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s determined; thus in the since [[1 January]] [[1960]] independent republic [[Cameroon]] (''Cameroun'', a former French colony), the first President, Ahmadou Babatoura Ahidjo (b. 1924 - d. 1989), was at first not styled ''président'' but 'merely' known as ''Chef d'état'' (literal French for 'head of state') until [[5 May]] [[1960]] Sometimes a state chooses to use a descriptive term in stead of a specific style, possibly even by abolishing an existing one. Thus when the 18 September 1921 proclaimed Independence of the Rif, under an [[Emir]] (ambivalent word, either general or ruler; full Arabic style ''Amir ar-Rif'' 18 September 1921 - 1 February 1923) Sayyidi Muhammad bin `Abd al-Karim al-Khattabi; known as Abd el-Krim (b. 1882 - d. 1963) transformed itself on 1 February 1923 into the Rif Republic (''Dawlat al-Jumhuriyya ar-Rifiyya'', in Arabic means circa 'people's state of the Rif'), the same incumbent Head of State was now re-styled '''''Ra'is ad-Dawla''''' (in Arabic, word for word, means Head of state) till it was on 27 May 1926 dissolved by Franco-Spanish forces. In certain cases a special style is needed to accommodate the imperfect statehood, e.g. [[Sardar-i-Riyasat]] in Kashmir after its accession to India; the long de facto embodiment of Palestianian aspiration to independent statehood, PLO-leader [[Yasser Arafat]] was styled [[5 July]] [[1994]] the first &quot;President of the [[Palestinian National Authority]]&quot; after an agreement with the military occupying power Israel allowed a Palestinian National Authority as a ''transitional'' status including Palestinian interim self-governing and a phased transfer of powers and territories (towns and areas of the West Bank), still awaiting the outcome of bumpy negotiations -he was repeatedly put under a form of Israeli arrest while in office- on its permanent status, which could end in a Palestinian State. Some statistics *'''World's longest serving current Head of State''': King [[Rama IX of Thailand]] (since [[June 9]], [[1946]]) *'''World's longest serving current republican Head of State:''' President [[Omar Bongo]] of [[Gabon]] (since [[November 28]], [[1967]]) *'''Oldest head of state elected in a popular election:''' [[Éamon de Valera]], re-elected [[President of Ireland]] aged 84 in [[1966]]. ===Former heads of state=== [[Image:Xuantong.jpg|thumb|200px|[[Puyi]], the last [[emperor of China]], abdicated from the throne in [[1912]], but was allowed to keep his titles and [[Forbidden City|palace]] until [[1924]]. He worked as a gardener in his later life as an ordinary Chinese citizen in Communist China.]] A monarch may retain his style and certain prerrogatives after abdication, as King Leopold III of Belgium who left the throne to his son after winning (but not in both linguistic communities of the country) a referendum; he retained a full royal household but no constitutional or representative role at all. In the case of Napoleon I Bonaparte, the Italian principality of [[Elba]], chosen for his luxurious imprisonment after the remains of his Grande Armée (following the disastrous Russian campaign) had finally been defeated in 1814, was transformed into a miniature version of his First Empire, with most trappings of a sovereign monarchy, until his ''Cent Jours'' ('100 days' escape and reseizure of power in France) convinced the allies, reconvening the Vienna Congress in 1815, to revoke those gratitious privileges and send him to die in exile on barren [[St.Helena]]. By tradition a deposed monarch who has not freely [[abdicate]]d, though no longer head of state, is allowed to use their monarchical title as a [[courtesy title]] for their lifetime. Hence, though he ceased to be [[Greece|Greek]] king in 1973 (in a disputed referendum during the [[Regime of the Colonels]]), or in 1974 (in a referendum after the reestablishment of democracy), it is still standard to refer to the deposed king as [[Constantine II of Greece]]. However none of his descendants will be entitled to be called ''King of the Hellenes'' (not ''King of Greece'') after his death. Some states dispute the international acceptance of the right of their deposed monarchs to be referred to by their former title. It remains however the generally accepted formula, with most states declining to get involved in disputes between governments and deposed monarchs and simply stating that they are doing no more than recognising tradition, not supporting claims to a defunct throne. Other states have no problem with deposed monarchs being so referred to by former title, and even allow them to travel internationally on the state's [[diplomatic passport]]. See also [[political pensioner]]s ==Sources, References and External links== *[[Pauly-Wissowa]] in German, on Antiquity *[http://www.rulers.org/ Rulers.org] List of rulers throughout time and places *[http://4dw.net/royalark/ RoyalArk] quite elaborate on many non-European monarchies *[http://www.worldstatesmen.org/ WorldStatesmen] History and incumbents of states and minor polities worldwide *Westermann, ''Großer Atlas zur Weltgeschichte'' in German ==See also== *[[Head of state succession]] *[[Head of government]], such as [[Prime Minister]] *[[Heads of state timeline]] *[[List of heads of state by diplomatic precedence]] *[[List of national leaders]] *[[List of official residences]] [[Category:Heads of state| ]] [[Category:Institutions of government]] [[Category:Monarchy]] [[Category:Positions of authority]] {{Link FA|he}} [[zh-min-nan:Kok-ka ê thâu-lâng]] [[ca:Cap d'Estat]] [[cs:Hlava státu]] [[da:Statsoverhoved]] [[de:Staatsoberhaupt]] [[et:Riigipea]] [[es:Jefe de Estado]] [[eo:Ŝtatestro]] [[fr:Chef de l'État]] [[ko:국가 원수]] [[he:ראש מדינה]] [[li:Sjtaotshouf]] [[hu:Államfő]] [[nl:Staatshoofd]] [[ja:元首]] [[no:Statssjef]] [[nn:Statsoverhovud]] [[pl:Głowa państwa]] [[pt:Chefe de Estado]] [[ru:Глава государства]] [[simple:Head of state]] [[sk:Hlava štátu]] [[sv:Statschef]] [[th:ประมุขแห่งรัฐ]] [[tr:Devlet başkanı]] [[zh:國家元首]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Heredity</title> <id>13457</id> <revision> <id>40036591</id> <timestamp>2006-02-17T17:46:13Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Sommers</username> <id>625266</id> </contributor> <comment>Revert vandalism</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{dablink|See [[Heredity (disambiguation)]] for other meanings. &quot;Bloodline&quot; redirects here. For other meanings see [[Bloodline (disambiguation)]].}} '''Heredity''' (the adjective is ''hereditary'') is the transfer of characteristics from [[parent]] to [[offspring]], either through their [[gene]]s or through the social institution called [[inheritance]] (for example, a title of [[nobility]] is passed from individual to individual according to relevant [[custom]]s and/or [[law]]s). == Biology == In [[biology]], ''heredity'' refers to the transference of biological characteristics from a parent organism to offspring, and is practically a [[synonym]] for [[genetics]], as [[gene]]s are now recognized as the carriers of biological information. In humans, defining which characteristics of a final person are due to heredity and which are due to environmental influences is often a site of controversy because of the [[nature versus nurture]] debate, especially regarding [[intelligence (trait)|intelligence]] and [[race]]. === History of heredity in biology === It was apparent to ancient humans that offspring resembled their parents. For example, [[Genesis]] 30-46 tells how [[Jacob]] and [[Laban (Bible)|Laban]] split their sheep into white and speckled varieties so they could distinguish the two to ensure none was later stolen. Although it was clear that traits were hereditary, the precise mechanism of heredity was however not clear. Various hereditary mechanisms were envisaged without being properly tested or quantified. These included [[blending inheritance]] and the [[inheritance of acquired traits]]. Nevertheless, people were able to develop domestic breeds animals through [[artificial selection]]. The inheritance of acquired traits formed part of early [[Lamarckian]] ideas on evolution. [[Charles Darwin]] proposed a theory of evolution in [[1859]] and one of its major problems was a lack of coherent hereditary mechanism. Darwin believed in a mix of blending inheritance and the inheritance of acquired traits ([[pangenesis]]). Blending inheritance would lead to uniformity across populations in only a few generations and thus would remove variation from a population on which natural selection could act. This led to Darwin adopting some Lamarckian ideas in later editions of ''[[The Origin]]'' and his later biological works. Darwin's primary approach to heredity was to outline how it appeared to work (noticing that traits could be inherited which were not expressed explicitly in the parent at the time of reproduction, that certain traits could be sex-linked, etc.) rather than suggesting mechanisms. Darwin's initial model of hereditary was adopted by, and then heavily modified by, his cousin [[Francis Galton]], who laid the framework for the [[biometric]] school of heredity. Galton rejected the aspects of Darwin's pangenesis model which relied on acquired traits. The inheritance of acquired traits was shown to have little basis in the [[1880s]] when [[August Weismann]] cut the [[tail]]s off [[mice]] to find that their offspring did develop tails. The idea of particulate inheritance of genes can be attributed to the Austrian monk [[Gregor Mendel]] who published on pea plants in [[1865]]. However, his work was not widely known and was only rediscovered in [[1901]]. On rediscovery of Mendel's work it was initially assumed the Mendelian inheritance only accounted for large differences, such as those seen by Mendel in his pea plants &amp;mdash; and the additive effect of genes was not realised until [[Ronald Fisher]]'s (1918) paper on [[The Correlat
ers to a group of [[vitamin|vitamins]]. * In [[photography]], B is a [[shutter speed]]. * In [[physics]], ** The [[vector (spatial)|vector]] '''B''' represents the [[magnetic field]]. ** The [[symbol]] B stands for the [[units of measurement|unit]] [[Decibel|bel]]. ** The bottom [[quark]] is represented with small &quot;b&quot;, the B [[meson]] is represented with capital &quot;B&quot;. ** ''b'' stands for the [[Wien displacement law constant]]. * As the first letter of a [[postal code]], ** In [[Canada]], B stands for [[Nova Scotia]]. ** In the [[United Kingdom]], B stands for [[Birmingham]]. * In [[radio]]communication, B is the [[ITU prefix]] allocated to [[China]]. * In [[rail transport]], B is the [[UIC classification]] for the [[locomotive]] [[wheel arrangement]] known as [[0-4-0]] in the [[Whyte notation]]; a locomotive with two powered axles (and thus four wheels) in which the axles are linked by gearing or [[side rod]]s. * On the serial numbers of [[United States dollar]]s, B identifies the [[Federal Reserve Bank of New York]]. * ''B'' is the name of a picture by ''StrawberryClock'', of a red B against a plain white background. == See also == {{Commons|B}} *&amp;#1042; : [[Ve (Cyrillic)]] {{AZsubnav}} [[Category:Latin letters]] [[af:B]] [[bs:B]] [[ca:B]] [[sn:B]] [[cs:B]] [[da:B]] [[de:B]] [[et:B]] [[el:B]] [[als:B]] [[es:B]] [[eo:B]] [[fr:B]] [[gl:B]] [[ko:B]] [[hr:B]] [[io:B]] [[id:B]] [[it:B]] [[he:B]] [[kw:B]] [[la:B]] [[hu:B]] [[nl:B]] [[ja:B]] [[no:B]] [[nn:B]] [[pl:B]] [[pt:B]] [[ro:B]] [[simple:B]] [[sl:B]] [[fi:B]] [[sv:B]] [[tl:B]] [[vi:B]] [[tr:B]] [[yo:B]] [[zh:B]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>BSE</title> <id>3784</id> <revision> <id>38922042</id> <timestamp>2006-02-09T15:01:47Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>203.214.17.99</ip> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">The [[TLA|Three-Letter Acronym or Abbreviation (TLA)]] '''BSE''' could stand for * [[Bachelor's degree|Bachelor of Science in Engineering]] * [[Bombay Stock Exchange]] * [[Budapest Stock Exchange]] * [[Bovine spongiform encephalopathy]], also known informally as &quot;mad cow disease&quot; * [[Breast self-examination]] * [[Bitta Somethin Extra]] Ps2 online gaming clan - No.1 European Union BF:MC2 * [[Black Sun Empire]] - [[Netherlands|Dutch]] [[drum and bass]] production trio * Bad Simple English - Synonym for [[Germish|Denglish]] {{TLAdisambig}} [[de:BSE (Begriffsklärung)]] [[nl:BSE]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Bille August</title> <id>3785</id> <revision> <id>38146145</id> <timestamp>2006-02-04T14:15:25Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>D6</username> <id>75561</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>adding [[category:Living people]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Bille August''' (born [[November 9]], [[1948]]) is a [[Denmark|Danish]] [[film]] and [[television]] [[film director|director]]. Most of his projects have been in co-operation with [[Sweden|Swedish]] production and with a mainly Swedish cast. He was partially educated in Sweden and also married to Swedish actress [[Pernilla August]] from 1991 to 1997. Selected productions: * ''[[Busters verden]]'' ([[1984]], Buster's world) ** based on the book by Danish writer [[Bjarne Reuter]] * ''[[Pelle the Conqueror|Pelle Erobreren]]'' ([[1987]], Pelle the Conqueror) ** based on a novel by Danish author [[Martin Andersen Nexø]] ** won the [[Golden Palm]] at the [[Cannes Film Festival]] and an [[Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film]] * ''[[Den gode vilje]]'' (1991, The Best Intentions) ** script by [[Ingmar Bergman]]. ** won the [[Golden Palm]] at the [[Cannes Film Festival]]. * ''[[Jerusalem (1996 film)|Jerusalem]]'' (1996) ** based on a novel by the Swedish author [[Selma Lagerlöf]]. * ''[[The House of the Spirits]]'' (1993) ** based on a novel by [[Chile]]an author [[Isabel Allende]]. * ''[[Smilla's Sense of Snow]]'' (1997) ** based on a novel by Danish author [[Peter Hoeg|Peter Høeg]]. * ''[[Les Misérables (1998 movie)|Les Misérables]]'' (1998) ** based on [[Les Misérables|the novel of the same name]] by French author [[Victor Hugo]]. * ''[[En sang for Martin]]'' (2001, A Song for Martin) [[Category:1948 births|August, Bille]] [[Category:Living people|August, Bille]] [[Category:Danish film directors|August, Bille]] [[da:Bille August]] [[de:Bille August]] [[fr:Bille August]] [[nl:Bille August]] [[ja:ビレ・アウグスト]] [[no:Bille August]] [[pl:Bille August]] [[sv:Bille August]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Biblioholic</title> <id>3787</id> <revision> <id>15902102</id> <timestamp>2005-05-21T00:40:22Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>NoAccount</username> <id>269611</id> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Bibliophilia]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Body</title> <id>3788</id> <revision> <id>42044467</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T12:18:25Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Patrick</username> <id>4388</id> </contributor> <comment>/* See also */ * [[Autopsy]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{dablink|For other senses of this word, see [[body (disambiguation)]].}} With regard to [[organism|living things]], a '''body''' is the integral '''physical''' material of an individual, and contrasts with [[soul]], [[personality]] and [[behavior]]. In some contexts, a superficial element of a body, such as [[hair]] may be regarded as not a part of it, even while attached. The same is true of excretable substances, such as [[feces|stool]], both while residing in the body and afterwards. [[Plant]]s composed of more than one [[cell (biology)|cell]] are not normally regarded as possessing a body. &quot;Body&quot; often is used in connection with [[appearance]], [[health]] issues and [[death]]. The body of a dead person is also called a '''corpse''', for [[human]]s, or '''cadaver'''. The dead bodies of [[vertebrate]] animals and [[insect]]s are sometimes called '''carcasses''', and dead [[virus]]es are called '''ghosts'''. The [[human anatomy|human body]] consists of a [[head (anatomy)|head]], [[neck]], [[trunk]], two [[arm]]s, two [[Human leg|legs]] and the [[genitals]] of the groin, which differ between [[male]]s and [[female]]s. The study of the working of a body is [[human anatomy|anatomy]]. A body is also a held-together collection or group of physical objects or abstract ideas and, in particular, an [[organisation]] of such. The whole is more than the simple sum of the individual [[member]]s, because the whole contains, in addition, [[information]] about the relationships among the [[elements]] of the whole. The '''body of evidence''' is a phrase which defines the sum total of all knowledge or '''evidence''' of some thing. Body [[Ecology]] focuses on the ecology within the body. We are made up of trillions of microbes. == Injury == '''[[Injury]]''' is [[damage]] or harm caused to the [[structure]] or [[Purpose|function]] of the body caused by an outside [[agent (grammar)|agent]] or [[force]], which may include physical or [[chemistry|chemical]]. == See also == * [[Physical body]] * [[Antibody]] * [[Battery (crime)|Battery]] * [[Bodily harm]] * [[Disability]] * [[Disease]] * [[Emergence]] * [[Healing]] * [[Health]] * [[Human physical appearance]] * [[Human body]] * [[Physical trauma|Trauma]] * [[Microtrauma]] Regarding corpses: * [[Autopsy]] * [[Burial]] * [[Cremation]] * [[Death]] * [[Embalming]] * [[Mummy]] * [[Necrophilia]] * [[Respect for the dead]] * [[Dead bodies and health risks]] * [[Body Farm]] == Books == *Anne Fausto-Sterling, Myths of Gender: Biological Theories about Women and Men, 2., revised ed., New York, N.Y : Basic Books, 1992 * [[Mary Roach]], ''[[Stiff: The Curious Lives of Human Cadavers]]'', [[2004]], [[Penguin Books]] Ltd., UK (ISBN 0141007451) * Jessica Snyder Sachs, ''Corpse: Nature, Forensics, and the Struggle to Pinpoint Time of Death'' (ISBN 0738207713) [[Category:Death]] [[Category:Core issues in ethics]] [[da:Krop (biologi)]] [[de:Körper (Biologie)]] [[ko:몸]] [[id:Tubuh]] [[is:Líkami]] [[nl:Lichaam (biologie)]] [[ja:死体]] [[sv:Lik]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Bitola</title> <id>3789</id> <revision> <id>42104506</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T21:29:09Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Bobblewik</username> <id>51235</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>units</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; align=&quot;right&quot; width=&quot;285px&quot; style=&quot;margin: 0 0 1em 1em; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaaaaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;&quot; | style=&quot;background:#abcdef&quot; colspan=2 | &lt;center&gt;&lt;big&gt;'''Bitola''' &lt;/big&gt;&lt;/center&gt; |----- | style=&quot;background:#zzzzzz;&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=2 | |----- bgcolor=&quot;#FFFFFF&quot; | [[Municipality]]: || Bitola |----- bgcolor=&quot;#FFFFFF&quot; | [[Area]]: || 320 km² |----- bgcolor=&quot;#FFFFFF&quot; | [[Altitude]]: || 576 m |----- bgcolor=&quot;#FFFFFF&quot; | [[Population]]: || 86,176 &lt;small&gt;[[census]] 1994&lt;/small&gt; |----- bgcolor=&quot;#FFFFFF&quot; | [[Population density]]: || 1280 persons/km² |----- bgcolor=&quot;#FFFFFF&quot; | [[Postal Code]]: || 7000 |----- bgcolor=&quot;#FFFFFF&quot; | [[Area codes in Macedonia|Area code]]: || 047 |----- bgcolor=&quot;#FFFFFF&quot; | [[Municipality code]]: || BT |----- bgcolor=&quot;#FFFFFF&quot; | City moto: || &quot;''Bitola, babam Bitola''&quot; |----- bgcolor=&quot;#FFFFFF&quot; | [[Latitude]]: || 41° 01' 52'' N |----- bgcolor=&quot;#FFFFFF&quot; | [[Longitude]]: || 21° 20' 25'' E |----- bgcolor=&quot;#FFFFFF&quot; | [[Mayor
arrival at Hanoi International Airport of the Kampuchean Civil Aviation Company's (AKASCHOR) first flight. Since then, there has been regular air service from Phnom Penh to Hanoi, Vientiane, and Moscow. === Airports - with paved runways === &lt;br /&gt;''total:'' 6 &lt;br /&gt;''2,438 to 3,047 m:'' 2 &lt;br /&gt;''1,524 to 2,437 m:'' 2 &lt;br /&gt;''914 to 1,523 m:'' 2 (1999 est.) === Airports - with unpaved runways === &lt;br /&gt;''total:'' 13 &lt;br /&gt;''1,524 to 2,437 m:'' 2 &lt;br /&gt;''914 to 1,523 m:'' 11 (1999 est.) '''[[Heliport]]s:''' 3 (1999 est.) ==See also== *[[Cambodia]] *[[Pochentong International Airport]] {{CIAfb}} [[Category:Transportation in Cambodia|*]] [[bg:&amp;#1058;&amp;#1088;&amp;#1072;&amp;#1085;&amp;#1089;&amp;#1087;&amp;#1086;&amp;#1088;&amp;#1090; &amp;#1074; &amp;#1050;&amp;#1072;&amp;#1084;&amp;#1073;&amp;#1086;&amp;#1076;&amp;#1078;&amp;#1072;]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Military of Cambodia</title> <id>5435</id> <revision> <id>40529417</id> <timestamp>2006-02-21T05:44:59Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>203.94.168.166</ip> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">'''[[Military]] branches:''' [[Royal Cambodian Armed Forces]] (RCAF), including Army, Navy and Air Force - created in [[1993]] by the merger of the [[Cambodian People's Armed Forces]] and the two noncommunist resistance armies &lt;br&gt;''note:'' there are also resistance forces comprised of the [[Khmer Rouge]] (also known as the National United Army or NUA) and a separate [[monarchist|royalist]] resistance movement '''Military manpower - military age:''' 18 years of age '''Military manpower - availability:''' &lt;br&gt;''males age 15-49:'' 2,763,568 (2000 est.) '''Military manpower - fit for military service:''' &lt;br&gt;''males age 15-49:'' 1,547,078 (2000 est.) '''Military manpower - reaching military age annually:''' &lt;br&gt;''males:'' 156,119 (2000 est.) '''Military expenditures - dollar figure:''' $85 million (FY98) '''Military expenditures - percent of GDP:''' 2.4% (FY98) ==See also== *[[Cambodia]] [[bg:&amp;#1040;&amp;#1088;&amp;#1084;&amp;#1080;&amp;#1103; &amp;#1085;&amp;#1072; &amp;#1050;&amp;#1072;&amp;#1084;&amp;#1073;&amp;#1086;&amp;#1076;&amp;#1078;&amp;#1072;]] [[Category:Military of Cambodia]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Foreign relations of Cambodia</title> <id>5436</id> <revision> <id>42055973</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T14:24:50Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>58.105.43.244</ip> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">{{CIA}} {{Politics of Cambodia}} '''The Royal [[Cambodia]]n Government''' (RGC) has established diplomatic relations with most countries, including the [[United States]], the [[United Kingdom]], and [[France]], as well as all of its Asian neighbors, to include [[China]], [[Vietnam]], [[Laos]], [[South Korea]], [[North Korea]], and [[Thailand]]. The RGC is a member of most major international organizations, including the [[United Nations]] and its specialized agencies such as the [[World Bank]] and [[International Monetary Fund]]. The RGC is an [[Asian Development Bank]] (ADB) member, a member of [[ASEAN]], and is in the process of securing membership in the [[world Trade Organization|WTO]]. In 2005 Cambodia attended the inaugural [[East Asia Summit]]. ==Disputes - international== Offshore islands and sections of the boundary with [[Vietnam]] are in dispute; maritime boundary with Vietnam not defined; parts of border with [[Thailand]] are indefinite; maritime boundary with Thailand not clearly defined. ==Illicit drugs== Transhipment site for [[Golden Triangle]] heroin; possible [[money laundering]]; narcotics-related corruption reportedly involving some in the government, military, and police; possible small-scale [[opium]], [[heroin]], and [[amphetamine]] production; large producer of [[cannabis (drug)|cannabis]] for the international market. ==External links== *[http://www.mfaic.gov.kh/Diplomatic%20Relations/maindiplom.htm Cambodian Ministry of Foreign Affairs Diplomatic list] *[http://dosfan.lib.uic.edu/ERC/frus/summaries/950306_FRUS_XXIII_1961-63.html US Department of State: Foreign relations with Southeast Asia 1961-63] *[http://www.auswaertiges-amt.de/www/en/laenderinfos/laender/laender_ausgabe_html?type_id=14&amp;land_id=73 Foreign relations between Cambodia and Germany] *[http://www.mofa.go.jp/region/asia-paci/cambodia/ Japan-Cambodia Relations] *[http://www.cambodia.gov.kh/unisql1/egov/english/country.foreign_embassy.html List of foreign embassies in Cambodia] *[http://www.dfat.gov.au/geo/cambodia/cambodia_brief.html Foreign relations between Cambodia and Australia] *[http://www.asiasociety.org/publications/cambodia/ AsiaSociety: essays relating to the development of Cambodia] *[http://newton.uor.edu/Departments&amp;Programs/AsianStudiesDept/cambodia-pol.html Links regarding foreign relations in Cambodia] [[Category:Foreign relations of Cambodia| ]] [[bg:&amp;#1042;&amp;#1098;&amp;#1085;&amp;#1096;&amp;#1085;&amp;#1072; &amp;#1087;&amp;#1086;&amp;#1083;&amp;#1080;&amp;#1090;&amp;#1080;&amp;#1082;&amp;#1072; &amp;#1085;&amp;#1072; &amp;#1050;&amp;#1072;&amp;#1084;&amp;#1073;&amp;#1086;&amp;#1076;&amp;#1078;&amp;#1072;]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Architecture of Cambodia</title> <id>5437</id> <revision> <id>34042209</id> <timestamp>2006-01-06T00:15:22Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>YurikBot</username> <id>271058</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>robot Adding: vi</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Angkor wat.jpg|frame|Angkor Wat]]The '''Architecture of Cambodia''' developed in a series of stages under the Khmer empire: the approximate date of a structure can be determined from the elements and styles used. Hardly any secular architecture remains from this time, as only religious buildings were made of stone. ==Features== [[Image:Apsarasdevatakdei01.jpg|thumb|100px|Apsaras (left) and a devata (right) at [[Banteay Kdei]].]]The architecture of the Angkor period used certain specific structural features and styles which (along with inscriptions) are one of the main methods used to date the temples. ===Apsaras and devatas=== [[Apsara]]s, or celestial dancing girls, originated in Indian mythology, but their widespread decorative use was a Khmer innovation. The term is commonly used to cover not only dancers but any heavenly nymphs, although the latter are technically devatas rather than apsaras. True apsaras are found in the [[Architecture_of_Cambodia#Hall of Dancers|Halls of Dancers]] and are seen in bas-reliefs flying above sacred scenes, while the largest population of devatas (around 2000) is at [[Angkor Wat]], where they appear individually or in groups. ===Blind doors and windows=== [[Image:Colonettesbanteaysrei.JPG|thumb|100px|Blind door with colonettes at [[Banteay Srei]].]][[Blind door]]s were typically used to balance true doorways. Shrines frequently opened only towards one direction: the other three sides therefore featured blind doors to maintain symmetry. [[Blind window]]s were often used along otherwise blank walls. ===Central sanctuary=== The central sanctuary was home to the temple's primary deity, that to whom the site was dedicated. The god or [[Buddha]], as appropriate, was represented by a statue (or in the case of [[Shiva]], sometimes by a [[linga]]). As the temple was not place for worship by the population at large, the sanctuary needed only to be large enough to hold this statue; it was never more than a few metres across. Its importance was instead conveyed by the height of the tower above it, by its location at the centre of the temple (both indicative of the sanctuary's representing [[Mount Meru]]) and by the greater amount of decoration on its walls. ===Colonettes=== [[Colonette]]s were used as decoration on either side of doorways. ===Corbelling=== [[Image:Corbelangkorthomsouth.JPG|thumb|100px|left|Corbel arch at the south gate of Angkor Thom.]]Rather than a true [[arch]], the Khmers used [[corbel]] arches. These were constructed by adding layers of stones to the walls on either side, with each layer projecting further towards the centre. This method, while adequate, made the temples particularly prone to collapse once the buildings were no longer maintained. ===Enclosures=== Khmer temples were typically enclosed by a concentric series of walls, with the central sanctuary in the middle: this arrangement represented the mountain ranges surrounding [[Mount Meru]]. The enclosures are numbered from the centre outwards. Galleries frequently ran along them, while passage through them was through gopuras at the cardinal points. ===Gallery=== [[Image:Cruciformgalleryangkorwat.JPG|thumb|100px|right|Cruciform gallery at Angkor Wat.]]The gallery was a passageway running along the wall of an enclosure or along the axis of a temple, often open to one or both sides. The form evolved during the [[10th century]] from the increasingly long hallways which had earlier been used to surround the central sanctuary. During the later [[Angkor Wat]] period, additional half galleries on one side were introduced to [[buttress]] the structure of the temple. ===Gopura=== [[Image:Gopurataprohm.JPG|thumb||100px|left|Gopura at [[Ta Prohm]].]]A gopura was an entrance building. Each enclosure of a temple usually had a gopura at each of the four [[cardinal point]]s. In plan they were most often cross-shaped, elongated along the axis of the enclosure wall; where the wall had a gallery, this could be connected to the arms of the gopura. Many gopuras had a tower at the centre of the cross. The lintels and pediments were often decorated, and guardian figures (dvarapalas) were often placed or carved on either side of the doorways. ===Hall of Dancers===
;br&gt; aspect-oriented programming&lt;br&gt; aspect ratio&lt;br&gt; ASPEN&lt;br&gt; ASPI&lt;br&gt; ASPIK&lt;br&gt; Aspirin&lt;br&gt; ASPLE&lt;br&gt; ASPOL&lt;br&gt; ASQC&lt;br&gt; ASR&lt;br&gt; assembler&lt;br&gt; ASSEMBLY&lt;br&gt; assembly code&lt;br&gt; Assembly Language&lt;br&gt; assembly language&lt;br&gt; Assembly Language Compiler&lt;br&gt; Assembly Language for Multics&lt;br&gt; assertion&lt;br&gt; ASSET&lt;br&gt; asset management&lt;br&gt; Asset Source for Software Engineering Technology&lt;br&gt; assigned numbers&lt;br&gt; assignment&lt;br&gt; assignment problem - NO IMPORT, [[assignment problem]] is now written from scratch&lt;br&gt;. 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asyncronous&lt;br&gt; AT '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt; at&lt;br&gt; AT-3&lt;br&gt; ATA&lt;br&gt; ATA-2&lt;br&gt; ATA-4&lt;br&gt; ATAPI&lt;br&gt; [[Atari]] '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt; AT Attachment&lt;br&gt; AT Attachment Packet Interface&lt;br&gt; AT bus architecture -- '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt; AtFS&lt;br&gt; Athena&lt;br&gt; Atherton Technology&lt;br&gt; Athlon&lt;br&gt; ATIS&lt;br&gt; ATK&lt;br&gt; ATLAS&lt;br&gt; Atlas Autocode&lt;br&gt; ATM&lt;br&gt; ATM Forum&lt;br&gt; ATMP&lt;br&gt; atob&lt;br&gt; ATOLL&lt;br&gt; atomic&lt;br&gt; A Tools Integration Standard&lt;br&gt; ATRAC&lt;br&gt; ATS&lt;br&gt; at sign&lt;br&gt; AT&amp;T&lt;br&gt; Attachment Unit Interface&lt;br&gt; AT&amp;T Bell Labs&lt;br&gt; atto-&lt;br&gt; attoparsec&lt;br&gt; attribute&lt;br&gt; Attributed File System&lt;br&gt; Attribute Translation System&lt;br&gt; ATX&lt;br&gt; au&lt;br&gt; aubergine&lt;br&gt; audio&lt;br&gt; audiographics&lt;br&gt; audiographic teleconferencing&lt;br&gt; Audio IFF&lt;br&gt; AudioOne&lt;br&gt; Audio Processing Technology&lt;br&gt; Audio Video Interleave&lt;br&gt; Augumented Backus-Naur Form&lt;br&gt; AUI&lt;br&gt; A'UM&lt;br&gt; AUP&lt;br&gt; Aurora&lt;br&gt; Austin Kyoto Common Lisp&lt;br&gt; authentication&lt;br&gt; authoring&lt;br&gt; autobaud&lt;br&gt; autobogotiphobia&lt;br&gt; AutoCAD&lt;br&gt; Autocode&lt;br&gt; AUTOCODER&lt;br&gt; Autodesk, Inc.&lt;br&gt; AUTOEXEC.BAT&lt;br&gt; AUTOGRAF&lt;br&gt; AUTOGRP&lt;br&gt; Auto Idle&lt;br&gt; AutoLISP -- '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt; autoloader&lt;br&gt; automagically&lt;br&gt; automata&lt;br&gt; automata theory&lt;br&gt; Automated Engineering Design&lt;br&gt; AUTOmated GRouPing system&lt;br&gt; Automated Retroactive Minimal Moderation&lt;br&gt; automated testing&lt;br&gt; AUTOMATH&lt;br&gt; Automatically Programmed Tools&lt;br&gt; automatic baud rate detection&lt;br&gt; automatic hyphenation&lt;br&gt; Automatic Mathematical TRANslation&lt;br&gt; Automatic Network Routing&lt;br&gt; Automatic Number Identification&lt;br&gt; Automatic Repeat Request&lt;br&gt; Automatic Send Receive&lt;br&gt; Automatic Sequence Controlled Calculator&lt;br&gt; automation&lt;br&gt; Automatische Rechenplanfertigung&lt;br&gt; automaton&lt;br&gt; Automatrix, Inc.&lt;br&gt; Autonomous System&lt;br&gt; Autonomous System Number&lt;br&gt; Autopass&lt;br&gt; autoprojector&lt;br&gt; AUTO-PROMPT&lt;br&gt; Autostat&lt;br&gt; autostereogram&lt;br&gt; A/UX&lt;br&gt; auxiliary storage&lt;br&gt; av&lt;br&gt; availability&lt;br&gt; Avalon/C++&lt;br&gt; Avalon/Common LISP&lt;br&gt; avatar&lt;br&gt; average seek time&lt;br&gt; AVI&lt;br&gt; Avon&lt;br&gt; AVS&lt;br&gt; aw&lt;br&gt; AWE&lt;br&gt; AWG&lt;br&gt; awk&lt;br&gt; AWT&lt;br&gt; aXe&lt;br&gt; AXIOM&lt;br&gt; axiom&lt;br&gt; AXIOM*&lt;br&gt; Axiomatic Architecture Description Language&lt;br&gt; axiomatic semantics&lt;br&gt; axiomatic set theory&lt;br&gt; Axiom of Choice&lt;br&gt; Axiom of Comprehension&lt;br&gt; AXLE&lt;br&gt; ayacc&lt;br&gt; AYT&lt;br&gt; az&lt;br&gt; AZERTY&lt;br&gt; B&lt;br&gt; b&lt;br&gt; B-0&lt;br&gt; B1FF&lt;br&gt; B1 security&lt;br&gt; B2B&lt;br&gt; B2 security&lt;br&gt; B3 security&lt;br&gt; b4&lt;br&gt; ba&lt;br&gt; Baan&lt;br&gt; Babbage&lt;br&gt; ]Babbage, Charles&lt;br&gt; babbling error&lt;br&gt; BABEL&lt;br&gt; BABT&lt;br&gt; Baby AT&lt;br&gt; BABYLON&lt;br&gt; BACAIC&lt;br&gt; Bachman&lt;br&gt; Bachman Information Systems&lt;br&gt; backbone&lt;br&gt; backbone cabal&lt;br&gt; backbone site&lt;br&gt; back door&lt;br&gt; back-end&lt;br&gt; Back End Generator&lt;br&gt; Back End Generator Language&lt;br&gt; backgammon&lt;br&gt; background&lt;br&gt; backing store&lt;br&gt; back link&lt;br&gt; backoff&lt;br&gt; BackOffice&lt;br&gt; back-propagation&lt;br&gt; back quote&lt;br&gt; backside cache&lt;br&gt; backslash&lt;br&gt; backtick&lt;br&gt; backtracking&lt;br&gt; backup&lt;br&gt; backup pumpkin&lt;br&gt; Backus-Naur Form&lt;br&gt; Backus Normal Form&lt;br&gt; backward analysis&lt;br&gt; backward chaining&lt;br&gt; backward combatability&lt;br&gt; backward compatible&lt;br&gt; backwards compatibility&lt;br&gt; backwards compatible&lt;br&gt; BAD&lt;br&gt; Bad command or file name&lt;br&gt; Bad Thing&lt;br&gt; bag on the side&lt;br&gt; BAL&lt;br&gt; balanced computing&lt;br&gt; balanced tree&lt;br&gt; BALGOL&lt;br&gt; BALITAC&lt;br&gt; BALM&lt;br&gt; balun&lt;br&gt; bamf&lt;br&gt; Banach algebra&lt;br&gt; Banach inverse mapping theorem&lt;br&gt; Banach space&lt;br&gt; Banach-Tarski paradox&lt;br&gt; banana label&lt;br&gt; banana problem&lt;br&gt; bandwidth&lt;br&gt; bang&lt;br&gt; bang on&lt;br&gt; bang path&lt;br&gt; banner&lt;br&gt; Banyan&lt;br&gt; BAP&lt;br&gt; BAPI&lt;br&gt; bar&lt;br&gt; bar code&lt;br&gt; bare metal&lt;br&gt; barf&lt;br&gt; barfmail&lt;br&gt; barfulation&lt;br&gt; barfulous&lt;br&gt; barney&lt;br&gt; Baroque&lt;br&gt; baroque&lt;br&gt; [[barrel shifter]] -- '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt; base&lt;br&gt; base 64&lt;br&gt; baseband&lt;br&gt; base class&lt;br&gt; baseline&lt;br&gt; base memory&lt;br&gt; basename&lt;br&gt; Base Technology&lt;br&gt; bash&lt;br&gt; BASIC&lt;br&gt; Basic Assembly Language&lt;br&gt; BASIC AUTOCODER&lt;br&gt; Basic COBOL&lt;br&gt; Basic Encoding Rules&lt;br&gt; Basic Fortran&lt;br&gt; Basic Input/Output System&lt;br&gt; Basic JOVIAL&lt;br&gt; Basic Language for Implementation of System Software&lt;br&gt; Basic Multilingual Plane&lt;br&gt; Basic Object System&lt;br&gt; Basic Operating System&lt;br&gt; Basic Programming Support&lt;br&gt; Basic Rate Interface&lt;br&gt; BASIC V&lt;br&gt; Bastard Operator From Hell&lt;br&gt; bastion host&lt;br&gt; batch file&lt;br&gt; batch processing&lt;br&gt; bathtub curve&lt;br&gt; baud&lt;br&gt; baud barf&lt;br&gt; Baudot&lt;br&gt; Baudotbetical order&lt;br&gt; Baudot code&lt;br&gt; baud rate&lt;br&gt; bawk&lt;br&gt; bay&lt;br&gt; baz&lt;br&gt; bb&lt;br&gt; BBC&lt;br&gt; BBC Microcomputer&lt;br&gt; BBC Networking Club&lt;br&gt; BBL&lt;br&gt; BBN&lt;br&gt; bboard&lt;br&gt; BBS&lt;br&gt; BC&lt;br&gt; BCBF&lt;br&gt; BCC&lt;br&gt; BCD&lt;br&gt; BCL&lt;br&gt; BC NELIAC&lt;br&gt; BCNU&lt;br&gt; BCPL&lt;br&gt; BCS&lt;br&gt; bd&lt;br&gt; BDC&lt;br&gt; BDL&lt;br&gt; BDPA&lt;br&gt; be&lt;br&gt; BEA&lt;br&gt; beam&lt;br&gt; beamer&lt;br&gt; beam search&lt;br&gt; bean&lt;br&gt; beanie key&lt;br&gt; bearer channel&lt;br&gt; bear paw&lt;br&gt; Beats the shit outa me&lt;br&gt; BeBOP&lt;br&gt; BeBox&lt;br&gt; BEDO&lt;br&gt; Bedrock&lt;br&gt; beep&lt;br&gt; beeper&lt;br&gt; BEG&lt;br&gt; @Begin&lt;br&gt; egin&lt;br&gt; BEGL&lt;br&gt; beige toaster&lt;br&gt; Be Inc&lt;br&gt; BEL&lt;br&gt; belief revision&lt;br&gt; BELL&lt;br&gt; Bell&lt;br&gt; bell&lt;br&gt; Bell 103&lt;br&gt; Bell Communications Research, Inc&lt;br&gt; Bellcore&lt;br&gt; bell curve&lt;br&gt; Bell Laboratories&lt;br&gt; Bell Labs&lt;br&gt; bells and whistles&lt;br&gt; bells, whistles, and gongs&lt;br&gt; benchmark&lt;br&gt; Bend Over, Here It Comes Again&lt;br&gt; Benoit B. Mandelbrot&lt;br&gt; Benoit Mandelbrot&lt;br&gt; Bentley Systems, Inc.&lt;br&gt; BeOS&lt;br&gt; BER&lt;br&gt; Berkeley&lt;br&gt; Berkeley 4.2&lt;br&gt; Berkeley EDIF200&lt;br&gt; Berkeley FP&lt;br&gt; Berkeley Internet Name Domain&lt;br&gt; Berkeley Logo&lt;br&gt; Berkeley Network&lt;br&gt; Berkeley Quality Software&lt;br&gt; Berkeley Software Design, Inc&lt;br&gt; Berkeley Softworks&lt;br&gt; Berkeley System Distribution&lt;br&gt; Berkeley Unix&lt;br&gt; Berkeley Yacc&lt;br&gt; berklix&lt;br&gt; Berners-Lee, Tim&lt;br&gt; Bernoulli Box&lt;br&gt; Bernoulli principle&lt;br&gt; Bernstein condition&lt;br&gt; BERR&lt;br&gt; Bertrand&lt;br&gt; Bertrand Meyer&lt;br&gt; Bertrand Russell&lt;br&gt; Berzerkeley&lt;br&gt; Berzerkley&lt;br&gt; best effort&lt;br&gt; best first search&lt;br&gt; Best Fit&lt;br&gt; BETA&lt;br&gt; beta&lt;br&gt; beta abstraction&lt;br&gt; beta conversion&lt;br&gt; Betamaxed&lt;br&gt; beta reduction&lt;br&gt; beta testing&lt;br&gt; beta version&lt;br&gt; Bezier&lt;br&gt; Bezier curve&lt;br&gt; Bezier surface&lt;br&gt; bf&lt;br&gt; BFI&lt;br&gt; bg&lt;br&gt; bgh&lt;br&gt; BGP&lt;br&gt; bh&lt;br&gt; BHC Code&lt;br&gt; bi&lt;br&gt; bib&lt;br&gt; bible&lt;br&gt; BIBOP&lt;br&gt; BibTeX&lt;br&gt; BiCapitalisation&lt;br&gt; BiCMOS&lt;br&gt; bidirectional printing&lt;br&gt; Bidouilleurs Sans Argent&lt;br&gt; bi-endian&lt;br&gt; BIFF&lt;br&gt; biff&lt;br&gt; ig&lt;br&gt; Big bag of pages&lt;br&gt; big blue&lt;br&gt;
The song was the band's sarcastic response to the media's frequent portrayal of D12 as Eminem's band, giving little or no credit to its other members. The video contained various parodies, including that of the [[Super Bowl XXXVIII Halftime controversy|Janet Jackson &quot;incident&quot;]], and of 50 Cent's &quot;[[In Da Club]]&quot; video. On [[October 12]], 2004, a week after the release of &quot;[[Just Lose It]]&quot;, Eminem's first video and single off ''Encore'', [[Michael Jackson]] called into the Los Angeles-based [[Steve Harvey]] radio show to report his displeasure with the video, which parodies Jackson's child-molestation accusations, [[plastic surgery|plastic surgeries]], and an incident in which Jackson's hair caught on fire while filming a [[Pepsi]] commercial in 1984. The lyrics to &quot;Just Lose It&quot; also refer to Jackson's legal troubles. Many of Jackson's supporters and friends spoke out about the video, including [[Stevie Wonder]] who called the video &quot;kicking a man while he's down&quot; and &quot;bullshit&quot;,[http://www.allhiphop.com/hiphopnews/?ID=3825] and [[Steve Harvey]] who declared, &quot;Eminem has lost his ghetto pass. We want the pass back&quot;.[http://www.allhiphop.com/hiphopnews/?ID=3606] In the video, Eminem also parodied [[Pee Wee Herman]], [[MC Hammer]], and a Blonde-Ambition-touring [[Madonna (entertainer)|Madonna]]. [[Image:Eminem - Encore.jpg|thumb|Album cover of ''[[Encore (album)|Encore]]'' (2004).]] [[Black Entertainment Television|BET]] was the first channel to stop airing the video. MTV, however, announced it would continue airing the video, and &quot;Just Lose It&quot; became the #1 requested video on ''[[Total Request Live|TRL]]'' for the week ending [[October 22]]. ''The Source'' magazine, through its CEO Raymond &quot;[[Benzino]]&quot; Scott, wanted not only the video to be pulled, but the song off the album, and a public apology to Jackson from Eminem, though this was likely due to his personal hatred of Eminem rather than any genuine concern for Michael.[http://www.sohh.com/thewire/read.php?contentID=6321] Others dismissed &quot;Just Lose It&quot; as a tame [[&quot;Weird Al&quot; Yankovic]]-style knockoff.[http://www.eonline.com/News/Items/0,1,15126,00.html] Regarding Jackson's protest, Yankovic, who parodied the Eminem song &quot;Lose Yourself&quot; on a track titled &quot;[[Couch potato|Couch Potato]]&quot; on his 2003 album ''[[Poodle Hat]]'', himself told the ''[[Chicago Sun-Times]]'', &quot;Last year, Eminem forced me to halt production on the video for my &quot;Lose Yourself&quot; parody because he somehow thought that it would be harmful to his image or career. So the irony of this situation with Michael is not lost on me.&quot; On [[October 26]], 2004, a week before the [[U.S. presidential election, 2004]], Eminem released the video for his song titled &quot;Mosh&quot; on the Internet. The song features a very strong anti-[[George W. Bush|Bush]] message, with lyrics such as &quot;fuck Bush&quot; and &quot;this weapon of mass destruction that we call our president&quot;. The video features Eminem gathering up an army of people presented as victims of the Bush administration and leading them to the [[White House]]. However, once the army breaks in, it is revealed that they are there to simply register to vote, and the video ends with the words &quot;VOTE Tuesday November 2&quot; on the screen. After Bush won the election, the video's ending was changed to Eminem and the protesters invading while Bush was giving a speech. On [[October 31]], Eminem performed the song on ''[[Saturday Night Live]]'', but some thought that he appeared to be [[lip-sync]]ing the chorus, only a week after [[Ashlee Simpson]] was caught lip-syncing her performance on the program. His management observed that he was merely rapping over a backing track so as not to lose the beat, and in any case, since the Simpson incident had occurred only the week previously, Eminem made a point of lowering the microphone whenever the backing vocals were heard while he wasn't rapping. None of the publicity helped the album however, which saw its sales stall at 4.7 million copies, a number dramatically lower than his past two albums. In summer 2005, Mathers embarked on his first US concert run in three years, the Anger Management 3 Tour, featuring [[Lil' Jon]], 50 Cent and [[G-Unit]], [[D12 (hip-hop group)|D12]], [[Obie Trice]], [[The Alchemist (producer)|The Alchemist]], and others. In August 2005, Eminem canceled the European leg of the tour and subsequently announced that he had entered [[drug rehabilitation]] for treatment for a &quot;dependency on sleep medication&quot;.[http://news.yahoo.com/s/eo/20050819/en_music_eo/17184] At the same time as he was entering rehab, his aunt and uncle, Jack and Betty Schmitt, sued Mathers, charging that he had reneged on a promise to build a $350,000 house for them and supply them with money for the house's upkeep. The couple claimed that Mathers had kept the house in his name, and then issued them eviction orders. On [[November 8]], [[2005]], it was revealed that Eminem was asked to perform at [[Live 8]] but didn't respond to calls from [[Live 8]] organizers [[Sir Bob Geldof]] and [[Bono]]. Eminem has made many [[Eminem's enemies|enemies]] in the music industry, including [[Ja Rule]], [[Benzino]], [[Everlast (singer)|Everlast]], the [[Insane Clown Posse]] (although recently, at an ICP concert, they sat down with Proof of D12 and talked out their differences, officially &quot;squashing the beef with D12&quot;), [[Canibus]], [[Vanilla Ice]], [[Fred Durst]] and others. :''See also:'' [[Eminem's enemies]] ==Other works and ventures== [[Image:8mile.jpg|left|thumb|85pix| Promotional poster for ''[[8 Mile]]'' (2002).]] Eminem made his [[Hollywood]] acting debut with the semi-autobiographical ''[[8 Mile]]'', released in November 2002. He recorded several new songs for the soundtrack, including &quot;[[Lose Yourself]],&quot; which won Eminem an [[Academy Award for Best Song]]; it was not performed at the ceremony, reportedly because ABC wanted him to perform an edited version. Eminem has done some voice acting, both on ''[[Crank Yankers]]'' and a web cartoon called ''The Slim Shady Show'', which has since been pulled offline and is instead sold on DVD. Eminem has also been linked to &quot;Songs of Hope&quot; by [[U2]] and supported the Boys and Girls Club of America and the Leary Fire Fighters Foundation with various proceeds donated to these causes. In 2004, he held a political convention of his own in [[New York City]], in response to the National Republican Convention. In the song &quot;[[Mosh]]&quot;, Eminem expresses his support for American troops, but speaks against the [[2003 invasion of Iraq|Iraq war]] and the Bush administration. The [[Raelism|Raelians Religious Movement]], a religious group whose beliefs are centered around communication with [[extraterrestrial life]] tried to appoint Eminem as an honorary priest . In addition, he has raised [[AIDS]] and other [[Sexually Transmitted Disease|STD]] awareness in a number of songs portraying infected people having promiscuous sex with numerous partners. ===Aftermath Entertainment=== Although Eminem owns his own label, he is strictly signed to Dr. Dre's [[Aftermath Entertainment]] as a solo artist. The Aftermath roster includes 50 Cent, [[Busta Rhymes]], [[Stat Quo]], Eve, The Game and newcomer [[Bishop Lamont]]. ===Shady Records=== Dr. Dre's leading protégé succeeded in multi-platinum record sales. Eminem was granted his own record label, a sublabel of Aftermath Entertainment. He and his manager Paul Rosenberg created Shady Records in late 2000. Eminem and Dr. Dre had signed 50 Cent on a joint venture between Aftermath &amp;amp; Shady Records. His own Detroit collective [[D12 (band)|D12]] and rapper [[Obie Trice]] were signed to the Shady Records label. In 2003, Eminem and Dr. Dre signed on Atlanta rapper [[Stat Quo]] to the roster. [[DJ Green Lantern]], the former [[deejay]] for Eminem, was signed to Shady Records until a dispute with 50 Cent forced him to depart from the label, and he is no longer associated with Eminem. [[The Alchemist (producer)|The Alchemist]] is now officially Eminem's tour deejay. In 2005, Eminem officially signed another Atlanta rapper known as [[Bobby Creekwater]] to his label. There are also plans to sign a rapper by the name of Fizzy B to Shady Records. Many other rappers have been speculated as possible additions to Shady Records, including West rappers [[Ras Kass]], [[Ice Cube]], [[Xzibit]], and Detroit rappers [[Trick Trick]], [[King Gordy]], [[Marv One]], and [[J Hill]]. There have also been rumors that Eminem was interested in signing [[Young Zee]], a friend of his from the group [[Outsidaz]]. Eminem signed a deal with [[Sirius Satellite Radio]] to program a rap-oriented station called ''Shade 45'', which debuted on [[October 28]], 2004. He also owns a clothing line called &quot;Shady Ltd.&quot; ===Eminem as a producer=== Eminem is also active as a producer of rap records. Besides being the executive producer of [[D12 (hip-hop group)|D12]]'s two albums, ''[[Devil's Night]]'' and ''[[D12 World]]'', he has also produced numerous tracks on Obie Trice's ''[[Cheers (album)|Cheers]]'' as well as 50 Cent's ''[[Get Rich or Die Tryin']]'' and ''[[The Massacre]]''. Most of ''The Eminem Show'' was produced by Eminem himself, with co-production from longtime collaborator [[Bass Brothers|Jeff Bass]]. He split the production with Dr. Dre on ''Encore''. He also executive-produced [[Tupac Shakur|2Pac]]'s posthumous album ''[[Loyal to the Game]]'' with 2Pac's mother Afeni Shakur. On certain tracks, 2Pac's voice was slowed down or sped up, and digitally altered to say things like &quot;2005&quot; and &quot;G-Unit,&quot; angering devoted 2Pac fans. ==Retiring Slim Shady== In 2005, some industry insiders speculated that Eminem is considering concluding his rap
as reduced from 656 to 598 beginning in 2002, although under the additional member system, more deputies may be admitted if a party wins more directly elected seats than it would be entitled to under proportional representation. The ''[[Bundesrat (Germany)|Bundesrat]]'' (Federal Council) is the representation of the state governments at the federal level. It consists of 69 members who are delegates of the 16 ''[[States of Germany|Bundesländer]]'' and usually, but not necessarily include the 16 Minister Presidents themselves. The ''Länder'' each have from three to six votes in the ''Bundesrat'', dependent on population. ''Bundesrat'' members receive voting instructions from their state governments. The legislature has powers of exclusive jurisdiction and concurrent jurisdiction with the ''Länder'' in areas specifically enumerated by the Basic Law. The ''Bundestag'' bears the major responsibility. The necessity for the ''Bundesrat'' to concur on legislation is limited to bills related to revenue shared by the federal and state governments and those imposing responsibilities on the states, although in practice, this means that ''Bundesrat'' concurrence is very often required. Since the political orientation of the ''Bundesrat'' (which depends on the various state elections that occur independently of the federal ones) is quite frequently the opposite of that of the ''Bundestag'', it has, in recent years, become more and more of a forum for the opposition parties, as opposed to one for state interests, as the constitution intended. ==Political parties and elections== {{elect|List of political parties in Germany|Elections in Germany}} {{German federal election, 2005}} ''More info: 16th [[German federal election, 2005]]'' The Federal Council is composed by representatives of the State governments. {{Germany Bundesrat composition}} ==[[Judicial branch]]== Germany has an independent [[Judiciary of Germany|judicial branch]]. Since the independence of the judiciary is historically older than democracy in Germany, the organization of courts is traditionally strong, and almost all state actions are subject to judicial review. Besides a so-called &quot;ordinary&quot; judicial branch that handles civil and criminal cases, which is in turn comprised of four levels of courts up to the ''[[Bundesgerichtshof]]'' in a fairly complex appeals system, there are separate branches for administrative, tax, labour, and social security issues, each with their own hierarchies. Courts are generally in the hands of the states, except for the highest courts of each branch, which are federal, respectively, to maintain a certain degree of unity in jurisdiction. In addition, Germany has a powerful [[Federal Constitutional Court of Germany|Constitutional Court]], the ''Bundesverfassungsgericht.'' This is somewhat unique since the ''Grundgesetz'' stipulates in principle that every person may file a complaint to that court when his or her constitutional rights, especially the human rights, have been violated by the state. Such actions can include laws passed by the legislative branch, court decisions, or acts of the administration. While in practice, only a small percentage of these constitutional complaints ''(Verfassungsbeschwerden)'' are successful, the Constitutional Court is known to frequently annoy both the executive and the legislative branches with far-reaching decisions. This has gone that far, that Judges openly said they don't care about the government, the Bundestag, the public opinion or the financial consequences, the only thing that matters is the constitution. It has to be said that the Bundesverfassungsgericht has very high approvement rates throughout the population. The Constitutional Court also handles several other procedures such as disputes between state institutions over their constitutional powers. ==Recent political issues== ===&quot;Red-Green&quot; vs. Christian coalitions=== In the 1998 election the [[Social Democratic Party of Germany|SPD]] emphasized commitment to reducing persistently high [[unemployment]] and appealed to voters' desire for new faces after 16 years of [[Helmut Kohl]]'s government. [[Gerhard Schröder]] positioned himself as a [[centrist]] &quot;[[Third Way]]&quot; candidate in the mold of Britain's [[Tony Blair]] and America's [[Bill Clinton]]--he was critiqued as &quot;Clintonblair&quot; by some newspaper sources throughout his election campaign. The [[Christian Democratic Union of Germany|CDU]]/[[Christian Social Union in Bavaria|CSU]] stood on its record of economic performance and experience in foreign policy. The Kohl government was hurt at the polls by slower growth in the east in the past two years, widening the economic gap between east and west. The final margin of victory was sufficiently high to permit a &quot;red-green&quot; coalition of the SPD with the Greens, bringing the Greens into a national government for the first time. The first months of the new government were marked by policy disputes between the moderate and traditional left wings of the SPD, resulting in some voter disaffection. The first state election after the federal election was held in [[Hessen]] in February, 1999. The CDU increased its vote by 3.5 % to emerge as the largest party, and was able to replace a SPD/Green coalition with a CDU/FDP coalition. The result was interpreted in part as a referendum on the federal government's proposed new citizenship law, which would have eased requirements for long-time foreign residents to obtain citizenship, and permitted them to retain their original citizenship as well. In other state elections in 2000 and 2001, the respective SPD- or CDU-led coalition governments were re-elected into power. From 1998 to 2005, the government has been built as a coalition of the [[Social Democratic Party of Germany]] (SPD) and [[German Green Party|Bündnis 90/Die Grünen]]. The next election for the ''[[Bundestag]]'' was [[September 22]], [[2002]]. Gerhard Schröder led the coalition of SPD and Greens to an 11 seat victory over the conservative challengers headed by [[Edmund Stoiber]] (CSU). The [[coalition]] treaty for the second red-green coalition was signed [[October 16]], [[2002]]. With a significantly changed cabinet (see below), Schröder and Fischer began their second term. ===Conservative comeback=== In [[February 2003]] elections took place in the states of [[Hessen]] and [[Lower Saxony]], both leading to overwhelming victories for the conservatives. In Hessen, the CDU minister president [[Roland Koch]] was re-elected, with his party CDU gaining enough seats to govern without the former coalition partner [[Free Democratic Party (Germany)|FDP]]. In Lower Saxony, the former SPD minister president [[Sigmar Gabriel]] lost the elections, leading to an CDU/FDP-government headed by new minister president [[Christian Wulff]] (CDU). Both elections are seen as symptomatic for a widespread criticism against the current federal red-green government. The protest against the [[2003 invasion of Iraq|Iraq war]] changed this situation a bit, favouring SPD and Greens. The latest election in the state of [[Bavaria]] led to a landslide victory of the conservatives, gaining not just the majority (as usual), but two thirds of parliamentary seats. In [[April 2003]], chancellor Schröder announced massive cuts in the social systems, called [[Agenda 2010]]. The changes include much-disputed reforms to the labour market and unemployment system, known as [[Hartz concept|Hartz I - Hartz IV]]. The European elections on [[June 13]], [[2004]] brought a staggering defeat for the Social Democrats, who polled only slightly more than 21 %, the lowest election result for the SPD in a nationwide election since the Second World War. Liberals, Greens, conservatives and the far left were the winners of the European election in Germany, because voters were disillusioned by high unemployment and cuts in social security, while the governing SPD party seems to be concerned with quarrels between the party wings and unable to give any clear direction. Many observers believe that this election marked the beginning of the end of the Schröder government and indicates a process in which the SPD party seems to shrink and/or fall apart. ===Rise of the Far-Right=== In [[September 2004]] elections were held in the states of [[Saarland]], [[Brandenburg]] and [[Saxony]]. In the Saar region the governing CDU could remain in power and gain one additional seat in the parliament. The SPD has lost seven seats, while the Liberals and Greens could re-enter the parliament. Remarkably and most surprising the [[Far-Right]] [[National Democratic Party of Germany (NPD)|National Democratic Party]], that had never gotten more than 1 or 2 % in recent decades, received about 4% of the votes (but did not receive a seat in the parliament, because they were not elected by at least 5% of the voters). Two weeks later, elections in the eastern states Brandenburg and Saxony were held: the ruling parties overall lost votes, but they remained in power. However, the ruling CDU in Saxony was forced (due to their losses at the ballots) to form a coalition with the 9,8% party SPD as a junior partner. In Brandenburg the CDU remained junior partner of the SPD. The fact that in Brandenburg the right party DVU re-entered and in Saxony the far-right party NPD entered the state parliaments caused worries in the traditional political parties. ===German federal election 2005=== On May 22nd as predicted the SPD took a devastating defeat in its former heartland, [[North Rhine-Westphalia]]. Half an hour after the election results, the SPD chairman [[Franz Müntefering]] announced that the chancellor would clear the way for premature [[German federal election, 2005|federal elections]] by the means of a purposely lost vote of confidence. This took the republic by surprise, especially because the SPD was seen in polls below 25% at that time. On the following
eing fairly light as well as having good audio fidelity, ultimately replaced the bulkier wire recorders. In 1939, [[John Cage]] composed ''[[Imaginary Landscape]] no.1'' while teaching at The Cornish School in Seattle. The piece calls for [[muted piano]], [[cymbal]], and two variable-speed [[turntables]] playing records of test tones. This could be considered the first use of electronically produced sounds as instrumental voices. This differs from Antheil's use of mechanical gadgets, and from Respighi's use of recordings as pure sound effect (bird sounds). Cage composed two more pieces in his ''Imaginary Landscape'' series, both in 1942 while in Chicago, which expanded on this pioneering work. He composed ''March (Imaginary Landscape no. 2)'' for [[percussion]] [[quintet]] and amplified coil of wire, and then ''Imaginary Landscape no. 3'' for [[percussion]], tin cans, muted [[gong]], audio frequency [[oscillators]], variable speed turntables, frequency recordings (test tones), [[buzzer]], amplified coil of wire, and [[marimba]] amplified with a [[contact microphone]]. ===Post-war=== The post-war 1940s were a time of much activity, both in Europe (particularly France and Germany), and the United States. In Paris, Paul Boisselet was experimenting with disc and tape procedures. Ultimately, composers in France favored recording and manipulating acoustic sounds, and are the progenitors of Musique Concrete. In the United States, the focus turned more toward the generation of sounds, as well as the generation of compositions through use of computers. In 1946, the [[ENIAC]] (the Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer) was invented, the first true computer. ===Pierre Schaeffer=== In 1948, [[Radiodiffusion-Télévision Française]] (RTF) broadcast composer [[Pierre Schaeffer]]'s ''Etude aux Chemin de Fer'' on October 5th. This was the first &quot;[[movement]]&quot; of ''Cinq etudes de bruits'', and marked the beginning of studio realizations and [[musique concrète]]. Schaeffer employed a disk-cutting [[lathe]], four turntables, a four-channel mixer, filters, an echo chamber, and a mobile recording unit. Just a year later, in 1949, Schaeffer created a musique concrete piece using flute sounds as the raw material: ''Variations sur une Flûte Mexicaine'' (‘Variations on a Mexican Flute’). This piece marked the first use of flute in conjunction with electronics. The piece was broadcast on [[Paris Radio]] on November 3. In late January of 1950, it was played at a tape concert at the [[Paris Conservatory]]. Not long after this, Pierre Henry began collaborating with Schaeffer, a collaboration that was to have profound and lasting affects on the progression of electronic music. Also associated with Schaeffer, [[Varese]] begins work on ''Déserts'' for chamber orchestra and tape. The tape parts were created at Pierre Schaeffer's studio, and were later revised at Columbia University. In 1950, Schaeffer gives the first public (non-broadcast) concert of musique concrete at the Ecole Normale de Musique in Paris. &quot;Schaeffer used a PA system, several turntables, and mixers. The performance did not go well as creating live montages with turntables had never been done before.&quot; [29] Pierre Henry later that same year collaborated with Schaeffer on ''Symphonie pour un homme seul'' (1950) the first major work of musique concrete. In Paris in 1951, in what was to become an important worldwide trend, RTF established the first studio for the production of electronic music. Also in 1951, Schaeffer and Henry produced an opera, ''Orpheus'', for concrete sounds and voices. ===Morton Feldman=== Meanwhile, back in the United States, sounds were being created electronically and used in composition, as exemplified in a piece by [[Morton Feldman]] called ''Marginal Intersection''. This piece is scored for winds, brass, percussion, strings, 2 oscillators, and sound effects of riveting, and is one of those that uses Feldman's &quot;box notation&quot; system. Feldman composed this at the age of twenty-five. The Music for Magnetic Tape Project was then formed by [[John Cage]], [[Earle Brown]], [[Christian Wolff]], [[David Tudor]], and [[Morton Feldman]], and lasted three years until 1954. Cage completed ''Williams Mix'' while working with the Music for Magnetic Tape Project.The group had no permanent facility, and had to rely on borrowed time in commercial sound studios. ===Columbia University=== Also in the U.S., in the same year, significant developments were happening in New York City. [[Columbia University]] purchased its first [[tape recorder]]—a professional [[Ampex]] machine—for the purpose of recording concerts. [[Vladimir Ussachevsky]], who was on the music faculty of Columbia University, was placed in charge of the device, and almost immediately began experimenting with it. [[Herbert Russcol]] writes: &quot;Soon he was intrigued with the new sonorities he could achieve by recording musical instruments and then superimposing them on one another.&quot; [30] Ussachevsky said later: &quot;I suddenly realized that the tape recorder could be treated as an instrument of sound transformation.&quot; [31] On May 9 of that year, Ussachevsky presented several demonstrations of tape music/effects that he created at his Composers Forum, in the McMillin Theatre at Columbia University. In an interview, he stated: &quot;...I presented a few examples of my discovery in a public concert in New York together with other compositions I had written for conventional instruments.&quot; [32] [[Otto Luening]], who had attended this concert, remarked: &quot;The equipment at his disposal consisted of an Ampex tape recorder...and a simple box-like device designed by the brilliant young engineer, Peter Mauzey, to create feedback, a form of mechanical reverberation. Other equipment was borrowed or purchased with personal funds.&quot; [33] Just three months later, in August of 1951, Ussachevsky traveled to Bennington, Vermont at Luening's invitation to present his experiments. There, the two collaborated on various pieces. Luening described the event: &quot;Equipped with earphones and a flute, I began developing my first tape-recorder composition. Both of us were fluent improvisors and the medium fired our imaginations.&quot; [34] They played some early pieces informally at a party, where &quot;a number of composers almost solemnly congratulated us saying, 'This is it' ('it' meaning the music of the future).&quot; [35] Word quickly reached New York City. Oliver Daniel telephoned and invited the pair to &quot;produce a group of short compositions for the October concert sponsored by the American Composers Alliance and Broadcast Music, Inc., under the direction of Leopold Stokowski at the Museum of Modern Art in New York. After some hesitation, we agreed... [[Henry Cowell]] placed his home and studio in Woodstock, New York, at our disposal. With the borrowed equipment in the back of Ussachevsky's car, we left Bennington for Woodstock and stayed two weeks. ...In late September, 1952, the travelling laboratory reached Ussachevsky's living room in New York, where we eventually completed the compositions.&quot; [36] Two months later, on October 28, Vladimir Ussachevsky and Otto Luening presented the first Tape Music concert in the United States. The concert included Luening's ''Fantasy in Space'' (1952)—&quot;an impressionistic [[virtuoso]] piece&quot; [37] using manipulated recordings of flute—and ''Low Speed'' (1952), an &quot;exotic composition that took the flute far below its natural range.&quot; [38] Both pieces were created at the home of Henry Cowell in Woodstock, NY. After several concerts caused a sensation in New York City, Ussachevsky and Luening were invited onto a live broadcast of NBC's Today Show to do an interview demonstration—the first televised electroacoustic performance. Luening described the event: &quot;I improvised some [flute] sequences for the tape recorder. Ussachevsky then and there put them through electronic transformations.&quot; [39] ===Sequencer=== These short few months were some of the most exciting in music history and technology, and the profundity of it was recognized at the time. It seems doubtful that electroacoustic music ever received such a wide audience again, unless one includes televised concerts by latter day rock and jazz fusion groups. Others were certainly active exploring new technology also. In that same year, 1951, former [[jazz]] composer [[Raymond Scott]] invented the first [[sequencer]], which consisted of hundred of switches controlling stepping relays, timing solenoids, tone circuits and 16 individual oscillators. After this point, we see a spate of compositions utilizing the new technology, and a great deal included acoustic as well as electronic sounds. In 1952, [[Henk Badings]] composed the ''Capriccio for violin and two sound tracks'', which is one of the earliest known pieces for combined electric and acoustic sounds. ===Maderna and Berio=== That same year, the first piece to use flute as an acoustic instrument along with electronics was composed. This was done by [[Bruno Maderna]], in Italia, and was entitled ''Musica su Due Dimensioni'' (Music in Two Dimensions) for flute, percussion, and electronic sounds on tape. The tape part was later revised in 1958. The following year, [[Luciano Berio]], in Italia, composed his ''Mimusique n. 1'', and Luening and Ussachevsky collaborated again, this time composing ''Rhapsodic Variations'' for orchestra and tape. Edgard Varese, in France, received an Ampex tape recorder as an anonymous gift and began work on ''Déserts'', for orchestra and tape, while Stockhausen, in Cologne, completes Studie I. ===Stochastic=== An important new development was the advent of computers for the purpose of composing music, as opposed to manipulating or creating sounds. [[Iannis Xenakis]] began what is called &quot;musique stochastique,&quot; or &quot;[[stochastic mus
ot; seeks to derive natural laws through reproducible and falsifiable experiments. The &quot;[[humanities]]&quot; reflected an attempt to study different national traditions, in the form of [[history]] and the [[art]]s, as an attempt to provide people in emerging nation-states with a sense of coherence. The &quot;[[social sciences]]&quot; emerged at this time as an attempt to develop scientific methods to address social phenomena, in an attempt to provide a universal basis for social knowledge. Anthropology does not easily fit into one of these categories, and different branches of anthropology draw on one or more of these domains. Drawing on the methods of the [[natural science]]s as well as developing new techniques involving not only structured interviews but unstructured &quot;participant-observation&quot; – and drawing on the new [[theory of evolution]] through [[natural selection]], they proposed the scientific study of a new object: &quot;humankind,&quot; conceived of as a whole. Crucial to this study is the concept &quot;culture,&quot; which anthropologists defined both as a universal capacity and propensity for social learning, thinking, and acting (which they see as a product of human evolution and something that distinguishes Homo sapiens – and perhaps all species of genus ''[[Hominoid|Homo]]'' – from other species), and as a particular adaptation to local conditions that takes the form of highly variable beliefs and practices. Thus, &quot;culture&quot; not only transcends the opposition between nature and nurture; it transcends and absorbs the peculiarly European distinction between politics, religion, kinship, and the economy as autonomous domains. Anthropology thus transcends the divisions between the natural sciences, social sciences, and humanities to explore the biological, linguistic, material, and symbolic dimensions of humankind in all forms. ==Anthropology in the U.S.== Anthropology in the United States was pioneered by staff of the Bureau of Indian Affairs and the Smithsonian Institution's Bureau of American Ethnology, such as John Wesley Powell and Frank Hamilton Cushing. Academic Anthropology was established by [[Franz Boas]], who used his positions at [[Columbia University]] and the [[American Museum of Natural History]] to train and develop multiple generations of students. Boasian anthropology was politically active and suspicious of research dictated by the U.S. government or wealthy patrons. It was also rigorously empirical and skeptical of over-generalizations and attempts to establish universal laws. Boas studied immigrant children in order to demonstrate that biological race was not immutable and that human conduct and behavior was the result of nurture rather than nature. Drawing on his German roots, he argued that the world was full of distinct 'cultures' rather than societies whose evolution could be measured by how much or how little 'civilization' they had. Boas felt that each culture has to be studied in its particularity, and argued that cross-cultural generalizations like those made in the [[natural science]]s were not possible. In doing so Boas fought discrimination against immigrants, African Americans, and Native North Americans. Many American anthropologists adopted Boas' agenda for social reform, and theories of race continue to be popular targets for anthropologists today. Boas's first generation of students included [[Alfred Kroeber]], [[Robert Lowie]], [[Edward Sapir]] and [[Ruth Benedict]]. All of these scholars produced richly detailed studies which described Native North America. In doing so they provided a wealth of details used to attack the theory of a single evolutionary process. Kroeber and Sapir's focus on Native American languages also helped establish [[linguistics]] as a truly general science and free it from its historical focus on [[Indo-European languages]]. The publication of [[Alfred Kroeber]]'s textbook ''Anthropology'' marked a turning point in American anthropology. After three decades of amassing material the urge to generalize grew. This was most obvious in the 'Culture and Personality' studies carried out by younger Boasians such as [[Margaret Mead]] and [[Ruth Benedict]]. Influenced by psychoanalytic psychologists such as [[Sigmund Freud]] and [[Carl Jung]], these authors sought to understand the way that individual personalities were shaped by the wider cultural and social forces in which they grew up. While such works as ''Coming of Age in Samoa'' and ''The Chrysanthemum and the Sword'' remain popular with the American public, Mead and Benedict never had the impact on the discipline of anthropology that some expected. Boas had planned for Ruth Benedict to succeed him as chair of Columbia's anthropology department, but she was sidelined by [[Ralph Linton]] and Mead was limited to her offices at the [[American Museum of Natural History|AMNH]]. ==Anthropology in Britain== Whereas Boas picked his opponents to pieces through attention to detail, in Britain modern anthropology was formed by rejecting historical reconstruction in the name of a science of society that focused on analyzing how societies held together in the present. The two most important names in this tradition were [[Alfred Reginald Radcliffe-Brown]] and [[Bronislaw Malinowski]], both of whom released seminal works in 1922. Radcliffe-Brown's initial fieldwork in the [[Andaman Islands]] was carried out in the old style, but after reading [[Émile Durkheim]] he published an account of his research (entitled simply ''The Andaman Islanders'') which drew heavily on the French sociologist. Over time he developed an approach known as structural-functionalism, which focused on how institutions in societies worked to balance out or create an equilibrium in the social system to keep it functioning harmoniously. [[Bronislaw Malinowski|Malinowski]], on the other hand, advocated an unhyphenated 'functionalism' which examined how society functioned to meet individual needs. Malinowski is best known not for his theory, however, but for his detailed [[ethnography]] and advances in methodology. His classic ''Argonauts of the Western Pacific'' advocated getting 'the native's point of view' and an approach to field work that became standard in the field. Malinowski and Radcliffe-Brown's success stem from the fact that they, like Boas, actively trained students and aggressively built up institutions which furthered their programmatic ambitions. This was particularly the case with Radcliffe-Brown, who spread his agenda for 'Social Anthropology' by teaching at universities across the [[Commonwealth of Nations|Commonwealth]]. From the late 1930s until the post-war period a string of monographs and edited volumes appeared which cemented the paradigm of British Social Anthropology. Famous ethnographies include ''The Nuer'' by [[Edward Evan Evans-Pritchard]] and ''The Dynamics of Clanship Among the Tallensi'' by [[Meyer Fortes]], while well known edited volumes include ''African Systems of Kinship and Marriage'' and ''African Political Systems''. ==Anthropology in France== Anthropology in France has a less clear genealogy than the British and American traditions. Most commentators consider [[Marcel Mauss]] to be the founder of the French anthropological tradition. Mauss was a member of [[Émile Durkheim|Durkheim's]] [[Annee Sociologique]] group, and while Durkheim and others examined the state of modern societies, Mauss and his collaborators (such as [[Henri Hubert]] and [[Robert Hertz]]) drew on ethnography and philology to analyze societies which were not as 'differentiated' as European nation states. In particular, Mauss's ''Essay on the Gift'' was to prove of enduring relevance in anthropological studies of [[trade|exchange]] and [[reciprocity (cultural anthropology)|reciprocity]]. Throughout the interwar years, French interest in anthropology often dovetailed with wider cultural movements such as [[surrealism]] and [[primitivism (art movement)|primitivism]] which drew on ethnography for inspiration. [[Marcel Griaule]] and [[Michel Leiris]] are examples of people who combined anthropology with the French avant-garde. During this time most of what is known as ''ethnologie'' was restricted to museums, and anthropology had a close relationship with studies of [[folklore]]. Above all, however, it was [[Claude Lévi-Strauss]] who helped institutionalize anthropology in France. In addition to the enormous influence his [[structuralism]] exerted across multiple disciplines, Lévi-Strauss established ties with American and British anthropologists. At the same time he established centers and laboratories within France to provide an institutional context within anthropology while training influential students such as [[Maurice Godelier]] and [[Francoise Heritier]] who would prove influential in the world of French anthropology. Much of the distinct character of France's anthropology today is a result of the fact that most anthropology is carried out in nationally-funded research laboratories rather than academic departments in universities. ==Anthropology after World War Two== Before [[World War II|WWII]] British 'social anthropology' and American 'cultural anthropology' were still distinct traditions. It was after the war that the two would blend to create a 'sociocultural' anthropology. In the 1950s and mid-1960s anthropology tended increasingly to model itself after the [[natural science]]s. Some, such as [[Lloyd Fallers]] and [[Clifford Geertz]], focused on processes of modernization by which newly independent states could develop. Others, such as [[Julian Steward]] and [[Leslie White]] focused on how societies evolve and fit their ecological niche - an approach popularized by [[Marvin Harris]]. [[Economic anthropology]] as influenced by [[Karl Polanyi]] and practiced by [[Marshall Sahlins]] and [[George Dalton]] focused on how traditional [[economics]] ignored cultural and social factors.
an Programme, where a consortium of 9 US universities helped set up the research laboratories and academic programmes. The first Director of the Institute was [[Dr. P. K. Kelkar]] (after whom the Central Library was renamed in 2003). Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur was the among the first Institute in India to start Computer Science education. The earliest computer courses were started at IIT Kanpur in August 1963 on an IBM 1620 system, a novelty then even in many North American and European universities. Gradually, the Institute drew upon some of the brightest young Indians in Computer Science to serve on its faculty and initiated an independent academic program in 1971, leading to Ph.D. and M. Tech. degrees. == Laboratories and other facilities == The Institute has a number of facilities, including the National Wind Tunnel Facility.Spread in a sprawling campus of 1200 acres, IIT Kanpur has one of the best computational facilities in India. Apart from a large number of engineering laboratories, IIT Kanpur also has its own airfield, for flight testing and gliding activities. Other large research centres include the Advanced Centre for Material Science, one of the country's best Bio-technology centre, the Advanced Centre for Electronic Systems, and the Samtel Centre for Display Technology. The P.K. Kelkar library has one of the most exhaustive collections of academic textbooks, peer-reviewed journals and other research material in the country, and boasts of an excellent reference section (where course material is reserved for students). In addition, the various departments have their own smaller libraries. The Computer-Centre (referred to by the campus residents as &quot;C-C&quot;) is quite an impressive facility in comparison to other academic institutions in the country. It has about 100-150 Linux terminals, about 50 Windows-NT terminals, and is continuously available to the students for academic work and recreation. Disk storage is provided using a networked file server system. Internet access is provided by the means of two proxy servers, one for students and another for faculty (the computer science department in IIT Kanpur has its own independent network). In addition, it hosts about 50 SUN workstations that are considered powerful workhorses for heavy computational tasks. It is a major intellectual, social and cultural hub for the technokrati on campus. The IIT's (and especially IIT Kanpur) are among the first large academic institutions in India to be extensively networked, with an institute-wide LAN and Ethernet access to every student room in the residence halls. [[Image:IITKLibrary.jpg|thumb|270px|PK Kelkar Library, IIT Kanpur]] == Students == The undergraduate students at IIT Kanpur are selected through the [[Joint Entrance Examination]] of the IITs. The graduate students (Masters) are mainly selected through the [[Graduate Aptitude Test in Engineering]] (GATE). Presently, the institute has around 3800 students, with an equal distribution of graduate and undergraduate students. Students at IIT Kanpur reside in the hostels, or 'halls of residence', most of which have their own unique history and lore. There are seven hostels for boys and two for girls called GH and hall 6. The annual [[culfest|cultural festival]] is called ''[[Antaragni]]''. It is held around the end of October every year. The annual science and technology festival, ''[[Techkriti]]'', is held at the end of February each year. The annual sports festival, ''[[Udghosh/Galaxy]]'', is held around the end of November each year and the annual film festival, ''[[Umang]]''. All four are amongst the most popular college events in North [[India]]. Another highlight of the student community is the self governance achieved in the form of the Students' Gymkhana, which is a democratically elected body. ==Alumni== * [[Ashoke Sen]] (String theorist) * [[N.R. Narayana Murthy]] (founded the software corporation [[Infosys]]) * [[Manindra Agrawal]], [[Nitin Saxena]], and [[Neeraj Kayal]] (proved that the problem of checking [[primality]] has a polynomial time algorithm, a major result in theoretical [[computer science]]) *[[Umang Gupta]] (Entrepreneur, wrote first business plan for Oracle, first PC-implementation of SQL and currently CEO of [[Keynote Systems]]) *[[Raj Singh]] (Venture Capitalist, former billionaire, funded Teligent among others, married to Nita, also an alumnus of IIT Kanpur) *[[Ambuj Goyal]] (VP/GM of IBM's Lotus business) *[[Satish Kaura]] (Padma Shri and founder of Samtel Group) * [[Umesh Mishra]] (Professor of Electrical and Computer Engineering and a leading expert on wide-band gap semiconductors) * [[Pradeep Sindhu]] (Founder - [[Juniper Networks]]) ==Miscellaneous== It was rated the no. 1 engineering institute in India by [[India Today]] in [[2004]]. It was rated the no. 1 engineering college in India by Data Quest in 2005 ==External links== * [http://www.iitk.ac.in Official Website] * [http://www.iitkalumni.org Alumni Website] {{Indian_Institute_Of_Technology}} [[Category:Universities and colleges in India]] [[Category:Engineering colleges in India]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Insulin</title> <id>14895</id> <revision> <id>41907961</id> <timestamp>2006-03-02T15:10:27Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Tasc</username> <id>853739</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/210.186.172.160|210.186.172.160]] to last version by Goto Dengo</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[image:Insulin.jpg|right|thumbnail|300px|The structure of insulin &lt;br&gt; Red: [[carbon]]; green: [[oxygen]]; blue: [[nitrogen]]; pink: [[sulfur]]. The blue/purple ribbons denote the skeleton &lt;nowiki&gt;[-N-C-C-]&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;small&gt;n&lt;/small&gt; in the protein's [[amino acid]] sequence &lt;nowiki&gt;H-[-NH-CHR-CO-]&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;small&gt;n&lt;/small&gt;-OH where R is the part protruding from the skeleton in each amino acid.]] [[image:Insulin_structure.JPG|right|thumbnail|400px|The primary structure of insulin &lt;br&gt;i.e. amino acid sequence]] '''Insulin''' (from [[Latin]] ''insula'', &quot;island&quot;, as it is produced in the [[Islets of Langerhans]] in the [[pancreas]]) is a [[polypeptide]] [[Peptide hormone|hormone]] that regulates [[carbohydrate metabolism]]. Apart from being the primary effector in [[carbohydrate]] [[homeostasis]], it also has a substantial effect on small vessel muscle tone, controls storage and release of [[lipid|fat]] ([[triglyceride]]s) and cellular uptake of both amino acids and some electrolytes. In this last sense, it has [[Anabolism|anabolic]] properties. Its concentration (more or less, presence or absence) has extremely widespread effects throughout the body. Insulin is used medically in some forms of [[diabetes mellitus]]. Patients with [[Diabetes_mellitus#Type_1|type 1 diabetes mellitus]] depend on exogenous insulin (injected subcutaneously) for their survival because of an absolute deficiency of the hormone; patients with [[Diabetes_mellitus#Type_2|type 2 diabetes mellitus]] have either relatively low insulin production or [[insulin resistance]] or both, and a non-trivial fraction of type 2 diabetics eventually require insulin administration when other medications become inadequate in controlling blood glucose levels. Insulin has the empirical formula [[carbon|C]]&lt;sub&gt;257&lt;/sub&gt;[[hydrogen|H]]&lt;sub&gt;383&lt;/sub&gt;[[nitrogen|N]]&lt;sub&gt;65&lt;/sub&gt;[[oxygen|O]]&lt;sub&gt;77&lt;/sub&gt;[[sulfur|S]]&lt;sub&gt;6&lt;/sub&gt;. Insulin structure varies slightly between [[species]] of animal. Its [[carbohydrate metabolism]] regulatory function strength in humans also varies. [[Pig]] insulin is particularly close to the [[human]] one. ==Discovery and characterization == In 1869 [[Paul Langerhans]], a medical student in [[Berlin]], was studying the structure of the pancreas under a [[microscope]] when he noticed some previously-unidentified cells scattered in the exocrine tissue. The function of the &quot;little heaps of cells,&quot; later [[eponym|known as]] the ''Islets of Langerhans'', was unknown, but [[Edouard Laguesse]] later argued that they may produce a secretion that plays a regulatory role in digestion. [[Image:Insulincrystals.jpg|left|300px|frame|Insulin [[crystal|crystals]]]] In 1889, the [[Germany|Polish-German]] physician [[Oscar Minkowski]] in collaboration with Joseph von Mehring removed the [[pancreas]] from a healthy dog to demonstrate this assumed role in digestion. Several days after the dog's pancreas was removed, Minkowski's animal keeper noticed a swarm of flies feeding on the dog's urine. On testing the urine they found that there was sugar in the dog's urine, demonstrating for the first time the relationship between the pancreas and diabetes. In 1901, another major step was taken by [[Eugene Opie]], when he clearly established the link between the Islets of Langerhans and diabetes: ''Diabetes mellitus.... is caused by destruction of the islets of Langerhans and occurs only when these bodies are in part or wholly destroyed.'' Before this demonstration, the link between the pancreas and diabetes was clear, but not the specific role of the islets. Over the next two decades, several attempts were made to isolate the secretion of the islets as a potential treatment. In 1906 [[Georg Ludwig Zuelzer]] was partially successful treating dogs with pancreatic extract, but unable to continue his work. Between 1911 and 1912, [[E.L. Scott]] at the [[University of Chicago]] used aqueous pancreatic extracts and noted ''a slight diminution of glycosuria'', but was unable to convince his director and the research was shut down. [[Israel Kleiner]] demonstrated similar effects at [[Rockefeller University]] in 1919, but his work was interrupted by [[World War I]] and he was unable to return to it. [[Nicolae Paulescu]], a professor of
orth by [[Nepali language|{{Unicode|Nepālī}}]]. Hindi also refers to a standardized register of [[Hindustani]] that was made one of the official languages of India. The grammatical description in this article concerns standard Hindi. Hindi is often contrasted with [[Urdu|{{Unicode|Urdū}}]], another standardized form of Hindustani that is the official language of Pakistan and some states in India. The primary differences between the two are that Standard Hindi is written in [[Devanāgarī]] and has supplemented some of its [[Persian language|Persian]] and [[Arabic language|Arabic]] vocabulary, with words from [[Sanskrit]]; while Urdu is written in [[nastaliq script]], a variant of the [[Persian alphabet|Persio-Arabic script]], and draws heavily on Persian and Arabic vocabulary. The term &quot;Urdu&quot; also includes dialects of Hindustani other than the standardized languages. Other than these, linguists consider both Hindi and Urdu to be the same language. ==Classification== Hindi is classified as a language belonging to the [[Indo-European family]] of languages. It comes under the [[Indo-Iranian languages|Indo Iranian branch]], in the [[Indo-Aryan languages|Indo-Aryan sub-branch]]. ==Ethnicity== ===Area=== Hindi is the predominant language in the states and territories of [[Himachal Pradesh]], [[Delhi]], [[Haryana]], [[Chandigarh]], [[Uttar Pradesh]], [[Madhya Pradesh]], [[Bihar]], [[Uttaranchal]], [[Jharkhand]], and [[Chattisgarh]]. It is spoken and understood in [[Gujarat]], [[Punjab, India|Punjab]], [[Rajasthan]], and [[Kashmir]], states that otherwise have their own native languages. It is also widely spoken in the cities of [[Mumbai]], [[Delhi]], [[Chandigarh]], [[Ahmedabad]], [[Kolkata]], [[Bangalore]] and [[Hyderabad]], all of which are cosmopolitan cities harboring large communities of people from various parts of India. Local variations of Hindi are counted as minority languages in several countries, including [[Fiji]], [[Mauritius]], [[Guyana]], [[Suriname]], and [[Trinidad and Tobago]]. ===Number of speakers=== Hindi is among the more widely spoken languages in the world. According to some estimates, about 500 million people in India and abroad are native speakers of Hindi and the total number of people who understand the language may be as high as 800 million. According to the [[1991]] census&lt;sup&gt;[http://www.censusindia.net/cendat/language/lang_table5.PDF]&lt;/sup&gt; 40.22% of the Indian population can speak Hindi. According to the 1991 [http://www.censusindia.net/cendat/language/lang1.html census of India] (which encompasses all the dialects of Hindi, including those that might be considered separate languages by some linguists—e.g., Bhojpuri), Hindi is spoken by about 337 million people in India as the mother tongue, which makes up about 40 % of India's 1991 population. According to [http://www.ethnologue.com/14/show_language.asp?code=HND ethnologue], about 180 million people in India regard Standard Hindi as their mother tongue. Another 300 million use it as second language. Outside India, Hindi speakers number 8 million in [[Nepal]], 890,000 in [[South Africa]], 685,000 in [[Mauritius]], 317,000 in the [[USA]]&lt;sup&gt;[http://www.census.gov/prod/2003pubs/c2kbr-29.pdf]&lt;/sup&gt;, 233,000 in [[Yemen]], 147,000 in [[Uganda]], 30,000 in [[Germany]], 20,000 in [[New Zealand]] and 5,000 in [[Singapore]], while the [[UK]] and [[UAE]] also have large populations of Hindi speakers. Hence, according to ''ethnologue'' (1999 data), Hindi/Urdu is the fifth most spoken language in the world, while according to ''Comerie'' (1998 data), Hindi-Urdu is the second most spoken language in the world (330 million native speakers). Because of Hindi's extreme similarity to Urdu, Urdu and Hindi speakers can usually understand one another, if both sides do not use specialized technical vocabulary (e.g., those pertaining to religion, politics, hi-fi poetry, etc.). But it would be questionable to count Urdu speakers as native speakers of Hindi, because of the fact that Hindi (spoken by the Hindus) and Urdu (spoken by the Muslims) are socio-politically different (although linguists ''do'' this). ===Official status=== Hindi, in devanagari script, is the '''national language''' (''rāshtrabhāshā'') and the official language of the Union of [[India]]. Article 343 of the [[Constitution of India]] states: &quot;Clause (1)—The official language of the Union shall be Hindi in Devanagari script&quot;. It is also the official language of the states [[Uttar Pradesh]], [[Bihar]], [[Jharkhand]], [[Uttaranchal]], [[Madhya Pradesh]], [[Rajasthan]], [[Chattisgarh]], [[Himachal Pradesh]], [[Haryana]] and the National Capital Territory of [[Delhi]]. Note again that English is the ''co-official'' language of the Indian Union, and that each of the several states mentioned above may also have another ''co-official language'' (usually in Hindi-speaking states, it is [[Urdu]]). Similarly Hindi is accorded the status of co-official language of many other states of the Indian Union. ==History== {{main|History of Hindi}} Hindi evolved from [[Sanskrit]], by way of the [[Middle Indo-Aryan]] [[Prakrit]] languages and [[Apabhramsha]] of the [[Middle Ages]]. As a standardised register of [[India]], Hindi became the national language&lt;sup&gt;[http://indiaimage.nic.in/languages.htm]&lt;/sup&gt; of India on [[January 26]], [[1950]], although [[English language|English]] and 21 other languages are recognised as official languages by the [[Constitution of India]]. ===Standard Hindi=== After independence of India, the Government of India worked on standardizing Hindi, and the following changes took place: *standardization of Hindi grammar: In [[1954]], the [[Government of India]] set up a Committee to prepare a grammar of Hindi; The committee's report was released in [[1958]] as &quot;A Basic Grammar of Modern Hindi&quot; *standardization of Hindi spelling *standardization of [[Devanagari]] (Devanāgarī) script by the Central Hindi Directorate, Ministry of Education and Culture to bring about uniformity in writing and to improve the shape of some devanagari characters. *scientific mode of scribing the Devanagari alphabet *incorporation of diacritics to express sounds from other languages ==Vocabulary== Standard Hindi derives much of its formal and technical vocabulary from [[Sanskrit]]. Standard or ''shuddha'' (&quot;pure&quot;) Hindi is used only in public addresses and radio or TV news, while the everyday spoken language in most areas is one of several varieties of [[Hindustani language|Hindustani]], whose vocabulary contains words drawn from [[Persian language|Persian]] and Arabic. In addition, spoken Hindi includes words from [[English language|English]] and other languages as well. Vernacular [[Urdu]] and Hindi are practically indistinguishable. However, the literary registers differ substantially; in highly formal situations, the languages are barely intelligible to speakers of the other. It bears mention that in centuries past both Sanskrit and Persian have been regarded as the languages of the elite, even by those of differing ethnic and religious backgrounds. There are two principal categories of words in Standard Hindi: *''tatsam'' (तत्सम्) words: These are the words which have been directly lifted from Sanskrit to enrich the formal and technical vocabulary of Hindi. Such words (almost exclusively nouns) have been taken without any phonetic or spelling change. Among nouns, the ''tatsam'' word could be the Sanskrit uninflected word-stem, or it could be the nominative singular form in the Sanskrit nominal declention. *''tadbhav'' (तद्भव) words: These are the words that ''might'' have been derived from Sanskrit or the Prakrits, but have undergone minor or major phonetic and spelling changes as they appear in modern Hindi. They also include words borrowed from the other languages. Similarly, Urdu treats its own vocabulary, borrowed directly from Persian and Arabic, as a separate category for morphological purposes. Hindi from which most of the Persian, Arabic and English words have been ousted and replaced by ''tatsam'' words is called ''Shuddha Hindi''. Chiefly, the proponents of the so-called ''[[Hindutva]]'' are vociferous supporters of ''Shuddha Hindi''. Excessive use of ''tatsam'' words sometimes creates problems for most native speakers. Strictly speaking, the ''tatsam'' words are words of Sanskrit and not of Hindi—thus they have complicated consonantal clusters which are not linguistically valid in Hindi. Educated middle class population of India can pronounce these words with ease, but people of ruralbackgrounds have much difficulty in pronouncing them. Similarly, vocabulary borrowed from Persian and Arabic also brings in its own consonantal clusters and &quot;foreign&quot; sounds, which may again cause difficulty in speaking them. ==Sociolinguistics of Hindi== ===Variants=== Sociolinguists&lt;sup&gt;[http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=hin]&lt;/sup&gt; have traditionally given what they call as four major ''variants'' of Hindi, viz., *'''High Hindi'''—the standardized Hindi (based on the ''Khariboli'' dialect), written in [[devanagari script]], which contains numerous Sanskrit loanwords, including those introduced more recently to enrich the technical and poetical vocabulary and to reduce reliance on words of Perseo-Arabic origin. Traditionally, this is the register spoken by the urban Hindu population of north India and is the form of Hindi taught in Indian schools and used in television news and newspapers. Today, High Hindi with many Persian, Arabic and English loanwords is the spoken form of this language in much of the north India, and is used in Hindi films, drama and television serials. *'''Dakhini'''—spoken in the Deccan plateau region in and around [[Hyderabad]], similar to Urdu but with fewer words derived from Perseo-Arabic in its vocabulary. *'''Rekhta'''—a form of Urdu used in
ting systems]]. ==Forth from a programmer's perspective== Forth relies heavily on explicit use of the [[stack data structure]] and [[reverse Polish notation]] (or RPN, also used on advanced calculators from [[Hewlett-Packard]]). This notation is also called postfix notation because the operator is placed after its operands, as opposed to the more common [[infix notation]] where the operator is placed between its operands. The rationale for postfix notation is that it is closer to the machine language the computer will eventually use, and should therefore be faster to execute. For example, one could get the result of the mathematical expression (25 * 10 + 50) this way: &lt;blockquote&gt;&lt;tt&gt; 25 10 * 50 + . &lt;br&gt; ''300'' &lt;/tt&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt; This command line first puts the numbers 25 and 10 on the implied stack; the &quot;*&quot; command multiplies the two numbers on the top of the stack and replaces them with their product; then the number 50 is placed on the stack, and the &quot;+&quot; command adds it to the previous product; finally, the &quot;.&quot; command prints the result to the user's terminal. Even the language's structural features are stack-based. For example: : FLOOR5 ( n -- n' ) DUP 6 &lt; IF DROP 5 ELSE 1 - THEN ; This code defines a new word (again, 'word' is the term used for a subroutine) called &quot;FLOOR5&quot; using the following commands: &quot;DUP&quot; simply duplicates the number on the stack; &quot;&lt;&quot; compares the two numbers on the stack and replaces them with a true-or-false value; &quot;IF&quot; takes a true-or-false value and chooses to execute commands immediately after it or to skip to the &quot;ELSE&quot;; &quot;DROP&quot; discards the value on the stack; and &quot;THEN&quot; ends the conditional. The text in parentheses is a comment, advising that this word expects a number on the stack and will return a possibly changed number. The net result is a function that performs similarly to this function written in the [[Python programming language]]: def floor5(v): if v &lt; 6: return 5 else: return v - 1 and similarly to this function written in the [[C programming language]]: int floor5(int v) { return v &lt; 6 ? 5 : v - 1; } An even terser Forth definition of FLOOR5 that gives the same result: : FLOOR5 ( n -- n' ) 1- 5 MAX ; Forth became very popular in the 1980s because it was well suited to the small [[microcomputer]]s of that time: very efficient in its use of memory and easily implemented on a new machine. At least one [[home computer]], the British [[Jupiter Ace|Jupiter ACE]], had Forth in its [[Read-only memory|ROM]]-resident OS. The language is still used in many [[embedded system]]s (small computerized devices) today for three main reasons: efficient memory use, shortened development time, and fast execution speed. FCode, a Forth dialect, is used for programming the [[boot loader]] on [[Sun Microsystems|Sun]] [[SPARC]] computers. Forth is also one of the simplest extensible languages. Programmers can easily extend the language with new commands appropriate to the primary programming problem in the particular application area. Unfortunately, extensibility also helps poor programmers to write incomprehensible code, which has caused Forth to acquire a reputation as a &quot;write-only&quot; language. In addition, the ease of implementing Forth on a given processor meant that the barrier to self-development of a Forth system was quite low, so that commercial suppliers were, in effect, competing head-to-head with hobbyists, many of whom supported the idea that software should be [[Free_software|free]]. Forth has been used successfully in large and complex projects, and applications developed by competent and disciplined professionals have been shown to be easily maintained over decades of use on evolving hardware platforms. == Facilities of a Forth system == ===Interpreter=== At the screen prompt, the user interacts directly with the Forth system, typing sequences of words which are then read and executed by the Forth system. This is the central value of the Forth system: Forth is a very simple way to translate text into computer behavior. The interpreter uses spaces (some systems accept other [[whitespace]] characters, also) to separate &quot;words.&quot; When it finds a word, it tries to look the word up in the ''dictionary'' and execute the word's code. If that fails, it then tries to convert it into a number and push it onto the stack. If that fails, then it prints the word followed by an error message ( e.g. &quot;not in dictionary&quot; ), and awaits further user input. The simplicity of the interpreter is one of the greatest features of Forth. ===Compiler=== Almost anything that can be typed, can also be compiled and executed automatically and even manually. The compiler uses semantics almost identical to the interpreter, and is also very simple. ===Assembler=== Most Forth systems include a specialized [[assembler]] that produces executable words. Forth assemblers often use a reverse-polish syntax in which the parameters of an instruction precede the instruction. The usual design of a Forth assembler is to construct the instruction on the stack, then copy it into memory as the last step. Registers may be referenced by the name used by the manufacturer, numbered (0..n, as used in the actual operation code) or named for their purpose in the Forth system: e.g. &quot;S&quot; for the register used as a stack pointer. ===Operating System=== Classic Forth systems traditionally used no operating system and no dedicated [[file system]]. Instead of storing code in files, source-code was stored in disk blocks written to physical disk addresses. Forth systems use a single word &quot;BLOCK&quot; to translate the number of a 1K-sized block of disk space into the address of a buffer containing the data. The buffers are managed automatically by the Forth system. Most modern Forth systems run under a host operating system such as [[Microsoft Windows]] or a version of [[Unix]] and use the host operating system's file system for source files. They usually provide a mechanism for issuing [[system call|call]]s to the host OS or other resident facilities. ===File System=== Some classic commercial Forth systems have implemented contiguous disk files, using the Forth operating system's disk access, and placing the files at fixed disk block ranges. Usually the system implements records as fixed-length binary data, with an integer number of records per disk block. Quick searching is achieved by hashed access on key data. The ANSI standardization effort (1994) added an optional set of commands for managing host OS files. ===Multitasking=== Some Forth systems feature a [[computer multitasking|multitasker]], most commonly a [[Computer_multitasking#Cooperative_multitasking/time-sharing|cooperative]] [[Round-robin_scheduling|round-robin scheduler]]. The word &quot;PAUSE&quot; is used to save the current task's execution context, to locate the next task, and restore its execution context. Each task has its own stacks, private copies of some control variables and a scratch area. Swapping tasks is simple and efficient; as a result, Forth multitaskers are available even on very simple microcontrollers such as the 8051, AVR, and MSP430. On Forth systems that run under operating systems such as [[Microsoft_Windows|Microsoft Windows]] or [[Linux]], the Forth system normally utilises the scheduling provided by the operating system. Typically these systems have a larger and different set of words that permit task creation, suspension, destruction and modification of priority. ===Self (meta) and [[Cross-compilation|cross compilation]]=== A full-featured Forth system with all source code will compile itself, a technique commonly called meta-compilation by Forth programmers (although the term doesn't exactly match [[Meta-Compilation|meta-compilation]] as it is normally defined). The usual method is to redefine the handful of words that place compiled bits into memory. The compiler's words therefore use specially-named versions of fetch and store that can be redirected to fetch and store to a buffer area in memory. The buffer area simulates or accesses a memory area beginning at a different address than the code buffer. Such compilers define words to access both the target computer's memory, and the host (compiling) computer's memory. After the fetch and store operations are redefined for the code space, the compiler, assembler, etc. are recompiled using the new definitions of fetch and store. This effectively reuses all the code of the compiler and interpreter. Then, the Forth system's code is compiled, but this version is stored in the buffer. The buffer in memory is written to disk, and ways are provided to load it temporarily into memory for testing. When the new version appears to work, it is written over the previous version. There are numerous variations of such compilers for different environments. For [[embedded system]]s, the code may instead be written to another computer over a serial port or even a single [[Transistor-transistor logic|TTL]] bit, while keeping the word names and other non-executing parts of the dictionary in the original compiling computer. The minimum definitions to &quot;remote&quot; a forth compiler are the words that fetch and store a byte, and the word that commands a forth word to be executed. Often the most time-consuming part of a remote port is to construct the initial program to implement fetch, store and execute. Many modern microprocessors have integrated debugging features (such as the [[Motorola CPU32]]) that eliminate even this task. == Structure of the language == The basic data structure of Forth is the &quot;dictionary&quot; which maps &quot;words&quot; to executable code or named data structures. The dictionary is laid out in memory as a [[linked li
n Commandos approach a remote farm building, Top Malo House. The Cadre's commander, Captain Boswell, was ordered to muster his patrols and mount an assault on the farmhouse. He initially intended to fly in at night and then strike at dawn. Luck was not with the Cadre and its Sea King helicopter failed to arrive on time. An hour late, the nineteen Marines began their 45 kilometere low level flight to the drop off point in a gully, only some 1,000 metres from the farmhouse. At 9:00 AM the assault team comprising 12 Marines approached the house and were engaged with a Magnum sniper rifle from the top floor. A firefight which lasted for 45 minutes ensued between the Cadre and the Commandos. With ammunitions running low and two-thirds of the patrol killed or wounded the Argentines elected to surrender. It is estimated that 40 Argentine Commandos were involved in the battle with the SAS and the Cadre. A body count revealed five Argentine dead. Seven members of the British Special Forces were wounded during the actions. One SBS sergeant was killed as the Mount Kent ranges were secured for the arrival of the British battalions. By [[June 1]], with the arrival of a further 5,000 British troops of 5 Inf Brigade landed at [[San Carlos]] from [[RMS Canberra|''Canberra'']], ''[[Norland]]'' and ''Stromness'' having transferred from the liner [[RMS Queen Elizabeth 2|''QE2'']] at [[South Georgia]], new British divisional commander, Major General [[JJ Moore]] RM, had sufficient force to start planning an offensive against [[Stanley, Falkland Islands|Stanley]]. During this build-up the Argentine air assaults on the British naval forces continued, killing 48, including 32 [[Welsh Guards]]men on the [[RFA Sir Galahad (1966)|RFA ''Sir Galahad'']] and the [[RFA Sir Tristram|RFA ''Sir Tristram'']] on [[June 8]]. Many others suffered serious burns (including, famously, [[Simon Weston]]). These troops were still on the ships because of the loss of the helicopters on the ''Atlantic Conveyor''. This meant that they had had to be transferred around the islands by ship. Unfortunately, the commanders of the [[landing force]] ignored the advice of naval commanders to disembark at the earliest opportunity. ===Battle for Stanley=== On the night of [[11 June]], after several days of painstaking reconnaissance and logistic build-up, British forces launched a brigade-sized night attack against the heavily defended ring of high ground surrounding Stanley. Units of 3 Commando Brigade, supported by naval gunfire from several Royal Navy ships, simultaneously assaulted [[Battle of Mount Harriet|Mount Harriet]], [[Battle of Two Sisters|Two Sisters]], and [[Battle of Mount Longdon|Mount Longdon]]. During this battle thirteen were killed when [[HMS Glamorgan|HMS ''Glamorgan'']], which was providing naval gunfire support, was struck by an Exocet fired from the back of a truck, further displaying the vulnerability of ships to anti-ship missiles. On this day Sgt [[Ian McKay]] of 4 Platoon, B Company, 3 Para died in a grenade attack on an Argentine bunker which was to earn him a posthumous [[Victoria Cross]]. After a night of fierce fighting all objectives were secured. The night of [[June 13]], saw the start of the second phase of attacks, in which the momentum of the initial assault was maintained. 2 Para captured [[Battle of Wireless Ridge|Wireless Ridge]], and the 2nd battalion, [[Scots Guards (1946)|Scots Guards]] captured [[Battle of Mount Tumbledown|Mount Tumbledown]]. As the fighting was coming to a close the Falklands Islanders on the eastern edge of Stanley were in imminent danger of being shot at by a platoon of a 3rd Infantry Regiment company as the conscripts and regulars steeled themselves for the final house-to-house battle near Government House. This is revealed in the book ''The Battle For The Falklands'' by [[Max Hastings]] and [[Simon Jenkins]]. Brigadier-General Oscar Jofre, Commander of the elite 10th Argentine Mechanized Infantry Brigade, has admitted that the abrupt end of the ground fighting was hastened by fear of war crimes against the civilians. On [[June 14]] the commander of the Argentine garrison in Stanley, Mario Menendez, surrendered to Major General [[JJ Moore]] [[Royal Marines]]. 9800 Argentine troops were made [[POW]]s and were repatriated to Argentina on the liner Canberra. On [[June 20]] the British retook the [[Southern Thule|South Sandwich Islands]], (which involved accepting the surrender of the [[Southern Thule]] Garrison at the ''[[Corbeta Uruguay]]'' base) and declared the hostilities were at an end. The war lasted 74 days, with 255 British and 655 Argentine soldiers, sailors, and airmen, killed. ==Analysis== ===Military=== Militarily, the Falklands War was important for a number of reasons. [[Image:1982FI00201.jpg|right|thumb|200px|British propaganda leaflet intended for Argentine soldiers dropped during the Falkland Islands War. Titled &quot;Islands of the Condemned&quot;, it warns Argentine naval ships and aircraft not to enter the [[Falkland Islands]] exclusion zone.]] It was one of the few major naval battles so far to have occurred after the end of [[World War II]]. As such this conflict illustrated the vulnerability of surface ships to anti-ship missiles and reaffirmed the effectiveness of aircraft in naval warfare. The viability of stealth (in the form of submarines) again proved its usefulness, much as it did during World War II and the Cold War. Neither side achieved total air supremacy, but the power of air forces during a conflict like this proved invaluable, due to the isolated, rough landscape of the Falklands. Air strikes were staged against ground, sea and air targets on both sides and often with clear results. All of the UK losses at sea were achieved by aircraft or missile strikes (by both the [[Argentine Air Force]] and [[Argentine Navy|Naval Aviation]]). The French [[Exocet missile]] proved its lethality in [[air-to-surface missile|air-to-surface]] operations. ''See also main article [[Air forces in the Falklands War]]''. It vindicated the UK decision to develop the [[VTOL]] Harrier aircraft, that showed its capability of operating from forward bases with no runways. At sea it demonstrated the domination of airpower in major engagements and the usefulness of carriers. The logistic capability of the UK armed forces was stretched to the absolute limit in order to mount an amphibious operation so far from a home-base, onto mountainous islands which have few roads. After the war much work was done to improve both the logistic and amphibious capability of the Royal Navy. The role of special forces units, which destroyed many Argentine aircraft, and carried out intelligence gathering operations, was reaffirmed. The usefulness of helicopters in combat, logistic, and [[casevac]] operations was reaffirmed. At sea, some shortcomings of warship design were made apparent, particularly the danger of using [[aluminium]] in ships (although it did not catch fire, it melted in the heat). [[Nylon]] was shown to be a poor choice of fabric in uniforms, as it is more flammable than cotton and also melts with heat, sticking the incendiary fabric to the skin and causing avoidable casualties. ===Political=== The Falklands War illustrates the role of political miscalculation and miscommunication in creating war. Both sides seriously underestimated the importance of the Falklands to the other. The Falklands War illustrates the role of chance in determining what happens in a war. Some commentators believe that the war could have ended in an Argentine victory if one of the Exocets had hit an aircraft carrier, or if the frequent unexploded bombs had detonated on striking some of the ships (75% of the British task force was damaged or sunk), or if Argentina had attacked the British artillery, using the three paratroop regiments already deployed at [[Comodoro Rivadavia]]. Equally, if the Argentines had made better preparations to hold the islands, they might have been able to do so, but they did not expect that the British would attempt to carry out a war 6000 miles (10&amp;nbsp;000 km) from home. Either way, an Argentine victory may have been an unacceptable show of weakness on the part of the UK during an intense period of the [[Cold War]], and as a result some have doubted that such an outcome would have been allowed to remain for long. With the UK being an integral U.S. ally and important part of [[NATO]], to permit a loss would have been a signal to the [[USSR]] that the NATO alliance was militarily and politically weak. &lt;!-- Image with unknown copyright status removed: [[Image:MargaretThatcher.jpg|frame|right|Margaret Thatcher, British Prime Minister during the Falklands War]] --&gt; The war cost the UK 255 men, six ships (10 others were very badly damaged), thirty-four aircraft, and more than £1.6 billion, but the campaign was considered a great victory for the United Kingdom. The war provided a substantial boost to the popularity of Margaret Thatcher and played a role in ensuring her [[United Kingdom general election, 1983|re-election in 1983]]. Several members of her government resigned, including the former [[Secretary of State for Foreign and Commonwealth Affairs|Foreign Secretary]] [[Peter Carington, 6th Baron Carrington|Lord Carrington]]. It has also been said by diplomats that following the British victory there was an increase in international respect for Britain, formerly regarded as a fading colonial power. As mentioned earlier, the victory was not overlooked by the USSR, who increased troop levels facing the British Army of the Rhine soon after, and was an important junction in the Cold War. However, it is believed that with the renewed confidence gained from the victory, Margaret Thatcher suggested in her September 1982 China visit an extension of the British rule of the New Territories in [[Hong Kong]], which was to legally end in [[1997]] with the expiry of the 99-year leas
ark]] '''Bethlehem''' ([[Arabic language|Arabic]] '''بيت لحم''' {{Audio|ArBethlehem.ogg|'''Bayt Laḥm'''}} &quot;house of meat&quot;; [[Standard Hebrew]] '''בית לחם''' &quot;house of bread&quot;, '''Bet léḥem''' / '''Bet láḥem'''; [[Tiberian Hebrew]] '''Bêṯ léḥem''' / ''' Bêṯ lāḥem''') ([[Greek language|Greek]]: '''Βηθλεέμ''') is a city in the [[West Bank]] under [[Palestinian Authority]] considered a central hub of Palestinian cultural and tourism industries. The city has great significance to the [[Christianity|Christian religion]] as it is believed to be the birthplace of [[Jesus of Nazareth]]. The traditional site of [[Rachel's tomb]], which is important in [[Judaism]], lies at the city's outskirts. Bethlehem is also home to one of largest [[Palestinian Christian]] communities in the Middle East. It lies about 10 km (6 mi) south of [[Jerusalem]], standing at an elevation of about 765 m (2 510 ft) above the sea, thus 30 m (100 ft) higher than Jerusalem. The Bethlehem [[agglomeration]] includes the small towns of [[Beit Jala]] and [[Beit Sahour]], the latter also having biblical significance. The [[Church of the Nativity]], built by [[Constantine the Great]] (A.D. 330), stands in the centre of Bethlehem over a grotto or cave called the Holy Crypt, which according to Christian tradition is the place where Jesus was born. This is perhaps the oldest existing Christian church in the world. Close to it is another grotto, where [[Jerome]] the Latin father is said to have spent thirty years of his life in translating the Scriptures into Latin. (See [[Vulgate]]). &lt;!-- Image with unknown copyright status removed: [[Image:Bethlehem University.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Bethlehem University]] --&gt; Bethlehem is home to Bethlehem University [http://www.bethlehem.edu], a major [[Roman Catholic]] institution which was founded under the direction of the [[Holy See|Vatican]]. == History == === Biblical === The city, located in the &quot;hill country&quot; of [[Kingdom of Judah|Judah]], was originally called ''[[Ephrath]]'' (Gen. 35:16, 19; 48:7; Ruth 4:11). It was also called ''Beth-lehem Ephratah'' (Micah 5:2), ''Beth-lehem-judah'' (1 Sam. 17:12), and &quot;the city of [[David]]&quot; (Luke 2:4). It is first noticed in Scripture as the place where [[Rachel]] died and was buried &quot;by the wayside,&quot; directly to the north of the city (Gen. 48:7). The valley to the east was the scene of the story of [[Ruth]] the [[Moab]]itess. There are the fields in which she gleaned, and the path by which she and [[Naomi]] returned to the town. ====City of David==== Bethlehem is the birth-place of [[David]], the second king of Israel, and it is also the place where he was anointed as king by [[Samuel]] (1 Sam. 16:4-13); and it was from the well of Bethlehem that three of his heroes brought water for him at the risk of their lives when he was in the cave of [[Adullam]] (2 Sam. 23:13-17). ====Jesus's birthplace==== Since it was distinguished above every other city as the birth-place of &quot;Him whose goings forth have been of old&quot; (Micah 5:2), it was here that, the birth of the [[Messiah]] was expected. Accordingly, the [[gospel]]s ([[Gospel of Luke|Luke]] 2:4 and [[Gospel of Matthew|Matthew]] 2:1) report that [[Jesus]], whom they proclaim as the Messiah, was born in Bethlehem, although he grew up in [[Nazareth]]. Matthew reports that [[Herod the Great|Herod]], after Jesus's birth had &quot;all the children that were in Bethlehem, and in all the coasts thereof, from two years old and under&quot; killed (Matt. 2:16, 18; Jer. 31:15). Recent archaeological findings have also suggested [[Bethlehem, Galilee]] as a possible location for the birth of Jesus. The site featured the ruins of a [[church]] and a [[synagogue]] until the late 19th century, and was found to have archeological evidence of a prosperous city; many scholars place Beth Lehem of Galilee as one of the birth places of Rabbinical Judaism — it is by all accounts a logical place for a spiritual leader with a small group of followers to develop his doctrines. === Roman and Byzantine periods === [[Image:BethlehemInsideCN.jpg|right|200px|thumb|Interior of the Church of the Nativity]] The city was wrecked during [[Bar Kokhba's revolt]] (132-135 AD) and the Romans set up a shrine to [[Adonis]] on the site of the Nativity. Only in 326 was the first Christian church constructed, when [[Helena of Constantinople|Helena]], the mother of the first Christian emperor, [[Constantine I (emperor)|Constantine]], visited Bethlehem. During the [[Samaritan revolt]] of 529, Bethlehem was sacked and its walls and the Church of the Nativity destroyed, but they were soon rebuilt on the orders of the Emperor [[Justinian I|Justinian]]. In 614, the [[Persians]] invaded Palestine and captured Bethlehem. A story recounted in later sources holds that they refrained from destroying the Church of the Nativity on seeing the [[magi]] depicted in Persian clothing in one of the mosaics. ===Arab rule and the Crusades=== In 637, shortly after [[Jerusalem]] was captured by the Muslim armies, the Caliph [[Umar ibn al-Khattab]] visited Bethlehem and promised that the Church of the Nativity would be preserved for Christian use. In 1099, Bethlehem was captured by the [[Crusaders]], who fortified it and built a new monastery and cloister on the north side of the Church of the Nativity. The town prospered under their rule. On Christmas Day 1100 [[Baldwin I of Jerusalem|Baldwin I]], first king of the Frankish [[Kingdom of Jerusalem]], was crowned in Bethlehem, and that year a [[Roman Catholic|Latin]] episcopate was also established in the town. In the 1160s the nave of the [[Church of the Nativity]] was redecorated with mosaics showing the councils of the church. An ally of King [[Amalric I of Jerusalem]], emperor [[Manuel I Comnenus]] of [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantium]], was one of the patrons of the work. On the south wall, an inscription in Greek reads: &quot;the present work was finished by Ephraim the monk, painter and mosaicist, in the reign of the great emperor Manuel Porphyrogenitos Comnenus and in the time of the great king of Jerusalem, Amalric.&quot; Interestingly, the emperor's name was placed first, in recognition of his role as overlord and protector of the Crusaders at the time. However, in 1187, [[Saladin]] captured Bethlehem from the Crusaders, and the Latin clerics were forced to leave. Saladin agreed to the return of two Latin priests and two deacons in 1192. However, the town suffered from the loss of the pilgrim trade. Bethlehem was briefly returned to Crusader control by treaty between 1229 and 1244. In 1250, with the coming to power of [[Rukn al-Din Baibars]], tolerance of Christianity declined, clergy left the town, and in 1263 the walls of the town were demolished. The Latin clergy returned to the town over the following century, establishing themselves in the monastery adjoining the Basilica, and in 1347 the [[Franciscans]] gained possession of the Grotto of the Nativity as well as the right to administer and maintain the Basilica. ===Bethlehem under the Ottoman Empire=== [[Image:Bethlehem1894.png|thumb|350 px|View of Bethlehem in 1894 with pilgrims (drawing by Karl Oenike)]] During the years of Ottoman control from 1517 on, custody of the Basilica was bitterly disputed between the Catholic and Greek Orthodox churches. From 1831 to 1841 Palestine was under the rule of [[Muhammad Ali of Egypt]]. During this period the town suffered an earthquake as well as the destruction of the Muslim quarter by troops, apparently as a reprisal for a murder. In 1841, Bethlehem came under Ottoman rule once more, and so it remained until the end of the [[First World War]] and the imposition of the [[British Mandate of Palestine|British Mandate]] on Palestine. ===20th Century=== In the 1947 resolution by the [[United Nations General Assembly]] to partition Palestine, Bethlehem was included in the special international enclave of [[Jerusalem]] to be administered by the [[United Nations]]. [[Jordan]] occupied the city during the [[1948 Arab-Israeli War]]. Many refugees from areas captured by [[Zionist]] forces in 1947 - 1948 came to Bethlehem, setting up encampments in the north of the city near the road to Jerusalem and on the hillside to the south between the city and Solomon's Pools. These later became the official refugee camps of Beit Jibrin (or al-'Azza) and 'A'ida (in the north) and [[Deheisheh]] in the south. This influx of refugees changed the demography of Bethlehem considerably. Jordan retained control of the city until 1967, when Bethlehem was captured by Israel along with the rest of the [[West Bank]]. On [[December 21]], [[1995]], Bethlehem became one of the areas under the full control of the [[Palestinian Authority]]. It is capital of the Bethlehem district. The current population of the town is about 40,000. The Christian population is no longer the majority, but a special statute requires that the mayor and a majority of the municipal council must nevertheless be Christian. == Recent events == ===Church of the Nativity Siege=== With the escalation of the [[Israeli-Palestinian conflict]], Bethlehem has been the site of many confrontations. In May 2002, during an [[Israel Defense Forces]] raid into the city, a number of locals (some of whom were armed) fled into the [[Church of the Nativity]]. According to senior Tanzim commander Abdullah Abu-Hadid, the church was specifically chosen due to its abundant supplies of food, water, and as a focal point for international outcry {{fact}}. It became the site of a 5-week stand-off. The number of people inside was estimated between 120 and 240 hostages forbiden to leave the site by at least 40 gunmen [http://www.palestinefacts.org/pf_1991to_now_church_nativity_2002.php][http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Terrorism/nativityterr.html]. Several groups of civilians were allowed out of the church during the 5 week siege [http:/
adjusted to the segment size * The ''more fragments'' (MF) flag is set for all segments except the last one * The ''fragment offset'' field is set accordingly based on the offset of the segment in the original data payload For example, for an IP header of length 20 bytes and an ethernet MTU of 1,500 bytes the fragment offsets would be: 0, 1480, 2960, 4440, 5920, etc. By some chance if a packet changes link layer protocols or the MTU reduces then these fragments would be fragmented again. For example, if a 4,500 byte data payload is inserted into an IP packet with no options (thus total length is 5,020 bytes) and is transmitted over a link with an MTU of 2,500 bytes then it will be broken up into two fragments: {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; |- !rowspan=&quot;2&quot;| # !!colspan=&quot;2&quot; width=&quot;200&quot;| Total length !!rowspan=&quot;2&quot;| More fragments (MF)&lt;BR&gt;flag set? !!rowspan=&quot;2&quot;| Fragment offset |- !width=&quot;100&quot;| Header !!width=&quot;100&quot;| Data |- |rowspan=&quot;2&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;| 1 ||colspan=&quot;2&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;| 2500 ||rowspan=&quot;2&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; {{yes}} ||rowspan=&quot;2&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;| 0 |- | align=&quot;center&quot;| 20 || align=&quot;center&quot;| 2480 |- |rowspan=&quot;2&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;| 2 ||colspan=&quot;2&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;| 2040 ||rowspan=&quot;2&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; {{no}} ||rowspan=&quot;2&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;| 2480 |- | align=&quot;center&quot;| 20 || align=&quot;center&quot;| 2020 |} Now, let's say the MTU drops to 1,500 bytes. Each fragment will individually be split up into two more fragments each: {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; |- !rowspan=&quot;2&quot;| # !!colspan=&quot;2&quot; width=&quot;200&quot;| Total length !!rowspan=&quot;2&quot;| More fragments (MF)&lt;BR&gt;flag set? !!rowspan=&quot;2&quot;| Fragment offset |- !width=&quot;100&quot;| Header !!width=&quot;100&quot;| Data |- |rowspan=&quot;2&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;| 1 ||colspan=&quot;2&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;| 1500 ||rowspan=&quot;2&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; {{yes}} ||rowspan=&quot;2&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;| 0 |- | align=&quot;center&quot;| 20 || align=&quot;center&quot;| 1480 |- |rowspan=&quot;2&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;| 2 ||colspan=&quot;2&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;| 1020 ||rowspan=&quot;2&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; {{yes}} ||rowspan=&quot;2&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;| 1480 |- | align=&quot;center&quot;| 20 || align=&quot;center&quot;| 1000 |- |rowspan=&quot;2&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;| 3 ||colspan=&quot;2&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;| 1500 ||rowspan=&quot;2&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; {{yes}} ||rowspan=&quot;2&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;| 2480 |- | align=&quot;center&quot;| 20 || align=&quot;center&quot;| 1480 |- |rowspan=&quot;2&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;| 4 ||colspan=&quot;2&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;| 560 ||rowspan=&quot;2&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; {{no}} ||rowspan=&quot;2&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;| 3960 |- | align=&quot;center&quot;| 20 || align=&quot;center&quot;| 540 |} Indeed, the amount of data has been preserved &amp;mdash; 1480 + 1000 + 1480 + 540 = 4500 &amp;mdash; and the last fragment offset plus data &amp;mdash; 3960 + 540 = 4500 &amp;mdash; is also the total length. Note that fragments 3 &amp; 4 were dervied from the original fragment 2. When a device must fragment the last fragment then it must set the flag for all but the last fragment it creates (fragment 3 in this case). ===Reassembly=== When a receiver detects an IP packet where either of the following is true: * &quot;more fragments&quot; flag set * &quot;fragment offset&quot; field is non-zero then the receiver knows it is the packet is a fragment. The receiver then stores the data with the identification field, fragment offset, and the more fragments flag. When the receiver recives a fragment with the more fragments flag not set then it knows the length of the original data payload since the fragment offset plus the data length is equivalent to the original data payload size. Using the example above, when the receiver receives fragment #4 the fragment offset (3960) and the data length (540) added together yield 4500 &amp;mdash; the original data length. Once it has all the fragments then it can reassemble the data in proper order (by using the fragment offsets) and pass it up the stack for further processing. ==See also== * [[Classful network]] * [[Classless Inter-Domain Routing]] * [[Internet Assigned Numbers Authority]] * [[IPv6]] * [[List of assigned Class A IP addresses]] * [[List of IP protocol numbers]] * [[Regional Internet Registry]] ==External links== * RFC 791 - Internet Protocol * http://www.iana.org &amp;ndash; Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA) * http://www.ipnow.org &amp;ndash; IPv4 and Other IP Address Formats Detector ===Address exhaustion=== * [http://www.ripe.net/rs/news/ipv4-ncc-20031030.html RIPE report on address consumption as of October 2003] * [http://www.iana.org/assignments/ipv4-address-space Official current state of IPv4 /8 allocations, as maintained by IANA] * [http://bgp.potaroo.net/ipv4/ Dynamically generated graphs of IPv4 address consumption with predictions of exhaustion dates] * [http://www.whatsmyipaddy.com/ Display your IP Address, Browser Information, and more] * [http://www.ripe.net/info/info-services/ipv4/index.html Article on IPv4 Exhaustion - &quot;Running Out of Time?&quot;] * [http://www.rfc-editor.org/rfc.html Internet RFC database] and [http://www.rfcsearch.org/ Internet RFCs in HTML format] * [http://www.apnic.net/news/hot-topics/internet-gov/ip-china.html APNIC hot topics - IP addressing in China and the myth of address shortage] [[Category:Internet protocols]] [[Category:Internet standards]] [[Category:Internet architecture]] [[da:IPv4]] [[de:IPv4]] [[es:IPv4]] [[fr:IPv4]] [[ko:IPv4]] [[it:IPv4]] [[ja:IPv4]] [[nl:Internet Protocol Version 4]] [[no:IPv4]] [[pl:IPv4]] [[pt:Protocolo IP]] [[sk:IPv4]] [[fi:IPv4]] [[tr:IPv4]] [[zh:IPv4]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>IPv6</title> <id>15318</id> <revision> <id>41646186</id> <timestamp>2006-02-28T19:43:08Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>63.109.22.7</ip> </contributor> <comment>/* Spelling fix &quot;Tunnelling&quot; to Tunneling */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{IPstack}} &lt;!-- Edit the stack image at: Template:IPstack --&gt; '''Internet Protocol version 6''' ('''IPv6''') is a [[network layer]] standard used by electronic devices to exchange data across a [[packet]]-switched [[internetwork]]. It follows [[IPv4]] as the second version of the [[Internet Protocol]] to be formally adopted for general use. IPv6 is intended to provide more addresses for networked devices, allowing, for example, each cell phone and mobile electronic device to have its own address. IPv4 supports 4.3&amp;times;10&lt;sup&gt;9&lt;/sup&gt; (4.3 billion) addresses, which is inadequate to give one to every living person. IPv6 supports 3.4&amp;times;10&lt;sup&gt;38&lt;/sup&gt; addresses, or 5&amp;times;10&lt;sup&gt;28&lt;/sup&gt; for each of the roughly 6.5 billion people alive today. Invented by [[Steve Deering]] and [[Craig Mudge]] at [[Xerox PARC]], IPv6 was adopted by the [[Internet Engineering Task Force]] in [[1994]], when it was called &quot;IP Next Generation&quot; (IPng). (Incidentally, [[IPv5]] was not a successor to IPv4, but an experimental flow-oriented [[streaming media|streaming]] protocol intended to support video and audio.) As of December 2005, IPv6 accounts for a tiny percentage of the live addresses in the publicly-accessible Internet, which is still dominated by IPv4. The adoption of IPv6 has been slowed by the introduction of [[network address translation]] (NAT), which partially alleviates address exhaustion. The [[Federal government of the United States|U.S. Government]] has specified that all federal agencies must deploy IPv6 by [[2008]]. It is expected that IPv4 will be supported alongside IPv6 for the foreseeable future. ==Features of IPv6== To a great extent, IPv6 is a conservative extension of IP. Most transport- and application-layer protocols need little or no change to work over IPv6; exceptions are applications protocols that embed network-layer addresses (such as [[File_Transfer_Protocol|FTP]] or [[Network_Time_Protocol|NTPv3]]). ===Larger address space=== The main feature of IPv6 is the larger address space: addresses in IPv6 are 128 bits long. The larger address space allows to avoid the potential exhaustion of the IPv4 address space without the need for NAT and other devices that break the end-to-end nature of Internet traffic. 128 bits might seem overkill to achieve that goal. However, since IPv6 addresses are plentiful, it is reasonable to allocate addresses in large blocks, which makes administration easier and avoids fragmentation of the address space, which in turn leads to smaller routing tables. The current allocation policies allocate 64 bits of address space to an end-user, and 96 bits or more to an organization. Another advantage of the larger address space is that it makes scanning certain IP blocks for vulnerabilities significantly more difficult than in IPv4, which makes IPv6 more tolerant against malicious traffic. ===Stateless autoconfiguration of hosts=== IPv6 hosts can configure automatically when connected to a routed IPv6 network. When first connected to a network, a host sends a link-local [[multicast]] ([[Broadcasting_(networks)|broadcast]]) request for its configuration parameters; if configured suitably, routers respond to such a request with a ''router advertisement'' packet. If IPv6 autoconfiguration is not suitable, a host can use stateful autoconfiguration ([[Dynamic_Host_Configuration_Protocol|DHCPv6]]) or be configured manually. Stateless autoconfiguration is only suita
section, in standard orchestral seating, is located on stage left (the audience's right) in the front, opposite to the first violin section. However, some orchestras prefer secondary orchestral seating, where the cello section is placed in the middle front, between the first violins and second violins. The principal, or &quot;first chair&quot; cellist is the leader of the cello section who determines bowings for the section in conjunction with other string sections, and plays solos. In standard orchestra seating, he/she sits nearest to the conductor and the audience. In secondary orchestra seating, he/she sits nearest the conductor and stage left in comparison to the cellist next to him/her (the cellist sitting &quot;second chair&quot;). The cellos are a critical part of orchestral music; all symphonic works involve the cello section, and many pieces require cello soli or solos. Much of the time, cellos provide part of the harmony for the orchestra. On many occasions, the cello section will pick up the melody of the piece for a brief period of time, before returning to the harmony. There are also cello [[concerto]]s, which are orchestral pieces in which a featured, solo cellist is accompanied by an entire orchestra. ===Solo=== There are multiple [[Cello concerto|cello concertos]], where the cello is accompanied by an [[orchestra]]. There are also many [[cello sonata|sonatas]] for cello and [[piano]] There are also several [[unaccompanied]] pieces for cello, most notably [[Johann Sebastian Bach|J.S. Bach's]] ''[[Cello Suites (Bach)|Unaccompanied Suites for Cello]],'' and Benjamin Britten's ''Unaccompanied Suites for Cello.'' ===Quartet/Ensembles=== The cello is a defined member of the traditional [[string quartet]]. In addition, cellos are also usually part of string [[string quintets|quintets]], [[string sextets|sextet]] or [[string trio|trios]]. There have been several pieces written for a cello ensemble of up to twenty to thirty cellists. This type of ensemble is often called a 'cello choir'. The [[The 12 cellists of the Berlin Philharmonic|Twelve Cellists]] of the [[Berlin Philharmonic Orchestra]] (or the Twelve as they are called) are a prime example of a cello choir. They play and record pieces written especially for twelve cellos including adaptions of famous [[The Beatles|Beatles]] songs. ===Pop Music=== Though the cello is less common in [[popular music]] than in [[Classical music|&quot;classical&quot; music]], it is sometimes featured in [[Pop music|pop]] and [[Rock music|rock]] recordings. The cello is rarely part of a group's standard lineup (though like its cousin the [[violin]], it is becoming more common in mainstream pop). An exception is [[Apocalyptica]], a group of cellists best known for their versions of heavy metal songs. Another example is [[Rasputina]], a group of three female cellists committed to an intricate cello style intermingled with Gothic music. These groups are examples of a style that has become known as [[cello rock]]. Additionally, American musician [[Tony Levin]] makes great use of an electric cello designed by [[Ned Steinberger]] in his solo music. Also notable is the [[Northern Ireland|Northern Irish]] group [[Therapy?]], who, from 1996 to 2004, featured [[Martin McCarrick]] on cello. Notable cello-led songs by the band include &quot;Diane&quot; and &quot;God Kicks&quot;. ==Makers / Luthiers== {{main|Luthier}} A violin maker or [[luthier]] is someone who builds or repairs stringed instruments, ranging from guitars to violins. Some well known luthiers include: *[[Nicolo Amati]] *[[Nicolò Gagliano]] *[[Gofriller|Matteo Gofriller]] *[[Giovanni Battista Guadagnini]] *[[Giuseppe Guarneri]] *[[Domenico Montagnana]] *[[Stefano Scarampella]] *[[Antonio Stradivari]] *[[David Tecchler]] *[[Carlo Giuseppe Testore]] *[[Jean Baptiste Vuillaume]] ==Cellists== {{main|List of cellists}} A person who plays the cello is called a ''cellist.'' For a list of famous or notable cellists, see [[List of cellists|the list of cellists]]. See also [[:Category:Cellists]]. ==Reference== {{GroveOnline|Violoncello|Stephen Bonta|January 28|2006}} ==See also== {{commons|Cello}} * [[Double stop]] * [[Electric cello]] * [[List of compositions for cello and orchestra]] * [[List of solo cello pieces]] * [[:Category:Composers for cello]] ==External links== *[http://www.cello.org/ The Internet Cello Society]: an online community of cellists; includes several forums. *[http://cellist.nl/ cellist.nl]: An international register of professional cellists, teachers, and students. *[http://www.breakofreality.com/ Break of Reality]: A contemporary of [[Apocalyptica]] from the [[Eastman School of Music]]. [http://www.chrisbsmusic.com/cellohistory.html/ Cello History]: A brief history of the cello ===Listening=== *[http://www2.bowed.org/ Bowed Radio] (podcast focusing on new music for bowed string instruments) [[Category:Bowed instruments]] [[Category:Continuous pitch instruments]] [[Category:Musical instruments]] [[Category:String instruments]] {{Link FA|de}} {{Link FA|he}} [[ca:Violoncel]] [[cs:Violoncello]] [[da:Cello]] [[de:Violoncello]] [[es:Violonchelo]] [[eo:Violonĉelo]] [[fr:Violoncelle]] [[ko:첼로]] [[it:Violoncello]] [[he:צ'לו]] [[hu:Cselló]] [[nl:Violoncello]] [[ja:チェロ]] [[no:Cello]] [[pl:Wiolonczela]] [[pt:Violoncelo]] [[sl:Violončelo]] [[fi:Sello]] [[sv:Cello]] [[vi:Hồ cầm]] [[uk:Віолончель]] [[zh:大提琴]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Control store</title> <id>6559</id> <revision> <id>24970332</id> <timestamp>2005-10-07T12:07:50Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>61.21.52.98</ip> </contributor> <comment>+ja</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">A '''control store''' is the part of a [[Central processing unit|CPU]]'s [[control unit]] that stores the CPU's [[microprogram]]. It is usually accessed by a [[microsequencer]]. A control store is usually implemented as a [[diode]]-array of [[read-only memory]] on modern [[VLSI]] CPUs. Historically, [[IBM mainframes]] loaded their microprograms from floppy disks into a control store consisting of ultra-high speed [[random-access memory]]. This permitted IBM to easily repair microprogramming defects in the field. The control store usually has on its outputs a register. It must be obvious that the outputs that go back into the sequencer to determine the next address have to go through some sort of register to prevent a race condition being created. However it turns out that in most designs it pays for all of the other bits to also go through a register. This is because the machine will work faster if the execution of the next microinstruction is delayed by one cycle. This register is known as a pipeline register. The point is that very often the execution of the next microinstruction is dependent on result of the current microinstruction that will not be stable till the end of the current microcycle. It can be seen that either way all of the outputs of the control store go into one big register. In the olden days it used to be possible to buy EPROMS with these register bits on the same chip. [[Category:Computer hardware]] The clock signal determining the cycle time of the system primarily clocks this register. [[ja:コントロールストア]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Columba</title> <id>6561</id> <revision> <id>41163220</id> <timestamp>2006-02-25T13:11:09Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Feezo</username> <id>155651</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Reverted edit by [[Special:Contributions/81.97.47.247 | 81.97.47.247]] [[User_Talk: 81.97.47.247 |(talk)]] to last version by Irish Lad</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">:''See [[Columba (disambiguation)]] and [[St Columb]] for other uses'' '''Saint Columba or Saint Colm Cille''' sometimes known as ''St. Columba of Iona'' ([[7 December]] [[521]] - [[9 June]] [[597]]), the Latinized version of the [[Irish language|Irish]] name '''Colmcille''' ([[Old Irish]] '''Columb Cille''') meaning &quot;Dove of the church&quot;, was the outstanding figure among the [[Ireland|Irish]] [[missionary]] [[monk]]s who reintroduced [[Christianity]] to [[Scotland]] and the north of [[England]] during the [[Dark Ages]]. He was born to Fedlimid and [[Eithne]] of the [[Uí Néill]] clan in [[Gartan]], near [[Lough Gartan]], [[Donegal]]. On his father's side he was great-great-grandson of [[Niall of the Nine Hostages]], an Irish king of the 5th century. He became a monk and was ordained priest. Tradition asserts that, sometime around [[560]], he became involved in a dispute with Saint [[Finnian of Moville|Finnian]] over a [[psalter]]. Columba copied the manuscript at the [[scriptorium]] under Saint Finnian, intending to keep the copy. Saint Finnian disputed his right to keep the copy. The dispute eventually led to the pitched [[Battle of Cúl Dreimhne]] in [[561]], during which many men were killed. (Columba's copy of the psalter has been traditionally associated with the [[Cathach of St. Columba]].) As penance for these deaths, Columba suggested that he work as a missionary in [[Scotland]] to help convert as many people as had been killed in the battle. He [[exile]]d himself from Ireland and never again saw his native island. In [[563]] he travelled to Scotland, where according to his legend he first landed at the southern tip of the [[Kintyre]] peninsula, near [[Southend, Kintyre|Southend]]. However, being still in sight of his native land he moved further north up the west coast of Scotland. In [[563]] he was granted land to found a monastery on the island of [[Iona]] off the west coast of Scotland, which became the centre of his evangelising mission to Scotland. Aside from the services he provided guiding the only outpost of literacy in the region, his reputation as a holy man led to his role as a diplomat among the tribes; there are also many stories of miracle
ht onto the tracking surface.]] Optical mice supporters claim they work better than mechanical mice, require no maintenance and last longer due to having fewer moving parts. Although cleaning of a broken mechanical mouse is very simple, optical mice do not normally require any maintenance other than removing lint that might collect under the light emitter. Mechanical mice supporters point out that optical mice generally cannot track on glossy and transparent surfaces, including many commercial mouse pads, causing them to periodically &quot;spin&quot; uncontrollably during operation. Mice with less image processing power also have problems tracking extremely fast movement, though high-end mice track at 1 metre per second (40 inches per second) and faster. Mechanical mice boast lower power usage, so they may prove advantageous for use in wireless settings. A wireless mechanical mouse may draw an [[electrical current]] of 5 mA or less, whereas an optical mouse typically draws 25 mA to power an [[LED]] or [[laser diode]]. Older optical wireless mice can draw even more current. This can require frequent battery changes or recharges, making them unsuitable for continuous work. Because optical mice move based on the image the LED reflects, their performance on multi-coloured mousepads is sometimes unreliable. However, they will outperform mechanical mice on uneven, slick, squishy, sticky or loose surfaces, and generally in mobile situations where mouse mats are not available. ===Inertial Mice=== Inertial mice are usually cordless to support their main feature of mobility. Movement in two or three axes is registered using a [[gyroscope]] for every axis supported. A switch is often used to activate the movement circuitry between use, allowing the user more freedom of movement without moving the pointer. ===Buttons=== In contrast to the motion-sensing mechanism, the mouse's buttons have changed little, varying mostly in shape, number, and placement. Engelbart's very first mouse had a single button; this was soon increased to three. Commercial mice usually have between one and three buttons, although in the late [[1990s]] some mice sprouted five or more. Most popular are mice with two buttons. The most common purpose for the second button is to invoke a [[context menu|contextual menu]] in the computer's software user interface, which contains options specifically tailored to the interface element over which the mouse was positioned. This is used by the popular [[Microsoft Windows]] operating system in its default configuration, as well as many other operating systems. By default, the primary mouse button is located on the left hand side of the mouse, for the benefit of right handed users. On systems with three-button mice, pressing the center button (a middle click) is often used as a convenience to map the action to a commonly used action, or a macro. In the [[X Window System]], middle clicking pastes the contents of the primary buffer at the pointer's position. Many two-button mice are configured to [[emulator|emulate]] a three-button mouse by clicking both the right and left buttons simultaneously. Middle-clicks are often used as a spare button in case a function is not allocated easily. ====Additional buttons==== Mice have been built with five or more buttons. Depending on the user's preferences, the extra buttons may allow forward and backward web navigation, scrolling through a browser's history, or other functions. As with similar features in [[Computer keyboard|keyboard]]s, however, these functions may not be supported by all software. The additional buttons are generally more useful in [[computer game]]s, where quick and easy access to a wide variety of functions (for example, weapon-switching in [[first-person shooter]]s) can be very beneficial. Because mouse buttons can be mapped to virtually any function, keystroke, application or switch, they can make working with such a mouse more efficient and easier to use. [[Douglas Engelbart]]'s view of the optimal number of buttons was &quot;as many as possible&quot;. The prototype that popularised the idea of three buttons as standard had that number only because &quot;we couldn't find anywhere to fit any more switches&quot;. ===Wheels=== One major innovation in mouse buttons was the scroll wheel: a small wheel, with its axis parallel to the mousing surface, that can be rotated &quot;up&quot; or &quot;down&quot; to provide immediate one-dimensional input. Usually, this input is translated into &quot;scrolling&quot; up or down within the currently selected [[window (computing)|window]]. This is especially helpful in navigating a long document. The scroll wheel can often be pressed straight down, replacing the third (center) button. Doing so often activates autoscrolling in the Windows operating system (if an application supports it). Some newer mouse models allow horizontal as well as vertical scrolling. Some designs make use of a &quot;rocker&quot; button instead of a wheel&amp;mdash;a pivoting button that can be pressed at the top or bottom, simulating up and down respectively. The wheel can also be used with some software applications to zoom in and out by holding down the [[Control key]] (Ctrl) on the keyboard and scrolling either up or down. Applications that include this functionality include [[Microsoft Word]], [[Internet Explorer]], [[Opera (web browser)|Opera]], and [[Mozilla Firefox]]. A more advanced form of the mouse wheel is the tilt-wheel, found on some of the higher-end Logitech and Microsoft mice. Tilt wheels are essentially conventional mouse wheels that have been modified with a pair of sensors articulated to the tilting mechanism. These sensors are mapped, by default, to horizontal scrolling. In 2005, the [[Apple Computer|Apple]] [[Apple Mighty Mouse|Mighty Mouse]] introduced a third variety of built-in scrolling device. It contains a scroll ball, which is essentially a small [[trackball]] embedded in the upper surface of the mouse, and is used like a two-dimensional scroll wheel. ===3D Mice=== In the late 1990s, [[Kantek]] introduced the 3D RingMouse. This wireless mouse was worn on a ring around a finger, which enabled the thumb to access three buttons. The mouse was tracked in three dimensions by a base station. Despite a certain appeal, this mouse was discontinued because it did not provide sufficient resolution. ===Connectivity and communication protocols=== [[Image:Bluetooth Mouse.jpg|thumb|A [[Bluetooth]] mouse.]] Like all input devices, mice need some connection to the host computer in order to transmit their input. Typical mice use a thin electrical cord plus a connector (e.g. [[RS-232C]], [[IBM Personal System/2|PS/2]], [[Apple Desktop Bus|ADB]] or [[Universal Serial Bus|USB]]) for this purpose. Cordless mice use wireless communication transmit data via [[infrared]], [[radio]], or [[Bluetooth]]. The format of the data transmitted by commonly availably mice has in the past varied between different manufacturers and also depends on the type of electrical interface used. ====PS/2 mouse protocol==== Starting with the introduction of the [[IBM PS/2]] personal computer series in [[1987]], mice for IBM compatibles became increasingly connected via a round 6-pin [[mini-DIN connector]]. The connector, pin assignment, and low-level serial format are the same as the one used by a PS/2 [[IBM PC keyboard|keyboard]]. For any motion, button press, or button release event, a PS/2 mouse sends over its bi-directional serial port a sequence of three bytes, with the following format: {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; |- align=center ! ||D7||D6||D5||D4||D3||D2||D1||D0 |- align=center !Byte 1 |YV||XV||YS||XS||1||MB||RB||LB |- align=&quot;center&quot; !Byte 2 |colspan=&quot;8&quot;|X movement |- align=&quot;center&quot; !Byte 3 |colspan=&quot;8&quot;|Y movement |} Here, XS and YS are the sign bits of the movement vectors, XV and YV indicate an overflow in the respective vector component, and LB, MB and RB indicate the status of the left, middle and right mouse button (1 = pressed). PS/2 mice also understand several commands for reset and self-test, switching between different operating modes, and changing the resolution of the reported motion vectors. A Microsoft Intellimouse initially uses the same format for backwards compatibility. After the host sent a special command sequence, it switches to an extended format, where a fourth byte carries information about wheel movements and two more buttons. ====Apple Desktop Bus==== [[Image:Apple Macintosh Plus mouse.jpg|300px|thumb|right|Apple Macintosh Plus mice, 1986]] In [[1986]] Apple first implemented the [[Apple Desktop Bus]] allowing up to 16 devices, including arbitrarily many mice, to be daisy-chained together. Featuring only a single data pin, the bus used a purely polled approach to computer/mouse communications and survived as the standard on mainstream models until [[1998]] when the [[iMac]] began a switch to [[USB]]. The [[Powerbook G4]] retained the Apple Desktop Bus for communication with its built in keyboard and trackpad until early [[2005]]. ===Common button uses=== There are several methods of input using a mouse, aside from the most basic moving of the device to make the pointer move. A mouse click is the action of pressing (i.e. clicking) a button on a mouse in order to trigger an action, usually in the context of a graphical user interface (GUI) (pressing an onscreen &quot;button&quot; by clicking on it) or computer game (to fire a gun in a first-person shooter). The reason for the clicking noise made is due to the specific switch technology used nearly universally in computer mice. This switch is called a microswitch, or cherry switch, and uses a stiff but flexible metal strip that is bent to actuate the switch. The bending of the metal makes a snapping or clicking noise, in the same way as the safety button on the lids of vacuum packaged jars to indicate they have been o
Land were being persecuted. Actions against [[Arianism|Arians]] and other heretics offered historical precedents in a society where violence against unbelievers, and indeed against other Christians, was acceptable and common. Saint [[Augustine of Hippo]], Gregory's intellectual model, had justified the use of force in the service of Christ in ''[[The City of God]]'', and a Christian &quot;[[just war]]&quot; might enhance the wider standing of an aggressively ambitious leader of Europe, as Gregory saw himself. The northerners would be cemented to Rome and their troublesome knights could see the only kind of action that suited them. Previous attempts by the church to stem such violence, such as the concept of the &quot;Peace of God&quot;, were not as successful as hoped. To the south of Rome, Normans were showing how such energies might be unleashed against both Arabs (in Sicily) and Byzantines (on the mainland). A Latin hegemony in the Levant would provide leverage in resolving the Papacy's claims of supremacy over the [[Patriarch of Constantinople]], which had resulted in the Great Schism of 1054, a rift that might yet be resolved through the force of Frankish arms. In the Byzantine homelands the Eastern Emperor's weakness was revealed by the disastrous defeat at the [[Battle of Manzikert]] in [[1071]], which reduced the Empire's Asian territory to a region in western Anatolia and around Constantinople. A sure sign of Byzantine desperation was the appeal of Alexius I Comnenus to his enemy the Pope for aid. But Gregory was occupied with the [[Investiture Controversy]] and could not call on the German emperor and the crusade never took shape. For Gregory's more moderate successor Pope Urban II, a crusade would serve to reunite Christendom, bolster the Papacy, and perhaps bring the East under his control. The disaffected Germans and the Normans were not to be counted on, but the heart and backbone of a crusade could be found in Urban's own homeland among the northern French. On a popular level, the first crusades unleashed a wave of impassioned, personally felt pious fury that was expressed in the massacres of Jews that accompanied the movement of mobs through Europe, as well as the violent treatment of &quot;schismatic&quot; Orthodox Christians of the east. The violence against the Orthodox Christians culminated in the sack of Constantinople in [[1204]], in which most of the Crusading armies took part. The fact that Western Christians had been mistreated in the past (by Constantinople) has never justified this sack in the eyes of the Church. Indeed, as soon as the Pope learned of the sack of Constantinople, all who took part were immediately excommunicated. In modern times, [[Pope John Paul II]] has also apologized for this massacre. The 13th century crusades never expressed such a popular fever, and after Acre fell for the last time in [[1291]], and after the extermination of the Occitan [[Cathar]]s in the [[Albigensian Crusade]], the crusading ideal became devalued by Papal justifications of political and territorial aggressions within Catholic Europe. The last crusading order of knights to hold territory were the [[Knights Hospitaller]]. After the final fall of Acre they took control of the island of [[Rhodes]], and in the sixteenth century were driven to [[Malta]]. These last crusaders were finally unseated by [[Napoleon I of France|Napoleon]] in [[1798]]. == The major crusades == A traditional numbering scheme for the crusades gives us nine during the 11th to 13th centuries, as well as other smaller crusades that are mostly contemporaneous and unnumbered. There were frequent &quot;minor&quot; crusades throughout this period, not only in Palestine but also in Spain and central Europe, against not only Muslims, but also Christian heretics and personal enemies of the Papacy or other powerful monarchs. Such &quot;crusades&quot; continued into the [[16th century]], until the [[Renaissance]] and [[Reformation]] when the political and religious climate of Europe was significantly different than that of the Middle Ages. The following is a listing of the &quot;major&quot; crusades. === First Crusade === ''Full article: [[First Crusade]]'' After Byzantine emperor [[Alexius I]] called for help with defending his empire against the [[Seljuk Turks]], in 1095 at the [[Council of Clermont]] Pope Urban II called upon all Christians to join a war against the Turks, a war which would count as full penance. Crusader armies marched to Jerusalem, sacking several cities on their way. In [[1099]], they took Jerusalem and massacred the population. As a result of the First Crusade, several small [[Crusader states]] were created, notably the [[Kingdom of Jerusalem]]. Following this crusade there was a second, unsuccessful wave of crusaders, the [[Crusade of 1101]]. ===Second Crusade=== ''Full article: [[Second Crusade]]'' After a period of relative peace, in which Christians and Muslims co-existed in the [[Holy Land]], [[Bernard of Clairvaux]] preached a new crusade when the town of [[County of Edessa|Edessa]] was conquered by the Turks. French and German armies under [[Louis VII of France]] and [[Conrad III of Germany]], marched to Asia Minor in [[1147]], but failed to accomplish any major successes, and indeed endangered the survival of the Crusader states with a foolish attack on [[Damascus]]. By [[1149]], both leaders had returned to their countries without any result. ===Third Crusade=== ''Full article: [[Third Crusade]]'' In [[1187]], [[Saladin]], Sultan of Egypt, recaptured [[Jerusalem]]. [[Pope Gregory VIII]] called for a crusade, which was led by several of Europe's most important leaders: [[Philip II of France]], [[Richard I of England]] and [[Frederick I, Holy Roman Emperor]]. Frederick drowned in [[Cilicia]] in [[1190]], leaving an unstable alliance between the English and the French. Philip left in [[1191]] after the Crusaders had recaptured Acre from the Muslims. The Crusader army headed down the coast of the Mediterranean Sea. They defeated the Muslims near Arsuf and were in sight of Jerusalem. However, the inability of the Crusaders to thrive in the locale due to inadequate food and water resulted in an empty victory. Richard left the following year after establishing a truce with Saladin. On Richard's way home, his ship was wrecked and he ended up in Austria. In Austria his enemy Duke Leopold captured him, delivered him to Frederick's son [[Henry VI, Holy Roman Emperor|Henry VI]] and Richard was held for, literally, a king's ransom. By [[1197]], Henry felt himself ready for a Crusade, but he died in the same year of malaria. ===Fourth Crusade=== ''Full article: [[Fourth Crusade]]'' Jerusalem having fallen back into Muslim hands a decade earlier, the Fourth Crusade was initiated in [[1202]] by [[Pope Innocent III]], with the intention of invading the Holy Land through Egypt. The [[Venice|Venetians]], under Doge [[Enrico Dandolo]], gained control of this crusade and diverted it to, first the Christian city of Zara, then to [[Constantinople]] where they attempted to place a Byzantine exile on the throne. After a series of misunderstandings and outbreaks of violence, the city was sacked in [[1204]]. ===Albigensian Crusade=== ''Full article: [[Albigensian Crusade]]'' The [[Albigensian]] Crusade was launched in [[1209]] to eliminate the heretical [[Cathars]] of southern [[France]]. It was a decades-long struggle that had as much to do with the concerns of northern France to extend its control southwards as it did with heresy. In the end, both the Cathars and the independence of southern France were exterminated. ===Children's Crusade=== ''Full article: [[Children's Crusade]]'' The Children's Crusade is a possibly fictitious or misinterpreted crusade of [[1212]]. The story is that an outburst of the old popular enthusiasm led a gathering of children in France and Germany, which [[Pope Innocent III]] interpreted as a reproof from heaven to their unworthy elders. None of the children actually reached the Holy Land; they were all sold as slaves or died of hunger during the journey. ===Fifth Crusade=== ''Full article: [[Fifth Crusade]]'' By processions, prayers, and preaching, the Church attempted to set another crusade on foot, and the [[Fourth Council of the Lateran]] ([[1215]]) formulated a plan for the recovery of the Holy Land. A crusading force from [[Hungary]], [[Austria]], and [[Bavaria]] achieved a remarkable feat in the capture of [[Damietta]] in [[Egypt]] in [[1219]], but under the urgent insistence of the [[papal legate]], Pelagius, they proceeded to a foolhardy attack on [[Cairo]], and an [[inundation]] of the [[Nile]] compelled them to choose between surrender and destruction. ===Sixth Crusade=== ''Full article: [[Sixth Crusade]]'' In [[1228]], [[Emperor Frederick II]] set sail from [[Brindisi]] for Syria, though laden with the papal [[excommunication]]. Through diplomacy he achieved unexpected success, [[Jerusalem]], [[Nazareth]], and [[Bethlehem]] being delivered to the Crusaders for a period of ten years. This was the first major crusade not initiated by the Papacy, a trend that was to continue for the rest of the century. [[Image:crusade_damietta.JPG|right|frame|Louis IX attacks Damietta]] ===Seventh Crusade=== ''Full article: [[Seventh Crusade]]'' The papal interests represented by the [[Knights Templar (military order)|Templars]] brought on a conflict with [[Egypt]] in [[1243]], and in the following year a [[Khwarezmian]] force summoned by the latter stormed Jerusalem. Although this provoked no widespread outrage in Europe as the fall of Jerusalem in 1187 had done, [[Louis IX of France]] organized a crusade against [[Egypt]] from [[1248]] to [[1254]], leaving from the newly constructed port of [[Aigues-Mortes]] in southern France. It was a failure and Louis spent much of the crusade living at the court of the Crusader kingdom in Acre. In the midst of this crusade was th
[[Image:mendel.png|frame|left|[[Gregor Mendel]] laid the foundations of genetics from his studies of plants.]] ===Understand fundamental life processes=== Plants are convenient organisms in which fundamental life processes (like [[cell division]] and [[protein synthesis]] for example) can be studied, without the ethical dilemmas of studying animals or humans. The [[mendelian inheritance|genetic laws of inheritance]] were discovered in this way by [[Gregor Mendel]], who was studying the way [[peas|pea]] shape is inherited. What Mendel learnt from studying plants has had far reaching benefits outside of botany. Additionally, [[Barbara McClintock]] discovered '[[transposon|jumping genes]]' by studying [[maize]]. These are a few examples that demonstrate how botanical research has an ongoing relevance to the understanding of fundamental biological processes. ===Utilise medicine and materials=== Many of our [[medication|medicinal]] and [[recreational drugs]], like [[cannabis (drug)|cannabis]], [[caffeine]], and [[nicotine]] come directly from the plant kingdom. [[Aspirin]], which originally came from the [[bark]] of [[willow]] trees, is just one example. There may be many [[drug discovery|novel cures for diseases]] provided by plants, waiting to be discovered. Popular [[stimulant]]s like [[coffee]], [[chocolate]], [[tobacco]], and [[tea]] also come from plants. Most [[Alcoholic beverage|alcoholic beverages]] come from [[fermentation|fermenting]] plants such as [[hops]] and [[grapes]]. Plants also provide us with many natural materials, such as [[cotton]], [[wood]], [[paper]], [[linen]], [[vegetable oil]]s, some types of [[rope]], and [[rubber]]. The production of [[silk]] would not be possible without the cultivation of the [[mulberry]] plant. [[Sugarcane]] and other plants have recently been put to use as sources of [[biofuel]]s, which are important alternatives to [[fossil fuel]]s. ===Understand environmental changes=== Plants can also help us understand changes in on our environment in many ways. *Understanding [[habitat destruction]] and [[endangered species|species extinction]] is dependent on an accurate and complete catalogue of plant [[systematics]] and [[taxonomy]]. *Plant responses to [[ultraviolet|ultraviolet radiation]] can help us monitor problems like the [[ozone depletion]]. *[[palynology|Analysing pollen]] deposited by plants [[geologic timescale|thousands or millions of years ago]] can help scientists to reconstruct past climates and predict future ones, an essential part of [[climate change]] research. *Recording and analysing the timing of plant [[biological life cycle|life cycles]] are important parts of [[phenology]] used in climate-change research. *[[Lichens]], which are sensitive to atmospheric conditions, have been extenisvely used as [[pollution]] indicators. In many different ways, plants can act a bit like the '[[canary|miners canary]]', an ''early warning system'' alerting us to important changes in our environment. In addition to these practical and scientific reasons, plants are extremely valuable as recreation for millions of people who enjoy [[gardening]], [[horticulture|horticultural]] and [[herb|culinary]] uses of plants every day. ==History== ===Early botany (before 1945)=== [[Image:Botany.jpg|thumb|right|The traditional tools of a botanist.]] Among the earliest of botanical works, written around [[300 B.C.]], are two large treatises by [[Theophrastus]]: ''On the History of Plants'' (''[[Historia Plantarum]]'') and ''On the Causes of Plants''. Together these books constitute the most important contribution to botanical science during antiquity and on into the Middle Ages. The Roman medical writer [[Dioscorides]] provides important evidence on Greek and Roman knowledge of medicinal plants. In 1665, using an early microscope, [[Robert Hooke]] discovered [[cell (biology)|cells]] in [[cork (material)|cork]], a short time later in living plant tissue. The German [[Leonhart Fuchs]], the Swiss [[Conrad von Gesner]], and the British authors [[Nicholas Culpeper]] and [[John Gerard]] published herbals that gave information on the medicinal uses of plants. ===Modern botany (since 1945)=== A considerable amount of new knowledge today is being generated from studying [[model organisms|model plants]] like ''[[Arabidopsis thaliana]]''. This mustard weed was one of the first plants to have its [[genome]] sequenced. The sequencing of the rice genome and a large international research community have made [[rice]] the de facto [[cereal]]/[[grass]]/[[monocot]] model. Another grass species, [[Brachypodium distachyon]] is also emerging as an experimental model for understanding the genetic, cellular and molecular biology of temperate grasses. Other commercially important staple foods like [[wheat]], [[maize]], [[barley]], [[rye]], [[millet]] and [[soybean]] are also having their genomes sequenced. Some of these are challenging to sequence because they have more than two [[haploid]] (n) sets of [[chromosome]]s, a condition known as [[polyploid|polyploidy]], common in the plant kingdom. The &quot;Green Yeast&quot; ''[[Chlamydomonas reinhardtii]]'' (a single-celled, green [[alga]]) is another plant model organism that has been extensively studied and provided important insights into cell biology. ==See also== * [[Agriculture]] * [[Botanical garden]] and [[List of botanical gardens]] * [[Dendrochronology]] * [[List of domesticated plants]] * [[Ethnobotany]] * [[Flower]]s and [[List of flowers]] * [[Forestry]] * [[Herb]]s * [[Horticulture]] * [[List of botanical journals]] * [[List of botanists]] * [[List of botanists by author abbreviation]] * [[List of publications in biology]] * [[Paleobotany]] * [[Plant community]] * [[Plant sexuality]] * [[Soil science]] * [[Tree]]s * [[Vegetable]]s and [[List of vegetables]] * [[Vegetation]] ==References== * U.S. Geological Survey. [http://www.nbii.gov/disciplines/botany/ National Biological Information Infrastructure: Botany] ==Further reading== ===[[Popular science]] style books on Botany=== * [[David Bellamy|Bellamy, D]] ''Bellamy on Botany'', ISBN 0563106662 an accessible and short introduction to various botanical subjects * Capon, B: ''Botany for Gardeners'' ISBN 0881926558 * Cohen, J. ''How many people can the earth support?'' W.W. Norton 1995 ISBN 0393314952 * Halle, Francis. ''In praise of plants'' ISBN 0881925500. English translation of a poetic advocacy of plants. * King, J. ''Reaching for the sun: How plants work'' ISBN 0521587387. A fluent introduction to how plants work. * [[Thomas Pakenham|Pakenham, T]]: ''Remarkable Trees of the World'' ([[2002]]) ISBN 0297843001 * Pakenham, T: ''Meetings with Remarkable Trees'' ([[1996]]) ISBN 0297832557 * Pollan, M ''The Botany of Desire: A Plant's-eye View of the World'' Bloomsbury ISBN 0747563004 Account of the [[co-evolution]] of plants and humans * Thomas, B.A.: ''The evolution of plants and flowers'' St Martin's Press [[1981]] ISBN 0312272715 * Walker, D. ''Energy, Plants and Man'' ISBN 1870232054 A presentation of the basic concepts of photosynthesis ===Academic and Scientific books on Botany=== * Buchanan, B.B., Gruissem, W &amp; Jones, R.L. (2000) ''Biochemistry &amp; molecular biology of plants''. American Society of Plant Physiologists ISBN 0943088399 * Crawford, R. M. M. (1989). ''Studies in plant survival''. Blackwell. ISBN 063201475X * Crawley, M. J. (1997). ''Plant ecology''. Blackwell Scientific. ISBN 0632036397 * Ennos, R and Sheffield, E ''Plant life'', Blackwell Science, ISBN 0865427372 Introduction to plant [[biodiversity]] * Fitter, A &amp; Hay, R ''Environmental physiology of plants'' 3rd edition Sept 2001 Harcourt Publishers, Academic Press ISBN 0122577663 * Lawlor, D.W. (2000) ''Photosynthesis'' BIOS ISBN 1859961576 * Matthews, R. E. F. ''Fundamentals of plant virology'' Academic Press,1992. * Mauseth, J.D.: ''Botany : an introduction to plant biology''. Jones and Bartlett Publishers, ISBN 0763721344 - A first year undergraduate level textbook * Raven, P.H, Evert R.H and Eichhorn, S.E: ''Biology of Plants'', Freeman. ISBN 1572590416 - A first year undergraduate level textbook * Richards, P. W. (1996). ''The tropical rainforest''. 2nd ed. C.U.P. (Pbk) ISBN 0521421942 £32.50 * Ridge, I. (2002) ''Plants'' [[Oxford University Press]] ISBN 0199255482 * Salisbury, FB and Ross, CW: ''[[Plant physiology]]'' Wadsworth publishing company ISBN 0534151620 * Stace, C. A. ''A new [[Flora (plants)|flora]] of the British Isles''. 2nd ed. C.U.P.,1997. ISBN 0521589355 * Strange, R. L. ''Introduction to [[plant pathology]]''. Wiley-VCH, 2003. ISBN 0470849738 * Taiz, L. &amp; Zeiger, E. (1998). ''Plant physiology''. 3rd ed. August 2002 Sinauer Associates. ISBN 0878938230 * Walter, H. (1985). ''[[Vegetation]] of the earth''. 3rd rev. ed. Springer. * Willis, K (2002) ''The evolution of plants'' Oxford University Press ISBN 0198500653 £22-99 ==External links== {{book}} [http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/P/PlantGrowth.html plant growth] and [http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/P/PlantCell.html the plant cell] from [http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/ Kimball's Biology Pages] *[http://www.biologynews.info/ Biology News Headlines], *[http://www.botany.org/newsite/botany/ Botanical Society of America: What is Botany?] *[http://www-saps.plantsci.cam.ac.uk/index.htm Science and Plants for Schools] *[http://www.uni-wuerzburg.de/mineralogie/palbot/teach/botanyteach.html Teaching Documents about Botany] Teaching documents, lecture notes and tutorials online: an annotated link directory. *[http://www.aspb.org/aboutus/ American society of plant biologists APSB] *[http://www.plantsci.cam.ac.uk/teaching/content.html Why study Plants? Dept of Plant Sciences, University of Cambridge] *[http://www.ubcbotanicalgarden.org/potd/ Botany Photo of the Day] *[[David Attenborough]] - [[The Private Life of Plants]] ===[[Flora (plants)|Flora]] and other plant [[c
stitutionalized as in South Africa. Nevertheless, their membership criteria differ both from the United States and from South Africa. Europeans in the British West Indies often marry locals who physically appear to be European but have known partial African ancestry. Similarly, White clubs were closed to members of the Coloured group in the early colonial period, and members of this middle group were not allowed to vote, hold public office, hold military commissions, marry members of the White group, or inherit significant property from a member of the White group. But by the year [[1733]], these restrictions had been lifted for the intermediate group in [[Jamaica]], [[Barbados]], and [[Trinidad]]. The restrictions continued in effect for Blacks until the twentieth century. Legislation, court decisions, and social custom in Jamaica, Trinidad, and Barbados treated members of the Coloured group as distinct from members of the Black group. According to one scholar, &quot;The English… encountered the problem of race mixture in very different contexts in their several colonies; they answered it in one fashion in their West Indian islands, and in quite another in their colonies on the continent,&quot; and, &quot;The contrast offered by the West Indies is striking.&quot; In post-emancipation Jamaica, the beleaguered White population allied with the Coloured elite (the descendants of the famous [[Maroons]]) to keep down the free Blacks. A Barbadian historian wrote, &quot;In August 1838, some 83,000 blacks, 12,000 coloureds, and 15,000 whites, embarked on a social course which the ruling elite hoped to charter.&quot; A historian of Trinidad wrote, &quot;The people of colour were marginal to Caribbean society: neither black nor white, neither African nor European….&quot; Today, West Indian immigrants to England assimilate into mainstream society within a generation or two. Another way that terminology in the former British Empire differs from, say, Iberian or U.S. customs, is in applying the term to populations that were not part of the African Diaspora of 1500-1900. Most former colonial cultures apply Black only to descendants of the African Diaspora of 1500-1900. But former British colonials, in contrast, apply the label to all colonial subjects of distinctly darker complexion than Europeans. Australian society labels aboriginal Australians as Black. There is some evidence that the Aeta of the Phillipines have come to be known as &quot;Black&quot; since U.S. domination. (More about these cultures momentarily.) ===U.S. society equates the label with African-American ethnicity=== {{AfricanAmerican|right}} An '''[[African American]]''' (also '''Afro-American''', '''Black American''', or '''black'''), is a member of an [[ethnic group]] in the [[United States]] whose ancestors, usually in predominant part, were indigenous to [[Africa]]. Most African Americans also have [[European]] and/or [[Native Americans in the United States|Native American]] ancestry as well. The term tends to refer to West African ancestries; not, for example, to white or Arab African ancestry, such as Moroccan or white South African ancestry. This is so even though there is huge genetic variation among the various inhabitants of sub-Saharan Africa. Members of the African Diaspora from non-African countries such as [[Jamaica]], [[Haiti]], [[Cuba]] (although they are logically African Americans, since they are located in the Americas and are decendants of Africans, with some admixture from europeans and native americans as well) or the [[United Kingdom]] are theoretically referred to by their nation of origin and not African American (even when they come from a Latin American country) unless they immigrate to the United States. But once a person of the African Diaspora becomes a permanent U.S. resident, then it is generally assumed that they (and especially their U.S.-born children) are &quot;African American.&quot; The U.S. usage of ''Black'' is unique, in that it designates a ethnic group that has not always been voluntary, more often called &quot;[[African American]].&quot; Membership is partly voluntary because Americans of European appearance have the option, in practice, of self-identifying either as Black (like [[Walter White]] and Gregory Howard Williams), as White (like [[Peter Ustinov]] and [[Carol Channing]]), or simply avoiding the question entirely (like [[Vin Diesel]]). Membership is not fully voluntary, however, because Americans of strong sub-Saharan African appearance have strong social pressure by their society to identify with U.S. Black endogamous group as children. Furthermore, organizations like the census, job applications, etc strongly encourage choosing between preconcieved designated ethno-racial identities. Also, U.S. traditions follow a [[one-drop rule]] that rhetorically claims that anyone with even the slightest trace of distant African ancestry is Black&amp;mdash;a tradition found nowhere else on earth. ==Who is Black?== Because it is a social classification label that cannot be objectively tested, much less replicated, there is no scientific way to identify a &quot;Black&quot; person. Nevertheless, according to their explanations, those who use the label tend to employ three criteria: ancestry, self-identity, and appearance. All three of the criteria can be associated with the attitudes resulting from the slave trade and inter-cultural oppression resulting from the age of European colonization. ===Who is a descendant of the African Diaspora?=== Most societies that apply the Black label on the basis of a person's ancestry justify it as applying to the descendants of the [[African Diaspora]]. Between 1500 and 1900, approximately four million African slaves were transported to island plantations in the [[Indian Ocean]], about eight million were shipped to Mediterranean-area countries, and about eleven million were taken to the [[New World]].&lt;sup&gt;[[#1|1]]&lt;/sup&gt; Their descendants are now found around the globe. Due to intermarriage and genetic assimilation, just who is &quot;a descendant&quot; of the African Diaspora is not entirely self-evident. At one extreme, in the United States it is relatively easy to tell who has such ancestry. British North America imported only about 500,000 Africans out of the eleven million shipped across the Atlantic. Nevertheless, the United States has been astonishingly successful at preserving two distinct genetic populations: one of mostly African ancestry, the other overwhelmingly European. All other New World nations that imported African slaves have unimodal Afro-European genetic admixture scatter diagrams. Indeed, two thirds of White Americans have no detectable African ancestry at all (other than the ancient African ancestry shared by all members of our species, of course). Only one-third of White Americans have detectable African [[DNA]] (averaging 2.3 percent) from ancestors who passed through the endogamous color line from Black to White. Furthermore, U.S. government's surveys continue to categorize on a strict color-line. The federal census has no provision for a &quot;multiracial&quot; or &quot;biracial&quot; self-identity and, until 2000, forbade checking off more than one box. The [[EEOC]] has strict regulations defining who is Black or White and implicitly denies the existence of mixed people. At an intermediate level, in Latin America and in the former plantations in and around the Indian Ocean, descendants of slaves are a bit harder to define because virtually everyone is mixed in demographic proportion to the original slave population. In places that imported relatively few slaves (like the [[Mascarene Islands]] or [[Argentina]]), few if any are considered Black today. In places that imported many slaves (like [[Arabia]] or [[Puerto Rico]]), the number is larger, but all are still of mixed ancestry. At the other extreme, the millions of African slaves shipped to Europe promptly assimilated. African DNA is scattered throughout the European population today. The percentage is highest in [[Italy]], [[Sicily]], [[Spain]], [[Greece]] and [[Portugal]] and lowest in [[Scandiavia]]. Although it is present everywhere in Europe, it is too thinly scattered, even along the Mediterranean coast, to affect physical features. Hence, despite this easily detected but diluted African ancestry, virtually no one considers today's Europeans to be descendants of the African slave Diaspora. A few examples of populations who are seen as Black or who see themselves as Black because they descend from native Africans are: African Americans, some Latin Americans, and most residents of the Republic of South Africa. '''African Americans''' &amp;mdash; (see description above) or visit [[African American]]. '''Afro-Latin Americans''' &amp;mdash; Among the * [[Afro-Latin American]] populations in South and Central America there are populations that identify as ''negros''. Some with high levels of admixture as well. The difference is that, contrary to the USA, membership in the Black ethnicity is usually by upbringing and not by an imposed concept of one-droppism. '''South Africans''' &amp;mdash; Many if not most of the [[Bantu]] inhabitants of The Republic of South Africa see themselves as Black. Apartheid South Africa enforced segregation and [[endogamy]] between each of its three groups: Black, White, and Coloured. Nevertheless, the social barriers were more permeable than in the United States. During apartheid, South Africans routinely switched group membership by requesting it from their local Race Classification Boards. Although the bureaucracy was cumbersome and inconsistent, it enabled change. Individuals were often classified differently from their siblings and parents, and some people changed more than once. South Africans could appeal local reclassification decisions to the national Population Registration Board, thence to the Supreme Court. Like U.S. draft boards of
orta * {{GraySubject|154}} - Abdominal aorta {{cardiovascular_system}} {{Template:BloodVessels}} [[Category:Arteries]] [[Category:Abdomen]] [[Category:Thorax]] [[Category:Cardiovascular system]] [[bg:Аорта]] [[da:Aorta]] [[de:Aorta]] [[es:Aorta]] [[fr:Aorte]] [[it:Aorta]] [[lt:Aorta]] [[ms:Aorta]] [[nl:Aorta]] [[ja:大動脈]] [[no:Aorta]] [[nn:Livpulsåre]] [[pl:Aorta człowieka]] [[pt:Aorta]] [[sk:Srdcovnica]] [[sr:Аорта]] [[fi:Aortta]] [[sv:Aorta]] [[uk:Аорта]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Albert of Brandenburg Prussia</title> <id>2090</id> <revision> <id>15900534</id> <timestamp>2002-09-24T13:01:18Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Andre Engels</username> <id>300</id> </contributor> <comment>redirect: Merging two pages about the same person, based on the same source</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Albert of Prussia]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Anomalous Cognition</title> <id>2091</id> <revision> <id>15900535</id> <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>Conversion script</ip> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Automated conversion</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Anomalous cognition]] </text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Anomalous Operation</title> <id>2092</id> <revision> <id>15900536</id> <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>Conversion script</ip> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Automated conversion</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Anomalous operation]] </text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Abimelech</title> <id>2093</id> <revision> <id>38738813</id> <timestamp>2006-02-08T08:02:16Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Dodiad</username> <id>170135</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>/* Abimelech's name */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Abimelech''' or '''Avimelech''' ('''&amp;#1488;&amp;#1458;&amp;#1489;&amp;#1460;&amp;#1497;&amp;#1502;&amp;#1462;&amp;#1500;&amp;#1462;&amp;#1498;&amp;#1456;''' / '''&amp;#1488;&amp;#1458;&amp;#1489;&amp;#1460;&amp;#1497;&amp;#1502;&amp;#1464;&amp;#1500;&amp;#1462;&amp;#1498;&amp;#1456;''' &quot;father/leader of a king; my father/leader, a king&quot;, [[Standard Hebrew]] '''Aviméle&amp;#7723;''' / '''Avimále&amp;#7723;''', [[Tiberian Hebrew]] '''&amp;#700;&amp;#258;&amp;#7687;îméle&amp;#7733;''' / '''&amp;#700;&amp;#258;&amp;#7687;îm&amp;#257;le&amp;#7733;''') was a common name of the [[Philistine]] [[monarch|king]]s, much as &quot;[[Pharaoh]]&quot; was of the [[ancient Egypt|Egypt]]ian kings. #The name of a king of Gerar which is mentioned in two of the three stories of [[a wife confused for a sister]]. #[[Abimelech (Judges)]], a son of [[Gideon (Judges)|Gideon]] ([[book of Judges|Judges]] 9:1), who was proclaimed king after the death of his father ([[Judges]] 8:33-9:6). #The son of [[Abiathar]], and high priest in the time of [[David]] ([[1 Chronicles]] 18:16). In the parallel passage, [[2 Samuel]] 8:17, we have the name Ahimelech, and Abiathar, the son of Ahimelech. This most authorities consider the more correct reading. #The king of [[Gath]], better known as [[Achish]], as it appears in the title of [[Psalm]] 34. He's also referred to as [[Achimelech]] (See also [[Books of Samuel|1 Samuel]] 21:10-15.) ==Abimelech's name== Abimelech's name has three main translations, though none treats the name as being completely Hebrew, and all are slightly contorted. The first is ''my father is king'', which could be considered simply as a generic title given to a crown prince. The other two are more interesting, both essentially being ''my father is MLK'', with [[Moloch|MLK]] being the reference found elsewhere in the bible in prohibitions such as ''do not pass your children through the fire to MLK'', in which case one of the two following possibilities arises *Either MLK refers to a major Canaanite deity probably named ''Moloch'', i.e. ''Abimelech'' being ''my father is Moloch'' - a reference to belief in semi-divine kings, such as Abimelech *Or MLK refers to a type of (probably human) sacrifice probably named ''Molk'', i.e. ''Abimelech'' being roughly ''my father is a sacrifice'' - a reference to Abimelech being pious {{eastons}} {{disambig}} [[Category:Tanakh people]] [[Category:Torah people]] [[ca:Abimèlec]] [[de:Abimelech]] [[ia:Abimelech]] [[nl:Abimelek]] [[pt:Abimeleque]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Anomalous cognition</title> <id>2094</id> <revision> <id>35905986</id> <timestamp>2006-01-20T03:38:02Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>NickelShoe</username> <id>418205</id> </contributor> <comment>rm spamlink</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Anomalous cognition''' is a general term describing a transfer of information to a subject through currently unknown means. It fits descriptions of [[telepathy]], [[extra-sensory perception]], [[clairvoyance]], [[precognition]] and other &quot;perceptive&quot; [[paranormal]] abilities. The term ''anomalous cognition'' is used by [[parapsychologists]] to reference awareness of information without having to specify or theorize a particular means by which that information was transferred. ==See also== *[[anomalous perturbation]] *[[anomalous operation]] *[[List of spirituality-related topics]] {{para-stub}} [[Category:Paranormal phenomena]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Anomalous operation</title> <id>2095</id> <revision> <id>35905944</id> <timestamp>2006-01-20T03:37:44Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>NickelShoe</username> <id>418205</id> </contributor> <comment>rm spamlink</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Anomalous operation''', also known as '''anomalous perturbation''', is a term describing a broad category of purported [[paranormal]] effects that can best be described as subject A stating an intent or goal to influence system B, and system B then changing appropriately through unknown or unverifiable means. System B can be literally anything, though the common experiment is one or more subjects working to influence the output of a [[random]] system such as an electronic noise source. It covers phenomena as [[psychokinesis]], micro-psychokinesis, [[pyrokinesis]], [[faith healing]], [[poltergeist]] activity, and other manipulative [[parapsychology|parapsychological]] phenomena. See also [[anomalous cognition]]. {{para-stub}} [[Category:Paranormal phenomena]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Andrew Tridgell</title> <id>2099</id> <revision> <id>37971211</id> <timestamp>2006-02-03T07:43:16Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>D6</username> <id>75561</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>adding [[category:Living people]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Andrew &quot;Tridge&quot; Tridgell''' (born [[February 28]], [[1967]]) is an [[Australia|Australian]] [[computer programmer]], living in [[Canberra]], in the [[Australian Capital Territory]]. Born in [[Sydney]], Andrew is the initial author of and frequent contributor to the [[Samba software|Samba]] [[file server]], and co-inventor of the [[rsync]] algorithm. He is best known for his analysis of complex [[proprietary]] [[protocol (computing)|protocols]] and [[algorithm]]s, to allow compatible [[free software]] implementations. In [[2006]], he was awarded the [[FSF Award for the Advancement of Free Software]] for his software work. == Projects == He was a major developer of the Samba software, analysing the [[Server message block|Server Message Block]] protocol used for [[workgroup]] and network file sharing by [[Microsoft Windows]] products. He developed the [[talloc]] hierarchical memory allocator, originally as part of Samba. He co-developed [[rsync]], including the rsync algorithm, a highly efficient [[file transfer]] and [[data synchronization]] tool. He was also a leader in [[hacker|hacking]] the [[TiVo]] to make it work in Australia, which uses the [[PAL]] video format. He also was the original author of [[rzip]], which uses a similar algorithm to rsync, the subject of his PhD thesis. In April 2005, Andrew's effort to produce free software that interoperated with the [[BitKeeper]] source code repository was a source of [[controversy]], cited as the reason that BitMover revoked the license that allowed its free use for the [[Linux]] kernel. This resulted in a messy public falling-out between Tridgell and [[Linus Torvalds]], in which Tridgell stated that he had never had a BitKeeper license so he couldn't violate it and had acted entirely ethically in analysing and implementing the protocol, something he'd previously done with the Samba protocol. Network protocol analysis is completely legal, even though often mistakenly confused with reverse engineering. See Tridge's [http://samba.org/ftp/tridge/misc/french_cafe.txt French Cafe] article for more information. == Academic achievements == He completed a [[science degree]] with majors in [[applied mathematics]] and [[physics]] at the [[University of Sydney]] in 1988, before moving to [[Canberra]] to complete an [[Honours degree]] at the [[Australian National University]], in which he received first class honours in [[theoretical physics]]. Andrew went on to complete a [[Doctor of Philosophy|Ph.D.]] at the Computer Sciences Laboratory of the [[Australian National University]]. His original doctorate work was in the area of [[speech recognition]] but was never completed. His submitted thesis, on &quot;Efficient Algorithms for Sorting and Synchronization&quot;, was based on his work on the rsync algorithm. (link to thesis be
<mediawiki xmlns="http://www.mediawiki.org/xml/export-0.3/" xmlns:xsi="http://www.w3.org/2001/XMLSchema-instance" xsi:schemaLocation="http://www.mediawiki.org/xml/export-0.3/ http://www.mediawiki.org/xml/export-0.3.xsd" version="0.3" xml:lang="en"> <siteinfo> <sitename>Wikipedia</sitename> <base>http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Main_Page</base> <generator>MediaWiki 1.6alpha</generator> <case>first-letter</case> <namespaces> <namespace key="-2">Media</namespace> <namespace key="-1">Special</namespace> <namespace key="0" /> <namespace key="1">Talk</namespace> <namespace key="2">User</namespace> <namespace key="3">User talk</namespace> <namespace key="4">Wikipedia</namespace> <namespace key="5">Wikipedia talk</namespace> <namespace key="6">Image</namespace> <namespace key="7">Image talk</namespace> <namespace key="8">MediaWiki</namespace> <namespace key="9">MediaWiki talk</namespace> <namespace key="10">Template</namespace> <namespace key="11">Template talk</namespace> <namespace key="12">Help</namespace> <namespace key="13">Help talk</namespace> <namespace key="14">Category</namespace> <namespace key="15">Category talk</namespace> <namespace key="100">Portal</namespace> <namespace key="101">Portal talk</namespace> </namespaces> </siteinfo> <page> <title>AaA</title> <id>1</id> <revision> <id>32899315</id> <timestamp>2005-12-27T18:46:47Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Jsmethers</username> <id>614213</id> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[AAA]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>AlgeriA</title> <id>5</id> <revision> <id>18063769</id> <timestamp>2005-07-03T11:13:13Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Docu</username> <id>8029</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>adding cur_id=5: {{R from CamelCase}}</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Algeria]]{{R from CamelCase}}</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>AmericanSamoa</title> <id>6</id> <revision> <id>18063795</id> <timestamp>2005-07-03T11:14:17Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Docu</username> <id>8029</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>adding to cur_id=6 {{R from CamelCase}}</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[American Samoa]]{{R from CamelCase}}</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>AppliedEthics</title> <id>8</id> <revision> <id>15898943</id> <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>Conversion script</ip> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Automated conversion</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Applied ethics]] </text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>AccessibleComputing</title> <id>10</id> <revision> <id>15898945</id> <timestamp>2003-04-25T22:18:38Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Ams80</username> <id>7543</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Fixing redirect</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Accessible_computing]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>AdA</title> <id>11</id> <revision> <id>15898946</id> <timestamp>2002-09-22T16:02:58Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Andre Engels</username> <id>300</id> </contributor> <minor /> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Ada programming language]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Anarchism</title> <id>12</id> <revision> <id>42136831</id> <timestamp>2006-03-04T01:41:25Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>CJames745</username> <id>832382</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>/* Anarchist Communism */ too many brackets</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Anarchism}} '''Anarchism''' originated as a term of abuse first used against early [[working class]] [[radical]]s including the [[Diggers]] of the [[English Revolution]] and the [[sans-culotte|''sans-culottes'']] of the [[French Revolution]].[http://uk.encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761568770/Anarchism.html] Whilst the term is still used in a pejorative way to describe ''&quot;any act that used violent means to destroy the organization of society&quot;''&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.cas.sc.edu/socy/faculty/deflem/zhistorintpolency.html History of International Police Cooperation], from the final protocols of the &quot;International Conference of Rome for the Social Defense Against Anarchists&quot;, 1898&lt;/ref&gt;, it has also been taken up as a positive label by self-defined anarchists. The word '''anarchism''' is [[etymology|derived from]] the [[Greek language|Greek]] ''[[Wiktionary:&amp;#945;&amp;#957;&amp;#945;&amp;#961;&amp;#967;&amp;#943;&amp;#945;|&amp;#945;&amp;#957;&amp;#945;&amp;#961;&amp;#967;&amp;#943;&amp;#945;]]'' (&quot;without [[archon]]s (ruler, chief, king)&quot;). Anarchism as a [[political philosophy]], is the belief that ''rulers'' are unnecessary and should be abolished, although there are differing interpretations of what this means. Anarchism also refers to related [[social movement]]s) that advocate the elimination of authoritarian institutions, particularly the [[state]].&lt;ref&gt;[http://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Definitions_of_anarchism Definitions of anarchism] on Wikiquote, accessed 2006&lt;/ref&gt; The word &quot;[[anarchy]],&quot; as most anarchists use it, does not imply [[chaos]], [[nihilism]], or [[anomie]], but rather a harmonious [[anti-authoritarian]] society. In place of what are regarded as authoritarian political structures and coercive economic institutions, anarchists advocate social relations based upon [[voluntary association]] of autonomous individuals, [[mutual aid]], and [[self-governance]]. While anarchism is most easily defined by what it is against, anarchists also offer positive visions of what they believe to be a truly free society. However, ideas about how an anarchist society might work vary considerably, especially with respect to economics; there is also disagreement about how a free society might be brought about. == Origins and predecessors == [[Peter Kropotkin|Kropotkin]], and others, argue that before recorded [[history]], human society was organized on anarchist principles.&lt;ref&gt;[[Peter Kropotkin|Kropotkin]], Peter. ''&quot;[[Mutual Aid: A Factor of Evolution]]&quot;'', 1902.&lt;/ref&gt; Most anthropologists follow Kropotkin and Engels in believing that hunter-gatherer bands were egalitarian and lacked division of labour, accumulated wealth, or decreed law, and had equal access to resources.&lt;ref&gt;[[Friedrich Engels|Engels]], Freidrich. ''&quot;[http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1884/origin-family/index.htm Origins of the Family, Private Property, and the State]&quot;'', 1884.&lt;/ref&gt; [[Image:WilliamGodwin.jpg|thumb|right|150px|William Godwin]] Anarchists including the [[The Anarchy Organisation]] and [[Murray Rothbard|Rothbard]] find anarchist attitudes in [[Taoism]] from [[History of China|Ancient China]].&lt;ref&gt;The Anarchy Organization (Toronto). ''Taoism and Anarchy.'' [[April 14]] [[2002]] [http://www.toxicpop.co.uk/library/taoism.htm Toxicpop mirror] [http://www.geocities.com/SoHo/5705/taoan.html Vanity site mirror]&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;[[Murray Rothbard|Rothbard]], Murray. ''&quot;[http://www.lewrockwell.com/rothbard/ancient-chinese.html The Ancient Chinese Libertarian Tradition]&quot;'', an extract from ''&quot;[http://www.mises.org/journals/jls/9_2/9_2_3.pdf Concepts of the Role of Intellectuals in Social Change Toward Laissez Faire]&quot;'', The Journal of Libertarian Studies, 9 (2) Fall 1990.&lt;/ref&gt; [[Peter Kropotkin|Kropotkin]] found similar ideas in [[stoicism|stoic]] [[Zeno of Citium]]. According to Kropotkin, Zeno &quot;repudiated the omnipotence of the state, its intervention and regimentation, and proclaimed the sovereignty of the moral law of the individual&quot;. &lt;ref&gt;[http://www.blackcrayon.com/page.jsp/library/britt1910.html Anarchism], written by Peter Kropotkin, from Encyclopaedia Britannica, 1910]&lt;/ref&gt; The [[Anabaptist]]s of 16th century Europe are sometimes considered to be religious forerunners of modern anarchism. [[Bertrand Russell]], in his ''History of Western Philosophy'', writes that the Anabaptists &quot;repudiated all law, since they held that the good man will be guided at every moment by [[the Holy Spirit]]...[f]rom this premise they arrive at [[communism]]....&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[Bertrand Russell|Russell]], Bertrand. ''&quot;Ancient philosophy&quot;'' in ''A History of Western Philosophy, and its connection with political and social circumstances from the earliest times to the present day'', 1945.&lt;/ref&gt; [[Diggers (True Levellers)|The Diggers]] or &quot;True Levellers&quot; were an early communistic movement during the time of the [[English Civil War]], and are considered by some as forerunners of modern anarchism.&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.zpub.com/notes/aan-hist.html An Anarchist Timeline], from Encyclopaedia Britannica, 1994.&lt;/ref&gt; In the [[modern era]], the first to use the term to mean something other than chaos was [[Louis-Armand de Lom d'Arce de Lahontan, Baron de Lahontan|Louis-Armand, Baron de Lahontan]] in his ''Nouveaux voyages dans l'Amérique septentrionale'', (1703), where he described the [[Native Americans in the United States|indigenous American]] society, which had no state, laws, prisons, priests, or private property, as being in anarchy&lt;ref&gt;[http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/cgi-local/DHI/dhi.cgi?id=dv1-12 Dictionary of the History of Ideas - ANARCHISM]&lt;/ref&gt;. [[Russell Means]], a [[libertarian]] and le
war was, however, considered separate from the World War by Finland &amp;ndash; an understanding not quite appreciated by the political leadership in Germany, Finland's chief supporter. == Introduction == Although the Continuation War was fought on the periphery of [[World War II]] and the troops engaged were relatively few, its history is intriguing as it challenges both conventional wisdom about the moral clarity of the Allied effort and the popular and academic theory that democratic countries do not wage war against each other. Technically, the democratic Allied powers declared war against [[Finland]]. But there were no engagements with troops of the chief democratic powers, the [[United States]], the [[United Kingdom]], [[Canada]], and [[Australia]]. During the conflict, Finland acted in concert with [[Germany]] against the [[Soviet Union]], which in turn was allied with [[United Kingdom|Britain]] and, for most of the period, the [[United States]]. Memories of the 1939 [[Winter War]] with the Soviet Union, and the inability of the Allies to support the Finns in it, were key motivators for the alliance with Germany. The issue was less controversial in Finland, and in hindsight a relatively broad Finnish consensus asserts that the Finns as a people would most likely not have survived the war without cooperating with Nazi Germany. Conventional wisdom among Finns who grew up in the [[1960s]]&amp;ndash;[[1970s|70s]] depicted the Continuation War as a ''Finnish'' mistake. Nowadays, some tend to assert that there was really nothing Finland could have done to avoid the Winter War and the Continuation War &amp;mdash; at least not in the last years before the wars. Major events of World War II, and the tides of war in general, had significant impact on the course of the Continuation War: * Germany's invasion of the Soviet Union ([[Operation Barbarossa]]) is closely connected to the Continuation War's beginning. * The [[Allied]] invasion of [[France]] ([[Battle of Normandy]]) was coordinated with the Soviet major offensive against Finland ([[June 9]]&amp;ndash;[[July 15]], [[1944]]), leading to a five week long [[military alliance|alliance]] between democratic Finland and Germany ([[June 26]] to [[August 4]], [[1944]]). * The subsequent US/Soviet race to Berlin brought about the end of the Continuation War by rendering [[Northern Europe]] irrelevant. == Aims of war == Finland's main goal during [[World War II]] was, although nowhere literally stated, to survive the war as an independent [[state|country]], capable of maintaining its sovereignty in a politically hostile environment. Specifically for the Continuation War, Finland aimed at reversing its territorial losses under the March 1940 [[Moscow Peace Treaty (1940)|Moscow Peace Treaty]] and by extending the territory further east, to guarantee the survival of the [[Finnic]] brethren in [[East-Karelia]] &amp;mdash; thus in effect aiming at creating a [[Greater Finland]], as advocated by vociferous right-wing groups. Finland's exertion during the World War was, in the former respect, successful, although the price was high in war casualties, reparation payments, territorial loss, bruised international reputation and subsequent adaptation to Soviet international perspectives. The [[Soviet Union]]'s war goals are harder to assess on account of the secretive nature of the [[Stalinism|Stalinist]] Soviet Union. The Soviet Union of the [[1930s]] was a militarily weak power, and it can be argued that all of her policies up to the Continuation War are best explained as defensive measures by offensive means: the sharing of [[Poland]] with [[Germany]], the annexation of the [[Baltic state]]s and the attempted invasion of Finland in the Winter War can all be seen as elements in the construction of a security zone between the perceived threat from the [[capitalism|capitalist]] powers of Western Europe and the [[Communism|Communist]] Soviet Union &amp;ndash; similar to the post-war establishment of [[Soviet satellite state]]s in the [[Warsaw Pact]] countries and the [[Agreement of Friendship, Cooperation, and Mutual Assistance]] concluded with post-war Finland. Accordingly, after Germany's attack on the Soviet Union ([[Operation Barbarossa]], [[June 22]], [[1941]]), the [[Red Army]]'s attack on Finland, harbouring not yet unleashed German forces, could be seen as a [[pre-emptive war|pre-emptive]] or [[preventive attack|preventive]] attack aiming to protect Russian civilians and troops: through control of Finland's territory, the threat against Leningrad (i.e. the old imperial capital [[Saint Petersburg]]) and the important harbour in [[Murmansk]] was to be fended off. == Background == === Before World War II === Although [[East Karelia]] has never been part of [[Finland]], a majority of its inhabitants were Finnic people. After the Finnish declaration of independence, voices arose advocating the annexation of [[East Karelia]] to rescue it from oppression. This led to a few excursions to the area ([[Viena expedition]] and [[Aunus expedition]]), but these were unsuccessful. Finland unsuccessfuly raised the question of [[East Karelia]] several times in the [[League of Nations]]. In non-leftist circles, [[Imperial Germany]]'s role in the &quot;[[White Guard (Finland)|White]]&quot; government's victory over rebellious [[Socialist]]s during the [[Civil War in Finland]] was celebrated, although most preferred British or Scandinavian support over that of Germany. The security policy of independent Finland turned first towards a [[cordon sanitaire]], whereby the newly independent nations of [[Poland]], the [[Baltic Republics]] and Finland would form a defensive alliance against Russia, but after negotiations collapsed Finland turned to the [[League of Nations]] for security. Contacts with the Scandinavian countries also met with little success. In [[1932]], Finland and the [[Soviet Union]] signed a [[non-aggression pact]], but even contemporary analysts considered it worthless. ===The Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact and the Winter War === {{main|Winter War}} The [[Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact]] in [[1939]] enabled the [[Soviet Union]] to pressure the Baltic republics and Finland. The Baltic republics soon [[Occupation of Baltic Republics|gave in]] to Soviet demands, but Finland continued to refuse. As a result, on [[November 30]], [[1939]], the [[Winter War]] began. Condemnation by the [[League of Nations]] and by countries all over the world had no effect on Soviet policy. International help to Finland was planned, but very little actual help materialised. The [[Moscow Peace Treaty (1940)|Moscow Peace Treaty]] in [[1940]], which ended the [[Winter War]], was perceived as a great injustice. A fifth of the country's industry and 11% of agricultural land were lost. 12% of Finland's population had to be moved to the Finnish side of the border. [[Hanko]] was rented to Soviet Union as a military base. However, Finland had managed to force [[Soviet Union]] to give up its plan to annex the whole country. === Interim Peace === {{main|Interim Peace}} The [[Moscow Peace Treaty]], in [[1940]], was a shock to the Finns. It was perceived as the ultimate failure of Finland's foreign policy, which had been based on [[multilateralism|multilateral]] guarantees for support. Binding [[bilateral]] treaties were now sought and formerly frosty relations, such as with the [[Soviet Union]] and the [[Third Reich]], had to be eased. Public opinion in Finland longed for the re-acquisition of [[Finnish Karelia]], and put their hope in the peace conference that was assumed to would follow the World War. The term ''Välirauha'' (&quot;Interim Peace&quot;) became popular after the harsh peace was announced. Although the peace treaty was signed, the [[state of war]] and censorhsip was not revoked because of the widening world war, the difficult food supply situation, and the poor shape of the Finnish military. This made it possible for president [[Kyösti Kallio]] to ask [[Carl Gustaf Emil Mannerheim|Field Marshal Mannerheim]] to remain [[commander-in-chief]] and supervise rearmament and fortification work. During [[1940]], Finland received material purchased and donated during and immediately after the [[Winter War]]. Military expenditures rose in [[1940]] to 45% of Finland's state budget. A war trade treaty with Britain had little effect due to German occupation of [[Norway]] and [[Denmark]]. [[Nazi Germany]] attacked [[Scandinavia]] on [[April 9]], [[1940]]([[Operation Weserübung]]). Finland, like Sweden, was spared occupation but encircled by [[Nazi Germany]] and [[Soviet Union]]. Especially damaging was the loss of [[fertilizer]] imports, that, together with he aftereffects of the [[Winter War]] resulted in a drastic fall of food production. Some of the deficit could be purchased from [[Sweden]] and some from the [[Soviet Union]], although delayed deliveries were a means to exert pressure on [[Finland]]. In this situation, Finland had no alternative but to turn to Germany. From May [[1940]], Finland pursued a campaign to re-establish the good relations with Germany. The Finnish media not only refrained from criticism of [[Nazi Germany]], but also took active part in this campaign. Dissent was [[censorship|censored]]. After the [[Battle of France|fall of France]], the campaign was stepped up. The implementation of the [[Moscow Peace Treaty]] created problems. The forced return of evacuated machinery, locomotives, and rail cars, inflexibility on questions which could have eased hardships created by the new border, such as fishing rights and the usage of [[Saimaa Canal]] heightened distrust about the objectives of the [[Soviet Union]]. The new Soviet ambassador to Helsinki, [[Ivan Zotov]] behaved undiplomatically and drived to advance Soviet interests in Finland. In his reports he recommended that Finland ought to be finished off and wholly annexed by the [[Soviet Union]]. On [[June 23]], [[1940]], the [[Sov
nt costumes for dealing with extraordinary situations; for example, he has been shown in a [[SCUBA]] variant of his costume, a fireproof version for fighting his enemy [[Firefly (comics)|Firefly]], as well as others. Many future versions of the hero, including those shown in ''[[The Dark Knight Returns]]'', ''[[Kingdom Come (comic)|Kingdom Come]]'' and ''[[Batman Beyond]]'', show him swapping his cloth costume for a suit of powered armor. More than in any comic book, however, Batman action figures have provided endless variant costumes, with over a hundred different toys including a samurai Batman, buccaneer Batman, cyborg Batman and so on. ==Supporting characters== {{main|Supporting characters of Batman}} [[Robin (comics)|Robin]] is perhaps Batman's most important ally; no fewer than five teenage [[sidekick]]s having served in the role: Dick Grayson (the original Robin, later [[Nightwing]]), [[Jason Todd]], [[Tim Drake]], [[Spoiler (comics)|Stephanie Brown]] and Carrie Kelly in the non-canonical ''[[The Dark Knight Returns]]''. Both Jason Todd and Stephanie Brown were killed in the line of duty. [[Image:Allstarbatmanandrobin01.jpg|thumb|left|175px|[[All Star Batman and Robin]] #1 (July 2005). Art by [[Jim Lee]].]] [[Alfred (comics)|Alfred Pennyworth]] is Bruce Wayne's loyal [[butler]] and father figure while [[Lucius Fox]] acts as his business manager. Former [[Chief of police|Police Commissioner]] [[James Gordon (comics)|James &quot;Jim&quot; Gordon]] worked closely with Batman despite their differences on how to best enforce the law. Barbara Gordon, Commissioner Gordon's red-haired daughter, previously fought crime at Batman's side as [[Batgirl]]; in recent comics, she became the computer [[Hacker (computer security)|hacker]] known as [[Oracle (comics)|Oracle]]. Most recently, Cassandra Cain assumed the Batgirl identity. Jean-Paul Valley, also known as Azrael, briefly became Batman during the Knightfall Saga and is currently presumed dead. In pre-''Crisis'' continuity, the [[Huntress (comics)|Huntress]] was Helena Wayne, daughter to Earth-Two's Bruce Wayne and Selina Kyle (Catwoman). Post-''Crisis'', the Huntress' secret identity is Helena Bertinelli, who has no biological relations to Catwoman or Batman. Her willingness to kill makes her alliance with Batman extremely uneasy. Batman is also supported by [[Superman]] and members of the [[Justice League|Justice League of America]] and the [[Outsiders (comics)|Outsiders]], both of which he is usually a part-time member. Superman especially crosses paths with Batman often, given that the two are DC Comics' most prominent characters. In pre-''Crisis'' continuity, the two were depicted as close friends, and appeared together monthly in the pages of ''[[World's Finest Comics]]''. In current continuity, the two are usually depicted as having an uneasy relationship, with an emphasis on their differing views on crimefighting and justice. The nickname &quot;World's Finest&quot; (taken from the ''World's Finest Comics'' title) is often used to describe Superman-Batman teamups. Currently, DC is publishing a monthly teamup title, called simply ''[[Superman/Batman]]''. In addition, Batman has a friendly rivalry with [[Mister Terrific (comics)|Mister Terrific]], his opposite number in the [[Justice Society of America]]. Batman has had many romantic relationships throughout his various incarnations. They have been with villainesses ([[Catwoman]], [[Talia al Ghul]] and [[Poison Ivy (comics)|Poison Ivy]]); reporters ([[Vicki Vale]] and Vesper Fairchild); superheroines ([[Wonder Woman]], [[Batwoman]] and [[Zatanna]]); ex-sidekick ([[Sasha Bordeaux]]); and others including Silver St. Cloud, Julie Madison, physician Shondra Kinsolving, Dr. Chase Meridian and nurse Linda Page. With the exception of Catwoman, these relationships have been notable mainly for their short duration; Batman's attraction to Catwoman, however, has been in nearly every version and media the character has appeared in. Authors have gone back and forth over the years as to how Batman manages the 'playboy' aspect of Bruce Wayne's personality; at different times he is variously embracing or fleeing from the women interested in attracting 'Gotham's most eligible bachelor'. ==Enemies of Batman== {{main|Enemies of Batman}} [[Image:BatmanVillainsSecretFiles.jpg|thumb|right|175px|Cover to ''Batman Villains Secret Files 2005''. Art by Barrionuevo &amp; Bit.]] Batman's foes form one of the most distinctive [[rogues gallery|rogues galleries]] in comics. In the 1930s and 1940s the most familiar Batman villains evolved: The [[Joker (comics)|Joker]], [[Catwoman]], the [[Penguin (comics)|Penguin]], [[Two-Face]], the [[Riddler (comics)|Riddler]], [[Mad Hatter (comics)|Mad Hatter]], [[Scarecrow (comics)|Scarecrow]], [[Man-Bat]] and [[Clayface]]. Other well known villains emerged in the 1950s, 1960s and 1970s including [[Mister Freeze]], [[Poison Ivy (comics)|Poison Ivy]], and [[Ra's Al Ghul]]. [[Killer Croc]], [[Black Mask (comics)|Black Mask]] and the [[Ventriloquist (comics)|Ventriloquist]] emerged in the 1980s, and [[Bane (comics)|Bane]] and [[Harley Quinn]] in the 1990s. Later enemies have been introduced, such as [[Hush (comics)|Hush]], [[David Cain (comics)|David Cain]] and a new [[Red Hood]] ([[Jason Todd]] returned from the dead). These enemies, with Bane, Ra's and the Riddler, know Batman´s true identity and use that against him. Also Catwoman was told Batmans true identity by Bruce Wayne, and the location of the batcave. ==Crossovers== :''See also [[Intercompany crossover]].'' Batman as a DC Comics' character has from time to time been featured in crossovers with characters from other comic companies, most commonly with [[Marvel Comics]]. Many of these stories are not [[canonical|canon]] for the companies involved, although the DC/Marvel crossovers appear to have some ongoing validity in the [[DC universe]]. The first such crossover was with the Incredible [[Hulk (comics)|Hulk]] in the late 1970s. Batman, both as Jean-Paul Valley and Bruce Wayne, also encountered the [[Punisher]]. Batman and [[Captain America]] have both fought each other in the ''[[Marvel vs. DC]]'' event, and were allies against the [[Red Skull]] and the [[Joker (comics)|Joker]] in ''Crossover Classics II''. Since then, they have encountered each other again in ''[[JLA/Avengers]]''. Batman has also worked together with [[Spider-Man]] twice, the first simply titled ''Spider-Man/Batman'', with appearances from Marvel's [[Carnage (comics)|Carnage]] and DC's Joker. The sequel, ''Batman &amp; Spider-Man'', brought the two heroes together to face [[Ra's al Ghul]] and the [[Kingpin (comics)|Kingpin]]. Two other Batman and Marvel crossovers feature [[Daredevil (Marvel Comics) |Daredevil]]. Crossovers with other companies include [[Judge Dredd]], [[Spawn (comics)|Spawn]], [[Grendel (comics)|Grendel]], [[Yautja|Predators]], [[Xenomorphs|Aliens]], [[Tarzan]], [[Danger Girl]], [[Planetary]] and [[The Spirit]]. ==Homosexual interpretations== [[Image:Batman panel - Robin what have I done to you.jpg|thumb|left|250px|From ''Justice League of America'' #44. Published in 1966.]] In 1954, psychologist [[Fredric Wertham]]'s general assertion in his book ''[[Seduction of the Innocent]]'' was that readers would imitate crimes committed in comic books, and that these works would corrupt the morals of the youth. The most notorious charge in the book, however, was leveled at Batman, in a four-page polemic claiming that Batman and Robin were [[gay]]. &amp;quot;They live in sumptuous quarters, with beautiful flowers in large vases, and have a butler,&quot; Wertham wrote. &quot;It is like a wish dream of two [[homosexuals]] living together.&quot; What was more, Wertham asserted, &quot;the Batman type of story may stimulate children to homosexual fantasies.&quot; Wertham became aware of this alternative reading through his conversations with fans of Batman in the fifties, who brought the comic book to his attention as an example of the idealization of a &quot;homosexual lifestyle.&quot; [[Burt Ward]] has also remarked upon this interpretation, in his autobiographical ''Boy Wonder: My Life in Tights'' noting that the relationship could be interpreted as a sexual one, with the show's double entendres and lavish camp also possibly offering ambiguous interpretation.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web | title=Bruce Wayne: Bachelor | work=Ninth Art: Andrew Wheeler Coment | url=http://www.ninthart.com/display.php?article=963 | accessdate=June 21 | accessyear=2005}}&lt;/ref&gt; This is despite the fact that the TV series was an attempt at a tamer version of Batman which tried to be less violent than the comic series — one of Wertham's arguments against comics. [[Image:Batgirlbettebatmite.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Bat-girl, from ''Batman'' #144 (December 1961)]] Despite the lack of any concrete cause-and-effect link between reading comics and &quot;deviance&quot;, these suggestions raised a public outcry during the 1950s, eventually leading to the establishment of the [[Comics Code Authority]]. It has also been suggested by scholars that the characters of [[Batwoman]] (in 1956) and [[Batgirl|Bat-Girl]] (in 1961) were introduced in part to refute the allegation that Batman and Robin were gay, and the stories took on a campier, lighter feel.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal | last = York | first = Christopher | title=All in the family: Homophobia and Batman Comics in the 1950s | journal=The International Journal of Comic Art | year=2000 | volume=2 | issue=2 | pages=100–110 | url= }}&lt;/ref&gt; However, commenting on homosexual interpretations of Batman, writer [[Alan Grant]] has stated that &quot;the Batman I wrote for 13 years isn't gay. Denny O'Neil's Batman, Marv Wolfman's Batman, everybody's Batman all the way back to Bob Kane...none of them wrote him as a gay character. Only [[Joel Schumacher]] might have had an opposing view.&quot;,&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web | title=Is
fast and cultured champion of the principles represented by the early Congregationalists. Amid all the controversy, he steadily pursued his studies. The combination was so unique that some have mistaken him for two different individuals. (Confusion has also been occasioned through his friendly controversy with one John Ainsworth, who left the [[Anglican]] for the [[Roman Catholic]] church.) In [[1608]] Ainsworth answered [[Richard Bernard]]'s ''The Separatist Schisme'', but his greatest minor work in this field was his reply to [[John Smyth (1570-1612)|John Smyth]] (commonly called &quot;the Se-Baptist&quot;), entitled ''Defence of Holy Scripture, Worship and Ministry used in the Christian Churches separated from Antichrist, against the Challenges, Cavils and Contradictions of Mr Smyth'' (1609). In 1610 Ainsworth was forced reluctantly to withdraw, with a large part of their church, from Johnson and those who adhered to him. A difference of principle as to the church's right to revise its officers' decisions had been growing between them, Ainsworth taking the more [[congregationalist church governance|Congregational]] view. In spirit he remained a man of peace. His scholarly works include his ''Annotations'' -- on Genesis (1616); Exodus (1617); Leviticus (1618); Numbers (1619); Deuteronomy (1619); Psalms (including a metrical version, 1612); and Song of Solomon (1623). These were collected in folio in [[1627]]. From the outset the ''Annotations'' took a commanding place, especially among continental scholars, establishing a scholarly tradition for English nonconformity. His publication of Psalms, ''The Book of Psalmes: Englished both in Prose and Metre with Annotations'' ([[Amsterdam]], [[1612]]), which includes 39 separate [[texture (music)|monophonic]] psalm tunes, constituted the [[Ainsworth Psalter]], the only book of music brought to [[New England]] in [[1620]] by the Pilgrim settlers. Although its content was later reworked into the [[Bay Psalm Book]], it had an important influence on the early development of American [[psalmody]]. Ainsworth died in 1622, or early in 1623, for in that year was published his ''Seasonable Discourse'', or a ''Censure upon a Dialogue of the [[Anabaptist]]s'', in which the editor speaks of him as a departed worthy. ==References== *{{1911}} [[Category:1571 births|Ainsworth, Henry]] [[Category:1622 deaths|Ainsworth, Henry]] [[Category:English people|Ainsworth, Henry]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Hilberts tenth problem</title> <id>13676</id> <revision> <id>15911270</id> <timestamp>2002-10-10T11:33:39Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Magnus Manske</username> <id>4</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>#REDIRECT [[Matiyasevich's theorem]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Matiyasevich's theorem]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Hindu</title> <id>13677</id> <revision> <id>42160608</id> <timestamp>2006-03-04T05:33:48Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>70.173.100.6</ip> </contributor> <comment>/* Marriage */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article discusses the adherents of [[Hinduism]]. For other meanings of the word, see [[Hindu (disambiguation)]]. For more information on the people of [[India]], visit the [[Demographics of India]].'' {{Hinduism_small}} A '''Hindu''' (archaic ''Hindoo''), as per modern definition is an adherent of philosophies and scriptures of '''[[Hinduism]]''', the predominant [[religious]], [[philosophical]] and [[cultural]] system of the [[Indian subcontinent]] and the island of [[Bali]]. Historically, Hindus can be referred to as the successors of [[Vedic aryans]]. Most of the Hindus today live in the [[Republic of India]]. Another popular name for India is [[Hindustan]], meaning the ''land of Hindus''. More than one [[billion]] people across the world practise Hinduism. 950 million of them live in the [[Indian subcontinent]], the birthplace of Hinduism. The [[Himalaya]]n kingdom of [[Nepal]] is the world's only Hindu nation. Though the majority of the Indian population practices Hinduism, India is a [[secular]] [[republic]]. Large Hindu communities, mostly [[expatriate]]s from India, live in [[South East Asia]], [[North America]], the [[West Indies]], [[Western Europe]], the [[Middle East]], [[East Africa]] and [[South Africa]]. The Hindus of Bali, and in other parts of Indonesia are indigenous [[Agama Hindu Dharma|Indonesian Hindus]]. ==Origins of the word ''Hindu''== {{seealso|Etymology of India}} [[Image:Sindhu river.jpg|right|thumb|250px|River Sindhu, [[Ladakh]]]] The origin of the word Hindu is still disagreed upon by historians and linguists. It is generally accepted as having originally been a [[Persian language|Persian]] word for someone who lives around or beyond the river [[Indus]], which is called [[Sindhu]] in [[Sanskrit]], and meant any inhabitant of the [[Indian subcontinent]], before the [[Partition of India]]. In Persian and [[Arabic]], the term &quot;Hind&quot; denotes the Indian subcontinent, and the term Hindu (Indu or Intu in [[China]]) is still used in some languages to denote a person from the region. A variant of the word was taken into old Greek, and lost the initial aspiration ('h') in modern Greek. This led to the [[Greek language|Greek]] name of 'India'. Pundit Jawaharlal Nehru in his book The Discovery of India writes &quot;the word 'Hindu' does not occur at all in our ancient literature. The first reference to it in an Indian book is, I am told, in a Tantrik work of the eighth century A.C., where 'Hindu' means a people and not the followers of a particular religion. But it is clear that the word is a very old one, as it occurs in the Avesta and in old Persian&quot;. Until about 19th century, the term Hindu implied a culture and ethnicity and not religion alone. When the British government started periodic census and established a legal system, need arose to define [[Hinduism]] as a clearly-defined religion, along the lines of [[Christianity]] or [[Islam]]. Some scholars like [[Bal Gangadhar Tilak]], defined it as a religion based on the [[Vedas]], using the analogy of [[Bible]] and [[Qur'an]] being the basis of Christianity and Islam respectively. The old Persian definition of &quot;Hindu&quot; would club all people living in India into a single group called &quot;Hindus&quot;. However, today all Indians are not called Hindus simply to be able to differentiate between adherants of different faiths, and also with respect to peoples' sentiments. That even an [[atheism|atheist]] may be called a Hindu is an example of the fact that Hinduism is far beyond a simple religious system, but actually an extremely diverse and complicated river of evolving [[philosophy|philosophies]] and ancient [[tradition]]s. ==Who is a Hindu?== [[Image:Prambanam.JPG|right|thumb|250px|Hinduism is world's oldest existing religion. Shown here is a 1100-year-old [[Siva]] [[Prambanan|temple]] in Indonesia]] {{seealso|History of Hinduism}} Prior to successful invasion of Indian subcontinent by [[Babar]] from [[Uzbekistan]] and later by European colonialists, there was no distinct definition of religion in India. Reform movements like the [[Samana]]s were not far from the [[Jain]] and [[Buddhist]] orders, and such groups provided the wheels of philosophical evolution and cultural change. While strict social ordering existed in the [[Brahmin|Brahmanical]] system, it was never necessary for anyone to worship a particular form of God, perform a particular set of rituals, speak a particular language, or regard one book as the most sacred. Different scholars gave different definitions but still who is Hindu is disputed. One definition states that a Hindu is one who accepts the authority of the Vedas. The [[colonialism|colonial]] [[British Empire|British]] [[government]] introduced the [[census]] as is today, and for legal purposes set worded definitions and distinctions between populations living interwoven for thousands of years. This practice, once established, was exploited for political power by various communities, with distinct religions getting special privileges and recognitions as opposed to members of a sect, reform movement or of the larger mass of people. These bookish definitions fail to alter, however, centuries-old practices and relationships between communities, which though not free of divisive conflicts, are certainly not victims of any schisms. Many Hindus (mainly from [[North India]] and of the Indian state of [[Maharashtra]]) identify the [[God|Supreme Being]] as [[Vishnu]] and are known as [[Vaishnava]]; many others (mainly from [[South India]]) believe the Supreme Being is [[Shiva]] or [[Shankar]] and are known as [[Shaivaite]]; while many other (mainly from [[West Bengal]]) believe in the female Principal [[Shakti]] as the Supreme Energy or Force for life (birth and preservation) and destruction unified, and are called [[Shaktism|Shakti]] while in other branches of [[Vaishnavism]] and [[Shaivism]], Shakti is God's Unified Energy (Power) personified. The fourth major group, the [[Smarta]], call the Trinity and Shakti as the Supreme One [[Brahman]], which manifests into personal forms of God, such as [[Brahma]], [[Vishnu]] or [[Shiva]] (also known as Mahesh). However, no barrier or distinction or rivalry of any nature exists between any of these - historically, Hinduism is known for its religious tolerance and there is no friction whatsoever between these groups, who respect each other's practices. Each naturally respects all incarnations of the God, only choosing to see the Supreme in one particular form. Many follow a blend of all three beliefs and this is by far the most common form of religion for Hindus, with a mix of [[Shaivism]], [[Shaktism]] and [[Vaishnavism]] as well as other reform movements. In most Hindu
Armbrøst]] [[pl:Kusza]] [[pt:Besta (arma)]] [[ru:Арбалет]] [[sl:Samostrel]] [[fi:Varsijousi]] [[sv:Armborst]] [[zh:弩]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Carbamazepine</title> <id>6949</id> <revision> <id>41490937</id> <timestamp>2006-02-27T18:48:06Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Abc85</username> <id>805780</id> </contributor> <comment>Remove father.</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;3&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; width=&quot;250px&quot; align=&quot;right&quot; style=&quot;border-collapse: collapse; margin: 0 0 0 0.5em&quot; |- | bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; | [[Image:Carbamazepine.png|Carbamazepine chemical structure]]&lt;br/&gt; ''Carbamazepine'' |- | align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''5H-dibenz(b,f)azepine-5-carboxamide '' |- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;border-bottom: 3px solid gray&quot; | '''[[CAS number]]''' &lt;br/&gt; 298-46-4 (85756-57-6 dihydrate) | '''[[ATC code]]''' &lt;br/&gt; [[ATC code N03|N03]]AF01 |- | bgcolor=&quot;#eeeeee&quot; | [[Chemical formula]] | bgcolor=&quot;#ddeeff&quot; | C&lt;sub&gt;15&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;12&lt;/sub&gt;N&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O |- | bgcolor=&quot;#eeeeee&quot; | [[Molecular weight]] | bgcolor=&quot;#ddeeff&quot; | 236.27 |- | bgcolor=&quot;#eeeeee&quot; | [[Bioavailability]] | bgcolor=&quot;#ddeeff&quot; | ? |- | bgcolor=&quot;#eeeeee&quot; | Metabolism | bgcolor=&quot;#ddeeff&quot; | ? |- | bgcolor=&quot;#eeeeee&quot; | [[Elimination half-life]] | bgcolor=&quot;#ddeeff&quot; | ? |- | bgcolor=&quot;#eeeeee&quot; | [[Excretion]] | bgcolor=&quot;#ddeeff&quot; | ? |- | bgcolor=&quot;#eeeeee&quot; | [[Pregnancy category (pharmaceutical)|Pregnancy category]] | bgcolor=&quot;#ddeeff&quot; | D |- | bgcolor=&quot;#eeeeee&quot; | [[Regulation of therapeutic goods|Legal status]] | bgcolor=&quot;#ddeeff&quot; | ? |- | bgcolor=&quot;#eeeeee&quot; | Routes of administration | bgcolor=&quot;#ddeeff&quot; | ? |} '''Carbamazepine''' (sold under the brand-names '''Biston'''®, '''Calepsin'''®, '''Carbatrol'''®, '''Epitol'''®, '''Equetro'''®, '''Finlepsin'''®, '''Sirtal'''®, '''Stazepine'''®, '''Tegretol'''®, '''Telesmin'''®, '''Timonil'''®) is an [[anticonvulsant]] and [[mood stabilizer|mood stabilizing]] drug, used primarily in the treatment of [[epilepsy]] and [[bipolar disorder]]. It is also used to treat [[schizophrenia]] and [[trigeminal neuralgia]]. == Mechanisms == Carbamazepine and its derivatives' action mechanism is not well understood, but appears to be primarily through the [[Inhibitor|inhibition]] of [[sodium channel]] activity. == Side-effects == Carbamazepine renders [[Oral contraceptive|birth control pills]] ineffective. Common side-effects include drowsiness, motor-coordination impairment and/or upset stomach. Taken every twelve hours, the Tegretol XR® or Carbatrol® preparations can greatly increase tolerability. Less common side-effects include blurry or double [[Visual perception|vision]] and/or the temporary or mild loss of [[blood cell]]s or [[platelet]]s. In rare cases the latter can be life-threatening if unnoticed, so frequent blood tests are required during the first few months' use, followed by three or four tests per year. There are also reports of a bizarre auditory side-effect, whereby patients perceive musical notes about a [[semitone]] lower than their actual pitch (so [[middle C]] would be heard as the note [[Scientific pitch notation|B3]] just below it, etc). [[Oxcarbazepine]], a derivative of carbamazepine, has fewer and less serious side-effects. == History == Carbamazepine was discovered by chemist Walter Schindler at J.R. Geigy AG (now part of [[Novartis]]) in [[Basel]], [[Switzerland]], in 1953. Schindler then synthesized the drug in 1960, before its anti-epileptic properties had been discovered. Carbamazepine was first marketed as a drug to treat [[trigeminal neuralgia]] in 1962. It has been used as an anticonvulsant in the [[United Kingdom|UK]] since 1965, but only approved in the [[United States|U.S.]] since 1974. == References == * W Schindler and F Häfliger, ''Über derivate des iminodibenzyls'', [[Helvetica Chimica Acta]] 1954, 37:472-483 == External links == * [http://www.carbatrol.com Carbatrol website] * [http://www.rxlist.com/cgi/generic/carbam.htm TA warning] * [http://www.psycheducation.org/depression/meds/carbamazepine.htm Carbamazepine overview] from PsychEducation.org * [http://patimg1.uspto.gov/.piw?Docid=02948718&amp;homeurl=http%3A%2F%2Fpatft.uspto.gov%2Fnetacgi%2Fnph-Parser%3FSect1%3DPTO1%2526Sect2%3DHITOFF%2526d%3DPALL%2526p%3D1%2526u%3D%2Fnetahtml%2Fsrchnum.htm%2526r%3D1%2526f%3DG%2526l%3D50%2526s1%3D2,948,718.WKU.%2526OS%3DPN%2F2,948,718%2526RS%3DPN%2F2,948,718&amp;PageNum=&amp;Rtype=&amp;SectionNum=&amp;idkey=2A0649DBED16 U.S. Patent 2,948,718, August 1960] {{Anticonvulsants}} &lt;!--Categories--&gt; [[Category:Carboxamides]] [[Category:Anticonvulsants]] [[Category:Mood stabilizers]] &lt;!--Other languages--&gt; [[de:Carbamazepin]] [[fr:Carbamazépine]] [[hu:Karbamazepin]] [[pt:Carbamazepina]] [[ru:Карбамазепин]] [[nl:Tegretol]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>CCITT</title> <id>6950</id> <revision> <id>31052609</id> <timestamp>2005-12-12T14:52:29Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>RussBot</username> <id>279219</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Robot: Fixing [[Special:DoubleRedirects|double-redirect]] -&quot;ITU-T&quot; +&quot;ITU Telecommunication Standardization Sector&quot;</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[ITU Telecommunication Standardization Sector]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>CCIR</title> <id>6951</id> <revision> <id>15905060</id> <timestamp>2004-01-22T01:53:50Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>LittleDan</username> <id>8995</id> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[ITU-R]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Chang San-feng</title> <id>6953</id> <revision> <id>15905061</id> <timestamp>2003-09-01T03:29:39Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Jiang</username> <id>10049</id> </contributor> <minor /> <text xml:space="preserve">#Redirect [[Zhang Sanfeng]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Chalcedonian Creed</title> <id>6955</id> <revision> <id>38413278</id> <timestamp>2006-02-06T03:59:26Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>71.107.43.37</ip> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Chalcedonian Creed''' was adopted at the [[Council of Chalcedon]] in [[451]] in [[Asia Minor]]. That Council of Chalcedon is one of the seven [[ecumenical council]]s accepted by Eastern Orthodox, Catholic, and many Protestant Christian churches. It is the first Council ''not'' recognized by any of the [[Oriental Orthodoxy|Oriental Orthodox]] churches. The '''Chalcedonian Creed''' was written amid controversy between the western and eastern churches over the meaning of the [[incarnation]] (see [[Christology]]), the ecclesiastical influence of the [[Byzantine emperor|emperor]], and the supremacy of the [[Pope|Roman Pope]]. The western churches readily accepted the creed, but some eastern churches did not. The creed became standard orthodox doctrine, while the [[Coptic Church|church of Alexandria]] dissented, holding to [[Cyril of Alexandria|Cyril]]'s formula of the oneness of Christ’s nature as the incarnation of God the Word. This church felt that this understanding required that the creed should have stated that Christ be acknowledged &quot;'''from''' two natures&quot; rather than &quot;'''in''' two natures.&quot; This [[Miaphysitism|miaphysite]] position, often ''erroneously'' known as &quot;[[Monophysitism]]&quot;, formed the basis for the distinction from other churches of the [[Coptic church]] of Egypt and [[Ethiopian Orthodox Church|Ethiopia]] and the &quot;[[Jacobite Orthodox Church|Jacobite]]&quot; churches of [[Syriac Orthodox Church|Syria]] and [[Armenian Orthodox Church|Armenia]] (see [[Oriental Orthodoxy]]). Over the last 30 years, however, the miaphysite position has been accepted as a '''mere restatement''' of orthodox belief by [[Ecumenical patriarch|Patriarch Bartholemew]] of the [[Eastern Orthodox Church]] and by [[Pope]] [[Pope John Paul II|John Paul II]] of the [[Roman Catholic Church]]. ----- An English translation: :''We, then, following the holy Fathers, all with one consent, teach men to confess one and the same Son, our Lord Jesus Christ, the same perfect in Godhead and also perfect in manhood;''&lt;br&gt; :''truly God and truly man, of a reasonable [rational] soul and body;''&lt;br&gt; :''consubstantial [co-essential] with the Father according to the Godhead, and consubstantial with us according to the Manhood;''&lt;br&gt; :''in all things like unto us, without sin;''&lt;br&gt; :''begotten before all ages of the Father according to the Godhead, and in these latter days, for us and for our salvation, born of the Virgin Mary, the Mother of God, according to the Manhood;''&lt;br&gt; :''one and the same Christ, Son, Lord, only begotten, to be acknowledged in two natures, inconfusedly, unchangeably, indivisibly, inseparably;''&lt;br&gt; :''the distinction of natures being by no means taken away by the union, but rather the property of each nature being preserved, and concurring in one Person and one Subsistence, not parted or divided into two persons, but one and the same Son, and only begotten, God the Word, the Lord Jesus Christ;''&lt;br&gt; :''as the prophets from the beginning [have declared] concerning Him, and the Lord Jesus Christ Himself has taught us, and the Creed of the holy Fathers has handed down to us.'' [[Category:Ancient Roman Chr
(a pastry dish; traditionally a Cornish pasty &amp;mdash; known locally as simply a ''pasty'' or an ''oggie'' &amp;mdash; contains beef steak, potato, onion and swede with salt and white pepper), but [[saffron]] buns, Cornish Heavy (''Hevva'') Cake, Cornish fairings (biscuit), Cornish [[fudge]] and Cornish [[ice cream]] are other specialities. Cornwall is also well known for [[clotted cream]], local caught fish, and [[cider]]. There are also many types of [[beers]] brewed in Cornwall &amp;mdash; the [[St Austell]] brewery is the best-known &amp;mdash; including a [[stout]] and there is some small scale production of [[wine]]. Older traditional foods include star-gazy pie and &quot;thunder and lightning&quot;. == Settlements == [[Image:Ruined Cornish tin mine.jpg|thumb|right|Ruin of Cornish tin mine]] This is a list of the main towns and cities in the county; for a complete list of settlements see [[list of places in Cornwall]]. *[[Bodmin]] *[[Bude]] *[[Camborne]] *[[Falmouth, Cornwall|Falmouth]] *[[Hayle]] *[[Helston]] *[[Launceston, Cornwall|Launceston]], *[[Liskeard]] *[[Newquay]] *[[Penzance]] *[[Redruth]] *[[Saltash]] *[[St Austell]] *[[St Ives, Cornwall|St Ives]] *[[Truro]] *[[Wadebridge]] ==Transport== Cornwall borders the county of [[Devon]] at the River Tamar. Major road links between Cornwall and the rest of Great Britain are the [[A38 road|A38]] which crosses the Tamar at [[Plymouth]] via the [[Tamar Bridge]], and the [[A30 road|A30]] which crosses the border south of [[Launceston, England|Launceston]]. A [[Torpoint Ferry|car ferry]] also links [[Plymouth]] with the town of [[Torpoint]] on the opposite side of the [[Hamoaze]]. A rail bridge, the [[Royal Albert Bridge]], built by [[Isambard Kingdom Brunel]] ([[1859]]) provides the only other major transport link. [[Newquay]] has an airport which has flights from [[London Gatwick Airport|London Gatwick]], [[London Stansted Airport|London Stansted]], [[Bristol International Airport|Bristol]], [[Manchester International Airport|Manchester]], [[Leeds Bradford International Airport|Leeds Bradford]], [[Dublin]], [[Birmingham International Airport|Birmingham]], [[Durham Tees Valley]] and a flight to [[Málaga]] has recently been announced. The airport shares [[RAF St. Mawgan]]'s runways and facilities; however, this is under threat as the [[Ministry of Defence (United Kingdom)|Ministry of Defence]] is planning to mothball the base. == Places of interest == &lt;div style=&quot;float:right;&quot;&gt; {{EngPlacesKey}} &lt;/div&gt; {|cellpadding=0 cellspacing=4 border=0 |- || *[[Bodmin &amp; Wenford Railway|Bodmin and Wenford Railway]] [[Image:HR icon.png]] *[[Bodmin Moor]] [[Image:UKAL icon.png]] *[[Carn Euny]] *[[Carrick Roads]] *[[Castle An Dinas]] [[Image:UKAL icon.png]] *[[Chûn Castle]] [[Image:UKAL icon.png]] *[[Chûn Quoit]] [[Image:UKAL icon.png]] *[[Chysauster Ancient Village]] [[Image:EH icon.png]] *[[Commando Ridge]], Bosigran *[[Cotehele]] [[Image:NTE icon.png]] *[[Eden Project]] *[[Godrevy Island]] [[Image:NTE icon.png]] *[[Goonhilly Downs]] *[[Gweek seal sanctuary]] * [[The Hurlers (stone circles)|The Hurlers]] [[Image:UKAL icon.png]] *[[Kynance Cove]] [[Image:UKAL icon.png]] *[[Land's End]] [[Image:UKAL icon.png]] *[[Lanhydrock House]] [[Image:NTE icon.png]] *[[Lanyon Quoit]] [[Image:UKAL icon.png]] *[[Lappa Valley Steam Railway]] [[Image:HR icon.png]] *[[The Lizard]] [[Image:UKAL icon.png]] *[[Loe Pool]] || *[[The Lost Gardens of Heligan|Lost Gardens of Heligan]] *[[Mên-an-Tol]] [[Image:UKAL icon.png]] *[[Minack Theatre]] *[[Mullion Cove]] [[Image:UKAL icon.png]] *[[Pencarrow]] [[Image:HH_icon.png]] *[[Pendennis Castle]] [[Image:EH icon.png]] *[[Penlee House, Penzance, Cornwall|Penlee House]] *[[Poldhu]] [[Image:UKAL icon.png]] *[[Polperro]] *[[Museum of Submarine Telegraphy, Cornwall|Museum of Submarine Telegraphy]] *[[Restormel Castle]] [[Image:EH icon.png]] *[[River Fowey]] *[[River Looe]] *[[Roseland Peninsula]] *[[South West Coast Path]] *[[St Mawes Castle]] [[Image:EH icon.png]] *[[St Michael's Mount]] [[Image:NTE icon.png]] *[[Tintagel Castle]] [[Image:EH icon.png]] *[[Trelissick Garden]] [[Image:NTE icon.png]] *[[Truro Cathedral]] |} The [[Isles of Scilly]] have in some periods been served by the same county administration as Cornwall, but are today a separate [[Unitary Authority]]. Some secessionists have found the phrase &quot;English Heritage&quot; to be controversial, and in 2003, there has been a general move to replace these signs, and the Tudor Rose with the Cornish flag, after a group started removing them. == See also == {{InterWiki|code=kw}} *[[Celt]] *[[Constitutional status of Cornwall]] *[[Cornish language]] *[[Cornish nationalism]] *[[Cornish people]] *[[Cornish Rebellion of 1497]] *[[Duchess of Cornwall]] *[[Duchy of Cornwall]] *[[Duke of Cornwall]] *[[Earl of Cornwall]] *[[Kingdom of Cornwall]] *[[Legendary Dukes of Cornwall]] *[[List of Cornish people]] *[[List of not fully sovereign nations]] *[[Mebyon Kernow]] *[[Modern Celts]] *[[Perkin Warbeck]] *[[West Country dialects]] == External links == {{commons|Cornwall}} *[http://www.cornwalltouristboard.co.uk/ The official Cornwall Tourist Board] *[http://www.cornwall.gov.uk/ Cornwall County Council] *[http://www.marjon.ac.uk/cornish-history/index.htm Cornish History] *[http://www.institutes.ex.ac.uk/ics/ The Institute of Cornish Studies] *[http://www.senedhkernow.com/ Campaign for a Cornish Assembly] *[http://www.westbriton.co.uk/displayNode.jsp?nodeId=144124&amp;command=newPage/ This is Cornwall], local news *[http://www.thisisnotcornwall.co.uk/ This is not Cornwall, This is Kernow] [http://www.krowskernewek.com Cornish Crosses in West Penwith.] *[http://www.cornwall24.co.uk/ Cornwall 24] Cornwall's independent news and discussion site ;Photographs *[http://www.cornwall365.co.uk/ Cornwall 365] Photographs of Cornwall *[http://www.viewsofcornwall.co.uk/ Views of Cornwall] Nearly 2000 photos of Cornwall ;Attractions *[http://www.2visit.co.uk/cornwall/ Cornwall Attractions] ==References== # {{note|population}} [[Office for National Statistics]], 2003 [http://www.local.odpm.gov.uk/finance/0506/grant.htm Population estimates]. For a comparison of population and population density see [[List of ceremonial counties of England by population]]. # {{note|cornish}}[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/wales/3527673.stm Morgan Stanley survey] # {{note|pop_grow}} Office for National Statistics, 2001. [http://www.cornwall.gov.uk/Facts/fact2.htm Population Change in England by County 1981-2000]. # {{note|nat_change}} Office for National Statistics, 2001. [http://www.cornwall.gov.uk/Facts/fact74.htm Births, Deaths and Natural Change in Cornwall 1974 &amp;ndash; 2001]. # {{note|retirement}} Office for National Statistics, 1996. [http://www.cornwall.gov.uk/Transport/Ltp/Tables/Table004.htm % of Population of Pension Age (1996)]. # {{note|av_temp}} Met Office, 2000. [http://www.metoffice.com/climate/uk/averages/19712000/tmean/17.gif Annual average temperature for the United Kingdom]. # {{note|av_rainfall}} Met Office, 2000. [http://www.metoffice.com/climate/uk/averages/19712000/rr/17.gif Annual average rainfall for the United Kingdom]. # {{note|av_sunshine}} Met Office, 2000. [http://www.metoffice.com/climate/uk/averages/19712000/ss/17.gif Annual average sunshine for the United Kingdom]. # {{note|GDP}} [http://education.guardian.co.uk/further/story/0,5500,1479952,00.html Guardian, Tuesday May 10, 2005] # {{note|tour_num}} Cornwall Tourist Board, 2003. [http://www.cornwalltouristboard.co.uk/files/pdf/Revised_Tourism%20in%20Cornwall.pdf Tourism in Cornwall]. # {{note|eden_influence}} Scottish Executive, 2004. ''[http://www.scottishexecutive.gov.uk/library5/education/lrcas-14.asp A literature review of the evidence base for culture, the arts and sport policy]]''. # {{note|economy}} The Economist, May 28th-June 3rd 2005 {{England ceremonial counties}} &lt;br /&gt; {{England traditional counties}} [[Category:Cornwall| ]] [[Category:Former countries]] [[Category:History of England by locality|Cornwall]] [[Category:Peninsulas]] [[Category:Sovereignty movements]] [[af:Cornwall]] [[ang:Cornweall]] [[ast:Cornualles]] [[br:Kernev-Veur]] [[ca:Cornualla]] [[cy:Cernyw]] [[de:Cornwall]] [[es:Cornualles]] [[eo:Kornvalo]] [[fr:Cornouailles]] [[ga:Corn na Breataine]] [[ko:콘월 주]] [[kw:Kernow]] [[nl:Cornwall]] [[ja:コーンウォール]] [[no:Cornwall]] [[pl:Kornwalia]] [[pt:Cornualha]] [[simple:Cornwall]] [[sk:Cornwall (grófstvo)]] [[sl:Cornwall]] [[fi:Cornwall]] [[sv:Cornwall]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Constitutional monarchy</title> <id>5649</id> <revision> <id>42092062</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T19:51:29Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Everyking</username> <id>44020</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/198.234.202.130|198.234.202.130]] ([[User talk:198.234.202.130|talk]]) to last version by 198.234.202.132</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">A '''constitutional monarchy''' is a form of [[monarchy|monarchical]] [[government]] established under a [[constitution]]al system which acknowledges a hereditary or elected [[monarch]] as [[head of state]]. Modern constitutional monarchies usually implement the concept of ''[[Separation of powers|trias politica]]'' or &quot;separation of powers&quot;, where the monarch either is the head of the [[executive branch]] or simply has a [[ceremonial]] role. Where a monarch holds absolute power, it is known as an [[absolute monarchy]], and law within an absolute monarchy can often be quite different from law within a constitutional monarchy. Today, constitutional monarchy is almost always combined with [[representative democracy]], and represents theories of sovereignty which places sovereignty in the hands of the people, and those that see a role for traditions in the theory of government. Though the king or queen may be regarded a
one. Hamlet dies, and Horatio mourns his passing: :&quot;Now cracks a noble heart: Good night sweet prince: :And flights of angels sing thee to thy rest!&quot; : [Act V, scene II] Fortinbras enters with English ambassadors. Shocked by the carnage, he orders a military funeral for Hamlet, whilst Horatio offers to relate the whole tale to him and the public. ==Hamlet as a Problem Play== ''Hamlet'' as a play is without doubt the most discussed play in the whole of Shakespeare's oeuvre, or, to quote from Harry Levin, &quot;the most problematic play ever written by Shakespeare or any other playwright&quot;. Few will dispute that the body of criticism of the play is the most extensive in the history of world literature, and that almost every critic of note has had their say on the work. ==Hamlet as a character== [[Image:Smoktun.jpg|thumb|[[Innokenty Smoktunovsky]] as Hamlet in the acclaimed 1964 film by [[Grigori Kozintsev]].]] Like the play itself, Hamlet the character is possibly the most discussed and contentious character in the whole of world [[drama]] and indeed in the whole of [[Western literature]]. While conceding he is one of Shakespeare's greatest creations, critics are at odds over the inner motivations and [[psyche]] of this character. His relationships with the various characters of the story, including his father, his uncle Claudius, his mother Gertrude and his beloved Ophelia, have all been subjected to multiple speculations, including modern [[psychology|psychological theories]]. Critics as varied as [[Goethe]], [[Coleridge]], [[Hegel]], [[August Wilhelm Schlegel|Schlegel]], [[Nietzsche]], [[Ivan Turgenev|Turgenev]], [[Freud]], [[T. S. Eliot]], [[C.S. Lewis]], and [[Isaac Asimov|Asimov]] have written essays on him, all with their own special insights. [[J. Dover Wilson]] produced one of the most influential readings of the first half of the 20th century; [[Harold Bloom]] was dominant in the second half. Besides being Shakespeare's most demanding role (with over 1,400 lines), Hamlet is also the most introspective. Actors have traditionally struggled with this role, and it can be safely said that any one performance can capture only some of the many facets of the creation. This, however, has made the role of Hamlet to be one of the most desired roles in theatre. The plot summary above presents perhaps the simplest view of Hamlet, as a person seeking truth in order to be certain that he is justified in carrying out the revenge called for by a ghost that claims to be the spirit of his father. The most standard view is that Hamlet is highly indecisive, which is the view as proposed by [[Coleridge]] and a number of other critics. &quot;Shakespeare wished to impress upon us the truth, that action is the chief end to existence&quot;. The [[1948]] movie with [[Laurence Olivier]] in the title role is introduced by a voiceover: &quot;This is a story of a man who could not make up his mind.&quot; Others see Hamlet as a person charged to carry out a duty that he both knows and feels is right, yet is unwilling to. In this view, all of his efforts to satisfy himself of King Claudius' guilt or his failure to act when he can are evidence of this unwillingness, and Hamlet berates himself for his inability to carry out his task. After observing a play-actor performing a scene, he notes that the actor was moved to tears in the passion of the story and compares this passion for an ancient Greek character, [[The Trojan Women|Hecuba]], in light of his own situation: :&quot;O, what a rogue and peasant slave am I! :Is it not monstrous that this player here, :But in a fiction, in a dream of passion, :Could force his soul so to his own conceit :That from her working all his visage wan'd; :Tears in his eyes, distraction in's aspect, :A broken voice, and his whole function suiting :With forms to his conceit? And all for nothing! :For Hecuba? :What's Hecuba to him, or he to Hecuba, :That he should weep for her?&quot; [...] And he acknowledges to himself the terrible deed he must avenge, yet responds only with words: :&quot;Yet I, :A dull and muddy-mettled rascal, peak, :Like John-a-dreams, unpregnant of my cause, :And can say nothing; no, not for a king :Upon whose property and most dear life :A damn'd defeat was made. Am I a coward? : [...] :But I am pigeon-liver'd, and lack gall : [...] :Why, what an ass am I! This is most brave, :That I, the son of a dear father murder'd, :Prompted to my revenge by heaven and hell, :Must, like a whore, unpack my heart with words&quot; : [Act II, sc. ii] Hamlet's verbose and painful analyses of his situation and actions encourage many others to see his struggle as something far more existential in nature, having less to do with the revenge drama than with the human condition. :&quot;The time is out of joint: Oh cursed spite, :That ever I was born to set it right.&quot; : [Act I, sc. v] Another view of Hamlet, advanced by [[Isaac Asimov]] in his ''Guide to Shakespeare'', holds that his actions are attributable not to indecision, but to multiple motivations: his desire to avenge the wrong done to his father, coupled with his own ambition to succeed to the throne. The tragic error committed by Hamlet, in Asimov's view, is his overreaching wish to see Claudius damned, and not merely dead, which prevents him from killing Claudius at the opportune moment. Hamlet's hesitations may also be rooted in the religious beliefs of Shakespeare's time. The [[Reformation]] had generated debate about the existence of [[purgatory]] (where King Hamlet claims he currently resides). The concept of purgatory is a [[Catholic]] one, and was frowned on in [[Protestantism|Protestant]] England. A devout Protestant might therefore presume the Ghost to be a spirit from [[Hell]] that must be ignored. ==Performances and adaptations== ===''Hamlet'' in cinema and TV=== According to the [[Internet Movie Database]] there have been [http://us.imdb.com/Tsearch?title=hamlet&amp;restrict=Movies+and+TV 22 theatrically released movies] entitled ''Hamlet'', plus another 16 made for TV. Another 50 productions have included this name as part of the title or have used a foreign language variation of the name. See also [[Shakespeare on screen#Hamlet|Shakespeare on screen (Hamlet)]]. ====Straight adaptations==== *The first ''Hamlet'' film was ''Le Duel d'Hamlet'', produced and directed by [[Clément Maurice]] in France in [[1900]], and starring [[Sarah Bernhardt]] as Hamlet (reprising her stage role). [[Pierre Magnier]] played Laertes. *The DVD collection ''[[Silent Shakespeare]]'' is an anthology of early silent Shakespeare shorts, and includes a scene from ''Hamlet''. *''[[Hamlet (1948 film)|Hamlet]]'' ([[1948]]), directed by and starring [[Laurence Olivier]]. The cast includes [[Patrick Troughton]] as the Player King, [[Eileen Herlie]] as Gertrude, [[Stanley Holloway]] as the gravedigger, [[Peter Cushing]] as Osric, [[Felix Aylmer]] as Polonius, [[Terence Morgan]] as Laertes, [[John Gielgud]] as the uncredited voice of the ghost, and [[Christopher Lee]] as an uncredited [[spear carrier]]. **Received four [[Academy Award]]s: ***Best Picture - [[Laurence Olivier]], producer ***Best Actor - [[Laurence Olivier]] as Hamlet ***Best Costume Design (Black and White) - [[Roger K. Furse]] ***Best Art Direction and Set Decoration (Black and White) - [[Carmen Dillon]] and Roger K. Furse **It was nominated for a further three awards ***Best Director - [[Laurence Olivier]] ***Best Supporting Actress - [[Jean Simmons]] as [[Ophelia (character)|Ophelia]] ***Best Music Score - [[William Walton]] * [[The Bad Sleep Well]] ([[1960]]). This [[Japan]]ese movie, directed by [[Akira Kurosawa]] is inspired by Hamlet, set in post-war Japan. *''[[Hamlet (1960 television)|Hamlet]]'' ([[1960]]), directed by [[Franz Peter Wirth]]. This is a German television production. Hamlet is played by [[Maximilian Schell]]. The English dubbing of King Claudius is by [[Ricardo Montalban]] and Polonius by [[John Banner]] The extremely low quality of the production, along with the English over-dubbing, has earned this version a reputation as one of the poorest adaptations of the play. This is illustrated by its use in a [[Mystery Science Theater 3000 episodes|10th-season episode]] of [[Mystery Science Theater 3000]]. *''[[Hamlet (1964 film)|Hamlet]]'' ([[1964]]), directed by [[Grigori Kozintsev]]. Hamlet is played by [[Innokenty Smoktunovsky]], Claudius by [[Mikhail Nazvanov]], and Ophelia by [[Anastasiya Vertinskaya]]. *''[[Hamlet (1969 film)|Hamlet]]'' ([[1969]]), directed by [[Tony Richardson]]. Hamlet is played by [[Nicol Williamson]], Claudius by [[Anthony Hopkins]], and Ophelia by [[Marianne Faithfull]] *''[http://www.sinematurk.com/ara.php3?kod=1276&amp;section=film Angel of Revenge/Female Hamlet]'' ([[1976]]), a [[Turkey|Turkish]] movie directed by Metin Erksan. Hamlet, as a female character, is played by the actress Fatma Girik. The setting is updated to a Turkish village. *''[[Hamlet (1990 film)|Hamlet]]'', directed by [[Franco Zeffirelli]] ([[1990]]). Hamlet is played by [[Mel Gibson]], Gertrude by [[Glenn Close]], Polonius by [[Ian Holm]], and Ophelia by [[Helena Bonham Carter]] *''[[The Lion King]]'' ([[1994]]) is an adaptation of Shakespeare's Hamlet, with [[Simba]] as Hamlet, King Mufasa as Hamlet's father who becomes a ghost, Scar as Claudius, and Timon and Pumbaa as Rosencrantz and Guildenstern. However, the adaptation is loose rather than a direct adaptation. While the film maintains the themes of the play there are notable differences chief among them, it ends on a happy note. *''[[Hamlet (1996 film)|Hamlet]]'' ([[1996]]), directed by and starring [[Kenneth Branagh]]. This is a &quot;full text&quot; version, which is over 4 hours in length. The setting is updated to the [[19th century]]. Claudius is played by [[Derek Jacobi]], Gertrude by [[Julie Christie]], and Ophelia by [[Kate Winslet]]. *''[[Hamlet (2000 film)|Hamle
usually only very advanced horses and riders use double bridles. Double bridles are usually seen in the top levels of [[dressage]], as well as for showing purposes. A '''[[lungeing cavesson]]''' is a special type of halter used for ''[[lungeing]]'' a horse. Lungeing is causing a horse to walk, trot and/or canter in a large circle around the handler. It is used for training and exercise. == Reins == {{main|Reins}} '''[[Reins]]''' consist of leather straps or rope attached to the outer ends of a ''bit'' and extend to the rider's or driver's hands. Reins are the means by which a horse rider or driver [[animal communication|communicates]] directional commands to the horse's head. Pulling on the reins can be used to steer or stop the horse. The sides of a horse's mouth are sensitive, so pulling on the reins pulls the bit, which then pulls the horse's head from side to side, which is how the horse is controlled. On some types of harnesses there might be supporting rings to carry the reins over the horse's back. When pairs of horses are used in drawing a [[wagon]] or [[coach]] it is usual for the outer side of each pair to be connected to reins and the inside of the bits connected by a short bridging strap or rope. The driver carries &quot;four-in-hand&quot; or &quot;six-in-hand&quot; being the number of reins connecting to the pairs of horses. A rein may be attached to a ''halter'' to lead or guide the horse in a circle for training purposes or to lead a packhorse. == Bits == A '''bit''' is piece of [[metal]] that is placed in the horse's mouth, although on occasion the bit may be made of other materials. Despite popular opinion, the bit does not rest on the [[teeth]] of the horse. The bit hangs in a space behind the front &quot;cutting&quot; teeth and in front of the back &quot;grinding&quot; teeth. This space is known as the &quot;bar&quot;. When a horse is said to &quot;grab the bit in its teeth&quot; they actually mean that the horse hardens its lips and mouth against the bit to ignore the rider's commands. Bits offer varying degrees of control and communication between rider and horse depending upon their design and on the skill of the rider. It is important that the style of bit is appropriate to the horse's needs and is fitted properly for it to function properly and be as comfortable as possible for the horse. The types of bits are too numerous to list, but here are some examples: *[[Curb bit]] *[[Snaffle|Snaffle bit]] *[[Gag bit]] *[[Pelham bit]] *[[Kimberwicke|Kimberwicke bit]] Bits come in several different mouthpieces and (for snaffles) rings. Some of these include: Mouthpieces: *Single jointed *Mullen mouth (straight bar) *Dr. Bristol *French mouth *Corkscrew *Single and double twisted wire *Waterford Rings: *Loose ring *D-ring *Eggbutt *Full-cheek *Baucher *Half-cheek Bits are designed to work by pressure, not pain. Of course, in the wrong hands even the mildest bit can hurt the horse. Commands should be given with only the slightest movements of the hands. Instead of wrenching the horse's head in one direction by force, you should indicate the desired direction by tightening and loosening the grip on the reins. In fact, the majority of steering, especially in English riding is done with the legs and seat. The calf of the leg is used to push the body of the horse in a certain direction while the other one is used as a pivot and to provide the correct amount of impulsion required to keep the horse moving. Change of position of the seatbones and hip, and the pressure of the seatbone, are also extremely useful in not only turning, but speeding up and slowing down. == Harness == [[image:horsecart with watermelons.jpg|250px|thumb|A harness attaches this horse to a horsecart.]] A [[harness]] is a complicated set of devices and straps that attaches a horse to a [[cart]], a [[sledge]] or any other load. There are as many kinds of harnesses as there are vehicles and loads to attach to a horse. A horse that is used solely for [[Draft horse|draughting]] will have a ''bridle'', ''[[rein]]s'', ''[[collar (animal)|collar]]'' and ''[[hame]]s'', and ''[[trace (tack)|traces]]''. A horse that is supporting shafts, such as on carts, will also have a saddle to support the shafts and a [[britchen]] to brake the forward motion of the vehicle, especially when stopping or moving downhill. Horses guiding vehicles by means of a pole, such as a [[wagon]], a [[plow]], or a [[dray]], will have at least pole-straps attached to the lower part of their collar. ==Martingales and breastplates== :{{seealso|Martingale (tack)}} A '''[[Martingale (tack)|martingale]]''' is a strap that (1) keeps the horse from raising its head above a point of control or (2) keeps the horse from tossing its head and smacking its rider in the face. Martingale types include: *Running martingale: There are 2 types: 1 has a ''yoke'' around the neck, a part that runs between the front legs and attaches to the girth of a saddle, and a ''fork'' at the chest that branches off and attaches to each rein, so that the bit presses on the bars of the mouth if the horse raises the head too high. 2- has a &quot;yoke&quot; around the neck, attaches to the girth, and either has a ring on each side of the yoke or a &quot;fork&quot; with a ring at each end, where the reins run through the rings, enabling the rider to more easily keep the horse flexed at the poll. Fitted correctly, this 2nd type of running martingale does not control how high the horse carries his head. *Standing martingale: similar to the running martingale, but instead of a ''fork'' it has one strap that runs from the chest and attaches to the noseband of the bridle, and therefore has no affect on the bit in the horse's mouth. A western counterpart to this piece of equipment is the ''tie down''. The standing martingale, however, does not provide as much freedom for the horse, which could be dangerous for [[cross-country equestrianism|cross-country]] riding. Therefore, when a horse is used for [[eventing]] it must use a running martingale for safety reasons, if a martingale is to be used at all. *Irish martingale: Unlike the previous two martingales, this does not control the height of the horse's head, but merely keeps the reins from going over the horse's head in the result of a fall. It consists of a piece of leather with a ring on each end in which each rein runs through. '''Breastplates''', '''breastcollars''', and '''breastgirths''' are all extra equipment used to keep the saddle from sliding back. They are usually seen in demanding, fast-paced sports like [[eventing]], [[show jumping]], and [[polo]], as well as [[fox hunting]]. They are also seen in Western events, with a more decorative than utilitarian function. ==Associated Accoutrements== *[[Spur]]s *[[Whip (implement)|Whip]] *[[Crop (implement)|Crop]] [[Category:Horse tack|*]] [[Category:Horse racing]] ==External links== * [http://www.militaryhorse.org/ Society of the Military Horse] * [http://stateline-tack.bloggity.net/ Stateline Tack] * [http://www.kaarenjordan.com/ Saddle Fitting Guide] * [http://www.ridetreelesssaddles.com/ Treeless Saddles Information] [[de:Geschirr (Zugtier)]] [[is:Reiðtygi]] [[ro:Accesorii de călărie]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Hausa language</title> <id>14216</id> <revision> <id>40968310</id> <timestamp>2006-02-24T04:25:12Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>FlaBot</username> <id>228773</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>robot Adding: nn</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Language |name=Hausa |nativename=&amp;#1607;&amp;#1614;&amp;#1608;&amp;#1615;&amp;#1587;&amp;#1614; |familycolor=Afro-Asiatic |states=[[Benin]], [[Burkina Faso]], [[Cameroon]], [[Ghana]], [[Niger]], [[Nigeria]], [[Togo]] |speakers=24 million as a first language, 15 million as a second language |rank=41 |fam2=[[Chadic languages|Chadic]] |fam3=[[West Chadic languages|West Chadic]] |fam4=[[List of &quot;A&quot; West Chadic languages|&quot;A&quot; West Chadic]] |fam5=[[List of &quot;A.1&quot; West Chadic languages|&quot;A.1&quot; West Chadic]] |nation=Northern [[States of Nigeria]] |iso1=ha|iso2=hau|iso3=hau}} '''Hausa''' is the [[Chadic languages|Chadic language]] with the largest number of speakers, spoken as a first [[language]] by about 24 million people, and as a second language by about 15 million more. ==Classification== Hausa belongs to the [[West Chadic languages]] subgroup of the [[Chadic languages]] group, which in turn is part of the [[Afro-Asiatic languages|Afro-Asiatic language]] family. ==Geographic distribution== Native speakers of Hausa are mostly to be found in the [[Africa|African]] country of [[Niger]] and in the north of [[Nigeria]], but the language is widely used as a [[lingua franca]] (similar to [[Swahili language|Swahili]] in [[East Africa]]) in a much larger swathe of [[West Africa]], particularly amongst [[Islam|Muslims]]. ===Official status=== Hausa is an [[official language]] in the north of Nigeria. ===Dialects=== Eastern Hausa [[dialect]]s include [[Kano]], [[Katagum]] and [[Hadejiya]]. Western Hausa dialects include [[Sokoto]], [[Gobir]], [[Adar]], [[Kebbi]] and [[Zamfara]]. [[Katsina]] is transitional between Eastern and Western dialects. Northern Hausa dialects include [[Arewa]] and [[Arawa]]. [[Zaria]] is the major Southern dialect. ===Derived languages=== [[Barikanchi]] is a [[pidgin]] formerly used in the [[military]]. ==Sounds== ===Glottalized Consonants=== Hausa has [[glottalic consonant]]s at four or five [[Place of articulation|places of articulation]] (depending on the dialect), which are not represented in the standard [[Latin alphabet]]. They require movement of the glottis during [[pronunciation]] and have a [[staccato]] sound. Each of these is similar to an English consonant and therefore they are written as modified versions of Latin letters. They ca
ions are proposed. Their investigations featured in a [[British Broadcasting Corporation|BBC]] [[Television]] programme which showed how each watch ship would have accommodated 7 coastguard officers, drawn from other areas to minimise collusion with the locals. Each officer had about 3 rooms to house their family, forming a small community. They would use small boats to intercept smugglers, and the investigators found a [[causeway]] giving access at low tide across the soft mud of the river bank. Apparently the next coastguard station along was the ''Kangaroo'', a sister ship of the ''Beagle''. ==External links== *[http://www.caphorniers.cl/Fitz%20Roy/relato%20ing/testimony01.htm Visit and Testimony of Captain Fitz-Roy] *[http://www.portcities.org.uk/london/server/show/ConFactFile.64/HMS-Beagle.html HMS ''Beagle'' - Port Cities] *[http://www.asap.unimelb.edu.au/bsparcs/covingto/chap_1.htm The Journal of Syms Covington - Chapter 1.] *[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/3490564.stm BBC News - Darwin's Beagle ship 'found'] *[http://observer.guardian.co.uk/uk_news/story/0,6903,1148523,00.html The Observer - Evolution of radar points to HMS Beagle's resting place.] ==Source== *''Voyage of the Beagle'', Charles Darwin (including FitzRoy's commentary on refitting the ''Beagle'' from his account of the voyage), Penguin Books, London 1989 ISBN 0-14-043268-X ==See also== * [[Beagle 2]] - [[Mars (planet)|Mars]] space probe named after HMS ''Beagle'', which unsuccessfully landed [[25 December]] [[2003]] *[[The Voyage of the Beagle]] - A book written by [[Charles Darwin]] about the ''Beagle'''s second voyage *[[Beagle Channel]] [[Category:Exploration of Australia|Beagle]] [[Category:Exploration of Western Australia|Beagle]] [[Category:Sailboat names|Beagle]] [[Category:Exploration ships|Beagle]] [[de:HMS Beagle]] [[es:HMS Beagle]] [[fr:HMS Beagle]] [[he:ביגל (ספינה)]] [[nl:Beagle (schip)]] [[pt:HMS Beagle]] [[sl:HMS Beagle]] [[tr:HMS Beagle]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Hergenroether</title> <id>13943</id> <revision> <id>15911527</id> <timestamp>2005-03-13T05:52:57Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Kevyn</username> <id>71581</id> </contributor> <comment>Fix Double Redirect - [[WP:WS|Please help out by clicking here to fix someone else's Wiki syntax]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Joseph Hergenröther]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>History of St Albans</title> <id>13945</id> <revision> <id>41779071</id> <timestamp>2006-03-01T18:12:27Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>195.217.52.130</ip> </contributor> <comment>/* An early transport hub */ m: add coaching inns</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''[[St Albans]]''' is in southern [[Hertfordshire]], England, around 22 miles (35.5km) north of London, beside the site of a [[Catuvellauni]] settlement and the [[Roman Britain|Roman]] town of [[Verulamium]]. ==The Romans leave== The post-Roman development of St Albans was in memorial to Saint [[Alban]], the earliest known British Christian [[martyr]], executed in circa AD [[250]] (the exact date is a matter of some controversy, with scholars suggesting dates of [[209]], [[254]] and [[304]]). The town itself was known for some time by the Saxon name ''Verlamchester''. A shrine was erected on the site of his death following Emperor [[Constantine I (emperor)|Constantine]]'s adoption of [[Christianity]] as the religion of the [[Roman Empire]]. In the [[5th century]] a monastic church was constructed. ==The Abbey is founded== Another [[abbey]] was founded by King [[Offa of Mercia]] in 793. The settlement grew up around the precincts of another [[monastery]], founded in AD 900-950 by [[Abbot Ulsinus]] (also known as Wulsin). According to [[Matthew Paris]], the 13th century chronicler of St Albans Abbey, Abbot Ulsinus (Wulsin) founded three churches in [[948]], reputedly to tend to the physical and spiritual needs of the growing number of pilgrims to Alban's shrine: St Peter's, St Stephen's and St Michael's. Each church was equidistant from the Abbey and on one of the main approaches to the town. Also in [[948]], Abbott Ulsinus (Wulsin) founded [[St Albans School]], an education establishment still in use. Around 500 people lived in the town in 1086 (at the time of the [[Domesday Book]]). The building of the Abbey Church (now the [[St Albans Cathedral|Cathedral and Abbey Church of St Alban]]) was started in 1077 by [[Paul de Caen]], the 14th Abbot and completed in 1089. It was 350 feet long with a tower and seven apses. The head of the abbey was confirmed as the premier abbot in England in 1154. The abbey was extended by [[John de Cella]] in the 1190s, and again between 1257 and 1320 but financial constraints limited the effectiveness of these later additions. A [[convent]] was founded nearby in 1140. In [[August]] [[1213]] the first draft of the [[Magna Carta]] was drawn up in [[St Albans Abbey]]. In [[1290]] the funeral procession of [[Eleanor of Castile]] stopped overnight in the town and an [[Eleanor cross]] was erected at a cost of £100 in the Market Place. The cross, which stood for many years in front of the 15th century Clock Tower, was demolished in 1701. A market was running outside the abbey from the 10th Century, it was confirmed by King John in 1202 and by a [[Royal Charter]] of Edward VI in 1553. ==Conflict== [[Image:20040409-003-abbey-gateway.jpg|thumb|Abbey Gateway from the 1360s]] During the 14th century the Abbey came into increasing conflict with the townsfolk of St Albans, who demanded rights of their own. This led, among other things, to the construction of a large wall and gate surrounding the Abbey (for instance, the Great Gatehouse, the &quot;Abbey Gateway&quot;, which is the only surviving monastic building other than the Abbey Church, dates from 1365). St Albans played a role in the [[Peasants' Revolt]] of [[1381]]: the peasants, led by a local man William Grindcobbe and [[Jack Straw (rebel leader)|Jack Straw]], forced their way into the Abbey and demanded a charter for the freedom of St Albans from the Abbot ('Charter of freedom of the villeins of St Alban's forcibly obtained from the Abbot and Convent', 16 June 1381 ). However, this was short-lived. Once the 14 year old King [[Richard II of England|Richard II]] had regained control of the capital and then the whole country, Grindcobbe was tried in the Moot Hall and adjudged a 'traitor' alongside [[John Ball (priest)|John Ball]] ('the mad priest of Kent', one of the rebel leaders who had escaped from [[Smithfield, London|Smithfield]] to [[Coventry]]). He was hung, drawn and quartered in July 1381. Another notable building dating from around this time, the Clockhouse belfy or Clock Tower, built between 1403 and 1412, seems to have been intended both as a visible and audible statement of the town's continuing civic ambitions against the power of the Abbot. During the [[Wars of the Roses]] two battles were fought in and around St Albans. The [[First Battle of St Albans]] on 22 May [[1455]] was a Lancastrian defeat that opened the war. The Lancastrian army occupied the town but the Yorkist forces broke in and a battle took place in the streets of the town. On 17 February [[1461]] the [[Second Battle of St Albans]] on Bernards Heath north of the town centre resulted in a Lancastrian victory. Following the [[Reformation]], the Abbey was dissolved in 1539 and the Abbey Church sold to the town in 1553 for £400: it became a protestant parish church for the borough and the Lady Chapel was used as a [[St Albans School|school]]. The great gateway was used as a prison until the 19th century. In May 1553, in response to a public petition, the first [[royal charter]] for the town was issued by King [[Edward VI of England|Edward VI]], granting it the status of [[borough]]. The charter defined the powers of the mayor and councillors, then known as burgesses, as well as specifying the Wednesday and Saturday market days which continue to this day. During the [[English Civil War]] (1642-45) the town sided with parliament but was largely unaffected by the conflict. ==An early transport hub== Three main roads date from the [[medieval]] period - Holywell Hill, St Peter's Street, and Fishpool Street. These remained the only major streets until around 1800 when London Road was constructed, to be followed by Hatfield Road in 1824 and Verulam Road in 1826. Verulam Road was created specifically to aid the movement of stage coaches, since St Albans was the first major stop on the [[stagecoach|coaching]] route north from London. The large number of [[coaching inn|coaching inns]] is, in turn, one reason why the City has so many [[public house|pubs]] today (another being that it was, and remains, a major centre for [[Christianity|Christian]] [[pilgrimage]]). The railway arrived in 1868, off-setting the decline in coaching since the 1840s. Growth was always slow and steady, with no sudden burst: in 1801 there were 6,000 people living in St Albans, in 1850 11,000, in 1931 29,000, and in 1950 44,000. ==The City Charter== In [[1877]], in response to a public petition, Queen [[Victoria of the United Kingdom|Victoria]] issued the second [[royal charter]], which granted city status to the borough and Cathedral status to the former Abbey Church. Lord Grimthorpe financed a £130,000 renovation and rebuilding of the then dilapidated cathedral, which is most apparent in his generally poorly regarded [[Neo-Gothic]]-style rebuild of the west front. However, without Grimthorpe's money, it seems reasonable to assume that the Abbey Church would now almost certainly be a ruin, like many other churches of former monasteries. The [[football (soccer)|football]] club was founded in 1880. [[Ralph Chubb]], the poet and printer, lived on College Street in St Albans from 1892 to 1913, and attended th
his section does not require proof that-- ::(i) the person engaging in the conduct had knowledge or should have had knowledge that the victim of the underlying offense was pregnant; or ::(ii) the defendant intended to cause the death of, or bodily injury to, the unborn child. :2(C) If the person engaging in the conduct thereby intentionally kills or attempts to kill the unborn child, that person shall instead of being punished under subparagraph (A), be punished as provided under sections 1111, 1112, and 1113 of this title for intentionally killing or attempting to kill a human being.&quot; Some States also define assault as an attempt to menace (or actual menacing) by placing another person in fear of imminent serious bodily injury. States vary as to whether it is possible to commit an &quot;attempted assault&quot; since it can be considered a double [[inchoate]] offense. In some States, [[consent (criminal)|consent]] is a complete defense to assault. In other jurisdictions, mutual consent is an incomplete defense, with the result that the [[misdemeanor]] is treated as a '''[[petty misdemeanor]]'''. ===Example=== Two men wave metal pipes threateningly at each other in an alley. They are ten feet away from each other. When one man advances, the other retreats, maintaining the distance between them. The police come and break up the disturbance. They charge each man with assault. The men would probably not be found guilty in an American common law jurisdiction. Being ten feet away does not make it likely or apparent that he would have the present ability to carry out an unlawful act. However, they would probably be found guilty in a modern American jurisdiction. Each actor is trying to cause bodily injury to another and the fear of bodily injury is reasonable. Some possible examples of defenses, mitigating circumstances, or failures of proof are: *A defendant could argue that since he was drunk, he could not form the [[intention (criminal)|specific intent]] to commit assault. This defense would most likely fail since only involuntary [[intoxication defense|intoxication]] is accepted as a defense in most American jurisdictions. *The defendants could also argue that they were engaged in mutually consensual behavior. ==General defenses to assaults== Although the range and precise application of defenses varies between jurisdictions, the folloiwng represents a list of the defenses that may apply to all levels of assault: ===Consent=== [[consent (criminal)|Consent]] may a complete or partial defense to assault. In some jurisdictions, most notably [[England]], it is not a defense where the degree of injury is severe: see [http://www.lawteacher.net/Criminal/Non%20Fatal%20Assaults/Consent%20R%20v%20Brown.htm R v Brown (1993) 2 All ER 75]). This can have important consequences when dealing with issues such as consensual [[sadomasochism|sadomasochistic]] [[sexual activity]], the most notable case being the [[Operation Spanner]] case. ===Arrest and other official acts=== [[Police officers]] and court officials have a general power to use force for the purpose of effecting an [[arrest]] or generally carrying out their official duties. Thus, a court officer taking possession of goods under a court order may use force if reasonably necessary, etc. ===Punishment=== In some jurisdictions, [[caning]] and other forms of [[corporal punishment]] are a part of the [[culture]]. Self-evidently, if it is a state-administered [[punishment]], e.g. as in [[Singapore]], the officers who physically adminster the punishment have [[immunity]]. Some states also permit the use of less severe punishment for [[child]]ren in [[school]] and at home by [[parent]]s. In [[English law]], s58 Children Act 2004, limits the availability of the lawful correction defense to common assault under s39 Criminal Justice Act 1988. ===Self-defense=== [[Self-defense (theory)|Self defense and defense of others]] may be defenses to liability. They usually require that the degree of force used was both reasonable and proportionate to the degree of force threatened. ===Prevention of crime=== This may or may not involve self defense in that, using a reasonable degree of force to prevent another from committing a crime could involve preventing an assault, but it could be preventing a crime not involving the use of personal violence. ===[[Defense of property]]=== Some states allow force to be used to prevent damage to valuable property either in its own right, or under one or both of the preceding classes of defense in that a threat or attempt to damage property might be considered a crime (in English law, under s5 [[Criminal Damage Act 1971]] it may be argued that the defendant has a ''lawful excuse'' to damaging property during the defense and a defense under s3 Criminal Law Act 1967) subject to the need to deter [[vigilante]]s and excessive self-help. ==See also== * [[Affray]] * [[Assault (tort)]] * [[Gay-bashing]] * [[Hate crime]] * [[Domestic violence]] * [[Offences Against The Person Act 1861]] * [[Battery (crime)|Battery]] * [[Misdemeanor]] * [[Terrorism|Terroristic Threats]] * [[Mayhem (crime)|Mayhem]] [[Category:Assault|*]] [[Category:Crimes]] [[Category:Violence]] [[es:Asalto]] [[sv:Misshandel]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Australian Prime Ministers</title> <id>1476</id> <revision> <id>15899947</id> <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>Conversion script</ip> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Automated conversion</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Prime Minister of Australia]] </text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Álfheim</title> <id>1478</id> <revision> <id>40099442</id> <timestamp>2006-02-18T03:09:17Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Mceder</username> <id>126127</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Bahusia -&gt; Bohuslän</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">:''Alfheim redirects here. For other uses, see [[Alfheim (disambiguation)]]'' '''Álfheim''' (''[[Old Norse language|Old Norse]]'' '''Álfheimr''' 'Elf-home') is the abode of the ''Álfar'' '[[Elves]]' in [[Norse Mythology|Norse mythology]] and appears also in northern [[English ballads]] under the forms '''Elfhame''' and '''Elphame''', sometimes modernized as '''Elfland''' or '''Elfenland'''. It is also an ancient name for the modern Swedish province of [[Bohuslän]]. ==The Elven abode== ===In Old Norse texts=== Álfheim as an abode of the Elves is mentioned only twice in [[Old Norse]] texts. The [[eddic poem]] ''[[Grimnismal|Grímnismál]]'' describes twelve divine dwellings beginning in stanza&amp;nbsp;5 with: &lt;blockquote&gt;&lt;blockquote&gt;Ydalir call they &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; the place where [[Ullr|Ull]]&lt;br/&gt; A hall for himself hath set;&lt;br/&gt; And Álfheim the gods &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; to [[Freyr|Frey]] once gave&lt;br/&gt; As a tooth-gift in ancient times.&lt;/blockquote&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt; A [[tooth-gift]] was a gift given to an [[infant]] on the cutting of the first tooth. [[Snorri Sturluson]] in the ''[[Gylfaginning]]'' relates as the first of a series of abodes in heaven: &lt;blockquote&gt;That which is called Álfheim is one, where dwell the peoples called [[Light Elves|Light-elves]] [''Ljósálfar'']; but the [[Dark elf|Dark-elves]] [''dökkálfar''] dwell down in the earth, and they are unlike in appearance, but by far more unlike in nature. The Light-elves are fairer to look upon than the sun, but the Dark-elves are blacker than pitch. &lt;/blockquote&gt; The account later, in speaking of a hall called [[Gimli|Gimlé]] and the southernmost end of heaven that shall survive when heaven and earth have passed away, explains: &lt;blockquote&gt;It is said that another heaven is to the southward and upward of this one, and it is called [[Andlang]] [''Andlangr'' 'Endlong'] but the third heaven is yet above that, and it is called [[Vídbláin]] [''Vídbláinn'' 'Wide-blue'] and in that heaven we think this abode is. But we believe that none but Light-Elves inhabit these mansions now.&lt;/blockquote&gt; It is not indicated whether these heavens are identical to Álfheim or distinct. Some texts read Vindbláin (''Vindbláinn'' 'Wind-blue') instead of Vídbláin. Modern commentators speculate (or sometimes state as fact) that Álfheim was one of the nine worlds (''heima'') mentioned in stanza&amp;nbsp;2 of the eddic poem ''[[Völuspá]]''. ===In English text=== In several [[Scots language|Scots]] and [[English language|English]] [[ballad]]s about the [[fairy|fairies]] and their lore, the realm of the those folk is called ''Elphame'' or ''Elfhame'', though at other times ''Elfland'' or '''Elfenland''. The fairy queen is often called the &quot;Queen of Elphame&quot; in ballads such as that of [[Thomas the Rhymer]]: &lt;blockquote&gt;&lt;blockquote&gt;'I'm not the Queen of Heaven, Thomas,&lt;br/&gt; That name does not belong to me;&lt;br/&gt; I am but the Queen of fair Elphame&lt;br/&gt; Come out to hunt in my follie.'&lt;/blockquote&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt; Elfhame, or Elfland, is portrayed in a variety of ways in these ballads and stories, most commonly as mystical and benevolent, but also at times as sinister and wicked. The mysteriousness of the land, and its otherworldly powers are a source of scepticism and distrust in many tales. Examples of journeys to the realm include &quot;Thomas the Rhymer&quot; and the fairy tale &quot;[[Childe Rowland]]&quot;, the latter being a particularly negative view of the land. ===Used by J. R. R. Tolkien=== The twentieth century fantasy writer [[J. R. R. Tolkien]] Anglicized the Old Norse name ''Álfheim'' as ''[[Elvenhome]]'' which is imagined in his tales as lying in a coastal region of the [[Undying Lands]] in the far west. The High King of the Elves in the west was [[Ingwë]], an echo of the name [[Yngvi]] often found as a name for Frey, w
onths to complete its [[Biological life cycle|lifecycle]]. In the first year the plant grows leaves and stems (vegetative structures) and then it enters a period of dormancy over the colder months. The next spring/summer it produces [[fruit]], [[flower]]s and [[seed]]s, and then dies. Under extreme climatic conditions a biennial plant may 'bolt' through the separate stages of its lifecycle in a very short period of time (eg. 3 or 4 months instead of 2 years). This is quite common in vegetable or flower seedlings which were exposed to cold conditions before they were planted in the ground. This behaviour leads to many normally biennial plants being treated as [[annual plant|annuals]] in some areas. From a gardener's persepective, a plant's status as annual or perennial often varies based on location. For example, a perennial plant in a warm place might easily be grown as an annual plant in somewhere colder. This is because climatic conditions play a large role in determining the length of a plant's life-cycle. If a normally biennial plant is grown in extremely harsh conditions it is likely to be treated as an annual because it will not survive the winter cold. Conversely, an annual grown under extremely favourable conditions may have such a highly successful propagation rate that it gives the appearance of being bi- or perennial. Examples of biennial plants are [[parsley]], [[silverbeet]], [[Sweet William]], [[Colic Weed]], and [[carrots]]. ==External links== * [http://www.orst.edu/extension/mg/botany/cycles.html Plant life cycles] [[Category:Plants]] [[Category: gardening]] [[de:Zweijährige Pflanze]] [[is:Tvíær jurt]] [[ta:ஈராண்டுத் தாவரம்]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Basil (plant)</title> <id>3418</id> <revision> <id>15901753</id> <timestamp>2004-01-22T13:15:55Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Andre Engels</username> <id>300</id> </contributor> <comment>merged into [[Basil]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Basil]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Bay leaf</title> <id>3419</id> <revision> <id>30433972</id> <timestamp>2005-12-07T04:28:02Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Badagnani</username> <id>308437</id> </contributor> <comment>add info</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">:''For the Pokémon character, see [[Bayleef]].'' [[Image:BayLeaf.JPG|thumb|right|bay leaves]] '''Bay leaf''' (plural '''bay leaves''') are the aromatic leaves of several [[species]] of the Laurel family ([[Lauraceae]]). Bay leaves are used in cooking for their distinctive flavor and fragrance, and may be used fresh or dried. *[[Mediterranean]] bay leaf :The leaf of the [[bay laurel]] or &quot;true laurel&quot;, ''Laurus nobilis'', is a culinary [[herb]] often used to flavor soups, stews, and braises and pâtés in Mediterranean Cuisine. *California bay leaf :The leaf of the California bay tree (''[[Umbellularia californica]]''), also known as 'California laurel', 'Oregon myrtle', and 'pepperwood', is similar to the Mediterranean bay, but has a stronger flavor. *&quot;[[India]]n bay leaf&quot; (also called ''tej pat'', ''tejpat'', or ''tejpata'') :The leaf of the ''[[Malabathrum|Cinnamomum tejpata]]'' (malabathrum) tree, similar in fragrance and taste to [[cinnamon]] bark, but milder. In appearance, it is similar to the other bay leaves, but is culinarily quite different, having an aroma and flavor more similar to that of [[Cassia]]. It is inaccurately called a bay leaf as it is in a different genus (though the same family) as the bay laurel. Bay leaves have been said to be poisonous, but this has never been proven. [[Category:Herbs]] [[pl:Li&amp;#347;cie bobkowe]] [[de:Bay]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Beverage</title> <id>3420</id> <revision> <id>15901755</id> <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>Conversion script</ip> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Automated conversion</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Drink]] </text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Basis</title> <id>3421</id> <revision> <id>38774127</id> <timestamp>2006-02-08T15:48:09Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Keenan Pepper</username> <id>124371</id> </contributor> <comment>crystallographic meaning</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{wiktionarypar|basis}} In [[mathematics]], a '''basis''' or '''set of generators''' is a collection of objects that can be systematically combined to produce a larger collection of objects. See: * [[Basis (linear algebra)]] * [[Basis (topology)]] * [[Greedoid]] (basis as a maximal feasible set) * [[Basis (options)]] * In [[economics]] or [[accounting]], a basis is the cost or value of an asset as adjusted for tax purposes. * In [[crystallography]], a basis is a set of atomic positions measured from a lattice point. See [[crystal structure]]. {{disambig}} [[de:Basis]] [[fi:Kanta]] [[nl:Basis]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Burgess Shale</title> <id>3422</id> <revision> <id>41048778</id> <timestamp>2006-02-24T18:50:18Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Laurence Boyce</username> <id>432661</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>/* History and significance */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Burgess Shale''' (named after [[Mount Burgess]], close to where the Shale was found) is a black [[shale]] exposure found high up in the [[Canadian Rockies]] in [[Yoho National Park]] near the town of [[Field, British Columbia]]. [[Fossil]]s were found in the Burgess Shale by [[Charles Doolittle Walcott]] in [[1909]]. Walcott returned in the following years to collect additional specimens. The majority of the fossils collected were unique to the site, although some common Middle [[Cambrian]] [[trilobites]] were also found. The fossils were of substantial interest because they included appendages and soft parts that are rarely preserved. ==History and significance== The significance of the finds was not realised at the time of discovery. A reinvestigation of the fossils in the [[1980s]] by [[Harry Blackmore Whittington]], [[Derek Briggs]], and [[Simon Conway Morris]] of the [[University of Cambridge]], however, revealed that the fauna represented were much more diverse and unusual than Walcott had recognized. Indeed, many of the animals present had [[body form|bizarre anatomical features]] and only the sketchiest resemblance to other known animals. Examples include ''[[Opabinia]]'' with five eyes and a snout like a vacuum cleaner; ''[[Aysheaia]]'' which bears an extraordinary resemblance to a minor modern phylum—the [[Onychophora]]; ''[[Nectocaris]]'' which is apparently either a [[crustacean]] with fins or a [[vertebrate]] with a shell; and ''[[Hallucigenia]]'' which was originally reconstructed as walking on bilaterally symmetrical spines. Conway Morris now reconstructs it as another [[onychophora|onychophoran]], with the spines on its back. Several poorly understood fossils were found to be body parts of a predatory form known as ''[[Anomalocaris]]''. More recent (late 1990s) work by Derek Briggs and [[Richard Fortey]] has placed many of the &quot;peculiar&quot; Burgess Shale fossils within the [[arthropod]]a, but many animals such as ''[[Amiskwia]]'' remain enigmatic. A popular account of the 1980s analysis of the Burgess Shale is given in ''[[Wonderful Life (book)|Wonderful Life]]'' by [[Stephen Jay Gould]]. Gould suggests that the extraordinary diversity of the fossils indicate that life forms at the time were much more diverse than those that survive today and that many of the unique lineages were evolutionary experiments that became extinct. He suggests that this interpretation supports his hypothesis of [[evolution]] by [[punctuated equilibrium]]. However the widely accepted reclassifiction by Briggs and Fortey contradicts this account and both those authors have criticised Gould for what they believe is a hasty and incomplete analysis used to support Goulds' own ideas and which has since entered the popular public conciousness. The diversity and exotic nature of the Burgess fauna has caused a great deal of controversy in [[paleontology]] with regard to the reasons for and nature of what has come to be called the [[Cambrian Explosion]]. Further investigations showed that the Burgess Shale extends for many miles in isolated outcrops and the various faunas are preserved in different places. The deposits appear to represent small areas of muddy [[ocean]] bottom that -- from time to time -- slid down the face of a [[limestone]] cliff, carrying their fauna and anything unfortunate enough to be swimming by into [[oxygen]]-poor waters in the depths. Six distinct faunal zones have been identified in the Burgess Shale. Now that scientists know what to look for, similar deposits have been identified elsewhere with similar faunas. The most important similar deposits are even older [[turbide flow deposit]]s created in much the same way as the Burgess shales in [[Yunnan]] Province, [[China]]. These [[Maotianshan shales]] contain fauna quite similar to the Burgess. Due to its location within Yoho National Park, the shale is part of a [[UNESCO]] [[World Heritage Site]], specifically, the [[Canadian Rocky Mountain Parks]]. Subsequent exploration has found exposures of the shale over a front of several dozen kilometers and has identified at least six fossiliferous [[lagerstätten]] within the formation. ==Partial species list== ===Species assigned to a group of extant taxa=== *''[[Thaumaptilon]]'' (a type of [[sea pen]]) *''[[Aysheaia]]'' (phylum [[Onychophora]]) *''[[Sidneyia]]'' (arthropod) *''[[Pikaia]]'' (phylum Chordata) *[[Canadia]] (annelid) *[[Choia]]
r a brief and unpopular attempt at animation ''Doraemon'' (in [[1973]] by [http://www.ntv.co.jp/ Nippon Television Network]) remained fairly exclusively the domain of the printed page until [[1979]] when the [[TV Asahi]] [http://www.tv-asahi.co.jp/doraemon/] (テレビ朝日) produced a series of ''Doraemon'' anime (1979 -). This series became incredibly popular and ''Doraemon'' fever swept across Japan. Celebrating Doraemon's anniversary, a new version of Doraemon has been telecast on TV Asahi with the new [[seiyu]]s and staff since [[15th April]], 2005. ==Films== In [[1980]], the first of a series of annual feature length [[animated film]]s was made. The films have taken a slightly more adventure oriented tone taking the familiar characters of ''Doraemon'' and placing them in a variety of exotic and perilous settings. Nobita and his friends have visited the age of the [[dinosaur]]s, the far reaches of the [[galaxy]], the heart of darkest [[Africa]] (where they encountered a race of sentient bipedal [[dog]]s), the deepest depths of the ocean, and a world of [[magic (paranormal)|magic]]. Some of the films are based on [[legend]]s (e.g. [[Atlantis]]) and [[literature]] works ([[Journey to the West]] and [[Arabian Nights]]). Some films also have ''serious'' themes, especially on environmental topics and the use of technology. See [[List of Doraemon films]] for a full list of features produced. In July [[2004]], the Fujiko Movie Studio (藤子プロ) announced that the Doraemon film of [[2005]] was postponed until the [[spring (season)|spring]] of [[2006]] [http://www.dora-world.com/news/dearfans_f.html]. On [[15th February]], 2005, [http://www.dora-world.com/news/movie2006/index.html ドラえもんチャンネル] released information about the film of 2006. ==Voice Actors== The main voices in Doraemon were provided by * Doraemon = [[Nobuyo Oyama]] (大山のぶ代) * Nobita = [[Noriko Ohara]] (小原乃梨子) * Shizuka = [[Michiko Nomura]] (野村道子) * Jaian = [[Kazuya Tatekabe]] (たてかべ和也) * Suneo = [[Kaneta Kimotsuki]] (肝付兼太) From [[1979]] to spring [[2005]] they acted the main characters' voices of Doraemon. However, they gave up their parts to other people in the spring of 2005 due in part to the 25th anniversary of the Doraemon TV-series and their age. See [http://mdn.mainichi.co.jp/news/20041122p2a00m0dm005001c.html Mainichi Daily News] and [http://asia.news.yahoo.com/041121/kyodo/d86gi7pg0.html Kyodo]. On [[13th March]], [[2005]], the [[TV Asahi]] [http://www.tv-asahi.co.jp/doraemon_25/contents/fan/] announced the new voice actors for the 5 main characters. * Doraemon = [[Wasabi Mizuta]] (水田わさび) * Nobita = [[Megumi Ohara]] (大原めぐみ) * Shizuka = [[Yumi Kakazu]] (かかずゆみ) * Jaian = [[Subaru Kimura]] (木村昴) * Suneo = [[Tomokazu Seki]] (関智一) ==Analysis/significance== * In [[2005]], the [http://www.japansociety.org/ Japan Society of New York] selected Doraemon as a culturally significant work of Japanese [[otaku]] pop-culture in its exhibit ''Little Boy: The Arts of Japan's Exploding Subculture'', curated by renowned artist [[Takashi Murakami]]. In Murakami's analysis, he states that Doraemon's formulaic plotlines typified the &quot;[[wish]] fulfilment&quot; mentality of 1970s Japan, where the electronics revolution glamorized the idea that one could solve their problems with machines and gadgets rather than hard work or individual intelligence. ==Doraemon in the World== Nowadays, Doraemon is widely popular beyond Japan where Doraemon was born. The publishing dates below are slightly misleading, particularly in the Southeast Asian market. Doraemon has been published widely and without license in many countries until its actual publishing rights were obtained due to stricter regulations. See *[[List of non-Japanese Doraemon versions]] and *[[List of Doraemon comics in English]]. ==Series finale rumours== There are two current and often quoted urban legends that started spreading in late 1990s of an ending to the Doraemon series. The first and the more optimistic ending was made public by Nobuo Sato several years ago. Doraemon's battery power ran out, and Nobita was given a choice between replacing the battery inside a frozen Doraemon, which would cause it to reset and lose all memory, or await a competent robotics technician who would be able to resurrect the cat-robot one day. Nobita swore that every day to work hard in school, graduate with honours, and become that robotics technician. He successfully resurrected Doraemon in the future as a robotics professor, became successful as an AI developer, and thus lived happily ever after, thus relieving his progeny of the financial burdens that caused Doraemon to be sent to his space-time in the first place. The second, more pessimistic ending suggests that Nobita Nobi is suffering from [[autism]] and that all the characters (including Doraemon) are simply fictional characters in his imagination. (This ending is actually the ending for the series [[St. Elsewhere]], which ended in 1988.) The idea that Nobita was a sick and dying little boy who imagined the entire series on his sickbed to help him ease his pain and depression no doubt angered quite a bit of fans. Many Japanese fans staged a protest outside the Head Quarter of the publisher of the series after learning about this suggestion. The publisher had to issue a public statement that this is not true. The third ending suggests that Nobita fell and hit his head on a rock. He fell into deep coma, and eventually into a semi-vegetative state. To raise money for an operation to save Nobita, Doraemon sold all his tools and devices in his four-dimensional pocket. However, the operation failed. Doraemon sold all his tools except for one used for the last resort. He used it to enable Nobita to go wherever he wanted, whichever time era he wished to go. In the end, the very place Nobita wanted to go is heaven... However, the plausibility of the issues was discussed here and it concludes that there is no ending to Doraemon. See [http://www.remus.dti.ne.jp/~chankuma/DoraData/Q&amp;A/Q&amp;A1.html#QA005] (Japanese). Nevertheless, there are actually three official endings to Doraemon that were made. Doraemon was discontinued in two media because readers were advancing in grades and an ending was believed to be needed. These two are not reprinted. * In March [[1971]] issue of the magazine ''Shogaku 4-nensei'' [http://www.netkun.com/sho4/] (literally, elementary school's fourth grader; 小学四年生) Due to the fact that visitors from futures were causing too much trouble, the government in the 22nd Century passed a bill to ban time-travelling altogether. Doraemon have to return to his time era. He leaves Nobita. * In March [[1972]] issue of the magazine ''Shogaku 4-nensei'' Doraemon for some reason had to go back but fakes a mechanical problem so that Nobita would let him go. Nobita believes him and promises to wait until Doraemon gets well. Realizing that Nobita can handle departure, Doraemon tells the truth and Nobita accepts. Doraemon returns to the future. The third ending was actually meant to be the official ending as the TV rating did not fare well and the [[Fujiko Fujio]] duo was busy with other works. But Doraemon did not leave their minds and restarted from next month's issue. In [[1981]], this episode was made into anime, and in 1998, this was released as an anime movie. * In the March 1973 issue of the magazine ''Shogaku 4-nensei'', Nobita again returns home after losing a fight against Jaian. Doraemon then explains that he has to return. Nobita tries to have Doraemon stay but after talking it over with his parents accepts Doraemon's departure. They take a last walk in the park. After they split up, Nobita encounters Jaian and gets into a fight again. After a long duel with Nobita trying to win at all costs so that Doraemon can leave without worries, Jaian lets Nobita win for not giving up. Doraemon finds Nobita passed out and takes him home. Sitting beside sleeping Nobita and after a moment of thought, Doraemon returns to the future. When the Fujiko Fujio duo broke up in the 1987, the very idea of an official ending to the series was never discussed. Since Fujiko F. died in 1996 before any decisions were reached, any &quot;endings&quot; of Doraemon are [[fan fiction]]. However, it is apparent from many episodes and movies where Nobita travels to the future that in the end he does marry Shizuka, leads a happy life and separates with Doraemon, although he and his friends fondly remembers him. Unfortunately the scene when Doraemon leaves him for good was never made. Source: [http://www.kukudm.com/Html/20051026184634-1.Html All About Doraemon the robotic cat (Chinese)]. ==Doraemon educational comics== Doraemon, Nobita and the other characters also appear in various educational comics. ==Dorabase== '''Dorabase''' is a [[baseball]] comic based on the Doraemon characters. This comic follows the story of other robotic cats that form a baseball club. Though it shows Doraemon in the beginning, it doesn't focus on Doraemon itself (because Doraemon must go back to the past to help Nobita). The group is led by Kuruemon. a cat that looks like Doraemon, only it has ears and black fur (Doraemon doesn't have fur). It features a lot of imaginary ability, and in the baseball game, it is allowed to use up to 3 gadgets. ==Other appearances== Doraemon is a popular character in Japan and appears in many places. For example, Doraemon is used as a promotional character by {{nihongo|Art Hikkoshi Center&quot;|アート引越センター|Āto hikkoshi sentā}}, a removals company, and by [[Cocos (Japanese restaurant)|Cocos]], a popular restaurant chain. He also appears in appeals for charity, the Doraemon fund. Doraemon toys and novelty items are also often found in Japan, with literally thousands of items on sale. ==External links== * [http://www.dora-world.com/ Doraemon Official Website (Japanese)] * [http://www.dora-movie.com/ Doraemon Movie Official Website (Japanese)] *
Airani''') are a self-governing parliamentary democracy in [[Associated State|free association]] with [[New Zealand]]. The 15 small islands in this [[Pacific Ocean|South Pacific Ocean]] have a total land area of 240 [[square kilometre]]s (92.7&amp;nbsp;[[square mile|sq.&amp;nbsp;mi]]). [[Tourism]] is the country's number one industry, the leading element of the [[economy of the Cook Islands|economy]], far ahead of offshore banking, pearls, marine and fruit exports. A popular art form on the islands is [[tivaivai]], often likened to [[quilting]]. Defence is the responsibility of [[New Zealand]], in consultation with the Cook Islands and at its request. The Cook Islands has adopted an increasingly independent foreign policy, particularly after the adoption of an [[isolationism|isolationist]] and [[non-aligned]] policy by [[New Zealand]] in the 1980s. ==Geography== [[Geography of the Cook Islands]] *High Cook Islands **[[Aitutaki]] **[[Atiu]] (Enua-Manu or Island of Birds) **[[Mauke]] **[[Rarotonga]] (capital) **[[Mangaia]] *Low islands of the Southern group **[[Manuae]] **[[Takutea]] **[[Mitiaro]] ;Northern Cook Islands *[[Penrhyn Island]] also known as Tongareva *[[Rakahanga]] *[[Manihiki]] *[[Pukapuka]] *[[Nassau (Cook Islands)|Nassau]] *[[Suwarrow]] also called Suvorov *[[Palmerston Island]] ==History== On June 11, 1980, the USA signed a treaty with New Zealand specifiying the maritime border between the Cook Islands and American Samoa and also relinquishing its claim to the islands of Penrhyn, Pukapuka (Danger), Manihiki, and Rakahanga. ==Culture== ''See also:'' [[music of the Cook Islands]] {| border=1 cellpadding=4 cellspacing=0 class=&quot;toccolours&quot; style=&quot;align: left; margin: 0.5em 0 0 0; border-style: solid; border: 1px solid #7f7f7f; border-right-width: 2px; border-bottom-width:2px; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;&quot; |+&lt;big&gt;'''Holidays'''&lt;/big&gt; |- ! style=&quot;background: #efefef; border-bottom: 2px solid gray;&quot; | Date ! style=&quot;background: #efefef; border-bottom: 2px solid gray;&quot; | Name |- | [[January 1]] | [[New Year's Day]] |- | [[January 2]] | Day after [[New Year's Day]] |- | The Friday before [[Easter Sunday]] | [[Good Friday]] |- | The Day after [[Easter Sunday]] | [[Easter Monday]] |- | [[April 25]] | [[ANZAC Day]] |- | The First Monday in June | [[Queen's Birthday]] |- | July | Rarotonga Gospel Day |- | [[August 4]] | Constitution Day |- | [[October 26]] | Gospel Day |- | [[December 25]] | [[Christmas]] |- | [[December 26]] | [[Boxing Day]] |} &lt;br clear=all/&gt; ==See also== * [[Communications in the Cook Islands]]'' * [[Demographics of the Cook Islands]] * [[Economy of the Cook Islands]] * [[Polynesian culture]] * [[History of the Cook Islands]] * [[Politics of the Cook Islands]] * [[Transport in the Cook Islands]]'' ==External links== *[http://www.cook-islands.gov.ck/ Cook Islands Government] *[http://www.cook-islands.com/ Cook Islands Tourism Corporation] *[http://www.ck Cook Islands, the best kept secret in the Pacific Ocean] *[http://www.ck/govt.htm Cook Islands Government (summary)] *[http://www.southpacific.org/text/finding_cooks.html Finding Cook Islands] *[http://www.janeresture.com/cookislands/index.htm Jane's Cook Islands Home Page] *[http://www.kiaorana.com KiaOrana.com — Cook Islands information with images and maps] *[http://www.mapsouthpacific.com/cook_islands/index.html Map of the Cook Islands] *[http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/cw.html World Factbook entry on The Cook Islands] *[http://www.environment.org.ck/ Cook Islands National Environment Service] *[http://cookislands.bishopmuseum.org/ Cook Islands Biodiversity Database] {{New Zealand}} {{Polynesia}} {{Pacific Islands}} [[Category:British colonies]] [[Category:Cook Islands| ]] [[Category:Freely associated states]] [[Category:New Zealand-Pacific relations]] [[Category:Polynesia]] [[Category:Archipelagoes]] [[bg:Острови Кук]] [[zh-min-nan:Cook Kûn-tó]] [[ca:Illes Cook]] [[cs:Cookovy ostrovy]] [[da:Cook-øerne]] [[de:Cookinseln]] [[es:Islas Cook]] [[eo:Kukinsuloj]] [[fr:Îles Cook]] [[ko:쿡 제도]] [[hr:Kukovi otoci]] [[id:Kepulauan Cook]] [[is:Cooks-eyjar]] [[it:Isole Cook]] [[he:איי קוק]] [[lt:Kuko salos]] [[hu:Cook-szigetek]] [[ms:Kepulauan Cook]] [[nl:Cookeilanden]] [[ja:クック諸島]] [[no:Cookøyene]] [[pl:Wyspy Cooka]] [[pt:Ilhas Cook]] [[ru:Острова Кука]] [[sl:Cookovi otoki]] [[fi:Cookinsaaret]] [[sv:Cooköarna]] [[tr:Cook Adaları]] [[zh:库克群岛]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>History of the Cook Islands</title> <id>7068</id> <revision> <id>39353773</id> <timestamp>2006-02-12T16:24:13Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Warofdreams</username> <id>20855</id> </contributor> <comment>{{Oceania in topic|History of}}</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">Named after [[James Cook|Captain Cook]], who sighted them in [[1770]], the [[Cook Islands]] became a British [[protectorate]] in [[1888]]. By [[1900]], administrative control was transferred to [[New Zealand]]; in [[1965]] residents chose self-government in free association with New Zealand. The emigration of skilled workers to New Zealand and government deficits are continuing problems. The Cook Islands has fifteen islands in the group spread over a vast area in the South Pacific. The majority of islands are low coral atolls in Northern Group, with Rarotonga, a volcanic island in the Southern Group, as the main administration and government centre. The main Cook Islands language is Rarotongan Maori. There are some variations in dialect in the 'outer' islands. {{Oceania in topic|History of}} [[Category:Cook Islands]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Geography of the Cook Islands</title> <id>7069</id> <revision> <id>31727631</id> <timestamp>2005-12-17T13:16:40Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Alfanje</username> <id>120539</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>+es</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">The '''[[Cook Islands]]''' can be divided into two groups. ==Southern Cook Islands== *[[Aitutaki]] *[[Atiu]] *[[Mangaia]] *[[Manuae]] *[[Mauke]] *[[Mitiaro]] *[[Palmerston Island]] *[[Rarotonga]] (capital) *[[Takutea]] ==Northern Cook Islands== *[[Manihiki]] *[[Nassau (Cook Islands)|Nassau]] *[[Penrhyn Island]] also known as Tongareva or Mangarongaro *[[Pukapuka]] *[[Rakahanga]] *[[Suwarrow]] ==Location== [[Oceania]], group of islands in the South [[Pacific Ocean]], about one-half of the way from [[Hawaii]] to [[New Zealand]] ==Geography== ; [[Geographic coordinates]]: : {{coor dm|21|14|S|159|46|W|type:country}} ; Map references: : Oceania ; Area: :* Total: 240 km&amp;sup2; :* Land: [[1 E8 m²|240 km&amp;sup2;]] :* Water: 0 km&amp;sup2; ; Area - comparative: : 1.3 times the size of Washington, DC ; Land boundaries: : 0 km ; Coastline: : 120 km ; Maritime claims: :* Continental shelf: 200 nm or to the edge of the continental margin :* Exclusive economic zone: 200 nm :* Territorial sea: 12 nm ; Climate: : Tropical; moderated by trade winds ; Terrain: : Low coral atolls in north; volcanic, hilly islands in south ; Elevation extremes: :* Lowest point: Pacific Ocean 0 m :* Highest point: Te Manga 652 m ; Natural resources: : NEGL ; Land use: :* Arable land: 9% :* Permanent crops: 13% :* Permanent pastures: 0% :* Forests and woodland: 0% :* Other: 78% (1993 est.) ; Irrigated land: : NA km&amp;sup2; ; Natural hazards: : Typhoons (November to March) ; Environment - current issues: : NA ; Environment - international agreements: :* Party to: Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Law of the Sea :* Signed, but not ratified: Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol See also: [[Cook Islands]] [[Category:Cook Islands]] [[Category:Geography by country|Cook Islands]] [[es:Geografía de las Islas Cook]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Demographics of the Cook Islands</title> <id>7070</id> <revision> <id>15905162</id> <timestamp>2005-02-13T12:31:58Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>TShilo12</username> <id>153537</id> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">This article lists details about the '''[[demographics]] of the [[Cook Islands]]'''. ; [[Population]]: : 20,407 (July 2000 est.) ; Age structure: :* 0-14 years: NA :* 15-64 years: NA :* 65 years and over: NA ; Population growth rate: : 1.6% (2000 est.) ; [[Birth rate]]: : 22.18 births/1,000 population (2000 est.) ; [[Death]] rate: : 5.2 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.) ; Net [[migration]] rate: : -0.99 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.) ; [[Infant mortality]] rate: : 24.7 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.) ; [[Life expectancy]] at birth: :* Total population: 71.14 years :* Male: 69.2 years :* Female: 73.1 years (2000 est.) ; Total [[fertility]] rate: : 3.14 children born/woman (2000 est.) ; [[Nationality]]: :* Noun: Cook Islander(s) :* Adjective: Cook Islander ; [[Ethnic groups]]: : [[Polynesia]]n (full blood) 81.3%, Polynesian and [[Europe]]an 7.7%, Polynesian and non-European 7.7%, European 2.4%, other 0.9% ; [[Religion]]s: : [[Christianity|Christian]] (majority of populace are members of the [[Cook Islands Christian Church]]) ; [[Language]]s: : [[English language|English]] (official), [[Rarotongan language|Rarotongan]], [[Tongarevan language|Tongarevan (Penrhyn)]], [[Rakahiki|Rakahanga-Manihiki]], [[Pukapukan language]] ; Literacy: :* Definition: NA :* Total population: NA% :* Male: NA% :* Female: NA% See also: [[Cook Islands]] [[Category:Cook Islands]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Politics of the Cook Islands</title> <id>7071</id> <revision> <id>39337445</id> <timestamp>2006-02-12T13:07:54Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Warofdreams</username> <id>20855</id> </contributor> <comment>{{Oceania in topic|Politics of}
hen the number of Israeli settlers would be far greater, including inhabitants of the [[Galilee]], the southwest, and many other areas. Maps of West Bank settlements [http://www.fmep.org/reports/2003/v13n4.html#map], [http://www.biu.ac.il/SOC/besa/publications/maps/settleme.htm]. Since the [[Oslo Accords]] 1993 the settlers' number on the West Bank (excluding East Jerusalem) has doubled, from 115,000 to 230,000. &lt;!-- Unsourced image removed: [[Image:Map_settlements_bw.JPG|thumb|right|300px|1996 Map of Israeli settlements in the Golan Heights, Gaza Strip and West Bank]] --&gt; == Communities established on the sites of previous recent Jewish communities == Some of the 323 settlements were established on sites that had been inhabited by Jewish communities during the [[British Mandate of Palestine]]. In at least one case, [[Hebron]], the post-1967 settlers were condemned by an association of its pre-1929 Jewish inhabitants. ''partial listing only'' * [[Jerusalem]] &amp;ndash; various surrounding communities and neighborhoods, including ** [[Kfar Shiloah]] - settled by Yemeni Jews in 1882, Jewish residents evacuated in 1938, settled again in 2004[http://news.com.au/common/story_page/0,4057,9150753%255E1702,00.html] * [[Gush Etzion]] communities - established between 1943-1947, destroyed 1948, reestablished beginning 1967 * [[Hebron]] - Jewish presence since biblical times, evacuated 1929 (because of massacre), resettled in 1967 * [[Kfar Darom]] - established in 1946, evacuated in 1948, resettled in 1970, evacuated in 2005 as part of the withdrawal of the [[Gaza Strip]]. == Legal status of territories == Although all areas in question were captured by [[Israel]] in the 1967 [[Six-Day War]], Israel claims that they fall into three different categories: * &quot;[[East Jerusalem]]&quot; - [[Jerusalem]] and its surroundings were envisioned as an international area under [[United Nations|UN]] administration in the 1947 partition plan. In 1948, [[Jordan]] captured and annexed the eastern half of Jerusalem, while Israel captured and annexed the west. Following the war in 1967 Israel annexed the eastern part, together with several villages around it. * The [[Golan Heights]], which were captured from Syria in 1967, have been similarly annexed by Israel. * The [[Gaza Strip]] and [[West Bank]], a section of the areas awarded by the UN to a prospective Arab state of Palestine, remained in [[Arab]] hands while the rest of that area was taken by Israel. The former was administered by [[Egypt]] while the latter was annexed by [[Jordan]]. Egypt supported Palestinian efforts against Israel, while Jordan regarded itself as the legitimate representative of the Palestinians. The annexations of East Jerusalem and the Golan Heights have both been deemed illegal by the [[UN Security Council]] (resolutions [[UN Security Council Resolution 267|267]] and [[UN Security Council Resolution 497|497]] respectively), and have not been recognized by other states. Israel has signed peace treaties with Egypt (returning the [[Sinai Peninsula]] to Egyptian sovereignty), and Jordan (returning small sections to Jordanian sovereignty); there are currently no peace treaties governing Israel's borders related to the West Bank, the Gaza Strip, and the Golan Heights. Israel therefore asserts that the armistice lines (known as the Green Line) of 1949 have no other legal status. Palestinians object to this view as the Israel-Jordan peace treaty was not to alter the status of any territories coming under Israeli control during the hostilities of 1967 (article 3(2) of the Israel-Jordan peace treaty [http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/mideast/jordan_treaty.htm]). == Motivations for settlements == Complicating this issue, a number of reasons are cited from both sides for the establishment of settlements. *Palestinians argue that the policy of settlements constitute an effort to pre-empt or even sabotage a peace treaty that includes Palestinian sovereignty, and claim that the settlements are built on land that belongs to Palestinians. *The UN, various European governments, a vocal Israeli minority, and many NGOs view settlements similarly, arguing that they violate international law by making life difficult for Palestinians in the areas. * Prior to the eruption of the Israeli-Palestinian conflict in the late eighties, even until the signing of the [[Israel-Jordan Treaty of Peace|Israeli-Jordanian peace treaty]] in 1994, Israeli governments on the left and right argued that the settlements were of strategic and tactical importance. The location of the settlements was primarily chosen based on the threat of an attack by the bordering hostile countries of [[Jordan]], [[Syria]], and [[Egypt]] and possible routes of advance into Israeli population areas. *Many Israelis still argue that the settlements are of strategic and tactical importance, disrupting terrorist activities. *Many Israelis, assert the historical Jewish connection to at least some of the areas in dispute, arguing that their claim is at least equal to that of the Palestinians. *Most religious Jews, assert the biblical Jewish connection to the areas in dispute, arguing that their claim to build is equal to the biblical Jewish connection to the other areas in Israel. As it turns out, the settlers themselves have varying reasons for choosing to reside where they do. While some live in the territories out of religious and/or political idealism and the lower price of rural real estate, others were attracted by tax incentives that were given, in general, to Israelis living in rural, periphery areas, but these were revoked entirely in 2003. == Land grab accusations == Israel claims that the majority of the land currently taken by the new settlements was either vacant, belonging to the state (from which it was leased) or bought fairly from the [[Palestinian]]s, arguing that there is nothing illegal about acquiring land in these ways. Further, Israel argues that these lands were conquered in a defensive war and are held legitimately as [[reparation]]. Opponents dispute at least one of these bases, saying that vacant land had either belonged to Arabs who had fled or was communal land, that had belonged collectively to an entire village. That practice had formed under [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] rule, although the British and the Jordanians have unsuccessfully tried to stop it since the late 1920s. [[B'Tselem]] (an Israeli NGO) claims that the Israeli government used the absence of modern legal documents for the communal land as an excuse to seize it. Altogether, around 42% of the area of the West Bank (total of about 2,400 km²) is controlled by Israelis (see [http://www.btselem.org/English/Publications/Summaries/Land_Grab_Map.asp Map], [http://www.btselem.org/Download/Land_Grab_Eng.doc MS Word format report]). == International and legal background == The [[Fourth Geneva Convention]] forbids an &quot;Occupying Power&quot; to &quot;transfer parts of its own civilian population into the territory it occupies&quot; (article 49(6)). This tractate is frequently cited by those who believe it establishes the illegality of the settlements. Israel argues that West Bank and Gaza have never been part of a sovereign state since the defeat of the Ottoman Empire (apparently considering the annexation of the West Bank by [[Jordan]] as invalid), and do not therefore meet the definitions of the Geneva conventions article 2. Israel argues further that even if they did, the settlements are not intended to, nor have ever resulted in, the displacement of Palestinians from the area. In addition, the Geneva Conventions only apply in the absence of an operative peace agreement and between two powers accepting the Geneva Convention. Since the [[Oslo accords]] leave the issue of settlements to be negotiated later, Israel argues that there is no basis for declaring them illegal. Israel has little international support for this view, and the application of the Fourth Geneva Convention to the territories has been determined by the [[International Court of Justice]], which in an advisory opinion to the [[UN General Assembly]], argued that according to article 2 of the Geneva Convention the convention applies if &amp;#8220;there exists an armed conflict&amp;#8221; between &amp;#8220;two contracting parties&amp;#8221;, regardless of the territories status in international law prior to the armed attack. It also argued that &quot;no territorial acquisition resulting from the threat or use of force shall be recognized as legal&quot; according to [[customary international law]] (and defined by &quot;Declaration on Principles of International Law concerning Friendly Relations and Co-operation among States in accordance with the Charter of the United Nations&quot; (General Assembly Resolution 2625)). It should be noted that advisory opinions are not binding verdicts, and the ruling has been disputed by some international law scholars. [http://www.jpost.com/servlet/Satellite?pagename=JPost/JPArticle/ShowFull&amp;cid=1105845487512&amp;p=1078027574097]. The establishment and expansion of Israeli settlements in the West Bank and Gaza Strip has also been described as &quot;illegal&quot; by the [[UN Security Council]] many times, for example in resolutions [[UN Security Council Resolution 446|446]], [[UN Security Council Resolution 452|452]], [[UN Security Council Resolution 465|465]] and [[UN Security Council Resolution 471|471]]. Since resolutions 446 and 465 were not made under Chapter VII of the [[United Nations Charter]], Israel argued that they held no binding force under international law, and chose not to heed them. Some scholars have lately argued that Security Council resolutions outside of Chapter VII can also be considered legally binding upon member states.[http://student.cs.ucc.ie/cs1064/jabowen/IPSC/articles/article0002338.txt] The Security Council itself takes great care to make the distinction in its resolutions
ername>Ghirlandajo</username> <id>147410</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>/* Elijah in other traditions */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the prophet in the [[Hebrew Bible]]. For the work by Felix Mandelssohn, see [[Elijah (oratorio)|''Elijah'' (oratorio)]].'' '''Elijah''' ('''אֱלִיָּהוּ''' &quot;Whose/my [[Names of God in Judaism|God]] is [[Tetragrammaton|the Lord]]&quot;, [[Standard Hebrew]] '''Eliyyáhu''', [[Tiberian Hebrew]] '''ʾĔliyyāhû'''), also '''Elias''' ([[New Testament|NT]] [[Greek language|Greek]] '''Ἠλίας'''), is a [[prophet]] of the [[Hebrew Bible]] or [[Old Testament]]. His name has been variously translated as &quot;whose God is [[Tetragrammaton|the Lord]]&quot;, &quot;God the Lord&quot;, &quot;the strong Lord&quot;, &quot;God of the Lord&quot;, &quot;my God is the Lord&quot;, &quot;the Lord is my God&quot;, and &quot;my God is Jehovah&quot;. ==In the Hebrew Bible== Elijah is first introduced in [[Books of Kings|1 Kings]] 17:1 as delivering a message from God to [[Ahab]], king of [[kingdom of Israel|Israel]]. He is sometimes known as &quot;[[Tishbite|The Tishbite]]&quot;, being from the town of [[Tishbe]]. Having delivered his message to Ahab, he retired at the command of God to a hiding-place by the brook [[Cherith]], beyond [[Jordan river|Jordan]], where he was fed by [[raven]]s. When the brook dried up God sent him to the widow of [[Zarephath]], a city of [[Zidon]], from whose scanty store he was supported for the space of two years. During this period the widow's son died, and was restored to life by Elijah (1 Kings 17:2-24). During these two years a famine prevailed in the land. At the close of this period of retirement and of preparation for his work, Elijah met [[Obadiah]], one of Ahab's officers, whom he had sent out to seek for pasturage for the cattle, and bade him go and tell his master that Elijah was there. The king came and met Elijah, and reproached him as the &quot;troubler of Israel&quot;. It was then proposed that sacrifices should be publicly offered, for the purpose of determining whether [[Baal]] or the Israelite God was the true God. This was done on [[Mount Carmel, Israel|Mount Carmel]]; the result was that a miracle took place convincing those watching that Baal was false and that the Israelite God [[YHVH]](יהוה), was the true and only God. The prophets of Baal were then put to death by the order of Elijah. [[Jezebel (biblical)|Jezebel]], enraged at the fate that had befallen her priests of Baal, threatened to put Elijah to death (1 Kings 19:1-13). He therefore fled in alarm to [[Beersheba]], and went alone into the wilderness, and sat down in despondency under a [[juniper|juniper tree]]. As he slept, an angel touched him, and said unto him, &quot;Arise and eat; because the journey is too great for thee.&quot; He arose and found a cake and a cruse of water. Having partaken of the provision, he went forward on his way for forty days to [[Horeb]], where he took residence in a cave. Here God appeared to him and said, &quot;What dost thou here, Elijah?&quot; In answer to Elijah's despondent words God manifests to him his glory, and then directs him to return to [[Damascus]] and anoint [[Hazael]] king over the [[Arameans]](Syria), [[Jehu]] king over Israel, and [[Elisha]] to be prophet in his room (1 Kings 19:13-21; compare [[2 Kings]] 8:7-15; 9:1-10). Some six years after this, he warned Ahab and Jezebel of the violent deaths they would die (1 Kings 21:19-24; 22:38). He also, four years afterwards, warned [[Ahaziah of Israel|Ahaziah]], who had succeeded his father Ahab, of his approaching death (2 Kings 1:1-16). During these intervals he probably withdrew to some quiet retirement, no one knew where. His interview with Ahaziah's messengers on the way to [[Ekron]], and the account of the destruction of his captains with their fifties, suggest the idea that he may have been in retirement at this time on Mount Carmel. The [[Carmelites]] have a tradition that they were founded by Elijah at this time. The time now drew near when he was to be taken up into heaven (2 Kings 2:1-12). He went down to [[Gilgal]], where there was a school of the prophets, and where his successor Elisha, whom he had anointed some years before, resided. Elisha was solemnized by the thought of his master's leaving him, and refused to be parted from him. &quot;They two went on&quot;, and came to Bethel and [[Jericho]], and crossed the Jordan, the waters of which were &quot;divided hither and thither&quot; when smitten with Elijah's mantle. Arrived at the borders of [[Gilead]], which Elijah had left many years before, it &quot;came to pass as they still went on and talked&quot; they were suddenly separated by a chariot and horses of fire; and &quot;Elijah went up by a whirlwind into heaven, &quot;Elisha receiving his mantle, which fell from him as he ascended. Elijah's chosen successor was the prophet [[Elisha]]; Elijah designated Elisha as such by leaving his mantle with him (2 Kings 2:13-15), so that his wish for &quot;a double portion&quot; of the older prophet's spirit (2:9), in allusion to the preference shown the first-born son in the division of the father's estate ([[Deuteronomy]] 21:17), had been fulfilled. It is believed that the prophet Elijah shall return at the end of time to foretell the coming of the [[Jewish Messiah]]. ==Other Biblical Elijahs== The Elijah spoken of in [[Books of Chronicles|2 Chronicles]] 21:12-15 is by some supposed to be a different person from the foregoing. He lived in the time of [[Jehoram of Judah|Jehoram]], to whom he sent a letter of warning (compare 1 Chr. 28:19; [[Book of Jeremiah|Jeremiah]] 36), and acted as a prophet in Judah; while the Tishbite was a prophet of the northern kingdom. But there does not seem any necessity for concluding that the writer of this letter was some other Elijah than the Tishbite. It may be supposed either that Elijah anticipated the character of Jehoram, and so wrote the warning message, which was preserved in the schools of the prophets till Jehoram ascended the throne after the Tishbite's translation, or that the translation did not actually take place till after the accession of Jehoram to the throne (2 Chr. 21:12; 2 Kings 8:16). The events of 2 Kings 2 may not be recorded in chronological order, and thus there may be room for the opinion that Elijah was still alive in the beginning of Jehoram's reign. How deep the impression was which Elijah made &quot;on the mind of the nation&quot; of Israel may have been can be judged from the fixed belief, which rested on the words of [[Book of Malachi|Malachi]] (4:5, 6), which many centuries after, prevailed that Elijah would again appear for the relief and restoration of the country. When [[Jesus]] asks who people say he is, his disciples replied, &quot;Some say John the Baptist; others say Elijah; and still others, Jeremiah or one of the prophets&quot; ([[Gospel of Matthew|Matthew]] 16:14), which was referring to the belief of some of the Jews at the time that Jesus was, in fact, Elijah returned from heaven. ==New Testament references== No one of the old prophets is so frequently referred to in the [[New Testament]]. The priests and [[tribe of Levi|Levites]] said to [[John the Baptist]] ([[Gospel of John|John]] 1:25), &quot;Why baptizest thou, if thou be not that Christ, nor Elias?&quot; [[Paul of Tarsus|Paul]] ([[Epistle to the Romans|Romans]] 11:2) refers to an incident in his history to illustrate his argument that God had not cast away his people. [[Epistle of James|James]] (5:17) finds in him an illustration of the power of prayer. (See also [[Gospel of Luke|Luke]] 4:25; 9:54.) Elijah was similar to John the Baptist in the sternness and power of his reproofs (Luke 9:8). According to [[Gospel of Matthew|Matthew]] 11:11, John the Baptist was the Elijah that &quot;must first come&quot; (Matt. 11:11, 14). In John the Baptist, one can see Elijah: we see &quot;the same connection with a wild and wilderness country; the same long retirement in the desert; the same sudden, startling entrance on his work (1 Kings 17:1; Luke 3:2); even the same dress, a hairy garment, and a leathern girdle about the loins (2 Kings 1:8; [[Matthew 3:4|Matt. 3:4]]).&quot; Each remarkable person as he arrives on the scene, be his habits and characteristics what they may; the stern John equally with his gentle Successor, is proclaimed to be Elijah (Matt. 11:13, 14; 16:14; 17:10; [[Gospel of Mark|Mark]] 9:11; 15:35; Luke 9:7, 8; John 1:21). Elijah's appearance in glory at the [[Transfiguration]] does not seem to have startled the [[disciple]]s. They were &quot;sore afraid&quot;, but not apparently surprised. Some Christian theologians of a conservative, pre-millennial perspective believe that Elijah must return to physically die here on earth eventually, perhaps as one of the 'two witnesses' in the [[Book of Revelation]]. This plays into many [[eschatological]] scenarios. Conservatives who come from [[amillennial]] or [[preterist]] positions would probably see [[John the Baptist]] as a fulfillment of this expectation, in the time of Jesus. Christian theologians of a more liberal persuasion would tend to interpret Elijah's eschatological significance in a less literal sense. ==Elijah in other traditions== In the [[Qur'an]], Elijah is a [[Prophets of Islam|prophet]] known as [[Ilyas]]. The Turks believe that Elijah and [[Job (Biblical figure)|Job]] were buried at Eyyup Nebi, near [[Viranşehir]]. Members of the [[Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints]] also acknowledge Elijah as a prophet. Latter-Day Saints believe that in [[1836]] an angelic Elijah visited the founder of their church, [[Joseph Smith, Jr.]] in the [[Kirtland Temple]] in [[Kirtland, Ohio]] and gave him the sacred power to seal families together. As Elijah was described as ascending into heaven in a fiery chariot, the Christian missionaries who converted Sla
g issues in &quot;black and white&quot;&amp;mdash;''e.g.,'' crass commercialism versus artistic integrity, with nothing in between&amp;mdash;Watterson chose to illustrate the situation literally, dropping Calvin into a world where everything ''had'' lost shades of grey. Conversely, the &quot;neo-Cubist&quot; strip emerged from the way Watterson found himself &quot;paralyzed by being able to see all sides of an issue&quot;. ===Passage of time=== When the strips were originally published, Calvin's settings were seasonally appropriate for the Northern hemisphere. Calvin would be seen building snowmen or sledding during the wintertime, and outside activities such as water balloon fights would replace school during the summer. [[Christmas]] and [[Halloween]] strips were run during those approximate times of year. Although Watterson depicts several years' worth of holidays, school years, summer vacations, and camping trips, Calvin is never shown to age nor have any [[birthday]] celebrations (the only shown birthday was that of Susie Derkins). This is fairly common among comic strips; consider the children in [[Charles Schulz]]'s ''[[Peanuts]],'' most of whom existed without aging for decades. Likewise, the characters in [[George Herriman]]'s ''[[Krazy Kat]]'' celebrate the New Year but never grow old, and young characters like Ignatz Mouse's offspring never seem to grow up. Since this is such a common phenomenon, readers are likely to [[suspension of disbelief|suspend disbelief]], as most of them do about Calvin's precocious vocabulary, accepting that he &quot;was never a literal six-year-old&quot; {{ref_harvard|Watterson|Watterson 1995|a}}. ===Social criticisms=== In addition to his criticisms of [[Calvin and hobbes#Art and academia|art and academia]], Watterson often used the strip to comment on American culture and society. As the strip avoids reference to actual people or events, Watterson's commentary is necessarily generalized. He expresses frustration with public decadence and apathy, with commercialism, and the pandering nature of the mass media. Calvin is often seen &quot;glued&quot; to the television, while his father speaks with the voice of the author, struggling to impart his values on Calvin. Hobbes also speaks on Calvin's unwholesome habits, but from a more cynical perspective; he is more likely to make a wry observation than actually intervene. Sometimes he merely looks on as Calvin inadvertently makes the point himself. In one instance, Calvin tells Hobbes about a story in which machines turn humans into zombie slaves. He then exclaims &quot;Hey! What time is it?? My TV show is on!&quot; Calvin's taste in films is another way in which Watterson criticizes American culture. Films which Calvin has attempted to watch include ''Attack of the Coed Cannibals'', ''Cannibal Stewardess Vixens Unchained'', ''Killer Prom Queen'', ''Vampire Sorority Babes'', and ''Venusian Vampire Vixens.'' ==The main characters== ===Calvin=== [[Image:Calvin &amp; Hobbes - Calvin.png|right|Calvin]] Named after 16th century [[theology|theologian]] [[John Calvin]] (founder of [[Calvinism]] and a strong believer in [[predestination]]), Calvin is an impulsive, imaginative, energetic, curious, intelligent, self-centered, and often selfish six-year-old, whose last name the strip never gives. Despite his low grades, Calvin has a wide vocabulary range that rivals that of an adult as well as an emerging philosophical mind. He commonly wears his distinctive striped shirt. Watterson has described Calvin thus: *&quot;Calvin is pretty easy to do because he is outgoing and rambunctious and there's not much of a filter between his brain and his mouth&quot; {{ref_harvard|Williams|Williams 1987|none}}. *&quot;I guess he's a little too intelligent for his age. The thing that I really enjoy about him is that he has no sense of restraint, he doesn't have the experience yet to know the things that you shouldn't do&quot; {{ref_harvard|Dean|Dean 1987|none}}. *&quot;The socialization that we all go through to become adults teaches you not to say certain things because you later suffer the consequences. Calvin doesn't know that rule of thumb yet&quot; {{ref_harvard|West|West 1989|none}}. [[Predestination (Calvinism)|Calvinistic predestination]] as a philosophical position basically entails the idea that human action plays no part in affecting a person's ultimate [[Salvation#Christian views of salvation#Protestantism|salvation]] or [[Damnation#Religious|damnation]]. Calvin's consistent gripe is that the troublesome acts he commits are outside of his control: he is simply a product of his environment, a victim of circumstances. ===Hobbes=== [[Image:Calvin &amp; Hobbes - Hobbes.png|right|Hobbes]] Hobbes is Calvin's stuffed tiger who, from Calvin's perspective, is as alive and real as anyone in the strip. He is named after 17th century [[philosopher]] [[Thomas Hobbes]], who had what Watterson described as &quot;a dim view of human nature.&quot; He is famous for his claim that humans' natural state is a state of war, where &quot;the life of man [is], solitary, poore [''[[Sic (Latin)|sic]]''], nasty, brutish, and short.&quot; Hobbes is much more rational and aware of consequences than Calvin, but seldom interferes with Calvin's troublemaking beyond a few oblique warnings—after all, Calvin will be the one to get in trouble for it, not Hobbes. For the most part, Calvin and Hobbes converse and play together, reveling in what is ultimately a deep friendship. They also frequently argue or even fight with each other, though their disagreements are generally short-lived. Often Hobbes ambushes Calvin with an energetic pounce-and-tackle attack, which leaves Calvin bruised and scraped up but not seriously harmed. Hobbes takes great pleasure in his demonstrations of feline prowess, while Calvin expresses keen frustration at his inability to stop the attacks or explain his injuries to his skeptical parents. Watterson based some of Hobbes's characteristics, especially his playfulness and attack instinct, on his own pet cat, Sprite. Hobbes takes great pride in being a feline and frequently makes wry or even disparaging comments about human nature, declaring his good fortune to lead a tiger's life. In Calvin's philosophical ramblings, it is evident that Hobbes is usually Bill Watterson's voice on the subject, whereas Calvin usually seems to echo the sentiments (or lack thereof) of modern America. It may otherwise be asserted that Calvin rather portrays an alter-ego of Watterson. Interestingly, Hobbes almost never calls Calvin by his name. Instead, he simply uses [[pronouns]] when speaking to his human counterpart. One frequently recurring theme is Hobbes' love affair with [[tuna]], which borders on obsessive addiction. ====Hobbes' reality==== From Calvin's point of view, Hobbes is a walking, talking, [[bipedal]] [[tiger]], much larger than Calvin and full of his own attitudes and ideas. But when the perspective shifts to any other character, readers see merely a little stuffed tiger. This is, of course, an odd dichotomy, and Watterson explains it thus: ::When Hobbes is a stuffed toy in one panel and alive in the next, I'm juxtaposing the &quot;grown-up&quot; version of reality with Calvin's version, and inviting the reader to decide which is truer {{ref_harvard|Christie|Christie 1987|none}}. Many readers assume that Hobbes is either a product of Calvin's [[imagination]], or a [[doll]] that comes to life when Calvin is the only one around. However, both of these theories are incorrect. As Watterson explains in the ''Tenth Anniversary Book,'' &quot;Hobbes is more about the subjective nature of reality than dolls coming to life&quot;: thus there is no concrete definition of Hobbes' reality. Watterson explained: &quot;Calvin sees Hobbes one way, and everyone else sees Hobbes another way.&quot; Hobbes' reality is in the eye of the beholder. The so-called 'gimmick' of Hobbes is the juxtaposition of Calvin and Hobbes' reality and everyone else's, with the two rarely agreeing. Sometimes Hobbes breaks the [[fourth wall]] and speaks directly to the reader, such as when Calvin tries to parachute from his house's roof (&quot;His mom's going to have a fit about those rose bushes&quot;). On other occasions, it is difficult to imagine how the &quot;stuffed toy&quot; interpretation of Hobbes is consistent with what the characters see. For example, he &quot;assists&quot; Calvin's attempt to become a [[Houdini]]-style escape artist by tying Calvin to a chair. Calvin, however, cannot escape, and his irritated father must undo the knots, all the while asking Calvin how he could do this to himself. In a rare interview, Watterson explained his approach to this situation: ::Calvin's dad finds him tied up and the question remains, really, how did he get that way? His dad assumes that Calvin tied himself up somehow, so well that he couldn't get out. Calvin explains that Hobbes did this to him and he tries to place the blame on Hobbes entirely, and it's never resolved in the strip. Again I don't think that's just a cheap way out of the story. I like the tension that that creates, where you've got two versions of reality that do not mix. Something odd has happened and neither makes complete sense, so you're left to make out of it what you want. {{ref_harvard|West|West 1989|none}} In response to the journalist's assumption that Hobbes was a figment of Calvin's imagination, Watterson responded, ::But the strip doesn't assert that. That's the assumption that adults make because nobody else sees him, sees Hobbes, in the way that Calvin does. Some reporter was writing a story on [[imaginary friend]]s and they asked me for a comment, and I didn’t do it because I really have absolutely no knowledge about imaginary friends. It would seem to me, though, that when you make up a friend for yourself, you would have somebody to agree with you, not to argue with you. So Hobbes is more real
deserted by his supporters. Abd-ar-Rahman V was proclaimed caliph in December [[1023]] at [[Córdoba, Spain|Córdoba]], and murdered in January [[1024]] by a mob of unemployed workmen, headed by one of his own cousins. {| align=&quot;center&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; border=&quot;2&quot; |- | width=&quot;30%&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; rowspan=&quot;2&quot; | Preceded by:&lt;br /&gt;'''[[Abd-ar-Rahman IV|Abd ar-rahman IV]]''' | width=&quot;40%&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; | '''[[Umayyad|Umayyad Leader]]''' | width=&quot;30%&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; rowspan=&quot;2&quot; | Succeeded by:&lt;br /&gt;'''[[Muhammad III of Umayyad|Muhammad III]]''' |- | width=&quot;40%&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; | '''[[Caliph of Cordoba]]''' |} [[Category:Umayyad caliphs of Cordoba]] [[Category:History of Spain]] [[de:Abd ar-Rahman V.]] [[sv:Abd ar-Rahman V]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Abd-ul-Aziz</title> <id>2681</id> <revision> <id>41635342</id> <timestamp>2006-02-28T18:07:32Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>GrinBot</username> <id>411872</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>robot Modifying: ar</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Sultan abd-ul-aziz.jpg|thumb|Sultan Abd-ul-Aziz]] '''Abd-ul-aziz''' ([[Arabic language|Arabic]]: عبد العزيز ) ([[February 9]], [[1830]] &amp;ndash; [[1876]]) was the [[sultan]] of the [[Ottoman Empire]] from [[1861]] to [[May 30]], [[1876]]. He was the son of Sultan [[Mahmud II]] and succeeded his brother [[Abd-ul-Mejid]] in [[1861]]. His personal interference in government affairs was not very marked, and extended to little more than taking astute advantage of the constant issue of state loans during his reign to acquire wealth, which was squandered in building useless palaces and in other futile ways: he is even said to have profited, by means of ''bear'' sales, from the default on the Turkish debt in [[1875]] and the consequent fall in prices. Another source of revenue was afforded by [[Ismail Pasha]], the ''[[khedive]]'' of [[Egypt]], who paid heavily in ''bakshish'' for the ''firman'' of [[1866]], by which the succession to the khedivate was made [[hereditary]] from father to son in direct line and in order of [[primogeniture]], as well as for the subsequent ''firmans'' of [[1867]], [[1869]] and [[1872]] extending the ''khedive'''s prerogatives. It is, however, only fair to add that the sultan was doubtless influenced by the desire to bring about a similar change in the succession to the Ottoman throne and to ensure the succession after him of his eldest son, [[Yussuf Izz-ed-din]]. Abd-ul-Aziz visited Western [[Europe]] in [[1867]], being the first Ottoman sultan to do so, including a visit to England, where he was made a [[Knight of the Garter]] by [[Victoria of the United Kingdom|Queen Victoria]] and shown a [[Fleet Review, Royal Navy#Queen Victoria|Royal Navy Fleet Review]] with his [[Ismail of Egypt|Khedive of Egypt]]. He travelled by private rail car, which today can be found in the [[RMK Museum]] in [[Istanbul]]. In [[1869]] he received visits from [[Empress Eugenie]] of [[France]] and other foreign monarchs on their way to the opening of the [[Suez Canal]]. The future [[Edward VII of the United Kingdom]], while [[Prince of Wales]], twice visited [[Istanbul]]. The misgovernment and financial straits of the country brought on the outbreak of [[Muslim]] discontent and [[fanaticism]] which eventually culminated in the murder of two [[consul]]s at [[Salonica]] and in the &quot;[[Bulgarian]] atrocities&quot;, and cost Abd-ul-Aziz his throne. His deposition on [[May 30]], [[1876]] was hailed with joy throughout Turkey; a fortnight later he was found dead in the palace where he had been confined, and trustworthy medical evidence attributed his death to [[suicide]] although many people believed he was murdered by a conspiracy. Seven children survived him: # Prince Yussuf Izz-ed-din (b. [[1857]]) # Princess Salina, wife of Kurd Ismail Pasha # Princess Nazime, wife of Khalid Pasha # Prince [[Abdul Mejid II]] (b. [[May 29]], [[1868]]) # Prince Self-ed-din (b. [[1876]]) # Princess Emine, wife of Mahommed Bey # Prince Shefket, ([[1872]]&amp;ndash;[[1899]]) {{Wikisource1911Enc|Abd-ul-Aziz}} {{1911}} [[Category:1830 births]] [[Category:1876 deaths]] [[Category:Sultans of the Ottoman Empire]] [[Category:Knights of the Garter]] {{start box}} {{succession box|title=[[Ottoman Sultan]]|before=[[Abd-ul-Mejid I]]|after=[[Murad V]]|years=1861&amp;ndash;1876}} [[ar:عبدالعزيز الأول]] [[bg:Абдул Азис]] [[de:Abdülaziz]] [[eo:Abd-ul-Aziz]] [[hr:Abdul Aziz]] [[id:Abd-ul-Aziz]] [[hu:Abdul-Aziz]] [[nl:Abdülaziz]] [[ja:アブデュルアズィズ]] [[pl:Abd-ul-Aziz]] [[ru:Абдул-Азиз]] [[sv:Abd ül-Aziz]] [[tr:Abdülaziz]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Abd-el-Kader</title> <id>2682</id> <revision> <id>15901077</id> <timestamp>2005-01-29T15:04:20Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Stan Shebs</username> <id>7777</id> </contributor> <comment>#REDIRECT [[Abd al-Qadir]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Abd al-Qadir]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Abd-el-Aziz IV</title> <id>2683</id> <revision> <id>25225088</id> <timestamp>2005-10-10T21:01:34Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Fornadan</username> <id>126105</id> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect[[Abdelaziz of Morocco]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Abdera, Spain</title> <id>2684</id> <revision> <id>37380393</id> <timestamp>2006-01-30T17:23:35Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Pschemp</username> <id>110252</id> </contributor> <comment>cat</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Abdera''' was an ancient seaport town on the south coast of [[Spain]], between [[Malaca]] (now [[Málaga]]) and [[Carthago Nova]] (now [[Cartagena, Spain|Cartagena]]), in the district inhabited by the [[Bastuli]]. It was founded by the [[Carthage|Carthaginians]] as a trading station, and after a period of decline became under the Romans one of the more important towns in the province of [[Hispania Baetica]]. It was situated on a hill above the modern [[Adra]]. Of its coins the most ancient bear the [[Phoenicia|Phoenician]] inscription ''abdrt'' with the head of [[Heracles]] (Melkarth) and a [[tuna|tunny-fish]]; those of [[Tiberius]] (who seems to have made the place a colony) show the chief temple of the town with two tunny-fish erect in the form of columns. ==References== {{1911}} [[Category:Archaeological sites in Spain]] [[Category:Municipalities in Spain]][[Category:Phoenician colonies]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Abdera, Thrace</title> <id>2685</id> <revision> <id>40402754</id> <timestamp>2006-02-20T08:04:06Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Ruszewski</username> <id>99414</id> </contributor> <comment>add Hecataeus</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Abderacoin.png|thumb|200 px|right|The chief coin type, with gryphon.]] '''Abdera''' was a town on the coast of [[Thrace]] near the mouth of the [[Nestos]], and almost opposite [[Thasos]]. Its mythical foundation was attributed to [[Heracles]], its historical to a colony from [[Clazomenae]] in the [[7th century BC]]. But its prosperity dates from [[544 BC]], when the majority of the people of [[Teos]] migrated to Abdera after the [[Ionian Revolt]] to escape the [[Iran|Persia]]n yoke ([[Herodotus]] i.168); the chief coin type, a ''gryphon'', is identical with that of Teos; the coinage is noted for the beauty and variety of its reverse types. The town seems to have declined in importance after the middle of the [[4th century BC]]. The air of Abdera was proverbial as causing stupidity; but among its citizens was the philosopher [[Democritus]], [Protagoras]] and [[Hecataeus of Abdera]] historian and Sceptic philosopher. The ruins of the town may still be seen on [[Cape Balastra]]; they cover seven small hills, and extend from an eastern to a western harbour; on the southwestern hills are the remains of the medieval settlement of [[Polystylon]]. The city was a member of the [[Delian League]]. Abdera is a [[titular see]] in the province of [[Rhodope]] on the southern coast of Thrace, now called [[Bouloustra]]. {{Wikisource1911Enc|Abdera}} {{1911}} {{Catholic}} ==External links== *http://www.culture.gr/2/21/211/21119a/e211sa05.html (English) *http://www.avdera.gr/ (Greek) [[Category:Titular Sees]] [[da:Abdera, Thrakien]] [[de:Abdera]] [[el:Άβδηρα]] [[es:Abdera]] [[fr:Abdère (ville)]] [[gl:Abdera]] [[ko:압데라]] [[he:אבדרה]] [[nl:Abdera]] [[pl:Abdera]] [[ro:Abdera, Tracia]] [[ru:Абдеры]] [[sv:Abdera]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Apollos</title> <id>2686</id> <revision> <id>36464846</id> <timestamp>2006-01-24T05:25:30Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Alvestrand</username> <id>50958</id> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Apollos''' (&amp;Alpha;&amp;pi;&amp;omicron;&amp;lambda;&amp;lambda;&amp;omega;&amp;sigmaf;; contracted from Apollonius) was an early [[Christianity|Christian]], who is mentioned several times in the [[New Testament]]. His special gifts in presenting Christian doctrine made him an important person in the congregation at [[Corinth, Greece]] after Paul's first visit there ([[1 Corinthians]] 3:6). He was with Paul at a later date in Ephesus (1 Cor. 16:12). In 1 Cor. 1:10-12 we read of four parties in the Corinthian church, of which two attached themselves to Paul and Apollos respectively, using their names, though the &quot;division&quot; can hardly have been due to conflicting doctrines, and there is no indication that Apollonius favored or approved an ov
MIDH [Marc BAZIN] *Movement for the Organization of the Country or MOP [Gesner COMEAU and Jean MOLIERE] *National Cooperative Action Movement or MKN [Volrick Remy JOSEPH] *National Front for Change and Democracy or FNCD [Evans PAUL and Turneb DELPE] *New Christian Movement for a New Haiti or MOCHRENA [Luc MESADIEU] *Open the Gate or PLB [Renaud BERNARDIN] *Struggling People's Organization or OPL [Gerard PIERRE-CHARLES] *Afe Peyizan ak Pep Ayisyen APPA[Lucien Petit.www.afepeyizanakpepayisyenappa.org] ===Political pressure groups and leaders=== Autonomous Haitian Workers or CATH; Confederation of Haitian Workers or CTH; Federation of Workers Trade Unions or FOS; National Popular Assembly or APN; Papaye Peasants Movement or MPP; Popular Organizations Gathering Power or PROP; [[Roman Catholic Church]] ===International organization participation=== [[ACCT]], [[ACP]], [[Caricom]] (suspended member), [[CCC]], [[ECLAC]], [[Food and Agriculture Organization|FAO]], [[G-77]], [[IADB]], [[IAEA]], [[IBRD]], [[ICAO]], [[ICRM]], [[IDA]], [[IFAD]], [[IFC]], [[IFRCS]], [[International Labour Organization|ILO]], [[IMF]], [[International Maritime Organization|IMO]], [[Intelsat]], [[Interpol]], [[IOC]], [[International Organization for Migration|IOM]], [[ITU]], [[LAES]], [[OAS]], [[OPANAL]], [[OPCW]], [[PCA]], [[UN]], [[UNCTAD]], [[UNESCO]], [[UNIDO]], [[UPU]], [[WCL]], [[WFTU]], [[WHO]], [[WIPO]], [[WMO]], [[WToO]], [[WTrO]] ===See also=== * [[List of Presidents of Haiti]] [[Category:Politics of Haiti| ]] [[fr:Politique d'Haïti]] [[pt:Política do Haiti]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Economy of Haiti</title> <id>13378</id> <revision> <id>41470589</id> <timestamp>2006-02-27T15:52:14Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Gene.arboit</username> <id>278325</id> </contributor> <comment>fr:</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Economy of Haiti table}} ==Economic Overview== Since the demise of the Duvalier dictatorship in [[1986]], international economists have urged [[Haiti]] to reform and modernize its economy. Under President [[René Préval]], the country's economic agenda included trade and tariff liberalization, measures to control government expenditure and increase tax revenues, civil service downsizing, financial sector reform, and the modernization of state-owned enterprises through their sale to private investors, the provision of private sector management contracts, or joint public-private investment. Structural adjustment agreements with the [[International Monetary Fund]], [[World Bank]], [[Inter-American Development Bank]], and other international financial institutions are aimed at creating necessary conditions for private sector growth, have proved only partly successful. In the aftermath of the [[1994]] restoration of constitutional governance, Haitian officials have indicated their commitment to economic reform through the implementation of sound fiscal and monetary policies and the enactment of legislation mandating the modernization of state-owned enterprises. A council to guide the modernization program (CMEP) was established and a timetable was drawn up to modernize nine key parastatals. Although the state-owned flour mill and cement plants have been transferred to private owners, progress on the other seven parastatals has stalled. The modernization of Haiti's state-enterprises remains a controversial political issue in Haiti. External aid is essential to the future [[economic development]] of Haiti, the least-developed country in the [[Western Hemisphere]] and one of the poorest in the world. Comparative social and economic indicators show Haiti falling behind other low-income developing countries (particularly in the hemisphere) since the 1980s. Haiti's economic stagnation is the result of earlier inappropriate economic policies, political instability, a shortage of good arable land, environmental deterioration, continued use of traditional technologies, under-capitalization and lack of public investment in human resources, migration of large portions of the skilled population, and a weak national savings rate. Haiti continues to suffer the consequences of the 1991 coup and the irresponsible economic and financial policies of the de facto authorities greatly accelerated Haiti's economic decline. Following the coup, the [[United States]] adopted mandatory sanctions, and the [[OAS]] instituted voluntary sanctions aimed at restoring constitutional [[government]]. International sanctions culminated in the May 1994 [[United Nations]] embargo of all goods entering Haiti except humanitarian supplies, such as [[food]] and [[medicine]]. The assembly sector, heavily dependent on U.S. markets for its products, employed nearly 80,000 workers in the mid-1980s. During the embargo, employment fell from 33,000 workers in 1991 to 400 in October 1994. Private domestic and foreign investment has been slow to return to Haiti. Since the return of constitutional rule, assembly sector employment has gradually recovered with over 20,000 now employed, but further growth has been stalled by investor concerns over safety and supply reliability. If the political situation stabilizes, high crime levels reduce, and new investment increases, tourism could take its place next to export-oriented manufacturing (the assembly sector) as a potential source of foreign exchange. Remittances from abroad now constitute a significant source of financial support for many Haitian households. Haiti's real [[Gross domestic product|GDP]] growth turned negative in FY 2001 after six years of growth. Real GDP fell by 1.1% in FY 2001 and 0.9% in FY 2002. Macroeconomic stability was adversely affected by political uncertainty, the collapse of informal [[bank]]ing cooperatives, high [[budget deficit]]s, low investment, and reduced international capital flows, including suspension of IFI lending as Haiti fell into arrears with the Inter-American Development Bank (IDB) and World Bank. Haiti’s economy stabilized in 2003. Although FY 2003 began with the rapid decline of the gourde due to rumors that [[U.S. dollar]] deposit accounts would be nationalized and the withdrawal of fuel subsidies, the government successfully stabilized the gourde as it took the politically difficult decisions to float fuel prices freely according to world market prices and to raise interest rates. Government agreement with the [[International Monetary Fund]] (IMF) on a staff monitored program (SMP), followed by its payment of its $32 million arrears to the IDB in July, paved the way for renewed IDB lending. The IDB disbursed $35 million of a $50 million policy-based loan in July and began disbursing four previously approved project loans totaling $146 million. The IDB, IMF, and [[World Bank]] also discussed new lending with the government. Much of this would be contingent on government adherence to fiscal and monetary targets and policy reforms, such as those begun under the SMP, and Haiti’s payment of its World Bank arrears ($30 million at 9/30/03). The IMF estimates real GDP was flat in FY 2003 and projects 1% real GDP growth for FY 2004. However, [[GDP per capita]]-- $425 in FY [[2002]]-- will continue to decline as population growth is estimated at 1.3% p.a. While implementation of governance reforms and peaceful resolution of the political stalemate are key to long-term growth, external support remains critical in avoiding economic collapse. The major element is foreign remittances, reported as $931 million in 2002, primarily from the U.S. Foreign assistance, meanwhile, was $130 million in FY 2002. Overall foreign assistance levels have declined since FY 1995, the year elected government was restored to power under a [[UN]] mandate, when over $600 million in aid was provided by the international community. Workers in Haiti are guaranteed the right of association. Unionization is protected by the labor code. A legal minimum wage of 36 gourds a day (about U.S. $1.80) applies to most workers in the formal sector. ==U.S. Economic and Development Assistance== Political insecurity and the failure of Haiti's governments to invest in developing the country's natural and human resources attribute significantly to the country's current state of underdevelopment. U.S. efforts to strengthen democracy and to rebuild Haiti's economy aim to rectify this condition. The U.S. has been Haiti's largest donor since 1973. Between FY 95 and FY 99, the U.S. has contributed roughly $884 million in assistance to Haiti. These funds have been used to support programs that have addressed a variety of problems. Among the initiatives funds have supported are: * Food assistance programs that include a school lunch program that feeds around 500,000 children daily. * Agricultural development programs that have endeavored to revitalize Haiti's coffee sector and to help thousands of Haitian farmers adopt sustainable agricultural practices and protect the environment. * Teacher training programs that have included 6,000 educators at the primary and secondary level. * Population programs that have expanded modern family planning practices in many rural areas. * Health care programs that have supported child immunization and have helped provide primary care to nearly half of the Haitian population. In addition to financial support, the U.S. provides human resources. U.S. Peace Corps volunteers returned to Haiti in 1995, largely focusing their efforts on income generation programs in Haiti's rural areas. Many private U.S. citizens travel regularly to Haiti or reside there for extended periods to work in humanitarian projects. Haiti has been plagued for decades by extremely high unemployment and underemployment. The precipitous decline in urban assembly sector jobs, from a high of 80,000 in 1986 to fewer than 17,000 in 1994, exacerbated the scarcity of jobs. To revitalize the economy, U.S. assistance has attempted to cre
ale_anatomy.html Pink Parts] - &quot;Walk through&quot; of female sexual anatomy by noted sex activist and educator Heather Corinna (illustrations; no explicit photos) === Illustrations === * [http://www.the-clitoris.com/n_html/n_netter.htm The Ciba Collection of Medical Illustrations: Vol.2, Reproductive System] by Frank H. Netter, M.D. comparing female and male reproductive systems development and anatomy * [http://www.the-clitoris.com/n_html/n_anat_a.htm Illustrations from Clinical Anatomy Principles] by Lawrence H. Mathers, Jr. et al. comparing clitoris and penis anatomy * [http://www.the-clitoris.com/n_html/n_develop.htm Development of the Female Sexual &amp; Reproductive Organs] &amp;ndash; illustrations comparing clitoris and penis during the early development {{reproductive system}} [[Category:Organs]] [[Category:Reproductive system]] [[Category:Gynecology]] [[Category:Female reproductive system]] &lt;!-- The below are interlanguage links. --&gt; [[als:Klitoris]] [[ca:Clítoris]] [[cs:Klitoris]] [[da:Klitoris]] [[de:Klitoris]] [[es:Clítoris]] [[fr:Clitoris]] [[gd:Brillean]] [[gl:Clítoris]] [[id:Klitoris]] [[he:דגדגן]] [[it:Clitoride]] [[lt:Varputė]] [[hu:Csikló]] [[nl:Clitoris]] [[ja:陰核]] [[no:Klitoris]] [[pl:Łechtaczka]] [[pt:Clítoris]] [[ru:Клитор]] [[sr:Клиторис]] [[sv:Klitoris]] [[th:ปุ่มกระสัน]] [[tr:Klitoris]] [[uk:Клітор]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Chicago, Illinois</title> <id>6886</id> <revision> <id>42150085</id> <timestamp>2006-03-04T03:42:53Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>68.79.23.45</ip> </contributor> <comment>/* Sports */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox City |official_name = Chicago, Illinois |nickname = [[List of nicknames for Chicago|The Windy City]] |motto = Urbs In Horto ([[Latin]]: &quot;City in a Garden&quot;), &quot;I Will |website = http://egov.cityofchicago.org/ |image_skyline = Chitown jc01.jpg |image_flag = Municipal Flag of Chicago.svg |image_seal = ChicagoSeal2.png |image_map = US-IL-Chicago.png |map_caption = Location in [[Chicagoland]] |subdivision_type = [[Countries of the world|Country]]&lt;br&gt; [[Political divisions of the United States|State]]&lt;br&gt; [[List of counties in Illinois|Counties]] |subdivision_name = [[United States]]&lt;br&gt;[[Illinois]]&lt;br&gt;[[Cook County, Illinois|Cook]] and [[DuPage County, Illinois|DuPage]] |leader_title = [[Mayor]] |leader_name = [[Richard M. Daley]] ([[Democratic Party (United States)|D]]) |area_magnitude = 1 E8 |area_total = 606.1 |area_land = 588.3 |area_water = 17.8 |population_as_of = 2004 |population_total = 2,862,244 |population_metro = 9,391,515 |population_density = 4,923.0 |timezone = [[Central Standard Time Zone|UTC]] |utc_offset = -6 |timezone_DST = [[Central Daylight Time|CDT]] |utc_offset_DST = -5 |latd = 41 |latm = 54 |lats = 00 |latNS = N |longd = 87 |longm = 39 |longs = 00 |longEW = W |footnotes = &lt;table border=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;3&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;margin: 0 0 0 0; background: #f9f9f9;&quot;&gt; &lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;'''Founded'''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;1795&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;'''Incorporated'''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;1833&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt; &lt;/table&gt; }} {{redirect|Chicago}} '''Chicago''', known as the &quot;[[Second city|Second City]]&quot;, the &quot;Windy City&quot;, and &quot;Chi-town&quot; (the [[Potawatomi]] who used to live in the area before white settlers arrived called the [[marshes]] on which Chicago was later built &quot;Checagou&quot;, which translates to &quot;wild onion&quot; or &quot;garlic&quot;), is the [[List of United States metropolitan statistical areas by population|third-largest city]] in population in the [[United States]], following [[New York City]] and [[Los Angeles, California|Los Angeles]]. Chicago is located in the [[Midwestern United States|Midwestern]] [[U.S. state|state]] of [[Illinois]] along the southwestern shore of [[Lake Michigan]]. When combined with its [[suburbs]] and nine surrounding counties in Illinois, [[Wisconsin]], and [[Indiana]], the greater [[metropolitan area]] known as [[Chicagoland]] encompasses a population of nearly 10 million people. Growing from its 1833 founding as a [[frontier]] town of the [[Old Northwest]] into one of the world's premier cities, Chicago is ranked as one of 10 &quot;Alpha&quot; (most influential) world cities by the [[Global city|Globalization and World Cities Study Group &amp; Network]]. Chicago was the site of the [[Home Insurance Building|world's first skyscraper]], and today is the financial, transportation, and cultural capital of the [[Midwest]]. Chicago also leads the country in the number of conventions hosted annually. The city has long been known around the world as a financial, industrial, and transportation center and for its ethnic diversity. Chicago's skyscrapers, local cuisine, political traditions, and sports teams are some of its most recognized symbols. A variety of [[List of nicknames for Chicago|colloquial nicknames]] reflect Chicago's unique character. A resident of Chicago is referred to as a '''Chicagoan'''. There is some ambiguity regarding the suburbs - some residents call themselves &quot;Chicagoans&quot; and identify with the central city, while others rarely deal with or visit the central city. Typically, residents of Chicago will identify themselves with one of the many neighborhoods of Chicago. For an excellent map of the neighborhoods of Chicago, see [http://www.seanparnell.com/Chicago/Chicago%20Neighborhood%20Map.htm this map]. About one-third of central-city Chicagoans are [[Caucasian]], another third [[African American]], around a quarter [[Hispanic]] and one-tenth [[Asian]], with small amounts of other groups filling in the remainder. Chicago also has several dozen distinct neighborhoods to match its ethnic diversity; the city is divided into 77 official [[Community areas of Chicago|community areas]]. ==History== {{main|History of Chicago}} During the mid-1700s, the Chicago area was inhabited primarily by [[Potawatomi]]s, who took the place of the [[Miami tribe|Miami]] and [[Sac and Fox Nation|Sauk and Fox]]. The first non-native settler in Chicago was [[Jean-Baptiste Pointe du Sable]], a [[Haiti]]an of [[Africa]]n descent, who arrived in the 1770s, and whose heritage was much talked about after 1950. In 1803, the U.S. Army built [[Fort Dearborn]]; in 1812 it was destroyed in the [[Fort Dearborn Massacre]] . ===Incorporation and growth=== [[Image:chicago lit.jpg|thumb|290px|Chicago, looking North from State and Washington Streets]] On [[August 12]], [[1833]], the Town of Chicago organized with a population of 350. Within seven years a flood of new arrivals from New England and other points east gave the town a population of over 4,000. Chicago incorporated on [[March 4]], [[1837]] when the State of Illinois granted Chicago a [[Municipal charter|city charter]]. Thus began the next step in what would become massive early growth. Many factors contributed to that growth but early on the most important aspects could be attributed to Chicago's geographic proximity in an expanding nation. The city was the logical transportation link between eastern and western United States, using the Great Lakes and the river systems, and (after 1850) the railroads. The opening of the [[Illinois and Michigan Canal]] in 1848 allowed shipping from the [[Great Lakes]] through Chicago to the [[Mississippi River]]. The first rail line to Chicago, the [[Galena &amp; Chicago Union Railroad]], was completed the same year. These projects foreshadowed Chicago's eventual development into the transportation hub of the United States. [[Image:Home Insurance Building.JPG|thumb|150px|left|The [[Home Insurance Building]] in Chicago, the world's first skyscraper.]] The [[geography of Chicago]] presented early citizens with many problems, including transportation and [[sewage]]. These problems were rectified by several large public works projects. By 1890, Chicago was the second largest city in the United States, after [[New York City]]. Chicago had grown to 1.1 million people in less than sixty years. The [[1860 Republican National Convention]] in Chicago nominated home-state candidate [[Abraham Lincoln]] for U.S. president, and was the first of twenty-five in the city. ===Great Chicago Fire=== {{main|Great Chicago Fire}} In 1871, most of the city burned in the [[Great Chicago Fire]]. By this time the city had a population of over 300,000. Due to the fire much of the city needed to be rebuilt; this gave city planners a clean slate to fix the problems of the past. In the following years, [[Chicago architecture]] would become influential throughout the world. The first [[skyscraper]] in the world was constructed in 1885 using novel [[steel]] [[skeleton]] construction. Other tragic fires have plagued Chicago. 602 persons died in the [[Iroquois Theater Fire|Iroquois Theater fire]] in 1903. The LaSalle Hotel fire in 1946 claimed the lives of 61 guests. In 1958 a [[Roman Catholic Church|Roman Catholic]] elementary school, [[Our Lady of the Angels School Fire|Our Lady of the Angels]], burned 18 minutes before the end of the school day, killing 92 children and three teaching nuns. ===20th century=== [[Image:StateStreetc1907.jpg|thumb|250px|State Street circa 1907]] [[Lake Michigan]] &amp;mdash; the primary source of fresh water for the city &amp;mdash; was already highly polluted from the rapidly growing industries in and around Chicago, a new way of procuring clean water was needed. The city embarked on a large tunnel excavation project and began building tunnels below Lake Michigan to newly built [[water crib]]s. The water cribs were two miles (three kilometers) off the shore of Lake Michigan. The cribs failed to bring enough clean water because spring rains would wash the polluted water from the [[Chicago River]] into them. In 1900 this problem was solved
asty (in exile in the [[Empire of Nicaea]], 1204-1261)== [[Image:Laskarid eagle.jpg|thumb|180px|The Great Seal of the Laskarid dynasty]] *[[Theodore I Lascaris]] (Θεόδωρος Α' Λάσκαρης) ([[1174]] - [[1222]], ruled [[1204]] - [[1222]]) &amp;ndash; son-in-law of Alexius III *[[John III Ducas Vatatzes]] (Ιωάννης Γ' Δούκας Βατάτζης) ([[1192]] - [[1254]], ruled [[1222]] - [[1254]]) &amp;ndash; son-in-law of Theodore I; epileptic *[[Theodore II Lascaris]] (Θεόδωρος Β' Λάσκαρης) ([[1221]] - [[1258]], ruled [[1254]] - [[1258]]) &amp;ndash; son of John III *[[John IV Lascaris]] (Ιωάννης Δ' Λάσκαρης) ([[1250]] - [[1305]], ruled [[1258]] - [[1261]]) &amp;ndash; son of Theodore II, deposed, blinded, and imprisoned by Michael VIII ==[[Palaeologus|Palaeologid Dynasty]] (restored to Constantinople, 1259-1453)== *[[Michael VIII Palaeologus]] (Μιχαήλ Η' Παλαιολόγος) ([[1224]] - [[1282]], ruled [[1259]] - [[1282]]) &amp;ndash; Strategos, regent for [[John IV Lascaris]]; great-grandson of [[Alexius III Angelus]] *[[Andronicus II]] Palaeologus the Elder (Ανδρόνικος Β' ο Γέρος) ([[1258]] - [[1332]], ruled [[1282]] - [[1328]]) &amp;ndash; son of Michael VIII; abdicated *[[Andronicus III]] Palaeologus the Younger (Ανδρόνικος Γ' Παλαιολόγος ο Νέος) ([[1297]] - [[1341]], ruled [[1328]] - [[1341]]) &amp;ndash; grandson of Andronicus II *[[John V Palaeologus]] (Ιωάννης Ε' Παλαιολόγος) ([[1332]] - [[1391]], ruled [[1341]] - [[1347]]) &amp;ndash; son of [[Andronicus III]], deposed by John VI *[[John VI Cantacuzenus]] (Ιωάννης Στ' Καντακουζηνός) ([[1295]] - [[1383]], ruled outright [[1347]] - [[1354]]) &amp;ndash; father-in-law of John V; deposed, and entered monastery as Ioasaph Christodoulus *[[John V Palaeologus]] (ruled [[1354]] - [[1376]]) &amp;ndash; restored, deposed by Andronicus IV *[[Andronicus IV]] Palaeologus (Ανδρόνικος Δ' Παλαιολόγος) ([[1348]] - [[1385]], ruled [[1376]] - [[1379]]) &amp;ndash; son of John V, half-blinded following revolt, later succeeded and was deposed, revolted a third time *[[John V Palaeologus]] (Ιωάννης Ε' Παλαιολόγος) (Ιωάννης Ε' Παλαιολόγος) (ruled [[1379]] - [[1390]]) &amp;ndash; restored, deposed *[[John VII Palaeologus]] (Ιωάννης Ζ' Παλαιολόγος) ([[1370]] - [[1408]], ruled [[1390]]) &amp;ndash; son of Andronicus IV *[[John V Palaeologus]] (Ιωάννης Ε' Παλαιολόγος) (ruled [[1390]] - [[1391]]) &amp;ndash; restored *[[Manuel II Palaeologus]] (Μανουήλ Β' Παλαιολόγος) ([[1350]] - [[1425]], ruled [[1391]] - [[1425]]) &amp;ndash; son of John V *[[John VII Palaeologus]] (Ιωάννης Ζ' Παλαιολόγος) (ruled [[1399]] - [[1402]]) &amp;ndash; restored as coemperor *[[John VIII Palaeologus]] (Ιωάννης Η' Παλαιολόγος) ([[1392]] - [[1448]], ruled [[1425]] - [[1448]]) &amp;ndash; son of Manuel II *[[Constantine XI]] Palaeologus Dragatses (Κωνσταντίνος ΙΑ' Παλαιολόγος Δραγάτσης) ([[1405]] - [[1453]], ruled [[1449]] - [[1453]]) &amp;ndash; son of Manuel II, not crowned in Constantinople, died on the walls ===Ottomans=== In 1453 [[Mehmed II]] overthrew the Byzantine Empire and claimed the title of [[Caesar (title)|Caesar]]; his successors continued this claim. See [[Ottomans]] for the complete list of Ottoman sultans. ==[[Palaeologus|Palaeologid Dynasty]] (in exile)== *[[Thomas Palaeologus|Thomas]] Palaeologus (Θωμάς Παλαιολόγος) ([[1409]] or [[1410|10]] - [[1465]]) &amp;ndash; brother of Constantine XI; died in exile in Rome *[[Andreas Palaeologus|Andreas]] Palaeologus (Ανδρέας Παλαιολόγος) ([[1453]] - [[1502]]) &amp;ndash; son of Thomas; created [[despotism|Despot]] by [[Pope Pius II]], self-styled &lt;small&gt;imperator Constantinopolitanus&lt;/small&gt;; sold titles to [[Charles VIII of France|Charles VIII]] in 1494 and granted the remainder to King [[Ferdinand II of Aragon|Ferran II]] of Aragon and Queen [[Isabella of Castile|Isabel]] of Castille in his will. ==See also== *[[List of Roman Emperors|Early Roman Emperors]] *[[Byzantine Empire]] *[[Latin Empire]] *[[List of Byzantine Empire-related topics]] [[Category:Byzantine emperors| ]] [[Category:Byzantine Empire]] [[Category:Lists of monarchs|Byzantine Empire]] [[Category:Lists of office-holders|Byzantine Empire]] [[Category:Ancient Roman titles]] &lt;!-- interwiki --&gt; [[bg:Император на Византийската империя]] [[cs:Seznam byzantských císařů]] [[cy:Rhestr Ymerodron Caergystennin]] [[de:Liste der byzantinischen Kaiser]] [[et:Ida-Rooma keisrite loend]] [[es:Emperadores bizantinos]] [[eo:Listo de orient-romiaj imperiestroj]] [[fr:Liste des empereurs byzantins]] [[gl:Lista de Emperadores Bizantinos]] [[hr:Popis bizantskih careva]] [[it:Imperatori bizantini]] [[he:קיסרי ביזנטיון]] [[hu:Bizánci császárok listája]] [[mk:Византиски владетели]] [[ms:Daftar Maharaja Byzantine]] [[nl:Lijst van Byzantijnse keizers]] [[no:Liste over østromerske keisere]] [[pl:Cesarze bizantyjscy]] [[pt:Lista de imperadores bizantinos]] [[ru:Византийские императоры]] [[sk:Zoznam vládcov Byzantskej ríše]] [[sr:Византијски цареви]] [[fi:Luettelo Bysantin keisareista]] [[sv:Bysantinska kejsare]] [[zh:拜占庭皇帝列表]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>British nationality law</title> <id>4017</id> <revision> <id>41783753</id> <timestamp>2006-03-01T18:51:49Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>EdC</username> <id>892739</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>/* Classes of British nationality */ link [[stateless person]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">: ''This article is for information only and is not a substitute for legal advice tailored to your personal circumstances. Readers who require advice on UK nationality or immigration law should contact a [[solicitor]] or an adviser registered with the [http://www.oisc.gov.uk Office of the Immigration Services Commissioner].'' ---- [[image:Flag of the United Kingdom.svg|right|200px]] [[image:UK_Royal_Coat_of_Arms.png|right|200px]] The '''United Kingdom''' has arguably the world's most complex '''nationality laws''', because of its former status as an [[imperialism|imperial]] power. ==History== ''Main article: [[History of British nationality law]]'' [[English law]] and [[Scots law]] has always distinguished between the Monarch's subjects and aliens. Until [[1914]] British nationality law was largely uncodified. The British Nationality and Status of Aliens Act 1914 codified existing common law and statute, with a few minor changes. With the development of the modern [[Commonwealth of Nations]] in the [[20th century]], the single Imperial status of [[British subject]] was increasingly inadequate to deal with the realities of a Commonwealth with independent member states. In [[1948]], the Commonwealth [[head of government|Heads of Government]] agreed that each member would adopt a national citizenship, but that the existing status of British subject would continue to be a common status held by all [[Commonwealth citizen]]s. The British Nationality Act 1948 established the status of ''Citizen of the United Kingdom and Colonies'' (CUKC), the national citizenship of the United Kingdom and those places that were still British [[crown colony|colonies]] on [[1 January]] [[1949]], when the 1948 Act came into force. However, until the early [[1960s]] there was little difference, if any, in United Kingdom law between the rights of CUKCs and other British subjects, all of whom had the right at any time to enter and live in the United Kingdom. Between [[1962]] and [[1971]], as a result of fears about increasing immigration by Commonwealth citizens from [[Asia]] and [[Africa]], the United Kingdom gradually tightened controls on immigration by British subjects from other parts of the Commonwealth. The Immigration Act 1971 introduced the concept of ''patriality'', by which only British subjects with sufficiently strong links to the United Kingdom and Islands (i.e. the United Kingdom, the [[Channel Islands]] and the [[Isle of Man]]) had ''right of abode'', the right to live and work in the United Kingdom and Islands. Although there have been several amendments to the 1981 Act in the intervening years, the principal British nationality law today is the British Nationality Act [[1981]], which established the current system of multiple categories of British nationality, viz. ''British citizens'', ''British Overseas Territories citizens'', ''British Overseas citizens'', ''British Nationals (Overseas)'', ''British subjects'' and ''British protected persons''. Only British citizenship includes the automatic right of abode in the United Kingdom. The 1981 Act also ceased to recognise Commonwealth citizens as British subjects. There remain only two categories of people who are still British subjects: some people (formerly known as British subjects without citizenship) who originally acquired British nationality through a connection with former British India, and also a number of people connected with the south of Ireland before 1949 who have made a declaration to retain British nationality. Those British subjects connected with former British India *lose* British nationality if they acquire any other. ==Classes of British nationality== There are currently several classes of British national: * British citizens :British Citizens usually hold this status through a connection with the United Kingdom, Channel Islands and Isle of Man (&quot;United Kingdom and Islands&quot;). Former Citizens of the United Kingdom and Colonies (CUKCs) who possessed right of abode under the Immigration Act 1971 through a connection with the United Kingdom and Islands generally became British citizens on [[1 January]] [[1983]]. :British citizenship is the most common type of British nationality, and the only one that automatically carries a right of abode in the United Kingdom. * [[British Overseas Territories citizen]]s (formerly British Dependent Territories citizenship) (BOTC) :BOTC (formerly BDTC) is the form of British nationality held by connection with an existing [[crown colony|overseas te
/www.arkhamhouse.com '''Arkham House'''] *''Out Of Space And Time'' (out of print) *''Lost Worlds'' (o.o.p.) *''Genius Loci and Other Tales'' (o.o.p.) *''The Dark Chateau'' (o.o.p.) *''Spells and Philtres'' (o.o.p.) *''The Abominations Of Yondo'' (o.o.p.) *''Tales Of Science And Sorcery'' (o.o.p.) *''Poems In Prose'' (o.o.p.) *''Other Dimensions'' (o.o.p.) *''Selected Poems'' (o.o.p.) *''The Black Book of Clark Ashton Smith'' (o.o.p.) *''A Rendezvous in Averoigne'' *''Selected Letters of Clark Ashton Smith'' [[Ballantine Adult Fantasy series]] *''Zothique'' (o.o.p.) *''Hyperborea'' (o.o.p.) *''Xiccarph'' (o.o.p.) *''Poseidonis'' (o.o.p.) *''Averoigne'' (reportedly compiled by series editor [[Lin Carter]], but never released) [http://www.orionbooks.co.uk/ '''Millennium Fantasy Masterworks'''] *''The Emperor of Dreams'' [http://www.wildsidepress.com '''Wildside Press'''] *''The Double Shadow'' *''The Maker of Gargoyles and Other Stories'' &lt;u&gt;'''Spearman'''&lt;/u&gt; *''Lost Worlds'' hardcover 1971 ISBN 0854351116 &lt;br&gt; &lt;u&gt;'''Panther''' (reprinted from Arkham House)&lt;/u&gt; *''Lost Worlds'' (published in 2 volumes, o.o.p.) *''Genius Loci'' (o.o.p.) *''The Abominations Of Yondo (o.o.p.) *''Other Dimensions'' (published in 2 volumes, o.o.p.) *''Out Of Space And Time'' (published in 2 volumes, o.o.p.) *''Tales Of Science And Sorcery'' (o.o.p.) [[Timescape Books]] *''The Last Incantation'' (o.o.p.) ==Journals of Smith Studies== [http://www.necropress.com '''Necronomicon Press'''] *''[[The Dark Eidolon: The Journal of Smith Studies]]'' [http://www.seele-brennt.com '''Seele Brennt Publications'''] *''[[Lost Worlds: The Journal of Clark Ashton Smith Studies]]'' ==External links== *[http://www.eldritchdark.com The Eldritch Dark] &amp;mdash; This website contains almost all of Clark Ashton Smith's written work, as well as a comprehensive selection of his art, biographies, a bibliography, a discussion board, readings, fiction tributes and more. *[http://lovecraft.cjb.net &quot;The Ultimate Cthulhu Mythos Book List&quot;] &amp;mdash; Listing of all [[Cthulhu Mythos|Mythos]] novels, anthologies, collections, comic books, and more. *[http://www.klarkash-ton.org Klarkash-ton.org] &amp;mdash; French bibliography of Clark Ashton Smith. * {{isfdb name|id=Clark_Ashton_Smith|name=Clark Ashton Smith}} *[http://www.realityends.com/author/clark-ashton-smith.html Clark Ashton Smith] pages at [http://www.realityends.com RealityEnds] [[Category:1893 births|Smith, Clark Ashton]] [[Category:1961 deaths|Smith, Clark Ashton]] [[Category:American fantasy writers|Smith, Clark Ashton]] [[Category:American poets|Smith, Clark Ashton]] [[Category:California writers|Smith, Clark Ashton]] [[Category:American horror writers|Smith, Clark Ashton]] [[Category:American science fiction writers|Smith, Clark Ashton]] [[de:Clark Ashton Smith]] [[fi:Clark Ashton Smith]] [[sv:Clark Ashton Smith]] [[fr:Clark Ashton Smith]] [[es:Clark Ashton Smith]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Context-sensitive grammar</title> <id>6211</id> <revision> <id>41348635</id> <timestamp>2006-02-26T19:37:37Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Babajobu</username> <id>125012</id> </contributor> <comment>rmv blank lines using [[Wikipedia:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">A '''context-sensitive grammar''' is a [[formal grammar]] ''G'' = (''N'', &amp;Sigma;, ''P'', ''S'') such that all rules in ''P'' are of the form : &amp;alpha;''A''&amp;beta; &amp;rarr; &amp;alpha;&amp;gamma;&amp;beta; with ''A'' in ''N'' (i.e., ''A'' is single [[nonterminal]]) and &amp;alpha; and &amp;beta; in (''N'' U &amp;Sigma;)* (i.e., &amp;alpha; and &amp;beta; strings of nonterminals and [[Terminal symbol|terminal]]s) and &amp;gamma; in (''N'' U &amp;Sigma;)&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt; (i.e., &amp;gamma; a nonempty string of nonterminals and terminals), plus that a rule of the form : S &amp;rarr; &amp;epsilon; with &amp;epsilon; the empty string, is allowed if S does not appear on the right side of any rule. The name ''context-sensitive'' is explained by the &amp;alpha; and &amp;beta; that form the context of ''A'' and determine whether ''A'' can be replaced with &amp;gamma; or not. This is different from a [[context-free grammar]] where the context of a nonterminal is not taken into consideration. A [[formal language]] that can be described by a context-sensitive grammar is called a [[context-sensitive language]]. The concept of context-sensitive grammar was introduced by [[Noam Chomsky]] in the [[1950s]] as a way to describe the syntax of natural language where it is indeed often the case that a word may or may not be appropriate in a certain place depending upon the context. === Alternative definition === Another definition of context-sensitive grammars defines them as formal grammars with the restriction that for all rules &amp;alpha;&amp;nbsp;-&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;beta; in ''P'' it holds that |&amp;nbsp;&amp;alpha;&amp;nbsp;|&amp;nbsp;&amp;le;&amp;nbsp;|&amp;nbsp;&amp;beta;&amp;nbsp;| where |&amp;nbsp;&amp;alpha;&amp;nbsp;| is the length of &amp;alpha;. Such a grammar is also called a ''monotonic'' or ''noncontracting grammar'' because none of the rules decreases the size of the string that is being rewritten. While the noncontracting grammars are different from the context-sensitive ones, the two are ''almost'' equivalent in the sense that they define the same class of languages (except that noncontracting grammars cannot generate any language that contains the empty string &amp;epsilon;). But if a formal language ''L'' can be described by a grammar of the first definition then there is a noncontracting grammar that describes ''L''&amp;nbsp;-&amp;nbsp;{&amp;epsilon;}, and vice versa. === Example === A simple monotonic grammar is :S &amp;rarr; abc | aSBc :cB &amp;rarr; Bc :bB &amp;rarr; bb where | is used to separate different options for the same non-terminal. This grammar generates the language &lt;math&gt; \{ a^n b^n c^n : n \ge 1 \} &lt;/math&gt;, which is not [[context-free language|context-free]]. Context-sensitive grammars can match an unlimited number of symbols to their partners, unlike context-free grammars, which can only match one symbol to its partner, so there is also a context-sensitive grammar for the language &lt;math&gt; \{ a^n b^n c^n d^n : n \ge 1 \} &lt;/math&gt;, but it's much more complex than the grammar above. === Normal forms === === Computational properties === The [[decision problem]] that asks whether a certain string ''s'' belongs to the language of a certain context-sensitive grammar ''G'', is [[PSPACE-complete]]. Indeed, there are even some context-sensitive grammars whose fixed grammar recognition problem is PSPACE-complete. '''See also:''' [[Chomsky hierarchy]] {{Formal languages and grammars}} [[Category:Formal languages]] [[cs:Kontextová gramatika]] [[ja:文脈依存文法]] [[sk:Kontextovo citlivá gramatika]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Context-sensitive language</title> <id>6212</id> <revision> <id>30160904</id> <timestamp>2005-12-04T23:21:34Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>DanielCohen</username> <id>61283</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>rv vandalism by 24.214.126.196</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">A '''context-sensitive language''' is a [[formal language]] that can be defined by a [[context-sensitive grammar]]. That is one of the four types of grammars in the [[Chomsky hierarchy]]. Of the four, this is the least often used, in both theory and practice. === Computational properties === Computationally the context-sensitive languages are equivalent with linear bounded non-deterministic [[Turing machine|Turing machines]]. That is a non-deterministic Turing machine with a tape of only ''kn'' cells, where ''n'' is the size of the input and ''k'' is a constant associated with the machine. This means that every formal language that can be decided by such a machine is a context-sensitive language, and every context-sensitive language can be decided by such a machine. This set of languages is also known as '''NLIN-SPACE''', because they can be accepted using linear space on a non-deterministic Turing machine. The class '''LIN-SPACE''' is defined the same, except using a deterministic Turing machine. Clearly '''LIN-SPACE''' is a subset of '''NLIN-SPACE''', but it is not known whether '''LIN-SPACE'''='''NLIN-SPACE'''. It is widely suspected they are not equal. === Examples === An example of a context-sensitive language that is not context-free is ''L'' = { ''a''&lt;sup&gt;''p''&lt;/sup&gt; : ''p'' is a [[prime number]] }. The easiest way to show this is using a linear bounded Turing machine. === Properties of context-sensitive languages === * The union, intersection, and concatenation of two context-sensitive languages is context-sensitive. * The complement of a context-sensitive language is itself context-sensitive. * Every [[context-free grammar|context-free]] language is context-sensitive. ---- '''See also:''' [[Chomsky hierarchy]] {{Formal languages and grammars}} [[Category:Formal languages]] [[cs:Kontextový jazyk]] [[de:Kontextsensitive Sprache]] [[ja:文脈依存言語]] [[pl:Język kontekstowy]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Cruithne</title> <id>6213</id> <revision> <id>21307387</id> <timestamp>2005-08-18T18:41:59Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Mooquackwooftweetmeow</username> <id>51996</id> </contributor> <minor /> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Cruithne''' can mean: *The [[asteroid]] [[3753 Cruithne]], notable for its peculiar [[orbit]]al relationship with [[Earth]] *[[Cruithne (people)|Cruithne]], the ancient [[Brythonic]] tribe sometimes identified with the [[Picts]] {{disambig}}</text> </revision> </page> <page>
games in which the player has full control over the airship and can fly throughout the world, the game map wraps both horizontally and vertically, implying that the planet is [[toroid|toroidal]]. * '''[[Final Fantasy character classes|Character classes]] and the Job system''' &amp;mdash; Playable character classes have included the [[Warrior (character class)|Fighter]]; [[White Mage|White]], [[Black Mage|Black]], [[Red Mage|Red]], and [[Blue Mage]]s; [[Monk (character class)|Monk]]; and [[Thief (character class)|Thief]]. Even in games where the player is not given the choice of choosing class alignment, these classes often play an important background role in the story. Additionally, several installments in the series (''[[Final Fantasy III]]'', ''[[Final Fantasy V]]'', ''[[Final Fantasy XI]]'' and ''[[Final Fantasy Tactics]]'') have utilized a &quot;Job&quot; system wherein the player is able to switch character classes in between battles. In ''[[Final Fantasy X-2]]'', the &quot;Dressphere&quot; system actually allowed a player to switch a character's job during the middle of a fight. In addition to this, certain recurring legendary weapons and spells may be granted to certain classes, such as the sword [[Masamune (video game weapon)|Masamune]] for the Ninja, or the Black Mage's ''[[Final Fantasy magic#Ultima|Ultima]]'' spell. * '''Magical styles''' (see also [[Final Fantasy magic]]) &amp;mdash; Magic in the ''Final Fantasy'' series is generally divided into different schools, which are usually named after a specific color. ''[[Magic (paranormal)|White magic]]'' and ''[[Black magic]]'' represent healing/support and attack magic, respectively, while ''Red magic'' incorporates elements of both healing and attack magic, at reduced effectiveness. Later additions have included ''Blue magic'' (sometimes referred to as ''Lore'' or ''Enemy skill''), which incorporates specific special attacks learned from monsters, and ''Time/Space magic'', which includes status affecting spells such as ''Haste'' and gravity spells such as ''Demi''. The most recent magic set is called ''Green Magic'', first appearing as Songs in ''Final Fantasy X-2'', then as a fully separate magic type in demos of ''[[Final Fantasy XII]]''. ''Green Magic'' introduces skills which were previously classified as ''Black'' or ''White magic'', such as ''Darkness'' and ''Petrification''. * '''[[Status effects|Status ailments]] and cures:''' Characters in ''Final Fantasy'' games are usually subject to a number of standard &quot;status ailments&quot; which cause deleterious effects, including silence, poison, petrification and confusion. While these are present in many console RPGs, ''Final Fantasy'' also has a standard list of items which may be used to cure specific ailments (for example, the &quot;Echo Screen&quot; cures silence, and &quot;Soft&quot; cures petrification), as well as magical spells, such as ''Esuna'' or ''Panacea''. * '''Creatures/monsters''' &amp;mdash; Fictional creatures such as ''[[Chocobo]]s'' and ''[[Moogle]]s'' have appeared in most games in the series. Certain monsters also reappear frequently, including ''Goblins'', ''[[Tonberry]]s'' and ''[[Cactuar]]s''. Lastly, [[summon magic (Final Fantasy)|summoned monsters]] (also known as Espers, Guardian Forces, Eidolons, Avatars or Aeons) such as [[Bahamut (fiction)|Bahamut]], [[Shiva]], [[Ifrit#Ifrit in Square Enix projects|Ifrit]], and [[Leviathan]] have appeared in almost every title in the series. * '''Character names''' &amp;mdash; A character named &quot;[[Cid (Final Fantasy)|Cid]]&quot; has been present in every ''Final Fantasy'' game since ''Final Fantasy II'' (with a simple mention in ''[[Final Fantasy Origins]]'' and ''[[Final Fantasy I &amp; II: Dawn of Souls]]''). Although he is never the same individual, he is usually presented as an owner, creator, and/or pilot of '''airships'''. The motion picture ''[[Final Fantasy: The Spirits Within]]'' also featured a character named &quot;Sid,&quot; presumably an alternate spelling of the more traditional &quot;Cid.&quot; In a similar vein, characters named [[Biggs and Wedge]] (homages to the ''[[Star Wars]]'' characters [[List of minor Rebel characters in Star Wars#Darklighter, Biggs|Biggs Darklighter]] and [[Wedge Antilles]]) have appeared in ''[[Final Fantasy VI]]'' to ''Final Fantasy X-2''. Other repeated names include Gogo (''Final Fantasy V'' and ''Final Fantasy VI''), Gilgamesh (''Final Fantasy V'', ''Final Fantasy VIII'', ''Final Fantasy IX'', and ''Final Fantasy XI''), Lonewolf the Pickpocket (''Final Fantasy V'' and ''Final Fantasy VI''), and Sara (''[[Final Fantasy (video game)|Final Fantasy]]'', ''Final Fantasy III'', ''Final Fantasy V'', and ''Final Fantasy IX''). The surname Highwind has also been used by several characters in the series: [[List of Final Fantasy II characters#Ricard Highwind|Ricard Highwind]] (''[[Final Fantasy II]]''), [[Kain Highwind]] (''Final Fantasy IV''), King Alexander Highwind Tycoon (''Final Fantasy V''), and [[Cid Highwind]] (''[[Final Fantasy VII]]''). Highwind also appears as the name of the gummi ship in the ''Final Fantasy''-[[The Walt Disney Company|Disney]] crossover game ''[[Kingdom Hearts]]''. * '''Plot elements''' &amp;mdash; Many entries in the ''Final Fantasy'' series involve broadly similar plot points, such as rebellion against a major economic, political, or religious power, a struggle against an evil which threatens to overtake or destroy the world, or nature versus technology. One of the most famous of such recurring themes involves [[Classical element|elemental]] crystals, which have appeared in over half of the titles of the series (''Final Fantasy'', ''Final Fantasy III'', ''Final Fantasy IV'', ''Final Fantasy V'', ''Final Fantasy IX'', and ''Final Fantasy XI''), as well as in several spin-off titles (''Final Fantasy Mystic Quest'', ''Final Fantasy Tactics Advance'' and ''Final Fantasy Crystal Chronicles''). == Design == :''See also: [[List of Final Fantasy designers]]'' [[Image:Ff6 magitek.jpg|thumb|right|[[Yoshitaka Amano]] designed the characters for the first six ''Final Fantasy'' games, as well as providing some [[Conceptual art|conceptual artwork]] for ''Final Fantasy VII'' and ''Final Fantasy IX''.]] Artistic design, including character and monster design work, was handled by renowned Japanese artist [[Yoshitaka Amano]] from ''Final Fantasy'' through ''Final Fantasy VI''. Following Amano's departure, he was replaced with [[Tetsuya Nomura]], who continued to work with the series through ''[[Final Fantasy X]]'', with the exception of ''Final Fantasy IX'', where character design was handled by Shukou Murase, Toshiyuki Itahana and Shin Nagasawa. [[Akihiko Yoshida]], who served as character designer for the spinoff title ''Final Fantasy Tactics'', as well as the Square-produced ''[[Vagrant Story]]'', has been announced as the designer of the upcoming ''[[Final Fantasy XII]]''. In October 2003, [[Kazushige Nojima]], the series' principle scenario writer, resigned from Square Enix to form his own company, [[Stellavista]]. He partially or completely wrote the stories for ''[[Final Fantasy VII]]'', ''[[Final Fantasy VIII]]'', ''Final Fantasy IX'', ''Final Fantasy X'', and ''Final Fantasy X-2''. Square Enix continues to [[outsourcing|outsource]] story and scenario work to Nojima and Stellavista. == Music == :''Main article: [[Final Fantasy music]]'' [[Image:Black Mages Above The Sky AfterShow.jpg|thumb|left|256px|[[Nobuo Uematsu]] (middle) and [[The Black Mages]], a [[hard rock]] band that has released two albums of [[arrangement|arranged]] ''Final Fantasy'' music.]] [[Nobuo Uematsu]] was the chief [[composer|music composer]] of the Final Fantasy series until his resignation from Square Enix in November 2004. His music has played a large part in the popularity of the ''Final Fantasy'' franchise abroad. In the [[2004 Summer Olympics]], the American [[synchronized swimming]] duo consisting of Alison Bartosik and Anna Kozlova were awarded the bronze medal for their performance to music from ''Final Fantasy VIII''. Uematsu is also involved with the rock group [[The Black Mages]], which has released two albums of [[arrangement|arranged]] ''Final Fantasy'' tunes. Other composers who have contributed to the series include [[Masashi Hamauzu]] and [[Junya Nakano]]. There have already been two successful runs of Final Fantasy concerts in Japan as of 2004. ''Final Fantasy'' [[soundtrack]]s and [[sheet music]] are also increasingly popular amongst non-Japanese ''Final Fantasy'' fans and have even been performed by the [[London Symphony Orchestra]]. On [[November 17]], [[2003]], Square Enix U.S.A. launched an [[America Online]] radio station dedicated to music from the Final Fantasy series, initially carrying complete tracks from ''[[Final Fantasy XI]]'' in addition to [[Sampling (music)|samplings]] from ''Final Fantasy VII'' through ''Final Fantasy X''. Many video game and [[Musical Instrument Digital Interface|MIDI]] [[World Wide Web|world wide web]] sites offer renditions of ''Final Fantasy'' musical pieces. Due to overwhelming demand, and the overwhelming success of the first ''Final Fantasy'' concert performed by the [[Los Angeles Philharmonic|Los Angeles Philharmonic Orchestra]] at [[Walt Disney Concert Hall]] on [[May 10]], [[2004]], the [[Dear Friends: Music From Final Fantasy]] concert tour was established, starting February 2005. Music from Final Fantasy was first performed outside of Japan as a part of the [[Symphonic Game Music Concert]] series in [[Germany]]. The ''Final Fantasy'' soundtracks have also joined the catalogue of the [[iTunes Music Store]]. While the music in the games offers wide variety, there are some frequently reused themes. The games often open with a piece called ''Prelude'', which is actually based on one of [[Johann Sebastian Bach|Bach]]'s [[Prelude (music)|preludes]]. It is a simple [[Musical terminology#A|arpeggio]] theme in the early games, wit
of the Movement. Since 1984, the official name of the celebration day has been &quot;[[World Red Cross and Red Crescent Day]]&quot;. In Solferino, a small museum describes the history of the [[Battle of Solferino]] and of the [[Risorgimento]], the long and bloody Italian struggle for independence and unity. In the [[Ossario di Solferino]] (Solferino Ossuary) in close proximity to the museum, a moving display shows the horrors of war. Inside the chapel, 1,413 skulls and many more bones from thousands of French and Austrian troops who died during the battle are shown. Solferino is also host to the [[International Red Cross Memorial]] inaugurated in 1959 on the centennial of the Battle of Solferino. The memorial contains stone plaques identifying each recognized national society. In [[Castiglione delle Stiviere]], a small town near [[Solferino]], the [[International Museum of the Red Cross]] was also opened in 1959. Moreover, another museum, the [[International Red Cross and Red Crescent Museum]] stands in Geneva in close proximity to the headquarters of the ICRC. Finally, in the Swiss city of [[Heiden]], the [[Henry Dunant Museum]] was opened to preserve the memory and legacy of Dunant himself. ==See also== * [[Principles of Warfare]] * [[Prisoners of war]] * [[Laws of war]] ==References== ===Books=== * David P. Forsythe: ''Humanitarian Politics: The International Committee of the Red Cross.'' Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore 1978, ISBN 0-80-181983-0 * Henry Dunant: ''A Memory of Solferino.'' ICRC, Geneva 1986, ISBN 2-88-145006-7 * Hans Haug: ''Humanity for all: the International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement.'' Henry Dunant Institute, Geneva in association with Paul Haupt Publishers, Bern 1993, ISBN 3-25-804719-7 * Georges Willemin, Roger Heacock: ''International Organization and the Evolution of World Society. Volume 2: The International Committee of the Red Cross.'' Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, Boston 1984, ISBN 9-02-473064-3 * Pierre Boissier: ''History of the International Committee of the Red Cross. Volume I: From Solferino to Tsushima.'' Henry Dunant Institute, Geneva 1985, ISBN 2-88-044012-2 * André Durand: ''History of the International Committee of the Red Cross. Volume II: From Sarajevo to Hiroshima.'' Henry Dunant Institute, Geneva 1984, ISBN 2-88-044009-2 * International Committee of the Red Cross: ''Handbook of the International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement.'' 13th edition, ICRC, Geneva 1994, ISBN 2-88-145074-1 * John F. Hutchinson: ''Champions of Charity: War and the Rise of the Red Cross.'' Westview Press, Boulder 1997, ISBN 0-81-333367-9 * Caroline Moorehead: ''Dunant's dream: War, Switzerland and the history of the Red Cross.'' HarperCollins, London 1998, ISBN 0-00-255141-1 (Hardcover edition); HarperCollins, London 1999, ISBN 0-00-638883-3 (Paperback edition) * François Bugnion: ''The International Committee of the Red Cross and the protection of war victims.'' ICRC &amp; Macmillan (ref. 0503), Geneva 2003, ISBN 0-33-374771-2 * Angela Bennett: ''The Geneva Convention: The Hidden Origins of the Red Cross.'' Sutton Publishing, Gloucestershire 2005, ISBN 0-75-094147-2 * David P. Forsythe: ''The Humanitarians. The International Committee of the Red Cross.'' Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 2005, ISBN 0-52-161281-0 ===Articles=== * François Bugnion: ''The emblem of the Red Cross: a brief history.'' ICRC (ref. 0316), Geneva 1977 * Jean-Philippe Lavoyer, Louis Maresca: ''The Role of the ICRC in the Development of International Humanitarian Law.'' In: ''International Negotiation.'' 4(3)/1999. Brill Academic Publishers, p. 503-527, ISSN 1382-340X * Neville Wylie: ''The Sound of Silence: The History of the International Committee of the Red Cross as Past and Present.'' In: ''Diplomacy and Statecraft.'' 13(4)/2002. Routledge/ Taylor &amp; Francis, p. 186-204, ISSN 0959-2296 * David P. Forsythe: &quot;The International Committee of the Red Cross and International Humanitarian Law.&quot; In: ''Humanitäres Völkerrecht - Informationsschriften. The Journal of International Law of Peace and Armed Conflict.'' 2/2003, German Red Cross and Institute for International Law of Peace and Armed Conflict, p. 64-77, ISSN 0937-5414 * François Bugnion: ''Towards a comprehensive Solution to the Question of the Emblem.'' Revised third edition. ICRC (ref. 0778), Geneva 2005 ==External links== {{commons|International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement}} * [http://www.redcross.int International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement] * [http://www.icrc.org International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC)] * [http://www.ifrc.org International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies (IFRC)] {{start box}} {{succession box | before = [[Linus Pauling]] | title = [[List of Nobel laureates#Peace|Nobel Peace Prize]] | years =1963 | after = [[Martin Luther King, Jr.]]}} {{end box}} [[Category:Disaster preparation]] [[Category:Lists of organizations]] [[Category:Red Cross]] [[Category:1864 establishments]] [[ca:Creu Roja]] [[cs:Červený kříž]] [[de:Internationale Rotkreuz- und Rothalbmond-Bewegung]]{{Link FA|de}} [[es:Cruz Roja]] [[eo:Ruĝa Kruco]] [[eu:Gurutze Gorria]] [[fa:صلیب سرخ]] [[fr:Mouvement international de la Croix-Rouge et du Croissant-Rouge]] [[gl:Cruz Vermella]] [[id:Gerakan Internasional Palang Merah dan Bulan Sabit Merah]] [[it:Croce Rossa e Mezzaluna Rossa Internazionale]] [[he:הצלב האדום]] [[lt:Raudonasis kryžius]] [[nl:Rode Kruis]] [[ja:赤十字社]] [[no:Røde Kors]] [[pl:Czerwony Krzyż]] [[pt:Cruz vermelha]] [[ru:Красный крест]] [[sl:Rdeči križ]] [[sk:Červený kríž]] [[fi:Punainen risti]] [[sv:Röda Korset]] [[th:กาชาด]] [[vi:Phong trào Chữ thập đỏ - Trăng lưỡi liềm đỏ quốc tế]] [[zh:红十字会]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies</title> <id>15488</id> <revision> <id>23380895</id> <timestamp>2005-09-17T04:29:48Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Tfine80</username> <id>307834</id> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Ira Gershwin</title> <id>15489</id> <revision> <id>40916681</id> <timestamp>2006-02-23T21:44:29Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Jeff3000</username> <id>170884</id> </contributor> <comment>[[WP:AWB|AWB assisted]] migrate {{[[template:book reference|book reference]]}} to {{[[template:cite book|cite book]]}}</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{cleanup-date|July 2005}} &lt;!-- Unsourced image removed: [[image:gershwin2.jpg|right|thumb|175px|George (left) and Ira Gershwin]] --&gt; '''Ira Gershwin''' ([[6 December]] [[1896]] &amp;ndash; [[17 August]] [[1983]]) was an [[United States|American]] [[lyricist]] who collaborated with his younger brother, [[composer]] [[George Gershwin]], to create some of the most memorable songs of the 20th century. With George he wrote more than a dozen Broadway shows, featuring songs such as &quot;I Got Rhythm,&quot; &quot;Embraceable You,&quot; &quot;The Man I Love&quot; and &quot;Someone to Watch Over Me&quot;, and the opera ''[[Porgy and Bess]]''. The success the brothers had with their collaborative works has often overshadowed the creative role that Ira played. However, his mastery of songwriting continued even after the early death of George, and he wrote further hit songs with composers [[Jerome Kern]] (&quot;Long Ago (And Far Away)&quot;, [[Kurt Weill]] and [[Harold Arlen]]. His critically-acclaimed book ''Lyrics on Several Occasions'' of [[1959]], an amalgam of autobiography and annotated anthology, is an important source for studying the art of the lyricist in the golden age of American popular song. ==Biography== '''Ira Gershwin''' (born '''Israel Gershowitz''') was reportedly very shy as a young boy and spent most of his time at home reading. However, from [[Grammar school|grammar school]] through college he played a prominent part in several school newspapers and magazines. While his younger brother began composing and “plugging” in [[Tin Pan Alley]] from the age of sixteen, Ira worked as a cashier in his father’s [[Turkish bath]]s- still unsure of his calling. But in [[1921]] he found it. [[Alex Aarons]] signed Ira to write the music for his next show, ''[[Two Little Girls in Blue]]'', with [[Vincent Youmans]]. His lyrics were well received and allowed him to successfully enter the theatre world with just one show. It wasn’t until [[1924]] that Ira and George teamed up to write the music for their first [[Broadway theatre|Broadway]] hit, ''[[Lady Be Good|Lady, Be Good!]]'' Once the brothers joined together, their talents exploded into what would become one of the most influential forces in the history of [[American Musical Theatre]]. Together, Ira and George wrote the music for over twelve shows and four films. Some of their more famous works include “[[The Man I Love]]”, “[[Fascinating Rhythm]]”, “[[Someone to Watch Over Me]]”, “[[I Got Rhythm]]” “[[Summertime (song)|Summertime]]” and “[[They Can't Take That Away from Me]]”. Their partnership continued up until George’s sudden and tragic death in [[1937]]. Following his brother’s death, Ira waited nearly three years before writing again. After this interlude, he teamed up with such accomplished composers as [[Jerome Kern]], [[Kurt Weill]], and [[Harold Arlen]]. Over the next fourteen years, Ira continued to write the lyrics for many film scores and a few Broadway shows. Ira died on [[August 15]], [[1983]], and is now interred in the [[Westchester Hills Cemetery]], [[Hastings-on-Hudson, New York]]. Together, the Gershwin siblings left behind a legacy that would help shape American Musical Theatre. Solely, Ira played a huge part in bringing about a new type of song lyric: a smart, witty style that even the common man could relate to and enjoy. ==Comm
ile this ensures him the religious vote, strongest in Bavaria, it has weakened his support at the national level. Stoiber, as a minister in the very conservative state of Bavaria, is widely known for advocating a reduction in the number of [[asylum seekers]] Germany accepts, something that prompted critics to label him [[xenophobic]]. In the late [[1990s]] he critized the incoming Federal Chancellor (Bundeskanzler) [[Gerhard Schröder]] for saying that he would work hard in the interest of Germans ''and'' people living in Germany; Stoiber took issue with the fact that Schröder pledged to work on behalf of non-citizens. Stoiber's remarks drew heavy criticism in the press. During the run-up to the German [[German federal election, 2005|general election]] in [[2005]], which was held ahead of schedule, Stoiber created controversy through a campaign speech held in the beginning of August 2005 in the federal state of [[Baden-Württemberg]]. He said, &quot;I do not accept that the East will again decide who will be Germany's chancellor. It cannot be allowed that the frustrated determine Germany's fate.&quot; People in the new federal states of Germany (the former [[German Democratic Republic]]) were offended by Stoiber's remarks. While the CSU attempted to portray them as &quot;misinterpreted&quot;, Stoiber created further controversy when he claimed that &quot;if it was like Bavaria everywhere, there wouldn't be any problems. Unfortunately, not everyone in Germany is as intelligent as in Bavaria.&quot; The tone of the comments was exacerbated by a perception by some within Germany of the state of Bavaria as &quot;arrogant&quot;. Many, including members of the CDU, attribute Stoiber's comments and behavior as a contributing factor to the CDU's losses in the 2005 general election. He was accused by many in the CDU/CSU of offering &quot;half-hearted&quot; support to Angela Merkel, with some even accusing him of being reluctant to support a female candidate from the East. (This also contrasted unfavorably with Merkel's robust support for his candidacy in the [[German federal election, 2002|2002 election]].) He has insinuated that votes were lost because of the choice of a female candidate. He came under heavy fire for these comments from press and politicians alike, especially since he himself lost almost 10% of the Bavarian vote - a dubious feat in itself as Bavarians tend to consistently vote conservatively. Nonetheless, a poll has suggested over 9% may have voted differently if the conservative candidate was a man from the West, although this does not clearly show if such a candidate would have gained or lost votes for the conservatives. == See also == *[[List of Minister-Presidents of Bavaria]] == External links== *[http://www.stoiber.de Official Homepage (German)] *[http://de.wikiquote.org/wiki/Edmund_Stoiber Wikiquotes of Edmund Stoiber (in German)] *[http://www.gavagai.de/zitat/politik/HHC53.htm Stoiber quotes (in German)] *[http://www.dw-world.de/dw/article/0,1564,1676848,00.html Stoiber and the East] - Deutsche Welle [[Category:1941 births|Stoiber, Edmund]] [[Category:Living people|Stoiber, Edmund]] [[Category:Minister-Presidents of Bavaria|Stoiber, Edmund]] [[Category:Members of the National Order of Quebec|Stoiber, Edmund]] [[Category:Leaders of political parties|Stoiber, Edmund]] [[Category:Roman Catholics|Stoiber, Edmund]] [[bg:Едмунд Щойбер]] [[da:Edmund Stoiber]] [[de:Edmund Stoiber]] [[es:Edmund Stoiber]] [[fr:Edmund Stoiber]] [[la:Edmundus Stoiber]] [[nl:Edmund Stoiber]] [[no:Edmund Stoiber]] [[pl:Edmund Stoiber]] [[pt:Edmund Stoiber]] [[ro:Edmund Stoiber]] [[ru:Штойбер, Эдмунд]] [[sv:Edmund Stoiber]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Erfurt</title> <id>9481</id> <revision> <id>39459933</id> <timestamp>2006-02-13T06:58:24Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>SashatoBot</username> <id>743015</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>robot Adding: hr</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Town DE| name = Erfurt| name_local = | image_coa = Wappen_Erfurt.png| image_map = Erfurt-Position.png| state = [[Thuringia]]| regbzk = | district = [[List of German urban districts|urban district]]| population = 202,590| population_as_of = 2005| population_ref = [http://www.tls.thueringen.de/seite.asp source]| pop_dens = 753| area = 269.17| elevation = 158-430| lat_deg = 50| lat_min = 59| lat_hem = N| lon_deg = 11| lon_min = 2| lon_hem = E| postal_code = 99001-99198| area_code = 0361| licence = EF| mayor = Manfred Otto Ruge ([[CDU]])| website = [http://www.erfurt.de/ erfurt.de]| }} [[Image:Dom und Severikirche in Erfurt.JPG|thumb|250px|Mariendom and the Severikirche]] '''Erfurt''' {{IPA|[&amp;#x02c8;&amp;#x025b;rf&amp;#x028a;rt]}} is a city in central [[Germany]]. It is the capital of the state of [[Thuringia]], a manufacturing centre with a population of 196,500. Erfurt was first mentioned in [[742]] under the name of &quot;Erphesfurt&quot;. It was an important trading town during the [[Middle Ages]] near a [[ford (river)|ford]] in the Gera river. Together with the other five Thuringian [[woad]]-towns of [[Gotha (town)|Gotha]], [[Tennstedt]], [[Arnstadt]] and [[Langensalza]] it was the centre of the German woad trade. In [[1392]] [[Erfurt University]] was founded, which was famous at its time but became defunct in [[1816]]. In [[1803]] Erfurt became a part of [[Prussia]]. Although enclosed by Thuringian territory, the city remained Prussian until [[1945]]. After [[German reunification]] Erfurt became the capital of the reestablished [[States of Germany|state]] of [[Thuringia]]. In contrast to most other major German cities, Erfurt suffered only limited damage from allied air raids during [[World War II]]. Except some damage resulting from socialist architecture, Erfurt thus has an intact medieval city center. The emblem of Erfurt is the two churches, the '''Mariendom''' and the '''Severikirche''', which stand directly side by side. Both churches tower above the townscape and are accessible via huge open stairs. Another remarkable site is the '''Krämerbrücke''', a [[bridge]] crossing the narrow Gera River. The bridge is covered with inhabited buildings. It was built in [[1325]] with a [[church]] on either [[bridgehead]] - one of these churches still exists. [[Martin Luther]] attended the University of Erfurt and received his bachelor's and master's degrees there. The '''Augustinerkloster''' is an ancient [[Augustinians|Augustinian]] monastery. [[Martin Luther]] lived there as a monk from [[1505]]-[[1511|11]]. Erfurt is the birthplace of one of [[Johann Sebastian Bach|J.S. Bach]]'s cousins, [[Johann Bernhard Bach]] ([[1676]]-[[1749]]), J.S Bach's father [[Johann Ambrosius Bach]] ([[1645]] - [[1695]]), [[Meister Eckhart]] and also [[sociology|sociologist]], [[Max Weber]] ([[1864]]-[[1920]]). On [[April 26]], [[2002]] the student Robert Steinhäuser killed 13 teachers, 2 students, a policeman and himself at the Gutenberg-[[Gymnasium (school)|Gymnasium]] school, see [[Erfurt massacre]]. [[Erfurt Airport]] can be reached by plane via [[Munich]]. == External links== {{Commons|Erfurt}} *[http://www.erfurt.de/ Official website] (German, English, French) * [http://www.panorama-cities.net/erfurt/erfurt.html Erfurt City Panoramas] - Panoramic Views and virtual Tours *[http://www.kraemerbruecke.de/ Kraemerbruecke] *[http://www.cityofshawnee.org/cityclerk/SisterCities/sister.htm Sister City (since 1993)] with [[Shawnee, Kansas]] [[Category:Erfurt|*]] [[bg:Ерфурт]] [[da:Erfurt]] [[de:Erfurt]] [[es:Érfurt]] [[eo:Erfurto]] [[fr:Erfurt]] [[ko:에르푸르트]] [[hr:Erfurt]] [[id:Erfurt]] [[it:Erfurt]] [[he:ארפורט]] [[la:Erfurtum]] [[lt:Erfurtas]] [[hu:Erfurt]] [[nl:Erfurt]] [[nds:Erfurt]] [[ja:エアフルト]] [[no:Erfurt]] [[pl:Erfurt]] [[pt:Erfurt]] [[ru:Эрфурт]] [[simple:Erfurt]] [[sr:Ерфурт]] [[fi:Erfurt]] [[sv:Erfurt]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Enya</title> <id>9482</id> <revision> <id>42062664</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T15:27:06Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Azertus</username> <id>149992</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>/* External links */ rm dupe</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Band | band_name = Enya | image = [[Image:Enyapose.jpg|200px|Eithne Ní Bhraonáin]] | caption = Enya, 2002 | years_active = 1980&amp;ndash;present | origin = [[Gweedore]], [[Republic of Ireland|Ireland]] | music_genre = [[New Age Music]], [[Instrumental]], [[Soundtrack]] | record_label = [[Warner Music]] }} '''Enya''' (born [[May 17]] [[1961]]), birth name '''Eithne Ní Bhraonáin''' (sometimes presented in the media as the [[Anglicisation|Anglicized]] '''Enya Brennan'''), is [[Ireland]]'s best-selling solo [[musician]]. As a musical group, ''Enya'' is really three people: Enya herself, who composes and performs the music; [[Nicky Ryan]], who produces the albums; and [[Roma Ryan]], who writes the [[lyrics]] in various [[language]]s. ''Enya'' is a [[phonetic]] approximation of how ''Eithne'' is pronounced in her native [[Irish language|Irish]]. Enya is one of the biggest selling female artists in history, and was the world's biggest selling female artist of 2001 and 2002. ==Biography== ===Musical upbringing=== [[Image:Clannad4.jpg|right|thumb|230px| Detail from Clannad's album ''Crann Úll''.]] Eithne was born in [[Gweedore]], [[County Donegal]], in [[Republic of Ireland|Ireland]] in 1961 to a musical family, the fourth youngest of nine children. Her grandparents were in a band that played throughout Ireland; her father was the leader of the [[Slieve Foy Band]] before opening a pub; and her mother played in a dance band and later taught music at the Gweedore Comprehensive School. Eithne has four brothers and four sisters, several of whom formed the band [[An Clann As Dobhair]] in [[1968 in music|1968]]. (They renamed the band [[Clannad]] in the
of the British film industry's rising stars. In 1926, he was to marry his assistant director [[Alma Reville]]. They had a daughter, Patricia, in 1928. Alma was Hitchcock's closest collaborator. She wrote some of his screenplays and worked with him on every one of his films. In 1929, he began work on ''[[Blackmail (1929 film)|Blackmail]]'', his tenth film. While the film was in production, the studio decided to make it one of Britain's first sound pictures. With the climax of the film taking place on the dome of the [[British Museum]], ''Blackmail'' also began the Hitchcock tradition of using famous landmarks as the backdrop to a story. In 1933, Hitchcock was once again working for Michael Balcon at Gaumont-British Picture Corporation. His first film for the company, ''[[The Man Who Knew Too Much (1934 film)|The Man Who Knew Too Much]]'' (1934), was a success, while his second, ''[[The 39 Steps (1935 film)| The 39 Steps]]'' (1935), is often considered one of the best films from his early period. It was also one of the first to introduce the concept of the &quot;[[MacGuffin]]&quot;, a plot device around which a whole story would revolve. In ''The 39 Steps'', the MacGuffin is a stolen set of blueprints. His next major success was in 1938, ''[[The Lady Vanishes]]'', a clever and fast-paced film about the search for a kindly old Englishwoman ([[Dame May Whitty]]), who disappears while on board a train in the fictional country of Vandrika (a thinly-veiled version of [[Nazi]] [[Germany]]). By the end of the 1930s, Hitchcock was at the top of his game artistically, and in a position to name his own terms when [[David O. Selznick]] managed to entice the Hitchcocks across to Hollywood. ===Hollywood=== Hitchcock's ''[[gallows humour]]'' continued in his American work, together with the suspense that became his trademark. However, working arrangements with his new producer were less than optimal. Selznick suffered from perennial money problems and Hitchcock was often unhappy with the amount of creative control demanded by Selznick over his films. Subsequently, Selznick ended up &quot;loaning&quot; Hitchcock to the larger studios more often than producing Hitchcock's films himself. With the prestigious picture ''[[Rebecca (film)|Rebecca]]'' in 1940, Hitchcock made his first American movie, although it was set in England and based on a novel by English author Dame [[Daphne du Maurier]]. This [[Gothic novel|Gothic]] [[melodrama]] explores the fears of a naïve young bride who enters a great English country home and must grapple with a distant husband, a predatory housekeeper, and the legacy of her husband's late wife. It has also subsequently been noted for the lesbian undercurrents in [[Judith Anderson]]'s performance. The film won the [[Academy Award]] for [[Academy Award for Best Picture|Best Picture]] of 1940. Hitchcock's second American film, the European-set thriller ''[[Foreign Correspondent]]'' was also nominated for Best Picture that year. Hitchcock's work during the 1940's was very diverse, ranging from the romantic comedy, ''[[Mr. &amp; Mrs. Smith (1941 film)|Mr. &amp; Mrs. Smith]]'' (1941) and the courtroom drama ''[[The Paradine Case]]'' (1947), to the dark and disturbing ''Shadow of a Doubt'' (1943). ''[[Shadow of a Doubt]]'', his personal favorite, was about young Charlotte &quot;Charlie&quot; Newton ([[Teresa Wright]]), who suspects her beloved uncle Charlie Spencer ([[Joseph Cotten]]) of murder. In its use of overlapping characters, dialogue, and closeups it has provided a generation of film theorists with psychoanalytic potential, including [[Jacques Lacan]] and [[Slavoj Žižek]]. The film also harkens to one of Cotten's better known films, ''[[Citizen Kane]]''. ''[[Spellbound (1945 film)|Spellbound]]'' explored the then very fashionable subject of [[psychoanalysis]] and featured a dream sequence which was designed by [[Salvador Dali]]. The actual dream sequence in the film was considerably cut from the original planned scene that was to run for some minutes but proved too disturbing for the finished film. ''[[Notorious]]'' (1946) marked Hitchcock's first film as a producer as well as director. As Selznick failed to see the subject's potential, he allowed Hitchcock to make the film for [[RKO]]. From this point on, Hitchcock would produce his own films, giving him a far greater degree of freedom to pursue the projects that interested him. Starring [[Ingrid Bergman]] and Hitchcock regular [[Cary Grant]], and featuring a plot about Nazis, uranium, and South America, ''[[Notorious]]'' was a huge box office success and has remained one of Hitchcock's most acclaimed films. Its inventive use of suspense and props briefly led to Hitchcock being under surveillance by the [[CIA]] due to his use of [[uranium]] as a plot device. ''[[Alfred Hitchcock's Rope|Rope]]'' (his first color film) came next in 1948. Here Hitchcock experimented with marshalling suspense in a confined environment, as he had done earlier with ''[[Lifeboat (film)|Lifeboat]]''. He also experimented with exceptionally long takes - up to ten minutes (see [[Alfred Hitchcock#Themes and devices|Themes and devices]]). Featuring [[James Stewart]] in the leading role, ''Rope'' was the first of an eventual four films Stewart would make for Hitchcock. Based on the [[Leopold and Loeb]] case of the 1920s, ''Rope'' is also among the earliest openly gay-themed films to emerge from the [[Hays Office]] controlled Hollywood studio era. ''[[Under Capricorn]]'', set in nineteenth-century Australia, also used this short-lived technique, but to a more limited extent. For these two films he formed a production company with Sidney Bernstein, called Transatlantic Pictures, which folded after these two unsuccessful pictures. ===Peak years and decline=== With ''[[Strangers on a Train]]'' (1951), his first epic film based on the novel by [[Patricia Highsmith]], Hitchcock combined many of the best elements from his preceding British and American films. Two men casually meet and speculate on removing people who are causing them difficulty. One of the men, though, takes this banter entirely seriously. With [[Farley Granger]] reprising some elements of his role from ''Rope'', ''Strangers'' continued the director's interest in the narrative possiblities of homosexual blackmail and murder. Three very popular films, all starring [[Grace Kelly]], followed. ''[[Dial M for Murder]]'' was adapted from the popular stage play by Frederick Knott. This was originally another experimental film, with Hitchcock using the technique of [[3-D film|3D]] cinematography, although the film was never released in this format. ''[[Rear Window]]'', starred James Stewart again, as well as [[Thelma Ritter]] and [[Raymond Burr]]. Here the wheelchair-bound Stewart observes the movements of his neighbours across the courtyard and becomes convinced one of them has murdered his wife. Like ''[[Lifeboat]]'' and ''[[Rope]]'', the movie was photographed almost entirely within the confines of a small space: Stewart's tiny studio apartment overlooking the massive courtyard set. ''[[To Catch a Thief]]'', set in the French Riviera, starred Kelly and [[Cary Grant]]. In 1956, Hitchcock also remade his 1934 film ''[[The Man Who Knew Too Much (1956 film)|The Man Who Knew Too Much]]'', this time with [[James Stewart]] and [[Doris Day]]. 1958's ''[[Vertigo (film)|Vertigo]]'' again starred Stewart, this time with [[Kim Novak]] and [[Barbara Bel Geddes]]. The film was a commercial failure, but has come to be viewed by many as one of Hitchcock's masterpieces. Hitchcock followed ''Vertigo'' with three very different films, which were all massive commercial successes. All are also recognised as among his very best films: ''[[North by Northwest]]'' (1959), ''[[Psycho]]'' (1960), and ''[[The Birds (film)|The Birds]]'' (1963). The latter two were particularly notable for their unconventional soundtracks, both by [[Bernard Herrmann]]: the screeching strings in the murder scene in ''Psycho'' pushed the limits of the time, and ''The Birds'' dispensed completely with conventional instruments, using an electronically produced soundtrack. These were his last great films, after which his career slowly wound down. In 1972 Hitchcock returned to [[London]] to film ''[[Frenzy]]'', his last major success. For the first time, Hitchcock allowed nudity and profane language, which had before been taboo, in one of his films. Failing health slowed down his output over the last two decades of his life. ''[[Family Plot]]'' (1976) was his last film. It related the escapades of &quot;Madam&quot; Blanche Tyler played by [[Barbara Harris (actress)|Barbara Harris]], a fraudulent spiritualist, and her taxi driver lover [[Bruce Dern]] making a living from her phony powers. [[William Devane]] and [[Katherine Helmond]] co-starred. Hitchcock was created a [[Order of the British Empire|Knight Commander of the Order of the British Empire]] by [[Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom|Queen Elizabeth II]] in the 1980 [[New Years Honours]]. He died just four months later, on [[April 29]], before he had the opportunity to be formally invested by the Queen. He was nevertheless entitled to be known as '''Sir Alfred Hitchcock''' and to use the postnominal letters [[KBE]], because he remained a British subject when he adopted American citizenship in 1956. Alfred Hitchcock died from [[renal failure]] in his [[Bel Air]], [[Los Angeles]], home aged 80, and was survived by his wife [[Alma Reville]], and their daughter, Patricia Hitchcock O'Connell. His body was cremated, and apparently there was no public funeral or memorial service. ==Themes and devices== Hitchcock preferred the use of suspense over surprise in his films. In surprise, the director assaults the viewer with frightening things. In suspense, the director tells or shows things to the audience which the characters in the film do not know, and then artfully builds tension around wha
yers that I have seen play, and heard others praise, and that highly, not to speak it profanely, that, neither having the accent of Christians nor the gait of Christian, pagan, nor man, have so strutted and bellowed that I have thought some of nature's journeymen had made men and not made them well, they imitated humanity so abominably.&lt;/blockquote&gt; &lt;blockquote&gt;O, reform it altogether. And let those that play your clowns speak no more than is set down for them; for there be of them that will themselves laugh, to set on some quantity of barren spectators to laugh too; though, in the mean time, some necessary question of the play be then to be considered: that's villanous, and shows a most pitiful ambition in the fool that uses it. Go, make you ready.&lt;/blockquote&gt; ==Acting awards== * [[Academy Award]]s, also known as the Oscars, for film * [[Golden Globe Award]]s for film and television * [[Emmy Award]]s for television * [[Genie Awards]] for film * [[Gemini Awards]] for television * [[BAFTA|British Academy of Film and Television Arts Award]] for film and television * [[Tony Award]]s for the theatre (specifically, [[Broadway theatre]]) * [[European Theatre Awards]] for the theatre * [[Laurence Olivier Awards]] for the theatre * [[Screen Actors Guild]] Awards for actors in film and television ==See also== * [[Acting]] * [[Celebrities]] * [[Charisma]] * [[Method acting]] * [[Movie star]] * [[Stunt work]] * [[:Category:Lists of actors|Lists of actors]] ==Suggested reading== * ''An Actor Prepares'' by [[Konstantin Stanislavski]] (Theatre Arts Books, ISBN 0878309837, 1989) * ''A Dream of Passion: The Development of the Method'' by [[Lee Strasberg]] (Plume Books, ISBN 0452261988, 1990) * ''Sanford Meisner on Acting'' by [[Sanford Meisner]] (Vintage, ISBN 0394750594, 1987) * ''Letters to a Young Actor'' by [[Robert Brustein]] (Basic Books, ISBN 0465008062, 2005). * ''The Alexander Technique Manual'' by [[Richard Brennan]] (Connections Book Publishing ISBN 1-85906-163-X 2004) [[Category:Actors|*]] [[Category:Entertainment occupations]] [[ast:Actor]] [[bg:Актьор]] [[ca:Actor]] [[cs:Herec]] [[da:Skuespiller]] [[de:Schauspieler]] [[es:Actor]] [[eo:Aktoro]] [[fr:Acteur]] [[gl:Actor]] [[ko:배우]] [[id:Aktor]] [[it:Attore (spettacolo)]] [[he:שחקן קולנוע]] [[lt:Aktorius]] [[hu:Színész]] [[ms:Pelakon]] [[nl:Acteur]] [[ja:俳優]] [[no:Skuespiller]] [[nn:Skodespelar]] [[pl:Aktor]] [[pt:Ator]] [[ru:Актёр]] [[sq:Aktor]] [[simple:Actor]] [[sk:Herec]] [[sl:Filmski igralec]] [[sr:Глумац]] [[fi:Näyttelijä]] [[sv:Skådespelare]] [[vi:Diễn viên]] [[uk:Кіноактор]] [[zh:演員]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Albania/Government</title> <id>754</id> <revision> <id>15899271</id> <timestamp>2002-08-22T22:04:25Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Koyaanis Qatsi</username> <id>90</id> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Politics of Albania]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Albania/History</title> <id>755</id> <revision> <id>15899272</id> <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>Conversion script</ip> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Automated conversion</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[History of Albania]] :''See also :'' [[Albania]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Albania/Transportation</title> <id>756</id> <revision> <id>15899273</id> <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>128.227.167.184</ip> </contributor> <comment>*</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Transportation in Albania]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Albania/Military</title> <id>757</id> <revision> <id>15899274</id> <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>128.227.167.184</ip> </contributor> <comment>*</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Military of Albania]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Albania/Transnational Issues</title> <id>758</id> <revision> <id>15899275</id> <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>128.227.167.184</ip> </contributor> <comment>*</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Foreign relations of Albania]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Albania/People</title> <id>759</id> <revision> <id>15899276</id> <timestamp>2002-08-20T15:34:33Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Koyaanis Qatsi</username> <id>90</id> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Demographics of Albania]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Albania/Geography</title> <id>760</id> <revision> <id>15899277</id> <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>Conversion script</ip> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Automated conversion</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Geography of Albania]] :''See also :'' [[Albania]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Albania/Economy</title> <id>761</id> <revision> <id>15899278</id> <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>128.227.167.184</ip> </contributor> <comment>*</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Economy of Albania]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Albania/Communications</title> <id>762</id> <revision> <id>15899279</id> <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>128.227.167.184</ip> </contributor> <comment>*</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Communications in Albania]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Albania/Foreign relations</title> <id>763</id> <revision> <id>15899280</id> <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>128.227.167.184</ip> </contributor> <comment>*</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Foreign relations of Albania]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Agnostida</title> <id>764</id> <revision> <id>40357311</id> <timestamp>2006-02-20T01:01:41Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Rich Farmbrough</username> <id>82835</id> </contributor> <minor /> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Taxobox | color = pink | name = Agnostida | image = Peronopsis.jpg | image_width = 250px | image_caption = ''Peronopsis interstrictus'' | regnum = [[Animal]]ia | phylum = [[Arthropod]]a | classis = [[Trilobita]] | ordo = '''Agnostida''' | ordo_authority = [[John William Salter|Salter]], 1864 | subdivision_ranks = Families | subdivision = '''Suborder [[Agnostina]]'''&lt;br /&gt; *'''Superfamily [[Agnostoidea]]''' **[[Agnostidae]] **[[Ammagnostidae]] **[[Clavagnostidae]] **[[Diplagnostidae]] **[[Doryagnostidae]] **[[Glyptagnostidae]] **[[Metagnostidae]] **[[Peronopsidae]] **[[Ptychagnostidae]] *'''Superfamily&amp;nbsp;[[Condylopygoidea]]''' **[[Condylopygidae]] '''Suborder [[Eodiscina]]'''&lt;br /&gt; *'''Superfamily&amp;nbsp;[[Eodiscoidea]]''' **[[Calodiscidae]] **[[Eodiscidae]] **[[Hebediscidae]] **[[Tsunyidiscidae]] **[[Weymouthiidae]] **[[Yukoniidae]] }} '''Agnostida''' (the '''agnostids''') is an [[order (biology)|order]] of [[trilobite]]. These small trilobites first appeared toward the end of the lower [[Cambrian]] and thrived in the middle Cambrian. The last agnostids held out until the late [[Ordovician]]. The Agnostida are divided into two suborders -- [[Agnostina]] and [[Eodiscina]] -- that are then divided into a number of [[family (biology)|families]]. The Eodiscina appear to be &quot;normal&quot; trilobites with only two or three segments in the thorax; some resemble trilobites of the order [[Ptychopariida]]. As a group, agnostids have ''[[Pygidium|pygidia]]'' (tails) that are similar in size and shape to their ''[[cephalon]]s'' (heads). Neither looks much like the corresponding regions of other trilobites. There has been more than one argument about which end is the &quot;head&quot;. Agnostids were probably benthic (bottom-dwelling) creatures. Most agnostid species have no eyes. They likely lived on areas of the ocean floor that received little or no light and fed on detritus that descended from upper layers of the sea to the bottom. Unfortunately, the appendages are known only for one [[genus]] of agnostid. The legs of that genus look much more like [[crustacean]] legs than the legs of other trilobites with preserved appendages. This has caused many [[Taxonomy|taxonomist]]s to question whether the agnostids are truly trilobites. Another view is that the agnostids represent the first line to have diverged from the trilobites. However, four orders of trilobites ([[Redlichiida]], [[Corynexochida]], [[Naraoidia]], [[Ptychopariida]]) considerably predate the earliest Agnostids in the [[fossil]] record. Agnostina are generally referred to simply as &quot;agnostids&quot; even though they probably should be called &quot;agnostines&quot;. ==External links== * [http://www.aloha.net/~smgon/ordagnostida.htm Agnostida fact sheet] * [http://www.trilobites.info/ordagnostida.htm A Guide to the 8 Orders of Trilobites] By Sam Gon III [[Category:Prehistoric arthropods]] [[de:Agnostida]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Abortion</title> <id>765</id> <revision> <id>42146960</id> <timestamp>2006-03-04T03:13:13Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Andrew c</username> <id>704413</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>/* Mental health */ rm excessive spaces</comment> <text xml:space
mbles. [[Johann Sebastian Bach|J. S. Bach]]'s son [[Carl Philipp Emmanuel Bach]] was a great proponent of the instrument. Both [[Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart|Mozart]], and [[Ludwig van Beethoven|Beethoven]] played the clavichord. ==External links== *[http://www.harpsichord-sd.com/clavichord/|A brief history of the clavichord] *[http://piano.christophersmit.com/clavichord.html|A modern clavichord producer] [[Category:String instruments]] [[Category:Keyboard instruments]] [[Category:Composite_chordophones]] [[de:Clavichord]] [[es:Clavicordio]] [[fi:Klavikordi]] [[fr:Clavicorde]] [[he:קלאוויקורד]] [[it:Clavicordo]] [[ja:クラヴィコード]] [[nl:Clavichord]] [[pl:Klawikord]] [[sv:Klavikord]] [[zh:&amp;#32764;&amp;#29748;]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Centrifugal force</title> <id>7532</id> <revision> <id>42073482</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T17:15:00Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Henning Makholm</username> <id>716284</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>/* References and external links */ Rv grafitti</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Centrifugal force''' (from [[Latin]] ''centrum'' &quot;center&quot; and ''fugere'' &quot;to flee&quot;) is a term which may refer to two ''different'' [[force]]s which are related to [[rotation]]. Both of them are oriented away from the [[axis of rotation]], but the object on which they are exerted differs. * The '''[[reaction (physics)|reactive]]''' centrifugal force is the reaction to the [[centripetal force]]. This is equal in magnitude to the centripetal force, directed away from the center of rotation, and is exerted by the rotating object upon the object which exerts the centripetal force. As it is an actual force, it is always present, independent of the choice of [[reference frame]]. * The '''[[fictitious force|fictitious]]''' centrifugal force appears when a rotating reference frame is used for analyzing the system. The centrifugal force is exerted on all objects, and directed away from the axis of rotation. Both of the above can be observed in action on a passenger riding in a car. If the car swerves around a corner, the passenger's body pushes against the outer edge of the car. This is the reactive centrifugal force, which is called a reaction force because it results from passive interaction with the car which actively pushes against the body. Using a reference frame which is fixed relative to the car (a model which those inside the car will often find natural) and while ignoring its rotation, it looks like an external force is pulling the passenger out of the car. This is the fictitious centrifugal force, so called because it is not an actual force exerted by some other object. == Reactive centrifugal force == When viewed from an [[inertial frame of reference]], the application of [[Newton's laws of motion]] is simple. The passenger's inertia resists [[acceleration]], keeping the passenger moving with constant speed and direction as the car begins to turn. From this point of view, the passenger does not gravitate toward the outside of the car; instead, the car curves to meet the passenger. Once the car contacts the passenger, it then applies a sidewise force to accelerate him or her around the turn with the car. This force is called a centri''petal'' (&quot;center seeking&quot;) force because its vector changes direction to continue to point toward the center of the car's arc as the car traverses it. If the car is acting upon the passenger, then the passenger must be acting upon the car with an equal and opposite force. Being opposite, this reaction force is directed ''away'' from the center, therefore centri''fugal''. It is critical to realize that this centrifugal force acts upon the car, not the passenger. Basing the physics on an inertial reference frame, there is no mystery force pulling the passenger outward. The ''centrifugal reaction force'' with which the passenger pushes back against the door of the car is trivial and is simply given by: :{| |- |&lt;math&gt;\mathbf{F}_\mathrm{centrifugal} \,&lt;/math&gt; |&lt;math&gt;= - m \mathbf{a}_\mathrm{centripetal} \,&lt;/math&gt; |- | |&lt;math&gt;= m \omega^2 \mathbf{r}_\perp \,&lt;/math&gt; |} where &lt;math&gt;m\,&lt;/math&gt; is the mass of the rotating object. == Rotating reference frames== In the classical approach, this inertial frame remains the true reference for the laws of mechanics. When using a [[rotating reference frame]], the laws of physics are mapped from the most convenient inertial frame to that rotating frame. Assuming a constant rotation speed, this is achieved by adding to every object two ''coordinate accelerations'' which correct for the rotation of the coordinate axes. :{| |- |&lt;math&gt;\mathbf{a}_\mathrm{rot}\,&lt;/math&gt; |&lt;math&gt;=\mathbf{a} - 2\mathbf{\omega \times v} - \mathbf{\omega \times (\omega \times r)} \,&lt;/math&gt; |- | |&lt;math&gt;=\mathbf{a + a_\mathrm{Coriolis} + a_\mathrm{centrifugal}} \,&lt;/math&gt; |} where &lt;math&gt;\mathbf{a}_\mathrm{rot}\,&lt;/math&gt; is the acceleration relative to the rotating frame, &lt;math&gt;\mathbf{a}\,&lt;/math&gt; is the acceleration relative to the inertial frame, &lt;math&gt;\mathbf{\omega}\,&lt;/math&gt; is the [[angular velocity]] vector describing the rotation of the reference frame, &lt;math&gt;\mathbf{v}\,&lt;/math&gt; is the velocity of the body relative to the rotating frame, and &lt;math&gt;\mathbf{r}\,&lt;/math&gt; is a vector from an arbitrary point on the rotation axis to the body. A derivation can be found in the article [[fictitious force]]. The last term is the centrifugal acceleration, so we have: :&lt;math&gt; \mathbf{a}_\textrm{centrifugal} = - \mathbf{\omega \times (\omega \times r)} = \omega^2 \mathbf{r}_\perp &lt;/math&gt; where &lt;math&gt;\mathbf{r_\perp}&lt;/math&gt; is the component of &lt;math&gt;\mathbf{r}\,&lt;/math&gt; perpendicular to the axis of rotation. === Derivation === If we have two frames, one inertial and one rotating with a constant angular velocity &lt;math&gt;\vec \omega&lt;/math&gt;, a time derivative of a vector in the rotating frame, &lt;math&gt;\left ( \frac{d}{dt} \right ) _r&lt;/math&gt;, is transformed to the time derivative in the inertial frame, &lt;math&gt;\left ( \frac{d}{dt} \right ) _i&lt;/math&gt;, by the following relation: :&lt;math&gt; \left ( \frac{d}{dt} \right ) _i = \left ( \frac{d}{dt} \right ) _r + \vec \omega \times &lt;/math&gt; This relationship is one between two [[operator]]s. Now, acceleration is the second derivative of position with respect to time. So, applying the above transformation to the position vector &lt;math&gt; \vec r &lt;/math&gt; once gets you: :&lt;math&gt; \dot \vec r_i = \left ( \frac{d \vec r}{dt} \right ) _i = \left ( \frac{d \vec r}{dt} \right ) _r + \omega \times \vec r&lt;/math&gt; Putting &lt;math&gt; \dot \vec r_i &lt;/math&gt; back into the transformation, you get: :&lt;math&gt; \ddot \vec r_i = \left ( \frac{d \dot \vec r}{dt} \right ) _i = \left ( \frac{d \dot \vec r}{dt} \right ) _r + \omega \times \dot \vec r&lt;/math&gt; :&lt;math&gt; \ddot \vec r_i = \left ( \frac{d^2 \vec r}{dt^2} \right ) _i = \left ( \frac{d}{dt} \right ) _r \left ( \left ( \frac{d \vec r}{dt} \right ) _r + \omega \times \vec r \right ) + \vec \omega \times \left ( \left ( \frac{d \vec r}{dt} \right ) _r + \omega \times \vec r \right )&lt;/math&gt; Because &lt;math&gt;\vec \omega&lt;/math&gt; is a contant vector - that is the rotating reference frame is rotating constantly in the same direction - it's time derivative is zero. So, simplifying: :&lt;math&gt; \ddot \vec r_i = \left ( \frac{d^2 \vec r}{dt^2} \right ) _i = \left ( \frac{d^2 \vec r}{dt^2} \right ) _r + \omega \times \left ( \frac{d \vec r}{dt} \right ) _r + \vec \omega \times \left ( \frac{d \vec r}{dt} \right ) _r + \omega \times \omega \times \vec r&lt;/math&gt; :&lt;math&gt; \ddot \vec r_i = \left ( \frac{d^2 \vec r}{dt^2} \right ) _i = \left ( \frac{d^2 \vec r}{dt^2} \right ) _r + 2 \vec \omega \times \left ( \frac{d \vec r}{dt} \right ) _r + \omega \times \omega \times \vec r&lt;/math&gt; Finally, putting in &lt;math&gt;\vec a&lt;/math&gt; for &lt;math&gt;\left ( \frac{d^2 \vec r}{dt^2} \right )&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;\vec v_r&lt;/math&gt; for &lt;math&gt;\left ( \frac{d \vec r}{dt} \right ) _r&lt;/math&gt;, we get the following: :&lt;math&gt; \vec a_i = \vec a_r + 2 \vec \omega \times \vec v_r + \vec \omega \times \left ( \vec \omega \times \vec r \right )&lt;/math&gt; Moving things to the other side, but reversing one cross-product in each term, you find: :&lt;math&gt; \vec a_r = \vec a_i + 2 \vec v_r \times \vec \omega + \vec \omega \times \left ( \vec r \times \vec \omega \right )&lt;/math&gt; This tells us that &lt;math&gt;\vec a_r&lt;/math&gt;, the acceleration of some object at &lt;math&gt;\vec r&lt;/math&gt; as observed by someone at rest in the rotating frame is equal to the acceleration, &lt;math&gt;\vec a_i&lt;/math&gt;, as observed by an observer in the inertial, non-rotating frame, plus &lt;math&gt;2 \vec v_r \times \vec \omega&lt;/math&gt;, which is the [[coriolis effect]]'s contribution to the acceleration, and &lt;math&gt;\vec \omega \times \left ( \vec r \times \vec \omega \right )&lt;/math&gt;, which is the [[centrifugal force]] term. == Fictitious centrifugal force == An alternative way of dealing with a rotating frame of reference is to make Newton's laws of motion artificially valid in it by adding fictitious forces that are pretended to be the cause of the above acceleration terms. In particular, the centrifugal acceleration is added to the motion of every object, and attributed to a fictitious centrifugal force, given by: :{| |- |&lt;math&gt;\mathbf{F}_\mathrm{centrifugal} \,&lt;/math&gt; |&lt;math&gt;= m \mathbf{a}_\mathrm{centrifugal} \,&lt;/math&gt; |- | |&lt;math&gt;=m \omega^2 \mathbf{r}_\perp \,&lt;/math&gt; |} where &lt;math&gt;m\,&lt;/m
and remained as [[bishop]] in Hippo until his death in [[430]]. He left his monastery, but continued to lead a monastic life in the episcopal residence. He left a Rule ([[Latin]], ''Regula'') for his monastery that has led him to be designated the &quot;[[patron saint]] of [[Regular Clergy]],&quot; that is, [[parish clergy]] who live by a [[monastic rule]]. Augustine died on [[August 28]], [[430]], during the siege of Hippo by the [[Vandals]]. He is said to have encouraged its citizens to resist the attacks, primarily on the grounds that the Vandals adhered to [[Arianism|Arianism]], which was heretical according to the doctrine of the Catholic Church. ==Influence as a theologian and thinker== [[Image:Tiffany Window of St Augustine - Lightner Museum.JPG|thumb|right|250px|Detail of St. Augustine in a [[stained glass window]] by [[Louis Comfort Tiffany]] in the [[Lightner Museum]], [[St. Augustine, Florida]].]] Augustine remains a central figure, both within Christianity and in the history of Western thought. In both his philosophical and theological reasoning, he was greatly influenced by [[Stoicism]], [[Platonism]] and [[Neoplatonism]], particularly by the work of [[Plotinus]], author of the [[Enneads]], probably through the mediation of [[Porphyry (philosopher)|Porphyry]] and [[Victorinus]] (as [[Pierre Hadot]] has argued). His generally favorable outlook upon Neoplatonic thought contributed to the &quot;baptism&quot; of Greek thought and its entrance into the Christian and subsequently the [[European]] intellectual tradition. His early and influential writing on the [[Will (philosophy)|human will]], a central topic in [[ethics]], would became a focus for later philosophers such as [[Arthur Schopenhauer|Schopenhauer]] and [[Friedrich Nietzsche|Nietzsche]]. It is largely due to Augustine's arguments against the [[Pelagians]], who did not believe in [[original sin]], that [[Western Christianity]] has maintained the doctrine of original sin. However, [[Eastern Orthodox]] theologians regard this part of his teaching to be an unwarranted innovation and a key source of division between East and West. Augustine's writings helped formulate the theory of [[The Just War Theory|the just war]]. He also advocated the use of force against the [[Donatism|Donatists]], asking &quot;Why ... should not the Church use force in compelling her lost sons to return, if the lost sons compelled others to their destruction?&quot; (''The Correction of the Donatists'', 22&amp;ndash;24) Augustine's work ''[[The City of God]]'' heavily influenced works of [[Wincenty Kadlubek]] and [[Stanislaw of Skarbimierz]] on the relation between ruler and his subjects that led to the creation of [[Nobles' Democracy]] and &quot;De optimo senatore&quot; by [[Wawrzyniec Grzymala Goslicki]]. St. [[Thomas Aquinas]] took much from Augustine's theology while creating his own unique synthesis of Greek and Christian thought after the widespread rediscovery of the work of [[Aristotle]]. While Augustine's doctrine of divine [[predestination]] would never be wholly forgotten within the [[Catholicism|Catholic Church]], finding eloquent expression in the works of [[Bernard of Clairvaux]], [[Reformation]] theologians such as [[Martin Luther]] and [[John Calvin]] would look back to him as the inspiration for their avowed capturing of the Biblical Gospel. Later, within the [[Catholicism|Catholic Church]], the writings of [[Cornelius Jansen]], who claimed heavy influence from Augustine, would form the basis the movement known as [[Jansenism]]; some Jansenists went into [[schism]] and formed their own church. Augustine was [[canonization|canonized]] by popular recognition and recognized as a [[Doctor of the Church]] in [[1303]] by [[Pope Boniface VIII]]. His [[feast day]] is [[August 28]], the day on which he is thought to have died. He is considered the [[patron saint]] of brewers, printers, theologians, sore eyes, and a number of cities and dioceses. The latter part of Augustine's ''Confessions'' consists of an extended meditation on the nature of time. Catholic theologians generally subscribe to Augustine's belief that God exists [[eternity|outside of time]] in the &quot;eternal present&quot;; that time only exists within the created universe. Augustine's meditations on the nature of time are closely linked to his consideration of the human ability of [[memory]]. [[Frances Yates]] in her [[1966]] study, ''The Art Of Memory'' argues that a brief passage of the ''Confessions'', X.8.12, in which Augustine writes of walking up a flight of stairs and entering the vast fields of memory [http://www.stoa.org/hippo/text10.html#TB10C8S12 (see text and commentary)] clearly indicates that the ancient Romans were aware of how to use explicit spatial and architectural metaphors as a [[mnemonic]] technique for organizing large amounts of information. A few French philosophers have argued that this technique can be seen as the conceptual ancestor of the [[user interface]] [[paradigm]] of [[virtual reality]]. Augustine's writings also contain passages that have influenced thinkers in disciplines that did not exist in his day. Georg C.F. Greene of the [[Free Software Foundation]] considers a passage from Augustine's ''De Doctrina Christiana'' [http://gnuhh.org/work/fsf-europe/augustinus.html] to be one of the philosophical foundations of the [[free software movement]] with which he is involved. In Book I, Chapter 1 of that work, Augustine writes, &quot;For if a thing is not diminished by being shared with others, it is not rightly owned if it is only owned and not shared.&quot; Thus, Greve argues, knowledge, unlike physical possessions, must be freely shared. According to [[Leo Ruickbie]], Augustine's arguments against [[magic]], differentiating it from [[miracle]], were crucial in the early Church's fight against [[paganism]] and became a central thesis in the later denunciation of witches and [[witchcraft]]. == Augustine and the Jews == Augustine wrote in Book 18, Chapter 46 of ''[[The City of God]]'' [http://www.ccel.org/fathers/NPNF1-02/Augustine/cog/t103.htm] (one of his most celebrated works along with ''[[Confessions (St. Augustine)|The Confessions]]''): &quot;The Jews who slew [[Jesus|Him]], and would not believe in Him, because it behooved Him to die and rise again, were yet more miserably wasted by the Romans, and utterly rooted out from their kingdom, where aliens had already ruled over them, and were dispersed through the lands (so that indeed there is no place where they are not), and are thus by their own Scriptures a testimony to us that we have not forged the prophecies about Christ.&quot; Augustine deemed this scattering important because he believed that it was a fulfillment of certain prophecies, thus proving that Jesus was the [[Messiah]]. This is because Augustine believed that the Jews who were dispersed were the enemies of the Christian Church. He also quotes part of the same prophecy that says &quot;Slay them not, lest they should at last forget Thy law&quot;. Some people have used Augustine's words to attack Jews as anti-Christian, while others have used them to attack Christians as anti-Jewish. See [[Christianity and anti-Semitism]]. ==Books== *''On Christian Doctrine,'' [[397]]-[[426]] *''[[Confessions (St. Augustine)|Confessions]],'' 397-[[398]] *''[[The City of God]],'' begun ca. [[413]], finished 426 *''On the Trinity,'' [[400]]-[[416]] *''[[Enchiridion of Augustine|Enchiridion]]'' *''[[Retractions (book)|Retractions]]'': At the end of his life (ca. [[426]]-[[428]]) Augustine revisited his previous works in chronological order and suggested what he would have said differently in a work titled the ''[[Retractions (book)|Retractions]]'', giving the reader a rare picture of the development of a writer and his final thoughts. *''[[The Literal Meaning of Genesis]]'' *On Free Choice ==Letters== *On the Catechising of the Uninstructed *On Faith and the Creed *Concerning Faith of Things Not Seen *On the Profit of Believing *On the Creed: A Sermon to Catechumens *On Continence *On the Good of Marriage *On Holy Virginity *On the Good of Widowhood *On Lying *To Consentius: Against Lying *On the Work of Monks *On Patience *On Care to be Had For the Dead *On the Morals of the Catholic Church *On the Morals of the Manichaeans *On Two Souls, Against the Manichaeans *Acts or Disputation Against Fortunatus the Manichaean *Against the Epistle of Manichaeus Called Fundamental *Reply to Faustus the Manichaean *Concerning the Nature of Good, Against the Manichaeans *On Baptism, Against the Donatists *Answer to Letters of Petilian, Bishop of Cirta *The Correction of the Donatists *Merits and Remission of Sin, and Infant Baptism *On the Spirit and the Letter *On Nature and Grace *On Man's Perfection in Righteousness *On the Proceedings of Pelagius *On the Grace of Christ, and on Original Sin *On Marriage and Concupiscence *On the Soul and its Origin *Against Two Letters of the Pelagians *On Grace and Free Will *On Rebuke and Grace *The Predestination of the Saints/Gift of Perseverance *Our Lord's Sermon on the Mount *The Harmony of the Gospels *Sermons on Selected Lessons of the New Testament *Tractates on the Gospel of John *Homilies on the First Epistle of John *Soliloquies *The Enarrations, or Expositions, on the Psalms *On the Immortality of the Soul ==Notes== *{{fnb|1}} Monica would have called herself a Catholic. However the word Catholic is not being used in the modern sense of Catholic versus Orthodox. Rather in the older sense of a follower of the [[Nicene Creed]], in that she was not a [[Donatist]] or [[Arian]], a significant distinction for the time. *[[Christian rock]] band [[Petra (band)|Petra]] dedicated a song to St. Augustine called ''&quot;St. Augustine Pears&quot;''. It's based on one of Augustine's writings in his book &quot;Confessions&quot; where he tells of how he stole some neighbor's p
e Abbey School (the local name for [[St Albans School]]). His work frequently references the Abbey of St Albans, and he ascribed mystical significance to the geography and history of the town. ==Modern growth== ===Between the wars=== In the inter-war years St Albans, in common with much of the surrounding area, became a centre for emerging high-technology industries, most notably [[aerospace]]. Nearby [[Radlett]] was the base for [[Handley Page Aircraft Company|Handley Page]], while [[Hatfield]] became home to [[de Havilland]] (later [[Hawker-Siddeley]]). St Albans itself became a centre for the [[Marconi plc|Marconi]] company, specifically, [[Marconi Instruments]]. Marconi (later part of [[The General Electric Company]]) remained the city's largest employer (with two main plants) until the 1990s. A third plant - working on top secret defence work - also existed. Even Marconi staff only found out about this when it closed down. All of these industries are now gone from the area. In 1936 St Albans was the last but one stop for the [[Jarrow Crusade]]. ===Post-war growth=== The City was expanded significantly after [[World War II]], as government policy promoted the creation of [[New Towns]] and the expansion of existing towns. Substantial amounts local authority housing were built at Cottonmill (to the south), Mile House (to the south-east) and New Greens (to the north). The Marshalswick area to the north-east was also expanded, completing a pre-war programme. In 1974 St Albans City Council, St Albans Rural District Council and Harpenden Town Council were merged to form St Albans District Council (part of a much wider local government reorganisation). The 2001 census returns show a population of 129,000 for St Albans City and District. ==External links== *[http://www.salbani.co.uk/ St Albans History and Archaeology]; Chris Saunders. *[http://31.1911encyclopedia.org/S/ST/ST_ALBANS.htm St Albans], 1911 encyclopedia article. [[Category:History of England by locality|Saint Albans]] [[Category:History of Hertfordshire]] [[Category:St Albans]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Home Box Office</title> <id>13946</id> <revision> <id>41945438</id> <timestamp>2006-03-02T20:23:46Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>87.7.227.12</ip> </contributor> <comment>+it</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{redirect|HBO}} {{Infobox Network | | network_name = HBO | network_logo = [[Image:HBO logo.gif|150px|center|HBO logo]] | headquarters = [[New York, NY]] | network_type = [[Cable television|Cable]] [[Television network|network]] ([[movies]], [[sports]]) | available = National | owner = Home Box Office, Inc. ([[Time Warner]]) | launch_date = [[November 8]], [[1972]] | key_people = Chris Albrecht - Chairman and CEO | past_names = None | website = http://www.hbo.com/ }} '''HBO''' ('''Home Box Office''') is a [[premium television|premium]] [[Cable television|cable television network]] with headquarters in [[Media of New York City|New York City]]. HBO airs theatrically released feature [[film]]s, proprietary original full-length [[television movie]]s, and various original series. One of its most recent documentaries was &quot;Dare to Dream&quot; about the U.S. Women's Soccer Team and their effort to make a difference. This documentary featured Mia Hamm, Kristine Lilly, Brandy Chastain, Joy Fawcett, and Julie Foudy. Some of HBO's popular series' past and present include: ''[[Oz (TV series)|Oz]]'', ''[[Sex and the City]]'', ''[[The Sopranos]]'', ''[[Curb Your Enthusiasm]]'', ''[[Six Feet Under]]'', ''[[Carnivàle]]'', ''[[Deadwood (television)|Deadwood]]'', ''[[Entourage (television series)|Entourage]]'', ''[[Band of Brothers]]'', ''[[Rome (TV series)|Rome]]'' and ''[[Extras (sitcom)|Extras]]'' (the last three were in collaboration with the [[BBC]]). HBO broadcasts [[boxing]] matches under the banner name [[HBO Boxing]] &amp; B.A.D. (Boxing After Dark) ==History== HBO was the first cable network to originate as a non-terrestrial broadcast TV network. In reality, it all started in 1965, after cable pioneer and visionary [[Charles Francis Dolan]] won the franchise to build a cable system in lower [[Manhattan]]. The new system, named Sterling Manhattan Cable by Mr. Dolan, was the nation's first urban underground cable system. Instead of stringing cable on telephone poles and using [[microwave]] antennas to receive the signals, Sterling laid underground cable beneath the streets of Manhattan because television signals were blocked by many tall buildings. Time Life, Inc., in the same year, purchased 20 percent of Dolan's company. [[Image:HBO 1970s.jpg|right|thumb|150px|HBO logo used from 1975-1980.]] In early 1970, looking for new revenue sources, Mr. Dolan came up with the idea of creating a ''Green'' channel for which subscribers would pay extra to receive uncut commercial-free movies and sports coverage. To help run his new project, Dolan hired a young attorney named [[Gerald Levin]], who had experience in contracting for televised films and sporting events, as his Vice President of Programming. Dolan presented his &quot;Green Channel&quot; idea to Time Life management, and though satellite distribution was only a distant possibility at the time, he persuaded Time Life to back him, and soon &quot;The Green Channel&quot; became Home Box Office on November 8, 1972. HBO began using microwave to feed its programming. The first program aired over the pay-channel was a New York Rangers / Vancouver Canucks game, to a [[CATV]] system in [[Wilkes Barre, Pennsylvania]]. Sterling Manhattan Cable was rapidly losing money because the company had a small subscriber base of 20,000 customers in Manhattan. Dolan's media partner, Time Life, Inc., gained 80 percent control of Sterling and decided to pull the plug on the Sterling Manhattan operation. Time Life dropped the Sterling name to become Manhattan Cable Television and gained control of HBO in March, 1973. Gerald Levin replaced Dolan as HBO's President and Chief Executive Officer. In September 1973, Time Life, Inc. completed its acquisition of the pay service. HBO was soon on 14 systems in New York and Pennsylvania, but the churn rate was exceptionally high. Subscribers would sample the service for a few weeks, get weary of seeing the same films, and then cancel. HBO was struggling and something had to be done. When HBO first came to Lawrence,Massachusettes,the idea was to allow subscribers to preview the service for free on channel 3. After a month,the service moved to channel 6 and was scrambled. The preview proved popular, obtaining many subscriptions and the concept was used elsewhere. (Lawrence recieves HBO on channel 301 today.) In [[1975]], HBO became the first TV network to broadcast its signals via [[Communications satellite|satellite]] when it showed the &quot;[[Thrilla in Manila]]&quot; [[boxing]] match between [[Muhammad Ali]] and [[Joe Frazier]]. On [[December 28]], [[1981]], HBO expanded its programming schedule to 24 hours a day, seven days per week. (Cinemax was 24/7 from the day it signed on,and showtime and TMC went 24 hours earlier.) In January [[1986]], HBO also became the first satellite network to [[Cryptography|encrypt]] its signal from unauthorized viewing by way of the [[Videocipher]] II System. Later, HBO was one of the first cable TV networks to broadcast a [[High-definition television|high-definition]] version of its channel. Originally, HBO was part of [[Time Inc.]]. When Time merged with Warner Communications in 1989, it became part of [[Time Warner]], who serves as its parent company today. HBO also manages sister network [[Cinemax]], which focuses more on movies and less on original series. Cinemax (or &quot;Skinamax&quot; and &quot;Sinamax&quot; in some circles) has been accused of being an outlet for soft-core pornography during late night hours. HBO has also developed a reputation for offering very high quality original programming. HBO is a subscription-only service and does not carry normal commercials; both of these factors relieve HBO from pressures to [[censorship|tone down controversial aspects]] in their programs, thus allowing for explicit themes, such as graphic [[violence]], explicit [[Human sexual behavior|sex]], [[profanity]], and even [[recreational drug use|drug use]]. The network is currently received in roughly one-third of households in the [[United States]]. It can be quite expensive to acquire HBO because subscribers are generally required to pay for an extra &quot;tier&quot; of service even before paying for the channel itself (though all of the HBO channels are often priced together in a single package). Someone upgrading from a standard cable package might see their bill increase more than 40%. However, federal law requires that a cable system allow a person to get just basic cable (local broadcast channels) and HBO. Cable systems can require the use of a converter box (usually digital) to receive HBO. Even in the days of the V chip, the primary HBO channel still does not run unedited R rated films or TV-MA rated programming during the daytime. HBO's multiplex channels will do so (excluding HBO Family, which doesn't run R rated films at all and will generally run PG-13 rated films only between 6 p.m. and 6 a.m.). Since TV [[critic]]s are generally obliged to keep track of HBO, but the general public is not, the network's influence can be overstated. However, several HBO programs have been re-aired on other networks and local syndication (usually after some editing), and a number of them are also available on DVD. Interestingly, since HBO's more successful series, most notably the trio of ''[[Sex and the City]]'', ''[[The Sopranos]]'', and ''[[Six Feet Under]]'', are broadcast on non-cable networks in other countries, such as in the [[United Kingdom]] and [[Australia]], HBO programming has the potential to be seen by a higher percentage of
snowflake - solid with white spots over hips, and leopard - which is white with dark spots over all the coat. A true Appaloosa is actually a breed, not a color. * [[Bay (color)|Bay]]- From light brown to very dark brown with black mane and tail with black points. Three types - Dark bay, blood bay, light bay and just bay. * Black- There are two types of black, fading black and jet black. Ordinary black horses will fade to a rusty brownish color if the horse is exposed to sunlight on a regular basis. Jet black is a blue-black shade that is fadeproof. Black foals are usually born a mousy grey color. As their foal coat begins to shed out, their black color will show through,but jet black foals are born jet black. Usually for a horse to be considered black it must be completely black with no brown at all, only white markings. * Brown - A bay without any black points. * [[Buckskin]]- A bay horse with a gene that 'dilutes' the coat colour to a yellow, cream, or gold while keeping the black points (mane, tail, ears, legs). * [[Chestnut (coat)|Chestnut]]- A reddish body color with no black. * [[Cremello]] - A chestnut horse with two dilute genes that washes out almost all colour. Often called pseudo albinos, they have blue eyes. There are no true albino horses. * [[Dapple gray]]: a gray colored horse with rings, or dapples, scattered throughout. * [[Dun]] - Yellowish brown with a dorsal stripe along the back and occasionally zebra stripings on the legs. * [[Fleabitten gray]] - refers to usually red hairs flecked in the coat of a gray horse. * [[Gray (horse)|Gray]] - A horse with black skin and clear hairs. Gray horses can be born any color, and eventually most will turn gray or white with age. If you would define the horse as white it is still grey unless it is albino. Some gray horses that are very light must wear sunscreen. * [[Grulla]]- A black horse with a dun gene. It is often a grayish/silver colored horse with dark dun factors. * [[Pinto]] - a multi-colored horse with large patches of brown, white, and/or black and white. [[Piebald]] is black and white, while [[Skewbald]] is white and brown. Specific patterns such as tobiano, overo, and tovero refer to the orientation of white on the body. * [[American Paint Horse|Paint]] - In 1962, the American Paint Horse Association began to recognize pinto horses with known Quarter Horse and/or Thoroughbred bloodlines as a separate breed. Today, Paint horses are the world's fifth most popular breed. * [[Palomino]]-chestnut horse that has one cream dilute gene that turns the horse to a golden, yellow, or tan shade with a flaxen (white) mane and tail. Often cited as being a color &quot;within three shades of a newly minted coin&quot;, palominos actually come in all shades from extremely light, to deep chocolate. * [[Creme gene|Perlino]] - Exactly like a cremello but a bay horse with two dilute genes. * [[Roan (color)|Roan]] - a color pattern that causes white hairs to be sprinkled over the horse's body color. Red roans are chesnut and white hairs, blue roans are black/bay with white hairs. Roan can happen on any body color; for example, there are palomino roans and dun roans. Roans are distinguishable from greys because roans typically do not change colour in their lifetimes, unlike gray that gradually gets lighter as a horse ages. Roans also have solid colored heads that do not lighten. * [[Rose gray]]: a gray horse with a pinkish tinge to its coat. This color occurs while the horse is &quot;graying out.&quot; * [[Chestnut (coat)|Sorrel]] - a light brown coat with a flaxen mane and tail. * Splash - a [[Equine coat color genetics | genetically controlled horse coat]] variation. * [[Tobiano]] - a genetic trait among horses which produces a characteristic white pattern in the coat. * [[Gray (horse)|White]] - Any non-albino white horse is called a gray, even though they appear white. All white, may be the result of overlapping pinto, appaloosa, or sabino markings. Rarely there are true white horses born and are documented to have a dominant white gene (see [[Gray (horse)]] for a discussion of these). These horses have normal eye colour, and they stay white for life. ====Markings include:==== On the face: * Star (a white patch between the eyes) * Snip (a white patch on the muzzle) * Stripe (narrow white stripe down the middle of the face) * Blaze (broad white stripe down the middle of the face) * White Face (sometimes called Bald Face) On the legs: * Ermine marks (black marks on the white just above the hoof) * Sock (white marking that does not extend as high as the [[carpus|knee]] or [[Hock (zoology)|hock]]) * Stocking (white marking that extends as high as the knee or hock) Elsewhere: * Whorls, coloquially known as &quot;cow licks&quot; - are divergent or convergent patches of hair found anywhere on the body but mostly on the head, neck and just in front of the stifles. For horse color and marking genetics see [[Equine coat color genetics]]. Another good resource for horse color is: [http://ultimatehorsesite.com/colors/index.html Horse color, markings, and genetics]. Another that has numerous photographs of various colors and markings is [http://equinecolor.com/ Equine color]. ==The origin of modern horse breeds== [[Image:Orse.jpg|thumb|right|100px|A horse of mixed breed, [[Dorset]], [[UK]]]] Horses come in various sizes and shapes. The [[Draft horse|draft breed]]s can top 20 hands (80 inches, 2 metres) while the smallest miniature horses can stand as low as 5.2 hands (22 inches, 0.56 metres). The [[Patagonian Fallabella]], usually considered the smallest horse in the world, compares in size to a [[German Shepherd Dog]]. Several schools of thought exist to explain how this range of size and shape came about. These schools grew up reasoning from the type of dentition and from the horses' outward appearance. One school, which we can call the &quot;Four Foundations&quot;, suggests that the modern horse evolved from two types of early domesticated pony and two types of early domesticated horse; the differences between these types account for the differences in type of the modern breeds. A second school -- the &quot;Single Foundation&quot; -- holds only one breed of horse underwent domestication, and it diverged in form after domestication through human selective breeding (or in the case of feral horses, through ecological pressures). Finally, certain geneticists have started evaluating the [[DNA]] and [[mitochondrial DNA]] to construct family trees. See: [[Domestication of the horse]] ===Breeds, studbooks, purebreds and landraces=== [[Image:Equus_Arabian2.JPG||thumb|250px|right|Registered Arabian mare]] Selective breeding of horses has occurred as long as man has domesticated them. However, the concept of controlled breed registries has gained much wider importance during the 20th century. One of the earliest formal registries was General Stud Book for thoroughbreds[http://www.imh.org/imh/bw/tbred.html#hist], a process that started in 1791 tracing back to the foundation sires for that breed. These sires were Arabians, brought to England from the Middle East. The [[Arab|Arabs]] had a reputation for breeding their prize mares to only the most worthy stallions, and kept extensive pedigrees of their &quot;asil&quot; (purebred) horses. During the late middle ages the [[Carthusian]] monks of southern Spain, themselves forbidden to ride, bred horses which nobles throughout Europe prized; the lineage survives to this day in the [[Andalusian horse]] or ''caballo de pura raza español''. The modern landscape of breed designation presents a complicated picture. Some breeds have closed [[studbook]]s; a registered [[Thoroughbred]], [[Arabian horse|Arabian]], or [[American Quarter Horse|Quarter Horse]] must have two registered parents of the same breed, and no other criteria for registration apply. Other breeds tolerate limited infusions from other breeds&amp;mdash;the modern Appaloosa for instance must have at least one Appaloosa parent but may also have a [[American Quarter Horse|Quarter Horse]], Thoroughbred, or Arabian parent and must also exhibit spotted coloration to gain full registration. Still other breeds, such as most of the warmblood sporthorses, require individual judging of an individual animal's quality before registration or breeding approval. Breed registries also differ as to their acceptance or rejection of breeding technology. For example, all (Jockey Club) Thoroughbred registries require that a registered Thoroughbred be a product of a natural mating ('live cover' in horse parlance). A foal born of two Thoroughbred parents, but by means of [[artificial insemination]], is barred from the Thoroughbred studbook. Any Thoroughbred bred outside of these contraints can become part of the Performance Horse Registry. Many breed registries allow artificial insemination (AI), embryo transfer, or both. The high value of breed stallions has helped with the acceptance of these techniques because they 1.) allow for more doses with each stallion 'collection' and 2.) take away the risk of injury during breeding. ===Hotbloods, Warmbloods, and Coldbloods=== The Arabian horses, whether originating on the [[Arabia]]n peninsula or from the European studs (breeding establishments) of the 18th and 19th centuries, gained the title of &quot;hotbloods&quot;, for their temperament. Arabians are known and valued for their sensitivity, keen awareness, athleticism, and energy. It was these traits, combined with the lighter aesthetically refined bone structure which was used as the foundation of the Thoroughbreds. They wished to infuse some of this energy and athleticism into their own best cavalry horses. The Thoroughbred is unique to all breeds in that its muscles can be trained for either fast-twitch (for sprinting) or slow-twitch (for endurance) making them an extremely versatile breed. Arabians are used in the sport horse world almost exclusively for endurance c
eir number. In turn, this led to the discovery of a very interesting class, namely, the class of all classes, which consists of two kinds of classes: classes that are members of themselves, and classes that are not members of themselves, which led him to find that the so-called principle of extensionality, taken for granted by logicians of the time, was fatally flawed, and that it resulted in a contradiction, whereby Y is a member of Y, if and only if, Y is not a member of Y. This has become known as [[Russell's paradox]], the solution to which he outlined in an appendix to ''Principles'', and which he later developed into a complete theory, the [[Theory of types]]. Aside from exposing a major inconsistency in [[naive set theory]], Russell's work led directly to the creation of modern [[set theory|axiomatic set theory]]. It also crippled Frege's project of reducing arithmetic to logic. The Theory of Types and much of Russell's subsequent work have also found practical applications with [[computer science]] and [[information technology]]. Russell continued to defend [[logicism]], the view that mathematics is in some important sense reducible to logic, and along with his former teacher, [[Alfred North Whitehead]], wrote the monumental ''[[Principia Mathematica]]'', an [[axiomatic system]] on which all of mathematics can be built. The first volume of the ''Principia'' was published in [[1910]], which is largely ascribed to Russell. More than any other single work, it established the specialty of mathematical or symbolic logic. Two more volumes were published, but their original plan to incorporate geometry in a fourth volume was never realised, and Russell never felt up to improving the original works, though he referenced new developments and problems in his preface to the second edition. Upon completing the ''Principia'', three volumes of extraordinarily [[Abstraction|abstract]] and complex reasoning, Russell was exhausted, and he never felt his intellectual faculties fully recovered from the effort. Although the ''Principia'' did not fall prey to the [[paradox]]es in Frege's approach, it was later proven by [[Kurt Gödel]] that neither ''Principia Mathematica'', nor any other consistent system of primitive recursive arithmetic, could, within that system, determine that every proposition that could be formulated within that system was decidable, i.e. could decide whether that proposition or its negation was provable within the system ([[Gödel's incompleteness theorem]]). Russell's last significant work in mathematics and logic, ''Introduction to Mathematical Philosophy'', was written by hand while he was in [[jail]] for his [[anti-war]] activities during [[World War I]]. This was largely an explication of his previous work and its philosophical significance. ===Philosophy of language=== Russell was not the first philosopher to suggest that language had an important bearing on how we understand the world; however, more than anyone before him, Russell made language, or more specifically, ''how we use language'', a central part of philosophy. Had there been no Russell, it seems unlikely that philosophers such as [[Ludwig Wittgenstein]], [[Gilbert Ryle]], [[J. L. Austin]], and [[P. F. Strawson]], among others, would have embarked upon the same course, for so much of what they did was to amplify or respond, sometimes critically, to what Russell had said before them, using many of the techniques that he originally developed. Russell, along with Moore, shared the idea that clarity of expression is a virtue, a notion that has been a touchstone for philosophers ever since, particularly among those who deal with the philosophy of language. Perhaps Russell's most significant contribution to [[philosophy of language]] is his [[theory of descriptions]], as presented in his seminal essay, &quot;On Denoting&quot;, first published in [[1905]], which the mathematician and philosopher [[Frank P. Ramsey]] described as &quot;a paradigm of philosophy.&quot; The theory is normally illustrated using the phrase &quot;the present King of France&quot;, as in &quot;The present [[Germanic king|king]] of [[France]] is bald.&quot; What object is this [[proposition]] ''about'', given that there is not, at present, a king of France? (Roughly the same problem would arise if there were two kings of France at present: which of them does &quot;''the'' king of France&quot; denote?) [[Alexius Meinong]] had suggested that we must posit a realm of &quot;nonexistent entities&quot; that we can suppose we are referring to when we use expressions such as this; but this would be a strange [[theory]], to say the least. [[Gottlob Frege|Frege]], employing his distinction between sense and reference, suggested that such sentences, although meaningful, were neither true nor false. But ''some'' such propositions, such as &quot;''If'' the present king of France is bald, ''then'' the present king of France has no hair on his head,&quot; seem not only truth-valuable but indeed obviously true. The problem is general to what are called &quot;[[definite description]]s.&quot; Normally this includes all terms beginning with &quot;the&quot;, and sometimes includes names, like &quot;Walter Scott.&quot; (This point is quite contentious: Russell sometimes thought that the latter terms shouldn't be called names at all, but only &quot;disguised definite descriptions,&quot; but much subsequent work has treated them as altogether different things.) What is the &quot;logical form&quot; of definite descriptions: how, in Frege's terms, could we paraphrase them in order to show how the [[truth]] of the whole depends on the truths of the parts? Definite descriptions appear to be like names that by their very nature denote exactly one thing, neither more or less. What, then, are we to say about the proposition as a whole if one of its parts apparently isn't functioning correctly? Russell's [[solution]] was, first of all, to analyze not the term alone but the entire proposition that contained a definite description. &quot;The present king of France is bald,&quot; he then suggested, can be reworded to &quot;There is an x such that x is a present king of France, nothing other than x is a present king of France, and x is bald.&quot; Russell claimed that each definite description in fact contains a claim of [[existence]] and a claim of uniqueness which give this appearance, but these can be broken apart and treated separately from the predication that is the obvious content of the proposition. The proposition as a whole then says three things about some object: the definite description contains two of them, and the rest of the [[Sentence (linguistics)|sentence]] contains the other. If the object does not exist, or if it is not unique, then the whole sentence turns out to be [[false]], not meaningless. One of the major complaints against Russell's theory, due originally to Strawson, is that definite descriptions do not claim that their object exists, they merely presuppose that it does. Strawson also claims that a denoting phrase that does not, in fact, denote anything could be supposed to follow the role of a &quot;Widgy's inverted truth-value&quot; and expresses the opposite meaning of the intended phrase. This can be shown using the example of &quot;The present king of France is bald&quot;. Taken with the inverted truth-value methodology the meaning of this sentence becomes &quot;It is true that there is no present king of France who is bald&quot; which changes the denotation of 'the present king of France' from a primary denotation to a secondary one. [[Wittgenstein]], Russell's student, later achieved considerable prominence in the philosophy of language. Russell thought Wittgenstein's elevation of [[language]] as the only [[reality]] with which philosophy need be concerned was absurd, and he decried his influence and the influence of his followers, especially members of the so-called &quot;Oxford school&quot; of [[ordinary language philosophy]], who he believed were promoting a kind of [[mysticism]]. Russell's belief that there is more to philosophy and knowing the world than simply understanding how we use language has regained prominence in philosophy and eclipsed Wittgenstein's language-centric views. ===Philosophy of science=== Russell frequently claimed that he was more convinced of his ''method'' of doing philosophy, the method of analysis, than of his philosophical conclusions. Science, of course, was one of the principal components of analysis, along with logic and mathematics. While Russell was a believer in the [[scientific method]], knowledge derived from [[empirical research]] that is verified through repeated testing, he believed that science reaches only tentative answers, and that scientific progress is piecemeal, and attempts to find organic unities were largely futile. Indeed, he believed the same was true of philosophy. Another founder of [[modern]] philosophy of science, [[Ernst Mach]], placed less reliance on method, per se, for he believed that any method that produced predictable results was satisfactory and that the principal role of the [[scientist]] was to make successful [[predictions]]. While Russell would doubtless agree with this as a practical matter, he believed that the ultimate objective of ''both'' science and philosophy was to ''understand'' [[reality]], not simply to make predictions. The fact that Russell made science a central part of his method and of philosophy was instrumental in making the [[philosophy of science]] a full-blooded, separate branch of philosophy and an area in which subsequent philosophers specialised. Much of Russell's thinking about science is exposed in his [[1914]] book, ''Our Knowledge of the External World as a Field for Scientific Method in Philosophy''. Among the several schools that were influenced by Russell were the [[logical positivists]], particularly [[Rudolph Carnap]], who maintained that the distin
the [[nuclear power|nuclear industry]]. ==Precautions== Elemental boron and borates are not [[toxic]] and therefore do not require special precautions while handling. Some of the more exotic [[borane|boron hydrogen]] compounds, however, ''are'' toxic as well as highly flammable and do require special handling care. ==See also== *[[Boron deficiency]] ==References== *[http://periodic.lanl.gov/elements/5.html Los Alamos National Laboratory &amp;ndash; Boron] == External links == {{Commons|Boron}} * [http://www.du.edu/~jcalvert/phys/boron.htm Boron] * [http://www.compchemwiki.org/index.php?title=Boron Computational Chemistry Wiki] * [http://www.inchem.org/documents/ehc/ehc/ehc204.htm Environmental Health Criteria 204: Boron (1998)] by the [[International Programme on Chemical Safety|IPCS]]. * [http://education.jlab.org/itselemental/ele005.html It's Elemental &amp;ndash; Boron] * [http://www.npi.gov.au/database/substance-info/profiles/15.html National Pollutant Inventory - Boron and compounds] * [http://www.webelements.com/webelements/elements/text/B/index.html WebElements.com &amp;ndash; Boron] [[Category:Chemical elements]] [[Category:Metalloids]] [[af:Boor (element)]] [[ar:بورون]] [[bg:Бор (химичен елемент)]] [[bs:Bor]] [[ca:Bor]] [[cs:Bor]] [[cy:Boron]] [[da:Bor (grundstof)]] [[de:Bor]] [[et:Boor]] [[el:Βόριο]] [[es:Boro]] [[eo:Boro]] [[eu:Boro]] [[fr:Bore]] [[ko:붕소]] [[io:Borono]] [[id:Boron]] [[is:Bór]] [[it:Boro]] [[he:בורון]] [[lv:Bors (ķīmiskais elements)]] [[lt:Boras]] [[hu:Bór]] [[mi:Pūtiwha]] [[nl:Boor (element)]] [[ja:ホウ素]] [[no:Bor (grunnstoff)]] [[nn:Grunnstoffet bor]] [[oc:Bòr]] [[pl:Bor]] [[pt:Boro]] [[ru:Бор (элемент)]] [[sk:Bór]] [[sl:Bor (element)]] [[sr:Бор (хемијски елемент)]] [[fi:Boori]] [[sv:Bor]] [[th:โบรอน]] [[vi:Bo]] [[tr:Bor (element)]] [[uk:Бор]] [[zh:硼]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Bromine</title> <id>3756</id> <revision> <id>41203896</id> <timestamp>2006-02-25T19:40:28Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>216.48.23.253</ip> </contributor> <comment>/* History */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Elementbox_header | number=35 | symbol=Br | name=bromine | left=[[selenium]] | right=[[krypton]] | above=[[chlorine|Cl]] | below=[[iodine|I]] | color1=#ffff99 | color2=blue }} {{Elementbox_series | [[halogen]]s }} {{Elementbox_groupperiodblock | group=17 | period=4 | block=p }} {{Elementbox_appearance_img | Br,35| gas/liquid: red-brown&lt;br /&gt;solid: metallic luster }} {{Elementbox_atomicmass_gpm | [[1 E-25 kg|79.904]][[List of elements by atomic mass|(1)]] }} {{Elementbox_econfig | &amp;#91;[[argon|Ar]]&amp;#93; 3d&lt;sup&gt;10&lt;/sup&gt; 4s&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; 4p&lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt; }} {{Elementbox_epershell | 2, 8, 18, 7 }} {{Elementbox_section_physicalprop | color1=#ffff99 | color2=blue }} {{Elementbox_phase | [[liquid]] }} {{Elementbox_density_gpcm3nrt | (liquid) 3.1028 }} {{Elementbox_meltingpoint | k=265.8 | c=-7.3 | f=19 }} {{Elementbox_boilingpoint | k=332.0 | c=58.8 | f=137.8 }} {{Elementbox_heatfusion_kjpmol | (Br&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;) 10.57 }} {{Elementbox_heatvaporiz_kjpmol | (Br&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;) 29.96 }} {{Elementbox_heatcapacity_jpmolkat25 | (Br&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;)&lt;br /&gt;75.69 }} {{Elementbox_vaporpressure_katpa | 185 | 201 | 220 | 244 | 276 | 332 | comment= }} {{Elementbox_section_atomicprop | color1=#ffff99 | color2=blue }} {{Elementbox_crystalstruct | orthorhombic }} {{Elementbox_oxistates | &amp;plusmn;1, 5&lt;br /&gt;(strongly [[acid]]ic oxide) }} {{Elementbox_electroneg_pauling | 2.96 }} {{Elementbox_ionizationenergies4 | 1139.9 | 2103 | 3470 }} {{Elementbox_atomicradius_pm | [[1 E-10 m|115]] }} {{Elementbox_atomicradiuscalc_pm | [[1 E-11 m|94]] }} {{Elementbox_covalentradius_pm | [[1 E-10 m|114]] }} {{Elementbox_vanderwaalsrad_pm | [[1 E-10 m|185]] }} {{Elementbox_section_miscellaneous | color1=#ffff99 | color2=blue }} {{Elementbox_magnetic | nonmagnetic }} {{Elementbox_eresist_ohmmat20 | 7.8&amp;times;10&lt;sup&gt;10&lt;/sup&gt; }} {{Elementbox_thermalcond_wpmkat300k | 0.122 }} {{Elementbox_speedofsound_mps | (20 °C) ? 206 }} {{Elementbox_cas_number | 7726-95-6 }} {{Elementbox_isotopes_begin | isotopesof=bromine | color1=#ffff99 | color2=blue }} {{Elementbox_isotopes_stable | mn=79 | sym=Br | na=50.69% | n=44 }} {{Elementbox_isotopes_stable | mn=81 | sym=Br | na=49.31% | n=46 }} {{Elementbox_isotopes_end}} {{Elementbox_footer | color1=#ffff99 | color2=blue }} '''Bromine''' (from [[Greek language|Gr.]] βρωμος (brómos), meaning &quot;stench&quot;), is a [[chemical element]] in the [[periodic table]] that has the symbol '''Br''' and [[atomic number]] 35. A [[halogen]] element, bromine is a red volatile liquid at room temperature which has a reactivity between [[chlorine]] and [[iodine]]. This element is corrosive to human tissue in a liquid state and its vapors irritate eyes and throat. Bromine vapors are very toxic with inhalation. == Notable characteristics == Bromine is the only liquid nonmetallic element at room temperature. It is a heavy, mobile, reddish-brown liquid, that evaporates easily at [[standard temperature and pressure]]s in a red vapor (its color resembles [[nitrogen dioxide]]) that has a strong disagreeable odor resembling that of [[chlorine]]. A halogen, bromine resembles chlorine chemically but is less active (it is more active than [[iodine]] however). Bromine is slightly [[solubility|soluble]] in [[water (molecule)|water]], and highly soluble in [[carbon disulfide]], aliphatic alcohols (such as methanol), and acetic acid. It [[chemical bond|bonds]] easily with many elements and has a strong [[Bleach (chemical)|bleach]]ing action. Bromine is highly reactive and is a powerful oxidizing agent in the presence of water. It reacts vigorously with [[amine]]s, [[alkene]]s and [[phenol]]s as well as aliphatic and [[aromatic]] [[hydrocarbon]]s, [[ketone]]s and [[acid]]s (these are brominated by either addition or substitution). With many of the metals and elements, anhydrous bromine is less reactive than wet bromine; however, dry bromine reacts vigorously with [[aluminium]], [[titanium]], [[mercury (element)|mercury]] as well as [[alkaline earth metal]]s and [[alkaline metal]]s. Bromine is used in the film used in older cameras. == Applications == Elemental bromine is used to manufacture a wide variety of bromine compounds used in industry and agriculture. Traditionally the largest use of bromine was in the production of [[ethylene dibromide|1,2-Dibromoethane]] which in turn was used as a [[gasoline]] anti-[[engine knocking|knock]] agent for [[lead]]ed gasolines before they were largely phased out due to environmental considerations. Bromine is also used in making fumigants, flameproofing agents, water purification compounds, dyes, medicinals, sanitizers, inorganic bromides for photography, etc. It is also used to form intermediates in organic synthesis, where it is preferred to [[iodine]] due to its much lower cost. Bromine is used to make [[brominated vegetable oil]], which is used as an [[emulsifier]] in many [[citrus]]-flavored [[soft drinks]]. Aqueous bromine is orange and can be used in tests for [[alkenes]] and [[phenols]]. *When added to an alkene it will lose its color as it reacts forming a colorless [[Haloalkane|bromoalkane]]. For example, reaction with [[ethylene]] will produce [[1,2-dibromoethane]]. *When added to phenol a white precipitate, [[2,4,6-tribromophenol]], will form. == History == Bromine was discovered by [[Antoine Jerome Balard|Antoine Balard]] at [[salt marsh]]es of [[Montpellier]] in [[1826]] but was not produced in quantity until [[1860]]. The French chemist and physicist [[Joseph-Louis Gay-Lussac]] suggested the name bromine due to the characteristic smell of the vapors. == Occurrence == Bromine occurs in nature as [[Bromide (chemistry)|bromide salts]] in very diffuse amounts in crustal rock. Due to leaching bromide salts have accumulated in sea water (85 [[part per million|ppm]]), and may be economically recovered from brine wells and the [[Dead Sea]] (up to 5000 ppm). Approximately 500 million kilograms ($350 million USD) of bromine are produced per year (2001) worldwide with the [[United States]] and [[Israel]] being the primary producers. The largest bromine reserve in the United States is located in [[Columbia County, Arkansas|Columbia]] and [[Union County, Arkansas]]. == Precautions == Elemental bromine is a strong irritant and, in concentrated form, will produce painful blisters on exposed [[skin]] and especially [[mucous membrane]]s. Even low concentrations of bromine vapor (from 10 ppm) can affect breathing, and inhalation of significant amounts of bromine can seriously damage the respiratory system. Accordingly, one should always wear [[safety goggles]] and ensure adequate ventilation when handling bromine. == Recycling == Because of its high cost, bromine is usually [[recycling|recycled]] rather than disposed of into the [[natural environment|environment]]. == Compounds == [[Aluminium bromide]] (AlBr&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;), [[Ammonium bromide]] (NH&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;Br), [[Bromine pentafluoride]] (BrF&lt;sub&gt;5&lt;/sub&gt;), [[Bromine trifluoride]] (BrF&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;), [[Tetrabromomethane]] (CBr&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;), [[Hydrobromic acid]] (HBr), [[Iron(III) bromide]] (FeBr&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;), [[Lithium bromide]] (LiBr), [[Phosphorus pentabromide]] (PBr&lt;sub&gt;5&lt;/sub&gt;), [[Phosphorus tribromide]] (PBr&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;), [[Potassium bromide]] (KBr), [[Potassium bromate]] (KBrO&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;), [[Silver bromide]] (AgBr), [[Sodium bromide]] (NaBr), [[Sodium bromate]] (NaBrO&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;), [[Bromine Monofluoride]] (BrF) ==References== *[http://periodic.lanl.gov/elements/35.html Los Alamos National Laboratory &amp;ndash; Bromine] == External links== {{Commons|Bromine}} *[http://www.webelements.com/webelements/elements/text/Br/ind
games.{{ref|Stein}} The word &quot;billiard&quot; may have evolved from the French word ''billart'', meaning &quot;mace&quot;, an implement, similar to a golf club, which was the forerunner to the modern cue. The word &quot;pool&quot; generally refers to pocket billiard games such as [[Eight ball|8-ball]], [[Nine ball|9-ball]], [[Straight pool|straight pool]] and [[One pocket|one-pocket]]. The word &quot;pool&quot; comes from &quot;poolrooms,&quot; where people gambled off track on [[horse-racing|horse races]]. They were called poolrooms as money was &quot;pooled&quot; to determine the odds. Because such rooms commonly provided billiard tables, pool became synonymous with billiards by association. The terms &quot;pool&quot; and &quot;pocket billiards&quot; are now interchangeable. ==Equipment== ===Billiard balls=== [[Image:Billiards balls.jpg|right|thumb|250px|''pool balls'']] The number, type, diameter, color, and pattern of [[Billiard ball]]s differ depending upon the specific billiards game being played. In [[eight ball]], [[straight pool]], and related games, 16 balls are employed: fifteen colored &quot;[[Glossary of pool and billiards terms#Object ball(s)|object ball]]s&quot; and one white &quot;[[Glossary of pool and billiards terms#cue ball|cue ball]]&quot;. Object balls 1-7 are solid-colored, and are respectively colored yellow, blue, red, purple, orange, green, and dark red or brown. Balls 9-15 are white, each with a single wide colored stripe that matches the corresponding solid ball; the 9-ball has a yellow stripe, the 10-ball a blue stripe, and so on. The 8-ball is solid black. In the game of [[9-ball]], only object balls 1-9 are used. Regulation balls are 2{{fraction|1|4}} inches (57.15 mm) in diameter and weigh between 5{{fraction|1|2}} and 6 ounces (156 to 170 g). British pool also uses 16 balls, but they are not numbered, with the &quot;suits&quot; being divided into reds and yellows instead of stripes and solids (and shots are not &quot;called&quot; since there is no way to identify particular balls to be pocketed); the balls and the pockets on the table are usually slightly smaller (though larger than those of snooker (see below). Other specific properties such as hardness, [[friction coefficient]] and resilience are very important. Such requirement are met today with balls cast from [[phenolic resin]]. Historically, balls were often made of clay and even elephant ivory for a period (see below for more detail). Coin-operated pool tables historically have often used either a larger (&quot;grapefruit&quot;) or denser (&quot;rock&quot;, typically ceramic) cue ball, such that its extra weight makes it easy to separate it from object balls (which are captured until the game ends and the table is paid again for another game) so that the cue ball can be returned for further play, should it be accidentally pocketed. Modern tables usually employ a magnetic ball of regulation or near-regulation size and weight, since players have rightly complained for many decades that the heavy and often over-sized cue balls do not &quot;play&quot; correctly. Some balls used in televised pool games are colored differently to make them distinguishable on television monitors. The 4 ball used in such games is colored pink instead of purple, while the 7 ball is colored sienna (or a lighter shade of brown) rather than brown. The stripes on the 12 and 15 balls are colored the same way. Likewise, cue balls used for televised matches may depart from the norm by having spots or stripes on their surface so that spin placed on them is evident to viewers. In [[snooker]], there are fifteen red balls, six colored balls (yellow, green, brown, blue, pink, and black), and one white cue ball. The red balls are typically not numbered, though the six colored balls often are, and can easily be mistaken at first glace for pool balls (the design is similar, but the number does not match pool's scheme). Snooker balls are normally 2{{fraction|1|16}} inches (52.4 mm) in diameter. In the carom games such as straight billiards (&quot;straight rail&quot;), [[Carambole billiards|three-cushion billiards]] and balkline, as well as English billiards, there are two cue balls and a red ball. One of the cue balls is typically white and the other one is either yellow or white with a red dot. These balls are normally 2{{fraction|3|4}} inches (69.9 mm) in diameter. Billiard balls were originally made from [[ivory]], imported from Africa. In the mid-19&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt; century, in an amazing bit of accidental [[environmentalism]], the billiard industry realized that the supply of elephants (their primary source of ivory) was limited. They challenged inventors to come up with an alternative material that could be manufactured. [[John Wesley Hyatt]] answered the call by inventing [[cellulose]] nitrate in 1870, branded under the name celluloid, the earliest industrial plastic. Subsequently, to fix the problem of cellulose nitrate instability, the industry experimented with various other synthetic materials for billiards balls such as [[bakelite]] and other plastic compounds. Eventually [[phenolic resin]] became the industry standard and is virtually the only billiard ball material used today. [[Image:PoolTablewithEquipment-non.jpg|right|thumb|250px|''Pool table with equipment'']] ===Tables=== There are many sizes and styles of pool and [[billiards table|billiard table]]s. Generally, tables are perfect [[rectangles]] &amp;mdash; twice as long as they are wide. Most pool tables are known as 7-, 8-, or 9-footers, referring to the length of the table's long side. Snooker and English billiard tables are 12 feet long on the longest side. Pool halls tend to have 9-foot tables and cater to the serious pool player. Bars will typically use 7-foot tables which are often coin-operated. Formerly, 10-foot tables were common, but such tables are now considered antique collectors items; a few, usually from the late 1800s, can be found in up-scale pool halls from time to time. The length of the pool table will typically be a function of space, with many homeowners purchasing an 8-foot table as a compromise. High quality tables are mostly 9-footers, with a bed made of three pieces of thick slate to prevent warping and changes due to humidity. Smaller bar tables are most commonly made with a single piece of slate. Pocket billiards tables normally have six pockets, three on each side (four corner pockets, and two side pockets). All types of tables are covered with billiard cloth (often called &quot;felt&quot;, but actually a woven wool or wool/nylon blend called [[Baize|baize]]). Bar or tavern tables, which get a lot of play, use &quot;slower&quot;, more durable cloth. Good quality pool cloth is &quot;faster&quot; (i.e. provides less friction, allowing the balls to roll farther), and the best quality pool cloth is made from [[worsted|worsted wool]]. Snooker table cloth traditionally has a nap (consistent fiber directionality) and balls behave differently when rolling against the direction of the nap. The cloth of the billiard table is typically green reflecting its origin{{ref|Shamos}} (and thus the name of the pool movie ''[[The Color of Money]]'', referring to the color of American currency notes). ===Cues=== (''See also [[Cue stick]]'') Billiards games are played with a stick known as a cue. A cue is usually either a one piece tapered stick or a two piece stick divided in the middle by a joint of metal or phenolic resin. High quality cues are generally two pieces and are made of a hardwood, generally maple for billiards and ash for snooker. The &quot;butt&quot; end of the cue is of larger circumference and is intended to be gripped by a player's hand. The &quot;shaft&quot; of the cue is of smaller circumference, usually tapering to an 11-14 millimeter terminus called a ferrule, where a leather tip is affixed to make final contact with balls. The leather tip, in conjunction with chalk, can be used to impart spin to the cue ball when not being hit in its center. Cheap cues are generally one piece cues made of ramin or other low quality wood with inferior tips of various materials (usually plastic). A quality cue can be expensive and may be made of exotic woods and other expensive materials which are artfully inlaid in decorative patterns. Skilled players may use more than one cue during a game, including a separate cue for the opening break shot and another, shorter cue with a special tip for jump shots. ===The mechanical bridge=== The mechanical bridge, sometimes called a &quot;rake&quot; or simply &quot;bridge&quot; and known as a &quot;rest&quot; in the UK, is used to extend a player's reach on a shot where the cue ball is too far away for normal hand bridging. It consists of a stick with a grooved metal or plastic head which the cue slides on. Many amateurs refuse to use the mechanical bridge based on the perception that to do so is unmanly. However, many aficionados and professionals employ the bridge whenever the intended shot so requires. [[Image:Billiard chalk 20050724 001.jpg|thumb|130px|Billiard chalk]] ===Chalk=== Chalk is applied to the tip of the cue stick, ideally between every shot, to increase the tip's friction coefficient so that when it impacts the cue ball on a non-center hit, no miscue (unintentional slippage between the cue tip and the struck ball) occurs. The quality of chalk varies greatly from brand to brand, which can significantly affect play. High humidity can also impair the effectiveness of chalk. Cuetip chalk is often not actually the substance typically referred to as &quot;[[chalk]]&quot;, but some proprietary compound, frequently with a [[silicate]] base. &quot;Chalk&quot; may also refer to hand chalk, used to lubricate the cue and bridge hand during shooting (many players prefer talcum powder or a slick pool glove because of the long-term abrasive effect of actual carbonate chalk on the shaf
nd the bejewelled crown of [[Milcom]] is taken and given to David for his own head. *'''The rape of [[Tamar]]''' (13:1-14:33). David's son, Amnon, becomes lovesick for his half-sister, Tamar. His cousin advises him to feign illness and have Tamar be his sick nurse, which he does. Pursuading Tamar to feed him at his bedside, Amnon rapes her. Tamar complains to her brother, Absalom, but as Amnon is his eldest son, David won't do anything. Absalom holds a party and invites all the princes, and Amnon is sent there on David's behalf. When Amnon becomes drunk, he is killed by Absalom's servants, under the order of Absalom. The princes flee back to David, and Absalom flees to the king of Geshur. Over time, David becomes reconciled to Amnon, and so Joab hatches a plan. Joab gets a woman to visit David and feign sorrow about a situation that mirrors that of David, tricking him into acknowleding that Absalom should be brought back and not harmed. When Absalom is brought back, David orders him to remain in his own home, but Absalom keeps asking Joab to see David. Joab doesn't respond so Absalom sets Joab's field on fire, and when Joab turns up, persuades him to let him see David, who becomes reconciled to Absalom. *'''The rebellion of [[Absalom]]''' (15:1-37, 16:5-19:24, and 19:32-41) - Absalom builds up a gradual following, eventually having enough supporters that he plans a [[coup]] against David. An informant tells David, who tells his supporters to flee Jerusalem to the Mount of Olives. At the Mount of Olives, David tells his foreign mercenaries to go back to Jerusalem as they owe no allegiance, but they insist on going with David. David also sends back [[Zadok]] and Abiathar, the priests, and his friend, Hushai, to act as an informant. A man, [[Shimei]], throws stones at David and curses him, so Abishai asks David to kill Shimei, but David won't let him, claiming that Yahweh has made Shimei do this. On the advice of Ahithophel, Absalom has ''relations'' with David's concubines, on his roof, so that the whole nation can see his contempt for David. After receiving counsel from both Ahithophel and Hushai, Absalom chooses Hushai's plan to send all Israel to attack David over Ahithophel's, so Ahithophel commits suicide in shame. Hushai sends word to David of the plan via spies hidden in a cistern at [[En-rogel]]. Absalom sends his army across the Jordan, and David prepares his own troops, asking that Absalom be treated gently. A huge battle erupts between the armies in the forests near Mahanaim, but while riding on his mule, Absalom gets caught in a tree by his hair, and is stuck hanging there. Although the first people from David's side to discover Absalom like this refuse to harm him, owing to David's request, Joab has no such qualms and kills Absalom. David becomes extremely upset, but pulls himself together and returns victorious to Jerusalem, accompanied by Judah. *'''The story of [[Meribbaal]]''' (2 Samuel 4:4, 9:1-13, 16:1-4, and 19:25-31) - Jonathan had a son named Meribbaal, who was 5 when Jonathan and Saul were killed. When she heard the news of this, Meribaal's nurse took him and fled, but he fell and became crippled. In memory of Jonathan, David shows Meribbaal kindness, gives him Saul's lands, and lets him dine at David's table. He also tells [[Ziba]], a servant of Saul, that Ziba, and his family, must now serve Meribbaal. During Absalom's revolt, Meribbaal remained in Jerusalem, Ziba telling David that this was because Meribbaal hoped that the people of Israel would restore him to his father's throne. Meribbaal doesn't wash his feet, or his clothes, or even trim his moustache, until David returns to the throne in Jerusalem. On meeting David, Meribbaal tells him that Ziba was lying about his motive for remaining, and reminds David that Meribbaal is lame. David doesn't care, and orders Meribbaal to split his property with Ziba. *The '''[[Sheba (rebel)|Rebellion of Sheba]]''' (2 Samuel 19:42-20:22) - The people of Israel feel slighted that those of Judah were preferred by David to accompany him back to the throne, so a war of words breaks out between them. A man named Sheba sounds a horn rallying the people of Israel to him. David asks Amasa to summon the people of Judah to him, and go after Sheba. At ''the great stone'' in Gibeon, Amasa meets Joab and ''them'', and while asking how he is, Joab stabs Amasa to death, and drag the body to the side of the road. Joab leads the ammassed army of Judah against Sheba who has ammassed his own army of Israel at [[Abel Beth-maachah]]. Joab lays siege to the town, but a ''wise woman'' tells Joab of an ancient expression and that Joab is effectively trying to destroy ''Yahweh's inheritance''. Joab tells her they are only after Sheba, so she gets the townspeople to cut off Sheba's head and throw it over the wall to Joab. Joab then returns to Jerusalem and the rebellion ends. ;The appendix contains a fairly unorganised miscellany of information: *''[[Gibeon avenged]]''' (2 Samuel 21:1-14) - A famine arises which David blames on Saul having put many of the Gibeonites to death. David asks the Gibeonites what he should do as atonement, and they ask to dismember seven men from among Saul's descendants on Yahweh's mountain. David gives seven of Sauls descendants to them, and they are dismembered. [[Rizpah]], the mother of two of them, uses a sackcloth to protect the remains from scavengers, and so David collects the bones of Saul, Jonathon, and those of the seven, and buries them at the tomb of Kish. The famine consequently ends. *The '''[[Rephaim]]''' (2 Samuel 21:15-22) There are four battles against the Philistines, in each one a Rephaim being killed. [[Goliath]] is one of these, and is killed by [[Elhanan]]. *The '''[[Song of David]]''' (2 Samuel 22) - a psalm, which also constitutes Psalm 18, with minor variations, and involves an obscure reference to leaping over a wall, and another to God riding a Cherub. *The '''[[Last words of David]]''' (2 Samuel 23:1-7) - an enigmatic poem purporting to be David's last words, but lacking context, ending abruptly, and occurring some way before David's death. *The '''[[Exploits of the Three and the Thirty]]''' (2 Samuel 23:8-24a) - Several warriors of david are listed, with a gloss covering some of their deeds. A significance is attached to ''the Thirty'' and ''the Three'', all the warriors being in at least one of these groups, with ''the Three'' being the more significant. The last part of the text is presumed lost, since after naming Ashahel it abruptly breaks off. *The '''[[The Thirty]]''' (2 Samuel 23:24b-39) - a list of ''the Thirty''. Despite the name of the group, 37 people are listed, and it is made explicit that there are 37. As 23:23-24 is ''...David put him in command of his bodyguard. Ashahel, brother of Joab. Among the thirty....''., the middle of verse 23:24 (between the words ''Joab'' and ''Among'') is generally presumed to have been lost. *The '''[[Census of David]]''' (2 Samuel 24:1-25). God makes David angry with the people, so David orders a [[census]]. The census makes God angry, because then God '''and''' David would know how many people there were, so Gad, the prophet, tells David that God is going to punish him, but will give him the choice of 3 punishments. David chooses the pestilence option, and so [[angel of death|an angel]] duly goes out and starts killing people. When the angel approaches Jerusalem, God repents, and halts it, so David buys the land where the angel halted from its owner, [[Araunah]], and builds an altar upon it. ==Authorship== Traditionally, the authors of the books of Samuel have been held to be [[Samuel]], [[Gad]], and [[Nathan]]. Samuel is believed to have penned the first twenty-four chapters of the first book. Gad, the companion of David (1 Sam. 22:5), is believed to have continued the history thus commenced; and Nathan is believed to have completed it, probably arranging the whole in the form in which we now have it ([[Books of Chronicles|1 Chronicles]] 29:29). However, this theory is not supported by most modern scholars, who consider that the text is clearly not the work of men contemporary with the events chronicled. Even the Book of Chronicles explicitly refers to multiple source texts for the information, naming several. Roughly in the order they are believed to have been created historically, the sources that modern scholarship considers to have been interlaced to construct 1 &amp; 2 Samuel are: *''jerusalem source'': a fairly brief source briefly discussing David conquering Jerusalem from the Jebusites *''republican source'': a source with an anti-monarchial bias. This source first describes Samuel as decisively ridding the people of the philistines, and begrudgingly appointing an individual, chosen by God, to be king, namely Saul. David is described as someone renowned for his skill at playing the harp, and consequently summoned to Saul's court to calm his moods. Saul's son, Jonathon, takes a shine to David, which [[David and Jonathan|many commentators view as romantic]], and later acts as his protector against Saul's more violent intentions. At a later point, having been deserted by God, on the eve of battle, Saul find himself consulting the Witch of Endor, only to be condemned for doing so by Samuel's ghost, and told he and his sons will be killed. David is heartbroken on discovering the death of Jonathon, tearing his clothes apart. *''[[court history of David]]'' a very continuous source covering the history of David's kingship, and believed to be the source going by this name in the Book of Chronicles. This source continuously describes Israel and Judah as two separate kingdoms, with David originally being king of Judah only. David conquers Israel, but Israel rebels under Absalom, identified as David's son, and David is forced into exile. Israel's forces attack David while he is in exile, but he wins, and Judah accompanies him back to Jerusalem. Israel makes
r Western countries, as deprived areas are located in varying parts of other Western cities. In fact, with the [[gentrification]] of some formerly run-down central city areas the reverse connotation can apply - in Australia the term &quot;outer suburban&quot; applied to a person implies a lack of sophistication. For instance, in [[Paris]], the inner city is the richest part of the metropolitan area, where housing is the most expensive, and where elites and high-income individuals dwell. In the developing world this is also often true, as economic modernization brings poor newcomers from the countryside to build haphazardly at the edge of current settlement (see [[favelas]]). The United States, in particular, suffers from a culture of anti-urbanism that some say dates back as far as Thomas Jefferson who wrote that &quot;The mobs of great cities add just so much to the support of pure government as sores do to the strength of the human body.&quot; On the businessmen who brought manufacturing industry into cities and hence increased the population density necessary to supply the workforce, he wrote &quot;the manufactures of the great cities... have begotten a depravity of morals, a dependence and corruption, which renders them an undesirable accession to a country whose morals are sound.&quot; the American [[City Beautiful]] architecture movement of the late 1800s was a reaction to preceived urban decay and sought to provide stately civic buildings and boulevards to inspire civic pride in the motley residents of the urban core. Modern anti-urban attitudes are to be found in America in the form of a planning profession that continues to develop land on a low-density suburban basis, where access to amenities, work and shopping is provided almost exclusively by car rather than on foot. However, there is a growing movement in North America called &quot;[[New Urbanism]]&quot; that calls for a return to traditional city planning methods where mixed-use zoning allows people to walk from one type of land-use to another. The idea is that housing, shopping, office space, and leisure facilities are all provided within walking distance of each other, thus reducing the demand for road-space and also improving the efficiency and effectiveness of [[mass transit]]. ==See also== ===Lists=== * [[List of cities by country]] * [[List of cities by latitude]] * [[List of metropolitan areas by population]] * [[Thirty most populous cities in the world]] * [[List of city nicknames]] * [[List of fictional cities]] ===Miscellaneous=== * [[City status in Sweden]] * [[City status in the United Kingdom]] * [[benign neglect]] * [[The City]] * [[County]] * [[Independent city]] * [[Megacity]] * [[municipal government]] * [[global city]] * [[planned city]] * [[urban geography]] * [[urban planning]] * [[Ville]] * [[Burning Man]], a week-long [[festival]] as a temporary city (housing 35,000 residents in [[2004]]) * [[SimCity]], a popular series of city simulators, sometimes used in education. * [[Freedom Ship]], concept for a floating city ==References== * Toynbee, Arnold (ed), ''Cities of Destiny'', New York: McGraw-Hill, 1967. Pan historical/geographical essays, many images. Starts with &quot;Athens&quot;, ends with &quot;The Coming World City-Ecumenopolis&quot;. ==External links== {{Commonscat|Cities}} * [http://www.populationdata.net/palmaresvilles.html All 1M+ major urban areas] * [http://www.p.lodz.pl/I35/personal/jw37/EUROPE/europe.html Place Names of Europe] * [http://www.tageo.com/index.htm Place Names of the world - Index of 2M cities] * [http://www.nationmaster.com/graph-T/geo_lar_cit&amp;int=-1&amp;b_ac=1 Most populous city of each country] * [http://www.world-gazetteer.com/st/statb.htm For all countries, number of cities per size category] * [http://www.nationmaster.com/graph-T/geo_lar_cit_pop_cap&amp;int=-1 For each country, part of its population that lives in its most populous city] (with some odd figures due to the comparison of data of different years) * [http://www.urbanise.net/ World Urbanisation Forums] * [http://www.nlc.org/nlc_org/site/ The National League of Cities] (United States) * [http://www.innercitypress.org Inner City Press] (Weekly publication on cities, United States) * [http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/cgi-local/DHI/dhi.cgi?id=dv1-52 ''Dictionary of the History of ideas'':] The City * [http://www.morganquitno.com/cit05list.htm Morgan Quinto's 11th Annual America's Safest (and Most Dangerous) Cities] * [http://www.skyscraperpage.com A friendly website designed by skyscraper enthusiasts featuring diagrams and descriptions of the buildings of cities around the world.] * [http://www.bifurcaciones.cl bifurcaciones.cl, urban cultural studies journal] * [http://worldheritage-forum.net/de/ Worldheritage-Forum] Weblog and Informationen on UNESCO World Heritage topics (with focus on cities) * [http://geography.about.com/library/weekly/aa011201a.htm Largest Cities Through History] {{Subnational entity}} [[Category:Cities| ]] [[Category:Subnational entities]] [[ur:شہر]] [[bg:&amp;#1043;&amp;#1088;&amp;#1072;&amp;#1076;]] [[cs:M%C4%9Bsto]] [[cy:Dinas]] [[da:By]] [[de:Großstadt]] [[el:&amp;#960;&amp;#972;&amp;#955;&amp;#951;]] [[eo:Urbo]] [[es:Ciudad]] [[fi:Kaupunki]] [[fr:ville]] [[he:עיר]] [[hr:Grad]] [[id:Kota]] [[io:Urbo]] [[it:Città]] [[ja:&amp;#24066;]] [[ja:&amp;#37117;&amp;#24066;]] [[la:Urbs]] [[nb:By]] [[nl:Stad]] [[nn:By]] [[pl:Miasto]] [[pt:Cidade]] [[ro:ora&amp;#351;]] [[ru:&amp;#1043;&amp;#1086;&amp;#1088;&amp;#1086;&amp;#1076;]] [[simple:city]] [[sr:Град]] [[sv:stad]] [[th:เมือง]] [[tl:Lungsod]] [[zh:&amp;#24066;]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Cilantro</title> <id>5392</id> <revision> <id>15903602</id> <timestamp>2003-11-10T18:35:06Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Hephaestos</username> <id>3628</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>fix redir</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[coriander]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Coriander (plant)</title> <id>5393</id> <revision> <id>15903603</id> <timestamp>2003-11-10T18:33:00Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>(</username> <id>7041</id> </contributor> <comment>merged contents back to [[Coriander]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Coriander]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Chervil</title> <id>5394</id> <revision> <id>37346285</id> <timestamp>2006-01-30T11:24:28Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Gdrbot</username> <id>263608</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>nomialbot — converted multi-template taxobox to {{Taxobox}}</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Taxobox | color = lightgreen | name = Garden Chervil | image = Anthriscus cerefolium Kervel plant.jpg | image_width = 250px | regnum = [[Plant]]ae | subregnum = [[Tracheobionta]] | divisio = [[flowering plant|Magnoliophyta]] | classis = [[dicotyledon|Magnoliopsida]] | subclassis = [[Rosidae]] | ordo = [[Apiales]] | familia = [[Apiaceae]] | genus = '''''[[Anthriscus]]''''' | species = '''''A. cerefolium''''' | binomial = ''Anthriscus cerefolium'' | binomial_authority = (L.) Hoffm. }} '''Chervil''' (''[[Anthriscus]] cerefolium''), sometimes called garden chervil, is a delicate [[annual plant|annual]] [[herb]], usually used to flavor mild-flavoured foods such as [[poultry]], some [[seafood]]s, and young [[vegetable]]s. It is a constituent of the French herb mixture [[fines herbes]]. ''Classification:'' Chervil is a member of the parsley or carrot family, [[Apiaceae]]. == External links == * [http://www.uni-graz.at/~katzer/engl/Anth_cer.html Spice Pages: Chervil] * [http://www.sallys-place.com/food/columns/gilbert/chevil.htm chervil] {{vegetable-stub}} [[Category:Apiaceae]] [[Category:Herbs]] [[de:Garten-Kerbel]] [[et:Aed-harakputk]] [[eo:Cerefolio]] [[fr:Cerfeuil commun]] [[hu:Turbolya]] [[nl:Kervel]] [[sv:Dansk körvel]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Chives</title> <id>5395</id> <revision> <id>41016441</id> <timestamp>2006-02-24T14:33:31Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Espetkov</username> <id>52780</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>+bg</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{OtherUses|the plant Chives}} {{Taxobox | color = lightgreen | name = Chives | image = Allium schoenoprasum(01).jpg | image_width = 200px | regnum = [[Plant]]ae | subregnum = [[Tracheobionta]] | divisio = [[Flowering plant|Magnoliophyta]] | classis = [[Liliopsida]] | subclassis = Liliidae | ordo = [[Asparagales]] | familia = [[Alliaceae]] | genus = ''[[Allium]]'' | species = '''''A. schoenoprasum''''' | binomial = ''Allium schoenoprasum'' | binomial_authority = [[Eduard August von Regel|Regel]] &amp; [[Heinrich Sylvester Theodor Tiling|Tiling]] }} '''Chives''' (''Allium schoenoprasum'') are a species of [[flowering plant]] in the [[onion]] family [[Alliaceae]], native to [[Europe]] and [[Asia]]. They are referred to only in the plural, because they grow in clumps rather than alone. It is a [[bulb]]-forming [[herbaceous]] [[perennial plant]], growing to 30-50 cm tall. The bulbs are slender conic, 2-3 cm long and 1 cm broad, and grow in dense clusters from the roots. The [[leaf|leaves]] are hollow tubular, up to 50 cm long, and 2-3 mm in diameter, with a soft texture. The [[flower]]s are pale purple, star-shaped with six [[tepal]]s, 1-2 cm wide, and produced in a dense [[inflorescence]] of 10-30 together; before opening, the inflorescence is surrounded by a papery [[bract]]. The [[seed]]s are produced in a small three-valved capsule, maturing in summer. ===Uses=== [[Image:Chives(GreenOnion) for Misoshiru PacificBeachHotel Waikiki.JPG|thumb||left|270px|[[green onion|Green onions]] used frequently in oriental cuisine are often mentioned incorrec
-preservation, will complete preparations for war ... &lt;nowiki&gt;[&lt;/nowiki&gt;and is&lt;nowiki&gt;]&lt;/nowiki&gt; ... resolved to go to war with the [[United States]], [[United Kingdom|Great Britain]] and the [[Netherlands]] if necessary. Our Empire will concurrently take all possible diplomatic measures vis-a-vis the United States and Great Britain, and thereby endeavor to obtain our objectives ... In the event that there is no prospect of our demands being met by the first ten days of [[October]] through the diplomatic negotiations mentioned above, we will immediately decide to commence hostilities against the United States, Britain and the Netherlands.'' [[Image:Emperor Hirohito-1926.jpg|thumb|250px|The young Emperor in his coronation robes 1926]] The &quot;objectives&quot; to be obtained were clearly defined: a free hand to continue with the conquest of [[China]] and [[Southeast Asia]], no increase in US or British military forces in the region, and cooperation by the West &quot;in the acquisition of goods needed by our Empire&quot;. On [[September 5]], Prime Minister [[Fumimaro Konoe|Konoe]] informally submitted a draft of the decision to the Emperor, just one day in advance of the Imperial Conference at which it would be formally implemented. According to the traditional view (again, contradicted by Bix's research), Hirohito was deeply concerned by the decision to place &quot;war preparations first and diplomatic negotiations second&quot; and announced his intention to break with centuries-old protocol and, at the Imperial Conference on the following day, directly question the chiefs of the Army and Navy general staffs &amp;mdash; a quite unprecedented action. Konoe quickly persuaded Hirohito to summon them for a private conference instead, at which the Emperor made it plain that a peaceful settlement was to be pursued &quot;up to the last&quot;. Chief of Naval General Staff Admiral [[Osami Nagano]], a former Navy Minister and vastly experienced, later told a trusted colleague &quot;I have never seen the Emperor reprimand us in such a manner, his face turning red and raising his voice.&quot; Nevertheless, all speakers at the Imperial Conference were united in favour of war rather than diplomacy. Baron [[Yoshimichi Hara]], President of the Imperial Council and the Emperor's representative, then questioned them closely, producing replies to the effect that war would only be considered as a last resort from some, and silence from others. At this point, the sovereign astonished all present by addressing the conference personally, and in breaking the tradition of Imperial silence left his advisors &quot;struck with awe&quot;. (Prime Minister Konoe's description of the event.) Emperor Hirohito stressed the need for peaceful resolution of international problems, expressed regret at his ministers' failure to respond to Baron Hara's probings, and recited a poem written by his grandfather, [[Emperor Meiji]] which, he said, he had read &quot;over and over again&quot;: : ''Methinks all the people of the world are brethren, then.'' : ''Why are the waves and the wind so unsettled nowadays?'' Recovering from their shock, the ministers hastened to express their profound wish to explore all possible peaceful avenues. The war preparations continued without the slightest change, however, and within weeks Cabinet would replace the insufficiently belligerent Konoe with the hard line General [[Hideki Tojo]], formally chosen by Hirohito under the Constitution (but whether he was in fact favored by Hirohito remains disputed). On [[December 8]] ([[December 7]] in Hawaii) 1941, in simultaneous attacks, Japanese forces struck at the US Fleet in [[Attack on Pearl Harbor|Pearl Harbor]] and began the [[South-East Asian Theatre of World War II|invasion of South-East Asia]]. From here, there was no turning back. Whatever his actual involvement leading up to hostilities, with the nation now fully committed to the war, Emperor Hirohito took a keen interest in military progress and sought to boost morale, just as George VI did, for example, in Britain at the same time. To begin with, the news was all good. As the tide of war gradually began to turn (around late [[1942]] and early [[1943]]), some people argue that the flow of information to the palace gradually began to bear less and less relation to reality, while others suggest that the emperor worked closely with Prime Minister Tojo, continued to be well and accurately briefed by the military, and knew Japan's military position precisely right up to the point of surrender. In the first six months of war, all the major engagements had been victories. Throughout the following years, the sequence of drawn and then decisively lost engagements was also reported to the public as a series of great victories. Only gradually did it become apparent to the people in the home islands that the situation was very grim. U.S. air raids on the cities of Japan starting in 1944 made a mockery of the unending tales of victory. Later that year, with the downfall of Hideki Tojo's government, two other prime ministers were appointed to continue the war effort, [[Kuniaki Koiso]] and [[Kantaro Suzuki]] - again, with at least the formal approval of Hirohito, but whether he agreed with their policies is still disputed. Both were unsuccessful and Japan was nearing defeat. ==Last days of the war== In early 1945, in the wake of the loss of [[Battle of Leyte|Leyte]], the Emperor began a series of individual meetings with senior government officials to consider the progress of the war. All but one advised continuing. The exception was ex-Prime Minister [[Fumimaro Konoe]], who feared a [[Communism|communist]] revolution even more than defeat and urged a negotiated surrender. According to some accounts, Hirohito apparently took the view that peace was essential, but that the armed forces would have to engineer a conspicuous military victory somewhere in order to provide a stronger bargaining position. With each passing week this became less likely. In April the [[Soviet Union]] issued notice that it would not renew its neutrality agreement. Japan's ally [[Germany]] surrendered in early May 1945. In June, the cabinet reassessed the war strategy, only to decide more firmly than ever on a fight to the last man. This was officially affirmed at a brief Imperial Council meeting, to which the Emperor listened in stone-faced silence. The following day, Lord Keeper of the Privy Seal [[Koichi Kido]] prepared a draft document which summarised the hopeless military situation and proposed a negotiated settlement. According to some sources, the Emperor privately approved of it and authorised Kido to circulate it discreetly amongst the less hawkish cabinet members; others suggest that the Emperor was indecisive, and that the mixed signals from the palace may have delayed the peace process, costing many tens of thousands of Japanese and Allied lives. By mid-June the cabinet had agreed to approach the Soviet Union to act as a mediator, though not before the bargaining position had been improved by a repulse of the coming Allied invasion of mainland Japan. On [[June 22]], Hirohito broke tradition once again to speak to his ministers, saying &quot;I desire that concrete plans to end the war, unhampered by existing policy, be speedily studied and that efforts be made to implement them.&quot; The attempt to negotiate a peace via the Soviet Union came to nothing: the Allies were determined not to settle for anything short of [[unconditional surrender]], and as late as July 1945 the Japanese government was not prepared to consider that option: they insisted on at least one condition, a guarantee of the emperor's continuing position in Japanese society. ==Post-war reign== [[image:macarthur hirohito.jpg|thumb|300px|General MacArthur and The Emperor ]] On [[August 15]], [[1945]], following the [[Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki|atomic bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki]] and the [[Operation August Storm|entry of the Soviet Union]] into the war against Japan, Hirohito, after more hesitation, abandoned the condition of preserving his own position and finally made the radio broadcast announcing the unconditional surrender of Japan's military forces (known as ''[[Gyokuon-hoso|Gyokuon-hōsō]]''). The broadcast exhorted the Japanese to &quot;accept the unacceptable&quot; in surrender; it was the first time the public had ever heard the Emperor's voice. There were attempts by numerous leaders, among them [[President of the United States|President]] [[Harry S Truman]], to have Hirohito put on trial for alleged [[war crimes]]. U.S. General [[Douglas MacArthur]] insisted that Hirohito remain Emperor to keep him as a symbol of the continuity and cohesion of the Japanese people. Hirohito was spared trial and retained the throne, but Hirohito was forced to explicitly reject (in the ''[[Ningen-sengen]]'' 人間宣言, lit. &quot;declaration of human being&quot;) the traditional claim that the Emperor of Japan was divine, and a descendant of the [[Amaterasu|Sun Goddess]]. According to the [[Constitution of Japan#The Constitution of the Empire of Japan .281889-1947.29|Japanese constitution of 1889]], Hirohito had a divine power over his country, which was derived from the mythology of the Japanese Imperial Family who were said to be the offspring of the creator of Japan, [[Amaterasu]]. The imperial title was thus transformed from 'imperial sovereign' to '[[Constitutional monarchy|constitutional monarch]]' in [[1946]]. Immediately after Hirohito's repudiation of divinity, he asked the occupation authorities for permission to worship the Sun Goddess. Some have seen this as an implicit reaffirmation of the claim to divine status; others have seen it as simply an expression of Hirohito's personal religious beliefs, with no political or social implications. [[image:Reaganhiro.jpg|left|framed|The Emperor's later life. Meeting with [[Rona
erodotus)|''The Histories'']] were often criticised in antiquity for [[bias]], [[Accuracy and precision|inaccuracy]] and [[plagiarism]]. For example, [[Lucian|Lucian of Samosata]] attacked Herodotus as a liar in ''[[Verae historiae]]'' and denied him a place amongst the famous on the Island of the Blessed. Similar attacks had been made by several scholars in modern times, who argued that Herodotus exaggerated the extent of his travels and fabricated sources. Respect for Herodotus' accuracy has increased since the mid-twentieth century however. For example, discoveries made since the end of the 19th century surrounding the (now submerged) ancient city of [[Heracleum (city)|Heracleum]] and the [[Necrates plaque]] lend substantial credence to Herodotus' previously unsupported claim that his [[Ancient Egypt|ancient Egyptian]] histories begin sometime in the [[New Kingdom]] [http://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/heracleum.htm]. This claim, previously considered one of Herodotus' erroneous assumptions, is now regarded by modern scholars as probably correct [http://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/heracleum.htm]. Consequently, because of the recent increase in respect for his accuracy, Herodotus is recognized not only as a pioneer in history, but in [[ethnography]] and [[anthropology]] as well. Herodotus has passed to us information current in his own day: he reports that the annual flooding of the [[Nile]] was said to be the result of melting snows far to the south, and comments that he cannot understand how there can be snow in the hottest part of the world. He also passes on reports from [[Phoenician]] sailors from [[Ancient_Egypt|Egypt]] that while circumnavigating [[Africa]], they saw the sun on their right while sailing westwards. Thanks to this passing on of information which he himself did not believe, he has shown us something of the extent of contemporary geographical information. Published between [[430 BC]] and [[424 BC]], ''The Histories'' were divided by later editors into nine books, named after the [[Muses]]. The first six books deal with the growth of the [[Persian Empire]]. They begin with an account of the first [[Asia]]n monarch to conquer Greek [[city-states]] and exact [[tribute]], [[Croesus]] of [[Lydia]]. Croesus lost his kingdom to [[Cyrus]], the founder of the Persian Empire. The first six books end with the defeat of the Persians in [[490 BC]] at the [[Battle of Marathon]], which was the first setback to their imperial progress. The last three books of ''The Histories'' describe the attempt of the Persian king [[Xerxes I|Xerxes]] ten years later to avenge the Persian defeat at Marathon and absorb Greece into the Persian Empire. ''The Histories'' end with the year [[479 BC]], when the Persian invaders were wiped out at the [[Battle of Plataea]] and the frontier of the Persian Empire receded to the [[Aegean Sea|Aegean]] coastline of [[Asia Minor]]. ==Herodotus' life== As for Herodotus' life, we know that he was exiled from [[Halicarnassus]] after his involvement in an unsuccessful [[putsch]] against the ruling dynasty, and he withdrew to the island of [[Samos Island|Samos]]. He seems never to have returned to Halicarnassus, though in his ''Histories'' he appears to be proud of his native city and its queen, [[Artemisia I of Caria|Artemisia]]. It must have been during his exile that he undertook the journeys he describes in ''The Histories''. These journeys took him to [[Egypt]] as far south as the [[Aswan|first cataract]] of the [[Nile]], to [[Babylon]], to [[Ukraine]], and to [[Italy]] and [[Sicily]]. Herodotus mentions an interview with an informant in [[Sparta]], and almost certainly he lived for a period in [[Athens]]. In Athens, he tapped the oral traditions of the prominent families, in particular the [[Alkmaeonidai]], to which [[Pericles]] belonged on his maternal side. But the Athenians did not accept foreigners as citizens, and when Athens sponsored the [[apoikia|colony]] of [[Thurii]] in the instep of Italy in [[444 BC]], Herodotus became a colonist. Whether he died there or not is uncertain. At some point he became a ''logios'' &amp;ndash; that is, a reciter of prose ''logoi'' or stories &amp;ndash; and his subject matter was tales of battles, other historical incidents, and the marvels of foreign lands. He made tours of the Greek cities and the major religious and athletic festivals, where he offered performances for which he expected payment. In [[431 BC]], the [[Peloponnesian War]] broke out between [[Athens]] and [[Sparta]]. It may have been that conflict, which divided the Greek world, that inspired him to collect his stories into a continuous narrative &amp;ndash; ''The Histories'' &amp;ndash; centered on the theme of Persia's imperial progress, which Athens and Sparta as allies had brought to a halt. The slogan ''&quot;Neither rain, nor snow, nor heat nor gloom of night stays these couriers from the swift completion of their appointed rounds&quot;'' is adapted from Herodotus. It is inscribed on the facade of the [[New York]] [[post office]] building, and was also used as part of the lyric in [[Laurie Anderson]]'s [[1981]] hit, [[O Superman]]. Herodotus' original statement described the Persian system of relay messengers; in Macaulay's translation it reads: &quot;These neither snow nor rain nor heat nor darkness of night prevents from accomplishing each one the task proposed to him, with the very utmost speed&quot; (viii.98). ==Further reading== {{wikiquote}} {{wikisource author}} * Several English translations of ''The Histories of Herodotus'' are readily available in multiple editions. The most readily available are those translated by: **[[Aubrey de Sélincourt]], originally 1954; revised by [[John Marincola]] in 1972. Several editions from [[Penguin Books]] available. **[[David Grene]], Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1985. **[[George Rawlinson]], translation 1858-1860. Public domain; many editions available, although [[Everyman Library]] and [[Wordsworth Classics]] editions are the most common ones still in print. * Evans, J. A. S., ''Herodotus.'' Boston: G. K. Hall, 1982. * &amp;mdash;. ''Herodotus, Explorer of the Past: Three Essays.'' Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1991. * Fehling, Detlev. ''Herodotus and His &quot;Sources&quot;: Citation, Invention, and Narrative Art''. Translated by J.G. Howie. Arca Classical and Medieval Texts, Papers, and Monographs, 21. Leeds: Francis Cairns, 1989. * Flory, Stewart, ''The Archaic Smile of Herodotus''. Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1987. * Fornara, Charles W. ''Herodotus: An Interpretative Essay''. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1971. * Hartog, F., ''The Mirror of Herodotus''. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1988. * [http://ccat.sas.upenn.edu/bmcr/1994/94.04.10.html Kwintner, Michelle. ''The Liar School of Herodotus (Review)''. Bryn Mawr Classical Review, 1994.] * Lateiner, D., ''The Historical Method of Herodotus''. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1989. * Pritchett, W. K., ''The Liar School of Herodotus''. Amsterdam: Gieben, 1991. * Thomas, R., 'Herodotus in Context; ethnography, science and the art of persusion'. Oxford University Press 2000. ==See also== *''[[Faraon|Pharaoh]]'' (historical novel by [[Boleslaw Prus|Boles&amp;#322;aw Prus]], incorporating scenes involving the ancient Egyptian [[Labyrinth]] described in Book II of ''[[The Histories of Herodotus]]''). *[[Thucydides]], ancient Greek historian who is often said to be &quot;the father of history&quot;. ==External links== * [http://ancienthistory.about.com/library/bl/bl_text_herodotus.htm Herodotus] at About.com * A reconstructed [http://www.reportret.info/gallery/herodotos1.html portrait of Herodotos], based on historical sources, in a contemporary style. * [http://classics.mit.edu/Herodotus/history.html The History of Herodotus] at The Internet Classics Archive (translation by George Rawlinson) * {{gutenberg author| id=Herodotus | name=Herodotus}} ** {{gutenberg|no=2707|name=The History of Herodotus, vol. 1}} (translation by [[George Campbell Macaulay]], [[1852]]-[[1915]]) ** {{gutenberg|no=2456|name=The History of Herodotus, vol. 2}} * [http://www.isidore-of-seville.com/herodotus/ Herodotus on the Web] * [http://www.historyforkids.org/learn/greeks/literature/herodotus.htm Herodotus for Kids] * [http://www.livius.org/he-hg/herodotus/herodotus01.htm Herodotus of Halicarnassus] at Livius.org * [http://essays.org.uk/classical-studies/herodotus-thucydides/ Comparison of the writings of Herodotus and Thucydides] * [http://www.greek-literature-online.com/herodotus/ Herodotus' ''The Histories''] translated into English in an easy to read HTML format * [http://www.losttrails.com/pages/Tales/Inquiries/Herodotus.html Herodotus Inquiries] - new translation with extensive photographic essays of the places and artifacts mentioned by Herodotus hyper-linked to the text * [http://www.sacred-texts.com/cla/hh/index.htm Parallel Greek and English text of the History of Herodotus] at the Internet Sacred Text Archive ---- ''An [http://www.nupedia.com/article/390/ earlier version] of this article by James Allan Evans was posted at [[Nupedia]].'' [[Category:484 BC births|Herodotus]] [[Category:425 BC deaths|Herodotus]] [[Category:Ancient Greeks]] [[Category:Ancient Greek historians]] [[Category:Historians|Herodotus]] [[ar:هيرودوت]] [[bg:Херодот]] [[ca:Herodot]] [[cs:Hérodotos]] [[da:Herodot]] [[de:Herodot]] [[et:Herodotos]] [[el:Ηρόδοτος]] [[es:Herodoto]] [[eo:Herodoto]] [[eu:Herodoto]] [[fa:هرودوت]] [[fr:Hérodote]] [[gl:Heródoto]] [[ko:헤로도토스]] [[hi:हिरोडोटस]] [[hr:Herodot]] [[is:Heródótos]] [[it:Erodoto]] [[he:הרודוטוס]] [[la:Herodotus Halicarnassensis]] [[lv:Hērodots]] [[lt:Herodotas]] [[lb:Herodot]] [[ms:Herodotus]] [[nl:Herodotus]] [[ja:ヘロドトス]] [[no:Herodot]] [[pl:Herodot]] [[pt:Heródoto de Halicarnasso]] [[ro:Herodot]] [[ru:Геродот]] [[sk:Herodotos]] [[sl:Herodot]] [[sr:Херодот]] [[fi:Herodotos]] [[sv:Herodotos]] [[tr:Herodot
of them. They cannot synthesize [[isoleucine]], [[leucine]], [[lysine]], [[methionine]], [[phenylalanine]], [[threonine]], [[tryptophan]], and [[valine]]. These are the [[essential amino acid]]s, since it is essential to ingest them. Mammals do possess the enzymes to synthesize [[alanine]], [[asparagine]], [[aspartate]], [[cysteine]], [[glutamate]], [[glutamine]], [[glycine]], [[proline]], [[serine]], and [[tyrosine]], the nonessential amino acids. While they can synthesize [[arginine]] and [[histidine]], they cannot produce it in sufficient amounts for young, growing animals, and so these are often considered essential amino acids. If the amino group is removed from an amino acid, it leaves behind a carbon skeleton called an &amp;alpha;-[[keto acid]]. Enzymes called [[transaminase]]s can easily transfer the amino group from one amino acid (making it an &amp;alpha;-keto acid) to another &amp;alpha;-keto acid (making it an amino acid). This is important in the biosynthesis of amino acids, as for many of the pathways, intermediates from other biochemical pathways are converted to the &amp;alpha;-keto acid skeleton, and then an amino group is added, often via [[transamination]]. The amino acids may then be linked together to make a protein. A similar process is used to break down proteins. It is first hydrolyzed into its component amino acids. Free [[ammonia]] (NH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;, existing as the [[ammonium]] ion NH&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt;) in blood) is toxic to life forms. A suitable method for excreting it must therefore exist. Different strategies have evolved in different animals, depending on the animals' needs. [[Unicellular]] organisms, of course, simply release the ammonia into the environment. Similarly, [[osteichthyes|bony fish]] can release the ammonia into the water where it is quickly diluted. In general, mammals convert the ammonia into [[urea]], via the [[urea cycle]]. ==Lipids== {{main|Lipid}} The term lipid comprises a diverse range of [[molecules]] and to some extent is a catchall for relatively water-insoluble or [[nonpolar]] compounds of biological origin, including [[wax]]es, [[fatty acid]]s, fatty-acid derived phospholipids, sphingolipids, glycolipids and terpenoids, such as retinoids and [[steroids]]. Some lipids are linear [[aliphatic]] molecules, while others have ring structures. Some are [[aromatic]], while others are not. Some are flexible, while others are rigid. Most lipids have some [[polar molecule|polar]] character in addition to being largely nonpolar. Generally, the bulk of their structure is nonpolar or [[hydrophobic]] (&quot;water-fearing&quot;), meaning that it does not interact well with polar solvents like water. Another part of their structure is polar or [[hydrophilic]] (&quot;water-loving&quot;) and will tend to associate with polar solvents like water. This makes them [[amphiphilic]] molecules (having both hydrophobic and hydrophilic portions). In the case of [[cholesterol]], the polar group is a mere -OH ([[hydroxyl]] or alcohol). In the case of phospholipids, the polar groups are considerably larger and more polar, as described below. ==Nucleic acids== {{main|Nucleic acid}} A nucleic acid is a complex, high-molecular-weight [[biochemistry|biochemical]] [[macromolecule]] composed of [[nucleotide]] chains that convey [[genetic information]]. The most common nucleic acids are deoxyribonucleic acid ([[DNA]]) and ribonucleic acid ([[RNA]]). Nucleic acids are found in all living cells and viruses. Nucleic acid, so called because of its prevalence in cellular [[cell nucleus|nuclei]], is the generic name of family of [[biopolymer]]s. The [[monomer]]s are called [[nucleotide]]s, and each consists of three components: a nitrogenous [[heterocyclic]] [[base (chemistry)|base]] (either a [[purine]] or a [[pyrimidine]]), a [[pentose]] [[sugar]], and a [[phosphate]] group. Different nucleic acid types differ in the specific sugar found in their chain (e.g. DNA or deoxyribonucleic acid contains 2-[[deoxyribose]]s). Also, the nitrogenous bases possible in the two nucleic acids are different: [[adenine]], [[cytosine]], and [[guanine]] are possible in both RNA and DNA, while [[thymine]] is possible only in DNA and [[uracil]] is possible only in RNA. ==Relationship to other &quot;molecular-scale&quot; biological sciences== [[Image:Schematic relationship between biochemistry, genetics and molecular biology.svg|thumb|250px|right|''Schematic relationship between biochemistry, genetics and molecular biology'']] Researchers in biochemistry use specific techniques native to biochemistry, but increasingly combine these with techniques and ideas from [[genetics]], [[molecular biology]] and [[biophysics]]. There has never a hard-line between these disciplines in terms of content and technique, but members of each discipline have in the past been very territorial; today the terms ''molecular biology'' and ''biochemistry'' are nearly interchangeable. The following figure is a schematic that depicts one possible view of the relationship between the fields: *''Biochemistry'' is the study of the chemical substances and vital processes occurring in living [[organisms]]. *''Genetics'' is the study of the effect of genetic differences on organisms. Often this can be inferred by the absence of a normal component (e.g. one [[gene]]). The study of &quot;[[mutant|mutants]]&quot; &amp;ndash; organisms which lack one or more functional components with respect to the so-called &quot;[[wild type]]&quot; or normal [[phenotype]]. [[Genetic interactions]] ([[epistasis]]) can often confound simple interpretations of such &quot;knock-out&quot; studies. *''Molecular biology'' is the study of molecular underpinnings of the process of replication, transcription and translation of the [[genetic material]]. The [[central dogma of molecular biology]] where genetic material is transcribed into RNA and then translated into protein, despite being an oversimplified picture of molecular biology, still provides a good starting point for understanding the field. This picture, however, is undergoing revision in light of emerging novel roles for [[RNA]]. *''Chemical Biology'' seeks to develop new tools based on [[small molecule]]s that allow minimal perturbation of biological systems while providing detailed information about their function. Further, chemical biology employs biological systems to create non-natural hybrids between biomolecules and synthetic devices (for example emptied viral capsids that can deliver gene therapy or drug molecules). ==Further reading== *Graeme K. Hunter, ''Vital Forces. The discovery of the molecular basis of life'', London: Academic Press 2000 ==See also== * [[List of basic biochemistry topics|Biochemistry key topics]] * [[Biological psychiatry]] * [[Chemical ecology]] * [[Chemical imbalance theory]] * [[List of publications in biology#Biochemistry|Important publications in biochemistry (biology)]] * [[List of publications in chemistry#Biochemistry|Important publications in biochemistry (chemistry)]] * [[List of biochemistry topics]] * [[List of biochemists]] * [[List of biomolecules]] * [[List of geneticists &amp; biochemists]] * [[Molecular biology]] * [[Chemical biology]] * [[Computational biomodeling]] ==External links== {{wikibooks}} {{Wikibookspar|Wikiversity|Biochemistry}} *[http://www.biochemweb.org/ The Virtual Library of Biochemistry and Cell Biology] *[http://www.biotecnologia.co.cr/ Costa Rican Biotechnology Society] &lt;br clear=all&gt; {{Biology-footer}} {{BranchesofChemistry}} &lt;!-- Categories --&gt; [[Category:Biochemistry]] [[Category:Scientific portmanteaus]] [[Category:Subjects Taught in Medical School]] [[af:Biochemie]] [[ar:كيمياء حيوية]] [[bg:Биохимия]] [[ca:Bioquímica]] [[cs:Biochemie]] [[da:Biokemi]] [[de:Biochemie]] [[el:Βιοχημεία]] [[eo:Biokemio]] [[es:Bioquímica]] [[et:Biokeemia]] [[fa:زیست‌شیمی]] [[fi:Biokemia]] [[fr:Biochimie]] [[fy:Biogemy]] [[he:ביוכימיה]] [[id:Biokimia]] [[io:Biokemio]] [[is:Lífefnafræði]] [[it:Biochimica]] [[ja:生化学]] [[ko:생화학]] [[lb:Biochimie]] [[lt:Biochemija]] [[lv:Bioķīmija]] [[mk:Биохемија]] [[mn:Биохими]] [[ms:Biokimia]] [[nl:Biochemie]] [[pl:Biochemia]] [[pt:Bioquímica]] [[ro:Biochimie]] [[ru:Биохимия]] [[simple:Biochemistry]] [[sk:Biochémia]] [[sl:Biokemija]] [[sr:Биохемија]] [[su:Biokimia]] [[sv:Biokemi]] [[th:ชีวเคมี]] [[tl:Biyokimika]] [[tr:Biyokimya]] [[uk:Біологічна хімія]] [[vi:Hóa sinh]] [[zh:生物化學]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Badminton</title> <id>3956</id> <revision> <id>42118881</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T23:12:54Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>65.223.41.10</ip> </contributor> <comment>/* External links */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">''This article is about the racquet sport '''badminton'''. For other uses of the name, see [[Badminton (disambiguation)]].'' [[Image:Badminton_court_3d_small.png|right|thumb|250px|Badminton court, isomorphic view]] '''Badminton''' is a [[List of sports#Racquet (or racket) sports|racket (or racquet) sport]] played by either two opposing players (singles) or two opposing pairs (doubles). Players at opposite ends of the court aim to hit a [[shuttlecock]], more informally called a birdie, over the net so that it lands inside the marked boundaries of the court, and aim to prevent their opponents from doing the same. Unlike a [[tennis ball]], the shuttlecock flies with a lot of [[drag (physics)|drag]], and will not bounce significantly. The shuttlecock is always volleyed, and a point ends as soon as it touches the ground. Badminton racquets have long handles, to make it easier to impart a great deal of [[momentum]] to overcome the drag. The racquets are also much lighter than tennis racquets, because the shuttlecock is light. Badminton is one of the fastest sports in the world with shuttles reaching speeds of up to 332&amp;nbsp;km/h (206&amp;nbsp;mph). [[Fu H
still put forward by the Church of Scientology, for instance in a 1993 speech by Church head [[David Miscavige]]: :But the whole world knows of Dianetics. It was the concern that this very popularity might occur that drove the psychs mad in 1950. :At stake were all of their vested interest dollars. How could they get research grants? Millions, or even billions - if the problems of the mind were already solved? And how could they hide the fact of LRH's discoveries if the whole country was talking about them? Their initial attacks have been mentioned over the years by us. First they got &quot;technical reviews&quot; by psychiatrists hatcheting Dianetics. They published these critical reviews in their psychiatric trade magazines ... Then they took these published reviews and handed them out to the press where they were promptly requoted as authority in magazines like &quot;Slime&quot; and &quot;Tripe&quot; [i.e. ''[[Time magazine|Time]]'' and ''[[Life magazine|Life]]'']. &lt;ref&gt;David Miscavige, speech to the [[International Association of Scientologists]], [[October 8]] [[1993]]&lt;/ref&gt; ===Fragmentation and transformation=== By the autumn of 1950, Dianetics was beginning to run into serious problems. Revenue was still received from book sales, lectures and auditor training, but financial controls seem to have been lax. Hubbard said that &quot;We had taken in hundreds of thousands of dollars, all told, and it's something on the accounting system of dumping it all in a barrel outside the door and hauling the barrel down to a bank every once in a while - just grim, the accounting just horrible!&quot; &lt;ref&gt;Hubbard, &quot;Review of progress of Dianetics and dianetic business&quot;, lecture of [[25 February]] [[1952]]&lt;/ref&gt; One of those involved in Dianetics at the time, Helen O'Brien, claimed that a member of the Elizabeth, NJ Dianetic Foundation resigned after it emerged that only $20,000 of the Foundation's $90,000 income one month could be accounted for. Hubbard's treasurer, A. E. van Vogt, has said that Hubbard personally withdrew large sums from Foundation accounts, apparently without any prior notice or explanation of his purpose. &lt;ref&gt;A.E. van Vogt interview with Russell Miller, quoted in Miller, ''Bare Faced Messiah'' p. 166&lt;/ref&gt; He calculated that by November 1950 the six Foundations had spent around one million dollars and were more than $200,000 in debt. He attempted to rein in costs by cutting staff, but was overruled by Hubbard. &lt;ref&gt;''Dianetics and the Professions'', A.E. van Vogt, 1953&lt;/ref&gt; Matters were made worse by the Foundation's expensive research program, for which a 110-room building was bought on Rossmore Avenue, Los Angeles. Hubbard believed that a cocktail of [[benzedrine]], [[vitamins]] and [[glutamic acid]] - which he termed GUK after the rifle cleaning fluid used by the [[US Marine Corps]] - would provide a chemical alternative to auditing. &lt;ref&gt;Forrest Ackerman interview with Russell Miller, quoted in Miller, ''Bare Faced Messiah'' p. 173&lt;/ref&gt; Winter writes that it proved a &quot;dismal, expensive failure.&quot; &lt;ref&gt;Winter, ''Dianetics: A Doctor's Report'' p. 190&lt;/ref&gt; Disagreements had emerged over the direction of the Dianetic Foundation's work, and relations between the board members were becoming strained. Hubbard's interest in [[past lives]] was a particular cause of tension, as he noted in a lengthy footnote in his 1951 book ''[[Science of Survival]]'': :The subject of past deaths and past lives is so full of tension that as early as last July (1950-Ed) the board of trustees of the Foundation sought to pass a resolution banning the entire subject. And I have been many times requested to omit any reference to these in the present work or in public for fear that a general impression would get out that Dianetics had something to do with spiritualism. &lt;ref&gt;Hubbard, ''Science of Survival'', footnote p. 61. Hubbard College of Scientology, East Grinstead (1967 ed.)&lt;/ref&gt; He later claimed that &quot;The reason the first Hubbard Dianetic Research Foundation had trouble was that its Board of Directors attempted to stop past lives from being run.&quot; &lt;ref&gt;Hubbard, ''Dianetics Today'', p. 353. Church of Scientology of California, Los Angeles (1975 ed.)&lt;/ref&gt; Winter recorded his dissatisfaction with what he regarded as a &quot;divergen[ce] from my views as to what constituted a serious scientific organization.&quot; He took the view that &quot;Foundation dianetics was becoming crystallized, ritualistic and sterile&quot;, characterized by a &quot;none-too-subtle antagonism towards the medical profession in general and the psychiatric field in particular.&quot; He commented that &quot;any attempts to force the medical profession to accept it solely on the basis of the affirmation, &quot;It works!&quot; and deriding those who request more conclusive proof, is more than likely to jeopardize whatever possible benefits there might be.&quot; Having been rebuffed in his attempts to steer the Foundation onto &quot;a more reasoned and conservative basis&quot;, he resigned in October 1950. &lt;ref&gt;Winter, ''Dianetics: A Doctor's Report'' pp. 190-191&lt;/ref&gt; Other members of the Foundation's board of directors also fell out with Hubbard. Art Ceppos, the publisher of ''Dianetics'', also resigned at the same time as Winter and later published Winter's critical book on Dianetics. This breach led to problems in obtaining fresh copies of ''Dianetics'', as a new publisher had to be found. Shortly afterwards, the general counsel of the Dianetic Foundation in Elizabeth contacted the FBI and alleged that Ceppos was a Communist sympathizer who had recently tried to get hold of the Foundation's mailing list of sixteen thousand names which would be &quot;valuable to anyone interested in circulating Communist party literature&quot;. &lt;ref&gt;[http://www.xenu.net/archive/FBI/fbi-100.html Letter to Director FBI from SAC Newark], [[March 21]] [[1951]]&lt;/ref&gt; John W. Campbell likewise became dissatisfied. He criticized Hubbard for &quot;dogmatism and authoritarianism&quot; after the latter began to insist that only a Hubbard-approved &quot;Standard Procedure&quot; of Dianetics be used. Methods that Hubbard had not approved were condemned as being dangerous &quot;Black Dianetics.&quot; &lt;ref&gt;Campbell, letter in ''The Arc Light'', 25 (May 1952), pp. 6-8.&lt;/ref&gt; This was a marked break from Hubbard's previously liberal policy, in which he had rejected as illegitimate any attempt to monopolise Dianetics. Campbell resigned from the board in March 1951. Although he remained interested in Dianetics for several years afterwards, he eventually moved on to other causes. A particularly serious breach occurred with Hubbard's wife Sara, the Foundation's librarian and formerly his personal auditor and research subject. Barbara Klowdan, his public relations assistant, described how Hubbard and his wife had both had affairs with other people as they became estranged from each other - Hubbard with Klowdan, and Sara with Miles Hollister, a Dianetics instructor in Los Angeles. Sara was suspended from the Foundation's board of directors and her official post. On [[March 3]] [[1951]], Hubbard wrote to the FBI to denounce Sara and Hollister as &quot;Communist Party members or suspects&quot;, describing Hollister as having a &quot;broad forehead, rather Slavic.&quot; &lt;ref&gt;Hubbard, [http://www.xenu.net/archive/FBI/fbi-89.html letter to FBI of [[March 3]] [[1951]]]&lt;/ref&gt; Sara filed divorce papers on [[March 23]] [[1951]] which attracted widespread media interest due to her claims of &quot;systematic torture&quot; allegedly suffered at Hubbard's hands. &lt;ref&gt;&quot;Dianetics Inventor Sued for Divorce, Wife's Complaint Charges He Subjected Her To 'Scientific Torture Experiments'&quot;, ''Los Angeles Times'', [[April 24]] [[1951]]&lt;/ref&gt; A few weeks later, Hubbard wrote to the FBI to accuse Sara of involvement in a supposed assassination attempt in which &quot;I was knocked out, had a needle thrust into my heart to give it a jet of air to produce &quot;coronary thrombosis&quot; and was given an electric shock with a 110 volt current.&quot; &lt;ref&gt;Hubbard, [http://www.xenu.net/archive/FBI/fbi-110.html letter to FBI of [[May 14]] [[1951]]]&lt;/ref&gt; Hubbard later characterized the suit as &quot;a gal I wasn't even married to was suing me for divorce.&quot; &lt;ref&gt;Hubbard, &quot;SOP 5 long form step III - spacation&quot;, lecture of [[January 19]] [[1953]]&lt;/ref&gt; Hubbard appears to have believed that his organization was under sustained attack from Communist interests. From [[March 2]] [[1951]], all employees of the Dianetic Foundations were to be &quot;requested to sign a strong oath of loyalty to the U.S. government, a denial of Communism and that their fingerprints be taken and forwarded to the F.B.I.&quot; He asserted that Ceppos was &quot;connected with Communists&quot; &lt;ref&gt;[http://www.xenu.net/archive/FBI/fbi-92.html Memo from F. J. Baumgardner to M.H. Holm], [[March 7]] [[1951]]&lt;/ref&gt; and also claimed that Winter was a &quot;psycho-neurotic discharged officer of the US Army Medical Corps and that Winter seemed to have Communist connections.&quot; He complained that &quot;the Communist Party or members of the Communist Party have in the past year wiped out a half a million operation for me, have cost me my health and have considerably retarded material of interest to the United States Government.&quot; &lt;ref&gt;Hubbard, [http://www.xenu.net/archive/FBI/fbi-110.html letter to FBI of [[May 14]] [[1951]]]&lt;/ref&gt; Yet more financial problems were caused in January 1951 when the New Jersey Board of Medical Examiners instituted proceedings against the Hubbard Dianetic Research Foundation in Elizabeth, accusing it of teaching medicine without a licence. &lt;ref&g
e [[Campbell Plateau]] whereas the the Grey-Headed Albatross fed over oceanic waters. [[Wandering Albatross]]es also react strongly to [[bathymetry]], feeding only in waters deeper than 1000m; so rigidly did the satellite plots match this contour that one scientist remarked &quot;it almost appears as if the birds notice and obey a 'No Entry' sign where the water shallows to less than 1000m&quot;&lt;ref name = &quot;Brooke&quot;&gt;Brooke, M. (2004). ''Albatrosses And Petrels Across The World'': Procellariidae. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK ISBN 0-19-850125-0&lt;/ref&gt;. There is also evidence of differing ranges for the sexes of the same species, one study showed that male [[Wandering Albatross]]es forage further south than females. ===Diet=== The albatross diet is dominated by [[cephalopod]]s, [[fish]] and [[crustacean]]s, although they will also scavenge [[carrion]] and feed on other [[zooplankton]]&lt;ref name =&quot;tick&quot;&gt;Tickell, W.L.N. (2000). ''Albatrosses''. Sussex:Pica Press, ISBN 1-873403-94-1&lt;/ref&gt;. It should be noted that for most species a comprehensive understanding of diet is only known for the breeding season, when the albatrosses are on land and study is possible. The importance of each of these varies from species to species, and even from population to population, some concentrate on [[squid]] alone, others take more krill, or fish. Of the two albatross species found in [[Hawaii]], one, the [[Black-footed Albatross]] takes mostly fish while the [[Laysan Albatross|Laysan]] feeds on squid. The use of dataloggers at sea that record ingestion of water against time (providing a likely time of feeding) suggest that albatross predominantly feed during the day. Analysis of the squid beaks regurgitated by albatrosses has shown that many of the squid eaten are too large to have been caught alive&lt;ref&gt;Croxall, J.P. &amp; Prince, P.A. (1994). &quot;Dead or alive, night or day: how do albatrosses catch squid?&quot; ''Antarctic Science'' '''6''': 155–162.&lt;/ref&gt;, and include mid-water species likely to be beyond the reach of albatross, suggesting that, for some species (like the [[Wandering Albatross]]), scavenged squid may be an important part of the diet. The source of these dead squid is a matter of debate, some certainly comes from squid [[fisheries]], but in nature it probably came from the die-off that occurs after squid spawning and the vomit of squid-eating [[whale]]s ([[sperm whale]]s, [[pilot whale]]s and [[Southern Bottlenose Whale]]s), or possibly some other source. The diet of other species, like the [[Black-browed Albatross]] or the [[Grey-headed Albatross]], is rich with smaller species of squid that tend to sink after death, and scavenging is not assumed to play a large role in their diet. Until recently it was thought that albatross were predominantly surface feeders, swimming at the surface and snapping up squid and fish pushed to the surface by currents, other predators or death. The deployment of capillary depth recorders, which record the maximum dive depth undertaken by a bird (between attaching it to a bird and recovering it when it returns to land), has shown that while some species, like the [[Wandering Albatross]], do not dive deeper than a metre, some species, like the [[Light-mantled Sooty Albatross]], have a mean diving depth of almost 5m and can dive as deep as 12.5 m&lt;ref&gt;Prince, P.A., Huin, N., Weimerskirch, H., (1994) &quot;Diving depths of albatrosses&quot; ''Antarctic Science'' '''6''': (''3'') 353-354.&lt;/ref&gt;. In addition to surface feeding and diving they have now also been observed plunge diving from the air to snatch prey&lt;ref&gt;Cobley, N.D., (1996) &quot;An observation of live prey capture by a Black-browed Albatross ''Diomedea melanophrys'' &quot; ''Marine Ornithology'' '''24''': 45-46.[http://www.marineornithology.org/PDF/24/24_10.pdf]&lt;/ref&gt;. ===Breeding=== [[Image:Diomedea epomorpha (Mattern).jpg|thumb|230px|right|Southern Royal Albatrosses nest on remote islands as well as on the Otago Peninsula in the city of Dunedin, New Zealand]] Albatrosses are [[seabird colony|colonial]], usually nesting on isolated islands; where colonies are on larger landmasses they are found on exposed headlands with good approaches from the sea in several directions, like the colony on the [[Otago Peninsula]] in [[Dunedin, New Zealand]]. Colonies vary from the very dense aggregations favoured by the mollymawks ([[Black-browed Albatross]] colonies on the [[Falkland Islands]] have densities of 70 nests per 100 m²) to the much looser groups and widely spaced individual nests favoured by the sooty and great albatrosses. All albatross colonies are on islands that historically were free of land [[mammal]]s. Albatrosses are highly [[philopatry|philopatric]], meaning they will usually return to their natal colony to breed. This tendency to return is so strong that a study of [[Laysan Albatross]] showed that that average distance between hatching site and the site a bird established its own territory was 22 m&lt;ref&gt;Fisher, H.I., (1976) &quot;Some dynamics of a breeding colony of Laysan Albatrosses. ''Wilson Bulletin'' '''88''': 121-142.&lt;/ref&gt;. [[Image:Phoebastria irrorata NOAA mvey0649.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Bill clashing is one of the stereotyped actions of Waved Albatross breeding dances]] Like most seabirds, albatrosses are [[K-selected]] with regard to their life-history, meaning they live much longer than other birds, they delay breeding for longer, and invest more effort into fewer young. Albatrosses are very long lived. Most species survive upwards of 60 years, the oldest recorded being a [[Northern Royal Albatross]] that was [[Bird ringing|ringed]] as an adult and survived for another 51 years, giving it an estimated age of 61&lt;ref&gt;Robertson, C.J.R. (1993). &quot;Survival and longevity of the Northern Royal Albatross ''Diomedea epomophora sanfordi'' at Taiaroa Head&quot; 1937-93. ''Emu'' '''93''': 269-276.&lt;/ref&gt;. Given that most albatross ringing projects are considerably younger than that, is seems likely that other species will prove to live that long and even longer. Albatrosses reach [[sexual maturity]] slowly, after about 5 years, but even once they have reached maturity they will not begin to breed for another couple of years (even up to 10 years for some species). Young non-breeders will still attend a colony prior to beginning to breed, spending many years practicing the elaborate breeding rituals and &quot;dances&quot; that the family is famous for&lt;ref&gt;Jouventin, P., Monicault, G. de &amp; Blosseville, J.M. (1981) &quot;La danse de l'albatros, ''Phoebetria fusca''&quot;. ''Behaviour'' '''78''': 43-80.&lt;/ref&gt;. Birds arriving back at the colony for the first time already have the stereotyped behaviours that compose albatross [[language]], but can neither &quot;read&quot; that behaviour as exhibited by other birds nor respond appropriately&lt;ref name =&quot;tick&quot;&gt;Tickell, W.L.N. (2000). ''Albatrosses''. Sussex:Pica Press, ISBN 1-873403-94-1&lt;/ref&gt;. After a period of trial and error [[learning]], the young birds learn the [[syntax]] and perfect the dances. This language is mastered more rapidly if the younger birds are around older birds. The repertoire of behaviour involves synchronised performances of various actions such as [[preen]]ing, pointing, calling, bill clacking, staring, and combinations of such behaviours (like the sky-call)&lt;ref&gt;Pickering, S.P.C., &amp; Berrow, S.D., (2001) &quot;Courtship behaviour of the Wandering Albatross ''Diomedea exulans'' at Bird Island, South Georgia&quot; ''Marine Ornithology'' '''29''': 29-37 [http://www.marineornithology.org/PDF/29_1/29_1_6.pdf]&lt;/ref&gt;. As they progress the number of birds they interact with drops until they choose one partner. They then continue to perfect an individual language that will eventually be unique to that one pair. Having established a pair bond that will last for life, however, most of that dance will never be used ever again. The 'divorce' of a pair is a rare occurrence, usually only happening after several years of breeding failure. [[Image:Albatros_ceja_negra_-_paso_drake_-_noviembre_2005.jpg|thumb|250px|Black-browed albatross flying over the Drake Passage]] The reason for the elaborate and painstaking rituals is to ensure that the correct partner has been chosen, and to perfect recognition of their partner, as egg laying and chick rearing is a huge investment, and even species that can complete an egg-laying cycle in under a year seldom lay eggs in consecutive years&lt;ref name = &quot;Brooke&quot;&gt;Brooke, M. (2004). ''Albatrosses And Petrels Across The World'': Procellariidae. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK ISBN 0-19-850125-0&lt;/ref&gt;. The great albatrosses (like the [[Wandering Albatross]]) take over a year to raise a chick from laying to [[fledge|fledging]]. Albatrosses lay a single [[egg (biology)|egg]]; if the egg is lost to predators or accidentally broken then no further breeding attempts are made that year. All the southern albatrosses create large [[nest]]s for their egg, whereas the three species in the north Pacific make more rudimentary nests. The [[Waved Albatross]], on the other hand, makes no nest and will even move its egg around the pair's territory, as much as 50 m, sometimes causing it to lose the egg&lt;ref&gt;Anderson, D.J. &amp; Cruz, F. (1998) &quot;Biology and management of the Waved Albatross at the Galapagos Islands. Pp.105-109 in ''Albatross Biology and Conservation'' (Roberston , G. &amp; Gales, R. eds) Chipping Norton:Surrey Beatty and &amp; Sons ISBN: 0949324825 &lt;/ref&gt;. In all albatrosses species both parents [[incubate]] the egg, in stints that last between one day to three weeks. Incubation lasts around 70&amp;ndash;80 days (longer for the larger albatrosses), the longest incubation period of any bird. It can be an energeticall
momentum '''P''' of the body at given velocity '''v''' of the body, i. e. it is a proportionality factor in the formula: '''P=mv''' The factor m is referred to as inertial mass. But mass as a measure of inertia of a body can be defined also by the formula: '''F = ma''' By this formula, the more is mass, the less is the acceleration of a body at given force. Masses '''m''' defined by the formulae (1) and (2) are equal because the formula (2) is a consequence of the formula (1) if mass does not depend on time and speed. Thus, &quot;mass is the quantitative or numerical measure of body’s inertia, that is of its resistance to being accelerated&quot;. This definition of a body's inertia therefore is altered from the original definition of inertia as &quot;a tendency to maintain momentum&quot; to a definition of the measure of how difficult it is to change the momentum of a body. === Inertial mass === The only difference there appears to be between inertial mass and gravitational mass is the method used to determine them. [[Gravitational mass]] is measured by comparing the force of gravity of an unknown mass to the force of [[gravity]] of a known mass. This is typically done with some sort of balance scale. The beauty of this method is that no matter where, or what planet, you are, the masses will always balance out because the gravitational acceleration on each object will be the same. This does break down near supermassive objects such as black holes and neutron stars due to the high gradient of the gravitational field around such objects. Inertial mass is found by applying a known force to an unknown mass, measuring the acceleration, and applying Newton's Second Law, '''m = F/a'''. This gives an accurate value for mass, limited only by the accuracy of the measurements. When astronauts need to be weighed in outer space, they actually find their inertial mass in a special chair. The interesting thing is that, physically, no difference has been found between gravitational and inertial mass. Many experiments have been performed to check the values and the experiments always agree to within the margin of error for the experiment. [[Einstein]] used the fact that gravitational and inertial mass were equal to begin his [[Theory of General Relativity]] in which he postulated that gravitational mass was the same as inertial mass, and that the acceleration of gravity is a result of a 'valley' or slope in the [[space-time continuum]] that masses 'fell down' much as pennies spiral around a hole in the common donation toy at a chain store. Since Einstein used inertial mass to describe [[Special Relativity]], inertial mass is closely related to [[relativistic mass]] and is therefore different from [[rest mass]]. === Inertial frames === In a location such as a steadily moving railway carriage, a dropped ball would behave as it would if it were dropped in a stationary carriage. The ball would simply descend vertically. It is possible to ignore the motion of the carriage by defining it as an [[inertial frame]]. In a moving but non-accelerating frame, the ball behaves normally because the train and its contents continue to move at a constant velocity. Before being dropped, the ball was traveling with the train at the same speed, and the ball's inertia ensured that it continued to move in the same speed and direction as the train, even while dropping. Note that, here, it is inertia which ensured that, not its mass. In an [[inertial frame]] all the observers in uniform (non-accelerating) motion will observe the same laws of physics. However observers in another inertial frames can make a simple, and intuitively obvious, transformation (the [[Galilean transformation]]), to convert their observations. Thus, an observer from outside the moving train could deduce that the dropped ball within the carriage fell vertically downwards. However, in frames which are experiencing acceleration (''non-inertial frames''), objects appear to be affected by ''[[fictitious force]]s''. For example, if the railway carriage was accelerating, the ball would not fall vertically within the carriage but would appear to an observer to be deflected because the carriage and the ball would not be traveling at the same speed while the ball was falling. Other examples of fictitious forces occur in rotating frames such as the earth. For example, a missile at the North Pole could be aimed directly at a location and fired southwards. An observer would see it apparently deflected away from its target by a force (the [[Coriolis effect|Coriolis force]]) but in reality the southerly target has moved because earth has rotated while the missile is in flight. Because the earth is rotating a useful inertial frame of reference is defined by the stars, which only move imperceptibly during most observations. In summary, the principle of inertia is intimately linked with the principles of [[conservation of energy]] and [[Momentum#Conservation of momentum|conservation of momentum]]. ===Rotational inertia=== Another form of inertia is ''rotational inertia'', which refers to the fact that a rotating rigid body maintains its state of uniform [[rotation]]al motion. Its [[angular momentum]] is unchanged, unless an external [[torque]] is applied; this is also called conservation of angular momentum. Rotational inertia often has hidden practical consequences. ==See also== *[[Energy]] *[[General relativity]] *[[Inertial frame]] *[[Inertial guidance system]] *[[Inertial mass]] *[[List of moments of inertia]] *[[Mach's principle]] *[[Momentum]] *[[Newton's laws of motion]] *[[Newtonian physics]] *[[Special relativity]] ==References and footnotes== # {{note|physics}} [http://etext.library.adelaide.edu.au/a/aristotle/a8ph/ Aristotle: Physics], (335-322 BC), trans. by R. P. Hardie and R. K. Gaye ([[Physics (Aristotle)|Wikipedia Article]]) # {{note|philoponus}} [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/philoponus/ Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy: Joannes Philoponus] # {{note|buridan}} Jean Buridan: Quaestiones on Aristotle's Physics (quoted at http://brahms.phy.vanderbilt.edu/a203/impetus_theory.html) # {{note|revolutionibus}} [http://webexhibits.org/calendars/year-text-Copernicus.html Nicholas Copernicus: The Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres], 1543 # {{note|galileo-worldsys}} [http://webexhibits.org/calendars/year-text-Galileo.html Galileo: Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems], 1632 ([[Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems|Wikipedia Article]]) ==External links== *[http://www.seop.leeds.ac.uk/entries/buridan/ ''Jean Buridan'' Stanford Encyclopaedia of Philosophy] *Principia: [http://members.tripod.com/~gravitee/] ==Books and papers== *Butterfield, H (1957) ''The Origins of Modern Science'' ISBN 071350160X *Clement, J (1982) &quot;Students' preconceptions in introductory mechanics&quot;, ''American Journal of Physics'' vol 50, pp66-71 *Crombie, A C (1959) ''Medieval and Early Modern Science'', vol 2 *McCloskey, M (1983) &quot;Intuitive physics&quot;, ''Scientific American'', April, pp114-123 *McCloskey, M &amp; Carmazza, A (1980) &quot;Curvilinear motion in the absence of external forces: naïve beliefs about the motion of objects&quot;, ''Science'' vol 210, pp1139-1141 * http://arxiv.org/abs/physics/0211106 UNIVERSALITY Emil Marinchev, Technical University of Sofia, Physics Department, 8 Kliment Ohridski St., Sofia-1000, BG, e-mail: emar@tu-sofia.bg Abstract: This article is an attempt for a new vision of the basics of Physics, and of Relativity, in particular. A new generalized principle of inertia is proposed, as an universal principle, based on universality of the conservation laws. A new theoretical scheme is proposed based on two basic principles: 1.The principle of universality of the conservation laws, and 2.The principle of the universal velocity. It is well- founded with examples of different fields of physics. Comments: 5 pages, 1 figure, Subj-class: General Physics, Key words:Universality, New Insight in Physics http://arxiv.org/abs/physics/0211106 &lt;!-- interwiki --&gt; [[Category:Classical mechanics]] [[Category:Introductory physics]] {{Physics-footer}} [[bg:Инертност]] [[de:Trägheit]] [[es:Inercia]] [[fr:Inertie]] [[ko:관성]] [[hr:Tromost]] [[io:Inerteso]] [[he:עקרון ההתמדה]] [[la:Inertia]] [[lv:Inerce]] [[ms:Inersia]] [[nl:Traagheid]] [[ja:慣性]] [[pl:Bezwładność]] [[pt:Inércia]] [[ru:Закон инерции]] [[simple:Inertia]] [[sl:Vztrajnost]] [[sv:Tröghet]] [[vi:Quán tính]] [[tr:Eylemsizlik]] [[zh:惯性原理]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Ibanez</title> <id>14910</id> <revision> <id>41816090</id> <timestamp>2006-03-01T22:59:14Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>TheJesterRace07</username> <id>1000013</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>/* Electric Guitars */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the guitar manufacturer. For a list of people named Ibáñez see [[Ibáñez (disambiguation)]]'' [[Image:Ibanez logo.jpg|thumb|200px|The Ibanez logo]] '''Ibanez''' is a guitar company in [[Nagoya, Aichi]], [[Japan]], the company was started by Hoshino Gakki. ==History== The Hoshino Gakki company began in [[1908]] as a musical instrument sales division of the ''Hoshino Shoten'' [[bookstore]] company. In [[1935]] they began manufacturing their own stringed instruments. The company had little presence in the Western world until the mid-1960s. In [[1954]], [[Harry Rosenbloom]] opened a music store in [[Bryn Mawr, Pennsylvania]], northwest of [[Philadelphia]]. Due to the post-[[World War II]] music boom, his sales soon outstripped his inventory, and he began a company called '''Elger Guitars''' in an attempt to manufacture enough guitars to fill his needs. The Elger Guitar company made a relatively small number of hand-built, high quality guitars through the early 1960s. [[Image:JEM7VWH.jpg|thumb|150px|right|Ibanez Jem]]
w details who the sponsors have been and what they called the competition: * 1993&amp;ndash;2001: [[Carling O'Keefe|Carling]] (FA Carling Premiership) * 2001&amp;ndash;08: [[Barclays Bank|Barclays]] (Barclays Premiership; from 2001-2004, it was known as the [[Barclaycard]] Premiership) ===Worldwide reach=== [[Image:Fa premier league norway.jpg|thumb|right|A Norwegian take on FA Premier League team names]] Promoted as &quot;The Greatest Show On Earth&quot;, the FA Premier League is the world's most popular and most watched sporting league, followed worldwide by over a billion people{{ref|popular}}. Over 260 foreign players compete in the league, and 101 stars from England's domestic leagues competed in the {{Wc|2002}} in [[South Korea|Korea]] and [[Japan]]. It is widely watched overseas, with matches being shown in over 150 countries. Premier League teams such as [[Manchester United F.C.|Manchester United]], [[Arsenal F.C.|Arsenal]], [[Liverpool F.C.|Liverpool]] and star players over the years such as [[Eric Cantona]], [[Ryan Giggs]], [[David Beckham]], [[Alan Shearer]], [[Gianfranco Zola]] and subsequently [[Thierry Henry]], [[Frank Lampard]], [[Stephen Gerrard]], [[Ruud van Nistelrooy]] and [[Wayne Rooney]] have become worldwide sporting icons. The Premier League is particularly popular in [[Scandinavia]], with ferry operators offering &quot;football ferries&quot; to [[Norway|Norwegian]] football fans wishing to see their favourite teams in action. The Premier League is also very popular in [[Asia]]. In Asia, it is broadcasted by ESPN-Star, a collaboration of [[ESPN]] and [[Star Sports]]. The broadcast is done from Singapore. ===Number of foreigners=== At the inception of the Premier League in [[1992-93 in English football|1992-93]], just 11 players named in the starting line-ups for the first round of matches were foreign (players hailing from outside of the [[United Kingdom]]).[http://football.guardian.co.uk/print/0,3858,4487212-3057,00.html] By [[2000-01 in English football|2000-01]], the number of foreign players participating in the Premiership was 36%. In the [[2004-05 in English football|2004-5]] season the figure had increased to 45%. On [[26 December]] [[1999]], Chelsea became the first Premier League side to field an entirely foreign starting line-up, while on [[14 February]] 2005 [[Arsenal F.C.|Arsenal]] were the first to name a completely foreign 16-man squad for a match. Arsenal's 85% foreign player figure (rising from 64% in 2000&amp;ndash;01) is the highest of any club over the period. [[Chelsea F.C.|Chelsea]] have since been overtaken in terms of the number of foreign-born players by [[Liverpool F.C.|Liverpool]] (72%). No English manager has ever actually won the Premier League. Only four different managers have won the title as of 2005: two [[Scotland|Scots]], a [[France|Frenchman]] and a [[Portugal|Portugese]]. ===Television broadcasting rights=== Television has played a major role in the history of the F.A. Premier League. The money from TV deals has been vital in helping to create excellence both on and off the field. The initial decision to go with [[Sky]] was, again, a radical decision, but one that has paid off. At the time pay television was a relatively untested proposition in the UK market, as was charging fans to watch live televised football. However a combination of Sky’s marketing strategy, the quality of the F.A. Premier League football and the public’s appetite for the game has seen the value of the F.A. Premier League’s broadcast rights soar and delivered huge benefits to the game. The first [[Sky]] television agreement was worth £191 million over five seasons. The next contract, negotiated to start from the 1997/98 season, rose to £670 million over four seasons. The Premier League’s current £1.024 billion deal with [[BSkyB]] runs over the course of three seasons from August 2004. ==History== The FA Premier League was formed on [[20th February]] [[1992]] and played its first season in [[FA Premier League 1992-93|1992&amp;ndash;93]]. This meant a break-up of the 104-year-old Football League that had operated until then with four divisions. A number of events during the mid and late Eighties had sent clear signals that fundamental changes were needed to the structure of professional football. The English game was at possibly its lowest ebb ever. Stadiums were crumbling, supporters were faced with poor facilities, [[football hooliganism|hooliganism]] was rife and English clubs were banned from European competition following the events at [[Heysel stadium disaster|Heysel]] in [[1985]]. The old First Division became a selling league as many top players were lured by the financial attractions of the Continent. A radical restructuring was required if English football was to prosper. A proposal for the establishment of the league was tabled that would bring more money into the game overall. The Founder Members Agreement, signed on [[17th July]] [[1991]] by the game's top-flight clubs, established the basic principles for setting up the FA Premier League. The newly formed top division would have commercial independence from [[the Football Association]] and the Football League, giving the FA Premier League license to negotiate its own broadcast and sponsorship agreements. In [[1992]] the First Division Clubs resigned from the football league en masse and on [[27th May]] [[1992]] the FA Premier League was formed as a [[private limited company by shares|limited company]], which worked out of an office at the then [[Football Association]]'s headquarters, [[Lancaster Gate]]. The league originally comprised 22 clubs, however, owing to FIFA insistance on domestic leagues reducing the number of games clubs played, the number was reduced to 20 in 1995, when 4 teams were relegated from the league and only 2 teams were promoted. There have at times been discussions of reducing the number further to 18, however there are no known plans to do so. ==Premier League clubs, 2005&amp;ndash;06== {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; |- !Club&lt;br /&gt; !Finishing position&lt;br /&gt;[[2004-05 in English football|last season]] !First season in&lt;br //&gt;top division !First season of&lt;br /&gt;current spell in&lt;br /&gt;top division |- |style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;|[[Arsenal F.C.|Arsenal]]*&amp;#8224;||2nd||1904&amp;ndash;05||1919&amp;ndash;20 |- |style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;|[[Aston Villa F.C.|Aston Villa]]*&amp;#8224;||10th||1888&amp;ndash;89||1988&amp;ndash;89 |- |style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;|[[Birmingham City F.C.|Birmingham City]]||12th||1894&amp;ndash;95||[[FA Premier League 2002-03|2002&amp;ndash;03]] |- |style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;|[[Blackburn Rovers F.C.|Blackburn Rovers]]&amp;#8224;||15th||1888&amp;ndash;89||[[FA Premier League 2001-02|2001&amp;ndash;02]] |- |style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;|[[Bolton Wanderers F.C.|Bolton Wanderers]]||6th||1888&amp;ndash;89||[[FA Premier League 2001-02|2001&amp;ndash;02]] |- |style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;|[[Charlton Athletic F.C.|Charlton Athletic]]||11th||1936&amp;ndash;37||[[FA Premier League 2000-01|2000&amp;ndash;01]] |- |style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;|[[Chelsea F.C.|Chelsea]]*&amp;#8224;||1st||1907&amp;ndash;08||1989&amp;ndash;90 |- |style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;|[[Everton F.C.|Everton]]*&amp;#8224;||4th||1888&amp;ndash;89||1954&amp;ndash;55 |- |style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;|[[Fulham F.C.|Fulham]]||13th||1949-50||[[FA Premier League 2001-02|2001&amp;ndash;02]] |- |style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;|[[Liverpool F.C.|Liverpool]]*&amp;#8224;||5th||1894&amp;ndash;95||1962&amp;ndash;63 |- |style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;|[[Manchester City F.C.|Manchester City]]&amp;#8224;||8th||1899&amp;ndash;1900||[[FA Premier League 2002-03|2002&amp;ndash;03]] |- |style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;|[[Manchester United F.C.|Manchester United]]*&amp;#8224;||3rd||1892&amp;ndash;93||1975&amp;ndash;76 |- |style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;|[[Middlesbrough F.C.|Middlesbrough]]&amp;#8224;||7th||1902&amp;ndash;03||[[FA Premier League 1998-99|1998&amp;ndash;99]] |- |style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;|[[Newcastle United F.C.|Newcastle United]]||14th||1898&amp;ndash;99||[[FA Premier League 1993-94|1993&amp;ndash;94]] |- |style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;|[[Portsmouth F.C.|Portsmouth]]||16th||1927&amp;ndash;28||[[FA Premier League 2003-04|2003&amp;ndash;04]] |- |style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;|[[Sunderland A.F.C.|Sunderland]]||1st in [[Football League Championship|The Championship]]||1890&amp;ndash;91||[[FA Premier League 2005-06|2005&amp;ndash;06]] |- |style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;|[[Tottenham Hotspur F.C.|Tottenham Hotspur]]*&amp;#8224;||9th||1909&amp;ndash;10||1978&amp;ndash;79 |- |style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;|[[West Bromwich Albion F.C.|West Bromwich Albion]]||17th||1888&amp;ndash;89||[[FA Premier League 2004-05|2004&amp;ndash;05]] |- |style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;|[[West Ham United F.C.|West Ham United]]||6th in [[Football League Championship|The Championship]], promoted via the play-offs||1923&amp;ndash;24||[[FA Premier League 2005-06|2005&amp;ndash;06]] |- |style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;|[[Wigan Athletic F.C.|Wigan Athletic]]||2nd in [[Football League Championship|The Championship]]||2005&amp;ndash;06||[[FA Premier League 2005-06|2005&amp;ndash;06]] |} :&lt;nowiki&gt;*&lt;/nowiki&gt; Played in every Premier League season. :&amp;#8224; Founding member of Premier League ==Former Premier League members== {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; |- !Club&lt;br /&gt; !Years in most&lt;br /&gt;recent spell in top&lt;br /&gt;division !First season in&lt;br /&gt;most recent spell in&lt;br /&gt;top division of&lt;br /&gt;English football !Final season of&lt;br /&gt;most recent spell in&lt;br /&gt;top division of&lt;br /&gt;English football |- |style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;|[[Barnsley F.C.|Barnsley]]||1||1997&amp;ndash;98||[[FA Premier Le
like Pizza Margherita) ** Winter: mushrooms and boiled egg *[[Pizza ai quattro formaggi]] - with four different cheeses (sometimes melted, sometimes in sectors) *[[Pizza ai funghi e salsicce]] (or boscaiola)- with [[mozzarella]], mushrooms and sausages, with or without tomato. *[[Calzone]] - folded over dough usually filled with [[ricotta]] and other ingredients ===[[Pasta]] varieties - (over 650)=== * [[Agnolotti]] * Bavette, Bigoli, [[Bucatini]] * [[Cannelloni]], Crespelle * Cappellini * Conchiglie * [[Ditalini]] * Eliche * [[Farfalle]], Festoni, [[Fettuccine]], Filatieddi, [[Fusilli]] * Garganelli * [[Gnocchi]] * [[Lasagne]], [[Linguine]], Lumaconi (large slugs) * [[Macaroni|Maccheroni]] ([[Macaroni]]), Malloreddus ([[Sardinia]]n pasta), Maltagliate, Marille, Marrubini * Offelle, [[Orecchiette]] * Orzo * Paccheri, Paglia e fieno, Pansotti, Panzarotti, [[Pappardelle]], [[Penne]], Perciatelli, Pinzillacchere, [[Pizzoccheri]], * [[Ravioli]], [[Rigatoni]] * [[Spaghetti]], Spaghetti alla chitarra, Strangolapreti, Strangozzi, Strascinati * Stelline * Tacconi, [[Tagliatelle]], Tagliarini, Tonnarelli, [[Tortellini]], [[Trenette]], Trottole, Trofie * Vermicelli * [[Ziti]] ====See also==== [[List of pasta]] ===Pasta dishes=== *[[Bucatini all'Amatriciana]], [[Bucatini coi Funghi]], [[Bucatini alla Sorrentina]] *[[Cannelloni al Ragù]], [[Cannelloni ai Carciofi]] *[[Penne all'Arrabbiata]], Pansotti alla Genovese *[[Rigatoni alla Pajata]], [[Rigatoni al Forno con Salsa Aurora]] *[[Spaghetti alla Bolognese]], [[Spaghetti alla Carrettiera]], [[Spaghetti al nero di seppia]], [[Spaghetti alla Puttanesca]], [[Spaghetti con la bottarga]], [[Spaghetti aglio, olio e peperoncino]], [[Spaghetti Indiavolati]], [[Spaghetti Siracusani]], [[Wikibooks:Cookbook:Spaghetti alla Carbonara|Spaghetti alla Carbonara]] *[[Tagliatelle alla Boscaiola]], [[Tagliatelle ai Carciofi]], [[Tagliatelle ai Funghi]], [[Tagliatelle al Pomodoro]], [[Tagliatelle al sugo di lepre]], [[Tagliatelle al Ragù]] * Tortelloni alla zucca *Trofie al Pesto, Trofie al sugo di noci ===Rice dishes=== (Rice -Riso- dishes are very common in North Italy, specially in Lombardia and Veneto Regions) * Basic [[Risotto]] *Risotto alla Milanese or Risotto with Saffron *Risi e Bisi *Risotto con la luganega *Riso with schrimpfs *Riso con Piselli *Riso alla Toscana *Riso al nero di seppia *Riso con i Porcini *Risotto alla Sbirraglia *Risotto alla Zucca *Risotto di Seppie alla Veneziana *Sformato al Basilico *Sformato di Riso Dolce *Tiella di Riso, Patate e Cozze *Risotto ai Gamberoni *Risotto ai Quattro Sapori *Risotto al Cavolfiore *Risotto al Gorgonzola *Riso Tonnato *Riso Valdostano *Risotto saltato *Risotto al Barolo *Risotto con scamorza e champagne *Risotto indivia e fiori di zucca *Risotto allo zafferano con petto d'anatra *Riotto alla Marinara *Risotto con Agoni *Risotto mantecato con Grana Padano ===Italian [[Fish]]=== * [[Baccalà]] *Cacciucco *Seppioline in umido *Missultin e Polenta *Frittata di bianchetti *Orate al forno *Acciughe fritte in pastella *Acciughe in carpione *Acquadella o latterino fritto *Agghiotta di pesce spada *Anguilla marinata *Baccalà alla vicentina *Baccalà fritto *Branzino al sale *Brodetto di arselle *Burrida *Calamaretti fritti *Calamari in zimino *Calamari Ripieni *Capesante alla veneziana *Cappon magro *Carpaccio di pesce *Cartoccio di pesce spada *Cozze alla tarantina *Cozze fritte alla viareggina *Cozze ripiene *Filetti di Baccalà *Filetti di orata al cartoccio *Frittura mista di pesce *Grancevola alla Veneziana *Impanata di pesce spada *Involtini di pesce *Moscardini lessati alla genovese *Murena fritta *Nasello al forno *Orata arrosto *Pepata di cozze *Pesce a scabecciu *Pesce al cartoccio *Pesce alla pizzaiola *Pesce spada alla siciliana *Pesce Spada arrosto in salmoriglio *Polpettine di mare *Sarde a beccafico *Sarde arraganate ( Sarde con origano e pane) *Sarde grigliate *Sarde ripiene *Sarde Sfiziose Panate *Sardele in saor *Sbroscia bolsenese *Scampi a zuppetta *Scampi gratinati *Seppie col nero alla veneziana *Seppie con i piselli *Seppie ripiene *Sogliole alla mugnaia *Spiedini ai frutti di mare *Spiedini di alici *Spiedini di anguilla *Stoccafisso alla genovese *Stoccafisso alla ligure *Tonno sott'olio *Tortiera di cozze *Triglie alla livornese *Zuppa di pesce ===Italian [[Meat]]s=== * [[Prosciutto|Parma Ham]] * [[Prosciutto|Prosciutto cotto]], [[Prosciutto|Prosciutto crudo]] * [[Veal|Vitello]] * [[Bresaola]] * [[Coda alla vaccinara]] * [[Mortadella]] * [[Salami|Salame]] * [[Pezzetti di cavallo]] * [[Violino Valtellinese]] ===Italian [[Wine]]=== *[[Abruzzi]] **[[Montepulciano d'Abruzzo]], [[Trebbiano d'Abruzzo]] *[[Tuscany]] **[[Bolgheri]], [[Carignano]], [[Chianti]], [[Colli Apuani]], [[Colli Etruria Centrale]], [[Colline Lucchesi]], [[Elba]], [[Scansano]], [[Montalcino]], [[Montescudaio]], [[Nipozzano]], [[Nobile di Montepulciano]], [[Parrina]], [[Pitigliano]], [[San Gimignano]], [[Val di Chiana]], [[Val di Cornia]], [[Valdinievole]], [[Valle di Arbia]] *[[Piedmont (Italy)|Piedmont]] **[[Alba, Italy|Alba]], [[Acqui]], [[Asti]], [[Barolo]], [[Carema Riserva]], [[Colli Tortonesi]], [[Gattinara]], [[Gavi]], [[Langhe]], [[Monferrato]], [[Nebbiolo]], [[Ovada]] *[[Veneto]] **[[Amarone]], [[Bardolino]], [[Colli Euganei]], [[Conegliano Veneto]], [[Custoza]], [[Soave]], [[Valdobbiadene]] *[[Liguria]] **[[Cinque Terre]] *[[Emilia-Romagna]] **[[Sangiovese]], [[Lambrusco]], [[Pignoletto]], [[Gutturnio]], [[Bonarda]], [[Trebbiano]], [[Albana]] *[[Sardinia]] **[[Cagliari]], [[Monti]], [[Nuragus]], [[Ogliastra]] *[[Marche]] **[[Castelli di Jesi]], [[Conero]], [[Piceno]] *[[Lombardia]] **[[Franciacorta]], [[Oltrepò Pavese]], Valpolicella, Sassella, Inferno, Grumello, Bonarda, Barbera, Spumante Brut, Valcalepio *[[Sicily]] **[[Etna wine]], [[Noto wine]], [[Passito di Pantelleria]], [[Marsala_wine]], [[Nero d’Avola]] *[[Umbria]] **[[Orvieto]], [[Torgiano]] *[[Calabria]] **Cir&amp;#242; *[[Puglia]] ** [[Negroamaro]] ===Italian [[cheese]]s=== * [[Asiago cheese|Asiago]] * [[Bel Paese]], [[Bitto]], [[Bra cheese|Bra]], [[Burrini]], [[Burrata]], [[Butirro]] * [[Caciocavallo]], [[Cacioricotta]], [[Canestrato]] pugliese, [[Casècc]], [[Castelmagno]], [[Caprini]], [[Casiello]], [[Casu marzu|Casu modde]], [[Ciccillo]], [[Crescenza]], Crotonese * [[Fontina]], [[Fiore sardo]], [[Formai de mut]] * [[Giuncata]], [[Grana Padano]], [[Gorgonzola cheese|Gorgonzola]] * [[Marzolino]], [[Marzotica]], [[Mascarpone]], [[Mozzarella]], [[Montasio]], [[Monte veronese]], [[Murazzano]] * [[Parmigiano Reggiano]], Pecorino di Fossa, [[Pecorino]] romano, Pecorino sardo, [[Piacentinu]], Primo Sale, [[Provolone]], Puzzone di Moena * Quartirolo * [[Ragusano]], [[Raschera]], [[Ricotta]] rifatta, Ricotta salata, [[Robiola]], * [[Slattato]], [[Stracchino]], Squacquerone * [[Taleggio cheese|Taleggio]], [[Toma cheese|Toma]], [[Tumazzu]] ===Italian [[Dessert]]s and [[pastry]]=== * [[Cannolo siciliano]] * [[Cassata siciliana]] * [[Ciarduna]] * [[Gelato]] ([[Ice Cream]]) * [[Granita]] * [[Macedonia (food)|Macedonia (fruit salad)]] * [[Panna cotta]] * [[Pandoro]] * [[Panettone]] * [[Pastiera]] * [[Pignolata]] (Specialità Siciliana) * [[Pizzelle]] * [[Sfogliatelle]] * [[Tiramisu|Tiramisù]] * [[Torta caprese]] * [[Zabaglione]] ===Italian [[Coffee]] ([[Caffè]])=== * [[Caffè]] * [[Caffè Corretto]] * [[Caffè macchiato]] * [[Latte|Caffelatte]] * [[Espresso]] * [[Cappuccino]] *Marocchino (small cappuccino) * [[Bicerin]] (coffee, hot chocolate and whipped cream, only in Turin) *[[Grolla dell'amicizia]] (coffe and [[grappa]] served in a traditional wooden pot, only in [[Aosta Valley]]) ===Famous Italian dishes=== * [[Fiorentina beefsteak]] * [[Baccalà alla Vicentina]] * [[Lasagne]] == Italian Cuisine Ingredients == Most important ingredients (see also [[#Italian Herbs and Spices|Italian Herbs and Spices]]): * Olio d'oliva ([[Olive oil]]) * Pomodoro ([[Tomato]]) Other common ingredients: * Asparagi ([[Asparagus]]) * [[Baccalà]] (Dried, salted [[cod]]) * [[Bresaola]] * Carciofi ([[Globe artichoke|Artichokes]]) * Cavolfiore ([[Cauliflower]]) * Ceci ([[Chickpea]]s) * Fagioli ([[Bean]]s) * Farro ([[Spelt]]) * Funghi ([[Mushroom]]s) * Lenticchie ([[Lentil]]s) * Melanzane ([[Aubergine]]s) * Olive ([[Olives]]) * Peperoni ([[Bell pepper]]s) * Piselli ([[Pea]]s) * [[Prosciutto]] * Funghi porcini ([[Porcini|Porcini mushrooms]]) * [[Radicchio]] Rosso di Treviso * Rucola (or Rughetta) ([[Arugula]]) * Seppie ([[Sepia (genus)|Sepia]]) * Spinaci ([[Spinach]]) * Fragole ([[Strawberry|Strawberries]]) * Tartufo ([[Truffle]]) * Trippa ([[Tripe]]) * Tonno ([[Tuna]]) * Zucchine ([[Zucchini]]) == Italian Herbs and Spices == * Aglio ([[Garlic]]) * Alloro ([[Bay leaves]]) * Basilico ([[Basil]]) * Cipolla ([[Onion]]) * Finocchio ([[Fennel]]) * Menta ([[Mint]]) * [[Mentuccia]] * Origano ([[Oregano]]) * Peperoncino ([[Chile pepper]]) * Prezzemolo ([[Parsley]]) * Rosmarino ([[Rosemary]]) * Salvia ([[Sage]]) * Timo ([[Thyme]]) [[Category:Italian cuisine]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Isaac Ambrose</title> <id>14928</id> <revision> <id>28109247</id> <timestamp>2005-11-12T11:57:15Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Bluebot</username> <id>527862</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Standardising 1911 references.</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Isaac Ambrose''' ([[1604]] - [[January 20]] [[1663]] or [[1664]]) was an [[England|English]] [[Puritan]] divine, the son of [[Richard Ambrose]], vicar of [[Ormskirk]], and was probably descended from the Ambroses of Lowick in Furness, a well-known [[Catholic]] family. He entered [[Brasenose College, Oxford]], in 1621, in his seventeenth year. Having graduated B.A. in 1624 and been ordained, he received in 1627 the little cure of [[Castleton]] in
cities in Romania|Romania]] *[[List of cities in Russia|Russia]] **[[List of cities in Chechnya|Chechnya]] *[[List of cities in Rwanda|Rwanda]] *[[List of cities in Saint Kitts and Nevis|Saint Kitts and Nevis]] *[[List of cities in Saint Lucia|Saint Lucia]] *[[List of cities in Saint Vincent and the Grenadines|Saint Vincent and the Grenadines]] *[[List of cities in Samoa|Samoa]] *[[List of cities in San Marino|San Marino]] *[[List of cities in Sao Tome and Principe|Sao Tome and Principe]] *[[List of cities in Saudi Arabia|Saudi Arabia]] *[[List of cities in Senegal|Senegal]] *[[List of cities in Serbia and Montenegro|Serbia and Montenegro]] *[[List of cities in Seychelles|Seychelles]] *[[List of cities in Sierra Leone|Sierra Leone]] *[[Singapore]]&lt;br&gt;&amp;ndash; ''see'' [[List of Towns, Estates and Neighbourhoods in Singapore|List of Towns in Singapore]] *[[List of cities in Slovakia|Slovakia]] *[[List of cities in Slovenia|Slovenia]] *[[List of cities in Solomon Islands|Solomon Islands]] *[[List of cities in Somalia|Somalia]] *[[List of cities in South Africa|South Africa]] *[[List of cities in Spain|Spain]] *[[List of cities in Sri Lanka|Sri Lanka]] *[[List of cities in Sudan|Sudan]] *[[List of cities in Suriname|Suriname]] *[[List of cities in Swaziland|Swaziland]] *[[List of cities in Sweden|Sweden]] *[[List of cities in Switzerland|Switzerland]] *[[List of cities in Syria|Syria]] *Taiwan - see [[List of cities in Taiwan|China, Republic of]] *[[List of cities in Tajikistan|Tajikistan]] *[[List of cities in Tanzania|Tanzania]] *[[List of cities in Thailand|Thailand]] *[[List of cities in Togo|Togo]] *[[List of cities in Tonga|Tonga]] *[[List of cities in Trinidad and Tobago|Trinidad and Tobago]] *[[List of cities in Tunisia|Tunisia]] *[[List of cities in Turkey|Turkey]] *[[List of cities in Turkmenistan|Turkmenistan]] *[[List of cities in Tuvalu|Tuvalu]] *[[List of cities in Uganda|Uganda]] *[[List of cities in Ukraine|Ukraine]] *[[List of cities in the United Arab Emirates|United Arab Emirates]] *[[List of cities in the United Kingdom|United Kingdom]] *[[British overseas territories]] **[[List of cities in Bermuda|Bermuda]] **[[List of cities in the Cayman Islands|Cayman Islands]] **[[List of settlements in the Falkland Islands|Falkland Islands]] *[[List of cities in the United States|United States]] (US Territories included) *[[List of cities in Uruguay|Uruguay]] *[[List of cities in Uzbekistan|Uzbekistan]] *[[List of cities in Vanuatu|Vanuatu]] *[[List of cities in Venezuela|Venezuela]] *[[List of cities in Vietnam|Vietnam]] *[[List of cities in the West Bank and &lt;!--the--&gt;Gaza Strip|West Bank and the Gaza Strip, The]] *[[List of cities in Yemen|Yemen]] *[[List of cities in Zambia|Zambia]] *[[List of cities in Zimbabwe|Zimbabwe]] &lt;/table&gt; ==See also== *[[List of cities by latitude]] *[[List of metropolitan areas by population]] *[[List of national capitals]] *[[List of capitals of subnational entities]] *[[List of towns]] *[[List of neighborhood listings by city]] *[[List of cities with more than 100 000 inhabitants]] ==extrertal link== *[http://www.p.lodz.pl/I35/personal/jw37/EUROPE/europe.html Place Names of Europe] [[Category:Lists of cities|*list of city listings by country]] [[de:Liste der Städtelisten nach Ländern]] [[eo:Listo de urboj laux lando]] [[fa:&amp;#1601;&amp;#1607;&amp;#1585;&amp;#1587;&amp;#1578; &amp;#1588;&amp;#1607;&amp;#1585;&amp;#1607;&amp;#1575;&amp;#1740; &amp;#1576;&amp;#1586;&amp;#1585;&amp;#1711; &amp;#1580;&amp;#1607;&amp;#1575;&amp;#1606;]] [[hi:&amp;#2360;&amp;#2349;&amp;#2368; &amp;#2342;&amp;#2375;&amp;#2358;&amp;#2379;&amp;#2306; &amp;#2350;&amp;#2375;&amp;#2306; &amp;#2358;&amp;#2361;&amp;#2352;&amp;#2379;&amp;#2306; &amp;#2325;&amp;#2368; &amp;#2360;&amp;#2370;&amp;#2330;&amp;#2367;&amp;#2351;&amp;#2366;&amp;#2305;]] [[nds:Steden up de Eer]] [[nl:Steden]] [[pl:Miasta &amp;#347;wiata wed&amp;#322;ug pa&amp;#324;stw]] [[pt:Lista de cidades por país]] [[ru:&amp;#1043;&amp;#1086;&amp;#1088;&amp;#1086;&amp;#1076;&amp;#1072;]] [[uk:&amp;#1057;&amp;#1087;&amp;#1080;&amp;#1089;&amp;#1086;&amp;#1082; &amp;#1084;&amp;#1110;&amp;#1089;&amp;#1090; (&amp;#1079;&amp;#1072; &amp;#1082;&amp;#1088;&amp;#1072;&amp;#1111;&amp;#1085;&amp;#1086;&amp;#1102;)]] [[zh:&amp;#19990;&amp;#30028;&amp;#22478;&amp;#24066;&amp;#32034;&amp;#24341;]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Cambridgeshire</title> <id>6288</id> <revision> <id>41952028</id> <timestamp>2006-03-02T21:13:54Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Heron</username> <id>2954</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>from</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{| class=&quot;toccolours&quot; style=&quot;border-collapse: collapse; float: right; margin-left: 1em&quot; border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;3&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; width=&quot;300&quot; |+ &lt;big&gt;'''Cambridgeshire'''&lt;/big&gt; |- | colspan=2 style=&quot;text-align: center; background: white;&quot; |[[Image:EnglandCambridgeshire.png]] |- | colspan=2 style=&quot;background: #f0f0f0; font-weight: bolder;&quot; |Geography |- ! width=&quot;45%&quot; | Status | [[Ceremonial counties of England|Ceremonial]] &amp; (smaller) [[Metropolitan and non-metropolitan counties of England|Non-metropolitan]] county |- ! Region | [[East of England]] |- ! style=&quot;font-weight: normal;&quot; | '''[[Surface area|Area]]'''&lt;br /&gt;- Total&lt;br&gt;- Admin. council&lt;br&gt;- Admin. area |[[List of Ceremonial counties of England by Area|Ranked 15th]]&lt;br&gt;[[1 E9 m²|3,389]] [[square kilometre|km&amp;sup2;]]&lt;br&gt;[[List of Administrative shire counties of England by Area|Ranked 15th]]&lt;br&gt;3,046 km&amp;sup2; |- !Admin HQ |[[Cambridge]] |- ![[ISO 3166-2:GB|ISO 3166-2]] |GB-CAM |- ![[ONS coding system|ONS code]] |12 |- ![[Nomenclature of Territorial Units for Statistics|NUTS]] 3 |UKH12 |- | colspan=2 style=&quot;background: #f0f0f0; font-weight: bolder;&quot;|Demographics |- ! style=&quot;font-weight: normal;&quot; | '''[[Population]]'''&lt;br /&gt;- Total ([[2004]] est.)&lt;br /&gt;- [[Density]]&lt;br /&gt;- Admin. council&lt;br /&gt;- Admin. pop. |[[List of ceremonial counties of England by population|Ranked 29th]]&lt;br /&gt;737,900&lt;br /&gt;217 / km&amp;sup2;&lt;br /&gt;[[List of non-metropolitan counties of England by population|Ranked 20th]]&lt;br /&gt;578,800 |- !Ethnicity |94.6% White&lt;br /&gt;2.6% S.Asian |- | colspan=2 style=&quot;background: #f0f0f0; font-weight: bolder;&quot;|Politics |- |colspan=2 align=center|[[Image:arms-cambs.jpg|200px|Arms of Cambridgeshire County Council]]&lt;br /&gt;Cambridgeshire County Council&lt;br&gt;http://www.cambridgeshire.gov.uk/ |- !Executive |[[Conservative Party (UK)|Conservative]] |- ![[MPs elected in the UK general election, 2005|Members of Parliament]] | *[[Jonathan Djanogly]] *[[David Howarth]] *[[Stewart Jackson]] *[[Andrew Lansley]] *[[Malcolm Moss]] *[[James Paice]] *[[Shailesh Vara]] |- | colspan=2 style=&quot;background: #f0f0f0; font-weight: bolder;&quot;|Districts |- |colspan=2|&lt;center&gt;[[Image:Cambridgeshire_Ceremonial_Numbered.png]]&lt;/center&gt; #[[Cambridge]] #[[South Cambridgeshire]] #[[Huntingdonshire]] #[[Fenland]] #[[East Cambridgeshire]] #[[City of Peterborough|Peterborough]] (Unitary) |} '''Cambridgeshire''' (abbreviated '''Cambs''') is a county in [[England]], bordering [[Lincolnshire]] to the north, [[Norfolk, England|Norfolk]] to the northeast, [[Suffolk]] to the east, [[Essex, England|Essex]] and [[Hertfordshire]] to the south, and [[Bedfordshire]] and [[Northamptonshire]] to the west. Cambridgeshire contains most of the region known as [[Silicon Fen]]. The county town is [[Cambridge]]. Cambridgeshire today is the product of several local government unifications. In [[1888]] when [[county council]]s where introduced, two were set up, following the traditional division of Cambridgeshire into the area in the south around Cambridge, and the liberty of the [[Isle of Ely]]. In [[1965]], these two administrative counties were merged to form [[Cambridgeshire and the Isle of Ely]]. In [[1974]], this then merged with the county to the west, [[Huntingdon and Peterborough]] (which had been created in 1965 by the merger of [[Huntingdonshire]] with the [[Soke of Peterborough]] - a part of [[Northamptonshire]] which had its own county council). The resulting county was called simply 'Cambridgeshire'. Since [[1998]] the [[City of Peterborough]] is now administratively separate again, as a [[unitary authority]], but is associated with Cambridgeshire for various purposes, such as police, fire, and the [[Lord-Lieutenant|Lieutenancy]]. Famous people include [[Oliver Cromwell]], [[John Major]] (Former MP of Huntingdonshire and Prime Minister) and [[Henry Royce]], all from [[Huntingdonshire]]. [[Pink Floyd]] also originates from Cambridgeshire. Cambridgeshire is twinned with [[Viersen (district)|Kreis Viersen]] in [[Germany]]. Although large parts of the county are extremely low-lying, the highest point is in the village of [[Great Chishill]] at 146m/480ft. Other [[topographic prominence|prominent]] hills are [[Little Trees Hill]] and [[Wandlebury Hill]] in the [[Gog Magog Downs]], [[Rivey Hill]] above [[Linton, Cambridgeshire|Linton]], [[Rowley's Hill]] and the [[Madingley Hills]]. ==Settlements== These are the settlements in Cambridgeshire with a town charter, city status or a population over 5,000; for a complete list of settlements see [[list of places in Cambridgeshire]]. *[[Burwell, Cambridgeshire|Burwell]] *[[Cambridge]], [[Chatteris, Cambridgeshire|Chatteris]] *[[Ely]] *[[Godmanchester]] *[[Huntingdon]] *[[Littleport, Cambridgeshire|Littleport]] *[[March, Cambridgeshire|March]] *[[Peterborough]] (not part of the administrative county) *[[Sawston]], [[Soham]], [[St Ives, Cambridgeshire|St Ives]], [[St Neots]] *[[Wisbech]], [[Whittlesey]] *[[Yaxley, Cambridgeshire|Yaxley]] The town of [[N
ot from a GNU-based OS |developer = [[GNU Project|The GNU Project]] |family = [[Unix-like]] |source_model = [[Free software]] |kernel_type = [[Microkernel]] |license = Mostly [[GPL]] |working_state = Functional, but unfinished |website = [http://www.gnu.org/home.html www.gnu.org] }} '''GNU''' ([[IPA|pronounced]] {{IPA|/gnu/}}) is a [[free software]] [[operating system]]. Its name is a [[recursive acronym]] for &quot;'''G'''NU's '''N'''ot [[Unix|'''U'''nix]]&quot;, which was chosen because its design is [[Unix-like]], but it contains no actual [[Unix|UNIX]] code. The GNU system, combined with a third-party [[kernel (computer science)|kernel]] called [[Linux kernel|Linux]], is one of the most widely used operating systems in the world known as &quot;GNU/Linux&quot;. The plan for the GNU operating system was announced in September 1983 by [[Richard Stallman]] and software development work began in January 1984. The project to develop GNU is known as the ''[[GNU Project]]'', and programs released under the auspices of the GNU Project are called ''[[List of GNU packages|GNU packages]]'' or ''GNU programs''. ==History== The GNU project was announced publicly on [[September 27]], [[1983]], on the [[net.unix-wizards]] [http://groups.google.com/group/net.unix-wizards/browse_thread/thread/f2dc1f44f33bf6ed] and [[net.usoft]] [[newsgroup]]s. Software development began on [[January 5]], [[1984]], when Stallman quit his job at [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology]] so that they could not claim ownership or interfere with distributing GNU as [[free software]]. The correct pronunciation of GNU is ''g'noo'' ([[International Phonetic Alphabet for English|IPA]]: {{IPA|/gnu/}}), with a hard &quot;g&quot;, to distinguish it from the word ''new''. According to Stallman, the name was inspired by various plays on words, including the song [[The Gnu]]. The goal was to bring a wholly free software operating system into existence. Stallman wanted computer users to be free, as most were in the 1960s and 1970s; free to study the source code of the software they use, free to modify the behaviour of the software, and free to publish their modified versions of the software. This philosophy was published in March 1985 as [[The GNU Manifesto]]. The majority of the software needed had to be written from scratch, but when compatible free software components already existed, they were used. Two examples were the [[TeX]] typesetting system, and the [[X Window System]]. Most of GNU has been written by volunteers; some in their spare time, some paid by other companies. In October 1985, Stallman set up the [[Free Software Foundation]] (FSF). In the mid- and late-80s, FSF hired software developers to write the software needed for GNU. At its peak it had 15 people on its staff. FSF also holds the copyrights for some GNU software packages. Most GNU packages are licensed under the [[GNU General Public License]] (GNU GPL), while a few use the [[GNU Lesser General Public License]] (GNU LGPL), and a still smaller amount use other [[free software licenses]]. [[Image:Baby GNU.png|left|Baby GNU]] So that it would be convenient for people to switch to GNU, it was decided that GNU would be mostly compatible with [[Unix]], which was a popular [[proprietary software|proprietary]] operating system at the time. The design of Unix had proven to be solid, and it was modular, so it could be reimplemented piece by piece. As GNU gained prominence, interested businesses began contributing to development or selling GNU software and technical support. The most prominent and successful of these was [[Cygnus Solutions]], now part of [[Red Hat]]. ==Licensing== In order to ensure that GNU software remains free, the project released the first version of the [[GNU General Public License]] (GNU GPL) in [[1989]]. This license is now used by most GNU programs, as well as a large number of free software programs that are not part of the GNU project; it is the most commonly used [[free software license]] in the world. It gives all recipients of a program the right to run, copy, modify and distribute it, while forbidding them from imposing further restrictions on any copies they distribute. This idea is referred to as [[copyleft]]. ==Design and implementation== The initial plan for GNU was to be mostly Unix-compatible, while adding enhancements where they were useful. The design of the kernel was GNU's largest departure from &quot;traditional&quot; Unix. GNU's kernel was to be a multi-server micro-kernel. The [[GNU Hurd]] runs on a [[microkernel]] (currently [[Mach kernel|Mach]]) and consists of a set of programs called servers that offers the same functionality as the traditional [[Unix kernel]] (or [[Linux]]). GNU (using Hurd) can be tried using a [[live CD]]. (See [[#External links|External links]]). By [[1990]], the GNU system had an extensible [[text editor]] ([[Emacs]]), a very successful optimizing [[compiler]] ([[GNU Compiler Collection|GCC]]), and most of the core libraries and utilities of a standard Unix distribution. The main component still missing was the [[kernel (computers)|kernel]]. In the GNU Manifesto, Stallman had mentioned that &quot;an initial kernel exists but many more features are needed to emulate Unix.&quot; He was referring to [[TRIX]], a remote procedure call kernel developed at MIT, whose authors had decided to distribute for free, and was compatible with [[Version 7 Unix]]. In December [[1986]], work had started on modifying this kernel. However, the developers eventually decided it was unusable as a starting point, primarily because it only ran on &quot;an obscure, expensive 68000 box&quot; and would therefore have to be [[porting|ported]] to other architectures before it could be used. By [[1988]], the [[Mach kernel|Mach]] message-passing kernel being developed at [[Carnegie Mellon University]] was being considered instead, although its release as free software was delayed till [[1990]] while its developers worked to remove code owned by [[AT&amp;T]]. Since the Mach microkernel, by design, provided just the low-level kernel functionality, the GNU Project had to develop the higher-level parts of the kernel, as a collection of user programs. Initially, this collection was to be called Alix, but developer [[Michael Bushnell]] later preferred the name [[GNU Hurd|Hurd]], so the Alix name was moved to a subsystem and eventually dropped completely. Eventually, development of the Hurd stalled due to technical reasons and personality conflicts. GNU/Hurd refers to the GNU OS distribution that uses GNU Hurd as its core. GNU Hurd is the set of programs or services running on top of a microkernel (GNU currently uses the [[GNU Mach]] microkernel, but efforts to port Hurd to the [[L4 microkernel family|L4 microkernel]] are currently ongoing). The &quot;GNU&quot; in GNU Hurd indicates that it is a part of the [[GNU project]], while &quot;GNU/Hurd&quot; distinguishes it as one of the two currently available GNU systems--that is, Linux-based GNU systems (or &quot;GNU/Linux&quot;) as opposed to Hurd-based GNU systems (or &quot;GNU/Hurd&quot;). Just &quot;GNU&quot; refers to GNU/Hurd or a Hurd-based GNU system. &quot;GNU/Linux&quot; is pronounced &quot;GNU-slash-Linux&quot;, or more often, just &quot;GNU Linux&quot;. However, the FSF contests that &quot;GNU Linux&quot;, by the rules of the English language, refers to a distribution of the kernel Linux by the GNU project or GNU project's version of it; &quot;GNU/Linux&quot;, they say, makes it clear that a person is referring to the combination of the kernel Linux and the GNU userland binaries, forming a complete GNU OS. [[Linus Torvalds]], original author of the kernel, does not approve of the term &quot;GNU/Linux&quot;; he prefers &quot;GNU Linux&quot; if the GNU project &quot;wants its own distribution.&quot; In [[1991]], [[Linus Torvalds]] wrote the Unix-compatible [[Linux]] kernel. Although it was not originally free software, Torvalds changed the license to the GNU GPL in [[1992]]. Linux was further developed by various programmers over the [[Internet]]. In 1992, it was combined with the GNU system, resulting in a fully functional free [[operating system]]. The GNU system is most commonly encountered in this form, usually referred to as a &quot;[[GNU/Linux]] system&quot; or a &quot;[[Linux distribution]]&quot;. [[As of 2005]], [[GNU Hurd|Hurd]] is in slow development, and is now the official kernel of the GNU system. There is also a project working on porting the GNU system to the kernels of [[FreeBSD]] and [[NetBSD]]. On the 20th anniversary of the GNU Project ([[January 5]] [[2004]]), the [[Irish Free Software Organisation]] was founded to promote free software in [[Ireland]]. ==GNU software== Prominent components of the GNU system include the [[GNU Compiler Collection]] (GCC), the [[GNU C Library]] (glibc), the [[GNU Emacs]] [[text editor]], and the [[GNOME]] graphical desktop. Many GNU programs have been ported to other operating systems and are often installed on [[proprietary software|proprietary]] [[Unix|UNIX]] systems to replace the proprietary utilities. As well as giving users freedom, many of these GNU programs have been proven to be more reliable than their proprietary Unix counterparts [http://ftp.cs.wisc.edu/pub/paradyn/technical_papers/fuzz-revisited.ps]. The reputation of GNU software is especially good for its software development tools, which are sometimes collectively called the ''GNU toolset''. Making up but a small fraction of the GNU system as a whole, some people consider the toolset to be of superior quality to many of the equivalent Unix versions, even if the GNU versions are not totally [[POSIX]] compliant. With the popularity of GNU/Linux systems, many developers install the GNU toolset on other systems for compatibility or to capture uniform behavior across platforms. Many GNU programs have also been ported to [[Microsoft Windows]], [[Mac OS X]], and
t also contains a small number of individual members. [[European Liberal Youth|LYMEC]] is led by [[Catalan]] politician [[Roger Alibinyana i Saigi]], who was elected to a two-year term as LYMEC President in [[April 2004]], and has a collective membership of over 170,000 young liberal Europeans. ==Leadership== The legal leadership of the ELDR Party is [[Annemie Neyts]], a Flemish [[Member of the European Parliament|MEP]] for the [[Belgium|Belgian]] [[VLD]]. Neyts, who is thought to be a close ally of [[Alliance of Liberals and Democrats for Europe|ALDE Group]] leader [[Graham Watson]], was elected for a two-year term of office at the a meeting of the ELDR Party Congress held in [[Bratislava]] in [[September 2005]], defeating former [[Netherlands|Dutch]] [[foreign minister]] [[Jozias van Aartsen]], parliamentary leader of the [[Netherlands|Dutch]] [[VVD]]. Despite possessing legal leadership of the Party, it is commonly believed that the ''[[de facto]]'' political leadership of the Party resides in ALDE leader [[Graham Watson]], with [[Annemie Neyts]] performing a more administrative role akin to that of a [[chairman|party chairman]]. ==Structure== ===Bureau=== The day to day management of the ELDR Party is handled by the Bureau, the members of which are: '''President''' * [[Annemie Neyts]] MEP ([[VLD]], [[Belgium]]): ELDR Party President '''Vice-Presidents''' * [[Sharon Bowles]] MEP ([[Liberal Democrats (UK)|Lib Dem]], [[United Kingdom|UK]]) * [[Wilfried Derksen]] ([[D66]], [[Netherlands]]) * [[Katarina Gloncakova-Golev]] ([[ANO]], [[Slovakia]]) (''ANO Vice-President'') * [[Johannes Lebech]] ([[Det Radikale Venstre|RV]], [[Denmark]]) * [[Markus Löning]] MP ([[FDP]], [[Germany]]) * [[Calin Popescu Tariceanu]] MP ([[PNL]], [[Romania]]) (''Prime Minister of Romania'') * [[Androula Vassiliou]] MP ([[United Democrats]], [[Cyprus]]) '''Treasurer''' * [[Bas Eenhoorn]] ([[VVD]], [[Netherlands]]) '''[[Alliance of Liberals and Democrats for Europe|ALDE]] Group Leaders''' * [[Graham Watson]] MEP ([[Liberal Democrats (UK)|Lib Dem]], [[United Kingdom|UK]]): [[Alliance of Liberals and Democrats for Europe|ALDE]] Group Leader, [[European Parliament]] * [[Matyas Eörsi]] MP ([[SZDSZ]], [[Hungary]]): [[Alliance of Liberals and Democrats for Europe|ALDE]] Group Leader, [[Parliamentary Assembly]] of the [[Council of Europe]] * [[Ivo Opstelten]] ([[VVD]], [[Netherlands]]): [[Alliance of Liberals and Democrats for Europe|ALDE]] Group Leader, [[European Union|EU]] [[Committee of the Regions]] '''Other Party Officials''' * [[Willy De Clercq]] MEP ([[VLD]], [[Belgium]]): Honorary President * [[Lex Corijn]] ([[VLD]], [[Belgium]]): ELDR Party Secretary-General * [[Alexander Beels]] ([[VVD]], [[Netherlands]]): ALDE Group Secretary-General * [[Roger Albinyana i Saigi]] ([[Convergencia]], [[Catalonia]]): President, [[European Liberal Youth]] (LYMEC) ===ELDR Congress=== The ELDR Congress is the [[sovereign body]] of the ELDR aisbl, usually meeting on an annual basis, and as such its primary purposes are to: * Elect members of the ELDR Bureau * Debate, and adopt, resolutions on matters of policy; * Adopt the ELDR Party's electoral manifesto for [[European Parliament elections]] * Make amendments to the ELDR Party Statutes The voting members of the ELDR Congress number around 600-700, and are composed of: * Members of the ELDR Council * A number of representatives nominated by each of the Member Parties based on the number of votes that Party received at the last set of [[European Parliament elections]], * 2 representatives nominated by each of the Affiliate Parties, and * 10 representatives nominated by the European Liberal Youth. In addition to the voting members of the ELDR Congress, the following are entitled to attend as non-voting members: * ELDR members of the [[European Parliament]], * ELDR members of the EU [[Committee of the Regions]], * One delegate nominated by each of the [[liberal democrat]] groupings in other European parliamentary assemblies, and * One delegate nominated by [[Liberal International]] ===ELDR Council=== The ELDR Council acts as the ELDR Party's [[de facto]] [[executive committee]], meeting inbetween meetings of the ELDR Congress, and is empowered to: * Approve the budget of the ELDR Party; * Approve ELDR membership applications; and * Speak and act on behalf of the ELDR Party inbetween meetings of the ELDR Congress. The voting members of the ELDR Council number around 100-150 members and are composed of: * Voting members of the Bureau, * Two or more representatives nominated by each of the Member Parties based on the number of votes that Party received at the last set of [[European Parliament elections]], and * One representative nominated by each of the Affliate Parties, and * One representative nominated by the [[European Liberal Youth]] In addition to the voting members of the ELDR Council, the following are entitled to attend as non-voting members: * Non-voting members of the Bureau, * One representative nominated by each of the [[liberal democrat]] groups in European parliamentary assemblies (including the [[European Parliament]] and the [[Committee of the Regions]]), and * One representative nominated by [[Liberal International]] ===ELDR Political Leaders Meeting=== In addition to the formal structure of the ELDR Party, there are convened at least two meetings a year of the Political Leaders Meeting in order to exchange views on the items on the agenda of the [[European Council]] and more general views on the European political situation. The members of the Political Leaders Meeting are: * The President and Vice-Presidents of the ELDR Party, * ELDR Members of the [[European Commission]], * ELDR Heads of Government, * The political leaders of ELDR Member Parties, * Other ELDR Ministers, * The President of the [[European Liberal Youth]] ==History of pan-European liberalism== {{liberalism}} '''See also: [[History of pan-European liberalism]]''' Pan-European liberalism has a long history dating back to the foundation of [[Liberal International]] in [[April]] [[1947]]. In [[March]] [[1976]], the Federation of Liberal and Democrat Parties in Europe was established, which gradually evolved into the ELDR Party with a group in the [[European Parliament]] At an extraordinary Congress in Brussels held on [[April 30]] [[2004]] the day before the [[enlargement of the European Union]], the ELDR Party incorporated itself under [[Belgium|Belgian]] [[law]], being the first step towards legal recognition as a [[European political parties|European political party]]. It originated as the '''European Liberal, Democrat and Reform''' party grouping with seats in the [[European Parliament]], but on [[April 30]], [[2004]] (the day before the [[enlargement of the European Union]]) reformed itself as a [[European political party|pan-European political party]], although it has yet to organise itself at a grassroots level. This was followed later that year by the establishment of the [[Alliance of Liberals and Democrats for Europe|ALDE]] political group in the European Parliament, in collaboration with the newly established [[European Democratic Party|EDP Party]]. ==European Commissioners== ELDR Member Parties contribute 7 out of the 25 members of the [[European Commission]]: * [[Siim Kallas]] ([[Eesti Reformierakond|ERP]], [[Estonia]]): Vice-President (Administrative Affairs, Audit and Anti-Fraud) * [[Mariann Fischer Boel]] ([[Venstre]], [[Denmark]]): Agriculture and Rural Development * [[Neelie Kroes]] ([[VVD]], [[Netherlands]]): Competition * [[Louis Michel]] ([[Reformist Movement|MR]], [[Belgium]]): Development and Humanitarian Aid * [[Olli Rehn]] ([[Keskusta]], [[Finland]]): Enlargement * [[Andris Piebalgs]] ([[Latvian Way]], [[Latvia]]): Energy * [[Janez Potočnik]] ([[Liberal Democracy of Slovenia|LDS]], [[Slovenia]]): Science and Research In addition to the 7 Commissioners contributed by ELDR Member Parties, one Commissioner is contributed by [[Democratic Party (Cyprus)|DIKO]] of [[Cyprus]], which is not affiliated to the ELDR Party but sits with the ELDR within the [[Alliance of Liberals and Democrats for Europe|ALDE Group]] in the [[European Parliament]]: * [[Markos Kyprianou]] ([[Democratic Party (Cyprus)|DIKO]],[[Cyprus]]): Health and Consumer Protection ==Member Parties== {{ALB}} *[[Democratic Alliance (Albania)|Democratic Alliance Party]] (''Partia Aleanca Demokratike'') {{AND}} *[[Liberal Party of Andorra]] (''Partit Liberal d'Andorra'') {{AUT}} *[[Liberal Forum]] (''Liberales Forum'') {{BEL}} *[[Flemish Liberals and Democrats]] (''Vlaamse Liberalen en Democraten'') *[[Reformist Movement]] (''Mouvement Réformateur'') [[Image:Bosnia flag large.png|20px]] [[Bosnia and Herzegovina]] *[[Liberal Democratic Party (Bosnia)|Liberal Democratic Party]] (''Liberalno Demokratska Stranka'') {{BGR}} *[[Movement for Rights and Freedoms]] (''Dvizhenie za prava i svobodi'') *[[National Movement for Simeon II]] (''Nacionalno Dvizhenie Simeon Vtori'') {{HRV}} *[[Croatian People's Party-Liberal Democrats]] (''Hrvatska Narodna Stranka - Liberalni Demokrati'') *[[Croatian Social Liberal Party]] (''Hrvatska socijalno liberalna stranka'') *[[Liberal Party of Croatia]] (''Liberalna Stranka'') {{CYP}} *[[United Democrats]] (''Enomeni Dimokrates'') {{CZE}} *[[Civic Democratic Alliance]] (''Obcanska demokraticka aliance'') {{DNK}} *[[Det Radikale Venstre|Danish Social Liberal Party]] (''Det Radikale Venstre'') *[[Liberal Party (Denmark)|Liberal Party of Denmark]] (''Venstre'') {{EST}} *[[Centre Party of Estonia]] (''Eesti Keskerakond '') *[[Estonian Reform Party]] (''Eesti Reformierakond'') {{FIN}} *[[Centre Party of Finland]] (''Suomen Keskusta'') *[[Swedish People's Party (Finland)|Swedish People's Party]] (''Svenska Folkpartiet'') {{DEU}} *[[Free Democratic Party of Germany|Free Democratic Party]] (''Freie Demokratische Partei'') {{HUN}} *[[Alliance of Free Democrats (Hungary)|Allian
uese monarchs|King of Portugal]]|years=[[1211]]&amp;ndash;[[1233]]}} {{s-aft|after=[[Sancho II of Portugal|Sancho II]]}} [[Category:1185 births]] [[Category:1233 deaths]] [[Category:Portuguese monarchs]] [[ca:Alfons II de Portugal]] [[de:Alfons II. (Portugal)]] [[es:Alfonso II de Portugal]] [[fr:Alphonse II de Portugal]] [[pl:Alfons II (król Portugalii)]] [[pt:Afonso II de Portugal]] [[ru:Афонсу II]] [[zh:阿方索二世 (葡萄牙)]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Afonso III of Portugal</title> <id>1659</id> <revision> <id>41657943</id> <timestamp>2006-02-28T21:21:44Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>72.224.95.121</ip> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">{{House of Burgundy}} '''Afonso III of Portugal''' ([[Portuguese language|Portuguese]] [[Pronunciation|pron.]] [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]] /{{IPA|ɐ.'fõ.su}}/; [[English language|English]] ''Alphonzo''), or ''Affonso'' (Archaic Portuguese), ''Alfonso'' or ''Alphonso'' ([[Portuguese-Galician languages|Portuguese-Galician]]) or ''Alphonsus'' ([[Latin language|Latin]]), the ''Bolognian'' ([[Portuguese language|Port.]] ''o Bolonhês'') or the ''Brave'' ([[Portuguese language|Port.]] ''o Bravo''), the fifth [[List of Portuguese monarchs|king of Portugal]] ([[May 5]] [[1210]] in [[Coimbra]] &amp;ndash; [[February 16]] [[1279]] in [[Alcobaça]], [[Coimbra]] or [[Lisbon]]). He was the second son of King [[Afonso II of Portugal]] and his wife, [[Urraca of Castile]]; he succeeded his brother, King [[Sancho II of Portugal]] in [[1247]]. {| ALIGN=&quot;left&quot; |- | [[Image:AfonsoIII-P.jpg]] |} As the second son of King Afonso II of Portugal, Afonso was not expected to inherit the throne, which was destined to go to his brother Sancho. He lived mostly in [[France]], were he married Matilda, the heiress of [[Boulogne]], in [[1238]], thereby becoming [[Count of Boulogne]]. In [[1246]], conflicts between his brother, the king, and the church became unbearable. [[Pope Innocent IV]] then ordered Sancho II to be removed from the throne and be replaced by the Count of Boulogne. Afonso, of course, did not refuse the papal order and marched to Portugal. Since Sancho was not a popular king, the order was not hard to enforce; he was exiled to [[Castile]] and Afonso III became king in [[1247]]. To ascend the throne, he abdicated from the county of Boulogne and later ([[1253]]) divorced Matilda. In 1253 he married Brites (Beatrix), an illegitimate daughter of King [[Alfonso X of Castile]]. Determined not to commit the same mistakes as his brother, Afonso III paid special attention to what the middle class composed of merchants and small land owners had to say. In [[1254]], in the city of [[Leiria]], he held the first session of the ''[[Cortes Generales|Cortes]]'', a general assembly, comprised of the nobility, the middle class and representatives of all [[municipalities]]. He also made laws intended to restrain the upper classes from abusing the least favoured part of the population. Remembered as a notable administrator, Afonso III founded several towns, granted the title of city to many others and reorganized public administration. [[Image:EstatuaDAfonsoIIIFaro.JPG|thumb|left|Statue of Afonso III in [[Faro, Portugal|Faro]].]] Secure on the throne, Afonso III then proceeded to make war with the [[Muslim]] communities that still thrived in the south. In his reign the [[Algarve]] became part of the kingdom following the capture of [[Faro, Portugal|Faro]]&amp;mdash;Portugal thus becoming the first Iberian kingdom to complete its ''[[Reconquista]]''. Following his success against the Moors, Afonso III had to deal with a political situation arising from the borders with Castile. The neighbouring kingdom considered that the newly acquired lands of Algarve should be Castilian, not Portuguese, which led to a series of wars between the countries. Finally, in [[1267]], a treaty was signed in [[Badajoz]], determining that the southern border between Castile and Portugal should be the River [[Guadiana]], as it is today. ===Afonso's marriages and descendants=== Afonso's first wife was [[Matilda II of Boulogne]], daughter of [[Renaud, Count of Dammartin]], and [[Ida of Boulogne]]. She had two sons but both died young (Roberto and an unnamed one). He divorced Matilda in [[1253]] and in the same year married [[Beatrix of Castile]], illegitimate daughter of [[Alfonso X of Castile|Alfonso X]], [[King of Castile]], and [[Maria de Guzman]]. {| border=1 style=&quot;border-collapse: collapse;&quot; |- bgcolor=cccccc !Name!!Birth!!Death!!Notes |- |colspan=4|'''By [[Matilda II of Boulogne]]''' (c. [[1202]]-[[1262]]; married in [[1216]]) |- |Robert||[[1239]]||[[1239]]|| &amp;nbsp; |- |colspan=4|'''By [[Beatrix of Castile]]''' ([[1242]]-[[1303]]; married in [[1253]]) |- |[[Branca of Portugal|Branca]]||[[February 25]] [[1259]]||[[April 17]] [[1321]]||Abbess of the Convent of Huelgas |- |Ferdinand||[[1260]]||[[1262]]||&amp;nbsp; |- |[[Dinis of Portugal|Denis]]||[[October 9]] [[1261]]||[[January 7]] [[1325]]||Succeeded him as 6th [[King of Portugal]]; Married Princess Isabel of Aragon |- |[[Afonso, Lord of Portalegre|Afonso]]||[[February 8]] [[1263]]||[[November 2]] [[1312]]||Lord of [[Portalegre]]. Married to Princess Violante Manoel of Castile (daughter of [[Juan Manuel of Castile]]) |- |[[Sancha of Portugal (1264-1279)|Sancha]]||[[February 2]] [[1264]]||c. [[1302]]||&amp;nbsp; |- |[[Maria of Portugal (1264-1304)|Maria]]||[[November 21]] [[1264]]||[[June 6]] [[1304]]||Nun at the [[Santa Cruz Monastery|Convent of Saint John]] in [[Coimbra]] |- |Constance||[[1266]]||[[1271]]||&amp;nbsp; |- |Vincent||[[1268]]||[[1271]]||&amp;nbsp; |- |colspan=4|'''By [[Madragana|Madragana (Mor Afonso)]]''' (c. [[1230]]-?) |- |[[Martim Chichorro|Martim Afonso Chichorro]]||c. [[1250]]||a. [[1313]]||Natural son; Married Inês Lourenço de Valadres. |- |[[Urraca Afonso]]||c. [[1260]]||?||Natural daughter; Married twice: 1st to D. Pedro Anes de Riba Vizela, 2nd to João Mendes de Briteiros |- |colspan=4|'''By [[Maria Peres de Enxara]]''' (?-?) |- |[[Afonso Dinis]]||c. [[1260]]||a. [[1310]]||Natural son; Married to D. Maria Pais Ribeira, Lady of the House of Sousa. |- |colspan=4|'''Other natural offspring''' |- |[[Leonor Afonso, Countess of Neiva|Leonor Afonso]]||c. [[1250]]||[[1291]]||Natural daughter. Married twice: 1st to D. Estevão Anes de Sousa (without issue), 2nd to D. Gonçalo Garcia de Sousa, Count of [[Neiva]] (without issue). |- |[[Gil Afonso]]||[[1250]]||[[December 31]] [[1346]]||Natural son; Gentleman of the Order do Hospital. |- |[[Fernando Afonso]]||?||?||Natural son; Gentleman of the Order do Hospital. |- |[[Rodrigo Afonso]]||[[1258]]||about [[May 12]] [[1272]]||Natural son; Prior of the city of [[Santarem]]. |- |[[Leonor Afonso (nun)]]||?||[[1259]]||Natural daughter; Nun in the Monastery of Santa Clara of [[Santarem]]. |- |[[Urraca Afonso]]||[[1250]]||[[November 4]] [[1281]]||Natural daughter; Nun in the Monastery of Lorvao. |- |[[Henrique Afonso]]||?||?||Natural son; Married to Inês (last name unknown). |} ===See also=== [[Kings of Portugal family tree]] {{s-start}} {{s-bef|before=[[Sancho II of Portugal|Sancho II]]}} {{s-ttl|title=[[List of Portuguese monarchs|King of Portugal]]|years=[[1248]]&amp;ndash;[[1279]]}} {{s-aft|after=[[Denis of Portugal|Denis]]}} ==References== *{{1911}} [[Category:1210 births]] [[Category:1279 deaths]] [[Category:Portuguese monarchs]] [[ca:Alfons III de Portugal]] [[de:Alfons III. (Portugal)]] [[es:Alfonso III de Portugal]] [[fr:Alphonse III de Portugal]] [[pl:Alfons III (król Portugalii)]] [[pt:Afonso III de Portugal]] [[ru:Афонсу III]] [[zh:阿方索三世 (葡萄牙)]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Afonso IV of Portugal</title> <id>1660</id> <revision> <id>41696316</id> <timestamp>2006-03-01T03:01:50Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Sparklegurl32</username> <id>132183</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Disambiguation link repair ([[Wikipedia:Disambiguation pages with links|You can help!]])</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{House of Burgundy}} '''Afonso IV of Portugal''' ([[Portuguese language|Portuguese]] [[Pronunciation|pron.]] [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]] /{{IPA|ɐ.'fõ.su}}/; [[English language|English]] ''Alphonzo''), or ''Affonso'' (Archaic Portuguese), ''Alfonso'' or ''Alphonso'' ([[Portuguese-Galician languages|Portuguese-Galician]]) or ''Alphonsus'' ([[Latin language|Latin]]), ([[February 8]] [[1291]] &amp;ndash; [[May 28]] [[1357]]), known as ''the Brave'' ([[Portuguese language|Port.]] ''o Bravo''), was the seventh [[List of Portuguese monarchs|king of Portugal]] from [[1325]] until his death. He was the only legitimate son of [[Dinis of Portugal]] by his wife [[Elizabeth of Portugal|Elizabeth]]. [[Image:AfonsoIV-P.jpg|left|Afonso IV of Portugal]] Afonso, born in [[Lisbon]], was his father's only legitimate son and the rightful heir to the Portuguese throne. However, he was not, according to several sources, Dinis' favourite son; his half-brother, the illegitimate [[Afonso Sanches]], enjoyed full royal favour. From early in life, the notorious rivalry led to several outbreaks of [[civil war]]. On [[January 7]], [[1325]], Afonso's father died and he became king, taking full revenge on his brother. His rival was sentenced to [[exile]] in [[Castile]], and stripped of all the lands and [[fiefdom]]s donated by their common father. Afonso Sanches, however, did not sit still. From Castile, he orchestrated a series of attempts to usurp the crown for himself. After a few failed attempts at invasion, both brothers signed a peace treaty, arranged by the Queen Isabella. In [[1309]], Afonso IV married princess Beatrice, daughter of King [[Sancho IV of Castile]] by his wife [[Maria de Molina]]. The first-born of this union, princess [[Maria of Portugal]], married King [[Alfonso XI of Castile]] in [[1328]], at th
fields. However, an engine has to be started at a height that includes a margin that would still allow a safe outlanding to be made, if the engine were to fail to start. Consequently gliders without an engine will sometimes be able to thermal safely below that height, find lift and continue on their task. An engine also adds to the weight and expense of a glider. ==Hazards== Although considered a relatively safe form of aviation, there are potential hazards in gliding. Gliders, however, surround the pilot with a strong structure and most accidents occur at a low speed causing no injuries. A small number of fatal accidents occur every year, almost all caused by pilot error. Causes include: * mid-air collisions: gliders sometimes fly in close proximity, especially in thermals. Glider pilots have to keep a good look-out and many fly with parachutes for this reason. * incorrect procedure during launch, especially when using a winch * low speeds while turning before landing * in-flight structural failures: these occur rarely, usually the result of high loads placed on the aircraft either intentionally (during aerobatics) or while recovering from a sudden loss of control * unconnected controls: gliders are designed for quick assembly. While most newer gliders use automatic control hookups, the majority of sailplanes have manual quick connect control rods. If neglected or improperly engaged prior to flight, a pilot might lose control of the glider * outlandings: there is some risk of striking power lines or other unseen objects by cross-country pilots during an outlanding * contact with terrain: turbulence can result in a sudden loss of control and altitude. The stronger the wind, the more varied the terrain, the greater the risk of severe turbulence. Pilots who fly in mountainous terrain are especially wary of this danger * thunderstorms: the thermals pilots use for soaring sometimes blossom into thunderstorms, with severe turbulence, hail, and lightning, each of which presents serious danger to gliders. ==Learning to glide== [[Image:Blanik_3_a.jpg|thumb|right|A Blanik L-23. A common training glider]] Most clubs offer trial lessons to people interested in learning to glide and will accept bookings by phone. The links to national organisations below give the contact details for the nearest clubs. The pupil flies with an instructor in a two-seat glider fitted with dual controls. The instructor does the first launches and landings but otherwise the pupil uses the controls. People with the skill to drive a car can usually learn to fly a glider. Some clubs offer courses over several days, though, with a mixture of winch and aerotow launches, it often takes [[ab initio]]s at least 50 training flights before they are allowed to fly solo. If winches are used, the cost of learning to glide is much less than that of learning to fly powered aircraft. However the cost is much greater if aerotowing is the only available method of launching, even though fewer launches might be needed, perhaps as few as 30. Further training continues after the first solo until the pupil is judged capable of taking a glider cross-country. Some studying is required on topics such as the regulations, use of the radio, weather and navigation. ==Notable people who were also glider pilots== * [[Neil Armstrong]] - astronaut * [[John Denver]] - singer/songwriter * [[Richard C. du Pont]] - director of miltary glider program * [[Steve Fossett]] - entrepreneur and record breaker * [[Barron Hilton]] - hotel magnate * [[Paul MacCready]] - aviation inventor * [[Steve McQueen]] - actor * [[Mike Melvill]] - Spaceship One test pilot * [[Gimli Glider|Robert Pearson]] - airline pilot who glided a Boeing 767 * [[Derek Piggott]] - movie stunt pilot * [[Christopher Reeve]] - actor * [[Hanna Reitsch]] - test pilot * [[Cliff Robertson]] - actor * [[Peter Scott]] - naturalist (founder of World Wildlife Fund) * [[Peter Twiss]] - test pilot and former holder of the World Air Speed Record ==Some national gliding associations== * [[British Gliding Association]] * [[Gliding Federation of Australia]] * [[Gliding New Zealand]] * [[Royal Canadian Air Cadets]] * [[Soaring Association of Canada]] * [[Soaring Society of America]] * [[Soaring Society of South Africa]] * [[Minden Soaring Club]] ==Related sports== Two minimalistic variations of the sport are [[hang gliding]], where instead of a fully-fledged plane with full control surfaces and an enclosed cockpit the craft used is basically a fabric flying wing, and [[paragliding]], where a sophisticated kind of parachute is flown. Another variation of the sport is [[radio-controlled glider|radio-controlled gliding]], where the operator of the aircraft flies the [[model aircraft|model]] sailplane from the ground via radio transmission. ==External links== *[http://start.fai.org/gliding-federations.asp Links to all national gliding federations] *[http://www.fai.org/gliding/ International Gliding Commission] *[http://www.whiteplanes.com/gliders1.htm Gliding pictures] *[http://www.alpenstreckenflug.de/texte/english/glidingvideos.htm Videos] *[http://www.yorksoaring.com/whatissoaring.html Useful diagrams] *[http://myweb.tiscali.co.uk/miskin/gliding/ Learning to glide] [[Category:Aeronautics]] [[Category:aviation]] [[Category:Gliding]] [[da:Svæveflyvning]] [[de:Segelflug]] [[fr:Vol à voile]] [[id:Gliding]] [[he:דאייה]] [[hu:Siklórepülés]] [[nl:Zweefvliegen]] [[no:Seilfly]] [[pl:Szybownictwo]] [[fi:Purjelento]] [[sv:Segelflyg]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Gracchi</title> <id>12615</id> <revision> <id>41387919</id> <timestamp>2006-02-27T00:25:48Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Djnjwd</username> <id>9595</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>fix :ru link</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Gracchi''' were a noble plebeian family of ancient [[Roman Republic|Rome]]. The most notable members were: *The elder [[Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus (consul)|Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus]], who was [[consul]] in [[177 BC]]; *His son the younger [[Tiberius Gracchus|Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus]], [[tribune]] in [[133 BC]] *The younger son of the former and brother of the latter Tiberius, [[Gaius Gracchus|Gaius Sempronius Gracchus]], tribune in [[123 BC|123]] and [[122 BC]]. The Gracchi brothers, Tiberius and Gaius, went down in history as two martyrs to the cause of social reform. Both were killed by members of the Senate for attempting to make the system more friendly to the lower classes of Rome. The Gracchi were connected through marriage to the [[Scipio]]nes, [[Cornelius (gens)|Cornelii]], [[Claudius (gens)|Claudii]], and [[Paullus|Paulli]]. {{seealso|Scipio-Paullus-Gracchus family tree}} [[Category:Families of Rome]] [[de:Gracchus]] [[es:Graco]] [[fr:Gracques]] [[nl:Gracchus]] [[ja:グラックス兄弟]] [[ru:Гракхи]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Gossip</title> <id>12616</id> <revision> <id>41635007</id> <timestamp>2006-02-28T18:04:58Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Bhouston</username> <id>319269</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>added [[Category:Social constructionism]] cat and a [[Misinformation]] see also link</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{wiktionary}} The word '''''gossip''''' may refer to: * the act of spreading news from person to person, especially [[rumor]]s or private information: see [[chat]] * the news spread through the act of gossiping While gossip forms one of the oldest and (still) the most common means of spreading and sharing information, it also has a reputation for the introduction of errors and other variations into the information thus transmitted. The term also carries implications that the news so transmitted (usually) has a personal or trivial nature. Compare [[conversation]]. Gossip has recently come into the [[research | academy]] as a fruitful avenue of study, particularly in light of its relationship to both '''overt and implicit [[power (sociology) | power]] structures'''. Compare [[discourse]]. Some newspapers carry &quot;[[gossip columnist |gossip column]]s&quot; which retail the social and personal lives of [[celebrity | celebrities]] or of [[elitism | élite]] members of a local community. ==Etymology== The word &quot;gossip&quot; originates from ''god-sib'', the [[godparent]] of one's child or parent of one's godchildren (&quot;god-sibling&quot;), referring to a relationship of close friendship. The [[Oxford English Dictionary]] traces the usage of ''godsib'' back as far as 1014. One story (probably apocryphal) tells how, at the beginning of the 20th century, politicians would send assistants to bars to sit and listen to general public conversations. The assistants had instructions to sip a beer and listen to opinions; they responded to the command to &quot;go sip&quot;, which allegedly turned into &quot;gossip&quot;. (Note that the [[Oxford English Dictionary]] traces the use of ''gossip'' in the meaning of &quot;idle talk; trifling or groundless rumour; tittle-tattle ... [e]asy, unrestrained talk or writing, esp. about persons or social incidents&quot; back as far as 1811; and the verb ''to gossip'' as far back as the early 17th century.) ==Functions of gossip== [[Image:No chat.jpg|thumb|225px|This Soviet war poster reads: &quot;Don't chatter! Gossiping borders on treason&quot; (1941).]] Gossip can serve to: * normalise and re-inforce [[morality | moral]] boundaries in a speech-community * foster and build a sense of [[community]] with shared interests and [[information]] * entertain and divert participants in gossip-sessions * retail and develop [[story | stories]] and even [[legend]]s: see [[memetics]] * build structures of social [[accountability]] * further mutual [[social grooming]] (like many other uses of [[language]], only more so) * reflect unvarnished and spontaneous [[public opi
see as the inevitable outcome of current [[European integration|integrationist]] trends. This is a perception disputed by most, but by no means all, pro-Europeans. ===Compromising sovereignty=== Eurosceptics often disagree with current or proposed measures that they see as compromising national sovereignties, including: * the proposed [[European Rapid Reaction Force]] * the draft [[European Constitution]] * the proposed establishing of a European Public Prosecutor, or the establishing of [[Eurojust]] * any extension of [[Europol]] to include enforcement powers * harmonising taxation or welfare benefits * reduction to the number of policy areas subject to agreement by unanimity in the [[European Council]], where each country may veto proposed legislation. Eurosceptics often propose either radical modifications to the structure of the EU, including more influence for national parliaments, or the withdrawal of their country from the Union altogether. ===Harmonising of justice and home affairs=== Eurosceptics generally consider the harmonising of criminal justice systems in Europe unnecessary. They dispute pro-Europeans' claims that enhanced judicial co-operation could provide additional protection against terrorists or organised criminal gangs. They believe that moves towards centralised decisions on issues of justice and law are examples of the EU's lack of choice and poor cultural awareness. While most eurosceptics acknowledge that all current systems of justice in the EU offer adequate protection despite their differences, others, including members of the British Parliament, contend that [[common law]] systems of justice are incompatible with [[civil law (legal system)|civil law]] systems which, according to them, do not provide enough protections with respect to [[presumption of innocence]] and other guarantees. (These guarantees, however, are laid out in the [[European Convention of Human Rights]], which all EU members must sign.) ==Euroscepticism in France== ===1970s=== In [[1978]], [[Jacques Chirac]], a rival of then president [[Valéry Giscard d'Estaing]], published the [[Call of Cochin]] in which he clearly alluded to Giscard's party as the &quot;party of the foreigners&quot;. Giscard is a well-known pro-European. ===Recent events=== On the [[left-wing|left]] of the political spectrum, the ''[[Parti des Travailleurs]]'', [[Jean-Pierre Chevènement]] and the [[French Communist Party]] are eurosceptic. They see the European Union as a means through which unpopular economic measures of [[free market]]s, [[free trade]], the gradual demolition of [[public service]]s and [[Social security]] and increasing [[technocracy]], all of which they see as part of a [[right-wing]] agenda, are imposed on the French public. The Left is split along similar lines on the topic of the [[Treaty establishing a constitution for Europe|proposed European Constitution]]: the Communist Party, and parts of the [[French Socialist Party|Socialist Party]], oppose the Constitution as carving ''ultra-libéral'' free market policies in stone; but the majority of the Socialist party considers the constitution an improvement, according to an internal vote. On the [[right-wing|right]], [[Jean-Marie Le Pen]] ([[National Front (France)|Front National]]) and [[Philippe de Villiers]] are eurosceptic. They are against compromising French independence and the possible integration into the European Union of countries that they contend are not European in essence, such as [[Turkey]]. Le Pen is also opposed to the [[Common Agricultural Policy]] and would rather have [[protectionism|protectionist]] measures against imports of foreign agricultural products into France, and other imports as well. While the integration of Turkey is supported by president [[Jacques Chirac]], it is opposed by many, including [[Nicolas Sarkozy]], head of Chirac's supporting party, the [[Union for a Popular Movement|UMP]]. ==Euroscepticism in the United Kingdom== {{mergeto|Euroscepticism in the United Kingdom}} {{main|Euroscepticism in the United Kingdom}} The debate around euroscepticism has been a major political issue in the [[United Kingdom]] since the inception of the European Union (then the [[European Economic Community]] or EEC), and has not reduced significantly following UK membership of the Union. ===Eurosceptic views in the UK today=== Many people in Britain feel poorly informed about the European Union. Partly because of this widespread unfamiliarity with the fundamentals of the organisation, there is a wariness of its institutions, processes and policies. Eurosceptics regard the EU as lacking in democratic process, overburdened with bureaucracy, and threatening to national sovereignty. Most of the UK's mainstream magazines and newspapers, notably a [[tabloid]] press dominated by interests sceptical of the European Union such as those of [[Rupert Murdoch]], carry what some see as partisan coverage of EU laws and policy. Some commentators argue that this coverage contributes greatly to eurosceptic views; others contend that it simply reflect the views of the readership. British eurosceptics are often against political and bureaucratic centralisation while remaining in favour of other pan-European measures such as a free trade area. Eurosceptics point out that the EU is frequently good at professing high ideals, but poor at delivering on things. The failure to make any appreciable progress on the [[Lisbon Strategy]] is cited as one example. Some British eurosceptics, including [[Member of Parliament|MP]]s, maintain the superiority of British institutions, traditions and methods with respect to those of neighbouring countries, and argue that harmonisation would be culturally insensitive. For instance, with respect to European judicial integration, they claim (controversially) that the [[civil law]] systems found on the Continent do not provide comparable [[presumption of innocence]] and other protections. Eurosceptics argue that as the fifth largest economy in the world (by nominal GDP, 16.5 % of the European Union, behind Germany and before France) and a permanent member of the [[United Nations]] [[Security Council]], the United Kingdom has very substantial influence. They also observe that there is no simple correlation between the size of a political entity and its success, pointing out that there are several democratic and prosperous small countries, and several unstable, undemocratic or impoverished large ones. They see the European Union as anachronistic for its attempts to politically and economically unite a whole continent, arguing that the penchant for centralised [[trade bloc|blocs]] is increasingly outdated in a world where [[globalisation]] and [[localism]] are the main competing economic philosophies. Additionally, they claim that most Britons have few cultural or social links with Europe, and feel closer to the spirit of the [[Anglosphere]]. Recent UK polls show that the majority of the British electorate: * is opposed to UK membership in the [[euro]]; * does not feel well informed about the proposed new [[Treaty establishing a constitution for Europe|European constitution]] (recent polls have suggested a roughly even split on whether to accept or reject it [http://www.euractiv.com/Article?tcmuri=tcm:29-135284-16&amp;type=News]); * but does not want to leave the EU altogether. ===Eurosceptics in UK political parties=== [[Image:UKIPbeerMat.jpg|right|100px]] The debate between Eurosceptics and pro-Europeans is ongoing in British political parties whose membership is of varied standpoints. The two main political parties in [[United Kingdom|Britain]], the governing [[The Labour Party (UK)|Labour Party]] and the opposition [[Conservative Party (UK)|Conservative Party]], both have within them a broad spectrum of views concerning the European Union. In the [[Conservative Party (UK)|Conservative Party]], debate over Europe has been ongoing since the 1970s, sometimes to the detriment of other issues. A particular tipping point for British Conservatism came in the period 1987-1988 when leading Conservatives - including the then Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher - realised that the European question was no longer (if it had ever been) just about an extension of the free market. Thatcher's Bruges speech in September 1988 and the subsequent formation of the [[Bruges Group]] galvanised this emerging opinion. One may argue that a reverse process was happening within the Labour Party during the same period. Currently, euroscepticism is a significant current of opinion within the Conservative Party, to an extent perceived to be greater than in any comparably important political party in any other [[EU]] member state (but this is to be expected in a country where a large proportion of the population is eurosceptic). Pro-European elements on the left of the Conservative Party also suffered disproportionately more when marginal constituencies were lost in the 1997 General Elections. However, many commentators believe over-interest in the issue to be an important reason why the Conservative Party lost the [[United Kingdom general election, 2001|General Election of 2001]]. They argue that the British electorate was more influenced by domestic issues than by European affairs. This is said to be illustrated by the poor performance of the breakaway [[Pro-Euro Conservative Party]] in the [[1999]] [[European Parliament|European elections]], although there is little track record of success generally for breakaway parties in the United Kingdom. After the electoral defeat of the UK Conservatives in 2001, the issue of eurosceptism was important in the contest to elect a new party leader. The winner, [[Iain Duncan Smith]], was seen as more eurosceptic than his predecessor and concern was expressed that his victory could result in an inflammation of the issue within the party. As opposition leader, [[Iain Duncan Smith]] attempted to disaffiliate the British C
mp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;even for Housman's verse.&quot; Another great poem by Housman, contrasting death with fleeting beauty and physical prowess, is the following: To an Athlete Dying Young&lt;br /&gt; By Alfred Edward Housman &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;The time you won your town the race&lt;br /&gt; &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;We chaired you through the market-place;&lt;br /&gt; &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Man and boy stood cheering by,&lt;br /&gt; &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;And home we brought you shoulder-high.&lt;br /&gt; &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Today, the road all runners come,&lt;br /&gt; &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Shoulder-high we bring you home,&lt;br /&gt; &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;And set you at your threshold down,&lt;br /&gt; &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Townsman of a stiller town. &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Smart lad, to slip betimes away&lt;br /&gt; &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;From fields where glory does not stay&lt;br /&gt; &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;And early though the laurel grows&lt;br /&gt; &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;It withers quicker than the rose. &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Eyes the shady night has shut&lt;br /&gt; &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Cannot see the record cut,&lt;br /&gt; &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;And silence sounds no worse than cheers&lt;br /&gt; &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;After earth has stopped the ears:&lt;br /&gt; &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Now you will not swell the rout&lt;br /&gt; &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Of lads that wore their honors out,&lt;br /&gt; &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Runners whom renown outran&lt;br /&gt; &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;And the name died before the man. &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;So set, before its echoes fade,&lt;br /&gt; &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;The fleet foot on the sill of shade,&lt;br /&gt; &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;And hold to the low lintel up&lt;br /&gt; &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;The still-defended challenge-cup. &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;And round the early-laureled head&lt;br /&gt; &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Will flock to gaze the strengthless dead,&lt;br /&gt; &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;And find unwithered on its curls&lt;br /&gt; &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;The garland briefer than a girl’s ==Housman in literature== Housman is the main character in the 1998 [[Tom Stoppard]] play '[[The Invention of Love]]'. == External links == {{wikiquote}} *[http://www.housman-society.co.uk The Housman Society] *''[http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/toc/modeng/public/HouShro.html A Shropshire Lad]'' * {{gutenberg author| id=A.+E.+Housman | name=Alfred Edward Housman}} *[http://www.bryantmcgill.com/World_Poetry/~A/A.E._Housman/ A.E. Housman Poetry and Translations] at the Open Translation Project sponsored by [[Bryant H. McGill]] [[Category:1859 births|Housman, A. E.]] [[Category:1936 deaths|Housman, A. E.]] [[Category:British classical scholars|Housman, A. E.]] [[Category:English poets|Housman, A. E.]] [[Category:Gay writers|Housman, A. E.]] [[Category:Former students of St John's College, Oxford|Housman, A. E.]] [[Category:UCL academics|Housman, A. E.]] [[Category:World War I poets|Housman, A. E.]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Augusto Pinochet</title> <id>3199</id> <revision> <id>42029093</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T08:45:47Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>ChaTo</username> <id>67756</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>/* External links */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">General '''Augusto José Ramón Pinochet Ugarte'''{{an|Name}} (born [[November 25]], [[1915]]) was head of the [[military dictatorship]] that ruled [[Chile]] from [[1973]] to [[1990]]. He came to power in a violent [[coup d'état|coup]] that deposed [[Salvador Allende]], a [[Marxism|Marxist]] physician who had become the first [[Socialist Party of Chile|Socialist]] to be elected [[President of Chile]]. The coup ended a period of strained relations between the [[United States]]—which had actively sought Allende's removal—and the [[South America]]n country, and allowed Pinochet to implement profound [[neoliberalism|neoliberal]] economic reforms and, at the same time, to commit extensive [[human rights violation]]s, both at home and abroad. {{Infobox_President | name=Augusto Pinochet Ugarte | nationality=not-american | image=Augusto Pinochet official portrait.jpg | term_start=[[September 11]], [[1973]] (coup) | term_end=[[March 11]], [[1990]] | predecessor=[[Salvador Allende]] | successor=[[Patricio Aylwin]] | birth_date=[[November 25]], [[1915]] | birth_place=[[Valparaíso]] | dead=alive | death_date= | death_place= | spouse=[[Lucía Hiriart de Pinochet|Lucía Hiriart Rodríguez]] | party=''none'' ([[military]]) | order= | vicepresident= }} On [[September 11]], [[1973]], the military, led by Pinochet, stormed the presidential palace and seized power from President Allende, who was found dead soon after. A [[junta]] headed by Pinochet was established, which immediately suspended the constitution, dissolved [[Congress of Chile|Congress]], imposed strict censorship, proscribed the [[left-wing politics|leftist]] parties that had constituted Allende's [[Popular Unity]] coalition, and halted all political activity. In addition, it embarked on a campaign of terror against opponents and perceived [[leftist]]s in the country. As a result, approximately 3,000 Chilean [[resident]]s are known to have been executed, or &quot;[[forced disappearance|disappeared]]&quot;, more than 27,000{{an|Tortured}} were [[incarcerated]] and in a great many cases [[torture]]d, according to the [[Valech Report]]. Many were [[exile]]d and received abroad, in particular in [[Argentina]], as political refugees; but they were followed in their exile by the [[DINA]] secret police, in the frame of [[Operation Condor]] which linked South-American dictatorships together against political opponents. In 1980, a new constitution was approved, which prescribed a single-candidate presidential [[plebiscite]] in 1988, and a return to civilian rule in 1990. Pinochet lost the 1988 plebiscite, which triggered multi-candidate presidential elections in 1989 to choose his replacement. Pinochet transferred power to [[Patricio Aylwin]], the new democratically elected president, in 1990; however, he retained his post as [[commander-in-chief]] of the army until 1998, when he assumed a seat in the [[Senate of Chile|Chilean Senate]], which was intended to be his for the duration of his life, according to the constitutional amendments of 1980. In 1998 Pinochet, who still had much influence in Chile, travelled to [[Britain]] for medical treatment. While there, he was arrested on a warrant from Spanish judge [[Baltasar Garzón]] and kept under house arrest for over a year, before eventually being released on medical grounds. He returned to Chile and resigned his senatorial seat in 2002, after a Supreme Court ruling that he suffered from &quot;vascular dementia&quot; and therefore could not stand trial for [[human rights]] abuses&amp;mdash;allegations of abuses had been made numerous times before his arrest, but never acted upon. In [[May 2004]], Chile's supreme court ruled that he was capable of standing trial, and he was charged with several crimes in December of that year. Supporters of Pinochet credit him with staving off the beginning of [[Communism]], fighting terrorism from radical groups such as [[Movement of the Revolutionary Left|MIR]], and implementing [[free market]] policies that laid the groundwork for rapid economic growth that continued into the [[1990s]]. His opponents charge him with destroying Chile's democracy, pursuing a policy of [[state terrorism]], catering exclusively for private interests, and adopting economic policies that favored the wealthy and hurt the country's middle- and low-income sectors. While it was originally denied by his supporters, it is now generally accepted that Pinochet's government was responsible for torturing and killing thousands of people perceived to be opponents. ==Early career== Pinochet was born in [[Valparaíso]] on [[November 25]], [[1915]], the son of Augusto Pinochet Vera and Avelina Ugarte Martínez. He went to primary and secondary school at the San Rafael Seminary of Valparaíso, the Quillota Institute ([[Marist Brothers]]), the French Fathers' School of Valparaíso, and in the Military School, which he entered in 1933. After four years of study, in 1937 he graduated with the rank of ''alférez'' ([[Second Lieutenant]]) in the [[infantry]]. In [[September]] [[1937]], he was assigned to the &quot;Chacabuco&quot; Regiment, in [[Concepción, Chile|Concepción]]. Two years later, in 1939, then with the rank of sub-lieutenant, he moved to the &quot;Maipo&quot; Regiment, garrisoned in Valparaíso. He returned to Infantry School in 1940. On [[January 30]], [[1943]], he married [[Lucía Hiriart|Lucía Hiriart Rodríguez]], with whom he had five children: three daughters (Inés Lucía, María Verónica, Jacqueline Marie) and two sons (Augusto Osvaldo and Marco Antonio). At the end of 1945, he was assigned to the &quot;Carampangue&quot; Regiment in the northern city of [[Iquique]]. In 1948, he entered the War Academy, but he had to postpone his studies, because, being the youngest officer, he had to carry out a service mission in the [[coal]] zone of [[Lota, Chile|Lota]]. The following year, he returned to his studies in the Academy. After obtaining the title of Officer Chief of Staff, in 1951, he returned to teach at the Military School. At the same time, he worked as a teachers' aide at the War Acade
s drawings. He soon managed to sell some of them to &quot;Judge&quot; magazine and then started a longtime collaboration with &quot;Calgary-Eye-Opener&quot;. It lasted virtually till 1935 though he occasionally sold his works to other magazines as well. By that time he edited, scripted and drew most of the material of this humorous magazine. His salary set at 90 dollars a month was considered respectable enough for the time. Meanwhile he had his first divorce. He and Pearle were separated in 1929 and divorced in 1930. He moved to [[Minneapolis, Minnesota]] where &quot;Calgary-Eye-Opener&quot; had its offices and there he met Clara Balken who in 1938 became his second wife. ===Disney=== In November 1935, when he learned that [[Walt Disney]] was seeking more artists for his Studio, Carl decided to apply. He was approved for a try-out which entailed a move to [[Los Angeles, California]]. Carl was one of two in his class of trainees who was hired. His starting salary was 20 dollars a week. He started at Disney Studios in 1935, more than a year after the debut of [[Donald Duck]] on [[June 9]], [[1934]] in the short ''[[The Wise Little Hen]]''. Carl initially worked as an &quot;inbetweener&quot;. This involved being teamed and supervised by one of the head animators who did the key poses of character action (often known as extremes) for which the inbetweeners did the drawings between the extremes to provide smoothness to the illusion of movement. While an inbetweener, Carl submitted gag ideas for cartoon storylines being developed and showed such a knack for creating comical situations that by 1936 he was transferred to the story department. In 1937 when Donald Duck became the star of his own series of cartoons instead of co-starring with [[Mickey Mouse]] and [[Goofy]] as previously, a new unit of storymen and animators was created devoted solely to this series. Though he originally just contributed gag ideas to some duck cartoons by 1937 Barks was (principally with partner Jack Hannah) originating story ideas that were storyboarded and (if approved by Walt) put into production. He collaborated on such cartoons as ''[[Donald's Nephews]]'' (1938), ''[[Donald's Cousin Gus]]'' (1939), ''[[Timber]]'' (1941), ''[[The Vanishing Private]]'' (1942) and ''[[The Plastics Inventor]]'' (1944). ===The Good Duck Artist=== Unhappy at the emerging wartime working conditions at Disney plus bothered by ongoing sinus problems caused by the studio's air conditioning, Barks quit in 1942. Shortly before quitting, he moonlighted as a comic book artist, contributing half the artwork for a one-shot [[comic book]] (the other half of the art being done by story partner [[Jack Hannah]]) titled ''[[Donald Duck Finds Pirate Gold]]''. This 64 page story was adapted by Donald Duck comic strip writer [[Bob Karp]] from an unproduced feature, and published in October 1942. It was the first Donald Duck story originally produced for an American comic book and also the first involving Donald and his nephews in a treasure hunting expedition, in this case for the treasure of [[Henry Morgan]]. Barks would later use the treasure hunting theme in many of his stories. After quitting the Studio, Barks relocated to the [[Hemet, California]]/[[San Jacinto, California]] area in the semi-desert inland empire region east of Los Angeles where he hoped to start a chicken farm. But to earn a living in the meantime he inquired whether [[Western Publishing]], which had published Pirate Gold, had any need for artists for Donald Duck comic book stories. He was immediately assigned to illustrate the script for a 10 page Donald Duck story for the monthly [[Walt Disney's Comics and Stories]]. At the publisher's invitation he revised the storyline and the improvements impressed the editor sufficently to invite Barks try his hand at contributing both the script and the artwork of his follow-up story. This set the pattern for Barks' career in that (with rare exceptions) he provided art (pencil, inking, solid blacks and lettering) and scripting for his stories. ''[[The Victory Garden (comic book) | The Victory Garden]]'', that initial 10 page story published in April, 1943 was the first of about 500 stories featuring the Disney ducks Barks would produce for Western Publishing over the next three decades, well into his purported retirement. These can be mostly divided into two categories: *10 pagers, comedic Donald Duck stories that were the lead for the monthly flagship title Walt Disney's Comics and Stories (whose circulation peaked in the mid-50s at 3 million copies sold a month!) *Humorous adventure stories, usually of 24-32 pages in length. In the 1940s these were one shots in the [[Four Color]] series (issued 4-6 times a year) that starred Donald and his nephews. From the early 50's Barks undertook the quarterly adventures of Uncle Scrooge and the duck clan in Scrooge's own title. He surrounded Donald Duck with a cast of eccentric and colorful characters such as the aforementioned [[Scrooge McDuck]]&amp;mdash;the wealthiest [[duck]] in the world, [[Gladstone Gander]]&amp;mdash;Donald's obscenely lucky cousin, inventor [[Gyro Gearloose]], the persistent [[Beagle Boys]], the sorceress [[Magica De Spell]], and [[The Junior Woodchucks]] organization. People who work for Disney generally do so in relative anonymity; the stories only carry [[Walt Disney]]'s name and (sometimes) a short identification number. However, through the sheer quality of his work, people started realizing that a lot of the stories were written by one person, whom they started referring to as the Good Duck Artist. Later it was discovered that the Good Duck Artist went by the name of Carl Barks. Barks' stories (whether humorous adventures or domestic comedies) often exhibited a wry, dark irony born of hard experience. The 10 pagers showcased Donald as everyman, struggling against the cruel bumps and bruises of everyday life with the nephews often acting as a greek chorus commenting on the unfolding disasters Donald wrought upon himself. Yet while seemingly defeatist in tone the humanity of the characters shines through in their persistence despite the obstacles. These stories found popularity not only among young children but adults as well. Despite the fact that Barks had done little traveling his stories often had the duck clan globetrotting to the most remote or spectacular of locations. This allowed Barks to indulge his penchant for elaborate backgrounds that hinted at his thwarted ambitions of doing realistic stories in the vein of Harold Foster's [[Prince Valiant]]. The stories themselves also traveled around the globe - the [[Duckburg]] stories in particular went down well in [[Germany]] where the translator [[Erika Fuchs]] achieved a masterpiece, coining popular new [[German language|German]] phrases. ===Third marriage=== As Barks blossomed creatively, his marriage to Clara deteriorated (this is the period referred to in Barks' famed quip that he could feel his creative juices flowing while the whiskey bottles hurled at him by a tipsy Clara flew by his head) and they were divorced in 1951. It was his second and last divorce. In this period Barks dabbled in fine art, exhibiting paintings at local art shows. It was at one of these in 1952 he became acquainted with fellow exhibitor Margaret Wynnfred Williams (1917 to [[March 10]], [[1993]]), nicknamed Garé, a landscape artist. She soon started helping him, handling the solid blacks and lettering (both of which Barks had found onerous). They married in 1954 and their marriage lasted till her death. ===Later Life=== Carl Barks retired in 1966 but was persuaded by editor Chase Craig to script stories for Western. He wrote one Uncle Scrooge story, three Donald Duck stories and from 1970-1974 was the main writer for the [[Junior Woodchucks]] comic book (issues 6 thru 25). The latter included environmental themes that Barks first explored in 1957 [&quot;Land of the Pygmy Indians&quot;, Uncle Scrooge #18]. Barks also sold a few sketches to Western that were redrawn as covers. For a time they lived in [[Goleta]] near [[Santa Barbara, California]] before returning to the inland empire by moving to [[Temecula]]. With permission from Disney he began producing oil paintings of scenes from his stories. These paintings quickly became highly sought after and their price rocketed much to Barks' astonishment. In 1976 Carl and Gare attended their first comic book convention, New Con in Boston. Among the other attendees was famed [[Little Lulu]] comic book scripter John Stanley; despite both having worked for [[Western Publishing]] this was the first time they met. The highlight of the convention was the auctioning of what was to that time the largest duck oil painting Barks had done, &quot;The Fourth of July in Duckburg&quot;, which included depictions of several prominent Barks fans and collectors. It sold for a then record high amount: $6,400. Soon thereafter a fan sold unauthorized prints of some of the [[Scrooge McDuck]] paintings, leading Disney to withdrew permission for further paintings. To meet demand for new work Barks embarked on a series of paintings of non-Disney ducks and fantasy subjects such as Beowulf and Xerxes. These were eventually collected in the limited-edition book Animal Quakers. As the result of heroic efforts by [[Star Wars]] producer [[Gary Kurtz]] and screenwriter [[Edward Summer]], Disney relented and in 1981, allowed Barks to do a now seminal oil painting called &quot;Wanderers of Wonderlands&quot; for a breakthrough limited edition book entitled &quot;[[Uncle Scrooge McDuck: His Life and Times]].&quot; After being turned down by every major publisher in New York City, Kurtz and Summer published the book through [[Celestial Arts]] which Kurtz acquired partly for this purpose. The book went on to become the model for virtually every important collection of comic book stories. It was the first book of its kind ev
ama is sometimes criticized as being a [[Neo-luddism|bio-luddite]] because of his critiques of the political ramifications of [[transhumanism]], though to others Fukuyama is considered more of a [[bioconservative]] because of his cautious support for [[genetically modified organism]] technologies. Politically, Fukuyama has in the past been considered [[Neoconservatism|neoconservative]]. He was active in the [[Project for the New American Century]] think tank starting in 1997, and signed the organization's letter recommending that [[President of the United States|President]] [[Bill Clinton]] overthrow the then-President of [[Iraq]], [[Saddam Hussein]]. [http://www.newamericancentury.org/iraqclintonletter.htm] He also joined in its similar letter to President [[George W. Bush]] after the [[September 11, 2001 attacks]], a letter that called for removing Saddam Hussein from power &quot;even if evidence does not link Iraq directly to the attack&quot;. [http://www.newamericancentury.org/Bushletter.htm] Thereafter, however, he did not approve of the [[2003 invasion of Iraq]] as it was executed, and called for [[Donald Rumsfeld]]'s resignation as [[United States Secretary of Defense|Secretary of Defense]] [http://www.zaman.com/?bl=international&amp;alt=&amp;trh=20040714&amp;hn=10372]. He also said that he would vote against Bush in the 2004 election. [http://clublet.com/why?WhyIWontVoteForGeorgeBush] In an essay in the ''[[New York Times Magazine]]'' in [[2006]] that was strongly critical of the invasion [http://www.nytimes.com/2006/02/19/magazine/neo.html], he identified neoconservatism with [[Leninism]]. He wrote that the neoconservatives &lt;blockquote&gt;believed that history can be pushed along with the right application of power and will. Leninism was a tragedy in its [[Bolshevik]] version, and it has returned as farce when practiced by the United States. Neoconservatism, as both a political symbol and a body of thought, has evolved into something I can no longer support.&lt;/blockquote&gt; He also announced the end of the &quot;neoconservative moment&quot; and argued for the demilitarization of the war on terrorism: &lt;blockquote&gt;&quot;[W]ar&quot; is the wrong metaphor for the broader struggle, since wars are fought at full intensity and have clear beginnings and endings. Meeting the jihadist challenge is more of a &quot;long, twilight struggle&quot; whose core is not a military campaign but a political contest for the hearts and minds of ordinary [[Muslim]]s around the world.&lt;/blockquote&gt; In August 2005 Fukuyama, together with a number of other prominent political thinkers, co-founded ''The American Interest'' [http://www.the-american-interest.com], a quarterly magazine devoted to the broad theme of &quot;America in the World&quot;. Fukuyama was a member of the [[President's Council on Bioethics]] from 2001-2005. Fukuyama is on the steering committee for the [[Scooter Libby]] Legal Defense Trust [http://www.nytimes.com/2006/02/03/politics/03libby.html?_r=2&amp;oref=slogin&amp;oref=slogin]. ==Books== *''[[The End of History and the Last Man]].'' Free Press, 1992. ISBN 0029109752 *''[[Trust: The Social Virtues and the Creation of Prosperity]].'' Free Press, 1995. ISBN 0029109760 *''[[The Great Disruption]]: Human Nature and the Reconstitution of Social Order.'' Free Press, 1999. ISBN 068484530X *''[[Our Posthuman Future]]: Consequences of the Biotechnology Revolution.'' Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2002. ISBN 0374236437 *''[[State-Building]]: Governance and World Order in the 21st Century.'' [[Cornell University]] Press, 2004. ISBN 0801442923 *''America at the Crossroads: Democracy, Power, and the Neoconservative Legacy'' (forthcoming, [[Yale University]] Press, 2006). ISBN 0300113994 ==Essays== *''[http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m2751/is_76/ai_n6127311 The Neoconservative Moment]'', [[The National Interest]], Summer 2004 *''[http://www.nytimes.com/2006/02/19/magazine/neo.html After Neoconservatism]'', [[The New York Times]] ''Magazine'', Sunday, [[19 February]] [[2006]] ==See also== *[[Transhumanism#Brave_New_World_argument|''Brave New World'' argument]] *[[Bioconservatism]] *[[Biopolitics]] *[[Neoconservatism]] ==External links== *[http://www.nytimes.com/2006/02/19/magazine/neo.html After Neoconservatism] ''New York Times'' [[19 February]] [[2006]]. *[http://www.thetalent.org/Video/frm-main.php?show=19&amp;quality=stop Interview with Francis Fukuyama (The Talent) [[28 April]] [[2005]]] *[http://www.sais-jhu.edu/Faculty/fukuyama/Biography Biography from Francis Fukuyama's website] *Danny Postel. [http://www.opendemocracy.net/debates/article-3-117-2190.jsp ''Fukuyama&amp;#8217;s moment: a neocon schism opens''] * [http://rightweb.irc-online.org/profile/1156 ''RightWeb'' profile of Francis Fukuyama] * [http://www.sourcewatch.org/index.php?title=Francis_Fukuyama ''SourceWatch'' profile of Francis Fukuyama] * [http://www.politicalfriendster.com/showPerson.php?id=228&amp;name=Francis-Fukuyama Francis Fukuyama's connections], ''[[Political Friendster]]''. * [http://www.cooperativeresearch.org/entity.jsp?id=1521846767-2618 Profile: Francis Fukuyama], ''Center for Cooperative Research''. * [http://www.namebase.org/main2/Francis-Fukuyama.html ''NameBase'' source list] * [http://news.scotsman.com/international.cfm?id=266122006 anti-Iraq war] [[Category:1952 births|Fukuyama, Francis]] [[Category:Living people|Fukuyama, Francis]] [[Category:American political writers|Fukuyama, Frances]] [[Category:American technology writers|Fukuyama, Frances]] [[Category:Japanese Americans|Fukuyama, Francis]] [[Category:American political scientists|Fukuyama, Frances]] [[Category:Johns Hopkins University|Fukuyama, Frances]] [[Category:Project for the New American Century|Fukuyama, Francis]] [[Category:Anti-war people|Fukuyama, Francis]] [[ar:فوكوياما]] [[de:Francis Fukuyama]] [[es:Francis Fukuyama]] [[fr:Francis Fukuyama]] [[he:פרנסיס פוקויאמה]] [[hr:Francis Fukuyama]] [[it:Francis Fukuyama]] [[ja:フランシス・フクヤマ]] [[nl:Francis Fukuyama]] [[pl:Francis Fukuyama]] [[sr:Френсис Фукујама]] [[sv:Francis Fukuyama]] [[zh:法蘭西斯·福山]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Fingerspelling</title> <id>11195</id> <revision> <id>40833167</id> <timestamp>2006-02-23T08:06:36Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>193.64.21.2</ip> </contributor> <comment>fi:</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Fingerspelling''' is the act of spelling out words with the hands, using a [[manual alphabet]]. Fingerspelling is an important part of [[sign language]]s. Different sign languages (they are not universal) use different manual alphabets - some one-handed and others two-handed. Fingerspelling is used in sign language for words and names for which there is no sign. Although, some words are preferably fingerspelt even when there is an equivalent sign. Fingerspelling can also be used for emphasis, clarification, or (sometimes extensively) when teaching or learning a sign language. Fingerspelling is often rapid so that the individual letters become difficult to distinguish, and the word is grasped from the overall hand movement. When persons fluent in sign language read fingerspelling, they do not look at the signer's hand, but maintain eye contact and look at the face of the signer because facial expressions and body language are such an important part of sign language. People who are just learning fingerspelling often find it impossible to understand it using just their [[peripheral vision]] and must look directly at the hand of someone who is fingerspelling. Often, they must also ask the signer to fingerspell slowly. For people who did not learn sign language as their first language, it frequently takes years of expressive and receptive practice to become skilled with fingerspelling. ==Good fingerspelling form== The hand(s) should either remain in place while fingerspelling, or more often, drift slighly away from the midline in the manner of text being written out in the air; although, this is a subtle movement and should not be exaggerated. If fingerspelling multiple words or entire sentences, there should be a very brief pause between terms so as to signify the beginning and ending of individual words. Long nails or excessive jewelry can be distracting when watching fingerspelling and for this reason people who regularly use sign language usually avoid these conditions. === In American Sign Language === When fingerspelling [[acronyms]] in [[American Sign Language]], such as with FBI, NASA, or [[RID]], the letters are often moved in a small circle to emphasize that they should not be read together as a word. Additionally, when fingerspelling the hand '''should not bounce''' between letters. An exception is the case of double letters as with the word ''carry'' in which the double ''R'' can be shown by slightly bouncing the corresponding handshape, or by dragging it, slightly, to the side. Either method is a correct way to show double letters. However, people who bounce between '''every''' letter produce fingerspelling that is very hard to watch or understand. Those who cannot overcome the habit of bouncing every letter may find it helpful to hold the wrist of the hand doing the fingerspelling with the free hand so that they are forced to keep the hand from moving up and down while fingerspelling. Usually, only a few hours or days of this is enough to break the habit of unnecessary bouncing while fingerspelling. ==See also== *[[Manual alphabet]] *[[American Sign Language alphabet]] *[[Two-handed manual alphabet]] [[Category:Sign languages]] [[Category:deaf culture]] [[fi:Sormiaakkoset]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Wikipedia:Press coverage 2004</title> <id>11201</id> <revision> <id>18860457</id> <timestamp>2005-07-15T02:33:00Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Mcferran</username> <id>1
15901836</id> <timestamp>2002-08-07T16:23:01Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Ellmist</username> <id>2214</id> </contributor> <comment>move to Military of Bangladesh</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Military of Bangladesh]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Bangladesh/Transnational issues</title> <id>3509</id> <revision> <id>15901837</id> <timestamp>2002-08-07T16:24:20Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Ellmist</username> <id>2214</id> </contributor> <comment>move to Foreign relations of Bangladesh</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Foreign relations of Bangladesh]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Bangladesh/Foreign relations</title> <id>3510</id> <revision> <id>15901838</id> <timestamp>2002-08-07T16:23:37Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Ellmist</username> <id>2214</id> </contributor> <comment>move to Foreign relations of Bangladesh</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Foreign relations of Bangladesh]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Barbados/History</title> <id>3511</id> <revision> <id>15901839</id> <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>LA2</username> <id>445</id> </contributor> <comment>*</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[History of Barbados]] </text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Barbados/Geography</title> <id>3512</id> <revision> <id>15901840</id> <timestamp>2002-08-07T16:25:28Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Ellmist</username> <id>2214</id> </contributor> <comment>move to Geography of Barbados</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Geography of Barbados]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Barbados/People</title> <id>3513</id> <revision> <id>15901841</id> <timestamp>2002-08-20T15:37:05Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Koyaanis Qatsi</username> <id>90</id> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Demographics of Barbados]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Government of Barbados</title> <id>3514</id> <revision> <id>15901842</id> <timestamp>2002-08-07T16:26:40Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Ellmist</username> <id>2214</id> </contributor> <comment>move to Politics of Barbados</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Politics of Barbados]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Barbados/Economy</title> <id>3515</id> <revision> <id>15901843</id> <timestamp>2002-08-07T16:28:36Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Ellmist</username> <id>2214</id> </contributor> <comment>move to Economy of Barbados</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Economy of Barbados]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Barbados/Communications</title> <id>3516</id> <revision> <id>15901844</id> <timestamp>2002-08-07T16:29:44Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Ellmist</username> <id>2214</id> </contributor> <comment>move to Communications in Barbados</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Communications in Barbados]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Barbados/Transportation</title> <id>3517</id> <revision> <id>36641491</id> <timestamp>2006-01-25T13:58:56Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>RussBot</username> <id>279219</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Robot: Fixing [[Special:DoubleRedirects|double-redirect]] -&quot;Transport in Barbados&quot; +&quot;Transportation in Barbados&quot;</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Transportation in Barbados]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Barbados/Military</title> <id>3518</id> <revision> <id>15901846</id> <timestamp>2002-08-07T16:31:18Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Ellmist</username> <id>2214</id> </contributor> <comment>move to Military of Barbados</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Military of Barbados]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Barbados/Transnational issues</title> <id>3519</id> <revision> <id>15901847</id> <timestamp>2002-08-07T16:32:11Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Ellmist</username> <id>2214</id> </contributor> <comment>move to Foreign relations of Barbados</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Foreign relations of Barbados]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Foreign relations of Barbados</title> <id>3520</id> <revision> <id>35300776</id> <timestamp>2006-01-15T19:30:58Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Electionworld</username> <id>201260</id> </contributor> <comment>+template</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Politics of Barbados}} As a small nation, the primary thrust of [[Barbados]]' diplomatic activity has been within international organizations. The island is a member of the [[Commonwealth of Nations|Commonwealth]] and participates in its activities. Barbados was admitted to the [[United Nations]] in December [[1966]]. Barbados joined the [[Organization of American States]] (OAS) in 1967. On [[July 4]], [[1973]], Barbados, [[Trinidad and Tobago]], [[Guyana]], and [[Jamaica]] signed a treaty in Trinidad to found the [[Caribbean_Community|Caribbean Community (CARICOM)]]. In May 1974, most of the remaining English-speaking Caribbean states joined CARICOM, which now has 14 members. Barbados also is a member of the Caribbean Development Bank, established in 1970, with headquarters in Bridgetown. The eastern Caribbean's Regional Security System, which associates Barbados with six other island nations, also is headquartered in Barbados. In July 1994, Barbados joined the newly established Association of Caribbean States (ACS). As a member of CARICOM, Barbados supported efforts by the [[United States]] to implement UN Security Council Resolution 940, designed to facilitate the departure of [[Haiti]]'s de facto authorities from power. The country agreed to contribute personnel to the multinational force, which restored the democratically elected government of Haiti in October 1994. In May 1997, Prime Minister Owen Arthur hosted President Clinton and 14 other Caribbean leaders during the first-ever U.S.-regional summit in Bridgetown, Barbados. The summit strengthened the basis for regional cooperation on justice and counternarcotics issues, finance and development, and trade. Barbados has diplomatic missions headed by resident ambassadors or high commissioners in Canada, the U.K., the U.S., and Venezuela, and at the [[European Union]] (Brussels) and the UN. It also has resident consuls general in [[Toronto]], [[Miami]], and [[New York City]]. [[Australia]], [[Brazil]], [[Cuba]], [[Canada]], [[Colombia]], [[People's Republic of China]], [[Guatemala]], the [[United Kingdom]], the [[United States]], and [[Venezuela]] have ambassadors or high commissioners resident in Barbados. '''Disputes - international:''' none '''Illicit drugs:''' one of many Caribbean transshipment points for narcotics bound for the US and Europe ==Reference== ''Much of the material in this article comes from the [[CIA World Factbook]] 2000 and the 2003 U.S. Department of State website.'' ''See also:'' [[Barbados]] [[Category:Foreign relations by country|Barbados]] [[Category:Foreign relations of Barbados|*]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Geography of Bassas da India</title> <id>3522</id> <revision> <id>39884379</id> <timestamp>2006-02-16T15:30:30Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Koavf</username> <id>205121</id> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT[[Scattered islands in the Indian Ocean]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Government of Bassas da India</title> <id>3524</id> <revision> <id>39884373</id> <timestamp>2006-02-16T15:30:25Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Koavf</username> <id>205121</id> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT[[Scattered islands in the Indian Ocean]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Military of Bassas da India</title> <id>3527</id> <revision> <id>39884395</id> <timestamp>2006-02-16T15:30:40Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Koavf</username> <id>205121</id> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Scattered islands in the Indian Ocean]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Communications in Bassas da India</title> <id>3529</id> <revision> <id>39884605</id> <timestamp>2006-02-16T15:32:41Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Koavf</username> <id>205121</id> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Scattered islands in the Indian Ocean]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Belarus/History</title> <id>3530</id> <revision> <id>15901853</id> <timestamp>2002-03-04T12:51:25Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>LA2</username> <id>445</id> </contributor> <comment>*</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[History of Belarus]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Geography of Belarus</title> <id>3531</id> <revision> <id>41875222</id>
|- !colspan=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#FFDEAD&quot;|Apollo 12 Crew |} '''Apollo 12''' was the sixth manned mission in the [[Project Apollo|Apollo program]] and the second to land on the [[Moon]]. ==Crew== *[[Charles Conrad|Pete Conrad]] (flew on ''[[Gemini 5]]'', ''[[Gemini 11]]'', ''Apollo 12'', &amp; ''[[Skylab 2]]''), commander *[[Richard F. Gordon, Jr.|Richard Gordon]] (flew on ''[[Gemini 11]]'' &amp; ''Apollo 12''), command module pilot *[[Alan Bean]] (flew on ''Apollo 12'', ''[[Skylab 3]]''), lunar module pilot ===Backup crew=== *[[David Scott]] (flew on ''[[Gemini 8]]'', ''[[Apollo 9]]'', ''[[Apollo 15]]''), commander *[[Alfred Worden]] (flew on ''[[Apollo 15]]''), command module pilot *[[James Irwin]] (flew on ''[[Apollo 15]]''), lunar module pilot ===Support crew=== *[[Gerald Carr]] (flew on ''[[Skylab 4]]'') *[[Edward Gibson]] (flew on ''[[Skylab 4]]'') *[[Paul J. Weitz|Paul Weitz]] (flew on ''[[Skylab 2]]'', ''[[STS-6]]'') ==Mission parameters== *'''[[Mass]]:''' CSM 28,838; LM 15,235 kg *'''[[Perigee]]:''' 185 km *'''[[Apogee]]:''' 189.8 km *'''[[Inclination]]:''' 32.54° *'''[[Orbital period|Period]]:''' 88.16 min *'''[[Perilune]]:''' 115.9 km *'''[[Apolune]]:''' 257.1 km *'''[[Inclination]]:''' ° *'''[[Orbital period|Period]]:''' 120 min *'''Landing Site:''' [http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/lunar/lunar_sites.html 3.01239 S - 23.42157 W] or&lt;BR&gt; 3° 0' 44.60&quot; S - 23° 25' 17.65&quot; W ===LM - CSM docking=== *'''Undocked''': [[November 19]], [[1969]] - 04:16:02 UTC *'''Redocked''': [[November 20]], [[1969]] - 17:58:20 UTC ===EVAs=== ===='''EVA 1 start''': [[November 19]], [[1969]], 11:32:35 UTC==== * ''Conrad'' - EVA 1 *'''Stepped onto Moon''': 11:44:22 UTC *'''LM ingress''': 15:27:17 UTC * ''Bean'' - EVA 1 *'''Stepped onto Moon''': 12:13:50 UTC *'''LM ingress''': 15:14:18 UTC ===='''EVA 1 end''': November 19, 15:28:38 UTC==== *'''Duration''': 3 hours, 56 minutes, 03 seconds ===='''EVA 2 start''': [[November 20]], [[1969]], 03:54:45 UTC==== * ''Conrad'' - EVA 2 *'''Stepped onto Moon''': 03:59:00 UTC *'''LM ingress''': 07:42:00 UTC * ''Bean'' - EVA 2 *'''Stepped onto Moon''': 04:06:00 UTC *'''LM ingress''': 07:30:00 UTC ===='''EVA 2 end''': November 20, 07:44:00 UTC==== *'''Duration''': 3 hours, 49 minutes, 15 seconds ===See also=== * [[Extra-vehicular activity]] * [[List of spacewalks]] * [[Splashdown]] * [[List of artificial objects on the Moon]] * [[Google Moon]] ==Quote== ''Whoopie! Man, that may have been a small one for Neil, but that's a long one for me.'' &amp;mdash;Pete Conrad (somewhat shorter in stature than Armstrong) as he stepped onto the lunar surface for the first time. ==Mission Highlights== {| style=&quot;float: right&quot; |- |[[Image:Apollo_12_Bean.jpg |thumb|235px|Alan Bean descends from the LM. (NASA)]] |- |[[Image:Apollo12Visor.jpg|thumb|235px|Alan Bean pictured by Pete Conrad (echoed in Bean's helmet) (NASA)]] |- |[[Image:GPN-2000-001316.jpg|thumb|235px|Conrad, Surveyor 3 and the LM Intrepid (NASA)]] |- |[[Image:Surveyor 3 Conrad.jpeg|thumb|235px|Conrad jiggles the Surveyor III craft. (NASA)]] |- |[[Image:a12-plaque.jpg|right|thumb|photograph of the plaque attached to the Apollo 12 LM]] |} Shortly after liftoff from Cape Canaveral, the Saturn V rocket body was hit by a bolt of upper-atmosphere [[lightning]]. The CM's instruments momentarily went off-line and Mission Control lost the telemetry feeds from the spacecraft for several seconds. When ground control regained telemetry lock with the spacecraft, the feeds were garbled and reported incomplete and possibly inaccurate information. [[EECOM]] [[John Aaron]] thought that the garbled telemetry might be caused by a malfunction in the launch vehicle's Signal Condition Equipment, since the SCE controlled the spacecraft's electrical power measurements and would have automatically gone off-line in response to the kind of disruption to the spacecraft's electrical systems that a lightning strike would cause ([http://history.nasa.gov/SP-287/ch5.htm source]). With this in mind, he suggested the crew &quot;Try SCE to aux,&quot; or switch to the auxiliary set of Signal Condition Equipment. The command was a relatively obscure one and neither the [[Flight Director]], [[Capsule communicator|CAPCOM]], or mission CDR Conrad could immediately recall how to implement it; however, LMP Al Bean remembered that the SCE switch was on his panel because of a training incident a year prior to launch where just such a failure had been simulated. John Aaron's quick thinking and Al Bean's memory were able to salvage what otherwise would have been an [[Apollo abort modes|aborted mission]] (at the time of the failure, the flight had just entered abort mode One Bravo). With telemetry restored, the crew proceeded to parking orbit and was able to fully restore and verify the functionality of their spacecraft before re-igniting the [[S-IVB]] third stage for [[Trans Lunar Injection|trans-lunar injection]]. The S-IVB was originally intended to be put into a solar orbit by venting the remaining propellant. However an extra long burn of the ullage motors meant that venting the remaining propellant in the tank of the S-IVB did not give the rocket stage enough energy to escape the Earth-Moon system and instead the stage ended up in a semi-stable orbit around the Earth after passing by the Moon in [[November 18]], [[1969]]. It finally entered into solar orbit [[1971]], but returned to Earth orbit (briefly) 31 years later. It was discovered by amateur astronomer [[Bill Yeung]] and he gave it the temporary designation [[J002E3]] before it was determined to be an artificial, not natural, object. The Apollo 12 mission landed on an area of the Ocean of Storms that had been visited earlier by several unmanned missions ([[Luna 5]], [[Surveyor 3]], and [[Ranger 7]]). The [[International Astronomical Union]], recognizing this, christened this region ''Mare Cognitium (Known Sea)''. The landing site would thereafter be listed as ''[[Statio Cognitium]]'' on lunar maps (Conrad and Bean did not formally name their landing site, interestingly enough, though the intended touchdown point was nicknamed ''Pete's Parking Lot'' by Conrad). The second lunar landing was an exercise in precision targeting. The descent was automatic, with only a few manual corrections by Conrad. Although ''[[Apollo 11]]'' had made an almost embarrassingly imprecise landing well outside the designated target area, Apollo 12 succeeded, on [[November 19]], in making a pin-point landing, within walking distance (less than 200 meters) of the [[Surveyor 3]] probe, which had landed on the Moon in April [[1967]]. Conrad actually landed ''Intrepid'' 580 feet short of ''Pete's Parking Lot'' because the planned landing point looked rougher than anticipated during the final approach to touchdown. The planned landing point was a little under 1180 feet from ''Surveyor 3'', a distance that was chosen to eliminate the possibility of lunar dust (being kicked up by ''Intrepid's'' descent engine during landing) from covering ''Surveyor 3''. But the actual touchdown point - 600 feet from ''Surveyor 3'' - did cause a thin film of dust to coat the probe, giving it a light tan hue. To improve the quality of television pictures from the Moon, a color camera was carried on Apollo 12 (unlike the monochrome camera that was used on ''[[Apollo 11]]''). Unfortunately, when Bean carried the camera to the place near the lunar module where it was to be set up, he inadvertently pointed it directly into the Sun, destroying the [[vidicon tube]]. Television coverage of this mission was thus terminated almost immediately. Conrad and Bean removed pieces of the [[Surveyor 3]], to be taken back to Earth for analysis, and took two Moon-walks lasting just under four hours each. They collected rocks and set up equipment that took measurements of the Moon's seismicity, solar wind flux and magnetic field, and relayed the measurements to Earth. (By accident Bean left several rolls of exposed film on the lunar surface.) Meanwhile Gordon, on board the ''Yankee Clipper'' in lunar orbit, took multispectral photographs of the surface. The lunar plaque attached to the descent stage of ''Intrepid'' is unique in that unlike the other [[lunar plaques]], it (a) did not have a depiction of the Earth, and (b) it was textured differently (the other plaques had black lettering on polished stainless steel while the Apollo 12 plaque had the lettering in polished stainless steel while the background was brushed flat). ''Intrepid's'' ascent stage was dropped (per normal procedures) after Conrad and Bean rejoined Gordon in orbit. It impacted the Moon on [[20 November]], [[1969]] at 3.94 S, 21.20 W. The seismometers the astronauts had left on the lunar surface registered the vibrations for more than an hour. The crew stayed an extra day in lunar orbit taking photographs, for a total lunar stay of thirty-one and a half hours. The command module and its crew were flawlessly recovered by the aircraft carrier [[USS Hornet (CV-12)|USS ''Hornet'']]. The ship is now open to the public as a museum in [[Alameda, CA]]. The command module is displayed at the [[Virginia Air and Space Center]], [[Hampton, Virginia]] ==Trivia== *Pete Conrad smuggled a camera-shutter self-timer device on to the mission with the intent of taking a photograph with himself, Alan Bean and the Surveyor 3 probe in the frame. As the timer was not part of their standard equipment, such an image would have thrown post-mission photo analysts into confusion over how the photo was taken. Unfortunately the self-timer was mis-placed during the EVA and the plan was never executed. *The Apollo 12 backup crew managed to 'insert' into the astronaut's lunar checklist (attached to the wrists of Conrad's and Bean's spacesuits) reduced sized pictures of [[Playboy]] centerfolds, thus introducing [[pornography
ata merging needs to be contemplated for which he has sought Kusanagi out. This is a merger of two operating &quot;souls&quot; or &quot;ghosts&quot; into one mind, which is specifically different than birth while being analogous to it at the same time. Extended sequences in an old museum in the film version contemplate life as an evolutionary step to creating AI, differing significantly from the content of the same sequence in the manga. ===De-Ghosting=== One of the consequences of this revelation is a final resolution of the [[nature versus nurture]] debate in sociology. When a criminal is convicted of a crime in [[Masamune Shirow]]'s future world, a detailed technical analysis is done of the subject. If it is discovered that the crime was committed due to a material defect in either the biological or electronic components of the convict's brain, the defect is repaired and the convict is released. If, instead, the crime is determined to have been the result of an individual's ''ghost,'' then there is only one cure: the removal of the portion of the brain that communicates with the soul, thereby ''de-ghosting'' the criminal and preventing any possibility of future criminal behavior. ===Tachikoma/Fuchikoma=== Tachikoma (they are called [[Tachikoma]] in Stand Alone Complex, but called [[Fuchikoma]] in the original manga) are artificially intelligent mini-tanks ([[walker (machine)|walker]]s) employed by Section 9. Because of the demands of field duty, these robots are constructed with extremely flexible, adaptable AIs that lack many of the safeguards present in other artificially intelligent robots. While this enables them to behave unpredictably and flexibly, it also presents difficulties for the members of Section 9, who must monitor the Fuchikoma closely for signs of undesirable emotional development. The underlying statement here is that predictable behavior results in inherent weakness. Section 9, as an organization, needs heterogeneity and even organic weakness if it is to survive. &quot;A machine where all the parts respond the same way is a brittle tool.&quot; Tachikoma ask questions that otherwise would not have been brought to mind. Like children that are trying to understand the world, yet with superior thinking capabilities. There are Tachikoma short clips that involve them discussing complex philosophical issues and how they relate to existance. They provide more of an innocent look on the world that surrounds them. ===Cyberbrain warfare/Ghost hacking=== Cyberbrain warfare is the practice of employing ''ghost hacking'' as a means of gaining access to an opponent's cyberbrain, and ultimately, their ''ghost.'' A successful cyberhacker can intercept, censor, or augment the sensory information being received by a victim, or even go so far as to destroy or rewrite complete memories. Furthermore, cyberbrain can be directly injured, by making the cyberbrain undergo unaffordable computation and thus overheat. (See [[Cordwainer Smith]]'s &quot;The Burning of the Brain&quot;) Cyberbrain warfare is portrayed as a natural consequence of the integration of cybernetic and wireless communication technology directly into the human brain. Despite the apparent risks, even the most paranoid characters in the story find the benefits of directly networking their brains to be indispensable. Apparently, any conduit by which information is absorbed by the brain can be exploited for ''ghost hacking.'' Shirow envisions the use of [[Firewall (networking)|firewalls]] for protecting the ''ghost'' against attack, and multiple layers of [[encryption]]. ===External Memory=== Like information stored in the hard-drive of a modern computer the memories of a ghost can become fragmented and unreliable. This is the result of ghost-hacking, psychological treatment, trauma experienced while ghost-diving, corrupted transferrence from one cyber-brain to another, and the degradation of memories as they are collected and cross-referenced over the course of a lifetime. The response that humans have developed to cope with the confusion of memories is to reinforce them with external reminders. Artwork, books, clothing, personal electronics, places of employment, and even companions are carefully chosen to familiarize the landscape of one's existence. In a sense we are partly motivated in our actions by the desire to look back on them with fondness and clarity. The need for external memory is also a philosophical hurdle for the members of Section 9. They are, after all, a watchdog group mandated with rooting out cases of cyber-brain crime. Kusanagi shuns the accumulation of trinkets (beyond the watch she wears in Stand Alone Complex). Being an expert in ghost-hacking and the workings of the cyber-brain, she considers these to be a sign of weakness that can be easily read by enemies. In an age when a detective can reconstruct a person's psyche based on study of their external memory Kusanagi has a sound position. Batou, on the other hand, is sentimental. He keeps a pet dog, has safe houses full of books and art, and even has a favorite Fuchikoma/Tachikoma to work with. Though they may be a fatal tell of one's living habits in his line of work he still clings to such comforts. ==Related works== ===Sequel=== {{main|Ghost in the Shell 2: Man/Machine Interface}} A continuation (somewhat) of the manga and first movie storyline can be found in the second part of the manga entitled ''[[Ghost in the Shell 2: Man/Machine Interface]]''. ===Film and TV adaptations=== {{main articles|[[Ghost in the Shell (film)]] and [[Ghost in the Shell 2: Innocence]]}} The anime film adaptation is directed by [[Mamoru Oshii]]; fans debate the extent to which it is a oversimplification of the manga's themes, or whether it is a more serious interpretation with its own integrity. A second feature, ''[[Ghost in the Shell 2: Innocence]]'' was also directed by Oshii and places the character of Batou in the lead role. There is also a TV series, ''[[Ghost in the Shell: Stand Alone Complex]]''. ===Video games=== {{main|Ghost in the Shell (video game)|game}} One self-titled [[video game console|console]] [[Ghost in the Shell (video game)|game]] has already been produced for the series, developed by [[Exact]] and published by [[THQ]]. A second one bearing the series title ''[[Ghost in the Shell: Stand Alone Complex (video game)|Stand Alone Complex]]'' was released in [[November 2004]], developed by [[Sony|SCEJ]] and [[Cavia (game developer)|Cavia]] and published by [[Bandai]]. ==Impact and influence== [[Image:Gits-katsuragi-camouflage.jpeg|right|thumb|Major Kusanagi using optical camouflage (from ''[[Ghost in the Shell: Stand Alone Complex]]'') ]] ''Ghost in the Shell'' has made a significant impact in fiction and the real world alike. ''[[The Matrix]]'', a very successful [[1999]] sci-fi action movie, contains imagery apparently influenced by this movie (as well as other anime). For example, the opening scene with green digits resembles the opening of ''Ghost in the Shell''. During the opening scene in which [[Trinity (Matrix character)|Trinity]] flees the [[Agents (The Matrix)|Agents]], the shot of the Agent landing on the roof is almost identical to a shot of Kusanagi during the pursuit of the first 'puppet'. [http://webmirror.kobran.org/matrixgits/] Also, the shot in which the first puppet is fleeing Batou in the market and a similar cut where [[Neo (Matrix character)|Neo]] is fleeing the trio Agents in a real life market are linked by exploding watermelons and terrified civilians amongst crossfire (although Neo is not armed). The famous lobby shootout features [[Neo (Matrix character)|Neo]] and [[Trinity (Matrix character)|Trinity]] taking cover behind stone pillars, just as Kusanagi does during the battle with a tank. There is also a clear relation between the conception of the Matrix and the cybernetically enhanced brains of ''Ghost in the Shell''. (The [[Wachowski brothers]], makers of the ''Matrix'' trilogy, acknowledged the influence of ''Ghost in the Shell'' in an interview. [http://www.warnervideo.com/matrixevents/wachowski.html]) == Book references (manga) == *''The Ghost In The Shell (Kokaku Kidotai)'' : Publisher: [[Kodansha]] (KCDX) ISBN 4-06-313248-X C9979 Release: [[5 October]] [[1991]], original Japanese *''Ghost In The Shell (English Edition)'' : Publisher: [[Dark Horse Comics]] / Studio Proteus ISBN 1-56971-081-3, Release: December 1995, English adaptation *''Ghost In The Shell 2: Man/Machine Interface (English Edition Sequel)'' : Publisher: [[Dark Horse Comics]] / Studio Proteus ISBN 159307204X, Release: Dark Horse (January 19, 2005), English adaptation ==External links== * {{imdb title|id=0113568|title=Ghost in the Shell}} *[http://www.manga.com/ghost/ Official Film Site At Manga.com] *[http://biphome.spray.se/masterlink/glossary.html Glossary of terms] &lt;!--&quot;in&quot; is intended to be lowercase, see the site--&gt; *[http://www.neomythos.com/intheshell/index.shtml ''in the Shell''] — general information, philosophy, links *[http://www.geocities.com/Tokyo/Island/3102/ghost.htm &quot;The Soul of the New Machine&quot;] — A review originally published in FILM COMMENT magazine, September 1996 *[http://www.kyo-kan.net/oshii-ig/gits/ Japanese Fansite] *[http://anidb.info/perl-bin/animedb.pl?show=rel&amp;aid=61 GITS Relations] — A graphical representation of the relations between the different series and movies from the ''GITS'' universe *[http://www.mangareviewer.com/?page_id=43 BAOH manga review at Mangareviewer.com] *[http://www.sensesofcinema.com/contents/cteq/00/6/ghost.html Review at sensesofcinema.com] *[http://www.animegalleries.net/category/54 ''Ghost in the Shell'' Image Collection @ AnimeGalleries.Net] *[http://www.standalonecomplex.co.nr ''Stand Alone Complex''] — ''Ghost in the Shell'' Forums {{Ghost in the Shell}} [[Category:Anime series]] [[Category:Cyberpunk]] [[Category:Ghost in the Shell|*]] [[Category:Grap
y]] until her death in [[2004]] at age 52. ==Stage== ===Broadway=== * ''Titanic: A New Musical'' ([[1998]]) * ''The Marriage of Figaro'' ([[1985]]) * ''Arms and the Man'' ([[1985]]) * ''Strange Interlude'' ([[1985]]) * ''Teaneck Tanzi: The Venus Flytrap'' ([[1983]]) ===Off-Broadway=== * ''Three Birds Alighting On A Field'' ([[1994]]) * ''Unexpected Tenderness'' ([[1994]]) * ''Quartermaine's Terms'' ([[1984]]) * ''Thin Ice'' ([[1984]]) * ''Total Eclipse'' ([[1984]]) * ''Summer'' ([[1983]]) * ''No End of Blame'' ([[1981]]) * ''Othello'' ([[1979]]) ===Regional=== * ''The Gigli Concert'' (Pittsburgh, [[2002]]) * ''Aristocrats'' (Pittsburgh, [[2002]]) * ''Who's Afraid of Virginia Woolf'' (Rochester, NY, [[2000]]) * ''Griller'' (Baltimore, [[1999]]) * ''Indiscretions'' (Dallas, [[1997]]) * ''The Glass Menagerie'' (Portland, Maine, [[1997]]) * ''Mrs. Warren's Profession'' (New Haven, [[1996]]) * ''The Queen And The Rebels'' (Baltimore, [[1991]]) * ''Our Country's Good'' (Los Angeles, [[1989]]) * ''Not Quite Jerusalem'' (New Haven, [[1984]]) * ''As You Like It'' (San Diego, [[1984]]) * ''Summer Vacation Madness'' (Minneapolis, [[1982]]) * ''Plenty'' (Chicago, [[1981]]) * ''Bal'' (Chicago, [[1980]]) * ''The Winter's Tale'' (Washington, [[1979]]) * ''Tales From The Vienna Woods'' (New Haven, [[1978]]) ==Film== * ''Never Again'' ([[2002]]) * ''Joe The King'' ([[1998]]) * ''Cost of Living'' ([[1997]]) * ''A Cure For Serpents'' ([[1997]]) * ''Blown Away'' ([[1994]]) * ''The Big Picture'' ([[1989]]) * ''[[Penn &amp; Teller Get Killed]]'' ([[1989]]) * ''Kenny'' (aka ''The Kid Brother'') ([[1985]]) * ''[[Crocodile Dundee]]'' ([[1983]]) * ''[[Dragonslayer]]'' ([[1981]]) ==Television== '''Series''': ''[[Northern Exposure]]'', ''The Equalizer'', ''Once A Hero'', ''[[Moonlighting]]'', ''Sex And The City'', ''[[Law &amp; Order]]'' (&quot;Menace&quot;, &quot;Juvenile&quot;, &quot;Stiff&quot;). '''Movies''': ''[[Mayflower Madam]]'' ([[1986]]), ''Love, Lies and Murder'' ([[1991]]), ''The Stepford Husbands'' ([[1996]]). ==External links== *{{imdb|name=Caitlin Clarke|id=0164680}} *[http://www.dysmey.org/cc/index.html The Caitlin Clarke Page] *[http://www.post-gazette.com/pg/04257/378123.stm Obituary (Pittsburgh Post-Gazette)] *[http://www.einsiders.com/features/columns/sept04obituaries.php Obituary page] [[Category:1952 births|Clarke, Caitlin]] [[Category:2004 deaths|Clarke, Caitlin]] [[Category:American film actors|Clarke, Caitlin]] [[Category:American stage actors|Clarke, Caitlin]] [[Category:American television actors|Clarke, Caitlin]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Cruiser</title> <id>7034</id> <revision> <id>41670468</id> <timestamp>2006-02-28T23:35:31Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>TheFEARgod</username> <id>381244</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>+sr</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Otheruses}} [[Image:USS Port Royal CG-73.jpg|right|thumb|300px|[[USS Port Royal (CG-73)|USS ''Port Royal'']] (CG-73), a [[Ticonderoga class cruiser|''Ticonderoga''-class]] [[guided missile]] cruiser, launched in [[1992]].]] In military terminology, a '''cruiser''' is a large [[warship]] capable of engaging multiple targets simultaneously. Historically they were generally considered the smallest ships capable of independent operations &amp;mdash; [[destroyer]]s usually requiring outside support such as [[ship's tender|tenders]] &amp;mdash; but in modern parlance this difference has disappeared. In modern warfare the cruiser has virtually disappeared, supplanted in all roles by the destroyer. ==History== The term &quot;cruiser&quot; was a mid [[19th century]] invention. During the age of sail, [[frigate]]s were small, fast, long range, lightly armed (single gun-deck) ships used for scouting and carrying dispatches. The majority of the fleet would be made up of much larger and slower [[ship of the line|ships of the line]], which were expected to deal with fleet combat that the frigates would avoid. The first [[ironclad]]s also had only a single gun-deck because of the weight of armor, even though they were bigger ships with bigger guns. They were nevertheless referred to as frigates although they were used as ships of the line. Thus the definition of a frigate changed, the smaller ships originally using this term were now referred to as &quot;cruising ships&quot;, which was rapidly abbreviated to cruiser. For many years cruisers filled a [[sweet spot]] between very light craft such as the [[torpedo boat]], and the ships intended to take part in fleet combat, later generally referred to as [[battleship]]s. Cruisers were large enough to fend off attacks from smaller surface ships and self-sufficient enough to roam far from their home bases. Battleships were more powerful in combat, but so slow and (after the introduction of increased engine power), so fuel hungry that long-range operations were difficult. For much of 19th century and the first half of the [[20th century|20th]], the cruiser was a navy's long-range &quot;force projection&quot; weapon, while the larger ships stayed nearer to home. Their main role was to attack enemy [[merchant marine|merchant vessels]], so much so that this task came to be called ''cruiser warfare''. Cruisers were strongly optimized for high speed: the sleek, streamlined hull that best supported these speeds was long and narrow, finely and smoothly tapered at both bow and stern for minimal turbulence in their hydrodynamic flow, giving rise to the term &quot;cruiser hull&quot; to describe it (while battleships tended also to be very long, they were also very broad, in order to provide the most possible buoyancy and stability for their big guns). The British [[Royal Navy]], with maritime responsibilities in almost all the major oceans of the world, from Canada to Australia, was particularly fond of cruisers. A large cruiser fleet allowed the Royal Navy to patrol large swathes of ocean at a reasonable cost. When the cruisers spotted enemy threats, they would either shadow the threat and lead heavy capital units to it or attack it in large numbers. For example, the heavy cruisers [[HMS Norfolk|HMS ''Norfolk'']] and [[HMS Suffolk|''Suffolk'']] shadowed the [[German battleship Bismarck]] until British battleships and aircraft carriers could intercept and sink her. Against the German [[pocket battleship]] (heavy cruiser) [[German pocket battleship Admiral Graf Spee|Graf Spee]] one heavy and two light British cruisers were able to split the fire of her heavier guns and although damaged, trail her to port where she was subsequently scuttled rather than risk battle again. Cruisers were also attached to the main battlefleet and used for [[reconnaissance]], sweeping ahead of the fleet looking for the enemy. [[Image:SMS Emden.jpg|thumb|220px|right|The German [[light cruiser]] [[SMS Emden|SMS ''Emden'']], launched in [[1908]].]] The evolution of the cruiser follows that of their larger cousins, generally growing in size and capability. The conversion from sail to steam resulted in the [[armored cruiser]], essentially a small and faster battleship. This occurred so rapidly during the late 19th century battleships only a few years old could be outperformed by cruisers of the next building run. The United States' [[Great White Fleet]] was rendered obsolete in this fashion only a few years after it sailed. During this period it was not uncommon for fleets to contain the very latest of an older generation as well as the latest designs, which were generally much larger. For this reason the terms [[heavy cruiser]] and [[light cruiser]] started to be used. After [[World War I]] these terms were codified during the various naval arms limitation treaties. Light cruisers were defined to be armed with 6.1&amp;nbsp;in (155&amp;nbsp;mm) guns or smaller and heavy cruisers to be armed with larger calibers, 8&amp;nbsp;in (203&amp;nbsp;mm) being particularly common. 8&amp;nbsp;in was the largest gun permitted by the [[Washington Naval Treaty]] on heavy cruisers of the major treaty signatory nations, and became the de facto international standard for heavy cruisers; only five cruisers would be eventually built with larger guns: three German &quot;[[pocket battleship]]s&quot; of the [[German battleship Deutschland|''Deutschland'' class]] and two [[United States Navy]] [[World War II]]-era [[Alaska class cruiser|''Alaska''-class]] &quot;large cruisers&quot;. From around [[1880]] until [[1910]] smaller ships with considerably less capability were built as [[protected cruiser]]s. Because they carried less armor, it was distributed as a shaped deck inside the vessel rather than covering the sides. An even more limited type was the [[auxiliary cruiser]], a [[merchant marine|merchant ship]] hastily armed with small guns on the outbreak of war. Auxiliary cruisers were used to fill gaps in their long-range lines or provide escort for other cargo ships, although they generally proved to be useless in this role because of their low speed, feeble firepower and lack of armor. In both world wars the Germans also used small merchant ships armed with cruiser guns to surprise Allied merchant ships who didn't realise what they were. Some large liners were armed in the same way. In British service these were known as Armed Merchant Cruisers (AMC). The Germans and French used them in World War I as raiders because of their high speed (around 30&amp;nbsp;knots or 56&amp;nbsp;km/h), and they were used again as raiders in World War II by the Germans and Japanese. In both the First World War and in the early part of the Second, they were used as convoy escorts by the British. ==Battlecruisers== ''Main article: [[Battlecruiser]]'' One [[rule of thumb]] for warship design was that they should be armored against their own armament: a warship should be able to withstand hits from its own guns. This was considered a &quot;balanced&quot; design. Just prior to [
uld be split off into a separate [[List of French cinema personalities]] or somesuch pretty soon --&gt; ===Actors=== *[[Isabelle Adjani]] *[[Renee Adoree|Renée Adorée]] *[[Anouk Aimée]] *[[Mathieu Amalric]] *[[Fanny Ardant]] *[[Jean-Pierre Aumont]] *[[Daniel Auteuil]] *[[Charles Aznavour]] *[[Emmanuelle Béart]] *[[Monica Bellucci]] *[[Juliette Binoche]] &amp;mdash; [[Academy Award]] winner for her role in ''[[The English Patient (film)|The English Patient]]'' *[[Bernard Blier]] *[[Bourvil]] *[[Charles Boyer]] *[[Capucine]] *[[Leslie Caron]] *[[Vincent Cassel]] *[[Aurore Clément]] *[[Claudette Colbert]] *[[Valérie Crunchant]] *[[Alain Delon]] *[[Julie Delpy]] *[[Catherine Deneuve]] *[[Gérard Depardieu]] *[[Jérémie Elkaïm]] *[[Fernandel]] *[[Louis de Funès]] *[[Judith Godrèche]] *[[Eva Green]] *[[Isabelle Huppert]] *[[Irène Jacob]] *[[Virginie Ledoyen]] *[[Sophie Marceau]], Princess Isabelle in ''[[Braveheart]]'', a [[Bond girl]] *[[Jean Marais]] *[[Mistinguett]] *[[Jean Reno]] *[[Stéphane Rideau]] *[[Ludivine Sagnier]] *[[Emmanuelle Seigner]] *[[Simone Signoret]] *[[Audrey Tautou]] *[[Marie Trintignant]] *[[Michael Vartan]] *[[Hervé Villechaize]] ===Directors=== *[[Jean-Jacques Annaud]] *[[Olivier Assayas]] *[[Luc Besson]] *[[Bertrand Blier]] *[[Catherine Breillat]] *[[Robert Bresson]] *[[Léos Carax]] *[[Yves Caumon]] *[[Jean-Paul Civeyrac]] *[[Arnaud Desplechin]] *[[Jean Eustache]] *[[Abel Gance]] *[[Michel Gondry]] *[[Jean-Pierre Jeunet]] *[[Mathieu Kassovitz]] *[[Jan Kounen]] *[[Patrice Leconte]] *[[Louis Malle]] *[[André Malraux]] *[[Gaspar Noé]] *[[François Ozon]] *[[Maurice Pialat]] *[[Agnès Varda]] ===Literature=== *Armes, Roy. 1985. French Cinema. London: Secker and Warburg *Aumont, Jaques. 2000 2nd ed. 'The Fall of the Gods: Jea-Luc *Godard's Le Mepris (1963). Hayward, Susan and Vincendeau, Ginette.eds. French Film: texts and contexts. London: Routledge *Austen, Guy. 1996. Contemporary French Cinema. Manchester: Manchester University Press *Boston, Richard. Boudu Saved From Drowning. London: BFI *Burch, Noel and Sellier, Genevieve. 2000. 'Evil Women in the Post-war French Cinema'. Sieglohr, Ulrike.ed. Heroines Without Heroes. London: Cassell *Condron, Anne Marie. 1997. ''Cinema' . Perry, Sheila.Ed. Aspects of Contemporary France London : Routledge *Darke, Chris. 2005.''Alphaville''. London: I. B. Tauris. ISBN 1854039869 *Douchet, Jean. 1999. French New Wave. New York: Distributed Art Publishers *Flitterman-Lewis, Sandy. 1996. To Desire Differently: Feminism and the French Cinema. New York: Columbia University Press *Forbes, Jill. 2000. 'La Haine'. In Forbes, Jill and Street, Sarah. European Cinema: An Introduction. London: Palgrave *Forbes, Jill. Les Enfants du Paradise. London: BFI *Forbes , Jill. 1992 . The Cinema in France After the New Wave. Basingstoke : Macmillan *Gillain, Anne. 2000 2nd ed. 'The Script of Delinquency: Francois Truffaut's Les 400 coups' (1959). Hayward, Susan and Vincendeau, Ginette.eds. French Film: texts and contexts. London: Routledge *Graham , Peter. 1997. ' New directions in French Cinema'. Nowell - Smith Geoffrey Ed : Oxford History of World Cinema :Oxford: Oxford University Press *Greene, Naomi. Landscapes of Loss: The National Past in Postwar French Cinema. Princeton: Princeton University Press *Hayes, Graeme. 1999. 'Representation, Masculinity, Nation: The Crises of Les Amant du Pont-Neuf (Carax 1991).' Powrie, Phil. Ed. French Cinema in the 1990s: Continuity and Difference. Oxford: OUP *Hayward, Susan. 2000 2nd ed. 'Beyond the Gaze and into femme filmcriture: Agnes Varda's Sans toit ni loit'. Hayward, Susan and Vincendeau, Ginette.eds. French Film: texts and contexts. London: Routledge *Hayward, Susan. 1993. French National Cinema. London: Routledge *Hayward, Susan. 2005. ''Les Diaboliques''. London: I. B. Tauris. ISBN 1845111028 *Hayward, Susan. 2002. 'Luc Besson'. Tasker, Yvonne. ed. Fifty Contemporary Filmmakers : Routledge: London *Hayward, Susan. 2000 2nd ed. 'Recycled woman and the postmodern aesthetic: Luc Besson's Nikita (1990). Hayward, Susan and Vincendeau, Ginette.eds. French Film: texts and contexts. London: Routledge *Hayward, Susan and Vincendeau, Ginette.eds. 2000 2nd ed. French Film: texts and contexts. London: Routledge *Hughes, Alex and Williams James S. Eds. 2001. Gender and French Cinema. Oxford: Berg *Hughes, Alex and Williams, James S. 2001. ' Introduction'. Hughes, Alex and Williams, James S. Eds. Gender and French Cinema. Oxford: Berg *Jackel, Anne. 1996. ' European Co-production Strategies: the Case of France and Britain'. Moran, Albert Ed. Film Policy. London: Routledge *Jackson, Julian. 2001. France the Dark Years. Oxford: Oxford University Press *Jeancolas, Jean-Pierre. 2000 2nd ed. 'Beneath the despair, the show goes on: MarcelCarne's Les Enfants du paradis (1943-45). Hayward, Susan and Vincendeau, Ginette.eds. French Film: texts and contexts. London: Routledge *Kaplan, Nelly. Napoleon. London: BFI *Kedward, H. R. 2000.'The Anti-Carnival of Collaboration'. Hayward, Susan and Vincendeau, Ginette.eds. French Film: texts and contexts. London: Routledge *Konstantarakos, Myrto. 1999.'Which Mapping of the City? La Haine (Kassovitz, 1995) and the cinema de banlieue.' Powrie, Phil. Ed. French Cinema in the 1990s: Continuity and Difference. Oxford: OUP *Lanzoni, Remi. 2002. French Cinema: From Its Beginnings to the Present. London: Continuum *Leahy Sarah and Hayward Susan. 2000. 'The Tainted Woman: Simone Signoret, Site of Pathology or Agent of Retribution? Sieglohr, Ulrike.ed. Heroines Without Heroes. London: Cassell *Marie, Michel. 2003. (Trans Neupert) The French New Wave, an Artistic School. Oxford: Blackwell *Marie, Michel. 2000 2nd ed. '&quot;It really does make you sick!': Jean-Luc Godard's a bout de souffle (1959)&quot;. Hayward, Susan and Vincendeau, Ginette.eds. French Film: texts and contexts. London: Routledge *MacCabe, Colin.2003.''Godard a portrait of the artist at 70''.London: Bloomsbury *Morrey, Douglas. 2005. Jean-Luc Godard. Manchester: Manchester University Press. ISBN 0-7190-6759-6 *Neupert, Richard.2002. A History of the French New Wave Cinema. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press *Perry, Sheila.Ed.1997. Aspects of Contemporary France. London : Routledge *Powrie, Phil. Ed. 1999. French Cinema in the 1990s: Continuity and Difference. Oxford: OUP *Powrie, Phil. 1999. 'Heritage, History, and 'New Realism': French Cinema in the 1990s'. Powrie, Phil. Ed. French Cinema in the 1990s: Continuity and Difference. Oxford: OUP *Powrie, Phil. 2002. 'Jean-Jaques Beneix'. Tasker, Yvonne. Ed Fifty Contemporary Filmakers. London: Routledge *Predal, R. 1991 Le Cinema Francais depuis 1945. Paris Nathan *Reader, Keith. 2002. 'Laisser-passer'. Sight and Sound Volume 12 Issue 11, pp 49-50 *Sellier, Genevieve. 2001. 'Gender, Modernism and Mass Culture in the New Wave.' Hughes, Alex and Williams, James S. Eds. Gender and French Cinema. Oxford: Berg *Sorlin, Pierre. 2000 2nd ed. 'A breath of sea air: Jacques Tati's Les Vacances de Monsieur Hulot (1952). Hayward, Susan and Vincendeau, Ginette.eds. French Film: texts and contexts. London: Routledge *Tarr, Carrie. 1999. 'Ethnicity and Identity in the cinema de banlieue'. Powrie, Phil. Ed. French Cinema in the 1990s: Continuity and Difference. Oxford: OUP *Thompson, David. 2003. 'Lust for Life'. Sight and Sound. August Vol 13 / Issue 8, pp 30-33 *Vincendeau, Ginette. 2003. 'Ageing Cool'. Sight and Sound. September, Vol 13 Issue 9 pp 26-28 *Vincendeau, Ginette. 2000 2nd ed. 'Designs on the banlieu: Mathieu Kassovitz's La Haine (1995). Hayward, Susan and Vincendeau, Ginette.eds. French Film: texts and contexts. London: Routledge *Vincendeau, Ginette. 2003. Jean-Pierre Melville. London: BFI *Vincendeau, Ginette. 1998. Pepe le Moko. London: BFI *Vincendeau, Ginette. 1997. 'The Popular Art of French Cinema'. Nowell - Smith Geoffrey Ed : Oxford History of World Cinema :Oxford: Oxford University Press *Vincendeau, Ginette. 2000. Stars and Stardom in French Cinema. London: Continuum *Vincendeau, Ginette. 'White Collar Blues'. Sight and Sound Volume 12 Issue 4, pp 30-32. ( on Laurent Cantet) *Warner, Mary. 1993. L'Atalante. London : BFI *Williams, Alan. 1992. Republic of Images: A History of French Filmaking. Cambridge Mass. : Harvard ==External links== *[http://www.bestfrenchfilms.com/ Best French Films] Reviews of some of the best French movies ever made *[http://www.afdesacramento.org/filmfest/ Sacramento French Film Festival] An annual festival featuring the best of new and classic French cinema ==See also== *[[History of cinema]] *[[Culture of France]] *[[List of French language films]] [[Category:Cinema of France]] [[fr:Cinéma français]] [[hu:Francia film]] [[ja:フランス映画]] [[pt:Cinema da França]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Film history/Germany</title> <id>10785</id> <revision> <id>15908580</id> <timestamp>2003-09-25T06:32:55Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>ThereIsNoSteve</username> <id>23090</id> </contributor> <minor /> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Cinema of Germany]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Cinema of the Soviet Union</title> <id>10786</id> <revision> <id>42143018</id> <timestamp>2006-03-04T02:37:23Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Fizzerbear</username> <id>550338</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>/* 1960s-70s */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">&quot;Soviet Cinema&quot; should not be used as a synonym for &quot;Russian Cinema&quot;. Although [[Russian language]] films predominated, several of the constituent [[republics of the Soviet Union]] contributed films reflecting elements of their pre-Soviet culture, language and history, although sometimes censored by the Central Government. Most notable for their republican cinema were [[Armenian SSR]], [[Georgian SSR]], [[Ukrainian SSR]],
Esperantist Railway Workers'' is founded in [[Barcelona]]. *1910: 42 members of the French parliament nominate Zamenhof for the Nobel Peace Prize. *1912: In this year, if not earlier, the spiritual leader of the [[Bahá'í Faith]], [[`Abdu'l-Bahá]], instructs his Asian followers to learn Esperanto. *1917: Zamenhof dies during [[World War I]]. *1910s: Esperanto is taught in state schools in [[China]], [[Samos Island|Samos]], and [[Macedonia (region)|Macedonia]]. (Today it is part of the curriculum of China, [[Hungary]], and [[Bulgaria]].) *1920: The first Esperanto magazine for the blind, ''Aŭroro'', begins publishing in [[Czechoslovakia]]. It's still in print today. *1921: The [[Académie des Sciences|French Academy of the Sciences]] recommends using Esperanto for international scientific communication. *1922: Esperanto is banned from French schools. The French delegate to the [[League of Nations]] vetoes the use of Esperanto as its working language, leaving English and French. *1924: The [[League of Nations]] recommends that member states implement Esperanto as an auxiliary language. The [[Oomoto]] religion, which holds that Zamenhof is an ''[[kami|akitsumikami]]'' (manifest divinity), begins publishing in Esperanto. *1920s: Offices of the [[Brazil]]ian Ministry of Education use Esperanto for their international correspondence. [[Lu Xun]], the founder of modern Chinese literature, becomes a supporter of Esperanto. [[Montagu Christie BUTLER|Montagu Butler]] is the first to raise Esperanto-speaking children. *1934: [[Encyclopedia of Esperanto]] first published in [[Budapest]]. *1935: [[Kálmán Kalocsay|Kalocsay]] and [[Gaston Waringhien|Waringhien]] publish the influential ''Plena Gramatiko de Esperanto'' (Complete Grammar of Esperanto). *1936: Esperanto is banned in [[Nazi Germany]]. *1937: First mass execution of Esperantists in the [[Soviet Union]]. *1938: The World Esperanto Youth Organization [[TEJO]] is founded. *1939-[[1945]]: [[World War II]] slows down the Esperanto movement. Esperantists are sent to the [[gulag]] and to [[Nazi]] [[concentration camp]]s. Internment at the [[gulag]] continues through the 1950s. *1948: The railway workers' association is refounded as [[IFEF]], the ''Internacia Fervojista Esperanto-Federacio'' (International Railway Workers' Esperanto Federation) to foster the use Esperanto in the administration of the railroads of the world (so far, of Eurasia). *1954: [[United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization|UNESCO]] establishes consultative relations with the [[World Esperanto Association]]. *1966: The precursor to ''[[Pasporta Servo]]'' is launched in [[Argentina]]. ''Pasporta Servo'' is a global network of Esperanto speakers who host Esperantists traveling through their countries. *1967: [[István Nemere]] founds the ''Renkontiĝo de Esperanto-Familioj'', the first organization for Esperanto-speaking families. *1975: The Esperanto movement spreads to [[Iran]], with three thousand learning the language in Tehran. *1980: The ''Internacia Junulara Kongreso'' (International Youth Congress) in [[Rauma, Finland]] makes explicit the view of many in the Esperanto movement that Esperanto is a goal in itself. *1985: UNESCO encourages UN member states to add Esperanto to their school curricula. *1987: 6000 Esperantists attend the 72&lt;sup&gt;nd&lt;sup&gt; ''[[World Congress of Esperanto|Universala Kongreso]]'' in [[Warsaw]] to mark Esperanto's centennial. *1991: The first pan-African Esperanto Conference is held in [[Lomé]], [[Togo]]. *1999: The Esperanto poet [[William Auld]] is nominated for the [[Nobel Prize in Literature]]. *2001: The [[:eo:Ĉefpaĝo|Vikipedio]] project (Esperanto Wikipedia) is launched, resulting in the first general encyclopedia written in a constructed language. It is now one of the most popular websites in Esperanto. *2004: The [[Europe - Democracy - Esperanto]] party (E°D°E°) contests the [[European Parliament election, 2004|European Parliament elections]] in France, on a platform of making Esperanto the second language of all EU member states, taking 0.15% of the vote. [[Category:Esperanto history|*]] [[cs:Dějiny esperanta]] [[eo:Historio de la Esperanto-movado]] [[fr:Histoire de l'espéranto]] [[nl:Ontstaan van Esperanto]] [[zh:世界語歷史]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Esperanto grammar</title> <id>10402</id> <revision> <id>41773753</id> <timestamp>2006-03-01T17:26:31Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Kwamikagami</username> <id>93143</id> </contributor> <comment>/* Questions */ touch up</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Esperanto]] is a [[constructed language|constructed]] [[international auxiliary language|auxiliary language]] based on the languages of Europe. A logical structure makes Esperanto easier to learn than most of the world's languages, even for non-Europeans, though particular features may be more or less advantageous to speakers of different language backgrounds. The grammar is very nearly regular, the [[part of speech|parts of speech]] have distinctive word endings (''-o'' for nouns, ''-a'' for adjectives, etc.), and the rules of word formation are so straightforward that new words may be coined on the spot and readily understood, allowing speakers to make do with a much smaller vocabulary than in most other languages. {{Esperanto}} ==Grammatical summary== Esperanto has an [[agglutinative language|agglutinative]] [[Morphology (linguistics)|morphology]], no [[grammatical gender]], and simple [[grammatical conjugation|verbal]] and [[noun case|nominal inflections]]. Although it is billed as an international language, Esperanto [[syntax]], vocabulary, and [[semantics]] are thoroughly European. [[Verb]]s are [[Inflection#Inflection vs. derivation|inflected]] for four [[Grammatical mood|moods]], of which the [[Grammatical mood#Indicative mood|indicative]] has three [[grammatical tense|tense]]s, and are [[Inflection#Inflection vs. derivation|derived]] for several [[Aktionsart|aspects]], but do not agree with the [[grammatical person]] or [[grammatical number|number]] of their [[Subject (grammar)|subjects]]. [[Noun]]s and [[adjective]]s have two [[noun case|case]]s, [[nominative case|nominative]]/[[oblique case|oblique]] and [[accusative case|accusative]]/[[allative case|allative]], and two [[grammatical number|numbers]], [[singular]] and [[plural]]; demonstrative and perhaps personal [[pronoun]]s also have a [[genitive case]]. Adjectives generally [[agreement|agree]] with nouns in case and number. In addition to indicating [[direct object]]s, the accusative/allative case is used with nouns, adjectives and [[adverb]]s to show the destination of a motion, or to replace certain [[preposition]]s; the nominative/oblique is used in all other situations. The case system allows for a flexible [[word order]] that reflects [[information flow]] and other [[pragmatics|pragmatic]] concerns, as in [[Russian language|Russian]], [[Greek language|Greek]], and [[Latin]]. These concepts are illustrated below. ==Script and pronunciation== The script is modeled after the [[Czech alphabet]], but with [[circumflex]] [[diacritic]]s instead of [[háček]]s on the letters ''ĉ, ŝ;'' Westernized ''ĝ, ĵ'' in place of Slavic ''dž, ž;'' and ''ĥ'' rather than ''ch'' (there are no [[Digraph (orthography)|digraph]]s). The letter ''ŭ'' is shared with the [[Belarusian language|Belarusian]] [[Łacinka]] alphabet. (See [[Esperanto orthography]].) The [[consonant]]s are similar to those of Polish and especially Belarusian, except for a lack of [[palatalization]]; and the [[vowel]]s are also those of Belarusian, minus a couple of the less easily distinguished [[diphthong]]s such as ''oǔ''. (See [[Esperanto phonology]].) The [[Italian language]] is suggested as a model for [[Esperanto pronunciation]]. ==The article== Esperanto has a single [[definite article]], ''la'', which is invariable. It is similar to English ''the''. ''La'' is used: :For identifiable, countable objects, ::''mi trovis botelon kaj deprenis la fermilon'' (I found a bottle and took off the lid). :For representative individuals, ::''la gepardo estas la plej rapida de la bestoj'' (The cheetah is the fastest of the beasts) ::''la abeloj havas felon, sed ili ne taŭgas por karesi'' (Bees have fur, but are not good for petting). :For adjectives used as nouns, such as ethnic adjectives used as the names of languages, ::''la blua'' (the blue one) ::''la angla'' (English: lit., &quot;the English [language]&quot;). :For [[possessive pronoun]]s, when definite, ::''la mia bluas, la via ruĝas'' (mine is blue, yours is red). The article is also used for [[inalienable possession]] of body parts and kin terms, where English would use a [[possessive adjective]], :''ili tranĉis la manon'' (they cut their hands [one hand each]) The article ''la'', like the [[demonstrative adjective]] ''tiu'' (this, that), nearly always occurs at the beginning of the [[noun phrase]], but this is not required by the grammar, and exceptions occur in poetry. There is no grammatically required [[indefinite article]]: ''homo'' means either ''human being'' or ''a human being'', depending on the context, and similarly the plural ''homoj'' means ''human beings'' or ''some human beings''. The words ''iu'' and ''unu'' (or their plurals ''iuj'' and ''unuj'') may be used somewhat like indefinite articles, but they're closer in meaning to &quot;some&quot; and &quot;a certain&quot; than to English &quot;a&quot;. ==Parts of speech and their word endings== The grammatical [[suffix]]es ''-o'', ''-a'', ''-e'', and ''-i'' indicate that a word is a [[noun]], [[adjective]], [[adverb]], and [[infinitive]] [[verb]], respectively. Many new words can be derived simply by changing these suffixes, just as ''-ly'' derives adverbs from adjectives in English: From ''vidi'' (to see), we get ''vida'' (visual), ''vide'' (visually), and ''vido'' (sight). Each
f chemical properties through chemical bonding == Intermolecular forces cause molecules to be attracted or repulsed by each other. Often, these define some of the physical characteristics, such as the [[melting point]]) of a substance. These forces include ionic interactions, hydrogen bonds, dipole-dipole interactions, and [[induced-dipole attraction|induced dipole interactions]]. == See also == * [[Electron]] * [[Electronegativity]] * [[Periodic table]] * [[octet rule]] * [[delocalized electron]] * [[Valence shell]] * [[Ion]] * [[Valence bond theory]] * [[Orbital_hybridisation|hybridization]] * [[Sigma bond|sigma]], [[pi bond|pi]] and [[delta bond|delta bonds]] * [[Chemical reaction]] More advanced articles: * [[Bohr model]] * [[quantum number]] * [[List of Hund's rules]] * [[Quantum chemistry]] * [[LCAO]] * [[Atomic orbital]], [[molecular orbital]] == References == * W. Locke (1997). [http://www.ch.ic.ac.uk/vchemlib/course/mo_theory/main.html Introduction to Molecular Orbital Theory]. Retrieved May 18, 2005. * Carl R. Nave (2005). [http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/chemical/bond.html HyperPhysics]. Retrieved May 18, 2005. [[Category:Chemical bonding| ]] [[ar:رابطة كيميائية]] [[bg:Химична връзка]] [[ca:Enllaç químic]] [[cs:Chemická vazba]] [[de:Chemische Bindung]] [[et:Keemiline side]] [[es:Enlace químico]] [[eo:Kemia ligo]] [[fa:پیوند شیمیایی]] [[fr:Liaison chimique]] [[id:Ikatan kimia]] [[io:Kemia ligo]] [[it:Legame chimico]] [[he:קשר כימי]] [[hu:Kémiai kötés]] [[nl:Chemische binding]] [[ja:化学結合]] [[no:Kjemiske bindinger]] [[nn:Kjemisk binding]] [[pl:Wiązanie chemiczne]] [[pt:Energia química]] [[sk:Chemická väzba]] [[sl:Kemijska vez]] [[su:Beungkeut kimia]] [[sr:Хемијска веза]] [[fi:Kemiallinen sidos]] [[sv:Kemisk bindning]] [[tl:Kawing kimikal]] [[vi:Liên kết hóa học]] [[zh:化学键]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Wikipedia:Historical Wikipedia pages/Chalkboard candidates</title> <id>5994</id> <revision> <id>15904160</id> <timestamp>2003-03-17T10:33:47Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>MyRedDice</username> <id>5862</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>#REDIRECT [[Wikipedia:Nupedia and Wikipedia]] (moved to meta)</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Wikipedia:Nupedia and Wikipedia]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Cell</title> <id>5995</id> <revision> <id>41716437</id> <timestamp>2006-03-01T06:41:14Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Semiconscious</username> <id>302094</id> </contributor> <comment>rvv: 66.201.160.243 &gt;&gt; Ixfd64</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">A '''cell''' is a single unit or compartment, enclosed by a border or wall. A cell is usually part of a larger structure. More specific meanings depend on the context in which the word is used. ====Sciences==== * [[cell (biology)]], the smallest unit of life * [[electrochemical cell]] * A cell in the [[honeycomb]] of a [[beehive (beekeeping)|beehive]] * ''[[Cell (journal)|Cell]]'' an academic journal * In higher-dimensional [[Euclidean geometry]], especially in 4-dimensional geometry, a [[Cell (mathematics)|cell]] refers to a 3-dimensional facet in a [[polytope]]. * [[Cell (microprocessor)|Cell]] is the name of a microprocessor developed jointly by IBM, Toshiba, and Sony. * In radio communications (e.g., [[w:Mobile phone|cellular phones]]), a cell is a small geographic area served by a radio tower. Multiple cells (slightly overlapping) are aggregated in a [[w:cellular network|cellular network]] for coverage of larger areas. * In [[computer science]], a memory cell is a building block of [[computer]] memory. ====Buildings==== * Cells refereting to [[prison]] and [[police]] stations. * A room used by a [[monk]] or other member of a [[monastic]] order. ====Arts==== * A [[cell (music)|cell]] is a [[rhythm]]ic, [[melodic]], [[Motive (music)|motivic]], or [[interval (music)|intervallic]] group, [[set]], or [[figure (music)]]. * ''[[The Cell]]'', a [[film]] *''[[Cell (novel)|Cell: A Novel]]'' by [[Stephen King]] * [[Cell (Dragon Ball)|Cell]] - a [[fictional character]] in the [[Japan]]ese [[manga]] ([[comic book]]) ''[[Dragon Ball]]'' and the [[anime]] ([[cartoon]]) ''[[Dragon Ball Z]]'' * spelled '''[[Cel]]''' - the transparent sheets used for drawings in hand-drawn [[Traditional animation|animated cartoons]] * [[Cell (band)]], a [[rock music|rock]] band. ====Military and politics==== *A [[covert cell]] is a small, secret group organized to resist penetration by an opposing organization {{disambig}} [[da:Celle]] [[de:Zelle]] [[eo:Ĉelo]] [[es:célula]] [[fr:cellule]] [[nl:Cel]] [[no:Celle (andre betydninger)]] [[pl:komórka]] [[sk:Bunka]] [[sr:&amp;#1035;&amp;#1077;&amp;#1083;&amp;#1080;&amp;#1112;&amp;#1077;]] [[sv:cell]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Commutivity</title> <id>5996</id> <revision> <id>15904162</id> <timestamp>2004-09-04T02:56:39Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Niteowlneils</username> <id>46219</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>#REDIRECT [[Commutative operation]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Commutative operation]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Classical Education</title> <id>5997</id> <revision> <id>15904163</id> <timestamp>2003-05-27T20:51:45Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Michael Hardy</username> <id>4626</id> </contributor> <comment>It was not written with capitals in the article, so it is not a proper noun and should not be capitalized in the title. Hence this redirect.</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT[[classical education]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Climate</title> <id>5999</id> <revision> <id>41893503</id> <timestamp>2006-03-02T12:31:06Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Vsmith</username> <id>84417</id> </contributor> <comment>rv deeper - missed vandalism</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Thermal Equator.jpg|thumb|300px|Map of the climates of the Earth{{ifdc|February_27}}]] The '''climate''' (ancient [[Greek language|Greek]]: ''&amp;#954;&amp;#955;&amp;#943;&amp;#956;&amp;#945;'') is the [[weather]] averaged over a long period of time. The [[Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change]] (IPCC) glossary definition is: : ''Climate in a narrow sense is usually defined as the &amp;ldquo;average weather&amp;rdquo;, or more rigorously, as the statistical description in terms of the mean and variability of relevant quantities over a period of time ranging from months to thousands or millions of years. The classical period is 30 years, as defined by the World Meteorological Organization (WMO). These quantities are most often surface variables such as temperature, precipitation, and wind. Climate in a wider sense is the state, including a statistical description, of the climate system.''[http://www.grida.no/climate/ipcc_tar/wg1/518.htm] ==Climate versus weather== In the most succinct words, weather is the combination of events in the atmosphere and climate is the overall accumulated weather in a certain location. The exact boundaries of what is climate and what is [[weather]] are not well defined and depend on the application. For example, in some senses an individual [[El Niño]] event could be considered climate; in others, as weather. When the original conception of climate as a long-term average came to be considered, perhaps towards the end of the 19th century, the idea of [[climate change]] was not current, and a 30 year average seemed reasonable (but see [[Climate#Notes|note 1]]). Given the current availability of long-term trends in the [[temperature]] record, it is harder to give a precise noncontradictory definition of climate: over a 30 year period, averages may shift; over a shorter period, the statistics are less stable. ==Climate determinants== In a given geographical region, the climate generally does not vary over time on the scale of a human life span. However, over [[geological time]], climate can vary considerably for a given place on the Earth. For example, [[Scandinavia]] has been through a number of [[ice age]]s over hundreds of thousands of years (the last one ending about 10,000 years ago). [[Paleoclimatology]] is the study of these past climates, their origin, and by extension, the origin of today's climate. Over [[history|historic]] time spans there are a number of static variables that determine climate including: altitude, proportion of land to water, and proximity to oceans and mountains. Other climate determinants are more dynamic: The [[thermohaline circulation]] of the ocean distributes heat energy between the equatorial and polar regions; other [[ocean currents]] do the same between land and water on a more regional scale. Degree of vegetation coverage affects solar heat absorption, water retention, and rainfall on a regional level. Alterations in the quantity of atmospheric [[greenhouse gas]]es determines the amount of solar energy retained by the planet, leading to [[global warming]] or [[global cooling]]. The variables which determine climate are numerous and the interactions complex but there is general agreement that the broad outlines are understood, at least in so far as the determinates of historical climate change are concerned. ==Climate indices== Scientists use climate indices in their attempt to characterize and understand the various climate mechanisms that culminate in our daily weather. Much in the way the Dow Jones Industrial Average, which is based on the stock prices of 30 companies, is used to represent the fluctuations in the stock market as a whole, climate indices are used to represent the essential elements of climate. Climate indices are generally ide
slippery when picking up foods. High-end metal chopstick pairs are sometimes connected by a short chain at the untapered end to prevent their separation. ===Styles of chopstick used in different cultures=== * [[China|Chinese]]: longer sticks made of different materials that taper to a blunt end. * [[Japan]]ese: short to medium length sticks that taper to a pointed end. This may be attributed to the fact that the Japanese diet consists of large amounts of whole bony fish. Japanese chopsticks are traditionally made of wood and are lacquered. * [[Korea]]n: medium length stainless steel rods that taper to a square blunted end, traditionally made of brass or silver. Many Korean metal chopsticks are ornately decorated in the untapered end. * [[Vietnam]]ese: long sticks that taper to a blunted end; traditionally wooden, but now made of plastic as well. Đũa cả is a large, flat chopstick that is used to serve rice from a pot [http://gkws0.informatik.uni-leipzig.de:8080/td?db=ve&amp;fmt=u&amp;pos=7719] ==How to use== [[Image:Use_of_chopsticks.jpg|600px|Diagrams on how to hold chopsticks]] #Put one chopstick between the palm and the base of the thumb, using the ring finger (the fourth finger) to support the lower part of the stick. With the thumb, squeeze the stick down while the ring finger pushes it up. The stick should be stationary and very stable. #Use the tips of the thumb, index and middle fingers to hold the other stick like a pen. Make sure the tips of the two sticks line up. #Pivot the upper stick up and down towards the stationary lower stick. With this motion one can pick up food of surprising size. #With enough practice, the two sticks function like a pair of pincers. Another description is to tuck one stick under the thumb and hold the other as if it was a pencil. Keep the one below the other in regular position as you move ''only'' the ''top'' stick up and down. Tip: For easier handling in the beginning, hold the sticks at the midpoint as a child would do. As proficiency increases, hold the sticks at the upper ends for a farther reach and greater carrying capacity. Make sure you handle both sticks at least 3 1/2 inches away from the tip and 1 3/4 of an inch spaced away from both sticks. If the tips fail to line up, it will be difficult to hold things. Hold the chopsticks upright with one of the tips lightly touching the table, and gently push the chopsticks down or gently loosen your grip for a moment to let both tips become equal in length. You can also adjust your grip or holding position this way. With practice, it is possible to perform step one and two simultaneously, on picking up the chopsticks with one hand, with a single fluid and seamless motion. Readjust your grip if necessary. ==General etiquette== Chopstick etiquette is similar to general Western etiquette regarding eating utensils. *Never wave your chopsticks around as if it was an extension of your hand gestures, bang them like [[drumstick]]s, or use them to move bowls or plates. *Decide what to pick up before reaching with chopsticks (do not hover around or poke looking for special ingredients). After you have picked up an item, do not put it back in the dish. *When picking up a piece of food, never use the tips of your chopsticks to poke through the food as if you were using a fork. However, this kind of stabbing maneuver is common in informal use for hard to pick up items like cherry tomatoes or tearing apart larger things like [[kimchi]]. *Never erect chopsticks point-first into a bowl of rice or a dish of entrée. This is reminiscent of ancestral offerings and can be seen as disrespectful. *Chopsticks can be rested on one's plate or bowl to keep them off the table entirely. A chopstick stand can also be used to keep the points off the table. *In Chinese culture, it is normal to have your lips touching the edge of the rice bowl and using chopsticks to push rice directly into the mouth. In Korean culture, it is rude to pick the rice bowl off of the table and eat from it. *In Chinese and Japanese etiquette, the blunt end is sometimes used to transfer food from a common dish to your own plate or bowl (never your mouth). In Korea, the blunt handle end is not considered sanitary. ===Chinese etiquette=== *While using chopsticks to pick up food, the back of your hand should face the ceiling at all times. Twisting your chopsticks-holding wrist in such a way so that everyone can see your palm is considered &quot;unrefined&quot; in Chinese culture. * Chinese traditionally eat rice from a [[bowl (vessel)|bowl]]. The rice bowl is raised to the mouth and the rice pushed into the mouth using the chopsticks. If rice is served on a plate, as is more common in the West, it is acceptable and more practical to eat it with a [[fork]] or [[spoon]]. * A set of chopsticks are one of the wedding gifts normally presented to Chinese newlyweds as the Chinese words for &quot;chopsticks&quot; and &quot;soon son&quot; are near-homophones. ===Japanese etiquette=== *Never use chopsticks to transfer something to someone else's chopsticks or someone else's plate or bowl. This is how bones are passed as part of funeral rites (see [[Japanese funeral]]). *Always place the pointed ends of the chopsticks on a chopstick rest when the chopsticks are not being used. ===Korean etiquette=== *Unlike other chopstick cultures, Koreans use a [[spoon]] (traditionally, relatively flat, circular head with straight stick handle, unlike the Chinese soup spoon and similar to the Western spoon) for their rice and soup, and chopsticks for most other things at the table. *Do not pick up the rice or food bowls and eat from them. Unlike Chinese rice, Korean steamed rice can be easily picked up with chopsticks, although eating rice with a spoon is more acceptable . ===Vietnamese etiquette=== *As with Chinese etiquette, the rice bowl is raised to the mouth and the rice is shoveled into the mouth using the chopsticks. *Unlike with Chinese dishes, it is also practical to use chopsticks to pick up rice in plates, such as [[fried rice]], because Vietnamese rice is typically sticky. *It is proper to always be using two chopsticks at once, even when used for stirring. == Trivia == * In many Asian [[integrated circuits|IC]] and [[liquid crystal display|LCD]] [[Fab (semiconductors)|fab]]s, being capable of picking up small beads quickly with a pair of chopsticks is a requirement of employment. This is a very simple test of eye-hand coordination. Another test is [[needlework]]. ==External links== {{commons|Chopsticks}} * [http://www.wandco.com/2005/05/27/chopsticks-ohashi-etiquette/ Japanese Chopsticks (Ohashi) Etiquette] * [http://www.pconline.com.cn/market/hk/daogou/0502/552885.html Pry open a Mac mini using several disposable chopsticks] * [http://www.niams.nih.gov/ne/highlights/spotlight/2004/chopstick.htm Study finds increased risk of osteoarthritis] * [http://www.ichizen.com/chopsticks/ Erik's Chopsticks Gallery] [[Category:Food utensils]] [[Category:Chinese food preparation utensils]] [[Category:Chinese cuisine]] [[Category:Japanese cuisine]] [[Category:Korean cuisine]] [[Category:Vietnamese cuisine]] {{Link FA|is}} [[de:Essstäbchen]] [[et:Söögipulgad]] [[es:Palillos]] [[fr:Baguettes]] [[ko:젓가락]] [[is:Matarprjónar]] [[he:מקלות אכילה]] [[nl:Eetstokjes]] [[ja:箸]] [[pt:Hashi]] [[ru:Палочки для еды]] [[simple:Chopstick]] [[fi:Syömäpuikot]] [[sv:Ätpinnar]] [[th:ตะเกียบ]] [[vi:Đũa]] [[zh:筷子]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Compression ratio</title> <id>6863</id> <revision> <id>41251809</id> <timestamp>2006-02-26T01:58:01Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Motorhead</username> <id>226434</id> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">{{for|compression ratio in data compression|data compression ratio}} The '''compression ratio''' is a single number that can be used to predict the performance of any [[internal-combustion engine]]. It is a ratio between the volume of a combustion chamber and cylinder when the piston is at the bottom of its stroke, and the volume when the piston is at the top of its stroke. The higher the compression ratio, the more mechanical energy an engine can squeeze from its air-fuel mixture. Higher compression ratios, however, also make [[engine knocking|detonation]] more likely. The ratio is calculated by the following formula: :&lt;math&gt;\mbox{CR} = \frac { ( \pi b^2 s) / 4 + V_c } {V_c} &lt;/math&gt;, where :&lt;math&gt;b&lt;/math&gt; = [[cylinder (engine)|cylinder]] bore (diameter)&lt;br&gt; :&lt;math&gt;s&lt;/math&gt; = [[piston]] stroke length&lt;br&gt; :&lt;math&gt;V_c&lt;/math&gt; = volume of the [[combustion chamber]] (including head [[gasket]]). This is the minimum volume of the space into which the fuel and air is compressed prior to [[ignition system|ignition]]. Because of the complex shape of this space, it usually is measured directly rather than calculated. Due to [[engine knocking|pinging]] (detonation), the CR in a [[gasoline]]/[[petrol]] or [[liquified petroleum gas|LPG]] or [[CNG]]-powered engine will usually not be much higher than 10:1. &lt;br&gt; In engines with a ping [[sensor]] and an [[electronic control unit]], the CR can be as high as 12.5:1 ([[2005]] [[Audi A6]] 3.2)&lt;br&gt; In a [[turbo charger|turbo charged]] or [[supercharger|super charged]] engine the CR will be around 8.5:1&lt;br&gt; In a [[diesel engine]] the CR will be 20:1 and higher. ==Fault finding and diagnosis== Measuring the compression [[pressure]] of an engine with a [[pressure gauge]] connected to the [[spark plug]] opening gives an indication of the engine's state and quality. If the nominal compression ratio of an engine is given, e.g. as 1:10, then the measured pressure in each cylinder should be equal to or higher than 10 [[Bar (unit)|bar]] (see [[Boyle's law]] and [[combined gas law]]). If there is a significant (&gt; 10%) difference between cylinders, that may be an indicat
quot;background:silver&quot; width=&quot;210&quot; | Silver ! style=&quot;background:#cc9966&quot; width=&quot;210&quot; | Bronze |- | 2005 |{{RUS}} I&lt;br&gt;[[Olga Pyleva]]&lt;br&gt;[[Svetlana Ishmouratova]]&lt;br&gt;[[Ivan Tcherezov]]&lt;br&gt;[[Nikolay Kruglov]] |{{RUS}} II &lt;br&gt;[[Anna Bogaliy-Titovets]]&lt;br&gt;[[Olga Zaitseva]]&lt;br&gt;[[Sergei Tchepikov]]&lt;br&gt;[[Sergei Rozhkov]] |{{GER}} I&lt;br&gt;[[Uschi Disl]]&lt;br&gt;[[Kati Wilhelm]]&lt;br&gt;[[Michael Greis]]&lt;br&gt;[[Ricco Gross]] |} ==See also== *[[Biathlon World Cup champions]] *[[Olympic medalists in biathlon]] [[Category:Biathlon|World Championships]] [[de:Biathlon-Weltmeisterschaften]] [[fr:Championnats du monde de biathlon]] [[it:Mondiali di biathlon]] [[no:VM i skiskyting]] [[nn:Verdsmeisterskapen i skiskyting]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Inedia</title> <id>5040</id> <revision> <id>40996511</id> <timestamp>2006-02-24T10:30:21Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>AleksiH</username> <id>973882</id> </contributor> <comment>unsubstantiated claim</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Inedia''' is the alleged ability to live without food. A '''Breatharian''' is someone who believes that [[food]] (and possibly [[water]]) are not necessary for human sustenance. Breatharians claim that the body can be sustained solely by [[prana]] (the vital life force in [[Hinduism]]), or according to some, by the energy in [[sunlight]]. ''Breatharianism'' or ''inedia'' may also refer to this philosophy practiced as a [[lifestyle]] in place of the usual [[diet (nutrition)|diet]]. While it is often seen as an [[esoteric]] practice performed by eastern [[ascetic]]s, recently some groups such as the [http://www.breatharian.com Breatharian Institute of America] have promoted the practice as an option for anybody, once the proper techniques for accessing it are made known. Both current [[scientific]] theories about [[nutrition]] and generally accepted [[common sense]] indicate that a person who followed this practice in the long term would die of [[starvation]] (if abstaining from food) or [[dehydration]] (if abstaining from food and water). Breatharians have seldom submitted themselves to medical testing and currently there is no evidence to support their claims. [[James Randi]] has this to say about Breatharianism: &lt;blockquote&gt;There are some claims that are far too implausible to warrant any serious examination, such as the &quot;Breatharian&quot; claims in which the applicant states that he can survive without food or water. Science conclusively tells us all we need to know about such matters, and the [[James Randi Educational Foundation|JREF]] feels no obligation to engage applicants in such delusions. [http://www.randi.org/research/faq.html]&lt;/blockquote&gt; The idea of a &quot;Breatharian&quot; was explored on the FX show &quot;Starved,&quot; where one of the main characters tried this concept in order to lose weight. == Jasmuheen == [[Jasmuheen]] (born Ellen Greve) was probably the most famous advocate of Breatharianism during the [[1990s]]. [http://www.jasmuheen.com/] She claimed &quot;I can go for months and months without having anything at all other than a cup of tea. My body runs on a different kind of nourishment.&quot;[http://www.apologeticsindex.org/b12.html] Several interviewers found her house full of food, but she claimed the food was for her husband. In 1999, she volunteered to be monitored closely by Australia's ''[[60 Minutes#Australian 60 Minutes|60 Minutes]]'' for one week without eating to demonstrate her methods. [http://sixtyminutes.ninemsn.com.au/60/stories/1999_10_24/story_57.asp] [http://www.ratbags.com/rsoles/comment/jasmuheen.htm] Greve claimed that she failed because on the first day of the test she had been confined in a hotel room near a busy road, saying that the [[stress (medicine)|stress]] and [[pollution]] kept her from getting the nutrients she needed from the air. “I asked for fresh air. Seventy percent of my nutrients come from fresh air. I couldn’t even breathe,” she said. On the third day the test moved to a mountainside retreat where she could get plenty of fresh air and live happily. After Greve had fasted for four days, Dr. Berris Wink, president of the Queensland branch of the Australian Medical Association, urged her to stop the test. According to the doctor, Greve’s pupils were dilated, her speech was slow, she was &quot;quite dehydrated, probably over 10 per cent, getting up to 11 per cent.&quot; Towards the end of the test, he said, &quot;Her pulse is about double what it was when she started. The risks if she goes any further are kidney failure. 60 Minutes would be culpable if they encouraged her to continue. She should stop now.&quot; The test was stopped. Dr. Wink said, &quot;Unfortunately there are a few people who may believe what she says, and I'm sure its only a few, but I think it's quite irresponsible for somebody to be trying to encourage others to do something that is so detrimental to their health.&quot;[http://www.rickross.com/reference/breat/breat13.html] She challenged the results of the program, saying, &quot;Look, 6,000 people have done this around the world without any problem.&quot;[http://www.apologeticsindex.org/an991028.html#19] Though she has thousands of followers,[http://www.rickross.com/reference/breat/breat23.html][http://liberatapublishers.com/mysticism.htm] mostly in Germany,[http://www.rickross.com/reference/breat/breat05.html] there is no evidence that any have lived for long periods of time without any food at all. Jasmuheen was awarded the [[Bent Spoon Award]] by Australian Skeptics in 2000 (&quot;presented to the perpetrator of the most preposterous piece of paranormal or pseudoscientific piffle&quot;).[http://www.skeptics.com.au/spoon/2000winners.htm] Jasmuheen claims that their beliefs are based on the writings and &quot;more recent [[Channelling (mediumistic)|channelled]] material&quot; of the [[Count of St Germain]].[http://www.rickross.com/reference/breat/breat06.html] She claims that her [[DNA]] has expanded from 2 to 12 strands, to &quot;absorb more hydrogen&quot;. When offered $30,000 to prove her claim with a blood test, she said that she didn't understand the relevance.[http://www.abc.net.au/science/correx/archives/jasmuheen.htm] === Deaths === The well-publicized deaths of 49-year-old Australian-born Scotland resident [[Verity Linn]], 31-year-old Munich kindergarten teacher [[Timo Degen]], and 53-year-old Melbourne resident [[Lani Marcia Roslyn Morris]] while attempting to enter the Breatharian &quot;diet&quot; have drawn further criticism of the idea.[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/scotland/453661.stm] [http://www.rickross.com/reference/breat/breat08.html] [[Jim Vadim Pesnak]], 63, and his wife Eugenia, 60, went to jail for three years on charges of manslaughter for their involvement in the death of Morris. Verity Lynn, the Scottish woman who inadvertently killed herself by choosing the Breatharian &quot;diet&quot; was a nominee for the 1999 [[Darwin Awards]]. She &quot;took to the highlands&quot;, the article says, &quot;with only a tent and her grit and determination.&quot; She died of hypothermia and dehydration, aggravated by lack of food. Jasmuheen claimed that her death was brought on by a psycho-spiritual problem, rather than a physiological one. Jasmuheen has denied any involvement with the three deaths and claims she cannot be held responsible for the actions of her followers. In reference to the death of Lani Morris, she said that perhaps Morris was &quot;not coming from a place of integrity and did not have the right motivation.&quot;[http://www.rickross.com/reference/breat/breat08.html] == Prahlad Jani == Prahlad Jani, a [[fakir]], spent ten days under strict observation by physicians in [[Ahmedabad]], [[India]] in [[2003]]. During the observation, he was given only 100 [[millilitre]]s of water a day to use as mouthwash, which was collected and measured after he used it, to make sure he hadn't consumed any. Throughout the observation, he passed no urine or stool, but doctors say urine appeared to form in the bladder, only to be reabsorbed. However, despite Jani's claim to have gone without food for decades, Jani was not engaged in strenuous exercise during the ten-day trial, and longer trials were not recorded under similarly strict observation. Further, his weight did drop slightly during the 10 days to later stabilize, casting some doubt on his claim to go indefinitely without food. Jani claims a goddess sustains him through nectar that filters down through a hole in his [[palate]]. [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/3236118.stm] The Indian Rationalists label him a &quot;village fraud.&quot; [http://www.rationalistinternational.net/article/20031201_en.htm] == Yan Xin == Dr. [[Yan Xin]], a practitioner of [[Han Chinese|Chinese]] [[Qigong]] and other [[esotericism]]s, and some of his followers claim to have lived for months and years without eating. However, there is no scientifically confirmed evidence of this.{{citation needed}} == Roman Catholicism == [[Roman Catholic]]ism also has traditions of inedia, in which [[saint]]s claimed to have been able to go for months or years without any food (or with no food but [[Eucharist|Communion]]).[http://www.catholic-forum.com/saints/define87.htm] Such saints include: * [[Alphais]] * [[Helen Enselmini]] * [[Elisabeth the Good]] * [[Lydwina of Schiedam]] * [[Mary Ann de Paredes]] * [[Nicholas of Flue]] (According to legend, he survived for nineteen years with no food except for the [[Eucharist]].) == Hinduism == [[Paramahansa Yogananda]]'s ''Autobiography of a Yogi'' details two alleged historical examples of Breatharianism, [[Giri Bala]] and [[Therese Neumann]]. == Other explanations == Other than a simple [[confidence trick]], [[skepticism|skeptics]] can
this form of individualist anarchism is not exclusive to the Americans.{{fact}} It is also found in the philosophy of other radical individualists, such as those in England and France though almost all were influenced by the early American individualists. Individualist anarchism of this type is in contrast to some other forms of anarchism, such as [[anarcho-communism]], which holds that productive property should be in the control of the society at large in various forms of worker collectives and that the produce of labor should be collectivized.{{fact}} Both individualists anarchists and communist anarchists agree, however, in many of their critiques of most common conceptions of property. Most of the individualist anarchists in the 19th and 18th centuries adhered to a labor theory of value, and hence, saw profit as subverting natural law. However, there have been a few theorists in the 19th and 18th centurues that did not adhere to labor-value. These include [[Jakob Muavillon]], [[Julius Faucher]], [[Gustave de Molinari]], [[Auberon Herbert]], and [[Herbert Spencer]]. == The American tradition == {{Main article|[[American individualist anarchism]]}} Individualist anarchism in America is noted for its strong advocacy of private property in the product of labor, and a competitive free market economy. [[Josiah Warren]], who is the first individualist anarchist in the American tradition, had participated in a failed collectivist experiment headed by [[Robert Owen]] called &quot;[[New Harmony]]&quot; and came to the conclusion that such a system is inferior to one where individualism and private property is respected. On ''Practical Details'', he discusses his conclusions in regard to the experiment. In a much cited quotation from that text, he makes a vehement assertion of individual [[negative liberty]]: &quot;Society must be so converted as to preserve the SOVEREIGNTY OF EVERY INDIVIDUAL inviolate. That it must avoid all combinations and connections of persons and interests, and all other arrangements which will not leave every individual at all times at liberty to dispose of his or her person, and time, and property in any manner in which his or her feelings or judgment may dictate WITHOUT INVOLVING THE PERSONS OR INTERESTS OF OTHERS&quot; (Warren's capitalization). Though Warren and Proudhon did not associate with each other, working on separate continents they both came to like conclusions in regard to labor theory of value and property. However, according to Benjamin Tucker, that profiting by violating the labor theory of value is exploitative &quot;was Proudhon's position before it was Marx's, and Josiah Warren's before it was Proudhon's&quot; (Liberty or Authority). While Warren based his philosophy on [[natural law]], [[Benjamin Tucker]] eventually switched his allegiance to [[egoism]] as a result of his reading of Max Stirner. Many individualists followed in his footsteps in this respect. Tucker maintained that there were two rights, &quot;the right of might&quot; and &quot;the right of contract&quot; and that moral rights do not exist until they are devised by contract initiated out of the self-interest of the contracting parties. However, this was a source of conflict among the individualists as many continued to assert natural law. The individualists' economic theory (''[[mutualism (economic theory)|mutualism]]'') is based on the [[labor theory of value]]. Accepting that the value of a good is the amount of labor undertaking in producing it, they conclude that it is unethical to charge a higher price for a commodity than the cost of producing or acquiring and bringing it to market (''[[Cost the limit of price]]''). To ensure that labor receives its &quot;full produce&quot; they advocate that a commodity should be purchased with an amount of labor that is equivalent to the amount of labor undertaken in producing that commodity. As a result, equal amounts of labor would receive equal pay; those that did not labor would not be paid. In the area of employment, this would obviate the possibility of an employer profiting from the labor of an employee, which they opposed as being exploitative, since the employee must receive the &quot;full produce&quot; of his labor. With the exception of Warren, this led to their position that private ownership of land should be supported only if the possessor of that land is using it, otherwise, the possessor would be able to charge rent to others without laboring to produce anything (Warren does not oppose ownership of land but does advocate that it be sold at cost). Profiting from lending money for interest is generally seen as usurious as an income is seen as being derived without labor. To the individualists, profit from interest, profit from wages, and rental of land is only made possible by government-backed &quot;monopoly&quot; and &quot;privilege&quot; that restricts competition in the marketplace and concentrates wealth in the hands of a few. === Anarcho-capitalism === {{main|anarcho-capitalism}} Most pre-20th century individualist anarchists espoused the [[labor theory of value]], so they find profit to be unnatural and exploitative. Anarcho-capitalists hold a [[subjective theory of value]], and hence have no opposition to profit. Labor-value individualists and [[Murray Rothbard|Rothbardian]] anarcho-capitalists espouse a [[labor theory of property]], and therefore agree that an individual should have private property in the product of labor. However, whereas most labor-value individualists do not recognize land itself as property since it is not the product of labor, prefering instead a right to exclusive individual use, anarcho-capitalists in the [[Murray Rothbard|Rothbardian]] school do allow the creation of private property in land by &quot;mixing&quot; it with labor. In other words, for Rothbard, an individual still has title to the land if he discontinues using it. In the United States the popularity of the [[labor theory of value]] of [[classical economics]] was superceded by much greater acceptance of the [[subjective theory of value]] of [[neo-classical economics]]. This [[marginalism|marginalist]] revolution influenced the thoughts of some radical individualists. Eventually, in the 20th century, [[Murray Rothbard]] coined the term ''[[anarcho-capitalism]]''. Most anarchists do not accept anarcho-capitalism as a &quot;true&quot; form of anarchist thought, as [[anarchism]] as been traditionally opposed to [[capitalism]]. See also [[American individualist anarchism and anarcho-capitalism]]. == Comparison of property systems == :''Note: Not all philosophers, in the various camps agree on everything; for that reason, it is not necessarily true that this table is representative of all anarcho-communists, individualist anarchists, or anarcho-capitalists (see the [[Talk:Individualist anarchism|talk page]] for more information).'' {| border=&quot;3&quot; cellspacing=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;12&quot; style=&quot;margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto;background:#FFF;text-align:center;border-outset:1px;&quot; |width=&quot;200&quot;|'''Philosophies''' |width=&quot;140&quot;|Anarcho-communism |width=&quot;140&quot;|Individualist Anarchism (labor-value) |width=&quot;140&quot;|Anarcho-capitalism |- |style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;|Does the '''community own''' the land and other natural resources? |Yes |No |No |- |style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;|Is '''land''' legitimate transferrable private property? |No |No (some say yes) |Yes |- |style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;|Is the '''product of labour''' legitimate private property? |No |Yes |Yes |- |style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;|Are privately-owned '''capital goods''' permissible? |No |Yes |Yes |- |style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;|Is '''profit''' from labor, land and loans exploitative? |Yes; such profits should be confiscated. |Yes; but should not be prohibited. |No |} '''(NRxCO)''' &quot;The land, and all natural resources, are the common property of everyone, but will be used only by those who cultivate it by their own labor. Without expropriation, only through the powerful pressure of the worker’s associations, capital and the tools of production will fall to those who produce wealth by their own labor.&quot; - Michael Bakunin, ''Revolutionary Catechism''. '''(NRxCO)''' &quot;The only way, in which ['the wealth of nature'] can be made useful to mankind, is by their taking possession of it individually, and thus making it private property.&quot; - Lysander Spooner, ''Law of Intellectual Property''. &quot;That there is an entity known as the community which is the rightful owner of all land anarchists deny. I...maintain that the community is a non-entity, that it has no existence, and is simply a combination of individuals having no prerogative beyond those of the individuals themselves.&quot; -Benjamin Tucker, ''Liberty'' '''(NRxCO)''' &quot;The only 'natural' course for man to survive and to attain wealth, therefore, is by using his mind and energy to engage in the production-and-exchange process. He does this, first, by finding natural resources, and then by transforming them (by 'mixing his labor' with them, as Locke puts it), to make them his individual property, and then by exchanging this property for the similarly obtained property of others.&quot; Murray Rothbard, ''The Anatomy of the State''. '''(LdxCol)''' see (NRxCol) above. '''(LdxInd)''' Though, most labor-value individualists oppose buying and selling of land itself, they maintain that an individual should be allowed exclusive of use of land against any claims of the community. &quot;Anarchism holds that land belongs not to the people but the occupant and user...&quot; - Benjamin Tucker ''Liberty X May 19 1894''. But Warren, Andrews, and Greene supported an individual holding transferable title to land itself; for example, &quot;the prime cost of land, the taxes, and other contingent expenses of surveying, etc., added to t
ersions of spelling, etc.) An ethnic group is a human population whose members identify with each other, usually on the basis of a supposedly shared common genealogy or ancestry (Smith 1986). Henceforth, this list may include only groups whose members self-identify and/or are identified by others as members of an ethnic group. __NOTOC__ {{compactTOC2}} ==A== *[[Abenaki]] - [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Native Americans]] of [[Quebec]], [[Vermont]], [[New Hampshire]], and possibly [[Maine]] and [[Nova Scotia]] ([[Algonquin people]]) *[[Abkhazians]] - Minority in [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]], [[Turkey (country)|Turkey]] and [[Russia]], majority (since 1993 civil war) in [[Abkhazia]] *[[Indigenous Australians]], also called ''Aborigines'', indigenous peoples of mainland [[Australia]]. *[[Acadian]] - [[French-Canadians]] of the [[Canadian Maritimes]] *[[Accohannock]] - [[Native Americans in the United States|Native Americans]] of [[Maryland]] *[[Achang]] - [[Yunnan]], [[China]] *[[Achomawi]] - [[Native Americans in the United States|Native Americans]] of [[California]] *[[Acoma Pueblo|Acoma]] - [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Native Americans]] of the southwest [[United States]] and [[Mexico]] *[[Adyghe]] - Minority in [[Russia]], in the north [[Caucasus]] region. *[[Afar (ethnicity)|Afar]] - A tribal people in [[Ethiopia]], [[Eritrea]] and [[Djibouti]]. Also known as ''Danakil'' *[[African American|African-American]] - [[Mulatto]] [[United States|Americans]] *[[Afrikaners]] - descendants of [[The Netherlands|Dutch]] settlers / French [[Huguenot]] refugees &amp; German Protestants of southern [[Africa]] *[[Afro-Cuban]] *[[Afromestizos]] *[[Afro-Trinidadian]] *[[Aftsarians]] or [[Isaurians]] *[[Agni]] - minority group in [[Côte d'Ivoire]] *[[Aguls]] - [[Dagestan]]i minority group *[[Ahtna]] - Native [[Alaska]]ns, along the [[Copper River (Alaska)|Copper River]] *[[Aimaks]] - Minority group in [[Afghanistan]] *[[Aimaq]] - Minority group in [[Afghanistan]] *[[Ainu people|Ainu]] - Natives of [[Hokkaido]], much of [[Sakhalin]], the [[Kuriles]], and at one time northern [[Honshu]], the [[Kamchatka Peninsula]], and the [[Amur River]] basin *[[Aja people|Aja]] - Minority group in [[Benin]] *[[Ak Chin]] - [[Native Americans in the United States|Native American]] group now resident in [[Pinal County, Arizona]] on the [[Tohono O'odham]] reservation &lt;!--Ak Chin = Tohono O'odham I thought?--&gt; *[[Akan (ethnic group)|Akan]] - People of West Africa, inhabiting principally [[Ghana]], [[Côte d'Ivoire]] and [[Togo]] *[[Akha]] *[[Alabama (people)|Alabama]] - [[Native Americans in the United States|Native American]] people from whom the state takes its name; now sharing a reservation in [[Texas]] with the [[Coushatta]] *[[Alak people|Alak]] - from [[Laos]] *[[Albanians]] - Natives of the south-west [[Balkans]], principally residing in [[Albania]], [[Republic of Macedonia|Macedonia]], [[Serbia and Montenegro]], and [[Greece]]. ''See also: [[Albanians in the Republic of Macedonia]]'' *[[Aleut]] - Natives of Alaska, and the [[Yukon Territory|Yukon]], [[Nunavut]] and [[Northwest Territories]] *[[Algonquian]] - [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Native Americans]] of the eastern [[United States]] and [[Canada]] *[[Altaic people|Altaic peoples]] - Non-homogeneous peoples of the [[Altai]] Mountains region *[[United States|American]] - Homogeneous population of [[British American]]s, primarily focused in while being the native majority ethnic group of the former [[Confederate States of America]](see [[Southern United States]] and [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Census-2000-Data-Top-US-Ancestries-by-County.jpg this map]). In [[Latin America]], this is a geographic label referring to all inhabitants of the &quot;[[New World]]&quot;. *[[Americo-Liberians]] - [[Mulatto]] [[African American]]s were given [[reparations for slavery]] in the form of their own country back in their homeland and this is [[Liberia]], so they are Liberians. *[[Amhara]] - Indigenous people of central [[Ethiopia]] *[[Amish]] - [[North America]]n religious minority, of [[ethnic German|German]] descent *[[Amungme]] *[[Andorran]]s - Inhabitants of a small nation between [[France]] and [[Spain]] *[[Anglo-American]] - In the United States, this term identifies both Anglo-Saxons and people who have assimilated or adhere to, the Anglo-Saxon ethnicity but, may not necessarily be of Anglo-Saxon stock. *[[Anglo-Celtic Australian]] - Inhabitants of Australia with [[Great Britain|British]] descent *[[Anglo-Indian]] - Offspring of mixed [[India]]n and [[Great Britain|British]] parentage resident in [[India]] and [[Great Britain]] *[[Anglo-Saxon]] - Historically, the name for the united Teuton tribes inhabiting Britain from the 5th century to the Norman invasion. Most commonly used today in the United States for a person of British descent, or pertaining to the English speaking world. *[[Annamites]] or [[Vietnamese people|Vietnamese]] or [[Kinh]] or [[Jing]] - A people of Mongolian descent living in Vietnam as the dominant majority. *[[Ansar]] or [[Ansarie]] *[[Antigua|Antiguan]] *[[Antilles|Antillean]] *[[Apache Tribe|Apaches]] - groups of [[Native Americans in the United States|Native Americans]] in the western plains of the [[United States]] *[[Apinaje]] *[[Arab]] - originally from [[Arabia]], now widespread throughout the [[Middle East]] and [[North Africa]] *[[Aramean]] - people of the [[Middle East]], chiefly resident in [[Syria]] *[[Arapaho]] - [[Native Americans in the United States|Native American]] people, formerly inhabiting [[Colorado]] and [[Wyoming]], now living in [[Oklahoma]] and [[Wyoming]] *[[Araucanian]] - Non-homogeneous peoples of [[South America]], inhabiting [[Chile]] and western [[Argentina]] *[[Arawak]] - natives of the [[Caribbean]] *[[Arikara]] - [[Native Americans in the United States|Native American]] people from the upper Midwest United States *[[Armenians]] - natives of the [[Caucasus]] region, [[Armenia]] and [[Nagorno-Karabakh]], with a large worldwide [[diaspora]] *[[Aromanians]] (or ''Macedo-Romanians'') - a population living as a minority in Northern Greece, Serbia, the Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, Albania and Bulgaria *[[Arubans]] - [[Netherlands|Dutch]]-colonized island in the [[Caribbean]] *[[Arvanites]] *[[Indo-Iranians|Aryans]] - [[Indo-Iranians]], ancient inhabitants of South Asia (excluding Southern India), [[Central Asia]] and the [[Iranian plateau]], but it can also refer to [[Indo-Aryans]], who are inhabiting the majority of South Asia, as well as Afghanistan *[[Asheninka]] *[[Ashkenazi Jews]] - approximately 80% of the world's [[Jewish]] population *[[Assiniboine]] - [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Native American]] people living in [[Alberta]], [[Saskatchewan]], and [[Montana]]; one of the [[Sioux]] peoples *[[Assyrian people|Assyrians]] - [[Middle East]]ern, principally in [[Iraq]] and [[Syria]] with large [[diaspora]] *[[Atikamekw]] *[[Atsina]] - [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Native American]] people inhabiting [[Montana]] and formerly [[Saskatchewan]] *[[Atsugewi]] *[[Australian aborigine]] - generic name for native inhabitants of [[Australia]] *[[Caucasian Avars|Avars]] - inhabitants of the [[Russia]]n republic of [[Dagestan]] *[[Awá]] - an endangered [[Amazonia]]n tribe of [[hunter-gatherer]]s *[[Aymara]]s - South American people of [[Bolivia]] and [[Peru]] *[[Azeris]] - [[Turkic]], Shiite [[Turkic peoples|Turks]]. One of the latest arriving groups in the Caucasus, living predominantly in [[Azerbaijan]] and northern [[Iran]]. *[[Aztecs]] - [[Central America]]n people, descendants widespread in [[Mexico]] *[[Amerasian]]-A person of American and Asian descent, especially one whose mother is Asian and whose father is American ==B== *[[Ba Na]] *[[Baggara]] or ''Baqqarah'' - [[Sudan]] *[[Baguirmi]] - inhabitants of [[Chad]] *[[Bahamas|Bahamian]] *[[Bai]] - national minority of [[China]], inhabiting [[Yunnan]] province *[[Bajau]] - ''Sea Gypsies'' of [[Borneo]]; touch land only to bury their dead. *[[Baka (nomadic Central African people)|Baka]] - one of the [[Pygmy]] peoples of central [[Africa]]. See also [[Twa]], [[Aka (Pygmy Tribe)|Aka]], [[Mbuti]], [[Binga]] and [[Gelli Efé]]. *[[Bakongo]] - majority population of the [[Republic of the Congo]]; also living in [[Angola]] *[[Balkars]] - people of the northern [[Caucasus]], mainly inhabiting the [[Russia]]n republic of [[Kabardino-Balkaria]] *[[Baloch]] (also ''Baluch'') - traditionally nomadic [[Muslim]] people of [[Baluchistan]] *[[Bamar]] - the majority ethnic group of [[Myanmar]] *[[Bambara]] - group living chiefly in [[Mali]] and [[Guinea]] *[[Bamileke]] - majority inhabitants of [[Cameroon]] *[[Banawa]] *[[Banda (CAR)|Banda]] - one of the peoples of the [[Central African Republic]] *[[Bandjabi]] *[[Bantu]] - ethnic group widespread in central and southern [[Africa]] *[[Baoule]] - major ethnic group in [[Côte d'Ivoire]] *[[Bapou]] *[[Bariba]] - national minority in [[Benin]] *[[Barbados|Barbadian]] *[[Barbuda|Barbudan]] *[[Basarwa]] - ethnic minority in [[Botswana]] *[[Bashkirs]] (or ''Bashkhirs'') - people of east central [[Russia]], inhabiting principally [[Bashkortostan]] *[[Basotho]] - inhabitants of [[Lesotho]] *[[Basque people|Basques]] - located in the [[Pyrenees]] between [[Spain]] and [[France]] *[[Bassa]] - people of [[Liberia]] *[[Bassari]] *[[Baster]] (also known as Baaster) - people descended from the offspring of Dutch speaking whites and black African women *[[Bateke]] - minority group in the [[Republic of the Congo]] *[[Batswana]] - largest ethnic group in [[Botswana]] *[[Bavarians]] - inhabitant of the [[Germany|German]] state of [[Bavaria]], with a distinctive dialect of [[High Germanic languages|High German]] *[[Baya-Mandjia]] *[[Bedouins]] - nomadic group throughout [[North Africa]] and western [[Middle East]] *[[Beja people|Beja]] - nomadic group in northern Eritrea, southern Egypt, and northeastern Sudan
se of the word probably derived not from the word ''cheese'', but from the [[Persian language|Persian]] or [[Hindi language|Hindi]] word ''chiz'', meaning ''a thing''.&lt;ref&gt;Michael Quinion (2000). [http://www.worldwidewords.org/qa/qa-big1.htm World Wide Words: Big Cheese]. Retrieved October 15, 2005.&lt;/ref&gt; Cheese is also sometimes used as a slang term for gossip, deriving from the Spanish word &quot;chisme&quot;, meaning &quot;gossip&quot;. A more whimsical bit of American and Canadian slang refers to school buses as &quot;cheese wagons&quot;, a reference to [[school bus yellow]]. People getting their photo taken are often encouraged to &quot;say cheese!&quot;, as the word &quot;cheese&quot; contains the [[phoneme]] [[Close front unrounded vowel|/i/]], a [[long vowel]] which requires the lips to be stretched in the appearance of a [[smile]].&lt;ref&gt;Straight Dope Staff Report (2005). [http://www.straightdope.com/mailbag/msaycheese.html Why do photographers ask you to say &quot;cheese&quot;?]. Retrieved October 15, 2005.&lt;/ref&gt; People from [[Wisconsin]] and the [[Netherlands]], both centers of cheese production, have been called [[cheesehead]]s. This nickname has been embraced by Wisconsin sports fans &amp;mdash; especially fans of the [[Green Bay Packers]] or [[University of Wisconsin|Wisconsin Badgers]] &amp;mdash; who are now seen in the stands sporting plastic or foam hats in the shape of giant cheese wedges. ==Notes== &lt;references/&gt; ==References== *{{cite book | author=Jenkins, Steven | title=Cheese Primer | publisher=Workman Publishing Company | year=1996 | id=ISBN 0-894-80762-5}} *{{cite book | author=McGee, Harold | title=On Food and Cooking (Revised Edition) | publisher=Scribner | year=2004 | id=ISBN 0-684-80001-2}} pp 51-63, &quot;Cheese&quot; *James Mellgren (2003). [http://www.gourmetretailer.com/gourmetretailer/magazine/article_display.jsp?vnu_content_id=1911696 2003 Specialty Cheese Manual, Part II: Knowing the Family of Cheese]. Retrieved October 12, 2005. ==External links== {{sisterlinks|Cheese}} * [http://www.food-info.net/uk/dairy/cheese-production.htm Production of cheese] &amp;mdash; From Food-info.net. * [http://www.completerecipes.com/cheese1.htm Complete Recipes: Cheese] * [http://www.foodsci.uoguelph.ca/cheese/welcom.htm University of Guelph Food Science Cheese Site] * [http://www.elook.org/recipes/appetizer/cheese1.html Cheese Recipes - eLook - Contains a listing of over 1,100 recipes.] * [http://biology.clc.uc.edu/fankhauser/Cheese/Cheese_course/Cheese_course.htm Cheese Making Illustrated] &amp;mdash; Learn the science behind homemade cheese. *{{gutenberg|no=14293|name=The Complete Book of Cheese}} [[Category:Cheeses| ]] [[Category:Dairy products]] {{Link FA|af}} [[af:Kaas]] [[ar:جبن]] [[ca:Formatge]] [[chr:ᎤᏅᏗ ᎦᏚᏅ]] [[cs:Sýr]] [[cy:Caws]] [[da:Ost]] [[de:Käse]] [[es:Queso]] [[eo:Fromaĝo]] [[fr:Fromage]] [[fur:Formadi]] [[gl:Queixo]] [[ko:치즈]] [[io:Fromajo]] [[id:Keju]] [[is:Ostur]] [[it:Formaggio]] [[he:גבינה]] [[jv:Keju]] [[la:Caseus]] [[lt:Sūris]] [[jbo:cirla]] [[hu:Sajt]] [[nl:Kaas]] [[ja:チーズ]] [[no:Ost]] [[nn:Ost]] [[pl:Ser]] [[pt:Queijo]] [[ro:Brânză]] [[ru:Сыр]] [[scn:Furmaggiu]] [[simple:Cheese]] [[sl:Sir]] [[sr:Сир]] [[fi:Juusto]] [[sv:Ost]] [[tr:Peynir]] [[zh:奶酪]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>C language</title> <id>5441</id> <revision> <id>15903649</id> <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>Conversion script</ip> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Automated conversion</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[C_programming_language]] </text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>ConLang</title> <id>5442</id> <revision> <id>15903650</id> <timestamp>2002-04-23T14:55:11Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Chuck Smith</username> <id>38</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>artificial --&amp;gt; constructed</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Constructed language]] </text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Common sense and the Diallelus</title> <id>5444</id> <revision> <id>15903652</id> <timestamp>2004-04-11T22:01:13Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Banno</username> <id>22544</id> </contributor> <comment>re-direct to Regress argument</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Regress argument]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Class envy</title> <id>5445</id> <revision> <id>40345660</id> <timestamp>2006-02-19T23:27:06Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>24.107.198.23</ip> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Class envy''' is a pejorative term sometimes used to describe criticisms of the rich and powerful by the poor and less powerful. Criticism of excessive [[wealth]] and the wealthy has been a staple of political discourse for generations and many believe that societal imbalances in wealth should be reduced or done away with. A common rebuttal to these arguments is that the antagonism that the poor feel towards the wealthy is not based upon any repression or unfairness, but rather upon [[envy]]. This argument states that the poorer members of society attack the rich and their privileges because they are envious of the wealth and success the upper classes enjoy. The simplest counter-argument is that &quot;class envy&quot; is an [[ad hominem]] fallacy. In other words, that even assuming class envy plays a significant part in social confilct, it does not necessarily detract from the validity of the ideas put forward by those who harbor this emotion. It must however, be taken into consideration that emotions do play a powerful part in attitudes, behaviors and the formation of opinion. This fact has been proven in experiments in the field of behavioral psychology. Another counter-argument, often invoked by [[Marxism|Marxists]], is that the classes are defined by their relationship with each other, where the worker creates wealth, and the capitalist is simply a parasite who expropriates [[surplus value]] from the workers who work for him or her. While the capitalist focuses on the creation of wealth, the Marxist focuses on the issue of capital, which is created by the worker's labor and taken by the capitalist. However, this view does not take into consideration the value of intellectual innovation or invention. The political debate over wealth and its distribution or re-distribution is an emotional one, with [[left-wing]] groups denigrating the wealthy and [[right-wing]] groups accusing the Left of class envy. The term class envy is used by many conservatives institutions such as the [[Wall Street Journal]] and the [[Conservative Party (UK)|British Conservative Party]]. The term is not generally directed at the poor themselves, but rather at groups that are viewed as trying to encourage or take advantage of class envy such as liberal media outlets or leftist political parties. Use of the word ''envy'' in the phrase ''class envy'' instead of a word like resentment, or jealousy is what working class activists feel is pejorative about this phrase, since envy means not only resentment, but also desire to attain the advantage held by the resented party. In other words ''class envy'' means the working class group accused of class envy not only resent the ruling class, which most working class activists would concede, but that they ''desire to be'' in a ruling class over a working class. What this idea neglects is that it is possible that a worker doesn't want to get rid of his working class status within capitalism, but wants to get rid of capitalism itself as a system, just as economic systems like slavery and feudalism were gotten rid of. If all workers had an equal relationship to the [[means of production]] in this view, there would be nothing to be envious of. Elements of &quot;class envy&quot; phenomena can be said to exist in many cultures - for example, the persistent [[Australia|Australian]] myth of the &quot;dole bludger,&quot; one who avoids work and lives on the wealth of others. Another Australian example would be the &quot;tall poppy syndrome&quot; where a successful individual is discredited by their social group as success is believed to come from dishonesty. Despite these possible examples of class envy it is still a term mostly used in polemical discourse. Unlike similar notions such as [[class consciousness]] there is no theoretical underpinning ot the idea of class envy other than in psychology. In large part this has to do with the fact that those who advocate it also criticize the very notion of class. Class Warfare is often thought of as the end result of class envy as well as other factors which motivate the redistribution of wealth and power amongst the classes. [[Category:Economics]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Cameroon</title> <id>5447</id> <revision> <id>41775947</id> <timestamp>2006-03-01T17:45:04Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>MJCdetroit</username> <id>627347</id> </contributor> <comment>infox Long &amp; Lat</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_Country &lt;!-- If editing infobox, please update [[Template:Country infobox data Cameroon]] also --&gt; |native_name = '''Republic of Cameroon&lt;br&gt;République du Cameroun''' |common_name = Cameroon |image_flag = Flag of Cameroon.svg |image_coat = Cameroon coa.png |image_map = LocationCameroon.png |national_motto = Paix, Travail, Patrie&lt;br&gt;([[French language|French]]: Peace, Work, Fatherland) |national_anthem = [[Chant de Ralliement]] |official_languages = [[French language|French]] and [[English language|English]] |capital = [[Yaoundé]] |latd= 3|latm=52 |latNS= N|longd=11 |longm=31|longEW=E |largest_city = [[
] and [[pop culture]], are published in [[Italy]], the [[U.S.]], [[Japan]], [[Germany]], and [[Spain]]. Giovanni Arduino has written under many different pseudonyms such as [[Joe Arden]] and [[Jonathan Snow]], but has mostly used his real name since 2003 for novels as &lt;i&gt;Chiudimi le labbra&lt;/i&gt; (Lain Books, [[Rome]], 2005) and &lt;i&gt;Mai come voi&lt;/i&gt; (Sperling &amp; Kupfer, [[Milan]], 2004). As an editor (senior editor first and editor-at-large since the late Nineties at Sperling &amp; Kufer Editori, [[Milan]], [[Italy]]) and scout, Giovanni Arduino introduced Italian readers to an eclectic, quirky, and highly personal mix of foreign authors such as [[Jim Carroll]], [[Nicholas Sparks]], [[Mark Leyner]], [[Poppy Z. Brite]], [[Ben Sherwood]], [[Marilyn Manson]], [[Rosemary Altea]], [[Sherman Alexie]], [[James O'Barr]], [[Francesca Lia Block]], [[Neale Donald Walsch]], [[Stephen Chbosky]] and many others, not to mention a vast array of media-related products, ranging from [[Pokemon]] and [[Beverly Hills 90210]] to [[Hamtaro]], [[Dawson's Creek]], [[Desperate Housewives]] and [[Buffy the Vampire Slayer]]. &lt;br&gt; &lt;b&gt;External links&lt;/b&gt; *[http://www.giovanniarduino.com Official Giovanni Arduino Website] *[http://www.publishersmarketplace.com/members/giovanniarduino Giovanni Arduino Page on Publishers Marketplace] ----------------------------------- '''Giovanni Arduino''' ([[Caprino Veronese]], [[October 16]], [[1714]] &amp;ndash; [[Venice]], [[March 21]], [[1795]]) was an [[Italy|Italian]] [[geologist]] who is known as the &quot;Father of Italian [[Geology]].&quot; Arduino was a [[mining]] specialist who developed possibly the first classification of geological time, based on study of the geology of northern [[Italy]]. In 1735, he divided the history of the Earth into four periods: Primitive, Secondary, Tertiary and Volcanic,or Quaternary. ------ {{Italy-bio-stub}} {{geologist-stub}} [[Category:1714 births|Arduino, Giovanni]] [[Category:1795 deaths|Arduino, Giovanni]] [[Category:Italian geologists|Arduino, Giovanni]] [[Category:Natives of the Veneto|Arduino, Giovanni]] {{Italy-bio-stub}} {{writer-stub}} [[Category:Italian writers|Arduino, Giovanni]] [[Category:Italian novelists|Arduino, Giovanni]] [[Category:Natives of Piedmont|Arduino, Giovanni]] [[Category:1967 births|Arduino, Giovanni]] [[de:Giovanni Arduino]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Gambler's fallacy</title> <id>12970</id> <revision> <id>40029732</id> <timestamp>2006-02-17T16:49:41Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Gonzalo Diethelm</username> <id>87501</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>/* An example: coin-tossing */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">The '''gambler's fallacy''' is a [[logical fallacy]] which encompasses any of the following misconceptions: * A [[random]] event is ''more'' likely to occur because it ''has not'' happened for a period of time; * A random event is ''less'' likely to occur because it ''has not'' happened for a period of time; * A random event is ''more'' likely to occur because it ''recently'' happened; and * A random event is ''less'' likely to occur because it ''recently'' happened. These are common misunderstandings that arise in everyday reasoning about [[probability|probabilities]], many of which have been studied in great detail. Many people lose money while [[gambling]] due to their erroneous belief in this fallacy. Although the gambler's fallacy can apply to any form of gambling, it is easiest to illustrate by considering [[coin-tossing]]; its rebuttal can be summarised with the phrase &quot;the coin doesn't have a memory&quot;. == An example: coin-tossing == The gambler's fallacy can be illustrated by considering the repeated toss of a coin. With a fair coin the chances of getting heads are exactly 0.5 (a half). The chances of it coming up heads twice in a row are 0.5&amp;times;0.5=0.25 (a quarter). The probability of three heads in a row is 0.5&amp;times;0.5&amp;times;0.5= 0.125 (an eighth) and so on. Now suppose that we have just tossed four heads in a row. A believer in the gambler's fallacy might say, &quot;If the next coin flipped were to come up heads, it would generate a run of five successive heads. The probability of a run of five successive heads is &lt;math&gt;0.5^5=0.03125&lt;/math&gt;; therefore, the next coin flipped only has a 1 in 32 chance of coming up heads.&quot; This is the fallacious step in the argument. If the coin is fair, then by definition the probability of tails must '''always''' be .5, never more (or less), and the probability of heads must '''always''' be .5, never less (or more). While a run of five heads is only 1 in 32 (0.03125), it is 1 in 32 '''before''' the coin is first tossed. '''After''' the first four tosses the results are no longer unknown, so they don't count. The probability of five consecutive heads is the same as four successive heads followed by one tails. Tails is no more likely. Each of the two possible outcomes has equal probability no matter how many times the coin has been flipped previously and no matter what the result. Reasoning that it is more likely that the next toss will be a tail than a head due to the past tosses is the fallacy. The fallacy is the idea that a run of luck in the past somehow influences the odds of a bet in the future. Sometimes, gamblers argue, &quot;I just lost four times. Since the coin is fair and therefore in the long run everything has to even out, if I just keep playing, I will eventually win my money back.&quot; However, it is irrational to look at things &quot;in the long run&quot; starting from '''before''' he started playing; he ought to consider that in the long run from where he is now, he could expect everything to even out to his current point, which is four losses down. [[Mathematics|Mathematically]], the probability is equal to one that gains will eventually equal losses and a gambler will return to his starting point; however, the expected number of times he has to play is infinite, and so is the expected amount of capital he will need! A similar argument shows that the popular doubling strategy (start with $1, if you lose, bet $2, then $4 etc., until you win) does not work; see [[St. Petersburg paradox]]. Situations like these are investigated in the mathematical theory of [[random walk|random walks]]. This and similar strategies either trade many small wins for a few huge losses (as in this case) or vice versa. With an infinite amount of working capital, one would come out ahead using this strategy; as it stands, one is better off betting a constant amount if only because it makes it easier to estimate how much one stands to lose in an hour or day of play. Notice that the gambler's fallacy is quite different from the following path of reasoning (which comes to the opposite conclusion): the coin comes up heads more often than tails, so it is not a fair coin, so I will bet that the next toss will be heads also. This is not fallacious, though the first step - the argument from a finite number of observations to a statement of likelihood - is a very delicate matter, and is itself prone to fallacies of its own peculiar kind. A joke told among mathematicians demonstrates the nature of the fallacy. When flying on an airplane, a man decides to always bring a bomb with him. &quot;The chances of an airplane having a bomb on it are very small,&quot; he reasons, &quot;and certainly the chances of having ''two'' are almost none!&quot; Some claim that the gambler's fallacy is a [[cognitive bias]] produced by a psychological [[heuristic]] called the [[representativeness heuristic]]. === Related links === [http://VegasReference.com/gambling/fallacy.html The gambler's fallacy exposed] ==Other examples== * You flip a fair coin 20 times and it comes up heads every time. What is the probability it will come up tails next time? (Answer: 0.5) * A couple already has two daughters. What is the probability that the next child is a son? (Answer: 0.5) [if we assume the gender of a child is completely random, and that a male or female child is equally likely, either or both of which may be incorrect.] * Are you more likely to win the lottery by choosing the same numbers every time, or by choosing different numbers every time? (Answer: you are equally likely with either strategy. In reality, you may be better off choosing numbers in such a way as to reduce the risk of splitting the jackpot.) ==Non-examples== There are many scenarios where the gambler's fallacy might superficially seem to apply, where it in fact does not. * When the probability of different events is '''not independent''', the probability of future events can change based on the outcome of past events. An example of this is cards drawn without replacement. It's true that once a jack is removed from the deck, the next draw is less likely to be a jack and more likely to be of another rank. * When the probability of each event is '''not even''', such as with a loaded die, a number which has come up more often in the past may very well continue to do so, if that number is favored by the weighting of the dice. This has been dubbed ''Nerd's Gullibility Fallacy'' -- assuming the coin indeed is fair and the gamblers are honest when it isn't the case. This is an example of [[David_Hume|Hume]]'s principle: twenty tails in a row indicates that it is far more likely that the coin is loaded than that the coin is fair and the next toss will be fifty-fifty heads or tails. * Sporting events and races are also not even, in that some entrants have better odds of winning than others. Presumably, the winner of one such event is more likely to win the next event than the loser. * The outcome of future events can be affected if external factors are allowed to change the probability of the events (e.g. changes in
filioque'' in the Creed; the council specified that the Spirit proceeds from the Father &quot;and from the Son.&quot; Coming from the rich theology of early [[East Syrian Christianity]], this expression in this context is authentically Eastern. Therefore, the ''filioque'' cannot be attacked as a solely Western innovation, nor as something created by the Pope. In the West, St. [[Augustine of Hippo]] followed Tertullian and Ambrose in teaching that the Spirit proceeded from the Father ''and'' the Son, though subordinate to neither. His theology was dominant in the West until the Middle Ages, including his theology of the Trinity. Other Latin fathers also spoke of the Spirit proceeding from both the Father and the Son. While familiar in the West, this way of speaking was virtually unknown in the Greek-speaking, Eastern Roman Empire. ===Its first addition=== In the Latin-speaking Church, the phrase ''and the Son'' (in [[Latin]] '''filioque''') was first added to the [[Nicene Creed]] at the [[Synod]] of [[Toledo, Spain|Toledo]] in [[Spain]] in [[447]]. The formula was used in a letter from [[Pope Leo I]] to the members of that synod, responding to [[heresies]] they were confronting. (Primarily, it was added to the Creed in order to oppose the [[Arianism|Arian]] heresy, which taught that the Son was a creature and not God. This heresy began with [[Arius]], a priest of Alexandria.) At the third synod of Toledo in [[589]], the ruling [[Visigoths]], who had been [[Arianism|Arian]] [[Christianity|Christians]], submitted to the Catholic Church. They were obliged to accept the Nicene Creed with the ''filioque''. (In the East, Arianism was opposed, not with the ''filioque'' but rather with an orientation of many of the prayers of the Divine Liturgy to &quot;Christ Our God.&quot; This development in the East, with a comparable dogmatic concern, occurred in the fourth century, when Arianism in the East was widespread and greatly controverted.) Although the second [[Ecumenical Council]] ([[381]]) at Constantinople had expanded and completed the Nicene Creed begun at the first Ecumenical Council ([[325]]), the third Ecumenical Council, the [[Council of Ephesus]] in [[431]], had forbidden any further changes to it. The text that had been revised at Constantinople, however, was not made normative until the Council of Chalcedon, in 451. Rome received the [[Council of Chalcedon]] ([[451]]), which referred to preceding councils, citing the authority of the text of the Creed. However, at this time, central Italy was in a state of collapse. In [[410]] and [[455]], Rome was sacked and plundered. In [[476]], the Western Roman Empire fell, with the exile of Romulus Augustulus, the last emperor. In the West, chaos followed. After generations of social upheaval, strong leadership appeared in the person of [[Pippin the Younger]], king of the [[Franks]], and his son, [[Charlemagne]], crowned as emperor in 800. Charlemagne intended to restore the Roman Empire in the West, with himself in charge, to the chagrin of the leaders of the Eastern Roman Empire. ===East/West tensions over the ''filioque''=== Some historians have suggested that the Franks in the [[ninth century]] tried to pressure the Pope to adopt the ''filioque'' in order to drive a wedge between the Roman Church and the other patriarchates. It is true that the ''filioque'' had come into wide use in the West and was widely thought to be an integral part of the Creed--in fact, most thought that the Greek churches were in error for omitting it. Similarly, unleavened bread had come to be thought of as the normal kind of bread for the Eucharist; diocesan priests were expected to be unmarried. Contemporary usage was thought to be normative and authentic. In these matters of discipline, the influence of the Franks is certain. They intended to exalt Charlemagne as the new Roman Emperor. The Catholic religion, as they knew it, was to be part of the package. (Meanwhile, from c. 726 to 843, the Eastern Roman Empire, under the thumb of successive emperors, was dominated by the heresy of [[iconoclasm]].) Within a couple of generations, in [[858]], a new situation came to pass. The Byzantine Emperor Michael III removed [[Patriarch Ignatius I]] as Patriarch of Constantinople. The emperor replaced him with a layman, [[Photius]], who was the first Imperial Secretary and Imperial Ambassador to Baghdad. However, Ignatius refused to abdicate. Michael and Photius asked Pope Nicholas I of Rome to settle the matter. His legates, exceeding their authority, probably under pressure from Byzantine leadership, took part in a synod in [[861]] that deposed Ignatius. In opposition to this removal of Ignatius, the Bishop of Rome supported Ignatius as legitimate Patriarch. Moreover, contrary to existing canons, Photius had been ordained to the office of bishop very quickly. Recent scholarship has shown that violation of these church laws together with an attempt to leverage situation to force Emperor to accept Pope's claim to sovereignty over exarchate of Illyria were the main reasons the Bishop of Rome rejected the appointment of Photius. Therefore, after the arrival of an embassy from Ignatius, in [[862]], Nicholas said that Photius was deposed, as well as the bishop who ordained him and all the clergy Photius had appointed. As would be expected, this did not go over well in Constantinople. In [[867]], Photius rejected the Pope's assertion and objected to Latin missionaries in Bulgaria. Photius' response cited the ''filioque'' as proof that Rome had a habit of overstepping its proper limits. His ''Encyclical to the Eastern Patriarchs'' is neither gentle nor irenic. However, the other Patriarchs (of Alexandria, Antioch and Jerusalem) concurred with the Pope's choice and cast the decision as conciliar. In [[867]] and [[869]]&amp;ndash;[[870]], synods in Rome and Constantinople restored Ignatius to his position as Patriarch. In [[877]], after the death of Ignatius, Photius again resumed office, by order of the emperor. He resigned in [[886]] when Leo VI took over as emperor. Photius spent the rest of his life as a monk, in exile in Armenia; he is revered by the Orthodox today as a saint. He was the first important theologian to accuse Rome of innovation in the matter of the ''filioque''. In the ninth century, [[Pope Leo III]] agreed with the ''filioque'' phrase theologically but was opposed to adopting it in Rome, in part because of his loyalty to the received tradition. He also knew that the Greeks resented the new Roman Empire in the West and Charlemagne in particular; the Pope wanted to preserve Church unity. In fact, Leo III had the traditional text of the Creed, without the ''filioque'', displayed publicly. He had the original text engraved on two silver tablets, at the tomb of St. Peter. In any case, during the time of Pope Leo's leadership, [[795]]&amp;ndash;[[816]], there was no Creed at all in the Roman Mass. Later, in [[1014]], the German Emperor Henry II, of the [[Holy Roman Empire]], visited Rome for his coronation and found that the Creed was not used during the Mass. At his request, the Bishop of Rome added the Creed, as it was received in the West with the ''filioque'', after the Gospel. At this time, the papacy was very weak and very much under the influence of the Germans. For the sake of survival, the Pope needed the military support of the Emperor. This was the first time the phrase was used in the Mass at Rome. So, over a 400 year period, dispute over the ''filioque'' had not divided the Church definitively; for the most part, in spite of cultural and linguistic conflicts, the Roman and the Byzantine Churches remained in full communion. In [[1054]], however, the argument contributed to the [[East-West Schism|Great Schism]] of the East and West. There were many issues involved, in large part based on misunderstandings between Greek and Latin traditions, as well as the irascible temperament of the antagonists. These were Cardinal Humbertus from Rome and Patriarch [[Michael Cerularius]] of Constantinople. In addition to the actual difference in wording and doctrine in the ''filioque'', a related issue was the right of the [[Pope]] to make a change in the Nicene Creed, on his own, apart from an [[Ecumenical Council]]. ===Complicating factors=== One must acknowlege, however, that the ''filioque'' was introduced in the West first of all in Spain, then in Gaul, not in Rome, and not by the Pope's initiative. Centuries later, the phrase became something to argue about; for a long time, as mentioned, it was in no way justification for breaking communion. By the same token, it is not accurate to say, as some historians do, that the &quot;Catholic Church&quot; introduced the ''filioque'' into the Mass. Eastern Churches, for example, the [[Maronite]]s, fully part of the Catholic Church, never used the ''filioque''. Moreover, the phrase was in wide use in the West, following the language of many Latin fathers, outside the Mass, especially in Spain and Gaul. Instead, it is more accurate to speak of the ''filioque'' as a Latin expression or as an expression found in the Latin Church. In the first millennium, as the late John Romanides points out, the &quot;Catholic Church&quot; is the &quot;Roman Church&quot; of both East and West. For many years after the condemnations of [[1054]], many Orthodox and Catholics did not think of themselves as being in schism; neither Church, in fact, had excommunicated the other. Many Slavic Christians saw the whole episode as a dispute among individuals. In the thirteenth century, [[Thomas Aquinas]], O.P., was one of the dominant Scholastic theologians. He dealt explicitly with the processions of the divine persons in his ''[[Summa Theologica]]''. Following John Damascene, Cyril of Alexandria, and many other Eastern Fathers, he taught that it is proper to speak of the Spirit as proceeding &quot;through the Son&quot; (per Filium), bu
avenue is the Passeig de Gràcia, where two Gaudí buildings are situated, the [[Pedrera|Casa Milà (La Pedrera)]] and the [[Casa Batlló]], along with buildings by other famous ''modernista'' architects: Casa Ametller by [[Josep Puig i Cadafalch]] and Casa Lleó Morera by Domènech i Montaner. Several of these buildings and indeed the [[Sagrada Familia]] church itself are threatened by Mayor Clos' plans to build a large railway tunnel for high-speed trains under the city's shaky 19th century foundations. In recent years, office developments along Passeig de Gràcia have been allowed to break up the architectural unity of the 19th and early 20th century buildings lining the avenue - a process which shows no signs of slackening. Property speculation is also blighting other areas of the city, including the 19th century Poble Nou district with its many interesting buildings dating from Catalonia's Industrial Revolution. Many of these have now been levelled to make room for the city's ill-starred &quot;22@&quot; project to build an area for ICT-based firms. &lt;!-- Unsourced image removed: [[Image:Poblenou.jpg|thumb|250px|&quot;Slash and burn&quot; property speculation in Poble Nou]] --&gt; ===Museums=== Art visits include the museum of the [[Fundació Joan Miró]], where several paintings and sculptures of this artist are shown, together with guest exhibitions from other museums around the world. There is also a unique museum featuring the lesser known works of [[Pablo Picasso]] from his earlier period. The [[Museu Nacional d'Art de Catalunya|National Museum of Art of Catalonia]] (in the Palau Nacional left behind by the 1929 Ibero-American Exposition) possesses a well-known collection of Romanesque art, including wall-paintings of Romanesque churches and chapels around Catalonia that have been transferred to the museum. The [[Museu d'Art Contemporani de Barcelona|Contemporary Art Museum]] is also worth a visit, not only because of its paintings and sculptures, but because of its architecture. The building was designed by the American architect [[Richard Meier]]. The [[Fundació Antoni Tàpies]] holds a collection of [[Antoni Tàpies|Tàpies]] works. Visitors should note that the opening times of Barcelona's museums vary considerably and are often highly inconvenient; careful planning is recommended to avoid wasted trips. ===Montjuïc and Tibidabo=== For spectacular views over the city and the coast line there are two hills. One, [[Montjuïc]] hill, is next to the harbour and perched above a large container terminal. On its top is an old fortress which used to guard the entrance to the port. Around the hill are a group of installations known as the &quot;Olympic ring&quot; and that were the heart of the 1992 summer Olympics: the Lluís Companys Olympic Stadium (originally built in 1929 but completely refurbished for the 1992 Olympics), the Palau Sant Jordi (a multi-purpose installation designed by Japanese architect [[Arata Isozaki]], used primarily for all kinds of indoor sport events but also for concerts and other cultural activities) and the Bernat Picornell Pools. Also situated on Montjuïc are the Botanical Gardens and the Mossèn Costa i Llobera gardens with their unique [[cactus]] collection. Uptown is the hill of the [[Tibidabo]], 512 meters high, with an amusement park (which, after a long economic struggle, now belongs to the city council) and a monumental church on its summit. The church mosaics provide a curious example of the religious art style much in vogue during the dictatorship. There's also the Torre de Collserola, a telecommunications tower designed by [[Norman Foster]] which also has a windowed balcony with a great view over the city. ===Sports=== Barcelona is the home city of two internationally-known [[football]] teams: [[FC Barcelona]], also known as ''Barça'', who play at the 100,000 capacity [[Camp Nou]] stadium, and [[RCD Espanyol]], who play at the 56,000 capacity Olympic Stadium. FC Barcelona has also internationally known [[basketball]], [[handball]] and [[roller hockey]] teams that play at the Palau Blaugrana, situated in the same complex as the Camp Nou. Near Barcelona, in Montmeló, the [[Circuit de Catalunya]] racetrack hosts the Formula One Spanish Grand Prix. ===Academia=== In addition to the [[University of Barcelona]], the city is home to the [[Universitat Pompeu Fabra]], the [[Autonomous University of Barcelona]], the [[Technical University of Catalonia]], the [[Ramon Llull University]] and the [[International University of Catalonia]]. ===Other sights=== The [[aerial tramway]] connecting the port and Montjuïc. ==World Heritage Sites in Barcelona== [[United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization|UNESCO]] [[World Heritage Sites]] in Barcelona: *[[Casa Milà]] (La Pedrera) *[[Hospital de Sant Pau]] *[[Palau Güell]] *[[Palau de la Música Catalana]] *[[Parc Güell]] *[[Casa Batlló]] *[[Casa Vicens]] *[[Sagrada Família]] (Nativity façade and crypt) ==Some of the sights== {| |- | valign=&quot;top&quot;| [[Image:LaRambla3.JPG|thumb|left|150px|View of La Rambla]] | valign=&quot;top&quot;| [[Image:OlympicStadiumBCN1992.JPG|thumb|left|150px|Torre Montjuïc Calatrava (Telecommunications Tower)]] | valign=&quot;top&quot;| [[Image:PlayaBacelonetta2.JPG|thumb|left|150px|The two highest buildings in Barcelona, the Hotel Arts (l.) and the Torre Mapfre (each 154 m) seen from Platja de la Barceloneta]] |- | valign=&quot;top&quot;| [[Image:ParcDiagonalMar.JPG|thumb|left|150px|Parc Diagonal Mar]] | valign=&quot;top&quot;| [[Image:ParcGüell.JPG|thumb|left|150px|Parc Güell]] | valign=&quot;top&quot;| [[Image:PortVell.JPG|thumb|left|150px|Rambla de Mar in Port Vell (Old Port)]] |} == Public Transport == In addition to its port, of great historical and contemporary commercial importance, Barcelona is served by [[El Prat International Airport]] ('El Prat') in the town of [[El Prat de Llobregat]]. Barcelona is a hub for [[RENFE]], the Spanish state railway network, and its main suburban train station is Sants Estació (which is under renovation and enlargement at present in order to prepare for the arrival of the [[AVE]] system). The [[AVE]] [[high-speed rail]] system was recently extended from [[Madrid]] to [[Lleida]] in western Catalonia, and is expected to reach Barcelona by 2007. Renfe and the [[Ferrocarrils de la Generalitat de Catalunya]] (FGC) run Barcelona's widespread [[commuter train]] service. Barcelona's transit company, Transports Metropolitans de Barcelona (TMB), runs the [[Barcelona Metro]] system and city [[buses|bus]]. See [[List of Barcelona metro stations]]. Barcelona has recently adopted another transport option with two new tram lines known as [[Trambaix]] and [[Trambesòs]]. == Parks == Barcelona is renowned for its parks and open spaces, La Rambla, Parc Güell and the beaches being the most famous of them. See above for a description of La Rambla. See separate article on [[Parc Güell]] ([[1914]]), the large fantastical park designed by [[Antoni Gaudí]] as a private housing estate and opened to the public in [[1922]]. The site of the [[Barcelona International Exhibition]] in [[1929]] and [[1930]], the Parc de [[Montjuïc]] was laid out by engineer Jean C. N. Forestier and architect Nicolas M. Rubio Tuduri. It is chiefly notable now for the cultural institutions that use the former palaces and exposition buildings. The [[Barcelona Pavilion|German Pavilion]], a landmark of modern architecture designed by [[Ludwig Mies van der Rohe]] for the 1929 Exhibition, was reconstructed on its original site in [[1986]]. Montjuïc Stadium was renovated and enlarged by [[Vittorio Gregotti]] for the 1992 Summer Olympic Games. In [[1983]] the Plaça dels Països Catalans in front of the Sants railway station was redesigned by Helio Piñon Pallares and Albert Vaiplana Vea in pink [[granite]] paving with an undulating metal pergola and various hard furnishings that have become popular with skateboarders. At the same time, the neighboring ''Vapor Nou'' factory, was converted into the Parc de la Espanya Industrial for public recreation. This park, designed by Luis Peña Ganchegui and Francesc Rius Camps and completed in [[1985]] integrated the industrial shapes of the site with a dominant water feature and displays of sculpture. Since [[1983]] a formal program of park creation has been carried out by the ''Mancomunitat de Municipis de l'Àrea Metropolitana de Barcelona''. The purpose of this program has been to reclaim space for the public which is threatened either by neglect or overdevelopment. Typically these new parks are carefully designed by architects, planners and landscape architects concerned not just with functional elements, but also with the unique characteristics of the site and its position in a layered understanding of the city. Though the budgets may be small, the level of ingenuity and care in design and implementation is often very high. Some examples (note that many are in the metropolitan area, not in Barcelona itself): *Carrer Brasil, [[1996]], Olga Tarraso and Jordi Hernrich. A Rambla built over parking spaces. *Parc del Torrent Ballesters (Viladecans), [[1997]], Arturo Frediani/SOB Associates. The design recaptures the pattern of agricultural use using beds of flowering plants. Trees and a pool strengthen the sensual escape from the surrounding city. *Parc de Canserra (Barberà del Vallès), [[1996]], Studio BCQ *Parc de Torrent Congost (Granollers), [[1996]], Enric Battle and Joan Roig. A narrow linear park defined by hedge walls and a grid of trees on the bank of the Congost River. *Upgrading of Parc de Torreblanca, the historical site of an urban farm. *Fontsana, Sant Joan Despí on the site of a former refuse dump. *Parc del Besòs, La Mina housing estate. *Parc de les Planes, located at the boundary of three districts. *Parc del Litoral, at the mouth of the River Besòs. *Parc de la Creueta del Coll, [[1987]], [[Oriol Bohigas]], Josep Martorell, David Mackay, archit
sometimes removed from nests to use in [[reintroduction]] programs in areas where the species has died out. In such programs, the [[bird]]s are raised in boxes, on platforms in the tree canopy, and fed in such a way that they cannot see the person supplying their food, until they are old enough to fly and find their own food. ==Diet== The Bald Eagle's diet is varied, including [[carrion]], [[fish]], smaller [[bird]]s, [[rodent]]s, and sometimes food scavenged or stolen from campsites and picnics. To hunt, the eagle swoops down over the water and snatches the [[fish]] out of the water with its claws. They eat by holding the fish in one claw and tearing the flesh with the other. Eagles have structures on their toes called spiricules that allow them to grasp fish. [[Osprey]] also have this adaptation. Sometimes, if the [[fish]] is too heavy, the eagle will be dragged into the water. It may swim to safety, but some eagles drown or succumb to [[hypothermia]]. ==Eagles and humans== As the symbol of the United States the bald eagle is sought after in captivity. As a rule they are poor birds for public shows being timid and prone to becoming highly stressed. Captive eagles who have been mutilated or crippled and are thusly non-releasable may go from home to home to home as they require specific housing and care. If raised from a hatchling you can expect a terror of a creature, if the eagle [[imprint]]s on humans as a species it may or may not choose one person to bond with and attack or be very aloof to all others. The eagle may hate the human who raised it. [[Raptor]] expert [[Jemima Perry Jones]] does not believe that [[creche]] raising, where hatchlings are raised together to imprint on each other works either to produce an unimprinted adult raptor. Due to their immense strength and unpredictable nature bald eagles should only be kept by very competently trained individuals who have all the proper permits. ==Rare vagrant== This species has occurred as a [[Vagrancy (biology)|vagrant]] once in [[Ireland]]. The exhausted specimen was discovered by a [[national park]]s worker in a northern heath. Presumably, a storm blew it out to sea, and the bird struggled across the [[Atlantic Ocean]]. ==National Bird of the US== The Bald Eagle is the national bird of the United States of America. When the United States was being established, [[Benjamin Franklin]], one of the founding fathers and a signer of the Declaration of Independence, wished the national bird to be the [[Wild Turkey]]. Franklin believed the turkey was a good choice as it provided food for the early settlers and had a noble appearance. Franklin didn't want to have the Bald Eagle as the national symbol of the U.S. because it often stole food from other birds.{{fact}} However, he was outvoted by the other members of the Continental Congress who felt that the Bald Eagle symbolized strength and alertness and that it would look much better as a national symbol. ==Gallery== &lt;gallery&gt; Image:Bald eagle.jpg|Adult Image:Bald-eagle.jpg|Adult resting Image:Haliaeetus_leucocephalus.jpeg|Adult Image:Bald Eaglehead.jpg Image:A03 4663 1024x683.JPG|Female on nest with egg &lt;/gallery&gt; ==External links== {{commons|Haliaeetus leucocephalus}} *[http://images.fws.gov/default.cfm?fuseaction=records.display&amp;CFID=2060719&amp;CFTOKEN=64720564&amp;id=5C7D1A7F%2DF41E%2D4C0A%2D87A4F0A6E628BD0E 11.9&quot; x 8&quot; 1.24 MB Bald Eagle JPEG] provided by the U.S. Fish &amp; Wildlife Service &lt;!--Categories--&gt; &lt;!--Interlanguage links--&gt; [[Category:Eagles]] [[da:Hvidhovedet havørn]] [[de:Weißkopfseeadler]] [[eo:Blankkapa maraglo]] [[fi:Valkopäämerikotka]] [[fr:Pygargue à tête blanche]] [[ja:ハクトウワシ]] [[nl:Amerikaanse zeearend]] [[pl:Bielik amerykański]] [[pt:Águia de cabeça branca]] [[sv:Vithövdad havsörn]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Brown Bear</title> <id>4402</id> <revision> <id>41526197</id> <timestamp>2006-02-27T23:16:01Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Hartebeest</username> <id>607367</id> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Taxobox | color = pink | name = Brown Bear | status = {{StatusConcern}} | image = Brown_bear_rearing.jpg | image_width = 250px | image_caption = Brown Bear rearing | image2 = Bear-footprint.jpg | image2_width = 250px | image2_caption = Brown bear footprint | regnum = [[Animal]]ia | phylum = [[Chordate|Chordata]] | classis = [[mammal|Mammalia]] | ordo = [[Carnivora]] | familia = [[Ursidae]] | genus = ''[[Ursus (biology)|Ursus]]'' | species = '''''U. arctos''''' | binomial = ''Ursus arctos'' | binomial_authority = [[Carolus Linnaeus|Linnaeus]], [[1758]] | range_map = Ursus arctos distribution.jpg | range_map_caption = Brown Bear range | range_map_width = 250px }} The '''Brown Bear''' (''Ursus arctos'') is a species of [[bear]] that can reach weights of [[1 E2 kg|130&amp;#8211;700&amp;nbsp;kg]] (300&amp;#8211;1500&amp;nbsp;[[pound (weight)|pound]]s). The '''[[Grizzly Bear]]''' (''Ursus arctos horribilis''), the '''Kodiak Bear''' and the '''Mexican Brown Bear''' are [[North America]]n [[subspecies]] of the Brown Bear. It is sometimes referred to poetically as the ''[[bruin]]''. ==Appearance== Brown Bears have furry coats in shades of blonde, brown, black, or a combination of those colors; the long outer guard hairs are often tipped with white or silver, giving a &quot;grizzled&quot; appearance. Brown bears have a large hump of [[muscle]] over their shoulders which give strength to the forelimbs for digging. Their forearms end in massive paws tipped with extremely powerful claws that can be up to 15 cm in length. Unlike the claws of other large predatory animals, such as lions or tigers, the claws are not retractable. This gives the claws a dull edge when compared to other predators. The Brown Bear possesses tremendous power; a large specimen can break a bison's spine with one blow of its powerful forepaw. Despite the relatively dull edges to their claws, the sheer force of a blow from a large specimen is devastating. Their heads are large and round with a [[concave]] facial profile. In spite of their size, some have been clocked at speeds in excess of 56 km/h (35 mph). Along with their strength and deceptive speed, Brown Bears are legendary for their physical stamina. They are capable of running at full speed for miles at a time without stopping. The largest subspecies of the Brown Bear are the Kodiak Bear and Alaskan Coastal Bear. It is not uncommon for a large male Kodiak to stand 10 feet in height while on its hind legs, and weigh over 680 kg (1,500 lb). The tallest bears have been known to reach heights of 4 m (13 feet) when standing. The largest bear ever recorded was a Kodiak that weighed over 1134 kg (2500 lb) that was brought to the [[Berlin Zoo]] directly from [[Kodiak Island]]. Bears of this size weigh near 1500 kg (3307 lb) in the zoo, due to regular feeding. ==Habitat== Once native to [[Asia]], the [[Atlas Mountains]] in [[Africa]], [[Europe]] and [[North America]] [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/4003325.stm], brown bears are now extinct in some areas and have had their numbers greatlly reduced in others. They prefer semi-open country, usually in mountainous areas. The Brown Bear ranges from [[Alaska]] east through the [[Yukon]] and [[Northwest Territories]], south through [[British Columbia]] and through the western half of [[Alberta]]. Isolated populations exist in northwestern [[Washington]], northern [[Idaho]], western [[Montana]], and northwestern [[Wyoming]]. *The subspecies ''U. arctos horribilis'' (the [[Grizzly Bear]]) is the common brown bear of continental North America; *The subspecies ''U. arctos middendorffi'' (Kodiak Bear) includes bears on the Alaskan islands of [[Kodiak Island]], [[Afognak Island]], and [[Shuyak Island]]. *The range of the subspecies ''U. arctos nelsoni'' is in northern [[Mexico]]. *In Asia, the '''Himalayan Brown Bear''' (''U. arctos isabellinus'') is found in the foothills of the [[Himalaya]], *and the '''Higuma''' or Hokkaido Brown Bear (''U. arctos yesoensis'') is found on the northern Japanese island of [[Hokkaido]]. It is not known how long ''Ursus arctos'' has existed in North America. While there were certainly some there during the last part of the Ice Age, it is thought that the Brown Bear was not the dominant carnivore at the time. That role belonged to the far larger, taller, and stronger [[Giant Short Faced Bear]], aka [[Bulldog Bear]], which was almost certainly dominant when the two animals met. The Giant Short Faced Bear was adapted for fast running and meat from rather large animals was the main part of its diet, in contrast to the Grizzly or Brown Bear, which has teeth adapted to an omnivorous diet. The Giant Short Faced Bear, on average, weighed twice as much as the Grizzly, despite some exceptional Grizzly Bears in the later Old West that were recorded to have grown to 800 [[kilogram]]s or so. ''Ursus arctos'' also shared the land with the [[American Lion]] and [[Sabertooth]], both apparently also dependent on large animals for food. But the Grizzly could eat plant food, insects, carrion, small animals of all kinds, and large mammals if needed, in contrast to the far more restricted food menu available to the giant cats and the Giant Short Faced Bear. This made the other big carnivores very vulnerable to starvation if the supply of available large mammals gave out, which eventually happened through hunting by humans. For whatever reason the Ice Age herbivorous megafauna became extinct; the [[Sabertooth]], [[American Lion]], and [[Short Faced Bear]] could no longer find enough suitable food, and faded into extinction, leaving the Brown Bear alone as top North American predator, with [[Wolf|Wolves]], the [[Jaguar]] in the south, the [[American Black Bear]], and [[Puma]] also competing for large prey. It is not known precisely how long humans have lived in
oped since the Scholastic period, the essence of God can be known, but only in the next life; the grace of God is always created; and the essence of God is pure act, so that there can be no distinction between the energies or operations and the essence of God (see, e.g., the ''Summa Theologiae'' of St Thomas Aquinas). Some of these positions depend on Aristotelian metaphysics. The contemporary historians Cantacuzenus and [[Nicephorus Gregoras]] deal very copiously with this subject, taking the Hesychast and Barlaamite sides respectively. ==References== * ''The ''[[Philokalia]].'' (Four volumes published, one awaited.) * ''The Ladder of Divine Ascent''by St John of Sinai. * ''The Ascetical Homilies of St Isaac the Syrian''. * Works of St Symeon the New Theologian. * ''Coenobitical Institutions'' and ''Conferences'' of St John Cassian. * ''The Way of the Pilgrim''. * ''St Silouan the Athonite''. (Contains an introduction by [[Archimandrite Sophrony]] (Sakharov), immediate disciple of [[St Silouan,]] together with the meditations of St Silouan (1866 – 1938).) * Works of Archimandrite Sophrony (Sakharov) (1896 – 1993). * ''Elder Joseph the Hesychast''. (Life of a very influential Hesychast on Mt Athos who died in 1959.) * ''Monastic Wisdom. The Letters of Elder Joseph the Hesychast''. * ''Wounded by Love. The Life and the Wisdom of Elder Porphyrios.'' (Reminiscences and reflections of Elder Porphyrios (1906 – 1991) of Mt Athos.) * Works by Elder Paisios (1924 – 1994) of Mount Athos. (A very well-known Athonite Elder and Hesychast.) * ''Elder Ephraim of Katounakia.'' Translated by Tessy Vassiliadou-Christodoulou. (Life and teachings of [[Elder Ephraim]] (1912–1998) of Katounakia, Mt Athos, a disciple of [[Elder Joseph the Hesychast]].) * ''Hieromonachos Charalampos Dionusiates, O didaskalos tes noeras proseuches (Hieromonk Charalambos of the Monastery of Dionysiou, The Teacher of Mental Prayer)''. (Life and teachings of [[Elder Charalambos]] (1910–2001), sometime Abbot of the Monastery of Dionysiou, Mt Athos, and a disciple of Elder Joseph the Hesychast. In Greek, available in English.) * Works of [[Archimandrite Aimilianos]] (1934 – ) of the Monastery of Simonos Petra, Mt Athos, especially Volumes I and II. * ''Counsels from the Holy Mountain. Selected from the Lessons and Homilies of Elder Ephraim.'' ([[Archimandrite Ephraim]] of the Monastery of St Anthony, Florence, Arizona. Formerly Abbot of the Monastery of Philotheou on Mt Athos, and a disciple of Elder Joseph the Hesychast. Not to be confused with Elder Ephraim of Katounakia.) ==See also== * [[Eastern Orthodoxy]] * [[Jesus Prayer]] * [[Mysticism]] * [[Philokalia]] * [[The Way of a Pilgrim]] * [[Meditation]] * [[Prayer]] * [[Theosis]] * [[Chakra]] (Hesychastic centres of prayer &amp;mdash; ''chakra'' is not an Orthodox Christian term) == External links == *[http://www.oca.org/OCchapter.asp?SID=2&amp;ID=195 The Jesus Prayer], a very straightforward exposition. *[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/07301a.htm Catholic Explanation of Hesychasm]. This is useful only as historical documentation of Roman Catholic attitudes to Hesychasm around 1910, the date that the Catholic Encyclopedia was published from which this article was taken. While the article does have historical detail, its hostile tone creates doubt about the article as a whole. *[http://www.catholicculture.org/docs/doc_view.cfm?recnum=5660 Pope John Paul II's Angelus Message, August 11, 1996] This is a brief modern reflection by a Pope that refers directly to Hesychasm, indicating that its defense was in conflict with certain aspects of Roman Catholic teaching *[http://www.monachos.net/patristics/palamas_theology.shtml Three foundational aspects of the Theology of St Gregory Palamas] *[http://www.anamchara.org.uk How to pray the Jesus Prayer and make a Knotted Prayer Cord] Not an Orthodox site, rather more Celtic. *[http://www.stanthonysmonastery.org St Anthony's Monastery] *[http://www.depthsofchristianity.org/hesychasm.html Practice of the Modern Hesychasm] Not an Orthodox site. Rather more New Age (gnostic) and syncretistic. Teaches reincarnation. [[Category:Christian mysticism]] [[Category:Eastern Orthodoxy]] [[de:Hesychasmus]] [[it:Esicasmo]] [[ru:Исихазм]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Hemlock</title> <id>14405</id> <revision> <id>33913683</id> <timestamp>2006-01-05T01:14:32Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Marudubshinki</username> <id>190816</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>rm pov</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">The word '''Hemlock''' can refer to a number of things: Several [[poison]]ous plants in the Parsley family, [[Apiaceae]] (formerly Umbelliferae) are called ''hemlock'': *[[Poison hemlock]] is a common European plant, ''[[Conium|Conium maculatum]]''; it contains the [[alkaloid]] [[Coniine]]. *[[Cicuta virosa|Water hemlock]] was the state poison of ancient [[Greece]]. *[[Water dropwort]] is ''[[Oenanthe (plant)|Oenanthe crocota]]''. Quite different from these are the [[conifer]]ous [[tree]]s in the genus ''[[Tsuga]]'', family [[Pinaceae]]. These are not toxic, being called 'hemlock' through a supposed similarity in the scent of the foliage to that of ''Conium maculatum''. ''Hemlock'' is occasionally used as a place name (generally in the US because of the tree). see: *[[Hemlock, Michigan]] *[[Hemlock, Ohio]] ''Hemlock'' can also refer to the [[Emacs]] [[text editor]] variant, [[Hemlock (editor)|Hemlock]]. {{disambig}} [[pl:Cykuta]] [[zh:&amp;#27602;&amp;#22535;]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Harmony Society</title> <id>14406</id> <revision> <id>40364338</id> <timestamp>2006-02-20T01:57:49Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Rich Farmbrough</username> <id>82835</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>External links per MoS.</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Harmony Society''' was a [[Christian theosophy]] and [[alchemy|alchemist]] society founded in [[Iptingen]], [[Germany]], in [[1785]] or 1786. Due to religious persecution by the [[Lutheran Church]], the Harmony Society moved to the United States in [[1803]]&amp;ndash;[[1804]], eventually purchasing 3000 acres (12 km²) of land in [[Butler County, Pennsylvania]]. On [[February 15]] [[1805]], they, together with about 400 followers, formally organized the Harmony Society, placing all their goods in common. The Society was founded and led by [[Johann Georg Rapp]] ([[1757]]&amp;ndash;[[1847]]) and his adopted son, [[Frederick Rapp]] ([[1775]]&amp;ndash;[[1834]]). The Harmony Society is best known for its worldly successes, eventually building three successive communities, first at [[Harmony, Pennsylvania|Harmony]], then [[New Harmony, Indiana]], finally settling in [[Economy, Pennsylvania|Economy]] (now [[Ambridge, Pennsylvania]]). ==External links== *[http://www.esoteric.msu.edu/Versluis.html Account of the Harmony Society and its beliefs] [[Category:Christian denominations]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>History of Weights and Measures</title> <id>14407</id> <revision> <id>15911966</id> <timestamp>2003-02-12T14:27:18Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>213.253.40.129</ip> </contributor> <comment>redir</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Weights and measures]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Huneric</title> <id>14408</id> <revision> <id>25061673</id> <timestamp>2005-10-08T15:02:48Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>83.198.75.172</ip> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Huneric''' (d. [[December 23]], [[484]]) was King of the [[Vandals]] ([[477]] &amp;ndash; [[484]]) and the oldest son of [[Geiseric]]. He dropped the imperial politics of his father and concentrated mainly on internal affairs. He was married to [[Eudocia]], daughter of western [[Roman Emperors|Roman Emperor]] [[Valentinian III]] ([[419]]&amp;ndash;[[455]]), but she left him probably in [[472]]. Despite his adherence to [[Arianism|Arian]] [[Christianity]], at the beginning of his reign Huneric allowed the election of a new [[Catholic church|Catholic]] bishop of [[Carthage]] and persecuted the [[Manichaeism|Manichaean]] [[sect]]. Then he started persecuting Catholics: he punished all Catholic Vandals. Furthermore, he tried to make Catholic property fall to the state, but when this caused too much protest from the [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]] emperor, he chose to banish a number of Catholics to a faraway province instead. On [[February 1]], [[484]] he organised a meeting of Catholic bishops with Arian bishops, but on [[February 24]], [[484]] he proclaimed Catholics [[heresy|heretics]]. A number of Catholic bishops were banished to [[Corsica]], most others were removed from their office but allowed to stay near their former [[diocese]]. A few were [[martyr]]ed. He also murdered many members of [[Hasdingi]] dynasty. Huneric was the first Vandal king who used title of ''king of Vandals and [[Alans]]''. He was succeeded by his nephew [[Gunthamund]] (reigned [[484]]&amp;ndash;[[496]]), and was little mourned by either the Vandals or their subjects due to his cruelty. In his relations with other states, Huneric did not have the prestige that his father Geiseric had enjoyed. Nevertheless, the Vandals maintained their seapower and their hold on the islands of the western [[Mediterranean Sea]]. But the [[Moors]] in the inlands of [[Algeria]], who had been quiet in Geiseric's days, managed to conquer some Vandal outposts in their area, thus severing the connection between the Vandal heartland around [[Carthage]] and their westernmost possessions around [[Tangiers]]. {{start box}} {{succession box | before = [[Geiseric]]| title = [[Vandal|King of the Vandals]]|years=[[477]]&amp;ndash;[[484
d ''Pivot System for Trombone''. In his [[1972]] publication, ''The Encyclopedia of the Pivot System'', Reinhardt described and labeled different embouchure patterns according the characteristics including mouthpiece placement and the general direction of the air stream as it travels past the lips. According to this later text, players who place the mouthpiece higher on the lips, so that more upper lip is inside the mouthpiece, will direct the air downwards to varying degrees while playing. Performers who place the mouthpiece lower, so that more lower lip is inside the mouthpiece, will direct the air to varying degrees in an upward manner. In order for the performer to be successful, the air stream direction and mouthpiece placement need to be personalized based on individual anatomical differences. Lloyd Leno confirmed the existence of both upstream and downstream embouchures in his [[1987]] article for the ''International Trombone Association Journal'' entitled &quot;A Study of Lip Vibrations with High-Speed Photography&quot;. More controversial was Reinhardt's description and recommendations regarding a phenomenon he termed a &quot;pivot.&quot; According to Reinhardt, a successful brass embouchure is dependent upon a motion upon where the performer moves both the mouthpiece and lips as a single unit along the teeth in an upward and downward direction. As the performer ascends, he or she will either move the lips and mouthpiece together slightly up towards the nose or pull them down together slightly towards the chin, and use the opposite motion to descend. Whether the player uses one general pivot direction or the other, and the degree to which the motion is performed, depends on the performer's anatomical features and stage of development. The placement of the mouthpiece upon the lips doesn't change, but rather the relationship of the rim and lips to the teeth. While the angle of the instrument may change as this motion follows the shape of the teeth and placement of the jaw, contrary to what many brass performers and teachers believe, the angle of the instrument does not actually constitute the motion Reinhardt advised as a pivot. Later research supports Reinhardt's claim that this motion exists and might be advisable for brass performers to adopt. John Froelich's article for the ''International Trombone Association Journal'', &quot;The Mouthpiece Forces Used During Trombone Performances&quot; ([[1990]]), describes how mouthpiece pressure towards the lips (vertical forces) and sheer pressure (horizontal forces) functioned in three test groups, student trombonists, professional trombonists, and professional symphonic trombonists. Froelich noted that the symphonic trombonists used the least amount of both direct and sheer forces and recommends this model be followed. Other recent research notes that virtually all brass performers rely upon the upward and downward embouchure motion, including ''The Correlation Between Doug Elliott's Embouchure Types and Playing and Selected Physical Characteristics Among Trombonists'' (David Wilken, doctoral dissertation, [[Ball State University]], [[2000]]) and ''An Analysis, Clarification, and Revaluation of Donald Reinhardt's Pivot System for Brass Instruments'' (David Ray Turnbull, doctoral thesis, [[Arizona State University]], [[2001]]). Other authors and pedagogues remain skeptical about the necessity of this motion, but scientific evidence supporting this view has not been sufficiently developed at this time to support this view. Many noted brass pedagogues prefer to instruct the use of the embouchure from a less analytical point of view. Arnold Jacobs, a tubist and well-regarded brass teacher, believed that it was best for the student to focus on his or her use of the air and musical expression to allow the embouchure to develop naturally on its own (Brian Frederiksen, ''Arnold Jacobs: Song and Wind'', [[1996]]). Other instructors, such as Carmine Caruso, believed that the brass player's embouchure could best be developed through strength building exercises that focus the student's attention on his or her time perception (Carmine Caruso, ''Musical Calisthenics for Brass'', 1979). Still other authors who have differing approaches to embouchure development include Louis Maggio (see C. MacBeth, ''Original Louis Maggio System for Brass''), Jeff Smiley (''The Balanced Embouchure''), and Jerome Callet (''Superchops'', ''Trumpet Secrets''). ===The tongue-controlled embouchure=== This embouchure method, advocated by a minority of brass pedagogues such as Jerome Callet, has not yet been sufficiently researched to support the claims that this system is the most effective approach for all brass performers. It cannot be questioned, however, that some players who utilize this approach are successful performers, indicating that more research is needed in this area. One of those is Robert (Bahb) Civiletti, who plays and teaches the TCE method. Advocates of Callet's approach believe that this method was recommended and taught by the great brass instructors of the early 20th Century. Two French [[trumpet]] technique books, authored by [[Jean-Baptiste Arban]], and St. Jacome, were translated into English for use by American players. According to some, due to a misunderstanding arising from differences in pronunciation between French and English, the commonly used brass embouchure in Europe was interpreted incorrectly. Callet attributes this difference in embouchure technique as the reason the great players of the past were able to play at the level of technical virtuosity which they did, although the increased difficulty of contemporary compositions for brass seem to indicate that the level of brass technique by today's performers equal or even exceed that of most performers from the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Callet's method of brass embouchure consists of the tongue remaining forward and through the teeth at all times. The corners of the mouth always remain relaxed, and only a small amount of air is used. The top and bottom lips curl inward and grip the forward tongue. The tongue will force the teeth, and subsequently the throat, wide open, supposedly resulting in a bigger, more open sound. The forward tongue resists the pressure of the mouthpiece, controls the flow of air for lower and higher notes, and protects the lips and teeth from damage or injury from mouthpiece pressure. Because of the importance of the tongue in this method many refer to this as a &quot;tongue-controlled embouchure.&quot; This technique facilitates the use of a smaller mouthpiece, and larger bore instruments. It results in improved intonation and stronger harmonically related partials across the player's range. These characteristics can be heard as a focused (as opposed to spread or distorted) tone. The improvement in sound quality resulting from using this method is more apparent in the upper register, especially when comparing proficient players. Performers who have successfully adopted this approach often exhibit a very strong upper register. Although it is completely different from widely used methods, the &quot;tongue-controlled embouchure&quot; is perhaps the most promising. Some authors, such as Donald Reinhardt, recommend that players who can successfully adopt a tongue position that maintains contact on the lower lip while playing must possess shorter than average lower teeth and lower lips that are thicker than normal. Callet's advocates, however, are quick to point out that fundamental differences in recommendations about how the mouth corners and tongue manipulation are used make Reinhardt's suggestions too different to effectively compare the two approaches. It would seem that no one method is understood enough to be proven the &quot;correct&quot; method of forming and developing a brass embouchure. Students are rarely given specific instructions with regards to this aspect of brass playing. As a result of this, the development of any particular student's embouchure is dependent on a wide range of physiological and psychological factors that are not easily understood or predicted. This dependence may be manifested as the variation in sound quality and range that is greater among brass players than any other wind instrument. Evidence of the use and capabilities of the toungue-controlled embouchure may be found in the audio and video recordings of such trumpet players such as [[Raphael Mendez]], [[Harry James]], [[Al Hirt]], [[Louis Armstrong]], [[Miles Davis]] (who describes it in his autobiography as feeling like &quot;spitting a piece of rice off of the top of the toungue&quot;), and [[Clifford Brown]]. ==Woodwind embouchure== === Flute embouchure === A variety of [[flute|transverse flute]] embouchures are employed by professional flutists, though the most natural form is perfectly symmetrical, the corners of the mouth relaxed, the lower lip placed along and at a short distance from the embouchure hole. The end-blown [[shakuhachi]] and [[hocchiku]] flutes demand especially difficult embouchures, sometimes requiring many lessons before any sound can be produced. === Reed instrument embouchure === With the woodwinds, aside from the [[flute]], [[piccolo]], and [[recorder]], the sound is generated by a [[reed (music)|reed]] and not with the lips. The embouchure is therefore based on sealing the area around the reed and the mouthpiece. This serves to prevent air from escaping while simultaneously supporting the reed allowing it to vibrate, and to constrict the reed preventing it from vibrating too much. With woodwinds, it is important to ensure that the mouthpiece is not placed too far into the mouth, which would result in too much vibration (no control), often creating a sound an octave (or harmonic twelfth for the clarinet) above the intended note. If the mouthpiece is not placed far enough into the mouth, no noise will be generated, as the reed
tributor> <username>Melancholia i</username> <id>1014314</id> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">[[image:Albrecht-self.jpg|thumb|right|250px|''Self-Portrait'', 1493, Oil on Canvas]] '''Albrecht Dürer''' ([[May 21]], [[1471]] – [[April 6]], [[1528]]) was a [[Germany|German]] [[painter]], [[wood carver]], [[engraver]], and [[mathematician]]. Born in [[Nuremberg, Germany|Nuremberg]], [[Germany]], he is best known for his [[woodcuts]] in series, including the ''Apocalypse'' (1498), two series on the crucifixion of Christ, the ''Great Passion'' (1498-1510) and the ''Little Passion'' (1510-1511) as well as many of his individual prints, such as ''[[Knight, Death, and the Devil]]'' (1513), ''[[Saint Jerome in his Study]]'' (1514) and ''[[Melancholia I]]'' (1514). His ''[[Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse]]'' (1497-1498), part of the ''Apocalypse'' series, is also celebrated. He is also known for his numerous self-portraits. ==First visit to Italy== On [[July 7]], [[1494]] Dürer was married, according to an arrangement made during his absence, to Agnes Frey, the daughter of a local merchant. His relationship with his wife is unclear and her reputation has suffered from a posthumous assault by Dürer's friends. He did not remain in Nuremberg long; in the autumn of 1494 he travelled to [[Italy]], leaving his wife at Nuremberg. He went to [[Venice]], evidence of his travels being derived from drawings and engravings that are closely linked to existing northern Italian works by [[Mantegna]], [[Antonio Pollaiuolo]], [[Lorenzo di Credi]] and others. Some time in 1495 Dürer must have returned to Nuremberg, where he seems to have lived and worked for possibly the next ten years, producing most of his notable prints. [[image:Melancholia_I.png|thumb|right|250px|''Melancholia I'', 1514, Engraving]] ==Return to Nuremberg== During the first few years from 1495 onwards he worked in the established Germanic and northern forms but was open to the influences of the [[Renaissance]]. His best works in this period were for wood-block printing, typical scenes of popular devotion developed into his famous series of sixteen great designs for the ''Apocalypse'', first carved in [[1498]]. Counterpointed with the first seven of scenes of the ''Great Passion'' in the same year, and a little later a series of eleven on the Holy Family and of saints. Around 1504-1505 he carved the first seventeen of a set illustrating the life of the Virgin. Neither these nor the ''Great Passion'' were published till several years later. Dürer trained himself in the more finely detailed and expensive copper-engraving. He attempted no subjects of the scale of his woodcuts, but produced a number of [[Madonna (art)|Madonna]]s, single figures from scripture or of the saints, some nude mythologies, and groups, sometimes satirical, of ordinary people. The Venetian artist [[Jacopo de Barbari]], whom Dürer had met in Venice, came to Nuremberg for a while in 1500. He influenced Dürer with the new developments in [[perspective (graphical)|perspective]], [[anatomy]] and [[Body_proportions|proportion]], from which Dürer began his own studies. A series of extant drawings show Dürer's experiments in human proportion, up to the famous engraving of ''[[Adam and Eve]]'' (1504) which showed his firm and detailed grasp of landscape had extended into the quality of flesh surfaces by the subtlest use of the graving-tool known to him. Two or three other technical masterpieces were produced up to 1505, when he made a second visit to Italy. ==Second visit to Italy== In Italy he turned his hand to painting, at first producing a series of works by [[tempera-painting]] on [[linen]], including portraits and altarpieces, notably the [[Paumgartner]] [[altarpiece]] and the ''[[Adoration of the Magi]]''. In early 1506, he returned to Venice, and stayed there until the spring of 1507. The occasion of this journey has been erroneously stated by [[Vasari]]. Dürer's engravings had by this time attained great popularity and had begun to be copied. In Venice he was given a valuable commission from the emigrant German community for the church of [[St. Bartholomew]]. The picture painted by Dürer was closer to the Italian style - the ''Adoration of the Virgin'', also known as the ''Feast of Rose Garlands''; it was subsequently acquired by the Emperor [[Rudolf II, Holy Roman Emperor|Rudolf II]] and taken to [[Prague]]. Other paintings Dürer produced in Venice include ''The Virgin and Child with the Goldfinch'', a ''Christ disputing with the Doctors'' (apparently produced in a mere five days) and a number of smaller works. [[Image:Hase.jpg|thumb|250px|left|''A Young Hare'', 1502, Watercolor]] ==Nuremberg and the masterworks== [[Image:Durer Adam and Eve.jpg|thumb|250px|''Adam and Eve'', 1507, Oil on Panel]] Despite the regard in which he was held by the Venetians, Dürer was back in Nuremberg by mid-1507. He remained in Germany until 1520. His reputation spread all over [[Europe]]. He was on terms of friendship or friendly communication with all the masters of the age, and [[Raphael]] held himself honored in exchanging drawings with Dürer. The years between his return from Venice and his journey to the [[Netherlands]] are commonly divided according to the type of work with which he was principally occupied. The first five years, 1507-1511, are pre-eminently the painting years of his life. In them, working with a vast number of preliminary drawings and studies, he produced what have been accounted his four best works in painting - ''Adam and Eve'' (1507), ''Virgin with the Iris'' (1508), the altarpiece the ''Assumption of the Virgin'' (1509), and the ''Adoration of the Trinity by all the Saints'' ([[1511]]). During this period he also completed the two woodcut series of the ''Great Passion'' and the ''Life of the Virgin'', both published in 1511 together with a second edition of the ''Apocalypse'' series. From 1511 to 1514, Dürer concentrated on engraving, both on [[wood]] and [[copper]], but especially the latter. The major work he produced in this period was the thirty-seven subjects of the ''Little Passion'' on wood, published first in 1511, and a set of fifteen small copper-engravings on the same theme in 1512. In 1513 and 1514 appeared the three most famous of Dürer's works in copper-engraving, ''The Knight, Death, and the Devil'' (or simply ''The Knight'', as he called it, 1513), ''Melancholia I'' and ''St. Jerome in his Study'' (both 1514). In the years leading to 1520 he produced a wide range of works. Tempera on linen portraits in 1516. Engravings on many subjects, experiments in etching on plates of [[iron]] and [[zinc]]. A part of the Triumphal Gate and the Triumphal March for the Emperor [[Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor|Maximilian]]. He also did the marginal decorations for the Emperor's [[prayer-book]] and a portrait-drawing of the Emperor shortly before his death in 1519. ==Journey to the Netherlands and beyond== [[Image:chris.png|right|250px|thumb|St. Christopher, by [[Albrecht Dürer]]]] In the summer of 1520 the desire of Dürer to secure new [[patronage]] following the death of Maximilian and an outbreak of sickness in Nuremberg, gave occasion to his fourth and last journey. Together with his wife and her maid he set out in July for the Netherlands in order to be present at the coronation of the new Emperor [[Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor|Charles V]]. He journeyed by the [[Rhine]] to [[Cologne]], and then to [[Antwerp]], where he was well received and produced numerous drawings in [[silverpoint]], [[chalk]] or [[charcoal]]. Besides going to [[Aachen]] for the [[coronation]], he made excursions to Cologne, [[Nijmwegen]], [['s-Hertogenbosch]], [[Brussels]], [[Bruges]], [[Ghent]] and [[Zeeland]]. He finally returned home in July 1521, having caught an undetermined illness which afflicted him for the rest of his life. ==Final years in Nuremberg== [[Image:AlbrechtDürer01.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The title page of ''Vier Bücher von menschlicher Proportion'' (''Four Books of Human Proportion'', 1528), which features his famous signature.]] Back in Nuremberg, Dürer began work on a series of religious pictures. Many preliminary sketches and studies survive, but no paintings on the grand scale were ever carried out. This was due in part to his declining health, but more because of the time he gave to the preparation of his theoretical works on [[geometry]] and perspective, proportion and [[fortification]]. Though having little natural gift for writing, he worked hard to produce his works. The consequence of this shift in emphasis was that in the last years of his life Dürer produced, as an artist, comparatively little. In painting there was a portrait of [[commons:Image:Albrecht Dürer 035.jpg|Hieronymus Holtzschuher]], a [[commons:Image:Albrecht Dürer 061.jpg|''Madonna and Child'' (1526)]] and two panels showing [[John the Apostle|St. John]] with [[St. Peter]] in [[commons:Image:Albrecht Dürer 026.jpg|front]] and [[Paul of Tarsus|St. Paul]] with [[St. Mark]] in the [[commons:Image:Albrecht Dürer 027.jpg|background]]. In copper-engraving Dürer produced only a number of portraits, those of the cardinal-elector of Mainz (''The Great Cardinal''), [[Frederick the Wise]], elector of Saxony, and his friends the [[humanist]] scholar [[Willibald Pirckheimer]], [[Philipp Melanchthon]] and [[Erasmus of Rotterdam]]. Of his books, Dürer succeeded in getting two finished and produced during his lifetime. One on geometry and perspective (''[[The Painter's Manual]]''), which was published at Nuremberg in 1525, and one on fortification, published in 1527. His work on human proportion was brought out shortly after his death in 1528 at the age of 56. ==See also== {{commons|Albrecht Dürer}} * [[Early Renaissance painting]] *[[commons:Albrecht Dürer]] ==External links== * http://www.ibiblio.org/wm/paint/auth/durer/ * {{MacTutor Biography|id=Durer}} * http://www.artchive
e Deaf]] *[[National Council of Independent Living]] *[[National Council on Disability]] *[[National Disability Action Center]] *[[National Easter Seals Society]] *[[National Organization Responding to AIDS]] *[[Paralyzed Veterans of America]] *[[President's Committee on Employment of People with Disabilities]] *[[Society for Accessible Travel &amp; Hospitality]] *[[Spina Bifida Association of America]] *[[United Cerebral Palsy Association]] ==Quote== On signing the measure, George H. W. Bush said, &lt;blockquote&gt;&quot;I know there may have been concerns that the ADA may be too vague or too costly, or may lead endlessly to litigation. But I want to reassure you right now that my administration and the United States Congress have carefully crafted this Act. We've all been determined to ensure that it gives flexibility, particularly in terms of the timetable of implementation; and we've been committed to containing the costs that may be incurred.... ''Let the shameful wall of exclusion finally come tumbling down.''&quot; &lt;/blockquote&gt; ==Controversy== ===Inherent flaws=== Some critics argue that enactment of the ADA has resulted in little progress in eliminating such discrimination because the remedies allowed under the law are primarily ''complaint-driven''. That is, individuals must make complaints of discrimination to the person or agency charged with handling such complaints, only after which the agency may take action. Each title of the Act created an agency to handle such complaints, ranging from bodies of the federal [[executive branch]] to local civil rights enforcement agencies. Further, individuals under each title have the &quot;private right of action&quot;, that is, the right to privately [[lawsuit|sue]] the alleged discriminating person or body. Many of these lawsuits have helped to clarify provisions of the Act as the courts have interpreted the law in specific cases, creating a body of [[legal precedent]]. ===Criticism=== Although it has greatly improved the quality of life for people with severe physical disabilities, the ADA has also been heavily criticized for being overinclusive in its reach. In turn, the ADA allegedly serves as a legal haven for malingerers and so-called &quot;professional plaintiffs&quot; who make a living out of suing noncompliant businesses and collecting monetary damages. The ADA was the target of a vicious media backlash in mid-[[1997]] after the [[Equal Employment Opportunity Commission]] published its ADA guidelines in March. For example, ''[[The Onion]]'' satirized the ADA with an article about the passage of the &quot;Americans with No Abilities Act,&quot; and ''[[The Simpsons]]'' ran an episode in which [[Homer Simpson]] tried to become grossly obese so he would be exempt under the ADA from a mandatory workplace fitness program. The underlying debate is over whether the ADA should cover people with disabilities that are ''not'' totally and catastrophically disabling. Most people agree that a person with a severe physical disability like [[paraplegia]] should be accommodated. But they are less likely to agree when the disability in question is a [[mental illness]], like [[clinical depression]], or consists of minor neck or back pain (see [[neuropathy]]). Others believe that accommodation laws put too many restrictions on the [[free market]] and should be repealed. ==References== * Linda Hamilton Krieger, ed., ''Backlash Against the ADA: Reinterpreting Disability Rights'' (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 2003). * Switzer, Jacqueline Vaughn. ''Disabled Rights: American Disability Policy and the Fight for Equality''. Georgetown University Press, 2003. ==See also== *[[Accessibility]] *[[Disability rights movement]] *[[List of disability rights activists]] &amp;mdash; includes a list of people who helped pass the ADA *[[List of anti-discrimination acts]] ** [[Disability discrimination act]] ===Related categories=== *[[:Category:Disability legislation]] *[[:Category:Rights of the disabled]] ===ADA constitutionality-related cases=== For cases determining the constitutionality of some of the ADA's provisions, see: *''[[Tennessee v. Lane]]'' *''[[Board of Trustees of the University of Alabama v. Garrett]]'' ==External links== * [http://www.usdoj.gov/crt/ada/pubs/ada.txt Text of the Act] * [http://www.mises.org/freemarket_detail.asp?control=254&amp;sortorder=articledate Mises.org article:What Is Disabled?] * [http://www.thedisabilitylawyer.net/act/index.html How ADA applies to Disability Discrimination] * [http://www.disabilitykey.com ADA Resource Center] * [http://www.ericdigests.org/2002-1/ada.html Overview of ADA, IDEA, and Section 504: Update 2001] * [http://www.ericdigests.org/1996-3/ada.htm Overview of ADA, IDEA, and Section 504] * [http://www.ericdigests.org/2004-1/people.htm Employment of People with Disabilities] * [http://www.ericdigests.org/2000-3/web.htm Accessible Web Design] * [http://www.ericdigests.org/1996-4/testing.htm Testing Students with Disabilities] [[Category:1990 in law]] [[Category:United States federal civil rights legislation]] [[Category:Disability legislation]] [[Category:Rights of the disabled]] [[ja:ADA&amp;#27861;]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990/Findings and Purposes</title> <id>1339</id> <revision> <id>15899828</id> <timestamp>2002-09-26T07:55:16Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Jeronimo</username> <id>108</id> </contributor> <comment>only verbatim text, no real content - redirecting</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990/Definitions</title> <id>1340</id> <revision> <id>15899829</id> <timestamp>2002-09-26T07:55:24Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Jeronimo</username> <id>108</id> </contributor> <comment>only verbatim text, no real content - redirecting</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990/Title III</title> <id>1341</id> <revision> <id>15899830</id> <timestamp>2002-09-26T07:55:35Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Jeronimo</username> <id>108</id> </contributor> <comment>only verbatim text, no real content - redirecting</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>A.D</title> <id>1342</id> <revision> <id>37356769</id> <timestamp>2006-01-30T13:41:50Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>RussBot</username> <id>279219</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Robot: Fixing [[Special:DoubleRedirects|double-redirect]] -&quot;AD&quot; +&quot;Anno Domini&quot;</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Anno Domini]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Active recall</title> <id>1343</id> <revision> <id>15899832</id> <timestamp>2005-03-20T01:20:22Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>203.26.206.129</ip> </contributor> <comment>Added flashcards</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Active recall''' is a principle of efficient learning, which says that we need to actively stimulate [[memory]] in the learning process. It is an opposite to [[passive review]] in which the learning material is processed passively (e.g. by reading, watching, etc.). For example, when you read a text about [[George Washington]], this is passive review. If you answer a question &quot;Who was the first US President?&quot;, this is active recall. Active recall is many times more efficient in consolidating [[long-term memory]]. This is why just reading your study notes before exam is not likely to leave a long-lasting memory trace. On the other hand, if you ask your colleague to test you on the same material, the results will be better in the long run. Because our recall of a memory may be influenced by its position within a sequence of self-test questions it can be advantageous to randomise the order of those questions. This could be done for instance by putting questions and answers in a [[spreadsheet]] and sorting them by values produced by a randomisation function. [[Flashcards]] are also often used to stimulate active recall in education. It is at the start of a learning task that active recall tasks need to be at their most frequent for retention. As long term memories form, rates of testing can be reduced. Recognition of this fact may aid efficient learning. For more information on improving memory see [[Mnemonics]]. [[Category:Memory]] [[Category:Mnemonics]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Apple I</title> <id>1344</id> <revision> <id>37254376</id> <timestamp>2006-01-29T20:39:47Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>66.23.219.26</ip> </contributor> <comment>Minor grammar correction.</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{| class =&quot;wikitable&quot; align=&quot;right&quot; width=250 &lt;!--{|border=1 align=&quot;right&quot; cellpadding=2 cellspacing=0 width=250 style=&quot;margin-left:3em; margin-bottom: 2em; color: black; background: white;&quot;--&gt; |colspan=2|[[Image:Apple I.jpg|250px|Apple I computer]] |- !colspan=2 style=&quot;color: white; background: gray;&quot;|Apple I |- |width=&quot;40%&quot;|'''Manufacturer'''||[[Apple Computer]] |- |'''Type'''||[[Personal computer]] |- |'''Casing'''||Wood |- |'''Production'''||1976 |- |'''Discontinued'''||March, 1977 |- |'''CPU'''||[[MOS Technology 6502|MOS 6502]] @ [[megahertz|1 MHz]] |- |'''RAM'''||4 [[kilobyte|KB]] standard&lt;br&gt;expandable
m in Thailand|Buddhism of Thailand]] and the traditional role of the Thai king as both a religious and secular leader. Ashoka also said that all his courtiers were true to their self and governed the people in a moral manner ==Ashoka in popular culture== * ''[[Asoka (film)|Asoka]]'' is a [[film]] based on his life. * ''Asoka ki chinta'' is a famous hindi poem by [[Jaishankar Prasad]]. The poem portrays Asoka's mindset during [[Kalinga War]]. * In some [[conspiracy theories]] Ashoka is mentioned as the founder of a powerful secret society called the [[Nine Unknown Men]]. * Ashoka is a character in the turn-based strategy game [[Civilization 4]]. ==Sources== Swearer, Donald. ''Buddhism and Society in Southeast Asia''. Anima Books. Chambersburg, PA. 1981. ISBN 0890120234. ==External links== {{wikiquote}} [http://www.buddhanet.net/pdf_file/king_asoka.pdf King Asoka and Buddhism. Historical and Literary studies] {{start box}} {{succession box|title=[[Mauryan dynasty|Mauryan ruler]] | before=[[Bindusara]]|after=[[Dasaratha_Maurya|Dasaratha]]|years=[[272 BC|272]]-[[232 BC]]}} {{end box}} {{Indian selected article}} [[Category:Mauryan dynasty]] [[Category:Buddhists]] [[Category:Indian monarchs|Ashoka]] [[Category:Theravada Buddhism]] [[Category:History of Orissa]] [[de:Ashoka]] [[es:Ashoka]] [[fa:آشوکا شاه]] [[fr:Ashoka]] [[id:Asoka]] [[hu:Asóka]] [[nl:Asoka]] [[ja:アショーカ王]] [[pl:Aśoka]] [[pt:Asoka]] [[ru:Ашока]] [[fi:Ashoka]] [[sv:Ashoka]] [[vi:A-dục vương]] [[zh:阿育王]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Archaea</title> <id>1240</id> <revision> <id>41711512</id> <timestamp>2006-03-01T05:47:16Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>63.24.31.63</ip> </contributor> <comment>Be a pal and give some links to these terms</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Taxobox | color = darkgray | name = Archaea | domain = '''Archaea''' | domain_authority = [[Carl Woese|Woese]], [[Otto Kandler|Kandler]] &amp; [[Mark Wheelis|Wheelis]], 1990 | subdivision_ranks = Phyla / Classes | subdivision = Phylum [[Crenarchaeota]]&lt;br /&gt; Phylum [[Euryarchaeota]]&lt;br /&gt; &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; [[Halobacteria]]&lt;br /&gt; &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; [[Methanobacteria]]&lt;br /&gt; &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; [[Methanococci]]&lt;br /&gt; &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; [[Methanopyri]]&lt;br /&gt; &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; [[Archaeoglobi]]&lt;br /&gt; &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; [[Thermoplasmata]]&lt;br /&gt; &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; [[Thermococci]]&lt;br /&gt; Phylum [[Korarchaeota]]&lt;br /&gt; Phylum [[Nanoarchaeum|Nanoarchaeota]] }} The '''Archaea''' ({{IPA2|ɑːˌkiːə}}), also called '''Archaebacteria''' ({{IPA2|ˈɑːkɪbakˌtɪərɪə}}), are a major division of [[life|living]] [[organism]]s. Although there is still uncertainty in the exact [[phylogeny]] of the groups, Archaea, [[Eukaryote]]s and [[Bacteria]] are the fundamental classifications in what is called the [[three-domain system]]. Archaea are, like bacteria, single-cell organisms lacking [[cell nucleus|nuclei]] and are therefore classified as [[prokaryote]]s &amp;mdash; known as [[Monera]] in the five-[[kingdom (biology)|kingdom]] [[Linnaean taxonomy | taxonomy]]. They were originally described in [[extremophile | extreme]] environments, but have since been found in all types of [[habitat]]s. == History == Archaea were identified in [[1977]] by [[Carl Woese]] and George Fox based on their separation from other prokaryotes on 16S [[rRNA]] [[phylogenetic tree]]s. These two groups were originally named the Archaebacteria and Eubacteria, treated as [[kingdom (biology)|kingdom]]s or subkingdoms. Woese argued that they represented fundamentally different branches of living things. He later renamed the groups Archaea and [[Bacteria]] to emphasize this, and argued that together with [[Eukarya]] they comprise [[three-domain system|three domains]] of living things. == Archaea, Bacteria and Eukaryotes== Archaea are similar to other prokaryotes in most aspects of [[Cell (biology)|cell]] structure and [[metabolism]]. However, their genetic [[transcription (genetics)|transcription]] and [[translation (genetics)|translation]] &amp;mdash; the two central processes in [[molecular biology]] &amp;mdash; do not show the typical bacterial features, but are extremely similar to those of [[eukaryote]]s. For instance, archaean translation uses eukaryotic initiation and elongation factors, and their transcription involves TATA-binding proteins and TFIIB as in eukaryotes. Several other characteristics also set the Archaea apart. Like bacteria and eukaryotes, archaea possess [[glycerol]] based [[phospholipids]]. However, three features of the archaeal lipids are unusual: *The archaeal lipids are unique because the stereochemistry of the glycerol is the reverse of that found in bacteria and eukaryotes. This is strong evidence for a different biosynthetic pathway. *Most bacteria and eukaryotes have membranes composed mainly of glycerol-[[ester]] [[lipid]]s, whereas archaea have membranes composed of glycerol-''[[ether]]'' lipids. Even when bacteria have ether-linked lipids, the stereochemistry of the glycerol is the bacterial form. This differences may be an adaptation on the part of Archaea to [[hyperthermophile|hyperthermophily]]. However, it is worth noting that even mesophilic archaea have ether-linked lipids. *Archaeal lipids are based upon the [[isoprene|isoprenoid]] sidechain. This is a five-carbon unit that is also common in rubber and as a component of some vitamins common in bacteria and eukaryotes. However, only the archaea incorporate these compounds into their cellular lipids, frequently as C-20 (four monomers) or C-40 (eight monomers) sidechains. In some archaea, the C-40 isoprenoid side-chain is actually long enough to span the membrane, forming a monolayer for a [[cell membrane]] with glycerol phosphate moieties on both ends. Although dramatic, this adaptation is most common in the extremely thermophilic archaea. Although not unique, the archaeal cell walls are also unusual. For instance, the cell walls of most archaea are formed by surface layer proteins or an S-layer. S-layers are common in bacteria, where they serve as the sole cell wall component in some organisms (like the Planctomyces) or an outer layer in many organisms with peptidoglycan. With the exception of one group of methanogens, archaea lack a [[peptidoglycan]] wall. Even in this case, the peptidoglycan is very different from the type found in bacteria. Archaeans also have [[flagellum|flagella]] that are notably different in composition and development from the superficially similar flagella of bacteria. [[image:PhylogeneticTree.jpg|thumb|left|320px|A phylogenetic tree based on [[rRNA]] data, showing the separation of bacteria, archaea, and eukaryotes.]] ==Habitats== Many archaeans are [[extremophile]]s. Some live at very high temperatures, often above 100&amp;deg;C, as found in [[geyser]]s and [[black smoker]]s. Others are found in very cold habitats or in highly-[[salt|saline]], [[acid]]ic, or [[alkaline]] water. However, other archaeans are [[mesophile]]s, and have been found in environments like [[marsh]]land, [[sewage]], and [[soil]]. Many [[methanogen]]ic archaea are found in the digestive tracts of animals such as [[ruminant]]s, [[termite]]s, and humans. Archaea are usually harmless to other organisms and none are known to cause disease. ==Form== Individual archaeans range from 0.1 &amp;mu;m to over 15 &amp;mu;m in diameter, and some form aggregates or filaments up to 200 &amp;mu;m in length. They occur in various shapes, such as spherical, rod-shape, spiral, lobed, or rectangular. They also exhibit a variety of different types of metabolism. Of note, the [[halobacteria]] can use light to produce [[adenosine triphosphate|ATP]], although no Archaea conduct [[photosynthesis]] with an electron transport chain, as occurs in other groups. ==Evolution and classification== Archaea are divided into two main groups based on rRNA trees, the [[Euryarchaeota]] and [[Crenarchaeota]]. Two other groups have been tentatively created for certain environmental samples and the peculiar species ''[[Nanoarchaeum|Nanoarchaeum equitans]]'', discovered in 2002 by [[Karl Stetter]], but their affinities are uncertain. Woese argued that the bacteria, archaea, and eukaryotes each represent a primary line of descent that diverged early on from an ancestral ''[[progenote]]'' with poorly-developed genetic machinery. This hypothesis is reflected in the name Archaea, from the Greek ''archae'' or ancient. Later he treated these groups formally as [[three-domain system|domain]]s, each comprising several kingdoms. This division has become very popular, although the idea of the progenote itself is not generally supported. Some biologists, however, have argued that the archaebacteria and eukaryotes arose from specialized eubacteria. The relationship between Archaea and Eukarya remains an important problem. Aside from the similarities noted above, many genetic trees group the two together. Some place eukaryotes closer to Eurarchaeota than Crenarchaeota are, although the membrane chemistry suggests otherwise. However, the discovery of archaean-like genes in certain [[bacterium|bacteria]], such as ''Thermotoga'', makes their relationship difficult to determine. Some have suggested that eukaryotes arose through fusion of an archaean and eubacterium, which became the nucleus and cytoplasm, which accounts for various genetic similarities but runs into difficulties explaining cell structure. Single gene [[sequencing]] for [[systematics]] has led to whole [[genome sequencing]]; currently 24 archaeal genomes have been completed with 22 partially completed [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/genomes/lproks.cgi]. ==External links== * [http://www.microbe.org/microbes/archaea.asp Archaea] * [http://www.archaea.unsw.edu.au/ Archae
still maintains a large [[electronic surveillance]] presence especially at a base in Havana Province. Since Castro came to power, the United States has since progressively enacted legislation intended to isolate Cuba economically via the [[United States embargo against Cuba|U.S. embargo]] and other measures, such as prosecuting US citizens who vacation in Cuba. For more on these issues see the [[Cuba#Economy|Economy]] section below The [[Bay of Pigs invasion]] of April 1961 by U.S. backed Cuban expatriates failed because U.S. president [[John F. Kennedy]] left the invaders stranded for fear of getting officially involved. The expected urban revolt collapsed when it became clear Brigade 2506 had been abandoned to its fate; and because the Soviet Union warned Castro, who ordered numerous executions and preemptive mass arrests of those thought likely to support a counter-revolution. [http://www.uoregon.edu/~caguirre/ackerman.pdf], (Priestland, 2003). Church schools were confiscated, clergy were arrested, [http://www.fiu.edu/~fcf/clark12298.html] and expelled en masse. In the rural central provinces the [[War Against the Bandits]] (circa 1959-1965) was suppressed by massed Castro militia, many executions and internal deportations of rebel supporters. The [[Cuban Missile Crisis]] started with the Soviet Union installing nuclear missiles in Cuba in 1962. In response, the United States put up a [[blockade]] in international waters. This is generally believed to be the closest the world has come to a [[nuclear war]]. The [[Soviet Union]] backed down, agreeing to remove the missiles in exchange for United States promises to remove similar nuclear missiles in [[Turkey]] and to never invade Cuba again. Between 1962 and the early 1970s, it has been known that Cuba sent trained guerillas to numerous South and Central American nations to aid in socialist revolutions which were, at the time, in progression. It was in [[Bolivia]] that Che Guevara, a major proponent of the [[socialist]] revolution, was assassinated after leading a Cuban led rebellion in the jungles of Bolivia. Not only did Cuba aid in numerous South and [[Central American]] rebellions, but also in the [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]], on the African continent. Che Guevara is known to have led the Cubans in the rebellion in the DRC, formerly known as [[Zaire]]. Within Cuba, Che is held as a hero of the socialist movement, but only since the mid 1980s, when the launch of the 'Era of Rectification' saw his ideas being re-asserted as Cuba distanced itself from Gorbachev's USSR. After this, the United States never openly threatened Cuba again, but was said to engage in absurdly elaborate covert activities to assassinate Castro, namely [[The Cuban Project]]. Castro and the US dueled in Cold War actions as is described in much insider detail by [[Henry Kissinger]] in his book ''Years of renewal''. In a 1976 notorious terrorist attack on [[Cubana Flight 455]] in which 73 died was allegedly masterminded by CIA funded Castro opponents operating from Venezuela. The United States has also supported anti-Castro terrorist groups in their attacks against Cuba. [http://www.voltairenet.org/article132624.html] [http://www.zmag.org/sustainers/content/2005-04/30franklin_.cfm]. Cuba [http://.org/espionage/] and the US have also engaged in continuing acts of espionage against one another [http://www.forbes.com/entrepreneurs/feeds/ap/2006/01/11/ap2443638.html], [http://www.miami.com/mld/miamiherald/13588460.htm]. It is believed by some[http://www.cubanet.org/CNews/y01/mar01/21e8.htm] [http://www.miami.com/mld/miamiherald/news/world/americas/13322868.htm] although disputed by others [http://www.nytimes.com/2006/01/09/movies/MoviesFeatures/09terror.html], that the Cuban government, now allied with its Venezuelan counterpart, continues &quot;destabilization&quot; activities efforts supporting radical and violent Marxist groups in the U.S. and Latin America [http://news.yahoo.com/s/afp/20060111/wl_afp/peruvenezuela_060111190735], [http://www.miami.com/mld/miamiherald/news/world/americas/13322868.htm]. [http://www.miami.com/mld/elnuevo/13595594.htm]. In April 1980, over 10,000 Cubans stormed the Peruvian embassy in Havana seeking political asylum. In response to this, Castro allowed anyone who desired to leave the country to do so through the port of Mariel. Under the [[Mariel boatlift]], over 125,000 Cubans migrated to the United States. Eventually the United States stopped the flow of vessels and Cuba ended the uncontrolled exodus. The [[collapse of the Soviet Union]] in 1991 dealt Cuba a giant economic blow. This led to another unregulated exodus of asylum seekers to the United States in 1994, which was slowed to a trickle of a few thousand a year by the U.S.-Cuban accords. Now it is increasing again although at a far slower rate than before [http://www.miami.com/mld/miamiherald/news/world/c] == Culture == {{main|Culture of Cuba}} [[Image:cuba_habana_vieja_casa_de_simon_bolivar.jpg|thumb|300px|The courtyard of one of the free museums in Havana, the 'Casa de Simón Bolívar']] * [[Music of Cuba]] * [[Present State of Cuban Literature]] * [[Famous Cuban poetry and literature]] * [[Cuban cinema]] * [[Public holidays in Cuba]] Cuban culture is much influenced by the fact that it is a [[melting pot]] of cultures, mostly from Spain and Africa. It has produced more than its fair share of literature, including the output of non-Cubans [[Stephen Crane]], and [[Ernest Hemingway]]. ===Present State of Cuban Literature=== Cuban authors continue to produce large amounts of government-supported printed and electronic work inside the island [http://havanajournal.com/politics/entry/author_william_blum_denied_us_license_to_travel_to_cuba]. The Cuban government also funds a large number of booths at book fairs in Latin America. A good number of university presses in the United States continually present scholarly volumes on various Cuban topics. Authors both for and against the present Cuban government present their views in the U.S. Amazon.com (run by [[Jeff Bezos]], who was raised by a Cuban family) currently lists 6,026 titles dealing with Cuba; Barnesandnoble.com lists 3,126. Borders book stores carry 1,991 titles on Cuba in stock. ===Sampling of famous Cuban poetry, music, literature and art=== *'''Arenas, Reinaldo''' 1943-1990 openly gay poet, novelist and playwright. He was the winner of major prizes from UNEAC (The Union of Cuban Writers and Artists) in 1965 and 1966. While originally sympathetic to the 1959 revolution, his works demonstrate his growing criticism of the revolution’s repression of homosexuals and artists. His five volume work, the Pentagonia is subtitled a &quot;secret history&quot; of post-revolutionary Cuba. [http://libweb.princeton.edu/libraries/firestone/rbsc/aids/arenas.html] *'''de Balboa y Troya de Quesada''', ''Silvestre'' (1563-1649) 1608 Espejo de Paciencia. [http://www.4thcorp.com/camaguey/espejo_de_paciencia.htm]. First known Cuban narrative poem deals with the killing of an attacking pirate by the people of Bayamo *'''Gómez de Avellaneda, Gertrudis''' (1814-1873) Her large body of excellent work includes the anti-slavery novel ''Dos mugeres'' (1842) and the play ''Baltasar'' (1858) [http://www.hope.edu/latinamerican/gomezavellaneda.html] *'''Lecuona, Ernesto''' (1895-1962) First major composition, ''Malaguena'', Roxy Theatre in New York 1927. [http://www.spaceagepop.com/lecuona.htm], [http://ourworld.compuserve.com/homepages/mvbart/]. *'''Menocal, Armando''' (1863-1941) Cuban painter his works, often displayed in Cuban public buildings, illustrate scenes of the Cuban [[War of Independence]] include ''La Muerte de Maceo'' (the death of Antonio Maceo) and have been subject to ownership dispute [http://www.alocubano.com/los_pintores_clasicos_de_cuba.htm] [http://www.moas.org/perm_4.html] [http://www.periodico26.cu/english/culture/cuban012706.htm] [http://72.14.207.104/search?q=cache:MN0AZNinimAJ:www.subastahabana.com/author.asp%3Fid%3D231%26language%3D2+Armando+menocal+Cuba+painting&amp;hl=en&amp;gl=us&amp;ct=clnk&amp;cd=1] *'''Napoles Fajardo, Juan Cristobal''' (born 1829; believed killed by Spanish authorities in 1862) Selected work in Cucalambe (Decimas Cubanas): Seleccion De Rumores Del Hormigo. Ediciones Universal. 1999 ISBN 0897298780 An example of [[Siboneyista]] poetry, a 19th Century resistance movement which expressed its, then illegal, wish to be free of Spain couched as Siboney, one of the [[Neo-Taíno nations]] poetry and narrations. *'''Simons, Moisés''' 1928 ''El Manisero'' (the ''[[Peanut Vendor]]'') An extremely popular song with complex poly-rhythms. The author was a Jewish immigrant to Cuba. In the Cuban vernacular to &quot;cantar el manisero&quot; to sing this song is to die. The ''Peanut Vendor'' inspired classically trained Joseph Norman Henderson, author of [[Cuban Pete]], to change his name to [[Jose Norman]] [http://www.jabw.demon.co.uk/jose1.htm] and dedicate his work to music from the island [http://www.ualberta.ca/~aminkus/ProgramNotes.htm] [http://www.smithsonianjazz.org/latinjazz/latinjazz_education_tl.asp] [http://sc.millersville.edu/manuscripts/manus/scoreP.htm] [http://www.produccionesdelmar.com/longina/Autores/Moises_Simmons/] *'''Valdes, Zoe''' 1999 ''I Gave You All I Had''. Arcade Publishing; 1st English-language edition. ISBN 1559704772 Book is part of a second wave of literature written by exiles who escaped Cuba in the latter part of the Castro years *'''Valdéz, Gabriel de la Concepción''' (Plácido) 1809-1844 (executed) Major, most well known poem and last poem ''Plegaria a Dios''. [http://www.juanperez.com/triviaI.html], [http://72.14.203.104/search?q=cache%3AGKjIPeDnc1AJ%3Awww.afrocubaweb.com/eugenegodfried/placidoenglish.htm%2B%26hl%3Den%26ie%3DUTF-8] His poetry, was often considered subversive and anti-slavery by the Spanish authorities *'''Villaverde, Cirilo''' 1882 (New tran
g cosmic principles. Azathoth, the &quot;blind and idiotic&quot; ruler of the pantheon, occupies the literal center of the universe, whereas Yog-Sothoth, Azathoth's co-ruler, embodies the infinite, existing in all places and in all times. Next in the hierarchy is [[Shub-Niggurath]] (whom Lovecraft mentions but never describes in his stories), representing a kind of [[paganism|pagan]] fertility god. Attending Azathoth at his court are the Other Gods, mysterious beings that dance mindlessly around Azathoth's throne in cadence to the piping of a demonic flute, and [[Nyarlathotep]], the avatar and messenger of Azathoth and the Other Gods. Nyarlathotep is the only being that can interact intelligently with human beings, though he often manifests himself in human form to disguise his true appearance. The topmost tier of deities is served by earthbound, non-human beings. [[Cthulhu]] is regarded as the priest of the gods, while [[Dagon]] appears to be his subordinate. The lowest tier consists of the [[Elder Thing]]s and the [[Mi-go]], both [[extraterrestrial]] races, and the [[Deep One]]s, ocean-dwelling humanoids, which serve Cthulhu and Dagon.{{Rn|Shreffler-158}} Because of the additions of later authors, the mythos pantheon has grown considerably and is now populated by deities and beings never conceived of by Lovecraft{{Rn|Price1991-247T}}. &lt;!--I WROTE THE FOLLOWING SENTENCE BUT IT IS DANGEROUSLY CLOSE TO WP:NOR; PROBABLY NEED TO FIND AN AUTHORITATIVE SOURCE WHO SAYS THIS OR AT LEAST CITE EXAMPLES (I.E., SHORT STORIES THAT SUPPORT THIS VIEW)--&gt;Nevertheless, the original schema, which places Azathoth and Yog-Sothoth at the top of the pantheon, is still widely recognized by many mythos writers. ====Gods and devils==== According to Robert M. Price in his essay &quot;Lovecraft's 'Artificial Mythology'&quot;, Lovecraft never intended his pantheon of beings&amp;mdash;occasionally referred to as the ''Old Ones''&amp;mdash;to be supernatural creatures but instead powerful [[extraterrestrial]]s. For naive humans to worship these beings as ''gods'' or to deride them as ''devils'' was to feebly attempt to [[wikt:anthropomorphize|anthropomorphize]] them and thus render them into mundane and explainable terms. What early humans could not understand they characterized as divine; thus, prescientific cultures deified incomprehensible entities like [[Azathoth]]. Though humans might try to placate or earn the favor of these beings by worshiping them, the Old Ones were not welcoming of such veneration and moreover were quick to exploit the gullibility of their worshipers to further their own agenda. Price says that Lovecraft's inspiration was to tear humanity from its supposedly centralized place in the universe by forcing his characters to confront alien beings far older and wiser than humankind. He further contends that August Derleth, as well as other writers who followed after him, misinterpreted Lovecraft's original conception and took the Old Ones to be literally supernatural and godlike. Derleth also departed from Lovecraft's original vision by concocting a parallel to the [[Christianity|Christian]] narrative of [[Satan]] warring against [[Heaven]], pairing the ''devils'' of Lovecraft's mythos (the Old Ones) against a race of benevolent ''[[Elder God]]s'' with humanity's fate hanging in the balance. In Price's view, &quot;religious fiction&quot;&lt;!--QUOTED AS PRICE'S WORDS, PP. 250, LAST PARAGRAPH--&gt; of this sort could not be further from Lovecraft's fundamental notion of an indifferent, nihilistic universe.{{Rn|Price1991-248}} ---- ===Cthulhuian pseudobiblia=== {{main|Cthulhu mythos arcane literature}} A hallmark of Lovecraft's mythos is the various mystical books and other writings of arcane lore which Edward Lauterbach calls &quot;Cthulhuian pseudobiblia&quot;{{Rn|Lauterbach-96ff}}. These tomes were invented by Lovecraft and his imitators to lend more believability to their stories. A good measure of humor was also employed in their creation; for example, ''Cultes des Goules'' is credited to the fictional writer Comte d'Erlette, an obvious pun on August Derleth's name.{{Rn|Lauterbach-96}} {|class=&quot;wikitable&quot; |+'''Selected fictional works'''&lt;br&gt;'''created by mythos authors''' !Author !Fictional book |- |[[Robert Bloch]]||Cultes des Goules{{Ref|Price1985-11}},&lt;br&gt;De Vermis Mysteriis |- |[[Ramsey Campbell]]||Revelations of Glaaki |- |[[Lin Carter]]||Ponape Scripture,&lt;br&gt;Zanthu Tablets |- |August Derleth||Celaeno Fragments,&lt;br&gt;R'lyeh Text |- |[[Robert E. Howard]]||&lt;!--NOTE!--&gt;Unaussprechlichen Kulten&lt;!--NOTE! PLEASE DO NOT CHANGE THIS--IT MAY BE INCORRECT GERMAN BUT IT IS IN FACT HOW IT IS SPELLED IN THE MYTHOS; THIS VERY ISSUE IS DISCUSSED IN THE &quot;Unaussprechlichen Kulten&quot; ARTICLE.--&gt; |- |H. P. Lovecraft||Dhol Chants,&lt;br&gt;Necronomicon,&lt;br&gt;Pnakotic Manuscripts,&lt;br&gt;Seven Cryptical Books of Hsan |- |[[Brian Lumley]]||Cthäat Aquadingen,&lt;br&gt;G'harne Fragments |- |[[Clark Ashton Smith]]||Book of Eibon |} ----&lt;!--RATIONALE FOR THIS LINE BREAK IS TO SEPARATE THE FOLLOWING SECTION FROM ABOVE DISCUSSION OF JOSHI'S 4 POINTS--&gt; ===The reader's response to the mythos=== During his writing career, most of Lovecraft's work was published in the [[pulp magazine]] ''[[Weird Tales]]''. To make his stories more believable (as well to amuse himself), Lovecraft employed various methods to convince readers that his mythos was real. With the care and attention to detail needed to stage a hoax, Lovecraft concocted an imaginary yet plausible background lore for the false religion of the ''Old Ones'' (which, as has been noted, are really powerful extraterrestrials). By avoiding exposition and instead cloaking his mythos horrors in vague, mythical legends, Lovecraft left it up to the reader to piece together the terrifying scientific truth behind his veiled hints. To achieve &quot;an air of verisimilitude by wide citation&quot;{{Rn|SL3-166}}, Lovecraft, with much relish it should be noted, encouraged other writers to use his mythos in their own stories and to add to it as they saw fit, although this often resulted in distortions of Lovecraft's original vision. Outside of his own works, Lovecraft included references to his myth cycle in the revision stories he wrote for other authors. To distance himself from his creations, he often varied the names of his mythos entities (for example, &quot;Tulu&quot; for [[Cthulhu]]). A reader who saw a particular entity in one story, and then noticed that same entity in another (perhaps under a slightly different moniker) might develop the impression that Lovecraft's mythos was genuine. In fact, this was exactly the effect that Lovecraft sought to achieve, though he occasionally had to gently remind readers that his mythos creations were entirely fictional.{{Rn|Price1991Mariconda1995}} ==Structure of the mythos== The mythos is centered on the [[Great Old One]]s, a fearsome assortment of ancient, powerful [[deity|deities]] that once ruled the Earth. They are presently [[wikt:quiescent|quiescent]], having fallen into a death-like sleep at some time in the distant past.{{Rn|Harms-viii-b}} The most well-known of these beings is [[Cthulhu]], who currently lies &quot;dead [but] dreaming&quot; in the submerged city of [[R'lyeh]] somewhere in the Southeast [[Pacific Ocean]]. One day, &quot;when the stars are right&quot;, R'lyeh will rise from beneath the sea, and Cthulhu will awaken and wreak havoc on the earth.{{Rn|Lovecraft-tcoc}} Despite his notoriety, Cthulhu is not the most powerful of the deities nor is he the [[Theology|theological]] center of the mythos{{Rn|Mosig-25}}. Instead, this position is held by the demon-god Azathoth, an [[Outer God]], ruling from his cosmically-centered court. Nonetheless, Nyarlathotep, who fulfills Azathoth's random urges, has intervened more frequently and more directly in human affairs than any other Outer God. He has also displayed more blatant contempt for humanity, including his own worshippers, than almost any other Lovecraftian deity. ==Derleth's involvement== Derleth had his own take on the mythos and tried to make it conform to his own [[Catholic]] values and [[dualism]]. Instead of a universe of meaninglessness and chaos, Derleth's mythos is a struggle of ''good versus evil''.{{Rn|Bloch-9}} Derleth once wrote: &lt;blockquote&gt; &lt;!-- NOTE: The following is quoted VERBATIM from the Arkham House edition -- please do not copyedit (except for adding/changing links). --&gt; As Lovecraft conceived the deities or forces of his mythos, there were, initially, the Elder Gods... [T]hese Elder Gods were benign deities, representing the forces of good, and existed peacefully at or near [[Betelgeuse|Betelgeuze&lt;!--sic--&gt;]] in the constellation [[Orion (constellation)|Orion]], very rarely stirring forth to intervene in the unceasing struggle between the powers of evil and the [[race (fantasy)|race]]s of Earth. These powers of evil were variously known as the Great Old Ones or the Ancient Ones... &lt;br&gt;&amp;mdash;August Derleth, &quot;The Cthulhu Mythos&quot;{{Ref|Derleth-vii}} &lt;/blockquote&gt; Lovecraft was an [[atheist]]{{Rn|Joshi-II}} and claimed that [[Immanuel Kant|Kant]]'s ethical system &quot;is a joke.&quot;{{Rn|Derleth-unknown}} Because of this, Derleth's theories about the ''Cthulhu mythos'' are inconsistent with Lovecraft's design. The mythos was never intended to be a cohesive, singular entity; instead, it should be regarded as simply a collection of ideas that can be used in separate works to provoke the same emotions.{{Rn|Turner-x}} Another problem with Derleth's mythos is that the Elder Gods never appear in Lovecraft's writings; except for one or two who appear as &quot;Other Gods&quot;, such as [[Nodens]] in Lovecraft's &quot;[[The Strange High House in the Mist]]&quot; (though perhaps this is an example of how &quot;very rarely [they stir] forth&quot;; i.e
;Safe Conduct&quot;. ==&quot;Second Birth&quot;== [[Image:Pastchuk.jpg|thumb|275px|Boris Pasternak (in the foreground) and [[Korney Chukovsky]] at the first Congress of the [[Soviet Union of Writers]] in [[1934]].]] By [[1932]], Pasternak strikingly reshaped his style to make it acceptable to Soviet public and printed the new collection of poems aptly entitled ''The Second Birth''. Although its Caucasian pieces were as brilliant as the earlier efforts, the book alienated the core of Pasternak's refined audience abroad. He simplified his style even further for the next collection of patriotic verse, ''Early Trains'' (1943), which prompted Nabokov to describe Pasternak as a &quot;weeping Bolshevik&quot; and &quot;[[Emily Dickinson]] in trousers&quot;. During the great purges of the later 1930s, Pasternak became progressively disillusioned with the Communist ideals. Reluctant to publish his own poetry, he turned to translating [[Shakespeare]] (''[[Hamlet]]'', ''[[Macbeth]]'', ''[[King Lear]]''), [[Goethe]] (''[[Faust]]''), [[Rilke]] (''Requiem fur eine Freundin''), [[Paul Verlaine]], and [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]]n poets favoured by [[Stalin]]. Pasternak's translations of Shakespeare have proved popular with Russian public on account of their colloquial, modernised dialogues, but the critics accused him of &quot;pasternakizing&quot; the English playwright. Although he was widely panned for excessive subjectivism, they say that Stalin crossed Pasternak's name off an arrest list during the [[Great Purge|purges]], quoted as saying &quot;Don't touch this cloud dweller&quot;. ==&quot;Doctor Zhivago&quot;== Several years before [[World War II|WWII]], Pasternak and his wife settled in [[Peredelkino]], a village for writers several miles from [[Moscow]]. He was filled with a love of life that gave his poetry a hopeful tone. Pasternak’s love of life is reflected in the name of his autobiographic hero Zhivago, derived from the Russian word for &quot;live&quot;. Another famous character, Lara, is said to have been modeled on his mistress [http://www.peoples.ru/love/pasternak-ivinskaya/ Olga Ivinskaya]. As he could not find a publisher for his novel inside the country, ''[[Doctor Zhivago]]'' was smuggled abroad and released in [[Italy]] in [[1957]]. This led to a wide-scale campaign of persecution within the [[Soviet Union]] up until his death. Although none of his critics had the chance to read the proscribed novel, some of them publicly demanded, &quot;kick the pig out of our kitchen-garden&quot;, i.e., expel Pasternak from the USSR. Pasternak's post-Zhivago poetry probes the universal questions of love, immortality, and reconciliation with God. The poems from his last collection, which he wrote until his death, are probably his best loved and best known. ==Nobel Prize== [[Image:Dommuzejpasternak.jpg|thumb|250px|Pasternak house in [[Peredelkino]], where the poet passed away.]] Pasternak was announced as the winner of the [[Nobel Prize for Literature]] in [[1958]]. On [[October 25]], two days after hearing that he had won, Pasternak sent the following telegram to the [[Swedish Academy]]: :''&quot;Immensely thankful, touched, proud, astonished, abashed.&quot;'' However, four days later came another telegram: :''&quot;Considering the meaning this award has been given in the society to which I belong, I must reject this undeserved prize which has been presented to me. Please do not receive my voluntary rejection with displeasure.&quot;'' The Swedish Academy announced: :''&quot;This refusal, of course, in no way alters the validity of the award. There remains only for the Academy, however, to announce with regret that the presentation of the Prize cannot take place.&quot;'' Reading between the lines of Pasternak's second telegram, it is clear he declined the award out of fear that he would be stripped of his Soviet citizenship and not allowed to return to his homeland if he were to travel to [[Stockholm]] to accept it. He was an old and sick man, and this was not a prospect he welcomed. Pasternak died on [[May 30]], [[1960]] and was buried in Peredelkino in the presence of several devoted admirers, including the poet [[Andrey Voznesensky]]. ''Doctor Zhivago'' was eventually published in the USSR in [[1987]]. {{start box}} {{succession box | before = [[Albert Camus]] | title = [[List of Nobel laureates#Literature|Nobel Prize in Literature winner]] | years =1958 | after = [[Salvatore Quasimodo]] }} {{end box}} ==External links== *[http://nobelprize.org/literature/laureates/1958/index.html 1958 Nobel Prize in Literature] *[http://www.netwerk.tv/index.jsp?p=items&amp;r=netwerk&amp;a=200650] [[Category:1890 births|Pasternak, Boris]] [[Category:1960 deaths|Pasternak, Boris]] [[Category:Nobel Prize in Literature winners|Pasternak, Boris]] [[Category:Russian poets|Pasternak, Boris]] [[Category:Russian novelists|Pasternak, Boris]] [[ar:بوريس باسترناك]] [[bg:Борис Пастернак]] [[cs:Boris Leonidovič Pasternak]] [[de:Boris Leonidowitsch Pasternak]] [[et:Boriss Pasternak]] [[es:Borís Pasternak]] [[eo:Boris PASTERNAK]] [[fr:Boris Pasternak]] [[hr:Boris Pasternak]] [[it:Boris Pasternak]] [[he:בוריס פסטרנק]] [[hu:Borisz Leonyidovics Paszternak]] [[nl:Boris Pasternak]] [[ja:ボリス・パステルナーク]] [[no:Boris Pasternak]] [[pl:Borys Pasternak]] [[pt:Boris Pasternak]] [[ro:Boris Pasternak]] [[ru:Пастернак, Борис Леонидович]] [[sl:Boris Leonidovič Pasternak]] [[fi:Boris Pasternak]] [[sv:Boris Pasternak]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Binomial coefficient</title> <id>4668</id> <revision> <id>40492641</id> <timestamp>2006-02-20T23:34:10Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Catapult</username> <id>792235</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>[[Wikipedia:Categories for deletion/Log/2006 February 12|CFD]]: renaming category[[user:freakofnurture|...]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">:''See [[binomial (disambiguation)]] for a list of other topics called by that name.'' In [[mathematics]], particularly in [[combinatorics]], the '''binomial coefficient''' of the [[natural number]] ''n'' and the [[integer]] ''k'' is defined to be the natural number :&lt;math&gt; {n \choose k} = \frac{n \cdot (n-1) \cdots (n-k+1)}{k \cdot (k-1) \cdots 1} = \frac{n!}{k!(n-k)!} \quad \mbox{if } n\geq k\geq 0 \qquad \mbox{(1)} &lt;/math&gt; and :&lt;math&gt; {n \choose k} = 0 \quad \mbox{if } k&lt;0 \mbox{ or } k&gt;n &lt;/math&gt; where ''m''! denotes the [[factorial]] of ''m''. According to [[Nicholas J. Higham]], the :&lt;math&gt; {n \choose k} &lt;/math&gt; notation was introduced by [[Albert von Ettinghausen]] in [[1826]], although these numbers have been known centuries before that; see [[Pascal's triangle]]. An alternative name for the binomial coefficient is '''choose function'''; the binomial coefficient of ''n'' and ''k'' is often read as &quot;''n'' choose ''k''&quot;. Alternative notations include C(''n'', ''k''), &lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt;C&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; or &lt;math&gt;C^{k}_{n}&lt;/math&gt; (C for [[combination]]). For compactness, from here on we will use the first of these three notations. The binomial coefficients are the [[coefficient]]s in the expansion of the binomial (''x'' + ''y'')&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt; (hence the name): :&lt;math&gt; (x+y)^n = \sum_{k=0}^{n} C(n, k) x^{n-k} y^k. \qquad (2) &lt;/math&gt; This is generalized by the [[binomial theorem]], which allows the exponent ''n'' to be negative or a non-integer. The importance of the binomial coefficients lies in the fact that C(''n'', ''k'') is the number of ways that ''k'' objects can be chosen from ''n'' objects, regardless of order. See the article on [[combination]]. ==Example== :&lt;math&gt; {7 \choose 3} = \frac{7 \cdot 6 \cdot 5 \cdot 4 \cdot 3 \cdot 2 \cdot 1}{(3 \cdot 2 \cdot 1)(4 \cdot 3 \cdot 2 \cdot 1)} = \frac{7\cdot 6 \cdot 5}{3\cdot 2\cdot 1} = 35.&lt;/math&gt; The practical calculation of the binomial coefficient is conveniently arranged like this: ((((5/1)&amp;times;6)/2)&amp;times;7)/3, alternatingly dividing and multiplying with increasing integers. Each division is guaranteed to produce an integer result. == Derivation from binomial expansion == For exponent 1, (''x''+''y'')&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt; is ''x''+''y''. For exponent 2, (''x''+''y'')&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; is (''x''+''y'')(''x''+''y''), which forms terms as follows. The first factor supplies either an ''x'' or a ''y''; likewise for the second factor. Thus to form ''x''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;, the only possibility is to choose ''x'' from both factors; likewise for ''y''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;. However, the ''xy'' term can be formed by ''x'' from the first and ''y'' from the second factor, or ''y'' from the first and ''x'' from the second factor; thus it acquires a coefficient of 2. Proceeding to exponent 3, (''x''+''y'')&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt; reduces to (''x''+''y'')&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;(''x''+''y''), where we already know that (''x''+''y'')&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;= ''x''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;+2''xy''+''y''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;. Again the extremes, ''x''&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt; and ''y''&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt; arise in a unique way. However, the term ''x''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;''y'' is either 2''xy'' times ''x'' or ''x''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; times ''y'', for a coefficient of 3; likewise ''xy''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; arises in two ways, summing the coefficients 1 and 2 to give 3. This suggests an [[mathematical induction|induction]]. Thus for exponent ''n'', each term has [[degree (mathematics)|total degree]] (sum of exponents) ''n'', with ''n''−''k'' factors of ''x'' and ''k'' factors of ''y''. If ''k'' is 0 or ''n'', the term arises in only one way, and we get the terms ''x''&lt;sup&gt;n&lt;/sup&gt; and ''y''&lt;sup&gt;n&lt;/sup&gt;. If ''k'' is neither 0 nor ''n'', then the term arises in two ways, from x&lt;sup&gt;n-k-1&lt;/sup&gt;y&lt;sup&g
er|Jimmy the Greek]], American bookie and sports broadcaster (b. [[1919]]) *[[1999]] - [[Charles 'Buddy' Rogers]], American actor and musician (b. [[1904]]) *[[2000]] - [[Neal Matthews, Jr.]], American singer (b. [[1929]]) *[[2003]] - [[Nina Simone]], American singer and pianist (b. [[1933]]) *[[2004]] - [[Mary McGrory]], American journalist (b. [[1918]]) ==Holidays and observances== * [[Bahá'í Faith]] - First day of the festival of [[Ridván]] * [[Roman Empire]] - the [[Parilia]] was held in honor of [[Pales]] * [[Rome]] - city birthday * [[United States]] - [[Administrative Professionals Day]] * [[Sunni Islam]] - [[Mawlid]], Prophet [[Muhammad]]'s [[birthday]] ([[2005]]) ==External links== * [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/april/21 BBC: On This Day] ---- [[April 20]] - [[April 22]] - [[March 21]] - [[May 21]] -- [[historical anniversaries|listing of all days]] {{months}} [[af:21 April]] [[ar:21 إبريل]] [[an:21 d'abril]] [[ast:21 d'abril]] [[bg:21 април]] [[be:21 красавіка]] [[bs:21. april]] [[ca:21 d'abril]] [[ceb:Abril 21]] [[cv:Ака, 21]] [[co:21 d'aprile]] [[cs:21. duben]] [[cy:21 Ebrill]] [[da:21. april]] [[de:21. April]] [[et:21. aprill]] [[el:21 Απριλίου]] [[es:21 de abril]] [[eo:21-a de aprilo]] [[eu:Apirilaren 21]] [[fo:21. apríl]] [[fr:21 avril]] [[fy:21 april]] [[ga:21 Aibreán]] [[gl:21 de abril]] [[ko:4월 21일]] [[hr:21. travnja]] [[io:21 di aprilo]] [[id:21 April]] [[ia:21 de april]] [[ie:21 april]] [[is:21. apríl]] [[it:21 aprile]] [[he:21 באפריל]] [[jv:21 April]] [[ka:21 აპრილი]] [[csb:21 łżëkwiôta]] [[ku:21'ê avrêlê]] [[la:21 Aprilis]] [[lt:Balandžio 21]] [[lb:21. Abrëll]] [[li:21 april]] [[hu:Április 21]] [[mk:21 април]] [[ms:21 April]] [[nap:21 'e abbrile]] [[nl:21 april]] [[ja:4月21日]] [[no:21. april]] [[nn:21. april]] [[oc:21 d'abril]] [[pl:21 kwietnia]] [[pt:21 de Abril]] [[ro:21 aprilie]] [[ru:21 апреля]] [[se:Cuoŋománu 21.]] [[sco:21 Aprile]] [[sq:21 Prill]] [[scn:21 di aprili]] [[simple:April 21]] [[sk:21. apríl]] [[sl:21. april]] [[sr:21. април]] [[fi:21. huhtikuuta]] [[sv:21 april]] [[tl:Abril 21]] [[tt:21. Äpril]] [[te:ఏప్రిల్ 21]] [[th:21 เมษายน]] [[vi:21 tháng 4]] [[tr:21 Nisan]] [[uk:21 квітня]] [[ur:21 اپریل]] [[wa:21 d' avri]] [[war:Abril 21]] [[zh:4月21日]] [[pam:Abril 21]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>ATM (disambiguation)</title> <id>2484</id> <revision> <id>40881801</id> <timestamp>2006-02-23T17:12:21Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Modest Genius</username> <id>593712</id> </contributor> <minor /> <text xml:space="preserve">'''ATM''' is an [[initialism]] with the following meanings: *[[Automatic teller machine]] or automated teller machine, a [[cash]] [[dispenser]] or [[cash machine]] *[[Association of Teachers of Mathematics]] in the UK. *[[Adobe Type Manager]], [[Typeface|font]] [[management]] [[Computer software|software]] from [[Adobe Systems]] *[[Advanced Traffic Management]] and Arterial Traffic Management, terms used in the [[intelligent transportation system]] industry *Air Traffic Management, or [[Air Traffic Control]] *[[Amateur telescope making]] *[[Ass to mouth]], a sexual act mostly observed in pornography *[[Asynchronous Transfer Mode]], a [[telecommunications]] [[protocol (computing)|protocol]] *[[At-the-money]], a term used in [[financial mathematics|option pricing]] *[[Ataxia telangiectasia mutated]] (molecuar and cell biology, biochemistry), is a [[protein]] [[kinase]] that plays a critical role in response to certain types of DNA damage *[[ATM (computer)|ATM]] is a Russian clone of the [[ZX Spectrum]] *ATM is the [[International Air Transport Association|IATA]] code for [[Altamira Airport]] in [[Altamira]], [[Pará]], [[Brazil]]. *[[At the moment]], an abbreviation often used as a shorthand during a typed internet chat session refering to something you are currently doing. (E.g. I'm drinking tea '''ATM'''.) * '''atm''' is an abbreviation for [[atmosphere (unit)|atmosphere]], a unit of atmospheric pressure. {{TLAdisambig}} [[ca:ATM]] [[de:ATM]] [[fr:Atm]] [[ja:ATM (曖昧さ回避)]] [[pl:ATM]] [[tr:ATM]] [[zh:ATM]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Alexandrite</title> <id>2486</id> <revision> <id>15900893</id> <timestamp>2005-05-17T19:37:03Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Luneraako</username> <id>239714</id> </contributor> <comment>redirected/merged to 'Chrysoberyl'</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Chrysoberyl]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Amazonite</title> <id>2487</id> <revision> <id>40590963</id> <timestamp>2006-02-21T17:58:03Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Avihu</username> <id>70314</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Interwiki he</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:AmazoniteColorado.jpg|thumb|right|Microcline feldspar variety Amazonite from Jefferson, Colorado]] '''Amazonite''' (sometimes called &quot;Amazon stone&quot;) is a green variety of [[microcline]] [[feldspar]]. The name is taken from that of the [[Amazon River]], from which certain green stones were formerly obtained, but it is doubtful whether green [[feldspar]] occurs in the Amazon area. Amazonite is a mineral of limited occurrence. Formerly it was obtained almost exclusively from the area of [[Miyask]] in the [[Ilmen mountains]], 50 miles southwest of [[Chehabinsk]], [[Russia]], where it occurs in granitic rocks. More recently, high-quality crystals have been obtained from [[Pikes Peak|Pike's Peak]], [[Colorado]], where it is found associated with smoky [[quartz]], [[orthoclase]], and [[albite]] in a coarse [[granite]] or [[pegmatite]]. Some other localities in the [[United States]] yield amazonite, and it is also found in [[pegmatite]] in [[Madagascar]]. Because of its bright [[green]] colour when polished, amazonite is sometimes cut and used as a [[gemstone]]. For many years, the source of amazonite's color was a mystery. Naturally, many people assumed the color was due to copper because [[copper]] compounds often have blue and green colors. More recent studies suggest that the blue-green color is due to small quantities of [[lead]] and water in the feldspar. (Hoffmeister and Rossman, 1985) See also: [[List of minerals]] == References == * {{cite journal | author=Hoffmeister and Rossman | title=&amp;nbsp; | journal=Am. Min. | year=1985 | volume=70 | pages=794-804}} [[Category:Silicate minerals]] [[de:Amazonit]] [[fr:Amazonite]] [[he:אמאזוניט]] [[pt:Amazonita]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Abandonment of an action</title> <id>2489</id> <revision> <id>15900896</id> <timestamp>2002-09-01T17:10:06Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Ap</username> <id>122</id> </contributor> <comment>redirect</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Abandonment]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Ambrosius Bosschaert</title> <id>2490</id> <revision> <id>40359892</id> <timestamp>2006-02-20T01:22:15Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Rich Farmbrough</username> <id>82835</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>External links per MoS.</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Bosschaert Bouquet of Flowers.jpg|right|thumb|320px|Bouquet of Flowers by Ambrosius Bosschaert (c. 1620) Oil on copper, 23 x 17 cm Musée du Louvre, Paris]] '''Ambrosius Bosschaert the Elder''' ([[1573]]&amp;ndash;[[1621]]) was a [[Netherlands|Dutch]] [[still life]] [[painter]] of the [[Dutch Golden Age]]. He specialised in painting still lifes with flowers. ==External links== * [http://www.kfki.hu/~arthp/html/b/bosschae/ambrosiu/index.html A number of Ambrosius Bosschaert's paintings] {{Netherlands-painter-stub}} [[Category:1573 births|Bosschaert, Ambrosius]] [[Category:1621 deaths|Bosschaert, Ambrosius]] [[Category:Flemish painters|Bosschaert, Ambrosius]] [[Category:Flower artists|Bosschaert, Ambrosius]] [[Category:Dutch Golden Age painters|Bosschaert, Ambrosius]] [[fr:Ambrosius Bosschaert]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Anal intercourse</title> <id>2492</id> <revision> <id>15900899</id> <timestamp>2002-07-21T03:04:10Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Magnus Manske</username> <id>4</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>fixing blank link</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Anal sex]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Anthroposophy</title> <id>2493</id> <revision> <id>42095555</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T20:19:02Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>EdK</username> <id>880924</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>/* Place in Western Philosophy */ spelling Tolkein -&gt; Tolkien</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Anthroposophy''', also called [[spiritual science]] by its founder, [[Rudolf Steiner]] is an attempt to investigate and describe [[spiritual]] phenomena with the same precision and clarity with which [[natural science]] investigates and describes the physical world. Steiner described his approach as &quot;soul-observations using scientific methodology&quot;. (Steiner, [1893] 1995). His ideas have their roots in the flowering of Germanic culture that resulted in the transcendent philosophy of [[Hegel]], [[Fichte]] and [[Schelling]], on the one hand, and the poetic and scientific works of [[Goethe]], upon whom Steiner draws heavily, on the other. The word anthroposophy is derived from [[Greek language|Greek]] roots meaning human wisdom. (Anthroposophy should not be confused with [[Anthropology]], the [[empirical]] study of human cultures.) Anthroposophy is not one of the natural sciences, though in particular areas anthroposophic research claims to
Arabian, texts give a clearer picture of the Arabs' emergence into history. The earliest such texts are written not in the modern Arabic alphabet, nor in its Nabataean ancestor, but in variants of the Epigraphic South Arabian ''[[musnad]]'', beginning in the 8th century BC with the [[Hasaean]] inscriptions of eastern Saudi Arabia, and continuing from the 6th century BC on with the [[Lihyanite]] texts (in southeastern Saudi Arabia) and the [[Thamudic]] texts (found throughout Arabia and the Sinai, and not in reality connected with [[Thamud]]). Later come the [[Safaitic]] inscriptions (beginning in the 1st century BC) and the many Arabic personal names attested in [[Nabataean]] inscriptions (which are, however, written in Aramaic.) From about the 2nd century BC, a few inscriptions from [[Qaryat al-Faw]] (near [[Sulayyil]]) reveal a dialect which is no longer considered &quot;Proto-Arabic&quot;, but Pre-Classical Arabic. By the fourth century AD, the Arab kingdoms of the [[Lakhmids]] in southern [[Iraq]] and [[Ghassanids]] in southern [[Syria]] had emerged just south of the [[Fertile Crescent]] and ended up allying respectively with the [[Sassanid]] and [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]] Empires. Thus they were constantly at war with each other on behalf of their imperial patrons. However, their courts were responsible for some notable examples of pre-Islamic Arabic poetry, and for some of the few surviving [[pre-Islamic Arabic inscriptions]] in the Arabic alphabet. The Lakhmid kingdom was dissolved by the Sassanids in 602, while the Ghassanids would hold out until engulfed by the expansion of [[Islam]]. In the [[Qur'an]], the word ''{{ArabDIN|ʿarab}}'' does not appear, only the [[nisba]] adjective, ''{{ArabDIN|ʿarabiyyun}}'': The Qur'an is referring to itself as ''{{ArabDIN|ʿarabiyyun}}'' &quot;Arabic&quot; and ''{{ArabDIN|mubinun}}'' &quot;clear&quot;. The two qualities are connected, for example in ayat [[Az-Zukhruf|43]].2-3, &quot;By the ''clear'' Book: We have made it an ''Arabic'' recitation in order that you may understand&quot;, and the Qur'an came to be regarded as the prime example of the ''{{ArabDIN|al-ʿarabiyyatu}}'', the language of the Arabs. The term ''[[I`rab|{{ArabDIN|ʾiʿrāb}}]]'' is from the same root, referring to a particularly clear and correct mode of speech. The plural noun ''{{ArabDIN|ʾaʿrāb}}'' refers to the [[Bedouin]] tribes of the desert who resisted Muhammad, for example in ayat [[At-Tawba|9]].97, :''{{ArabDIN|ʾaʿrābu ʾašaddu kufrān wanifāqān}}'' &quot;the Bedouin are the worst in [[kafir|disbelief]] and hypocrisy&quot;. Based on this, in early Islamic terminology, ''{{ArabDIN|ʿarab}}'' referred to sedentary Arabs, living in cities such as Mecca and Medina, and ''{{ArabDIN|ʾaʿrāb}}'' referred to the Arab Bedouins, carrying a negative connotation due to the Qur'anic verdict just cited. Following the [[Islamic conquest]] of the [[8th century]], however, the language of the nomadic Arabs came to be regarded as preserving the highest purity by the grammarians following [[Abi Ishaq]], and the term {{ArabDIN|kalam al-ʿArab}} &quot;language of the Arabs&quot; came to denote the uncontaminated language of the Bedouins. The relation of ''{{ArabDIN|ʿarab}}'' and ''{{ArabDIN|ʾaʿrāb}}'' is complicated further by the notion of &quot;lost Arabs&quot; ''{{ArabDIN|al-ʿArab al-ba'ida}}'' mentioned in the Qur'an as punished for their disbelief. All contemporary Arabs were considered as descended from two ancestors, [[Qahtan]] and [[Adnan]], of which Qahtan was related to the &quot;lost Arabs&quot;, and the [[Southern Arabs]] were identified as of his lineage, regarded as the &quot;real Arabs&quot;, ''{{ArabDIN|al-ʿArab al-ʿariba}}'', while the Northern Arabs, including the tribes of Mecca, were considered the descendents of Adnan, in Islamic tradition traced back to [[Ismail]] son of [[Abraham]], said to have been arabized at a later period. Versteegh (1997) is uncertain whether to ascribe this distinction to the memory of a real difference of origin of the two groups, but it is certain that the difference was strongly felt in early Islamic times, even in [[Al-Andalus|Islamic Spain]], there was enmity between the Qays of the Northern and the Kalb of the Southern group. The so-called [[Himyaritic language]] described by [[Al-Hamdani]] (died [[946]]) appears to be a special case of language contact between the two groups, an originally North Arabic dialect spoken in the South, and influenced by [[Old South Arabian]]. During the [[8th century|8th]] and [[9th century|9th]] centuries, the Arabs (specifically the [[Umayyad]]s, and later [[Abbasids]]) forged an empire whose borders touched southern [[France]] in the west, [[China]] in the east, [[Asia Minor]] in the north, and the [[Sudan]] in the south. This was one of the largest land empires in history. Throughout much of this area, the Arabs spread the religion of [[Islam]] and the Arabic language (the language of the [[Qur'an]]) through [[conversion]] and [[cultural assimilation|assimilation]]. Many groups came to be known as &quot;Arabs&quot; not through descent but through this process of [[Arabization]]. Thus, over time, the term ''Arab'' came to carry a broader meaning than the original ethnic term: ''cultural'' Arab vs. ''ethnic'' Arab. People in [[Sudan]], [[Egypt]], [[Culture of Morocco|Morocco]], [[Algeria]] and elsewhere became Arab through [[Arabization]]. [[Arab nationalism]] declares that Arabs are united in a shared history, culture and language. Arab nationalists believe that Arab identity encompasses more than outward physical characteristics, [[race]] or [[religion]]. A related ideology, [[Pan-Arabism]], calls for all Arab lands to be united as one [[state]]. Arab nationalism has often competed for existence with regional and ethnic nationalisms in the Middle East, such as Lebanese and Egyptian. [[Anti-Arabism]] is hate or prejudice against Arabs. It is usually also associated with anti-Muslim hatred. == Traditional genealogy == Medieval Arab [[genealogist]]s divided the Arabs into three groups: * the &quot;ancient Arabs&quot;, tribes that had vanished or been destroyed, such as [['Ad]] and [[Thamud]]; they are often alluded to in the [[Qur'an]] as examples of God's power to destroy wicked peoples. *the &quot;Pure Arabs&quot; of South Arabia, descending from [[Qahtan]]. The [[Qahtanite]]s (Qahtanis) are said to have migrated the land of [[Yemen]] following the destruction of the [[Ma'rib Dam]] (''sadd Ma'rib''). The Qahtanite Arabs created the ancient civilizations of Yemen, notably the [[Sabaean]]s (known in the Bible as [[Sheba]].) *The &quot;Arabized Arabs&quot; (''musta`ribah'') of North Arabia, descending from [[Adnan]]. The [[Arabic language]] spoken today in classical Quranic form was the result of a mix between the original Arabic of Qahtan and northern Arabic which shares a great deal with northern Semitic languages from the [[Levant]]. The Arabs take a great pride in their language and its survival as a usable and comprehensible language for over thousand years. In Jewish and Christian traditions the [[Ishmaelites]] were described as an &quot;Arabian people&quot; at least by the time of Josephus, which became standard centuries prior to Islam (in which the term ''Hagarenes'', a pun on the Arabic ''[[muhajir]]'' and the name of [[Hagar]], was commonly used). Efforts to reconcile the Biblical and Arab genealogies later led to conflicting attempts to trace Adnan to [[Ishmael]] (Ismail), the eldest son of [[Abraham]] and [[Hagar]]. [[Joktan]] was identified with Qahtan, probably due to his Biblical identification as the ancestor of Hazarmaveth ([[Hadramawt]]) and [[Sheba]]. == Etymology == {{main|Etymology of the word Arab}} The term &quot;Arab&quot; or &quot;Arabian&quot; (and cognates in other languages) has been used to translate several different but similar sounding names of ancient peoples of the Middle East which do not necessarily have the same meaning or origin. The etymology of the term is of course closely linked to that of the place name &quot;Arabia&quot;. The root of the word has many meanings in Semitic languages including &quot;west / sunset&quot;, &quot;desert&quot;, &quot;mingle&quot;, &quot;merchant&quot;, &quot;raven&quot;, &quot;comprehensible&quot; all of which appear to have some relevance to the emergence of the name. ==References== *Habib Hassan Touma (1996). ''The Music of the Arabs'', trans. Laurie Schwartz. Portland, Oregon: Amadeus Press. ISBN 0931340888. * Edward Lipinski, ''Semitic Languages: Outlines of a Comparative Grammar'', 2nd ed., Orientalia Lovanensia Analecta: Leuven 2001 *Kees Versteegh, ''The Arabic Language'', Edinburgh University Press (1997) [http://arabworld.nitle.org/texts.php?module_id=1&amp;reading_id=36] * [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/01663a.htm The Catholic Encyclopedia, Robert Appleton Company, 1907, Online Edition, K. Night 2003: article Arabia] *http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/le.html#People ==See also== *[[Arabia]] *[[Arab League]] *[[Arab World]] *[[Arabic alphabet]] *[[Arabic language]] *[[Arabs of North America]] *[[Bedouin]] *[[Nabataeans]] *[[Pan-Arabism]] *[[Semitic]] *[[Philip the Arab]] ==External links== *[http://www.salon.com/books/feature/2002/01/08/alphabet/ A is for Arabs: What the world owes Arabs and Muslims] *[http://www.aaiusa.org/arab_world.htm Maps of the Arab World] *[http://www.albawaba.com News from Arabic countries] *[http://www.ameinfo.com Business news from Arab countries] *[http://www.bayt.com Jobs and Careers in the Arab World] *[http://nabataea.net/arabia.html Arabia in ancient history] - with a discussion of the ancient usage of the word ''Arab'' *[http://arabworld.nitle.org An Online Resource on Arab Culture and Civilization] *[http://www.geocities.com/martinkramerorg/ArabNationalism.htm Arab Nationalism: Mistaken Identity] by [[Martin Kramer]] *[http://www.al-islam.org/al-tawhid/arabnationalism.ht
ons on many computers * Available for many types of computing system * Not dependent on any single company for updates or support * Freely redistributable, so can be shared on an intranet or given to friends [[Image:Padlock2.png|thumb|100px|right|A [[padlock]]]] [[Image:Padlock3.png|thumb|100px|right|The same padlock after being touched up with the clone tool]] == File Types == GIMP can open and save the following [[file format]]s: * GIMP [[XCF]], the native format (.xcf, or compressed as .xcf.gz or .xcf.bz2) * [[Autodesk]] flic animations (.fli) * [[Digital Imaging and Communications in Medicine|DICOM]] (.dcm or .dicom) * [[PostScript]] documents (.ps, .ps.gz and .eps) * [[FITS]] astronomical images (.fits, or .fit) * [[SVG|Scalable vector graphics]] for exporting paths (.svg) * Microsoft Windows [[ICO (icon image file format)|icon]] (.ico) * [[Windows bitmap]] (.bmp) * [[Paintshop Pro]] image (.psp or .tub) * Adobe [[Photoshop]] PSD (.psd) * [[Portable pixmap|PNM]] image (.pnm, .ppm, .pgm, and .pbm) * Compuserve [[GIF]] images and animations (.gif) * [[JPEG]] photos (.jpeg, .jpg, or .jpe) * [[PNG]] (.png) * [[Tagged Image File Format]] (.tiff or .tif) * [[Truevision TGA|TARGA]] (.tga) * [[X Window system|X]] bitmap image (.xbm, .icon, or .bitmap) * X pixmap image (.xpm) * X window dump (.xwd) * Zsoft [[PCX]] (.pcx) GIMP can open but not save the following formats: * [[PDF]] document (.pdf) GIMP can also save to the following formats which it cannot open: * [[HTML]] as a table with coloured cells (.html) * [[C programming language|C]] source files as an array (.c or .h) * [[MNG]] animations (.mng) &lt;!-- Unsourced image removed: [[Image:iBook_gimped.jpg|thumb|right|An Apple [[iBook]] after it has been &quot;Gimped&quot;]] --&gt; ==Availability, versions, and [[fork (software)|fork]]s== ===Linux distributions=== GIMP is included as the standard image editor on most consumer [[Linux distribution]]s, including [[Ubuntu Linux|Ubuntu]], [[Mandriva]], and [[SUSE Linux|SUSE]]. ===GIMP for Windows=== GIMP (along with the GTK+ toolkit) has been ported to the [[Microsoft Windows]] platform by Finnish programmer Tor &quot;tml&quot; Lillqvist{{ref|www.saunalahti.fi.110}} who started that project in [[1997]]. Currently, the Windows port is practically identical to the original version in terms of features and stability. The installation has been tremendously eased with the introduction of the binary installers{{ref|refbot.111}}compiled by Jernej Simoncic{{ref|sourceforge.net.112}} The number of windows used by GIMP's interface (it doesn't put everything in a [[MDI]] window like some programs) can cause desktop clutter, which is especially apparent on systems like Microsoft Windows which are not equipped to deal with it. ===Gimp.app for Mac OS X=== [http://gimp-app.sourceforge.net/ Gimp.app] provides a self contained application bundle of GIMP for OS X. Gimp.app requires Apple's X11.app. Gimp.app is packaged by Aaron Voisine. ===Seashore for Mac OS X=== [http://seashore.sourceforge.net/ Seashore] is a program based on GIMP for Mac that uses the native Cocoa interface in OS X. The program is currently still in beta (0.1.8). === GIMPshop === [[GIMPshop]] is a modification to GIMP, rearranging its user interface to mimic that of [[Adobe Photoshop]] ===Film Gimp/CinePaint=== Film Gimp, now known as [[CinePaint]], is a modification (forked from v. 1.0.4), adding 16-bit [[color depth]] and other improvements for use within the [[film industry]]. ==See also== *[[GIMPshop]] *[[Wilber (mascot of GIMP)|Wilber]] *[[Color management]] *[[Comparison of bitmap graphics editors]] ==External links== {{commons|GIMP}} ===Official=== *[http://www.gimp.org/index.html GIMP website] *[http://registry.gimp.org/ GIMP Plug-In Registry] *[http://developer.gimp.org/ GIMP Developer Resources] *[http://openusability.org/projects/gimp GIMP meets OpenUsability] *[http://wiki.gimp.org/gimp/OpenOfficeConvertion#preview Gimp and OpenOffice Draw]. ===Third-parties=== *[http://gimp-win.sourceforge.net/ GIMP for Windows] *[http://www.wingimp.org/ alt.pg. WinGIMP] *[http://gimp-app.sf.net/ Gimp.app for OS X] *[http://www.gimpshop.net/ GIMPShop dot Net] - Information on GIMP and GIMPShop *[http://plasticbugs.com/index.php?p=241 GIMPshop for OS X and Linux] *[http://www.linuxartist.org/gimp.html Linuxartist: Gimp section] *[http://seashore.sourceforge.net/ Seashore for Mac OS X] ===GIMP Manual &amp; Tricks === *[http://wiki.gimp.org/gimp/FrontPage ''Wilber's Wiki'' &amp;ndash; The Official GIMP Wiki] * Books and Manuals **[http://www.xach.com/gimp/books/ A list of many GIMP books] **[http://manual.gimp.org/ ''GIMP - The Official Handbook'', by Olof S. Kylander, Karin Kylander] **[http://gimp-savvy.com/BOOK/index.html ''Grokking the GIMP''] ([http://gug.sunsite.dk/docs/Grokking-the-GIMP-v1.0/ mirror], [http://packages.debian.org/testing/source/grokking-the-gimp Debian package]), by Carey Bunks *** Free 'HTML book' about GIMP and digital photo editing in general **[http://docs.gimp.org GIMP User Manual 2.0] &amp;nbsp; (still under development) * GIMP Tricks **[http://www.blackfiveservices.co.uk/separate.shtml Experimental CMYK support through the &quot;separate&quot; plugin] **[http://registry.gimp.org/plugin?id=3892 Windows GIMP Deweirdifyer plugin] ([http://gug.sunsite.dk/forum/?threadid=1630 info at GUG]) *** Used for organizing GIMP panels in a single window under Microsoft Windows **[http://epierce.freeshell.org/gimp/ Photoshop-ish Keyboard Shortcuts for GIMP 2.0] ** WLUG Wiki: &amp;nbsp; [http://www.wlug.org.nz/GimpVersusPhotoshop GimpVersusPhotoshop] ===GIMP articles and tutorials=== * Newsforge: [http://software.newsforge.com/article.pl?sid=05/09/28/1345228 A first look at GIMP 2.4] *[http://cooltext.com CoolText &amp;ndash; An online graphics generator powered by GIMP.] ** Shows good examples of many of the scripts included with GIMP; they can be used directly over the web. *[http://gimps.de/en/tutorials/gimp/picture-photo-image/ Examples and tutorials for GIMP ] *[http://jimmac.musichall.cz/gimp2demos.php Short video clips demonstrating GIMP's functionality] *[http://gimps.de A lot of examples and tutorials for GIMP in German] ** Good website to see the capabilities of GIMP. *[http://www.cooljeba.com/tutorials/gimp/ Cool Jeba GIMP Tutorials] *[http://siggymaker.gfxedit.com/ SiggyMaker &amp;ndash; GIMP generated images with PHP`s GD Library .] ** Capable of adding text to GIMP generated Images. * [[Wikipedia:How to use the GIMP]] ===GIMP Community=== *[http://gug.sunsite.dk/ GIMP User Group website] * IRC: #gimp on irc.gimp.org and irc.freenode.net *[http://groups.yahoo.com/group/gimpwin-users/ GIMP for Windows user mailing list] &amp;nbsp; ([http://www.spinics.net/lists/gimpwin/ Read-only archive]) == Notes == &lt;!-- How to add a footnote: NOTE: Footnotes in this article use names, not numbers. Please see [[Wikipedia:Footnotes]] for details. 1) Assign your footnote a unique name, for example TheSun_Dec9. 2) Add the macro {{ref|TheSun_Dec9}} to the body of the article, where you want the new footnote. 3) Take note of the name of the footnote that immediately precedes yours in the article body. 4) Add #{{Note|TheSun_Dec9}} to the list, immediately below the footnote you noted in step 3. No need to re-number anything! 5) Multiple footnotes to the same reference: see [[Wikipedia:Footnotes]] for a how-to. NOTE: It is important to add footnotes in the right order in the list! --&gt; # {{note|www.gimp.org.107}} {{cite web | title = GIMP - The GNU Image Manipulation Program | url = http://www.gimp.org/ | accessdate = November 20 | accessyear = 2005 }} # {{note|pspi}} There is a plugin called PSPI for the [[Microsoft Windows]] version of the GIMP only, which allows the use of the 8bf Adobe Photoshop filters in the GIMP. # {{note|www.blackfiveservices.co.uk.108}} {{cite web | title = GIMP Plugin for CMYK separation | url = http://www.blackfiveservices.co.uk/separate.shtml | accessdate = November 20 | accessyear = 2005 }} # {{note|www.littlecms.com.109}} {{cite web | title = LittleCms, Great color at small footprint | url = http://www.littlecms.com/ | accessdate = November 20 | accessyear = 2005 }} # {{note|www.saunalahti.fi.110}} {{cite web | title = Tor &quot;tml&quot; Lillqvist | url = http://www.saunalahti.fi/tlillqvi/ | accessdate = November 20 | accessyear = 2005 }} # {{note|refbot.111}} {{cite web | title = GIMP - Windows installers | url = http://gimp-win.sourceforge.net/ | accessdate = November 20 | accessyear = 2005 }} # {{note|sourceforge.net.112}} {{cite web | title = SourceForge.net: Developer Profile | url = http://sourceforge.net/users/jernejs/ | accessdate = November 20 | accessyear = 2005 }} # {{note|registry.gimp.org.113}} {{cite web | title = GIMP Deweirdifyer plugin | url = http://registry.gimp.org/plugin?id=3892 | accessdate = November 20 | accessyear = 2005 }} [[Category:Computer graphics]] [[Category:Bitmap graphics editors]] [[Category:Technical communication tools]] [[Category:GNU project software]] [[ca:GIMP]] [[cs:GIMP]] [[da:GIMP]] [[de:Gimp]] [[es:GIMP]] [[fr:The GIMP]] [[gl:GIMP]] [[hr:Gimp]] [[it:The GIMP]] [[he:GIMP]] [[ku:GIMP]] [[lt:GIMP]] [[hu:GIMP]] [[nl:GNU Image Manipulation Program]] [[ja:GIMP]] [[no:GIMP]] [[pl:GIMP]] [[pt:GIMP]] [[ru:GIMP]] [[sk:GIMP]] [[sl:GIMP]] [[sr:Гимп]] [[fi:GIMP]] [[sv:GIMP]] [[th:GIMP]] [[vi:GIMP]] [[tr:GIMP]] [[uk:GIMP]] [[zh:GIMP]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Global illumination</title> <id>12629</id> <revision> <id>40078723</id> <timestamp>2006-02-17T23:49:55Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Imroy</username> <id>80754</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>change external Radiance link to [[Radiance (software)]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Global illumination''' [[algorithm]]s used in [[3
; &lt;tr&gt; &lt;td&gt;[[Lead]]&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;antiquity&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;Unknown&lt;/td&gt; &lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt; &lt;td&gt;[[Mercury (element)|Mercury]]&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;antiquity&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;Unknown&lt;/td&gt; &lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt; &lt;td&gt;[[Iron]]&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;antiquity&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;Unknown&lt;/td&gt; &lt;/tr&gt; &lt;/table&gt; Although Aluminium ''may'' have been isolated in Roman times (see [[Aluminium#History|History of Aluminium]]), its isolation is usually credited to Hans Christian Ørsted in 1825, and is listed under that date. &lt;table border=&quot;1&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; width=&quot;75%&quot;&gt; &lt;tr&gt; &lt;td&gt;[[Arsenic]]&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;[[1250]]&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;[[Albertus Magnus]] is believed to have been the first to isolate the element. &lt;/td&gt; &lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt; &lt;td&gt;[[Antimony]]&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;[[1450]]&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;First described scientifically by [[Tholden]]&lt;/td&gt; &lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt; &lt;td&gt;[[Bismuth]]&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;[[15th century]]?&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;May have been described in writings attributed to [[Basil Valentinus]], definitively identified by [[Claude Geoffroy|Claude Geoffroy le Jeune]] (Claude Geoffroy the younger) in 1753&lt;/td&gt; &lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt; &lt;td&gt;[[Zinc]]&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;[[1526]]&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;Identified as a unique metal by [[Paracelsus]]&lt;/td&gt; &lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt; &lt;td&gt;[[Phosphorus]]&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;[[1669]]&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;[[Hening Brand]], later described by [[Robert Boyle]]&lt;/td&gt; &lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt; &lt;td&gt;[[Cobalt]]&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;[[1732]]&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;[[Georg Brandt]]&lt;/td&gt; &lt;/tr&gt; &lt;/table&gt; Platinum had been noticed in South American gold ore since the [[16th century]]. A number of chemists worked on platinum in the [[18th century]]: &lt;table border=&quot;1&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; width=&quot;75%&quot;&gt; &lt;tr&gt; &lt;th width=&quot;15%&quot;&gt;Name&lt;/th&gt; &lt;th width=&quot;10%&quot;&gt;Date&lt;/th&gt; &lt;th width=&quot;70%&quot;&gt;Discoverer&lt;/th&gt; &lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt; &lt;td&gt;[[Platinum]]&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;ca. [[1741]]&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;Discovered independently by [[Antonio de Ulloa]] (published 1748) and [[Charles Wood (scientist)|Charles Wood]].&lt;/td&gt; &lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt; &lt;td&gt;[[Nickel]]&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;[[1751]]&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;[[Axel Fredrik Cronstedt]]&lt;/td&gt; &lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt; &lt;td&gt;[[Magnesium]]&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;[[1755]]&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;[[Joseph Black]]&lt;/td&gt; &lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt; &lt;td&gt;[[Hydrogen]]&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;[[1766]]&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;Isolated and described by [[Henry Cavendish]], named by [[Antoine Lavoisier]]&lt;/td&gt; &lt;/tr&gt; &lt;/table&gt; [[Joseph Priestley|Priestley]]'s work on atmospheric gases resulted in his preparation of oxygen. As he was a believer in [[phlogiston theory|phlogiston]], he didn't realise that he had prepared a new element, and thought that he had managed to prepare air free from phlogiston (&quot;de-phlogisticated air&quot;). However, he ''was'' the first to isolate oxygen, even if he didn't realise what he had: &lt;table border=&quot;1&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; width=&quot;75%&quot;&gt; &lt;tr&gt; &lt;th width=&quot;15%&quot;&gt;Name&lt;/th&gt; &lt;th width=&quot;10%&quot;&gt;Date&lt;/th&gt; &lt;th width=&quot;70%&quot;&gt;Discoverer&lt;/th&gt; &lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt; &lt;td&gt;[[Oxygen]]&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;[[1771]]&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;[[Joseph Priestley]]&lt;/td&gt; &lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt; &lt;td&gt;[[Nitrogen]]&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;[[1772]]&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt; [[Daniel Rutherford]]&lt;/td&gt; &lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt; &lt;td&gt;[[Chlorine]]&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;[[1774]]&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;[[Carl Wilhelm Scheele]]&lt;/td&gt; &lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt; &lt;td&gt;[[Manganese]]&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;[[1774]]&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;[[Johan Gottlieb Gahn]]&lt;/td&gt; &lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt; &lt;td&gt;[[Molybdenum]]&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;[[1778]]&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;[[Carl Wilhelm Scheele]]&lt;/td&gt; &lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt; &lt;td&gt;[[Tellurium]]&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;[[1782]]&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;[[Franz-Joseph Müller von Reichenstein]]&lt;/td&gt; &lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt; &lt;td&gt;[[Tungsten]]&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;[[1783]]&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;[[Juan José Elhuyar]] and [[Fausto Elhuyar]]&lt;/td&gt; &lt;/tr&gt; &lt;/table&gt; The recent discovery of the new planet [[Uranus (planet)|Uranus]] by [[William Herschel]] had caused a stir, so the newly discovered metallic element was christened uranium in its honour. &lt;table border=&quot;1&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; width=&quot;75%&quot;&gt; &lt;tr&gt; &lt;th width=&quot;15%&quot;&gt;Name&lt;/th&gt; &lt;th width=&quot;10%&quot;&gt;Date&lt;/th&gt; &lt;th width=&quot;70%&quot;&gt;Discoverer&lt;/th&gt; &lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt; &lt;td&gt;[[Uranium]]&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;[[1789]]&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;[[Martin Heinrich Klaproth]]&lt;/td&gt; &lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt; &lt;td&gt;[[Zirconium]]&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;[[1789]]&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;[[Martin Heinrich Klaproth]]&lt;/td&gt; &lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt; &lt;td&gt;[[Strontium]]&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;[[1793]]&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;[[Martin Heinrich Klaproth]]&lt;/td&gt; &lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt; &lt;td&gt;[[Yttrium]]&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;[[1794]]&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt; [[Johan Gadolin]]&lt;/td&gt; &lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt; &lt;td&gt;[[Titanium]]&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;[[1797]]&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;[[Martin Heinrich Klaproth]]&lt;/td&gt; &lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt; &lt;td&gt;[[Chromium]]&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;[[1797]]&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;[[Louis Nicolas Vauquelin]]&lt;/td&gt; &lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt; &lt;td&gt;[[Beryllium]]&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;[[1798]]&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;[[Louis Nicolas Vauquelin]]&lt;/td&gt; &lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt; &lt;td&gt;[[Vanadium]]&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;[[1801]]&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;[[Andrés Manuel del Río]]&lt;/td&gt; &lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt; &lt;td&gt;[[Niobium]]&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;[[1801]]&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt; [[Charles Hatchett]] discovered as [[Niobium|Columbium]]&lt;/td&gt; &lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt; &lt;td&gt;[[Tantalum]]&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;[[1802]]&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;[[Anders Gustaf Ekeberg]]&lt;/td&gt; &lt;/tr&gt; &lt;/table&gt; The next element was discovered just after the discovery of a new class of astronomical objects: the new element was named after the newly discovered [[asteroid]], [[1 Ceres|Ceres]]. The element was discovered nearly simultaneously in two laboratories, though it was later shown that Berzelius and Hisinger's cerium was actually a mixture of cerium, lanthanum and didymium. &lt;table border=&quot;1&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; width=&quot;75%&quot;&gt; &lt;tr&gt; &lt;th width=&quot;15%&quot;&gt;Name&lt;/th&gt; &lt;th width=&quot;10%&quot;&gt;Date&lt;/th&gt; &lt;th width=&quot;70%&quot;&gt;Discoverer&lt;/th&gt; &lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt; &lt;td&gt;[[Cerium]]&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;[[1803]]&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;[[Martin Heinrich Klaproth]]; [[Jöns Jakob Berzelius]] and [[Hisinger]]&lt;/td&gt; &lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt; &lt;td&gt;[[Rhodium]]&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;[[1803]]&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt; [[William Hyde Wollaston]]&lt;/td&gt; &lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt; &lt;td&gt;[[Palladium]]&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;[[1803]]&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;[[William Hyde Wollaston]]&lt;/td&gt; &lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt; &lt;td&gt;[[Osmium]]&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;[[1803]]&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt; [[Smithson Tennant]]&lt;/td&gt; &lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt; &lt;td&gt;[[Iridium]]&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;[[1803]]&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt; [[Smithson Tennant]]&lt;/td&gt; &lt;/tr&gt; &lt;/table&gt; At this point, Sir [[Humphry Davy]] pioneered the use of [[electricity]] from the [[Voltaic pile]] to decompose the salts of alkali metals, and so a number of those metals were first prepared as the pure element: the beginning of the field of [[electrochemistry]]. &lt;table border=&quot;1&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; width=&quot;75%&quot;&gt; &lt;tr&gt; &lt;th width=&quot;15%&quot;&gt;Name&lt;/th&gt; &lt;th width=&quot;10%&quot;&gt;Date&lt;/th&gt; &lt;th width=&quot;70%&quot;&gt;Discoverer&lt;/th&gt; &lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt; &lt;td&gt;[[Potassium]]&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;[[1807]]&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;[[Humphry Davy]]&lt;/td&gt; &lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt; &lt;td&gt;[[Sodium]]&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;[[1807]]&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;[[Humphry Davy]]&lt;/td&gt; &lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt; &lt;td&gt;[[Calcium]]&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;[[1808]]&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;[[Humphry Davy]]&lt;/td&gt; &lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt; &lt;td&gt;[[Barium]]&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;[[1808]]&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;[[Humphry Davy]]&lt;/td&gt; &lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt; &lt;td&gt;[[Boron]]&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;[[1808]]&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;[[Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac]] &amp;amp; [[Louis-Jacques Thenard]]&lt;/td&gt; &lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt; &lt;td&gt;[[Iodine]]&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;[[1811]]&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;[[Bernard Courtois]]&lt;/td&gt; &lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt; &lt;td&gt;[[Lithium]]&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;[[1817]]&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;[[Johan August Arfwedson]]&lt;/td&gt; &lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt; &lt;td&gt;[[Cadmium]]&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;[[1817]]&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;[[Friedrich Strohmeyer]] Independently discovered by [[Karl Samuel Leberecht Hermann|K.S.L Hermann]]&lt;/td&gt; &lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt; &lt;td&gt;[[Selenium]]&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;[[1817]]&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;[[Jöns Jakob Berzelius]]&lt;/td&gt; &lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt; &lt;td&gt;[[Silicon]]&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;[[1823]]&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;[[Jöns Jakob Berzelius]]&lt;/td&gt; &lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt; &lt;td&gt;[[Aluminium]]&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;[[1825]]&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;[[Hans Christian Ørsted]] (''may'' have been isolated in Roman times, see [[Aluminium#History]])&l