text
stringlengths 1.83k
10k
|
|---|
and dogs thrive well, ponies and horses indifferently, and sheep badly, though some success has been achieved in breeding them.
==History==
It is uncertain whether any of the names of the islands given by [[Ptolemy]] ought to be attached to the Andamans; yet it is probable that his name itself is traceable in the Alexandrian geographer. Andaman first appears distinctly in the Arab notices of the [[9th century]], already quoted. But it seems possible that the tradition of marine nomenclature had never perished; that the ''Agathou daimonos nesos'' was really a misunderstanding of some form like ''Agdaman'', while ''Nesoi Baroussai'' survived as ''Lanka Balus'', the name applied by the Arabs to the [[Nicobar Islands]]. The islands are briefly noticed by [[Marco Polo]], who may have seen them without visiting, under the name ''Angamanain'', seemingly an Arabic dual, "the two Angamans", with the exaggerated picture of the natives as dog-faced [[anthropophagi]].
Another notice occurs in the story of [[Nicolo Conti]] (c. 1440), who explains the name to mean ''Island of Gold'', and speaks of a lake with peculiar virtues as existing in it. The name is probably derived from the [[Malay language|Malay]] ''Handuman'', coming from the ancient ''Hanuman'' (monkey god). Later travellers repeat the stories, too well founded, of the "ferocious hostility" of the people; of whom we may instance [[Cesare Federici]] ([[1569]]), whose narrative is given in ''Ramusio'', vol. iii. (only in the later editions), and in ''Purchas''. A good deal is also told of them in the vulgar and gossiping but useful work of [[Captain A. Hamilton]] ([[1727]]).
In [[1788]]-[[1789]] the government of Bengal sought to establish in the Andamans a penal colony, associated with a harbour of refuge. Two officers, Colebrooke of the Bengal Engineers, and Blair of the sea service, were sent to survey and report. In the sequel the settlement was established by Captain Blair, in September [[1789]], on Chatham Island, in the southeast bay of the Great Andaman, now called Port Blair, but then Port Cornwallis. There was much sickness, and after two years, urged by [[Admiral Cornwallis]], the government transferred the colony to the northeast part of Great Andaman, where a naval arsenal was to be established. With the colony the name also of Port Cornwallis was transferred to this new locality. The scheme did ill; and in [[1796]] the government put an end to it, owing to the great mortality and the embarrassments of maintenance. The settlers were finally removed in May [[1796]].
In [[1824]] Port Cornwallis was the ''rendezvous'' of the fleet carrying the army to the first Burmese war. In [[1839]], Dr Helfer, a German savant employed by the Indian government, having landed in the islands, was attacked and killed. In [[1844]] the troop-ships ''Briton'' and ''Runnymede'' were driven ashore here, almost close together. The natives showed hostility, killing all stragglers. Outrages on shipwrecked crews continued so rife that the question of occupation had to be taken up again; and in [[1855]] a project was formed for such a settlement, embracing a convict establishment. This was interrupted by the [[Indian Mutiny of 1857]], but as soon as the neck of that revolt was broken, it became more urgent than ever to provide such a resource, on account of the great number of prisoners falling into British hands. Lord Canning, therefore, in November [[1857]], sent a commission, headed by Dr F. Mouat, to examine and report. The commission reported favourably, selecting as a site Blair's original Port Cornwallis, but pointing out and avoiding the vicinity of a salt swamp which seemed to have been pernicious to the old colony. To avoid confusion, the name of Port Blair was given to the new settlement.
For some time sickness and mortality were excessively large, but the [[Land reclamation|reclamation of swamp]] and clearance of jungle on an extensive scale by Colonel Henry Man when in charge ([[1868]]-[[1870]]), had a most beneficial effect, and the health of the settlement has since been notable. The Andaman colony obtained a tragical notoriety from the murder of the viceroy, the earl of Mayo, by a Muslim convict, when on a visit to the settlement on [[February 8]], [[1872]]. In the same year the two groups, Andaman and Nicobar, the occupation of the latter also having been forced on the British government (in [[1869]]) by the continuance of outrage upon vessels, were united under a chief commissioner residing at Port Blair.
[[Image:Andaman ross is.jpg|thumb|Ross Island - during the British rule the main military base]]
The Andaman islands were later occupied by Japan during [[World War II]]. The islands were nominally put under the authority of the [[Arzi Hukumate Azad Hind]] of Netaji [[Subhash Chandra Bose]]. Netaji visited the islands during the war, and renamed them as Shaheed (Martyr) & Swaraj (Self-rule). General Loganathan of the [[Indian National Army]] , was Governor of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands which had been annexed to the Provisional Government. After the end of the war they briefly returned to British control, before becoming part of the newly independent state of India.
On [[26 December]] [[2004]] the coast of the Andaman Islands was devastated by a 10 metre high [[tsunami]] following the [[2004 Indian Ocean earthquake]].
===Penal Settlement===
The point of enduring interest as regards the Andamans is the [[penal colony]], the object of which is to turn the life-sentence and few long-sentence convicts, who alone are sent to the settlement, into honest, self-respecting men and women, by leading them along a continuous course of practice in self-help and self-restraint, and by offering them every inducement to take advantage of that practice. After ten years' graduated labour the convict is given a ticket-of-leave and becomes self-supporting. He can farm, keep cattle, and marry or send for his family, but he cannot leave the settlement or be idle. With approved conduct, however, he may be absolutely released after twenty to twenty-five years in the settlement; and throughout that time, though possessing no civil rights, a [[Quasi-judicial body|quasi-judicial]] procedure controls all punishments inflicted upon him, and he is as secure of obtaining justice as if free. There is an unlimited variety of work for the labouring convicts, and some of the establishments are on a large scale. Very few experts are employed in supervision; practically everything is directed by the officials, who themselves have first to learn each trade. Under the chief commissioner, who is the supreme head of the settlement, are a deputy and a staff of assistant superintendents and overseers, almost all Europeans, and sub-overseers, who are natives of India. All the petty supervising establishments are composed of convicts.
The garrison consists of 140 British and 300 Indian troops, with a few local European volunteers. The police are organized as a military battalion 643 strong. The number of convicts has somewhat diminished of late years and in [[1901]] stood at 11,947. The total population of the settlement, consisting of convicts, their guards, the supervising, clerical and departmental staff, with the families of the latter, also a certain number of ex-convicts and trading settlers and their families, numbered 16,106. The labouring convicts are distributed among four jails and nineteen stations; the self-supporters in thirty-eight villages. The elementary education of the convicts' children is compulsory. There are four hospitals, each under a resident medical officer, under the general supervision of a senior officer of the Indian medical service, and medical aid is given free to the whole population. The net annual cost of the settlement to the government is about six pounds per convict. The harbour of Port Blair is well supplied with buoys and harbour lights, and is crossed by ferries at fixed intervals, while there are several launches for hauling local traffic. On Ross Island there is a lighthouse visible for 19 miles. A complete system of signalling by night and day on the Morse system is worked by the police. Local posts are frequent, but there is no telegraph and the mails are irregular.
The above accounts, written while Britain still controlled India, may leave the impression that these settlements were a model of progressive penal reform. Indian accounts, however, paint a different picture. From the time of its development in [[1858]] under the direction of [[James Pattison Walker]], and in response to the mutiny and rebellion of the previous year, the settlement was first and foremost a repository for political prisoners. The [[Cellular Jail]] at Port Blair when completed in [[1910]] included 698 cells designed to better accommodate solitary confinement; each cell measured 4.5 by 2.7 metres with a single ventilation window 3 metres above the floor. [[Vinayak Damodar Savarkar]] had been one of the illustrious prisoners there. The Viper Chain Gang Jail on Viper Island was reserved for troublemakers, and was also the site of hangings. In the 20th century it became a convenient place to house India's freedom fighters, and it was here that on [[December 30]], [[1943]] during Japanese occupation, that [[Subhas Chandra Bose]] first raised the flag of Indian independence. The penal colony was closed on [[August 15]], [[1947]] when India gained its freedom. It has since served as a museum to the freedom fighters.
==Demographics==
The population of the Andaman Islands has increased rapidly, from roughly 2000 in 1901 to 157,821 in 1981, 241,453 in 1991, and 314,239 in 2001. These increases are mostly attributable to migration from the Indian mainland. It is estimated that less than ten percent of the population of the Andaman Islands is indigenous Andamanese including in 2005, only 99 [[Onge]], 250 [[Sentinelese]], 39 [[Andamanese]] and 350 [[J
|
923 502 604 1(6) mL
|-----
| [[fluid scruple]] (Imperial) || fl s
| ≡ 1/24 fl oz (Imp)
| = 1.183 877 604 1(6) mL
|-----
| drachm (fluid); dram (Imperial fluid); Imperial [[fluidram]] || fl dr
| ≡ 1/8 fl oz (Imp)
| = 3.551 632 812 5 mL
|-----
| dram (U.S. fluid); U.S. fluidram || fl dr
| ≡ 1/8 US fl oz
| = 3.696 691 195 312 5 mL
|-----
| [[teaspoon]] (Canadian) || tsp
| ≡ 1/6 fl oz (Imp)
| ≈ 4.735 510 416 667 mL
|-----
| teaspoon (U.S.) || tsp
| ≡ 1/6 US fl oz
| = 4.928 921 595 mL
|-----
| teaspoon (metric) ||  
|
| ≡ 5 mL
|-----
| teaspoon (Imperial) || tsp
| ≡ 1/24 gi (Imp)
| = 5.919 388 020 8(3) mL
|-----
| [[dessertspoon]] (Imperial) ||  
| ≡ 1/12 gi (Imp)
| = 11.838 776 041 (6) mL
|-----
| [[tablespoon]] (Canadian) || tbsp
| ≡ ½ fl oz (Imp)
| = 14.206 531 25 mL
|-----
| tablespoon (U.S.) || tbsp
| ≡ ½ US fl oz
| = 14.786 764 782 5 mL
|-----
| tablespoon (metric) ||  
|
| ≡ 15 mL
|-----
| cubic [[inch]] || cu in
| ≡ 1 in³
| = 16.387 064 mL
|-----
| tablespoon (Imperial) || tbsp
| ≡ 5/8 fl oz (Imp)
| = 17.758 164 062 5 mL
|-----
| pony ||  
| ≡ 3/4 US fl oz
| = 22.180 147 171 875 mL
|-----
| [[fluid ounce]] (Imperial) || fl oz (Imp)
| ≡ 1/160 gal (Imp)
| = 28.413 062 5 mL
|-----
| fluid ounce (U.S.) || fl oz (US)
| ≡ 1/128 gal (US)
| = 29.573 529 562 5 mL
|-----
| shot ||  
| ≡ 1 US fl oz
| = 29.573 529 562 5 mL
|-----
| jigger ||  
| ≡ 1 ½ US fl oz
| = 44.360 294 343 75 mL
|-----
| [[gill]] (U.S.) || gi (US)
| ≡ 4 US fl oz
| = 118.294 118 25 mL
|-----
| gill (Imperial); Noggin || gi (Imp); nog
| ≡ 5 fl oz (Imp)
| = 142.065 312 5 mL
|-----
| [[Cup (unit)|cup]] (Canadian) || c (CA)
| ≡ 8 fl oz (Imp)
| = 227.3045 mL
|-----
| cup (U.S.) || c (US)
| ≡ 1/16 gal (US)
| = 236.588 236 5 mL
|-----
| cup (metric) || c
|
| ≡ 250 mL
|-----
| breakfast cup ||  
| ≡ 10 fl oz (Imp)
| = 284.130 625 mL
|-----
| [[pint]] (U.S. fluid) || pt (US fl)
| ≡ 1/8 gal (US)
| = 473.176 473 mL
|-----
| pint (U.S. dry) || pt (US dry)
| ≡ 1/4 bu (US lvl)
| = 0.550 610 471 357 5 L
|-----
| pint (Imperial) || pt (Imp)
| ≡ 1/8 gal (Imp)
| = 0.568 261 25 L
|-----
| fifth ||  
| ≡ 1/5 US gal
| = 0.757 082 356 8 L
|-----
| [[quart]] (U.S. fluid) || qt (US)
| ≡ 1/4 gal (US fl)
| = 0.946 352 946 L
|-----
| quart (U.S. dry) || qt (US)
| ≡ 1/32 bu (US lvl) = ¼ gal (US dry)
| = 1.101 220 942 715 L
|-----
| quart (Imperial) || qt (Imp)
| ≡ ¼ gal (Imp)
| = 1.136 522 5 L
|-----
| pottle; quartern ||  
| ≡ ½ gal (Imp) = 80 fl oz (Imp)
| = 2.273 045 L
|-----
| [[board-foot]] || fbm
| ≡ 144 cu in
| = 2.359 737 216 L
|-----
| [[gallon]] (U.S. fluid; Wine) || gal (US)
| ≡ 231 cu in
| = 3.785 411 784 L
|-----
| gallon (U.S. dry) || gal (US)
| ≡ 1/8 bu (US lvl)
| = 4.404 883 770 86 L
|-----
| gallon (Imperial) || gal (Imp)
| ≡
| = 4.546 09 L
|-----
| beer gallon || beer gal
| ≡ 282 cu in
| = 4.621 152 048 L
|-----
| [[peck]] (U.S. dry) || pk
| ≡ ¼ US lvl bu
| = 8.809 767 541 72 L
|-----
| [[peck]] (Imperial) || pk
| ≡ 2 gal (Imp)
| = 9.092 18 L
|-----
| [[bucket (unit)|bucket]] (Imperial) || bkt
| ≡ 4 gal (Imp)
| = 18.184 36 L
|-----
| [[timber foot]] ||  
| ≡ 1 cu ft
| = 28.316 846 592 L
|-----
| [[cubic foot]] || cu ft
| ≡ 1 ft × 1 ft × 1 ft
| = 28.316 846 592 L
|-----
| [[firkin]] ||  
| ≡ 9 gal (US)
| = 34.068 706 056 L
|-----
| [[bushel]] (U.S. dry level) || bu (US lvl)
| ≡ 2150.42 cu in
| = 35.239 070 166 88 L
|-----
| bushel (Imperial) || bu (Imp)
| ≡ 8 gal (Imp)
| = 36.368 72 L
|-----
| bushel (U.S. dry heaped) || bu (US)
| ≡ 1 ¼ bu (US lvl)
| = 44.048 837 708 6 L
|-----
| [[strike]] (U.S.) ||  
| ≡ 2 bu (US lvl)
| = 70.478 140 333 76 L
|-----
| strike (Imperial) ||  
| ≡ 2 bu (Imp)
| = 72.737 44 L
|-----
| [[kilderkin]] ||  
| ≡ 18 gal (Imp)
| = 81.829 62 L
|-----
| [[sack]] (U.S.) ||  
| ≡ 3 bu (US lvl)
| = 105.717 210 500 64 L
|-----
| sack (Imperial); bag ||  
| ≡ 3 bu (Imp)
| = 109.106 16 L
|-----
| [[barrel (unit)|barrel]] (U.S. dry) || bl (US)
| ≡ 105 qt (US) = 105/32 bu (US lvl)
| = 115.628 198 985 075 L
|-----
| barrel (U.S. fluid) || fl bl (US)
| ≡ 31 ½ gal (US)
| = 119.240 471 196 L
|-----
| [[coomb]] ||  
| ≡ 4 bu (Imp)
| = 145.474 88 L
|-----
| barrel (petroleum) || bl
| ≡ 42 gal (US)
| = 158.987 294 928 L
|-----
| barrel (Imperial) || bl (Imp)
| ≡ 36 gal (Imp)
| = 163.659 24 L
|-----
| [[hogshead]] (U.S.) || hhd (US)
| ≡ 2 fl bl (US)
| = 238.480 942 392 L
|-----
| [[seam]] ||  
| ≡ 8 bu (US lvl)
| = 281.912 561 335 04 L
|-----
| quarter; [[pail]] ||  
| ≡ 8 bu (Imp)
| = 290.949 76 L
|-----
| hogshead (Imperial) || hhd (Imp)
| ≡ 2 bl (Imp)
| = 327.318 48 L
|-----
| [[cord-foot]] ||  
| ≡ 16 cu ft
| = 0.453 069 545 472 m³
|-----
| [[butt]], pipe ||  
| ≡ 126 gal (wine)
| = 0.476 961 884 784 m³
|-----
| [[perch]] || per
| ≡ 16 ½ ft × 1 1/2 ft × 1 ft
| = 0.700 841 953 152 m³
|-----
| cubic [[yard]] || cu yd
| ≡ 27 cu ft
| = 0.764 554 857 984 m³
|-----
| [[ton|tun]] ||  
| ≡ 252 gal (wine)
| = 0.953 923 769 568 m³
|-----
| displacement [[ton]] ||  
| ≡ 35 cu ft
| = 0.991 089 630 72 m³
|-----
| water ton ||  
| ≡ 28 bu (Imp)
| = 1.018 324 16 m³
|-----
| freight ton ||  
| ≡ 40 cu ft
| = 1.132 673 863 68 m³
|-----
| [[wey]] (U.S.) ||  
| ≡ 40 bu (US lvl)
| = 1.409 562 806 675 2 m³
|-----
| load ||  
| ≡ 50 cu ft
| = 1.415 842 329 6 m³
|-----
| register ton ||  
| ≡ 100 cu ft
| = 2.831 684 659 2 m³
|-----
| [[last]] ||  
| ≡ 80 bu (Imp)
| = 2.909 497 6 m³
|-----
| cord ([[Wood fuel#Firewood|firewood]]) ||  
| ≡ 8 ft × 4 ft × 4 ft
| = 3.624 556 363 776 m³
|-----
| cubic [[fathom]] || cu fm
| ≡ 1 fm × 1 fm × 1 fm
| = 6.116 438 863 872 m³
|-----
| [[acre]]-[[inch]] ||  
| ≡ 1 ac × 1 in
| = 102.790 153 128 96 m³
|-----
| [[acre]]-[[foot (unit of length)|foot]] ||  
| ≡ 1 ac × 1 ft
| = 1233.481 837 547 52 m³
|-----
| cubic [[mile]] || cu mi
| ≡ 1 mi³
| = 4.168 181 825 440 579 584 km³
|}
===Angle===
{| class="wikitable"
|+ [[Angle]]
!Name of unit
!Symbol
!Definition
!Relation to [[SI]] units
|-----
| [[radian]] (SI unit) || rad
|
| ≡ 1 rad
|-----
| [[centesimal]] [[second of arc]] || "
| ≡ 1 gr/10000
| ≈ 1.570 796 µrad
|-----
| [[arcsecond]] || "
| ≡ 1°/3600
| ≈ 4.848 137 µrad
|-----
| [[centesimal]] [[minute of arc]] || '
| ≡ 1 gr/100
| ≈ 0.157 080 mrad
|-----
| [[minute of arc]] || '
| ≡ 1°/60
| ≈ 0.290 888 mrad
|-----
| angular [[mil]] || µ
| ≡ 2π/6400 rad
| ≈ 0.981 748 mrad
|-----
| [[grad (angle)|grad]]; [[gradian]]; [[gon]] || gr
| ≡ 2π/400 rad = 0.9°
| ≈ 15.707 963 mrad
|-----
| [[degree (angle)|degree (of arc)]] || °
| ≡ π/180 rad
| ≈ 17.453 293 mrad
|-----
| [[sign]] ||  
| ≡ 30°
| ≈ 0.523 599 rad
|-----
| [[octant]] ||  
| ≡ 45°
| ≈ 0.785 398 rad
|-----
| [[sextant]] ||  
| ≡ 60°
| ≈ 1.047 198 rad
|-----
| [[quadrant]] ||  
| ≡ 90°
| ≈ 1.570 796 rad
|}
===Mass===
{| class="wikitable"
|+ [[Mass]], m
!Name of unit
!Symbol
!Definition
!Relation to [[SI]] units
|-----
| [[kilogram]] || kg
|
| ([[SI base unit]])
|-----
| [[electron]] rest mass || m<sub>e</sub>
|
| ≈ 9.109 381 88×10<sup>-31</sup> ± 72×10<sup>-39</sup> kg
|-----
| [[atomic units|atomic unit of mass]] || au
| ≡ m<sub>e</sub>
| ≈ 9.109 381 88×10<sup>-31</sup> ± 72×10<sup>-39</sup> kg
|-----
| [[atomic mass unit|unified atomic mass unit]] || amu
|
| ≈ 1.660 538 73×10<sup>-27</sup> ± 13×10<sup>-35</sup> kg
|-----
| [[dalton (unit)|dalton]] || Da
|
| ≈ 1.660 902 10×10<sup>-27</sup> ± 13×10<sup>-35</sup> kg
|-----
| [[gamma (unit)|gamma]] || γ
|
| ≡ 1 μg
|-----
| [[point (unit of mass)|point]] || &nbsp;
| ≡ 1/100 kt (metric)<!--carat, not kiloton-->
| = 2 mg
|-----
| [[mite (unit)|mite]] || &nbsp;
| ≡ 1/20 gr
| = 3.239 945 5 mg
|-----
| [[mite (unit)|mite]] (metric) || &nbsp;
| ≡ 1/20 g
| = 50 mg
|-----
| [[grain (measure)|grain]] || gr
|
| ≡ 64.798 91 mg
|-----
| [[crith]] || &nbsp;
|
| ≈ 89.9349 mg
|-----
| [[carat]] (metric) || kt
|
| ≡ 200 mg
|-----
| [[carat]] || kt
| ≡ 3 1/6 gr
| ≈ 205.196 548 333 mg
|-----
| [[sheet (unit)|sheet]] || &nbsp;
| ≡ 1/700 lb av
| = 647.9891 mg
|-----
| [[scruple]] (avoirdupois) || s av
| ≡ 20 gr
| = 1.295 978 2 g
|-----
| [[pennyweight]] || dwt; pwt
| ≡ 1/20 oz t
| = 1.555 173 84 g
|-----
| [[dram]] (avoirdupois) || dr av
| ≡ 27 11/32 gr
| = 1.771 845 195 312 5 g
|-----
| [[dram]] (apothecary; troy) || dr t
| ≡ 60 gr
| = 3.887 934 6 g
|-----
| [[hyl]] (CGS unit) || &nbsp;
| ≡ 1 gee × 1 g × 1 s²/m
| = 9.806 65 g
|-----
| [[ounce]] (avoirdupois) || oz av
| ≡ 1/16 lb
| = 28.349 523 125 g
|-----
| [[assay ton]] (short) || AT
| ≡ 1 mg × 1 sh tn ÷ 1 oz t
| ≈ 29.166 667 g
|-----
| [[troy ounce|ounce (apothecary; troy)]] || oz t
| ≡ 1/12 lb t
| = 31.103 476 8 g
|-----
| [[assay ton]] (long) || AT
| ≡ 1 mg × 1 long tn ÷ 1 oz t
| ≈ 32.666 667 g
|-----
| [[mark (unit of mass)|mark]] || &nbsp;
| ≡ 8 oz t
| = 248.827 814 4 g
|-----
| [[pound (weight)|pound (troy)]] || lb t
| ≡ 5760 grains
| = 0.373 241 721 6 kg
|-----
| [[pound (weight)|pound (avoirdupois)]] || lb av
| ≡ 7000 grains
| = 0.453 592 37 kg
|-----
| [[pound (weight)|pound (metric)]] || &nbsp;
|
| ≡ 500 g
|-----
| [[clove (unit of mass)|clove]] || &nbsp;
| ≡ 8 lb av
| = 3.628 738 96 kg
|-----
| [[stone (weight)|stone]] || st
| ≡ 14 lb av
| = 6.350 293 18 kg
|-----
| [[hyl]] (MKS unit) || &nbsp;
| ≡ 1 gee × 1 kg × 1 s²/m
| = 9.806 65 kg
|-----
| quarter (Imperial) || &nbsp;
| ≡ 1/4 long cwt = 2 st = 28 lb av
| = 12.700 586 36 kg
|-----
| slug; geepound || slug
| ≡ 1 gee × 1 lb av × 1 s²/ft
| ≈ 14.593 903 kg
|-----
| bag ([[Portland cement]])|| &nbsp;
| ≡ 94 lb av
| = 42.637 682 78 kg
|-----
| short [[hundredweight]]; cental || sh cwt
| ≡ 100 lb av
| = 45.359 237 kg
|-----
| long [[h
|
*[http://www.ecbcs.org IEA Energy Conservation in Buildings and Community Systems Programme.]
===Brands===
*[http://www.aeg.de AEG]
*[http://www.aircon4less.co.uk Aircon]
*[http://www.americanstandardair.com American Standard]
*[http://www.ariagel.it Ariagel]
*[http://www.bryant.com Bryant]
*[http://www.residential.carrier.com Carrier]
*[http://www.colemanac.com Coleman]
*[http://www.crafft.com Crafft]
*[http://www.daikin.com Daikin]
*[http://www.fujitsu-general.com/global/products Fujitsu]
*[http://www.ge.com/en GE]
*[http://www.goettl.com Goettl]
*[http://www.goodmanmfg.com Goodman]
*[http://www.hitachiaircon.com Hitachi]
*[http://www.lennox.com Lennox]
*[http://www.lgaircon.co.uk LG] (UK Site)
*[http://global.mitsubishielectric.com/bu/air Mitsubishi Electric]
*[http://www.mhi.co.jp/aircon/english Mitsubishi Heavy Industries]
*[http://www.panasonic.co.jp/global/products/ha.html Panasonic]
*[http://www.rheemac.com Rheem]
*[http://www.ruudac.com Ruud]
*Sanyo
*[http://www.thermoking.com/ Thermo King]
*Toshiba
*[http://www.trane.com/Residential/ResidentialHome.aspx Trane]
*[http://www.videoconinternational.com/ Videocon International]
*[http://www.waterloo.co.uk/ Waterloo Air Products Ltd.]
[[Category:Building engineering]]
[[Category:Cooling technology]]
[[Category:Home appliances]]
[[de:Klimaanlage]]
[[es:Aire acondicionado]]
[[fi:Ilmastointilaite]]
[[fr:Climatisation]]
[[ja:空気調和設備]]
[[lt:Oro kondicionierius]]
[[nl:Airconditioning]]
[[ru:Кондиционирование воздуха]]
[[sv:Luftkonditionering]]
[[tl:Erkon]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Alfred C. Kinsey</title>
<id>2774</id>
<revision>
<id>15901165</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Alfred Kinsey]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Automobile racing</title>
<id>2775</id>
<revision>
<id>15901166</id>
<timestamp>2002-05-17T03:39:06Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Jeronimo</username>
<id>108</id>
</contributor>
<comment>set up redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Auto racing]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Anti-Semite</title>
<id>2776</id>
<revision>
<id>15901167</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Anti-Semitism]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Advanced Technology Attachment</title>
<id>2778</id>
<revision>
<id>40696961</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-22T10:50:05Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
<id>82835</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Packet is correct.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:ATA cables.jpg|right|thumb|ATA cables: 40 wire ribbon cable top, 80 wire ribbon cable bottom]]
'''Advanced Technology Attachment''' ('''ATA''') is a standard [[Electrical connector|interface]] for connecting [[computer storage | storage]] devices such as [[hard disk]]s and [[CD-ROM]] drives inside [[personal computer]]s. Many terms and synonyms for ATA exist, including abbreviations such as '''IDE''', '''ATAPI''', and '''UDMA'''.
With the market introduction of [[Serial ATA]] in 2003, the original ATA was [[retronym|retroactively renamed]] '''Parallel ATA''' (PATA). In line with the original naming, this article only covers Parallel ATA.
Parallel ATA standards only allow cable lengths up to 18 inches (up to 450 mm) although cables up to 36 inches (900 mm) can be readily purchased. Because of this length limit, the technology normally appears as an internal computer storage interface. It provides the most common and the least expensive interface for this application.
== History ==
[[Image:ATA on mainboard.jpg|right|thumb|Image:ATA on mainboard.jpg|ATA connection sockets on a PC motherboard located below RAM sockets]]
Although the standard has always had the official name "ATA", marketing dictates caused an early version to be dubbed '''Integrated Drive Electronics''' ('''IDE'''). This is due to the drive controller being contained on the drive itself as opposed to a separate controller connected to the motherboard. The standard following IDE, '''Enhanced IDE''' ('''EIDE''') allowed the support of drives having a storage capacity larger than 504 [[mebibyte]]s, up to 8.4 gigabytes. Although these new names originated in branding convention and not as an official standard, the terms '''IDE''' and '''EIDE''' often appear as if interchangeable with '''ATA'''. This may be attributed to the two technologies being introduced with the same consumable devices, these "new" ATA hard drives. With the introduction of [[Serial ATA]] around 2003, conventional ATA was retroactively renamed to '''Parallel ATA''' ('''P-ATA'''), referring to the method in which data travels over wires in this [[Electrical connector|interface]].
The interface at first only worked with hard disks, but eventually an extended standard came to work with a variety of other devices&mdash;generally those using removable media. Principally, these devices include [[CD-ROM]] and [[DVD-ROM]] drives, [[tape drive]]s, and large-capacity [[floppy disk | floppy]] drives such as the [[Zip drive]] and [[SuperDisk drive]]. The extension bears the name '''Advanced Technology Attachment Packet Interface''' ('''ATAPI'''), with the full standard now known as '''ATA/ATAPI'''.
The movement from [[programmed input/output]] (PIO) to [[direct memory access]] (DMA) provided another important transition in the history of ATA. As every computer word must be read by the CPU individually, PIO tends to be slow and use a lot of CPU. This is especially a problem on faster CPUs where accessing an address outside of the cacheable main memory (whether in the [[I/O]] map or the memory map) is a relatively expensive process. This meant that systems based around ATA devices generally performed disk-related activities much more slowly than computers using [[SCSI]] or other interfaces. However, DMA (and later '''Ultra DMA''', or '''UDMA''') greatly reduced the amount of processing time the CPU had to use in order to read and write the disks. This is possible because DMA and UDMA allow the disk controller to write data to memory directly, thus bypassing the CPU.
ATA devices have suffered from a number of "barriers" in terms of how much data they can handle. However, new addressing systems and programming techniques have broken most of these barriers. Some of the ATA-specific barriers included: 504 [[MiB]], ~8 [[GiB]], ~32 GiB<!--what exactly caused this one?-->, and 128 [[GiB]]. A variety of other barriers have existed, usually due to [[device driver]]s and disk I/O layers in [[operating system]]s that did not correspond with ATA standards.
The original ATA specification used a 28-bit addressing mode. This allows for the addressing of 268,435,456 512-byte sectors (128 [[GiB]] or 137 [[Gigabyte|GB]]). The standard PC BIOS system supported up to 7.88 GiB (8.46 GB), with maximum of 1024 cylinders, 256 heads and 63 sectors. <!--details needed-->Unfortunately, when the lowest common denominators of the [[Cylinder-head-sector|CHS]] limitations in the standard PC BIOS system and the IDE standard were combined, the system as a whole was left limited to a mere 504 [[mebibyte]]s. BIOS translation
and [[Logical_block_addressing|LBA]] <!--was LBA really introduced back then?-->were introduced, removing the need for the CHS structure on the drive itself to match that used by the BIOS and consequently allowing up to 7.88 GiB. With time, this limitation was itself lifted and first 32 GB <!--need some info on what caused this limit in the first place, was it just bad coding or were there historical reasons-->and then the full 128 [[GB]] supported by ATA at that time became supported by PC BIOSes.
The newer specification allows 48-bit addressing, and this extends the limit to 128 [[Pebibyte|PiB]] (or 144 [[petabytes]]). Most operating systems have poor support for drives more than 2 [[TiB]] because that is the limit of their current file system, so it can be expected that will be the next drive size barrier in the near future.
These size limitations come about because some part of the system is unable to deal with block addresses above some limit. This problem may manifest itself by the system thinking the size of a drive is only the limit value, or by the system refusing to boot and hanging on the BIOS screen at the point when drives are initialised. In some cases, a BIOS upgrade for the motherboard will resolve the problem. This problem is also found in older external [[FireWire]] disk enclosures, which limit the usable size of a disk to 128GB. By early 2005 most enclosures available have practically no limit. (Earlier versions of the popular Oxford 911 FireWire chipset had this problem. Later Oxford 911 versions and all Oxford 922 chips resolve the problem.)
== Parallel ATA Interface ==
[[Image:nappe.png|right|Ribbon cable with two connectors]]
[[Image:ATA Plug.PNG|right|40-pin connector schematic]]
Until the introduction of Serial ATA, 40-pin connectors generally attached drives to a [[ribbon cable]]. Each cable has two or three connectors, one of which plugs into a controller that interfaces with the rest of the computer system. The remaining one or two connectors plug into drives. Parallel ATA cables transfer data 16 bits at a time. One occasionally finds cables that allow for the connection of three ATA devices onto one IDE channel, but in this case one drive remains read-only (this
|
e Biblical story of David, casting David as primarily a poet who managed always to find others to do the "dirty work" of heroism and kingship. In the novel, [[Elhanan]] in fact killed Goliath but David claimed the credit; and [[Joab]], David's cousin and general, took it upon himself to make many of the difficult decisions of war and statecraft when David vacillated or wrote poetry instead.
In [[Thomas Burnett Swann]]'s Biblical [[fantasy]] [[novel]] ''How are the Mighty Fallen'' ([[1974]]) [[David and Jonathan]] are explicitly stated to be lovers. Moreover, Jonathan is a member of a winged semi-human race (possibly [[nephilim]]), one of several such races co-existing with humanity but often persecuted by it.
[[Joseph Heller]], the author of ''[[Catch-22]]'', also wrote a novel based on David, ''[[God Knows]]''. Told from the perspective of an ageing David, the humanity &mdash; rather than the heroism &mdash; of various biblical characters are emphasised. The portrayal of David as a man of flaws such as greed, lust, selfishness, and his alienation from God, the falling apart of his family is a distinctly 20th century interpretation of the events told in the Bible.
===Film===
[[Gregory Peck]], played King David in the [[1951]] film ''[[David and Bathsheba]]'', directed by [[Henry King (director)|Henry King]]. [[Susan Hayward]] played Bathsheba and [[Raymond Massey]] played the prophet Nathan.
[[Richard Gere]] portrayed King David in the [[1985]] film ''[[King David (movie)|King David]]'' directed by [[Bruce Beresford]].
==See also==
{{commonscat|David}}
*[[Tel Dan Stele]]
*[[Hebrew Bible]]
==References==
*Kirsch, Jonathan (2000) "King David: the real life of the man who ruled Israel". Ballantine. ISBN 0-345-43275-4.
*See also the entry for '''David''' in [http://bible.crosswalk.com/Dictionaries/EastonBibleDictionary/ Easton's Bible Dictionary].
==External link==
*[http://www.complete-bible-genealogy.com/names/david_593.htm Complete Bible Genealogy] David's family tree
{| align="center" cellpadding="2" border="2"
|-
| width="30%" align="center" | Preceded by:<br />'''[[Ish-bosheth]]'''
| width="40%" align="center" | '''[[Kingdom of Israel]]'''
| width="30%" align="center" | Succeeded by:<br />'''[[King Solomon|Solomon]]'''
|}
[[Category:Kings of ancient Israel]]
[[Category:History of Jerusalem]]
[[Category:Shepherds]]
[[Category:Nine Worthies]]
[[de:David (Israel)]]
[[es:David]]
[[eo:Davido]]
[[fr:David (Bible)]]
[[ko:다윗 왕]]
[[id:Daud]]
[[it:Davide (Bibbia)]]
[[he:דוד]]
[[ku:Dawid]]
[[nl:Koning David]]
[[ja:ダビデ]]
[[no:David]]
[[nn:David I av Israel]]
[[pl:Dawid (król Izraela)]]
[[pt:David]]
[[ru:Давид (царь)]]
[[sv:David]]
[[tl:David ng Israel]]
[[tr:Davud]]
[[zh:大衛]]
[[yi:דוד המלך]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Danzig</title>
<id>8555</id>
<restrictions>sysop</restrictions>
<revision>
<id>18014547</id>
<timestamp>2005-07-02T14:48:38Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Zzyzx11</username>
<id>182902</id>
</contributor>
<comment>fix double redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Gdańsk]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Diablo II</title>
<id>8556</id>
<revision>
<id>42116210</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T22:52:18Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Kickstart70</username>
<id>110791</id>
</contributor>
<comment>rv vandalism to previous edit 19:14, 3 March 2006</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{cleanup-date|February 2006}}
{{Infobox CVG| title = Diablo II
|image = [[Image:Bliz_diablo2_lg.jpg|130px|center|The Diablo II box, still available in stores.]]
|developer = [[Blizzard North]]
|publisher = [[Blizzard Entertainment]]
|designer =
|engine =
|released = [[June 29]], [[2000]]
|genre = [[Action game|Action]]-[[Computer role-playing game|RPG]]
|modes = [[Single player|Single-player]], [[multiplayer|Multi-player]]
|ratings = [[Entertainment Software Rating Board|ESRB]]: M (Mature, 17+)
|platforms = [[Microsoft Windows|Windows]] [[Image:Win3.1MSFlag.png|18px|Platform: Windows]]<br />[[Mac OS]] [[Image:Macos-original-logo.gif|20px|Platform: Mac OS]]<br />[[Mac OS X]] [[Image:MacOSX.png|16px|Platform: Mac OS X]]<br />
|media = 3 CD-ROMs (Play, Install, and Cinematics disc)
|requirements = '''PowerPC''': G3 or better, '''MacOS''': 8.1 or later<br/>64MB physical RAM, 128MB virtual, 650MB drive space, optional 8MB video card for 3D acceleration and effects. [[3dfx]] video card for full effects. Supports RAVE, OpenGL, and Glide<br/>'''Windows''': 233MHz Pentium or better, 32MB RAM, 650MB drive space, DirectX-compatible video card.
|input = Keyboard and Mouse
}}
'''''Diablo II''''', sequel to the popular ''[[Diablo (computer game)|Diablo]]'', is an action-oriented [[adventure game|adventure]] with [[computer role-playing game|role-playing game]] elements in a [[hack and slash]] or "Dungeon Roaming" style. It was released for both [[Microsoft Windows]] and [[Mac OS]] in [[2000]] by [[Blizzard Entertainment]]. ''Diablo II'' was developed by [[Blizzard North]].
By [[2001]], ''Diablo II'' had become one of the most popular online games ever. Major factors that contributed to ''Diablo II'''s success include what fans found to be addictive [[hack and slash]] gameplay and free access to [[Battle.net]]. ''Diablo II'' may be played as a single player game, multi-player via a [[local area network|LAN]] or serverless [[Internet protocol suite|TCP/IP]], or multi-player via Battle.net, with the latter being the most popular. It has also become the 9th [[List of best selling computer and video games|best selling computer game]] and number one best selling RPG for the PC, selling around four million copies.
An expansion to Diablo II, ''[[Diablo II: Lord of Destruction]]'', was released in 2001, and is now at version 1.11b.
==Overview==
[[Image:DiabloIILogo.jpg|thumb|500|right|Diablo II logo]]
''Diablo II'' is an action-RPG released in July [[2000]] by ''Blizzard Entertainment''. Players pick one of five heroes (seven with the Lord of Destruction expansion pack) and fight monsters to level up their character and gain better items. The differences between ''Diablo II'' and a regular RPG is the greater emphasis on combat in ''Diablo II'' and the large amount of randomness in monster properties, level layouts and item drops. The game uses an isometric oblique top-down viewpoint.
''Diablo II'' was a runaway success for ''Blizzard'', and still is. While fairly old for today's standards, the game continues to be one of the world's most played online games.
Classic ''Diablo II'' allows the player to choose between five different characters; Necromancer, Amazon, Barbarian, Sorceress and Paladin. Each character has different strengths and weaknesses and sets of skills to choose from.
The ''Diablo II'' expansion pack, ''[[Diablo II: Lord of Destruction|Lord of Destruction]]'', adds two new classes: the Druid and Assassin.
The ''Diablo II'' storyline is played through four acts, five with ''Lord of Destruction''. Each act follows a predetermined path with preselected quests, although most of the maps themselves are randomly generated, in single player mode, the map is randomly generated but sticks to the setting thereafter, in multiplayer mode, it resets each time you restart. Each act culminates with the destruction of a boss type monster.
In addition to the four/five acts there are also three difficulty levels: Normal, Nightmare and Hell. On the second and third, monsters deal more damage and are harder to defeat. For example, in the Hell level of difficulty, every monster encountered is immune to one or more elements, and therefore unaffected by a certain type of damage such as cold, fire, lightning, poison, physical or magical damage. Completion of the game on one difficulty level allows progression to the next.
As an added dimension, Diablo II allows players to engage in competitive player vs. player (PvP) combat, rewarding victors with piles of gold and the severed ear of their enemy. PvP play outside the framework of duels (i.e. random assaults of other players) led to a community of certain PvPers finding ways to interfere with other high-level parties, or repetitively wipe out low-level players. These players are often called Pkers (Player Killers) by the Battle.Net community.
As the game can be played cooperatively (Players vs. Monsters, PvM), groups of players with specific sets of complementary skills can finish some of the game's climactic battles in a matter of seconds, providing strong incentives for party-oriented character builds.
== Story ==
[[Image:Tyrael.png|thumb|300px|[[Tyrael]], an [[archangel]] seen in the Pandemonium Fortress]]
{{spoiler}}
The story of ''Diablo II'' takes place soon after the end of the original ''Diablo''. At the end of ''Diablo'', Diablo, the Lord of Terror, was defeated. The hero then takes Diablo's soulstone (a device that is used to bind the soul of any [[demon]] or [[angel]]) and puts it into his own body, hoping to contain his soul for all eternity. However, the hero is rapidly corrupted by Diablo and quickly begins to lose control. Before long, Diablo is more in control than the hero. In the opening scene of ''Diablo II'', Marius, the narrator of the story, witnesses the hero (known as the Dark Wanderer) totally lose control, unleashing the demons of hell upon a tavern. He is compelled to follow the Wanderer for reasons he himself does not understand. The player plays a character in the wake of the destruction, following the Dark Wanderer, hoping to halt him. The rest of the story is revealed through the four acts, as the player eventually confronts Diablo and his brothe
|
about changes with time.
A vector field which has zero curl everywhere is called [[irrotational vector field|irrotational]].
In mathematics the curl is noted by:
:<math>\nabla \times F</math>
where <math>\nabla</math> is the vector [[differential operator]] [[del]], and ''F'' is the vector field to which the curl is being applied.
Expanded in [[Cartesian coordinate system|Cartesian coordinates]], <math>\nabla \times F</math> is, for ''F'' composed of [''F''<sub>''x''</sub>, ''F''<sub>''y''</sub>, ''F''<sub>''z''</sub>]:
:<math>\begin{bmatrix}
{\frac{\partial F_z}{\partial y}} - {\frac{\partial F_y}{\partial z}} \\ \\
{\frac{\partial F_x}{\partial z}} - {\frac{\partial F_z}{\partial x}}\\ \\
{\frac{\partial F_y}{\partial x}} - {\frac{\partial F_x}{\partial y}}
\end{bmatrix}</math>
Although expressed in terms of coordinates, the result is invariant under proper rotations of the coordinate axes. However, the result inverses under reflection.
A simple way to remember the expanded form of the curl is to think of it as:
:<math>\begin{bmatrix}
{\frac{\partial}{\partial x}} \\ \\
{\frac{\partial}{\partial y}} \\ \\
{\frac{\partial}{\partial z}}
\end{bmatrix} \times F</math>
that is, del [[cross product|cross]] ''F'', or as the [[determinant]] of the following matrix:
:<math>\begin{bmatrix} \mathbf{i} & \mathbf{j} & \mathbf{k} \\ \\
{\frac{\partial}{\partial x}} & {\frac{\partial}{\partial y}} & {\frac{\partial}{\partial z}} \\
\\ F_x & F_y & F_z \end{bmatrix}</math>
where '''i''', '''j''', and '''k''' are the [[unit vector]]s for the ''x''-, ''y''-, and ''z''-axes, respectively.
In [[Einstein notation]], with the [[Levi-Civita symbol]] it is written as:
:<math>(\nabla \times F)_k = \epsilon_{k\ell m} \partial_\ell F_m</math>
Using the [[exterior derivative]], it is written simply as:
:<math>dF\,</math>
Note that taking the exterior derivative of a vector field does not result in another vector field, but a [[2-form]] or [[bivector]] field, properly written as <math>P\,(dx \wedge dy) + Q\,(dy \wedge dz) + R\,(dz \wedge dx) </math>. However, since bivectors are generally considered less intuitive than ordinary vectors, the '''R'''<sup>3</sup>-[[dual]] <math>*dF\,</math> is commonly used instead (where <math>*\,</math> denotes the [[Hodge star]] operator). This is a [[chiral operation]], producing a [[pseudovector]] that takes on opposite values in left-handed and right-handed [[coordinate system]]s.
==Examples==
* In a [[tornado]] the winds are rotating about the eye, and a vector field showing wind velocities would have a non-zero curl at the eye, and possibly elsewhere (see [[vorticity]]).
* In a vector field that describes the linear velocities of each individual part of a rotating disk, the curl will have a [[mathematical constant|constant]] value on all parts of the disk.
* If velocities of cars on a freeway were described with a vector field, and the lanes had different speed limits, the curl on the borders between lanes would be non-zero.
* [[Faraday's law of induction]], one of [[Maxwell's equations]], can be expressed very simply using curl. It states that the curl of an electric field is equal to the opposite of the time rate of change of the magnetic flux density.
== See also ==
*[[Gradient]]
*[[Divergence]]
*[[Nabla in cylindrical and spherical coordinates]]
[[Category:Vector calculus]]
[[cs:Rotace (operátor)]]
[[de:Rotation (Mathematik)]]
[[ca:Rotacional]]
[[es:Rotor]]
[[he:קרל]]
[[it:Rotore (fisica)]]
[[ja:&#22238;&#36578; (&#25968;&#23398;)]]
[[nl:Rotatie (wiskunde)]]
[[pl:Rotacja]]
[[tr:Rotasyonel]]
[[ru:Ротор (математика)]]
[[zh:旋度]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Carl Friedrich Gauss</title>
<id>6125</id>
<revision>
<id>42097931</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T20:39:21Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Bota47</username>
<id>341052</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>robot Modifying: bn</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Celebrity
| name =Johann Carl Friedrich Gauss
| image = Gauss.jpg
| caption =
| birth_date = [[April 30]], [[1777]]
| birth_place = [[Braunschweig|Brunswick]], [[Germany]]
| death_date = [[February 23]], [[1855]]
| death_place = [[Göttingen]], [[Hanover (state)|Hanover]], Germany
| occupation = [[Mathematician]] and [[scientist]]
| salary =
| networth =
| spouse =
| website =
| footnotes =
}}
{{Audio|De-carlfriedrichgauss.ogg|'''Carl Friedrich Gauss (Gauß)'''}} ([[April 30]], [[1777]] – [[February 23]], [[1855]]) was a [[Germany|German]] [[mathematician]] and [[scientist]] of profound [[genius]] who contributed significantly to many fields, including [[number theory]], [[mathematical analysis|analysis]], [[differential geometry]], [[geodesy]], [[magnetism]], [[astronomy]] and [[optics]]. Sometimes known as "the prince of mathematicians", Gauss had a remarkable influence in many fields of mathematics and science and is ranked beside [[Leonhard Euler|Euler]], [[Isaac Newton|Newton]] and [[Archimedes]] as one of history's greatest mathematicians. (Gauss himself held that honor belonged rather to his student [[Ferdinand Eisenstein]].)
Gauss was a [[child prodigy]], of whom there are many anecdotes pertaining to his astounding precocity while a mere toddler, and made his first ground-breaking mathematical discoveries while still a teenager. He completed ''[[Disquisitiones Arithmeticae]]'', his [[magnum opus]], at the age of twenty-four. This work was fundamental in consolidating number theory as a discipline and has shaped the field to the present day.
==Biography==
===Early years===
[[Image:Gauss Statue.jpg|100px|left|thumb|Statue of Gauss in Brunswick]]
Gauss was born in [[Braunschweig|Brunswick]], in the Duchy of [[Brunswick-Lüneburg]] (now part of [[Lower Saxony]], [[Germany]]), as the only son of uneducated lower-class parents. According to legend, his gifts became apparent at the age of three when he corrected, in his head, an error his father had made on paper while calculating finances. Another story has it that in [[elementary school]] his teacher tried to occupy pupils by making them add up the [[integer]]s from 1 to 100. The young Gauss produced the correct answer within seconds by a flash of mathematical insight, to the astonishment of all. Gauss had realized that pairwise addition of terms from opposite ends of the list yielded identical intermediate sums: 1 + 100 = 101, 2 + 99 = 101, 3 + 98 = 101, and so on, for a total sum of 50 × 101 = 5050 (''see [[arithmetic series]] and [[summation]]''). While the story is mostly true, the problem assigned by Gauss's teacher was actually a more difficult one. [http://mathforum.org/social/articles/ross.html]
The [[Karl Wilhelm Ferdinand, Duke of Brunswick-Luneburg|Duke of Brunswick]] awarded Gauss a fellowship to the Collegium Carolinum, which he attended from 1792 to 1795, and from there went on to the [[University of Göttingen]] from 1795 to 1798. While in college, Gauss independently rediscovered several important theorems; his breakthrough occurred in 1796 when he was able to show that any regular [[polygon]] with a number of sides which is a [[Fermat prime]] (and, consequently, those polygons with any number of sides which is the product of distinct Fermat primes and a [[exponentiation|power]] of [[2 (number)|2]]) can be constructed by [[ruler and compass]]. This was a major discovery in an important field of mathematics; construction problems had occupied mathematicians since the days of the [[Ancient Greece|Ancient Greeks]]. Gauss was so pleased by this result that he requested that a regular [[heptadecagon]] be inscribed on his [[tomb stone|tombstone]]. The stonemason declined, stating that the difficult construction would essentially look like a circle.
1796 was probably the most productive year for both Gauss and number theory. The construction of the heptadecagon was discovered on [[March 30]]. He invented [[modular arithmetic]], a discovery that made working on [[number theory]] a great deal easier. His famous [[quadratic reciprocity]] law was discovered on [[April 8]]. This remarkably general law allows mathematicians to determine the solvability of any quadratic equation in modular arithmetic. The [[prime number theorem]], conjectured on [[May 31]], gives a good understanding of how the [[prime numbers]] are distributed among the integers. Gauss also discovered that every positive integer is representable as a sum of at most three [[triangular numbers]] on [[July 10]] and then jotted down in his diary the famous words, "[[Eureka|Heureka]]! num=
<math>\Delta+
\Delta+\Delta</math>." On [[October 1]] he published a result on the number of solutions of polynomials with coefficients in finite fields (this ultimately led to the [[Weil conjectures]] 150 years later).
===Middle years===
[[Image:Disqvisitiones-800.jpg|thumb|Title page of Gauss' ''[[Disquisitiones Arithmeticae]]'']]
In his 1799 dissertation, Gauss gave a proof of the [[fundamental theorem of algebra]]. This important theorem states that every [[polynomial]] over the complex numbers must have at least one [[root (mathematics)|root]]. Other mathematicians had tried to prove this before him, e.g. [[Jean le Rond d'Alembert]]. Gauss' dissertation contained a critique of d'Alembert's proof, but his own attempt would not be accepted due to implicit use of the [[Jordan curve theorem]]. Gauss over his lifetime produced three more proofs, probably due in part to this rejection of his dissertation; his last proof in 1849 is generally considered rigorous by today's standard. His attempts clarified the concept of [[complex number]]s considerably alon
|
ocesses must recognise the way of life they see as prescribed by God and set forth in Scripture. The state must be subservient to God, in their eyes.
==Objections to the use of the term==
[[Christian fundamentalists]], who generally consider the term to be positive when used to refer to themselves, often strongly object to the placement of themselves and Islamist groups into a single category, and resent being labeled together with factions that use kidnapping, murder, and terrorist acts to achieve their ends. They feel that characteristics based on the new definition are wrongly projected back onto Christian fundamentalists by their critics. There is however no objection to the term fundamentalist when used to describe only Christian groups, and objections to the term [[Muslim]] fundamentalist are much less strong.
Many Muslims protest the use of the term when referring to [[Islamist]] groups, because all Muslims believe in the absolute inerrancy of the [[Qur'an]], and western writers only use the term to refer to extremist groups. Furthermore, many Muslims strongly object to being placed in the same category as Christian fundamentalists, who they see as being religiously incorrect. Unlike Christian fundamentalist groups, Islamist groups do not use the term fundamentalist to refer to themselves. However, in the Islamic world, [[Wahhabis]] are overwhelmingly considered to be fundamentalists; [[Shiite]] groups which are considered fundamentalist in the western world are not considered such in the Islamic world.
The [[Associated Press]] stylebook recommends that the term fundamentalist not be used for any group that does not apply the term to itself. This would generally mean that some Christian groups can be described as fundamentalist, but Islamist groups can not be. This recommendation is not universally followed by news writers, however.
== Basic beliefs of religious fundamentalists ==
For religious fundamentalists, sacred scripture is considered the authentic, and literal word of God. Fundamentalist beliefs depend on the twin doctrines that [[God]] articulated his will precisely to prophets, and that [[followers]] also have a reliable and perfect record of that [[revelation]].
Since Scripture is considered the word of God, fundamentalists believe that no person has the right to change it or disagree with it. As a result, people are "obliged" to obey the word of God. The appeal of this point of view is its simplicity: people must do what God tells them to do. However, the fundamentalist insistence on strict observation of religious laws may lead to an accusation of "[[Legalism (theology)|legalism]]" in addition to exclusivism in the interpretation of metaphysical beliefs.
===Christian views===
{{Main|Fundamentalist Christianity}}
Self-described Christian fundamentalists see their scripture, a combination of the [[Tanakh|Hebrew Bible]] and the [[New Testament]], as both infallible and historically accurate. The New Testament represents a new covenant between God and human beings, which is held to fulfill the Old Testament, in regard to God's redemptive plan. On the basis of this confidence in Scripture, fundamentalist Christians accept the account of scripture as being literally true and believe that Jesus was raised from the dead and rules the church from heaven. They believe that the church has been granted the gift of the Holy Spirit, who leads the church into fulfillment of God's will according to the Scriptures.
It is important to distinguish between the "literalist" and ''Fundamentalist'' groups within the Christian community. Literalists, as the name indicates, hold that the Bible should be taken literally in every part (though Western literalists often seem to forget that English language Bibles are themselves translations and therefore not a literal, word-for-word rending of the original texts). Fundamentalists, on the other hand, are for the most part content to hold that the Bible should be taken literally only where there is no indication to the contrary. As William Jennings Bryan put it, in response to Clarence Darrow's questioning during the [[Scopes Trial]] (1925), :
"I believe that everything in the Bible should be accepted as it is given there; some of the Bible is given illustratively. For instance: 'Ye are the salt of the earth.' I would not insist that man was actually salt, or that he had flesh of salt, but it is used in the sense of salt as saving God's people."
Nevertheless, they typically believe that it is the church's obligation (imperfectly realized) to understand the Scriptures, so far as that is possible, to believe what they say, and to act accordingly.
The term fundamentalist has historically referred specifically to members of the various Protestant denominations who subscribed to the five "fundamentals", rather than fundamentalists forming an independent denomination. This wider movement of Fundamentalist Christianity has since broken up into various movements which are better described in other terms. Early "fundamentalists" included [[J. Gresham Machen]] and [[Benjamin Breckinridge Warfield|B.B. Warfield]], men who would not be considered "Fundamentalists" today.
Over time the term came to be, incorrectly, associated with a particular segment of [[Evangelicalism|evangelical]] [[Protestantism]], who distinguished themselves by their separatist approach toward [[modernity]], toward aspects of the culture which they feel typify the modern world, and toward other Christians who did not similarly separate themselves. Examples of things that fundamentalists might believe important to avoid are, modern translations of the Bible, alcoholic drinks or recreational drugs, tobacco, modern popular music including Christian contemporary music, folk instruments in worship, dancing, "mixed bathing" (men and women swimming together), and gender-neutral or trans-gender clothing and hair-styles. Such things might seem innocuous to the outsider, but to some fundamentalists they represent the leading edge of a threat to the virtuous way of life and the purer form of belief that they seek to protect and to hold forth before the world as an example. Many fundamentalists accept only the [[King James Version]] translation of the Bible and study tools based on it, such as the [[Scofield Reference Bible]].
Because of the prevalence of [[dispensationalism|dispensational eschatology]], some fundamentalists vehemently support the modern nation of [[Israel]], believing the Jews to have significance in God's purposes parallel to the Christian churches, and a special role to play at the end of the world.
The term, ''fundamentalist'', is difficult to apply unambiguously, especially when applied to groups outside the USA, which are typically far less dogmatic. Many self-described Fundamentalists would include [[Jerry Falwell]] in their company, but would not embrace [[Pat Robertson]] as a fundamentalist because of his espousal of [[charismatic]] teachings. Fundamentalist institutions include [[Pensacola Christian College]], and [[Bob Jones University]], but classically Fundamentalist schools such as [[Fuller Theological Seminary]] and [[Biola University]] no longer describe themselves as Fundamentalist, although in the broad sense described by this article they are fundamentalist (better, ''[[Evangelicalism|Evangelical]]'') in their perspective.<br />
(The forerunner to Biola U. - the Bible Institute of Los Angeles - was founded under the financial patronage of Lyman Stewart, with his brother Milton, underwrote the publication of a series of 12 books jointly entitled ''The Fundamentals'' between 1909 and 1920.)
=== Jewish views===
[[Judaism|Jewish denominations]] believe that the [[Tanakh]] (Hebrew Bible or Old Testament) cannot be understood literally or alone, but rather needs to be read in conjunction with additional material known as the [[oral law]]; this material is contained in the [[Mishnah]], [[Talmud]], Gmara and [[Midrash]]. While the Tanakh is not read in a literal fashion, [[Orthodox Judaism]] does view the text itself as divine, infallible, and transmitted essentially without change, and places great import in the specific words and letters of the [[Torah]]. As well, some adherents of [[Orthodox Judaism]], especially [[Haredi Judaism]], see the Mishnah, Talmud and Midrash as divine and infallible in content, if not in specific wording. [[Hasidic Judaism|Hasidic Jews]] frequently ascribe infallibility to their [[Rebbe]]'s interpretation of the traditional sources of truth.
===Mormon views===
{{Main|Mormon fundamentalism}}
Mormon fundamentalism is a [[conservatism|conservative]] movement of [[Mormonism]] that believes or practices what its adherents consider to be the [[fundamentalism|fundamental]] aspects of [[Mormonism]]. Most often, Mormon fundamentalism represents a break from the brand of Mormonism practiced by [[The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]] (LDS Church), and a return to Mormon doctrines and practices which adherents believe the LDS Church has wrongly abandoned, such as [[plural marriage]], the [[Law of Consecration]], the [[Adam-God theory]], [[blood atonement]], the [[Patriarchal Priesthood]], elements of the Mormon [[Endowment (Mormonism)|Endowment]] ritual, and often the [[Blacks and Mormonism|exclusion of Blacks]] from the [[priesthood (Mormonism)|priesthood]]. Mormon fundamentalists have formed numerous sects, many of which have established small, cohesive, and isolated communities in areas of the [[Western United States]].
=== Islamic views ===
[[Muslims]] believe that their religion was revealed by God ([[Allah]] in Arabic) to [[Muhammad]], the prophet of [[Islam]]. However, the Muslims brand of conservatism which is generally termed [[Islamic fundamentalism]] encompasses all the following:
* It describes the beliefs of traditional Muslim
|
totle himself would have labelled analytics. The term logic he reserved to mean dialectics. Most of Aristotle's work is probably not in its original form, since it was most likely edited by students and later lecturers. The logical works of Aristotle were compiled into six books at about the time of [[Christ]]:
#''Categories''
#''On Interpretation''
#''Prior Analytics''
#''Posterior Analytics''
#''Topics''
#''On Sophistical Refutations''
The order of the books (or the teachings from which they are composed) is not certain, but this list was derived from analysis of Aristotle's writings. There is one volume of Aristotle's concerning logic not found in the ''Organon'', namely the fourth book of ''Metaphysics.'' (Boche&#324;ski, 1951).
====Modal logic====
Aristotle is also the creator of [[syllogism]]s with modalities ([[modal logic]]). The word modal refers to the word 'modes', explaining the fact that modal logic deals with the modes of [[truth]]. Aristotle introduced the qualification of 'necessary' and 'possible' premises. He constructed a logic which helped in the evaluation of truth but which was very difficult to interpret. (Rose, 1968).
===Science===
[[Image:Francesco Hayez 001.jpg|thumb|left|Aristotle, by Francesco Hayez]]
Aristotelian discussions about science had only been qualitative, not quantitative. By the modern definition of the term, Aristotelian philosophy was not science, as this [[worldview]] did not attempt to probe how the world actually worked through [[experiment]]. For example, in his book ''[[History of Animals|The history of animals]]'' he claimed that human males have more teeth than females. Had he only made some observations, he would have discovered that this claim is false.
Rather, based on what one's senses told one, Aristotelian philosophy then depended upon the assumption that man's mind could elucidate all the laws of the universe, based on simple observation (without experimentation) through [[reason]] alone.
One of the reasons for this was that Aristotle held that physics was about changing objects with a reality of their own, whereas mathematics was about unchanging objects without a reality of their own. In this philosophy, he could not imagine that there was a relationship between them.
In contrast, today's "science" assumes that thinking alone often leads people astray, and therefore one must compare one's ideas to the actual world through experimentation; only then can one see if one's ideas are based in reality. This position is known as [[empiricism]] or the [[scientific method]].
Although Aristotle initiated an important step in the history of scientific method by founding logic as a formal science, he also left behind a trail of bankrupt cosmology that we may discern in selections of the metaphysics. His cosmology would gain much acceptance up until the 1500’s, where Copernicus and Galileo began to figure out that Europe is not the center of the universe. From the 3rd century to the 1500’s, the dominant view held that the earth was the center of the universe: at this late date it is uncontroversial that the earth is not even the center of our own solar system.
In spite of Aristotle’s bogus account of the planets and sun, he is a vital character in the history of metaphysics, both in terms of the etymology of the word, as well as a figure within metaphysics as a discipline. Dubbed “the stuff next to the physics.” by Andronicus of Rhodes, “metaphysics” became connected to the idea of “beyond the physical” by Simplicius, a commentator on Aristotle. Andronicus had published Aristotle’s works sometime around 43-20 BC; so initially the etymology of metaphysics was simply that which is “next to the physics.”
==Aristotle's metaphysics==
===[[Causality]]===
[[Aristole]] is the first who saw that "All causes of things are beginnings; that we have scientific knowledge when we know the cause; that to know a thing's existence is to know the reason for its existence."{{fact}} Setting the guidelines for all the subsequent causal theories, by specifying the number, nature, principles, elements, varieties, order, and modes of causation, Aristotle's account of the causes of things is the most comprehensive theory up to now. According to Aristotle's theory, all the causes fall into several senses, the total number of which amounts to the ways the question 'why' may be answered; namely, by reference to the matter or the ''substratum''; the ''essence'', the pattern, the form, or the structure; to the primary moving ''change'' or the agent and its action; and to the goal, the plan, the ''end'', or the good. Consequently, the major kinds of causes come under the following divisions:
The [[Material Cause]] is that from which a thing comes into existence as from its parts, constituents, substratum or materials. This reduces the explanation of causes to the parts (factors, elements, constituents, ingredients) forming the whole (system, structure, compound, complex, composite, or combination) (the part-whole causation).
The [[Formal Cause]] tells us what a thing is, that any thing is determined by the definition, form, pattern, essence, whole, synthesis, or archetype. It embraces the account of causes in terms of fundamental principles or general laws, as the whole (macrostructure) is the cause of its parts (the whole-part causation).
The [[Efficient Cause]] is that from which the change or the ending of the change first starts. It identifies 'what makes of what is made and what causes change of what is changed' and so suggests all sorts of agents, nonliving or living, acting as the sources of change or movement or rest. Representing the current understanding of causality as the relation of cause and effect, this covers the modern definitions of "cause" as either the agent or agency or particular events or states of affairs.
The [[Final Cause]] is that for the sake of which a thing exists or is done, including both purposeful and instrumental actions and activities. The final cause or telos is the purpose or end that something is supposed to serve, or it is that from which and that to which the change is. This also covers modern ideas of mental causation involving such psychological causes as volition, need, motivation, or motives, rational, irrational, ethical, all that gives purpose to behavior.
Additionally, things can be causes of one another, causing each other reciprocally, as hard work causes fitness and vice versa, although not in the same way or function, the one is as the beginning of change, the other as the goal. [Thus Aristotle first suggested a reciprocal or circular causality as a relation of mutual dependence or action or influence of cause and effect.] Also, Aristotle indicated that the same thing can be the cause of contrary effects, its presence and absent may result in different outcomes.
Besides, Aristotle marked two modes of causation: proper (prior) causation and accidental (chance) causation. All causes, proper and incidental, can be spoken as potential or as actual, particular or generic. The same language refers to the effects of causes, so that generic effects assigned to generic causes, particular effects to particular causes, operating causes to actual effects. Essentiallly, causality does not suggest a temporal relation between the cause and the effect
All further investigations of causality will be consisting in imposing the favorite hierarchies on the order causes, like as final > efficient> material > formal (Aquinas), or in restricting all causality to the material and efficient causes or to the efficient causality (deterministic or chance) or just to regular sequences and correlations of natural phenomena (the natural sciences describing how things happen instead of explaining the whys and wherefores).
===Chance and Spontaneity===
Spontaneity and chance are causes of effects. Chance as an incidental cause lies in the realm of accidental things. It is "from what is spontaneous" (but note that what is spontaneous does not come from chance). For a better understanding of Aristotle's conception of "chance" it might be better to think of "coincidence": Something takes place by chance if a person sets out with the intent of having one thing take place, but with the result of another thing (not intended) taking place. For example: A person seeks donations. That person may find another person willing to donate a substantial sum. However, if the person seeking the donations met the person donating, not for the purpose of collecting donations, but for some other purpose, Aristotle would call the collecting of the donation by that particular donator a result of chance. It must be unusual that something happens by chance. In other words, if something happens all or most of the time, we cannot say that it is by chance.
However, chance can only apply to human beings, it is in the sphere of moral actions. According to Aristotle, chance must involve choice (and thus deliberation), and only humans are capable of deliberation and choice. "What is not capable of action cannot do anything by chance" (Physics, 2.6).
===The Five Elements===
*'''Fire''' which is hot and dry.
*'''Earth''' which is cold and dry.
*'''Air''' which is hot and wet.
*'''Water''' which is cold and wet.
*'''Aether''' which is the divine substance that makes up the heavens
These four elements interchange (i.e. Fire &#x2194; Air &#x2194; Water &#x2194; Earth etc.), while aether is on its own. The Sun keeps this cycle going. God keeps the Sun going (and thus the Sun is eternal).
== Aristotle's ethics ==
{{main|Aristotelian ethics}}
Although Aristotle wrote several works on [[ethics]], the major one was the ''[[Nicomachean Ethics]]'', which is considered one of Aristotle's greatest works; it discusses [[virtue]]s. The ten books which comprise it are based on notes from his lectures at the
|
esolution of September 15, 1952. It called for Eritrea and Ethiopia to be linked through a loose federal structure under the sovereignty of the emperor. Eritrea was to have its own administrative and judicial structure, its own flag, and control over its domestic affairs, including police, local administration, and taxation. The federal government, which for all intents and purposes was the existing imperial government, was to control foreign affairs (including commerce), defense, finance, and transportation. As a result of exposure to Italian and especially British methods of governance and political life, Eritreans had developed a distinct sense of cultural identity and superiority vis-à-vis Ethiopians, and a desire for political freedoms alien to Ethiopian political tradition. From the start of the federation, however, Haile Selassie attempted to undercut Eritrea’s independent status, a policy that alienated many Eritreans. The emperor pressured Eritrea’s elected chief executive to resign, made Amharic the official language in place of Arabic and Tigrinya, terminated the use of the Eritrean flag, imposed censorship, and moved many businesses out of Eritrea. Finally, in 1962 Haile Selassie pressured the Eritrean Assembly to abolish the federation and return to the imperial Ethiopian fold, much to the dismay of those in Eritrea who favored a more liberal political order.
In the earlier decades, Ethiopia had expanded very much to south and east, becoming inclusive of much [[Galla]], and other tribes than traditionally christian highlanders, as well as several other languages not related to Ethiopian semitic. Ethiopia was clearly then an empire of a variety of languages and ethnicities, now most of them differing very much from Eritreans. The ethnicities with whom Eritreans had most in common (i.e, certain tribes in northern Ethiopia) were a minority in the country, and held no longer any significant power in the empire after [[Shewa]]ns had gained the central government as result of [[Menelek II]]'s accession. These circumstances may explain some of the reasons why Eritreans desired independence rather than becoming a part of Ethiopian empire.
Had Tigrinyans of northern Ethiopia any say in the matter, they possibly would also have preferred independence for themselves.
== Fight for independence ==
Militant opposition to the incorporation of Eritrea into Ethiopia had begun in [[1958]] with the founding of the [[Eritrean Liberation Movement]] (ELM), an organization made up mainly of students, intellectuals, and urban wage laborers. The ELM engaged in clandestine political activities intended to cultivate resistance to the centralizing policies of the imperial state. By 1962, however, the ELM had been discovered and destroyed by imperial authorities.
In [[1962]], Emperor [[Haile Selassie]] unilaterally dissolved the Eritrean parliament and annexed the country, sparking the Eritrean fight for independence. This fight continued after Haile Sellassie was ousted in a coup in [[1974]]. The new Ethiopian Government, called the [[Derg]], was a [[Marxist]] military [[junta]] led by [[strongman (political)|strongman]] [[Mengistu Haile Mariam]].
During the [[1960s]], the Eritrean independence struggle was led by the [[Eritrean Liberation Front]] (ELF). In 1960 Eritrean exiles in [[Cairo]] founded the Eritrean Liberation Front. In contrast to the ELM, from the outset the ELF was bent on waging armed struggle on behalf of Eritrean independence. The ELF was composed mainly of Eritrean Muslims from the rural lowlands on the western edge of the territory. In 1961 the ELF's political character was vague, but radical Arab states such as [[Syria]] and [[Iraq]] sympathized with Eritrea as a predominantly Muslim region struggling to escape oppression and imperial domination. These two countries therefore supplied military and financial assistance to the ELF.
The ELF initiated military operations in 1961 and intensified its activities in response to the dissolution of the federation in 1962. By [[1967]] the ELF had gained considerable support among peasants, particularly in Eritrea's north and west, and around the port city of [[Massawa]]. Haile Selassie attempted to calm the growing unrest by visiting Eritrea and assuring its inhabitants that they would be treated as equals under the new arrangements. Although he doled out offices, money, and titles in early 1967 in the hope of co-opting would-be Eritrean opponents, the resistance persisted.
By 1971 ELF activity had become enough of a threat that the emperor had declared [[martial law]] in Eritrea and had deployed roughly half his army to contain the struggle. Internal disputes over strategy and tactics, however, eventually led to the ELF's fragmentation and the founding in 1972 of another group, the [[Eritrean People's Liberation Front]] (EPLF). The leadership of this multiethnic movement came to be dominated by leftist, Christian dissidents who spoke Tigrinya, Eritrea's predominant language. Sporadic armed conflict ensued between the two groups from 1972 to 1974, even as they fought Ethiopian forces. By the late [[1970s]], the EPLF had become the dominant armed Eritrean group fighting against the Ethiopian Government, and [[Isaias Afewerki]] had emerged as its leader. Much of the material used to combat Ethiopia was captured from the Ethiopian Army.
By [[1977]], the EPLF was poised to drive the Ethiopians out of Eritrea. That same year, however, a massive airlift of [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] arms to Ethiopia enabled the Ethiopian Army to regain the initiative and forced the EPLF to retreat to the bush. Between [[1978]] and [[1986]], the Derg launched eight major offensives against the independence movement -- all failed. In [[1988]], the EPLF captured [[Afabet]], headquarters of the Ethiopian Army in northeastern Eritrea, prompting the Ethiopian Army to withdraw from its garrisons in Eritrea's western lowlands. EPLF fighters then moved into position around [[Keren]], Eritrea's second-largest city. Meanwhile, other dissident movements were making headway throughout Ethiopia. At the end of the [[1980s]], the Soviet Union informed Mengistu that it would not be renewing its defense and cooperation agreement. With the withdrawal of Soviet support and supplies, the Ethiopian Army's morale plummeted, and the EPLF -- along with other Ethiopian rebel forces -- began to advance on Ethiopian positions.
== Establishing an independent country ==
The [[United States]] played a facilitative role in the peace talks in [[Washington, DC|Washington]] during the months leading up to the May [[1991]] fall of the Mengistu regime. In mid-May, Mengistu resigned as head of the Ethiopian Government and went into exile in [[Zimbabwe]], leaving a caretaker government in [[Addis Ababa]]. Having defeated the Ethiopian forces in Eritrea, EPLF troops took control of their homeland. Later that month, the United States chaired talks in [[London]] to formalize the end of the war. These talks were attended by the four major combatant groups, including the EPLF.
A high-level U.S. delegation also was present in Addis Ababa for the July 1-5, 1991 conference that established a transitional government in Ethiopia. The EPLF attended the July conference as an observer and held talks with the new transitional government regarding Eritrea's relationship to Ethiopia. The outcome of those talks was an agreement in which the Ethiopians recognized the right of the Eritreans to hold a referendum on independence.
Although some EPLF cadres at one time espoused a Marxist ideology, Soviet support for Mengistu had cooled their ardor. The fall of [[communist]] regimes in the former Soviet Union and the [[Eastern Bloc]] convinced them it was a failed system. The EPLF now says it is committed to establishing a democratic form of government and a free-market economy in Eritrea. The United States agreed to provide assistance to both Ethiopia and Eritrea, conditional on continued progress toward democracy and human rights.
In May 1991, the EPLF established the Provisional Government of Eritrea (PGE) to administer Eritrean affairs until a referendum was held on independence and a permanent government established. EPLF leader Isaias became the head of the PGE, and the EPLF Central Committee served as its legislative body.
On April 23-25, [[1993]], Eritreans voted overwhelmingly for independence from Ethiopia in a UN-monitored free and fair referendum. The Eritrean authorities declared Eritrea an independent state on [[April 27]]. The government was reorganized and after a national, freely contested election, the National Assembly, which chose Isaias as President of the PGE, was expanded to include both EPLF and non-EPLF members. The EPLF reorganized itself as a political party, the [[People's Front for Democracy and Justice]] (PFDJ), and is now in the process of drafting a new constitution and setting up a permanent government.
== After independence ==
In July 1996 the [[Eritrean Constitution]] was adopted.
In 1998, a border dispute with Ethiopia led to the [[Eritrean-Ethiopian War]], a which killed thousands of soldiers from both countries and left Eritrea with significant economic and social stresses, including massive population displacement, reduced economic development, and one of Africa's more severe [[land mine|landmine]] problems. The border war ended in [[2002]] with a negotiated agreement known as the [[Algiers Agreement]]. One of the terms of the agreement was the establishment of a UN peacekeeping operation, known as the [[United Nations Mission in Ethiopia and Eritrea]] (UNMEE); over 4,000 UN peacekeepers remain as of August 2004. Another term of the Algiers agreement was the final demarcation of the disputed border area between Eritrea and Ethiopia. After extensive study, an independent, UN-associated Eritrean-Ethiopian Boundary Commission (EEBC) issued a final border ruling in 2003, but its decision was
|
[[Scottish Borders]]
|Lieutenancy= [[Roxburgh, Ettrick and Lauderdale]]
|Traditional= [[Roxburghshire]]
|Westminster= [[Berwickshire, Roxburgh and Selkirk (UK Parliament constituency)|Berwickshire, Roxburgh and Selkirk]]
|Holyrood= [[Roxburgh and Berwickshire]]
|PostalTown= HAWICK
|PostCode= [[TD9]]
|DiallingCode= 01450
|Police= [[Lothian and Borders Police]]
}}
'''Hawick''' (pronounced "hoick") is a town in the [[Scottish Borders]] in the south east of [[Scotland]]. It is most well-known for its annual [[Common Riding]], which also commemorates a victory of local youths over an [[England|English]] raiding party in [[1514]].
It is one of the furthest towns from the sea in Scotland, in the heart of Teviotdale and the largest town in the former county of Roxburghshire. It is also known for quality knitwear production and as the home of [[Hawick RFC|Hawick Rugby Football Club]], one of the word's oldest and most famous sides.
People from Hawick call themselves "Teri"s, after a traditional song which includes the line "Teribus y Teriodin", which may refer to Anglo Saxon gods.
Hawick lies in the valley of the Teviot at the point the River Slitrig joins it. The A7 [[Edinburgh]] to [[Carlisle]] road passes through the town, with main roads also leading to [[Kelso, Scotland|Kelso]] and [[Newcastle-upon-Tyne|Newcastle]].
The town lost its rail service in 1969, but there is a regular bus service to the railway station at Carlisle, 50 miles away. The nearest airports are at Edinburgh and Newcastle.
Rivalry between the small Border towns is generally played out on the [[rugby union|Rugby]] field and the comical historical antagonism continues to this day, Hawick's main rival being the similarly-sized town of [[Galashiels]].
==Ba game ==
The long forgotten Hawick Ba game was played here by the 'uppies' and the 'doonies' on the first Monday after the new moon in the month of February. The river of the town formed an important part of the pitch. Although the Ba game is no longer played at Hawick, it is still played at nearby [[Jedburgh]].<BR>
*[http://www.ettrickgraphics.com/hawick12.htm Picture of the ba game at Hawick dated 1904]
*[http://web5.infotrac.galegroup.com/itw/infomark/100/718/79459836w5/purl=rc1_TTDA_0_CS168762971&dyn=17!xrn_1_0_CS168762971&hst_1?sw_aep=free4_tda Letter to the Editor of 'The Times' on the Hawick Ba game (1928)]
==See also==
*[[Bill McLaren]]
*[[Hawick RFC|Hawick Rugby Football Club]]
*[[Hawick Waverley Football Club]]
==References==
* {{Web reference|URL=http://www.scotborders.gov.uk/outabout/aboutborders/townsize/index.html|title=Census 2001|work=Population figures|date=August 17|year=2005}}
==External links==
*[http://www.hawick-news.co.uk/ Hawick News]
*[http://legionafc.mysite.wanadoo-members.co.uk/ Hawick Legion F.C.]
*[http://www.teribus.com/ Hawick Common Riding Website]
*[http://www.visitscotland.com/library/commonriding Visit Scotland's page]
*[http://www.hawickcallantsclub.co.uk/commonriding.htm Hawick Callants Club]
*[http://www.visitscotland.com/library/hawickselkirkridings Visit Scotland]
[[Category:Towns in the Scottish Borders]]
[[no:Hawick]]
[[sco:Hawick]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Hatfield, Hertfordshire</title>
<id>13985</id>
<revision>
<id>41658630</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T21:33:59Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>86.129.92.7</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{infobox England place with map|
|Map= Hatfield - Hertfordshire dot.png
|Place= Hatfield
|Population= 27,883 ([[United Kingdom Census 2001|2001]]) [http://www.hertsdirect.org/infobase/docs/pdfstore/tabKS01sett.pdf]
|District= [[Welwyn Hatfield]]
|County= [[Hertfordshire]]
|Region= [[East of England]]
|Ceremonial= [[Hertfordshire]]
|Traditional= [[Hertfordshire]]
|Constituency= [[Welwyn Hatfield (UK Parliament constituency)|Welwyn Hatfield]]
|PostalTown= HATFIELD
|PostCode= AL9 (Old Hatfield)<br/>AL10 (Modern side)
|Police=
|DiallingCode= 01707
|GridReference= TL234086
|Euro= [[East of England (European Parliament constituency)|East of England]]
}}
[[image:arms-hatfield.jpg|thumb|right|Arms of the former Hatfield Rural District Council]]
'''Hatfield''', originally '''Bishop's Hatfield''', is a town in the [[Welwyn Hatfield]] district of [[Hertfordshire]], in the south of [[England]]. It forms part of the [[Welwyn Hatfield (UK Parliament constituency)|Welwyn Hatfield constituency]] which also includes [[Welwyn Garden City]], and has been twinned with the [[The Netherlands|Dutch]] port town of [[Zierikzee]] since 1953. Its [[Member of Parliament|MP]] is [[Grant Shapps]] ([[Conservative Party (UK)|Con.]]).
== Modern development ==
The town is the site of the original campus of [[Hatfield Polytechnic]], which has since become the [[University of Hertfordshire]]. It is also the location of the first [[de Havilland]] aircraft factory with an associated airfield where [[airliner]]s such as the [[de Havilland Dove|Dove]], [[de Havilland Heron|Heron]], [[de Havilland Comet|Comet]], [[de Havilland Trident|Trident]] and [[BAe 146|HS146]] were built. Production of the latter type was transferred to [[Woodford, Cheshire, England|Woodford]] in [[Cheshire]] during the [[1990s]] by which time it was known as the [[British Aerospace]] 146 "[[Whisperjet]]". An early [[bizjet]], the [[BAe 125|DH125]], was also developed here although mass production took place at [[Hawarden]] in [[Cheshire]]. Some components of wind [[turbine]]s were also developed here prior to the airfield's closure.
Until the early [[1990s]] [[British Aerospace]] maintained a substantial presence within the town. Their vacated premises and surrounding grounds served as a film set for some of the night-time scenes of the [[BBC]]/[[Home Box Office|HBO]] television drama ''[[Band of Brothers]]'', which followed on from significant use of the site in the filming of the [[Steven Spielberg]] movie ''[[Saving Private Ryan]]''. Subsequently, a large section of the land was purchased by the [[University of Hertfordshire]] and the £120 million [[University of Hertfordshire|de Havilland Campus]], incorperating a £15 million Sports Village, was opened in September [[2003]]. The university has closed its sites at [[Watford]] and [[Hertford]], and faculties situated there have been relocated to the de Havilland Campus. The university maintains its campus at [[St Albans]], which houses law students.
In addition to the new university campus, part of the former BAe land will also be the site of a £500 million new hospital to replace the [[Queen Elizabeth II hospital]] in [[Welwyn Garden City|Welwyn]]. The university is looking to expand its [[Nursing]] and [[Physiotherapy]] departments to accommodate and utilise the extra facilities available to it. Redevelopment of Hatfield town centre is also being planned. This will involve the construction 275 flats and retail units and is forecast to finish by the end of 2009. [http://www.welhat.gov.uk/council/default.asp?step=2&id=69 |Welwyn Hatfield Council]. Plans are also under way for the regeneration of Hatfield Town Centre, and Hatfield Town Centre Redevelopment has now been granted planning permission subject to a section 106 legal agreement.
== Hatfield rail crash ==
[[Image:07-11-05 Hatfield 50.jpg|thumb|right|The memorial garden created alongside the [[East Coast Main Line]] for those who died in the [[Hatfield rail crash]].]]
The area contains the site of a fatal [[Hatfield rail crash|rail crash]] on [[October 17]], [[2000]]. The incident brought track maintenance deficiencies to public attention, to the severe detriment of [[Railtrack]], the company established to manage rail infrastructure, and set in motion the events that led to its insolvency. It is five miles north of [[Potters Bar]], scene of a later fatal [[Potters Bar rail crash|train derailment]].
== Culture and recreation ==
Hatfield has one swimming pool, two sports/leisure centers, one nine-screen cinema, a factory outlet shopping center called [[The Galleria]], situated above the A1(M), and two supermarkets - ASDA in the town centre and Tesco at the northern end of the town. Hatfield is most famous for being the location of [[Hatfield House]].
==Places of Interest==
This is only related to Hatfield. As mentioned above, Hatfield House is located here. There is also a local history museum located at [[Mill Green]], just off the A414-A1000 junction. Also housed at Mill Green is a splendid water mill which still produces flour which can be bought there. There is also a café. The water mill is one of a very few in [[Hertfordshire]].
Of Hammond Lane there are nice walks around Symondshyde Great Wood.
[http://www.hatfield-herts.gov.uk/index.php Hatfield Town Council website].
== Nearby towns and villages ==
* [[Welwyn Garden City]]
* [[St Albans]]
* [[London Colney]]
* [[Welham Green]]
* [[Brookmans Park]]
* [[Potters Bar]]
* [[Colney Heath]]
* [[Lemsford]]
== Namesakes ==
A number of places named after Hatfield can be found around the world:
* [[Hatfield, Massachusetts]], [[United States|United States of America]]
* [[Hatfield, Pretoria]], [[South Africa]] - an affluent suburb on the east side of the city, containing a number of consulates, embassies and the [[University of Pretoria]].
* [[Hatfield, South Yorkshire]]
For a full list and etymology of the name, see [[Hatfield]].
The British [[1970s]] rock band [[Hatfield and the North]] was named after the first road sign on the A1 motorway going North from London. [[Babe Ruth (band)|Babe Ruth]], a 1970s rock band came from Hatfield.
Few people know this but Hatfield might be where [[Terry Leahy]], presid
|
h higher than those of conventional D + T fusion, so it is unlikely that this type of fusion will be achieved before the problems with conventional fusion are worked out.
==Cryogenics==
Helium-3 is used in [[cryogenics]] to achieve temperatures as low as a few thousandths of a [[Kelvin]]; it was discovered by the Australian nuclear physicist [[Mark Oliphant]] while based at [[University of Cambridge|Cambridge University]]'s [[Cavendish Laboratory]].
An important property of helium-3, which distinguishes it from the more common helium-4, is that its nucleus is a [[fermion]] since it contains an odd number of particles. At low temperatures (around 4.2K), helium-4 undergoes a [[phase transition]] into a [[superfluid]] [[phase (matter)|phase]] that can be roughly understood as a type of [[Bose-Einstein condensate | Bose Einstein condensation]]. Such a mechanism is not available for helium-3 atoms, which are fermions. However, it was widely speculated that helium-3 could also become a superfluid at much lower temperatures, if the atoms formed up into ''pairs'' analogous to the [[Cooper pair]]s in the [[BCS theory]] of [[superconductivity]]. During the [[1970s]], [[David Morris Lee]], [[Douglas Osheroff]], and [[Robert Coleman Richardson]] showed that helium-3 indeed becomes a superfluid at around 2 millikelvins. They were awarded the [[1996]] [[Nobel Prize in Physics]] for their discovery. [[Anthony James Leggett|Tony Leggett]] won the [[2003]] Nobel Prize in Physics for his work on refining our understanding of the superfluid phase of helium-3.
== Lunar supplies ==
The possibility that helium-3 may be widely found on the Moon has led to discussions ([http://slashdot.org/article.pl?sid=04/11/27/1931205&from=rss], [http://www.news.com.au/story/0,10117,17943650-23109,00.html]) as to whether it could be used as an energy source. Yet to be determined is the exact quantity of helium-3 which the solar wind traps and deposits on the lunar surface. It may be so scarce as to be beneath the point of economic recovery. The ignition temperature for helium-3 is ten times higher than conventional fusion, which itself has yet to be achieved at the break-even point. Accordingly, helium-3 seems less likely than other reactants for use in fusion power generation, though possibly not over the long term.
{{Isotope|element=[[Helium]]
|lighter=[[Diproton]]
|heavier=[[Helium-4]]
|before=[[Hydrogen-3]]<br />[[Lithium-4]]
|after=Stable
}}
==External links==
*[http://www.space.com/scienceastronomy/helium3_000630.html Moon's Helium-3 Could Power Earth]
*[http://www.mines.edu/research/srr/2001abstracts/vancleve.PDF Helium-3 Mining Aerostats in the Atmosphere of Uranus (pdf)]
*[http://nobelprize.org/physics/laureates/2003/presentation-speech.html The Nobel Prize in Physics 2003, presentation speech]
*[http://ltl.tkk.fi/research/theory/he3.html Superfluid Helium-3]
[[Category:Isotopes]]
[[Category:Fuels]]
[[Category:Space exploration]]
[[fr:Hélium-3]]
[[sv:Helium-3]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Hamiltonian (quantum mechanics)</title>
<id>14381</id>
<revision>
<id>41890546</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T11:43:26Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Andriy.vynogradov</username>
<id>225418</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* The quantum Hamiltonian */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">== The quantum Hamiltonian ==
As explained in the article [[mathematical formulation of quantum mechanics]], the physical state of a system may be characterized as a vector in an abstract [[Hilbert space]] (or, in the case of [[Density state|ensembles]], as a countable sequence of vectors weighted by probabilities). Physically observable quantities are described by [[self-adjoint operator|self-adjoint operators]] acting on these vectors.
The quantum Hamiltonian ''H'' is the observable corresponding to the total energy of the system. Mathematically speaking, it is a densely defined self-adjoint operator.
The eigenkets ([[eigenvectors]]) of ''H'', denoted
<math>\left| a \right\rang</math>
(using Dirac [[Bra-ket]] notation), provide an [[orthonormal]] [[basis (linear algebra)|basis]] for the Hilbert space. The [[Spectrum of an operator|spectrum]] of allowed energy levels of the system is given by the set of [[eigenvalue]]s, denoted {''E''<sub>a</sub>}, solving the equation:
:<math> H \left| a \right\rangle = E_a \left| a \right\rangle</math>.
Since ''H'' is a [[Hermitian operator]], the energy is always a [[real number]].
Depending on the Hilbert space of the system, the energy spectrum may be either discrete or continuous. In fact, certain systems have a continuous energy spectrum in one range of energies and a discrete spectrum in another range. An example of such a system is the finite potential well, which admits bound states with discrete negative energies and free states with continuous positive energies.
The Hamiltonian generates the [[time]] evolution of quantum states. If <math>\left| \psi (t) \right\rangle</math> is the state of the system at time ''t'', then
:<math> H \left| \psi (t) \right\rangle = \mathrm{i} \hbar {\partial\over\partial t} \left| \psi (t) \right\rangle</math>.
where <math>\hbar</math> is [[Planck's constant|h-bar]]. This equation is known as the [[Schrödinger equation]]. (It takes the same form as the [[Hamilton-Jacobi equation]], which is one of the reasons ''H'' is also called the Hamiltonian.) Given the state at some initial time (''t'' = 0), we can integrate it to obtain the state at any subsequent time. In particular, if ''H'' is independent of time, then
:<math> \left| \psi (t) \right\rangle = \exp\left(-{\mathrm{i}Ht \over \hbar}\right) \left| \psi (0) \right\rangle</math>.
where the exponential operator on the right hand side is defined by the usual [[exponential function|series]]. This can be shown to be a [[unitary operator]], and is a common form of the ''time evolution operator'' (also called the ''propagator'').
== Energy eigenket degeneracy, symmetry, and conservation laws ==
In many systems, two or more energy eigenstates have the same energy. A simple example of this is a free particle, whose energy eigenstates have wavefunctions that are propagating plane waves. The energy of each of these plane waves is inversely proportional to the square of its [[wavelength]]. A wave propagating in the ''x'' direction is a different state from one propagating in the ''y'' direction, but if they have the same wavelength, then their energies will be the same. When this happens, the states are said to be ''degenerate''.
It turns out that degeneracy occurs whenever a nontrivial [[Unitary matrix|unitary operator]] ''U'' [[commutation relation|commutes]] with the Hamiltonian. To see this, suppose that |a> is an energy eigenket. Then ''U''|a> is an energy eigenket with the same eigenvalue, since
:<math>UH |a\rangle = U E_a|a\rangle = E_a (U|a\rangle) = H \; (U|a\rangle). </math>
Since ''U'' is nontrivial, at least one pair of <math>|a\rang</math> and <math>U|a\rang</math> must represent distinct states. Therefore, ''H'' has at least one pair of degenerate energy eigenkets. In the case of the free particle, the unitary operator which produces the symmetry is the [[rotation operator]], which rotates the wavefunctions by some angle while otherwise preserving their shape.
The existence of a symmetry operator implies the existence of a [[conservation law|conserved]] observable. Let ''G'' be the Hermitian generator of ''U'':
:<math> U = I - \mathrm{i} \epsilon G + O(\epsilon^2) </math>
It is straightforward to show that if ''U'' commutes with ''H'', then so does ''G'':
:<math> [H, G] = 0 </math>
Therefore,
:<math>
\frac{\part}{\part t} \langle\psi(t)|G|\psi(t)\rangle
= \frac{1}{\mathrm{i}\hbar} \langle\psi(t)|[G,H]|\psi(t)\rangle
= 0
</math>
In obtaining this result, we have used the Schrödinger equation, as well as its [[bra-ket notation|dual]],
:<math> \langle\psi (t)|H = - \mathrm{i} \hbar {\partial\over\partial t} \langle\psi(t)|</math>.
Thus, the [[expected value]] of the observable ''G'' is conserved for any state of the system. In the case of the free particle, the conserved quantity is the [[angular momentum]].
== Hamilton's equations ==
Hamilton's equations in classical [[Hamiltonian mechanics]] have a direct analogy in quantum mechanics. Suppose we have a set of basis states <math>\left\{\left| n \right\rangle\right\}</math>, which need not necessarily be eigenstates of the energy. For simplicity, we assume that they are discrete, and that they are orthonormal, i.e.,
:<math> \langle n' | n \rangle = \delta_{nn'} </math>
Note that these basis states are assumed to be independent of time. We will assume that the Hamiltonian is also independent of time.
The instantaneous state of the system at time ''t'', <math>\left| \psi\left(t\right) \right\rangle</math>, can be expanded in terms of these basis states:
:<math> |\psi (t)\rangle = \sum_{n} a_n(t) |n\rangle </math>
where
:<math> a_n(t) = \langle n | \psi(t) \rangle </math>
The coefficients ''a<sub>n</sub>(t)'' are [[complex number|complex]] variables. We can treat them as coordinates which specify the state of the system, like the position and momentum coordinates which specify a classical system. Like classical coordinates, they are generally not constant in time, and their time dependence gives rise to the time dependence of the system as a whole.
The expectation value of the Hamiltonian of this state, which is also the mean energy, is
:<math> \langle H(t) \rangle \equiv \langle\psi(t)|H|\psi(t)\rangle
= \sum_{nn'} a_{n'}^* a_n \langle n'|H|n \rangle </math>
where the last step was obtained by e
|
ere deficits. The typical seizures are characterized by sudden flexor and extensor spasms of head, trunk, and extremities. The key EEG finding in these patients is a [[hypsarrythmia]], or a high-voltage slow wave with multifocal spikes. The first line treatment for these patients is [[adrenocorticotropic hormone]] ([[ACTH]] or [[corticotropin]]) since traditional antiepileptic drugs generally cannot adequately control seizure activity. [[Vigabatrin]] is also used in many countries, and is particularly effective when tuberous sclerosis is the cause of seizures.
* ''[[Childhood absence epilepsy]]'' affects children between the ages of 4 and 12 years of age. These patients have recurrent absence seizures that can occur hundreds of times a day. On EEG, one finds the stereotyped generalized 3 Hz spike and wave discharges. A subset of these patients will also develop generalized tonic-clonic seizures. This condition carries a fairly good prognosis in that these children do not usually show cognitive decline or neurological deficits. First line treatment for pure absence seizures is [[ethosuximide]]. If patients do not respond or have mixed seizures along with their absence seizures, then [[valproic acid]] can be used.
* ''[[Benign focal epilepsy of childhood]] ([[Benign Rolandic epilepsy]])'' begins in children between the ages of 4 and 13 years. Apart from their seizure disorder, these patients are otherwise normal. Seizures occur at night and sleep promotes secondary generalization. As such, parents only report generalized seizures because focal manifestations are often subtle and go unnoticed. Between seizures, patients have a stereotyped EEG pattern that includes di- or triphasic sharp waves over the central-midtemporal (Rolandic) regions. Prognosis is uniformly good with seizures disappearing by adolescence. [[Carbamazepine]] is the first line treatment, though [[phenytoin]] and [[phenobarbital]] have also been used with some efficacy.
* ''[[Juvenile myoclonic epilepsy]]'' (JME) begins in patients aged 8 to 20 years. These patients have normal IQ and are otherwise neurologically intact. There is usually a family history of similar seizures. The seizures are morning myoclonic jerks often with generalized tonic-clonic seizures that occur just after waking. EEG readings reveal generalized spikes with 4-6 Hz spike wave discharges and multiple spike discharges. Interestingly, thse patients are often first diagnosed when they have their first generalized tonic-clonic seizure later in life when they experience sleep deprivation (e.g., freshman year in college after staying up late to study for exams). [[Valproic acid]] is the first line treatment. This condition is lifelong, thus patients must be taught appropriate sleep hygiene to prevent generalized tonic-clonic seizures.
* ''[[Temporal lobe epilepsy]]'' is the most common epilepsy of adults. In most cases, the epileptogenic region is found in the mesial temporal structures (e.g., the hippocampus, amygdala, and parahippocampal gyrus). Seizures begin in late childhood and adolescence. There is an association with febrile seizures in childhood, and some studies have shown herpes simplex virus (HSV) DNA in these regions, suggesting that perhaps this epilepsy has an infectious etiology. Most of these patients have complex partial seizures often preceded by an [[Aura_(symptom)|aura]].
* ''[[Frontal lobe epilepsy]]''
* ''[[Lennox-Gastaut syndrome]]''
==Treatment==
Epilepsy is usually treated with [[medication]] prescribed by a [[physician]]; [[primary care]]givers, [[neurologist]]s, and [[neurosurgeon]]s all frequently care for people with epilepsy. In some cases the implantation of a stimulator of the [[vagus nerve]], or a special diet can be helpful. Neurosurgical operations for epilepsy can be [[palliative]], reducing the frequency or severity of seizures; or, in some patients, an operation can be curative.
===Responding to a seizure===
In most cases, the proper emergency response to a generalized tonic-clonic epileptic seizure is simply to prevent the patient from self-injury by moving him or her away from sharp edges, placing something soft beneath the [[head (anatomy)|head]], and carefully rolling the person onto his or her side to avoid [[asphyxiation]]. Should the person regurgitate, the material should be allowed to drip out the side of the patient's mouth by itself. If the seizure lasts longer than 5 minutes, [[Emergency Medical Services]] should be contacted. Prolonged seizures may develop into ''[[status epilepticus]]'', a dangerous condition requiring hospitalization and emergency treatment.
Objects should '''never''' be placed in a person's [[mouth]] during a seizure as this could result in injury to the person's mouth or obstruction of the airway. Despite common [[folklore]], it is not possible for a person to swallow their own [[tongue]] during a seizure.
After a seizure, it is typical for a person to be confused, disoriented, and possibly agitated or sleepy. It is important to stay with the person until this passes; people should not eat or drink until they have returned to their normal level of awareness, and they should not be allowed to wander about unsupervised. Many patients will sleep deeply for a few hours after a seizure; this is not dangerous. In about 50% of people with epilepsy, headaches may occur after a seizure. These headaches share many features with [[migraine]]s, and respond to the same medications.
===Pharmacologic treatment===
Some medications can be taken daily in order to prevent seizures altogether or reduce the frequency of their occurrence. These are termed "anticonvulsant" or "antiepileptic" drugs (sometimes AEDs). All such drugs have side effects which are idiosyncratic and others which are dose-dependent; it is not possible to predict who will suffer from side effects or at what dose the side effects will appear.
Some people with epilepsy will experience a complete remission when treated with an anticonvulsant medication. If this does not occur, the dose of medication may be increased, or another medication may be added to the first. The general strategy is to increase the medication dose until either the seizures are controlled, or until dose-limiting side effects appear; at which point the medication dose is reduced to the highest amount that did not produce undesirable side effects.
Serum levels of AEDs can be checked to determine medication [[compliance]] and to assess the effects of drug-drug interactions; serum levels are generally not useful to predict anticonvulsant efficacy in an individual patient, though in some cases (such as a seizure flurry) it can be useful to know if the level is very high or very low.
If a person's epilepsy cannot be brought under control after adequate trials of two different drugs, that person's epilepsy is generally said to be 'medically refractory.'
Various drugs may prevent seizures or reduce seizure frequency: these include [[carbamazepine]] (common brand name Tegretol), [[clobazam]] (Frisium), [[clonazepam]] (Klonopin), [[ethosuximide]] (Zarontin), [[felbamate]] (Felbatol), [[fosphenytoin]] (Cerebyx), [[flurazepam]] (Dalmane), [[gabapentin]] (Neurontin), [[lamotrigine]] (Lamictal), [[levetiracetam]] (Keppra), [[oxcarbazepine]] (Trileptal), [[mephenytoin]] (Mesantoin), [[phenobarbital]] (Luminal), [[phenytoin]] (Dilantin), [[pregabalin]] (Lyrica), [[primidone]] (Mysoline), [[sodium valproate]] (Epilim), [[tiagabine]] (Gabitril), [[topiramate]] (Topamax), [[valproate semisodium]] (Depakote), [[valproic acid]] (Depakene, Convulex), and [[vigabatrin]] (Sabril).
Other drugs are commonly used to abort an active seizure or interrupt a seizure flurry; these include [[diazepam]] (Valium) and [[lorazepam]] (Ativan). Drugs used only in the treatment of refractory [[status epilepticus]] include [[paraldehyde]] (Paral) and [[pentobarbital]] (Nembutal).
[[Potassium bromide|Bromides]] were the first of the effective anticonvulsant pure compounds, but are no longer used due to their [[toxicity|toxicities]] and low [[efficacy]].
===Surgical Treatment===
Surgical treatment can be an option for epilepsy when an underlying brain abnormality, such as a benign [[tumor]] or an area of scar tissue (e.g. [[hippocampal sclerosis]]) can be identified. The abnormality must be removable by a neurosurgeon.
Surgery is usually only offered to patients when their epilepsy has not been controlled by adequate attempts with multiple medications. Before surgery is offered, the medical team performs many tests to assess whether removal of brain tissue will result in unacceptable problems with [[memory]], [[visual perception|vision]], [[language]] or [[movement]], which are controlled by different parts of the [[brain]]. Resective surgery, as opposed to palliative, successfully eliminates or significantly reduces seizures in about 80% of the patients who undergo it. Many patients decide not to undergo surgery owing to fear or the uncertainty of having a brain operation.
The most common form of resective surgical treatment for epilepsy is to remove a portion of either the right or left [[temporal lobe]], depending on where the seizures are occurring. A study of 48 patients who underwent this operation, [[anterior temporal lobectomy]], between [[1965]] and [[1974]] determined the long-term success of the procedure. Of the 48 patients, 21 had had no seizures that caused loss of consciousness since the operation. Three others had been free of seizures for at least 19 years. The rest had either never been completely free of seizures or had died between the time of the surgery and commencement of the study{{ref|kelly2005}}.
[[Palliative]] surgery for epilepsy is intended to reduce the frequency or severity of seizures. Examples are [[callosotomy]] or [[commissurotomy]] to prevent seizures from generalizing (spreading to involve the entire brain), which results in a loss
|
e nation's first community funded radio station, [[KPFA]], the flagship station of the [[Pacifica Network]].
*"Three things have come out of Berkeley: [[LSD]], [[Berkeley Software Distribution|BSD]], and the [[Society for Creative Anachronism|SCA]]. This is no coincidence." -- Anon.
*Fewer people live in Berkeley today than did 55 years ago. Few other cities in the western United States can make this claim.
*[[Dick Leonard]], the “father of modern rock climbing,” and noted environmentalist [[David Brower]], founder of [[Friends of the Earth]], learned rock climbing and developed their mountaineering techniques at [[Indian Rock Park]] in Berkeley. Brower used this special knowledge to prepare training manuals during World War II.
*In [[1966]], the first [[Peet's Coffee]] opened in Berkeley, at the corner of Vine and Walnut.
== External links ==
{{Commons|Category:Berkeley, California|Category:Berkeley, California}}
*[http://www.ci.berkeley.ca.us/ Official Government Website]
*[http://www.cityofberkeley.info/ City Of Berkeley, California]
*[http://www.berkeleypubliclibrary.org/ Berkeley Public Library]
*[http://www.berkeleyheritage.com/berkeley_landmarks/landmarks.html Berkeley Landmarks]
*[http://democrats.assembly.ca.gov/members/a14/ California State Assembly District 14]
*[http://www.berkeleydailyplanet.com/ ''Berkeley Daily Planet'' Website]
*[http://www.peoplespark.org/ People's Park]
*[http://www.yeah-berkeley.org/ Homeless Youth Shelter]
*[http://www.bffa1227.org/ Berkeley Firefighters Association]
*[http://www.terragalleria.com/california/california.berkeley.html Photos of Berkeley]
*[http://www.dailycal.org/ The Daily Californian]
*[http://www.csua.berkeley.edu/~tobin/wiki/moin.cgi/FrontPage Berkeley Wiki], a local community wiki / visitor's guide
{{Mapit-US-cityscale|37.871775|-122.274603}}
{{Cities of Alameda County, California}}
{{California}}
[[Category:Cities in California]]
[[Category:Alameda County, California]]
[[Category:Berkeley, California|*]]
[[Category:San Francisco Bay Area|Berkeley]]
[[Category:University towns]]
[[bg:Бъркли]]
[[cs:Berkeley]]
[[da:Berkeley]]
[[de:Berkeley (Kalifornien)]]
[[es:Berkeley (California)]]
[[fr:Berkeley (Californie)]]
[[ja:バークリー (カリフォルニア州)]]
[[nl:Berkeley (Californië)]]
[[no:Berkeley]]
[[pl:Berkeley (Kalifornia)]]
[[simple:Berkeley, California]]
[[sv:Berkeley, Kalifornien]]
[[fi:Berkeley]]
[[zh:伯克利]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Bolventor</title>
<id>4861</id>
<revision>
<id>26829948</id>
<timestamp>2005-10-29T23:24:45Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>MacRusgail</username>
<id>238113</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Bolventor''' is a small village, which lies in the heart of [[Bodmin Moor]], [[Cornwall]], [[England]]. [[Daphne du Maurier]] chose Bolventor as the setting for ''[[Jamaica Inn]]'', her novel about Cornish [[smuggling|smugglers]]. The original coaching house, Jamaica Inn, that inspired the novel has stood on the main road through the village since [[1547]]. Bolventor once stood on the main road through Cornwall (latterly designated the [[A30 road|A30]]), but has now been bypassed by the [[dual carriageway]]. The small [[church]] that lies to the east of the village closed some years ago.
The village is said to take its name from the "Bold Venture" that it must have appeared to build a farm in this moorland.
[[Category:Villages in Cornwall]]
{{Cornwall-geo-stub}}</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Bengal</title>
<id>4862</id>
<revision>
<id>41927673</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T18:01:06Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>84.74.61.209</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Early History */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''For the breed of [[cat]], see [[Bengal cat]]; for the tiger, see [[Bengal Tiger]]; for the [[American football]] franchise, see [[Cincinnati Bengals]]''
'''Bengal''', known as ''Bôngo'' ([[Bengali]]: বঙ্গ), ''Bangla'' (বাংলা), ''Bôngodesh'' (বঙ্গদেশ), or ''Bangladesh'' (বাংলাদেশ) in [[Bangla]], is a region in the northeast of [[South Asia]]. Today it is mainly divided between the independent nation of [[Bangladesh]] (eastern Bengal), and the [[India]]n state of [[West Bengal]], although some regions of the previous kingdom of Bengal (during local monarchial regimes and British rule) are now part of the Indian states of [[Bihar]], [[Tripura]] and [[Orissa]].
== History ==
The [[history]] of Bengal can be divided according to the [[religion]] of its rulers. Also see [[History of Bengal]] and [[Bengal Renaissance]].
===Early History===
One of the earliest historical references to be found to date is the mention of a land named ''Gangaridai'' by the Greeks around [[100 BC]]. The word is speculated to have come from ''Gangahrd'' (Land with the [[Ganges]] in its heart) and believed to be referring to an area in Bengal.
More concrete evidence of '''Bengal''' becoming a political entity is found in the [[6th century]], with the first recorded independent king of Bengal - [[Shashanka]] - reigning around [[606]].
[[Image:IndianBuddha11.JPG|thumb|170px|[[Buddha]] and [[Bodhisattva]]s, [[11th century]], [[Pala Empire]].]]
The first [[Buddhism|Buddhist]] [[Pala Empire|Pala]] king of Bengal, ''Gopala-I'' came to [[power (sociology)|power]] in [[750]] in [[Gaur]] by [[election]]. This event is recognized as one of the first [[democratic]] event in the history of [[South Asia]]. The dynasty's most powerful kings, Dharampala (reigned [[775]]-[[810]]) and Devapala (reigned [[810]]-[[850]]) united Bengal and made the Pala family one of the most important dynasties in ninth-century India. Internecine strife during the reign of Narayanpala (reigned [[854]]-[[908]]) and administrative excesses led to the decline of the dynasty.
A brief revival of the kingdom under Mahipala I (reigned [[977]]-[[1027]]) ended in battle against the powerful, South Indian [[Chola]] kingdom. The rise of the [[Chandra]] dynasty in southern Bengal expedited the decline of the Palas, and the last Pala king, Madanpala, died in [[1161]].
The [[Malla]] dynasty emerged in Bengal in the seventh century, although they only rose to prominence in the 10th century under [[Jagat Malla]] who moved his capital to [[Bishnupur|Vishnupur]]. Unlike the Buddhist Palas and Chandras, the [[Hinduism|Hindu]] Mallas worshipped first the Hindu god [[Shiva]], then the Hindu god [[Vishnu]]. The Mallas built temples and spectacular religious monuments during their rule in Bengal.
Under the [[Sena dynasty|Sena]] dynasty, which lasted from [[1095]] to [[1260]], [[Bengali language|Bengali]] emerged as a distinct and important language in
northern India, and Hinduism began to displace older Buddhism.
===Muslim Rule===
The [[Turkic people|Turkic]] invasion of India (including Bengal) came in the early 13th century. The invaders defeated the Sena king [[Laxmansena]] at his capital, [[Nadia district|Nabadwip]] in [[1203]] ([[1204]]?) The Deva family &mdash; the last Hindu dynasty to rule in Bengal &mdash; ruled briefly in eastern Bengal, although they were suppressed by the mid-fourteenth century.
During the early [[Islam|Muslim]] period, the former kingdom became known as the Sultanate of Bangala, ruled intermittently from the [[Sultanate of Delhi]]. The chaotic shifts in power between the [[Afghan people|Afghan]] and [[Turkey|Turkish]] rulers of that sultanate came to an end when [[Moghul]] rule became established in Bengal during the sixteenth century.
In [[1534]], the Afghan [[Sher Shah Suri]], or Farid Khan &mdash; a man of incredible military and political skill &mdash; succeeded in defeating the superior forces of the [[Mughals]] under [[Humayun]] at Chausa ([[1539]]) and [[Kannauj]] ([[1540]]). Sher Shah fought back and captured both [[Delhi]] and [[Agra]] as he established the most powerful Bengali kingdom that would ever exist, stretching far into [[Punjab region|Panjab]]. Sher Shah's administrative skill showed in his public works, including the [[Grand Trunk Road]] connecting [[Sonargaon]] in Bengal with [[Peshawar]] in the [[Hindu Kush]]. Sher Shah's rule ended with his death in [[1545]], although even in those five years his reign would have a powerful influence on Indian society, politics, and economics.
Shah Suri's successors lacked his administrative skill, and quarrelled over the domains of his empire. Humayun, who then ruled a rump Mughal state, saw an opportunity and in [[1554]] seized [[Lahore]] and Delhi. Humayun's death in [[1556]] led to the accession of [[Akbar]], the greatest of the [[Mughal]] emperors, who defeated the [[Karani]] rulers of Bengal in [[1576]] and ruled through governors. [[Akbar]] exercised progressive rule and oversaw a period of prosperity (through trade and development) in Bengal and northern India.
Bengal's trade and wealth so impressed the Moghuls that they called the region the "Paradise of the Nations". Administration by governors appointed by the court of the [[Mughal Empire]] court ([[1575]]-[[1717]]) gave way to four decades of semi-independence under the [[Nawab|Nawabs]] of [[Murshidabad]], who respected the nominal sovereignty of the [[Mughal]]s in Delhi. The Nawabs granted permission to the [[French East India Company]] to establish a trading post at [[Chandernagore]] in [[1673]], and the [[British East India Company]] at [[Calcutta]] in [[1690]].
When the British East India Company began strengthening the defences at Fort William (Calcutta), the Nawab, [[Siraj Ud Daulah]], at the encouragement of the French, attacked. Under the leadership of [[Robert Clive]], British troops and their local allies captured Chandernagore in March [[1757]] and seriously defeated the Nawab on [[June 23]] 1757 at the [[Battle of Plassey]], when the Nawab's soldiers betrayed him. The Nawab was assassinated in Murshidabad
|
ager, 1921-26 (his name is with the other honorees on the outfield wall at [[Comerica Park]], but with no number)
* &nbsp; 2 [[Charlie Gehringer]], 2B, 1924-42
* &nbsp; 5 [[Hank Greenberg]], 1B, 1930-46
* &nbsp; 6 [[Al Kaline]], OF, 1953-74
* 16 [[Hal Newhouser]], P, 1939-53
* 23 [[Willie Horton (baseball player)|Willie Horton]], OF, 1963-77
Although National Avenue, which ran behind the third-base stands at [[Tiger Stadium]], was renamed Cochrane Avenue for [[Mickey Cochrane]], Cochrane's number 3 has not been retired for him. It has not been retired for [[Dick McAuliffe]] or [[Alan Trammell]], either. Cherry Street, which ran behind the left-field stands, was renamed Kaline Drive for Al Kaline.
==Current roster==
{{:Detroit Tigers roster}}
==Minor league affiliations==
* '''AAA:''' [[Toledo Mudhens]], [[International League]]
* '''AA:''' [[Erie SeaWolves]], [[Eastern League]]
* '''Advanced A:''' [[Lakeland Tigers]], [[Florida State League]]
* '''A:''' [[West Michigan Whitecaps]], [[Midwest League]]
* '''Short A:''' [[Oneonta Tigers]], [[New York-Penn League]]
* '''Rookie:''' [[GCL Tigers]], [[Gulf Coast League]]
==See also==
*[[Detroit Tigers/Award winners and league leaders|Tigers award winners and league leaders]]
*[[Detroit Tigers/Team records|Tigers statistical records and milestone achievements]]
*[[Detroit Tigers/Players of note|Tigers players of note]]
*[[Detroit Tigers/Broadcasters|Tigers broadcasters and media]]
*[[Detroit Tigers/Managers and ownership|Tigers managers and ownership]]
==External links==
*[http://detroit.tigers.mlb.com/NASApp/mlb/det/homepage/det_homepage.jsp Detroit Tigers official web site]
*[http://www.motowntigers.com MotownTigers.com - Excellent fan forum]
*[http://www.tigerscentral.com Tigers Central and Tigers History - Excellent fan site]
*[http://www.tigerstalk.com Tigers Talk - Excellent fan site]
*[http://detroittigersweblog.com/ Detroit Tigers Web Blog]
*[http://www.ilitchholdings.com/ Ilitch Holdings, Inc.]
*[http://www.sportsecyclopedia.com/al/detroit/tigers.html Sports E-Cyclopedia]
*[http://wtfdetroit.com WTFDetroit - Tigers Talk]
*[http://fernie.topcities.com/ Venezuelan fan site]
{{MLB}}
[[Category:Sports in Detroit, Michigan]]
[[Category:Major League Baseball teams]]
[[de:Detroit Tigers]]
[[ja:&#12487;&#12488;&#12525;&#12452;&#12488;&#12539;&#12479;&#12452;&#12460;&#12540;&#12473;]]
[[sv:Detroit Tigers]]
[[zh:底特律老虎]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Diocletian</title>
<id>8580</id>
<revision>
<id>41881883</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T09:28:52Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>194.224.227.80</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Dio_coin1.jpg|thumb|200px|Emperor Diocletian]]
'''Gaius [[Aurelius]] Valerius Diocletianus''' (245?&ndash;312?), born '''Diocles''', was [[Roman Emperors|Roman Emperor]] as '''Diocletian''' from [[November 20]] [[284]] to [[May 1]] [[305]]. Diocletian brought to an end the period popularly known to historians as the "[[Crisis of the Third Century]]" (235&ndash;284). He established an [[autocratic]] government and was responsible for laying the groundwork for the second phase of the [[Roman Empire]], which is known variously as the "Dominate" (as opposed to the Principate), the "Tetrarchy", or simply the "Later Roman Empire". Diocletian's reforms helped ensure the survival of the Western Roman Empire for a another two-hundred years, and the survival of the Eastern Roman Empire (later the Byzantine Empire) for another one-thousand years.
== Background ==
An [[Illyria]]n of low birth (from the province of [[Dalmatia]], today's western [[Croatia]], [[Bosnia-Hercegovina]], Western [[Montenegro]] and Northern [[Albania]]), Diocles rose through the ranks to the [[consul]]ship. He was chosen by the [[Roman army]] on [[November 20]] [[284]] to replace [[Numerian]] and after the assassination of [[Carinus]] in Spring 285 became sole ruler of the Roman Empire. He changed his name to ''Diocletianus'' upon his ascension.
Previously, between 235 and 284, there had been some 20 to 25 successive Emperors in a period of about 50 years - an average of a new Emperor every two to three years. All but two of these emperors was either murdered or killed in battle.
Diocletian seemed at first to be following in the footsteps of his short-lived predecessors in the years between 284 and 298, as he fought a lengthy series of wars from one end of the Empire to the other, maintaining the extended boundaries of the frontiers and stamping out domestic uprisings. By 298, however, Diocletian had succeeded in repelling [[Germanic tribes|Germanic]] intrusions from across the [[Danube]] and [[Rhine]], had put a halt to [[Persian Empire|Persian]] invasions in [[History of Syria|Syria]] and [[Palestine (region)| Palestine]], and had defeated his political rivals within the Empire.
== Diocletian's reforms ==
His position secure, a remarkable feat after over fifty years of internal instability that nearly saw the collapse of the Roman Empire (what has become known as the [[Crisis of the Third Century]]), Diocletian believed that going forward under the current system of Roman Imperial government was unsustainable. He initiated a number of reforms to prevent a return to the anarchy of previous generations and maintain the viability of the Empire. These included splitting the Empire into two in order to be more manageable, creating a new system of Imperial succession, ruling as an [[autocrat]] and stripping away any remaining facade of [[republic]]anism, and economic reforms aimed at the problem of [[inflation|hyperinflation]].
The [[Roman Emperor]]ship, had originally been a military dictatorship, elaborately disguised as a constitutional monarchy. While it drew much of its legitimacy from a complex array of republican titles and practices, it drew most of its actual power from command over the legions and the [[Praetorian Guard]]. This is reflected in the most important of all Imperial titles, ''[[Imperator]]'' (Supreme Commander), from which the word emperor itself is derived. These arrangements, while awkward at times and followed more closely by some emperors than others, worked for the first two centuries of the empire's existence. However, starting with the reign of [[Septimius Severus]], rulers began to strip away or simply ignore many of the republican niceties, and reigned more as dictators than constitutional monarchs. This process undermined the office's foundations and legitimacy. Diocletian recognized that the title had to be based on something more than simply military force, in order to be more recognized and stable. So he sought to build a new basis for imperial legitimacy in the state religion, with himself as semi-divine monarch and high priest. The old republican title of ''[[Pontifex Maximus]],'' would begin to take on a new importance.
Diocletian chose a new title for himself, calling himself ''Dominus et deus,'' or "Lord and God". This was in contrast to previous Emperors, who were known as ''Princeps'' or "First Citizens", a name which implied some level of equality and [[democracy]], if in name only. Diocletian through his new title removed any such facade, installing himself as a supreme overlord. He would actually sit on a throne. He was not to be seen in public, and if an audience was required, he had elaborate ceremonies in which the visitor would be required to lie on the ground prostrate and never to look at the Emperor, allowed perhaps to kiss the bottom of his robe. In this way he created a remote, mysterious, theocratic and autocratic office. It is likely that terms such as "Your Majesty" or "Your Excellency" originated during Diocletian's rule.
=== The ''Tetrarchy'' ===
Diocletian's experiences during his first nine years of running around the Empire putting out fires brought him to the conclusion that the Empire was simply too big for a single Emperor to rule&mdash;that it was not feasible to address [[barbarian]] invasions along the Rhine and [[Egypt]]ian problems at the same time, along with the internal problems the empire was experiencing. His radical solution was to split the Empire in two, drawing a line straight down the middle of the map with the axis just east of Rome into eastern and western halves. While this division did not last in the short term, it did eventually become permanent.
The question of Imperial succession had never been solved in the Roman system; there was no clear principle of succession, which often led to [[civil war]]s. Earlier Emperors had preferred the system of [[adoption]], under which they would adopt a son and heir. The military did not like the system of adoption and preferred biological succession, with the emperor's son being the rightful heir. The [[Roman Senate|Senate]] believed they should have the right to elect a new Emperor. Thus there were usually at least three, if not many more, rightful heirs of succession.
[[Image:Tetrarch_system.PNG|frame|right|Map of the Roman empire c.379, showing the praetorian prefectures of Gaul, Italy, Illyricum and Oriens, roughly analogous to the four Tetrarchs' zones of influence after Diocletian's reforms. However, in 379 AD, the western part of the Praetorian prefecture of Illyricum was attached to the Praetorian prefecture of Italy. This map shows only eastern part of Illyricum, though in the time of Tetrachy the Illyricum was not divided.]]
In order to solve the problem of succession, and to answer the question of who would be Emperor of the newly divided East and West, Diocletian created what has become known as the system of "[[Tetrarchy]]", or "rule of four", whereby a senior emperor would rule in the East and another senior emperor would rule the West, and each would have a junior emperor. Among the ma
|
'
***** [[Arnoux's Beaked Whale]], ''Berardius arnuxii''
***** [[Baird's Beaked Whale]] (North Pacific Bottlenose Whale), ''Berardius bairdii''
**** Genus ''[[Tasmacetus]]''
***** [[Tasman Beaked Whale]] (Shepherd's Beaked Whale), ''Tasmacetus shepherdi''
**** Subfamily [[Hyperoodontidae]]
***** Genus ''[[Indopacetus]]''
****** [[Indo-Pacific Beaked Whale]] (Longman's Beaked Whale), ''Indopacetus pacificus''
***** Genus ''[[Hyperoodon]]''
****** [[Northern Bottlenose Whale]], ''Hyperoodon ampullatus''
****** [[Southern Bottlenose Whale]], ''Hyperoodon planifrons''
***** Genus ''[[Mesoplodon]]'', [[Mesoplodont Whale]]
****** [[Hector's Beaked Whale]], ''Mesoplodon hectori''
****** [[True's Beaked Whale]], ''Mesoplodon mirus''
****** [[Gervais' Beaked Whale]], ''Mesoplodon europaeus''
****** [[Sowerby's Beaked Whale]], ''Mesoplodon bidens''
****** [[Gray's Beaked Whale]], ''Mesoplodon grayi''
****** [[Pygmy Beaked Whale]], ''Mesoplodon peruvianus''
****** [[Andrews' Beaked Whale]], ''Mesoplodon bowdoini''
****** [[Spade Toothed Whale]], ''Mesoplodon traversii''
****** [[Hubbs' Beaked Whale]], ''Mesoplodon carlhubbsi''
****** [[Ginkgo-toothed Beaked Whale]], ''Mesoplodon ginkgodens''
****** [[Stejneger's Beaked Whale]], ''Mesoplodon stejnegeri''
****** [[Layard's Beaked Whale]], ''Mesoplodon layardii''
****** [[Blainville's Beaked Whale]], ''Mesoplodon densirostris''
****** [[Perrin's Beaked Whale]], ''Mesoplodon perrini'' - not in Rice - authority Dalebout et al (2002)
*** Family [[Delphinidae]]: [[Dolphin]]
**** Genus ''[[Cephalorhynchus]]''
***** [[Commerson's Dolphin]], ''Cephalorhyncus commersonii''
***** [[Chilean Dolphin]], ''Cephalorhyncus eutropia''
***** [[Heaviside's Dolphin]], ''Cephalorhyncus heavisidii''
***** [[Hector's Dolphin]], ''Cephalorhyncus hectori''
**** Genus ''[[Steno]]''
***** [[Rough-toothed Dolphin]], ''Steno bredanensis''
**** Genus ''[[Humpback Dolphins|Sousa]]''
***** [[Atlantic Humpback Dolphin]], ''Sousa teuszi''
***** [[Indian Humpback Dolphin]], ''Sousa plumbea''
***** [[Pacific Humpback Dolphin]], ''Sousa chinensis''
**** Genus ''[[Sotalia]]''
***** [[Tucuxi]], ''Sotalia fluviatilis''
**** Genus ''[[Tursiops]]''
***** [[Bottlenose Dolphin]], ''Tursiops truncatus''
***** [[Indian Ocean Bottlenose Dolphin]], ''Tursiops aduncus''
**** Genus ''[[Stenella]]''
***** [[Pantropical Spotted Dolphin]], ''Stenella attenuata''
***** [[Atlantic Spotted Dolphin]], ''Stenella frontalis''
***** [[Spinner Dolphin]], ''Stenella longirostris''
***** [[Clymene Dolphin]], ''Stenella clymene''
***** [[Striped Dolphin]], ''Stenella coeruleoalba''
**** Genus ''[[Delphinus]]''
***** [[Short-beaked Common Dolphin]], ''Delphinus delphis''
***** [[Long-beaked Common Dolphin]], ''Delphinus capensis''
***** ([[Arabian Common Dolphin]], ''Delphinus tropicalis'')
**** Genus ''[[Lagenodelphis]]''
***** [[Fraser's Dolphin]], ''Lagenodelphis hosei''
**** Genus ''[[Lagenorhynchus]]''
***** [[White-beaked Dolphin]], ''Lagenorhynchus albirostris''
***** [[Atlantic White-sided Dolphin]], ''Lagenorhynchus acutus''
***** [[Pacific White-sided Dolphin]], ''Lagenorhynchus obliquidens''
***** [[Dusky Dolphin]], ''Lagenorhynchus obscurus''
***** [[Black-chinned Dolphin]], ''Lagenorhynchus australis''
***** [[Hourglass Dolphin]], ''Lagenorhynchus cruciger''
**** Genus ''[[Lissodelphis]]''
***** [[Northern Right Whale Dolphin]], ''Lissodelphis borealis''
***** [[Southern Right Whale Dolphin]], ''Lissodelphis peronii''
**** Genus ''[[Grampus (genus)|Grampus]]''
***** [[Risso's Dolphin]], ''Grampus griseus''
**** Genus ''[[Peponocephala]]''
***** [[Melon-headed Whale]], ''Peponocephala electra''
**** Genus ''[[Feresa]]''
***** [[Pygmy Killer Whale]], ''Feresa attenuata''
**** Genus ''[[Pseudorca]]''
***** [[False Killer Whale]], ''Pseudorca crassidens''
**** Genus ''Orcinus''
***** [[Orca]], ''Orcinus orca''
**** Genus ''[[Globicephala]]''
***** [[Long-finned Pilot Whale]], ''Globicephala melas''
***** [[Short-finned Pilot Whale]], ''Globicephala macrorhyncus''
**** Genus ''[[Orcaella]]''
***** [[Irrawaddy Dolphin]], ''Orcaella brevirostris''
***** [[Australian Snubfin Dolphin]], ''Orcaella heinsohni''
==References==
*Rice, Dale W. (1998). Marine mammals of the world: systematics and distribution. Society of Marine Mammalogy Special Publication Number 4. 231 pp. See the [http://www.marinemammalogy.org/publications.htm Society's website] for further details.
==External links==
{{Wikispecies|Cetacea}}
{{Wikibookspar|Dichotomous Key|Cetacea}}
* [http://www.acsonline.org/ American Cetacean Society]
* [http://www.crru.org.uk/ British Cetacean Site] especially interesting is [http://www.crru.org.uk/education/factfiles/taxonomy.htm taxonomy]
* [http://www.cetacea.org/ Cetacea.org homepage]
* [http://www.press.jhu.edu/books/walkers_mammals_of_the_world/cetacea/cetacea.html#genera Walker's Mammals of the World Online - Cetaceans]
* [http://www.tursiops.org/ Tursiops.org: Current Cetacean-related news]
* [http://whaleofatime.com/forum Whales, Dolphins, Porpoises and Cetaceans Forum]
{{Mammals}}
[[Category:Cetaceans| ]]
<!-- interwiki -->
[[ar:حوت]]
[[bg:Китоподобни]]
[[ca:Cetaci]]
[[cs:Kytovci]]
[[cy:Morfil]]
[[da:Hvaler]]
[[de:Wale]]
[[es:Cetáceo]]
[[eo:Cetacoj]]
[[fa:آببازان]]
[[fr:Cetacea]]
[[ko:고래]]
[[hr:Kitovi]]
[[it:Cetacea]]
[[he:לווייתנאים]]
[[la:Cetacea]]
[[lt:Banginis]]
[[li:Walvèsechtege]]
[[ms:Ikan paus]]
[[nl:Walvissen]]
[[ja:クジラ目]]
[[pl:Walenie]]
[[pt:Cetáceos]]
[[ru:Китообразные]]
[[scn:Citacea]]
[[sk:Veľryby (rad)]]
[[sr:Плави кит]]
[[fi:Valas]]
[[sv:Valar]]
[[zh:鲸]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>The Canterbury Tales</title>
<id>7627</id>
<revision>
<id>41480732</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-27T17:23:09Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Neddyseagoon</username>
<id>883252</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Notes */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Canterbury_Tales.png|frame|right|Canterbury Tales Woodcut 1484]]
'''''The Canterbury Tales''''' is a collection of stories written by [[Geoffrey Chaucer]] in the [[14th century]] (two of them in [[prose]], the rest in [[verse]]). The tales, some of which are originals and others not, are contained inside a [[frame tale]] and told by a group of [[pilgrim]]s on their way from [[London Borough of Southwark|Southwark]] to [[Canterbury, Kent|Canterbury]] to visit the shrine of [[Saint]] [[Thomas à Becket]]'s at [[Canterbury Cathedral]]{{ref|shrine}}. ''The Canterbury Tales'' are written in [[Middle English]].
==The individual tales ==
The themes of the tales vary, and include topics such as [[courtly love]], treachery and avarice. The genres also vary, and include [[Romance (genre)|romance]], [[Breton lai]], [[sermon]], and [[fabliau]]. The characters, introduced in the [[General Prologue]] of the book, tell tales of great cultural relevance.
The Tales include:
*[[General Prologue|The General Prologue]]
*[[The Knight's Tale]]
*[[The Miller's Prologue and Tale]]
*[[The Reeve's Prologue and Tale]]
*[[The Cook's Prologue and Tale]]
*[[The Man of Law's Prologue and Tale]]
*[[The Wife of Bath's Prologue and Tale]]
*[[The Friar's Prologue and Tale]]
*[[The Summoner's Prologue and Tale]]
[[Image:ChaucerPortraitEllesmereMs.jpg|thumb|250px|Portrait of Chaucer as a Canterbury pilgrim in the [[Ellesmere manuscript]] of ''The Canterbury Tales'']]
*[[The Clerk's Prologue and Tale]]
*[[The Merchant's Prologue and Tale]]
*[[The Squire's Prologue and Tale]]
*[[The Franklin's Prologue and Tale]]
*[[The Physician's Tale]]
*[[The Pardoner's Prologue and Tale]]
*[[The Shipman's Tale]]
*[[The Prioress' Prologue and Tale]]
*[[Chaucer's Tale of Sir Topas]]
*[[The Tale of Melibee]]
*[[The Monk's Prologue and Tale]]
*[[Chanticleer and the Fox|The Nun's Priest's Prologue and Tale]]
*[[The Second Nun's Prologue and Tale]]
*[[The Canon's Yeoman's Prologue and Tale]]
*[[The Manciple's Prologue and Tale]]
*[[The Parson's Prologue and Tale]]
*[[Chaucer's Retraction]]
Some of the tales are serious and others humorous; however, all are very precise in describing the traits and faults of human nature. Religious malpractice is a major theme as well as focusing on the division of [[Estates of the realm|the three estates]]. Most of the tales are interlinked with similar themes running through them and some are told in retaliation for other tales in the form of an argument. The work is incomplete, as it was originally intended that each character would tell four tales, two on the way to Canterbury and two on the return journey. This would have meant a possible one hundred and twenty tales which would have dwarfed the twenty-six tales actually written.
People have sought political overtones within the tales, particularly as Chaucer himself was a significant [[courtier]] and political figure at the time, close to the corridors of power. There are many hints at contemporary events, although few are proven, and the theme of marriage common in the tales is presumed to refer to several different marriages, most often those of [[John of Gaunt]]. Aside from Chaucer himself, Harry Bailly of the Tabard Inn was a real person and the Cook has been identified as quite likely to be Roger Knight de Ware, a contemporary London cook.
==The complete work==
The work was begun some time in the [[1380s]] with Chaucer stopping work on it in the late [[1390s]]. It was not written down fully conceived: it seems to have had many revisions with the addition of new tales at various times. The plan for one hundred and twenty tales is from the general prologue. It is announced by Harry Bailly, the host, that there will be four tales each. This is not necessarily the opinion of Chaucer himself, who appears as the only character to tell more than one tale. It has been suggested that the unfinished state was deliberate on Chaucer's part.
The structure of ''The Canterbury Tales'' is easy to find in o
|
r email from viruses
* For a thorough, hypothetical pro discussion, see: [http://vx.netlux.org/lib/avb02.html "Are Good Viruses still a Bad idea?"]
* [http://www.pcvirus.org/links Malicious Code & Viruses - Articles, Links, and Whitepapers]
* [http://www.wildlist.org The Wildlist] List of viruses and worms 'in the wild' (i.e. regularly encountered by anti-virus companies)
* [http://www.digitalcraft.org/iloveyou/index.htm I love you <nowiki>[rev.eng]</nowiki> exhibition]
* [http://www.virusbtn.com/ Virus Bulletin] (Same owner as Sophos)
* [http://www.theglobeandmail.com/servlet/story/RTGAM.20050519.gtwvirus19/BNStory/Technology/ The Globe and Mail: Cellphone acting sick? Might be a virus] (free registration required)
* [http://securityresponse.symantec.com/avcenter/vinfodb.html Symantec's Virus Database]
* [http://www.antisource.com Computer Virus Alerts, News, and Help]
*[http://astral9.netfirms.com/ astral9.netfirms.com] - A comprehensive guide for information on removing spyware, adware, trojans and viruses
===Pro virus===
* [http://www.totallygeek.com/vscdb/ Virus Source Code Database]
* [http://vx.netlux.org/ VX Heaven - Sources & Guides]
* [http://www.hackpalace.com/virii/indexe.shtml Hackpalace Virii]
*Article "[http://www.codeproject.com/system/inject2exe.asp Inject your code to a Portable Executable file]" by [[Ashkbiz Danehkar]]
[[Category:Computer security|Virus]]
[[Category:Computer viruses| ]]
[[als:Computervirus]]
[[ar:فيروس الحاسوب]]
[[ca:Virus informàtic]]
[[cs:Počítačový virus]]
[[da:Computervirus]]
[[de:Computervirus]]
[[es:Virus informático]]
[[eo:Komputila viruso]]
[[fr:Virus informatique]]
[[ko:컴퓨터 바이러스]]
[[hi:कम्प्यूटर वायरस]]
[[it:Virus (informatica)]]
[[he:וירוס מחשב]]
[[lt:Virusas (programa)]]
[[hu:Számítógépes vírus]]
[[nl:Computervirus]]
[[ja:コンピュータウイルス]]
[[no:Datavirus]]
[[nn:Datavirus]]
[[pl:Wirus komputerowy]]
[[pt:Vírus informático]]
[[ru:Компьютерный вирус]]
[[sk:Počítačový vírus]]
[[sl:Računalniški virus]]
[[fi:Tietokonevirus]]
[[sv:Datorvirus]]
[[th:ไวรัสคอมพิวเตอร์]]
[[vi:Virus (máy tính)]]
[[uk:Вірус комп'ютерний]]
[[zh:电脑病毒]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Cambridge, Massachusetts</title>
<id>5685</id>
<revision>
<id>42115778</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T22:49:03Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>151.203.241.221</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* About the city */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox City |
official_name = Cambridge, Massachusetts |
nickname = City of Squares |
image_seal = sealofcambridgema.gif |
image_map = Cambridge ma highlight.png |
map_caption = Location in [[Massachusetts]] |
subdivision_type = [[Counties of the United States|Counties]] |
subdivision_name = [[Middlesex County, Massachusetts|Middlesex County]]|
leader_title = [[Mayor]] |
leader_name = [[Kenneth Reeves]] ([[United States Democratic Party|D]])|
area_magnitude = 1 E7 |
area_total = 18.5 km&sup2; / 7.1 m&sup2; |
area_land = 16.7 km&sup2; / 6.4 m&sup2; |
area_water = 1.8 km&sup2; / 0.7 m&sup2; |
population_as_of = 2000 |
population_note = |
population_total = 101,355 ([[city limits|city proper]]) |
population_density = 6086.1/km&sup2; |
timezone = [[Eastern Standard Time Zone|Eastern]] |
utc_offset = -5 |
timezone_DST = [[Eastern Standard Time Zone|Eastern]] |
utc_offset_DST = -4 |
latd=42 |latm=22 |lats=25 |latNS=N |
longd=71 |longm=6 |longs=38 |longEW=W |
website = [http://www.cambridgema.gov/ www.cambridge] |
footnotes =
}}
'''Cambridge''' is a [[city]] in the [[Greater Boston]] area of [[Massachusetts]], [[United States]]. It was named in honor of [[Cambridge]], [[England]]. Cambridge is most famous for the two prominent universities that call it home: [[Harvard University]] and the [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology]]. As of the [[2000]] census, the city had a total population of 101,355, though even more people commute into Cambridge to work.
Cambridge is a county seat of [[Middlesex County, Massachusetts]], along with [[Lowell, Massachusetts|Lowell]]. However, the county government was abolished in 1997. Although the county still exists as a geographical and political region, with Middlesex County courts and jails and such, county employees now work for the state.
==About the city==
[[Image:CambridgeMACityHall2.jpg|thumb|left|Cambridge City Hall]]
The diversity of the population is striking. Residents, known as ''Cantabrigians'', range from distinguished Harvard professors to working-class families to immigrants from around the world.
This diversity contributes to the liberal atmosphere, and may be compared to [[Berkeley, California]], in some respects. It is sometimes referred to as the "[[People's Republic]] of Cambridge" because of the city's famously [[modern liberalism|liberal]] politics; The city, as it grows wealthier, has not lost its very liberal political culture.
Cambridge has been called the "City of Squares" by some, as most of its commercial districts are major street intersections known as [[Town square|square]]s. Each of the squares acts as something of a neighborhood center. These include:
* [[Kendall Square]], formed by the junction of Broadway, Main Street, and Third Street. Just over the [[Longfellow Bridge]] from Boston, at the eastern end of the [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology|MIT]] campus. It is served by an [[Massachusetts Bay Transportation Authority|MBTA]] [[Kendall (MBTA station)|Red Line station]]. Most of Cambridge's large office towers are located here, giving the area somewhat of an office park feel. A flourishing [[biotech]] industry has grown up around here. The "One Kendall Square" complex is nearby, but -- confusingly -- not actually in Kendall Square.
* [[Central Square]], formed by the junction of [[Massachusetts Avenue#Boston, Massachusetts|Massachusetts Avenue]], Prospect Street, and Western Avenue. This is perhaps the closest thing Cambridge has to a downtown, and is well-known for its wide variety of ethnic restaurants. Even as recently as the late 1990s it was rather run-down; it has become more [[gentrification|gentrified]] in recent years, and continues to grow more expensive. It is served by a [[Central (MBTA station)|Red Line station]]. ''Lafayette Square'', formed by the junction of Massachusetts Avenue, Columbia Street, Sidney Street, and Main Street, is considered a part of the Central Square area.
[[image:Harvard_Square.JPG|thumb|200px|''Harvard Square, May [[2000]]'']]
* [[Harvard Square]], formed by the junction of Mass. Avenue, Brattle Street, and JFK Street. This is the site of [[Harvard University]], the oldest university in the United States and is a major Cambridge shopping area (although not as exclusively so as in years past). It is served by a [[Harvard (MBTA station)|Red Line station]]. The neighborhood north of Harvard but east of Mass Ave is known as Agassiz in honor of the famed scientist [[Louis Agassiz]].
* [[Porter Square]], about a mile north on Mass. Ave from Harvard Square, formed by the junction of Mass. Ave and Somerville Ave, and including part of the city of [[Somerville, Massachusetts|Somerville]]. It is served by a [[Porter (MBTA station)|Red Line station]].
* [[Inman Square]], at the junction of Cambridge and Hampshire streets in Mid-Cambridge.
* [[Lechmere Square]], at the junction of Cambridge and First streets, adjacent to the CambridgeSide Galleria shopping mall. Perhaps best known as the eastern terminus of the [[Massachusetts Bay Transportation Authority|MBTA]] [[Green Line (MBTA)|Green Line]] subway.
The residential neighborhoods in Cambridge border, but are not defined by the squares. These include:
* [[Cambridgeport]] between Central Square and the Charles River
* Riverside between Central Square and Harvard Square
* [[East Cambridge, Massachusetts|East Cambridge]]
* North Cambridge
* Agassiz
* Avon Hill
* Mid Cambridge
* Brattle Street
At the western edge of Cambridge, [[Mount Auburn Cemetery]] is widely known for its distinguished inhabitants, its superb landscaping and as a first-rate [[arboretum]].
Although one often sees references to the "Boston/Cambridge area" in print, Cambridge prefers to retain its own unique identity.
==History==
Cambridge was established as the [[town]] of "Newtowne" in [[1630]]. Newtowne was one a number of towns (including [[Boston, Massachusetts|Boston]], [[Dorchester, Massachusetts|Dorchester]], [[Watertown, Massachusetts|Watertown]], and [[Weymouth, Massachusetts|Weymouth]]) founded by the 700 original [[Puritan]] colonists of the [[Massachusetts Bay Colony]] under governor [[John Winthrop]]. The original village site was the heart of today's [[Harvard Square]], while the town included a much larger area than the present city, with various outlying parts becoming independent towns over the years: [[Newton, Massachusetts|Newton (originally Newtown)]] in 1690, [[Lexington, Massachusetts|Lexington (Cambridge Farms)]] in 1712, and [[Arlington, Massachusetts|Arlington (West Cambridge)]] and [[Brighton, Massachusetts|Brighton (Little Cambridge)]] in 1807.
In 1636 [[Harvard College]] was founded by the colony to train [[minister (religion)|ministers]] and Newtowne was chosen for its site. In 1638 the name was changed to "Cambridge" (after [[Cambridge|Cambridge, England]]) to reflect its status as the center for higher education in the colony.
Cambridge grew slowly as an agricultural village eight miles by road from Boston, the [[capital]] of the colony. By the [[American Revolution]], most residents lived near the Common and Harvard College, with farms and estates comprising most of the town. Most of the inhabitants were descendants of the original Puritan colonists, but there was also a small elite of [[Anglicans]] "worthies" who were not involved in village life, made their livings from esta
|
converse is clear: No integral domain can have nilpotent elements, and the zero ideal is the unique minimal ideal.
== Characteristic and homomorphisms ==
The [[characteristic (algebra)|characteristic]] of every integral domain is either zero or a [[prime number]].
If ''R'' is an integral domain with prime characteristic ''p'', then ''f''(''x'') = ''x''<sup>&nbsp;''p''</sup> defines an [[injective]] [[ring homomorphism]] ''f'' : ''R'' &rarr; ''R'', the [[Frobenius automorphism]].
== See also ==
*[[Domain (ring theory)]]
* [[wikibooks:Abstract algebra:Integral domains|Integral domains]] - wikibook link
[[Category:Commutative algebra]]
[[Category:Ring theory]]
[[cs:Obor integrity]]
[[de:Integritätsring]]
[[et:Integriteetkond]]
[[es:Dominio de integridad]]
[[fr:Anneau intègre]]
[[it:Chiusura integrale]]
[[he:תחום שלמות]]
[[pl:Dziedzina całkowitości]]
[[ru:Область целостности]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Indus river</title>
<id>15464</id>
<revision>
<id>15912938</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Eclecticology</username>
<id>372</id>
</contributor>
<comment>moved to "Indus_River"</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Indus_River]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Indo-European language</title>
<id>15465</id>
<revision>
<id>15912939</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Indo-European languages]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Infundibulum</title>
<id>15466</id>
<revision>
<id>39901020</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-16T18:10:29Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Drphilharmonic</username>
<id>704902</id>
</contributor>
<comment>logic and grammar; if an object is physically SHAPED into the form of a funnel is "funnel-SHAPED"; however, if an object's state-of-being exhibits the SHAPE of a funnel, then it is "funnel-SHAPE"</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">An '''infundibulum''' (Latin for ''funnel''; plural, ''infundibula'') is a [[funnel]]-shape cavity or [[organ (anatomy)|organ]].
==[[Lungs]]==
The [[alveoli|alveolar]] sacs of the [[lung|lungs]] from which the air chambers (alveoli) open are called '''infundibula'''.
==[[Heart]]==
The outflow portion of the [[right ventricle]] is also known as the '''infundibulum'''.
==[[Ovaries]]==
The end of the [[mammal|mammalian]] [[oviduct]] nearest to the [[ovary]] also bears the name '''infundibulum'''.
==[[Brain]]==
A small outgrowth of the ventral wall of the [[embryo|embryonic]] [[brain]] from which the [[pars nervosa]] (the posterior lobe of the [[pituitary gland]]) develops is also called the '''infundibulum'''.
{{Prosencephalon}}
[[Category:head and neck]]
[[category:pelvis]]
[[category:thorax]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Interrupt latency</title>
<id>15467</id>
<revision>
<id>39368537</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-12T18:32:29Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Drrngrvy</username>
<id>227740</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>double 'interrupt' that I don't think should be there</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{seealso|Latency (engineering)}}
'''Interrupt latency''' is the time between the generation of an [[interrupt]] by a device and the servicing of the device which generated the interrupt. For many operating systems, devices are serviced as soon as the device's [[interrupt handler]] is executed. Interrupt latency may be effected by [[interrupt controller]]s, [[interrupt mask]]ing, and the [[operating system]]'s (OS) interrupt handling methods.
==Background==
There is usually a tradeoff between interrupt latency, [[throughput]], and processor utilization. Many of the techniques of [[microprocessor|CPU]] and [[operating system|OS]] design that improve interrupt latency will decrease throughput and increase processor utilization. Techniques that increase throughput may increase interrupt latency and increase processor utilization. Lastly, trying to reduce processor utilization may increase interrupt latency and decrease throughput.
Minimum interrupt latency is largely determined by the [[interrupt controller]] circuit and its configuration. They can also effect the [[jitter]] in the interrupt latency, which can drastically affect the [[Real-time computing|real-time]] [[scheduling|schedulability]] of the system. The [[Intel APIC Architecture]] is well known for producing a huge amount of interrupt latency jitter.
Maximum interrupt latency is largely determined by the methods an OS uses for interrupt handling. For example, most processors allow programs to disable interrupts, putting off the execution of interrupt handlers, in order to protect [[critical section]]s of code. During the execution of such a critical section, all interrupt handlers that cannot execute safely within a critical section are blocked (they save the minimum amount of information required to restart the interrupt handler after all critical sections have exited). So the interrupt latency for a blocked interrupt is extended to the end of the critical section, plus any interrupts with equal and higher priority that arrived while the block was in place.
Many computer systems require low interrupt latencies, especially [[embedded system]]s that need to [[Control system|control]] machinery in real-time. Sometimes these systems use a [[real-time operating system]] (RTOS). An RTOS makes the promise that no more than an agreed upon maximum amount of time will pass between executions of [[subroutine]]s. In order to do this, the RTOS must also guarantee that interrupt latency will never exceed a predefined maximum.
==Considerations==
There are many methods that hardware use to increase the interrupt latency that can be tolerated. These include buffers, and [[flow control]]. For example, most network cards implement transmit and receive [[ring buffer]]s, interrupt rate limiting, and hardware flow control. Buffers allow data to be stored until it can be transferred, and flow control ...
Modern hardware also implement interrupt rate limiting. This helps prevent [[interrupt storm]]s or ''live lock'' by having the hardware wait a programmable minimum amount of time between each interrupt it generates. Interrupt rate limiting reduces the amount of time spent servicing interrupts, allowing the processor to spend more time doing useful work. Execeding this time results in a soft (recoverable) or hard (non-recoverable) error.
== See also ==
* [[Advanced Programmable Interrupt Controller]]
* [[Programmable Interrupt Controller]]
* [[IEEE 802.3]] (802.3x PAUSE frames for flow control)
* [[Ethernet flow control]]
* [[Inter-Processor Interrupt]]
* [[Interrupt]]
* [[Interrupt Handler]]
* [[Non-Maskable Interrupt]]
[[Category:Interrupts|Latency]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Iskender kebap</title>
<id>15468</id>
<revision>
<id>40723572</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-22T16:02:19Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>DabMachine</username>
<id>922466</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>disambiguation from [[Bursa]] to [[Bursa, Turkey]] - ([[WP:DPL|You can help!]])</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''&#304;skender kebap''' is one of the most famous [[meat]] foods of northwestern [[Turkey]] and takes its name from its inventor, &#304;skender Efendi, who lived in [[Bursa, Turkey|Bursa]] in the late [[19th century]].
It is a kind of ''[[döner kebap]]'' prepared from thinly cut grilled [[lamb]] basted with [[tomato sauce]] over pieces of [[pita]] bread and generously slathered with [[Butter|melted butter]] and [[yogurt]]. It is commonly consumed with [[şıra]] as a drink to aid digestion.
Unlike other traditional dishes of [[Turkish cuisine]], Iskender Kebap is a [[trademark]] of Iskender family, who still run the restaurant in Bursa. Still, this dish is available in many restaurants throughout the country sometimes under the name ''Bursa Kebab''.
==External links==
*[http://www.kebapciiskender.com/ Original &#304;skender Restaurant] (in Turkish)
[[Category:Turkish cuisine]]
{{cuisine-stub}}
[[tr:İskender kebap]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Homosexuality and Islam</title>
<id>15471</id>
<revision>
<id>42088830</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T19:26:16Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>BrainyBabe</username>
<id>124674</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* See also */ add Baron Alli</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{RAH}}
:''For age-structured homosexuality, see [[Pederasty in the Islamic lands]]''
There is no concept analogous to "[[homosexuality]]" in [[Islam]], in the sense of an innate identity. Instead, same-sex sexual expression manifests in a number of separate forms, which are not treated alike, either socially or juridically.
Rather, Islam concerns itself with sexual behaviors, rather than desires or orientations. In particular Islam condemns [[anal intercourse]] - whether with males or females - as a major sin, while viewing all other same-sex behaviors between males as minor sins or even praiseworthy.
The traditional tolerance, literary and religious, for chaste [[pederasty|pederastic]] love affairs which had been prevalent since the 800's began to be eroded in the mid-1800's by the adoption of [[European]] [[Victorian]] attitudes by the new [[Westernized]] elite. (El-Rouayheb, 2005, p.156)
==Constructions and examples==
[[Image:Mahmud and Ayaz and Shah Abbas I.jpg|thumb|200px|right|'''[[Mahmud of
|
Numbering over 350 million people, Buddhists spread all over the nations of [[South East Asia]], the [[Indian subcontinent]], [[China]], [[Korea]] and [[Japan]]. Small Buddhist communities are also found in [[Western Europe]] and [[North America]].
The following is a comprehensive aspect of the dominant forms of Buddhism along with the primary regions with which they are associated.
*[[Theravada Buddhism]]: parts of [[India]], [[Sri Lanka]], [[Myanmar]] (where it is imposed as the state religion),[[Thailand]], [[Laos]], [[Cambodia]], parts of [[Vietnam]] (along the [[Mekong Delta]] frontier with Cambodia, the so-called "Khmer Krom" region), and parts of [[China]] (in [[Yunnan]], [[Guangxi]], and [[Sichuan]]).
*[[Mahayana Buddhism]]: most of [[China]] (including [[Hong Kong]] and [[Macau]]), [[Korea]], [[Japan]], [[Singapore]], [[Taiwan]], and most of [[Vietnam]].
*[[Vajrayana Buddhism]]:
**[[Tibetan Buddhism]]: found in Tibet (and adjacent areas of [[China]]), [[North India]], [[Bhutan]], [[Nepal]], southwestern [[China]], [[Mongolia]] and, various [[Constituent republic]] of [[Russia]] that are adjacent to the area, such as: [[Amur Oblast]], [[Buryatia]], [[Chita Oblast]], [[Tuva Republic]], and [[Khabarovsk Krai]]. There is also [[Kalmykia]], another constituent republic of Russia that is the only Buddhist region in Europe.
**[[Shingon Buddhism]] or "True Word" Buddhism: found in Japan.
At the present time the teachings of all three branches of Buddhism have spread throughout the world and are now easily available in western countries, and increasingly translated into local languages.
It is believed that [[China]] is the only country where all of the major sects of Buddhism have significant numbers of followers.
==References==
*{{cite book | author=Coogan, Michael D. (ed.) | title=The Illustrated Guide to World Religions | publisher=Oxford University Press | year=2003 | id=ISBN 1-84483-125-6}}
* {{web-cite|ref=Dhammananda_64|author=[[K. Sri Dhammananda]]|page=http://www.buddhanet.net/pdf_file/whatbelieve.pdf|title=What the Buddha Taught|site=Buddhist Mission Society of Malaysia|date=1964}} ISBN 9834007127.
*{{cite book | author=Gethin, Rupert | title=Foundations of Buddhism | publisher=Oxford University Press | year=1998 | id=ISBN 0192892231}}
*{{cite book | author=Gunaratana, Bhante Henepola | title=Mindfulness in Plain English | publisher=Wisdom Publications | year=2002 | id=ISBN 0861713214}}
*{{cite book | author=Lowenstein, Tom | title=The vision of the Buddha | publisher=Duncan Baird Publishers | year=1996 | id=ISBN 1903296919}}
* {{cite|ref=Hanh_74|author=[[Thich Nhat Hanh]]|title=The Heart of the Buddha's Teaching|publisher=Broadway Books|date=1974}} ISBN 0767903692.
*{{cite book | author=[[Robert A. F. Thurman|Thurman, Robert A. F.]] (translator) | title=Holy Teaching of Vimalakirti: Mahayana Scripture | publisher=Pennsylvania State University Press | year=1976 | id=ISBN 0271006013}}
* {{cite|ref=Rahula_74|author=[[Walpola Rahula]]|title=What the Buddha Taught|publisher=Grove Press|date=1974}} ISBN 0802130313.
*{{cite book | author=Yamamoto, Kosho (translation), revised and edited by Dr. Tony Page | title=The [[Mahayana Mahaparinirvana Sutra]]| publisher=(Nirvana Publications 1999-2000)}}
* {{cite|ref=Yin_98|author=[[Yin Shun]], Yeung H. Wing (translator)|title=The Way to Buddhahood: Instructions from a Modern Chinese Master|publisher=Wisdom Publications|date=1998}} ISBN 0861711335.
==External links==
{{commons|Buddhism}}
* [http://Buddha.2be.net/ Buddhist Search Directory] The world largest Buddhist directory with full functional search and graphical thumbnail preview.
* [http://www.columbia.edu/itc/mealac/pritchett/00ambedkar/ambedkar_buddha/index.html The Buddha And His Dhamma] the Buddhist Bible by 20th century Indian Buddhist Revivalist Bodhisattva Dr. B. R. [[Ambedkar]]
* [http://www.buddhachat.org/ BuddhaChat.org]
* [http://www.dharmaWeb.org/ DharmaWeb.org]
* [http://www.longleaf.net/ggrow/Buddhism.html Buddhism - A Brief Introduction for Westerners]
* [http://www.accesstoinsight.org/bfaq.html FAQ about Buddhism from Access to Insight]
* [http://www.ohbliss.org/en/buddhism_faq.html Beginning Buddhism FAQ]
* [http://www.soyouwanna.com/site/syws/buddhism/buddhism.html SoYouWanna convert to Buddhism?]
* [http://www.buddhanet.net/ BuddhaNet]
* [http://www.fwbo.org/buddhism.html/ Equmenical Buddhism ]
* [http://www.buddhanet.net/dhammapada/index.htm "Treasury of Truth&quot;] illustrated "Dhammapada."
* [http://www.buddhism.kalachakranet.org/ A View on Buddhism]
* [http://www.e-sangha.com E-Sangha Buddhism Forum]
* [http://www.buddhistchannel.tv The Buddhist Channel] a news source.
* [http://www.buddhistview.com/ Buddhist Views]
* [http://www.dharmanet.org/ DharmaNet]
* [http://www.ciolek.com/WWWVL-Buddhism.html Buddhist Studies WWW Virtual Library]: the Internet guide]
* [http://www.ocbs.org Oxford Centre for Buddhist Studies]
* [http://www.orientalia.org/dic3.html International Dictionary of Buddhism (Seems to contain only romanised terms)]
* [http://www.nirvanasutra.org.uk "Nirvana Sutra"] full text and appreciation of the sutra.
* [http://www.religionfacts.com/buddhism/contents.htm ReligionFacts.com on Buddhism] facts, glossary, timeline and articles.
* [http://www.urbandharma.org/ UrbanDharma]
* [http://www.mrrena.com/budd.shtml A Study of Buddhism in Contrast to Christianity] Christian-Buddhist dialogue
* [http://users.libero.it/seza/indexgb.html The Flower of Bodhidharma]
* [http://www.dhamma.org Vipassana Meditation Website] Worldwide organization of meditation centers teaching Vipassana meditation, derived from the Maha-Satipatthana Sutra.
[[Category:Buddhism]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Base pair</title>
<id>4292</id>
<revision>
<id>41773387</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T17:23:23Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>SvenskaJohannes</username>
<id>789303</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>removed capitalization of nucleotide names</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">In [[molecular biology]], two [[nucleotide]]s on opposite [[complementarity (molecular biology)|complementary]] [[DNA]] or [[RNA]] strands that are connected via [[hydrogen bond]]s are called a '''base pair''' (often abbreviated bp). In DNA, [[adenine]] (A) forms a base pair with [[thymine]] (T), as does [[guanine]] (G) with [[cytosine]] (C). In RNA, [[thymine]] is replaced by [[uracil]] (U). As DNA is usually double-stranded, the number of base pairs given for a particular DNA strand is the number of nucleotides in one of the strands. Thus, the following examples of base-paired [[Nucleotide_sequence|nucleotide sequence]] are said to be six base-pairs long:
: A base-paired DNA sequence:
ATCGAT
TAGCTA
: The corresponding base-paired RNA sequence:
AUCGAU
UAGCUA
The following abbreviations are commonly used to describe the length of a DNA/RNA molecule:
* kbp = kilo base pairs = 1,000 bp
* Mbp = mega base pairs = 1,000,000 bp
* Gbp = giga base pairs = 1,000,000,000 bp
In case of single stranded DNA/RNA we talk about [[nucleotide]]s, abbreviated nt (or knt, Mnt, Gnt), rather than base pairs, as they are not paired.
<!-- This image is full of errors, please make a new one!
The following figure shows the chemical structures of properly base-paired [[nucleic acid]]s.
<center>
[[Image:DNAbasePairing.png|none|500px|Chemical structure of base pair bonding]]<br />
<small>''Chemical structure of base pair bonding''</small>
</center>
-->
The larger nucleic acids, adenine and guanine, are members of a class of doubly-ringed chemical structures called [[purine]]s; the smaller nucleic acids, cytosine and thymine (and uracil), are members of a class of singly-ringed chemical structures called [[pyrimidine]]s. Purines are only complementary with pyrimidines: pyrimidine-pyrimidine pairings are energetically unfavourable because the molecules are too far apart for hydrogen bonding to be established; purine-purine pairings are energetically unfavourable because the molecules are too close, leading to electrostatic repulsion. The only other possible pairings are GT and AC; these pairings are mismatches because the pattern of hydrogen donors and acceptors do not correspond.
Thymine and adenine bond together through two hydrogen bonds, while cytosine and guanine bond together through three hydrogen bonds.
As [[hydrogen bond]]s are not very strong, the two nucleotide strands will separate on temperatures higher than 94 [[degree Celsius|°C]].
Chemical analogs of nucleotides can take the place of proper nucleotides and establish non-canonical base-pairing, leading to errors in [[DNA replication]] and [[Transcription (genetics)|DNA transcription]]. Some analogs are [[carcinogen]]s; others are [[chemotherapy]] drugs.
Guanine and cytosine form 3 hydrogen bonds while adenine and thymine form only 2 hydrogen bonds. Consequently A-T pairs are less stable.
== See also ==
* [[DNA]]
* [[Nucleobase]]
* [[Wobble base pair]]
* [[Hoogsteen base pair]]
==References==
[[Category:Genetics]]
[[de:Basenpaar]]
[[fr:Paire de bases]]
[[hu:Bázispár]]
[[nl:Basepaar]]
[[vi:Nguyên tắc bổ sung]]
[[zh:碱基对]]
www.yahoo.com £È</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Baltimore Ravens</title>
<id>4293</id>
<revision>
<id>40633496</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-21T23:30:38Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Bdoserror</username>
<id>95483</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* Season-by-season records */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{NFL team | name = Baltimore Ravens
| logo = BaltimoreRavens_100.png
| founded = 1996
| city = Baltimore, Maryland
| colors = Black, Purple, and Metallic Gold
| coach = [[Brian Billick]]
| owner = [[Steve Bisciotti]]
| general manager = [[Ozzie Newsome]]
|
|
ch]]
#[[Acadia University]]
#[[Acharya Nagarjuna University]]
#[[Adam Mickiewicz University]]
#[[Addis Ababa University]]
#[[Adelphi University]]
#[[Agder College]]
#[[Agnes Scott College]]
#[[Agricultural Cooperative College]] -- [[Gyeonggi]], [[South Korea]]
#[[Agricultural University of Norway]] (NLH)
#[[Air Force Institute of Technology]]
==Aj-Ak==
#[[Ajman University College of Science and Technology ]]
#[[Ajou University]] -- [[Gyeonggi]], [[South Korea]]
#[[Akita University]]
==Al==
#[[Al Akhawayn University]]
#[[Al-Azhar University]], [[Cairo]], [[Egypt]]
#[[Al-Quds University]]
#[[Al.I.Cuza Iasi University of Iasi]]
===Ala-Ali===
#[[Alabama Aviation and Technical College]]
#[[Alabama State University]]
#[[Alagappa Government College of Engineering and Technology]]
#[[Alaska Pacific University]]
#[[Allame Tabataba'ee University, Tehran]]
#[[University of Alaska Anchorage|Alaska, University of (Anchorage)]]
#[[University of Alaska Fairbanks|Alaska, University of (Fairbanks)]]
#[[University of Alaska Southeast|Alaska, University of (Southeast)]]
#[[Albany College of Pharmacy]]
#[[Albany State University]]
#[[Albert Ludwigs University of Freiburg]]
#[[Albert Szentgyorgyi Medical University]]
#[[University of Alberta|Alberta, University of]]
#[[Alberta Vocational College]] [[Calgary]]
#[[Albertson College of Idaho]]
#[[Albion College]]
#[[Albuquerque Technical-Vocational Institute]]
#[[Alcorn State University]]
#[[Alesund College]]
#[[Alfred University]]
#[[Algonquin College]]
#[[Aligarh University]]
#[[Aligarh Muslim University]], [[Aligarh]], [[India]]
===All-Alz===
#[[All Hallows College]]
#[[All-India Institute of Medical Sciences]] (AIIMS), Delhi
#[[Allegany College of Maryland]]
#[[Allegheny College]]
#[[Allegheny University of the Health Sciences]]
#[[Allentown Business School]]
#[[Allentown College]]
#[[Alliance University College/Nazarene University College]]
#[[Alma College]]
#[[Altay State University]]
#[[Alverno College]]
#[[Alvin Community College]]
#[[Alzahra University]], [[Tehran]]
==Am==
#[[Amarillo College]]
#[[Ambassador University]]
#[[American Academy of English]]
#[[American Baptist Theological Seminary]]
#[[American College of Prehospital Medicine]]
#[[American Graduate School of International Relations and Diplomacy]]
#[[American River College]]
#[[American University]]
#[[American University in Bulgaria]]
#[[American University in Cairo]]
#[[American University of Armenia]]
#[[American University of Beirut]]
#[[American University of Paris]]
#[[Amherst College]]
#[[Amirkabir University of Technology|Amirkabir University of Technology - Tehran Polytechnic]]
#[[Amrita Vishwa Vidyapeetham]]
==An-Ap==
#[[Anadolu University]]
<!-- anderson College is Anderson University in South Carolina -->
#[[Anderson University (South Carolina)]]
#[[Anderson University (Indiana)]]
#[[Andhra University College of Engineering]]
#[[Andong Institute of Information Technology]] -- [[North Gyeongsang]], [[South Korea]]
#[[Andong National University]] -- North Gyeongsang, South Korea
#[[Andong Science College]] -- North Gyeongsang, South Korea
#[[Andrews University]]
#[[Andrews University School of Business]]
#[[Angelo State University]]
#[[Anglia Ruskin University]]
#[[Anhui University]]
#[[Anhui University of Finance and Economics]]
#[[Anhui University of Technology]]
#[[Anna University]]
#[[Annamalai University]]
#[[Anne Arundel Community College]]
#[[Anoka-Ramsey Community College]]
#[[Ansan College]] -- [[Gyeonggi]], [[South Korea]]
#[[Ansan College of Technology]] -- Gyeonggi, South Korea
#[[Ansung Women's Polytechnic College]] -- Gyeonggi, South Korea
#[[Antioch University]]
#[[Anyang University]] -- Gyeonggi, South Korea
#[[Aoyama Gakuin]]
#[[Appalachian Bible College]]
#[[Appalachian State University]]
==Aq-Ar==
#[[Aquinas College]]
#[[Arcadia University]]
#[[University of the Arctic|Arctic, University of the]]
#[[Aristotle University of Thessaloniki]]
#[[Arizona State University]] ([[Tempe, Arizona]])
#[[Arizona Western College]]
#[[Arkansas State University]]
#[[Arkansas Tech University]]
#[[Armed Forces Medical College, Pune]]
#[[Armstrong State College]]
#[[Art Academy of Cincinnati]]
#[[Art Center College of Design]]
#[[Art Institute of Seattle]]
==As-At==
#[[Asan Information and Technology Polytechnic College]] -- [[South Chungcheong]], [[South Korea]]
#[[Ashford University]]
#[[Ashland University]]
#[[Asia United Theological University]] -- [[Seoul]] and [[Gyeonggi]], [[South Korea]]
#[[Asian Institute of Management]]
#[[Asian Institute of Technology]]
#[[Askeri Elektronik Sanayi]]
#[[Asnuntuck Community-Technical College ]]
#[[Associated Canadian Theological Schools]]
#[[Assumption College]]
#[[Assumption University]]
#[[Aston University]]
#[[Ateneo de Manila University]]
#[[Athabasca University]]
#[[Athena University]]
#[[Athens Area Technical Institute]]
#[[Athens State College]]
#[[Athens University of Economics and Business]] (AUEB)
#[[Athlone Regional Technical College]]
#[[Atlantic Baptist University]] ([[Moncton, New Brunswick]], [[Canada]])
#[[Atlantic Community College]]
#[[Attila Jozsef University]]
==Au-Ay==
#[[Auburn University]]
#[[Auckland University of Technology]]
#[[Augsburg College]]
#[[Augustana College, IL]]
#[[Augustana College, SD]]
#[[Augustana University College]]
#[[Augusta State University]]
#[[Aurora University]]
#[[Aurora College]]
#[[Austin College]]
#[[Austin Community College]]
#[[Austin Peay State University]]
#[[Austin Waldron Regional Technical College]]
#[[Australian Catholic University]]
#[[Australian Correspondence Schools]]
#[[Australian Defence Force Academy]]
#[[Australian International Hotel School]]
#[[Australian National University]]
#[[A.V.C. College]]
#[[Averett College]]
#[[Avila University]]
#[[Avondale College]] ([[Australia]])
#[[Aylesbury College]]
#[[Ayr College]]
==Az==
#[[Azad University in Gorgan]]
#[[Azad University in Isfahan]]
#[[Azad University in Tehran]]
#[[Azusa Pacific University]]
:''See also :'' [[Colleges and universities]]
[[Category:Lists of universities and colleges by alphabetical order|A]]--></text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>List of colleges and universities starting with B</title>
<id>6475</id>
<revision>
<id>35576686</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-17T19:47:05Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Vizcarra</username>
<id>116263</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>[[Category:Lists of universities and colleges by alphabetical order]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_A|A]] -- '''B''' -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_C|C]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_D|D]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_E|E]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_F|F]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_G|G]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_H|H]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_I|I]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_J|J]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_K|K]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_L|L]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_M|M]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_N|N]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_O|O]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_P|P]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_Q|Q]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_R|R]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_S|S]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_T|T]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_U|U]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_V|V]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_W|W]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_X|X]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_Y|Y]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_Z|Z]]
==B==
#[[BMS College of Engineering]]
==Ba==
#[[Babes-Bolyai University of Cluj]]
#[[Babson College]]
#[[Baekseok College]] -- [[South Chungcheong]], [[South Korea]]
#[[Bahria University]]
#[[Baker University]]
#[[Baldwin-Wallace College]]
#[[Ball State University]]
#[[Banaras Hindu University]]
#[[Bangor, University of Wales]]
#[[Bangkok University]]
#[[Bangladesh University of Engineering and Technology]]
#[[Bank Street College]]
#[[Baptist Bible College, Missouri]]
#[[Baptist Bible College, Pennsylvania]]
#[[Bar-Ilan University]], [[Ramat Gan]]
#[[Bard College]]
#[[Barnard College]]
#[[Barrington University]]
#[[Barry University]]
#[[Barton College]]
#[[Barton Institute of Technical and Further Education]] (TAFE)
#[[Baruch College School of Business]]
#[[Bastyr University]]
#[[Bates College]]
#[[Baylor College of Dentistry]]
#[[Baylor College of Medicine]]
#[[Baylor University]]
#[[Bay Mills Community College]]
==Be==
===Bea-Bem===
#[[Arcadia University|Beaver College]]
#[[Bedford Business College]]
#[[Beijing Agricultural University]]
#[[Beijing Agriculture University]]
#[[Beijing Institute of Technology]]
#[[Beijing University of Aeronautics and Astronautics]]
#[[Beijing University of Aeronautics and Astronautics]]
#[[Beijing University of Chemical Technology]]
#[[Beijing University of Posts and Telecommunications]]
#[[Beijing University of Technology]]
#[[Belarusian State University]]
#[[Belarusian State University of Informatics and Radioelectronics]] (BSUIR)
#[[Bell College Of Technology]]
#[[Bellarmine University]]
#[[Bellevue Community College]]
#[[Bellevue University]]
#[[Belmont Abbey College]]
#[[Belmont University]]
#[[Beloit College]]
#[[Bemidji State University]]
===Ben-Bet===
#[[Ben-Gurion University of the Negev]]
#[[Benedict College]]
#[[Benedictine College]]
#[[Bengal Engineering College]]
#[[Bennington College]]
#[[Bentley College]]
#[[Berea College]]
#[[Berea University of Graduate
|
e probably lovers in the early years of their relationship. At any rate, their friendship was certainly a very close one. In December 1917 Lewis wrote, in a letter to his childhood friend, Arthur Greeves, that Jane and Greeves were "the two people who matter most to me in the world."
After the war Lewis and Moore began to live together, and in 1930, they and Lewis' brother, Warren Lewis, moved into The Kilns, a house near Oxford. They all three contributed financially to the purchase of the house, which passed to Lady Dunbar of Hempriggs, Moore's daughter, when Warren died in 1973.
Moore has been much criticised for being possessive and controlling and making Lewis do a lot of housework. However, she was also a warmhearted, affectionate and hospitable woman who was well liked by her neighbours at The Kilns. "She was generous and taught me to be generous, too" Lewis said to his friend George Sayer.
In later years Moore suffered from dementia and was eventually moved into a nursing home where she died in 1951. Lewis visited her every day while she was in the home.
Lewis was wounded during the [[Battle of Arras]], and suffered some depression, due in part to missing his Irish home. On his recovery, he was assigned duty in England. He was discharged in December 1918, and returned to his studies. He received a First in [[Honour Moderations]] (Greek and Latin Literature) in 1920, a First in [[Greats]] (Philosophy and Ancient History) in 1922, and a First in [[English studies|English]] in 1923.
== "My Irish Life" ==
Lewis experienced a certain cultural shock when living in England. "No Englishman will be able to understand my first impressions of England," Lewis wrote in ''[[Surprised by Joy]]''. "The strange English accents with which I was surrounded seemed like the voices of demons. But what was worst was the English landscape… I have made up the quarrel since; but at that moment I conceived a hatred for England which took many years to heal."
From his youth, Lewis had immersed himself in [[Irish mythology]] and literature and expressed an interest in the [[Irish language]]. He later developed a particular fondness for [[W. B. Yeats]], in part because of Yeats’s use of Ireland’s [[Celt|Celtic]] heritage in poetry. In a letter to a friend Lewis wrote, "I have here discovered an author exactly after my own heart, whom I am sure you would delight in, W. B. Yeats. He writes plays and poems of rare spirit and beauty about our old Irish mythology."
He was surprised to find his English peers indifferent to Yeats and the [[Celtic Revival]] movement. In describing his time at Oxford he wrote, "I am often surprised to find how utterly ignored Yeats is among the men I have met: perhaps his appeal is purely Irish — if so, then thank the gods that I am Irish."
Perhaps to help cope with his environment, Lewis even expressed a somewhat tongue-in-cheek chauvinism toward the English. Describing an encounter with a fellow Irishman he wrote, "Like all Irish people who meet in England we ended by criticisms of the inevitable flippancy and dullness of the [[Anglo-Saxon]] race. After all, ami, there is no doubt that the Irish are the only people… I would not gladly live or die among another folk."
Lewis did indeed live and die among another folk, due to his Oxford career and often expressed a certain regret at having to leave Ireland. Throughout his life, he sought out the company of his fellow Irish living in England and visited Ireland regularly. He called this "my Irish life".
Early in his career, Lewis considered sending his work to the major [[Dublin]] publishers. In a letter to a friend he wrote, "If I do ever send my stuff to a publisher, I think I shall try Maunsel, those Dublin people, and so tack myself definitely onto the Irish school." After his conversion to Christianity, his interests gravitated towards Christian spirituality and away from Celtic mysticism.
== Conversion to Christianity ==
Although raised as a Christian, Lewis was an atheist for much of his youth. When he later wrote an account of his adult reconversion to Christianity, under the title ''[[Surprised by Joy]]'', he said that he had been "very angry with God for not existing." Some interpret this to mean that he did not so much reject the existence of God as harbour anger at God for the unfairnesses in life. This interpretation appears to be contradicted by a letter to a friend, in which he said, "all religions, no, mythologies to give them their proper name, have no proof whatsoever!" The indifferent God is just as easily tested as the personal God of childhood, however, and in Lewis' considerations of an inadequate God within his own suffering, he began to believe in a deeper experience of some fundamentals of Western thought.
Influenced by arguments with his Oxford colleague and [[Roman Catholic]] friend [[J. R. R. Tolkien]], and by [[G.K. Chesterton]]'s book, ''[[The Everlasting Man]]'', he slowly rediscovered Christianity. In 1929, he came to believe in the existence of God, later writing, "In the Trinity Term of 1929 I gave in, and admitted that God was God, and knelt and prayed," describing himself as "the most dejected and reluctant convert in all England."
In 1931, after a lengthy discussion with Tolkien and another close friend, [[Hugo Dyson]], he reconverted to Christianity and (to the regret of Tolkien) joined the [[Church of England]]. He noted, "I came into Christianity kicking and screaming."
== Career as a scholar ==
Lewis taught as a fellow of [[Magdalen College, Oxford]], for nearly thirty years, from [[1925]] to [[1954]], and later was the first [[Professor of Medieval and Renaissance English, Cambridge University|Professor of Medieval and Renaissance Literature]] at the [[University of Cambridge]] and a fellow of [[Magdalene College, Cambridge]]. Using this position, he argued that there was no such thing as an [[English Renaissance]]. Much of his scholarly work concentrated on the later Middle Ages, especially its use of allegory. His ''The Allegory of Love'' (1936) helped reinvigorate the serious study of late medieval narratives like the ''[[Roman de la Rose]]''. Lewis wrote several prefaces to old works of literature and poetry, like ''Layamon's Brut''. His preface to John Milton’s poem ''[[Paradise Lost]]'' is still one of the most important criticisms of that work. His last academic work, ''The Discarded Image, an Introduction to Medieval and Renaissance Literature'' (1964), is a summary of the medieval world view, the "discarded image" of the cosmos in his title.
Lewis was a prolific writer and a member of the literary discussion society [[Inklings|The Inklings]] with his friends [[J. R. R. Tolkien]], [[Charles Williams]], and [[Owen Barfield]].
== Career as a writer of fiction ==
In addition to his scholarly work, Lewis wrote a number of popular novels, including his science-fiction [[Space Trilogy]], his fantasy [[Narnia]] books, and various other novels, most containing allegories on Christian themes such as sin, the Fall, and redemption. (For more information about those works, see their individual articles.)
'''[[The Pilgrim's Regress]].''' His first novel after becoming a Christian was ''The Pilgrim's Regress'', his take on [[John Bunyan]]'s ''[[The Pilgrim's Progress]]'' which depicted his own experience with Christianity. The book was panned at the time.
'''[[Space Trilogy]].''' His Space Trilogy or "Ransom Trilogy" novels dealt with what Lewis saw as the then-current dehumanizing trends in modern science fiction. The first book, ''[[Out of the Silent Planet]]'', was apparently written following a conversation with his friend [[J. R. R. Tolkien]] about these trends. Lewis agreed to write a "space travel" story and Tolkien a
"time travel" one. Tolkien’s story, [[The Lost Road and Other Writings|The Lost Road]], a tale connecting his Middle-earth mythology and the modern world, was never completed. Lewis’s character of Ransom is generally agreed to be based, in part, on Tolkien. The minor character Jules, from ''[[That Hideous Strength]]'', is an obvious caricature of [[H. G. Wells]]. Many of the ideas presented in the books, particularly in ''That Hideous Strength'', are dramatizations of arguments made more formally in Lewis’s ''[[The Abolition of Man]]''.
'''Works on heaven and hell.''' ''[[The Great Divorce]]'' is a short novel about imagined conversations in the foothills of [[Heaven]] between the saved and the potentially damned. The title is a reference to [[William Blake]]'s ''[[The Marriage of Heaven and Hell]]''. This work deliberately echoes two other more famous works with a similar theme: the ''[[Divine Comedy]]'' of [[Dante|Dante Aligheri]], and [[John Bunyan]]'s ''[[Pilgrim's Progress]]''. Another short [[novel]], ''[[The Screwtape Letters]]'', consists of letters of advice from a senior [[demon]], Screwtape, to his nephew Wormwood, on the best ways to tempt a particular human and secure his [[Damnation#Religious|damnation]].
'''[[The Chronicles of Narnia]].''' This is a series of seven [[fantasy fiction|fantasy]] novels for children that is by far the most popular of Lewis’s works. The books have Christian themes and describe the adventures of a group of children who visit a magical land called [[Narnia]]. ''[[The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe]]'', which was the first published and the most popular book of the series, has been adapted for both stage and screen. Written by Lewis between 1950—1956, ''[[The Chronicles of Narnia]]'' borrow from [[Greek mythology|Greek]], [[Roman Mythology|Roman]], and [[Celtic mythology]] as well as traditional English and Irish [[fairy tale]]s. Lewis reportedly based his depiction of Narnia in the novels on the geography and scenery of the [[Mourne Mountai
|
the Portuguese, who began the [[slave trade]] in the [[17th century]], the interior was not explored until the [[19th century]]. A rebellion beginning in [[1956]] by the [[Partido Africano da Independência da Guiné e Cabo Verde|African Party for the Independence of Guinea and Cape Verde]] (PAIGC) consolidated its hold on the country by [[1973]]. Independence was unilaterally declared on [[September 24]], 1973 and was recognized by a 93-7 UN General Assembly vote in November [http://daccessdds.un.org/doc/RESOLUTION/GEN/NR0/281/33/IMG/NR028133.pdf?OpenElement] , unprecedented as it denounced illegal Portuguese aggression and occupation and was prior to complete control and Portuguese recognition. Recognition became universal following the [[Carnation Revolution|Portuguese revolution of 1974]]. The country was controlled by a revolutionary council until 1984. The first multi-party elections were held in [[1994]], but an army uprising in [[1998]] led to the president's ousting and the [[Guinea-Bissau Civil War]]. Elections were held in [[2000]] and [[Kumba Ialá|Kumba Yala]] was elected.
In September [[2003]] a coup took place in which the military arrested Yala, because "he was unable to solve the problems". After being delayed several times, [[Guinea-Bissau legislative election, 2004|legislative elections]] were held in April [[2004]]. A [[mutiny]] of [[military]] factions in [[October]] [[2004]] resulted in the death of the head of the armed forces, and caused widespread unrest.
In June 2005, Presidential elections was held for the first time since the coup that deposed Yala. Yala returned as the candidate for the PRS, claiming to be the legitimate President of the country, but the election was won by former President [[João Bernardo Vieira]], deposed in the 1998 coup. Vieira was a candidate for one sect of the PAIGC. Vieira beat [[Malam Bacai Sanha]] in a runoff-election, but Sanha refused to initially concede, claiming that the election have been [[electoral fraud|fraudalent]] in two [[constituencies]], including the capital Bissau.
Despite reports that there had been an influx of arms in the weeks leading up to the election and reports of some 'disturbances during campaigning' - including the attacks of the presidential palace and the Interior Ministry by as of yet unidentified gunmen - [[Election monitoring|European monitors]] labelled the election as "calm and organized". [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/4723627.stm]
==Politics==
[[Image:Henrique Rosa.jpg|thumb|right|[[Henrique Rosa]], president (2003-05)]]
''Main article: [[Politics of Guinea-Bissau]]''
Guinea-Bissau has a [[multi-party]] [[National People's Assembly of Guinea-Bissau|National People's Assembly]], as well as a president, both elected by popular vote. The president appoints the prime minister after consultation with the parties in the assembly. The former president, Kumba Yala, belongs to the [[Social Renovation Party]] or PRS; other parties in the assembly include the Guinea-Bissau Resistance and PAIGC.
<br>
==Regions==
''Main article: [[Regions of Guinea-Bissau]]''
[[Image:GW-regions.png|right|305px|Map of the regions of Guinea-Bissau]]
Guinea-Bissau is divided into nine regions (''regiões''):
*[[Bafata Region]]
*[[Biombo Region]]
*[[Bissau Region]]
*[[Bolama Region]]
*[[Cacheu Region]]
*[[Gabu Region]]
*[[Oio Region]]
*[[Quinara Region]]
*[[Tombali Region]]
==Geography==
''Main article: [[Geography of Guinea-Bissau]]''
[[Image:Guinea bissau sm03.png|right|Map Of Guinea Bissau]]
This small, tropical country lies at a low altitude; its highest point is 300 metres. The interior is [[savanna]], and the coast line is swampy plain. Its [[monsoon]]-like rainy season alternates with periods of hot, dry [[harmattan]] winds blowing from the [[Sahara]]. The [[Bijagos Archipelago]] extends out to sea.
==Economy==
''Main article: [[Economy of Guinea-Bissau]]''
Guinea-Bissau is among the 20 poorest countries of the world. Its farming and fishing economy was badly disrupted by the 1998-99 civil war. It has a foreign [[debt]] of $US 921 million and is subject to an [[International Monetary Fund|IMF]] [[structural adjustment program]].
One of Guinea-Bissau's important income sources is [[cashew nut]]s, of which it [[export]]s 90,000 [[ton]]s per year. In January [[2005]] the government announced that a [[locust]] [[swarm]] was threatening this vital crop, and that the country did not have the resources to tackle the [[infestation]].
==Demographics==
''Main article: [[Demographics of Guinea-Bissau]]''
The population of [[Guinea-Bissau]] is ethnically diverse with distinct languages, customs, and social structures. The main spoken language is [[Upper Guinea Kriol language|Kriol]], a [[Portuguese-based creole languages|Portuguese-based creole language]] (44%); the [[Portuguese language]] is spoken by 14%. Most people are farmers, with traditional religious beliefs ([[animism]]); 45% are [[Muslim]], principally [[Fula]] and [[Mandinka language|Mandinka]] speakers concentrated in the north and northeast. Other important groups are the [[Balanta]] and [[Papel]], living in the southern coastal regions, and the [[Manjaco]] and [[Mancanha]], in the central and northern coastal areas.
==Culture==
''Main article: [[Culture of Guinea-Bissau]]''
''See also'': [[List of African writers (by country)#Guinea-Bissau|List of writers from Guinea-Bissau]], [[music of Guinea-Bissau]]
==Miscellaneous topics==
*[[Communications in Guinea-Bissau]]
*[[Foreign relations of Guinea-Bissau]]
*[[List of Guinea-Bissau-related topics]]
*[[Military of Guinea-Bissau]]
*[[Transportation in Guinea-Bissau]]
{{factbook}}
==Reference==
* Richard Andrew Lobban, Jr. and Peter Karibe Mendy, ''Historical Dictionary of the Republic of Guinea-Bissau'', 3rd ed. (Scarecrow Press, 1997) ISBN 0-8108-3226-7 Includes extensive bibliography
==External links==
{{portal}}
{{sisterlinks|Guinea-Bissau}}
===News===
*[http://allafrica.com/guineabissau/ allAfrica - ''Guinea Bissau''] news headline links
===Overviews===
*[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/country_profiles/1043287.stm BBC News ''Country Profile - Guinea-Bissau'']
* [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/pu.html CIA World Factbook - ''Guinea-Bissau'']
===Directories===
* [http://search.looksmart.com/p/browse/us1/us317836/us317916/us559898/us559899/us10065674/us559925/ LookSmart - ''Guinea-Bissau''] directory category
* [http://dmoz.org/Regional/Africa/Guinea_Bissau/ Open Directory Project - ''Guinea Bissau''] directory category
*[http://www-sul.stanford.edu/depts/ssrg/africa/guin-bis.html Stanford University - Africa South of the Sahara: ''Guinea-Bissau''] directory category
*[http://www.afrika.no/index/Countries/Guinea_Bissau/index.html The Index on Africa - ''Guinea-Bissau''] directory category
*[http://www.sas.upenn.edu/African_Studies/Country_Specific/G_Bissau.html University of Pennsylvania - African Studies Center: ''Guinea-Bissau''] directory category
* [http://dir.yahoo.com/Regional/Countries/Guinea_Bissau/ Yahoo! - ''Guinea-Bissau''] directory category
===Tourism===
*{{wikitravel}}
===Other===
*[http://www.sas.upenn.edu/African_Studies/CIA_Maps/Guinea_Bissau_19846.gif Map of Guinea-Bissau]
*[http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/5454.htm United States consular information sheet/travel advisory for Guinea-Bissau]
{{Africa}}
[[Category:Guinea-Bissau|*]]
[[Category:African Union member states]]
[[Category:Former Portuguese colonies]]
[[Category:CPLP member states]]
[[ar:غينيا بيساو]]
[[bg:Гвинея-Бисау]]
[[zh-min-nan:Guiné-Bissau]]
[[bs:Gvineja-Bisau]]
[[ca:Guinea Bissau]]
[[cs:Guinea-Bissau]]
[[da:Guinea-Bissau]]
[[de:Guinea-Bissau]]
[[et:Guinea-Bissau]]
[[es:Guinea-Bissáu]]
[[eo:Gvineo Bisaŭa]]
[[fr:Guinée-Bissau]]
[[gl:Guinea-Bisau - Guiné-Bissau]]
[[ko:기니비사우]]
[[hr:Gvineja Bisau]]
[[io:Guinea-Bissau]]
[[id:Guinea Bissau]]
[[is:Gínea-Bissá]]
[[it:Guinea-Bissau]]
[[he:גינאה ביסאו]]
[[lv:Gvineja-Bisava]]
[[lt:Bisau Gvinėja]]
[[hu:Bissau-Guinea]]
[[ms:Guinea-Bissau]]
[[na:Guinea-Bissau]]
[[nl:Guinee-Bissau]]
[[nds:Guinea-Bissau]]
[[ja:ギニアビサウ]]
[[no:Guinea-Bissau]]
[[nn:Guinea-Bissau]]
[[pl:Gwinea Bissau]]
[[pt:Guiné-Bissau]]
[[ro:Guineea-Bissau]]
[[ru:Гвинея-Бисау]]
[[sq:Guineja Bizare]]
[[simple:Guinea-Bissau]]
[[sk:Guinea-Bissau]]
[[sl:Gvineja Bissau]]
[[sr:Гвинеја Бисао]]
[[fi:Guinea-Bissau]]
[[sv:Guinea-Bissau]]
[[tl:Guinea-Bissau]]
[[tr:Gine Bissau]]
[[uk:Гвінея-Бісау]]
[[zh:幾內亞比索]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>History of Guinea-Bissau</title>
<id>12187</id>
<revision>
<id>38217667</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-04T23:38:38Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>209.98.246.61</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Struggle for independence */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''history of [[Guinea-Bissau]]''' was dominated by [[Portugal]] from the [[1450s]] to the [[1970s]]; since independence, the country has been primarily controlled by a single-party system.
==Portuguese rule==
The rivers of [[Guinea]] and the islands of [[Cape Verde]] were among the first areas in [[Africa]] explored by the Portuguese, notably [[Nuno Tristão]], in the [[15th century]]. Portugal claimed Portuguese Guinea in [[1446]], but few trading posts were established before 1600. In [[1630]], a "captaincy-general" of [[Portuguese Guinea]] was established to administer the territory. With the cooperation of some local tribes, the Portuguese entered the [[slave trade]] and exported large numbers of Africans to the Western Hemisphere via the Cape Verde Islands. [[Cacheu]] became one of the major slave centers, and a small fort still stands in the town. The slave trade declined in the 19th century, and [[Bissau]], originally founded as a military and slave-trading center in [[1765]], grew to become the major commercial center.
==19th and 20th centuries==
Portuguese conquest and consolidation of the interior did not begi
|
y.
== See also ==
* [[History of the Papacy]]
* [[History of the Vatican City]]
* [[Roman Curia]]
* [[Nuncio]]
* [[Pope Benedict XVI]]
* [[Vatican City]]
==External links==
* [http://www.vatican.va/ The Holy See Website]
* [http://www.cin.org/users/jgallegos/primacy.htm Primacy of the Apostolic See]
* [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/vt.html CIA World Factbook on Holy See]
* [http://www.holyseemission.org/ Permanent Observer Mission of the Holy See to the United Nations]
* [http://www.embassy.gov.au/va.html Australian Embassy in The Holy See]
* [http://www.dfait-maeci.gc.ca/canadaeuropa/HolySee/ Canadian Embassy to the Holy See]
* [http://www.britishembassy.gov.uk/servlet/Front?pagename=OpenMarket/Xcelerate/ShowPage&c=Page&cid=1107296209980 British Embassy to the Holy See]
* [http://www.czechembassy.org/wwwo/default.asp?idj=2&amb=84 The Embassy of the Czech Republic at the Holy See in Vatican]
* [http://vatican.usembassy.it United States Embassy to the Holy See]
{{Papal symbols and ceremonial}}
[[Category:Canon law]]
[[Category:Holy See]]
[[da:Den Hellige Stol]]
[[de:Heiliger Stuhl]]
[[es:Santa Sede Apostólica]]
[[fi:Pyhä istuin]]
[[fr:Saint-Siège]]
[[it:Santa Sede]]
[[ka:წმინდა საყდარი]]
[[la:Sancta Sedes]]
[[nl:Heilige Stoel]]
[[no:Den hellige stol]]
[[pl:Stolica Apostolska]]
[[pt:Santa Sé]]
[[ro:Sfântul Scaun]]
[[ru:Папский престол]]
[[sv:Heliga stolen]]
[[vi:Toà Thánh]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Honduras</title>
<id>13394</id>
<revision>
<id>42119116</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T23:14:44Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>216.227.124.123</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Politics */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Template:Honduras infobox}}
The '''Republic of Honduras''' is a country in [[Central America]], bordered to the west by [[Guatemala]], to the south west by [[El Salvador]], to the south east by [[Nicaragua]], to the south by the [[Pacific Ocean]], to the north by the [[Gulf of Honduras]] and the [[Caribbean Sea]], with [[Belize]] (formerly British Honduras) situated 75 [[kilometre|km]] away across the Gulf of Honduras.
==History==
''Main articles: [[History of Honduras]], [[Timeline of Honduran history]]''
The [[Pre-Columbian]] city of '''[[Copán]]''' is a locale in extreme western [[Honduras]], in the [[Copán Department]], near to the [[Guatemala]]n border. It is the site of a major [[Maya civilization|Maya]] kingdom of the Classic era. The ancient kingdom, named ''Xukpi'' (Corner-Bundle), flourished from the [[5th century]] AD to the early [[9th century]], with antecedents going back to at least the [[2nd century]] AD. The Maya civilization decayed, and by the time the Spanish came to Honduras, the once great [[city-state]] of Copán was overrun by the jungle.
After the Spanish discovery and subsequent conquest, Honduras became part of [[Spain]]'s vast empire in the [[New World]]. The Spanish ruled Honduras for approximately 3 centuries.
Honduras became a state in the [[United Provinces of Central America]] in [[1821]], and an independent republic with the demise of the union in [[1838]]=[[1840]].
The [[Football war]] of 1969 was fought with El Salvador. It lasted approximately 100 hours. During the [[1980s]], Honduras was used as a large military base of the United States to create, train and support the anti-[[Sandinista]] [[contras]] fighting the [[Nicaragua]]n government and to support the government of [[El Salvador]] forces fighting against the [[guerrilla warfare|guerrillas]] trying to oust a long succession of violently repressive military dictatorships, and military backed governments.
[[Hurricane Fifi]] which caused severe damage skimmed the northern coast of Honduras on September 18 and 19, 1974. Later,
[[Hurricane Mitch]] devastated the country and wrecked its [[economic system|economy]] in [[1998]].
==Politics==
''Main article:[[Politics of Honduras]]''
''See also: [[Elections in Honduras]] [[President of Honduras]]''
A Presidential and general election was held on [[November 27]], [[2005]]. [[Manuel Zelaya ]] of the [[Liberal Party of Honduras]] (Partido Liberal de Honduras: PLH) won with [[Porfirio Pepe Lobo]] of the [[National Party of Honduras]] (Partido Nacional de Honduras: PNH) coming in second. The PNH challenged the election results, and Lobo Sosa did not concede until December 7. Towards the end of December the government finally released the total ballot count, giving Zelaya the official victory. Zelaya was inaugurated as Honduras' new president on [[January 27]], [[2006]].
Honduras has five registered political parties: PNH, PLH, Social Democrats (Partido Innovación Nacional y Social Demócrata: PINU-SD), Social Christians (Partido Demócrata-Cristiano: DC), and Democrat Unification (Partido Unificación Democrática: UD). The PNH and PLH have ruled the country for decades. In the last 23 years, Honduras has had four Liberal presidents: [[Roberto Suazo Córdova]], [[José Azcona del Hoyo]], [[Carlos Roberto Reina]], and [[Carlos Roberto Flores]], and two Nationalists: [[Rafael Leonardo Callejas Romero]] and [[Ricardo Maduro]]. The elections have been full of controversies including, questions about whether Azcona was born in Honduras or Spain, and whether Maduro should have been able to stand given he was born in [[Panama]].
Roberto Suazo Cordoba ruled the country during the so called "Lost Decade" when hundreds of human rights violations were committed, and alleged political crimes were common place. In [[1986]], Azcona del Hoyo was elected via the "Formula B," when Azcona did not obtain the majority of votes. However, 5 Liberal candidates and 4 Nationalist were running for president at that time, and the "Formula B" required all votes from all candidates from the same party to be added together. Azcona then became the president. In [[1990]], Callejas won the election under the slogan "Llegó el momento del Cambio," (The time for Change has arrived), which was heavily criticized for resembling El Salvador's "ARENAs" political campaign. Callejas Romero gained a reputation for illicit enrichment. Callejas has been the subject of several scandals and accusations in the last two decades. In [[1998]], during Flores Facusse's mandate, [[Hurricane Mitch]] hit the country and all indications of economic growth were washed out in a period of 5 days.
In 2004 separate ballots were used for mayors, congress, and president. Many more candidates were registered for the 2005 election.
The Nationalist and Liberal parties are distinct [[political party|political parties]] with their own dedicated band of supporters, but some have pointed out that their interests and policy measures throughout the 23 years of uninterrupted [[democracy]] have been very similar. They are often seen as primarily serving the interests of their own members, who receive jobs when their party gains power and lose them again when the other party does so. Both are seen as supportive of the elite who owns most of the wealth in the country, with neither of them promoting socialist ideals, even though in many ways Honduras is run like a democratic version of an old socialist state, with price controls and nationalized electric and land-line telephone services.
However, President Maduro's administration "de-nationalized" the telecommunications sector in a move to promote the rapid diffusion of telecom services to the Honduran population. As of November 2005, there were around 10 private-sector telecom companies in the Honduran market, including two mobile phone companies.
==Subdivisions==
''Main articles: [[Departments of Honduras]] and [[Municipalities of Honduras]]''
Honduras is divided into 18 [[department]]s and 298 [[municipality|municipalities]]. The largest department by surface area is [[Olancho department]] and by population is [[Francisco Morazán department]] and the smallest by both surface area and population is the [[Islas de la Bahía department]].
==Geography==
[[Image:Honduras_sm04.png|thumb|200px|right|Map of Honduras]]
[[image:Honduras_rel_1985.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Shaded relief map of Honduras, 1985]]
''Main article: [[Geography of Honduras]]''
Honduras borders the [[Caribbean Sea]] on the north coast and the [[Pacific Ocean]] on the south through the Gulf of Fonseca. The [[climate]] varies from [[tropical]] in the [[lowlands]] to [[temperate]] in the mountains. The central and southern regions are relatively hotter and less humid than the northern coast.
Honduran terrain consists mainly of mountains (~80%), but there are narrow plains along the coasts, a large undeveloped lowland jungle [[La Mosquitia]] region in the northeast and the heavily populated lowland [[San Pedro Sula]] valley in the northwest. In La Mosquitia lies the [[UNESCO]]-protected Biosphere of [[Río Plátano]], with the [[Río Negro (Honduras/Nicaragua)|Río Negro]] dividing the country from [[Nicaragua]]. See [[Rivers of Honduras]].
Natural resources include [[timber]], [[gold]], [[silver]], [[copper]], [[lead]], [[zinc]], [[iron]] [[ore]], [[antimony]], [[coal]], [[fish]], and [[hydropower]].
==Economy==
[[image:Honduras_econ_1983.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Economic activity map of Honduras, 1983]]
''Main article: [[Economy of Honduras]]''
Honduras is one of the poorest countries in the Americas, with GDP per capita at [[United States dollar|US$]]2050 per year (1999).
Under the presidency of [[Ricardo Maduro]] the economy has continued to grow slowly but the distribution of wealth remains very polarized with average wages remaining very low. Economic growth is roughly 5% a year, but many people remain below the poverty line. It is estimated that there are more than 1.2 million people who are [[Unemployment|unemployed]].
The [[World Bank]] and the [[International Monetary Fund]] classified Honduras as one of the [[Heavily Indebted Poor
|
s and services.
* Ethical relations between the company and the environment: [[pollution]], [[environmental ethics]], [[carbon emissions trading]]
* Ethical problems arising out of new technologies: [[genetically modified food]], [[mobile phone radiation and health]].
* Product testing ethics: [[animal rights]] and [[animal testing]], use of economically disadvantaged groups (such as students) as test objects.
See also: [[product liability]]
Cases: [[Ford Pinto]] scandal, [[Bhopal disaster]], [[asbestos]] / [[asbestos and the law]].
====Ethics of intellectual property, knowledge and skills ====
Knowledge and skills are valuable but not easily "ownable" objects. Nor is it obvious who has the greater rights to an idea: the company who trained the employee or the employee themselves? The country in which the plant grew, or the company which discovered and developed the plant's medicinal potential? As a result, attempts to assert ownership and ethical disputes over ownership arise.
* [[Patent infringement]], [[copyright infringement]], [[trademark infringement]].
* Misuse of the intellectual property systems to stifle competition: [[patent misuse]], [[copyright misuse]], [[patent troll]], [[submarine patent]].
* Even the notion of intellectual property itself has been criticised on ethical grounds: see [[intellectual property]].
* [[Employee raiding]]: the practice of attracting key employees away from a competitor to take unfair advantage of the knowledge or skills they may possess.
* The practice of employing all the most talented people in a specific field, regardless of need, in order to prevent any competitors employing them.
* [[Bioprospecting]] (ethical) and [[biopiracy]] (unethical).
* [[Business intelligence]] and [[industrial espionage]].
Cases: private versus public interests in the [[Human Genome Project]]
===International business ethics and ethics of economic systems===
The issues here are grouped together because they involve a much wider, global view on business ethical matters.
====International business ethics====
While business ethics emerged as a field in the 1970's, international business ethics did not emerge until the late 1990's, reflecting the international developments of that decade.{{ref||Enderle}} Many new practical issues arose out the international context of business. Theoretical issues such as cultural relativity of ethical values receive more emphasis in this field. Other, older issues can be grouped here as well. Issues and subfields include:
* The search for universal values as a basis for international commercial behaviour.
* Comparison of business ethical traditions in different countries.
* Comparison of business ethical traditions from various religious perspectives.
* Ethical issues arising out of international business transactions; e.g. [[bioprospecting]] and [[biopiracy]] in the pharmaceutical industry; the [[fair trade]] movement; [[transfer pricing]].
* Issues such as [[globalisation]] and [[cultural imperialism]].
* Varying global standards - e.g. the use of [[child labour]].
* The way in which multinationals take advantage of international differences, such as outsourcing production (e.g. clothes) and services (e.g. call centres) to low-wage countries.
* The permissibility of international commerce with pariah states.
====Ethics of economic systems====
This vaguely defined area, perhaps not part of but only related to business ethics{{ref|george1}}, is where business ethicists venture into the fields of [[political economy]] and [[political philosophy]], focussing on the rights and wrongs of various systems for the distribution of economic benefits. The work of [[John Rawls]] ([[1921]]-[[2002]]) is a notable contribution.
==Theoretical issues in business ethics==
===Conflicting interests===
Business ethics can be examined from various perspectives, including the perspective of the employee, the commercial enterprise, and society as a whole. Very often, situations arise in which there is conflict between one or more of the parties, such that serving the interest of one party is a detriment to the other(s). For example, a particular outcome might be good for the employee, whereas, it would be bad for the company, society, or vice versa. Some ethicists (e.g., [[Henry Sidgwick]]) see the principal role of ethics as the harmonization and reconciliation of conflicting interests.
===Ethical issues and approaches===
Philosophers and others disagree about the purpose of a business in society. For example, some suggest that the principal purpose of a business is to maximize returns to its owners, or in the case of a publicly-traded concern, its shareholders. Thus, under this view, only those activities that increase profitability and shareholder value should be encouraged. Some believe that the only companies that are likely to survive in a competitive marketplace are those that place profit maximization above everything else. However, some point out that self interest would still require a business to obey the law and adhere to basic moral rules, because the consequences of failing to do so could be very costly in fines, loss of licensure, or company reputation. The economist [[Milton Friedman]] is a leading proponent of this view.
Other theorists contend that a business has moral duties that extend well beyond serving the interests of its owners or stockholders, and that these duties consist of more than simply obeying the law. They believe a business has moral responsibilities to so-called [[stakeholders]], people who have an interest in the conduct of the business, which might include employees, customers, vendors, the local community, or even society as a whole. They would say that stakeholders have certain rights with regard to how the business operates, and some would even suggest that this even includes rights of governance.
Some theorists have adapted [[social contract]] theory to business, whereby companies become quasi-democratic associations, and employees and other stakeholders are given voice over a company's operations. This approach has become especially popular subsequent to the revival of contract theory in [[political philosophy]], which is largely due to [[John Rawls]]' ''A Theory of Justice'', and the advent of the consensus-oriented approach to solving business problems, an aspect of the "[[quality]] movement" that emerged in the 1980s. Professors [[Thomas Donaldson]] and [[Thomas Dunfee]] proposed a version of contract theory for business, which they call Integrative Social Contracts Theory. They posit that conflicting interests are best resolved by formulating a "fair agreement" between the parties, using a combination of i) macro-principles that all rational people would agree upon as universal principles, and, ii) micro-principles formulated by actual agreements among the interested parties. Critics say the proponents of contract theories miss a central point, namely, that a business is someone's property and not a mini-state or a means of distributing social justice.
Ethical issues can arise when companies must comply with multiple and sometimes conflicting legal or cultural standards, as in the case of multinational companies that operate in countries with varying practices. The question arises, for example, ought a company to obey the laws of its home country, or should it follow the less stringent laws of the developing country in which it does business? To illustrate, United States law forbids companies from paying bribes either domestically or overseas; however, in other parts of the world, bribery is a customary, accepted way of doing business. Similar problems can occur with regard to child labor, employee safety, work hours, wages, discrimination, and environmental protection laws.
It is sometimes claimed that a [[Gresham's law]] of ethics applies in which bad ethical practices drive out good ethical practices. It is claimed that in a competitive business environment, those companies that survive are the ones that recognize that their only role is to maximize profits. On this view, the competitive system fosters a downward ethical spiral.
Rushworth Kidder developed a fascinating way to address ethical conflicts. He calls it a "trilemma". Instead of feeling stuck in a choice between violating your ethics and doing something painful but ethical, he suggests exploring if there is a third, unexplored option.
==Business ethics in the field==
===Corporate ethics policies===
Many companies have formulated internal policies pertaining to the ethical conduct of employees. These policies can be simple exhortations in broad, highly-generalized language (typically called a corporate ethics statement), or they can be more detailed policies, containing specific behavioral requirements (typically called corporate ethics codes). They are generally meant to identify the company's expectations of workers and to offer guidance on handling some of the more common ethical problems that might arise in the course of doing business. It is hoped that having such a policy will lead to greater ethical awareness, consistency in application, and the avoidance of ethical disasters.
An increasing number of companies also requires employees to attend seminars regarding business conduct, which often include discussion of the company's policies, specific case studies, and legal requirements. Some companies even require their employees to sign agreements stating that they will abide by the company's rules of conduct.
Not everyone supports corporate policies that govern ethical conduct. Some claim that ethical problems are better dealt with by depending upon employees to use their own judgment.
Others believe that corporate ethics policies are primarily rooted in utilitarian concerns, and that they are mainly to limit the company's legal liability, or to curry public favor by giving the appearance of bei
|
so Ibn Sina wandered from place to place through the districts of [[Nishapur]] and [[Merv]] to the borders of [[Khorasan]], seeking an opening for his talents. [[Shams al-Ma'äli Qäbtis]], the generous ruler of [[Dailam]], himself a poet and a scholar, with whom Ibn Sina had expected to find an asylum, was about that date ([[1052]]) starved to death by his own revolted soldiery. Ibn Sina himself was at this season stricken down by a severe illness. Finally, at [[Gorgan]], near the [[Caspian Sea]], Ibn Sina met with a friend, who bought a dwelling near his own house in which Ibn Sina lectured on [[logic]] and [[astronomy]]. For this patron, several of Ibn Sina's treatises were written; and the commencement of his ''Canon of Medicine'' also dates from his stay in [[Hyrcania]].
[[image:Avicenna2.jpg|thumb|200px|left|Poland commemorated Avicenna's life and work in this postage stamp]]
Ibn Sina subsequently settled at [[Ray, Iran|Rai]], in the vicinity of the modern [[Tehran]], (present day capital of Iran), the home town of [[Rhazes]]; where [[Majd Addaula]], a son of the last [[emir]], was nominal ruler under the regency of his mother ([[Seyyedeh Khatun]]). At Rai about thirty of his shorter works are said to have been composed. Constant feuds which raged between the regent and her second son, [[Amir Shamsud-Dawala]], compelling the scholar to quit the place. After a brief sojourn at [[Qazvin]], he passed southwards to Hamadãn, where that prince had established himself. At first, Ibn Sina entered into the service of a high-born lady; but the emir, hearing of his arrival, called him in as medical attendant, and sent him back with presents to his dwelling. Ibn Sina was even raised to the office of vizier. The amir consented that he should be banished from the country. Ibn Sina, however, remained hidden for forty days in a [[shaikh|sheikh]]'s house, till a fresh attack of illness induced the emir to restore him to his post. Even during this perturbed time, Ibn Sina prosecuted his studies and teaching. Every evening, extracts from his great works, the ''Canon'' and the ''Sanatio'', were dictated and explained to his pupils; among whom, when the lesson was over, he spent the rest of the night in festive enjoyment with a band of singers and players. On the death of the amir, Ibn Sina ceased to be vizier and hid himself in the house of an [[apothecary]], where, with intense assiduity, he continued the composition of his works.
Meanwhile, he had written to [[Abu Ya'far]], the [[prefect]] of the dynamic city of [[Isfahan (city)|Isfahan]], offering his services. The new emir of Hamadan, hearing of this correspondence and discovering where Ibn Sina's was hidden, incarcerated him in a fortress. War meanwhile continued between the rulers of Isfahan and Hamadãn; in [[1024]] the former captured Hamadan and its towns, expelling the Turkish [[mercenary|mercenaries]]. When the storm had passed, Ibn Sina returned with the amir to Hamadan, and carried on his literary labours. Later, however, accompanied by his brother, a favourite pupil, and two slaves, Ibn Sina escaped out of the city in the dress of a [[Sufi|Sufite]] [[ascetic]]. After a perilous journey, they reached Isfahan, receiving an honourable welcome from the prince. Avicenna also introduced medical herbs.
==Late life==
The remaining ten or twelve years of Avicenna's life were spent in the service of [[Abu Ya'far 'Ala Addaula]], whom he accompanied as physician and general literary and scientific adviser, even in his numerous campaigns.
During these years he began to study [[literature|literary]] matters and [[philology]], instigated, it is asserted, by criticisms on his style. But amid his restless study Ibn Sina never forgot his love of enjoyment. Unusual bodily vigour enabled him to combine severe devotion to work with facile indulgence in sensual pleasures. Versatile, lighthearted, boastful and pleasure-loving, he contrasts with the nobler and more intellectual character of [[Averroes]]. His bouts of pleasure gradually weakened his constitution; a severe [[colic]], which seized him on the march of the army against Hamadãn, was checked by remedies so violent that Ibn Sina could scarcely stand. On a similar occasion the disease returned; with difficulty he reached Hamadãn, where, finding the disease gaining ground, he refused to keep up the regimen imposed, and resigned himself to his fate.
His friends advised him to slow down and take life moderately. He refused, however, stating that: ''"I prefer a short life with width to a narrow one with length"''. On his deathbed remorse seized him; he bestowed his goods on the poor, restored unjust gains, freed his slaves, and every third day till his death listened to the reading of the Qur'an. He died in June [[1037]], in his fifty-eighth year, and was buried in [[Hamedan]], [[Iran]].
==Works==
Ibn Sina is comparable to such greats as [[Abu Bakr Mohammad Ibn Zakariya al-Razi]]. However, despite such glorious tributes to his work, Ibn Sina is rarely remembered in the West today and his fundamental contributions to medicine and the European reawakening go largely unrecognised.
Ibn Sina is usually considered as a great philosopher and physician. His philosophical disciple is not a live school in western philosophy today. Unfortunately, the West only pays attention to some portion of his philosophy, which is known as the ''Latin Avicennaian School,'' and his other significant philosophical contribution, which had been hailed by [[Suhrawardi]], is still unknown to West. This notable part is called '''حكمت مشرقيه''' (''hikmat-al-mashriqqiyya'') by him. In some of his writings, he mentions this to his disciples as his major achievement. Heavily influenced by Ibn Sina, [[Suhrawardi]] made philosophical contributions which have developed much from Ibn Sina's work, later founding [[illuminationist philosophy]] and believing to have finished what Ibn Sina began.
Ibn Sina also wrote extensively on the subjects of [[philosophy]], [[logic]], [[ethics]], [[metaphysics]] and other disciplines. All his works were written in [[Arabic language|Arabic]] - which was the ''de facto'' scientific [[language]] of that time, and some were written in the Persian language. Of linguistic significance even to this day are a few books that he wrote in nearly pure Persian language[citation needed]. Unlike [[Aquinas]] who more or less sanctified Aristotle as church dogma, Ibn Sina corrected him often, encouraging a lively debate in the spirit of [[ijtihad]]. Accordingly he is one of the earliest pioneers of the scientific process of [[peer review]] as we know it today, his influence on that process being profound at least, and perhaps even decisive.
About 100 treatises were ascribed to Ibn Sina. Some of them are tracts of a few pages, others are works extending through several volumes. The best-known amongst them, and that to which Ibn Sina owed his European reputation, is his 14-volume ''[[The Canon of Medicine]]'', which was a standard medical text in Western Europe for seven centuries. It classifies and describes diseases, and outlines their assumed causes. [[Hygiene]], simple and complex medicines, and functions of parts of the body are also covered. It asserts that [[tuberculosis]] was contagious, which was later disputed by Europeans, but turned out to be true. It also describes the symptoms and complications of [[diabetes]]. An Arabic edition of the ''Canons'' appeared at Rome in [[1593]], and a Hebrew version at Naples in [[1491]]. Of the Latin version there were about thirty editions, founded on the original translation by [[Gerard of Cremona]]. The [[15th century]] has the honour of composing the great commentary on the text of the ''Canon'', grouping around it all that theory had imagined, and all that practice had observed. Other medical works translated into Latin are the ''Medicamenta Cordialia'', ''Canticum de Medicina'', and the ''Tractatus de Syrupo Acetoso''.
It was mainly accident which determined that from the [[12th century|12th]] to the [[17th century]] Ibn Sina should be the guide of medical study in European universities, and eclipse the names of Rhazes, [[Ali ibn al-Abbas]] and [[Averroes]]. His work is not essentially different from that of his predecessor Rhazes, because he presented the doctrine of [[Galen]], and through Galen the doctrine of [[Hippocrates]], modified by the system of Aristotle. But the ''Canon'' of Avicenna is distinguished from the ''Al-Hawi'' (Continens) or ''Summary'' of Rhazes by its greater method, due perhaps to the logical studies of the former. The work has been variously appreciated in subsequent ages, some regarding it as a treasury of wisdom, and others, like [[Averroes]], holding it useful only as waste paper. In modern times it has been more criticized than read. The vice of the book is excessive classification of bodily faculties, and over-subtlety in the discrimination of diseases. It includes five books; of which the first and second treat of [[physiology]], [[pathology]] and [[hygiene]], the third and fourth deal with the methods of treating disease, and the fifth describes the composition and preparation of remedies. This last part contains some personal observations. He is, like all his countrymen, ample in the enumeration of symptoms, and is said to be inferior to Ali in practical medicine and [[surgery]]. He introduced into medical theory the four causes of the [[Peripatetic]] system. Of [[natural history]] and [[botany]] he pretended to no special knowledge. Up to the year [[1650]], or thereabouts, the ''Canon'' was still used as a textbook in the universities of [[Leuven]] and [[Montpellier]].
Scarcely any member of the Arabian circle of the sciences, including [[theology]], [[philology]], [[mathematics]], [[astronomy]], [[physics]], and [[music]], was left untouched by the treatises of Ibn Sina, many of which probably varied little, except in being commi
|
t;font-size:x-large;" class="Unicode" | &#x2C20;
| Jerj'
| Jerj
| {{IPA|/[[Close-mid central unrounded vowel|ɘ]]/}}
|
| (Ь ь) [[soft sign]]
|-
| [[Image:GlagolitsaJat.gif|14px|Jati]]
| style="font-size:x-large;" class="Unicode" | &#x2C21;
| Jat'
| Jat
| {{IPA|/[[Near-open front unrounded vowel|æ]]/}}, {{IPA|/jɑ/}}
| Maybe from epigraphic Greek Alpha Α
| ({{unicode|Ѣ ѣ}}) [[Yat]] (removed from Russian in [[1917]], from Bulgarian in [[1945]])
|-
| [[Image:GlagolitsaJo.gif|15px]]
| style="font-size:x-large;" class="Unicode" | &#x2C26;
| Ye
| Yo
| {{IPA|/jɛ/}}
|
| ({{unicode|Ѥ ѥ}}) [[E iotified]] (obsolete)
|-
| [[Image:GlagolitsaJu.gif|14px|Jou]]
| style="font-size:x-large;" class="Unicode" | &#x2C23;
| Yu
| Yu
| {{IPA|/ju/}}
|
| (Ю ю) [[Yu (Cyrillic)|Yu]]
|-
| [[Image:GlagolitsaJusE.gif|14px|Ensu (small jousu)]]
| style="font-size:x-large;" class="Unicode" | &#x2C24;
| Ens'
| [Small Yus]
| {{IPA|/[[Nasalization|ɛ̃]]/}}
|
| ({{unicode|Ѧ ѧ}}) [[Yus|Yus Small]] (obsolete)
|-
| [[Image:GlagolitsaJusJe.gif|26px|Jensu (small jousu)]]
| style="font-size:x-large;" class="Unicode" | &#x2C27;
| Yens'
| [Small Iotified Yus]
| {{IPA|/jɛ̃/}}
| Ligature of Jest and nasality
| ({{unicode|Ѩ ѩ}}) [[Yus|Yus Small Iotified]] (obsolete)
|-
| [[Image:GlagolitsaJusO.gif|24px|Onsu (big jousu)]]
| style="font-size:x-large;" class="Unicode" | &#x2C28;
| Ons'
| [Big Yus]
| {{IPA|/[[Nasalization|ɔ̃]]/}}
| Ligature of On and nasality
| ({{unicode|Ѫ ѫ}}) [[Yus|Yus Big]] (obsolete)
|-
| [[Image:GlagolitsaJusJo.gif|26px|Jonsu (big jousu)]]
| style="font-size:x-large;" class="Unicode" | &#x2C29;
| Yons'
| [Big Iotified Yus]
| {{IPA|/jɔ̃/}}
|
| ({{unicode|Ѭ ѭ}}) [[Yus|Yus Big Iotified]] (obsolete)
|-
| [[Image:GlagolitsaThita.gif|16px|Thita]]
| style="font-size:x-large;" class="Unicode" | &#x2C2A;
| Thita
| Fita
| {{IPA|/[[Voiceless dental fricative|θ]]/}}
| (Θ θ) Greek [[Theta]]
| ({{unicode|Ѳ ѳ}}) [[Fita]] (only used to transcribe Greek)
|-
| [[Image:GlagolitsaIzhitsa.gif|16px|Yzhica]]
| style="font-size:x-large;" class="Unicode" | &#x2C2B;
| Izhitsa
| Izhitsa
| {{IPA|/[[Near-close near-front rounded vowel|ʏ]]/}}, {{IPA|/[[Close front unrounded vowel|i]]/}}
| Ligature of Izhe and Jer
| ({{unicode|Ѵ ѵ}}) [[Izhitsa]] (removed from Russian in [[1917]])
|}
Note that Jery is simply a [[digraph (orthography)|digraph]] of Jer and I.
The order of Izhe and I varies from source to source, as does the order of the various forms of Jus.
== Unicode ==
The Glagolitic alphabet was added to [[Unicode]] in version 4.1. The codepoint range is U+2C00 &ndash; U+2C5E. See also:
* [http://www.unicode.org/charts/PDF/U2C00.pdf Glagolitic code chart]
== In popular culture ==
In Western Europe, Glagolitic is one of the least known Eastern European alphabets. It also has a particularly exotic appearance to Western eyes, as (unlike Cyrillic or Greek) none of the letters bear any resemblance to Roman letters. It may be for this reason that Glagolitic was selected as the script used by an [[extraterrestrial life|extraterrestrial]] species in the [[3-D film|3-D]] [[IMAX]] movie, ''[[Alien Adventure]]''. Not only did the aliens write in Glagolitic, but their leader was called "Cyrillus"! (However, the alien language was unrelated to Slavonic, as in fact they spoke the [[Walloon language]], a rare dialect from the production company's homeland, [[Belgium]].)
==See also==
* [[Glagolitic Mass]]
== External links ==
* [http://www.hr/darko/etf/et03.html Croatian Glagolitic Script]
* [http://www.hr/darko/etf/novi.html Croatian Glagolitic Script]
* [http://www.omniglot.com/writing/glagolitic.htm The Glagolitic alphabet] at omniglot.com
* [http://userweb.port.ac.uk/~cleminsr/introd.html The Budapest Glagolitic Fragments] - links to a Unicode Glagolitic font, Dilyana
* [http://fixedsys.org/~node_ue/fonts/ Typography], links to a Unicode 4.1 Glagolitic font, MPH 2B Damase
* [http://www.hr/darko/glagoljica/gl-font.html Glagolitic Fonts]
* [http://pepa.sa.sweb.cz/hlaholice.htm Three Czech Glagolitic Fonts] - two fonts from [[Great Moravia]] period, one from [[Middle Ages]]
== Literature ==
* Fucic, Branko: ''Glagoljski natpisi''. (In: Djela Jugoslavenske Akademije Znanosti i Umjetnosti, knjiga 57.) Zagreb, 1982. 420 p.
* Fullerton, Sharon Golke: ''Paleographic Methods Used in Dating Cyrillic and Glagolitic Slavic Manuscripts''. (In: Slavic Papers No. 1.) Ohio, 1975. 93 p.
* Gosev, Ivan: ''Rilszki glagolicseszki lisztove''. Szofia, 1956. 130 p.
* V. Jagic ''Glagolitica. Würdigung neuentdeckter Fragmente'', Wien, 1890.
* H. Miklas (Hrsg.) ''Glagolitica: zum Ursprung der slavischen Schriftkultur'', Wien, 2000.
* [http://fullextra.com/modules.php?name=News&file=article&sid=782 Steller, Lea-Katharina (geb. Virághalmy): ''A glagolita írás''] (In: ''Paleográfiai kalandozások''. Szentendre, 1992.)
* Vais, Joseph: ''Abecedarivm Palaeoslovenicvm in usum glagolitarum''. Veglae, [Krk], 1917. XXXVI, 74 p.
* Vajs, Josef: ''Rukovet hlaholske paleografie. Uvedení do knizního písma hlaholskeho''. V Praze, 1932. 178 p, LIV. tab.
[[Category:Alphabetic writing systems]]
[[Category:Slavic culture]]
{{Link FA|bg}}
{{Link FA|sl}}
[[bg:Глаголица]]
[[be:Глаголіца]]
[[cs:Hlaholice]]
[[da:Glagolitiske alfabet]]
[[de:Glagoliza]]
[[es:Alfabeto glagolítico]]
[[fr:Alphabet glagolitique]]
[[gl:Alfabeto glagolítico]]
[[hr:Glagoljica]]
[[it:Alfabeto glagolitico]]
[[hu:Glagolita írás]]
[[nl:Glagolitisch alfabet]]
[[no:Glagolittiske alfabet]]
[[pl:Głagolica]]
[[ro:Alfabetul glagolitic]]
[[ru:Глаголица]]
[[sk:Hlaholika]]
[[sl:Glagolica]]
[[sr:Глагољица]]
[[zh:格拉哥里字母]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Greatest common divisor</title>
<id>12354</id>
<revision>
<id>39973421</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-17T04:57:21Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Oleg Alexandrov</username>
<id>153314</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* External links */ rm poor quality website link</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">In [[mathematics]], the '''greatest common divisor''' (gcd), sometimes known as the '''greatest common factor''' (gcf) or '''highest common factor''' (hcf) of two [[integer]]s which are not both zero is the largest integer that [[divisor|divides]] both numbers.
The greatest common divisor of ''a'' and ''b'' is written as gcd(''a'',&nbsp;''b''), or sometimes simply as (''a'',&nbsp;''b''). For example, gcd(12, 18)&nbsp;=&nbsp;6, gcd(&minus;4,&nbsp;14)&nbsp;=&nbsp;2 and gcd(5, 0)&nbsp;=&nbsp;5. Two numbers are called ''[[coprime]]'' or ''relatively prime'' if their greatest common divisor equals 1. For example, 9 and 28 are relatively prime.
The greatest common divisor is useful for reducing [[vulgar fraction]]s to be [[in lowest terms]]. Consider for instance
:<math>{42 \over 56}={3 \cdot 14 \over 4 \cdot 14}={3 \over 4}</math>
where we cancelled 14, the greatest common divisor of 42 and 56.
== Calculating the GCD ==
Greatest common divisors can in principle be computed by determining the [[prime number|prime factorizations]] of the two numbers and comparing factors, as in the following example: to compute gcd(18,84), we find the prime factorizations 18&nbsp;=&nbsp;2·3<sup>2</sup> and 84&nbsp;=&nbsp;2<sup>2</sup>·3·7 and notice that the "overlap" of the two expressions is 2·3; so gcd(18,84)&nbsp;=&nbsp;6. In practice, this method is only feasible for very small numbers; computing prime factorizations in general takes far too long.
A much more efficient method is the [[Euclidean algorithm]]: divide 84 by 18 to get a quotient of 4 and a remainder of 12. Then divide 18 by 12 to get a quotient of 1 and a remainder of 6. Then divide 12 by 6 to get a remainder of 0, which means that 6 is the gcd.
== Properties ==
*Every common divisor of ''a'' and ''b'' is a divisor of gcd(''a'',&nbsp;''b'').
*gcd(''a'',&nbsp;''b''), where ''a'' and ''b'' are not both zero, may be defined alternatively and equivalently as the smallest positive integer ''d'' which can be written in the form ''d''&nbsp;=&nbsp;''a''·''p''&nbsp;+&nbsp;''b''·''q'' where ''p'' and ''q'' are integers. This expression is called [[Bézout's identity]]. Numbers ''p'' and ''q'' like this can be computed with the [[extended Euclidean algorithm]].
*If ''a'' divides the product ''b''·''c'', and gcd(''a'',&nbsp;''b'')&nbsp;=&nbsp;''d'', then ''a''/''d'' divides ''c''.
*If ''m'' is any integer, then gcd(''m''·''a'',&nbsp;''m''·''b'')&nbsp;=&nbsp;''m''·gcd(''a'',&nbsp;''b'') and gcd(''a''&nbsp;+&nbsp;''m''·''b'',&nbsp;''b'')&nbsp;=&nbsp;gcd(''a'',&nbsp;''b''). If ''m'' is a nonzero common divisor of ''a'' and ''b'', then gcd(''a''/''m'',&nbsp;''b''/''m'')&nbsp;=&nbsp;gcd(''a'',&nbsp;''b'')/''m''.
*The gcd is a [[multiplicative function]] in the following sense: if ''a''<sub>1</sub> and ''a''<sub>2</sub> are relatively prime, then gcd(''a''<sub>1</sub>·''a''<sub>2</sub>,&nbsp;''b'') = gcd(''a''<sub>1</sub>,&nbsp;''b'')·gcd(''a''<sub>2</sub>,&nbsp;''b'').
*The gcd of three numbers can be computed as gcd(''a'',&nbsp;''b'',&nbsp;''c'') = gcd(gcd(''a'',&nbsp;''b''),&nbsp;''c'') = gcd(''a'',&nbsp;gcd(''b'',&nbsp;''c'')). Thus the gcd is an [[associative]] operation.
*gcd(''a'',&nbsp;''b'') is closely related to the [[least common multiple]] lcm(''a'',&nbsp;''b''): we have
::gcd(''a'',&nbsp;''b'')·lcm(''a'',&nbsp;''b'')&nbsp;=&nbsp;''a''·''b''.
:This formula is often used to compute least common multiples: on
|
rivate universities. There are many private universities providing general, engineering and medical education.
Notable reseach institutions include [[BRRI|Bangladesh Rice Research Institute]] and [http://www.icddrb.org/ International Center for Diarrhoeal Disease Research].
==Holidays==
{{further|[[Public holidays in Bangladesh]]}}
Bangladesh has eleven National Holidays, based on three separate calendars: [[Gregorian calendar|Gregorian]], [[Islamic calendar|Islamic]], and [[Bengali calendar|Bengali]] calendars.
<center>
{| border="1" cellpadding="3" cellspacing="0" width="90%" style="border-collapse:collapse; border:1px solid #aaa; text-align:left"
|-
! style="background:#efefef;" width="15%" | Date
! style="background:#efefef;" width="20%" | Holiday
! style="background:#efefef;" | Remarks
|-
| 1 [[Shawwal]]
| [[Eid ul-Fitr]]
| Muslim festival marking the end of the month [[Ramadan]]
|-
| 10 [[Dhu al-Hijjah]]
| [[Eid ul-Adha|Korbani Eid (Eid ul-Adha)]]
| Muslim festival of sacrifice
|-
| [[Asharh]]
| Buddhist Full Moon festival
| Buddhist festival on the month of [[Asharh]]
|-
| Varies
| [[Durga]] Puja
| [[Hindu]] festival of the goddess [[Durga]]
|-
| [[21 February]]
| [[Language Movement Day|Shohid Dibôsh (Language Martyrs' Day)]]
| This day commemorates the struggle for [[Bengali language]] in 1952.
|-
| [[26 March]]
| [[Bangladeshi Independence Day|Shadhinota Dibôsh (Independence Day)]]
| This day marks the official declaration of Bangladesh, and the start of the [[Bangladesh Liberation War]].
|-
| [[15 April]] <br> [[Pohela Baishakh|1 Boishakh]]
| [[Pohela Baishakh|Pôhela Boishakh (Bangla New Year's Day)]]
| Festival marking the start of the year according to [[Bangla Calendar]]
|-
| [[1 May]]
| [[May Day]]
| This day marks the solidarity of workers worldwide.
|-
| [[7 November]]
| [[National Revolution and Solidarity Day]]
| This day marks a 1975 uprising of people and soldiers
|-
| [[16 December]]
| [[Victory Day (Bangladesh)|Bijôe Dibôsh (Victory Day)]]
| This day marks end of the [[Bangladesh Liberation War]]
|-
| [[25 December]]
| [[Christmas|Bôŗodin (Christmas)]]
| Christian festival marking the birth of [[Jesus Christ]]
|}
</center>
==See also==
*[[List of Bangladesh-related topics]]
== External links ==
{{sisterlinks|Bangladesh}}
{{Portal}}
'''Official'''
* [http://www.bangladesh.gov.bd Bangladesh Government Official Web Page]
* [http://www.bd-ec.org/index.php3 Election Commission Secretariat]
* [http://www.parliamentofbangladesh.org/indexeng.html Official parliamentary site]
* [http://www.forms.gov.bd/eng/ Electronic forms from the Government of Bangladesh]
* [http://www.nbr-bd.org National Board of Revenue]
* [http://www.bttb.gov.bd Bangladesh Telephone and Telegraph Board (BTTB/T&amp;T)]
'''Others'''
* [http://banglapedia.search.com.bd/ Banglapedia - National Encyclopedia of Bangladesh]
* [http://www.un-bd.org/bgd/index.html United Nations in Bangladesh]
* [http://www.bgmea.com/ Bangladesh Garment Manufacturers and Exporters Association]
* [http://www.fbcci-bd.org/ Federation of Bangladesh Chambers of Commerce and Industry]
* [http://www.sdnpbd.org/sdi/policy/ Various policies of Bangladesh]
* [http://www.gendercide.org/case_bangladesh.html Genocide in Bangladesh, 1971]
* [http://1971.uttorshuri.net/ Uttorshuri on 1971]
* [http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/3452.htm Background Note: Bangladesh], U.S. Department of State (Aug. 2005).
* [[CIA World Factbook]], US Department of State, World Bank
==References==
;Notes
<div style="font-size: 85%">
<references/>
</div>
;Further reading
<div style="font-size: 85%">
* {{Harvard reference
| Surname1 = Collins
| Given1 = L
| Surname2 = Lapierre
| Given2 = D
| Year = 1986
| Title = Freedom at Midnight
| Edition = 18
| Publisher = Vikas Publishers, New Delhi
| ID = ISBN 0-7069-2770-2
}}.
* {{Harvard reference
| Surname1 = Imam
| Given1 = J
| Year = 1998
| Title = Of Blood and Fire: The Untold Story of Bangladesh's War of Independence
| Edition = 2
| Publisher = Dhaka University Press Ltd
}}.
* {{Harvard reference
| Surname1 = Mascarenhas
| Given1 = A
| Year = 1986
| Title = Bangladesh: A Legacy of Blood
| Publsher = Hodder & Stoughton, London
| ID = ISBN 0-340-39420-X
}}.
* {{Harvard reference
| Surname1 = Rashid
| Given1 = H
| Year = 1978
| Title = Geography of Bangladesh
| Publisher = Westview Press, Boulder, Colorado.
}}.
* {{Harvard reference
| Surname1 = Riaz
| Given1 = A
| Year = 2005
| Title = Bangladesh in 2004: The Politics of Vengeance and the Erosion of Democracy
| Journal = Asia Survey
| Issue = XLV(Jan/Feb)
}}.
</div>
----
{{Asia}}
[[Category:Bangladesh| ]]
[[Category:Bengal]]
[[Category:Former British colonies]]
[[Category:Members of the Commonwealth of Nations]]
[[Category:OIC countries]]
[[Category:SAARC members]]
[[Category:South Asian countries]]
[[an:Bangladesh]]
[[ar:بنغلاديش]]
[[ast:Bangladesh]]
[[be:Бангладэш]]
[[bg:Бангладеш]]
[[bn:বাংলাদেশ]]
[[bs:Bangladeš]]
[[ca:Bangla Desh]]
[[cs:Bangladéš]]
[[cy:Bangladesh]]
[[da:Bangladesh]]
[[de:Bangladesch]]
[[eo:Bangladeŝo]]
[[es:Bangladesh]]
[[et:Bangladesh]]
[[eu:Bangladesh]]
[[fi:Bangladesh]]
[[fr:Bangladesh]]
[[fur:Bangladesh]]
[[fy:Banglades]]
[[gd:Bangladesh]]
[[gl:Bangladesh - বাংলাদেশ]]
[[he:בנגלדש]]
[[hi:बांग्लादेश]]
[[hr:Bangladeš]]
[[ht:Bangladèch]]
[[hu:Banglades]]
[[id:Bangladesh]]
[[io:Bangladesh]]
[[is:Bangladess]]
[[it:Bangladesh]]
[[ja:バングラデシュ]]
[[ka:ბანგლადეში]]
[[ko:방글라데시]]
[[ks:Baṅgalādēśa]]
[[li:Bangladesj]]
[[lt:Bangladešas]]
[[lv:Bangladeša]]
[[mk:Бангладеш]]
[[mr:बांगलादेश]]
[[ms:Bangladesh]]
[[na:Bangladesh]]
[[nds:Bangladesch]]
[[nl:Bangladesh]]
[[nn:Bangladesh]]
[[no:Bangladesh]]
[[oc:Categoria:Bengladèsh]]
[[os:Бангладеш]]
[[pl:Bangladesz]]
[[pt:Bangladesh]]
[[ro:Bangladesh]]
[[ru:Бангладеш]]
[[se:Bangladesh]]
[[sh:Bangladeš]]
[[sk:Bangladéš]]
[[sl:Bangladeš]]
[[sq:Bangladeshi]]
[[sr:Бангладеш]]
[[sv:Bangladesh]]
[[ta:பங்களாதேஷ்]]
[[te:బంగ్లాదేశ్]]
[[tg:Бангладеш]]
[[th:ประเทศบังคลาเทศ]]
[[tl:Bangladesh]]
[[tr:Bangladeş]]
[[uk:Бангладеш]]
[[ur:بنگلہ دیش]]
[[zh:孟加拉国]]
[[zh-min-nan:Bangladesh]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Barbados</title>
<id>3455</id>
<revision>
<id>41941540</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T19:55:01Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>142.214.108.55</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* History */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}
{{Barbados infobox}}
'''Barbados''' is an [[island nation]] located towards the east of the [[Caribbean Sea]] and in the west of the [[Atlantic Ocean]], part of the eastern islands of the [[Lesser Antilles]], with the nations of [[Saint Lucia]] and [[Saint Vincent and the Grenadines]] being its closest neighbours. The island is 430 [[square kilometre]]s, (166 [[square mile|sq.&nbsp;mi]]), and is primarily low-lying, with some higher areas in the island's interior. It is located 13° north of the [[Equator]] and 59° west of the [[Prime Meridian]], about 434.5 [[kilometre]]s (270 [[mile|mi]]) northeast of [[Venezuela]].
Barbados is predominantly composed of [[coral]] and [[limestone]]. It is tropical with constant [[trade wind]]s and contains of some [[marsh]]es and [[mangrove]] [[swamp]]s. Some parts of the island's interior are also dotted with large sugarcane estates and wide [[pastures]] with many good views to the sea.
Barbados has one of the highest standards of living and literacy rates in the world and, according to the [[United Nations Development Programme]] (UNDP), is currently the No. 1 developing country in the world. The island is a major tourist destination.
==History==
{{main|History of Barbados}}
The earliest inhabitants of Barbados were [[Amerindian]] nomads. Three waves of migrants moved north toward [[North America]]. The first wave was of the [[Saladoid]]-[[Barrancoid]] group, who were farmers, fishermen, and ceramists that arrived by [[canoe]] from [[South America]] ([[Venezuela]]'s [[Orinoco River|Orinoco Valley]]) around [[350|350 CE]]. The [[Arawak]] people were the second wave of migrants, arriving from South America around [[800|800 CE]]. Arawak settlements on the island include [[Stroud Point]], [[Chandler Bay]], [[Saint Luke's Gully]], and [[Mapp's Cave]]. According to accounts by descendants of the aboriginal Arawak tribes on other local islands, the original name for Barbados was '''Ichirouganaim'''. In the 13th century, the Caribs arrived from South America in the third wave, displacing both the Arawak and the Salodoid-Barrancoid. For the next few centuries, the Caribs&mdash;like the Arawak and the Salodoid-Barrancoid&mdash;lived in isolation on the island.
The name "Barbados" comes from a [[Portuguese colonization of the Americas|Portuguese explorer]] named Pedro Campos in [[1536]], who originally called the island '''Los Barbados''' ("The Bearded Ones"), upon seeing the appearance of the island's [[fig]] trees, whose long hanging aerial roots he thought resembled beards. Between Campos' sighting in 1536 and 1550, [[Spanish colonization of the Americas|Spanish]] [[conquistadors]] seized many Caribs on Barbados and used them as [[Slavery|slave labor]] on [[plantation]]s. Other Caribs fled the island, moving elsewhere.
British sailors who landed on Barbados in the 1620s at the site of present-day [[Holetown]] on the Caribbean coast found the island uninhabited. From the arrival of the first British settlers in [[1627]]&ndash;[[1628]] until independence in [[1966]], Barbados was under uninterrupted British control. Nevertheless, Barbados always enjoyed a large measure of local autonomy. Its [[Barbados H
|
[[Washington, DC]], the [[Holocaust Memorial Museum]] is dedicated.
* 1993 - The web browser [[Mosaic (web browser)|Mosaic]] version 1.0 is released.
*[[1996]] - [[Cisco Systems]] acquires [[StrataCom]] for $4B
*[[1997]] - [[Haouch Khemisti massacre]] in [[Algeria]]; 93 villagers killed.
* 1997 - A 126-day hostage crisis at the residence of the [[Japan]]ese ambassador in [[Lima, Peru|Lima]], [[Peru]] ends after government commandos storm and capture the building, rescuing 71 hostages. One hostage dies of a [[Myocardial infarction|heart attack]], two soldiers are killed from rebel fire, and all 14 rebels are slain.
*[[2000]] - In a predawn raid, federal agents seize six-year-old [[Elián González]] from his relatives' home in [[Miami, Florida]].
* 2000 - The [[Big Number Change]] takes place in the [[United Kingdom]].
*[[2004]] - Two fuel trains collide in [[Ryongchon]], [[North Korea]], killing up to 150 people.
*[[2005]] - [[Mordechai Vanunu]] installed as [[Lord Rector]] of the [[University of Glasgow]].
==Births==
*[[1451]] - Queen [[Isabella of Castile]] and Leon (d. [[1504]])
*[[1550]] - [[Edward de Vere]], Lord Great Chamberlain of England (d. [[1604]])
*[[1610]] - [[Pope Alexander VIII]] (d. [[1691]])
*[[1658]] - [[Giuseppe Torelli]], Italian composer (d. [[1709]])
*[[1690]] - [[John Carteret, 2nd Earl Granville]], English statesman (d. [[1763]])
*[[1692]] - [[James Stirling (mathematician)|James Stirling]], Scottish mathematician (d. [[1770]])
*[[1707]] - [[Henry Fielding]], English author (d. [[1754]])
*[[1711]] - [[Eleazar Wheelock]], American founder of Dartmouth College (d. [[1779]])
*[[1724]] - [[Immanuel Kant]], German philosopher (d. [[1804]])
*[[1766]] - [[Madame de Staël]], French author (d. [[1817]])
*[[1812]] - [[Solomon Caesar Malan]], British orientalist (d. [[1894]])
*[[1840]] - [[Odilon Redon]], French painter (d. [[1916]])
*[[1844]] - [[Lewis Thornton Powell]], would-be [[assassin]] of [[Secretary of State]] [[William Seward]] (d. [[1865]])
*[[1852]] - [[Guillaume IV, Grand Duke of Luxembourg]] (d. [[1912]])
*[[1854]] - [[Henri La Fontaine]], Belgian lawyer and activist, recipient of the [[Nobel Peace Prize]] (d. [[1943]])
*[[1860]] - [[Ada Rehan]], American stage actress (d. [[1916]])
*[[1870]] (N.S.) - [[Vladimir Lenin]], Russian revolutionary (d. [[1924]])
*[[1873]] - [[Ellen Glasgow]], American author (d. [[1945]])
*[[1876]] - [[Robert Bárány]], American physician, recipient of the [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]] (d. [[1936]])
*1876 - [[Georg Lurich]], Estonian wrestler (d. [[1920]])
*[[1881]] - [[Alexander Kerensky]], Russian politician (d. [[1970]])
*[[1884]] - [[Otto Rank]], Austrian psychologist (d. [[1939]])
*[[1891]] - [[Harold Jeffreys]], English astronomer (d. [[1989]])
*[[1899]] - [[Vladimir Nabokov]], Russian writer (d. [[1977]])
*[[1904]] - [[Robert Oppenheimer]], American physicist (d. [[1967]])
*[[1906]] - [[Eddie Albert]], American actor (d. [[2005]])
*1906 - [[Prince Gustaf Adolf, Duke of Westrobothnia]], second in line to the Swedish throne (d. [[1946]])
*[[1907]] - [[Ivan Efremov]], Russian paleontologist and author (d. [[1972]])
*[[1909]] - [[Rita Levi-Montalcini]], Italian neurologist, recipient of the [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]]
*[[1910]] - [[Norman Steenrod]], American mathematician (d. [[1971]])
*[[1912]] - [[Kathleen Ferrier]], British contralto (d. [[1953]])
*[[1914]] - [[Jan de Hartog]], Dutch writer (d. [[2002]])
*[[1916]] - [[Yehudi Menuhin]], American-born violinist (d. [[1999]])
*[[1918]] - [[Mickey Vernon]], baseball player
*[[1919]] - [[Donald J. Cram]], American chemist, [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry|Nobel Prize]] laureate (d. [[2001]])
*[[1922]] - [[Charles Mingus]], American musician (d. [[1979]])
*1922 - [[Wolf V. Vishniac]], American microbiologist (d. [[1973]])
*[[1923]] - [[Bettie Page]], American model
*1923 - [[Aaron Spelling]], American television producer and writer
*[[1926]] - [[Charlotte Rae]], American actress
*1926 - [[James Stirling (architect)|James Stirling]], British architect (d. [[1992]])
*[[1935]] - [[Paul Chambers]], American jazz bassist (d. [[1969]])
*[[1936]] - [[Glen Campbell]], American musician
*[[1937]] - [[Jack Nicholson]], American actor
*1937 - [[Jack Nitzsche]], American composer and arranger (d. [[2000]])
*[[1939]] - [[Jason Miller (actor)|Jason Miller]], American actor (d. [[2001]])
*[[1943]] - [[Louise Glück]], American poet
*[[1944]] - [[Steve Fossett]], American adventurer
*[[1946]] - [[John Waters (filmmaker)|John Waters]], American film writer and director
*[[1950]] - [[Peter Frampton]], British musician
*[[1952]] - [[Marilyn Chambers]], American actress
*[[1958]] - [[Ken Olandt]], American actor
*[[1959]] - [[Catherine Mary Stewart]], Canadian actress
*1959 - [[Ryan Stiles]], Canadian-born actor and comedian
*[[1962]] - [[Jeff Minter]], British video game programmer
*[[1965]] - [[Peter Zezel]], Canadian ice hockey player
*[[1967]] - [[Sheryl Lee]], American actress
*[[1968]] - [[Zarley Zalapski]], Canadian ice hockey player
*[[1970]] - [[Andrea Giani]], Italian volleyball player
*[[1972]] - [[Owen Finegan]], Australian International Rugby Union
*[[1974]] - [[Shavo Odadjian]], Armenian-born bassist ([[System of a Down]])
*[[1975]] - [[Greg Moore (race car driver)|Greg Moore]], Canadian race car driver (d. [[1999]])
*[[1977]] - [[Andruw Jones]], baseball player
*[[1979]] - [[Daniel Johns]], lead singer of Australian band [[Silverchair]]
*[[1981]] - [[Ken Dorsey]], American football player
*[[1982]] - [[Kaká]], Brazilian footballer
*[[1983]] - [[Matt Jones]], American football player
==Deaths==
*[[296]] - [[Pope Caius]]
*[[536]] - [[Pope Agapetus I]]
*[[1592]] - [[Bartolomeo Ammanati]], Italian architect and sculptor (b. [[1511]])
*[[1672]] - [[Georg Stiernhielm]], Swedish poet (b. [[1598]])
*[[1699]] - [[Hans Erasmus Aßmann, Freiherr von Abschatz]], German statesman and poet (b. [[1646]])
*[[1758]] - [[Antoine de Jussieu]], French naturalist (b. [[1686]])
*[[1778]] - [[James Hargreaves]], English weaver, carpenter, and inventor (b. [[1720]])
*[[1806]] - [[Pierre-Charles Villeneuve]], French admiral (stabbed) (b. [[1763]])
*[[1833]] - [[Richard Trevithick]], English inventor (b. [[1771]])
*[[1892]] - [[Edouard Lalo]], French composer (b. [[1823]])
*[[1896]] - [[Thomas Meik]], British civil engineer (b. [[1812]])
*[[1908]] - [[Henry Campbell-Bannerman]], [[Prime Minister of the United Kingdom]] (b. [[1836]])
*[[1925]] - [[André Caplet]], French composer (b. [[1878]])
*[[1930]] - [[Jeppe Aakjaer]], Danish poet and novelist {b. [[1866]])
*[[1945]] - [[Käthe Kollwitz]], German artist (b. [[1867]])
*[[1946]] - [[Harlan Fiske Stone|Harlan F. Stone]], [[Chief Justice of the United States Supreme Court]] (b. [[1872]])
*[[1951]] - [[Horace Donisthorpe]], British entomologist (b. [[1870]])
*[[1968]] - [[Stephen H. Sholes]], American recording executive (b. [[1911]])
*[[1978]] - [[Will Geer]], American actor and activist (b. [[1902]])
*[[1980]] - [[Jane Froman]], American actor and singer (b. [[1907]])
*1980 - [[Fritz Strassmann]], German physicist (b. [[1902]])
*[[1983]] - [[Earl Hines|Earl "Fatha" Hines]], British jazz pianist (b. [[1903]])
*[[1984]] - [[Ansel Adams]], American photographer (b. [[1902]])
*[[1985]] - [[Paul H. Emmett]], American chemical engineer (b. [[1900]])
*[[1986]] - [[Mircea Eliade]], Romanian writer and philosopher (b. [[1907]])
*[[1994]] - [[Richard Nixon]], [[President of the United States]] (b. [[1913]])
*[[1995]] - [[Maggie Kuhn]], American activist (b. [[1905]])
*[[1996]] - [[Erma Bombeck]], American humorist and writer (b. [[1927]])
*[[2002]] - [[Linda Lovelace]], American actress (b. [[1949]])
*[[2003]] - [[Martha Griffiths]], U.S. Congresswoman (b. [[1912]])
* 2003 - [[Michael Larrabee]], American athlete (b. [[1933]])
*[[2004]] - [[Pat Tillman]], American football player and U.S. Army Ranger (killed in action) (b. [[1976]])
*[[2005]] - [[Philip Morrison]], American physicist (b. [[1915]])
==Holidays and observances==
*[[Earth Day]]
*[[Brazil]] - [[Discovery Day]]
==External links==
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/april/22 BBC: On This Day]
----
[[April 21]] - [[April 23]] - [[March 22]] - [[May 22]] &ndash; [[historical anniversaries|listing of all days]]
{{months}}
[[ceb:Abril 22]]
[[nap:22 'e abbrile]]
[[war:Abril 22]]
[[pam:Abril 22]]
[[af:22 April]]
[[ar:22 أبريل]]
[[an:22 d'abril]]
[[ast:22 d'abril]]
[[bg:22 април]]
[[be:22 красавіка]]
[[bs:22. april]]
[[ca:22 d'abril]]
[[cv:Ака, 22]]
[[co:22 d'aprile]]
[[cs:22. duben]]
[[cy:22 Ebrill]]
[[da:22. april]]
[[de:22. April]]
[[et:22. aprill]]
[[el:22 Απριλίου]]
[[es:22 de abril]]
[[eo:22-a de aprilo]]
[[eu:Apirilaren 22]]
[[fo:22. apríl]]
[[fr:22 avril]]
[[fy:22 april]]
[[ga:22 Aibreán]]
[[gl:22 de abril]]
[[ko:4월 22일]]
[[hr:22. travnja]]
[[io:22 di aprilo]]
[[id:22 April]]
[[ia:22 de april]]
[[ie:22 april]]
[[is:22. apríl]]
[[it:22 aprile]]
[[he:22 באפריל]]
[[jv:22 April]]
[[kn:ಎಪ್ರಿಲ್ ೨೨]]
[[ka:22 აპრილი]]
[[csb:22 łżëkwiôta]]
[[ku:22'ê avrêlê]]
[[la:22 Aprilis]]
[[lt:Balandžio 22]]
[[lb:22. Abrëll]]
[[li:22 april]]
[[hu:Április 22]]
[[mk:22 април]]
[[ms:22 April]]
[[nl:22 april]]
[[ja:4月22日]]
[[no:22. april]]
[[nn:22. april]]
[[oc:22 d'abril]]
[[pl:22 kwietnia]]
[[pt:22 de Abril]]
[[ro:22 aprilie]]
[[ru:22 апреля]]
[[se:Cuoŋománu 22.]]
[[sq:22 Prill]]
[[scn:22 di aprili]]
[[simple:April 22]]
[[sk:22. apríl]]
[[sl:22. april]]
[[sr:22. април]]
[[fi:22. huhtikuuta]]
[[sv:22 april]]
[[tl:Abril 22]]
[[tt:22. Äpril]]
[[te:ఏప్రిల్ 22]]
[[th:22 เมษายน]]
[[vi:22 tháng 4]]
[[tr:22 Nisan]]
[[uk:22 квітня]]
[[ur:22 اپریل]]
[[wa:22 d' avri]]
[[zh:4月22日]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>August 31</title>
<id>1711</id>
<revision>
<id>41781229</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T18:30:55Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rklawton</username>
<id>754622</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* Deaths */
|
elves. The long conflict bled the empire which would never recover its former strength.
=== The long decline ===
The actual end of the empire came in several steps. After the [[Peace of Westphalia]] in [[1648]], which gave the territories almost complete [[sovereignty]], even allowing them to form independent alliances with other states, the Empire was only a mere conglomeration of largely independent states. By the rise of [[Louis XIV of France|Louis XIV]] of [[France]], the Holy Roman Empire as such had lost all power and clout in major European politics. The [[Habsburg]] emperors relied more on their role as Austrian archdukes than as emperors when challenged by [[Prussia]], portions of which were part of the Empire. Throughout the 18th century, the Habsburgs were embroiled in various European conflicts. From 1792 onwards, [[French Revolutionary Wars|revolutionary France]] was at war with various parts of the Empire intermittently. The Empire was formally dissolved on [[August 6]], [[1806]] when the last Holy Roman Emperor [[Francis II of the Holy Roman Empire|Francis II]] (from 1804, Emperor Francis I of [[Austria]]) abdicated, following a military defeat by the French Army under [[Napoleon]] (see [[Treaty of Pressburg]]). Napoleon reorganized much of the empire into the [[Confederation of the Rhine]]. This ended the so-called [[First Reich]]. Francis II's family continued to be called Austrian emperors until [[1918]]. Germany itself would not become one unified state until [[1871]] after the Franco-Prussian War.
== Analysis ==
It has been said that modern history of Germany was primarily predetermined by three factors: the ''[[Reich]]'', the [[Reformation]], and the later dualism between [[Austria]] and [[Prussia (state)|Prussia]].[1] Many attempts have been made to explain why the ''Reich'' never managed to gain a strong centralized power over the territories, as opposed to neighboring France. Some reasons include:
* The ''Reich'' had been a very federal body from the beginning: again, as opposed to France, which had mostly been part of the Roman Empire, in the eastern parts of the Frankish kingdom, the Germanic tribes were much more independent and reluctant to cede power to a central authority. All attempts to make the kingdom hereditary failed; instead, the king was always elected. Later, every candidate for the king had to make promises to his electorate, the so-called ''Wahlkapitulationen'' (election capitulations), thus granting the territories more and more power over the centuries.
* Due to its religious connotations, the ''Reich'' as an institution was severely damaged by the contest between the Pope and the German Kings over their respective coronations as Emperor. It was never entirely clear under which conditions the pope would crown the emperor and especially not whether the worldly power of the emperor was dependent on the clerical of the pope. Much debate occurred over this, especially during the 11th century, eventually leading to the [[Investiture Controversy]] and the [[Concordat of Worms]] in [[1122]].
* Whether the [[feudal]] system of the ''Reich'', where the King formally was the top of the so-called "feudal pyramid", was a cause for or a symptom of the Empire's weakness is unclear. In any case, military obedience, which &ndash; according to Germanic tradition &ndash; was closely tied to the giving of land to tributaries, was always a problem: when the ''Reich'' had to go to war, decisions were slow and brittle. <!--''(to do this needs more explanations)''-->
* Until the sixteenth century, the economic interests of the south and west diverged from those of the north where the [[Hanseatic League]] operated. This was far more closely allied to Scandinavia and the Baltic than the rest of Germany.
* German historiography nowadays often views the Holy Roman Empire as a well balanced system of organizing a multitude of (effectively independent) states under a complex system of legal regulations. Smaller estates like the Lordships or the Imperial Free cities survived for centuries as independent embodies, although they had no effective military strength. The supreme courts, the [[Aulic Council|Reichshofrat]] and the [[Reichskammergericht]] helped to settle conflicts or at least turning them in a war by notes instead of a war by guns.
* The multitude of different territories with different religious denominations and different forms of government lead to a great variety of cultural diversification, which can be felt even in present day Germany with regional cultures, patterns of behavior and dialects changing sometimes within the range of kilometers.
==Successive German Reichs==
After the unification of Germany as a [[nation state]] in [[1871]] (see [[German Empire]]), the Holy Roman Empire was sometimes known as the First [[Reich]] while the new empire was known as the Second Reich. After the end of [[World War I]], the creation of the [[Weimar Republic]], and [[Nazi Germany]]'s rise, the Nazis referred to Germany as the [[Third Reich]], counting the 1871 Empire as the second, to connect itself with an idealized past and present itself as being in continuity with ancient traditions. The German usage is that the first reich is called "Altes Reich" (old empire) and the second reich as "Kaiserreich" or "Wilhelminisches Reich".
== See also ==
{{commons|Category:Holy Roman Empire}}
* [[History of Germany]]
* [[History of Austria]]
* [[History of Liechtenstein]]
* [[History of the Netherlands]]
* [[History of Switzerland]]
* [[History of the Czech lands]]
* [[History of Italy]]
* [[History of Poland]]
* [[Holy Roman Emperor]]
* [[List of Holy Roman Emperors]]
* [[List of German monarchs]]
* [[Reichstag (institution)]]
* [[Imperial Circle]]
* [[List of states in the Holy Roman Empire]]
* [[Brandenburg]]
* [[Prussia (state)| Prussia]]
* [[Austria]]
* [[Bavaria]]
* [[Saxony]]
* [[Hanover]]
* [[Palatinate]]
* [[Silesia]]
* [[Pomerania]]
* [[Bohemia]]
* [[Studium generale|Studia Generali]]
==References==
* Heinz Angermeier, ''Das Alte Reich in der deutschen Geschichte''. Studien über Kontinuitäten und Zäsuren, München 1991.
* Karl Otmar Freiherr von Aretin, ''Das Alte Reich 1648-1806''. 4 vols. Stuttgart, 1993-2000.
* Peter Claus Hartmann, ''Kulturgeschichte des Heiligen Römischen Reiches 1648 bis 1806''. Wien, 2001.
* Georg Schmidt, ''Geschichte des Alten Reiches''. München, 1999.
* [[James Bryce]], ''The Holy Roman Empire''. ISBN 0333036093
* Jonathan W. Zophy (ed.), ''The Holy Roman Empire: A Dictionary Handbook''. Greenwood Press, 1980.
* [http://www.historischekommission-muenchen.de/seiten/projekte.html Deutsche Reichstagsakten]
==External links==
*[http://www.uni-muenster.de/FNZ-Online/recht/reich/unterpunkte/nation.htm The constitutional structure of the Reich]
*[http://www.dasheiligereich.de/ Das Heilige Reich (German Museum of History, Berlin)]
*[http://www.zum.de/whkmla/military/germany/milxhrempire.html List of Wars of the Holy Roman Empire]
*[http://www.mgh-bibliothek.de/lexikothek/reich2.html Deutschland beim Tode Kaiser Karls IV. 1378 (Germany at the death of emperor Charles IV.) taken from "Meyers Kleines Konversationslexikon in sechs Bänden. Bd. 2. Leipzig u. Wien : Bibliogr. Institut 1908", map inserted after page 342]
*[http://www.altes-reich.de/literatur.html Books and articles on the Reich]
===Maps===
*[http://home.comcast.net/~vienna1230/maps/holy_roman_empire_1138_1254.jpg The Holy Roman Empire, 1138-1254]
*[http://mrorr.org/German%20lands%201398.jpg The Holy Roman Empire in 1398]
*[http://mrorr.org/Holy%20roman%20Empire%201547.jpg The Holy Roman Empire in 1547]
*[http://corndancer.com/vox/aer/aer_art/map01_1648.jpg The Holy Roman Empire in 1648]
*[http://www.hoeckmann.de/deutschland/index.htm The Holy Roman Empire in 1789 (Interactive map)]
[[Category:Holy Roman Empire| *]]
[[Category:Former countries in Europe|Germany]]
[[Category:History of Austria]]
[[Category:Emperors]]
[[Category:Habsburg]]
[[Category:Former monarchies]]
[[Category:History of Austria]]
[[Category:History of Germany]]
[[Category:Empires|Roman]]
[[Category:843 establishments]]
[[Category:1806 disestablishments]]
[[be:Свяшчэнная Рымская Імперыя]]
[[bg:Свещена Римска империя]]
[[ca:Sacre Imperi Romano-Germànic]]
[[cs:Svatá říše římská]]
[[cy:Yr Ymerodraeth Rufeinig Sanctaidd]]
[[da:Tysk-romerske rige]]
[[de:Heiliges Römisches Reich]]
[[es:Sacro Imperio Romano Germánico]]
[[eo:Sankta Romia Imperio]]
[[fa:امپراطوری مقدس روم]]
[[fr:Saint Empire romain germanique]]
[[ko:신성 로마 제국]]
[[hr:Sveto Rimsko Carstvo]]
[[id:Kekaisaran Suci Romawi]]
[[it:Sacro Romano Impero]]
[[he:האימפריה הרומית הקדושה]]
[[ka:საღვთო რომის იმპერია]]
[[la:Imperium Romanum Sacrum]]
[[lv:Svētā Romas impērija]]
[[lt:Šventoji Romos imperija]]
[[lb:Hellegt Réimescht Räich vun Däitscher Natioun]]
[[hu:Német-római Birodalom]]
[[nl:Heilige Roomse Rijk]]
[[nds:Römsche Riek vun de düütsche Natschoon]]
[[ja:神聖ローマ帝国]]
[[no:Det hellige romerske rike av den tyske nasjon]]
[[pl:Święte Cesarstwo Rzymskie Narodu Niemieckiego]]
[[pt:Sacro Império Romano-Germânico]]
[[ro:Sfântul Imperiu Roman]]
[[ru:Священная Римская империя]]
[[sk:Rímskonemecká ríša]]
[[sl:Sveto rimsko cesarstvo]]
[[sr:Свето римско немачко царство]]
[[fi:Pyhä saksalais-roomalainen keisarikunta]]
[[sv:Tysk-romerska riket]]
[[uk:Священна Римська Імперія]]
[[wa:Sint Impire Romin Djermanike]]
[[zh:神圣罗马帝国]]
{{Link FA|de}}</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Holidays</title>
<id>13278</id>
<revision>
<id>15910895</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Holiday]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Holiday</title>
<id>13279</id>
<revision>
<id>41457254</i
|
idae]]<br />
[[Sagittariidae]]<br />
}}
The [[order (biology)|order]] '''Falconiformes''' is a group of about 290 [[species]] of [[bird]]s that include the diurnal [[bird of prey|birds of prey]]. Raptor classification is fraught with difficulty and the order is treated in several different ways.
== Classification problems ==
Traditionally, all the raptors are grouped into 4 [[Family (biology) |families]] in this single order. However, in [[Europe]], it has become common to split the order into two: the [[falcon]]s and [[caracara]]s remain in the order Falconiformes (about 60 species in 4 groups), while the remaining 220-odd species (including the [[Accipitridae]]&mdash;eagles, hawks, and many others) are placed in the separate order [[Accipitriformes]].
The [http://www.aou.org/checklist/index.php3#LFALC American Ornithologist's Union] leaves Falconidae and Accipitridae in Falconiformes, but places the New World vultures (family [[Cathartidae]]) with the storks in [[Ciconiiformes]] following the influential [[Sibley-Ahlquist taxonomy]], in which all the raptors are placed into Ciconiiformes, but the Cathartids are considered to be outside the lineage that includes other raptors.
The idea that Falconiformes should be divided into many orders is because of the suggestion that the order may not share a single lineage that is exclusive of other birds. The most controversial suggestion - but also the most well-supported one - is that Cathartidae are not Falconiformes but are related to the storks, in the separate order [[Ciconiiformes]]. However morphological evidence supports the common ancestry of the Falconiformes, and the [[Strigiformes]] may be Falconiformes as well.
== Characteristics ==
Falconiformes are known from the Middle [[Eocene]] and typically have a sharply hooked [[beak]] with a ''cere'' (soft mass) on the proximodorsal surface, housing the [[nostril]]s. Their [[wing]]s are long and fairly broad, suitable for soaring flight, with the outer 4-6 primaries emarginated.
Falconiformes have strong legs and feet with [[Bird of prey|raptor]]ial [[claw]]s and an opposable hind claw. Almost all Falconiformes are [[carnivore|carnivorous]], hunting by sight during the day or at twilight. They are exceptionally long-lived, and most have low [[Reproduction|reproductive]] rates.
The young have a long, very fast-growing fledgling stage, followed by 3-8 weeks of nest care after first flight and 1-3 years as [[sexual maturity|sexually immature]] adults. The sexes have conspicuously different sizes, and [[monogamy]] is the general rule.
[[DNA]] studies mean that it is likely to be some time until a consensus is restored on this group of birds.
== See ==
* [[Sibley-Ahlquist taxonomy]].
== External links ==
*http://www.eeb.cornell.edu/winkler/botw/falconiformes.html
[[Category:Falconiformes|*]]
[[cs:Dravci]]
[[da:Falke-ordenen]]
[[de:Greifvögel]]
[[el:Ιερακόμορφα]]
[[eo:Falkoformaj birdoj]]
[[fr:Falconiformes]]
[[fy:Rôffûgels]]
[[it:Falconiformes]]
[[la:Falconiformes]]
[[lt:Sakaliniai paukščiai]]
[[nl:Roofvogels]]
[[ja:タカ目]]
[[pl:Sokołowe]]
[[pt:Falconiformes]]
[[ru:Соколообразные]]
[[sk:Dravce]]
[[sl:Ujede]]
[[tr:Falconiformes]]
[[zh:隼形目]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>First person shooter</title>
<id>10642</id>
<revision>
<id>39019056</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-10T03:58:38Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>TKD</username>
<id>636163</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>categorize redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[First-person shooter]] {{R from alternate spelling}}</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Faroe Islands</title>
<id>10643</id>
<revision>
<id>42062567</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T15:26:20Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>NongBot</username>
<id>817745</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>robot Adding: th</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{| border=1 align=right cellpadding=4 cellspacing=0 width=300 style="margin: 0 0 1em 1em; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaaaaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;"
|+<big>'''Føroyar''' <small>([[Faroese language|Faroese]])</small> <br>'''Færøerne''' <small>([[Danish language|Danish]])</small></big>
| align="center" colspan="2"|
{| border=0 cellpadding=2 cellspacing=0 style="background:#f9f9f9; text-align:center;"
| width="130px"| [[Image:Flag of the Faroe Islands.svg|125px|Flag of the Faroe Islands]] || align=center width=130px| [[Image:Faroe Coat of Arms 4.png|75px|Coat of Arms|center]]
|-
| width="130px"| ([[Flag of the Faroe Islands|In Detail]]) || align=center width=130px| ([[Coat of Arms of the Faroe Islands|In Detail]])
|}
|-
| align=center colspan=2 style="background:#f9f9f9;" | [[Image:LocationFaroeIslands.png]]
|-
|'''[[Official language]]s''' || [[Faroese language|Faroese]], [[Danish language|Danish]]
|-
|'''[[Capital]]''' || [[Tórshavn]]
|-
|'''[[List of Danish monarchs|Monarch]]''' || [[Margrethe II of Denmark|Margrethe II]]
|-
|'''[[Prime Minister of the Faroe Islands|Prime Minister]]''' || [[Jóannes Eidesgaard]]
|-
|'''[[Area]]''' <br>&nbsp;- Total <br>&nbsp;- % water
|[[List of countries by area|World ranking]]: 189th<br>[[1 E12 m²|1,399 km²]] <br>0.5
|-
|'''[[Population]]''' <br>&nbsp;- Total ([[2004]]) <br>&nbsp;- [[Population density|Density]]
|[[List of countries by population|World ranking]]: 211th <br> 48,228<br> 33.1/km²
|-
|'''[[Independence]]''' || None (part of the Kingdom of Denmark). Home rule was established in [[1948]].
|-
|'''[[Currency]]''' || [[Faroese króna]] (DKK)<sup>1</sup>
|-
| '''[[Time zone]]'''
| [[WET]] ([[UTC]]; [[UTC]]+1 in [[European Summer Time|summer]])
|-
| '''[[National anthem]]''' || [[Tú alfagra land mítt]]<br>(''You, my most beauteous land'')
|-
| [[National Day]] || [[29 July]]<br>
|-
| '''[[Top-level domain|Internet TLD]]''' || [[.fo]]
|-
| '''[[List of country calling codes|Calling Code]]''' || 298
|-
| [[Electricity]] || 230V, 50 Hz
|-
| colspan="2" | <small><sup>1</sup>The banknotes are [[Danish krone]]r printed with Faroese motifs. The islands use standard Danish coins. Faroese krónur use the Danish [[ISO 4217]] code DKK.</small>
|-
| align=center colspan="2" |
[[Image:Faroe map with villages, streets, straits, firths, ferry harbours and major moutains.png|250px|Flag of the Faroe Islands]]
|}
The '''Faroe Islands''' or simply '''Faroes''' ([[Faroese language|Faroese]]: ''Føroyar'', meaning "Sheep Islands", [[Danish language|Danish]]: ''Færøerne'') are a [[group of islands]] in the north [[Atlantic Ocean]] between [[Scotland]], [[Norway]] and [[Iceland]]. They have been an autonomous region of the Kingdom of [[Denmark]] since [[1948]] and have, over the years, taken control of most matters, except defence (they have no organized native military, which remains the responsibility of Denmark, except for a small Police Force and Coast Guard) and foreign affairs.
The Faroes give their name to one of the [[British Sea Areas]]. They have close traditional ties to [[Iceland]], [[Shetland]], the [[Orkney Islands]], the [[Outer Hebrides]] and [[Greenland]]. The archipelago was detached from [[Norway]] in [[1815]]. The Faroes have their own representatives in the [[Nordic Council]].
==History==
''Main article: [[History of the Faroe Islands]]''
The early history of the Faroe Islands is very clear. According to [[Færeyinga Saga]] emigrants who left [[Norway]] to escape the tyranny of [[Harald I of Norway]] settled in the islands about the beginning of the [[9th century]]. Early in the [[11th century]] [[Sigmundur Brestirson|Sigmund]], whose family had flourished in the southern islands but had been almost exterminated by invaders from the northern islands, was sent from Norway, from which he had escaped, to take possession of the islands for [[Olaf I of Norway|Olaf Tryggvason]], king of Norway. He introduced [[Christianity]] and, though he was subsequently murdered, Norwegian supremacy was upheld. Norwegian control of the islands continued until [[1380]], when Norway entered into a union with [[Denmark]], which gradually evolved into the double monarchy [[Denmark-Norway|Denmark&ndash;Norway]]. The [[reformation]] reached the Faroes in [[1538]]. When Norway was taken away from Denmark at the [[Treaty of Kiel]] in [[1814]], Denmark retained possession of the Faroe Islands.
The [[monopoly trade over the Faroe Islands]] was abolished in [[1856]]. Since then, the country developed towards a modern fishery nation with its own fleet. The national awakening since [[1888]] was first based on a struggle for the [[Faroese language]], and thus more culturally oriented, but after [[1906]] was more and more politically oriented after the foundation of the [[political parties of the Faroe Islands]].
On [[April 12]], [[1940]], the Faroes were occupied by [[United Kingdom|British]] troops following the invasion of Denmark by [[Nazi Germany]]. This action was taken to avert a possible German occupation of the islands, which would have had very grave consequences for the course of the [[Battle of the Atlantic]]. In [[1942]]&ndash;[[1943|43]] the British [[Royal Monmouthshire Royal Engineers|Royal Engineers]] built the only airport in the Faroes, the [[Vagar Airport]]. Control of the islands reverted to Denmark following the war, but in [[1948]] a home rule regime was implemented granting a high degree of local autonomy. The Faroes declined to join Denmark in entering the European Community (now [[European Union]]) in [[1973]]. The islands experienced considerable economic difficulties following the collapse of the fishing industry
|
rument.
[[Antonio Vivaldi]] brought the bassoon to prominence by featuring it in his 37 concerti for the instrument. The early classical orchestra included the bassoon, it was again only filling out the continuo and often unmentioned in the score; symphonic writing for bassoons as fully-independent parts rather than mere doubles would not come until later in the Classical era. Mozart's ''Jupiter'' symphony is a prime example, with its famous bassoon solo. <!--image of Jupiter solo?--> The bassoons were generally paired, as in current practice, though the famed [[Mannheim Orchestra]] boasted four.
==Concerti and other orchestral literature==
===Baroque===
* [[Antonio Vivaldi]] wrote 37 [[concerto|concerti]] for bassoon
===Classical===
* [[Johann Christian Bach]], Bassoon Concerto in B flat, Bassoon Concerto in E-flat major
* [[Johann Nepomuk Hummel]], Bassoon Concerto in F, W75
* [[Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart]], [[Bassoon Concerto (Mozart)|Bassoon Concerto]] in B flat, K191
===Romantic===
* [[Carl Maria von Weber]], Andante e rondo ungarese in C minor, op. 35
* [[Carl Maria von Weber]], Bassoon Concerto in F, op. 75
===Contemporary===
* [[Paul Hindemith|Hindemith]], Sonata for Bassoon and Piano(1938)
* [[John Williams]], Five Sacred Trees : Concerto for Bassoon and Orchestra(1997)
* [[Richard Strauss]], Duet Concertino for Clarinet and Bassoon with strings and harp (1948)
===Famous orchestral passages===
* [[Paul Dukas]], [[The Sorcerer's Apprentice]], widely recognized as used in the movie [[Fantasia (movie)|Fantasia]]
* [[Edvard Grieg]], [[In the Hall of the Mountain King]]
* [[Sergei Prokofiev]], [[Peter and the Wolf]] (possibly the most-recognized bassoon theme, the part of the grandfather)
* [[Igor Stravinsky]], [[The Rite of Spring]] (opens with a famously unorthodox bassoon solo)
* [[Igor Stravinsky]], lullaby from [[The Firebird]]
* [[Igor Stravinsky]], [[Symphonies of Wind Instruments]] (less famous but just as high and difficult as rite of spring)
* [[Maurice Ravel]], [[Rhapsodie Espagnole]] (features a fast, lengthy dual cadenza at the end of the first movement)
* [[Maurice Ravel]], [[Bolero (Ravel)|Bolero]] (the bassoon has a high descending solo passage near the beginning)
* [[Hector Berlioz]], [[Symphonie Fantastique]] (in the fourth movement there are several solo and tutti bassoon featuring passages. This piece calls for four bassoons.)
<br style="clear:both;">
==Technique==
The instrument is played either by a seated player sitting on a support (usually a strap) attached to the bottom of the instrument, or is held with a neck strap and often a harness. The instrument, in either case, extends diagonally across the player's body, similar to the saxophone. The bassoon (and [[contrabassoon]]) are alone in the woodwind family in that they are both fingered with Heckel-system keywork, a descendant of the original Baroque fingering system, as opposed to the otherwise ubiquitous [[Boehm system]]. An alternate, unrelated, fingering system (Buffet) is used in France, but in the U.S. and most of Europe the Heckel system is dominant.
The Heckel-system bassoon is played with both hands in a stationary position, with six main finger holes on the front of the instrument (some of which are open, and some of which are aided by keywork). Also on the front of the instrument are several additional keys to be controlled by the pinky fingers of each hand. The back of the instrument has over a dozen keys to be controlled by the thumb (the exact number varies depending on model).
While instruments are constructed to have accurate pitch throughout the scale, the player has a great degree of flexibility of pitch control through the use of breath support and [[embouchure]]. Players are also able to use alternate fingerings to adjust the pitch of most playable notes.
<!--labeled keywork picture goes here-->
===Extended techniques===
Many extended techniques can be performed on the bassoon, such as [[multiphonics]], [[flutter tonguing]], [[circular breathing]], and [[harmonic]]s.
==Reeds and reed construction==
===The modern reed===
[[Image:Bassoon-reeds2.jpg|thumb|right|100px|Bassoon reeds are only a few centimeters in length and are often wrapped in colorful string.]]
Bassoon reeds, made of ''[[Arundo|Arundo donax]]'' cane, are generally made by the players themselves. Reeds begin with a piece of cane that has been left to dry. The cane is then cut and ''gouged'' into smooth strips, leaving the bark attached. After soaking, the strip of cane is cut into the desired thickness, or ''profiled''. This can be done by hand; it is more frequently done with a machine or tool designed for the purpose. It is then cut to the correct outline, or ''shaped''. Making sure the cane is thoroughly soaked, to avoid cracking, the profiled and shaped strip of cane is folded over in the middle. The outer edges, where the bark remains after profiling, are secured by three coils of wire at 2 mm and 8mm from the beginning of the blade, and 6 mm from the bottom. The flat piece of cane is placed on a long, thin mandrel and pressed fimrmly around it to form into the proper shape, until the bottom of the reed is rounded enough to fit securely on the end of the bocal.
After the reed has dried, the wires are tightened around the reed, which has shrunk after drying. The lower part is sealed (generally with [[rubber cement]] or [[epoxy]]) and then wrapped with string to ensure both that no air leaks out through the bottom of the reed and that the reed maintains its shape.
To finish the reed, first, the tip (previously the center of the strip of cane) is cut, so that the blades above the bark are roughly 27 mm long. The reed is then scraped with a knife until it has the proper profile, which has a thin tip leading to a thicker back section, and the "spine" going lengthwise down the center also thick. Specific measurements differ from player to player and instrument to instrument. The very tip of a reed blade is frequently only 0.1 mm thick.
As the style of reed desired varies a great deal from player to player, most advanced players will make their own reeds in order to customize them to their own individual playing style, and almost all will be familiar with the process of making one. However, several companies offer premade reeds, and several individuals also produce reeds for sale, some specializing in this over playing.
===The early reed===
Little is known about the early construction of the bassoon reed, as few examples survive, and much of what is known is only what can be gathered from artistic representations. The earliest known written instructions date from the middle of the 17th century, describing the reed as being held together by wire or resined thread; the earliest actual reeds that survive are more than a century younger, a collection of 21 reeds from the late 18th century Spanish ''bajon''.
==The bassoon in jazz==
The bassoon is infrequently used as a jazz instrument and rarely seen in a jazz ensemble. It first began appearing at all in the 1920s, including specific calls for its use in [[Paul Whiteman]]'s group and a few other session appearances. The next few decades saw the instrument used only sporadically, as symphonic jazz fell out of favor, but the 1960s saw artists such as [[Yusef Lateef]] and [[Chick Corea]] incorporate bassoon into their recordings; Lateef's diverse and eclectic instrumentation saw the bassoon as a natural addition, while Corea employed the bassoon in combination with flautist [[Hubert Laws]]. More recently, [[Illinois Jacquet]] and [[Frank Tiberi]] have both doubled on bassoon in addition to their usual [[saxophone]] performances. Bassoonist [[Karen Borca]], a performer of [[free jazz]], is one of the few jazz musicians to play only bassoon; [[Michael Rabinowitz]] is another, as is the Spanish bassoonist [[Javier Abad]]. [[Lindsay Cooper]], [[Paul Hanson]], and [[Daniel Smith (bassoonist)|Daniel Smith]] are also currently using the bassoon in jazz.
==The bassoon in art and literature==
Much of the early history of the bassoon is known through its representation in painting; the only source of description for the early bassoon reed, for example, is in paintings from late 16th century Spain.
==Audio examples==
[[Image:Bassoon-octaves-spectrogram.png|thumb|100px|A [[spectrogram]] of the bassoon's B-flat in four [[octaves]].]]
{{multi-listen start}}
=== Technical examples ===
A collection of samples demonstrating the bassoon's range, abilities, and tone.
{{multi-listen item|filename=Bassoon-technical-range.ogg|title=Playing Range (A<sub>1</sub> B-flat<sub>1</sub> E<sub>5</sub> A-flat<sub>5</sub>)|description=|format=[[Ogg]]}}
{{multi-listen item|filename=Bassoon-technical-bflatoctaves.ogg|title=Tone across octaves (B-flat<sub>1</sub> B-flat<sub>2</sub> B-flat<sub>3</sub> B-flat<sub>4</sub>)|description=|format=[[Ogg]]}}
{{multi-listen item|filename=Bassoon-technical-chromatic.ogg|title=Chromatic scale (B-flat<sub>1</sub> to B-flat<sub>4</sub>)|description=|format=[[Ogg]]}}
{{multi-listen item|filename=Bassoon-technical-articulations.ogg|title=Articulations (staccato, legato, legato+vibrato, slurred)|description=|format=[[Ogg]]}}
{{multi-listen item|filename=Bassoon-technical-dynamics.ogg|title=Dynamics|description=|format=[[Ogg]]}}
{{multi-listen item|filename=Bassoon-technical-trills.ogg|title=Trills (B<sub>4</sub> to C<sub>5</sub> B<sub>3</sub> to C<sub>4</sub> B<sub>2</sub> to C<sub>3</sub>)|description=|format=[[Ogg]]}}
{{multi-listen item|filename=Bassoon-technical-mouthbend.ogg|title=Embouchure bending|description=|format=[[Ogg]]}}
{{multi-listen item|filename=Bassoon-technical-reed.ogg|title=Bassoon reed alone|description=|format=[[Ogg]]}}
{{multi-listen item|fil
|
]] refused any cooperation with the Red Cross, these goods were delivered solely to Ethiopia. During the war, an estimated 29 people lost their lives while being under explicit protection of the Red Cross symbol, most of them due to attacks by the Italian Army. During the [[Spanish Civil War|Civil War in Spain]] from 1936 to 1939 the League once again joined forces with the ICRC with the support of 41 national societies. In 1939 on the brink of the Second World War, the League relocated its headquarters from Paris to Geneva to take advantage of Swiss neutrality.
[[Image:Friedensnobelpreis-1963.jpg|250px|thumb|Peace Nobel Prize ceremony in 1963; From left to right: King Olav of Norway, ICRC President Leopold Boissier, League Chairman John A. MacAulay<br><small>(Picture from: [http://www.redcross.int www.redcross.int])</small>]]
In 1952, the 1928 common statute of the movement was revised for the first time. Also, the period of [[decolonization]] from 1960 to 1970 was marked by a huge jump in the number of recognized national Red Cross and Red Crescent societies. By the end of the 1960's, there were more than 100 societies around the world. On [[December 10]], [[1963]], the Federation and the ICRC received the Nobel Peace Prize. In 1983, the League was renamed to the "League of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies" to reflect the growing number of national societies operating under the Red Crescent symbol. Three years later, the seven basic principles of the movement as adopted in 1965 were incorporated into its statutes. The name of the League was changed again in 1991 to its current official designation the "International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies". In 1997, the ICRC and the Federation signed the [[Seville Agreement]] which further defined the responsibilities of both organizations within the movement. In 2004, the Federation began its largest mission to date after the [[2004 Indian Ocean earthquake|tsunami disaster in South Asia]]. More than 40 national societies have worked with more than 22,000 volunteers to bring relief to the countless victims left without food and shelter and endangered by the risk of epidemics.
====Presidents of the Federation====
Since 2001, the president of the Federation has been Don Juan Manuel Suárez Del Toro Rivero of Spain. The Vice presidents are currently René Rhinow (ex officio as president of the Swiss Red Cross society) and, representing the different core regions of the world, Robert Barnes (Canada), Murli S. Deora (India), Dr. Mamdouh Gabr (Egypt) and Dr. Massimo Barra (Italy).
Former presidents (until 1977 titled "Chairman") have been:
{{col-begin}}
{{col-break}}
* 1919 - 1922: Henry Davison (USA)
* 1922 - 1935: John Barton Payne (USA)
* 1935 - 1938: Cary T. Grayson (USA)
* 1938 - 1944: Norman Davis (USA)
* 1944 - 1945: Jean de Muralt (Switzerland)
* 1945 - 1950: Basil O'Connor (USA)
{{col-break}}
* 1950 - 1959: Emil Sandstrom (Sweden)
* 1959 - 1965: John MacAulay (Canada)
* 1965 - 1977: Jose Barroso (Mexico)
* 1977 - 1981: Adetunji Adefarasin (Nigeria)
* 1981 - 1987: Enrique de la Mata (Spain)
* 1987 - 1997: Mario Enrique Villarroel Lander (Venezuela)
* 1997 - 2000: Astrid N. Heiberg (Norway)
{{col-end}}
==Activities==
===Organization of the Movement===
[[Image:Schweiz_Genf_IRK-Museum.jpg|250px|thumb|Entry to the International Red Cross and Red Crescent Museum in Geneva]]
Altogether, there are about 97 million people worldwide who serve with the ICRC, the Federation, and the national societies. And there are about 300,000 total full time staff members.
The 1965 International Conference in [[Vienna]] adopted seven basic principles which should be shared by all parts of the Movement, and they were added to the official statutes of the Movement in 1986.
* Humanity
* Impartiality
* Neutrality
* Independence
* Voluntary Service
* Unity
* Universality
The International Red Cross and Red Crescent Conference, which occurs once every four years, is the highest institutional body of the Movement. It gathers delegations from all of the national societies as well as from the ICRC, the Federation and the signatory states to the Geneva Conventions. In between the conferences, the Standing Commission acts as the supreme body and supervises implementation of and compliance with the resolutions of the conference. In addition, the Standing Commission coordinates the cooperation between the ICRC and the Federation. It consists of two representatives from the ICRC (including its president), two from the Federation (including its president), and five individuals who are elected by the International Conference. The Standing Commission convenes every six months on average. Moreover, a convention of the Council of Delegates of the Movement takes place every two years in the course of the conferences of the General Assemblies of the Federation. The Council of Delegates plans and coordinates joint activities for the Movement.
===Activities and Organization of the ICRC===
====The mission of the ICRC and its responsibilities within the Movement====
[[Image:Flag of the ICRC.svg|250px|thumb|Emblem of the ICRC]]
The official mission of the ICRC as an impartial, neutral, and independent organization is to stand for the protection of the life and dignity of victims of international and internal armed conflicts. According the 1997 Seville Agreement, it is the "Lead Agency" of the Movement in conflicts. The core tasks of the Committee, which are derived from the Geneva Conventions and its own statutes, are the following:
* to monitor compliance of warring parties with the Geneva Conventions
* to organize nursing and care for those who are wounded on the battlefield
* to supervise the treatment of prisoners of war
* to help with the search for missing persons in an armed conflict (tracing service)
* to organize protection and care for civil populations
* to arbitrate between warring parties in an armed conflict
====Legal status and organization====
The ICRC is headquartered in the Swiss city of Geneva and has external offices in about 80 countries. It has about 12,000 staff members worldwide, about 800 of them working in its Geneva headquarters, 1,200 expatriates with about half of them serving as delegates managing its international missions and the other half being specialists like doctors, agronomists, engineers or interpreters, and about 10,000 members of individual national societies working on site. Contrary to popular belief, the ICRC is not a [[non-governmental organization]] in the most common sense of the term, nor is it an international organization. As it limits its members (a process called cooptation) to Swiss nationals only, it does not have a policy of open and unrestricted membership for individuals like other legally defined NGOs. The word "international" in its name does not refer to its membership but to the worldwide scope of its activities as defined by the Geneva Conventions. The ICRC has special privileges and legal immunities in many countries, based on national law in these countries or through agreements between the Committee and respective national governments. According to Swiss law, the ICRC is defined as a private association. According to its statutes it consists of 15 to 25 Swiss-citizen members, which it coopts for a period of four years. There is no limit to the number of terms an individual member can have although a three-quarters majority of all members is required for re-election after the third term.
The leading organs of the ICRC are the Directorate and the Assembly. The Directorate is the executive body of the Committee. It consists of a General Director and five directors in the areas of "Operations", "Human Resources", "Resources and Operational Support", "Communication", and "International Law and Cooperation within the Movement". The members of the Directorate are appointed by the Assembly to serve for four years. The Assembly, consisting of all of the members of the Committee, convenes on a regular basis and is responsible for defining aims, guidelines, and strategies and for supervising the financial matters of the Committee. The president of the Assembly is also the president of the Committee as a whole. Furthermore, the Assembly elects a five member Assembly Council which has the authority to decide on behalf of the full Assembly in some matters. The Council is also responsible for organizing the Assembly meetings and for facilitating communication between the Assembly and the Directorate.
Due to Geneva's location in the French-speaking part of Switzerland, the ICRC usually acts under its French name ''Comité international de la Croix-Rouge'' (CICR). The official symbol of the ICRC is the Red Cross on white background with the words "COMITE INTERNATIONAL GENEVE" circling the cross.
====Funding and financial matters====
The 2005 budget of the ICRC amounts to about 970 million Swiss Francs. Most of that money comes from Switzerland in its capacity as the depositary state of the Geneva Conventions, from national Red Cross societies, the signatory states of the Geneva Conventions, and from international organizations like the [[European Union]]. All payments to the ICRC are voluntary and are received as donations based on two types of appeals issued by the Committee: an annual ''Headquarters Appeal'' to cover its internal costs and ''Emergency Appeals'' for its individual missions. The total budget for 2005 consists of about 819.7 million Swiss Francs (85% of the total) for field work and 152.1 million Swiss Francs (15%) for internal costs. In 2005, the budget for field work increased by 8.6% and the internal budget by 1.5% compared to 2004, primarily due to above average increases in the number and scope of its missions in [[Africa]].
===Activities and organization of the Federation
|
the [[MS-DOS]] distribution was eventually taken by [[Microsoft]] [[QBasic programming language|QBASIC]], a cut-down version of the separately available [[Microsoft QuickBASIC compiler]]. GW-BASIC's main advantage over BASICA was that it did not require a BASIC interpreter on the ROM and so could be used on non-IBM PCs.
The initials "GW" may have been named after [[Greg Whitten]], an early Microsoft employee who developed the standards in the Microsoft basic compiler line. It is also purported to stand for gee-whiz. Greg Whitten is not certain on this matter. [http://classiccmp.org/pipermail/cctech/2005-April/043002.html]
An alternative theory is that "GW" stands for "[[Bill Gates|Gates, William]]". [http://classiccmp.org/pipermail/cctech/2005-April/042967.html] Another common expansion is "Graphics and Windows", as neither feature was supported by BASICA.
==See also==
* [[Microsoft BASICA]]
* [[QBasic]]
* [[QuickBASIC]]
==External links==
*[http://www.geocities.com/KindlyRat/GWBASIC.html hints and downloads for GW-BASIC]
*[http://scottserver.net/basically/geewhiz.html GW-BASIC utilities and games]
[[Category:Microsoft BASIC|Gw-BASIC]]
[[Category:BASIC dialects|Gw-BASIC]]
[[de:GWBasic]]
[[it:GW-BASIC]]
[[ko:GW-BASIC]]
[[pl:GW BASIC]]
[[sv:GW-Basic]]
[[tr:GWBasic]]
[[zh:GW-BASIC]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Granite</title>
<id>13088</id>
<revision>
<id>41756998</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T14:57:28Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Ethan Mitchell</username>
<id>395036</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Content</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:granite_for_temple.jpg|thumb|250px|Quarrying granite for the Mormon Temple, Utah Territory. The ground is strewn with boulders and detached masses of granite, which have fallen from the walls of [[Little Cottonwood Canyon]]. The quarrying consists of splitting up the blocks.]]
'''Granite''' is a common and widely-occurring type of [[Intrusion (geology)|intrusive]] [[felsic]] [[igneous rock|igneous]] [[rock (geology)|rock]].
Granites are usually a white or buff colour and are medium to coarse [[grain size|grained]], occasionally with some individual crystals larger than the groundmass forming a rock known as [[Porphyry (geology)|porphyry]]. Granites can be pink to dark grey or even black, depending on their chemistry and mineralogy.
Outcrops of granite tend to form [[tor]]s, rounded massifs, and terrains of rounded boulders cropping out of flat, sandy soils. Granites sometimes occur in circular depressions surrounded by a range of hills, formed by the [[metamorphic]] [[aureole]] or [[hornfels]].
Granite is nearly always massive, hard and tough, and it is for this reason it has gained widespread use as a construction stone.
The average [[density]] of granite is 2.75 g/cm<sup>3</sup>; with a range of 1.74 to 2.80.
The word granite comes from the [[Latin]] ''granum'', a grain, in reference to the coarse-grained structure of such a [[crystal]]line rock.
==Mineralogy==
Granite primarily consists of [[orthoclase]] and [[plagioclase]] [[feldspar]]s, [[quartz]], [[hornblende]], [[biotite]], [[muscovite]] and minor accessory minerals such as [[magnetite]], [[garnet]], [[zircon]] and [[apatite]]. Rarely, a [[pyroxene]] is present.
Granite is classified according to the [[QAPF diagram]] for coarse grained plutonic rocks (granitoids) and is named according to the percentage of Quartz, Alkali feldspar (orthoclase) and Plagioclase Feldspar on the A-Q-P half of the diagram. Highly peralkaline forms of granite which are silica undersaturated may have a [[feldspathoid]] such as [[nepheline]], and are classified on the A-F-P half of the diagram. See Figure 1, below.
[[Image:QAPF diagram granite.svg|450px|right|thumb|Figure 1. QAPF diagram of granitoids and phaneritic foidolites (plutonic rocks).]]
True granite according to modern petrology contains both plagioclase and orthoclase feldspars. When a granitoid is devoid of orthoclase the rock is referred to as alkali granite or ''adamellite''. When a granitoid contains <5% orthoclase it is known as a granodiorite, or [[tonalite]] when pyroxene is present.
A granite containing both muscovite and biotite [[mica]]s is called a binary or ''two-mica'' granite. Two-mica granites are typically high in potassium and low in plagioclase, and are usually S-type granites or A-type granites.
The extrusive equivalent of [[plutonic]] granite rock is called [[Rhyolite]].
==Occurrence==
Granite occurs as relatively small, less than 100 km<sup>2</sup> stock-like masses and as large [[batholith]]s often associated with [[orogeny|orogenic]] [[mountain]] ranges and is frequently of great extent. Small [[dike (geology)|dikes]] of granitic composition called [[aplite]]s are associated with granite margins. In some locations very coarse-grained [[pegmatite]] masses occur with granite.
Granite has been intruded into the [[Crust (geology)|crust]] of the [[Earth]] during all [[Geologic ages|geologic periods]]; much of it is of [[Precambrian]] age. Granite is widely distributed throughout the [[continental crust]] of the Earth and is the most abundant ''basement rock'' that underlies the relatively thin [[sedimentary rock|sedimentary]] veneer of the continents.
==Origin==
Granite is an [[igneous]] rock, and is formed from magma. Granite magma has many potential origins but it must intrude other rocks. Most granite intrusions are emplaced at depth within the crust, usually greater than 1.5 kilometres and up to 50km depth within thick continental crust.<br>
The origin of granite is contentious and has led to varied schemes of classification. The 'alphabet soup' scheme of Chappel & White was proposed initially to divide granites into ''I-type'' granite (or [[igneous]] protolith) granite and ''S-type'' or sedimentary [[protolith]] granite. Both of these types of granite are formed by melting of high grade [[metamorphic]] rocks, either other granite or depleted mantle, or buried and subducted sediment, respectively. <br>
M-type or [[mantle]] derived granite was proposed later, to cover those granites which were clearly sourced from crystallised [[mafic]] magmas, generally sourced from the mantle. These are rare, because it is difficult to turn [[basalt]] into granite via [[fractional crystallisation]]. <br>
A-type or ''anorogenic'' granites are formed above [[hot spot]] activity and have peculiar mineralogy and [[geochemistry]]. These granites are formed by melting of the lower [[crust]] under conditions which are usually too dry. The granite [[caldera]] of [[Yellowstone]] National Park is an example of an A-type granite. <br><br>
Classification schemes are regional; there is a French scheme, a British scheme and an American scheme. This confusion arises because the classification schemes define granite by different means. Generally the 'alphabet-soup' classification is used because it classifies based on genesis or origin of the melt. <br><br>
The granitization theory states that granite is formed in place by extreme [[metamorphism]]. The production of granite by metamorphic heat is difficult, but is observed to occur in certain [[amphibolite]] and [[granulite]] terrains. In-situ granitisation or melting by metamorphism is difficult to recognise except where [[leucosome]] and [[melanosome]] textures are present in [[gneiss]]es. Once a metamorphic rock is melted it is no longer a metamorphic rock and is a magma, so these rocks are seen as a transitional between the two, but are not technically granite as they do not actually intrude into other rocks.
In all cases, melting of solid rock requires temperature, and also [[water]] which acts like a [[catalyst]] by lowering the [[solidus]] temperature of the rock.
==Emplacement mechanisms==
The problem of emplacing large volumes of molten rock within the solid Earth has faced geologists for over a century, and is not entirely resolved. Granite magma must make room for itself or be intruded into other rocks in order to form an intrusion, and several mechanisms have been proposed to explain how large batholiths have been emplaced.
* Stoping, where the granite cracks the wall rocks and pushes upwards as it removes blocks of the overlying crust
* [[Diapir|Diapirism]] where the density of the lighter granite causes relative buoyancy and the granite pushes upwards, warping and folding the rock above it
* Assimilation, where the granite melts its way up into the crust and removes overlying material in this way
* Inflation, where the granite body inflates under pressure and is injected into position
Most geologists today accept that a combination of these phenomenon can be used to explain granite intrusions, and that not all granites can be explained by one or another mechanism.
==Uses==
===Antiquity===
The [[Red Pyramid]] of [[Ancient Egypt]] (c.[[26th century BC]]), named for the light crimson hue of its exposed granite surfaces, is the third largest of [[Egyptian pyramids]]. [[Menkaure's Pyramid]], likely dating to the same era, was constructed of [[limestone]] and granite blocks. The [[Great Pyramid of Giza]] (c.[[26th century BC|2580 BC]]) contains a huge granite [[sarcophagus]] fashioned of "Red [[Aswan]] Granite." The mostly ruined [[Black Pyramid]] dating from the reign of [[Amenemhat III]] once had a polished granite [[pyramidion]] or capstone, now on display in the main hall of the [[Egyptian Museum]] in [[Cairo]] (see [[Dahshur]]). Other uses in [[Ancient Egypt]], [http://www.eeescience.utoledo.edu/Faculty/Harrell/Egypt/Mosques/CAIRO_Rocks_1.htm] include [[column]]s, door [[lintel]]s, [[sill]]s, [[jamb]]s, and wall and floor [[veneer]].
How the Egyptians worked the solid granite is still a matter of debate. Dr. Patrick Hunt [http://hebsed.home.comcast.net/hunt.htm] has postulated th
|
Albanians to be a separate ethnic group.[http://www.frosina.org] Since [[1991]], large numbers of Albanians have emigrated, both legally and illegally, to [[Greece]] and [[Italy]].
The language is [[Albanian language|Albanian]], although [[Greek language|Greek]] is also spoken by the Greek minority in the southern regions of the country.
At the height of the Ottoman occupation, the majority of [[Albanians]] were mostly [[Muslim]] (70%), even though religion was prohibited during the communist era. The Albanian government proclaimed Albania the only officially atheistic country in the world. After the fall of the Communist Regime in 1989-1990 religions were reinstated. According to 1939 statistics, the [[Albanian Orthodox Church|Albanian Orthodox]] (20%) and [[Roman Catholic Church]] (10%) would be the other main religions in Albania. Religious fanaticism has never been a serious problem, with people from different religions living in peace and even getting married although this was not considered to be an optimal solution. 20% of the total Muslim population is [[Bektashi]], people who follow a faith originating in the Turkish migrations into Turkey, and came to Albania through the Ottoman [[Janissary|Janissaries]]. It has outwardly Shi'ite Islamic elements, but is really a Shamanic-Pantheistic faith.
== Culture ==
''Main article: [[Culture of Albania]]''
*[[Albanian Literature]]
*[[Cuisine of Albania]]
*[[Music of Albania]]
*[[Sport in Albania]]
*[[Radio Televizioni Shqiptar]]
*[[Top-Channel|Top-Channel TV]]
== Miscellaneous topics ==
*[[List of Albania-related articles]]
*[[List of Albanians]]
*[[Islam in Albania]]
*[[Albanian mythology]]
*[[Beslidhja Skaut Albania]]
*[[List of sovereign states]]
*[[Communications in Albania]]
*[[Education in Albania]]
*[[Foreign relations of Albania]]
*[[Military of Albania]]
*[[Transportation in Albania]]
*[[Public holidays in Albania]]
*[[List of Albanian-Americans]]
*[[Arbëreshë|Albanians in Italy]]
*[[Butrint National Park]]
*[[The Jewish Community of Albania]]
*[[Albanian-Actors]]
== External links ==
{{sisterlinks|Albania}}
*[http://www.vlora.it/ News and Fun from Albania] Albanian Language
*[http://www.fotw.us/flags/al-index.html#pol List of Abanian flags] throughout history
*[http://www.balkanforums.com Albania and the Balkans] Discussion Forum
*[http://www.geocities.com/protoillyrian Albanian Etymological Dictionary]
*[http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/al.html CIA - The World Factbook -- Albania] - [[CIA]]'s Factbook on Albania
*[http://www.albanian.com/community/index.php General information on Albanians]
*[http://www.gksoft.com/govt/en/al.html More links of the Albanian government]
*[http://www.albaniafoto.com/en/ Albania Pictures]
*[http://www.albeu.com An Albanian news portal] (in Albanian)
*[http://www.opic.gov/links/countryInfo.asp?country=Albania&region=euro OPIC Guide on Albania]
*[http://www.travelconsumer.com/countries/albania.htm Travel guide to Albania]
*[http://hotelkalemi.tripod.com Guide to Gjirokaster]
*[http://www.freeworldmaps.net/europe/albania/map.html Map of Albania]
*[http://vlib.iue.it/history/europe/albania.html WWW-VL: History: Albania]
===Official government websites===
*[http://www.albca.com/aclis Albanian Canadian League Information Service - ACLIS] ([[Albanian language|Albanian]] and [[English language|English]])
*[http://www.tanmarket.com/php TanPortal Albanian Social Economic] ([[Albanian language|Albanian]])
*[http://www.albca.com Albanian Canadian League - ACL] ([[Albanian language|Albanian]] and [[English language|English]])
*[http://www.km.gov.al/english/default.asp Department of Information] ([[Albanian language|Albanian]] and [[English language|English]])
*[http://www.parlament.al The Albanian Parliament] ([[Albanian language|Albanian]], [[English language|English]] and [[French language|French]])
*[http://www.president.al Presidency of Albania] ([[Albanian language|Albanian]] and [[English language|English]])
*[http://www.instat.gov.al Albanian Institute of Statistics] ([[Albanian language|Albanian]] and [[English language|English]])
{{Europe}}
[[Category:Albania| ]]
[[af:Albanië]]
[[als:Albanien]]
[[ang:Albania]]
[[ar:ألبانيا]]
[[an:Albania]]
[[roa-rup:Albanii]]
[[ast:Albania]]
[[bg:Албания]]
[[zh-min-nan:Shqipëria]]
[[be:Альбанія]]
[[bn:আলবেনিয়া]]
[[bs:Albanija]]
[[ca:Albània]]
[[chr:ᎠᎸᏇᏂᏯ]]
[[cs:Albánie]]
[[cy:Albania]]
[[da:Albanien]]
[[de:Albanien]]
[[et:Albaania]]
[[el:Αλβανία]]
[[es:Albania]]
[[eo:Albanio]]
[[eu:Albania]]
[[fa:آلبانی]]
[[fo:Albania]]
[[fr:Albanie]]
[[fy:Albaanje]]
[[fur:Albanie]]
[[gd:Albàinia]]
[[gl:Albania - Shqipëria]]
[[ko:알바니아]]
[[ht:Albani]]
[[hy:Ալբանիա]]
[[hi:अल्बानिया]]
[[hr:Albanija]]
[[io:Albania]]
[[id:Albania]]
[[ia:Albania]]
[[is:Albanía]]
[[it:Albania]]
[[he:אלבניה]]
[[ka:ალბანეთი]]
[[kw:Albani]]
[[ku:Elbanya]]
[[la:Albania]]
[[lv:Albānija]]
[[lt:Albanija]]
[[lb:Albanien]]
[[li:Albanië]]
[[hu:Albánia]]
[[mk:Албанија]]
[[mg:Albania]]
[[mt:Albanija]]
[[ms:Albania]]
[[na:Albania]]
[[nl:Albanië]]
[[nds:Albanien]]
[[ja:アルバニア]]
[[no:Albania]]
[[nn:Albania]]
[[oc:Albania]]
[[ps:البانيا]]
[[pl:Albania]]
[[pt:Albânia]]
[[ro:Albania]]
[[ru:Албания]]
[[se:Albánia]]
[[sa:अल्बानिया]]
[[sq:Shqipëria]]
[[simple:Albania]]
[[sk:Albánsko]]
[[sl:Albanija]]
[[sr:Албанија]]
[[fi:Albania]]
[[sv:Albanien]]
[[tl:Albanya]]
[[th:ประเทศแอลเบเนีย]]
[[tr:Arnavutluk Cumhuriyeti]]
[[uk:Албанія]]
[[zh:阿尔巴尼亚]]
[[fiu-vro:Albaania]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Allah</title>
<id>740</id>
<revision>
<id>42136152</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T01:35:06Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Jossi</username>
<id>60449</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/71.122.164.153|71.122.164.153]] ([[User talk:71.122.164.153|talk]]) to last version by El C</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Islam}}
:''For a king of [[Anglo-Saxon]] England, see [[Aella of Deira]] or [[Aelle II of Northumbria]] or [[Aelle of Sussex]].''
:''Men's names <u>Allah-ed-din</u> and similar are misspellings for [[Ala-ud-din]]; and see [[Arabic name#Mistakes made by Europeans and other non-Arabs|here]] for other sorts of error.''
The word '''{{ArabDIN|Allāh}}''' is the [[Arabic language|Arabic]] term for "[[God]]". In other languages, it is often used to refer specifically to the [[Islamic concept of God]]: see "[[#Usage|Usage]]" below.
==Etymology==
===Usage===
{{Arabicterm|الله|Allah, Allāh|The God}}
Although, outside the Arab world, use of the word ''Allāh'' is most often associated with [[Islam]], it is not exclusive to that faith; [[Arab Christians]] and various Arabic-speaking [[Jew]]s (including the [[Teimanim]], several {{ArabDIN|[[Mizrahi Jews|Mizraḥi]]}} communities and some [[Sephardim]]) also use it to refer to the [[monotheist]] [[deity]]. Arabic translations of the [[Bible]] also employ it, as do [[Roman Catholic Church|Roman Catholics]] in [[Malta]] (who pronounce it as "Alla"), [[Christians]] in [[Indonesia]], who say "Allah Bapa" (God the Father) and Christians in the [[Middle East]] who use the [[Aramaic language|Aramaic]] "Allāha".
==="Allah" as a word===
Many [[Linguistics|linguists]] believe that the term ''Allāh'' is derived from a contraction of the Arabic words ''al'' (the) and ''ʾilāh'' (deity, masculine form) - ''al-ilāh'' meaning "the god." In addition, one of the main pagan goddesses of pre-Islamic Arabia, [[Allat|Allāt]] (''al'' + ''ʾilāh'' + ''at'', or 'the goddess'), is cited as being [[Etymology|etymologically]] (though not synchronically) the feminine linguistic counterpart to the grammatically masculine Allāh. If so, the word ''Allāh'' is an abbreviated title, meaning 'the deity', rather than a name. For this reason, both Muslim and non-Muslim scholars often translate Allāh directly into [[English language|English]] as 'God'; this also explains why Arabic-speaking Jews and Christians freely refer to God as Allāh. However, some Muslim scholars feel that "Allāh" should not be translated, because they perceived the Arabic word to express the uniqueness of "Allāh" more accurately than the word "god", which can take a plural "gods", whereas the word "Allāh" has no plural form. This is a significant issue in [[translation of the Qur'an]].
[[Image:Allah.jpg|thumb|right|200px|An example of ''{{ArabDIN|allāh}}'' written in simple [[Arabic calligraphy]].]]
The word ''Allāh'' is always written without an [[alif]] to spell the ''ā'' vowel. This is because the spelling was settled before Arabic spelling started habitually using [[alif]] to spell ''ā''. However, in vocalized spelling, a diacritic ''alif'' is added on top of the ''[[shadda|shaddah]]'' to indicate pronunciation. One exception is in the pre-Islamic [[History of the Arabic alphabet#Pre-Islamic Arabic inscriptions|Zabad inscription]], where it is spelled الاه.
[[Unicode]] has glyph reserved for Allah, {{ar|ﷲ}} = U+FDF2, which can be combined with an alif to yield the post-consonantal form, {{ar|اﷲ}}, as opposed to the full spelling ''alif-lām-lām-hā'' {{ar|الله}} which may be rendered slightly differently, in particular featuring a diacritic ''alif'' on top of the ''shadda''. In this, Unicode imitates traditional Arabic typesetting, which also frequently featured special ''llāh'' types.
Also In ''[[Abjad numerals]]'', [[The Name Of Allah (&#1575;&#1604;&#1604;&#1607;) ]] numeric value is [[66]].
==Islamic use of "Allāh"==
From the point of view of traditional [[Islam]]ic [[theology]], Allāh is the most precious name of God because it is not a descriptive name like other [[Ninety-nine names of Allah|ninety-nine names of God]], but the name of God's own presence. Muslims believe that the name of Allah had existed before the time of [[Adam and Eve|Adam]]. I
|
he could get away with) the qualities of the original. The term has become common [[Internet slang]]. In the stories the BOFH also spent a brief amount of time as a '''Bastard System Manager From Hell''' ('''BSMFH''') - however, this has failed to pass into common usage online.
In the stories, the [[PFY]] (Pimply-Faced Youth) is the BOFH's assistant; this too has become a general term for a junior or trainee system administrator.
== Storylines ==
The stories take place in three locations; early BOFH editions took place in a university, moving on to an office workplace over time (an exact transition is not given). BOFH 2k began with the BOFH and PFY moving to a new company.
Whilst the BOFH gets irritated at the incompetence of users, he does use this to his advantage to further his devious means, mainly using the following tricks:
*Deleting [[Luser]] Accounts
*Deleting Luser's Files
*Lifting floor tiles
*Electrocuting lusers (from an over-voltage [[cattle prod]], or by other means)
*Locking the machine room and triggering the [[Haloalkane#Fire_extinguishing|Halon]]
*Slamming their testicles in desk drawers
*Pushing lusers off the [[Comms riser]]
*[[Blackmail]]
Early BOFH editions focused mainly on the above tricks, although over time many other schemes and plots have been used, with many now aimed at management as well as the users. Early BOFH editions simply featured the BOFH, the systems manager and the lusers - as time developed, the Boss, PFY and other characters (see below) appeared.
== Mantra ==
The [[mantra]] of the BOFH, and sysadmins everywhere is: ''Non ex transverso sed deorsum''.
Roughly translated to: ''Not across, but down''.
The phrase refers to how one should apply a razorblade to one's wrist to achieve best results. In this case, Down, not across refers to slicing parallel to your wrist as to more fully evacuate blood from the body. Exercising the blade perpendicular to the wrist is less likely to result in successful suicide, and also tends to sever important tendons, making it very hard to grasp the razor. The phrase has gained mantra status as a representation that sysadmins would rather commit [[suicide]] than work with [[Luser|lusers]].
== Characters ==
The following characters appear regularly :
* The BOFH, actual name of Simon
* The [[PFY]] (BOFH's assistant, 1996-), actual name of Steven
* The Boss (changes throughout the stories as successive bosses are sacked, leave or have nasty "accidents")
* Beancounters from [[Accounting]] (disposable, interchangeable, faceless)
* The [[CEO]]
* The Head of [[Information technology|IT]]
* [[helpdesk|Helldesk]] Operators (disposable, interchangeable, faceless)
* The Boss's Secretary, Sharon
* [[Security]] (tape [[Emmerdale]] over [[CCTV]] video tapes, useless with computers)
* George, the cleaner (invaluable source of information)
== Books ==
* The Bastard Operator From Hell (Plan Nine, ISBN 1-929462-17-4)
* Bastard Operator From Hell II: Son of the Bastard (Plan Nine, ISBN 1-929462-40-9)
* Bride of the Bastard Operator From Hell (Plan Nine, ISBN 1-929462-48-4)
* Dummy Mode Is Forever (Plan Nine, ISBN 1-929462-63-8)
* Dial "B" For Bastard (Plan Nine, ISBN 1-929462-94-8)
==See also==
*[[alt.sysadmin.recovery]]
== External links ==
{{wikiquote}}
* [http://bofh.ntk.net/Bastard.html BOFH stories, 1988-1999]
* [http://www.theregister.co.uk/odds/bofh BOFH stories, 2000- from The Register]
* [http://www.plan9publishing.com/sunshop/index.php?action=category&id=7 BOFH books from Plan Nine Publishing]
* [http://bofh.ntk.net/BastardLatestFaq.html BOFH official FAQ]
* [http://bofh.ntk.net/Bastard8.html BOFH official history]
* [http://pgl.yoyo.org/bofh/ BOFH Excuse Server]
* [http://www.malinche.net/bofh.html The BOFH Text Adventure Game]
[[Category:Computer humor]]
[[Category:Internet culture|Slang, Internet]]
[[Category:Internet slang]]
[[Category:System administration]]
[[de:Bastard Operator From Hell]]
[[es:Bastard Operator from Hell]]
[[it:BOFH]]
[[pl:BOFH]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Brownie McGhee</title>
<id>4737</id>
<revision>
<id>37104318</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-28T18:29:54Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Crystallina</username>
<id>429935</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>subcategorized</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Browniemcghee.jpg|thumb|right]]
'''Walter "Brownie" McGhee''' ([[November 30]] [[1915]] - [[February 16]] [[1996]]) was a [[folk music|folk]]-[[blues]] singer and [[guitarist]], best known for his collaborations with the [[harmonica]] player [[Sonny Terry]].
He was born in [[Knoxville, Tennessee]] and suffered from [[polio]] as a child, which incapacitated his leg. McGhee spent much of his youth immersed in music, singing with local harmony group (the Golden Voices Gospel Quartet) and teaching himself the guitar. At the age of 22 he became a travelling musician, meeting and befriending [[Blind Boy Fuller]], whose guitar playing influenced him greatly, (to the extent that after Fuller's death in [[1941]], McGhee adopted his mentor's name, styling himself Blind Boy Fuller II). By that time, McGhee was recording for [[Okeh Records]] in [[Chicago, Illinois]], but his real success did not come until his [[1942]] relocation to [[New York City]], where he was teamed up with [[Sonny Terry]]. The pairing was an overnight success, recording and touring extensively until the early [[1970s]]. During the "folk revival" of the [[1960s]] Terry and McGhee were highly popular on the concert and festival circuits, occasionally adding new material but usually remaining faithful to their roots.
{{US-musician-stub}}
{{singer-guitarist-stub}}
[[Category:1915 births|McGhee, Brownie]]
[[Category:1996 deaths|McGhee, Brownie]]
[[Category:American blues singers|McGhee, Brownie]]
[[Category:American male singers|McGhee, Brownie]]
[[Category:Folk singers|McGhee, Brownie]]
[[Category:American guitarists|McGhee, Brownie]]
[[Category:Blues guitarists|McGhee, Brownie]]
[[Category:Knoxvillians|McGhee, Brownie]]
[[Category:National Heritage Fellowship winners|McGhee, Brownie]]
[[de:Brownie McGhee]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>International Bureau of Weights and Measures</title>
<id>4739</id>
<revision>
<id>38071368</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-03T23:49:44Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Hardouin</username>
<id>70570</id>
</contributor>
<comment>WWII note</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''International Bureau of Weights and Measures''' is the English name of the '''Bureau international des poids et mesures''' ('''BIPM''', often written in English '''Bureau International des Poids et Mesures'''), a [[standards organization]], one of the three organizations established to maintain the International System of Units ([[SI]]) under the terms of the ''[[Convention du Mètre]]'' (Metre Convention). Note that the abbreviation IBWM does ''not'' exist.
It is based at the [[Pavillon de Breteuil]] in [[Sèvres]], [[France]], where it enjoys [[extraterritoriality|extraterritorial]] status. As such it escaped German occupation during [[World War II]].
According to [http://www.bipm.org/en/home/ its official site]:
:The task of the BIPM is to ensure world-wide uniformity of measurements and their traceability to the International System of Units (SI).
It does this with the authority of the Convention du Mètre, a diplomatic [[treaty]] between fifty-one nations ([[as of 2005]]), and it operates through a series of Consultative Committees, whose members are the national [[metrology]] laboratories of the Member States of the Convention, and through its own laboratory work.
The BIPM carries out measurement-related research. It takes part in, and organizes, international comparisons of national measurement standards, and it carries out calibrations for Member States.
The other organizations which maintain the SI system are:
* the [[General Conference on Weights and Measures]] (CGPM, Conférence générale des poids et mesures)
* the [[International Committee for Weights and Measures]] (CIPM, Comité international des poids et mesures)
==External links==
*[http://www.bipm.org/en/home/ BIPM]
<!--Categories-->
[[Category:Standards organizations]]
[[Category:Metrology]]
[[category:International organizations]]
<!--Interwiki-->
[[bg:Международно бюро за мерки и теглилки]]
[[de:Internationales Büro für Gewichte und Maße]]
[[es:Oficina Internacional de Pesos y Medidas]]
[[fr:Bureau international des poids et mesures]]
[[id:Bureau International des Poids et Mesures]]
[[it:Bureau International des Poids et Mesures]]
[[ja:国際度量衡局]]
[[pt:Museu Internacional de Pesos e Medidas]]
[[sr:Међународни биро за тежине и мере]]
[[sv:BIPM]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>BIPM</title>
<id>4740</id>
<revision>
<id>15902997</id>
<timestamp>2005-05-28T02:49:49Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Urhixidur</username>
<id>68509</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[International Bureau of Weights and Measures]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Bayonne</title>
<id>4741</id>
<revision>
<id>42035871</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T10:18:39Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Bota47</username>
<id>341052</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>robot Modifying: pt</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}
{{French commune|
nomcommune= Bayonne<br>[[Image:Bayonne.jpg|300px]]<br><small>View of Grand Bayonne across the Adour</small>|
région=[[Aquitaine]]|
département=[[Pyrénées-Atlantiques]]<br />(''[[sous-préfecture]]'')|
arrondissement=Bayonne|
canton=Chief town of 3 cantons|
insee=64 102|cp=64100|maire=[[J
|
ry to modernize these sectors in the absence of a political consensus to permit private investment. Failure to act soon on telecommunications could prove an obstacle to the government's desire to attract more world-class foreign investment.
== Statistics ==
'''GDP:'''
$18.4 billion.(2004)
'''GDP PPP:'''
$37.97 billion. (2004 est.)
'''GDP real growth rate:'''
3.9% (2004 est.)
'''GDP per capita:'''
purchasing power parity - $ 9,600 (2004 est.)
'''GDP composition by sector:'''
<br>''agriculture:''
8.5% (2005) Bananas, pineapples, coffee, beef, sugarcane, rice, dairy products, vegetables, fruits and ornamental plants.
<br>''industry:''
29.7% (2004) Electronic components, food processing, textiles and apparel, construction materials, cement, fertilizer.
<br>''services:''
61.8% (2004) Hotels, restaurants, tourist services, banks, and insurance.
'''Population below poverty line:'''
18%
'''Household income or consumption by percentage share:'''
<br>''lowest 10%:''
1.1%
<br>''highest 10%:''
36.8% (2004 est.)
'''Inflation rate (consumer prices):'''
11.5% (2004 est.)
'''Labor force:'''
1.81 million (2004 est.)
'''Labor force by occupation:'''
agriculture 20%, industry 22%, services 58% (1999 est.)
'''Unemployment rate:'''
6.6% (2004 est.); 7.5% underemployment
'''Budget:'''
<br>''revenues:''
$2.497 billion (2004 est.)
<br>''expenditures:''
$3.094 billion (2004 est.)
'''Industries:'''
microprocessors, food processing, textiles and clothing, construction materials, fertilizer, plastic products
'''Industrial production growth rate:'''
24.5% (1999)
'''Electricity production:'''
5,742 GWh (1998)
'''Electricity production by source:'''
<br>''fossil fuel:''
9.28%
<br>''hydro:''
80.62%
<br>''nuclear:''
0%
<br>''other:''
10.1% (1998)
'''Electricity consumption:'''
5,267 GWh (1998)
'''Electricity exports:'''
77 GWh (1998)
'''Electricity imports:'''
4 GWh (1998)
'''Agriculture products:'''
coffee, bananas, sugar, corn, rice, beans, potatoes, beef, timber
'''Exports:'''
$6.4 billion (f.o.b., 1999 est.)
'''Export commodities:'''
coffee, bananas, sugar; textiles, electronic components, electricity
'''Export partners:'''
USA 49%, EU 22%, Central America 10% (1999)
'''Imports:'''
$6.5 billion (c.i.f., 1999 est.)
'''Import commodities:'''
raw materials, consumer goods, capital equipment, petroleum, electricity
'''Import partners:'''
USA 41%, Japan 8.1%, Mexico 7.3%, Venezuela 4% (1998)
'''External debt:'''
$3.9 billion (1998 est.)
'''Economic aid - recipient:'''
$107.1 million (1995)
'''Currency:'''
1 Costa Rican colon (C) = 100 centimos
'''Exchange rates:'''
Costa Rican colones (C) per US$1 - 479.57 (July 2005) 299.63 (February 2000), 285.68 (1999), 257.23 (1998), 232.60 (1997), 207.69 (1996), 179.73 (1995)
'''Fiscal year:'''
[[October 1]] &ndash; [[September 30]]
==External links==
[http://www.auswaertiges-amt.de/www/en/laenderinfos/laender/laender_ausgabe_html?type_id=12&land_id=33 Costa Rica's Economy]
{{WTO}}
[[Category:WTO members|Costa Rica]]
[[Category:Economy of Costa Rica| ]]
[[es:Economía de Costa Rica]]
[[fr:Économie du Costa Rica]]
[[pt:Economia da Costa Rica]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Communications in Costa Rica</title>
<id>5557</id>
<revision>
<id>37667398</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-01T12:44:17Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>CalJW</username>
<id>233571</id>
</contributor>
<comment>adjusted categorisation</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''[[Telephone]]s - main lines in use:'''
1 389 359 (August 2005)
'''Telephones - mobile cellular:'''
934 764 (August 2005)
'''Telephone system:'''
very good domestic telephone service
<br>''domestic:''
point-to-point and point-to-multi-point microwave, fiber-optic and coaxial cable link rural areas; [[Internet]] service is available
<br>''international:''
connected to [[Central American Microwave System]]; [[satellite]] earth stations - 2 [[Intelsat]] ([[Atlantic Ocean]]); two submarine cables (1999)
'''[[Radio]] [[broadcasting|broadcast]] stations:'''
AM 50, FM 43, shortwave 19 (1998)
'''Radios:'''
980,000 (1997)
'''[[Television]] broadcast stations:'''
6 (plus 11 repeaters) (1997)
'''Televisions:'''
525,000 (1997)
'''[[Internet Service Provider]]s (ISPs):'''
2 (1999)
'''[[Country code]]:''' CR
:''See also :'' [[Costa Rica]]
[[Category:Communications in Costa Rica| ]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Transportation in Costa Rica</title>
<id>5558</id>
<revision>
<id>41168528</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-25T14:13:06Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Prasi90</username>
<id>733316</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{CIA}}
{{Cleanup}}
== [[Railway]]s ==
<br>''total:''
950 km
<br>''narrow gauge:''
950 km 1.067-m gauge (260 km electrified)
=== Railways links to adjacent countries ===
* [[Transportation in Nicaragua|Nicaragua]] - no
* [[Transportation in Panama|Panama]] - no
== [[Highway]]s ==
<br>''total:''
37,273 km
<br>''paved:''
7,827 km
<br>''unpaved:''
29,446 km (1998 est.)
== Waterways ==
about 730 km, seasonally navigable
== Pipelines ==
[[petroleum]] products 176 km
== Ports and [[harbor]]s ==
=== Atlantic Ocean ===
[[Moin]], [[Puerto Limón]],
=== Pacific Ocean ===
[[Caldera]], [[Golfito]], [[Puerto Quepos]], [[Puntarenas]]
== [[Merchant marine]] ==
none (1999 est.)
== [[Airport]]s ==
155 (1999 est.) see also [[List of airports in Costa Rica]]
=== Airports - with paved runways ===
<br>''total:''
28
<br>''2,438 to 3,047 m:''
2
<br>''1,524 to 2,437 m:''
1
<br>''914 to 1,523 m:''
18
<br>''under 914 m:''
7 (1999 est.)
=== Airports - with unpaved runways ===
<br>''total:''
127
<br>''914 to 1,523 m:''
29
<br>''under 914 m:''
98 (1999 est.)
== See also ==
* [[Costa Rica]]
{{CIAfb}}
{{North America in topic|Transportation in}}
[[Category:Transportation in Costa Rica|*]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Military of Costa Rica</title>
<id>5559</id>
<revision>
<id>41083577</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-24T23:13:44Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Tothebarricades.tk</username>
<id>63223</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">On [[December 1]], [[1948]], [[List of Presidents of Costa Rica|president]] [[José Figueres Ferrer]] of [[Costa Rica]] abolished the country's army after victory in the civil war in that year.
In a ceremony in the ''Cuartel Bellavista'', Figueres broke a wall with a [[mallet]] symbolizing the end of Costa Rica's military spirit.
In [[1949]] the abolition of the military was introduced in the Article 12 of the 1949 [[Constitution]].
[[image:FigueresMuroCuartelBellavista.jpg|thumb|250px|[[José Figueres Ferrer]] breaking a wall of the ''Cuartel Bellavista'' symbolizing the abolition of the Military]]
The budget previously dedicated to the military now is dedicated to security, education and culture; the country maintains armed National Guard forces.
The museum ''Museo Nacional de Costa Rica'' was placed in the ''Cuartel Bellavista'' as a symbol of commitment to culture.
In [[1986]], [[List of Presidents of Costa Rica|president]] [[Oscar Arias Sánchez]] declared [[December 1]] as the ''Día de la Abolición del Ejército'' (Military abolition day) with law #8115.
Unlike its neighbours, Costa Rica has not endured a civil war since.
==See also==
* [[List of countries without an army]]
==External links==
* [http://www.elespiritudel48.org/docu/h013.htm El Espíritu del 48: Abolición del Ejército] A brief history and facts of the abolishment of the military in Costa Rica
* [http://www.asamblea.go.cr/proyecto/constitu/const3.htm Constitución Política de la República de Costa Rica] See article 12.
* [http://www.mcjdcr.go.cr/patrimonio/museo_nacional.html Museo Nacional de Costa Rica]
* [http://www.geocities.com/Athens/Agora/9751/museo.htm History of the Museum]
[[Category:Military of Costa Rica| ]]
[[zh:哥斯达黎加军事]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Foreign relations of Costa Rica</title>
<id>5560</id>
<revision>
<id>41051582</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-24T19:12:26Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>IDuke</username>
<id>763308</id>
</contributor>
<comment>removed graffiti</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Politics of Costa Rica}}
[[Costa Rica]] is an active member of the international community and, in [[1993]], claimed it was for [[neutral country|neutrality]]. Due to certain powerful constituencies favoring its methods, it has a weight in world affairs far beyond its size. The country lobbied aggressively for the establishment of the [[Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights]] and became the first nation to recognize the jurisdiction of the [[Inter-American Human Rights Court]], based in San Jose.
Then-President [[Oscar Arias]] authored a regional plan in [[1987]] that served as the basis for the [[Esquipulas Peace Agreement]] and Arias was awarded the 1987 [[Nobel Peace Prize]] for his work. Arias also promoted change in the USSR-backed Nicaraguan government of the era. Costa Rica also hosted several rounds of negotiations between the [[El Salvador|Salvadoran Government]] and the [[Farabundo Martí National Liberation Front]] (FMLN), aiding El Salvador's efforts to emerge from civil war and culminating in that country's [[1994]] free and fair elections. Costa Rica has been a strong proponent of regional arms-limitation agreements. Former President Miguel Ángel Rodríguez recently proposed the abolition of all [[Central America|Central American]] militaries and the creation of a regional counternarcotics police force in their stead.
With the establishment of democratically-elected governments in all
|
b>D outranks -CH<sub>3</sub>
After the [[substituent]]s of a [[stereocenter]] have been assigned their priorities, the molecule is so oriented in space that the group with the lowest priority is pointed away from the observer. If the lowest priority substituent is assigned the number 1, and the highest 4, then the sense of rotation of a route passing through 4, 3 and 2 distinguishes the [[stereoisomer]]s. A center with a clockwise sense of rotation is an '''R''' or '''rectus center''' and a center with an anticlockwise sense of rotation is an '''S''' or '''sinister center'''. The names are derived from the [[Latin]] for right and left.
For alkenes and similar double bonded molecules, the same prioritising process is followed for the substituents. In this case, it is the placing of the two highest priority substituents with respect to the double bond which matters. If both high priority substituents are on the same side of the double bond, ie. in the [[cis configuration]], then the [[stereoisomer]] is assigned a '''Z''' or '''Zusammen configuration'''. If, by contrast they are in a [[trans configuration]], then the stereoisomer is assigned an '''E''' or '''Entgegen configuration'''. In this case the identifying letters are derived from [[German language|German]].
It is important to note that there can be more than one of each type of system requiring assignment in a particular molecule. For example, [[ephedrine]] exists in both 1-(''R''), 2-(''S'') and 1-(''S''), 2-(''R'') forms. A compound with the same formula also exists in 1-(''R''), 2-(''R'') and 1-(''S''), 2-(''S''). Said stereoisomers are not ephedrine, but [[pseudoephedrine]]. They are chemically distinct from ephedrine, with only the three dimensional configuration in space, as notated by the Cahn-Ingold-Prelog rules to distinguish them in systematic nomenclature (both are 2-methylamino-1-phenyl-1-propanol in systematic nomenclature). The ephedrine [[enantiomer]]s are referred to as being [[diastereoisomer]]s of the pseudoephedrine [[enantiomer]]s. In general where there are n stereocenters, there will be 2<sup>n</sup> stereoisomers possible. However, often there are situations where some of these stereoisomers are superimposable, reducing the number of different molecules which actually exist.
It should also be noted that a common misnomer is to label tetrahedral atoms with four distinct substituents as ''chiral centers''. This is incorrect, since merely because a center has such a structure does not mean that it is part of a chiral molecule. It may be part of a molecule which is an optically inactive diastereoisomer. They should correctly be labelled as [[stereocenter]]s or '''prochiral centers'''.
Stereochemistry also plays a role assigning '''faces''' to trigonal molecules such as [[ketone]]s. A [[nucleophile]] in a [[nucleophilic addition]] can approach the [[carbonyl]] group from two opposite sides or faces. When an achiral nucleophile attacks [[acetone]], both faces are identical and there is only one reaction product. When the nucleophile attacks [[butanone]], the faces are not identical ('''enantiotopic''') and a racemic product results. When the nucleophile is a [[chiral]] molecule [[diastereoisomer]]s are formed. When one face of a molecule is shielded by substituents or geometric constraints compared to the other face the faces are called '''diastereotopic'''. The same rules that determine the stereochemistry of a stereocenter (R or S) also apply when assigning the face of a molecular group. The faces are then called the '''Re face''' or the '''Si face'''.
[[Vladimir Prelog]] won the [[Nobel Prize]] in [[chemistry]] in [[1975]].
== References ==
# {{Note|1}} J.March ''Advanced Organic Chemistry'' 3Ed. ISBN 0471854727
[[Category:Organic chemistry]]
[[Category:Chemical nomenclature]]
[[Category:stereochemistry]]
[[ar:قاعدة أولويات كان إنجولد بريلوج]]
[[de:Cahn-Ingold-Prelog-Konvention]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Celibacy</title>
<id>6035</id>
<revision>
<id>40161841</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-18T17:09:54Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>216.165.47.205</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Celibacy''' may refer either to being unmarried or to [[sexual abstinence]]. An [[oath]] of celibacy is a promise not to enter into [[marriage]]. Some writers prefer this usage of "celibacy", while others use it interchangeably as a synonym for abstinence.
Some writers on sexuality draw a distinction between abstinence and celibacy, stating that celibacy means refraining from any sexual activity with a partner. They argue that this can be empowering, as it still allows that person to be "sexual" (through, for example, [[masturbation]]). This would not, however, be refered to as chaste celibacy, as masturbation is not considered a chaste act.
The term [[involuntary celibacy]] refers to lack of [[sexual intercourse]] for reasons other than (voluntary) abstinence, e.g. [[shyness]] / [[love-shyness]].
[[Clerical celibacy]] as a requirement for priests, a church law which is maintained by the Western [[Catholic Church]] and in different form in the [[Orthodox Churches]], was an important point of disagreement during the [[Reformation]], with the Reformers arguing that requiring an oath of celibacy from a priest was contrary to biblical teaching in 1Ti 4: 1-5[http://www.usccb.org/nab/bible/1timothy/1timothy4.htm ], Heb 13: 4[http://www.usccb.org/nab/bible/hebrews/hebrews13.htm ] and 1Co 9: 5[http://www.usccb.org/nab/bible/1corinthians/1corinthians9.htm ], implied a degradation of marriage, and was one reason for the widespread sexual misconduct within the clergy at the time of the Reformation (e.g., discussed by [[Calvin]] in his [[Institutes of the Christian Religion]] IV,12,23-28: [http://www.vor.org/rbdisk/calvin/ci_html/4_12.htm#4.12.23]).
Today, the topic of celibacy for Catholic priests has again become a point of a heated discussion[http://www.boston.com/globe/spotlight/abuse/extras/celibacy.htm] in the public and within the Catholic church , possibly in part as a reaction to the difficulties in recruiting new priests, but also in the wake of discoveries of longstanding [[Pedophilia|pedophilic]] behaviour of a number of Catholic priests in the USA.
==See also==
*''[[40 Days and 40 Nights]]''
==External links==
* [http://www.scarleteen.com/sexuality/abstinence.html Abstinence and Celibacy ]
* [http://a4.nu/christian/celibacy.htm Celibacy Chastity and Religion]
[[Category:Non-sexuality]]
*[http://catholicapologeticsofamerica.blogspot.com/2005_08_01_catholicapologeticsofamerica_archive.html Catholic Apologetics of America]
* [http://www.vor.org/rbdisk/calvin/ci_html/4_12#4.12.23 The Reformation view of Celibacy]
*[http://www.jewishgates.com/file.asp?File_ID=427 Why Moses Remained Celibate]: from the [[Oral Torah]] @ [http://www.jewishgates.com/index.asp JewishGates.com]
{{Spirituality-stub}}
[[Category:Asceticism]]
[[o:Celibato]]
[[ca:Celibat]]
[[cs:Celibát]]
[[da:Cølibat]]
[[de:Zölibat]]
[[et:Tsölibaat]]
[[el:Αγαμία (θρησκευτική)]]
[[es:Celibato]]
[[eo:Celibato]]
[[lt:Celibatas]]
[[nl:Celibaat]]
[[pl:Celibat]]
[[ru:Целибат]]
[[sk:Celibát]]
[[fi:Selibaatti]]
[[sv:Celibat]]
[[uk:Целібат]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Coalition government</title>
<id>6036</id>
<revision>
<id>41898805</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T13:38:26Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Jiddisch</username>
<id>681110</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">A '''coalition government''', or '''coalition cabinet''', is a [[cabinet]] in [[parliamentary system|parliamentary]] [[government]] in which several [[political party|parties]] cooperate. The usual reason for this arrangement is that no party on its own has a majority in the [[parliament]]. In times of crisis such as a war or a major economic or political crisis parties may form an all-party [[National government|National Unity Government]] or [[Grand Coalition]].
Cabinets based on a coalition with majority in the parliament ideally are more stable and longlived than [[minority government|minority cabinets]]. While the former are prone to internal struggles, they have less reason to fear [[Motion of No Confidence|votes of non confidence]], although [[majority government]]s based on a single party are usually even more stable as long as its majority can be maintained.
Coalition cabinets are common in countries where the parliament is [[proportional representation|proportionally representative]] for several [[political party|political parties]]. It does not appear at all in countries where the cabinet is chosen by the president rather than the lower house (such as the [[United States]]). In semi-presidential systems, such as [[France]], where the president formally appoints the prime minister but where the government itself must still maintain the confidence of parliament, coalition governments occur quite regularly. Countries that often have a coalition cabinet include the [[Nordic countries]], the [[Benelux]] countries, [[Germany]], [[Italy]], [[Turkey]], [[Israel]] and [[India]]. [[Switzerland]] has been ruled by a loose coalition of the four strongest parties in parliament since 1959, called the "Magic Formula". Sometimes a coalition government is also created in times of national difficulties or crises, for example during wartime, to give the government a high degree of [[political legitimacy]] and acceptability whilst also diminishing internal political strife.
To deal with a situation where no clear majorities appear, parties either form coalition cabinets, supported by a parliamentary majority, or [[minority cabinet]]s which can consist of one or several parties.
In [[Germany]], for instance, coalitions are the norm as it is rare for either the [[Christian-Democratic Union of Germany|CDU
|
= City |
imagename = Image:LondonCity.png |
status = ''[[sui generis]]'', [[City status in the United Kingdom|City]] and [[Ceremonial counties of England|Ceremonial County]] |
area_rank = 354th |
area_km2 = 2.6 |
area_link = 1 E6 m² |
ons_code = 00AA |
population_rank = 353rd |
population_year = 2004 |
population_total = 8,600 |
population_density = 2,966 |
ethnicity = 84.6% White<br>6.8% [[British Asian|South Asian]]<br>2.6% [[British Afro-Caribbean community|Afro-Caribbean]]<br>2.0% [[British Chinese|Chinese]] |
url = http://www.cityoflondon.gov.uk |
leadership = ''See text'' |
mayor = David Brewer CMG |
executive = Non-political |
mps = [[Mark Field]] |
gla_constituency = City and East London |
gla_member = [[John Biggs]]
}}
The '''[[city status in the United Kingdom|City]] of London''' is a small area in [[Greater London]]. The modern [[conurbation]] of [[London]] developed from the City of London and the nearby [[City of Westminster]], which was the centre of the royal government. The City of London is now London's main financial district. It is often referred to as just '''the City''' or as the '''Square Mile''', as it is approximately one square mile (2.6 square kilometres) in area; note that these terms are also often used as synonyms for the UK financial services industry, which is principally based there. In the [[medieval]] period the City was the full extent of London (as distinct from the nearby but then-separate [[City of Westminster]]), but the term London now refers to a much larger [[conurbation]] containing both 'cities'. The City of London is still part of London's [[city centre]], but apart from financial services, most of London's metropolitan functions are centred on the [[West End of London|West End]]. The City of London has a resident population of under 9,000 but a daily working population of around 300,000.
The City itself has two independent [[enclave]]s within it — [[Inner Temple]] and [[Middle Temple]]. These two areas form part of the City and Ceremonial county, but are not governed by the [[Corporation of London]]. The Corporation governs the rest of the City and also owns various open spaces (parks, forests and commons) in and around London.
Its [[Latin]] motto is "''Domine dirige nos''" which means "''Lord, direct us''".
==Extent==
The size of the City was originally constrained by a defensive perimeter wall, known as '[[London Wall]]’, which was built by the Romans to protect their strategic port city. However, the boundaries of the City of London are no longer the old City Wall as the city expanded its jurisdiction to the so-called City Bars — such as [[Temple Bar London|Temple Bar]]. The boundary froze in the medieval period, thus the City did not and does not control the whole of London.
The walls have long since disappeared although several sections remain visible above ground. A section near the [[Museum of London]] was revealed after the devastation of an air-raid on [[29 December]] [[1940]] at the height of the [[The Blitz|Blitz]]. Other visible sections are at [[St Alphage]], [[London Wall]], and there are two sections near the [[Tower of London]].
[[Image:050114 2495 london city.jpg|thumb|right|275px|The eastern side of the City of London viewed from [[St. Pauls Cathedral]]. [[Canary Wharf]] is on the horizon.]]
The City of London borders the [[City of Westminster]] to the west — the border cutting through [[Victoria Embankment]], passing to the west of [[Middle Temple]], going east along [[Strand, London|Strand]] and [[Fleet Street]], north up [[Chancery Lane]], where it becomes instead the border with the [[London Borough of Camden]]. It continues north to [[Holborn]], turns east, continues, and then goes northeast to [[Charterhouse Lane]]. As it crosses [[Farringdon Road]] it becomes the border with the [[London Borough of Islington]]. It continues to [[Aldersgate]], goes north, and turns into some back streets soon after it becomes [[Goswell Road]]. It ends up on Ropemakers Lane, which as it continues east past [[Moorgate]] becomes South Place. It goes north, becomes the border with the [[London Borough of Hackney]], then east, north, east on backstreets, meeting [[Norton Folgate]] at the border with the [[London Borough of Tower Hamlets]]. It continues south into [[Bishopsgate]], and takes some backstreets to [[Middlesex Street]] where it continues south-east then south. It makes a divergence to the west at the end of Middlesex Street to allow the [[Tower of London]] to be in Tower Hamlets, and then reaches the river. The boundaries of the City are marked by black bollards bearing the City's emblem. ([http://www.cityoflondon.gov.uk/Corporation/about_us/voting/wards/ward_boundaries_map.htm boundary map]). In some places the financial district extends slightly beyond the political boundaries of the City to the north and east, into the boroughs of Tower Hamlets, Hackney and Islington, and informally these locations are seen as part of the "Square Mile". Since the 1990s the eastern fringe of the City, extending into Hackney and Tower Hamlets, has increasingly been a focus for large office developments due to the relatively easy availability of large sites there compared to within the City itself.
The City of London is England's smallest [[Ceremonial counties of England|ceremonial county]] by both population and area covered and is the second smallest [[City status in the United Kingdom|British city]] in both population and size, after [[St David's]] in Wales.
At its maximum extent the City included areas now not part of it, including [[Southwark]] (as the 'ward of bridge without'). The City today controls the full spans of [[London Bridge]] and [[Blackfriars Bridge]], but only half of the river underneath them.
The City of London also owns and looks after a number of open spaces well outside its own boundaries. These are: [[Ashtead Common]], [[Burnham Beeches]], [[Epping Forest]], [[Hampstead Heath]] (including [[Parliament Hill, London|Parliament Hill]]), [[Highgate Wood]], [[Queen's Park (London)|Queen's Park]], [[West Ham Park]], and [[West Wickham and Coulsdon Common]].
==History==
: ''Main article: [[History of London]].''
{| align=right
|-
|[[image:citylondonarms.jpg|frame|[[Coat of arms]] of the City of London as shown on [[Blackfriars station]]. The [[Latin]] [[motto]] reads ''Domine Dirige Nos'', "[[God]] (Lord), lead us". The red sword is commonly supposed to commemorate the killing of [[Peasants' Revolt]] leader [[Wat Tyler]] by the [[Lord Mayor of London]] [[William Walworth]] in 1381, but in fact it is the symbol of the martyrdom of [[Paul of Tarsus|Saint Paul]], London's patron saint.]]
|-
|[[Image:London Dragon.jpg|thumb|right|200px|[[Dragon]], symbol of London (commonly believed to be a [[griffin]])]]
|-
|[[Image:Temple-bar-griffin.jpg|thumb|200px|right|[[Dragon]] statue at [[Temple Bar, London|Temple Bar]] monument]]
|-
|[[image:city.of.london.st.pauls.arp.500pix.jpg|thumb|right|200px|[[St. Pauls Cathedral]] in the City of London, viewed from the [[London Millennium Bridge|Millennium Bridge]].]]
|-
|[[image:city.of.london.view.arp.750pix.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Three of the tall buildings of the City of London, seen across [[Waterloo Bridge]]: [[St. Pauls Cathedral]], [[Tower 42]] and [[The Swiss Re Tower]].]]
|-
|[[Image:DSC01905.JPG|thumb|right|200px|The City of London by night, viewed from [[Tower Bridge]].]]
|}
The area of the City of London has been administered separately since 886, when [[Alfred the Great]] appointed his son-in-law [[Earl Aethelred of Mercia|Earl Ætheldred of Mercia]] as Governor of London. Alfred made sure that there was suitable accommodation for merchants from north west Europe, which were then extended to traders from the [[Baltic Sea|Baltic]] and [[Italy]].
The City developed its own code of law for the mercantile classes, developing such autonomy that Sir [[Laurence Gomme]] regarded the City as a separate Kingdom making its own laws. The City was composed of wards governed by [[Alderman|Aldermen]], who chaired the Wardmotes. There was a folkmoot for the whole of the city held in the shadows of [[St Paul's Cathedral]]. In the [[10th century|tenth century]], [[Athelstan]] permitted eight [[royal mint|mints]] to be established, compared to six in his capital, [[Winchester, Hampshire|Winchester]], indicating the wealth of the city.
Following the [[Battle of Hastings]], [[William I of England|William the Conqueror]] marched on London, to [[Southwark]] and failed to get across London Bridge or to defeat the Londoners. He eventually crossed the River Thames at [[Wallingford]], pillaging the land as he went. Rather than continuing the war [[Edgar Atheling|Edgar Ætheling]], [[Edwin, Earl of Mercia|Edwin of Mercia]] and [[Morcar, Earl of Northumbria|Morcar of Northumbria]] surrendered at [[Berkhamstead]]. William rewarded London in granting the citizens a charter in 1075; the City of London was one of the few institutions where the English retained some authority.
However, William insured against attack by building 3 Castles nearby so as to keep the Londoners subdued:
* [[Tower of London]]
* [[Baynard's Castle]]
* [[Montfichet's Castle]]
In 1132, [[Henry I of England|Henry I]] recognised full [[county borough|County]] status for the City, and by 1141 the whole body of the [[citizen]]ry was considered to constitute a single community. This was the origin of the [[Corporation of London]].
The City burned nearly to the ground twice, first in 1212 and then again (and more famously) in the [[Great Fire of London]] in 1666. Both of these fires were referred to as ''the'' Great Fire.
The City elected four members to the [[unreformed House of
|
].
The simplest convergent infinite series is perhaps
:<math>1+\frac{1}{2}+\frac{1}{4}+\frac{1}{8}+\frac{1}{16}+\cdots</math>
It is possible to "visualize" its convergence on the [[real number|real number line]]: we can imagine a line of length 2, with successive segments marked off of lengths 1, 1/2, 1/4, etc. There is always room to mark the next segment, because the amount of line remaining is always the same as the last segment marked: when we have marked off 1/2, we still have a piece of length 1/2 unmarked, so we can certainly mark the next 1/4. This argument does not prove that the sum is ''equal'' to 2 (although it is), but it does prove that it is ''at most'' 2 &mdash; in other words, the series has an upper bound.
This series is a geometric series and mathematicians usually write it as:
:<math>\sum_{n=0}^\infty 2^{-n}=2.</math>
An infinite series is formally written as
:<math>\sum_{n=0}^\infty a_n</math>
where the elements ''a''<sub>''n''</sub> are real (or [[complex number|complex]]) numbers. We say that this series '''converges towards''' ''S'', or that
'''its value is''' ''S'', if the [[Limit (mathematics)|limit]]
:<math>\lim_{N\rightarrow\infty}\sum_{n=0}^N a_n</math>
exists and is equal to ''S''. If there is no such number, then the series is said to ''diverge''.
The [[sequence]] of '''partial sums''' is defined as the sequence
:<math>\sum_{n=0}^N a_n</math>
indexed by ''N''. Then, the definition of series convergence simply says that the sequence of partial sums has limit ''S'', as ''N'' &rarr; &infin;.
=== Formal definition ===
Mathematicians usually ''define'' a series as the above ''sequence of partial sums''. The notation
:<math>\sum_{n=0}^\infty a_n</math>
represents then ''[[a priori]]'' this sequence, which is always well defined, but which may or may not converge. Only in the latter case, i.e., if this sequence has a limit, the notation is also used to denote the ''limit'' of this sequence. To make a distinction between these two completely different objects (sequence vs. numerical value), one may sometimes omit the limits (atop and below the sum's symbol) in the former case, although it is usually clear from the context which one is meant.
Also, different notions of convergence of such a sequence do exist ([[absolute convergence]], summability., etc). In case the elements of the sequence (and thus of the series) are not simple numbers, but, for example, functions, still more types of convergence can be considered (pointwise convergence, uniform convergence, etc.; see below).
== History of the theory of infinite series ==
===Development of infinite series===
The idea of an [[infinite]] series expansion of a function was first conceived in [[Indian mathematics|India]] by [[Madhava of Sangamagrama|Madhava]] in the [[14th century]], who also developed the concepts of the [[power series]], the [[Taylor series]], the [[Maclaurin series]], rational approximations of infinite series, and infinite [[continued fraction]]s. He discovered a number of infinite series, including the [[Taylor series]] of the [[trigonometric function]]s of [[sine]], [[cosine]], [[tangent]] and [[arctangent]], the Taylor series approximations of the sine and cosine functions, and the [[power series]] of the [[radius]], [[diameter]], [[circumference]], angle [[θ]], [[π]] and π/4. His students and followers in the [[Kerala School]] further expanded his works with various other series expansions and approximations, until the [[16th century]].
In the [[17th century]], [[James Gregory (astronomer and mathematician)|James Gregory]] also worked on infinite series and published several [[Maclaurin series]]. In [[1715]], a general method for constructing the [[Taylor series]] for all functions for which they exist was provided by [[Brook Taylor]]. [[Leonhard Euler]] in the [[18th century]], developed the theory of [[hypergeometric series]] and [[q-series]].
===Convergence criteria===
The study of the [[convergence]] criteria of a series began with Madhava in the 14th century, who developed [[Integral test for convergence|tests of convergence]] of infinite series, which his followers further developed at the Kerala School.
In Europe however, the investigation of the validity of infinite series is considered to begin with [[Carl Friedrich Gauss|Gauss]] in the [[19th century]]. Euler had already considered the [[hypergeometric series]]
:<math>1 + \frac{\alpha\beta}{1\cdot\gamma}x + \frac{\alpha(\alpha+1)\beta(\beta+1)}{1 \cdot 2 \cdot \gamma(\gamma+1)}x^2 + \cdots.</math>
on which Gauss published a memoir in 1812. It established simpler criteria of convergence, and the questions of remainders and the range of convergence.
[[Cauchy]] (1821) insisted on strict tests of convergence; he showed that if two series are convergent their product is not necessarily so, and with him begins the discovery of effective criteria. The terms ''convergence'' and ''divergence'' had been introduced long before by [[James Gregory (astronomer and mathematician)|Gregory]] (1668). [[Euler]] and [[Carl Friedrich Gauss|Gauss]] had given various criteria, and [[Maclaurin]] had anticipated some of Cauchy's discoveries. Cauchy advanced the theory of [[power series]] by his expansion of a complex [[function (mathematics)|function]] in such a form.
[[Niels Henrik Abel|Abel]] (1826) in his memoir on the series
:<math>1 + \frac{m}{1}x + \frac{m(m-1)}{2!}x^2 + \cdots</math>
corrected certain of Cauchy's conclusions, and gave a completely
scientific summation of the series for complex values of <math>m</math> and <math>x</math>. He showed the necessity of considering the subject of continuity in questions of convergence.
Cauchy's methods led to special rather than general criteria, and
the same may be said of [[Raabe]] (1832), who made the first elaborate
investigation of the subject, of [[Augustus De Morgan|De Morgan]] (from 1842), whose
logarithmic test [[DuBois-Reymond]] (1873) and [[Pringsheim]] (1889) have
shown to fail within a certain region; of [[Bertrand]] (1842), [[Bonnet]]
(1843), [[Malmsten]] (1846, 1847, the latter without integration);
[[Stokes]] (1847), [[Paucker]] (1852), [[Tchebichef]] (1852), and [[Arndt]]
(1853).
General criteria began with [[Kummer]] (1835), and have been
studied by [[Eisenstein]] (1847), [[Weierstrass]] in his various
contributions to the theory of functions, [[Dini]] (1867),
[[DuBois-Reymond]] (1873), and many others. Pringsheim's (from 1889)
memoirs present the most complete general theory.
===Uniform convergence===
The theory of [[uniform convergence]] was treated by Cauchy (1821), his
limitations being pointed out by Abel, but the first to attack it
successfully were Stokes and Seidel (1847-48). Cauchy took up the
problem again (1853), acknowledging Abel's criticism, and reaching
the same conclusions which Stokes had already found. Thomé used the
doctrine (1866), but there was great delay in recognizing the
importance of distinguishing between uniform and non-uniform
convergence, in spite of the demands of the theory of functions.
===Semi-convergence===
Semi-convergent series were studied by Poisson (1823), who also gave
a general form for the remainder of the Maclaurin formula. The most
important solution of the problem is due, however, to Jacobi (1834),
who attacked the question of the remainder from a different
standpoint and reached a different formula. This expression was also worked out, and another one given, by [[Malmsten]] (1847).
[[Schlömilch]] (''Zeitschrift'', Vol.I, p. 192, 1856) also
improved Jacobi's remainder, and showed the relation between the
remainder and Bernoulli's function
:<math>F(x) = 1^n + 2^n + \cdots + (x - 1)^n</math>.
[[Genocchi]] (1852) has further contributed to the theory.
Among the early writers was [[Josef Hoene-Wronski|Wronski]], whose "loi suprême" (1815) was hardly recognized until [[Cayley]] (1873) brought it into
prominence.
===Fourier series===
[[Fourier series]] were being investigated
as the result of physical considerations at the same time that
Gauss, Abel, and Cauchy were working out the theory of infinite
series. Series for the expansion of sines and cosines, of multiple
arcs in powers of the sine and cosine of the arc had been treated by
[[Jakob Bernoulli]] (1702) and his brother [[Johann Bernoulli]] (1701) and still
earlier by [[Viète]]. Euler and [[Joseph Louis Lagrange|Lagrange]] simplified the subject,
as did [[Poinsot]], Schröter, [[Glaisher]], and [[Kummer]].
Fourier (1807) set for himself a different problem, to
expand a given function of <math>x</math> in terms of the sines or cosines of
multiples of <math>x</math>, a problem which he embodied in his ''[[Théorie analytique de la Chaleur]]'' (1822). Euler had already given the
formulas for determining the coefficients in the series;
Fourier was the first to assert and attempt to prove the general
theorem. [[Poisson]] (1820-23) also attacked the problem from a
different standpoint. Fourier did not, however, settle the question
of convergence of his series, a matter left for [[Cauchy]] (1826) to
attempt and for Dirichlet (1829) to handle in a thoroughly
scientific manner (see [[convergence of Fourier series]]). Dirichlet's treatment (''[[Crelle]]'', 1829), of trigonometric series was the subject of criticism and improvement by
Riemann (1854), Heine, [[Lipschitz]], [[Schläfli]], and
[[DuBois-Reymond]]. Among other prominent contributors to the theory of
trigonometric and Fourier series were [[Dini]], [[Hermite]], [[Halphen]],
Krause, Byerly and [[Appell]].
== Some types of infinite series ==
* A ''[[geometric series]]'' is one where each successive term is produced by multiplying the previous term by a constant number. Example:
::<math>1 + {1 \over 2} + {1 \over 4} + {1
|
ing in essential harmony with those sources. Cultism, in short, is any major deviation from orthodox Christianity relative to the cardinal doctrines of the Christian faith."
As Martin's definition suggests, the countercult ministries concentrate on non-traditional groups that claim to be Christian, so chief targets have been the [[Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]], [[Jehovah's Witnesses]], [[Church of Christ, Scientist|Christian Science]] and the [[Unification Church]], but also smaller groups like the [[Swedenborgian Church]]
Various other conservative Christian leaders&mdash;among them [[John Ankerberg]] and [[Norman Geisler]]&mdash;have emphasized themes similar to Martin's. Perhaps more importantly, numerous other well-known conservative Christian leaders as well as many conservative pastors have accepted Martin's definition of a cult as well as his understanding of the groups to which he gave that label. (Compare this definition with ''[[heresy]]''.)
== Other technical terminology ==
Since the [[1980s]] the term "new religions" or "[[new religious movements]]" has slowly entered into Evangelical usage, alongside the word "cult". Some book titles use both terms.
The acceptance of these alternatives to the word "cult" in Evangelicalism reflects, in part, the wider usage of such language in the [[sociology of religion]]. However, there is no unanimity about whether these terms are synonyms.
== "Countercult apologetics" as accepted term ==
The term "countercult [[apologetic]]s" first appeared in Protestant Evangelical literature as a self-designation in the late [[1970s]] and early 1980s in articles by [[Ronald Enroth]] and David Fetcho, and by Walter Martin in ''Martin Speaks Out on the Cults''. A mid-1980s debate about apologetic methodology between Ronald Enroth and J. Gordon Melton, led the latter to place more emphasis in his publications on differentiating the Christian countercult from the secular anti-cult. Eric Pement urged Melton to adopt the label "Christian countercult", and since the early 1990s the terms has entered into popular usage and is recognised by sociologists such as Douglas Cowan.
The only existing umbrella organization within the countercult movement in the USA is the [[EMNR]] (Evangelical Ministries to New Religions) founded in 1982 which has the evangelical [[Lausanne Covenant]] as governing document and which stresses mission, scholarship, accountability and networking.
== Countercult outside the USA ==
While the greatest number of countercult ministries is found in the United States of America, ministries exist in [[Australia]], [[Brazil]], [[Canada]], [[Denmark]], [[England]], [[Germany]], [[Italy]], [[New Zealand]], [[Russia]] and [[Sweden]]. A comparison between the methods employed in the USA and other nations discloses some similarities in emphasis, but also other nuances in emphasis. The similarities are that globally these ministries share a common concern about the evangelisation of people in cults and new religions. There is also often a common thread of comparing orthodox doctrines and biblical passages with the teachings of the groups under examination. However, in some of the European and southern hemisphere contexts, confrontational methods of engagement are not always relied on, and dialogical approaches are sometimes advocated.
==Contextual missiology==
The phenomena of cults has also entered into the discourses of Christian missions and theology of religions. An initial step in this direction occurred in 1980 when the Lausanne Committee for World Evangelization convened a mini-consultation in Thailand. From that consultation a position paper was produced [http://www.lausanne.org/Brix?pageID=14647''"The Thailand Report on New Religious Movements"'']. The issue was revisited at the Lausanne Forum in 2004 with another paper [http://www.lausanne.org/lcwe/assets/LOP45_IG16.pdf''"Religious and Non-Religious Spirituality in the Western World"'']. The latter paper adopts a different methodology to that advocated in 1980.
In the [[1990s]] discussions in academic missions and theological journals indicate that another trajectory is emerging which reflects the influence of contextual missions theory. Advocates of this approach maintain that apologetics as a tool needs to be retained, but do not favour a confrontational style of engagement. Instead, by combining insights from missions theory, a cross-cultural approach to dialogue, proclamation and conversion is applied in outreach.
==Apologetic nuances and models==
Countercult apologetics has several nuances and methods employed in analysing and responding to cults. The different nuances in countercult apologetics have been discussed by John Saliba and Philip Johnson.
The dominant method is the emphasis on detecting unorthodox or heretical doctrines and contrasting those with the Bible and early creedal documents. Some apologists, such as [[Francis J. Beckwith]], have emphasised a philosophical approach, pointing out logical, epistemological and metaphysical problems within the teachings of a particular group. Another approach involves former members of cultic groups recounting their spiritual autobiographies, which highlight experiences of disenchantment with the group, unanswered questions and doubts about commitment to the group, culminating in the person's conversion to Evangelical Christianity.
Pop apologists like [[Dave Hunt]] in ''Peace, Prosperity and the Coming Holocaust'' and [[Hal Lindsey]] in ''The Terminal Generation'' have tended to interpret the phenomena of cults as part of the burgeoning evidence of signs that Christ's Second Advent is close at hand. Both Hunt, and [[Constance Cumbey]], have applied a conspiracy model to interpreting the emergence of New Age spirituality and linking that to speculations about fulfilled prophecies heralding Christ's reappearance.
Other apologists like [[Bob Larson]] blend an understanding of cults as heresies with a strongly nuanced emphasis on Satan as the energising power behind the growth of cults. This theme has been portrayed in the anti-New Age novels by [[Frank Peretti]] (''This Present Darkness'' and ''Piercing the Darkness'')where demonic forces empower practitioners of New Age groups while Christians engage in spiritual warfare tactics of prayer and exorcisms to counter the groups.
Today there exist many and very diverse countercult ministries and authors including everything between scholars and soapbox preachers and there is no overall agreement regarding which groups are part of traditional Christianity.
Some Protestants classify [[Catholicism|Catholic]], [[Eastern Orthodox Churches|Eastern-orthodox]], [[Seventh-day_Adventist_Church|Seventh-day Adventist]] or [[Pentecostal]] churches as cults, because they allegedly have non-Biblical teachings.
Others speak out mainly against current non-Christian groups or trends in society like the [[New Age]] movement, the popularity of [[Harry Potter]] books or [[Halloween]].
Some ministries, often led by former members, target single groups like Jehovah's Witnesses or Mormons.
==Prominent protagonists in the Christian countercult movement==
===People===
* [[Hank Hanegraaff]] is the successor to [[Walter Martin]] on the radio and in CRI. He has continued the work of Martin; he also speaks out against [[Oneness Pentecostalism]], [[Word of Faith]] ministries, and other similar movements.
* [[Norman Geisler]]
* [[Douglas Groothuis]]
* [[Anton Hein]] [http://apologeticsindex.com] targets many groups from a Christian point of view. His Apologetics Index also operates a weblog, the [http://www.religionnewsblog.com Religion News Blog].
* [[J. P. Moreland]], Biola University
* [[Richard Abanes]] [http://www.abanes.com/]
* [[Walter Martin]] [http://www.waltermartin.org] was the host of the [[Bible Answer Man]] radio broadcast and the president of the Christian Research Institute. He often gave Biblical and logical arguments against [[Jehovah's Witnesses]], [[Mormons]], and other cultic and [[occult]]ic movements.
===Organizations===
*Answers in Action [http://www.answers.org], Bob and Gretchen Passantino
*Apologia report [http://apologia.gospelcom.net//], maintaining also a professional mailing list for apologetic resources
*Apologetics resource center [http://www.arcapologetics.org/], by [[Craig Branch]]
*[[CARM|Christian Apologetics Research Ministry]], founded by [[Matt Slick]].
*[[Christian Research Institute]] (CRI) founded by Walter Martin [http://www.equip.org]
*[[Dialog Center]] [http://www.dci.dk/en/?] founded by [[Johannes Aagaard]]
*[[EMNR]] Evangelical Ministries to New Religions [http://www.emnr.org/], an umbrella group for ministries to the cults and new religions
*Eternal Ministries [http://www.eternalministries.org] director, Dr. [[Ron J. Bigalke Jr.]]
*Institute of Religious Research [http://www.irr.org/]
*[[Midwest Christian Outreach]] {http://www.midwestoutreach.org]
*New England Institute of Religious Research (NEIRR) [http://www.neirr.org/]
*[[Personal Freedom Outreach]] [http://www.pfo.org]
*Probe Ministries [http://www.probe.org]
*[[Spiritual Counterfeits Project]] [http://www.scp-inc.org/], president [[Tal Brooke]]
*Watchman Fellowship [http://www.watchman.org/], founder David Henke, president James K. Walker
==External links==
* [http://www.apologeticsindex.org/c142.html Apologetics Index; The counter-cult movement]
*[http://c.faculty.umkc.edu/cowande/ccw/carm.htm Douglas E. Cowan: Christian Countercult Website Profiles]
*[http://www.cesnur.org/2001/london2001/cowan.htm CESNUR: Overview of Christian Countercult movement by Douglas E. Cowan]
*[http://www.religioustolerance.org/ccm3.htm Counter Cult Movement at Religious Tolerance]
== Bibliography==
=== Primary sources ===
* Abanes, Richard, ''Cults, New Religious Movements, and Your Family'', Crossway Books, Wheat
|
intense debate both within the [[Academy]] and various political spheres.
Generally, these criticisms are brought up against persons working within the field of the [[Humanities]] -- especially a set of the Humanities falling under the large subdivision of the [[Social Sciences]]. Among the fields most contested are [[Women's Studies]], [[Cultural Studies]], [[Ethnic Studies]] or [[race relations|Racial Studies]], some divisions of academic [[History]], and [[Political Science]]. Whether such field-specific attention is deserved is, once again, the subject of much intense debate.
When the criticism of political bias is set in the context of American [[liberals]] vs. American [[conservatives]], as it often is, the dialogue between the two sides can become rapidly polemical. One finds conservative critics called "anti-intellectuals" as they attempt to bring the charge of political bias against various liberals even as the accused liberals are charged with such things as "re-writing history"; the fairness or each party's assertion must be recognized to vary from case to case.
=====Deficient programs=====
Another major concern centers around the perceived lack of general education in college curricula. Critics claim, for example, that college students ought to take more [[humanities]] classes, such as history or literature, along with the requirements of their major. Allegedly, there is also a deficiency of [[academic rigor]] in the university liberal arts programs that are available to students, stemming from the aformentioned political bias, which is said to lead professors to concentrate on trendy and controversial subjects to the neglect of what is considered legitimate art and literature.
Notably, the [[humanities]] requirements in [[United States|American]] colleges are actually much greater than in many other countries, such as [[Russia]] or [[India]] where [[college]] instruction is focused almost entirely on professional, often technical, preparation. It may be argued that in these countries it is generally believed [[high school]] education has given a student sufficient exposure to general education topics.
=====Lack of usefulness=====
A third line of criticism, sometimes seeming to contradict the second, is the absence of 'real life' usefulness from the study of humanities. This has also contributed to anti-intellectualism, particularly among those who study, or have studied, [[technical]] subjects. This is sometimes considered more of a 'rival-intellectualism' rather than true anti-intellectualism, in as much as people who have received university-level technical training have themselves engaged in an intellectual activity of great complexity. An old joke among engineers, encapsulating this viewpoint, is that teaching students literature prepares them to become future professors of literature, and not much else.
== Anti-intellectualism in the United States ==
===19th Century culture===
19th century [[popular culture]] is important in the history of American anti-intellectualism. At the time when the vast majority of the population was involved in [[manual labour|manual labor]], and most of the population was [[rural]] and engaged in [[agriculture]], bookish education, which at the time focused on [[classics]], was seen to have little value. It should be noted that Americans of the era were generally very literate and, in fact, read [[William Shakespeare|Shakespeare]] much more than their present-day counterparts. However, the ideal at the time was an individual skilled and successful in his trade and a productive member of society; studies of [[classics]] and [[Latin]] in colleges were generally derided.
The 19th century predominantly valued the self-reliant and &quot;self-made man,&quot; schooled by [[society]] and by experience, over the [[intellectual]] whose learning was acquired through books and formal study. In [[1843]], [[Bayard R. Hall]] wrote of frontier [[Indiana]], that "(w)e always preferred an ignorant bad man to a talented one, and hence attempts were usually made to ruin the moral character of a smart candidate; since unhappily smartness and wickedness were supposed to be generally coupled, and incompetence and goodness." Still, there was a possibility for redemption if the "egghead" embraced common mores. A character of [[O. Henry]] noted that once a graduate of an [[East Coast of the United States|East Coast]] [[college]] gets over being vain, he makes just as good a [[cowboy]] as any other young man.
The related stereotype of the slow-witted naïf with a heart of gold, which became popular in 19th century stage shows, still reappears in American culture, recently in the [[1985]] novel and [[1994]] motion picture ''[[Forrest Gump]]''.
===Right-wing currents===
====Conservative critiques of academia====
[[William F. Buckley, Jr.]] once remarked that he'd rather be governed by the first hundred names in the phone book than by the [[Faculty (university)|faculty]] of [[Harvard University]], and many other conservatives have displayed similar disdain for [[academia]]. Institutions such as [[Harvard University|Harvard]], [[Princeton University|Princeton]], [[Yale University|Yale]], and various other prestigious colleges have been portrayed on the right as centers of a radical and anti-American leftism. [[Robert Warshow]] has put forth the hypothesis that the [[Communist Party USA|Communist Party]] became central to American intellectual life during the [[1930s]]:
:''For most American intellectuals, the Communist movement of the 1930s was a crucial experience. In Europe, where the movement was at once more serious and more popular, it was still only one current in intellectual life; the Communists could never completely set the tone of thinking. . . . But in this country there was a time when virtually all intellectual vitality was derived in one way or another from the Communist party. If you were not somewhere within the party’s wide orbit, then you were likely to be in the opposition, which meant that much of your thought and energy had to be devoted to maintaining yourself in opposition.''[http://www.fas.org/sgp/library/moynihan/appa7.html]<!--Moynihan Commission Report, quoted from Robert Warshow, ''The Legacy of the 30’s: Middle-Class Mass Culture and the Intellectuals’ Problem,'' Commentary Magazine (December 1947): 538, footnote 103.-->
Most observers belive that, while Warshow's criticism might have validity when applied to the Depression Era, it is not supportable today to claim that campus liberals form a hidden Communist or otherwise subversive force in America. Still, many conservatives and other anti-intellectuals continue to argue this general point.
====Religious fundamentalism====
Much modern American anti-intellectualism originates from the commonly held view among conservative [[Christianity|Christians]] that [[education]] subverts religious belief. The validity of this view, in fact, was well substantiated by the spread of [[atheism]] and [[Deism]] among the educated during the [[The Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]], and was deep-rooted even before that time. Hence, for instance, the [[New England]] [[Puritan]] writer [[John Cotton]] wrote, in [[1642]], "The more learned and witty you bee, the more fit to act for [[Satan]] will you bee."
[[Image:Cartoon.jpg|thumb|200px|[[Political cartoon]] criticizing rural attitudes towards Evolution]]
Many Christian thinkers, while not considering [[education]] an inherent evil, object to some of its perceived un-Christian aspects, for example alleged anti-religious, pro-[[abortion]] and pro-[[gay rights]] propaganda in public schools and colleges. Sex education classes, the study of evolution in biology classrooms, and the promotion of "tolerance," seen as a code word for officially sanctioned sexual deviance, come in for particular attack from these quarters. A good number regard the public education system as being by and large a system of anti-Christian state indoctrination controlled by atheistic elites.
===Left-wing currents===
====1960s student culture====
Especially in the [[1960s]] many student demonstrators romanticized the impoverished populations of [[Appalachia]] and the [[Mississippi Delta]]. The lack of formal education in these regions was seen as a sort of freedom from "conformist" society that allowed one to lead a more genuine and worthy life. The sanitized version of [[folk music]] that became popular on campus around this time is a related trend.
The anti-war movement also despised the highly educated but cold-hearted Washington technocrat, epitomized by [[Robert McNamara]], who was alleged to make decisions soley on numbers and probablities and could not see individual lives or deaths as anything but statistics. The Vietnam [[body count]] was offered as an example of this inhuman intellectualism.
Also, some on the extremes of the student movement were heavily influenced by [[Maoism]] which has a strong anti-intellectual component.
====The intellectual as paid apologist for the status quo====
Many on the left have pointed out that the intellectual's status as a "professional thinker" requires the support of a member of the ruling class willing to cut their checks. Therefore, most intellectuals, in order to maintain their profession, must assume a subservient posture towards the current power structure even when their ideas are outwardly "radical." These critics point out that many a tenured professor has called for revolution, but few have ever taken concrete steps to promote one. This has the effect of discrediting the idea of social change by associating it with hypocritical academics, thereby serving the status quo.
In return for their rhetorical services, so this theory goes, intellectuals are rewarded with the power to set themselves up as the social betters of th
|
mes would need to program different blocks of text for each character, this game uses the same text and modifies it based on the character using it. This was done so that a North American localization would be possible.
An example of its coding in the script:
Member Name:<br>
l.et's2 .go.suffixe, Serge..<br>
the w.ater1 .Dr3agon .mus1t .be.<br>
be.yondth1is1 .point...
===White innate characters===
White is a more mystical element than others, encompassing light, holiness, and healing. One of the characters with a White element is a religious person. White innate characters have access to the most powerful healing spells in the game. White corresponds to ''Chrono Trigger''<nowiki>'</nowiki>s "Lightning" element, which was actually known as "Heaven" in the original Japanese version of the game. (Heaven included lightning spells because lightning comes down from the heavens.) It was renamed Lightning in the English localization due to [[Nintendo|Nintendo of America]]'s strictly enforced policy which demanded that any and all religious references be omitted from North American versions of games. Note that the character Pip is capable of evolving and, in doing so, changing his element.
*[[Serge (Chrono Cross)|Serge]] (Swallow) (Male)
*[[Doc (Chrono Cross)|Doc]] (Shot) (Male)
*[[Image:Pip normal portrait.png|16px|Pip]] [[Pip (Chrono Cross)|Pip]] (Glove) (Male)
*[[Image:Starky portrait.png|16px|Starky]] [[Starky]] (Gun) (Male)
*[[Riddel]] (Staff) (Female)
*[[Steena]] (Sword) (Female)
===Black innate characters===
Black is a darker element than others. Two of the characters with a Black element are undead or spirits. Great with offensive magic. This roughly corresponds to the "Shadow" element from ''Chrono Trigger''.
*[[Image:Serge as Lynx portrait (Chrono Cross).png|16px]] [[Lynx (Chrono Cross)|Lynx]] (Swallow) (Male)
*[[Image:Guile portrait (Chrono Cross).png|16px]] [[Guile (Chrono Cross)|Guile]] (Rod) (Male)
*[[Image:Harle portrait.png|16px]] [[Harle]] (Shot) (Female)
*[[Image:Luccia portrait.png|16px]] [[Luccia]] (Shot) (Female)
*[[Image:Mojo portrait (Chrono Cross).png|16px]] [[Mojo (Chrono Cross)|Mojo]] (Glove) (Male)
*[[Image:Skelly portrait.png|16px]] [[Skelly]] (Glove) (Male)
*[[Image:Grobyc portrait.png|16px]] [[Grobyc]] (Glove) (Male)
===Red innate characters===
Red innate characters have a high focus on power. Many of the Red characters are some of the most powerful. Naturally, red is the element of fire and lava. In ''Chrono Trigger'', it was simply called, "Fire".
*[[Kid (Chrono Cross)|Kid]] (Dagger) (Female)
*[[Greco (Chrono Cross)|Greco]] (Glove) (Male)
*[[Image:Draggy portrait.png|16px|Draggy]] [[Draggy]] (Glove) (Male)
*[[Miki (Chrono Cross)|Miki]] (Glove) (Female)
*[[Orcha]] (Utensils) (Male)
*[[Macha (Chrono Cross)|Macha]] (Utensils) (Female)
*[[Zappa (Chrono Cross)|Zappa]] (Axe/Hammer) (Male)
*[[Janice (Chrono Cross)|Janice]] (Carrot) (Female)
===Blue innate characters===
Blue innate characters are good healers and offensive magic users. Leena is one of the best healers. Blue is the element of water and ice. This matches ''Chrono Trigger'', in which [[Marle (Chrono Trigger)|Marle]] uses ice magic but as labeled "Water" like Frog.
*[[Orlha]] (Glove) (Female)
*[[Marcy (Chrono Cross)|Marcy]] (Glove) (Female)
*[[Fargo (Chrono Cross)|Fargo]] (Sword) (Male)
*[[Pierre (Chrono Cross)|Pierre]] (Sword) (Male)
*[[Nikki]] (Pick) (Male)
*[[Irenes]] (Pick) (Female)
*[[Leena]] (Utensils) (Female)
*[[Korcha]] (Lure) (Male)
===Green innate characters===
Green innate characters are good healers as well as good offensive magic users, like Razzly, and also good with physical attacks, like Glenn and Karsh. Green is the element of air and nature. It has no equivalent in ''Chrono Trigger''.
*[[Glenn (Chrono Cross)|Glenn]] (Sword) (Male)
*[[Image:Turnip portrait-Chrono Cross.png|16px|Turnip]] [[Turnip (Chrono Cross)|Turnip]] (Sword) (Male)
*[[Sprigg]] (Staff) (Female)
*[[Radius (Chrono Cross)|Radius]] (Staff) (Male)
*[[Image:NeoFio portrait.png|16px|NioFio]] [[NeoFio]] (Glove) (Female)
*[[Razzly]] (Rod) (Female)
*[[Karsh]] (Axe) (Male)
*[[Van (Chrono Cross)|Van]] (Boomerang) (Male)
===Yellow innate characters===
Great offensive fighters. Some of the most powerful characters, especially Leah. Yellow magic is rooted in electricity and earth. However, it does not correspond with any element in ''Chrono Trigger''; ''Trigger''<nowiki>'</nowiki>s Lightning element is merely an invention of its localization team (the original element being Heaven).
*[[Zoah]] (Glove) (Male)
*[[Image:Poshul portrait.png|16px|Poshul]] [[Poshul]] (Glove) (Female)
*[[Leah (Chrono Cross)|Leah]] (Axe) (Female)
*[[Image:Funguy portrait.png|16px|Funguy]] [[Funguy]] (Axe) (Male)
*[[Norris (Chrono Cross)|Norris]] (Gun) (Male)
*[[Sneff]] (Shot) (Male)
*[[General Viper]] (Sword) (Male)
*[[Mel (Chrono Cross)|Mel]] (Boomerang) (Female)
===Returning characters===
Six characters from ''Chrono Trigger'' return in the sequel. These characters, however, are [[non-player character|not playable]] and only make brief appearances, though some fans have speculated that some of the game's player characters are in fact ''Chrono Trigger'' characters (especially Magus) going by another name.
*[[Crono]] - Crono appears as a spirit on two different occasions; once in the Dead Sea, and again near the portal to [[Lavos]].
*[[Marle (Chrono Trigger)|Marle]] - Marle appears as a spirit on three different occasions; once while the party enters the Hydra Marshes, again in the Dead Sea, and last near the portal to Lavos.
*[[Lucca (Chrono Trigger)|Lucca]] - Lucca appears in more than one form. She first appears in the Dead Sea, as the spirit of a child. Later, when you're in Kid's memory, you will see her for a brief instance as Lynx takes her away, to assist him in his plans. She once again appears as a spirit, near the portal to [[Lavos]].
*[[Robo (Chrono Trigger)|Robo]] - Robo appears in Chronopolis, under the name Prometheus. He is used to keep FATE locked up, and after talking to Serge and company, he is executed by FATE.
*[[Magus (Chrono Trigger)|Magus]] - In a letter sent by Lucca, she says to Kid that Janus may be watching over her, and "if so, hello, Janus!" Some claim that he was in the room, based on a human-shaped shadow that appears when the letter is being read.
*[[Lavos]] - Lavos returns as the main villain of the game, but never appears until the very end of the game. While Serge and company believed that breaking FATE's seal on the Dragons was a good idea, it turned out that they were not the Dragons they had once been, their original united form having been assimilated by Lavos' Devourer of Time form. As the Time Devourer, Lavos had Schala attached to him, this being due to Lavos' existence being cast into the Darkness Beyond Time -- where Schala had previously been banished by Lavos -- once Chrono and his friends from ''Chrono Trigger'' defeated him.
*[[Ozzie, Slash, and Flea]] - Appearing in a hidden boss fight, the three have no bearing on the plot. [[Sprigg]] can learn to transform into any member of the trio. As Slash, she can perform the "Z Slash" triple tech when teamed with Fargo and Glenn.
===Character relationships===
It is revealed at many points different relationships between playable and non-playable characters. Here's a list of relationships.
* Serge - Boyfriend of Leena, Son of Lynx, Future Husband of Kid/Schala[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serge_%28Chrono_Cross%29#Connection_Serge_and_Magus_.28Janus_Zeal.29]
* Pip - Specimen of Luccia
* Riddel - Daughter of General Viper, Fiancee of Dario
* Lynx - Father of Serge
* Wazuki - Original identity of Serge's father
* Miguel - Friend of Wazuki, father of Leena
* Guile - None (was going to be Magus, Schala's brother, but his backstory was dropped due to complications)
* Luccia - Friend of Lucca
* Kid - Daughter-clone of Schala, raised by Lucca, future wife of Serge[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serge_%28Chrono_Cross%29#Connection_Serge_and_Magus_.28Janus_Zeal.29]
* Miki - Lead dancer for Nikki's show
* Macha - Mother of Korcha and Mel
* Zappa - Father of Karsh, Husband of Zippa
* Zippa - Mother of Karsh, Wife of Zappa
* Marcy - Acacia Deva, Daughter of Fargo, Sister of Nikki, Niece of Irenes
* Fargo - Brother-in-law of Irenes, Father of Nikki and Marcy
* Nikki - Son of Fargo, Brother of Marcy, Nephew of Irenes, Friend of Miki's
* Irenes - Sister-in-law of Fargo, Aunt of Nikki and Marcy
* Leena - Girlfriend of Serge
* Una - Sister of Leena
* Korcha - Son of Macha, Brother of Mel
* Glenn - Brother of Dario, Son of Garai, Friend of Karsh
* Radius - Friend of Viper, the three Devas, Glenn, Riddel and Garai, Former Acacia Deva, Murderer of Garai
* Karsh - Acacia Deva, Son of Zappa, Killer of Dario, Friend Glenn, Riddel and Radius
* General Viper - Acacia Dragoons leader, Friend of Lynx, Glenn, Radius, Father of Riddel
* Mel - Daughter of Macha, Sister of Korcha
* Garai - Father of Glenn and Dario, Wielder of Einlanzer, Friend of Radius
* Dario - Brother of Glenn, Son of Garai, Wielder of Masamune
==Music==
A three-[[CD]] official soundtrack was released soon after the game, and eventually sold out. [[Yasunori Mitsuda]] noted in the OST's liner notes that he was happy to accomplish even half of what he envisioned in terms of transferring his ideas to the Playstation's sound capabilities. He also named several influences in the liner notes, including a Mediterranean theme, [[Fado]] music, African percussion and old music from several cultures — most notably Celtic. After ''Chrono Cross'' was completed, Mitsuda personally undertook a playthrough to observe how the tracks matched up to their correspondent scenes and settings in the game.
Though the ''Chrono Cross'' OST sold out a year or two after its release, SquareEnix recently reissued it due to popular demand. Currently, the o
|
ive").
Specific meanings of '''bondage''' and words with the "bond-" prefix include:
*[[Debt bondage]], a modern form of slavery in which people are bound by debt, rather than legal ownership.
*[[Bondage (BDSM)]] in BDSM is the practice of tying people up for sexual pleasure.
*[[Self bondage]] in BDSM is the practice of tying oneself up for sexual pleasure.
*The term bondage is also used figuratively in religion, to mean spiritual attachment, such as to the physical world, or an evil compelling force, such as [[original sin]].
*A bondmaid is a woman servant.
*A bondman is a male servant.
*A bondsman is a person who provides [[bond]]s or [[surety]] for another.
== See also ==
*[[bond]]
*[[bonding]]
*[[human bonding]]
{{disambig}}</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Bash</title>
<id>4547</id>
<revision>
<id>41096794</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-25T00:50:26Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Unyoyega</username>
<id>460372</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>fixing interwikis +: gl</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{dablink|This article is about the Unix shell named Bash. For other meanings of Bash see [[Bash (disambiguation)]].}}
{{Infobox Software
| name = GNU Bourne-again shell
| logo =
| screenshot = [[Image:bash_screenshot.png|300px]]
| caption = Screenshot of a sample Bash session, taken on [[Debian GNU/Linux|Linux]].
| developer = [[GNU|The GNU Project]]
| latest_release_version = 3.1
| latest_release_date = [[December 07]], [[2005]]
| operating_system = [[Linux]], [[Mac OS X]], [[Unix]] and [[Unix-like|like]] operating systems, [[Microsoft Windows]] (via [[Cygwin]])
| genre = [[Unix shell|Unix command shell]]
| license = [[GNU General Public License|GPL]]
| website = [http://cnswww.cns.cwru.edu/~chet/bash/bashtop.html Bash homepage]
}}
'''Bash''' is a [[Unix shell|Unix command shell]] written for the [[GNU|GNU project]]. Its name is an acronym for '' '''B'''ourne-'''a'''gain '''sh'''ell ''&mdash;a [[pun]] (''Bourne again'' / ''born again'') on the [[Bourne shell]] (sh), which was an early, important Unix shell. The Bourne shell was the shell distributed with [[Version 7]] Unix, circa 1978. The original Bourne shell was written by [[Stephen Bourne]], then a researcher at [[Bell Labs]]. The Bash shell was written in 1987 by [[Brian Fox]]. In 1990, [[Chet Ramey]] became the primary maintainer. Bash is the default shell on most [[Linux]] systems as well as on [[Mac OS X v10.4|Mac OS X Tiger]], and it can be run on most [[Unix-like]] operating systems. It has also been ported to [[Microsoft Windows]] by the [[Cygwin|Cygwin project]].
==Bash syntax highlights==
Bash's command syntax is a superset of the Bourne shell's command syntax. The definitive specification of Bash's command syntax is the [http://www.gnu.org/software/bash/manual/bashref.html Bash Reference Manual] distributed by the GNU project. This section highlights some of Bash's unique syntax features.
The vast majority of Bourne shell scripts can be executed without alteration by Bash, with the exception of those Bourne shell scripts that happen to reference a Bourne special variable or to use a Bourne builtin command. The Bash command syntax includes ideas drawn from the [[Korn shell]] (ksh) and the [[C shell]] (csh), such as command-line editing, command history, the directory stack, the <tt>$RANDOM</tt> and <tt>$PPID</tt> variables, and [[POSIX]] command substitution syntax: <tt>$(...)</tt>. When being used as an interactive command shell, Bash supports completion of partly typed-in program names, filenames, variable names, etc. when the user presses the TAB key.
Bash syntax has many extensions that the Bourne shell lacks. Several of those extensions are enumerated here.
===Integer mathematics===
A major limitation of the Bourne shell is that it cannot perform integer calculations without spawning an external process. Bash can perform in-process integer calculations using the <tt>((...))</tt> command and the <tt>$[...]</tt> variable syntax, as follows:
VAR=55 # Assign integer 55 to variable VAR.
((VAR = VAR + 1)) # Add one to variable VAR. Note the absence of the '$' character.
((++VAR)) # Another way to add one to VAR. Performs C-style pre-increment.
((VAR++)) # Another way to add one to VAR. Performs C-style post-increment.
echo $[VAR * 22] # Multiply VAR by 22 and substitute the result into the command.
echo $((VAR * 22)) # Another way to do the above.
The <tt>((...))</tt> command can also be used in conditional statements, because its [[exit status]] is 0 or 1 depending on whether the condition is true or false:
if ((VAR == Y * 3 + X * 2))
then
echo Yes
fi
((Z > 23)) && echo Yes
The <tt>((...))</tt> command supports the following [[relational operator]]s: '<tt>==</tt>', '<tt>!=</tt>', '<tt>&gt;</tt>', '<tt>&lt;</tt>', '<tt>&gt;=</tt>', and '<tt>&lt;=</tt>'.
Bash cannot perform in-process [[floating point]] calculations. The only Unix command shells capable of this are [[Korn Shell]] (1993 version) and [[zsh]] (starting at version 4.0).
===I/O redirection===
Bash has several I/O [[Redirection (Unix)|redirection]] syntaxes that the traditional Bourne shell lacks. Bash can redirect [[standard output]] and [[Standard streams|standard error]] at the same time using this syntax:
command &> file
which is simpler to type than the equivalent Bourne shell syntax, "<tt>command > file 2>&1</tt>". Bash, since version 2.05b, can redirect standard input from a string using the following syntax (sometimes called "here strings"):
command <<< "string to be read as standard input"
If the string contains [[whitespace (computer science)|whitespace]], it must be quoted.
'''Example''':
Redirect standard output to a file, write data, close file, reset stdout
# make Filedescriptor(FD) 6 a copy of stdout (FD 1)
exec 6>&1
# open file "test.data" for writing
exec 1>test.data
# produce some content
echo "data:data:data"
# close file "test.data"
exec 1>&-
# make stdout a copy of FD 6 (reset stdout)
exec 1>&6
# close FD6
exec 6>&-
Open and close files
# open file test.data for reading
exec 6<test.data
# read until end of file
while read -u 6 dta
do
echo "$dta"
done
# close file test.data
exec 6<&-
Catch output of external commands
# execute 'find' and store results in VAR
# search for filenames which end with the letter "h"
VAR=$(find . -name "*h")
===In-process regular expressions===
Bash 3.0 supports in-process [[regular expression]] matching using the following syntax, reminiscent of [[Perl]]:
<nowiki>[[ string =~ regex ]]</nowiki>
The regular expression syntax is the same as that documented by the regex(3) [[man page]]. The exit status of the above command is 0 if the regex matches the string, 1 if it does not match. Parenthesized subexpressions in the regular expression can be accessed using the shell variable <tt>BASH_REMATCH</tt>, as follows:
if <nowiki>[[ abcfoobarbletch =~ 'foo(bar)bl(.*)' ]]</nowiki>
then
echo The regex matches!
echo $BASH_REMATCH -- outputs: foobarbletch
echo ${BASH_REMATCH[1]} -- outputs: bar
echo ${BASH_REMATCH[2]} -- outputs: etch
fi
This syntax gives performance superior to spawning a separate process to run a <tt>[[grep]]</tt> command, because the regular expression matching takes place within the Bash process. If the regular expression or the string contain whitespace or shell [[metacharacter]]s (such as '<tt>*</tt>' or '<tt>?</tt>'), they should be quoted.
===Backslash escapes===
Words of the form <tt>$'string'</tt> are treated specially. The word expands to <tt>string</tt>, with backslash-escaped characters replaced as specified by the [[C programming language]]. Backslash escape sequences, if present, are decoded as follows:
{| class="wikitable"
|+ <big>Backslash Escapes</big>
|-
! Backslash<br>Escape !! Expands To ...
|-
| align="center" | <tt>\a</tt> || An alert (bell) character
|-
| align="center" | <tt>\b</tt> || A backspace character
|-
| align="center" | <tt>\e</tt> || An escape character
|-
| align="center" | <tt>\f</tt> || A form feed character
|-
| align="center" | <tt>\n</tt> || A new line character
|-
| align="center" | <tt>\r</tt> || A carriage return character
|-
| align="center" | <tt>\t</tt> || A horizontal tab character
|-
| align="center" | <tt>\v</tt> || A vertical tab character
|-
| align="center" | <tt>\\</tt> || A backslash character
|-
| align="center" | <tt>\'</tt> || A single quote character
|-
| align="center" | <tt>\nnn</tt> || The eight-bit character whose value is the octal value nnn (one to three digits)
|-
| align="center" | <tt>\xHH</tt> || The eight-bit character whose value is the hexadecimal value HH (one or two hex digits)
|-
| align="center" | <tt>\cx</tt> || A control-X character
|}
The expanded result is single-quoted, as if the dollar sign had not been present.
A double-quoted string preceded by a dollar sign (<tt>$"..."</tt>) will cause the string to be translated according to the current locale. If the current locale is C or POSIX, th
|
Brazil is a multiracial country, and its culture reflects the wide variety of ethnic groups found in the country: [[Amerindians]], [[Portuguese people|Portuguese]], [[Africans]], [[Italian people|Italians]], [[German people|Germans]], [[Spanish people|Spaniards]], [[Japanese people|Japanese]], [[Arabs]], etc. As result of intense mixing of peoples, a rich mix of different cultures has been synthesized.
''Main article: [[Culture of Brazil]]''
* [[Brazilian Carnival]]
* [[Religion in Brazil]]
* [[Cuisine of Brazil]]
* [[List of Brazilians]]
* [[Literature of Brazil]]
* [[Music of Brazil]]
* [[Cinema of Brazil]]
* [[Holidays in Brazil]]
* [[Brazil Skyscrapers]]
==Sports==
{{main|Sports in Brazil}}
[[Image:Brazilian team soccer53467.jpeg|right|thumb|200px|The [[Brazil national football team]] scores a goal in Haiti.]]
The most popular sport in Brazil is [[Football (soccer)]]. The [[Brazil national football team|National Team]] is immensely popular, not only in Brazil but also in the many parts of the world where football is appreciated, and there is also a renowned National League, boasting a nation-wide competition as well as several regional competitions. The Brazilian national team has been victorious in the [[World Cup]] tournament a record five times. [[Pele]], one of the world's most recognized players, led Brazil to three of those championships. After the third time, Brazil kept the [[World Cup trophy]] permanently. Some of the contemporary talents in the national team prominent in the football world include [[Romário]], [[Rivaldo]] and [[Ronaldo]]. The current holder of the title of best football player in the world, according to [[FIFA]], is [[Ronaldinho]], who won the [[FIFA World Player of the Year]] prize in 2004 and 2005.
Three other variations of football are widely practiced by Brazilians, namely [[Futsal]], an indoor version with teams composed of 5 players, beach football, which originated in the beaches of [[Rio de Janeiro]] and [[Footvolley]], which is a mix of football and volleyball, where the players must use their feet and head to get the ball over the net and into the opponent's court, and is also played in sand.
Volleyball is also a very popular sport in Brazil. National and state leagues are popular and enjoy good public attendance. Television coverage is more limited. Brazil's national team has also been very successful, particularly in winning men's gold medals in the 1992 and 2004 Olympic Games. [[Beach volleyball]] has also given Brazilian athletes much success worldwide, today Brazil is the ruling country, with six of its players in the first six positions of FIVB ranking: these include Emanuel Rego, Ricardo Santos, Marcio Araujo and others.
Basketball is also popular, but lost popularity after the increased attention volleyball has gained recently. The Brazilian national team has won the [[Basketball World Championship]] twice, in 1959 and 1963. Brazilian [[Oscar Schmidt]] was one of the best basketball players of basketball history.
Recently tennis has also raised interest. [[Gustavo Kuerten]] (a.k.a. Guga) reached number 1 status in the ATP world ranking in 2001, having won the Roland Garros French Open 3 times (1997, 2000 and 2001).
[[Auto racing]] has also been very popular for a very long time, and Brazil has produced some Formula One world champions: [[Emerson Fittipaldi]] (1972 and 1974), [[Nelson Piquet]] (1981, 1983 and 1987) and [[Ayrton Senna]] (1988, 1990 and 1991), as well as an [[Indy Racing League]] champion, [[Tony Kanaan]] in 2004.
Sailing is another strong sport, in spite of the fact that is an elite sport.
[[Brazilian jiu-jitsu]], a regional martial art, is a significant extension to the original [[jiu-jitsu]]. It is renowned with martial artists throughout the world.
See also:
* [[Brazil national football team]]
* [[Brazilian Football League Teams]]
Some fight sports with Brazilian origins have become popular around the world:
* [[Capoeira]]
* [[Vale tudo]]
{{sect-stub}}
==Flora and fauna==
[[Image:Golden_lion_tamarin_smithsonian.jpg|right|thumb|200px|[[Golden Lion Tamarin]] (Mico Leão Dourado in [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]]) , one of the most famous tipical brazilian animals.]]
* [[List of Brazilian mammals]]
* [[List of Brazilian birds]]
* [[List of Brazilian reptiles]]
* [[List of plants of Caatinga vegetation of Brazil]]
* [[List of plants of Cerrado vegetation of Brazil]]
==Notes==
{{note|pronunciation}} The pronunciation in this article reflects standard [[Brazilian Portuguese|Brazilian]] pronunciation. Other possible pronunciation in Brazil is {{IPA|[hɛ.'pu.bli.kɐ fe.de.ɾa.'tʃi.vɐ du bɾa.'ziw]}}. The [[European Portuguese]] pronunciation of the official name of Brazil is: {{IPA|[ʁɛ.'pu.βli.ka fɨ.ðɨ.ɾɐ.'ti.vɐ du bɾɐ.'ziɫ]}}.
==See also==
[[Image:NAeSP.jpg|thumb|200px|[[NAeL São Paulo]],an [[aircraft carrier]] of the [[Brazilian Navy]]]]
* [[Military of Brazil]]
* [[Communications in Brazil]]
* [[Foreign relations of Brazil]]
* [[Human rights in Brazil]]
* [[Public holidays in Brazil]]
* [[Science and technology in Brazil]]
* [[Transportation in Brazil]]
==Footnotes==
''Much of the material in these articles comes from the [[CIA World Factbook]] 2000 and the 2003 U.S. Department of State website.''
#{{note|UN}} [http://www.unhchr.ch/tbs/doc.nsf/0/c021800a90432bc38025655200447629?Opendocument CERD COMMITTEE ON THE ELIMINATION OF RACIAL DISCRIMINATION, Thirteenth periodic report of States parties due in 1994 : Brazil. 22/02/96.CERD/C/263/Add.10. (State Party Report)]
==External links==
{{sisterlinks|Brasil}}
* {{cite book |author=Wagley, Charles|title=An Introduction to Brazil|publisher=New York, New York: Columbia University Press|year=1963}}
; Government, administration, economy & politics
* [http://www.brasil.gov.br Brasil.gov.br] - Official governmental portal (in Portuguese)
* [http://www.bcb.gov.br Banco Central do Brasil] - Central Bank of Brazil (in Portuguese/English)
* [http://www.camara.gov.br Câmara dos Deputados] - Official Chamber of Deputies site (in Portuguese)
* [http://www.oecd.org/document/60/0,2340,en_2649_34571_34413308_1_1_1_1,00.html Economic Survey of Brazil 2005]
* [http://www.fomezero.gov.br Fome Zero] - Official site of Fome Zero (zero hunger) program (in Portuguese)
* [http://www.mma.gov.br Ministério do Meio Ambiente] - Ministry of the Environment of Brazil (in Portuguese)
* [http://www.planalto.gov.br Presidência da República] - Official presidential site (in Portuguese)
* [http://www.senado.gov.br Senado Federal] - Official senatorial site (in Portuguese)
* [http://www.stf.gov.br Supremo Tribunal Federal] - Supreme Federal Court (in Portuguese)
* [http://www.stj.gov.br Superior Tribunal de Justiça] - Superior Court of Justice (in Portuguese)
* [http://www.mre.gov.br Ministério das Relações Exteriores] - Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Português/English/Español)
* [http://www.consul.cc/brazil Consular Corps of Brazil] - Official Website of CC Brazil (English)
; Information, statistics
* [http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/brtoc.html Library of Congress: A Country Study: Brazil]
* [http://www.latinbusinesschronicle.com/brazil Latin Business Chronicle: Updated Brazil economic statistics, reports and links]
* [http://dmoz.org/Regional/South_America/Brazil Open Directory Project - Brazil] directory category
* [http://www.brazilink.org Brazilink] - Selected and updated sources by experts (in English)
* [http://www.ibge.gov.br/english/default.php IBGE] - Brazilian Institute for Geography and Statistics (English, Español, Português)
* [http://www.mapafacil.com.br Mapa Fácil] - Online maps of more than 5000 Brazilian cities (in Portuguese)
* [http://www.bn.br/ National Library] (in Portuguese and English)
* [http://www.spcvb.com.br São Paulo Convention & Visitors Bureau] (in Portuguese and English)
; News and media
* [http://www.brasilpost.com.br Brasil-Post] (in German)
* [http://www.jbonline.com.br Jornal do Brasil] - Rio de Janeiro newspaper (in Portuguese)
* [http://www.oglobo.com.br O Globo] - Rio de Janeiro newspaper (in Portuguese)
* [http://www.odia.com.br O Dia] - Rio de Janeiro newspaper (in Portuguese)
* [http://www.estadao.com.br O Estado de São Paulo] - São Paulo newspapers (in Portuguese)
* [http://www.folhaonline.com.br Folha de São Paulo] - São Paulo newspaper (in Portuguese)
* [http://www.correioweb.com.br Correio Braziliense] - Brasília newspaper (in Portuguese)
* [http://www.gazetamercantil.com.br Gazeta Mercantil] - Business newspaper (in Portuguese and English)
* [http://www.uol.com.br UOL] - Brazilian portal (in Portuguese)
* [http://www.ig.com.br iG] - Brazilian portal (in Portuguese)
* [http://www.terra.com.br Terra] - Brazilian portal (in Portuguese)
* [http://www.globo.com Globo.com] - Brazilian portal (in Portuguese)
; Brazilian television
*[http://www.redeglobo.com Globo] - Brazilian network
*[http://www.sbt.com.br SBT] - Brazilian network
*[http://www.rederecord.com.br Record] - Brazilian network
*[http://www.band.com.br Band] - Brazilian network
*[http://www.redetv.com.br Rede TV!] - Brazilian network
*[http://www.tvcultura.com.br/ Rede Cultura] - Brazilian network
*[http://www.mtv.com.br MTV] - MTV Brazilian channel
*[http://www.redevida.com.br Rede Vida] - Religious channel
*[http://www.rittv.com.br RIT] - Religious channel
; Society, social movements, etc.
*[http://hrw.org/english/docs/2005/01/13/brazil9845.htm Human Rights Watch] (in English)
*[http://web.amnesty.org/library/eng-bra/index Amnesty International] (in English)
*[http://www.midiaindependente.org CMI] - Independent Media Center (in Portuguese)
*[http://www.mst.org.br MST] - Landless Labor Movement (in Portuguese)
*[http://www.oeco.com.br O Eco] - Environment issues of Brazil (in Portuguese)
; Art, cooking, culture, history, travel
* [http://www.roadjunky.com/brazil/guide_brazil.shtml Alternative Brazil Travel info] (in English)
* [http://www.destination360.com/south-america/brazil/brazil.php Brazil Travel G
|
*[[Jean Françaix]] [[1912]]-[[1997]]
*[[Roberto Gerhard]] [[1896]]-[[1970]]
*[[Alberto Ginastera]] [[1916]]-[[1983]]
*[[Hans Werner Henze]] [[1926]]-
*[[Antonio José]] [[1902]]-[[1936]]
*[[Ernst Krenek]] [[1900]]-[[1991]]
*[[John Anthony Lennon]] [[1950]]-
*[[Ester Mägi]] [[1922]]-
*[[Joan Manen]] [[1883]]-[[1971]]
*[[Frank Martin (composer)|Frank Martin]] [[1890]]-[[1974]]
*[[Ananiah McCarrell (composer)|Ananiah McCarrell]] [[1981]]-
*[[Darius Milhaud]] [[1892]]-[[1974]]
*[[Frederic Mompou]] [[1893]]-[[1987]]
*[[Federico Moreno Torroba]] [[1891]]-[[1982]]
*[[Maurice Ohana]] [[1914]]-[[1992]]
*[[Astor Piazzolla]] [[1921]]-[[1992]]
*[[Manuel Ponce]] [[1886]]-[[1948]]
*[[Francis Poulenc]] [[1899]]-[[1963]]
*[[André Previn]] [[1929]]-
*[[Roger Reynolds]] [[1934]]-
*[[George Rochberg]] [[1918]]-[[2005]]
*[[Joaquín Rodrigo]] [[1901]]-[[1999]]
*[[Albert Roussel]] [[1869]]-[[1937]]
*[[Toru Takemitsu]] [[1930]]-[[1996]]
*[[Alexandre Tansman]] [[1897]]-[[1986]]
*[[Michael Tippett]] [[1905]]-[[1998]]
*[[Joaquín Turina]] [[1882]]-[[1949]]
*[[William Walton]] [[1902]]-[[1983]]
*[[Mason Williams]] [[1936]]-
===Modern performers===
Guitarists also often play transcriptions of music originally written for other instruments. [[Lute]] transcriptions from the Renaissance and Baroque eras are common.
Some players of the classical guitar:
*[[Laurindo Almeida]] [[1917]]-[[1995]]
*[[Magnus Andersson]] [[1955]]-
*[[Roberto Aussel]] [[1954]]-
*[[Agustín Barrios Mangoré]] [[1885]]-[[1944]]
*[[Manuel Barrueco]] [[1952]]-
*[[Gilbert Biberian]] [[1944]]-
*[[Liona Boyd]] [[1949]]-
*[[Julian Bream]] [[1933]]-
*[[Leif Christensen]] [[1950]]-[[1988]]
*[[Alirio Diaz]] [[1923]]-
*[[Zoran Dukic]] [[1969]]-
*[[Roland Dyens]] [[1955]]-
*[[Eva Fampas]] [[1964]] -
*[[Eliot Fisk]] [[1958]]-
*[[Sila Godoy]] [[1919]]-[[1949]]
*[[Slava Grigoryan]] [[1976]]-
*[[Steve Hackett]] [[1950]]-
*[[Adam Holzman]] [[1960]]-
*[[Dimitri Illarionov]] [[1979]]-
*[[Sharon Isbin]] [[1956]]-
*[[Maria Kämmerling]] [[1946]]-
*[[Alexandre Lagoya]] [[1929]]-[[1999]]
*[[Gustavo Lopez]] [[1920]]-[[1979]]
*[[Carlo Marchione]] [[1964]]-
*[[Erling Møldrup]] [[1943]]-
*[[Christopher Parkening]] [[1947]]-
*“Esteban”, [[Esteban|Stephen Paul]] [[1948]]-
*[[Marco Pereira]]
*[[Alberto Ponce]] [[1935]]-
*[[Robert Phillips]] [[1953]]-
*[[Celedonio Romero]] [[1913]]-[[1996]]
*[[Pepé Romero]] [[1944]]-
*[[David Russell]] [[1953]]-
*[[Andrés Segovia]] [[1893]]-[[1987]]
*[[David Starobin]] [[1951]]-
*[[Pavel Steidl]] [[1961]]-
*[[David Tanenbaum]] [[1956]]-
*[[Ana Vidović]] [[1980]]-
*[[John Williams (guitarist)|John Williams]] [[1941]]-
*[[Kazuhito Yamashita]] [[1961]]-
*[[Yang Xuefei]] [[1977]]-
*[[Andrew York]]
*[[Göran Söllscher]] [[1955]]-
==See also==
*[[Classical guitar music]]
*[[List of composers for the classical guitar]]
*[[:Category:Composers for guitar]]
==External links==
*[http://www.classicalguitarmagazine.com/ Classical Guitar Magazine] The world's only monthly magazine dedicated to the classical guitar
*[http://www.worldguitarist.com/ World Guitarist] Daily News Coverage for the World Classical Guitar Community
*[http://www.guitarfoundation.org/ Guitar Foundation of America]
*[http://www.guitarlessonfeedback.com Guitar Lesson Feedback] Guitar lesson news and reviews
*[http://www.guitarsite.com/classical.htm#TOP List of Classical Guitar Sites]
*[http://www.guitarsalon.com/ Shopping for Classical Guitars Online]
*[http://www.halleonard.com/ Hal Leonard Classical Guitar Music Books]
*[http://www.tuscanyguitar.com/ Tuscany Publications]
*[http://www.melbay.com/ Mel Bay Publications]
*[http://www.guitarramagazine.com/ Guitarra Magazine]
*[http://www.luthiermusic.com/ Luthier Music Manufacturer of Classical Guitar Strings]
Free music:
*[http://classicalguitarmidi.com/ Classical Guitar MIDI]
*[http://freetabs.org/classical.htm TablEdit collection (notation and tab)]
*[http://www.alltabs.com/classical_tablature_list.html Alltabs (notation and tab)]
*[http://dirk.meineke.free.fr/ Dirk's (notation and tab)]
*[http://www.delcamp.net/en/index.html Delcamp collection]
*[http://www.classtab.org/ Classical Guitar Tablature]
Discussion forums:
*[http://www.delcamp.net/forum/en/index.php Delcamp]
*[http://groups.google.com/group/rec.music.classical.guitar (Usenet) rec.music.classical.guitar]
*[http://www.acousticguitar.com/ubbcgi/ultimatebb.cgi?ubb=forum;f=7 Acoustic Guitar Magazine]
*[http://forum.guitarsalon.com/index.php Guitar Salon]
*[http://www.e-borneo.com/ab/cgforum.html Classical Guitar]
*[http://www.classicalguitar.nl/ Netherlands]
A collection of fine classical and [[flamenco]] guitars can be seen at [http://www.granary-guitars.com the Classical Guitar Museum]
*[http://www.classicalguitarmidi.com/history/index.html Classical Guitar Illustrated History]
[[Category:Guitars]]
[[bg:Класическа китара]]
[[fr:Guitare classique]]
[[ko:클래식기타]]
[[it:Chitarra classica]]
[[he:גיטרה קלאסית]]
[[nl:Klassieke gitaar]]
[[pl:Gitara klasyczna]]
[[pt:Violão erudito]]
[[tr:Klasik gitar]]
[[zh:古典吉他]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>C. S. Lewis</title>
<id>5813</id>
<revision>
<id>41994051</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T02:33:12Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Pollinator</username>
<id>22743</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/64.13.73.140|64.13.73.140]] ([[User talk:64.13.73.140|talk]]) to last version by MartinRobinson</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:C.s.lewis.jpg|right|frame|C.S. Lewis]]
'''''Clive Staples Lewis''''' ([[29 November]] [[1898]] &ndash; [[22 November]] [[1963]]), commonly referred to as '''C. S. Lewis''' was a [[Irish people|Northern Irish]] author and scholar, born into a [[Church of Ireland]] family in [[Belfast]], although mostly resident in [[England]] in adulthood. Lewis is known for his work on [[medieval literature]], for his [[Christian apologetics]] and for his fiction, especially the children’s series entitled ''[[The Chronicles of Narnia]]'' and his science fiction ''[[Space Trilogy]]''. He was also a leading figure in an [[Oxford]] literary group called the [[Inklings]].
== Early life ==
Clive Staples Lewis was born in [[Belfast]], Northern Ireland, to Albert James Lewis and Flora Augusta Hamilton Lewis on November 29th, 1898. At the age of 4, shortly after his dog 'Jacksie' was run over by a car, Lewis announced that his name was now Jacksie. At first he would answer to no other name, but later accepted Jacks which became Jack, the name by which he was known to friends and family for the rest of his life. When he was six his family moved into a new house called Leeborough or Little Lea in Strandtown.
He had a brother named [[Warren Lewis|Warren Hamilton Lewis]] (Warnie), three years his elder. Lewis' mother died in 1908, and he was schooled by occasional tutors. He was sent to a school in England at age nine following his brother. This school, Wynyard School in [[Watford, Hertfordshire]] was soon closed and the headmaster committed as insane soon afterwards. Lewis next attended [[Campbell College]] in the east of the city about a mile from his house but only for a few months. Next, Lewis was sent to Cherbourg and then Malvern College in [[Malvern, Worcestershire]]. Around 1913, he abandoned his childhood Christian faith. Leaving Malvern after a year, Lewis moved on to study privately with William T. Kirkpatrick, his father's old tutor.
Lewis had a passion for "dressed animals" as a boy, falling in love with [[Beatrix Potter]]'s stories and often writing and illustrating his own animal stories. He and his brother, Warnie, together created the world of [[Boxen (C.S.Lewis)|Boxen]], which was inhabited and run by animals. Lewis loved to read, and as his father’s house was filled with books, he felt that finding a book he had not read was as easy as finding a blade of grass. He also had a mortal fear of spiders and insects as a child, so they often haunted his dreams.
As a teenager, he was wonderstruck by [[Richard Wagner]] and the songs and legends of the North. They intensified a longing he had within him, a deep desire he would later call "joy." He also grew to love nature—the beautiful scenes in nature reminded him of the stories of the North, and the stories of the North reminded him of the beauties of nature. In his teenage years, his writing moved away from the tales of Boxen, and he began to use different art forms (epic poetry and opera) to try and capture his newfound interest in [[Norse mythology]] and in the natural world. Studying with Kirkpatrick (“The Great Knock”, as Lewis afterwards called him) instilled in him a love of Greek literature and mythology, and sharpened his skills in debate and the penetration of claptrap.
In 1916 Lewis won a [[scholarship]] to [[University College, Oxford]] while [[World War I]] was raging. He enlisted in the [[British Army]] in [[1917]]. He was commissioned as an officer in the third Battalion, [[Somerset Light Infantry]]. Lewis arrived at the front line in the [[Somme]] Valley in [[France]] on his nineteenth birthday.
While being trained for the army he shared a room with another cadet, 'Paddy' Moore, who was killed in action in 1918. Paddy had introduced Lewis to his mother, Jane King Moore, and a friendship very quickly sprang up between Lewis, who was eighteen when they met, and Jane, who was forty-five. The friendship was particularly important to Lewis when he was recovering from his wounds in hospital and his father refused to visit him.
There has been much disagreement among Lewis scholars as to the nature of the relationship between Lewis and Jane Moore. Lewis was exceptionally reticent on the matter in his autobiography, writing only "All I can or need to say is that my earlier hostility to the emotions was very fully and variously avenged". Many, including Lewis biographers Hooper, Wilson and Sayer, think that they wer
|
given a world-altering choice, of which none of the options are broadcast in-game as the "right" choice.
The game's level of detail astounded the gaming world. As an example, one of Deus Ex's central topics is [[nanotechnology]], the main character JC Denton is augmented by symbiotic microscopic machines called [[nanite]]s and the game contains an impressive amount of literature on nanotechnology and defines its science quite accurately. The game contains many allusions to literature, both classical (e.g., story of Daedalus/Icarus) and modern ([[Neal Stephenson]]'s ''[[The Diamond Age]]'' and ''[[Snow Crash]]'', [[G.K. Chesterton]]'s ''[[The Man Who Was Thursday]]'', [[Olaf Stapledon]]'s ''[[Last and First Men]]'', and the [[fictional book]] titled ''Jacob's Shadow''). These details encourage the player to replay the game to discover and learn more about the world of ''Deus Ex''.
The game was hailed by many critics and users as a significant step towards a "reality simulation", as one of the first games to truly pioneer the effect of moral choices, and one of the only games in existence based on violence to offer a non-violent alternative; killing is not a necessary part of ''Deus Ex''. In fact, only one character must be killed in order to progress the game, and it is possible to accomplish that without using any offensive weapons.
The game did not originally ship with multiplayer support. Later versions provided multiplayer, as well as various game fixes. Deus Ex: Game of the Year Edition, as well as containing all current game updates and a [[Software development kit]], included a separate soundtrack CD and a page from a fictional newspaper entitled ''The Midnight Sun'' recounting recent events in the game's world. However, some distributions of the GOTY version do not include the soundtrack CD and only have a [[PDF]] version of the newspaper page.
A version was also released for the [[PlayStation 2]], named ''Deus Ex: The Conspiracy'', was released on [[March 25]], [[2002]], featuring improved character graphics and [[motion capture]]d models. Some levels were changed and chopped down into smaller hubs due to the PS2's memory limitations.
[[Image:Inventory.gif|thumb|240px|The character inventory.]]
A sequel, ''[[Deus Ex: Invisible War]]'', was released in the [[United States]] on [[December 3]], [[2003]], and then in [[Europe]] in early [[2004]] for both the [[IBM PC clone|PC]] and the [[Xbox]]. Plans for a ''Deus Ex'' movie were in the works, however the film is now listed on [[The Internet Movie Database|IMDb]] as "cancelled".
Despite its age and the release of ''Deus Ex: Invisible War'' the ''Deus Ex'' community is still very active. There are a significant number of websites which offer news, information, and resources to ''Deus Ex'' players old and new alike. Several groups of fans have also created and released modifications for ''Deus Ex'', including ''The Cassandra Project'', ''Zodiac'', ''RedSun 2020'', ''Hotel Carone'', ''Burden of 80 Proof'', and ''Shifter'', which offer new plots, characters, weapons and more. Other modifications are still in development, such as ''The Nameless Mod'', ''Deus Ex 2027'', ''UNATCO Born'', ''Chronos'' and ''The Novosibirsk Conspiracy'', and are expected to release sometime in the near future. There are also various attempts by fans of the game to update the graphics using new higher resolution textures and models. The two most influential projects are called Project HDTP and ''DeusEx:Reborn''. The Mac community has been very vocal to Aspyr (the ones who ported it to Mac) and have very strong desires for a Mac OS X patch of the game, as it only works on Mac OS 9 currently.
The music for Deus Ex was composed by [[Alexander Brandon]], [[Dan Gardopee]], [[Michiel van den Bos]] and [[Reeves Gabrels]].
== Critical acclaim ==
The game received numerous positive reviews. It won a number of awards and received many nominations, including [[British Academy of Film and Television Arts]] Game of the year [http://videogames.yahoo.com/newsarticle?eid=357210&page=0], [[IGN]] Game of the year, and many Best Story awards.
The game has appeared in a number of [[Greatest games of all times]] lists and [[hall of fame]] features. It maintains a hold in newly created greatest games lists.
===Awards===
*[[GameSpy]] - Game of the year 2000
*[[IGN]]
**Best story (Both editors' choice and readers' choice)
**Game of the year (Both editors' choice and readers' choice)
*[[British Academy of Film and Television Arts]] - Game of the year
*[[Game Developers Choice Awards]] 2000
**Excellence in Game Design
**Game Innovation Spotlight
*[[Interactive Achievement Awards]] 2000
**Computer Innovation
**Computer Action / Adventure
*[[FiringSquad]] - Best Games of 2000 List
*[[The Adrenaline Vault]] - Featured Games for 2000
*[[Gaming Age]] - Best [[FPS]] of the year
*Other awards, including numerous editors choice awards
===Greatest games of all time lists===
* #21 in IGN's 2005 List of 100 Greatest games of all time [http://top100.ign.com/2005/021-030.html].
* #40 in IGN's 2003 List of 100 Greatest games of all time [http://top100.ign.com/2003/31-40.html]
* #18 in GameSpy's Top 50 Games of All Time [http://archive.gamespy.com/articles/july01/top502ase/]
* #67 in GameFAQ's Top 100 Games of All Time [http://www.gamefaqs.com/features/top10/top10_100.html]
* The GameSpy Hall of Fame [http://www.gamespy.com/articles/488/488681p1.html]
== Dating ==
The game is unclear as to what year exactly ''Deus Ex'' takes place in. A public terminal news bulletin points towards [[2052]], but in [[Area 51]] nearing the end of the game, a datacube reveals JC's inception date to be in [[2054]], with another clone being created in [[2055]]. The most commonly accepted date, however, is still 2052.
The question of Deus Ex's timeframe was cleared up by Deus Ex: Invisible War, in which a character refers to an event from the previous game as having happened in 2052.
== Real world parallels ==
Although the story of ''Deus Ex'' is based on real world themes and events, a few fictional elements of the game world have seemingly spilled over into reality since the game's release in 2000.
During sections of the game where the New York skyline is visible in the background, the two towers of the [[World Trade Center]] are noticeably missing. Harvey Smith, one of the game's designers, explains that due to texture memory limitations, the portion of the skyline with the twin towers had to be left out, and the other half mirrored in place of it. According to Smith, during the game's development, the developers justified the lack of the towers by stating that terrorists had destroyed the World Trade Center earlier in the game's storyline: "''We just said that the towers had been destroyed too. And this was way before [[September 11, 2001 attacks|9-11]]. Years. That's kind of freaky.''" [http://pc.ign.com/articles/386/386515p1.html]
Some fans have also noted similarities between the anti-terrorist movement in the game, spurred by the Statue of Liberty bombing, and the post-9/11 "[[War on Terrorism|war on terror]]" in the real world. The sequel actually shipped with the tagline "The future war on terror" on the box art front.
Other examples include [[2005 civil unrest in France|rioting in Paris]] and the similarity of the [[Gray Death]] epidemic to the possible [[H5N1|bird flu]] pandemic. Strangely also, there is a mention of 'Century Flu' within various newspapers in the game.
Several plot elements involve real-world conspiracy theories about [[ECHELON]], the [[Federal Emergency Management Agency]], and the alleged [[Majestic-12]] and [[Roswell UFO incident]].
== Trivia ==
* Because the game has such gameplay freedom it is possible to finish the game without killing anyone, though in one case, the method required to do this may be considered exploitation of a [[glitch]].
* Some of the robots in the game were inspired by the ED-209 robot from the movie [[RoboCop]].
* The Plasma Rifle is a copy of the rifle used in the movie ''[[Darkman]]''.
* [[Game designer]] [[Warren Spector]] didn't like the opening music. He was planning to tell the composer to compose something else. But after he couldn't get the tune out of his head, he was convinced to leave it as it was.
* The entire game takes place during night time.
==See Also==
* [[Deus Ex: Invisible War]]
== External links ==
{{wikiquote}}
=== Official Pages ===
*[http://www.eidosinteractive.com/games/info.html?gmid=50 Deus Ex] game page at the Official [[Eidos]] homepage
=== Fan Sites ===
*[http://www.planetdeusex.com/ Planet Deus Ex] - Fan Community Website
*[http://www.deusexgaming.com/ Deus Ex Gaming]
*[http://www.deusex-online.com/ Deus Ex Online]
*[http://www.deusex-machina.com/ Deus Ex Machina]
*[http://www.dxalpha.com/ Alpha forum] - One of the biggest forums of the community
=== Modding sites ===
*[http://www.planetdeusex.com/chronos/ Chronos] - A single player modification utilizing bullet time.
*[http://www.dxediting.com/index.php DXEditing] - Fan Modification News Portal
*[http://www.planetdeusex.ru/2027 Deus Ex: 2027] - A single player modification
*[http://offtopicproductions.com/hdtp/ Project HDTP] - High Definition Texture Project
*[http://dxr.deusexgaming.com/ Deus Ex: Reborn] - Deus Ex conversion to UT2004
*[http://redsun2020.deusexgaming.com/ 赤い太陽 2020年 (REDSUN 2020)] - A Deus Ex Mod
*[http://tnm.offtopicproductions.com/ The Nameless Mod] - A Deus Ex Mod
*[http://unatcoborn.deusexgaming.com/ UNATCO Born] - A Deus Ex Mod
=== Story Related ===
*[http://www.gamespy.com/articles/april02/dxbible/ The Deus Ex "Continuity Bible"] from [http://www.gamespy.com gamespy.com]
*[http://nuwen.net/dx.shtml nuwen.net - Deus Ex] - Includes in-game text (such as e-mails, books, and data cubes)
*[http://www.forumplanet.com/planetdeusex/topic.asp?fid=2755&tid=1241827 Timeline o
|
* [http://www.stanford.edu/class/cs276/cs276-2005-syllabus.html Stanford CS276 course - Information Retrieval and Web Mining]
[[Category:Computer science]]
[[Category:Information science]]
[[de:Informationsrückgewinnung]]
[[es:Recuperación de información]]
[[fr:Recherche d'information]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>List of Italian language poets</title>
<id>15272</id>
<revision>
<id>40460030</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-20T18:45:13Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Wikipedius</username>
<id>106646</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Rinaldo d'Aquino</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{CompactTOC2}}
[[Poets]] who wrote in [[Italian language|Italian]] (or Italian dialects):
== A ==
*[[Cielo d'Alcamo]]
*[[Antonio Abati]]
*[[Luigi Alamanni]]
*[[Pellegatta Alberto]]
*[[Aleardo Aleardi]]
*[[Dante Alighieri]]
*[[Cecco Angiolieri]]
*[[Gabriele D'Annunzio]]
*[[Guittone d'Arezzo]]
*[[Ludovico Ariosto]]
*[[Francis of Assisi]]
*[[Rinaldo d'Aquino]]
== B ==
*[[Angelo Barile]]
*[[Giuseppe Gioacchino Belli]] ([[Rome|Roman dialect]])
*[[Bruno Barilli]]
*[[Luigi Bartolini]]
*[[Giovanni Boccaccio]]
*[[Matteo Boiardo]] (Epic poet, 1441-94)
*[[Ignazio Buttitta]] ([[Sicily|Sicilian dialect]])
== C ==
*[[Guido dalle Colonne]]
*[[Dino Campana]]
*[[Vincenzo Cardarelli]]
*[[Giosuè Carducci]]
*[[Guido Cavalcanti]]
*[[Dario Chioli]]
*[[Girolamo Comi]]
== F ==
*[[Franco Fortini]]
*[[Ugo Foscolo]]
== G ==
*[[Luca Ghiselli]]
*[[Lapo Gianni]]
*[[Giuseppe Giusti]]
*[[Guido Gozzano]]
*[[Lionello Grifo]]
*[[Margherita Guidacci]]
*[[Giovanni Battista Guarini]]
*[[Guido Guinizzelli]]
== J ==
*[[Piero Jahier]]
== L ==
*[[Giacomo da Lentini]]
*[[Giacomo Leopardi]]
*[[Mario Luzi]]
*[[Alessandro Manzoni]]
== M ==
*[[Lorenzo il Magnifico]] (sovereign of Florence, 1449-92)
*[[Giambattista Marini]]
*[[Alda Merini]]
*[[Metastasio]] (Pietro Trapassi)
*[[Grazyna Miller]]
*[[Eugenio Montale]] ([[Nobel Prize in literature]], [[1975]])
*[[Vincenzo Monti]]
== O ==
*[[Arturo Onofri]]
== P ==
*[[Giovanni Pascoli]]
*[[Cesare Pavese]]
*[[Francesco Petrarca]]
*[[Poliziano]] (Angelo Ambrogini)
*[[Carlo Porta]] ([[Milan|Milanese dialect]])
*[[Luigi Pulci]] (1432-84)
== Q ==
*[[Salvatore Quasimodo]]
== S ==
*[[Umberto Saba]]
*[[Maria Luisa Spaziani]]
*[[Pietro Spiggia]]
== T ==
*[[Torquato Tasso]]
*[[Jacopone da Todi]]
*[[Trilussa]] (Carlo Alberto Salustri) ([[Rome|Roman dialect]])
== U ==
*[[Giuseppe Ungaretti]]
== V ==
*[[Giuseppe Villaroel]]
*[[Cesare Vivaldi]]
*[[Pier della Vigna]]
== Z ==
*[[Andrea Zanzotto]]
==See also==
*[[List of Italian writers]]
[[Category:Lists of poets|Italian poets]]
[[Category:Italian poets| ]]
[[fr:Liste de poètes de langue italienne]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>ICTY</title>
<id>15273</id>
<revision>
<id>32972635</id>
<timestamp>2005-12-28T07:38:21Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Ral315</username>
<id>111703</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Fixing double redirect ([[Special:DoubleRedirects]])</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia</title>
<id>15274</id>
<revision>
<id>42055755</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T14:22:58Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Kjetil r</username>
<id>56360</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>[[no:Det internasjonale krigsforbrytertribunalet for det tidligere Jugoslavia]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The ''International Tribunal for the Prosecution of Persons Responsible for Serious Violations of International Humanitarian Law Committed in the Territory of the Former Yugoslavia since 1991'', more commonly referred to as the "'''International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia'''", acronym 'ICTY', is a body of the [[United Nations]] (UN) established to prosecute [[war crime]]s in the [[Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia|former Yugoslavia]]. The tribunal functions as an ad-hoc court and is located in [[The Hague]].
It was established by [[UN Security Council Resolution 827|Resolution 827]] of the [[UN Security Council]], which was passed on [[May 25]], [[1993]]. It has jurisdiction over certain types of crime committed on the territory of the former Yugoslavia since [[1991]]: grave breaches of the [[1949]] [[Geneva Conventions]], violations of the [[laws or customs of war]], [[genocide]], and [[crime against humanity]]. It can try only individuals, not [[organization]]s or [[government]]s. The maximum sentence it can impose is [[life imprisonment]]. Various countries have signed agreements with the UN to carry out custodial sentences. The last indictment was issued [[March 15]], [[2004]]. It aims to complete all trials by the end of [[2008]] and all appeals by [[2010]].
==Organization==
The Tribunal employs some 1,200 staff. Its main organisational components are Chambers, Registry and the Office of The Prosecutor (OTP).
Chambers encompasses the [[judge]]s and their aides. The Tribunal operates three Trial Chambers and one Appeals Chamber (which also functions as the Appeals Chamber for the [[ICTR]]); the Presiding Judge of the Appeals Chamber is also the President of the Tribunal as a whole. Currently, this is [[Theodor Meron]] ([[USA]]; since [[2002]]). His predecessors were [[Antonio Cassese]] ([[Italy]]; [[1993]]-[[1997]]), [[Gabrielle Kirk-McDonald]] (USA; 1997-1999) and [[Claude Jorda]] ([[France]]; [[1999]]-[[2002]]).
Registry is responsible for handling the administration of the Tribunal; activities include keeping court records, translating court documents, transporting and accommodating those who appear to testify, operating the Public Information Section, and such general duties as payroll administration, personnel management and procurement. It is also responsible for the Detention Unit for indictees being held during their trial and the Legal Aid program for indictees who cannot pay for their own defence. It is headed by the Registrar, currently [[Hans Holthuis]] ([[Netherlands]]; since [[2000]]). His predecessor was [[Dorothée de Sampayo Garrido-Nijgh]] (Netherlands; [[1995]]-[[2000]]).
The Office of the Prosecutor is responsible for investigating crimes, gathering evidence and prosecuting indictees. It is headed by the Prosecutor, who also serves as the Prosecutor of the [[ICTR]]. The current Prosecutor is [[Carla del Ponte]] ([[Switzerland]]; since [[1999]]). Previous Prosecutors have been [[Ramón Escovar-Salom]] ([[Venezuela]]; [[1993]]-[[1994]]), [[Richard Goldstone]] ([[South Africa]]; [[1994]]-[[1996]]), and [[Louise Arbour]] ([[Canada]]; [[1996]]-[[1999]]).
==Judges==
[[As of 2005]], the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia's Appeals Chamber is integrated by:
*Justice [[Theodor Meron]] ([[United States of America]]), [[President]]
*Justice [[Fausto Pocar]] ([[Italy]]), [[Vice-President]]
*Justice [[Andrésia Vaz]] ([[Senegal]])
*Justice [[Mehmet Güney]] ([[Turkey]])
*Justice [[Wolfgang Schomburg]] ([[Germany]])
*Justice [[Mohamed Shahabuddeeen]] ([[Guyana]])
*Justice [[Florence Ndepele Mwachande Mumba]] ([[Zambia]])
The Trial Chambers are integrated by:
*Justice [[Patrick Lipton Robinson]] ([[Jamaica]])
*Justice [[Carmel A. Agius]] ([[Malta]])
*Justice [[Liu Daqun]] ([[People's Republic of China]])
*Justice [[Amin El Mahdi]] ([[Egypt]])
*Justice [[Alphonsus Martinus Maria Orie]] ([[The Netherlands]])
*Justice [[O-gon Kwon]]) ([[Republic of Korea]])
*Justice [[Jean-Claude Antonetti]] ([[France]])
*Justice [[Kevin Parker]] ([[France]])
*Justice [[Ian Bonomy]] ([[Australia]])
According to [[UN]] resolutions, the ICTY also has nine [[ad litem]] Judges:
*Justice [[Joaquín Martín Canivell]] ([[Spain]])
*Justice [[Vonimbolana Rasoazanany]] ([[Madagascar]])
*Justice [[Bert Swart]] ([[The Netherlands]])
*Justice [[Krister Thelin]] ([[Sweden]])
*Justice [[Christine van den Wyngaert]] ([[Belgium]])
*Justice [[Hans Henrik Brydensholt]] ([[Denmark]])
*Justice [[Albin Eser]] ([[Germany]])
*Justice [[Claude Hanoteau]] ([[France]])
*Justice [[Györg Szénási]] ([[Hungary]])
One judge comes from the Eastern European legal system, and none from [[Eastern Orthodox Church|orthodox]]-predominant countries.
==Accomplishments of the Court==
In 2004, the ICTY published a list of five successes which it claimed it had accomplished:
1. "Spearheading the shift from impunity to accountability", pointing out that, until very recently, it was the only court judging crimes committed as part of the Yugoslav conflict, since prosecutors in the former Yugsolavia were, as a rule, reluctant to prosecute such crimes;
2. "Establishing the facts", highlighting the extensive evidence-gathering and lengthy findings of fact that Tribunal judgments produced;
3. "Bringing justice to thousands of victims and giving them a voice", pointing out the large number of witnesses that had been brought before the Tribunal;
4. "The accomplishments in international law", describing the fleshing out of several international criminal law concepts which had not been ruled on since the Nuremberg Trials;
5. "Strengthening the Rule of Law", referring to the Tribunal's role in promoting the use of international standards in war crimes prosecutions by former Yugoslav republics.
==Criticisms of the Court==
Some of the criticisms levelled against the court include:
* It was established by the [[UN Security Council]] instead of the [[UN General Assembly]] The UN Charter specifically gives the exclusive right to establish such organs to the General Assembly. This has been the formal basis of [[Slobodan Milošević|Milošević]]'s claim that the court has no legal authority.
|
randlodge-england.org/pdf/cr-rule-update2-141205.pdf</ref>:
# Be a man who comes of his own free will. Traditionally Freemasons do not actively recruit new members.
# Believe in a Supreme Being, or, in some jurisdictions, a ''Creative Principle''<ref>http://www.grandlodge-england.org/pdf/cr-rule-update2-141205.pdf Aims and Relationships of the Craft</ref>.
# Be at least the minimum age (18&ndash;25 years depending on the jurisdiction, but commonly 21),
# Be of sound mind, body and of good morals, and of good repute.
# Be free (or "born free", ''i.e.'' not born a [[Slavery|slave]] or bondsman).
# Have one or two references from current Masons (depending on jurisdiction).
One must approach an existing member for an application, so Freemasonry is open to all who otherwise fulfil the requirements.
A candidate is asked 'Do you believe in a Supreme Being?', there is no further investigation into the nature of that Supreme Being. Since an initiate is obligated on that sacred volume which is applicable to their faith a sponsor will enquire as to an appropriate volume once a decision has been made on the applicants suitability for initiation.
A number of Grand Lodges allow a '''Lewis''', the son of a Mason, to be initiated earlier than the normal minimum age for that Grand Lodge.{{fact}}
Being of "sound body" is thought to be derived from the operative origins of Freemasonry, an apprentice would be able to meet the demands of their profession. It is today generally taken to mean "physically capable of taking part in Lodge rituals"{{fact}}; Grand Lodges encourage the use of mechanisms within the ritual to mitigate for difficulty.
The "free born" requirement is moot in modern Lodges; it remains for purely historical reasons. Some jurisdictions have done away with it entirely.
Some Grand Lodges in the United States have a residence requirement, candidates being expected to have lived within the jurisdiction for certain period of time, typically six months.{{fact}} This requirement may be waived in certain jurisdictions for certain situatons.{{fact}}
{{see also|List of famous Freemasons}}
===Membership and religion===
Freemasonry explicitly and openly states that it is not a religion, nor a substitute for religion. There is no separate "Masonic God," and there is no separate proper name for a deity in any branch of Freemasonry<ref>[http://www.grandlodge-england.org/masonry/A2L-religion.htm UGLE: Is Freemasonry a religion?], accessed [[January 21]] [[2006]].</ref>.
Freemasonry requires that its candidates believe in a ''Supreme Being'', the nature of that being subject to the conscience of the candidate. As the interpretation of the term ''Supreme Being'' is left up to the individual members can be drawn from a wide range of faiths; the [[Abrahamic religions]] and other [[monotheistic]] religions. Some members of non-monotheistic religions are accepted subject to answering ''Yes'' to the question asked, these include, for example, [[Buddhism|Buddhists]] and [[Hinduism|Hindus]].
In the ''[[Regular Masonic jurisdictions|irregular]]'' Continental European tradition, since the early 19th Century, a very broad interpretation has been given to a (non-dogmatic) Supreme Being &mdash; usually allowing [[Deism]] and naturalistic views in the tradition of [[Baruch Spinoza|Spinoza]] and [[Johann Wolfgang von Goethe|Goethe]] (himself a Freemason), or views of [[The Ultimate]] or Cosmic Oneness, along with Western atheistic [[idealism]] and agnosticism. This leads some anti-Masonic pundits to suggest that even ''regular'' Freemasonry will, in practice, accept certain kinds of atheists &mdash; willing to adopt quasi-spiritual language.
In some jurisdictions (mostly English-speaking), Freemasonry is actually less tolerant of naturalism than it was in the 18th Century{{fact}}, and specific religious requirements with more [[theism|theistic]] and orthodox overtones have been added since the early 19th Century (mostly in North America), including belief in the immortality of the soul{{fact}}.
The Freemasonry that predominates in [[Scandinavia]], known as the [[Swedish Rite]] accepts only Christians.<ref name="scandinavia">Freemasons for Dummies, by Christopher Hodapp, Wiley Publishing Inc., Indianapolis, 2005, p.65, sec. "Religion and the Masons"</ref>.
===Women and Freemasonry===
{{main|Co-Freemasonry}}
The position of '''women and Freemasonry''' is complex, although traditionally, only men can be made Freemasons, in ''[[Regular Masonic jurisdictions|Regular]]'' Freemasonry.
A supposed exceptional, (very [[Regular Masonic jurisdictions|irregular]] and perhaps unique), account of a woman being admitted to Freemasonry in, 18th century, is the case of [[Elizabeth Aldworth]]
(born St. Leger), who is reported to have viewed the proceedings of a lodge meeting held at Doneraile House - the private house of her father, first [[Viscount]] Doneraile - a resident of [[County Cork|Cork]], [[Ireland]]. In the early part of the 18th century, it was quite customary for lodges to be held in private houses. This lodge was duly warranted for use by Lodge number 150 on the register of the [[Grand Lodge of Ireland]].
Apparently, she removed a brick and saw the ceremony in the room beyond. After being discovered, Elizabeth's situation was discussed by the lodge. It was decided that she should be initiated into Freemasonry. The story is supported by other accounts of her being a subscriber to the Irish Book of Constitutions of 1744. She frequently attended, wearing her Masonic [[regalia]], and gave entertainments, under Masonic auspices, for the benefit of the poor and distressed. She married Mr. Richard Aldworth of Newmarket, and it is reported that when she died she was accorded the honour of a "Masonic" burial.
The systematic admission of women into International [[Co-Freemasonry]] began in [[France]] in 1882 with the initiation of [[Maria Deraismes]] into the Loge Libre Penseurs (Freethinkers Lodge), under the Grande Loge Symbolique de France. In 1893, along with activist Georges Martin, Maria Deraismes oversaw the initiation of sixteen women into the first lodge in the world to have both men and women as members, from inception, creating the jurisdiction [[Le Droit Humain]] (LDH). Again these are regarded as irregular bodies, by ''Regular'' Freemasonry.
In [[North America]], women cannot become Freemasons ''per se,'' but rather join an associated separate body with its own traditions. [[Order of the Eastern Star]] (OES) was created in the United States in the mid-19th Century for female Masonic relatives and Master Masons. Its members are mainly the wives and daughters of Master Masons.
In the [[Netherlands]], there is a completely separate, although masonically allied, sorority for women, the [[Order of Weavers]] (OOW), which uses symbols from weaving rather than stonemasonry.
The GOdF and other jurisdictions, in the Continental European tradition, give full formal recognition to Co-Freemasonry and women's Freemasonry. The UGLE, and other jurisdictions concordant in that ''regular'' tradition, do not formally recognize any Masonic body that accepts women. The UGLE, has stated - since 1998 - that two local women's jurisdictions are regular in practice, except for their inclusion of women, and has indicated that, while not formally recognized, these bodies may be regarded as part of Freemasonry, when describing Freemasonry in general.
==Principles and activities==
Freemasonry is described as a ''System of Morality, veiled in allegory and illustrated by symbol''{{fact}} and as such it uses ritual to convey the '''principles''' of "Brotherly Love, Relief and Truth" - otherwise related, as in France: "Liberty, Equality, Fraternity".<ref name="GOdF">Freemasons for Dummies, by Christopher Hodapp, Wiley Publishing Inc., Indianapolis, 2005, p.783, sec. "Masons marked for life"</ref>.
Moral lessons are delivered in a ritualised manner, the candidate progressing through ''degrees''<ref>http://www.grandlodge-england.org/pdf/cr-rule-update2-141205.pdf Aims and Relationships of the Craft</ref> gaining in knowledge and understanding of himself, his relationship with others and his relationship with that Supreme Being to which he adheres.
Outside the ritual context the fraternity is widely involved in charity and community service '''activities''', as well as providing a social outlet for the members.
The balance between ritual, philosophcal and spiritual, charitable service and social interchange aspects varies subject to the cultures of the various Grand Lodges which govern Freemasonry around the world. Some Continental European Grand Lodges require the candidate to demonstrate philosophical competence as he advances through the degrees which is notoverwhelmingly present in Britain, North America, and the anglophone parts of the world where charity tends to balance philosophy{{fact}}. There is a growing movement of lodges thorughout the anglophone world tending towards the more philosophical and spiritual aspects of the craft{{fact}}.
Nevertheless, philosophy and esoteric knowledge remains a deep interest to many individuals. The philosophical aspects of the ''Craft'' tend to be discussed in Lodges of Instruction or Research, and sometimes informal groups. Freemasons themselves frequently reprint the scholarly studies that are available to the public.
==Ritual and symbolism==
{{Spoiler-blank|This article contains information that some say are Masonic secrets.}}
Freemasonic '''Ritual''' uses the [[architecture|architectural]] symbolism of the [[medieval]] ''operative'' [[Masonry|Masons]] who actually [[masonry|worked in stone]]. Tools from operative masonry are used by Freemasons to teach moral and ethical lessons. Two of the princi
|
trial solvent and raw material.
== Uses ==
Alcohols are in wide use in industry and science as reagents, [[solvent]]s, and [[alcohol as a fuel|fuel]]s. Ethanol and methanol can be made to burn more cleanly than [[gasoline]] or [[diesel]]. Because of its low toxicity and ability to dissolve non-polar substances, ethanol is often used as a solvent in medical drugs, [[perfume]]s, and vegetable essences such as [[vanilla]]. In [[organic synthesis]], alcohols frequently serve as versatile intermediates.
Ethanol is also commonly used in beverages after fermentation to promote flavor or induce a euphoric intoxication commonly known as "drunkenness" or "being drunk". The use of ethanol for this purpose is illegal in some jurisdictions. In such instances of consumption, alcohol is a [[Psychoactive drug|drug]], with immediate potential for overdose, toxic poisoning, and physiological dependency (known as [[alcoholism]]). Alcoholism has become one of the most common drug addictions (if not second to caffeine) in the world. The physiological dependency caused by alcoholism means that the user experiences physical withdrawal (in the form of a headache known as a "[[hangover]]," extremely high anxiety known as "the shakes," and restlessness or trouble sleeping) upon cessation or decrease of use. For the full article on this topic see [[effects of alcohol on the body]].
Because of such particular uses, historically, ethanol has been regulated by taxation. Those who manufacture it for other purposes often avoid this expense by "denaturing" it in a manner that renders it unfit for drinking. A common way to do this is by the addition of [[denatonium benzoate]]. "SD-40" and "SD Alcohol" sometimes followed by "40-B" are designations that were established by the [[Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, and Firearms]] for this formulation.
== Sources ==
Many alcohols can be created by [[fermentation]] of [[fruit]]s or [[cereal|grain]]s with [[yeast]], but only ethanol is commercially produced this way, chiefly for [[alcohol as a fuel|fuel]] and [[alcoholic beverage|drink]]. Other alcohols are generally produced by synthetic routes from [[natural gas]], [[petroleum]], or [[coal]] feed stocks, for example via acid catalyzed [[hydration reaction|hydration]] of [[alkene]]s. For more details see [[#Chemistry of alcohols|Chemistry of alcohols]]
== Nomenclature ==
=== Systematic names ===
In the [[IUPAC nomenclature|IUPAC]] system, the name of the alkane chain loses the terminal "e" and adds "ol", e.g. "methanol" and "ethanol". When necessary, the position of the hydroxyl group is indicated by a number between the alkane name and the "ol": [[propan-1-ol]] for CH<sub>3</sub>CH<sub>2</sub>CH<sub>2</sub>OH, [[Isopropyl alcohol|propan-2-ol]] for CH<sub>3</sub>CH(OH)CH<sub>3</sub>. Sometimes, the position number is written before the IUPAC name: 1-propanol and 2-propanol. If a higher priority group is present (such as an [[aldehyde]], [[ketone]] or [[carboxylic acid]]), then it is necessary to use the prefix "hydroxy", for example: 1-hydroxy-2-propanone (CH<sub>3</sub>COCH<sub>2</sub>OH).
Some examples of simple alcohols and how to name them:
[[Image:Alcohol_examples.gif|550px|Examples of alcohols & their names]]
Common names for alcohols usually take the name of the corresponding [[alkyl]] group and add the word "alcohol", e.g. [[methyl]] alcohol, [[ethyl]] alcohol or [[Butyl|''tert''-butyl]] alcohol. [[Propyl]] alcohol may be ''n''-propyl alcohol or isopropyl alcohol depending on whether the hydroxyl group is bonded to the 1st or 2nd carbon on the propane chain. Isopropyl alcohol is also occasionally called ''sec''-propyl alcohol.
As mentioned above alcohols are classified as primary (1°), secondary (2°) or tertiary (3°), and common names often indicate this in the alkyl group prefix. For example (CH<sub>3</sub>)<sub>3</sub>COH is a tertiary alcohol is commonly known as ''tert''-butyl alcohol. This would be named 2-methylpropan-2-ol under IUPAC rules, indicating a propane chain with methyl and hydroxyl groups both attached to the middle (#2) carbon.
An alcohol with two hydroxyl groups is commonly called a "glycol", e.g. HO-CH<sub>2</sub>-CH<sub>2</sub>-OH is [[ethylene glycol]]. The IUPAC name is ethane-1,2-diol, "diol" indicating two hydroxyl groups, and 1,2 indicating their bonding positions. Geminal glycols (with the two hydroxyls on the same carbon atom), such as ethane-1,1-diol, are generally unstable. For three or four groups, "triol" and "tetraol" are used.
=== Etymology ===
The word "alcohol" almost certainly comes from the [[Arabic language]] (the "al-" prefix being the Arabic definite article); however, the precise origin is unclear. It was introduced into [[Europe]], together with the art of [[distillation]] and the substance itself, around the [[12th century]] by various European authors who translated and popularized the discoveries of [[Islamic]] [[alchemy|alchemists]].
A popular theory, found in many dictionaries, is that it comes from &#1575;&#1604;&#1603;&#1581;&#1604; = ''ALKHL'' = ''al-kuhul'', originally the name of very finely powdered [[antimony]] [[sulfide]] [[antimony|Sb]]<sub>2</sub>[[sulfur|S]]<sub>3</sub> used as an [[antiseptic]] and [[eyeliner]]. The powder is prepared by [[sublimation (physics)|sublimation]] of the natural mineral [[stibnite]] in a closed vessel. According to this theory, the meaning of ''alkuhul'' would have been first extended to distilled substances in general, and then narrowed to ethanol. This conjectured etymology has been circulating in England since [[1672]] at least ([[Oxford English Dictionary|OED]]).
However, this derivation is suspicious since the current Arabic name for alcohol, &#1575;&#1604;&#1603;&#1581;&#1608;&#1604; = ''ALKHWL'' = ''al???'', does not derive from ''al-kuhul''. The [[Qur'an]] in verse 37:47 uses the word &#1575;&#1604;&#1594;&#1608;&#1604; = ''ALGhWL'' = ''al-ghawl'' &mdash; properly meaning "spirit" ("[[spiritual being]]") or "[[demon]]" &mdash; with the sense "the thing that gives the wine its headiness". The word ''al-ghawl'' also originated the [[English language|English]] word "ghoul", and the name of the star [[Algol]]. This derivation would, of course, be consistent with the use of "spirit" or "spirit of wine" as synonymous of "alcohol" in most Western languages. (Incidentally, the etymology "alcohol" = "the devil" was used in the [[1930s]] by the [[United States|U.S.]] [[Temperance movement|Temperance Movement]] for propaganda purposes.)
According to the second theory, the popular etymology and the spelling "alcohol" would not be due to generalization of the meaning of ''ALKHL'', but rather to Western alchemists and authors confusing the two words ''ALKHL'' and ''ALGhWL'', which have indeed been transliterated in many different and overlapping ways.
== Physical and chemical properties ==
The [[hydroxyl group]] generally makes the alcohol molecule [[polar molecule|polar]]. Those groups can form [[hydrogen bond]]s to one another and to other compounds. Two opposing solubility trends in alcohols are: the tendency of the polar OH to promote solubility in water, and of the carbon chain to resist it. Thus, methanol, ethanol, and propanol are miscible in water because the hydroxyl group wins out over the short carbon chain. [[Butanol]], with a four-carbon chain, is moderately soluble because of a balance between the two trends. Alcohols of five or more carbons ([[amyl alcohol|Pentanol]] and higher) are effectively insoluble because of the hydrocarbon chain's dominance.
Because of [[hydrogen bonding]], alcohols tend to have higher boiling points than comparable [[hydrocarbon]]s and [[ether]]s. All simple alcohols are miscible in organic solvents. This hydrogen bonding means that alcohols can be used as [[protic solvent]]s.
The lone pairs of electrons on the oxygen of the hydroxyl group also makes alcohols nucleophiles.
Alcohols, like water, can show either acidic or basic properties at the O-H group. With a [[pKa|pK<Sub>a</sub>]] of around 16-19 they are generally slightly weaker [[acid]]s than [[water (molecule)|water]], but they are still able to react with strong bases such as [[sodium hydride]] or reactive metals such as [[sodium]]. The salts that result are called '''[[alkoxide]]s''', with the general formula [[Alkyl|R]]O<sup>-</sup> [[Metal|M]]<sup>+</sup>.
Alcohols conjugated to aromatic rings have a lower pKa (around 10). Electron-withdrawing groups also work to make alcohols more acidic. For example, Para-nitro phenol has a pKa of 7.15.
Meanwhile the oxygen atom has [[lone pair]]s of nonbonded electrons that render it weakly [[Base_(chemistry)|basic]] in the presence of strong acids such as [[sulfuric acid]]. For example, with methanol:
[[Image:methanol_acid_base.gif|500px|Acidity & basicity of methanol]]
Alcohols can also undergo [[oxidation]] to give [[aldehyde]]s, [[ketone]]s or [[carboxylic acid]]s, or they can be dehydrated to [[alkene]]s. They can react to form [[ester compound]]s, and they can (if activated first) undergo [[nucleophilic substitution]] reactions. For more details see the [[#Chemistry of alcohols]] section below.
== Toxicity ==
Alcohols often have an odor described as 'biting' that 'hangs' in the nasal passages. [[Ethanol]] in the form of [[alcoholic beverage]]s has been consumed by humans since pre-historic times, for a variet
|
are facilities open to the public for viewing of aquatic species in aquaria. Most public aquaria feature a number of smaller tanks, as well as one or more large tank greater in size than could be kept by any home aquarist. The largest tanks hold millions of U.S. gallons of water and can house large species, including [[dolphin]]s, [[shark]]s or [[beluga]] whales. Aquatic and semiaquatic animals, including [[otter]]s and [[penguin]]s, may also be kept by public aquaria.
Operationally, a public aquarium is similar in many ways to a [[zoo]] or [[museum]]. A good aquarium will have special exhibits to entice repeat visitors, in addition to its permanent collection. A few have their own version of a "petting zoo"; for instance, the [[Monterey Bay Aquarium]] has a shallow tank filled with common types of [[batoidea|rays]], and one can reach in to feel their leathery skins as they pass by.
Also as with zoos, aquaria usually have specialized research staff who study the habits and biology of their specimens. In recent years, the large aquaria have been attempting to acquire and raise various species of open-ocean fish, and even jellyfish (or sea-jellies, [[cnidaria]]), a difficult task since these creatures have never before encountered solid surfaces like the walls of a tank, and do not have the [[instinct]]s to turn aside from the walls instead of running into them.
The first public aquarium opened in [[London]]'s [[Regent's Park]] in 1853. [[P.T. Barnum]] quickly followed with the first American aquarium, opened on [[Broadway (New York City)|Broadway]] in [[New York]]. Following early examples of Detroit, New York and [[San Francisco, California|San Francisco]], many major cities now have public aquaria. Most public aquaria are located close to the [[ocean]], for a steady supply of natural seawater. An inland pioneer was [[Chicago, Illinois|Chicago]]'s [[Shedd Aquarium]] that received seawater shipped by rail in special tank cars. In contrast, the recently opened [[Georgia Aquarium]] filled its tanks with fresh water from the city water system and salinated its salt water exhibits using the same commercial salt and mineral additives available to home aquarists.
In January 1985 Kelly Tarlton began construction of the first aquarium to include a large transparent [[Polymethyl methacrylate|acrylic]] tunnel in [[Auckland, New Zealand]], a task that took 10 months and cost NZ$3 million. The 110-meter tunnel was built from one-tonne slabs of German sheet plastic that were shaped locally in an oven. A moving walkway now transports visitors through, and groups of school children occasionally hold sleepovers there beneath the swimming sharks and rays.
Top public aquaria are often affiliated with important oceanographic research institutions or conduct their own research programs, and usually (though not always) specialize in species and ecosystems that can be found in local waters.
For a partial list of public aquaria worldwide, see [[list of aquaria]].
==See also==
* [[Freshwater aquarium]]
**[[List of freshwater aquarium fish species]]
**[[List of freshwater aquarium plant species]]
**[[List of freshwater aquarium invertebrate species]]
**[[Community tank]]
* [[Saltwater aquarium]]
**[[Marine aquarium fish species]]
**[[List of marine aquarium invertebrate species]]
**[[Reef tank]]
**[[Nano reef]]
*[[List of aquarium diseases]]
* [[List of aquaria]]
* [[Fishkeeping]]
* [[Macquarium]]
* [[Marine park]]
* [[Terrarium]]
==References==
===Internet references===
*http://www.ems.org/marine_aquarium_trade/aquarists_profile.html Retrieved January 10, 2005.
*[[Kenyon College]] Biology Department. http://biology.kenyon.edu/Microbial_Biorealm/bacteria/nitrospira/Nitrospira.htm . Retrieved January 6, 2005.
*http://www.mbayaq.org/
*http://www.thekrib.com
*http://www.thepetprofessor.com/secPetInfo/Fish/History_of_keeping_tropical_fish.asp Retreived January 10, 2005.
*October 25, 2005. [http://news.yahoo.com/s/nm/20051025/od_uk_nm/oukoe_uk_life_italy_pets "Rome bans goldfish bowls seen as cruel"]. [[Reuters]]: Yahoo News.
===Book and journal references===
*Brunner, Bernd (2005). ''The Ocean at Home: An Illustrated History of the Aquarium''. New York: Princeton Architectural Press. ISBN 1568985029.
*Scott, Peter W (1995). ''The Complete Aquarium''. DK Publishing. ISBN 0789400138.
*Skomal, Gregory (1997). ''Setting up a Freshwater Aquarium: An Owner's Guide to a Happy Healthy Pet''. New York: Wiley Publishing. ISBN 0876055021.
*Tlusty, Michael (2002). ''The benefits and risks of aquaculture production for the aquarium trade''. ''Aquaculture''. v205 i3 pg 203(17).
==External links==
*[http://www.aquatic-hobbyist.com/index.html Aquatic-Hobbyist.com] - International site with information for all levels of experience, and a friendly discussion board.
*[http://www.aqua-fish.net Aquarium database] - Aquarium guide with access to database, forums, insertion and a contest.
*[http://www.tropicalfishforums.co.uk Tropical Fish Forums] - A UK based community that covers all the basic aspects of the aquarium hobby.
*[http://www.aquahobby.com Age of Aquariums - Tropical Fish] - A large aquarium hobbyist community that has been promoting responsible fishkeeping internationally since 1997.
*[http://www.aquariam.co.za Beginner's guide for aquaria] - A Beginner's guide to starting up a tropical or marine aquarium
*[http://www.reefs.org Reefs.org] - An online interactive community dedicated to the education of marine aquarists worldwide, established in 1997.
*[http://www.tinkerfish.com/ Tinkerfish Aquarium fish] - Tropical aquarium information.
*[http://www.aquaticcommunity.com/ Tropical fish & aquarium]
*[http://www.thekrib.com/ The Krib.com] - The longest-running aquarium site on the Internet, with some beginner's information but emphasizing advanced practice and opinion, especially of freshwater fish and planted aquaria.
*[http://www.skepticalaquarist.com The Skeptical Aquarist] - An excellent source of information for aquarium hobbyists.
*[http://www.ratemyfishtank.com/ Rate My Fish Tank] - Fun site that lets users rate fish tanks of aquarists around the world - helping bring hobbyists together and provide visual ideas for their own aquaria.
*[http://www.wetwebmedia.com WetWebMedia.com] - Maintained by Bob Fenner and other veteran aquarists, this site provides answers to many FAQs about all types of aquaria and livestock.
*[http://www.aworldoffish.com A World of Fish]
*[http://www.aquatichouse.com AquaticHouse Aquarium]
*[http://www.gorge.org/fish/ Flash Wilson's fishkeeping guides]
*[http://fish.mongabay.com/ Tropical Freshwater Aquarium Fish] A website with information about freshwater tropical fish including biotope descriptions.
*[http://www.aquariumcouncil.org/ Marine Aquarium Council Official Website]
*[http://www.fishfriend.com/ Your Fish Tank's Friend]
*[http://www.reefcentral.com Reef Central...a site for Reef Aquarium Hobbyists]
*[http://avdil.gtri.gatech.edu/RCM/RCM/MICHELSONAquarium.html Engineerng of an automated reef life support system] DIY guide to reef tank automation for propagation of coral.
*[http://www.fishinthe.net General Freshwater Aquarium Site]
*[http://aquaticuz.com The Aquatic Place]
[[Category:Fishkeeping]]
[[Category:Hobbies]]
[[Category:Aquaria| ]]
<!-- interwiki -->
{{Link FA|es}}
[[cs:Akvárium]]
[[da:Akvarium]]
[[de:Aquarium]]
[[es:Acuario (recipiente)]]
[[fr:Aquarium]]
[[gl:Acuario (recipiente)]]
[[hr:Akvarij]]
[[id:Akuarium]]
[[it:Acquario (contenitore)]]
[[he:אקווריום]]
[[nl:Aquarium (waterruimte)]]
[[ja:水族館]]
[[no:Akvarium]]
[[pl:Akwarium]]
[[pt:Aquário]]
[[ru:Аквариум]]
[[sv:Akvarium]]
[[uk:Акваріум]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Agglutinative</title>
<id>3187</id>
<revision>
<id>15901548</id>
<timestamp>2002-03-25T14:20:29Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>DanKeshet</username>
<id>170</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>chained redirects don't work</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Agglutinative language]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Agglutinating language</title>
<id>3188</id>
<revision>
<id>15901549</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Agglutinative language]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Ascending chain condition</title>
<id>3189</id>
<revision>
<id>21527334</id>
<timestamp>2005-08-21T22:24:25Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Hillman</username>
<id>276528</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>cat</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">In [[mathematics]], a [[partial order|poset]] ''P'' is said to satisfy the '''ascending chain condition''' (ACC)
if every ascending chain ''a''<sub>1</sub>&nbsp;&le;&nbsp;''a''<sub>2</sub>&nbsp;&le;&nbsp;... of elements of ''P'' is eventually stationary,
that is, there is some positive [[integer]] ''n'' such that ''a''<sub>''m''</sub> = ''a''<sub>''n''</sub> for all ''m''&nbsp;>&nbsp;''n''.
Similarly, ''P'' is said to satisfy the '''descending chain condition''' (DCC)
if every descending chain ''a''<sub>1</sub>&nbsp;&ge;&nbsp;''a''<sub>2</sub>&nbsp;&ge;&nbsp;... of elements of ''P'' is eventually stationary (that is, there is no [[infinite descending chain]]).
The ascending chain condition on ''P'' is equivalent to the '''maximum condition''': every nonempty subset of ''P'' has a maximal element.
Similarly, the descending chain condition is equivalent to the '''minimum condition''': every nonempty subset of ''P'' has a minimal element.
Every finite poset satisfies bo
|
ematic"]] because they insert a vowel derived from the reconstructed proto-Indo-European phonemes ''*e'' or ''*o'' between roots and inflexional suffixes. This pattern is also present in [[Greek language|Greek]] and [[Latin]]:
*Latin - ''leg-i-mus'' ("we read"): root ''leg-'' + thematic vowel ''-i-'' (from ''*e'') + suffix ''-mus''.
*Greek - &#955;&#965;-&#972;-&#956;&#949;&#957; ("we untie"): root &#955;&#965;- + thematic vowel -&#959;- + suffix -&#956;&#949;&#957;.
*Gothic - ''nim-a-m'' ("we take"): root ''nim-'' ([[German language|German]] ''nehmen'') + thematic vowel ''-a-'' (from ''*o'') + suffix ''-m''.
The other conjugation, called [[Athematic|"athematic"]], where suffixes are added directly to roots, exists only in unproductive vestigial forms in Gothic, just as it does in Greek and Latin. The most important such instance is [[Indo-European copula|the verb "to be"]], which is athematic in Greek, Latin, Sanskrit and many other Indo-European languages.
Gothic verbs are, like nouns and adjectives, divided into strong verbs and weak verbs. Weak verbs are characterised by [[preterite]]s formed by appending the suffixes ''-da'' or ''-ta'', parallel to past participles formed with ''-þ'' / ''-t''. Strong verbs form preterites by alternating vowels in their root forms or by doubling the first consonant in the root, but without adding a suffix in either case. This parallels the Greek and Sanskit [[perfect tense]]s. This dichotomy is still present in modern Germanic languages:
* weak verbs ("to have") :
** Gothic: ''haban'', preterite ''habái'''da''''', past participle ''habái'''þ'''s'' ;
** English: ''(to) have'', preterite ''ha'''d''''', past participle ''ha'''d''''' ;
** German: ''haben'', preterite ''hat'''te''''', past participle ''(ge)hab'''t''''' ;
** Icelandic: ''hafa'', preterite ''haf'''ði''''', past participle ''haf'''t''''' ;
* strong verbs ("to give") :
** Gothic: infinitive ''g'''i'''ban'', preterite ''g'''a'''f'' ;
** English: infinitive ''(to) g'''i'''ve'', preterite ''g'''a'''ve'' ;
** German: infinitive ''g'''e'''ben'', preterite ''g'''a'''b'' ;
** Icelandic: infinitive ''g'''e'''fa'', preterite ''g'''a'''f''.
Verbal inflexions in Gothic have two [[grammatical voice]]s: the active and the medial; three numbers: singular, dual (except in the third person), and plural; two tenses: present and preterite (derived from a former perfect tense); three [[grammatical mood]]s: [[indicative mood|indicative]], [[subjunctive mood|subjunctive]] (from an old [[optative mood|optative]] form) and [[imperative mood|imperative]]; as well as three kinds of nominal forms: a present [[infinitive]], a present [[participle]], and a past [[passive]]. Not all tenses and persons are represented in all moods and voices - some conjugations use [[Auxiliary verb|auxiliary forms]].
Finally, there are forms called "preterite-present" - old Indo-European perfect tenses that were reinterpreted as present tense. The Gothic word ''wáit'', from the proto-Indo-European ''*woid-h<sub>2</sub>e'' ("to see" in the perfect tense), corresponds exactly to its Sanskrit cognate ''véda'' and in Greek to &#988;&#959;&#7990;&#948;&#945;. Both etymologically should mean "I saw" (in the perfective sense) but mean "I see" (in the preterite-present meaning). Latin follows the same rule with ''n&#333;u&#299;'' ("I knew" and "I know"). The preterite-present verbs include ''áihan'' ("to possess") and ''kunnan'' ("to know") among others.
==Gothic compared to other Germanic languages==
===Gothic and Old Norse===
The Goths had a tradition of a Scandinavian origin, and there are linguistic similarities with [[Old Norse language|Old Norse]], especially with its dialect [[Old Gutnish]]. The number of similarities that Old Gutnish had with Gothic made the prominent linguist [[Elias Wessén]] classify it as a Gothic dialect. This is a text sample from the [[Gutasaga]] about a migration to southern Europe (Manuscript from the [[14th century]]):
:''siþan af þissum þrim aucaþis fulc j gutlandi som mikit um langan tima at land elptj þaim ai alla fyþa þa lutaþu þair bort af landi huert þriþia þiauþ so at alt sculdu þair aiga oc miþ sir bort hafa som þair vfan iorþar attu... so fierri foru þair at þair quamu til griclanz... oc enn byggia oc enn hafa þair sumt af waru mali''
:over a long time, the people descended from these three multiplied so much that the land couldn't support them all. Then they draw lots, and every third person was picked to leave, and they could keep everything they owned and take it with them, except for their land. ... They went so far that they came to the land of the Greeks. ... they settled there, and live there still, and still have something of our language.
The main points cited for grouping North and East Germanic are:
1) The evolution of the [[Proto-Germanic language|Proto-Germanic]] *''-jj-'' and *''-gg-'' into Gothic ''ddj'' (from an older Gothic ''ggj''?) and ''ggw'' and Old Norse ''ggj'' and ''ggv'' ("Holtzmann's law"). For instance, the [[Old High German]] genitive of ''zwei'' (two) is ''zweio'', which is distinct from Gothic ''twaddje'' and Old Norse ''tveggja''. Whereas German has the form ''treu'', Gothic has ''triggws'' and modern Swedish ''trygg''.
2) The existence of numerous inchoative verbs ending with -''na'', such as Gothic ''waknan'' and modern Swedish ''vakna''.
3) Gothic is important for the understanding of the evolution of Proto-Germanic into Old Norse through [[Proto-Norse language|Proto-Norse]]. For instance, the final -''n'' in North Germanic languages, such as ''navn'' and ''namn'' (name) is explained by referring to Gothic in which ''namo'' had its plural genitive ''namne''. Sometimes, Gothic explains forms of words found on the oldest runestones, such as the Gothic word ''gudja'' ([[gothi]], man serving as priest) which explains the word ''gudija'' found on the runestone of Nordhuglo in Norway.
But there have also been theories grouping West and East Germanic. Today, the three groups are generally treated as derived independently from [[Proto-Germanic]].
===Other unique features of Gothic===
Being the first attested Germanic language, Gothic fails to display a number of traits that are shared by all other known Germanic languages. Most conspicuously, Gothic contains no morphological [[umlaut]]; the Gothic word ''gudja'' "priest" can be contrasted with the Old Norse ''gydja'' ("priestess"); the Norse form contains the characteristic change /u/ > /y/ that indicates the influence of i-umlaut in [[Proto-Norse]]; the Gothic form shows no such change.
Gothic retains a [[passive voice]] inherited from Indo-European, but unattested in all other Germanic languages. Gothic preserves several verbs that display [[reduplication]] (''haitan'', "to be called" > ''haihait''; cf. Norwegian ''heita'' German ''heißen'', archaic English ''hight'') in the formation of the [[preterit]]; another Indo-European inheritance that has left only a few traces in Old English, Old Norse and Old High German.
==References==
*This article draws heavily on the [[:fr:Gotique|corresponding article]] in the French Wikipedia, retrieved April 6, 2005.
* F. Mossé, ''Manuel de la langue gotique'', Aubier Éditions Montaigne, 1942
* W. Braune and E. Ebbinghaus, ''Gotische Grammatik'', 17th edition 1966, Tübingen
** 20th edition, 2004. ISBN 3484108525 (hbk), ISBN 3484108509 (pbk)
* W. Streitberg, ''Die gotische Bibel '', 4th edition, 1965, Heidelberg ;
* J. Wright, ''Grammar of the Gothic language'', 2nd edition, Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1966
** 2nd edition, 1981 reprint by Oxford University Press, ISBN 0198111851
* W. Krause, ''Handbuch des Gotischen'', 3rd edition, 1968, Munich.
==See also==
*[[List of Germanic languages]]
*[[Germanic languages#Vocabulary comparison|Germanic Languages - Comparison of Selected Terms]] for a chart comparing Gothic words to those of other Germanic languages
*[[Geats]]
*[[Gotlander]]s
*[[Old Gutnish]]
*[[Grimm's law]]
*[[Verner's law]]
==External links==
{{InterWiki|code=got}}
{{Wikibookspar||Gothic}}
*[http://www.reimar.de/gotisch.html Gotisch im WWW] Portal for information on Gothic (in German)
*[http://www.oe.eclipse.co.uk/nom/egdhome.html English-Gothic Dictionary] (Also contains neologisms and reconstructed words)
*[http://members.terracom.net/~dorothea/david/gothic/index.html Gothic lessons]
*[http://www.ling.upenn.edu/~kurisuto/germanic/aa_texts.html Early editions of several of the references]
*[http://specgram.com/CXLVII.4/03.judzis.gothic.html Gothic for Travellers]: Good conversation starters are death, torture, eating and drinking.
* Texts:
** [http://titus.uni-frankfurt.de/texte/texte2.htm#got Titus] has Streitberg's ''Gotische Bibel'' and Crimean Gothic material after Busbecq.
** [http://www.wulfila.be/ Wulfila Project]
** [http://germa.germsem.uni-kiel.de/gotisch/skeireins/index.html Skeireins Projet]
** [http://wikisource.org/wiki/Die_gotische_Bibel The Gothic Bible]
** ''[http://members.aol.com/yahyam/BagmeBloma.html Bagme Bloma]'', a Gothic poem by [[J.R.R. Tolkien]]
{{Wikisourcepar|Category:Gothorum lingua}}
[[Category:East Germanic languages]]
[[Category:Medieval languages]]
[[Category:Late Antiquity]]
[[Category:Gothic writing]]
[[Category:Extinct Germanic languages]]
{{Link FA|fr}}
{{Link FA|no}}
[[af:Goties]]
[[ang:Gotisc sprǣc]]
[[da:Gotisk (sprog)]]
[[de:Gotische Sprache]]
[[es:Idioma gótico]]
[[eo:Gota lingvo]]
[[fr:Gotique]]
[[he:גותית (שפה)]]
[[nl:Gotisch (taal)]]
[[ja:ゴート語]]
[[no:Gotisk språk]]
[[nds:Gootsche Spraak]]
[[pl:Język gocki]]
[[pt:Língua gótica]]
[[fi:Gootin kieli]]
[[sv:Gotiska]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Greek language</ti
|
quot;) fuel cell (PEMFC), a [[proton]]-conducting polymer membrane separates the [[anode]] and [[cathode]] sides. Each side has an [[electrode]], typically carbon paper coated with [[platinum]] [[catalyst]].
On the anode side, hydrogen diffuses to the anode catalyst where it dissociates into protons and [[electron]]s. The protons are conducted through the membrane to the cathode, but the electrons are forced to travel in an external [[Electrical network|circuit]] (supplying power) because the membrane is electrically insulating.
On the cathode catalyst, oxygen [[molecule]]s react with the electrons (which have travelled through the external circuit) and protons to form water.
In this example, the only waste product is [[water vapor]] and/or liquid [[water]]. Even under freezing conditions water shall be transported out of the stack. Humidification is needed to guarantee standard conditions in the stack intake. Through this additional parasitic power the efficiency and also the agility of the fuel cell is worse with lower ambient temperatures. Another issue is the CO tolerance of the anode which is limited.
Fuel cells cannot store energy like a battery, but in some applications, like stand-alone power plants based on discontinuous sources (solar, wind power), they are combined with [[electrolysis|electrolyzers]] and storage systems to form an energy storage system. The round-trip efficiency (electricity to hydrogen and back to electricity) of such plants is between 30 and 40%.
In addition to pure hydrogen, researchers have used other, hydrogen-carrying fuels for fuel cells, including diesel, methanol and chemical hydrides.
== Efficiency ==
A fuel cell typically converts the chemical energy of its fuel into electricity with an efficiency of about 50%. The efficiency is however very dependent on the current through the fuel cell: the more current drawn, the lower the efficiency.
It is also important to take losses due to production, transportation and storage into account. Fuel cell vehicles running on compressed hydrogen may have a power plant to wheel efficiency of 22% if the hydrogen is stored as high-pressure gas, and 17% if it is stored as [[liquid hydrogen]] (efficiency of Hydrogen Fuel Cell, Diesel-SOFC-Hybrid and Battery Electric Vehicles, Ulf Bossel, European Fuel Cell Forum).
In "combined heat and power" applications, a fuel cell is placed in a location where heat is also needed. The fuel-to-electricity conversion efficiency need not be very high (typically 15-20%), because the heat is also being utilized. Some heat is lost with the exhaust gas just like in a normal furnace, so the combined heat and power efficiency is still lower than 100%, typically around 80%.
== Economy ==
Currently, fuel cells are a very expensive alternative to [[internal combustion engine]]s. It is common to hear that the main cost is the platinum catalyst, but currently the bipolar plates connecting one cell to the next are much more important in determining the cost. These need thorough machining and tedious labor to assemble, especially since most work is done by hand or with limited [[automation]] because of the small quantities sold. Optimists expect that, when demand will rise and mass production will become sustainable, prices will sink rapidly.
In 2002, typical cells had a catalyst content of USD 1000 per kW of electric power output, which is expected, by 2007, to be reduced to USD 30 per kW [http://www.fuelcellcontrol.com/evs19.html]. It is important to note, however, that the world reserves of platinum are insufficient (in fact, only one fourth) to support a mass conversion of all vehicles to fuel cells: a significant introduction of vehicles with present technology would therefore make the market value of platinum soar.
[[General Motors]] believes that fuel cell vehicles will be available at market prices around the end of this decade. Other companies are also working hard to make fuel cells a reality. [[Ballard Power Systems]], a pioneer of the technology, have agreed to be a fuel cell supplier to many automobile companies, including [[Ford]], [[Volvo]], [[Mazda]], [[General Motors]], and [[Honda]]. Ballard's success right now has been at being able to lower the cost: they have developed a catalyst with 1/10 the amount of platinum than before.
== History ==
The principle of the fuel cell was discovered by Swiss scientist [[Christian Friedrich Schönbein]] in [[1838]] and published in the January [[1839]] edition of the "Philosophical Magazine" [http://www.efcf.com/media/ep010813.shtml]. Based on this work, the first fuel cell was developed by Welsh scientist [[William Robert Grove|Sir William Grove]]. A sketch was published in [[1843]], but it wasn't until [[1959]] that British engineer [[Francis Thomas Bacon]] successfully developed a 5 kW stationary fuel cell. In 1959, a team led by Harry Ihrig built a 15 kW fuel cell tractor for Allis-Chalmers that was demonstrated across the US at state fairs. This system used potassium hydroxide as the electrolyte and compressed hydrogen and oxygen as the reactants. Later, in [[1959]], Bacon and his colleagues demonstrated a practical five-kilowatt unit capable of powering a welding machine, which led, in the 1960s to Bacon's patents being licensed by Pratt and Whitney from the U.S. where the concepts were used in the U.S. space program to supply electricity and drinking water (hydrogen and oxygen being readily available from the spacecraft tanks). Extremely expensive materials were used and the fuel cells required very pure hydrogen and oxygen. Early fuel cells tended to require inconveniently high operating temperatures that were a problem in many applications. However, fuel cells were seen to be desirable due to the large amounts of [[fuel]] available (hydrogen & oxygen).
Further technological advances in the 1980s and 1990s by people such as Geoffrey Ballard, the founder of the well-known Canadian fuel cell company Ballard Power Systems Inc., brought developments like the use of [[Nafion]], a cheaper and less fragile material, as the membrane [[electrolyte]], and reductions in the quantity of expensive [[platinum]] [[catalyst]] required, making the prospect of fuel cells in consumer applications such as [[automobile]]s more or less realistic. (See [[Hydrogen car]])
== The fuel cell industry ==
[[United Technologies]] ([[UTX]]) was the first company to manufacture fuel cells. In the 1960s the company provided NASA with fuel cells to generate electricity for the [[Apollo mission]]s. UTX's UTC Power subsidiary [http://www.utcpower.com] was the first company to manufacture and commercialize a large, stationary fuel cell system for use as a [[co-generation]] power plant in [[hospital]]s, [[universities]], and large [[office building]]s. UTC Power continues to market this fuel cell as the PureCell 200 [http://www.utcpower.com/fs/com/bin/fs_com_Page/0,5433,03100,00.html], a 200 kW system. UTC Power continues to be the sole supplier of fuel cells to NASA for use in space vehicles, having supplied the [[Apollo mission]]s and currently the [[space shuttle]], and is developing fuel cells for automobiles, buses, and cell phone towers. UTC Power claims to be "the global leader in the development and production of fuel cell technology" for both transportation and on-site power markets. In the [[automobile|automotive]] fuel cell market, UTC Power demonstrated the first fuel cell capable of starting under freezing conditions with its [[proton exchange membrane]] (PEM) automotive fuel cell. ''Note:'' UTC Power also uses the UTC Fuel Cells [http://www.utcfuelcells.com] name when referring to fuel cell products.
[[Image:DSCN1474.JPG|thumb|A fuel cell powered vehicle designed by [[General Motors]]]]
[[Ballard Power Systems]] is a major developer and manufacturer of the PEM fuel cells and claims to lead the world in [[automobile|automotive]] fuel cell technology. [[Ford Motor Company]] and [[DaimlerChrysler]] are major [[investor]]s in Ballard. In [[2003]], most automobile companies were customers of Ballard, with only [[General Motors]] and [[Toyota]] pursuing internal development of fuel cells for automotive use which broke up in 2005; in [[2004]] [[Nissan Motors|Nissan]] and [[Honda]] started similar research programs. GM apparently now teams with DaimlerChrysler and BMW [http://media.gm.com/servlet/GatewayServlet?target=http://image.emerald.gm.com/gmnews/viewpressreldetail.do?domain=137&docid=18107].
[[Perth, Western Australia|Perth]] in Western Australia is also participating in the trial with three fuel cell powered buses now operating between Perth and the port city of [[Fremantle, Western Australia|Fremantle]]. The trial is to be extended to other Australian cities over the next three years.
[[Plug Power Inc.]] is a major player in the design, development and manufacture of PEM fuel cells for stationary applications, including products aimed at [[telecommunication]], prime power, and combined heat and power grid-tie([[Cogeneration|CHP]]) applications.
In late 2004, [[Mechanical Technology Inc.]]'s subsidiary, MTI MicroFuel Cells debuted its first Direct Methanol Fuel Cell (DMFC)[http://www.staff.ncl.ac.uk/p.a.christensen/dmfc1.htm] for commercial use. MTI's Mobion™ cord-free rechargeable power pack technology consists of a fuel cell which runs on 100% (neat) Methanol. MTI's Mobion line is being released in industrial, consumer, and military markets as a low-cost replacement for lithium-ion batteries.
== Advantages and disadvantages ==
=== Environmental effects ===
A common misconception among the public is that elemental hydrogen is a ''source'' of energy. This is not the case, hydrogen is not a primary source of energy: it is only an energy storage medium, and must be manufactured using energy from other sources.
The physical laws relating to the conservation of energy unfortunately create a situation where the energy
|
e).
The two boroughs also formerly shared the same [[ZIP Code|Postal Code]] format, as mail addressed to either bore the designation "New York XX, New York," with a one- or two-digit number between the two "New Yorks" (the number was from 1 to 49 for Manhattan addresses and 50 or higher for the Bronx). When five-digit ZIP Codes replaced the postal codes in [[1963]], the Bronx was assigned the three-digit prefix "104" while Manhattan got "100" (Manhattan later added "101" and "102").
Numerous [[New York City Subway|subway]] lines run through the Bronx, many of them above ground. In addition, three [[Metro-North Railroad]] commuter railroad lines run through the Bronx. The borough has 12 Metro North stations.
Three major expressways crisscross the Bronx: The [[Major Deegan Expressway]], which runs along the western edge of the Harlem River, the [[Bruckner Expressway]], which runs through the eastern part of the borough, and the [[Cross Bronx Expressway]], which crosses the borough's south-central section and serves as a major connection to the [[George Washington Bridge]].
{{seealso|Transportation in New York City}}
==Neighborhoods==
See [[List of Bronx neighborhoods]] for a comprehensive listing of the Bronx's various neighborhoods and their descriptions.
The borough is politically divided into 12 community boards :
*[[Bronx Community Board 1|1]] : Mott Haven, Port Morris, and Melrose
*[[Bronx Community Board 2|2]] : Hunts Point, Longwood, and Morrisania
*[[Bronx Community Board 3|3]] : Crotona Park, Claremont Village, Concourse Village, Woodstock, and Morrisania
*[[Bronx Community Board 4|4]] : Highbridge, Concourse, Mount Eden, and Concourse Village
*[[Bronx Community Board 5|5]] : Fordham, University Heights, Morris Heights, Bathgate, and Mount Hope
*[[Bronx Community Board 6|6]] : Belmont, Bathgate, West Farms, East Tremont, and Bronx Park South
*[[Bronx Community Board 7|7]] : Norwood, University Heights, Jerome Park, Bedford Park, Fordham, and Kingsbridge Heights
*[[Bronx Community Board 8|8]] : Riverdale, Spuyten Duyvil, Van Cortlandt Village, Kingsbridge, Kingsbridge Heights, Fieldston, and Marble Hill
*[[Bronx Community Board 9|9]] : Parkchester, Unionport, Soundview, Castle Hill, Bruckner, Harding Park, Bronx River and Clason Point
*[[Bronx Community Board 10|10]] : Co-op City, City Island, Spencer Estates, Throgs Neck, Country Club, Zerega, Westchester Square, Pelham Bay, Eastchester Bay, Schuylerville, Edgewater, Locust Point, and Silver Beach
*[[Bronx Community Board 11|11]] : Morris Park, Pelham Parkway, Pelham Gardens, Allerton, Bronxdale, Laconia, and Van Nest
*[[Bronx Community Board 12|12]] : Edenwald, Wakefield, Williamsbridge, Woodlawn, Fish Bay, Eastchester, Olinville, and Baychester
==Demographics==
{| border="2" cellpadding="4" align="right" cellspacing="0" style="margin: 1em 1em 1em 0; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;"
|align=center colspan=2| '''Bronx <br>Population by year'''
|-
| align=center |
[[1900]] - (nc) <br>
[[1910]] - (nc) <br>
[[1920]] - 732,016 <br>
[[1930]] - 1,265,258 <br>
[[1940]] - 1,394,711 <br>
[[1950]] - 1,451,277 <br>
[[1960]] - 1,424,815 <br>
[[1970]] - 1,471,701 <br>
[[1980]] - 1,168,972 <br>
[[1990]] - 1,203,789 <br>
[[2000]] - 1,332,650
|}
As of the [[census]]{{GR|2}} of [[2000]], there are 1,332,650 people, 463,212 households, and 314,984 families residing in the borough. The [[population density]] is 12,242.2/km&sup2; (31,709.3/mi&sup2;). There are 490,659 housing units at an average density of 4,507.4/km&sup2; (11,674.8/mi&sup2;). The racial makeup of the borough is 29.87% [[White (U.S. Census)|White]], 35.64% [[African American (U.S. Census)|Black]] or [[Race (U.S. Census)|African American]], 0.85% [[Native American (U.S. Census)|Native American]], 3.01% [[Asian American|Asian]], 0.10% [[Pacific Islander (U.S. Census)|Pacific Islander]], 24.74% from [[Race (U.S. Census)|other races]], and 5.78% from two or more races. 48.38% of the population are [[Hispanic American|Hispanic]] or [[Latino (U.S. Census)|Latino]] of any race. 14.5% of the population are Whites, not of Hispanic origins.
Based on sample data from the same census, the U.S. Census Bureau estimates that 47.29% of the population 5 and over speak only [[English language|English]] at home. 43.67% speak Spanish at home, either exclusively or along with English. Other languages or groups of languages spoken at home by more than 0.25% of the population of the Bronx include [[Italian language|Italian]] (1.36%), [[Kru language|Kru]], [[Ibo language|Ibo]], or [[Yoruba language|Yoruba]] (1.07%), [[French language|French]] (0.72%), and [[Albanian language|Albanian]] (0.54%).
Some main European ancestries of Bronx residents, 2000 (percentage of total borough population):
*[[Italian American|Italian]] : 5.67%
*[[Irish American|Irish]] : 3.69%
*[[German American|German]] : 1.50%
*[[British American|English]] : 0.53%
According to an estimate by the Census Bureau, the population increased to 1,365,536 in 2004.
There are 463,212 households out of which 38.1% have children under the age of 18 living with them, 31.4% are [[Marriage|married couples]] living together, 30.4% have a female householder with no husband present, and 32.0% are non-families. 27.4% of all households are made up of individuals and 9.4% have someone living alone who is 65 years of age or older. The average household size is 2.78 and the average family size is 3.37.
In the borough the population is spread out with 29.8% under the age of 18, 10.6% from 18 to 24, 30.7% from 25 to 44, 18.8% from 45 to 64, and 10.1% who are 65 years of age or older. The median age is 31 years. For every 100 females there are 87.0 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there are 80.7 males.
The median income for a household in the borough is $27,611, and the median income for a family is $30,682. Males have a median income of $31,178 versus $29,429 for females. The [[per capita income]] for the borough is $13,959. 30.7% of the population and 28.0% of families are below the [[poverty line]]. Out of the total population, 41.5% of those under the age of 18 and 21.3% of those 65 and older are living below the poverty line.
Despite the stereotype that The Bronx is a typical poor urban area of New York City, it is not necessarily true of the entire borough, or even a majority of it. The Bronx has much affordable housing (as compared to most of the rest of the [[New York metropolitan area]], as well as upscale neighborhoods like [[Riverdale, Bronx, New York|Riverdale]], [[Throgs Neck]], Pelham Bay, and [[Country Club, Bronx, New York|Country Club]].)
== Trivia ==
* In 1997, the Bronx was designated an "[[All-America City Award|All America City]]" by the [[National Civic Council]].
* The [[Bronx cheer]] and a popular cocktail were both named after this borough.
* "Bronx" has become synonymous with violent or messy areas. For instance, in casual French, "''c'est le Bronx''" stands for "what a mess."
* '''Bronx''' is also the name of a character on the [[The Walt Disney Company|Walt Disney]] [[animated series]] ''[[Gargoyles (animated series)|Gargoyles]]'' (named after the borough).
* The wave of arson in the South Bronx launched the phrase "The Bronx is burning," in [[1974]], as a title of both a ''[[New York Times]]'' editorial and a [[BBC]] documentary. However, the line entered the pop-consciousness with Game 2 of the [[1977 World Series]], when a fire broke out near Yankee Stadium as the team was playing the [[Los Angeles Dodgers]]. As the fire was captured on live television, announcer [[Howard Cosell]] intoned, "There it is ladies and gentlemen: The Bronx is burning." Historians of New York City frequently point to Cosell's remark as a sign of both the city and the borough's descent into anarchy.
* The Bronx is referred to in [[hip-hop]] slang as "The Boogie Down Bx," or just "The Boogie Down."
* In the [[1979]] film "[[The Warriors]]", the eponymous gang go to a meet in [[Van Cortlandt Park]] in The Bronx, and have to make their way back to Coney Island. The [[2005]] [[The Warriors (video game)|video game adaptation]] features levels called Pelham, Tremont and "Gunhill" (an apparent corruption of Gun Hill Road).
* Likewise, the [[1981]] film ''[[Fort Apache the Bronx]]'' portrayed the Bronx as a gang-filled, crime-ridden area. The film takes its title from the nickname for the 41st Police Precinct in the South Bronx. Both the film and the precinct were condemned by community members for condoning police brutality, and ex-[[Young Lords Party|Young Lord]] and [[Puerto Rico|Puerto Rican]] activist Richie Perez formed the group The Committee Against Fort Apache.
== See also ==
* [[New York City Fire Department#Bronx firefighters|New York City Fire Department > Bronx firefighters]]
*[[Jonas Bronck|Jonas Jonson Bronk]]
*[[March 25]], [[1990]], [[Happyland Fire]] at the [[Happy Land Social Club]]
==External links==
*[http://www.innercitypress.org/bxreport.html Weekly Bronx Report from Inner City Press]
*[http://www.ilovethebronx.com/ I Love The Bronx]
*[http://www.lehman.edu/deannss/bronxdatactr/discover/bxtext.htm Discovering The Bronx]
*[http://www.mta.nyc.ny.us/nyct/maps/busbx.pdf NYC MTA Transit Bus Map of The Bronx]
*[http://www.longislandexchange.com/population/bronxcounty-population.html Bronx population]
([[Portable Document Format|pdf]] file)
*[http://www.ancestry.com/library/view/ancmag/762.asp The Bronx: A Swedish Connection]
*[http://bronxriver.org/ The Bronx River Alliance]
*[http://bronxzoo.com/ The Bronx Zoo]
*[http://www.nybg.org/ The New York Botanical Garden]
*[http://www.bronxriverart.o
|
corresponds to AD 622 or 622 CE, depending on the notation preferred (see [[Common era]]). It is a [[lunar calendar]], but differs from other such calendars (e.g. the [[Celtic calendar]]) in that it omits [[intercalary month]]s, being synchronized only with [[lunation]]s, but not with the [[solar year]], resulting in years of either 354 or 355 days. This omission was introduced by Muhammad because the right to announce intercalary months had led to political power struggles.{{citation needed}} Therefore, Islamic dates cannot be converted to the usual CE/AD dates simply by adding 622 years. Islamic holy days fall on fixed dates of the lunar calendar, which means that they occur in different seasons in different years in the [[Gregorian calendar]].
==Schools (denominations)==
{{main_article|[[Divisions of Islam]]}}
[[Image:Masjidnabawi.jpg|thumb|300 px|right|Masjid al-Nabawi (Mosque of the Prophet), [[Medina]].]]
There are a number of Islamic religious denominations, each of which has significant theological and legal differences from each other but possess identical essential belief. The major schools of thought are [[Sunni Islam|Sunni]] and [[Shi'a]], with [[Sufi]]sm considered as a mystical inflection of Islam.
===Sunni===
The [[Sunni]] are the largest group in Islam. In [[Arabic]], ''as-Sunnah'' literally means '''principle''' or '''path'''.
Sunnis and shi'ites believe that Muhammad was a perfect human being, and that they must imitate the words and acts of Muhammad as accurately as possible. In fact, the Qur'an states that the character of the Prophet Muhammad was a good example to follow. Because of this reason, the [[Hadith]] in which those words and acts are described are the main pillar of Sunni doctrine. It should be also noted that Sunnis do not believe that Muhammad was sinless(See [[Sin]]){{fact}}.
Sunnis recognize four legal traditions ([[madhhab]]s): [[Maliki]], [[Shafi'i]], [[Hanafi]], and [[Hanbali]]. All four accept the validity of the others and Muslims choose any one that he/she finds agreeable to his/her ideas. There are also several orthodox theological or philosophical traditions ([[kalam]]).
===Shi'a===
[[Image:Dome_of_the_rock_distance.jpg|thumb|right|300px|A view of the [[Dome of the Rock]] on the [[Temple Mount]] in [[Jerusalem]], a holy site in Islam]]
[[Shi'a]] Muslims, the second-largest branch, differ from the Sunni in rejecting the authority of the first three caliphs. They honor different traditions ([[hadith]]) and have their own legal traditions. Shi'a scholars have a larger authority than Sunni scholars and have greater room for interpretation. The [[Imams]] play a central role in Shi'a doctrine. Shi'a Muslims hold that Muhammad, his daughter Fatima and the twelve descendants of Muhammad, the [[Imams]], were all sinless and pure.
The arabic word Shi'a, litarally translates into the word 'group' or 'sect'. Originally known as Shi'at Ali (the sect of Ali), the group formed shortly after the death of Ali, in [[Iraq]]. Ali ibn Abi Talib was the cousin of prophet [[Muhammad]], and after marriage to Fatima, he also became Muhammad's son-in-law.
The Shi'a consist of one major school of thought known as the [[Ithna 'ashariyah]] or the "[[Twelvers]]", and a few minor schools of thought, as the "Seveners" or the "Fivers" referring to the number of infallible leaders they recognize after the death of prophet [[Muhammad]]. The term Shi'a, when used without qualification, is usually taken to be synonymous with the Ithna Ashariyya or Twelvers. Most Shi'a live in [[Iran]], [[Iraq]] (the country where Ali passed away), [[Bahrain]], [[Lebanon]], [[India]], [[Azerbaijan]], [[Yemen]] and [[Pakistan]]. A minority group (about 4 million) of Shi'a is known as [[Ismaili]]. The Shia Ismaili branch is subdivided into [[Nizari]] Ismaili and [[Mustaali]] Bohra subsects. The Nizari Ismaili or are led by the [[Aga Khan]] and are found mainly in [[Pakistan]], [[Tajikistan]], [[Bangladesh]], India, Canada and United States. The [[Mustaali]] Bohra sect is further subdivded into Dawoodi and Sulaimanis subsects. The [[Dawoodi Bohra]]s are concentrated in Pakistan and India. The [[Sulaimani Bohra]]s are concentrated in Yemen and Najran province of Saudi Arabia.
{{see also|Historic background of the Sunni-Shi'a split}}
===Sufism===
[[Sufism]] is a spiritual practice followed by both Sunni and Shi'a. Sufis generally feel that following Islamic law or jurisprudence (or ''fiqh'') is only the first step on the path to perfect submission; they focus on the internal or more spiritual aspects of Islam, such as perfecting one's faith and fighting one's own ego (''nafs''). Most Sufi orders, or [[tariqa]], can be classified as either Sunni or Shi'a. However, there are some that are not easily categorized as either Sunni or Shi'a, such as the [[Bektashi]]. Sufis are found throughout the Islamic world, from [[Senegal]] to [[Indonesia]].
===Others===
[[Wahhabi]]s, as they are known by non-Wahhabis, are a smaller, more recent Sunni group. They prefer to be called [[Salafi]]s. Wahhabism is a movement founded by [[Muhammad ibn Abd al Wahhab]] in the [[18th century]] in what is present-day [[Saudi Arabia]]. They classify themselves as Sunni and some claim to follow the [[Hanbali]] legal tradition. The major trend, however, is the abolition of these "schools of thoughts" (legal traditions), and the following of a more literalist interpretation. Some even regard other Sunni as heretics. The [[Hanbali]] legal tradition is the recognized official school of Islamic law in Saudi Arabia and they have had a great deal of influence on the Islamic world because of Saudi control of [[Mecca]] and [[Medina]], the Islamic holy places, and because of Saudi funding for mosques and schools in other countries. The majority of Saudi Islamic scholars are considered as [[Wahhabi]]s by other parts of the Islamic world.
Sunni and Shi'a have often clashed. Some Sunni believe that Shi'a are heretics while other Sunni recognize Shi'a as fellow Muslims. According to Shaikh Mahmood Shaltoot, head of the [[al-Azhar University]] in the middle part of the 20th century, "the Ja'fari school of thought, which is also known as "al-Shi'a al- Imamiyyah al-Ithna Ashariyyah" (i.e. The Twelver Imami Shi'ites) is a school of thought that is religiously correct to follow in worship as are other Sunni schools of thought". Al-Azhar later distanced itself from this position.
Another sect which dates back to the early days of Islam is that of the [[Kharijites]]. The only surviving branch of the Kharijites are the [[Ibadi|Ibadhi Muslim]]s. Ibadhism is distinguished from Shiism by its belief that the Imam (Leader) should be chosen solely on the basis of his faith, not on the basis of descent, and from Sunnism in its rejection of [[Uthman]] and [[Ali]] and strong emphasis on the need to depose unjust rulers. Ibadhi Islam is noted for its strictness, but, unlike the Kharijites proper, Ibadhis do not regard major sins as automatically making a Muslim an unbeliever. Most Ibadhi Muslims live in [[Oman]].
Another trend in modern Islam is that which is sometimes called progressive. Followers may be called [[Ijtihadists]]. They may be either Sunni or Shi'ite, and generally favor the development of personal interpretations of Qur'an and Hadith. ''See'': [[Liberal Islam]]
One very small group, based primarily in the United States, follows the teachings of [[Rashad Khalifa]] and calls itself the "Submitters". They reject the [[Hadith]] and [[Fiqh]], and say that they follow the Qur'an alone. They also consider Khalifa the next prophet after [[Muhammad]] (Rashad Khalifa self-proclaimed himself as a prophet). Most Muslims of both the [[Sunni]] and the [[Shia]] branches consider this group to be heretical. Some Muslims, however, will reject Khalifa's prophet status but will also reject both the Fiqh and the Hadith.
==Religions based on Islam==
The following groups consider themselves Muslims, but are not considered Islamic by the majority of Muslims or Muslim authorities:
* The [[Nation of Islam]] (based in the United States)
* The [[Zikri]]s
* The [[Ahmadiyya]] Movement (also called Qadiani)
* The [[Al-Ahbash]] (also called Habashies / AICP)
The following consider themselves Muslims but acceptance by the larger Muslim community varies:
* The [[Druze]]
* The [[Alawites]] (Alnusairiya)
The following religions are said by some to have evolved or borrowed from Islam, in almost all cases influenced by traditional beliefs in the regions where they emerged, but consider themselves independent religions with distinct laws and institutions:
* [[Yazidi]]
* [[Bábís|Bábísm]] (now called [[Bayani]]s)
* [[Bahá'í Faith]]
The claim of the adherents of the Bahá'í Faith that it represents an independent religion was upheld by the Muslim ecclesiastical courts in Egypt during the 1920s. As of January [[1926]], their final ruling on the matter of the origins of the Bahá'í Faith and its relationship to Islam was that the Bahá'í Faith was neither a sect of Islam, nor a religion based on Islam, but a clearly defined, independently founded faith. This was seen as a considerate act on the part of the ecclesiastical court and in favor of followers of Bahá'í Faith since the majority of Muslims regard a ''religion based on Islam'' as a heresy.
Some see [[Sikhism]] as a [[syncretism|syncretic]] mix of Islam and [[Hinduism]], although it is often considered a [[Dharma|Dharmic]] faith rather than an Islamic or [[Abrahamic]] one. It arose in the context of the interaction between [[Hindu]] and Muslim communities in [[North India]].
The following religions might have been said to have evolved from Islam, but are not considered part of Islam, and no longer exist:
* The religion of the medieval [[Berghouata]]
* The religion of [[Ha-Mim]]
==Islam and other religions==
{{main|Islam and other religions}}
The Qur'an contains inj
|
in Schedule I and which are traditionally used by certain small, clearly determined groups in magical or religious rites".]]Like the Single Convention, the Convention on Psychotropic Substances recognizes scientific and medical use of psychoactive drugs, while banning other uses. [[Wikisource:Convention_on_Psychotropic_Substances#Article_7:_SPECIAL_PROVISIONS_REGARDING_SUBSTANCES_IN_SCHEDULE_1|Article 7]] provides that, in respect of Schedule I substances, the Parties shall "[p]rohibit all use except for scientific and very limited medical purposes by duly authorized persons, in medical or scientific establishments which are directly under the control of their Governments or specifically approved by them".
In this sense, the U.S. [[Controlled Substances Act]] is stricter than the Convention requires. Both have a tightly restricted category of drugs called Schedule I, but the Act prohibits medical use of Schedule I substances, while the Convention allows limited medical use of all substances.
[[Wikisource:Convention_on_Psychotropic_Substances#Article_32:_RESERVATIONS|Article 32]] allows an exemption for [[peyote]] and other "plants growing wild which contain psychotropic substances from among those in Schedule I and which are traditionally used by certain small, clearly determined groups in magical or religious rites". However, this provision can only be invoked if a Party makes a reservation at the time of signature, ratification or accession. The U.S. Government, in ''O Centro Espirita Beneficiente Uniao do Vegetal v. Reno'', argued that this is an extremely limited exemption. That case involved a seizure by [[U.S. Customs and Border Protection]] of several drums of [[Dimethyltryptamine|DMT]]-containing liquid derived from [[ayahuasca]]. Plaintiffs sued to have the drugs returned to them, claiming that they used it as a central part of their religion{{ref|statedept}}.
==Organic plants==
The Commentary on the Convention on Psychotropic Substances notes that while many plant-derived chemicals are controlled by the treaty, the plants themselves are not{{ref|maps.org-pipermail}}:
[[Image:Shrooms.jpeg|frame|right|Psilocybin mushrooms are not controlled by the Convention, but the drugs contained in them are.]]
:''The term "synthetic" appears to refer to a psychotropic substance manufactured by a process of full chemical synthesis. One may also assume that the authors of the Vienna Convention intended to apply the term "natural material" to parts of a plant which constitute a psychotropic substance, and the term "natural psychotropic substance" to a substance obtained directly from a plant by some process of manufacturing which was relatively simple, and in any event much simpler than a process of full chemical synthesis.''
:''(...)''
:''Cultivation of plants for the purpose of obtaining psychotropic substances or raw materials for the manufacture of such substances is not "manufacture" in the sense of [[Wikisource:Convention_on_Psychotropic_Substances#Article_1:_USE_OF_TERMS|Article 1]], paragraph (i). Many provisions of the Vienna Convention governing psychotropic substances would be unsuitable for application to cultivation. The harvesting of psychotropic substances, i.e. separation of such substances from the plants from which they are obtained, is "manufacture".''
:''(...)''
:''The cultivation of plants from which psychotropic substances are obtained is not controlled by the Vienna Convention. (...) Neither the crown (fruit, mescal button) of the [[Peyote]] cactus nor the roots of the plant Mimosa hostilis nor Psilocybe mushrooms themselves are included in Schedule 1, but only their respective principles, [[mescaline]], [[Dimethyltryptamine|DMT]] and psilocine, psilotsin.''
[[Mexico]], in particular, argued that "production" of psychotropic drugs should not apply to wild-growing plants such as [[peyote]] cacti or [[psilocybin]] mushrooms. The [[Bulletin on Narcotics]] noted that "Mexico could not undertake to eradicate or destroy these plants"{{ref|unodc.org-report2-3}}. Compared to the [[Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs]] (which calls for "uprooting of all coca bushes which grow wild" and governmental licensing, purchasing, and wholesaling of licit opium, coca, and cannabis crops), the Convention on Psychotropic Substances devotes few words to the subject of psychoactive plants.
On [[July 2]], [[1987]], the United States Assistant Secretary of Health recommended that the [[Drug Enforcement Administration]] initiate scheduling action under the [[Controlled Substances Act]] in order to implement restrictions required by [[cathinone]]'s Schedule I status under the Convention. The 1993 DEA rule placing cathinone in the CSA's Schedule I noted that it was effectively also banning [[khat]]{{ref|erowid-cathinone}}:
:''Cathinone is the major psychoactive component of the plant Catha edulis (khat). The young leaves of khat are chewed for a stimulant effect. Enactment of this rule results in the placement of any material which contains cathinone into Schedule I.''
==Precursors==
A 1971 [[Bulletin on Narcotics]] notes{{ref|unodc.org-1971}}:
:''[[Wikisource:Convention_on_Psychotropic_Substances#Article_2:_SCOPE_OF_CONTROL_OF_SUBSTANCES|Article 2]], in paragraph 4 of the original text, carried over the concept in [[Wikisource:Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs#Article_3:_CHANGES_IN_THE_SCOPE_OF_CONTROL|Article 3]] (3) (iii) of the Single Convention, and required the application to a "precursor " – i.e. a substance "readily convertible" into a substance under control – of measures of control. In Vienna the complexity of controlling precursors of psychotropic substances was agreed to be so overwhelming that no absolute obligation to control them was provided. The new article 2 in paragraph 9 asks Parties "to use their best endeavours" to apply "such measures of supervision as may be practicable" to substances which may be used in the illicit manufacture of psychotropic substances, i.e. their precursors and possibly also substances essential in the chemistry of manufacture.''
This provision was eventually judged to be inadequate, and was strengthened by the [[United Nations Convention Against Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances]]'s precursor control regime, which established two Tables of controlled precursors. The [[Commission on Narcotic Drugs]] and [[International Narcotics Control Board]] were put in charge of adding, removing, and transferring substances between the Tables.
==Analogs==
Circa 1999, the Government of [[Spain]] proposed amending Schedules I and II to include [[isomer]]s, [[ester]]s, [[ether]]s, salts of isomers, esters and ethers, and any "substance resulting from modification of the chemical structure of a substance already in Schedule I or II and which produced pharmacological effects similar to those produced by the original substances"{{ref|un.org-1999}}. The WHO opposed this change. The [[Commission on Narcotic Drugs]] did amend the Schedules to include [[stereoisomer]]s, however, with the understanding that "specific isomers that did not have hazardous pharmacological activity and that posed no danger to society could be excluded from control, as [[dextromethorphan]] had been in the case of Schedule I of the 1961 Convention." The WHO recommendation, as well as the understanding regarding exempt stereoisomers and the reference to dextromethorphan, a powerful [[dissociative]] sold as a [[cough suppressant]] by powerful drugmakers, were indications of the influence of the pharmaceuticals industry in the decision-making process.
==Penal provisions==
[[Image:LSD glassware.jpg|frame|right|LSD and equipment used in its manufacture are subject to seizure under Article 22.]]
[[Wikisource:Convention_on_Psychotropic_Substances#Article_22:_PENAL_PROVISIONS|Article 22]] provides:
:''Subject to its constitutional limitations, each Party shall treat as a punishable offence, when committed intentionally, any action contrary to a law or regulation adopted in pursuance of its obligations under this Convention, and shall ensure that serious offences shall be liable to adequate punishment, particularly by imprisonment or other penalty of deprivation of liberty.
[[Conspiracy]], attempts, preparatory acts, and financial operations related to drug offenses are also required to be criminalized. Party also must count convictions handed down by foreign governments in determining [[recidivism]]. Article 22 also contains [[extradition]] provision, although a nation can refuse to grant extradition if its "competent authorities consider that the offence is not sufficiently serious."
==Treatment and prevention==
[[Wikisource:Convention_on_Psychotropic_Substances#Article_22:_PENAL_PROVISIONS|Article 22]] allows Parties, in implementing the Convention's penal provisions, to make exceptions for drug abusers by substituting "treatment, education, after-care, [[Drug rehabilitation|rehabilitation]] and social reintegration" for [[imprisonment]]. This reflects a shift in focus in the war on drugs from incarceration to treatment and prevention that had already begun to take hold by 1971. Indeed, in 1972, a parallel provision allowing treatment for drug abusers was added to the Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs by the [[Protocol Amending the Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs]].
[[Wikisource:Convention_on_Psychotropic_Substances#Article_20:_MEASURES_AGAINST_THE_ABUSE_OF_PSYCHOTROPIC_SUBSTANCES|Article 20]] mandates drug treatment, education, and prevention measures and requires Parties to assist efforts to "gain an understanding of the problems of abuse of psychotropic substances and of its prevention" and to "promote such understanding among the general public if there is a risk that abuse of such sub
|
ted [[Pope Benedict XIII|Benedict XIII]].
Benedict's successor, [[Pope Clement XII|Clement XII]] (elected [[1730]]), named him legate of [[Ravenna]], where he erected the Porta Alberoni ([[1739]]), a magnificent gateway that formerly provided access to the city's dockyards (since moved to the entrance of the Teatro Rasi) [http://www.racine.ra.it/ravenna/english/keys/historical/porta_alberoni_uk.htm]. The same year he incurred the pope's displeasure by the strong and unwarrantable measures he adopted to reduce the little republic of [[San Marino]] to subjection to Rome, an episode that remains prominent in local memory [http://www.guardiadelconsiglio.sm/English/history.htm]. He was consequently replaced by another legate in [[1740]], and soon after he retired to [[Piacenza]]. Clement XII appointed him administrator of the hospital of San Lazzaro at Piacenza in 1730. The hospital was a medieval foundation for the benefit of [[leprosy|lepers]]. The disease having disappeared from Italy, Alberoni obtained the consent of the pope to the suppression of the hospital, which had fallen into great disorder, and replaced it by a college for the education of seventy poor boys for the priesthood, under the name of the Collegio Alberoni, which it still bears. The Cardinal's collections of art gathered in Rome and Piacenza, housed in his richly appointed private apartments, have been augmented by the Collegio. There are remarkable suites of Flemish tapestries, and paintings, among which the most famous is the ''Ecce Homo'' by [[Antonello da Messina]] ([[1473]]), but which also include panels by [[Jan Provoost]] and other Flemish artists, oil paintings by Domenico Maria Viani and Francesco Solimena.
Alberoni was a gourmet. Interspersed in his official correspondence with Parma are requests for local delicacies ''triffole'' ([[truffle]]s), [[salame]], ribiola cheeses, and anolini [http://www.comune.piacenza.it/english/localcusine.htm]. The pork dish ''"Coppa del Cardinale"'', a specialty of Piacenza, is named for him. A ''"Timballo Alberoni"'' combines maccaroni, shrimp sauce, mushrooms, butter and cheese.
==Death and afterwards==
He died leaving a sum of 600,000 ducats to endow the seminary he had founded, and the residue of the immense wealth he had acquired in [[Spain]] to his nephew. Alberoni left a large quantity of manuscripts; but the genuineness of the Political Testament, published in his name at [[Lausanne]] in [[1753]], has been questioned.
==External links==
*[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/01260a.htm ''Catholic Encyclopedia'':] Giulio Alberoni
*[http://www.catholic-hierarchy.org/bishop/balberoni.html Catholic Hierarchy:] Giulio Cardinal Alberoni
*[http://www.fiu.edu/~mirandas/conclave-xviii.htm Cardinals of the Holy Roman Church:]Conclave of March 31 - May 8, 1724
*[http://www.museionline.it/eng/cerca/museo.asp?id=2125 Collegio Alberoni, Piacenza]
*[http://www.guardiadelconsiglio.sm/English/history.htm The San Marino event of 1739-40]
==Publications==
*Early works
**Jean Rousset de Missy, ''Histoire du Cardinal Alberoni'' The Hague, 1719.
**Stefano Bersani, ''Storia del Cardinale Giulio Alberoni,'' Piacenza, 1861. An encomium by a priest educated at his college.
** Giovanni Bianchi, ''Giulio Alberoni e il suo secolo,'' 1901.
**''Lettres intimes de J. Alberoni,'' edited by M. E. Bourgeois, 1892.
{{1911}}
[[Category:1664 births|Alberoni, Giulio]]
[[Category:1752 deaths|Alberoni, Giulio]]
[[Category:Italian cardinals|Alberoni, Giulio]]
[[it:Giulio Alberoni]]
[[de:Giulio Alberoni]]
[[es:Giulio Alberoni]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Gil Alvarez De Albornoz</title>
<id>12480</id>
<revision>
<id>40363908</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-20T01:54:21Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
<id>82835</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>External links per MoS.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Albornoz.jpg|thumb|Portrait of Cardinal Gil Albornoz]]
'''Gil Álvarez Carrillo de Albornoz''' ([[1310]]-[[1367]]), [[Spain|Spanish]] [[cardinal (Catholicism)|cardinal]], was born at [[Cuenca, Spain|Cuenca]] early in the [[14th century]]. He was the son of Gil Alvarez de Albornoz and of Doña Teresa de Luna, sister of Kimeno de Luna, archbishop of [[Toledo, Spain|Toledo]]. He was educated at [[Zaragoza, Spain|Zaragoza]], while his uncle was bishop of that see, and studied law at [[Toulouse]].
The powerful influence of his family opened him a public career early in life. He was made archdeacon of [[Calatrava]], and became a member of the king's council while young. In [[1338]] he was chosen [[archbishop]] of [[Toledo]] in succession to his uncle by the favour of the king, [[Alfonso XI of Castile]]. At the [[battle of Tarifa]] he fought against a great invasion from [[Africa]] in 1340, and at the taking of Algeciras in 1344 he led the armed levy of his archbishopric.
In [[1343]] he had been sent to [[Pope Clement VI]] at [[Avignon]] to negotiate a grant of a tax on the revenues of the Church for the Crusade. His military and diplomatic ability became known to the pope, who made him a cardinal in 1350. Albornoz left [[Spain]] on the death of the king Alfonso XI in that year, and never returned. It has been said, but not on contemporary evidence, that he fled from fear of [[Peter I of Castile|Peter the Cruel]].
In [[1353]] [[Pope Innocent VI|Innocent VI]] sent him as a legate into [[Italy]], with a view to the restoration of the papal authority in the states of the Church. He was recalled in 1357, but was sent again to Italy after a brief interval, and in 1362 had paved the way for the return of [[Pope Urban V|Urban V]] to [[Rome]].
As legate, Albornoz showed himself to be an astute manager of men and effective fighter. He began by making use of Rienzi, whose release from prison at Avignon he secured. After the murder of the tribune in [[1354]] Albornoz pursued his task of restoring the pope's authority by intrigue and force with remarkable success. As a mark of gratitude the pope appointed him legate at [[Bologna]] in [[1367]], but he died at Viterbo the same year. According to his own desire his remains were carried to Toledo, where Henry of Castile caused them to be entombed with almost royal honours.
A work by Albornoz on the constitution of the Church of Rome, first printed at Jesi in 1473, is now very rare. The college of St Clement at Bologna was founded by Albornoz for the benefit of Spanish students.
See "De Vita et Rebus Gestis Aegidii Albornotii," in Sepulveda's ''Opera Omnia'', vol. iv. (1780).
==External links==
* [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/06558a.htm ''Catholic Encyclopedia'' - Alvarez Carillo Gil de Albornoz]
[[Category:1310 births|Albornoz, Gil]]
[[Category:1367 deaths|Albornoz, Gil]]
[[Category:Spanish cardinals|Albornoz]]
[[it:Egidio Albornoz]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Giovanni Aldini</title>
<id>12481</id>
<revision>
<id>39968599</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-17T04:09:22Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Kusma</username>
<id>145855</id>
</contributor>
<comment>add external link</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Giovanni Aldini''' ([[April 10]] [[1762]] -- [[January 17]] [[1834]]), [[Italy|Italian]] [[physicist]] born at [[Bologna]], was a brother of the statesman Count [[Antonio Aldini]] (1756-1826) and nephew of [[Luigi Galvani]], whose treatise on muscular electricity he edited with notes in [[1791]].
He became professor of physics at Bologna in [[1798]], in succession to his teacher [[Sebastiano Canterzani]] (1734-1819). His scientific work was chiefly concerned with [[galvanism]] and its medical applications, with the construction and illumination of [[lighthouse]]s, and with experiments for preserving human life and material objects from destruction by fire. He wrote in French and English in addition to his native Italian. In recognition of his merits, the emperor of [[Austria]] made him a [[knight of the Iron Crown]] and a councillor of state at [[Milan]], where he died. He bequeathed a considerable sum to found a school of natural science for artisans at Bologna.
==External links==
*[http://www.guardian.co.uk/life/farout/story/0,13028,1320888,00.html Sparks of Life] article about Aldini's experiments on an executed criminal
==References==
*{{1911}}
[[Category:1762 births|Aldini, Giovanni]]
[[Category:1834 deaths|Aldini, Giovanni]]
[[Category:Italian physicists|Aldini, Giovanni]]
[[ro:Giovanni Aldini]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Girolamo Aleandro</title>
<id>12482</id>
<revision>
<id>41916111</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T16:24:03Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Charles Matthews</username>
<id>12978</id>
</contributor>
<comment>correction - it is Toscanus</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Girolamo Aleandro''' (also '''Hieronymus''' or '''Jerome Aleander''') ([[13 February]], [[1480]] - [[1 February]] [[1542]]) was an Italian [[Cardinal (Catholicism)|cardinal]].
Born at [[Motta]], near [[Venice]]. He studied at Venice, where he became acquainted with [[Erasmus]] and [[Aldus Manutius]], and at an early age was reputed one of the most learned men of the time. In [[1508]] he went to [[Paris]] on the invitation of [[Louis XII of France|Louis XII]] as professor of ''belles lettres,'' and held for a time the position of rector in the university. Entering the service of [[Eberhard]], prince-[[Bishopric of Liège|bishop of Liège]], he was sent by that prelate on a mission to Rome, where [[Pope Leo X]] retained him, giving him (1519) the office of librarian of the Vatican. In the following year he went to [[Germany]] to be present as papal [[nuncio]] at the coronation of [[Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor|Charles V]], and was also present at the [[diet of
|
gt;
<td rowspan=1 valign=top>21. Regional policy and coordination of structural instruments<td>22. Regional policy and coordination of structural instruments&nbsp;
<tr bgcolor=#efefff>
<td rowspan=1 valign=top>22. Environment<td>27. Environment&nbsp;
<tr bgcolor=#efefef>
<td rowspan=1 valign=top>23. Consumer and health protection<td>28. Consumer and health protection&nbsp;
<tr bgcolor=#efefff>
<td rowspan=2 valign=middle>24. Cooperation in the field of Justice and Home Affairs<td>23. Judiciary and fundamental rights&nbsp;
<tr bgcolor=#efefff>
<td>24. Justice, freedom and security&nbsp;
<tr bgcolor=#efefef>
<td rowspan=1 valign=top>25. Customs union<td>29. Customs union&nbsp;
<tr bgcolor=#efefff>
<td rowspan=1 valign=top>26. External relations<td>30. External relations&nbsp;
<tr bgcolor=#efefef>
<td rowspan=1 valign=top>27. Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP)<td>31. Foreign, security and defence policy&nbsp;
<tr bgcolor=#efefff>
<td rowspan=1 valign=top>28. Financial control<td>32. Financial control&nbsp;
<tr bgcolor=#efefef>
<td rowspan=1 valign=top>29. Financial and budgetary provisions<td>33. Financial and budgetary provisions&nbsp;
<tr bgcolor=#efefff>
<td rowspan=1 valign=top>30. Institutions<td>34. Institutions&nbsp;
<tr bgcolor=#efefef>
<td rowspan=1 valign=top>31. Others<td>35. Other issues&nbsp;
</table>
Such negotiations usually involved agreeing transitional periods before new member states needed to implement the laws of the European Union fully and before they and their citizens acquired full rights under the ''acquis''.
==Other uses==
The term ''acquis'' has been borrowed by the [[World Trade Organization]] Appellate Body, in the case ''Japan - Taxes on Alcoholic Beverages'', to refer to the accumulation of [[GATT]] and WTO law ("''acquis gattien''"), though this usage is not well established.
It has been used to describe the achievements of the [[Council of Europe]] (a body unconnected with the European Union):
:The Council of Europe&rsquo;s acquis in standard setting activities in the fields of [[democracy]], the [[rule of law]] and fundamental [[human rights]] and freedoms should be considered as milestones towards the great European political project, and the [[European Court of Human Rights]] should be recognised as the pre-eminent judicial pillar of any future architecture.
''(Section 12, Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe Resolution 1290)''
It has also been applied to the body of "principles, norms and commitments" of the [[Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe]] (OSCE):
:Another question under debate has been how the Partners and others could implement the OSCE acquis, in other words its principles, norms and commitments on a voluntary basis.
''Intervention by Ambassador Aleksi Härkönen, Permanent Representative of Finland to the OSCE, Annual Security Review Conference'' [http://www.osce.org/documents/sg/2004/06/3241_en.pdf]
The [[OECD]] introduced the concept of the OECD Acquis in its "[http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/63/6/32036418.pdf Strategy for enlargement and outreach]", May 2004.
==External links==
*[http://europa.eu.int/eur-lex/ EUR-Lex], European Union Law
[[Category:European Union law]]
[[Category:French words]]
[[cs:Acquis communautaire]]
[[de:Acquis communautaire]]
[[it:Acquis comunitario]]
[[nl:Gemeenschapsrecht]]
[[pl:Acquis communautaire]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Air engine</title>
<id>2688</id>
<revision>
<id>40854701</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-23T13:00:18Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rebelguys2</username>
<id>406178</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/81.245.162.149|81.245.162.149]] ([[User_talk:81.245.162.149|talk]]) to last version by KVDP</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''air engine''' is an [[emission]]-free [[piston]] [[engine]] using [[Pneumatics|compressed air]] as fuel that was invented by Guy Nègre, a French engineer.
It uses the expansion of compressed air to drive the pistons in a modified piston engine. Efficiency of operation is gained through the use of environmental heat at normal temperature to warm the otherwise cold expanded air from the storage tank. This non-adiabatic expansion has the potential to greatly increase the efficiency of the machine. The only exhaust gas is cold air (&minus;15 °C), which is also used for [[air conditioning]] in a car. The source for air is a pressurized [[Graphite-reinforced_plastic|carbon-fiber]] tank holding air at 3,000 lbf/in&sup2; (20 [[MPa]]). Air is delivered to the engine via a rather conventional [[injection system]]. Unique crank design within the engine increases the time during which the air charge is warmed from ambient sources and a two stage process allows improved heat transfer rates.
This engine is used to power an [[urban car]] with room for five passengers and a projected [[range]] of about 100 to 200 miles (160 to 320 km), depending on traffic conditions. The main advantages are: no roadside [[emission]]s, low cost technology, engine uses food oil for lubrication (just about 1 [[litre|liter]], changes only every 30,000 miles (50,000 km)) and integrated air conditioning. Range could be quickly tripled, since there are already carbon fiber tanks which have passed safety standards holding gas at 10,000 lbf/in&sup2; (70 MPa).
The tanks may be refilled in about three minutes at a service station, or in a few hours at home plugging the car into the electric [[grid]] via an on-board compressor. The cost of refilling is projected to be about US$3.
However, the air engine and refueling system, considered as a system, are not pollution free except in special cases, as the electric power generation would have its own environmental costs. One of the special cases is where an operator of such a vehicle installs photovolatic or wind drive electric power generation, quite cost effective if the operator can use time-of-use net metering, where power produced is credited at a higher rate than its use to recharge a vehicle using off-peak rates.
Also, performance and range features noted above are based on theoretical projections based upon experiment, prototype performance, engineering analysis and proposed developments. So far (early July 2004), no information has been forthcoming from the developers or other interested parties as to an actual vehicle that can perform as stated. If successful, the project will definitely advance the state of the art in zero pollution developments, principally because it does not have the limited battery life and consequent periodic battery replacement costs of an electric vehicle. Furthermore, the ability to quickly replenish the energy store in a time comparable to filling the tank of a liquid fuel vechicle will be far superior to anything that a battery electric vehicle can deliver and will enable an operator to make long trips within the availability of fast charging stations.
==See also==
* [[Air car]]
* [[City car]]
* [[Electric vehicle]]
* [[Zero-emissions vehicle]]
== External links ==
*[http://www.mdi.lu/ Main MDI site]
*[http://www.theaircar.com English MDI site]
*[http://www.aircaraccess.com/index.htm Pneumatic Options (general resource with history, photos, comprehensive external links)]
*[http://auto.howstuffworks.com/air-car.htm/printable How Stuff Works Air Car article]
[[Category:Engines]]
[[de:Druckluftauto]]
[[fr:Moteur à air comprimé]]
[[it:motore ad aria compressa]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Antacid</title>
<id>2689</id>
<revision>
<id>41300220</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-26T11:02:59Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>82.9.37.215</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{limitedgeographicscope}}
An '''antacid''' is any substance, generally a base, that counteracts [[gastric acid|stomach acidity]]. It performs a neutralisation reaction. It is taken by mouth to relieve [[heartburn]], sour stomach, or [[acid indigestion]]. Most antacids [[buffer solution|buffer]] [[gastric acid]], raising the [[pH]] to reduce acid damage. If antacids are ineffective, medication ([[H2-receptor antagonist]]s or [[proton pump inhibitor]]s) may relieve the symptoms. Poor response to medication may be a reason to suspect an underlying medical condition.
Examples of antacids are:
* [[Aluminium hydroxide]] (Amphojel<sup>®</sup>, AlternaGEL<sup>®</sup>)
* [[Magnesium hydroxide]] (Phillips&#8217;<sup>®</sup> [[Milk of Magnesia]])
* Aluminium hydroxide ''and'' magnesium hydroxide (Maalox<sup>®</sup>, Mylanta<sup>®</sup>)
* [[Aluminium carbonate]] gel (Basajel<sup>®</sup>)
* [[Calcium carbonate]] (Tums<sup>®</sup>, Titralac<sup>®</sup>, [[Calcium]] Rich Rolaids<sup>®</sup>, Rennie<sup>®</sup>)
* [[Sodium bicarbonate]] (Bicarbonate of soda, Alka-Seltzer<sup>®</sup>)
* [[Hydrotalcite]] (Mg<sub>6</sub>Al<sub>2</sub>(CO<sub>3</sub>)(OH)<sub>16</sub> · 4(H<sub>2</sub>O); Talcid&reg;)
{{pharma-stub}}
[[Category:Gastrointestinal system drugs]]
[[de:Antazidum]]
[[sk:Antacidum]]
[[th:ยาลดกรด]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Antidiarrhoeal</title>
<id>2690</id>
<revision>
<id>33317420</id>
<timestamp>2005-12-31T00:30:35Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>AxelBoldt</username>
<id>2</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">An '''antidiarrho
|
out to Godzilla. Dr. Shiragami theorizes that this is because both Godzilla and Biollante are essentially the same being. With Godzilla's destination made clear, the JSDF prepare their strategies at dealing with the nearly indestructible creature. The [[Super-X 2]], a remote controlled and stronger version of the [[Super-X]] from [[The Return of Godzilla]], is deployed, and though at first seems effective in combating Godzilla, is eventually overwhelmed by Godzilla's brute strength, and is forced to retreat. Miki Saegusa also tries to help, attempting to make Godzilla turn away from Japan. Her efforts distract Godzilla momentarily, but force of Godzilla's will overwhelms the young psychic, and she faints.
Godzilla reaches Biollante, whereupon the giant plant attacks it. A mighty battle ensues, and briefly it appears that there is a stalemate. However, Godzilla's heat ray has an adverse affect on the composition of Biollante's cells, and the plant monster begins to disintegrate from exposure to the attack. With Biollante apparently dead, Godzilla continues on.
By now the JSDF is ready, with the young Lieutenant Goro Gondo in charge of operations. It is theorized that Godzilla, running low on radioactive energy after its fights with the Super-X 2 and Biollante, will head towards the nearest operational nuclear generator, which is located in Osaka...on the other side of the country. When Godzilla arrives in Osaka, a plan is put into action, involving infecting Godzilla with [[Anti-Nuclear Bacteria]], which Dr. Shiragami helped develop. The bacteria devour all radioactive material, and should prove fatal to Godzilla. The operation is initially successful, despite the death of one soldier, with ANB injected into Godzilla at three different points, including its mouth. But Godzilla is unaffected by the germs, and continues on.
The failure of the bacteria to work is attributed to Godzilla's low body temperature, which keeps the bacteria in a near-dormant state. If Godzilla can be heated, Shiragami theorizes, then the ANB should work.
With Godzilla still in Osaka, a desperate attempt to save the city is implemented, with the damaged Super-X 2 being redeployed. A brief fight with Godzilla ends with the craft being destroyed. Victorious, Godzilla heads for the nuclear facility.
The JSDF has one last plan: lure Godzilla onto a field of microwave-emitting plates, where it will be heated by the microwaves. Once heated, the ANB should become active, and kill Godzilla.
[[Image:Biollante! 2nd stage.jpg|thumb|right|Biollante in her final form]]
The operation begins, but it seems that Godzilla isn't affected by the microwaves as it crushes plate after plate beneath its feet. Just as everything seems lost a low rumble is heard, and a larger, more mutated Biollante emerges from the ground. After destroying all nearby land forces, Biollante attacks Godzilla, and the two massive monsters (with Biollante being roughly 50% larger than Godzilla) fight to a standstill. Suddenly, however, Godzilla begins to wobble and, losing its balance, falls headfirst into the ocean. With the intense battle raising its body temperature, the ANB inside of Godzilla became active. With Godzilla apparently taken care of, the mortally wounded Biollante succumbs to its injuries and dies, disintegrating and firing its spores into space. As the monsters remains float upwards, Dr. Shiragami sees the image of his daughter among the spores. Calling out to her, he walks forward, and is shot in the chest by the Saradian agent, who is still after Godzilla's cells. A young official chases the agent and fights him. The agent is at a disadvantage until he is able to grab his weapon again. Unarmed, the official awaits death as the agent, from atop an inactive microwave plate, takes aim. Suddenly the agent disintegrates, and the audience sees Lieutenant Gondo remove his finger from the button that activated the plate.
With everything resolved, the characters take a moment to reflect and relax, when a dark form rises from the water. It is Godzilla, whose body temperature has been lowered by the cool sea water. With the ANB inactive again, Godzilla is healthy again, albeit restricted to the ocean. Seemingly content with this, Godzilla turns and heads for deeper waters.
The body of Dr. Shiragami is placed inside a tent, with his superior briefly mourning him before leaving. Erika is heard to comment on the events of the film, and the movie ends with a shot of Godzilla swimming away.
{{Template:Godzilla}}
[[Category:1989 films]]
[[Category:Japanese films]]
[[Category:Godzilla films]]
[[fr:Godzilla vs Biollante]]
[[ja:ゴジラvsビオランテ]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Terror of Mechagodzilla</title>
<id>12001</id>
<revision>
<id>40365932</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-20T02:10:44Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>David.alex.lamb</username>
<id>917191</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">'''''Terror of Mechagodzilla''''' (メカゴジラの逆襲 - ''Mekagojira no Gyakushû'', meaning "Mechagodzilla's Counterattack" or "Mechagodzilla Strikes Back"), also known as ''The Terror of Godzilla'' in the original [[United States of America|American]] theatrical release, is a [[1975]] [[tokusatsu]] [[kaiju]] [[film]]. The 15th film in [[Toho]]'s [[Godzilla]] series, it was directed by [[Ishiro Honda]] with special effects by [[Teruyoshi Nakano]]. [[Akira Ifukube]] provides the music score. The movie was written by [[Yukiko Takayama]], who was the second female writer for a Godzilla film (the first was [[Kazue Shiba]], who wrote for [[1967]]'s ''[[Son of Godzilla]]'').
The monsters featured in this film are [[Godzilla]], [[Mechagodzilla|Mechagodzilla # 2]] and a new monster, [[Titanosaurus (Godzilla)|Titanosaurus]].
This was the last movie in the original Godzilla series before ''[[The Return of Godzilla]]'' began a new series of Godzilla films in [[1984]]. It is also the last Godzilla movie to feature the creature as a hero for Japan and the world. Because of the crash of Japanese cinema and the [[Energy crisis]] of the mid-to-late [[1970s]] (which had also affected some television shows), the Godzilla film series was forced to go into hibernation. As a result, this film had the lowest attendance figures of all the movies in the series.
==The Plot==
Continuing after the end of ''[[Godzilla vs Mechagodzilla]]'' (1974), [[Interpol]] agents, led by Inspector Kusakari (played by [[Masaaki Daimon]]), search for the wreck of [[Mechagodzilla]] underwater in the Akatsuki submarine to gather information on its builders, the [[Alien_races_from_the_Godzilla_films#Black_Hole_Planet_3_Aliens_.28.E3.83.96.E3.83.A9.E3.83.83.E3.82.AF.E3.83.9B.E3.83.BC.E3.83.AB.E7.AC.AC3.E6.83.91.E6.98.9F.E4.BA.BA.29|aliens from Planet 3 in the Black Hole]]. But the submarine is suddenly ravaged by a giant dinosaur called [[Titanosaurus (monster)|Titanosaurus]], and the crew is apparently lost . . .
In response to the incident, Interpol begins to investigate. With the help of marine biologist Akira Ichinose ([[Katsuhiko Sasaki]]), they trace the incident and Titanosaurus to a reclusive, [[mad scientist|misanthropic scientist]] named Shinzô Mafune ([[Akihiko Hirata]]), who was forced to leave the institute, and wants to destroy them as well as all of mankind. When visiting his old house in the seaside forest of [[Manazuru, Kanagawa|Manazuru]], they meet Mafune's lone daughter Katsura ([[Tomoko Ai]]), who tells them that not only is her father dead, but she also burned all of his notes on the dinosaur monster (at her father's request), but unbeknownst to them, Mafune himself is alive and well, visited by his scientist friend Tsuda ([[Toru Ibuki]]), who turns out all along to be an aide to the new Planet 3 alien leader Mugal ([[Goro Mutsumi]]), who is leading the project to quickly rebuild [[Mechagodzilla]] (now "Mechagodzilla # 2")! Mugal offers their services to Mafune, so that his Titanosaurus and their Mechagodzilla will be the ultimate weapons. The ultimate goal of this new wave of Planet 3 Aliens is to wipe out mankind (as they feel humans are a race of imperfect, polluted minds that they feel the world would do without) and rebuild cities around the world (starting with Tokyo) as a high-tech dystopia.
But things are complicated for both factions when Ichinose falls in love with Katsura, and unwittingly giving her Interpol's secret information against Titanosaurus, Mechagodzilla and the aliens. We also find that Katsura is actually a cyborg (she was fatally wounded by Mafune's faulty equipment years earlier, and Tsuda saved her life with cybernetics), and Mugal may have use for her . . .
In the course of the film, Interpol discover's Titanosaurus' weakness: Supersonic waves. But when they construct a Supersonic Wave Oscillator, Katsura sabotages the machine, prompting Interpol to hastily repair it before Mafune and the aliens unleash Mechagodzilla and Titanosaurus on Tokyo.
And when the situation gets desperate, [[Godzilla]] comes to the rescue . . .
==Trivia==
*This was the last Godzilla film directed by Ishirō Honda. He was slated to direct [[Godzilla vs Mechagodzilla II]] ([[1993]]) but passed away early that year.
*This was Akihiko Hirata's final appearance in a Godzilla film. He was slated to play Professor Hayashida in ''[[The Return of Godzilla]]'' ([[1984]]) but died of lung cancer before production began (Hirata was replaced by [[Yosuke Natsuki]]).
*This was Tomoko Ai's film debut. She was previously a semi-regular in the TV series ''[[Ultraman Leo]]''.
*In Takayama's original script, the monster Titanosaurus was the singular, combined form of twin "Titan" dinosaurs, which were to meet and unite at some point in the story. (Compare to [[Hedorah]] and [[Destoroyah]].) Due to budgetary constraints, only the singular form was used.
*Current [[United Sta
|
n '''identity function''', also called '''identity map''' or '''identity transformation''', is a [[function (mathematics)|function]] which does not have any effect: it always returns the same value that was used as its argument. In other words, the identity function is the function ''f''(''x'')&nbsp;=&nbsp;''x''.
==Definition==
Formally, if ''M'' is a [[set]], the identity function ''f'' on ''M'' is defined to be that function with [[domain (mathematics)|domain]] and [[codomain]] ''M'' which satisfies
:''f''(''x'') = ''x'' &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;for all elements ''x'' in ''M''.
The identity function ''f'' on ''M'' is often denoted by id<sub>''M''</sub> or 1<sub>''M''</sub>.
==Algebraic property==
If ''f'' : ''M''&nbsp;&rarr;&nbsp;''N'' is any function, then we have ''f'' <small>o</small> id<sub>''M''</sub> = ''f'' = id<sub>''N''</sub> <small>o</small> ''f'' (where "<small>o</small>" denotes [[function composition]]). In particular, id<sub>''M''</sub> is the [[identity element]] of the [[monoid]] of all functions from ''M'' to ''M''.
Since the identity element of a monoid is [[unique]], one can alternately define the identity function on ''M'' to be this identity element. Such a definition generalizes to the concept of an [[identity morphism]] in [[category theory]], where the [[endomorphism]]s of ''M'' need not be functions.
==Examples==
*The identity function on the positive [[integer]]s is a [[completely multiplicative function]] (essentially multiplication by 1), considered in [[number theory]].
*In an ''n''-dimensional [[vector space]] the identity function is represented by the [[identity matrix]] ''I''<sub>''n''</sub>, regardless of the [[Basis (linear algebra)|basis]].
*In a [[metric space]] the identity is trivially an [[isometry]]. An object without any [[symmetry]] has as [[symmetry group]] the trivial group only containing this isometry (symmetry type ''C<sub>1</sub>).
== See also ==
*[[Inclusion map]]
[[Category:Elementary mathematics]]
[[de:Identische Abbildung]]
[[fr:Application identique]]
[[pl:Odwzorowanie tożsamościowe]]
[[sv:Identitetsfunktion]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Intel 80386</title>
<id>15070</id>
<revision>
<id>40981189</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-24T07:01:40Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Denis C.</username>
<id>343233</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* Team */ smells like vandalism</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image: Intel_i386.jpg|thumb|right|200px|An Intel 80386 Microprocessor.]]
The '''Intel 80386''' is a [[microprocessor]] which was used as the [[central processing unit|central processing unit (CPU)]] of many [[personal computer]]s from [[1986]] until [[1994]] and later. During its design phase the processor was code-named simply "P3", the third-generation processor in the [[x86]] line, but was and is frequently referred to as the '''i386'''. Designed and manufactured by [[Intel]], the i386 processor was [[tape-out|taped-out]] in October of 1985. Intel decided against producing the chip before then, as the cost of production would have been uneconomic. Full-function chips were first delivered to customers in 1986. [[Motherboard]]s for 386-based computer systems were highly elaborate and expensive to produce, but were rationalised upon the 386's mainstream adoption.
The processor was a significant evolution in a long line of processors that stretched back to the [[Intel 8008]]. The predecessor of the 80386 was the [[Intel 80286]], a [[16-bit]] processor with a [[memory segment|segment]]-based memory management and protection system. The 80386 added a [[32-bit]] architecture and a [[paging]] translation unit, which made it much easier to implement operating systems
which used [[virtual memory]].
The 80386 featured three operating modes: '''real''' mode, '''protected''' mode and '''virtual''' mode. In the real mode, the 80386 (like the 80286) would run just as a fast 80186. The protected mode allowed the use of all the possibilities of the 286 and the protected mode extension of the 386, especially addressing up to 4 GB of memory. Finally, the virtual 8086(or ''V86'') mode made it possible to run one or more virtual 8086 machines in a protected environment. <!--, such as [[UNIX]]. or OS/2, W2K.. -->
[[Image:80386DX_arch.png|300px|thumb|The 386DX architecture.]]
Though Intel would shortly introduce the [[Intel 80486|80486]] and eventually the [[Intel Pentium]] line of processors, the support in the 386 for the 32-bit [[flat memory]] model would be arguably the most important feature change until the release of [[EM64T]] in [[2004]]. (Other microprocessor architectures, such as the [[Motorola 68000]], had long since supported a "flat" 32-bit addressing model.) Most applications running on current Intel-based personal computers will still run on the older 80386, albeit very slowly; there were relatively few instructions added to the main instruction set in later generations, and in most cases their usage can be avoided. Building a program for the [[80286]] was often much harder.
Early 80386s had a bug in the 32-bit multiply instruction which would leave the high word in the result undefined. Once discovered, such processors were stamped '16-bit SW only'. This bug was checked for by programs such as [[Microsoft Windows]] which would issue a warning message.
Late in the 80386's production run, Intel introduced the 80386SX, which was meant to be a low cost version of the 386 line. The SX series of chips was 32-bit internally, but had a 16-bit external bus (in much the same way that the [[8088]] in the original IBM PC was a lower cost version of the [[8086]]) and so no 32-bit physical address space extension. The original 80386 was subsequently renamed the 80386DX to avoid confusion. Neither CPU included a math [[coprocessor]] (most motherboards included a socket for an [[Intel 80387|80387]]), though the naming would cause some head-scratching later when the 80486 came in a DX variant that did include [[floating-point]] capability (which was physically present but disabled in early 486SXs).
The 386SL was introduced as an alternative processor for [[laptop computer]]s. The processor offered several power management options (e.g. [[System Management Mode|SMM]]), as well as different "sleep" modes to conserve [[battery (electricity)|battery]] power. It also contained support for an external [[cache]] of 16 to 64 KB. The extra functions caused this variant to have over 3 times as many [[transistor]]s as the 386DX. The 386SL was only available in one clock speed, 25 MHz. [http://www.informit.com/articles/article.asp?p=130978&seqNum=27&rl=1]
An embedded version of the chip, the [[Intel 80386EX|386EX]], was produced later, and was successfully used in space applications.
[[Image:Am386DX40.jpg|200px|right|thumb|The AMD Am386DX-40]]
Because of the high degree of compatibility, the range of processors compatible with the 80386 is often collectively termed the ''i386 architecture''; the instruction set for the architecture is now known as [[IA-32]] or, informally, ''i386''.
From a business perspective, the i386 was significant because it was the first significant microprocessor to be [[single-sourced]] &ndash; it was available only from Intel Corp. Prior to this, the difficulty of making chips and the uncertainty of reliable supply required that any mass-market semiconductor be [[multi-sourced]], that is, made by two or more manufacturers, the second and subsequent ones manufacturing under license from the designer. Single-sourcing the i386 allowed Intel greater control over its development and substantially greater profits in later years. However, [[AMD]] introduced its compatible [[Am386]] processor in March 1991 after overcoming legal obstacles, thus breaking Intel's monopoly.
==Team==
*John Crawford, chief architect
*Jim Slager, chief engineer
*Patrick Gelsinger
*Riaz Haq
*Gene Hill
*Jan Wiliam L. Prak
*David Vannier
*Joseph "Chip" Krauskopf
*Ken Shoemaker
*Paul Ries
*Saurabha Radhika
== External links ==
* [http://www.cpu-collection.de/?tn=1&l0=cl&l1=386 Intel 80386 images and descriptions at cpu-collection.de]
* [http://www.online.ee/~andre/i80386/ Intel 80386 Programmer's Reference 1986]
* [http://www.inteltechnology.net/ Intel Technology]
* [http://www.cpu-info.com/index2.php?mainid=html/cpu/386.php CPU-INFO: 80386, indepth processor history]
{{Intel_processors}}
<!-- note: "8386" to get chronological sorting -->
[[Category:x86 microprocessors|Intel 386]]
[[cs:Intel 80386]]
[[de:80386]]
[[es:Intel 80386]]
[[fr:Intel 80386]]
[[ko:인텔 80386]]
[[it:Intel 80386]]
[[lt:I386]]
[[nl:80386 (processor)]]
[[ja:Intel 80386]]
[[pl:Intel 80386]]
[[pt:Intel 80386]]
[[ru:Intel 80386]]
[[sk:Intel 80386]]
[[fi:Intel 80386]]
[[tr:I386]]
[[zh:Intel 80386]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Instruction register</title>
<id>15072</id>
<revision>
<id>36003381</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-20T21:05:41Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Benandorsqueaks</username>
<id>409210</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">In [[computing]], an '''instruction register''' is the part of a [[Central processing unit|CPU]]'s [[control unit]] that stores the instruction currently being executed. In simple processors each instruction to be executed is loaded into the instruction register which holds it while it is decoded, prepared and ultimately executed, which can take several steps. More complicated processors use a [[instruction pipeline|pipeline of instruction registers]] where each stage of the pipeline does part of the decoding, preparation or e
|
t. If a stall or slipping turn happens while close to the ground or other obstacle then the glider will not have the time to self correct. This has placed the prevention of accidents during launch and landing as the main priority of early training.
== Performance (2003) ==
*Topless gliders: [[glide ratio]] ~14:1, speed range ~30 to >100 km/h, best glide at ~45 to 50 km/h
*Rigid wings: [[glide ratio]] ~18:1, speed range ~ 35 to > 100 km/h, best glide at ~50 to 55 km/h
''Note:'' [[Glide ratio]] is typically not provided by the manufacturers as it is nearly impossible to measure reliably and because the pilot is in the airstream (unlike in a sailplane) depends on many factors like pilot weight, pilot position, harness design, helmet, placement of instruments and so on.
== Costs (2003) ==
*Rigid wings: ~10000 [[Euro]]
*Topless gliders: 5-6000 Euro
*Intermediates: ~4000 Euro
*Beginner gliders: < 3000 Euro
*Harness: 500 - 1500 Euro
*Parachute: ~ 500 Euro
*Instruments: 200 - 1000 Euro
*School: 2-3 lessons (introductory package) 3-400 Euro
*School: 10 lessons (full course) 8-1000 Euro
== Records ==
Records fall into nearly the same categories as those for [[sailplanes]] and are authorized by the [[Federation Aeronautique Internationale|FAI]]. The [http://records.fai.org/hang_gliding/ current world record(s)] (as of 2005) for "free distance" is held by [[Manfred Ruhmer]] with 700,6 km in 2001, but Mike Barber has flown an uncertified distance of 704 km (437 miles) on June 19th 2002 in Zapata Texas.
== Competition ==
Competitions started with "flying as long as possible" and spot landings. With increasing performance cross-country flying replaced them. Hang gliding competitions are like a 3d boat race in the sky where the clouds act like gas stations. Usually two to four waypoints have to be passed with a landing at a goal. In the late '90s low-power [[GPS]] units were introduced and have replaced the photographs completely. Every two years there is a world championship. The Rigid and Women's World Championship in 2006 is being hosted by [http://www.questairforce.com/ Quest Air in Florida]Big Spring, Texas is hosting the 2007 [http://events.fai.org/hgpg/results.asp World Championship].
== Related sports ==
The two related sports are: [[gliding]], in which the [[gliders]] have full control surfaces and an enclosed cockpit, and [[paragliding]], where a sophisticated kind of parachute is used
== External links ==
{{Commons|Hang gliding}}
=== International Organisation ===
*[http://www.fai.org/hang_gliding/ Hang Gliding and Paragliding Commission of FAI]
=== National Organisations ===
*[http://www.ushga.org/ United States Hang Gliding Association]
*[http://www.bhpa.co.uk British Hang Gliding and Paragliding Association]
*[http://www.abvl.com.br/ Brazilian Hang Gliding Association]
*[http://www.zeilvliegen.nl/ Dutch official hanggliding site]
*[http://www.dhv.de/english/index.html German Hanggliding Association (English)]
*[http://www.hgfa.asn.au/ Hang Gliding Federation of Australia]
*[http://www.hpac.ca/ Hang Gliding and Paragliding Association of Canada]
=== Hang glider manufacturers ===
* [http://www.aeros.com.ua/ Aeros]
* [http://www.airborne.com.au/ Airborne]
* [http://www.usairnet.com/HangGliding/HangGliders/Avian.html Avian]
* [http://www.bautek.com/ Bautek]
* [http://www.icaro2000.com/ Icaro]
* [http://www.finsterwalder-charly.de/ Finsterwalder]
* [http://www.lamouette.com/ La Mouette]
* [http://www.moyes.com.au/ Moyes]
* [http://www.seedwings.com/ Seedwings]
* [http://www.willswing.com/ Wills Wing]
=== Other ===
*[http://www.delta-club-82.com/bible/bible-home.php Hang glider bible]
*[http://ozreport.com/ The Oz Report - Worldwide Hang Gliding eZine and blog]
*[http://groups.yahoo.com/group/HangGliderHistory Yahoo Hang Glider History group]
*[http://records.fai.org/hang_gliding/ Current hang gliding records]
*[http://weshill.customer.netspace.net.au/ 2005 World Championship Results]
*[http://www.hangglide-utah.com/cgi-bin/photos.pl Hang Gliding Photos]
*[http://www.redbull-vertigo.com/ Red Bull Vertigo : 1st FAI Hang Gliding and Paragliding World Acrobatic Championship 2006]
[[Category:Hang gliding]]
[[da:Hanggliding]]
[[de:Hängegleiter]]
[[fr:Deltaplane]]
[[id:Hang gliding]]
[[it:Deltaplano]]
[[nl:Deltavliegen]]
[[ja:ハンググライダー]]
[[pl:Lotnia]]
[[sk:Závesné lietanie]]
[[sr:Змајарство]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Hole</title>
<id>13851</id>
<revision>
<id>42101689</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T21:09:37Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>GilliamJF</username>
<id>506179</id>
</contributor>
<comment>interwiki de</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{disambig}}
The term '''''hole''''' may refer to various cavities and (not necessarily physical) voids :
* '''[[Black hole]]'''
* '''[[Electron hole]]''', the absence of an [[electron]] in the [[valence band]] in [[solid state physics]] and [[electronics]].
* A security vulnerability in software which can be taken advantage of by an [[exploit (computer science)]].
* '''[[White hole]]''', the opposite of a black hole.
* '''[[Punchhole]]''', for filing paper
* '''[[hole (poker)]]''', a term in the game of [[poker]]
* '''[[Memory hole (computer science)|Memory hole]]''', in [[computer science]], a [[contiguous]] block of available [[memory]].
* in [[golf]], one of the aims of each part of the course to cross, and hence this strech
* a body cavity; in particular the [[anus]], also in various compounds e.g. arse-hole
* a place where a prisoner is kept, either long-term (like an [[oubliette]]) or as a prison punishment (such as full isolation, or a very hot spot)
In arts:
* '''[[Holes (song)|Holes]]''', a single by the trio [[Rock (music)|rock]] group [[Smile Empty Soul]], from their [[2005]] album ''[[Anxiety (album)|Anxiety]]''.
* '''''[[Holes (book)|Holes]]''''', a novel by [[Louis Sachar]], and the movie (starring Shia LaBeouf and Khleo Thomas) based on the novel, with the screenplay by Sachar himself
* '''[[Hole (band)|Hole]]''', a [[musical group]] fronted by [[Courtney Love]] that was disbanded in [[2002]].
*'''''[[Hole (album)|Hole]]''''', an album by [[Scraping Foetus Off The Wheel]].
* '''[[Holes]]''' is a [[2003]] film, starring [[Sigourney Weaver]] and [[Jon Voight]].
Furthermore, in geography:
* '''[[Hole, Norway]]''', a [[municipality]] in the county of [[Buskerud]], [[Norway]].
[http://img292.echo.cx/img292/1322/pic004715zu.jpg The biggest hole in the world]
{{wiktionary}}
[[de:Loch]]
[[fr:Trou]]
[[nl:Hol]]
[[nn:hol]]
[[pl:Dziura]]
[[pt:Hole]]
[[ru:Дыра]]
[[sv:Hål]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Ancient Greece/temp</title>
<id>13853</id>
<revision>
<id>15911441</id>
<timestamp>2004-10-16T17:04:47Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>SimonP</username>
<id>1591</id>
</contributor>
<comment>merge and redirect to Ancient Greece</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Ancient Greece]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>History of France</title>
<id>13854</id>
<revision>
<id>42059723</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T14:58:46Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Mjpieters</username>
<id>86312</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/66.199.196.131|66.199.196.131]] to last version by Mjpieters</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{History of France}}
The '''History of France''' has been divided into a series of separate historical articles navigable through the template to the right. The '''chronological era''' articles address broad French historical, cultural and sociological developments. The '''dynasty and regime''' articles deal with the specific political and governmental regimes in France. The history of other cultural '''topics''' such as French art and literature can be found on their own pages. For information on today's France, see [[France]]. For other information, go to [[Portal:France]].
== Historical Overview ==
=== Gaul ===
{{main articles|[[Gaul]] and [[Roman Gaul]]}}
Settled mainly by [[Celt]]ic peoples (that the Romans referred to as the "Gauls"), and apart from a shrinking area of [[Basque people|Basque]] population in the southwest and [[Ligures|Ligurian]] population on the southern coast, the area of modern [[France]] comprised the bulk of the region of Gaul ([[Latin]]: ''Gallia'') under the rule of the [[Roman Empire]] from the [[1st century BC]] to the [[5th century|5th century AD]].
=== France in the Early Middle Ages ===
{{main|Frankish Empire}}
In [[486]], [[Clovis I]], leader of the [[Salian Franks]] to the east, conquered the [[Kingdom of Soissons|Roman territory between the Loire and the Somme]], subsequently uniting most of northern and central France under his rule and adopting in [[496]] the [[Roman Catholic Church|Roman Catholic]] form of [[Christianity]] (over the [[Arianism]] preferred by rival [[Germanic tribes|Germanic]] rulers).
After Clovis's death in [[511]] his realm underwent repeated division while the [[Merovingian]] dynasty eventually lost effective power to their successive [[Mayor of the Palace]], the founders of what was to become the [[Carolingian]] dynasty. The assumption of the crown in [[751]] by [[Pippin III|Pipin the Short]] (son of [[Charles Martel]]) established Carolingian rule.
The new rulers' power reached its fullest extent under Pepin's son [[Charlemagne]], who in [[771]] reunited the Frankish domains after a further period of division, subsequently conquering the [[Lombards]] under [[Desiderius]] in what is now northern [[Italy]] ([[774]]), incorporating [[History of Bavaria#The Franks|Bavaria]] ([[788]]) into his realm, defeating the [[Eurasian Avars |Avars]] of the [[Danube|Danubian]] plain ([[796]]), advancing the frontier with [[Al-Anda
|
ogy is necessarily genetically associated with or combined with belief in many spiritual beings.
== Animism in philosophy ==
The term "animism" has been applied to many different philosophical systems. It is used to describe [[Aristotle]]'s view of the relation of soul and body held also by the [[Stoics]] and [[Scholastics]]. On the other hand [[monadology]] ([[Leibniz]]) has also been termed animistic. The name is most commonly applied to [[vitalism]], a view mainly associated with [[Georg Ernst Stahl]] and revived by [[F. Bouillier]] ([[1813]]-[[1899]]), which makes life, or life and mind, the directive principle in evolution and growth, holding that all cannot be traced back to chemical and mechanical processes, but that there is a directive force which guides energy without altering its amount. An entirely different class of ideas, also termed animistic, is the belief in the world soul, held by [[Plato]], [[Schelling]] and others.
== Tylor ==
Tylor argued that non-Western societies relied on animism to explain why things happen. He further argued that animism is the earliest form of religion, and reveals that humans developed religions in order to explain things. At the time that Tylor wrote, this theory was politically radical because it made the claim that non-Western peoples and in particular, non-Christian "heathens", in fact do have religion. However, since the publication of ''Primitive Culture'', Tylor's theories have come under criticism from three quarters. First, some have questioned whether the beliefs of diverse peoples living in different parts of the world and not communicating with one another can be lumped together as one kind of religion. Second, some have questioned whether the basic function of religion really is to "explain" the universe (critics like Marrett and [[Emil Durkheim]] argued that religious beliefs have emotional and social, rather than intellectual, functions). Finally, many now see Tylor's theories as [[ethnocentric]]. Not only was he imposing a contemporary and Western view of religion (that it explains the inexplicable) on non-Western cultures, he was also telling the story of a progression from religion (which provides poor explanations) to [[science]] (which provides good explanations) (see [[cultural evolution]]).
==List of phenomena believed to lead to animism==
Lists of phenomena from the contemplation of which "the savage" was led to believe in animism have been given by Sir [[E. B. Tylor]], [[Herbert Spencer]], [[Andrew Lang]] and others; an animated controversy arose between the former as to the priority of their respective lists. Among these phenomena are:
* [[Trance]]
* [[Unconsciousness]]
* [[Sickness]]
* [[Death]]
* [[Clairvoyance]]
* [[Dream]]s
* [[Apparition]]s of the [[dead]]
* [[Wraith (entity)|Wraith]]s
* [[Hallucination]]s
* [[Echo]]es
* [[Shadow]]s
* [[Reflection]]s
== The new animism ==
In an article entitled "Revisiting Animism", Nurit Bird-David builds on the work of Irving Hallowell by discussing the animist worldview and lifeway of the Nayaka of India. Hallowell had learnt from the Ojibwa of southern central Canada that the humans are only one kind of 'person' among many. There are also 'rock persons', 'eagle persons' and so on. Hallowell and Bird-David discuss the ways in which particular indigenous cultures know how to relate to particular persons (individuals or groups). There is no need to talk of metaphysics or impute non-empirical 'beliefs' in discussing animism. What is required is an openness to consider that humans are neither separate from the world nor distinct from other kinds of being in most significant ways. The new animism also makes considerably more sense of attempts to understand 'totemism' as an understanding that humans are not only closely related to other humans but also to particular animals, plants, etc. It also helps by providing a term for the communities among whom shamans work: they are animists not 'shamanists'. Shamans are employed among animist communities to engage or mediate with other-than-human persons in situations that would be fraught or dangerous for un-initiated, untrained or non-skillful people. The -ism of 'animism' should not suggest an overly systematic approach (but this is true of the lived reality of most religious people), but it is preferable to the term ''[[shamanism]]'' which has led many commentators to construct an elaborate system out of the everyday practices of animists and those they employ to engage with other-than-human persons.
The new animism is most fully discussed in a recent book by Graham Harvey, ''Animism: Respecting the Living World''. But it is also significant in the 'animist realist' novels now being written among many indigenous communities worldwide. The term 'animist realism' was coined by Harry Garuba, a Nigerian scholar of literature, in comparison with 'magical realism' that describes works such as Marquez's ''[[One Hundred Years of Solitude]]''.
== See also ==
* [[hylozoism|Hylozoism]]
* [[Midewiwin]]
* [[Monism]]
* [[Panentheism]]
* [[panpsychism|Panpsychism]]
* [[Pantheism]]
==Suggested Reading==
[[The Story of B]] By [[Daniel Quinn]]
== References ==
* Bird-David, Nurit. 1991. "Animism Revisited: Personhood, environment, and relational epistemology", ''Current Anthropology'' 40, pp. 67-91. Reprinted in Graham Harvey (ed.) 2002. ''Readings in Indigenous Religions'' (London and New York: Continuum) pp.72-105.
* Hallowell, A. Irving. "Ojibwa ontology, behavior, and world view" in Stanley Diamond (ed.) 1960. ''Culture in History'' (New York: Columbia University Press). Reprinted in Graham Harvey (ed.) 2002. ''Readings in Indigenous Religions'' (London and New York: Continuum) pp.17-49.
* Harvey, Graham. 2005. ''Animism: Respecting the Living World'' (London: Hurst and co.; New York: Columbia University Press; Adelaide: Wakefield Press).
* Thomas, Northcote Whitbridge. Animism. ''[[1911 Encyclopædia Britannica]]''
==External links==
* [http://www.starstuffs.com/animal_totems/ Animism and Totem Spirit Animals: Discovering Animal Totems, Dictionaries, Feathers]
*[http://www.ishmael.org/interaction/qanda/qanda.cfm Ishmael.org FAQ] A database which includes many questions and answers regarding animism (and which conflicts greatly with the definition of the 'old' animism above while illustrating one version of the 'new' animism quite well) on the website of [[Daniel Quinn]], author of My Ishmael. Choose ''Animism'' from ''Topic''.
*[http://www.animism.org.uk] is a new website devoted to the discussion of the new animism. It arises from the work of Graham Harvey whose book ''Animism: Respecting the Living World'' discusses the whole topic, its benefits and problems, in considerable detail.
*[http://people.freenet.de/ishmael/animism.html] A personal view of animism
*[http://www.actionintl.org/action/content/view/223/212/] Animism in Zambia
[[Category:1911 Britannica]]
[[Category:Animism]]
[[Category:Religious faiths, traditions, and movements]]
[[ca:Animisme]]
[[da:Animisme]]
[[de:Animismus]]
[[es:Animismo]]
[[et:Animism]]
[[fi:Animismi]]
[[fr:Animisme]]
[[fy:Animisme]]
[[he:אנימיזם]]
[[ia:Animismo]]
[[id:Animisme]]
[[is:Andatrú]]
[[it:Animismo]]
[[ja:アニミズム]]
[[li:Animisme]]
[[ms:Animisme]]
[[nl:Animistische religie]]
[[oc:Animisme]]
[[pl:Animizm]]
[[sl:Animizem]]
[[sv:Animism]]
[[uk:Анімізм]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Antonio Vivaldi</title>
<id>1425</id>
<revision>
<id>41668136</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T23:17:40Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Blue-014</username>
<id>742110</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">:''For the two explorers who sailed into the Atlantic in 1291, see [[Vandino and Ugolino Vivaldi]].''
[[Image:Vivaldi.jpg|right|thumb|210px|Unconfirmed portrait of Antonio Vivaldi]]
'''Antonio Lucio Vivaldi''' ([[March 4]], [[1678]] &ndash; [[July 28]], [[1741]]), nicknamed '''Il Prete Rosso''', meaning "The Red Priest," was an [[Italy|Italian]] priest and [[baroque music]] composer.
==Biography==
Antonio Lucio Vivaldi was born on [[March 4]], [[1678]] in [[Venice]], [[Italy]]. He was baptized immediately at his home by the midwife due to ''danger of death''. It is not determined what that means but it probably refered to an earthquake that shook the city that day or the infant's poor health. Vivaldi's official church baptism didn't take place until 2 months later. His father, Giovanni Battista, a [[barber]] before becoming a professional [[violinist]], taught him to play violin at first, then toured Venice playing violin with his father. Vivaldi had a medical problem which he called the ''tightening of the chest'' ([[asthma]]). His medical problem, however did not prevent him from learning to play the violin, compose and take part in any musical activities. At the age of 15 ([[1693]]) he began studying to become a priest. In [[1703]], 10 years later, at the age of 25, Vivaldi was ordained as a priest, soon nicknamed ''Il Prete Rosso'', "The Red Priest," probably because of his red hair.
Not long after, in [[1704]], he was given a dispensation from celebrating the [[Holy Mass]] because of his ill-health (he apparently suffered from [[asthma]], a breathing disorder) and in late [[1706]] he withdrew from the priesthood and became ''maestro di violino'' at an orphanage for girls called the [[Pio Ospedale della Pietà]] in [[Venice]]. Shortly after his appointment, the orphans began to gain appreciation and esteem abroad too; Vivaldi wrote for them most of his concertos, cantatas, and sacred music. In [[1705]] the first collection (''[[raccolta]]'') of his works was published. Many others would follow. At the orphanage he covered several different duties, with the only interruption for his many travels. In [[1709]], he was let go for econ
|
dependent from 1922 but bound to Britain by treaty until 1936 (and under partial occupation until 1956) similarly severed all constitutional links with Britain. [[Iraq]], which became a British Protectorate in 1922, also gained complete independence ten years later in 1932.
The last colonial expansion of the British Empire was the [[Phoenix Islands Settlement Scheme]], begun in 1938 and abandoned in 1963. The last territorial expansion of the British Empire was the annexation of [[Rockall]] to the west of the [[Outer Hebrides]] in 1955. The [[Royal Navy]] landed a party of seamen on the isle and officially claimed the rock in the name of the Queen. The action was prompted by the imminent intention of the [[Ministry of Defence (United Kingdom)|Ministry of Defence]] to test launch a nuclear missile from the Outer Hebrides. It was feared that the heretofore unclaimed island might be used by the [[Soviet Union]] as a site for surveillance equipment. In 1972 the [[Isle of Rockall Act 1972|Isle of Rockall Act]] formally incorporated the island into the United Kingdom, although this was not accepted by [[Ireland]].
===The end of British rule in Ireland===
[[Image:Warofindep.jpg|thumb|right|150px||An [[Anglo-Irish War]] memorial in [[Dublin]].]]
In the 1880s, William Gladstone's plan of Home Rule for Ireland was leaked to the public.
In 1919 Irish [[guerrilla warfare|guerrillas]], known as the [[Irish Republican Army]] under the leadership of General [[Michael Collins (Irish leader)|Michael Collins]] began a military campaign against British rule called the [[Anglo-Irish War]]. The war ended in 1921 with a stalemate that resulted in the [[Anglo-Irish Treaty]]. The treaty divided Ireland into two states, most of the island (26 counties) became the [[Irish Free State]] an independent dominion nation within the [[Commonwealth of Nations|British Commonwealth]]; while the six counties in the north with a largely loyalist, Protestant community remained a part of the [[United Kingdom]] as [[Northern Ireland]].
In 1948 [[Republic of Ireland|Ireland]] became a [[republic]], fully independent from the [[United Kingdom]], and withdrew from the commonwealth. Ireland's [[Irish constitution| Constitution]] claimed the six counties of [[Northern Ireland]] as a part of the [[Republic of Ireland]] until 1998. The issue over whether Northern Ireland should remain in the United Kingdom or join the Republic of Ireland has divided Northern Ireland's people and led to a long and bloody conflict known as [[the Troubles]].
However the [[Good Friday Agreement]] of 1998 brought about a ceasefire between most of the major organisations on both sides, creating hope for a peaceful resolution.
==Decolonisation and Decline==
[[Image:Mohandas_Gandhi_resized_for_biography.jpg|left|thumb|100px|[[Mahatma Gandhi]], one of the leaders of the [[Indian independence movement]].]]
The rise of anti-colonial [[nationalism|nationalist]] movements in the subject territories and the changing economic situation of the world in the first half of the [[20th century]] challenged an imperial power now increasingly preoccupied with issues nearer home. The Empire's end began with the onset of the Second World War, when a deal was reached between the British government and the [[Indian independence]] movement, whereby the Indians would co-operate and remain loyal during the war, after which they would be granted independence. Following India's lead, nearly all of Britain's other colonies would become independent over the next two decades.
The end of Empire gathered pace after Britain's efforts during [[World War II]] left the country all but exhausted and found its former allies disinclined to support the colonial ''status quo''. Economic crisis in 1947 made many realise that the [[The Labour Party (UK)|Labour]] government of [[Clement Attlee]] should abandon Britain's attempt to retain all of its overseas territories. The Empire was increasingly regarded as an unnecessary drain on public finances by politicians and civil servants, if not the general public.
Britain's declaration of hostilities against Germany in September 1939 did not automatically commit the Dominions. All the Dominions except Australia and Ireland issued their own declarations of war. The Irish Free State had negotiated the removal of the [[Royal Navy]] from the [[Treaty Ports]] the year before, and chose to remain [[Irish neutrality|legally neutral]] throughout [[The Emergency|the war]]. Australia went to war under the British declaration.
World War II fatally undermined Britain's already weakened commercial and financial leadership and heightened the importance of the Dominions and the [[United States]] as a source of military assistance. Australian prime minister [[John Curtin]]'s unprecedented action (1942) in successfully demanding the recall for home service of Australian troops earmarked for the defence of British-held [[Myanmar|Burma]] demonstrated that Dominion governments could no longer be expected to subordinate their own national interests to British strategic perspectives. Curtin had written in a national newspaper the year before that Australia should look to the United States for protection, rather than Britain.
After the war, Australia and New Zealand joined with the United States in the [[ANZUS]] regional security treaty in 1951 (although the US repudiated its commitments to New Zealand following a 1985 dispute over port access for nuclear vessels). Britain's pursuit (from 1961) and attainment (1973) of [[European Community]] membership weakened the old commercial ties to the Dominions, ending their privileged access to the UK market.
In the Caribbean, Africa, Asia and the Pacific, post-war decolonisation was accomplished with almost unseemly haste in the face of increasingly powerful (and sometimes mutually conflicting) nationalist movements, with Britain rarely fighting to retain any territory. Britain's limitations were exposed to a humiliating degree by the [[Suez Crisis]] of 1956 in which the [[United States]] opposed Anglo-French intervention in Egypt, seeing it as a doomed adventure likely to jeopardise American interests in the [[Middle East]].
The independence of [[India]] in 1947 ended a 40-year struggle by the [[Indian National Congress]], firstly for self-government and later for full sovereignty, though the land's partition into India and [[Pakistan]] entailed violence costing hundreds of thousands of lives. The acceptance by Britain, and the other Dominions, of India's adoption of republican status (1949) is now taken as the start of the modern Commonwealth.
[[Singapore]] became independent in two stages. The British did not believe that Singapore would be large enough to defend itself against others alone. Therefore, Singapore was joined with [[Malaya]], [[Sarawak]] and [[North Borneo]] to form [[Malaysia]] upon independence from the Empire. This short-lived union was dissolved in 1965 when Singapore left [[Malaysia]] and achieved complete independence.
[[Myanmar|Burma]] achieved independence (1948) outside the Commonwealth; Burma being the first colony to sever all ties with the British; [[Ceylon]] (1948) and [[Malaya]] (1957) within it. Britain's [[British Mandate of Palestine|Palestine]] Mandate ended (1948) in withdrawal and open warfare between the territory's [[Jew]]ish and [[Arab]] populations. In the Mediterranean, a guerrilla war waged by [[Greek Cypriot]] advocates of [[enosis|union]] with [[Greece]] ended (1960) in an independent [[Cyprus]], although Britain did retain two military bases - [[Akrotiri and Dhekelia]].
[[Image:Insight may03 focus beaton large.jpg|thumb|right|200px|The reign of [[Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom|Queen Elizabeth II]], the current Queen, has seen the gradual dismantling of the Empire]]
The end of Britain's Empire in Africa came with exceptional rapidity, often leaving the newly-independent states ill-equipped to deal with the challenges of sovereignty: [[Ghana]]'s independence (1957) after a ten-year nationalist political campaign was followed by that of [[Nigeria]] ([[1960]]), [[Sierra Leone]] and [[Tanganyika]] ([[1961]]), [[Uganda]] ([[1962]]), [[Kenya]] and [[Zanzibar]] ([[1963]]), [[The Gambia]] ([[1965]]), [[Botswana]] (formerly Bechuanaland) and [[Lesotho]] (formerly Basutoland) (1966) and [[Swaziland]] ([[1968]]).
British withdrawal from the southern and eastern parts of Africa was complicated by the region's white settler populations: Kenya had already provided an example in the [[Mau Mau Uprising]] of violent conflict exacerbated by white landownership and reluctance to concede majority rule. White minority rule in [[South Africa]] remained a source of bitterness within the Commonwealth until the ending of [[apartheid]] policy in 1994.
Although the white-dominated [[Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland]] ended in the independence of [[Malawi]] (formerly [[Nyasaland]]) and [[Zambia]] (the former Northern Rhodesia) in 1964, Southern Rhodesia's white minority (a [[self-governing colony]] since 1923) declared independence with their [[Unilateral Declaration of Independence (Rhodesia)|UDI]] rather than submit to equality with [[Black African|black Africans]]. The support of South Africa's apartheid government kept the Rhodesian regime in place until 1979, when agreement was reached on majority rule in an independent [[Zimbabwe]].
Most of Britain's Caribbean territories opted for eventual separate independence after the failure of the [[West Indies Federation]] ([[1958]]&ndash;[[1962|62]]): [[Jamaica]] and [[Trinidad and Tobago]] (1962) were followed into statehood by [[Barbados]] ([[1966]]) and the smaller islands of the eastern Caribbean (1970s and 1980s). Britain's Pacific dependencies underwent a similar process of decolonisation in the latter decades. At the end of Britain's 99-year lease of the mainland [[New Territories]], all of [[Hong Kong]] was returned to China in 1997.
{{cleanup-date
|
lt of a period of [[glaciation]]. Marine habitats changed drastically as [[sea level]]s decreased, causing the first die-off, then another occurred between 500 thousand to a million years later when sea levels rose rapidly. It has been suggested that a [[gamma ray burst]] may have triggered this extinction. [http://www.guardian.co.uk/uk_news/story/0,3604,1456594,00.html]
# 360 million years ago &mdash; near the [[Devonian]]-[[Carboniferous]] transition (the [[Late Devonian extinction]]) a prolonged series of extinctions led to the elimination of about 70% of all species. This was not a sudden event, with the period of decline lasting perhaps as long as 20 million years. However, there is evidence for a series of extinction pulses within this period.
# 251 million years ago &mdash; at the [[Permian]]-[[Triassic]] transition (the [[Permian-Triassic extinction event]]) about 95% of all marine species went extinct. This catastrophe was Earth's worst mass extinction, killing 53% of marine families, 84% of marine [[genus|genera]], and an estimated 70% of land species (including plants, insects, and vertebrate animals.)
# 200 million years ago &mdash; at the [[Triassic]]-[[Jurassic]] transition (the [[Triassic-Jurassic extinction event]]) about 20% of all marine families as well as most non-dinosaurian [[archosaur]]s, most [[therapsida|therapsids]], and the last of the large [[Amphibia|amphibians]] were eliminated.
# 65 million years ago &mdash; at the [[Cretaceous]]-[[Paleogene]] transition (the [[Cretaceous-Tertiary extinction event]]) about 50% of all species became extinct (including all non-avian [[dinosaur]]s). This extinction is widely believed to have resulted from an [[asteroid]] or [[comet]] [[impact event]].
#Present day &mdash; the [[Holocene extinction event]]. A 1998 survey by the American Museum of Natural History found that 70% of biologists view the present era as part of a mass extinction event ,the fastest to have ever occured. Some, such as [[E. O. Wilson]] of [[Harvard University]], predict that man's destruction of the [[biosphere]] could cause the extinction of one-half of all species in the next 100 years. Research and conservation efforts, such as the [[IUCN]]'s annual "[[Red List]]" of threatened species, all point to an ongoing period of enhanced extinction, though some offer much lower rates and hence longer time scales before the onset of catastrophic damage. The extinction of many [[megafauna]] near the end of the most recent ice age is also sometimes considered a part of the Holocene extinction event.(see [http://www.actionbioscience.org/newfrontiers/eldredge2.html])
==Causes for Mass Extinction==
With the exception of the Cretaceous-Tertiary mass extinction, which is widely attributed to an impact event, and modern day extinctions associated with the proliferation of human civilization, it is not well known what has caused other mass extinctions. Some of the hypotheses are discussed below.
# [[Impact event]]s - The impact of a sufficiently large asteroid or comet could create [[Megatsunami]]s, global [[forest fire]]s, and simulate [[nuclear winter]] from the dust it puts in the atmosphere. Taken together, it is not surprising that these and other related effects might be sufficiently severe as to disrupt the global ecosystem and cause extinctions. Only for the End Cretaceous extinctions is there strong evidence of such an impact. Circumstantial evidence of such events are also given for the End Permian, End Ordovician, End Jurassic and End Eocene extinctions.
# [[Climate change]] - Rapid transitions in climate may be capable of stressing the environment to the point of extinction. However, it is worth observing the recent cycles of [[ice age]]s are only believed to have had very mild impacts on biodiversity. Extinctions suggested to have this cause include: End Ordovician, End Permian, Late Devonian, and others.
# [[Volcanism]] - The formation of [[large igneous province]]s, which can involve the outflow of millions of cubic kilometers of [[lava]] in a short duration, are suggested to poison the atmosphere and oceans in a way that may cause extinctions. This cause has been proposed for the End Cretaceous, End Permian, End Triassic, and End Jurassic extinctions.
# [[Gamma ray burst]] - A nearby gamma ray burst (less than 6000 [[light year]]s distance) could sufficiently irradiate the surface of the Earth to kill organisms living there and destroy the [[ozone layer]] in the process. From statistical arguments, approximately 1 gamma ray burst would be expected to occur in close proximity to Earth in the last 540 million years. This has been suggested as an explanation for the End Ordovician extinction event.
# [[Plate tectonics]] - It has been suggested that the opening and closing of seaways and land bridges may play a role in extinction events as previously isolated populations are brought into contact and new dynamics are established in the ecosystem. This is most frequently discussed in relation to the End Permian mass extinction.
Other hypotheses, such as the spread of a new [[disease]] or simple out-competition following an especially successful biological innovation are also considered; however, it is often thought that the major mass extinctions in Earth's history are too sudden and too extensive to have resulted solely from biological events.
==Postulated extinction cycles==
It has been suggested by several sources that biodiversity and/or extinction events may be influenced by cyclic processes. The best-known of these claims is the 26 to 30 million year viral cycle in extinctions proposed by Raup and Sepkoski (1986). More recently, Rohde and Muller (2005) have suggested that biodiversity fluctuates primarily on 62 &plusmn; 3 million cycle.
It is difficult to evaluate the validity of these claims except through reduction to statisitical arguments regarding how plausible or implausible it is for the observed data to exhibit a particular pattern, as the causes of most extinction events are still too uncertain to attribute to them any specific cause let alone a recurring one. Much early work in this area also suffered from poor knowledge of the [[geological time scale]] (errors > 10 million years at times), though the time scale now available (uncertainties all < 4 million years) should be adequate for studying these processes.
While the statistics alone have been judged as sufficiently compelling to warrant publication, it is important to consider processes that might be responsible for a cyclic pattern of extinctions and future work may focus on trying to find evidence of such processes.
One theory, for which no real evidence exists, suggests that the extinction cycle could be caused by the orbit of a hypothetical [[binary star|companion star]] dubbed [[Nemesis (star)|Nemesis]] that periodically disturbs the [[Oort cloud]], sending storms of large [[asteroid]]s and [[comet]]s towards the [[Solar System]]. Another similar theory suggests that the Solar System's oscillations through the plane of the [[galaxy]] results in periods of comet showers. Other theories suggest geological instabilities that might allow heat to periodically build up deep in the Earth, which is then released through [[mantle plume]]s, periods of major volcanism and active plate tectonics.
If any of these theories are correct, then it is worth noting that both Raup and Sepkoski and Rohde & Muller predict another naturally caused mass extinction event within the next 10 million years.
==See also==
* [[Elvis taxon]]
* [[Extinct birds]]
* [[Lazarus taxon]]
* [[Outside Context Problem]]
* [[Permian-Triassic extinction event]]
* [[Nemesis (star)]]
==References==
* [[Richard Leakey]] and Roger Lewin, 1996, ''The Sixth Extinction : Patterns of Life and the Future of Humankind'', Anchor, ISBN 0385468091. Excerpt from this book: [http://www.well.com/user/davidu/sixthextinction.html The Sixth Extinction]
* Wilson, E.O., 2002, ''The Future of Life'', Vintage (pb), ISBN 0679768114
*{{cite journal|author=Raup, D. & Sepkoski, J.|title=Mass extinctions in the marine fossil record|journal=Science|volume=215|pages=1501–1503|year=1982}}
*{{cite journal|author=Raup, D., and J. Sepkoski|journal=Science|volume=231|pages=833-836 |year=1986|title=Periodic extinction of families and genera}}
*{{cite journal|author=Rohde, R.A. & Muller, R.A.|year=2005|title=Cycles in fossil diversity|journal=Nature|volume=434|pages=209-210}}
* [http://www.well.com/user/davidu/extinction.html The Current Mass Extinction Event]
* [http://muller.lbl.gov/pages/lbl-nem.htm Nemesis - Raup and Sepkoski]
* [[Richard A. Muller]], 1988, ''Nemesis'', Weidenfeld & Nicolson, ISBN 1555841732
==External links==
* [http://www.bbc.co.uk/education/darwin/exfiles/massintro.htm BBC Extinction Files: Mass Extinctions]
* [http://www.lpl.arizona.edu/impacteffects/ Calculate the effects of an Impact]
* [http://www.well.com/user/davidu/extinction.html The Current Mass Extinction Event]
* [http://www.amnh.org/museum/press/feature/biofact.html American Museum of Natural History official statement on the current mass extinction]
* [http://www.wisart.net/ WiseArt Cybernetics (On-line slideshow to limit Mass Extinction)]
* [http://www.space.com/scienceastronomy/050503_mass_extinctions.html Interstellar Dust Cloud-induced Extinction Theory]
* [http://www.actionbioscience.org/newfrontiers/eldredge2.html The Sixth Extinction By Niles Eldredge]
* [http://www.sourcewatch.org/index.php?title=The_Sixth_Great_Extinction Sourcewatch.org]
* [http://www.geocities.com/abe_karnik/ELE.htm Extinction Level Event in short]
* [http://extinct.petermaas.nl The Extinction Website]
* [http://extinctanimals.proboards22.com The Extinction Forum], part of The Extinction Website.
* [http://neo.jpl.nasa.gov/ Nasa's Near Earth Object Program]
[[Category:Extinction events| ]]
[[Category:Graphical timelines]]
[[ar
|
hing about ships, nor how to use rudders or sails or oars, and after they had cast out the men they were driven
about by wave and wind and came to that part of the Maiotian lake
where Cremnoi stands; now Cremnoi is in the land of the free
Scythians. There the Amazons disembarked from their ships and
made their way into the country, and having met first with a troop of
horses feeding they seized them, and mounted upon these they plundered
the property of the Scythians.
111. The Scythians meanwhile were not
able to understand the matter, for they did not know either their
speech or their dress or the race to which they belonged, but were in
wonder as to whence they had come and thought that they were men, of
an age corresponding to their appearance: and finally they fought a
battle against them, and after the battle the Scythians got possession
of the bodies of the dead, and thus they discovered that they were
women. They took counsel therefore and resolved by no means to go on
trying to kill them, but to send against them the youngest men from
among themselves, making conjecture of the number so as to send just
as many men as there were women. These were told to encamp near them,
and do whatsoever they should do; if however the women should come
after them, they were not to fight but to retire before them, and when
the women stopped, they were to approach near and encamp. This plan
was adopted by the Scythians because they desired to have children
born from them.
112. The young men accordingly were sent out and did
that which had been commanded them: and when the Amazons perceived
that they had not come to do them any harm, they let them alone; and
the two camps approached nearer to one another every day: and the
young men, like the Amazons, had nothing except their arms and their
horses, and got their living, as the Amazons did, by hunting and by
taking booty.
113. Now the Amazons at midday used to scatter abroad
either one by one or by two together, dispersing to a distance from
one another to ease themselves; and the Scythians also having
perceived this did the same thing: and one of the Scythians came near
to one of those Amazons who were apart by themselves, and she did not
repulse him but allowed him to lie with her: and she could not speak
to him, for they did not understand one another's speech, but she made
signs to him with her hand to come on the following day to the same
place and to bring another with him, signifying to him that there
should be two of them, and that she would bring another with her. The
young man therefore, when he returned, reported this to the others;
and on the next day he came himself to the place and also brought
another, and he found the Amazon awaiting him with another in her
company. Then hearing this the rest of the young men also in their
turn tamed for themselves the remainder of the Amazons;
114, and after
this they joined their camps and lived together, each man having for
his wife her with whom he had had dealings at first; and the men were
not able to learn the speech of the women, but the women came to
comprehend that of the men. So when they understood one another, the
men spoke to the Amazons as follows: "We have parents and we have
possessions; now therefore let us no longer lead a life of this kind,
but let us go away to the main body of our people and dwell with them;
and we will have you for wives and no others." They however spoke thus
in reply: "We should not be able to live with your women, for we and
they have not the same customs. We shoot with bows and hurl javelins
and ride horses, but the works of women we never learnt; whereas your
women do none of these things which we said, but stay in the waggons
and work at the works of women, neither going out to the chase nor
anywhither else. We therefore should not be able to live in agreement
with them: but if ye desire to keep us for your wives and to be
thought honest men, go to your parents and obtain from them your share
of the goods, and then let us go and dwell by ourselves."
115. The young men agreed and did this; and when they had obtained the share of the goods which belonged to them and had returned back to the Amazons, the women spoke to them as follows: "We are possessed by fear and trembling to think that we must dwell in this place, having not only separated you from your fathers, but also done great damage to your land. Since then ye think it right to have us as your wives, do this together with us,--come and let us remove from this land and pass over the river Tana also".
116. They crossed over the Tana rising sun for three days' journey from Tana North Wind for three days' journey from the Maiotian lake: and having arrived at the place where they are now settled, they took up their abode there: and from thenceforward the women of the Sauromatai practise their ancient way of living, going out regularly on horseback to the chase both in company with the men and apart from them, and going regularly to war, and wearing the same dress as the men.
117. And the Sauromatai make use of the Scythian tongue, speaking it barbarously however from the first, since the Amazons did not learn it thoroughly well. As regards marriages their rule is this, that no maiden is married until she has slain a man of their enemies; and some of them even grow old and die before they are married, because they are not able to fulfil the requirement of the law." [http://www.gutenberg.org/catalog/world/readfile?pageno=180&fk_files=1131]
{{1911}}
{{Commonscat|Amazons}}
[[Category:Women in war]]
[[Category:Greek mythology]]
[[Category:Eurasian nomads]]
[[Category:Scythians]]
[[Category:Sarmatians]]
{{Link FA|no}}
[[ar:أمازونيات]]
[[da:Amazone]]
[[de:Amazonen]]
[[es:Amazona (mitología)]]
[[eu:Amazona (mitologia)]]
[[fr:Amazones]]
[[it:Amazzoni]]
[[he:אמזונות]]
[[lt:Amazonė (mitologija)]]
[[hu:Amazonok]]
[[nl:Amazone (mythologie)]]
[[no:Amasoner]]
[[nn:Amasone]]
[[pl:Amazonki]]
[[pt:Amazonas (guerreiras)]]
[[sl:Amazonka (mitologija)]]
[[fi:Amatsonit]]
[[sv:Amasoner]]
[[uk:Амазонки]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Alfonso V</title>
<id>1696</id>
<revision>
<id>27036875</id>
<timestamp>2005-11-01T03:39:58Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Joaopais</username>
<id>94195</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">*[[Alfonso V of Castile]] -- (999-1028)
*[[Alfonso V of Aragon]] -- (1416-1458) The Magnanimous
*[[Afonso V of Portugal]] -- (1432-1481) The African
{{disambig}}
[[pt:Afonso V]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Ambergris</title>
<id>1697</id>
<revision>
<id>41860417</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T05:03:51Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>SDC</username>
<id>181435</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Source */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Ambergris''' ('''Ambra grisea''', '''Ambre gris''', '''ambergrease''', or '''grey [[amber]]''') is a solid, fatty, flammable substance of a dull grey or blackish color, with the shades being variegated like [[marble]]. It possesses a peculiar sweet, earthy odour not unlike [[isopropyl alcohol]]. Now largely replaced by synthetics, it is occasionally still used as a [[fixative]] in [[perfumery]].
== Source ==
Ambergris occurs as a [[biliary]] [[concretion]] in the [[intestines]] of the [[sperm whale]], and can be found floating upon the sea, on the sea-coast, or in the sand near the sea-coast. Because lumps of ambergris with embedded beaks of [[giant squid]] have been found, scientists have theorized that the whale's intestine produces the substance as a means of facilitating the passage of hard, sharp objects that the whale might have inadvertently eaten. Ambergris can be found in the [[Atlantic Ocean]]; on the coasts of [[Brazil]] and [[Madagascar]]; also on the coast of [[Africa]], of the [[East Indies]], [[China]], [[Japan]], [[Australia]] and the [[Maluku Islands|Molucca islands]]. However, most commercially collected ambergris came from the [[Bahama Islands]], [[New Providence Island|Providence Island]], etc. It is also sometimes found in the [[abdomen]]s of [[whale]]s.
== Physical properties ==
Ambergris is found in lumps of various shapes and sizes, weighing from &frac12; [[ounce|oz]] (14 [[gram|g]]) to 100 or more [[pound (mass)|pound]]s (45 or more [[kilogram|kg]]). When initially expelled by the whale or removed from it, the fatty precursor of ambergris is pale white in colour (sometimes streaked with black), soft in consistency, with a strong fecal smell. Following months to years of [[photo-degradation]] and [[oxidation]] in the ocean, this precursor gradually hardens, developing a dark grey or black colour, a crusty and waxy texture, and a peculiar odour that is at once sweet, earthy, marine, and animalic. Its smell has been described by many as a vastly richer and smoother version of [[isopropanol]] without its stinging harshness.
In this developed condition, ambergris has a [[specific gravity]] ranging from 0.780 to 0.926. It melts at about 62 [[degree (temperature)|&deg;]][[celsius|C]] to a fatty, yellow resinous-like liquid; and at 100 &deg;C it is volatilized into a white vapour. It is soluble in [[diethyl ether|ether]], and in volatile and fixed oils. Ambergris is relatively unreactive to [[acid]]. White crystals of a substance called [[ambrein]], which closely resembles [[cholesterol]], can be separated from ambergris by heating raw ambergris in alcohol then allowing the resulting solution to cool.
== Replacement compounds and economics ==
Historically, the primary commercial use of ambergris has been in [[fragrance]] chemistry, although it has also been used for [[medicine|medicinal]] and [[flavoring]] purposes. Ambergris is one of the most important amber type odorants and is highly sought. However, it is difficult to get a
|
port]]s:'''
25 (1999 est.)
'''Airports - with paved runways:'''
<br>''total:''
3
<br>''over 3,047 m:''
1
<br>''1,524 to 2,437 m:''
1
<br>''914 to 1,523 m:''
1 (1999 est.)
'''Airports - with unpaved runways:'''
<br>''total:''
22
<br>''914 to 1,523 m:''
5
<br>''under 914 m:''
17 (1999 est.)
:''See also :'' [[Fiji]]
{{Oceania in topic|Transport in}}
{{Oceania-stub}}
[[Category:Transport in Fiji| ]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Military of Fiji</title>
<id>10662</id>
<revision>
<id>31801033</id>
<timestamp>2005-12-18T02:25:41Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>68.74.66.158</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Military
| color=#99CCFF
| age=18 years of age for voluntary military service (2001)
| availability=239,221 (2004 est.)
| service=131,349 (2004 est.)
| reaching age=9,302 (2004 est.)
| active=
| amount=$32 million (2003)
| percent GDP=2.2% (FY02)
}}
The '''Republic of Fiji Military Forces''' (RFMF), with a total manpower of only 3500 men, is one of the smallest in the world. The 2950 men in the active army are organized into six infantry and one engineer battalions, with 350 reserves forming a further three. There is one "Zulu" company of [[Counter-revolutionary Warfare Unit (Fiji)|counter-revolutionary specialists]]. Army Aviation operates two helicopters.
The first two regular battalions of the [[Fiji Infantry Regiment]] are traditionally stationed overseas under UN supervision; recent posts included [[Lebanon]], [[Sinai]], [[Iraq]], and [[East Timor]]. The third battalion is stationed in the capital, [[Suva]], and the remaining three are spread throughout the islands.
== The Fijian Navy ==
The military includes a 300-men strong Navy, which on [[25 July]] [[2005]] celebrated the thirtieth anniversary of its founding. It was formed in [[1975]], following the government's ratification of the [[United Nations Law of the Sea]] convention. The Navy is responsible for maritime needs in border control, such as watching over Fiji's exclusive economic zone and organizing task and rescue missions. It currently operates 9 patrol boats. Military aid is received from [[Australia]], [[China]], and the [[United Kingdom]].
Speaking at 30th anniversary celebrations on [[26 July]], [[Commander]] [[Bradley Bower]] said that the greatest challenge facing the navy of a maritime country like Fiji was to maintain sovereignty and the maritime environment, to acquire, restore, and replace equipment, and to train officers to keep pace with changing situations.
== Organization ==
*'''Commander RFMF''' - The Commander RFMF is of [[Brigadier General]] rank. He is assisted by the Deputy Commander and the Chief of Staff, who are responsible for Strategic Command and Land Force Command. The current Commander is [[Commodore (rank)|Commodore]] [[Frank Bainimarama]].
**'''Strategic Command''' - Strategic Command is responsible for all of the long term and strategic concerns of the RFMF, including welfare, legal issues, sustainability issues etc.
**'''Land Force Command''' - Land Force Command is the operational organisation of the RFMF, and is responsible for all of the main units:
***HQ Land Force Command
***Land Force Battalion
***Naval Unit
***Fiji Infantry Regiment
****Regular Force
*****1st Battalion (Peacekeeping in [[Lebanon]] and [[Iraq]])
*****2nd Battalion (Peacekeeping in [[Sinai Peninsula|Sinai]])
*****3rd Battalion (Founded in [[Lautoka]] in [[1943]]; now based in [[Suva]]).
****Territorial Force
*****4th Battalion ([[Nadroga-Navosa Province, Fiji|Nadroga, Navosa]] and [[Nadi]], especially [[Nadi Airport]] facilities. Normally under the operational command of the Third Battalion).
*****5th Battalion ([[Lautoka]], [[Ba, Fiji|Ba]], [[Tavua]], [[Vatukoula]], [[Ra, Fiji|Ra]]. Normally under the operational command of the Third Battalion).
*****7th/8th Battalion ([[Vanua Levu|Vanua Levu Island]]; normally under the operational command of the Third Battalion).
***Fiji Engineer Regiment
***Logistic Support Unit
***Force Training Group
== Political controversies ==
Fiji's Military has a history of political intervention. In [[1987]], soldiers were responsible for [[Fiji coups of 1987|two military coups]], and in [[2000]], the Military organized a countercoup to quash [[George Speight]]'s [[Fiji coup of 2000|civilian coup]]. Since [[2000]], the Military has had [[Military unrest since the Fiji coup of 2000|a sometimes tense relationship]] with the [[Laisenia Qarase|Qarase]] government, and [[Military opposition to the Reconciliation, Tolerance, and Unity Bill (Fiji)|has strongly opposed its plans]] to establish a [[Reconciliation and Unity Commission (Fiji)|Commission]] with the power to compensate victims and pardon perpetrators of the coup. Among other objections, the Military claims that its integrity and discipline would be undermined if soldiers who [[Fiji coup of 2000:Mutinies|mutinied]] in the [[2000]] upheaval were to be pardoned.
On [[4 August]] [[2005]], [[Leader of the Opposition (Fiji)|Opposition Leader]] [[Mahendra Chaudhry]] called for more [[Indo-Fijian]]s, who presently comprise less than one percent of the Military personnel, to be recruited. This would help guarantee political stability, he considered. He also spoke against government plans to downsize the military. Military spokesman [[Lieutenant Colonel]] [[Orisi Rabukawaqa]] responded [[5 July|the next day]] by saying that the Military was not an ethnic Fijian body, that it stood to serve the entire nation, and that there was no colour bar in its recruitment or promotion. He said that many Indo-Fijians had been reluctant to commit themselves to a Military career because of the slow progress of promotion, often preferring to be discharged and to use their record as a stepping stone to a successful career in some other field. Nevertheless, he appreciated the Indo-Fijian contribution to the Military, and noted the success of [[Lieutenant Colonel]] [[Mohammed Aziz]], the head of the Military's legal unit who was a pivotal figure in the [[court martial]] of soldiers who [[Fiji coup of 2000:Mutinies|mutinied]] in [[2000]].
On [[26 August]] [[2005]], the government announced plans to study ways to reduce the size of the military. Military engineers would be transferred to the Regional Development Ministry, said Home Affair Minister [[Josefa Vosanibola]], and the reduction of the Military forces would coincide with an increase in the numbers of the police force.
On [[26 September]] [[2005]], Rabukawaqa revealed that the Military had decided to curtail certain operations in order to stay within its budget. The cuts would affect maritime patrols, search and rescue operations, training and exercises, School Cadet training, and the deployment of Military engineers to rural areas. These cuts would be made to ensure that activities accorded a higher priority, such as [[peacekeeping]] operations in the [[Sinai Peninsula]] and [[Iraq]], officer cadet training with the [[New Zealand]] [[Military of New Zealand|Defence Forces]], and the prosecution of soldiers charged with mutiny, would not be affected, Rabukawaqa said.
The next day, [[Lesi Korovavala]], Chief Executive Officer of the Ministry of Home Affairs, told the [http://Fijivillage.com Fiji Village] news service that the Military had undertaken the reductions on its own initiative, in consultation with the department, an explanation corroborated by Lieutenant Colonel Rabukawaqa.
== See also ==
*[[Fiji]]
*[http://www.rfmf.mil.fj/ Official RFMF website]
[[Category:Fiji]]
[[Category:Militaries|Fiji]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Foreign relations of Fiji</title>
<id>10663</id>
<revision>
<id>41448504</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-27T11:09:54Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Davidcannon</username>
<id>36171</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Relations with South Africa */ HC to be established</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Politics of Fiji}}
[[Fiji]] maintains an independent, but generally pro-Western, foreign policy. It has traditionally had close relations with the [[United Kingdom]], as well as with its major trading partners [[Australia]] and [[New Zealand]]. These relations cooled after both the [[Fiji coups of 1987|1987]] and [[Fiji coup of 2000|2000]] coups, and Fiji was suspended for a time from the [[Commonwealth of Nations]], a grouping of mostly former [[British Empire|British colonies]]. It was readmitted to the Commonwealth in December [[2001]], following the [[Fiji election of 2001|parliamentary election]] held to restore democracy in September that year. Other Pacific Island governments have generally been sympathetic to Fiji's internal political problems and have declined to take public positions.
Fiji became the 127th member of the [[United Nations]] on [[October 13]], [[1970]], and participates actively in the organization. Fiji's contributions to UN peacekeeping are unique for a nation of its size. It maintains nearly 1,000 soldiers overseas in UN peacekeeping missions, mainly in the [[Middle East]].
Since independence, Fiji has been a leader in the [[Oceania|South Pacific]] region, and has played a leading role in the formation of the [[South Pacific Forum]]. Fiji has championed causes of common interest to [[Pacific Islands|Pacific Island]] countries.
== Diplomatic and trade developments ==
As of [[2005]], Fiji has become embroiled in a number of disagreements with other countries, including the [[United States]], [[Australia]], [[New Zealand]], [[China]], and [[Vanuatu]].
=== Tensions with the United States ===
On [[2 March]] [[2005]], [[List of Prime Ministers of Fiji|Prime Minister]] [[Laisenia Qarase]] strongly reacted to a [[U.S. State Department]] report criticizing Fiji for practicing racial discriminiation, and for the racial divide bet
|
of the minority Zaghawa-related Bidyate clan and a top military commander, revolted and fled to the [[Sudan]], taking with him many Zaghawa and Hadjerai soldiers in [[1989]]. The forces that Déby led into [[N'Djamena]] on [[December 1]], [[1990]], to oust President Habre, were mainly Zaghawa, including a large number of Sudanese, many of whom were recruited while Déby was in the bush. Déby's coalition also included a small number of Hadjerais and southerners.
Chad's armed forces numbered about 36,000 at the end of the Habre regime, but swelled to an estimated 50,000 in the early days Déby's rule. With [[France|French]] support, a reorganization of the armed forces was initiated early in 1991 with the goal is to reducing the armed forces to 25,000. An essential element of this effort was to make the ethnic composition of the armed forces reflective of the country as a whole. Neither of these goals was achieved. The military still numbers at least 30,000 men and is dominated by the Zaghawa.
War and rebellion continues to plague Chad. Following Déby's rise to power, Habre loyalists continued to fight government troops and rob civilians around [[Lake Chad]]. There were numerous small rebellions in eastern Chad, even among the Zaghawa. In the mid- and late-1990s, a rebellion in the south by the [[FARF]] delayed the promised petrol development until it was crushed by government forces. Most recently, Youssouf Togoimi and his [[Movement for Democracy and Justice]] in Chad were the most serious threat to Déby's power. Since 1998, government and rebel forces have fought with little progress on either side. In January 2002, the government and the MDJT signed a formal peace accord.
In [[2004]] that the government had discovered that many of the soldiers it was paying did not exist, and that some officers were taking these salaries for themselves; it furthermore determined that there were only about 19,000 soldiers in the army, as opposed to the 24,000 that had been previously believed. Government crackdowns against the practice are thought to have been a factor in a failed military mutiny in [[May 2004]].
'''[[Military]] branches:'''
Armed Forces (includes Ground Force, [[Chad Air Force|Air Force]], and Gendarmerie), Republican Guard, Rapid Intervention Force, Police, Rural and Nomadic Guard (GNNT)
'''Military manpower - military age:'''
20 years of age
'''Military manpower - availability:'''
<br>''males age 15-49:''
2,008,825 (2004 est.)
'''Military manpower - fit for military service:'''
<br>''males age 15-49:''
1,051,802 (2004 est.)
'''Military manpower - reaching military age annually:'''
<br>''males:''
91,231 (2004 est.)
'''Military expenditures - dollar figure:'''
$55.4 million (2003)
'''Military expenditures - percent of GDP:'''
2.1% (2003)
==See also==
*[[Chad Air Force]]
*[[Chadian Armed Forces]]
*[[Chadian National Armed Forces]]
{{CIAfb}}
[[Category:Military of Chad]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Foreign relations of Chad</title>
<id>5337</id>
<revision>
<id>35312811</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-15T21:16:42Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Electionworld</username>
<id>201260</id>
</contributor>
<comment>template</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Politics of Chad}}
[[Chad]] is officially non-aligned but has close relations with [[France]], the former colonial power, and other members of the [[Western world|Western]] community. It receives economic aid from countries of the European Community, the United States, and various international organizations. Libya supplies aid and has an ambassador resident in [[N'Djamena]].
Other resident diplomatic missions in N'Djamena include the embassies of France, the [[United States]], [[Egypt]], [[Algeria]], [[Iraq]], [[Sudan]], [[Germany]], the [[Central African Republic]], [[Zaire]], [[Nigeria]], the [[Republic of China]] ([[Taiwan]]), [[Cameroon]], and the [[European Economic Community]]. A number of other countries have nonresident ambassadors. In 1988, Chad recognized the [[State of Palestine]], which maintains a mission in N'Djamena. Chad has not recognized the State of [[Israel]].
With the exception of [[Libya]] and Sudan, with whom relations vary periodically, Chad has generally good rapport with its neighbors. Although relations with Libya improved with the advent of the Deby government, strains persist. Chad has been an active champion of regional cooperation through the Central African Economic and Customs Union, the Lake Chad and Niger River Basin Commissions, and the Interstate Commission for the Fight Against the Drought in the Sahel.
On December 24 2005, Chad declared itself as in a "state of war" with neighboring Sudan. The conflict in the border region of Darfur has become an increasingly bi-national affair as increasing numbers of Sudanese flee to refugee camps in Chad, and Sudanese government troops and militias cross the borders to strike at both these camps and specific ethnic groups.
Chad belongs to the following international organizations:
*[[UN]] and some of its specialized and related agencies
*[[Organization for African Unity]]
*[[Central African Customs and Economic Union]] (UDEAC)
*[[African Financial Community]] (Franc Zone)
*[[Agency for the Francophone Community]]
*[[African, Caribbean and Pacific Group of States]]
*[[African Development Bank]]
*[[Central African States Development Bank]]
*[[Economic and Monetary Union of Central African]] (CEMAC)
*[[Economic Commission for Africa]]; [[G-77]]
*[[International Civil Aviation Organization]]
*[[International Confederation of Free Trade Unions]]
*[[International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement]]
*[[International Development Association]]
*[[Islamic Development Bank]]
*[[International Fund for Agricultural Development]]
*[[International Finance Corporation]]
*[[International Federation of the Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies]]
*[[International Labour Organization]]
*[[International Monetary Fund]]
*[[Intelsat]]
*[[Interpol]]
*[[International Olympic Committee]]
*[[International Telecommunication Union]]
*[[NAM]]; [[Organization of the Islamic Conference]]
*[[Organization for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons]]
*[[Universal Postal Union]]
*[[World Confederation of Labor]]
*[[World Intellectual Property Organization]];
*[[World Meteorological Organization]];
*[[World Tourism Organization]]
*[[World Trade Organization]]
'''Disputes - international:'''
delimitation of international boundaries in the vicinity of [[Lake Chad]], the lack of which led to border incidents in the past, has been completed and awaits ratification by [[Cameroon]], [[Chad]], [[Niger]], and [[Nigeria]]
[[Category:Government of Chad]]
[[Category:Politics of Chad]]
[[Category:Foreign relations by country|Chad]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Chapter 3 - Struggle for Existence</title>
<id>5338</id>
<revision>
<id>15903551</id>
<timestamp>2002-10-09T14:10:48Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Magnus Manske</username>
<id>4</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>#REDIRECT [[The Origin of Species]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[The Origin of Species]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Charl du Montesquieu</title>
<id>5339</id>
<revision>
<id>15903552</id>
<timestamp>2004-01-13T05:30:53Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Snoyes</username>
<id>8289</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted to last edit by Andre Engels</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Charles de Secondat, Baron de Montesquieu]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Lewis Carroll</title>
<id>5340</id>
<revision>
<id>42132737</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T01:05:34Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>68.170.210.45</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* See also */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:LewisCarrollSelfPhoto.jpg|thumb|right|Photograph of Lewis Carroll taken by himself, with assistance]]
'''Charles Lutwidge Dodgson''' ([[January 27]], [[1832]] &ndash; [[January 14]], [[1898]]), better known by the [[pen name]] '''Lewis Carroll''', was a [[United Kingdom|British]] [[author]], [[mathematics|mathematician]], [[logic|logician]], [[Anglican]] [[clergyman]] and [[photography|photographer]].
His most famous writings are ''[[Alice's Adventures in Wonderland]]'' and its sequel ''[[Through the Looking-Glass]]'', as well as the comic poem ''[[The Hunting of the Snark]]'', and the nonsense poem [[Jabberwocky]].
His facility at [[word play]], [[logic]], and [[fantasy]] has delighted audiences ranging from the most naïve to the most sophisticated. His works have remained popular since they were published and have influenced not only [[children's literature]], but also a number of major 20th century writers such as [[James Joyce]] and [[Jorge Luis Borges]].
There are societies dedicated to the enjoyment and promotion of Lewis Carroll's works in many parts of the world including [[North America]], [[Japan]], the [[United Kingdom]] and [[New Zealand]].
== Upbringing ==
Dodgson's family was predominantly northern [[England|English]], with some [[Ireland|Irish]] connections. Conservative and High Church [[Anglicanism|Anglican]], most of Dodgson's ancestors belonged to the two traditional English upper-middle class professions: the army and the [[Church of England|Church]]. His great-grandfather, also Charles Dodgson, had risen through the ranks of the church to become a [[bishop]]; his grandfather, another Charles, had been an [[army]] [[captain]], killed in action in [[1803]] while his two sons were hardly more than babies.
The elder of these&mdash;yet another Charles&mdash;reverted to the other family business and took [[holy orders]
|
n.
*Free recordings of [http://innig.net/music/inthehands/category/recordings/chopin/ Chopin's music] performed by Paul Cantrell.
*[http://www.gressus.se/chopin/midi/chopin.html The Chopin MIDI Archive] &mdash; Chopin's works in MIDI format.
*Free recordings of [http://innig.net/music/recordings/ith_chopin-47.mp3 Chopin's music].
{{Romanticism}}
[[Category:Polish composers|Chopin, Frédéric]]
[[Category:Romantic composers|Chopin, Frédéric]]
[[Category:Polish classical pianists|Chopin, Frédéric]]
[[Category:1810 births|Chopin, Frédéric]]
[[Category:1849 deaths|Chopin, Frédéric]]
[[ar:فريدريك شوبان]]
[[bg:Фредерик Шопен]]
[[ca:Frédéric Chopin]]
[[cs:Fryderyk Chopin]]
[[da:Frédéric Chopin]]
[[de:Frédéric Chopin]]
[[et:Frédéric Chopin]]
[[es:Frédéric Chopin]]
[[eo:Frédéric CHOPIN]]
[[fr:Frédéric Chopin]]
[[ko:프레데리크 쇼팽]]
[[hr:Frédéric Chopin]]
[[io:Frédéric Chopin]]
[[is:Frédéric Chopin]]
[[it:Frédéric Chopin]]
[[he:פרדריק שופן]]
[[lv:Frederiks Šopēns]]
[[li:Frédéric Chopin]]
[[hu:Frédéric Chopin]]
[[nl:Frédéric Chopin]]
[[nds:Frédéric Chopin]]
[[ja:フレデリック・ショパン]]
[[no:Frédéric Chopin]]
[[nn:Frédéric Chopin]]
[[pl:Fryderyk Chopin]]
[[pt:Frédéric Chopin]]
[[ro:Frédéric Chopin]]
[[ru:Шопен, Фредерик]]
[[sk:Frédéric Chopin]]
[[sl:Frédéric Chopin]]
[[fi:Frédéric Chopin]]
[[sv:Frédéric Chopin]]
[[th:เฟรเดริก ฟรองซัวส์ โชแปง]]
[[tr:Frédéric Chopin]]
[[uk:Шопен Фридерик]]
[[zh:弗雷德里克·肖邦]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Federal Constitutional Court of Germany</title>
<id>10824</id>
<revision>
<id>39788868</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-15T21:57:36Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Ziggur</username>
<id>374132</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Remove blank space</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Karlsruhe bundesverfassungsgericht.jpg|thumb|171px|right|The Bundesverfassungsgericht]]
{{PoliticsGermany}}
The '''Federal Constitutional Court''' (in [[German language|German]]: ''Bundesverfassungsgericht, BVerfG'') is a special court established by the German [[Constitution]], the ''[[Basic Law of the Federal Republic of Germany|Grundgesetz]]'' (Basic Law). From its inception, the Court has been located in the city of [[Karlsruhe]], intentionally dislocated from the other federal institutions (earlier in [[Bonn]], now in [[Berlin]]).
The sole task of the court is [[judicial review]]. It may therefore declare public acts [[unconstitutional]] and thus render them ineffective. As such, it is somewhat similar to the [[Supreme Court of the United States]]. However, it differs from it and other [[supreme court|supreme courts]] in that it is not part of the regular judicial system, but more a unique judicial branch.
Most importantly, it does not serve as a regular [[court of appeals]] from lower courts or the [[Federal Court of Justice of Germany|Federal Supreme Court (BGH)]] as a sort of “superappellate court” on any violation of federal laws. Its jurisdiction is focused on constitutional issues, the integrity of the ''Grundgesetz'' and the immediate compliance of any governmental institution in any detail (article 1 subsection 3 of the ''Grundgesetz''). Even constitutional amendments or changes passed by the Parliament are subject to its judicial review, since they have to be compatible with the most basic principles of the ''Grundgesetz'' (due to its Article 79 (3), the so called 'eternity clause').
The court’s practice of enormous constitutional control frequency on the one hand, and the continuity in judicial self-restraint and political revision on the other hand, created a unique defender of the ''Grundgesetz'' since World War II and assigned a remarkably outstanding role in a modern democracy.
== Procedures ==
Article 20 subsection 3 of the ''Grundgesetz'' stipulates that all the three branches of the state –legislative, executive and judicial– are bound directly by the constitution. As a result, the court can abolish acts of all three branches as unconstitutional &mdash; either for formal violations, e.g. exceeding powers or violating procedures, or for material conflicts, e.g. because the civil rights prescribed in the ''Grundgesetz'' were not respected. Due to the principle of subsidiarity, no case may be brought before it until judicial review through another court branch has been completed.
Decisions of the court on material conflicts are put into force through a federal law by the Federal Constitutional Court Act (BVerfGG).
The Constitutional Court has several strictly defined procedures in which cases may be brought before it:
* With a '''Constitutional Complaint''' ''(Verfassungsbeschwerde)'', any person may file a complaint alleging that his or her constitutional rights were violated. Although only a small fraction of these are actually successful (ranging around 2.5&nbsp;% since 1951), several of these resulted in major legislation overturns, especially in the field of taxation. The large majority of the court's procedures fall in this category, with 135,968 such Complaints filed from 1957 to 2002.
* Several political institutions, including the governments of the ''[[States of Germany|Bundesländer]]'', may bring a law passed by the federal legislation before the court if they consider it unconstitutional (procedure of '''Abstract Regulation Control'''). The most well-known examples of these procedures included legislation legalizing [[abortion]], which -- in highly debated rulings -- were [[German Federal Constitutional Court abortion decision|declared unconstitutional]] twice by the Constitutional Court.
* In addition, any regular court which has doubts about whether a law in question for a certain case is in conformance with the constitution may suspend that case and bring this law before the Federal Constitutional Court (procedure of '''Single Regulation Control''').
* Federal institutions, including members of the ''[[Bundestag]]'', may bring internal disputes over competences and procedures before the court ('''Federal Dispute''').
* The ''[[States of Germany|Bundesländer]]'' may bring disputes over competences and procedures between them and federal institutions before the court ('''State-Federal Dispute''').
* Committee on parliament investigation, including single members of the ''[[Bundestag]]'', or the federal government may bring internal disputes over competences and procedures in case of committee’s investigation before the court ('''Investigation Committee Control''').
* Violations of election laws may be brought before the court by political institution or any involved voter ('''Federal Election Scrutiny''').
* Impeachment cases against the [[President of Germany|President]] or a judge, member of one of the Federal Supreme Courts, brought by the Bundestag, the [[Bundesrat]] or the federal government, based on violation of constitutional or federal law ('''Impeachment Procedure''').
* Finally, only the Constitutional Court has the power to '''prohibit a [[political party]]''' in Germany. This has only happened twice in the [[1950s]]: the [[Sozialistische Reichspartei]] (SRP), an outright [[Neo-Nazism|neo-nazi]] party, was banned in [[1952]], the [[Communist Party of Germany]] (KPD) was banned in [[1956]]. A third such procedure to prohibit the extremist right-wing [[National Democratic Party of Germany (NPD)|National Democratic Party]] (NPD) spectacularly failed in [[2003]] after the court discovered that many of the party officials were in fact controlled by the German secret services that had injected its agents for the sake of surveillance.
== Organization ==
Two Senates –each of them split into three Chambers for hearings in Constitutional Complaint and Single Regulation Control cases– belong to the court and eight judges belong to every of these Senates, headed by a senate’s chairman. Three judges belong to every Chamber; every chairman is a member of two chamber colleges.
If one senate wishes to change a decision of the other senate the judges call upon the so called "Plenum". The plenum consists of all 16 judges with the president presiding.
Decisions by one of the Senates need an absolute majority of 5 votes; decisions by one of the Chambers need to be unanimous. The court allows its members as the only court in Germany to release a dissenting vote in public, since internal votes in other courts are confidential.
A Chamber is authorized to release any ruling except dissenting of the jurisdiction practice of the Senate it belongs to. A Senate is authorized to release any ruling except dissenting of the jurisdiction practice of the court; such cases have to be brought before the full plenum of all 16 judges.
The current president of the Court is [[Hans-Jürgen Papier]].
==Members==
====First Senate (current only)====
*'''[[Hans-Jürgen Papier]]'''
*[[Evelyn Haas]]
*[[Dieter Hömig]]
*[[Udo Steiner]]
*[[Christine Hohmann-Dennhardt]]
*[[Wolfgang Hoffmann-Riem]]
*[[Brun-Otto Bryde]]
*[[Reinhard Gaier]]
====Second Senate (current only)====
*[[Siegfried Broß]]
*[[Lerke Osterloh]]
*[[Udo Di Fabio]]
*[[Rudolf Mellinghoff]]
*[[Gertrude Lübbe-Wolff]]
*[[Michael Gerhardt]]
*[[Herbert Landau]]
====Presidents of the Senate====
*[[Josef Wintrich]]
*[[Gebhard Müller]]
*[[Ernst Benda]]
*[[Wolfgang Zeidler]]
*[[Roman Herzog]]
*[[Jutta Limbach]]
*[[Hans-Jürgen Papier]]
===All judges===
*[[Ernst Benda]]
*[[Ernst-Wolfgang Böckenförde]]
*[[Werner Böhmer]]
*[[Siegfried Broß]]
*[[Hans Brox]]
*[[Brun-Otto Bryde]]
*[[Udo Di Fabio]]
*[[Thomas Dieterich]]
*[[Wilhelm Ellinghaus]]
*[[Hans Joachim Faller]]
*[[Reinhard Gaier]]
*[[Michael Gerhardt]]
*[[Karin Graßhof]]
*[[Dieter Grimm]]
*[[Karl Haager]]
*[[Evelyn Haas]]
*[[Winfried Hassemer]]
*[[Johann Friedrich Henschel]]
*[[Roman Herzog]]
*[[Konrad Hesse]]
*[[Dieter Hömig]]
*[[Hermann Höpker-Aschoff]]
*[[Christine Hohmann-Dennhardt]]
*[[Wolfgang Hoffmann-Riem]]
*[[Renate Jaeger]]
*[[Hans-Joachim Jentsch]]
*[[Rudolf Katz]]
|
e reasons why men earn more than women are not based on sex discrimination. In his ''Dark Side of Man: Tracing the Origins of Violence'', [[anthropologist]] Michael Ghiglieri used science to challenge the idea that rape is about power rather than sex, as well as the idea that male domestic violence against women is about domination. Feminists have also argued using science in order to respond to others' criticisms of feminism, such as [[Anne Fausto-Sterling]] in ''Myths of Gender'', [[Carol Tavris]] in ''The Mismeasure of Woman'', and the feminist social scientists and scientists [[Barbara Ehrenreich]], [[Kristin Luker]], and [[Stephanie Coontz]].
Criticism of feminism as has further suggested that feminists claim that their viewpoint is multi-purposed. This would imply that a feminist perspective can be applied to all areas of life (and policymaking in particular). This has been disputed, as critics contend that a feminist position has nothing to say about some topics, for example [[nuclear power]] or disaster prevention. Some feminists might respond to these critics by arguing that due to their role as mothers, women have a special sensitivity for the fragility of human life and the need to protect it, which gives them a unique perspective on issues such as nuclear power that pit individual human welfare against societal needs. Thus, there ''is'' a broad feminist perspective that can be applied to [[public policy]] in general. (It is imporant to note that not all feminists would agree with this line of thought; equality feminists, in particular, dispute the idea that all women are inherently nurturing or virtuous).
Some opponents of feminism blame their own lack of success on the rise of feminism. In one particularly violent incident, the [[Montreal Massacre]], a gun man began to scream about how he hated feminists, and then opened fire on the women, and killed 14 women.
==Famous feminists==
''See [[list of feminists]].''
<p></p>
{| style="background-color: transparent; width: {{{width|100%}}}"
<p></p>
| width="{{{width|}}}" align="{{{align|left}}}" valign="{{{valign|top}}}" |
* [[Lila Abu-Lughod]] - Anthropologist
* [[Rachel Adler]] - Jewish theologian
* [[Susan B. Anthony]]
* [[Gloria E. Anzaldúa]] - Poet
* [[Bettina Aptheker]] - Writer, Activist, and Educator
* [[Simone de Beauvoir]] - Philosopher
* [[Ruth Behar]] - Anthropologist
* [[Judith Butler]] - Philosopher
* [[Susan Brownmiller]] - journalist, writer, and activist
* [[Phyllis Chesler]]- Writer, Psychotherapist
* [[Margaret Cho]] - Actress, Comedian
* [[Kate Chopin]] - Writer
* [[Sandra Cisneros]] - Writer
* [[Hélène Cixous]] - Philosopher
* [[Nellie McClung]] - Writer, Teacher, one of the "Famous Five"
* [[Mary Daly]] - "post-Christian" theologian
* [[Andrea Dworkin]] - Writer
* [[Henrietta Muir Edwards]]
* [[Jean Bethke Elshtain]] - Philosopher
* [[Jane Fonda]] - Actress, activist, philanthropist
* [[Marilyn French]] - Writer, author of ''Beyond Power'', an extensive "history" of patriarchy
* [[Betty Friedan]] - Writer
* [[Diana Fuss]] - Professor of English
* [[Jane Gallop]] - Professor of English
* [[Sandra Gilbert]] - Professor of English
* [[Emma Goldman]] - Anarchist, writer
* [[Jane Gomeldon]] - 18th century Essayist
* [[Deborah Gordon]] - Anthropologist
* [[Germaine Greer]] - Writer
* [[Sandra Harding]] - Philosopher
* [[Donna Haraway]] - Anthropologist
* [[Susannah Heschel]] - Jewish theologian
* [[bell hooks]] -Writer and critic
* [[Luce Irigaray]] - Philosopher
* [[Alison M. Jagger]] - Philosopher
* [[Kumari Jayawardena]] - Sri Lankan feminist scholar
* [[Maxine Hong Kingston]] - Novelist
* [[Biddy Martin]] - Professor of German studies
* [[Suzanne MacNevin]] - Writer/chemist
* [[Emily Martin]] - Anthropologist
* [[Wendy McElroy]]- Intellectual, Individualist Feminist
* [[Louise McKinney]]
* [[Kate Millett]] - Critic
* [[Chandra Talpade Mohanty]] - Sociologist
* [[Toril Moi]] - Professor of literature
* [[Susan Moller Okin]] - philsophical and political theorist
* [[Henrietta Moore]] - Anthropologist
<p></p>
| width="{{{width|}}}" align="{{{align|left}}}" valign="{{{valign|top}}}" |
* [[Robin Morgan]] - poet, editor, activist, and former child star
* [[Iris Murdoch]] - Novelist and philosopher
* [[Luisa Muraro]] - philosopher
* [[Emily Murphy]] - Writer, Magistrate, one of the "Famous Five"
* [[Judith Newton]] Professor of English
* [[Camille Paglia]] Intellectual
* [[Emmeline Pankhurst]]
* [[Sylvia Pankhurst]]
* [[Irene Parlby]]
* [[Alice Paul]]
* [[Judith Plaskow]] - Jewish theologian
* [[Janice Raymond]] - Writer
* [[Rayna Rapp Reiter]] - Anthropologist
* [[Audre Lorde]] - Poet, essayist, activist
* [[Adrienne Rich]] - Poet and essayist
* [[Gayle Rubin]] - Anthropologist
* [[Margaret Sanger]] - Birth control advocate and sex educator
* [[Alice Schwarzer]] - Writer
* [[Joan Wallach Scott]] - Historian
* [[Eve Kosofsky Sedgwick]] - Professor of English
* [[Barbara Smith]] - Black lesbian feminist and activist
* [[Cindy Sherman]] - Artist/photographer
* [[Dorothy Smith]] - Sociologist
* [[Kiki Smith]] - Artist/sculptor
* [[Valerie Solanas]] - Author of the [[SCUM Manifesto]]
* [[Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak]] - Professor of English
* [[Judith Stacey]] - Sociologist
* [[Zaib-un-nissa Hamidullah]] - Writer, poetess and journalist.
* [[Elizabeth Cady Stanton]]
* [[Carolyn Kay Steedman]] - Professor of Arts Education
* [[Gloria Steinem]] - Journalist and publisher
* [[Trinh T. Minh-ha]] - Writer, filmmaker, composer
* [[Sojourner Truth]]
* [[Alice Walker]] - Novelist
* [[Monique Wittig]] - Novelist and critic
* [[Virginia Woolf]] - Writer
* [[Mary Wollstonecraft]] - Writer
* [[Sylvia Yanagisako]] - Anthropologist
* [[Iris Marion Young]] - Philosopher
* [[Mitsuye Yamada]] - Writer, Poet, Activist
* [[Melissa Farley]] - Writer, Activst, Research and Clinical Psychologist
<p></p>
|}
==See also==
<p></p>
{| style="background-color: transparent; width: {{{width|100%}}}"
<p></p>
| width="{{{width|}}}" align="{{{align|left}}}" valign="{{{valign|top}}}" |
*[[Anarcha-feminism]]
*[[Anti-racist math]]
*[[Domestic violence]]
*[[Equal pay for women]]
*[[Female roles in the world wars]]
*[[Feminazi]]
*[[Feminist history in the United States]]
*[[Feminist history in the United Kingdom]]
*[[Feminist history in Latin America]]
*[[Gendercide]]
*[[Gender studies]]
*[[Gender-neutral language]]
*[[History of feminism]]
*[[Igbo Women's War of 1929]]
*[[International Day to Eliminate Violence Against Women]]
*[[Iranian Women]]
*[[Islamic feminism]]
*[[Lesbian feminism]]
<p></p>
| width="{{{width|}}}" align="{{{align|left}}}" valign="{{{valign|top}}}" |
*[[List of feminism topics]]
*[[List of notable feminists]]
*[[Marriage strike]]
*[[Masculism]]
*[[Misogyny]]
*[[Misandry]]
*[[Post-structuralism]]
*[[Radical feminism]]
*[[Rape]]
*[[Revolutionary Association of the Women of Afghanistan|RAWA]]
*[[Role of women in Judaism]]
*[[Sex in advertising]]
*[[Sisterhood is Powerful]]
*[[Testosterone poisoning]]
*[[Trafficking in human beings]]
*[[Women's Cinema]]
<p></p>
|}
==Books==
*Antrobus, Peggy. ''The global women's movement - Origins, issues and strategies'', London, Zed Books 2004
*Berk, Sarah Fenstermaker, ed. ''Women and Household Labor'', Sage 1980.
*Bradley, Martha Sonntag. ''[http://www.signaturebooks.com/excerpts/pedestals.htm Pedestals and Podiums: Utah Women, Religious Authority, and Equal Rights]'', Salt Lake City, Signature Books 2005
*[[Judith Butler|Butler, Judith]] (1994). "Feminism in Any Other Name", ''differences'' 6:2-3: 44-45.
*[[Phyllis Chesler|Chesler, Phyllis]] ''Woman's Inhumanity to Woman'', Thunder's Mouth, 2002.
*[[Kate Chopin|Chopin, Kate]]. ''The Awakening''. 1899.
*Code, Lorraine, ed., ''Encyclopedia of feminist theories'', Routledge 2000
* Echols, Alice. ''Daring to Be Bad: Radical Feminism in America, 1967-1975'', University of Minnesota Press 1990
* Faludi, Susan. "Backlash: The Undeclared War Against American Women". 1992 (ISBN 0385425074)
* Farrell, Warren. ''Why Men Earn More'' 2005 (ISBN 0-8144-7210-9)
* Fillion, Kate, ''Lip Service: The Truth About Women's Darker Side in Love, Sex, and Friendship'', Harper Collins 1997.]
*French, Marilyn. ''Beyond Power''; ''War Against Women''; ''From Eve to Dawn'', a 3-volume history of women
* Hochschild, Arlie Russell. ''The Second Shift'' 1990 (ISBN 0380711575)
* Hochschild, Arlie Russell. ''The Time Bind: When Work Becomes Home and Home Becomes Work'' 1997 (ISBN 0805044701)
* Jacobson, Joyce P. ''The Economics of Gender'' 1998. (ISBN 0631207260)
* Kaminer, Wendy. ''A Fearful Freedom: Women's Flight from Equality'', Addison Wesley 1990 (ISBN 0201092344)
* Kampwirth, Karen. ''Feminism and the Legacy of Revolution: Nicaragua, El Salvador, Chiapas'', Ohio UP 2004
* [[Gerda Lerner | Lerner, Gerda]]. ''The Creation of Feminist Consciousness: From the Middle Ages to Eighteen-Seventy'', Oxford University Press 1994
* Luker, Kristin. ''Dubious Conceptions: The Politics of the Teenage Pregnancy Crisis''. (Harvard University Press, 1996) (ISBN 0674217039)
* [[Margaret Mead|Mead, Margaret]]. ''Sex and Temperament in Three Primitive Societies'' (1935)
* [[Camille Paglia|Paglia, Camille]] ''Vamps and Tramps: New Essays'', Vintage 1994.
* Pearson, Patricia, ''When She Was Bad: How Women Get Away with Murder, A Controversial Look at Female Aggression'', Virago Press, 1998.
* Schneir, Miriam. ''Feminism : The Essential Historical Writings '', New York: Vintage 1994
* Silverman, Kaja. ''Male Subjectivity at the Margins'', p.2-3. New York: Routledge 1992
* Sommers, Christina Hoff. ''Who Stole Feminism? - How women have betrayed women'' (1996)
* Tavris, Carol. ''The Mismeasure of Woman: Why Women Are
|
er look we become aware that the object is a tree-trunk, a tuft or a boulder.
The function of the gods as creators of the visible World is their capacity as the bringers of light and darkness. If you can imagine that a living creature can turn into a rock or a tree-trunk when the light arrives, then why not go the other way around and claim that the first humans originally were washed up [[driftwood]]?
==Micro cosmos==
Another, just as legitimate explanation, could be conceptions concerning the Micro cosmos. According to this kind of notion, the Cosmos repeats itself in all things, great and small.
Our ancestors knew of course, that the skeleton was the basic structure of the human body. The ribs of the chest, the arms and the fingers can associate to the branches of the treetop, while the feet and toes could pass for the roots of the tree.
There are by the way, vague reminiscences of an ancient tree-cult in the [[Völuspá]]. The poem often touches on mythical notions regarding trees and woods.
The ash and the elm-tree have always been regarded as suitable timber for everyday use. The wood was especially used as shafts on tools, bows, spears and arrows.
==External links==
*[http://www.tjatsi.fo/show.php?sprog=5144b84d6c79ae59d7c8fccde1946e9e&side=8571e23dd92101768bc4ea08a59f0d82 Tjatsi.fo - Retelling and Interpretation of Völuspá] (Public Domain, by Anker Eli Petersen)
{{NorseMythology}}
{{interwikiconflict}}
[[Category:Norse mythology]]
[[ca:Ask]]
[[da:Ask og Embla]]
[[de:Ask und Embla]]
[[es:Ask y Embla]]
[[eo:Ask]]
[[fr:Ask]]
[[is:Askur og Embla]]
[[lt:Askas ir Embla]]
[[nl:Ask en Embla]]
[[no:Ask og Embla]]
[[nn:Ask og Embla]]
[[pl:Ask i Embla]]
[[pt:Ask]]
[[sv:Ask och Embla]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Alabama River</title>
<id>1484</id>
<revision>
<id>39694073</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-15T05:03:00Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Snottygobble</username>
<id>111359</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/201.245.183.18|201.245.183.18]] ([[User talk:201.245.183.18|talk]]) to last version by 87.122.33.171</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Alabama_River.jpg|300px|thumb|The Alabama River at [[Montgomery, Alabama|Montgomery]] in 2004]]
The '''Alabama River''', in the [[United States|U.S.]] state of [[Alabama]], is formed by the [[Tallapoosa River|Tallapoosa]] and [[Coosa River|Coosa]] rivers, which unite about six miles above [[Montgomery, Alabama|Montgomery]].
It flows west as far as [[Selma, Alabama|Selma]], then southwest until,
about 45 miles (72 km) from [[Mobile, Alabama|Mobile]], it unites with the [[Tombigbee River|Tombigbee]] to form the [[Mobile River|Mobile]] and [[Tensas River|Tensas]] rivers, which discharge into [[Mobile Bay]].
The course of the Alabama is tortuous. Its width varies from 200 to 300 yards (200 to 300 m), and its depth from 3 to 7 feet (1 to 2 m). Its length as measured by the [[United States Geological Survey]] is 312 miles (502 km), and by steamboat measurement, 420 miles (676 km).
The river crosses the richest agricultural and timber districts of the state, and [[railway]]s connect it with the [[mineral]] regions of north central Alabama.
The principal tributary of the Alabama is the [[Cahaba River]] about 200 miles (300 km long, which enters it about 10 miles (16 km) below Selma. Of the rivers which form the Alabama, the Coosa crosses the mineral region of Alabama, and is navigable for light-draft boats from [[Rome, Georgia]] (where it is formed by the junction of the [[Oostanaula River|Oostanaula]] and [[Etowah River|Etowah]] rivers) to about 117 miles (188 km) above [[Wetumpka River|Wetumpka]] (about 102 miles below Rome and 26 miles (42 km) below Greensport), and from Wetumpka to its junction with the Tallapoosa; the channel of the river has been considerably improved by the federal government.
The navigation of the Tallapoosa river which has its source in [[Paulding County, Georgia]], and is about 250 miles (400 km) long, is prevented by [[shoal]]s and a 60 foot (18 m) fall at Tallassee, a few miles north of its junction with the Coosa. The Alabama is navigable throughout the year.
[[Category:Rivers of Alabama]]
[[de:Alabama River]]
[[ko:앨라배마 강]]
[[pl:Alabama (rzeka)]]
[[de:Alabama River]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Alain de Lille</title>
<id>1485</id>
<revision>
<id>41500986</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-27T20:11:52Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>William percy</username>
<id>630628</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Alain de Lille''' (Alanus ab Insulis) (c. [[1128]] - [[1202]]), [[France|French]] [[theology|theologian]] and poet, was born, probably at [[Lille]], some years before 1128.
Little is known of his life. He seems to have taught in the schools of [[Paris]], and he attended the [[Third Council of the Lateran|Lateran Council]] in [[1179]]. He afterwards inhabited [[Montpellier]] (he is sometimes called Alanus de Montepessulano), lived for a time outside the walls of any cloister, and finally retired to [[Citeaux]], where he died in 1202.
He had a very widespread reputation during his lifetime and his knowledge, more varied than profound, caused him to be called ''Doctor universalis''. Among his very numerous works two poems entitle him to a distinguished place in the [[Latin literature]] of the middle ages; one of these, the ''De planctu naturae'', is an ingenious satire on the vices of humanity. He likened [[homosexual]] behavior to [[grammatical]] barbarism, thus creating the allegory of grammatical "conjugation" which was to have its successors throughout the Middle Ages. The ''Anticlaudianus'', a treatise on morals as [[Medieval allegory|allegory]], the form of which recalls the pamphlet of Claudian against Rufinus, is agreeably versified and relatively pure in its latinity.
As a theologian Alain de Lille shared in the mystic reaction of the second half of the 12th century against the [[Scholasticism|scholastic philosophy]]. His [[mysticism]], however, is far from being as absolute as that of the Victorines. In the ''Anticlaudianus'' he sums up as follows: Reason, guided by prudence, can unaided discover most of the truths of the physical order; for the apprehension of religious truths it must trust to faith. This rule is completed in his treatise, ''Ars catholicae fidei'', as follows: Theology itself may be demonstrated by reason. Alain even ventures an immediate application of this principle, and tries to prove geometrically the dogmas defined in the [[Creed]]. This bold attempt is entirely factitious and verbal, and it is only his employment of various terms not generally used in such a connection ([[axiom]], [[theorem]], [[corollary]], etc.) that gives his treatise its apparent originality.
Alain de Lille has often been confounded with other persons named Alain, in particular with Alain, archbishop of Auxerre, Alan, abbot of Tewkesbury, Alain de Podio, etc. Certain facts of their lives have been attributed to him, as well as some of their works: thus the ''Life of St Bernard'' should be ascribed to Alain of Auxerre and the ''Commentary upon Merlin'' to [[Alan, abbot of Tewkesbury|Alan of Tewkesbury]]. Neither is the philosopher of Lille the author of a ''Memoriale rerum difficilium'', published under his name; and it is exceedingly doubtful whether the ''Dicta Alani de lapide philocophico'' really issued from his pen. On the other hand, it now seems practically demonstrated that Alain de Lille was the author of the ''Ars catholicae fidei'' and the ''treatise Contra haereticos''.
-----
{{1911}}
==External links==
*http://la.wikisource.org/wiki/Alanus_ab_Insulis
==Resources==
Dynes, Wayne R. ''Alan of Lille.'' [http://williamapercy.com/pub-EncyHom.htm '''Encyclopedia of Homosexuality.'''] Dynes, Wayne R. (ed.), Garland Publishing, 1990. p. 32.
[[Category:1128 births]]
[[Category:1202 deaths]]
[[Category:French theologians]]
[[Category:Scholastic philosophers]]
[[de:Alanus ab Insulis]]
[[fr:Alain de Lille]]
[[gl:Alain de Lille]]
[[it:Alano di Lilla]]
[[la:Alanus ab Insulis]]
[[sk:Alanus ab Insulis]]
[[pl:Alan z Lille]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Alamanni</title>
<id>1486</id>
<revision>
<id>40775010</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-22T23:02:01Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>KocjoBot</username>
<id>467651</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>robot Adding: ca, nl</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''Alamanni''', '''Allemanni''', or '''Alemanni''' were an alliance of warbands formed from [[Germanic tribe]]s, first mentioned by [[Dio Cassius]] when they fought [[Caracalla]] in [[213]]. They apparently dwelt in the basin of the [[Main River|Main]], to the south of the [[Chatti]].
==Tribal connections==
The Alamanni emerged from the [[Irminones]]. According to [[Asinius Quadratus]] their name &mdash;"all men"&mdash;indicates that they were a conglomeration of various tribes formed into warbands, similar to the contemporary [[Huns]]. Another source {{fact}} claims the root of Alamann is ''al-'' from which are also derived Greek ''allos'' "other, alien" and Old High German ''Elisâzzo'' ", Elsaz or Alsace): "the land on the other side of the [[Rhine]]". There can be little doubt, however, that the ancient [[Hermunduri]] formed the bulk of the composite nation. Other groups included the [[Brisgavi]], [[Juthungi]], [[Bucinobantes]], [[Lentienses]], and perhaps the [[Armalausi]]. Close allies of the Alamanni were the East Germanic [[Suebi]], or Suabi (hence [[Swabia]]). The Hermunduri had apparently belonged to the Suebi, but it is likely enough that reinforcements from new Suebic tribes had now moved westward. In later time
|
on the [[Gulf of Mexico]], and with inland waterway access to the Midwest via the [[Tennessee-Tombigbee Waterway]].
==Demographics==
{{seesubarticle|Demographics of Alabama}}
{| class="toccolours" align="right" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" style="margin:0 0 1em 1em; font-size: 95%;"
|-
! colspan=2 bgcolor="#ccccff" align="center"| Historical populations
|-
! align="center"| Census<br>year !! align="right"| Population
|-
| colspan=2|<hr>
|-
| align="center"| 1800 || align="right"| 1,250
|-
| align="center"| 1810 || align="right"| 9,046
|-
| align="center"| 1820 || align="right"| 127,901
|-
| align="center"| 1830 || align="right"| 309,527
|-
| align="center"| 1840 || align="right"| 590,756
|-
| align="center"| 1850 || align="right"| 771,623
|-
| align="center"| 1860 || align="right"| 964,201
|-
| align="center"| 1870 || align="right"| 996,992
|-
| align="center"| 1880 || align="right"| 1,262,505
|-
| align="center"| 1890 || align="right"| 1,513,401
|-
| align="center"| 1900 || align="right"| 1,828,697
|-
| align="center"| 1910 || align="right"| 2,138,093
|-
| align="center"| 1920 || align="right"| 2,348,174
|-
| align="center"| 1930 || align="right"| 2,646,248
|-
| align="center"| 1940 || align="right"| 2,832,961
|-
| align="center"| 1950 || align="right"| 3,061,743
|-
| align="center"| 1960 || align="right"| 3,266,740
|-
| align="center"| 1970 || align="right"| 3,444,165
|-
| align="center"| 1980 || align="right"| 3,893,888
|-
| align="center"| 1990 || align="right"| 4,040,587
|-
| align="center"| [[United States 2000 Census|2000]] || align="right"| 4,447,100
|}
{|
|-
As of 2005, Alabama has an estimated population of 4,557,808, which is an increase of 32,433, or 0.7%, from the prior year and an increase of 110,457, or 2.5%, since the year 2000. This includes a natural increase since the last census of 77,418 people (that is 319,544 births minus 242,126 deaths) and an increase due to net migration of 36,457 people into the state. Immigration from outside the United States resulted in a net increase of 25,936 people, and migration within the country produced a net increase of 10,521 people.
The state had 108,000 foreign-born (2.4% of the state population), of which an estimated 22.2% were illegal aliens (24,000).
|}
|[[Image:Alabama_population_map.png|thumb|right|300px|Alabama Population Density map]]
===Race and ancestry===
The racial makeup of the state and comparison to the prior census:
{{Racial_demographics_begin | year1=2000 | year2=1990 }}
{{Racial_demographics_White | year1=71.1% | year2=73.6% }}
{{Racial_demographics_Black | year1=26.0% | year2=25.3% }}
{{Racial_demographics_Asian | year1=0.7% | year2=0.5% }}
{{Racial_demographics_Amerindian | year1=0.5% | year2=0.4% }}
{{Racial_demographics_Other | race=Other race | year1=0.7% | year2=0.1% }}
{{Racial_demographics_Mixed | year1=1.0% | year2=<center>*</center> }}
{{Racial_demographics_Hispanic | year1White=70.3% | year2White=73.3% | year1Hispanic=1.7% | year2Hispanic=0.6% }}
{{Racial_demographics_end}}
The largest reported ancestry groups in Alabama: American (17.0%), [[British American|English]] (7.8%), [[Irish American|Irish]] (7.7%), [[German American|German]] (5.7%), and [[Scots-Irish American|Scotch-Irish]] (2.0%). 'American' includes those reported as Native American or [[African American]].
===Religion===
The major religions of Alabama:
*[[Christian]] &#8211; 92%
**[[Protestant]] &#8211; 79%
***[[Baptist]] &#8211; 49%
***[[Methodist]] &#8211; 10%
***[[Presbyterian]] &#8211; 3%
***[[Episcopalian]] &#8211; 2%
***[[Church of God]] &#8211; 2%
***[[Church of Christ]] &#8211; 2%
***[[Pentecostal]] &#8211; 2%
***[[Lutheran]] &#8211; 2%
***Other Protestant &#8211; 7%
**[[Catholic]] &#8211; 13%
*Other religions &#8211; 1%
*Non-religious &#8211; 7%
==Colleges and Universities (incomplete)==
{{main|List of colleges and universities in Alabama}}
{|
|-
| valign="top" |
*[http://www.au.af.mil/ Air University]
*[[Alabama A&M University]]
*[[Alabama State University]]
*[[Andrew Jackson University]]
*[[Athens State University]]
*[[Auburn University]]
*[[Auburn University Montgomery]]
*[[Birmingham-Southern College]]
*[[Bishop State Community College]]
*[[Calhoun Community College|Calhoun Community College System]]
** [[Calhoun Community College at Decatur|Decatur-Main Campus]]
** [[Calhoun Community College at Cummings Research Park|Huntsville/Cummings Research Park]]
** [[Calhoun Community College at Redstone Arsenal|Redstone Arsenal]]
*[[Capps College]]
*[[Concordia College-Selma]]
*[[Faulkner University]]
*[[Heritage Christian University]]
*[[Huntingdon College]]
*[[Jacksonville State University]]
*[[Judson College]]
*[[Miles College]]
*[[Oakwood College]]
*[[Remington College]]
*[[Samford University]]
*[[Selma University]]
*[[Southeastern Bible College]]
*[[Southern Christian University]]
| valign="top" |
*[[Spring Hill College]]
*[[Stillman College]]
*[[Talladega College]]
*[[Troy University System]] (formerly "Troy State University System")
**[[Troy University|Main Campus (Troy)]]
**[[Troy University at Dothan]]
**[[Troy University at Montgomery]]
**[[Troy University at Phenix City]]
*[[Tuskegee University]]
*[[United States Sports Academy]]
*[[University of Alabama System]]
**[[University of Alabama|Main Campus (Tuscaloosa)]]
**[[University of Alabama at Birmingham|Birmingham]]
**[[University of Alabama at Huntsville|Huntsville]]
*[[University of Mobile]]
*[[University of Montevallo]]
*[[University of North Alabama]]
*[[University of South Alabama]]
*[[University of West Alabama]]
*[[Virginia College]]
|}
==Culture and interests==
<small>
*[[Famous Alabamians]]
*[[Alabama Jubilee Hot Air Balloon Classic]]
*[[Music of Alabama]]
*[[Alabama Public Television]], state wide public TV network
*[[List of television stations in Alabama]]
*[[Alabama Shakespeare Festival]]
*[[Alabama Sports Festival]]
*[[Spirit of America Festival]]
*[[U.S. Space & Rocket Center]]/[[U.S. Space Camp]]
*[[USS Alabama (BB-60)|USS Alabama]]
*[[Rickwood Field]]
*[[Robert Trent Jones Golf Trail]]
*[[Visionland Theme Park]]
*[[Old State Bank]]
*[[Vulcan statue]]
*[[Mobile Bay jubilee]]
*[[Point Mallard Aquatic Center]]
*[[Noccalula Falls Park]]
</small>
==References==
* Atkins, Leah Rawls, Wayne Flynt, William Warren Rogers, and David Ward. ''[http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=29166058 Alabama: The History of a Deep South State]'' (1994)
* Flynt, Wayne. ''Alabama in the Twentieth Century'' (2004)
* Owen Thomas M. ''History of Alabama and Dictionary of Alabama Biography'' 4 vols. 1921.
* Jackson, Harvey H. ''Inside Alabama: A Personal History of My State'' (2004)
* [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=52694010 Peirce, Neal R. ''The Deep South States of America: People, Politics, and Power in the Seven Deep South States'' (1974)] solid reporting on politics and economics 1960-72
* Williams, Benjamin Buford. ''A Literary History of Alabama: The Nineteenth Century'' 1979.
* WPA. ''Guide to Alabama'' (1939)
* for a detailed bibliography see [[History of Alabama]]
==External links==
{{sisterlinks|Alabama}}
*[http://alabama.gov/ Alabama.gov] - Official website.
*[http://www.alarc.org/ Alabama Association of Regional Councils]
*[http://www.touralabama.org/ TourAlabama.org] - Alabama Department of Tourism and Travel
*[http://www.archives.state.al.us/ Archives.state.al.us] - Alabama Department of Archives and History
**[http://www.archives.state.al.us/aaa.html All About Alabama] at the Archives Department site
*[http://alguard.state.al.us Alabama National Guard] - Alabama National Guard
*[http://www.legislature.state.al.us/CodeofAlabama/1975/coatoc.htm Code of Alabama 1975] - at the Alabama Legislature site
*[http://quickfacts.census.gov/qfd/states/01000.html Alabama QuickFacts] from the U.S. Census Bureau
*[http://www.countymapsofalabama.com/ County Maps of Alabama] - Full color maps. List of cities, towns and county seats
*[http://www.southernlitreview.com/states/alabama Alabama Literature] from the Southern Literary Review
==Notes==
&sup1; The phrase ''The Heart of Dixie'' is required by state law to be included on standard state vehicle license plates, but has recently been reduced to a very small size and eclipsed by the phrase ''Stars Fell on Alabama''.
{{Alabama}}
{{USPoliticalDivisions}}
[[Category:Alabama| ]]
[[Category:States of the United States]]
[[Category:1819 establishments]]
[[ang:Alabama]]
[[ar:ألاباما]]
[[ast:Alabama]]
[[bg:Алабама]]
[[zh-min-nan:Alabama]]
[[bs:Alabama]]
[[ca:Alabama]]
[[cs:Alabama]]
[[cy:Alabama]]
[[da:Alabama]]
[[de:Alabama (Bundesstaat)]]
[[et:Alabama]]
[[es:Alabama]]
[[eo:Alabamo]]
[[fr:Alabama]]
[[ga:Alabama]]
[[gd:Alabama]]
[[gl:Alabama]]
[[ko:앨라배마 주]]
[[hr:Alabama]]
[[io:Alabama]]
[[id:Alabama]]
[[is:Alabama]]
[[it:Alabama]]
[[he:אלבמה]]
[[ka:ალაბამა (შტატი)]]
[[la:Alabama]]
[[lv:Alabama]]
[[lt:Alabama]]
[[lb:Alabama (Bundesstaat)]]
[[jbo:alybamys]]
[[hu:Alabama]]
[[mk:Алабама]]
[[ms:Alabama]]
[[mo:Алабама]]
[[nl:Alabama]]
[[ja:アラバマ州]]
[[no:Alabama]]
[[nn:Alabama]]
[[os:Алабамæ (штат)]]
[[pl:Alabama]]
[[pt:Alabama]]
[[ro:Alabama]]
[[ru:Алабама (штат)]]
[[sq:Alabama]]
[[simple:Alabama]]
[[sk:Alabama]]
[[sl:Alabama]]
[[sr:Алабама]]
[[fi:Alabama]]
[[sv:Alabama]]
[[th:มลรัฐแอละแบมา]]
[[tr:Alabama]]
[[uk:Алабама (штат)]]
[[zh:阿拉巴馬州]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>AfricA</title>
|
opulsion System were open and the engine should be firing. A short was found in a switch that controlled on the redundant valves for the engine. New procedures were developed to deal with this. During their first inspection of the LM, Scott and Irwin found that the glass cover of a tapemeter had broken forcing them to clean up the glass shards lest they breathe them in.
On the fourth day they entered into lunar orbit and prepared for lunar descent.
===Solo operations===
{{main|Apollo 15, Solo operations}}
During the three day explorations of the Moon by Scott and Irwin, Worden had a busy schedule of observations. ''Apollo 15'' was the first mission to carry the SIM bay, which contained a [[panorama|panoramic]] camera, [[gamma ray spectrometer]], [[mapping]] camera, [[laser]] [[altimeter]] and [[mass spectrometer]]. Worden had to operate the [[Shutter (photography)|shutter]] and [[optical device|lens]]es on the camera and turn on and off the various instruments. During the coast back to Earth, he would perform an EVA to retrieve film cassettes from the cameras.
===Lunar surface===
{{main|Apollo 15, Lunar surface}}
[[Image:Apollo 15 flag, rover, LM, Irwin.jpg|thumb|250px|Jim Irwin salutes the US flag]]
[[Image:40_A15Sta8.jpg|thumb|250px|Panoramic Assembly of Apollo 15 Landing Site]]
''Apollo 15'' was the first mission to perform three EVAs on the lunar surface. After landing at [http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/lunar/lunar_sites.html 26°8&#8242; N 3°38&#8242; E], Scott removed the top hatch of the LM to perform a site survey and get a brief overview of the surrounding areas. The first EVA took the crew on the Rover to the base of Mount Hadley Delta. Back at the LM the crew started the deployment of the Apollo Lunar Surface Experiment Package (ALSEP). Scott had extreme difficulty drilling the holes for the heat-flow experiment, forcing him to come back the next day to complete the task.
The second EVA again took Scott and Irwin to the base of Mount Hadley Delta but they went up its slope. Here they found the [[Genesis Rock]]. Returning to the LM, Scott completed the heat flow holes and began on a core sample which once again was extremely difficult to drill. He was once again forced to leave it for the next day.
The difficulties with the core sample meant the cancellation of the traverse to the North Complex. The crew still travelled to the edge of Hadley Rille. Returning to the LM for the last time, Scott dropped a falcon feather and his geology hammer to show that in gravity fields, the mass of the object does not affect the rate at which it falls.
On LRV 1, a plaque was attached bearing the inscription:
:MANS FIRST WHEELS ON THE MOON, DELIVERED BY FALCON, JULY 30, 1971
And the signatures of the Apollo 15 Astronauts.
===Return to Earth===
{{main|Apollo 15, Return to Earth}}
After lifting off from the lunar surface, ''Falcon'' and ''Endeavour'' rendezvoused and docked. After transferring across the lunar samples and other equipment, ''Falcon'' was jettisoned. It would fire its rocket engine to cause it to impact the lunar surface. During lunar liftoff, the [[United States Air Force]] song "Wild Blue Yonder" was played, signifying the all-Air Force makeup of the Apollo 15 crew.
''Apollo 15'' spent one more day in lunar orbit, continuing the observations of Worden. After releasing a subsatellite, they ignited their Service Propulsion system to put them on a trajectory back to Earth. The next day, Worden performed an EVA to retrieve the film cassettes from the SIM bay cameras.
The twelfth day in space was uneventful, with Mission Control holding a press conference where the astronauts were asked questions submitted by the news media. On their 13th and final day they prepared for reentry. During descent one of their parachutes failed, meaning they landed under only two.
==The stamp controversy==
[[Image:Apollo 15 Space Suit David Scott.jpg|thumb|Dave Scott's space suit on display at the [[National Air and Space Museum|NASM]].]]
After a highly successful mission, the reputation of the crew was tarnished somewhat by a deal they made with [[H. Walter Eiermann]], an American citizen who had many professional and social contacts to NASA employees and the astronaut corps. Scott had carried 398 unauthorized [[First day of issue|First-Day Cover]]s in his spacesuit. Eiermann, had promised each astronaut [[United States dollar|US$]]7000 in the form of [[Savings deposit|savings accounts]] in return for 100 covers signed after having returned from the Moon. He told them that he would not advertise or sell the covers until the end of the Apollo program.
Scott sent 100 of these covers to Eiermann to [[Stuttgart]], [[Germany]]. Eiermann then passed them on to the stamp dealer [[Herman E. Sieger]] from [[Lorch]], [[Germany]], who had previously approached him and had suggested the deal. Sieger proceeded to sell the covers for an average price of US$1,500 in a public sale in Germany. On hearing these news, Scott contacted Eiermann, asking him to stop the sale. The crew also decided against receiving any money from Eiermann. NASA took possession of the remaining 298 covers.
All three crew members were formally reprimanded and their official [[Efficiency Report]]s as military officers were changed to reflect a formal finding of "lack of judgment".
Another minor controversy centered around two [[timepiece]]s, a [[wristwatch|watch]] and [[stopwatch]], carried by Scott. He had agreed to evaluate the timepieces for the manufacturer at the request of a friend. Thinking they might be useful, particularly for the possible timing of a manually controlled emergency propulsion maneuver, Scott took them along on the mission without prior authorization.
One final controversial event happened after the flight. The crew had contacted Belgian [[Sculpture|sculptor]] [[Paul Van Hoeydonck]] to create a small statuette to personally commemorate those astronauts and cosmonauts having lost their lives in the furtherance of space exploration. The small [[aluminium]] sculpture called "[[Fallen Astronaut]]" was left on the Moon, along with a plaque bearing the names of fourteen American and Russian astronauts and cosmonauts. They had agreed with Van Hoeydonck that no replicas were to be made. After mentioning the statuette during their post-flight press conference, the [[National Air and Space Museum]] contacted the crew asking for a replica made for the museum. The crew agreed under the condition that it was to be displayed with good taste and without publicity. Van Hoeydonck was contacted to make the replicas. In May 1972 Scott learned that Van Hoeydonck planned to make more replicas and sell them. Van Hoeydonck could not be persuaded not to and 950 replicas were sold for $750 apiece at the [[Waddell Gallery]] of [[New York]].
== Media ==
{{multi-video start}}
{{multi-video item |
filename = Apollo 15 Lunar Rover training.ogg |
title = Rover training |
description = Scott and Irwin train on Earth to use the Lunar Rover. (2.57 [[Megabyte|MB]], [[ogg]]/[[Theora]] format). |
format = [[Theora]]
}}
{{multi-video item |
filename = Apollo 15 launch.ogg |
title = Launch of ''Apollo 15'' |
description = Launch of ''Apollo 15'' running from T-30s through to T+40s. (1.29 [[Megabyte|MB]], [[ogg]]/[[Theora]] format). |
format = [[Theora]]
}}
{{multi-video item |
filename = Apollo 15 TandD.ogg |
title = Transposition, Docking and Extraction |
description = ''Endeavour'' comes into dock with ''Falcon'' (3.03 [[Megabyte|MB]], [[ogg]]/[[Theora]] format). |
format = [[Theora]]
}}
{{multi-video item |
filename = Apollo 15 CSM moving away from LM.ogg |
title = CSM moving away |
description = ''Endeavour'' filmed from ''Falcon'' after undocking. (3.05 [[Megabyte|MB]], [[ogg]]/[[Theora]] format). |
format = [[Theora]]
}}
{{multi-video item |
filename = Apollo 15 landing on the Moon.ogg |
title = Landing on the Moon |
description = The landing on the Moon at Hadley seen from the perspective of the Lunar Module Pilot. Starts at about 5000 feet. (5.47 [[Megabyte|MB]], [[ogg]]/[[Theora]] format). |
format = [[Theora]]
}}
{{multi-video item |
filename = Apollo 15 lunar rover EVA2.ogg|
title = Onboard the Lunar Rover |
description = 16 mm film sequence of driving the Lunar Rover. (3.26 [[Megabyte|MB]], [[ogg]]/[[Theora]] format). |
format = [[Theora]]
}}
{{multi-video item |
filename = Apollo 15 feather and hammer drop.ogg|
title = Hammer and Feather Drop |
description = Scott demonstrates that Galileo was right. (1.38 [[Megabyte|MB]], [[ogg]]/[[Theora]] format). |
format = [[Theora]]
}}
{{multi-video item |
filename = Apollo 15 liftoff from the Moon.ogg |
title = Liftoff from the Moon |
description = The liftoff from the Moon as seen by the TV camera on the Rover. (2.31 [[Megabyte|MB]], [[ogg]]/[[Theora]] format). |
format = [[Theora]]
}}
{{multi-video item |
filename = Apollo 15 liftoff from inside LM.ogg |
title = Liftoff from the Moon |
description = The liftoff from the Moon as from the Lunar Module Pilot. (1.18 [[Megabyte|MB]], [[ogg]]/[[Theora]] format). |
format = [[Theora]]
}}
{{multi-video item |
filename = Apollo 15 Worden EVA.ogg |
title = Worden's EVA |
description = Worden undertakes an EVA to retrieve film cassettes from the Science Instrument Module. (2.81 [[Megabyte|MB]], [[ogg]]/[[Theora]] format). |
format = [[Theora]]
}}
{{multi-video item |
filename = Apollo 15 splashdown.ogg |
title = Splashdown |
description = Descent and splashdown of the ''Apollo 15''. (3.67 [[Megabyte|MB]], [[ogg]]/[[Theora]] format). |
format = [[Theora]]
}}
{{multi-video end}}
== References ==
*Chaikin
|
f 15
| premierships = 5 - [[1992]], [[1993]] ([[New South Wales Rugby League|NSWRL]]), [[1997]] ([[Super League (Australia)|Super League]]), [[1998]], [[2000]] ([[National Rugby League|NRL]])
| runners = Nil
| minors = 4 - [[1992]], [[1997]] ([[Super League (Australia)|Super League]]), [[1998]], [[2000]]
| spoons = Nil
| win = 60 - 6 vs. [[North Sydney Bears|Norths]],[[April 26]] [[1998]]
| loss = 4 - 50 vs. [[Melbourne Storm|Melbourne]], [[April 2]] [[2005]]
}}'''Brisbane Broncos''', founded [[1988]], is a [[rugby league]] team based in [[Brisbane, Queensland]]. A poll taken in [[Australia]] in 2002 showed the Brisbane Broncos to be the most supported football club of any code in the country with more than 1.1 million supporters. The Broncos are the only publically listed sporting club on the [[Australian Stock Exchange]] trading under the [[Australian Stock Exchange|ASX Code]] BBL.
== History ==
In the mid-[[1980s]] the New South Wales Rugby League decided to expand the Sydney competition to include teams from Brisbane, the Gold Coast and Newcastle, and team set up by Barry Maranta and Paul "Porky" Morgan was started playing in 1988. After deliberating over such nicknames as Bulls, Bombers and Kookaburras, the team decided on the name "Broncos". The mascot of the Broncos is Buck the horse. On [[March 6]] [[1988]] Brisbane defeated the [[1987]] premiers [[Manly-Warringah Sea Eagles|Manly]] 44-10 in their first premiership game.
[[Wayne Bennett (rugby league coach)|Wayne Bennett]] was the coach for this first season, and remains in that role today. Although the Broncos started well, winning the first six games in their inaugural season, they failed to make the finals. In [[1989]] the Broncos won the midweek Panasonic Cup competition, but once more failed to make the semi-finals in the season proper. Searching for solutions Wayne Bennett controversially sacked [[Wally Lewis]] as club captain.
Brisbane won their first premiership in [[1992]] when they defeated the [[St. George Dragons]] 28-8. A month later they won the World Club Challenge, defeating Wigan 22-8.
[[Image:last broncos game at anz.jpg|thumb|The Brisbane Broncos played their final match at ANZ Stadium against the Melbourne Storm on 18 May 2003.]]
In [[1993]] the Broncos relocated from Lang Park to ANZ Stadium, after years of dispute with the Lang Park Trust about brewery advertising. That year they beat St George 14-6 again in the grand final. This victory gave them the right to contest the World Club Challenge once more. They were defeated by Wigan 20-14 in Brisbane in [[1994]].
From 1995 Brisbane was embroiled in the [[Super League (Australia)|Super League]] War, and failed to make the grand final again until 1997, when they defeated Cronulla in the Super League Grand Final 26-8. When Super League merged with the ARL to form the [[National Rugby League]], the Broncos were again in the Grand Final, and they defeated the Canterbury Bulldogs 38-12 to take the inaugural NRL trophy.
In [[2000]] the Broncos once more won the NRL premiership, defeating the Sydney Roosters 14-6. After disappointing crowds at ANZ Stadium during the early 2000s, with crowds averaging around the 20,000 mark, the Broncos decided on a move back to Rugby League's spiritual home at Suncorp Stadium (Lang Park) when the Queensland Government announced a $380m redevelopment of the ground. Since then the Broncos' crowds have increased to levels not seen since 1995 before the advent of Super League. The Broncos crowd increased from the 28,000 mark in 2004 to over 30,000 in [[2005]]. With a draw that has Brisbane playing a number of well-supported teams (Cowboys, Bulldogs & Dragons) at home in 2006, the average crowd for the season could easily pass 31,000.
== Captains ==
{| class="wikitable"
|- bgcolor=#bdb76b
! Years !! Captain
|-
| [[1988]]-[[1989]] || [[Wally Lewis]]
|-
| [[1990]]-[[1991]] || [[Gene Miles]]
|-
| [[1992]]-[[1999]] || [[Allan Langer]]
|-
| [[1999]]-[[2000]] || [[Kevin Walters]]
|-
| [[2001]]-[[2004]] || [[Gorden Tallis]]
|-
| [[2005]]-[[Present (time)|present]] || [[Darren Lockyer]]
|}
== Notable players ==
*[[Sam "the Man" Backo]]
*[[Andrew Gee]]
*[[Trevor Gilmeister]]
*[[Michael Hancock]]
*[[Allan Langer]]
*[[Glenn Lazarus]]
*[[Wally Lewis]]
*[[Darren Lockyer]]
*[[Gene Miles]]
*[[Scott Minto]]
*[[Steve Renouf]]
*[[Wendell Sailor]]
*[[Gorden Tallis]]
*[[Lote Tuqiri]]
*[[Kevin Walters]]
*[[Shane Webcke]]
== Premierships ==
[[Image:brisbane 1988.jpg|thumb|The Brisbane Broncos' logo from [[1988]] to [[1999]].]]
{| class="wikitable"
|- bgcolor=#bdb76b
! Year !! Premiership !! Result
|-
| [[1989]] || Panasonic Cup Midweek Competition || def. Illawarra Steelers
|-
| [[1992]] || [[New South Wales Rugby League premiership]] || def. [[St. George Dragons]] 28-8
|-
| [[1992]] || [[World Club Challenge]] || def. [[Wigan Warriors]] 22-8
|-
| [[1993]] || [[New South Wales Rugby League premiership]] || def. [[St. George Dragons]] 14-6
|-
| [[1997]] || [[Super League (Australia)|Super League]] || def. [[Cronulla Sharks]] 26-8
|-
| [[1997]] || [[World Club Challenge]] || def. [[Hunter Mariners]] 36-12
|-
| [[1998]] || [[National Rugby League]] || def. [[Canterbury Bulldogs]] 38-12
|-
| [[2000]] || [[National Rugby League]] || def. [[Sydney Roosters]] 14-6
|}
==Sponsors==
===Jersey Manufacturers===
* Peerless (1988-91)
* M Sport (1992-1996)
* [[Nike, Inc|Nike]] (1997-now)
===Major Sponsors===
* Powers Brewing (1988-1993)
* Traveland (1994-1996)
* [[Ansett|Ansett Australia]] (1997-1998)
* 131 Shop (1999-2000)
* Ergon Energy (2000-now)
===Sleeve Sponsors===
* TR Auscel (1990-1991)
* TDK (1992-1994)
* MMI (1995)
* [[Ansett|Ansett Australia]] (1996-2001)
* Keno (2002-2003)
* Mortgage House (2004)
* Q.L.D. Group (2005-now)
===Shorts Sponsors===
* Powers Brewing (1992-93)
* Ansett Australia (1997-1998)
* Keno (1999-2001)
* [[NRMA|NRMA Insurance]] (2003-now)
==Record Crowds==
===Suncorp Stadium (Lang Park)===
* 49,571 (v Canterbury Bulldogs, Round 23, 2004)
* 48,995 (v St George Illawarra Dragons, Round 23, 2005)
* 46,337 (v Newcastle Knights, Round 12, 2003)
* 43,438 (v North Queensland Cowboys, Round 1, 2005)
* 37,745 (v Penrith Panthers, Round 7, 2004)
* 35,597 (v St George Illawarra Dragons, Round 26, 2003)
* 35,592 (v Sydney Roosters, Round 25, 2005)
===ANZ Stadium===
* 58,912 (v Cronulla Sharks, Super League Grand Final 1997)
* 58,593 (v St George Illawarra Dragons, 27/8/93)
* 51,517 (v Parramatta Eels, 28/3/93)
==Club Records==
===Coaches===
* Wayne Bennett (1988-now)
===Most First Grade Games for the Broncos===
* 274- Michael Hancock (1988-2000)
* 258- Allan Langer (1988-1999, 2002)
* 255- Andrew Gee (1989-1999, 2002-2003)
* 241- Kevin Walters (1990-2001)
===Most Tries in a Match===
* 4- Steve Renouf (v North Sydney Bears, Lang Park. Round 20, 1991) (Brisbane won 44-6)
* 4- Steve Renouf (v Bulldogs, ANZ Stadium. Round 17, 1993) (Brisbane won 38-18)
* 4- Steve Renouf (v Balmain Tigers, Optus Oval. Round 7, 1994) (Brisbane won 36-14)
* 4- Steve Renouf (v Auckland Warriors, ANZ Stadium. Round 22, 1995) (Brisbane won 44-6)
* 4- Steve Renouf (v Penrith Panthers, ANZ Stadium. Round 3, 1998) (Brisbane won 26-18)
* 4- Wendell Sailor (v St George Illawarra Dragons, Aussie Stadium. Round 28, 2001) (Brisbane won 44-28)
* 4- Karmichael Hunt (v South Sydney Rabbitohs, Suncorp Stadium. Round 17, 2004) (Brisbane won 48-28)
===Most Tries in a Season===
* 23- Steve Renouf (in 21 games, 1994)
* 23- Darren Smith (in 27 games, 1998)
* 21- Lote Tuqiri (in 29 games, 2001)
===Most Tries for the Broncos===
* 142- Steve Renouf (in 183 games)
* 120- Michael Hancock (in 274 games)
* 110- Wendell Sailor (in 189 games)
* 100- Allan Langer (in 258 games)
===Most Goals in a Match===
* 9- Michael De Vere (v North Queensland Cowboys, ANZ Stadium. Round 14, 2001) (Brisbane won 50-6)
* 9- Darren Lockyer (v North Queensland Cowboys, ANZ Stadium. Round 5, 1998) (Brisbane won 58-4)
===Most Points in a Season===
* 272- Darren Lockyer (in 26 games, 1998. 19 tries, 98 goals)
* 206- Michael De Vere (in 25 games, 2001. 2 tries, 99 goals)
* 196- Michael De Vere (in 27 games, 2000. 12 tries, 74 goals)
===Most Points for the Broncos===
* 1062- Michael De Vere (162 games, 64 tries, 403 goals)
* 845- Darren Lockyer (214 games, 86 tries, 247 goals, 7 field goals) (AS OF JANUARY 2005)
* 744- Terry Matterson (156 games, 29 tries, 314 goals)
* 568- Steve Renouf (183 games, 142 tries)
===Biggest Wins===
* 60-6 (v North Sydney, ANZ Stadium. April 26, 1998)
* 58-4 (v North Queensland, ANZ Stadium. April 12, 1998)
* 56-4 (v Western Suburbs Magpies, ANZ Stadium. June 21, 1998)
* 50-0 (v Western Suburbs Magpies, ANZ Stadium. May 29, 1999)
* 56-6 (v South Sydney Rabbitohs, ANZ Stadium. August 13, 1995)
* 54-4 (v Illawarra Steelers, ANZ Stadium. April 6, 1996)
* 50-0 (v Balmain Tigers, ANZ Stadium. August 13, 1993)
===Biggest Losses===
* 50-4 (v Melbourne Storm, Olympic Park. April 2, 2005)
* 44-0 (v Newcastle Knights, EnergyAustralia Stadium. July 6, 2001)
* 48-6 (v Melbourne Storm, ANZ Stadium. March 21, 1999)
* 40-4 (v Canterbury Bulldogs, Suncorp Stadium. July 11, 2003)
* 40-10 (v Newcastle Knights, EnergyAustralia Stadium. August 23, 2002)
===Longest Winning Streaks===
* 12 Matches (Round 14, 1997 to Round 5, 1998)
* 11 Matches (Round 11 to Round 23, 1999)
* 11 Matches (Round 8 to Round 18, 1990)
* 10 Matches (Round 5 to Round 15, 2005)
* 10 Matches (Round 16, 1992 to Round 1, 1993)
===Longest Losing Streaks===
* 8 Matches (Round 20 to Finals Week 1, 2003)
* 7 Matches (Round 22 to Finals Week 2, 2005)
* 6 Matches (Round 20 to 25, 2001)
===Australian Internationals===
* Sam Backo
* Shaun Berrigan
* Dane Carlaw
* Willie Carne
* Tonie Carroll
* Petero Civoniceva
* Greg Conescu
* Tony Currie
* Michael De Vere
* Andrew Gee
* Michael Hancock
* Paul Hauff
* Mark Hohn
* Peter Jackson
* Chris Johns
* Allan Langer
* Glenn Lazarus
*
|
ell as incentive schemes such as points, airmiles or cashback. On the contrary, debit cards do not usually have these characteristics, and so the fee for merchants to accept debit cards is a low fixed amount, regardless of transaction amount. This means it is cheaper for a merchant to accept a debit card for a large amount and to accept a credit card for a small amount. Although merchants won the right through [http://www.opsi.gov.uk/si/si1990/Uksi_19902159_en_1.htm The Credit Cards (Price Discrimination) Order 1990] to charge customers different prices according to the payment method, few merchants in the UK charge less for payment by debit card than by credit card, the most notable exceptions being [[budget airline]]s, [[travel agent]]s and [[IKEA]]. Debit cards in the UK lack the advantages offered to holders of UK-issued credit cards, such as free incentives (points, airmiles, cashback etc), interest-free credit and protection against defaulting merchants under [http://www.oft.gov.uk/NR/rdonlyres/DB431C9A-F28B-488A-B4C7-58C51C045169/0/oft303.pdf Section 75 of the Consumer Credit Act 1974]. Despite these disadvantages of debit cards over credit cards, many people in the UK prefer paying with debit cards rather than credit cards, often because they fear that using credit cards will result in accumulation of unmanageable debts. All establishments in the [[United Kingdom]] that accept credit cards also accept debit cards (although not always [[Solo (debit card)|Solo]] and [[Visa Electron]]), but a minority of merchants, for cost reasons, accept debit cards and not credit cards (for example the [[Post Office Ltd|Post Office]]).
In [[Germany]] and [[Belgium]], many merchants, including most supermarkets, do not accept credit cards because of the higher fees charged by their banks. However, most merchants usually accept debit cards, because the fees for accepting them are much lower, for example in [[Germany]] 0.3% with a minimum of €0.08.
==Online and offline debit cards==
There are currently two ways that debit card transactions are processed: online debit cards and offline debit cards. Online debit cards are essentially enhanced [[automatic teller machine]] [[ATM card|(ATM) cards]], as they use the same [[personal identification number]] (PIN) [[authentication]] system and debits are reflected in the user’s account immediately. The PIN authentication is much more secure than the alternative signature (used in offline debit cards). One difficulty in using online debit cards is the necessity of a separate [[keyboard technology|keypad]] at the [[point of sale]] (POS) to enter the PIN, although this is becoming commonplace for all card transactions in many countries. Overall, the online debit card is generally viewed as superior to the offline debit card because of its more secure authentication system and live status, which alleviates problems with processing [[lag]] on transactions that may have been forgotten or not authorized by the owner of the card. Banks in some countries, such as [[Canada]], only issue online debit cards.
Offline debit cards have the [[logo]]s of major credit cards (e.g. [[VISA (credit card)|Visa]] or [[MasterCard]]) or major debit cards (e.g. [[Maestro (debit card)|Maestro]]) and are used at point of sale like a credit card. This type of debit card may be subject to a daily limit, as well as a maximum limit equal to the amount currently deposited in the current/checking account from which it draws funds. Offline debit cards in some countries are not compatible with the PIN system, in which case they can be used with a forged signature, since users are rarely required to present [[personal identification|identification]]. Transactions conducted with offline debit cards usually require 2-3 days to be reflected on users’ account balances. This type of debit card is similar to a [[secured credit card|secured credit card]].
Many debit cards are actually capable of accomplishing both types of transactions, depending on the availability of proper equipment at the POS.
In the [[United Kingdom]], [[Solo (debit card)|Solo]] and [[Visa Electron]] are examples of online debit cards, which are typically issued by banks to customers whom the bank does not want to go overdrawn under any circumstances, for example under-18s.
=="Credit" and "debit" purchases==
In some countries (e.g. the [[United States]]), terminals allow the user of a Visa or MasterCard debit card to choose whether the purchase is a "credit" or "debit" purchase. In a "credit" purchase, the user signs a charge slip (as in a traditional credit card purchase); in a "debit" purchase, the user enters a PIN. In either case, the user's bank account is debited.
In some countries and with some merchant service organisations (as of this writing), a "credit" transaction is without cost to the purchaser beyond the face value of the transaction, while a small fee may be charged for "debit" transactions (although it is often absorbed by the [[retailer]].) Other differences are that "debit" purchasers may opt to withdraw cash in addition to the amount of the debit purchase (if the merchant supports that functionality); also, from the merchant's standpoint, the merchant pays lower fees on a "debit" transaction as compared to "credit" transactions.
The fees charged to merchants on "credit" debit card purchases -- and the lack of fees charged merchants for processing "debit" debit card purchases and paper checks -- have prompted some major merchants to file [[lawsuit]]s against debit-card transaction processors such as Visa and MasterCard. Visa and MasterCard recently agreed to settle the largest of these lawsuits and agreed to [[settlement (law)|settlement]]s of billions of dollars.
Many consumers prefer "credit" transactions because of the lack of a fee charged to the consumer/purchaser -- and many terminals at PIN-accepting merchant locations now make the "credit" function more difficult to access. Also, in the case of a benign or malicious error by the merchant and/or bank, a debit transaction may cause more serious problems (e.g. money not accessible; overdrawn account) than in the case of a credit or charge card transaction (e.g. credit not accessible; over [[credit limit]]).
To the consumer, a debit transaction is real-time; i.e. the money is withdrawn from their account immediately following the authorization request from the merchant. This is in contrast to a typical credit card or charge card transaction which can have a lag time of a few days before the transaction is posted to the account, and many days to a month or more before the consumer makes repayment with actual money.
==[[Chip and PIN]]==
In many countries, the use of PIN validated transactions with [[smartcard]] [[chip]] [[reader]]s is being strongly encouraged by the banks as a method of reducing cloned-card [[fraud]]; to the extent that cardholder-present transactions will soon not be possible in these countries without knowledge of a PIN, and the POS terminal reading the smart card chip on the card.
==Popularity==
Debit cards and [[secured credit card]]s are popular among college students who have not yet established a credit history. There are also forms of debit cards (e.g. [[Visa Buxx]]) that are purchased by parents for [[teenager]]s as young as 13. The parent retains a great deal of control over the child's use of the cards.
Debit cards are also similar to [[stored-value card]]s in that they represent a finite amount of money owed by the card issuer to the holder. They are different in that stored-value cards are generally anonymous, while debit cards are generally associated with an individual's bank account. Debit cards usually offer some protection against loss, theft, or unauthorized use while stored-value cards usually do not.
==See also==
*[[EFTPOS]]
*[[Interac]]
*[[Laser (debit card)]]
*[[Maestro (debit card)]]
*[[Solo (debit card)]]
*[[Switch (debit card)]]
*[[Visa Delta]]
*[[Visa Electron]]
[[Category:Payment systems]]
[[Category:Debit cards|*]]
[[de:Scheckkarte]]
[[it:Carta di debito]]
[[lt:Debeto kortelė]]
[[ja:デビットカード]]
[[pl:Karta kredytowa]]
[[fi:Pankkikortti]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Dewar flask</title>
<id>9009</id>
<revision>
<id>40230387</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-19T02:52:17Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Vicarious</username>
<id>386031</id>
</contributor>
<comment>added image</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{merge|Vacuum flask}}
[[Image:Dewar Flask.PNG|256px|right|thumb|A dewar flask, the red area is a [[vacuum]]]]
A '''Dewar flask''' is a vessel designed to provide very good [[thermal insulation]]. For instance, when filled with a hot liquid, the vessel will not allow the [[heat]] to easily escape, and the liquid will stay hot for far longer than in a typical container. The Dewar flask was named after its inventor [[Scotland|Scottish]] [[physicist]] Sir [[James Dewar]] ([[1842]]&ndash;[[1923]]).
In form, a Dewar flask is a [[glass]] or metal bottle, with a double-layer construction; in fact, it can be considered to be two thin-walled bottles nested one inside the other, and sealed together at the neck. The narrow space between is evacuated almost entirely of [[Earth's atmosphere|air]]; the near [[vacuum]] prevents [[heat conduction|conduction]] and [[convection]] of heat.
The inner surfaces of the outer bottle, and the outer surface of the inner bottle, have a metallic or similar reflective coating to prevent heat from being transmitted via [[Thermal radiation|radiation]]. Dewar himself used [[silver]] for this purpose. This is so effective that what little heat transport does occur is almost entirely via the neck and stopper; insulating materials such as [[Cork (material)|cork
|
referably alcoholic) in your hand.
The United States Croquet Association (USCA) is the governing body of croquet in the United States. The Official USCA 9 Wicket Croquet Webiste is
http://www.9wicketcroquet.com
==Croquet Variants==
===eXtreme Croquet===
Taking the principles of backyard croquet to the next level results in the phenomenon of [[Extreme_croquet|eXtreme Croquet]]. This variant shuns the serene settings of traditional croquet for more challenging terrain including those that contain trees, roots, hills, sand, mud, or moving or still water. eXtreme Croquet uses the traditional English figure-eight standard layout, but several additional rules, rules that vary from location to location, are also employed.
* [http://www.extremecroquet.org/about/links.html The Connecticut eXtreme Croquet Society]
===Bicycle Croquet===
Based on the rules of conventional croquet "Bicycle Croquet" probably came about in and around Graz/Austria in the beginning of the 20th century. The modern variation of Bicycle Croquet(from German "Fahrradkrocket") has been played since 1997, when Mike Fugeman (England) and Wolfgang Wendlinger (Austria) reinvented the Sport in Aigen im Ennstal/Austria. The homepage of BCCGraz (Bicycle Croquet Club Graz) gives the following description of the sport:
:Bicycle Croquet - the game
:In addition to a high level of fairness BC demands strict control over a player's body and soul. The correct control over ones bicycle is essential for an exciting and stimulating BC-game. The Rund (the ball) is played through the gates by the Holz (mallet). A time limit of 10 seconds has to be met for every individual play. The players alternate strokes and are not allowed to touch the ground with any part of their body. He or she who manages first to hit the peak at the end of the course with their runds wins the game.
* [http://www.bccgraz.org Bicycle Croquet Club Graz]
==Croquet in art and literature==
[[Image:Edouard Manet 012.jpg|thumb|''The Croquet Game'', [[Édouard Manet]], 1873.]]
*[[Winslow Homer]], [[Édouard Manet]], [[Louise Abbéma]] and [[Pierre Bonnard]] all have paintings titled ''The Croquet Game.''
*[[Norman Rockwell]] often depicted the game, including in his painting ''Croquet.''
*A favorite subject of [[Edward Gorey]], a croquet reference often appeared in the first illustration of his books. ''The Untenanted Bicycle'' opens with two illustrations of the main characters playing with croquet mallets.
*In Issues 29 and 30 of [[Dave Sim]]'s [[Cerebus]], the title character and plays almost 40 games of "Wickets" with an invisible elf. The matches, which include roquet-croquet-related [[trash-talk]], correspond to pages 85-90 in the graphic novel "High Society."
*[[Bill Watterson]] often depicted the title characters in [[Calvin and Hobbes]] playing, or attempting to play croquet. Later in the series, parts of the croquet set were integrated into the sport [[Calvin and Hobbes#Calvinball|Calvinball]].
*[[H. G. Wells]] wrote ''The Croquet Player,'' which uses croquet as a metaphor for the way in which man confronts the very problem of his own existence.
*A garden version of the game is depicted in the [[Cult film|cult film]] ''[[Heathers]]''. Each of the five main characters dresses mostly in his or her croquet color, and a major characterisation is made of how one character will roquet-croquet her victim, but our hero takes the two shots and proceeds.
*A surreal version in the popular children's novel ''[[Alice's Adventures in Wonderland|Alice in Wonderland]]'', as well as the subsequent Disney movie.
*In [[Martin Scorsese]]'s ''[[The Aviator]]'', when [[Howard Hughes]] visits [[Katharine Hepburn]]'s home in [[Connecticut]], the family is playing croquet. Later, Hughes kicks a croquet ball and Hepburn says to him "It doesn't count unless you use the mallet."
*In the ''[[Knots Landing]]'' episode "A Fine Romance" ([[December 29]], [[1988]]), Paige ([[Nicollette Sheridan]]) and Greg ([[William Devane]]) play a game of strip croquet.
*In the [[Thursday Next]] series of novels, notably [[Something Rotten]], [[Jasper Fforde]] depicts an alternative world in which croquet is a mass spectator sport. In the final of the Superhoop '88, [[Thursday Next]] leads the Swindon Mallets to victory over their arch-rivals, the Reading Whackers, by engaging the services of a group of Neanderthals, thereby saving the world from imminent destruction.
==Croquet Clubs==
Even though championship croquet is no longer played on the average backyard lawn you might be surprised to find a croquet club not too far away from your home just waiting for you to re-kindle your interest in this most fascinating game. In America, croquet lawns may be found from Santa Barbara, California to Puget Sound, Washington, from Rhode Island to Palm Beach Florida and many places in-between. Many colleges have croquet clubs, as well, such as [[Bates College]] and [[Harvard University]].
Here are a few links to find out more information about local clubs in your area:
United States
* [http://www.croquetnational.com/ National Croquet Center, West Palm Beach, Florida]
* [http://www.azcroquet.com/ Arizona Croquet Club]
* [http://www.houstoncroquet.com/ Houston Croquet Club]
* [http://www.mauicroquetclub.org/ Maui Croquet Club]
* [http://www.croquetanyone.com/ Mission Hills Croquet Club]
* [http://www.homestead.com/sonomacutrercroquet/ Sonoma-Cutrer Croquet Club]
If you don't find one listed here, try the [http://www.croquetamerica.com/ USCA website].
United Kingdom
* [http://www.croquet.org.uk/clubs/index.html England and Wales]
* [http://www.scottishcroquet.org.uk/contacts.htm Scotland]
Canada
* [http://www.croqsoc.com/ UBC Croquet Society, Vancouver, BC]
In the US,
The World Croquet Federation has members from 15 countries [http://www.wcfcroquet.org/ WCF website].
==External links==
* [http://www.croquet.org.uk/ The Croquet Association] including the Official Laws of Association Croquet
* [http://www.oxfordcroquet.com/coach/synopsis/index.asp A Synopsis of the Laws of Association Croquet] from Oxford Croquet
* [http://www.croquetamerica.com/ United States Croquet Association]
* [http://www.toycrossing.com/croquet/index.shtml The Rules of Croquet] nine-wicket or garden croquet
[[Category:Ball games]][[Category:Precision sports]][[Category:Past Olympic sports]]
[[da:Krocket]]
[[de:Croquet]]
[[fr:Croquet]]
[[ru:Крокет]]
[[sv:Krocket]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Curling</title>
<id>6644</id>
<revision>
<id>42126528</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T00:13:59Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>67.85.194.80</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Curling''', is a precision team [[sport]] similar to [[bowls]] or [[bocce]], played on a rectangular sheet of prepared [[ice]] by two teams of four players each, using heavy polished granite stones which they slide down the ice towards an archery-like target called the ''house''. Points are scored by the proximity of a team's rocks to the center of the target.
[[image:Brier 045.jpg|thumb|300px|Curling is a game played on ice with granite stones; in this picture, four curling sheets are shown.]]
== Origins and history ==
The game was probably invented in [[late medieval]] [[Scotland]], with the first written reference to a contest using stones on ice coming from the records of [[Paisley Abbey]], [[Renfrewshire|Renfrew]], in February, [[1541]]. Two paintings (both dated [[1565]] [http://icing.org/game/history/historyb.htm]) by [[Pieter Brueghel the Elder]] depict [[Netherlands|Dutch]] [[peasant]]s curling (Scotland and the [[Low Countries]] had strong trading and cultural links during this period, which is also evident in the [[history of golf]]).
The word ''curling'' first appears in print in [[1620]] in [[Perth, Scotland|Perth]], Scotland, in the [[preface]] and the verses of a poem by [[Henry Adamson]]. The game was (and still is, in Scotland) also known as "the roaring game" because of the sound the stones make while travelling over the ''pebble'' (droplets of water applied to the playing surface). The word derives from the [[Scots language]] verb ''curr'' [http://www.dsl.ac.uk/dsl/getent4.php?query=curr] which describes a low rumble (a [[cognate]] of the [[English language]] verb ''[[purr]]''). The word does not take its name from the motion of the stones, which due to their deviation from a straight-line trajectory are said to curl.
In the early history of curling, the rocks were simply flat-bottomed river stones which were sometimes notched or shaped; the thrower had little control over the rock, and relied more on luck than skill to win, unlike today's reliance on skill and strategy.
Outdoor curling was very popular in Scotland between the 16th and the 19th centuries as the climate provided good ice conditions every winter.
Scotland is home to the international governing body for curling, the [[World Curling Federation]], Perth, which originated as a committee of the [[Royal Caledonian Curling Club]], the mother club of curling.
Today the game is most firmly established in [[Sports in Canada|Canada]], having been taken there by [[Scottish emigrants]]. The [[Royal Montreal Curling Club]], the oldest active athletic club of any kind in [[North America]], was established in [[1807]]. The first curling club in the [[United States]] began in [[1832]], and the game was introduced to [[Switzerland]] and [[Sweden]] before the end of the [[nineteenth century]], also by Scots. Today, curling is played all over [[Europe]] and has spread to [[Japan]], [[Australia]], [[New Zealand]], and even [[China]] and [[Korea]].
The first world curling championship in the sport was limited to men and was known as the "[[Scotch Cup]]" held in [[Falkirk]] and [[Edinburgh]], [[Scotland]], in [[1959]]. The first ever world title was won by the [[Canada|Ca
|
gory:Chiropractic]]
[[nl:Chiropractie]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Carbide</title>
<id>7739</id>
<revision>
<id>42083632</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T18:42:29Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>213.139.195.162</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Carbid.jpg|200px|thumb|Carbide]]
In [[chemistry]], '''Carbide''' confusingly refers to three different things:
1. The [[polyatomic ion]] C<sub>2</sub><sup>2−</sup>, or any salt of such. There is a [[triple]] [[covalent bond]] between the two carbon atoms.
2. The [[monatomic ion]] C<sup>4−</sup>, or any salt of such. This ion is a very strong base, and will combine with four [[proton]]s to form [[methane]]: C<sup>4−</sup> + 4 H<sup>+</sup> → CH<sub>4</sub>.
3. A carbon-containing alloy or doping of a metal or semiconductor, such as steel.
==Examples==
* [[Sodium carbide]] (Na<sub>2</sub>C<sub>2</sub>)
* [[Silicon carbide]] (SiC)
* [[Tungsten carbide]] (often called simply ''carbide'')
* [[Cementite]] (iron carbide; Fe<sub>3</sub>C)
See [[:Category:Carbides]] for a bigger list.
==Types of carbides==
===Methides===
A salt corresponding to the ion C<sup>4−</sup> can be called a '''methide'''. Methides commonly react with water to form [[methane]].
testing 123
===Acetylides===
A salt corresponding to the ion C<sub>2</sub><sup>2−</sup> can be called an '''acetylide'''. Acetylides commonly react with water to form [[acetylene]].
===Compounds that do not fit usual notions of valence or stoichiometry===
===Interstitial carbides===
These are formed with metals; they often have metallic properties.
===Some covalent compounds===
Elements that have similar [[electronegavitity]] form mainly covalent compounds. For example, the compound silicon carbide is mostly covalent; it has similar structure to [[diamond]].
==Properties==
Under conditions of [[standard temperature and pressure]], [[metal]] carbides react strongly with [[water]] to form metal [[oxide]]s or [[hydroxide|hydroxides]] and flammable [[acetylene]] gas, e.g.:
: CaC<sub>2</sub> + 2H<sub>2</sub>O → C<sub>2</sub>H<sub>2</sub> + Ca(OH)<sub>2</sub>
[[Carbide lamp|Carbide lamps]], an important source of portable subterranean [[lighting|illumination]] for [[mining]] and [[caving]], and in the past for [[lighthouse]] lamps, work through on-demand production and [[combustion]] of [[acetylene]] by the metered addition of [[water]] to calcium carbide.
[[Gas lighting]], using acetylene gas generated from carbide, was used in some homes before the [[incandescent lamp]] came into widespread use. It was also the main source of lighting on [[bicycle]]s and carriages before the widespread availability of electric lamps and batteries. The carbide was prepared industrially by the action of an [[electric arc furnace]] on a mixture of [[coke (fuel)|coke]] and [[limestone]].
In the northern, eastern and southern regions of the [[Netherlands]] and in [[Belgium]] carbide is used as fireworks. To create an explosion, carbide and water are put in a milk churn with a lid. Ignition is usually done with a torch. Some villages in the Netherlands fire multiple milk churns in a row as an oldyear tradition.
==External links==
* [http://www.americanscientist.org/template/AssetDetail/assetid/14761 a good discussion on Carbide structures]
* [http://arcmelt.velp.info/ how to make Calcium Carbide using an arc welder]
[[Category:Carbides| ]]
[[Category:Salts]]
[[da:Carbid]]
[[de:Carbid]]
[[es:Carburo]]
[[eo:Karbido]]
[[fr:Carbide]]
[[ja:カーバイド]]
[[lv:Karbīdi]]
[[hu:Karbid]]
[[nl:Calciumcarbide]]
[[no:Karbid]]
[[pl:Karbid]]
[[pt:Carbeto]]
[[sl:Karbid]]
[[vi:Cacbua]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Charles C. Krulak</title>
<id>7740</id>
<revision>
<id>39266338</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-11T23:43:12Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>AKGhetto</username>
<id>103207</id>
</contributor>
<comment>[[WP:AWB|AWB assisted]] clean up and re-categorisation per [[WP:CFD|CFD]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Charles_C._Krulak.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Charles C. Krulak]]
[[General]] '''Charles Chandler Krulak''' (born [[March 4]], [[1942]]) served as the 31st [[Commandant of the Marine Corps]] from [[July 1]], [[1995]] to [[June 30]], [[1999]]. He is the son of Lt. Gen. [[Victor H. Krulak|Victor H. "Brute" Krulak]], USMC, who served in [[World War II]], [[Korean War|Korea]], and [[Vietnam war|Vietnam]].
Charles Krulak was born in 1942 in [[Quantico, Virginia]]. After graduating from [[Phillips Exeter Academy]] in [[Exeter, New Hampshire]], Krulak attended the [[U.S. Naval Academy]]. He graduated from there in [[1964]] with a bachelor's degree. Krulak also holds a master's degree in labor relations from [[George Washington University]] ([[1973]]). He is a graduate of the [[Amphibious Warfare School]] ([[1968]]); the Army Command and General Staff College ([[1976]]); and the [[National War College]] ([[1982]]).
==Career assignments==
After his commissioning and graduation from The Basic School at Quantico, Krulak held a variety of command and staff positions. His command positions included: [[Commanding Officer]] of a platoon and two rifle companies during two tours of duty in [[Vietnam]]; Commanding Officer, Special Training Branch and Recruit Series, MCRD, [[San Diego, California]]. ([[1966]]-[[1968]]), Commanding Officer, Counter-Guerilla Warfare School, NTA, [[Okinawa]] (1970), Company Officer, [[U.S. Naval Academy]] ([[1970]]-[[1973]]), Commanding Officer, Marine Barracks, Naval Air Station, [[North Island, California]] ([[1973]]-[[1976]]), and Commanding Officer, 3d Battalion, 3d Marines ([[1983]]-[[1985]]).
Krulak's staff assignments included: Operations Officer, 2d Battalion, 9th Marines ([[1977]]-[[1978]]); Chief of the Combat Arms Monitor Section, Headquarters Marine Corps, [[Washington, DC]] ([[1978]]-[[1979]]); Executive Assistant to the Director of Personnel Management, Headquarters Marine Corps ([[1979]]-[[1981]]); Plans Office, Fleet Marine Forces Pacific, [[Camp H.M. Smith]], [[Hawaii]] ([[1982]]-[[1983]]); Executive Officer, 3d Marines, 1st Marine Expeditionary Brigade; Assistant Chief of Staff, Maritime Pre-positioning Ships, 1st MEB; Assistant Chief of Staff for Operations, 1st MEB; and the Military Assistant to the Assistant Secretary of Defense for Command, Control, Communications and Intelligence, Office of the [[United States Secretary of Defense|Secretary of Defense]].
He was assigned duty as the Deputy Director of the [[White House]] Military Office in September [[1987]]. While serving in this capacity, he was selected for promotion to brigadier general in November [[1988]]. He was advanced to that grade on [[June 5]], [[1989]], and assigned duties as the Commanding General, 10th <nowiki>MEB/Assistant</nowiki> Division Commander, 2d Marine Division, FMF Atlantic, [[Camp Lejeune, North Carolina]], on [[July 10]], [[1989]]. On [[June 1]], [[1990]], he assumed duties as the Commanding General, 2d Force Service Support <nowiki>Group/Commanding</nowiki> General, 6th MEB, FMF Atlantic and commanded the 2d FSSG during the [[Gulf War]]. He served in this capacity until [[July 12]], [[1991]], and was assigned duty as Assistant Deputy Chief of Staff for Manpower and Reserve Affairs (Personnel <nowiki>Management/Personnel</nowiki> Procurement), Headquarters Marine Corps on [[August 5]], [[1991]]. He was advanced to major general on [[March 20]], [[1992]]. General Krulak was assigned as Commanding General, Marine Corps Combat Development Command, Quantico, on [[August 24]], [[1992]], and was promoted to lieutenant general on [[September 1]], [[1992]]. On [[July 22]], [[1994]], he was assigned as Commander of Marine Forces <nowiki>Pacific/Commanding</nowiki> General, FMF Pacific, and in March [[1995]] he was nominated to serve as the [[Commandant of the Marine Corps]]. On [[June 29]], he was promoted to General and assumed duties as the 31st Commandant on [[June 30]], [[1995]]. He was relieved on [[June 30]], [[1999]], by General [[James L. Jones]].
Later in his career he worked for credit card company MBNA.
==Decorations and medals==
General Krulak's decorations and medals included: the [[Defense Distinguished Service Medal]]; [[Distinguished Service Medal (USA)|Distinguished Service Medal]]; [[Silver Star]]; [[Bronze Star Medal]] with [[Valor device]] and two gold stars; [[Purple Heart]] with gold star; [[Meritorious Service Medal (USA)|Meritorious Service Medal]]; [[Navy Commendation Medal]]; [[Combat Action Ribbon]]; [[Presidential Unit Citation (US)|Presidential Unit Citation]] with bronze star; [[National Defense Service Medal]] with one bronze star; [[Vietnam Service Medal]] with silver star and two bronze stars; [[Southwest Asia Service Medal]] with two bronze stars; [[Sea Service Deployment Ribbon]]; [[Republic of Vietnam Cross of Gallantry]]; [[Republic of Vietnam Gallantry Cross Unit Citation]] (with Palm); [[Republic of Vietnam Civil Actions Unit Citation]]; the [[Republic of Vietnam Campaign Medal]]; the [[Kuwait Liberation Medal (Saudi Arabia)]] and the [[Kuwait Liberation Medal (Kuwait)]].
==Legacy==
General Krulak famously referred to the [[Strategic Corporal]] and the [[Three Block War]] as two of the key lessons identified from the deployments in [[Somalia]], [[Haiti]] and [[Bosnia and Herzegovina | Bosnia]]. These concepts are still considered vital in understanding the increasing complexity of modern [[battlefield]]s.
==Family==
General Krulak is married to the former Zandi Meyers from Annapolis. They have two sons, David and Todd.
==External links==
* [http://www.au.af.mil
|
t;\sum_{n=0}^\infty \frac{x^n}{n!}</math>
* See [[Help:Formula]] for how to use <tt>&lt;math></tt>.
* A formula displayed on a line by itself should probably be indented by using the colon (:) character.
|
<br/>
<pre><nowiki>
: <math>\sum_{n=0}^\infty \frac{x^n}{n!}</math>
</nowiki></pre>
|- valign="top"
|
'''Suppressing interpretation of markup:'''
<br/>
<nowiki>Link &rarr; (''to'') the [[Wikipedia FAQ]]</nowiki>
* Used to show literal data that would otherwise have special meaning.
* Escape all wiki markup, including that which looks like HTML tags.
* Does not escape HTML character references.
* To escape HTML character references such as <tt>&amp;rarr;</tt> use <tt>&amp;amp;rarr;</tt>
|
<br/>
<pre><nowiki>
&lt;nowiki>Link &amp;rarr; (''to'')
the [[Wikipedia FAQ]]&lt;/nowiki>
</nowiki></pre>
|- valign="top"
|
'''Commenting page source:'''
<br/>
''not shown when viewing page''
* Used to leave comments in a page for future editors.
* Note that most comments should go on the appropriate [[Wikipedia:Talk page|Talk page]].
|
<br/>
<pre><nowiki>
&lt;!-- comment here -->
</nowiki></pre>
|}
''(see also: [[Chess symbols in Unicode]])''
===None or limited Formatting - showing exactly what is being typed===
A few different kinds of formatting will tell the Wiki to display things as you typed them - what you see, is what you get!
{| border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0"
|-
! style="width:8em" |
!What it looks like
!What you type
|-
|'''&lt;nowiki&gt; tags'''
|
<nowiki>
The nowiki tag ignores [[Wiki]] ''markup''.
It reformats text by removing newlines and multiple spaces.
It still interprets special characters: &rarr;
</nowiki>
|<pre><nowiki>
&lt;nowiki&gt;
The nowiki tag ignores [[Wiki]] ''markup''.
It reformats text by removing newlines and multiple spaces.
It still interprets special characters: &amp;rarr;
&lt;/nowiki&gt;
</nowiki></pre>
|-
|'''&lt;pre&gt; tags'''
|
<pre>
The pre tag ignores [[Wiki]] ''markup''.
It also doesn't reformat text.
It still interprets special characters: &rarr;
</pre>
|<pre><nowiki>
<pre>
The pre tag ignores [[Wiki]] ''markup''.
It also doesn't reformat text.
It still interprets special characters: &amp;rarr;
</pre>
</nowiki></pre>
|-
|'''Leading spaces'''
|
Leading spaces are another way to preserve formatting.
Putting a space at the beginning of each line
stops the text from being reformatted. It still
interprets [[Wiki]] ''markup'' and special
characters: &rarr;
|<pre><nowiki>
Leading spaces are another way to preserve formatting.
Putting a space at the beginning of each line
stops the text from being reformatted. It still
interprets [[Wiki]] ''markup'' and special
characters: &amp;rarr;
</nowiki></pre>
|}
=== Table of Contents ===
<!-- ==== Placement of the Table of Contents (TOC) ==== -->
At the current status of the wiki markup language, having at least four headers on a page triggers the TOC to appear in front of the first header (or after introductory sections). Putting <nowiki>__TOC__</nowiki> anywhere forces the TOC to appear at that point (instead of just before the first header). Putting <nowiki>__NOTOC__</nowiki> anywhere forces the TOC to disappear. See also [[Wikipedia:Section#Compact_TOC|compact TOC]] for alphabet and year headings.
<!--
THE TEXT BELOW IS COMMENTED OUT SINCE THE DESCRIBED TECHNIQUE
DOESN'T WORK AFTER UPGRADING TO MEDIAWIKI 1.5
====Keeping headings out of the Table of Contents====
If you want some subheadings to not appear in the Table of Contents, then make the following replacements.
Replace <nowiki> == Header 2 == with <h2> Header 2 </h2> </nowiki>
Replace <nowiki> === Header 3 === with <h3> Header 3 </h3> </nowiki>
And so forth.
For example, notice that the following header has the same font as the other subheaders to this "Tables" section, but the following header does not appear in the Table of Contents for this page.
<h4> This header has the h4 font, but is NOT in the Table of Contents (actually, it is)</h4>
This effect is obtained by the following line of code.
<code><nowiki><h4> This header has the h4 font, but is NOT in the Table of Contents </h4></nowiki></code>
Note that when editing by section, this approach places the text between the tags in the subsequent section, not the previous section. To edit this text, click the edit link next to "Tables", not the one above.
-->
===Tables===
There are two ways to build tables:
*in special Wiki-markup (see [[Help:Table]])
*with the usual HTML elements: &lt;table&gt;, &lt;tr&gt;, &lt;td&gt; or &lt;th&gt;.
For the latter, and a discussion on when tables are appropriate, see [[Wikipedia:How to use tables]].
===Variables===
''(See also [[Help:Variable]])''
{|
|-
! Code
! Effect
|-
| <nowiki>{{CURRENTWEEK}}</nowiki> || {{CURRENTWEEK}}
|-
| <nowiki>{{CURRENTDOW}}</nowiki> || {{CURRENTDOW}}
|-
| <nowiki>{{CURRENTMONTH}}</nowiki> || {{CURRENTMONTH}}
|-
| <nowiki>{{CURRENTMONTHNAME}}</nowiki>
| {{CURRENTMONTHNAME}}
|-
| <nowiki>{{CURRENTMONTHNAMEGEN}}</nowiki>
| {{CURRENTMONTHNAMEGEN}}
|-
| <nowiki>{{CURRENTDAY}}</nowiki> || {{CURRENTDAY}}
|-
| <nowiki>{{CURRENTDAYNAME}}</nowiki> || {{CURRENTDAYNAME}}
|-
| <nowiki>{{CURRENTYEAR}}</nowiki> || {{CURRENTYEAR}}
|-
| <nowiki>{{CURRENTTIME}}</nowiki> || {{CURRENTTIME}}
|-
| <nowiki>{{NUMBEROFARTICLES}}</nowiki>
| {{NUMBEROFARTICLES}}
|-
| <nowiki>{{PAGENAME}}</nowiki> || {{PAGENAME}}
|-
| <nowiki>{{NAMESPACE}}</nowiki> || {{NAMESPACE}}
|-
| <nowiki>{{REVISIONID}}</nowiki> || {{REVISIONID}}
|-
| <nowiki>{{localurl:pagename}}</nowiki>
| {{localurl:pagename}}
|-
| <nowiki>{{localurl:</nowiki>''Wikipedia:Sandbox''<nowiki>|action=edit}}</nowiki>
| {{localurl:Wikipedia:Sandbox|action=edit}}
|-
| <nowiki>{{fullurl:pagename}}</nowiki>
| {{fullurl:pagename}}
|-
| <nowiki>{{fullurl:pagename|</nowiki>''query_string''<nowiki>}}</nowiki>
| {{fullurl:pagename|query_string}}
|-
| <nowiki>{{SERVER}}</nowiki> || {{SERVER}}
|-
| <nowiki>{{ns:1}}</nowiki> || {{ns:1}}
|-
| <nowiki>{{ns:2}}</nowiki> || {{ns:2}}
|-
| <nowiki>{{ns:3}}</nowiki> || {{ns:3}}
|-
| <nowiki>{{ns:4}}</nowiki> || {{ns:4}}
|-
| <nowiki>{{ns:5}}</nowiki> || {{ns:5}}
|-
| <nowiki>{{ns:6}}</nowiki> || {{ns:6}}
|-
| <nowiki>{{ns:7}}</nowiki> || {{ns:7}}
|-
| <nowiki>{{ns:8}}</nowiki> || {{ns:8}}
|-
| <nowiki>{{ns:9}}</nowiki> || {{ns:9}}
|-
| <nowiki>{{ns:10}}</nowiki> || {{ns:10}}
|-
| <nowiki>{{ns:11}}</nowiki> || {{ns:11}}
|-
| <nowiki>{{ns:12}}</nowiki> || {{ns:12}}
|-
| <nowiki>{{ns:13}}</nowiki> || {{ns:13}}
|-
| <nowiki>{{ns:14}}</nowiki> || {{ns:14}}
|-
| <nowiki>{{ns:15}}</nowiki> || {{ns:15}}
|-
| <nowiki>{{SITENAME}}</nowiki> || {{SITENAME}}
|}
'''NUMBEROFARTICLES''' is the number of pages in the main namespace which contain a link and are not a redirect, in other words number of articles, stubs containing a link, and disambiguation pages.
'''CURRENTMONTHNAMEGEN''' is the genitive (possessive) grammatical form of the month name, as used in some languages; '''CURRENTMONTHNAME''' is the nominative (subject) form, as usually seen in English.
In languages where it makes a difference, you can use constructs like <nowiki>{{grammar:case|word}}</nowiki> to convert a word from the nominative case to some other case. For example, <nowiki>{{grammar:genitive|{{CURRENTMONTHNAME}}}}</nowiki> means the same as <nowiki>{{CURRENTMONTHNAMEGEN}}</nowiki>. <!-- Is there a reference for this, other than the source code (for example, phase3/languages/Lnaguage*.php) ? -->
===Templates===
The [[Wikipedia:MediaWiki|MediaWiki]] software used by Wikipedia has support for templates. This means standardized text chunks (such as [[Wikipedia:Template messages|boilerplate]] text) can be inserted into articles. For example, typing {{tl|stub}} will appear as "''This article is a [[Wikipedia:Stub|stub]]. You can help Wikipedia by [[Wikipedia:Stub|expanding it]].''" when the page is saved. See [[Wikipedia:Template messages]] for the complete list. Other commonly used templates are: {{tl|disambig}} for disambiguation pages, {{tl|spoiler}} for spoiler warnings and {{tl|sectstub}} like an article stub but for a section. There are many subject-specific stubs for example: {{tl|Geo-stub}}, {{tl|Hist-stub}}, and {{tl|Linux-stub}}. For a complete list of stubs see [[WP:WSS/ST]].
===Hiding the edit links===
Insert '''<nowiki>__NOEDITSECTION__</nowiki>''' into the document to suppress the edit links that appear next to every section header.
==More information on editing wiki pages==
You may also want to learn about:
* [[Help:Starting a new page|How to start a page]]
* Informal tips on [[Wikipedia:Contributing to Wikipedia|contributing to Wikipedia]]
* Editing tasks in general at the [[Wikipedia:Editing FAQ]]
* Rename pages boldly, at [[Wikipedia:How to rename (move) a page]]
* Preferred layout of your article, at [[Wikipedia:Guide to layout|Guide to layout]] (see also [[Wikipedia:Boilerplate
|
orum], about all the different aspects of the Czech Republic
* [[Wikitravel:Czech Republic|Czech Republic at Wikitravel]] - share your tourist experience.
* [http://www.worldwide-tax.com/czech/indexczech.asp Czech R. economy and business indicators] Czech Republic key Data on Taxes and Income Tax.
{{EU countries}}
{{Europe}}
{{Visegrád group}}
[[Category:Czech Republic| ]]
[[Category:European Union member states]]
[[Category:Landlocked countries]]
{{Link FA|cs}}
{{Link FA|eo}}
[[af:Tsjeggië]]
[[ang:Cecland]]
[[ar:تشيك]]
[[an:Republica Checa]]
[[ast:República Checa]]
[[az:Çex Respublikası]]
[[bg:Чехия]]
[[zh-min-nan:Česko]]
[[be:Чэхія]]
[[bn:চেক প্রজাতন্ত্র]]
[[bs:Češka]]
[[ca:República Txeca]]
[[cs:Česko]]
[[csb:Czeskô Repùblika]]
[[cy:Gweriniaeth Tsiec]]
[[da:Tjekkiet]]
[[de:Tschechien]]
[[et:Tšehhi]]
[[el:Τσεχία]]
[[es:República Checa]]
[[eo:Ĉeĥio]]
[[fa:جمهوری چک]]
[[fr:République tchèque]]
[[fy:Tsjechje]]
[[ga:An tSeic]]
[[gl:Chequia - Česko]]
[[hy:Չեխիայի Հանրապետություն]]
[[ko:체코]]
[[hr:Češka]]
[[io:Chekia]]
[[id:Ceko]]
[[ia:Republica Chec]]
[[is:Tékkland]]
[[it:Repubblica Ceca]]
[[he:צ'כיה]]
[[ka:ჩეხეთი]]
[[la:Tzekia]]
[[lv:Čehija]]
[[lb:Tschechesch Republik]]
[[lt:Čekija]]
[[li:Tsjechië]]
[[hu:Csehország]]
[[mk:Чешка]]
[[ms:Republik Czech]]
[[na:Republik Czechia]]
[[nl:Tsjechië]]
[[nds:Tschechien]]
[[ja:チェコ]]
[[no:Tsjekkia]]
[[nn:Tsjekkia]]
[[os:Чехи]]
[[pl:Czechy]]
[[pt:República Checa]]
[[ro:Republica Cehă]]
[[ru:Чехия]]
[[scn:Ripùbblica Ceca]]
[[se:Čeahkka]]
[[sq:Republika Çeke]]
[[simple:Czech Republic]]
[[sk:Česko]]
[[sl:Češka]]
[[sr:Чешка Република]]
[[fi:Tšekki]]
[[sv:Tjeckien]]
[[th:สาธารณรัฐเช็ก]]
[[tl:Czechia]]
[[vi:Cộng hòa Séc]]
[[tr:Çek Cumhuriyeti]]
[[uk:Чехія]]
[[fiu-vro:Tsehhi]]
[[yi:טשעכיע]]
[[zh:捷克]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Czechoslovakia</title>
<id>5322</id>
<revision>
<id>40395329</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-20T06:37:32Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Mzajac</username>
<id>61482</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* History */ [[Carpathian Ruthenia]] (briefly independent as [[Carpatho-Ukraine]])</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Czechoslovakia''' ([[Czech language|Czech]]: ''Československo'', [[Slovak language|Slovak]]: ''Česko-Slovensko''/before 1990 ''Československo'', [[German language|German]]: ''Tschechoslowakei'') was a country in [[Central Europe]] that existed from [[1918]] until [[1992]] (with government-in-exile during the [[World War II]] period). On [[January 1]], [[1993]], Czechoslovakia peacefully split into the '''[[Czech Republic]] '''and''' [[Slovakia]]''', in what was known as the ''[[Velvet Divorce]]'', by analogy with the [[Velvet Revolution]].
<table border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" align="right" width="270px">
<caption><font size="+1">'''Československo'''</font></caption>
<tr><td style="background:#efefef;" align="center" colspan=2>
<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0">
<tr><td align="center" width="130px">[[Image:Flag of the Czech Republic.svg|100px]]</td></tr>
<tr><td align="center" width="130px">([[Flag of Czechoslovakia|In Detail]])</td>
</table></td></tr>
<tr><td align="center" colspan=2 style="border-bottom:3px solid gray;"><font size="-1">National [[motto]]: ([[1918]]&ndash;[[1989]]) Pravda vítězí
''([[Czech language|Czech]]: Truth prevails)''<br>
([[1989]]&ndash;[[1992]]) Veritas Vincit<br>''([[Latin]]: Truth prevails)''</font></td></tr>
<tr><td align=center colspan=2>[[Image:LocationCzechoslovakia.png]]
<tr><td>[[Official language]]s </td> <td>[[Czech language|Czech]] and [[Slovak language|Slovak]]</td></tr>
<tr><td>[[Capital]] </td><td>[[Prague]]</td></tr>
<tr><td>[[Area]] (1991) </td><td>127,900 km²</td></tr>
<tr><td>[[Population]] (1991) </td><td>15,600,000<br /><small>Czechs 54.1%, Slovaks 31%, Moravians 8.7%, Hungarians 3.8%, Gypsies 0.7%</small></td></tr>
<tr><td>[[Currency]] </td><td>[[Koruna|Czechoslovak crown]] (Kčs) = 100 [[halers]]</td></tr>
<tr><td>[[Time zone]] </td><td>[[Coordinated Universal Time|UTC]]+1</td></tr>
<tr><td>[[National anthem]] </td><td>[[Kde domov můj]] + [[Nad Tatrou sa blýska]]</td></tr>
<tr><td>[[ISO 3166-1]] </td><td>CS (obsolete)</td></tr>
<tr><td>[[Top-level domain|Internet TLD]] </td><td>[[.cs]] (obsolete, as [[.cz]] and [[.sk]] were assigned to the two countries resulting from the split)</td></tr>
</table>
== Basic characteristics ==
'''Form of state''':
*1918&ndash;1968 (except for 1938&ndash;1945): a centralized country;
*1969&ndash;1992: a [[Federation|federal]] republic consisting of the ''Czech Socialist Republic'' (1990&ndash;1992: Czech Republic) and the ''Slovak Socialist Republic'' (1990&ndash;1992: Slovak Republic);
*1918&ndash;1939 and 1945&ndash;1948 and 1990&ndash;1992: a [[democratic]] republic
*1939&ndash;1945: split into the [[Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia]] and the [[WWII Slovak Republic|Slovak Republic (WWII)]]
*1948&ndash;1989: a [[Communist]] country with a centrally planned economy
'''Neighbors''': [[Germany]] (1945&ndash;1990: [[West Germany]] and [[East Germany]]), [[Poland]], [[Soviet Union]] (1992: [[Ukraine]]), [[Romania]] (until 1939), [[Hungary]], [[Austria]]
'''Topography''': Generally irregular terrain. Western area is part of north-central European uplands. Eastern region is composed of northern reaches of Carpathian Mountains and Danube Basin lands.
'''Climate''': Predominantly continental but varied from moderate temperatures of Western Europe in the west to more severe weather systems affecting Eastern Europe and the western Soviet Union in the east.
==Official names==
*1918&ndash;1920: '''Czecho-Slovak Republic''' or '''Czechoslovak Republic''' (abbreviated RČS); short form Czecho-Slovakia or rarely Czechoslovakia
*1920&ndash;1938 and 1945&ndash;1960: '''Czechoslovak Republic''' (ČSR [initially abbreviated RČS]); short form Czechoslovakia
*1938&ndash;1939: '''Czecho-Slovak Republic'''; Czecho-Slovakia
*1960&ndash;1990: '''Czechoslovak Socialist Republic''' (ČSSR); Czechoslovakia
*April 1990: Czechoslovak Federative Republic (Czech version) and Czecho-Slovak Federative Republic (Slovak version),
*afterwards: '''Czech and Slovak Federative Republic''' (ČSFR, with the short forms Czechoslovakia (Czech version) and Czecho-Slovakia (Slovak version))
== History ==
''Main article'': [[History of Czechoslovakia]]
[[Image:Czechoslovakia1927.png|thumb|right|200px|Czechoslovakia in 1927]]
[[Image:Czechoslovakia.png|thumb|right|200px|Czechoslovakia in 1969]]
Czechoslovakia arose in October 1918 as one of the succession states of [[Austria-Hungary]] at the end of [[World War I]]. It consisted of the present-day territories of the [[Czech Republic]], [[Slovakia]] and (until [[1939]]/[[29 June]] [[1945]]) [[Carpathian Ruthenia]] (briefly independent as [[Carpatho-Ukraine]]). Its territory included some of the most industrialized regions of the former Austria-Hungary, it was a [[democratic]] republic throughout the pre-[[World War II]] period, but was characterized by ethnic problems. The ethnic problems were due to the fact that the second and third largest [[ethnic group]]s ([[ethnic German|Germans]] and [[Slovaks]], respectively) were not satisfied with the political and economic dominance of the [[Czechs]], and that most Germans and [[Hungarians]] of Czechoslovakia never really accepted the creation of the new state.
Many Germans, Hungarians and Poles, but also some Slovaks, felt disadvantaged in Czechoslovakia, because the political elite of the country introduced a centralised state and most of the time did not allow political autonomy for the ethnic groups. This policy, combined with increasing Nazi propaganda especially in the industrialised German speaking Sudetenland, led to increasing unrest among the Non-Czech population.
Before WWII, Czechoslovakia became [[Hitler]]'s target. After the [[Munich Agreement]] of 1938, Hitler's troops occupied the ethnic-German border regions of [[Bohemia]] and [[Moravia]] (the [[Sudetenland]]), Hungary received territory in southern Slovakia, and the Slovak and [[Rusyns|Ruthene]] regions received an autonomous status for a while. Finally Czechoslovakia ceased to exist in March 1939, when Hitler occupied the remainder of the Bohemian lands and (the remaining) Slovakia was forced to declare independence. During the [[World War II|Second World War]] the Bohemian lands were designated the Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia and were ruled directly by the German state. The newly independent Slovak state became an ally of Nazi Germany. Slovakia's troops fought on the Russian front until the summer of 1944, when the Slovak armed forces staged an uprising against their government. German forces crushed this uprising after several months of fighting.
After [[World War II]], pre-war Czechoslovakia was reestablished, all Germans were expelled from the country and [[Carpathian Ruthenia|Ruthenia]] was occupied by (and ultimately ceded to) the Soviet Union. Three years later the [[Communist Party of Czechoslovakia]] seized power ([[1948]]&ndash;[[
|
pace on [[1984]] [[October 11]] during [[Space Shuttle]] [[Space Shuttle Challenger|''Challenger'']] mission [[STS-41-G]].
* The first EVA by a non-Soviet, non-American astronaut was made on [[1988]] [[December 9]] by [[Jean-Loup Chrétien]] of [[France]] during a three-week stay on the [[Mir]] space station.
* The first EVA that was a moonwalk rather than a spacewalk was made by American astronaut [[Neil Armstrong]] on [[1969]] [[July 20]] when the [[Apollo 11]] Lunar Module ''Eagle'' landed on the [[Moon]]. He was joined by crewmate [[Buzz Aldrin]], and their EVA lasted 2 hours and 32 minutes.
* The first untethered spacewalk was by American astronaut [[Bruce McCandless]] on [[1984]] [[February 7]], during ''Challenger'' mission [[STS-41-B]]. He was subsequently joined by astronaut [[Robert L. Stewart]] during the 5 hour 55 minute spacewalk.
* The first EVA to perform an [[STS-114#In-flight repair| in-flight repair]] of the [[Space Shuttle program| Space Shuttle]] was by American astronaut [[Stephen Robinson| Steve Robinson]] on [[August 3]], [[2005]], during "return to flight" mission STS-114. Robinson was sent to remove two protruding gap fillers on the Space Shuttle [[Space Shuttle Discovery| ''Discovery'']]'s heat shield, after engineers determined they might pose a danger upon re-entry. Robinson successfully removed the loose material while the ''Discovery'' was docked to the [[International Space Station]].
== EVA hazards ==
An EVA is dangerous for a number of different reasons. The primary one is [[collision]] with [[space debris]]. Orbital velocity at 300 km above the Earth (typical for a [[Space Shuttle]] mission) is 7.7 km/s. This is 10 times the speed of a [[bullet]], so the [[kinetic energy]] of a small particle with a mass 1/100th that of a bullet (e.g. a fleck of paint or a grain of sand) is equal to that of a bullet. Every space mission creates more orbiting debris, so this problem will continue to become worse.
Another reason for danger is that external environments in space are harder to simulate before the mission and that space walks are avoided for routine tasks because of their danger. As a result the EVAs are often planned late in the project development when problems are discovered, or sometimes even during an operational mission. The exceptional danger involved in EVAs inevitably leads to emotional pressures on astronauts who, though selected for exceptional stability under pressure, are still human.
Other possible problems include a spacewalker becoming separated from their craft or suffering a spacesuit puncture which would depressurize the suit, causing [[anoxia]] and rapid [[death]] if the spacewalker is not brought into a pressurized spacecraft quickly.
One astronaut has suffered a spacesuit puncture. During [[STS-37]], a small rod punctured the glove of one of the astronauts (the name is undisclosed, but it was either [[Jerry L. Ross]] or [[Jay Apt]]). However, the puncturing object, which stabbed the astronaut's hand as well, held in place, resulting in no detectable depressurization. In fact, the puncture was not noticed until after the spacewalkers were safely back inside [[Atlantis (Space Shuttle)|Atlantis]]. [http://www.sff.net/people/Geoffrey.Landis/vacuum.html]
[[As of 2005]], no catastrophic incident has ever occurred during an extra-vehicular activity, and no astronaut or cosmonaut has ever died during one. Still, some scientists are developing tele-operated robots for outside construction work, to potentially eliminate the need for human EVAs.
== See also ==
*[[Space Suit]]
*[[Manned Maneuvering Unit]]
*[[List of spacewalks]]
== External links ==
* [http://www.jsc.nasa.gov/history/walking/EVAChron.pdf NASA JSC Oral History Project ''Walking to Olympus: An EVA Chronology'' PDF document.]
* [http://spaceboy.nasda.go.jp/note/yujin/e/yuj101_eva_e.html NASDA Online Space Notes]
* [http://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19730064704_1973064704.pdf Apollo Extravehicular mobility unit. Volume 1: System description - 1971 (PDF document)]
* [http://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19730064705_1973064705.pdf Apollo Extravehicular mobility unit. Volume 2: Operational procedures - 1971 (PDF document)]
* [http://trs.nis.nasa.gov/archive/00000173/01/tmx64855.pdf Skylab Extravehicular Activity Development Report - 1974 (PDF document)]
* [http://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19900001621_1990001621.pdf Analysis of the Space Shuttle Extravehicular Mobility Unit - 1986 (PDF document)]
* [http://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19940017339_1994017339.pdf NASA Space Shuttle EVA tools and equipment reference book - 1993 (PDF document)]
[[Category:Human spaceflight]]
[[de:Extra-vehicular Activity]]
[[es:Paseo espacial]]
[[it:Attività extraveicolare]]
[[he:פעילות חוץ רכבית]]
[[hu:Űrséta]]
[[pl:Spacer kosmiczny]]
[[pt:Actividade Extra-Veicular]]
[[ru:Выход в открытый космос]]
[[zh:舱外活动]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Entrepreneurship</title>
<id>9793</id>
<revision>
<id>41314172</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-26T14:09:27Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Kleverlaan</username>
<id>145578</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Entrepreneurship''' is the practice of starting new [[organization]]s, particularly new [[business]]es generally in response to identified opportunities. Entrepreneurship is often a difficult undertaking, as a majority of new businesses fail. Entrepreneurial activities are substantially different depending on the type of organization that is being started. Entrepreneurship may involve creating many job opportunities.
Many "high-profile" entrepreneurial ventures seek [[venture capital]] or [[angel investors|angel funding]] in order to raise [[capital (economics)|capital]] to build the business. Many kinds of organizations now exist to support would-be entrepreneurs, including specialized government agencies, [[business incubator]]s, [[science park]]s, and some [[Non-governmental organization|NGO]]s.
Our understanding of entrepreneurship owes a lot to the work of economist [[Joseph Schumpeter]] and the [[Austrian School]] of [[economics]]. For Schumpeter (1950), an entrepreneur is a person who is willing and able to convert a new idea or [[invention]] into a successful [[innovation]]. Entrepreneurship forces "[[creative destruction]]" across markets and industries, simultaneously creating new products and [[business model]]s and eliminating others. In this way, creative destruction is largely responsible for the dynamism of industries and long-run economic growth.
For Frank H. Knight (1967) and [[Peter Drucker]] (1970) entrepreneurship is about taking [[risk]]. The entrepreneur is the kind of person that is willing to put his career and financial security on the line for an idea, spending his time and [[capital (economics)|capital]] in an uncertain venture. Still another view of entrepreneurship is that it is the process of discovering, evaluating and exploiting opportunities. An entrepreneur could be defined as "someone who acts without regard to the resources currently under his control in relentless pursuit of opportunity " (Jeffry Timmons).
[[Image:entrepreneurship history.png|right|thumb|250px| Some notable persons and their works in entrepreneurship history]]
Pinchot (1985) coined the term '''intrapreneurship''' to describe entrepreneurial activities inside large organizations.
Howard Stevenson, of Harvard University, believes that entrepreneurship is the "pursuit of opportunity without regard to resources currently controlled".
Entrepreneurship is often regarded as a defining characteristic of American life. [[Robert N. Sobel]] published ''The Entrepreneurs: Explorations Within the American Business Tradition'' in 1974.
A study published by Regan Sydney and Jacob showed that the characteristics of successful entrepreneurship are perceived in different ways; investors, "intranpreneurs", and founders of young companies agree on many ideas, but have important differences, too. For example, founders tend to believe that tenacity is an important trait more frequently than investors. Investors tend to put slightly more emphasis on personal integrity than founders.
==The entrepreneurial personality==
Entrepreneurs have many of the same character traits as [[leadership|leaders]]. They are often contrasted with managers and administrators who are said to be more methodical and less prone to risk-taking. A vast literature studying the ''entrepreneurial personality'' has found that certain traits seem to dominate in the case of entrepreneurs:
* According to [[David McClelland]] (1961), the entrepreneur is primarily motivated by an overwhelming need for achievement. He has a strong "urge to build".
* Collins and Moore (1970) studied 150 entrepreneurs and concluded that they are tough, pragmatic people driven by needs of independence and achievement. They seldom are willing to submit to authority.
* Bird (1992) sees entrepreneurs as Mercurial, that is, prone to insights, brainstorms, deceptions, ingeniousness and resourcefulness. They are cunning, opportunistic, creative, and unsentimental.
* Busenitz and Barney (1997) claim entrepreneurs are prone to overconfidence and over generalisations.
* According to Cole (1959), there are four types of entrepreneur: the innovator, the calculating inventor, the over-optimistic promoter, and the organisation builder. These types are not related to the personality but to the type of opportunity the entrepreneur faces.
* [[Burton W. Folsom, Jr.]] distinguishes between what he calls a "[[political entrepreneur]]" and a ''market entrepreneur''. The political entrepreneur uses political influences to gain [[income]] through [[subsidies]], [[protectionism]], [[government-granted monopoly]], governme
|
(device)|spring]] and an [[LC circuit]].
In the case of a mass attached to a spring, Newton's Laws, combined with Hooke's law for the behavior of a spring, states that:
::<math> -k x = ma \, </math>
:where ''k'' is the [[spring constant]]
:''m'' is the [[mass]]
:''x'' is the position of the mass
:''a'' is its [[acceleration]].
Because acceleration ''a'' is the second derivative of position ''x'', we can rewrite the equation as follows:
::<math> -k x = m \frac{d^2 x}{d t^2}. </math>
The most simple solution to the above [[differential equation]] is
::<math>x = A \cos(\omega t + \delta) \, </math>
and the second derivative of that is
::<math>\frac{d^2 x}{dt^2} = -A \omega^2 \cos(\omega t + \delta)</math>
:where ''A'' is the [[amplitude]], &delta; is the phase shift, and &omega; is the [[angular frequency]].
Plugging these back into the original differential equation, we have:
::<math> -A k \cos(\omega t +\delta) = -A m \omega^2 \cos(\omega t + \delta). \, </math>
Then, after dividing both sides by <math>-A \cos(\omega t + \delta) \, </math>
we get:
::<math>k = m \omega^2 \,</math>
or, as it is more commonly written:
::<math>\omega = \sqrt{\frac{k}{m}}. </math>
The above formula reveals that the [[angular frequency]] &omega; of the solution is only dependent upon the physical characteristics of the system, and not the initial conditions (those are represented by ''A'' and &delta;). We will label this &omega; as &omega;<sub>o</sub> from now on. This will become important later.
== Universal oscillator equation ==
The equation
:<math>\frac{d^2q}{d \tau^2} + 2 \zeta \frac{dq}{d\tau} + q = 0</math>
is known as the '''universal oscillator equation''' since all second order linear oscillatory systems can be reduced to this form. This is done through [[nondimensionalization]].
If the forcing function is ''f''(''t'') = cos(''&omega;t'') = cos(''&omega;t<sub>c</sub>&tau;'') = cos(&omega;''&tau;''), where &omega; = &omega;''t<sub>c</sub>'', the equation becomes
:<math>\frac{d^2q}{d \tau^2} + 2 \zeta \frac{dq}{d\tau} + q = \cos(\omega \tau).</math>
The solution to this differential equation contains two parts, the "transient" and the "steady state".
=== Transient solution ===
The solution based on solving the [[ordinary differential equation]] is for arbitrary constants ''c''<sub>1</sub> and ''c''<sub>2</sub> is
<math>q_t (\tau) = \begin{cases} e^{-\zeta\tau} \left( c_1 e^{\tau \sqrt{\zeta^2 - 1}} + c_2 e^{- \tau \sqrt{\zeta^2 - 1}} \right) & \zeta > 1 \ \mbox{(overdamping)} \\ e^{-\zeta\tau} (c_1+c_2 \tau) = e^{-\tau}(c_1+c_2 \tau) & \zeta = 1 \ \mbox{(critical damping)} \\ e^{-\zeta \tau} \left[ c_1 \cos \left(\sqrt{1-\zeta^2} \tau\right) +c_2 \sin\left(\sqrt{1-\zeta^2} \tau\right) \right] & \zeta < 1 \ \mbox{(underdamping)} \end{cases}</math>
The transient solution is independent of the forcing function. If the system is critically damped, the response is independent of the damping.
=== Steady-state solution ===
Apply the "[[complex analysis|complex variables]] method" by solving the [[auxiliary equation]] below and then finding the real part of its solution:
:<math>\frac{d^2 q}{d\tau^2} + 2 \zeta \frac{dq}{d\tau} + q = \cos(\omega \tau) + i\sin(\omega \tau) = e^{ i \omega \tau} .</math>
Supposing the solution is of the form
<!-- The \,\! is to keep the formula rendered as PNG instead of HTML. Please don't remove it.-->
:<math>\,\! q_s(\tau) = A e^{i ( \omega \tau + \phi ) } . </math>
Its derivatives from zero to 2nd order are
:<math>q_s = A e^{i ( \omega \tau + \phi ) }, \ \frac{dq_s}{d \tau} = i \omega A e^{i ( \omega \tau + \phi ) }, \ \frac{d^2 q_s}{d \tau^2} = - \omega^2 A e^{i ( \omega \tau + \phi ) } .</math>
Substituting these quantities into the differential equation gives
<!-- The \,\! is to keep the formula rendered as PNG instead of HTML. Please don't remove it.-->
:<math>\,\! -\omega^2 A e^{i (\omega \tau + \phi)} + 2 \zeta i \omega A e^{i(\omega \tau + \phi)} + A e^{i(\omega \tau + \phi)} = (-\omega^2 A \, + \, 2 \zeta i \omega A \, + \, A) e^{i (\omega \tau + \phi)} = e^{i \omega \tau} .</math>
Dividing by the exponential term on the left results in
<!-- The \,\! is to keep the formula rendered as PNG instead of HTML. Please don't remove it.-->
:<math>\,\! -\omega^2 A + 2 \zeta i \omega A + A = e^{-i \phi} = \cos\phi - i \sin\phi . </math>
Equating the real and imaginary parts results in two independent equations
:<math>A (1-\omega^2)=\cos\phi \qquad 2 \zeta \omega A = - \sin\phi.</math>
==== Amplitude part ====
Squaring both equations and adding them together gives
:<math>\left . \begin{matrix}A^2 (1-\omega^2)^2 = \cos^2\phi \\ (2 \zeta \omega A)^2 = \sin^2\phi \end{matrix} \right \} \Rightarrow A^2[(1-\omega^2)^2 + (2 \zeta \omega)^2] = 1. </math>
By convention the positive root is taken since amplitude is usually considered a positive quantity. Therefore,
:<math>A = A( \zeta, \omega) = \frac{1}{\sqrt{(1-\omega^2)^2 + (2 \zeta \omega)^2}}.</math>
Compare this result with the theory section on [[resonance]], as well as the "magnitude part" of the [[RLC circuit]]. This amplitude function is particularly important in the analysis and understanding of the [[frequency response]] of second-order systems.
Note that the variables in these equations ought to be identified before showing the equation.
==== Phase part ====
To solve for &phi;, divide both equations to get
:<math>\tan\phi = - \frac{2 \zeta \omega}{ 1 - \omega^2} = \frac{2 \zeta \omega}{\omega^2 - 1} \Rightarrow \phi \equiv \phi(\zeta, \omega) = \arctan \left( \frac{2 \zeta \omega}{\omega^2 - 1} \right ). </math>
This phase function is particularly important in the analysis and understanding of the [[frequency response]] of second-order systems.
=== Full solution ===
Combining the amplitude and phase portions results in the steady-state solution
:<math>\,\! q_s (\tau) = A(\zeta,\omega) \cos(\omega \tau + \phi(\zeta,\omega)) = A\cos(\omega \tau + \phi).</math>
The solution of original universal oscillator equation is a [[superposition]] (sum) of the transient and steady-state solutions
<!-- The \,\! is to keep the formula rendered as PNG instead of HTML. Please don't remove it.-->
:<math>\,\! q(\tau) = q_t (\tau) + q_s (\tau).</math>
For a more complete description of how to solve the above equation, see [[Ordinary differential equation#Linear ODEs with constant coefficients|linear ODEs with constant coefficients]].
==Relationship to RLC circuit==
Comparing a mechanical harmonic oscillator with an RLC circuit, the following correspond:
*''F'' ([[force]]) <math>\Leftrightarrow</math> ''V'' ([[electric potential]])
*''x'' (position) <math>\Leftrightarrow</math> ''Q'' ([[charge]])
*''k'' ([[Hooke's law#Spring equation|spring constant]]) <math>\Leftrightarrow \frac{1}{C}</math> ([[electrical elastance]] (reciprocal of [[capacitance]])
*''v'' ([[velocity]]) <math>\Leftrightarrow</math> ''I'' ([[electric current]])
*''b'' ([[damping]] factor) <math>\Leftrightarrow</math> ''R'' ([[electrical resistance]])
*''a'' ([[acceleration]]) <math>\Leftrightarrow \frac{dI}{dt} \,</math> (rate of change of current)
*''m'' ([[mass]]) <math>\Leftrightarrow</math> ''L'' ([[inductance]])
== Applications ==
The problem of the simple harmonic oscillator occurs frequently in physics because of the form of its potential energy function:
:<math>V(x) = \frac{1}{2} k x^2. </math>
Given an arbitrary potential energy function <math>V(x)</math>, one can do a [[Taylor series|Taylor expansion]] in terms of <math>x</math> around an energy minimum (<math>x = x_0</math>) to model the behavior of small perturbations from equilibrium.
:<math>V(x) = V(x_0) + (x-x_0) V'(x_0) + \frac{1}{2} (x-x_0)^2 V^{(2)}(x_0) + O(x-x_0)^3</math>
Because <math>V(x_0)</math> is a minimum, the first derivative evaluated at <math>x_0</math> must be zero, so the linear term drops out:
:<math>V(x) = V(x_0) + \frac{1}{2} (x-x_0)^2 V^{(2)}(x_0) + O(x-x_0)^3</math>
The constant term is arbitrary and thus may be dropped, and a coordinate transformation allows the form of the simple harmonic oscillator to be retrieved:
:<math>V(x) \approx \frac{1}{2} x^2 V^{(2)}(0) = \frac{1}{2} k x^2</math>
Thus, given an arbitrary potential energy function <math>V(x)</math> with a non-vanishing second derivative, one can use the solution to the simple harmonic oscillator to provide an approximate solution for small perturbations around the equilibrium point.
==Examples==
===Simple Pendulum===
[[Image:Simple pendulum height.jpg|thumb|right|300px|A [[Simple pendulum]] exhibits simple harmonic motion under the conditions of no damping and small amplitude.]]
Assuming no damping and small amplitudes, the differential equation governing a simple pendulum is given by
:<math>{d^2\theta\over dt^2}+{g\over \ell}\theta=0</math>
Solution to this equation is given by:
:<math>\theta(t) = \theta_0\cos\left(\sqrt{g\over \ell}t\right) \quad\quad\quad\quad |\theta_0| \ll 1</math>
where <math>\theta_0</math> is the largest angle attained by the pendulum. [[Sine|Period]], the time for one complete oscillation (time for the bob to return to its starting position), is given by <math>2\pi</math> divided by whatever is multiplying the time in the argument of the cosine
:<math>T_0 = 2\pi\sq
|
t cause]]. For most of human history, it has been a branch of [[metaphysics]]. Cosmology as a [[science]] originates with the [[Copernican principle]], which implies that celestial bodies obey identical [[physical law]]s to those on earth, and [[Newtonian mechanics]], which first allowed us to understand those motions. This is now called [[celestial mechanics]]. '''Physical cosmology''', as it is now understood, began with the [[twentieth century]] development of [[Albert Einstein]]'s theory of [[general relativity]] and better [[astronomy|astronomical]] observations of extremely distant objects.
The twentieth century advances made it possible to speculate about the origins of the universe and allowed scientists to establish the [[big bang]] as the leading cosmological theory, which most cosmologists now accept as the basis for their theory and observations. (Some people still advocate [[Non-standard cosmology|alternative cosmologies]] such as the [[plasma cosmology]] and [[steady state theory]], although professional cosmologists generally agree that the big bang best explains observations.) Physical cosmology, roughly speaking, deals with the very largest objects in the universe ([[galaxy|galaxies]], [[galaxy groups and clusters|clusters]] and [[superclusters]]), the very earliest distinct objects to form ([[quasars]]) and the very early universe, when it was nearly homogeneous ([[big bang|hot big bang]], [[cosmic inflation]] and the [[cosmic microwave background radiation]]).
Cosmology is unusual in [[physics]] for drawing heavily on the work of [[particle physics|particle physicists']] experiments, and [[research]] into phenomenology and even [[string theory]]; from [[astrophysics|astrophysicists]]; from [[general relativity]] research; and from [[plasma physics]].
== History of physical cosmology ==
{{seealso2|Timeline of cosmology|List of cosmologists}}
Modern cosmology developed along tandem observational and theoretical tracks. In 1915, Albert Einstein developed his theory of [[general relativity]]. At the time, physicists were prejudiced to believe in a perfectly static universe without beginning or end. Einstein added a [[cosmological constant]] to his theory to try to force it to allow for a static universe with matter in it. The so-called ''Einstein universe'' is, however, unstable. It is bound to eventually start expanding or contracting. The cosmological solutions of general relativity were found by [[Alexander Friedmann]], whose equations describe the [[Friedmann-Lemaître-Robertson-Walker]] universe, which may expand or contract.
In the [[1910]]s, [[Vesto Melvin Slipher|Vesto Slipher]] and later [[Carl Wilhelm Wirtz]] interpreted the [[red shift]] of [[nebula|spiral nebulae]] as a [[Doppler shift]] that indicated they were receding from [[Earth]]. However, it is notoriously difficult to determine the distance to astronomical objects: even if it is possible to measure their [[angular size]] it is usually impossible to know their actual size or [[luminosity]]. They did not realize that the nebulae were actually galaxies outside our own [[Milky Way]], nor did they speculate about the cosmological implications. In [[1927]], the [[Belgium|Belgian]] [[catholic]] [[priest]] [[Georges Lemaître]] independently derived the Friedmann-Lemaître-Robertson-Walker equations and proposed, on the basis of the recession of spiral nebulae, that the universe began with the "explosion" of a "primeval [[atom]]"&mdash;what was later called the big bang. In [[1929]], [[Edwin Hubble]] provided an observational basis for Lemaître's theory. Hubble proved that the spiral nebulae were galaxies and measured their distances by observing [[Cepheid variable]] stars. He discovered a relationship between the [[redshift]] of a galaxy and its [[luminosity]]. He interpreted this as evidence that the galaxies are receding in every direction at speeds (relative to the Earth) directly proportional to their distance. This fact is known as [[Hubble's law]]. The relationship between distance and speed, however, was accurately ascertained only relatively recently: Hubble was off by a factor of ten.
Given the [[cosmological principle]], Hubble's law suggested that the universe was expanding. This idea allowed for two opposing possibilities. One was Lemaître's Big Bang theory, advocated and developed by George Gamow. The other possibility was [[Fred Hoyle|Fred Hoyle's]] [[steady state model]] in which new matter would be created as the galaxies moved away from each other. In this model, the universe is roughly the same at any point in time.
For a number of years the support for these theories was evenly divided. However, the observational evidence began to support the idea that the universe evolved from a hot dense state. Since the discovery of the cosmic microwave background in [[1965]] it has been regarded as the best theory of the origin and evolution of the cosmos. Before the late [[1960s]], many cosmologists thought the infinitely dense [[singularity]] at the starting time of Friedmann's cosmological model was a mathematical over-idealization, and that the universe was contracting before entering the hot dense state and starting to expand again. This is [[Richard Tolman|Richard Tolman's]] [[oscillatory universe]]. In the sixties, [[Stephen Hawking]] and [[Roger Penrose]] demonstrated that this idea was unworkable, and the singularity is an essential feature of Einstein's gravity. This led the majority of cosmologists to accept the Big Bang, in which the universe we observe began a finite time ago.
==Areas of study==
Below, some of the most active areas of inquiry in cosmology are described, in roughly chronological order. This does not include all of the big bang cosmology, which is presented in [[cosmological timeline]].
===The very early universe===
While the early, hot universe appears to be well explained by the big bang from roughly 10<sup>-33</sup> seconds onwards, there are several [[Big Bang#Standard Problems|problems]]. One is that there is no compelling reason, using current particle physics, to expect the universe to be [[shape of the universe|flat]], [[homogeneous]] and [[isotropic]] (see the [[cosmological principle]]). Moreover, [[grand unified theory|grand unified theories]] of particle physics suggest that there should be [[magnetic monopole]]s in the universe, which have not been found. These problems are resolved by a brief period of '''[[cosmic inflation]]''', which drives the universe to flatness; smooths out anisotropies and inhomogeneities to the observed level; and exponentially dilutes the monopoles. The physical model behind cosmic inflation is extremely simple, however it has not yet been confirmed by particle physics, and there are difficult problems reconciling inflation and [[quantum field theory]]. Some cosmologists think that [[string theory]] and [[brane cosmology]] will provide an alternative to inflation.
Another major problem in cosmology is what has caused the universe to contain more particles than [[antimatter|antiparticles]]. Cosmologists can use [[X-ray]] observations to deduce that the universe is not split into regions of matter and antimatter, but rather is predominantly made of matter. This problem is called the baryon asymmetry, and the theory to describe the resolution is called ''[[baryogenesis]]''. The theory of baryogenesis was worked out by [[Andrei Sakharov]] in 1967, and requires a violation of the particle physics [[Symmetry#Symmetry in physics|symmetry]], called [[CP-symmetry]], between matter and antimatter. Particle accelerators, however, measure too small a violation of CP-symmetry to account for the baryon asymmetry. Cosmologists and particle physicists are trying to find additional violations of the CP-symmetry in the early universe that might account for the baryon asymmetry.
Both the problems of baryogenesis and cosmic inflation of these problems are very closely related to particle physics, and their resolution might come from high energy theory and [[particle accelerator|experiment]], rather than through observations of the universe.
===Big bang nucleosynthesis===
{{Main|Big bang nucleosynthesis}}
'''Big Bang Nucleosynthesis''' is the theory of the formation of the elements in the early universe. It finished when the universe was about three minutes old and its [[temperature]] fell enough that [[nuclear fusion]] ceased. Because the time in which big bang nucleosynthesis occurred was so short, only the very lightest elements were produced, unlike in [[stellar nucleosynthesis]]. Starting from [[hydrogen]] [[ion]]s ([[proton]]s), it principally produced [[deuterium]], [[helium|helium-4]] and [[lithium]]. Other elements were produced in only trace abundances. While the basic theory of nucleosynthesis has been understood for decades (it was developed in 1948 by [[George Gamow]], [[Ralph Asher Alpher]] and [[Robert Herman]]) it is an extremely sensitive probe of physics at the time of the big bang, as the theory of big bang nucleosynthesis connects the abundances of primordial light elements with the features of the early universe. Specifically, it can be used to test the [[equivalence principle]], to probe [[dark matter]] and test [[neutrino]] physics. Some cosmologists have proposed that big bang nucleosynthesis suggests there is a fourth "sterile" species of neutrino.
===Cosmic microwave background===
{{Main|Cosmic microwave background}}
The cosmic microwave background is radiation left over from [[decoupling]], when [[atoms]] first formed, and the radiation produced in the big bang stopped [[Thomson scattering]] from charged ions. The radiation, first observed in 1965 by [[Arno Penzias]] and [[Robert Woodrow Wilson]], has a perfect thermal [[black body|black-body]] spectrum. It has a temperature of 2.7 [[kelvin]]s today and is isotropic to one part in 10<sup>5</sup>. [[Cosmological perturbation theor
|
times can only be determined retrospectively, as the timescale is defined by periodic comparisons among its participating atomic clocks. However, these corrections are usually only needed for applications that require nanosecond-scale accuracy. Most time service users use realtime estimates of TAI provided by atomic clocks that have been previously referenced to the composite timescale. [[Global Positioning System|GPS]] is a commonly-used realtime source of time traceable back to TAI.
[[Coordinated Universal Time]] (UTC) is the basis for legal time throughout much of the world, and always differs from TAI by an integral number of seconds. From [[1 January]] [[2006]], UTC was behind TAI by 33 seconds. The difference is due to an initial ten second offset on [[1 January]] [[1972]] when UTC was established and [[leap second]]s, which have been periodically inserted into UTC since the first on [[30 June]] [[1972]] due to slight irregularities in Earth's rate of rotation. While TAI is a continuous and stable timescale, UTC has intentional discontinuities to keep it from drifting more than 0.9 second from [[UT1]], a timescale defined by the Earth's rotation. Roughly speaking, solar noon (the time at which the sun is directly overhead) would drift away from 12:00:00 without leap second corrections. UT1 is computed by the [[International Earth Rotation and Reference Systems Service]] (IERS). TAI was defined such that TAI = [[UT2]] on [[January 1]] [[1958]].
Because UTC is a discontinuous timescale, it is not possible to compute the exact time interval elapsed between two UTC timestamps without consulting a table that describes how many leap seconds occurred during that interval. Therefore, many scientific applications that require precise measurement of long (multi-year) intervals use TAI instead. TAI is also commonly used by systems that can not handle leap seconds.
==See also==
* [[Terrestrial Time]]
* [[Coordinated Universal Time]]
* [[Universal Time]]
* [[Sidereal Time]]
* [[Time and frequency transfer]]
* [[Clock synchronization]]
* [[Network Time Protocol]]
==External links==
* [http://www.bipm.fr/enus/5_Scientific/c_time/time_1.html ''Bureau International des Poids et Mesures'']
* [http://hpiers.obspm.fr IERS website]
* [http://www.boulder.nist.gov/timefreq/general/faq.htm ''NIST Time and Frequency FAQs'']
<!--Categories-->
[[Category:Time scales]]
<!--Interwiki-->
[[de:Internationale Atomzeit]]
[[eo:TAI]]
[[es:Tiempo atómico]]
[[fr:Temps atomique international]]
[[he:&#1492;&#1494;&#1502;&#1503; &#1492;&#1488;&#1496;&#1493;&#1502;&#1497; &#1492;&#1489;&#1497;&#1504;&#1500;&#1488;&#1493;&#1502;&#1497;]]
[[id:Waktu Atom Internasional]]
[[ja:国際原子時]]
[[pl:Mi&#281;dzynarodowy czas atomowy]]
[[ru:Международное атомное время]]
[[sk:Medzin&#225;rodn&#253; at&#243;mov&#253; &#269;as]]
[[zh:&#21407;&#23376;&#26102;]]
[[sv:TAI]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Altruism</title>
<id>336</id>
<revision>
<id>41949335</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T20:54:01Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>66.147.108.78</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Altruism and religion */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Altruism''' is considered a belief, a practice, a habit, or an [[ethics|ethical doctrine]]. Many cultures and religious traditions judge altruism to be [[virtue|virtuous]]. In English, the idea was often described as [[Ethic of reciprocity|Golden rule of ethics]]. In [[Buddhism]] it is considered a fundamental property of [[human nature]].
''Altruism'' can refer to:
* being helpful to other people with little or no interest in being rewarded for one's efforts (the colloquial definition). This is distinct from merely helping others.
* actions that benefit others with a net detrimental or neutral effect on the actor, regardless of the actor's own psychology, motivation, or the cause of his or her actions. This type of altruistic behavior is referred to in [[ecology]] as ''[[Commensalism]]''.
* an ethical doctrine that holds that individuals have a moral obligation to help others, if necessary to the exclusion of one's own interest or benefit. One who holds such a doctrine is known as an "altruist."
The concepts have a long history in [[philosophical]] and [[ethical]] thought, and have more recently become a topic for [[psychologists]], [[sociologists]], [[evolution]]ary biologists, and [[ethology|ethologists]]. While ideas about altruism from one field can have an impact on the other fields, the different methods and focuses of these fields lead to different perspectives on altruism.
Altruism can be distinguished from a feeling of [[loyalty]] and [[duty]]. Altruism focuses on a moral obligation towards all [[humanity]], while duty focuses on a moral obligation towards a specific individual (e.g. a [[king]]), a specific organization (e.g. a [[government]]), or an abstract concept (e.g. [[God]], [[country]] etc). Some individuals may feel both altruism and duty, while others may not. As opposed to altruism, duty is much easier to enforce by an [[authority]].
==Altruism in ethics==
''Main article: [[Altruism (ethical doctrine)]]''
The word "altruism" (''French, altruisme, from autrui: "other people", derived from Latin alter: "other"'') was coined by [[Auguste Comte]], the French founder of [[positivism]], in order to describe the ethical doctrine he supported. He believed that individuals had a moral obligation to serve the interest of others or the "greater good" of humanity. Comte says, in his Catechisme Positiviste, that ''"[the] social point of view cannot tolerate the notion of rights, for such notion rests on individualism. We are born under a load of obligations of every kind, to our predecessors, to our successors, to our contemporaries. After our birth these obligations increase or accumulate, for it is some time before we can return any service.... This ["to live for others"], the definitive formula of human morality, gives a direct sanction exclusively to our instincts of benevolence, the common source of happiness and duty. [Man must serve] Humanity, whose we are entirely."'' As the name of the ethical doctrine is "altruism," doing what the ethical doctrine prescribes has also come to be referred to by the term "altruism" -- serving others through placing their interests above one's own.
However, the idea that one has a moral obligation to serve others is much older than Auguste Comte. For example, many of the world's oldest and most widespread [[religion]]s (particularly [[Buddhism]] and [[Christianity]]) advocate it. In the [[New Testament]] of the [[Christianity|Christian]] [[Bible]], it is explained as follows:
:"Jesus made answer and said, ''A certain man was going down from Jerusalem to Jericho; and he fell among robbers, who both stripped him and beat him, and departed, leaving him half dead. And by chance a certain priest was going down that way: and when he saw him, he passed by on the other side. And in like manner a Levite also, when he came to the place, and saw him, passed by on the other side. But a certain Samaritan, as he journeyed, came where he was: and when he saw him, he was moved with compassion, and came to him, and bound up his wounds, pouring on [them] oil and wine; and he set him on his own beast, and brought him to an inn, and took care of him. And on the morrow he took out two shillings, and gave them to the host, and said, Take care of him; and whatsoever thou spendest more, I, when I come back again, will repay thee.'' Which of these three, thinkest thou, proved neighbor unto him that fell among the robbers? And he said, He that showed mercy on him. And Jesus said unto him, '''Go, and do thou likewise.'''" ''(Luke 10: 30-37)''
Philosophers who support [[ethical egoism|egoism]] have argued that altruism is demeaning to the individual and that no moral obligation to help others actually exists. [[Nietzsche]] asserts that altruism is predicated on the assumption that others are more important than one's self and that such a position is degrading and demeaning. He also claims that it was very uncommon for people in Europe to consider the sacrifice of one's own interests for others as virtuous until after the advent of Christianity. [[Ayn Rand]] argued that altruism is the willful sacrifice of one's values, and represents the reversal of morality because only a rationally selfish ethics allows one to pursue the values required for human life.
Advocates of altruism as an ethical doctrine maintain that one ought to act, or refrain from acting, so that benefit or [[good (economics)|good]] is bestowed on other people, if necessary to the exclusion of one's own interests (Note that refraining from murdering someone, for example, is not altruism since he is not receiving a benefit or being helped, as he already has his life; this would amount to the same thing as ignoring someone).
==Altruism in ethology and evolutionary biology==
In the science of [[ethology]] (the study of behavior), altruism refers to behavior by an individual that increases the [[fitness (biology)|fitness]] of another individual while decreasing the fitness of the actor. This would appear to be counter-intuitive if one presumes that [[natural selection]] acts on the individual. Natural selection, however, acts on the gene pool of the subjects, not on each subject individually. Recent developments in [[game theory]] have provided some explanations for apparent altruism, as have traditional evolutionary analyses. Among the proposed mechanisms are:
* [[Behavioral manipulation]] (e.g., by certain [[parasites]] that can alter the behavior of the host, see [http://news.yahoo.com/s/space/20060211/sc_space/mindcontrolbyparas
|
n = Cane Toad
| regnum = [[Animal]]ia
| phylum = [[Chordate|Chordata]]
| classis = [[Amphibia]]
| ordo = [[Anura]]
| familia = [[Bufonidae]]
| genus = ''[[Bufo]]''
| species = '''''B. marinus'''''
| binomial = ''Bufo marinus''
| binomial_authority = [[Carolus Linnaeus|Linnaeus]], [[1758]]
}}
The '''Giant Neotropical Toad''' (''Bufo marinus'') is native to the [[Americas]] from southern [[Texas]] to northern [[Argentina]]. It is the world's largest toad, and has been introduced to many locations in the belief it will control agricultural pests, particularly of [[sugarcane]]. Introduced populations now occur in [[Australia]], [[Florida]], [[Papua New Guinea]], the [[Philippines]], the [[Ogasawara Islands]] and [[Ryukyu Islands]] of Japan, most [[Caribbean]] islands and many [[Pacific]] islands including [[Hawaii|Hawai'i]] and [[Fiji]].
Some individuals reach exceptional sizes for an [[anuran]]. A preserved specimen in the museum of [[Queensland]] is 24cm long and weighed 1.36kg. They can live as long as twenty years in captivity, but usually they live for 15 years in the wild.
Adults possess enlarged paratoid glands behind the eyes and other glands across the back. When the animal is harassed these glands secrete a milky-white fluid known as [[bufotoxin]]. Bufotoxin contains components which are dangerous to many animals. There are reported deaths of humans after consumption of toads. Ill-effects from contact with toads have also been reported and they should be handled with caution. However they are sometimes kept as pets.
Adults are omnivores, which is unusual for an anuran. Their prey includes small [[vertebrates]], a wide range of [[invertebrates]], [[carrion]] and plant material. They have even been known to attempt to eat [[ping pong]] balls. They are active primarily at night, ranging far away from water.
Females lay from 4,000 to 36,000 eggs per clutch, and breed at least twice per year, having no particular breeding season. Both eggs and tadpoles are toxic to many animals. This toxic protection is lost for a period after [[metamorphosis]] until the paratoid glands develop.
== Introduction to Hawaii ==
This toad was introduced into [[Hawaii|Hawai'i]] in 1932 from [[Puerto Rico]] to control injurious insects in the [[sugarcane]] fields.
== Introduction into Australia ==
101 toads were brought to [[Australia]] from Hawai&lsquo;i in June [[1935]] in an attempt to control pests, especially the native Cane Beetle, that attacked sugarcane crops. They bred immediately in captivity and by August 1935 over 3000 young toads had been released in areas around [[Cairns, Queensland|Cairns]], [[Gordonvale, Queensland|Gordonvale]] and [[Innisfail, Queensland|Innisfail]] in northern [[Queensland]]. Releases were temporarily limited due to environmental concerns,
but resumed in other areas after September 1936. Since their release, toads have steadily expanded their range through Queensland, reaching the border with [[New South Wales]] in 1978 and the [[Northern Territory]] in 1984. The toads on the western frontier of their advance have evolved larger legs. It is thought to be related to their ability to travel further. Toads have been recored to travel upto 1 km in one night by electronic tagging. On the frontier the toads always migrate west into new territory.
There are grave concerns that toads might affect Australia's native fauna by predation, competition, conveying diseases and by poisoning animals that attempt to prey on toads. The long-term impact of toads on the Australian environment is difficult to determine. Precipitous declines in populations of the [[Northern Quoll]] have been observed after toads have invaded an area. There are also a number of reports of [[goanna]] and snake populations collapsing after the arrival of toads. [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/4073359.stm]
A number of native species have been reported as successfully preying on toads. Some birds, such as the [[Torresian Crow]] and the [[Black Kite]], have learned to attack a toad's belly, avoiding the venom-producing glands on the back of the head. Recent reports by researchers in the Northern Territory indicate that a native frog ''[[Litoria dahlii]]'' is apparently able to eat the tadpoles and live young of the toad without being affected by the poison that often kills other predators. This is believed to account for slower than expected infestations of toads in certain areas of the Northern Territory. Some snakes have been reported to have evolved smaller jaws so that they are unable to swallow large cane toads and survive a smaller dose of poison.
[[Image:Agarkroete_fg4.jpg|thumb|left|300px|Bufo marinus as purse]]
The saga of the Cane toad in Australia was popularized by the film
''[[Cane Toads: An Unnatural History]] (1987)'' which tells the tale with
a humorous edge and is often shown in [[Environmental Science]] courses.
It was also referenced in [[Simpsons]] episode ''Bart vs. Australia''.
As of [[2005]], some success is being had using [[dark ultraviolet]] lights to lure and capture cane toads.
== Other names ==
[[Image:Bufo marinus 1.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Marine Toad]]
[[Image:Cane-toad.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Marine Toad]]
The Giant Neotropical Toad is also known by the following names:
*'''Aga-Kröte (Aga Toad)''' ([[German language|German]], origin unknown)
*'''Cane Toad'''
*'''Crapaud''' ([[Trinidad and Tobago]])
*'''Dominican Toad'''
*'''Giant Marine Toad'''
*'''Giant Toad'''
*'''Marine Toad'''
*'''''Sapo gigante''''' ([[Spanish language|Spanish]])
*'''South American Cane Toad'''
*'''Spring Chicken''' (in [[Belize]])
*'''Sapo Cururu''' (in [[Brazil]])
==References==
*''Animal'', Smithsonian Institution, 2005, pg. 448
[[Category:Toads]]
[[Category:Argentine fauna]]
[[Category:Fauna of Guyana]]
[[Category:Fauna of Trinidad and Tobago]]
[[Category:Invasive species]]
[[de:Aga-Kröte]]
[[fr:Bufo marinus]]
[[nl:Zeepad]]
[[ru:Ага (земноводное)]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Cyrus II of Persia</title>
<id>6642</id>
<revision>
<id>23595034</id>
<timestamp>2005-09-20T13:04:46Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>66.111.216.156</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Cyrus the Great]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Croquet</title>
<id>6643</id>
<revision>
<id>42064571</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T15:46:10Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Nv8200p</username>
<id>17790</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* Croquet Clubs */ rm vanity image</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''For the Dutch food item, see [[Croquette]]. For the [[Smalltalk]] based 3D environment, see [[Croquet project]].''
'''Croquet''' is a recreational [[game]] and, latterly, a competitive [[sport]] that involves hitting wooden or plastic balls with a mallet through hoops embedded into the grass playing arena.
[[Image:Winslow Homer 001.jpg|thumb|300px|[[Winslow Homer]]: Croquet, 1864]]
The game was apparently invented in [[Ireland]] in the [[1830s]] and taken to [[England]] as a pastime of the [[aristocracy]] in the [[1850s]]. It may have evolved from the earlier mallet and ball game [[pall mall]]. It made its way to the [[United States]], [[Australia]], and [[France]], and while never hugely popular has continued to maintain a substantial following.
It was an [[Croquet at the 1900 Summer Olympics|event at the 1900 Summer Olympics]]. [[Roque]], an [[Roque at the 1904 Summer Olympics|event at the 1904 Summer Olympics]] is believed to have been a variation.
Variations of the game include [[Extreme_croquet|eXtreme Croquet]] and Bicycle Croquet.
==International-Rules Croquet==
(With an emphasis on the game as played in the United Kingdom)
There are several variations of croquet played, differing in the scoring systems, order of shots, and layout (particularly in social games where play must be adapted to smaller-than-standard playing courts). The main competitive version played in the UK is Association Croquet, where players can take multiple shots in one turn provided they either a) hit the ball through the correct hoop ("run" a hoop), or b) hit another ball. Upon hitting another ball, the player must play his next shot with the two balls touching; the "Croquet Stroke", from which the game takes its name. The winner is the player who, with each of his balls, runs each hoop twice in order and strikes the centre peg.
As long "breaks" (continuous play by one player) became more common as the standard of play improved, "Advanced Play" (a variant of association play for expert players) was introduced. This gave penalties to a player who ran certain hoops in the same turn. In response, feats of skill such as [[triple peels]] and even [[sextuple peels]], in which the partner (or opponent ball) was caused to run a number of hoops in a turn by the strikers ball, became more common in order to avoid the penalties.
Also played competitively in the UK is Golf Croquet, in which each player takes turns trying to hit a ball through the same hoop, the winner being the player who manages to hit the ball through the most hoops first. Golf Croquet has the advantage of being easier to learn and play, but its critics claim that the lack of croquet strokes in the game means that it is less intellectually demanding. There are other variations popular in other croquet-playing nations.
Golf Croquet is the fastest-growing version of the game, owing largely to its simplicity and fierce competitiveness. Egyptian players overwhelmingly dominate the game.
As well as club-level games, there are regular world championships and international matches between croquet-playing countries. The sport has particularly strong followings in the UK, USA, New Zealand and Australia. Many other countries also play.
The current (August 05) As
|
these are separated by anatomic or functional category. For example, disorders of the [[esophagus]] might be listed under "esophagus" and also included in a description of motility disorders (disorders of motor function). Diseases of the [[liver]] fall under the branch of [[hepatology]], which is traditionally classified under the umbrella of gastroenterology.
List of signs and symptoms of gastroenterological diseases :
* [[constipation]]
* [[diarrhea]]
* [[vomit|vomiting]]
* [[nausea]]
* [[abdominal pain]]
List of research fields in Gastroenterology :
* [[Neurogastroenterology]]
* [[Motility]]
==Important figures in Gastroenterology==
* [[William Beaumont]]
* [[Basil Hirschowitz]]
* [[Burrill Bernard Crohn]]
==Gastroenterological Societies==
* [[American College of Gastroenterology]]
* [[American Gastroenterological Association]]
* [[European Society of Gastrointestinal Endoscopy]]
* [[World Gastroenterology Organisation]]
==External links==
* [http://www.acg.gi.org/ American College of Gastroenterology]
* [http://www.worldgastroenterology.org/ World Gastroenterology Organisation]
{{Gastroenterology}}
{{Medicine}}
[[Category:Gastroenterology| ]]
[[de:Gastroenterologie]]
[[it:Gastroenterologia]]
[[he:גסטרואנטרולוגיה]]
[[ja:消化器学]]
[[pl:Gastroenterologia]]
[[pt:Gastroenterologia]]
[[sv:Gastroenterologi]]
[[tr:Gastroenteroloji]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Graphics programs</title>
<id>12977</id>
<revision>
<id>15910622</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Graphics_program]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Graphics program</title>
<id>12978</id>
<revision>
<id>36853184</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-26T22:21:48Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>NickelShoe</username>
<id>418205</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Category:Graphics software|*</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">A '''graphics program''' is a piece of [[computer software]] that enables a user to modify or view [[Graphics file formats|graphics files]].
Computer graphics can be classified into two distinct categories: [[raster graphics]] and [[vector graphics]].
Before learning about computer software that manipulates or displays these graphics types, you should be familiar with both.
Many graphics programs focus exclusively on either vector or raster graphics, but there are a few that combine them in interesting and sometimes unexpected ways. It is simple to convert from vector graphics to raster graphics, but going the other way is harder. Some software attempts to do this.
Most graphics programs have the ability to import and export one or more [[graphics file formats]].
Several graphics programs support [[animation]], or [[Digital video|digital video]].
Vector graphics animation can be described as a series of mathematical transformations that are applied in sequence to one or more shapes in a scene.
Raster graphics animation works in a similar fashion to film-based animation, where a series of still images produces the illusion of continuous movement.
Common graphics programs include:
*[[List of bitmap graphics editors]]
*[[List of vector graphics editors]]
[[Category:Graphics software|*]]
[[bs:Grafički program]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>GULAG</title>
<id>12979</id>
<revision>
<id>32036476</id>
<timestamp>2005-12-20T00:40:46Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>68.39.174.238</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>Redirect to the larger articel on the same subject</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Gulag]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Gulag</title>
<id>12980</id>
<revision>
<id>41873772</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T07:30:00Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>128.12.130.43</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* References */ *m*</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Gulag''' ([[Russian (language)|Russian]]: '''ГУЛАГ''' {{Audio|ru-Gulag.ogg|listen}}) is an acronym for '''''Г'''лавное '''У'''правление Исправительно—Трудовых '''Лаг'''ерей и колоний'', "'''G'''lavnoye '''U'''pravleniye Ispravitelno-trudovykh '''Lag'''erey i kolonii", "The Chief Directorate [or Administration] of Corrective Labour Camps and Colonies" of the [[NKVD]]. [[Anne Applebaum]], in her book ''Gulag: A History'', explains:
:Literally, the word GULAG is an acronym, meaning '''''G'''lavnoe '''U'''pravlenie '''Lag'''erei'', or Main Camp Administration. Over time, the word "Gulag" has also come to signify not only the administration of the concentration camps but also the system of Soviet slave labor itself, in all its forms and varieties: labor camps, punishment camps, criminal and political camps, women's camps, children's camps, transit camps. Even more broadly, "Gulag" has come to mean the Soviet repressive system itself, the set of procedures that prisoners once called the "meat-grinder": the arrests, the interrogations, the transport in unheated cattle cars, the forced labor, the destruction of families, the years spent in exile, the early and unnecessary deaths.[http://www.anneapplebaum.com/gulag/intro.html]
It was the branch of the [[NKVD|State Security]] that operated the penal system of [[Labor camp|forced labour camps]] and associated detention and transit camps and prisons. While these camps housed criminals of all types, the Gulag system has become primarily known as a place for political prisoners and as a mechanism for repressing political opposition to the [[Soviet Union|Soviet state]]. Though it imprisoned millions, the name became familiar in the West only with the publication of [[Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn]]'s [[1973]] ''[[The Gulag Archipelago]]'', which likened the scattered camps to a chain of islands.
[[Image:Arch gulag cover.jpg|thumb|right]]
== Terminology ==
Some authors refer to all prisons and camps throughout Soviet history (1917&ndash;1991) as the ''Gulags''. Also, the term's modern usage is often notably unrelated to the USSR: for example, in such expressions as "[http://www.guardian.co.uk/korea/article/0,2763,1136483,00.html North Korea's gulag]". Note that the original Russian acronym, never in plural, described not a single camp, but the government institution in charge of the entire camp system.
The term "corrective labor camp" was suggested for official use by the [[politburo]] of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union session of July 27, 1929, as a replacement of the term [[concentration camp]], commonly used until that time.
A colloquial name for a Soviet Gulag inmate was "'''zeka'''", "'''zek'''". In [[Russian language|Russian]], "inmate", "incarcerated" is "заключённый", ''zakliuchennyi'', usually abbreviated to 'з/к' in paperwork, pronounced as 'зэка' (zeh-KA), gradually transformed into 'зэк' and to 'зек'. The word is still in colloquial use, irrelevant to labour camps. 'з/к' initially was an acronym standing for "заключённый каналостроитель", "'''z'''akliuchennyi '''k'''analostroitel'" (incarcerated canal-builder), originating to the [[Volga-Don Canal]] slave workforce members. Later the term was [[backronym|backronymed]] to mean just "zakliuchennyi".
== Variety ==
In addition to the most common category of camps that practiced hard physical labour and prisons of various sorts, other forms also existed.
* ''[[Sharashka]]'' (шарашка, ''the goofing-off place'') were in fact secret research laboratories, where the arrested and convicted scientists, some of them prominent, were anonymously developing new technologies, and also conducting basic research.
* ''[[Psikhushka]]'' (психушка, ''the nut house''), the forced medical treatment in [[psychiatric imprisonment]] was used, in lieu of camps, to isolate and break down [[political prisoner]]s. This practice became much more common after the official dismantling of the Gulag system. See [[Vladimir Bukovsky]], [[Pyotr Grigorenko]].
* Special camps or ''zones'' for children (Gulag [[jargon]]: "малолетки", ''maloletki'', ''underaged''), for disabled (in [[Spassk]]), and for mothers ("мамки", ''mamki'') with babies. These categories were considered as not producing any useful outcome and often subjected to more [[abuse]]. {{fact}}
* Camps for "wives of traitors of Motherland" (there was a special category of repression: "[[Traitor of Motherland Family Member]]" (ЧСИР, член семьи изменника Родины)).
* Under the supervision of [[Lavrenty Beria]] who headed both NKVD and the Soviet [[Atom bomb]] program until his demise in [[1953]], thousands of ''zeks'' were used to mine [[uranium]] [[ore]] and prepare test facilities on [[Novaya Zemlya]], [[Vaygach Island]], [[Semipalatinsk Test Site|Semipalatinsk]], among other sites. Reports even state that Gulag prisoners were used in early [[nuclear test]]s (the first was conducted in Semipalatinsk in [[1949]]) in decontaminating [[radioactive]] areas and [[nuclear submarine]]s.
== History ==
[[Image:GPU.jpg|GPU poster|left|thumb|Soviet poster of the 1920s: The GPU strikes the counter-revolutionary saboteur on the head]]
From 1918 camp-type detention facilities were set up, as a reformed extension of earlier [[labor camp|labour camp]]s ([[katorga]]s), operated in [[Siberia]] as a part of penal system in [[Imperial Russia]]. The two main types were "[[Vechecka]] Special-purpose Camps" ("особые лагеря ВЧК") and [[forced labor camp]]s (лагеря принудительных работ). They were installed for various categories of people deemed dangerous for the state: for common crimin
|
e borough of [[Maidstone]] in [[Kent]].
Animals are found in various stereotyped positions. [[Quadruped]]s are most often ''rampant'', standing on the left hind foot (or both hind feet depending on the shape of the shield and on local styles), arranged to fill the field and to emphasize distinctive features such as claws and tail. The next most frequent position is walking (''passant''), like the three lions of the [[Coat of Arms of England|kings of England]]. Eagles are nearly always shown with their wings spread (''displayed'').
Human figures are relatively rare as charges, but appear quite often as supporters. Human heads, hands and [[heart (symbol)|heart]]s occur more often as charges. Very many coats of arms in the [[Balkans]] show a mutilated [[Ottoman Empire|Turk]], alluding to a long history of warfare. "[[Maure|Moor]]'s" heads appear in the arms of [[Sardinia]] and [[Corsica]].
In English heraldry the [[crescent]], [[mullet (heraldry)|mullet]] (a star with straight rays, which originally represented a [[spur]]), [[martlet]], [[annulet (ring)|annulet]], [[fleur-de-lis]] and [[rose]] may be added to a shield to distinguish [[cadency|cadet]] branches of a family from the senior line. It does not follow, however, that a shield containing such a charge belongs to a cadet branch. All of these charges occur frequently in basic (''undifferenced'') coats of arms.
== Ordinaries ==
[[Image:Ordinaries.png|200px|right]]
''Main article: [[Ordinary (heraldry)|Ordinary]]''
Ordinaries (sometimes called "honourable ordinaries") resemble partitions, but are customarily treated like charges; for example, when painted they often cast shadows on the field. Unless otherwise specified they extend to the edges of the field. They include:
* ''[[cross]]'';
* ''[[fess]]'': a horizontal stripe;
* ''[[pale (heraldry)|pale]]'': a vertical stripe;
* ''[[bend (heraldry)|bend]]'': a diagonal stripe, beginning at the bearer's upper right, i.e. the viewer's upper left (a stripe the other way is a ''bend sinister'');
* ''[[chief (heraldry)|chief]]'': the upper portion of the field;
* ''[[chevron (insignia)|chevron]]'': an angled stripe with the point upwards, possibly representing the rafters of a house;
* ''[[saltire]]'': a diagonal cross;
* ''[[bordure (heraldry)|bordure]]'': the edge of the field.
Each of the above ordinaries is commonly said to take up one-third of the field in theory, though in practice they are usually made somewhat narrower.
Less widespread are the [[flaunch]]es, [[pall]] and [[pile (heraldry)|pile]] (a tapered pale, pointed at the bottom). The [[quarter (heraldry)|quarter]], i.e. an upper quadrant of the field, occurs rarely as an ordinary, but its diminished version the [[canton (heraldry)|canton]] is frequently found, usually as a mark of difference; it theoretically occupies the first third of the chief.
Ordinaries may appear in parallel series, in which case English blazon gives them a different name: ''pallets'', ''bars'' (diminutives of the fess), ''bendlets'', ''chevronels''. French blazon makes no such distinction: ''une fasce, deux fasces''.
Unless otherwise specified an ordinary is drawn with straight lines, but each may be ''indented'' (zigzag), ''embattled'' (like [[battlement]]s), ''wavy'', ''engrailed'' (scalloped with points outward) or ''invected'' (opposite of engrailed), among rarer variants.
==Marshalling==
Two or more coats of arms are often combined in one shield; such combination, called '''marshalling''' may express inheritance from different families, a sovereign's assertion of various claims, or the occupation of an office by a specific person for the time being. The principal modes of marshalling are:
* by '''impalement''': the shield is divided into right and left halves;
* by '''quartering''': the shield is divided into quadrants;
* with an '''inescutcheon''': a smaller shield appears in front of the main shield.
When more than four coats are to be marshalled, the principle of quartering may be extended to two rows of three (''quarterly of six'') and even further; a few lineages have accumulated hundreds of quarters. Some traditions have a strong resistance to allowing more than four quarters, and resort instead to subquartering.
Impaled or quartered shield are read by rows, beginning at the dexter chief &ndash; the top right corner of the shield as seen by its holder (the viewer's top left). The first coat normally represents the highest title claimed, or the paternal inheritance.
== Around the shield ==
[[image:coatarms-labld.png|right|frame|The [[Coat of Arms of Saskatchewan|coat-of-arms of Saskatchewan]], with parts labelled]]
The shield is the core of a composition called the '''achievement''', which may be quite elaborate.
===Helm and crest===
All coats of arms may be displayed with a '''helm''' or helmet, which sits over the shield and carries the '''crest'''. The form of the helmet may vary with the rank of the armiger.
The '''[[crest (heraldry)|crest]]''' stands atop the helm, usually on a [[torse]] (wreath) of twisted cloth in the two principal colours of the coat of arms, sometimes within a coronet (which is simpler than most coronets of rank). Often but not exclusively an animal, crests were used to identify a knight at the joust and were, therefore, at first, a sign of the superior rank expected of participants in medieval tournaments. Since Tudor times, however, crests have been granted with all English coats of arms. A woman does not display a crest (just as no woman would have fought in a medieval tournament). The crest rests on the helm, as it would have done in real life, or it may be illustrated directly above the shield without a helm. Crests are often shown alone (without shield or helm) on stationery and the like; the torse or crest-coronet must be included in such display.
The helm if present is always adorned with a '''[[mantling]]''' or '''lambrequin''', originally a cloth worn as partial protection against heating by sunlight. Typically its outer surface is of the principal colour and the inner of the principal metal of the shield, but in the case of royalty and nobility it is often of gold or scarlet on the outside and ermine inside (blazoned, e.g., ''gules doubled ermine''). The mantling is conventionally depicted with a ragged edge, as if damaged in combat.
Clergy, like women, and for the same reason (their non-participation in combat), traditionally do not display a helm or crest. Higher clergy, such as bishops or abbots, may display appropriate headwear (the mitre) above the shield, similar to the display by peers of their coronets. Lower clergy often use clerical hats with tassells appropriate to their seniority: this practice began in the Roman Catholic church but was subsequently adopted by some Anglican clergy. The Chief Herald of Ireland has granted Father William Richardson the crest ''A dexter hand couped at the wrist Gules holding a crown of thorns Proper'', but this is often shown beside the shield, the only item above the shield being the historical tasselled hat of a priest.
===Motto===
An armorial [[motto]] is a phrase or collection of words intended to describe the motivation or intention of the armigerous person or corporation, sometimes also forming a pun as in the [[Neville]] motto ''Ne vile velis'' (wish nothing vile). It is often claimed by members of a family as well. A motto is a usual component in an achievement of arms, typically on a scroll under the shield, or else above the crest as in Scots heraldry. A motto may be in any language; [[Latin]] is the most frequent.
===Supporters and other additions===
An armiger may be entitled, depending upon their rank, to several other items:
* Peers of the realm, senior members of British orders of knighthood and some corporate bodies have '''[[supporters]]''' on either side of the shield. Often these can have local significance (such as the Fisherman and the Tin miner granted to Cornwall County Council) or a historical link (such as the lion of England and unicorn of Scotland on the two variations of the Royal Arms in Great Britain).
* If the bearer has the title of [[baron]] or higher (or hereditary [[knight]] in some countries), he or she may display a '''[[coronet]]''' of rank above the shield, usually below the helm in British heraldry, often above the crest (if any) in Continental heraldry.
* Some orders of knighthood are denoted by a collar or similar band surrounding the shield. (When the arms of a knight and his wife are shown in one achievement, the insignia of knighthood surround the husband's arms only, and the wife's arms are customarily surrounded by a meaningless ornamental garland of leaves for visual balance.)
* Certain offices of state are denoted by a staff, sceptre or sword, typically shown crossed in saltire behind the shield; the keys of [[Saint Peter]] are shown behind the [[Pope]]'s personal arms, and some bishops have their [[crozier]] (usually vertical).
==National styles==
It is often possible to guess the country of origin of a coat of arms. Four broad styles are readily distinguished, which we may conveniently call German, Gallo-British, Mediterranean and Eastern.
* [[Chevron (insignia)|Chevrons]] and five-pointed stars are popular in France and Britain, rare elsewhere.
* [[Saltire]]s are most popular in Spain and Scotland.
* A plain field with a charged chief is a typically Scottish composition.
* A shield divided into two dissimilar coats, one above the other, is probably Italian.
* A shield with a checkerboard of tiny coats, with a single coat on a smaller shield in the center, almost certainly belongs to a high-ranking German noble.
* Bordures are much used in Spain and Portugal as a place for charges &ndash; almost a form of marshalling.
* A large fraction of Hungarian arms consist of some animal standing on a green hill against a blue sky.
* Trees are most often seen in Medite
|
eshire|Neston]]
* [[Northwich]]
* [[Runcorn]]
* [[Sandbach]]
* [[Warrington]]
* [[Wilmslow]]
* [[Widnes]]
* [[Winsford]]
|}
==Places of interest==
''(in alphabetical order)''
*[[Adlington Hall]]
*[[Anderton Boat Lift]]
*[[Arley Hall]]
*[[Beeston Castle]]
*[[Biddulph Valley Way]], a [[long distance footpath]]
*[[Capesthorne Hall]]
*[[Cholmondley Castle]]
*[[Dunham Massey]]
*[[Ellesmere Port Boat Museum]]
*[[Elton Hall]], Aldford
*[[Gawsworth Hall]]
*[[Holt Castle]]
*[[Jodrell Bank]] Science Centre
*[[Lion Salt Works]], [[Marston, Cheshire|Marston]], an industrial museum
*[[Little Moreton Hall]]
*[[Lyme Hall]], [[Lyme Park]], one of the locations for BBC's ''[[Pride and Prejudice]]''
*[[Macclesfield Canal]]
*[[Macclesfield Forest]]
*[[Moss Hall]], Audlem
*[[Ness Botanic Gardens]]
*[[Parkgate, Cheshire|Parkgate]]
*[[Peckforton Castle]]
*[[Peover Hall]]
*[[Quarry Bank Mill]], [[Styal]], an industrial museum
*[[River Weaver]], [[River Dee, Wales|River Dee]], [[River Dane]], [[River Bollin]], [[River Goyt]], [[River Gowy]]
*[[Sandbach]] Crosses
*[[Shropshire Union Canal]]
*[[Swettenham Meadows]]
*[[Tabley House]]
*[[Tatton Hall]], [[Tatton Park]]
*[[Tegg's Nose Country Park]]
*[[Trent and Mersey Canal]]
*[[Watermill]]s: [[Bunbury Mill]], [[Nether Alderley Mill]], [[Quarry Bank Mill]], [[Stretton Mill]]
== External links ==
{{Wiktionary|Cheshire}}
*[http://www.cheshire.gov.uk Cheshire Council]
*[http://www.wildlifetrust.org.uk/cheshire Cheshire Wildlife Trust]
*[http://www.lionsaltworkstrust.co.uk Lion Salt Works Museum]
*[http://www.manchester2002-uk.com/maps/canalss-map.html Cheshire Canals]
{{England ceremonial counties}}
<br />
{{England traditional counties}}
<br />
{{NW_England}}
[[Category:Cheshire| ]]
[[Category:Counties of the Welsh Marches]]
[[ang:Ceasterscīr]]
[[de:Cheshire]]
[[es:Cheshire]]
[[eo:Cheshire]]
[[fr:Comté de Cheshire]]
[[no:Cheshire]]
[[simple:Cheshire]]
[[sk:Cheshire (grófstvo)]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>County town</title>
<id>7407</id>
<revision>
<id>39924008</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-16T21:29:40Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>86.142.47.126</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">A '''county town''' is the 'capital' of a [[county]] in the [[United Kingdom]] or [[Ireland]]. County towns are usually the location of administrative or judicial functions, or established over time as the ''de facto'' main town of a county.
In the case of [[Yorkshire]] in [[England]], there are three county towns, one for each [[Riding]]: [[Northallerton]] for the [[North Riding of Yorkshire|North Riding]], [[Beverley]] for the [[East Riding of Yorkshire|East Riding]], and [[Wakefield]] for the [[West Riding of Yorkshire|West Riding]]. Contrary to popular belief, there are no civil administrative offices for the county of Yorkshire as a whole (not even in [[York]]).
Note that in [[Canada]] and the [[United States|United States of America]], the term '''[[county seat]]''' is usually used for the same purpose. However, in the state of [[Louisiana]] the term '''[[parish seat]]''' is used instead.
==List of county towns==
===[[Traditional counties of England|Historic counties of England]]===
* [[Bedfordshire]] - [[Bedford, England|Bedford]]
* [[Berkshire]] - [[Reading, Berkshire|Reading]]
* [[Buckinghamshire]] - [[Aylesbury]]
* [[Cambridgeshire]] - [[Cambridge]]
* [[Cheshire]] - [[Chester, England|Chester]]
* [[Cornwall]] - [[Truro]]
* [[Cumberland, England|Cumberland]] - [[Carlisle, England|Carlisle]]
* [[Derbyshire]] - [[Derby, England|Derby]], though [[County Hall]] is in [[Matlock, England|Matlock]]
* [[Devon]] - [[Exeter, England|Exeter]]
* [[Dorset]] - [[Dorchester, Dorset|Dorchester]]
* [[County Durham]] - [[Durham]]
* [[Essex, England|Essex]] - [[Chelmsford, England|Chelmsford]]
* [[Gloucestershire]] - [[Gloucester, England|Gloucester]]
* [[Hampshire]] - [[Winchester, Hampshire|Winchester]]
* [[Herefordshire]] - [[Hereford]]
* [[Hertfordshire]] - [[Hertford]]
* [[Huntingdonshire]] - [[Huntingdon]]
* [[Kent]] - [[Maidstone]]
* [[Lancashire]] - [[Lancaster, England|Lancaster]], though County Hall is in [[Preston]]
* [[Leicestershire]] - [[Leicester]], though County Hall is in [[Glenfield, Leicestershire|Glenfield]], [[Blaby (district)|Blaby District]]
* [[Lincolnshire]] - [[Lincoln, England|Lincoln]]
* [[Middlesex]] - [[Brentford]], [[Clerkenwell]] or [[City of Westminster|Westminster]] for different functions
* [[Norfolk, England|Norfolk]] - [[Norwich, England|Norwich]]
* [[Northamptonshire]] - [[Northampton]]
* [[Northumberland]] - [[Morpeth, Northumberland|Morpeth]]
* [[Nottinghamshire]] - [[Nottingham]], though County Hall is in [[West Bridgford, Nottinghamshire|West Bridgford]], [[Rushcliffe|Rushcliffe Borough]]
* [[Oxfordshire]] - [[Oxford]]
* [[Rutland, England|Rutland]] - [[Oakham]]
* [[Shropshire]] - [[Shrewsbury]]
* [[Somerset]] - [[Taunton, Somerset|Taunton]]
* [[Staffordshire]] - [[Stafford, England|Stafford]]
* [[Suffolk]] - [[Ipswich, England|Ipswich]]
* [[Surrey]] - [[Guildford]], though County Hall is in [[Kingston upon Thames]]
* [[Sussex, England|Sussex]] - [[Chichester]], (also Lewes)
* [[Warwickshire]] - [[Warwick, England|Warwick]]
* [[Westmorland]] - [[Appleby, Westmorland|Appleby]]
* [[Wiltshire]] - [[Wilton, Wiltshire|Wilton]] (near [[Salisbury, England|Salisbury]]), now [[Trowbridge]]
* [[Worcestershire]] - [[Worcester, England|Worcester]]
* [[Yorkshire]] - traditionally [[York]], but the ridings were administered as distinct counties from an early date
** North Riding (also [[North Yorkshire]]) - [[Northallerton]]
** East Riding - [[Beverley]]
** West Riding - [[Wakefield]]
===Non-metropolitan counties of England===
* [[Cumbria]] - [[Carlisle, England|Carlisle]]
* [[Isle of Wight]] - [[Newport, Isle of Wight|Newport]]
* [[West Sussex]] - [[Chichester]]
* [[East Sussex]] - [[Lewes]]
===[[Counties of Scotland]]===
* [[Aberdeenshire (traditional)|Aberdeenshire]] - [[Aberdeen]]
* [[Angus]] - [[Forfar]]
* [[Argyll]] - [[Lochgilphead]]
* [[Ayrshire]] - [[Ayr]]
* [[Banffshire]] - [[Banff and Macduff|Banff]]
* [[Berwickshire]] - [[Duns]] (formerly [[Berwick-upon-Tweed]])
* [[Bute]] - [[Rothesay (Scotland)|Rothesay]]
* [[Caithness]] - [[Wick, Caithness|Wick]]
* [[Clackmannanshire]] - [[Alloa]] (formerly [[Clackmannan]])
* [[Cromartyshire]] - [[Cromarty]]
* [[Dumfriesshire]] - [[Dumfries]]
* [[Dunbartonshire]] - [[Dumbarton]]
* [[East Lothian]] - [[Haddington, East Lothian|Haddington]]
* [[Fife]] - [[Cupar]]
* [[Inverness-shire]] - [[Inverness]]
* [[Kincardineshire]] - [[Stonehaven]] (formerly [[Kincardine]])
* [[Kinross-shire]] - [[Kinross]]
* [[Kirkcudbrightshire]] - [[Kirkcudbright]]
* [[Lanarkshire]] - [[Lanark]]
* [[Mid Lothian]] - [[Edinburgh]]
* [[Morayshire]] - [[Elgin, Moray|Elgin]]
* [[Nairnshire]] - [[Nairn]]
* [[Orkney]] - [[Kirkwall]]
* [[Peeblesshire]] - [[Peebles]]
* [[Perthshire]] - [[Perth, Scotland|Perth]]
* [[Renfrewshire]] - [[Renfrew]]
* [[Ross-shire]] - [[Dingwall]] (also the county town of [[Ross and Cromarty]])
* [[Roxburghshire]] - [[Jedburgh]] (formerly [[Roxburgh]])
* [[Selkirkshire]] - [[Selkirk]]
* [[Shetland]] - [[Lerwick]]
* [[Stirlingshire]] - [[Stirling]]
* [[Sutherland]] - [[Dornoch]]
* [[West Lothian]] - [[Linlithgow]]
* [[Wigtownshire]] - [[Wigtown]]
===[[Traditional counties of Wales|Historic counties of Wales]]===
* [[Anglesey]] - [[Llangefni]] (formerly [[Beaumaris, Wales|Beaumaris]])
* [[Brecknockshire]] - [[Brecon]]
* [[Caernarvonshire]] - [[Caernarfon]]
* [[Cardiganshire]] - [[Cardigan, Wales|Cardigan]]
* [[Carmarthenshire]] - [[Carmarthen]]
* [[Denbighshire]] - [[Ruthin]] (formerly [[Denbigh]])
* [[Flintshire]] - [[Mold, Flintshire|Mold]] (formerly [[Flint, Wales|Flint]])
* [[Glamorgan]] - [[Cardiff]]
* [[Merionethshire]] - [[Dolgellau]]
* [[Monmouthshire]] - [[Monmouth]]
* [[Montgomeryshire]] - [[Montgomery, Powys|Montgomery]]
* [[Pembrokeshire]] - [[Haverfordwest]] (formerly [[Pembroke]])
* [[Radnorshire]] - [[Presteigne]] (formerly [[New Radnor]])
===Traditional counties of the [[Republic of Ireland]]===
* [[County Carlow]] - [[Carlow]]
* [[County Cavan]] - [[Cavan]]
* [[County Clare]] - [[Ennis]]
* [[County Cork]] - [[Cork]]
* [[County Donegal]] - [[Lifford]]
* [[County Dublin]] - [[Dublin]]
* [[County Galway]] - [[Galway]]
* [[County Kerry]] - [[Tralee]]
* [[County Kildare]] - [[Naas]]
* [[County Kilkenny]] - [[Kilkenny]]
* [[County Laois]] - [[Portlaoise]]
* [[County Leitrim]] - [[Carrick-on-Shannon]]
* [[County Limerick]] - [[Limerick]]
* [[County Longford]] - [[Longford Town, Longford|Longford]]
* [[County Louth]] - [[Dundalk]]
* [[County Mayo]] - [[Castlebar]]
* [[County Meath]] - [[Trim]] ([[Navan]] - de facto)
* [[County Monaghan]] - [[Monaghan]]
* [[County Offaly]] - [[Tullamore]]
* [[County Roscommon]] - [[Roscommon]]
* [[County Sligo]] - [[Sligo|Sligo]]
* [[County Tipperary]] - [[Tipperary]]
* [[County Waterford]] - [[Waterford]]
* [[County Westmeath]] - [[Mullingar]]
* [[County Wexford]] - [[Wexford]]
* [[County Wicklow]] - [[Wicklow]]
===Other counties of the Republic of Ireland===
* [[Dun Laoghaire-Rathdown|County of Dun Laoghaire-Rathdown]] - [[Dún Laoghaire]]
* [[Fingal|County of Fingal]] - [[Swords, Dublin|Swords]]
* [[North Tipperary|County of North Tipperary]] - [[Nenagh]]
* [[South Dublin|County of South Dublin]] - [[Tallaght]]
* [[South Tipperary|County of South Tipperary]] - [[Clonmel]]
===Historic counties of [[Northern Ireland]]===
* [[County Antrim]] - [[Antrim]]
* [[County Armagh]] - [[Armagh]]
* [[County Down]] - [[Downpatrick]]
* [[County Fermanagh]] - [[Enniskillen]]
* [[County Londonderry]] (Derry) - [[Derry]] (Londonderry)
* [[County Tyrone]] - [[Omagh]]
Note - Despite the fact that [[Belfast]] is the capital, it is not the county town of any [[county]] as it is in two counties (''Antrim'' and ''Down'').
==Former county towns==
In [[1965]] and [[1974]] there were major administrative boundary changes in [[
|
the academic and research health institutions are [[Baylor College of Medicine]], [[University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston|The University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston]], and [[The University of Texas M. D. Anderson Cancer Center]]. The M. D. Anderson Cancer Center is widely considered one of the world’s most productive and highly-regarded academic institutions devoted to cancer patient care, research, education and prevention.
:''See also: [[List of hospitals in Texas]]''
==Transportation==
===Highways===
[[Image:Interstate10.png|100px|right|]]
[[Image:US59.png|100px|right|]]
[[Image:TexasSH288.png|100px|right|]]
In Houston [[urban sprawl]] and hot, humid summers have made automobiles the favored means of transportation. Houston also has excessive [[ozone]] levels and is ranked among the most ozone-polluted cities in the United States.
[[Image:HOU002.jpg|73KB|thumb|right|Houston daytime highway traffic]]
Houston freeways are heavily traveled and often under construction to meet the demands of continuing growth. [[Interstate 45]] south has been in a continuous state of construction, in one portion or another, almost since the first segment was built in [[1952]]. Texas Department of Transportation (TxDOT) planners have sought ways to reduce rush hour congestion, primarily through [[High occupancy vehicle|High-occupancy vehicle]] (HOV) lane for vans and carpools. Timed freeway entrances, which regulate the addition of cars to the freeway, are also common. Houston has an extensive network of freeway cameras linked to a transit control center to monitor and study traffic.
One characteristic of Houston's freeways (and Texas freeways in general) are its [[frontage road]]s (which locals call "feeders"). Alongside most freeways are two to four lanes in each direction parallel to the freeway permitting easy access to individual city streets. Frontage roads provide access to the freeway from businesses alongside, such as gas stations and retail stores. New landscaping projects and a longstanding ban on new billboards are ways Houston has tried to control the potential side effects of convenience.
Houston has a [[Spoke-hub distribution paradigm|hub-and-spoke]] freeway structure with multiple loops. The innermost is [[Interstate 610 (Texas)|Interstate 610]], forming approximately a 10 mile diameter loop around downtown. The roughly square "Loop-610" is quartered into "North Loop," "South Loop," "West Loop," and "East Loop." The roads of [[Texas State Highway Beltway 8|Texas Beltway 8]] and their freeway core, the Sam Houston Tollway, are the next loop, at a diameter of roughly 25 miles. Most of this freeway requires payment of $1.25 toll every five or ten miles ($2.00 toll when crossing the Houston Ship Channel). A controversial proposed highway project, [[Texas State Highway 99|Texas Highway 99]] (The Grand Parkway), would form a third loop outside of Houston. Currently, the completed portion of Texas Highway 99 runs from just north of [[Interstate 10]], west of Houston, to [[U.S. Highway 59]] in [[Sugar Land, Texas|Sugar&nbsp;Land]], southwest of Houston, and was completed in [[1994]]. The next portion to be constructed is from the current terminus at U.S. Highway 59 to [[Texas State Highway 288]] in [[Brazoria County, Texas|Brazoria County]].
::''See also:''
:::*''[[List of highways in Houston, Texas|List of highways in Houston]]''
:::*''[[List of Texas highways]]''
===Mass transit===
[[Image:MetroRail.jpg|thumb|275px|right|[[METRORail]] in Downtown]]
The [[Metropolitan Transit Authority of Harris County, Texas]], or '''METRO''', provides public transportation in the form of buses, trolleys and lift vans. Uptown, METRO provides free service on the Uptown Shuttle.
METRO began running light rail service ([[METRORail]]) on [[January 1]], [[2004]]. Currently the track is rather short &mdash; it runs about 8 miles (13 km) primarily along Main Street from central [[Downtown Houston]] to the [[Texas Medical Center]] and [[Reliant Park]]. METRO's various forms of public transportation still do not connect many of the suburbs to the greater city, causing Houstonians to rely on the automobile as a primary source of transportation. Prior to the opening of METRORail, Houston was the largest city in the United States devoid of a rail transit system by a very large margin.
Following a successful [[referendum]] held locally in 2004, METRO is currently in the beginning design phases of a ten year expansion plan to add five more sections to connect to the current rail system. A 27-mile (43 km) expansion has been approved to run the service from Uptown (the Galleria area) through [[Texas Southern University]], ending at the [[University of Houston]] campus.
===Airports===
Houston is served by two commercial airports &mdash; the largest of which is the [[George Bush Intercontinental Airport]] (IAH). The airport is the ninth-busiest in the United States for total passengers, and nineteenth busiest worldwide. Houston is the headquarters of [[Continental Airlines]], and [[George Bush Intercontinental Airport]] (IAH) is Continental Airline's largest hub, with over 750 daily departures (over 250 operated by Continental Airlines). Because of Houston's proximity to [[American Airlines]]' hub in [[Dallas, Texas|Dallas]]-[[Fort Worth, Texas|Fort Worth]], that airline also maintains a large presence at IAH. A long list of domestic cities within [[North America]], as well as international destinations are served directly from this airport. IAH currently ranks second in the United States among U.S. airports with scheduled non-stop domestic and international service (221 destinations), trailing only [[Atlanta]] Hartsfield with 250 destinations.
The second commercial airport in Houston is the [[William P. Hobby Airport]] (named Houston International Airport until [[1967]]). The airport has a lot of low-fare carrier operations, as opposed to Bush Intercontinental Airport's hub operation with [[Continental Airlines]], and is the only airport in the city served by [[Southwest Airlines]]. Business travelers on shorter routes to Houston from within the United States tend to prefer Hobby over Bush Intercontinental.
The city's third-largest airport and former [[US Air Force]] base, [[Ellington Field]] is primarily used for government and private aircraft. At one point, [[Continental Express]] operated flights across the city to Bush Intercontinental to allow residents of southeast Houston and Galveston County to easily take flights out of Bush Intercontinental. However, passenger flights ended on September 7, 2004.
Located southwest of Houston, in the city of [[Sugar Land, Texas|Sugar Land]], is the [[Sugar Land Regional Airport]], formerly Sugar Land Municipal Airport. Sugar Land Regional is the fourth-largest airport in the greater Houston area, and the only general reliever airport in the southwest sector. The airport exclusively serves private planes.
==Education==
===Colleges and universities===
[[Image:UH100.jpg|250px|thumb|right|[[University of Houston]].]]
[[Image:Rice University.JPG|250px|thumb|right|[[Rice University]].]]
Houston is home to the prestigious [[Rice University]], a private institution boasting one of the largest [[financial endowment]]s of any university in the world and ranked the 17th best university overall in the nation by ''[[U.S. News & World Report]]'' [http://www.usnews.com/usnews/edu/college/rankings/brief/natudoc/tier1/t1natudoc_brief.php]. The small undergraduate student body is among the nation's most select and has one of the highest percentages of [[National Merit Scholarship Program|National Merit Scholarship]] winners. Rice maintains a variety of research facilities and laboratories. Rice is also associated with the Houston Area Research Center, a consortium supported by Rice, [[University of Texas at Austin|The University of Texas at Austin]], [[Texas A&M University]], and the [[University of Houston]].
Houston is served by the [[University of Houston System]], the largest urban state system of higher education in the [[Gulf Coast of the United States|Gulf Coast]]. The system has four [[university|universities]], all but one of which are in Houston, and two multi-institution teaching centers. Their flagship institution is the [[University of Houston|University&nbsp;of&nbsp;Houston]], which was founded in 1927 and is the only doctoral degree granting extensive research institution in Houston. It is the third-largest University in the State of Texas with an enrollment of more than 35,000. The University of Houston is also home to more than 40 research centers and institutes. Among the most prestigious of the University of Houston's colleges is the [[University of Houston Law Center|University&nbsp;of&nbsp;Houston&nbsp;Law&nbsp;Center]] (law school). The University of Houston Law Center's Health Law and Policy Institute is ranked number one in the nation while its intellectual property law program is ranked fifth, according to ''[[U.S. News & World Report]]''.
[[Texas Southern University]] is a [[Historically Black colleges and universities|historically black university]] located in the historic Third Ward community, is heralded as a pioneer, and distinguishes itself as one of the leading producers of African American scholars that obtain collegiate, professional, and graduate degrees in the state, as well as the nation.
Houston also is home to the [[University of St. Thomas (Texas)|University of Saint Thomas]], a Catholic liberal arts college following the Basilian tradition, founded by the Basilian fathers of [[Canada]], and located in the Montrose area. Another religious college serving Houston is [[Houston Baptist University]]. [[South Texas College of Law]], located in the heart of downtown Houston, boasts one of the nation's finest programs for trial
|
siders Costas to be one of the most intelligent people he's interviewed on ''[[The Jim Rome Show]]''. Costas has also been frequently mentioned as a supposedly "good friend and colleague" of controversial ''Jim Rome Show'' calller (and 2002 ''[[Smack-Off]]'' winner) '''Jeff in [[Richmond, Virginia|Richmond]]'''.
*In [[2002 in video gaming|2002]], Bob was added a play-by-play announcer with [[Harold Reynolds]] for ''[[Triple Play (game)|Triple Play 2002]]'' during the ballgame for [[Playstation 2]].
*Bob Costas has his own star on the [[St. Louis Walk of Fame]].
==External links==
*[http://www.hollywood.com/celebs/detail/celeb/190332 Bob Costas: Hollywood.com]
*[http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/chronicle/archive/2002/05/17/SP61532.DTL Bob Costas' new NBC deal means no more baseball]
*[http://www.stltoday.com/stltoday/sports/stories.nsf/rams/story/23CD0C3C16E9DD3186257046007F10C5?OpenDocument Costas will host NBC’s NFL show]
*[http://www-cgi.cnn.com/TRANSCRIPTS/0208/10/lklw.00.html CNN LARRY KING WEEKEND - Interview With Bob Costas]
*[http://www.sptimes.com/News/060501/news_pf/Sports/Costas_still_busy_wit.shtml Costas still busy without baseball]
*[http://rds.yahoo.com/S=2766679/K=Bob+Costas+September+10%2C+2001/v=2/SID=e/TID=F562_74/l=WS1/R=1/IPC=us/SHE=0/H=3/;_ylt=Ar8eesvxTUdG5SSQ7hy35EpXNyoA/SIG=12hr4e3l7/EXP=1124700967/*-http%3A//cnnstudentnews.cnn.com/TRANSCRIPTS/0109/10/gal.00.html Bob Costas Discusses the State of Sports in America]
*[http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1208/is_n7_v219/ai_16536075 Voice of reason - sportscaster Bob Costas - includes related article]
*[http://www.andrewmason.com/clips/maneater/033195.php Costas Donates Money]
*[http://imdb.com/name/nm0182471/ Bob Costas] at the [[Internet Movie Database]]
[[Category:1952 births|Costas, Bob]]
[[Category:Living people|Costas, Bob]]
[[Category:American radio personalities|Costas, Bob]]
[[Category:CBS Sports|Costas, Bob]]
[[Category:Greek-Americans|Costas, Bob]]
[[Category:Irish-Americans|Costas, Bob]]
[[Category:Long Islanders|Costas, Bob]]
[[Category:Major League Baseball announcers|Costas, Bob]]
[[Category:NBC Sports|Costas, Bob]]
[[Category:National Basketball Association broadcasters|Costas, Bob]]
[[Category:Queensites|Costas, Bob]]
[[Category:Roman Catholics|Costas, Bob]]
[[Category:Sports in Saint Louis, Missouri|Costas, Bob]]
[[Category:Sports Emmy Award winners|Costas, Bob]]
[[Category:American sports announcers|Costas, Bob]]
[[Category:Syracuse Orange football|Costas, Bob]]
[[Category:Television talk show hosts|Costas, Bob]]
[[Category:The NFL on CBS|Costas, Bob]]
[[Category:The NFL on NBC|Costas, Bob]]
[[Category:Family Guy characters|Costas, Bob]]
[[Category:American horseracing announcers|Costas, Bob]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Bamberg</title>
<id>4896</id>
<revision>
<id>40898175</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-23T19:23:13Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Wlos</username>
<id>566927</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Cathedral */ Bamberg Horseman link</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Town DE|
name = Bamberg|
name_local = |
image_coa = Wappen_Bamberg.jpg|
image_map = Bamberg in Germany.png|
state = [[Bavaria]] |
regbzk = [[Upper Franconia]]|
district = [[List of German urban districts|urban district]]|
population = 71,014|
population_as_of = 2004|
pop_dens = 1,301|
area = 54.58|
elevation = 230-386|
lat_deg = 49|
lat_min = 53|
lat_hem = N|
lon_deg = 10|
lon_min = 53|
lon_hem = E|
postal_code = 96000-96052 |
area_code = 0951|
licence = BA|
mayor = Herbert Lauer|
website = [http://www.stadt.bamberg.de/ stadt.bamberg.de]|
}}
'''Bamberg''' is a town in [[Bavaria]], [[Germany]]. It is located in [[Upper Franconia]] on the river [[Regnitz]], close to its confluence with the river [[Main]].
==Geography==
Bamberg lies on an open plain on the Regnitz, 3 km above its junction with the [[Main]] River, and 63 km north of [[Nuremberg]] by railway. Like [[Rome]], Bamberg was built on seven hills, each crowned by a church.
==Population==
Bamberg is home to nearly 7,000 foreign nationals, including over 4,100 members of the [[United States Army]] and their dependents.
==History==
[[Image:BambergCathedral.JPG|thumb|left|250px|Bamberg cathedral]]
During the post-[[Roman Empire|Roman]] centuries of Germanic migration and settlement, the region afterwards included in the Diocese of Bamberg was inhabited for the most part by [[Slavs]]. The town, first mentioned in [[902]], grew up by the castle (Babenberch) which gave its name to the [[Babenberg]] family. On their extinction it passed to the [[Saxony|Saxon]] house. The area was Christianized chiefly by the monks of the [[Benedictine]] Abbey of [[Fulda]], and the land was under the spiritual authority of the Diocese of [[Würzburg]].
In [[1007]], Holy Roman Emperor [[Henry II, Holy Roman Emperor|Henry II]] made Bamberg, a family inheritance, the seat of a separate [[diocese]]. The emperor's purpose in this was to make the Diocese of Würzburg less unwieldy in size and to give Christianity a firmer footing in the districts of [[Franconia]], east of Bamberg. In [[1008]], after long negotiations with the Bishops of Würzburg and [[Eichstätt]], who were to cede portions of their dioceses, the boundaries of the new diocese were defined, and [[Pope John XVIII]] granted the papal confirmation in the same year. The new [[cathedral]] was consecrated [[May 6]], [[1012]], and in [[1017]] Henry II founded on Mount St. Michael, near Bamberg, a Benedictine abbey for the training of the clergy. The emperor and his wife [[Cunigunde of Luxemburg|Cunigunde]] gave large temporal possessions to the new diocese, and it received many privileges out of which grew the secular power of the bishop (cf. Weber in ''Historisches Jahrbuch der Gorresgesellschaft'' for 1899, 326-345 and 617-639). Pope Benedict VIII during his visit to Bamberg ([[1020]]) placed the diocese in direct dependence on the [[Holy See]]. For a short time Bamberg was the centre of the [[Holy Roman Empire]]. Henry and his wife Cunigunde were both buried in the cathedral.
From the middle of the [[13th century]] onward the [[bishop]]s were princes of the Empire and ruled Bamberg, forcing the construction of monumental buildings. In [[1248]] and [[1260]] the see obtained large portions of the estates of the [[Counts of Meran]], partly through purchase and partly through the appropriation of extinguished fiefs. The old [[Bishopric of Bamberg]] was composed of an unbroken territory extending from [[Schlusselfeld]] in a northeasterly direction to the [[Franconian Forest]], and possessed in addition estates in the Duchies of [[Carinthia (duchy)|Carinthia]] and [[Salzburg]], in the [[Nordgau]] (the present [[Upper Palatinate]]), in [[Thuringia]], and on the [[Danube]]. By the changes resulting from the [[Reformation]] the territory of this see was reduced nearly one half in extent.
The [[witch trials]] of the 17th century claimed hundreds of victims in Bamberg and reached a climax between 1626 and 1631 under the rule of [[Prince-Bishop]] Johann Georg II. Fuchs von Dornheim. The famous Drudenhaus (witch prison), built in 1627, is no longer standing today, however, detailed accounts of some cases, like that of [[Johannes Junius]], remain.
In [[1647]], the [[University of Bamberg]] was founded as "Academia Bambergensis".
In [[1759]] the possessions and jurisdictions of the diocese situated in [[Austria]] were sold to that State. When the secularization of church lands took place ([[1802]]) the diocese covered 1276 square miles (3 305 km²) and had a population of 207,000. Bamberg thus lost its independence in 1802, and in [[1803]], it became a part of [[Bavaria]].
Bamberg was first connected to the rail system in [[1844]], which has been an important part of its infrastructure ever since.
After [[World War I]], when a communist uprising took control over Bavaria, the government fled to Bamberg and had to stay for almost two years, before the Bavarian capital [[Munich]] was recaptured by [[Freikorps]] (see [[Weimar Republic]]). The first republican constitution of Bavaria was passed in Bamberg, thus known as "[http://www.verfassungen.de/de/by/bayern19-index.htm Bamberger Verfassung]" (Bamberg constitution).
In [[1973]], the town celebrated the 1000th anniversary of its founding.
== Historical population ==
* 1818: ca. 17,000
* 1885: 31,521
* 1905: 45,308
== Settlers from Bamberg ==
[[Bambrzy]] (ger. Posen Bambergers) &ndash; Poles of German origin, descendants of settlers from area near Bamberg, that were settled in villages around [[Poznań]] in the years [[1719]] &ndash;[[1753]].
== Sights ==
[[Image:Cathedral bamberg wk.jpg|thumb|250px|The Cathedral in Bamberg.]]
The Old Town of Bamberg is included in the [[UNESCO]] [[World Heritage Sites|World Heritage]], since it has retained its medieval look and was one of the few German cities that sustained virtually no damage during WWII. 2005 the city established a documentation centre to support World Heritage activities.
Some of the main sights are:
* Cathedral ([[1237]]), with the tombs of emperor Henry II and [[Pope Clement II]]
* Alte Hofhaltung, residence of the bishops in the [[16th century|16th]] and [[17th century|centuries]]
* Neue Residenz, residence of the bishops after the 17th century
* Old Town Hall ([[1386]]), built in the middle of the Regnitz River, accessible by two bridges
* Klein-Venedig ("Little Venice"), a colony of picturesque fishermen's houses from the 19th century along one side of the river Regnitz.
===Cathedral===
The [[cathedral]] is a late [[Romanesque architecture|Romanesque]] building with four imposing towers. It was founded in [[1004]] by the emperor Henry II, finished in [[1012]] and consecrated on [[May 6]], 1012. It was later partially destroyed by fire in [[1081]]. The new cathedral, built by St. [[Otto
|
ohn]] and [[Vincenzo Bellini]] (beside whom he is buried in the [[Père Lachaise]]). His music was already admired by many of his composer contemporaries, among them [[Robert Schumann]] who penned the now famous review of the Variations Op. 2: "Hats off, Gentlemen! A genius".
From Paris Chopin made various visits and tours. In 1834, with Hiller, he visited a Rhenish Music Festival at Aachen organised by [[Ferdinand Ries]]. Here Chopin and Hiller met up with Mendelssohn and the three went on to visit [[Düsseldorf]], [[Koblenz]] and [[Cologne]], enjoying each other's company and learning and playing music together.
Chopin participated in several concerts during his years in Paris. The programs of these concerts provide some idea of the richness of Parisian artistic life during this period, such as the concert on [[March 23]] 1833 in which Chopin, Liszt and Hiller played the solo parts in a performance of [[Johann Sebastian Bach]]'s concerto for three harpsichords, or the concert on [[March 3]] 1838 when Chopin, [[Charles-Valentin Alkan]], Alkan's teacher Pierre Joseph Zimmerman and Chopin's pupil Adolphe Gutman played Alkan's 8-hand arrangement of [[Ludwig van Beethoven|Beethoven]]'s seventh symphony.
In 1835 Chopin visited his family in Karlsbad, whence he accompanied his parents to [[Děčín]] where they lived, and then to Warsaw. He returned to Paris ''via'' [[Dresden]], where he stayed for some weeks, and then [[Leipzig]] where he met up with Mendelssohn, [[Robert Schumann]] and [[Clara Wieck]]. However on the return journey he had a severe bronchial attack - so bad that he was reported dead in some Polish newspapers.
In [[1836]] Chopin was engaged to a seventeen-year-old Polish girl named Maria Wodzinska, whose mother insisted that the engagement be kept secret. The engagement was called off in the following year by her family.
===Chopin and George Sand===
[[Image:Frederic Chopin photo2.jpeg|thumb|The only known photograph of Frédéric Chopin, taken by [[Louis-Auguste Bisson]] in [[1849]].]]
In 1836, at a party hosted by Countess [[Marie d'Agoult]], mistress of fellow composer Franz Liszt, Chopin met Amandine-Aurore-Lucile Dupin, Baroness Dudevant, better known by her pseudonym [[George Sand]]. She was a French Romantic writer, noted for her numerous love affairs with such prominent figures as [[Prosper Merimée]], [[Alfred de Musset]] (1833&ndash;34), [[Alexandre Manceau]] (1849&ndash;65), and others.
The composer initially did not consider her attractive. "Something about her repels me," he said to his family. However, in an extraordinary letter from Sand to her friend Count Wojciech Grzymala in June 1837, she debated whether to let Chopin go with Maria Wodzinska or whether to abandon another affair in order to start a relationship with Chopin. Sand had strong intentions towards Chopin, and pursued him until a relationship began.
A notable episode in their time together was a turbulent and miserable winter on [[Mallorca]] ([[1838]]&ndash;[[1839]]), where they had problems finding habitable accommodation and ended up lodging in the scenic, but basic and cold [[Valldemossa]] monastery. Chopin also had problems having his [[Pleyel]] piano sent to him. It arrived from Paris after a great delay, to be stuck at the Spanish [[Customs (tax)|customs]] who demanded a large import duty. He could only use it for a little more than three weeks; the rest of the time he had to compose on a rickety rented piano to complete his [[Preludes Op. 28 (Chopin)|''Preludes'']] (Op. 28).
During the winter, the bad weather had such a serious impact on Chopin's health and his chronic lung disease that, to save his life, he and George Sand were compelled to return first to the Spanish mainland where they reached [[Barcelona]], and then to [[Marseille]] where they stayed for a few months to recover. Although his health improved, he never completely recovered from this bout. He complained about the incopetence of the doctors in Mallorca: "The first said I was going to die; the second said I had breathed my last; and the third said I was already dead."
Chopin spent the summers of 1839 until 1843 at Sand's estate in [[Nohant]]. These were quiet but productive days, during which Chopin composed many works. On his return to Paris in 1839, he met the pianist and composer [[Ignaz Moscheles]].
In 1845 a serious problem emerged in Chopin's relationship with Sand at the same time as a further deterioration in Chopin's health. Their relationship was further soured in 1846 by family problems; this was the year in which Sand published ''Lucrezia Floriani'', which is quite unfavourable to Chopin. The story is about a rich actress and a prince with weak health, but it is possible to interpret the main characters as Sand and Chopin. The family problems finally brought an end to their relationship in 1847.
===Death and funeral===
[[Image:paris.chopin.grave.500pix.jpg|thumb|200px|left|Chopin's grave on the [[Père Lachaise]] cemetery in Paris.]]In 1848 Chopin gave his last concert in Paris, and visited [[England]] and [[Scotland]] with his student and admirer Jane Stirling. They reached [[London]] in November, and although Chopin managed to give some concerts and salon performances, he was severely ill. He returned to Paris where in 1849 he became unable to teach or perform. His sister Ludwika nursed him at his home in the place Vendôme; he died there in the small hours of [[October 17]]. Later that morning a [[death mask]] and a cast of Chopin's hands were made.
He had requested that [[Requiem (Mozart)|Mozart's ''Requiem'']] be sung at his funeral, which was held at the [[Église de la Madeleine|Church of the Madeleine]] and was attended by nearly three thousand people. The Requiem has major parts for female singers but the Madeleine had never permitted female singers in its choir. The funeral was delayed for almost 2 weeks, until the church finally relented and granted Chopin's final wish provided the female singers remained behind a black velvet curtain. Also performing was the bass [[Luigi Lablache]], who had also sung the same work at the funerals of Beethoven and Bellini.
[[Image:Holycrosswarsaw.jpg|thumb|250px|Church of the Holy Cross in Warsaw. Chopin's bust is visible on the left-most pillar, and is also the location of his heart.]]Although Chopin is buried in the [[Père Lachaise]] cemetery in Paris, at his own request his heart was removed and dispatched in an urn to [[Warsaw]], where it is sealed in a pillar in the Church of the Holy Cross. The Père Lachaise site attracts numerous visitors and is invariably festooned with flowers, even in the dead of winter.
==Music==
Chopin's music for the piano combined a unique rhythmic sense (particularly his use of [[rubato]], chromatic inflections, and [[counterpoint]]). This mixture produces a particularly fragile sound in the melody and the harmony, which are nonetheless underpinned by solid and interesting harmonic techniques. He took the new salon genre of the [[nocturne]], invented by Irish composer [[John Field (composer)|John Field]], to a deeper level of sophistication, and endowed popular dance forms, such as the [[Poland|Polish]] [[mazurka]] and the [[Vienna|Viennese]] [[waltz]], with a greater range of melody and expression. Chopin was the first to write Ballades (a genre he invented) and Scherzi as individual pieces. Chopin also took the example of Bach's preludes and fugues, transforming the genre in his own ''preludes''.
Several of Chopin's melodies have become very well known - for instance the ''[[Revolutionary Etude|Revolutionary Étude]]'' (Op.&nbsp;10,&nbsp;No.&nbsp;12), the ''[[Minute Waltz]]'' (Op.&nbsp;64,&nbsp;No.&nbsp;1), and the third movement of his ''[[Funeral march|Funeral March]]'' sonata (Op.&nbsp;35), which is often used as an iconic representation of grief. The Revolutionary Étude was not written with the failed Polish uprising against Russia in mind, it merely appeared at that time. The Funeral March was written as a funereal piece, but it was not inspired by any recent personal bereavement. Other melodies have been used as the basis of popular songs, such as the slow section of the ''[[Fantaisie-Impromptu]]'' (Op.&nbsp;66) and the first section of the etude Op.&nbsp;10&nbsp;No.&nbsp;3. These pieces often rely on an intense and personalized chromaticism, as well as a melodic curve that resembles the operas of Chopin's day - the operas of [[Gioacchino Rossini]], [[Gaetano Donizetti]], and especially Bellini. Chopin used the piano to re-create the gracefulness of the singing voice, and talked and wrote constantly about singers.
Chopin's style and gifts became increasingly influential: Schumann was a huge admirer of Chopin's music &mdash; although the feeling was not mutual &mdash; and he took melodies from Chopin and even named a piece from his suite ''[[Carnaval (op. 9) (Schumann)|Carnaval]]'' after Chopin. [[Franz Liszt]], another great admirer and personal friend of the composer, transcribed six of Chopin's songs for piano. Liszt later dedicated a movement of his ''[[Harmonies Poétiques et Religieuses]]'' to Chopin, titling it ''[[Funérailles]]'' and subtitling it "October 1849." The mid-section recalls powerfully the famous octave trio section of Chopin's ''[[Polonaise in A-flat major|Polonaise, op. 53]]''. Despite this, Liszt denied it had been inspired by Chopin's death but by the deaths of three of Liszt's Hungarian compatriots in the same month.
Chopin performed his own works in concert halls but most often in his salon for friends. Only later in life, as his disease progressed, did Chopin give up public performance altogether.
Chopin's technical innovations also became influential. His préludes (Op. 28) and études (Op. 10 and 25) rapidly became standard works, and inspired both Liszt's ''[[Transcendental Etudes|Transcendent
|
ooks; it is, however, not a fan site, and was never intended as such.
== The skins ==
h2g2 has four different 'skins' which are different ways of viewing the site. Users can set their options menu to view the site in one or other of the skins when they are logged in. Some skins are more popular than others; some even have fanclubs. It is possible to switch between skins while not logged in by altering the URL, for example changing http://www.bbc.co.uk/dna/h2g2/classic/A918434 to http://www.bbc.co.uk/dna/h2g2/alabaster/A918434 would alter the skin from Classic Goo to Alabaster.
*'''Classic Goo''' was the first skin. It has large white text on a blue background. The first programmers of h2g2 nicknamed it 'Goo' but it appears as /classic in the URL.
*'''Alabaster''' was the second skin. Its layout is most like the rest of the internet, with small black text on a white background. The look of the skin is generally described as orange and green. This skin was considered necessary to help attract people who are used to the rest of the internet. One of the programmers behind h2g2, Jim Lynn, apparently chose between the names Porcelain and Alabaster, chosen because he compared the skin to a toilet.
*'''Brunel''' is the newest official skin, and consequently it is the default format for visitors who are not logged in. It has black text on white backgrounds, and was designed to look more like the rest of the BBC. The border colours vary depending on what type of Entry is being viewed, and can be determined by creators of Entries by using special [[GuideML]] tags; the h2g2 Front Page changes its colour scheme with its content. This skin is generally considered as having the best layout, as it has several useful buttons that are not on the other skins.
*'''Plain''' was designed for [[Digibox]], [[Palm Pilot|Palm]] and [[Pocket PC]] users who can't load the more graphic alabaster, brunel or classic. The Plain skin is not officially supported on the site, so it has not undergone the same level of testing as the other skins and has a few small problems. Unlike the other site skins, plain allows registered site users to define and use their own [[Cascading Style Sheets|Style Sheet]] if they so wish.
== See also ==
{{selfref|[[Wikipedia:Guide for h2g2 Researchers]]}}
* [[Internet encyclopedia project]] - for similar online projects
== External links ==
* [http://www.bbc.co.uk/dna/h2g2/ h2g2 homepage]
* [http://www.bbc.co.uk/dna/h2g2/team h2g2 Team]
*[http://www.bbc.co.uk/dna/h2g2/A918434 h2g2's entry about Wikipedia]
[[Category:BBC]]
[[Category:Online encyclopedias]]
[[de:H2G2]]
[[it:H2G2]]
[[ja:H2G2]]
[[nl:H2G2]]
[[tr:H2G2]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Hanlons Razor</title>
<id>13582</id>
<revision>
<id>15911180</id>
<timestamp>2004-09-10T00:31:46Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Tregoweth</username>
<id>7402</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>#redirect [[Hanlon's Razor]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Hanlon's Razor]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>History of the Mediterranean region</title>
<id>13584</id>
<revision>
<id>40789680</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-23T00:58:05Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>That Guy, From That Show!</username>
<id>419920</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Reverted edits by [[User:70.70.128.39|70.70.128.39]] ([[User talk:70.70.128.39|t]]) ([[Special:Contributions/70.70.128.39|c]]) to last version by That Guy, From That Show!</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''history of the [[Mediterranean region]]''' is the [[history]] of the interaction of the cultures and peoples of the lands surrounding the [[Mediterranean Sea]] &mdash;the central [[superhighway]] of transport, trade and cultural exchange between diverse peoples. Its history is important to understanding the origin and development of the [[Ancient Egypt|Egyptian]], [[Ancient Greece|Greek]], [[Ancient Rome|Latin]], [[Arab]] and [[Persian Empire|Persian]] cultures &mdash;and hence is important to understanding the development of [[Western Civilization]] as we understand it today.
==Ancient==
Two of the first human civilizations began in the Mediterranean area. Civilization first developed in [[Mesopotamia]] begnning with [[Sumer]] in the [[4th millennium BC]]. Soon after, the [[Nile River]] valley was unified under the [[Pharaoh]]s in the 4th millennium BC, and civilization quickly spread through the [[fertile crescent]] to the east coast of the sea and throughout the [[Levant]], which happens to make the Mediterranean countries of [[Syria]], [[Lebanon]], and [[Israel]] part of the [[Cradle of Humanity]]. These areas shared similar climates and geographies, but it was more difficult to spread technologies and crops, such as flax, lentil, peas, barley, and cotton to other portions of the Mediterranean basin.
In time, large empires developed in [[Anatolia|Asia Minor]], such as the [[Hittites]]. The main expansion was delayed until ships sturdy enough the cross the sea were developed. [[Cyprus]] and the other islands developed, and the [[Minoan civilization]] flourished on the island of [[Crete]]. While the river valley civilizations always had larger populations, the trading societies on the coast of the sea soon became the most prosperous, and rose to power.
==Classical==
The two most notable of these were the [[Ancient Greece|Greek]] city states and the [[Phoenicia]]ns. The Greeks expanded throughout the [[Black Sea]] and south through the [[Red Sea]]. The Phoenicians spread through the western Mediterranean including [[North Africa]] and [[Spain]]. The Phoenician heartland in the Levant was still dominated by powers rooted east in Mesopotamia or [[Iran|Persia]], and the Phoenicians often provided the naval forces of the Persian Empire.
To the north of Greece, in [[Macedon]], Greek technological and organizational skill was forged with a long history of cavalry warfare. Under [[Alexander the Great]], this force turned east, and in a series of three decisive battles, routed the Persian forces and took their empire. The Phoenician lands were taken, as was Egypt. For the first time, the major centres of the Mediterranean were in one hand. Alexander's empire quickly disintegrated, and the Middle East, Egypt, and Greece were soon again independent. Alexander's conquests spread Greek knowledge and ideas throughout the region.
These eastern powers soon began to be overshadowed by those further west. In North Africa the former Phoenician colony of [[Carthage]] rose to dominate its surroundings with an empire that contained many of the former Phoenician holdings. However, it was a city on the [[Italian peninsula]], [[Rome]], that would eventually dominate the entire Mediterranean basin. Spreading first through Italy, Rome defeated Carthage in the [[Punic Wars]], becoming the leading force in the region. The Romans soon spread east taking Greece, and the Greek heritage played an important role in the Roman Empire. By this point the coastal trading cultures were thoroughly dominant over the inland river valleys that had once been the heart of the great powers. Egyptian power moved from the Nile cities to the coastal ones, especially [[Alexandria]]. Mesopotamia became a fringe border region between the Roman Empire and the Persians.
For several centuries the Mediterranean was a "Roman Lake," surrounded on all sides by the empire. One portion of the empire was [[Judea]], and in time, a religion founded in that region, [[Christianity]], spread throughout the empire and eventually became its official faith. The empire began to crumble, however, and collapsed in the fifth century. Temporarily the east was again dominant as the [[Byzantine Empire]] formed from the eastern half of the Roman one. The western part of the empire, [[Gaul]], [[Hispania|Iberia]], and the [[Maghreb]] were invaded by nomadic horse peoples from the [[Eurasian]] steppe. These conquerors soon became settled, and adopted many of the local customs, forming many small and warring kingdoms.
==Middle Ages==
Another power was rising in the east, that of [[Islam]], whilst Byzantine and Persia were both weakened by centuries of stalemate warfare. In a rapid conquest the Islam faith motivated armies swept through much of the Middle East; reducing Byzantine lands by half and completely engulfing the Persians. In Anatolia the expansion was blocked by the still capable Byzantines. The Byzantine governors and indigenous kingdoms of North Africa could not mount such a resistance, and the Muslim conquerors swept through the region, and at the far west crossed the sea taking Spain before being halted in southern [[France]] by the [[Franks]].
Much of North Africa became a peripheral area to the main Muslim centres in the Middle East, but Spain and Morocco soon broke from this distant control and founded one of the most advanced societies in the world at this time.
Europe was reviving, however, as more organized and centralized states began to form in the later [[Middle Ages]]. Motivated by religion and dreams of conquest, the kings of Europe launched a number of [[The Crusades|Crusades]] to try to roll back Muslim power and retake the [[holy land]]. The Crusades were unsuccessful in this goal, but they were far more effective in weakening the already tottering Byzantine Empire that began to lose increasing amounts of territory to the [[Ottoman Turks]]. They also rearranged the balance of power in the Muslim world as Egypt once again emerged as a major power in the eastern Mediterranean.
Europe continued to increase in power as the [[Renaissance]] began in [[Northern Italy]]. The Islamic states had never been major naval powers, and trade from the east to Europe was soon in the hands of Italian traders, especially the Venetians, who profit
|
nce]]''':
| [[Jacques Chirac]]
|-
| '''[[List of Co-Princes of Andorra|Episcopal Co-Prince]]''':
| [[Joan Enric Vives Sicília]]
|-
| '''[[Head of Government]]''': || [[Albert Pintat]]
|-
| '''[[Area]]''':<br/>&nbsp;- Total: <br/>&nbsp;- % water:
| [[List of countries by area|Ranked 178th]] <br/> [[1 E8 m²|468 km&sup2;]] <br/> Negligible
|-
| '''[[Population]]''':<br>&nbsp;- Total (2003)<br>&nbsp;- [[Population density|Density]]:
| [[List of countries by population|Ranked 182nd]]<br> 69,150<br> 144.5/km&sup2;
|-
| '''[[Independence]]''': || 1278
|-
| '''[[National Day]]''': || [[8 September]]
|- valign=top
| '''[[Religion]]s''': || [[Roman Catholic]] (established religion)
|-
| '''[[Human Development Index|HDI]]''' (2003) || [[List of countries by Human Development Index|NA]] – <font color=gray>unranked</font>
|-
| '''[[Currency]]''': || [[Euro|Euro <small>(&euro;)</small>]]'''&sup1;''' = 100 [[cents]]
|-
| '''[[Time zone]]''' <br>&nbsp;- in [[European Summer Time|summer]]
| [[Central European Time|CET]] ([[Coordinated Universal Time|UTC]]+1)<br>[[Central European Summer Time|CEST]] ([[Coordinated Universal Time|UTC]]+2)
|- valign=top
| '''[[National anthem]]''': || ''[[El Gran Carlemany|El Gran Carlemany, Mon Pare]]''
|-
| '''[[Top-level domain|Internet TLD]]''': || [[.ad]]
|-
| '''[[List_of_country_calling_codes|Calling Code]]''':
| +376
|-
| colspan="2" align="center" | <small><sup>1</sup> Prior to 1999: French [[franc]] and Spanish [[peseta]]. Some of their own currency, 1 [[Andorran_diner|diner]] of 100 centim was minted after 1982.</small>
|}
{{Catalan-speaking world|align=right}}
The '''Principality of Andorra''' ([[Catalan language|Catalan]]: ''Principat d'Andorra'', [[French language|French]]: ''Principauté d'Andorre'', [[Spanish language|Spanish]]: ''Principado de Andorra'') is a small, [[landlocked country|landlocked]] [[principality]] in south-western [[Europe]], located in the eastern [[Pyrenees]] mountains and bordered by [[France]] and [[Spain]]. Once isolated, it is currently a prosperous country mainly because of [[tourism]] and its status as a [[tax haven]]. Andorra is not to be confused with the [[Andora|Comune di Andora]].
== Origin and history of the name ==
The name "Andorra" probably originates from a [[Navarre|Navarrese]] word ''andurrial'', which translates as ''shrub-covered land''.
== History ==
{{main|History of Andorra}}
Tradition holds that [[Charlemagne]] granted a charter to the Andorran people in return for their fighting the [[Moors]]. Overlordship of the territory passed to the local [[count of Urgell]] and eventually to the [[bishop]] of the [[diocese]] of Urgell. In the [[11th century]] a dispute arose between the bishop and his northern French neighbour over Andorra.
In 1278, the conflict was resolved by the signing of a [[parage]], which provided that Andorra's sovereignty be shared between the French [[count of Foix]] (whose title would ultimately transfer to the French head of state) and the bishop of [[La Seu d'Urgell]], in [[Catalonia]]. This gave the small [[principality]] its territory and political form.
Over the years the title passed to the kings of [[Navarre]]. After Henry of Navarre became King [[Henry IV of France|Henry IV]] of France, he issued an edict (1607) that established the head of the French state and the Bishop of Urgell as co-princes of Andorra.
In the period 1812–13, the French Empire annexed Catalonia and divided it in four departments. Andorra was also annexed and made part of the district of Puigcerdà (département of Sègre).
In 1933 France occupied Andorra as a result of social unrest before elections. On [[July 12]], [[1934]], an adventurer named [[Boris Skossyreff]] issued a proclamation in Urgel, declaring himself Boris I, sovereign prince of Andorra, simultaneously declaring war on the bishop of Urgel. He was arrested by Spanish authorities on [[July 20]] and ultimately expelled from Spain. From 1936 to 1940, a French detachment was garrisoned in Andorra to prevent influences of the [[Spanish Civil War]] and Franco's Spain.
The Franco troops reached the Andorran border in the later stages of the war.
During the [[Second World War]], Andorra remained neutral and was an important smuggling route between [[Vichy France]] and Spain.
In 1958 Andorra declared peace with [[Germany]], having been forgotten on the [[Treaty of Versailles]] that ended the [[First World War]] and remaining legally at war.
Given its relative isolation, Andorra has existed outside the mainstream of European history, with few ties to countries other than France and Spain. In recent times, however, its thriving [[tourism|tourist]] industry along with developments in transportation and communications have removed the country from its isolation and its political system was thoroughly modernized in 1993, the year in which it finally became a member of the United Nations.
== Politics ==
{{main articles|[[Politics of Andorra]] and [[Constitution of Andorra]]}}
{{seealso|List of Co-Princes of Andorra}}
Until very recently, Andorra's political system had no clear division of powers into [[Executive (government)|executive]], [[legislative]], and [[judicial]] branches. Ratified and approved in 1993, the [[Constitution of Andorra|constitution]] establishes Andorra as a sovereign parliamentary democracy that retains the co-princes as [[head of state|heads of state]], but the [[head of government]] retains executive power. The two co-princes serve coequally with limited powers that do not include veto over government acts. They are represented in Andorra by a delegate.
The way in which the two [[prince]]s are chosen makes Andorra one of the most politically distinct nations on earth. One co-Prince is the man or woman who is currently serving as [[President of France]], currently [[Jacques Chirac]] (it has historically been any Head of State of France, including Kings and Emperors of France). The other is the current [[Catholic]] [[bishop]] of the [[Catalan]] city of [[La Seu d'Urgell]], currently [[Joan Enric Vives i Sicilia]]. As neither prince lives in Andorra their role is almost entirely ceremonial.
Andorra's main legislative body is the [[unicameral]] [[General Council of the Valleys]] (''Consell General de les Valls''), a [[parliament]] of 28 seats; members are elected by direct popular vote, 14 from a single national constituency and 14 to represent each of the 7 parishes, with members serving four-year terms. The Andorran government is formed by the General Council electing the [[Head of Government]] (''Cap de Govern''), who then appoints ministers to the [[cabinet (government)|cabinet]], the Executive Council (''Govern''). Currently, government is held by the [[Liberal Party of Andorra]], with [[Albert Pintat]] as [[Prime Minister]]. The [[Social Democratic Party (Andorra)|Social Democratic Party]] is in opposition.
Defense of the country is the responsibility of [[France]] and [[Spain]].
== Administrative divisions ==
[[Image:Andorra.geohive.gif|thumb|right|300px|Map of Andorra.]]
{{main|Parishes of Andorra}}
Andorra consists of seven communities, known as ''parròquies'' (singular ''parròquia'' ''[[English Language|Engl.]]:'' parish)
*[[Andorra la Vella]]
*[[Canillo]]
*[[Encamp]]
*[[Escaldes-Engordany]]
*[[La Massana]]
*[[Ordino]]
*[[Sant Julià de Lòria]]
== Geography ==
{{main|Geography of Andorra}}
Befitting its location in the eastern [[Pyrenees]] mountain range, Andorra consists predominantly of rugged mountains of an average height of 1,996 m with the highest being the [[Coma Pedrosa]] at 2,946 m. These are dissected by three narrow valleys in a Y shape that combine into one as the main stream, the [[Valira]] river, leaves the country for Spain (at Andorra's lowest point of 870 m).
Andorra's [[climate]] is similar to its neighbours' [[temperate climate]], but its higher altitude means there is on average more snow in winter and it is slightly cooler in summer.
== Economy ==
{{main|Economy of Andorra}}
[[Image:AndorraLaVella.jpg|left|190px|Andorra La Vella]]
[[Tourism]], the mainstay of Andorra's tiny, well-to-do economy, accounts for roughly 80% of [[Gross Domestic Product|GDP]]. An estimated 9 million tourists visit annually, attracted by Andorra's duty-free status and by its summer and winter [[resort]]s. Andorra's comparative advantage has recently eroded as the economies of adjoining [[France]] and [[Spain]] have been opened up, providing broader availability of goods and lower [[tariff]]s.
The [[banking]] sector, with its [[tax haven]] status, also contributes substantially to the economy. [[Agriculture|Agricultural]] production is limited&mdash;only 2% of the land is arable&mdash;and most [[food]] has to be [[import]]ed. The principal livestock activity is [[domestic sheep]] raising. [[Manufacturing]] output consists mainly of cigarettes, cigars, and furniture.
Andorra is not a full member of the [[European Union]], but enjoys a special relationship with it, such as being treated as an EU member for trade in manufactured goods (no tariffs) and as a non-EU member for agricultural products. Andorra lacks a [[currency]] of its own and uses that of its two surrounding nations. Prior to 1999 these were the [[French franc]] and the Spanish [[peseta]], which have since been replaced by a single currency, the [[euro]]. Unlike other small European states that use the euro, Andorra does not yet mint its own [[euro coins]]; in October 2004, negotiations between Andorra and the [[European Union|EU]] began on an agreement which would allow Andorra to mint its own coins. Andorra’s [[natural resource]]s include [[hydropower]], [[mineral water]], [[timber]], [[iron ore]], and [[lead]].
== Demographics ==
{{main|Demographics of Andorra}}
{{seealso|List of Andorrans}}
|
ixed'''
*'''Lines:''' 2,022,640 ''(Q3 2005)''
*[[Local loop unbundling|Local loops unbundled]] (fully or partially): 3,600 ''(September 2005)''
* See also: [[Eircom]], [[BT Ireland]], [[Smart Telecom]]
'''Telephones - mobile'''
* '''Subscribers:''' 4.05 million ''(Q3 2005)''
** [[Pay as you go (phone)|Pre-paid]]: 3.078 million ''(Q3 2005)''
** Contract: 972,000 ''(Q3 2005)''
* '''Mobile phone penetration:''' 100% ''(Q3 2005)''
* '''Call minutes:''' 1,449,462,000 ''(Q3 2005)''
* '''[[SMS]] messages sent:''' 1,048,112,000 ''(Q3 2005)''
* '''[[Multimedia Messaging System|MMS]] messages sent:''' 6.1 million ''(Q3 2005)''
* '''[[ARPU|Average revenue per user]]'': €47.37 ''(Q3 2005)''
*'''[[Subscriber trunk dialling | STD]] Codes for Irish mobile phone operators:'''
** 083 [[3 Ireland | 3 Ireland]] [[UMTS]]
** 085 [[Meteor Mobile Communications |Meteor]] [[GSM]]
** 086 [[O2 Ireland]] [[GSM]], ([[UMTS]] - not yet launched)
** 087 [[Vodafone Ireland]] [[GSM]], [[UMTS]]
** 088 [[Vodafone Ireland | Eircell]] [[TACS]] (former network, closed July 2001)
Due to the introduction of full-number portability, some phones may now operate on different networks to those on which their number was originally allocated, thus an 086 number may not necessarily be an O2 number, likewise a Vodafone customer may have an 085 number if they were previously a Meteor customer. According to Comreg, 390,000 mobile phone users had taken advantage of FMNP up to September 2005.
==See also==
*[[List of Ireland-related topics]]
==External links==
*[http://www.comreg.ie/ Commission for Communications Regulation]
*[http://www.comreg.ie/publications/default.asp?nid=102231&ctype=5 Irish Communications Market: Quarterly Key Data - September 2005] &mdash; Comreg report
[[Category:Communications by country|Ireland]]
[[Category:Republic of Ireland]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Transport in Ireland</title>
<id>14680</id>
<revision>
<id>35812303</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-19T13:46:18Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Djegan</username>
<id>49447</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Railways */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">Most of the transport system in '''[[Ireland]]''' rests in public hands, both north and south of the border. The road network has evolved separately north and south, while the rail network was mostly created prior to the partition of Ireland.
In the '''[[Republic of Ireland]]''', the [[Irish Minister for Transport|Minister for Transport]], acting through the Department of Transport, is responsible for the state's road network, rail network, public transport, airports and several other areas. Although some sections of road have been built using private or public-private funds, and are operated as toll roads, they are owned by the [[Irish Government]]. The rail network is also state owned and operated, while the Government currently still owns the airports in the State (though the authorities running them are due to be privatised). Public transport is mainly in the hands of a statutory corporation, [[Coras Iompair Éireann]], and its subsidaries, Bus Átha Cliath - [[Dublin Bus]], [[Bus Éireann]] - Irish Bus, and [[Iarnrod Éireann]] - Irish Rail.
On November 1st 2005 the Dublin government published the [[Transport 21]] plan which includes €18bn for improved roads and €16bn for improved rail, including the [[Western Rail Corridor]] and the [[Dublin Metro]].
In '''[[Northern Ireland]]''', the road network and railways are in state ownership at present. The [[Department for Regional Development]] is responsible for these and other areas (such as water services), but as the [[Northern Ireland Assembly]] is currently suspended, the department is operated by [[London]] (direct rule). The main airports in Northern Ireland are privately operated and owned. A statutory corporation, the [[Northern Ireland Transport Holding Company]] (which trades as [[Translink]]) operates public transport services through its three subsidaries - [[Northern Ireland Railways]] Company Limited, [[Ulsterbus]] Limited, and [[Citybus (Belfast) | Citybus Limited]] (now branded as Metro).
==Railways==
;'''Total''' (1998) - 1,947 km
:5'3" (1600mm) gauge
:38 km electrified; 485 km double track
''Main article: [[Rail transport in Ireland]]''
[[Intercity]] railway services provided by [[Iarnród Éireann]] (IÉ) link [[Dublin]] ([[Dublin Connolly railway station|Connolly]], [[Dublin Heuston railway station|Heuston]] & [[Dublin Pearse railway station|Pearse]] Stns.) to [[Cork railway station|Cork]] (Kent Stn.), [[Waterford]] (Plunket Stn.), [[Kilkenny]] (MacDonagh Stn.), [[Galway]] (Ceannt Stn.), [[Tralee]] (Casement Stn.), [[Sligo]] (MacDiarmada Stn.), [[Limerick]] (Colbert Stn.) and [[Belfast]] ([[Belfast Central railway station|Belfast Central]] Stn.). Rail in [[Northern Ireland]] is run by [[Northern Ireland Railways]] (NIR), connecting Belfast to [[Derry]] ([[Londonderry railway station|Londonderry]] Stn.) and providing suburban services around the city. The cross-border Dublin-Belfast '[[Enterprise (train)|Enterprise]]' service is jointly run by IÉ and NIR.
Many lines in the west were decommissioned in the [[1930s]] under [[Éamon de Valera]]. There is a campaign to bring these back into service, in particular the [[Limerick]]-[[Sligo]] line (The [[Western Rail Corridor]]), to facilitate economic regeneration in the west, which has lagged behind the rest of the country. There is also a smaller campaign to re-establish the rail link between Sligo and [[Enniskillen]]/[[Derry]].
Since [[1984]] an electrically operated train service runs between Bray and Howth, called the [[Dublin Area Rapid Transit]]. In [[2004]] a [[light rail]] system, [[Luas]], was opened in Dublin. [[As of 2004]] a [[metro]] system is also in the planning stage. The Luas system has caused much disruption in Dublin, in retrospect many believe an [[Metro|underground]] would have been a better option, one of the current options being discussed is to upgrade the Luas to the metro system when the metro is being installed.
''See also: [[History of rail transport in Ireland]]''
=== External links ===
* [http://groups.msn.com/IrishRailwayNews/ Irish Railway News -reporting on all aspects of irish railways]
* [http://www.platform11.org Platform 11 - Irelands National Rail Passenger Lobby]
==Roads==
;'''Total''' - 117,318 km including 325 km of [[motorway]]
:'''North:''' 24,818 km including 133 km of motorway (2002) [http://www.roadsni.gov.uk/about/presentation.htm]
:'''South:''' 92,500 km (1999 est.) including 192 km of motorway (2004) [http://www.nra.ie/Transportation/DownloadableDocumentation/file,1432,en.pdf]
::''paved'' - 87,043 km, ''unpaved'' - 5,457 km
[[Ireland]]'s roads link Dublin with all the major cities (Cork, Limerick, Galway, Waterford and Belfast). Driving is on the left.
''Main Article: [[Roads in Ireland]]''
==Bus Services==
The national bus services in the [[Republic of Ireland]] is provided by [[Bus Éireann]] (Bus Ireland). The company provides an express coach network connecting most cities in Ireland, along with local bus services in the provincial cities. In Dublin, Bus Átha Cliath - [[Dublin Bus]] provides bus services. Both are part of C.I.E. There are also a number of private operators, the biggest of which include [[Aircoach]], a subsidiary of [[First Group]] which provides services to Dublin Airport from parts of Dublin, and [[Scottish Citylink]] which competes on the Dublin-Galway route. Some private rural operators exist, such as the [[Londonderry and Lough Swilly Railway|Lough Swilly Bus Company]].
In Northern Ireland [[Ulsterbus]] provides the bus network, with its sister company [[Citybus (Belfast) | Metro]] providing services in [[Belfast]]. Both are part of Translink.
==Waterways==
;'''Total''' (2004) - 753 km
:(pleasure craft only)
==Pipelines==
Natural gas 1,795 km (2003)
==Ports and harbours==
Ireland has ports in the towns of [[Arklow]], [[Belfast]], [[Cork]], [[Drogheda]], [[Dublin]], [[Dundalk]], [[Dún Laoghaire]], [[Foynes]], [[Galway]], [[Larne]], [[Limerick City|Limerick]], [[New Ross]], [[Rosslare Europort]], [[Waterford]], [[Wicklow]]
Ports in the Republic handle 3,600,000 travelers crossing the Irish sea each year, amounting to 92% of all sea travel [http://www.cso.ie/statistics/passengermovementbysea.htm (CSO figures)]. This has been steadly dropping for a number of years (20% since 1999), probably as a result of low cost airlines.
Ferry connections between Britain to Ireland via the [[Irish Sea]] include the routes from [[Swansea]] to [[Cork]], [[Fishguard]] and [[Pembroke, Wales|Pembroke]] to [[Rosslare]], [[Holyhead]] to [[Dún Laoghaire]], [[Stranraer]] to [[Belfast]] and [[Larne]], and [[Cairnryan]] to [[Larne]]. There is also a connection between [[Liverpool]] and [[Belfast]] via the [[Isle of Man]]. The world's largest car ferry, ''[[Ulysses]]'', is operated by [[Irish Ferries]] on the Dublin&ndash;Holyhead route.
In addition, Rosslare and Cork run ferries to France.
Ireland is one of the last large inhabited islands in the world without a tunnel or bridge connection. Thus the vast majority of heavy goods trade is done by sea. Northern Irish ports handle 10 megatonnes of goods trade with Britain annually, while ports in the south handle 7.6 Mt, representing 50% and 40% respectively of total trade by weight.
Several potential Irish Sea tunnel projects have been proposed, most recently the "Tusker Tunnel" between the ports of [[Rosslare]] and [[Fishguard]] proposed by The Institute of Engineers of Ireland in 2004. [http://www.iei.ie/Publications/GetPublicationDetails.pasp?PublicationID=69&Module=Papers&txt_freetext=&RecordsPerPage=1000&PageNumber=1&MenuID=24 IEI report (pdf)] [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/wales/south_west/4121001.stm BBC report] A different proposed route is between [[Dublin]] and [[Holyhe
|
ble-barrelled name|double-barrelled surname]] has remained in the family to this day, though some of the most famous members have preferred to style themselves as merely "Churchill".
The Dukedom of Marlborough is the only Dukedom in the United Kingdom that can still pass in the female line. However, the Dukedom does not follow [[male-preference primogeniture]] as most other peerages that can pass in the female line do. It actually follows a kind of [[Semi-Salic Law]]. The succession for the Dukedom is as follows:
# The heirs-male of the 1st Duke's body lawfully begotten;
# his oldest daughter and the heirs-male of her body lawfully begotten;
# his second and other daughters, in seniority, and the heirs-male of their bodies lawfully begotten;
# his oldest daughter's oldest daughter and the heirs male of her body lawfully begotten;
# all other daughters of his daughters and the heirs male of their bodies;
# and other descendants into the future in like fashion, with the intent that the Marlborough title never become extinct.
So, it is very unlikely that the Dukedom will be inherited in the female line again, as all the male heirs of Anne Spencer, Countess of Sunderland would have to go extinct. If that did happen, then by the above terms, the [[Earl of Jersey]] would become the next Duke, as he is the male-line descendant of Anne Villiers, Countess of Jersey, daughter of Elizabeth Egerton, Duchess of Bridgwater, a younger daughter of the first Duke.
The 7th Duke of Marlborough was the paternal grandfather of the British Prime Minister [[Winston Churchill|Sir Winston Churchill]].
The present Duke of Marlborough is [[John George Vanderbilt Spencer-Churchill, 11th Duke of Marlborough]].
The title of '''Earl of Marlborough''', which was created for Churchill in [[1689]], had been created one time previously in British history, for [[James Ley, 1st Earl of Marlborough|James Ley]], in [[1626]]. This title had become extinct in [[1679]].
==Earls of Marlborough, first creation ([[1626]])==
*[[James Ley, 1st Earl of Marlborough]] ([[1552]]&ndash;[[1629]])
*[[Henry Ley, 2nd Earl of Marlborough]] ([[1595]]&ndash;[[1638]])
*[[James Ley, 3rd Earl of Marlborough]] ([[1618]]&ndash;[[1665]])
*[[William Ley, 4th Earl of Marlborough]] ([[1612]]&ndash;[[1679]])
==Earls of Marlborough, second creation ([[1689]])==
*[[John Churchill, 1st Duke of Marlborough|John Churchill, 1st Earl of Marlborough]] ([[1650]]&ndash;[[1722]]), became Duke of Marlborough in [[1702]]
==Dukes of Marlborough ([[1702]])==
*[[John Churchill, 1st Duke of Marlborough]] ([[1650]]&ndash;[[1722]])
*[[Henrietta Churchill, 2nd Duchess of Marlborough]] ([[1681]]&ndash;[[1733]])
*[[Charles Spencer, 3rd Duke of Marlborough]] ([[1706]]&ndash;[[1758]])
*[[George Spencer, 4th Duke of Marlborough]] ([[1739]]&ndash;[[1817]])
*[[George Spencer-Churchill, 5th Duke of Marlborough]] ([[1766]]&ndash;[[1840]])
*[[George Spencer-Churchill, 6th Duke of Marlborough]] ([[1793]]&ndash;[[1857]])
*[[John Spencer-Churchill, 7th Duke of Marlborough|John Winston Spencer-Churchill, 7th Duke of Marlborough]] ([[1822]]&ndash;[[1883]])
*[[George Spencer-Churchill, 8th Duke of Marlborough|George Charles Spencer-Churchill, 8th Duke of Marlborough]] ([[1844]]&ndash;[[1892]])
*[[Charles Spencer-Churchill, 9th Duke of Marlborough|Charles Richard Spencer-Churchill, 9th Duke of Marlborough]] ([[1871]]&ndash;[[1934]])
*[[John Spencer-Churchill, 10th Duke of Marlborough|John Albert William Spencer-Churchill, 10th Duke of Marlborough]] ([[1897]]&ndash;[[1972]])
*[[John Spencer-Churchill, 11th Duke of Marlborough|John George Vanderbilt Spencer-Churchill, 11th Duke of Marlborough]] (b. [[1926]])
[[Heir Apparent]]: [[Jamie Spencer-Churchill, Marquess of Blandford|Charles James Spencer-Churchill, Marquess of Blandford]] (b. [[November 24]] [[1955]])<br />
[[Heir Presumptive]]: [[George Spencer-Churchill, Earl of Sunderland]] (b. [[July 28]] [[1992]])
==See also==
*[[Spencer family]]
*[[Blenheim Palace]]
[[Category:Dukedoms|Marlborough]]
[[de:Herzog von Marlborough]]
[[es:Duque de Marlborough]]
[[ja:マールバラ公]]
[[no:Hertug av Marlborough]]
[[zh:马尔巴罗公爵]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>December 17</title>
<id>8322</id>
<restrictions>move=sysop</restrictions>
<revision>
<id>42119356</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T23:16:32Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Nigosh</username>
<id>221949</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Births */ + date wikilink, - redlink</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''December 17''' is the 351st day of the year (352nd in [[leap year]]s) in the [[Gregorian Calendar]]. There are 14 days remaining.
{{DecemberCalendar}}
==Events==
<!-- Please don't Wikify years that have already been linked (that means you, Skoglund) -->
*[[283]] - [[Pope Gaius|St Gaius]] becomes [[Pope]].
*[[384]] - [[Pope Siricius|St Siricius]] becomes [[Pope]].
*[[1586]] - [[Emperor Go-Yozei of Japan|Emperor Go-Yozei]] becomes [[Emperor of Japan]].
*[[1637]] - [[Shimabara Rebellion]]: Japanese peasants led by [[Amakusa Shiro]] rise against [[daimyo]] [[Matsukura Shigeharu]].
*[[1843]] - [[Charles Dickens]]' ''[[A Christmas Carol]]'' is first published.
*[[1862]] - [[American Civil War]]: General [[Ulysses S. Grant]] issues ''[[General Order No. 11]]'', expelling [[Jews]] from [[Tennessee]], [[Mississippi]], and [[Kentucky]].
*[[1903]] - The [[Wright Brothers]] make the first powered heavier-than-air flight in the ''[[Wright Flyer]]'' at [[Kitty Hawk, North Carolina]].
*[[1919]] - [[Uruguay]] becomes a signatory to the [[Buenos Aires Convention|Buenos Aires]] [[copyright]] [[treaty]].
*[[1935]] - First flight of the [[Douglas DC-3]] [[airplane]].
*[[1939]] - [[World War II]]: [[Battle of the River Plate]] - The ''[[Admiral Graf Spee]]'' is scuttled by Captain [[Hans Langsdorff]] outside [[Montevideo]].
*[[1944]] - World War II: [[Battle of the Bulge]] - [[Malmédy massacre]] - [[United States|American]] 285th Field Artillery Observation Battalion [[POWs]] are shot by [[Waffen-SS]] [[Kampfgruppe]] [[Joachim Peiper|Peiper]].
*[[1961]] - [[History of Goa]]: [[Operation Vijay]] - [[India]] seizes [[Goa]] from [[Portugal]].
*[[1967]] - [[Prime Minister of Australia]] [[Harold Holt]] disappears while swimming near [[Portsea, Victoria]].
*[[1969]] - [[Project Blue Book]]: The [[United States Air Force|USAF]] closes its study of [[UFOs]], stating that sightings were generated as a result of 'A mild form of mass hysteria, Individuals who fabricate such reports to perpetrate a hoax or seek publicity, Psychopathological persons, and Misidentification of various conventional objects'.
*[[1970]] - [[Polish 1970 protests]]: In [[Gdynia]], soldiers fire at workers emerging from trains, killing hundreds.
*[[1978]] - The [[Workers Party of Jamaica]] is founded by [[Trevor Munroe]].
*[[1981]] - Brigadier General [[James L. Dozier]] is abducted by the [[Red Brigade]] in [[Verona, Italy]].
*[[1989]] - The first episode of ''[[The Simpsons]]'' airs on [[FOX]].
* 1989 - [[Romanian Revolution]]: Protests continue in [[Timisoara]] with rioters breaking into the [[Romanian Communist Party]]'s District Committee building and attempting to set it on fire.
*[[2002]] - [[Second Congo War]]: The Congolese parties of the Inter Congolese Dialogue sign a peace accord which makes provision for transitional governance and legislative and prrresidential elections within two years.
*[[2003]] - [[SpaceShipOne flight 11P]], piloted by [[Brian Binni e]], makes the first privately-funded manned supersonic flight.
* 2003 - ''[[The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King]]'' is released worldwide.
*[[2005]] - Anti-[[WTO]] protesters [[riot]] in [[Wan Chai]], [[Hong Kong]]
==Births==
<!-- Please don't Wikify years that have already been linked (that means you, Skoglund) -->
*[[1239]] - [[Kujo Yoritsugu]], Japanese Shogun (d. [[1256]])
*[[1267]] - [[Emperor Go-Uda]] of Japan (d. [[1324]])
*[[1619]] - [[Prince Rupert]], Royalist commander in the English Civil War (d. [[1682]])
*[[1632]] - [[Anthony Wood]], English antiqurian (d. [[1695]])
*[[1685]] - [[Thomas Tickell]], English writer (d. [[1740]])
*[[1706]] - [[Émilie du Châtelet]], French mathematician and physicist (d. [[1749]])
*[[1734]] - [[Maria I of Portugal]], Portuguese Queen (d. [[1816]])
*[[1749]] - [[Domenico Cimarosa]], Italian composer (d. [[1801]])
*[[1770]] - ([[Baptism]]) - [[Ludwig van Beethoven]], German composer (d. [[1827]])
*[[1778]] - Sir [[Humphry Davy]], British chemist and physicist (d. [[1829]])
*[[1796]] - [[Thomas Chandler Haliburton]], Canadian novelist (d. [[1865]])
*[[1799]] - [[Titian Peale]], American artist (d. [[1885]])
*[[1807]] - [[John Greenleaf Whittier]], American poet and abolitionist (d. [[1892]])
*[[1830]] - [[Jules de Goncourt]], French publisher (d. [[1870]])
*[[1853]] - [[Émile Roux]], French physician (d. [[1933]])
*[[1859]] - [[Paul César Helleu]], French artist (d. [[1927]])
*[[1873]] - [[Ford Madox Ford]], British writer (d. [[1939]])
*[[1874]] - [[William Lyon Mackenzie King]], tenth [[Prime Minister of Canada]] (d. [[1950]])
*[[1883]] - [[Raimu]], French actor (d. [[1946]])
*[[1887]] - [[Josef Lada]], Czech painter (d. [[1957]])
*[[1888]] - King [[Alexander I of Yugoslavia]] (d. [[1934]])
*[[1892]] - [[Sam Barry]], American basketball coach (d. [[1950]])
*[[1893]] - [[Erwin Piscator]], German film director (d. [[1966]])
*[[1894]] - [[Arthur Fiedler]], American conductor (d. [[1979]])
*[[1901]] - [[Lee Strasberg]], Austrian-born actor and director (d. [[1982]])
*[[1903]] - [[Erskine Caldwell]], American author (d. [[1987]])
* 1903 - [[Ray Noble (musician)|Ray Noble]], British bandleader, composer, arranger and actor (d. [[1978]])
*[[1906]] - [[Simo Häyhä]], Finnish sniper (d. [[2002]])
*[[1908]] - [[Willard Frank Libby]], American chemist and [[Nobel Prize in Chemistr
|
dition, they maintain [[safe house]]s and ''zulo'' (caches of arms or explosives; the Basque word ''zulo'' literally means "hole." [http://free.freespeech.org/askatasuna/docs/zulo.htm])
Among its members, ETA distinguishes between ''legales/legalak'' ("lawful ones"), those members who do not have police files, ''liberados'' ("liberated"), exiled to France and on ETA's payroll, prisoners, serving time scattered across Spain and France, and ''quemados'' ("burned out"), freed after having been imprisoned.
The internal organ of ETA is ''[[Zutabe]]'' ("Column").
==Political support==
The political party [[Batasuna]], formerly known as [[Euskal Herritarrok]] and "[[Herri Batasuna]]", now illegalised as a terrorist organization, pursues the same political goals as ETA. It has generally received between 10 and 20% of the vote in the Basque areas of Spain.
Batasuna's political status has been a very controversial issue. It is considered by many, including the Spanish courts, to be the political wing of ETA, although the party itself denies that this is the case. The Spanish [[Cortes Generales|Cortes]] (parliament) began the process of declaring the party illegal in August [[2002]] by issuing a bill entitled the ''Ley de Partidos'', a move which was strongly disputed by many who felt that it was too draconian or even unlawful &mdash;since allegedly any party could be made illegal almost by choice, just for not clearly stating their opposition to crime after a terrorist attack. Judge [[Baltasar Garzón]] suspended the activities of Batasuna in a parallel trial, investigating the relationship between Batasuna and ETA, and its headquarters were shut down by police. The Supreme Court of Spain finally declared Batasuna illegal on [[March 18]], [[2003]]. The court considered proven that Batasuna had several links with ETA and that it was, in fact, part of ETA. In line with that decision, Batasuna was listed as a terrorist organization by the [[United States]] in May 2003 and by all [[European Union|EU countries]] in June 2003.
A new party called [[Aukera Guztiak]] ''(All the Options)'' was formed for the elections to the Basque Parliament of April 2005. Its supporters claimed no heritage from Batasuna, asserting that their aim was to allow Basque citizens to freely express their political ideas, even those of independence, and their rights not to condemn some kind of violence more than other it they did not see it fit. Nevertheless, most of their members and certainly most of their leadership were former Batasuna supporters or affiliates, and the Spanish Supreme Court unanimously considered the party to be a sequel to Batasuna and declared a ban on it.
After Aukera Guztiak had been banned, and less than two weeks before the election, another political group born as a schism from Herri Batasuna, the [[Communist Party of the Basque Lands]] (EHAK/PCTV, ''Euskal Herrialdeetako Alderdi Komunista/Partido Comunista de las Tierras Vascas'') made the announcement that they would offer the votes they obtained to the now banned Aukera Guztiak platform. They obtained 9 seats (12,44% of votes) at the Basque Parliament [http://www.elmundo.es/especiales/2005/03/espana/elecciones_pv/resultados/]. As of September 2005, EHAK/PCTV is under investigation to discover whether or not their situation is legal.
During many years, Spanish politicians not related to Basque nationalism felt obliged to carry an escort with them to avoid ETA attacks. In 2005, though, ETA announced that it would no longer target Spanish politicians. However, the Spanish government has criticised this move, and continues to demand that ETA renounce violence entirely. Although ETA has refused to disarm, it has not launched a fatal attack since 2003; whether this is due to weakness or ceasefire is disputed.
==History==
===During Franco's dictatorship===
ETA was founded by young nationalists, who were for a time affiliated with the [[PNV]]. Started in 1953 as a student discussion group at the [[University of Deusto]] in [[Bilbao]], an offshoot of the PNV's youth group [[EGI]], it was originally called [[EKIN]], from the Basque-language verb meaning "to act"; the name had the meaning "get busy". [http://www.cogs.susx.ac.uk/users/larryt/basque.words.html], [http://www.contrast.org/mirrors/ehj/navarre/na_history_birtheta.html] On [[July 31]], [[1959]] it reconstituted itself as ETA. Their split from the PNV was apparently because they considered the PNV too moderate in its opposition to Franco's dictatorship. They disagreed with the PNV's rejection of violent tactics and advocated a Basque [[resistance movement]] utilizing [[direct action]]. This was an era of [[wars of national liberation]] such as the [[decolonization|anti-colonial]] war in [[Algeria]].
In their platform, formed at their first assembly in [[Bayonne]], [[France]] in [[1962]], ETA called for "historical regenerationism", considering Basque history as a process of construction of a nation. They declared that Basque nationality is defined by the Basque language, Euskara; this was in contrast to the PNV's definition of Basque nationality in terms of [[ethnicity]]. In contrast with the explicit Catholicism of the PNV, ETA defined itself as "aconfessional" (religiously pluralistic), rejecting the hierarchy of the [[Roman Catholic Church]], although using Catholic doctrine to elaborate its social program. They called for socialism and for "independence for Euskadi, compatible with European [[federalist|federalism]]".
In [[1965]], ETA adopted a [[Marxism-Leninism|Marxist-Leninist]] position; its precise political line has varied with time, although they have always advocated some type of socialism.
In its early years, ETA's activity seems to have consisted mostly of theorizing and of protesting by destroying infrastructure and Spanish symbols and by hanging forbidden [[Basque flag]]s.
It is not possible to say when ETA first began a policy of assassination, nor is it clear who committed the first assassinations identified with ETA. There are sources that say the first was the [[June 27]], [[1960]] death of a 22-month-old child, Begoña Urroz Ibarrola, who died in a bombing in [[San Sebastián]]; other sources single out a failed [[1961]] attempt to derail a train carrying war veterans; others point to the unpremeditated [[June 7]], [[1968]] killing of a [[Guardia Civil (Spain)|guardia civil]], [[José Pardines Arcay]] by ETA member [[Txabi Etxebarrieta]]: the policeman had halted Etxebarrieta's car for a [[road check]]. Etxebarrieta was soon killed by the Spanish police, leading to retaliation in the form of the first ETA assassination with major repercussions, was that of [[Melitón Manzanas]], chief of the [[secret police]] in San Sebastián and a suspected torturer. In [[1970]], several members of ETA were condemned to death in the ''[[Proceso de Burgos]]'' ("Trial of [[Burgos]]"), but international pressure resulted in [[commutation]] of the sentences, which, however, had by that time already been applied to some other members of ETA. The most consequential assassination performed by ETA during Franco's dictatorship was the December [[1973]] assassination by bomb in [[Madrid]] of admiral [[Luis Carrero Blanco]], Franco's chosen successor and president of the government (a position roughly equivalent to being a [[prime minister]]). This killing, committed as a reprisal for the execution of Basque ''independentistas'', was widely applauded by the Spanish opposition in exile and was seen by many as instrumental in the establishment of democracy: by denying Franco his chosen successor, it forced him to hand the reins of power back to the monarchy, which in turn established the current democratic state.
The former ETA member turned anti-Nationalist author [[Jon Juaristi]] contends that ETA's goal was not democratization but a [[spiral of violence]].
===During the transition===
After Franco's death, during the [[Spanish transition to democracy]] ETA split into two separate organizations: the majority became [[ETA political-military]] or ETA(pm), the minority ETA military or ETA(m). ETA(pm) accepted the Spanish government's offer of amnesty to all ETA prisoners, even those who had committed violent crimes; abandoned the policy of violence; and integrated into the political party ''[[Euskadiko Ezkerra]]'' ("[[left-wing politics|Left]] of the Basque Country"), which years later split. One faction retained the name ''Euskadiko Ezkerra'' for some years, before merging into the [[Partido Socialista de Euskadi]] (PSE), the Basque affiliate of the national [[PSOE]]); the other became [[Euskal Ezkerra]] (EuE, "Basque Left") and then merged into [[Eusko Alkartasuna]].
Some of the former ETA members (like [[Mario Onaindía]], [[Jon Juaristi]], [[Joseba Pagazaurtundua]]) evolved to non-nationalist leftism or even Spanish nationalism, thus becoming targets or victims for ETA.
Meanwhile, ETA(m) adopted even more radical and violent positions. During [[Spain]]'s [[History_of_Spain#The_transition_to_democracy_1975-1978|transition to democracy]], ETA(m) refused offers of amnesty, instead continuing and intensifying its violent struggle. When ETA (pm) integrated into the political party [[Euskadiko Ezkerra]], ETA(m) re-adopted the name ETA.
The years [[1978]]&ndash;[[1980|80]] were to prove ETA's most deadly, with 68, 76, and 91 fatalities, respectively. [Martinez-Herrera 2002]
During the Franco era, ETA was able to take advantage of toleration by the [[France|French]] government, which allowed its members to move freely through French territory, believing that in this manner they were contributing to the end of Franco's regime. There is much controversy over the degree to which this policy of "[[sanctuary]]" continued even after the transition to democracy, but it is generall
|
allowed her two young daughters to be blinded.
# Fulk FitzRoy, a monk at [[Abingdon, England|Abingdon]].
# Richard of Lincoln, perished in the wreck of the [[White Ship]].
===With Sibyl Corbet===
Lady Sybilla Corbet of Alcester was born in [[1077]] in [[Alcester]], Warwickshire, England. She married Herbert FitzHerbert, son of Herbert "the Chamberlain" of Winchester and Emma de Blois. She died after 1157 and was also known as Adela (or Lucia) Corbet. Sybil was definitely mother of Sybil and Rainald, possibly also of William and Rohese. Some sources suggest that there was another daughter by this relationship, Gundred, but it appears that she was thought as such because she was a sister of Reginald de Dunstanville but it appears that that was another person of that name who was not related to this family.
# Sybilla of England, married King [[Alexander I of Scotland]].
# William Constable, born before 1105. Married Alice (Constable); died after 1187.
# [[Reginald de Dunstanville, 1st Earl of Cornwall]].
# Gundred of England ([[1114]] &ndash; 1146), married 1130 [[Henry de la Pomeroy]], son of [[Joscelin de la Pomerai]].
# Rohese of England, born 1114; married Henry de la Pomeroy.
===With Edith FitzForne===
# Robert FitzEdith, Lord Okehampton, (1093 &ndash; 1172) married Dame Maud d'Avranches du Sap.
# Adeliza FitzEdith. Appears in charters with her brother Robert.
===With Princess Nest===
[[Nest (princess)|Nest]]a verch Rhys of Deheubarth was born circa 1073 of [[Dynevor]], [[Llandyfeisant]], [[Carmarthenshire]], Wales. She was married first time Stephen of Cardigan, Constable of Cardigan. She was married second time Geraldus FitzOther de Windsor, son of Walter FitzOther of Windsor, Keeper of the Forest and Gwladys verch Rhywallon, in 1095. She died circa 1114.
# Henry FitzRoy, died 1157.
===With Isabel de Beaumont===
Isabel (Elizabeth) de Beaumont (after 1102 &ndash; after 1172), daughter of [[Robert de Beaumont, 1st Earl of Leicester|Robert de Beaumont]]. She was married [[Gilbert de Clare, 1st Earl of Pembroke]], in 1130. She was also known as Isabella de Meulan.
# Isabel Hedwig of England, born circa 1120.
==See also==
*[[Complete Peerage]].
* [[Pipe Rolls]].
*[[Giraldus Cambrensis]]
*''Chronicon Monasterii de Abington''.
*[[Gesta Normannorum Ducum]].
*[[Robert of Torigny]].
*[[Simeon of Durham]].
*[[William of Malmesbury]].
==References==
*Cross, Arthur Lyon. ''A History of England and Greater Britain''. Macmillan, 1917.
*Hollister, C. Warren. ''Henry I''. Yale University Press, 2001. (Yale Monarchs series)
*Thompson, Kathleen. "Affairs of State: the Illegitimate Children of Henry I." ''Journal of Medieval History'' 29 (2003): 129-51.
==External links==
*[http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/historic_figures/henry_i_king.shtml BBC site on Henry I]
*[http://www.royal.gov.uk/output/Page54.asp Royal British site on Henry I]
*[http://www.britannia.com/history/monarchs/mon24.html Brittania site on Henry I]
*[http://www.swuklink.com/BAAAGCBL.php Henry I (c.1068-1135), King of England (1100-1135), Duke of Normandy (1106-1135)]
*[http://www.swuklink.com/BAAAGBAG.php &nbsp; The Sinking of the White Ship (1120)]
*[http://www3.dcs.hull.ac.uk/cgi-bin/gedlkup/n=royal?royal01391 A listing of Henry's descendants]
{{start box}}
{{succession box two to one |
before1=[[William II of England|William II]] |
title1=[[List of British monarchs|King of England]] |
years1=1100&ndash;1135 |
after=[[Stephen of England|Stephen]] |
before2=[[Robert Curthose]] |
title2=[[Dukes of Normandy|Duke of Normandy]] |
years2=1105&ndash;1135
}}
{{end box}}
[[Category:1068 births]]
[[Category:1135 deaths]]
[[Category:English monarchs]]
[[Category:Dukes of Normandy]]
[[Category:House of Dunkeld]]
[[cy:Harri I o Loegr]]
[[da:Henrik I af England]]
[[de:Heinrich I. (England)]]
[[es:Enrique I de Inglaterra]]
[[fr:Henri Ier d'Angleterre]]
[[it:Enrico I d'Inghilterra]]
[[he:הנרי הראשון מלך אנגליה]]
[[nl:Hendrik I van Engeland]]
[[ja:ヘンリー1世 (イングランド王)]]
[[pl:Henryk I (król Anglii)]]
[[pt:Henrique I de Inglaterra]]
[[ru:Генрих I (король Англии)]]
[[simple:Henry I of England]]
[[fi:Henrik I (Englanti)]]
[[sv:Henrik I av England]]
[[zh:亨利一世 (英格兰)]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Henry II of England</title>
<id>14180</id>
<revision>
<id>41427127</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-27T06:15:19Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Josiah Rowe</username>
<id>210455</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/69.22.106.183|69.22.106.183]] ([[User talk:69.22.106.183|talk]]) to last version by DabMachine</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{|align=right
|{{Infobox Monarch | name=Henry II
| title= By the Grace of God, King of the English<br>and Duke of the Normans and Aquitanians<br>and Count of the Angevins
| image=[[Image:Henry II of England.jpg]]
| reign= [[25 October]] [[1154]] &ndash; [[6 July]] [[1189]]
| date1= [[25 October]] [[1154]]
| date2= [[6 July]] [[1189]]
| coronation= [[19 December]] [[1154]]
| queen= [[Eleanor of Aquitaine]] ([[1124]] -[[1204]])
| royal house= [[Plantagenet]]
| father= [[Geoffrey of Anjou]] ([[1113]]&ndash;[[1151]])
| mother= [[Empress Matilda]] (c. [[1102]]&ndash;[[1167]])
| issue= [[Henry the Young King]]<br>([[1155]]&ndash;[[1183]])<br>[[Richard I of England|Richard I]] ([[1157]]&ndash;[[1199]])<br>[[Geoffrey, Duke of Brittany]]<br>([[1158]]&ndash;[[1186]]) <br>[[Matilda, Duchess of Saxony]]<br>([[1156]]&ndash;[[1189]]) <br>[[Leonora of England]] ([[1161]]&ndash;[[1214]]) <br>[[Joan Plantagenet]] ([[1165]]&ndash;[[1199]]) <br>[[John of England|John]] ([[1167]]&ndash;[[1216]]) <br>[[Geoffrey, Archbishop of York]]<br>(illeg., c. [[1152]]&ndash;[[1226]]) <br>[[William de Longespee, 3rd Earl of Salisbury|William de Longespee, 3rd Earl of<br>Salisbury]] (illeg., c. [[1176]]- [[1226]])
| date of birth= [[5 March]] [[1133]]
| place of birth= [[Le Mans]]
| date of death= [[6 July]] [[1189]]
| place of death= [[Chinon|Chateau Chinon]]
| place of burial= [[Fontevraud Abbey]]
}}
|-
|{{Plantagenets|arms=[[Image:H2 Arms.png|150px]]}}
|}
'''Henry II''' ([[5 March]] [[1133]] &ndash; [[6 July]] [[1189]]) ruled as [[Count of Anjou]], [[Duke of Normandy]], and as [[King of England]] ([[1154]]&ndash;[[1189]]) and, at various times, controlled parts of [[Wales]], [[Scotland]], eastern [[Ireland]], and western [[France]]. His [[sobriquet]]s include "Curt Mantle" (because of the practical short cloaks he wore), "Fitz Empress", and sometimes "The Lion of Justice", which had also applied to his grandfather [[Henry I of England|Henry I]]. He ranks as the first of the Plantagenet or [[Angevin|Angevin Kings]].
Following the disputed reign of [[Stephen of England|King Stephen]], Henry's reign saw efficient consolidation. Henry II has acquired a reputation as one of England's greatest medieval kings.
==Biography==
===Territorial holdings and gains - foreign enemies, allies and correspondents===
Prior to coming to the throne he already controlled [[Normandy]] and [[Anjou]] on [[Continental Europe|the continent]]; his marriage to [[Eleanor of Aquitaine]] on [[18 May]] [[1152]] added her holdings to his, including [[Touraine]], [[Aquitaine]], and [[Gascony]]. He thus effectively became more powerful than the king of [[France]] &mdash; with an empire (''the [[Angevin Empire]]'') that stretched from the [[Solway Firth]] almost to the [[Mediterranean]] and from the [[Somme]] to the [[Pyrenees]]. As king, he would make [[Ireland]] a part of his vast domain. He also maintained lively communication with the Emperor of Byzantium [[Manuel I Comnenus]].
===Life before accession===
He was born on [[5 March]] [[1133]] at [[Le Mans]] to the [[Empress Matilda]] and her second husband, [[Geoffrey of Anjou|Geoffrey the Fair, Count of Anjou]]. Brought up in [[Anjou]], he visited England in [[1149]] to help his mother in her disputed claim to the English throne.
He married [[Eleanor of Aquitaine]] on [[18 May]] [[1152]], but from [[May]] to [[August]] he was occupied in fighting Eleanor's ex-husband [[Louis VII of France]] and his allies. In August Henry rushed back to her, and they spent several months together. Around the end of November 1152 they parted: Henry went to spend some weeks with his mother and then sailed for England, arriving on [[6 January]] [[1153]]. Some historians believe that the couple's first child, [[William, Count of Poitiers]], was born in 1153.
===Civil and legal reform - struggle with the [[barons]]===
During [[Stephen I of England|Stephen]]'s reign the barons had subverted the state of affairs to undermine the monarch's grip on the realm; Henry II saw it as his first task to reverse this shift in power. For example, Henry had [[castle]]s which the barons had built without authorisation during Stephen's reign torn down, and [[scutage]], a fee paid by [[vassals]] in lieu of military service, became by [[1159]] a central feature of the king's military system. Record keeping improved dramatically in order to streamline this taxation.
Henry II established courts in various parts of England, and first instituted the royal practice of granting magistrates the power to render legal decisions on a wide range of civil matters in the name of the Crown. His reign saw the production of the first written legal textbook, providing the basis of today's "[[Common Law]]".
By the [[Assize of Clarendon]] ([[1166]]), [[trial by jury]] became the norm. Since the [[Norman Conquest]] jury trials had been largely replaced by [[trial by ordeal]] and "[[trial by combat|wager of battel]]" (which English law did not abolish until [[1819]]). Provision of justice and landed security was f
|
r software]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_Software |
name = BIND |
caption = |
developer = ISC |
latest_release_version = 9.3.2 |
latest_release_date = January 2, 2006 |
operating_system = [[UNIX]] like |
genre = [[DNS server]] |
license = [[BSD license]] |
website = [http://www.isc.org/index.pl?/sw/bind/ Official Site] |
}}
'''BIND''' (''Berkeley Internet Name Domain'', previously: ''Berkeley Internet Name Daemon'') is the most commonly used [[Domain Name System|DNS]] server on the Internet, especially on [[Unix]]-like systems, where it is a ''[[de facto]]'' [[standardization|standard]]. Supported by [[Internet Systems Consortium]], it was originally created by [[Paul Vixie]] in [[1988]] while working for [[Digital Equipment Corporation|DEC]].
A new version of BIND (BIND 9) was written from scratch in part to address the architectural difficulties with auditing the earlier BIND code bases, and also to support [[DNSSEC]] (DNS Security Extensions). Other important features of BIND 9 include: TSIG, DNS notify, nsupdate, [[IPv6]], rndc flush, views, multiprocessor support, and an improved portability architecture.
It is commonly used on linux systems.
== History ==
BIND was originally written in the early 80s under a [[Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency|DARPA]] grant. In the mid-1980s, [[Digital Equipment Corporation|DEC]] employees took over BIND development. One of these employees was [[Paul Vixie]], who continued to work on BIND after leaving DEC. He eventually helped start the [[Internet Software Consortium|ISC]], which became the entity responsible for maintaining BIND.
The development of BIND 9 was done with a combination of commercial and military contracts. Most of the features of BIND 9 were funded by UNIX vendors who wanted to ensure that BIND stayed competitive with Microsoft's DNS offerings; the [[DNSSEC]] features were funded by the US military who felt that DNS security was important.
== Criticisms ==
Like [[Sendmail]], [[File transfer protocol|FTP]], and other systems dating back to the more [[Laissez-faire|laissez-faire]] earlier days of the Internet, BIND 4 and BIND 8 have had a large number of serious security vulnerabilities over the years. BIND 9, being a rewrite, has a much better security history.
BIND 9 is a fairly large application that includes a large number of features that most DNS administrators probably will never use.
== See also ==
* [[Comparison of DNS server software]]
== External links ==
* [http://www.isc.org/products/BIND/ The official BIND site] at Internet Systems Consortium (ISC.org)
* [http://www.bind9.net/ DNS & BIND Resources] at Bind9.net
* [http://www.dnssec.net/ DNS Security Extensions (DNSSEC)] at DNSSEC.net
* [http://www.isc.org/index.pl?/sw/bind/bind-history.php A Brief History of BIND] by ISC
[[Category:DNS software]]
[[de:BIND]]
[[es:BIND]]
[[fr:BIND]]
[[it:BIND]]
[[ja:BIND]]
[[pl:BIND]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Djbdns</title>
<id>8736</id>
<revision>
<id>42036312</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T10:25:00Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Phil Boswell</username>
<id>24373</id>
</contributor>
<comment>migrate {{web reference}} to {{[[template:cite web|cite web]]}} using [[Wikipedia:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{lowercase|title=djbdns}}
The '''djbdns''' program is a simple and secure [[Domain Name System|DNS]] implementation created by [[Daniel J. Bernstein]] due to his frustrations with repeated [[BIND]] [[security hole]]s. There is an as-yet-unclaimed $500 prize (see External Links, below) for the first person to find a [[security hole]] in djbdns.
As of [[2004]], it was the third most popular DNS server (counting [[BIND]] version 9 separately from versions 8 and 4) for the publication of DNS data.<sup>1</sup>
== The components of djbdns ==
The package contains:
* six servers:
** dnscache -- the local dns resolver and cache.
** tinydns -- a database-driven dns server.
** walldns -- a "reverse DNS wall", providing IP to domain name lookup only.
** rbldns -- a server designed for dns blacklisting service.
** pickdns -- a database-driven server that chooses from matching records depending on the requester's location. (This feature is now a standard part of tinydns.)
** axfrdns -- a zone-transfer server.
* a number of client tools:
** axfr-get -- a zone-transfer client.
** dnsip -- simple address from name lookup.
** dnsipq -- address from name lookup with rewriting rules.
** dnsname -- simple name from address lookup.
** dnstxt -- simple text record from name lookup.
** dnsmx -- mail exchanger lookup.
** dnsfilter -- looks up names for addresses read from stdin, in parallel.
** dnsqr -- recursive general record lookup.
** dnsq -- non-recursive general record lookup, useful for debugging.
** dnstrace (and dnstracesort) -- comprehensive testing of the chains of authority over dns servers and their names.
* and associated configuration tools.
In djbdns, different features and services, like AXFR zone transfers, are split off into separate programs. Zone file parsing, DNS [[cache|caching]], and [[recursive]] [[resolve|resolving]] are also implemented as separate programs. The result of these design decisions is a dramatic reduction in code size and complexity of the [[daemon (computer software)|daemon]] program that answers lookup requests. [[Daniel J. Bernstein]] (and many others) feel that this is true to the spirit of the [[Unix]] operating system, and makes security verification much simpler.
== Copyright status ==
:''Main article: [[Licence-Free Software]]''
The package is distributed as [[Licence-Free Software]]; the software does not meet the [[Open Source Definition]]. This stops djbdns from being included with some Linux distributions, such as [[Debian]]. This is also probably why many other [[Linux distribution]]s do not include it. The software is free for anyone to use, however; the source code is publicly available, can be downloaded by anyone free of charge, and is open for inspection and modification by users. The licensing issues have not deterred a large number of feature-enhancing augmentations from being published. The only limitation is that one can not legally distribute a modified version of djbdns; modifications have to be distributed as [[diff]] patches.
== See also ==
* [[Comparison of DNS server software]]
* [[qmail]]
== References ==
# {{cite web
| title = Survey of DNS servers
| work = Survey
| url = http://mydns.bboy.net./survey/
| accessdate = January 6
| accessyear = 2005
}}
# {{cite web
| title = Debian djbdns
| work = Debian packages
| url = http://smarden.org/pape/Debian/djbdns.html
| accessdate = October 11
| accessyear = 2005
}}
== External links ==
*[http://cr.yp.to/djbdns.html djbdns official homepage]
*[http://cr.yp.to/djbdns/guarantee.html The $500 prize]
*[http://lifewithdjbdns.org/ A guide to DJBDNS]
*[http://djbdns.faqts.com/ The djbdns section of FAQTS]
*[http://www.tinydns.org/ Unofficial website]
*[http://www.djbdnsrocks.org/ A djbdns guide and tutorial with addon]
*[http://homepages.tesco.net/~J.deBoynePollard/FGA/djbdns-myths-dispelled.html Jonathan de Boyne Pollard's debunking of several myths relating to djbdns]
*[http://homepages.tesco.net/~J.deBoynePollard/FGA/djbdns-problems.html Jonathan de Boyne Pollard's list of the several known problems in djbdns]
*[http://www.anders.com/projects/sysadmin/djbdnsRecordBuilder/ Supporting newer record formats through generic records.]
*[http://lwn.net/2001/features/djbdns.php3 LWN (Linux weekly news) looks at DjbDNS]
[[Category:DNS software]]
[[de:Djbdns]]
[[ja:Djbdns]]
[[pl:Djbdns]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>MaraDNS</title>
<id>8737</id>
<revision>
<id>40715424</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-22T14:45:45Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Kasperd</username>
<id>687489</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''MaraDNS''' is a [[computer insecurity|security]]-aware Domain Name System ([[Domain Name System|DNS]]) implementation. It can be configured as an authoritative DNS server, as a "recursive" DNS cache that uses the DNS [[root nameserver]]s, or as a cache which obtains its information from other recursive DNS servers.
MaraDNS is a simple, modular DNS server; this modular design minimizes memory usage and makes debugging simpler. MaraDNS comes with extensive documentation, including a full tutorial.
After a 17 month development and testing cycle, including extensive stress testing of MaraDNS' recursive resolver, MaraDNS 1.0.00 was released on [[June 21]], [[2002]]. At this point, MaraDNS development slowed down but did not stop.
A number of features have been added to MaraDNS since 1.0.00, including a new DNS zone file format, the ability to host a large number of domains while using very little memory, better [[Request for Comments|RFC]] compliance, and limited [[IPv6]] support.
MaraDNS 1.2.00 was released on [[December 21]], [[2005]]. The current stable version is 1.2.03.3.
While 1.2 is almost fully compatible with 1.0 data files, 1.0 releases of MaraDNS will continue to be maintained until [[December 21]], [[2007]].
== Criticisms ==
MaraDNS has limited support for being a slave DNS server. While MaraDNS includes a tool that can receive zone files, this process needs to be automated via an external program, such as [[crontab]], and MaraDNS needs to be restarted to load the zone in question.
While MaraDNS can resolve almost any site that other DNS servers can resolve, it does not resolve all names the same way other DNS servers do. CNAME and ANY records, in particular, are resolved differently.
== Licensing ==
MaraDNS 1.0 releases (including all current bug fixes) have been released to the [[public domain]]. MaraDNS 1.2 rele
|
ubilees]], [[Book of Enoch]], the [[Shepherd of Hermas]], [[Epistles of Clement|1 Clement]], [[Acts of Paul]], and some uniquely Ethiopian books. There is a matter of some controversy as to what constitutes "canon" in this religious body. The [[Peshitta]] of the [[Syriac Orthodox Church]] excludes 2-3 John, 2 Peter, Jude, and Revelation. The [[Armenian Orthodox]] include [[Third Epistle to the Corinthians]].
== Notes ==
Return links: [[#The Tanakh and the Protestant, Roman Catholic, and Eastern Orthodox Old Testaments|Tanakh/Old Testament]] &mdash; [[#The New Testament of all Christians|New Testament]]
<sup>1</sup> This book is not in the Protestant Old Testament.
<br>
<sup>2</sup> The Catholic and Orthodox Book of Esther includes 103 verses not in the
Protestant Book of Esther.
<br>
<sup>3</sup> In Catholic Bibles, Baruch includes a sixth chapter
called the [[Letter of Jeremiah]]. Baruch is not in the
Protestant Old Testament.
<br>
<sup>4</sup> In Catholic and Orthodox Bibles, Daniel includes three
sections not included in Protestant Bibles. [[The Prayer of Azariah and Song of the Three Holy Children]]
are included between Daniel
3:23-24. [[Susanna (Book of Daniel)|Susanna]] is included as Daniel 13. [[Bel and the Dragon]]
is included as Daniel 14. These are not in the Protestant Old Testament.
<br>
<sup>5</sup> The [[Latin Vulgate]] and the [[Douay-Rheims]] place First and Second Maccabees after Malachi instead of Esther.<br>
<sup>6</sup> These books are not in the Protestant and Catholic Old Testaments.<br>
<sup>7</sup> The Book of Odes includes the [[Prayer of Manasseh]]. This book is not present in the Catholic or Protestant Old Testaments.<br>
<sup>8</sup> Eastern Orthodox Bibles have the books of Baruch and the Letter of Jeremiah separate.<br>
<sup>9</sup>The Eastern Orthodox church adds one extra [[Psalm 151|Psalm]] to the Book of Psalms.<br>
<sup>10</sup>These books are found among the historical and wisdom books of the Christian canons.<br>
<sup>11</sup>[[Martin Luther (religious leader)|Martin Luther]] wished to remove these books from the canon, but this did not occur. Nonetheless, in [[German language|German]] editions of Luther's Bible, these are printed at the end of the New Testament, rather than the order given above.<br>
<sup>12</sup>The Eastern Orthodox church follows the Septuagint and the Hebrew bibles by considering the books of Ezra and Nehemiah as one book.<br>
<sup>13</sup>Names in brackets are the Septuagint names and are often used by the Orthodox Christians.<br>
==See also==
*[[Apocrypha]]
*[[Deuterocanonical books]]
*[[Bible]]
*[[Bible citation]]
*[[Biblical canon]]
*[[Judaism]]
*[[Christianity]]
*[[Major prophets]]
*[[Minor prophets]]
==External links==
* [http://www.staycatholic.com/the_canon_of_scripture.htm The Canon of Scripture &ndash; a Catholic perspective]
* [http://www.tau.ac.il/humanities/bible/Pdf/books%20of%20the%20bible.htm Table of Old Testament Books] - includes Latin, English, Hebrew and abbreviated names (from [[Tel Aviv University]]).
* [http://www.plymouthbrethren.org/passage.asp Articles on Various Books from Biblical Resource Database]
* [http://www.chabad.org/article.asp?aid=63255 Judaica Press Translation - Online Jewish translation of the books of the Bible.] The Tanakh and [[Rashi]]'s entire commentary.
*[http://www.mybiblescripture.com/ Books of the Bible] King James(KJV) and Revised Standard Version(RSV) searchable Bibles
[[category:Christian texts]]
[[category:Jewish texts]]
[[Category:Bible]]
[[de:Liste der Bücher der Bibel]]
[[et:Piibli raamatute loetelu]]
[[el:Βιβλία της Αγίας Γραφής]]
[[es:Libros de la Biblia]]
[[fr:Liste des livres de la Bible]]
[[hu:A Biblia könyvei]]
[[nl:Bijbelboek]]
[[sk:Zoznam kníh Biblie]]
[[fi:Luettelo Raamatun kirjoista]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Baseball statistics</title>
<id>3797</id>
<revision>
<id>41904312</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T14:33:31Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Djramey</username>
<id>588327</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">As with many sports, and perhaps even more so, '''statistics''' are very important to '''[[baseball]]'''. A seemingly intrinsic part of the game is the keeping of [[statistics]] on the achievements of the players.
The practice was started by [[Henry Chadwick]] in the [[19th century]] who devised the concepts of [[batting average]] and [[earned run average]] based on his experience of [[cricket]]. Statistics have been kept for the Major Leagues since their creation.
General managers and [[scout (sport)|baseball scouts]] study player statistics to decide what players to try to get for their team. Managers, catchers and pitchers study statistics of batters on opposing teams to figure out how best to pitch to them and [[baseball positioning|position the players]]. Managers and batters study opposing pitchers to figure out how best to hit them. Managers often base their personnel decisions during the game on statistics, such as choosing who to put in the lineup, or which [[relief pitcher]] to bring in.
Traditionally, statistics like batting average for batters (the number of hits divided by the number of at bats) and earned run average (approximately the number of runs given up by a pitcher per nine innings) have governed the statistical world of baseball. However, the advent of [[sabermetrics]] brought an onslaught of new statistics that better gauge a player's performance and contributions to his team from year to year.
Some sabermetric statistics have entered the mainstream baseball world. Among statistics that do an excellent job of measure a batter's performance, [[On-base plus slugging]] (OPS) is the easiest to calculate. It adds the hitter's [[on base percentage]] ([hits + walks + number of times [[hit by pitch]]es] divided by [number of times at bat + walks + number of times hit by a pitch + number of sacrifice flies]) to his or her [[slugging percentage]] ([[total bases]] divided by at bats). Some argue that the OPS formula is flawed and that more weight should be shifted towards OBP (on base percentage). Regardless, OPS still stands as the most direct means of evaluating a hitter's performance using readily available statistics.
OPS is also useful when determining a pitcher's level of success. 'Opponent On-base Plus Slugging' (OOPS) is becoming a popular way to evaluating a pitcher's actual performance. When analyzing a pitcher's statistics, some useful categories to consider are: K/9 (strikeouts per nine innings), K/BB (strikeouts per walk), WHIP (walks+hits per inning pitched) and OOPS (opponent on-base plus slugging). When viewing all these categories together, you gain a much clearer picture of the pitcher's success level (as opposed to simply considering W-L and ERA).
Since 2001, more emphasis has been placed on [[Defense independent pitching statistics | Defense-Independent Pitching Statistics]]. These statistics, such as Defense-Independent ERA (dERA), evaluate a pitcher solely according to those events governed solely by the pitcher's performance, regardless of the strength of the defensive players behind him.
Also important are all of those statistics in certain in-game situations. For example, a certain hitter's ability to hit left-handed pitchers might cause his manager to give him more chances to face lefties. Other hitters may have a history of success against a given pitcher (or vice versa), and the manager may use this information to engineer a favourable matchup.
Comprehensive, historical baseball statistics were difficult for the average fan to access until [[1951]], when researcher Hy Turkin published "The Complete Encyclopedia of Baseball". In 1969, MacMillan Publishing printed its first [[Baseball Encyclopedia]], using a [[computer]] to compile stats for the first time. "Big Mac" became the standard baseball reference until 1988, when [[Total Baseball]] was released by Warner Books, using even more sophisticated technology. (This led to discovery, and expulsion, of several players who didn't belong in the record books -- "phantom ballplayers", like [[Lou Proctor]].)
==Commonly used statistics==
Most of these terms also apply to [[softball]]. Commonly used statistics with their [[abbreviation]]s are explained here. The explanations below are for quick reference and do not fully or completely define the statistic; for the strict definition, see the corresponding article for each statistic.
===Batting statistics===
* 1B - [[Single (baseball)|Single]] - hits on which the batter reached first base safely without the contribution of a [[Error (baseball)|fielding error]].
* 2B - [[Double (baseball)|Double]] - hits on which the batter reached second base safely without the contribution of a [[Error (baseball)|fielding error]].
* 3B - [[Triple (baseball)|Triple]] - hits on which the batter reached third base safely without the contribution of a [[Error (baseball)|fielding error]].
* AB - [[At bat]] - Batting appearances, not including bases on balls, hit by pitch, sacrifices, interference, or obstruction
* BA - [[Batting average]] (also abbreviated ''AVG'') - hits divided by at bats
* BB - [[Base on balls]] (also called a "walk") - times receiving four balls and advancing to first base
* BBP - [[Walk percentage]] - number of base on balls divided by plate appearances
* BB/SO - [[Walk-to-strikeout ratio]] - number of base on balls divided by number of strikeouts
* EBH - [[Extra base hit]] (Sometimes EB or XBH) - doubles plus triples plus home runs
* FC - [[Fielder's choice]] - times reaching base when a fielder chose to try for an out on another runner
* G/F -
|
sland, New York]]
* Vol. 14: November 30 and December 2, 1973 from the Boston Music Hall (now [[Symphony Hall, Boston|Symphony Hall]]), Boston, Massachusetts
* Vol. 15: September 3, 1977 from the [[Raceway Park]], [[Englishtown, New Jersey]]
* Vol. 16: November 8, 1969 from [[the Fillmore]], San Francisco, California
* Vol. 17: September 25, 1991 from the Boston Garden, Boston, Massachusetts with two songs from March 31, 1991
* Vol. 18: February 3, 1978 from the [[Dane County Coliseum]], [[Madison, Wisconsin]] and February 5, 1978 from the [[Uni-Dome]], [[Cedar Falls, Iowa]]
* Vol. 19: October 19, 1973 from the [[Fairgrounds Arena]], [[Oklahoma City, Oklahoma]]
* Vol. 20: September 25, 1976 from the [[Capital Center]], [[Landover, Maryland]] and September 28, 1976 from the [[War Memorial at Oncenter|Onondaga County War Memorial]], [[Syracuse, New York]]
* Vol. 21: November 1, 1985, from the [[Richmond Coliseum]], [[Richmond, Virginia]] and some tracks from September 2, 1980
* Vol. 22: February 23 and 24, 1968 from the [[Kings Beach Bowl]], [[Lake Tahoe]], California
* Vol. 23: September 17, 1972 from the [[Baltimore Civic Center]], [[Baltimore, Maryland]]
* Vol. 24: March 23, 1974 from the [[Cow Palace]], [[Daly City, California]]
* Vol. 25: May 10, 1978 from the [[Veterans Memorial Coliseum]], [[New Haven, Connecticut]] and May 11, 1978 from the [[Springfield Civic Center]], [[Springfield, Massachusetts]]
* Vol. 26: April 26, 1969 from the [[Electric Theater]], [[Chicago, Illinois]] and April 27, 1969 from the [[Labor Temple]], [[Minneapolis, Minnesota]]
* Vol. 27: December 16, 1992 from the Oakland Coliseum Arena, Oakland, California
* Vol. 28: February 26, 1973 from the [[Pershing Municipal Auditorium]], [[Lincoln, Nebraska]] and February 28, 1973 from the [[Salt Palace]], [[Salt Lake City, Utah]]
* Vol. 29: May 19, 1977 from the [[Fox Theatre]], [[Atlanta, Georgia]] and May 21, 1977 from the [[Lakeland Civic Arena]], [[Lakeland, Florida]]
* Vol. 30: March 28, 1972 from the [[Academy of Music]], New York City and March 25, 1972 (including five songs with [[Bo Diddley]])
* Vol. 31: August 4 and 5, 1974 from the [[Philadelphia Civic Center]], [[Philadelphia, Pennsylvania]] and August 6, 1974 from the [[Roosevelt Stadium]], [[Jersey City, New Jersey]]
* Vol. 32: August 7, 1982 from the [[Alpine Valley]], [[East Troy, Wisconsin]]
* Vol. 33: October 9 and 10, 1976 from the Oakland Stadium, Oakland, California (one of [[Bill Graham (promoter)|Bill Graham]]'s [[Days on the Green]])
* Vol. 34: November 5, 1977 from the [[Community War Memorial]], [[Rochester, New York]] with bonus tracks of November 2, 1977 from the [[Seneca College Field House]], [[Toronto, Ontario]]
* Vol. 35: August 7, 1971 from [[San Diego, California]] and August 24, 1971 from Chicago, Illinois with bonus tracks of August 6, 1971 from the [[Palladium]], [[Hollywood, California]]
* Vol. 36: September 21, 1972 from the [[Spectrum]], Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
Volume 15 and later are released in the [[HDCD]] format.
==See also==
*[[San Francisco Sound]]
*[[Grateful Dead concerts of 1995]]
*[[List of bands which allow taping of their concerts]]
*[[The Grateful Dead Movie]]
*[[Jam band]]
==Samples==
*[[Media:BoxofRain.ogg|Download sample]] of "Box of Rain" from ''[[American Beauty (album)|American Beauty]]''
* https://dead.unixgu.ru/ - claims to be a legal source
==References==
* {{cite book | last = Garofalo | first = Reebee | title = Rockin' Out: Popular Music in the USA | publisher = Allyn & Bacon | year = 1997 | id = ISBN 0205137032 }}
* {{cite book | last = Lesh | first = Phil | title = Searching for the Sound | publisher = Little, Brown and Co. | year = 2005 | id = ISBN 0-316-00998-9 }}
* {{cite book | last = McNally | first = Dennis | title = A Long Strange Trip: the Inside History of the Grateful Dead | publisher = Broadway Books | year = 2002 | id = ISBN 0-76791186-5 }}
* {{cite book | last = Ward | first = Ed | coauthors = Geoffrey Stokes and Ken Tucker | title = Rock of Ages: The ''Rolling Stone'' History of Rock and Roll | publisher = Rolling Stone Press | year = 1986 | id = ISBN 0671544381 }}
==Notes==
#{{note|musicianlybackground}} ''Rolling Stone'', pg. 332
#{{note|SanFrancisco}} Garofalo, pg. 218
#{{note|experimental}} Garofalo, pg. 219
#{{note|philanthropy}} Garofalo, pg. 219, quote in Garofalo, cited to Roxon, ''Lillian Roxon's Rock Encyclopedia'', 210
==External links==
*[http://www.dead.net/ Official Grateful Dead Home Page]
*[http://www.deadlists.com/ The DeadLists Project]
*[http://www.thejerrysite.com/ The Jerry Site]
*[http://www.setlists.net/ The SetList Program]
*[http://www.deaddisc.com/ The Grateful Dead Family Discography]
*[http://tcgdd.freeyellow.com/ The Compleat Grateful Dead Discography]
*[http://arts.ucsc.edu/gdead/agdl/ The Annotated Grateful Dead Lyrics]
*[http://www.musicbox-online.com/dd-dead.html Dissecting the Dead with David Dodd] - The Music Box, Vol. 12, #10
*[http://www.gdhour.com/ The Grateful Dead Hour Radio Program] - weekly radio show, nationally-syndicated on over 75 stations
*[http://www.myclassiclyrics.com/grateful_dead/grateful_dead_Lyrics.htm The Grateful Dead Lyrics Page]
*[http://www.spiritplants.org/phpbb/viewforum.php?f=4/ SpiritPlants - The Groove]
*[http://www.rukind.com/ Extensive song lyrics and tab]
*[http://www.archive.org/search.php?query=Grateful%20Dead%20AND%20mediatype%3Aetree%20AND%20collection%3Aetree&sort=-%2Freviews%2Finfo%2Favg_rating%3B-%2Freviews%2Finfo%2Fnum_reviews Live Grateful Dead concerts available in streaming format/listed by listener rating]
*[http://www.archive.org/audio/etree-band-showall.php Other taper/trade - friendly bands on the Live Music Archive]
*[http://bt.etree.org/index.php?sort=seeders&cat=8 Torrents of live concerts]
*[http://www.philzone.com Philzone (Phil Lesh fan site)]
*[http://www.cjfishlegacy.com/ CJFishlegacy.com]
*[http://www.musicbox-online.com/dl-vault1.html Interview from the Vault: A Conversation with David Lemieux] - The Music Box, Vol. 9, #2
*[http://www.musicbox-online.com/dm-long2.html A Long Strange Trip from Historian to Publicist: An Interview with Dennis McNally] - Music Box, Vol. 9, #10
*[http://www.musicbox-online.com/hartint.html Listen - The Sound of the World] - The Music Box, Vol. 10, #10
*[http://www.musicbox-online.com/sc-int.html From Chaos to Beauty: The Transformation of The Grateful Dead Movie] - The Music Box, Vol. 11, #12
*[http://www.rockument.com/grateful_dead.html Unlimited Devotion: Rockument's History of the Grateful Dead]
*[http://www.boingboing.net/2005/11/26/greedy_grateful_dead.html Greedy Grateful Dead widow burns down online show-library]
*[http://www.walstib.org Grateful Dead Community and Forum]
*[http://www.booksmusicfilmstv.com/GratefulDeadCDs.htm The Grateful Dead - A Potted History]
[[Category:1960s music groups]]
[[Category:1970s music groups]]
[[Category:American musical groups]]
[[Category:Grateful Dead|*]]
[[Category:Folk rock groups]]
[[Category:Jam bands]]
[[Category:Psychedelic groups]]
[[Category:Rock and Roll Hall of Fame inductees]]
[[Category:Rock music groups]]
[[Category:Jammy Award Winner]]
[[de:Grateful Dead]]
[[fr:Grateful Dead]]
[[he:גרייטפול דד]]
[[ja:グレイトフル・デッド]]
[[nl:Grateful Dead]]
[[no:Grateful Dead]]
[[pl:Grateful Dead]]
[[pt:Grateful Dead]]
[[simple:Grateful Dead]]
[[sv:Grateful Dead]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Groupoid</title>
<id>12543</id>
<revision>
<id>33590856</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-02T12:24:57Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Smimram</username>
<id>81011</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* Relation to groups */ pb with quotes</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''In addition to the present meaning, the term "groupoid" is also used for a [[magma (algebra)|magma]]: a [[set]] with an arbitrary [[binary operation]] on it. This encyclopedia does not use that sense of this word.''
In [[mathematics]], especially in [[category theory]] and [[homotopy theory]], a '''groupoid''' is a concept (first developed by [[Heinrich Brandt]] in [[1926]]) that simultaneously generalises [[group (mathematics)|group]]s, [[equivalence relation]]s on [[set]]s, and [[group action|action]]s of groups on sets.
They are often used to capture information about geometrical objects such as [[manifold]]s.
== Definitions ==
From one point of view, a groupoid is simply a [[category theory|category]] in which every [[morphism]] is an [[isomorphism]] (that is, invertible).
To be explicit, a groupoid ''G'' is:
* A [[set]] ''G''<sub>0</sub> of ''objects'';
* For each pair of objects ''x'' and ''y'' in ''G''<sub>0</sub>, a set ''G''(''x'',''y'') of ''morphisms'' (or ''arrows'') from ''x'' to ''y'' — we write ''f'' : ''x'' &rarr; ''y'' to indicate that ''f'' is an element of ''G''(''x'',''y'');
equipped with:
* An element id<sub>''x''</sub> of ''G''(''x'',''x'');
* For each triple of objects ''x'', ''y'', and ''z'', a [[binary function]] comp<sub>''x'',''y'',''z''</sub> from ''G''(''x'',''y'') and ''G''(''y'',''z'') to ''G''(''x'',''z'') — we write ''gf'' for comp<sub>''x'',''y'',''z''</sub>(''f'',''g'');
* A [[function (mathematics)|function]] inv<sub>''x'',''y''</sub> from ''G''(''x'',''y'') to ''G''(''y'',''x'') — we write ''f''<sup>-1</sup> for inv<sub>''x'',''y''</sub>(''f'');
such that:
* If ''f'' : ''x'' &rarr; ''y'', then ''f''id<sub>''x''</sub> = ''f'' and id<sub>''y''</sub>''f'' = ''f'';
* If ''f'' : ''x'' &rarr; ''y'', ''g'' : ''y'' &rarr; ''z'', and ''h'' : ''z'' &rarr; ''w'', then (''hg'')''f'' = ''h''(''gf'');
* If ''f'' : ''x'' &rarr; ''y'', then ''ff''<sup>-1</sup> = id<sub>''y''</sub> and ''f''<sup>-1</sup>''f'' = id<sub>''x''</sub>.
One can also define
|
ying time, and disc diameter. According to Philips, the Compact Disc was thus "invented collectively by a large group of people working as a team."[http://www.research.philips.com/newscenter/dossier/optrec/index.html]
The Compact Disc reached the market in late [[1982]] in Asia and early the following year in other markets. This event is often seen as the "[[Big Bang]]" of the digital audio revolution. The new audio disc was enthusiastically received, especially in the early-adopting [[European classical music|classical music]] and [[audiophile]] communities and its handling quality received particular praise. The far larger [[popular music|popular]] and [[rock music]] industries were slower to adopt the new format, especially in the huge consumer markets in [[Europe]] and the [[United States]]. This "highbrow niche" status of the CD format changed dramatically in [[May]], [[1985]], when [[UK]] rock [[band (music)|band]] [[Dire Straits]], then under contract by [[Philips]]' [[Polygram]], released the album ''[[Brothers in Arms (Dire Straits album)|Brothers in Arms]]''. One of the first all-digital rock recordings and the first by a major act, ''Brothers in Arms'' played to the strengths of the CD by offering more and longer tracks, running ten minutes longer than the album's concurrent LP and cassette releases. It spurred the sale of compact disc players like no other recording before it, helped to drive down the price of players, induced other acts and record labels to release more music on CD and firmly established the format in the mind of the average consumer. [http://www.vinylsa.co.za/pdf/newsletter_04_January_2006.pdf]
From its origins as a music format, Compact Disc has grown to encompass other applications. Two years later, in [[1985]], the [[CD-ROM]] (read-only memory) was introduced. With this it was now possible to disseminate massive amounts (for the time) of computer data instead of digital sound. A CD can store around 640 [[megabyte]]s of data. A user-recordable CD for data storage, [[CD-R]], was introduced in the early [[1990s]], and it became the de facto standard for exchange and archiving of computer data and music. The CD and its later extensions have been extremely successful: in [[2004]] the annual worldwide sales of CD-Audio, [[CD-ROM]], and [[CD-R]] reached about 30 billion discs.
== Physical details ==
[[Image:Compact disc.jpg|thumb|right|250px|CD-R (Pencil included for scale)]]
[[Image:Small cdisk ubt.jpeg|thumb|right|250px|Mini-CD (with ruler for scale)
]]
Compact discs are made from a 1.2&nbsp;[[millimetre|mm]] thick disc of [[polycarbonate]] [[plastic]] coated with a much thinner layer of [[Super Purity Aluminium|Super Purity]] [[Aluminium]] (or rarely, [[Gold CD|gold]], used for its data longevity, such as in some limited-edition [[audiophile]] CDs) layer which is protected by a film of [[lacquer]]. The lacquer can be [[print]]ed with a [[label]]. Common printing methods for compact discs are [[silkscreening]] and [[offset printing]]. CDs are available in two sizes. By far the most common is 120&nbsp;mm in [[diameter]], with a 74-minute audio capacity and a 650 MB data or an 80-minute audio capacity and a 700 MB data (See [[#Storage capacity|storage capacity]]; this form factor has also erroneously been called "CD5" since it is 4 3/4 inches in diameter, about five [[inch]]es across). Such a standard disc weighs 15 grams. 80 mm discs are also available, a format which is mainly used for audio CD singles in some regions (e.g. [[Japan]]), much like the old [[single (music)|vinyl single]]. Each such "[[miniCD]]" or "Maxi CD" can hold 21&nbsp;minutes of music, or 180&nbsp;MB of data (this form factor has also been called "CD3", since it is about three inches across).
Other unique shapes and smaller form factors have also been sold or given away as promotional items. Examples include Business Card CDs in the shape of a rectangular card and CDs shaped like the map of a country etc, although such discs are not always compatible with all CD players — they will work with any machine where the disc is inserted by manually clipping it onto the spindle (the mechanism used in virtually all portable CD players), but may not necessarily be inserted into drives which load the disc from a tray, or pull it into a slot. Irregularly shaped, non [[rotationally symmetric]] discs with an offset [[centre of mass]] may also cause damaging vibration if played in computer CD drives, which can operate at a much higher rotational velocity than stand-alone audio CD players. Some irregularly shaped discs will work with tray loading CD drives if they include a circular ridge on their underside which centers them on the part of the tray designed to hold 80 mm CDs, assuming the tray has such a feature.
There is a 15 mm hole in the centre of the disc, usually used by some form of clamp or clip device within the player to hold it in place and allow it to be rotated by a motor.
The information on a standard CD is encoded as a spiral track of ''pits'' moulded into the top of the polycarbonate layer. (The areas between pits are known as ''lands''.) Each pit is approximately 100&nbsp;[[nanometre|nm]] deep by 500&nbsp;nm wide, and varies from 850&nbsp;nm to 3.5&nbsp;[[micrometre|μm]] long. The spacing between the tracks is 1.6&nbsp;μm. To grasp the scale of the pits and land of a CD, if the disc is enlarged to the size of a stadium, a pit would be approximately the size of a grain of sand. The spiral begins at the center of the disc and proceeds outwards to the edge, which allows the different size formats available.
A CD is read by focusing a 780&nbsp;nm [[wavelength]] [[semiconductor laser]] through the bottom of the polycarbonate layer. The difference in height between pits and lands is one quarter to one sixth of the wavelength of the laser light, leading to a half-wavelength or less [[phase (waves)|phase]] difference between the light reflected from a pit and from its surrounding land. The destructive [[interference]] thus reduces the intensity of the reflected light compared to when the laser is focused on just a land. By measuring this intensity with a [[photodiode]], one is able to read the data from the disc. The pits and lands themselves do not represent the zeroes and ones of [[binary data]]. Instead a change from pit to land or land to pit indicates a one, while no change indicates a zero. This in turn is decoded by reversing the [[Eight-to-Fourteen Modulation]] used in mastering the disc, finally revealing the raw data stored on the disc.
Figure 1, page 8a, of the Red Book specifies many mechanical parameters including the pit depth. It specifies that the pit depth should be less than (and, thus, not equal) 130 nm. However, the Red Book implicitly specifies the pit depth by specifying the strength of both the push-pull radial tracking signal and full aperture detection signal. For a maximum full aperture signal, the optimum pit depth is λ/4n = 130 nm (refractive index n=1.5, λ=780 nm). For a maximum push-pull radial tracking signal the best choice is λ/8n = 65 nm. Most CD manufacturers, dependent on the exact pit geometry such as the slope of the pit edges etc, choose a pit depth of around 90-100 nm, (which is around λ/6n) yielding a sound trade-off between the quality of the push-pull radial tracking and full aperture detection signal.
Pits are much closer to the label side of a disc so that defects and dirt on the clear side can be out of focus during playback. Discs are consequently much easier to ruin by scratching the label side, whereas clear-side scratches can be repaired by refilling them with plastic of similar [[index of refraction]].
== Manufacturing Process ==
Mastering Process: First, in a clean room, a glass master is prepared by coating a perfectly flat piece of half inch thick circular glass with a layer of nickel. The nickel is transfered by exciting the nickel to a plasma state whereupon a thin layer of nickel will adhere to the glass. The glass is coated with an emulsion. Source material is encoded into the appropriate format whereupon a computer controlled machine "burns" the pits into the emulsion layer of the glass master. The glass master produced is quality checked before it moves to the next stage.
Stamper Process: Next the glass master is used to create nickel stampers using an electroplating technique. Multiple stampers can be made from one glass master. Each stamper is quality checked. This process is also done in a clean room environment.
Pressing: Each stamper is mounted in an injection moulding machine. Melted polycarbonate resin is injected into the chamber and the CD is pressed using up to 40 tons of pressure. The chamber opens and a robotic arm grabs the disc and transfers it to the next stage. At this point the disc is clear, so a coating of aluminum is applied to the disc for reflectivity. A laquer is spin coated onto the disc and the disc is tranfered to a spindle. The discs are sampled by QC to ensure quality product.
Printing and Packaging: The label is printed onto the disc using a one to six color process (in the case of silk screening), then the printed discs are loaded into a packaging macine that combines a jewel box, tray card, the disc, and booklet. The finished assembly has security stickers applied, and is shrinkwrapped with marketing stickers applied. Sometimes the spindle of 150 discs are shrinkwrapped together in bulk. Bulk packaging can be done before or after printing.
== Audio format ==
The format of the audio disc, known as the "[[Red Book (audio CD standard)|Red Book]]" / Sony standard, was laid out by Sony and Philips in 1981. Philips is responsible for the [[licensing]] program of the intellectual property pertinent to the Compact Disc including the "Compact Disc Digital Audio" logo that
|
ansing]] as BorgWarner Morse. In the post-war decades [[National Cash Register]] and the Langmuir research labs of [[General Electric]] were also major employers.
[[Cornell University]] was founded by [[Ezra Cornell]] in [[1865]]. It was coeducational from its inception, which was extremely unusual at the time. Ezra Cornell also established a [http://rmc.library.cornell.edu/presidents/view_item.php?sec=2&sub=5 public library] for the city. Ithaca College was founded as the Ithaca Conservatory of Music in [[1892]].
During the early 20th century, Ithaca was an important center in the [[silent film]] industry. The most common type of film produced was the cliffhanger [[serial]], and the films often featured the local natural scenery. Many of these films were the work of [[Leopold Wharton]] and his brother [[Theodore Wharton]] in their [[The Whartons|studio]] on the site of what is now Stewart Park. Eventually the film industry centralized in [[Hollywood]], which offered the possibility of year-round filming, and film production in Ithaca effectively ceased. Few of the silent films made in Ithaca are preserved today.
{{Sectstub}}
==Geography and Climate==
[[Image:Cascadilla_Creek_1.jpg|thumb|350px|Cascadilla Creek Gorge as seen from the [[Cornell University]] campus in Winter]]
The valley in which Cayuga Lake is located is long and narrow, with a north-south orientation. Ithaca was founded on flat land just south of the lake — land that formed in fairly recent geological times when silt filled the southern end of the lake. The city ultimately spread to the adjacent hillsides, which rise several hundred feet above the central flats: East Hill, West Hill, and South Hill. Its sides are fairly steep, and a number of the streams that flow into the valley from east or west have cut deep [[gorge]]s, usually with several [[waterfall]]s.
Ithaca experiences a moderate continental climate, with cold, snowy winters and sometimes hot and humid summers. The valley flatland has slightly milder weather in winter, and occasionally Ithacans experience simultaneous snow on the hills and rain in the valley.
The natural vegetation of the Ithaca area, seen in areas unbuilt and unfarmed, is northern [[Temperate broadleaf and mixed forests|temperate broadleaf forest]], dominated by deciduous trees. Among these, [[maple]]s are particularly common. Steep hillsides seen from a distance resemble a curtain of green from late May through September, show bright fall colors in October, and are a display of gray trunks and branches, often with a white snowy background, from November through early May.
The region surrounding Ithaca is dotted with numerous [[wine|wineries]], many of which specialize in the native [[Labrusca]] [[grape]] varietals, although more and more [[vintners]] have started to focus upon the classic [[Vinifera]] styles such as [[Riesling]] and [[Cabernet Franc]]. Despite the relatively short [[growing season]] in the [[Finger Lakes]] [[American Viticultural Area]], [[vineyard|vineyards]] can flourish due to the [[microclimate|microclimates]] created by the impact of the lakes.
[[Image:Cascadilla_creek_spring.jpg|thumb|350px|The gorge of Cascadilla Creek in Spring]]
==The life of the city==
The economy of Ithaca is based on education and manufacturing with high tech and tourism in strong supporting roles. The city is home to [[Cornell University]], which overlooks the town from East Hill, and [[Ithaca College]], similarly situated on South Hill. The [[College town|student population]] is very high, as almost 20,000 students are enrolled at Cornell, with an additional 6,300 students at Ithaca College. The [[Ithaca City School District]], which encompasses Ithaca and the surrounding area, enrolls about 5,500 K-12 students in eight elementary schools, two middle schools, [[Ithaca High School]], and the [[Lehman Alternative Community School]], which provides its students wide-ranging freedom to choose their own curriculum, occasionally resulting in controversy over political content in academic events.
Tourists come largely for the natural scenery, including three gorges within the city limits and three in nearby state parks. Visitors also enjoy [[Cayuga Lake]], numerous [[Trails in Ithaca, New York|hiking, skiing, and bicycling trails]], and visits to wineries in lakeside vineyards found north and west of the city.
With some level of success, Ithaca has tried to maintain a traditional downtown shopping area that includes the [[Ithaca Commons]] pedestrian mall and Center Ithaca, a small mixed-use complex built at the end of the urban renewal era. Therefore, some in the community regret that downtown has lost vitality to two expanding commercial zones to the northeast and southwest of the old city. These areas contain an increasing number of large retail stores and restaurants run by national chains. Others say the chain stores boost local shopping options for residents considerably, many of whom would have previously shopped elsewhere, while increasing sales tax revenue for the city and county. The tradeoff between sprawl and economic development continues to be debated throughout the city and the surrounding area. (Another commercial center, Collegetown, is located next to the Cornell campus. It features a number of restaurants, shops, and bars, and an increasing number of high rise apartments.)
Ithacans support a popular [[farmer's market]][http://www.ithacamarket.com/home.php], professional theaters[http://www.kitchentheatre.org],[http://www.hangartheatre.org],[http://www.icarustheatre.com], a civic [[orchestra]], much parkland, a [http://www.sciencenter.org/ science museum] for children, and a new [http://www.museumoftheearth.org/ paleontological museum]. Ithaca is noted for its annual artistic celebration of community: The Ithaca Festival[http://www.ithacafestival.org]. (The Ithaca Festival Parade[http://www.ithacafestival.org/about/parade.htm] and Circus Eccentrithaca[http://www.ithacafestival.org/about/circus.htm] are legendary!) Another gem is the Constance Saltonstall Foundation for the Arts [http://www.saltonstall.org] which provides grants and Summer Fellowships at the Saltonstall Arts Colony for NYS artists and writers. Ithaca also hosts what is described as the third-largest [[Friends of the Ithaca Library Booksale|used-book sale]] in the United States.
[[Image:ClintonHouseInIthacaNY.jpg|thumb|300px|The [[Clinton House]], a 19th century building in downtown Ithaca]]
Politically, the city's population has a significant [[American liberalism|liberal]] [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democrat]] political tilt, in contrast to the more [[American conservatism|conservative]] leanings of the region of [[Upstate New York]] that surrounds it.
Ithaca has many of the businesses characteristic of small American university towns: used bookstores, art house cinemas, craft stores, and vegetarian restaurants. The collective [[Moosewood Restaurant]], founded in 1973, was the wellspring for a number of vegetarian cookbooks; [[Bon Appetit]] magazine ranked it among the thirteen most influential restaurants of the twentieth century.
The dominant local newspaper in Ithaca is a morning daily, the ''[[Ithaca Journal]]'', founded 1815. The paper is owned by [[Gannett]], Inc., publishers of ''[[USA Today]]''. Other local print publications include the ''[[Ithaca Times]]'', the ''[[Cornell Daily Sun]]'', the ''[[Ithacan]]'', and the ''[[Tattler]]''. (The latter three are run by student staffs at Cornell University, Ithaca College, and Ithaca High School, respectively.) Local residents often subscribe to out-of-town papers as well. The ''[[Post Standard]]'' of [[Syracuse, New York|Syracuse]] and the ''[[New York Times]]'' are popular among many community members.
Ithaca has also pioneered the [[Ithaca Health Fund]], a popular cooperative health insurance. Ithaca is also home to one of the United States' first [[local currency]] systems, [[Ithaca Hours]].
==Local government==
The name "Ithaca" actually designates two governmental entities in the area. The [[Ithaca (town), New York|Town of Ithaca]] is one of the nine towns comprised by [[Tompkins County]]. ("Towns" in New York are something like townships in other states; every county outside New York City is subdivided into towns.) The [[Ithaca (city), New York|City of Ithaca]] is surrounded by, but legally independent of, the Town of Ithaca.
As of December, 2005, the city and town governments have begun discussing opportunities for increased government consolidation, including the possibility of joining the two into a single town or city. The possibility is controversial for town residents who would be forced to pay higher taxes. This topic was last discussed in 1963 and 1969.
Other non-municipal areas within the Town of Ithaca identified by the US Census Bureau as [[census-designated place]]s are:
*[[East Ithaca, New York|East Ithaca]]
*[[Forest Home, New York|Forest Home]]
*[[Northeast Ithaca, New York|Northeast Ithaca]]
*[[Northwest Ithaca, New York|Northwest Ithaca]]
*[[South Hill, New York|South Hill]]
In addition, the Town of Ithaca contains the [[Cayuga Heights|Village of Cayuga Heights]], a small incorporated upper-middle class suburb located to the northeast of the City of Ithaca.
The Town of Ithaca is bordered by other towns of Tompkins County as follows:
*[[Enfield, New York|Enfield]] to the west
*[[Ulysses, New York|Ulysses]] to the northwest
*[[Lansing (town), New York|Lansing]] to the northeast
*[[Dryden (town), New York|Dryden]] to the east
*[[Danby, New York|Danby]] to the south
*[[Newfield, New York|Newfield]] to the southwest
The majority of local property taxes are actually assessed by an entirely independent agency with entirely different borders, the [[Ithaca City School District]].
[[Image:ViewOfEastHillIthacaNY.jpg|thumb|600px|center|The East Hill area of the city: Cornell University campu
|
ectronic oscillator</title>
<id>9920</id>
<revision>
<id>36846069</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-26T21:31:55Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Atlant</username>
<id>124135</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Revert vandal</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">An '''electronic [[oscillation|oscillator]]''' is an [[electronic circuit]] that produces a repetitive electronic signal, often a [[sine wave]] or a [[square wave]].
A [[low frequency oscillation|low-frequency oscillator]] (or '''LFO''') is an electronic oscillator that generates an [[alternating current|AC]] [[waveform]] between 0.1 Hz and 10 Hz. This term is typically used in the field of audio [[synthesizers]], to distinguish it from an audio frequency oscillator.
== Types of electronic oscillator ==
There are two main types of electronic oscillator: the harmonic oscillator and the relaxation oscillator.
=== Harmonic oscillator ===
<!-- Image with unknown copyright status removed: [[Image:Colpitts_oscillator_circuit_diagram.png|thumb|right|Small-signal model of a crystal-stabilized Colpitt's oscillator]] -->
The harmonic oscillator produces a sinusoidal output. The basic form of an harmonic oscillator is an [[electronic amplifier]] with the output attached to a narrow-band [[electronic filter]], and the output of the filter attached to the input of the amplifier. When the power supply to the amplifier is first switched on, the amplifier's output consists only of [[noise (physics)|noise]]. The noise travels around the loop, being [[Filter (signal processing)|filtered]] and re-amplified until it increasingly resembles the desired signal.
A [[piezoelectric]] [[crystal]] (commonly [[quartz]]) may be coupled to the filter to stabilise the frequency of oscillation, resulting in a [[crystal oscillator]].
There are many ways to implement harmonic oscillators, because there are different ways to amplify and filter. For example:
* [[Hartley oscillator]]
* [[Colpitts oscillator]]
* [[Clapp oscillator]]
* [[Pierce crystal oscillator]]
* [[Phase-shift oscillator]]
* [[RC oscillator]] ([[Wien bridge oscillator|Wien Bridge]] and "Twin-T")
=== Relaxation oscillator ===
The relaxation oscillator is often used to produce a non-sinusoidal output, such as a square wave or sawtooth. The oscillator contains a nonlinear component such as a [[transistor]] that periodically discharges the energy stored in a [[capacitor]] or [[inductor]], causing abrupt changes in the output waveform.
Square-wave relaxation oscillators can be used to provide the [[clock signal]] for [[sequential logic]] circuits such as timers and counters, although crystal oscillators are often preferred for their greater stability.
Triangle-wave or sawtooth oscillators are used in the timebase circuits that generate the horizontal deflection signals for [[cathode ray tube]]s in analogue [[oscilloscope]]s and [[television]] sets. In [[function generator]]s, this triangle wave may then be further shaped into a close approximation of a [[sine wave]].
The [[multivibrator]] and the [[Time to digital converter|rotary traveling wave oscillator]] are another types of relaxation oscillators.
==See also==
*[[Crystal oscillator]]
*[[Voltage-controlled oscillator]]
*[[RLC circuit]]
*[[Electronics]]
[[Category:Oscillators]]
[[Category:Electronics]]
[[Category:Electronic engineering]]
[[da:Elektronisk oscillator]]
[[de:Oszillatorschaltung]]
[[fr:Oscillateur]]
[[nl:Oscillator (elektronica)]]
[[pt:Oscilador electrónico]]
[[zh:振盪器]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>European Company Statute</title>
<id>9922</id>
<revision>
<id>39214158</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-11T15:38:05Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Qasinka</username>
<id>725471</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>pl</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''Council Regulation on the Statute for a European Company''' of the [[European Union]] (adopted [[October 8]] [[2001]]; [[Official Journal of the European Union|OJ]] L 294, [[10 November]] [[2001]], pp. 1-21) contains rules for a '''European Public Company''', called an '''SE''' (abbreviation for '''Societas Europaea''', [[Latin]] for 'European Company'); there is also a statute allowing a '''European Cooperative Society''' ('''SCE'''). An SE can be registered in any of the 25 member states in the [[European Union]], and the registration can be easily transferred to another member state. There is no EU-wide register of SEs (an SE is registered on the national register of the member state in which it has its head office), but each registration is to be published in the official journal; [[as of 2004]], no registration has been published.
The 25 different member states of the [[European Union]] have widely different company laws. This means that companies have to comply with many different regulatory systems, and merger of companies from different states is often complex and difficult.
SEs can be created in the following ways:
# By merger of national companies from different member states
# By the creation of a joint venture between companies (or other entities) in different member states
# By the creation of a SE subsidiary of a national company
# By the conversion of a national company into an SE
== Worker Involvement ==
The regulation is complemented by the '''Council Directive supplementing the Statute for a European Company with regard to the involvement of employees''' (adopted [[October 8]] [[2001]]; OJ L 294, [[10 November]] [[2001]], pp. 22-32). The directive establishes rules on worker involvement in the management of the SE.
EU member states differ in the degree of worker involvement in corporate management. In Germany, most large corporations are required to allow employees to elect a certain percentage of seats on the board of directors. Other member states, such as the UK, have no such requirement, and furthermore in these states such practices are largely unknown and considered a threat to the rights of management. In states with these provisions, the corporation has two boards, a management board (which handles the day-to-day operation of the company) and the supervisory board (which elects and oversees the management board, and reports back to shareholders and employees). This division is effected in part to avoid direct involvement of employee representatives in day-to-day management. Companies in states without worker involvement provisions tend to have unitary boards of directors instead.
These differing traditions of worker involvement have held back the adoption of the Statute for over a decade. States without worker involvement provisions were afraid that the SE might lead to having such provisions being imposed on their companies; and states with those provisions were afraid they might lead to those provisions being circumvented.
A compromise, contained in the Directive, was worked out as follows: worker involvement provisions in the SE will be decided upon by negotiations between employees and management before the creation of the SE. If agreement cannot be reached, provisions contained in the Directive will apply. The Directive provides for worker involvement in the SE if a minimum percentage of employees from the entities coming together to form the SE enjoyed worker involvement provisions. The Directive permits Member States to not implement these default worker involvement provisions in their national law, but then an SE cannot be created in that member state if the provisions in the Directive would apply and negotiations between workers and management are unsuccessful.
==Development==
Two approaches have been attempted to solve the problems cited above. One approach is to harmonize the company law of the member states. This approach has had some successes, but after thirty years only limited progress has been made. It is difficult to harmonize widely different regulatory systems, especially when they reflect different national attitudes to issues such as worker involvement in the management of the company.
The other approach is to construct a whole new system of EU company law, that co-exists with the individual company laws of the member states. Companies would have the choice of operating either under national regulations or under the EU-wide system. However, this approach has been only somewhat more effective than the harmonization approach: while states are not as concerned about having foreign traditions of corporate governance imposed on their companies, which the harmonization approach could well entail; they also wish to ensure that the EU-wide system would be palatable to the traditions of their national companies, so that they will not be put at a disadvantage compared to the other member states.
The European Company Statute represents a step in this direction, albeit a limited one. While it establishes some common EU rules on the SE, these rules are incomplete, and the holes in the rules are to be filled in using the law of the member state in which the SE is registered. This has been due to the difficulties of agreeing on common European rules on these issues.
== External links ==
* [http://europa.eu.int/rapid/pressReleasesAction.do?reference=MEMO/04/235&format=HTML&aged=0&language=en&guiLanguage=en Frequently-asked questions (the EU website)]
Links of legislation on the [[EUR-Lex]] web site:
* [http://europa.eu.int/eur-lex/pri/en/oj/dat/2001/l_294/l_29420011110en00010021.pdf Council Regulation (EC) No 2157/2001 of [[8 October]] [[2001]] on the Statute for a European company (SE)]
* [http://europa.eu.int/eur-lex/pri/en/oj/dat/2001/l_294/l_29420011110en00220032.pdf Council Directive 2001/86/EC of [[8 October]] [[2001]] supplementing the Statute for a European company with regard to the involvement of employees]
*[http://europa.eu.int/smartapi/cgi/sga_doc?smartapi!celexapi
|
corporate too much English in Cantonese are regarded by people with opposite views as "language-handicapped."
==Education==
[[Image:Compu class.gif|frame|right|A group of students having a computer lesson.]]
:''Main article: [[Education in Hong Kong]]''
Education in Hong Kong has a similar system to [[Education in the United Kingdom|that of the United Kingdom]], in particular the [[Education in England|English education system]], as [[Hong Kong]] was colonised by the [[United Kingdom|British]] from [[1841]] to [[1997]]. Following the introduction of the comprehensive school system in the 1960's in the UK, children in Hong Kong transformed from the old education system of entering a 'first' school (4 years) followed by a 'secondary-middle' school (4 years), then a 'secondary-high' school (3 + 2 years) to the 'new' education system of primary school (6 years) followed by secondary school (5 + 2 years). The trend of late has been to replace 'first' schools with primary schools and accordingly, 'secondary-middle' and 'secondary-high' schools with fully-fledged secondary schools.
In Hong Kong there is a non-compulsory three-year kindergarten education followed by a legal requirement of a six-year primary education and three-year junior [[secondary education]]. It is then followed by a non-compulsory two-year senior secondary education and two-year matriculation course leading to the Advanced Level examinations. There are also [[Tertiary education|tertiary institutions]] offering various bachelor's, master's and doctoral degrees, other higher diplomas and associate degree courses.
'''Literacy:'''
<br>''definition:''
age 15 and over has ever attended school
<br>''total population:''
92.2%
<br>''male:''
96%
<br>''female:''
88.2% (1996 est.)
==See also==
{{Life in Hong Kong}}
*[[Right of abode issue, Hong Kong]]
==External links==
*[http://www.demographia.com/db-hkhist.htm Hong Kong Population History]
*[http://www.info.gov.hk/censtatd/eng/hkstat/hkinf/population/population_index.html Hong Kong Census and Statistics Department &mdash; Hong Kong statistics page (eg. see "Hong Kong in Figures")]
[[category:Demographics of Hong Kong| ]]
[[es:Demografía de Hong Kong]]
[[ru:Население Гонконга]]
[[zh:香港人口]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Politics of Hong Kong</title>
<id>13408</id>
<revision>
<id>41986842</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T01:34:56Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Cmdrjameson</username>
<id>101935</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>sp (3): governement→government, remaing→remaining; unicodify</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Politics of Hong Kong}}
On [[July 1]], [[1997]], [[Hong Kong]] was resumed to [[China|Chinese]] control, when the [[sovereignty]] of [[Hong Kong]] was transferred to the [[People's Republic of China]] (PRC), ending more than 150 years of [[British Empire|British]] [[colonialism|colonial]] control. Hong Kong is a [[Special Administrative Region]] (SAR) of the PRC with a high degree of autonomy in all matters except foreign and defense affairs. According to the [[Sino-British Joint Declaration]] ([[1984]]) and the [[Hong Kong Basic Law|Basic Law]] &ndash; Hong Kong's mini-[[constitution]] &ndash; for "50 years", a slogan-type description, after transition Hong Kong will retain its political, economic, and judicial systems and unique way of life and continue to participate in international agreements and organisations as a dependent territory. For instance, the [[International Olympic Committee]] recognises Hong Kong as a participating dependency under the name, "Hong Kong, China", separate from the [[Mainland China]].
==Overview==
Hong Kong is a [[special administrative region]] of the [[People's Republic of China]] (PRC). The government is economically very liberal and is rather [[democracy|democratic]] but with limited [[suffrage]] for special elections. The head of government (the [[Chief Executive of Hong Kong]]) is not elected directly but through an [[Election Committee|electoral college]] which is partially appointed with the rest elected in special elections with limited suffrage. The [[Basic Law]] comprises the constitution, which was approved in March 1990 by [[National People's Congress]] of the (PRC).
On the other hand, the legal system of Hong Kong is generally based on the English [[common law]] system. The current legal system will stay in force until at least [[30 June]] [[2047]].
All citizens 18 years of age and older are eligible for the direct elections, as suffrage is universal for permanent residents living in the territory of Hong Kong for seven years. Meanwhile, eligibility for certain indirect elections limited to about 180 000 voters in twenty-eight [[functional constituencies]] (composed of business and professional sectors), and the Chief Executive is elected by an 800-member [[electoral college]] drawn mostly from the voters in the functional constituencies but also from religious organisations and municipal and central government bodies.
==Government structure==
:''Main article: [[Government of Hong Kong/temp|Government of Hong Kong]]''
==Major political issues in recent years==
===Right of Abode===
:''Main article: [[Right of abode issue, Hong Kong]]''
On [[29 January]], [[1999]], the Court of Final Appeal, the highest judicial authority in [[Hong Kong]] interpreted several Articles of the [[Hong Kong Basic Law|Basic Law]], in such a way that the Government estimated would allow 1.6 million [[Mainland China]] immigrants to enter Hong Kong within ten years. This caused widespread concerns among the public on the social and economical consequences.
While some in the legal sector advocated that the [[National People's Congress]] (NPC) should be asked to amend the part of the [[Hong Kong Basic Law|Basic Law]] to redress the problem, the HKSAR Government decided to seek an interpretation to, rather than an amendment of, the relevant Basic Law provisions from the [[Standing Committee of the National People's Congress]] (NPCSC). The NPCSC issued an interpretation in favour of the Government in June 1999. While the full powers of NPCSC to interpret the Basic Law is provided for in the Basic Law itself, some critics argues this undermines [[judicial independence]].
===Basic Law Article 23===
:''Main article: [[Hong Kong Basic Law Article 23]]''
In 2003, the HKSAR Government proposed to implement Article 23 of the Basic Law by legislating against acts such as [[treason]], [[Subversion (political)|subversion]], [[secession]] and [[sedition]]. However, there are concerns that the legislation might infringe on human rights. Some are also worried that the legislation might introduce the mainland's concept of national security into the HKSAR via the proposed power of proscribing organisations that endanger the security of the state. General dissatisfaction with the Tung administration led to the [[1 July]] protests in 2003.
After the mass protest, the [[Liberal Party (Hong Kong)|Liberal Party]], whose support is essential for the passage of the legislation schedule for [[9 July]] [[2003]], called for a delay in passing the legislation. On [[6 July]], Tung Chee Hwa announced that the second reading of the proposed legislation was to be postponed after [[James Tien]] of the Liberal Party resigned from the Executive Council and would have his party members vote for a postponement.
===Universal suffrage===
Towards the end of [[2003]], the focus of political controversy shifted to the dispute of how subsequent [[Chief Executive of Hong Kong|Chief Executives]] get elected. The [[Hong Kong Basic Law Article 45|Basic Law's Article 45]] stipulates that the eventual goal is [[universal suffrage]]; when and how to achieve that goal, however, remains open but controversial. Under the Basic Law, electoral law could be amended to allow for this as soon as [[Hong Kong Chief Executive election, 2007|2007]] ([[Hong Kong Basic Law Annex One|Ann.1]], Sect.7). Arguments over this issue seemed to be responsible for a series of Mainland Chinese newspapers commentaries in February 2004 which stated that power over Hong Kong was only fit for "patriots."
The interpretation of the NPCSC to Annex I and II of the Basic Law, promulgated on [[April 6]] [[2004]], made it clear that the [[National People's Congress]]' support is required over proposals to amend the electoral system under Basic Law. On [[April 26]], [[2004]], the Standing Committee of National People's Congress denied the possibility of universal suffrage in [[2007]] (for the Chief Executive) and [[2008]] (for LegCo).
The NPCSC interpretation and decision were regarded as obstacles to the democratic development of Hong Kong by the democratic camp, and were criticized for lack of consultation with Hong Kong residents. On the other hand, the pro-government camp considered them to be in compliance with the legislative intent of the Basic Law and in line with the [[One country, two systems]] principle, and hoped that this would put an end to the controversies on development of political structure in Hong Kong.
===The [[1 July]] Protests===
<!-- this section should be converted into another article, with a summary here. -->
The first [[1 July]] protest took place in 2003 after the SARS outbreak also in response to the [[Article 23|anti-subversive legislation]] and general dissatisfaction towards the Hong Kong Government. Fear of the loss of [[freedom of speech]] and other freedoms, as well as a general dissatisfaction against the Government, prompted a mass protest of hundreds of thousands of people on [[July 1]], 2003. The planners originally wanted all four football courts in Victoria Park, but all courts were booked for a pro-Beijing festival and fair. The organizers originally predicted only 20,000 demonstr
|
possible for life to exist, demonstrated that this nuclear reaction must work. Based on this notion, he made a prediction of the energy levels in the carbon nucleus that was later borne out by experiment.
His co-worker [[William Fowler]] eventually won the [[Nobel Prize for Physics]] in [[1983]] (with [[Subramanyan Chandrasekhar]]), but for some reason Hoyle’s original contribution was overlooked, and many were surprised that such a notable astronomer missed out. Fowler himself in an [http://nobelprize.org/physics/laureates/1983/fowler-autobio.html autobiographical sketch] affirmed Hoyle’s pioneering efforts:
The concept of nucleosynthesis in stars was first established by Hoyle in 1946. This provided a way to explain the existence of elements heavier than [[helium]] in the universe, basically by showing that critical elements such as carbon could be generated in stars and then incorporated in other stars and planets when that star "[[stellar death|dies]]". The new stars formed now start off with these heavier elements and even heavier elements are formed from them. Hoyle theorized that other rarer elements could be explained by [[supernova]]s, the giant explosions which occasionally occur throughout the universe, whose temperatures and pressures would be required to create such elements.
==Rejection of the big bang==
While having no argument with the discovery of the expansion of the universe by [[Edwin Hubble]], he disagreed on its interpretation: Hoyle (with [[Thomas Gold]] and [[Hermann Bondi]], who he had worked with on [[radar]] in [[World War II]]) argued for the universe being in a "[[Steady state theory|steady state]]". The theory tried to explain how the universe could be eternal and essentially unchanging while still having the galaxies we observe moving away from each other. The theory hinged on the creation of matter between galaxies over time, so that even though galaxies get further apart, new ones that develop between them fill the space they leave. The resulting galaxy is in a "steady state" in the same manner that a flowing river is - the individual water molecules are moving away but the overall river remains the same.
The theory was the only serious alternative to the [[Big Bang]] which agreed with key observations of the day, namely Hubble's [[Hubble's law|red shift observations]], and Hoyle was a strong critic of the Big Bang. Ironically, he is responsible for coining the term "Big Bang" in a [[British Broadcasting Corporation|BBC]] radio programme, ''The Nature of Things'' while criticising the theory; the text was published in [[1950]].
Hoyle and other steady-statesmen offered no explanation for the appearance of new matter, other than postulating the existence of some sort of "creation field", but argued that continuous creation was no more inexplicable than the appearance of the entire universe from nothing, although it had to be done on a regular basis. In the end mounting observational evidence convinced most cosmologists that the steady state model was incorrect and the Big Bang the theory that agreed best with observations, although Hoyle clung to his theory, mostly through criticizing the accuracy of astronomers' observations. In 1993, in an attempt to explain some of the evidence against the steady state theory, he presented a modified version called "[[quasi-steady state cosmology]]" (QSS), but the theory did not capture a significant audience.
The evidence that resulted in the Big Bang's victory over the steady state model, at least in the minds of most cosmologists, included the discovery of the [[cosmic microwave background]] radiation, the distribution of "young galaxies" and [[quasars]] throughout the [[Universe]], a more consistent age estimate of the universe (for some time, to the considerable embarrassment of the Big Bang theory, the rocks in the earth appeared to be older than the universe) and most recently the observations of the [[COBE]] satellite, which showed that crucial disturbances in the early universe allowed for the creation of galaxies.
==Media appearances and scientific honours==
Hoyle appeared in a series of radio talks on astronomy for the [[BBC]] in the [[1950s]]; these were collected in the book ''The Nature of the Universe'', and he went on to write a number of other popular science books. He wrote some [[science fiction]]; most interesting is ''[[The Black Cloud]]'' in which it transpires that most intelligent life in the universe takes the form of interstellar gas clouds, who are surprised that intelligent life can form on planets, and a television series ''[[A for Andromeda]]''. In [[1957]] he was elected a Fellow of the [[Royal Society]], and he was knighted in [[1972]].
==Rejection of chemical evolution==
In his later years, Hoyle became a staunch critic of theories of [[chemical evolution]] to explain the [[Naturalism (Philosophy)|naturalistic]] [[Origin of life]]. With [[Chandra Wickramasinghe]], Hoyle promoted the theory that life evolved in space, spreading through the universe via [[panspermia]], and that [[evolution]] on earth is driven by a steady influx of [[virus]]es arriving via [[comet|comets]].
In his 1981/4 book ''Evolution from Space'' (co-authored with Chandra Wickramasinghe), he calculated that the chance of obtaining the required set of [[enzyme]]s for even the simplest living cell was one in 10<sup>40,000</sup>. Since the number of [[atom]]s in the known universe is infinitesimally tiny by comparison (10<sup>80</sup>), he argued that even a whole universe full of primordial soup wouldn’t have a chance. He claimed:
:The notion that not only the biopolymer but the operating program of a living cell could be arrived at by chance in a primordial organic soup here on the Earth is evidently nonsense of a high order.
Hoyle infamously compared the random emergence of even the simplest cell to the likelihood that "a tornado sweeping through a junk-yard might assemble a Boeing 747 from the materials therein." Hoyle also compared the chance of obtaining even a single functioning [[protein]] by chance combination of [[amino acid]]s to a solar system full of [[blindness|blind]] men solving [[Rubik's Cube]] simultaneously.
This has been rejected by biologists on the basis that it is a [[straw man]] argument. [[Richard Dawkins]], for example, wrote that "If he'd said 'chance' instead of 'natural selection' he'd have been right. Indeed, I regretted having to expose him as one of the many toilers under the profound misapprehension that natural selection is chance." [[The Blind Watchmaker|*]] Note that one could say, in close analogy to Hoyle's position, that the chances of 92 protons and 143 neutrons coming together simultaneously in a stellar interior to form U<sup>235</sup> is infinitesimal and therefore stellar nucleosynthesis of the heavy elements is impossible. Of course, this is demonstrably not the case, as Hoyle knew. Evolution of complex systems can occur by means of a ladder of ''stratified stability'', which greatly diminishes Hoyle's argument.
The Nobel Prize-winning chemist [[Manfred Eigen]] (beginning in 1971 with an influential theoretical paper) and his collaborators have considered in some detail how a genetic code could get going.
==Other controversies==
Further occasions on which Hoyle aroused controversy included his questioning the authenticity of [[fossil]] ''[[Archaeopteryx]]'' and his condemnation of the [[Nobel Prize controversies#Controversial exclusions|failure]] to include [[Jocelyn Bell Burnell|Jocelyn Bell]] in the [[Nobel Prize]] award recognising the development of radio interferometry and its role in the discovery of [[pulsar]]s. Hoyle played an important role in determining the nature of the pulsing radio signals (from the pulsar), but was also excluded from the prize. Hoyle had a famous heated argument with [[Martin Ryle]] of the [[Cavendish Astrophysics Group|Cavendish Radio Astronomy Group]] about Hoyle's [[Steady state theory|Steady State Universe]] which somewhat restricted collaboration between the [[Cavendish Astrophysics Group|Cavendish Radio Astronomy Group]] and the [[Institute of Astronomy]] during the 1960s.
==Honours==
'''Awards'''
*[[Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society]] ([[1968]])
*[[Bruce Medal]] ([[1970]])
*[[Henry Norris Russell Lectureship]] ([[1971]])
*[[Royal Medal]] ([[1974]])
*[[Klumpke-Roberts Award]] of the [[Astronomical Society of the Pacific]] ([[1977]])
*[[Crafoord Prize]] from the [[Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences]], with [[Edwin Salpeter]] ([[1997]])
'''Named after him'''
*[[Asteroid]] [[8077 Hoyle]]
==Fiction works==
* ''[[The Black Cloud]]'', [[1957]]
* ''[[Ossian's Ride]]'', [[1959]]
* ''[[A for Andromeda]]'', [[1962]]
* ''[[Fifth Planet]]'', [[1963]] (co-authored with [[Geoffrey Hoyle]])
* ''[[Andromeda Breakthrough]]'', [[1965]] (co-authored with [[John Elliott]])
* ''[[October the First Is Too Late]]'', [[1966]]
* ''[[Element 79 (book)|Element 79]]'', [[1967]]
* ''[[Rockets in Ursa Major]]'', [[1969]] (co-authored with Geoffrey Hoyle)
* ''[[Seven Steps to the Sun]]'', [[1970]] (co-authored with Geoffrey Hoyle)
* ''[[The Inferno (ISBN 006011987X)|The Inferno]]'', [[1973|10/1973]] (co-authored with Geoffrey Hoyle)
* ''[[The Molecule Men and the Monster of Loch Ness]]'', [[1973]] (co-authored with Geoffrey Hoyle)
* ''[[Into Deepest Space]]'', [[1974]] (co-authored with Geoffrey Hoyle)
* ''[[The Incandescent Ones]]'', [[1977]] (co-authored with Geoffrey Hoyle)
* ''[[The Westminster Disaster (ISBN 0060120096)|The Westminster Disaster]]'', [[1978|10/1978]] (co-authored with Geoffrey Hoyle)
* ''[[Comet Halley (ISBN 0312150989)|Comet Halley]]'', [[1985|11/1985]]
==Non-fiction works==
*''Nicolaus Copernicus'', Heinemann Educational Books Ltd., London, p. 78, [[1973]]
*''Astronomy and Cosmology: A Modern Cours
|
Subsets and Splits
No community queries yet
The top public SQL queries from the community will appear here once available.