb 20]] using [[Wikipedia:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''HG''', '''Hg''' or '''hg''' can have many meanings: *'''Hg''' is the [[chemistry|chemical]] symbol for the element [[Mercury (element)|Mercury]] *'''Hg''' is the [[astronomy|astronomical]] symbol for the [[planet]] [[Mercury (planet)|Mercury]]. *'''Hg''' is a unit of measure used for calculating engine inlet manifold pressure *'''hg''' is the symbol for [[hectogram]] (100 grams) in the [[SI]] system. See [[1 E-1 kg]] for comparisons. *'''HG''' is one half of comedy duo [[Roy and HG]]. *'''HG''' is the IATA code for [[Niki]] airline *'''HG''' is the militia movement of [[Slovak People's Party]], HG is known as [[Hlinka Guard]] *'''HG''' is the acronym for [[HeavenGames]] *'''HG''' is the abbreviation for [[hyperemesis gravidarum]] *'''HG''' is the abbreviation for the Japanese celebrity [[Hard Gay]], otherwise known as [[Razor Ramon]] {{2CC}} [[it:Hg]] [[ja:HG]] [[ko:HG]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Hydrology</title> <id>13435</id> <revision> <id>41650573</id> <timestamp>2006-02-28T20:21:49Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>132.177.114.3</ip> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Land_ocean_ice_cloud_1024.jpg|thumb|250px|Water covers 70% of the Earth's surface.]] '''Hydrology''' (from [[Greek_language|Greek]]: Y&amp;delta;&amp;rho;o&amp;lambda;o&amp;gamma;&amp;iota;&amp;alpha;, Y&amp;delta;&amp;omega;&amp;rho;+&amp;Lambda;o&amp;gamma;os, ''Hydrologia'', the &quot;study of water&quot;) is the study of the movement, distribution, and quality of [[water]] throughout the Earth, and thus addresses both the [[hydrologic cycle]] and [[water resources]]. A practitioner of hydrology is a hydrologist, working within the fields of either [[earth science|earth]] or [[environmental science]], or [[civil engineering|civil]] and [[environmental engineering]]. Domains of hydrology include [[hydrometeorology]], [[surface-water hydrology|surface hydrology]], [[hydrogeology]], [[watershed]] management and [[water quality]], where water plays the central role. [[Oceanography]] and [[meteorology]] are not included because water is only one of many important aspects. Hydrological research is useful not only in that it allows us to better understand the world in which we live, but also by providing insight for [[environmental engineering]], [[environmental policy|policy]] and [[environmental planning|planning]]. ==Hydrologic Cycle== ''Main article: [[Hydrologic cycle]]'' The central theme of hydrology is that water moves throughout the Earth through different pathways and at different rates. The most vivid image of this is in the evaporation of water from the ocean, which forms clouds. These clouds drift over the land and produce rain. The rainwater flows into lakes, rivers, or aquifers. The water in lakes, rivers, and aquifers then either evaporates back to the atmosphere or eventually flows back to the ocean, completing a cycle. ==Sub-fields of Hydrology== '''[[Chemical hydrology]]''' is the study of the chemical characteristics of water. '''[[Ecohydrology]]''' is the study of interactions between organisms and the hydrologic cycle. '''[[Hydrogeology]]''' is the study of the presence and movement of water in aquifers. '''[[Hydroinformatics]]''' is the adaptation of information technology to hydrology and water resources applications. '''[[Hydrometeorology]]''' is the study of the movement of water between land and water body surfaces and the lower atmosphere. '''[[Isotope hydrology]]''' is the study of the istopic signatures of water. '''[[Surface-water hydrology|Surface hydrology]]''' is the study of hydrologic processes that operate at or near the [[Earth]]'s surface. ===Related Fields=== *[[Aquatic chemistry]] *[[Civil engineering]] *[[Climatology]] *[[Environmental engineering]] *[[Geomorphology]] *[[Hydraulic engineering]] *[[Limnology]] ==Hydrologic Measurements== The movement of water through the Earth can be measured in a number of ways. This information is important for both assessing water resources and understanding the processes involved in the hydrologic cycle. Following is a list of devices used by hydrologists and what they are used to measure. * [[Disdrometer]] - precipitation characteristics * [[Infiltrometer]] - infiltration * [[Piezometer]] - groundwater pressure and, by inference, groundwater depth (see: [[aquifer test]]) * [[Radar]] - cloud properties * [[Rain gauge]] - rain and snowfall * [[Satellite]] * [[Sling psychrometer]] - humidity * [[stream gage|Stream gauge]] - stream flow (see: [[discharge (hydrology)]]) * [[Tensiometer]] - [[soil moisture]] * [[Time domain reflectometer]] - [[soil moisture]] ==Hydrologic Prediction== Observations of hydrologic processes are used to make [[predictions]] of future water movement and quantity. ===Statistical Hydrology=== By analysing the [[Statistics|statistical]] properties of hydrologic records, such as rainfall or river flow, hydrologists can estimate future hydrologic phenomena. This, however, assumes the characteristics of the processes remain unchanged. See: [[return period]]. ===Hydrologic Modeling=== With an understanding of how changes in the environment affect the movement of water, hydrologists can also construct models to predict how these changes will happen in the future. ==Hydrologic Transport== Water movement is a significant means by which other material, such as soil or pollutants, are transported from place to place. See: [[erosion]], [[pollution]]. ==Applications of Hydrology== * Mitigating and predicting [[flood]], [[landslide]] and [[drought]] risk; * Designing [[irrigation]] schemes and managing [[agriculture|agricultural]] productivity; * Providing [[drinking water]]; * Designing [[dams]] for [[water supply]] or [[hydroelectricity|hydroelectric power]] generation; * Designing [[bridges]]; * Designing [[sewers]] and [[urban drainage system]]; * Predicting [[geomorphology|geomorphological]] changes, such as [[erosion]] or [[sedimentation]]. * Assessing the impacts of natural and anthropogenic environmental change on [[water resources]]. * Assessing [[pollution|contaminant]] transport risk and establishing environmental policy guidelines. == See also == * [[Current (water)]] * [[Drainage system]] * [[Fresh water]] * [[Groundwater]] * [[Hydrograph]] * [[Hydromorphology]] * [[Hyetograph]] * [[River]] * [[Schéma directeur d'aménagement et de gestion des eaux]] * [[Virtual water]] * [[Water abstraction]] * [[Water industry]] * [[Water table]] * [[Watershed]] * [[Well water]] == References == * Introduction to Hydrology, 4e. Viessman and Lewis, 1996. ISBN 0-673-99337-X * Handbook of Hydrology. ISBN 0070397325 * Encyclopedia of Hydrological Sciences. ISBN 0-471-49103-9 == External links == * [http://www.cig.ensmp.fr/~hubert/glu/aglo.htm International Glossary of Hydrology]. * [http://www.usgs.gov U.S. Geological Survey] - [http://water.usgs.gov Water Resources of the United States] * [http://www.hydrology.org.uk/ British Hydrology Society] * [http://www.hydrology.uni-freiburg.de/ihf_home-e.htm Institute of Hydrology, Albert-Ludwigs-University of Freiburg, Germany] * [http://www.weather.gov/ohd/ NOAA's National Weather Service - Office of Hydrologic Development] {{Environmental science}} [[Category:Hydrology| ]] [[Category:Environmental engineering]] [[Category:Physical geography]] [[Category:Environmental science]] [[ca:Hidrologia]] [[cs:Hydrologie]] [[da:Hydrologi]] [[de:Hydrologie]] [[et:Hüdroloogia]] [[es:Hidrología]] [[fr:Hydrologie]] [[hr:Hidrologija]] [[nl:Hydrologie]] [[ja:水文学]] [[no:Hydrologi]] [[pl:Hydrologia]] [[pt:Hidrologia]] [[sl:Hidrologija]] [[su:Hidrologi]] [[fi:Hydrologia]] [[sv:Hydrologi]] [[tr:Hidroloji]] [[zh:水文学]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Heinrich Himmler</title> <id>13436</id> <restrictions>move=:edit=</restrictions> <revision> <id>41901467</id> <timestamp>2006-03-02T14:05:40Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Husnock</username> <id>63572</id> </contributor> <comment>rvt</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{| class=&quot;infobox bordered&quot; style=&quot;width: 25em; font-size: 95%;&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; |- |bgcolor=&quot;E0E0E0&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; | '''Heinrich Himmler''' |- | colspan=&quot;2&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; | [[Image:HLHimmler.jpg|250px|Heinrich Himmler]] |- | '''Birth''' |[[October 7]] [[1900]] 3:30 PM ([[Munich]], [[Germany]]) |- | '''Death''' |[[May 23]] [[1945]] 11:14 PM (31a Ülzenerstraße [[Lüneburg]], [[Germany]]) |- | '''Party''' |[[National Socialist German Workers Party]] (NSDAP) |- valign=&quot;top&quot; | '''Political positions''' | *''[[Reichsführer-SS]] (RF-SS)'' (Reich Leader of the [[Schutzstaffel|SS]]) in the NSDAP ([[1929]]-[[1945]]) *''Reichs- und Preussischer Minister des Innern'' (Reich &amp; Prussian Minister of the Interior) of Germany ([[August]] [[1943]]-[[1945]]) *''Chef der Deutschen Polizei (ChdDtP)'' (Chief of German police) ([[June]] [[1936]]-[[1945]]) *''Chef der Heeresrüstung und Befehlshaber des Ersatzheeres (Ch H Rüst u.BdE)'' (Chief of Army Equipment &amp; Commander of the Replacement Army) of Germany ([[July]] [[1944]]-[[1945]]) *''Reichskommissar für die Festigung des Deutschen Volkstums (RKV)'' (Reich Commissioner for the Strengthening of Germanism) in the NSDAP ([[October]] [[1939]]-[[1945]]) *''Verein &quot;[[Lebensborn]] e.V.&quot;'' (President of the Society &quot;Fountain of Life&quot;) of the NSDAP ([[September]] [[1936]]-[[1945]]) *''Verein &quot;Das [[Ahnenerbe]] Forschungs-und Lehrgemeinschaft&quot;'' (President of &quot;The Ancestral Heritage Research &amp; Teac
VII.xli). Previously, this has been taken as a matter of coincidence, inevitable given the close relationship of the traditions in question. Yet with the calling into doubt of the intended recipients of the tractate, and the gradual recognition of the essential ''fluidity'' of the boundaries between early orthodoxy and Gnosticism, this too has been brought into question. As such, a number of scholars, such as [[Christos Evangeliou]], have forwarded the theory that Plotinus was not addressing the Gnostics alone, but that a much broader critique of early Christianity was his intention, the which critique naturally included Christian Gnostic sects. ==Sources== ===Heresiologists and Gnostic detractors=== Prior to the discovery of the Nag Hammadi library in [[1945]] (arguably until its translation and eventual publication in [[1977]]), Gnosticism was known primarily only through the works of [[heresiologist|heresiologists]], [[Church Fathers]] who worked to chronicle those movements perceived to be deviating from the developing [[orthodox]] church, and to refute their teachings as they did so, with the ultimate aim of demonstrating their moral inferiority. The problems with such sources are immediately apparent: given the avowed antagonism of such writers to that which they reported, could they be trusted to maintain accuracy, despite their [[bias]]. Despite such concerns, and the tendency of heresiologists to summarize rather than reproduce Gnostic sources, they remained almost the only material available for analysis. The list below briefly details the works of several of the more significant of the heresiologists; however, the list could be expanded to contain [[Origen]], [[Clement of Alexandria]], [[Epiphanes (gnostic)|Epiphanius]] of [[Salamis]], and others. The analytical tactics employed by each heresiologist will also be given, where possible. ====Justin==== [[Justin Martyr]] (''[[circa|ca.]]'' [[100]]/[[114]] &amp;ndash; ''[[circa|ca.]]'' [[162]]/[[168]]), the early Christian [[apologist]], wrote the ''First Apology to [[Roman Emperor]] [[Antoninus Pius]]'', which mentions his lost 'Compendium Against the Heretics', a work which reputedly reports on the activities of [[Simon Magus]], [[Menander]] and [[Marcion]]; since this time, both Simon and Menander have been considered as 'proto-Gnostic' (Markschies, ''Gnosis'', 37). Despite this paucity of surviving texts Justin Martyr remains a useful historical figure, as he allows us to determine the time and context in which the first gnostic systems arose. ====Irenaeus==== Irenaeus' central work, which was written ''[[circa|ca.]]'' [[180]]-[[185]] [[AD]], is commonly known by the [[Latin]] title ''[[Adversus Haereses]]'' ('Against the Heretics'). The full title is ''Conviction and Refutation of Knowledge So-Called'', and it is collected in five volumes. The work is apparently a reaction against Greek merchants who were apparently conducting an oratorial campaign concerning a quest for knowledge within Irenaeus' [[Gaul|Gaulish]] [[bishopric]]. Irenaeus' general approach in ''Adversus Haereses'' was to identify [[Simon Magus]] from [[Flavia Neapolis]] in [[Samaria]] (modern-day [[Palestine]]) as the inceptor of Gnosticism, 'its source and root' (''Adversus Haereses'', I.22.2). From there he charted an apparent spread of the teachings of Simon through the ancient 'knowers', as he calls them, into the teachings of Valentinus and other, contemporary Gnostic sects. This understanding of the transmission of Gnostic ideas, despite Irenaeus' certain antagonistic bias, is often utilized today, though it has been criticized. Against the teachings of his opponents, which Irenaeus presented as confused and ill-organized, Irenaeus recommended a simple faith that all could follow, 'oriented on the criterion of truth that had come down in the church from the apostles to those in positions of responsibility' (Markschies, ''Gnosis'', 30-31). Therefore Irenaeus' work might justifiably be seen as an early attempt by a Christian writer to posit the idea of a fully-formed orthodoxy transmitted from the apostles directly after Christ's death and which in support possesses a rigorously-defined hierarchical authority. From such a stable and superior authority heresies according divide by deviation from the norm it maintains, rather than developing alongside it by alternate yet related lines. ====Hippolytus==== [[Hippolytus (writer)|Hippolytus]] was an early Christian writer elected as the first [[Antipope]] in [[217]]. He died as a [[martyr]] in [[235]]. He was known for his polemical works against the Jews, pagans and heretics; the most important of these being the seven-volume ''Refutatio Omnium Haeresium'' ('Refutation Against all Heresies'), of which only fragments are known. Of all the groups reported upon by Hippolytus, thirty-three are considered Gnostic by modern scholars, including 'the foreigners' and 'the [[Seth]] people'. As well as this, Hippolytus presents individual teachers such as Simon, [[Valentinus]], [[Secundus]], [[Ptolemy]], [[Heracleon]], [[Marcus]] and [[Colorbasus]]; however, he rarely reproduces sources, instead tending only to report titles. Also of interest, a sect known to Hippolytus as the '[[Naasenes]]' frequently ''called themselves'' 'knowers': 'They take [their] name from the Hebrew word snake. Later they called themselves knowers, since they claimed that they alone knew the depths of wisdom' (''Refutatio'', V.6.3f). Hippolytus considered the groups he surveyed to have become involved in Greek philosophy to their detriment. They had grievously misunderstood its foundations and thus had arrived at illogical constructions, through its influence becoming hopelessly confused (Markschies, ''Gnosis'', 33). ====Tertullian==== [[Tertullian]] (Quintus Septimius Florens Tertullianus, ''[[circa|ca.]]'' [[155]]–[[230]]) was a prolific writer from [[Carthage]], the region that is now modern [[Tunisia]]. He wrote a text entitled ''Adversus Valentinianos'' ('Against the Valentinians'), ''[[circa|ca.]]'' [[206]], as well as five books around [[207]]-[[208]] chronicling and refuting the teachings of [[Marcion]]. ===Gnostic texts preserved before 1945=== Prior to the discovery at Nag Hammadi, only the following texts were available to students of Gnosticism. Reconstructions were attempted from the records of the heresiologists, but these were necessarily coloured by the motivation behind the source accounts (see [[#Heresiologists and Gnostic detractors|above]]). *Works preserved by the Church: ** ''[[Acts of Thomas]]'' (Especially ''[[The Hymn of the Pearl]]'' and ''[[The Hymn of the Robe of Glory]]'') ** ''The [[Acts of John]]'' (Especially ''[[The Hymn of Jesus]]'') *The [[Askew Codex]] ([[British Museum]], bought in [[1784]]): ** ''[[Pistis Sophia]]: Books of the Savior'' *The [[Bruce Codex]] (discovered by [[James Bruce]]): **''[[Books of Jeu|The Gnosis of the Invisible God]]'' or ''The [[Books of Jeu]]'' **''[[The Untitled Apocalypse]]'' or ''[[The Gnosis of the Light]]'' *The [[Berlin Codex]] or The Akhmim Codex (found in [[Akhmim]], [[Egypt]]): ** ''[[The Gospel of Mary]]'' ** ''The [[Acts of Peter]]'' ** ''[[The Sophia of Jesus Christ|The Wisdom of Jesus Christ]]'' *Unknown origin: ** ''[[Secret Gospel of Mark|The Secret Gospel of Mark]]'' ** ''The [[Hermetica]]'' ===The Nag Hammadi library=== [[Image:Kodeks IV NagHammadi.jpg|thumb|300px|right|The [[Nag Hammadi library]] is a collection of [[Early Christianity|early Christian]] [[Gnostic]] texts discovered in the [[Egypt|Egyptian]] town of [[Nag Hammadi]] in [[1945]].]]For a complete list of the texts found at Nag Hammadi, please see the [[Nag Hammadi library#Complete list of codices found in Nag Hammadi|list in the Nag Hammadi article]]; to see a list showing which texts were attached to the different Gnostic schools, see [[#Major Gnostic schools and their texts|below]]. The Nag Hammadi library is a collection of [[Early Christianity|early Christian]] [[Gnostic]] texts discovered near the town of [[Nag Hammadi]], [[Egypt]] in [[1945]]. The writings in these codices comprised fifty-two mostly Gnostic [[treatise|tractates]]; they also include three works belonging to the ''[[Hermetica|Corpus Hermeticum]]'' and a partial translation of [[Plato]]'s [[Plato's Republic|''Republic'']]. The codices are currently housed in the [[Coptic Museum]] in [[Cairo, Egypt]]. Though the original language of composition was probably [[Greek language|Greek]], the various codices contained in the collection were written in [[Coptic language|Coptic]]. A [[1st century|1st]] or [[2nd century]] date of composition for the lost Greek originals has been proposed, though this is disputed; the manuscripts themselves date from the [[3rd century|3rd]] and [[4th century|4th]] centuries. For a full account of the [[Nag Hammadi library#Discovery at Nag Hammadi|discovery]] and [[Nag Hammadi library#Translation|translation]] of the Nag Hammadi library (which has been described as 'exciting as the contents of the find itself' (Markschies, ''Gnosis: An Introduction'', 48)) see the [[Nag Hammadi library]] article. ====Significance of the Nag Hammadi library==== Prior to the publication of the translations of Nag Hammadi the only available sources for gnostic material were, as has been noted, heresiological writings. These suffered from a number of difficulties, not least the antagonistic bias the writers held towards gnostic teachings. Several heresiological writers, such as Hippolytus, made little effort to exactly record the nature of the [[sect|sects]] they reported on, or transcribe their sacred texts, but instead gave us only titles and extended commentaries on their perceived heretical mistakes. Reconstructions were attempted from the available evidence, but the resulting portraits of gnosticism and its central texts were necessarily crude, and deeply suspect. The ability to overcome such probl
dition of ADS-B In (receive) capability, the potential for ADS-B applications grows significantly. Some of the equipment and services associated with ADS-B In capability include: *Cockpit Display of Traffic Information (CDTI), a display of proximate traffic based on ADS-B reports from other aircraft and ground-based facilities. *Traffic Information Services-Broadcast (TIS-B), a ground-based uplink report of proximate traffic that is under surveillance by ATC but is not ADS-B-equipped. This service would be available even with limited ADS-B implementation. *Flight Information Services-Broadcast (FIS-B), a ground-based uplink of flight information services and weather data. ==ADS-B Physical Layer== Three link solutions are being proposed as the physical layer for relaying the ADS-B position reports: *1090 MHz Mode S Extended Squitter (ES), *Universal Access Transceiver (UAT) and *VHF Digital Link ([[VDL]]) Mode 4. ===Mode S=== The FAA has announced its selection of the 1090 MHz ES and UAT as the mediums for the ADS-B system in the United States. 1090 MHz ES will be the primary medium for air carrier and high-performance commercial aircraft while UAT will be the primary medium for general aviation aircraft. Europe has also chosen 1090 MHz as the primary physical layer for ADS-B. However, the second medium has not yet been selected between UAT and VDL Mode 4. With 1090 ES, the existing Mode S transponder (or a stand alone 1090 MHz transmitter) supports a message type known as the ES message. It is a periodic message that provides position, velocity, heading, time, and, in the future, intent. The basic ES does not offer intent since current flight management systems do not provide such data – called trajectory change points. To enable an aircraft to send an extended squitter message, the transponder is modified and aircraft position and other status information is routed to the transponder. ATC ground stations and TCAS-equipped aircraft already have the necessary 1090 MHz receivers to receive these signals, and would only require enhancements to accept and process the additional information. 1090 ES will not support FIS-B, due to regulatory requirements. ===Universal Access Transceiver=== The UAT system is specifically designed for ADS-B operation. A 1 MHz channel in the 900 MHz frequency range is dedicated for transmission of airborne ADS-B reports and for broadcast of ground-based aeronautical information. UAT users would have access to the additional ground-based aeronautical data and would receive reports from proximate traffic (FIS-B and TIS-B). ===VDL Mode 4=== The VDL Mode 4 system could utilize one or more of the existing aeronautical VHF frequencies as the radio frequency physical layer for ADS-B transmissions. VDL Mode 4 uses a protocol (STDMA) that allows it to be self-organizing, meaning no master ground station is required. This medium is best used for short message transmissions from a large number of users. VDL Mode 4 systems are capable of increased range in comparison to L Band Mode S (1090 MHz) or UAT systems. ==Implementation Timetable== The timetable for airborne ADS-B equipage will be determined by ground and airborne facility implementation, equipment cost, perceived benefits of equipping and regulatory actions by the Civil Aviation Authorities (CAA). The cost to equip with ADS-B Out capability is relatively small and would benefit the airspace by enabling increased situational awareness. ADS-B In capability can provide additional benefits when ground stations and the critical mass of aircraft are also equipped. This data was taken into consideration when building the following estimated implementation timetable. ===Near-term Implementation (2006-2008)=== The next three years will see a continuation of ADS-B trials and some implementation in “pockets” where limited aircraft equipage can bring operational benefits. Some of these include: *'''Capstone'''. In Alaska, the FAA is conducting its Capstone program to improve surveillance in some of the more remote locations of Alaska and as a test bed for implementing elements of ADS-B into the ATC environment. Approximately 190 general aviation users have been equipped with GPS receivers, UAT transceivers and flight deck displays. In addition, 11 ground-based transceivers have been installed for radar-like services, and flight information services data (FIS-B), including weather information, is being uplinked from the ground. Phase II of the program will expand the coverage and add more than 250 additional users. *'''Gulf of Mexico''' – In the Gulf of Mexico, where ATC radar coverage is incomplete, the FAA is locating ADS-B (1090 MHz) receivers on oil rigs and buoys to relay information received from aircraft equipped with ADS-B extended squitters back to the ATC centers to expand and improve surveillance coverage. *'''Australia'''. Australia is implementing ADS-B trials in Queensland to test the feasibility of 1090 MHz ADS-B as an alternative to ground-based radar. ADS-B is expected to be a much more cost-effective method of providing ATC surveillance coverage for remote areas which currently have limited or no surveillance coverage. *'''Cargo Airline Association'''. Cargo carriers operating at their hub airports operate largely at night. Equipage of these aircraft with ADS-B and CDTI displays along with a ground-based transceiver at these hubs will allow better situational awareness at night and in inclement weather and offers the potential for increased airport traffic handling capability. *'''Embry Riddle Aeronautical University'''. Embry Riddle Aeronautical University is equipping the training aircraft at its two main campuses in Florida and Arizona with ADS-B capability as a safety enhancement. The FAA will provide FIS-B and TIS-B uplink capabilities in those areas in support of this equipage. *'''Safe Flight 21 East Coast Broadcast Services'''. The FAA has announced its intention to implement ADS-B coverage for the entire east coast of the U.S. by the end of 2004. Service range will extend inland 150 miles with a goal of providing coverage at altitudes down to 2,000 feet. The medium will be UAT and the implementation will also include TIS-B and FIS-B information. ===Mid-term Implementation (2008-2012)=== Within four to eight years, an increasing number of aircraft with ADS-B Out capability along with the start of ground-based ADS-B infrastructure will begin to make a number of ADS-B applications attractive. *Benefits of “Pockets of Implementation” will become evident and these areas will be expanded, encouraging more users to equip with ADS-B capability. *Beginning in 2004 the FAA is expected to deploy ADS-B ground infrastructure based on ASDE-X equipment. This infrastructure will allow the use of ADS-B data for ATC purposes such as surface movement tracking/guidance and airborne surveillance. *Ground uplinks of TIS-B and FIS-B will commence where the ground infrastructure is deployed. *Other Civil Aviation Authorities may install ADS-B ground infrastructure and require aircraft to be equipped with ADS-B Out for operation in selected airspace. Australia is expected to be the first country to do so; however, a number of other countries with limited surveillance coverage may find ADS-B an attractive alternative to radar surveillance. *Significant numbers of users will become equipped with a minimum of ADS-B Out capability. In Europe, 1090 MHz ES will become standard capability for all new Mode S transponder installations after 31 March, 2005. UAT will become increasingly popular in the upper end of the general aviation market. *Airport Situational Awareness – A combination of detailed airport maps, airport multilateration (ASDE-X) systems, enhanced aircraft displays and ADS-B have the potential to significantly improve Runway situational awareness. *Oceanic In-trail – ADS-B can provide enhanced situational awareness and safety for Oceanic In-trail maneuvers as additional aircraft become equipped. *Use of ADS-B and CDTI will allow decreased approach spacing and closely spaced parallel approaches at congested airports with improved safety and capacity during low-/lower-visibility operations. ===Long-term Implementations (2012 and beyond)=== *Air carriers’ fleets will achieve intended ADS-B benefits in the terminal and en route airspace. *New Aircraft Separation Assurance applications will take advantage of the increased situational awareness and positional accuracy available in an airspace environment largely equipped with ADS-B capability. *FIS-B and TIS-B services will encourage general aviation equipage in all market segments. ==References== ==See also== *[[DO-212]] Minimal Operational Performance Standards for Airborne Automatic Dependent Surveillance (ADS) Equipment ==External links== *[http://www.airservicesaustralia.com/pilotcentre/projects/adsb/default.asp Airservices Australia ADS-B info] * [http://www.flyadsb.com Safe Flight 21 ADS-B Projects] * [http://www.alaska.faa.gov/capstone/ Capstone ADS-B Project] * [http://www.nup.nu NUP II Project] * [http://www.adsmedup.it/ ADS-MEDUP Project] * [http://www.eurocontrol.int/cascade/public/subsite_homepage/homepage.html Eurocontrol CASCADE Programme] * [http://www.eurocae.org/ European Organisation for Civil Aviation Equipment] * [http://www.janes.com/aerospace/civil/news/jar/jar060117_1_n.shtml US crunches the numbers before committing to ADS-B] Jane's Airport Review [[Category:Avionics]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Air Transport</title> <id>575</id> <revision> <id>15899106</id> <timestamp>2003-12-11T16:14:25Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Optim</username> <id>20978</id> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Aviation]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Austria</title> <id>576</id> <revision> <id>42041443</id> <timestamp>2006
ee months for the next three and a half years, a new American battalion was rotated into West Berlin by [[autobahn]] to demonstrate Allied rights. The creation of the Wall had important implications for both Germanies. By stemming the exodus of people from East Germany, the East German government was able to reassert its control over the country. However, the Wall was a propaganda disaster for East Germany and for the communist bloc as a whole. It became a key symbol of what Western powers regarded as Communist tyranny, particularly after the high-profile shootings of would-be defectors (which were later treated as acts of murder by the reunified Germany). In [[1987]], [[Ronald Reagan]] gave a famous speech at the [[Brandenburg Gate]], at which he challenged [[Mikhail Gorbachev]] to &quot;[[tear down this wall]]&quot;. In West Germany, dismay that the Western powers had done nothing to prevent the Wall's creation led directly to the policy of [[Ostpolitik]] or rapprochement with the east, in an effort to stabilize the relationship of the two Germanies. ==Layout and modifications== [[Image:Berlin Wall.jpg|thumb|250px|right|In the last phase of the wall´s development, the &quot;death strip&quot; between fence and concrete wall gave guards a clear shot at hundreds of would-be escapees from the East.]] The Wall was over 155 km (96&amp;nbsp;miles) long. In June [[1962]] work started on a second parallel fence up to 91 meters (100 yards) further in, with houses in between the fences torn down and their inhabitants relocated. A [[no man's land]] was created between the two barriers, which became widely known as the &quot;death strip&quot;. It was paved with raked gravel, making it easy to spot footprints left by escapees; it offered no cover; it was mined and booby-trapped with tripwires; and, most importantly, it offered a clear field of fire to the watching guards. Over the years, the Wall went through four distinct phases: # Basic wire fence (1961) # Improved wire fence (1962-1965) # Concrete wall (1965-1975) # ''Grenzmauer 75'' (Border Wall 75) (1975-1989) The &quot;fourth generation wall&quot;, known officially as &quot;Stützwandelement UL 12.11&quot;(Retaining wall element UL 12.11), was the final and most sophisticated version of the Wall. Begun in [[1975]]&lt;ref&gt;http://www.dailysoft.com/berlinwall/history/facts.htm&lt;/ref&gt; and completed about [[1980]],&lt;ref&gt;http://www.wall-berlin.org/gb/mur.htm&lt;/ref&gt; it was constructed from 45,000 separate sections of reinforced concrete, each 3.6 m (12 ft) high and 1.2 m (4 ft) wide, and cost 16,155,000 [[East German mark|East German marks]].&lt;ref&gt;http://www.dailysoft.com/berlinwall/history/facts_02.htm&lt;/ref&gt; The top of the wall was lined with a smooth pipe, intended to make it more difficult for escapers to scale it. It was reinforced by mesh [[fence|fencing]], signal fencing, anti-vehicle trenches, [[barbed wire]], over 116 [[watchtower (fortification)|watchtowers]],&lt;ref&gt;http://www.die-berliner-mauer.de/en/fakten.html&lt;/ref&gt; and twenty [[bunker]]s. This version of the Wall is the one most commonly seen in photographs, and surviving fragments of Wall in Berlin and elsewhere around the world are generally pieces of the fourth-generation Wall. ==Official crossings and usage== [[Image:Berlin leaving.jpg|thumb|The famous you are leaving and...]] [[Image:Berlin entering.jpg|thumb|...you are entering at Glienicker Brücke 1985]] During most of the history of the Wall, Allied military personnel, officials, and diplomats were able to pass into East Berlin. This was a requirement of the post-war Four Powers Agreements. West Berliners were initially subject to very severe restrictions; all crossing points were closed to West Berliners between [[August 26]], [[1961]] and [[December 17]], [[1963]], and it was not until September 1971 that travel restrictions were eased following a Four Powers Agreement on transit issues. Passage in and out of West Berlin was limited to twelve crossing points on the Wall, though all but two of these were reserved for Germans. The only land route into Berlin accessible to Westerners was the [[Bundesautobahn 2|Berlin-Helmstedt autobahn]], which entered East German territory at the town of [[Helmstedt]] (Checkpoint Alpha) and connected to Berlin at Dreilinden (Checkpoint Bravo) in south-western Berlin. A crossing at [[Friedrichstraße]] ([[Checkpoint Charlie]]) in central Berlin gave Westerners their only access between West and East Berlin. Foreigners frequently and legally crossed the Wall, and the East Germans welcomed their money. They were of course always subject to careful checks both entering and leaving. When exiting, the police would typically run a mirror under each vehicle to look for persons clinging to the undercarriage. East Germans were occasionally given permission to cross, particularly when they were too old to work. At the border section in [[Potsdam]] the captured U-2 pilot [[Gary Powers]] was traded for Russian spy [[Vilyam Genrikhovich Fisher|Rudolf Abel]]. One location where Westerners could cross the border was Friedrichstraße station in East Berlin. When the Wall was erected, Berlin's complex public transit networks, the [[Berlin S-Bahn|S-Bahn]] and [[Berlin U-Bahn|U-Bahn]], were divided with it.&lt;ref&gt;http://www.wall-berlin.org/gb/mur.htm&lt;/ref&gt; Some lines were cut in half; many stations were shut down. Three Western lines traveled through brief sections of East Berlin territory, passing through eastern stations (called ''Geisterbahnhöfe,'' or [[ghost station]]s) without stopping. Both the eastern and western networks converged at Friedrichstrasse, which became a major crossing point for those (mostly Westerners) with permission to cross. == ===Escape attempts=== [[image:Peterfechter2.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Peter Fechter lies dying after being shot by East German border guards. This photo achieved international notoriety.]] During the Wall's existence there were around 5,000 successful escapes into West Berlin. Varying reports claim either 192 or 239 people were killed trying to cross&lt;ref&gt;http://www.dailysoft.com/berlinwall/history/facts_01.htm&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;http://www.die-berliner-mauer.de/en/fakten.html&lt;/ref&gt; and many more injured. Early successful escapes involved people jumping the initial barbed wire or leaping out of apartment windows along the line but these ended as the wall improved. Later successful escape attempts included long tunnels, sliding along aerial wires, flying [[ultralight aviation|ultralights]], and even one man who drove a very low sports car underneath a barricade at [[Checkpoint Charlie]]. Another airborne escape was by Thomas Kruger, who landed a Zlin Z-42M light aircraft of the Gesellschaft für Sport und Technik, an [[East German]] youth military training organisation, at [[Gatow Airport|RAF Gatow]]. His aircraft, registration DDR-WOH, was dismantled and returned to the East Germans by road, complete with humorous slogans painted on by [[Royal Air Force|RAF]] Airmen such as &quot;Wish you were here&quot; and &quot;Come back soon&quot;. DDR-WOH is still flying today, but under a different registration. The most notorious failed attempt was that of [[Peter Fechter]] who was shot and left to bleed to death in full view of the western media, on [[August 17]] [[1962]]. The last person to be shot trying to cross the border was [[Chris Gueffroy]] on [[February 6]], [[1989]]. ==The fall, 1989== [[Image:Berlin-wall-dancing.jpg|thumb|250px|Germans dancing on the Berlin Wall.]] [[Image:62411752 8021f8180a.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This famous sign from [[Checkpoint Charlie]] from 2005]] On [[August 23]], [[1989]], [[Hungary]] removed its border restrictions with [[Austria]], and in September more than 13,000 East Germans escaped through Hungary. Mass demonstrations against the government in East Germany began in the autumn of 1989. The leader of East Germany, [[Erich Honecker]], resigned on [[October 18]], [[1989]] and was replaced by [[Egon Krenz]] a few days later. He predicted that the wall would stand for a &quot;hundred more years.&quot; He would be 100 years off. The new Krenz government decided to allow East Berliners to apply for visas to travel to West Germany. [[Günter Schabowski]], the East German Minister of Propaganda, had the task of announcing this; however he had been on vacation prior to this decision and had not been fully updated on this decision. Shortly before a press conference on [[November 9]] [[1989]], he was handed a note that said that East Berliners would be allowed to cross the border with proper permission, but gave no further instructions on how to handle the information. Because the regulations had only been completed a few hours before the conference they were to take effect the following day, allowing time to inform the border guards first; however, nobody had informed Schabowski. He read the note out loud at the end of the conference; when asked when the regulations would come into effect, he assumed it would be the same day based on the wording of the note and replied &quot;As far as I know effective immediately, right now&quot;. Tens of thousands of East Berliners heard Schabowski's statement and flooded the checkpoints in the Wall demanding entry into West Berlin. The surprised and overwhelmed border guards made many hectic telephone calls with their superiors, but it became clear that there was no way to hold back the huge crowd of East German citizens short of dispatching the army with lethal force, as the vastly outnumbered border guards had only been equipped for regular duty. The guards and the East Berlin government were not willing to use lethal force, so in face of the escalating crowd safety issues the guards finally yielded, opening the checkpoints and allowing people through with little or no identity checks. The ecstatic East Berliners were soon greeted by West Berliners o
issing from the equations. The approximations used bring into question the validity or relevance of numerical solutions. To address these questions several notions of stability have been introduced in the study of dynamical systems, such as [[Lyapunov stability]] or [[structural stability]]. The stability of the dynamical system implies that there is a class of models or initial conditions for which the trajectories would be equivalent. The operation for comparing orbits to establish their [[equivalence]] changes with the different notions of stability. * The type of trajectory may be more important than one particular trajectory. Some trajectories may be periodic, whereas others may wander through many different states of the system. Applications often require enumerating these classes or maintaining the system within one class. Classifying all possible trajectories has led to the qualitative study of dynamical systems, that is, properties that do not change under coordinate changes. [[Linear dynamical systems]] and [[Poincaré Bendixson theorem|systems that have two numbers describing a state]] are examples of dynamical systems where the possible classes of orbits are understood. * The behavior of trajectories as a function of a parameter may be what is needed for an application. As a parameter is varied, the dynamical systems may have [[bifurcation theory|bifurcation points]] where the qualitative behavior of the dynamical system changes. For example, it may go from having only periodic motions to apparently erratic behavior, as in the [[Ruelle-Takens scenario|transition to turbulence of a fluid]]. * The trajectories of the system may appear erratic, as if random. In these cases it may be necessary to compute averages using one very long trajectory or many different trajectories. The averages are well defined for [[ergodic theory|ergodic systems]] and a more detailed understanding has been worked out for [[hyperbolic systems]]. Understanding the probabilistic aspects of dynamical systems has helped establish the foundations of [[statistical mechanics]] and of [[chaos theory|chaos]]. It was in the work of [[Henri Poincaré|Poincaré]] that these dynamical systems themes developed. == Basic definitions == A dynamical system is a manifold ''M'' called the phase (or state) space and a smooth evolution function ''f&lt;sup&gt;&amp;nbsp;t&lt;/sup&gt;'' that for any element of ''t'' &amp;isin; ''T'', the time, maps a point of the phase space back into the phase space. The notion of smoothness changes with applications and the type of manifold. There are several choices for the set ''T''. When ''T'' is taken to be the reals, the dynamical system is called a ''flow''; and if ''T'' is restricted to the non-negative reals, then the dynamical system is a ''semi-flow''. When ''T'' is taken to be the integers, it is a ''cascade'' or a ''map''; and the restriction to the non-negative integers is a ''semi-cascade''. The evolution function ''f&lt;sup&gt;&amp;nbsp;t&lt;/sup&gt;'' is often the solution of a ''differential equation of motion'' : &lt;math&gt; \dot{x} = v(x) \,.&lt;/math&gt; The equation gives the time derivative, represented by the dot, of a trajectory ''x(t)'' on the phase space starting at some point ''x&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;''. The ''vector field'' ''v(x)'' is a smooth function that at every point of the phase space ''M'' provides the velocity vector of the dynamical system at that point. (These vectors are not vectors in the phase space ''M'', but in the [[tangent space]] ''TM&lt;sub&gt;x&lt;/sub&gt;'' of the point ''x''.) There is no need for higher order derivatives in the equation, nor for time dependence in ''v(x)'' because these can be eliminated by considering systems of higher dimensions. Other types of differential equations can be used to define the evolution rule: : &lt;math&gt; G(x, \dot{x}) = 0 &lt;/math&gt; is an example of an equation that arises from the modeling of mechanical systems with complicated constraints. The differential equations determining the evolution function ''f&lt;sup&gt;&amp;nbsp;t&lt;/sup&gt;'' are often [[ODE|ordinary differential equations]]: in this case the phase space ''M'' is a finite dimensional manifold. Many of the concepts in dynamical systems can be extended to infinite-dimensional manifolds&amp;mdash;those that are locally [[Banach space|Banach spaces]]&amp;mdash;in which case the differential equations are [[Partial differential equation|partial differential equations]]. In the late [[20th century]] the dynamical system perspective to partial differential equations started gaining popularity. == Linear dynamical systems == [[Linear dynamical systems]] can be solved in terms of simple functions and the behavior of all orbits classified. In a linear system the phase space is the &amp;nu;-dimensional Euclidean space, so any point in phase space can be represented by a vector with &amp;nu; numbers. The analysis of linear systems is possible because they satisfy a superposition principle: if ''u(t)'' and ''w(t)'' satisfy the differential equation for the vector field (but not necessarily the initial condition), then so will ''u(t)'' + ''w(t)''. === Flows === For a [[flow (mathematics)|flow]], the vector field ''v(x)'' is a linear function of the position in the phase space, that is, : &lt;math&gt; v(x) = A x + b\,,&lt;/math&gt; with ''A'' a matrix, ''b'' a vector of numbers and ''x'' the position vector. The solution to this system can be found by using the superposition principle (linearity). The case ''b'' &amp;ne; 0 with ''A'' = 0 is just a straight line in the direction of ''b'': : &lt;math&gt; f^t(x_1) = x_1 + b t \,. &lt;/math&gt; When ''b'' is zero and ''A''&amp;nbsp;&amp;ne;&amp;nbsp;0 the origin is an equilibrium (or singular) point of the flow, that is, if ''x&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;'' = 0, then the orbit remains there. For other initial conditions, the equation of motion is given by the [[matrix exponential|exponential of a matrix]]: for an initial point ''x&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;'', : &lt;math&gt; f^t(x_0) = e^{t A} x_0 \,.&lt;/math&gt; When ''b'' = 0, the [[eigenvalues]] of ''A'' determine the structure of the phase space. From the eigenvalues and the eigenvectors of ''A'' it is possible to determine if an initial point will converge or diverge to the equilibrium point at the origin. The distance between two different initial conditions in the case ''A'' &amp;ne; 0 will change exponentially in most cases, either converging exponentially fast towards a point, or diverging exponentially fast. Linear systems display sensitive dependence on initial conditions in the case of divergence. For nonlinear systems this is one of the (necessary but not sufficient) conditions for [[chaos theory|chaotic behavior]]. [[Image:LinearFields.png|thumb|500px|center|Linear vector fields and a few trajectories.]] &lt;br style=&quot;clear:both&quot; /&gt; === Maps === A discrete-time, linear dynamical system has the form : &lt;math&gt; x_{n+1} = A x_n + b \,,&lt;/math&gt; with ''A'' a matrix and ''b'' a vector. As in the continuous case, the change of coordinates ''x'' &amp;rarr; ''x - A&lt;sup&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;ndash;1&lt;/sup&gt;b'' removes the term ''b'' from the equation. In the new coordinate system, the origin is a fixed point of the map and the solutions are of the form ''A&lt;sup&gt;&amp;nbsp;n&lt;/sup&gt;x&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;''. The solutions for the map are no longer curves, but points that hop in the phase space. The orbits are organized in curves, or fibers, which are collections of points that map into themselves under the action of the map. As in the continuous case, the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of ''A'' determine the structure of phase space. For example, if ''u&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;'' is an eigenvector of ''A'', with a real eigenvalue smaller than one, then the straight lines given by the points along &amp;alpha;&amp;nbsp;''u&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;'', with &amp;alpha;&amp;nbsp;&amp;isin;&amp;nbsp;'''R''', is an invariant curve of the map. Points in this straight line run into the fixed point. == Local dynamics == The qualitative properties of dynamical systems do not change under smooth change of coordinates (this is sometimes taken as a definition of qualitative): a ''singular point'' of the vector field (a point where ''v(x)'' = 0) will remain a singular point under smooth transformations; a ''periodic orbit'' is a loop in phase space and smooth deformations of the phase space cannot alter it being a loop. It is in the neighborhood of singular points and periodic orbits that the structure of a phase space of a dynamical system can be well understood. In the qualitative study of dynamical systems, the approach is to show that there is a change of coordinates (usually unspecified, but computable) that make the dynamical system as simple as possible. === Rectification === A flow in most small patches of the phase space can be made very simple. If ''y'' is a point where the vector field ''v(y)''&amp;nbsp;&amp;ne;&amp;nbsp;0, then there is a change of coordinate for a region around ''y'' where the vector field becomes a series of parallel vectors of the same magnitude. This is known as the rectification theorem. The rectification theorem says that away from singular points the dynamics of a point in a small patch is a straight line. The patch can sometimes be enlarged by stitching several patches together, and when this works out in the whole phase space ''M'' the dynamical system is integrable. In most cases the patch cannot be extended to the entire phase space. There may be singular points in the vector field (where ''v''&amp;nbsp;=&amp;nbsp;0); or the patches may become smaller and smaller as some point is approached. The more subtle reason is a global constraint, where the trajectory starts out in a patch, and after visiting a series of other patches comes back to the
the first major attack reliably attributed to al-Qaeda, the [[1998 U.S. embassy bombings|embassy bombings]] in [[East Africa]], which resulted in upward of 300 deaths. In 1999, Egyptian Islamic Jihad officially merged with al-Qaeda, and al-Zawahiri became bin Laden's closest confidant. ===September 11 attacks=== [[Image:WTC attack 9-11.jpg|thumb|left|United Airlines Flight 175 crashing into the South World Trade Center Tower]] Following the [[September 11, 2001 attacks]] attributed by authorities to al-Qaeda, the United States began to build up military forces in preparation for an attack on Afghanistan (whose government harboured bin Laden's organization) in response. In the weeks before the United States invaded, the Taliban twice offered to turn over bin Laden to a neutral country for trial if the United States would provide evidence of bin Laden's complicity in the attacks. The Americans, however, refused, and soon thereafter [[U.S. invasion of Afghanistan|invaded Afghanistan]] and, together with the [[Afghan Northern Alliance]], deposed the [[Taliban]] government. As a result of this invasion, Taliban training camps were destroyed and much of the alleged existing operating structure of al-Qaeda was disrupted, although strong resistance has remained in Afghanistan, and its main leaders, including Bin Laden, have not been caught. The American government now claims that two-thirds of the top leaders of al-Qaeda in 2001 are currently in custody (including [[Ramzi bin al-Shibh]], [[Khalid Sheikh Mohammed]], [[Abu Zubaydah]], [[Saif al Islam el Masry]], and [[Abd al-Rahim al-Nashiri]]) or dead (including [[Mohammed Atef]]), though it warns the organization is not yet defeated and battles between the United States forces, the Taliban and al-Qaeda continue. ===Activity in Iraq=== [[Image:Zarqawi001.jpg|frame|right| Abu Musab Al-Zarqawi]] {{See also|Saddam Hussein and al-Qaeda}} Osama bin Laden first took interest in [[Iraq]] when that country invaded [[Kuwait]] in 1990 (giving rise to concerns that the secular, [[socialist]] [[Baathist]] government of Iraq might next set its sights on [[Saudi Arabia]], homeland of bin Laden and of Islam itself). In a letter sent to [[Fahd of Saudi Arabia|King Fahd]], he offered to send an army of mujahideen to defend Saudi Arabia &lt;ref&gt;{{cite web | title=Who is Osama Bin Laden? | work=BBC.com | url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/south_asia/1551100.stm | accessdate=July 20 | accessyear=2004}}&lt;/ref&gt;. During the [[Gulf War]], the organization's interests became split between outrage with the intervention of the United Nations in the region and hatred of [[Saddam Hussein|Saddam Hussein's]] [[secular]] government, as well as expression of concern for the suffering that Islamic people in Iraq were undergoing. Bin Laden referred to Saddam Hussein (and the Baathists) as evil, a demon or devil worshipper in his speeches and recorded/written announcements, calling for his overthrow by the people of Iraq. In spite of the distrust Osama bin Laden and Saddam Hussein had for each other, published reports documented a number of alleged contacts between their organizations. Official investigations by the [[NSA]], [[CIA]], [[DIA]], [[FBI]], the [[US Department of State|State Department]], the [[9/11 Commission]], and the [[Senate Select Committee on Intelligence]] -- have led most analysts to conclude that there is no evidence of a cooperative relationship between them. (See [[Saddam Hussein and al-Qaeda]]). During the [[2003 invasion of Iraq]], al-Qaeda took more formal interest in the region and is known to have been responsible for actively organizing and aiding local resistance to the occupying coalition forces and the emerging democracy. During Iraq's elections in January 2005 al-Qaeda claimed responsibility for nine suicide blasts in the Iraqi capital [[Baghdad]]. [[Abu Musab al-Zarqawi]], founder of [[Jama'at al-Tawhid wal-Jihad]] and alleged ally of al-Qaeda, formally merged with al-Qaeda on [[17th October]] [[2004]]. The organization started to use the banners of &quot;[[Al-Qaeda in Iraq|al-Qaeda in the Land Between the Two Rivers]]&quot;, instead of old [[Jama'at al-Tawhid wal-Jihad]] banners. In the merger al-Zarqawi declared loyalty to [[Osama bin Laden]]. ===Harmony Papers=== Documents seized from al-Qaeda were recently declassified from the Harmony database and became the subject of a published study from West Point titled ''Harmony and Disharmony: Exploiting al-Qa’ida’s Organizational Vulnerabilities.'' [http://www.ctc.usma.edu/aq/Harmony%20and%20Disharmony%20--%20CTC.pdf] The papers give an interesting look into the history of the movement, organizational structure, tensions among leadership and the lessons learned. One al-Qaeda writer concluded that one of the lessons learned is the influence of secular Baathist thinking distorts the message of jihad. This writer advises the movement not to allow the jihad message to be influenced by the Iraqi Baath message. (Page 79) [http://www.ctc.usma.edu/aq/Harmony%20and%20Disharmony%20--%20CTC.pdf] ==Incidents attributed by some to al-Qaeda== ''Note: al-Qaeda does not take credit for most of the following actions, resulting in ambiguity over how many attacks the group has actually conducted. Following the U.S. declaration of the [[War on Terrorism]] in 2001, the U.S. government has striven to highlight any connections between other terrorist groups and al-Qaeda. Some prefer to attribute to [[al-Qaedaism]] actions that might not be directly planned by al-Qaeda as a military headquarter, but which are inspired by its tenets and strategies.'' [[Image:TerroristAttacksAlQaeda.png|thumb|right|500px|World Map of attacks attributed to al-Qaeda]] The first militant attack that al-Qaeda allegedly carried out consisted of three bombings at hotels where American troops were staying in [[Aden]], [[Yemen]], on [[December 29]], 1992. A Yemeni and an [[Austria]]n tourist died in one bombing. There are disputed claims that al-Qaeda operatives assisted in the shooting down of U.S. [[helicopter]]s and the killing of U.S. servicemen in [[Somalia]] in 1993. (see: [[Battle of Mogadishu]]) [[Ramzi Yousef]], who was involved in the 1993 World Trade Center bombing (though probably not an al-Qaeda member at the time), and [[Khalid Sheik Mohammed]] planned [[Operation Bojinka]], a plot to destroy airplanes in mid-Pacific flight using explosives. An apartment fire in [[Manila, Philippines]] exposed the plan before it could be carried out. Youssef was arrested, but Mohammed evaded capture until 2003. Al-Qaeda is often listed as a suspect in two bombings in [[Saudi Arabia]] in 1995 and 1996: the bombing at a U.S. military facility in [[Riyadh]] in [[November]] [[1995]], which killed two people from [[India]] and five Americans, and the June 1996 [[Khobar Towers bombing]], which killed American military personnel in [[Dhahran, Saudi Arabia|Dhahran]]. However, these attacks are usually ascribed to [[Hizbullah]]. Al-Qaeda is believed to have conducted the [[1998 U.S. embassy bombings|bombings]] in August 1998 of the U.S. embassies in [[Nairobi]], [[Kenya]], and [[Dar es Salaam]], [[Tanzania]], killing more than 200 people and injuring more than 5,000 others. In [[December]] [[1999]] and into 2000, al-Qaeda [[2000 millennium attack plots|planned attacks]] against U.S. and [[Israel]]i tourists visiting [[Jordan]] for millennial celebrations; however, [[Jordan]]ian authorities thwarted the planned attacks and put 28 suspects on trial. Part of this plot included the planned bombing of the [[Los Angeles International Airport]] in [[Los Angeles, California]], but this plot was foiled when bomber [[Ahmed Ressam]] was caught at the US-[[Canada|Canadian]] border with explosives in the trunk of his car. Al-Qaeda also planned to attack the [[USS The Sullivans (DDG-68)|USS ''The Sullivans'']] on [[January 3]], [[2000]], but the effort failed due to too much weight being put on the small boat meant to bomb the ship. Despite the setback with the USS ''The Sullivans'', al-Qaeda succeeded in bombing a U.S. warship in October 2000 with the [[USS Cole bombing]]. [[Germany|German]] police foiled a plot to destroy a [[Notre-Dame de Strasbourg|cathedral]] in [[Strasbourg]], [[France]] in [[December]] [[2000]]. See: [[Strasbourg cathedral bombing plot]] The most destructive act ascribed to al-Qaeda was the series of attacks in the USA on [[September 11, 2001 attacks|September 11th, 2001]]. Several attacks and attempted attacks since [[September 11]], [[2001]] have been attributed to al-Qaeda. The first of which was the [[Paris embassy attack plot]], which was foiled. The second of which involved the attempted shoe bomber [[Richard Reid (terrorist)|Richard Reid]], who proclaimed himself a follower of Osama bin Laden, and got close to destroying [[American Airlines]] [[American Airlines Flight 63|Flight 63]]. Other attacks ascribed to al-Qaeda and its affiliates: *The [[Singapore embassies attack plot]]. *The [[kidnap]]ping and [[murder]] of [[Wall Street Journal]] reporter [[Daniel Pearl]], and numerous bombings in Pakistan. *The [[El Ghriba synagogue|El Ghriba]] [[Ghriba Synagogue Attack|synagogue bombing]] in [[Djerba]], [[Tunisia]], which killed 21. *Foiled attacks on Western warships in the [[Strait of Gibraltar]]. *The [[Limburg tanker bombing]]. *A [[November]] [[2002]] [[Kenyan hotel bombing|car bombing]] in [[Mombasa]], [[Kenya]], and an attempt to shoot down an Israeli airliner. *[[Riyadh Compound Bombings|Bombings of Western compounds]] in Riyadh in May 2003 and other attacks of the [[Insurgency in Saudi Arabia|Saudi insurgency]]. *The [[Istanbul Bombings]] in [[Istanbul]], [[Turkey]], in 2003. Al-Qaeda has strong alliances with a number of other Islamic militant organizations including the Indonesian Islamic extremist group [[Jemaah Islamiyah]]. That group was responsible for the [[October]] [[2002]] [[Bali bombing]], and the [[2005 Bali
ythology}} {{norse-myth-stub}} [[Category:Locations in Norse mythology]] [[da:Breidablik]] [[de:Breidablik]] [[no:Breidablik]] [[pt:Breidablick]] [[sv:Breidablick]] [[uk:Брейдаблік]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Bilskirnir</title> <id>4062</id> <revision> <id>34386756</id> <timestamp>2006-01-08T18:09:09Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>YurikBot</username> <id>271058</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>robot Adding: no</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Bilskirnir''' is the hall of the god [[Thor]] in [[Norse Mythology]]. Here he lives with his wife [[Sif]] and their children. According to [[Grímnismál]], the hall contains 540 rooms, and is built to accommodate Thor's height. It is located in [[Asgard]], as are all the dwellings of the [[gods]]. This is located in [[Thudheim]] or [[Thrudvang]] . {{NorseMythology}} {{norse-myth-stub}} [[Category:Locations in Norse mythology]] [[da:Bilskirner]] [[de:Bilskirnir]] [[es:Bilskirnir]] [[no:Bilskirne]] [[pt:Bilskirnir]] [[sv:Bilskirne]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Brisingamen</title> <id>4063</id> <revision> <id>39998648</id> <timestamp>2006-02-17T11:21:27Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>193.198.213.25</ip> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Heimdall_öfverlämnar_till_Freya_smycket_Bryfing_(1845)_av_Nils_Blommér.jpg|thumbnail|300px|Heimdall returns Brisingamen to Freya]] '''Brisingamen''' is said to be the (principally [[amber]]) [[necklace]] of the goddess [[Freya]] from [[Norse Mythology]]. When she wore it no man or god could withstand her charms, which was obviously a matter of great concern to the other goddesses during springtime when she reputedly wore it. The necklace also gave support to any army which she favoured on the battlefield. It was forged by four dwarves ([[Alfrik]], [[Berling]], [[Dvalin]] and [[Grer]]), and, in order to obtain it, she was obliged to spend a night with each of them in turn. Alternatively, King [[Alberich]] gave it to her. It was worn by [[Thor]] when he was dressed up as [[Freya]] to marry the [[giant (mythology)|giant]] [[Trym]]. ''[[Húsdrápa]]'' relates that the necklace was stolen by [[Loki]]. When Freya wakes up she take her wagon, harnesses her cats and goes out to find it. [[Heimdall]] helps her search for it and eventually they find the thief, who turns out to be [[Loki]] who has transformed himself into a seal. Heimdall turns into a seal as well and starts to fight Loki. After a lengthy battle, Heimdall wins and returns Brisingamen to Freya. The necklace is referenced in the Anglo-Saxon epic, ''[[Beowulf]]'', as ''Brosingamen'', wherein the jewel is brought back to ''the shining citadel'' (probably [[Valhalla]] which is made of shining armour) by ''Hama'' ([[Heimdall]]). In this epic, it had eventually fallen into the hands of mortals. It was given to [[Beowulf (character)|Beowulf]] by the Danish queen for killing [[Grendel]]. Beowulf in his turn gave it to his own queen, [[Hygd]], when he had returned to [[Götaland]]. It also appears in a second [[euhemerize]]d version in ''[[Sörla þáttr]]''. ---- [[Alan Garner]] wrote a children's [[fantasy]] novel called '''''[[The Weirdstone of Brisingamen]]''''' about an enchanted teardrop [[pendant]] necklace. [[Category:Artifacts in Norse mythology]] [[da:Brisingernes smykke]] [[de:Brisingamen]] [[hr:Brisingamen]] [[it:Brísingamen]] [[ja:ブリーシンガメン]] [[nn:Brisingamen]] [[ru:Брисингамен]] [[sv:Brisingasmycket]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Borsuk–Ulam theorem</title> <id>4064</id> <revision> <id>27507246</id> <timestamp>2005-11-06T05:36:26Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>BeteNoir</username> <id>442726</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Refined categorization</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Borsuk–Ulam theorem''' states that any [[continuous function|continuous]] [[function (mathematics)|function]] from an ''n''-[[sphere]] into [[Euclidean space|Euclidean ''n''-space]] maps some pair of [[antipodal point]]s to the same point. (Two points on a sphere are called antipodal if they are in exactly opposite directions from the sphere's center.) The case ''n'' = 2 is often illustrated by saying that at any moment there is always a pair of antipodal points on the [[Earth]]'s surface with equal temperatures and equal barometric pressures. This assumes that temperature and barometric pressure vary continuously. The Borsuk–Ulam theorem was first conjectured by [[Stanislaw Ulam]]. It was proved by [[Karol Borsuk]] in 1933. == References == * K. Borsuk, &quot;Drei Sätze über die ''n''-dimensionale euklidische Sphäre&quot;, ''Fund. Math.'', '''20''' (1933), 177-190. * Ji&amp;#345;í Matou&amp;scaron;ek, ''&quot;Using the Borsuk–Ulam theorem&quot;'', Springer Verlag, Berlin, 2003. ISBN 3-540-00362-2. * L. Lyusternik and S. Shnirel'man, &quot;Topological Methods in Variational Problems&quot;. ''Issledowatelskii Institut Matematiki i Mechaniki pri O. M. G. U.'', Moscow, 1930. [[Category:Algebraic topology]] [[Category:Mathematical theorems]] [[fr:Théorème de Borsuk-Ulam]] [[nl:Stelling van Borsuk-Ulam]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Barbara and Jenna Bush</title> <id>4065</id> <revision> <id>42125713</id> <timestamp>2006-03-04T00:07:42Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Ghosts&amp;empties</username> <id>509253</id> </contributor> <comment>/* Middle School and High School */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Jenna and Barbara Bush.jpg|thumb|162px|Jenna (left) and Barbara Bush.]] '''Barbara Pierce Bush''' and '''Jenna Welch Bush''' (born [[November 25]], [[1981]], in [[Dallas, Texas]]) are the [[Twin#Fraternal twins|fraternal twin]] daughters of [[United States President|U.S. president]] [[George W. Bush]] and [[Laura Bush]]. Barbara is the elder sister. They are arguably the first First Twins, as the first twin children of a sitting President. ==Jenna Bush== Jenna is named after her maternal grandmother and attended the [[University of Texas at Austin]]. According to ''Reader's Digest'', Jenna &quot;has followed in her mother's footsteps and is teaching at a [[Washington, D.C.]] public school.&quot; [http://www.rd.com/content/openContent.do?contentId=14806] ==Barbara Bush== Barbara is named after her paternal grandmother, former First Lady [[Barbara Bush]], and attended her father's, grandfather [[George H.W. Bush]]'s, and great-grandfather [[Prescott Bush]]'s [[alma mater]], [[Yale University]]. Barbara is working with [[AIDS]] patients in [[Africa]] through a program sponsored by the [[Houston]]-based [[Baylor College of Medicine]]'s International Pediatrics AIDS Initiative. [http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/articles/A50537-2004May23.html][http://www.chron.com/content/archive/ysearch.mpl?operation=getdoc&amp;database=2005%3B2004%3B&amp;databases=2005%3B2004%3B2004%3B2004%3B&amp;docid=48810&amp;docids=2526%3B48810%3B35628%3B35625%3B&amp;query=AIDS+and+'Barbara+Bush'+and+Africa+NOT+3:RSEC&amp;pos=2&amp;numhits=25&amp;start=&amp;type=&amp;user=houston&amp;sview=1&amp;hview=2&amp;dview=1][http://www.int.iol.co.za/index.php?set_id=1&amp;click_id=68&amp;art_id=qw1121318105164R131][http://www.boston.com/news/world/africa/articles/2005/07/06/bush_daughter_is_said_to_volunteer_in_s_africa/?page=full][http://www.thebody.com/kaiser/2004/may25_04/bush_intern.html] In 2006, Barbara joined her mother on diplomatic trips to [[Liberia]] in January 2006, attending the inaugaration of President [[Ellen Johnson Sirleaf]], and to the [[Vatican City]] to meet with [[Pope Benedict XVI]] in February 2006. ==Middle School and High School== Upon their father's induction into the office of [[Governor of Texas]] in [[1994]], the twins attending [[St. Andrew's Episcopal School]] in [[Austin, Texas]]. In 1996, Jenna and Barbara began attended [[Stephen F. Austin High School]], graduating with the class of [[2000]]. The twins elected to attend separate universities after graduation, with Jenna remaining in Austin to attend the [[University of Texas]], and Barbara following her father's legacy at [[Yale University]]. ==Graduation and campaigning== Both daughters graduated from college in May of 2004; the events were given heavy media coverage. This more open relationship with the media grew during the summer of 2004, prior to the [[2004 U.S. Presidential election]], in which the twins made several public appearances, including giving a speech to the [[2004 Republican National Convention|Republican Convention]] on [[August 31]]. The twins, who took turns traveling to various [[swing states]] with their father, gave a seven-page interview and photo shoot in the [http://www.style.com/vogue/feature/071404/page2.html August 2004] edition of ''[[Vogue (magazine)|Vogue]]'' magazine. In the interview Jenna describes the twins' decision to accompany their father on parts of the campaign trail as their own decision. &quot;It's not like he [her father] called me up and asked me,&quot; she said. &quot;But I love my Dad and I think I'd regret it if I didn't do this.&quot; While campaigning, Jenna met her current beau, Henry Hager. The media also extensively covered the campaigning of [[John Kerry]]'s daughters [[Vanessa Kerry|Vanessa]] and [[Alexandra Kerry|Alexandra]], turning the election into, at least in part, a &quot;battle of the daughters&quot;. ==Drinking incidents== [[Image:Bush daughers.gif|thumb|200px|Jenna and Barbara Bush with their parents George W. Bush and Laura Bush]] Both daughters had incidents involving [[legal drinking age|underage drinking]]. On [[April 27]], [[2001]] Jenna Bush was charged with being a minor in possession of [[alcoholic beverage|alcohol]] in the East Sixth Street entertainment district o
e commonly referred to as being &quot;high&quot; or &quot;stoned&quot;) == Cultural attitudes == Many societies have cultural stereotypes associated with drunkenness; some consider the ability to drink vast quantities of alcohol worthy of respect. Arguably, such an attitude can be regarded as [[pathological]], as it may lead to [[alcoholism]]. In many public places for alcoholic consumption such as [[bar (establishment)|bar]]s, the act of not drinking alcohol and refusing offers of alcoholic drinks may appear to be &quot;spoiling the atmosphere&quot; and be met with social disapproval. However, an intoxicated person is often considered unable to control his/her urges or acknowledging limits of drinking and is thus treated with disrespect, related to annoying, or intrusive behavior. The symptoms of drunkenness are generally reported to be positive, at least initially. As the effects diminish, the associated [[hangover]] starts, mostly a result of dehydration and exhaustion. The [[ancient Greeks]] believed that putting a piece of [[amethyst]] in the glass or in one's mouth while drinking prevented drunkenness, and indeed the name of the gem alludes to this belief ([[Ancient Greek]]: &quot;a-methyst&quot; meaning &quot;not intoxicated&quot;). Many religions discourage or prohibit alcohol consumption. The [[Qur'an]], or book of [[Islam]], declares that [[God]] prohibits the consumption of alcohol by humankind, because of harmful effects for the body, harmful effects for the consumer's life and family, social problems, and distraction from mindfulness of God. The [[Catechism of the Catholic Church|Catechism]] of the [[Roman Catholic Church]] states in paragraph 2290 of the Catacysm of the Catholic Church (CCC 2290): &quot;The virtue of temperance disposes us to avoid every kind of excess: the abuse of food, alcohol, tobacco, or medicine. Those incur grave guilt who, by drunkenness or a love of speed, endanger their own and others' safety on the road, at sea, or in the air.&quot; The Church does not prohibit the use of alcohol if it is done in moderation. [[Buddhism|Buddhists]] abstain from alcohol to avoid unintentionally harming others. The intoxication of the mind also is at odds with the teaching of mindfulness. ==See also== {| border=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;border-collapse:collapse; float:right;&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;2&quot; rules=&quot;none&quot; |+ Drunkenness-related headwords in [[WikiSaurus]] |- | *[[wiktionary:WikiSaurus:drunk|drunk]] *[[wiktionary:WikiSaurus:alcoholic|alcoholic]] |} *[[Effects of alcohol on the body]] *[[Addiction]] *[[Alcoholic beverage]]s *[[Alcoholism]] *[[Beer goggles]] (slang) *[[Ethanol]] *[[Hangover]] *[[Pub crawl]] *[[The Lexicon of Comicana|Squeans]] ==Further reading== *&quot;Out of It. A Cultural History of Intoxication&quot; by Stuart Walton. (Penguin Books, [[2002]]) ISBN 0140279776 *[http://www.moderndrunkardmagazine.com &quot;Modern Drunkard&quot; magazine] - a humorous magazine about drink and the art of getting drunk [[Category:Alcohol_abuse]] [[Category:Drinking culture]] [[de:Trunkenheit]] [[es:Ebriedad]] [[fr:Ivresse]] [[it:Ubriachezza]] [[nl:Dronkenschap]] [[tl:Pagkalasing]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Data compression</title> <id>8013</id> <revision> <id>41830862</id> <timestamp>2006-03-02T00:50:52Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Ianbrown</username> <id>28190</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/210.215.116.28|210.215.116.28]] ([[User talk:210.215.116.28|talk]]) to last version by Chungc</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">In [[computer science]] and [[information theory]], '''data compression''' or '''source coding''' is the process of encoding information using fewer [[bit]]s (or other information-bearing units) than an [[code|unencoded]] representation would use through use of specific encoding schemes. For example, this article could be encoded with fewer bits if we accept the convention that the word &quot;compression&quot; be encoded as &quot;comp&quot;. One popular instance of compression that many computer users are familiar with is the [[ZIP file format]], which, as well as providing compression, acts as an [[file archiver|archiver]], storing many files in a single output file. As is the case with any form of communication, compressed data communication only works when both the [[sender]] and receiver of the [[information]] understand the encoding scheme. For example, this text makes sense only if the receiver understands that it is intended to be interpreted as characters representing the English language. Similarly, compressed data can only be understood if the decoding method is known by the receiver. Compression is possible because most real-world data have ''statistical redundancy''. For example, the letter 'e' is much more common in English text than the letter 'z', and the probability that the letter 'q' will be followed by the letter 'z' is rather small. ''Lossless'' compression algorithms exploit statistical redundancy in such a way as to represent the sender's data more concisely, but nevertheless perfectly. Further compression is possible if some loss of fidelity is allowable. For example, a person viewing a picture or television video scene might not notice if some of its finest details are removed or not represented perfectly. Similarly, two strings of samples representing an audio recording may sound the same but actually not be exactly the same. ''Lossy'' compression algorithms introduce relatively minor differences and represent the picture, video, or audio using fewer bits. Compression is important because it helps reduce the consumption of expensive resources, such as disk space or connection bandwidth. However, compression requires information processing power, which can also be expensive. The design of data compression schemes therefore involves trade-offs between various factors including compression capability, any amount of introduced distortion, computational resource requirements, and often other considerations as well. Some schemes are reversible so that the original data can be reconstructed ([[lossless data compression]]), while others accept some loss of data in order to achieve higher compression ([[lossy data compression]]). Perhaps surprisingly, lossless data compression algorithms will always make some files ''bigger'', that is, an algorithm that universally reduces the size of every possible file is impossible. This also explains why compressing a compressed file again will usually only increase the size of the “compressed” file, otherwise any amount of data could eventually be made to fit on a floppy disk. In practice lossy data compression will come to a point where compressing again does not work either, although an extremely lossy algorithm, which for example always removes the last byte of a file, will always compress a file up to the point where it is empty. Decompressing is of course impossible when one uses such an algorithm. == Applications == One very simple means of compression, for example, is [[run-length encoding]], wherein large runs of consecutive identical data values are replaced by a simple code with the data value and length of the run. This is an example of [[lossless data compression]]. It is often used to better use disk space on office computers, or better use the connection bandwidth in a [[computer network]]. For symbolic data such as spreadsheets, text, executable programs, etc., losslessness is essential because changing even a single bit cannot be tolerated (except in some limited cases). For visual and audio data, some loss of quality can be tolerated without losing the essential nature of the data. By taking advantage of limitations of the human sensory system, a great deal of space can be saved while producing output which is nearly indistinguishable from the original. These [[lossy data compression]] methods typically offer a three-way tradeoff between compression speed, compressed data size and quality loss. Lossy [[image compression]] is used in [[digital camera]]s, greatly increasing their storage capacities while hardly degrading picture quality at all. Similarly, [[DVD]]s use the lossy [[MPEG-2]] codec for [[video compression]]. In lossy [[audio compression]], methods of [[psychoacoustics]] are used to remove non-audible (or less audible) components of the signal. Compression of human speech is often performed with even more specialized techniques, so that &quot;speech compression&quot; or &quot;voice coding&quot; is sometimes distinguished as a separate discipline than &quot;audio compression&quot;. Different audio and speech compression standards are listed under [[audio codecs]]. Voice compression is used in [[Internet telephony]] for example, while audio compression is used for CD ripping and is decoded by [[MP3]] players. == Theory == The theoretical background of compression is provided by [[information theory]] (which is closely related to [[algorithmic information theory]]) and by [[rate-distortion theory]]. These fields of study were essentially created by [[Claude Shannon]], who published fundamental papers on the topic in the late 1940s and early 1950s. Doyle and Carlson ([[2000]]) wrote that data compression &quot;has one of the simplest and most elegant design theories in all of engineering&quot;. [[Cryptography]] and [[coding theory]] are also closely related. The idea of data compression is deeply connected with statistical inference. Many lossless data compression systems can be viewed in terms of a [[four-stage model of data compression|four-stage model]]. Lossy data compression systems typically include even more stages, including, for example, prediction, frequency transformation, and quantization. The Lempel-Ziv (LZ) compression methods are among the
dland and Barton 1975). In fact, a major longitudinal study of nutrient levels in numerous vegetables showed significant declines in the last 50 years; garden vegetables in the U.S. today contain on average 38 percent less vitamin B2 and 15 percent less vitamin C (Davis and Riordan 2004). Very recently, [[genetic engineering]] has begun to be employed in some parts of the world to speed up the selection and breeding process. The most widely used modification is a herbicide resistance gene that allows plants to tolerate exposure to glyphosate, which is used to control weeds in the crop. A less frequently used but more controversial modification causes the plant to produce a toxin to reduce damage from insects (c.f. [[Transgenic maize|Starlink]]). There are specialty producers who raise less common types of livestock or plants. [[Aquaculture]], the farming of [[fish]], [[shrimp]], and [[algae]], is closely associated with agriculture. [[Beekeeping|Apiculture]], the culture of bees, traditionally for [[honey]]&amp;mdash;increasingly for crop [[pollination]]. ''See also'' : [[botany]], [[List of domesticated plants]], [[List of vegetables]], [[List of herbs]], [[List of fruit]] ==Environmental problems== Agriculture may often cause environmental problems because it changes natural environments and produces harmful by-products. Some of the negative effects are: * [[Nitrogen]] and [[phosphorus]] surplus in [[river]]s and [[lake]]s. * Detrimental effects of [[herbicide]]s, [[fungicide]]s, [[insecticide]]s, and other [[biocide]]s. * Conversion of natural [[ecosystem]]s of all types into [[arable land]]. * Consolidation of diverse [[biomass]] into a few species. * [[Erosion]] * Depletion of [[minerals]] in the [[soil]] * [[Particulate matter]], including [[ammonia]] and [[ammonium]] off-gasing from animal waste contributing to [[air pollution]] * [[Weed]]s - [[feral]] plants and animals * Odor from agricultural [[waste]] * [[Soil salination]] . ==Policy== [[Agricultural policy]] focuses on the goals and methods of agricultural production. At the policy level, common goals of agriculture include: *[[Foodborne illness|Food safety]]: Ensuring that the food supply is free of contamination. *[[Food security]]: Ensuring that the food supply meets the population's needs. *[[Food quality]]: Ensuring that the food supply is of a consistent and known quality. * Conservation * Environmental impact * Economic stability ==Agricultural Revolutions== * [[British Agricultural Revolution]] * [[Green Revolution]] * [[Neolithic Revolution]] ==Methods== There are various methods of agricultural production: *[[aeroponics]] *[[aerial topdressing]] *[[agricultural machinery]] *[[animal husbandry]] *[[aquaculture]] *[[beekeeping]] *[[crop rotation]] *[[Concentrated Animal Feeding Operation]] ([[Concentrated Animal Feeding Operation|CAFO]], ''[[factory farming]]'') *[[composting]] *[[dairy farming]] *[[detasseling]] *[[domestication]] *[[agricultural fencing|fencing]] *[[fertilizer]]s *[[greenhouse]] *[[harvest]] *[[heliciculture]] *[[hybrid seed]] *[[hydroponics]] *[[Integrated Pest Management]] ([[Integrated Pest Management|IPM]]) *[[irrigation]] *[[livestock]] *[[market gardening]] *[[monoculture]] *[[no-till farming]] *[[organic farming]] *[[plant breeding]] *[[Permaculture]] *[[pollination management]] *[[precision farming]] *[[ranching]] *[[season extension]] *[[seed saving]] *[[seed testing]] *[[shepherding]] *[[subsistence farming]] *[[succession planting]] *[[sustainable agriculture]] *[[Terrace (agriculture)|terracing]] *[[vegetable farming]] *[[tillage]] *[[weed control]] ==References== *Wells, Spencer: ''The Journey of Man : A Genetic Odyssey''. Princeton University Press, 2003. ISBN: 069111532X *Crosby, Alfred W.: ''The Columbian Exchange : Biological and Cultural Consequences of 1492''. Praeger Publishers, 2003 (30th Anniversary Edition). ISBN: 0275980731 *Collinson, M. (editor): ''A History of Farming Systems Research''. CABI Publishing, 2000. ISBN: 0851994059 *Davis, Donald R., and Hugh D. Riordan (2004) Changes in USDA Food Composition Data for 43 Garden Crops, 1950 to 1999. Journal of the American College of Nutrition, Vol. 23, No. 6, 669-682. *Friedland, William H. and Amy Barton (1975) Destalking the Wily Tomato: A Case Study of Social Consequences in California Agricultural Research. Univ. California at Sta. Cruz, Research Monograph 15.· ==See also== * [[Agricultural and Food Research Council]], UK * [[Agricultural education]] * [[Agricultural science]] * [[Agricultural sciences basic topics]] * [[Arid-zone agriculture]] * [[Barnyard]] * [[Community-supported agriculture]] * [[International agricultural research]] * [[Family farm hog pen]] * [[Farm equipment]] * [[Land Allocation Decision Support System]] * [[List of domesticated animals]] * [[List of subsistence techniques]] * [[List of countries by agricultural output]] * [[List of sustainable agriculture topics]] * [[Permaculture]] * [[Protein per unit area]] * [[Timeline of agriculture and food technology]]. * [[USA agriculture]] [[Image:Cows in green field - nullamunjie olive grove03.jpg|thumb|600px|center|Herd of [[Hereford]]s in a green field]] ==External links== * [http://www.fao.org www.fao.org] — Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations World Agricultural Information Centre ** [http://www.fao.org/waicent/portal/statistics_en.asp www.fao.org] — The UN Statistical Databases ** [http://www.fao.org/faostat www.fao.org/faostat] — The FAOSTAT Statistical Databases ** [http://www.fao.org/es/ess www.fao.org/es/ess] — The FAO Statistics Division ** [http://www.fao.org/ag/ FAO Agriculture Department] and its [http://www.fao.org/docrep/006/y5160e/y5160e00.HTM State of Food and Agriculture 2003-2004] with a focus on the impact of biotechnology **[http://www.greenfacts.org/gmo/index.htm GM Crops in Agriculture] &amp;ndash; A summary for non-specialists of the above FAO report by [[GreenFacts]]. * {{dmoz|Science/Environment/Agriculture/ |Agriculture}} * [http://imperium.lenin.ru/~kaledin/tmp/agricltr.txt ''Agriculture: Demon Engine of Civilization''] by John Zerzan * have a [http://www.geocities.com/ferzenr/farmaze.htm farmaze], for food, from afar *[http://www.ukagriculture.com/countryside/history_of_countryside/countryside_history.html History of UK Agriculture] ===Specific countries=== * [http://www.agr.gc.ca/ www.agr.gc.ca] — Agriculture &amp; Agri-Food Canada * [http://www.nationalpak.com www.nationalpak.com] — Agriculture of Pakistan * [http://www.nationalacademies.org/agriculture/ www.nationalacademies.org] — Agriculture at the United States National Academies * [http://www.usda.gov/ www.usda.gov] — United States Department of Agriculture **[http://www.fas.usda.gov/currwmt.html Current World Production, Market and Trade Reports] from the Foreign Agricultural Service **[http://www.ers.usda.gov/ USDA's main source of economic information and research] from the Economic Research Service **[http://www.ars.usda.gov/ In-house Research Arm] from the [[Agricultural Research Service]] **[http://www.nal.usda.gov/ National Agricultural Library] [[Category:Agriculture| ]] [[ar:زراعة]] [[an:Agricultura]] [[ast:Agricultura]] [[bg:Селско стопанство]] [[ca:Agricultura]] [[cs:Zemědělství]] [[cy:Amaeth]] [[da:Landbrug]] [[de:Landwirtschaft]] [[et:Põllumajandus]] [[es:Agricultura]] [[eo:Agrikulturo]] [[fa:کشاورزی]] [[fr:Agriculture]] [[fy:Lânbou]] [[gl:Agricultura]] [[ko:농업]] [[io:Agrokultivo]] [[id:Pertanian]] [[ia:Agricultura]] [[iu:ᐱᕈᕐᓰᓂᖅ ᓂᐅᕐᕈᑎᒃᓴᓕᐊᕆᓪᓗᒋᑦ]] [[is:Landbúnaður]] [[it:Agricoltura]] [[he:חקלאות]] [[ka:სოფლის მეურნეობა]] [[lad:Agrikultura]] [[la:Agricultura]] [[li:Landboew]] [[hu:Mezőgazdaság]] [[mk:Земјоделство]] [[nah:Millacayotl]] [[nl:Landbouw]] [[nds:Bueree]] [[ja:農業]] [[no:Landbruk]] [[nn:Landbruk]] [[pl:Rolnictwo]] [[pt:Agricultura]] [[ro:Agricultură]] [[ru:Сельское хозяйство]] [[sh:Poljoprivreda]] [[scn:Agricultura]] [[simple:Agriculture]] [[sl:Kmetijstvo]] [[sr:Пољопривреда]] [[su:Agrikultur]] [[fi:Maatalous]] [[sv:Jordbruk]] [[tl:Agrikultura]] [[ta:வேளாண்மை]] [[vi:Nông nghiệp]] [[uk:Сільське господарство]] [[zh:农业]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Aldous Huxley</title> <id>628</id> <revision> <id>39834738</id> <timestamp>2006-02-16T04:24:15Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Kriegman</username> <id>181058</id> </contributor> <comment>/* External links */ link to interviews</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Aldous Leonard Huxley''' ([[July 26]], [[1894]] &amp;ndash; [[November 22]], [[1963]]) was a [[United Kingdom|British]] [[writer]] who emigrated to the [[United States]]. He was a member of the famous [[Huxley family]] who produced a number of brilliant scientific minds. Best known for his [[novel]]s and wide-ranging output of [[essay]]s, he also published [[short stories]], [[poetry]], [[travel writing]], and [[film]] stories and scripts. Through his novels and essays Huxley functioned as an examiner and sometimes critic of social mores, societal norms and ideals, and possible misapplications of science in [[human]] [[life]]. While his earlier concerns might be called &quot;[[humanist]],&quot; ultimately, he became quite interested in &quot;spiritual&quot; subjects like [[parapsychology]] and [[mysticism|mystically]] based [[philosophy]], which he also wrote about. By the end of his life, Huxley was considered, in certain circles, a 'leader of modern thought'. ==Biography== ===Early years=== [[Image:Huxley-Arnold family tree.png|thumb|right|Family tree]] Huxley was born in [[Godalming]], [[Surrey]], [[England]]. He was the son of the [[writer]] [[Leonard Huxley (writer)|Leonard Huxley]] by his first wife, [[Julia Arnold]]; and grandson of [[Thomas Henry Huxley]], one of the most important naturalists of the 19th Century, a man known as &quot;Darwin's Bulldog.&quot; His brother [[Julian Huxley]] was a [[biology|biologist]] also noted fo
\over 8} + {1 \over 16} + \cdots=\sum_{n=0}^\infty{1 \over 2^n}.&lt;/math&gt; :In general, the geometric series ::&lt;math&gt;\sum_{n=0}^\infty z^n&lt;/math&gt; :converges if and only if |''z''| &lt; 1. * The ''[[harmonic series (mathematics)|harmonic series]]'' is the series ::&lt;math&gt;1 + {1 \over 2} + {1 \over 3} + {1 \over 4} + {1 \over 5} + \cdots =\sum_{n=1}^\infty {1 \over n}.&lt;/math&gt; * An ''[[alternating series]]'' is a series where terms alternate signs. Example: ::&lt;math&gt;1 - {1 \over 2} + {1 \over 3} - {1 \over 4} + {1 \over 5} - \cdots =\sum_{n=1}^\infty (-1)^{n+1} {1 \over n}.&lt;/math&gt; *The series ::&lt;math&gt;\sum_{n=1}^\infty\frac{1}{n^r}&lt;/math&gt; :converges if ''r'' &gt; 1 and diverges for ''r'' &amp;le; 1, which can be shown with the integral criterion described below in [[Series (mathematics)#Convergence tests|convergence tests]]. As a function of ''r'', the sum of this series is [[Riemann zeta function|Riemann's zeta function]]. *A [[telescoping series]] ::&lt;math&gt;\sum_{n=1}^\infty (b_n-b_{n+1})&lt;/math&gt; :converges if the [[sequence]] ''b''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt; converges to a limit ''L'' as ''n'' goes to infinity. The value of the series is then ''b''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt; &amp;minus; ''L''. ==Absolute convergence == :''Main article: [[absolute convergence]].'' A series :&lt;math&gt;\sum_{n=0}^\infty a_n&lt;/math&gt; is said to '''converge absolutely''' if the series of [[absolute value|absolute values]] :&lt;math&gt;\sum_{n=0}^\infty \left|a_n\right|&lt;/math&gt; converges. In this case, the original series, and all reorderings of it, converge, and converge towards the same sum. The [[Riemann series theorem]] says that if a series converges, but not absolutely, then one can always find a reordering of the terms so that the reordered series diverges. Moreover, if the ''a''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt; are real and ''S'' is any real number, one can find a reordering so that the reordered series converges with limit ''S''. ==Convergence tests == *[[Comparison test]] 1: If &amp;sum;''b&lt;sub&gt;n&lt;/sub&gt;''&amp;nbsp; is an [[absolute convergence|absolutely convergent]] series such that |''a&lt;sub&gt;n&lt;/sub&gt;''&amp;nbsp;| &amp;le; ''C''&amp;nbsp;|''b&lt;sub&gt;n&lt;/sub&gt;''&amp;nbsp;| for some number ''C''&amp;nbsp; and for sufficiently large ''n''&amp;nbsp;, then &amp;sum;''a&lt;sub&gt;n&lt;/sub&gt;''&amp;nbsp; converges absolutely as well. If &amp;sum;|''b&lt;sub&gt;n&lt;/sub&gt;''&amp;nbsp;| diverges, and |''a&lt;sub&gt;n&lt;/sub&gt;''&amp;nbsp;| &amp;ge; |''b&lt;sub&gt;n&lt;/sub&gt;''&amp;nbsp;| for all sufficiently large ''n''&amp;nbsp;, then &amp;sum;''a&lt;sub&gt;n&lt;/sub&gt;''&amp;nbsp; also fails to converge absolutely (though it could still be conditionally convergent, e.g. if the ''a&lt;sub&gt;n&lt;/sub&gt;''&amp;nbsp; alternate in sign). *[[Comparison test]] 2: If &amp;sum;''b&lt;sub&gt;n&lt;/sub&gt;''&amp;nbsp; is an absolutely convergent series such that |''a&lt;sub&gt;n+1&lt;/sub&gt;''&amp;nbsp;/''a&lt;sub&gt;n&lt;/sub&gt;''&amp;nbsp;| &amp;le; ''C''&amp;nbsp;|''b&lt;sub&gt;n+1&lt;/sub&gt;''&amp;nbsp;/''b&lt;sub&gt;n&lt;/sub&gt;''&amp;nbsp;| for some number ''C''&amp;nbsp; and for sufficiently large ''n''&amp;nbsp;, then &amp;sum;''a&lt;sub&gt;n&lt;/sub&gt;''&amp;nbsp; converges absolutely as well. If &amp;sum;|''b&lt;sub&gt;n&lt;/sub&gt;''&amp;nbsp;| diverges, and |''a&lt;sub&gt;n+1&lt;/sub&gt;''&amp;nbsp;/''a&lt;sub&gt;n&lt;/sub&gt;''&amp;nbsp;| &amp;ge; |''b&lt;sub&gt;n+1&lt;/sub&gt;''&amp;nbsp;/''b&lt;sub&gt;n&lt;/sub&gt;''&amp;nbsp;| for all sufficiently large ''n''&amp;nbsp;, then &amp;sum;''a&lt;sub&gt;n&lt;/sub&gt;''&amp;nbsp; also fails to converge absolutely (though it could still be conditionally convergent, e.g. if the ''a&lt;sub&gt;n&lt;/sub&gt;''&amp;nbsp; alternate in sign). *[[Ratio test]]: If |''a''&lt;sub&gt;''n''+1&lt;/sub&gt;/''a''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt;| &lt; 1 for all sufficiently large ''n'', then &amp;sum; ''a''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt; converges absolutely. When the ratio is 1, convergence can sometimes be determined as well. *[[Root test]]: If there exists a constant ''C'' &lt; 1 such that |''a''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt;|&lt;sup&gt;1/''n''&lt;/sup&gt; &amp;le; ''C'' for all sufficiently large ''n'', then &amp;sum; ''a''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt; converges absolutely. *[[Integral test for convergence|Integral test]]: if ''f''(''x'') is a positive [[monotone decreasing]] function defined on the [[interval (mathematics)|interval]] &lt;nowiki&gt;[&lt;/nowiki&gt;1, &amp;infin;&lt;nowiki&gt;)&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;!--DO NOT &quot;FIX&quot; THE &quot;TYPO&quot; IN THE FOREGOING. IT IS INTENDED TO SAY [...) WITH A SQUARE BRACKET ON THE LEFT AND A ROUND BRACKET ON THE RIGHT. --&gt; with ''f''(''n'') = ''a''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt; for all ''n'', then &amp;sum; ''a''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt; converges if and only if the [[integration|integral]] &amp;int;&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;sup&gt;&amp;infin;&lt;/sup&gt; ''f''(''x'') d''x'' is finite. *[[Alternating series test]]: A series of the form &amp;sum; (&amp;minus;1)&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt; ''a''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt; (with ''a''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt; &amp;ge; 0) is called ''alternating''. Such a series converges if the [[sequence]] ''a''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt; is [[monotone decreasing]] and converges to 0. The converse is in general not true. *For some specific types of series there are more specialized convergence tests, for instance for [[Fourier series]] there is the [[Dini test]]. ==Power series == Several important functions can be represented as [[Taylor series]]; these are infinite series involving powers of the independent variable and are also called [[power series]]. For example, the series :&lt;math&gt;\sum_{n=0}^\infty\frac{x^n}{n!}&lt;/math&gt; converges to &lt;math&gt;e^x&lt;/math&gt; for all ''x''. See also [[radius of convergence]]. Historically, mathematicians such as [[Leonhard Euler]] operated liberally with infinite series, even if they were not convergent. When calculus was put on a sound and correct foundation in the nineteenth century, rigorous proofs of the convergence of series were always required. However, the formal operation with non-convergent series has been retained in rings of [[formal power series]] which are studied in [[abstract algebra]]. Formal power series are also used in [[combinatorics]] to describe and study [[sequence]]s that are otherwise difficult to handle; this is the method of [[generating function]]s. ==Generalizations== [[Asymptotic series]], otherwise [[asymptotic expansion]]s, are infinite series that do not converge. But they are useful as sequences of approximations, each of which provides a value close to the desired answer for a finite number of terms. The difference is that an asymptotic series cannot be made to produce an answer as exact as desired, the way that convergent series can. In fact, after a certain number of terms, a typical [[asymptotic series]] reaches its best approximation; if more terms are included, most such series will produce worse answers. The notion of series can be defined in every [[abelian group|abelian]] [[topological group]]; the most commonly encountered case is that of series in a [[Banach space]]. There is no serious definition for an infinite sum over an [[uncountable]] set. For example if ''X'' is a set and ''f'' a function on ''X'' taking non-negative real values, such that :&lt;math&gt;\sum_{y\in Y} f(y)&lt;A&lt;/math&gt; for any countable subset ''Y'' of ''X'', with ''A'' an absolute constant, it follows that ''f''(''x'') = 0 for all ''x'' outside some countable subset of ''X''. In other words, infinite sums of uncountably many non-negative reals make sense only in the case that this is a conventional convergent infinite series, extended by the value 0 to an uncountable set. ==See also== *[[Convergent series]] *[[Divergent series]] *[[Sequence transformations]] [[Category:Calculus]] [[Category:Mathematical series|*]] [[de:Reihe (Mathematik)]] [[es:Serie (matemáticas)]] [[fi:Sarja (matematiikka)]] [[fr:Série (mathématiques)]] [[he:טור (מתמטיקה)]] [[it:Serie]] [[ja:級数]] [[nl:Reeks]] [[pl:Szereg (matematyka)]] [[sl:Vrsta (matematika)]] [[sr:Ред (математика)]] [[scn:Seri (matimatica)]] [[zh:无穷级数]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Irish Dance</title> <id>15288</id> <revision> <id>15912769</id> <timestamp>2002-05-20T22:42:27Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Maveric149</username> <id>62</id> </contributor> <comment>#redirect [[Irish dance]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Irish dance]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Interrupt</title> <id>15289</id> <revision> <id>40356374</id> <timestamp>2006-02-20T00:54:07Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>X42bn6</username> <id>274845</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>/* Overview */ Removed space</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">In [[computer science]], an '''interrupt''' is an [[asynchronous circuit | asynchronous]] signal from hardware or software indicating the need for attention. A ''hardware interrupt'' causes the [[central processing unit|processor]] to save its state of execution via a [[context switch]], and begins [[execution (computers) | execution]] of an [[interrupt handler]]. ''Software interrupts'' are usually implemented as [[instruction (computer science) | instruction]]s in the [[instruction set]], which cause a context switch to the interrupt handler similarly to a hardware interrupt. The act of ''interrupting'' is referered to as an [[interrupt request]]. == Overview == Interrupts originated as a way to avoid wasting the processor's valuable time in polling loops, waiting for external events. Instead, an interrupt signals the processor when an event occurs, allo
, thermal physics, relativity, atomic and quantum physics, laboratory techniques, and mathematical methods. The table indicates the relative weights and detailed contents of the major topics. ==Major Content Topics== ===1. [[Classical mechanics]] (20%)=== * [[kinematics]] * [[Newton's laws of motion]] * [[energy|work and energy]] * [[rotational motion about a fixed axis]] * [[dynamics of systems of particles]] * [[central force|central forces]] and [[celestial mechanics]] * [[three-dimensional particle dynamics]] * [[Lagrangian]] and [[Hamiltonian mechanics|Hamiltonian]] formalism * [[noninertial reference frames]] * [[fluid dynamics|elementary topics in fluid dynamics]] ===2. [[Electromagnetism]] (18%)=== * [[electrostatics]] * [[Current (electricity)|currents]] and [[DC circuits]] * [[magnetic field|magnetic fields]] in free space * [[Lorentz force]] * [[electromagnetic induction]] * [[Maxwells equations|Maxwell's equations]] and their applications * [[electromagnetic waves]] ([[electromagnetic radiation]]) * [[AC circuits]] * [[magnetic and electric fields in matter]] ===3. [[Optics]] and [[wave]] phenomena (9%)=== * [[wave]] properties * [[interference|superposition]] * [[interference]] * [[diffraction]] * [[geometrical optics]] * [[polarization]] * [[Doppler effect]] ===4. [[Thermodynamics]] and [[statistical mechanics]] (10%)=== * [[thermodynamics|laws of thermodynamics]] * [[thermodynamic processe]]s * [[equations of state]] * [[ideal gas]]es * [[kinetic theory]] * [[Quantum Ensemble|ensembles]] * [[statistical concepts and calculation of thermodynamic quantities]] * [[thermal expansion and heat transfer]] ===5. [[Quantum mechanics]] (12%)=== * [[fundamental concepts]] * solutions of the [[Schrödinger wave equation]] ** [[square well]]s ([[Particle in a box]]) ** [[harmonic oscillators]] ** [[hydrogenic atoms]] * [[spin (physics)|spin]] * [[angular momentum]] * [[wave function symmetry]] * [[elementary perturbation theory]] ===6. [[Atomic physics]] (10%)=== * [[properties of electron]]s * [[Bohr model]] * [[energy quantization]] * [[atomic structure]] * [[atomic spectra]] * [[selection rules]] * [[black-body radiation]] * [[x-rays]] * [[atoms in electric and magnetic fields]] ===7. [[Special relativity]] (6%)=== * [[introductory concepts of special relativity]] * [[time dilation]] * [[length contraction]] * [[simultaneity]] * [[Special relativity/energy and momentum|energy and momentum]] * [[four-vectors and Lorentz transformation]] * [[Special relativity/velocity addition|velocity addition]] ===8. Laboratory methods (6%)=== * [[data and error analysis]] * [[electronics]] * [[instrumentation]] * [[radiation detection]] * [[counting statistics]] * [[interaction of charged particles with matter]] * [[lasers and optical interferometers]] * [[dimensional analysis]] * [[fundamental applications of probability and statistics]] ===9. Specialized topics=== * '''[[Nuclear physics|nuclear]] and [[particle physics]]''' ** [[nuclear properties]] ** [[radioactive decay]] ** [[nuclear fission|fission]] and [[nuclear fusion|fusion]] ** [[reaction]]s ** [[Elementary particle|fundamental properties of elementary particles]] * '''[[condensed matter]]''' ** [[crystal structure]] ** [[x-ray diffraction]] ** [[thermal properties]] ** [[electron theory of metals]] ** [[semiconductor]]s ** [[superconductivity|superconductors]] * '''Miscellaneous''' ** [[astrophysics]] ** [[mathematical method]]s ** [[Application software|computer applications]] Also: Mathematical methods and their applications in physics * [[Calculus|single and multivariate calculus]] * [[coordinate system]]s (rectangular, cylindrical, spherical) * [[vector algebra]] and [[Vector calculus|vector differential operator]]s * [[Fourier series]] * [[partial differential equation]]s * [[boundary value problem]]s * [[Matrix (mathematics)|matrices and determinants]] * [[Complex analysis|functions of complex variables]] &lt;table&gt; &lt;tr&gt;&lt;th&gt;Range of [[Raw score|Raw Scores]] Needed to Earn Selected Scaled Scores on Three Physics Test Editions That Differ in Difficulty&lt;/th&gt;&lt;/tr&gt; &lt;/table&gt; &lt;table border=1 style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;tr&gt; &lt;td valign=&quot;bottom&quot; rowspan=&quot;2&quot;&gt;Scaled Score&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td colspan=3&gt;Raw Scores&lt;/td&gt; &lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt; &lt;td&gt;Form A&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Form B&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Form C&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;900&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;75 &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;71 &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;60-61 &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;800&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;61 &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;57 &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;45 &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;700&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;47 &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;43-44 &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;33 &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;600&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;33-34 &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;29-30 &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;22 &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt;&lt;td colspan=4&gt;Number of Questions Used to Compute Raw Score&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;100 &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;100 &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;98 &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt; &lt;/table&gt; ==External links== * [http://www.gre.org/subdesc.html#physics Official Description of the GRE Physics Test] * [http://www.testmagic.com/forums/forumdisplay.php?f=82 GRE Physics Forum] - Bulletin board to communicate with other GRE Physics Test takers * [http://www.physics.brandeis.edu/GRE%20physics/GRE.html Publicly released tests and answers] * [http://grephysics.net/ Detailed Solutions to all ETS released tests] - The Missing Solutions Manual, free online, and User Comments and discussions on individual problems [[Category:Standardized tests]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Gardnerian Wicca</title> <id>12697</id> <revision> <id>37341069</id> <timestamp>2006-01-30T10:04:04Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Rickyrab</username> <id>3825</id> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">{{not verified}} '''Gardnerian Wicca''' is a tradition of the '''[[Neopaganism|Neopagan]]''' religion of '''[[Wicca]]'''. Gardnerian Wicca is named after [[Gerald Gardner]] (1884-1964), a British civil servant who studied magic, among other topics. He knew and worked with many famous occultists, not the least of which was [[Aleister Crowley]] (1875-1947). After his retirement Gardner moved to Christchurch near the New Forest on the south coast of England, where he says he met a group of people who had preserved certain traditional practices. As an amateur folklorist, Gardner was fascinated, and set about reinventing what he described as an ancient, ancestral religion whose remnants he had come upon. He apparently had little ritual material to work with and had to create a good deal of it himself. He seems not to have been confident writing original poetry, and instead borrowed and wove together appropriate material from other artists and occultists, most notably [[Aleister Crowley]], [[Charles Godfrey Leland]]'s ''[[Aradia, or the Gospel of the Witches]]'', the [[Key of Solomon]] as published by [[Samuel Liddell MacGregor Mathers|S.L. MacGregor Mathers]], [[Masonic|Freemasonry]] ritual, and [[Rudyard Kipling]], Queen Victoria's Poet Laureate. Gardner's High Priestess, [[Doreen Valiente]] (1922-1999) wrote much of the most well-known poetry, including the much-quoted [[Charge of the Goddess]]. The core group grew slowly and in utter secrecy as Witchcraft was illegal in Britain at the time. When the Witchcraft Laws were replaced, in 1951, by the Fraudulent Mediums Act, Gerald Gardner went public, initially somewhat cautiously, but during the late 1950's and early 1960's (up until his death in 1964) even courting the attentions of the tabloid press, to the consternation of some of the other members of the tradition. Nevertheless, the increased publicity seems to have allowed Gardnerian Wicca to grow much more rapidly. The oldest known Gardnerian Wicca coven is the North London coven, which originally met in the Witch's Cottage near the Five Acres naturist club in Bricket's Wood near London; it has operated continuously for over 50 years, since shortly after the end of the Second World War, and has included many leading lights of Gardnerian Wicca including [[Gerald Gardner]], [[Doreen Valiente]], [[Lois Bourne]], and [[Jack Bracelin]]. Some American neopagans regard Gardnerian Wicca as a &quot;fundamentalist&quot; path, in that, at least as often practiced in America, it demands fairly strict adherence to the procedures and principles laid down by Gardner, as well as stringent requirements for [[initiation]]. As practiced in England, on the other hand, Gardnerian Wicca is often regarded as a mainstream Wiccan tradition, albeit an old-school one, and as less formal than [[Alexandrian Wicca]]. The most well known Covens of the original Gardnerian lineage are: New Forest, Bricket Wood, Rainbow wood, Isle of Man, Oak Tree, Sparrow, Isis Urania and Druid Oak. [[Category:Wiccan traditions]] {{Paganism-stub}}</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>G-d</title> <id>12698</id> <revision> <id>15910366</id> <timestamp>2005-01-11T01:39:27Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Mikkalai</username> <id>28438</id> </contributor> <minor /> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Names of God in Judaism]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>GMT</title> <id>12700</id> <revision> <id>15910368</id> <timestamp>2004-08-22T01:09:52Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Minesweeper</username> <id>7279</id> </contributor> <comment>most common usage prevails</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Greenwich_Mean_Time
[[Bosnia and Herzegovina]] [[Category:Geography of Bosnia and Herzegovina|*]] {{CIA WFB 2005}} [[es:Geografía de Bosnia-Herzegovina]] [[pt:Geografia da Bósnia-Herzegovina]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Demographics of Bosnia and Herzegovina</title> <id>3605</id> <revision> <id>38996485</id> <timestamp>2006-02-10T00:45:47Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>AJR</username> <id>239201</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>/* Languages */ restore Bosnian and link</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">==Demographic data from the CIA World Factbook== ===Population=== :4,025,476 (July 2005 est.) ===Age structure=== :0-14 years: 18.3% (male 378,784/female 358,784) :15-64 years: 70.7% (male 1,458,405/female 1,388,793) :65 years and over: 10.9% (male 188,741/female 251,969) (2005 est.) ===Median age=== :Total: 36.21 years :Male: 35.81 years :Female: 36.63 years (2005 est.) ===Population growth rate=== :0.44% (2005 est.) ===Birth rate=== :14.49 births/1,000 population (2005 est.) ===Death rate=== :8.44 deaths/1,000 population (2005 est.) ===Net migration rate=== :0.3 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2005 est.) ===Sex ratio=== :At birth: 1.07 :65 years and over: 0.75 male(s)/female :Total population: 1.01 male(s)/female (2005 est.) ===Infant mortality rate=== :Total: 21.05 deaths/1,000 live births :Male: 23.62 deaths/1,000 live births :Female: 18.31 deaths/1,000 live births (2005 est.) ===Life expectancy at birth=== :Total population: 72.85 years :Male: 70.09 years :Female: 75.8 years (2005 est.) ===Total fertility rate=== :1.71 children born/woman (2005 est.) ===HIV/AIDS=== :Adult prevalence rate: less than 0.1% (2001 est.) :People living with HIV/AIDS: 900 (2003 est.) :Deaths: 100 (2001 est.) ===Nationality=== :Noun: Bosnian(s), Herzegovinian(s) :Adjective: Bosnian, Herzegovinian ===Ethnic groups=== :Serb 37.1%, Bosniak 48%, Croat 14.3%, other 0.6% (2000) ''Note'': Bosniak has replaced Muslim as an ethnic term in part to avoid confusion with the religious term Muslim - an adherent of Islam ===Religions=== :Islam 40%, Orthodox 31%, Roman Catholic 15%, other 14% ===Languages=== :[[Bosnian language|Bosnian]] (status disputed), [[Croatian language|Croatian]], [[Serbian language|Serbian]] ===Literacy=== :Definition: age 15 and over can read and write :Total population: 94.6% :Male: 98.4% :Female: 91.1% (2000 est.) ==See also== * [[Bosnia and Herzegovina]] * [[Nations of Bosnia and Herzegovina]] ==References== {{CIA WFB 2005}} ==External links== *[http://www.fzs.ba/Eng/lsmse.htm Living standard measurement survey 2001] [[Category:Demographics by country|Bosnia]] [[Category:Geography of Bosnia and Herzegovina]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Politics of Bosnia and Herzegovina</title> <id>3606</id> <revision> <id>41757579</id> <timestamp>2006-03-01T15:02:22Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>193.0.117.249</ip> </contributor> <comment>/* External links */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Politics of Bosnia and Herzegovina}} '''Politics of Bosnia and Herzegovina''' takes place in a framework of a [[federation|federal]] [[parliamentary system|parliamentary]] [[representative democracy|representative democratic]] [[republic]], whereby the [[Council of Ministers of Bosnia and Herzegovina]] is the [[head of government]], and of a pluriform multi-party system. [[Executive power]] is exercised by the government. Federal [[legislative power]] is vested in both the [[government]] and parliament. The [[Judiciary]] is independent of the executive and the legislature. Bosnia and Herzegovina is divided into two ''Entities'' - the [[Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina]] and the [[Republika Srpska]], as well as the district of [[Brčko]]. Each of the Entities has its own constitution. :''See [[Political divisions of Bosnia and Herzegovina]]'' ==Dayton Agreement== Due to the [[Dayton Agreement]], signed [[14 December]] [[1995]], Bosnia and Herzogovina forms an international protectorate, with decisive power given to the [[High Representative for Bosnia and Herzegovina]]. It retained Bosnia's exterior border and created a joint multi-ethnic and democratic government. This national government - based on proportional representation similar to that which existed in the former socialist regime - is charged with conducting foreign, economic, and fiscal policy. The Dayton Agreement established the Office of the [[High Representative for Bosnia and Herzegovina|High Representative]] (OHR) to oversee the implementation of the civilian aspects of the agreement. About 250 international and 450 local staff members are employed by the OHR. == Executive branch == The [[Presidency of Bosnia and Herzegovina]] rotates among three members (Bosniak, Serb, Croat), each elected for a 4-year term. The three members of the Presidency are elected directly by the people (Federation votes for the Bosniak/Croat, RS for the Serb). The Presidency is the [[head of state]] institution and it is mainly responsible for the [[foreign policy]] and proposing the [[budget]]. The Chairman of the [[Council of Ministers of Bosnia and Herzegovina]] is nominated by the Presidency and approved by the House of Representatives. He is then responsible for appointing a Foreign Minister, Minister of Foreign Trade, and others as appropriate. The Council is responsible for carrying out various policies and decisions in the fields of diplomacy, economy, inter-Entity relations and other matters as agreed by the Entities. Each of the Entities has its own Council of Ministers, which deal with internal matters not dealt with by the state Council. === Principal Government Officials === {{office-table}} |[[High Representative for Bosnia and Herzegovina|High Representative]] |[[Christian Schwarz-Schilling]] | |[[31 January]] 2006 |- |rowspan=3|Members of the [[Presidency of Bosnia and Herzegovina|Presidency]] |[[Ivo Miro Jović]] (Croat) |[[Croatian Democratic Union of Bosnia and Herzegovina|HDZ]] |[[9 May]] 2005 |- |[[Sulejman Tihić]] (Bosniak) |[[Party of Democratic Action|SDA]] |[[5 October]] 2002 |- |[[Borislav Paravac]] (Serb) | |[[11 April]] 2003 |- |President of the [[Council of Ministers of Bosnia and Herzegovina|Council of Ministers]] |[[Adnan Terzić]] (Bosniak) |[[Party of Democratic Action|SDA]] |[[2002]] |- |President of the [[Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina]] |[[Niko Lozančić]] (Croat) |[[Croatian Democratic Union of Bosnia and Herzegovina|HDZ]] |[[27 January]] 2003 |- |rowspan=2|Vice-presidents |[[Sahbaz Džihanović]] (Bosniak) |[[Party of Democratic Action|SDA]] | |- |[[Desnica Radivojević]] (Serb) |[[Party of Democratic Action|SDA]] | |- |Prime minister of the [[Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina]] |[[Ahmet Hadžipašić]] |[[Party of Democratic Action|SDA]] |[[14 February]] 2003 |- |President of the [[Republika Srpska]] |[[Dragan Čavić]] | |[[28 November]] 2002 |- |Prime minister of the Republic Srpska |[[Pero Bukejlović]] | |[[10 January]] 2005 |- |International supervisor of [[Brčko]] |[[Susan R. Johnson]] | | |- |Mayor of [[Brčko]] |[[Branko Damjanac]] | | |} === History === Past international [[High Representative for Bosnia and Herzegovina|high representative]]s: [[Carl Bildt]], [[Carlos Westendorp]], [[Wolfgang Petritsch]]. Members of the Presidency who stepped down under pressure from the Office of the High Representative: [[Mirko Šarović]] and [[Ante Jelavić]]. In February 2000, the Supreme Court ruled that the structure of the Council of Ministers was unconstitutional; a new structure was being negotiated. Federation president and vice-president in 1999: [[Ejup Ganić]] and [[Ivo Andrić-Lužanski]] Past RS presidents at the [[ICTY]]: [[Momčilo Krajišnik]], [[Radovan Karadžić]], [[Biljana Plavšić]]. RS president [[Nikola Poplašen]] was removed by the OHR on [[5 March]] [[1999]]. [[Mirko Šarović]]'s first mandate in 2000 was not recognized by the OHR. Past members of government: * Federation minister [[Hasan Čengić]] == Legislative branch == The Parliamentary Assembly or ''Skupština'' is the lawmaking body in Bosnia and Herzegovina. It [[bicameralism|consists of two houses]]: * the House of Peoples or ''Vijeće Naroda'' * the [[House of Representatives of Bosnia and Herzegovina|National House of Representatives]] or ''Vijeće Općina'' The Parliamentary Assembly is responsible for: * enacting legislation as necessary to implement decisions of the Presidency or to carry out the responsibilities of the Assembly under the Constitution * deciding upon the sources and amounts of revenues for the operations of the institutions of Bosnia and Herzegovina and international obligations of Bosnia and Herzegovina * approving a budget for the institutions of Bosnia and Herzegovina * deciding whether to consent to the ratification of treaties * other matters as are necessary to carry out its duties of as are assigned to it by mutual agreement of the Entities. Bosnia and Herzegovina did not have a permanent election law until 2001, during which time a draft law specified four-year terms for the state and first-order administrative division entity legislatures. The final election law was passed and published on [[September 9]], [[2001]]. === House of Peoples === The House of Peoples includes 15 delegates who serve two-year terms. Two-thirds of them come from the Federation (5 Croats and 5 Bosniaks) and one-third from the RS (5 Serbs). Nine members of the House of Peoples constitutes a quorum, provided that at least three delegates from each group are present. Federation representatives are selected by the House of Peoples of the Federation, which has 58 seats (17 Bosniak, 17 Croat, 17 Serb, 7 others) and whose members are delegated by cantonal assemblies to serve 4-year terms. RS representatives are selected by the 28-member Republika Srpska Council of Peoples which was established in the
oup|Lie groups]]. For general nonabelian locally compact groups, harmonic analysis is closely related to the theory of unitary group representations. For compact groups, the [[Peter-Weyl theorem]] explains how one may get harmonics by choosing one irreducible representation out of each equivalence class of representations. This choice of harmonics enjoys some of the useful properties of the classical Fourier transform in terms of carrying convolutions to pointwise products, or otherwise showing a certain understanding of the underlying group structure. If the group is neither abelian nor compact, no general satisfactory theory is currently known. By &quot;satisfactory&quot; one would mean ''at least'' the equivalent of [[Plancherel theorem]]. However, many specific cases have been analyzed, for example [[General linear group|SL&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt;]]. In this case, it turns out that [[Group representation|representations]] in infinite dimension play a crucial role. ==Other branches== *Study of the [[eigenvalue]]s and [[eigenvector]]s of the [[Laplacian]] on [[domain]]s, [[manifold]]s and (to a lesser extent), [[graph]]s, is also considered a branch of harmonic analysis. See e.g., [[hearing the shape of a drum]]. * Harmonic analysis on Euclidean spaces deals with properties of the Fourier transform on '''R'''&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt; which have no analog on general groups. For example, the fact that the Fourier transform is invariant to rotations. Decomposing the Fourier transform to its radial and spherical components leads to topics such as [[Bessel function]]s and [[spherical harmonic]]s. See the book reference. * Harmonic analysis on tube domains is concerned with generalizing properties of [[Hardy space]]s to higher dimensions. ==References== Elias M. Stein and Guido Weiss, ''Introduction to Fourier Analysis on Euclidean Spaces'', Princeton University Press, 1971. ISBN 069108078X Yitzhak Katznelson, ''An introduction to harmonic analysis'', Third edition. Cambridge University Press, 2004. ISBN 0-521-83829-0; 0-521-54359-2 [[Category:Mathematical analysis]] [[Category:Harmonic analysis|*]] [[de:Fourieranalyse]] [[es:Análisis armónico]] [[eo:Fourier-a analizo]] [[fr:Analyse harmonique (mathématique)]] [[it:Analisi di Fourier]] [[nl:Fourieranalyse]] [[pl:Analiza harmoniczna]] [[pt:Análise harmónica]] [[tr:Fourier analizi]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Home run</title> <id>14148</id> <revision> <id>42137692</id> <timestamp>2006-03-04T01:49:02Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>12.99.127.169</ip> </contributor> <comment>/* Types of home runs */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}} In [[baseball]], a '''home run''' is a [[hit (baseball)|base hit]] in which the [[batting (baseball)|batter]] is able to circle all the bases, ending at home plate and scoring a [[run (baseball)|run]] himself (along with a run scored by each [[baserunning|runner]] who was already on base), with no [[error (baseball)|errors]] by the defensive team on the play which result in the batter advancing for extra bases. Home runs are among the most popular aspects of baseball, and the biggest (and best-paid) stars are often the players who hit the most of them. It was once said that &quot;[[single (baseball)|Singles]] hitters drive [[Ford Motor Company|Fords]], and home run hitters drive [[Cadillac]]s.&quot; There is also a legend that [[Babe Ruth]] was asked by a reporter about the fact that his salary was higher than that of President [[Herbert Hoover]]; Ruth's response was, &quot;How many home runs did ''he'' hit last year?&quot; (It is worth noting that Ruth had been an official endorser of [[Al Smith]] for President in [[U.S. presidential election, 1928|1928]], according to Marshall Smelser's ''The Life That Ruth Built''.) {| align=right | &lt;!-- Unsourced image removed: [[Image:Ruthbatting.jpg|thumb|[[Babe Ruth]]]] --&gt; |- | [[Image:Mark mcgwire.jpg|thumb|[[Mark McGwire]]]] |- | [[Image:Beiserebatedor.jpg|thumb|[[Barry Bonds]]&lt;br/&gt;&lt;small&gt;Photo:Agência Brasil]] |} ==Types of home runs== In addition to the general term &quot;home run,&quot; certain plays in baseball have been given names to denote which they are a special type of home run. These home runs are generally considered to be special because of their rarity, but also because of the kind of excitement, specific to the game situation, that they can create. ===Inside-the-park home run=== In almost all cases nowadays, a home run involves hitting the ball over the [[outfield]] fence in [[fair ball|fair territory]]. Very rarely, a batter can hit the ball in play and circle all the bases before the fielders can throw him out; this is called an '''[[inside-the-park home run]]''', and typically requires that the batter be a quick runner, and that either the fielder misplay the ball in some way or that the ball is made difficult to play by caroming in unexpected ways, or by becoming difficult for a fielder to reach due to structural variances and peculiarities of different ballparks. If the misplay is labeled an error by the official scorer, however, the batter is not credited with a home run. ===Grand slam=== A '''[[grand slam (baseball)|grand slam]]''' home run occurs when the bases are &quot;loaded&quot; (that is, there are base runners standing at first, second, and third base) and the batter hits a home run. An '''inside-the-park grand slam''' is a grand slam without the ball leaving the field, and it is very rare. The last major league inside-the-park grand slam was hit by [[Randy Winn]] of the [[Tampa Bay Devil Rays]] on [[October 3]], [[1999 in baseball|1999]]. ===Walk-off home run=== A '''[[walk-off home run]]''' is a term coined by famous relief pitcher [[Dennis Eckersley]] to signify a home run that immediately ends the game, so named because after the run is scored, the players can &quot;walk off&quot; the field. In order for this to happen, a member of the home team must hit a home run in the bottom of the last inning to either come from behind or break a tie. ===Hitting for the cycle=== A batter '''[[hitting for the cycle|hits for the cycle]]''' when he collects a single, [[double (baseball)|double]], [[triple (baseball)|triple]] and home run in the same game. As home runs usually demonstrate batting power and triples indicate speed, hitting for the cycle is highly regarded for the way it indicates a player's varied abilities. Collecting the hits in the order above is called a &quot;natural cycle.&quot; ==History of the home run== In the [[History of baseball in the United States|early days of the game]], when the ball was less lively and the ballparks generally had very large outfields, most home runs were of the inside-the-park variety. The &quot;home&quot; run was literally descriptive. Home runs over the fence were rare, and only in ballparks where a fence was fairly close. The home run's place in baseball changed dramatically when the [[Live Ball Era|lively ball]] was introduced after [[World War I]]. Batters such as [[Babe Ruth]] and [[Rogers Hornsby]] took full advantage of it during the 1920s, especially as the game's popularity boomed and more outfield seating was built, shrinking the size of the outfield. The teams with the sluggers, especially the [[New York Yankees]], became the championship teams, and other teams had to change their focus from the &quot;inside game&quot; to the &quot;power game&quot; in order to keep up. Prior to 1931, a ball that bounced over an outfield fence during a major league game was considered a home run. The rule was changed to require the ball to clear the fence on the fly, and balls which reached the seats on a bounce became ground-rule doubles in most parks. Also, until around that time, the ball had to not only go over the fence fair, but to land in the bleachers fair. The rule stipulated &quot;when last seen&quot; by the [[umpire (baseball)|umpires]]. Photos from that era in ballparks such as the [[Polo Grounds]] show ropes strung from the foul poles to the back of the bleachers, in a straight line with the foul line, as a visual aid for the umpires. Babe Ruth's 60th home run in [[1927 in baseball|1927]] was somewhat controversial, because it landed just fair in the stands down the right field line. Further, the rules once stipulated that an over-the-fence home run in a sudden-victory situation would only count for as many bases as was necessary to &quot;force&quot; the winning run home. For example, if a team trailed by 2 runs with the bases loaded, and the batter hit a fair ball over the fence, it only counted as a triple, because the runner immediately ahead of him had technically already scored the game-winning run. That rule was changed in the 1920s as home runs became increasingly frequent and popular. Babe Ruth's career total of 714 would have been one higher had that rule not been in effect in the early part of his career. The all-time career record for home runs in a professional career is held by Japan's [[Sadaharu Oh]] with 868. In Major League Baseball, the record is 755, held by [[Hank Aaron]] since [[1974 in baseball|1974]]. Only three other major league players have hit as many as 600: Babe Ruth (714), [[Barry Bonds]] (708 as of September 2005), and [[Willie Mays]] (660). The single season record is 73, set by Barry Bonds in [[2001 in sports|2001]]. [[Negro league baseball|Negro League]] slugger [[Josh Gibson]] may have hit even more home runs than Oh, but official records from the Negro Leagues are sketchy at best and in some cases nonexistent. The ''Guinness Book of World Records'' lists Gibson's lifetime home run total at 800. Other legendary home run hitters include [[Ted Williams]], [[Mark McGwire]], [[Sammy Sosa]], [[Mickey Mantle]] (who hit what is considered the longest home run ever at an estimated distance of 643 feet on [[September 10]], [[1960 in baseball|1960]]), [
nd types of fish due to changing conditions provide challenges for fishing industries. Peruvian [[sardine]]s have moved during El Niño events to [[Chile]]an areas. Other conditions provide further complications, such as the government of Chile in 1991 creating restrictions on the fishing areas for artisanal fishermen and industrial fleets. The ENSO variability may contribute to the great success of small fast-growing species along the Peruvian coast, as periods of low population removes predators in the area. Similar effects benefit [[migratory]] birds which travel each spring from predator-rich tropical areas to distant winter-stressed nesting areas. It has been postulated that a strong El Niño led to the demise of the [[Moche]] and other pre-Columbian [[Cultural periods of Peru|Peruvian cultures]]. == ENSO and global warming == A few years ago, attribution of recent changes (if any) in ENSO or predictions of future changes were very weak [http://www.grida.no/climate/ipcc_tar/wg1/361.htm]. More recent results (e.g. Collins et al.) tend to suggest that the projected tropical warming may follow a somewhat El-Nino like spatial pattern, without necessarily altering the variability about this pattern. ==Causes of El Niño== The mechanisms which might cause an El Niño event are still being investigated. It is difficult to find patterns which may show causes or allow forecasts. Major theories: * Bjerknes in 1969 suggested that an anomalously warm spot in the eastern Pacific can weaken the east-west temperature difference, causing weakening in the [[Walker circulation]] and trade wind flows, which push warm water to the west. The result is increasingly warm water toward the east. * Wyrtki in 1975 proposed that increased trade winds could build up the western bulge of warm water, and any sudden weakening in the winds would allow that warm water to surge eastward. However, there was no such buildup preceding the 1982-83 event. * ''Recharge oscillator:'' Several mechanisms have been proposed where warmth builds up in the equatorial area, then is dispersed to higher latitudes by an El Niño event. The cooler area then has to &quot;recharge&quot; warmth for several years before another event can take place. * ''Western Pacific oscillator:'' In the western Pacific, several weather conditions can cause easterly wind anomalies. For example, a cyclone to the north and anticyclone to the south force easterly winds between. Such patterns may counteract the westward flows across the Pacific and create a tendency toward continuing the eastward motion. A weakening in the westward currents at such a time may be the final trigger. * Equatorial Pacific Ocean may tend to be near El Niño conditions, with several random variations affecting behavior. Weather patterns from outside the area or volcanic events may be some such factors. * The [[Madden-Julian Oscillation]] (MJO) is an important source of variability that can contribute to a more rapid evolution toward El Niño conditions through related fluctuations in low-level winds and precipitation over the western and central equatorial Pacific. Eastward-propagating oceanic [[Kelvin wave]]s can be produced by MJO activity. == Southern Oscillation Index (SOI) == [[Image:Enso-soi.png|thumb|right|SOI index, 1876-2005 on top of ENSO index]] [[Image:Soi-map.png|thumb|left|Correlation of the SOI against mean sea level pressure]] The Southern Oscillation Index (SOI) is calculated from the monthly or seasonal fluctuations in the air pressure difference between [[Tahiti]] and [[Darwin, Northern Territory|Darwin]]. Sustained negative values of the SOI often indicate El Niño episodes. These negative values are usually accompanied by sustained warming of the central and eastern tropical Pacific Ocean, a decrease in the strength of the Pacific [[Trade wind]]s, and a reduction in rainfall over eastern and northern Australia. The most recent strong El Niño was in 1997/98. Positive values of the SOI are associated with stronger Pacific trade winds and warmer sea temperatures to the north of Australia, popularly known as a La Niña episode. Waters in the central and eastern tropical Pacific Ocean become cooler during this time. Together these give an increased probability that eastern and northern Australia will be wetter than normal. The most recent strong La Niña was in 1988/89; a moderate La Niña event occurred in 1998/99, which weakened back to neutral conditions before reforming for a shorter period in 1999/2000. This last event finished in Autumn 2000. === Western Hemisphere Warm Pool === Study of climate records has found that about half of the summers after an El Niño have unusual warming in the '''[[Western Hemisphere Warm Pool]] (WHWP)'''. This affects weather in the area and seems to be related to the [[North Atlantic Oscillation]]. === Atlantic effect === An effect similar to El Niño sometimes takes place in the Atlantic Ocean, where water along equatorial Africa's [[Gulf of Guinea]] becomes warmer and eastern Brazil becomes cooler and drier. This may be related to El Niño Walker circulation changes over South America. == History == The first mention of the term &quot;El Nino&quot; to refer to climate occurs in 1892, when Captain Camilo Carrilo told the Geographical society congress in [[Lima]] that Peruvian sailors named the warm northerly current &quot;El Nino&quot; because it was most noticeable around Christmas. However even before then the phenomenon was of interest because of its effects on biological productivity, with its effects on the [[guano]] industry. Normal conditions along the west Peruvian coast are a cold southerly current (the Peru current) with upwelling water; the upwelling nutrients lead to great oceanic productivity; the cold currents leads to very dry conditions on land. Similar conditions exist elsewhere (California current; Benguela current off south Africa). Thus the replacement of this with warmer northerly water leads to lower biological productivity in the ocean, and more rainfall - often flooding - on land; the connection with flooding was reported in 1895 by Pezet and Eguiguren. Towards the end of the nineteenth century there was much interest in forecasting climate anomalies (for food production) in India and Australia. Charles Todd, in 1893, suggested that droughts in India and Australia tended to occur at the same time; Norman Lockyer noted the same in 1904. In 1924 [[Gilbert Walker]] (after who the [[Walker circulation]] is named) first coined the term &quot;Southern Oscillation&quot;. For most of the twentieth century, El Nino was thought of as a largely local phenomenon. The major 1982-3 El Nino lead to an upsurge of interest from the scientific community. == Related images == &lt;gallery&gt; Image:Mean sst equatorial pacific.gif|Average equatorial Pacific temperatures. Image:El nino north american weather.png|El Niño effects upon North American weather and atmospheric circulation. Image:Enso-index-map.png|Map showing Nino3.4 and other index regions &lt;/gallery&gt; == References == * Collins, M., and The CMIP Modelling Groups, 2005: El Niño- or La Niña-like climate change? Clim. Dyn., 24, 89-104. 19 ==External links== {{commonscat|ENSO}} * [http://www.pmel.noaa.gov/tao/elnino/ The El Nino Theme Page] Explains El Nino and La Nina, provides real time data, forecasts, animations, FAQ, impacts and more. * [http://www.elnino.noaa.gov NOAA El Nino Page] * [http://www.pmel.noaa.gov/tao/elnino/el-nino-story.html The El Nino Story] * [http://www.cpc.ncep.noaa.gov/products/analysis_monitoring/ensostuff/ensoyears.shtml ENSO events 1951 - present] * [http://www.noaanews.noaa.gov/stories2004/s2317.htm NOAA announces 2004 El Niño] *[http://www.limaperunet.com/climate/climateall.html The Climate of Peru] * [http://www.bom.gov.au/lam/glossary/soid.htm Southern Oscillation Index (SOI)] ==Further reading== *César N. Caviedes, 2001. ''El Niño in History : Storming Through the Ages'' ([http://www.upf.com University Press of Florida]) *Brian Fagan , 1999. ''Floods, Famines, and Emperors : El Niño and the Fate of Civilizations'' (Basic Books) *Michael H. Glantz, 2001. ''Currents of change'', ISBN 0 521 78672 X [[Category:Climate change]] [[Category:Tropical meteorology]] [[Category:Physical oceanography]] [[bg:Ел Ниньо]] [[ca:El Niño]] [[cs:El Niño]] [[da:El Niño]] [[de:El Niño]] [[es:El Niño]] [[eo:El Niño]] [[fr:El Niño]] [[gl:El Niño]] [[ko:엔소]] [[it:El Niño]] [[he:אל ניניו]] [[nl:El Niño]] [[ja:エルニーニョ]] [[no:El Niño]] [[pl:El Niño]] [[pt:El Niño]] [[su:El Niño]] [[fi:El Niño]] [[sv:El Niño]] [[zh:厄尔尼诺现象]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>FootBall</title> <id>10532</id> <revision> <id>24815897</id> <timestamp>2005-10-05T15:07:46Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Kbdank71</username> <id>197953</id> </contributor> <comment>fix double redirect</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Football]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>FidDle</title> <id>10533</id> <revision> <id>15908338</id> <timestamp>2004-08-06T18:40:22Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Timwi</username> <id>13051</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>fix double-redirect</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Violin]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>FiddleandViolin</title> <id>10534</id> <revision> <id>15908339</id> <timestamp>2004-08-06T18:40:53Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Timwi</username> <id>13051</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>fix double-redirect</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Violin]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>FiddleStyles</title> <id>10535</id> <revision> <id>15908340</id> <timestamp>2004-08-06T18:41:27Z</timestamp>
nth to one year imprisonment or a fine of from 20,000 to 500,000 francs (approximately US$32 to 800). * '''[[Uganda]]''': There is no law against the practice of FGC in Uganda. In [[1996]], however, a court intervened to prevent the performance of this procedure under Section 8 of the Children Statute, enacted that year, that makes it unlawful to subject a child to social or customary practices that are harmful to the child's health. ==Ending forms of female genital cutting== Despite laws forbidding the practice, FGC has proven to be an enduring tradition difficult to overcome on the local level with deeply held cultural and sometimes political significance. For instance, prohibition of the procedure among tribes in [[Kenya]] significantly strengthened resistance to British colonial rule in the 1950s and increased support for the [[Mau Mau]] guerilla movement. During that period, the practice became even more common, as it was seen as a form of resistance towards colonial rule. The difficulty lies significantly in the fact that the practice, as an identifying feature of indigenous culture, is intimately associated with the endogamous potential of young women. Thus for only one or a few families within a given locale to &quot;deprive&quot; their daughters of the operation is to significantly disadvantage them in finding husbands. This damages the survivability of their culture in a hostile &quot;globalizing&quot; social environment. Because the practice holds such cultural and marital significance, anti-&quot;circumcision&quot; activists increasingly recognize that to end the practice it is necessary to work closely with local communities. What must happen, some have noted, is that marriage networks must give up the practice simultaneously so no individuals are handicapped, as happened, for example, under similar circumstances with the rapid abandonment of [[foot binding]] among the Chinese early in the 20th century. Often activists working for the practice's elimination offer a universalizing psychological rational. Working from an axiom of a &quot;normal&quot; psyche, they commonly assume that female genital cutting rituals represent deviance from a transcultural behavioral norm. Of course, these rituals are seen in these cases as violent disfigurment, likened to child abuse and rape. They seek to bring practitioners and &quot;victims&quot; of such &quot;barbarism&quot; to reason by convincing them that the practice was indeed a wrong-doing. This attitude is an echo of the colonial and missionary campaigns against the practice in the first half of the 20th century. An example of successful efforts to end the practice is occurring in Senegal, initiated by native women working at the local level in connection with the [http://www.tostan.org Tostan Project.] Since 1997, 1,271 villages (600,000 people), some 12% of the practicing population in Senegal, have voluntarily given up FGC (female genital cutting) and are also working to end early and forced marriage. This has come about through the voluntary efforts of locals carrying the message out to other villages within their marriage networks in a self-replicating process. By 2003, 563 villages had participated in public declarations, and the number continues to rise. By then, at least 23 villages in Burkina Faso had also held such community wide ceremonies, marking &quot;the first public declaration to end FGC outside of Senegal and showing the replicability of the Tostan program for large-scale abandonment of this practice&quot;. Molly Melching of TOSTAN believes that in Senegal the practice of female genital mutilation could be ended within 2-5 years. She credits the approach of education versus cultural imperialism for the rapid and significant changes which have occurred in Senegal. The approach going into Senegal was one of non judgment which allowed the men and women of Senegal to question their own traditions and make change as opposed to being put in a position where they would have felt the need to defend their traditions against the criticisms of others. This indigenous movement began with a few women who had participated in a literacy program that taught women skills in research, project management and social advocacy. The program also included neutrally presented facts about female reproduction and the health effects of female circumcision (see Obermeyer above for counter-point to presumed &quot;neutrality&quot;). Students did group projects as the culmination of their 18-month training and one such group chose the topic of FGC for their project. Having received assurance from their local imam during their research that the practice was a custom and not a religious requirement, they went on to create dramatic reenactments of the suffering and deaths the practice had brought to their own lives and to share them throughout their village. At the end of a year, their entire village of some 15,000 people joined in a public ceremony to collectively reject the practice for their daughters and prospective daughters-in-law. From there, the imam and other leaders in their village began visiting other villages within the local marriage network and sharing their story. As a result, the new practice began to spread. ==Female genital cutting in popular culture== The subject of FGC has been addressed by many prominent [[author]]s, [[singer]]s and [[actor|performers]] across the world. Some examples: * ''[[Possessing the Secret of Joy]]'', a novel by [[Alice Walker]] * ''[[Desert Flower]]'', a novel by [[Waris Dirie]] * ''[[The Years of Rice and Salt]]'', a novel by [[Kim Stanley Robinson]] (Book Nine features extracts from fictional articles protesting female circumcision) * &quot;[[Cornflake Girl]]&quot;, a song by [[Tori Amos]] * [[Rüdiger Nehberg]] * ''[[Moolaadé]]'', a film by [[Ousmane Sembène]] * ''The Whole Woman'', a book by [[Germaine Greer]] * &quot;No Laughter Here,&quot; a novel by Rita Williams-Garcia * &quot;The Excised,&quot; a book by Evelyn Accad * &quot;Cut&quot;[http://www.asimovs.com/Nebulas03/cut.shtml], a Short Story by [[Megan Lindholm]] *In an episode of the television crime drama [[Law &amp; Order]], in order to protect his daughter from female circumcision, a man kills the doctor who was hired to perform the procedure Also, a [[Documentary film|documentary]] entitled &quot;[[Warrior Marks]]&quot; has been done on the practice by [[Alice Walker]], the author of ''[[The Color Purple]]''. Walker subsequently wrote a book of the same name, which is about her travels and experiences while making the documentary. ==References== * Boyle, Elizabeth H. ''Female Genital Cutting: Cultural Conflict in the Global Community''Baltimore : Johns Hopkins University Press, 2002 * Gruenbaum, Ellen. ''The Female Circumcision Controversy''Philadelphia : University of Pennsylvania Press, c2001 * Hoffman, Barbara. ''Womanhood and Circumcision: Three Maasai Women Have Their Say'' Berkeley: Berkeley Media, 2002. ([http://www.berkeleymedia.com/catalog/berkeleymedia/films/anthropology_world_cultures/african_studies/womanhood_and_circumcision_three_maasai_women_have_their_say]) * Pieters G, Lowenfels AB. &quot;Infibulation in the horn of Africa,&quot; ''N Y State J Med'' 1977;77(5):729-31. *&lt;i&gt;Female “Circumcision” in Africa: Culture, Controversy, and Change.&lt;/i&gt; Eds. Shell-Duncan and Hernlund. Lynne Rienner Publishers: Boulder, 2000. *Obermeyer, Carla Makhlouf. The Health Consequences of Female Circumcision: Science, Advocacy, and Standards of Evidence. &lt;i&gt;Medical Anthropology Quarterly&lt;/i&gt; 17(3), 2003. 394-412. * Consultation on the elimination of Female Genital Mutilation: [[14 December]] -[[16 December]] [[1998]]. UNICEF, NY,1999, 40p. *Female Genital Mutilation: Report of who Technical Working group. Geneva, 17-19, July 1995 ==See also== * [[Labiaplasty]] - a recent cosmetic and voluntary phenomenon. ==Further reading== *[http://www.amnesty.org/ailib/intcam/femgen/fgm1.htm Female Genital Mutilation - A Human Rights Information Pack] by ''Amnesty International'' *[http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs241/en/index.html Female Genital Mutilation from the World Health Organization] *[http://www.fgmnetwork.org/ The Female Genital Cutting Education and Networking Project] * [http://www.state.gov/g/wi/rls/rep/9276.htm U.S. State Department estimates of prevalence of FGC in Africa] * [http://www.afrol.com/Categories/Women/FGM/netscapeindex.htm Map:Prevalence of Female Genital Mutilation in Africa] *[http://www.religioustolerance.org/fem_cirm.htm Article from ReligiousTolerance.org decrying FGC] *[http://www.target-human-rights.com/ A Human Rights Organisation called &quot;Target&quot;, founded by Rüdiger Nehberg in 1998] *[http://www.geocities.com/hoodectomy/MedicalStudies.htm Medical Studies on Clitoral Hood Removal] *''Beyond the Veil: Male-Female Dynamics in a Modern Muslim Society'' (ISBN 0470596139) *[http://www.lockmeup.com/cb/facts/pinkerton-infibulation.html Infibulation Explained] *[http://www.tostan.org Tostan Project] *[http://www.cirp.org/pages/female/pieters1 Infibulation in the Horn of Africa] *[http://www.npwj.org/modules.php?op=modload&amp;name=Sections&amp;file=index&amp;req=listarticles&amp;secid=11 STOP!FGM worldwide campaign of No Peace Without Justice] *Daw, E.: &quot;Female circumcision and infibulation complicating delivery,&quot; ''Practitioner'', 204:559 (1970). *Dewhurst, C.J., and Michealson, A. ''British Medical Journal'', 2:1442 (1964) *Mustafa, A.Z. &quot;Female circumcision and infibulation in the Sudan&quot;, ''Journal of Obstetrics &amp; Gynaecology''. Brit. Comm., v73:302 (1966). *Leonard, Lori. &quot;We did it for pleasure only,&quot; ''Qualitative Inquiry'', 6:2, 212-228 ([[2 November]] [[2000]]). [[Category:Feminism]] [[Category:Human rights]] [[Category:Circumcision]] [[da:Kvindelig omskæring]] [[de:Weibliche Genitalverstümmelung]] [[es:Ablación (sexual)]] [[fr:Mutilati
settlement. Diplomatic autonomy soon followed, with the U.S.-Canadian Halibut Fisheries Agreement (March [[1923]]) marking the first international treaty negotiated and concluded entirely independently by a dominion. The Dominions section of the [[Colonial Office]] was upgraded in June [[1926]] to a separate Dominions Office. However, initially the same person was appointed as the [[Secretary of State for the Colonies]]. The principle of dominion equality with Britain and independence in foreign relations was formally recognized by the [[Balfour Declaration 1926|Balfour Declaration]] adopted at the [[Imperial Conferences|Imperial Conference]] of November [[1926]]. Canada's first permanent diplomatic mission to a foreign country opened in [[Washington, DC]] in [[1927]]. In [[1928]] Canada obtained the appointment of a British [[high commissioner]] in Ottawa, separating the administrative and diplomatic functions of the governor-general and ending the latter's anomalous role as the representative of the British government in relations between the two countries. The Dominions Office was given a separate secretary of state in June [[1930]], though this was entirely for domestic political reasons given the need to relieve the burden on one ill minister whilst moving another away from unemployment policy. The Balfour Declaration was enshrined in the [[Statute of Westminster 1931]] when it was adopted by the British Parliament and subsequently ratified by the Dominion legislatures. Britain's declaration of hostilities against Germany in September [[1939]] tested the issue. Most took the view that the declaration did not commit the Dominions. Ireland chose to remain neutral. At the other extreme, the conservative Australian government of the day, led by [[Robert Menzies]], took the view that it was legally bound by the UK declaration of war &amp;mdash; which had also been the view at the outbreak of World War I &amp;mdash; although this was contentious within Australia. Between these two extremes, New Zealand declared that as Britain was or would be at war, so it was too. Canada issued its own declaration of war after a recall of Parliament, as did South Africa after a delay of several weeks. Ireland, which had negotiated the removal of British forces from its territory the year before, chose to remain neutral throughout the war. There were soon signs of growing independence from the other Dominions: Australia opened a diplomatic mission in the US in 1940 and Canada's mission in Washington gained [[Embassy]] status in [[1943]]). ==From Dominions to Commonwealth realms== [[World War II]], which fatally undermined Britain's already weakened commercial and financial leadership and heightened the importance of the [[United States]] as a source of military assistance, further loosened the political ties between Britain and the Dominions. Australian Prime Minister [[John Curtin]]'s unprecedented action (February [[1942]]) in successfully demanding the recall for home service of Australian troops earmarked for the defence of British-held [[Myanmar|Burma]] demonstrated that Dominion governments might no longer subordinate their own national interests to British strategic perspectives. To ensure that Australia had full legal power to act independently, particularly in relation to defence, Australia formally adopted the Statute of Westminster in October 1942 and backdated the adoption to the start of the war in September [[1939]]. The Dominions Office merged with the India Office as the [[Commonwealth Relations Office]] upon the independence of [[India]] and [[Pakistan]] in August [[1947]], and the term ''Dominion'' fell out of general use as India's adoption of republican status in January, [[1950]] signalled the end of the former dependencies' common constitutional connection to the British crown (although Ireland had already dropped its oath of allegiance in [[1932]]): henceforth continuing willing members of what was subsequently styled the Commonwealth agreed to accept the British monarch as head of that association of independent states. Ireland had formally ceased to be a member seven months on the declaration that it was to be described officially as the [[Republic of Ireland]]. Recently, when referring to a nation that has the British Monarch as its [[head of state]] the term ''[[Commonwealth realm]]'' has come into common usage instead of ''Dominion'' to differentiate the Commonwealth nations that continue to recognize the Crown (Australia, Canada, New Zealand, Jamaica, etc.) from those which do not (India, Pakistan, South Africa, etc.). The term Dominion is still to be found in the [[Canadian constitution]] where the term is mentioned four times, most notably ''the Provinces of Canada, Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick shall form and be One Dominion under the Name of Canada''. However, the Canadian government does not use it. The term &quot;realm&quot; does not appear in the Canadian constitution. Present-day usage prefers the term ''realm'' because it includes the United Kingdom as well, emphasising that they are equal to and not subordinate to the United Kingdom. For example, in a move that emphasised the independence of the separate realms, after the accession of Queen [[Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom|Elizabeth II]] in [[1952]], she was proclaimed not just as Queen of the U.K., but also [[Canadian Monarchy|Queen of Canada]], [[Queen of Australia]], [[Queen of New Zealand]], and of all her other &quot;realms and territories&quot; etc. The Queen now functions as the independent monarch of sixteen different countries, and any changes to the laws governing the succession to the Crown must be approved by all of these nations' parliaments. ===Canada=== :''See also: [[Canada's name]]'' ''Dominion'' is the legal title conferred on [[Canada]] in the [[Constitution of Canada]], namely the [[Constitution Act, 1867]] ([[British North America Acts]]), and describes the resulting political union. Specifically, the [http://lois.justice.gc.ca/en/const/c1867_e.html preamble of the BNA Act] indicates: :''Whereas the Provinces of Canada, Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick have expressed their Desire to be federally united into One Dominion under the Crown of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, with a Constitution similar in Principle to that of the United Kingdom ...'' and, furthermore, sections 3 and 4 indicate that the provinces: :''... shall form and be One Dominion under the Name of Canada; and on and after that Day those Three Provinces shall form and be One Dominion under that Name accordingly.''&lt;br&gt; :''Unless it is otherwise expressed or implied, the Name Canada shall be taken to mean Canada as constituted under this Act.'' Usage of the term ''Dominion of Canada'' was sanctioned as the country's formal political name, and some still read the BNA Act passage as specifying this phrase – rather than ''Canada'' alone – as the name. References to the ''Dominion of Canada'' in later acts, such as the [[Statute of Westminster]], do not clarify the point because all [[noun]]s were formerly [[capitalization|capitalized]] in British legislative style. Indeed, in the original text of the BNA Act, &quot;One&quot; and &quot;Name&quot; were also capitalized. Starting in the [[1950s]], the federal government began to phase out the use of ''dominion'', which had been used largely as a synonym of &quot;federal&quot; or &quot;national&quot; such as &quot;Dominion building&quot; for a post office, &quot;Dominion-provincial relations&quot;, and so on. The last major change was renaming the national holiday from [[Dominion Day]] to [[Canada Day]] in [[1982]], itself brought about by the earlier [[Canada Act 1982]] (which mentions ''Canada'' and is ambivalent regarding the title). Official [[bilingualism]] also contributed to disuse of ''dominion'', as it has no acceptable equivalent in [[French language|French]]. While the term may be found in older official documents, and the [http://www.parl.gc.ca/Publications/ParlBlgs-e.asp Dominion Carilloneur] still tolls at [[Parliament Hill]], it is rarely used anymore to distinguish the federal government from the provinces or (historically) Canada before and after 1867. Defenders of the title ''dominion'' – including [[Monarchy in Canada|monarchists]] who see signs of creeping [[Canadian republicanism|republicanism]] in Canada – take comfort in the fact that the [[Constitution Act, 1982]] does not remove the title (by not mentioning it), and contend that a constitutional amendment is required to change it. ==See also== *[[Canada's name]] *[[Commonwealth Realm]] *[[Crown Colony]] *[[Self-governing colony]] ==Sources== * Choudry, Sujit. 2001(?). [http://www.law.ualberta.ca/ccskeywords/constitutional_acts.html &quot;Constitution Acts&quot;] (based on looseleaf by [[Peter_Hogg|Hogg, Peter W.]]). ''[http://www.law.ualberta.ca/ccskeywords/index.html Constitutional Keywords]''. University of Alberta, Centre for Constitutional Studies: Edmonton. * Holland, R.F., ''Britain and the Commonwealth Alliance 1918-1939'', MacMillan, 1981 * [[Eugene Forsey|Forsey, Eugene A.]] 2005. [http://www.parl.gc.ca/information/library/idb/forsey/PDFs/How_Canadians_Govern_Themselves-6ed.pdf ''How Canadians Govern Themselves''], 6th ed. (ISBN 0-662-39689-8) Canada: Ottawa. * Hallowell, Gerald, ed. 2004. ''The Oxford Companion to Canadian History.'' (ISBN 0-19-541559-0) Oxford University Press: Toronto; p. 183-4. * Marsh, James H., ed. 1988. &quot;[http://www.canadianencyclopedia.ca/index.cfm?PgNm=TCE&amp;Params=A1ARTA0002344 Dominion]&quot; ''et al.'' ''[[Canadian Encyclopedia|The Canadian Encyclopedia]]''. Hurtig Publishers: Toronto. * Martin, Robert. 1993(?). [http://www.prayerbook.ca/library/machray/issue5/machray5d.htm 1993 Eugene Forsey Memorial Lecture: A Lament for British North America.] ''The Machray Review.'' Prayer Book Society of Canada. &amp;mdash; ''A summative piece about nomenc
nvasion of Afghanistan]]: The [[Soviet Union]] officially announces that all of its troops had left [[Afghanistan]]. *[[1991]] - The [[Visegrád group|Visegrád Agreement]], establishing cooperation to move toward [[free market economy|free-market systems]], is signed by the leaders of [[Czechoslovakia]], [[Hungary]] and [[Poland]]. *[[1995]] - [[Criminal hacker|Hacking]]: [[Kevin Mitnick]] is arrested by the [[FBI]] and charged with breaking into some of the [[United States]]' most [[secure computing|&quot;secure&quot; computer systems]]. *[[1999]] - [[Abdullah Öcalan]], leader of the [[terrorism|terrorist]] organization [[Kurdistan Workers Party]], is arrested in [[Kenya]] by [[Turkey|Turkish]] agents. *[[2000]] - [[Indian_Point_nuclear_power_plant|Indian Point]] II nuclear power plant in [[New York]] vents a small amount of radioactive steam when a steam generator fails. *[[2002]] - At the [[Tri-State Crematory]] in [[La Fayette, Georgia]], investigators find that uncremated bodies disposed of in the woods and buildings on the crematorium's property. The discovery reveals one of the worst incidents of abuse in the [[funeral]] service industry. *[[2003]] - [[Global]] [[February 15, 2003 anti-war protest|protests against the Iraq war]] occur in over 600 cities worldwide. Estimates from 8,000,000-30,000,000 make this the largest day of protest in history. *[[2004]] - [[John Daly]] the [[PGA]] golfer, wins his first [[PGA TOUR]] event in 9 years by winning the [[Buick Invitational]] golf tournament on the first hole of a playoff in [[San Diego, California|San Diego]], [[California]]. ==Births== *[[1458]] - [[Ivan the Young]], Ruler of Tver (d. [[1490]]) *[[1471]] - [[Piero di Lorenzo de' Medici]], ruler of Florence (d. [[1503]]) *[[1543]] - [[Charles II, Duke of Lorraine]] (d. [[1608]]) *[[1564]] - [[Galileo Galilei]], Italian astronomer and physicist (d. [[1642]]) *[[1571]] - [[Michael Praetorius]], German composer (d. [[1621]]) *[[1620]] - [[François Charpentier]], French archaeologist (d. [[1702]]) *[[1705]] - [[Charles-André van Loo]], French painter (d. [[1765]]) *[[1710]] - King [[Louis XV of France]] (d. [[1774]]) *[[1723]] - [[John Witherspoon]], American signer of the Declaration of Independence (d. [[1794]]) *[[1725]] - [[Abraham Clark]], American signer of the Declaration of Independence (d. [[1794]]) *[[1739]] - [[ Alexandre-Théodore Brongniart]], French architect (d. [[1813]]) *[[1759]] - [[Friedrich August Wolf]], German philologist and archaeologist (d. [[1824]]) *[[1803]] - [[John Sutter]], California pioneer (d. [[1880]]) *[[1809]] - [[Cyrus McCormick]], American inventor (d. [[1884]]) *1809 - [[André Dumont]], Belgian geologist (d. [[1857]]) *[[1812]] - [[Charles Lewis Tiffany]], American jeweler (d. [[1902]]) *[[1815]] - [[Constantin von Tischendorf]], German Biblical scholar (d. [[1874]]) *[[1820]] - [[Susan B. Anthony]], American feminist and suffragist (d. [[1906]]) *[[1825]] - [[Carter Harrison, Sr.]], Mayor of Chicago (d. [[1893]]) *[[1835]] - [[Demetrius Vikelas]], Greek International Olympic Committee president (d. [[1908]]) *[[1841]] - [[Manoel Ferraz de Campos Salles]], President of Brazil (d. [[1913]]) *[[1845]] - [[Elihu Root]], American statesman and diplomat, recipient of the [[Nobel Peace Prize]] (d. [[1937]]) *[[1847]] - [[Robert Fuchs]], Austrian composer (d. [[1927]]) *[[1856]] - [[Emil Kraepelin]], German psychiatrist (d. [[1926]]) *[[1861]] - [[Charles Edouard Guillaume]], French physicist, [[Nobel Prize in Physics|Nobel Prize]] laureate (d. [[1938]]) *[[1873]] - [[Hans von Euler-Chelpin]], German-born chemist, [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry|Nobel Prize]] laureate (d. [[1964]]) *[[1874]] - [[Sir Ernest Shackleton]], British polar explorer (d. [[1922]]) *[[1882]] - [[John Barrymore]], American actor (d. [[1942]]) *[[1883]] - [[Sax Rohmer]], English author (d. [[1959]]) *[[1892]] - [[James Forrestal]], first [[United States Secretary of Defense]] (d. [[1949]]) *[[1895]] - [[Earl Thomson]], Canadian athlete (d. [[1971]]) *[[1896]] - [[Arthur Shields]], Irish actor (d. [[1970]]) *[[1898]] - [[Totò]], Italian actor, writer, and composer (d. [[1967]]) *1898 - [[Allen Woodring]], American runner (d. [[1982]]) *[[1899]] - [[Georges Auric]], French composer (d. [[1983]]) *1899 - [[Gale Sondergaard]], American actress (d. [[1985]]) *[[1905]] - [[Harold Arlen]], American composer (d. [[1986]]) *[[1907]] - [[Jean Langlais]], French composer and organist (d. [[1991]]) *1907 - [[Cesar Romero]], American actor (d. [[1994]]) *[[1909]] - [[Miep Gies]], Dutch biographer of [[Anne Frank]] *1909 - [[Guillermo Gorostiza Paredes]], Spanish footballer (d. [[1966]]) *[[1913]] - [[Erich Eliskases]], Austrian/Argentine chess player (d. [[1997]]) *[[1914]] - [[Hale Boggs]], American politician (d. [[1972]]) *1914 - [[Kevin McCarthy (actor)|Kevin McCarthy]], American actor *[[1916]] - [[Mary Jane Croft]], American actress (d. [[1999]]) *[[1918]] - [[Allan Arbus]], American actor *[[1919]] - [[Andreas Papandreou]], [[Prime Minister of Greece]] (d. [[1996]]) *[[1922]] - [[John Bayard Anderson]], US Congressman and presidential candidate *[[1927]] - [[Harvey Korman]], American actor and comedian *[[1929]] - [[Graham Hill]], British race car driver (d. [[1975]]) *1929 - [[James Schlesinger]], American politician *[[1931]] - [[Claire Bloom]], British actress *1931 - [[Geoff Edwards]], American television game show host *[[1934]] - [[Niklaus Wirth]], Swiss computer scientist *[[1935]] - [[Susan Brownmiller]], American feminist and writer *1935 - [[Roger Chaffee]], astronaut (d. [[1967]]) *[[1939]] - [[Ole Ellefsæter]], Norwegian cross-country skier *[[1940]] - [[John Hadl]], American football player *[[1944]] - [[Mick Avory]], British drummer ([[The Kinks]]) *[[1945]] - [[John Helliwell]], British musician ([[Supertramp]]) *[[1946]] - [[Marisa Berenson]], American actress *[[1947]] - [[John Coolidge Adams]], American composer *[[1947]] - [[Rusty Hamer]], American actor (d. [[1990]]) *1947 - [[David Brown]], American musician ([[Carlos Santana]]) *[[1948]] - [[Ron Cey]], baseball player *1948 - [[Art Spiegelman]], American cartoonist *[[1949]] - [[Ken Anderson]], American football player *[[1951]] - [[Melissa Manchester]], American singer *1951 - [[Jane Seymour (actress)|Jane Seymour]], British actress *[[1954]] - [[Matt Groening]], American cartoonist *[[1955]] - [[Christopher McDonald]], American actor *[[1959]] - [[Ali Campbell]], British vocalist/guitarist ([[UB40]]) *1959 - [[Brian Propp]], Canadian [[ice hockey]] player *[[1960]] - [[Mikey Craig]], British musician ([[Culture Club]]) *[[1964]] - [[Chris Farley]], American actor and comedian (d. [[1997]]) *[[1971]] - [[Renee O'Connor|Renée O'Connor]], American actress and director *[[1972]] - [[Jaromír Jágr]], Czech hockey player *[[1973]] - [[Sarah Wynter]], Australian actress *1973 - [[Kateřina Neumannová]], Czech cross country skier *[[1974]] - [[Seattle Slew]], American racehorse (d. [[2002]]) *1974 - [[Ugueth Urbina]], Venezuelan [[Major League Baseball]] player *[[1976]] - [[Brandon Boyd]], American musician ([[Incubus (band)|Incubus]]) *[[1978]] - [[Tuan Le]], American poker player *[[1979]] - [[Alenka Kejžar]], Slovenian swimmer *[[1980]] - [[Conor Oberst]], American singer and songwriter ([[Bright Eyes]]) *[[1983]] - [[Meera Jasmine]], National-Award-winning Indian actress *[[1984]] - [[Dorota Rabczewska]], Polish singer ([[Virgin (band)|Virgin]]) &lt;!-- Do not add yourself, or anyone else who does not already have a Wikipedia article, to this list. Duplicate instances of years should not be links. --&gt; ==Deaths== *[[1145]] - [[Pope Lucius II]] *[[1621]] - [[Michael Praetorius]], German composer (b. [[1571]]) *[[1637]] - [[Ferdinand II, Holy Roman Emperor]] (b. [[1578]]) *[[1738]] - [[Matthias Braun]], Czech sculptor (b. [[1684]]) *[[1775]] - [[Peter Dens]], Belgian Catholic theologian (b. [[1690]]) *[[1781]] - [[Gotthold Ephraim Lessing]], German author and philosopher (b. [[1729]]) *[[1818]] - [[Friedrich Ludwig, Fürst zu Hohenlohe-Ingelfingen]], Prussian general (b. [[1746]]) *[[1835]] - [[Henry Hunt (politician)|Henry Hunt]], British politician (b. [[1773]]) *[[1847]] - [[Germinal Pierre Dandelin]], Belgian mathematician (b. [[1794]]) *[[1848]] - [[Hermann von Boyen]], Prussian field marshal (b. [[1771]]) *[[1849]] - [[Pierre François Verhulst]], Belgian mathematician (b. [[1804]]) *[[1857]] - [[Mikhail Glinka]], Russian composer (b. [[1804]]) *[[1932]] - [[Minnie Maddern Fiske]], Broadway actress (b. [[1865]]) *[[1959]] - [[Owen Willans Richardson]], British physicist, [[Nobel Prize]] laureate (b. [[1879]]) *[[1964]] - [[Robert L. Thornton]], American businessman, philanthropist, and Mayor of Dallas, Texas (b. [[1880]]) *[[1965]] - [[Nat King Cole]], American singer and musician (b. [[1919]]) *[[1966]] - [[Gerard Antoni Ciołek|Gerard Ciołek]], Polish architect and historian of gardens (b. [[1909]]) *[[1973]] - [[Wally Cox]], American actor (b. [[1924]]) *1973 - [[Tim Holt]], American actor (b. [[1919]]) *[[1974]] - [[Kurt Atterberg]], Swedish composer (b. [[1887]]) *[[1981]] - [[Mike Bloomfield]], American musician (b. [[1944]]) *1981 - [[Karl Richter]], German conductor (b. [[1926]]) *[[1984]] - [[Ethel Merman]], American singer and actress (b. [[1908]]) *[[1988]] - [[Richard Feynman]], 10:34 p.m. at UCLA Medical Center, American physicist, [[Nobel Prize in Physics|Nobel Prize]] laureate (b. [[1918]].) *[[1996]] - [[Tommy Rettig]], American actor (b. [[1941]]) *1996 - [[McLean Stevenson]], American actor (b. [[1929]]) *[[1999]] - [[Big L (rapper)|Big L (Lamont Coleman)]], American rapper (b. [[1974]]) *1999 - [[Henry Way Kendall]], American physicist, [[Nobel Prize in Physics|Nobel Prize]] laureate (b. [[1926]]) *[[2002]] - [[Howard K. Smith]], American journalist (b. [[1914]]) *2002 - [[Kevin Smith (actor)|Kevin Smith]], New Zealand actor (b. [[1963]]) *[[2004]] - [[Jens Evensen]], Norwegian minister and International Court of Ju
es.html US DOE EERE (Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy) fuel cells page] * [http://physicsweb.org/article/world/11/7/2 PhysicsWorld: Fuel cells] * [http://www.wired.com/wired/archive/11.04/hydrogen_pr.html How Hydrogen Can Save America (Wired Magazine)] * [http://www.hydrogentrade.com/fuel-cells/ Fuel cell basics] * [http://science.howstuffworks.com/fuel-cell.htm How Stuff Works: Fuel Cells] * [http://www.fuelcells.org Fuel-Cells.org] * [http://www.ballard.com/ Ballard Power Systems] * [http://www.plugpower.com/ Plug Power Inc.] {{Sustainability and energy development group}} [[Category:Energy conversion]] [[Category:Fuel cells|*]] [[Category:Electrochemistry]] [[Category:Alternative propulsion]] [[Category:Alternative energy]] [[ar:خلايا الطاقة]] [[cs:Palivový článek]] [[da:Brændselscelle]] [[de:Brennstoffzelle]] [[es:Celda de combustible]] [[eo:Fuelpilo]] [[fr:Pile à combustible]] [[it:Pila a combustibile]] [[he:תא דלק]] [[nl:Brandstofcel]] [[ja:燃料電池]] [[no:Brenselcelle]] [[pl:Ogniwo paliwowe]] [[pt:Célula combustível]] [[ru:Топливный элемент]] [[sv:Bränslecell]] [[th:เซลล์เชื้อเพลิง]] [[vi:Tế bào nhiên liệu]] [[zh:燃料电池]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Finlandization</title> <id>11732</id> <revision> <id>33991147</id> <timestamp>2006-01-05T16:51:13Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>85.76.176.46</ip> </contributor> <comment>/* External links and references */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Finlandization''' ''(Finnlandisierung'' in [[German language|German]]) refers to the influence that one neighboring powerful country can have on the policies of a smaller nearby country. It is considered by some to be pejorative, originating in [[West Germany|West German]] political debate of the [[1960s]] and [[1970s]]. As the term was used in Germany and other NATO countries, it expressed the process of turning into a [[neutral country]] which, although maintaining national [[sovereignty]], in foreign politics resolves not to challenge a more powerful neighbour. Commonly in reference to [[Finland]]'s policies vis-à-vis the [[Soviet Union]] during the [[Cold War]], but could refer to similar international relations, such as [[Denmark]]'s attitude toward Germany between [[1871]] and [[1940]]. == Origin and international usage == In Germany, the term was used mainly by proponents of closer adaptation to [[United States|US]] interests, chiefly [[Franz Josef Strauß]], but was initially coined in scholarly debate and made known by the German political scientists Walther Hallstein and Richard Löwenthal, reflecting feared effects of withdrawal of US troops from Germany. It came to be used in the debate of the [[NATO]] countries in response to [[Willy Brandt]]'s attempts to [[Ostpolitik|normalize relations with East Germany]], and the following widespread scepticism in Germany against NATO's [[Dual-Track Decision]]. Later, after the fall of the [[Soviet Union]], the term has been used in [[Finland]] for the [[post-1968 radicalization]] in the latter half of the [[Urho Kekkonen|Kekkonen era]]. == Finnish perception == In Finland the use (by others) of the term &quot;Finlandization&quot; was perceived as a brickbat stemming from an inability to understand the practicalities of how a small nation might hope to make a deal with a culturally and ideologically alien [[superpower]] without losing its [[sovereignty]]. Finland cut such a deal with [[Stalin]]'s government in the late [[1940s]], and it was largely respected by both parties &amp;mdash; and to the gain of both parties &amp;mdash; until the fall of the Soviet Union in [[1991]]. While the Finnish political and intellectual elite mostly understood the term to refer more to foreign policy problems of other countries, and meant mostly for domestic consumption in the speaker's own country, many ordinary Finns considered the term highly offensive. === Historical background === Finland's foreign politics before this deal had been varied: independence from [[Imperial Russia]] with support of [[German Empire|Imperial Germany]] in [[1917]]; participation in the [[Russian Civil War]] alongside the [[Entente]] [[1918]]&amp;ndash;[[1920]]; a non-ratified alliance with [[Poland]] in [[1922]]; association with the neutralist and [[democracy|democratic]] [[Scandinavia]]n countries in the [[1930s]] ended by the [[Winter War]] ([[1939]]); and finally in [[1940]] a rapprochement with [[Nazi Germany]], the only power able to protect Finland against the expansionist Soviet Union, leading to the [[Continuation War]] in [[1941]]. The [[Wehrmacht]]'s defeat in the [[Battle of Stalingrad]] led Finland to basically revert to its [[19th century]] traditions, which had been perceived as highly successful until the [[Russification of Finland]] [[1899]]&amp;ndash;[[1905]]. Finland's leaders realized that opposing the Soviets head-on was no longer feasible. No [[power (international)|international power]] was able to give the necessary support. Nazi Germany, Finland's chief supporter against Russia, was losing the war. Sweden was not big enough, and its leadership were wary of confronting Russia. The [[Western countries|western powers]] were allied with the Soviet Union. Thus Finland had to face its big neighbour on its own, without any greater power's protection. As in the 19th century, Finland chose not challenge the Soviet Union's foreign policy, but exerted to keep its [[independence]]. === The Paasikivi doctrine === After the [[Paris Peace Treaty]] ([[1947]]) Finland succeeded in retaining [[democracy]] and [[parliamentarism]] until the fall of the Soviet Union, despite the heavy political pressure on Finland's foreign and internal affairs by the Soviet Union. [[Foreign relations of Finland|Finland's foreign relations]] were guided by the [[Juho Kusti Paasikivi|Paasikivi]] doctrine, emphasizing the necessity to maintain a good and trusting relationship with the Soviet Union. To this end, Finland signed an [[Agreement of Friendship, Cooperation, and Mutual Assistance]] with the Soviet Union in April [[1948]]. Under this pact, Finland was obliged to resist armed attacks by &quot;Germany or its allies&quot; against Finland, or against the Soviet Union through Finland, and, if necessary, ask for Soviet military aid to do so. At the same time, the agreement recognized Finland's desire to remain outside [[Great Power|great-power]] conflicts, allowing the country to adopt a policy of [[neutral country|neutrality]] during the Cold War. Hence Finland did not participate in the [[Marshall Plan]] and took neutral positions on Soviet overseas initiatives. By keeping very cool relations to [[NATO]], and to western military powers in general, Finland could fend off Soviet preludes for affiliation to the [[Warsaw Pact]]. === Self-censorship and excessive Soviet adaptation === However, from the political scene following the post-[[1968]] radicalization, the Soviet adaptation spread to the editors of [[mass media]], sparking strong forms of self-control, self-censorship and pro-Soviet attitudes. Most of the élite of media and politics shifted their attitudes to match the values that the Soviets were thought to favour and approve, developing into a self-imposed Finlandization that often is argued to have exceeded the Soviet expectations. Civil servants, politicians and journalists accepted the practice that, if they cared about their careers, they did not talk about injustices such as the Soviets' assaults leading to the Winter War. But not only historical injustices were suppressed, also news about Soviet contemporary atrocities, as for instance the fate of [[Alexander Solzhenitsyn]], were sanitized in the name of maintaining a working relationship between Finland and the Soviet Union. Only after the ascendancy of [[Mikhail Gorbachev]] to Soviet leadership in [[1985]] did mass media in Finland gradually begin to move closer to [[Western countries|Western]] standards of [[Freedom of the press|journalistic freedom]] without governmental pressure. == Criticism == [[United States]] foreign policy experts consistently feared that [[Western Europe]] and [[Japan]] would be Finlandized, leading to a situation in which these key allies no longer automatically supported the United States against the Soviet Union. The theory of [[bandwagoning]] provided support for the idea that if the United States was not able to provide strong and credible support for the [[anticommunist]] positions of its allies, the [[NATO]] and the U.S.-Japan alliance could collapse. Foreign policy scholars such as Eric Nordlinger have, however, argued that ''the fear of the possible &quot;Finlandization&quot; of Europe was always counterfactual. A vision of Finlandization in America's absence runs up squarely against the European states' long-standing communist antipathies and wariness of Moscow's peaceful wiles, valued national traditions and strong democratic institutions, as well as their size and economic wherewithal.'' Authorities on the [[foreign relations of Finland]] often argue that proponents of the term &quot;Finlandization&quot; persistently failed to recognize that Finland had achieved its negotiating position after successfully fending off military attacks of the Soviet Union in the [[Winter War]] ([[1939]]) and the [[Continuation War]] ([[1941]]). While the Soviets certainly didn't actively fear the Finns, those who were in charge of handling relations with Finland have since openly admitted that relations with Finland were handled with the same care that they would have handled relations with a super-power. Furthermore, if Finland had attempted to get a &quot;Finlandization&quot; deal in the [[1930s]] or [[1920s]], too soon after the Russian [[October Revolution]], the [[Civil War in Finland]] and the [[Russian Civil War]], it would likely have wound up like [[Latvia]], [[Estonia]], and [[Lithuania]]. == Trivia == Paraphrasing president
yles of clarinet playing. The modern clarinetist has an eclectic palette of &quot;acceptable&quot; tone qualities to chose from, especially when working with an open-minded teacher. The A clarinet sound is a little darker, richer, and more robust than that of the more common B&amp;#9837; clarinet, though the difference is relatively small. The tone of the '''E&amp;#9837; clarinet''' is quite a bit brighter than any other member of the widely-used clarinet family and is known for its distinctive ability to cut through the orchestral texture even at loud volumes; this effect was utilized by such 20th century composers such as [[Gustav Mahler|Mahler]], [[Aaron Copland|Copland]], [[Dmitri Shostakovich|Shostakovich]], and [[Igor Stravinsky|Stravinsky]]. The '''[[bass clarinet]]''' has a characteristically deep mellow sound. ===Range=== The bottom of the clarinet’s written range is defined by the keywork on each particular instrument; there are standard keywork schemes with some variability. The actual lowest concert pitch depends on the [[transposing instrument|transposition]] of the instrument in question. Nearly all [[soprano clarinet|soprano]] and [[piccolo clarinet|piccolo]] clarinets have keywork enabling them to play the E below middle C as their lowest written note. Alto and bass clarinets have an extra key to allow a low Eb. Modern professional-quality bass clarinets generally have additional keywork to low C. Among the less commonly encountered members of the clarinet family, contra-alto and contrabass clarinets may have keywork to low Eb, D, or C; the basset clarinet and basset horn generally go to low C. Defining the top end of a clarinet’s range is difficult, since many advanced players can produce notes well above the highest notes commonly found in method books. The “high G” two octaves plus a perfect fifth above middle C is routinely encountered in advanced material and in the standard literature through the nineteenth century. The C above that is attainable by most advanced players and is shown on many fingering charts. Many professional players are able to extend the range even higher. The range of a clarinet can be divided into three distinctive registers. The lowest notes, up to the written B&amp;#9837; above middle C, is known as the 'chalumeau register' (named after the instrument that was the clarinet's immediate ancestor), of which the top four notes or so are known as the 'throat tones'. Producing a blended tone with the surrounding registers takes much skill and practice. The middle register is termed the 'clarion' register and spans just over an octave (from written B above middle C, to the C two octaves above middle C). The top or 'altissimo' register consists of the notes from the written C# two octaves above middle C and up. ===Construction and acoustics=== Professional clarinets are usually made from [[Africa]]n [[hardwood]], often [[grenadilla]], (rarely) [[Honduras|Honduran]] [[rosewood]] and sometimes even cocobolo. Historically other woods, notably [[boxwood]], were used. One major manufacturer makes professional clarinets from a composite mixture of plastic resin and wood chips &amp;mdash; such instruments are less affected by humidity, but are heavier than the equivalent wood instrument. Student instruments are sometimes made of [[composite material|composite]] or plastic [[resin]], commonly &quot;resonite&quot;, an [[Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene|ABS]] resin. Metal soprano clarinets were popular in the early twentieth century, until plastic instruments supplanted them; metal construction is still used for some contra-alto and contrabass clarinets. Mouthpieces are generally made of [[ebonite]], although some inexpensive mouthpieces may be made of [[plastic]]. The instrument uses a single [[reed (music)|reed]] made from [[arundo donax|cane]] (sometimes &quot;fiber&quot; or plastic) which is placed on a mouthpiece and held in place by a ligature. When air is blown through the opening between the reed and the mouthpiece facing, the reed vibrates and produces the instrument's sound. Clarinetists used to make their own reeds. Now most buy manufactured reeds, but many players make adjustments to these reeds to improve playability. Clarinet reeds come in varying &quot;strengths&quot; generally described from &quot;soft&quot; to &quot;hard.&quot; The most common scale is a 1-5 system with most manufacturers having slight differences in their own systems. It is important to note that there is no standardized system of designating reed strength. Beginning clarinetists are often encouraged to use softer reeds, usually a 2 to 2 1/2. Jazz clarinetists often remain on softer reeds, as they are easy for bending pitch. Most classical musicians work towards harder reed strengths as their embouchures strengthen. The benefit of a harder reed is a sturdy, round tone. The major manufacturers of clarinet reeds include the Vandoren company (France), Gonzalez and Zonda (both manufactured from the same cane in Argentina), Legere, Mitchell Lurie and many others. The body is equipped with seven ''[[tone hole]]s'' (six front, one back) and a complicated set of keys which allow every note of the chromatic scale to be produced. The most common system of keys was named the [[Boehm System (clarinet)|Boehm System]] by its designer [[Hyacinthe Klosé]] in honour of the flute designer [[Theobald Boehm]], but is not the same as the [[Boehm System]] used on flutes. The other main system of keys is called the [[Oehler system]] and is used mostly in [[Germany]] and [[Austria]] (see [[clarinet#History|History]]). Related is the [[Albert system]] used by some [[jazz]], [[klezmer]], and eastern European folk musicians. The hollow bore inside the instrument has a basically cylindrical shape, being roughly the same diameter for most of the length of the tube. There is a subtle [[hourglass]] shape, with its thinnest part at the junction between the upper and lower joint. This hourglass figure is not visible to the naked eye, but helps in the [[resonance]] of the sound. The diameter of the bore affects characteristics such as the stability of the pitch of a given note, or, conversely, the ability with which a note can be 'bent' in the manner required in jazz and other styles of music. The bell is at the bottom of the instrument and flares out to improve the tone of the lowest notes. A clarinetist moves between registers through use of the register key, or speaker key. The fixed reed and fairly uniform diameter of the clarinet give the instrument the configuration of a cylindrical [[stopped pipe]] in which the register key, when pressed, causes the clarinet to produce the note a [[interval (music)|twelfth]] higher, corresponding to the third [[harmonic series (music)|harmonic]]. The clarinet is therefore said to ''overblow'' at the twelfth. (By contrast, nearly all other woodwind instruments overblow at the octave, or do not overblow at all; the [[rackett]] is the next most common Western instrument that overblows at the twelfth like the clarinet.) A clarinet must therefore have holes and keys for nineteen notes (an octave and a half, from bottom E to B&amp;#9837;) in its lowest register to play a chromatic scale. This fact at once explains the clarinet's great range and its complex fingering system. The fifth and seventh harmonics are also available to skilled players, sounding a further sixth and fourth higher respectively. The highest notes on a clarinet can have a piercing quality and can be difficult to tune precisely. Different individual instruments can be expected to play differently in this respect. This becomes critical if a number of instruments are required to play a high part in unison. Fortunately for audiences, disciplined players can use a variety of fingerings to introduce slight variations into the pitch of these higher notes. It is also common for high melody parts to be split into close harmony to avoid this issue. [[Image:Clarinet.jpg|thumb|640px|A concert B&amp;#9837; Clarinet]] The parts that make up a clarinet are as follows (description follows the illustration from right to left): * The ''reed'' is attached to the ''[[mouthpiece]]'' by the ''[[ligature (music)|ligature]]'', and the whole assembly is held in the player’s mouth, with the reed on the underside of the mouthpiece, pressing against the player's bottom lip. The formation of the mouth around the mouthpiece and reed is called the ''[[embouchure]]''. Adjustment in the strength of the embouchure and muscles surrounding the mouth is one way to account for pitch variation compensation and tuning. * Next is the short ''barrel''; this part of the instrument may be extended in order to fine-tune the clarinet. As the pitch of the clarinet is fairly temperature sensitive some instruments have interchangeable barrels whose lengths vary very slightly. Additional compensation for pitch variation and tuning can be made by increasing the length of the instrument by ''pulling out'' the barrel. Some performers employ a single, synthetic barrel with a thumbwheel that enables the barrel length to be altered on the fly. * The main body of the clarinet is divided (in most soprano clarinets, and some harmony clarinets) into the ''upper joint'' whose holes and most keys are operated by the left hand, and the ''lower joint'' with holes and most keys operated by the right hand. The left thumb operates both a ''tone hole'' and the ''register key''. The cluster of keys in the middle of the illustration are known as the ''trill keys'' and are operated by the right hand. These give the player alternative fingerings which make it easy to play ornaments and [[trill (music)|trill]]s that would otherwise be awkward. The entire weight of the smaller clarinets is supported by the right thumb behind the lower joint on what is misleadingly called the ''thumb-rest''. Alto and larger clarinets are supported with a neck strap or a
]) *''[[And God Created Woman]]'' ([[1956]]) *''[[La Parisienne]]'' ([[1957]]) *''[[The Night That Heaven Fell]]'' ([[1958]]) *''[[Love Is My Profession]]'' ([[1958]]) *''[[The Woman and the Puppet]]'' ([[1959]]) *''[[Babette Goes to War]]'' ([[1959]]) *''[[Come Dance with Me!]]'' ([[1959]]) *''[[The Testament of Orpheus]]'' ([[1960]]) *''[[It Happened All Night]]'' ([[1960]]) (Cameo) *''[[The Truth]]'' ([[1960]]) *''[[Please, Not Now]]'' ([[1961]]) *''[[Famous Love Affairs]]'' ([[1961]]) *''[[A Very Private Affair]]'' ([[1961]]) *''[[Lykke og krone]]'' ([[1962]]) (documentary) *''[[Love on a Pillow]]'' ([[1962]]) *''[[Contempt]]'' ([[1963]]) *''[[Paparazzi]]'' ([[1964]]) (short subject) *''[[Bardot and Godard]]'' ([[1964]]) (short subject) *''[[Agent 38-24-36]]'' ([[1964]]) *''[[Forbidden Temptations]]'' ([[1965]]) (documentary) *''[[Marie Soleil]]'' ([[1965]]) (Cameo) *''[[Dear Brigitte]]'' ([[1965]]) *''[[Viva Maria!]]'' ([[1965]]) *''[[Masculine, Feminine: In 15 Acts]]'' ([[1966]]) *''[[Two Weeks in September]]'' ([[1967]]) *''[[Spirits of the Dead]]'' ([[1968]]) *''[[Shalako]]'' ([[1968]]) *''[[The Bear and the Doll]]'' ([[1969]]) *''[[The Vixen]]'' ([[1969]]) *''[[The Novices]]'' ([[1970]]) *''[[Rum Runners]]'' ([[1971]]) *''[[The Legend of Frenchie King]]'' ([[1971]]) *''[[Film Portrait]]'' ([[1972]]) (documentary) *''[[Don Juan, or If Don Juan Were a Woman]]'' ([[1973]]) *''[[The Edifying and Joyous Story of Colinot]]'' ([[1973]]) == See also == * [[Marianne]] * [[Sexual revolution]] ==External links== * {{imdb name|id=0000003|name={{PAGENAME}}}} *[http://tesla.liketelevision.com/liketelevision/tuner.php?channel=959&amp;format=movie&amp;theme=guide Watch Brigitte Bardot in And God Created Woman] *[http://tesla.liketelevision.com/liketelevision/tuner.php?channel=131&amp;format=movie&amp;theme=guide Watch Brigitte Bardot in Mademoiselle Striptease] * [http://www.thegoldenyears.org/bardot.html] Classic Movies (1939 - 1969): Brigitte Bardot * [http://www.imzadi.nl/Rwwp4/bb_main.html] A Brigitte Bardot fan page * [http://silverscreensirens.com/brigitte.htm] A Brigitte Bardot gallery * [http://www.gainsbourg.org/vrsn3/html/zooms/brigittebardot/index.html] A Tribute to Gainsbourg, zoom sur Brigitte Bardot * [http://www.residencelesmarronniers.com/en/surroundings/saint_tropez/brigitte_bardot.htm] Brigitte Bardot and Saint-Tropez *[http://www.fondationbrigittebardot.fr/site/homepage.php?Id=2] Fondation Brigitte Bardot *[http://www.brigittebardot.lap.hu] Brigitte Bardot links collection [[Category:1934 births|Bardot, Brigitte]] [[Category:Living people|Bardot, Brigitte]] [[Category:Roman Catholics|Bardot, Brigitte]] [[Category:Animal rights activists|Bardot, Brigitte]] [[Category:Film actors|Bardot, Brigitte]] [[Category:French actors|Bardot, Brigitte]] [[Category:French models|Bardot, Brigitte]] [[Category:Marianne|Bardot, Brigitte]] [[Category:Vegetarians|Bardot, Brigitte]] [[Category:French women|Bardot, Brigitte]] [[bg:Бриджит Бардо]] [[de:Brigitte Bardot]] [[es:Brigitte Bardot]] [[eo:Brigitte BARDOT]] [[fr:Brigitte Bardot]] [[gl:Brigitte Bardot]] [[hr:Brigitte Bardot]] [[it:Brigitte Bardot]] [[nl:Brigitte Bardot]] [[ja:ブリジット・バルドー]] [[pl:Brigitte Bardot]] [[pt:Brigitte Bardot]] [[ro:Brigitte Bardot]] [[ru:Бардо, Брижит]] [[fi:Brigitte Bardot]] [[sv:Brigitte Bardot]] [[zh:碧姬·芭杜]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Banjo</title> <id>3846</id> <revision> <id>41997368</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T03:02:24Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Dsreyn</username> <id>423367</id> </contributor> <comment>/* Banjo history */ Consistent format for book reference</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Banjo.png|left|thumb|Old 6-string zither banjo]] [[Image:Banjos.jpg|right|thumb|4-string banjos]] :''For other uses, see [[Banjo (disambiguation)]]'' The '''banjo''' is a [[stringed instrument]] of [[African American]] origin, early or original examples sometimes being called the &quot;gourd banjo&quot;. Its name is commonly thought to be derived from the [[Kimbundu]] term ''mbanza''. Some etymologists derive it from a dialectal pronunciation of &quot;bandore&quot;, though recent research suggests that it may come from a [[Senegambia]]n term for the [[bamboo]] stick used for the instrument's neck. The modern banjo comes in a variety of different forms, including four- ('''plectrum''' and '''tenor''' banjos) and five-string versions. A six-string version, tuned and played similar to a [[guitar]] is gaining popularity. In almost all of its forms the banjo's playing is characterised by a fast strumming or [[arpeggio|arpeggiated]] right hand, although there are many different playing styles. The banjo consists of a wooden or metal rim with a plastic ([[Mylar]]) or [[calf]] or [[goat]] skin [[drumhead]] stretched across it, a neck mounted on the side of the rim, a [[tailpiece]] mounted opposite the neck, four or five strings, and a [[bridge (instrument)|bridge]]. The woods used in construction vary, but are often combinations of maple, walnut, and ebony for [[fingerboard]]s, [[peghead]]s, and the tops of bridges. In the five-string banjo, the fifth peg is normally on the side of the neck, although some English versions (the Zither banjo) mount the fifth string tuner on the tuning head with the others, and route the string through a tube in the neck where it exits near the fifth [[fret]]. The earliest banjos were unfretted, like the African and [[Asia]]n instruments that inspired them, but most banjos today are fretted. Banjo strings are most commonly metal, although [[nylon]] and gut can be used on some banjos, especially those played in the classical style. The two most common modern day acoustic banjos are the '''resonator banjo''' which has a detachable chamber, or resonator, on the back of the rim and the '''open back banjo''' which does not have a resonator. There are also solid body [[electric banjo]]s; one such banjo, the Crossfire (manufactured by [[Deering]]), has two powerful magnetic [[pickup (music)|pickups]] under the drumhead. A metal footed bridge ensures that pickups draw sound from both the strings and the head. == Five-string banjo == The origins of the five-string banjo are often linked to [[Joel Walker Sweeney]], an American [[minstrel show|minstrel]] performer. Sweeney wanted an instrument similar to the banjar played by African Americans in the American south, but at the same time, he wanted to implement some new ideas. He worked with a New York drum maker to replace the banjar's skin-covered gourd with the modern open-backed drum-like pot, and added another string to give the instrument more range or a drone. This new banjo came to be tuned gCGBD; somewhat higher than the eAEG#B tuning of the banjar. However, a painting done long before Sweeney's supposed invention of the fifth string, called [http://www.history.org/history/teaching/enewsletter/volume3/images/OldPlantMed.jpg The Old Plantation], shows African American slaves playing a banjo with what looks to be a short, fifth string. The banjo can be played in several styles and is used in various forms of [[music]]. In [[bluegrass music]], which uses the five-string resonator banjo extensively, it is often played in [[Scruggs style]], named after [[Earl Scruggs]], melodic or [[Keith style]], or two-finger style, also called [[Reno style]] after [[Don Reno]], legendary father of [[Don Wayne Reno]]. In these styles the emphasis is on arpeggiated figures played in a continuous eighth-note rhythm. American [[Old-time music]] typically uses the five-string open back banjo. It is played in a number of different styles, the most common of which are called [[clawhammer]] (or &quot;claw-hammer&quot;) and frailing, characterised by the use of a downward rather than upward motion when striking the strings with the fingers. Frailing techniques use the thumb to catch the fifth string for a [[drone (music)|drone]] after each strum, or to pick out additional melody notes in what is known as &quot;drop-thumb.&quot; [[Pete Seeger]] popularised a [[Folk music|folk]] style by combining clawhammer with &quot;up picking&quot; without the use of finger picks. Many tunings are used for the five-string banjo. Probably the most common, certainly in bluegrass, is the open G tuning: gDGBd. In earlier times, the tuning gCGBd was commonly used instead. Other tunings common in old-time music include double C (gCGCd), sawmill or mountain minor (gDGCd) also called Modal or Mountain Modal, and open D (f#DF#Ad). These tunings are often taken up a tone, either by tuning up or using a [[capo]]. The fifth (drone) string is the same gauge as the first, but it is five frets shorter, three quarters the length of the rest. This presents special problems for using a [[capo]] to change the [[pitch (music)|pitch]] of the instrument. For small changes (going up or down one or two semitones, for example) it is possible to simply retune the fifth string. Otherwise various devices are available to effectively shorten the string. Many banjo players favour the use of model railroad spikes (usually installed at the seventh fret and sometimes at others), under which the string can be hooked to keep it pressed down on the [[fret]]. == Four-string banjo == The '''plectrum banjo''' has four strings, lacking the shorter fifth string, and 22 frets; it is usually tuned CGBD. As the name suggests, it is usually played with a guitar-style [[plectrum|pick]] (that is, a single one held between thumb and forefinger), unlike the five-string banjo, which is almost always played with a [[thumbpick]] and two [[fingerpick]]s, or occasionally with bare fingers. The plectrum banjo evolved out of the five-string banjo to cater for styles of music involving strummed chords. A further development is the '''tenor banjo''', which also has four strings and is typically played with a plectrum too. It has a short
ng Liberal Foreign Minister [[Alexander Downer]]'s seat of [[Division of Mayo|Mayo]] in the Adelaide Hills under Australia's [[Preferential voting|preferential voting]] system. Internal conflict over the government's proposed [[Goods and Services Tax]] (GST), during the 1998 federal election and in Parliament in 1999 was extremely damaging to the Democrats. Meg Lees campaigned on a modified GST platform, opposing the GST on food and books. After negotiations with Prime Minister [[John Howard|Howard]], Meg Lees and Andrew Murray (both part of the centrist element within the Democrats) agreed to support the GST legislation with exemptions for most food and some medicines. Many left-wing Democrat voters and a large number of party members regarded this as a betrayal, and two senators on the party's left, [[Natasha Stott Despoja]] and [[Andrew Bartlett]], voted against the GST. After very poor state election results in 2001, Lees was replaced by the articulate young left-leaning senator, [[Natasha Stott Despoja]]. Stott Despoja worked hard to bring dissafected former Democrat voters back in the 2001 federal election, although she was not able to bring back enough voters to prevent the loss of a seat to Greens Senator [[Kerry Nettle]], indicating the loss of Democrat votes on the left. (The task was not made any easier by the [[Tampa affair]].) Ongoing tensions between Stott Despoja and Lees (who quit the party in 2002, but was supported by some of the Senators, nicknamed the [[Gang of Four (disambiguation)|Gang of Four]] by the media) forced a protracted leadership battle in 2002, which eventually led to the election of Senator Andrew Bartlett as leader. However, the tension led to [[Meg Lees]] leaving the party and becoming an independent, which deprived the Democrats of the balance of power in the Senate and greatly lessened their relevance and media exposure. Since the decision to support the GST in 1999, and especially after the very public infighting in 2002, the Democrats have suffered a severe decline in public support. Although the left-right division within the parliamentary party and between the parliamentary party and the grass roots membership has existed for many years, the recent leadership battles have created bitterness within the party, and exposed the disunity to public scrutiny. With the [[Australian Greens]] picking up many of their voters on the left, and some voters from the centre returning to the Liberals, the Democrats are facing their greatest crisis to date. At the height of the disunity in 2002, most political observers believed that the party would soon split or disappear as a serious force in Australian politics. Under Senator Bartlett's leadership the Democrats found a degree of stability and an end to public feuding, but they have made little progress toward recovering their traditional share of electoral support and are now largely ignored by the media. On [[6 December]] [[2003]], Andrew Bartlett stepped aside temporarily as leader of the party, after an incident in which he assaulted [[Liberal Party of Australia|Liberal]] Senator [[Jeannie Ferris]] on the floor of [[Parliament of Australia|Parliament]] while intoxicated. The party issued a statement stating that Deputy Leader [[Lyn Allison]] would serve as the Acting Leader of the party. Bartlett apologised to the Democrats, Jeannie Ferris and the Australian public for his behaviour and assured all concerned that it would never happen again. On [[January 29]] [[2004]], after seeking medical treatment, Bartlett returned to the Democrats leadership. Andrew Bartlett has not consumed any alcohol since that incident. Almost totally ignored by the media during the election campaign, the Democrats suffered a massive loss of support at the [[Australian legislative election, 2004|2004 Federal election]], reducing them to 1.24% of the national vote. Nowhere was this more noticeable than in their key support base of suburban [[Adelaide]], where they received between 7 and 31% of the Lower House vote at polling booths in 2001, and between 1% and 4% in 2004. None of their Senators up for re-election survived the vote. Most electoral analysts concluded that, while most of the party's left-wing support had gone to the Greens (who now had an equal number of Senate seats with the Democrats and seemed to have taken their place as the leading minor party), many of the party's centrist middle-class voters from a 'wet Liberal' background had returned to the Liberal Party, helping the Howard Government to win a majority in the Senate, the first government to do so for a quarter of a century. With their Senate numbers almost halved, the Democrats face complete annihilation at the next election if the 2004 result is repeated. Following the loss, Bartlett stated that he would not stand down, but in the following month swapped positions with Allison, with Allison becoming the new leader and Bartlett the deputy. However, Allison, like Bartlett, has failed to gain any real media exposure or to increase the party's support in opinion polls. On [[1 July]] [[2005]] the Democrats lost most of their remaining parliamentary influence when the senators elected in 2004 were sworn in, giving the governing Coalition outright control of the Senate. On [[5 January]] [[2006]], the ABC reported that the State Electoral Commission of Tasmania had deregistered that branch of the party for failing to provide a list of members. ==See also== *[[Liberalism]] *[[Liberalism worldwide]] *[[List of liberal parties]] *[[Liberal democracy]] *[[Timeline of (small-l) liberal parties in Australia]] ===External links=== *[http://www.democrats.org.au/ Australian Democrats] official site *[http://www.andrewbartlett.com/ Senator Andrew Bartlett] *[http://www.sa.democrats.org.au/html/ Australian Democrats (SA)] *[http://www.vic.democrats.org.au/ Australian Democrats (VIC)] *[http://www.wa.democrats.org.au/ Australian Democrats (WA)] *[http://www.nsw.democrats.org.au/ Australian Democrats (NSW)] *[http://www.nt.democrats.org.au/ Australian Democrats (NT)] *[http://www.qld.democrats.org.au/ Australian Democrats (QLD)] *[http://www.tas.democrats.org.au/ Australian Democrats (TAS)] *[http://www.act.democrats.org.au/ Australian Democrats (ACT)] *[http://andrewbartlettonline.blogspot.com/ Andrew Bartlett's personal blog] *[http://www.um.com.au/outsiders/ Outsiders: Australian politics discussion site for Democrats] {{Australian political parties}} [[Category:Liberal parties]] [[Category:Political parties in Australia]] [[pl:Australian Democrats]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Australian Capital Territory</title> <id>1944</id> <revision> <id>41848887</id> <timestamp>2006-03-02T03:20:59Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Naconkantari</username> <id>676502</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/61.69.12.17|61.69.12.17]] ([[User talk:61.69.12.17|talk]]) to last version by Naconkantari</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{redirect|ACT}} {{Australia state or territory | Name = Australian Capital Territory | Fullname = Australian Capital Territory | Flag = Flag of the Australian Capital Territory.svg | the = the | CoatOfArms = Canberra_coat_of_arms.jpg | Map = Australian Capital Territory locator-MJC.png | Motto = &quot;Pro Rege, Lege et Grege&quot; (For the Queen, the Law and the People) | Nickname = (none)| Capital = [[Canberra]]| ChiefType = Chief Minister| Chief = [[Jon Stanhope]] | ChiefParty = [[Australian Labor Party|ALP]] | Viceroy = None | ViceroyType = Administrator | PostalAbbreviation = ACT | EntityAdjective = Territorial | GSP = $13,928 | GSPYear = 2001-02 | GSPRank = 6&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt; | GSPPerCapita = $43,168 | GSPPerCapitaRank = 2&lt;sup&gt;nd&lt;/sup&gt; | AreaRank = 8&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt; | TotalArea = 2,358 | LandArea = 2,358 | WaterArea = 0 | HighestElev =[[Mount Bimberi|Mt. Bimberi]] (1,912 m)| LowestElev =[[Murrumbidgee River]] (429 m)| PercentWater = 0 | PopulationRank = 7&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt; | Population = 325,100 | PopulationYear = End of March [[2005]]| DensityRank = 1&lt;sup&gt;st&lt;/sup&gt; | Density = 137.87 | TimeZone = [[UTC10|UTC+10]] ([[UTC11|+11]] [[Daylight Saving Time|DST]]) | HouseSeats = 2 | SenateSeats = 2 | ISOCode = AU-CT | Website = www.act.gov.au }} The '''Australian Capital Territory''' ('''ACT''') is the [[capital territory]] of the [[Australia|Commonwealth of Australia]] and its smallest, but most populous, self-governing territory. It is an inland [[enclave]] in [[New South Wales]], situated in [[bush]]land. The ACT was conceived during the federation conventions of the late 1800s as neutral location for a new National Capital. The [[Constitution of Australia|Australian Constitution]] provided that following [[Federation of Australia|Federation]] in 1901, land would be ceded to the new [[Government of Australia|Federal Government]]. The Territory was transferred to the Commonwealth by the state of [[New South Wales]] in 1911, and construction of the capital, [[Canberra]], began in 1913. The [[floral emblem]] of the ACT is the [[Wahlenbergia gloriosa|Royal Bluebell]] and the faunal emblem is the [[Gang-gang cockatoo]]. ==History== {{main|History of the Australian Capital Territory}} Before European settlement the area now known as the ACT was inhabited by three [[Indigenous Australians|Aboriginal tribes]]: the [[Ngunnawal people|Ngunnawal]], [[Walgalu]], and [[Ngarigo]]. White exploration and settlement did not occur until the [[1820s]]. From 1824 onwards, settlements and home
gypten]] [[eo:Egipta civilizo]] [[es:Antiguo Egipto]] [[fa:مصر باستان]] [[fi:Muinainen Egypti]] [[fr:Égypte antique]] [[gl:Antigo Exipto]] [[he:מצרים העתיקה]] [[hu:Ókori Egyiptom]] [[ja:古代エジプト]] [[ko:이집트 문명]] [[lv:Senā Ēģipte]] [[mk:Антички Египет]] [[ms:Mesir purba]] [[nds:Ole Ägypten]] [[nl:Oude Egypte]] [[no:Oldtidens Egypt]] [[oc:Egipte]] [[pl:Starożytny Egipt]] [[ru:Древний Египет]] [[sl:Stari Egipt]] [[sr:Стари Египат]] [[uk:Стародавній Єгипет]] [[zh:古埃及]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Analog Brothers</title> <id>875</id> <revision> <id>41300881</id> <timestamp>2006-02-26T11:12:46Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Urthogie</username> <id>106482</id> </contributor> <comment>/* External links */ remove category overlap</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Analog Brothers''' is an experimental rap crew featuring Ice Oscillator a.k.a. [[Ice T]] (keyboards, drums, voc), Keith Korg a.k.a. [[Kool Keith]] (bass, strings, vocals), Mark Moog (drums, ''violyns'' and vocals) and Silver Synth (''synthasizer'', ''lazar bell'' and vocals). Their CD ''Pimp To Eat'' featured guest appearances by various members of the [[Rhyme Syndicate]], [[Odd Oberheim]], [[Jacky Jasper]], D.J. Cisco from S.M. and H Bomb, the [[Synth-a-Size Sisters]] and Teflon. ==Discography== * 2000 ''[[Pimp to Eat]]'' (Ground Control/Nu Gruv) ==External links== *{{AMG Artist|sql=11:5f47gjlr26ib|artist=Analog Brothers}} *[http://www.discogs.com/artist/Analog+Brothers Analog Brothers] at [[Discogs]] [[Category:American hip hop groups]] [[Category:Alternative hip hop musicians]] {{hip-hop-stub}}</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Motor neurone disease</title> <id>876</id> <revision> <id>42160271</id> <timestamp>2006-03-04T05:30:24Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>71.251.77.2</ip> </contributor> <comment>/* History and prominent patients */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{DiseaseDisorder infobox | Name = Motor neurone disease | ICD10 = {{ICD10|G|12|2|g|10}} | ICD9 = {{ICD9|335.2}} | }} The '''''motor neurone diseases''''' (MND) are a group of progressive neurological disorders that destroy [[motor neuron]]s, the cells that control voluntary muscle activity such as speaking, walking, breathing, and swallowing. [[Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis]] (ALS), sometimes called [[Lou Gehrig]]'s disease, [[progressive muscular atrophy]] (PMA), [[spinal muscular atrophy]] (SMA), progressive or pseudo-bulbar palsy (PBP) and [[primary lateral sclerosis]] (PLS) are all forms of motor neurone disease. ==Terminology== In this article, MND refers to a group of diseases which affect the motor neurons. In the [[United States]], the term [[ALS]] is more commonly used, where it is also known as [[Lou Gehrig|Lou Gehrig's]] disease, after the [[baseball]] player. Although previously described by other neurologists of the 19th century, it was [[Jean-Martin Charcot]], a [[France|French]] [[neurologist]], who suggested grouping together a number of disparate conditions all affecting the lateral horn of the spinal cord in [[1869]]. In France the disease is sometimes known as Maladie de Charcot (Charcot's disease), although it may also be referred to by the direct translation of ALS, Sclerose Laterale Amyotrophique (SLA). To help prevent confusion, the annual scientific research conference dedicated to the study of MND is called the International ALS/MND Symposium. ==Signs and symptoms== Neurological examination presents specific signs associated with upper and lower motor neuron degeneration. Signs of [[upper motor neuron]] damage include [[spasticity]], brisk [[reflex action|reflexes]] and the [[Babinski sign]]. Signs of [[lower motor neuron]] damage include weakness and muscle atrophy. Note that every muscle group in the body requires both upper and lower motor neurons to function. It is a common misconception that &quot;upper&quot; motor neurons control the arms, whilst &quot;lower&quot; motor neurons control the legs. The signs described above can occur in any muscle group, including the arms, legs, torso, and bulbar region. Symptoms usually present between the ages of 50-70, and include progressive weakness, muscle wasting, and muscle fasciculations; spasticity or stiffness in the arms and legs; and overactive tendon reflexes. Patients may present with symptoms as diverse as a dragging foot, unilateral muscle wasting in the hands, or slurred speech. The symptoms described above may resemble a number of other rare diseases, known as &quot;MND Mimic Disorders&quot;. These include, but are not limited to [[multifocal motor neuropathy]], [[kennedy's disease]], [[hereditary spastic paraplegia]], [[spinal muscular atrophy]] and [[monomelic amyotrophy]]. A small subset of familial MND cases occur in children, such as &quot;juvenile ALS&quot;, Madras syndrome, and individuals who have inherited the ALS2 gene. However, these are not typically referred to as MND, but by their specific names. ==Diagnosis== The diagnosis of MND is a clinical one, established by a neurologist on the basis of history and neurological examination. There is no diagnostic test for MND. Investigations such as blood tests, [[electromyography]] (EMG), [[magnetic resonance imaging]] (MRI), and sometmies [[genetic testing]] are useful to rule out other disorders that may mimic MND. However, the diagnosis of MND remains a clinical one. Having excluded other diseases, a relatively rapid progression of symptoms is a strong diagnostic factor. Although an individual's progression may sometimes &quot;plateau&quot;, it will not recover or slow down. A set of diagnostic criteria called the El Escorial criteria have been defined by the World Federation of Neurologists for use in research, particularly as inclusion/exclusion criteria for clinical trials. Due to a lack of clincial diagnostic criteria, some neurologists use the El Escorial criteria during the diagnostic process, although strictly speaking this is [[functionality creep]]. MND in the presence of both upper and lower motor neuron degeneration is ALS. Where the illness affects only the upper motor neurons it is PLS, and where it affects only the lower motor neurons it is PMA. Progressive bulbar palsy is degneration of the lower motor neurons innervating the bulbar region (mouth, face, and throat), whilst pseudobulbar palsy refers to degeneration of the upper motor neurons to the same region. ==Prognosis== Most cases of MND progess quite quickly, with noticeable decline occuring over the course of months. Although symptoms may present in one region, they will typically spread. If restricted to one side of the body they are more likely to progress to the same region on the other side of the body before progressing to a new region. After several years, most patients require help to carry out activities of daily living such as self care, feeding, and transportation. MND is typically fatal within 2-5 years. Around 50% die within 14 months of diagnosis. The remaining 50% will not necessarily die within the next 14 months as the distribution is significantly skewed. As a rough estimate, 1 in 5 patients survive for 5 years, and 1 in 10 patients survive 10 years. [[Stephen Hawking]] is a well-known example of a person with MND, and has lived for more than 40 years with the disease. Mortality results when the muscles that control breathing are no longer able to expel carbon dioxide. One exception is PLS, which may last for upwards of 25 years. Given the typical age of onset, this effectively leaves most PLS patients with a normal life span. PLS can progress to ALS, decades later. ==Pathology== ===Causes=== About 90% of cases of MND are &quot;sporadic&quot;, meaning that the patient has no family history of ALS and the case appears to have occurred with no known cause. Genetic factors are suspected to be important in determining an individual's susceptibility to disease, and there is some weak evidence to suggest that onset can be &quot;triggered&quot; by as yet unknown environmental factors (see 'Epidemiology' below). Approximately 10% of cases are &quot;familial MND&quot;, defined either by a family history of MND or by testing positive for a known genetic mutation associated with the disease. The following genes are known to be linked to ALS: Cu/Zn superoxide dismutase ''SOD1'', ''ALS2'', ''NEFH''(a small number of cases), senataxin (SETX) and vesicle associated protein B (''VAPB''). Of these, SOD1 mutations account for some 20% of familial MND cases. The ''SOD1'' gene codes for the enzyme [[superoxide dismutase]], a [[radical (chemistry)|free radical]] scavenger that reduces the [[oxidative stress]] of cells throughout the body. So far over 100 different mutations in the SOD1 gene have been found, all of which cause some form of ALS([http://www.alsod.org ALSOD database]). In North America, the most commonly occurring mutation is known as A4V and occurs in up to 50% of SOD1 cases. In people of [[Scandinavia]]n extraction there is a relatively benign mutation called D90A which is associated with a slow progression. Future research is concentrating on identifying new genetic mutations and the clinical syndrome associated with them. Familial MND may also confer a higher risk of developing cognitive changes such as frontotemporal dementia or executive dysfunction (see 'extra-motor change in MND' below). It is thought that ''SOD1'' mutations confer a toxic gain, rather than a loss, of function to the enzyme. SOD1 mutations may increase the propensity for the enzyme to form protein aggregates which are toxic to nerve cells. ===Pathophysiology=== [[Skeletal muscle]]s are innervated by a group of neurons (''lower motor neurons'') located on the ventral surface of the spinal cord which project to the muscle cells. These nerve cells are themselves innervated by the cor
ston Martin Vantage|Vantage]]. ===Changing ownership=== Despite the cars' appreciation in value, the company was often financially troubled. In [[1972]], it was sold to a [[Birmingham]]-based consortium, and resold in [[1975]] to the North American businessmen Peter Sprague and George Minden. The new American owners pushed the company into modernizing its line, producing the [[Aston Martin V8 Vantage (1977)|V8 Vantage]] in [[1977]], the convertible [[Aston Martin V8|Volante]] in [[1978]], and the one-off William Towns-styled [[Aston Martin Bulldog|Bulldog]] in [[1980]]. Towns also styled the futuristic new [[Aston Martin Lagonda|Lagonda]] saloon, based on the existing V8 model. The Americans sold the company to CH Industrial, who themselves turned the company over in [[1983]] to Automotive Investments who, in turn, lasted barely a year before selling the company to Peter Livanos and company chairman Victor Gauntlett. At last, in [[1986]], the [[Ford Motor Company]] purchased 75 per cent of the company, later gaining complete control of the company. In [[1988]], having produced some 5,000 cars in twenty years, the company finally retired the ancient V8 and introduced the [[Aston Martin Virage|Virage]] range. In [[1992]], the [[Aston Martin Virage#Vantage|Vantage]] version was announced, and the following year the company renewed the DB range by announcing the [[Aston Martin DB7|DB7]]. ===The Ford era=== In [[1993]], Ford finally bought Victor Gauntlett's shares and took full control of the firm, placing it in the [[Premier Automotive Group|Ford Premier Automotive Group]]. Ford substantially invested in new manufacturing and quickly ramped-up production. In 1994, Ford opened a new factory at Banbury Road in [[Bloxham]]. In [[1995]], the company produced a record 700 vehicles, in [[1998]] the 2,000th DB7 was built, and in [[2002]] the 6,000th &amp;mdash; exceeding production of all previous DB models. The DB7 range was boosted by the addition of [[Aston Martin DB7|V12 Vantage]] models in [[1999]], and in [[2001]] the company introduced the V12-engine [[Aston Martin Vanquish|Vanquish]]. 2003 was a significant year for Aston Martin. At the North American International Auto Show in [[Detroit, Michigan]], U.S.A., Aston Martin introduced the new [[Aston Martin V8 Vantage (2005)|AMV8 Vantage]] concept car. Expected to have few changes before its introduction in 2005, the new AMV8 Vantage brings back the classic V8 engine and will allow the company to compete in a larger market. The year also saw the opening of the [[Gaydon]] factory, the first purpose-built factory in Aston Martin's history. Also introduced in 2003, was the new [[Aston Martin DB9|DB9]] coupé, which replaces the ten-year-old DB7. A convertible version of the DB9, known as the DB9 Volante, was introduced at the 2004 Detroit Auto Show. In December 2003, Aston Martin announced they would return to motor racing in 2005. A new division was created, called [[Aston Martin Racing]], who will be responsible, together with [[Prodrive]], for the design, development, and management of the DBR9 program. The DBR9 will compete in the GT class in [[sports car racing|sports car races]] including the world-famous [[24 hours of Le Mans]]. == Models == Aston Martin's model naming can be confusing to the uninitiated. In general, high performance models use the &quot;[[Aston Martin Vantage (disambiguation)|Vantage]]&quot; name, while convertibles are called ''Volante''. ===Pre War cars=== * 1921-1925 Aston Martin Standard Sports * 1927-1932 Aston Martin First Series * 1929-1932 Aston Martin International * 1932-1932 Aston Martin International Le Mans * 1932-1934 Aston Martin Le Mans * 1933-1934 Aston Martin 12/50 Standard * 1934-1936 Aston Martin Mk II * 1934-1936 Aston Martin Ulster * 1936-1938 Aston Martin 2 litre Speed * 1937-1939 Aston Martin 15/98 * 1939-1939 Aston Martin 2 litre C-Type === Post War GT cars === * 1948&amp;ndash;1950 [[Aston Martin 2-Litre Sports|Aston Martin 2-Litre Sports (DB1)]] * 1950&amp;ndash;1953 [[Aston Martin DB2]] * 1953&amp;ndash;1957 [[Aston Martin DB2/4]] * 1957&amp;ndash;1959 [[Aston Martin DB Mark III]] * 1958&amp;ndash;1963 [[Aston Martin DB4]] ** 1961&amp;ndash;1963 [[Aston Martin DB4 GT Zagato]] * 1963&amp;ndash;1965 [[Aston Martin DB5]] * 1965&amp;ndash;1969 [[Aston Martin DB6]] * 1967&amp;ndash;1972 [[Aston Martin DBS]] * 1969&amp;ndash;1989 [[Aston Martin V8]] * 1993&amp;ndash;2003 [[Aston Martin DB7]] ** 1993&amp;ndash;1999 [[Aston Martin DB7]] ** 1999&amp;ndash;2003 [[Aston Martin DB7|Aston Martin V12 Vantage]] ** 2002&amp;ndash;2004 [[Aston Martin DB AR1]] * 2004&amp;ndash; [[Aston Martin DB9]] * 2005&amp;ndash; [[Aston Martin V8 Vantage (2005)|Aston Martin V8 Vantage]] * 2008&amp;ndash; [[Aston Martin Rapide|Aston Martin Rapide]] === Post War Supercars === * 1977&amp;ndash;1989 [[Aston Martin V8 Vantage (1977)|Aston Martin V8 Vantage]] * 1986&amp;ndash;1990 [[Aston Martin V8 Zagato]] * 1989&amp;ndash;2000 [[Aston Martin Virage]] ** 1989&amp;ndash;1996 [[Aston Martin Virage|Aston Martin Virage/Virage Volante]] ** 1993&amp;ndash;2000 [[Aston Martin Virage|Aston Martin Vantage]] ** 1996&amp;ndash;2000 [[Aston Martin Virage|Aston Martin V8 Coupe/V8 Volante]] * 2001&amp;ndash; [[Aston Martin V12 Vanquish]] ** 2004&amp;ndash; [[Aston Martin V12 Vanquish|Aston Martin V12 Vanquish S]] === Other === * 1961&amp;ndash;1964 [[Lagonda Rapide]] * 1976&amp;ndash;1989 [[Aston Martin Lagonda]] * 1980 [[Aston Martin Bulldog]] === Current Models === * [[Aston_Martin_V8_Vantage_%282005%29|V8 Vantage]] * [[Aston_Martin_DB9|DB9 &amp; DB9 Volante]] * [[Aston_Martin_Vanquish|Vanquish &amp; Vanquish S]] * [[Aston Martin Rapide|Rapide]] (possible [[sedan (car)|saloon]] for 2007) == Race Cars == See also: [[List of Formula One constructors]] * [[Aston Martin DB3]] * [[Aston Martin DB3S]] * [[Aston Martin DBR1]] * [[Aston Martin DBR2]] * [[Aston Martin DBR3]] * [[Aston Martin DBR4]] * [[Aston Martin DBR5]] * [[Aston Martin DP212]] * [[Aston Martin DP214]] * [[Aston Martin DP215]] * [[Lola - Aston Martin]] * [[Aston Martin Nimrod]] (1981-1984) * [[Aston Martin AMR1]] (1989) * [[Aston Martin DBR9]] (2005-) * [[Aston Martin DBRS9]] (2005-) == Astons on film == The very British glamour of Aston Martin cars meant they were a natural choice for the [[James Bond]] series of action films, notably the silver DB5 that appears in ''[[Goldfinger]]'' (1964) and ''[[Thunderball]]'' (1965) as James Bond's company car, and then in ''[[GoldenEye]]'' (1995) and ''[[Tomorrow Never Dies]]'' (1997) as his private car. In ''[[On Her Majesty's Secret Service]]'' (1969) there appears, for a short time, a charcoal grey DBS. After an interlude with [[Lotus (car)|Lotus]], Aston Martins were again used, a charcoal grey Volante in ''[[The Living Daylights]]'' (1987), and, after another hiatus, the Vanquish appeared in ''[[Die Another Day]]'' (2002). In early 2004, Henrik Fisker, Design Director at Aston Martin, revealed that James Bond will be driving the new DBS [http://www.classicdriver.com/uk/magazine/3300.asp?id=12807] in [[Casino Royale (2006 film)|Casino Royale]] to be released in 2006. ''[[The Italian Job]]'' (1969) features a silver DB4 Convertible, owned by crook Charlie Croker, played by [[Michael Caine]]. Later, this car is destroyed in a [[Mafia]] ambush, along with a pair of [[E-type Jaguar]]s. The cars were meant to serve as getaway vehicles in the subsequent robbery &quot;in case anything goes wrong.&quot; The gang decide to proceed despite this loss, and the question of what happens if anything goes wrong is pointedly ignored by Croker. Interestingly, the filming of the Aston going over the cliff was not considered dramatic enough by the director (due to the explosion looking too &quot;faked&quot;) and so rather than destroy another Aston, a [[Lancia]] mocked up to look like its British counterpart was pushed over the edge for the second take. In the 2003 remake with the same title, the character Handsome Rob, played by Jason Statham, ends up driving an Aston Martin, but not the Vanquish that he wanted. Instead, it is a DB7 Volante. An Aston Martin also appeared in Alfred Hitchcock's The Birds. == Toy Models == [[Image:CorgiDB5.JPG|thumb|right|200px|Corgi model car- Aston Martin DB5 (new version)]] Aston Martin has also had a presence in the toy industry; one of the most famous toy cars ever was the ''Corgi James Bond Aston Martin DB5'', pictured here. First released in 1965 and then re-released some years later, it has provided many generations of children with a taste of the Aston Martin legend. ==External links== * [http://www.astonmartin.com Aston Martin Lagonda Ltd.] - Official Company Site * [http://www.astonmartinracing.com Aston Martin Racing] - Official Company Site * [http://www.amoc.org Aston Martin Owners Club]- Official Aston Martin Owners Club Site and Forum * [http://www.amoc-na.org Aston Martin Owners Club - Canada/USA] * [http://www.astonmartins.com Aston Martin Picture Gallery] * [http://www.astonforum.com Aston Martin Forum] - A New Site for Aston Martin Owners * [http://www.aston-win.com Aston-Win] - Win an Aston Martin DB9 * [http://www.aston-hire.com Aston-Hire] - THE Specialist Aston Martin Rental Company {{Aston Martin}} {{Ford Motor Company}} [[Category:Aston Martin| ]] [[da:Aston Martin]] [[de:Aston Martin]] [[fr:Aston Martin]] [[nl:Aston Martin]] [[id:Aston Martin]] [[ja:アストンマーチン]] [[no:Aston Martin]] [[pl:Aston Martin]] [[fi:Aston Martin]] [[sv:Aston Martin]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Albert Pike</title> <id>2371</id> <revision> <id>41838566</id> <timestamp>2006-03-02T01:55:04Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Milesnfowler</username> <id>470628</id> </contributor> <comment>/* Albert Pike and the Ku Klux Klan */ rewording and clarifying</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Albert Pike''' (born [[December 29]], [[1809]] in [
</page> <page> <title>Indus civilization</title> <id>15344</id> <revision> <id>15912820</id> <timestamp>2003-11-08T10:59:03Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Minesweeper</username> <id>7279</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>fix double redir</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Indus Valley Civilization]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>IEE</title> <id>15345</id> <revision> <id>15912821</id> <timestamp>2002-10-30T12:14:03Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Heron</username> <id>2954</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Institute -&gt; Institution (I checked their web site)</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Institution of Electrical Engineers]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Institute of National Remembrance</title> <id>15346</id> <revision> <id>40304888</id> <timestamp>2006-02-19T18:06:35Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Darwinek</username> <id>107928</id> </contributor> <minor /> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Institute of National Remembrance''' ({{lang-pl|Instytut Pamięci Narodowej}}; '''IPN''') is a [[Poland|Polish]] [[organization|institution]] created by the [[IPN Act]] in [[18 December]] [[1998]]. Its main purpose is investigating [[Nazi]] and [[Communist]] crimes, taking care of documentation about them, providing this documentation to the public, prosecuting those who committed such crimes and educating the public in this respect. The main focus of the Institute are crimes omitted by the communist authorities of Poland prior to [[1989]]. The first president of the IPN was [[Leon Kieres]], elected by the [[Sejm]] for 5 years in [[8 June]] [[2000]]. The second president is Janusz Kurtyka, elected on 9th of December, 2005. The IPN is divided into: * Committee for the Prosecution of Crimes Against the Polish Nation (Komisja Ścigania Zbrodni Przeciwko Narodowi Polskiemu) * Bureau of Provision and Archivization of Documents (Biuro Udostępniania i Archiwizacji Dokumentów) * Bureau of Public Education (Biuro Edukacji Publicznej) * Local chapters The most widely reported case investigated by the IPN thus far is the [[Jedwabne Pogrom]]. Other cases include: [[Salomon Morel]] {{gov-stub}} {{Poland-stub}} ==External links== * [http://www.ipn.gov.pl/index_eng.html IPN Home Page] (English) [[Category:Polish organizations]] [[category:History of Poland (1989–present)]] [[de:Institut für Nationales Gedenken]] [[fr:Instytut Pamięci Narodowej]] [[pl:Instytut Pamięci Narodowej]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Intelligence</title> <id>15347</id> <revision> <id>35420295</id> <timestamp>2006-01-16T17:25:35Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>KnightRider</username> <id>430793</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>warnfile Adding: es</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Intelligence''' has several different meanings: * [[Intelligence (trait)]] is the ability to solve problems ** [[Animal intelligence]] ** [[Artificial intelligence]] ** ''[[Intelligence (journal)]]'', a scientific journal dealing with intelligence and psychometrics * [[Intelligence (information gathering)]], often including espionage ** [[Business intelligence]] ** [[Criminal intelligence]] ** [[Military intelligence]] {{disambig}} [[da:Intelligent]] [[de:Intelligenz]] [[es:Inteligencia (desambiguación)]] [[it:Intelligenza]] [[pl:Inteligencja]] [[zh:智力]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Intelligent</title> <id>15348</id> <revision> <id>15912824</id> <timestamp>2005-01-25T05:00:30Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Dbenbenn</username> <id>38020</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>#REDIRECT [[Intelligence (trait)]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Intelligence (trait)]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Intelligence Test</title> <id>15349</id> <revision> <id>15912825</id> <timestamp>2005-03-20T16:34:50Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>ABCD</username> <id>127474</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>fix redirect</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Intelligence quotient]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Intelligence testing</title> <id>15350</id> <revision> <id>15912826</id> <timestamp>2005-02-14T20:06:52Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Vardion</username> <id>25556</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>fixing double redirect</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Intelligence quotient]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>IQ test</title> <id>15351</id> <revision> <id>15912827</id> <timestamp>2005-02-14T01:36:09Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Yelyos</username> <id>28559</id> </contributor> <comment>fix double redirect</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Intelligence quotient]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Identical particles</title> <id>15352</id> <revision> <id>37658171</id> <timestamp>2006-02-01T10:44:01Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Charles Matthews</username> <id>12978</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>+cat</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Identical particles''', or '''indistinguishable particles''', are [[particle]]s that cannot be distinguished from one another, even in principle. Species of identical particles include [[elementary particle]]s such as [[electron]]s, as well as composite microscopic particles such as [[atom]]s. There are two main categories of identical particles: [[boson]]s, which can share [[quantum state]]s, and [[fermion]]s, which are forbidden from sharing quantum states (this property of fermions is known as the [[Pauli exclusion principle]].) Examples of bosons are [[photon]]s, [[gluon]]s, [[phonon]]s, and [[helium|helium-4]] atoms. Examples of fermions are [[electron]]s, [[neutrino]]s, [[quark]]s, [[proton]]s and [[neutron]]s, and [[helium-3]] atoms. The fact that particles can be identical has important consequences in [[statistical mechanics]]. Calculations in statistical mechanics rely on probabilistic arguments, which are sensitive to whether or not the objects being studied are identical. As a result, identical particles exhibit markedly different statistical behavior from distinguishable particles. For example, the indistinguishability of particles has been proposed as a solution to Gibb's [[mixing paradox]]. == Distinguishing between particles == There are two ways in which one might distinguish between particles. The first method relies on differences in the particles' intrinsic physical properties, such as [[mass]], [[electric charge]], and [[spin (physics)|spin]]. If differences exist, we can distinguish between the particles by measuring the relevant properties. However, it is an empirical fact that microscopic particles of the same species have completely equivalent physical properties. For instance, every electron in the universe has exactly the same electric charge; this is why we can speak of such a thing as &quot;[[Elementary charge|the charge of the electron]]&quot;. Even if the particles have equivalent physical properties, there remains a second method for distinguishing between particles, which is to track the trajectory of each particle. As long as we can measure the position of each particle with infinite precision (even when the particles collide), there would be no ambiguity about which particle is which. The problem with this approach is that it contradicts the principles of [[quantum mechanics]]. According to quantum theory, the particles do not possess definite positions during the periods between measurements. Instead, they are governed by [[wavefunction]]s that give the probability of finding a particle at each position. As time passes, the wavefunctions tend to spread out and overlap. Once this happens, it becomes impossible to determine, in a subsequent measurement, which of the particle positions correspond to those measured earlier. The particles are then said to be ''indistinguishable''. == Quantum mechanical description of identical particles == === Symmetrical and antisymmetrical states === We will now make the above discussion concrete, using the formalism developed in the article on the [[mathematical formulation of quantum mechanics]]. For simplicity, consider a system composed of two identical particles. As the particles possess equivalent physical properties, their state vectors occupy mathematically identical [[Hilbert space]]s. If we denote the Hilbert space of a single particle as ''H'', then the Hilbert space of the combined system is formed by the [[tensor product]] ''H&amp;times;H''. Let ''n'' denote a complete set of (discrete) quantum numbers for specifying single-particle states (for example, for the [[particle in a box]] problem we can take ''n'' to be the quantized [[wave vector]] of the wavefunction.) Suppose that one particle is in the state ''n''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;, and another is in the state ''n''&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;. What is the quantum state of the system? We might guess that it is :&lt;math&gt; |n_1\rang |n_2\rang &lt;/math&gt; which is simply the canonical way of constructing a basis for a tensor product space from the individual spaces. However, this expression implies that we can identify the particle with ''n''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt; as &quot;particle 1&quot; and the particle with ''n''&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; as &quot;particle 2&quot;, which conflicts with t
of the [[Kenya|Republic of Kenya]]. *[[1969]] - ''[[Strategy of tension|Strategia della tensione]]'': [[Piazza Fontana bombing]] - The offices of Banca Nazionale dell'Agricoltura in Piazza Fontana, [[Milan]], are bombed. *[[1979]] - [[Coup d'état of December Twelfth]]: [[South Korean]] military officer [[Chun Doo-hwan]] orders the arrest of Army Chief of Staff General Jeong Seung-hwa without authorization from President [[Choi Kyu-ha]], alleging involvement in the assassination of ex-President [[Park Chung Hee]]. *1979 - [[Pakistan]] President [[Zia-ul-Haq]] conferred ''Nishan-e-Imtiaz'' on Nobel laureate Dr [[Abdus Salam]]. *1979 - [[Rhodesia]] changes its name to [[Zimbabwe]]. *[[1982]] - Women's peace protest at [[Greenham Common]] - 30,000 women hold hands and form a human chain around the 14.5 km (9 mi) perimeter fence. *[[1985]] - [[Arrow Air Flight 1285]] crashes after takeoff in Gander, [[Newfoundland]] killing 256, including 248 members of the [[United States Army]]'s [[101st Airborne Division]]. *[[1990]] - [[Pakistan]] became 37th country in the world to send an expedition to [[Antarctica]]. *[[1996]] - [[Uday Hussein]] is seriously injured in an assassination attempt. *[[2000]] - The [[Supreme Court of the United States|United States Supreme Court]] releases its decision in ''[[Bush v. Gore]]'', deciding the [[U.S. presidential election, 2000|presidential election of 2000]]. *[[2003]] - [[Paul Martin, Jr.]] is sworn-in as the 21st [[Prime Minister of Canada]]. *2003 - [[Keiko]], the star orca whale of ''[[Free Willy]]'' ==Births== *[[1298]] - Archduke [[Albert II of Austria]] (d. [[1358]]) *[[1418]] - Archduke [[Albert VI of Austria]] (d. [[1463]]) *[[1574]] - [[Anne of Denmark]], Queen of [[James I of England]] (d. [[1619]]) *[[1610]] - [[Saint Vasilije]] (d. [[1671]]) *[[1712]] - [[Prince Charles of Lorraine]], Austrian military leader (d. [[1780]]) *[[1724]] - [[Samuel Hood, 1st Viscount Hood]], British admiral (d. [[1816]]) *[[1745]] - [[John Jay]], [[Chief Justice of the United States]] (d. [[1829]]) *[[1779]] - [[Madeline Sophie Barat]], French saint (d. [[1865]]) *[[1786]] - [[William L. Marcy]], American statesman (d. [[1857]]) *[[1799]] - [[Karl Briullov]], Russian painter (d. [[1852]]) *[[1805]] - [[William Lloyd Garrison]], American abolitionist (d. [[1879]]) *[[1806]] - [[Stand Watie]], American Confederate general and Cherokee leader (d. [[1871]]) *[[1821]] - [[Gustave Flaubert]], French writer (d. [[1880]]) *[[1863]] - [[Edvard Munch]], Norwegian expressionist painter (d. [[1944]]) *[[1864]] - [[Paul Elmer More]], American critic and essayist (d. [[1937]]) *[[1866]] - [[Alfred Werner]], German chemist and [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry|Nobel Prize]] laureate (d. [[1919]]) *[[1870]] - [[Walter Benona Sharp]], American oil baron (d. [[1912]]) *[[1876]] - [[Alvin Kraenzlein]], American athlete and Olympic gold medalist (d. [[1928]]) *[[1887]] - [[Kurt Atterberg]], Swedish composer (d. [[1974]]) *[[1892]] - [[Herman Potocnik|Herman Poto&amp;#269;nik Noordung]], Austro-Hungarian-born rocket engineer (d. [[1929]]) *[[1893]] - [[Edward G. Robinson]], American actor (d. [[1973]]) *[[1900]] - [[Sammy Davis, Sr.]], American dancer (d. [[1988]]) *[[1903]] - [[Dagmar Nordstrom]], American composer and pianist (d. [[1976]]) *1903 - [[Yasujiro Ozu]], Japanese film director (d. [[1963]]) *[[1904]] - Baron [[Nicolas de Gunzburg]], magazine editor and socialite (d. [[1981]]) *[[1905]] - [[Manes Sperber|Mànes Sperber]], Austro-Hungarian-born writer (d. [[1984]]) *[[1914]] - [[Patrick O'Brian]] (Richard Patrick Russ), British author (d. [[2000]]) *[[1915]] - [[Frank Sinatra]], American singer and actor (d. [[1998]]) *[[1918]] - [[Joe Williams (jazz singer)|Joe Williams]], American singer (d. [[1999]]) *[[1919]] - [[Olivia Barclay]], British astrologer (d. [[2001]]) *[[1923]] - [[Bob Barker]], American television game show host *[[1924]] - [[Ed Koch]], Mayor of New York City *[[1927]] - [[Honor Blackman]], British actress *1927 - [[Robert Noyce]], American inventor (d. [[1990]]) *[[1928]] - [[Chinghiz Aitmatov]], Soviet-born Kyrgyz writer *[[1929]] - [[John Osborne]], British dramatist (d. [[1994]]) *1929 - [[Toshiko Akiyoshi]], Japanese musician *[[1932]] - [[Bob Pettit]], American basketball player *[[1934]] - [[Miguel de la Madrid Hurtado|Miguel de la Madrid]], [[President of Mexico]] *[[1938]] - [[Connie Francis]], American singer *[[1940]] - [[Sharad Pawar]], Indian politician *1940 - [[Dionne Warwick]], American singer *[[1943]] - [[Dickey Betts]], American guitarist and singer ([[The Allman Brothers]]) *1943 - [[Grover Washington, Jr.]], American saxophonist (d. [[1999]]) *[[1946]] - [[Emerson Fittipaldi]], Brazilian racing driver and Formula 1 World Champion *[[1950]] - [[Rajnikanth]] (Shivaji Rao Gaekwad), Indian actor *[[1952]] - [[Cathy Rigby]], American gymnast and actress *[[1956]] - [[Johan Van der Velde]], Dutch cyclist *[[1957]] - [[Sheila E.]], American musician *[[1962]] - [[Tracy Austin]], American tennis player *[[1966]] - [[Royce Gracie]], Brazilian martial artist *[[1967]] - [[John Randle]], American football player *[[1968]] - [[Laurie Williams]], Indian cricket player *[[1970]] - [[Jennifer Connelly]], American actress *1970 - [[Madchen Amick]], American Actress *[[1974]] - [[Rey Mysterio, Jr.]], American Wrestler *1974 - [[Nolberto Solano]], Peruvian footballer *[[1975]] - [[Mayim Bialik]], American Actress *[[1976]] - [[Dan Hawkins]], British guitarist ([[The Darkness]]) *[[1977]] - [[Orlando Hudson]], American baseball player *[[1978]] - [[Monica Barladeanu]], Romanian actress *1978 - [[Evren Genis]], Turkish composer *[[1979]] - [[Garrett Atkins]], American baseball player *1979 - [[Nate Clements]], American football player *[[1981]] - [[Jeret Peterson]], American aerial skier *1981 - [[Yuvraj Singh]], Indian cricket player *1981 - [[Stephen Warnock]], British footballer *[[1983]] - [[Katrina Elam]], American singer *1983 - [[Brad Smith]], American football player *[[1989]] - [[Harry Eden]], British actor &lt;!-- Do not add yourself, or anyone else without a Wikipedia article, to this list --&gt; ==Deaths== *[[884]] - [[Carloman, King of the West Franks]] *[[1212]] - [[Geoffrey, Archbishop of York]] *[[1569]] - [[Metropolitan Philip]] of Moscow (b. [[1507]]) *[[1574]] - [[Selim II]], [[Ottoman Sultan]] (b. [[1524]]) *[[1685]] - [[John Pell]], English mathematician (b. [[1610]]) *[[1751]] - [[Henry St John, 1st Viscount Bolingbroke]], English statesman and philosopher (b. [[1678]]) *[[1754]] - [[Wu Jingzi]], Chinese writer (b. [[1701]]) *[[1766]] - [[Johann Christoph Gottsched]], German writer (b. [[1700]]) *[[1789]] - [[John Ponsonby]], Irish politician (b. [[1713]]) *[[1790]] - [[Mikhail Shcherbatov]], Russian philosopher and writer (b. [[1733]]) *[[1843]] - King [[William I of the Netherlands]], (b. [[1772]]) *[[1889]] - [[Robert Browning]], British poet (b. [[1812]]) *[[1894]] - Sir [[John Sparrow David Thompson|John Thompson]], fourth [[Prime Minister of Canada]] (b. [[1845]]) *[[1913]] - Emperor [[Menelek II of Ethiopia]] (b. [[1844]]) *[[1923]] - [[Raymond Radiguet]], French author (b. [[1903]]) *[[1926]] - [[Jean Richepin]], French poet (b. [[1849]]) *[[1929]] - [[Charles Goodnight]], American cattle baron (b. [[1836]]) *[[1939]] - [[Douglas Fairbanks]], American actor (b. [[1883]]) *[[1952]] - [[Bedrich Hrozny|Bed&amp;#345;ich Hrozný]], Austro-Hungarian-born Czechoslovak orientalist and linguist (b. [[1879]]) *[[1963]] - [[Ozu Yasujiro]], Japanese film director (b. [[1903]]) *[[1968]] - [[Tallulah Bankhead]], American actress (b. [[1902]]) *[[1970]] - [[Doris Blackburn]], Australian politician (b. [[1889]]) *[[1971]] - [[David Sarnoff]], Russian-born American General Manager of RCA(b. [[1891]]) *[[1976]] - [[Vinko Zganec]], Croatian [[ethnomusicologist]] (b. [[1890]]) *[[1985]] - [[Anne Baxter]], American actress (b. [[1923]]) *[[1994]] - [[Stuart Roosa]], American astronaut (b. [[1933]]) *[[1996]] - [[Vance Packard]], American author (b. [[1914]]) *[[1999]] - [[Joseph Heller]], American author (b. [[1923]]) *[[2001]] - [[Jean Richard]], French actor (b. [[1921]]) *[[2002]] - [[Dee Brown]], American author (b. [[1908]]) *[[2003]] - [[Geidar Aliev]], [[President of Azerbaijan]] *2003 - [[Joseph Anthony Ferrario]], American Catholic prelate (b. [[1926]]) ==Holidays and observances== * [[Calendar of Saints|R.C. Saints]] - optional memorial of [[Our Lady of Guadalupe]] * Also see [[December 12 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)]] *[[Bahá'í Faith]] - Feast of Masá'il (Questions) - First day of the 15th month of the Bahá'í Calendar * [[Kenya]] - ''Jamhuri Day'': [[Independence Day]] (from Britain, [[1963]]) * [[United Nations]] - [[Digital Solidarity Day]] == External links == * [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/december/12 BBC: On This Day] ---- [[December 11]] - [[December 13]] - [[November 12]] - [[January 12]] -- [[historical anniversaries|listing of all days]] {{months}} [[af:12 Desember]] [[ar:12 ديسمبر]] [[an:12 d'abiento]] [[ast:12 d'avientu]] [[bg:12 декември]] [[be:12 сьнежня]] [[bs:12. decembar]] [[br:12 Kerzu]] [[ca:12 de desembre]] [[ceb:Disyembre 12]] [[cv:Раштав, 12]] [[co:12 di decembre]] [[cs:12. prosinec]] [[cy:12 Rhagfyr]] [[da:12. december]] [[de:12. Dezember]] [[et:12. detsember]] [[el:12 Δεκεμβρίου]] [[es:12 de diciembre]] [[eo:12-a de decembro]] [[eu:Abenduaren 12]] [[fo:12. desember]] [[fr:12 décembre]] [[fy:12 desimber]] [[ga:12 Nollaig]] [[gl:12 de decembro]] [[ko:12월 12일]] [[hr:12. prosinca]] [[io:12 di decembro]] [[id:12 Desember]] [[ia:12 de decembre]] [[is:12. desember]] [[it:12 dicembre]] [[he:12 בדצמבר]] [[jv:12 Desember]] [[ka:12 დეკემბერი]] [[csb:12 gòdnika]] [[ku:12'ê berfanbarê]] [[la:12 Decembris]] [[lt:Gruodžio 12]] [[lb:12. Dezember]] [[hu:December 12]] [[mk:12 декември]] [[ms:12 Disember]] [[nap:12 'e dicembre]] [[nl:12 december]] [[ja:12月12日]] [[no:12. desember]] [[nn:12. desember]] [[oc:12 de decembre]] [[pl:12 grudn
ongo * [[Alliance Air]] (airline code CD) * [[Cadmium]] (chemical element Cd) * [[Canadian Forces Decoration]] (Canadian decoration post-nominal letters) * [[Candela]] (cd, a unit of light intensity) * [[Cash dispenser]], in Japan * [[CD-ROM]] * [[Centre Democrats]] of Denmark * [[Certificate of deposit]] * ''[[České Dráhy]]''' (Czech Railways) * [[Chad]] (FIPS 10-4 country code) * [[Chart datum]], in nautical charts * [[chdir]], a Unix and DOS command * [[Christian Dior]] * [[Circular dichroism]] * [[Civil defense]] * [[Cluster of differentiation]] (e.g. CD4 or CD8 lymphocytes) * [[Columbus Dispatch]] * [[Companion dog title]] * [[Conference on Disarmament]], organized by the United Nations * [[Congressional district]] * [[Controlled Drug]] * [[Convertible Debenture]] * [[Corps Diplomatique]] * [[Critical Dimension]] in optics and physics * [[Crossdresser]] * [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] (ISO 3166 country code) * [[Drag coefficient]] (C&lt;sub&gt;d&lt;/sub&gt;) * A 1960s Panhard race car designed by [[Charles Deutsch]] {{2LCdisambig}} [[ca:Cd]] [[cs:CD (rozcestník)]] [[da:Cd]] [[de:CD]] [[es:Cd]] [[fr:CD]] [[ko:CD]] [[it:Cd]] [[nl:CD]] [[ja:CD]] [[nn:CD]] [[pl:CD]] [[ru:CD]] [[sl:CD]] [[zh:CD]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Cyberspace</title> <id>7381</id> <revision> <id>41465591</id> <timestamp>2006-02-27T15:04:31Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>66.94.94.154</ip> </contributor> <comment>/* Origins of the Word */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Cyberspace''', a metaphoric abstraction used in [[philosophy]] and [[computing]], is a [[virtual reality|(virtual) reality]] which represents the [[Noosphere]]/[[Popperian_cosmology#Worlds 1, 2 and 3]] both ''&quot;inside&quot;'' computers and ''&quot;on&quot;'' computer networks. == Origins of the Word == The word &quot;cyberspace&quot; (a [[portmanteau]] of [[cybernetics]] and [[space]]) was coined by [[William Gibson (novelist)|William Gibson]], the [[Canada|Canadian]] science fiction writer, in [[1982]] in his novelette [[Hackers (short stories)#&quot;Burning Chrome&quot;|&quot;Burning Chrome&quot;]] in ''[[Omni (magazine)|Omni]]'' magazine and was subsequently popularized in his novel ''[[Neuromancer]]''. &quot;[[Meatspace]]&quot; is a term coined later as an opposite of &quot;cyberspace&quot;. While cyberspace should not be confused with the real [[Internet]], the term is often used simply to refer to objects and identities that exist largely within the computing network itself, so that a [[website|web site]], for example, might be metaphorically said to &quot;exist in cyberspace.&quot; According to this interpretation, events taking place on the Internet are not therefore happening in the countries where the participants or the servers are physically located, but &quot;in cyberspace&quot;. This becomes a reasonable viewpoint once distributed services (e.g. [[Freenet]] or [[bittorrent]]) become widespread, and the physical identity and location of the participants become impossible to determine due to [[Anonymity|anonymous]] or [[pseudonymity|pseudonymous]] communication. The laws of any particular nation state would therefore not apply. See [[crypto-anarchism]]. Besides aiding the [[layman]]'s [[Suspension of disbelief|suspension of disbelief]] in fictional works, the success of this rather ambitiously ambiguous metaphor is in large part due to the splintering of the profession of [[Computer_programmer|Computer Programmer]] into various specialized vocations. As [http://three.org/ippolito/home.html John Ippolito] put it: &lt;blockquote&gt; ''&quot;These days there is no reason to expect a video editor to know HTML, a web designer to know perl, a database programmer to understand packet switching.''&lt;br&gt; &lt;br&gt; ''So to introduce his readers to cyberspace —the global fabric that supposedly knits together all these separate threads— Gibson fell back on something our culture had prepared everyone to understand: a chase sequence through an imagined space. It would seem, therefore, that the metaphor of cyberspace is not merely a narrative of convenience but a practical necessity&quot;.'' &lt;/blockquote&gt; As well as being a concept used in philosophy and computing, cyberspace has been commonly used in popular culture, for example * The anime ''[[Digimon]]'' is set in a version of cyberspace called the &quot;Digital World&quot;. The Digital World is a [[Parallel universe (fiction)|parallel universe]] made up of data from the Internet. Similar to cyberspace, except that people could physically enter this world instead of merely using a computer. * In the math mystery cartoon ''[[Cyberchase]],'' the action takes place in Cyberspace, managed by the benevolent ruler, [[Motherboard (Cyberchase)|Motherboard]]. It is used as a conceit to allow storylines to take place in virtual worlds -- &quot;[[Cybersite]]s&quot; -- on any theme and where specific math concepts can be best explored. * In the movie ''[[Tron (movie)|Tron]]'', a programmer was transferred to the program world, where programs were personalities, resembling the forms of their creators. * The idea of &quot;the matrix&quot; in the movie ''[[The Matrix]]'' resembles a complex form of cyberspace where people are &quot;jacked in&quot; from the real world, and can create anything and do anything they want in this cyber world. * In the EXE series of MegaMan, there is a place where A.I. programs called NetNavis can &quot;jack in&quot; to Cyberspace from about any electrical appliance. Although cyberspace is a common idea it can mean several different types of virtual reality. In the rest of this article we will explore a few, starting with the simplest and then increasing its complexity one after another until reaching the logical extremity. ==Cyberspace As a Metaphor: Text-Based Internet-Surfing== The word “cyberspace” is A currently used in a primarily metaphoric sense and is mostly associated with the Internet. When we sit in front of a computer and turn it on, something like magic happens before us; if we are correctly hooked up we can bring up an environment of hypertext with a click of the mouse. It feels like that behind the screen, there is a potentially very huge reservoir of information that is always in the making. Such a reservoir is somewhere, out there. We are certainly aware that people who generate information, and places wherein information resides, are not behind the screen or in the hard drive, but we nevertheless take the computer as a gateway to another place where other people have done similar things. Conceptually, we tend to envision a nonphysical “space” existing between here and there, and believe that we can access that “space” by utilizing computer-based technologies. We send messages to others by [[e-mail]], or talk to others in a [[chat room]]. We play chess [[on-line]] interactively as if the rival were right before us, though invisible. By participating in an [[on-line]] teleconference, we experience some sort of presence of other conference participants. But where are we? Where are those with whom we communicate? Since we can reach one another in a certain way, but are mutually separated after all, we tend to envisage the potential of such an electronic connection in terms of spatiality. Usually, we call it “cyberspace” that connects and separates us at the same time when we are engaged in the networked electronic communicative activities -- the “space” that seems to open up or shut down as the computer screen is activated or deactivated. In this sense, what we get from cyberspace is mostly text-based information with graphic visual aid. But the concept of spatiality is based on the notion of “volume duality”, as Zettl calls it. A space has positive and negative components. The positive volume has substance, while the negative volume is empty and delineated by things with substance. For example, a room has the negative volume of usable space delineated by positive volume of walls. But text-based [[Internet]] does not have such duality. When we surf the [[Internet]] for its textual contents, we know we are spatially situated in front of a computer screen, and we cannot enter the screen and explore the unknown part of the Net as an extension of the space we are in. We know that the volume duality does not extend to the textual sources, because the screen itself belongs to the positive side of the space, and the gap between the screen and us belongs to the negative side; that is, the duality is already exhausted before we consider the textual contents on the screen. As for the gap between two words in a textual page, it only functions to separate two symbols, and symbols are not considered substantive entities. When we read the text page by page, however, we might attribute a spatial meaning to the interval between two pages if we consider the unturned pages to be somewhere “out there.” The choice of the word “[[page]]” may also figuratively implicates a spatial interpretation. Furthermore, words such as “[[files]]”, “[[folders]]”, “[[window (computing)|windows]]”, and “[[sites]]” might even suggest that there be a spatial dynamic at work behind the scenes. But the only role of these figurative metaphors is organizing the textual contents, and the contents themselves are not figurative. The word “cyberspace” here refers, therefore, not to the content being presented to the surfer, but rather to the dynamic that enables us to surf among different units of contents. We project a figurative structure into the symbolic connections which we know clearly are not figurative or spatial. Therefore, “cyberspace” understood not as something other than “space” but as one kind of space, is metaphorical. Some of us call it &quot;nonphysical” space as if space allows a nonphysical version, but it remains unclear how space can be non-physical in its original sense. The metaphorical use
Philip V of France|Philippe V]] * [[1322]]&amp;ndash;[[1328]], [[Charles IV of France|Charles IV]] ==See also== * [[List of French monarchs]] * [[Kings of France family tree]] * [[France in the Middle Ages]] [[Category:Royal families|Capetian]] [[Category:History of France]] {{France-hist-stub}} [[cs:Kapetovci]] [[de:Kapetinger]] [[et:Kapetingid]] [[es:Dinastía de los Capetos]] [[fr:Capétiens]] [[ko:카페 왕조]] [[id:Kapetia]] [[lb:Kapetinger]] [[nl:Huis Capet]] [[ja:カペー朝]] [[pl:Dynastia Kapetyngów]] [[pt:Dinastia Capetiana]] [[ru:Капетинги]] [[sv:Capetinger]] [[zh:卡佩王朝]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Cuboctahedron</title> <id>6280</id> <revision> <id>38672197</id> <timestamp>2006-02-07T22:03:24Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Tomruen</username> <id>63601</id> </contributor> <comment>compare - add full sequence cube-&gt;octahedron</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Polyhedron_with_vertfig | Image_File=cuboctahedron.jpg | Polyhedron_Type=[[Archimedean solid|Archimedean]] | Face_List=8 [[triangle]]s&lt;br&gt;6 [[square (geometry)|square]]s | Edge_Count=24| Vertex_Count=12| Euler_characteristic=2| Wythoff_Symbol=2 &amp;#124; 3 4| Symmetry_Group=octahedral (''O''&lt;sub&gt;''h''&lt;/sub&gt;)| Vertex_List=3.4.3.4| Dual=[[rhombic dodecahedron]]| Property_List=[[convex]], quasi-regular (vertex/edge uniform) | VertexImage_File=cuboctahedron_vertfig.png }} A '''cuboctahedron''' is a [[polyhedron]] with eight triangular faces and six square faces. A cuboctahedron has 12 identical vertices, with two triangles and two squares meeting at each, and 24 identical edges, each separating a triangle from a square. As such it is a quasi-regular polyhedron, i.e. an [[Archimedean solid]] (vertex-uniform) with in addition edge-uniformity. __TOC__ [[Image:cuboctahedron flat.png]] == Cartesian coordinates == The [[Cartesian coordinates]] for the vertices of a cuboctahedron centered at the origin are : (&amp;plusmn;1,&amp;plusmn;1,0) : (&amp;plusmn;1,0,&amp;plusmn;1) : (0,&amp;plusmn;1,&amp;plusmn;1) Its [[dual polyhedron]] is the [[rhombic dodecahedron]]. == Geometric relations == [[Image:Kuboctaeder-Animation.gif|left]] A cuboctahedron has octahedral symmetry, and its first [[stellation]] is the [[polyhedral compound|compound]] of a [[cube (geometry)|cube]] and its dual [[octahedron]], with the vertices of the cuboctahedron located at the midpoints of the edges of either. The cuboctahedron is the first in an infinite set of [[Bicupola (geometry)|gyrobicupolae]] and can also be called a 'triangular gyrobicupola'. Cuboctahedra are important in [[sphere packing]]. Each [[sphere]] can have up to twelve neighbors, and in a face-centered cubic lattice these take the positions of a cuboctahedron's vertices. In a [[hexagon]]al close packed lattice they correspond to the corners of an anticuboctahedron, formed by twisting a cuboctahedron about one of the four equatorial planes that intersect six vertices. The two halves that each of these planes split the cuboctahedron into are called [[triangular cupola]]e, so the anticuboctahedron is also called a [[triangular orthobicupola]]. Each of these are [[Johnson solid]]s. There are distortions of the cuboctahedron with tetrahedral symmetry that, while no longer edge uniform, are still vertex uniform. These are analogous to the [[rhombicuboctahedron]] and [[rhombicosidodecahedron]], and can be made by cutting the edges off a [[tetrahedron]] and trimming the resulting hexagonal faces. Cuboctahedra and octahedra together make up one of the [[Andreini tessellation|Andreini tessellations]]. Using a standard nomenclature used for Johnson solids, the cuboctahedron can be called a ''Triangular gyrobicupola''. [[Buckminster Fuller]] applied the name &quot;[[Dymaxion]]&quot; to this shape. The volume of the cuboctahedron is 5/6 of that of the enclosing cube and 5/8 of that of the enclosing octahedron; it is 5/3 &amp;radic;2 times the cube of the length of an edge. ==Related polyhedra== The cuboctahedron is a [[Rectification (geometry)|rectified]] [[cube]] and also a rectified [[octahedron]]. Compare: [[image:hexahedron.jpg|thumb|left|100px|[[Cube]]]][[image:truncatedhexahedron.jpg|thumb|left|100px|[[Truncated cube]]]][[image:cuboctahedron.jpg|thumb|left|100px|cuboctahedron]] [[image:truncatedoctahedron.jpg|thumb|left|100px|[[Truncated octahedron]]]] [[image:octahedron.jpg|thumb|left|100px|[[Octahedron]]]] {{-}} == See also == * [[:Image:Kuboctaeder-Animation.gif|Animation of rotating cuboctahedron]] * [[Cube]] * [[Icosidodecahedron]] * [[Octahedron]] * [[Rhombicuboctahedron]] * [[Truncated cuboctahedron]] == External links == * [http://www.mathconsult.ch/showroom/unipoly/ The Uniform Polyhedra] * [http://www.georgehart.com/virtual-polyhedra/vp.html Virtual Reality Polyhedra] The Encyclopedia of Polyhedra [[Category:Archimedean solids]] [[Category:Quasiregular polyhedra]] [[de:Kuboktaeder]] [[es:Cuboctaedro]] [[nl:Kuboctaëder]] [[ja:立方八面体]] [[pt:Cuboctaedro]] [[zh:截半立方體]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Canton</title> <id>6281</id> <revision> <id>42104317</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T21:27:45Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Qmwne235</username> <id>732701</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>deleted canton michigan-canton township exists</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Canton''' or '''canton''' may refer to: *[[canton (subnational entity)]], a territorial subdivision of a country * the upper left (hoist) quarter of a flag, see [[flag terminology]]&lt;!--[[canton (flag)]] redirects there--&gt; *[[Canton (heraldry)]], a subordinary occupying the (shield holder's) upper right-hand ninth of the field *[[Canton (liqueur)]], a ginger-flavored liqueur produced in the Guangdong province of China *[[Canton Iron Works]] built by [[Peter Cooper]] in Baltimore. Places in China: * [[Canton, Canton, China]], a city in China, see '''[[Guangzhou]]''' * [[Canton (province), China]], a province in China, see '''[[Guangdong]]''' Places in the United States: * [[Canton, Connecticut]], USA. * [[Canton, Georgia]], USA. * [[Canton, Illinois]], USA. * [[Canton, Baltimore | Canton]] neighborhood and park in [[Baltimore, Maryland]], USA. * [[Canton, Massachusetts]], USA. * [[Canton, Mississippi]], USA. * [[Canton, Missouri]], USA. * [[Canton, New York]] ** [[Canton (village), New York |Village of Canton, New York]], USA. ** [[Canton (town), New York |Town of Canton, New York]], USA. * [[Canton, North Carolina]], USA. * [[Canton, Ohio]], USA. * [[Canton, Oklahoma]], USA. * [[Canton, Pennsylvania]], USA. * [[Canton, South Dakota]], USA. * [[Canton Township, Michigan]], USA. * [[Canton Township, Pennsylvania]], USA. Other places: * [[Canton, Cardiff]], a district of the Welsh capital. * Canton Island, part of [[Canton and Enderbury Islands]], see [[Kanton Island]]. {{disambig}} &lt;!--Interlanguage links--&gt; [[bs:Kanton]] [[de:Kanton]] [[fr:Canton]] [[nl:Kanton]] [[nb:Kanton]] [[nn:Kanton]] [[ru:Кантон]] [[tt:Kanton]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Class</title> <id>6282</id> <revision> <id>41936825</id> <timestamp>2006-03-02T19:17:41Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>MaxSem</username> <id>590476</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>+ru:</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Class''' may refer to: *[[Appliance classes]], in the electric appliance manufacturing industry. *[[Character class]], in role-playing games. *[[Class (biology)]], a rank used in taxonomy. *[[Class (computer science)]], related to object-oriented programming. *[[Class (education)]], a group of students attending a specific course or lesson, or short for a classroom. *[[Class (film)|''Class'' (film)]], a movie released in 1983. *[[Class (philosophy)]], distinguishes between classes and types. *[[One-design|Class (sailing)]], where boats of identical construction race against each other. *[[Class (set theory)]], in mathematics. *[[Class (warez)]], in the warez scene. *[[Classes of US Senators]]. *[[Social class]], in sociology and economics. '''Class''' is a synonym of: *[[lesson]], in education. '''Class''' is also: *In [[navy]], a set of vessels that share essentially the same design. See [[ship class]], [[starship class]]. *An [[HTML]] language attribute. {{disambig}} [[Category:Mathematical disambiguation]] [[cs:Třída]] [[de:Klasse]] [[es:Clase]] [[gl:Clase]] [[ja:クラス]] [[lt:Klasė]] [[nl:Klasse]] [[pl:Klasa]] [[ru:Класс]] [[zh:类]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Critical point</title> <id>6283</id> <revision> <id>37352080</id> <timestamp>2006-01-30T12:42:25Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Kku</username> <id>5846</id> </contributor> <comment>the artificical distinction between chem and phys is crap. either thermodynamics or physical chemistry.</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">The term '''critical point''' can mean any of: * [[critical point (thermodynamics)]] * [[critical point (mathematics)]] {{disambig}} [[de:Kritischer Punkt]] [[nl:Kritische punt]] [[ja:&amp;#33256;&amp;#30028;&amp;#28857;]] [[pl:Punkt krytyczny]] [[sl:Kriti&amp;#269;na to&amp;#269;ka]] [[sv:Kritisk punkt]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Cube</title> <id>6285</id> <revision> <id>42163272</id> <timestamp>2006-03-04T06:03:54Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Tomruen</username> <id>63601</id> </contributor> <comment>Reg polyhedra db</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the geometric shape. For other meanings of the word &quot;cube&quot;, see [[cube (disambiguation)]].'' {{Reg polyhedra db|Platonic polyhedron stat table|C}} A '''cube''' {{re
/www.ayetoro.com Afrobeat website] [[Category:Musical genres]] [[Category:African music]] [[de:Afrobeat]] [[fi:Afrobeat]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Association football</title> <id>3169</id> <revision> <id>15901531</id> <timestamp>2004-03-15T18:00:35Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Anthony DiPierro</username> <id>34793</id> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT[[football (soccer)]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Arithmetic function</title> <id>3170</id> <revision> <id>41352089</id> <timestamp>2006-02-26T20:10:41Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Mscalculus</username> <id>851190</id> </contributor> <comment>/* Examples */ added omega(n)</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">In [[number theory]], an '''arithmetic function''' (or '''number-theoretic function''') ''f''(''n'') is a [[Function (mathematics)|function]] defined for all positive [[integer|integers]] and having values in the [[complex number|complex numbers]]. In other words: an arithmetic function is nothing but a [[sequence]] of complex numbers. The most important arithmetic functions are the [[additive function|additive]] and the [[multiplicative function|multiplicative]] ones. An important operation on arithmetic functions is the [[Dirichlet convolution]]. Arithmetic functions may be studied with [[Bell series]]. ==Examples== The articles on additive and multiplicative functions contain several examples of arithmetic functions. Here are some examples that are neither additive nor multiplicative: * ''c''&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;(''n'') - the number of ways that ''n'' can be expressed as the sum of four squares of nonnegative integers, where we distinguish between different orders of the summands. For example: ::1 = 1&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;+0&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;+0&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;+0&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; = 0&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;+1&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;+0&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;+0&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; = 0&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;+0&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;+1&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;+0&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; = 0&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;+0&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;+0&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;+1&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;, :hence ''c''&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;(1)=4. * ''P''(''n''), the [[Partition function (number theory)|Partition function]] - the number of representations of ''n'' as a sum of positive integers, where we don't distinguish between different orders of the summands. For instance: ''P''(2 · 5) = ''P''(10) = 42 and ''P''(2)''P''(5) = 2 · 7 = 14 &amp;ne; 42. * &amp;pi; (''n''), the [[Prime number theorem|Prime counting function]] - the number of [[prime number|primes]] less than or equal to a given number ''n''. We have &amp;pi;(1) = 0 and &amp;pi;(10) = 4 (the primes below 10 being 2, 3, 5, and 7). * &amp;omega; (''n''), the number of distinct [[prime number|primes]] dividing given number ''n''. We have &amp;omega;(1) = 0 and &amp;omega;(20) = 2 (the distinct primes dividing 20 being 2 and 5). * &amp;Lambda;(''n''), the [[von Mangoldt function]] - ln(''p'') if ''n'' is an integer power of a prime ''p''; 0 for all other ''n''. [[Category:Arithmetic functions|*]] [[de:Zahlentheoretische Funktion]] [[he:פונקציה אריתמטית]] [[ko:&amp;#49688;&amp;#47200;&amp;#51201; &amp;#54632;&amp;#49688;]] [[it:Funzione aritmetica]] [[sl:Aritmeti&amp;#269;na funkcija]] [[sv:Aritmetisk funktion]] [[zh:算術函數]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Adamantium</title> <id>3171</id> <revision> <id>41179057</id> <timestamp>2006-02-25T16:02:40Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Localzuk</username> <id>687650</id> </contributor> <comment>Revert to revision 39199236 using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]] - removed irrelevent addition. Article is about fictional substance</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}} '''Adamantium''' is a [[fictional chemical substance]], often a [[metal]]. The name comes from [[adamant]] or [[adamantine]] combined with the [[New Latin|Neolatin]] ending -ium, and resembles the form of the names of the [[chemical element]]s. In its classical meaning, adamant referred either to any hard substance, including [[diamond]], or a hypothetical impenetrable mineral; thus, adamantium often refers to a fictional impenetrable element or substance. Uses of adamantium or similar substances in other works include: * Several characters in the [[Marvel Universe]] use [[adamantium (comics)|adamantium]] equipment, or are themselves made out of adamantium. * Armor in [[The Elder Scrolls]] games. * [[Warhammer 40,000]], in which it is used highly by the Adeptus Astartes (Space Marines), in their armour and vehicles. This version of Adamantium is not impenetrable, merely very hard. * Weapons and armors in [[Ancient Domains of Mystery|ADOM]]. Adamantium ore can also be found. * Armor in [[Master of Orion II]]. * Weapons in [[Master of Magic]]. Built of adamantium ore, a terrain bonus. * Handclock of [[Atomic Betty]]. * Weapons and armors in [[RuneScape]]. Adamantium ore and bars can also be found. * Ores and plates in [[MapleStory]]. * Rope in [[Untold Legends]]. * In the [[Final Fantasy]] video game series to create incredibly powerful weapons and armor, including in [[Final Fantasy (video game)|Final Fantasy I]] to make that world's version of [[Excalibur]] * In the movie ''[[Forbidden Planet]]'' (1956), the stuctures built by the long-extinct Krell were made of adamantium. * In the novel ''[[Gridlinked]]'', the protagonists find an artifact composed of adamantium that was a prison for an energy being. It was commented that since humans only knew how to crystalize the metal that a race who could fashion objects out of it must be much more advanced. * In the [[Warcraft]] universe, the black dragon Deathwing had adamantium plate scales welded to his body by goblins. ==See also== * [[adamant]] * [[mithril]] * [[scrith]] * [[unobtainium]] [[Category:Fictional materials]] [[es:Adamantio]] [[fi:Adamantium]] [[fr:Adamantium]] [[gl:Adamante]] [[he:אדמנטיום]] [[it:Adamantio]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>ANSI C</title> <id>3172</id> <revision> <id>38146557</id> <timestamp>2006-02-04T14:20:29Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>SimonP</username> <id>1591</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>[[Category:C programming language]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">A software developer might say that their [[source code]] is written in '''ANSI C''', meaning the code conforms to the requirements specified in the published standard for the [[C programming language]]. The first standard for C was published by [[ANSI]]. Although this document was subsequently adopted by [[ISO]] and subsequent revisions published by ISO have been adopted by ANSI, the name ANSI C (rather than ISO C) has stuck. Some software developers use the term '''ISO C''', while others are standard's body neutral and use '''Standard C'''. Other uses of the term include: * what does '''ANSI C''' say?: what relevant requirements, if any, are contained in the C Standard? * '''ANSI C''': The published standard for C. [[de:Varianten der Programmiersprache C]] [[sv:ANSI C]] [[Category:C programming language]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Alien and Sedition Acts</title> <id>3173</id> <revision> <id>41849123</id> <timestamp>2006-03-02T03:22:54Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Sheldrake</username> <id>225664</id> </contributor> <comment>Revert to revision 41526119 using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Alien and Sedition Acts''' were passed during the administration of [[President of the United States|President]] [[John Adams]]; his signature made them into law on [[July 14]], [[1798]]. They were designed to protect the [[United States]] from &quot;dangerous&quot; aliens. ==Component laws== There were actually four separate laws making up what is commonly referred to as the &quot;Alien and Sedition Acts&quot;: # The ''Alien Enemies Act'' authorized the president to imprison (or deport) any alien from an enemy nation (one the United States was fighting). # The ''Alien Friends Act'' authorized the president to deport any alien considered dangerous, in both war and peacetime. # The ''[[Naturalization Act of 1798|Naturalization Act]]'' extended the duration of residence required for aliens to become citizens, nearly tripling it from five years to 14. # The ''Sedition Act'' made it a crime to publish &quot;false, scandalous, and malicious writing&quot; against the government or its officials. ==History== With war looming against a major power, [[France]], [[Federalist]]s in [[United States Congress|Congress]], in 1798, passed the laws to protect US security. They were similar to (but not as stringent as) laws passed at about the same time in the [[Kingdom of Great Britain|United Kingdom]] and [[British North America|Canada]] in response to the threat of subversion by agents of the [[Revolutionary France|radical French government]]. [[Jeffersonian]]s, however, recognized that the laws were to be used as a tool of the ruling Federalist party to extend and retain their power, silencing any opposition. Because most immigrants became Democratic-Republicans, the Naturalization Act's longer residency requirement meant that fewer of them could become citizens and vote against the Federalists. Under the Alien and Alien Enemies Acts, the president could deport any &quot;dangerous&quot; or &quot;enemy&quot; alien—-a law that is still in effect in 2006. Under the Sedition Act, anyone &quot;opposing or resisting any law of the United States, or any act of the Presid
can football player (d. [[1970]]) *[[1946]] - [[Al Green (musician)|Al Green]], American singer and pastor *[[1948]] - [[Sue Doughty]], British politician *[[1949]] - [[Frank Doran]], Scottish politician *1949 - [[Christopher Hitchens]], English-born journalist, critic, and author *[[1950]] - [[Terry Lester]], American actor (d. [[2003]]) *1950 - [[Ron Perlman]], American actor *1950 - [[William Sadler]], American actor *[[1951]] - [[Peabo Bryson]], American singer *1951 - [[Peter Davison]], English actor *[[1951]] - [[Max Weinberg]], American drummer *[[1952]] - [[Ron Dittemore]], American space administrator *1952 - [[David Drew]], British politician *[[1953]] - [[Stephen Byers]], British politician *[[1954]] - [[Olsen Brothers|Niels Olsen]], Danish singer and [[Eurovision Song Contest]] winner *[[1955]] - [[Ole von Beust]], Mayor of Hamburg *1955 - [[Lupe Pintor]], Mexican boxer *[[1956]] - [[Peter 'Possum' Bourne]], Australian race car driver (d. [[2003]]) *1956 - [[Alison Wheeler]], British activist *[[1957]] - [[Saundra Santiago]], American actress *[[1960]] - [[Rudi Völler]], German football coach *[[1962]] - [[Hillel Slovak]], Israeli-born guitarist ([[Red Hot Chili Peppers]]) (d. [[1988]]) *1962 - [[Jennifer Rubin]], American actress *[[1963]] - [[Garry Kasparov]], Russian chess player *[[1964]] - [[Caroline Rhea]], Canadian actress *[[1970]] - [[Rebecca Cummings]], American porn star *1970 - [[Rick Schroder]], American actor *1970 - [[Gerry Creaney]], Scottish footballer *[[1971]] - [[Bo Outlaw]], American basketball player *[[1972]] - [[Mariusz Czerkawski]], Polish hockey player *1972 - [[Aaron Lewis]], American singer *[[1974]] - [[Sergei Gonchar]], Russian hockey player *[[1975]] - [[Lou Bega]], German-born musician and artist *[[1976]] - [[Jonathan Brandis]], American actor (d. [[2003]]) *1976 - [[Patrick Elias]], Czech hockey player *[[1978]] - [[Arron Asham]], Canadian hockey player *[[1979]] - [[Baron Davis]], American basketball player *[[1980]] - [[Jana Cova]], Czech [[pornographic actress]] *1980 - [[Quentin Richardson]], American basketball player *[[1983]] - [[Schalk Burger]], South African rugby player ==Deaths== *[[799]] - [[Paul the Deacon]], Italian monk and chronicler *[[814]] - [[Krum]], khan of Bulgaria *[[1093]] - Prince [[Vsevolod I of Kiev]] (b. [[1093]]) *[[1279]] - [[Boleslaus the Pious]], Polish duke *[[1605]] - [[Boris Godunov]], Tsar of Russia *[[1635]] - [[Fahkr-al-Din II]], Druze prince of Lebanon (executed) *[[1638]] - [[Henri, duc de Rohan]], French Huguenot leader (b. [[1579]]) *[[1641]] - [[Richard Montagu]], English clergyman (b. [[1577]]) *[[1695]] - [[Jean de la Fontaine]], French author (b. [[1621]]) *[[1722]] - [[Charles Leslie]], Irish Anglican theologian (b. [[1650]]) *[[1793]] - [[Pierre Gaspard Chaumette]], French revolutionary (b. [[1763]]) *[[1794]] - [[Nicolas Chamfort]], French writer (b. [[1741]]) *[[1826]] - [[Franz Danzi]], German composer (b. [[1763]]) *[[1853]] - [[Leopold Gmelin]], German chemist (b. [[1788]]) *[[1853]] - [[James Iredell, Jr.]], Governor of North Carolina 1b. [[1788]]) *[[1855]] - [[Henry De la Beche]], English geologist (b. [[1796]]) *[[1868]] - [[Tewodros II]], [[Emperor of Ethiopia]] (b. [[1818]]) *[[1880]] - [[Robert Fortune]], Scottish botanist (b. [[1813]]) *[[1882]] - [[Bruno Bauer]], German theologian (b. [[1809]]) *[[1909]] - [[Whitley Stokes]], British lawyer (b. [[1830]]) *[[1910]] - [[William Quiller Orchardson]], British painter (b. [[1835]]) *[[1911]] - [[George Washington Glick]], Governor of Kansas (b. [[1827]]) *[[1911]] - [[John McLane]], Governor of New Hampshire (b. [[1852]]) *[[1912]] - [[Ishikawa Takuboku]], Japanese author (b. [[1886]]) *[[1925]] - [[Elwood Haynes]], American automobile pioneer *[[1938]] - [[Grey Owl]], proponent of nature conservation (b. [[1888]]) *[[1941]] - [[Annie Jump Cannon]], American astronomer (b. [[1863]]) *[[1944]] - [[Cécile Chaminade]], French composer and pianist (b. [[1857]]) *[[1945]] - [[Ernst Cassirer]], German philosopher (b. [[1874]]) *[[1962]] - [[Culbert Olson]], Governor of California (b. [[1876]]) *[[1966]] - [[Abdul Salam Arif]], [[President of Iraq]] (b. [[1921]]) *[[1975]] - [[Larry Parks]], American actor (b. [[1914]]) *[[1975]] - [[François (Ngarta) Tombalbaye]], first [[President of Chad]] (b. [[1918]]) *[[1978]] - [[Jack Chambers (artist)|Jack Chambers]], Canadian artist and film maker (b. [[1931]]) *[[1981]] - Prince [[Asaka Yasuhiko]] of Japan (b. [[1887]]) *[[1984]] - [[Richard Hurndall]]. British actor (b. [[1910]]) *[[1984]] - [[Ralph Kirkpatrick]], American musician (b. [[1911]]) *[[1993]] - [[Wallace Stegner]], American writer (car accident) (b. [[1909]]) *[[1997]] - [[Dorothy Frooks]], American author, publisher, military figure, and actress (b. [[1896]]) *[[1999]] - [[Ortvin Sarapu]], New Zealand chess player &quot;Mr NZ Chess&quot; (b. [[1924]]) *[[1999]] - [[Willi Stoph]], German politician (b. [[1914]]) *[[2000]] - [[Giorgio Bassani]], Italian writer (b. [[1916]]) *[[2001]] - [[Robert Moon]], Postal Inspector and &quot;Father&quot; of the [[ZIP Code]] (b. [[1917]]) *[[2002]] - [[Desmond Titterington]], Northern Irish racecar driver (b. [[1928]]) *[[2004]] - [[Lou Berberet]], baseball player (b. [[1929]]) *2004 - [[Caron Keating]], British television presenter (b. [[1962]]) *[[2005]] - [[Johnnie Johnson (musician)|Johnnie Johnson]], American musician (b. [[1924]]) ==Holidays and Observances== * First day of [[Thai New Year]] * [[Easter]] - [[2036]] * First day of [[Cambodian New Year]] ==External links== * [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/april/13 BBC: On This Day] * [http://www.tnl.net/when/4/13 Today in History: April 13] ---- [[April 12]] - [[April 14]] - [[March 13]] - [[May 13]] -- [[historical anniversaries|listing of all days]] {{months}} [[af:13 April]] [[ar:13 ابريل]] [[an:13 d'abril]] [[ast:13 d'abril]] [[bg:13 април]] [[be:13 красавіка]] [[bs:13. april]] [[ca:13 d'abril]] [[ceb:Abril 13]] [[cv:Ака, 13]] [[co:13 d'aprile]] [[cs:13. duben]] [[cy:13 Ebrill]] [[da:13. april]] [[de:13. April]] [[et:13. aprill]] [[el:13 Απριλίου]] [[es:13 de abril]] [[eo:13-a de aprilo]] [[eu:Apirilaren 13]] [[fo:13. apríl]] [[fr:13 avril]] [[fy:13 april]] [[ga:13 Aibreán]] [[gl:13 de abril]] [[ko:4월 13일]] [[hr:13. travnja]] [[io:13 di aprilo]] [[id:13 April]] [[ia:13 de april]] [[ie:13 april]] [[is:13. apríl]] [[it:13 aprile]] [[he:13 באפריל]] [[jv:13 April]] [[ka:13 აპრილი]] [[csb:13 łżëkwiôta]] [[ku:13'ê avrêlê]] [[lt:Balandžio 13]] [[lb:13. Abrëll]] [[li:13 april]] [[hu:Április 13]] [[mk:13 април]] [[ms:13 April]] [[nap:13 'e abbrile]] [[nl:13 april]] [[ja:4月13日]] [[no:13. april]] [[nn:13. april]] [[oc:13 d'abril]] [[pl:13 kwietnia]] [[pt:13 de Abril]] [[ro:13 aprilie]] [[ru:13 апреля]] [[se:Cuoŋománu 13.]] [[sq:13 Prill]] [[scn:13 di aprili]] [[simple:April 13]] [[sk:13. apríl]] [[sl:13. april]] [[sr:13. април]] [[fi:13. huhtikuuta]] [[sv:13 april]] [[tl:Abril 13]] [[tt:13. Äpril]] [[te:ఏప్రిల్ 13]] [[th:13 เมษายน]] [[vi:13 tháng 4]] [[tr:13 Nisan]] [[uk:13 квітня]] [[ur:13 اپریل]] [[wa:13 d' avri]] [[war:Abril 13]] [[zh:4月13日]] [[pam:Abril 13]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Amaranth</title> <id>1542</id> <revision> <id>42105074</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T21:33:24Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>196.207.40.213</ip> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}} ''Amarant redirects here, for the [[Final Fantasy IX]] character, see: [[Amarant Coral]]'' {{Taxobox | color = lightgreen | name = ''Amaranthus'' | image = Amaranthus tricolor0.jpg | image_width = 250px | image_caption = ''Amaranthus caudatus'' (Love-lies-bleeding) | regnum = [[Plant]]ae | divisio = [[Flowering plant|Magnoliophyta]] | classis = [[Magnoliopsida]] | ordo = [[Caryophyllales]] | familia = [[Amaranthaceae]] | subfamilia = [[Amaranthoideae]] | genus = '''''Amaranthus''''' | genus_authority = [[Carolus Linnaeus|L.]] | subdivision_ranks = Species | subdivision = See text. }} The '''amaranths''' (also called '''pigweeds''') comprise the [[genus]] '''''Amaranthus''''', a widely distributed genus of short-lived [[herb]]s, occurring mostly in temperate and tropical regions. Although there remains some confusion over the detailed taxonomy, there are about 60 ''Amaranthus'' species. Several of them are cultivated as [[leaf vegetable]]s, [[cereal]]s, or [[ornamental plant]]s. Members of this genus share many characteristics and uses with members of the closely related genus ''[[Celosia]]''. ==Cultivation and uses== Several species are raised for '''amaranth grain''' in [[Asia]] and the [[Americas]]. Amaranth grain is a crop of moderate importance in the [[Himalaya]]. It was one of the staple foodstuffs of the [[Inca]]s, and it is known as '''kiwicha''' in the [[Andes]] today. It was also used by the ancient [[Aztec]]s, who called it '''huautli''', and other Amerindian peoples in [[Mexico]] to prepare ritual drinks and foods. To this day, amaranth grains are toasted much like [[popcorn]] and mixed with [[honey]] or [[molasses]] to make a treat called ''alegría'' (literally &quot;joy&quot;) in [[Mexican Spanish]]. Amaranth was used in several Aztec ceremonies, where images of their gods (notably [[Huitzilopochtli]]) were made with amaranth mixed with honey. The images were cut to be eaten by the people. This looked like the [[Christian]] [[eucharist|communion]] to the [[Catholic]] priests, so the cultivation of the grain was forbidden for centuries. Because of its importance as a symbol of indigenous culture, and because it is very palatable, easy to cook, and its protein particularly well suited to human [[nutrition]]al needs, interest in [[Amaranth grain|grain amaranth]] (especially ''A. cruentis'' and ''A. hypochondriaca'') was revived in the [[1970s]]. It was recovered in Mexico from wild varieties and is now commercially cultivated. It is a popular snack sold on almost every bl
In [[2001]], some 1,400 people were arrested or located as a result of INTERPOL notices. ==History== Interpol was founded in [[Austria]] in [[1923]] as the International Criminal Police Commission. The organization came under control of [[Nazi Germany]] when Germany declared the [[Anschluss]] (political union between Germany and Austria). The staff and facilities of INTERPOL were utilised as an information gathering unit for the [[Gestapo]], until the Nazi regime fell to [[Allies of World War II|Allied forces]]. Senior military officials from [[Britain]], [[France]], [[Belgium]] and [[Scandinavia]] reorganized Interpol into today's organization. The [[United States]] joined INTERPOL in [[1961]]. ==Methodology== Each member country maintains a [[National Central Bureau]] (NCB) staffed by national [[law enforcement]] officers. The NCB is the designated contact point for the INTERPOL General Secretariat, regional bureaus and other member countries requiring assistance with overseas investigations and the location and apprehension of fugitives. This is especially important in countries which have many law-enforcement agencies: this central bureau is a unique point of contact for foreign entities, which may not understand the complexity of the law-enforcement system of the country they attempt to contact. For instance, the NCB for the [[United States of America]] is housed at the [[United States Department of Justice]] (DOJ). The NCB will then ensure the proper transmission of information to the correct agency. INTERPOL maintains a large database charting unsolved crimes and both convicted and alleged criminals. At any time, a member nation has access to specific sections of the database and its police forces are encouraged to check information held by Interpol whenever a major crime is committed. The rationale behind this is that [[Illegal drug trade|drugs traffickers]] and similar criminals have international ties, and so it is likely that crimes will extend beyond political boundaries. A member nation's police force can contact one or more member nations by sending a message relayed through INTERPOL. Contrary to what has been featured in some works of fiction, INTERPOL officers do not directly conduct inquiries in member countries. ==Member states== [[Afghanistan]], [[Albania]], [[Algeria]], [[Andorra]], [[Angola]], [[Antigua and Barbuda]], [[Argentina]], [[Armenia]], [[Aruba]], [[Australia]], [[Austria]], [[Azerbaijan]], [[Bahamas]], [[Bahrain]], [[Bangladesh]], [[Barbados]], [[Belarus]], [[Belgium]], [[Belize]], [[Benin]], [[Bolivia]], [[Bosnia and Herzegovina]], [[Botswana]], [[Brazil]], [[Brunei]], [[Bulgaria]], [[Burkina Faso]], [[Burundi]], [[Cambodia]], [[Cameroon]], [[Canada]], [[Cape Verde]], [[Central African Republic]], [[Chad]], [[Chile]], [[People's Republic of China|China]], [[Colombia]], [[Comoros]], [[Republic of the Congo|Congo]], [[Democratic Republic of Congo]], [[Costa Rica]], [[Côte d'Ivoire]], [[Croatia]], [[Cuba]], [[Cyprus]], [[Czech Republic]], [[Denmark]], [[Djibouti]], [[Dominica]], [[Dominican Republic]], [[East Timor]], [[Ecuador]], [[Egypt]], [[El Salvador]], [[Equatorial Guinea]], [[Eritrea]], [[Estonia]], [[Ethiopia]], [[Fiji]], [[Finland]], [[Republic of Macedonia]], [[France]], [[Gabon]], [[The Gambia|Gambia]], [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]], [[Germany]], [[Ghana]], [[Greece]], [[Grenada]], [[Guatemala]], [[Guinea]], [[Guinea Bissau]], [[Guyana]], [[Haiti]], [[Honduras]], [[Hong Kong]], [[Hungary]], [[Iceland]], [[India]], [[Indonesia]], [[Iran]], [[Iraq]], [[Republic of Ireland|Ireland]], [[Israel]], [[Italy]], [[Jamaica]], [[Japan]], [[Jordan]], [[Kazakhstan]], [[Kenya]], [[Republic of Korea]], [[Kuwait]], [[Kyrgyzstan]], [[Laos]], [[Latvia]], [[Lebanon]], [[Lesotho]], [[Liberia]], [[Libya]], [[Liechtenstein]], [[Lithuania]], [[Luxembourg]], [[Madagascar]], [[Malawi]], [[Malaysia]], [[Maldives]], [[Mali]], [[Malta]], [[Marshall Islands]], [[Mauritania]], [[Mauritius]], [[Mexico]], [[Moldova]], [[Monaco]], [[Mongolia]], [[Morocco]], [[Mozambique]], [[Myanmar]], [[Namibia]], [[Nauru]], [[Nepal]], [[Netherlands]], [[Netherlands Antilles]], [[New Zealand]], [[Nicaragua]], [[Niger]], [[Nigeria]], [[Norway]], [[Oman]], [[Pakistan]], [[Panama]], [[Papua New Guinea]], [[Paraguay]], [[Peru]], [[Philippines]], [[Poland]], [[Portugal]], [[Qatar]], [[Romania]], [[Russia]], [[Rwanda]], [[Saint Kitts and Nevis]], [[St Lucia]], [[Saint Vincent and the Grenadines]], [[São Tomé and Príncipe]], [[Saudi Arabia]], [[Senegal]], [[Serbia and Montenegro]], [[Seychelles]], [[Sierra Leone]], [[Singapore]], [[Slovakia]], [[Slovenia]], [[Somalia]], [[South Africa]], [[Spain]], [[Sri Lanka]], [[Sudan]], [[Suriname]], [[Swaziland]], [[Sweden]], [[Switzerland]], [[Syria]], [[Tajikistan]]. [[Tanzania]], [[Thailand]], [[Togo]], [[Tonga]], [[Trinidad and Tobago]], [[Tunisia]], [[Turkey]], [[Turkmenistan]], [[Uganda]], [[Ukraine]], [[United Arab Emirates]], [[United Kingdom]], [[United States]], [[Uruguay]], [[Uzbekistan]], [[Venezuela]], [[Vietnam]], [[Yemen]], [[Zambia]], [[Zimbabwe]]. ==External links== *[http://www.interpol.int Interpol's official website] *[http://icpoinfo.tripod.com Interpol Information Website] *[http://www.janes.com/security/law_enforcement/news/pr/pr060112_1_n.shtml What is Interpol?] - article from Jane's Police Review [[Category:International organizations]] [[Category:International law enforcement organisations]] [[Category:Intelligence agencies]] [[cs:Interpol]] [[da:Interpol]] [[de:Interpol]] [[es:Organización Internacional de Policía Criminal]] [[eo:Interpol]] [[fr:Interpol (organisation)]] [[he:אינטרפול]] [[nl:Interpol]] [[ja:国際刑事警察機構]] [[no:Interpol]] [[pt:International Criminal Police Organization]] [[ru:Интерпол]] [[fi:Interpol]] [[sv:Interpol]] [[vi:Interpol]] [[tr:Interpol]] [[zh:国际刑警组织]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>ICPO-Interpol</title> <id>15520</id> <revision> <id>24908755</id> <timestamp>2005-10-06T18:09:39Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Tedernst</username> <id>3700</id> </contributor> <comment>eliminate double re-direct</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Interpol]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Indian numerals</title> <id>15521</id> <revision> <id>41753353</id> <timestamp>2006-03-01T14:24:33Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Noe</username> <id>57569</id> </contributor> <comment>cat</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Table_Numeral_Systems}} Most of the [[positional system|positional]] [[base 10]] [[numeral system]]s in the world have originated from [[India]], which first developed the concept of positional numerology. The Indian numeral system is commonly referred to in the West as [[Hindu-Arabic numerals|Hindu-Arabic numeral system]], since it reached Europe through the Arabs. ==[[Devanagari]] numerals and their [[Sanskrit]] names== Below is a list of the Indian numerals in their [[Devanagari]] form, the corresponding European (Indo-Arabic) equivalents, and their [[Sanskrit]] pronunciation. &lt;table&gt; &lt;tr&gt;&lt;th&gt;Devanagari&lt;br&gt;Numeral&lt;th&gt;Arabic/Western&lt;br&gt;Numeral&lt;th&gt;Sanskrit word&lt;br&gt;for the numeral &lt;tr&gt;&lt;th&gt;&amp;#x966;&lt;td&gt;[[0 (number)|0]]&lt;td&gt;shuunyaha &lt;tr&gt;&lt;th&gt;&amp;#x967;&lt;td&gt;[[1 (number)|1]]&lt;td&gt;ekaha &lt;tr&gt;&lt;th&gt;&amp;#x968;&lt;td&gt;[[2 (number)|2]]&lt;td&gt;dwitiyaha &lt;tr&gt;&lt;th&gt;&amp;#x969;&lt;td&gt;[[3 (number)|3]]&lt;td&gt;tritityaha &lt;tr&gt;&lt;th&gt;&amp;#x96a;&lt;td&gt;[[4 (number)|4]]&lt;td&gt;chaturaha &lt;tr&gt;&lt;th&gt;&amp;#x96b;&lt;td&gt;[[5 (number)|5]]&lt;td&gt;panchaha &lt;tr&gt;&lt;th&gt;&amp;#x96c;&lt;td&gt;[[6 (number)|6]]&lt;td&gt;shashtihi &lt;tr&gt;&lt;th&gt;&amp;#x96d;&lt;td&gt;[[7 (number)|7]]&lt;td&gt;sapthami &lt;tr&gt;&lt;th&gt;&amp;#x96e;&lt;td&gt;[[8 (number)|8]]&lt;td&gt;ashtaha &lt;tr&gt;&lt;th&gt;&amp;#x96f;&lt;td&gt;[[9 (number)|9]]&lt;td&gt;navaha &lt;/table&gt; It is thus evident that the '''words''' for each number in the [[Sanskrit]] language very closely approximate the [[Greek language|Greek]] and [[Latin]] words for the same numbers. ==Other modern Indian languages== :''See also [[glyphs used with the Hindu-Arabic numeral system]].'' The three Indian languages ([[Hindi]], [[Marathi]] and [[Sanskrit]] itself) that have adapted the Devanagari script to their use also naturally employ the numeral symbols above; of course, the names for the numbers vary by language. The table below presents a listing of the '''symbols''' used in various modern Indian scripts for the numbers from zero to nine: {| border=&quot;1&quot; cellspacing=&quot;2&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;BORDER-COLLAPSE: collapse; text-align:center;&quot; |'''Variant''' || '''0''' || '''1''' || '''2''' || '''3''' || '''4''' || '''5''' || '''6''' || '''7''' || '''8''' || '''9''' || '''Used in''' |- |'''Bangla''' numerals ||০|| ১|| ২|| ৩|| ৪|| ৫|| ৬|| ৭|| ৮|| ৯|| [[Bengali language]] |- |'''Gujarati''' numerals ||૦|| ૧|| ૨|| ૩|| ૪|| ૫|| ૬|| ૭|| ૮|| ૯|| [[Gujarati language]] |- |'''Gurumukhi''' numerals ||੦|| ੧|| ੨|| ੩|| ੪|| ੫|| ੬|| ੭|| ੮|| ੯|| [[Punjabi language]] |- |'''Kannada''' numerals ||೦|| ೧|| ೨|| ೩|| ೪|| ೫|| ೬|| ೭|| ೮|| ೯|| [[Kannada language]] |- |'''Malayalam''' numerals ||൦|| ൧|| ൨|| ൩|| ൪|| ൫|| ൬|| ൭|| ൮|| ൯|| [[Malayalam language]] |- |'''Oriya''' numerals ||୦|| ୧|| ୨|| ୩|| ୪|| ୫|| ୬|| ୭|| ୮|| ୯|| [[Oriya language]] |- |'''Tamil''' numerals ||௦ || ௧|| ௨|| ௩|| ௪|| ௫|| ௬|| ௭|| ௮|| ௯|| [[Tamil language]] |- |'''Tibetan''' numerals ||༠|| ༡|| ༢|| ༣|| ༤|| ༥|| ༦|| ༧|| ༨|| ༩|| [[Tibetan language]] |- |'''Lepcha''' numerals | colspan=&quot;10&quot; | [http://www.omniglot.com/writing/lepcha.htm Lepcha] | [[Sikkim]] and [[Bhutan]] |} ==History== {{main|History of the Hindu-Arabic numeral system}} A decimal place system has been trace
s'' (small ''d'') is a legal and constitutional term used to refer to all the realms and territories of the Sovereign, whether independent or not. In the early 20th century, the main differences between a dominion and a self-governing colony were that a dominion had attained the status of &quot;nationhood&quot;, if not unambiguous political independence, from the United Kingdom. By comparison, a self-governing colony controlled its internal affairs, but did not control [[foreign affairs]], [[defense (military)|defence]] or [[international trade]]. Initially, dominions conducted their own trade policy, some limited foreign relations and had autonomous [[armed forces]], although the British government claimed and exercised the exclusive power to declare wars. However the independence of the dominions in foreign policy, including war, was made clear by the passing and ratification of the [[Statute of Westminster 1931|Statute of Westminster]] in [[1931]]. The term &quot;dominion&quot; is now mostly used only in a historical sense. Many of the distinctive characteristics which once pertained only to dominions are now shared by other states in the Commonwealth, whether they are [[republic|republics]], self-governing colonies or Crown colonies. Even in a historical sense the differences between self-governing colonies and dominions have often been formal rather than substantial. Nonetheless &quot;dominion&quot; remains a correct term for an independent country where the British monarch is represented by a [[Governor-General]] as head of state. ==Historical development== The short-lived [[Dominion of New England]] ([[1686]]&amp;ndash;[[1689|89]]) was not a dominion in the later, generally-accepted sense of the word. It had an unpopular and [[autocracy | autocratic]] [[president]], appointed by London, Sir [[Edmund Andros]]. The Dominion of New England did not have the independence from Britain that the later dominions were given. All the colonies of [[British North America]] became [[self-governing colony | self-governing]] between [[1848]] and [[1855]], except the colony of Vancouver Island. [[Nova Scotia]] was the first colony to achieve [[responsible government]] in January-February [[1848]] through the efforts of [[Joseph Howe]], followed by the [[Province of Canada]] later that year. They were followed by [[Prince Edward Island]] in [[1851]], [[New Zealand]] in [[1852]], [[New Brunswick]] and the [[Cape Colony]] in [[1854]], and [[Newfoundland and Labrador | Newfoundland]] in [[1855]] under [[Philip Francis Little]]. However, none of these colonies was referred to as a dominion. The modern usage of the term ''Dominion'' first occurs in connection with the creation of the [[Dominion of Canada]], a term preferred by the [[Colonial Office]] instead of the term &quot;kingdom&quot; favoured by some [[Fathers of Confederation]]. [[Canada]] was called a &quot;Dominion&quot; upon the [[Canadian Confederation|confederation]] of the [[Province of Canada]], [[New Brunswick]] and [[Nova Scotia]] in [[1867]]. Some Canadians wanted to call their [[nation]] the [[Monarchy | Kingdom]] of Canada. However, Americans, especially the [[yellow journalism | yellow press]] in [[New York]], railed against the idea of a [[monarchy]] in North America. Since the [[United States]] had recently demonstrated its military prowess in the [[American Civil War]] and still harboured resentment at what it perceived to be British favouritism towards the Southern cause, the British took these complaints very seriously. To calm the Americans, the British government successfully resorted to a diplomatic ruse. It explained to Americans that their fears had no foundation because Canada was to become a ''dominion'' rather than a ''kingdom''. It then told the Canadians that ''Dominion'' meant the same as ''kingdom'' (''see: [[Dominion#Canada|Dominion: Canada]], [[Canada's name]]''). Canada was the first and archetypical dominion of the Empire; all additional colonies that achieved this status were also eventually called dominions. Although the term dominion has rarely been used in [[Australia]], it achieved dominion status with the [[federation]] of its six self-governing colonies as the Commonwealth of Australia, in [[1901]]. [[New Zealand]], which chose not to take part in Australian Federation, first became a dominion on [[September 26]] [[1907]]; the newly-created Union of [[South Africa]] in [[1910]]; and the [[Irish Free State]] (later the [[Republic of Ireland]]) in [[1922]], after the bitter [[Anglo-Irish War]]. All retained the British monarch as [[head of state]], represented locally by a [[governor-general]] appointed in consultation with the Dominion government. The Irish Free State, led by [[W.T. Cosgrave]] was the first dominion to appoint a non-British, non-aristocratic Governor-General, when [[Timothy Michael Healy]] took the position in [[1922]]. Dominion status was never popular in [[Ireland]], where people saw it as a face-saving measure for a [[British government]] unable to countenance a [[republic]] in what had previously been the [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland]]. This compromise was a direct cause of the [[Irish Civil War]]. Successive Irish governments undermined the constitutional links with Britain, until they were severed completely in 1949. In [[1930]], the Australian PM, [[James Scullin]], reinforced the right of the overseas Dominions to appoint native-born Governors-General, when he appointed Sir [[Isaac Isaacs]], against the wishes of the opposition and officials in London. [[Newfoundland and Labrador|Newfoundland]] became a self-governing dominion on [[September 26]], [[1907]] (same day as New Zealand) by royal proclamation. Until 1931, it was referred to as a colony of the United Kingdom, as for example, in the 1927 reference to the [[Judicial Committee of the Privy Council]] to delineate the Quebec-Labrador boundary. Full autonomy was granted by the [[United Kingdom]] Parliament with the [[Statute of Westminster 1931|Statute of Westminster]] in December [[1931]]. However, the government of Newfoundland &quot;requested the United Kingdom not to have sections 2 to 6 [ &amp;mdash; ] confirming dominion status [ &amp;mdash; ] apply automatically to it[,] until the Newfoundland Legislature first approved the Statute, approval which the Legislature subsequently never gave.&quot; In any event, Newfoundland's [[letters patent]] of [[1934]] suspended self-government and instituted a &quot;[[Commission of Government]]&quot;, which continued until Newfoundland became a [[Canadian province|province of Canada]] in [[1949]]. It is the view of some constitutional lawyers that &amp;mdash; although Newfoundland chose not to exercise all of the functions of a dominion like Canada &amp;mdash; its status as a dominion was &quot;suspended&quot; in 1934, rather than &quot;revoked&quot; or &quot;abolished&quot;. Canada, Australia, New Zealand, Newfoundland and South Africa (prior to becoming a republic and leaving the Commonwealth in [[1961]]), with their large populations of European descent, were sometimes collectively referred to as the &quot;White Dominions&quot;. Today Canada, Australia, New Zealand and the United Kingdom are sometimes referred to collectively as the [[White Commonwealth]]. Later members of the Commonwealth gained independence, not under the Statute of Westminster but by their own respective independence acts. When British decolonization in Africa began it was hoped the dominion model would again be followed. [[Ghana]], the first new nation was created as a dominion in [[1957]], but declared itself a republic three years later. The other British possessions in Africa also agitated for republic status, and upon independence they seldom remained Dominions. [[Nigeria]] became a dominion in [[1960]] and a republic in [[1963]], [[Tanganyika]] a dominion in [[1961]] and a republic in [[1962]], [[Uganda]] a dominion in [[1962]] and republic in [[1963]], [[Kenya]] a dominion in [[1963]] and a republic in [[1964]], [[Malawi]] a dominion in [[1964]] and republic in [[1966]]. Only [[Gambia]] (five years), [[Sierra Leone]] (ten years), and [[Mauritius]] (24 years) stayed dominions longer than three years. The United Kingdom and its component parts never aspired to the title of ''Dominion'', remaining anomalies within the network of free and independent equal members of the Empire and Commonwealth. However the idea has on occasions been floated by some in [[Northern Ireland]] as an alternative to a [[United Ireland]] if they felt uncomfortable within the United Kingdom. ==Foreign relations== Initially the Foreign Office of the [[United Kingdom]] conducted the foreign relations of the Dominions. A Dominions section was created within the Colonial Office for this purpose in [[1907]]. Canada set up its own Department of External Affairs in June [[1909]], but diplomatic relations with other governments continued to operate through the governors-general, through Dominion high commissioners in London (first appointed by Canada in [[1880]]; Australia followed only in [[1910]]) and through British legations abroad. Britain deemed her declaration of war against [[Germany]] in August [[1914]] to extend without the need for consultation to all territories of the Empire, occasioning some displeasure in Canadian official circles and contributing to a brief anti-British insurrection by [[Afrikaners|Afrikaner]] militants in South Africa later that year. A Canadian War Mission in [[Washington, D.C.]], dealt with supply matters from February [[1918]] to March [[1921]]. Although the dominions had had no formal voice in declaring war, each became a separate signatory of the June 1919 peace [[Treaty of Versailles]], which had been negotiated by a British-led united Empire delegation. In September 1922 dominion reluctance to support British military action against [[Turkey]] influenced Britain's decision to seek a compromise
March 11]]). In some cosmologies, Aquarius is associated with the [[classical element]] [[air (classical element)|Air]], and thus called an Air Sign (with [[Libra]] and [[Gemini]]). It is also one of the four Fixed signs (along with [[Leo]], [[Scorpius|Scorpio]], and [[Taurus]]). Its polar opposite is Leo. It is the domicile of [[Saturn (planet)|Saturn]] (since its discovery [[Uranus (planet)|Uranus]] has been considered Aquarius' ruling or co-ruling planet by many modern astrologers). Each astrological sign is assigned a part of the body, viewed as the seat of its power. Aquarius rules the [[circulatory system]] as well as the [[ankles]]. The symbol for Aquarius is the [[water bearer]]. ==Notable and named stars== {| style=&quot;color:#000000; font-size:smaller;&quot; cellspacing=2 cellpadding=0 |- ! style=&quot;background-color:#dddddd;&quot; | [[Bayer designation|BD]] ! style=&quot;background-color:#dddddd;&quot; | [[Flamsteed designation|F]] ! style=&quot;background-color:#dddddd;&quot; | Names and other designations ! style=&quot;background-color:#dddddd;&quot; | [[apparent magnitude|Mag.]] ! style=&quot;background-color:#dddddd;&quot; | [[Light year|Ly]] away ! style=&quot;background-color:#dddddd;&quot; | Comments |- | &amp;beta; || 22 || [[Beta Aquarii]], Sadalsuud, Sadalsud, Sad es Saud, Sadalsund, Saad el Sund || 2.90 || 610 || * &lt; سعد السعودLuck of ''sa&lt;sup&gt;c&lt;sup&gt;d as-su&lt;sup&gt;c&lt;sup&gt;ūd'' ''sa&lt;sup&gt;c&lt;sup&gt;d as-su&lt;sup&gt;c&lt;sup&gt;ūd'' Luck of lucks |- style=&quot;background-color:#eeeeee;&quot; | &amp;alpha; || 34 || [[Alpha Aquarii]], Sadalmelik, Sadal Melik, Sadalmelek, Sadlamulk, El Melik, Saad el Melik, Ruchbah || 2.95 || 760 || * &lt; سعد الملك ''sa&lt;sup&gt;c&lt;sup&gt;d al-malik/mulk'' Luck of the king/kinghood * '''Rucbah''' shared with [[Delta Cassiopeiae|&amp;delta; Cassiopeiae]] |- | &amp;gamma; || 48 || [[Gamma Aquarii]], Sadachbia, Sadalachbia || 3.86 || 158 || * &lt; سعد الأخبية ''sa&lt;sup&gt;c&lt;sup&gt;d[u] al-axbiyah'' Luck of the tents (homes) [''lit.'' hidings/shelters] |- style=&quot;background-color:#eeeeee;&quot; | &amp;delta; || 76 || [[Delta Aquarii]], Skat, Scheat, Seat, Sheat || 3.27 || 160 || * &lt; ? ''ši'at'' A wish ? * '''Seat''' shared with [[Pi Aquarii|&amp;pi; Aquarii]] |- | &amp;zeta;&amp;sup1;&lt;sup&gt;,&lt;/sup&gt;&amp;sup2; || 55 || [[Zeta Aquarii]] || 3.65 || 105 || * [[binary star]]; component magnitudes 4.42, 4.59 |- style=&quot;background-color:#eeeeee;&quot; | c&amp;sup2; || 88 || [[88 Aquarii]] || 3.68 || 234 || |- | &amp;lambda; || 73 || [[Lambda Aquarii]], Hydor, Ekkhysis || 3.73 || 392 || * &lt; ''‘υδωρ'' The water; ''εκχυσις'' The outpouring |- style=&quot;background-color:#eeeeee;&quot; | &amp;epsilon; || 2 || [[Epsilon Aquarii]], Albali, Al Bali || 3.78 || 230 || * &lt; البالع ''albāli&lt;sup&gt;c&lt;sup&gt;'' The swallower |- | b&amp;sup1; || 98 || [[98 Aquarii]] || 3.96 || 162 || |- style=&quot;background-color:#eeeeee;&quot; | &amp;eta; || 62 || [[Eta Aquarii]] || 4.04 || 184 || |- | &amp;tau;&amp;sup2; || 71 || [[Tau Aquarii|Tau-2 Aquarii]] || 4.05 || 380 || |- style=&quot;background-color:#eeeeee;&quot; | &amp;theta; || 43 || [[Theta Aquarii]], Ancha || 4.17 || 191 || * &lt; [[Old High German|OHG]] ancha &quot;the haunch&quot; |- | &amp;phi; || 90 || [[Phi Aquarii]] || 4.22 || 222 || |- style=&quot;background-color:#eeeeee;&quot; | &amp;psi;&amp;sup1; || 91 || [[Psi Aquarii|Psi-1 Aquarii]] || 4.24 || 148 || |- | &amp;iota; || 33 || [[Iota Aquarii]] || 4.29 || 173 || |- style=&quot;background-color:#eeeeee;&quot; | b&amp;sup2; || 99 || [[99 Aquarii]] || 4.38 || || |- | &amp;psi;&amp;sup2; || 93 || [[Psi Aquarii|Psi-2 Aquarii]] || 4.41 || 322 || * [[Be star]] |- style=&quot;background-color:#eeeeee;&quot; | k || 3 || [[3 Aquarii]] || 4.43 || || |- | c&amp;sup1; || 86 || [[86 Aquarii]] || 4.48 || || |- style=&quot;background-color:#eeeeee;&quot; | &amp;omega;&amp;sup2; || 105 || [[Omega Aquarii|Omega-2 Aquarii]] || 4.49 || 154 || |- | &amp;nu; || 13 || [[Nu Aquarii]], Albulaan || 4.50 || 164 || * &lt; ? ''al-bula&lt;sup&gt;c&lt;sup&gt;ān'' The (two) swallowers * '''Albulaan''' shared with [[Mu Aquarii|&amp;mu; Aquarii]]. |- style=&quot;background-color:#eeeeee;&quot; | &amp;pi; || 52 || [[Pi Aquarii]], Seat || 4.66 || 1100 || * '''Seat''' shared with [[Delta Aquarii|&amp;delta; Aquarii]] * [[Gamma Cassiopeiae variable|Gamma Cassiopeiae type]] [[variable star]] |- | &amp;xi; || 23 || [[Xi Aquarii]] || 4.68 || 179 || |- style=&quot;background-color:#eeeeee;&quot; | g || 66 || [[66 Aquarii]] || 4.68 || || |- | b&amp;sup3; || 101 || [[101 Aquarii]] || 4.70 || || |- style=&quot;background-color:#eeeeee;&quot; | c&amp;sup3; || 89 || [[89 Aquarii]] || 4.71 || || |- | &amp;mu; || 6 || [[Mu Aquarii]], Albulaan || 4.73 || 155 || * &lt; ? ''al-bula&lt;sup&gt;c&lt;sup&gt;ān'' The (two) swallowers * '''Albulaan''' shared with [[Nu Aquarii|&amp;nu; Aquarii]]. |- style=&quot;background-color:#eeeeee;&quot; | &amp;omicron; || 31 || [[Omicron Aquarii]], Kae Uh || 4.74 || 381 || * &lt; 蓋屋 (Mandarin ''gaìwū'') The roof * [[Gamma Cassiopeiae variable|Gamma Cassiopeiae type]] [[variable star]] |- | &amp;sigma; || 57 || [[Sigma Aquarii]] || 4.82 || 265 || |- style=&quot;background-color:#eeeeee;&quot; | A&amp;sup2; || 104 || [[104 Aquarii]] || 4.82 || || * [[double star]]; component magnitudes 4.82, 8.58 |- | &amp;chi; || 92 || [[Chi Aquarii]] || 4.93 || 640 || |- style=&quot;background-color:#eeeeee;&quot; | &amp;omega;&amp;sup1; || 102 || [[Omega Aquarii|Omega-1 Aquarii]] || 4.97 || 134 || |- | &amp;psi;&amp;sup3; || 95 || [[Psi Aquarii|Psi-3 Aquarii]] || 4.99 || 249 || |- style=&quot;background-color:#eeeeee;&quot; | &amp;kappa; || 63 || [[Kappa Aquarii]], Situla || 5.04 || 234 || * &lt; &quot;the water jar&quot; |- | d || 25 || [[25 Aquarii]] || 5.10 || || |- style=&quot;background-color:#eeeeee;&quot; | || 47 || [[47 Aquarii]] || 5.12 || || |- | || 1 || [[1 Aquarii]] || 5.15 || || |- style=&quot;background-color:#eeeeee;&quot; | i&amp;sup3; || 108 || [[108 Aquarii]] || 5.17 || || |- | || 97 || [[97 Aquarii]] || 5.19 || || |- style=&quot;background-color:#eeeeee;&quot; | || 94 || [[94 Aquarii]] || 5.20 || || |- | &amp;upsilon; || 59 || [[Upsilon Aquarii]] || 5.21 || 74.2 || |- style=&quot;background-color:#eeeeee;&quot; | i&amp;sup1; || 106 || [[106 Aquarii]] || 5.24 || || |- | || 68 || [[68 Aquarii]] || 5.24 || || |- style=&quot;background-color:#eeeeee;&quot; | i&amp;sup2; || 107 || [[107 Aquarii]] || 5.28 || || |- | || 32 || [[32 Aquarii]] || 5.29 || || |- style=&quot;background-color:#eeeeee;&quot; | || 41 || [[41 Aquarii]] || 5.33 || || |- | || 42 || [[42 Aquarii]] || 5.34 || || |- style=&quot;background-color:#eeeeee;&quot; | &amp;rho; || 46 || [[Rho Aquarii]] || 5.35 || 740 || |- | A&amp;sup1; || 103 || [[103 Aquarii]] || 5.36 || || |- style=&quot;background-color:#eeeeee;&quot; | e || 38 || [[38 Aquarii]] || 5.43 || || |- | h || 83 || [[83 Aquarii]] || 5.44 || || |- style=&quot;background-color:#eeeeee;&quot; | || 18 || [[18 Aquarii]] || 5.48 || || |- | || 21 || [[21 Aquarii]] || 5.48 || || |- style=&quot;background-color:#eeeeee;&quot; | || 7 || [[7 Aquarii]] || 5.49 || || |- | || 12 || [[12 Aquarii]] || 5.53 || || * [[double star]]; component magnitudes: 5.89, 7.31 |- style=&quot;background-color:#eeeeee;&quot; | || 49 || [[49 Aquarii]] || 5.53 || || |- | || 77 || [[77 Aquarii]] || 5.53 || || |- style=&quot;background-color:#eeeeee;&quot; | || 5 || [[5 Aquarii]] || 5.55 || || |- | f || 53 || [[53 Aquarii]] || 5.55 || || * [[double star]]; component magnitudes: 6.35, 6.57 |- style=&quot;background-color:#eeeeee;&quot; | || 30 || [[30 Aquarii]] || 5.55 || || |- | || 96 || [[96 Aquarii]] || 5.56 || || |- style=&quot;background-color:#eeeeee;&quot; | || 26 || [[26 Aquarii]] || 5.66 || || |- | &amp;tau;&amp;sup1; || 69 || [[Tau Aquarii|Tau-1 Aquarii]] || 5.68 || 260 || |- style=&quot;background-color:#eeeeee;&quot; | || 19 || [[19 Aquarii]] || 5.71 || || |- | || 44 || [[44 Aquarii]] || 5.75 || || |- style=&quot;background-color:#eeeeee;&quot; | h || || [[h Aquarii]] || 5.76 || || |- | || 50 || [[50 Aquarii]] || 5.76 || || |- style=&quot;background-color:#eeeeee;&quot; | || 51 || [[51 Aquarii]] || 5.79 || || |- | || 35 || [[35 Aquarii]] || 5.80 || || |- style=&quot;background-color:#eeeeee;&quot; | || 74 || [[74 Aquarii]] || 5.80 || || |- | || 15 || [[15 Aquarii]] || 5.83 || || |- style=&quot;background-color:#eeeeee;&quot; | || 16 || [[16 Aquarii]] || 5.87 || || |- | || 60 || [[60 Aquarii]] || 5.88 || || |- style=&quot;background-color:#eeeeee;&quot; | || 45 || [[45 Aquarii]] || 5.96 || || |- | || 2 || [[2 Aquarii]] || 5.99 || || |- style=&quot;background-color:#eeeeee;&quot; | || 17 || [[17 Aquarii]] || 5.99 || || |- | || 39 || [[39 Aquarii]] || 6.04 || || |- style=&quot;background-color:#eeeeee;&quot; | || 82 || [[82 Aquarii]] || 6.18 || || |- | || 70 || [[70 Aquarii]] || 6.19 || || |- style=&quot;background-color:#eeeeee;&quot; | || 78 || [[78 Aquarii]] || 6.20 || || |- | || 11 || [[11 Aquarii]] || 6.21 || || |- style=&quot;background-color:#eeeeee;&quot; | || 81 || [[81 Aquarii]] || 6.23 || || |- | || 100 || [[100 Aquarii]] || 6.24 || || |- style=&quot;background-color:#eeeeee;&quot; | || 56 || [[56 Aquarii]] || 6.36 || || |- | || 20 || [[20 Aquarii]] || 6.38 || || |- style=&quot;background-color:#eeeeee;&quot; | || 29 || [[29 Aquarii]] || 6.39 || || |- | || 58 || [[58 Aquarii]] || 6.39 || || |- style=&quot;background-color:#eeeeee;&quot; | || 61 || [[61 Aquarii]] || 6.40 || || |- | || 37 || [[37 Aquarii]] || 6.64 || || |- style=&quot;background-color:#eeeeee;&quot; | || 24 || [[24 Aquarii]] || 6.66 || || |- | || || [[EZ Aquarii]] || 12.66 || 11.26 || * [[flare star]] * nearby |} Source: &lt;cite&gt;The Bright Star Catalogue, 5th Revised Ed.&lt;/cite&gt;, &lt;cite&gt;The Hipparcos Catalogue, ESA SP-1200&lt;/cite&gt; == See also == {{Zodiac
f Capua]]''' - Hannibal is unable to break the Roman siege of the city. *[[210 BC]] : '''[[Battle of Herdonia (210 BC)|Second Battle of Herdonia]]''' - Hannibal destroys the Roman army of Fulvius Centumalus, who is killed : '''[[Battle of Numistro]]''' - Hannibal defeats Marcellus once more *[[209 BC]] : '''[[Battle of Asculum (209 BC)|Battle of Asculum]]''' - Hannibal once again defeats Marcellus, in an indecisive battle *[[207 BC]] : '''[[Battle of Grumentum]]''' - Roman general [[Gaius Claudius Nero]] fights an indecisive battle with Hannibal, then marches north to confront Hannibal's brother [[Hasdrubal]], who has invaded Italy *[[204 BC]] : '''[[Battle of Crotona]]''' - Hannibal fights a drawn battle against the Roman general Sempronius in Southern Italy. *[[202 BC]] : '''[[Battle of Zama]]''' ([[October 19]]) - [[Scipio Africanus Major]] decisively defeats Hannibal in North Africa, ending the [[Second Punic War]] ==Quote== * ''&quot;We will either find a way, or make one.&quot;''&amp;mdash;Hannibal in response to the claimed impossibility of crossing the Alps with [[war elephant]]s. * ''&quot;God has given no greater spur to victory than contempt of death.&quot;''&amp;mdash;Hannibal * ''“I am not carrying on a war of extermination against the Romans. I am contending for honor and empire.”''&amp;mdash;Hannibal ==See also== * [[Military history]] * [[Famous military commanders]] * [[War elephant]] * [[Barcid]] family * [[Hamilcar Barca]] * [[Second Punic War]] ==References== # {{note|Cottrell}}Cottrell, Leonard, ''Enemy of Rome'', Evans Bros, 1965, ISBN 0237443201 # {{note|Goldsworthy}}Goldsworthy, A, ''The Punic Wars'', London, Cassell and Company, 2000 # {{note|Dodge}}[[Theodore Ayrault Dodge|Dodge, Theodore]], ''Hannibal'', Cambridge, Massachusetts, De Capo Press, 1891, ISBN 0306813629 # {{note|Hart}}[[Basil Liddell Hart|Liddell Hart, Basil]], ''Strategy'', New York City, New York, Penguin Group, 1967 # {{note|Healy}}Healy, Mark, ''Cannae: Hannibal Smashes Rome's Army'', Steerling Heights, Missouri, Osprey Publishing, 1994 # {{note|Talbert}}[[Richard J.A. Talbert|Talbert, Richard J.A.]], ed., ''Atlas of Classical History'', London/New York, Routledge, 1985, ISBN 0-415-03463-9 # {{note|Cowley}}Cowley, Robert (ed.), Parker, Geoffrey (ed.), ''The Reader’s Companion to Military History'', Houghton Mifflin Company, 1996, ISBN 0-395-66969-3 ==Further reading== *Bradford, E, ''Hannibal'', London, Macmillan London Ltd., 1981 *Carlton, James, ''The Military Quotation Book'', New York City, New York, Thomas Dunne Books, 2002 *Caven, B., ''Punic Wars'', London, George Werdenfeld and Nicholson Ltd., 1980 *Dexter Hoyos, B., ''Hannibal: Rome's Greatest Enemy'', Bristol Phoenix Press, 2005, ISBN 1904675468 (hbk) ISBN 1904675476 (pbk) *Cottrell, Leonard, ''Enemy of Rome'', Evans Bros, 1965, ISBN 0237443201 (pbk) *[[Livy]], Titus Livius and De Selincourt, Aubery, ''The War with Hannibal: Books XXI-XXX of the History of Rome from its Foundation'', Penguin Classics, Reprint edition, July 30, 1965, ISBN 014044145X (pbk) *Daly, Gregory, ''Cannae: The Experience of Battle in the Second Punic War'', London/New York, Routledge, 2002, ISBN 0415327431 *[[Hans Delbrück|Delbrück, Hans]], ''Warfare in Antiquity'', 1920, ISBN 0-8032-9199-X *[[Richard J.A. Talbert|Talbert, Richard J.A.]], ed., ''Atlas of Classical History'', Routledge, London/New York, 1985, ISBN 0-415-03463-9 ==External links== * ''[http://www.barca.fsnet.co.uk/ Hannibal Barca and the Punic Wars]'' * ''[http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/ancient/polybius-hannibal.html Ancient History Sourcebook: Polybius (c.200-after 118 BC): The Character of Hannibal]'' * ''&quot;[http://historynet.com/mh/blcarthage/index.html Rome and Carthage: Classic Battle Joined]&quot;'' Article by Greg Yocherer from ''Military History Magazine'' * ''[http://cgsc.leavenworth.army.mil/carl/resources/csi/Cannae/cannae.asp#cannae Cannae]'' A treatise by General Fieldmarshal Count [[Alfred von Schlieffen]] ''This article incorporates text from the [[public domain]] [[1911 Encyclopædia Britannica]].''[[Category:1911 Britannica]] [[Category:Generals]] [[Category:Ancient Roman enemies and allies]] [[Category:Carthaginians]] [[Category:Admirals]] [[Category:Military people who committed suicide]] [[Category:247 BC births]] [[Category:183 BC deaths]] [[ar:حنبعل]] [[ca:Aníbal]] [[cs:Hannibal]] [[da:Hannibal]] [[de:Hannibal]] [[es:Aníbal Barca]] [[eo:Hanibal BARKA]] [[fa:هانیبال]] [[fr:Hannibal Barca]] [[ko:한니발]] [[ia:Hannibal]] [[is:Hannibal Barca]] [[it:Annibale]] [[he:חניבעל]] [[ka:ჰანიბალი]] [[la:Hannibal]] [[mk:Ханибал]] [[nl:Hannibal Barkas]] [[ja:ハンニバル]] [[no:Hannibal]] [[pl:Hannibal]] [[pt:Aníbal]] [[sh:Hanibal]] [[sr:Ханибал]] [[fi:Hannibal]] [[sv:Hannibal]] [[uk:Ганнібал]] [[zh:汉尼拔]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Hansie Cronje</title> <id>13961</id> <revision> <id>40940256</id> <timestamp>2006-02-24T00:30:26Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Zaian</username> <id>629652</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Added headings, removed aeronautical jargon</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Cricketer | flag = South africa flag large.png | nationality = South African | country = South Africa | country abbrev = SAF | name = Hansie Cronje | picture = Cricket_no_pic.png | batting style = Right-handed batsman (RHB) | bowling style = Right-arm medium (RM) | tests = 68 | test runs = 3714 | test bat avg = 36.41 | test 100s/50s = 6/23 | test top score = 135 | test overs = 633.2 | test wickets = 43 | test bowl avg = 29.95 | test 5s = 0 | test 10s = 0 | test best bowling = 3/14 | test catches/stumpings = 33/0 | ODIs = 188 | ODI runs = 5565 | ODI bat avg = 38.64 | ODI 100s/50s = 2/39 | ODI top score = 112 | ODI overs = 892.2 | ODI wickets = 114 | ODI bowl avg = 34.78 | ODI 5s = 1 | ODI best bowling = 5/32 | ODI catches/stumpings = 73/0 | date = 1 January | year = 2005 | source = http://www.cricinfo.com/link_to_database/PLAYERS/RSA/C/CRONJE_WJ_03002010/ }} '''Wessel Johannes &quot;Hansie&quot; Cronje''' ([[September 25]], [[1969]] - [[June 1]], [[2002]]) was a [[South Africa]]n [[cricket]]er ([[all-rounder]]) and captain of the South African national cricket team in the [[1990s]]. He was voted the [[SABC3's Great South Africans|11th greatest South African]] in [[2004]] despite having been banned for life from professional cricket for his role in a match-fixing scandal. Born in [[Bloemfontein]], he matriculated in [[1987]] from the prestigious [[Grey College]] school in Bloemfontein. An excellent all round sportsman, he represented the then [[Orange Free State]] in cricket and rugby at schools level. He made his [[first-class cricket|first class]] debut playing for Orange Free State against [[Transvaal]] at [[Johannesburg]] in [[1987]]/[[1988]] at the age of 18. He made his [[Test cricket|Test]] debut against [[West Indies]] at [[Bridgetown]] in [[1991]] and [[one-day cricket|one-day international]] debut against [[Australia]] at [[Sydney]] in the [[1992 cricket World Cup]] soon after the ban on South Africa was lifted. (South Africa was banned from international cricket in [[1970]] for the [[apartheid]] policies followed by the government.). Under his captaincy South Africa won 27 tests and lost 11. He captained the One Day International team to 99 wins out of 138 one day internationals with one match drawn. He scored 3,714 Test runs in 68 Test matches at an average of 36.41 with 6 Test centuries. He also took 43 Test [[wicket]]s. He scored over 5,000 ODI runs in nearly 200 ODIs at an average of 38.64 with just 2 centuries. He also took over 100 ODI wickets. He has over 10,000 first class runs at an average of 43.69 and 184 first class wickets at an average of 34.43 A highly talented young batsman, occasional [[bowling (cricket)|medium pace bowler]] and excellent tactician, Cronje began his career at Free State, captaining them at age 21, and first playing for his country at 22. Appointed captain of South Africa in [[1993]], he led the side to Test series victories against [[New Zealand]] and [[England]]. ==Match fixing== A devout [[Christianity|Christian]], who impressed as much with his demeanour off the field as his ability on, it came as a great shock to the cricketing world when, in April [[2000]], he confessed to being involved with the largest match fixing scandal yet uncovered, receiving gifts and money from [[bookmaker]]s to provide information on team selection, pitch information and notification as to when he would declare as well as influence the results of games. One particular incident which came to light during the King commission was when he succeeded in persuading [[Herschelle Gibbs]] and Henry Williams (a seam bowler) to join him in influencing a One Day International at Nagpur in India. Gibbs was supposed to score less than 20 runs and Henry was supposed to concede more than 50 runs. When this information came to light both players were suspended from playing international cricket for 6 months. Convicted by the [[King Commission]], Hansie Cronje was banned from playing or coaching cricket for life. ==Plane crash== On [[1 June]] [[2002]] Hansie Cronje missed a scheduled flight home from Bloemfontein to [[George, South Africa|George]] and instead hitched a ride as the only passenger on a cargo flight in a [[Hawker Siddeley]] 748 turboprop aircraft. Near George airport, the pilots lost visibility in cloud, and were unable to land, partly due to unserviceable navigational equipment. While circling, the plane crashed into the [[Outeniqua]] mountains northeast of the airport. Hansie Cronje and the two pilots were killed. ==See also== *[[Declaration and forfeiture]] - Cronje was the only Test captain to ever forfeit an innings *[[List of South Africans]] - voted 11 in the [[SABC3's Great South Africans]] *[[List of people who died in aviation-related incidents
tails for what to say in almost every situation. These routinized missionary discussions would be further refined in 1973 and 1986, and then de-emphasized in 2003. In 1973, the Church recast is missionary discussions, making them more family-friendly and focused on building on common Christian ideals. The new discussions, named &quot;A Uniform System for Teaching Families&quot;, de-emphasized the [[Great Apostasy]], which previously held a prominent position just after the story of the [[First Vision]]. When the discussions were revised in the early 1980s, the new discussions dealt with the Apostasy less conspicuously, and in later discussions, rather than in the first discussion. The discussions also became more family-friendly, including a flip chart with pictures, in part to encourage the participation of children. ====Changes in the Endowment ceremony==== In 1990, the Church revised the text of the [[Endowment (Mormonism)|Endowment ceremony]]. Whereas the ceremony had historically depicted a Christian minister as being in league with [[Lucifer]], the revised ceremony deleted all reference to the Christian minister. The new ceremony also deleted certain [[Freemasonry|Masonic]] references and blood oaths, which had been shocking to many traditional Christians. ====Emphasis on the name and significance of Jesus Christ==== In [[1982]], the Church renamed its edition of ''The Book of Mormon'' to ''The Book of Mormon: Another Testament of Jesus Christ'', in order to emphasize that the book is about Jesus. [[image:Logo of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (1995).gif|thumb|160px|1995 logo of the church, emphasizing the words &quot;Jesus Christ&quot;]] [[image:Logo of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (pre-1995).png|thumb|140px|Pre-1995 church logo]] In [[1995]], the Church announced a new logo design that emphasized the words &quot;JESUS CHRIST&quot; in large capital letters, and de-emphasized the words &quot;The Church of&quot; and &quot;of Latter-day Saints&quot;. According to Bruce L. Olsen, director of public affairs for the Church, &quot;The logo re-emphasizes the official name of the Church and the central position of the Savior in its theology. It stresses our allegiance to the Lord, Jesus Christ.&quot; On [[January 1]], [[2000]], the [[First Presidency]] and the [[Quorum of the Twelve Apostles]] released a proclamation entitled &quot;The Living Christ: The Testimony of the Apostles of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints&quot;. This document commemorated the birth of Jesus and set forth the Church's official view regarding Christ. In [[2001]], the Church sent out a press release encouraging reporters to use the full name of the church at the beginning of news articles, with following references to the &quot;Church of Jesus Christ&quot;. The release discouraged the use of the term &quot;Mormon Church&quot;. ====Cooperation with Other Churches==== *The Church has opened its broadcasting facilities (Bonneville International) to other Christian groups, and has participated in the VISN Religious Interfaith Cable Television Network. *The Church has participated in numerous joint humanitarian efforts with other Churches. *Agreement not to baptize Holocaust victims by proxy ===Emerging Multiculturalism=== As the Church began to collide and meld with cultures outside of Utah and the United States, the Church began to jettison some of the parochialisms and prejudices that had become part of Latter-day Saint culture, but were not essential to [[Mormonism]]. In [[1971]], LDS [[Apostle (Mormonism)|Apostle]] and scholar [[Bruce R. McConkie]] drew parallels between the LDS Church and the New Testament church, who had difficulty embracing the [[Gentiles]] within [[Christianity]], and encouraged Saints not to be so indoctrinated with social customs that they fail to engage other cultures in [[Mormonism]]. Other peoples, he stated, &quot;have a different background than we have, which is of no moment to the Lord . . . . It is no different to have different social customs than it is to have different languages. . . . And the Lord knows all languages&quot;&lt;!--Need cite--&gt;. In [[1987]], [[Boyd K. Packer]], another Latter-day Saint [[Apostle (Mormonism)|Apostle]], stated, &quot;We can't move [into various countries] with a 1947 Utah Church! Could it be that we are not prepared to take the gospel because we are not prepared to take (and they are not prepared to receive) all of the things we have wrapped up with it as extra baggage?&quot;. ''See'' 21 Dialogue 97 (Fall 1988). During and after the [[American Civil Rights Movement]], the Church faced a critical point in its history, where its previous attitudes toward other cultures and people of color, which had once been shared by much of the white American mainstream, began to appear racist and neocolonial. The Church came under intense fire for its stances on blacks and native Americans issues. ====The Church and Blacks==== ''Main article: [[Blacks and the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]].'' The cause of some of the Church's most damaging publicity had to do with the Church's policy of discrimination toward blacks, a policy that had begun during the administration of [[Brigham Young]]. Blacks were always officially welcome in the Church, and [[Joseph Smith, Jr.]] established an early precedent of ordained black males to the [[Priesthood (Mormonism)|Priesthood]]. Smith was also anti-slavery, going so far as to run on an anti-slavery platform as candidate for the presidency of the United States. At times, however, Smith had shown sympathy toward a belief common in his day that blacks were the cursed descendants of [[Cain]]. By the year [[1849]], Brigham Young and other Apostles introduced a policy that though blacks could be baptized, they and others could not be ordained to the Priesthood or enter [[Temple (Mormonism)|LDS temples]]. ''See'' [[Blacks and The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]]. Journal histories and public teachings of the time reflect that Young and others stated that God would some day reverse this policy of discrimination. &lt;!--May need to move the following to Blacks and the Church article: --&gt;It is also important to note that while blacks as a whole were specifically withheld from priesthood blessings (although there were some exceptions to this policy in both the 1800s and 1900s), other races and genealogical lineages were also prohibited from holding the priesthood. Only those who were assigned to the tribes of Joseph, Judah and Levi had a right to hold the priesthood during various parts of the period.&lt;!--. . . .Need citations here. --&gt; By the late [[1960s]], the Church had expanded into [[Brazil]], the [[Caribbean]], and the nations of [[Africa]], and was suffering criticism for its policy of racial discrimination. In [[1969]] the [[Quorum of the Twelve Apostles]] and [[First Presidency]] voted to end the discriminatory policy; however, the move was later vetoed by First Counselor and later President [[Harold B. Lee]] on the grounds that a revelation was required for such a policy change. On [[June 9]], [[1978]], under the administration of [[Spencer W. Kimball]], the Church leadership finally received this divine sanction to change the long-standing policy. ''See'' [[Doctrine and Covenants]], OD-2. Today, there are many black members of the Church, and many predominantly black congregations. In [[North America]], black members have organized branches of an official Church auxiliary called the [[Genesis Group]]s. ====The Church and Native Americans==== The Church's policy toward [[Native Americans in the United States|Native Americans]] also came under fire during the 1970s. In particular, the Church was criticized for its [[Indian Placement Program]], where Native American students were voluntarily placed in white Latter-day Saint foster homes during the school year. This program was criticized as [[neocolonialism|neocolonial]]. In [[1977]], the U.S. government commissioned a study to investigate accusations that the Church was using its influence to push children into joining the program. However, the commission rejected these accusations and found that the program was beneficial in many cases, and provided well-balanced American education for thousands, allowing the children to return to their cultures and customs. One issue was that the time away from family caused the assimilation of Native American students into American culture, rather than allowing the children to learn within, and preserve, their own culture. By the late [[1980s]], the program had been in decline, and in [[1996]], it was discontinued. ''See'' '''[[Indian Placement Program]]'''. In [[1981]], the Church published a new LDS edition of the [[Standard Works]] that changed a passage in ''The [[Book of Mormon]]'' that [[Lamanites]] (considered by many Latter-day Saints to be Native Americans) will &quot;become white and delightsome&quot; after accepting the gospel of Jesus Christ. Instead of continuing the original reference to skin color, the new edition replaced the word &quot;white&quot; with the word &quot;pure&quot;, emphasizing inward spirituality. ''See'' '''[[Lamanite]]'''. ===Centralization of Church Structure=== *[[Priesthood Correlation Program]]: During the [[1960s]], the Church aggressively pursued its earlier Correlation Program that had begun in [[1908]], which streamlined and centralized the structure of the Church, making Church organizations such as the [[Relief Society]] less independent, and assigned them a supporting role under priesthood direction. The program also increased Church control over viewpoints taught in local church meetings. *Emeritus status of general authorities who are too old or ill *Reorganizing the quorums of seventy *Dismantling ward and stake prayer circles (1978) ===Making Church Participation More Convenient=== ====Consolidated M
creates an interesting scenario between [[Batman]] and the Joker, not to mention a crossover with two of the most unlikely series ever. [[Sherlock Holmes]] and [[Edgar Rice Burroughs]] both have fan fiction pastiche communities. This tradition comes from the establishment of literary societies, dating back to the 1930s and 1940s. These societies attracted both professional and fan writers. They practice a semi-professional level of publication of fan fiction of a higher literary nature, both in print quality, community expectations and orientation. ===Hatefics=== Occasionally one may see stories in fanfic sites that do not fit the normal definition of fan fiction because they are not written by people who are fans of their subject matter; rather, they are written to ridicule the subject by somebody who dislikes the characters featured in the story. The act of ridiculing or mocking a story's characters is often called &quot;bashing&quot;. There does not seem to be an established term for such stories. An example would be a ''[[Lizzie McGuire]]'' fanfic story that has as its description &quot;Why Lizzie is a Dumb Blonde&quot;. A subcategory is the &quot;character-bashing&quot; fic, devoted to a negative (and often grotesquely [[out of character]]) portrayal of a single character whom the author dislikes or resents: for instance, a [[Lord of the Rings]] fanfic in which King [[Aragorn]] desperately searches for a way to escape his nagging, vicious, vindictive harpy of a wife, [[Arwen]]. Another variant on this is the 'Anti-Fic', where the character(s) that the author dislikes are killed and/or maimed. While character death is often a part or sub-genre of Fanfic, in an Anti-Fic the deaths exist only so the author can express their dislike of the characters. Note that not all deaths are intended to express hatred to a certain character by an author, as there are occasions where an author will &quot;kill&quot; a character that they favour in order to gain sympathy from the audience. Also note that some hatefics are intended to express dislike to the entire fandom using any means, including the character death mentioned above. For example, a person who believes that the [[Harry Potter]] series promotes the [[occult]] will write a hatefic in which the characters promote the occult. ===Webseries=== There are also fan-made [[machinima]] webseries such as ''[[Red vs Blue]]'', which is based on the ''[[Halo (video game series)|Halo]]'' and ''[[Halo 2]]'' video game series. ===Extending the canon=== Some invented facts or situations are used so frequently in fan fiction, that despite not being part of the original product, they are seen by fans as part of the canon. This is sometimes described as ''[[Fanon (fiction)|Fanon]]''. ===MSTings=== ''Main article: [[MSTing]]'' [[MSTing]]s (Sometimes called MiSTings) are fanfics written in the style of the television show [[Mystery Science Theater 3000]]. They are not fanfics in the usual sense due to the nature of the show they are based on. The simplified premise of the show is that a man and some homemade robots trapped on a spaceship watch a bad movie sent to them by a mad scientist who tries to take over the world. The viewer sees the silhouettes of the movie's trapped audience making humorous comments over the film. For MSTings, instead of bad movies, the source is generally bad fan fiction, though other kinds of text have been used such as rants taken off USENET or e-mail spam. The jokes are generally pop culture references, but some are &quot;observational riffs&quot; that point out the flaws of the fanfic such as bad continuity, poor spelling and bad grammar, and in the case of screeds or rants, logical fallacies, straw man arguments, and ad-hominem attacks. &quot;Observational riffs&quot; are discouraged by some fans, but are nonetheless popular. A relatively well-known MSTing is one written by [[Adam Cadre]] concerning an original sword-and-sorcery fantasy, [[The Eye Of Argon]] by Jim Theis. Recently, the term [[MSTing]] is used to describe most forms of fanfiction mockeries (i.e. an author copying a fanfiction, and inserting jokes within it at the expense of the story used, differentiating the writer's comments with the story), and not just the MST3K-like premise of a cast of characters cracking jokes. Generally speaking, MSTers follow a [http://www.svamcentral.org/ewic/docs/MSTing-FAQ.txt code of conduct], though some places such as [http://fandomination.net/ Fandomination.net] and [http://www.projectafter.com/ Project A.F.T.E.R.] have MSTings which clearly violate these &quot;rules.&quot; One of the least respected rules is that MSTing authors should always obtain permission from the author(s) of the fanfics that they are MSTing. Fanfics starring the Mystery Science Theater 3000 characters in traditional narrative formats exist, but are in the minority. Although MSTings originated as MST3K fanfics some people have used the MSTing format with an original cast instead of the MST3K characters. [http://www.dimfuture.net/elsewhere/mot.html Mystery Octagon Theater], [http://indiemadnesse.sandwich.net/ifroast/ifroast.htm ImproFicRoast], [http://www.geocities.com/TimesSquare/Realm/2628/elmer.htm Elmer Studios], and the [http://www.nancingpony.com/ Nancing Pony] (see [[Nancing Pony]]) are some of the more well known writers of Non-Standard MSTings, as they are called. ===Drabble=== ''Main article: [[Drabble]]'' The term drabble originates from the 1971 book ''Monty Python’s Big Red Book'': &quot;Drabble. A word game for 2 to 4 players. The four players sit from left to right and the first person to write a novel wins.&quot; The term continued to float around. By the mid1980s, it was being used in the science fiction community, at various conventions and other fan gatherings. By 1988, the term was being used in the main stream science fiction community. There were several books of published drabbles by professional authors. Included in the 1988 book Drabble Project was one by Terry Pratchett and one by Isaac Asimov. Magazine of Fantasy and Science fiction also ran a contest for drabbles. By 1990, the term was being used on-line. One of the first mentions of, with the 100 word definition, it on Usenet was in May of 1990 on rec.arts.sf-lovers though there might be an earlier reference as most Usenet archives are not complete. One of the earliest references to a drabble in a purely fannish context on-line was on alt.startrek.creative in July of 1993. Some one mentioned a drabble by Kate Orman, a Doctor Who and Star Trek fan fiction writer. Given the discussion, it is obvious the drabble was posted to the community earlier. In September of 1993, David Howe and David Ware were the editors of the ten released book ''Drabble Who'' which contained drabbles set in the Doctor Who universe. This was a professional book. By 2000, probably earlier, the term drabble was being used in the Swedish and Finnish fan fiction communities. The usage of the term in this community probably predates this. It wasn't until the mainstreaming of fan fiction that some communities began to change the definition because of misunderstandings, interpretation and a lack of centralization in fandom helping to ensure definition continuity. For this reason, a few mostly on-line fan fiction communities define drabble differently. These communities are not the norm. MSTs have also been made using the Harry Potter book series, mainly having canon chacters, usually those in a earlier time period (eg; Harry's parents when they were teenagers), mysteriously find the books and read them, discovering the future. These have been banned on FanFiction.net for direct copyright infringement and plagarism, but can still be found on independent websites by an author, SoupFiction.net and FictionAlley.org. ===Reviews and Flaming=== Many fan fiction websites give readers the option of leaving reviews, where they can express their thoughts on the story. Usually, the review is directed at the author, letting him or her know what the reader thought of the story or giving hints on how to fix the story up. Flaming is the act of leaving a review that expresses an extreme dislike for a fan fiction, while simultaneously offering no, or a very poor, reason as to why and no advice on how to improve the story. Flames are often very brief and more than likely are intended to be hurtful and/or insulting. Example of a flame: ''&quot;This story blows! You should delete this and then go shoot yourself!&quot;'' Many times, people confuse flaming with constructive criticism, when, in fact, the two are very different. Constructive criticism gives both a valid reason as to why the reviewer doesn't like the story and ways on how to improve it. Example of constructive criticism: ''&quot;The grammar in this story is very poor. Next time, try having someone proofread the story before posting it.&quot;'' Sometimes, a person will leave a negative review with a valid reason as to why they dislike the story, but will not offer any way as to how to improve it. While these reviews can often be harsh, they should not be confused with flames. Usually, these reviews can be considered a harsher form of constructive criticism or just a negative review. Example of a negative review: ''&quot;This story is horrible. You have the characters doing things that are completely OOC (out of character), and your grammar is horrible!&quot;'' Sometimes, reviewers somehow manage to leave a combination of all three in a single review, although weirder reviews occur than this combination. ==Legal aspects== According to current U.S. [[copyright]], copyright owners have the right to control or restrict the publishing of &quot;derivative works&quot; based on their material, though they do not receive ownership of those works. The owner of the original work (film, TV show, etc.) therefore may have some legal power over fan fiction, thou
n the air breathed in. Symptoms of generalized hypoxia depend on its severity and speed of onset. They include [[headache]]s, fatigue, shortness of breath, [[nausea]], unsteadiness, and sometimes even [[seizure]]s and [[coma]]. Severe hypoxia induces a blue discoloration of the skin (deoxygenated blood cells lose their bright red color in favor of a dark blue/red color). ==Categories of hypoxia== *[[Cerebral hypoxia]] in which the brain is deprived of oxygen despite normal blood flow. *[[Hypoxic hypoxia]] when there's an inadequate supply of oxygen (as caused by high altitudes). *[[Anemic hypoxia]] in which arterial oxygen pressure is normal, but total oxygen content of the blood is reduced. *[[Hypemic]] Hypoxia when there's an inability of the blood to carry oxygen. *[[Intrauterine hypoxia]] which is an unchallenged cause of perinatal death *[[Ischemia|Ischemic, or stagnant hypoxia]] in which blood flow to the tissues is not adequate. *[[Histotoxic hypoxia]] in which quantity of oxygen reaching the cells is normal, but the cells are unable to effectively use the oxygen. ==See also== * [[Asphyxia]] * [[Drowning]] * [[Hypoxic tumor]] * [[Hyperoxia]] * [[Time of Useful Consciousness]] [[Category:Pulmonology]] [[Category:Diving medicine]] [[Category:Aviation medicine]] [[da:Hypoxia]] [[de:Hypoxie]] [[es:Hipoxia]] [[fr:Hypoxie]] [[nl:Hypoxie (medisch)]] [[ru:Гипоксия]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Historical revisionism</title> <id>13293</id> <revision> <id>41941993</id> <timestamp>2006-03-02T19:58:37Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Stbalbach</username> <id>87883</id> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Parsonweemsfable.jpg|thumb|right|250px|In ''[[Parson Weems]]' Fable'' (1939) [[Grant Wood]] takes a sly poke at a traditional [[hagiography|hagiographical]] account of [[George Washington]]]] '''Historical revisionism''' has both a legitimate academic use, and a pejorative meaning. Within the academic field of [[history]], it is the legitimate reexamination of historical facts, with an eye towards updating histories with newly discovered, more accurate, or less biased information. The implication is that history as it has been traditionally told may not be entirely accurate. The pejorative use refers to illegitimate manipulation of history for political purposes, for example [[Holocaust denial|Holocaust denial]]. This second meaning is described further in the article [[historical revisionism (negationism)]]. ==Historical revisionism== All writings of history are in some way revisionist. If there were a universally accepted view of history, there would be no need to research it. Many historians who write revisionist exposés are motivated by a genuine desire to educate and to correct history. Many great discoveries have come as a result of the research of men and women who have been curious enough to revisit certain historical events and explore them again in depth from a new perspective. Those historians who work within the existing establishment and who have a body of existing work from which they claim authority, often have the most to gain by maintaining the ''status quo''. This can be called an accepted [[paradigm]], which in some circles or societies takes the form of a denunciatory stance towards revisionism of any kind. Of course, this presumes that the historian in question has not built said reputation specifically upon being revisionist. Revisionist historians often contest the mainstream or traditional view of historical events, they raise views at odds with traditionalists, which must be freshly judged. Often historians who are in the minority, such as feminist historians, or ethnic minority historians, or those who work outside of mainstream academia in smaller and less known universities, or the youngest scholars, who have the most to gain and the least to lose, by shaking up the establishment. In the friction between the mainstream of accepted beliefs and the new perspectives of historical revisionism, received historical ideas are either changed, or solidified and clarified. If over a period of time the revisionist ideas become the new establishment ''status quo'' a [[paradigm shift]] is said to have occurred. ::&quot;''History is the version of past events that people have decided to agree upon.''&quot; &amp;ndash;[[Q:Napoleon Bonaparte|Napoleon Bonaparte]]. Historians, like all people, are inexorably influenced by the [[zeitgeist]] (the spirit of the times). Developments in other academic areas, and cultural and political fashions, all help to shape the currently accepted model and outlines of history (the accepted [[historiography|historiographical]] paradigm). As time passes and these influences change so do most historians views on the explanation of historical events. The old consensus may no longer be considered by most historians to explain how and why certain events in the past occurred, the accepted model is revised to fit in with the current agreed-upon version of events. Some of the influences on historians, which may change over time are: ===Categories=== * '''Language:''' For example as more sources in other languages become available historians may review their theories in light of the new sources. The revision of the meaning of the [[#The &quot;Dark Ages&quot;|Dark Ages]] are an example of this. * '''Nationalism:''' For example when reading schoolbook history in Europe, it is possible to read about an event from completely different perspectives. In the [[Battle of Waterloo]] most British, French, Dutch and German schoolbooks slant the battle to emphasise the importance of the contribution of their nations. Sometimes the name of an event is used to convey political or a national perspective. For example the same conflict between two English speaking countries is known by two different names, the &quot;[[American War of Independence]]&quot; and the &quot;[[American Revolutionary War]]&quot;, or the [[Irish War of Independence]] and the [[Anglo-Irish War]]. As perceptions of nationalism change so do those areas of history which are driven by such ideas. * '''Culture:''' For example as regionalism has become more prominent in the [[UK]] some historians have been suggesting that the [[English Civil War]] is too Anglo-centric and that to understand the war, events which had previously been dismissed as on the periphery should be given greater prominence, to emphasise this, revisionist historians have suggested that the English Civil War becomes just one of a number of interlocking conflicts known as [[Wars of the Three Kingdoms]]. * '''Ideology:''' For example during the 1940s it became fashionable to see the English Civil War from a Marxist school of thought. In the words of [[Christopher Hill (historian)|Christopher Hill]], &quot;the Civil War was a class war.&quot; In the post [[World War II]] years the influence of Marxist interpretation waned in British academia and by the 1970s this view came under attack by a new school of revisionists and it has been largely overturned as a major mainstream explanation of the middle 17th century conflict in the [[British Isles]] ([[IONA]]). ==Examples== These are examples of historical revisionist ideas that have resulted in a fundamental change in perspective on historical concepts. ===The &quot;Dark Ages&quot;=== As non-Latin texts such as [[Welsh language | Welsh]], [[Gaelic languages | Gaelic]] and the [[Norse saga|Sagas]] have been analysed and added to the canon of knowledge about the period and a lot more archaeological evidence has come to light, the period traditionally known as the [[Dark Ages]] has narrowed to the point where many historians no longer believe that such a term is useful. ===&quot;Feudalism&quot;=== The concept of [[feudalism]] has undergone a number of revisions. Recently some revisionist thinking has rejected the term and concept completely [[Feudalism#Revolt_against_the_term_feudalism|saying it is invalid]] and should not be used at all. ===New World &quot;discovery&quot;=== In recounting the [[European colonization of the Americas]], history books of the past paid little attention to the [[indigenous peoples of the Americas]], usually mentioning them only in passing and making no attempt to understand the events from their point of view. This was reflected in the once widespread description of [[Christopher Columbus]] having &quot;discovered&quot; America. The portrayal of these events has since been revised, and much present scholarship examines the impact of European exploration and colonization on indigenous peoples. Some of this historical writing is revisionist in the ideological sense of the word, such as in portrayals of Columbus which compare him to [[Adolf Hitler]], which are arguably [[polemic|polemical]] and [[Presentism (literary and historical analysis)|presentist]]. But even moderate portrayals of Columbus now take into account modern revisionism, and rarely, for example, use the word ''discovery'' without quotation marks. ===Slavery=== During historical periods of slavery, slaves have not been considered equal to their masters, something that has been reflected in the accepted histories of the time. In the study of the [[Reconstruction]] era of the [[American South]], the revisionist interpretation of events has completely replaced the [[Dunning School]] interpretation. ===Agincourt=== The [[Battle of Agincourt]] was for centuries believed to be an engagement in which the English army, though overwhelmingly outnumbered (supposedly 4 to 1) by the [[France|French]] army, pulled off a stunning victory. However, recent research by professor Anne Curry using the original enrollment records, has brought into question this interpretation and although her research is not finished{{ref|2020}}, she has published her initial findings{{ref|curry}}, that the French only outnumbered the E
s. *[[Cargo airline]] *[[Charter airline]] *[[Commuter airline]] *[[Low-cost carrier]] *[[Airlines at the movies]] *[[Airliners.net]] *[[1000 Airlines in Color]] *[[Airline timetable]] *[[Red-eye flight]] *[[Transportation Security Administration]] *[[Federal Aviation Administration]] *[[IATA]] &amp;ndash; industry standards organization === Lists === * [[List of largest airlines]] * [[List of low-cost airlines]] * [[List of airlines]] &amp;ndash; A fairly comprehensive listing * [[List of accidents and incidents on commercial airliners]] * [[List of national airlines]] * [[List of defunct airlines]] * [[Timeline of airline bankruptcies]] ==External links== *[http://www.pbs.org/kcet/chasingthesun/ Chasing the Sun] - History of commercial aviation, from PBS ==References== &quot;Flying Off Course: The Economics of International Airlines,&quot; 3rd edition. Rigas Doganis, Routledge, New York, 2002. &quot;The Airline Business in the 21st Century.&quot; Rigas Doganis, Routledge, New York, 2001. [[Category:Aviation]] [[Category:Airlines| ]] [[da:Flyselskab]] [[de:Fluggesellschaft]] [[es:Línea aérea]] [[fr:Compagnie aérienne]] [[ko:항공사]] [[id:Maskapai penerbangan]] [[it:Compagnia aerea]] [[nl:Luchtvaartmaatschappij]] [[ja:航空会社]] [[pl:Linie lotnicze]] [[pt:Linha aérea]] [[uk:Авіакомпанія]] [[zh:航空公司]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Australian Democrats</title> <id>1943</id> <revision> <id>39089252</id> <timestamp>2006-02-10T17:18:06Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Hall Monitor</username> <id>265063</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/207.63.188.29|207.63.188.29]] ([[User talk:207.63.188.29|talk]]) to last version by 202.72.148.102</comment> <text xml:space="preserve"> {{Infobox_Australian_Political_Party | party_name = Australian Democrats | party_logo = [[Image:Ausdem_newlogo.JPG|200px]] | party_wikicolourid = Democrats | leader = [[Lyn Allison]] | foundation = 1977 | ideology = [[liberalism|social liberal]] | headquarters = Level 1&lt;br&gt;16 National Circuit&lt;br&gt;Barton, ACT 2600 | holds_government = Nowhere| website = [http://www.democrats.org.au Australian Democrats]| international = No affiliation }} The '''Australian Democrats''' (in regular parlance, just the '''Democrats'''), is an [[Australia|Australian]] social [[liberal parties|liberal party]] formed in 1977 from the earlier [[Australia Party]] by [[Don Chipp]], who left the [[Liberal Party of Australia]] to do so. His stated aim was to &quot;Keep the Bastards Honest&quot; (the &quot;bastards&quot; being politicians in general). Despite its name (and the name of the rival and [[Liberal conservatism|liberal conservative]] [[Liberal Party of Australia]]), the Australian Democrats can be considered the counterpart of European [[liberal parties]]. After a poor performance at the [[Australian legislative election, 2004|2004 federal election]], the Australian Democrats' future as a political force is in question. ==Policy== The party's original support base was disaffected middle-class traditional Liberal voters from the centre-right Liberal Party's socially liberal, &quot;wet&quot; wing. The party aimed to combine liberal social policies with centrist economics. However, the major parties, including the [[social democracy|social democratic]] [[Australian Labor Party|Labor Party]], have moved to the right on economics since the early 1980s, shifting the 'centre' of Australian politics well to the right. Thus the Democrats have come to be seen as leaning to the left on economic as well as social issues. The Democrats' agenda includes [[economic interventionism|interventionist economic]] policies, commitment to [[environmentalism|environmental]] causes, support for [[reconciliation]] with Australia's [[Indigenous Australians|indigenous population]] through such mechanisms as formal treaties, [[pacifism|pacifist]] approaches to international relations, and [[left-wing]] approaches to social issues such as sexuality and drugs, and constitutional and treaty protections for [[human rights]]. Its core support base is overwhelmingly [[tertiary education|tertiary-educated]], and [[middle class|middle-class]]. They also explicitly target voters who seek a brake on the powers of the government of the day to change things, with their long-term hold on the Senate balance of power. The party has a platform of participatory democracy, with policies supporting [[proportional representation]] and [[citizen initiated referendum|citizens' initated referenda]]. Many important internal issues (such as electoral preselection and leadership) are decided by direct postal ballot of the membership. Although policies are theoretically set in a similar fashion, Democrat parliamentarians have extensive freedom in interpreting them. ==Support== Support for the Democrats historically tended to fluctuate between about 5 and 10 percent of the population and was geographically concentrated around the wealthy dense [[Central Business District|urban neighbourhoods]] (known in Australia as the [[Central business district|&quot;inner-suburbs and CBD&quot;]]) of the [[Australian capital cities|capital cities]] (especially [[Adelaide, Australia|Adelaide]]). Therefore, they never managed to win a [[Australian House of Representatives|House of Representatives]] seat (despite coming close on a number of occasions). During the 1980s, 1990s and early 2000s they typically held one or two of the Federal [[Australian Senate|Senate]] seats in each state, as well as a handful of representatives in state parliaments and local councils. However, the rise of the Greens and internal bickering in the early 2000s changed this, and the Democrats are now in heavy decline - receiving 1.24% nationally, and less than 3% of the vote at all but a handful of booths, even in their Adelaide heartland. Their voters are turning to the [[Liberal Party of Australia|Liberals]] (to the right) and [[Australian Greens|Greens]] (to the left) in almost equal numbers. ==Leadership== The Democrats are notable for their willingness to elect female and [[Indigenous Australian]] parliamentary leadership. Of the party's ten leaders, six have been women. Aboriginal Senator [[Aden Ridgeway]] was deputy leader under Natasha Stott Despoja. The leaders of the Australian Democrats have been: * [[Don Chipp]] (1977-1986) * [[Janine Haines]] (1986-1990) * [[Janet Powell]] (1990-91) * [[John Coulter]] (1991-93) * [[Cheryl Kernot]] (1993-97) * [[Meg Lees]] (1997-2001) * [[Natasha Stott Despoja]] ([[6 April]] [[2001]] to [[21 August]] [[2002]]) * [[Brian Greig]] (2002) * [[Andrew Bartlett]] (2002-2004) * [[Lyn Allison]] (2004-present) [[Andrew Bartlett]] is currently deputy leader. ==A short history== In terms of percentage votes, the Democrats' electoral peak was probably the 1990 federal election. The failure of then-leader Janine Haines to win a [[Division of Kingston|House of Representatives seat]] led to a leadership change; her successor, Janet Powell, was too radical for many in the party and lacked electoral appeal. After an affair with another Senator, she lost the support of much of the caucus. These internal divisions damaged the party in the early 1990s, although recovery occurred under Cheryl Kernot. During the [[Bob Hawke|Hawke]] and [[Paul Keating|Keating]] [[Australian Labor Party|Labor]] Governments (1983-96), which pursued [[economic rationalism|economic rationalist]] [[neoliberalism|neoliberal]] policies, the Democrats positioned themselves to the left of the ALP government and thus at the left end of mainstream Australian politics. However, the party's progressive-liberal politics remained attractive to middle class [[Liberal Party of Australia|Liberal]] supporters who were disaffected by the Liberal party's social conservatism (&quot;wet&quot; Liberals). After the election of the [[John Howard|Howard]] government in 1996, this philosophical division became apparent; there was no longer a single obvious location for the party on the political spectrum. The left of the party was horrified by John Howard's policies, and wanted to undermine and block them whenever possible. Others wanted to engage with the government, using the Senate balance of power to negotiate with it and moderate its legislation. The question was whether the Democrats should be a centrist party, at least on economics, (though socially liberal and environmentalist), ready in most cases to negotiate with the government of the day whether Liberal or Labor (the position suggested by the party's &quot;wet Liberal&quot; roots) or a left-wing party, to the left of both mainstream parties on economic as well as social policy, in strong and consistent opposition to the Liberals and willing to take an obstructionist approach in the Senate to the Howard government's legislative program (a position on the political spectrum more similar to the [[Australian Greens|Greens]]). This conflict manifested itself in tensions over Cheryl Kernot's policy on [[industrial relations]] (see the [[Workplace Relations Act]] of 1996). Under Kernot, after negotiations and some compromises from the government, the Democrats voted for the Howard Government's right-leaning industrial relations legislation which decreased union power and allowed a larger role for individual employer-employee contracts. Kernot, however, remained both ambitious and broadly opposed to the Liberal government. This, together with her personal ambition for a role in government, lead her to defect to the ALP in 1997. Initially both Labor and the Democrats benefitted from Kernot's move, with polls showing that the Democrats had attracted a significant &quot;sympathy vote&quot;. In the [[Australian legislative election, 1998|1998 federal election]], the Democrats came within 3% of taki
ion]] in east London (not to be confused with [[Stratford station]], or Stratford Regional station as it will be called when Stratford International station is opened) ==Organisation== Eurostar services are now managed under a unified management, the Eurostar Group. In each country a member company undertakes Eurostar operation: *[[Belgium]] &amp;mdash; [[NMBS/SNCB]] *[[France]] &amp;mdash; [[SNCF]] *[[United Kingdom]] &amp;mdash; [[Eurostar (U.K.) Ltd.]] or (EUKL) **EUKL managed (under contract) by [[InterCapital and Regional Rail]] (ICRR), a consortium of: ***[[National Express Group]] (40%), ***[[SNCF]] (35%) ***[[NMBS/SNCB]] (15%) ***[[British Airways]] (10%). [[image:Eurostar_on_CTRL.jpg|thumb|right|A Eurostar on the CTRL near Ashford]] ==Additional information== * The trains themselves are 400 metres long, weigh 800 tonnes and carry 750 passengers in 18 carriages (14 carriages for the 7 UK regional sets). In case of an incident in the [[Channel Tunnel]] the trains can be divided in two in order to evacuate the passengers in the unaffected carriages. * In Britain the trains are classified as [[British Rail Class 373]] units, and they were constructed by GEC-Alsthom (now [[Alstom]]) at its La Rochelle (France), Belfort (France) and Washwood Heath (England) sites. They can run on [[third rail]] and various [[catenary]] voltages, achieving a maximum in-service speed of 300 [[Kilometre per hour|km/h]] (186.4 [[Miles per hour|mph]])when collecting current from a 25 kV overhead catenary. They are essentially modified [[TGV]] sets, and some Eurostar trains not needed for Channel runs are now used in regular TGV service by the French national railway. In [[July 2003]] a Eurostar train set a new UK rail speed record of 334.7 km/h (208.0 mph) during safety testing on the first section of the CTRL. This section opened for commercial services in [[September 2003]] and has helped increase passenger numbers by as much as 20%, as well as shortening journey times by 20 minutes. * The 27 normal Eurostar-sets are being refurbished with a new interior, designed by [[Philippe Starck]], from [[September 2004]] on. The grey-yellow look (in Standard class) and the grey-red look (In First/Premium First) has been replaced with a more grey-brown look in Standard, and a grey-burnt orange in First class. The Premium First class will be removed from sale in [[September 2005]] as the company looks to simplify its fare structure. * Eurostar also run services to [[Disneyland Paris]], to [[Avignon]] in summer, and - in the skiing season - to [[Bourg-Saint-Maurice]], [[Aime-la-Plagne]] and [[Moutiers]] in the French [[Alps]]. It was originally intended to run &quot;regional Eurostars&quot;, direct services to Paris and Brussels from places in the United Kingdom other than London. This proved not to be financially viable, but some of the shorter Eurostar trains intended for those services are now operated by GNER (the [[Great North Eastern Railway]]) entirely within the UK, on the [[East Coast Main Line]] from London's [[King's Cross railway station]] to Leeds. 'Nightstar' sleeper trains constructed for the international service were also never used, and the trains were sold to [[VIA Rail]] in Canada, which has branded them as Renaissance Cars [http://www.viarail.ca/classes/en_serv_visi_renai.html]. * [[Eurotunnel]], the company that built and runs the Channel Tunnel, is a completely separate entity from Eurostar. == External links == {{commonscat|Eurostar}} * [http://www.eurostar.com/ Eurostar Homepage] {{Channel tunnel}} {{British TOCs}} {{High-speed trains}} [[Category:High-speed trains]] [[Category:Railway companies]] [[Category:Rail transport in France]] [[Category:Rail transport in Great Britain]] [[Category:Rail transport in Belgium]] [[cs:Eurostar]] [[de:Eurostar Group Ltd]] [[es:Eurostar]] [[fr:Eurostar]] [[id:Eurostar]] [[it:Eurostar]] [[nl:Eurostar]] [[ja:ユーロスター]] [[pl:Eurostar]] [[fi:Eurostar]] [[sv:EuroStar]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Eurostar train</title> <id>10094</id> <revision> <id>15907930</id> <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Mintguy</username> <id>3295</id> </contributor> <comment>moved to &quot;Eurostar&quot;</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Eurostar]] </text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Electric multiple unit</title> <id>10099</id> <revision> <id>15907933</id> <timestamp>2003-08-27T18:09:24Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Patrick</username> <id>4388</id> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECt [[Multiple unit]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Equinox</title> <id>10100</id> <revision> <id>41295636</id> <timestamp>2006-02-26T09:59:37Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Yaohua2000</username> <id>50800</id> </contributor> <comment>/* See also */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{dablink|This article is about the astronomical phenomenon. For other senses of the word &quot;equinox&quot; see [[equinox (disambiguation)]].}} &lt;br clear=&quot;right&quot; /&gt; &lt;table class=&quot;wikitable&quot; align=&quot;right&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; margin: 0em 0em 1em 1em&quot;&gt; &lt;tr&gt; &lt;th colspan=3&gt;'''Equinox dates/times'''&lt;br&gt;([[Universal Time]])&lt;/td&gt; &lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt; &lt;th&gt;Year&lt;/td&gt; &lt;th&gt;Spring starts&lt;br&gt;([[March]])&lt;/td&gt; &lt;th&gt;Autumn starts&lt;br&gt;([[September]])&lt;/td&gt; &lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt; &lt;th&gt;2000&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;20th Mar 07:35&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;22nd Sep 17:27&lt;/td&gt; &lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt; &lt;th&gt;2001&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;20th Mar 13:31&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;22nd Sep 23:04&lt;/td&gt; &lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt; &lt;th&gt;2002&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;20th Mar 19:16&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;23rd Sep 04:55&lt;/td&gt; &lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt; &lt;th&gt;2003&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;21st Mar 01:00&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;23rd Sep 10:47&lt;/td&gt; &lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt; &lt;th&gt;2004&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;20th Mar 06:49&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;22nd Sep 16:30&lt;/td&gt; &lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt; &lt;th&gt;2005&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;20th Mar 12:33&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;22nd Sep 22:23&lt;/td&gt; &lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr bgcolor=&quot;gold&quot;&gt; &lt;th&gt;2006&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;20th Mar 18:26&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;23rd Sep 04:03&lt;/td&gt; &lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt; &lt;th&gt;2007&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;21st Mar 00:07&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;23rd Sep 09:51&lt;/td&gt; &lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt; &lt;th&gt;2008&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;20th Mar 05:48&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;22nd Sep 15:44&lt;/td&gt; &lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt; &lt;th&gt;2009&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;20th Mar 11:44&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;22nd Sep 21:18&lt;/td&gt; &lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt; &lt;th&gt;2010&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;20th Mar 17:32&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;23rd Sep 03:09&lt;/td&gt; &lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt; &lt;th&gt;2011&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;20th Mar 23:21&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;23rd Sep 09:04&lt;/td&gt; &lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt; &lt;th&gt;2012&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;20th Mar 05:14&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;22nd Sep 14:49&lt;/td&gt; &lt;/tr&gt; &lt;/table&gt; An '''equinox''' in [[astronomy]] is the moment when the [[Sun]] passes over the equator. The event occurs twice a year, around March 21 and September 23. The word ''equinox'' derives from the Latin word for ''equal night''. The equinoxes are the two days each year when the middle of the Sun is an equal amount of time above and below the horizon for every location on Earth. In the [[Northern Hemisphere]], the [[March equinox]] is known as the [[vernal equinox]] and the [[September equinox]] is the [[autumnal equinox]]. In the [[Southern Hemisphere]], the names are reversed. In practice, at the equinox, the day is longer than the night. Commonly the [[day]] is defined as the period that sunlight may reach the ground in absence of local obstacles. This is firstly because the Sun does not appear as a single point of light, but as a disc. So when the middle of the Sun is still below the horizon, the topmost edge is already visible and sheds light. Furthermore, the atmosphere refracts light downwards, so even when the topmost edge of the Sun is really still below the horizon, its rays already reach around the horizon to the ground. These effects together make the day about 14 minutes longer than the night (at the equator, and more towards the poles). The real equality of day and night happens a few days towards the winter side of the equinox. ==Equinoctial point== The equinoxes can also be interpreted as virtual points in the sky. Although, during full daylight, stars other than the Sun are overwhelmed by sunlight, making it hard to see where the Sun is compared to other celestial bodies, the Sun does have a position (as seen from Earth) relative to the other stars. As Earth moves around the Sun, the apparent position of the Sun relative to the other stars moves in a full circle over the period of a year. This circle is called the ecliptic, and is also the plane of Earth's orbit projected against the whole sky. The other bright planets like Venus, Mars and Saturn, also appear to move along the ecliptic, because their orbits are in a similar plane to Earth's. Another virtual circle in the sky is the celestial equator, or the projection of the plane of Earth's equator against the whole sky. Because Earth's axis of rotation is tilted relative to the plane of Earth's orbit around the Sun, the celestial equator is inclined to the ecliptic by about 23.5 degrees. Twice a year, the Sun, making its progress around the ecliptic, crosses the plane of Earth's equator. The two intersections between [[ecliptic]] and [[celestial equator]] are the equinoctial points. The time at which the Sun passes through each equinoctial point can b
ing beyond traditional political history narratives with new approaches such as economic, social and cultural history, all of which relied on various sources of evidence. Additionally, &quot;prehistorians&quot; such as [[Vere Gordon Childe]] were using archaeology to explain important events in areas that were traditionally in the field of history. The distinction was also criticized because of its implicit exclusion of certain civilizations, such as those of Sub-Saharan Africa and pre-Columbian America from the historical record. In recent decades the barriers between history and prehistory have thus largely disappeared. Today there is no generally accepted definition for when history begins. In general history is today seen as the study of everything that is known about the human past (but even this barrier is being challenged by new fields such as [[Big History]]). Sources that can give light on this past such as [[oral history]], linguistics, and genetics, have all become accepted by mainstream historians. ==Etymology== {{wiktionary}} The term ''history'' entered the [[English language]] in [[1390]] with the meaning of &quot;relation of incidents, story&quot; via the [[Old French]] ''historie'', from the [[Latin language|Latin]] ''historia'' &quot;narrative, account.&quot; This itself was derived from the [[Ancient Greek]] {{Polytonic|ἱστορία}}, ''historía'', meaning &quot;a learning or knowing by inquiry, history, record, narrative,&quot; from the [[verb]] {{Polytonic|ἱστορεῖν}}, ''historeîn'', &quot;to inquire.&quot; This, in turn, was derived from {{polytonic|ἵστωρ}}, ''hístōr'' (&quot;wise man,&quot; &quot;witness,&quot; or &quot;judge&quot;). Early attestations of {{polytonic|ἵστωρ}} are from the [[Homeric Hymns]], [[Heraclitus]], the [[Athens|Athenian]] [[ephebe]]s' oath, and from [[Boeotia|Boiotic]] inscriptions (in a legal sense, either &quot;judge&quot; or &quot;witness,&quot; or similar). The spirant is problematic, and not present in cognate Greek ''eídomai'' (&quot;to appear&quot;). {{polytonic|ἵστωρ}} is ultimately from the [[Proto-Indo-European language|Proto-Indo-European]] ''*wid-tor-'', from the [[Root (linguistics)|root]] ''*weid-'' (&quot;to know, to see&quot;), also present in the English word ''wit'', the Latin words ''vision'' and ''video'', the [[Sanskrit language|Sanskrit]] word ''[[veda]]'', and the [[Slavic language|Slavic]] word ''videti'', as well as others. (The asterisk before a word indicates that it is a hypothetical construction, not an attested form.) '{{polytonic|ἱστορία}}, ''historía'', is an [[Ionic Greek|Ionic]] derivation of the word, which with Ionic science and philosophy were spread first in [[Classical Greece]] and ultimately over all of [[Hellenism]]. In [[Middle English]], the meaning was &quot;story&quot; in general. The restriction to the meaning &quot;record of past events&quot; in the sense of [[Herodotus]] arises in the late [[15th century]]. In German, French, and indeed, most languages of the world other than English, this distinction was never made, and the same word is used to mean both &quot;history&quot; and &quot;story&quot;. A sense of &quot;systematic account&quot; without a reference to time in particular was current in the [[16th century]], but is now obsolete. The adjective ''historical'' is attested from [[1561]], and ''historic'' from [[1669]]. ''Historian'' in the sense of a &quot;researcher of history&quot; in a higher sense than that of an [[Annals|annalist]] or [[chronicle]]r, who merely record events as they occur, is attested from [[1531]]. ==Historiography== ''See full article: [[Historiography]]'' Historiography is the study and analysis of history through a belief system or philosophy. Although there is arguably some intrinsic [[bias]] in historical studies (with national bias perhaps being the most significant), history can also be studied from [[ideology|ideological]] perspectives, such as [[Marxist historiography]]. A form of historical speculation known commonly as [[virtual history]] (&quot;counterfactual history&quot;) has also been adopted by some historians as a means of assessing and exploring the possible outcomes if certain events had not occurred or had occurred in a different way. This is somewhat similar to the [[Alternate history (fiction)|alternative history]] [[genre]] of [[fiction]]. ==Historical methods== Historians of note who have advanced the historical methods of study include [[Leopold von Ranke]], [[Lewis Bernstein Namier]], [[Geoffrey Rudolph Elton]], [[G.M. Trevelyan]] and [[A.J.P. Taylor]]. During the 1960's historians transitioned from epic nationalistic narratives that tended to glorify the nation or individuals to more realistic chronologies. French historians introduced quantitative history, using broad data to track the lives of typical individuals, and were prominent in the establishment of [[cultural history]] (cf. [[histoire des mentalités]]). American historians, motivated by the civil rights era, focused on formerly overlooked ethnic, racial, and socio-economic groups. In recent years, [[postmodernism|postmodernists]] have challenged the validity and need for the study of history on the basis that all history is based on the personal interpretation of sources. In his book ''In Defense of History'', [[Richard J. Evans]], a professor of modern history at [[University of Cambridge|Cambridge University]], defended the worth of history. ==The lessons of history== In addition to being an interesting topic of study in its own right, historians often claim that the study of history teaches valuable lessons with regard to past successes and failures of leaders, economic systems, forms of government, and other recurring themes in the human story. From history we may learn factors that result in the rise and fall of [[nation-state]]s or [[civilization]]s, motivations for political actions, the effects of social philosophies, and perspectives on [[culture]] and [[technology]]. One of the most famous quotations about history and the value of studying history, by [[Spanish people|Spanish]] [[philosopher]], [[George Santayana]], reads: &quot;Those who cannot remember the past are condemned to repeat it.&quot; The [[German People|German]] [[German Philosophy|Philosopher]], [[Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel]] remarked in his ''[[Philosophy of history]]'' that: &quot;What history and experience teach us is this: that people and government never have learned anything from history or acted on principles deduced from it.&quot; This was famously [[Paraphrase|paraphrased]] by the [[United Kingdom|British]] [[Prime Minister of the United Kingdom|statesman]], [[Winston Churchill]] into: &quot;The one thing we have learned from history is that we don't learn from history.&quot; Winston Churchill alluded to another [[philosophy of history]] when he quipped, &quot;History will be kind to me for I intend to write it.&quot; Churchill had been a journalist, and was a very influential memoirist, but it's likely his joking comment didn't refer to his own literal writing, but was a variant of the famous: &quot;[[History is written by the victors]].&quot; In this view, the winners in human conflicts get to put their own [[spin (public relations)|spin]] on historic events. An alternative view is that the forces of history are too great to be changed by human deliberation, or that, even if people do change the course of history, the movers and shakers of this world are usually too self-involved to stop to look at the big picture. Yet another view is that history does not repeat itself because of the uniqueness of any given historical event. In this view, the specific combination of factors at any moment in time can never be repeated, and so knowledge about events in the past can not be directly and beneficially applied to the present. This approach is challenged in less [[Meta-|meta]]-historical terms with the notion that historical lessons can and should be drawn from events, and that careful generalizations of unique events is useful. For example, [[state of emergency|emergency]] response to [[natural disasters]] can be improved, even though each individual disaster is, in itself, absolutely unique. ==See also== *[[Historian]]: A person who studies history. *[[Pseudohistory]]: term for information about the past that falls outside the domain of mainstream history (sometimes it is an equivalent of [[pseudoscience]]). ''Methods and tools'' *[[Contemporaneous corroboration]]: A method historians use to establish facts beyond their limited lifespan. *[[Prosopography]]: A methodological tool for the collection of all known information about individuals within a given period. *[[Historical revisionism]]: Traditionally been used in a completely neutral sense to describe the work or ideas of a historian who has revised a previously accepted view of a particular topic. ''Particular studies and fields'' *[[Archaeology]]: study of prehistoric and historic human cultures through the recovery, documentation and analysis of material remains and environmental data. *[[Archontology]]: study of historical offices and important positions in state, international, political, religious and other organizations and societies. *[[Art History]]: the study of changes in and social context of art. *[[Chronology]]: science of localizing historical events in time. *[[Cultural history]]: the study of culture in the past. *[[Diplomatic history]]: the study of international relations in the past. *[[Economic History]]: the study of economies in the past. *[[Futurology]]: study of the future: researches the medium to long-term future of societies and of the physical world. *[[Christian era]]: history of the Christian era. *[[History painter]]: painters of historical motifs and particularly the great events. *[[Military History]]: The study of warfare and wars in history and what is sometimes considered to be a sub-branch of military hi
]]: || [[Vladimir Talevski]] |----- bgcolor=&quot;#FFFFFF&quot; |} [[Image:Architecture.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Bitola in Winter (January 2006)]] '''Bitola''' ([[Macedonian language|Macedonian]] Битола, [[Greek language|Greek]] &quot;Monastiri&quot;, [[Turkish language|Turkish]] &quot;Manastır&quot;, see also [[Names of European cities in different languages#B|other names of Bitola]]''), is the second largest city in the [[Republic of Macedonia]], located in the southern part of the [[Pelagonia]] valley, close to the border with [[Greece]]. The name of the city probably comes from the word ''Obitel (Bitel, Bitolia)'' (old slavic word, meaning &quot;''monastery''&quot;, translation from the Greek original). The city is dispersed along the banks of the Dragor river at an altitude of 2,019 ft (615 m) above sea level under [[Baba Mountain]]. Spreading on an area of 1,798 sq. km. and with a population of 122,173 (1991), Bitola is an important industrial, agricultural, commercial, educational, and cultural center. It represents an important junction that connects the South of the [[Adriatic Sea]] with the Aegean Sea and Central Europe.The second Macedonian university is located here. Bitola has one of the oldest and most prestigious theaters in the country. Traditionally a strong trading center, Bitola is also known as the city of the consuls. At one time during the Ottoman rule, Bitola had consulates from twelve countries. During the same period, there were a number of prestigious schools in the city including a military academy that, among others, was attended by the famous Turkish reformer [[Kemal Ataturk]]. Bitola was also the headquarter of many cultural organizations that were established at that time. Baba Mountain overlooks Bitola from the east. Its magnificent [[Pelister]] mountain (2601 m) is a national park with exquisite flora and fauna, and a well-known ski resort. == History == Many important events in [[Macedonia (region)|Macedonian]] and [[Balkan]] history took place in Bitola. The town was founded by [[Illyrian]] tribes in the vicinity of [[Heraclea Lyncestis]], in the middle of the 7th century AD. The archeological excavations on the Velusina Hill, Porodin Hill, and others date from the Neolith. Heraclea Lyncestis was founded by [[Philip II of Macedon]] and was one of the major cities in the [[Roman Empire|Roman]] Balkans. The [[Via Egnatia]] passed through the town. In the 6th and 7th centuries the region around Bitola experienced a demographic shift as more and more Macedonian Slavs settled in the area. The town is mentioned in several medieval sources. [[John Skylitzes]]'s 11th century chronicle mentions that Emperor [[Basil II]] burned Gavrilo's castles in Monastiri, when passing through and demolishing Pelagonia. The second [[chrysobull]] (1019) of Basil II mentioned that the Bishop of Monastiri depended on the [[Bulgarian Archbishopric of Ohrid|Archbishopric of Ohrid]]. During the reign of [[Tsar]] [[Samuil]], the city was included within the Bulgarian state and was the seat of Bitola's bishop. In many mediaeval sources, most from the West, the name Pelagonia stood for a landmark of Bitola Bishopric, and in some of them Bitola was known under the name of Heraclea due to the church tradition ''i.e.'' the turning of Heraclea Bishopric into Pelagonian Metropolitan's Diocese. [[Image:heraclea.jpg|thumb|300px|right|The Heraclea Lyncestis mosaic]] Bitola was part of Serbia in the 14th century and since the end of the 14th century until 1912 it was part of the [[Ottoman empire]]. For several centuries Moslems were the majority in this city, while the villages were populated with Macedonian Slavs. [[Evliya Çelebi]] says the city had 70 mosques, several cafe-tea rooms, bezisten (old turkish market) with iron gates, and 900 shops were built. Bitola (then Monastir) become a [[sanjak]] centre in the [[Rumelia|Rumeli]] [[Subdivisions of the Ottoman Empire|eyalet]]. After the [[Expulsion of 1492]], [[Sephardi Jews|Spanish-speaking Jews]] arrived in waves from the Iberian peninsula, ([[Spain]] and [[Portugal]]) and other lands harassed by the [[Inquisition]]. As a center of the military, political and cultural life, Bitola played a very important role in the life of the mediaeval Slavs. On the eve of its coming under Ottoman rule (14th century), Bitola experienced a powerful boom, and had already had developed trading links all over the Balkans Peninsula, especially with the big economic centers: [[Constantinople]], [[Salonika]], [[Dubrovnik]]... Caravans of most variable goods moved to Bitola from all sides and reverse, from Bitola to all other centers. After the [[Austrian-Turkish wars]], together with the other Macedonian cities, the trade development and the overall thriving of the city was stifled. In the second half of the 19th century, however, again, it became the biggest city in Macedonia, after Thessalonica and resumed the role as the main center for trade. The shops were filled with goods from [[Leipzig]], [[Paris]], [[Vienna]], [[London]] and many of other European cities. The city is also known as &quot;city of consuls&quot;, because Bitola used to be a diplomatic center with 12 consuls during the period 1878&amp;ndash;1913. In 1864, Bitola became an [[Wilayah|eyalet]]. This province constituted from sanjaks of Bitola (Monastir), [[Debar]], [[Elbasan]], [[Korca]] and [[Servia]]. The first motion picture made in the Balkans was recorded by the Vlach [[Manakis brothers]] in Bitola in 1903. In their honor, the annual [http://www.manaki.com.mk/ Manaki Brothers International Film Camera Festival] is held in Bitola. The Monastir congress of 1908 which defined the modern [[Albanian alphabet]] was held in Bitola. After the [[First Balkan War]], the [[Treaty of London]] of 1913 annexed the city, together with the current West Macedonia, to [[Serbia]], and Serbian forces occupied Bitola . During the [[World War II|Second World War]] (1941-1945), the Germans and later Bulgarians controlled the city, until it was liberated in 1944 by the Macedonian Partisans. In 1945 the first Gymnasium using the Macedonian language was opened here. == Historical buildings == '''Saat kula - The Clock Tower.''' It is not known when the [[clock-tower]] was built, although according to the written sources it was mentioned already in the 16th century, but because of the lack of any description, it is not clear if it is about the same clock-tower. According to some, the clock-tower was built in the same time with the church St.Dimitrija in 1830. Nowadays still exists the legend &quot;that the [[Ottoman Empire|Turkish]] authorities of that time collected from the Bitola county villages around 60 000 eggs and used them in the construction together with the mortar, in order to make the walls more resistant and strong.&quot; The Clock tower has rectangular base and it is about 30 meters high. On the upper part-by the very top there is a terrace in rectangular form and it is fenced with iron fence. On each sides of the fence there is iron console construction which holds the lamps for lighting the watch. The Clock tower is divided in three levels and in the upper one the mechanism of the watch is installed. The first (old )mechanisam was replaced in the time of the second world war. Due to the effords of the City of Bitola, to maintain the old german graves from the first world war, the german nazi regime gave them a new still functioning clock mechanisam as a present. By its architecture, the Clock tower is massive construction and it is composed of walls, massive spiral stairs, wooden mezzanine constructions, pendentives (triangular pass from square to cupola) and cupola. During the construction of the clock-tower the façade is simultaneously decorated with simple stone plastic. [[Image:saat.jpg|thumb|300px|right|The clock tower in Bitola]] The '''church of St.Dimitrija''' was built in 1830 with voluntary contributions of the local merchants and craftsmen. Since in the [[Ottoman Empire]] the churches were supposed look plain on the outside, the church is lavishly decorated on the inside, in order to make up for the lack of splendor on the outside. The interior of the church is of rear beauty, decorated with polielei (church lamps), carved bishop throne and engraved [[iconostasis]]. According to some theories by professionals, the church iconostas is a work of art of the [[Miyak]] engravers. The most impressive feature of the iconostas is the arc above the imperial quarters with modeled figures of [[Jesus]] and the twelve apostles. Besides the iconostas, in the temple of Notre Dame there are also some other wood-engraved items, like the bishop’s throne made in the spirit of [[Miyak]] engravers, several icon frames and five wooden engraved pillars shaped like thrones of more recent history. The fresco-art originates from two periods. The first period is from the end of the 20th century, and the second begins from the end of [[World War I]] and lasts to the present day. Businessmen and citizens from Bitola and the surrounding area, via their voluntary contributions have made possible for this church to be adorned with icons and frescos. The authors of a major part of the icons had a vast knowledge of iconography schemes of the [[New Testament]]. Icons are produced with a great sense for color, where most dominant are shades of red, green and ocher. The abundance of golden ornaments is easily noticeable and this points out to the presence of [[late-Byzantine]] artwork and baroque style. On one of these icons, the one that presents St.Dimitrij, there is a signature with the initials D.A.Z., which points out the fact that the icon was produced by the iconographer [[Dimitar Andonov]] the [[zograph]] in 1889. The church treasury is not enriched only by the large number of icons and frescos, but the church also has a large number of other items in its possession, like the putiri made by local masters, one daroh
was planned by the PA leadership, and was aimed at &amp;#8220;provoking and incurring Palestinian casualties as a means of regaining the diplomatic initiative.&amp;#8221;'' The Mitchell Report, based on a subsequent investigation, also found that the Sharon visit did not cause the Al-Aqsa Intifada, though it was poorly timed and would clearly have a provocative effect.[http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Peace/Mitchellrep.html] Palestinians doubt the existence of popular support for Sharon's actions. Polls published in the media, as well as the 140% call-up of reservists (as opposed to the 60% in regular periods) seem to indicate that the Israeli public is quite supportive of Sharon's policies. A survey conducted by Tel Aviv University's Jaffe Center in May 2004 found that 80% of Jewish Israelis believe that the Israel Defense Forces have succeeded in militarily countering the Al-Aqsa Intifada, [http://spirit.tau.ac.il/socant/peace/peaceindex/2004/data/may2004d.pdf] indicating widespread faith in Sharon's hard-line policy. [[Image:Bush sharon.jpg|thumb|President Bush and Prime Minister Sharon meet in the White House on [[14 April]] [[2004]].]] On [[July 20]] [[2004]], Sharon called on [[France|French]] [[Jew]]s to emigrate from France to Israel immediately, in light of an increase in French [[anti-Semitism]] (94 anti-Semitic assaults reported in the first six months of 2004 compared to 47 in 2003). France has the third largest Jewish population (about 600,000 people), after the [[United States]] and [[Israel]]. Sharon claimed that an &quot;unfettered anti-Semitism&quot; reigned in France. The French government responded by describing his comments as &quot;unacceptable&quot;, as did the French representative Jewish organization [[CRIF]], which denied Sharon's claim of intense anti-Semitism in French society. An Israeli spokesperson later claimed that Sharon had been misunderstood. France then postponed a visit by Sharon. Upon his visit, both Sharon and Chirac were described as showing a willingness to put the issue behind them. On [[July 26]], [[2005]], Israeli attorney general [[Menachem Mazuz]] announced that he would indict Sharon's son, [[Omri Sharon|Omri]], on charges of [[political corruption|corruption]]. Omri had [[parliamentary immunity]] at the time, but indicated willingness to stand trial. The Knesset passed a law limiting members' immunity in order to allow the indictment and Omri was formally indicted on [[August 28]]. ==Gaza evacuation== While some believe that his recent efforts have been damaging to the peace process, he has embarked on a risky course of unilateral withdrawal from the [[Gaza Strip]], while maintaining control of its coastline and airspace. It has been welcomed by both the [[Palestinian Authority]] and the left-wing in Israel, as well as by many abroad, including the United States and the [[European Union]], as a step towards a final peace settlement. However, it has been greeted with opposition from within his own Likud party and from other right-wing Israelis, on security, military, and religious grounds. Other detractors have publicly distrusted Sharon's motives for this plan, and their suspicions were further roused after publication of an interview with top Sharon aide Dov Weisglass in the Israeli newspaper ''[[Haaretz]]'' on [[October 8]] [[2004]], in which he explained Israel's motivation for withdrawing from Gaza. He told the newspaper that both Israel and the US felt Palestinian terrorism must end before a political process leading to a Palestinian state begins. Otherwise, Weisglass said, &quot;the result would be a Palestinian state with terrorism...&quot; The Gaza withdrawal would allow Israel to delay negotiations, and a Palestinian state, until such time that their leadership abandons violence. Critics interpreted Weisglass' comments as saying the purpose of disengagement was to destroy Palestinian aspirations for a state for years to come. This incident has bolstered the position of critics that Sharon is intentionally trying to destroy the peace process, an accusation denied by the Prime Minister's camp. {{further|[[Israel's unilateral disengagement plan of 2004]]}} On [[December 1]] [[2004]], Sharon dismissed five ministers from the Shinui party for voting against the government's 2005 budget. In January 2005 Sharon formed a national unity government that included representatives of Likud, Labour, and [[Meimad]] and [[Degel HaTorah]] as &quot;out-of-government&quot; supporters without any seats in the government ([[Haredi Judaism|Haredi]] parties usually reject having ministerial offices as a policy). Between [[August 16]] and [[August 30]] [[2005]], Sharon controversially expelled 8,500 Jewish settlers from 21 settlements in Gaza. Once it became clear that the evictions were definitely going ahead a group of extreme right-wing Rabbis, led by Rabbi [[Yosef Dayan]] placed an ancient curse on him calling on the [[Angel of Death]] to intervene and kill him. After Israeli soldiers bulldozed every settlement structure except for several former [[synagogue]] buildings, Israeli soldiers formally left Gaza on Sunday, [[September 11]] [[2005]] and closed the border fence at [[Kissufim]]. The synagogues were later looted and burned to the ground by miscreants. While his decision to withdraw from Gaza sparked bitter protests from far-right members of the Likud party and the settler movement, opinion polls showed that it was a popular move among most of the Israeli electorate. On [[September 27]] [[2005]], Sharon narrowly defeated a leadership challenge by a 52-48% vote. The move was initiated within the central committee of the governing Likud party by his main rival, [[Binyamin Netanyahu]], who had left the cabinet to protest Sharon's withdrawal from Gaza. The measure was an attempt by Netanyahu to call an early primary in November 2005 to choose the party's leader. ==Founding of Kadima== On [[November 21]] [[2005]], Sharon resigned as head of Likud, and dissolved parliament to form a new centre-right party called ''[[Kadima]]'' (&quot;Forward&quot;).[http://seattlepi.nwsource.com/national/1107AP_Sharon_No_Return.html] November polls indicated that Sharon was likely to be returned to the prime ministership.[http://www.guardian.co.uk/worldlatest/story/0,1280,-5431649,00.html] On [[December 20]] [[2005]], Sharon's longtime rival [[Binyamin Netanyahu]] was elected his successor as leader of Likud [http://www.guardian.co.uk/israel/Story/0,2763,1671030,00.html]. Netanyahu, along with [[Labour (Israel)|Labor]]'s [[Amir Peretz]], are to be ''Kadima'''s chief rivals in the [[Israel legislative election, 2006|March 2006 elections]]. ==Incapacitation== {{Current section}} {{main|Illnesses of Ariel Sharon}} Sharon was hospitalised on [[December 18]] [[2005]] after reportedly suffering a minor [[ischemic stroke]]. Sharon spent four days in hospital, and was released on [[December 20]]. During his hospital stay, he was also diagnosed with a minor hole in his heart and was scheduled to undergo a [[cardiac catheterization]] to fill the hole in his [[atrial septum]] on [[January 5]], [[2006]]. On [[January 4]], however, Sharon suffered a massive [[hemorrhagic stroke]] and was evacuated by ambulance from his ranch, [[Havat Hashikmim]] in the [[Negev|Negev region]] to [[Hadassah Ein Kerem hospital|Hadassah hospital]], [[Jerusalem]], to undergo [[brain surgery]]. Although Sharon was reported to be in stable condition, his doctors called this stroke &quot;significant&quot;, adding that he &quot;suffered a [[cerebral hemorrhage]],&quot; which is bleeding in the brain. Sharon underwent seven hours of surgery to stop the bleeding and drain the accumulated blood. Hadassah director Professor [[Shlomo Mor-Yosef]] reported after the surgery that the bleeding had stopped: &quot;all the parameters are according to expectations after an operation of this type.&quot; The doctors estimated his chances for recovery as being &quot;very low.&quot; Earlier in the day, members of the media incorrectly reported that Sharon had died, after doctors at the hospital were prepared to announce his death. However, they were convinced by family and advisors to try, once again, to save his life. On the night of Sharon's stroke, in the wake of his serious illness, and following consultations between Government Secretary [[Israel Maimon]] and Attorney General [[Meni Mazouz]], Sharon was declared &quot;temporarily incapable of discharging his powers&quot;, and [[Ehud Olmert]], the Deputy Prime Minister, was officially confirmed as the Acting Prime Minister of Israel. Olmert and the Cabinet announced that the [[Israel legislative election, 2006|elections]] would take place on [[March 28]] as scheduled. According to Israeli law, an Acting Prime Minister can remain in office 100 days after Prime Minister has become incapacitated before the President has to appoint a new Prime Minister. Sharon has not yet been declared permanently incapacitated. During the rest of January, Sharon's condition remained essentially unchanged. On [[February 11]], he underwent an operation to investigate damage to his digestive tract. It was found that he was suffering from [[intestine|intestinal]] bleeding and life-threatening [[necrosis]], and about 50 cm of his intestines were consequently removed. On [[February 22]], he underwent an additional procedure to drain excess fluid from his stomach, discovered during a routine [[computed tomography|CT]] scan. On [[February 2]], Sharon's Kadima party issued its ticket for the March elections to the Knesset. Since Sharon was unable to sign a nomination form, he is not a candidate and will thus cease to be a Knesset member in March. This means that even if his medical condition improves, he will be unable to continue his current tenure as Prime Minister. &lt;!-- please write in the *past* tense, as otherwise your edit will have to be rewritten in less than 24 hours! --&gt;
AutoCAD 2006 drawing.]] '''AutoCAD''' is a suite of popular [[computer-aided design|CAD]] [[computer software|software]] products for 2- and 3-[[dimension]]al design and drafting, developed and sold by [[Autodesk]]. The AutoCAD family of products, taken as a whole, are the most widely used CAD software in the world. ==Description== Initially a general-purpose 2D drafting program, AutoCAD has evolved into a family of products which provide a [[platform (computing)|platform]] for 2D and 3D CAD. Today, it is used by [[Civil Engineering|civil engineers]], [[Land_development|land developers]], [[architects]], [[Mechanical engineering|mechanical engineers]], [[Interior Design|interior designers]] and other design professionals. Modern AutoCAD includes a full set of basic solid modelling and 3D tools, but lacks the advanced capabilities of [[solid modelling]] applications. AutoCAD can co-exist with such products as a 2D drafting tool. Like other CAD programs, AutoCAD is fundamentally a [[vector graphics]] drawing program. It uses primitive entities -- such as lines, polylines, circles, arcs, and text -- as the foundation for more complex objects. [[Image:AutoCAD2005.jpg|thumb|left|A snapshot taken in AutoCAD 2005 while transcribing a curve.]] AutoCAD supports a number of [[application programming interface]]s (APIs) for customization and automation. These include [[AutoLISP]], Visual LISP, and [[VBA]]. AutoCAD's license-based API, [[ObjectARX]], can be used; a [[C++]] class library, which was also the base for products extending AutoCAD functionality to specific fields, to create products such as Autodesk Architectural Desktop, AutoCAD Electrical, or third-party AutoCAD based applications. AutoCAD's native file format, [[DWG|AutoCAD DWG]], and to a lesser extent, its interchange file format, [[AutoCAD DXF|DXF]], have become [[de facto]] standards for interchange of 2D CAD data. In 2006, Autodesk estimated the number of active DWG files to be in excess of one billion. In the past, Autodesk has estimated the total number of DWG files in existence to be more than three billion. AutoCAD currently runs exclusively on [[Microsoft]] desktop [[operating system]]s. Versions for [[Unix]] and [[Apple Macintosh]] were released in the 1980s, but these met with limited market acceptance and were later dropped. It usually suffers from poor performance when run in an [[emulator]] or [[compatibility layer]] like [[Virtual PC]] or [[Wine (software)|Wine]]. ===AutoCAD LT=== AutoCAD LT is a &quot;scaled down&quot; version of AutoCAD. &quot;LT&quot; does not stand for &quot;light&quot;; it originally stood for &quot;lap top&quot;. (One pronounces the letters individually.) When AutoCAD LT was first introduced in 1993, laptop computers did not have the performance features they have today. A version of AutoCAD with a reduced feature set, and thus a smaller memory footprint, was needed for portable use. AutoCAD LT was the result. [[2006|Today]], Autodesk sells AutoCAD LT for its much lower price. It is marketed as a CAD package for those who only need 2D functionality. Compared with AutoCAD proper, AutoCAD LT lacks several features, has almost no 3D capabilities, and does not include any programming interfaces. ===Overlay programs=== Autodesk has also developed overlay programs, sometimes called Desktops, for discipline-specific enhancements. Architectural Desktop, for example, permits architectural designers to draw objects such as walls, doors and windows, with more intelligent data associated with them, rather than simple objects such as lines and circles. The data can be programmed to represent specific architectural products sold in the construction industry, or extracted into a data file for pricing, materials estimation, and other values related to the objects represented. Similarly, Civil Design, Civil Design 3D, and Civil Design Professional allow data-specific objects to be used, allowing standard civil engineering calculations to be made and represented easily. Additionally, Autodesk Inventor allows the technician to design any moving object (or idea!) and visually represent movements on screen. ===Templates=== Incorporated into AutoCAD 2000 (Release 15), was the ability to create a template. Not like most other software programs, this template (called paperspace) allowed users to draw/design on an exact representation of the sheet of paper they would ouput to. Draw a line 100mm - it would print 100mm. ===Blocks=== In AutoCAD, blocks are objects that can be reused. On the Web there are many sites that provide AutoCAD blocks, linetypes, hatch patterns, etc. In version 2006, AutoCAD adds '''dynamic blocks,''' which have capabilities similar to the symbols used in [[Microsoft Visio]]. ==Version history== * Version 1.0 (Release 1) - December [[1982]] * Version 1.2 (Release 2) - April [[1983]] * Version 1.3 (Release 3) - August [[1983]] * Version 1.4 (Release 4) - October [[1983]] * Version 2.0 (Release 5) - October [[1984]] * Version 2.1 (Release 6) - May [[1985]] * Version 2.5 (Release 7) - June [[1986]] * Version 2.6 (Release 8) - April [[1987]] * Release 9 - September [[1987]] * Release 10 - October [[1988]] * Release 11 - October [[1990]] * Release 12 - June [[1992]] * Release 13 - November [[1994]] * Release 14 - February [[1997]] * AutoCAD 2000 (R15.0) - March [[1999]] * AutoCAD 2000i - July [[2000]] * AutoCAD 2002 (R15.6) - June [[2001]] * AutoCAD 2004 (R16.0) - March [[2003]] * AutoCAD 2005 (R16.1) - March [[2004]] * AutoCAD 2006 (R16.2) - March [[2005]] ==See also== *[[Autodesk]] *[[CAD]] *[[CP/M]] *[[IGES]] *[[pl:TechCAD]] ==External links== {{Wikibooks}} * [http://www.autodesk.com/autocad AutoCAD website] by Autodesk * [http://www.quadrasol.co.uk/design/mech.php UK Reseller for Autodesk] * [http://www.fourmilab.ch/autofile/ The Autodesk File] by co-founder Autodesk John Walker * [http://betaprograms.autodesk.com/history/area51.htm Unofficial AutoCAD History] by Shaan Hurley * [http://www.augi.com Autodesk User Group International] {{AutoCAD_related_articles}} [[Category:Windows software]] [[Category:3D graphics software]] [[Category:computer-aided design software]] [[Category:CNC, CAD, and CAM]] [[de:AutoCAD]] [[es:AutoCAD]] [[fr:AutoCAD]] [[he:אוטוקאד]] [[hu:AutoCAD]] [[nl:AutoCAD]] [[pl:AutoCAD]] [[pt:AutoCAD]] [[sl:AutoCAD]] [[sv:AutoCAD]] [[th:ออโตแคด]] [[tr:AutoCAD]] [[zh:AutoCAD]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>AutoCAD DXF</title> <id>2754</id> <revision> <id>38172856</id> <timestamp>2006-02-04T18:23:55Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Deville</username> <id>364144</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Disambiguate [[Binary]] to [[Binary and text files]] using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''AutoCAD DXF''' (Drawing Interchange Format, or Drawing Exchange Format) is a CAD data [[file format]], developed by [[Autodesk]] as their solution for enabling [[CAD data exchange | data interoperability]] between [[AutoCAD]] and other programs. DXF was originally introduced in December 1982 as part of AutoCAD 1.0, and was intended to provide an exact representation of the data in the AutoCAD native file format, [[DWG]] (Drawing), for which Autodesk did (and does) not publish specifications. Autodesk currently publishes specifications on its website for versions of DXF dating from AutoCAD Release 13 (November 1994) to AutoCAD 2006 (March 2005.) Versions of AutoCAD from Release 10 (October 1988) and up support both [[ASCII]] and [[Binary and text files|binary]] forms of DXF. Earlier versions support only the ASCII form. As AutoCAD has become more powerful, supporting more complex object types, DXF has become less useful. Certain object types, including [[ACIS]] solids and regions, are not documented. Other object types, including AutoCAD 2006's dynamic blocks, and all of the objects specific to the vertical-market versions of AutoCAD, are partially documented, but not at a sufficient level to allow other developers to support them. Almost all significant commercial application software developers, including all of Autodesk's competitors, choose to support DWG as their primary format for AutoCAD data interoperability, using libraries from the Open Design Alliance - a non-profit industry consortium which has reverse-engineered the DWG file format. ==File structure== ASCII versions of DXF it can be read with a text-editor. The basic organization of a DXF file is as follows: *'''HEADER''' section - General information about the drawing. Each parameter has a variable name and an associated value. *'''CLASSES'''section - Holds the information for application-defined classes whose instances appear in the BLOCKS, ENTITIES, and OBJECTS sections of the database. Generally does not provide sufficient information to allow interoperability with other programs. *'''TABLES''' section - This section contains definitions of named items. :Application ID (APPID) table :Block Recod (BLOCK_RECORD) table :Dimension Style (DIMSTYPE) table :Layer (LAYER) table :Linetype (LTYPE) table :Text style (STYLE) table :User Coordinate System (UCS) table :View (VIEW)table :Viewport configuration (VPORT) table *'''BLOCKS''' section - This section contains Block Definition entities describing the entities comprising each Block in the drawing. *'''ENTITIES''' section - This section contains the drawing entities, including any Block References. *'''OBJECTS''' section -- Contains the data that apply to nongraphical objects, used by AutoLISP and ObjectARX applications. *'''THUMBNAILIMAGE''' section -- contains the preview image for the DXF file. *'''END OF FILE''' == See also == * [[QCad]] ==External links== * [http://www.autodesk.com/dxf DXF Specifications] - Autodesk documentation on versions of DXF from Release 13 to current. * [http://www.opendesign.com Open De
ydberg]]'s poem ''Tomten'' featuring the first painting by [[Jenny Nyström]] of the traditional Swedish mythical character ''[[tomte]]'' which she turned into the friendly white-bearded figure associated with Christmas. Her figure was further developed in 1931 by [[Haddon Sundblom]] for the [[Coca-Cola Company]]. Although Christmas [[icon]]s have become widespread through television and movies, Christmas is still a time when national traditions are strong, and both Santa's appearance and the stories told vary from country to country. Some Scandinavian Christmas stories are less cheery than Dickens's, notably [[Hans Christian Andersen|H. C. Andersen]]'s ''[[The Little Match Girl]]''. A destitute little [[slum]] girl walks barefoot through snow-covered streets on Christmas Eve, trying in vain to sell her matches, and peeking in at the celebrations in the homes of the more fortunate. She dares not go home because her father is drunk. Unlike the principals of Anglophone Christmas lore, she meets a tragic end. [[Image:Dvd-cover-white-christmas.jpg|thumb|Unlike many films, which date rapidly, Christmas movies are the reliable annuals of the movie business.]] Many Christmas stories have been popularized as [[film|movie]]s and [[TV special]]s. Since the 1980s, many video editions are sold and resold every year during the holiday season. A notable example is the film ''[[It's a Wonderful Life]]'', which turns the theme of ''A Christmas Carol'' on its head. Its hero, [[George Bailey]], is a businessman who sacrificed his dreams to help his community. On [[Christmas Eve]], a [[guardian angel]] finds him in despair and prevents him from committing [[suicide]], by magically showing him how much he meant to the world around him. Perhaps the most famous animated production is ''[[A Charlie Brown Christmas]]'' wherein [[Charlie Brown]] tries to address his feeling of dissatisfaction with the holidays by trying to find a deeper meaning to them. The humorous ''[[A Christmas Story]]'' (1983) has become a holiday classic and is shown for 24 hours straight from Christmas Eve to Christmas Day on [[TNT]]/[[TBS (TV network)|TBS]]. A few true stories have also become enduring Christmas tales themselves. The story behind the Christmas carol ''[[Silent Night]]'' and the story ''[[Yes, Virginia, there is a Santa Claus]]'' is among the most well-known of these. [[Radio]] and [[television]] programs have also aggressively pursued entertainment and ratings through their cultivation of Christmas themes. Radio stations broadcast [[Christmas carol]]s and [[Christmas song]]s, including [[European classical music|classical music]] such as the [[Hallelujah chorus]] from [[Handel]]'s ''[[Messiah (Handel)|Messiah]]''. Among other classical pieces inspired by Christmas are the ''[[Nutcracker Suite]]'', adapted from Tchaikovsky's ballet score, and [[Johann Sebastian Bach]]'s ''Christmas Oratorio'' ([[BWV]] 248). Television networks add Christmas themes to their standard programming, run traditional holiday movies, and produce a variety of Christmas specials. ==Economics of Christmas== Christmas is typically the largest annual stimulus for the economies of celebrating nations. Sales increase dramatically in almost all retail areas and shops introduce new products as people purchase gifts, decorations, and supplies. In the US, the Christmas shopping season now begins on [[Black Friday (shopping)|Black Friday]], the day after [[Thanksgiving]]. The economic impact of Christmas continues after the holiday, with Christmas sales and New Year's sales, when stores sell off excess inventories. More businesses and stores close on Christmas Day than any other day of the year in most countries - in most communities, virtually nothing is open or operating. In the [[United Kingdom]], the [[Christmas Day (Trading) Act 2004]] prevents all large shops from trading on Christmas Day. Many religious [[Christians]], as well as anti-[[consumerism|consumerist]]s, decry the commercialization of Christmas. They accuse the Christmas season of being dominated by money and greed at the expense of the holiday's more important values. Frustrations over these issues and others can lead to a rise in Christmastime social problems. Most [[economists]] agree, however, that Christmas produces a [[deadweight loss]] under [[orthodox]] [[microeconomic theory]], associated with the surge in gift-giving. This loss is calculated as the difference between what the gift giver spent on the item and what the gift receiver would have paid for the item. It is estimated that in 2001 Christmas resulted in a $4 billion deadweight loss as a result of the gift-giving [http://www.economist.com/finance/displayStory.cfm?Story_ID=885748]. This analysis is sometimes used to discuss possible flaws in current microeconomic theory. In [[North America]], film studios release many high budget movies in the holiday season, many of them being Christmas films, [[fantasy]] movies or high-tone dramas with rich production values, both to capture holiday crowds and to position themselves for [[Academy Award]]s. This is the second most lucrative season for the industry after summer. Christmas-specific movies generally open in late [[November]] or early [[December]] as their themes and images are not so popular once the season is over; often the [[home video]] releases of these films are delayed until the following Christmas season. The winter movie season spans from the first week of November until mid-February. ==See also== *[[Christmas season]] *[[Christmas carol]] *[[Christmas dishes]] *[[Christmas music]] *[[Christmas tree]] *[[Christmas customs in Germany]] *[[Christmas worldwide]] *[[Twelve Days of Christmas|Twelvetide]] *[[Twelve Holy Days]] *[[Twelfth Night (holiday)]] *[[Epiphany]] *[[Adoration of the Magi]] *[[Nativity scene]] *[[Saturnalia]], [[Yule]], [[Winter Solstice]] *[[Giftmas]] ==Notes== #{{note|Note1}} David van Biema, &quot;Behind the First Noel&quot;, ''Time'' magazine, [[December 13]] [[2004]], pp. 49-61. #{{note|Note2}} The [[8th-century]] [[England|English]] historian [[Bede]]'s ''[[Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum]]'' (''Ecclesiastic History of the English People'') contains a letter from [[Pope]] [[Gregory I]] to [[Saint Mellitus]], who was then on his way to England to conduct missionary work among the [[heathen]] [[Anglo-Saxon]]s. The Pope suggests that converting heathens is easier if they are allowed to retain the outward forms of their traditional pagan practices and traditions, while recasting those traditions spiritually towards the one true God instead of to their pagan gods (whom the Pope refers to as &quot;devils&quot;). &quot;[T]o the end that, whilst some gratifications are outwardly permitted them, they may the more easily consent to the inward consolations of the [[divine grace|grace of God]].&quot; The Pope sanctions such conversion tactics as Biblically acceptable, pointing out that God did much the same thing with the ancient [[Israelite]]s and their pagan sacrifices, although he never spoke of Christmas as a mere concession.[http://www.englishheathenism.homestead.com/popesletter.html] #{{note|Note3}} After [[Oliver Cromwell]]'s Puritans took over England in 1645, the observance of Christmas was prohibited in 1652 as part of a Puritan effort to rid the country of decadence. This proved unpopular, and when [[Charles II of England|Charles II]] was restored to the throne, he restored the celebration. The [[Pilgrims]], a group of Puritanical English separatists who came to North America in 1620, also disapproved of Christmas. As a result it was not a holiday in [[New England]]. The celebration of Christmas was actually outlawed from 1659 to 1681 in [[Boston, Massachusetts|Boston]], a prohibition enforced with a fine of five [[shilling]]s. The English of the [[Jamestown]] settlement and the Dutch of [[New Amsterdam]], on the other hand, celebrated the occasion freely. Christmas fell out of favor again after the [[American Revolution]], as it was considered an &quot;English custom&quot;. Interest was revived by [[Washington Irving]]'s Christmas stories, German immigrants, and the homecomings of the [[American Civil War|Civil War]] years. [[December 25]] was declared a federal holiday in the United States on [[June 26]], [[1870]]. #{{note|Note4}} In ''Stromateis'', I, xxi in ''Patrologia Graeca'', VIII, 888. #{{note|Note5}} &quot;I have never been able to reconcile myself to the gaieties of the Christmas season. They have appeared to me to be so inconsistent with the life and teaching of Jesus.&quot;—Mohandas K. Gandhi. ==References== *[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/03724b.htm &quot;Christmas&quot;] (1913). ''The Catholic Encyclopedia''.&lt;BR&gt;{{catholic}} * &quot;Christmas&quot; (1975). ''The New Columbia Encyclopedia''. New York and London: Columbia University Press. *[http://www.ucg.org/booklets/HH/christmasuntoldstory.htm A History of Christmas from the UCG] *[http://gosouthamerica.about.com/od/christmas/ Christmas in South America]. * [[Louis Duchesne|Duchesne, Louis]] (1889). ''Les origines du culte chrétien: Etude sur la liturgie latine avant Charlemagne''. Paris. * Talley, Thomas J. (1986). ''The Origins of the Liturgical Year''. New York: Pueblo Publishing Company. * ''Time'' magazine, Dec. 13, 2004. * Restad, Penne L. (1995). ''Christmas in America: A History''. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-509300-3 *[[Max Heindel|Heindel, Max]] (1920). ''[http://www.rosicrucian.com/mic/miceng01.htm The Mystical Interpretation of Christmas]''. ISBN 0-911274-65-0. ==External links== {{sisterlinks|Christmas}} *[http://www.oneletterwords.com The Collected Lost Meanings of Christmas] *[http://www.toolong.com The pagan origins of Christmas] *[http://christmas.holidaywiki.com/ Christmas Wiki] Share your tips and knowlege of Christmas. *[http://www.christmas.com/pe/56 Worldwide Christmas Countdown] *[http://www.christmas-card-ideas.com Keep the art of home
#20154;&amp;#37096;&amp;#38538;]] [[no:Fremmedlegionen]] [[nl:Vreemdelingenlegioen]] [[pl:Legia Cudzoziemska]] [[sl:Francoska tujska legija]] [[fi:Muukalaislegioona]] [[sv:Främlingslegionen]] [[he:לגיון הזרים הצרפתי]] [[zh:法国外籍兵团]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Feedback</title> <id>11545</id> <revision> <id>41456954</id> <timestamp>2006-02-27T13:34:36Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Ttwaring</username> <id>220596</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>rvv</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">:''For other uses, including [[audio feedback]], see [[Feedback (disambiguation)]]'' Feedback is (generally) information about actions. In [[cybernetics]] and [[control theory]], '''feedback''' is a process whereby some proportion or in general, function, of the output signal of a system is passed (fed back) to the input. Often this is done intentionally, in order to control the dynamic behaviour of the system. Feedback is observed or used in various areas dealing with complex systems, such as [[engineering]], [[architecture]], [[economics]], and [[biology]]. Lines are usually drawn, directed from input through the system and to output. The feedback is shown by another arrowed line, directed from output outside the system to an input, resulting in a loop on the diagram, called '''feedback loop'''. This notion is important; for example, the feedback loop is a convenient place for a control device. The following is an example of a feedback loop used in web-based workflows. Feedback Loops are established by ISPs for permission e-mail marketers to manage subscribers who click the &quot;This is Spam&quot; button in their web mail clients. The Feedback Loop sends a message back to the marketer letting them know to unsubscribe the subscriber. ==Types of feedback== ''Main articles:'' [[Negative feedback]], [[Positive feedback]] Feedback may be [[negative feedback|negative]], which tends to reduce output (but in amplifiers, stabilises and linearises operation), or [[positive feedback|positive]], which tends to increase output. Systems which include feedback are prone to ''hunting'', which is [[oscillation]] of output resulting from improperly tuned inputs of first positive then negative feedback. Audio feedback typifies this form of oscillation. ===In electronic engineering=== The processing and control of feedback is engineered into many [[electronics|electronic]] devices and may also be embedded in other [[technology|technologies]]. The most common general-purpose controller is a [[PID controller|proportional-integral-derivative]] (PID) controller. Each term of the PID controller copes with time. The proportional term handles the present state of the system, the integral term handles its past, and the derivative or slope term tries to predict and handle the future. If the signal is inverted on its way round the control loop, the system is said to have ''negative feedback''; otherwise, the feedback is said to be ''positive''. Negative feedback is often deliberately introduced to increase the [[stability]] and accuracy of a system, as in the [[feedback amplifier]] invented by [[Harold Stephen Black]]. This scheme can fail if the input changes faster than the system can respond to it. When this happens, the negative feedback signal begins to act as positive feedback, causing the output to [[oscillation|oscillate]] or ''hunt''. Positive feedback is usually an unwanted consequence of system behaviour. With mechanical devices, hunting can be severe enough to destroy the device. [[Harry Nyquist]] was an electrical engineer who contributed the [[Nyquist plot]] for determining the stability of feedback systems. ===In mechanical engineering=== In ancient times, the [[float valve]] was used to regulate the flow of water in Greek and Roman [[water clock]]s; similar float valves are used to regulate fuel in a [[carburettor]] and also used to regulate tank water level in the [[flush toilet]]. The [[windmill]] was enhanced in [[1745]] by blacksmith [[Edmund Lee]] who added a fantail to keep the face of the windmill pointing into the wind. In [[1787]] [[Thomas Mead]] regulated the speed of rotation of a windmill by using a centrifugal pendulum to adjust the distance between the bedstone and the runner stone (i.e. to adjust the load). The use of the [[centrifugal governor]] by [[James Watt]] in [[1788]] to regulate the speed of his [[steam engine]] was one factor leading to the [[Industrial Revolution]]. Steam engines also use float valves and pressure release valves as mechanical regulation devices. A [[mathematical analysis]] of Watt's governor was done by [[James Clerk Maxwell]] in [[1868]]. The [[SS Great Eastern|Great Eastern]] was one of the largest steamships of its time and employed a steam powered rudder with feedback mechanism designed in [[1866]] by [[J.McFarlane Gray]]. [[Joseph Farcot]] coined the word [[servo]] in [[1873]] to describe steam powered steering systems. Hydraulic servos were later used to position guns. [[Elmer Ambrose Sperry]] of the [[Sperry Corporation]] designed the first [[autopilot]] in [[1912]]. [[Nicolas Minorsky]] published a theoretical analysis of automatic ship steering in [[1922]] and described the [[PID controller]]. Internal combustion engines of the late [[20th century]] employed mechanical feedback mechanisms such as [[vacuum advance]] but mechanical feedback was replaced by electronic [[engine management systems]] once small, robust and powerful single-chip microcontrollers became affordable. ===In economics and finance=== A system prone to hunting (oscillating) is the [[stock market]], which has both positive and negative feedback mechanisms. This is due to cognitive and emotional factors belonging to the field of [[behavioral finance]]. For example, * When stocks are rising (a [[bull market]]), the belief that further rises are probable gives investors an incentive to buy (positive feedback); but the increased price of the [[stock|shares]], and the [[knowledge]] that there must be a peak after which the market will fall, ends up deterring buyers (negative feedback). * Once the market begins to fall regularly (a [[bear market]]), some investors may expect further losing days and refrain from buying (positive feedback), but others may buy because stocks become more and more of a bargain (negative feedback). [[George Soros]] used the word reflexism to describe feedback in the financial markets and developed an investment theory based on this principle. The conventional [[economic equilibrium]] model of supply and demand supports only ideal linear negative feedback and was heavily criticized by [[Paul Ormerod]] in his book &quot;The Death of Economics&quot; which in turn was criticized by traditional economists. This book was part of a change of perspective as economists started to recognise that [[Chaos Theory]] applied to nonlinear feedback systems including financial markets. ===In nature=== In [[biology|biological]] systems such as [[organism]]s, [[ecosystem]]s, or the [[biosphere]], most parameters must stay under control within a narrow range around a certain optimal level under certain environmental conditions. The deviation of the optimal value of the controlled parameter can result from the changes in internal and external environments. A change of some of the environmental conditions may also require change of that range to change for the system to function. The value of the parameter to maintain is recorded by a reception system and conveyed to a regulation module via an information channel. Biological systems contain many types of regulatory circuits, among which positive and negative feedbacks. ''Positive'' and ''negative'' don't imply consequences of the feedback have positive or negative final effect. The negative feedback loop tends to slow down a process, while the positive feedback loop tends to accelerate it. Feedback and regulation are self related. The negative feedback helps to maintain stability in a system in spite of external changes. It is related to [[homeostasis]]. Positive feedback amplifies possibilities of divergences (evolution, change of goals); it is the condition to change, evolution, growth; it gives the system the ability to access new points of [[equilibrium]]. For example, in an organism, most positive feedbacks provide for fast autoexcitation of elements of endocrine and nervous systems (in particular, in stress responses conditions) and play a key role in regulation of morphogenesis, growth, and development of organs, all processes which are in essence a rapid escape from the initial state. Homeostasis is especially visible in the [[nervous system|nervous]] and [[endocrine system|endocrine systems]] when considered at organism level. Feedback is also central to the operations of [[gene]]s and [[gene regulatory network]]s. [[Repressor protein|repressor]] (see [[Lac repressor]]) and [[activator protein|activator]] [[protein]]s are used to create genetic [[operon|operons]], which were identified by [[Francois Jacob]] and [[Jacques Monod]] in [[1961]] as ''feedback loops''. Any self-regulating natural process involves feedback and is prone to hunting. A well known example in [[ecology]] is the oscillation of the population of [[snowshoe hare]]s due to predation from [[lynx]]es. In [[zymology]], feedback serves as regulation of activity of an enzyme by its direct product(s) or downstream metabolite(s) in the metabolic pathway. There is an ice-albedo positive feedback loop whereby melting snow exposes more dark ground (of lower [[albedo]]), which in turn absorbs heat and causes more snow to melt. This is part of the evidence of the danger of [[global warming]]. Compare with: [[feed-forward]] ===In organizations=== As an [[organization]] seeks to improve its performance, feedback helps it to make required adjustments. Examples
reedom is located on the Oregon side of the river in the Hammond Boat Basin. ==See also== *[[Columbia River Highway]] *[[Columbia Bar]] *[[Tributaries of the Columbia River]] *[[Cities on the Columbia River]] *[[Hydroelectric dams on the Columbia River]] *[[Cascades Rapids]] *[[List of Washington rivers]] *[[List of Oregon rivers]] *[[List of British Columbia rivers]] *[[Grays Point, Columbia River|Grays Point]] *[[Columbia River Treaty]] ==External links== *[http://www.columbiariverhighway.com/ Historic Columbia River Highway] *[http://www.nationalgeographic.com/earthpulse/columbia/index_flash.html ''National Geographic'' on the Columbia] *[http://www.bchydro.com/info/system/system15276.html BC Hydro Generation System Information] *[http://www.ccrh.org/ Center for Columbia River history] *[http://www.crmm.org/ Columbia River Maritime Museum] *[http://www.fs.fed.us/r6/columbia/forest/ Columbia River Gorge National Scenic Area] *[http://www.ccalmr.ogi.edu/CORIE/ CORIE, a Columbia River observation and prediction system] [[Category:Lewis and Clark]] [[Category:Rivers of British Columbia]] [[Category:Rivers of Oregon]] [[Category:Rivers of Washington]] [[ca:Riu Colúmbia]] [[de:Columbia (Fluss)]] [[es:Río Columbia]] [[eo:Kolumbio (Rivero)]] [[fr:Columbia (fleuve)]] [[la:Columbia (flumen)]] [[ja:コロンビア川]] [[pl:Kolumbia (rzeka)]] [[pt:Rio Columbia]] [[sk:Columbia (rieka)]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Commelinales</title> <id>5409</id> <revision> <id>37688568</id> <timestamp>2006-02-01T16:01:19Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Muriel Gottrop</username> <id>8201</id> </contributor> <minor /> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Taxobox | color = lightgreen | name = Commelinales | image = Anigozanthos.flavidus1web.jpg | image_width = 250px | image_caption = Kangaroo Paw (''Anigozanthos flavidus'') | regnum = [[Plant]]ae | divisio = [[flowering plant|Magnoliophyta]] | classis = [[monocotyledon|Liliopsida]] | ordo = '''Commelinales''' | ordo_authority = [[Barthélemy Charles Joseph du Mortier|Dumortier]] | subdivision_ranks = Families | subdivision = [[Commelinaceae]]&lt;br /&gt; [[Haemodoraceae]]&lt;br /&gt; [[Hanguanaceae]]&lt;br /&gt; [[Philydraceae]]&lt;br /&gt; [[Pontederiaceae]] }} The '''Commelinales''' are an order of [[monocot]]s, including the [[spiderwort]] family, [[Commelinaceae]]. Unfortunately the composition of the remainder of the group has been highly variable. Under Cronquist, the following additional families were recognized: * [[Rapataceae]] * [[Xyridaceae]] * [[Mayacaceae]] However, many more modern authors consider these families to have closer affinities to other groups, moving the ''Xyridaceae'' to the [[Eriocaulales]] and the others to the [[Bromeliales]]. In their place, a series of forms formerly classified in the [[Liliales]] have been realized to have closer affinities to the Commelinidae, and so are either grouped in the Commelinales or in a separate, possibly paraphyletic, order Philydrales. The families, according the update of the APG II ([[Angiosperm Phylogeny Group]]), included in the Commelinales are then as follows: *[[Commelinaceae]] : the Spiderwort family *[[Haemodoraceae]] *[[Hanguanaceae]] *[[Philydraceae]] *[[Pontederiaceae]] This variability in membership makes characterization of the Commelinales, beyond being the Commelinaceae and its close relatives, very difficult. [[Category:Liliopsida]] [[da:Tradescantia-ordenen]] [[de:Commelinaartige]] [[fr:Commelinales]] [[nl:Commelinales]] [[no:Commelinales]] [[pl:Komelinowce]] [[pt:Commelinales]] [[sv:Commelinales]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Cyperales</title> <id>5410</id> <revision> <id>40855856</id> <timestamp>2006-02-23T13:13:48Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Vuong Ngan Ha</username> <id>225920</id> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Cyperales''' is an [[order (biology)|order]] comprising [[Monocotyledon|monocot]] [[flowering plant]]s of a single family, the [[Cyperaceae]], known as [[sedge]]s. The [[Poaceae]] (grasses) have also been placed here, but are now more often placed in a separate order, correspondingly called the [[Poales]]. Sometimes the order Cyperales is merged into the [[Juncales]]. The recent classification ([[APG]] II, 2003) places both Cyperaceae and Juncaceae into Poales, thus effectively obsoleting Cyperales. {{monocot-stub}} [[Category:Liliopsida]] [[fr:Cyperales]] [[vi:Bộ Cói]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Cucurbitales</title> <id>5411</id> <revision> <id>39830345</id> <timestamp>2006-02-16T03:45:00Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>MrDarwin</username> <id>757091</id> </contributor> <comment>guessing at total number, species numbers for Begoniaceae &amp; Cucurbitaceae were quite wrong</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Taxobox | color = lightgreen | name = Cucurbitales | regnum = [[Plant]]ae | divisio = [[Flowering plant|Magnoliophyta]] | classis = [[Dicotyledon|Magnoliopsida]] | ordo = '''Cucurbitales''' &lt;small&gt;Dumort. ([[1829]])&lt;/small&gt; | subdivision_ranks = Families | subdivision = *[[Cucurbitaceae]] ([[gourd]] family)&lt;br /&gt; *[[Begoniaceae]] ([[begonia]] family)&lt;br /&gt; *[[Datiscaceae]]&lt;br /&gt; *[[Tetramelaceae]]&lt;br /&gt; *[[Corynocarpaceae]]&lt;br /&gt; *[[Coriaria]]ceae&lt;br /&gt; *[[Anisophylleaceae]] }} The '''Cucurbitales''' are an order of [[flowering plant]]s, included in the rosid group of [[dicotyledon]]s. This order mostly belongs to tropical areas, with limited presence in subtropic and temperate regions. The order includes various shrubs and trees, together with many herbs and climbers. One of major characteristics of the Cucurbitales is the presence of unisexual flowers, mostly pentacyclic, with thick pointed petals (whenever present) (Matthews and Endress, 2004). The pollination is usually performed by insects, but anemophily is also present (in ''Coriariaceae'' and ''Datiscaceae''). The order consists of roughly 2300 species in seven families. The largest families are ''Begoniaceae'' with 1400 species and ''Cucurbitaceae'' with 825 species. The large families of Cucurbitales include several economically important plants. Specifically, the ''Cucurbitaceae'' are responsible for some food species, such as [[squash (fruit)|squash]], [[pumpkin]] (both from ''Cucurbita''), [[watermelon]] (''Citrullus vulgaris''), [[melon]] and [[cucumber]] (both ''Cucumis''). The ''Begoniaceae'' are known for their horticultural species, of which there are over 130. ==Classification== Under the older [[Cronquist system]], the first four families were placed in the order [[Violales]], within the Dilleniidae, with the Tetramelaceae subsumed within the Datiscaceae. The other families were distributed throughout various orders. The present classification is due to [[Angiosperm Phylogeny Group|APG II (2003)]]. ==References== * W. S. Judd, C. S. Campbell, E. A. Kellogg, P. F. Stevens, M. J. Donoghue (2002). ''Plant Systematics: A Phylogenetic Approach, 2nd edition.'' pp. 380-382 (Cucurbitales). Sinauer Associates, Sunderland, Massachusetts. ISBN 0878934030. * Matthews M. L. and Endress P. K. (2004). Comparative floral structure and systematics in Cucurbitales (Corynocarpaceae, Coriariaceae, Tetramelaceae, Datiscaceae, Begoniaceae, Cucurbitaceae, Anisophylleaceae). ''Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society'' '''145'''(2), 129-185. (Available online: [http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1095-8339.2003.00281.x DOI] | [http://www.blackwell-synergy.com/links/doi/10.1111/j.1095-8339.2003.00281.x/abstract/ Abstract] | [http://www.blackwell-synergy.com/links/doi/10.1111/j.1095-8339.2003.00281.x/full/ Full text (HTML)] | [http://www.blackwell-synergy.com/links/doi/10.1111/j.1095-8339.2003.00281.x/pdf Full text (PDF)]) * [[Barthélemy Charles Joseph du Mortier|B. C. J. du Mortier]] (1829). ''Analyse des Familles de Plantes : avec l'indication des principaux genres qui s'y rattachent'', 28. Imprimerie de J. Casterman, Tournay. [[Category:Cucurbitales|*]] [[da:Græskar-ordenen]] [[de:Kürbisartige]] [[fr:Cucurbitales]] [[he:דלועאים]] [[nl:Cucurbitales]] [[no:Cucurbitales]] [[pl:Dyniowce]] [[fi:Cucurbitales]] [[sv:Cucurbitales]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Contra dance</title> <id>5412</id> <revision> <id>41769869</id> <timestamp>2006-03-01T16:52:23Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Nwestbury</username> <id>1012291</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>/* Contra dance events */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">''You may also be looking for a style of [[European classical music|classical music]] called [[contredanse]]. [[Image:ContraDanceCambridgeVFW.agr.jpg|thumb|300px|Thursday night contras in [[Cambridge, Massachusetts]].]] '''Contra dance''' (also '''Contradance''', '''Contra-dance''' and other variant spellings) refers to several [[folk dance]] styles in which couples dance in two facing lines. The name may derive from the name of a [[France|French]] [[dance]] very popular in the [[18th century]]. Some authorities (including the ''[[Oxford English Dictionary]]'') state that the name's origin is a corruption of the [[English language|English]] ''[[English country dance|country-dance]],'' while others (including ''[[Merriam-Webster]]'') contradict this. Whatever the origins of the term, this article is about an American folk dance style, ''contra dance,'' the dances, called ''contra dances'' that comprise that style, and the regularly-scheduled evening events, also called ''contra dances,'' where people get together to participate in the folk tradition. ==Origins and History== At the end of the [[17th century]], English country dances were taken-up by French dancers &amp;mdash; hybrid choreographies exist from this
ia]] [[ro:Ierarhie]] [[simple:Power structure]] [[sv:Hierarki]] [[zh:等级制度]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Hierarchy member</title> <id>13999</id> <revision> <id>15911580</id> <timestamp>2003-04-10T21:41:52Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>217.158.106.24</ip> </contributor> <comment>#REDIRECT [[Hierarchy]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Hierarchy]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Wikipedia:History basic topics</title> <id>14000</id> <revision> <id>15911581</id> <timestamp>2004-08-06T13:22:56Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Angela</username> <id>8551</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>fix redirect</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Wikipedia:WikiProject History]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>List of basic history of science and technology topics</title> <id>14001</id> <revision> <id>32103481</id> <timestamp>2005-12-20T14:34:45Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>RussBot</username> <id>279219</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Robot: Fixing [[Special:DoubleRedirects|double-redirect]] -&quot;History of Science and Technology&quot; +&quot;History of science and technology&quot;</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[History of science and technology]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>List of basic health sciences topics</title> <id>14002</id> <revision> <id>41618347</id> <timestamp>2006-02-28T15:33:50Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>DabMachine</username> <id>922466</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>removing link [[Doctor]] - ([[WP:DPL|You can help!]])</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">Below is a list of basic topics in '''[[health science]]''' -- topics which will help the beginner become familiar with the field of health science. For a comprehensive list, see [[List of health sciences topics]]. ==General topics== [[health]] - [[disease]] - doctor - [[physician]] - [[surgery|surgeon]] - [[surgery]] - [[healing]] - [[healer]] - [[witch-doctor]] - [[hospital]] - [[nurse]] - [[medication]] - [[operation]] - [[Public Health]] - ==Diagnostic methods== [[physical examination]] - [[medical history]] - [[auscultation]] - [[stethoscope]] - [[Percussion (medicine)|percussion]] - [[medical imaging]] - [[X-ray]] - [[medical ultrasonography]] - [[blood work]] - Medical specialities by organ system: == Cardiology == *[[Congenital heart disease]] ** [[ASD]], [[VSD]], [[Aortic coarctation]], [[Tetralogy of Fallot]] *[[Myocarditis]] *[[Rheumatic heart disease]] *[[Coronary heart disease]] *[[Cardiac arrhythmia]]s == Respiratory == *[[Pneumonia]] *[[Bronchitis]] *[[Tuberculosis]] *[[Asthma]] *[[Lung cancer]] *[[Allergy]] == Gastrointestinal == *[[Oesophagus]] *[[Gastroesophageal reflux disease|Heartburn]] *[[Gastroesophageal reflux disease|Reflux esophagitis]] *[[Gastroesophageal reflux disease|Barretts disease]] *[[Hiatus hernia]] *[[Cancer of oesophagus]] *[[Oesophageal pouch]] *[[Achalasia]] === Stomach === *[[Gastric ulcer]] *[[stomach cancer]] *[[Helicobacter pylori]] *[[GERD]] *[[Mallory-Weiss syndrome]] *[[Zollinger-Ellison syndrome]] === Small bowel === [[Duodenal atresia]] ~ [[Giardiasis]] ~ [[Coeliac disease]] ~ [[Crohn's disease]] ~ [[Intestinal volvulus]] ~ [[Lymphoma]] ~ [[Meckel's diverticulum]] ~ [[Malabsorption]] ~ === Appendix === *[[Appendicitis]] *[[Carcinoid tumour]] === Colon === *[[Infective colitis]] *[[Intestinal volvulus]] *[[Hirschprung disease]] *[[Ulcerative colitis]] *[[Cancer]] *[[Crohn's disease]] *[[Diverticulitis]] *[[Diarrhea]] *[[Irritable bowel syndrome]] or [[IBS]] == Liver == *[[Viral hepatitis]] *[[Nonviral hepatitis]] *[[Hepatocarcinoma]] *[[Metastatic tumor]] *[[Jaundice]] *[[Liver transplant]] === Gallbladder === *[[Gallstones]] *[[Cholecystitis]] *[[Gallbladder cancer]] == Endocrine disease == === Thyroid === *[[Thyroiditis]] ** [[Hashimoto thyroididtis]], [[autoimmune thyroid disease]] *[[Hypothyroidism]] *[[Graves Disease]] *[[Thyroid cancer]] === Parathyroid disease === *[[Hyperparathyroidism]] *[[Hypoparathyroidism]] === Pituitary hormones === *[[Acromegaly]] *[[Prolactinoma]] *[[Pituitary tumours]] *[[gigantism]] *[[dwarfism]] === Adrenal cortex === *[[Cushing's disease]] *[[Conn's syndrome]] *[[Adrenal failure]] == [[Pancreas]] == *[[Pancreatitis]] *[[Diabetes]] *[[Carcinoma of pancreas]] *[[Cystic fibrosis]] and the pancreas == Obstetrics and Gynaecology == *[[Child birth]] *[[Cesarean section]] *[[Pre-eclampsia]] *[[Amniocentesis]] *[[Chorionic villus biopsy]] *[[Home birth]] *[[Premature labour]] *[[Miscarriage]] *[[Abortion]] *[[Abruption]] *[[Placenta praevia]] *[[Hydatiform mole]] == Renal == *[[Pyelonephritis]] *[[Glomerulonephritis]] *[[Polycystic kidney disease]] *[[Renal carcinoma]] *[[Renal failure]] *[[Renal dialysis]] *[[Test of renal function]] *[[Kidney stones]] == Urology and Andrology == == [[Rheumatology]] == == [[Neurology]] == *[[Cerebral palsy]] *[[Mental retardation]] == [[Psychiatry]] == == [[Dermatology]] == *[[Eczema]] *[[Contact dermatitis]] *[[Psoriasis]] *[[Lichen simplex chronicus]] *[[Seborrhoeic dermatitis]] *[[Ring worm]] *[[Tinea]] *[[Vitiligo]] *[[Baldness]] *[[Lichen planus]] *[[Viral warts]] *[[Impetigo]] *[[Seborrheic keratosis]] == [[Oncology]] == == [[Ophthalmology]] == == [[Palliative care]] == == Surgical specialties == *[[Neurosurgery]] *[[Ear nose and throat]] *[[Ophthalmology]] *[[Head and neck.]] *[[Thoracic]] *[[Abdominal and colo-rectal]] *[[Orthopaedics]] *[[Trauma surgery]] *[[Plastic surgery]] == Diagnostic specialities == *[[Radiology]] *[[Nuclear Medicine]] *[[Anatomical pathology]] *[[Forensic Pathology]] *[[Microbiology]] *[[Haematology]] *[[Biochemical pathology]] *[[Immunology]] [[Category:Health sciences]] [[Category:Lists of basic topics|Health sciences]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>List of hobbies</title> <id>14003</id> <revision> <id>42096269</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T20:24:55Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>144.211.195.111</ip> </contributor> <comment>/* [[Arts and Crafts]] */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">This is a '''list of [[hobby|hobbies]]'''. ==[[Animal]]-related== * [[Fancy (animal breeding)]] - Keeping [[pet]] or [[show dog|show]] animals * Animal rescue (injured or orphaned wild or domestic animals) * [[Beekeeping]] * [[Dog breeding]] * [[Herpetoculture]] * [[Horses]] ==[[Aquariums]]== * [[self-Maintaining Home Aquarium]] ==[[Arts and Crafts]]== * [[Blacksmith]]ing * [[Crochet]] * [[Dollhouse]]s * [[Doll making]] * [[Drawing]] * [[Embroidery]] * [[Enamelling|Enamels]] * [[Glassblowing]] * [[Knifemaking]] * [[Knitting]] * [[Miniature figures]] * [[Origami]] * [[Painting]] ** [[Figure painting (hobby)]] ** [[Tole painting]] ** [[Watercolor]] * [[Pottery]] * [[Quilting]] * [[Scrapbooking]] * [[Sculpture]] * [[Sewing]] * [[Stained glass]] * [[Stamping]] * [[Warm glass]] * [[Weaving]] * [[Wood carving]] * [[Woodworking]] ==[[Chemistry]]== * [[Chemistry|Chemical experiments]] * [[Fireworks]] ==[[Collecting]]== * [[Antiques]] * [[Artwork]] * [[Ashtray]]s * [[Autograph]]s * Beer [[Aluminium_can|Can]]s * [[Book]]s * [[Bottle]]s * [[Calendar]]s * [[Candlestick]]s * [[conifer cone]]s * [[Crown_Cork|Bottle caps]] * [[Christmas]] accessories * [[Cigarette card]]s * Classic [[videogame]]s * [[Clock]]s * [[Coaster]]s * [[Coin collecting|Coin]]s * [[Collecting fossils]] * [[Comic book]]s * [[Currency]] * [[Dice]] * [[Dumpster diving]] * [[Enamel]]s * [[Found objects]] * [[Hat]]s * [[Keychain]]s * [[Lighter]]s * [[Lunchbox]]es * [[Microchip]]s * [[Miniature models]] * [[Patch]]es * [[Phillumenism]], i.e. collecting [[matchbook]]s and [[matchbox]]es * [[Photograph]]s * [[Poker]] Chips * [[Postcard]]s * [[Poster]]s * [[Quotes]] * [[gramophone record|Records]] * [[Rockhounding|Collecting Rocks and Minerals]] * [[Scale model]]s * [[Scissor]]s * [[Shopping list]]s * [[Shot glass|Shot glasses]] * [[Souvenir]]s * [[Spoon]]s * [[Stamp collecting|Stamps]] * [[Sword]]s * [[Teddy bear]]s * [[Thimble]]s * [[Trading card]]s such as [[baseball card]]s * [[Wine label#Collecting_wine_labels | Wine labels]] * [[Yardstick]]s ==[[Computer]]-related== * [[3D computer graphics]] design * [[Animation]] design * [[Computer game]]s * [[Computer programming]] ** [[Open source]] and the [[free software movement]] * [[Operating system]]s, e.g. [[Linux|GNU/Linux]] * [[Photoshopping]] * [[Retrocomputing]] ==[[Cooking]]== Any food/drink you feel like making ==[[DIY]] (Do It Yourself)== * [[Home Repair]]s ==[[Electronics]]== * [[Amateur radio]] and [[CB radio]] * [[DIY audio]] * [[Electronics|Designing and building electronic circuits]] * [[Hardware hacking]] * [[Robots]] * [[TV-FM_DX|TV and FM DXing]] ==[[Fan fiction]]== * [[Slash fiction]] ==[[Film]]-making== * [[Animation]] ==[[Game]]s== * [[Board games]] ** [[Backgammon]] ** [[Checkers]] ** [[Chess]] ** [[Chinese Checkers]] ** [[Go (board game)|Go]] ** [[Monopoly]] ** [[Pente]] ** [[Rummikub]] ** [[Scrabble|Tournament Scrabble]] ** [[Stratego]] * [[Card game]]s ** [[Bridge game|Bridge]] ** [[Poker]] ** [[Backgammon]] ** [[Gin rummy]] * [[Dominoes]] * [[Role-playing game]]s * [[Wargaming]], sometimes with [[Miniature wargaming|miniatures]] ==[[Geofiction]], including [[Micronationalism|model nations]]== ==[[Historical reenactment]], as in the [[Society for Creative Anachronism]]== ==[[Homebrewing]]== ==[[Interactive fiction]]== ==[[Internet]]-based hobbies== * [[43things.com]] * [[Blog]]ging * [[BookCrossing]] * [[Currency bill tracking]] * [[Geocaching]] a modern day form of treasure hunting * [[Google Whacking]] * [[GPS drawing]] * [[Newsgroups]] * [[Wi
East]], though it is veiled in secrecy, unlike in parts of Africa, where it is practiced relatively openly. The practice occurs particularly in northern [[Saudi Arabia]], southern [[Jordan]], and [[Iraq]], and there is also circumstantial evidence to suggest it is present in [[Syria]], western [[Iran]], and among the [[Bedouin]] population of [[Israel]].[http://www.csmonitor.com/2005/0810/p06s01-woiq.html?s=t5] In [[Oman]] a few communities still practice FGC; however, experts believed that the number of such cases was small and declining annually. In the [[United Arab Emirates]] and also [[Saudi Arabia]], it's practiced among some foreign workers from East Africa and the Nile Valley. The practice can also be found among a few ethnic groups in [[South America]] and [[India]]. In [[Indonesia]] [http://www.state.gov/g/wi/rls/rep/crfgm/10102.htm] and [[Malaysia]] the practice is fairly common among the country's Muslim women; however, in contrast to Africa, almost all are Type I or Type IV (involving a symbolic prick to release blood) procedures. The practice is particularly common in [[Somalia]], followed by [[Egypt]], [[Sudan]], [[Ethiopia]] and [[Mali]]. Among ethnic Somali women, infibulation is traditionally almost universal. In the Arab peninsula, sunna circumcision is usually performed, especially among Arabs (ethnic groups of African descent are more likely to prefer infibulation). [[Amnesty International]] estimates that over 130 million women worldwide have been affected by these procedures, with over 2 million being performed every year. In modern times, the practice has spread to Europe and the U.S. due to immigration. Some tradition-minded families have the procedure performed while on [[vacation]] in their home countries. ==Cultural background== Female genital cutting is primarily a social practice, not a religious one. It is today a mainly African cultural practice. It crosses the lines of various religious groups. It is found among Muslims, Christians, [[African Jews]] and Animists. [http://www.amnesty.org/ailib/intcam/femgen/fgm1.htm#a11] A number of reasons are put forward for the practice of FGC. These include the belief that it annuls or moderates [[human sexuality|sexual desires]] in women. It is also believed that it is more hygienic. Frequently the practice is associated with traditional [[initiation rite]]s. Some believe religion justifies the practice. In some cultures there exists the belief that a newborn child has elements of both sexes. In the male body the foreskin of the penis is considered to be the female element. In the female body the clitoris is considered to be the male element. Hence when the adolescent is reaching puberty, these elements are removed to make the indication of sex clear. The operation is most often carried out by female practitioners. Thus it has been attributed by some authors to a deep-rooted fear of elder women that the more attractive younger women might seduce away their husbands and thus leave them without support. Many African Muslims believe that female circumcision is required by Islam. In fact, no form of [[genital modification and mutilation]] is mentioned in the [[Qur'an]], but only in a disputed [[hadith]]. [http://www.minaret.org/fgm.htm] Even then, the hadith only permits and does not require the process. Only one of the four Islamic schools of juriprudence or law, the Shafi'i school, allowed for a &quot;slight trimming&quot; of the hood of the clitoris, supposedly in order to enhance sexual pleasure for the woman. Most contemporary scholars reject it completely. In Saudi Arabia ([[Hijaz]]), where Islam originated, FGC was practised during the life-time of [[Muhammad]]. To call a man a &quot;circumciser of women&quot; was an insult among the pagan Arabs at the time. There is no evidence concerning whether this was practised on Muhammad's daughters, but according to his wife Aisha, Muhammad defined lawful intercourse as something that happens when the circumcised parts of the male and female touch each other. Muhammad also recommended in a hadith that the circumcision of females should not be too severe. Most Muslim scholars believe FGM is practiced as a result of ignorance and misconceived religious fervor rather than for reasons of true religious doctrine--and any religious basis for the practice is denied. Many [[Arab]] Muslims interpret different passages as being in opposition to FGC, and believe the practice to be un-[[Islam]]ic. Shaykh [[Faraz Rabbani]] of [http://SunniPath.com SunniPath] states &quot;As for excision, FGM, or other harmful practices [including that which take sexual pleasure away from women], which have become culturally widespread, none of these are in any way permitted.&quot;[http://www.Sunnipath.com] Amnesty International asserts that &quot;FGM predates Islam and is not practised by the majority of Muslims, but has acquired a religious dimension.&quot; [http://www.amnesty.org/ailib/intcam/femgen/fgm1.htm#a3] A few others, like the Egyptian [[Mufti]] Sheikh Jad Al-Hâqq 'Ali Jad Al-Hâqq issued, in [[1994]], a [[fatwa]] stating: &quot;Circumcision is mandatory for men and for women. If the people of any village decide to abandon it, the [village] imam must fight against them as if they had abandoned the call to prayer.&quot; [http://www.memri.org/bin/articles.cgi?Area=reform&amp;ID=SP72104] Al-Azhar University has issued fatwas in 1949, 1951 and 1981 which endorsed the practice. [Gad-al-hak: Khitan al banat, pp. 3119-3125, in Sami A. Aldeeb, Mutiler, Institut Suisse de Droit Comparé, 1993, p. 191.] However, in March 2005, Dr Ahmend Talib, Dean of the Faculty of Sharia, Al Azhar University, Cairo, said: &quot;All practices of female circumcision and mutilation are crimes and have no relationship with Islam. Whether it involves the removal of the skin or the cutting of the flesh of the female genital organs...it is not an obligation in Islam.&quot; [http://www.ghanaweb.com/GhanaHomePage/NewsArchive/artikel.php?ID=77396] It is also common among African Christians and Jews in Ethiopia and surrounding areas, and many believed it to be justified on religious grounds. For example, in Ethiopia some &quot;Coptic Christian priests refuse to baptize girls who have not undergone one of the FGM procedure.&quot; However, in September 1998, both Christian and Muslim leaders publicly denounced the practice. [http://www.state.gov/g/wi/rls/rep/crfgm/10098.htm] ==Medical consequences== Among practicing cultures, FGC is most commonly performed between the ages of four and eight. As with most plastic surgery, advocates of it believe it should be performed under hygienic conditions and with the application of an appropriate [[anaesthesia|anaesthetic]]. However, this technology has only been available for a relatively short time, and even today the procedure is usually carried out without anesthesia and under unsanitary conditions. As with any procedure, FGC can be extremely painful and dangerous to health when not performed hygienically. In the case of Clitoridectomy, the principal and most obvious social/medical consequence, irrespective of the sanitary conditions, is the elimination of what is assumed to be the individual's main organ of sexual pleasure, which is the basis upon which the United Nations and most societies to classify it as a human-rights violation. Some argue that making the process illegal drives it underground and thus puts the recipients at greater risk. Some opponents of the practice argue that the deterrent effect of prohibition outweighs such risks. Practices such as infibulation, when carried out with shards of glass and other unsanitary tools, can commonly cause [[infection]]s, sometimes resulting in death or serious long term health effects. These include urinary and reproductive tract infections (caused by obstructed flow of urine and menstrual blood), various forms of scarring and [[infertility]]. First sexual intercourse will always be extremely painful, and infibulated women also need to open the labia majora carefully. Sexual pleasure through stimulation of the external part of the clitoris, almost universally regarded outside of practicing cultures as an important part of typical female sexuality, is assumed to be eliminated. However, many circumcised women dispute this claim (see below). Prohibition has led to FGC being undertaken without any anaesthetic or [[sterilization (surgical procedure)|sterilization]], and by persons with no medical training. The procedure, when performed without any anaesthetic, can lead to death through [[shock]] or excessive bleeding. The failure to use sterile medical instruments can lead to infections and the spread of [[disease]], such as [[AIDS]], especially when the same instruments are used to perform procedures on multiple women. The health consequences of FGC vary from region to region and from researcher to researcher. An in-depth analysis by Carla Obermeyer (2003) shows that past studies, plagued by “incomplete analysis” and “inconsistent numbers”, have greatly overestimated the likelihood of serious medical complications resulting from FGC procedures (401). She notes that there is no significant statistically represented relationship between FGC and sexually transmitted diseases/infections, infertility or birth complications (402). Her study is not intended to portray FGC as harmless, simply to illustrate the inadequacy of the health data that anti-FGC advocates and organizations rely upon to justify their opposition. As anthropologist Fuambai Ahmadu (2000) pointed out, her experience with ritual excision, though painful, empowered her as a woman in the Kono culture of Sierra Leone, increased her sexual sensitivity, and (due to its partial medicalization) led to no health problems beyond the initial heavy bleeding. She claims it did not interfere with her transnational life at all (305), thus was not “anti-progress”, and argues for its
[1733]] - [[Elizabeth Villiers]], mistress of [[William III of England]] *[[1768]] - [[Canaletto]], Italian artist (b. [[1697]]) *[[1791]] - [[Richard Price]], Welsh philosopher (b. [[1723]]) *[[1813]] - [[Benjamin Rush]], physician, activist (b. [[1745]]) *[[1824]] - [[George Gordon Byron, 6th Baron Byron]], English poet (b. [[1788]]) *[[1854]] - [[Robert Jameson]], Scottish naturalist (b. [[1774]]) *[[1881]] - [[Benjamin Disraeli]], [[Prime Minister of the United Kingdom]] (b. [[1804]]) *[[1882]] - [[Charles Darwin]], English biologist (b. [[1809]]) *[[1906]] - [[Pierre Curie]], French physicist, [[Nobel Prize in Physics|Nobel Prize]] laureate (b. [[1859]]) *[[1914]] - [[Charles Sanders Peirce]], American philosopher and mathematician (b. [[1839]]) *[[1916]] - [[Ephraim Shay]], American inventor (b. [[1839]]) *[[1926]] - [[Alexander Alexandrovich Chuprov]], Russian statistician (b. [[1874]]) *[[1930]] - [[Georges-Casimir Dessaulles]], Canadian senator (b. [[1827]]) *[[1937]] - [[William Martin Conway]], British art critic and mountaineer (b. [[1856]]) *[[1949]] - [[Ulrich Salchow]], Swedish figure skater (b. [[1877]]) *[[1950]] - [[Ernst Robert Curtius]], Alsatian philologist (b. [[1886]]) *[[1967]] - [[Konrad Adenauer]], [[Chancellor of Germany]] (b. [[1876]]) *[[1971]] - [[Russ Hodges]], American sports broadcaster (b. [[1910]]) *1971 - [[Earl Thomson]], Canadian athlete (b. [[1895]]) *[[1973]] - [[Hans Kelsen]], Austrian-born legal theorist *[[1974]] - [[Ayub Khan]], [[President of Pakistan]] (b. [[1907]]) *[[1975]] - [[Percy Julian|Percy L. Julian]], American chemist (b. [[1899]]) *[[1987]] - [[Hugh Brannum]], American actor (b. [[1910]]) *1987 - [[Maxwell D. Taylor]], American general and diplomat (b. [[1901]]) *[[1989]] - [[Daphne du Maurier]], English author (b. [[1907]]) *[[1992]] - [[Frankie Howerd]], English comedian and actor (b. [[1917]]) *[[1993]] - [[David Koresh]], American cult leader (b. [[1959]]) *[[1998]] - [[Octavio Paz]], Mexican diplomat and writer, [[Nobel Prize in Literature|Nobel Prize]] laureate (b. [[1914]]) *[[1999]] - [[David Sanes]], US Navy employee whose death led to Navy's withdrawal from Puerto Rico *[[2002]] - [[Layne Staley]], American musician (b. [[1967]]) *[[2004]] - [[Norris McWhirter]], Scottish co-founder of the ''Guinness Book of Records'' (b. [[1925]]) *2004 - [[John Maynard Smith]], English bioligist (b. [[1920]]) *[[2005]] - [[Ruth Hussey]], American actress (b. [[1911]]) *2005 - [[Bryan Ottoson]], American musician (b. [[1978]]) *2005 - [[Niels-Henning Ørsted Pedersen]], Danish jazz bassist (b. [[1946]]) ==Holidays and observances== *[[Patriots Day]] ([[Massachusetts]], [[Maine]], and [[Wisconsin]], [[United States|USA]]) *Declaration of Independence Day ([[Venezuela]]) *Republic Day ([[Sierra Leone]]) *Landing of the 33 ([[Uruguay]]) *[[Feast day]] of the following [[saint]]s in the [[Roman Catholic Church]]: **[[Saint Emma]] **[[George of Antioch]] **[[Ursmar]] **[[Expeditus]] *[[Primrose Day]] ([[England]]) &amp;ndash; [[Primula vulgaris|primroses]] are placed on the statue of [[Benjamin Disraeli]] in Parliament Square, [[London]] on the anniversary of his death ([[1881]]). *The Roman holiday of [[Cerealia]] ends. ([[Roman Empire]]) *[[Bicycle Day]] *[[Easter]] [[Sunday]] [[1908]], [[1981]], [[1987]], [[1992]]. In the [[Gregorian Calendar]] Easter Sunday falls on [[19 April]] more often than on any other date. ==External links== * [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/april/19 BBC: On This Day] * [http://www.tnl.net/when/4/19 Today in History: April 19] ---- [[April 18]] - [[April 20]] - [[March 19]] - [[May 19]] &amp;ndash; [[historical anniversaries|listing of all days]] {{months}} [[ilo:Abril 19]] [[af:19 April]] [[ar:19 إبريل]] [[an:19 d'abril]] [[ast:19 d'abril]] [[bg:19 април]] [[be:19 красавіка]] [[bs:19. april]] [[ca:19 d'abril]] [[ceb:Abril 19]] [[cv:Ака, 19]] [[co:19 d'aprile]] [[cs:19. duben]] [[cy:19 Ebrill]] [[da:19. april]] [[de:19. April]] [[et:19. aprill]] [[el:19 Απριλίου]] [[es:19 de abril]] [[eo:19-a de aprilo]] [[eu:Apirilaren 19]] [[fo:19. apríl]] [[fr:19 avril]] [[fy:19 april]] [[ga:19 Aibreán]] [[gl:19 de abril]] [[ko:4월 19일]] [[hr:19. travnja]] [[io:19 di aprilo]] [[id:19 April]] [[ia:19 de april]] [[ie:19 april]] [[is:19. apríl]] [[it:19 aprile]] [[he:19 באפריל]] [[jv:19 April]] [[ka:19 აპრილი]] [[csb:19 łżëkwiôta]] [[ku:19'ê avrêlê]] [[la:19 Aprilis]] [[lt:Balandžio 19]] [[lb:19. Abrëll]] [[li:19 april]] [[hu:Április 19]] [[mk:19 април]] [[ms:19 April]] [[nap:19 'e abbrile]] [[nl:19 april]] [[ja:4月19日]] [[no:19. april]] [[nn:19. april]] [[oc:19 d'abril]] [[pl:19 kwietnia]] [[pt:19 de Abril]] [[ro:19 aprilie]] [[ru:19 апреля]] [[se:Cuoŋománu 19.]] [[sq:19 Prill]] [[scn:19 di aprili]] [[simple:April 19]] [[sk:19. apríl]] [[sl:19. april]] [[sr:19. април]] [[fi:19. huhtikuuta]] [[sv:19 april]] [[tl:Abril 19]] [[tt:19. Äpril]] [[te:ఏప్రిల్ 19]] [[th:19 เมษายน]] [[vi:19 tháng 4]] [[tr:19 Nisan]] [[uk:19 квітня]] [[ur:19 اپریل]] [[wa:19 d' avri]] [[war:Abril 19]] [[zh:4月19日]] [[pam:Abril 19]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Amstrad CPC</title> <id>2197</id> <revision> <id>40999035</id> <timestamp>2006-02-24T11:01:15Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Fourohfour</username> <id>396050</id> </contributor> <comment>/* The 3&quot; floppy disk drives */ minor rewrite</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Amstrad CPC464.jpg|right|thumb|370px|Amstrad CPC 464, with CTM644 colour monitor]] The '''Amstrad CPC''' was a series of [[8-bit]] [[home computer]]s produced by [[Amstrad]] during the [[1980s]] and early [[1990s]]. CPC stood for 'Colour Personal Computer', although it was possible to purchase a CPC with a [[green screen]] (GT65/66) as well as with the standard colour screen (CTM640). The first machine, the CPC 464 was introduced in [[1984]]. It was designed to be a direct competitor to the [[Commodore 64]] and [[Sinclair Research Ltd|Sinclair]] [[ZX Spectrum]] systems. Outwardly, the most distinguishing features of Amstrad's offering were the matte black console case with sharp corners and narrowly rectangular form factor (the latter due to the built-in [[Compact audio cassette|cassette tape]] deck ('''CPC 464''') or [[Floppy_drive#The_3-inch_compact_floppy_disk|floppy disk drive]] ('''CPC 664''' and '''CPC 6128'''), the keyboard's distinctly coloured special keys (all the non-typewriter-standard keys), and the unique power supply hookup with one lead going from the console to the monitor (or RF modulator) and one lead going the other way. A television could be used with an optional adapter. ==The Amstrad CPC sold as a &quot;complete system&quot;== [[Image:Amstrad CPC Advert.png|right|thumb|UK advert for the Amstrad&amp;nbsp;CPC&amp;nbsp;464]] Amstrad initially promoted the CPC as being an improvement on the competing [[ZX Spectrum]] and [[C64]] because it was a '''complete system''' - including everything required to use the machine in one box. Compared to a C64 or a ZX Spectrum, the Amstrad CPCs shipped with their own monitor, had a built in tape recorder or floppy disk drive and even a small loudspeaker. This marketing gave a more &quot;professional&quot; appeal to the Amstrad CPC by marketing it in the same way as business-oriented systems, rather than gaming or home oriented ones. As a late entrant to the European 8-bit market, the CPC range never achieved the sales volume of either the ZX Spectrum or the C64, but the advantages of a proper typewrite-style keyboard and integrated tape or floppy drive saw it obtain considerable market share in the late 80s. Despite strong competition in the UK, it became the most popular and best-selling computer in France at this time. ==The CPC family== ===The Amstrad CPC 464, 472, 664, 6128=== The original CPC was sold in the following configurations: *'''CPC 464''' &amp;ndash; [[Compact audio cassette|Tape deck]], 64 [[kilobyte|KB]] [[random access memory|RAM]], square-edged keyboard *'''CPC 472''' &amp;ndash; Tape deck, 72K RAM (although the extra 8K of RAM cannot be used); produced in small numbers for the Spanish market to avoid a legal ruling requiring that all computers with 64 KB or less RAM must be localized to the Spanish language, including the keyboard and screen messages. *'''CPC 664''' &amp;ndash; [[Floppy_drive#The_3-inch_compact_floppy_disk|3&quot; Floppy disk drive]], 64K RAM, bowed keyboard; short-lived model, quickly replaced by the better-specified 6128 *'''CPC 6128''' &amp;ndash; 3&quot; Floppy disk drive, 128K RAM (accessed using [[bank switching]]), more PC-like keyboard External disk drives such as the DDI-1/FD-1 were available for the 464. A cassette adapter was available for the 664 and 6128. All 128K models were [[backward compatibility|backward compatible]] with the 64K variants. A third-party hardware addon, the [[Multiface]], allowed backup of most tape software to disk. Most games and software targeted the 64K RAM 464 and 664 models. Only a handful of titles exclusively targeted the 128K machines. The memory layout of the system allowed the CPCs to run [[CP/M|CP/M 2.2]] and CP/M software adapted especially for the machines was not uncommon. An Amstrad-specific variant of CP/M 3.0 (aka CP/M Plus) was developed for the 6128 and used in later years. ===West Germany: Schneider CPC 464, 664 and 6128=== Amstrad's German partner company '''Schneider''' produced its own models of the CPC 464, 664 and 6128. These machines had grey keys in place of the Amstrad coloured alternatives and an industry standard [[Micro ribbon|Centronics]] port in place of the expansion edge connector but were otherwise identical at the hardware level. Documentation and case labels were translated into German. ===East Germany: KC compact=== Like most other computers of the era, the CPC inspired a clone in the [[Eastern bloc]], the '''[[KC compact]]''' made in [[East Germany]] using
t becomes finalized as a standard. Some ISO standards are made freely available. For examples, see [http://isotc.iso.org/livelink/livelink/fetch/2000/2489/Ittf_Home/PubliclyAvailableStandards.htm Freely Available Standards] and [http://webstore.ansi.org/ansidocstore/free_standards.asp Free Standards2] During the 1990s, ISO gained a reputation for being slow, bureaucratic, congested, and insensitive to feedback from both vendors and their customers. One problematic project was the enormous [[Open Systems Interconnect]] project, which attempted the development of one single computer networking standard, but was finally shut down in 1996 after becoming mired in interoperability problems and bickering between vendors. Attention then turned to the volunteer-based, open-process and non-profit [[Internet Engineering Task Force]] (IETF), which develops the standards necessary for the [[Internet]] to function. When IETF turned out to be too slow, vendors began funding more focused, agile consortia like the [[W3C]], another open, non-profit organisation headed by the inventor of the World Wide Web, [[Tim Berners-Lee]]. Since then, ISO has undertaken modest reforms to decrease the time required to promulgate new standards. ISO International Standards are not in any way binding on either governments or industry merely by virtue of being International Standards. This is to allow for situations where certain types of standards may conflict with social, cultural or legislative expectations and requirements. This also reflects the fact that national and international experts responsible for creating these standards do not always agree and not all proposals become standards by unanimous vote. The individual nations and their standards bodies remain the final arbiters. The fact that many of the ISO-created standards are ubiquitous has led, on occasion, to common usage of &quot;ISO&quot; to describe the actual product that conforms to a standard. Some examples of this are: *[[CD image]]s end in the [[file extension]] &quot;[[ISO image|ISO]]&quot; to signify that they are using the [[ISO 9660]] standard filesystem (there are other file systems that can be used) - hence CD images are commonly referred to as &quot;ISOs&quot;. Virtually all computers with [[CD-ROM]] drives can read CDs that use this standard. DVD-ROMs also use ISO 9660 filesystems. *Photographic film sensitivity to light, its speed, is measured and determined by ISO standard, hence the [[film speed]] is often referred to as its &quot;ISO number&quot;. There are equivalent standards giving us its [[American National Standards Institute|ASA]] and [[DIN]]. ==ISO/IEC Joint Technical Committee 1== To deal with the consequences of substantial overlap in areas of standardization and work related to information technology, ISO and [[International Electrotechnical Commission|IEC]] formed a Joint Technical Committee known as the ISO/IEC JTC1. It was the first such committee, and to date remains the only one. Its official mandate is: Develop, maintain, promote and facilitate IT standards required by global markets meeting business and user requirements concerning: *design and development of IT systems and tools, *performance and quality of IT products and systems *security of IT systems and information *portability of application programs *interoperability of IT products and systems *unified tools and environments *harmonized IT vocabulary *user friendly and ergonomically designed user interfaces There are currently 18 sub-committees: *SC 02 - Coded Character Sets *SC 06 - Telecommunications and Information Exchange Between Systems *SC 07 - Software and System Engineering *SC 17 - Cards and Personal Identification *SC 22 - Programming Languages, their Environments and Systems Software Interfaces *SC 23 - Removable Digital Storage Media Utilizing Optical and/or Magnetic Recording * Technology for Digital *SC 24 - Computer Graphics and Image Processing *SC 25 - Interconnection of Information Technology Equipment *SC 27 - IT Security Techniques *SC 28 - Office Equipment *SC 29 - Coding of Audio, Picture, and Multimedia and Hypermedia Information *SC 31 - Automatic Identification and Data Capture Techniques *SC 32 - Data Management and Interchange *SC 34 - Document Description and Processing Languages *SC 35 - User Interfaces *SC 36 - Information Technology for Learning, Education, and Training *SC 37 - Biometrics Membership in ISO/IEC JTC1 is restricted in much the same way as membership in either of the two parent organizations. A member can be either participating (p) or observing (O) and the difference is mainly the ability to vote on proposed standards and other product. There is no requirement for any member body to maintain either (or any) status on all of the sub-committees. Although rare, sub-committees can be created to deal with new situations (SC 37 was approved only in the last year) or disbanded if the area of work is no longer relevant. ==See also== *[[List of ISO standards]] *[[:Category:ISO standards]] *[[Standardization]] *[[International Electrotechnical Commission|IEC]] *[[ISO A4]] ==External links== *[http://www.iso.org/ ISO's official website] (free access to the catalogue of standards only, not to the contents) *[http://isotc.iso.org/livelink/livelink/fetch/2000/2489/Ittf_Home/PubliclyAvailableStandards.htm Publicly Available Standards] (free access to a small subset of the standards) *[http://www.standardsglossary.com/ The ISO Standards Glossary] *[http://www.jtc1.org/ ISO/IEC JTC1] [[Category:non-governmental organizations]] [[Category:Standards organizations]] [[Category:International standards|*]] [[Category:ISO|*]] [[Category:1947 establishments]] [[ar:إيزو]] [[bg:Международна организация по стандартизация]] [[zh-min-nan:ISO]] [[br:ISO]] [[cs:ISO]] [[da:International Organization for Standardization]] [[de:International Organization for Standardization]] [[es:Organización Internacional para la Estandarización]] [[eo:Internacia Organizo por Normigado]] [[fr:Organisation internationale de normalisation]] [[ko:국제 표준화 기구]] [[id:ISO]] [[it:Organizzazione Internazionale per le Standardizzazioni]] [[he:ISO]] [[lt:International Organization for Standardization]] [[nl:International Organization for Standardization]] [[ja:国際標準化機構]] [[no:ISO]] [[nn:ISO]] [[pl:International Organization for Standardization]] [[pt:International Organization for Standardization]] [[ru:Международная организация по стандартизации]] [[sk:Medzinárodná organizácia pre normalizáciu]] [[sl:Mednarodna organizacija za standardizacijo]] [[fi:ISO]] [[sv:ISO]] [[ta:அனைத்துலக நியமப்படுத்தல் நிறுவனம்]] [[tt:Xalıqara Standartlaw Oyışması]] [[vi:Tổ chức tiêu chuẩn quốc tế]] [[tr:ISO]] [[zh:國際標準化組織]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>IC</title> <id>14935</id> <revision> <id>41963017</id> <timestamp>2006-03-02T22:32:58Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>JimMorris</username> <id>256523</id> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">'''IC''' or '''ic''' may stand for: * [[-ic]] [[suffix]] * The [[IATA airline designator]] for [[Indian Airlines]] * In [[chat]]ting terms, it stands for &quot;I See&quot;. Also see [[Internet Slang]] * [[Identity document|Identity card]] * [[Illinois Central Railroad]] {{reporting mark|IC}} * [[Immediate constituent]] (IC), in [[Morphology (linguistics)|morphology]] * [[Imperial College London]] - The famous science university is often referred to simply as 'IC' * ''In Casu'', [[Latin]] for 'in this case' * [[In Character]] - as opposed to OOC ([[Out of Character]]) in [[Roleplaying]] * [[Index Catalog]] * [[Industry Canada]] * Institute of Computing * [[Integrated circuit]] * [[Intellectual capital]] * [[Intelligence Community]] * [[InterCity]] in railway travel * [[InterContinental]] hotel chain, or its parent company [[InterContinental Hotels Group]] * International Canoe in [[Canoe sailing]] * &quot;International Coordinator&quot;, the top coordinator of the [[FidoNet]] * [[Interstitial cystitis]], a disease * Introductory [[Calculus]] * [[Ithaca College]] * [[IC codes]], [[police]] shorthand expressions * [[iCommune]] {{disambig}} [[de:IC]] [[ko:IC]] [[it:Ic]] [[nl:IC]] [[ja:IC]] [[fi:IC]] [[sv:IC]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Individualist anarchism</title> <id>14936</id> <revision> <id>42047610</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T12:56:34Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>KnightRider</username> <id>430793</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>warnfile Modifying: es</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Bias}} {{original_research}} {{Primarysources}} {{Anarchism}} '''Individualist Anarchism''' is a philosophical tradition that opposes [[collectivism]]{{ref|Spooner_Property}} and has a particularly strong emphasis on the supremacy and autonomy of the [[individualism|individual]]. The tradition appears most often in the [[United States]], most notably in regard to its advocacy of private property.{{ref|TuckerLiberty}} Individualist anarchism's roots includes Europeans such as [[William Godwin]], [[Pierre-Joseph Proudhon]], [[Emile Armand]], [[Oscar Wilde]], Han Ryner and [[Max Stirner]] (who is also connected to the [[existentialism|existentialist]] philosophy), though the individualist anarchist tradition draws heavily on American independent thinkers, including [[Josiah Warren]], [[Benjamin Tucker]], [[Lysander Spooner]], [[Ezra Heywood]], [[Stephen Pearl Andrews]], and [[Henry David Thoreau]]. The writer and poet [[John Henry Mackay]] is also considered an individualist anarchist. Contemporary individualist anarchists include [[Robert Anton Wilson]], [[Joe Peacott]], [[Daniel Burton]], [[Kevin Carson]], and [[Keith Preston]]. Individualist anarchism is sometimes seen as an evolution of [[classical liberalism]], and hence, has been called &quot;liberal anarchism&quot; [http:
/www.thewitcher.com Official website of the computer game] [[Category:Characters in written fantasy|Hexer, the]] [[Category:Polish literature|Hexer, the]] [[Category:Polish films|Hexer, the]] [[Category:Polish comics|Hexer, the]] [[Category:Polish superheroes]] [[cs:Zaklínač]] [[pl:Wiedźmin]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Mossad</title> <id>14267</id> <revision> <id>42131133</id> <timestamp>2006-03-04T00:51:30Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>OneEuropeanHeart</username> <id>633536</id> </contributor> <comment>added links</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:MossadLogo.gif|right|thumbnail|131px|Official seal of the Mossad]] {{Israelis}} '''{{Audio|He-Mossad.ogg|Ha-Mōśād le-Mōdī`īn ū-le-Tafqīdīm Meyūhadīm}}''' ([[Hebrew language|Hebrew]]: &amp;#1492;&amp;#1502;&amp;#1493;&amp;#1505;&amp;#1491; &amp;#1500;&amp;#1502;&amp;#1493;&amp;#1491;&amp;#1497;&amp;#1506;&amp;#1497;&amp;#1503; &amp;#1493;&amp;#1500;&amp;#1514;&amp;#1508;&amp;#1511;&amp;#1497;&amp;#1491;&amp;#1497;&amp;#1501; &amp;#1502;&amp;#1497;&amp;#1493;&amp;#1495;&amp;#1491;&amp;#1497;&amp;#1501;, '''Institute for Intelligence and Special Operations''' [http://www.mohr.gov.il/Mohr/MohrTopNav/MohrEnglish/MohrAboutUs/]) is an [[Israel|Israeli]] [[intelligence agencies|intelligence agency]], commonly referred to as '''Mossad'''. It is responsible for [[Intelligence (information gathering)|intelligence collection]], [[counter-terrorism]], and [[Covert operation|covert action]], including paramilitary activities, some of questionable legality. The Institute is a component of [[Israel Secret Intelligence Service]] and is separate from Military Intelligence [[Aman (IDF)|Aman]] and the General Security Service [[Shabak]]. ==Introduction== Mossad is one of the world's best-known and most highly regarded [[Intelligence agency|intelligence agencies]]. Mossad was formed in December 1949 as the &quot;Central Institute for Coordination&quot;, at the recommendation of Reuven Shiloah to [[Prime Minister]] [[David Ben Gurion]]. Shiloah wanted a central body to coordinate and improve cooperation between the existing security services &amp;mdash; the army's intelligence department (AMAN), the General Security Service (GSS or &quot;Shabak&quot;) and the foreign office's &quot;political department&quot;. In March 1951, it was reorganized and made a part of the prime minister's office, reporting directly to the prime minister. Its current staff is estimated at approximately 1,200. Mossad is a civilian service, and does not use [[military rank]]s, although most of its staff have served in the [[Israeli Defense Force]] as part of Israel's compulsory draft system, and many of them are [[officer (armed forces)|officer]]s. Mossad's original motto: ''be-tahbūlōt ta`aseh lekhā milkhamāh'' ([[Hebrew language|Hebrew]]: &amp;#1489;&amp;#1514;&amp;#1495;&amp;#1489;&amp;#1493;&amp;#1500;&amp;#1493;&amp;#1514; &amp;#1514;&amp;#1506;&amp;#1513;&amp;#1492; &amp;#1500;&amp;#1498; &amp;#1502;&amp;#1500;&amp;#1495;&amp;#1502;&amp;#1492;, &quot;For by wise counsel thou shalt make thy war.&quot; - Proverbs XXIV, 6 or the more recognised translation &quot;By way of deception thou shalt make war&quot;) was changed recently as part of the Mossad's public 'coming out' to another Proverbs passage: ''be-'éyn tahbūlōt yīpōl `ām; ū-teshū`āh be-rōv yo'éts'' ([[Hebrew language|Hebrew]]: &amp;#1489;&amp;#1488;&amp;#1497;&amp;#1503; &amp;#1514;&amp;#1495;&amp;#1489;&amp;#1493;&amp;#1500;&amp;#1493;&amp;#1514; &amp;#1497;&amp;#1508;&amp;#1493;&amp;#1500; &amp;#1506;&amp;#1501;, &amp;#1493;&amp;#1514;&amp;#1513;&amp;#1493;&amp;#1506;&amp;#1492; &amp;#1489;&amp;#1512;&amp;#1493;&amp;#1489; &amp;#1497;&amp;#1493;&amp;#1506;&amp;#1509;, &quot;Where no counsel is, the people fall, but in the multitude of counselors there is safety.&quot; - Proverbs XI, 14) Its many successes in serving Israel's security interests have earned Mossad a reputation for being extremely effective as an intelligence agency. Controversy exists over a few cases where it has employed the tactics of [[kidnapping]] and [[assassination]]. It has also been at the forefront of several publicly embarrassing failures. ==Departments== Mossad is headquartered in [[Tel Aviv]] and has eight departments: * Collections Department is the largest, with responsibility for espionage operations. * Political Action and Liaison Department conducts political activities and liaison with friendly foreign intelligence services and with nations with which Israel does not have normal diplomatic relations. * Special Operations Division (Metsada) conducts [[assassination]], [[sabotage]], and [[paramilitary]] projects. * LAP (Lohamah Psichlogit) Department is responsible for [[psychological warfare]], [[propaganda]] and deception operations. * Research Department is responsible for intelligence synthesis. * Technology Department is responsible for development of technologies to support Mossad operations. == Famous Mossad Successes == * Audio surveillance of Nikita Khrushchev's [[On the Personality Cult and its Consequences|Secret Speech]]. The recording was later turned over to the CIA. * Location and abduction of Nazi [[War Criminal]] [[Adolf Eichmann]] * Assisting in [[Operation Moses]], the immigration of [[Ethiopia]]n Jews to Israel. * Assisting in the defection and rescuing the family of [[Munir Redfa]], an Iraqi pilot who [[defection|defected]] and flew his [[MiG 21]] to Israel. * Assassination of those responsible for the [[Munich massacre]] at the [[1972 Summer Olympics|1972 Olympic Games]], called &quot;Operation Wrath of God&quot;. * Abduction of [[Mordechai Vanunu]] in [[Italy]] 1986 * Providing highly sensitive information about [[Iraq]]'s [[Osiraq]] [[nuclear reactor]], destroyed in an Israeli airstrike in 1981. * Providing intelligence for Israeli military operations, thousands of miles away from Israel, for instance, for [[Operation Entebbe]]. * Providing intelligence for the assassination of [[Abu Jihad]] by Israeli commandos (unverified but widely believed) * The assassination of [[Gerald Bull]] (unverified but widely believed) == Famous Mossad Failures == In 1954, as part of [[Lavon_Affair#Operation_Suzannah|Operation Suzannah]], a post office in Alexandria, [[Egypt]] was firebombed and [[U.S. Information Agency]] libraries in Alexandria and Cairo and a British-owned theater were bombed by Mossad operatives. The aim of this [[False flag|false flag]] operation was to influence the British into cancelling or delaying their withdrawal from the [[Suez Canal]]. In 1973, [[Ahmed Bouchiki]], an innocent Arab waiter in [[Lillehammer]], [[Norway]], was killed. He had been mistaken for [[Ali Hassan Salameh]], one of the leaders of [[Black September (group)|Black September]], the [[Palestinian]] group responsible for the [[Munich Massacre]], who had been given shelter in Norway. The Mossad agents had used fake [[Passport Canada|Canadian passports]], which angered the [[Canada|Canadian]] government. In 1981, fake [[United Kingdom|British]] passports were discovered in a grocery bag in London, leading to a diplomatic row with Israel over Mossad involvement in an attempt to infiltrate [[China]]. In 1997, two Mossad agents were caught in [[Jordan]], which had signed a peace treaty with Israel, on a mission to assassinate Sheikh [[Khaled Mashal]], a leader of [[Hamas]], by injecting him with [[poison]]. Again, they were using fake Canadian passports. This led to a diplomatic row with Canada and Jordan, and Israel was forced to provide the poison [[antidote]] and release around 70 Palestinian prisoners, in particular the Hamas leader [[Sheikh Ahmed Yassin]] &amp;mdash; who played a prominent role in encouraging attacks on Israeli [[civilian]]s (and soldiers) during the [[Al-Aqsa intifada]] &amp;mdash; in exchange for the Mossad agents, who would otherwise have faced the death penalty for attempted murder. In March of 2004, seven years after he was released, Yassin was killed in an Israeli helicopter airstrike. In July 2004, [[New Zealand]] imposed [[diplomatic sanctions]] on Israel over an incident in which two Israelis, Uriel Kelman and Eli Cara, who were allegedly working for Mossad, attempted to obtain New Zealand passports fraudulently. [http://www.mediareviewnet.com/New%20Zealand%20imposes%20diplomatic%20sanctions%20on%20Israel.htm] Israeli Foreign Minister [[Silvan Shalom]] later apologized to [[New Zealand]] for their actions. New Zealand cancelled several other passports believed to have been obtained by Israeli agents. [http://www.nzherald.co.nz/index.cfm?c_id=1&amp;ObjectID=10332767]. Both Kelman and Cara served half of their six month sentences and upon release were deported to Israel. Two others, an Israeli, Ze'ev Barkan, and a New Zealander, David Reznick, are believed to have been the third and fourth men involved in the passport affair but managed to leave New Zealand before being traced. == Directors of Mossad == {{col-begin}} {{col-break}} * [[Reuven Shiloah]], 1951-1952 * [[Isser Harel]], 1952-1963 * [[Meir Amit]], 1963-1968 {{col-break}} * [[Zvi Zamir]], 1968-1974 * [[Yitzhak Hofi]], 1974-1982 * [[Nahum Admoni]], 1982-1990 {{col-break}} * [[Shabtai Shavit]], 1990-1996 * [[Danny Yatom]], 1996-1998 * [[Ephraim Halevy]], 1998-2002 {{col-break}} * [[Meir Dagan]], 2002-Present {{col-end}} ==See also== *[[Numbers station]] *[[By Way of Deception]] by [[Victor Ostrovsky]] ==External links== *[http://www.mohr.gov.il Official website], used for recruiting personnel *[http://www.rediff.com/news/2003/sep/08spec.htm The Indian Research and Analysis Wing (&quot;RAW&quot;) and The Israeli Mossad - the Secret Link] *[http://www.mossad.gov.il/Mohr/MohrTopNav/MohrEnglish/MohrAboutUs/ English version] *[http://www.globalsecurity.org/intell/world/israel/mossad.htm GlobalSecurity.org entry for Mossad] *[http://www.axisglobe.com/article.asp
is function, or both. So for instance, an author interested in curved domains might replace the triangles with curved primitives, in which case he might describe his elements as being curvilinear. On the other hand, some authors replace &quot;piecewise linear&quot; by &quot;piecewise quadratic&quot; or even &quot;piecewise polynomial&quot;. The author might then say &quot;higher order element&quot; instead of &quot;higher degree polynomial.&quot; Methods that use higher degree piecewise polynomial basis functions are often called [[spectral element method]]s, especially if the degree of the polynomials increases as the triangulation size &lt;math&gt;h&lt;/math&gt; goes to zero. === Small support of the basis === The primary advantage of this choice of basis is that the inner products :&lt;math&gt;&lt;v_j,v_k&gt;=\int_0^1 v_j v_k\,dx&lt;/math&gt; and :&lt;math&gt;\phi(v_j,v_k)=\int_0^1 v_j' v_k'\,dx&lt;/math&gt; will be zero for almost all &lt;math&gt;j,k&lt;/math&gt;. In the one dimensional case, the [[support (mathematics)|support]] of &lt;math&gt;v_k&lt;/math&gt; is the interval &lt;math&gt;[x_{k-1},x_{k+1}]&lt;/math&gt;. Hence, the integrands of &lt;math&gt;&lt;v_j,v_k&gt;&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;\phi(v_j,v_k)&lt;/math&gt; are identically zero whenever &lt;math&gt;|j-k|&gt;1&lt;/math&gt;. Similarly, in the planar case, if &lt;math&gt;x_j&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;x_k&lt;/math&gt; do not share an edge of the triangulation, then the integrals :&lt;math&gt;\int_{\Omega} v_j v_k\,ds&lt;/math&gt; and :&lt;math&gt;\int_{\Omega} \nabla v_j \cdot \nabla v_k\,ds&lt;/math&gt; are both zero. === Matrix form of the problem === If we write &lt;math&gt;u(x)=\sum_{k=1}^n u_k v_k(x)&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;f(x)=\sum_{k=1}^n f_k v_k(x)&lt;/math&gt; then problem (3) becomes (4) &lt;math&gt;-\sum_{k=1}^n u_k \phi (v_k,v_j) = \sum_{k=1}^n f_k \int v_k v_j&lt;/math&gt; for &lt;math&gt;j=1,...,n&lt;/math&gt;. If we denote by &lt;math&gt;\mathbf{u}&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;\mathbf{f}&lt;/math&gt; the column vectors &lt;math&gt;(u_1,...,u_n)^t&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;(f_1,...,f_n)^t&lt;/math&gt;, and if let &lt;math&gt;L=(L_{ij})&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;M=(M_{ij})&lt;/math&gt; be matrices whose entries are &lt;math&gt;L_{ij}=\phi (v_i,v_j)&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;M_{ij}=\int v_i v_j&lt;/math&gt; then we may rephrase (4) as (5) &lt;math&gt;-L \mathbf{u} = M \mathbf{f}&lt;/math&gt;. As we have discussed before, most of the entries of &lt;math&gt;L&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;M&lt;/math&gt; are zero because the basis functions &lt;math&gt;v_k&lt;/math&gt; have small support. So we now have to solve a linear system in the unknown &lt;math&gt;\mathbf{u}&lt;/math&gt; where most of the entries of the matrix &lt;math&gt;L&lt;/math&gt;, which we need to invert, are zero. Such matrices are known as [[sparse matrix|sparse matrices]], and there are efficient solvers for such problems (much more efficient than actually inverting the matrix.) In addition, &lt;math&gt;L&lt;/math&gt; is symmetric, so a technique such as the [[conjugate gradient method]] is favored. For problems that are not too large, sparse [[LU decomposition]]s and [[Cholesky decomposition]]s still work well. For instance, [[Matlab]]'s backslash operator (which is based on sparse LU) can be sufficient for meshes with a hundred thousand vertices. The matrix &lt;math&gt;L&lt;/math&gt; is usually referred to as the ''stiffness matrix'', while the matrix &lt;math&gt;M&lt;/math&gt; is dubbed the ''mass matrix''. == Comparison to the finite difference method == The [[finite difference|finite difference method]] (FDM) is an alternative way for solving PDEs. The differences between FEM and FDM are: *The most attractive feature of the FEM is its ability to handle complex geometries (and boundaries) with relative ease. While FDM in its basic form is restricted to handle rectangular shapes and simple alterations thereof, the handling of geometries in FEM is theoretically straightforward although the problem of computational time is strongly influenced by the ability to precondition the problem. *The most attractive feature of finite differences is that it can be very easy to implement. *There are several ways one could consider the FDM a subset of the FEM approach. One might choose basis functions as either [[piecewise]] [[constant function]]s or [[Dirac delta function]]s. In both approaches, the approximations are defined on the entire domain, but need not be continuous. Alternatively, one might define the function on a discrete domain, with the result that the continuous differential operator no longer makes sense, however this approach is not FEM. *There are reasons to consider the mathematical foundation of the finite element approximation more sound, for instance, because the quality of the approximation between grid points is poor in FDM. *The quality of a FEM approximation is often higher than in the corresponding FDM approach, but this is extremely problem dependent and several examples to the contrary can be provided. ==See also== * [[Rayleigh-Ritz method]] * [[Discrete element method]] * [[Spectral method]] * [[COMSOL Multiphysics]] is a finite element software package. Other ones are listed in the ''External links'' section below. == External links == Open-source finite element software include Z88, SLFFEA, YADE, FEniCS, deal.II, libMesh, freeFEM, Elmer and Code-Aster. * [http://www.diffpack.com/ Diffpack] * [http://z88.org/ Z88] * [http://slffea.sourceforge.net/ SLFFEA] * [http://yade.berlios.de/ YADE] * [http://www.fenics.org FEniCS] * [http://www.dealii.org deal.II] * [http://libmesh.sourceforge.net libMesh] * [http://www.freefem.org freeFEM] * [http://www.code-aster.org Code-Aster] * [http://impact.sourceforge.net/ Impact] * [http://www.imtek.uni-freiburg.de/simulation/mathematica/IMSweb/ IMTEK Mathematica Supplement (IMS)] * [http://www.calculix.de Calculix] * [http://www.csc.fi/elmer Elmer] * [http://oofem.org OOFEM] -- a free, object oriented, general purpose FEM code [[Category:Partial differential equations]] [[Category:Numerical analysis]] [[Category:Continuum mechanics]] [[ca:Mètode d'elements finits]] [[de:Finite-Elemente-Methode]] [[fr:Méthode des éléments finis]] [[it:Metodo degli elementi finiti]] [[nl:Eindige-elementenmethode]] [[ja:有限要素法]] [[pl:Metoda elementów skończonych]] [[ru:Метод конечных элементов]] [[sv:Finita elementmetoden]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Feet</title> <id>11422</id> <revision> <id>15909167</id> <timestamp>2004-06-11T23:45:38Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>JakeVortex</username> <id>5034</id> </contributor> <comment>seems to be more common link as unit of length. The rule that pages should be singular implies that [[foot|feet]] is preferred.</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Foot (unit of length)]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Free content</title> <id>11423</id> <revision> <id>40073857</id> <timestamp>2006-02-17T23:13:29Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Ian Pitchford</username> <id>230605</id> </contributor> <comment>[[WP:AWB|AWB assisted]] clean up</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''''Free content''''', or free information, is any kind of [[functional work]], [[artwork]], or other creative content having no legal restriction relative to people's freedom to use, redistribute, improve, and share the content. Importantly, when free content is modified, expanded, or incorporated within another work, the resulting work must also be distributable as free content (see [[share-alike]]). To be considered free content, a work must allow modification and redistribution. So free content encompasses all works in the [[public domain]] and also those [[copyright]]ed works whose [[license]]s honor and uphold the freedoms mentioned above. Because the law by default grants copyright holders [[monopoly|monopolistic control]] over their creations, copyrighted content must be explicitly declared free, usually by the referencing or inclusion of licensing statements from within the work. A work in the public domain cannot be licensed because, by definition, its copyright has expired or has been relinquished. However, such a work is still considered free content, because it may be used for any purpose whatsoever. Free content can be viewed by all at no cost. ==''Libre'' and ''gratis''== Besides ''free'' as in ''freedom'', there is also another important meaning of the word ''free'': free of charge. The two meanings of the term ''free'' are often illustrated with the phrases &quot;[[free as in beer]],&quot; which alludes to monetary price or cost but has little to do with freedom, and &quot;[[free as in speech]],&quot; which alludes to the widely recognized [[freedom of speech]] (see, for example, the [[First Amendment to the United States Constitution]]), but which has little to do with monetary price or cost. The usage of &quot;free&quot; in &quot;free content&quot; carries only the latter meaning -- as in speech -- because the emphasis is on everyone's ''freedom'' to engage with the content, understand it, modify it, and share it with others. This ambiguity in the word ''free'' can create confusion, especially since many (but by no means all) free content works are also available at no charge. Many languages other than English use two different words for these distinct concepts. In English, it is sometimes useful to use two less common but more precise words, the first adopted from [[French language|French]] or [[Spanish language|Spanish]] and the second from [[Latin]] (or [[Spanish language|Spanish]]): [[libre]] (meaning free as in speech) and [[gratis]] (meaning free as in beer). In these terms, ''free-content'' works are always ''libre'' but not necessarily ''gratis''. ==''Free content'' and
show that they were good associated with good. Claudius' temple was built over Nero's [[Domus Aurea|golden house]]. Commemorative coins were issued of Claudius and his natural son Britannicus - who had been a friend of the emperor [[Titus]]. However, as the Flavians became established, they needed to emphasize their own credentials more, and their references to Claudius ceased. Instead, he was put down with the other emperors of the fallen dynasty. The main ancient historians [[Tacitus]], [[Suetonius]], and [[Cassius Dio]] all wrote after the last of the Flavians had gone. All three were senators or equites. They took the side of the Senate in most conflicts with the princeps, as well as the senator's views of the emperor. This resulted in biases, both conscious and unconscious. Suetonius lost access to the official archives shortly after beginning his work. He was forced to rely on second-hand accounts when it came to Claudius (with the exception of Augustus' letters which had been gathered earlier) and does not quote the emperor. Suetonius painted Claudius as a ridiculous figure, belittling many of his acts and attributing the objectively good works to his retinue.&lt;ref&gt;Scramuzza, p. 29&lt;/ref&gt; Tacitus wrote a narrative for his fellow senators and fit each of the emperors into a simple mold of his choosing.&lt;ref&gt;Vessey (1971)&lt;/ref&gt;. He wrote Claudius as a passive pawn and an idiot - going so far as to hide his use of Claudius as a source and omit Claudius' character from his works.&lt;ref&gt;Griffin (1990). ''Ann.'' XI 14 is a good example. The digression on the history of writing is certainly Claudius' own argument for his new letters, and fits in with his personality and extant writings. Tacitus makes no attribution.&lt;/ref&gt; Even his version of Claudius' Lyons tablet speech is edited to be devoid of the emperor's personality. Dio was less biased, but seems to have used Suetonius and Tacitus as sources. Thus the conception of Claudius as the weak fool, controlled by those he supposedly ruled, was preserved for the ages. As time passed, Claudius was mostly forgotten outside of the historian's accounts. His books were lost first, as their antiquarian subjects became unfashionable. In the second century, [[Pertinax]], who shared his birthday, became emperor, overshadowing any commemoration of Claudius. In the third century, the emperor [[Claudius II]] Gothicus usurped his name. When Claudius Gothicus died, he was also deified, replacing Claudius in the Roman pantheon. ==Scholarly works and their impact== Claudius wrote copiously throughout his life. [[Arnaldo Momigliano]]&lt;ref&gt;Momigliano (1934) pp. 4-6.&lt;/ref&gt; states that during the reign of Tiberius &amp;mdash; which covers the peak of Claudius' literary career &amp;mdash; it became impolitic to speak of republican Rome. The trend among the young historians was to either write about the new empire or obscure antiquarian subjects. Claudius was the rare scholar who covered both. Besides the history of Augustus' reign that caused him so much grief, his major works included an [[Etruscan civilization|Etruscan]] history and eight volumes on [[Carthage|Carthaginian]] history, as well as an Etruscan Dictionary and a book on dice playing. Despite the general avoidance of the imperatorial era, he penned a defense of [[Cicero]] against the charges of Asinius Gallus. Modern historians have used this to determine both the nature of his politics and of the aborted chapters of his civil war history. He proposed a reform of the [[Latin alphabet]] by the addition of [[Claudian letters|three new letters]], two of which served the function of the modern letters ''W'' and ''Y.'' He officially instituted the change during his censorship, but they did not survive his reign. Claudius also tried to revive the old custom of putting dots between different words (Classical Latin was written with no spacing). Finally, he wrote an eight-volume autobiography that Suetonius describes as lacking in taste.&lt;ref&gt;Suet. ''Claud.'' 41.&lt;/ref&gt; Since Claudius (like most of the members of his dynasty) heavily criticized his predecessors and relatives in surviving speeches&lt;ref&gt;See Claudius' letter to the people of Trent (linked below), in which he refers to the &quot;obstinate retirement&quot; of Tiberius. See also Josephus ''Ant Iud.'' XIX, where an edict of Claudius refers to Caligula's &quot;madness and lack of understanding.&quot;&lt;/ref&gt;, it is not hard to imagine the nature of Suetonius' charge. [[Image:claudian-letters.jpg|left|thumb|The [[Claudian letters]]]] Unfortunately, none of the actual works survive. They do live on as sources for the surviving histories of the Julio-Claudian dynasty. Suetonius quotes Claudius' autobiography once, and must have used it as a source numerous times. Tacitus uses Claudius' own arguments for the orthographical innovations mentioned above, and may have used him for some of the more antiquarian passages in his annals. Claudius is the source for numerous passages of [[Pliny the Elder|Pliny]]'s ''[[Natural History (Pliny)|Natural History]]''&lt;ref&gt;See Momigliano (1934) Chap. 1, note 20 (p. 83). Pliny credits him by name in Book VII 35.&lt;/ref&gt;. The influence of historical study on Claudius is obvious. In his speech on Gallic senators, he uses a version of the founding of Rome identical to that of Livy's. The detail of his speech borders on the pedantic, a common mark of all his extant works, and he goes into long digressions on related matters. This indicates a deep knowledge of a variety of historical subjects that he could not help but share. Many of the public works instituted in his reign were based on plans first suggested by [[Julius Caesar]]. Levick believes this emulation of Caesar may have spread to all aspects of his policies&lt;ref&gt;Levick (1978).&lt;/ref&gt;. His censorship seems to have been based on those of his ancestors, particularly [[Appius Claudius Caecus]], and he used the office to put into place many policies based on those of Republican times. This is when many of his religious reforms took effect and his building efforts greatly increased during his tenure. In fact, his assumption of the office of Censor may have been motivated by a desire to see his academic labors bear fruit. For example, he knew his ancestor Appius Claudius Caecus has used the censorship to introduce the letter &quot;R&quot;, and so used his own term to introduce his new letters. ==Claudius in fiction== [[Image:Claudius.jpg|right|thumb|150px|Cover of ''I, Claudius'' DVD]] The emperor Claudius was the protagonist of the books ''[[I, Claudius]]'' (1934) and ''[[Claudius the God]]'' (1935) by [[Robert Graves]], which were both written in the [[Grammatical person|first-person]] to give the reader the impression that they are Claudius' [[autobiography]]. Graves employed fictive artifice to suggest that they were recently discovered, genuine translations of Claudius' writings. To this end ''I, Claudius'' even includes a fictional account of his visit to an oracle, who predicted that the document would be rediscoved &quot;nineteen hundred year or near&quot; later. In 1937 director [[Josef von Sternberg]] made an unsuccessful attempt to film ''I, Claudius'', with [[Charles Laughton]] as Claudius. Unfortunately, the lead actress [[Merle Oberon]] suffered a near-fatal accident and the movie was never finished. The surviving reels were finally shown in the documentary ''[[The Epic That Never Was]]'' in 1965, revealing some of Laughton's most accomplished acting. Graves's two books were the basis for a thirteen-part [[British Broadcasting Corporation|BBC]] series, shown on [[BBC Two|BBC2]] in [[1976 in television|1976]] and later broadcast in the [[United States|U.S.]] on ''[[Masterpiece Theatre]]'' in [[1977 in television|1977]], also titled ''I, Claudius''. [[Derek Jacobi]] starred in the title role. Claudius and his contemporaries appear in the historical novel ''The Roman'' by [[Mika Waltari]]. There is a reference to Claudius' suppression of one of the coups against him in the movie [[Gladiator_(movie)|Gladiator]]. ==See also== *[[Roman Emperors/JulioClaudian|Julio-Claudian Family Tree]] ==Footnotes== &lt;div style=&quot;font-size: 90%&quot;&gt; &lt;references /&gt; &lt;/div&gt; ==References== &lt;div style=&quot;font-size: 90%&quot;&gt; *Baldwin, B. &quot;Executions under Claudius: Seneca’s Ludus de Morte Claudii&quot;. ''Phoenix'' 18 (1964). *Griffin, M. &quot;Claudius in Tacitus&quot;. ''Classical Quarterly'', 40 (1990), 482-501. *Levick, B.M., &quot;Claudius: Antiquarian or Revolutionary?&quot; ''American Journal of Philology'', 99 (1978), 79-105. *Levick, Barbara. ''Claudius''. Yale University Press. New Haven, 1990. *Leon, E.F., &quot;The Imbecillitas of the Emperor Claudius&quot;, ''Transactions and Proceedings of the American Philological Association'', 79 (1948), 79-86. *McAlindon, D., &quot;Claudius and the Senators&quot;, ''American Journal of Philology'', 78 (1957), 279-286. *Major, A., &quot;Was He Pushed or Did He Leap? Claudius' Ascent to Power&quot;, ''Ancient History'', 22 (1992), 25-31. *Momigliano, Arnaldo. ''Claudius: the Emperor and His Achievement'' Trans. W.D. Hogarth. W. Heffer and Sons. Cambridge, 1934. *Oost, S.V., &quot;The Career of M. Antonius Pallas&quot;, ''American Journal of Philology'', 79 (1958). 113-139. *Ruth, Thomas De Coursey. ''The Problem of Claudius''. (Johns Hopkins Diss., 1916). *Ryan, F.X. &quot;Some Observations on the Censorship of Claudius and Vitellius, AD 47-48&quot;, ''American Journal of Philology'', 114 (1993), 611-618. *Scramuzza, Vincent. ''The Emperor Claudius'' Harvard University Press. Cambridge, 1940. *Stuart, M. &quot;The Date of the Inscription of Claudius on the Arch of Ticinum&quot; ''Am. J. Arch.'' 40 (1936). 314-322. *Suhr, E.G., &quot;A Portrait of Claudius&quot; ''Am. J. Arch.'' 59 (1955). 319-322. *Vessey, D.W.T.C. &quot;T
as a place to locate a value: a [[processor register|register]] or a [[memory address]]. In older designs the portions of the CPU responsible for instruction decoding were unchangeable hardware devices. However, in more abstract and complicated CPUs and ISAs, a [[microprogram]] is often used to assist in translating instructions into various configuration signals for the CPU. This microprogram is sometimes rewritable so that it can be modified to change the way the CPU decodes instructions even after it has been manufactured. After the fetch and decode steps, the execute step is performed. During this step, various portions of the CPU are connected so they can perform the desired operation. If, for instance, an addition operation was requested, an [[arithmetic logic unit]] (ALU) will be connected to a set of inputs and a set of outputs. The inputs provide the numbers to be added, and the outputs will contain the final sum. The ALU contains the circuitry to perform simple arithmetic and logical operations on the inputs (like addition and [[bitwise operation]]s). If the addition operation produces a result too large for the CPU to handle, an [[arithmetic overflow]] flag in a flags register may also be set (see the discussion of integer precision below). The final step, writeback, simply &quot;writes back&quot; the results of the execute step to some form of memory. Very often the results are written to some internal CPU register for quick access by subsequent instructions. In other cases results may be written to slower, but cheaper and larger, [[Random access memory|main memory]]. Some types of instructions manipulate the program counter rather than directly produce result data. These are generally called &quot;jumps&quot; and facilitate behavior like [[Control flow#Loops|loops]], conditional program execution (through the use of a conditional jump), and [[Subroutine|functions]] in programs. {{ref|jumps}} Many instructions will also change the state of digits in a &quot;flags&quot; register. These flags can be used to influence how a program behaves, since they often indicate the outcome of various operations. For example, one type of &quot;compare&quot; instruction considers two values and sets a number in the flags register according to which one is greater. This flag could then be used by a later jump instruction to determine program flow. After the execution of the instruction and writeback of the resulting data, the entire process repeats, with the next instruction cycle normally fetching the next-in-sequence instruction because of the incremented value in the program counter. If the completed instruction was a jump, the program counter will be modified to contain the address of the instruction that was jumped to, and program execution continues normally. In more complex CPUs than the one described here, multiple instructions can be fetched, decoded, and executed simultaneously. This section describes what is generally referred to as the &quot;[[Classic RISC pipeline]],&quot; which in fact is quite common among the simple CPUs used in many electronic devices (often called [[microcontrollers]]). {{ref|riscpipeline}} ==Design and implementation== {{Prerequisites header}} {{main|CPU design}} ![[Computer architecture]] |- ![[Digital circuit]]s {{Prerequisites footer}} ===Integer precision=== [[Image:MOS_6502AD_4585_top.jpg|250px|thumb|right|[[MOS Technology 6502|MOS 6502]] microprocessor in a [[dual in-line package]], an extremely popular 8-bit design.]] The way a CPU represents numbers is a design choice that affects the most basic ways in which the device functions. Some early digital computers used an electrical model of the common [[decimal]] (base ten) [[numeral system]] to represent numbers internally. A few other computers have used more exotic numeral systems like [[ternary logic|ternary]] (base three). Nearly all modern CPUs represent numbers in [[Binary numeral system|binary]] form, with each digit being represented by some two-valued physical quantity such as a &quot;high&quot; or &quot;low&quot; [[Volt|voltage]]. {{ref|binaryvoltage}} Related to number representation is the size and precision of numbers that a CPU can represent. In the case of a binary CPU, a bit refers to one significant place in the numbers a CPU deals with. The number of bits (or numeral places) a CPU uses to represent numbers is often called &quot;[[Word (computer science)|word size]]&quot;, &quot;bit width&quot;, &quot;data path width&quot;, or &quot;integer precision&quot; when dealing with strictly integer numbers (as opposed to floating point). This number differs between architectures, and often within different parts of the very same CPU. For example, an [[8-bit]] CPU deals with a range of numbers that can be represented by eight binary digits (each digit having two possible values), that is, 2&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; or 256 discrete numbers. In effect, integer precision sets a hardware limit on the range of integers the software run by the CPU can utilize. {{ref|softwareints}} Integer precision can also affect the number of locations in memory the CPU can address (locate). For example, if a binary CPU uses 32 bits to represent a memory address, and each memory address represents one [[octet (computing)|octet]] (8 bits), the maximum quantity of memory that CPU can address is 2&lt;sup&gt;32&lt;/sup&gt; octets, or 4 [[GiB]]. This is a very simple view of CPU [[address space]], and many modern designs use much more complex addressing methods like [[paging]] in order to locate more memory with the same integer precision. Higher levels of integer precision require more structures to deal with the additional digits, and therefore more complexity, size, power usage, and generally expense. It is not at all uncommon, therefore, to see 4- or 8-bit [[microcontroller]]s used in modern applications, even though CPUs with much higher precision (such as 16, 32, 64, even 128 bit) are available. The simpler microcontrollers are usually cheaper, use less power, and therefore dissipate less heat, all of which can be major design considerations for electronic devices. However, in higher-end applications, the benefits afforded by the extra precision (most often the additional address space) are more significant and often affect design choices. To gain some of the advantages afforded by both lower and higher bit precisions, many CPUs are designed with different bit widths for different portions of the device. For example, the IBM [[System/370]] used a CPU that was primarily 32 bit, but it used 128-bit precision inside its [[floating point]] units to facilitate greater accuracy and range in floating point numbers {{Ref harvard|Amdahl1964|Amdahl et al. 1964|b}}. Many later CPU designs use similar mixed bit width, especially when the processor is meant for general-purpose usage where a reasonable balance of integer and floating point capability is required. ===Clock rate=== [[Image:1615a_logic_analyzer.jpg|thumb|250px|right|[[Logic analyzer]] showing the timing and state of a synchronous digital system.]] {{main|Clock rate}} Most CPUs, and indeed most [[sequential logic]] devices, are synchronous in nature. {{ref|seqlogic}} That is, they are designed and operate on assumptions about a synchronization signal. This signal, known as a clock signal, usually takes the form of a periodic [[square wave]]. By calculating the maximum time that electrical signals can move in various branches of a CPU's many circuits, the designers can select an appropriate [[Frequency|period]] for the clock signal. This period must be longer than the amount of time it takes for a signal to move, or propagate, in the worst-case scenario. In setting the clock period to a value well above the worst-case propagation delay, it is possible to design the entire CPU and the way it moves data around the &quot;edges&quot; of the rising and falling clock signal. This has the advantage of simplifying the CPU significantly, both from a design perspective and a component-count perspective. However, it also carries the disadvantage that the entire CPU must wait on its slowest elements, even though some portions of it are much faster. This limitation has largely been compensated for by various methods of increasing CPU parallelism (see below). Architectural improvements alone do not solve all of the drawbacks of globally synchronous CPUs, however. For example, a clock signal is subject to the delays of any other electrical signal. Higher clock rates in increasingly complex CPUs make it more difficult to keep the clock signal in phase (synchronized) throughout the entire unit. This has led many modern CPUs to require multiple identical clock signals to be provided in order to avoid delaying a single signal significantly enough to cause the CPU to malfunction. Another major issue as clock rates increase dramatically is the amount of heat that is dissipated by the CPU. The constantly changing clock causes many components to switch regardless of whether they are being used at that time. In general, a component that is switching uses more energy than an element in a static state. Therefore, as clock rate increases, so does heat dissipation, causing the CPU to require more effective cooling solutions. One method of dealing with the switching of unneeded components is called [[clock gating]], which involves turning off the clock signal to unneeded components (effectively disabling them). However, this is often regarded as difficult to implement and therefore does not see common usage outside of very low-power designs. {{ref|clockgating}} Another method of addressing some of the problems with a global clock signal is the removal of the clock signal altogether. While removing the global clock signal makes the design process considerably more complex in many ways, asynchronous (or clockless) designs carry marked advantages in power con
nt a violation of his eighth amendment rights. In the opinion's notes the court provided some of the facts relied upon when reaching their decision :&quot;At the sentencing phase, Dr. Nelson testified: &quot;Atkins' full scale IQ is 59. Compared to the population at large, that means less than one percentile&amp;hellip;. Mental retardation is a relatively rare thing. It's about one percent of the population.&quot; App. 274. According to Dr. Nelson, Atkins' IQ score &quot;would automatically qualify for Social Security disability income.&quot; Id., at 280. Dr. Nelson also indicated that of the over 40 capital defendants that he had evaluated, Atkins was only the second individual who met the criteria for mental retardation. Id., at 310. He testified that, in his opinion, Atkins' limited intellect had been a consistent feature throughout his life, and that his IQ score of 59 is not an &quot;aberration, malingered result, or invalid test score.&quot; Id., at 308.&quot; ==Validity and ''g''-loading of specific tests== While IQ is sometimes treated as an end unto itself, scholarly work on IQ focuses to a large extent on IQ's [[validity (psychometric)|validity]], that is, the degree to which IQ predicts outcomes such as job performance, social pathologies, or academic achievement. Different IQ tests differ in their validity for various outcomes. Tests also differ in their [[General intelligence factor|''g'']]-loading, which is the degree to which the test score reflects general mental ability rather than a specific skill or &quot;group factor&quot; such as verbal ability, spatial visualization, or mathematical reasoning). ''g''-loading and validity are related in the sense that most IQ tests derive their validity mostly or entirely from the degree to which they measure ''g'' (Jensen 1998). ==Social construct== Some maintain that IQ is a [[social construct]] invented by the privileged classes, used to maintain their privilege. Others maintain that intelligence, measured by IQ or ''g'', reflects a real ability, is a useful tool in performing life tasks and has a biological reality. The social-construct and real-ability interpretations for IQ differences can be distinguished because they make opposite predictions about what would happen if people were given equal opportunities. The social explanation predicts that equal treatment will eliminate differences, while the real-ability explanation predicts that equal treatment will accentuate differences. Evidence for both outcomes exists. Achievement gaps persist in socioeconomically advantaged, integrated, liberal, suburban school districts in the United States (see Noguera, 2001). Test-score gaps tend to be larger at higher socioeconomic levels (Gottfredson, 2003). Some studies have reported a narrowing of score gaps over time. The reduction of intelligence to a single score seems extreme and wrong to many people. Opponents argue that it is much more useful to know a person's strengths and weaknesses than to know their IQ score. Such opponents often cite the example of two people with the same overall IQ score but very different ability profiles. As measured by IQ tests, most people have highly balanced ability profiles, with differences in subscores being greater among the more intelligent. The creators of IQ testing did not intend for the tests to gauge a person's worth, and in many (or, as some people suggest, all) situations, IQ may have little relevance. ===The Mismeasure of Man=== Some scientists dispute [[psychometrics]] entirely. In ''[[The Mismeasure of Man]]'', Professor [[Stephen Jay Gould]] argues that intelligence tests are based on faulty assumptions and shows their history of being used as the basis for [[scientific racism]]. He writes: :&amp;hellip;the abstraction of intelligence as a single entity, its location within the brain, its quantification as one number for each individual, and the use of these numbers to rank people in a single series of worthiness, invariably to find that oppressed and disadvantaged groups&amp;mdash;races, classes, or sexes&amp;mdash;are innately inferior and deserve their status. (pp. 24&amp;ndash;25) He spends much of the book debunking the concept of IQ, including a historical discussion of how the IQ tests were created and a technical discussion of why ''g'' is simply a mathematical artifact. Later editions of the book include criticism of ''[[The Bell Curve]]''. [[Arthur Jensen]], Professor of Educational Psychology, University of California, Berkeley, responds to Gould's criticisms in a paper titled ''The Debunking of Scientific Fossils and Straw Persons''.[http://www.mugu.com/cgi-bin/Upstream/jensen-gould-fossils] ===The view of the American Psychological Association=== In response to the controversy surrounding ''The Bell Curve'', the [[American Psychological Association]]'s Board of Scientific Affairs established a task force to write a consensus statement on the state of intelligence research which could be used by all sides as a basis for discussion. The full text of the report is available at a third-party website. [http://www.lrainc.com/swtaboo/taboos/apa_01.html] The findings of the task force state that IQ scores ''do'' have high predictive validity for individual (but not necessarily population) differences in school achievement. They confirm the predictive validity of IQ for adult occupational status, even when variables such as education and family background have been statistically controlled. They agree that individual (again, not necessarily population) differences in intelligence are substantially influenced by genetics. They state there is little evidence to show that childhood diet influences intelligence except in cases of severe malnutrition. They agree that there are no significant differences between the average IQ scores of males and females. The task force agrees that large differences do exist between the average IQ scores of blacks and whites, and that these differences cannot be attributed to biases in test construction. While they admit there is no empirical evidence supporting it, the APA task force suggests that explanations based on social status and cultural differences may be possible. Regarding genetic causes, they noted that there is not much direct evidence on this point, but what little there is fails to support the genetic hypothesis. The APA journal that published the statement, ''[[American Psychologist]]'', subsequently published eleven critical responses in January 1997, most arguing that the report failed to examine adequately the evidence for partly-genetic explanations. The report was published in 1995 and thus does not include a decade of recent research. ==Improving IQ== While a large amount of one's IQ is predetermined by genetic factors, the environment can play a role as well. IQ can be improved to a certain extent through reading and application. Improvement in diet and regular exercise can help certain cognitive functions, and getting more sleep may help as well. Depression and stress reduce IQ somewhat, so removal of these factors might also help. Drugs designed to improve cognitive function, and sometimes IQ scores are called [[nootropic]]s. Working memory training, an experimental treatment which has according to one study by Klingberg et al, improved raw scores substantially on Ravens progressive matrices and Ravens advanced progressive matrices, both IQ tests. It has also been claimed in some studies that [[neurofeedback]] can increase IQ. However, some would argue that these studies should not necessarily be interpreted as proof that neurofeedback can increase IQ as (a) they don't have a double blind component and (b) it is unknown whether their effects would apply to persons without ADHD, as most of these studies were performed on persons with ADHD. It is possible that the increase in IQ was just a result of better concentration in the subjects. A recent scientific article on the concept of cognitive reserve included an argument that education and application of the mind can substantially increase IQ. The &quot;[[Mozart effect]]&quot; is the claimed ability of certain musics to enhance intelligence, especially spatial reasoning. However, this effect is not universally accepted. Musical education, as opposed to appreciation, has been shown a number of times to marginally increase IQ in children; however, there is sparsity of information on whether such an effect might apply to adults. The levels of a variety of chemicals in the brain, such as chlorine, have been shown to relate to intelligence in a variety of ways. It is possible that by adjusting diet, these could be substantially changed. Future possibilities for improving the skills IQ tests measure include stem cells treatment, genetic modification, better education based on neurological and cognitive discoveries, better nootropics, etc. [http://www.newscientist.com/channel/being-human/mg18625011.900.] ==Controversy== See article on [[IQ test controversy]]. ==End material== ===See also=== * [[Nature versus nurture]] * [[Emotional intelligence]] * [[Gifted]] * [[SAT]] * [[List of countries by IQ]] * Societies: ** [[International High IQ Society]] &amp;mdash; 95th percentile, or SD16 IQ of 126 ** [[Sigma Society]] &amp;mdash; 97.7th percentile, or SD16 IQ of 132 ** [[Mensa International]] &amp;mdash; 98th percentile, or SD16 IQ of 133 ** [[Colloquy (society)]] &amp;mdash; 99.5th percentile ** [[Cerebrals Society]] &amp;mdash; 99.7th percentile, or SD16 IQ of 144 ** [[Civiq Society]] &amp;mdash; 99.87th percentile, or SD16 IQ of 148 ** [[Sigma Society III]] &amp;mdash; 99.87th percentile, or SD16 IQ of 148 ** [[International Society for Philosophical Enquiry]] &amp;mdash; 99.9th percentile ** [[Intertel (group)]] ** [[Triple Nine Society]] &amp;mdash; 99.9th percentile, or SD16 IQ of 150 ** [[Prometheus Society]] &amp;mdash; 99.997th percentile, or SD16 IQ of 1
shed and the system sectorised into five sectors. The passenger sectors were [[InterCity (British Rail)|InterCity]] (express services), [[Network SouthEast]] (London commuter services) and [[Regional Railways]] (regional services). [[Trainload Freight]] took trainload freight, [[Railfreight Distribution]] took non-trainload freight, [[Freightliner (UK)|Freightliner]] took [[intermodal freight transport|intermodal]] traffic and [[Rail Express Systems]] took parcels traffic. The maintenance and remaining engineering works were split off into a new company, BRML (British Rail Maintenance Limited). The new sectors were further subdivided into divisions. This ended the &quot;[[Rail Blue|BR blue]]&quot; period as new liveries were adopted gradually. Infrastructure remained the responsibility of the Regions until the &quot;Organisation for Quality&quot; initiative in 1991, when this too was transferred to the sectors. === Privatisation === {{main|Privatisation of British Rail}} On the advice of the [[Adam Smith Institute]], under [[John Major]]'s [[Conservative Party (UK)|Conservative]] Government's [[Railways Act 1993]] British Rail was split up and [[privatisation|privatised]]. This was a continuation of the policy of [[Margaret Thatcher]]'s Conservative government's privatisation of publicly-owned services. The unpopular Conservative Government was facing a [[Labour Party (UK)|Labour]] victory at the May 1997 [[General Election]] and so privatisation was rushed through and was finished in November 1997. BR was privatised within the business structure that was in place. Passenger services in each sector were [[franchising|franchise]]d out to private companies, mostly bus operators. The [[Association of Train Operating Companies]] (ATOC) was created to organise ticketing and market the rail services using the [[National Rail]] brand. Freight operations were sold but mostly bought by one company, [[EWS]]. [[Railtrack]] controlled infrastructure. The Shadow Strategic Rail Authority was created to oversee and advise the government. The British Railways Board remained with some residual functions. Privatisation has had mixed results. Passenger growth has been stimulated, but this has been at extra cost to the taxpayer and passengers, who have seen steady fare increases since 1997. Freight has also increased; however, there is debate as to whether these increases in passengers and freight have been due to privatisation, or simply to an improved economy which usually results in more travel. Some analysts have pointed out that a similar rise in passenger numbers occurred in the late 1980s when the economy was buoyant, only to fall again in the recession of the early 1990s; however, recent passenger-journey numbers have climbed back to the level last seen in the 1950s. Railtrack's management proved to be incompetent and the Labour government refused to continue to subsidise the losses of shareholders. It went insolvent, was put in receivership and was replaced by a not-for-profit publicly owned [[Network Rail]]. Some saw this as the first step towards renationalisation. Given the costs this is unlikely at present although some studies have recommended this as a cheaper choice than the current subsidies to commercial companies. The Shadow Strategic Rail Authority's power became real when it dropped part of its name, becoming the [[Strategic Rail Authority]] (SRA). The functions of the SRA were later transferred to the [[Department for Transport]]. There has been some controversy over the decision to withhold subsidies from Railtrack, which forced it to become insolvent. Recent press reports have indicated that the then transport minister [[Stephen Byers]] deliberately forced the company to become insolvent, as this would remove any obligation on the government to provide compensation to Railtrack's shareholders, who would lose their investment. == Network == The BR network, with the trunk routes of the [[West Coast Main Line]], [[East Coast Main Line]], [[Great Western Main Line]] and [[Midland Main Line]], remains unchanged. The [[Beeching Axe]] fell on many branch lines and some other main lines. == Locomotives and rolling stock == === Locomotives === ==== Steam locomotives ==== {{main|Steam locomotives of British Railways}} BR inherited more than 20,000 locomotives from the constituent &quot;Big Four&quot; companies, the vast majority of which were steam locomotives. BR also built 2537 steam locomotives in the period 1948-1960: 1538 were to pre-nationalisation designs, and 999 to its own standard designs. These locomotives were destined to lead short lives, some as little as 5 years against a design life of over 30 years, because of the decision to end the use of steam traction in 1968. ==== Diesel locomotives ==== {{main|Diesel locomotives of British Rail}} When BR was created, diesel traction was in its infancy in the [[United Kingdom]] (though more progress had been made in other countries, whose experience could arguably have been used to a greater degree in informing developments in the UK). Only one mainline diesel locomotive was inherited in 1948 (though more were on order) and a handful of diesel shunters of various types. Initially, BR persisted with the small scale experimentation with diesel traction while continuing to build hundreds of steam locomotives to old and new designs. Even some steam shunters were being built through to the mid-1950s, when standard diesel shunters were already in large scale production. However, it was not until the 1955 Modernisation Plan that more substantial developments in mainline diesel locomotive technology were planned. The Plan envisaged small numbers of prototype locomotives of varying power types being ordered from a variety of manufacturers. These could be tested and compared against each other before large scale orders were placed. Unfortunately, even before many of the prototypes had been delivered, a combination of the political need to maintain employment in the British locomotive-building industry and over-optimistic assessments of the possibilities offered by new diesel locomotives meant that large scale orders were placed for a wide variety of untested and incompatible designs, many of which proved to be very poor. By the end of 1968, all the remaining mainline steam locomotives and shunters had been withdrawn - but during the period 1967-71 so were a large number of virtually new diesel locomotives and shunters (some only three years old) as many designs had proved unsuccessful, non-standard, and unnecessary with changed requirements on the railways, e.g. widespread line closures and the decline of wagonload freight traffic. However, some of the diesel shunters withdrawn during this period did find further use on industrial railway systems. After the large scale production of some 5000 diesel locomotives and shunters in the period 1956-1968, the British locomotive-building industry virtually collapsed. BR needed very few new diesel locomotives from then on; only 285 heavy duty freight locomotives and the 199 [[High Speed Train]] power cars were purchased from then until privatisation began in 1994. No diesel locomotives have been built in Britain for the mainline system since 1991; the most recent new types have been imported from [[Canada]] and [[Spain]]. {{sectstub}} ==== Electric locomotives ==== {{main|Electric locomotives of British Rail}} Electric traction was more advanced than diesel traction at Nationalisation, with a number of isolated electrified networks across the country using a variety of power supplies, though 1500V dc overhead supply had been accepted as the national standard in the 1930s. However, most of these networks used electric multiple units to provide the passenger service, with steam locomotives operating freight trains. Thus, BR inherited only 13 ex-North Eastern and 3 ex-Southern Railway electric locomotives, plus two departmental electric shunters, also ex-Southern Railway. In the early years of BR, a number of locomtives were built to operate on the newly-refurbished and electrified ''Woodhead Route'' using the 1500V dc overhead system. However, by the time that the next major electrification project, the West Coast Main Line (WCML), was underway, the decision had been taken to adopt 25kV ac overhead as the standard supply system. BR decided to test a variety of new 25kV ac types for the WCML electrification; in all 100 locomotives of five classes were built by different manufacturers. Having learned the lessons from these types, a standard class of a further 100 examples was ordered. This latter type, which was introduced in 1966 is still in service today. The earlier prototypes, though they were mostly pretty successful, succumbed in the 1980s and early 1990s as non-standard following the arrival of new electric locomotives. Although the purchase of new electric types was carried out in a more successful way than the comparable process for diesel locomotives (see above), the 200-or-so electric locomotive fleet used to operate the WCML from the mid-1960s until the recent introduction of [[Pendolino]] trains was still far smaller than that originally envisaged; more than 500 were thought necessary when the initial plans were developed! It was fortunate that changes in the railway's operation had already occurred before mass orders were placed for electric traction. {{sectstub}} === Coaches === {{sectstub}} *[[British Carriage and Wagon Numbering and Classification]] *[[Coaches of the London, Midland and Scottish Railway]] *[[Coaches of the Great Western Railway]] *[[Coaches of the Southern Railway]] *[[Coaches of the London and North Eastern Railway]] *[[British Rail Mark 1]] *[[British Rail Mark 2]] *[[British Rail Mark 3]] *[[British Rail Mark 4]] '''Freight wagons and industrial tankers.''' *[[Coal trucks]]. *[[Parcels vans and mail wagons]]. *[[Industrial and oil tankers]]. *[[Flat-c
93]]. Despite the retreat of US and UN forces after several deaths due to local hostilities mainly led by Aidid, the introduction of a powerful military force opened the transportation routes, enabling the provision of supplies and ended the famine quickly. Çevik Bir became the Turkish army's deputy chief of general staff shortly after the Somali operation and played a vital role in establishing a Turkish-[[Israel]]i entente against the emerging fundamentalism in the Middle East. Many people in Turkey accused him of actually being a [[Jewish]] [[donmeh]]. For being a staunch defender of secularism in the region, he was awarded the Secularism and Democracy Award of [[1997]] in [[Washington, DC]]. [[Category:Turkish military people|Bir, Cevik]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Carl Gustav Jung</title> <id>5707</id> <revision> <id>15903906</id> <timestamp>2003-04-13T23:12:55Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Zoe</username> <id>2376</id> </contributor> <comment>reverting -- he isn't known by his middle name, keep it simple</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Carl Jung]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Collectivism</title> <id>5708</id> <revision> <id>41407571</id> <timestamp>2006-02-27T03:04:14Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Sarge Baldy</username> <id>23320</id> </contributor> <comment>/* See also */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">:''For the descriptive terminology as used in anthropology and psychology, see [[Collectivist and individualist cultures]]. For the magazine, see [[Collectivism (magazine)]].'' '''Collectivism''' is a term used to describe any [[doctrine]] that stresses the importance of a [[collective]], rather than the importance of the [[individual]]. Collectivists believe the individual should be subordinate to the collective, which may be a group of individuals, a whole [[society]], a [[state]], a [[nation]], a [[race]], or a [[social class]]. Thus, collectivism contrasts with [[individualism]], which emphasises the liberty of the individual. == Politics == Some consider an early example of collectivist political philosophy to be [[Jean-Jacques Rousseau]]’s “[[social contract]]”, which maintains that each individual is under implicit contract to submit his own will to the “general will” and that the state should enforce this general will. This notion of an ethical obligation to subordinate an individual’s will to the group will is in fundamental opposition to [[individualism]] which advocates that individual action should not be restricted by others. == Economics == Generally speaking, collectivism in the field of economics holds that things should be owned by the group and used for the benefit of all rather than being owned by individuals. Central to this view is the concept of the [[commons]], as opposed to private [[property]]. Some collectivists apply this principle only to [[capital (economics)|capital]] and land, while others argue that all valued commodities should be regarded as [[public goods]] and placed under [[public ownership]]. Collectivism in economics may or may not involve a [[state]] as a manager and steward of collective property. For instance, [[anarcho-communists]], who argue for the immediate abolition of government, wish to place all goods under collective ownership. In [[1876]], at the Florence Conference of the Italian Federation of the International, where the principles of anarcho-communism were first laid out, it was stated: &lt;blockquote&gt; The Italian Federation considers the collective property of the products of labour as the necessary complement to the collectivist programme, the aid of all for the satisfaction of the needs of each being the only rule of production and consumption which corresponds to the principle of solidarity. &lt;/blockquote&gt; == Collectivist societies == There are many examples of societies around the world which have characterized themselves or have been characterized by outsiders as “collectivist”. For instance, there are the [[communist state]]s, which have often collectivized most economic sectors (and agriculture in particular). On the other hand, there are Israeli [[kibbutz]]im (voluntary communes where people live and [[farm]] together without private ownership), and communities such as the [[Freetown Christiania]] in [[Denmark]] (a small anarchist [[political experiment]] centered around an abandoned [[military installation]] in [[Copenhagen]]; Christiania has laws abolishing [[private property]]). [[Democracy]], with its emphasis on notions of [[social contract]] and the collective will of the people, has been characterized by some as a form of (political) collectivism. == Anti-collectivism == The term ''collectivism'' is used more often by anti-collectivists than by anyone else. Supporters of [[Objectivism]] — [[Ayn Rand]] and many people influenced by her — claim that collectivism is fallacious in theory and immoral in practice. They further argue that many or most political ideologies (other than Objectivism itself) are forms of collectivism or at least contain significant collectivist elements. Ironically, Objectivism has been criticized by some for its emphasis on emulating Rand rather than on being a true individual with one’s own thoughts and feelings. Other ideologies that define themselves in opposition to collectivism include [[libertarianism]] and [[anarcho-capitalism]], which are seen by their supporters as defending [[individual rights]] against various forms of collectivism. == See also == * [[communalism]] * [[communitarianism]] * [[primitive communism]] * [[Marxism]] [[Category:Ethics]] [[Category:Political theories]] [[de:Kollektivismus]] [[fr:Collectivisme politique]] [[he:קולקטיביזם]] [[nl:Collectivisme]] [[ja:集団主義]] [[no:Kollektivisme]] [[sv:Kollektivism]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Nepeta</title> <id>5711</id> <revision> <id>41970229</id> <timestamp>2006-03-02T23:24:59Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Lyrl</username> <id>408908</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>/* Medicinal uses */ fix link</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Taxobox | color = lightgreen | name = ''Nepeta'' | image = Nepeta_curviflora.jpg | image_width = 240px | image_caption = ''Nepeta curviflora'' | regnum = [[Plantae]] | divisio = [[Flowering plant|Magnoliophyta]] | classis = [[Magnoliopsida]] | ordo = [[Lamiales]] | familia = [[Lamiaceae]] | genus = '''''Nepeta''''' | subdivision_ranks = Species | subdivision = See text. }} '''''Nepeta''''' is a genus of about 250 species of [[flowering plant]]s in the family [[Lamiaceae]]. The members of this family are known as '''catnips''' or '''catmints'''. The genus is native to [[Europe]], [[Asia]] and [[Africa]], with the highest species diversity in the [[Mediterranean region]] east to [[China]]. Most of the species are [[herbaceous]] [[perennial plant]]s, but some are [[annual plant|annual]]s. They have sturdy stems with opposite heart-shaped, green to greyish-green leaves. The [[flower]]s are white, blue, pink or lilac and occur in several clusters toward the tip of the stems. ;Selected species {| |- valign=top | *''Nepeta agrestis'' *''Nepeta annua'' *''Nepeta apuleii'' *''Nepeta beltranii'' *''Nepeta camphorata'' *''Nepeta cataria'' *''Nepeta ciliaris'' *''Nepeta coerulescens'' *''Nepeta curviflora'' *''Nepeta densiflora'' *''Nepeta dentata'' *''Nepeta dirphya'' *''Nepeta discolor'' *''Nepeta elliptica'' *''Nepeta everardi'' *''Nepeta floccosa'' *''Nepeta foliosa'' *''Nepeta fordii'' *''Nepeta glutinosa'' *''Nepeta govaniana'' *''Nepeta granatensis'' *''Nepeta grandiflora'' *''Nepeta heldreichii'' *''Nepeta hemsleyana'' *''Nepeta hindostana'' *''Nepeta hispanica'' | *''Nepeta italica'' *''Nepeta jomdaensis'' *''Nepeta kokamirica'' *''Nepeta kokanica'' *''Nepeta laevigata'' *''Nepeta lamiopsis'' *''Nepeta latifolia'' *''Nepeta leucolaena'' *''Nepeta leucophylla'' *''Nepeta longibracteata'' *''Nepeta manchuriensis'' *''Nepeta melissifolia'' *''Nepeta membranifolia'' *''Nepeta micrantha'' *''Nepeta multibracteata'' *''Nepeta multifida'' *''Nepeta mussinii'' *''Nepeta nepalensis'' *''Nepeta nepetella'' *''Nepeta nervosa'' *''Nepeta nuda'' *''Nepeta parnassica'' *''Nepeta parviflora'' *''Nepeta phyllochlamys'' *''Nepeta prattii'' *''Nepeta pungens'' | *''Nepeta racemosa'' *''Nepeta raphanorhiza'' *''Nepeta scordotis'' *''Nepeta sessilis'' *''Nepeta sibirica'' *''Nepeta sibthorpii'' *''Nepeta souliei'' *''Nepeta spruneri'' *''Nepeta staintonii'' *''Nepeta stewartiana'' *''Nepeta sungpanensis'' *''Nepeta supina'' *''Nepeta taxkorganica'' *''Nepeta tenuiflora'' *''Nepeta tenuifolia'' *''Nepeta tuberosa'' *''Nepeta ucranica'' *''Nepeta veitchii'' *''Nepeta virgata'' *''Nepeta wilsonii'' *''Nepeta yanthina'' *''Nepeta zandaensis '''Natural hybrids''' *''Nepeta × faassenii'' |} [[Image:Catnip-blossom.jpg|left|thumb|''Nepeta cataria'' flowers]] ''Nepeta cataria'' (Catnip, True Catnip, Catmint or Field Balm) is a 50&amp;ndash;100&amp;nbsp;[[centimetre|cm]] tall [[herb]] resembling [[mint]] in appearance, with greyish-green leaves; the [[flower]]s are white, finely spotted with purple. It has been introduced to many countries, and is now a widespread [[weed]] in some areas, including the [[United States]]. A [[lemon]]-scented [[cultivar]], ''N. cataria'' 'Citriodora' looks exactly like true catnip, but has the scent of, and can be used like [[Lemon balm]]. ''Nepeta grandiflora'' (Giant Catmint or Caucasus Catmint) is lusher than true catnip, and has dark green leaves and dark blue, almost purple flowers. ''Nepeta × faassenii'' (''N. racemosa'' × ''N. nepetella''; Faassen's Nepeta or Faassen's Catnip) is mostly grown as an [[ornamental plant]]. This [[hybrid]] is far smaller than either of above
Since the axiomatization is complete it follows that either there is an ''n'' such that ''N''(''n'') = ''H''(''a'', ''i'') or there is an ''n&amp;#39;'' such that ''N''(''n&amp;#39;'') = ¬ ''H''(''a'', ''i''). So if we [[iterate]] over all ''n'' until we either find ''H''(''a'', ''i'') or its negation, we will always halt. This means that this gives us an algorithm to decide the halting problem. Since we know that there cannot be such an algorithm, it follows that the assumption that there is a consistent and complete axiomatization of all true first-order logic statements about natural numbers must be false. ==Can humans solve the halting problem?== It might seem like [[human]]s could solve the halting problem. After all, a [[programmer]] can often look at a [[computer program|program]] and tell whether it will halt. It is useful to understand why this cannot be true. For [[simplicity]], we will consider the halting problem for programs with no [[input]], which is also undecidable. To &quot;solve&quot; the halting problem means to be able to look at ''any'' program and tell whether it halts. It is not enough to be able to look at ''some'' programs and decide. Humans may also not be able to solve the halting problem, due to the sheer size of the input (a program with millions of lines of code). Even for short programs, it isn't clear that humans can always tell whether they halt. For example, we might ask if this pseudocode function, which corresponds to a particular Turing machine, ever halts: '''function''' searchForOddPerfectNumber() '''var''' ''int'' n:=1 ''// arbitrary-precision integer'' '''loop''' { '''var''' ''int'' sumOfFactors := 0 '''for''' factor '''from''' 1 '''to''' n-1 '''if''' factor is a factor of n sumOfFactors := sumOfFactors + factor if sumOfFactors = n then '''exit loop''' n := n + 2 } '''return''' This program searches until it finds an odd [[perfect number]], then halts. It halts if and only if such a [[number]] exists, which is a major open question in [[mathematics]]. So, after centuries of work, [[mathematician]]s have yet to discover whether a simple, ten-line program halts. This makes it difficult to see how humans could solve the halting problem. More generally, it's usually easy to see how to write a simple brute-force search program that looks for counterexamples to any particular conjecture in number theory; if the program finds a counterexample, it stops and prints out the counterexample, and otherwise it keeps searching forever. For example, consider the famous (and still unsolved) [[twin prime conjecture]]. This asks whether there are arbitrarily large prime numbers ''p'' and ''q'' with ''p''+2 = ''q''. Now consider the following program, which accepts an input ''N'': '''function''' findTwinPrimeAbove(''int'' N) ''int'' p := N '''loop''' '''if''' p is prime '''and''' p + 2 is prime '''return''' '''else''' p := p + 1 This program searches for twin primes ''p'' and ''p''+2 both at least as large as ''N''. If there are arbitrarily large twin primes, it will halt for all possible inputs. But if there is a pair of twin primes ''P'' and ''P''+2 larger than all other twin primes, then the program will never halt if it is given an input ''N'' larger than ''P''. Thus if we could answer the question of whether this program halts on all inputs, we would have the long-sought answer to the twin prime conjecture. It's similarly straightforward to write programs which halt depending on the truth or falsehood for many other conjectures of [[number theory]]. Because of this, one might say that the halting theorem itself is unsurprising. If there were a mechanical way to decide whether arbitrary programs would halt, then many apparently difficult mathematical problems would succumb to it. A counterargument to this, however, is that even if the halting problem were decidable over Turing machines, as it is over physical computers and other LBAs, it might still be infeasible in practice because it takes too much time or memory to execute. For example, there are some very large upper bounds on numbers with certain properties in number theory, but it's not feasible to check all values below this bound in a naïve way with a computer &amp;mdash; they can't even hold some of these numbers in memory. ==Recognizing partial solutions== There are many programs that either return a correct answer to the halting problem or do not return an answer at all. If it were possible to decide whether a program gives only correct answers, one might hope to collect a large number of such programs and run them in parallel, in the hope of being able to determine whether many programs halt. Unfortunately, recognizing such partial halting solvers (PHS) is just as hard as the halting problem itself. Suppose someone claims that program PHSR is a partial halting solver recognizer. Construct a program H: input a program P X := &quot;input Q. '''if''' Q = P output &quot;halts&quot; '''else''' loop forever&quot; run PHSR with X as input If PHSR recognizes the constructed program X as a partial halting solver, that means that P, the only input for which X produces a result, halts. If PHSR fails to recognize X, then it must be because P does not halt. Therefore H can decide whether an arbitrary program P halts; it solves the halting problem. Since this is impossible, the program PHSR could not have been a partial halting solver recognizer as claimed. Therefore no program can be a partial halting solver recognizer. Another example, ''H&lt;sub&gt;T&lt;/sub&gt;'', of a [[Turing machine]] which gives correct answers only for ''some'' instances of the halting problem can be described by the requirements that, if ''H&lt;sub&gt;T&lt;/sub&gt;'' is started scanning a field which carries the first of a finite string of ''a'' consecutive &quot;1&quot;s, followed by one field with symbol &quot;0&quot; (i.&amp;nbsp;e. a blank field), and followed in turn by a finite string of ''i'' consecutive &quot;1&quot;s, on an otherwise blank tape, then * ''H&lt;sub&gt;T&lt;/sub&gt;'' halts for any such starting state, i.&amp;nbsp;e. for any input of finite positive integers ''a'' and ''i''; * ''H&lt;sub&gt;T&lt;/sub&gt;'' halts on a completely ''blank'' tape if and only if the Turing machine represented by ''a'' does not halt when given the starting state and input represented by ''i''; and * ''H&lt;sub&gt;T&lt;/sub&gt;'' halts on a ''nonblank'' tape, scanning an appropriate field (which however does not necessarily carry the symbol &quot;1&quot;) if and only if the Turing machine represented by ''a'' does halt when given the starting state and input represented by ''i''. In this case, the final state in which ''H&lt;sub&gt;T&lt;/sub&gt;'' halted (contents of the tape, and field being scanned) shall be equal to some particular intermediate state which the Turing machine represented by ''a'' attains when given the starting state and input represented by ''i''; or, if all those intermediate states (including the starting state represented by ''i'') leave the tape blank, then the final state in which ''H&lt;sub&gt;T&lt;/sub&gt;'' halted shall be scanning a &quot;1&quot; on an otherwise blank tape. While its existence has not been refuted (essentially: because there's no Turing machine which would halt ''only'' if started on a blank tape), such a Turing machine ''H&lt;sub&gt;T&lt;/sub&gt;'' would solve the halting problem only ''partially'' either (because it doesn't necessarily scan the symbol &quot;1&quot; in the final state, if the Turing machine represented by ''a'' does halt when given the starting state and input represented by ''i'', as explicit statements of the halting problem for Turing machines may require). ==History of the halting problem== In the following: U refers to the source &quot;Undecidable&quot; 1900 -- [[Hilbert]] poses his &quot;23 questions&quot; cf [[Hilbert problems]] at the Second International Congress of Mathematicians in Paris, &quot;Of these, the second was that of proving the consistency of the 'Peano axioms' on which, as he had shown, the rigour of mathematics depended&quot; (Hodges p.83, commentary in U p. 108; also Penrose p. 34; also his address ''The Future of Mathematics'' reprinted in Reid p. 74ff and his famous pronouncement: &quot;This conviction of the solvability of every mathematical problem is a powerful incentive to the worker. We hear within us the perpetual call: There is the problem. Seek its solution. You can find it by pure reason, for in mathematics, there is no ''ignorabimus''&quot;(ibid p. 81) 1928 -- [[Hilbert]] recasts his 'Second Problem' [verification required! cf Penrose p.34 states this is a recast of his 10th problem but Reid does not agree] at the Bologna International Congress (cf Reid pp.188-189). &quot;Hilbert now added to the problem of consistency another problem, that of the completeness of the formal system&quot; (p. 189 Reid). Hodges claims he posed three questions: i.e. #1: Was mathematics ''complete''? #2: Was mathematics ''consistent''? #3: Was mathematics ''decidable''? (Hodges p. 91). The third question is known as the ''[[Entscheidungsproblem]]'' (Decision Problem) (Hodges p.91, Penrose p.34) 1930 -- Hilbert retires, delivers his &quot;Farewell to Teaching&quot; (Reid p. 190) and reaffirms his &quot;Positivist belief&quot; (Hodges p. 92) that &quot;...there is no such thing as an unsolvable problem.&quot; (Hilbert quoted in Hodges p.92). &quot;...he denied again, at the end of his career, the &quot;foolish ignorabimus&quot; of du Bois-Reymond and his followers. At almost the same time [still needs verification] [[Gödel]] announces his proof as an answer to the first two of Hilbert's 1928 questions [cf Reid p. 198]. Gödel's paper is received on [[17 November]] (U p
ngland]] states, known as the [[Yankee Network]]. Armstrong had begun on a journey to convince America that FM radio was superior to AM, and, he hoped, to collect patent royalties on every radio sold with FM technology. However, the FM radio which [[disruptive technology|threatened to destroy]] the AM radio proved to be too revolutionary for the [[RCA]] (Radio Corporation of America), Armstrong's then employer. RCA begun [[lobby]] for law change that would prevent the FM radios from becoming dominant. By June of 1945, the RCA had pushed the FCC hard on the allocation of electromagnetic frequencies for the fledgling television industry. Although they denied wrongdoing, [[David Sarnoff]] and RCA managed to get the FCC to move the FM radio spectrum from (42 to 49 MHz), to (88 to 108 MHz), while getting new television channels allocated in the 40-megahertz range. This single FCC action rendered all Armstrong-era FM sets useless overnight, and protected RCA's AM-radio stronghold. Armstrong's radio network did not survive the frequency shift up into the high frequencies; most experts believe that FM technology was set back decades by the FCC decision. This change was strongly supported by [[AT&amp;T]], because loss of FM relaying stations forced radio stations to buy wired links from AT&amp;T. Furthermore, RCA also claimed invention of FM radio and won its own patent on the technology. A patent fight between RCA and Armstrong ensued. RCA's momentous victory in the courts left Armstrong unable to claim royalties on any FM radios sold in the United States. The undermining of Yankee Network and Patent Court battle brought ruin to Armstrong, by then, almost penniless and emotionally distraught. Driven to despair over the FM debacle, Armstrong jumped to his death from the thirteenth floor window of his New York City flat on [[31 January]] [[1954]]. His widow Marion renewed the patent fight against RCA and finally prevailed in 1967. It took decades following Armstrong's death for FM radio to meet and surpass the saturation of the AM band, and longer still for FM radio to become profitable for broadcasters. However, Armstrong's invention, and his genius, were ultimately proven in the marketplace by today's broad acceptance of the FM band. In [[1917]] Armstrong was the first recipient of the [[IRE]]'s, now [[IEEE]], Medal of Honor. He received in 1942 the [[AIEE]]s [[Edison Medal]] &quot;For distinguished contributions to the art of electric communication, notably the regenerative circuit, the superheterodyne, and frequency modulation&quot;. Recently, in [[1980]], he was inducted into the [[National Inventors Hall of Fame]]. ==See also== [[Armstrong Tower]] ==External links== {{wikiquote}} * Katzdorn, Mike, &quot;''[http://users.erols.com/oldradio/ Edwin H. Armstrong]''&quot; * Lewis, Tom, ''Empire of the Air, The men who made radio'', isbn 0-06-098119-9 HarperPerennial, 1993. * Halper, Donna, &quot;''[http://www.oldradio.com/archives/people/armstrong.htm Major Edwin Howard Armstrong]''&quot; (Barry Mishkind website) * Ammon, Richard T., &quot;''[http://www.superhets.info The Rolls Royce Of Reception] : Super Heterodynes - 1918 to 1930''&quot;. * IEEE History Center's [http://www.ieee.org/organizations/history_center/legacies/armstrong.html Edwin H. Armstrong] : Excerpt from &quot;The Legacy of Edwin Howard Armstrong,&quot; by J. E. Brittain Proceedings of the IEEE, vol. 79, no. 2, February 1991 * Lessig, Larry. &quot;Free Culture: How Big Media Uses Technology and the Law to Lock Down Culture and Control Creativity.&quot; New York: Penguin Press. 2004. [http://www.free-culture.cc/freeculture.pdf pdf of the book] pp. 3-6. * Hong, Sungook, &quot;''[http://www.ieee.org/organizations/history_center/Che2004/Hong.pdf A History of the Regeneration Circuit: From Invention to Patent Litigation]''&quot; University, Seoul, Korea (PDF) * [http://antiqueradios.com/superhet/ Who Invented the Superhetrodyne?] The history of the invention of the superhetrodyne receiver and related patent disputes ==References== * [[Lawrence Lessing]], ''Man of High fidelity: Edwin Howard Armstrong'', Philadelphia, J.B. Lipncott Company, 1956 '''Patent''' * {{US patent|1113149}} : &quot;Wireless receiving system&quot; * {{US patent|1342885}} : &quot;Method of receiving high frequency oscillation&quot; * {{US patent|1424065}} : &quot;Signalling system&quot; * {{US patent|1941066}} : &quot;Radio signalling system&quot; [[Category:1890 births|Armstrong, Edwin]] [[Category:1954 deaths|Armstrong, Edwin]] [[Category:American inventors|Armstrong, Edwin]] [[Category:Broadcasting|Armstrong, Edwin]] [[Category:Columbia alumni|Armstrong, Edwin]] [[Category:Electrical engineers|Armstrong, Edwin]] [[Category:Presbyterians|Armstrong, Edwin]] [[Category:Suicides|Armstrong, Edwin]] [[Category:Yonkersites|Armstrong, Edwin]] [[de:Edwin Howard Armstrong]] [[es:Edwin Armstrong]] [[gl:Edwin Armstrong]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Emulators</title> <id>10316</id> <revision> <id>15908136</id> <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>Conversion script</ip> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Automated conversion</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Emulator]] </text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Ertegun brothers</title> <id>10317</id> <revision> <id>41342614</id> <timestamp>2006-02-26T18:49:59Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Lambiam</username> <id>745100</id> </contributor> <comment>more awards and such</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Ertegun brothers''', '''Ahmet Ertegun''' (born [[1923]]) and '''Nesuhi Ertegun''' ([[1917]]&amp;ndash;[[1989]]), were executives of [[Atlantic Records]]. They also co-founded the [[New York Cosmos]] [[soccer]] team of the [[North American Soccer League]]. Born in [[Istanbul]], [[Turkey]], they moved to [[Washington, DC]] with their father [[M. Munir Ertegun]], who was then the [[Turkey|Turkish]] [[Ambassador (diplomacy)|Ambassador]] to the [[United States]]. Ahmet Ertegun, producer [[Tom Dowd]], [[Herb Abramson]] and others created [[Atlantic Records]] in the late [[1940s]] as an independent record company that became a [[jazz]] and [[pop music|pop]] empire in the [[1960s]]. Their first success came in [[rhythm and blues]], with such artists as [[Joe Turner]], [[Ruth Brown]], [[The Clovers]], [[The Drifters]], and [[Ray Charles]]. Regarding [[Ray Charles]], Ahmet Ertegun is quoted as saying &quot;First time I saw Ray I told him, 'You are the fucking end, you know.'&quot; They brought a jazz sensibility (and many jazz artists) into R&amp;B and participated in turning the genre from a minority interest into a major part of the musical scene. Ahmet Ertegun wrote a number of classic [[blues]] songs, including &quot;Chains of Love&quot; and &quot;Sweet Sixteen&quot; under the [[pseudonym]] &quot;A. Nugetre&quot; (Ertegun backwards), as well as Ray Charles' first hit &quot;Mess Around&quot;. Nesuhi was persuaded to join Atlantic in [[1955]] and became vice-president in charge of the jazz and [[grammophone record|LP]] department. During the 1960s, Ahmet heard [[Led Zeppelin]]'s [[Demo (music)|demo]] and knew they would be a smash hit after hearing the first few songs. He quickly signed them. He also convinced [[Crosby, Stills and Nash]] to allow [[Neil Young]] to join them on one of their tours, thereby founding [[Crosby, Stills, Nash and Young]]. Ahmet also used his considerable personal skills in negotiations with major stars, such as when [[The Rolling Stones]] were shopping for a record company to distribute their independent [[Rolling Stones Records]] label. Ertegun personally conducted the negotiations with [[Mick Jagger]], successfully completing the deal between The Stones and Atlantic, when other labels had actually offered the band more money. Many independent record executives, like the Erteguns, were from immigrant backgrounds, including the [[Bihari brothers]] and the [[Chess Records|Chess brothers]]. The Ertegun's primary musical interest was [[Jazz]]. Nesuhi produced records for artists like [[John Coltrane]], [[Charles Mingus]], [[Ornette Coleman]] and [[Hank Crawford]]. Both brothers promoted jazz concerts, founded jazz record companies, and organized jazz bands. Nevertheless, they were also open to more modern popular styles and worked with such famous artists as [[Sonny Bono|Sonny]] and [[Cher (entertainer)|Cher]]. In [[1971]], Nesuhi founded WEA International, now [[Warner Music]] International. In [[1987]], Ahmet was inducted to the [[Rock &amp; Roll Hall of Fame]], of which he himself was the founder. Nesuhi Ertegun was inducted there [[posthumous]]ly four years later in [[1991]]. Ahmet received an [[honorary doctorate]] in music from the [[Berklee College of Music]] in Boston in 1991, and was awarded the [[Grammy Trustees Award]] for his lifetime achievements in [[1993]]; Nesuhi was awarded the same posthumously two years later in [[1995]]. The [[United States Library of Congress]] honored Ertegun as a &quot;Living Legend&quot; in 2000. The [[Nesuhi Ertegun Jazz Hall of Fame]] at [[Jazz at Lincoln Center]] was dedicated to Nesuhi in 2004. In [[2005]], the [[Recording Academy]] presented Ahmet with the first &quot;President's Merit Award Salute To Industry Icons&quot;. For their contributions to the sport of soccer, both were inducted into the [[National Soccer Hall of Fame]] in 2003. In ''[[Ray (film)|Ray]]'', the [[biopic]] of [[Ray Charles]], Ahmet Ertegun is portrayed by [[Curtis Armstrong]]. In ''[[Beyond the Sea (film)|Beyond the Sea]]'', the biopic about [[Bobby Darin]], Ahmet is played by [[Tayfun Bademsoy]]. Ahmet Ertegun is still employed at Atlantic Records as Founding Chairman. ==See also== * [[Turkish music]] [[Category:1917 births|Ertegun, Nesuhi]] [[Category:1923 births|Ert
dossiers of files were taken and the information passed to [[news]] agencies. Within the year, Director [[J. Edgar Hoover|Hoover]] declared that the centralized COINTELPRO was over, and that all future counterintelligence operations would be handled on a case-by-case basis. Further documents were revealed in the course of separate lawsuits filed against the FBI by NBC correspondent Carl Stern, the SWP, and a number of other groups. A major investigation was launched in 1976 by the Select Committee to Study Governmental Operations with Respect to Intelligence Activities of the United States Senate, commonly referred to as the &quot;[[Church Committee]]&quot; for its chairman, Senator [[Frank Church]] of [[Idaho]]. However, millions of pages of documents remain unreleased, and many released documents are entirely censored. In the Final Report of the Select Committee COINTELPRO was castigated in no uncertain terms: :&quot;Many of the techniques used would be intolerable in a democratic society even if all of the targets had been involved in violent activity, but COINTELPRO went far beyond that...the Bureau conducted a sophisticated vigilante operation aimed squarely at preventing the exercise of First Amendment rights of speech and association, on the theory that preventing the growth of dangerous groups and the propogation of dangerous ideas would protect the national security and deter violence.&quot;{{ref|church-castigation}} The Church Committee documented a history of the FBI being used for purposes of [[political repression]] as far back as [[World War I]], through the [[1920s]], when they were charged with rounding up &quot;anarchists and revolutionaries&quot; for deportation, and then building from [[1936]] through [[1976]]. The FBI claims that it no longer undertakes COINTELPRO or COINTELPRO-like operations. However, critics claim that agency programs in the spirit of COINTELPRO target groups like the [[Committee in Solidarity with the People of El Salvador]], [[Earth First!]] and the [[Anti-Globalization Movement]]. ==Methods== According to Brian Glick, COINTELPRO used a broad array of methods, including: # Infiltration: Agents and informers did not merely spy on political activists. Their main purpose was to discredit and disrupt. Their very presence served to undermine trust and scare off potential supporters. The FBI and police exploited this fear to smear genuine activists as agents.{{ref|infiltration}} # Psychological warfare from the outside: The FBI and police used myriad other &quot;dirty tricks&quot; to undermine these movements. They planted false media stories and published bogus leaflets and other publications in the name of targeted groups. They forged correspondence, sent anonymous letters, and made anonymous telephone calls. They spread misinformation about meetings and events, set up pseudo movement groups run by government agents, and manipulated or strong-armed parents, employers, landlords, school officials and others to cause trouble for activists.{{ref|psychological-warfare}} # Harassment through the legal system: The FBI and police abused the legal system to harass dissidents and make them appear to be criminals. Officers of the law gave perjured testimony and presented fabricated evidence as a pretext for false arrests and wrongful imprisonment. They discriminatorily enforced tax laws and other government regulations and used conspicuous surveillance, &quot;investigative&quot; interviews, and grand jury subpoenas in an effort to intimidate activists and silence their supporters. # Break-ins: The FBI conducted &quot;black bag&quot; jobs against the targeted groups and their members.{{ref|black-bag}} # Extralegal force and violence: The FBI instigated violence, and its paid informants carried out assaults, beatings, and, in many cases, murders.{{ref|extralegal-force-and-violence}} (Glick, ''War at Home''). Supporters of the FBI argue that the Bureau was convinced that there was such a threat of domestic subversion posed by radical groups that extraordinary efforts were required to forestall violence and revolutionary insurgency. Critics counter that this perception was flawed, and, in the words of Glick, in the case of &quot;radical Black and Puerto Rican activists (and later Native Americans), these attacks-including political assassinations-were so extensive, vicious, and calculated that they can accurately be termed a form of official &quot;terrorism.&quot; (Glick, ''War at Home''). Hoover was willing to use false claims to attack his political enemies. In one memo he wrote: &quot;Purpose of counterintelligence action is to disrupt [the Black Panther Party] and it is immaterial whether facts exist to substantiate the charge.&quot; In 1969 the FBI special agent in San Francisco wrote Hoover that his investigation of the Black Panther Party revealed that in his city, at least, the Black nationalists were primarily feeding breakfast to children. Hoover fired back a memo implying the career ambitions of the agent were directly related to his supplying evidence to support Hoover's view that the BPP was &quot;a violence prone organization seeking to overthrow the Government by revolutionary means&quot;. On Memorial Day, 1970, during the University of California Berkeley's explosive political response to the bombing of Cambodia, the Jimi Hendrix Experienced played at the Berkeley Community Center. As a condition of safe-passage for the event, the Community-Relations Consultant retained to &quot;Cool-Out&quot; the locals introduced Jimi Hendrix to the wives of the leaders of the Black Panther Party: Artie Seal and Pat Hilliard. The meeting was restricted to the principals and afterward the announcement was made that Jimi Hendrix would perform a [[benefit concert]] for the Panthers {Black &amp; White} at Oakland Colosseum during September, 1970. It was not to be. COINTELPRO operatives in London intercepted this fusion of the Black Political Revolution and the White Cultural Revolution. Jimi Played Berkeley, but not Oakland. ==Further reading== ===Books=== * [[Ward Churchill|Churchill, Ward]], and Jim Vander Wall. '''The Cointelpro Papers: Documents from the FBI's Secret Wars Against Dissent in the United States'''. 467 pages. South End Press; 2nd edition ([[July 1]] [[2002]]). ISBN 0896086488. * Churchill, Ward, and Jim Vander Wall. '''Agents of Repression: The FBI's Secret Wars Against the Black Panther Party and the American Indian Movement'''. 509 pages. South End Press; 2nd edition ([[July 1]] [[2002]]). ISBN 0896086461. * Carson, Clayborne and David Gallen, editors. '''Malcolm X: The FBI File'''. 514 pages. Carroll &amp; Graf Publishers. [[November 1]] [[1991]]. ISBN 0881847585. * Cunningham, David. '''There’s Something Happening Here: The New Left, The Klan, and FBI Counterintelligence'''. 382 pages. University of California Press ([[March 10]] [[2004]]). ISBN 0520239970. * '''Cointelpro''', ed. by Cathy Perkus. 190 pages. New York: Vintage, 1976 * Davis, James Kirkpatrick. '''Assault on the Left''', chapters 1 and 8. 240 pages. Praeger Trade ([[April 30]] [[1997]]). ISBN 0275954552. * Garrow, David. '''The FBI and Martin Luther King, Jr.'''. Viking Pr; Reprint edition. 320 pages. [[February 1]] [[1983]]. ISBN 0140064869420. Yale University Press, Revised &amp; Expanded edition. 420 pages. [[August 1]] [[2006]]. ISBN 0300087314. * Glick, Brian. '''War at Home: Covert Action Against U.S. Activists and What We Can Do About It'''. Boston: South End Press, 1989. 92 pages. South End Press; 1st ed edition ([[March 1]] [[1989]]). ISBN 0896083497. *Halperin, [[Morton]]; Berman, Jerry; Borosage Robert; Marwick, Christine. '''The Lawless State: The Crimes Of The U.S. Intelligence Agencies''' (279 pages, copyright 1976). ISBN 0140043861. * Blacstock, Nelson. '''Cointelpro: The FBI's Secret War on Political Freedom''' (203 pages, copyright (1975), 1988). Pathfinder Press (Third Edition with Introduction by Noam Chomsky) ISBN 0873488776 ===U.S. Government reports=== * U.S. Congress. House. Committee on Internal Security. '''Hearings on Domestic Intelligence Operations for Internal Security Purposes'''. 93rd Cong., 2d sess, 1974. * U.S. Congress. House. Select Committee on Intelligence. '''Hearings on Domestic Intelligence Programs'''. 94th Cong., 1st sess, 1975. * U.S. Congress. Senate. '''Committee on Government Operations. Permanent Subcommittee on Investigations. Hearings on Riots, Civil and Criminal Disorders'''. 90th Cong., 1st sess. - 91st Cong. , 2d sess, 1967-1970. * U.S. Congress. Senate. Select Committee to Study Governmental Operations with Respect to Intelligence Activities. '''Hearings &amp;mdash; The National Security Agency and Fourth Amendment Rights. Vol. 6'''. 94th Cong., 1st sess, 1975. * U.S. Congress. Senate. Select Committee to Study Governmental Operations with Respect to Intelligence Activities. '''Hearings &amp;mdash; Federal Bureau of Investigation. Vol. 6'''. 94th Cong., 1st sess, 1975. * U.S. Congress. Senate. Select Committee to Study Governmental Operations with Respect to Intelligence Activities. '''Final Report &amp;mdash; Book II, Intelligence Activities and the Rights of Americans'''. 94th Cong., 2d sess, 1976. * U.S. Congress. Senate. Select Committee to Study Governmental Operations with Respect to Intelligence Activities. '''Final Report &amp;mdash; Book III , Supplementary Detailed Staff Reports on Intelligence Activities and the Rights of Americans'''. 94th Cong., 2d sess, 1976. ==See also== * [[Fred Hampton]] * [[Viola Liuzzo]] * [[H. Bruce Franklin]] * [[THERMCON]] * [[Operation Mockingbird]] * [[Weather Underground]] * [[Morris Starsky]] * Song &quot;Wake Up&quot; by [[Rage Against The Machine]] * Song &quot;No Justice, No Peace&quot; by [[Aus-Rotten]] * Song &quot;Your Next Bold Move&quot; by [[Ani Difranco]] * Song &quot;With Friends Like These Who the Fuck Needs Cointelpro&quot; by [[Propagandhi]] ==Endnotes== # {{note
gh school graduates, the Alaska Scholars Program. [[Domestic abuse]] and other violent crimes are also at notoriously high levels in the state; this is in part linked to alcohol abuse. ==Notable Alaskans== The [[National Statuary Hall]] of the United States of America is part of the [[United States Capitol|Capitol]] in [[Washington, D.C.]] Each state has selected one or two distinguished citizens and provided statues. Alaska's are of its first two senators: * [[Bob Bartlett|Edward Lewis &quot;Bob&quot; Bartlett]] (1904&amp;ndash;1968) was the territorial delegate to the US Congress from 1944 to 1958, and was elected as the first senior [[United States Senate|U.S. Senator]] in 1958 and re-elected in 1964. There are streets, buildings, and even the first state ferry, named for him. * [[Ernest Gruening]] (1886&amp;ndash;1974) was appointed Governor of the [[Alaska Territory|Territory of Alaska]] in 1939, and served in that position for fourteen years. He was elected to the United States Senate in 1958 and re-elected in 1962. * [[Jay Hammond]] (1922&amp;ndash;2005) was Governor during the building of the [[Alaska Pipeline]] and established the [[Alaska Permanent Fund]], providing Alaskans with essentially free money. He is regarded as somewhat of a hero because of this. He was also governor during passage of the [[Alaska National Interest Lands Conservation Act]] and effectively served to moderate associated issues within the state among disparate interest groups ranging from conservationists to natives to pro-development interests. * [[Fran Ulmer]] was the first woman elected to statewide office&amp;mdash;she became Lieutenant Governor in 1994. * [[George Sharrock]] (1910&amp;ndash;2005) moved to the territory before statehood, eventually elected as the mayor of Anchorage and served during the [[Good Friday Earthquake]] in March 1964. This was the most devastating earthquake to hit Alaska and it sunk beach property, damaged roads and destroyed buildings all over the south central area. Sharrock, sometimes called the &quot;earthquake mayor,&quot; led the city's rebuilding effort over six months. ==Important cities and towns== Alaska's most populous city is [[Anchorage, Alaska|Anchorage]], home of 260,283 people, 225,744 of whom live in the urbanized area. It ranks third in the [[List of U.S. cities by area]], behind two other Alaskan cities. Sitka ranks as America's largest city by area, followed closely by Juneau. [[image:SitkaNOAA.jpg|thumb|253px|[[Sitka, Alaska|Sitka Town]]]] {| |valign=&quot;top&quot;| '''Cities of 100,000 or more people''' *[[Anchorage, Alaska|Anchorage]] '''Towns of 10,000-100,000 people''' *[[Fairbanks, Alaska|Fairbanks]] *[[Juneau, Alaska|Juneau]] |} {| |valign=&quot;top&quot;| '''Towns of fewer than 10,000 people''' *[[Wasilla, Alaska|Wasilla]] *[[Kodiak, Alaska|Kodiak]] *[[Ketchikan, Alaska|Ketchikan]] *[[Ester, Alaska|Ester]] *[[Sitka, Alaska|Sitka]] *[[Palmer, Alaska|Palmer]] *[[Cordova, Alaska|Cordova]] |width=&quot;50&quot;|&amp;nbsp; |valign=&quot;top&quot;| *[[Bethel, Alaska|Bethel]] *[[Barrow, Alaska|Barrow]] *[[Kenai, Alaska|Kenai]] *[[Soldotna, Alaska|Soldotna]] *[[Unalaska, Alaska|Unalaska]] *[[Kotzebue, Alaska|Kotzebue]] *[[Nome, Alaska|Nome]] *[[North Pole, Alaska|North Pole]] *[[Houston, Alaska|Houston]] |width=&quot;50&quot;|&amp;nbsp; |valign=&quot;top&quot;| *[[Petersburg, Alaska|Petersburg]] *[[Homer, Alaska|Homer]] *[[Dillingham, Alaska|Dillingham]] *[[Valdez, Alaska|Valdez]] *[[Seward, Alaska|Seward]] *[[Delta Junction, Alaska|Delta Junction]] *[[Glennallen, Alaska|Glennallen]] *[[Circle, Alaska |Circle]] *[[Unalakleet, Alaska|Unalakleet]] |} ===25 richest places in Alaska=== Ranked by [[per capita income]]: {| |valign=&quot;top&quot;| 1. [[Halibut Cove, Alaska]] $89,895 2. [[Chicken, Alaska]] $65,400 3. [[Edna Bay, Alaska]] $58,967 4. [[Sunrise, Alaska]] $56,000 5. [[Lowell Point, Alaska]] $45,790 6. [[Petersville, Alaska]] $43,200 7. [[Coldfoot, Alaska]] $42,620 8. [[Port Clarence, Alaska]] $35,286 9. [[Hobart Bay, Alaska]] $34,900 |width=&quot;50&quot;|&amp;nbsp; |valign=&quot;top&quot;| 10. [[Red Dog Mine, Alaska]] $34,348 11. [[Adak, Alaska]] $31,747 12. [[Meyers Chuck, Alaska]] $31,660 13. [[Pelican, Alaska]] $29,347 14. [[Ester, Alaska]] $29,155 15. [[Chignik Lagoon, Alaska]] $28,941 16. [[Four Mile Road, Alaska]] $28,465 17. [[Healy, Alaska]] $28,225 18. [[Moose Pass, Alaska]] $28,147 |width=&quot;50&quot;|&amp;nbsp; |valign=&quot;top&quot;| 19. [[Cube Cove, Alaska]] $27,920 20. [[Womens Bay, Alaska]] $27,746 21. [[Skagway, Alaska]] $27,700 22. [[Nelson Lagoon, Alaska]] $27,596 23. [[Valdez, Alaska]] $27,341 24. [[McKinley Park, Alaska]] $27,255 25. [[Attu Station, Alaska]] $26,964 |} See also: ''[[Richest Places in Alaska]]'' ==Colleges and universities== *[[University of Alaska System]] **[[University of Alaska Anchorage]] **[[University of Alaska Fairbanks]] **[[University of Alaska Southeast]] *[[Alaska Bible College]] *[[Alaska Pacific University]] *[[Charter College (Anchorage, Alaska)|Charter College]] *[[Ilisagvik College]] *[[Sheldon Jackson College]] ==External links== {{sisterlinks|Alaska}} *{{wikicities|Alaska|Alaska}} *[http://www.alaska.gov/ State of Alaska website] *[http://quickfacts.census.gov/qfd/states/02000.html US Census Bureau] *[http://www.alaska.com/ Alaska.com Information] *[http://www.travelalaska.com/ Alaska Travel Industry Association] *[http://www.usnewspapers.org/state/alaska Alaska Newspapers] ===Political parties=== *[http://www.akrepublicans.org/ Alaska Republican Party] *[http://www.akdemocrats.org/ Alaska Democratic Party] *[http://www.republicanmoderates.com/ Alaska Republican Moderate Party] *[http://www.akip.org/ Alaskan Independence Party] *[http://www.ak.lp.org/ Alaska Libertarian Party] *[http://www.alaska.greens.org/ Alaska Green Party] {{Alaska}} {{United_States}} [[Category:Alaska|*]] [[Category:Exclaves]] [[Category:Russian people in the United States]] [[Category:States of the United States]] [[Category:1959 establishments]] {{link FA|hu}} [[ar:ألاسكا]] [[ast:Alaska]] [[bg:Аляска]] [[zh-min-nan:Alaska]] [[bs:Aljaska]] [[ca:Alaska]] [[cs:Aljaška]] [[cy:Alaska]] [[da:Alaska]] [[de:Alaska]] [[et:Alaska]] [[es:Alaska]] [[eo:Alasko]] [[eu:Alaska]] [[fa:آلاسکا]] [[fr:Alaska]] [[ga:Alasca]] [[gl:Alasca - Alaska]] [[ko:알래스카 주]] [[hr:Aljaska]] [[io:Alaska]] [[ilo:Alaska]] [[id:Alaska]] [[iu:ᐊᓛᓯᑲ]] [[is:Alaska]] [[it:Alaska]] [[he:אלסקה]] [[ka:ალასკა (შტატი)]] [[ks:अलास्‍का]] [[kw:Alaska]] [[la:Alasca]] [[lv:Aļaska]] [[lt:Aliaska]] [[hu:Alaszka]] [[mk:Аљаска]] [[ms:Alaska]] [[nl:Alaska]] [[ja:アラスカ州]] [[no:Alaska]] [[nn:Alaska]] [[os:Аляскæ]] [[pl:Alaska]] [[pt:Alasca]] [[ro:Alaska]] [[ru:Аляска]] [[sa:अलास्‍का]] [[sq:Alaska]] [[simple:Alaska]] [[sk:Aljaška]] [[sl:Aljaska]] [[sr:Аљаска]] [[fi:Alaska]] [[sv:Alaska]] [[th:มลรัฐอะแลสกา]] [[vi:Alaska]] [[tr:Alaska]] [[uk:Аляска]] [[zh:阿拉斯加州]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Architecture (disambiguation)</title> <id>625</id> <revision> <id>33430024</id> <timestamp>2006-01-01T00:20:41Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Trevor macinnis</username> <id>73333</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>[[WP:AWB|AWB Assisted]] avoid redirect</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">In modern usage, architecture is the [[art]] of creating an actual, implied or apparent plan of any complex [[object]] or [[system]]. The term can be used to connote the ''implied architecture'' of abstract things such as [[music]] or [[mathematics]], the apparent architecture of natural things, such as [[geology|geological]] formations or the [[structural biology|structure of biological cells]], or explicitly ''planned architectures'' of human-made things such as [[Computer software|software]], [[computers]], [[enterprise]]s, and [[database]]s, in addition to buildings. In every usage, an architecture may be seen as a ''subjective [[Map (mathematics)|mapping]]'' from a human perspective (that of the 'user' in the case of abstract or physical artifacts) to the [[Element (mathematics)|elements]] or [[components]] of some kind of [[structure]] or system, which preserves the relationships among the elements/components. '''Architecture''' may refer to: * [[Architecture|Architecture (built environment)]], the art and science of designing habitations, buildings, and building complexes; classical architecture. * [[Architectural history]] studies the evolution and history of (built) architectures across the world through a consideration of various influences- [[artistic]], [[cultural]], [[political]], [[economic]], and [[technological]]. * [[Architecture (other)]], a representation of an arbitrary abstract, natural, or man-made structure of two or more interacting parts (e.g., architecture of mathematics, architecture of language, cytoarchitecture, cellular architecture, naval architecture, skelletal architecture, battlefield architecture). All [[systems]] can be said to have an architecture. * [[Biological architectures]], the ''apparent'' architecture of biological structures. See [[cytoarchitecture]], [[structural biology]], [[cell (biology)|cell architecture]] * [[Landscape architecture]], the design of man-made land constructs * [[Systems architecture]], the representation of an engineered (or To Be Engineered) system, and the process and discipline for effectively implementing the design(s) for such a system. Such a system may consist of information and/or hardware and/or software. * [[Computer architecture]], the systems architecture of a computer. * [[Software architecture]], the systems architecture of a software system. * [[Enterprise architecture]], a systems architecture, or framework, for aligning an organization's structure/ processes/ information/ operations/ projects with the organization's overall strategy * [[Information architecture]], a systems architecture for structuring a know
am Main|Johann Wolfgang Goethe-Universität]]'', many museums, most of them lined up along the [[Main]] river on the ''[[Museumsufer]]'' (museum embankment), and a large botanical garden, the ''[[Palmengarten]]''. Frankfurt's second major university, [[Business School of Finance and Management]], focuses on finance. The best-known museums are ''das Städelsche Kunstinstitut und Städtische Galerie'', called ''[[Städel]]'', and the ''[[Senckenberg Museum|Senckenberg Natural History Museum]]''. Others include the ''[[Museum for Modern Art (Frankfurt)|Museum for Modern Art]]'', the [[Schirn Art Gallery]], museums for architecture, movies, communications and the Jewish Museum / Museum Judengasse. During [[World War II]] Frankfurt was bombed heavily, and its medieval city centre was destroyed. The city recovered relatively quickly after the war, and its modern shape was formed. ==History== [[Image:Panorama Frankfurt vom Maintower.jpg|800px|panorama over Frankfurt (Hessen) the banking city of Germany]] :''See also the specific page [[History of Frankfurt am Main]]'' In the area of the ''Römer'', Roman settlements were established, probably in the first century; some artifacts from that era are found to this day. The city district ''Bonames'' has a name probably dating back to Roman times - it is thought to be derived from ''bona me(n)sa''. ''Nida'' (Heddernheim) was also a Roman civitas capital. The name of Frankfurt on the [[Main]] is derived from the ''Franconofurt'' of the Germanic tribe of the [[Franks]]; ''Furt'' ([[cf.]] [[English language|English]] ''[[ford (river)|ford]]'') denotes a low point passage across a stream or river. [[Alemanni]] and Franks lived there and by [[794]] [[Charlemagne]] presided over an imperial assembly and church synod, at which ''Franconofurd'' (-furt -vurd) is first mentioned. However, since ''frank'' is also an old German word for ''frei'' (&quot;free&quot;), Frankfurt was a &quot;free ford,&quot; an opportunity to cross the river [[Main]] without paying a toll. In the [[Holy Roman Empire]], Frankfurt was one of the most important cities. From [[855]] the [[List of German Kings and Emperors|German kings and emperors]] were elected in Frankfurt and crowned in [[Aachen]]. From [[1562]] the kings/emperors were also crowned in Frankfurt, [[Maximilian II, Holy Roman Emperor|Maximilian II]] being the first one. This tradition ended in [[1792]], when [[Francis II, Holy Roman Emperor|Franz II]] was elected. He was crowned, on purpose, on [[Bastille Day]], [[14 July]], the anniversary of the [[storming of the Bastille]]. The elections and coronations took place in St. Bartholomäus cathedral, known as the ''Kaiserdom'' (en: Emperor's Cathedral), or in its predecessors. The ''Frankfurter Messe'' (en: Frankfurt trade fair) was first mentioned in 1150. In 1240, [[Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor|Emperor Friedrich II]] granted an Imperial privilege to its visitors, meaning they would be protected by the Empire. Since 1478 book trade fairs have been held in Frankfurt, the ''Frankfurter Buchmesse'' being still the most important in Germany and, some might say, the world. In 1372 Frankfurt became a ''Reichsstadt'' (en:[[Imperial Free City|Imperial city]]), i.e. directly subordinate to the [[Holy Roman Emperor]] and not to a regional ruler or a local nobleman. Frankfurt managed to remain neutral during the [[Thirty Years' War]], but it suffered from the [[bubonic plague]] that was brought to the city by refugees. After the end of the war, Frankfurt regained its wealth. In the [[Napoleonic Wars]] Frankfurt was occupied or cannonaded several times by French troops. After the total defeat of the allies, it found itself among the vassal states of France within the [[Confederation of the Rhine]] (1806-1813; only Prussia kept out), soon as the new seat of the only ''Fürstprimas'' ('[[Prince-Primate]]', i.e. Chairman of the Diet and the College of Kings, 25 July 1806 - 19 October 1813: Karl Theodor Anton Maria Kämmerer von Worms, Reichsfreiherr von Dalberg (b. 1744 - d. 1817), 1803 - 1806 [[Prince-archbishop]] of Regensburg), The formally sovereign ''Grand Duchy of Frankfurt'', created for Napoleon's adopted son [[Eugène de Beauharnais]], already ''prince de Venise'' (&quot;[[prince of Venice]]&quot;, a newly established primogeniture in Italy), remained a short episode lasting from 1810 to 1813, when military tide turned in favor of the Anglo-Prussian lead allies. After Napoleon's final defeat and abdication, the [[Congress of Vienna]] (1814-1815, redrawing the map of Europe) dissolved the grandduchy, and Frankfurt entered the newly founded [[German Confederation]] (till 1866) as a free city, becoming the seat of its ''Bundestag'', the confederal parliament where the nominally presiding Habsburg Emperor of Austria was represented by an Austrian &quot;presidential envoy&quot;. After the ill-fated [[The Revolutions of 1848 in the German states|revolution of 1848]], Frankfurt was home to the first [[Frankfurt Parliament|German National Assembly]] (''Nationalversammlung''), which resided in St. Paul's Church (''Paulskirche'') (see [[German Confederation]] for details) and was opened on [[18 May]] [[1848]]. The institution failed in 1849 when the Prussian king declared that he would not accept &quot;a crown from the gutter&quot;. In the year of its existence, the assembly developed a common constitution for a unified Germany, with the Prussian king as its monarch. Frankfurt lost its independence after [[Austro-Prussian War]] as Prussia annexed in [[1866]] several smaller states, among them the free city of Frankfurt. The Prussian administration incorporated Frankfurt into its province of [[Hesse-Nassau]]. The formerly independent towns of Bornheim and Bockenheim were incorporated in [[1890]]. In [[1914]] the citizens of Frankfurt founded the [[Johann Wolfgang Goethe University Frankfurt am Main|University of Frankfurt]], later called Johann Wolfgang Goethe University. This is the only civic foundation of a university in Germany; today it is one of Germany's largest universities. In 1924 [[Ludwig Landmann]] became the first [[Judaism|Jewish]] Mayor of the city, and led a significant expansion during the following years. However, during the [[Nazi Germany|Nazi era]], the [[synagogue]]s of Frankfurt were destroyed. The city of Frankfurt was severely bombed in [[World War II]]. About 5 500 residents were killed during the raids, and the once famous medieval city centre, by that time the largest in Germany, was destroyed. The reconstruction after the war took place in an (often-simple) modern style, thus irrevocably changing the architectural face of Frankfurt. Only very few landmark buildings have been reconstructed historically, albeit in a simplified manner. After the end of the war Frankfurt became a part of the newly founded state of Hesse, consisting of the old Hesse-(Darmstadt) and the Prussian Hesse provinces. Frankfurt was the original choice for the provisional capital of West Germany - they even went as far as constructing a new parliament building that has never been used for its intended purpose, and is now a TV studio. In the end, [[Konrad Adenauer]] (the first post-war Chancellor) preferred the tiny city of [[Bonn]], for the most part because it was close to his hometown, but also for another reason; many other prominent politicians opposed the choice of Frankfurt out of concern that Frankfurt, one of the largest German cities, and a former centre of the old German-dominated Holy Roman Empire, would be accepted as a &quot;permanent&quot; capital of Germany, thereby weakening the West German population's support for reunification and the eventual return of the capital city to [[Berlin]]. ===Population=== Frankfurt is a multicultural city. Most immigrants are from Turkey, the former Yugoslavia, or Italy. About 175 different nationalities reside in Frankfurt. For a long time Frankfurt was a Protestant-dominated city. However, during the 19th century an increasing number of Catholics moved to the city. Today a narrow plurality of citizens are Catholic. Frankfurt has the second largest Jewish community (after [[Berlin]]) in Germany. ==Geography== ===Geographic location=== The city is located on both sides of the Main River. The southern part of the city contains the [[Frankfurt City Forest]] (Frankfurter Stadtwald) Germany's largest urban forest. ===Neighbouring communities and areas=== To the West, Frankfurt borders the [[Main-Taunus]] district (Towns and Municipalities [[Hattersheim am Main]], [[Kriftel]], [[Hofheim am Taunus]], [[Kelkheim (Taunus)]], [[Liederbach am Taunus]], [[Sulzbach (Taunus)]], [[Schwalbach am Taunus]] and [[Eschborn]]); to the Northwest the [[Hochtaunuskreis]] (Towns [[Steinbach (Taunus)]], [[Oberursel (Taunus)]] and [[Bad Homburg v.d. Höhe]]); to the North the [[Wetteraukreis]] (Towns [[Karben]] and [[Bad Vilbel]]); to the Northeast the [[Main-Kinzig]] district (Municipality [[Niederdorfelden]] and the town [[Maintal]]); to the Southeast the city [[Offenbach am Main]]; to the South the [[Offenbach (district)|Offenbach]] district (Town[[Neu-Isenburg]]); and to the Southwest the [[Groß-Gerau]] district (Towns [[Mörfelden-Walldorf]], [[Rüsselsheim]] und [[Kelsterbach]]). ===City divisions and districts=== The city is divided into 46 ''[[Stadtteil]]e'' or ''[[Ortsteil]]e'' which is again divided into 118 ''[[Stadtbezirk]]e'' or city districts. The largest ''Ortsteil'' in area is [[Sachsenhausen-Süd (Frankfurt am Main)|Sachsenhausen-Süd]]. Most ''Stadtteile'' are incorporated suburbs, or [[Vorort]]e, or previously separate cities. Some like [[Nordend (Frankfurt am Main)|Nordend]] arose during the rapid growth of the city in the [[Gründerzeit]] after the unification of Germany. Others were formed from settlements, which previously belonged to other city divisions, like [[Dornbusch (Frankfurt am Main)]]. The 46 city divisions are combined into 16 area dist
ards as well as on establishing the goals, objectives , and values of the organization. Decisions can be complex admixtures of facts and values. Information about facts, especially empirically proven facts,or facts derived from specialized experience are more easily transmitted in the exercise of authority than are the expressions of values.Simon is primarily interested in seeking identification of the individual employee with the organizational goals and values. Following Lasswell&lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt; he states that “a person identifies himself with a group when, in making a decision, he evaluates the several alternatives of choice in terms of their consequences for the specified group”&lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt;. A person may identify himself, or herself with any number of social, geographic, economic, racial, religious, familial, educational, gender, political, and sports groups. Indeed, the number and variety are unlimited, and ubiquitous. The fundamental problem for organizations is to recognize that personal and group identifications can either facilitate or obstruct correct decision making for the organization. A specific organization has to deliberately determine and specify in appropriate detail and clear language its own goals, objectives, means, ends, and values. It is further desired that these important factors be internalized in the psychology of the individual participants. Chester Bernard is cited as responsible for pointing out that “the decisions that an individual makes as a member of an organization are quite distinct from his personal decisions”&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt;. Personal choices may determine whether an individual joins a particular organization, and continue to be made in his or her extra–organizational private life. But,as a member of an organization, that individual makes decisions not in relationship to personal needs and results, but in an impersonal sense as part of the organizational intent, purpose, and effect. Organizational inducements, rewards, and sanctions are all designed to form, strengthen, and maintain this identification. The correctness of decisions are measured by two major criteria:1.adequacy of achieving the desired objective; and 2.the efficiency with which the result was obtained. Many members of the organization may focus on adequacy,but the overall administrative management must pay particular attention to the efficiency with which the desired result was abtained with the utilization or expenditure of minimum resources. NOTES *1.Simon, Herbert,''Administrative Behavior'', The Free Press, New York. 1976, 3rd. ed. 364pp *2.Simon, op.cit.p 67 *3.Simon, op.cit.p.82 *4.Simon, op.cit.p.123-153 *5.Simon, op.cit.p.198-216 *6.Lasswell, H.D., ''World Politics and Personal Insecurity'' New York:Whittlesey House,1935 pp.29-51,cited by Simon,in op.cit.p.205 *7.Simon,in op.cit.p205 *8.Barnard,C.I, ''The Functions of the Executive Cambridge''Harvard University Press,1938 p77, cited by Simon in op.cit. p202-203 ==Interesting quotes== * Most producers are employees, not owners of the firms..... Viewed from the vantage point of classical [economic] theory, they have no reason to maximize the profits of the firms, except to the extent that they can be controlled by owners.... Moreover, there is no difference, in this respect, among profit-making firms, non-profit organizations, and bureaucratic organizations. All have exactly the same problem of inducing their employees to work toward the organizational goals. There is no reason, a priori, why it should be easier (or harder) to produce this motivation in organizations aimed at maximizing profits than in organizations with different goals. The conclusion that organization motivated by profits will be more efficient than other organizations does not follow the organizational economy from the neo-classical assumptions. If it is empirically true, other axioms will have to be introduced to account for it. * &quot;What information consumes is rather obvious: it consumes the attention of its recipients. '''Hence a wealth of information creates a poverty of attention''', and a need to allocate that attention efficiently among the overabundance of information sources that might consume it.&quot; (''Computers, Communications and the Public Interest'', pages 40-41, Martin Greenberger, ed., The Johns Hopkins Press, 1971.) ==Selected bibliography== *''Administrative Behavior'' [[1947]] *''Models of Man'' [[1957]] *''Organizations'' [[1959]] *''Models of Discovery'' [[1977]] *''Models of Thought'' [[1979]], [[1989]] *''Models of Bounded Rationality'' [[1982]] *''Models of My Life'' [[1991]] *''The Sciences of the Artificial (3rd Edition)'' [[1996]] ==Reference== H. Simon, &quot;Organizations and markets,&quot; Journal of Economic Perspectives, vol. 5, no. 2 (1991), p. 28. ==External links== *[http://www.cs.cmu.edu/simon/ A Tribute to Herbert A. Simon] *[http://web.archive.org/web/20041130094600/http://www.psy.cmu.edu/psy/faculty/hsimon/hsimon.html Herbert Simon's departmental web pages at Carnegie Mellon University as they were at the time of his death in 2001] *[http://diva.library.cmu.edu/Simon/ Full-text digital archive of Herbert Simon] *[http://werdet.atspace.com/bin/simonntation-speech.html pioneering research into the decision-making process within economic organizations] [[Category:1916 births|Simon, Herbert]] [[Category:2001 deaths|Simon, Herbert]] [[Category:Business theorists|Simon, Herbert]] [[Category:Carnegie Mellon professors|Simon, Herbert]] [[Category:Computer pioneers|Simon, Herbert]] [[Category:Debaters|Simon, Herbert]] [[Category:Educational psychologists|Simon, Herbert]] [[Category:National Medal of Science recipients|Simon, Herbert]] [[Category:Nobel Prize in Economics winners|Simon, Herbert]] [[Category:People from Wisconsin|Simon, Herbert]] [[Category:Turing Award laureates|Simon, Herbert]] [[de:Herbert Simon]] [[et:Herbert Simon]] [[fi:Herbert Simon]] [[fr:Herbert Simon]] [[he:הרברט א. סיימון]] [[id:Herbert Simon]] [[ja:ハーバート・サイモン]] [[nl:Herbert Simon]] [[pl:Herbert Simon]] [[pt:Herbert Simon]] [[ru:Саймон, Герберт]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>History of Ceuta</title> <id>14206</id> <revision> <id>15911776</id> <timestamp>2004-10-30T00:51:22Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Angela</username> <id>8551</id> </contributor> <minor /> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Ceuta]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Hematite</title> <id>14207</id> <revision> <id>40021568</id> <timestamp>2006-02-17T15:36:33Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Vsmith</username> <id>84417</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/81.76.30.210|81.76.30.210]] ([[User talk:81.76.30.210|talk]]) to last version by MTSbot</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{| border=1 cellspacing=0 align=right cellpadding=0 width=250 valign=top style=&quot;margin-left:1em&quot; |----- align=center bgcolor=&quot;lightgrey&quot; !colspan=2 align=center|Hematite |----- align=center !colspan=2|[[Image:HematiteUSGOV.jpg|thumb|center|Hematite]] [[image:hematite.bear.660pix.jpg|center|thumb|200px|Hematite carving, 5 cm (2 in) long.]] |----- align=center bgcolor=&quot;lightgrey&quot; !colspan=2|General |----- |Category||[[Mineral]] |----- |[[Chemical formula]]|| [[iron (III) oxide]], Fe&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;, α-Fe&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt; |----- align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;lightgrey&quot; !colspan=2|Identification |----- | Colour || Metallic grey to earthy red |----- | [[Crystal habit]] || Tabular to thick crystals |----- | [[Crystal structure|Crystal system]] || [[Hexagonal]] (rhombohedral) |----- | [[Cleavage (crystal)|Cleavage]]|| None |----- | [[Fracture]]|| Uneven to sub-conchoidal |----- | [[Mohs Scale]] hardness || 5.5 - 6.5 |----- | Luster|| Metallic to splendent |----- | [[Refractive index]]|| Opaque |----- | [[Pleochroism]]|| None |----- | [[Streak]]|| Bright red to dark red |----- | [[Specific gravity]]|| 4.9 - 5.3 |----- | [[Fusibility]]|| ? |----- | [[Solubility]]|| ? |----- align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#9966FF&quot; !colspan=2|Major varieties |----- | [[Specularite]]|| |----- |} '''Hematite''' ([[American English|AE]]) or '''haematite''' ([[British English|BE]]) is the [[mineral]] form of [[Iron (III) oxide]], (Fe&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;), one of several [[iron oxide]]s. The [[ore]] sometimes contains slight amounts of [[titanium]]. When shaped into ornaments, it is often called black diamond. [[Image:Hematite.jpg|left|thumb|200px|Hematite (kidney ore) from Michigan]] Hematite is a very common mineral, coloured black to steel or silver-gray, brown to reddish brown, or red. It is [[mining|mined]] as the main ore of iron. Varieties include Bloodstone, Iron Rose, Kidney Ore, Martite, Paint Ore, Specularite (Specular Hematite), Rainbow Hematite and Titano-hematite. While the forms of hematite vary, they all have a rust-red streak. Hematite is harder than pure iron, but much more brittle. Deposits of grey hematite are typically found in places where there has been standing water or mineral [[hot spring]]s, such as those in [[Yellowstone]]. The mineral can [[Precipitation (chemistry)|precipitate]] out of water and collect in layers at the bottom of a lake, spring, or other standing water. But hematite can also occur without water, as the result of [[Volcano|volcanic]] activity. [[Clay]]-sized hematite crystals can also occur as a secondary mineral formed by weathering processes in [[soil]], and along with other iron oxides or oxyhydroxides such as [[goethite]], is responsible for the red color of many tropical, ancient, or otherwise highly weathered soils. The name hematite is derived from the [[Greek language|Greek]] word for bl
ng *[http://www.iep.utm.edu/g/gnostic.htm Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy: Gnosticism] *[http://www.kheper.net/topics/Gnosticism/intro.htm Introduction to Gnosticism] *[http://jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=280&amp;letter=G&amp;search=gnosticism Jewish Encyclopedia: Gnosticism] *[http://www.religioustolerance.org/gnostic.htm Religious Tolerance] - A survey of Gnosticism *[http://www.theandros.com/pregnostic.html Proto-Gnostic elements in the Gospel according to John] - article in [http://www.theandros.com/ Theandros]. ===Gnostic blogs=== *[http://egina.blogspot.com/ Ecclesia Gnostica in Nova Albion, blog of Jordan Stratford, a priest in The Apostolic Johannite Church] *[http://noeticapprehension.blogspot.com/ Ecclesiastical Gnosis-Personal Reflections, weblog of Bishop Shaun McCann of The Apostolic Johannite Church] *[http://www.enormousfictions.com/ Enormous Fictions: A website exploring Gnosticism, creativity, culture and various other ideas] *[http://www.snant.com/fp/ fantastic planet, blog featuring Gnostic philosophy on events political, fortean and otherwise interesting] *[http://homoplasmate.blogspot.com/ Homoplasmate, &quot;A forum for the discussion of Gnosticism and Gnostic Christianity&quot;] *[http://illuminism.blogspot.com/ Illuminism &amp; Personal Reflections of Mar Didymos I, Patriarch of the Thomasine Church] *[http://weblog.bergersen.net/terje/ inTerjeCted, weblog of Norwegian Gnostic Terje Bergersen] *[http://nascentgnosis.blogspot.com/ Nascent Gnosis: A former orthodox priest takes a trip down heterodox lane...] *[http://taognostic.org/ Taognostic: Exploring the Path of the Gnostic] ===Discussion groups and email lists=== *[http://groups.yahoo.com/group/eglisegnostique/ eglisegnostique - Eglise Gnostique, share information, discuss issues, network] *[http://groups.yahoo.com/group/gnosticism2/ gnosticism2 - Learn the history and ideas of Gnostics] [[Category:Gnosticism|Gnosticism]] [[Category:Ancient Roman Christianity]] [[Category:New Testament Apocrypha]] {{Link FA|eo}} [[ar:غنوصية]] [[cs:Gnóze]] [[da:Gnosticisme]] [[de:Gnostizismus]] [[el:Γνωστικισμός]] [[eo:Gnostikismo]] [[es:Gnosticismo]] [[fi:Gnostilaisuus]] [[fr:Gnosticisme]] [[he:גנוסיס]] [[ia:Gnosticismo]] [[it:Gnosticismo]] [[ja:グノーシス主義]] [[ko:그노시스]] [[nl:Gnosticisme]] [[no:Gnostisisme]] [[pl:Gnostycyzm]] [[pt:Gnosticismo]] [[ru:Гностицизм]] [[sl:Gnosticizem]] [[sv:Gnosticism]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Gregor Aichinger</title> <id>12472</id> <revision> <id>28109020</id> <timestamp>2005-11-12T11:52:14Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Bluebot</username> <id>527862</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Standardising 1911 references.</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Gregor Aichinger,''' (c. [[1565]]&amp;ndash;[[1628]]) was a [[Germany|German]] composer. He was [[organist]] to the [[Fugger]] family of [[Augsburg]] in [[1584]]. In [[1599]] he went for a two year visit to [[Rome]] for musical, rather than religious reasons, although he had taken [[religious order]]s before his appointment under Fugger. [[Karl Proske|Proske]], in the preface to vol. 2 of his ''Musica Divina'', calls him a priest of [[Regensburg]], and is inclined to give him the palm for the devout and ingenuous mastery of his style. Certainly this impression is fully borne out by the beautiful and somewhat quaint works included in that great anthology. ==References== *{{1911}} [[Category:1565 births|Aichinger, Gregor]] [[Category:1628 deaths|Aichinger, Gregor]] [[Category:German composers|Aichinger, Gregor]] [[Category:Renaissance composers|Aichinger, Gregor]] [[Category:Organists|Aichinger, Gregor]] [[de:Gregor Aichinger]] [[fr:Gregor Aichinger]] [[gl:Gregor Aichinger]] [[ro:Gregor Aichinger]] [[fi:Gregor Aichinger]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Gospel of Barnabas</title> <id>12474</id> <revision> <id>41608236</id> <timestamp>2006-02-28T13:55:55Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>TomHennell</username> <id>804309</id> </contributor> <comment>/* Textual History */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">The '''''Gospel of Barnabas''''' is a work purporting to be a depiction of the life of [[Jesus]] by his disciple [[Barnabas]]. The two earliest known manuscripts have been dated to the late sixteenth century, and are written in [[Italian language|Italian]] and in [[Spanish language|Spanish]]; although the Spanish version survives now only in an eighteenth century copy. It is about the same length as the four canonical gospels put together (the Italian manuscript has 222 chapters); with the bulk being devoted to an account of Jesus' ministry, much of it harmonised from accounts also found in the canonical [[gospel]]s. In some, but not all, respects it conforms to the [[Islamic view of the Bible|Islamic interpretation of Christian Origins]]; and consequently its authorship and textual history remain the subject of continued controversy. The Gospel is considered by the majority of academics (including Christians and some Muslims) to be late, [[pseudepigraphy|pseudepigraphical]] and a [[pious fraud]]; however, some academics suggest that it may contain some remnants of an earlier [[apocrypha]]l work edited to conform to Islam, perhaps [[Gnostic]] (Cirillo, Ragg) or [[Ebionite]] (Pines) or [[Diatessaron]]ic (Joosten), and some Muslim scholars consider it genuine. Some Islamic organizations cite it in support of the [[Isa|Islamic view of Jesus]]; Islamic views are treated below. ==Textual History== A &quot;Gospel according to Barnabas&quot; is mentioned in two early Christian lists of apocryphal works: the ''[[Decretum Gelasianum]]'' (whose attribution to [[Pope Gelasius I]] is apocryphal but which is no later than the [[6th century]]), as well as the 7th-century [[List of the Sixty Books]] [http://www.bendigo.latrobe.edu.au/sae/arts/barnabas/Barnearly.html]. These lists are independent witnesses, but in neither case is it sure that the compiler had actually seen all the listed works. In both cases, ''GoB'' is paired by juxtaposition with a ''[[Gospel of Matthias]]'' (presumed to refer to a surviving ''[[Traditions of Matthias]]''.) However, these lists provide no details about the contents of the work, and there is no reason to assume that the text of the 6th-7th century ''GoB'' was the same as this one. [[M. R. James]], ''New Testament Apocrypha'' (1924) disputed whether the work mentioned in those lists ever existed. This work should not be confused with the surviving ''[[Epistle of Barnabas]]'', which may have been written in 2nd Century [[Alexandria]]. There is no link between the two books in style, content or history other than their supposed attribution to Barnabas. On the issue of [[circumcision]], the two authors clearly hold very different views, that of the 'Epistle' in rejecting [[Jew]]ish practices and that of the 'Gospel' in promoting Muslim ones. Neither should it be confused with the surviving ''[[Acts of Barnabas]]'', which narrates an account of Barnabas' travels, martyrdom and burial; and which is generally thought to have been written in [[Cyprus]] sometime after [[431]]. In [[478]], during the reign of the Emperor [[Zeno (emperor)|Zeno]], archbishop [[Cypriot Orthodox Church|Anthemios of Cyprus]] announced that the hidden burial place of Barnabas had been revealed to him in a dream. The saint's body was claimed to have been discovered in a cave with a copy of the canonical [[Gospel of Matthew]] on its breast; according to the contemporary account of Theodorus Lector, who may well have been present when both bones and gospel book were presented by Anthemios to the emperor. Some students who maintain the antiquity of the Gospel of Barnabas propose that the text purportedly discovered in 478 should be identified with the Gospel of Barnabas instead, but no contemporary witness supports this opinion. According to a medieval tradition preserved in the monastery of [[Sumela Monastery|Sumela]] south of [[Trabzon]], the relics were presented to that monastery by [[Justinian I|Justinian]]; but were lost a century later when Persian forces occupied the Pontic Alps in their campaigns against [[Heraclius]]. In 1986, it was briefly claimed that an early Syriac copy of this gospel had found near [[Hakkari]] (cf. Hamza Bektaş in ''İlim ve Sanat Dergisi'' of March-April 1986, and «Türkiye» from [[July 25]] [[1986]], &quot;Barnabas Bible Found&quot;, in ''Arabia'' 4/1985/ 1405/ No. 41/ Jan.-Febr./ Rabi Al-Thani, p. 46, &quot;Original Bible of Barnabas Found in Turkey&quot;, in ''The Minaret'' 12, 3; 1.+ 16. April, 1985, n.p.)[http://www.understanding-islam.com/related/text.asp?type=article&amp;aid=174] However, shortly afterwards it was reported that this manuscript actually merely contained the canonical Bible (Ron Pankow, &quot;The Barnabas Bible?&quot;, in: ''Arabia'' 1985/1405//March-April/ Rajib, n.p.)[http://www.islaminstitut.de/english/publications/gospel_of_barnabas.htm] The earliest mention of a book which is generally agreed to refer to the one found in the two known manuscripts, is reported to be contained in Morisco manuscript BNM MS 9653 in [[Madrid]], written about [[1634]] by [[Ibrahim al-Taybili]] in [[Tunisia]]. While describing how, in his opinion, the Bible predicts Muhammad, he speaks of the &quot;''Gospel of Saint Barnabas where one can find the light''&quot; (&quot;''y asi mesmo en Elanjelio de San Barnabé donde de hallara luz''&quot;). It was mentioned again in [[1718]] by the Irish [[Deism|deist]] [[John Toland]], and was mentioned in [[1734]] by [[George Sale]] in ''The Preliminary Discourse to the Koran'': :''The [[Mohammedan]]s have also a Gospel in [[Arabic language|Arabic]], attributed to St. Barnabas, wherein the history of Jesus Christ is related in a manner very different from what we find in the true Gospels, and correspo
himself, the twin goal symbolized his evolution from ignorance to enlightenment, and the stone represented some hidden spiritual truth or power that would lead to that goal. In texts that are written according to this view, the cryptic [[alchemical symbol]]s, diagrams, and textual imagery of late alchemical works typically contain multiple layers of meanings, allegories, and references to other equally cryptic works; and must be laborously &quot;decoded&quot; in order to discover their true meaning. Some humanistic scholars now see these spiritual and metaphysical allegories as the truest and most valuable aspect of alchemy, and even claim that the development of chemistry out of alchemy was a &quot;corruption&quot; of the original Hermetic tradition. This is the view espoused by contemporary practitioners of [[spiritual alchemy]]. Most scientists, on the other hand, tend to take quite the opposite view: to them, the path from the material side of alchemy to modern chemistry was the &quot;straight road&quot; in the evolution of the discipline, while the metaphysically oriented brand of alchemy was a &quot;wrong turn&quot; that led to nowhere. In either view, however, the naïve interpretations of some practitoners or the fraudulent hopes fostered by others should not diminish the contribution of the more sincere alchemists. ===Alchemy and astrology=== Since its earliest times, alchemy has been closely connected to [[astrology]] &amp;mdash; which, in Islam and Europe, generally meant the traditional [[Babylon]]ian-Greek school of astrology. Alchemical systems often postulated that each of the seven [[planet]]s known to the ancients &quot;[[astrological sign|ruled]]&quot; or was associated with a certain [[metal]]. See the separate article on [[astrology and alchemy]] for further details. ===Alchemy in the age of science=== Up to the 18th century, alchemy was actually considered serious science in Europe; for instance, [[Isaac Newton]] devoted considerably more of his time and writing to the study of alchemy than he did to either optics or physics, for which he is famous, (see [[Isaac Newton's occult studies]]). Other eminent alchemists of the Western world are [[Roger Bacon]], Saint [[Thomas Aquinas]], [[Tycho Brahe]], [[Thomas Browne]], and [[Parmigianino]]. The decline of alchemy began in the 18th century with the birth of modern chemistry, which provided a more precise and reliable framework for matter transmutations and medicine, within a new grand design of the universe based on rational materialism. In the first half of the nineteenth century, one established chemist, Baron [[Carl Reichenbach]], researched on concepts similar to the old alchemy, such as the [[Odic force]], but his research did not enter the mainstream of scientific discussion. Matter transmutation, the old goal of alchemy, enjoyed a moment in the sun in the 20th century when physicists were able to convert lead atoms into gold atoms via a [[nuclear reaction]]. However, the new gold atoms, being unstable [[isotope]]s, lasted for under five seconds before they broke apart. More recently, reports of table-top element transmutation — by means of [[electrolysis]] or [[sonic cavitation]] — were the pivot of the [[cold fusion]] controversy of 1989. None of those claims have yet been reliably duplicated. Alchemical symbolism has been occasionally used in the 20th century by [[psychology|psychologists]] and philosophers. [[Carl Jung]] reexamined alchemical symbolism and theory and began to show the inner meaning of alchemical work as a [[spirituality|spiritual]] path. Alchemical philosophy, symbols and methods have enjoyed something of a renaissance in [[post-modernism|post-modern]] contexts, such as the [[New Age]] movement. Even some physicists have played with alchemical ideas in books such as ''[[The Tao of Physics]]'' and ''[[The Dancing Wu Li Masters]]''. ===Alchemy as a subject of historical research === The history of alchemy has become a vigorous academic field. As the obscure&amp;mdash;''hermetic'', of course&amp;mdash;language of the alchemists is gradually being &quot;deciphered&quot;, historians are becoming more aware of the intellectual connections between that discipline and other facets of Western cultural history, such as the sociology and psychology of the intellectual communities, [[kabbala|kabbalism]], [[spiritualism]], [[Rosicrucianism]], and other mystic movements, [[cryptography]], [[witchcraft]]&amp;mdash;and, of course, the evolution of [[science]] and [[philosophy]]. ==Etymology== {{Wiktionarypar|alchemy}} The word ''alchemy'' comes from the [[Arabic language|Arabic]] ''al-k&amp;#299;miya&amp;#704;'' or ''al-kh&amp;#299;miya&amp;#704;'' (&amp;#1575;&amp;#1604;&amp;#1603;&amp;#1610;&amp;#1605;&amp;#1610;&amp;#1575;&amp;#1569; or &amp;#1575;&amp;#1604;&amp;#1582;&amp;#1610;&amp;#1605;&amp;#1610;&amp;#1575;&amp;#1569;), which might be formed from the article ''al-'' and the [[Greek language|Greek]] word ''chumeia'' (&amp;chi;η&amp;mu;&amp;epsilon;&amp;#943;&amp;alpha;) meaning &quot;cast together&quot;, &quot;pour together&quot;, &quot;weld&quot;, &quot;alloy&quot;, etc. (from ''khumatos'', &quot;that which is poured out, an ingot&quot;, or from Persian ''Kimia'' meaning &quot;gold.&quot; A decree of [[Diocletian]], written about 300 CE in Greek, speaks against &quot;the ancient writings of the Egyptians, which treat of the ''kh&amp;#275;mia'' [transmutation] of gold and silver&quot;. It has been suggested that the Arabic word ''al-k&amp;#299;miya&amp;#704;'' actually means &quot;the Egyptian [science]&quot;, borrowing from the [[Coptic language|Coptic]] word for &quot;Egypt&quot;, ''k&amp;#275;me'' (or its equivalent in the Mediaeval [[Bohairic]] dialect of Coptic, ''kh&amp;#275;me''). The Coptic word derives from [[Demotic Egyptian|Demotic]] ''km&amp;#7881;'', itself from ancient [[Egyptian language|Egyptian]] ''kmt''. The ancient Egyptian word referred to both the country and the colour &quot;black&quot; (Egypt was the &quot;Black Land&quot;, by contrast with the &quot;Red Land&quot;, the surrounding desert); so this etymology could also explain the nickname &quot;Egyptian black arts&quot;. However, this theory may be just an example of [[folk etymology]]. ==History== [[Image:Alchemy-Digby-RareSecrets.png|thumb|right|300px|Extract and symbol key from a 17th century book on alchemy. The symbols used have a one-to-one correspondence with symbols used in [[astrology]] at the time.]] Alchemy encompasses several philosophical traditions spanning some four millennia and three continents. These traditions' general penchant for cryptic and symbolic language makes it hard to trace their mutual influences and &quot;genetic&quot; relationships. One can distinguish at least two major strands, which appear to be largely independent, at least in their earlier stages: [[Chinese alchemy]], centered in [[China]] and its zone of cultural influence; and [[Western alchemy]], whose center has shifted over the millennia between [[Egypt]], [[Greece]] and [[Rome]], the [[Islam]]ic world, and finally back to [[Europe]]. Chinese alchemy was closely connected to [[Taoism]], whereas Western alchemy developed its own philosophical system, with only superficial connections to the major Western religions. It is still an open question whether these two strands share a common origin, or to what extent they influenced each other. ===Alchemy in Ancient Egypt=== The origin of western alchemy may generally be traced to [[Ancient Egypt|ancient (pharaonic) Egypt]]. [[Metallurgy]] and [[mysticism]] were inexorably tied together in the ancient world, as the transformation of drab ore into shining metal must have seemed to be an act of magic governed by mysterious rules. It is claimed therefore that Alchemy in ancient Egypt was the domain of the priestly class. Egyptian alchemy is known mostly through the writings of ancient (Hellenic) [[Greece|Greek]] philosophers, which in turn have often survived only in Islamic translations. Practically no original Egyptian documents on alchemy have survived. Those writings, if they existed, were likely lost when the [[Roman Emperor|emperor]] [[Diocletian]] ordered the burning of alchemical books after suppressing a revolt in Alexandria (292), which had been a center of Egyptian alchemy. Nevertheless [[archaeological]] expeditions in recent times have unearthed evidence of chemical analysis during the [[Naqada]] periods. For example, a [[copper]] tool dating to the [[Naqada]] era bears evidence of having been used in such a way (reference: artifact 5437 on display at [http://www.digitalegypt.ucl.ac.uk/naqada/tombs/finds7.html]). Also, the process of [[tanning]] [[animal]] [[Rawhide|skins]] was already known in [[Predynastic Egypt]] as early as the [[6th millennium BC]] [http://www.touregypt.net/ebph5.htm]; although it possibly was discovered haphazardly. Other evidence indicates early alchemists in [[Ancient Egypt|ancient Egypt]] had invented [[Mortar (masonry)|mortar]] by [[4000 BC]] and [[glass]] by [[1500 BC]]. The chemical reaction involved in the production of [[Calcium Oxide]] is one of the oldest known (references: [[Calcium Oxide]], [[limekiln]]): :CaCO&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt; + heat → CaO + CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;. [[Ancient Egypt]] additionally produced [[cosmetics]], [[cement]], [[faience]] and also [[Pitch (resin)|pitch]] for [[shipbuilding]]. [[Papyrus]] had also been invented by [[3000 BC]]. Legend has it that the founder of Egyptian alchemy was the [[deity|god]] [[Thoth]], called Hermes-Thoth or Thrice-Great Hermes (''[[Hermes Trismegistus]]'') by the Greek. According to legend, he wrote what were called the forty-two Books of Knowledge, covering all fields of knowledge—including alchemy. Hermes's symbol was the [[caduceus]] or serpent-staff, which became one of many of alchemy's principal symbols. The &quot;[[Emerald Tablet]]&quot; or ''[[Hermetica]]'' of Thrice-Great Hermes
magazine. From 1924, he signs his illustrations using the pseudonym &quot;Hergé&quot;. His subsequent comics work would be heavily influenced by the ethics of the scouting movement, as well as the early travel experiences he made with the scout association. On finishing school in [[1925]], Georges worked at the Catholic newspaper ''Le XXe Siècle''. The following year, he published his first cartoon series, ''The Adventures of Totor'', in the scouting magazine ''Le Boy-Scout Belge''. In [[1928]], he was put in charge of producing material for the ''Le XXe Siècle's'' new weekly supplement for children, ''Le Petit Vingtième''. He began illustrating ''The Adventures of Flup, Nénesse, Poussette, and Cochonnet'', a strip written by a member of the newspaper's sports staff, but soon became dissatisfied with this series. He decided to create a comic strip of his own, which would adopt the recent American innovation of using [[speech balloon]]s to depict words coming out of the characters' mouths. [[Image:TintinSoviets.jpg|thumb|left|''[[Tintin in the Land of the Soviets]]'' ([[1929]])]] ''[[Tintin in the Land of the Soviets]]'', by &quot;Hergé&quot;, appeared in the pages of ''Le Petit Vingtième'' on [[January 10]], [[1929]], and ran until [[May 8]], [[1930]]. The strip chronicled the adventures of a young reporter named Tintin and his pet [[foxhound]] Snowy (Milou) as they journeyed through the [[Soviet Union]]. The character of Tintin was inspired by Georges' brother Paul Remi, an officer in the Belgian army. In January [[1930]], Hergé introduced ''Quick &amp; Flupke'' (''Quick et Flupke''), a new comic strip about two street urchins from Brussels, in the pages of ''Le Petit Vingtième''. For many years, Hergé would continue to produce this less well-known series in parallel with his Tintin stories. In June, he began the second Tintin adventure, ''[[Tintin in the Congo]]'' (then the [[colony]] of [[Belgian Congo]]), followed by ''[[Tintin in America]]'' and ''[[Cigars of the Pharaoh]]''. In [[1932]], he married Germaine Kieckens, the secretary of the director of the ''Le XXe Siècle''. They had no children, and would eventually divorce in [[1975]]. The early Tintin adventures each took about a year to complete, upon which they were released in book form by the Casterman publishing house. Hergé would continue revising these stories in subsequent editions, including a later conversion to colour. However, he would also express embarrassment over the ill-informed and prejudiced views expressed in these works. For instance, an infamous scene in ''Tintin in the Congo'' had Tintin giving a geography [[lesson]] to native students in a missionary school. &quot;My dear friends,&quot; exclaimed Tintin, &quot;today I am going to talk to you about your country: Belgium!&quot; In a later edition, the scene was changed into an arithmetic lesson. [[Image:TintinLotus.jpg|thumb|right|''[[The Blue Lotus]]'' ([[1936]])]] Hergé reached a watershed with ''[[The Blue Lotus]]'', the fifth Tintin adventure. At the close of the previous ''Tintin'' strip, ''Cigars of the Pharaoh'', he had mentioned that Tintin's next adventure would bring him to [[China]]. Father Gosset, the chaplain to the Chinese students at the [[University of Leuven]], wrote to Hergé urging him to be sensitive about what he wrote about China. Hergé agreed, and in the spring of [[1934]] Gosset introduced him to [[Chang Chong-jen]] (Chang Chongren), a young sculpture student at the Brussels Académie des Beaux-Arts. The two young artists quickly became close friends, and Chang introduced Hergé to Chinese history, culture, and the techniques of [[Chinese art]]. As a result of this experience, Hergé would strive in ''The Blue Lotus'', and in subsequent Tintin adventures, to be meticulously accurate in depicting the places which Tintin visited. As a token of appreciation, he added a fictional &quot;[[Chang Chong-Chen]]&quot; to ''The Blue Lotus'', a young Chinese boy who meets and befriends Tintin. In the book, the fictional Chang serves to dispell some of the more outrageous fabrications about Chinese culture. As another result of his friendship with Chang, Hergé became increasingly aware of the problems of [[colonialism]], in particular the [[Japan|Japanese Empire's]] advances into China. ''The Blue Lotus'' carries a bold anti-imperialist message, contrary to the prevailing view in the West, which was sympathetic to Japan and the colonial enterprise. As a result, it drew sharp criticism from various parties, including a protest by Japanese diplomats to the Belgian Foreign Ministry. However, the passage of time has since vindicated Hergé's views. At the end of his studies in Brussels, Chang returned home to China, and Hergé lost contact with him during the invasion of China by Japan and the subsequent [[Chinese Civil War|civil war]]. More than four decades would pass before the two friends would meet again. ===World War II=== The [[World War II|Second World War]] broke out on [[September 1]], [[1939]] with the [[Nazi Germany|Nazi]] invasion of [[Poland]]. Hergé was mobilized as a reserve lieutenant, and had to interrupt Tintin's adventures in the middle of ''[[Land of Black Gold]]''. Nevertheless, by the summer of [[1940]], Belgium had fallen to Germany with the rest of [[Continental Europe]]. ''Le Petit Vingtième'', in which Tintin's adventures had hitherto been published, was shut down by the Nazi occupation. However, Hergé accepted an offer to produce a new Tintin strip in ''[[Le Soir]]'', Brussels' leading French daily, which had been appropriated as the mouthpiece of the occupation forces. He had to leave ''The Land of the Black Gold'' unfinished, due to its anti-fascist overtones, launching instead into ''[[The Crab with the Golden Claws]]'', the first of six Tintin stories which he would produce during the war. As the war progressed, two factors arose that led to a revolution in Hergé's style. Firstly, paper shortages forced Tintin to be published in a daily three or four-frame strip, rather than two full pages every week which had been the practice on ''Le Petit Vingtième''. In order to create tension at the end of each strip rather than the end of each page, Hergé had to introduce more frequent gags and faster-paced action. Secondly, Hergé had to move the focus of Tintin's adventures away from current affairs, in order to avoid controversy. He turned to stories with an escapist flavour: an expedition to a meteorite (''[[The Shooting Star]]''), a treasure hunt (''[[The Secret of the Unicorn]]'' and ''[[Red Rackham's Treasure]]''), and a quest to undo an ancient [[Inca]] curse (''[[The Seven Crystal Balls]]'' and ''[[Prisoners of the Sun]]''). In these stories, Hergé placed more emphasis on characterization than on the plot, and indeed Tintin's most memorable companions, [[Captain Haddock]] and [[Cuthbert Calculus]] (In French Professeur Tryphon Tournesol), were introduced at this time. Haddock debuted in ''The Crab with the Golden Claws'' and Calculus in ''Red Rackham's Treasure''. The impact of these changes were not lost on the readers; in reprint, these stories have proven to be amongst the most popular. In [[1943]], Hergé met [[Edgar Pierre Jacobs]], another comics artist, whom he hired to help revise the early Tintin albums. Jacob's most significant contribution would be his redrawing of the costumes and backgrounds in the revised edition of ''[[King Ottokar's Sceptre]]''. He also began collaborating with Hergé on a new Tintin adventure, ''The Seven Crystal Balls'' (see above). ===Post-war troubles=== The occupation of Brussels ended on [[September 3]], [[1944]]. Tintin's adventures were interrupted toward the end of ''[[The Seven Crystal Balls]]'' when the [[Allies | Allied]] authorities shut down ''Le Soir''. During the chaotic post-occupation period, Hergé was arrested four times by different groups. He was publicly accused of being a [[Nazi]]/[[Rexism|Rexist]] sympathizer, a claim which was largely unfounded, as the Tintin adventures published during the war were scrupulously free of politics (the only dubious point occurring in ''[[The Shooting Star]]'', which showed a rival scientific expedition flying the [[Flag of the United States]]). In fact, the stories published before the war had been unequivocally critical of [[fascism]]; most prominently, ''[[King Ottokar's Sceptre]]'' showed Tintin working to defeat a thinly-veiled allegory of the [[Anschluss]], [[Nazi Germany]]'s takeover of [[Austria]]. Nevertheless, like other former employees of the Nazi-controlled press, Hergé found himself barred from newspaper work. He spent the next two years working with Jacobs, as well as a new assistant, Alice Devos, adapting many of the early Tintin adventures into colour. Tintin's exile ended on [[September 6]], [[1946]]. The publisher and wartime resistance fighter [[Raymond Leblanc]] provided the financial support and anti-Nazi credentials to launch ''[[Tintin (magazine)|Tintin magazine]]'' with Hergé. The weekly publication featured two pages of Tintin's adventures, beginning with the remainder of ''[[The Seven Crystal Balls]]'', as well as other comic strips and assorted articles. It became highly successful, with circulation surpassing 100,000 every week. Tintin had always been credited as simply &quot;by Hergé&quot;, without mention of Edgar Pierre Jacobs and Hergé's other assistants. As Jacobs' contribution to the production of the strip increased, he began demanding a joint credit. Hergé refused and ended their hitherto fruitful collaboration. Jacobs then went on to produce his own comics for ''Tintin magazine'', including the widely-acclaimed ''[[Blake and Mortimer]]''. ===Personal crises=== The increased demands which ''Tintin magazine'' placed on Hergé began to take their toll. In [[1949]], while working on the new version of ''[[Land of Black Gold]]'' (the first version had been left unfinished by the outbreak of [[World War II]]), Hergé
arching for Common Sense: Populating Cyc from the Web''. In Proceedings of the Twentieth National Conference on Artificial Intelligence, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, July 2005.[http://www.cyc.com/doc/white_papers/AAAI051MatuszekC.pdf] *Shepard, Blake, C. Matuszek, C.B. Fraser, W. Wechtenhiser, D. Crabbe, Z. Güngördü, J. Jantos, T. Hughes, L. Lefkowitz, M. Witbrock, D. Lenat, E. Larson. ''A Knowledge-Based Approach to Network Security: Applying Cyc in the Domain of Network Risk Assessment''. In Proceedings of the Seventeenth Innovative Applications of Artificial Intelligence Conference, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, July 2005.[http://www.cyc.com/doc/white_papers/IAAI-05-CycSecure.pdf] *Ramachandran, Deepak, P. Reagan, K. Goolsbey. ''First-Orderized ResearchCyc: Expressivity and Efficiency in a Common-Sense Ontology''. In Papers from the AAAI Workshop on Contexts and Ontologies: Theory, Practice and Applications. Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, July 2005.[http://www.cyc.com/doc/white_papers/folification.pdf] *Cabral, John, R.C. Kahlert, C. Matuszek, M. Witbrock, B. Summers. ''Converting Semantic Meta-Knowledge into Inductive Bias''. In Proceedings of the 15th International Conference on Inductive Logic Programming, Bonn, Germany, August 2005.[http://www.cyc.com/doc/white_papers/ilp2005-semantic-ILP.pdf] *Schneider, Dave, C. Matuszek, P. Shah, R. Kahlert, D. Baxter, J. Cabral, M. Witbrock, D. Lenat. ''Gathering and Managing Facts for Intelligence Analysis''. In Proceedings of the 2005 International Conference on Intelligence Analysis, McLean, Virginia, May 2005.[http://www.cyc.com/doc/white_papers/GatheringAndManagingFacts-IA2005.pdf] *Forbus, Kenneth, L. Birnbaum, E. Wagner, J. Baker &amp; [[Michael Witbrock|M. Witbrock]]. ''Combining analogy, intelligent information retrieval, and knowledge integration for analysis: A preliminary report''. In Proceedings of the 2005 International Conference on Intelligence Analysis, McLean, Virginia, May 2005.[http://www.cyc.com/doc/white_papers/CombiningAnalogy-IA2005.pdf] *Deaton, Chris, B. Shepard, C. Klein, C. Mayans, B. Summers, A. Brusseau, [[Michael Witbrock|M. Witbrock]]. The Comprehensive Terrorism Knowledge Base in Cyc. In Proceedings of the 2005 International Conference on Intelligence Analysis, McLean, Virginia, May 2005.[http://www.cyc.com/doc/white_papers/TKB-IA2005.pdf] *Rode, Benjamin. ''Towards a Model of Pattern Recovery in Relational Data''. In Proceedings of the 2005 International Conference on Intelligence Analysis, McLean, Virginia, May 2005.[http://www.cyc.com/doc/white_papers/PatternRecovery-IA2005.pdf] *Siegel, Nick, B. Shepard, J. Cabral, M. Witbrock. ''Hypothesis Generation and Evidence Assembly for Intelligence Analysis: Cycorp's Nooscape Application''. In Proceedings of the 2005 International Conference on Intelligence Analysis, McLean, Virginia, May 2005.[http://www.cyc.com/doc/white_papers/HypothesisGeneration-IA2005.pdf] *Curtis, Jon, G. Matthews, D. Baxter. On the Effective Use of Cyc in a Question Answering System in Papers from the IJCAI Workshop on Knowledge and Reasoning for Answering Questions, Edinburgh, Scotland: 2005.[http://www.cyc.com/doc/white_papers/KRAQ2005.pdf] *Witbrock, Michael, C. Matuszek, A. Brusseau, R.C. Kahlert, C.B. Fraser, D. Lenat. ''Knowledge Begets Knowledge: Steps towards Assisted Knowledge Acquisition in Cyc'' in Papers from the 2005 AAAI Spring Symposium on Knowledge Collection from Volunteer Contributors (KCVC), pp. 99-105. Stanford, California, March 2005.[http://www.cyc.com/doc/white_papers/AAAI05-symposium-KCVC.pdf] *Belasco, Alan, J. Curtis, RC Kahlert, C. Klein, C. Mayans, R. Reagan. ''Representing Knowledge Gaps Effectively''. In D. Karagiannis, U. Reimer (Eds.): Practical Aspects of Knowledge Management, Proceedings of PAKM 2004, Vienna, Austria, December 2-3, 2004, Springer-Verlag, Berlin Heidelberg.[http://www.springeronline.com/sgw/cda/frontpage/0,11855,1-40109-22-36983341-0,00.html] *Siegel, Nick, G. Matthews, J. Masters, R. Kahlert, M. Witbrock and K. Pittman. ''Agent Architectures: Combining the Strengths of Software Engineering and Cognitive Systems'' in Papers from the AAAI Workshop on Intelligent Agent Architectures: Combining the Strengths of Software Engineering and Cognitive Systems, Technical Report WS-04-07, pp. 74-79. Menlo Park, California: AAAI Press, 2004.[http://www.cyc.com/doc/white_papers/WS804SiegelN.pdf] *Witbrock, Michael, K. Panton, S.L. Reed, D. Schneider, B. Aldag, M. Reimers and S. Bertolo. ''Automated OWL Annotation Assisted by a Large Knowledge Base'' in Workshop Notes of the 2004 Workshop on Knowledge Markup and Semantic Annotation at the 3rd International Semantic Web Conference ISWC2004, Hiroshima, Japan, November 2004, pp. 71-80.[http://www.cyc.com/doc/white_papers/SemAnnot2004-20041001.pdf] *Masters, James and Z. Güngördü. ''Structured Knowledge Source Integration: A Progress Report''. In Integration of Knowledge Intensive Multiagent Systems, Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA, 2003.[http://www.cyc.com/doc/white_papers/kimas2003.pdf] *O'Hara, Tom, N. Salay, M. Witbrock, et al. ''Inducing criteria for mass noun lexical mappings using the Cyc Knowledge Base and its Extension to WordNet''. In Proceedings of the Fifth International Workshop on Computational Semantics, Tilburg, 2003.[http://www.cyc.com/doc/white_papers/inducing-criteria-for-mass.pdf] *Witbrock, Michael, D. Baxter, J. Curtis, et al. ''An Interactive Dialogue System for Knowledge Acquisition in Cyc''. In Proceedings of the Eighteenth International Joint Conference on Artificial Intelligence, Acapulco, Mexico, 2003.[http://www.cyc.com/doc/white_papers/IJCAI-paper-v5.pdf] *Panton, Kathy, P. Miraglia, N. Salay, et al. ''Knowledge Formation and Dialogue Using the KRAKEN Toolset''. In Eighteenth National Conference on Artificial Intelligence, Edmonton, Canada, 2002.[http://www.cyc.com/doc/white_papers/iaai.pdf] *Masters, James. ''Structured Knowledge Source Integration and its applications to information fusion''. In Proceedings of the Fifth International Conference on Information Fusion, Annapolis, MD, July 2002.[http://www.cyc.com/doc/white_papers/fusion2002.pdf] *Reed, Stephen and D. Lenat. ''Mapping Ontologies into Cyc''. In AAAI 2002 Conference Workshop on Ontologies For The Semantic Web, Edmonton, Canada, July 2002.[http://www.cyc.com/doc/white_papers/mapping-ontologies-into-cyc_v31.pdf] *{{cite book | author=D. Lenat and R. V. Guha. | title=Building Large Knowledge-Based Systems: Representation and Inference in the Cyc Project | publisher =Addison-Wesley | year=1990 | id=ISBN 0201517523 }} == External links == * [http://www.cyc.com/ Cycorp homepage] * [http://www.cyc.com/cyc/technology/pubs Publications available from the Cycorp webpage] * [http://www.opencyc.org/ Opencyc.org] (includes several tutorials) * [http://research.cyc.com/ research.cyc.com] * [http://www.opencyc.org/public_servers Servers that allow public browsing of the OpenCyc knowledge base] * [http://www.ime.usp.br/~fr/opencyc/ OpenCyc C API] * [http://www.newscientist.com/article.ns?id=mg18624961.700 Whatever happened to machines that think? [[23 April]] [[2005]], New Scientist] [[Category:Artificial intelligence]] &lt;!-- The below are interlanguage links. --&gt; [[de:Cyc]] [[es:Cyc]] [[zh:Cyc]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Cheliceriformes</title> <id>6875</id> <revision> <id>15904989</id> <timestamp>2002-07-18T22:10:32Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>PierreAbbat</username> <id>1123</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>misspelled &amp;quot;redirect&amp;quot;</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Chelicerata]] </text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>CE</title> <id>6876</id> <revision> <id>41408492</id> <timestamp>2006-02-27T03:12:48Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>TransUtopian</username> <id>354375</id> </contributor> <comment>bold Common Era, as I didnt know exactly what CE stood for re: BCE, looked, didn't see, looked it up &amp; ready to insert it when I see it's already there</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''CE''' is an abbreviation which can have the following meanings: * [[Capillary electrophoresis]] * the [[CE mark]] is a stylized &quot;CE&quot; placed on products to signify conformance with [[European Union]] regulations. CE stands for Conformité Européenne (European health &amp; safety product label). * [[Central European]], an alternate name for [[Windows-1250]] * Civil Engineer ([[Engineer's degree]] in civil engineering) * [[Civil engineering]] * [[Special edition|Collector's Edition]] (Used with special editions of software and movies) * '''[[Common Era]]''', Current Era, or Christian Era (this year is {{CURRENTYEAR}} CE). * ''Communauté Européenne'' (French for [[European Community]]) * [[Computer engineering]] * [[Concord EFS Inc.]] ([[stock symbol]]) * [[Consumer electronics]] * [[Cosmic Era]], a storyline in the [[anime]] [[metaseries]] ''[[Gundam]]'' * [[Council of Europe]] * Current Events, a board on the [[GameFAQs]] forums. * Customer Edge, a term used in [[MPLS]] [[computer networks]] * Customer Engineer, the person that services [[IBM]] computers * [[Nationwide Airlines]] ([[IATA]] [[IATA airline designator|airline designator]]; based in [[South Africa]]) * [[Sri Lanka]], [[List of FIPS country codes|FIPS Pub 10-4]] and obsolete [[NATO country code|NATO digram]] (from ''Ceylon'') * [[Windows CE]] '''Ce''' may stand for: * [[Cerium]] ([[symbol for the chemical element]]) '''ce''' may stand for: * [[Chechen language]] ([[ISO 639-1]]) {{2LCdisambig}} [[ca:Ce]] [[de:CE]] [[fr:CE]] [[ko:CE]] [[it:Ce]] [[ja:CE]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Carlos Valderrama (soccer player)</title> <id>6878</id> <revision> <id>38119521</id> <timestamp>2006-02-04T08:14:01Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>D
modem manufacturer, see [[Billion (company)]].'' The word &quot;'''billion'''&quot; and its equivalents in other [[language]]s refer to one of two different [[number]]s, depending on whether the writer is using the [[long and short scales|long or short scale]]. ==10&lt;span style=&quot;display:none;&quot;&gt;^&lt;/span&gt;&lt;sup&gt;12&lt;/sup&gt;== The original meaning, established in the 15th century, was &quot;a million of a million&quot; (1,000,000&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;, hence the name '''bi'''llion), or 10&lt;sup&gt;12&lt;/sup&gt; = 1&amp;nbsp;000&amp;nbsp;000&amp;nbsp;000&amp;nbsp;000. This system, known in French as the ''échelle longue'' (&quot;[[long and short scales|long scale]]&quot;), was used until recently in the [[United Kingdom]], and is used in most countries where [[English language|English]] is not the primary language. 10&lt;sup&gt;12&lt;/sup&gt; is referred to as a [[trillion]] in the &quot;short scale&quot; system. ==10&lt;span style=&quot;display:none;&quot;&gt;^&lt;/span&gt;&lt;sup&gt;9&lt;/sup&gt;== In the late 17th century a change was made in the way of writing large numbers. Numbers had been separated into groups of six digits, but at this time the modern grouping of three digits came into use. As a result, a minority of Italian and French scientists began using the word &quot;billion&quot; to mean 10&lt;sup&gt;9&lt;/sup&gt; (one thousand million, or 1&amp;nbsp;000&amp;nbsp;000&amp;nbsp;000), and correspondingly redefined ''trillion'' and higher numbers to mean powers of one thousand rather than one million. This is known in French as the ''échelle courte'' (&quot;[[long and short scales|short scale]]&quot;) and is now generally used by [[English language|English-speaking]] countries, as well as [[Brazil]], [[Puerto Rico]], [[Turkey]] and [[Greece]]. ==Synonyms== Use of &quot;thousand million&quot; for 10&lt;sup&gt;9&lt;/sup&gt; and &quot;million million&quot; for 10&lt;sup&gt;12&lt;/sup&gt; can avoid ambiguity; however, British media, including the [[BBC]], which long used &quot;thousand million&quot; for this reason, use &quot;billion&quot; to mean 10&lt;sup&gt;9&lt;/sup&gt;. The old word &quot;[[milliard]]&quot;, also found in many other languages, can be used for 10&lt;sup&gt;9&lt;/sup&gt; but is unfamiliar even to many native English speakers. See [[long and short scales]] for a more detailed discussion and usage advice. ==Trivia== The facts below give a sense of how large one billion (taken as 10&lt;sup&gt;9&lt;/sup&gt;) is in the context of passage of time. * About a billion seconds ago, the parents of [[middle school]] children were themselves in [[elementary school]]. (One billion seconds is roughly 31.7 years.) * About a billion minutes ago, the [[Roman Empire]] was flourishing. (One billion minutes is roughly 1,900 years.) * About a billion hours ago, [[Human|modern human beings]] and [[Human evolution|their ancestors]] were living in the [[Stone Age]] (more precisely, the [[Middle Paleolithic]]). (One billion hours is roughly 114,000 years.) * About a billion [[days]] ago, ''[[Australopithecus]]'', an ape-like creature related to an ancestor of modern humans, roamed the African [[savanna]]s. (One billion days is roughly 2.7 million years.) * About a billion [[month]]s ago, [[dinosaur]]s walked the earth during the late [[Cretaceous]]. (One billion months is roughly 82 million years.) * About a billion years ago, the first [[multicellular organism]]s [[Timeline of evolution|appeared]] on Earth. (The [[universe]] is now thought to be about 13.7 billion years old.) In terms of distance: * A billion [[centimeter]]s is about the distance from [[Chicago]], [[Illinois]], [[USA]] to [[Tokyo]], [[Japan]]. * A billion [[inch]]es is 15,783 [[mile|miles]], more than halfway around the world and sufficient to reach any point on the globe from any other point. * A billion [[meters]] is almost three times the distance from the [[Earth]] to the [[Moon]]. ==See also== * [[Long and short scales]] * [[American and British English differences]] * [[Millionaire]] * [[False friend]]s * [[Large numbers]] * [[Number names]] * [[1 E9]] and [[giga]] (or [[1 E12]] and [[tera]]) for a list of occurrences of numbers of this magnitude * [[1000000000 (number)]] ==External links== *[http://alt-usage-english.org/excerpts/fxbill00.html alt.usage.english FAQ] [[Category:Integers]] [[Category:Large numbers]] [[da:Billion]] [[de:Billion]] [[es:Billón]] [[eo:Biliono]] [[fr:Billion]] [[gl:Billón]] [[it:Bilione]] [[hu:Billió]] [[nl:Biljoen]] [[pl:Bilion]] [[pt:Bilhão]] [[ru:Биллион]] [[sl:Bilijon]] [[fi:Biljoona]] [[sv:Biljon]] [[ta:பில்லியன்]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Benoit B. Mandelbrot</title> <id>3994</id> <revision> <id>15902297</id> <timestamp>2004-07-10T23:04:44Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Gzornenplatz</username> <id>50280</id> </contributor> <comment>correct redir</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Benoît Mandelbrot]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Contract bridge</title> <id>3995</id> <revision> <id>41671691</id> <timestamp>2006-02-28T23:44:33Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>BPeppers1168</username> <id>971985</id> </contributor> <comment>Keep with the consensus pattern of low/medium/high ratings</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_Game| subject_name=Bridge | image_link=[[Image:Bidding_box.jpg|none|250px]]| image_caption=Bidding box and playing cards for bridge| players=4 | ages=recommended for 12 and up| setup_time=&lt; 2 minutes | playing_time=[[World Bridge Federation|WBF]] tournament games = 7.5 minutes per deal| complexity=Medium | strategy=High | random_chance=Low | skills=[[Memory]], [[Tactics]] | footnotes = }}'''Contract bridge''', usually known simply as '''bridge''', is a [[trick-taking game|trick-taking]] [[card game]] for four players, usually sitting around a table, who form two ''partnerships'', or &quot;sides&quot;. The partners on each side sit opposite one another. The game consists of two main parts &amp;ndash; ''bidding'' (or ''auction'') and ''play''; the rules of play are rather simple and similar to other trick-taking games. However, the bidding and associated [[convention (bridge)|conventions]] are much more complex, and represent the true learning barrier to new players. Also, there is an immense variety of techniques in play of the hand, whose effective use requires learning and experience. == Introduction == At its core, bridge is a game of skill played with [[random]]ly dealt cards, which makes each deal a [[game of chance]]. This is conducive to play as a &quot;friendly game&quot; among four players. Despite this, the chance can be eliminated by comparing pairs' results in identical situations. This is achievable when there are eight or more players and the deals from each table are preserved and passed to the next table, thereby ''duplicating'' them for another 4 participants to play. At the end of a competition, the scores for each deal are compared against each other, and most points are awarded to the players doing the best with each particular deal. This measures skill despite the initial chance of the deal. This form of the game is referred to as [[duplicate bridge]] and is played in [[tournaments]], which can gather as many as several hundred players. Duplicate bridge is a [[mind sport]], and its popularity gradually became comparable to [[chess]]. == Game play == Two partnerships of two players each are needed to play bridge. The four players sit around a table with partners opposite one another. The [[compass]] directions are often used to refer to the four players, aligned with their seating pattern. Thus, [[South]] and [[North]] form one partnership and [[East]] and [[West]] form the other. A session of bridge consists of many '''deals''' (also called ''hands'' or ''boards''); the game play of each deal consists of four phases: the deal, the bidding (or auction), the play of the cards, and scoring. The goal is to achieve as high a numerical score as possible with the given cards. The score is affected by two principal factors: the number of tricks bid in the auction, and the number of tricks taken during play, where the latter must be higher than or equal to the former. Broadly said, the highest score is achieved when the number of tricks won is equal to (or close to) the number that was bid, so there is incentive to the players to accurately bid the number of tricks that their hands are capable of delivering. Thus, in the bidding stage, the pairs compete to see who proposes the highest number of tricks (and associated trump suit), and the side who wins the bidding must then fulfill that bargain by taking at least the specified number of tricks in play. The number of tricks bid and the trump suit (or lack thereof) are referred to as a '''contract'''. If the side who wins the auction then takes the contracted number of tricks (or more), it is said to have ''fulfilled the contract'' and is awarded points; otherwise, the contract is said to be ''defeated'' and points are awarded to their opponents. === Dealing === The game is played with one complete deck of 52 cards. One of the players is the ''dealer.'' In [[rubber bridge]] (or other &quot;friendly&quot; games), the cards are [[shuffle]]d and the dealer hands out all the cards clockwise one at a time, starting with his left-hand opponent and ending with himself, so each player receives a ''hand'' of thirteen cards. At the same time, for convenience, the dealer's partner is usually shuffling a second deck, ready for use on the following deal. The deal rotates clockwise, so the dealer's left-hand opponent will deal next. In [[duplicate bridge]], the hands are shuffled only once, at the beginning of the tournament, and dealt clockwise one at a time
n]] and [[Old Church Slavonic language|Church Slavonic/Old Bulgarian]] and which later reduced the number of Turkish and other Balkanic loans. Modern Bulgarian was based essentially on the Eastern dialects of the language, but its pronunciation is in many respects a compromise between East and West Bulgarian (see especially the phonetic sections below). == Alphabet == In [[886]] AD, Bulgaria adopted the [[Glagolitic alphabet]] which was devised by the Byzantine missionaries [[Saint Cyril]] and [[Saint Methodius|Methodius]] in the [[850s]]. The [[Glagolitic alphabet]] was gradually superseded in the following centuries by the [[Cyrillic alphabet]], which was developed around the [[Preslav Literary School]] in the beginning of the [[10th century]]. Most of the letters in the [[Cyrillic alphabet]] were borrowed from the [[Greek alphabet]]; those which had no Greek equivalents, however, represent simplified Glagolitic letters. Under the influence of printed books from Russia, the Russian &quot;civil script&quot; of Peter I (see [[Reforms of Russian orthography]]) replaced the old Middle Bulgarian/[[Church Slavonic]] script at the end of the [[18th century]]. Several Cyrillic alphabets with 28 to 44 letters were used in the beginning and the middle of the [[19th century]] during the efforts on the codification of Modern Bulgarian until an alphabet with 32 letters, proposed by [[Marin Drinov]], gained prominence in the [[1870s]]. The alphabet of Marin Drinov was used until the orthographic reform of [[1945]] when the letters [[yat]] {{Unicode|([[Yat|Ѣ]], ѣ,}} called &quot;double e&quot;), and [[yus]] {{Unicode|([[Big Yus|Ѫ]], ѫ)}} were removed from the alphabet. The present Bulgarian alphabet has 30 letters. The following table gives the letters of the Bulgarian alphabet, along with [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]] values for the sound of each letter: {| align=center cellpadding=6 cellspacing=0 style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; |- |[[A (Cyrillic)|'''А а''']]&lt;br&gt;{{IPA|/a/}}||[[Be (Cyrillic)|'''Б б''']]&lt;br&gt;{{IPA|/b/}}||[[Ve (Cyrillic)|'''В в''']]&lt;br&gt;{{IPA|/v/}}||[[Ge (Cyrillic)|'''Г г''']]&lt;br&gt;{{IPA|/g/}}||[[De (Cyrillic)|'''Д д''']]&lt;br&gt;{{IPA|/d/}}||[[Ye (Cyrillic)|'''Е е''']]&lt;br&gt;{{IPA|/ɛ/}}||[[Zhe (Cyrillic)|'''Ж ж''']]&lt;br&gt;{{IPA|/ʒ/}}||[[Ze (Cyrillic)|'''З з''']]&lt;br&gt;{{IPA|/z/}}||[[I (Cyrillic)|'''И и''']]&lt;br&gt;{{IPA|/i/}}||[[Short I|'''Й й''']]&lt;br&gt;{{IPA|/j/}} |- |[[Ka (Cyrillic)|'''К к''']]&lt;br&gt;{{IPA|/k/}}||[[El (Cyrillic)|'''Л л''']]&lt;br&gt;{{IPA|/l/}}||[[Em (Cyrillic)|'''М м''']]&lt;br&gt;{{IPA|/m/}}||[[En (Cyrillic)|'''Н н''']]&lt;br&gt;{{IPA|/n/}}||[[O (Cyrillic)|'''О о''']]&lt;br&gt;{{IPA|/ɔ/}}||[[Pe (Cyrillic)|'''П п''']]&lt;br&gt;{{IPA|/p/}}||[[Er (Cyrillic)|'''Р р''']]&lt;br&gt;{{IPA|/r/}}||[[Es (Cyrillic)|'''С с''']]&lt;br&gt;{{IPA|/s/}}||[[Te (Cyrillic)|'''Т т''']]&lt;br&gt;{{IPA|/t/}}||[[U (Cyrillic)|'''У у''']]&lt;br&gt;{{IPA|/u/}} |- |[[Ef (Cyrillic)|'''Ф ф''']]&lt;br&gt;{{IPA|/f/}}||[[Kha (Cyrillic)|'''Х х''']]&lt;br&gt;{{IPA|/x/}}||[[Tse (Cyrillic)|'''Ц ц''']]&lt;br&gt;{{IPA|/ʦ/}}||[[Che (Cyrillic)|'''Ч ч''']]&lt;br&gt;{{IPA|/tʃ/}}||[[Sha|'''Ш ш''']]&lt;br&gt;{{IPA|/ʃ/}}||[[Shcha|'''Щ щ''']]&lt;br&gt;{{IPA|/ʃt/}}||[[Hard sign|'''Ъ ъ''']]&lt;br&gt;{{IPA|/ɤ/}}||[[Soft sign|'''Ь ь''']]&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;{{IPA|/ʲ/}}||[[Yu (Cyrillic)|'''Ю ю''']]&lt;br&gt;{{IPA|/ju/}}||[[Ya (letter)|'''Я я''']]&lt;br&gt;{{IPA|/ja/}} |} &lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt; softens consonants before 'o' Most letters in the Bulgarian alphabet stand for one specific sound and that sound only. Three letters stand for the single expression of combinations of sounds, namely [[Shcha|щ]] (sht), [[Yu|ю]] (yu), and [[Ya|я]] (ya). Two sounds do not have separate letters assigned to them, but are expressed by the combination of two letters, namely &lt;u&gt;дж&lt;/u&gt; (like j in Jack) and &lt;u&gt;дз&lt;/u&gt; (dz). The letter &lt;u&gt;ь&lt;/u&gt; is not pronounced, but it softens (palatalizes) any preceding consonant before the letter &lt;u&gt;о&lt;/u&gt;. For questions regarding the transliteration of Bulgarian into the Latin alphabet ([[romanization]]), see [[romanization of Bulgarian]]. ==Phonology== ===Vowels=== [[Image:Bulgarian vowel chart.png|right|Standard Bulgarian vowels]] {| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;3&quot; style=&quot;border-collapse: collapse; text-align: center;&quot; |- ! !Front !Central !Back |- |High |'''и''' {{IPA|/i/}} | |'''у''' {{IPA|/u/}} |- |Mid |'''е''' {{IPA|/ɛ/}} |'''ъ''' {{IPA|/ɤ/}} |'''о''' {{IPA|/ɔ/}} |- |Low | |'''а''' {{IPA|/a/}} | |} Bulgarian's six vowels may be grouped in three pairs according to their backness: front, central and back. All vowels are relatively lax, as in most other [[Slavic languages]], and unlike the tense vowels, for example, in the [[Germanic languages]]. Unstressed vowels tend to be shorter and weaker compared to their stressed counterparts, the corresponding pairs of open and closed vowels approaching each other with a tendency to merge, although the coalescence is not always complete. The vowels may be distinguished in emphatic or deliberately distinct pronunciation, and the variation of the norm is socially conditioned, too: on the one hand, the relative absence of reduction is intuitively associated with certain types of low-status (provincial, especially West Bulgarian, or [[Romani]]-influenced) speech; on the other hand the awareness of the distinctions is naturally perceived as a sign of literacy and education. The merger is, at least in nondialectal pronunciation, totally accomplished for {{IPA|/a/}} and {{IPA|/ɤ/}} in all positions (except, occasionally and for some speakers, in a syllable immediately preceding another {{IPA|/a/}}). Unstressed {{IPA|/ɔ/}} also tends to be pronounced like {{IPA|/u/}} (phonetically {{IPA|[o]}}?) (the difference is either minimal or nonexistent in pre-stress position and totally absent after stress), but the status of that coalescence is less clear, perhaps because post-stress {{IPA|/u/}} is not very common in the first place. The considerable reduction of {{IPA|/ɛ/}} notwithstanding, similar coalescence of {{IPA|/ɛ/}} and {{IPA|/i/}} is not allowed in formal speech and is definitely regarded as a provincial (East Bulgarian) feature; rather, the acoustic impression of unstressed and above all post-stress {{IPA|/ɛ/}} might occasionally resemble a more front form of {{IPA|/ɤ/}}. ===Semivowels=== Bulgarian possesses one [[semivowel]]: {{IPA|/j/}}, equivalent to the English &lt;'''y'''&gt; in ''yes''. The {{IPA|/j/}} always immediately precedes or follows a vowel. The semivowel is most usually expressed graphically by the letter '''[[Short I|й]]''', as, for example, in &lt;u&gt;най&lt;/u&gt; /naj/ (&quot;most&quot;) and &lt;u&gt;тролей&lt;/u&gt; {{IPA|/trɔlɛj/}} (&quot;trolleybus&quot;). The letters &lt;u&gt;ю&lt;/u&gt; and &lt;u&gt;я&lt;/u&gt; are, however, also used, for example, &lt;u&gt;ютия&lt;/u&gt; /jutija/ &quot;(flat) iron&quot;. After a consonant, &lt;u&gt;ю&lt;/u&gt; and &lt;u&gt;я&lt;/u&gt; signify a palatalized consonant rather than a semivowel: &lt;u&gt;бял&lt;/u&gt; /{{IPA|bʲal/}} &quot;white&quot;. ===Consonants=== Bulgarian has a total of 33 consonant [[phonemes]] (see table below). Three additional phonemes can also be found ([{{IPA|x&amp;#690;}}], {{IPA|[&amp;#675;]}} and {{IPA|[&amp;#675;&amp;#690;]}}), but only in foreign [[proper names]] such as &lt;u&gt;Хюстън&lt;/u&gt; {{IPA|/xʲustɤn/}} (&quot;Houston&quot;), &lt;u&gt;Дзержински&lt;/u&gt; {{IPA|/dzɛrʒinski/}} (&quot;Dzerzhinsky&quot;), and &lt;u&gt;Ядзя&lt;/u&gt; /{{IPA|jaʣʲ}}a/, the Polish name &quot;Jadzia&quot;. They are, however, normally not considered part of the phonetic inventory of the Bulgarian language. According to the criterion of sonority, the Bulgarian consonants may be divided into 16 pairs (voiced&lt;&gt;voiceless). The only consonant without a counterpart is the [[voiceless velar fricative]] [x]. The contrast 'voiced vs. voiceless' is neutralized in word-final position, where all consonants are pronounced as voiceless (as in most Slavic languages, German, etc.); this neutralization is, however, not reflected in the spelling. ====Hard and palatalized consonants==== The Bulgarian consonants '''б''' {{IPA|/b/}}, '''в''' {{IPA|/v/}}, '''г''' {{IPA|/g/}}, '''д''' {{IPA|/d/}}, '''з''' {{IPA|/z/}}, '''к''' {{IPA|/k/}}, '''л''' {{IPA|/l/}}, '''м''' {{IPA|/m/}}, '''н''' {{IPA|/n/}}, '''п''' {{IPA|/p/}}, '''р''' {{IPA|/r/}}, '''с''' {{IPA|/s/}}, '''т''' {{IPA|/t/}}, '''ф''' {{IPA|/f/}}, '''ц''' {{IPA|/ʦ/}} can have both a normal, &quot;hard&quot; pronunciation, as well as a &quot;soft&quot;, palatalized one. The hard and the palatalized consonants are considered separate [[phonemes]] in Bulgarian. The consonants '''ж''' {{IPA|/ʒ/}}, '''ш''' {{IPA|/ʃ/}}, '''ч''' {{IPA|/ʧ/}} and '''дж''' {{IPA|/ʤ/}} do not have palatalized variants, which is probably connected with the fact that they have arisen historically through palatalization in common Slavic. These consonants may be realized with different grades of hardness or softness, depending on speaker and dialect; a relatively neutral realization is perceived as standard. The softness of the palatalized consonants is always indicated in writing in Bulgarian. A consonant is palatalized if: *it is followed by the soft sign '''ь'''; *it is followed by the letters '''я''' {{IPA|/&amp;nbsp;ʲa/}} or '''ю''' {{IPA|/&amp;nbsp;ʲu/}}; ('''я''' and '''ю''' are used in all other cases to represent the semivowel /j/ before /a/ and /u/.) Even though palatalized consonants are phonemes in Bulgarian, they may in some cases be positionally conditioned, hence redundant. In Eastern Bulgarian dialects, consonants are always allophonically palatalized before the vowels {{IPA|/i/}} and {{IPA|/ɛ/}}. This is not the case in correct Standard Bulgarian, but that form of the language does have similar allophonic alternations. Thus, '''
rial support to other deployed units operating far from home base. *AD [[Destroyer Tender]] *AGP [[Patrol Craft Tender]] *AR [[Repair Ship]] *AS [[Submarine tender]] *AVP [[Seaplane Tender]] ===Auxiliary=== *AN [[Net laying ship|Net Laying Ship]] == Support Ships == Support ships are not designed to participate in combat, and are generally not armed. === Support Type === A grouping of ships designed to operate in the open ocean in a variety of sea states to provide general support to either combatant forces or shore based establishments. (Includes smaller auxiliaries which by the nature of their duties, leave inshore waters). *ACS Auxiliary [[Crane Ship]] *AG Miscellaneous Auxiliary *AGDE Testing Ocean Escort *AGDS Deep Submergence Support Ship *AGER [[Environmental Research Ship]] *AGF Miscellaneous [[Command Ship]] *[[USS Glover (AGFF-1098)|AGFF Testing Frigate]] *AGM [[Missile Range Instrumentation Ship]] *AGOR [[Oceanographic Research Ship]] *AGOS [[Ocean Surveillance Ship]] *AGS [[Surveying Ship]] *AGSS Auxiliary Research Submarine *AGTR [[Technical research ship]] *AH [[Hospital ship]] *AK [[Cargo Ship]] *AKA Attack Cargo Ship *AKR Vehicle Cargo Ship *AKS [[Store Issue Ship]] *AOG [[Gasoline Tanker]] *AOT [[Transport Oiler]] *AP [[Transport ship|Transport]] *APA [[Attack Transport]] *APD High Speed Transport *ARC [[Cable Repair Ship]] *ARL Small Repair Ship *ARS [[Salvage Ship]] *ASR [[Submarine Rescue Ship]] *AT Ocean Going Tug *ATA Auxiliary [[Ocean Tug]] *ATF Fleet Ocean Tug *ATS [[Salvage and Rescue Ship]] *AVB Aviation Logistics Support Ship *AVT Auxiliary Aircraft Landing Training Ship === Service Type Craft === A grouping of navy-subordinated craft (including non-self-propelled) designed to provide general support to either combatant forces or shore-based establishments. The suffix &quot;N&quot; refers to non-self propelled variants. *AB Crane Ship *AFDB Large [[Auxiliary Floating Dry Dock]] *AFDL Small Auxiliary Floating Dry Dock *AFDM Medium Auxiliary Floating Dry Dock *APB Self-Propelled Barracks Ship *APL Barracks Craft *ARD Auxiliary Repair Dry Dock *ARDM Medium Auxiliary Repair Dry Dock *ATA Auxiliary Ocean Tug *DSRV [[Deep Submergence Rescue Vehicle]] *DSV Deep Submergence Vehicle *NR Submersible Research Vehicle *YC [[Open Lighter]] *YCF [[Car Float]] *YCV Aircraft Transportation Lighter *YD Floating [[Crane (machine)|Crane]] *YDT Diving Tender *YF [[Covered Lighter]] *YFB [[Ferry Boat]] or Launch *YFD Yard Floating Dry Dock *YFN Covered Lighter (non-self propelled) *YFNB Large Covered Lighter (non-self propelled) *YFND Dry Dock Companion Craft (non-self propelled) *YFNX Lighter (Special purpose) (non-self propelled) *YFP Floating Power Barge *YFR Refrigerated Cover Lighter *YFRN Refrigerated Covered Lighter (non-self propelled) *YFRT [[Range Tender]] *YFU Harbor Utility Craft *YG Garbage Lighter *YGN Garbage Lighter (non-self propelled) *YLC Salvage Lift Craft *YM [[Dredge]] *YMN [[Dredge]] (non-self propelled) *YNG [[Gate Craft]] *YNT [[Net Tender]] *YO Fuel Oil [[Barge]] *YOG Gasoline Barge *YOGN Gasoline Barge (non-self propelled) *YON Fuel Oil Barge (non-self propelled) *YOS Oil Storage Barge *YP Patrol Craft, Training *YPD Floating Pile Driver *YR Floating Workshop *YRB Repair and Berthing Barge *YRBM Repair, Berthing and Messing Barge *YRDH Floating Dry Dock Workshop (Hull) *YRDM Floating Dry Dock Workshop (Machine) *YRR Radiological Repair Barge *YRST Salvage Craft Tender *YSD Seaplane Wrecking [[Derrick]] *YSR Sludge Removal Barge *YT Harbor Tug (craft later assigned YTB, YTM, or YTM classifications) *YTB Large [[Harbor Tug]] *YTL Small Harbor Tug *YTM Medium Harbor Tug *YTT Torpedo Trials Craft *YW Water Barge *YWN Water Barge (non-self propelled) *IX Unclassified Miscellaneous Unit *X Submersible Craft The [[USS Constitution|USS ''Constitution'']], formerly IX 21, was reclassified to none, effective [[September 1]], [[1975]]. ==See also== *[[United States Navy 1975 ship reclassification]] *[[List of hull classifications]] *[[Ship prefix]] [[Category:United States Navy]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Habeas corpus</title> <id>14091</id> <revision> <id>41931769</id> <timestamp>2006-03-02T18:35:50Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Jredmond</username> <id>27307</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>rvv</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{CrimPro}} :''For alternative meanings of ''habeas corpus'', see [[habeas corpus (disambiguation)]]. In [[common law|English common law]] '''''habeas corpus''''' is the name of several [[writ]]s which may be issued by a [[judge]] ordering a [[prison|prisoner]] to be brought before the [[court]]. More commonly, the name refers to a specific writ known in full as '''''habeas corpus ad subjiciendum''''', a [[prerogative writ]] ordering that a prisoner be brought to the court so it can be determined whether or not he is being imprisoned lawfully. The words ''habeas corpus ad subjiciendum'' are [[Latin]] for &quot;(That) you may have/hold the body to be subjected to (examination)&quot;, and are taken from the opening words of the writ in medieval times. Other ''habeas corpus'' writs also existed, for example ''habeas corpus ad testificandum'' (&quot;[That] you may have/hold the body to bear witness&quot;), for the production of a prisoner to give evidence in court. ==''Habeas corpus ad subjiciendum''== Known as the &quot;''Great Writ''&quot;, the writ of ''habeas corpus ad subjiciendum'' is a legal proceeding in which an individual held in custody can challenge the propriety of that custody under the law. A petitioner (the individual in custody) files a petition for a writ of habeas corpus, asserting that his custody violates the law. The writ, if granted, is addressed to the custodian (warden, jailer) of the petitioner, directing that the custodian release the petitioner. The writ applies to almost all forms of official detention, civil or criminal, and was also employed in cases of imprisonment for private debt. In many jurisdictions today the writ can also be issued against private individuals. The right of ''habeas corpus'' -- the right to file a petition for a writ of habeas corpus -- has long been celebrated as the most efficient safeguard of the liberty of the subject. [[Albert Venn Dicey|Dicey]] wrote that the Habeas Corpus Acts &quot;declare no principle and define no rights, but they are for practical purposes worth a hundred constitutional articles guaranteeing individual liberty&quot;. In most countries, however, the procedure of ''habeas corpus'' can be suspended in time of national emergency. In most [[civil law (legal system)|civil law]] jurisdictions, comparable provisions exist, but they are generally not called &quot;''habeas corpus''&quot;. [[William Blackstone|Blackstone]] cites the first recorded usage of ''habeas corpus'' in [[1305]], in the reign of [[Edward I of England|King Edward I]]. However, other [[Writ#History|writs]] were issued with the same effect as early as the reign of [[Henry II of England|Henry II]] in the 12th century. [[Winston Churchill]], in his chapter on the [[English Common Law]] in 'The Birth of Britain', explains the process thus: :Only the King had a right to summon a jury. [[Henry II of England|Henry]] accordingly did not grant it to private courts .. But all this was only a first step. Henry also had to provide means whereby the litigant, eager for royal justice, could remove his case out of the court of his lord into the court of the King. The device which Henry used was the royal writ .. and any man who could by some fiction fit his own case to the wording of one of the royal writs might claim the King's justice. The procedure for the issuing of writs of ''habeas corpus'' was first codified by the [[Habeas Corpus Act 1679]], following judicial rulings which had restricted the effectiveness of the writ. A previous act had been passed in [[1640]] to overturn a ruling that the command of the King was a sufficient answer to a petition of ''habeas corpus''. Then, as now, the writ of ''habeas corpus'' was issued by a superior court in the name of the Monarch, and commanded the addressee (a lower court, sheriff, or private subject) to produce the prisoner before the Royal courts of law. Petitions for ''habeas corpus'' could be made by the prisoner himself or by a third party on his behalf, and as a result of the Habeas Corpus Acts could be made regardless of whether the court was in session, by presenting the petition to a judge. Since the [[18th century]] the writ has also been used in cases of unlawful detention by private individuals, most famously in ''[[Somersett's Case]]'' ([[1771]]), where the black slave Somersett was ordered to be freed, the famous words being quoted from an earlier case: &quot;The air of [[England]] has long been too pure for a slave, and every man is free who breathes it.&quot; Although the form of the writ of ''habeas corpus'' implies that the prisoner is brought to the court in order for the legality of the imprisonment to be examined, modern practice is to have a hearing with both parties present on whether the writ should issue, rather than issuing the writ and waiting for the return of the writ by the addressee before the legality of the detention is examined. The prisoner can then be released or bailed by order of the court without having to be produced before it. The right of ''habeas corpus'' has been suspended or restricted several times during English history, most recently during the [[18th century|18th]] and [[19th century|19th centuries]]. Although internment without trial has been authorised by statute since that time, for example during the two World Wars and the [[Troubles]] in [[Northern Ireland]], the procedure of ''habeas corpus'' has in modern times always technically remained available to such internees. However, as ''habeas corpus'' is o
thus eludes the bridegroom.&quot; [[Infanticide]] was systematic, never more than two children being reared in one family, a custom doubtless originating in the difficulty of subsistence. The young were suckled for two years. The Abipones are now believed to be extinct as a tribe. Martin Dobrizhoffer's [[Latin]] ''Historia de Abiponibus'' ([[Vienna]], [[1784]]) was translated into [[English language|English]] by [[Sara Coleridge]], at the suggestion of [[Robert Southey]], in [[1822]], under the title of ''An Account of the Abipones'' (3 vols.). ==References== *{{1911}}</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Abitibbi</title> <id>2829</id> <revision> <id>15901215</id> <timestamp>2004-10-12T19:39:07Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>66.102.74.57</ip> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Abitibi River]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Abjuration</title> <id>2830</id> <revision> <id>36172161</id> <timestamp>2006-01-22T03:44:07Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Neutrality</username> <id>68411</id> </contributor> <comment>Categories.</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Abjuration''' is the solemn repudiation, abandonment, or renunciation by or upon [[oath]], often the renunciation of [[citizenship]] or some other [[right]] or [[privilege]]. It comes from the [[Latin language|Latin]] ''abjurare'', &quot;to forswear&quot;). '''Abjuration of the realm''' was a type of abjuration in ancient [[English law]] that was a renunciation of citizenship, a type of self-imposed exile. The person taking the oath swore never to return to the kingdom unless by permission. This was often taken by fugitives who had taken [[sanctuary]]: :''I swear on the Holy Book that I will leave the realm of England and never return without the express permission of my Lord the King or his heirs. I will hasten by the direct road to the port allotted to me and not leave the King's highway under pain of arrest or execution. I will not stay at one place more than one night and will seek diligently for a passage across the sea as soon as I arrive, delaying only one tide if possible. If I cannot secure such passage, I will walk into the sea up to my knees every day as a token of my desire to cross. And if I fail in all this, then peril shall be my lot.'' In [[England]], an oath of abjuration was taken by [[Parliament of the United Kingdom|members of Parliament]], clergy, and laymen, pledging to support the current [[British monarchy|British monach]] and repudiated the right of the [[House of Stuart|Stuarts]] and other [[pretender]]s to the throne. This oath was imposed under [[William III of England|William III]], [[George I of the United Kingdom|George I]] and [[George I of the United Kingdom|George III]]. It was superseded by the [[oath of allegiance]]. Another famous oath of abjuration was [[Oath of Abjuration|Plakkaat van Verlatinghe]] of July 26, 1581, the formal [[declaration of independence]] of the northern [[Low Countries]] from the [[Spanish monarchy|Spanish king]], [[Philip II|Philip II]]. This oath was the climax of the [[Eighty Years' War]] (Dutch Revolt). ==Sources== *Black, Henry Campbell, and Bryan A. Garner (editors). ''Black's Law Dictionary'' (7th edition). West: 1999. ISBN 0314228640. *Knight, Bernard. &quot;Crowner Part 4: The Right of Sanctuary.&quot;&lt;sup&gt;[http://www.britannia.com/history/articles/coroner4.html]&lt;/sup&gt; *Meehan, Andrew B. &quot;Abjuration.&quot; ''The Catholic Encylopedia''. 1907. &lt;sup&gt;[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/01044d.htm]&lt;/sup&gt; [[Category:Legal terms]] [[Category:Oaths]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Abkhasia</title> <id>2831</id> <revision> <id>15901217</id> <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>Conversion script</ip> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Automated conversion</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Abkhazia]] </text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Abkhazia</title> <id>2832</id> <revision> <id>42125910</id> <timestamp>2006-03-04T00:09:09Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Khoikhoi</username> <id>657950</id> </contributor> <comment>the article has now been moved</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{| border=1 align=right cellpadding=4 cellspacing=0 width=300 style=&quot;margin: 0 0 1em 1em; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaaaaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%; width: 300px;&quot; |+&lt;big&gt;&lt;big&gt;'''Аҧсны/აფხაზეთი/Абхазия&lt;br&gt;Apsny/Apxazeti/Abhazia'''&lt;/big&gt;&lt;/big&gt; |- | align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;background-color: #f9f9f9;&quot; | {| border=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; |- | align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;296&quot; | [[Image:Flag of Abkhazia.svg|160px]] | align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;296&quot; | [[Image:Abkhasia g.gif|80px]] |- | align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;296&quot; | [[Flag of Abkhazia|Flag]] | align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;296&quot; | [[Coat of Arms of Abkhazia|Coat of Arms]] |} |- | align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;background-color: #f9f9f9;&quot; | [[Image:Abkhazia detail map.png|250px]] |- |- | '''[[Official language]]s''' | [[Abkhaz language|Abkhaz]], [[Russian language|Russian]] |- | '''Political status''' || De Facto Independent |- | '''[[Capital]]''' || [[Sukhum]] |- | '''Capital's [[coordinate]]s''' || {{coor dm|43|01|N|41|02|E|}} |- | '''President'''¹ || [[Sergei Bagapsh]] |- | '''Prime Minister'''¹ || [[Alexander Ankvab]] |- | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | &lt;small&gt;¹ De-facto government&lt;/small&gt; |- | '''Chairman of the&lt;br&gt;Supreme Council'''² | [[Temur Mzhavia]] |- | '''Chairman of Cabinet of Ministers'''² | [[Irakli Alasania]] |- | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | &lt;small&gt;² Pro-Georgian Government in exile&lt;/small&gt; |- valign=&quot;top&quot; | '''[[Independence]]'''&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;ndash; Declared&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;ndash; Recognition | From [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]]&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;[[23 July]] [[1992]]&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;none |- | '''[[Area]]'''&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;ndash; Total &lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;ndash; % water | &lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;8,600 km² &lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;Negligible |- | '''[[Population]]'''&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;- Total (2000 est.)&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;- [[Population density|Density]] | &lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;250,000&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;29/km² |- | '''[[Currency]]''' || [[Russian ruble]] |- | '''[[Time zone]]''' | [[Coordinated Universal Time|UTC]] +3 |} '''Abkhazia''' ([[Abkhaz language|Abkhaz]] Аҧсны/Aphsny, [[Georgian language|Georgian]] აფხაზეთი/Apxazeti, [[Russian language|Russian]] Абха́зия/Abhazia) is a region of 8,600 [[square kilometre|km²]] (3,300 sq.mi.) in the [[Caucasus]]. It is formally an autonomous republic within [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]] but is ''[[de facto]]'' independent, although not recognised as such internationally. The capital is [[Sukhum]]. ==Geography and Climate== Abkhazia covers an area of about 8,600 km² at the western end of Georgia, on the north shore of the [[Black Sea]]. The [[Caucasus mountains]] to the north and the northeast divide Abkhazia from [[Circassia]]. To the east, the region is bordered by [[Svanetia]]. To the southeast, Abkhazia is bounded by [[Samegrelo]]; and on the south and southwest by the Black Sea. The republic is extremely mountainous (nearly 75% is classified as mountains or foothills) and settlement is largely confined to the coast and a number of deep, well-watered valleys. The [[Caucasus Mountains|Greater Caucasus Mountain Range]] runs along the region's northern border. The Gagra, Bziphi, and Kodori Ranges branch off from the Main Caucasus Range. The highest peaks of Abkhazia are in the northeast and east (along the border with [[Svanetia]]) and several exceed 4,000 meters (13,120 feet) above sea level. The climate is extremely mild, which in the Soviet times caused it to become a popular holiday destination known as the &quot;Georgian Riviera&quot;. It is also renowned for its agricultural produce, including [[tea]], [[tobacco]], [[wine]] and [[fruit]]s. ==Landscape== Abkhazia is well known for its beauty and contrasting landscapes. The landscapes of the region range from coastal forests ([[endemic (ecology)|endemic]] [[pine]] forests near Bichvinta/Pitsunda) and citrus plantations, to eternal snows and [[glaciers]] to the north of the republic. Because of Abkhazia's complex topographic setting, most of the territory has been spared from significant human cultivation and development. Therefore, a large portion of Abkhazia (nearly 70% of the territory) is still covered by forests today. Abkhazia is also well known for the high number of endemic species of plants that are found only in the Caucasus, only in Georgia, or only in Abkhazia. Southeastern Abkhazia, a part of the [[Colchis|Colchis Lowland]], is covered by Colchian forests ([[alder]], [[hornbeam]], [[oak]], [[Oriental Beech|beech]]), or by [[citrus]] and [[tea]] plantations. The foothills, up to an elevation of 600 meters (1,968 feet) above sea level, are covered by [[deciduous]] forests (with [[evergreen]] elements), and include tree species such as oak, hornbeam, beech, and [[buxus]]. The forest cover from 600 to 1,800 meters (1,960-5,904 ft.) above sea level is made up of both deciduous and [[coniferous]] species of trees. The most common species are beech, [[Caucasian Spruce|spruce]], and [[Nordmann Fir|fir]]. The mixed forest zone is home to some of the tallest trees in [[Europe]] and the world, where some specimens of the Nordmann Fir (especially around [[Lake Ritsa]]) reach heights of over 70 meters (230 feet). The zone extending 1,800-2,900 m (5,904-9,512
largely of crystalline rocks with granites and some Palaeozoic unfossiliferous rocks. The [[littoral]] zone contains the only [[fossiliferous]] strata. These are of [[Tertiary Age|Tertiary]] and [[Cretaceous]] ages, the latter rocks resting on a reddish sandstone of older date. The Cretaceous rocks of the Dombe Grande region (near Benguella) are of [[Albian age]] and belong to the ''[[Acanthoceras mamillari]]'' zone. The beds containing ''[[Schloenbachia inflata]]'' are referable to the [[Gault]]. Rocks of Tertiary age are met with at Dombe Grande, Mossamedes and near Loanda. The sandstones with [[gypsum]], [[copper]] and [[sulfur]] of Dombe are doubtfully considered to be of [[Triassic]] age. Recent eruptive rocks, mainly [[basalt]]s, form a line of hills almost bare of vegetation between Benguella and Mossamedes. Nepheline basalts and [[liparite]]s occur at Dombe Grande. The presence of [[gum copal]] in considerable quantities in the superficial rocks is characteristic of certain regions. == Location == Southern [[Africa]], bordering the South [[Atlantic Ocean]], between [[Namibia]] and [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] '''[[Geographic coordinates]]:''' {{coor dm|12|30|S|18|30|E|type:country}} '''Map references:''' Africa == Area == * ''total:'' 1,246,700 km² * ''land:'' 1,246,700 km² * ''water:'' 0 km² === Area comparative === *[[Australia]] comparative: smaller than the [[Northern Territory]] *[[Canada]] comparative: slightly smaller than the [[Northwest Territories]] *[[United Kingdom]] comparative: 5 times bigger than the UK *[[United States]] comparative: slightly less than twice the size of [[Texas]] == Capital == *[[Luanda]] (São Paulo de Loanda) - port - [[railhead]] == Major Cities == *[[Amboim]] (Porto Amboim) *[[Bailundo]] (Vila Teixeira da Silva) *[[Benguela]] (São Felipe de Benguella) - port - [[railhead]] *[[Caála]] (Vila Robert Williams) *[[Calandula]] (Duque de Bragança) *[[Camacupa]] (Vila General Machado) *[[Chibia]] (Vila João de Almeida) *[[Ganda]] (Vila Mariano Machado) *[[Huambo]] (Nova Lisboa) - rail *[[Kuito]] (Silva Porto) *[[Kuvango]] (Vila da Ponte) *[[Lubango]] (Sá da Bandeira) *[[Lwena]] (Vila Luso) *[[Massango]] (Forte República) *[[Mbanza Congo]] (São Salvador do Congo) *[[Menongue]] (Serpa Pinto) - [[railhead]] *[[Namibe]] (Moçâmedes) - port - [[railhead]] *[[N'Dalatando]] (Vila Salazar) - rail *[[N'Giva]] (Vila Pereira d'Eça) *[[Saurimo]] (Vila Henrique de Carvalho) *[[Soyo]] (Santo António do Zaire) *[[Sumbe]] (Novo Redondo) *[[Tombua]] (Porto Alexandre) *[[Uíje]] (Carmona) * Other [[Towns in Angola]] == Land boundaries == * ''total:'' 5,198 km * ''border countries:'' [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] 2,511 km (of which 220 km is the boundary of discontiguous [[Angola/Cabinda|Cabinda Province]]), Republic of the Congo 201 km, [[Namibia]] 1,376 km, [[Zambia]] 1,110 km '''Coastline:''' 1,600 km '''Maritime claims:''' * ''contiguous zone:'' 24 nautical miles (44,5 km) * ''exclusive economic zone:'' 200 [[nautical mile]]s (370 km) * ''territorial sea:'' 12 nautical miles (22 km) == Climate == Like the rest of tropical Africa, Angola experiences distinct, alternating rainy and dry seasons. It is semiarid in South and along coast to Luanda; North has cool, dry season (May to October) and hot, rainy season (November to April). In the interior, above 3300 ft. (1000 m), the temperature and rainfall decrease. The plateau climate is healthy and invigorating. The mean annual temperature at [[São Salvador do Congo]] is 22.2° C (72.5° F); at [[Loanda]], 23.3° C (74.3° F); and at [[Caconda]], 19.5° C (67.2° F). The climate is greatly influenced by the prevailing [[wind]]s, which arc W., S.W. and S.S.W. Two seasons are distinguished - the cool, from June to September; and the rainy, from October to May. The heaviest [[rainfall]] occurs in April, and is accompanied by violent storms. == Terrain == Angola has three principal natural regions: the coastal lowland, characterized by low plains and terraces; hills and mountains, rising inland from the coast into a great escarpment; and an area of high plains, called the high plateau (planalto), which extends eastward from the escarpment. The highest point in Angola is [[Morro de Moco]], at 2,620 m. ===Coastal lowland=== The coastal lowland rises from the sea in a series of low terraces. This region varies in width from about 25 kilometers near Benguela to more than 150 kilometers in the Cuanza River Valley just south of Angola's capital, Luanda, and is markedly different from Angola's highland mass. The Atlantic Ocean's cold, northwardflowing Benguela Current substantially reduces precipitation along the coast, making the region relatively arid or nearly so south of Benguela (where it forms the northern extension of the Namib Desert), and quite dry even in its northern reaches. Even where, as around Luanda, the average annual rainfall may be as much as fifty centimeters, it is not uncommon for the rains to fail. Given this pattern of precipitation, the far south is marked by sand dunes, which give way to dry scrub along the middle coast. Portions of the northern coastal plain are covered by thick brush. ===Hills and mountains=== The belt of hills and mountains parallels the coast at distances ranging from 20 kilometers to 100 kilometers inland. The Cuanza River divides the zone into two parts. The northern part rises gradually from the coastal zone to an average elevation of 500 meters, with crests as high as 1,000 meters to 1,800 meters. South of the Cuanza River, the hills rise sharply from the coastal lowlands and form a high escarpment, extending from a point east of Luanda and running south through Namibia. The escarpment reaches 2,400 meters at its highest point, southeast of the town of Sumbe, and is steepest in the far south in the Serra da Chela mountain range. ===High plateau=== The high plateau lies to the east of the hills and mountains and dominates Angola's terrain. The surface of the plateau is typically flat or rolling, but parts of the Benguela Plateau and the Humpata Highland area of the Huíla Plateau in the south reach heights of 2,500 meters and more. The Malanje Plateau to the north rarely exceeds 1,000 meters in height. The Benguela Plateau and the coastal area in the immediate environs of Benguela and Lobito, the Bié Plateau, the Malanje Plateau, and a small section of the Huíla Plateau near the town of Lubango have long been among the most densely settled areas in Angola. ==Drainage== Most of the country's many rivers originate in central Angola, but their patterns of flow are diverse and their ultimate outlets varied. A number of rivers flow in a more or less westerly course to the Atlantic Ocean, providing water for irrigation in the dry coastal strip and the potential for hydroelectric power, only some of which had been realized by 1988. Two of Angola's most important rivers, the Cuanza and the Cunene, take a more indirect route to the Atlantic, the Cuanza flowing north and the Cunene flowing south before turning west. The Cuanza is the only river wholly within Angola that is navigable--for nearly 200 kilometers from its mouth- -by boats of commercially or militarily significant size. The Congo River, whose mouth and western end form a small portion of Angola's northern border with Zaire, is also navigable. North of the Lunda Divide a number of important tributaries of the Congo River flow north to join it, draining Angola's northeast quadrant. South of the divide some rivers flow into the Zambezi River and thence to the Indian Ocean, others to the Okavango River (as the Cubango River is called along the border with Namibia and in Botswana) and thence to the Okavango Swamp in Botswana. The tributaries of the Cubango River and several of the southern rivers flowing to the Atlantic are seasonal, completely dry much of the year. ==Land use and hazards== '''Natural resources:''' [[petroleum]], [[diamond]]s, [[iron]] ore, [[phosphates]], [[copper]], [[feldspar]], [[gold]], [[bauxite]], [[uranium]] '''Land use:''' * ''arable land:'' 2.41% * ''permanent crops:'' 0.4% * ''other:'' 97.19% (1999 est.) '''Irrigated land:''' 750 km² (1998 est.) '''Natural hazards:''' locally heavy rainfall causes periodic flooding on the plateau == Environment - current issues == Overuse of [[pasture]]s and subsequent [[soil erosion]] attributable to population pressures; [[desertification]]; [[deforestation]] of tropical rain forest, in response to both international demand for tropical [[timber]] and to domestic use as fuel, resulting in loss of [[biodiversity]]; soil erosion contributing to [[water pollution]] and [[silting]] of rivers and dams; inadequate supplies of potable water '''Environment - international agreements:''' * ''party to:'' Biodiversity, [[Climate Change]], Desertification, [[Law of the Sea]], [[Ozone Layer Protection]], Ship Pollution ([[MARPOL 73/78]]) * ''signed, but not ratified:'' none of the selected agreements == Flora and fauna == Both [[flora (plants)|flora]] and [[fauna (animals)|fauna]] are those characteristic of the greater part of tropical Africa. As far south as Benguela the coast region is rich in [[oil palm]]s and [[mangrove]]s. In the Northern part of the province are dense forests. In the South towards the Kunene are regions of dense [[thorn scrub]]. [[Rubber]] vines and trees are abundant, but in some districts their number has been considerably reduced by the primitive methods adopted by native collectors of rubber. The species most common are various root rubbers, notably the ''Carpodinus chylorrhiza''. This species and other varieties of carpodinus are very widely distributed. [[Landolphia]]s are also found. The [[coffee]], [[cotton]] and [[Guinea pepper]] plants are indigenous, and the [[tobacco]] plant flourishes in several districts. Among the trees are several which yield excellent timber, such as the [[tacula]] (''Pterocarpus tinctorius''), whi
contributor> <comment>R from misspelling</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Drunkenness]] {{R from misspelling}}</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Dsungaripterus</title> <id>8937</id> <revision> <id>37539388</id> <timestamp>2006-01-31T17:31:35Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Gdrbot</username> <id>263608</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>nomialbot — converted multi-template taxobox to {{Taxobox}}</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Taxobox | color = pink | name = ''Dsungaripterus'' | status = {{StatusFossil}} | regnum = [[Animal]]ia | phylum = [[Chordate|Chordata]] | classis = [[Sauropsid|Sauropsida]] | ordo = [[Pterosauria]] | familia = [[Dsungaripteridae]] | genus = '''''Dsungaripterus''''' | subdivision_ranks = Species | subdivision = ''D. brancai''&lt;br&gt; ''D. weii'' }} '''''Dsungaripterus''''' was a [[Pterosaur]] with a wingspan of 3 metres (10 feet). It had a bony crest running along its snout, and long, narrow, upcurved jaws with a pointed tip. It lived in northern [[China]] during the [[Early Cretaceous|early]] [[Cretaceous]] period. [[Category:Pterosaurs]] {{reptile-stub}}</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>David A. Huffman</title> <id>8938</id> <revision> <id>39375845</id> <timestamp>2006-02-12T19:30:44Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Ghepeu</username> <id>217964</id> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; width=&quot;245&quot; style=&quot;margin-left:3px&quot; align=&quot;right&quot; !align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;salmon&quot; colspan=&quot;3&quot;|''David A. Huffman'' |- |align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=&quot;3&quot;|[[Image:dHuffman.jpg]] |- !align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;salmon&quot; colspan=&quot;3&quot;|Career Snapshot |- !align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|Born |colspan=&quot;2&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;| [[August 9]], [[1925]] |- !align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|Died |colspan=&quot;2&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;| [[October 7]], [[1999]] |- !align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|Most Known for |colspan=&quot;2&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;| [[Huffman coding]] |} Professor '''David A. Huffman''' ([[August 9]], [[1925]] - [[October 7]], [[1999]]) was a pioneer in the [[computer science]] field. Throughout his life, Huffman made significant contributions to the study of [[finite state machine]]s, [[switching circuit]]s, [[synthesis procedure]]s, and [[signal design]]s. However, David Huffman is best known for his legendary [[Huffman coding|Huffman code]], a [[Data compression|compression]] scheme for [[Lossless data compression|lossless]] variable length [[coding theory|encoding]]. It was the result of a term paper he wrote while a graduate student at the [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology]] (MIT), where he earned a [[Doctor of Science|ScD]] degree in EECS in 1953. &quot;Huffman Codes&quot; are used in nearly every application that involves the [[Data compression|compression]] and transmission of [[digital]] [[data]], such as [[Fax|fax machine]]s, [[modem]]s, [[computer network]]s, and [[high-definition television]] (HDTV), to name a few. ==Biography== A native of [[Ohio]], Huffman earned his B.S. in [[electrical engineering]] from [[Ohio State University]] at the age of 18 in [[1944]]. He then served in the [[United States Navy|U.S. Navy]] as a [[radar]] maintenance officer on a destroyer that helped to clear mines in Japanese and Chinese waters after [[World War II]]. He subsequently earned his M.S. degree from Ohio State in [[1949]] and his Ph.D. from MIT in [[1953]], also in [[electrical engineering]]. Huffman joined the faculty at MIT in [[1953]]. In [[1967]], he went to [[University of California, Santa Cruz]] as the founding faculty member of the Computer Science Department. He played a major role in the development of the department's academic programs and the hiring of its faculty, and served as chair from 1970 to [[1973]]. He retired in [[1994]], but remained active as an emeritus professor, teaching information theory and signal analysis courses. Huffman made important contributions in many other areas, including [[information theory]] and coding, signal designs for radar and communications applications, and design procedures for asynchronous logical circuits. As an outgrowth of his work on the mathematical properties of &quot;zero curvature&quot; surfaces, Huffman developed his own techniques for folding paper into unusual sculptured shapes (which gave rise to the field of [[mathematics of paper folding|computational origami]]). Huffman's accomplishments earned him numerous awards and honors. Most recently, he received the [[1999]] [[Richard Hamming]] Medal from the [[Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers]] (IEEE) in recognition of his exceptional contributions to information sciences. He also received the [[Louis E. Levy]] Medal of the Franklin Institute for his doctoral thesis on sequential [[switching circuit]]s, a Distinguished Alumnus Award from Ohio State University, and the [[W. Wallace McDowell]] Award. He was a charter recipient of the Computer Pioneer Award from the IEEE Computer Society, and he received a Golden Jubilee Award for Technological Innovation from the IEEE Information Theory Society in [[1998]]. David Huffman passed away in 1999 after a 10-month battle with [[cancer]]. He was survived by his wife, Marilyn Huffman, of [[Santa Cruz, California|Santa Cruz]]; his former wife, Jane Ayres Huffman; their three children, Elise, Linda, and [http://www.mitre.org/about/officers/huffman.html Stephen Huffman], all of Santa Cruz; a son-in-law, Jeff Grubb, of Santa Cruz; a stepdaughter, Marti Homer Kehlet, of [[Sacramento, California|Sacramento]], her husband, Daret, and their daughter, Karsen; a stepson, Darin Homer of [[Prunedale, California|Prunedale]], his wife, Jane, and their son, Ryan; and a brother, Donald Huffman, of [[Westerville, Ohio|Westerville]], Ohio, his wife, Jean, and their family. Huffman never tried to [[patent]] an invention from his work. Instead, he concentrated his efforts on education. In Huffman's own words, &quot;My products are my students.&quot; ==See also== * [[Data compression]] * [[Lossless data compression]] * [[Huffman coding]] * [[Information entropy|Entropy]] *[[Shannon-Fano coding]] ==External links== * [http://www.ucsc.edu/currents/99-00/10-18/inmemoriam.html &quot;In Memoriam,&quot; UC Santa Cruz Currents Online], October 18, 1999. * [http://www.huffmancoding.com/david/scientific.html Scientific American Profile: David Huffman], Gary Stix, September 1991. * [http://www.ucsc.edu/news_events/press_releases/archive/99-00/10-99/huffman.htm UCSC Press Release: Faculty member David Huffman dies at 74] * [http://www.sgi.com/grafica/huffman/ Geometric Paper Folding: Dr. David Huffman] * [http://www.nytimes.com/2004/06/22/science/22orig.html?pagewanted=1 Cones, Curves, Shells, Towers: He Made Paper Jump to Life (NY Times subscription required)] [[Category:1925 births|Huffman, David A.]] [[Category:1999 deaths|Huffman, David A.]] [[Category:Computer pioneers|Huffman, David A.]] [[Category:American computer scientists|Huffman, David A.]] [[de:David A. Huffman]] [[fr:David A. Huffman]] [[nl:David Huffman]] [[pl:David Huffman]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>David Huffman</title> <id>8940</id> <revision> <id>15906872</id> <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>Conversion script</ip> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Automated conversion</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[David A. Huffman]] </text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Dagome iudex</title> <id>8941</id> <revision> <id>39071375</id> <timestamp>2006-02-10T14:45:24Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Appleseed</username> <id>404133</id> </contributor> <minor /> <text xml:space="preserve">'''''Dagome iudex''''' is the name applied to one of the earliest documents relating to [[Poland]], written by [[Mieszko I]] and his wife [[Oda von Haldensleben|Oda]] in [[991]], placing the Polish state and its capital, [[Gniezno]], under the protection of the [[Apostolic See]]. The document's name derives from its two opening words. ==Nature and import of the ''Dagome iudex''== The ''Dagome iudex'' survives only in the form of a summary, completed ca. [[1080]]. It was found in a register compiled by a [[Roman Curia|curial]] [[Catholic Cardinal|cardinal]] during the [[Pope|papacy]] of [[Pope Gregory VII|Gregory VII]]. Most historians believe that ''Dagome'' is a melding of two names: the Christian ''Dago'', for &quot;Dagobert&quot; (Mieszko's baptismal name), and the Slavic ''Me'', for &quot;Mieszko.&quot; The [[Latin]] word ''iudex'' (&quot;judge&quot;) is used in the meaning of &quot;prince.&quot; Place names are misspelled by the person who made the summary. He was also apparently unaware that the document related to Poland. The boundaries of the &quot;[[Gniezno]]&quot; state are described as extending to the &quot;Long Sea&quot; (the [[Baltic Sea|Baltic]]), [[Prussia]], [[Rus']], [[Kraków]], [[Moravia]] and the [[Oder River]]. The document did not take account of [[Mieszko I|Mieszko]]'s territorial conquests of [[989]] - [[990]], [[Lesser Poland]] and [[Silesia]]. The ''Dagome iudex'' is of capital importance for [[History of Poland|Polish history]] in giving a general description of the Polish state in that period. It, however, leaves unanswered many questions. First, it does not explain ''why'' [[Mieszko I]] placed his state under the protection of the Pope. Also, it is unclear why the document does not mention Mieszko's elde
r creation is not recounted in the Qur'an, Tabari recounts the biblical tale of her creation, stating that she was named because she was created from a ''living'' thing (her name means ''living''). The torah gives an etymology for ''woman'', or rather the Hebrew equivalent (''ish-shah''), stating that she should be called ''woman'' since she was taken out of man (''ish'' in Hebrew). The etymology is regarded as implausible by most semitic linguists. Al-[[Qummi]] records the opinion that Eden was not entirely earthly, and so, having been sent to earth, Adam and Eve first arrived at mountain peaks outside [[Mecca]]; Adam on [[Safa]], and Eve on [[Marwa]]. In this Islamic tradition, Adam remained weeping for 40 days, until he repented, at which point God rewarded him by sending down the [[Kaaba]], and teaching him the [[hajj]]. Other Islamic traditions hold that Adam was moved to [[Sri Lanka]], as the next best thing to Eden, and, viewing Adam as having been a giant, human size having shrunk drastically before the [[great flood]], [[Adam's Peak]] is said to contain his giant footprint. The Qur'an also describes the two sons of Adam (named Qabil and Habil in Islamic tradition, but not mentioned by name in the Qur'an) that correspond to Cain and Abel. ==Historicity== Many Jewish scholars in the ancient world and today and some modern Christians consider Adam and Eve as an example of [[The Bible as myth|religous myth]] where the focus is on fundamental truths. In their interpretation, the story conveys the truth of sin and human rebellion, regardless of historical accuracy. All, some, or none of the actual events of the narrative may have actually happened. Adam and Eve are usually considered as real historical people as [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=gen%205.3&amp;version=31 Genesis 5:4] records Adam in a geneaology. In the [[New Testament]], [[Paul]] references Adam and Eve many times, especially contrasting Adam with Jesus where Paul writes &quot;just as sin entered the world through one man.&quot; This seems to support a historical Adam as many theologians interpret [[Original sin|Adam's sin]] as a historical event that changed humankind. However, Paul could be merely using the myth as a teaching method. Others view Adam and Eve as metaphorical for every person when they first sin and God seeks them out. Those who hold this view point out that ''adam'' can also be translated ''humankind.'' [[The Age of Reason]] prompted Christians to interpret the Bible as strict history rather than historical [[Mythology|myth]]; [[William Whiston]] was one such early scholar. [[James Ussher]] calculated Adam and Eve's life at approximately 6,000 BCE, basing on the [[Genealogies of Genesis]] and [[Table of Nations]]. In [[Modern Age|modern times]], with the advent of [[archaeology|archaeological]] discoveries, the theory of [[evolution]], and [[genetics|genetic science]], Christians believing in the historicity of Adam and Eve were challenged. Many denominations have rejected the historicity of Adam and Eve; others have retained it, including the [[Roman Catholic Church]][http://www.catholic.com/library/Adam_Eve_and_Evolution.asp] and [[Evangelicalism|evangelicals]]. Several controversal organizations have formed that view the Bible as strict history and try to backup their beliefs through science. ===Ancestry and evolutionary biology=== {{main|Mitochondrial Eve}} A theory of a single male and female human ancestor is almost completely contradictory to most modern synthesis of the theory of [[evolution]], which posits that humans evolved from ape-like creatures, gradually. Nevertheless, modern [[genetics|genetic]] studies has identified a single female, [[Mitochondrial Eve]], as the ancestor of every human. Similarly, a single male ancestor has been identified, [[Y-chromosomal Adam]], living many millennia after Mitochondrial Eve. ===The Sumerian connection=== [[Image:Blake Adam and Eve.jpg|200px|thumb|right|''Adam and Eve'', by [[English poetry|English poet]] and [[Painting|painter]] [[William Blake]] ([[1808]]).]] Tales involving [[Enki]] (from En = Lord, Ki = Earth) and [[Ninhursag]] in [[Sumerian mythology]] (from Nin = Lady, (K)hur = Mountain, Sag = Sacred), and [[Adapa]] in later mythology, has been put forward by several scholars as a likely candidate for large parts of the story of Adam and Eve, most controversially by [[David Rohl]] in 2005, but also by established scholars of Sumeria such as [[Samuel Noah Kramer]], in 1981. In the Sumerian myth, Ninhursag creates at [[Dilmun]] a beautiful garden full of lush vegetation and fruit trees called ''Edinu'' (Sumerian = Wilderness), a name remarkably similar to ''Eden''. Ninhursag creates the garden for herself, but fearing for its protection while she is absent, charges Enki, her lover, with the responsibility to control wild animals, and tend the garden. Enki, however, becomes curious, and desires to know about the plants. His assistant Adapa, selects seven plants (Akkadian &quot;Shappatu&quot;, hence Hebrew &quot;Sabbath&quot;) offering them to Enki, who eats them. In other versions of the same story, he seduces seven generations of the offspring of his [[hieros gamos|divine marriage]] with Ninhursag, in turn. This enranges Ninhursag, and she causes Enki to fall ill. Enki becomes increasingly ill, feeling pain in seven parts of his body, the eighth part of which is his rib (Sumerian = Ti, meaning &quot;Life&quot;). The other gods realise he is dying and so persuade Ninhursag to relent. In response Ninhursag creates a new goddess named Ninti (Nin = Lady, Ti = Life/Rib), a name which translates both as ''Lady of Living'' and ''Lady of the Rib'', to cure the sickness. One of Ninhursag's other names was Nintu, and most scholars hence view the story of Ninti as deriving from a pun on her name, arising after ''Nintu'' became corrupted to ''Ninti''. Ninhursag has the epithet ''mother of all living offspring'', and hence holds the same position as Eve - ''mother of all living'' (Genesis 3:29). Another significant connection is in the name of Ninti, as Eve's name means ''living'', and Eve is produced from Adam's rib. If one story were derived from the other, because the [[pun]] with rib is present only in [[Sumerian language|Sumerian]], linguistic criticism places the Sumerian as the more original account. Enki himself was both the divine lover of Ninhursag, who brought fertility to the earth, and both he and Ninhursag were the 6th generation of the Gods (called by the Sumerians, the Anunaki from Anu = Heaven, Na = And, Ki = Earth), hence having parallels with Adam in addition to the story of the rib, and his charge over the garden. Mankind was created in the 7th generation in order that the younger Igigi Gods could rest from their labours and is additionally described as being fashioned from clay in Sumerian myth, though by the Babylonian era, the clay was said to have had the added blood of [[Kingu]], who was captured by [[Marduk]] son of Enki and Ninhursag, and slain. This supernatural importance of blood is not present in early Sumerian myth, but is recorded in certain sections of the torah, for example [[Leviticus]] records that ''the life is in the blood''. While the Sumerian/Babylonian myth involves multiple deities in the creation of man, in the [[monotheism|monotheist]] account in the torah, this is not possible. Knowledge generally was viewed in Sumerian myth as deriving from trees. This is explicitly present in a myth of [[Inanna]] and [[Utu]], explaining how Inanna, goddess of [[lust]], initially gained knowledge about [[sexual intercourse|sex]] by descending to earth and eating from various plants and trees, in particular [[Cedar]]s. The merging of this motif, with that of forbidden fruit in the story of Enki and Ninhursag, to produce that of genesis, the [[Tree of the Knowledge of Good and Evil]], has been suggested by scholars of ancient near eastern mythology, such as Leick&lt;!-- Assyriology PhD (Univ. Graz - Austria), lecturer at Richmond College and Univ. Glamorgan --&gt;. By the Babylonian era, Enki had become viewed as more removed from humanity, and his place as the first leader of man was taken by an individual named Adapa U-an (the [[Oannes]] of [[Berossus]]), who was a human, but created by Enki as advisor (Apkallu, Akkadian for the Sumerian Abgallu, from Ab = Water, Gal = Great, Lu = Man) to the first king of Enki's city of [[Eridu]]. One 14th century BC tablet in fact refers to Adapa as ''the seed of humankind''. One myth recounts that Adapa broke the wings of the south wind of the desert (Sumerian [[Ninlil]], from Nin = Lady, Lil = Wind, wife of the King of the Gods, [[Enlil]], in Akkadian times called Lilitu) in anger at being disturbed fishing, and so was called to the heavens to answer for doing so. Once there, he was warned by Enki to apologise for his actions, but not to touch the food, in case it had been poisoned in revenge. But the Gods, impressed by his repentence set the ''food and drink of immortality'' before him, but heeding Enki's warning, he refused the food and so lost out on immortality. The god which offered the ''food and drink of immortality'' was the wily serpent-god [[Ningishzida]] (Hebrew [[Nehushtan]]). While in the biblical account it is knowledge which the serpent offers, what the serpent actually remarks to Eve is that she ''shall not die''. The food and drink of the gods originated from the earth, and hence somewhere lay the source of the food and drink of immortality, a ''Tree of Life''. Nevertheless, in the biblical account, the food is consumed, not rejected, and the couple are punished for it by being expelled from the garden. Thus any derivation of the biblical account from Sumerian and Babylonian ones involves the confusion of the tale of Adapa and the south wind and that of Enki in the garden. Such a conflation of these two separate tales may have been influenced by a story preserve
d social imperatives of the [[state]]. Islamist movements seek to re-shape the state by implementing a conservative formulation of [[Sharia]]. [http://i-cias.com/e.o/islamism.htm] Islamists regard themselves as Muslims rather than Islamists, while moderate Muslims and [[liberal movements within Islam]] reject this notion. For some, Islamism exhibits [[triumphalism]]. ==Definition== In the aftermath of the [[September 11, 2001 attacks]], Islamist movements, along with other [[Islam as a political movement|political movements]] inspired by [[Islam]], gained increased attention in the Western [[media]]. Although the groups and individuals representing these are not mutually exclusive, within academia, each term does have a distinct definition. Some Islamist groups have been implicated in [[terrorism]] and have become targets in the [[War on Terrorism]]. However, it is important to keep in mind that this 'difference' between &quot;Islam&quot; and &quot;Islamism&quot; is not as sharp, clear or distinct for many followers of Islam as it has been made in recent years become for many English-speaking non-Muslims or western academics. For example, most followers of Islam would consider themselves &quot;Fundamentalists&quot;, insofar as believing in Islam means believing in its Fundamentals. Similarly, Islam also promotes a vision of society influenced by the tenets of the religion, in much the same way that Christianity, Buddhism and other religions advocate not just personal but also social changes. Most Islamist literature deals not with other [[religion]]s, but with political [[ideologies]], since Islamists were reacting against competing movements such as [[communism]]. Widespread poverty and consequent class tensions led to widespread [[socialist]] movements all over the Muslim world during the [[20th century]]. But the collapse of the [[Soviet Union]] ultimately reduced the influence of leftist ideologies. Islamism has emerged as the remaining revolutionary ideology in Muslim societies, gaining much support through rising anti-Western sentiment due to control of the [[West Bank]] and [[Gaza Strip]] by [[Israel]]. Governments based on secular [[Arab nationalism]] have found themselves facing economic stagnation and disorder. Some Muslims place the blame for these flaws in Muslim societies on the influx of &quot;foreign&quot; ideas; a return to the principles of Islam is seen as the natural cure. A persistent Islamist theme is that Muslims are persecuted by the West and other foreigners. In this context, Islamist ideas developed in several different settings. Some, including [[Robert Spencer]] and [[Andrew Bostom]], specialists on Islam, reject the notion of &quot;Islamist&quot; as separate from Islam, arguing that the elements that are identified as &quot;Islamist&quot; are actually central to Islam. Islam is not merely a religion. It is a way of life for all Muslims. Just as it gives laws what is forbidden to eat, it gives laws on crimes that are forbidden to do, and there are punishments for not following those. This is generally what Shari'ah (Islamic law) is. Muslims do not find anything wrong in trying to establish an Islamic state that takes the Shari'ah as law if the majority of that country's population are themselves Muslim and so would find no objection to their state law being in accordance with their belief. This seem to mirror what 'Islamists' would like, so Muslims do not disagree with them on this notion, rather, they agree with them. ==History== Although Islamic states based on [[Shari'a]] law have existed since the earliest days of Islam, ''Islamism'' refers to modern movements that developed during the twentieth century in reaction to several forces. Following [[World War I]], the dissolution of the [[Ottoman Empire]], and the subsequent dissolution of the [[Caliphate]] by [[Mustafa Kemal Atatürk]] (founder of [[Turkey]]), some Muslims perceived that Islam was in retreat, and felt that Western ideas were spreading throughout Muslim society, along with the influence of Western nations. During the [[1960s]], the predominant ideology within the Arab world was [[pan-Arabism]] which deemphasized religion and emphasized the creation of a socialist, secular state based on [[Arab nationalism]] rather than [[Islam]]. ===The Deobandi Movement=== In India, the [[Deobandi]] movement developed as a reaction to [[United Kingdom|British]] actions against Muslims and the influence of [[Sayed Ahmad Khan]], who advocated the reform and [[modernization]] of Islam. Named after the town of [[Deoband]], where it originated, the movement was built around Islamic schools (principally [[Darul Uloom Deoband| Darul Uloom]]) and taught an interpretation of Islam that encouraged the subservience of women, discouraged the use of many forms of technology and entertainment, and believed that only &quot;revealed&quot; or God-inspired knowledge (rather than human knowledge) should be followed. These, however, were against many Muslim teachings (e.g. women were in fact to be held in high esteem and held rights over men, not vice versa). Though the Deobandi philosophy is puritanical and wishes to remove non-Muslim (i.e., Hindu or Western) influence from Muslim societies, it was not especially violent or [[Proselytization|proselytising]], confining its activity mostly to the establishment of ''[[madrassa]]s'', or Muslim religious schools. They are a major sector of Muslims in the region (the followers of [[Sayed Ahmad Khan]] being a significant minority). The [[Taliban]] movement in Afghanistan was a product of the Deobandi philosophy and the ''madarassas''. ===Sayyid Abul Ala Maududi=== [[Sayyid Abul Ala Maududi]] was an important early twentieth-century figure in India, then, after independence from Britain, in [[Pakistan]]. Strongly influenced by Deobandi ideology, he advocated the creation of an Islamic state governed by [[sharia]], Islamic law, as interpreted by [[Shura]] councils. Maududi founded the [[Jamaat-e-Islami]] in 1941 and remained at its head until 1972. His extremely influential book, &quot;[[Towards Understanding Islam]]&quot; ([[Risalat Diniyat]] in [[Arabic language|Arabic]]), placed Islam in modern context and enabled not only conservative [[ulema]] but liberal modernizers such as [[al-Faruqi]], whose &quot;[[Islamization of Knowledge]]&quot; carried forward some of Maududi's key principles. Chief among these was the basic compatibility of Islam with an ethical scientific view. Quoting from Maududi's own work: :''Everything in the universe is 'Muslim' for it obeys God by submission to His laws... For his entire life, from the embryonic stage to the body's dissolution into dust after death, every tissue of his muscles and every limb of his body follows the course prescribed by God's law. His very tongue which, on account of his ignorance advocates the denial of God or professes multiple deities, is in its very nature 'Muslim'... The man who denies God is called [[Kafir]] (concealer) because he conceals by his disbelief what is inherent in his nature and embalmed in his own soul. His whole body functions in obedience to that instinct&amp;hellip; Reality becomes estranged from him and he gropes in the dark.'' ===The Muslim Brotherhood=== Maududi's ideas were a strong influence on [[Sayyed Qutb]] in [[Egypt]]. Qutb was one of the key philosophers in the [[Muslim Brotherhood]] movement after the assassination of its founder in 1949. The Brotherhood was established in Ismailiyah, Egypt in 1928 and was banned (but still exists) following confrontations with Egyptian president [[Gamal Abdul Nasser]], who jailed Qutb and thousands of others for years. The [[Muslim Brotherhood]] (founded by [[Hassan al Banna|Hasan al-Banna]]) advocated a return to sharia because of what they perceived as the inability of Western values to secure harmony and prosperity for Muslims. Since only divine guidance could lead humans to peace, justice, and prosperity, it followed that Muslims should eschew man-made systems of governance and live according to divinely-inspired sharia (&quot;The Qur'an is our constitution&quot;). The Brotherhood also advocated [[jihad]] against the European colonial powers, particularly the British and the French, and their allies, who ruled over virtually all of the Muslim world during al-Banna's (and much of Qutb's) life time. ===Islamic Jihad movements=== While Qutb's ideas became increasingly radical during his imprisonment prior to his execution in 1966, the leadership of the Brotherhood, led by Hasan al-Hudaybi, remained moderate and interested in political negotiation and activism. Fringe or splinter movements, however, did develop and pursued a more radical direction, perhaps inspired by final writings of Qutb in the mid-1960s (e.g. &quot;Milestones&quot;). By the 1970s, the Brotherhood renounced violence as a means to their goals. The path of violence and military struggle was however taken up by such movements as the [[Egyptian Islamic Jihad]] organisation, responsible for the assassination of [[Anwar Sadat]] in 1981. Unlike earlier anti-colonial movements, Egyptian Islamic Jihad focused its efforts on &quot;apostate&quot; leaders of Muslim states, or those leaders who held secular leanings or introduced or promoted Western/foreign ideas and practices into Islamic societies. Their views were outlined in a pamphlet written by Muhammad Abd al-Salaam Farag, in which he states: &quot;&amp;hellip;there is no doubt that the first battlefield for jihad is the extermination of these infidel leaders and to replace them by a complete Islamic Order&amp;hellip;&quot; (It is important to note that 'jihad' means 'struggle' and comes in many forms- not just military. Eg, not giving in to temptation is a struggle, is a jihad). Another [[Islamic Jihad]] group emerged in Palestine as an offshoot of the Egyptian group, and began militant activity against the state of [[Israel]], and consistently op
orded Victor Orthophonic records. Meanwhile, the rise of [[radio]] meant increased popularity for [[loudspeaker]]s and [[vacuum tube|tube]] amplifiers, so there was an anomaly of a period of time during which radio [[receiver (home stereo)|receiver]]s commonly used loudspeakers and electronic amplifiers to produce sound, while phonographs were still commonly purely mechanical and acoustic. Later, electronic phonographs became available, as stand-alone units or designed to play through consumer's radios. The now ubiquitous [[RCA connector]], was first introduced by the [[Radio Corporation of America]] for this purpose. After [[World War II]], several innovations created the conditions for a major improvement of home-audio quality: * the advent of the 33-1/3 [[RPM]] Long Play (LP) microgroove [[vinyl record]], with low surface [[noise]] and quantitatively-specified [[RIAA equalization|equalization curves]]. [[Classical music]] fans, who were [[opinion leadership|opinion leaders]] in the audio market quickly adopted LPs because, unlike with older records, most classical works would fit on a single LP. * [[FM radio]], with wider audio bandwidth and less susceptibility to signal interference and fading than [[AM radio]]. * better [[electronic amplifier|amplifier]] designs, with more attention to frequency response and much higher power output capability, allowing audio peaks to be reproduced without [[distortion]]. * [[loudspeakers]] with separate sections for low and high frequencies (&quot;woofers&quot; and &quot;tweeters&quot;), connected via an [[audio crossover]] network, and more carefully engineered enclosures. In the [[1950s]], the term ''high fidelity'' began to be used by audio manufacturers as a marketing term to describe records and equipment which were intended to provide faithful sound reproduction. While some consumer simply interpreted ''high fidelity'' as fancy and expensive equipment, many found the difference in quality between &quot;hi-fi&quot; and the then standard AM radios and 78 RPM records readily apparent and bought 33 LPs, such as RCA's New Orthophonics and London's ffrrs, and high-fidelity phonographs. Audiophiles paid attention to technical characteristics, and bought individual components, such as separate turntables, radio tuners, [[preamplifier]]s, power amplifiers and loudspeakers. Some enthusiasts assembled their own loudspeaker systems. In the 1950s, ''hi-fi'' became a generic term, to some extent displacing ''phonograph'' and ''record player''. Rather than playing a record on the ''phonograph'', people would play it on the ''hi-fi''. In the late 1950s and early [[1960s]], the development of the Westrex single-groove [[stereophonic]] record led to the next wave of home-audio improvement, and in common parlance, ''stereo'' displaced ''hi-fi''. Records were now played on ''a stereo''. In the world of the audiophile, however, ''high fidelity'' continued and continues to refer to the goal of highly-accurate sound reproduction and to the technological resources available for approaching that goal. A very popular type of system for reproducing music from the [[1970s]] onwards is the integrated [[music centre]]--the successor to the older [[stereogram]] or [[radiogram]]. Purists will generally avoid referring to these systems as high fidelity, though some are capable of very good quality sound reproduction. ==Ascertaining high fidelity: double-blind tests== [[Double-blind]] testing has been required in the approval of new [[medicine]]s since about [[1960]]. Although single-blind testing of loudspeakers had been used for a number of years by Floyd E. Toole at the National Research Council of Canada, the double-blind audio listening test of amplifiers was first described in the United States by [[Daniel J. Shanefield]] in November of [[1974]] in the newsletter of the [[Boston Audio Society]]. This was later reported to the general public in [[High Fidelity Magazine|''High Fidelity'']] magazine, March [[1980]]. The double-blind listening comparison is now a standard procedure with almost all audio professionals respected in their field. For [[marketing]] purposes, a few manufacturers of very expensive audio equipment dispute the need for this test. A commonly-used improvement of this test is the ABX-listening comparison. This involves comparing two known audio sources (A and B) with either one of these when it has been randomly selected (X). The test and its associated equipment was developed by the Southeastern Michigan Woofer and Tweeter Marching Society (SMWTMS)--a semi-professional organization in Detroit that is very active in the double-blind testing of new audio components. ==Semblance of realism== When high fidelity was limited to [[monaural|monophonic]] sound reproduction, a realistic approximation to what the listener would experience in a [[list of major concert halls|concert hall]] was limited. [[research|Researchers]] early realized that the ideal way to experience music played back on audio equipment was through multiple transmission channels, but the [[technology]] was not available at that time. It was, for example, discovered that a realistic representation of the separation between performers in an [[orchestra]] from an ideal listening position in the concert hall would require at least three loudspeakers for the front channels. For the reproduction of the [[reverberation]], at least two loudspeakers placed behind or to the sides of the listener were required. Stereophonic sound provided a partial solution to the problem of creating some semblance of the [[auditory illusion|illusion]] of performers performing in an orchestra by creating a phantom middle channel when the listener sits exactly in the middle of the two front loudspeakers. When the listener moves slightly to the side, however, this phantom channel disappears or is greatly reduced. An attempt to provide for the reproduction of the reverberation was tried in the 1970s through [[quadraphonic]] sound but, again, the technology at that time was insufficient for the task. [[Consumers]] did not want to pay the additional costs required in [[money]] and space for the marginal improvements in realism. With the rise in popularity of [[home cinema|home theatre]], however, multi-channel playback systems became affordable, and consumers were willing to tolerate the six to eight channels required in a home theatre. The advances made in [[digital signal processor|signal processors]] to synthesize an approximation of a good concert hall can now provide a somewhat more realistic illusion of listening in a concert hall. In addition to spatial realism, the playback of [[music]] must be subjectively free from noise to achieve realism. The [[compact disc]] (CD) provides at least 90 [[decibel|decibels]] of [[dynamic range]], which is about as much as most people can tolerate in an average [[living room]]. This therefore requires the playback equipment to provide a [[signal-to-noise ratio]] of at least 90 decibels. Many people can hear up to, at most, 15 [[hertz|kHz]] and for a few, up to 20 kHz. There is relatively little music below 50 Hz, loud [[frequency|bass]] below 30 Hz is rare, music below 16 Hz is almost non-existent, and music below 5 Hz is probably non-existent. (Incidentally, the [[cannon|cannons]] in Telarc's [[sound recording|recording]] of [[Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky|Pyotr Tchaikovsky]]'s [[1812 Overture|''1812 Overture'']] are said to go down to 5 Hz.) The equipment must also provide no noticeable distortion of the [[signal (information theory)|signal]] or emphasis or de-emphasis of any frequency in this frequency range. Except for spatial realism, good modern equipment can easily satisfy all of these requirements at a relatively moderate cost. == Modularity == ''Integrated'', ''midi'', or ''lifestyle'' systems contain one or more sources such as a CD player, a [[tuner (radio)|tuner]], or a [[compact audio cassette|cassette]] deck together with a [[preamplifier]] and a [[power amplifier]] in one box. (''Midi'' has no connection with [[Musical Instrument Digital Interface|''MIDI'']] technology in electronic instruments.) Such products are generally disparaged by [[audiophile|audiophiles]], although some [[high-end]] manufacturers produce integrated systems. The traditional hi-fi enthusiast, however, will build a system from ''separates'', often with each item from a different manufacturer specialising in a particular component. This provides the most flexibility for piece-by-piece upgrades. For slightly less flexibility in upgrades, a preamplifier and a power amplifier in one box is called an [[integrated amplifier|''integrated amplifier'']]; with a tuner, it is a ''[[receiver]]''. A monophonic power amplifier is a ''monoblock''. Other modules in the system may include components like [[magnetic cartridge|cartridges]], tonearms, turntables, [[DVD]] players that play a wide variety of discs including CDs, [[CD recorder|CD recorders]], [[MiniDisc]] recorders, hi-fi [[videocassette recorder|video-cassette recorders]] (VCRs), [[reel-to-reel audio tape recording|reel-to-reel]] [[tape recorder|recorders]], [[equalization|equalizers]], signal processors, and [[subwoofer|subwoofers]]. This modularity allows the enthusiast to spend as little or as much as he wants on a component that suits his specific needs. In a system built from separates, sometimes a failure on one component still allows partial use of the rest of the system. A repair of an integrated system, though, means complete lack of use of the system. Another advantage of modularity is the ability to spend one's money on only a few core components at first and then later add additional components to one's system. Because of all these advantages to the modular way of building a high-fidelity system instead of buying an integrated system, audiophiles almost always assemble their system from separates. Some of the
ic Astronomic Knowledge. * [http://www.jqjacobs.net/astro/aegeo.html Archaeogeodesy], the area of study encompassing prehistoric and ancient place determination, point positioning, navigation (on land or water), astronomy and measure and representation of the earth. * [http://www.jqjacobs.net/astro/epoch_2000.html Epoch 2000], an Excel spreadsheet for calculating temporally variable astronomic constants. * [http://www.le.ac.uk/archaeology/rug/index.html Clives Ruggles webpage:] bibliography and synopsis of his course at [[Leicester University]] * [http://www.wam.umd.edu/~tlaloc/archastro/index.html ISAAC], The International Society for Archaeoastronomy and Astronomy in Culture. * [http://uk.arxiv.org/abs/physics/0301078 Babylonian and Indian astronomy] * [http://www.astroarchaeology.org/ International Institute of Astroarchaeology] * [http://www.biroz.net/words/flood.htm &quot;The House Of The Sky&quot;] - An essay exploring ancient astronomy, myths of the Deluge and the mythical stories of mankind's past and future * [http://www.traditionsofthesun.org/ Traditions of the Sun] - NASA and others exploring the world's ancient observatories. * [http://www.spaceimaging.com/gallery/ancientobservatories/ Space Imaging's Ancient Observatories gallery] - Satellite pictures of ancient observatories. * [http://www.world-mysteries.com/alignments/mpl_alindx.htm Astronomical alignments of ancient structures] - essays about ancient astronomy. [[Category:Archaeoastronomy| ]] [[Category:Astronomy]] [[Category:Archaeological sub-disciplines]] [[el:&amp;#913;&amp;#961;&amp;#967;&amp;#945;&amp;#953;&amp;#959;&amp;#945;&amp;#963;&amp;#964;&amp;#961;&amp;#959;&amp;#957;&amp;#959;&amp;#956;&amp;#943;&amp;#945;]] [[es:Arqueoastronomía]] [[fr:Archéoastronomie]] [[it:Archeoastronomia]] [[pt:Arqueoastronomia]] [[zh:&amp;#32771;&amp;#21476;&amp;#22825;&amp;#25991;&amp;#23398;]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Andrzej Sapkowski</title> <id>2865</id> <revision> <id>41615086</id> <timestamp>2006-02-28T15:05:46Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>62.121.70.211</ip> </contributor> <comment>translations</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Sapkowski.jpg|thumb|180px|right|Andrzej Sapkowski]] '''Andrzej Sapkowski''', born [[June 21]], [[1948]] in [[Łódź]], is a [[Poland|Polish]] [[Fantasy|fantasy]] writer. Sapkowski studied economics and worked as a businessman before becoming well known as a writer. His first [[short story]], ''[[The Hexer]] ''(''Wiedźmin''), was published in ''[[Fantastyka]]'', Poland's leading fantasy literary magazine, in 1986 and garnered enormous critical success. Sapkowski has created a cycle of tales based on the world of ''The Hexer'', comprising three collections of short stories and five [[novel]]s. This cycle and his many other books have made him one of the most well-known fantasy authors in Poland [[1990s]]. The main character of ''[[The Hexer]]'' (alternative translation: ''[[The Witcher]]'') is Geralt, a mutant assassin who has been trained from childhood to hunt down and destroy monsters and other vermin. Geralt moves in an ambiguous moral universe, yet manages to maintain his own coherent code of ethics. At once cynical and noble, Geralt has been compared to [[Raymond Chandler]]'s signature character [[Philip Marlowe]]. The world in which these adventures take place owes much to [[J.R.R. Tolkien]], while also heavily influenced by Polish history and Slavic mythology. Sapkowski has won five [[Zajdel Award]]s, including three for the short stories &quot;Mniejsze zło&quot; (''Smaller Evil'') ([[1990]]), &quot;Miecz przeznaczenia&quot; (''Sword of destiny'') ([[1992]]) and &quot;W leju po bombie&quot; (''In a bomb hole'') ([[1993]]), and two for the novels &quot;Krew elfów&quot; (''Elven blood'') ([[1994]]) and &quot;Narrenturm&quot; ([[2002]]). In 1997, Sapkowski won the prestigious Polityka Passport award, which the Polish newsweekly Polityka grants to Polish artists that have strong prospects for international success. In 2001, a [[The Hexer#Film|film]] based on the ''Hexer'' cycle was released in Poland and internationally, titled ''Wiedźmin'' (''The Hexer''), but both have been critical and box office failures. Sapkowski's books have been translated into Czech, Russian, Lithuanian, German, Spanish, French, Slovakian and Portuguese. English translation of ''The Last Wish'' short story collection is going to be published by [[Victor Gollancz Ltd|Gollancz]] in [[2006]]. Polish game publisher CD Projekt is also working on a role-playing PC game based on this universe. Called The Witcher, it's currently due for release in 2006. ==Bibliography== ===Short story collections=== *''[[The Hexer]] ''(''Wiedźmin'') ([[1990]]) *''[[Sword of Destiny]]'' (''Miecz przeznaczenia'') ([[1992]]) *''[[The Last Wish]]'' (''Ostatnie życzenie'') ([[1993]]) *''[[Something ends, Something begins]]'' (''Coś się kończy, coś się zaczyna'') ([[2000]]) ===Novels=== ====The Saga==== *''[[Blood of the Elves]]'' (''Krew elfów'') ([[1994]]) *''[[Season of Contempt]]'' (''Czas pogardy'') ([[1995]]) *''[[Baptism by Fire]]'' (''Chrzest ognia'') ([[1996]]) *''[[The Swallow's Tower]]'' (''Wieża Jaskółki'') ([[1997]]) *''[[Lady of the Lake]]'' (''Pani Jeziora'') ([[1999]]) ====Narrenturm trilogy==== *''[[Narrenturm]]'' ([[2002]]) *''[[Warriors of God]]'' (''Boży bojownicy'') (2004) *''[[Lux perpetua]]'' (not yet released) ===Other works=== *''[[The Eye of Yrrhedes]]'' (''Oko Yrrhedesa'') ([[1995]]), roleplaying game *''[[The World of King Arthur. Maladie]]'' (''Świat króla Artura. Maladie.'') ([[1995]]) *''[[Manuscript Discovered in a Dragon's Cave]]'' (''Rękopis znaleziony w Smoczej Jaskini'') ([[2001]]) ==External links== *[http://www.sapkowski.pl Andrzej Sapkowski's official site] *[http://www.imdb.com/name/nm1140292/ Page for Sapkowski at Internet Movie Database] *[http://www.polishwriting.net/?s=author&amp;c=sapkowski Excerpts of Sapkowski in English] [[Category:1948 births|Sapkowski, Andrzej]] [[Category:Living people|Sapkowski, Andrzej]] [[Category:Polish fantasy writers|Sapkowski, Andrzej]] [[Category:Polish science fiction writers|Sapkowski, Andrzej]] [[cs:Andrzej Sapkowski]] [[da:Andrzej Sapkowski]] [[de:Andrzej Sapkowski]] [[es:Andrzej Sapkowski]] [[pl:Andrzej Sapkowski]] [[ru:Сапковский, Анджей]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Ammeter</title> <id>2866</id> <revision> <id>39689229</id> <timestamp>2006-02-15T04:28:03Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>DHN-bot</username> <id>575307</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>robot Modifying: hu</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Galvanometer diagram.png|frame|&lt;font face=&quot;arial&quot; color=&quot;red&quot;&gt;Wire carrying current to be measured&lt;/font&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;font face =&quot;arial&quot; color=&quot;green&quot;&gt;Spring providing restoring force&lt;/font&gt;]] An '''ammeter''' is a [[measuring instrument]] used to measure the flow of [[electric current]] in a [[Electric circuit|circuit]]. Electric currents are measured in [[ampere]]s, hence the name. The word &quot;ammeter&quot; is commonly misspelled or mispronounced as &quot;ampmeter&quot; by some. The earliest design is the D'Arsonval [[galvanometer]]. It uses [[magnetism|magnetic]] deflection, where current passing through a coil causes the coil to move in a [[magnetic field]]. The [[voltage]] drop across the coil is kept to a minimum to minimize resistance in any circuit into which the meter is inserted. A galvanometer can burn out if its tiny, delicate coil overheats. To measure larger currents, a [[resistor]] called a [[Ammeter shunt|''shunt'']] is placed in [[Series and parallel circuits|parallel]] with the coil. Most of the current flows through the shunt, and only a small fraction flows through the meter. With this solution, arbitrarily large currents can be measured with a single meter. Traditionally, the meter used with a shunt reaches full-scale deflection when a voltage of 50mV is placed across its coil, so shunts are typically designed to produce a voltage drop of 50mV when carrying their full rated current. Cruder ammeters simply use a moving piece of [[iron]] (or a magnet) that is acted-upon by the electromagnetic force of fixed coil of (usually heavy [[Wire gauge|gauge]] wire. At very high current ratings, such an ammeter can actually just clamp on to an existing conductor (where the conductor acts as a single-turn coil); this later example is sometimes used in automotive applications where it clamps-on to the main [[car battery|battery]] wire to show the charging and discharging of the battery. More modern ammeter designs use an [[analog to digital converter]] to measure the voltage across the shunt resistor. The ADC is read by a microcomputer that performs the calculations to display the current through the resistor. One problem with the use of an ammeter is the need for the meter to be inserted into the circuit and become part of it. In AC circuits, an inductive coupling adapter converts the magnetic field around a [[Conductor (material)|conductor]] into a small AC current that can be easily read by a meter. See [[clamp meter]]. In a similar way, accurate DC non-contact ammeters have been constructed using [[Hall effect]] magnetic field sensors. ==See also== *[[Ohmmeter]] *[[Voltmeter]] *[[Multimeter]] *[[Meter (electronics)]] *[[Measuring instrument]] *[[Electronic test equipment]] *[[Electronics]] *[[Electric circuit]] *[[List of electronics topics]] *[[Series and parallel circuits]] *[[Galvanometer]] *[[Clamp meter]] [[Category:Measuring instruments]] [[Category:Electronic test equipment]] [[ca:Amperímetre]] [[da:Amperemeter]] [[de:Strommesser]] [[es:Amperímetro]] [[fr:Ampèremètre]] [[it:Amperometro]] [[hu:Villamos műszerek]] [[nl:Ampèremeter]] [[ja:電流計]] [[pl:Amperomierz]] [[pt:Amperímetro]]
elves similar to those in Tolkien's novels became staple non-human characters in [[high fantasy]] works and in fantasy [[role-playing game]]s. Tolkien's Elves were enemies of [[goblin]]s ([[Orc (Middle-earth)|orcs]]) and had a longstanding quarrel with the [[Dwarves (Middle-earth)|Dwarves]]; these motifs often reappear in Tolkien-inspired works. Tolkien is also responsible for reviving the older and less-used terms ''elven'' and ''elvish'' rather than [[Edmund Spenser]]'s invented ''elfin'' and ''elfish''. He probably preferred the word ''elf'' over ''fairy'' because ''elf'' is of [[Old English language|Anglo-Saxon]] origin while ''fairy'' entered English from [[French language|French]]. Post-Tolkien fantasy elves (popularized by the ''[[Dungeons &amp; Dragons]]'' [[role-playing game]]) tend to be beautiful, fair, slender, human-sized or only slightly smaller (and sometimes even taller) than humans, and possess unearthly speed and agility. A hallmark of fantasy elves is also their long and pointed [[ear]]s. The length and shape of these ears varies depending on the artist or medium in question. For example, while most elves in Western fantasy have ears only slightly longer than humans', elves depicted in [[anime]] tend to have very long ears that stand out at dramatic angles from their faces. [[Half-elf|Half-elves]] and divergent races of elves, such as [[high elf|high elves]] and [[dark elf|dark elves]], were also popularized at this time; in particular, the evil [[drow]] of ''Dungeons &amp; Dragons'' have inspired the dark elves of many other works of fantasy. Fair elves of the Tolkien mold have become standardized staple characters of modern fantasy to such an extent that breaking the norms for how an elf is supposed to be and behave has become an end in itself for certain works of fantasy. For examples of the various ways modern fantasy writers have achieved this, see the [[Elves in fantasy fiction and games|main article]] ===Elves in psychedelic experience=== {{main|Machine Elves}} [[Machine_Elves|Machine elves]], a term first introduced by writer and psychedelic researcher [[Terrence McKenna]], is used to describe the presumed other-worldly intelligent beings which subjects sometimes feel they encounter during [[psychedelic]] experiences (especially those induced by naturally-occurring [[tryptamines]], such as [[dimethyltryptamine|DMT]] or [[psilocybin]]), as well as during [[shamanic]] and [[alien abduction]] experiences. ==Notes== *{{mnb2|Hall 2004|H-1}} see further Hall 2004, pp. 56-57. *{{mnb2|Hall 2004|H-2}} ''ibid.'', pp. 31-35 *{{mnb2|Hall 2004|H-3}} ''ibid.'', pp. 37-46 *{{mnb2|Hall 2004|H-4}} ''ibid.'', p. 40 *{{mnb2|Hall 2004|H-5}} see further ''ibid.'', pp 125-26 *{{mnb2|Hall 2004|H-6}} ''ibid''., esp. pp. 212-16 *{{mnb2|Hall 2004|H-7}} ''ibid''., pp. 81-92 *{{mnb2|Hall 2004|H-8}} ''ibid''., esp. pp. 56-66 *{{mnb2|Hall 2004|H-9}} ''ibid''., pp. 71-76, ''et passim'' *{{mnb2|Hall 2004|H-10}} Hall 2005. *{{mnb2|Younger Edda|YE-1}} Younger Edda, chapter 7, Anderson's 1897 translation. *{{mnb2|Þorsteins saga Víkingssonar|Th-1}} Þorsteins saga Víkingssonar, chapter 1. *{{mnb2|Kormáks saga|Ko-1}} Kormáks saga, chapter 22. *{{mnb2|Schön 1986|S-1}} For the Swedish belief in ''älvor'' see mainly Schön 1986, chapter ''De fagra flickorna på ängen''. A more summary description in English is provided by Keightley 1870, esp. chapter [http://www.sacred-texts.com/neu/celt/tfm/tfm017.htm ''Scandinavia: Elves'']. *{{mnb2|Hellström 1990|He-1}} An account given in [[1926]], Hellström 1990:36. *{{mnb2|Keightley 1870|K-1}} Keightley 1870 provides two translated versions of the song: ''[http://www.sacred-texts.com/neu/celt/tfm/tfm018.htm Sir Olof in Elve-Dance]'' and [http://www.sacred-texts.com/neu/celt/tfm/tfm019.htm The Elf-Woman and Sir Olof]. *{{mnb2|Collins 1775|C-1}} Collins 1775. *{{mnb2|Svenska folksagor1984:158|SF}} Lilla Rosa och Långa Leda, in ''Svenska folksagor'', 1984:158. ==References== * [[H. C. Andersen|Anderson, H. C.]]. 1842. [http://hca.gilead.org.il/elf_rose.html ''The Elf of the Rose''] (Danish original: [http://www.kb.dk/elib/lit/dan/andersen/eventyr.dsl/hcaev017.htm ''Rosen-Alfen'']). * Anderson, H. C. 1845. [http://hca.gilead.org.il/elfin_hi.html ''The Elfin Hill''] (Danish original: [http://www.kb.dk/elib/lit/dan/andersen/eventyr.dsl/hcaev028.htm ''Elverhøi'']). *[[William Collins (poet)|Collins, Willam]]. 1775. ''[http://poetry.poetryx.com/poems/1850/ An Ode On The Popular Superstitions Of The Highlands Of Scotland, Considered As The Subject Of Poetry]''. *Hall, Alaric. 2005. 'Getting Shot of Elves: Healing, Witchcraft and Fairies in the Scottish Witchcraft Trials', [http://taylorandfrancis.metapress.com/app/home/journal.asp?wasp=e3d05mvqtg0qujqugt33&amp;referrer=parent&amp;backto=linkingpublicationresults,1:104708,1 ''Folklore''], 116 (2005), 19-36. *Hall, Alaric Timothy Peter. 2004. [http://69.72.226.186/~alaric/phd.htm The Meanings of ''Elf'' and Elves in Medieval England] (Ph.D. University of Glasgow). *Hellström. 1990. ''En Krönika om Åsbro''. ISBN 91-7194-726-4 *[[Thomas Keightley|Keightley, Thomas]]. 1870. [http://www.sacred-texts.com/neu/celt/tfm/ ''The Fairy Mythology]''. *''[http://www.worldwideschool.org/library/books/lit/epics/LifeandDeathofCormactheSkald/Chap1.html The Life and Death of Cormac the Skald]'' (Old Norse original: ''[http://www.snerpa.is/net/isl/kormaks.htm Kormáks saga]''). *[[Andrew Lang|Lang, Andrew]]. 1884. ''[http://arthurwendover.com/arthurs/fairy/pnobdy10.html The Princess Nobody]''. *Schön, Ebbe. 1986. ''Älvor, vättar och andra väsen''. ISBN 91-29-57688-1 *[[Snorri Sturluson|Sturluson, Snorri]]. ''The Younger (or Prose) Edda'', [http://www.northvegr.org/lore/prose2/index.php Rasmus B. Anderson translation (1897)]. *''[http://www.northvegr.org/lore/viking/001_02.php The Saga of Thorstein, Viking's Son]'' (Old Norse original: ''[http://www.snerpa.is/net/forn/thorstei.htm Þorsteins saga Víkingssonar]''). *''Lilla Rosa och Långa Leda'' in ''Svenska folksagor'' (1984), Almquist &amp; Wiksell Förlag AB, Stockholm. Fairy tales with elves in them include: *''[http://www.sacred-texts.com/neu/celt/tfm/tfm121.htm Addlers &amp; Menters]'' *''[http://www.sacred-texts.com/neu/celt/tfm/tfm124.htm Ainsel &amp; Puck]'' *''[http://www.authorama.com/english-fairy-tales-24.html Childe Rowland]'' ([http://www.twocrows.co.uk/childe_roland.html also here]) *''[http://www.rickwalton.com/folktale/brown16.htm The Elf Maiden]'' ([http://www.fairy-tales.org.uk/brown/lang-the-brown-fairy-book-the-elf-maiden.htm also here]) *''[http://www.viking.ucla.edu/hrolf/ch11.html Elfin Woman &amp; Birth of Skuld]'' *''[http://www.sacred-texts.com/neu/celt/tfm/tfm022.htm Elle-Maids]'' *''[http://www.sacred-texts.com/neu/celt/tfm/tfm024.htm Elle-Maid near Ebeltoft]'' *''[http://www.sacred-texts.com/neu/celt/tfm/tfm025.htm Hans Puntleder]'' *''[http://www.sacred-texts.com/neu/eng/efft/efft48.htm Hedley Kow]'' *''[http://www.sacred-texts.com/neu/celt/tfm/tfm112.htm Luck of Eden Hall]'' *''[http://www.authorama.com/grimms-fairy-tales-39.html The Shoemaker &amp; the Elves]'' ([http://www.pitt.edu/~dash/grimm039.html also here]) *''[http://www.sacred-texts.com/neu/celt/tfm/tfm021.htm Svend Faelling and the Elle-Maid]'' *''[http://www.sacred-texts.com/neu/eng/efft/efft08.htm Wild Edric]'' *''[http://www.sacred-texts.com/neu/celt/tfm/tfm084.htm The Wild-women]'' *''[http://www.sacred-texts.com/neu/celt/tfm/tfm020.htm The Young Swain and the Elves]'' ==See also== {{commons|Category:Elf}} {{wiktionary}} '''Concerning traditional elves:''' * [[Álfar]] * [[Álfheim]] * [[Elf versus dwarf]] * [[Erlking]] * [[Ljósálfar]] * [[Svartálfar]] '''Related folklore creatures:''' * [[Dwarf]] * [[Fairy]] * [[Gnome]] * [[Huldra]] * [[Imp]] * [[Lady of the Lake]] * [[Norse dwarves]] * [[Puck (mythology)|Puck]] * [[Psotnik]] * [[Sídhe]] * [[Slavic fairies]] * [[Sprite (creature)|Sprites]] * [[Tomte]] * [[Troll]] * [[Wight]] * [[Yule lads]] '''Miscellaneous:''' * [[Fairytale]] * [[Mythology]] * [[Elenari]] {{NorseMythology}} [[Category:Elves| ]] [[Category:Christmas characters]] [[bg:Елфи]] [[ca:Elf]] [[cs:Elf]] [[da:Elverfolk]] [[de:Elfen]] [[es:Elfo]] [[fr:Elfe]] [[is:Álfur]] [[it:Elfo]] [[he:אלף (פנטסיה)]] [[lt:Elfas]] [[nl:Elf (mythologie)]] [[ja:エルフ]] [[ko:엘프]] [[pl:Elf (fantastyka)]] [[pt:Elfo]] [[ru:Эльф]] [[sk:Elf]] [[sv:Alver]] [[uk:Альви]] [[zh:精靈]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Evil</title> <id>9897</id> <revision> <id>42075069</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T17:28:19Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Zsinj</username> <id>597658</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/166.109.110.20|166.109.110.20]] to last version by TigerShark</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">:''For other uses of &quot;evil&quot;, see [[Evil (disambiguation)]].'' '''Evil''' is a term describing that which is regarded as [[morality|morally]] [[bad]], intrinsically [[political corruption|corrupt]], wantonly [[wikt:destructive|destructive]], [[wikt:inhumane|inhumane]], or [[wickedness|wicked]]. In most cultures, the word is used to describe acts, thoughts, and ideas which are thought to (either directly or causally) bring about withering and [[death]] &amp;mdash; the opposite of [[life]]. However, the definition of what counts as evil differs widely from culture to culture and from individual to individual. Some philosophers reject the idea of evil. [[Plato]], for example, argued that what we call evil is merely ignorance, and that the good is that which everyone desires. For those who accept the existence of evil, there are two main beliefs about evil. In some belief systems, evil consists of deviation from the norm. According to this definition of evil, people who, for example, reject the majority religion or engage in sexual practices different from the majority are evil. According to other belie
bye &quot;; FOR I = 1 TO 200 PRINT UserName$; &quot; &quot;; NEXT I PRINT == See also == * [[Business Basic]] * [[List of BASIC dialects]] * [[List of BASIC dialects by platform]] == Notes == # {{note|name}} The acronym is tied to the name of an unpublished paper by Thomas Kurtz and is not a [[backronym]]. # {{note|dijkstra}} In a 1968 article, Dutch computer scientist [[Edsger Dijkstra]] considered programming languages using [[GOTO]] statements for program structuring purposes harmful for the productivity of the programmer as well as the quality of the resulting code ([http://www.acm.org/classics/oct95/ &quot;Go To Statement Considered Harmful&quot;], ''Communications of the ACM'' Volume 11, 147-148. 1968). This article does not mention any particular programming language; instead it states that the overuse of GOTO is a bad thing and gives the technical reasons why this should be so.&lt;br /&gt;In a 1975 tongue-in-cheek article, [http://www.cs.virginia.edu/~evans/cs655/readings/ewd498.html &quot;How do We Tell Truths that Might Hurt&quot;], ''Sigplan Notices'' Volume 17 No. 5, Dijkstra gives a list of uncomfortable &quot;truths&quot;, including his opinion of several programming languages of the time, such as BASIC. It appears that many people confuse the two articles and conclude that he particularly hated BASIC as a result of its GOTO statement. However, BASIC receives no worse treatment than [[PL/I]], [[COBOL]] or [[APL programming language|APL]] in his articles. ==References== * Dartmouth College Computation Center (1964). [http://www.bitsavers.org/pdf/dartmouth/BASIC_Oct64.pdf ''A Manual for BASIC, the elementary algebraic language designed for use with the Dartmouth Time Sharing System'']. The original Dartmouth BASIC manual. * Lien, David A. (1986). ''The Basic Handbook: Encyclopedia of the BASIC Computer Language'' (3rd ed.). Compusoft Publishing. ISBN 0932760333. Documents dialect variations for over 250 versions of BASIC. * Kemeny, John G.; Kurtz, Thomas E. (1985). ''Back To BASIC: The History, Corruption, and Future of the Language''. Addison-Wesley. 141&amp;nbsp;pp. ISBN 0-201-13433-0. * Jean E. Sammet. ''Programming languages: History and fundamentals''. Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, N.J. 1969. === Standards === * ANSI/ISO/IEC Standard for Minimal BASIC: ** ANSI X3.60-1978 &quot;FOR MINIMAL BASIC&quot; ** ISO/IEC 6373:1984 &quot;DATA PROCESSING - PROGRAMMING LANGUAGES - MINIMAL BASIC&quot; * ANSI/ISO/IEC Standard for Full BASIC: ** ANSI X3.113-1987 &quot;PROGRAMMING LANGUAGES FULL BASIC&quot; ** ISO/IEC 10279:1991 &quot;INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY - PROGRAMMING LANGUAGES - FULL BASIC&quot; * ANSI/ISO/IEC Addendum Defining Modules: ** ANSI X3.113 INTERPRETATIONS-1992 &quot;BASIC TECHNICAL INFORMATION BULLETIN # 1 INTERPRETATIONS OF ANSI 03.113-1987&quot; ** ISO/IEC 10279:1991/ Amd 1:1994 &quot;MODULES AND SINGLE CHARACTER INPUT ENHANCEMENT&quot; ==External links== &lt;!-- Please do not add any links for specific implementations of BASIC here. Add them to ''[[List of BASIC dialects]]'' and ''[[List of BASIC dialects by platform]]'' instead --&gt; *[http://www.computer-books.us/basic.php Computer-Books.us] Online BASIC books *[http://directory.google.com/Top/Computers/Programming/Languages/BASIC/ Google BASIC directory] [[Category:BASIC programming language| ]] [[ar:بيسيك]] [[bs:BASIC (programski jezik)]] [[ca:BASIC]] [[cs:BASIC]] [[da:BASIC]] [[de:BASIC]] [[et:BASIC]] [[es:BASIC]] [[eo:BASIC (programlingvo)]] [[fr:Basic]] [[ko:베이직]] [[hr:BASIC]] [[id:BASIC]] [[it:BASIC]] [[he:BASIC]] [[lt:BASIC]] [[hu:BASIC programozási nyelv]] [[ms:BASIC]] [[nl:BASIC]] [[ja:BASIC]] [[no:BASIC]] [[nn:BASIC]] [[pl:BASIC]] [[pt:BASIC]] [[ro:BASIC]] [[ru:Бейсик]] [[sk:BASIC (programovací jazyk)]] [[sl:BASIC (programski jezik)]] [[sr:Бејзик]] [[fi:BASIC]] [[sv:BASIC]] [[th:ภาษาเบสิก]] [[vi:BASIC]] [[tr:BASIC]] [[uk:Бейсік]] [[zh:BASIC]] {{Template:Major_programming_languages}}</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>List of Byzantine Emperors</title> <id>4016</id> <revision> <id>42114810</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T22:42:01Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Hectorian</username> <id>913227</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Spelling corrections of the greek names</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">This is a list of the [[emperor|Emperors]] of the late Eastern [[Roman Empire]], called [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]]. The title of all Emperors listed preceding Heraclius was officially [[Augustus]], although various other titles such as [[Dominus]] were used as well. For official purposes, their names were preceded by [[Imperator]] [[Caesar]] [[Flavius]] and followed by Augustus. Following Heraclius, the title became the Greek [[Basileus]] (Gr. Βασιλεύς), which had formerly meant &quot;[[sovereign]]&quot; but now was used in place of Augustus. Other (and to Roman minds, lesser) kings were titled by the neologism Rigas (Gr. Ρήγας, from the Lat. &quot;Rex&quot;). [[Autocrat|Autokrator]] (Gr. Αυτοκράτωρ) was also frequently used, along with a plethora of more hyperbolic titles&amp;mdash;with grandiloquence typically in inverse proportion to actual power&amp;mdash;including Kosmokrator (Gr.Κοσμοκράτωρ) (&quot;Master of the Universe&quot;) and Chronokrator (Gr.Χρονοκράτωρ) (&quot;Lord of All Time&quot;). The emperors of the 15th century alone were occasionally self-styled as Basileus ton Hellinon, &quot;Emperor of the Greeks,&quot; though they still considered themselves &quot;Roman&quot; Emperors. [Note: See also ''[[Greek (name)#Byzantines .28.CE.92.CF.85.CE.B6.CE.B1.CE.BD.CF.84.CE.B9.CE.BD.CE.BF.CE.AF.29|the term &quot;Byzantine&quot;]]'' with regard to the late [[Roman Empire]]. This list begins with [[Constantine I (emperor)|Constantine I]] the Great, the first Christian emperor reigning from [[Constantinople]], although [[Diocletian]] before him had ruled from Nicaea and replaced the pseudorepublican trappings of the office with a straightforward autocracy and Heraclius I after him replaced Latin with Greek and began the restructuring of the Empire into [[Thema|themata]].] ==[[Constantine Dynasty|Constantinian dynasty]] (306-363)== *St. [[Constantine I (emperor)|Constantine I]] the Great (Constantinus Pius Felix Invictus Augustus Pontifex Maximus Pater Patriae Proconsul) ([[272]] - [[337]], ruled [[306]] - [[337]]) &amp;ndash; son of [[Constantius I]] Chlorus; left the empire redivided among his heirs; canonized by the [[Orthodox]] church *[[Constantius II]] (Iulius Constantius) ([[317]] - [[361]], ruled [[337]] - [[361]]) &amp;ndash; son of Constantine I *[[Julian the Apostate|Julian]] the Apostate (Claudius Iulianus) ([[331]] - [[363]], ruled [[361]] - [[363]]) &amp;ndash; Pagan son-in-law of Constantine I, brother-in-law and first cousin of Constantius II, grandson of Constantius I ===Non-dynastic=== *[[Jovian]] (Iovianus) ([[332]] - [[364]], ruled [[363]] - [[364]]) &amp;ndash; Soldier, restored Christianity ==[[Valentinian Dynasty|Valentinian]]-[[House of Theodosius|Theodosian]] dynasty (364-457)== *[[Valentinian I]] (Valentinianus) ([[321]] - [[375]], ruled [[364]]) &amp;ndash; Soldier, redivided the empire, taking the West *[[Valens]] (Iulius Valens) ([[328]] - [[378]], ruled [[364]] - [[378]]) &amp;ndash; brother of Valentinian I *[[Gratianus]] ([[359]] - [[383]], ruled [[378]] - [[379]]) &amp;ndash; son of Valentinian I *[[Theodosius I]] the Great ([[346]] - [[395]], ruled [[379]] - [[395]]) &amp;ndash; soldier; married to Valentinian I's daughter Galla, fought with [[Magnus Maximus]] at the [[Battle of the Save]] in [[388]] *[[Arcadius]] ([[377]] - [[408]], ruled [[395]] - [[408]]) &amp;ndash; son of Theodosius I, brother of [[Honorius]] *[[Theodosius II]] the Younger ([[401]] - [[450]], ruled [[408]] - [[450]]) &amp;ndash; son of Arcadius *Ste. [[Pulcheria]] ([[399]] – [[453]], ruled [[408]] - [[441]], [[450]]) &amp;ndash; sister of Theodosius II; canonized *St. [[Marcian]] (Marcianus) ([[392]] - [[457]], ruled [[450]] - [[457]]) &amp;ndash; soldier; married Pulcheria after Theodosius's death; canonized by the [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Orthodox]] church ==[[House of Leo|Leonid dynasty]] (457-518)== *[[Leo I (emperor)|Leo I]] the Thracian (Valerius Leo) ([[401]]-[[474]], ruled [[457]] - [[474]]) &amp;ndash; soldier *[[Leo II (emperor)|Leo II]] ([[467]] - [[474]], ruled [[474]]) &amp;ndash; grandson of Leo I, son of Zeno *[[Zeno (emperor)|Zeno]] ([[425]] - [[491]], ruled [[474]] - [[475]]) &amp;ndash; son-in-law of Leo I; orig. Tarasicodissa, an Isaurian *[[Basiliscus]] ( ? - c. [[477]], ruled [[475]] - [[476]]) &amp;ndash; usurper; brother-in-law of Leo I *[[Zeno (emperor)|Zeno]] (ruled [[476]] - [[491]]) &amp;ndash; restored *[[Anastasius I (emperor)|Anastasius I]] ([[430]] - [[518]], ruled [[491]] - [[518]]) &amp;ndash; silentiarius; son-in-law of Leo I, elevated by selection by Zeno's widow Ariadne ==[[Justinian Dynasty|Justinian dynasty]] (518-602)== *[[Justin I]] (Iustinius)([[450]] - [[527]], ruled [[518]] - [[527]]) &amp;ndash; commander of the guard *St. [[Justinian I]] the Great (Petrus Sabbatius Iustinianus)([[482]] - [[565]], ruled [[527]] - [[565]]) &amp;ndash; nephew and adoptive son of Justin I; canonized by the [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Orthodox]] church *[[Justin II]] (Iustinius Iunior) ([[520]] - [[578]], ruled [[565]] - [[578]]) &amp;ndash; nephew of Justinian I; mad *[[Tiberius II Constantine|Tiberius II]] (Tiberius Constantinus) ([[540]] - [[582]], ruled [[574]], [[578]] - [[582]]) &amp;ndash; Comes Excubitris; adopted by Justin II *[[Maurice (emperor)|Maurice]] (Mauricius Tiberius) ([[539]] - [[602]], ruled [[582]] - [[602]]) &amp;ndash; son-in-law of Tiberius II ===Non-dynastic=== *[[Phocas]] the Tyrant ( ? - [[610]], ruled [[602]] - [[610]]) &amp;ndash; usurper; betrayed by his son-in-law ==[[Heraclian Dynasty|Heraclian dynasty]] (610-695)== *[[Heraclius]] (Ηράκλειος) ([[575]] -
er to ready the release, and in accordance with them eventually decides to make a release. This occurs when all important software is reasonably up-to-date in the release-candidate suite for all architectures for which a release is planned, and when any other goals set by the Release Manager have been met. At that time, all packages in the release-candidate suite (&quot;testing&quot;) become part of the released suite (&quot;stable&quot;). It is possible for a package -- particularly an old, stable, and seldom-updated one -- to belong to more than one suite at the same time. The suites are simply collections of pointers into the package &quot;pool&quot; mentioned above. ==Criticism== An oft-stated criticism of Debian is that, due to Debian's longer release cycles, the released ''stable'' branch can become too old to be useful for some purposes. This criticism is countered to some degree by the existence of: * Repositories of [[backport]]ed packages (updated package versions compiled in ''stable'' environment), like those on [http://www.backports.org/ backports.org] and [http://www.apt-get.org apt-get.org]. The usage of packported packages will, however, degrade the ease of maintaining the system, especially the task of upgrading the system to newer versions of the distribution (for example, from 3.0 to 3.1). * The ''testing'' branch of Debian, which contains updated software that is more stable than its name might indicate, but does not have official support. The testing branch is not suitable for all uses as it officially does not have security support, even though a group of Debian developers are making efforts to improve this [http://secure-testing.debian.net/]. These longer releases cycles, however, contribute greatly to the famous stability of Debian software, and ensure that Debian supports numerous platforms, numbering eleven in the latest release. Another criticism is that some software is not available in Debian because it does not satisfy the project's strict requirements of freeness. For example, the [[Adobe Acrobat]] reader is not provided by Debian. There are at least two ways of dealing with the lack of such software: * Using alternative software. For instance there are other [[Portable Document Format|PDF]] readers available in the Debian distribution. * Installing the software from [[third party]] sources. Some software, such as [[Opera (web browser)|Opera]], is even available as Debian-specific packages from sources outside the official distribution. ==See also== *[[List of Linux distributions]] *[[Comparison of Linux distributions]] ===Distributions based on Debian=== :''A more comprehensive list is available at http://www.debian.org/misc/children-distros.html''. *[[Knoppix]] - a Live CD, with several derivatives (including [[Kanotix]], [[Morphix]], [[Quantian]], [[Whoppix]], [[Xfld]], [[Kurumin Linux]]). *[[Mepis]] - a [[KDE]]-centric distribution for [[newbie|novice]]s. *[[Ubuntu Linux|Ubuntu]] - a [[GNOME]]-centric distribution. A Live CD is available along with several derivatives (including [[Kubuntu]] which instead has [[KDE]] as its desktop environment). *[[Xandros]] - a commercially supported derivative of [[Corel Linux]]. *[[Skolelinux]] - designed for schools and educational purposes. *[[Open Colinux]] - a commercial derivative that runs within Windows. ==External links== {{Commons|Debian}} ===Official Project resources=== *[http://www.debian.org/ Official Project website] *[http://www.debian.org/releases/stable/installmanual Installation Manual] for the current ''stable'' release *[http://www.debian.org/doc/manuals/reference/reference.en.html Debian Reference] Manual *[http://www.debian.org/doc/manuals/project-history/ A Brief History of Debian] *[http://www.debian.org/doc/debian-policy/ Debian Policy Manual] ===Community sites=== *[http://www.debian-administration.org/ Debian Administration] System Administration Tips and Resources *[http://www.debianplanet.org/ Debian Planet] news and discussion site *[http://planet.debian.org/ Planet Debian] developer [[weblog]]s *[http://forums.debian.net/ Debian User Forums] *[http://www.debianhelp.org/ Debian Help] Wiki, bookmarks and forums *[http://wiki.debian.org/ Official Debian.org collaboration Wiki] *[http://www.debianguide.org/wiki/moin.cgi/FrontPage Unofficial Debian Guide Wiki] *[http://www.debianhelp.co.uk debian Help for system administrators and howtos,articles and news] ===Guides and additional documentation=== *[http://newbiedoc.berlios.de/ NewbieDoc] *[http://wiki.debian.org/DebianCustomCD/ Building a Custom Debian CD Set] *[http://wiki.linuxhelp.net/index.php/Debian_GNU/Linux Linuxhelp] *Krafft, Martin F. [http://debiansystem.info/ The Debian System]. Published by [http://www.opensourcepress.de/index.php?26&amp;backPID=15&amp;tt_products=16 Open Source Press] / [http://www.nostarch.com/frameset.php?startat=debian No Starch Press], 2005. ISBN 3-937514-07-4 / ISBN 1-593270-69-0 *[http://www.oreilly.com/catalog/debian/chapter/book/ ''Learning Debian GNU/Linux''], by Bill McCarty ===Miscellaneous=== *{{Distrowatch|debian|NAME=Debian GNU/Linux}} ([http://distrowatch.com/dwres.php?resource=review-debian review]) *{{OSDir|PAGE=395|SHOT=36|NAME=Debian GNU/Linux}} *[http://linuxmafia.com/faq/Debian/installers.html Overview of Debian installers] *[http://www.emdebian.org/ Embedded debian] and [http://www.emdebian.org/twiki/bin/view its Wiki]. *[http://www.debian.org/devel/debian-jr/index.en.html Debian Jr. Project] to improve suitability for children *[http://wiki.debian.net/?DebianAMD64 Debian for AMD64] *[http://women.alioth.debian.org/ Debian Women Project] to increase the participation of women in Debian *[http://openskills.info/infobox.php?ID=248 Chronology of Debian releases] *[http://www.debian-unofficial.org/ Debian-Unofficial.org] Repository for packages not available within the official Debian repository ==References== #{{note|1993-announcement}} - {{newsgroup reference Google | Author=Murdock, Ian A. | Title=New release under development; suggestions requested | Date=[[1993-08-16]] | Newsgroup=comp.os.linux.development | ID=CBusDD.MIK@unix.portal.com | URL=http://groups.google.com/group/comp.os.linux.development/msg/a32d4e2ef3bcdcc6?output=gplain}} {{Linux-distro}} [[Category:Debian| ]] [[Category:Linux distributions]] [[bg:Дебиан]] [[bs:Debian]] [[ca:Debian]] [[cs:Debian]] [[da:Debian]] [[de:Debian GNU/Linux]] [[el:Debian Linux]] [[es:Debian]] [[fr:Debian]] [[gl:Debian]] [[ko:데비안]] [[hr:Debian]] [[ia:Debian]] [[it:Debian]] [[he:דביאן GNU/לינוקס]] [[ku:Debian]] [[hu:Debian]] [[nl:Debian]] [[ja:Debian]] [[no:Debian]] [[nn:Debian]] [[pl:Debian]] [[pt:Debian]] [[ro:Debian GNU/Linux]] [[ru:Debian]] [[simple:Debian GNU/Linux]] [[sk:Debian]] [[sr:Debian GNU/Linux]] [[fi:Debian]] [[sv:Debian GNU/Linux]] [[th:เดเบียน]] [[vi:Debian]] [[tr:Debian]] [[uk:Debian]] [[zh:Debian]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Doonesbury</title> <id>8243</id> <revision> <id>41924119</id> <timestamp>2006-03-02T17:30:33Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Phil Boswell</username> <id>24373</id> </contributor> <comment>migrate {{web reference}} to {{[[template:cite web|cite web]]}} using [[Wikipedia:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Time-magazine-cover-doonesbury.jpg|thumb|''Doonesbury'' was featured on the cover of the Feb. 9, 1976 issue of ''TIME''. Clockwise, from bottom left: Mark, BD, Joanie, Mike, Ginny, Zonker; Duke sits on the chair in the center]] '''''Doonesbury''''' is a [[comic strip]] by [[Garry Trudeau]], popular in the [[United States]] and other parts of the world. The title comes from the name of one of the main characters, Michael Doonesbury, a character Trudeau originally modeled after himself. The character's name is a combination of the word ''doone'' &amp;mdash; [[1960s]] [[preparatory school|prep school]] [[slang]] for &quot;someone unafraid to appear foolish&quot; &amp;mdash; with the [[family name|surname]] of the roommate who was given that [[nickname]], [[Charles Pillsbury]]. The strip marked its official thirty-fifth anniversary on [[October 26]], [[2005]]. ==History== [[Image:Db701026.gif|thumb|The very first ''Doonesbury'' cartoon, from [[26 October]] [[1970]].]] The comic strip was a continuation of ''Bull Tales'', which appeared in the [[Yale University]] student newspaper the ''[[Yale Daily News]]'' beginning [[September]] [[1968]]. It focused on local campus events at Yale. The executive [[editor]] of the paper in the late [[1960s]], [[Reed Hundt]], who later served as the [[chairman]] of the [[Federal Communications Commission|FCC]], noted that the ''Daily News'' had a flexible policy about publishing cartoons: &quot;We publish[ed] pretty much anything.&quot; As ''Doonesbury'', the strip debuted as a [[daily strip]] in about two dozen [[newspaper]]s on [[October 26]], [[1970]], the first strip from the [[Universal Press Syndicate]]. A [[Sunday strip]] began on [[March 21]], [[1971]]. Many of the early strips were reprintings of the ''Bull Tales'' cartoons, with some changes to the drawings and plots. B.D.'s helmet changed from having a &quot;Y&quot; (for Yale) to a star (for the fictional Walden College). Mike and B.D. started ''Doonesbury'' as roommates; they were not roommates in the original. It became well known for its social and political (usually [[american liberalism|liberal]]) commentary, always timely, and peppered with wry and [[irony|ironic]] humor. It is presently syndicated in approximately 1,400 newspapers worldwide. The decision, on [[September 12]], [[2005]] to drop ''Doonesbury'' from [[The Guardian]] (UK) was reversed less than 24 hours later, after the strip's followers voiced strong discontent. Like ''[[Li'l Abner]]'' and ''[[Pogo]]'' before it, ''Doonesbury'' blurred the distinction between editorial cartoon and the funny pages. In May 1975, the strip won Tru
mage:Bushclinton2.jpg|thumb|left|Former presidents Bush and [[Bill Clinton]] at [[Super Bowl XXXIX]] in 2005.]] Since his final election campaign, Bush has largely retired from public life. The Bushes live in [[Houston, Texas|Houston]] and their summer home in [[Kennebunkport, Maine|Kennebunkport]], [[Maine]]. He holds his own fishing tournament in [[Islamorada]], an island in the [[Florida Keys]]. In April 1993, the Iraqi Intelligence Service attempted to [[assassination|assassinate]] former President Bush via [[car bomb]] during a visit to [[Kuwait]]. However, Kuwaiti security foiled the [[car bomb]] plot. On [[June 26]], 1993, the U.S. launched a missile attack targeting Baghdad intelligence headquarters in retaliation for the attempted attack against Bush. Bush has never written a [[memoir]] of his political life, and says he does not plan to. He has, however, published a book containing a series of collected letters (''All The Best, George Bush'', 1999), and co-authored a book on recent foreign policy issues with his former National Security Advisor, [[Brent Scowcroft]] (''[[A World Transformed]]'', 1998). He has given a number of paid speeches and participated in business ventures with the [[Carlyle Group]]. The [[George Bush Presidential Library and Museum]] is located on the Southwest corner of the campus of [[Texas A&amp;M University]] in [[College Station, Texas|College Station]], Texas. [[George Bush Intercontinental Airport]] in [[Houston, Texas|Houston]], Texas was renamed after the former president in 1997. The tenth [[Nimitz class aircraft carrier|''Nimitz''-class aircraft carrier]] will be named [[USS George H. W. Bush|USS ''George H. W. Bush'']] when it is [[ship naming and launching|launched]] in 2009. In 2001, he became the first president since [[John Adams]] to be father of another president when his son [[George W. Bush]], previously [[Governor of Texas]], took office as President of the United States. During his term of office, George H. W. Bush was simply known as President George Bush, since his son had never held elective office and was not especially well-known to the public. He is now referred to by various nicknames and titles, including &quot;Former President Bush,&quot; &quot;Bush the Elder,&quot; &quot;the first President Bush,&quot; &quot;Bush 41,&quot; &quot;Papa Bush,&quot; and simply &quot;41&quot;, in order to avoid confusion between his presidency and that of his son. Although the names of the two men are similar, they are not identical—George W. Bush lacks his father's middle name Herbert—so they are not known as &quot;senior&quot; and &quot;junior.&quot; [[Image:Jp2presidents.jpg|thumb|right|Bush, along with his son President [[George W. Bush]], his daughter-in-law, [[Laura Bush|Laura]], and another former president, [[Bill Clinton]], pay their respects to [[Pope John Paul II]] before the pope's funeral.]] On [[June 12]], [[2004]], he went [[skydiving]] in honor of his 80th birthday. It was his third parachute jump since World War II. He also made a jump on June 9, 1999, before his 75th birthday, and told reporters then he had also parachuted in Arizona two years earlier. The day before his 80th birthday jump, he and his son both took part in eulogizing his predecessor, [[Ronald Reagan]], at the [[State funeral of Ronald Reagan|latter's state funeral]]. On [[November 22]], [[2004]], New York Republican Governor [[George Pataki]] named Bush and the other living former presidents ([[Gerald Ford]], [[Jimmy Carter]], and [[Bill Clinton]]) as honorary members of the board rebuilding the [[World Trade Center]]. On [[January 3]] [[2005]], Bush and Bill Clinton were named by the current President Bush to lead a nationwide campaign to help the victims of the [[2004 Indian Ocean earthquake|Indian Ocean tsunami]]. Bush and Clinton both appeared on the [[Super Bowl XXXIX]] pre-game show on [[Fox Television Network|Fox]] in support of their bipartisan effort to raise money for relief of the disaster through the [[USA Freedom Corps]], an action which Bush described as &quot;transcending politics.&quot; Thirteen days later, they both traveled to the affected areas to see how the relief efforts are going. In [[August 31]], 2005, following the devastation of the [[Gulf Coast]] by [[Hurricane Katrina]], Bush again teamed with Clinton to coordinate private relief donations. Reports were common that Bush and Clinton had developed a friendship by now, despite the latter having defeated the former in the 1992 election. (Such friendships were not unknown, as Gerald Ford and Jimmy Carter had developed one despite a similar history.) Bush and his wife Barbara could also be seen sitting in the front row behind [[home plate]] at [[Minute Maid Park]] in Houston, supporting the [[Houston Astros]] during the [[2005 World Series]]. == Trivia == *Bush was nearly 6 feet, 4 inches tall in his prime, making him one of the tallest U.S. presidents to date. *He was the first President to have two middle names and the first President to be born in June. *On [[January 8]], [[1992]], Bush [[vomit]]ed on the lap of the [[Prime Minister of Japan]], [[Kiichi Miyazawa]], during a state dinner. He then fainted. The incident, which Bush claimed was nothing more than the [[flu]], was caught on camera and raised questions about his health, in addition to being a major source of [[embarrassment]]. The Japanese named a verb for this incident: &quot;bushusuru&quot;, meaning &quot;to commit an instance of embarrassing public vomiting&quot;, or literally &quot;to do the Bush thing&quot;. &lt;ref&gt;[http://www.metroactive.com/papers/sonoma/01.05.05/open-mic-0501.html Open Mic - Scandal Scope] - Richard von Busack, ''Metroactive Features'', accessed [[February 26]], [[2006]]&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;!-- Note: The book &quot;Secret Lives of the U.S. Presidents&quot; (page 253 and 255) refers to this verb as &quot;bushusuru&quot;, the Metro Newspaper cites the verb as &quot;bushuru&quot;. --&gt; *On [[October 22]], [[1994]], Bush appeared on ''[[Saturday Night Live]]'', via satellite. He joined guest host [[Dana Carvey]] as the latter did his trademark impression of Bush. *Bush is one of two former presidents to be given the [[British honours system|honorary title]] [[Order of the Bath|Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath]] (GCB) by [[Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom|Queen Elizabeth II]]. *G.H.W. Bush is the only president to have been CIA director, and the only president to have been ambassador to the People's Republic of China. *G.H.W. Bush is the only president to have been a World War II U.S. Navy combat aviator. *In the television series ''[[The Simpsons]]''' seventh-season episode &quot;[[Two Bad Neighbors]]&quot;, the character George H. W. Bush was featured. He, Mrs. Bush and Bart Simpson interacted in a manner modeled on the relationships between Dennis ''The Menace'' Mitchell and Mr. &amp; Mrs. Wilson. Furthermore, he was (before the dissolution) a member of the Stonecutter's world council alongside [[Orville Redenbacher]], [[Mr. T]] and [[Jack Nicholson]]. He is currently a member of the 'No Homers' World Council. *Bush was diagnosed with [[Graves disease]] in 1991. *There was a Bush or Bob Dole on EVERY Republican presidential ticket from 1976 to 2004. (Ford-Dole, Reagan-Bush, Reagan-Bush, Bush-Quayle, Bush-Quayle, Dole-Kemp, Bush-Cheney, Bush-Cheney). *G.H.W. Bush was the first president born in June, according to the Complete Book of U.S. Presidents (2001 edition), and now presidents have been born in all 12 months. *Bush banned [[broccoli]] from the White House and Air Force One: &quot;I'm President of the United States, and I'm not going to eat any more broccoli!&quot; This spawned a routine on the TV show [[Histeria]] which portrayed him doing a Green Eggs and Ham-type routine. Also, because of this, an article was printed in Taste of Home magazine for February and March 1998 that talked about a Presidential theme party whose menus said, &quot;No broccoli permitted.&quot; == References == * O'Brien, Cormac. ''Secret Lives of the U.S. Presidents''. Quirk Books (2004). Philadelphia, PA. ISBN 1-931686-57-2. pp. 251-255. ==Notes== &lt;references/&gt; == Further reading == * Tarpley, Webster G. and Chaitkin, Anton. 2004. ''George Bush: The Unauthorized Biography''. Tree of life publications. * Barilleaux, Ryan J. and Mary E. Stuckey, eds. ''Leadership and the Bush Presidency: Prudence or Drift in an Era of Change''. New York: Praeger Publishers, 1992. * Stephen J. Ducat. 2004. ''The Wimp Factor''. Boston: Beacon Press. * Bush, George H. W., 1999. ''All the Best: George Bush: My Life and Other Writings''. New York: Scribner. * Duffy, Michail &amp; Dan Goodgame 1992. ''Marching in Place: The Status Quo Presidency of George Bush''. New York: Simon and Schuster. * Green, John Robert. 2000. ''The Presidency of George Bush''. Lawrence, KS: University Press of Kansas. * Hyams, Joe. 1991. ''Flight of the Avenger: George Bush at War''. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovic Publishers. * Podhoretz, John. 1993. ''Hell of a Ride: Backstage at the White House Follies, 1989-1993''. New York: Simon and Schuster. * [[Jean Edward Smith]]. 1992. ''George Bush's War''. New York: Henry Holt &amp; Company. == See also == * [[U.S. presidential election, 1980]] * [[U.S. presidential election, 1988]] * [[U.S. presidential election, 1992]] {{see|:Category:George H.W. Bush}} == External links == {{Wikiquote|George H. W. Bush}} {{Wikisource author|George Herbert Walker Bush|George H. W. Bush}} * [http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/presiden/inaug/bush.htm Inaugural Address] * [http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu The American Presidency Project at UCSB: The Most Comprehensive Resource on the Web] ** [http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php Public Papers of the Presidents: George Bush] ** [http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/sou.php State of the Union Addresses] *** [http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.
[[multiplayer|networked multiplayer gaming]], and the support for players to create custom expansions ([[Doom WAD|WAD]]s). Distributed as [[shareware]], ''Doom'' was downloaded by an estimated 10 million people within two years, popularizing the mode of gameplay and spawning a gaming [[subculture]]; as a sign of its impact on the industry, games from the mid-1990s boom of first-person shooters are often known simply as &quot;[[Doom clone|''Doom'' clones]]&quot;. Its graphic and interactive [[violence]]{{ref|ESRB}} has also made ''Doom'' the subject of much [[video game controversy|controversy]] reaching outside the gaming world. The ''Doom'' franchise was continued with ''[[Doom II|Doom II: Hell on Earth]]'' (1994) and numerous [[expansion pack]]s, including ''[[Versions and ports of Doom|The Ultimate Doom]]'' (1995), ''[[Master Levels for Doom II]]'' (1995), and ''[[Final Doom]]'' (1996). Originally released for [[personal computer|PC]]/[[DOS]], these games have later been [[porting|ported]] to many other platforms, including nine different [[game console]]s. The series lost mainstream appeal as the technology of the [[Doom engine|''Doom'' game engine]] was surpassed in the mid-1990s, although fans have continued making [[Wads|WADs]], [[speedrunning]], and modifying the [[source code]] which was released in 1997. The franchise again received popular attention in 2004 with the release of ''[[Doom 3]]'', a retelling of the original game using new technology, and an associated 2005 [[Doom (film)|''Doom'' motion picture]]. ==Game features== ===Story=== ''Doom'' has a [[science-fiction]]/[[horror (genre)|horror]] theme, and a simple [[plot]]. The background is only given in the game's manual, and the in-game story is mainly advanced with short messages displayed between the game's episodes. The player takes the role of a nameless [[space marine]] (who is affectionately referred to as &quot;[[Doomguy]]&quot; by many fans), &quot;one of Earth's toughest, hardened in combat and trained for action&quot;, who has been deported to [[Mars]] for assaulting a senior officer when ordered to kill unarmed civilians. He is forced to work for the [[Union Aerospace Corporation]] (UAC), a military-industrial conglomerate that is performing secret experiments with [[teleportation]] between the moons of Mars, [[Phobos (moon)|Phobos]] and [[Deimos (moon)|Deimos]]. Suddenly, something goes wrong and creatures from [[Hell]] come out of the teleportation gates. A defensive response from base security fails to halt the invasion, and the bases quickly get overrun by [[demon]]s, all personnel getting killed or turned into [[zombie]]s. At the same time, Deimos vanishes entirely. A UAC team from Mars is sent to Phobos to investigate the incident, but soon [[radio]] contact ceases and only one human is left alive &amp;mdash; the player, whose task is to make it out alive.{{ref|story}} [[Image:Doom_ingame_1.png|thumb|240px|''Episode I: Knee-Deep in the Dead'' takes place in the [[military base]] on [[Phobos (moon)|Phobos]]. In this image the main character is currently using the [[chainsaw]], a powerful [[mêlée]]-only weapon. Pools of [[toxic waste]] are visible on both sides, and a [[zombie|zombified]] human approaches.]] [[Image:Doom ingame 2.png|right|thumb|240px|''Episode III: Inferno'' is set in [[Hell]]. The main character has just fired the [[shotgun]] at a group of [[Imp]]s and is cycling it. He is badly injured and has only seven shells left.]] {{spoiler}} In order to beat the game, the player must fight through three episodes containing nine [[level (computer and video games)|level]]s each (see [[Episodes and levels of Doom|Episodes and levels of ''Doom'']]). ''Knee-Deep in the Dead'', the first episode and the only one in the [[shareware]] version, is set in the high-tech military bases on Phobos. It ends with the player fighting the [[List of enemies in Doom#Baron of Hell|Barons of Hell]] and afterwards entering the teleporter leading to Deimos, there getting overwhelmed by monsters and seemingly killed. In the second episode, ''Shores of Hell'', the player journeys through the Deimos installation, whose areas are interwoven with beastly architecture. After encountering the [[List of enemies in Doom#Cyberdemon|Cyberdemon]], the truth about the vanished moon is discovered: it is floating above Hell. The player climbs down to the surface, and the final episode, ''Inferno'', begins. After destroying the final [[boss (video games)|boss]], the [[List of enemies in Doom#Spider Mastermind|Spider Mastermind]], a hidden doorway opens for the hero who has &quot;proven too tough for Hell to contain&quot;, leading back home to Earth. The expansion pack ''[[Ultimate Doom]]'' adds a fourth episode, ''Thy Flesh Consumed'', chronicling the marine's return to Earth. ===Gameplay=== ''Main article: [[Gameplay of Doom]]'' Being a [[first-person shooter]], ''Doom'' is experienced through the eyes of the main character. The objective of each level is simply to locate the exit room that leads to the next area (usually labeled with an inviting red EXIT sign), while surviving all hazards on the way. Among the obstacles are monsters, pits of [[radioactive waste|radioactive slime]], ceilings that come down and [[crushing|crush]] the player, and locked doors for which a [[keycard]] or remote switch need to be located. The levels are sometimes labyrinthine (the [[automap]] is a crucial aid in navigating them), and feature plenty of hidden secret areas that hold [[power-up]]s as a reward for players who explore. ''Doom'' is notable for the [[weapon]]s arsenal available to the player, which became prototypical for first-person shooters. The player starts armed only with a [[pistol]], and [[brass knuckles|brass-knuckled]] [[fist]]s in case the [[ammunition]] runs out, but larger weapons can be picked up: these are a [[chainsaw]], a [[shotgun]], a [[chaingun]], a [[rocket launcher]], a [[plasma rifle]], and finally the immensely powerful [[BFG 9000]]. There is a wide array of power-ups, such as a [[backpack]] that increases the player's ammunition-carrying capacity, [[armor]], [[first aid kit]]s to restore health, and blue demonic orbs that boost the player's health percentage beyond 100%, up to a maximum of 200%. The enemy monsters in ''Doom'' make up the central gameplay element. The player faces them in large numbers, on the higher of the game's five [[difficulty level]]s often encountering a dozen or more in the same room. There are 10 types of monsters (''[[Doom II]]'' doubles this figure), including possessed humans as well as [[demon]]s of different strength, ranging from weak but ubiquitous [[imp]]s and red, floating [[cacodemon]]s, to the [[boss (video games)|bosses]] which survive multiple strikes even from the player's strongest weapons. The monsters have very simple behavior, consisting of either walking toward the player or attacking by throwing fireballs, biting, and scratching (though they can also [[monster infighting|fight each other]]). Aside from the [[single-player]] game mode, ''Doom'' features two [[multiplayer]] modes playable over a [[computer network|network]]: &quot;co-operative&quot;, in which two to four players team up against the legions of Hell, and &quot;[[deathmatch]]&quot;, in which two to four players fight each other. {{multi-video start}} {{multi-video item|filename=Doom single-player E3M6.ogg|title=''Doom'' single-player gameplay demonstration|description=Video of a single-player game, in the level ''E3M6: Mount Erebus''.|format=[[Theora]]}} {{multi-video end}} ==Development== ''Main article: [[Making of Doom]]'' [[Image:Adrian Carmack cropped.jpg|thumb|240px|Some of the ''Doom'' monsters were digitized from sculptures. Here, [[Adrian Carmack]] creates the [[List of enemies in Doom#Baron of Hell|Baron of Hell]] in clay.]] The development of ''Doom'' started in 1992 with [[John Carmack]] creating the new [[game engine]], the [[Doom engine|''Doom'' engine]], while the rest of the team finished ''[[Spear of Destiny (computer game)|Spear of Destiny]]''. When the [[game design]] phase began in late 1992, the main thematic influences were the [[science fiction]] [[action movie]] ''[[Aliens (1986 film)|Aliens]]'' and the [[horror movie]] ''[[Evil Dead II]]''. The title of the game was picked by Carmack: :''There is a scene in &quot;[[The Color of Money]]&quot; where [[Tom Cruise|Tom Cruse]] ''[sic]'' shows up at a pool hall with a custom pool cue in a case. &quot;What do you have in there?&quot; asks someone. &quot;Doom.&quot; replied Cruse with a cocky grin. That, and the resulting carnage, was how I viewed us springing the game on the industry.'' {{ref|DWCarmack}} Designer [[Tom Hall]] wrote an elaborate [[design document]] called the ''Doom Bible'', according to which the game would feature a detailed storyline, multiple player characters, and a number of interactive features.{{ref|bible}} However, many of his ideas were discarded during development in favor of simpler design primarily advocated by Carmack, resulting in Hall in the end being forced to resign due to not contributing effectively in the direction the rest of the team was going. Most of the [[level design]] that ended up in the final game is that of [[John Romero]] and [[Sandy Petersen]]. The graphics, by [[Adrian Carmack]], [[Kevin Cloud]] and [[Gregor Punchatz]], were created in various ways: although much was drawn or painted, several of the monsters were digitized from sculptures in [[clay]] or [[latex]], and some of the weapons are toy guns from [[Toys &quot;R&quot; Us]]. A [[heavy metal music|heavy metal]]-[[ambient music|ambient]] soundtrack was supplied by [[Bobby Prince]]. {{ref|MastersOfDoom}} ===Engine technology=== ''Main article: [[Doom engine]]'' ''Doom''&lt;nowiki&gt;'&lt;/nowiki&gt;s primary distinguishing feature at the time of its release was its realistic [[3D computer graphics|3D graphics]], then unparalleled by other [[real-ti
[2006]] the UN group released a report which called on the U.S. to either release all suspected terrorists or try them. [http://www.cnn.com/2006/US/02/16/un.guantanamo/index.html] European leaders have also voiced their opposition to the detention centre. British Prime Minister, [[Tony Blair]], has described the centre as an 'anomaly'. On [[January 13]], [[2006]], German Chancellor [[Angela Merkel]], herself being raised in repressive [[East-Germany]] where similar practices were used, criticized the U.S. detention of prisoners at Guantánamo Bay and the &quot;interrogation technique&quot; known as &quot;[[waterboarding]]&quot;, calling it a form of torture: &quot;An institution like Guantánamo in its present form cannot and must not exist in the long term. We must find different ways of dealing with prisoners. As far as I'm concerned there's no question about that.&quot;, she declared in a [[January 9]] interview to ''[[Der Spiegel]]''. [http://www.cnn.com/2006/WORLD/europe/01/13/merkel.us.ap/index.html] [http://service.spiegel.de/cache/international/0,1518,394180,00.html] ==Legal proceedings== ===United States Supreme Court=== On [[November 10]], [[2003]], the [[United States Supreme Court]] announced that it would decide on appeals by Afghan war detainees who challenge their continued incarceration at the Camp as being unlawful. On [[10 January]] [[2004]], 175 members of both [[United Kingdom Parliament|houses of Parliament in the UK]] had filed an [[amicus curiae|amici curi&amp;aelig;]] brief to support the detainees' access to USA jurisdiction. On [[June 28]], [[2004]] the Supreme Court ruled that &quot;illegal combatants&quot; such as those held in Guantánamo can challenge detentions but can also be held without charges or trial. ====Military Commission hearings (Camp Delta)==== On [[November 8]], [[2004]], a federal court halted the proceeding of Salim Ahmed Hamdan, 34, of Yemen. Hamdan was to be the first Guantánamo detainee tried before a military commission. Judge James Robertson of the U.S. District Court for the District of Columbia ruled that the U.S. military had failed to convene a [[competent tribunal]] to determine that Hamdan was not a [[prisoner of war]] under the Geneva Conventions -- specifically [http://wikisource.org/wiki/Third_Geneva_Convention#Article_5 Article 5 of the third Geneva Convention], which reads: :Should any doubt arise as to whether persons, having committed a belligerent act and having fallen into the hands of the enemy, belong to any of the categories enumerated in [http://wikisource.org/wiki/Third_Geneva_Convention#Article_4 Article 4], such persons shall enjoy the protection of the present Convention until such time as their status has been determined by a competent tribunal. However, a three judge panel overturned judge Robertson's ruling on Friday [[July 15]] [[2005]] [http://www.goupstate.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=/20050716/ZNYT02/507160358/1051/NEWS01]. The panel's ruling stated that the trial by [[Military tribunal|military commission]] could, in and of itself, serve as the necessary &quot;competent tribunal&quot;. ====Combatant Status Review Tribunals==== :''see also [[Combatant Status Review Tribunal]]'' In July 2004, following the ''[[Hamdi v. Rumsfeld]]''-ruling (November 2004) the Bush administration has begun using Combatant Status Review Tribunals to determine the status of detainees. By doing so the obligation under [[wikisource:Third Geneva Convention#Article 5|Article 5 of the GCIII]] was to be addressed. The U.S. judicial branch agreed with critics of the U.S. executive branch, that the USA did have a treaty obligation to convene competent tribunals to determine whether their prisoners were or were not &quot;[[lawful combatant]]s&quot;. On [[31 January]], Washington federal judge [[Joyce Hens Green]] ruled that the [[Combatant Status Review Tribunal]]s held to acertain the status of the prisoners in Guantánamo as &quot;illegal combatants&quot; were &quot;unconstitutional&quot;, and that they were entitled to the rights granted by the Constitution of the United States of America. The Combatant Status Reviews were completed in March 2005. 38 of the detainees who had been imprisoned, for years, without charge, and subjected to years of abusive interrogation, were determined to have been innocent civilians all along. On [[March 29]] [[2005]], the dossier of [[Murat Kurnaz]] was accidentally declassified. Kurnaz was one of the 500-plus detainees the reviews had determined '''''was''''' an &quot;unlawful combatant&quot;. Critics found that his dossier contained over a hundred pages of reports of investigations, which had found no ties to terrorists or terrorism whatsoever. It contained one memo that said Kurnaz had a tie to a suicide bomber. Judge Green said this memo: :&quot;fails to provide significant details to support its conclusory allegations, does not reveal the sources for its information and is contradicted by other evidence in the record.&quot; Eugene R. Fidell, who the [[Washington Post]] called [http://www.washingtonpost.com/ac2/wp-dyn/A3868-2005Mar26?language=printer a Washington-based expert in military law], said: :&quot;It suggests the procedure is a sham, If a case like that can get through, what it means is that the merest scintilla of evidence against someone would carry the day for the government, even if there's a mountain of evidence on the other side.&amp;quot; Another detainee, [[Mahdi, Fawaz Naman Hamoud Abdullah|Fawaz Mahdi]], was determined by a CSRT to be an [[unlawful combatant]] despite the fact that the CSRT itself (and also Fawaz' lawyer and he himself) observed that he suffers a form of mental illness, and that the only evidence for determining his status was his own statement. [http://web.amnesty.org/library/Index/ENGAMR511932005] The principal arguments of why these tribunals are inadequate to warrant acceptance as &quot;competent tribunal,&quot; are:[http://law.richmond.edu/news/view.php?item=145][http://www.nyu.edu/globalbeat/syndicate/smith072604.html] :a The CSRT conducted rudimentary proceedings :b The CSRT afforded detainees few basic protections :c Many detainees lacked counsel :d The CSRT also informed detainees only of general charges against them, while the details on which the CSRT premised enemy combatant status decisions were classified. :e Detainees had no right to present witnesses or to cross-examine government witnesses. Most notably the flawed nature of the procedure can be seen in the following cases: [[Mustafa Ait Idir]], [[Moazzam Begg]],[[Murat Kurnaz]], [[Feroz Abbasi]], and [[Martin Mubanga]].[http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/articles/A3868-2005Mar26.html][http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/articles/A51007-2005Jan31.html][http://www.commondreams.org/headlines06/0218-05.htm] A comment by legal experts states&quot;: :''It appears ... that the procedures of the Combatant Status Review Tribunals do not qualify as status determination under the Third Geneva Convention. &lt;......&gt; The fact that no status determination had taken place according to the Third Geneva Convention was sufficient reason for a judge from the District Court of Columbia dealing with a habeas petition, to stay proceedings before a military commission. Judge Robertson in Hamdan v. Rumsfeld held that the Third Geneva Convention, which he considered selfexecuting, had not been complied with since a Combatant Status Review Tribunal could not be considered a ‘competent tribunal’ pursuant to article 5 of the Third Geneva Convention.''[http://64.233.183.104/search?q=cache:LfG0Qe7qjWsJ:www.utrechtlawreview.org/publish/articles/000003/article.pdf+Fletcher+Unlawful+combatant&amp;hl=en] ===Other court rulings=== On [[February 23]], [[2006]] U.S. District Judge Jed S. Rakoff in New York ordered the Defense Department to release uncensored transcripts of detainee hearings, including the names of detainees in custody as well as the names of those who have been held and later released. The U.S. military has never officially released even the names of any detainees except the ten who have been charged. The U.S. Defense Department immediately said it would obey the judge's order. [http://edition.cnn.com/2006/LAW/02/23/guantanamo.lawsuit.ap/index.html Related CNN story] ===Legal status=== The particular legal status of Guantánamo Bay was a factor in the choice of Guantánamo as a detention center. Because sovereignty of Guantánamo Bay ultimately resides with Cuba, the U.S. government argued unsuccessfully that U.S. courts had no jurisdiction to consider challenges to the legality of the detention of foreign nationals captured abroad in connection with hostilities and incarcerated at Guantánamo Bay.(see ''Cuban American Bar Ass'n, Inc. v. Christopher, 43 F.3d 1412'' (11th Cir. 1995)). In 2004, the Supreme Court rejected this argument in the case ''[[Rasul v. Bush]]'' brought by the [[Center for Constitutional Rights]], with the majority decision and ruled that prisoners in Guantánamo have access to American courts to challenge the legality of their detention, citing the fact that the U.S. has exclusive control over Guantánamo Bay. On [[November 8]], [[2004]] U.S. District Court Judge [[James Robertson (Judge)|James Robertson]] ruled in [[Hamdi v. Rumsfeld]] that the [[George W. Bush|Bush Administration]] could not try such prisoners as enemy combatants in a military tribunal and could not deny them access to the evidence used against them. [http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/articles/A34519-2004Nov8.html] However, on [[15 July]] [[2005]], the D.C. Circuit Court of Appeals in overturning Robertson ruled that al-Qaeda members could not be classified as prisoners of war and upheld [[military tribunal]]s in Guantánamo Bay Naval Base for al-Qaeda members. This ruling does not necessarily authorize all military tribunals as the case only dealt with the POW status of al-Qaeda members. Prisoners held at Camp Delta a
c works (such as [[Pieter Bruegel]]'s ''[[:Image:Bruegel_peasant_wedding_dsc01965.jpg|Peasant Wedding]]'' and [[Victor Hugo]]'s story of the [[Battle of Waterloo]] from ''Les Châtiments'', in ''[[Asterix in Belgium]]''), as well as historical personalities ([[Napoleon]], [[Louis XIV of France]]), and famous places (the [[Moulin Rouge]], [[Bethlehem]]) and the [[Statue of Liberty]] (played by Asterix)). However, in many other respects the series reflects life in the [[1st century BC]] fairly accurately for the medium. For example, the multi-storied apartments in Rome&amp;mdash;the insulae&amp;mdash;which have Obelix remarking that one man's roof is another man's floor, and consequently, &quot;These Romans are crazy&quot;: his favourite line. This line itself is also an intrinsic joke on [[Rome]] and the Romans, as its [[Italian Language|Italian]] equivalent is &quot;Sono pazzi questi romani&quot;, which abbreviates as &quot;[[SPQR]]&quot;, as does the motto of the Roman Empire. On the other hand, the presence of chimneys in the Gaulish huts is not accurate, as they used gabled openings in the roof to let smoke escape. Also, [[menhir]]s are now believed to have been erected long before the Gauls. The text also makes relatively regular use of original [[List of Latin phrases|Latin phrases]], and allusions to Julius Caesar's ''[[De Bello Gallico]]'', a book about the conquest of Gaul, later used as an introductory text to [[Latin]]. Some jokes are made about Caesar's use of the third person to write about himself. Such allusions were likely to be well-received by the better-educated sections of the French and Belgian public in the [[1960s]], when the teaching of Latin was still widespread in high schools. ===Puns in names=== [[Image:Asterix-Main_Gaul_characters.jpeg|thumb|From left to right: Geriatrix, Unhygienix, Obelix (and Dogmatix), Asterix, Vitalstatistix, Getafix, Fulliautomatix, and Cacofonix (the porters are unnamed)]] A key feature of the text of the ''Asterix'' books are the constant [[pun]]s used as names of characters; The names of the two protagonists come from [[asterisk]] and [[obelisk]], Asterix being the star of the books (Latin ''aster'' (derived from the Greek word αστήρ (astir) [star] and Celtic ''rix'' [king, cognate to Latin ''rex'', [[Sanskrit]] ''raj'', German ''reich'', English ''rich'', etc]), and Obelix being a [[menhir]] delivery-man. This is a double pun, since as well as meaning a stone monolith, the word ''obelisk'' can also refer to the [[dagger (typography)|typographical dagger]] (&amp;dagger;) that is often used to denote the second footnote on a page after an ''asterisk'' (*) has been used to reference the first. In fact, nearly all the Gaulish characters' names end in ''-ix'', probably a reference to the real-life Gaulish chieftain such as [[Vercingetorix]] (though in life only the names of Gaulish kings&amp;mdash;and not even all of them&amp;mdash;ended in ''-ix'', and if they did it was always ''-rix''). English language examples include the chief ([[Vitalstatistix]]), the druid ([[Getafix]]), the fishmonger ([[Unhygienix]]), and an old man ([[Geriatrix]]) with a young wife. Roman characters' names end with ''-us'' as in Noxious Vapus and Crismusbonus. Female names do not follow the rules: for instance the wife of the Roman Osseus Humerus is Fibula, and his daughter Tibia. Other nations have their own style of naming&amp;mdash;Vikings use ''-af'' (Bathyscaf, Toocleverbyhaf, Timandahaf), Egyptians use ''-is'' (Edifis, Artifis), Britons use ''-ax'' (Hiphiphurrax, Notax, Valueaddedtax, and the notable exception Mykingdomforanos), Goths use ''-ic'' ([[Rhetoric]], Choleric) and Spaniards use Spanish-sounding names such as Huevos Y Bacon (Eggs and Bacon). Most names stand as solitary puns, like Getafix or Geriatrix, and some play on each other, as in the example of a Roman guard talking through a closed door to another guard: &quot;Open up, Sendervictorius! It's me, Appianglorius!&quot; This is a pun on the UK national anthem &quot;God Save the Queen&quot; and the lines &quot;Send her victorious, happy and glorious, long to reign over us, God save the Queen&quot;. ====Names in the French version==== Many of these puns reflect the French original, in which, for example, the Egyptian in ''Astérix Légionnaire'' is named Courdeténis (''cour de tennis'', i.e. &quot;tennis court&quot;) in French and Ptenisnet in English. But the translation of puns is difficult, and [[Anthea Bell]] and [[Derek Hockridge]] do a good job in the English language edition. For example, the translation of Ordralfabétix (referring to ''ordre alphabétique'', &quot;alphabetical order&quot;), is Unhygienix, given that this character is a fishmonger infamous for his rotting product. The original Panoramix, which perhaps represents the druid who sees the whole picture, is named Getafix in the English version, as &quot;get a fix&quot; conveys the fact he makes potent potions. Assurancetourix (''assurance tous risques'' or &quot;comprehensive insurance&quot;), the ear-offending [[bard]] of the village, becomes the apt Cacofonix. Another clever translation is that of Idéfix, a dog who has very strong views on the environment (he howls whenever he sees an uprooted tree). An ''idée fixe'' is a &quot;fixed idea&quot;, i.e. an obsession, a dogma. The translation, [[Dogmatix]], manages to conserve the &quot;fixed idea&quot; meaning and also include the syllable ''dog''. Note that the [[American English]] version of the comic was done by a different translator, and tends to use different names. Since these translations were of such poor quality, many North American fans of the series seek out the British translations instead. The word ''asterix'' is also commonly mis-used by [[English language]] speakers and writers in place of ''asterisk''. The chief is called Abraracourcix, derived from the phrase ''à bras racourci'' meaning &quot;with arm shortened, ready to punch.&quot; Another series of puns, at least in the original French include the names of the four camps (castra) which surround Asterix's village, e.g. one of them is called &quot;Babaorum&quot;, a pun on ''baba au rhum'' or [[rum baba]], a popular kind of pastry. &lt;!--What is the Roman ''Belinconnus'' (Handsome Stranger) in the English version? --&gt; &lt;!--: Which album does he appear in, and what does he do? --&gt; ===Running gags=== A number of running gags recur in various albums. One of these is that the bard Cacofonix wants to create a spontaneous song whenever Asterix and Obelix leave or come back for a grand journey, but is usually prevented from doing so by Fulliautomatix (the blacksmith). At the end of most adventures (most notable exceptions in ''[[Asterix and the Normans]]'', ''[[Asterix and the Magic Carpet]]'' and ''[[Asterix and the Falling Sky]]''), he ends up not attending the final banquet which usually marks the end of an episode; instead he is seen tied up and gagged up in his tree-house in the same panel in which the feast takes place, so as not to disrupt the festivities. Another running gag is a group of [[pirate]]s that tend to get caught in the middle of conflict and have their ship sunk, resembling the painting [[The Raft of the Medusa]] by [[Théodore Géricault]], most notably in ''[[Asterix the Legionary]]''. The ship is often sunk for a variety of reasons, such as a stray thrown menhir, though usually through Asterix and Obelix boarding them. In one episode, they attack a ship carrying a Roman agent, who points at a random crew member and states he gave him a bagful of gold if he would not attack the agent. In the ensuing battle over the nonexistent bag of gold, the pirates sink their own ship. In another, tired of being sunk, they give up pirating completely and open a ship-themed restaurant. Asterix and Obelix arrive and the restaurant is soon smashed to pieces. Those pirates—most notably the red-bearded captain, the constantly Latin-quoting peg-legged second-in-command, and the African lookout—are caricatures of the characters of &quot;Barbe Rouge, Le Démon des Caraïbes&quot;, a pirate series that was published at the same time in [[Pilote]], the weekly comics magazine in which Asterix appeared, and which Goscinny also edited. ===Revisionist explanations=== In the albums, some historical facts are retold, and attributed to Asterix &amp; Obelix. *In ''[[Asterix and Cleopatra]]'', when visiting Egypt, Obelix scales the [[Great Sphinx of Giza#Missing nose|sphinx]]. He then falls down, grabs the sphinx's nose, but it breaks. Immediately all the souvenir-shops nearby chisel off the noses of their souvenir-sphinxes in order to maintain the resemblance to the real monument. This may be a reference to the (false) belief that Napoleon's troops destroyed the sphinx's nose by using it for target practice. *In ''[[Asterix in Britain]]'', the Britons are used to drinking hot water with a drop of [[milk]]. Only when Asterix puts in tea-leaves, given by the druid, the habit becomes tea-drinking. *In ''[[Asterix in Spain]]'', Asterix ends up in a circus in front of an [[aurochs]] (not a lion, there). He evades the bull nicely, and gets an applause from the audience. A guest of the Roman general drops her red cape in the arena. When Asterix wants to hand it back, the bull reacts and is finished after some dancing moves of Asterix, giving us the first bullfight. *In the same book, Unhygenix the fishmonger agrees to take payment for his boat rental in menhirs, as he wants to develop land on [[Salisbury Plain]]&amp;mdash;which explains the mystery of [[Stonehenge]]. *In ''[[Asterix and the Banquet]]'' (Le Tour de Gaule) Obelix travels around Gaul with a yellow knapsack on his back, as if wearing the yellow jersey in the modern Tour de France. Complete with a white square patch on the backside, where we can imagine the cyclist's number. *In ''[[Asterix in Switzerland]]'', Asterix manages to carry an unconscious Obelix through the Alps,
?] [[Seattle Times]], March 31, 2005. #{{note|nabt_statement}} [http://www.nabt.org/sub/position_statements/evolution.asp National Association of Biology Teachers Statement on Teaching Evolution] #{{note|forrest_redef}} Barbara Forrest, 2000. &quot;[http://www.infidels.org/library/modern/barbara_forrest/naturalism.html Methodological Naturalism and Philosophical Naturalism: Clarifying the Connection].&quot; In ''Philo'', Vol. 3, No. 2 (Fall-Winter 2000), pp. 7-29. #{{note|johnson_reason_balance}} Phillip E. Johnson in his book &quot;Reason in the Balance: The Case Against Naturalism in Science, Law and Education&quot; (InterVarsity Press, 1995), positions himself as a &quot;theistic realist&quot; against &quot;methodological naturalism.&quot; #{{note|johnson_theistic_realism}} &quot;My colleagues and I speak of 'theistic realism'-- or sometimes, 'mere creation' -- as the defining concept of our [the ID] movement. This means that we affirm that God is objectively real as Creator, and that the reality of God is tangibly recorded in evidence accessible to science, particularly in biology.&quot; Phillip Johnson. [http://www.arn.org/docs/johnson/ratzsch.htm Starting a Conversation about Evolution] #{{note|id_intuitive}} &quot;We are taking an intuition most people have and making it a scientific and academic enterprise,&quot; Johnson said. In challenging Darwinism with a God-friendly alternative theory, the professor, who is a Presbyterian, added, &quot;We are removing the most important cultural roadblock to accepting the role of God as creator.&quot; Phillip E. Johnson. 2001. ''Enlisting Science to Find the Fingerprints of a Creator: Believers in 'intelligent design' try to redirect evolution disputes along intellectual lines''. By Teresa Watanabe. Los Angeles Times (Sunday Front page) March 25, 2001.[http://www.discovery.org/scripts/viewDB/index.php?programs=CSCstories&amp;command=view&amp;id=613] #{{note|belz_est}} Joel Belz, 1996. World Magazine. [http://www.leaderu.com/pjohnson/world2.html Witnesses For The Prosecution] #{{note|johnsone_reality_of_god}} &quot;Our strategy has been to change the subject a bit so that we can get the issue of Intelligent Design, which really means the reality of God, before the academic world and into the schools.&quot; Phillip E. Johnson. [[January 10]] [[2003]] on American Family Radio [http://www.christianity.ca/news/social-issues/2004/03.001.html] In www.christianity.ca # {{note|buell_hearn}} Jon Buell &amp; Virginia Hearn (eds), 1992. &quot;[http://ebd10.ebd.csic.es/pdfs/DarwSciOrPhil.pdf Proceedings of a Symposium entitled: Darwinism: Scientific Inference of Philosophical Preference?]&quot; ([[PDF]]) #{{note|giberson_bigbang}} Karl Giberson . [http://www.stnews.org/Commentary-2439.htm ''Intelligent design’s long march to nowhere''] Science &amp; Theology News, December 5, 2005 #{{note|behe_time}} Claudia Wallis. Evolution Wars. Time Magazine, [[15 August]] [[2005]] edition, page 32 [http://www.time.com/time/archive/preview/0,10987,1090909,00.html] #{{note|dembski_aliens}} William Dembski in ''The Design Inference&quot; (see [[#Further reading|further reading]]) cited extraterrestrials as a possible designer [http://www.wired.com/wired/archive/12.10/evolution.html]. #{{note|pyramids_comp}} Michael J. Murray, n.d. [http://server1.fandm.edu/departments/Philosophy/staticpages/Murray/Providence.pdf &quot;Natural Providence (or Design Trouble)]&quot; ([[PDF]]) #{{note|dembski_goblins_built_pyramids}} William Dembski defends Intelligent Design from &quot;silly claim&amp;quot; that &quot;ancient technologies could not have built the pyramids, so goblins must have done it.&quot; [http://puffin.creighton.edu/NRCSE/NRCSEPosReID.html] &lt;!-- As science --&gt; #{{note|science_redef}} Stephen C. Meyer, 2005. ''The Scientific Status of Intelligent Design: The Methodological Equivalence of Naturalistic and Non-Naturalistic Origins Theories'' [http://www.discovery.org/scripts/viewDB/index.php?command=view&amp;id=1780] #{{note|id_consistency}} Intelligent design is generally only internally consistent and logical within the framework in which it operates. Criticisms are that this framework has at its foundation an unsupported, unjustified assumption: That complexity and improbability must entail design, but the identity and characteristics of the designer is not identified or quantified, nor need they be. The framework of Intelligent Design, because it rests on a unquantifiable and unverifiable assertion, has no defined boundaries except that complexity and improbability require design, and the designer need not be constrained by the laws of physics. #{{note|id_parsimony}} Intelligent design fails to pass Occam's razor. Adding entities (an intelligent agent, a designer) to the equation is not strictly necessary to explain events. #{{note|id_not_falsifiable}} The designer is not falsifiable, since its existence is typically asserted without sufficient conditions to allow a falsifying observation. The designer being beyond the realm of the observable, claims about its existence can neither be supported nor undermined by observation, hence making Intelligent Design and the argument from design analytic a posteriori arguments. #{{note|id_testable}} That Intelligent Design is not empirically testable stems from the fact that Intelligent Design violates a basic premise of science, naturalism. #{{note|id_correctable}} Intelligent design professes to offer an answer that does not need to be defined or explained, the intelligent agent, designer. By asserting a conclusion that need not be accounted for, the designer, no further explanation is necessary to sustain it, and objections raised to those who accept it make little headway. Thus Intelligent Design is not a provisional assessment of data which can change when new information is discovered. Once it is claimed that a conclusion that need not be accounted for has been established, there is simply no possibility of future correction. The idea of the progressive growth of scientific ideas is required to explain previous data and any previously unexplainable data. #{{note|nobellaureates_id}} The Elie Wiesel Foundation for Humanity Nobel Laureats Initiative. Intelligent design cannot be tested as a scientific theory &quot;because its central conclusion is based on belief in the intervention of a supernatural agent.&quot; [http://media.ljworld.com/pdf/2005/09/15/nobel_letter.pdf] #{{note|au_scientists}} Intelligent Design is not Science - Scientists and teachers speak out. Faculty of Science, University of New South Wales. 20 October, 2005. [http://www.science.unsw.edu.au/news/2005/intelligent.html] &lt;!-- Peer review --&gt; #{{note|conspiracy_theory}} {{Web reference |author=Hawks, John |title=The President and the teaching of evolution |url=http://johnhawks.net/weblog/topics/creation/bush_intelligent_design_2005.html |publishyear=2005 |date=November 23 |year=2005}} #{{note|templeton}} Laurie Goodstein. ''Intelligent Design Might Be Meeting Its Maker'' December 4, 2004. The New York Times. [http://www.nytimes.com/2005/12/04/weekinreview/04good.html?ex=1291352400&amp;en=feb5138e425b9001&amp;ei=5088&amp;partner=rssnyt&amp;emc=rss] #{{note|dembski_research}} William A. Dembski [http://www.designinference.com/documents/2001.03.ID_as_nat_theol.htm . &lt;cite&gt;Is Intelligent Design a Form of Natural Theology? &lt;/cite&gt;] From Dembski's designinference.com #{{note|dembski_pr}} Beth McMurtrie, 2001. &quot;[http://chronicle.com/free/v48/i17/17a00801.htm Darwinism Under Attack].&quot; ''The Chronicle Of Higher Education''. #{{note|behe_peer_review}} ''[[Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District]]'', October 19, 2005, AM session [http://www.talkorigins.org/faqs/dover/day12am.html] #{{note|di_peer_review}} Discovery Institute. [http://www.discovery.org/scripts/viewDB/index.php?command=view&amp;id=2640&amp;program=CSC%20-%20Scientific%20Research%20and%20Scholarship%20-%20Science] &lt;!-- Observable intelligence --&gt; #{{note|Dembski_nat}} William Dembski. Intelligent Design? a special report reprinted from Natural History magazine April 2002. [http://www.actionbioscience.org/evolution/nhmag.html] #{{note|seti_id}} &quot;In fact, the signals actually sought by today’s SETI searches are not complex, as the ID advocates assume. ... If SETI were to announce that we’re not alone because it had detected a signal, it would be on the basis of artificiality.&quot; Shostak. SETI and Intelligent Design, space.com [http://www.space.com/searchforlife/seti_intelligentdesign_051201.html] #{{note|edis}} Taner Edis. ''Darwin in Mind: ''Intelligent Design'' Meets Artificial Intelligence.'' ''Skeptical Inquirer'' Magazine, March/April 2001 issue. [http://www.csicop.org/si/2001-03/intelligent-design.html] &lt;!-- Ignorance --&gt; #{{note|ncseweb_02}} Eugenie C. Scott and Glenn Branch, [http://www.ncseweb.org/resources/articles/996_intelligent_design_not_accep_9_10_2002.asp &quot;Intelligent Design&quot; Not Accepted by Most Scientists], National Center for Science Education website, September 10, 2002. #{{note|ncseweb_03}} ibid. [http://www.ncseweb.org/resources/articles/996_intelligent_design_not_accep_9_10_2002.asp &quot;Intelligent Design&quot; Not Accepted by Most Scientists] &lt;/div&gt; ==External links== '''ID perspectives''' *[http://www.arn.org/ Access Research Network] *[http://www.designinference.com Design Inference: The website of William A. Dembski] *[http://www.discovery.org Discovery Institute] (Largest promoter of Intelligent Design) **[http://www.discovery.org/csc/ Discovery Institute, Center for Science and Culture] *[http://www.intelligentdesignnetwork.org/ Intelligent Design Network] *[http://www.iscid.org/ International Society for Complexity, Information, and Design (ISCID)] '''Non-ID perspectives''' *[http://www.intelligent-forces.com/intelligent-design-criticism.htm A Criticism of Intelligent Design] Article analyzing the main arguments put
o not charge customers for EFTPOS transactions in the UK, but some retailers make small charges, particularly where the transaction amount in question is small. The UK is in the process of converting all [[debit card]]s in circulation to [[Chip and PIN]], based on the [[EMV]] standard, to increase transaction security. ===New Zealand=== The EFTPOS system is highly popular in [[New Zealand]]. Virtually all retail outlets have EFTPOS terminals, particularly supermarkets, dairies, service stations, and bars. Increasingly Taxi operators and even businesses operating from stands at events have mobile EFTPOS terminals. New Zealanders use EFTPOS for both small and large transactions. It would not be unusual for a New Zealander to use an EFTPOS card to pay for an amount as small as $1 [[New Zealand dollar|NZD]]. Because EFTPOS is such an integral part of spending in New Zealand, occasional network failures cause tremendous delays, inconvenience and lost income to businesses who must resort to swipe machines to process EFTPOS transactions until the network returns to service. The [[Bank of New Zealand]] introduced EFTPOS to New Zealand in 1983 through a pilot scheme with petrol stations. New Zealand now has more EFTPOS terminals per head of population than any other country. EFTPOS is operated through two primary networks. One owned by [[ANZ New Zealand]], and [[National Bank of New Zealand]], and a second operated by [[Electronic Transaction Services Limited]] which is owned by [[ASB Bank]], [[Westpac]] and the [[Bank of New Zealand]]. ===Australia=== In [[Australia]], EFTPOS-enabled cards are accepted at almost all swipe terminals able to accept [[credit card]]s, regardless of the bank that issued the card, including [[Maestro (debit card)|Maestro]] cards issued by foreign banks, with most high turnover businesses accepting them, with 450,000 Point Of Sale terminals[http://www.maestrocard.com/cgi-bin/wheretouse.cgi?country=002&amp;Select+a+country.x=14&amp;Select+a+country.y=2&amp;region=01]. EFTPOS cards can also be used to deposit and withdraw cash over the counter at [[Australia Post]] outlets participating in giroPost, just as if the transaction was conducted at a bank branch, even if the bank branch is closed. Although EFTPOS terminals are now commonplace, many merchants still retain manual credit card terminals as their sole method of accepting cashless payment. ===Canada=== :''Main article: [[Interac]]'' [[Canada]] has a nation-wide EFTPOS system, called [[Interac|Interac Direct Payment]]. Since being introduced in 1994, IDP has become the most popular payment method in the country, surpassing even regular cash payments in [[2001]]. === Germany === Over recent years, in [[Germany]] EFTPOS has gained tremendously in acceptance. Facilities already existed before EFTPOS became popular with the Eurocheque card (Eurocheque was originally a system of paper cheques. In addition to the actual cheques, customers were issued a card, which needed to be shown along side the cheque as security measure. Those cards could and can also be used on ATM Terminals and at EFTPOS, which is nowadays their only function, since the Eurocheque system (along with the name, but they're still referred to as Eurocheque cards by most people) was abandoned in 2002 during the transition from [[Deutsche Mark]] to the [[Euro]]). In 2005, one must actively search for a store or petrol station without EFTPOS facilities. Processing fees are deducted from businesses, and because of this, some business owners refuse EFTPOS-sales for totals below a certain amount, usually 5 or 10 Euros. Around 2000, an alternative method for EFTPOS payment was introduced, dubbed &quot;Geldkarte&quot; (&quot;money card&quot;). It uses a smart card chip on the front of a standard issue Eurocheque card (which still had the magnetic stripe on the back). This chip can be loaded with up to 200 Euros, and is advertised as means for medium to very small payments, down to the low euro or even cent range, as no processing fees are deducted by banks. It has not gained the popularity its inventors have hoped for, however this could change when this chip will be used as means of age verification at cigarette vending machines, which will become mandatory in 2007. === Chile === [[Chile]] has an EFTPOS system called ''Redcompra'' (Purchase Network) which is currently used in at least 23,000 establishments throughout the country. Goods may be purchased using this system at most supermarkets, retail stores, pubs and restaurants in major urban centers. === The Netherlands === In [[The Netherlands]] using EFTPOS is known as ''pinnen'' ('''pin'''ning), a term derived from the use of a [[Personal Identification Number]]. PINs are also used for [[ATM]] transactions, and the term is used interchangeably by many people, although it was introduced as a marketing brand for EFTPOS. The system was launched in 1987, and [[2006|currently]] has 166,375 terminals throughout the country, including mobile terminals used by delivery services and on markets. All banks offer a debit card suitable for EFTPOS with current accounts. PIN transactions are usually free to the customer, but the retailer is charged per-transaction and monthly fees. [http://www.interpay.nl Interpay], an association with all major banks as its members, runs the system, and until August 2005 also charged for it. Responding to allegations of monopoly abuse, it has handed over contractual responsibilities to its member banks, who now offer competing contracts. Interpay was fined EUR 47 million in 2004, but the fine was later dropped, and a related fine for banks was lowered from EUR 17 to EUR 14 million. Per-transaction fees are between 5-10 eurocents, depending on volume. Credit cards use in The Netherlands is very low, and most credit cards cannot be used with EFTPOS, or charge very high fees to the customer. Furthermore, debit cards can be used in the entire EU for EFTPOS, and most debit cards are [[Cirrus (interbank network)|Cirrus]] cards. ==See also== *[[Transaction Types Over POS Terminal]] ==Some EFT/POS Manufacturers== *[http://www.the-logic-group.com The Logic Group] *[http://www.ossi.com OSSI Customized POS/Organization Solutions] *[http://www.axalto.com Axalto] *[http://www.hypercom.com/ Hypercom] *[http://www.ingenico.com/ Ingenico] *[http://www.sagem.com Sagem] *[http://www.trintech.com Trintech] *[http://www.verifone.com/ Verifone] *[http://www.thales-esecurity.com Thales] *[[Banksys]] [[Category:Payment systems]] [[Category:Electronic commerce]] [[de:POS-Terminal]] [[Category:Electronic commerce]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Epistle to the Laodiceans</title> <id>10334</id> <revision> <id>41608589</id> <timestamp>2006-02-28T13:59:55Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Bluebot</username> <id>527862</id> </contributor> <comment>clean up and bulleting external links using [[Wikipedia:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Wikisource|Epistle to the Laodiceans}} An '''Epistle to the Laodiceans''', consisting of 20 short lines, is found in some editions of the [[Vulgate]], known only in [[Latin]], purporting to be the [[epistle]] of [[Paul of Tarsus|Paul]] to the [[Denizli|Laodiceans]] mentioned in the [[Epistle to the Colossians]]. It is almost unanimously believed to be [[pseudepigraphical]], being a [[pastiche]] of phrases taken from the genuine Pauline epistles. [[Adolf von Harnack]] suggested that it was written by either [[Marcion]] or one of his followers, also claimed by the [[Muratorian fragment]] and named as part of Marcion's Bible canon, but despite scholarly examination his suggestion cannot be substantiated or denied. In any case, this little work contains almost no doctrine, teachings or narrative not found elsewhere, and its exclusion from the [[Biblical canon]] has little effect. The text was almost unanimously considered pseudepigraphal when Biblical canon was decided upon, and does not appear in any Greek copies of the Bible at all, nor is it known in Syriac or other versions. [[Jerome]] wrote in the 4th century, &quot;it is rejected by everyone&quot; (Lives of Illustrious Men, Chapter 5). However, it evidently gained a certain degree of respect. It appeared in over 100 surviving early Latin copies of the Bible. According to Biblia Sacra iuxta vulgatum versionem, there are Latin Vulgate manuscripts containing this epistle dating between the 6th and 12th century, including Latin manuscripts F (Fuldensis), M, Q, B, D (Ardmachanus), C, and Lambda. The epistle also appeared in all the early German translations before [[Martin Luther]]'s, and was thus evidently considered canon by much of the western church for quite some time. In the [[Epistle to the Colossians]], Paul, after instructing them to send an Epistle to Laodicea, adds: &quot;read that which is from the Laodiceans&quot;. This most probably regards a circular letter, the canonical &quot;Ephesians&quot;; but it has been held to be a lost letter to the Laodicean Christians. The apocryphal epistle is generally considered a transparent attempt to supply this supposed lost sacred document. {{Catholic}} ==External links== *[http://www.comparative-religion.com/christianity/apocrypha/new-testament-apocrypha/4/7.php M.R. James' translation and commentary] at [http://www.comparative-religion.com/ Comparative-Religion.Com] [[Category:Christian texts]] [[Category:New Testament Apocrypha]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Nazi extermination camp</title> <id>10335</id> <revision> <id>42121082</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T23:30:45Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>No Guru</username> <id>44087</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/71.103.169.198|71.103.169.198]] to last version by UkPaolo</comment> <
aghi]] *{{flagicon|Brazil}} [[Ricardo Izecson dos Santos Leite|Kaka]] *{{flagicon|England}} [[Herbert Kilpin]] *{{flagicon|Netherlands}} [[Patrick Kluivert]] |width=&quot;50&quot;|&amp;nbsp; |valign=&quot;top&quot;| *{{flagicon|Brazil}} [[Leonardo Nascimento de Araujo|Leonardo]] *{{flagicon|Sweden}} [[Nils Liedholm]] *{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Cesare Maldini]] *{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Paolo Maldini]] *{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Daniele Massaro]] *{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Giuseppe Meazza]] *{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Alessandro Nesta]] *{{flagicon|Sweden}} [[Gunnar Nordahl]] *{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Christian Panucci]] *{{flagicon|France}} [[Jean-Pierre Papin]] *{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Pierino Prati]] *{{flagicon|Argentina}} [[Fernando Redondo]] *{{flagicon|Netherlands}} [[Frank Rijkaard]] *{{flagicon|Brazil}} [[Rivaldo]] *{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Gianni Rivera]] *{{flagicon|Portugal}} [[Rui Costa]] *{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Sandro Salvadore]] *{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Giuseppe Santagostino]] *{{flagicon|Serbia and Montenegro}} [[Dejan Savicevic]] *{{flagicon|Uruguay}} [[Juan Alberto Schiaffino]] *{{flagicon|Germany}} [[Karl Heinz Schnellinger]] *{{flagicon|Netherlands}} [[Clarence Seedorf]] *{{flagicon|Ukraine}} [[Andriy Shevchenko]] *{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Marco Simone]] *{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Angelo Sormani]] *{{flagicon|Netherlands}} [[Jaap Stam]] *{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Mauro Tassotti]] *{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Giovanni Trapattoni]] *{{flagicon|Denmark}} [[Jon Dahl Tomasson]] *{{flagicon|France}} [[Patrick Vieira]] *{{flagicon|Liberia}} [[George Weah]] *{{flagicon|England}} [[Ray Wilkins]] *{{flagicon|Germany}} [[Christian Ziege]] |} ==All-Time Goalscorers== {| !Player !Goals !Seasons |- |[[Gunnar Nordahl]]||221||8 |- |[[Andriy Shevchenko]] (*)||165||6 |- |[[Gianni Rivera]]||164||18 |- |[[José Altafini]]||161||7 |- |[[Aldo Boffi]]||136||9 |- |[[Marco Van Basten]]||124||7 |- |[[Giuseppe Santagostino]]||106||11 |- |[[Pierino Prati]]||102||7 |- |[[Louis Van Hege]]||98||7 |- |[[Alberto Bigon|Albertino Bigon]]||90||9 |- |[[Nils Liedholm]]||89||12 |- |[[Renzo Burini]]||88||6 |- |[[Pietro Paolo Virdis]]||76||5 |- |[[Marco Simone]]||75||9 |- |[[Aldo Cevenini I]]||73||7 |- |[[Pietro Sante Arcari]]||70||6 |- |[[Daniele Massaro]]||70||9 |- |[[Giovanni Moretti]]||68||8 |- |[[Angelo Benedicto Sormani]]||65||5 |} (*) denotes still active in the Milan team. ==Retired numbers== * 3 {{flagicon|Italy}} [[Paolo Maldini]], [[fullback#Association football (soccer)|left fullback]], 1984-, ''after his retirement #3 would be designated only to his son [[Christian Maldini|Christian]] ([[Milan]], [[June 16]] [[1996]])'' * 6 {{flagicon|Italy}} [[Franco Baresi]], [[libero|sweeper]], 1977-1997 ==External links== *{{it icon}} {{pt icon}} {{en icon}} {{zh icon}} {{ja icon}} [http://www.acmilan.com Official AC Milan Website] *{{en icon}} [http://acmilan.atspace.com AC Milan Forever - Macedonian AC Milan fanclub] *[http://www.acmilan-online.com/ AC Milan Online] *{{en icon}} [http://www.milanfan.com/ AC Milan Fansite] *{{it icon}} {{en icon}} [http://www.acmilan.net/ AC Milan.Net] *[http://www.milanmania.com/ Milan Mania] * {{en icon}} [http://www.milanmalaysia.com/ MilanMalaysia] * {{en icon}} [http://www.resultsfromfootball.com/seriea-team/acmilan.html AC Milan statistics] {{Champions League 2005/06}} {{Serie A}} [[Category:Italian football clubs|Milan]] [[Category:A.C. Milan]] [[Category:G-14 clubs|Milan, AC]] [[bg:Милан]] [[ca:A.C. Milan]] [[cs:AC Milan]] [[da:AC Milan]] [[de:AC Mailand]] [[es:Associazione Calcio Milan]] [[fr:Milan AC]] [[id:AC Milan]] [[is:AC Milan]] [[it:Associazione Calcio Milan]] [[he:מילאן (כדורגל)]] [[nl:AC Milan]] [[ja:ACミラン]] [[no:AC Milan]] [[pl:A.C. Milan]] [[pt:AC Milan]] [[ro:AC Milan]] [[ru:Милан (футбольный клуб)]] [[simple:A.C. Milan]] [[sk:A.C. Milan]] [[fi:AC Milan]] [[sv:AC Milan]] [[tr:A.C. Milan]] [[zh:AC米兰足球俱乐部]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Amanda Hesser</title> <id>2868</id> <revision> <id>24765825</id> <timestamp>2005-10-04T23:04:14Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>12.40.227.4</ip> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Amanda Hesser_NYTimesMagazine.jpg|right|frame|Amanda Hesser]] '''Amanda Hesser''' is a chef, cookbook author and food reporter. She is currently the editor for ''[[The New York Times]]'' style magazine, ''T Living''. She was born in [[Doylestown, Pennsylvania|Doylestown]], [[Pennsylvania]]. After graduating from [[Bentley College]] in 1993, her interest in cooking sent her to work in New York, and eventually to study in Europe after receiving the Les Dames d'Escoffier scholarship. Her studies took her to Germany, Switzerland, Rome, and eventually France. During her time in France, Hesser cooked at L'Essentiel in the Haute Savoie under Chef Jean-Michel Bouvier as well as the Château du Feÿ in Burgundy. While apprenticing as a personal cook to the family of the founder, Anne Willan, Hesser earned a Graduate Diplôme from the École de Cuisine La Varenne. It was during this time in France that Hesser's writings started appearing in books and newspapers, including ''[[The Washington Post]]''. Hesser now lives in [[New York City]]. Her first book, released in 1999, is titled ''The Cook and The Gardner''. Hesser also wrote a book entitled &quot;Cooking for Mr. Latte,&quot; which was published in 2003. [[Category:American chefs|Hesser, Amanda]] [[Category:American journalists|Hesser, Amanda]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Anxiolytic</title> <id>2869</id> <revision> <id>37702419</id> <timestamp>2006-02-01T17:46:41Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>David Kernow</username> <id>445578</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>copyediting (¶2)</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{not verified}} An '''anxiolytic''' is any [[Medication|drug]] or therapy used in the treatment of [[anxiety disorder]]s. Different [[antidepressant]]s, [[azapirone]]s, [[benzodiazepine]]s, and non-cardioselective [[beta-receptor blocker]]s can be prescribed. For [[somatic]] symptoms, [[propranolol]] and [[oxprenolol]] can be used. Many of the [[Tricyclic antidepressant|tri]]/[[tetracyclic antidepressant]]s currently marketed (e.g. [[doxepin]], [[trimipramine]], [[amitriptyline]], [[clomipramine]]) show effective anxiolytic properties independent from their antidepressant activity. [[Venlafaxine]] is a relatively new drug with dual action (reuptake inhibitor of serotonin and norepinephrine) and proven efficiacy. Additionally, it may have a shorter latent period than other medications. [[SSRI]]s such as [[Fluoxetine]] and [[Monoamine oxidase inhibitor|MAO inhibitor]]s such as [[moclobemide]] or [[phenelzine]] exert anxiolytic activity, but often only after a latent period of several weeks. The initial SSRI dose should be particular low &amp;ndash; for instance, Fluoxetine or Paroxetin 10mg daily &amp;ndash; because higher doses may worsen anxiety. The dose may subsequently be increased gradually to 40mg (Fluoxetine) or 50mg (Paroxetin) daily. Most of the SSRI and MAO inhibitors aditionally benefit the disabling symptoms of [[agoraphobia]], often noted to occur together with anxiety disorders. '''MAO inhibitors and SSRIs must never be given together.''' [[Neuroleptic]]s of the different classes may also be effective as anxiolytics, but this use is usually discouraged because of the high incidence of side effects encountered, especially early and late extrapyramidal ones, which could be irreversible. [[Azapirone]]s, such as [[buspirone]], are most commonly prescribed. They are chemically and pharmacologically quite different from most of the other anxiolytics and the adverse effects of dependence, sedation and psychomotor impairment are noticeably less than with [[benzodiazepine]]s. Benzodiazepines are prescribed for short-term relief (the [[FDA]] recommends a maximum of 8 months for most benzodiazepines) of severe and disabling anxiety. Common medications are [[diazepam]] (Valium&lt;sup&gt;®&lt;/sup&gt;) and [[alprazolam]] (Xanax&lt;sup&gt;®&lt;/sup&gt;). Benzodiazepines may also be indicated to cover the latent periods associated with SSRIs, MAO inhibitors and azapirones. They are used to treat a wide variety of conditions and symptoms and are usually a first choice when short-term [[Central nervous system|CNS]] [[sedation]] is needed. Longer term uses include severe anxiety and [[psychosis]]. There is a risk of [[withdrawal]] symptoms and rebound syndrome after only a few weeks. There is also the added problem of the accumulation of drug [[metabolite]]s and adverse effects. [[Barbiturate]]s and [[meprobamate]] exert an anxiolytic effect linked to the sedation they cause. The risk of abuse and addiction is high. Many experts consider these drugs as obsolete for treating anxiety, although they may be valuable for the short term treatment of severe insomnia. Certain herbs, such as [[St. John's Wort]] and [[Kava]] (Kava Kava), have been used as anxiolytics, but limited reliable evidence is available for their efficacy. In Europe, the root of the [[Valerian (plant)|valerian]] is also popular as an anxiolytic. It should be noted that [[psychotherapy]] (e.g. cognitive or behavior therapy) is in most cases very useful to assist [[pharmacotherapy]]. &lt;!--Categories--&gt; [[Category:Anxiety disorders]] [[Category:Psychoactive drugs]] &lt;!--Other languages--&gt; [[de:Anxiolytikum]] [[es:Ansiolítico]] [[fr:Anxiolytique]] [[pl:Anksjolityki]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Antipsychotic</title> <id>2870</id> <revision> <id>42124959</id> <timestamp>2006-03-04T00:01:52Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Kriegman</username> <id>181058</id> </contributor> <comment>/* Side effects */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">The term '''antipsychotic''' is applied to a group of [[Medication|drug]]s used to trea
te]] withheld supply to the government, even though Whitlam retained the confidence of the [[Australian House of Representatives|House of Representatives]]. Kerr determined that he had both the right and the duty to dismiss the government and commission a new government that would recommend a dissolution of the Parliament. Despite the apparent endorsement of his action by the electorate at the [[1975]] elections, the events surrounding the dismissal remain extremely controversial. ==Ceremonial role== As well as the formal constitutional role, the Governor-General has a ceremonial role, though the extent and nature of this role has depended on the expectations of the time, the individual in office at the time and their reputation in the wider community. Governors-general generally become patrons of various charitable institutions, present honours and awards, host functions for various groups of people including ambassadors to and from other countries, and travel widely throughout Australia - replicating the actions of the monarch in the United Kingdom, or those of a ceremonial head of state. Sir [[William Deane]] described one of his functions as being &quot;Chief Mourner&quot; at prominent funerals. This role can become controversial, however, if the Governor-General becomes unpopular with sections of the community. The public role adopted by Sir John Kerr was curtailed somewhat after the constitutional crisis of 1975; Sir William Deane's public statements on political issues produced some hostility towards him among conservatives; and some charities disassociated themselves from Dr Hollingworth after the issue of his management of sex abuse cases during his time as Archbishop of Brisbane became a matter of controversy. ==History== The office of Australian Governor-General was conceived during the debates and conventions leading up to [[Federation of Australia|federation]]. The first Governor-General was a previous [[Governor of Victoria|Victorian Governor]], [[John Hope, 1st Marquess of Linlithgow|John Hope, the Earl of Hopetoun]]. He was appointed in July [[1900]], returning to Australia shortly before the inauguration of the Commonwealth of Australia on [[1 January]] [[1901]]. His first act was to appoint the inaugural Prime Minister, [[Edmund Barton]], since the first federal elections were not held until April. [[Image:Australian GG Historical.gif|thumb|225px|Flag of the Governor-General until 1936]] Early Governors-General were British and were appointed by the King on the recommendation of the [[Secretary_of_State_for_the_Colonies|Colonial Office]]. The Australian government was merely asked, as a matter of courtesy, whether they approved of the choice or not. Governors-General were expected to exercise a supervisory role over the Australian Government in the manner of a colonial Governor. In a very real sense, they represented not only the monarch but also the British Government. They had the right to &quot;reserve&quot; legislation passed by the [[Parliament of Australia]]: in other words, to ask the [[Colonial Office]] in [[London]] for an opinion before giving the [[Royal Assent]]. This power was used several times. During the [[1920s]] the importance of the position declined. As a result of decisions made at the Imperial Conference of [[1926]], the tenure of a Governor-General was dependent only on advice from the Australian [[Prime Minister of Australia|Prime Minister]]. The Governor-General ceased to be the diplomatic representative of the British Government and the British right of supervision over Australian affairs was abolished. Also, in [[1929]], the Australian Prime Minister [[James Scullin]] established the right of a [[Dominion]] Prime Minister to advise the Monarch directly on the appointment of a Governor-General, by insisting that his choice (Sir [[Isaac Isaacs]], an Australian) prevail over the recommendation of the British government. The convention was gradually established throughout the Commonwealth that the Governor-General (or Governor General) is a citizen of the country concerned, and is appointed on the advice of the government of that country, with no input from the British government. Thus, in [[1931]], this transformation was concluded with the appointment of the first British [[High Commissioner]] and the first Australian Governor-General, [[Isaac Isaacs|Sir Isaac Isaacs]]. The latter appointment was advised by the [[Australian Labor Party|Labor]] Prime Minister, [[James Scullin]], despite the misgivings of [[George V of the United Kingdom|King George V]]. The appointment was denounced by the opposition [[Nationalist Party of Australia]] as being &quot;practically republican&quot;. After Scullin's defeat in [[1931]], non-Labor governments continued to appoint British Governors-General. In [[1947]] Labor appointed a second Australian Governor-General, [[William McKell|Sir William McKell]]. In [[1965]], the conservative [[Robert Menzies|Menzies]] government appointed an Australian, [[Richard Casey|Lord Casey]], and the position has since been held only by Australians. Suggestions during the early 1980s that the [[Charles, Prince of Wales|Prince of Wales]] might become the Governor-General came to nothing. ==List of Governors-General== {| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;border-collapse:collapse;&quot; !Term !Title |- | [[1 January]] [[1901]] to [[9 January]] [[1903]] | The Right Hon. [[John Hope, 1st Marquess of Linlithgow|John Adrian Louis Hope, 7th Earl of Hopetoun]] (from 1902, The Most Hon. Marquess of Linlithgow) &lt;small&gt; KT, GCMG, GCVO, PC&lt;/small&gt; |- | [[9 January]] [[1903]] to [[21 January]] [[1904]] | The Right Hon. [[Hallam Tennyson, 2nd Baron Tennyson]], &lt;small&gt; GCMG, PC&lt;/small&gt; |- | [[21 January]] [[1904]] to [[9 September]] [[1908]] | The Right Hon. [[Henry Northcote, 1st Baron Northcote]], &lt;small&gt; GCMG, GCIE, CB, PC&lt;/small&gt; |- | [[9 September]] [[1908]] to [[31 July]] [[1911]] | The Right Hon. [[William Ward, 2nd Earl of Dudley]], &lt;small&gt;GCB, GCMG, GCVO, TD, PC&lt;/small&gt; |- | [[31 July]] [[1911]] to [[18 May]] [[1914]] | The Right Hon. [[Thomas Denman, 3rd Baron Denman]], &lt;small&gt;GCMG, KCVO, PC, JP&lt;/small&gt; |- | [[18 May]] [[1914]] to [[6 October]] [[1920]] | The Right Hon. [[Ronald Munro-Ferguson|Sir Ronald Munro-Ferguson]], &lt;small&gt;GCMG, DL&lt;/small&gt; |- | [[6 October]] [[1920]] to [[8 October]] [[1925]] | The Right Hon. [[Henry Forster, 1st Baron Forster]], &lt;small&gt; GCMG, PC, DL&lt;/small&gt; |- |[[8 October]] [[1925]] to [[21 January]] [[1931]] |The Right Hon. [[John Baird, 1st Baron Stonehaven]], &lt;small&gt;GCMG, DSO, PC, JP, DL&lt;/small&gt; |- |[[21 January]] [[1931]] to [[23 January]] [[1936]] |The Right Hon. [[Isaac Isaacs|Sir Isaac Alfred Isaacs]], &lt;small&gt;GCB, GCMG&lt;/small&gt; |- |[[23 January]] [[1936]] to [[30 January]] [[1945]] |Brigadier-General the Right Hon. [[Alexander Hore-Ruthven, 1st Baron Gowrie]], &lt;small&gt;VC, GCMG, CB, DSO, PC&lt;/small&gt; |- |[[30 January]] [[1945]] to [[11 March]] [[1947]] |His Royal Highness [[Prince Henry, Duke of Gloucester|The Prince Henry William Frederick Albert, Duke of Gloucester]], &lt;small&gt;KG, KT, KP, GCB, GCMG, GCVO&lt;/small&gt; |- |[[11 March]] [[1947]] to [[8 May]] [[1953]] |The Right Hon. [[William McKell|Sir William John McKell]], &lt;small&gt;GCMG&lt;/small&gt; |- |[[8 May]] [[1953]] to [[2 February]] [[1960]] |Field Marshal [[William Slim|Sir William Joseph Slim]], &lt;small&gt;KG, GCB, GCMG, GCVO, GBE, DSO, MC&lt;/small&gt; |- |[[2 February]] [[1960]] to [[3 February]] [[1961]] |The Right Hon. [[William Morrison, 1st Viscount Dunrossil]], &lt;small&gt;GCMG, MC, QC, PC&lt;/small&gt; |- |[[3 August]] [[1961]] to [[7 May]] [[1965]] |The Right Hon. [[William Sidney, 1st Viscount De L'Isle]], &lt;small&gt;VC, KC, GCMG, GCVO, PC&lt;/small&gt; |- |[[7 May]] [[1965]] to [[30 April]] [[1969]] |The Right Hon. [[Richard Casey|Richard Gardiner Casey, Baron Casey]], &lt;small&gt;KG, GCMG, CH, DSO, MC, PC&lt;/small&gt; |- |[[30 April]] [[1969]] to [[11 July]] [[1974]] |The Right Hon. [[Paul Hasluck|Sir Paul Meernaa Caedwalla Hasluck]], &lt;small&gt;KG, GCMG, GCVO&lt;/small&gt; |- |[[11 July]] [[1974]] to [[8 December]] [[1977]] |The Right Hon. [[John Kerr|Sir John Robert Kerr]], &lt;small&gt;AK, GCMG, GCVO, QC &lt;/small&gt; |- |[[8 December]] [[1977]] to [[29 July]] [[1982]] |The Right Hon. [[Zelman Cowen|Sir Zelman Cowen]], &lt;small&gt;AK, GCMG, GCVO, QC&lt;/small&gt; |- |[[29 July]] [[1982]] to [[16 February]] [[1989]] |The Right Hon. [[Ninian Stephen|Sir Ninian Stephen]], &lt;small&gt;KG, AK, GCMG, GCVO, KBE, QC&lt;/small&gt; |- |[[16 February]] [[1989]] to [[16 February]] [[1996]] |The Hon. [[Bill Hayden|William George Hayden]], &lt;small&gt;AC&lt;/small&gt; &lt;/tr&gt; |- |[[16 February]] [[1996]] to [[29 June]] [[2001]] |The Hon. [[William Deane|Sir William Patrick Deane]], &lt;small&gt;AC, KBE&lt;/small&gt; |- |[[29 June]] [[2001]] to [[28 May]] [[2003]] |The Right Rev. Dr [[Peter Hollingworth]], &lt;small&gt;AC, OBE&lt;/small&gt; |- |[[11 August]] [[2003]] to present |Major-General [[Michael Jeffery]], &lt;small&gt;AC, CVO, MC &lt;/small&gt; (retired) |} ==See also== *[[:Category:Governors-General of Australia]] *[[History of Australia]] *[[Constitutional history of Australia]] *[[Governors of the Australian states]] *[[British Empire]] *[[Governor-General]] (links to other countries which have Governors-General) ==Further reading== *Christopher Cunneen, ''Kings' Men: Australia's Governors-General from Hopetoun to Isaacs'', Allen and Unwin, 1983 *Bill Hayden, ''Hayden: An Autobiography'', Angus &amp; Robertson, Sydney, 1996 (pp515, 519, 548) ==External links== * [http://www.gg.gov.au The Office of the Governor-General] * [http://www.aph.gov.au/library/pubs/rn/1997-98/98rn25.htm The use of the reserve powers] {{Politics of Australia}} {{GG}} [[Category:Lists of offic
t approach the ''[[noumenon]]'', the &quot;Thing in Itself&quot; ([[German language|German]]: ''Ding an Sich'') outside our own mental world. (Kant's idealism goes by the counterintuitive name of ''[[transcendental idealism]]''.) ====Fichte==== [[Johann Gottlieb Fichte|Johann Fichte]] denied Kant's noumenon, and made the claim that consciousness made its own foundation, that the mental ego of the self relied on no external, and that an external of any kind would be the same as admitting a real material. He was the first to make the attempt at a presuppositionless theory of knowledge, wherein nothing outside of thinking would be assumed to exist outside the initial analysis of concept. So that conception could be solely grounded in itself, and assume nothing without deduction from there first, what he called a [[Wissenschaftslehre]]. (This stand is very similar to [[Giovanni Gentile]]'s [[Actual Idealism]], except that Gentile's theory goes further by denying a ground for even an ego or self made from thinking.) ====Hegel==== [[Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel|Hegel]], another philosopher whose system has been called ''idealism'', thought that history must be rational in something significantly like the way science is. His famous dictum &quot;[[the Real is Rational]]&quot; means that [[reason]] is the arbiter that shapes the world as it is, and gives us access to what is real. Hegel's idealism posits that since ideas about reality are products of the [[mind]], there must be a mind at work in the universe that establishes reality and gives it structure. Hegelian idealism goes by the name of ''[[absolute idealism]]''. ====Schopenhauer==== In the first volume of his ''Parerga and Paralipomena'', [[Schopenhauer]] wrote his &quot;Sketch of a [[History]] of the Doctrine of the [[Ideal]] and the [[Real]]&quot;. He defined the ideal as being mental pictures that constitute subjective [[knowledge]]. The ideal, for him, is what can be attributed to our own minds. The images in our head are what comprise the ideal. Schopenhauer emphasized that we are restricted to our own [[consciousness]]. The [[world]] that appears there is only a [[representation]] or mental picture of objects. We directly and immediately know only representations. All objects that are external to the mind are known indirectly through the mediation of our [[mind]]. Schopenhauer's history is an account of the [[concept]] of the &quot;ideal&quot; in its meaning as &quot;ideas in a subject's mind.&quot; In this sense, &quot;ideal&quot; means &quot;ideational&quot; or &quot;existing in the mind as an image.&quot; He does not refer to the other meaning of &quot;ideal&quot; as being qualities of the highest perfection and excellence. ====British idealism==== [[British idealism]] enjoyed ascendancy in English-speaking philosophy in the later part of the 19th century. [[F. H. Bradley]] of [[Merton College]], [[Oxford university|Oxford]], saw reality as a [[monism|monistic]] whole, which is apprehended through &quot;feeling&quot;, a state in which there is no distinction between the perception and the thing perceived. Bradley was the apparent target of [[G. E. Moore]]'s radical rejection of idealism. [[J. M. E. McTaggart]] of [[University of Cambridge|Cambridge University]], argued that minds alone exist, and that they only relate to each other through love. [[Space]], [[time]] and material objects are for McTaggart unreal. He argued, for instance, in ''[[The Unreality of Time]]'' that it was not possible to produce a coherent account of a sequence of events in time, and that therefore time is an illusion. American philosopher [[Josiah Royce]] described himself as an [[objective idealism|objective idealist]]. &lt;!-- relationship with Husserl, phenomenology, existentialism, post modernism --&gt; ====Karl Pearson==== In ''[[The Grammar of Science]]'', Preface to the 2nd Edition, [[1900]], [[Karl Pearson]] wrote, &quot;There are many signs that a sound idealism is surely replacing, as a basis for natural philosophy, the crude [[materialism]] of the older physicists.&quot; This book influenced [[Albert Einstein|Einstein]]'s regard for the importance of the observer in scientific measurements. In § 5 of that book, Pearson asserted that &quot;...science is in reality a classification and analysis of the contents of the [[mind]]....&quot; Also, &quot;...the field of science is much more [[consciousness]] than an external world.&quot; ===Critique of Idealism=== ====G. E. Moore==== The most influential criticism of Idealism is [[G._E._Moore | Moore]]'s 1903 book, ''The Refutation of Idealism''. This was the first application of Moore's analytic philosophical method, which greatly influenced [[Analytic philosophy]]. Moore proceeds by examining the Berkeleian aphorism ''esse est percipi'': &quot;to be is to be perceived&quot;. He examines in detail each of the three terms in the aphorism, finding that it must mean that the object and the subject are ''necessarily'' connected. So, he argues, for the idealist, &quot;yellow&quot; and &quot;the sensation of yellow&quot; are necessarily identical - to be yellow is necessarily to be experienced as yellow. But, in a move similar to the [[open question argument]], it also seems clear that there is a difference between &quot;yellow&quot; and &quot;the sensation of yellow&quot;. For Moore, the idealist is in error because &quot;that ''esse'' is held to be ''percipi'', solely because what is experienced is held to be identical with the experience of it&quot;.&lt;!-- This could be improved by someone with a better background in Moore - please help! --&gt; ====David Stove==== The [[Australia]]n philosopher [[David Stove]] argued in typically acerbic style that idealism rested on what he called &quot;the worst argument in the world&quot;. He named one version of this argument, deriving from Berkeley, &quot;the Gem&quot;. Berkeley claimed that &quot;(the mind) is deluded to think it can and does conceive of bodies existing unthought of, or without the mind, though at the same time they are apprehended by, or exist in, itself&quot;. Stove argued that this claim proceeds from the tautology that nothing can be thought of without its being thought of, to the conclusion that nothing can exist without its being thought of. Presented in this way, the argument is not even a syllogism - hardly an argument at all. ====John Searle==== In ''The Construction of Social Reality'' [[John Searle]] offers an attack on some versions of idealism. Searle conveniently summarises two important arguments for idealism. The first is based on our perception of reality: :''1. All we have access to in perception are the contents of our own experiences'' :''2. The only epistemic basis we can have for claims about the external world are our perceptual experiences'' therefore, :''3. the only reality we can meaningfully speak of is the reality of perceptual experiences (''The Construction of Social Reality'' p. 172)'' Whilst agreeing with (2), Searle argues that (1) is false, and points out that (3) does not follow from (1) and (2). The second argument for idealism runs as follows: :''Premise: Any cognitive state occurs as part of a set of cognitive states and within a cognitive system'' :''Conclusion 1: It is impossible to get outside of all cognitive states and systems to survey the relationships between them and the reality they are used to cognize'' :''Conclusion 2: No cognition is ever of a reality that exists independently of cognition (''The Construction of Social Reality'' p. 174)'' Searle goes on to point out that conclusion 2 simply does not follow from its precedents. ===Idealism in religious thought=== Not all [[religion]] and belief in the [[supernatural]] is, strictly speaking, anti-materialist in nature. While many types of religious belief are indeed specifically idealist, for example, [[Hinduism|Hindu]] beliefs about the nature of the [[Brahman]], [[Zen]] Buddhism stands in the middle way of [[dialectics]] between idealism and materialism, and mainstream [[Christianity|Christian]] doctrine affirms the importance of the materiality of [[Christ]]'s human body and the necessity of self-restraint when dealing with the material world. Several modern religious movements and texts, for example the organisations within the [[New Thought Movement]] (especially the [[Unity Church]]) and the book, ''[[A Course in Miracles]]'', may be said to have a particularly idealist orientation. The [[theology]] of [[Church of Christ, Scientist|Christian Science]] is explicitly idealist. More accurately, Idealism is based on the root word &quot;Ideal,&quot; meaning a perfect form of, and is most accurately described as a belief in perfect forms of virtue, truth, and the absolute. Idea-ism may be a more appropriate term for the definitions listed above. There is a clear distinction between an idea and an ideal (i.e. Websters Dictionary says &quot;conforming exactly to an ideal, law, or standard: perfect.&quot;). idealism in comparison to pragmatism ==Other uses== In general parlance, &quot;idealism&quot; or &quot;idealist&quot; is also used to describe a person having high [[ideal (ethics)|ideals]], sometimes with the connotation that those ideals are unrealisable or at odds with &quot;practical&quot; life. The word &quot;ideal&quot; is commonly used as an adjective to designate qualities of perfection, desirability, and excellence. This is foreign to the epistemological use of the word &quot;idealism&quot; which pertains to internal [[mental]] [[representations]]. These internal ideas represent objects that are assumed to exist outside of the mind. ==See also== *[[J. M. E. McTaggart|McTaggart, John]] ''The Unreality of Time'', available at [[wikisource:The Unreality of Time]] *[[Solipsism]], which is related to epistemological idealism. {{Philosophy navigation}} [[Category:Idealism| ]] [[Category:Metaphysics]] [[Category:Philosophy
0 has no direct replacement, but will be replaced indirectly in Boeing's lineup by the [[Boeing 787|Boeing 787-3]]. * '''767-200ER''' - An extended-range variant first delivered to [[El Al]] in 1984. It became the first 767 to complete a nonstop transatlantic journey, and broke the flying distance record for twinjet airliners several times. The 767-200ER has no direct replacement, but will be replaced indirectly in Boeing's lineup by the [[Boeing 787|Boeing 787-8]]. * '''767-300''' - A lengthened 767 ordered by [[Japan Airlines]] in 1983. It first flew on [[January 14]], [[1986]], and was delivered to JAL on [[September 25]]. The 767-300 will be replaced by the [[Boeing 787|Boeing 787-3]] in Boeing's lineup. * '''767-300ER''' - An extended-range variant of the -300. It flew for the first time in 1986, but received no commercial orders until [[American Airlines]] purchased several in 1987. The aircraft entered service with AA in 1988. In 1995, [[EVA Air]] used a 767-300ER to inaugurate the first transpacific 767 service. The 767-300ER will be replaced by the [[Boeing 787|Boeing 787-8]] in Boeing's lineup. * '''767-300F''' - A highly-automated air freight version of the 767-300ER, ordered by [[United Parcel Service]] in 1993 and delivered in 1995. * '''767-400ER''' - Another extended long-range variant, made as a niche aircraft for [[Delta Air Lines]] and [[Continental Airlines]] to replace their [[Lockheed L-1011]] and [[McDonnell Douglas DC-10]] fleets. It is the only 767 model to feature &quot;raked&quot; wingtips, which increase fuel efficiency. The first production 767-400ER was delivered in 2000. A proposed 767-400ERX was also studied, made specifically to meet [[Kenya Airways]]' specifications. It would have combined the 767-400ER's (there is no non-ER 767-400) size with the range of a 767-300ER. The order placed by Kenya Airways was cancelled in favor of [[Boeing 777]]s, cancelling the 767-400ERX altogether. The 767-400ER will be replaced by the [[Boeing 787|Boeing 787-9]] in Boeing's lineup. * '''E-767''' - [[AWACS]] platform used by the [[Japan Self-Defense Forces]]. Essentially the [[E-3 Sentry]] mission package on a 767-200ER platform. * '''[[KC-767|KC-767 Tanker Transport]]''' - 767-200ER-based aerial refueling platform currently used by the [[Italian Air Force]] and the [[Japan Self-Defense Forces]]. The [[United States Air Force]] has expressed interest in the aircraft, with a contract for the lease of 100 aircraft under review. The KC-767 has lost out to the [[Airbus A330]] in two recent contests, for the [[Royal Air Force|RAF]] and [[Royal Australian Air Force]]. * '''[[E-10 MC2A]]''' - 767-400ER-based replacement for the [[Boeing 707]]-based [[E-3 Sentry]] [[AWACS]], the [[E-8 Joint STARS]] aircraft, and EC-135 [[ELINT]] aircraft. This is an all-new system, with a powerful [[Active Electronically Scanned Array]] and not based upon the Japanese AWACS aircraft. &lt;br clear=&quot;all&quot;/&gt; ==General characteristics== &lt;center&gt; {| style=&quot;border-collapse: collapse;&quot; border=&quot;1&quot; |- align=&quot;center&quot; ! ! bgcolor=#87CEEB|767-200 ! bgcolor=#87CEEB|767-200ER ! bgcolor=#87CEEB|767-300 ! bgcolor=#87CEEB|767-300ER ! bgcolor=#87CEEB|767-300F ! bgcolor=#87CEEB|767-400ER |- align=&quot;center&quot; ! Length | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | 48.5 m&lt;br/&gt;(159 ft 2 in) | colspan=&quot;3&quot; | 54.9 m&lt;br/&gt;(180 ft 3 in) | 61.4 m&lt;br/&gt;(201 ft 4 in) |- align=&quot;center&quot; ! Wingspan | colspan=&quot;5&quot; | 47.6 m&lt;br/&gt;(156 ft 1 in) | 51.9 m&lt;br/&gt;(170 ft 4 in) |- align=&quot;center&quot; ! Passengers | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | 181 to 255 | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | 218 to 351 | 0 | 245 to 375 |- align=&quot;center&quot; ! Cargo | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | 81.4 m&amp;sup3; (2,875 ft&amp;sup3;)&lt;br&gt;22 [[Unit Load Device|LD2s]] | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | 106.8 m&amp;sup3; (3,770 ft&amp;sup3;)&lt;br&gt;30 LD2s | 454 m&amp;sup3; (16,034 ft&amp;sup3;)&lt;br&gt;30 LD2s + 24 pallets | 129.6 m&amp;sup3; (4,580 ft&amp;sup3;)&lt;br&gt;38 LD2s |- align=&quot;center&quot; ! Range | 9,400 km&lt;br/&gt;(5,200 nautical miles)&lt;br/&gt;transcontinental | 12,200 km&lt;br/&gt;(6,600 nautical miles)&lt;br/&gt;transpacific | 9,700 km&lt;br/&gt;(5,230 nautical miles)&lt;br/&gt;transcontinental | 11,305 km&lt;br/&gt;(6,105 nautical miles)&lt;br/&gt;transpacific | 6,050 km&lt;br/&gt;(3,270 nautical miles)&lt;br/&gt;transcontinental | 10,450 km&lt;br/&gt;(5,650 nautical miles)&lt;br/&gt;transatlantic |- align=&quot;center&quot; ! Cruise speed | colspan=&quot;6&quot; | [[Mach number|Mach]] 0.8 (870 km/h, 540 mph) |- align=&quot;center&quot; ! Engines | colspan=&quot;6&quot; | Two high-bypass [[turbofan]]s, usually either [[General Electric CF6-80]] (about 65,000 lb&lt;sub&gt;f&lt;/sub&gt; (289 kN) thrust each) or [[Pratt &amp; Whitney PW4000|Pratt &amp; Whitney PW4062]] (about 63,000 lb&lt;sub&gt;f&lt;/sub&gt; (280 kN) thrust each); a very limited number use the [[Rolls-Royce RB211]] (about 60,000 lb&lt;sub&gt;f&lt;/sub&gt; (267 kN) thrust each) |} &lt;/center&gt; ==Disasters and incidents== [[image:b767.aa.arp.750pix.jpg|thumb|right|250px|American Airlines Boeing 767-300 at Gatwick Airport, England]] [[image:elal.b767.arp.750pix.jpg|thumb|right|250px|El Al Boeing 767ER]] ===Specific accidents=== Two ''Boeing 767'' aircraft were involved in the [[September 11, 2001 attacks]]. [[American Airlines Flight 11]], a 767-223ER, crashed into the north tower of the [[World Trade Center]], with 92 fatalities on board. [[United Airlines Flight 175]], a 767-222, crashed into the south tower, with the loss of all 65 on board. In addition, 2602 people perished on the ground, mostly in the two towers. ===Accident summary=== (as of 2005) *[[Hull-loss]] Accidents: 6 with a total of 568 fatalities *Other occurrences: 2 with a total of 0 fatalities *[[Hijacking]]s: 5 with a total of 282 fatalities ===Incidents=== * '''[[Gimli Glider]]''' On July 23, 1983 [[Air Canada]] flight 143 ran out of fuel in flight and had to glide to an emergency landing. The inclusion of a [[Ram Air Turbine]] allowed the aircraft to be controlled with complete loss of power and resulted in zero fatalities even with complete loss of electro-hydraulic system. ===Chinese state aircraft=== In 2000, the government of [[People's Republic of China|China]] purchased a 767-300ER as the official executive aircraft of [[Jiang Zemin|President Jiang Zemin]]. The aircraft had originally been delivered to [[Delta Air Lines]] in June 2000 but was immediately resold to [[China United Airlines]]. After its transfer to the Chinese government, the plane was taken to [[San Antonio, Texas]] to be refitted with a custom interior. In the fall of 2001, the Chinese government announced that it had discovered 27 [[covert listening device]]s embedded in the plane's interior. The Chinese government blamed the [[Central Intelligence Agency|CIA]] for planting the bugs. The 22 Chinese military and government officials charged with overseeing the refit were arrested for suspicion of negligence and corruption. The CIA and American President [[George W. Bush]] denied having any knowledge of the existence of the listening devices. Diplomatic experts worried that the incident would have deleterious effects on Sino-American relations and Boeing's reputation in the lucrative Chinese market. However, relations between the two countries remained cordial and Chinese airlines continued to purchase Boeing aircraft. ==Trivia== *The air flowing through a 767-400ER engine at takeoff power could inflate the [[Goodyear Blimp]] in 7 seconds. *Delta Air Lines is the world's largest 767 operator, with approximately 118 planes including the 767-200, 767-300, 767-300ER, and 767-400ER. *The 767 has a propeller in its underbody, known as a ram air turbine (RAT), to provide electrical power during emergencies. == Related content == === Designation sequence === * [[Boeing 737|737]] - [[Boeing 747|747]] - [[Boeing 757|757]] - '''767''' - [[Boeing 777|777]] - [[Boeing 787|787]] === Related development === * [[Boeing 727]] * [[Boeing 757]] * [[Boeing 777]] === Similar aircraft === * [[Airbus A300]] * [[Airbus A310]] * [[Airbus A330|Airbus A330-200]] * [[Boeing 787]] === Related lists === * [[List of airliners]] * [[List of Boeing 767 operators]] == See also == == External links == {{Commons|Boeing 767}} * [http://www.boeing.com/commercial/767family/ Details on the Boeing 767 family of aircraft] * [http://www.airliners.net/info/stats.main?id=103 History and pictures of the Boeing 767-200] * [http://www.janes.com/aerospace/civil/news/jawa/boeing_767.shtml Jane's entry with detailed specifications] * [http://www.planemad.net/data/list/Boeing/767/ Planemad.net - Boeing 767 Production Lists] * [http://www.767.org.uk/ Detailed info on the Boeing 767 family] * [http://images1.jetphotos.net/images/i/IMG_9530JPG.jpg.64022.jpg The Spirit of Delta, Delta Airlines' first Boeing 767] {{airlistbox}} [[Category:U.S. airliners 1980-1989]] [[de:Boeing 767]] [[et:Boeing 767]] [[es:Boeing 767]] [[fr:Boeing 767]] [[ko:보잉 767]] [[id:Boeing 767]] [[it:Boeing 767]] [[he:בואינג 767]] [[ms:Boeing 767]] [[nl:Boeing 767]] [[ja:ボーイング767]] [[no:Boeing 767]] [[pt:Boeing 767]] [[ru:Боинг 767]] [[sr:Боинг 767]] [[fi:Boeing 767]] [[sv:Boeing 767]] [[zh:波音767]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Bill Walsh (football coach)</title> <id>4166</id> <revision> <id>42018581</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T06:33:04Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>TMC1982</username> <id>96890</id> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Walsh-Bill.jpg|right|thumb|Bill Walsh]] '''Bill Walsh''' (born [[November 30]], [[1931]]) is a former [[American football]] head coach of the [[San Francisco 49ers]] and [[Stanford University]]. He is currently the Interim Athletic Director at Stanford. He has a home in [[Pacific Grov
nder the sanctions Libya's refining capacity eroded. Libya's role on the international stage grew less provokative after UN sanctions were imposed. In [[1999]], Libya fulfilled one of the UNSCR requirements by surrendering two Libyans suspected in connection with the bombing for trial before a Scottish court in the [[Netherlands]]. One of these suspects, Abdel Basset al-Megrahi, was found guilty; the other was acquitted. UN sanctions against Libya were subsequently suspended. The full lifting of the sanctions, contingent on Libya's compliance with the remaining UNSCRs, including acceptance of responsibility for the actions of its officials and payment of appropriate compensation, was passed [[12 September]] [[2003]], explicitly linked to the release of up to $2.7 billion in Libyan funds to the families of the 1988 attack's 270 victims. ==External links== *[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/4380360.stm http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/4380360.stm] {{Africa in topic|History of}} [[Category:History of Libya| ]] [[ar:تاريخ ليبيا]] [[de:Geschichte Libyens]] [[es:Historia de Libia]] [[fr:Histoire de la Libye]] [[pt:História da Líbia]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>History of Afghanistan</title> <id>13813</id> <revision> <id>39812308</id> <timestamp>2006-02-16T00:55:37Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Marudubshinki</username> <id>190816</id> </contributor> <comment>/* Soviet intervention in Afghanistan (1978-1992) */ templateifying</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">&lt;table cellpadding=&quot;3&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;float:right; margin:5px; border:3px solid;&quot;&gt; &lt;tr&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom:3px solid; background:#efefef;&quot;&gt; &lt;small&gt;This article is the top of the '''History of [[Afghanistan]]''' series.&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; [[Pre-Islamic period of Afghanistan]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; [[Islamic conquest of Afghanistan]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; [[Durrani Empire]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; [[European influence in Afghanistan]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; [[Reforms of Amanullah Khan and civil war]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; [[Reigns of Nadir Shah and Zahir Shah]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; [[Daoud's Republic of Afghanistan]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; [[Democratic Republic of Afghanistan]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; [[History of Afghanistan since 1992]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt; &lt;/table&gt; ==History of Afghanistan== [[Afghanistan]]'s [[history]], internal political development, foreign relations, and very existence as an independent state have largely been determined by its geographic location at the crossroads of [[Central Asia|Central]], [[Middle East|West]], and [[South Asia]]. Over the centuries, waves of migrating peoples passed through the region--described by historian Arnold Toynbee as a &quot;roundabout of the ancient world&quot;--leaving behind a mosaic of ethnic and linguistic groups. In modern times, as well as in antiquity, vast armies of the world passed through this region of Asia, temporarily establishing local control and often dominating ancient Afghanistan. Invariably, most of Afghanistan's history was spent as part of the larger events that took place upon the [[Iranian plateau]] as a whole. The [[Iranian peoples]] who arrived in Afghanistan have left their [[Iranian languages]] ([[Pasto]], [[Dari]], etc.) as their legacy as well as distinct cultural traits that many authors and historians such as Sir Olaf Caroe, writer of ''The Pathans'', describe as distinctly Iranic: &quot;There is indeed a sense in which all the upland (the [[Iranian plateau]]) from the Tigris to the Indus is one country. The spirit of Persia has breathed over it, bringing an awareness of one background, one culture, one way of expression, a unity of spirit felt as far away as Peshawar and Quetta.&quot; It is perhaps not surprising that it is the Iranic past and Islamic invasions of the Arabs that have defined modern Afghanistan, while its Greek, Central Asian nomadic, and Buddhist/Zoroastrian past have long since vanished. Although it was the scene of great empires and flourishing trade for over two millennia, the area's heterogeneous groups were not bound into a single political entity until the reign of [[Ahmad Shah]] Durrani, who in [[1747]] founded the monarchy that ruled the country until [[1973]]. In the nineteenth century, Afghanistan lay between the expanding might of the [[Russian Empire|Russian]] and [[British Empire|British]] empires. In [[1900]], [[Abdur Rahman Khan]] (the &quot;Iron Amir&quot;), looking back on his twenty years of rule and the events of the past century, wondered how his country, which stood &quot;like a goat between these lions [Britain and Tsarist Russia] or a grain of wheat between two strong millstones of the grinding mill, [could] stand in the midway of the stones without being ground to dust?&quot; [[Islam]] played perhaps the key role in the formation of Afghanistan's society. Despite the [[Mongol]] invasion of what is today Afghanistan in the early thirteenth century which has been described as resembling &quot;more some brute cataclysm of the blind forces of nature than a phenomenon of human history,&quot; even a warrior as formidable as [[Genghis Khan]] did not uproot Islamic civilization, and within two generations his heirs had become Muslims. An often unacknowledged event that nevertheless played an important role in Afghanistan's history (and in the politics of Afghanistan's neighbors and the entire region up to the present) was the rise in the tenth century of a strong [[Sunni]] dynasty--the Ghaznavids. Their power prevented the eastward spread of [[Shiism]] from Iran, thereby insuring that the majority of the Muslims in Afghanistan and South Asia would be Sunnis. Later native Afghan empire builders such as the Ghorids would continue to make Afghanistan a major medieval power as well as a center of learning that produced [[Ferdowsi]], [[Al-Biruni]], and [[Khushal Khan Khattak]] among countless other academics and literary iconic figures. This article briefly outlines each period of History of Afghanistan only; details are presented in separate articles (see the links in the box and below). ==Pre-Islamic period of Afghanistan (before 651)== ''Main article: [[Pre-Islamic period of Afghanistan]]'' [[Image:AlexanderAttackingDarius.jpg|thumb|150px|'''Alexander the Great''' fighting the Persian king [[Darius III of Persia|Darius]] ([[Pompeii]] mosaic, from a [[3rd century BC]] original Greek painting, now lost).]] Afghanistan's known pre-Islamic past began with Aryan invasions around 2000 BCE and continued with Persian, Median, Greek, Mauryan, Bactrian, and other phases in its history. Following the defeat of the [[Achaemenid]] Persian Empire, in [[328 BC]], [[Alexander the Great]] entered the territory of present-day Afghanistan to capture [[Bactria]] (present-day [[Balkh]]). Invasions by the [[Scythians]], [[White Huns]], and [[Gokturks]] followed in succeeding centuries. During the [[Kushana]] rule, Afghanistan and Gandhara became major centers of culture and learning. The Sassanians and other Iranian powers ruled most of Afghanistan before the coming of Muslim invaders, while the [[Shahi]]s ruled eastern Afghanistan from the mid-7th century until Turkic invasions in the 10th century CE. ==Islamic conquest of Afghanistan (642-1747)== ''Main article: [[Islamic conquest of Afghanistan]]'' In [[642]] [[Common Era|CE]], Arabs invaded the entire region and introduced Islam. Afghanistan, like all others conquered by the Arabs had local rulers including the empire of [[Tang China]], which had extended its influence all the way to [[Kabul]]. The Khorasani Persian-Arabs controlled the area until they were conquered by the [[Ghaznavid Empire]] in [[998]]. [[Mahmud of Ghazni]] ([[998]]-[[1030]]) consolidated the conquests of his predecessors and turned Ghazna ([[Ghazni]]) into a great cultural center as well as a base for frequent forays into India. The Ghaznavid dynasty was defeated in [[1146]] by the [[Ghurids]] ([[Ghor]]), the Ghaznavid Khans continued to live in Ghazni as the '[[Nasher]]' until the early 20th century but they never regained their once vast power. Various princes and [[Seljuk Turks|Seljuk]] rulers attempted to rule parts of the country until the [[shah]] [[Muhammad II of Khwarezm|Muhammad II]] of the [[Khwarezmid Empire]] conquered all of Persia in [[1205]]. By [[1219]] the empire had fallen to the [[Mongols]]. Led by [[Genghis Khan]], the invasion resulted in massive slaughter of the population, destruction of many cities, including [[Herat]], [[Ghazni]], and [[Balkh]], and the despoliation of fertile agricultural areas. Following Genghis Khan's death in [[1227]], a succession of petty chiefs and princes struggled for supremacy until late in the 14th century, when one of his descendants, [[Timur Lenk]], incorporated what is today Afghanistan into his own vast Asian empire. [[Babur]], a descendant of Timur and the founder of India's [[Moghul Empire]] at the beginning of the 16th century, made Kabul the capital of an Afghan principality. Afghanistan was divided in three parts in the 16th, 17th and early 18th century. North were the [[Uzbeks]], west was [[Iran|Persia]] and East was the [[Mughal]] empire. The [[Afghan people|Afghans]], or more specific [[Ghilzai]] [[Pashtuns]] under Khan Nasher rose against Persian rule in the early 18th century. The Persian army was defeated and the Afghans conquered the whole of Persia afterwards. The [[Ghilzai]] Pashtuns were defeated and the [[Durrani]] Pashtuns became the principal Afghan rulers. ==The Durrani Empire (1747-1826)== ''Main article: [[Durrani Empire]]'' [[Image:Ahmad Shah Durrani.
ulture Organization]] by the [[User:DabMachine|DabMachine]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Burkina-Faso-Demography.png|thumb|300px|right|Demographics of Burkina Faso, Data of [[Food and Agriculture Organization|FAO]], year 2005 ; Number of inhabitants in thousands.]] [[Burkina Faso]]'s 10 million people belong to two major [[West Africa]]n cultural groups--the [[Voltaic]] and the [[Mande]]. The Voltaic are far more numerous and include the [[Mossi]], who make up about one-half of the population. The Mossi claim descent from warriors who migrated to present-day Burkina Faso and established an empire that lasted more than 800 years. Predominantly farmers, the Mossi are still bound by the traditions of the [[Mogho Naba]], who hold court in [[Ouagadougou]]. About 5,000 [[Europe]]ans reside in Burkina Faso. Most of Burkina's people are concentrated in the south and center of the country, sometimes exceeding 48 per square kilometer (125/sq. mi.). This population density, high for [[Africa]], causes annual migrations of hundreds of thousands of Burkinabe to [[Côte d'Ivoire]] and [[Ghana]] for seasonal agricultural work. About a third of Burkinabe adhere to traditional African religions. The introduction of [[Islam]] to Burkina Faso was initially resisted by the Mossi rulers. [[Christianity|Christian]]s, predominantly [[Catholic]]s, are largely concentrated among the urban elite. Few Burkinabe have had formal education. Schooling is free but not compulsory, and only about 29% of Burkina's primary school-age children receive a basic education. The [[University of Ouagadougou]], founded in [[1974]], was the country's first institution of higher education. The Polytechnical University in [[Bobo-Dioulasso]] was opened in [[1995]]. ==Demographic data from the CIA World Factbook== ===Population=== :13,925,313 :''Note'': estimates for this country explicitly take into account the effects of excess mortality due to AIDS; this can result in lower life expectancy, higher infant mortality and death rates, lower population and growth rates, and changes in the distribution of population by age and sex than would otherwise be expected (July 2005 est.) ===Age structure=== :0-14 years: 46% (male 3,213,436/female 3,193,253) :15-64 years: 51.2% (male 3,487,201/female 3,635,673) :65 years and over: 2.8% (male 164,418/female 231,332) (2005 est.) ===Median age=== :Total: 16.82 years :Male: 16.43 years :Female: 17.22 years (2005 est.) ===Population growth rate=== :2.53% (2005 est.) ===Birth rate=== :44.17 births/1,000 population (2005 est.) ===Death rate=== :18.86 deaths/1,000 population (2005 est.) ===Net migration rate=== :0 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2005 est.) ===Sex ratio=== :At birth: 1.03 male(s)/female :Under 15 years: 1.01 male(s)/female :15-64 years: 0.96 male(s)/female :65 years and over: 0.71 male(s)/female :Total population: 0.97 male(s)/female (2005 est.) ===Infant mortality rate=== :Total: 97.57 deaths/1,000 live births :Male: 105.55 deaths/1,000 live births :Female: 89.34 deaths/1,000 live births (2005 est.) ===Life expectancy at birth=== :Total population: 43.92 years :Male: 42.19 years :Female: 45.7 years (2005 est.) ===Total fertility rate=== :6.23 children born/woman (2005 est.) ===HIV/AIDS=== :Adult prevalence rate: 4.2% (2003 est.) :People living with HIV/AIDS: 300,000 (2003 est.) :Deaths: 29,000 (2003 est.) ===Major infectious diseases=== :Degree of risk: very high :Food or waterborne diseases: bacterial and protozoal diarrhea, hepatitis A, and typhoid fever :Vectorborne disease: malaria is a high risk in some locations :Water contact disease: schistosomiasis :Respiratory disease: meningococcal meningitis (2004) ===Nationality=== :Noun: Burkinabe (singular and plural) :Adjective: Burkinabe ===Ethnic groups=== :Mossi over 40%, Gurunsi, Senufo, Lobi, Bobo, Mande, Fulani ===Religions=== :Muslim 50%, Christian (mainly Roman Catholic) 30%, Indigenous beliefs 20% ===Languages=== :French (official), native African languages belonging to Sudanic family spoken by 90% of the population ===Literacy=== :Definition: age 15 and over can read and write :Total population: 26.6% :Male: 36.9% :Female: 16.6% (2003 est.) ==References== {{CIA WFB 2005}} {{Africa in topic|Demographics of}} [[Category:Burkina Faso]] [[Category:Demographics by country|Burkina Faso]] [[fr:Démographie du Burkina Faso]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Politics of Burkina Faso</title> <id>3679</id> <revision> <id>35252516</id> <timestamp>2006-01-15T08:52:48Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Acntx</username> <id>104025</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>/* Legislative branch */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Politics of Burkina Faso}} '''Politics of Burkina Faso''' takes place in a framework of a [[presidential system|presidential]] [[republic]], whereby the [[President of Burkina Faso]] is both [[head of state]] and [[head of government]], and of a pluriform multi-party system. [[Executive power]] is exercised by the government. [[Legislative power]] is vested in both the [[government]] and parliament. The party system is dominated by the [[Congress for Democracy and Progress]]. The [[Judiciary]] is independent of the executive and the legislature. == Political history == In [[1990]], the [[Popular Front]] held its first National Congress, which formed a committee to draft a national [[constitution]]. The constitution was approved by [[referendum]] in [[1991]]. In [[1992]], [[Blaise Compaoré]] was elected [[president]], running unopposed after the opposition [[boycott]]ed the election because of Compaoré's refusal to accede to demands of the opposition such as a sovereign National Conference to set modalities. The opposition did participate in the following year's legislative elections, in which the [[ODP/MT]] won a majority of seats. The government of the Fourth Republic includes a strong presidency, a [[prime minister]], a Council of Ministers presided over by the president, a two-chamber National Assembly, and the judiciary. The legislature and judiciary are independent but remain susceptible to outside influence. In [[1995]], Burkina held its first multiparty municipal elections since independence. With minor exceptions, balloting was considered free and fair by the local [[human rights]] organizations which monitored the contest. The president's ODP/MT won over 1,100 of some 1,700 councillor seats being contested. In February [[1996]], the ruling ODP/MT merged with several small opposition parties to form the [[Congress for Democracy and Progress]] (CDP). This effectively co-opted much of what little viable opposition to Compaoré existed. The remaining opposition parties regrouped in preparation for [[1997]] legislative elections and the [[1998]] presidential election. The 1997 legislative elections, which international observers pronounced to be substantially free, fair, and transparent, resulted in a large CDP majority--101 to 111 seats. ==Executive branch== {{office-table}} |[[President of Burkina Faso|President]] |[[Blaise Compaoré]] |[[Congress for Democracy and Progress|CDP]] |[[15 October]] [[1987]] |- |[[Prime Minister of Burkina Faso|Prime Minister]] |[[Paramanga Ernest Yonli]] |[[Congress for Democracy and Progress|CDP]] |[[7 November]] [[2000]] |} The president is elected by popular vote for a seven-year term and may serve unlimited terms. The prime minister is appointed by the president with the consent of the legislature. ==Legislative branch== The '''[[National Assembly of Burkina Faso|National Assembly]]''' (''Assemblée Nationale'') has 111 members, elected for a five year term by [[proportional representation]]. ==Political parties and elections== {{elect|List of political parties in Burkina Faso|Elections in Burkina Faso}} {{Burkina Faso presidential election, 2005}} {{main|Burkina Faso presidential elections, 2005}} {{Burkina Faso parliamentary election, 2002}} {{main|Burkina Faso parliamentary election, 2002}} ==Political pressure groups== [[Burkinabe General Confederation of Labor]] or CGTB; [[Burkinabe Movement for Human Rights]] or HBDHP; [[Group of 14 February]]; [[National Confederation of Burkinabe Workers]] or CNTB; [[National Organization of Free Unions]] or ONSL; watchdog/political action groups throughout the country in both organizations and communities ==Administrative divisions== Burkina Faso is divided into 13 regions and 45 provinces: '''[[Regions of Burkina Faso|Regions]]''': [[Boucle du Mouhoun Region|Boucle du Mouhoun]], [[Cascades Region|Cascades]], [[Centre Region|Centre]], [[Centre-Est Region|Centre-Est]], [[Centre-Nord Region|Centre-Nord]], [[Centre-Ouest Region|Centre-Ouest]], [[Centre-Sud Region|Centre-Sud]], [[Est Region|Est]], [[Hauts-Bassins Region|Hauts-Bassins]], [[Nord Region|Nord]], [[Plateau-Central Region|Plateau-Central]], [[Sahel Region|Sahel]], [[Sud-Ouest Region|Sud-Ouest]] '''[[Provinces of Burkina Faso|Provinces]]''': [[Bale Province, Burkina Faso|Balé]], [[Bam Province|Bam]], [[Banwa]], [[Bazega]], [[Bougouriba]], [[Boulgou]], [[Boulkiemde]], [[Comoe]], [[Ganzourgou]], [[Gnagna]], [[Gourma]], [[Houet]], [[Ioba]], [[Kadiogo]], [[Kenedougou (province)|Kenedougou]], [[Komondjari]], [[Kompienga]], [[Kossi]], [[Koulpelogo]], [[Kouritenga]], [[Kourweogo]], [[Leraba]], [[Loroum]], [[Mouhoun]], [[Namentenga]], [[Nahouri]], [[Nayala]], [[Noumbiel]], [[Oubritenga]], [[Oudalan]], [[Passore]], [[Poni]], [[Sanguie]], [[Sanmatenga]], [[Seno]], [[Sissili]], [[Soum]], [[Sourou]], [[Tapoa]], [[Tuy]], [[Yagha]], [[Yatenga]], [[Ziro Province|Ziro]], [[Zondoma]], [[Zoundweogo]] ==International organization participation== [[ACCT]], [[ACP (Lomé Convention)|ACP]], [[AfDB]], [[United Nations Economic Commission for Africa|ECA]], [[ECOWAS]], [[Conseil de l'Entente|Entente]], [[Food and Agriculture Organization|FAO]], [[FZ]], [[G-77]], [[International Atomic En
ly [[Stegnospermataceae]] * Family [[Barbeuiaceae]] * Family [[Aizoaceae]] (Fig-marigold family) * Family [[Phytolaccaceae]] ([[pokeweed]] family) * Family [[Sarcobataceae]] ([[greasewood]] family) * Family [[Nyctaginaceae]] ([[four-o'clock]] family) * Family [[Molluginaceae]] (carpetweed family) * Family [[Cactaceae]] ([[cactus]] family) * Family [[Portulacaceae]] ([[purslane]] family) * Family [[Basellaceae]] ([[basella]] family) * Family [[Asteropeia]]ceae * Family [[Physena]]ceae Except for the last two families, this group corresponds directly to the Caryophyllales under the older [[Cronquist system]]. There are some slight variations in what families are recognized, between these and other classifications. Both the Stegnospermataceae and Barbeuiaceae are included in Cronquist's Phytolaccaceae, while his Didieraceae is included in the more recent Portulaceae, and his Chenopodiaceae corresponds to the Sarcobataceae plus some of the Amaranthaceae. The Asteropeiaceae and Physenaceae each contain a single genus, which Cronquist placed in the [[Theaceae]] and [[Capparidaceae]], respectively. The other major group of Caryophyllales comprises the following families: * Family [[Polygonaceae]] ([[buckwheat]] family) * Family [[Plumbaginaceae]] ([[plumbago (plant)|plumbago]] family) * Family [[Frankeniaceae]] * Family [[Tamaricaceae]] ([[Tamarix]] family) * Family [[Droseraceae]] ([[sundew]] family) * Family [[Nepenthaceae]] * Family [[Drosophyllaceae]] * Family [[Ancistrocladaceae]] * Family [[Dioncophyllaceae]] Cronquist gave the Polygonaceae and Plumbaginaceae their own orders, which together with his Caryophyllales made up the subclass [[Caryophyllida]]e. The Droseraceae and Nepenthaceae (including the Drosophyllaceae) made up the order [[Nepenthales]], together with the [[Sarraceniaceae]], and the remaining families were placed among the [[Violales]], both of which were included among the [[Dilleniidae]]. Two other families are included in the Caryophyllales, which do not fall into either of the above groups: * Family [[Simmondsiaceae]] (jojoba, also placed in [[Malpighiales]] next to [[Buxaceae]]) * Family [[Rhabdodendraceae]] [[Category:Caryophyllales]] [[da:Nellike-ordenen]] [[de:Nelkenartige]] [[es:Caryophyllales]] [[fr:Caryophyllales]] [[la:Caryophyllales]] [[nl:Caryophyllales]] [[ja:ナデシコ目]] [[no:Caryophyllales]] [[pl:Goździkowce]] [[pt:Caryophyllales]] [[fi:Caryophyllales]] [[zh:石竹目]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Chariots of Fire</title> <id>5729</id> <revision> <id>41845354</id> <timestamp>2006-03-02T02:51:03Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Savidan</username> <id>677067</id> </contributor> <comment>add best picture template</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Film | name = Chariots of Fire | image = Chariots_of_fire.jpg | caption = Poster of ''Chariots of Fire'' ([[1981]]) | director = [[Hugh Hudson]] | producer = [[David Puttnam]] | writer = [[Colin Welland]] | starring =[[Ben Cross]]&lt;br&gt;[[Ian Charleson]]&lt;br&gt;[[Nigel Havers]]&lt;br&gt;[[Cheryl Campbell]]&lt;br&gt;[[Alice Krige]] | music = [[Vangelis]] | cinematography = | editing = | distributor = [[20th Century Fox]] | released = March, [[1981 in film|1981]] (U.K. release) | runtime = 123 min | language = English | budget = $5,500,000 | imdb_id = 0082158 }} '''''Chariots of Fire''''' is a [[United Kingdom|British]] [[film]] released in [[1981]]. Written by [[Colin Welland]] and directed by [[Hugh Hudson]], and based on the true story of British athletes preparing for and competing in the [[1924 Summer Olympics]], the film was nominated for seven [[Academy Award]]s, and won four, including [[Academy Award for Best Picture|Best Picture]]. The title is taken from [[William Blake]]'s poem &quot;[[And did those feet in ancient time|The New Jerusalem]]&quot;: :'''Bring me my bow of burning gold!''' ::'''Bring me my Arrows of Desire!''' :'''Bring me my spear! O clouds, unfold!''' ::'''Bring me my Chariot of Fire!''' ==Plot== {{spoiler}} The movie is based on the true story of two British [[athlete]]s competing in the [[1924 Summer Olympics]] in [[Paris]]. [[England|Englishman]] [[Harold Abrahams]] (played by [[Ben Cross]]), who is [[Jew]]ish, overcomes [[anti-Semitism]] and class prejudice in order to compete against the &quot;Flying Scotsman,&quot; [[Eric Liddell]] ([[Ian Charleson]]) in the 100 m race. However, Liddell drops out of the event because his [[Christianity|Christian convictions]] prevent him from running on a [[sabbath|Sunday]]. Liddell is allowed to compete in the 400 m race instead. The story is deceptively complex and compares the similar athletic experiences of Abrahams and Liddell while portraying their vastly different characters and reactions to adversity. ==Historical accuracy== [[Image:TrinityCollegeCamGreatCourt.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The Great Court, Trinity College, Cambridge]] One scene in the film recreates a race in which the runners attempt to round the perimeter of the [[Trinity Great Court|Great Court]] at [[Trinity College, Cambridge]] in the time it takes the clock to double strike the hour at midday. The scene was actually filmed at [[Eton College|Eton]]. {{listen|filename=Trinity Great Court noon chime 0291.ogg|title=Trinity Great Court noon chime|description=|format=[[Ogg]]}} The only people believed to have actually completed the run around the Great Court in time are [[David Burghley|Lord Burghley]] in [[1927]] and [[Sebastian Coe]] in October [[1988]] when he beat [[Steve Cram]] in a charity race. A major historic inaccuracy in the movie surrounds Liddell's refusal to race in the 100 metres. The film portrays Liddell as finding out that one of the heats was to be held on a Sunday as he was boarding the boat that would take the British Olympic team across the [[English Channel]] on their way to Paris. In fact, the schedule was made public several months in advance, and Liddell spent the remaining months training for the 400 m, an event in which he had previously excelled. A scene exists in the movie wherein Liddell is thrown down early in a [[Scotland]]&amp;ndash;[[France]] 400 m duel, but recovers to make up a 20 m deficit to win the race. ''This really happened.'' Abrahams was an outsider for the medals at the 1924 Olympics, but won the 100 m, beating all the American favourites including [[Jackson Scholz]] and [[Charlie Paddock]]. In the 200 m, he reached the final, but finished sixth (last). Eric Liddell also ran the 200 m, and finished third. As an opening runner for the 4 x 100 m relay team, Abrahams won a second Olympic medal, a [[silver medal|silver]]. [[Arthur Porritt, Baron Porritt|Arthur Porritt]] represented [[New Zealand]] at the 1924 Summer Olympics, winning a bronze medal in the 100 m, but he refused permission for his real name to be used in the film, allegedly out of modesty. The bronze medalist was portrayed in the film by a fictional character, Tom Watson. The character Lord Lindsay is very loosely based on [[David Burghley|Lord Burghley]] who was actually eliminated in the heats of 110 metres hurdles in the 1924 Olympics. He did not give up his place in the 400 metres for Liddle. Lord Burghley refused to cooperate with the film because he feared inaccuracies and so a fictitious name was used. ==Music== The original music, which won the movie an Academy Award, was composed by [[Vangelis]], who employed [[synthesizer]] and [[piano]] among other instruments. The main theme has proven a popular and memorable tune. It has been used in both sincere ways and in parody. Near the end of ''[[National Lampoon's Vacation]]'' (1983), the family is happily running toward the gate of &quot;Wally World&quot; in slow motion footage under the theme music... much like the beginning (and ending) sequence of ''Chariots of Fire''. One traditional work was a British choir singing &quot;[[And did those feet in ancient time|Jerusalem]]&quot; at the 1978 funeral of Harold Abrahams, the event which bookended and presumably inspired the making of the film. == Miscellany == During the [[1984]] [[Summer Olympic Games]], an [[American Express]] credit card commercial (&quot;Don't leave home without it&quot;) included Ben Cross and the 87-year-old Jackson Scholz. When Cross says something about beating Scholz, the latter remarks, &quot;''You'' never beat me!&quot; with mock indignation. Proving he is &quot;still pretty fast,&quot; Scholz beats Cross to the draw in picking up the tab with his credit card. The English [[rugby league]] player [[Martin Offiah]] was nicknamed 'Chariots' after the film. A plaque commemorating the filming of the famous beach scenes associated with the theme tune can be found at the end of West Sands in [[St. Andrews]] where filming for these scenes took place. ==Awards and popularity== ===[[Academy Award]]s (1981)=== * [[Academy Award for Best Picture|Best Picture]] - [[David Puttnam]], [[Film producer|producer]] - won * [[Academy Award for Original Music Score|Original Music Score]] - [[Vangelis]] - won * [[Academy Award for Writing Original Screenplay|Writing Original Screenplay]] - [[Colin Welland]] - won * [[Academy Award for Costume Design|Costume Design]] - [[Milena Canonero]] - won * [[Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor|Best Supporting Actor]] - [[Ian Holm]] - nominated * [[Academy Award for Directing|Directing]] - [[Hugh Hudson]] - nominated * [[Academy Award for Film Editing|Film Editing]] - [[Terry Rawlings]] - nominated ===[[Cannes Film Festival]] (1981)=== * Best Supporting Actor - Ian Holm - won * Prize of the Ecumenical Jury - Special Mention - Hugh Hudson - won * [[Palme d'Or]] (Golden Palm) - Hugh Hudson - nominated ===[[BAFTA Awards]]=== * [[BAFTA Award for Best Film]] (1981) - won ===[[Grammy Award]] (1983)=== * [[Grammy Award for Best Pop Instrumental Performance|Best Pop Instrumental Performance]]
ton Stratocaster]]. These were the first two artist models in the Stratocaster range and since then the artist series has grown to include models inspired by both Clapton's contemporaries such as [[Jeff Beck]] and those who have influenced him such as [[Buddy Guy]]. The late [[Stevie Ray Vaughan]] also has an artist series model. Clapton has also been honoured with a signature-model acoustic guitar made by the famous American firm of [[C.F. Martin &amp; Co.]]. In [[1999]] Clapton auctioned off some of his guitar collection to raise money for his [[Crossroads Centre]] he founded in Antigua in 1997. The [[Crossroads Centre]] is a treatment base for addictive disorders like [[drug addiction | drugs]] and [[alcoholism | alcohol]]. The total revenue raised by the auction at [[Christie's]] was US $7,438,624. == Discographies == *[[Eric Clapton discography|Album Discography]] *[[Eric Clapton singles discography|Singles Discography]] == Band == === Current Band === * '''Eric Clapton''' - [[guitar]], [[vocals]] * [[Doyle Bramhall II]] - [[guitar]], [[backing vocals]] * [[Andy Fairweather Low]] - [[guitar]] * [[Paulinho Da Costa]] - [[percussion (instrument)|percussion]] * [[Nathan East]] - [[bass guitar]], [[backing vocals]] * [[Steve Gadd]] - [[drums]] * [[David Sancious]] - [[Keyboard instrument|keyboards]], [[guitar]], [[harmonica]], [[backing vocals]] * [[Chris Stainton]] - [[piano]], [[Keyboard instrument|keyboards]] * [[Billy Preston]] - [[Hammond Organ|Hammond B3 Organ]] === Previous Band Members === * [[John Jackson]] - [[guitar]] * [[Phil Collins]] - [[drums]], [[vocals]] * [[Ray Cooper]] - [[percussion instrument|percussion]] * [[Yvonne Elliman]] - [[backing vocals]] * [[Andy Fairweather Low]] - [[guitar]], [[backing vocals]] * [[Steve Ferrone]] - [[drums]] * [[Katie Kissoon]] - [[backing vocals]] * [[Mark Knopfler]] - [[guitar]] * [[Ricky Lawson]] - [[drums]] * [[Chuck Leavell]] - [[Keyboard instrument|keyboards]] * [[Marcy Levy]] - [[backing vocals]] * [[Tessa Niles]] - [[backing vocals]] * [[Jamie Oldaker]] - [[drums]] * [[Phil Palmer]] - [[guitar]] * [[Pino Palladino]] - [[bass guitar]] * [[Greg Phillinganes]] - [[Keyboard instrument|keyboards]], [[Hammond organ]], [[backing vocals]] * [[Carl Radle]] - [[bass guitar]] * [[George Terry]] - [[guitar]], [[backing vocals]] == Trivia == * Clapton was ranked 4th in [[Rolling Stone (magazine)|Rolling Stone]]’s list of 100 Greatest Guitarists of All Time. [http://www.rollingstone.com/news/story/5937559/the_100_greatest_guitarists_of_all_time] * According to the aforementioned list, Clapton is the second greatest living guitarist (behind [[B.B. King]]). * The nickname ''Slowhand'', apart from being an ironic reference to the speed at which he plays, is a pun on &quot;slow-hand clap&quot;. * Early in his career, Clapton used a late 1950s model [[Gibson Les Paul]], and was partially responsible for Gibson's reintroduction of the original Les Paul body style after it was replaced by the [[Gibson SG]]. * Although many sources give his surname at birth as Clapp, this is incorrect. Though his grandmother's second husband's name was Clapp, his mother's name was Clapton; his grandparents never legally adopted him. * Eric Clapton is credited on [[Dire Straits]]’ ''[[Brothers in Arms (Dire Straits album)|Brothers in Arms]]'' album, as he loaned [[Mark Knopfler]] one of his guitars for the album. * Clapton played lead guitar on ''[[The Pros and Cons of Hitch Hiking]]'', [[Roger Waters]]' debut solo album after leaving [[Pink Floyd]]. * Clapton was banned from driving in [[France]] and had his British [[Driver's license|driver license]] [[confiscation|confiscated]] after being clocked driving at 216 [[km/h]] (134mph) in a [[Porsche 911]] [[turbocharger|Turbo]] on a French [[motorway]] in October [[2004]]. * Clapton claims to have slept with over 1,000 women. He apparently once ordered a fellow musician to let him sleep with his girlfriend. [http://www.timesonline.co.uk/article/0,,2088-1592846_2,00.html] * Minor Planet 4305 is named ''[[4305 Clapton]]'' to honor him. It is an [[asteroid]] between [[Mars]] and [[Jupiter]]. * The soundtrack of ''[[Goodfellas]]'' contains two of his songs: &quot;''[[Layla]]''&quot; (by [[Derek and the Dominos]]) and &quot;''[[Sunshine of Your Love]]''&quot; (by [[Cream (band)|Cream]]). Both of these songs have immediately recognizable guitar [[riff]]s (even to those who have never heard the songs in their entirety), although the portion of &quot;''[[Layla]]''&quot; used is the piano coda, and not the [[riff]] for which the song is known. * Clapton performed at [[The Band]]'s farewell show, which is chronicled in ''[[The Last Waltz]]'', a film by [[Martin Scorsese]]. While performing the beginning of &quot;Further On Up the Road,&quot; his guitar strap came undone. To cover for him while he fixed it, [[Robbie Robertson]] improvised a guitar solo. * Played two farewell concerts on [[November 26]]: [[Cream (band)|Cream]] in [[1968]], and ''[[The Last Waltz]]'' in [[1976]]. [[Irony|Ironically]], [[The Band]]'s music is partly what inspired him to leave Cream in the first place. * Clapton's work is often used in the media, and has been an inspiration for many guitarists. * Clapton and [[Cream (band)|Cream]] bandmates [[Ginger Baker]] and [[Jack Bruce]] have all played with each other in other groups. Clapton and [[Ginger Baker|Baker]] played together in the short-lived [[supergroup (bands)|supergroup]] [[Blind Faith]], [[Ginger Baker|Baker]] and [[Jack Bruce|Bruce]] played together with the [[Graham Bond Organisation]] and [[Blues Incorporated]], and [[Jack Bruce|Bruce]] and Clapton played together near the end of Clapton's tenure with [[John Mayall's Bluesbreakers]]. * Prior to the [[Cream (band)|Cream]] reunion at the [[Royal Albert Hall]], the band had never played &quot;''[[Badge (song)|Badge]]''&quot; live, since the song was included on ''[[Goodbye (album)|Goodbye]]'', the band's last original album before their break-up. However, Clapton, as a solo artist, has played the song live, as indicated on ''[[The Cream of Eric Clapton (DVD)|The Cream of Eric Clapton]]''. * Before the formation of [[Cream (band)|Cream]] in [[1966]], Clapton was all but unknown in the [[United States]]. He left [[The Yardbirds]] before &quot;''For Your Love''&quot; hit the [[United States|American]] Top 10. * Once while playing a [[Cream (band)|Cream]] concert, he suddenly stopped playing, and neither [[Ginger Baker]] nor [[Jack Bruce]] noticed. * Even though all three were band members of [[The Yardbirds]], Clapton, [[Jimmy Page]], and [[Jeff Beck]] never played in the band all at the same time. The three guitarists did however all play on stage at the same time at the ARMS charity concerts in 1983 in honour of [[Ronnie Lane]]. Clapton and Page had previously played together with [[The Immediate All-Stars]] in 1965. * According to an interview with [[Ginger Baker]] on the [[Cream (band)|Cream]] reunion [[DVD]], the reunion was Clapton's idea. * During his [[heroin]] addiction in the early 70s, he kicked the habit briefly just so he could appear at the [[Concert for Bangladesh]]. * Duane Allman wrote and played the signature lead slide guitar riff for the original recording of ''Layla'' with [[Derek and the Dominos]]. * When &quot;''[[Layla]] Unplugged''&quot; hit #12 on the U.S. charts, Clapton became one of only two artists (the other being [[Neil Sedaka]]) to have made the Billboard Hot 100 with two versions of the same song. * Because the [[electric guitar|electric]] version is difficult to coordinate live (it requires the use of a [[piano]]), Clapton will frequently play the [[acoustic guitar|acoustic]] version of &quot;''[[Layla]]''&quot;. However, Clapton did play an [[electric guitar|electric]] version of the song at [[Live Aid]] in [[1985 in music|1985]]; instead of a [[piano]], an [[electronic keyboard]] was used. * Upon his return to [[England]] after recording ''[[Layla and Other Assorted Love Songs]]'', he was supporting a £1,000-per-week [[heroin]] addiction. ==Quotations== *&quot;''My driving philosophy about making music is that you can reduce it all down to one note if that note is played with the right kind of sincerity''&quot; *&quot;''To have ownership of something that powerful is something I'll never be able to get used to. It still knocks me out when I play it''&quot; – Regarding “''[[Layla]]''&quot; *&quot;''Some people talk about me like a revolutionary. That’s nonsense; all I did was copy B.B.King''&quot; *&quot;''He is a great person, as well as a great musician. And this guy sings like he was born down below Mississippi!''&quot; - [[B.B. King]] [http://www1.gitarrebass.de/magazine/0008/top10.htm] *&quot;''I think Clapton is brilliant. He's the only one who moved me. The only one who made me want to play the guitar''&quot; - [[Eddie Van Halen]] *&quot;''His fingers are directly wired to his soul''” – [[Brian May]] of [[Queen (band)|Queen]] ==Further reading== * Ray Coleman, ''Clapton! The Authorised Biography'' (Warner Books, 1985; originally published as &quot;Survivor&quot;) * Fred Weiler, ''Eric Clapton'' (Smithmark, 1992) * ''Eric Clapton: Crossroads'' liner notes * Marc Roberty, ''Eric Clapton - The Complete Recording Sessions 1963-1992'' * Marc Roberty, ''Eric Clapton: The New Visual Documentary'' (Omnibus Press, 1994) * Marc Roberty, ''Clapton - The Complete Chronicle'' (Mitchell Beazley, 1993) * Michael Schumacher, ''Crossroads - The Life and Music of Eric Clapton'' (Warner Books, 1998) * Robin Bextor, ''Eric Clapton - Now &amp; Then'' (Carlton Books, 2006) ==See also== *[[The Yardbirds]] *[[John Mayall &amp; the Bluesbreakers]] *[[Cream (band)|Cream]] *[[Derek and the Dominos]] ==External links== {{wikiquote}} * [http://www.ericclapton.com Eric Clapton's Official Website] * [http://www.whereseric.com Eric Clapton Portal by Where's Eric! The Eric Clapton Fan Club Magazine] * [http://www.ericclaptonfaq.com Eric Clapt
obvious disadvantages of this approach are increased cost, complexity, and space required for the components. == Modern equipment == Nowadays, hi-fi equipment usually includes signal sources such as CD players and [[digital_audio_broadcasting|Digital Audio Broadcasting]] (DAB) tuners, an amplifier, and loudspeakers. Some modern hi-fi equipment can be digitally connected using [[fiber optic]] and [[TOSLINK]] cables and can have [[USB|univeral serial bus]] (USB) ports and [[WiFi|wireless fidelity]] (WiFi) support. One modern component that is making fast gains in acceptance is the music server consisting of one or more [[computer]] [[hard disk|hard drives]] that holds music in the form of [[computer file|computer files]] such as [[MP3|MP3s]]. Increasingly, audiophiles are connecting portable versions of music servers like [[Apple Computer|Apple]]'s [[Apple iPod|iPods]] to their systems for relatively quick and easy access to thousands of [[song|songs]]. If the hi-fi system includes components such as a [[DVD player]], a [[projector]], or a [[television]], then it is often called a [[home cinema]] or a [[home theatre]]. ==See also== *[[Amplifier]] *[[Audio system measurements|Audio-System Measurements]] *[[Compact disc|Compact Disc (CD)]] *[[Digital audio broadcast|Digital-Audio Broadcasting (DAB)]] *[[Digital audio tape|Digital Audio Tape (DAT)]] *[[DVD]] *[[High-end audio]] *[[Home cinema|Home Theatre]] *[[FireWire|i.LINK]] *[[Low fidelity]] *[[Music centre|Music Centre]] *[[Radio Data System|Radio Data System (RDS)]] *[[TOSLINK]] *[[USB|Universal Serial Bus (USB)]] *[[Linn_%28HiFi%29]] ==External links== *[http://www.bostonaudiosociety.org/bas_speaker/abx_testing.htm ABX Testing.] Boston Audio Society. *[http://www.aes.org/resources/www-links/index.cfm?page=2 Audio Links.] Audio Engineering Society. *[http://www.robertshifi.com/ Audio Links.] Another large directory. *[http://www.geocities.com/free_schematic/ Audio Schematics and Design Plans.] Hi-fi amplifier schematics and loudspeaker design plans for do-it-yourselfers. *[http://www.hifi-writer.com/he/dictionary.htm Dictionary of Home-Entertainment Terms.] Detailed dictionary of high-fidelity and home-theatre terms. *[http://www.stereo411.com Stereo411.com] Hi-fi reviews, dealers, and forum. *[http://www.powerplant.co.uk Powerplant.] Sussex based Hi-Fi and custom installation specialist. [[Category:Sound]] [[Category:High end audio]] [[af:Hoëtrou-klank]] [[de:High Fidelity]] [[it:Alta fedeltà]] [[ja:Hi-Fi]] [[fi:Hifi]] [[nl:HiFi]] [[pl:Hi-fi]] [[pt:Alta fidelidade]] [[sv:Hi-fi]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Holden</title> <id>13625</id> <revision> <id>40967046</id> <timestamp>2006-02-24T04:13:25Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Ambi</username> <id>13040</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/Bobblewik|Bobblewik]] ([[User talk:Bobblewik|talk]]) to last version by 152.163.101.8</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the Australian car manufacturer. See [[Holden (places)]] for articles about towns named Holden.'' '''Holden''' is an [[Australia]]n car manufacturer, originally independent but now a subsidiary of [[General Motors]]. Holden began as ''Holden's Motor Body Builders Ltd.'', a coachbuilder that made bodies to suit a number of [[chassis]] imported from different manufacturers, but particularly [[Chevrolet]]. It was purchased by General Motors in [[1931]] and became ''General Motors&amp;ndash;Holden's Ltd''. In 1998, it was renamed ''Holden Ltd'' and in May 2005, it became known as ''GM Holden Ltd''. [[Image:Holdenlogo.jpg|right|300px]] ==Australia's own car== After the end of [[World War II]], the Australian government took steps to encourage an Australian automotive industry, and persuaded General Motors to build &quot;Australia's own car&quot;. The Holden 48/215, introduced in 1948, was a medium-sized vehicle fitted with a 132&amp;nbsp;in&amp;sup3; (2.15&amp;nbsp;L) engine, and based on a design proposed for the [[1949]] [[Chevrolet]], that had been rejected as being too small for that purpose. Although not particularly mechanically or stylistically sophisticated, it was simple, rugged, more powerful than most competitors, and offered reasonable performance and [[fuel economy]] in an affordable package. Better suited to Australian conditions than its competitors, and assisted by tariff barriers, it rapidly became Australia's best-selling car. [[Image:Millionth Holden.JPG|thumb|200px|right|The millionth Holden (an EJ) comes off the line at Fishermen's Bend.]] Despite the arrival of competitors in the [[1960s]], Holden's locally-produced large six and eight-cylinder cars have remained Australia's top-selling vehicle for most of that time. The [[Holden Kingswood|Kingswood]] sedan, wagon and [[Pickup truck|ute]] (utility or pickup truck) was exported and assembled abroad, including [[New Zealand]] along with [[South Africa]] (badged as the [[Chevrolet Kommando]]), [[Indonesia]] and [[Trinidad and Tobago]]. Holden has offered a reasonably full range of other vehicles, some locally produced but others sourced from various other parts of the General Motors empire, such as [[Chevrolet]], [[Opel]], [[Isuzu]] and [[Suzuki]]. Another notable Holden offering was the mid-size [[Holden Torana|Torana]], introduced in the mid-[[1960s]], and initially based on the British [[Vauxhall Viva]]. The name 'Torana' was an [[Australian Aborigine|Aboriginal]] word meaning 'to fly'. The Torana LH/LX series, which consisted of 3 door hatchback and 4 door booted sedan variants (between 1974 and 1978) was unusual in that it was offered with a choice of four (1.9&amp;nbsp;L [[overhead cam|cam-in-head]]), six (2.8&amp;nbsp;L, 3.3&amp;nbsp;L [[pushrod engine|OHV]]) or eight cylinder (4.2&amp;nbsp;L, 5.0&amp;nbsp;L OHV) engines. The four, later renamed Sunbird, was very sluggish, the eight-cylinder version alarmingly fast: the six was the most popular option. The Torana was replaced by the 1982 [[Holden Camira|Camira]], which was GM's medium-sized &quot;[[GM J platform|J-Car]]&quot;. Bodywork for the Camira wagon was exported to the [[United Kingdom|UK]] for [[Vauxhall Cavalier|Vauxhall's Cavalier]]. ==Model-sharing under the Button Plan== Between the late [[1980s]] and mid-[[1990s]], the Australian government introduced a plan to restructure the local motor industry, which involved local manufacturers sharing models, known as the [[Button Plan]], after the federal minister for trade and industry, John Button. Holden sold the [[Nissan Motors|Nissan]] [[Nissan Pulsar|Pulsar]] as a Holden Astra (not to be confused with the [[Opel]]-sourced model of the same name) and used the 3.0&amp;nbsp;L 6 cylinder ''[[Nissan RB engine|RB]]'' engine from Nissan's [[Nissan Skyline|Skyline]] in the VL Commodore (1986-1988). In [[1988]], it then entered a [[partnership]] with [[Toyota]] in Australia, to form a [[joint venture]] company called United Australian Automobile Industries (UAAI). In [[1989]], Holden began selling rebadged versions of Toyota's [[Toyota Corolla|Corolla]] and [[Toyota Camry|Camry]], as the [[Holden Nova|Nova]] and [[Holden Apollo|Apollo]], while Toyota sold the Commodore as the [[Holden Commodore|Toyota Lexcen]], named after the late [[America's Cup|''America''’s Cup]] yacht designer, [[Ben Lexcen]]. This [[badge engineering]] proved unpopular with buyers, even though rival Ford had been somewhat successful with its Laser and Telstar models, which were just thinly disguised versions of [[Mazda]] of Japan's{The Japanese branch owned by Toyo Kogyo and Ford, while Mazda of America is under GM}[[Mazda 323|323]] and [[Mazda 626|626]]. ==The 1990s== In [[1995]], UAAI was dissolved, and Holden was able to source product offerings from GM rather than from other manufacturers in Australia. Between [[1996]] and [[1997]], Holden replaced the Toyota-based Nova and Apollo with the Astra and Vectra, imported from [[Opel]] in [[Europe]]. The [[Opel Corsa]] was sold in Australia as the Holden Barina, replacing another model of that name, originally introduced in 1989, based on the [[Suzuki]] Swift. The Vectra was briefly assembled locally for export to neighbouring countries, but this was dealt a severe blow by the Asian economic crisis in [[1997]]. It has subsequently been imported from Europe. ==The 2000s== Although its Opel-sourced models have been relatively successful, Holden has now looked to the GM owned [[GM Daewoo|Daewoo]] in [[South Korea]] for replacements. Holden has already established close research and design links with Daewoo, with which it provides the large Statesman model. The Holden Barina will be based on the [[Daewoo Kalos]], and the entry-level Astra Classic will be replaced by the Holden Viva, based on the [[Daewoo Lacetti]]. Due to tariffs and exchange rates, various Vectra models are more expensive than the larger Commodore in Australia and New Zealand, and the European model is likely to be replaced by a version of the new [[Daewoo Tosca]] in [[2006]]. ==New Zealand== The first export of Holdens to [[New Zealand]] began in [[1954]], and for many years they were assembled at the General Motors New Zealand plant in [[Petone]] outside [[Wellington]], until it closed in [[1990]]. While the Holden name was used on virtually all GM products in Australia, in New Zealand other GM products from Vauxhall, [[Bedford Vehicles|Bedford]], Isuzu, Pontiac and Opel were sold as well. However, for such a small market, it made little sense to have so many brands, so each was rationalized from the 1960s. Chevrolet and Pontiac had effectively disappeared from the market by the 1970s, though there were still Chevrolet trucks from the US and a top-end Holden Statesman with a Chevrolet V8 engine, known as the [[Chevrolet Small-Block engine#350|Chevrolet 350]]. Vauxhall's full line-up was par
recordings of Clinton's speeches], via [[Yale Law School]] * [http://www.archives.gov/federal-register/executive-orders/clinton.html Executive Orders signed by Clinton], via [[Michigan State University]] * [http://www.usdoj.gov/pardon/clintonpardon_grants.htm Pardons Granted By President Clinton], via [[United States Department of Justice]] * [http://www.house.gov/judiciary/101365.pdf Draft Articles of Impeachment, 1998], via [[United States House of Representatives]] * [http://www.cnn.com/2005/WORLD/meast/02/02/iraq.oil.smuggle/ Documents: U.S. condoned Iraq oil smuggling], via [[CNN]] * [http://www.newsmeat.com/washington_political_donations/Bill_Clinton.php Political donations made by Bill Clinton], via Newsmeat * [http://www.usdoj.gov/osg/briefs/1990/sg900402.txt Bill Clinton, Governor of Arkansas, et al., appellants v. M.C. Jeffers, et al., 498 U.S. 1019 (1991)], via [[United States Department of Justice]] * {{imdb name|id=0001051|name=Bill Clinton}} {{start box}} {{succession box | before = [[Jim Guy Tucker]] | title = [[Attorney General|Attorney General of Arkansas]] | years = 1977 - 1979 | after = [[Steve Clark (AG of Ark.)|Steve Clark]]}} {{succession box | before = [[Joe Purcell]] | title = [[List of Governors of Arkansas|Governor of Arkansas]] | years = 1979 - 1981 | after = [[Frank D. White]]}} {{succession box | before = [[Frank D. White]] | title = [[Governor of Arkansas]] | years = 1983 - 1992 | after = [[Jim Guy Tucker]]}} {{succession box | before = [[Michael Dukakis]] | title = [[List of United States Democratic Party Presidential nominees|Democratic Party Presidential candidate]]| years=[[U.S. presidential election, 1992|1992]] (won), [[U.S. presidential election, 1996|1996]] (won)| after=[[Al Gore]]}} {{succession box | before = [[George H. W. Bush]] | title = [[President of the United States]] |years=[[January 20]], [[1993]] - [[January 20]], [[2001]]| after = [[George W. Bush]]}} {{end box}} {{USpresidents}} {{USDemPresNominees}} {{ARGovernors}} {{Persondata |NAME=Clinton, William Jefferson |ALTERNATIVE NAMES=Bill Clinton |SHORT DESCRIPTION=42nd [[President of the United States]] (1993–2001) |DATE OF BIRTH=[[19 August]] [[1946]] |PLACE OF BIRTH=[[Hope, Arkansas|Hope]], [[Arkansas]], [[USA]] |DATE OF DEATH= |PLACE OF DEATH= }} [[Category:1946 births|Clinton, Bill]] [[Category:Actors and actresses appearing on The West Wing|Clinton, Bill]] [[Category:Alpha Phi Omega brothers|Clinton, Bill]] [[Category:American law professors|Clinton, Bill]] [[Category:Baptists|Clinton, Bill]] [[Category:Bill Clinton|Bill Clinton]] [[Category:Born-again Christians|Clinton, Bill]] [[Category:Boys &amp; Girls Club alumni|Clinton, Bill]] [[Category:Council on Foreign Relations member|Clinton, Bill]] [[Category:Debaters|Clinton, Bill]] [[Category:Democratic Party (United States) presidential nominees|Clinton, Bill]] [[Category:Disbarred attorneys|Clinton, Bill]] [[Category:Former students of University College, Oxford|Clinton, Bill]] [[Category:Georgetown University alumni|Clinton, Bill]] [[Category:Governors of Arkansas|Clinton, Bill]] [[Category:Grammy Award Winners|Clinton, Bill]] [[Category:Hillary Rodham Clinton|Clinton, Bill]] [[Category:Irish-American politicians|Clinton, Bill]] [[Category:Irish-Americans|Clinton, Bill]] [[Category:Karlspreis laureates|Clinton, Bill]] [[Category:Living people|Clinton, Bill]] [[Category:People associated with the University of Arkansas|Clinton Bill]] [[Category:People from Arkansas|Clinton, Bill]] [[Category:Presidents of the United States|Clinton, Bill]] [[Category:Pro-choice politicians|Clinton, Bill]] [[Category:United States Rhodes scholars|Clinton, Bill]] [[Category:Humanitarians]] [[Category:Sex scandals|Clinton, Bill]] [[Category:Trilateral Commission member|Clinton, Bill]] [[Category:Yale Law School graduates|Clinton, Bill]] [[Category:Yale alumni|Clinton, Bill]] {{Link FA|he}} {{Link FA|nl}} [[am:ቢል ክሊንተን]] [[ar:بيل كلينتون]] [[bg:Бил Клинтън]] [[zh-min-nan:Bill Clinton]] [[bs:Bill Clinton]] [[cs:Bill Clinton]] [[cy:Bill Clinton]] [[da:Bill Clinton]] [[de:Bill Clinton]] [[et:Bill Clinton]] [[es:William Jefferson Clinton]] [[eo:William J. CLINTON]] [[eu:Bill Clinton]] [[fr:Bill Clinton]] [[ga:William J. Clinton]] [[gl:William Jefferson Clinton]] [[ko:빌 클린턴]] [[hr:Bill Clinton]] [[id:Bill Clinton]] [[it:Bill Clinton]] [[he:ויליאם ג'פרסון קלינטון]] [[hu:Bill Clinton]] [[nl:Bill Clinton]] [[ja:ビル・クリントン]] [[no:Bill Clinton]] [[nn:Bill Clinton]] [[pl:Bill Clinton]] [[pt:Bill Clinton]] [[ru:Клинтон, Уильям Джеферсон]] [[sq:Bill Clinton]] [[simple:Bill Clinton]] [[sk:Bill Clinton]] [[sl:Bill Clinton]] [[sr:Бил Клинтон]] [[fi:Bill Clinton]] [[sv:Bill Clinton]] [[th:บิล คลินตัน]] [[vi:Bill Clinton]] [[tpi:Bill Clinton]] [[tr:Bill Clinton]] [[zh:比尔·克林顿]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Black letter law</title> <id>3358</id> <revision> <id>15901700</id> <timestamp>2002-03-06T20:44:22Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Bryan Derksen</username> <id>66</id> </contributor> <comment>turned &amp;quot;see&amp;quot; into redirect</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[statute]] </text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Blue law</title> <id>3359</id> <revision> <id>39283188</id> <timestamp>2006-02-12T02:06:20Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>69.138.229.246</ip> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">A '''blue law''', in the [[United States]] and [[Canada]], is a type of [[law]] restricting activities or sales of goods on Sunday, which had its roots in accommodating [[Christianity|Christian]] Sunday worship, although it persists to this day more as a matter of tradition. The term ''blue law'' may have been first used by Reverend [[Samuel Peters]] in his book ''General History of Connecticut,'' which was first published in 1781, to refer to various laws first enacted by [[Puritan]] colonies in the [[17th century]] which prohibited the selling of certain types of merchandise and retail or business activity of any kind on certain days of the week (usually Sunday). In [[Texas]], for example, blue laws prohibited selling housewares such as pots, pans, and washing machines on Sunday until 1985; Texas as well as [[Colorado]], [[Illinois]], [[Indiana]], [[Michigan]] and [[Minnesota]] car dealerships continue to operate under blue-law prohibitions in which an automobile may not be purchased or traded on a Sunday. Many U.S. states still prohibit selling [[alcoholic beverage|alcohol]] on Sunday, or at least before noon on Sunday. Many unusual features of [[American culture]] &amp;mdash; such as the fact that one can buy groceries, office supplies, and housewares from a [[drug store]] &amp;mdash; are the result of blue laws, as drug stores were generally allowed to remain open on Sunday to accommodate emergency medical needs. The ubiquitous &quot;weekend&quot; is also a result of blue laws, although it is practiced nearly worldwide, except in some Islamic countries which have their weekend on [[Thursday]] and [[Friday]]. ==History== Contrary to popular belief, there is no evidence to support the assertion that the blue laws were originally printed on blue paper. Rather, the word ''blue'' was commonly used in the [[18th century]] as a disparaging reference to rigid moral codes and those who observed them (e.g., &quot;[[bluenoses]]&quot;). Moreover, although Reverend Peters claimed that the term ''blue law'' was originally used by Puritan colonists, his work has since been found to be unreliable, and it is more likely that he simply invented the term himself. In any event, Peters never asserted that the blue laws were originally printed on blue paper, and this has come to be regarded as an example of [[fake etymology]]. Another version is that the laws were first bound in books with blue covers. (See related article :[[Blue laws]]) It is highly likely that all blue laws stem from the first such statute set down by the [[Emperor Constantine]] 1300 years before the Puritans: &lt;blockquote&gt; &quot;Let all [[judges]] and all [[city]] people and all tradesmen rest upon the venerable day of the sun. But let those dwelling in the country freely and with full liberty attend to the culture of their fields; since it frequently happens that no other day is so fit for the sowing of grain, or the planting of vines; hence, the favorable time should not be allowed to pass, lest the provisions of heaven be lost.&quot; &amp;mdash; Given the seventh of March, Crispus and Constantine being consuls, each for the second time. &lt;small&gt;A.D.&lt;/small&gt; 321. &lt;/blockquote&gt; Many European countries still place strong restrictions on store opening hours on Sundays, an example being [[Germany]]'s [[Ladenschlussgesetz]]. ===Bergen County, New Jersey=== One of the last remaining blue laws in the [[United States]] that covers virtually all selling is found in [[Bergen County, New Jersey]]. It has produced the ironic situation that one of the largest and most popular commercial shopping cores of the [[New York metropolitan area]] is almost completely closed on Sunday (grocery stores are allowed to operate). The county is not considered a particularly religious area of the U.S.; it also has significant [[Jewish]] and [[Muslim]] populations whose observant members would not be celebrating the Sabbath on Sunday. However, repeated attempts to lift the law have failed as many locals either see keeping the law on the books as a protest against the growing trend toward increasing hours and days of commercial activity in American society or like the lack of traffic on major local roads on Sunday that is normally seen the other days of the week. In fact, a large part of the reason for maintaining the laws has been a desire for relative peace and quiet one day of the week by many Bergen County residents, particularly those of [[Paramus, New Jersey]], wh
nce]], [[Germany]] and [[Italy]] mainly) that would slow the growth of the rest of the European countries. ==Trivia== The current ECB building in Downtown Frankfurt is only its temporary home. The ECB ran a large international architecture competition in [[1999]] for a new tower in Frankfurt, Eastend. At present the winning design scheme of Vienna based architects [[Coop Himmelbau]] is under construction. ([http://www.ecb.int/ecb/premises/html/image29.en.html/ Winning design by Coop Himmelb(l)au for the ECB's new headquarters in Frankfurt/Main]) On [[January 5]], [[2003]], a man stole a small [[Glider|motor glider]] and flew it over downtown Frankfurt, circling [[skyscraper]]s and threatening to crash into the ECB. He landed safely after about two hours and was arrested. The man, a 31-year-old mentally disturbed German student named [[Franz Strambach]], told a television station he wanted to call attention to [[Judith Resnik]], a U.S. [[astronaut]] killed in the [[1986]] [[Space Shuttle Challenger disaster|explosion]] of the [[space shuttle]] ''[[Space Shuttle Challenger|Challenger]]''. ==See also== *[[Institutions of the European Union]] *[[Euro]] *[[Bank of England]] *[[Bank of Japan]] *[[Federal Reserve]] ==External links== *[http://www.ecb.int/ Site of the ECB] *[http://www.bis.org/ Bank for International Settlements BIS in Basel] *[http://tokyoahead.com/main/staticpages/index.php/chart2 Historical Currency Charts based on the data published daily by the ECB] [[Category:Central banks]] [[Category:banks of the European Union]] [[Category:Currencies of the Eurozone]] [[Category:European System of Central Banks]] [[ca:Banc Central Europeu]] [[cs:Evropská centrální banka]] [[da:Den Europæiske Centralbank]] [[de:Europäische Zentralbank]] [[et:Euroopa Keskpank]] [[es:Banco Central Europeo]] [[fr:Banque centrale européenne]] [[ko:유럽중앙은행]] [[id:Bank Sentral Eropa]] [[it:Banca Centrale Europea]] [[lb:Europäesch Zentralbank]] [[hu:Európai Központi Bank]] [[nl:Europese Centrale Bank]] [[ja:欧州中央銀行]] [[no:Den europeiske sentralbanken]] [[pl:Europejski Bank Centralny]] [[pt:Banco Central Europeu]] [[ro:Banca Centrală Europeană]] [[sr:Европска централна банка]] [[sv:Europeiska centralbanken]] [[uk:Європейський центральний банк]] [[zh:欧洲中央银行]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Electron shell</title> <id>9475</id> <revision> <id>37806856</id> <timestamp>2006-02-02T06:12:55Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Eskimbot</username> <id>477460</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>robot Adding: ru</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">In [[atomic physics]], an '''electron shell''', also know as a '''main energy level''', is a group of [[atomic orbital]]s with the same value of the [[principal quantum number]] ''n''. Electron shells are made up of one or more '''electron subshells''', or '''sublevels''', which have two or more orbitals with the same angular momentum quantum number ''l''. Electron shells make up the [[electron configuration]] of an [[atom]]. It can be shown that the number of [[electron]]s that can reside in a shell is equal to &lt;math&gt;2n^2&lt;/math&gt;. The existence of electron shells was first observed experimentally in [[Charles Barkla]]'s and [[Henry Moseley]]'s [[X-ray]] absorption studies. Barkla labelled them with the letters ''K'', ''L'', ''M'', etc. (The origin of this terminology was alphabetic. K and L were originally called B and A, but were later renamed to leave room for hypothetical spectral lines that were never discovered.) These letters were later found to correspond to the ''n''-values 1, 2, 3, etc. They are used in the spectroscopic [[Siegbahn notation]]. The name for electron shells originates from the [[Bohr model]], in which groups of electrons were believed to orbit the nucleus at certain distances, so that their orbits formed &quot;shells&quot;. === Subshells === '''Electron subshells''' are identified by the letters s, p, d, f, g, h, i, etc., corresponding to the [[azimuthal quantum number]]s (''l''-values) 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, etc. Each shell can hold up to 2, 6, 10, 14, 18, 22 and 26 electrons respectively. The notation 's', 'p', 'd', and 'f' originate from a now-discredited system of categorizing [[spectral line]]s as &quot;sharp&quot;, &quot;principal&quot;, &quot;diffuse&quot;, or &quot;fundamental&quot;, based on their observed [[fine structure]]. When the first four types of orbitals were described, they were associated with these spectral line types, but there were no other names. The designations 'g', 'h', and so on, were derived by following alphabetical order. ==See also== *[[Atomic orbital]] *[[Electron configuration]] *[[Molecular orbital]] == References == * Tipler, Paul &amp; Ralph Llewellyn (2003). ''Modern Physics'' (4th ed.). New York: W. H. Freeman and Company. ISBN 0-7167-4345-0 [[Category:Atomic physics]] [[Category:Quantum chemistry]] [[ar:غلاف إلكتروني]] [[de:Elektronenhülle]] [[fr:Couche électronique]] [[pt:Camada eletrônica]] [[ru:Электронная оболочка]] [[zh:電子層]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Electron</title> <id>9476</id> <revision> <id>41280000</id> <timestamp>2006-02-26T06:34:52Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>68.183.61.220</ip> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">{{alternateuses}} {| border=&quot;1&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; align=&quot;right&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;margin-left:1em&quot; |- !align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=gray|Electron |- |align=&quot;center&quot;|[[Image:HAtomOrbitals.png|center|thumb|280px|&lt;small&gt;The first few [[hydrogen atom]] electron orbitals shown as cross-sections with color-coded probability density&lt;/small&gt;]] |- !align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=gray|Classification |- | {| align=&quot;center&quot; border=&quot;0&quot; |- |[[Elementary particle]] |- |[[Fermion]] |- |[[Lepton]] |- |First Generation |- |''Electron'' |} |- | |- !align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=gray|Properties |- | |- | {| border=&quot;0&quot; |- |Mass: | 9.109 3826(16)&amp;nbsp;×&amp;nbsp;10&lt;sup&gt;&amp;minus;31&lt;/sup&gt;&amp;nbsp;[[Kilogram|kg]] |- | | &lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt;&amp;#8260;&lt;sub&gt;1836.152 672 61(85)&lt;/sub&gt;&amp;nbsp;[[Atomic mass unit|amu]] | &lt;br&gt; |- | | 0.510 998 918(44)&amp;nbsp;[[MeV]]/[[speed of light|c]]&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;{{inote|http://scienceworld.wolfram.com/physics/ElectronMass.html}} |- |[[Elementary charge|Electric Charge]]: | &amp;minus;1.602 176 53(14)&amp;nbsp;×&amp;nbsp;10&lt;sup&gt;&amp;minus;19&lt;/sup&gt;&amp;nbsp;[[Coulomb|C]] |- |Spin: |½ |- |Color Charge: | none |- |Interaction: | [[Gravity]], [[Electromagnetic interaction|Electromagnetic]], &lt;br&gt;[[Weak interaction|Weak]] |} |} The '''electron''' is a fundamental [[subatomic particle]] that carries a negative [[electric charge]]. ==Overview== Within an [[atom]], the electrons surround the [[atomic nucleus|nucleus]] of [[proton]]s and [[neutron]]s in an [[electron configuration]]. The word ''electron'' was coined in [[1894]] and is derived from the term ''electric force'' introduced by [[William Gilbert]]. Its origin is the [[Greek language|Greek]] word '&amp;eta;&amp;lambda;&amp;epsilon;&amp;kappa;&amp;tau;&amp;rho;&amp;omicron;&amp;nu;, meaning ''[[amber]]''. Electrons in motion constitute [[electric current]], which may be used by scientists and engineers to measure many physical properties. Electric current existing for a finite time gives rise to a movement of charge ([[electricity]]) that may be harnessed as a practical means to perform work. The understanding of electrons has changed dramatically over the centuries, the most significant perhaps being the development of [[quantum mechanics]] in the 20th century and the idea of particle wave duality, that is, electrons can exhibit wave-like and particle like properties. Equally as important, [[particle physics]] has also furthered understanding of the electron immeasureably. The variations in [[electric field]] generated by differing numbers of electrons and their configurations in atoms determine the chemical properties of the [[chemical element|element]]s. These fields play a fundamental role in [[chemical bond]]s and [[chemistry]]. ==In practice == ===Classification=== The electron is one of a class of subatomic particles called [[lepton]]s, which are believed to be [[fundamental particle]]s (that is, they cannot be broken down into smaller constituent parts). The word &quot;particle&quot; is somewhat misleading, however, because [[quantum mechanics]] shows that electrons also behave like a wave, e.g., in the [[double-slit experiment]]; this is called [[wave-particle duality]]. The antiparticle of an electron is the '''[[positron]]''', which has the same mass but positive rather than negative charge. The term '''negatron''' is sometimes used to refer to standard electrons so that the term ''electron'' may be used to describe both positrons and negatrons, as proposed by [[Carl David Anderson|Carl D. Anderson]]. Under ordinary circumstances, however, ''electron'' refers to the negatively charged particle alone. ===Properties and behavior=== Electrons have a negative [[electric charge]] of &amp;minus;1.6&amp;nbsp;×&amp;nbsp;10&lt;small&gt;&lt;sup&gt;&amp;minus;19&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/small&gt;&amp;nbsp;[[coulomb]]s, and a mass of about [[1 E-31 kg|9.11&amp;nbsp;×&amp;nbsp;10&lt;small&gt;&lt;sup&gt;&amp;minus;31&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/small&gt;&amp;nbsp;kg]] (0.51&amp;nbsp;MeV/c&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;), which is approximately &lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt;/&lt;sub&gt;1836&lt;/sub&gt; of the mass of the [[proton]]. These are commonly represented as '''e&lt;sup&gt;&amp;minus;&lt;/sup&gt;'''. According to [[quantum mechanics]], electrons can be represented by [[wavefunction]]s, from which the [[electron density]] can be determined. Each electron has its own wavefunction, which is c
urope]]an cities often have historically intact central areas where the streets are jumbled together, seemingly without a structural plan. This quality is a legacy of earlier unplanned or organic development, and is often perceived by today's [[tourist]]s to be picturesque. In contrast, [[planned city|planned cities]] founded after the advent of the [[automobile]] tend to have expansive [[boulevards]] impractical to navigate on foot. Modern city planning has seen many different schemes for how a city should look. The most commonly seen pattern is the [[grid plan|grid]], almost a rule in parts of the [[United States]], and used for thousands of years in [[China]]. [[Derry]] was the first ever [[planned city]] in Ireland, begun in [[1613]], with the walls being completed 5 years later in [[1618]]. The central diamond within a walled city with four gates was thought to be a good design for defence. The grid pattern chosen was widely copied in the colonies of British North America [http://worldfacts.us/UK-Londonderry.htm]. However, the grid has been used for a long time in history. The Greeks often gave their colonies around the Mediterranean a grid. One of the best examples around is the city of [[Priene]]. This city even had its different districts, much like modern city planning today. Also in Medieval times we see a preference for linear planning. Good examples are the cities established in the south of France by various rulers and city expansions in old Dutch and Flemish cities. Other forms may include a radial structure in which main roads converge on a central point, often the effect of successive growth over long time with concentric traces of [[town wall]]s and [[citadel]]s - recently supplemented by ring-roads that take traffic around the edge of a town. Many [[Netherlands|Dutch]] cities are structured that way: a central square surrounded by a concentric canals. Every city expansion would imply a new circle (canals + town walls). In cities like [[Amsterdam]] and [[Haarlem]] this pattern is still clearly visible. ==History of cities== Towns and cities have a long history, although opinions vary on whether any particular [[Ancient history|ancient]] settlement can be considered to be a city. The first true towns are sometimes considered to be large settlements where the inhabitants were no longer simply farmers of the surrounding area, but began to take on specialized occupations, and where trade, food storage and power was centralized. Societies that live in cities are often called [[civilization]]s. By this definition, the first towns we know of were located in [[Mesopotamia]], such as [[Ur]], and along the [[Nile]], the [[Indus Valley Civilization]] and [[China]]. Before this time it was rare for settlements to reach significant size, although there were exceptions such as [[Jericho]], [[Çatalhöyük]] and [[Mehrgarh]]. [[Harappa]] and [[Mohenjo-daro]] (in the [[Indus Valley Civilization]]) were the largest of these early cities, with a combined population of up to 150,000. The growth of ancient and [[Middle Ages|medieval]] [[empire]]s led to ever greater [[capital]] cities and seats of provincial administration, with [[Pataliputra]] (in [[India]]), [[Changan]] (in [[China]]), [[ancient Rome]], its eastern successor [[Constantinople]] (later [[Istanbul]]), and successive [[China|Chinese]], [[Islam]]ic, and [[India]]n capitals approaching or exceeding the half-million population level. It is estimated that ancient Rome had a population of around 1 million people by the end of the last century BCE, which is widely considered the only city to reach that number until the [[Industrial Revolution]]. [[Alexandria]]'s population was also close to Rome's population at around the same time (in a census dated from 32 CE, Alexandria had 180,000 adult male citizens). Similar large administrative, commercial, industrial and ceremonial centres emerged in other areas. Most notably [[Baghdad]], which second to some estimates became the first city to exceed a population of one million instead of Rome. During the European [[Middle Ages]], a town was as much a political entity as a collection of houses. City residence brought freedom from customary rural obligations to lord and community: ''&quot;Stadtluft macht frei&quot;'' (&quot;City air makes you free&quot;) was a saying in Germany. In [[Continental Europe]] cities with a legislature of their own weren't unheard of, the laws for towns as a rule other than for the countryside, the lord of a town often being another than for surrounding land. In the [[Holy Roman Empire]] (i.e. medieval Germany and Italy) some cities had no other lord than the emperor. In exceptional cases like [[Venice]], [[Genoa]] or [[Lübeck]], cities themselves became powerful states, sometimes taking surrounding areas under their control or establishing extensive maritime empires. Similar phenomena existed elsewhere, as in the case of [[Sakai, Osaka|Sakai]], which enjoyed a considerable autonomy in late medieval Japan. Most towns remained far smaller places, so that in [[1500]] only some two dozen places in the world contained more than 100,000 inhabitants: as late as [[1700]] there were fewer than forty, a figure which would rise thereafter to 300 in [[1900]]. A small city of the early modern period might contain as few as 10,000 inhabitants, a town far fewer still. While the [[city-state]]s, or [[polis|poleis]], of the [[Mediterranean]] and [[Baltic Sea]] languished from the [[16th century]], Europe's larger capitals benefited from the growth of commerce following the emergence of an [[Atlantic Ocean|Atlantic]] economy fuelled by the silver of [[Peru]]. By the late [[18th century]], [[London]] had become the largest city in the world with a population of nearly 1 million, while [[Paris]] rivalled the well-developed regionally-traditional capital cities of [[Baghdad]], [[Beijing]], [[Istanbul]] and [[Kyoto]]. The growth of modern [[industry]] from the late [[18th century]] onward led to massive [[urbanization]] and the rise of new great cities, first in Europe and then in other regions, as new opportunities brought huge numbers of [[rural migration|migrants from rural communities]] into urban areas. In the [[Great Depression]] of the 1930s [[Cities in the great depression| cities were hard hit by unemployment]], especially those with a base in heavy industry. Today the world's population is about half urban, with millions still streaming annually into the growing cities of [[Asia]], [[Africa]] and [[Latin America]]. ==Global cities== A [[global city]], also known as a ''world city'', is a prominent centre of [[trade]], [[bank]]ing, [[finance]], innovations, and [[market]]s. The term &quot;global city&quot;, as opposed to megacity, was coined by [[Saskia Sassen]] in a seminal 1991 work. Whereas &quot;megacity&quot; refers to any city of enormous size, a global city is one of enormous power or influence. Global cities, according to Sassen, have more in common with each other than with other cities in their host nations. The four traditional global or world cities are [[London]], [[New York]], [[Paris]] and [[Tokyo]], but other cities now have importances approaching these four and are also referred to as global cities. The notion of global cities is rooted in the concentration of [[power]] and capabilities within all cities. The city is seen as a container where skills and resources are concentrated: the better able a city is to concentrate its skills and resources, the more successful and powerful the city. This makes the city itself more powerful in terms that it can influence what is happening around the world. Following this view of cities, it is possible to [[Global city#GaWC Inventory of World Cities|rank the world's cities hierarchically]] (John Friedmann and Goetz Wolff, &quot;World City Formation: An Agenda for Research and Action,&quot; ''International Journal of Urban and Regional Research'', 6, no. 3 (1982): 319). Critics of the notion point to the different realms of power. The term ''global city'' is heavily influenced by economic factors and, thus, may not account for locales that are otherwise significant. For example, cities like [[Rome]] and [[Mecca]] are powerful in [[religion|religious]] and [[history|historical]] terms. Additionally, it has been questioned whether the city itself can be regarded as an actor. In [[1995]], Kanter argued that successful cities can be identified by three elements. To be successful, a city needs to have good thinkers (concepts), good makers (competence) or good traders ([[city network|connections]]). The interplay of these three elements, Kanter argued, means that good cities are not planned but managed. ==Environmental effects== Modern cities are known for creating their own [[microclimate]]s. This is due to the large clustering of hard surfaces that heat up in [[sunlight]] and that channel [[rainwater]] into underground ducts. As a result, city weather is often windier and cloudier than the weather in the surrounding countryside. Conversely, because these effects make cities warmer (''urban heat shield'' or ''urban heat islands'') than the surrounding area, [[tornado]]es tend to go around cities. Additionally towns can cause significant downstream weather effects. [[Waste|Garbage]] and [[sewage]] are two major problems for cities, as is [[air pollution]] coming from [[internal combustion engine]]s (see [[public transport]]). The impact of cities on places elsewhere, be it hinterlands or places far away, is considered in the notion of [[Ecological Footprint|city footprinting]] (''ecological footprint''). ==Inner city== ''Main article: [[Inner city]]'' In the United States, United Kingdom and Republic of Ireland, the term &quot;inner city&quot; is sometimes used with the connotation of being an area, perhaps a [[ghetto]], where people are less wealthy and where there is more crime. These connotations are less common in othe